f I* g 
 
 STATE 
 
 
 
 n> 
 
 
 mm 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 &g 
 
 THREE NEW AFRICAN NATIONS 
 
 MOROCCO • TUNISIA • LIBYA 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Morocco. 1 
 
 Tunisia. 13 
 
 Libya. 23 
 
 Department of State Publication 6567 
 Near and Middle Eastern Series 27 
 Released December 1957 
 
 Public Services Division 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office 
 Washington 25, D. C. - Price 25 cents 
 
JAN 1 
 
 MOROCCO 
 
 Morocco is one of the North African states 
 which have in recent years emerged from protec¬ 
 torate status into full sovereignty and independ¬ 
 ence. Although young as a modern nation, 
 Morocco is old in terms of culture and tradition. 
 Its Arabic name is El Maghreb el Aksa—the 
 Farthest West; and it is, of course, the western¬ 
 most Arabic-speaking country. 
 
 Morocco is not the forbidding desert of popular 
 imagination but a land of great scenic beauty. 
 The country has mountains similar to those of 
 Colorado, flat farm lands such as are found in 
 Kansas, and sunshine and flowers which remind 
 one of southern California. The Sahara occu¬ 
 pies less space in Morocco than the towering 
 Atlas Mountains, the fertile northern plain, and 
 the rich coastal region, where sardine fishermen 
 have found a livelihood far more lucrative than 
 that ever known by the pirates who once in¬ 
 fested these waters. 
 
 With a population of approximately 10 million 
 and a total area of 190,000 square miles (roughly 
 twice the size of Minnesota), Morocco already 
 constitutes an important member of the family of 
 free nations. Its people are intelligent and 
 capable; they have courage and tenacity; and their 
 hospitality is traditional. With some outside 
 assistance, there is no limit to the progress they 
 can make. 
 
 THE LAND 
 
 Topography 
 
 Morocco is dominated by the Atlas mountains. 
 The Great Atlas range, extending northeast from 
 the Atlantic coast on into Algeria, ranges in 
 elevation from about 5,000 feet to more than 
 13,000. To the north of its central stretch is the 
 
 Middle Atlas, the chief watershed between the 
 Atlantic and the Mediterranean. 
 
 To the southwest, between the Great Atlas and 
 the Sahara, is another range, the Anti-Atlas. 
 Separating the two ranges is the Sous River 
 Valley. The terrain between the Middle Atlas 
 and the Atlantic Ocean consists of plains and high 
 tablelands interrupted by gorges cut by rivers 
 flowing from the mountains. Farther south, a 
 broad plain extends from the Great Atlas to the 
 coast. The Moulouya River parallels the Middle 
 Atlas on the west and flows northward to the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 North and west of the Atlas mountain ranges 
 stretch the great plains—the best agricultural 
 country—with the Rif mountains separating 
 them from the Mediterranean coastline. South of 
 the Atlas ranges, save for occasional natural or 
 artificial oases, the land is largely desert. 
 
 Climate 
 
 Morocco has two seasons: a short, rainy winter 
 and a long, dry summer, separated by transitional 
 seasons almost too short to be noticeable. Rains 
 are characteristically irregular, violent, and brief. 
 Total precipitation is not great and varies from 
 year to year. In winter there is occasionally frost 
 and snow in all parts of Morocco except along the 
 southern part of the west coast. Several Atlas 
 peaks are perpetually snowcapped. 
 
 Temperatures vary considerably from region to 
 region. Inland below freezing temperatures, ac¬ 
 companied by frequent frosts, prevail in winter, 
 while summer temperatures are often well over 
 100° F. 
 
 Because of the heavier rainfall there, agriculture 
 is concentrated in the long, fertile northwestern 
 plain—about 100 miles at its widest point. Irri¬ 
 gation systems are now being developed to offset 
 irregular or scant rainfall. 
 
 
 1 
 

 
THE PEOPLE 
 
 Racial Stocks 
 
 The principal racial stocks in Morocco are 
 Berber and Arab, the former easily predominating. 
 The first people noted in the recorded history of 
 the country were the Berbers, who are believed to 
 have emigrated from different parts of Europe. 
 The date of the emigration is not known, but 
 Egyptian inscriptions of 1700 B. C. refer to the 
 Berbers in various regions across North Africa. 
 
 A succession of Arab invasions resulted in the 
 spread of Arab culture. On the Moroccan plains, 
 where there was more sustained contact between 
 the Berbers and the Arabs, there was frequent 
 intermarriage and the Arabic language was almost 
 universally accepted. In the mountains, on the 
 other hand, the Berbers tended to retain then- 
 early racial characteristics to a surprising degree. 
 
 The official language of the country is Arabic, 
 but French and Spanish are spoken by a consider¬ 
 able number of Moroccans, including Moroccan 
 Government officials. 
 
 The language of the Berbers, very distinct from 
 Arabic and very like an extinct Hamitic tongue, 
 consists of numerous dialects. 
 
 Religion Customs/ and Education 
 
 Islam is the religion of Morocco. 
 
 There is still a strong Moslem tradition that a 
 woman should not show her face—the majority 
 are still veiled when in public-—and they only 
 rarely accompany their husbands to social func¬ 
 tions outside their own society. However, there 
 are local groups working for the “emancipation” 
 of Moroccan women—for their civil rights and 
 their full participation in the political and cultural 
 life of the country. 
 
 Although a considerable number of Berbers 
 adopted the Moslem religion of the Arabs with 
 fervor, it was in many cases little more than an 
 outward observance. They eat foods which other 
 Moslems consider forbidden, and their women are 
 generally unveiled. 
 
 Under a recent decree Islam Sharia law has been 
 placed in effect throughout Morocco, but some of 
 the Berber tribes, like the Ait Haddidu, have 
 retained their ancient tribal legal system. 
 
 Many local customs of centuries ago still survive 
 in the rural area where tribal bonds are strong. 
 
 Authority stems, for the most part, from the chief 
 or patriarch of the tribe. A number of villages 
 form a tribe, and sometimes the tribes may be 
 linked in loose confederations. There is an age- 
 old system of mutual assistance on the farms, and 
 a village often provides its own modest social 
 services, including care of the old and poor. 
 Local power lies in the village council. An amin 
 or mayor is elected from one of the leading families. 
 
 Illiteracy is common, but the new Moroccan 
 Government has introduced plans to develop its 
 educational system to remedy this situation. 
 Religious schools offer elementary and higher 
 education, a number of the latter schools being 
 attached to mosques. The most notable is the 
 Kairoween University at Fez which was once the 
 leading center of learning in the Islamic world. 
 The university has annexes in several other 
 Moroccan cities. 
 
 The Minorities 
 
 According to statistics an estimated 380,000 
 Europeans live in Morocco, the great majority 
 being French nationals. Some of these families 
 have been residing in Morocco for three genera¬ 
 tions, and their children have often learned to 
 speak Berber and Arabic. Most of the French 
 live in the cities, but there are also many farmers 
 who helped to create some of Morocco’s best 
 vineyards, orchards, grain fields, and dairy farms. 
 Recent estimates indicate that about 35,000 
 French returned permanently to France in 1956 
 after Morocco gained its independence. The 
 second largest European group in Morocco is 
 composed of 110,000 Spaniards, located principally 
 in the northern area. 
 
 There are about 190,000 Moroccan Jews, many 
 of whom claim that their ancestors settled in 
 Morocco after the fall of Jerusalem (71 B. C.), 
 or even earlier. Later their ranks were reinforced 
 by Jews expelled from Spain. 
 
 PRINCIPAL CITIES 
 
 The largest cities of Morocco, mostly com¬ 
 mercial centers, are principally along the Atlantic 
 coastal plain. 
 
 Casablanca. This modern metropolis of 850,000 
 inhabitants is Morocco’s chief seaport and the 
 fourth largest city in Africa. The architecture of 
 
 3 
 
the city is modern and functional, and the city 
 is justly proud of its white skyscrapers, luxurious 
 hotels, beautiful homes, fine office buildings, and 
 excellent transportation facilities. Casablanca is 
 the location of over 75 percent of all the industry 
 of Morocco. This sprawling city occupies one- 
 third of the country’s entire urban area. 
 
 In November 1942, during World War II, 
 Casablanca was invaded by Allied landing forces, 
 and for the rest of the war its airfield was used by 
 the United States. In January 1943 Casablanca 
 was the site of the conference between President 
 Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister 
 Winston Churchill, at which they planned the 
 offensives that led eventually to the surrender of 
 Germany, Italy, and Japan. 
 
 Marrakech. Some 150 miles south of Casa¬ 
 blanca, in the foothills of the Atlas Mountains, is 
 the walled city of Marrakech. It lies in the center 
 of a palm oasis covering more than 50 square 
 miles, and above it towers the snowcapped ridge 
 of the Great Atlas. 
 
 Founded in 1062, Marrakech has always been 
 known to Moroccans as the “city of earthly 
 delights.” Today this city of 241,000 inhabitants 
 
 is the southern capital of Morocco. The Palace 
 of Bahia, which with its gardens covers an exten¬ 
 sive area of the city, is a residence of the present 
 Sultan of Morocco. Marrakech is the site of a 
 masterpiece of its kind, the world-famous Mosque 
 of the Koutoubia with its magnificent tower- 
 minaret. The city is also known for the tombs of 
 the ancient dynasty of Sherifs or noblemen called 
 Saadians, dating back to the 16th and 17th 
 centuries. 
 
 Fez. Founded more than 1,100 years ago by 
 Idris II, a direct descendant of the Prophet 
 Mohammed, Fez has always held a special place 
 in Moroccan hearts. Here is the 1,000-year-old 
 Kairoween University, where the curriculum is 
 based entirely upon the Koran and to which 
 scholars once came from all the Islamic world. 
 The Kairoween Mosque in Fez is the largest in all 
 Morocco. Here, too, is the tomb of Idris II, one 
 of Morocco’s holiest shrines, which still draws 
 many pilgrims. 
 
 Situated some 200 miles northeast of Casa¬ 
 blanca, Fez, with a population of 221,000, is 
 really three cities, 1 mile apart. There is “Fes 
 el Bali” (Fez the old), on a site probably inhabited 
 
 irmriririrTirir 
 
 
 Center of the city of Casablanca. 
 
before the 9th century; “Fes Djedid” (Fez the 
 new), so called because it is less than 700 years 
 old; and the Ville Nouvelle (New City), present 
 home of most European residents. 
 
 Rabat. This city of 220,000 has a picturesque 
 location on the ocean. It is the capital of the 
 nation', the latest in a long series of Moroccan 
 capitals, and the seat of the palace of the King. 
 Its principal “industry,” like that of Washington, 
 D. C., is government. The city dates from the 
 12th century, when its full name was Ribat el 
 Fath—the camp of victory—ho commemorate 
 Moorish victories in Spain. In its subsequent 
 history the city enjoyed periods of splendor 
 followed by years of neglect as some Sultans 
 favored it and others ignored it. 
 
 Rabat is situated, along with its twin city Sale, 
 at the mouth of the River Bou Regreg. The 
 “Kasbah,” which guards the promontory where 
 the river joins the sea, was the equivalent of the 
 English feudal castle. It once housed not only 
 the “baronial lord” but also his retainers and their 
 families. 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH 
 
 The history of Morocco has been shaped largely 
 by its peculiarly strategic location. Beginning 
 with the Phoenicians, a long series of invaders 
 have swept the land. In the centuries before the 
 Christian era commercial colonies were established 
 by the Phoenicians in northern Morocco, including 
 Tangier—first known as Tingis—founded about 
 570 B.C. 
 
 From the 1st century B. C. until the 5th 
 century A. D. it was a Roman province. Then 
 the Vandals and Visigoths overran the country 
 and established a loose suzerainty over the 
 independent Berber tribes. Later came the 
 Byzantine Greeks. 
 
 Finally, following the death of Mohammed the 
 Prophet in the 7th century, the Arabs pushed 
 their Islamic empire west, sweeping over North 
 Africa and into Morocco. There was some fight¬ 
 ing, but the Berbers were divided by tribal con¬ 
 flicts and soon joined the invaders. The new 
 Islamic religion had a great appeal to the Berbers. 
 Thus when the first Moslem forces pushed on to 
 Spain, three-quarters of the troops were Moroccan 
 Berbers. 
 
 In the meantime one of Mohammed’s descend¬ 
 
 ants, Moulay Idris ben Abdullah, arrived in 
 Morocco and was accepted as ruler. In A. D. 
 788 he established the first independent state as 
 Idris I. 
 
 In A. D. 1061 another wave of warriors— 
 Moslems, but of Berber stock—swept into Morocco 
 from the south. They carried their conquest into 
 Spain where they subdued their coreligionists as 
 well as the Christians, establishing the Almoravide 
 regime, principal monument of which is the city of 
 Marrakech. 
 
 Next, in 1174, came a Berber tribe, the Zenata, 
 from the Atlas mountains region. Its dynasty 
 was known as the Almohades, and it produced 
 some wise and able rulers; but over the years 
 its power was dissipated by internal strife. 
 
 As Christian invasions threatened, native re¬ 
 ligious leaders gained power, and in 1549 the 
 Saadi an dynasty was established. It claimed 
 Sherifian status, that is, descent from Mohammed. 
 
 The Saadians produced some notable rulers, 
 but internecine strife soon undermined their 
 power, and in 1649 a powerful southern Moi ocean 
 group established the Alouite dynasty, which is 
 still on the throne of Morocco. It claims Sherifian 
 descent from Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet. 
 
 Sph eres of Influence 
 
 During the 19th century when European powers 
 were seizing control of remnants of the moribund 
 Ottoman Empire, 1 France gained control of both 
 Algeria and Tunisia. Incidents along the Moroc- 
 can-Algerian border followed. Great Britain in 
 1904 recognized Morocco as within the French 
 sphere of influence. In return, France recognized 
 Egypt as within the British sphere of influence. 
 
 In the same year France made a treaty with 
 Spain, recognizing a special Spanish interest in 
 the northern and southern areas of Morocco; and 
 the subsequent Algeciras Conference in 1906 
 recognized France’s “special position” and en¬ 
 trusted policing of Morocco to France and Spain 
 jointly. 
 
 Meanwhile the Sultan’s authority was often 
 reduced by internal strife to little more than con¬ 
 trol of the principal towns. Tribes revolted on 
 slight provocation. Some attacked European 
 
 1 During the 16th century the Ottoman Empire had 
 extended its rule over most of North Africa but was unable 
 to subdue the Moroccans. 
 
 5 
 
settlements established by treaty with the Sultan 
 and thus invited “retribution” by the offended 
 power. Spain sent expeditions to Melilla, in 
 northern Morocco (1909) and to Larache (1911) 
 and claimed the regions opposite the Spanish 
 coast. These actions, as well as constant French 
 
 Tafraout, a village in the heart of the Anti-Atlas Mountains. 
 
 operations in Morocco, led Germany to become 
 uneasy over the increased influence of her rivals, 
 principally France, in Morocco. On July 1, 1911, 
 occurred the famous “Agadir incident” which 
 nearly precipitated the First World War. The 
 German gunboat Panther appeared off the port 
 of Agadir in southwestern Morocco to “protect 
 German interests.” However, after long nego¬ 
 tiation, Germany agreed to give France a free 
 hand in Morocco, in return for a section of the 
 French Congo. 
 
 Establishment of French Protectorate 
 
 A new revolt in the region of Fez early in 1912 
 alarmed Sultan Moulay Hafid, who called directly 
 on the French for assistance, and a French mili¬ 
 tary expedition was sent to Fez. In March of 
 that year a formal treaty was signed establishing 
 a French protectorate over Morocco. In Novem¬ 
 
 ber, by another agreement signed at Madrid, 
 France conceded to Spain a zone of influence 
 along the Mediterranean coast and in the south. 
 The northern area was known as the Spanish Zone 
 of Morocco until 1956, when it was integrated as 
 part of the newly independent state of Morocco. 
 
 In 1923 the former International Zone of Tan¬ 
 gier was established by a convention signed by 
 France, Spain, and Great Britain and later ad¬ 
 hered to by other powers. Occupied by Spain 
 during World War II, Tangier’s international ad¬ 
 ministration was restored in 1945. The inter¬ 
 national regime was abrogated on October 29, 
 1956, and the former international zone once more 
 became an integral part of Morocco. 
 
 Rise of Nationalism 
 
 With the end of World War II came a strong 
 Moroccan movement for independence, spear¬ 
 headed by the efforts of a group of Moroccan 
 nationalist leaders who enjoyed widespread popu¬ 
 lar support. The first truly nationalist political 
 parties, formed in 1943, based their arguments for 
 independence on such pronouncements as the 
 Atlantic Charter. In August 1953 the French 
 deposed Sultan Mohamed V who had become 
 the central figure of the nationalist movement, 
 and exiled him to Corsica and later to Madagascar. 
 Popular reaction against this move took the form 
 of organized terrorism in the cities and, later, guer¬ 
 rilla operations in rural areas. 
 
 After considerable bloodshed on both sides, the 
 French agreed in November 1955 to the return of 
 Mohamed V to his throne. 
 
 Moroccan Independence 
 
 In December 1955 the first Moroccan Cabinet 
 was formed, and on March 2, 1956, Morocco and 
 France signed a joint declaration which gave 
 Morocco the status of an independent and sover¬ 
 eign state. Since that time Morocco has assumed 
 jurisdiction over both its internal and external 
 affairs, including internal security, and has organ¬ 
 ized its own army. 
 
 On April 7, 1956, the Moroccans and the Span¬ 
 ish signed a joint declaration and protocol ending 
 the Spanish protectorate over the northern zone. 
 
 Finally, on October 29, 1956, Morocco and repre¬ 
 sentatives of the powers of the Tangier Inter¬ 
 national Committee of Control signed a declaration 
 
 6 
 
and annexed protocol abolishing the international 
 administration and recognizing the authority of 
 the Sultan over Tangier. The future political 
 organization of the international zone was left to 
 the Moroccan Government. 
 
 Today Morocco is working out many important 
 problems resulting from its new independence. 
 These include the formulation of effective eco¬ 
 nomic reform and development programs; the 
 training of skilled administrators to replace the 
 French and Spanish; the conclusion of basic 
 accords with France and Spain, especially on 
 economic and cultural matters; introduction of a 
 constitutional government; and the complete 
 integration of the northern and southern zones 
 and Tangier. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT 
 
 In principle, Morocco is an absolute monarchy 
 in which the King Mohamed V exercises su¬ 
 preme authority, including supreme religious au¬ 
 thority in his capacity of leader (Imam) of the 
 faithful. He resides usually in Rabat, hut oc¬ 
 casionally visits one of the other traditional 
 capitals—Fez, Tangier, Marrakech, or Meknes. 
 His royal decree is necessary to promulgate the 
 laws of the land. 
 
 Executive power resides in the king. He is ad¬ 
 vised and assisted by the council of ministers and 
 a three-member council of the throne. 
 
 Legislation is by decree of the king. On 
 November 12, 1956, a national consultative as¬ 
 sembly, composed of 76 members appointed by 
 the king, was convened for its initial session. It 
 includes 10 Independence (Istiqlal) Party mem¬ 
 bers, 10 members of the National Moroccan 
 Labor Federation, and 6 members of a minority 
 party. Others represent the farmers, professional 
 groups, cultural and youth groups, artisans and 
 merchants, the Islamic scholars, the Jewish com¬ 
 munity, and remote desert tribes. 
 
 The function of the assembly is to make recom¬ 
 mendations to the king regarding governmental 
 activities and national policy and, in particular, 
 to scrutinize the budget. The assembly has been 
 authorized, however, to establish “a veritable 
 representative system, permitting the people to 
 manage public affairs in the framework of a 
 constitutional monarchy.” 
 
 The judicial system is now being reorganized. 
 Heretofore, a dual system of justice prevailed, 
 with French and Spanish courts having juris¬ 
 diction over most aliens and mixed cases, while 
 Moslem administrators and religious judges main¬ 
 tained jurisdiction in instances involving Moslems. 
 
 Political Parties and Labor Organizations 
 
 Istiqlal {Independence) Party. Founded in Jan¬ 
 uary 1944 when it issued a manifesto demanding 
 independence, this party is the acknowledged suc¬ 
 cessor of the first Moroccan nationalist organiza¬ 
 tion, the Comite d’Action Marocaine, formed in 
 the 1930’s. It is the largest and most powerful 
 party in the country—the one party organized 
 on a national scale. 
 
 Shoura {Democratic Independence ) Party. Al¬ 
 though this is the second largest party, it is be¬ 
 lieved to be numerically small. In 1946 it broke 
 away from the Istiqlal, from which it differs in that 
 it lays greater stress on a constitutional form of 
 government. 
 
 Moroccan Communist Party. This party in Mo¬ 
 rocco is a subsidiary of the French Communist 
 Party. Outlawed since 1952, it has nevertheless 
 been operating openly now for more than a year. 
 It is not believed to have more than a few hundred 
 hard-core members. 
 
 Union Marocaine du Travail {UMT). This Mo¬ 
 roccan Labor Union was formed on March 20, 
 1955, and sponsored by the anti-Communist In¬ 
 ternational Confederation of Free Trade Unions. 
 It has become the principal Moroccan labor organi¬ 
 zation, claiming a membership of over 500,000 in 
 February 1956. It has organized many segments 
 of Moroccan labor and is now in the process of 
 organizing agricultural workers. 
 
 THE ECONOMY 
 
 Agriculture and mining are the two principal 
 fields of productive activity in Morocco. Since 
 World War II there has been some industrializa¬ 
 tion, notably in light industry and mineral extrac¬ 
 tion facilities, but there is a shortage of capital 
 for industry much of which today is operating 
 under government subsidies. 
 
 7 
 
Agriculture 
 
 Agriculture provides the livelihood for approxi¬ 
 mately 85 percent of Morocco’s population and 
 accounts for almost 50 percent of its exports. 
 
 Cereals form the most important commodity, 
 followed by citrus and other fruits, green vege¬ 
 tables, olives, almonds, cork, wine, livestock, and 
 fibers. 
 
 Agricultural production is variable, depending 
 on the weather and subject to intermittent plagues 
 of locusts. 
 
 Water resources are quite plentiful in the coastal 
 areas. Recent hydrogeological investigations have 
 recorded some 20,000 wells, indicating the existence 
 of ample supplies of underground water at shallow 
 depths. 
 
 In the southern regions considerable acreage is 
 being irrigated. By January 1955 about 150,000 
 acres had been equipped with irrigation facilities, 
 and it is anticipated that the area under irrigation 
 will be increased to 750,000 acres by the end of 
 1957. In irrigated areas, yields per acre have in¬ 
 creased to almost four times the yield per acre for 
 the country as a whole. 
 
 Less than 3 percent of the farmers use modern 
 farming methods. Consequently production is 
 not so high as the fertility of the land would 
 warrant. 
 
 Mining 
 
 After agriculture, mining is Morocco’s largest 
 industry. In 1954 it accounted for 35 percent of 
 the country’s exports. Moroccan phosphate re¬ 
 serves are among the largest in the world, and 
 current production is about 17 percent of the 
 total world output. Phosphates account for a con¬ 
 siderable percentage of the state’s revenue (export 
 value in 1955: $60.9 million). Other important 
 minerals include cobalt, manganese, lead, zinc, 
 and iron ore. 
 
 A relatively insignificant amount of petroleum 
 is produced and refined in Morocco, but petroleum 
 exploration activity continues. 
 
 Coal deposits estimated at 150 million metric 
 tons are considered the most important in the 
 entire Mediterranean area. The bulk of the 
 deposits is to be found at Djerada in northeastern 
 Morocco. Until a rail spur was completed in 
 early 1953, inaccessibility was the chief deterrent 
 
 to coal exploitation. In 1953, the first year of 
 production, output was reported to be 565,000 
 metric tons. 
 
 Industry 
 
 There is almost no heavy industry in Morocco, 
 but there is a variety of small industries such as 
 canneries, textile mills, sugar refineries, and 
 cement, paint, and iron works. There are three 
 steel foundries and a lead smelter. 
 
 Although machines have displaced some Moroc¬ 
 can handicraftsmen, there are still many skilled 
 workers who ply their trade in the cities. Using 
 the tools and skills passed down by his father, the 
 Moroccan artisan presses intricate Arabic designs 
 onto richly dyed bookbindings, handbags, belts, 
 and portfolios. The making of fancy saddles also 
 remains a thriving business. Morocco’s leather 
 exports brought $3 million in 1954. 
 
 Most fine leatherwork comes from Fez, silver 
 jewelry from Tiznit in southwest Morocco, and 
 glazed pottery from Safi on the Atlantic coast. 
 Other handicraft products include carpets, brass 
 and copper work, baskets, and wrought iron work. 
 
 Foreign Trade 
 
 The value of Moroccan trade was $793 million 
 in 1956. Exports, amounting to $324 million in 
 that year, included phosphates, manganese, iron, 
 lead and zinc ore, agricultural products, fishing 
 products (especially canned sardines), wool and 
 other animal hair. 
 
 Imports, which rose to $469 million in 1956, 
 included foodstuffs (especially sugar and tea), 
 petroleum products, fabrics and clothing, con¬ 
 struction machinery, tractors, harvesting and 
 haymaking machines, railroad cars, trucks, buses, 
 and automobiles. 
 
 The bulk of trade (about 60 percent) has been 
 with France or the franc zone. Trade with the 
 dollar zone amounts to approximately 6 percent 
 of the total. 
 
 Banking and Monetary Unit 
 
 The State Bank of Morocco, 57.2 percent owned 
 by French institutions and individuals, was estab¬ 
 lished in 1907 as a private international corpora- 
 
 8 
 
The souk (market place) of the city of Taza, 
 just east of Fez. 
 
 tion to operate in all parts of Morocco. Its 
 charter to act as the financial agent for the 
 Moroccan Government expires in 1966. It issues 
 bank notes, purchases and sells Government 
 treasury bonds, and acts as a commercial bank. 
 The legal seat of the bank is Tangier, but its 
 administrative office is in Paris. It has branches 
 in most important Moroccan cities. In addition, 
 there are numerous other banks engaged in general 
 banking and investment and mortgage banking. 
 
 The basic monetary unit of Morocco is the 
 Moroccan franc, which is tied to and has the same 
 value as the French franc. The Spanish peseta is 
 also legal tender in northern Morocco but will 
 soon be retired from circulation. The official rate 
 of the franc is 420 francs to the dollar. The 
 peseta rate fluctuates between 43 and 48 pesetas 
 per dollar. 
 
 Transportation 
 
 Early in 1957 Morocco had 1,250 miles of rail¬ 
 way, mostly government owned or controlled. 
 One main line starts at Casablanca, joins the 
 Tangier-Fez line at Petitjean (just north of 
 Meknes), and continues eastward into Algeria. 
 
 The main north-south lines extend from Tangier 
 to Petitjean, from Casablanca to Marrakech, and 
 from Nemours (just across the Algerian-Moroccan 
 border) to the important Algerian mining area of 
 Colomb-Bechar. Numerous short spur-lines con¬ 
 nect important mining or agricultural centers with 
 the ports. Forty percent of the railways are elec¬ 
 trified, and practically all lines are standard gage 
 and, for the most part, single track. 
 
 Linking the principal cities of the interior with 
 the ports and with Algeria are some 4,000 miles of 
 main roads which are wide and paved. There are 
 also some 3,000 miles of secondary roads, and more 
 than 25,000 miles of minor roads. At present an 
 extensive road-building program is under way. 
 
 MOROCCO’S INTERNATIONAL 
 RELATIONS 
 
 Morocco is on friendly terms with the Western 
 powers as well as the Arab nations and is disposed 
 toward close cooperation with all. Moroccan 
 foreign policy is motivated by a desire to see 
 Morocco maintain its freedom and independence 
 
 448185 0—57-2 
 
 9 
 
and contribute to peace and stability in north¬ 
 western Africa. 
 
 An important step toward that end is being 
 taken in current negotiations aimed at the solu¬ 
 tion of the Franco-Moroccan difficulties arising 
 from transition from protectorate to independent 
 status. There also remain the complex economic 
 problems arising from the integration of the former 
 Spanish zone in Morocco and the difficulties 
 resulting from the liquidation of the international 
 regime at Tangier. 
 
 Morocco became a member of the United Na¬ 
 tions on November 12, 1956, and it is also a mem¬ 
 ber of many of the specialized agencies of the 
 United Nations. Application has been made for 
 membership in the International Monetary Fund 
 and the International Bank for Reconstruction 
 and Development (IBRD). 
 
 UNITED STATES AND MOROCCO 
 
 Relations between the United States and Mo¬ 
 rocco go back to the year of the signing of the 
 United States Constitution. In 1787 a treaty of 
 friendship was signed between Morocco and the 
 
 United States. It was renewed in 1836 and is still 
 valid. 
 
 In 1789 President George Washington wrote the 
 Sultan of Morocco: “The encouragement which 
 your Majesty has been pleased generously to give 
 to our commerce with your dominions; the punctu¬ 
 ality with which you have caused the Treaty with 
 us to be observed; and the just and generous meas¬ 
 ures taken in the name of Captain Proctor [one of 
 the U. S. treaty negotiators] make a deep impres¬ 
 sion on the United States and confirm their respect 
 for, and attachment to, your Imperial Majesty. It 
 gives me great pleasure to have this opportunity of 
 assuring your Majesty that, while I remain at the 
 head of this Nation, I shall not cease to promote 
 every measure that may conduce to the friendship 
 and harmony which so happily subsist between 
 your Empire and them. ...” 
 
 Shortly thereafter the United States sent a diplo¬ 
 matic representative to Morocco, and it has main¬ 
 tained diplomatic representation there (at Tangier 
 until 1956) throughout the entire history of our 
 relations with that country, including the 44-year 
 period of French protectorate. 
 
 The United States recognized the independence 
 of Morocco in March 1956 and 3 months later 
 
 A view of the town of Ouezzane in the Rif 
 Mountains. 
 
established a new embassy at Rabat, reducing the 
 status of the U. S. legation in Tangier to that of a 
 consulate general. The United States also main¬ 
 tains a consulate general in Casablanca. 
 
 U. S. Information Service libraries are function¬ 
 ing in Tangier, Rabat, and Casablanca, and the 
 Department of State sponsors an extensive 
 exchange-of-persons program with Morocco. A 
 small number of leaders and students, in the fields 
 of education, journalism, and government, have 
 come to the United States, and some nine American 
 teachers have gone to Morocco. 
 
 In Tangier the United States maintains a Voice 
 of America relay station. 
 
 On October 7, 1956, the United States renounced 
 its extraterritorial rights in Morocco. This action 
 means that American residents in that country no 
 longer have the privilege of trial by U. S. consular 
 courts but are subject, like other residents, to Mo¬ 
 roccan justice. It also means that the United 
 States no longer can extend its protection to chosen 
 “proteges”—Moroccans or other non-Americans 
 in Morocco. 2 
 
 U. S. Air Bases 
 
 By agreements signed in 1950-51 with the 
 French Government, the United States acquired 
 rights to construct and operate four U. S. Air Force 
 bases and one naval air base on land that was 
 placed at our disposition by the French. Mo¬ 
 rocco’s acquisition of full sovereignty has created a 
 new situation, and negotiations, begun in May 
 1956, are under way to “regularize” directly with 
 Morocco the status of the bases. 
 
 2 The United States acquired the right of consular justice 
 in Morocco by the Treaty of Meknes in 1836. The right 
 to name proteges in Morocco was acquired in 1880; in 1956 
 there were 115 U. S. proteges there—most of them local 
 employees of the U. S. Embassy or consulates. The 
 United States has now renounced its rights of extraterri¬ 
 toriality in all other countries where it possessed them— 
 China, Korea, Japan, Egypt, Turkey, et al. Termination 
 of extraterritorial rights has no relation to jurisdiction of 
 U. S. military personnel, who are covered by special 
 agreements. 
 
 Morocco today contributes an important for¬ 
 ward area in U. S. strategic air defense. Equally 
 important is the training function of our African 
 bases—there are thousands of American airmen 
 stationed at Sidi Slimane, Nouasseur, and Boul- 
 haut (in northwest Morocco), and Ben Guerir 
 (just north of Marrakech). Our base at Sidi Sli- 
 mane, for instance, serves as the center for “shake- 
 down” operations and intensive training for units 
 which have completed their preliminary training 
 at home. North Africa’s perfect flying weather 
 enables crews to train continually. 
 
 U. S. Economic Assistance 
 
 In accordance with the U. S. policy of aiding free 
 nations to maintain their freedom and independ¬ 
 ence, the United States, in answer to a request 
 from Morocco, has agreed to furnish economic and 
 technical assistance to this newly independent 
 country. Negotiations for an economic aid pro¬ 
 gram were concluded in Rabat on April 2, 1957. 
 Morocco was promised $20 million in development 
 assistance funds, technical assistance, and aid in 
 administering a child-feeding program. 
 
 An important adjunct to U. S. aid has been the 
 money spent in construction and maintenance of 
 the American bases in Morocco. In 1951-54 these 
 expenditures amounted to some $35 million an¬ 
 nually, to which should be added about $20 million 
 spent annually by the Americans—both military 
 and civilian—connected with the bases. Present 
 annual maintenance expenditures are about $20 
 million. 
 
 Following a tour of Africa in the fall of 1956, 
 Senator Theodore Francis Green, Chairman of the 
 Senate Foreign Relations Committee, stated: “I 
 believe it is in our interest to assist the Moroccans 
 in this early period of independence, both by long¬ 
 term loans, if need be, and by encouraging invest¬ 
 ment of private American capital. The resources 
 are there. Financing is needed. Furthermore, 
 our strategic interest in Morocco more than war¬ 
 rants any contribution we can make to the stabili¬ 
 zation of economic and political conditions.” 
 
 11 
 
26464 12-57 
 
TUNISIA 
 
 Midway between Gibraltar and Suez, on the 
 northern coast of Africa, lies Tunisia, a country 
 which in early history was the center of large and 
 splendid empires of advanced civilizations. As a 
 newly independent state, Tunisia is again called 
 upon to manage her own affairs; and with its con¬ 
 siderable physical resources and the energy of its 
 people, Tunisia gives much promise that she will 
 again flourish and play an important role in the 
 concert o' nations. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 Tunisia’s strategic position is clearly shown by 
 the fact that the country reaches out so far into 
 the Mediterranean toward Sicily that it almost 
 cuts that vital sea in two. The country is bounded 
 on the north and east by the Mediterranean, on 
 the west by Algeria, and on the southeast by 
 Libya. It has an area of 48,300 square miles— 
 about the size of Louisiana. 
 
 Topography-Climate 
 
 The Atlas Mountain chain, which extends across 
 North Africa, divides the country into a northern 
 and a southern region—known locally as the 
 region above and the region below the Tell Atlas. 
 
 The relatively well-watered north contains 
 three subregions: the northwest with cork-oak 
 forests; the north central with excellent grain and 
 livestock land; and the northeast region of Tunis 
 and Cape Bon, important for its grains, wine, 
 citrus fruit, garden produce, and livestock. 
 
 The arid plateau extending southward from the 
 mountain range merges with the Sahara, and the 
 southern two-fifths of the country lies wholly 
 within the Sahara. The central part of the 
 plateau is suitable for livestock and dry-farming; 
 the coastal area is known for its extensive olive 
 
 groves; and the desert has large esparto grass 1 
 ranges and several date-palm oases. 
 
 The climate, like California’s, is temperate and 
 variable by regions. Its major controlling in¬ 
 fluences are the Mediterranean and the Sahara. 
 There is moderate rainfall in the north; the south 
 experiences dry desert-like climate the year round. 
 
 THE PEOPLE 
 
 The population of Tunisia is about 3.8 million, 
 of which 90 percent is Moslem. There are ap¬ 
 proximately 250,000 Europeans —about one- 
 fifteenth of the population. The French are 
 by far the most numerous of the Europeans, 
 although some 80,000 Italians and 7,000 British 
 of Maltese origin also inhabit the country. Ap¬ 
 proximately 30,000 Jews are among Tunisia’s 
 oldest inhabitants. 
 
 Between 60 and 70 percent of the Tunisian 
 population is engaged in agriculture. The re¬ 
 maining third are employed as handicraft artisans, 
 small shopkeepers, unskilled laborers, and civil 
 servants. An increasing number of Tunisians are 
 in the professions. 
 
 The Europeans, apart from some 5,000 rural 
 settlers, reside largely in urban centers and are 
 engaged mostly in trade and industry, in the 
 professions, and as skilled labor. 
 
 PRINCIPAL CITIES 
 
 Tunisia’s main cities are Tunis, Bizerte, Sousse, 
 Sfax, and Kairouan. 
 
 Tunis, the capital, is an active commercial cen¬ 
 ter and seaport. By means of a channel, opened 
 in 1893, Tunis is directly accessible to ocean-going 
 vessels. Tunis is the primary distribution center 
 
 1 This grass is excellent raw material for high quality 
 printing paper. 
 
 13 
 
for imported goods, and here are found the offices 
 of all the principal importing and exporting houses, 
 mining companies, and banks. This is the hub 
 of the Tunisian railway and highway networks 
 and the site of the one important commercial air¬ 
 port in the country. 
 
 Its population of 365,000 is approximately one- 
 half Arab, one-third European, and one-tenth Jew¬ 
 ish. The Medina (old city) as well as the shops, 
 mosques, whitewashed buildings, and palaces of 
 present and former rulers reflect the Arab influ¬ 
 ence. The broad avenues of the city, on the other 
 hand, and its modern buildings reflect the Euro¬ 
 pean influence. 
 
 Bizerte is situated 40 miles northwest of Tunis. 
 It is a naval base and major seaport of about 
 40,000 inhabitants and a center for grain and iron 
 ore shipments. Heavily bombed during World 
 War II, Bizerte was the staging site for the Allied 
 invasion of Sicily in July 1943. 
 
 Sousse (pop. 37,000) and Sfax (pop. 55,000) are 
 major seaports of eastern Tunisia. Sfax, the sec¬ 
 ond largest city in Tunisia, is the principal phos¬ 
 phate-shipping center; Sousse is noted for its olives 
 and cereals. 
 
 Kairouan (pop. 32,000) lies 80 miles south of 
 Tunis. It is a holy city of the Moslems and the 
 goal of many pilgrimages. Many tourists also 
 come to see its magnificent mosques which are 
 open to visitors of other faiths. 
 
 The city is well-known for its carpets and 
 leather goods. 
 
 BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 
 
 The written history of Tunisia dates from the 
 arrival in the 12th century B. C. of Phoenician 
 traders who established permanent settlements in 
 the area. The most famous of these settlements 
 was the city of Carthage, founded in the 9th cen¬ 
 tury B. C. near the present capital city of Tunis. 
 
 Successive penetrations by Romans, Vandals, 
 Byzantines, Arabs, Spaniards, Turks, Italians, and 
 French followed. All of these invaders sought 
 control of the strategic area overlooking the nar¬ 
 row channel of the Mediterranean Sea separating 
 Africa from Italy. 
 
 After a long struggle Rome destroyed Carthage 
 and occupied the country in 146 B. C. It was 
 
 The Mosque of Tunis. 
 
the Romans who first called Tunisia “Africa,” a 
 name which subsequently was applied to the whole 
 continent. 
 
 Roman Africa eventually was invaded by the 
 Vandals who came from far-off Germania in A. D. 
 439. From 534 to 698 the country was under the 
 domination of Byzantium. The 8th century wit¬ 
 nessed the Arab invasions from the East. Kai- 
 rouan became one of the important bases for 
 Arab conquest and the spreading of the Arabic 
 language and Islamic religion. 
 
 In 1574 the Turks annexed Tunisia to the Otto¬ 
 man Empire, in which it remained until 1881. 
 Turkish administration after 1640 was carried out 
 by a Bey (a Turkish title) in the name of the 
 Sultan of Constantinople. 
 
 Protectorate Established 
 
 After capturing Tunis and other key cities, the 
 French, through the Treaty of Bardo in 1881 and 
 the Convention of Marsa in 1883, established a 
 protectorate under a French resident-general. 
 The Bey remained head of the country but dele¬ 
 gated control of foreign affairs and internal order 
 to the French. In the ensuing years a sizable 
 French colony gradually established itself in the 
 country. 
 
 After World War I nationalism gained momen¬ 
 tum in Tunisia. In 1920 the Destour (Constitu¬ 
 tion) Party sought moderate reforms. Under the 
 leadership of Habib Bourguiba, now President, 
 the more dynamic Neo Destour Party was or¬ 
 ganized in 1934; and the nationalist movement 
 increased steadily in strength and pressed for 
 autonomy and the final goal of independence. 
 
 When France fell in 1940, Tunisia remained 
 loyal to the Vichy Government. Late in 1942 
 Tunisia became the focus of the North African 
 campaign. 
 
 Concessions offered by France were at first 
 unacceptable to Tunisian leaders. In March 
 1952 violence erupted following the breakdown of 
 negotiations with France and the imprisonment 
 of members of the Tunisian cabinet of Mohammed 
 Chenik. 
 
 Independence Achieved 
 
 After a series of reforms the French Government 
 decided, in July 1954, to open negotiations with 
 Tunisian leaders with the object of setting up a 
 
 regime of Franco-Tunisian cooperation on a new 
 basis. These negotiations resulted in a series of 
 conventions, signed in July 1955, which gave 
 Tunisia internal autonomy. On March 20, 1956, 
 Tunisia and France signed a protocol proclaiming 
 the sovereignty and independence of Tunisia and 
 ending the 75-year-old protectorate. 
 
 Roman ruins in northern Tunisia. 
 
 A Constituent Assembly was elected, on March 
 25, 1956, to draft a constitution for Tunisia, 2 
 Habib Bourguiba was invested by the Bey as 
 Prime Minister, and a 15-man Cabinet was 
 installed. On July 25, 1957, the Constituent 
 Assembly deposed the Bey and proclaimed the 
 Republic of Tunisia, choosing Bourguiba as. its 
 provisional President. 
 
 Known to Tunisians as the Supreme Combatant 
 in the struggle for independence, President Bour¬ 
 guiba has spent much of his adult life in the cause 
 of Tunisian nationalism. He visited the United 
 States in 1946 and 1951, before Tunisia achieved 
 independence, and he returned here in November 
 1956 on an unofficial visit. 
 
 Numerous reforms have been introduced in 
 Tunisia since independence. A national police 
 force has been organized, the existing system of 
 
 2 The initial draft of the constitution has been com¬ 
 pleted and is presently under review. 
 
 15 
 
26465 12-57 
 
YUGOSLAVIA 
 
 Black Sea 
 
 BULGARIA 
 
 Thessaloniki 
 
 L SYRIA Vp? 
 
 BeimMft> Da ^ a O us 
 
 Jerusalem^ 
 
 .ISRAEL/ '1 
 
 VXairoY/ 
 
 'Amman 
 
 JORDAN 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 FRENCH 
 
 ALB. 
 
 Malta 
 
 rus 
 
 
 Baghd 
 
 raqV. 
 
 Mecca 
 
 Asmara -"Yemen 
 
 • o 
 
 Khartoum 
 
 Sah'a 
 
 £ 
 
 EQUATORIAL 
 
 ETHIOPIA 
 
 FR. SOMAL: 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Boundaries and names are not necessarily 
 
 FR. CAMEROONS 
 
 those recognized by the U. S. Government. 
 
 Addis Ababa Ha ^ sa 
 
 o X S4 
 
 BR. SOMAIc* 
 
justice improved, Tunisian women enfranchised, 
 and polygamy outlawed 3 —a remarkable action 
 in a Moslem country. 
 
 POLITICAL PARTIES AND LABOR 
 ORGANIZATIONS 
 
 The Neo-Destour Party (New Constitution) is 
 the largest political party in Tunisia. Founded 
 in 1934 by dissidents from the Destour Party, this 
 movement now overshadows the older party. 
 It has a membership of at least 20,000 and a 
 following of about 800,000. The Neo-Destour 
 Party has been the chief nationalist organization 
 and its pressure is largely responsible for Tunisian 
 independence. 
 
 The Destour Party (“old Destour”), the na¬ 
 tionalist group which became active following 
 World War I, has declined in influence and now 
 has a membership of only about 1,000. 
 
 Presence Frangaise is a small political group 
 whose primary aim is to secure the protection of 
 the rights of the French minority. 
 
 The Communist Party , with a hard core of only 
 a few hundred followers, has declined in strength 
 over the past few years. In the March 1956 
 elections it was badly beaten. 
 
 Union Generate Tunisienne du Travail (UGTT), 
 with a membership of about 150,000, is the princi¬ 
 pal labor organization in Tunisia. It cooperates 
 closely with the Neo-Destour Party and is affiliated 
 with the International Confederation of Free 
 Trade Unions. 
 
 TUNISIA’S ECONOMY 
 
 Primarily an agricultural country, an exporter 
 of olive oil, esparto grass, grain, wine, citrus fruit, 
 and cork, Tunisia is fortunate in possessing a 
 number of mineral deposits which complement the 
 agricultural economy. 
 
 Rough estimates place Tunisia’s national in¬ 
 come from 120 to 150 billion francs (420 francs 
 equal $1) per year, agriculture accounting for 
 about 40 percent of this income. Per capita 
 
 3 The law applies only to future marriages. Those 
 Tunisians who maintained two wives prior to the law's 
 enactment may continue to do so. 
 
 annual income is estimated at slightly more than 
 $114. 
 
 The Tunisian economy is largely interlocked 
 with that of France: French and Tunisian curren¬ 
 cies are still tied together, and the greater part of 
 the Tunisian national debt of $228 million is owed 
 to France. 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Tunisia’s agricultural production provides the 
 country with basic food crops and several cate¬ 
 gories of export surpluses. The main products 
 are wheat, barley, and olive oil. Grain is by far 
 the leading product and accounts for approxi¬ 
 mately one-half of the nation’s agricultural 
 income. 
 
 Tunisia now ranks as the world’s fourth largest 
 olive oil producer, and in the Tunisian’s diet 
 nearly a quart of olive oil is consumed per month. 
 Over the past 5 years average olive crops have 
 yielded 60,000 metric tons of oil, with occasional 
 bumper crops exceeding 100,000 tons. 
 
 Tunisia is also known for its high-quality dates, 
 grapes, and nuts, as well as for its “Maltese” 
 oranges which are highly prized in Europe. Wine 
 production which had been sharply curtailed 
 owing to phylloxera (plant lice) during the war 
 years is now again being expanded. 
 
 The scarcity of water and the vagaries of annual 
 rainfall conditions are the prime factors in restrict¬ 
 ing growth in Tunisia’s agricultural production. 
 Irrigation projects are being carried out, however, 
 in most regions where water resources exist. 
 These efforts, together with projects to restore 
 eroded soil, to distribute conditioned grain seed, 
 to provide grain storage facilities, and to introduce 
 tractor pools, should achieve a definite production 
 increase in time. 
 
 Stockraising is the mainstay of many Tunisian 
 farms, since sheep and goats fare well in the semi- 
 arid central plateau. Most of the locally pro¬ 
 duced meat and wool is consumed at home, but 
 there is a small export trade in live cattle, wool, 
 mohair, hides, and skins. 
 
 The forests of northwestern Tunisia are impor¬ 
 tant for their cork, which is exported both in its 
 raw state and as finished bottle stoppers. Another 
 important product is the esparto grass, which is 
 exported exclusively to the United Kingdom. 
 
 Tunisia’s surrounding sea provides fish for local 
 
 18 
 
consumption and certain export specialties such 
 as tuna, sardines, shrimp, and lobster. 
 
 Mining and Industry 
 
 Tunisia produces phosphate rock, iron ore, lead, 
 and zinc. 
 
 The mines employ nearly 13,000 workers and 
 directly or indirectly support 100,000 people; they 
 represent in value 30 percent of Tunisia’s exports. 
 
 The chief mineral is phosphate rock, which 
 exists in huge quantities in the south. With an 
 output of 2 million metric tons a year (6 percent 
 of world production), this mineral finds a steady 
 outlet in nearby Mediterranean countries. Siz¬ 
 able amounts of the rock are finely ground for 
 direct application as fertilizer. 
 
 In the northern part of the country there are 
 large deposits of high-grade iron ore, with the 
 metal content averaging 50 to 55 percent. Tu¬ 
 nisian iron ore is rated among the best in the world. 
 Total iron ore reserves in Tunisia are estimated at 
 30 million tons. 
 
 Lead and zinc mines are generally small and are 
 widely dispersed. Production of these metals is 
 small in comparison with that of phosphates and 
 iron ore. 
 
 Traces of oil have been found at several points 
 in the country, and a natural gas field was dis¬ 
 covered on Cape Bon in the northeast. The gas, 
 with reserves estimated to be sufficient to supply 
 
 the city of Tunis for 12 years, has been piped and 
 is distributed in the capital. 
 
 In general, Tunisia’s industrial development is 
 still in its early stages and is centered around the 
 production of superphosphates, pig lead, cement, 
 and building materials, and the processing of 
 agricultural, forestry, and fishery products. 
 
 The handicraft industry employs a large 
 number of Tunisians throughout the country. 
 Native clothing, rugs, pottery, copper, and leather 
 goods are made for both the local and export 
 market. 
 
 Industrial development is greatly needed if 
 Tunisia is to meet the employment pressures 
 resulting from an increasing population. The 
 Government is making a considerable effort to 
 promote industries, in many cases granting initial 
 tax benefits and loan guaranties to new ventures. 
 Spurred on by such incentives, a number of new 
 industries have recently been established. 
 
 Foreign Trade 
 
 Tunisia’s foreign trade pattern is based on the 
 export of agricultural and mineral products in 
 exchange for consumer goods, raw and semiproc- 
 essed materials for industry, economic develop¬ 
 ment equipment, and fuel. 
 
 Exports were valued at $130 million in 1956. 
 France, as usual, took the major share of exports— 
 58 percent. Tunisia’s next best customers were 
 Great Britain, Algeria, and Italy. Exports to 
 
 19 
 
the United States—about 2 percent of the total 
 value—are encouraged, but the dollar shortage 
 tends to limit imports from the United States to 
 essential goods not readily obtainable in the franc 
 area. 
 
 Imports were valued at $185 million in 1956, 
 made up principally of petroleum products, sugar, 
 cotton textiles, machinery, and motor vehicles. 
 France furnished 75 percent of the total imports, 
 followed by Italy, the United States, Algeria, and 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The trade payments deficit—about $55 million 
 in 1956—is balanced primarily by capital from 
 France and by French payments to Tunisia for 
 French military and civil personnel in Tunisia, 
 as well as by aid from the United States. 
 
 Economic Development 
 
 With the cessation in 1943 of war activities in 
 Tunisia, a war damage reconstruction program was 
 initiated. This program, however, was not in¬ 
 
 tended to meet—and did not meet—-the country’s 
 needs for economic development. In 1947 a 
 modernization plan was drawn up. In the first 
 years of the plan’s existence emphasis was placed 
 on the improvement of ports, railways, highways, 
 telecommunications, and other basic facilities; 
 but in addition several large public work projects 
 were launched, notably the Medjerdah River 
 complex with tw r o large dams, an agricultural 
 irrigation and drainage system in the delta area, 
 a water supply line for Tunis, and tw r o hydro¬ 
 electric plants. More recently there has been 
 a shift to smaller projects, particularly in 
 agriculture. 
 
 Under both the development plan and the war 
 damage reconstruction program, basic prewar 
 facilities have been restored, modernized, and 
 expanded, and there has been some increase in the 
 volume of national output; but many of the more 
 important development projects are still in course 
 of construction. The building of basic facilities 
 constitutes only the first step toward the achieve- 
 
 Lighthouse of the Isle of Djerba, in the Gulf of 
 Gabes. 
 
Tunisian mounted police. 
 
 ment of higher production levels, and the Tunisian 
 Government recognizes that its public works 
 efforts must be followed by private investment in 
 agriculture, mining, and industry in order to 
 obtain the desired increases in national output. 
 
 TUNISIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS 
 
 During the past year the Tunisian Government 
 has exchanged diplomatic representatives with 
 the principal Western powers and several Arab 
 states. Although her relations with the Middle 
 Eastern countries are friendly, Tunisia is not a 
 member of the Arab League. 
 
 Tunisia is now in the process of working out 
 economic, financial, defense, and other important 
 conventions with France. One of the principal 
 problems in her relations with France springs 
 from the presence of some 15,000 French troops 
 which are in Tunisia by a previous agreement. 
 Their withdrawal is being gradually effected. 
 
 Although Tunisia has no diplomatic relations 
 with any member of the Soviet bloc, representa¬ 
 tives of that group were invited to and partici¬ 
 pated in the ceremonies commemorating the first 
 anniversary of Tunisia’s independence. Satellite 
 nations have participated in the Tunis trade fairs 
 each October and Soviet bloc countries are con¬ 
 cluding trade agreements with Tunisia. 
 
 Tunisia’s foreign policy has recently been 
 summed up by a Tunisian Foreign Office official as 
 
 follows: “Tunisia wishes to continue its orienta¬ 
 tion toward the West. At the same time, it plans 
 to maintain friendly ties with the Arab states. 
 Tunisia does not wish to adopt a policy of neu¬ 
 trality toward communism, since Tunisia strongly 
 feels the menace of Communist imperialism. Be¬ 
 ing oriented toward the West, Tunisia hopes that 
 a North African confederation with close ties to 
 Europe can be established. The principal de¬ 
 terrent to such a confederation is the present 
 conflict in Algeria. This conflict is benefiting no¬ 
 body, since sooner or later the French will have to 
 accede to Algerian independence.” 
 
 U. S. POLICIES IN TUNISIA 
 
 The United States recognized Tunisian inde¬ 
 pendence on March 20, 1956, and in June the 
 American consulate general in Tunis was elevated 
 to the rank of embassy. 
 
 The overall U. S. policy goal regarding Tunisia 
 is to aid that country to strengthen and consoli¬ 
 date its independence. 
 
 In March 1957 Vice President Richard Nixon 
 visited Tunis to participate in the ceremonies 
 commemorating the first anniversary of Tunisia’s 
 independence. In welcoming the Vice President 
 at the Tunis airport, Prime Minister Bourguiba 
 said: “The Tunisian people are convinced that 
 within the heart of every American there is a love 
 of liberty and respect for the individual. The 
 
 21 
 
immense strength which is the United States is 
 the strength on the side of free men, so that all 
 free men will be spared any type of servitude, 
 whatever its guise or appearance. It is a great 
 hope for humanity and a great reassurance for 
 men who have respect for the individual to feel 
 everywhere and at all times the influence of the 
 great American Republic throughout the world.” 
 
 During the official conversations which followed, 
 Mr. Bourguiba emphasized that Tunisia is firmly 
 committed to democracy, liberty, and peace, and 
 to the West. His nation can never be neutral, he 
 said, nor accept communism, which Tunisia re¬ 
 pudiates as contrary to its ideals and principles. 
 
 In May 1957 Ambassador James P. Richards, 
 Special Assistant to President Eisenhower, visited 
 Tunisia in the interests of the American Doctrine 
 for the Middle East, which Tunisia has warmly 
 endorsed. 
 
 At the request of the Tunisian Government, 
 the United States has agreed to furnish economic 
 and technical aid to the country. In March 
 1957 the United States signed an economic and 
 technical assistance agreement with Tunisia, under 
 
 which a U. S. Operations Mission was established 
 there. The U. S. program is in addition to an $8 
 million U. S. grant for wheat, milk, and cheese 
 that has been distributed among the population. 
 This grant was given in order to offset conditions 
 caused by crop failures in the center and south of 
 the country. We have also agreed to launch 
 a child-feeding program, and a private U. S. 
 organization, the National Catholic Welfare Con¬ 
 ference, recently started a used-clothing distri¬ 
 bution program in the mountainous areas of 
 Tunisia. 
 
 The State Department’s International Educa¬ 
 tional Exchange Service has enabled a small num¬ 
 ber of Tunisians to visit the United States to 
 observe and consult with Americans prominent 
 in their specialized fields of work. The grantees 
 have worked in medicine, education, agriculture, 
 radio and television, police administration, jour¬ 
 nalism, social psychology, and cultural anthro¬ 
 pology. In addition the exchange program is 
 endeavoring to keep in touch with these grantees 
 in order to continue to assist them through book 
 services. 
 
 22 
 
LIBYA 
 
 Southeast of Tunisia lies another newly inde¬ 
 pendent state, the United Kingdom of Libya, 
 extending over 1,000 miles along the North 
 African Mediterranean coast. Across the sea to 
 the north lie Greece and Italy. On the eastern 
 border are Egypt and the Sudan; to the west, 
 Tunisia and Algeria; and to the south, French 
 West Africa and French Equatorial Africa. 
 
 Libya’s geographic position is of considerable 
 importance. The country is important to the 
 defense of North Africa and hence of the southern 
 flank of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 
 against any attack from the east. Similarly, it 
 constitutes a barrier against penetration into 
 central Africa. 
 
 Libya, an Italian colony since just before World 
 War I, came into being as a consequence of a 
 United Nations resolution of November 21, 1949, 
 according to which Libya was to be constituted an 
 independent, sovereign state, its independence to 
 become effective as soon as possible, and not later 
 than January 1, 1952. On December 24, 1951, 
 the independence of the United Kingdom of 
 Libya was proclaimed with King Idris as its 
 monarch. 
 
 Libya’s population of 1.2 million is principally 
 Arab, and 95 percent of the people are Moslem. 
 There are some 30,000 Italians in Tripolitania, as 
 well as 4,000 other Europeans and some 3,500 
 Jews. The latter are descendants of refugees 
 who fled from Jerusalem during the first century 
 A. D., or subsequently from Spain during the 
 Middle Ages. Less than 25 percent of the 
 population lives in urban areas; more than half of 
 the rural population, which is mostly tribal, lives 
 a seminomadic life. 
 
 Libya is one of the poorest countries in the 
 world. With an average annual per capita income 
 of approximately $35, an illiteracy rate of 85 
 percent, an infant mortality rate of 3 out of 10 
 children during the first year of life, this country 
 is in great need of outside help. 
 
 An Experiment in International Assistance 
 
 Recognizing its special responsibility to this 
 new country, the LTnited Nations has been helping 
 Libya improve its social and economic conditions 
 and to overcome its initial handicaps. To these 
 U. N. efforts were added those of the United 
 States, the United Kingdom, France, and other 
 states, with a view to developing the country’s 
 resources and the latent skills of the population. 
 Libya has thus become one of the world’s largest 
 experiments in international assistance to under¬ 
 developed areas. 
 
 With the advice and help of the experts of these 
 nations as well as with the hard work of its own 
 people, Libya is expected to attain higher living 
 standards while at the same time becoming 
 increasingly secure in its national independence 
 and territorial integrity. 
 
 THE LAND 
 
 Libya occupies an area of 680,000 square miles, 
 roughly one-fourth the size of the United States. 
 It is divided into three provinces: Tripolitania, in 
 the northwest; Cyrenaica, in the east; and the 
 Fezzan, in the southwest. 
 
 Topography 
 
 About 90 percent of Libya is desert; there are 
 no rivers or inland bodies of water. Libya’s set¬ 
 tled, cultivated area is less than half of 1 percent 
 of her total area. Only along the Mediterranean 
 coast and on the slopes of the two ranges of hills 
 running parallel to the coast is there sufficient 
 rainfall to permit dry farming. 
 
 The plateaus of northern Tripolitania and 
 Cyrenaica are separated by the broad Sirte de¬ 
 pression. Along the northwestern coast from the 
 Tunisian border to the city of Misurata, a distance 
 
 23 
 

 26462 12-57 
 
of approximately 200 miles, there is a series of 
 oases. South of these oases is a low sandy plain, 
 backed by hills that rise to heights of 2,000 to 
 3,000 feet in the northern limit of the Saharan 
 plateau. 
 
 In the northeast the Gebel el Achdar highlands 
 rise from the coastal plain and form the backbone 
 of the promontory of Cyrenaica. The foothills 
 and coastal uplands contain extensive areas that 
 are fertile when irrigated. 
 
 To the south is a barren, monotonous desert. 
 Within the desert are two major groups of oases— 
 Cufra, in eastern Cyrenaica, and the oases of the 
 Fezzan in the west. Along the southern border 
 of Libya are the Tibesti Mountains, which rise to 
 elevations of over 11,000 feet in the adjoining 
 French territory of Chad. 
 
 Climate 
 
 The climate is characterized by aridity and 
 wide daily ranges of temperature. Along the 
 coast, however, temperatures are moderated 
 somewhat by the Mediterranean Sea. Here the 
 average daily temperatures range from 85° F. 
 during the hottest months to 52° F. in the coldest. 
 
 Rainfall is low and unreliable throughout Libya 
 and occurs chiefly in winter. Precipitation is 
 heaviest on the seaward slopes of the plateaus of 
 Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. In central and 
 southern Libya, the rainfall is negligible. 
 
 High sand-laden winds are frequent at all sea¬ 
 sons. A feature peculiar to Libya is the ghibli — 
 a hot, dry wind from the south that is most com¬ 
 mon in the spring and fall. In northern Libya it 
 often raises the temperature considerably within 
 a few hours, sometimes bringing temperatures of 
 85° F. even in January. 
 
 PRINCIPAL CITIES 
 
 Libya has two capitals, Tripoli and Benghazi, 
 the Government alternating its seat periodically 
 between these two cities. Most of the foreign 
 missions reside in Tripoli. 
 
 Tripoli is a comparatively modern city of 
 120,000 inhabitants. It is Libya’s chief seaport 
 and tourist center. In the old section there are 
 medieval buildings of historical interest, while the 
 Roman monument—the triumphal Arch of Marcus 
 Aurelius—attests to Tripoli’s ancient splendor. 
 
 The “new” city was built mostly during Italian 
 colonial days. 
 
 The many mosques, palm trees, and small 
 windowless Arab houses give Tripoli a distinctive 
 and attrative flavor and color. The magnificent 
 ruins of the Roman cities—Leptis Magna and 
 Sabratha—are 63 miles and 30 miles respectively 
 from Tripoli. 
 
 Benghazi , the main seaport of Cyrenaica, has a 
 population of 70,000. Over 60 percent of the city 
 was destroyed during World War II, when 
 Benghazi changed hands five times between the 
 Axis forces and the British Eighth Army. 
 
 One hundred miles east of Benghazi are located 
 the ruins of the classic city of Cyrene, founded by 
 the ancient Greeks in 631 B. C. Located on a 
 hill about 1,800 feet high, the ruins of this classic 
 city, which once numbered 100,000 inhabitants, 
 are surrounded by mountains covered with cypress 
 trees. In ancient times Cyrene was one of the 
 most flourishing centers of classic Greek culture 
 and commerce in the entire Hellenic world. The 
 only rival of the Venus de Milo statue was found 
 in Cyrene—the Venus de Cyrene. The ruins, 
 discovered in the 19th century, include ancient 
 Greek temples, tombs, and shrines. 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH 
 
 The name of Libya was the Greek designation 
 for all North Africa. In ancient times Libya was 
 ruled by the Phoenicians, who colonized the 
 Tripolitan coast and who were overthrown by the 
 Carthaginians in the 6th century B. C. Cyrenaica 
 was founded and developed by the Greeks. 
 
 It was the Romans who, having captured 
 Carthage, pushed on to conquer and unite not 
 only Libya but much of North Africa. Then 
 followed successively the conquests of the Vandals, 
 Byzantines, Arabs, Normans, Spaniards, Turks, 
 Italians, and finally the French. 
 
 Barbary Pirates 
 
 Libya came to American attention early in 
 U. S. history during the 5-vear U. S. war on the 
 Barbary pirates (1801-5). To fight this war the 
 United States built five warships and created the 
 U. S. Marine Corps. Four of these new U. S. 
 warships were sent to blockade the Barbary State 
 
 25 
 
The important seaport of Tripoli. 
 
 of Tripoli in 1802—-a venture which failed. One 
 ship, the Philadelphia, ran aground. The corsairs 
 captured it, imprisoned the crew, and refloated the 
 ship. Soon afterward Stephen Decatur, one of 
 America’s great naval heroes, boarded the Phila¬ 
 delphia, set her afire, and destroyed her. 
 
 Later an American crew captured a Barbary 
 ship, renamed her the Intrepid, and filled her with 
 gunpowder with the intention of sailing her into 
 the anchored corsair fleet and blowing it up. 
 Before this could be done, the Intrepid herself 
 blew up, and all hands were lost. Each Memorial 
 Day the U. S. Ambassador to Libya lays a wreath 
 at the graves of five of the crew of the Intrepid in 
 a cemetery overlooking Tripoli harbor. 
 
 Finally, under the command of the U. S. Consul, 
 William Eaton, a small group of L T . S. Marines, 
 aided by a force of Greeks and Arabs recruited 
 from Egypt, attacked the city of Derna on April 
 27, 1805. After a 3-day fight, with heavy support 
 from U. S. warships in the harbor, Eaton’s forces 
 took the city. 1 
 
 Under Italian Rule 
 
 Toward the end of the 19th century the Otto¬ 
 man Empire, which had been ruling Libya since 
 
 1 On the basis of the above actions the Marines added 
 the phrase “to the shores of Tripoli” to their official song. 
 
 1551, became weak and open to outside penetra¬ 
 tion. In 1911 Italy, following the example of other 
 European and Balkan nations in dividing the 
 Ottoman Empire, attacked the Turks of Tripoli- 
 tania and Cyrenaica. After a year of war Turkey 
 ceded Libya. 
 
 During the final century of Ottoman rule an 
 important Moslem sect, the Senussi, was founded 
 in Cyrenaica by Sidi Mohammed Ibn Ali El 
 Senussi. For almost two decades after the de¬ 
 parture of the Turks the Senussis resisted Italian 
 control of the Libyan desert areas. Finally in 
 1932 the Italians succeeded in breaking Senussi 
 temporal power and imposed their rule on the 
 desert tribes. The Senussi leader, now King Idris 
 I, had escaped to Egypt. 
 
 Under Italian rule efforts were made to develop 
 Libya as an outlet for overpopulated Italy. 
 Italians excavated and restored ancient Roman 
 and Greek archeological remains, developed the 
 country for tourism, built roads, hotels, and 
 beautiful cities. 
 
 Italy’s control over Libya came to an end in 
 World War II. In 1940 Sayid Idris, still in exile, 
 formed a Libyan Arab force to aid the Allied cause 
 in Egypt. Following British victories on the coast 
 and French successes in the desert areas, the Allies 
 assumed full control of Libya and Sayid Idris 
 returned to Cyrenaica. 
 
 26 
 
Independence Declared 
 
 Under the terms of the treaty of peace with the 
 x\llies, concluded in 1947, Italy relinquished con¬ 
 trol of Libya, but the four Allied powers—Britain, 
 France, the United States, and Soviet Russia— 
 were unable to agree on what disposition should 
 be made of the country. The problem was then 
 referred to the United Nations which, as noted 
 above, voted to grant Libya its independence not 
 later than January 1, 1952. On December 24, 
 1951, Libya declared its independence. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT 
 
 The United Kingdom of Libya is a constitu¬ 
 tional monarchy with a federal system of govern¬ 
 ment. The powers of the king under the 
 constitution are considerable. 
 
 The kingdom has a bicameral legislature con¬ 
 sisting of a senate and a house of representatives. 
 The senate has 24 members, 8 from each prov¬ 
 ince. Half of the senators are appointed by the 
 king, while the other half are elected by the pro¬ 
 vincial legislative assemblies. A new senate was 
 chosen and elected on March 24, 1956, for an 
 8-year term. The members of the house of rep¬ 
 resentatives are elected for 4 years on the basis 
 of one deputy for each 20,000 persons. No prov¬ 
 ince can be represented by fewer than 5 deputies. 
 Presently, Tripolitania has 35 seats, Cyrenaica 
 15, and the Fezzan 5—for a total of 55. 
 
 The king, the senate, or the house of represen¬ 
 tatives can initiate laws. Budget or tax laws 
 can be initiated only by the king or the house. 
 A bill passed by both houses goes to the king 
 for promulgation within 30 days. A bill returned 
 by the king must be reconsidered by parliament. 
 A bill repassed by a two-thirds majority of each 
 chamber must be promulgated within 30 days. 
 The king has power to dissolve the lower house. 
 
 Government functions are administered by a 
 number of ministries under cabinet members who 
 are appointed by the king on the recommenda¬ 
 tion of the prime minister. In theory the cab¬ 
 inet is constitutionally responsible to the lower 
 house of parliament, which has the power by a 
 no-confidence vote to force its resignation. 
 
 The king appoints the governors of each prov¬ 
 ince. They in turn are assisted by an appointed 
 
 executive council and an elected legislative 
 assembly. 
 
 Although political issues have at times led to 
 the formation of political groups, based upon 
 tribal and regional alliances, there are no political 
 parties as such in Libya. 
 
 LIBYA'S ECONOMY 
 
 The economy of Libya is almost entirely agri¬ 
 cultural and pastoral. However, because of fre¬ 
 quent droughts, poor soil, meager water supply, 
 and lack of modern methods and machinery, 
 Libya holds little prospect of supporting more 
 than a simple agrarian economy, even with foreign 
 financial assistance. 
 
 In order to maintain governmental services and 
 to initiate economic development projects the 
 Libyan Government must rely upon foreign eco¬ 
 nomic and technical assistance through grants- 
 in-aid, contributions to development programs, 
 and expenditures on military projects. 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Over three-fourths of the population are occu¬ 
 pied with agriculture and animal husbandry. 
 Agriculture is limited to northern Tripolitania, 
 the plateau of Cyrenaica, and the oases of the 
 interior. Barley, wheat, dates, esparto grass, cit¬ 
 rus fruits, and olive oil are the principal products, 
 generally meeting domestic requirements and 
 providing some exportable surpluses. 
 
 Livestock, kept by nomads and seminomads, 
 provide wool and hides in modest quantities. 
 
 Coastal fishing provides tuna, sardines, and 
 various other species of fish. Sponges are also 
 collected in the coastal waters of the country. 
 Most of these sea products are exported. 
 
 Industry 
 
 Libya has as yet no significant mineral produc¬ 
 tion. There are possibilities of oil deposits, and 
 in late 1955 oil concessions were granted to eight 
 international oil companies. American companies 
 have concessions of approximately 145,000 acres. 
 
 Manufacturing in Libya is relatively unimpor¬ 
 tant. However, there is a growing number of small 
 manufacturing establishments engaged in process- 
 
 27 
 
mg agricultural and fishery products, as well as 
 handicraft industries producing textiles, footwear, 
 leather goods, jewelry, and carpets. 
 
 Trade and Communications 
 
 During 1955 the total value of Libya’s imports 
 was $40 million, while its exports were valued at 
 only $12 million. The deficit in Libya’s balance 
 of payments was offset primarily by foreign mili¬ 
 tary expenditures and by contributions and 
 grants-in-aid from foreign countries. 
 
 There are approximately 1,700 miles of bitumi¬ 
 nous-surfaced roads, including the 1,140-mile 
 east-west coastal highway and some 7,000 miles of 
 unsurfaced roads and desert tracks. The highway, 
 running along the coastline from the Tunisian 
 border to the Egyptian frontier, connects all the 
 principal towns and ports including Tripoli, 
 Misurata, Benghazi, Derna, and Tobruk. Rail¬ 
 roads in Libya only supplement the road system 
 and are adequate for normal requirements. 
 
 Tripoli is an important way station on trans- 
 African air routes, with planes of some 12 inter¬ 
 national airlines landing there. The country has 
 17 airfields, some of which can now accommodate 
 large commercial aircraft. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT 
 
 The achievement of Libyan independence 
 brought a strong urge among its leaders to over¬ 
 come the tremendous handicaps facing the young 
 country. Lacking natural resources, the Libyan 
 Government is working all the harder to develop 
 its one major resource—the skills of its people— 
 as well as to improve the economic potential of the 
 country in the fields of agriculture, public utilities, 
 transportation and communications, education, 
 and social services. In this effort Libya is assisted 
 by the United Nations as well as by the United 
 States, the United Kingdom, and other nations. 
 
 Aid From the United Nations 
 
 The United Nations has devoted much attention 
 to Libya—in fact, Libya is today, on a per capita 
 basis, the largest recipient of U. N. technical 
 assistance. 
 
 As early as July 1950, an exploratory U. N. 
 mission was sent to Libya to study its economic 
 and social problems and to assess technical assist¬ 
 ance needs. The U. N. Food and Agriculture 
 Organization (FAO) later sent a team of experts 
 to prepare a comprehensive plan for economic and 
 
 An instructor with his typing class at a U. N. 
 technical and clerical training center. 
 
social development. Their report, completed in 
 January 1952, was adopted by the Libyan Govern¬ 
 ment as a basis of its 5-year development plan, 
 and it provided a foundation for the U. N. Tech¬ 
 nical Assistance Board in orienting the aid pro¬ 
 gram in Libya. The total amount spent by the 
 United Nations and its specialized agencies over 
 the period 1950-55 came to about $4 million, half 
 of which was contributed by the United States. 
 
 A major part of the U. N. effort is in the field of 
 education and training. Tims in Tripoli there is 
 a Technical and Clerical Training Center, for 
 which the International Labor Organization pro¬ 
 vides a staff of 35 teachers to train junior civil 
 servants and artisans for Government service and 
 private employment. Hundreds of young Libyans 
 are receiving instruction in typing, bookkeeping, 
 commercial practice, office procedure, carpentry, 
 blacksmithing, mechanical drawing, and other 
 fields. The Tripolitan Department of Education 
 pays for the normal operating expenses of the 
 center and provides some of the staff. 
 
 Each of the three provinces of Libya has a 5- 
 year development plan for education, and the 
 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cul¬ 
 tural Organization (UNESCO) gives technical 
 assistance to these programs by operating nine 
 different projects. UNESCO instructors, besides 
 preparing textbooks, are training future teachers. 
 
 In addition, the United Nations and its agencies 
 have sent abroad more than 80 young Libyans to 
 study various aspects of public administration, 
 ranging from sanitary engineering to improved 
 tax collection methods. 
 
 In the field of agriculture, FAO experts are 
 demonstrating modern methods of spraying or¬ 
 chards, fighting insect pests, and pruning fruit 
 trees. They are also demonstrating new methods 
 in the processing of hides, skins, and dates, and in 
 the packing of citrus fruits. FAO has also fur¬ 
 nished exports for experiments in crop and seed 
 improvement, particularly in drought-resisting 
 plants. 
 
 The World Health Organization (WHO) and 
 the U. N. Children’s Fund have also been active in 
 Libya, primarily in the inoculation of children and 
 young people against tuberculosis. WHO has 
 also furnished a public health administrator who 
 advises the federal and provincial authorities as 
 well as several health educators, who work princi¬ 
 pally with Libyan women. 
 
 United States Aid 
 
 The United States has, from the very beginning 
 of Libya’s nationhood, pledged itself to do its full 
 share in helping the people of the new country to 
 increase their opportunities for economic advance¬ 
 ment. To this end we have supported the 
 activities of the United Nations and its specialized 
 agencies, and we have also given direct economic 
 and technical aid to Libya. 
 
 On January 21, 1950, Libya and the United 
 States concluded an agreement for technical 
 assistance which provided for the establishment 
 of the U. S. Operations Mission in Libya. In 
 planning its programs, the mission utilized the 
 basic studies made by the United Nations in order 
 to avoid duplication and overlapping. Under the 
 Libyan-American Technical Assistance Service, 
 which was organized in the period immediately 
 preceding Libyan independence, only technical 
 aid was given to Libya. 
 
 In September 1954, however, Libya and the 
 United States signed an economic aid agreement, 
 under the terms of which the United States agreed 
 to make available to Libya during the life of the 
 agreement (until 1971) $40 million for economic 
 development. The Libyan-American Reconstruc¬ 
 tion Commission was created to receive and 
 manage the use of these funds and to develop and 
 scrutinize needed projects. On the Commission 
 there are two Americans—the executive director 
 and the management engineer—and four Libyans. 
 
 Taking into consideration the absorptive ca¬ 
 pacity of the country, the technical cooperation 
 and development assistance programs realistically 
 stress gradual expansion of production while 
 placing strong emphasis on the training of Libyans 
 for future activities. Because of its financial 
 limitations, Libya’s contributions to these pro¬ 
 grams have in the main consisted of providing such 
 facilities and services as buildings, maintenance, 
 interpreters, clerks, and guards. 
 
 Under these programs: 
 
 . . . U. S. agricultural advisers have been train¬ 
 ing Libyans in farm extension techniques and have 
 been working on production problems. 
 
 . . . Agricultural departments are being estab¬ 
 lished in five provincial schools. 
 
 . . . U. S. specialists are setting up vocational 
 training departments in the schools of Tripolitania 
 and Cyrenaica. 
 
 . . . Water control and irrigation programs have 
 
 29 
 
been started in order to prevent flashfloods in the 
 wadies—river beds which are dry except in the 
 rainy season. Dikes and dams have been built in 
 six wadi systems to check runoff which wastes 
 topsoil and water. 
 
 . . . Through medical preventive and curative 
 programs, American specialists are helping to 
 combat disease, poor health, and undernourish¬ 
 ment. 
 
 In addition, during a 2-year period (1953-55) 
 alone, the U. S. Air Force provided 53,000 hours 
 of formal classroom and on-the-job training for 
 442 Libyans in mechanics, plumbing, refrigeration, 
 sanitation, electric maintenance, carpentry, and 
 insect control. 
 
 United States technical and development assist¬ 
 ance to Libya in fiscal year 1956 amounted to ap¬ 
 proximately $17 million. Amounts approved for 
 FY 1957 total approximately $12.5 million, but 
 the expenditure of this year’s aid will not be com¬ 
 pleted for 2 years. Libya was given a special 
 grant of $7 million in March 1957. Dollar ex¬ 
 penditures by Americans stationed in Libya—the 
 U. S. Air Force, Corps of Engineers, and contrac¬ 
 tors—also help the economy of the country. 
 
 Libyan requests for surplus wheat to relieve 
 famine conditions brought about by prolonged 
 drought have been met by U. S. shipments of some 
 
 82,000 tons of wheat between 1954 and 1957. The 
 total value of these shipments—made available 
 under the provisions of the Agricultural Trade 
 Development and Assistance Act, which authorizes 
 the use of surplus U. S. farm products for relief 
 purposes abroad—is estimated at $11.5 million, 
 including packaging and transportation charges. 
 Local distribution costs are borne by the Libyan 
 Government. 
 
 This assistance is being supplemented by the 
 work of U. S. voluntary agencies. CARE, which 
 began operations in Libya in 1957, will provide 
 nearly $2 million worth of surplus milk, cheese, 
 and possibly rice or cornmeal to school children, 
 orphans, widows, the aged, and hospital patients. 
 
 LIBYA IN WORLD AFFAIRS 
 
 Like other newly independent nations, Libya is 
 primarily interested in internal development and 
 in friendly relations with other freedom-loving 
 nations. 
 
 Thoroughly imbued with the spirit of Arab 
 nationalism and patriotism, Libyans understand¬ 
 ably are suspicious of Communist covert or overt 
 imperialist expansionism. In the words of the 
 joint U. S.-Libyan communique issued on March 
 
 Students of the Vocational Agriculture Train¬ 
 ing Center learning the use of siphon tubes 
 for diverting water from irrigation ditches. 
 
The Brak Mosque in an oasis of the Province 
 of Fezzan. 
 
 20, 1957, at the conclusion of talks between Am¬ 
 bassador James P. Richards and Libyan officials 
 headed by the then Premier Mustafa Ben Halim, 
 “the aggressive intentions of international com¬ 
 munism offer the greatest present threat to 
 national independence and the peace and security 
 of the world community.” 
 
 Adhering to the best features of the Arab 
 League, which they joined in March 1953, Libyans 
 aim at cultivating Arab culture and perpetuating 
 the best possible Arab and Moslem traditions of 
 individual freedom, tolerance, and human dig¬ 
 nity—concepts which are the direct antithesis of 
 the Communist doctrine. 
 
 In 1956 the Soviet Union established an em¬ 
 bassy in Tripoli, but Libya rejected Soviet offers 
 of economic and military assistance. 
 
 Libya desires to form a closer association with 
 the West, and especially with Tunisia and Mo¬ 
 rocco. In January 1957 a Tunisian-Libyan 
 Treaty of Friendship was concluded as a first step 
 in that direction. To the east, Libya follows 
 closely events in Egypt, and although the Libyans’ 
 sympathy was clearly with the Egyptians during 
 the Anglo-French hostilities in the Suez Canal 
 area, Libya found it necessary to expel the 
 Egyptian Embassy’s military attache for activi¬ 
 
 ties which were declared inimical to Libyan 
 national sovereignty. On the other hand, Libya 
 requested the British not to use their army and 
 air force bases in Cyrenaica for attacks on Egypt. 
 This request the British observed. 
 
 UNITED STATES-LIBYAN 
 RELATIONS 
 
 As noted earlier, Libya first came to American 
 attention earlv in the 19th century, during our 
 military action against Barbary pirates who had 
 been operating from the coast of Libya. One 
 hundred and fifty years later the United States 
 enthusiastically supported the U. N. proposal lead¬ 
 ing to Libyan independence in 1951 and to Libya’s 
 subsequent membership in the United Nations. 
 
 The United States is officially represented in 
 Libya by an embassy and aU. S. Operations Mission 
 in Tripoli and an embassy branch in the co-capital 
 of Benghazi. There are also U. S. Information 
 Service offices and libraries in those two cities. 
 Effective use has been made of the facilities of the 
 U. S. Information Service in connection with the 
 technical assistance program. Through the means 
 
 31 
 
of pamphlets, signs, and audiovisual materials, 
 information on health, sanitation, well drilling, 
 and livestock improvement is being disseminated 
 to the people of various regions. 
 
 The United States maintains an international 
 educational exchange program with Libya, pro¬ 
 viding grants for Libyans to travel to the United 
 States for study or training, particularly in the 
 fields of law, banking, petroleum, and police ad¬ 
 ministration. 
 
 U. S. Air Force Facilities 
 
 The 17th U. S. Air Force Headquarters at 
 Wheelus Air Force Base and other U. S. Air Force 
 facilities are located in the Tripoli area. Addi¬ 
 tional Air Force facilities are located near Ben¬ 
 
 ghazi. The U. S.-Libyan Base Rights Agreement 
 of September 1954, which has been hailed as “an 
 important contribution to the defense of the free 
 world,” and the subsequent investment of close 
 to $100 million in the construction of Wheelus 
 Air Force Base attest to the primary strategic 
 importance which the United States attaches to 
 Libya. Wheelus represents a vital link in the 
 worldwide chain of the Strategic Air Command 
 bases. 
 
 In its relations with Libya and other nations of 
 the Middle East the United States does not seek 
 to establish spheres of influence in that area but, 
 as stated in a joint U. S.-Libyan communique in 
 March 1957, U. S. policy “is devoted to strength¬ 
 ening the nations of the area so that they may be 
 masters of their own destinies.” 
 
 32 
 
 U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1957 O—448185 
 
DATE DUE 
 
 JUK j * ' 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GAYLORD 
 
 
 
 PRINTED INU S. A.