The Relations Between the Early Dutch and the Indians as Affecting the Subsequent Development of the Colony of New York By JOHN ALDEN LLOYD HYDE izx ICtbrts SEYMOUR DURST "When you leave, please leave this book Because it has been said " Ever thing comes t' him who waits Except a loaned book." Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library Gift of Seymour B. Durst Old York Library The Relations Between the Early Dutch and the Indians as Affecting the Subsequent Development of the Colony of New York By JOHN ALDEN LLOYD HYDE Hobart College, Class of 1924 Awarded the One Hundred Dollar Prize for Hobart by the Society of Colonial Wars in the State of New York in its 1924 Competition in certain New York State Colleges PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE COUNCIL BY THE SECRETARY Printed from the Income of the Clarence Storm Memorial Fund AUGUST, 1924 Publication Number 32 THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY, NEW HAVEN, CONN. THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE EARLY DUTCH AND THE INDIANS AS AFFECTING THE SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLONY OF NEW YORK Commercial Relations The course of Dutch settlement in America was predetermined by a river which runs its length of a hundred and fifty miles from the mountains to the sea through the heart of a fertile country and which offers a natural highway for transportation of merchandise and for communication between colonies. The region which Hudson had discovered possessed on the seaboard a harbour unrivalled in its advantages ; having near its eastern boundary a river that admits the tide far into the interior; extending to the chain of the great lakes which have their springs in the heart of the continent; containing within its limits the sources of large rivers that flow into the Gulf of Mexico and to the Bays of Chesa- peake and of Delaware inviting to extensive internal intercourse by natural channels, of which, long before Hudson anchored off Sandy Hook, even the warriors of the Five Nations availed them- selves in their excursions to Quebec, to the Ohio, or the Susque- hannah; with just sufficient difficulties to stimulate and not enough to dishearten; — New York united most fertile lands with the highest adaptation to foreign and domestic commerce. 1 Along the great river which the Dutch called the "Mauritius," in honor of the Stadholder, Prince Maurice, there dwelt many native tribes, and Indian settlements were very numerous about the region where it flows into the sea. These were the first with whom the Dutch traders came in touch and in order to understand the relations which the newcomers had with their savage neighbors a brief account of the various tribes is quite essential. The Indians were divided into a number of independent tribes and nations. The valley of the Mauritius was inhabited chiefly by two aboriginal races of Algonquin lineage, afterwards known 3 among the Dutch hy the generic terms of Mohicans and Sanhikans. These two tribes were subdivided into numerous minor bands each of which had a distinctive name. The tribes on the east side of the river were generally Mohicans; those on the west side, Sanhikans. They were hereditary enemies ; and across the waters which formed the natural boundaries between them, war- parties frequently passed, on expeditions of conquest and retalia- tion. But however much the tribes of River Indians were at variance among themselves, they were sympathetic in their enmity against the powerful Five Confederated Nations, whose hunting grounds extended over the region westward and northward from what was later Fort Nassau. 2 Long Island was occupied by the savage tribe of Metowacks, which was subdivided into various clans. Staten Island, on the opposite side of the bay, was inhabited by the Monatons and inland, to the west, lived the Rari- tans and the Hackinsacks ; while the regions in the vicinity of Sandy Hook were occupied by a band called the Nevesincks. To the south and west, covering the center of New Jersey, were the Acquamachukes and the Stankekans ; while the valley of the Delaware, northward from the Schuylkill, was inhabited by various tribes of the Lenni Lenape race, collectively known to the Dutch as the "Minquas." 3 The "Island of the Manhattans" was so called "after the ancient name of the tribe of savages among whom the Dutch first settled themselves." 4 This tribe, which inhabited the eastern shore, was always very obstinate and unfriendly toward the Hollanders. 5 The tribe north of the island, which was the most conspicuous in the wars with the Dutch, was the Weckquaesgecks. 6 The Mohicans raised their wigwams on the eastern shore of the upper river opposite the Mohawks and ranged over the land reaching to the Connecticut River. 7 When the Dutch began the settlement of New Netherland all the Indians residing along the Mauritius from its mouth up to Catskill, and those residing on Long Island and in Connecticut adjoining the Sound, were in subjection to that confederacy known to the Dutch as the "Maquais," to the French as the "Iroquoise," and to the English as "The Five Nations," and paid them a yearly tribute. 8 The famous Five Nations were made up of the 4 Mohawks with the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas. Their country stretched from the Hudson to the River Niagara and Lake Erie, a distance of over three hundred miles, and its breadth varied from fifty to a hundred and twenty miles. But their power extended far beyond these limits over dependent tribes on the north and east. They were in a constant state of warfare with their Algonquin neighbors, who offered a formidable resistance. 9 It is alleged that the Mohawks had two thousand warriors about the year 1629. 10 The Dutch had continual intercourse with the tribes belonging to both the Five Nations Confederacy and the Mohicans. It was with them that they traded. It was with them that they formed alliances and bought lands, obtaining permission to erect forts and trading-houses. It was from them that they had leave to plant colonies, make improvements, and convert wastes into well culti- vated farms. 11 It must be remembered that the colonist from Europe met the Indian in a threefold capacity, as a neighbor, as a customer and trader, and as a foe opposed to encroachments upon his hunting grounds. The Indians gave to the Dutch traders a very friendly reception. They sold them furs and provisions, and treated them like brethren. But the Christians did not treat the heathen fairly. The payment for lands in all cases was a mere farce and of value only in creating temporary good feeling between savages and settlers. Moreover, the earlier concessions of land were made under a total misconception: the Indian supposed that the new comers would, after a few years of occupancy, pass on and leave the tract again to the natives. 12 It did not take many years for the Indians to form an opinion of the white men who had come to their shores, and as time passed the realization slowly dawned that the trader and colonist had kept them in deceptive ignorance of the relative importance of what they gave and what they received. Hence an antagonism grew up, inherent in the very blood of the Indian after a generation of association with the Europeans. As the pioneer penetrated deeper into the hills and followed new lakes and streams he found himself often opposed, although hospitality to the individual was never lacking among the Indians, but the difficulties which he encountered only served to urge him on to greater efforts. 5 Ploughshare and Tomahawk At first Holland sought commerce rather than extension of empire. After the discovery of the great river by Henry Hudson the Dutch East India Company lost no time in sending ships to trade with the natives and the year 1610 witnessed the departure of the first trading vessel for the newly discovered region. The States General of the Netherlands, in the early part of the year 1 614, granted a patent to certain merchants for an exclusive trade on the Mauritius. In this grant the country was styled New Netherland. The company the same year built a fort and trading house on an island in the river, about half a mile below where the city of Albany now stands. At this time, and for some years after, controversies existed between the Five Nations and the Mohicans in relation to the alluvial lands on the east side of the river. But the Dutch, shortly after their removal to Fort Orange, invited the hostile tribes to an entertainment in the fort and prevailed upon them to settle the matters in controversy and bury the tomahawk. 13 This seems to have been the first establishment formed by the Dutch in the New Netherland. It was judiciously selected for defence against the savages, and it remained the center of barter throughout the period of Dutch occupation. Toward the latter part of the same year the company erected another small fort and a trading house at the southerly end of Manhattan Island. To this establishment the name of New Amsterdam was given. In 161 5 the company constructed a small fort on the very site of Albany, and in 1618 built a redoubt at the Kingston landing and established a post at Esopus. Between the years 1616 and 1620 about twenty persons belonging to the company went from the fort on the island below Albany to what is now Schenectady, where they entered into a compact with the Mohawks, from whom they bought some land and erected a trading house. This they surrounded with pickets and fortified. In the year 1621 the States General made a grant of the whole country to the Dutch West India Company and this date may be taken as distinguishing the era of trade from that of settlement, which was only to begin three years later. The ship "Nieu Nederlandt" arrived at the mouth of the 6 Mauritius in May, 1624, with over thirty families on board. The leaders began at once to distribute settlers with a view to covering as much country as was defensible. Some were left in Manhattan, several families were sent to the South River, others to the Fresh River, and still others to the western shore of Long Island. The remaining colonists voyaged up the length of the Mauritius, landed at Fort Orange, and made their home there. From the time of the founding of settlements, outward-bound ships from the Netherlands brought supplies for the colonists and carried back cargoes of furs, tobacco, and maize. 14 The year after the colonists arrived the value of furs exported amounted to 27,125 guilders, about $11,000 in value, and two years later it reached $19,000. In 1626 the Island of Manhattan was purchased from the Indians for sixty guilders, and a block-house, surrounded by a palisade of cedars, was built at its southern extremity, and called Fort Amsterdam. About this fort, the headquarters of the colony, a little village slowly grew up. Staten Island was also purchased from the Indians and specimens of the harvest were sent to Holland in proof of the fertility of the soil. 15 But the insignificant peltry trade had little interest for the governors of the West India Company, which in one year gained sixty million guilders from the loot of the Spaniards. They determined to shift the burden of the colonial enterprise by extending to the colony the feudal system of land-holding which obtained in the Netherlands. This was done by the Charter of Privileges to Patroons which was issued in 1629. 16 This resulted in the officers of the company obtaining the best lands. Michael Pauw secured Staten Island and the mainland on the opposite shore of the North River from Manhattan, a district of great value, for it was there that the natives of the lower river were accustomed to congregate to traffic with the company's agents. In 1637 the corporation bought out Pauw's rights. Two other directors appropriated what is now the state of Delaware, and a fourth director, Kiliaean van Rensselaer, took for his share the valuable lands that enclosed the company's station at Fort Orange. So by 1630 we see that a great part of the land about the bay and that along the upper 7 stretches of the river, if not already acquired hy purchase from the Indians and by grant, was at least spoken for. The good understanding which had prevailed between the Dutch and the Indians for many years after the first settlement of the former, had begun to be seriously disturbed as the colonists grew stronger and became more aggressive. 17 Throughout early American history, so long as the white invaders were fur traders or missionaries, it appears that there was peace on the frontier; but when the newcomers were farmers or planters, Indian war broke out before very long. In other words, while their hunting grounds were preserved to the Indians, they looked upon the whites as the benevolent dispensers of useful utensils, articles of personal adornment, fire-water, and sometimes fire-arms ; but when the whites began to plow the soil and to build houses, they seriously interfered with the Indian's food supply and with the only article of barter for which the white trader would give the Indian those things which he desired. Purchase of land from Indian chiefs, fair trading, and the impartial administration of law made no difference. Deprived of his land, the Indian must fight or starve. So it was in New Netherland ; as long as the Dutchmen came as fur traders there was peace; as soon as there was colonization there was war. To conciliate or to crush seemed to be the alternatives in the Dutch relations with the Indians. The early governors at Fort Amsterdam made but few attempts to conciliate the abori- gines — but the settlers at Fort Orange pursued very different methods, forming a treaty with the Indians, and by this means not only lived in peace, but established a guard between themselves and any encroachments of the French and Algonquins in Canada. The peace was never broken in the north, whatever broils disturbed the lower waters of the river. The friendship of the Mohawks for the Dutch in the early days of Fort Orange was not altogether spontaneous. It was in great part actuated by a desire to obtain fire-arms from the traders with which to repulse the attacks of their deadly enemies, the Algonquins, who had been armed by the French in Canada. The Algonquins had been victorious in several attacks on the Mohawks, and the latter hoped to secure from the Dutch the same power which had made their enemies triumphant. 8 The Dutch were wise enough to make instant use of these friendly sentiments and hastened to make a treaty with the Five Nations, the Mohegans, and the Lenni Lenapes. It was this treaty that secured such an enduring peace. 18 Wouter van Twiller succeeded Peter Minuit in 1633 and his position as Governor was far from an enviable one. Problems seemed to increase daily. He began to build a fortified town about Fort Amsterdam at the southern end of Manhattan Island, a very necessary precaution. From some unexplained cause the Raritan lavages, soon after Van Twiller's arrival, attacked several of the company's traders and showed other signs of hostility. Peace, however, was restored in the course of the following year ; but the savages in the neighborhood of Fort Amsterdam were never afterward as friendly and cordial toward the Dutch as were the Mohawks near Fort Orange. 19 The Pequod War in Connecticut, which began in 1632, was not without its effects in New Netherland. Its injurious effects did not end with the subjugation and enslavement of its surviving victims. Their coveted lands were indeed won. But the seeds of enmity were sown for ages, and it was not long after that the Dutch colonists on the North River were obliged to witness as murderous scenes as did the Puritan conquerors of Connecticut. 20 The successor of Governor Van Twiller, William Kieft, who arrived at Manhattan in March, 1638, was destined to be the cause of more unhappiness in his eight years of rule than were any of his predecessors or successors at Fort Amsterdam. A year after his arrival, Kieft's indiscretion hurried him into the adoption of a measure which produced, before long, the most disastrous results. Under the plea that the company was burdened with heavy expenses for its fortifications and garrisons in New Nether- land, the director arbitrarily resolved to "demand some tribute" of maize, furs, or sewan from the neighboring Indians, "whom we thus far have defended against their enemies," and threatened, in case of their refusal, to employ proper measures "to remove their reluctance." 21 Up to this time the intercourse between the Dutch and the Indians had been, upon the whole, friendly ; and with the opening of the fur trade a large prosperity promised to visit New Nether- 9 land. But freedom soon ran into abuses; and the temptation of gain led to injurious excess. The colonists soon began to neglect agriculture for the quicker profits of traffic with the savages. To push their trade to the best advantage the colonists had separated themselves from each other and settled their abodes "far in the interior of the country." Presently they began to allure the savages to their houses "by excessive familiarity and treating." This soon brought them into contempt with the Indians who, not being always used with impartiality, naturally became jealous. Some of the savages, too, were employed as domestic servants by the Dutch. This unwise conduct only produced evil. The Indians frequently stole more than the amount of their wages; and, running away, they acquainted their tribes with the habits, mode of life, and exact numerical strength of the colonists. The knowledge thus gained was used, before long, with fatal effect against the Europeans, whose presence now began to inconvenience the aborigines. For the colonists, in their avidity to procure peltries, neglected their cattle, which, straying away without herds- men, injured the un fenced corn fields of the savages. The Indians avenged themselves by killing the cattle and even the horses of the Dutch. 22 The situation, already bad enough, was further compli- cated by Kieft's clumsy handling of an altercation on Staten Island. A theft had been falsely charged to the Raritan Indians and without waiting to make investigations Kieft sent out a puni- tive expedition of seventy- men, who attacked the innocent natives, killed a number of them, and laid waste their crops. This stupid and wicked attack still further exasperated the Indians. "A hankering after war had w r holly seized on the director." Shortly after the Staten Island affair it happened that an Indian murdered a Dutchman in revenge for the death of his uncle years before. Kieft demanded the surrender of the murderer, but the chief would not consider it, and offered to give retribution in wampum. In this emergency Kieft called a council of twelve prominent burghers and this body advised the director not to attack the savages, as he was so eager to do. But in the winter of 1642, Kieft found his sought for opportunity of obtaining the lands of the YVeckquaskeek Indians. That tribe, fleeing before a raid of their dreaded enemies, the Mohawks of the North, abandoned their 10 village on the river near the present Hastings, and came in the depth of winter to Manhattan Island, and to Pavonia on the west side of the river, where they encamped in a very destitute and starving condition. Their pitiable plight excited the commisera- tion of many of the Dutch, who furnished them with food. Not so with Kief t, however ; to him it appeared as a good opportunity, provided by Providence, to settle up old scores, and by extermi- nating the Indians, to facilitate the expansion of the colony. He sent out two bands of soldiers, who returned after a massacre which disgraced the Director, enraged the natives, and endangered the colony. More than a hundred Indians, men, women, and children, were killed by the most barbarous methods. The natural consequences of such an act followed swiftly. The thirty or forty farm houses that were on Manhattan Island were reduced to four or five that still remained standing, and, with the exception of the few who escaped to the town to dwell "in huts of straw" around the Fort, the settlers were slain or carried into captivity by the enraged Indians. There were but few of the inhabitants of New Netherland who did not severely suffer, either directly or indi- rectly, by this foolhardy and cruel policy of Kieft, and he and his advisers were bitterly attacked by all classes of the community in consequence. 23 The Algonquin uprising lasted for two years and resulted in the death of about sixteen hundred savages, but left the border settlement in ruins and checked colonial growth for several years. The Algonquins being enemies of the Mohawks, the friendship originally formed between the Dutch and the latter was not disturbed by this outbreak. On the approach of spring in 1643, when the Indians had to plant their corn, or face famine, sachems of the Long Island Indians sought a parley with the Dutch. De Vries, the Captain, offered to meet the savages and in the woods near Rockaway found nearly three hundred Indians assembled. Here one of the sachems expressed his feelings in most eloquent and telling words ; "When you first came to our shores you were destitute of food. We gave you our beans and corn; we fed you with oysters and fish; and now, for our recompense, you murder our people." 24 De Vries invited the chiefs to accompany him to the Fort, to which they consented, so that the director might give them presents to 11 prepare the way for peace. The presents that Kieft gave the Indians were so niggardly that the Indians went away with rancour still in their hearts, although a treaty had been made with them and another was made with the River Indians a month later. But the trouble was far from over. On Long Island, from the advent of the first white men, the Dutch and English had respected the rights of the Indians, and no land was taken up by the several towns, or by individuals, until it had been fairly purchased of the tribe that claimed it. The Dutch on the west end, and the English on the east end of the Island, maintained a constant friendship with the natives in their respective neighborhoods, and while they were friendly with each other, the Indians from one end of the Island to the other were friendly with both. 25 The miserable Governor Kieft was succeeded by a most capable man, Peter Stuyvesant, in 1647. Stuyvesant believed in giving the Indians just and conciliatory treatment by reason of the power possessed by the natives of doing harm to the colony. The decade following Kieft's treaty at Fort Amsterdam had been more or less friendly in the relations of the Dutch and the Indians. But a new provocation in 1655 now roused the red men to vengeance. Van Dyck, the superseded schout-fiscal, had killed a squaw for stealing some peaches from his orchard. This served to the Indians as an overt act. In the absence of Director-General Stuyvesant and his forces, who had started a few days before on an expedition against the Swedes on the Delaware, they attacked the almost defenseless settlements. A force of about nineteen hundred Indians suddenly appeared before New Amsterdam in sixty-four canoes. They landed before daybreak and, wandering through the streets, they entered several houses. The inhabitants were terrified, but managed to persuade the Indians to leave Manhattan at sunset and pass over to Nutten Island. But when evening came the savages broke their word. Van Dyck was shot with an arrow in the breast and Van der Grist was struck down with an axe. The town was instantly aroused and the few resi- dent soldiers attacked the Indians and drove them to their canoes. Passing over to the Jersey shore, the savages laid waste Hoboken and Pavonia, and killed or captured most of the inhabitants. Staten Island was desolated. In three days one hundred of the 12 Dutch inhabitants were killed, one hundred and fifty were taken prisoner and three hundred more ruined in estate. Many of the farmers fled to Manhattan for refuge. The few families who had settled themselves at Esopus abandoned their farms in alarm. Even Manhattan itself was not secure. Prowling bands of savages wandered over the island, destroying all that came in their way. 26 On his return Stuyvesant acted toward the Indians in a manner that was kind and conciliating, and at the same time he provided against a repetition of the recent disaster by erecting blockhouses at various points and by concentrating the settlers for mutual defense. By this policy of mingled diplomacy and prepara- tion against attack, Stuyvesant preserved peace for a period of three years. But troubles with the Indians continued to disturb the colonies on the river and centered at Esopus, where slaughters of both white and red men occurred. Eight white men were burned at the stake in revenge for shots fired by Dutch soldiers, and an Indian chief was killed with his own tomahawk. In 1660 a treaty of peace was framed ; but three years later we find the two races again embroiled. Thus Indian wars continued down to the close of Dutch rule. 27 Treaties and Expansion In September, 1664, New Netherland was taken over by the English under Colonel Nicolls and the Dutch territory was split up, the main division being what is now known as the State of New York. The Dutch in their fifty years of rule had planted many colonies, almost all on the banks of the Hudson, and when the English came into power there were few of their countrymen in the former Dutch colony. The principal settlements of the Dutch were New Amsterdam and Harlem, on Manhattan Island; Brooklyn, Flatbush, Utrecht, Bushwick, Ulyssen, Middlebury, Hempstead, Gravesend, and Oysterbay on Long Island ; Richmond and other small hamlets on Staten Island ; Esopus in Ulster County; Beverwick in Albany County; and Rensselaerswick in the same county and Rensselaer County; Schenectady, in the county of the same name; not to mention those in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Forts and blockhouses had been erected in all these places for defence and security. New Amster- 13 dam, it is likely, contained not far from two thousand inhabitants. The Dutch had tried their strength with the natives at Horse Neck, New Amsterdam, on Long Island and Staten Island, Esopus, and other places, and had proved victorious in every contest. The red men had had to make ignominious peace with them and confess their prowess. 28 This is the testimony of one historian, but it seems doubtful if his words are either historically correct or judiciously chosen. The Dutch had not been invariably victorious, far from it; and if ignominious peace was the result of treaties it was often because of the unfair advantage taken by the white men with their greater knowledge of legal and business matters. From the beginning of Dutch settlement along the Hudson, wars had been continually going on between the French and the Indians. In order to understand the development of the Colony of New York something must be said about the conditions which prevailed in the province during that troubled epoch. The penurious policy pursued by the Dutch and continued by the English left the colony without defenses on either the northern or southern boundaries. For a long time the settlers found themselves bulwarked against the French on the north by the steadfast friendship of the Five Nations; but at last these trusting allies began to feel that the English were not doing their share in the war. The lack of mili- tary preparation in New York was inexcusable. When the Indians, under the leadership of the French, actually took the war- path, the colonists at last awoke to their peril. 29 After the advent of the English we hear little of the Dutch collectively, though good Dutch names almost predominate in the annals of the early Colony of New York. There appears to have been, however, a jealousy among the English colonists in regard to the Dutch of Schenectady who were charged with misrepresent- ing the intentions of the English toward the Mohawks. This may have been one of the factors which caused the Five Nations to become doubtful about the alliance with the English, which had come as a natural sequel to their alliances with the Dutch. How- ever no schism took place, and new treaties of alliance were made with the Five Nations under the wise leadership of Sir William Johnson, a representative endowed with deep knowledge of the Indian character. Albany, and the work of Sir William Johnson, is described by a traveller in the middle of the eighteenth century 14 as follows : "The settlement at Albany was no longer an insulated region ruled and defended by the wisdom and courage diffused through the general mass of the inhabitants ; but began in the ordi- nary course of things to incorporate with the general colony. The Mohawk Indians were so engaged by treaties to assist the army in its more regular operations to the westward, that they came less frequently to visit Albany. A line of forts had, at prodigious expense, been erected, leading from Albany to Upper Canada by the Mohawk River, and the lakes of Ontario, Niagara, etc." So, in retrospect, two main facts are evident about the subse- quent development of the Colony of New York as affected by the relations of the early Dutch with the Indians : On the lower reaches of the river and about Manhattan Island the numerous conflicts between the whites and the red men had led both to the extermination of certain tribes and to the subjugation of the others by a system of terrorization. Hence those fertile and accessible regions were opened to the rapid colonization that soon took place ; on the upper reaches of the river, in Rensselaerswick, and about Fort Orange, the relations with the Indians had always been amicable, and the traders and missionaries who, passing through the forests west of Albany, had accepted the hospitality of the tribes of the Five Nations, had blazed a trail which the settlers were gradually to follow. The constant friendship between the Mohawks and the colonists was the most important factor in the development of the colony. Taking a general view of the American nation, it is now easy to see that it was fortunate that the European met in the Indian so formidable an antagonist ; such fierce and untamed savages could never be held long as slaves ; and thus were the colonists of the north saved from the temptations and the moral dangers which come from contact with a numerous servile race. Every step of progress into the wilderness being stubbornly contested, the spirit of hardihood and bravery, the essential element in nation building, was fostered among the frontiersmen; and as settlement moved westward slowly, only so fast as the pressure of population on the seaboard impelled it, the Dutch and English were prevented from planting scattered colonies in the interior, and a more solid front was presented to the Indians. 15 References 1 Bancroft (G.), History of New York (Boston, 1839), p. 268. 2 Schoolcraft (H. R.), N. Y. Historical Society Proceedings (New York, 1844). pp. 89 et seq. 'Brodhead (J. R.). History of New York (New York, 1853), pp. 73 et seq. 4 Albany Records XVIII, p. 348. 5 Brodhead, op. cit., p. 74. "Wilson (J. G.), Memorial History of New York (New York, 1892), Vol. I, p. 47. 7 Goodwin (M. W.)i Dutch and English on the Hudson (New Haven, 1920), p. 124. 8 Macauley (J.), History of New York (New York, 1829), Vol. II, pp. 185 et seq. Goodwin, op. cit., p. 124. 10 Macauley, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 296. 11 Macauley, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 288. 12 Goodwin, op. cit., p. 38. 18 Macauley, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 186. 14 Goodwin, op. cit., pp. 22 et seq. "Hildreth (R.), History of New York (New York, 1849), Vol. I, p. 141. 16 Channing (E.), A History of the United States (New York, 1912), Vol. I, p. 447. 17 Innes (J. H.), New Amsterdam and Its People (New York, 1902), p. 97. 18 Goodwin, op. cit., p. 125. 19 Brodhead, op. cit., p. 244. 20 Brodhead, op. cit., p. 272. 21 Albany Records, II, pp. 46, 47, 65. 22 Brodhead, op. cit., pp. 307 et seq. 23 Innes, op. cit., pp. 22 et seq. 24 Dunlap (Wm.), History of New York (New York, 1839), Vol. I, p. 72. 23 Macauley, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 260. 26 Brodhead, op. cit., pp. 602 et seq. 27 Goodwin, op. cit., pp. 74 et seq. 28 Macauley, op. cit., p. 370. 29 Goodwin, op. cit., p. 218. And numerous other historical works. 16