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Columbia S<nit)ers(ftj) 
 
 intljeCttpoflmgork 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 U^'- 
 
NEW GENERAL 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 A A ANS, 
 
 i 
 
NEW GENERAL 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY, 
 
 -r 
 
 COI.COLju, 
 
 PROJECTED AND PABTLY AKRANfcEU 
 
 BT THE LATE 
 
 LIBRARY. 
 
 N YORK. 
 
 EEV. HUGH JAMES ROSE, B.D. 
 
 PRINCIPAX OF KING S COLLEGE, LONDON. 
 
 IN TWELVE VOLUMES. 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 T. FELLOWES, LUDGATE STREET; F. & .r. RIVINGTON; 
 
 E.UODGSON; RICHARDSON, BROTHERS; J. BAIN; G. GREENLAND; A. GREENI^'UV'D; 
 
 F. C. WESTLEY; CAPES & CO. ; BOSWORTH AND HARRISON; H. G. BOIiK; 
 
 H. WASHBOURNE; WILLIS & SOTHERAN ; J. DALE; 
 
 DEIGHTON, BELL & CO. CAMBRIDGE; 
 
 AN^D J. H. PARKER, OXFORD. 
 
 1857. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 In no other publication of a character purely literary are 
 instruction and entertainment so intimately blended as in a 
 Biograpliical Dictionary : hence arises the general demand for 
 works of this class, as well as the extensive and lasting popu- 
 larity which they have always enjoyed. Materials for the 
 supply of this demand were never so abundant or accessible 
 as they have been in our own times ; and yet scarcely in any 
 other country in Christendom have the wants of the public in 
 this particular been hitherto less hberally provided for than in 
 England. And while France is justly proud of her Biographie 
 Universelle, a very voluminous work, the most extensive pub- 
 lication of the kind that we could boast of was the General 
 Biographical Dictionary of Chalmers, containing less than 
 9,000 names, a great number of which are utterly insignifi- 
 cant. Moved by these considerations, and persuaded that a 
 work of greater compass and usefulness than any of that 
 description then extant in our language was required by the 
 wants or wishes of the public, the proprietors of this Biogra- 
 phical Dictionary undertook its publication, and they now 
 
 r\ r"^ ^ ^ 
 
ii adyhrtisement. 
 
 confidently offer it as superior to any other in existence within 
 the same limits. Of its fulness as a work of reference some 
 idea may be formed fi'om the fact^ that it contains notices of 
 no fewer than 20,700 names^ the most remarkable of which 
 are treated at a length fully commensurate with their import- 
 ance. In this respect^ indeed, it fears not a comparison with 
 the Biorjraphie Universelle, in which, whilst Enghsh literature 
 is very inadequately appreciated, our great theological writers 
 especially are scarcely noticed; whereas that work contams a 
 redundancy of modern French names, especially of those who 
 have been even obscurely connected with the liistory of the 
 Revolution. 
 
 In the present work it will be found that two yery 
 common faults are carefully avoided — that of giving undue 
 prominence to insignificant names^ and that of withholding 
 from those of high repute, to whatever country they may 
 belong, the notice and commendation to which they are justly 
 entitled. To have given an account, however slight, of every 
 person who has obtained temporary distinction in all the varied 
 walks of life, would have been to defeat the design of this 
 work by circumscribing the sphere of its usefulness. On 
 the other hand, to have treated with tedious diffuseness, as 
 Bayle and the writers of the General Dictionary have done, 
 every name that came under review, would have rendered it 
 necessary to push the principle of selection to an extent that 
 must have involved the exclusion of thousands of names 
 for which a Biographical Dictionary is commonly consulted. 
 We have endeavoured to steer a middle course ; and thus to 
 provide the pubhc with a work in which the distinctive cha- 
 
ADVERTISESIENT. ill 
 
 racters, deeds, or productions, of the potentates, statesmen, 
 warriors, philosopliers, poets, painters, sculptors, arcliiteets, 
 and inventors or improvers of useful arts, whether of ancient 
 or modern times, are circumstantially recorded ; while persons 
 of lesser note, whose names for that very reason are often 
 made the subject of inquiry, are not deemed unworthy of a 
 brief, but appropriate memorial. 
 
 It is a duty to all persons concerned in this work to state, 
 that it was originally projected by the late Principal of King's 
 College, London, — the Rev. Hugh .Tames Rose; and a con- 
 siderable portion of it was executed under arrangements made 
 by him, although no part of it was subjected to his revision ; 
 but, in consequence of his deeply lamented decease^ the work 
 was placed in the hands of other Editors. 
 
COL.COLL 
 
 LIBRA R 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIo¥A^^.*^i' 
 
 AA 
 
 AA, (Peter Vander, d. 1594,) a native 
 of Louvain, and a jurisconsult of some 
 reputation. 
 
 A A, (Peter Vander, d. 1730,) a book- 
 seller, editor, and geographer of Leyden, 
 whose immense but inaccin-ate publica- 
 tions are little used. His chief works were 
 two collections of voyages and travels ; 
 one in 8 vols, fol., relating to the East 
 and West Indies ; the second in 30 vols. 
 12mo, relating to some countries of Eu- 
 rope (both in Dutch) ; a set of maps, and 
 The Pleasant Gallery of the World, 3.3 
 vols., containing views of cities. He 
 also caused the publication of several 
 scientific works ; e. g. The Botanicon 
 Parisiense of Vaillant, and the posthumous 
 works of Malpighi ; and published in 
 Latin Vaillant's Essay on the Structure 
 of Flowers. He was also editor of the 
 Thesaurus Antiquitatum GrjEcarum of 
 Gronovius, and the Thesaurus Antiqui- 
 tatum Itali.ne, &c. 
 
 His brother, IT. Vander Aa, an en- 
 graver, was chiefly employed in engrav- 
 ing for his books. 
 
 AA, (C. C. Henry Vander, 1718— 
 1793,) a native of ZwoU, and Lvitheran 
 pastor of Haarlem, left some sermons and 
 I'ssays in natvu-al history. 
 
 AAGARD, (Christian, 1596— 1G64,) 
 a Danish poet, and professor of the art at 
 Soroe and Copenhagen. 
 
 A brother of this poet, Nicolas, pro- 
 fessor of eloquence, published some phi- 
 losophical and pliQological treatises which 
 are little known out of Denmark ; yet he 
 was a respectable scholar. One of his works 
 is on the style of the New Testament. 
 
 AAGESEN, (Sweyn, known by the 
 Latin name of Sueno Agonis Filius,) a 
 Danish historian of the twelftli century, 
 the contemporary of Saxo Grammaticus, 
 and stimulated to write the national 
 history by archbishop Absalom. His 
 work, however, is not a regular historical 
 treatise, like Saxo's ; it is rather a series 
 
 VOL. I. 1 
 
 A AR 
 
 of regal portraits, Avithout connexion or 
 method. He omits whole centuries, and 
 passes from one reign to another, just as 
 tlie desultory humour took him. He 
 would appear to have undertaken his 
 task to supply the deficiencies, or to cor- 
 rect the errors of Saxo. He has not many 
 fables ; and he is satisfied with making 
 Skiold, son of Odin, the founder of the 
 Danish kingdom. He evidently followed 
 Norwegian and Icelandic authorities, 
 while his more celebrated contemporary 
 drew largely from the legendary stores of 
 the Pagan scalds. His work is in the 
 well-known collection of Langebek, Scrip- 
 tores Rerum Danicarum, tom. i. He also 
 translated into Latin the code of Canute 
 the Great, entitled, Historia Legum Cas- 
 trensium, which is in the tliird volume of 
 tlie same collection. Tlie first publication 
 of his works Avas at Soroc, in 1642, from 
 a MS. in the university library at Copen- 
 liagen, by Stephanus Johannes Stepha- 
 nius. 
 
 AALI, a celebrated Turkish historian, 
 whose name is given at full length by 
 Von Hammer thus — Mustafa Ben Achmed 
 Ben Abdol-Mola; (d. 1597.) His greatest 
 work is Kimhol-achbar (the Treasure of 
 Knowledge), the history of the Osmanic 
 empire from its foundation to the eleventh 
 century of the Hegira — namely, to within 
 a few years of his death. He left another 
 small history, and some letters, &c. (Von 
 Hammer.) 
 
 AALST. See Aelst. 
 
 AALST, (N.Van, 1550—1600,) aprint- 
 seller and engi-aver of Rome, but of very 
 little merit. Some attribute the prints 
 marked N. V. A. to him, but this is 
 doubtful. (Strutt's Diet.) 
 
 AARE, (Dirk Vander, d. 1212,) abishop 
 and lord of Utrecht in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. He appears to have been one of 
 those martial churchmen who were bettet 
 qualified for the camp than the choir. He 
 was constantly embroiled with William, 
 B , 
 
A AR 
 
 AAR 
 
 count of Holland, and each in turn was 
 the prisoner of the other. He joined 
 the count of Looz, the son-in-law of Wil- 
 liam, in an attempt to dispossess him, but 
 without success ; for they were driven to 
 take refuge under the walls of Utrecht. 
 He contrived, however, to take Dor- 
 drecht, and burn and jiillage it; but in 
 the end he was obliged to give up his 
 schemes. He died at Dewenter, after 
 governing Utrecht for 14 years. 
 
 AARON, (the Levite,) a Spanish 
 Rabbi of the thirteenth centmy ; author 
 of the work Sepher Hachinok, or Cate- 
 chism, published at Venice, 1523, (Wolf) 
 
 AARON, (the Levite, Ben Joseph,) 
 author of the Bedek Habaith, or, The 
 Division of the House. Yen. 1608. (Wolf) 
 
 AARON, (Margalitha,) a Polish Jew, 
 who was converted to Christianity at 
 Ley den ; and after living in Berlin, at 
 Halle, &c., he took orders in the Lutheran 
 Church at Hamburg, in the year 1712. 
 
 His publications are, — Minchath 
 Aaron, The Offering of Aaron ; a trea- 
 tise on the Passion of Chi'ist, according 
 to Isaiah liii. In Latin. Frankfort, 1706. 
 He also reprinted the Perush Ham- 
 masorah ; or, The Explanation of the 
 Masorah. Halle, 1711 ; Berlin, 1706, 
 When Wolf's Bibl. Hebr. was pub- 
 lished, (1715,) he mentions that this 
 author was engaged in a Latin transla- 
 tion of the Juchasin, and other works, 
 which wovild be extremely useful to 
 Christian Hebraists. The -wi-iter of this 
 article does not know whether they were 
 ever published. 
 
 AARON, (Saint,) is said to have been 
 the founder of the first monastery in 
 Bretagne. He lived in the sixth century, 
 and was distinguished, as all saints should 
 be, for the christian virtues. His coad- 
 jutor in the task of converting the Pagan 
 natives was St. Malo ; and great success 
 is said to have attended his preaching. 
 Surrounded by many converts, who lived 
 near him in oi"der to benefit by his in- 
 structions, he was induced to build a 
 monastery, which he governed till his 
 death in 580. This saint must not be con- 
 founded with another of the same name, 
 who suflTered martyrdom during the per- 
 secution of Dioclesian. 
 
 AARON, (of Alexandria,) a priest 
 and physician of the seventh century, 
 ought to be remembered as one of the 
 instructors of the Arabs in medicine. He 
 wrote in Syriac, which, being cognate with 
 the Arabic, first led the Mohammedans 
 to study the Greek writers, of whom he 
 is merely the abridger. 
 
 AARON, or HAROUN, (765—809,) 
 surnamed Al-Rashid, or the Just, the fifth 
 khalif of the Abassides, was the most 
 famous monarch of his dynasty. As he 
 was a younger son of the khalif Mahdy, 
 he had long no expectation of the supreme 
 power. So splendid, however, were the 
 victories which he obtained over the 
 Greeks — the empress Irene being made 
 ti-ibutary to the khalifs — that his father 
 designated him, and took care that he 
 should be recognised, the successor of 
 Hady, his elder brother, in the imperial 
 dignity. On the death of the father, in 
 785, Hady was absent on a military ex- 
 pedition, and it would not have been 
 difficult for Haroun, who was so much 
 beloved by the army, to supplant him. 
 But he eagerly caused that brother to be 
 pi'oclaimed, and, as his deputy, received 
 for him the homage of the chiefs. For 
 this generosity, however, he was ill re- 
 compensed by the new khalif, who re- 
 garded him with envy and dislike, both 
 for his merits and for his popularity. One 
 day, as both princes were walking on the 
 banks of the Tigi'is, Hady demanded a 
 magnificent diamond ring which Haroun 
 had received from his dying father, and 
 which at that moment adorned his finger. 
 Probably it was inalienable from the 
 throne ; and we do not see why the khalif 
 should be censured for demanding its 
 restoration. But Haroun, drawing it 
 from his finger, threw it into the Tigris, 
 to prevent his brother from forcibly seiz- 
 ing it. From this moment one of the 
 brothers must evidently become the vic- 
 tim. The impulse of Hady was, first, to 
 set aside Harovm from the succession ; 
 and when he foimd great resistance from 
 his minister, Yaliia the Barmecide, he 
 ordered both to be executed. Before his 
 mandate could be obeyed he died, sud- 
 denly enough to warrant the suspicion of 
 secret violence ; and Harovm became the 
 lawful successor of the prophet, (a.d. 
 786.) For this important service, Yahia 
 became the second person in the empire. 
 His talents, and those of his sons, contri- 
 buted not a little to the glory of the 
 khalif. 
 
 When Haroun ascended the throne of 
 the prophet, his dominions were more 
 extensive than they had yet been. They 
 extended "from India to Ethiopia," and 
 over as many provinces as were ever 
 ruled by Ahasuerus. But they were 
 not, for this reason, the more powerful. 
 On the east were the restless tribes of 
 India and Tartary ; on the west the 
 hostile Greeks ; ani, worse than all, 
 
A All 
 
 A AR 
 
 the heart of the empire was assailed 
 by the religionists of All (See the 
 word.) The Greeks, his old antagonists, 
 the khalif again opposed, while his lieu- 
 tenants marched against the other ene- 
 mies of Bagdat. The successor of Irene 
 was the feeble Nicephorus, who had the 
 temerity to demand from the pi-ince of 
 the true believer's the restoration of the 
 tribute which the empress had paid. The 
 khalif replied that he would bear his own 
 answer ; and with a great armament he 
 proceeded to Herodia, which he took and 
 destroyed. Nicephorus was glad to pur- 
 chase tranquillity by new tributes ; but 
 though a feeble monarch, he had a proper 
 sense of the imperial dignity, and when 
 the Mussulman retired he refused the 
 token of vassalage. To chastise him, 
 Haroun took the field at the head of 
 155,000 men. The two armies met on 
 the plains of Phiygia ; victory declared 
 for the crescent, and Nicephorus was 
 compelled to pay the tribute. In a short 
 time he refused it again, and the khalif 
 was still triumphant. In the conduct of 
 the latter on this as on some other occa- 
 sions, there was much of what we should 
 expect from the character given of him 
 in that extraordinary work, The Arabian 
 Nights' Entertainments. There was 
 much precipitation — much of impulse — 
 something of generosity and of humour. 
 To humble Nicephorus more deeply, he 
 was compelled to pay only three pieces of 
 gold for his own head, and three for that 
 of his son — as much, perhaps, as they 
 were worth. Yet nothing could make 
 the emperor true to his engagements ; 
 and his conduct so exasperated Haroun, 
 that had no other wars intervened, Con- 
 stantinople must have fallen long before it 
 did. — In his internal administration Ha- 
 roun was less fortunate. His designation 
 of his son as his successor, when that son 
 was only five years old, gave much 
 offence to the people, who exclaimed 
 that they could not foresee the capacity 
 of the boy, and that the interests of the 
 empire required a monarch of courage 
 and ability. As his sons grew up to 
 man's estate, he had the imprudence to 
 place them over the vast provinces of his 
 empire. To Amyn, his eldest son, fell 
 Syria and Irac ; the second, Mamoon, 
 who was to succeed Amyn in the empire, 
 was invested with Persia and the eastern 
 provinces ; the third had Armenia and 
 the neighbouring regions. This inju- 
 dicious policy, which placed the fate of 
 so many millions in the hands of inex- 
 perienced and profligate youths, could 
 8 
 
 not be satisfactory to the people, who, 
 though compelled to bend before the all- 
 powerfid khalif, were secretly hostile to 
 his government. Another act of Ha- 
 roun must be condemned — that by which 
 he allured to his capital the famous Yahia, 
 who had been proclaimed imam of the 
 rival sect of Ali, and then put him to 
 death, in violation alike of honour, and 
 justice, and gratitude ; for to that chief 
 he owed his life and throne. 
 
 This monarch died at Thoos, on his 
 passage to chastise the governor of Kho- 
 rasan. His character is well known. To 
 literary men he was agreat benefactor, and 
 he admitted them to his table. He him- 
 self was a good poet; and he was more than 
 tolerably versed in history. Add that he 
 did not persecute the Christians, and we 
 have the most favourable points of his 
 character. But he had many vices : his 
 word was not always to be credited ; he 
 knew how to dissimidate ; he could be un- 
 generous, unjust, and frequently cruel. 
 The fame of Charlemagne drew him 
 into communication with that monarch ; 
 and the presents which he sent to him, 
 have often been mentioned in history. 
 ( D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale ; 
 Gibbon's Decline and Fall.) 
 
 AARON, (Ben Chaim, d. about 1610,) 
 a rabbi of Fez, who was regarded as the 
 most learned of the African Jews in his 
 day ; and his commentaries are much 
 esteemed by the Jews. He went to 
 Venice in order to print his works, but 
 died leaving them imperfect. They are 
 as follow : — 1. Lev Aaron ; or. The 
 Heart of Aaron ; a commentary on the 
 former prophets. Venice, 1609. (He 
 only printed that on Joshua.) This is a 
 very rare book, from which some ex- 
 tracts were reprinted in the Rabbinical 
 Bible of Amsterdam, 1724. 2. Korban 
 Aaron ; The Ofl'ering of Aaron : a com- 
 mentary on the Siphra, which is itself an 
 ancient commentary on Leviticus. Ven. 
 1609. There are other works of his said 
 to be extant also ; especially some com- 
 mentaries on the Siphri and the Me- 
 chilta.* (De Rossi, Wolf, &c.) 
 
 AARON, (Rabbi Abiob,) author of the 
 Shemen Hammor ; or, Oil of Myn-h : a 
 commentary on Esther. Thessalon. 1601 . 
 AARON, (Ben Elias,) called Acharon 
 ()"nnK'n, the Second, or Later) to dis- 
 tinguish him from the subject of the 
 next article, was a native of Nicomedia, 
 
 * For an account of the Siphra and the Siphri, 
 and the Mechilta, see the late Abbe Chiarini's ela- 
 borate Preface to his French translation of the first 
 section of the Talmud. 
 
 B2 
 
A A 11 
 
 A A R 
 
 ond lived during the fourteentli century. 
 He wrote the following works : — 1. The 
 Gan Eden, called also Scpher Mitzvoth ; 
 or, The Garden of Eden ; or, Book of Pre- 
 cepts. 2. The Keter Torah ; or. The 
 Crown of the Law. 3. The Etz Chaiim ; 
 or. Tree of Life. 4. The Notzer Amonim ; 
 or, Keeper of the Faith. A work on the 
 Ceremonial of the Jewish Slaughter-house, 
 is also ascrihed to him, as well as a com- 
 mentary on Isaiah, which latter was 
 Avritten by Aaron Ariscon. (Wolf. Bib- 
 lioth. Hebreea, vol. i. p. 114. De Rossi 
 Dizionario Storico degli Autori Ebrei. 
 The latter eniunerates the libraries in 
 which these MSS. works are preserved.) 
 
 AARON, (Ben Joseph,) Ariscon, {i.e. 
 ]WHin, the First,) a learned Karaite 
 Jew of the thirteenth centmy, who lived 
 at Constantinople. He was a physician 
 as well as a theologian. The following 
 works of his are still extant ; and extracts, 
 or parts of them, have been published 
 with a Latin version: — 1. Machbar : a 
 commentary on the Pentateuch (called 
 The Selection ; or. The Select:) parts of 
 which have been published by J. L. Frey 
 and Morinus, with a Latin version. This 
 work is highly esteemed ; and, according 
 to De Rossi, deserves praise : he calls it 
 acciu-ate, grammatical, &c. but some- 
 times obscure and allegorical. 2. Kelil 
 Jophi ; or. Perfect in Beauty : a gram- 
 matical work of extreme rarity, printed 
 at Constantinople in 1581. 3. Com- 
 mentary on the Former Prophets, i. e. 
 Joshua, &c. (Some extracts are printed 
 in Wolf. Bibl. Hebr. vol. iv. p. 1096.) 
 4. Seder Tephilloth; The Order of Prayer : 
 a Karaite ritual printed at Venice, 1528-9, 
 which the Karaites attempted to reprint 
 there in 1713, but did not succeed. 5 8z 6. 
 Commentaries on Job, Isaiah, and the 
 Psalms. (De Rossi, Wolf.) 
 
 AARON, (Ben Aser,) a celebrated 
 Jewish philologer and doctor, is well 
 known to biblical students from his 
 correction of the Hebrew MSS. of the 
 Old Testament. While he collected the 
 different readings furnished by the MSS. 
 of the west, his colleague, Ben Naphthali, 
 collected those of the east : hence the 
 authority of the former in Europe, of the 
 latter in Asia. They are said by some 
 writers to have been the first to intro- 
 duce the vowel points, with the view of 
 defining the meaning of words. If this 
 were true, they would still deserve our 
 gratitude, for assisting us to imderstand 
 what must previously have been unin- 
 telligible. But these points are of much 
 greater antiquity, and were probably 
 4 
 
 introduced soon after the Babylonish 
 captivity. — Such is the account com- 
 monly given, but every part of it has 
 been the subject of much dispute. For 
 a reference to the principal authors who 
 have written upon it, see Wolf. Bibl. Heb. 
 vol. i. p. 126, et seq. The books written 
 by Rabbi A. Ben Aser, are, 1. The Shaar 
 Hanneginoth ; or. Introduction to the 
 Accents printed at the head of Rab- 
 binical Bibles. 2. Dikdok ; or, Grammar. 
 
 AARON, (Berachia), author of a 
 rabbinical treatise on morality, called 
 Maabar Jabbok ; The Ford of Jabbok, 
 published at Mantua, 1626. 
 
 AARON, (Ben Sasson,) a rabbi, au- 
 thor of — 1. Torath Ameth; The Law of 
 Truth. Venice, 1626. 2. Shephath 
 Ameth ; The Lip of Truth. Amsterd. 
 1706. 
 
 AARON, (Isaac,) a Jew of the Greek 
 empire, travelled much in the twelfth 
 century, and was in the service of his 
 imperial master, Manuel Comnenus. But 
 he was a knave, who betrayed that mas- 
 ter, and suffered for it. 
 
 AARON, (Pietro,) a Florentine monk 
 of the sixteenth centmy, wrote two or 
 three odd works on music. One was 
 called II Toscanello della Musica. Libri 
 Tre. Ven. 1523, &c. 
 
 AARSCOT, (the Duke of,) a'nobleman 
 of Brabant, much attached to the inte- 
 rests of Philip II. and of the holy see, 
 and subsequently an enemy of the house 
 of Orange. After the triumph of that 
 house, he retired to Venice, where he 
 died in 1595. 
 
 AARSENS, (Cornelius Van, 1543— 
 1625,) a statesman of Brabant, of no 
 great ability or worth. 
 
 Fra7icis Van Aarsens, son of the pre- 
 ceding, (1572—1641), of as little inte- 
 grity as his father. The creature of the 
 house of Orange, he cared little for the 
 liberties of his country. He loved money 
 and power ; the former he took care to 
 preserve ; of the latter he was often de- 
 prived. In 1609 he received the title of 
 Ambassador at the court of Henry IV. of 
 France, where he had previously resided 
 since 1598. He was the first person 
 from the United States to whom this title 
 was accorded. After the death of Henry, 
 he appears to have joined in intrigues 
 against the queen-mother, and Avas re- 
 called in disgrace in 1615. He declared 
 against Barnevelt, and becoming the 
 creatin-e of Mam-ice of Nassau, he at- 
 tacked the grand pensionary by all the 
 means in his power. After the murder 
 of Barnevelt, Maurice was supreme, and 
 
A AR 
 
 ABA 
 
 Aarsens was sent as ambassador to Ve- 
 nice in 1(519, and subsequently on other 
 diplomatic missions. In 1640, he was 
 employed in England to negotiate a 
 marriage between William, son of the 
 Prince of Orange, and the daughter of 
 Charles I. About a year after he died, 
 at the age of 69. 
 
 Four other persons of this name and 
 family may be found in the Dutch an- 
 nals. One was the governor of Surinam, 
 who in 1688 was nuirdercd by his sol- 
 diers. Another wrote his travels in 
 Spain. 
 
 AARTGENS, (1498—1564,) a Dutch 
 painter of some reputation, who did not 
 prosper in the world because of his dis- 
 sipation. 
 
 AARTSBERGEN, (Capellen, d. 1656,) 
 a Dutch gentleman, who wrote much in 
 favour of the house of Orange. 
 
 AARTSEN, (Peter, 1507—1575,) a 
 painter of Amsterdam. He studied for 
 some time at Antwerp. . He was famous 
 for the description of vulgar objects, and 
 the exquisite finish of his paintings. 
 
 AASSIM, the name of two celebrated 
 Turkish writers. 
 
 1. Aassivi, the son of Abdurahman 
 EfTendi, continued the Turkish Antholog}'^ 
 (Subdetol-Esshaar) of the famous Kiif- 
 sade, (who died 1621,) till his death, 
 1675. 
 
 2. Aass'un, (Ismael Effendi, the 
 mufti,) the son of Reis Effendi Kutshuk 
 Tschelebi, began his career under Mufti 
 Abusade Abdidla Eifendi, and made his 
 fortune by becoming son-in-law to Mufti 
 Ismael. He was judge in Constantinople 
 and elsewhere, and then had a military 
 judicial office in Roumelia and Anatolia, 
 and in 1758 became a mufti. He left 
 more than a thousand books in his 
 library, a divan, (i. e. a collection of 
 poems,) and a history. Both his poetry 
 and prose have been most highly praised. 
 (Von Hammer in Ersch and Grueber's 
 Encyclopjidie.) 
 
 ABA, or OWON, king of Hungary, 
 who married the sister of St. Stephen, 
 the first christian monarch of that coun- 
 try, ascended the throne in 1041. His 
 vices were many, and his reign short. 
 By Henry III., emperor of Gennany, he 
 was defeated and expelled, and by his 
 rival, Peter, he was beheaded. 
 
 ABACCO, (Antonio, called also La 
 Bacco, fl. 1558,) a disciple of San Gallo, 
 an architect and engi-aver. He published 
 engravings of Roman antiquities under 
 the following title : Libro dAntonio 
 Abacco, apartenenfe all' Architettura, 
 5 
 
 nel quale si figurano alcune nobili anti- 
 chita di Roma. He engraved plans for 
 St. Peter's at Rome, from San Gallo's 
 designs. (Strutt's Diet.) 
 
 ABAD I. (Mohammed ben Ismail 
 Abui Cassim ben, d. 1041.) He was 
 at first the wali or governor of Se- 
 ville, which ever since the arrival of 
 Musa, the conqueror of Spain, had been 
 in Moorish hands. In no country has 
 the Mohammedan government been 
 permanent ; it had long been changeable 
 in the south of Spain ; the feeble and 
 vicious princes of the house of Omeya 
 were no longer dreaded ; and Abad was 
 one of the first to procure, from the 
 people of Seville, the regal title. To 
 punish him, Yahia, the usui-ping king of 
 Cordova, which from the time of the first 
 Abdclrahman had been the acknow- 
 ledged seat of the Mohammedan empire 
 in Spain, marched into Andalusia ; but 
 he drew that usvn-pcr into an ambuscade 
 in the vicinity of Ronda, where the in- 
 vader fell. He was preparing to subdue 
 Cordova when death surprised him, a. ii. 
 433, (a. D. 1041.*) He was succeeded 
 by his son, 
 
 ABAD II., (Mohammed Almoateded,) 
 who eclipsed his father in reputation. 
 Huelva, Niebla and Gibraltar were first 
 added to his hereditary state of Seville. 
 His next object was to gain Cordova, 
 which had always been the seat of the 
 Mohammedan empire in Spain ; and he 
 efi'ected it by treachery. Lord of a con- 
 siderable portion of southern Spain, 
 there can be no doubt that he aimed at 
 the subjugation of the whole, but he was 
 too fond of pleasure to have time for the 
 execution of his magnificent designs. 
 For some time after his accession, he 
 was satisfied with seventy ladies ; but 
 eight hundred were now enclosed in his 
 harem. The faithful were scandalized at 
 a prodigality which rivalled that of the 
 greatest sovereigns of the east ; and they 
 were still more offended when they saw 
 that while sumptuous palaces arose in 
 every to^vn, one mosque only was built 
 by this splendid ruler. — He was a poet 
 and a man of letters, and was almost 
 imiformly successfid in his wars. Grief 
 for the death of a beloved daughter 
 brought him to the tomb a. h. 461, 
 (a. D. 1068.) 
 
 * This and the following lives have hitherto heen 
 treated very erroneously in the common sources of 
 information. Fortunately, Casiri and C'onde, and 
 critics still more recent, have enabled us to torrert 
 them. Kings are mentioned who never reigned, 
 and legends, which criticism has long esplodea, 
 are substituted for history. 
 
ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 ABAD III., (MoliammedAlmostadir,) 
 son of the above, was destined to a pain- 
 ful immortality among the Arabian kings 
 of Spain. From the first, his fortunes 
 were diversified. By Aben Dylnun, 
 king of Toledo, he was defeated, and 
 his two great cities, Seville and Cor- 
 dova, taken ; bvit he recovered from 
 this check with amazing rapidity, and 
 became more powerful than he had 
 ever been. That he might have no 
 interruption to his meditated conquests, 
 he entered into an alliance with Alfonso 
 VI. king of Leon and Castile, whose 
 progresshe engaged not to resist. While 
 he was redvicing the strong towns of 
 Murcia and Grenada, Alfonso reduced 
 Toledo, one of the great bulwarks of the 
 Moslem power in Spain. As the chris- 
 tian monarch had already converted the 
 Moorish kings of Badajoz and Sarragossa 
 into tributaries, and was reducing all 
 the fortified places on both sides of the 
 Tagus, Mohammed became alarmed 
 for his own dominions. And Avell he 
 might ; for the christian monarch was 
 intent on the subjugation of all Anda- 
 lusia. To avert this calamity, he met 
 the kings of Almeria, Grenada and 
 Badajoz, and with them consulted on the 
 steps most advisable for the common 
 defence. In an evil hour, it was resolved 
 to invoke the aid of Yussef ben Taxfin, 
 (see the word,) the celebrated African 
 conqueror, and founder of the great 
 dynasty of the Almoravides. Yussef 
 obeyed the call, and on the plains of 
 Zalacoa signally defeated Alfonso. But 
 this advantage availed little for Mo- 
 hammed : he found in Yussef a perfi- 
 dious tyrant instead of a generous ally. 
 Against that emperor he armed ; and 
 though he obtained a large christian 
 force from Alfonso, who equally dreaded 
 the power of the African, he was defeated 
 and compelled to renoimce his kingdom. 
 Nay, he was laden with fetters, and with 
 his family cast into prison, until a ship 
 was provided to carry him into Africa. 
 Tliis reverse of fortune he bore with 
 noble fortitude : surrounded by the best 
 beloved of his wives, by his daughters, 
 and his four surviving sons, he expatiated 
 on the inconstancy of fortune, or rather 
 on the resistless decrees of fate : " My 
 children and friends, let us support owx 
 lot with resignation. In this state of 
 being oin* enjoyments are but lent us, to 
 be resumed when Heaven sees fit. Joy 
 and sorrow, pleasure and pain, closely 
 follow each other ; but the noble heart 
 is above the inconstancy of fortune!" 
 6 
 
 He practised the hard lesson which he 
 taught. When the ship was ready, he 
 embarked and landed at Ceuta, and was 
 conveyed to the fortress of Agmat. On 
 the way, a compassionate poet presented 
 him with a copy of verses, and he re- 
 warded the man with thirty-six pieces of 
 gold, — the only money he had left from 
 his once vast resoinxes. He could not 
 foresee that he shoidd soon be left without 
 support ; that his life was to be passed 
 in extreme indigence ; that his royal 
 daughters would be compelled to labour 
 for his support and their own. After his 
 exile in a. h. 484, (a. d. 1091,) he lived 
 about five years. He was a celebrated 
 poet, and a mild prudent ruler ; but his 
 policy Avas, like that of all Mohammedan 
 princes, tortuous. 
 
 The three preceding articles are from 
 Casiri, Conde, D'Herbelot, and Dunham. 
 
 ABAFFI, (Michael, d. 1690,) voivod 
 of Transylvania, was raised to that dig- 
 nity by the Tm-ks in opposition to Ke- 
 meni, who was patronized by the house 
 of Austria. There were consequently 
 two princes at the same time who, 
 regardless of the public ruin, governed 
 different parts of the same state. At 
 length Kemeni falling in a battle against 
 the Turks, Abaffi became the sole king. 
 At the peace of Temeswar, in 1664, he 
 was compelled to acknowledge two mas- 
 ters, Austria and the Porte, and pay 
 tribute to both. But he was more im- 
 mediately the vassal of the latter ; and 
 in 1681 he did not hesitate to declare 
 war against the former. As he was a 
 rebel himself, he had a natural love for 
 rebellion ; and the insurgents of Hun- 
 gary were sm-e of his favoiu*. But he 
 was conquered by the Austrians, and 
 forced to accept such conditions as were 
 imposed by the imperial general. 
 
 A son of the preceding, with the 
 same name, (1677 — 1713) reigned a 
 short time only. He was summoned to 
 Vienna, Avhere he lived in peace as a 
 noble to the time of his death. From 
 tliis time Transylvania became a pro- 
 vince of Austria. 
 
 ABAILARD, or ABELARD, (Peter, 
 1079 — 1 142.) This celebrated man, cele- 
 brated alike for the incidents of his life 
 and for his talents, was a native of Palais 
 near Nantes, of which his father was the 
 most considerable inhabitant. Addicted 
 to letters from his infancy, and endowed 
 with a remai-kable capacity, it was easy 
 to anticipate his future eminence. That 
 he might surrender himself with the 
 more freedom to his ruling pui-suits, he 
 
ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 abandoned to liis younger brothers his 
 birthright, and the claims which it gave 
 him on the domains of his house. The 
 most abstmse subjects of philosophy 
 and theology, were to him, we are 
 told, rather a relaxation than a study. 
 Of his commandins: srenius no doubt can 
 be entertained, but whether it was asso- 
 ciated with equal diligence, whether his 
 acquirements were at any period com- 
 mensm-ate with the extraordinary advan- 
 tages he possessed, may well be disputed. 
 That association indeed is of extremely 
 rare occurrence, and perhaps wisely so ; 
 for though luu-nan wisdom, in its highest 
 degree, is small, and though when con- 
 nected with religion its tendency is to- 
 wards humility, the homage which it 
 exacts, and which it is sure to receive 
 from mankind, is pernicious to the heart. 
 Having learned all that Brittany coidd 
 teach him, and having already studied 
 under the celebrated Roscelin, Abelard 
 entered the university of Paris, which 
 was then by far the most celebrated seat 
 of learning in Europe, and was fi-equented 
 by students from all parts. Among the 
 professors, was William de Champeaux, 
 then archdeacon of Paris, subsequently 
 bishop of Clialons - sur - Marne, and 
 lastly a Cistercian monk. William was 
 the most celebrated logician of the 
 period, and was tolerably versed in the 
 scholastic philosophy. He was the tutor 
 of Abelard, who profited by his instruc- 
 tions well enough to dispute with him. 
 Where mere subtlety is concerned, the 
 sharpest minds will triumph over the 
 deepest ; and dialectics, which require the 
 more brilliant qualities, were the engross- 
 ing pursuit of Abelard. They were sure 
 to engender much self-sufficiency ; and as 
 he was always a vain man, he took much 
 delight, in the public theses, in humbling 
 his master. This conduct procm-ed him 
 the cordial hatred of De Champeaux, 
 which Abelard returned by increased 
 petulancy. Tliis was presumptuous ; 
 it was felt to be so by the fellow-stu- 
 dents of Abelard, who took part with 
 their professor ; and at 22, apprehensive 
 of some unpleasant consequences, he 
 hastily quitted Paris. But his reputation 
 was rising, and when it Avas heard that 
 he had settled at Melun, many students 
 left the schools of the university to join 
 him. This circumstance naturally made 
 the whole university hostile to him ; and 
 such was the persecution he endured, that 
 he speedily removed to Corbeil, where, 
 however, though he was equally admired, 
 he was equally persecuted. The zeal 
 7 
 
 with which his theses were assailed, 
 made him more studious than he had yet 
 been ; and as he was extreme in every 
 thing, he injured his health by his appli- 
 cation to such a degree, that he Vv'as en- 
 joined to suspend his labours, and revisit 
 for a time his native place. At the end 
 of two years, he returned to Paris, became 
 reconciled to the master whom he had 
 insulted, opened a school of rhetoric, and 
 had soon all the students of the city. 
 To this facidty he joined philosophy 
 and theology, for which he had fewer 
 qualifications ; yet Iris eloquence, his ima- 
 gination, his logical acuteness, were such, 
 that he was no less celebrated in them 
 than in the other facrdty. His favourite 
 theses were connected with metaphysics, 
 logic and divinity. His reputation 
 was great; no less than three thousand 
 students are said to have frequented 
 his school, and among these were some 
 who became the most distinguished men 
 of that or any other age. Guy du 
 Chatel, afterwards Celestin II. ; Peter 
 Lombard, afterwards bishop of Paris ; 
 Godfrey of Auxerre, Berenger of Poic- 
 tiers, and St. Bernard himself, were 
 among his admirers and his hearers. 
 One reason of his fame, and that perhaps 
 a greater than any Ave have yet noticed, 
 was his eloquence as a speaker and a 
 writer. His style had little of the pe- 
 dantry Avliich disgraced that of others, 
 and was the vice of the age ; his taste 
 was, in comparison, extremely coiTect ; 
 he had none of the pedantic airs which 
 professors of that age assumed ; he was 
 a man of the world, and these accom- 
 plishments procured him more celebrity 
 than if he had possessed the most exten- 
 sive erudition. 
 
 These qualities, this popidarity, be- 
 came the ruin of Abelard ; his company 
 Avas sought by the ladies, and he Avas no 
 less attached to them. But these Avere 
 fugitive attachments, and Avere soon to 
 be absorbed in one that shoidd engross 
 his very natiue. Among his admirers 
 Avas a young lady, Louisa, or Eloisa, 
 niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris, Avho 
 had the charge of her education. She 
 Avas then seventeen, and her acquire- 
 ments equalled her beauty ; avcU read 
 and brilliant, a genius and a scholar, 
 she Avas, for a lady, rather a prodigy ; 
 and Abelard, under the pretext of di- 
 recting talents so extraordinary, obtained 
 an introduction into Fulbert's house, and 
 commenced his lessons. As he Avas ar- 
 rived at the matiu-e age of 39, Avhen the 
 passions are usually subject to reason, 
 
ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 no appveliension of danger was enter- 
 tained ; yet he was sui-prised, if we may 
 judge from his own expression, at the 
 facility of Fulbert. Neitlier science nor 
 literatm-e was long the subject of conver- 
 sation. Eloisa was young and enthusiastic, 
 she was extremely susceptible ; and over 
 such a mind, such a constitution, the 
 affections of the heart soon acquired an 
 empire which nothing could resist. It 
 is unnecessary, it would be idle at least, 
 if it were not mischievous, to trace the 
 course by which he made the pretence of 
 instruction the means of corruption, and 
 the veil of infamy. It was not enough that 
 his accomplishments, (as she herself ac- 
 knowledges,) made such a strong impres- 
 sion upon her ; he corrupted her principles 
 also. He taught, and she believed, that 
 marriage was a vain formality, that love 
 was an impulse which all creatures ought 
 to follow, that it was the holiest no less 
 than the sweetest of all ties. The cor- 
 ruption of her mind led the way to actual 
 guilt. Their sin and shame was known to 
 every body before it was even suspected 
 hy the blind Fulbert ; when he did hear 
 of it he separated them, but this step 
 was too late; and Abelard now bore 
 Eloisa secretly away into Brittany, where 
 she brought forth a son, whom he called 
 Astralabius, and who soon died. To make 
 all the reparation now in his power, 
 Abelard, whose conscience was some- 
 times better than his teaching, proposed 
 to marry her, and Fulbert, as might be 
 expected, readily accepted the offer. Not 
 so Eloisa, who affirmed that she would 
 rather be his mistress than his wife. To 
 what a dangerous precipice was she 
 driven ! Pi-obably her chief repugnance 
 toamaiTiagearose from the well-grounded 
 apprehension that it would be fatal to 
 the ecclesiastical preferment of the man 
 whom she so passionately loved. But 
 Fulbert insisted, and she at length con- 
 sented to a secret marriage. As before, 
 the lessons were resumed, but scandal 
 was busily at work ; and the character of 
 the lady suffered so much, that Ful- 
 bert, anxious for the honour of his house, 
 divulged the union. It would scarcely be 
 credited were not the fact so well known, 
 that she denied — even by oath — the re- 
 ality of the union. Indignant at her con- 
 duct, her uncle began to ill-use her. 
 Abelard removed her from his house, and 
 placed her for a while in the convent of 
 Argcnteuil : his object, no doubt, was 
 to claim her at his convenience. The 
 vengeance of Fulbert need not be re- 
 peated here ; it effectually separated the 
 
 two, but it deservedly brouglit on the 
 head of the contriver the vengeance of the 
 church and the law ; he was deprived of 
 his benefices, and exiled, while two of his 
 instruments suffered the same penalty 
 which they had inflicted. But these 
 pimishments could not benefit Abelai-d, 
 who renounced the world, and concealed 
 alike his shame and his grief in the abbey 
 of St. Denis. At his instigation — indeed 
 at his express command — Eloisa also em- 
 braced the religious life in the convent 
 of Argenteuil. Over her the empire of 
 the passions was supreme ; and it is likely, 
 that had she retm'ned to the world, a 
 second husband, or at least a second 
 lover, would soon have consoled her 
 for the first. 
 
 After time had in some degree allayed 
 the anguish of Abelard, he reappeared 
 as a professor, and was speedily attended 
 by many pupils. But he was now to sus- 
 tain more fiercely than ever the assaults 
 of persecution. A treatise of his on the 
 Trinity was denounced before a provin- 
 cial council as heretical, and condemned 
 to the flames. The author was compelled 
 to recant, and burn his own production. 
 This was a gi-ievous blow to him ; it 
 went to his very soul ; and when to this 
 feeling is added that which arose from 
 his misfortune, and from the perse- 
 cution of his superiors, we cannot be 
 surprised that St. Denis was no longer 
 tolerable. With the permission of the 
 abbot, Suger, he left that monastery, and 
 retired to the vicinity of Nogent-sur- 
 Seine, where he built an oratory which he 
 dedicated to the Paraclete. But here was 
 no comfort for him ; persecution still as- 
 sailed him ; and though he vindicated him- 
 self from another charge of heresy, he was 
 doomed to experience much bitterness of 
 spirit. Nominated abbot of St. Gildas in 
 Brittany, he invited Eloisa with some 
 other nuns to establish themselves at the 
 Paraclete. She obeyed the call, and he 
 received her on the spot. Here, after a 
 separation of eleven years, the two lovers 
 met, — a most unwise step, since it re- 
 kindled feelings which an everlasting 
 absence would have smothered. Tearing 
 himself away from her, he repaired to 
 the community submitted to his charge, 
 and hoped by attention to his duties to 
 obtain the peace which he had not found 
 in the vicinity of the capital. Here 
 again he was disappointed. Writing to 
 a friend soon after his arrival, he draws 
 a melancholy portrait both of his own 
 feelings and of the men whom he was to 
 govern. " I am living in a barbarous 
 
ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 country, of wliicli the very language is 
 unknown to me. My intercourse is with 
 savages only. I have no walks except 
 on the abrupt shore ; no prospect but the 
 stormy sea. Of my monks I know only 
 that they are debauchees, and that their 
 only rule is to follow none. I wish. Phi- 
 lotas, thou couldst see my house ; never 
 wouldst thou take it for a monastery. 
 The gates are adorned with the members 
 of stags, wolves, boars, or with the' hid- 
 eous owl. Every day brings new pei'ils ; 
 the sword over my head may fall at any 
 moment." The taste which could thus 
 revolt at one of the most interestinsj 
 scenes in Brittany ; which could despise 
 the high shore, the boimdless sea, on the 
 one side, the pathless forests and silver 
 streams on the other, was not much to 
 be envied. Here, if anywhere, philo- 
 sophy and learning and piety might re- 
 pose and be happy. But Abelard sighed 
 for the brilliant society of Paris, no less 
 than for that which his fame had daily 
 brought to his residence. The wilds of 
 Brittany were too remote for literary 
 toui-ists. Of the behavioiu- of the monks 
 he complains no doubt with much justice. 
 It is evident that he had assumed the 
 cowl in an evil hour, without reflection, 
 without preparation, and that he was 
 unfit either to direct others or himself. 
 The report of his amours had reached 
 even these recesses, and the monks had 
 anticipated much pleasure from the rule 
 of a superior who, having himself in- 
 dulged so largely in forbidden enjoy- 
 ments, would naturally be indulgent to 
 the frailties of others. When they per- 
 ceived that he intended to be more rigid 
 than his predecessors, that he would have 
 them to observe their nile, they swore 
 to be revenged. Had he fallen a victim 
 to the poison which they administered to 
 him, he would not liave been the first 
 or last abbot of that century who thus 
 perished. They regarded him as a hypo- 
 crite. His conversation, his letters, had 
 none of the sanctity which he would en- 
 force on others : he was not punctual in 
 attending the ordinances of the church ; 
 he was not edifying in other parts of his 
 conduct. He could not therefore be a 
 monastic reformer. How could he, who 
 was receiving the letters of his mistress, 
 who still sighed her name, who even at 
 the foot of the altar thought more of 
 her than of the Holy Eucharist, hope 
 to have weight with others ? — At this 
 period her letters to him speak of the 
 tranquillity which reigned at Paraclete. 
 There were no murinui's, no plots, 
 
 no avowed dissatisfaction with the mo- 
 nastic life. Yet Eloisa had not wliat the 
 Roman Catholics call a vocation for the 
 state. Her heart was still pervaded by 
 an earthly object ; though the bride of 
 heaven, she dreamt only of earth. Nor 
 did this outward tranquillity always con- 
 tinue. Ere long she found her nuns 
 as refractory as the monks of her 
 lover; that many secret irregularities 
 were practised ; that the cloister had 
 much the appearance of a fasliionable 
 house. Excesses were committed, and 
 they reached the ears of the pope, who 
 caused an investigation to be instituted. 
 It did not much redound to the honour 
 of the ladies, though the abbess herself 
 was exonerated from actual guilt. Her 
 rule had been one of laxity, not of cri- 
 minal indulgence. 
 
 The situation of Abelard in the monas- 
 tery of St. Gildas was hourly becoming 
 more critical. As before, he was accused 
 of heresy, and probably with much jus- 
 tice. Some of his recorded opinions, we 
 know, do not harmonize with the con- 
 sentient voice of the christian world. 
 He delighted in paradox ; he was fond of 
 startling propositions ; when he broached 
 one, he seldom thought of the ramifica- 
 tions which might divei-ge from it. Like 
 Arnold of Brescia, he frequently trod on 
 dangerous ground, and defended error 
 with the same zeal as truth. So long as 
 the charge of heresy was confined to his 
 own monks, or to obscure ecclesiastics, 
 Abelard had nothing to fear ; but when 
 St. Bernard, the most influential church- 
 man of the age, joined in the condem- 
 nation, and denounced several of his 
 propositions before the council of Sens 
 (1140), he miglit look for difficulties. 
 At first the abbot of Clairvaux declined 
 tlie unenviable office of public accuser ; 
 but his conscience was interested in the 
 charge, and he at length pursued it with 
 tlie vehemence natural to his character. 
 His warmth, indeed, betrayed him, in 
 some of his letters, into language of 
 strong invective, of which writers of later 
 days find it more easy to quote a speci- 
 men or two, than to analyse so profound 
 a treatise as the answer of St. Bernard 
 to Abelard. A few words of abuse are 
 accordingly usually introduced into all 
 modern biographies of Abelard, which 
 there is no need to quote here, and the 
 reader is referred instead to the original 
 treatise. That treatise, with the objec- 
 tionable propositions, drawn from Abe- 
 lard's theology, may be found in the 
 works of Bernard, and will repay an 
 
ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 attei.tive perusal, even in these days ; 
 for the subtle and sophistical reasonings 
 which perplexed and misled Abelard, 
 have often been revived with some 
 modifications. But this by the way ; 
 the argument and the invective of Ber- 
 nard were of weight sufficient to crush 
 his opponent. Who could withstand such 
 an attack, when proceeding from the 
 great abbot of Clairvaux, the adviser of 
 kings, the censurer of popes, the idol of 
 Europe ? Abelard was condemned, and 
 ordered to be closely confined. He did 
 not, however, immediately submit : he 
 published something like a vindication 
 of his opinions, appealed to the superior 
 authority of the pope, and set out for 
 Rome. In his way he called at the great 
 monastery of Clugni, then governed by 
 Peter the Venerable, and well for him 
 that he did so. That celebrated chm-cli- 
 man had no less zeal than St. Bernard, 
 with more judgment, and more mode- 
 ration. He pitied the poor abbot, and 
 undertook the threefold task of recon- 
 ciling him with the church, with his 
 enemies, with his own conscience. In 
 all he succeeded. Abelard recanted his 
 errors and was absolved. He was per- 
 suaded to an interview with St. Bernard, 
 who had enough of the christian spirit 
 to meet him with pity, with respect, with 
 affection. Indeed, from that moment 
 the two abbots became friends. From 
 that moment also Abelard became a 
 model of the monastic virtues. Not only 
 did he condemn his errors, and re- 
 ceive Avith humble faith whatever the 
 church required him to believe ; he ex- 
 celled in the ritual observances of the 
 Cistercians, among whom he now pro- 
 fessed as a monk. That he had some- 
 thing better than outward attention to 
 the forms of monkery, is evident from 
 the testimony of one who knew him better 
 than any body else. " Never," writes 
 the abbot Peter, " do I remember to 
 liave witnessed his equal in humility. 
 Though I made him hold the first rank 
 in our numerous brotherhood, he looked 
 by the meanness of his vestments as if 
 he were in the lowest. He refused, not 
 merely the superfluous, but what was ne- 
 cessary : pi-ayer and reading occupied the 
 whole of his time : he never spoke ex- 
 cept when compelled, either in public 
 conferences, or in his sermons." His 
 fasting, his austerities, soon emaciated a 
 frame which had never been strong ; but 
 his greatest enemy was remorse, joined 
 with the memory of his past misfortunes. 
 To remove him from the curiosity of so 
 10 
 
 many fellow monks, he was nominated 
 prior of St. Marcel, one of the filial con- 
 gregations of Clugni, near Chalons-sur- 
 Saone ; but his span of life was at an 
 end, and he died in that cell in 1142, 
 ten years after the condemnation of his 
 doctrines by the council of Sens. 
 
 From the preceding sketch, the cha- 
 racter of Abelard may easily be inferred. 
 Endowed with genius of a high order, 
 and little sobered by the discipline of 
 erudition, he rashly ventui'ed on subjects 
 Avhich wiser and better men woidd have 
 avoided. His attachment to Aristotle, 
 caused hmi to broach the most dangerous 
 theories ; and he maintained theses which 
 no christian church would have tolerated. 
 1. Faith, he asserted, must be governed 
 by the natm-al law ; it is, therefore, not 
 a divine gift. — 2. Jesus Christ did not 
 assume humanity to deliver us from the 
 bondage of Satan, but to draw us luito 
 himself by his instructions, by his ex- 
 ample, by the love which he testified in 
 his great passion. — 3. Many ancient 
 philosophers believed in Christ, whom 
 the Sibylline oracles made known unto 
 them : hence they were Christians. Opi- 
 nions stm more censurable might be 
 adduced, but enough has been said to 
 expose the dangerous tendency of his 
 mind. If his faith was unsound, liis 
 morals were not better, imtU genuine 
 repentance visited him in the monastic 
 shades of Clugni. The truth is, lie was 
 a profligate man. His celebrity rests 
 upon the circumstances of his life, espe- 
 cially on his amour with Eloisa. Every 
 body is acquainted with the licentious 
 poem of Pope, who has done more to 
 invest the subjects with an European in- 
 terest than all preceding writers. Woidd 
 that the celebrated production had never 
 appeared ! — On liis death the bones of 
 Abelard were carried to the abbey of Pa- 
 raclete, and deposited in a tomb which 
 Eloisa had prepared for them. She sur- 
 A'ived him twenty-one years, and her 
 corpse was laid by his. If he had little 
 rest in his lifetime, he had little also after 
 his death ; his bones and those of his wife 
 were frequently removed. In 1800 they 
 were removed to the Museum of French 
 monuments, but have since, we believe, 
 been transferred to the cemetry of Pere- 
 la-Chaise. 
 
 The best life of Abelard is that by 
 Berington, 4to. The best account of his 
 contemporaries is in Fleury, Histoire 
 Ecclesiastique. The best estimate of his 
 writings is by the monks of St. Maur, 
 Histoire Litterahe de la France. From 
 
ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 these three works, and fi-om Europe diu-- 
 ing the Middle Ages, (Lardner's Cyclo- 
 paedia,) the preceding sketch has been 
 drawn. . His works have. often been pub- 
 lished under the following titles : — 1. 
 Peti'i Abrelardi et Heloisae conjugis ejus 
 Opera, nunc jJrimum edita ex MSS. codd. 
 Francisci Amboesii, 4to. Paris, 1616.* It 
 contains his letters and his moral doctrinal 
 pieces, among which are 32 sermons. 
 2. His Hexameron in Genesim, is 
 printed in the third volume of Martene's 
 Anecdota. 3. His Letters have often 
 been reprinted. The most esteemed edi- 
 tion is that of Rawlinson, 8vo. London, 
 1714, and Oxford, 1728. 
 *.^* The above narrative contains an 
 account of the chief circumstances of 
 the life of Abelard. The following sup- 
 plementary matter (from another con- 
 tributor to this work) which is far too 
 valuable to be suppressed, although it 
 only aiTived when the first part was in 
 the press, contains a \'iew of his philo- 
 sophical opinions. 
 
 Abelard has obtained his fame in mo- 
 dern times chiefly from those circum- 
 stances of his life which have the least 
 connexion with his character as a phi- 
 losopher. The distinguished editor of 
 a portion of his works, Victor Cousin, 
 places him by the side of Descartes, as 
 one of the two greatest philosophers that 
 France has j^et pi'oduced ; and when we 
 consider that he was in a manner the 
 founder of the scholastic philosoj^hy of the 
 middle ages, that he was the centre on 
 which turned the whole system as it ex- 
 isted through several centuries, we shall 
 not find much difficulty in allowing him 
 to occupy this elevated position. But, at 
 the same time, in considering the claims 
 of Abelard to such a high reputation, we 
 must always bear in mind tlie circum- 
 stances of the time in which he lived, 
 and the philosophical systems amongst 
 which he was thrown, and under the 
 influence of which he was himself edu- 
 cated. 
 
 The germ of the philosophical disputes 
 which caused so much agitation during 
 the latter part of the eleventh and the 
 first half of the twelfth centuries, had ex- 
 isted during several ages; and the great 
 question on the character of what in the 
 scholastic philosophy were termed uni- 
 versals was frequently entered upon by 
 scholars Avho had not the slightest con- 
 
 * The title-pages of copies of this edition vary 
 considerably. The editor is said, in one of them. 
 to have been Andrew Duchesne (Andreas Qucrce- 
 tanusj. 
 
 11 
 
 ception of the "consequences which were 
 at a later period to be drawn from it. It 
 was in the latter half of the eleventh 
 century, that Roscelin, a native of Brit- 
 tany, boldly entered into the dispute, and 
 advocating the doctrine of those who 
 denied the real existence of the univer- 
 sal, founded the school of the nominal- 
 ists. The temerity of Roscelin knew no 
 bounds ; he entered at once upon the 
 dangerous ground of theology, and ap- 
 plied his method to the consideration of 
 its profoundest dogmas. The system of 
 the Nominalists, in reality, a sort of 
 exaggeration of the philosophy^of Ari- 
 totle, was utterly irreconcileable with 
 the christian doctrines ; and Roscelin 
 hesitated not to attack at once the vital 
 doctrine of the Trinity, which he reduced 
 to three distinct persons, and thus trans- 
 formed Christianity into a simple Trithe- 
 ism. The opinions of Roscelin, and his 
 bold attacks upon the ecclesiastical power, 
 not only drew upon him the secular arm 
 of the chm'ch, but his theological opinions 
 were triumphantly confuted in the writ- 
 ings of St. Anselm. He himself, perse- 
 cuted and contemned, first sought refuge 
 in England, and finally was permitted to 
 live in retirement in his native land. 
 
 The defeat of Roscelin was naturally 
 the triumph of another party. That 
 part}', re^jresented in theology by St. 
 Anselm, was represented in philosophy 
 by William of Champeaux ; and its dis- 
 ciples, who advocated the real existence 
 of the universals, have been distingiished 
 by the name of ReaUsls. The realists sup- 
 ported and v/ere supported by the church; 
 and, in fact, their philosophy was pre- 
 cisely that which was most consonant 
 with its doctrines. It was in many re- 
 spects a new form of platonism. But the 
 realists also had their errors, and by car- 
 rying out their principles to too great an 
 extent they likewise laid themselves open 
 to the attacks of then- enemies, after the 
 latter began to recover the coui'age which 
 they had lost under the misfortimes of 
 then- leader Roscelin. 
 
 It was in the midst of these disputes 
 that Abelard appeared upon the stage. 
 After perusing such of his writings as re- 
 main, no one can doubt that he possessed 
 a most powerful mind ; he confesses him- 
 self that he was entirely ignorant of 
 mathematics, even of arithmetic, and se- 
 veral admissions which he makes lead us 
 to the certainty of his being unacquainted 
 with Greek; but he Avas profoundly 
 skilled in dialectics, and possessed in an 
 eminent degree the power of carrying on 
 
ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 witli effect the kind of disputations wliicli 
 then prevailed. As he himself avows in 
 one of his newly discovered works, Abc- 
 lard had received his first instructions 
 under the famousRoscelin,and tliroughout 
 the whole of his philosophy we perceive 
 a leaning tov/ards nominalism. Like most 
 of the principal men of this school, Abe- 
 lard was distinguished by the name of 
 peripnleticus, from his following the dis- 
 torted doctrines of Aristotle then in vogue, 
 for of Aristotle's own works very little 
 was as yet known. Having imbibed 
 these principles, and already become an 
 able dialectician, Abelard repaired to 
 Paris, and there placed himself under 
 William of Champeaux, the representa- 
 tive of the school of the realists in its ex- 
 treme doctrines. Abelard had probably 
 received Roscelin's instructions in secret, 
 for he was then a proscribed man ; and 
 the champion of the opposite doctrines, 
 exulting in the victory which they had so 
 recently obtained, was not likely to be cau- 
 tious in the form in which he stated his own 
 opinions. Abelard seems to have studied 
 patiently, for a time, the doctrines of his 
 future adversary, although his prejudices 
 were opposed to them ; but he soon began 
 openly to attack the opinions which his 
 master taught, fselecting and confuting 
 the erroneous points of the system 'of 
 the realists ; and in many cases where 
 they had reason on their side he silenced 
 their argimients by sophistical exposi- 
 tions, which, even as he has modified 
 them in his writings, are contrary to 
 all our ideas of common sense. Such 
 Avarfare seems, however, to have been 
 allowable in the scholastic conflicts of 
 the twelfth century. It was thus that 
 Abelard di'ove William de Champeaux 
 into certain concessions, at which we can- 
 not but be surprised ; and his victory 
 naturally brought around him a host of 
 students, who followed the party that 
 seemed to have the advantage. In this 
 manner the various contending systems 
 kept their gi-ound in face of each other. 
 When one gained a temporary advantage 
 by driving the other from some of its 
 weak positions, that otlier, instead of de- 
 fending itself where the attack was made, 
 turned about, and bore down upon the 
 untenable posts of its opponent ; and 
 thus the apparent victory was continually 
 changing from one party to the other. 
 
 Although the prejudices of Abelard were 
 essentially nominalist, yet they were so 
 only in a moderated form ; and he hesitated 
 not to attack publicly the extreme doc- 
 trines of his old master, Roscelin. After 
 12 
 
 demolishing the two systems which had 
 previously existed, he set about forming 
 a new and intermediate system, which 
 was little more than nominalism dis- 
 guised. He taught that the universals 
 were conceptions of the mind, and hence 
 Abelard's sj'stem has been generally 
 distinguished by the title of Concephial- 
 ism. Abelard was shipwrecked on the 
 same rock which had previously proved 
 so fatal to Roscelin, — the application of 
 his system to theology. At an early 
 period in his careei", he had composed 
 a work under the somewhat curious 
 title of Sic et Non, in which he 
 arranged in order the contending opi- 
 nions that could be raised on every 
 question which the theology of the day 
 afforded. This book, which is still pre- 
 served, is spoken of by his con- 
 temporaries with strong expressions of 
 disapprobation ; and yet, when we 
 look at it, we find that it is a simple 
 statement of contrary opinions, without 
 the slightest appearance of favour shown 
 to one opinion more than the other. 
 When, hov/ever, we examine it more 
 closely, we see at once the temerity of 
 Abelard, in thus entering at such a 
 period upon the controversial grounds of 
 the church. ISIany of the questions 
 which it contains were calculated to 
 spread again the seeds of the various 
 heresies from which the church had 
 suffered so much in its eai'lier years ; 
 some of them revived the old contro- 
 versies of Arianism and Sabellianism, 
 others were not imconnected with Nesto- 
 rianism, and others again stiiTed up the 
 cinders of Pelagianism. The application 
 which Abelard made of philosophy to 
 theology was much more extensive than 
 had ever been undertaken by Roscelin, 
 for lie made a complete system of what 
 the other had only brought to bear on 
 certain cases. Roscelin had boldly and 
 openly attacked the vital part of Chris- 
 tianity, the doctrine of the Trinity ; Abe- 
 lard attacked the same doctrine, but he 
 did so by undermining it, and his ap- 
 proaches were the more dangerous, inas- 
 much as they were disguised. Roscelin 
 taught that there were three distinct 
 gods ; Abelard's doctrines tended to 
 prove that there was one God simply, 
 and that the Trinity was a mere co7icep- 
 tion. But Abelard was as triumphantly 
 refuted by St. Bernard, as Roscelin had 
 been by St. Anselm ; and his school, like 
 that of his master, soon disappeared, to 
 be revived, however, fi'om time to time, 
 amid the vicissitudes of the scholastic 
 
ABA 
 
 ABA 
 
 systems, by different persons, sucli as 
 Occam, and at a still more recent period, 
 Hobbes of Malmesbiiry. 
 
 In addition to the works relating to 
 Abelard mentioned above, we must 
 mention the valuable collection of his 
 unedited works published by Victor 
 Cousin, Paris, 4to. 1836. It contains the 
 Sic et Non, the large treatise on Dia- 
 lectics, a fragment of a work on the Uni- 
 versals, and some Glosses on Aristotle 
 and Boethius ; the whole preceded by an 
 excellent introductory essay. The dia- 
 logue, inter Philosophum Judjeimi et 
 Christianum, has been edited by Rhcin- 
 wald, 8vo. Berlin, 1831. Some of Abe- 
 lard's poems were printed recently by 
 Greith, in his Spicilegium Vaticanum ; 
 and his Hortatory Poem addressed to his 
 son Astralabius, will be found in Reliquiae 
 Antiquse, (London, Pickering, 1839.) For 
 more on Abelard's philosophy, see also 
 Johnson's Tenneman, p. 228 ; Brucker, 
 Hist. Philos. iii. 736—764. 
 
 ABAKA-KHAN, eighth emperor of 
 the dynasty of Ghengis, succeeded his 
 father, Holokoo-Khan, a.d. 1265, on the 
 throne of the vast empire of which 
 Hamadan was the ordinary capital. 
 This monarch, pov/erful as he was, was 
 unable to make Egypt and Syria tribu- 
 tary, buthepreserved what his father had 
 subdued, and indeed enlarged the empire 
 by some conquests, of which, however, 
 the possession from so distant a seat of 
 empire, was very precarious. His death, 
 A.D. 1282, is supposed to have been the 
 result of poison. 
 
 ABANCOURT (Charles X. J. F. d') a 
 minister of Louis XVI., who fell under 
 the revolutionary axe in September 1 792. 
 There was also a geographer of this 
 name, whose works are esteemed. And 
 there was a poet and novelist of the 
 name, who has no merit of any kind. 
 ABANO. See Apono. 
 ABANTIDAS, the usm-ping tyrant of 
 Sicyon, (a.c. 267,) was killed by his own 
 creatures, and freedom restored to the 
 state. 
 
 ABARBANEL. See Abrabanel. 
 ABARCA, (Maria de,) a female artist 
 of Spain, about the time of Velasquez. 
 (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ABARCA, (F. V. de la Sala,) a knight 
 of Santiago, who flourished in the seven- 
 teenth century, wrote on the military 
 duties of his order. 
 
 ABARCA, (Juan F.,) addressed to his 
 sovereign,Philip III., a treatise on the qua- 
 lifications necessary for a royal secretary, 
 ABARCA, (Pedro, ) a Jesuit of Arragon, 
 13 
 
 in the seventeenth century. He \vrote — 
 
 1. Several dogmatic treatises on religion. 
 
 2. Los Reyes de Arragon en Annales 
 Historicos. 3. Discurso de los Reyes 
 Primeros de Pamplona. The second of 
 these works may be confidently recom- 
 mended as a valuable contribution to the 
 history of Arragon. 
 
 ABARCA DE BOLEA, (Inigo,) a 
 gentleman of Saragossa, in the sixteenth 
 century. Wrote — 1. On the Pilgrimage 
 of Man. 2. On Mental Prayer. 3. On 
 the Union of the Soul with God. 
 
 ABARCA DE BOLEA, (L.) Mar- 
 quis de los Torres, a noble of Arragon. 
 Is the author of Palestra Austriaca. 
 
 ABARCA DE BOLEA Y PORTU- 
 GAL, (Jeronimo,) a great noble and 
 historian of Arragon, who flourished in 
 the sixteenth century. His work on the 
 kings of AiTagon, which is imperfect, and 
 was never published, is highly praised 
 by Zurita. "There was also an Arragonese 
 poet of this name in the same century. 
 
 ABARIS, a celebrated impostor of 
 Scythia, concerning whose date there is 
 much dispute. He pretended to the power 
 of miracles, and by the Pythagoreans 
 he was in this respect highly esteemed. 
 The later Platonists put his miracles in 
 competition with those of our Saviour, 
 Herodotus (iv. 36.) just mentions the 
 fable of his flying round the world on 
 an arrow. For references to the fabulous 
 legends respecting him, see Wesseling 
 and Valckenaer on that passage, and also 
 Ritterhusius on Porphyrii Vita Pytha- 
 gorae, p. 35, § 29, and JamblichuSj^Jw**?';?. 
 "Those who wish to read the absurdities 
 broached by Toland on this subject, will 
 find them discussed in Rees's Cyclopredia. 
 (See also Bayle ; and Brucker, Hist, 
 Philos. vi. 194.) 
 
 ABASCAL, (Jose Fernando, 1743— 
 1821,) a native of Oviedo, and a general, 
 who served long in the West Indies and 
 South America. As viceroy of Pei-u, 
 from 1804 to 1816, he gave much satis- 
 faction to the mother-country, from the 
 success with which he preserved Peru to 
 Spain, when the rest of the colonies were 
 seized with the mania of independence, 
 that is, of anarchy. In the latter year, 
 however, having to contend with three 
 rebellions at once, he failed, and was re- 
 called by his royal master Fernando VII. 
 
 ABA'TI, a noble Florentine family, 
 celebrated for their riches and power. 
 If Dante is to be trusted, one of them 
 was equally famous for treason, and has 
 been rewarded by a very cold place in 
 hell. See the Inferno, can. 32. He is 
 
ABA 
 
 ABB 
 
 accused by Lombardi, in tbo Notes to 
 Dante, of having betrayed 4000 of liis 
 own party to the Ghibellines at the battle 
 of Mont' Aperti, a.d. 1260; and there is 
 a reference to Gio. VUlani. Stor. lib. iv. 
 c. 76, &c. (Notes to Dante. Padua, 5 
 vols. 8vo. 1822.) — Two small poets of 
 this name, both of the sixteenth century, 
 are also enumerated by the Italian bio- 
 graphers. A more ancient one is men- 
 tioned by Tiraboschi, iv. 358. 
 
 ABATI, (Beldo Angelo,) a physician 
 of the State of Urbino, in the sixteenth 
 century. Wrote on the Natural History 
 of the Viper, and on its use in medicine. 
 
 ABATI, (Antonio,) a poet of Gubbio, 
 of the seventeenth centiu-y, who, though 
 patronized by the great, lived and died 
 poor : his merit, however, was far from 
 great. 
 
 ABATIA, (Bernard,) a physician and 
 astrologer of Thoulouse, in the sixteenth 
 century, well known in his day. 
 
 ABAUNZA, (Pedi-o, d. 1649,) a native 
 of SevUle, and a commentator on the 
 Decretals. 
 
 ABAUZIT, (Firmin, 1679—1767,) a 
 native of Uzes in Languedoc, who tra- 
 velled much, and settled at Geneva. Is 
 one of the many persons whom accident, 
 or luck, or influential connexions, have 
 brought into a notoriety Avhich their own 
 talents would never have obtained. The 
 friend of Basnage, Boyle, Newton, St. 
 Evremond, and Rousseau, could not fail 
 to be known and esteemed. His fame rests 
 on tradition ; he might have great powers 
 of conversation, but he did not write 
 well. It appears that he was, however, a 
 good mathematician ; which was shown, 
 we are told, by his detection of an error in 
 the first edition of Newton's Principia, 
 and his defence of Newton against Castel. 
 But in other respects he seems to have 
 been much overrated, and scarcely de- 
 serves the lengthened notice he commonly 
 receives. His scepticism appears to have 
 made him a favourite with the French 
 pkilosophes. Towards the close of his 
 life, however, he probably believed more. 
 That he had a great store of miscellaneous 
 knowledge, is pi'oved by his tracts ; that 
 he was a quiet amiable man, is equally 
 true ; but lie was no divine, and not 
 much of a philosopher. His miscellaneous 
 pieces are scattered over different publi- 
 cations. In the History of Geneva by 
 Spon there are some Latin dissertations 
 by him ; in Rousseau's Dictionary he 
 wi'ote some Remarks on the Music of the 
 Ancients ; and in the Journal Helvetique 
 for 1743, he explains an ancient votive 
 14 
 
 sli'ield, in a dissertation republished by 
 Montfaucon. 
 
 ABAZA, pacha of Bosnia in the se- 
 venteenth century, who rebelled against 
 Mustafa I. and Moorad IV. The latter 
 had the generosity to pardon him, and 
 even to invest him with the government 
 of Bosnia, which he defended with suc- 
 cess against the Christians of the West. 
 
 ABBACO, (Paolo del,) a Florentine 
 mathematician and poet of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 ABBADIE, (Jacques, 1657—1727,) a 
 native of Beam, is well known to the 
 protestant world as a theologian. At 
 Berlin he was master of the Calvinistic 
 church ; in Ireland he was dean of Kil- 
 laloe ; in London he was preacher at the 
 Savoy chapel. If he was an indifferent 
 preacher, he was in many respects a 
 sound writer. He WTote much ; the best 
 known and the ablest of his works, are 
 his Traite de la Religion Chretienne, 
 and his Ti-aite de la Divinite de Jesus- 
 Christ; which have enjoyed the singidar 
 good fortune of being praised alike by 
 Roman Catholics and Protestants. Bussi- 
 Rabutin, who had but little religion, in a 
 letter to M. de Sevignc, speaks very 
 strongly of the effect which the first of 
 these works had on him. ISIany of his 
 other works are veiy rare, especially one 
 composed by desire of king William III. 
 called Histoire de la Grande Conspiration 
 d'Angleterre, &c. 
 
 ABBAN, (Saint,) son of a Lcinster 
 king in the sixth century, was probably 
 consecrated bishop by St. Patrick. He 
 founded two monasteries, and was instru- 
 mental in the conversion of the pagans. 
 
 ABBAS, the uncle of Mahomet, who 
 was at first hostile to the prophetic cha- 
 racter of his nephew, but being conquered 
 in the second year of the Hejira, he eiu- 
 braced the new religion. Subsequently 
 he was of great service to Mahomet, both 
 in council and war. At the battle of 
 Honain, when the tnie believers were 
 retiring before the enemy, and Mahomet 
 himself was a momentary captive, he 
 turned the fortune of the day, and 
 delivered the chief of the new religion. 
 One hundred years after his death, a 
 great-grandson of his became khalif, and 
 head of the dynasty of the Abbassides, 
 which supplanted that of the Omeyas, or 
 descendants of Omar. (See the name.) 
 
 ABBAS I., the seventh shah of the 
 dynasty of Sofi, in Persia, left a name for 
 ever memorable in the annals of his 
 country. He was a true Mohammedan, 
 Though the thud son of the reigning 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 shah, MahommecT Khoda Bendeh, he 
 soon aspired to the monarchy. Invested 
 with the administration of Khorasan, in 
 1587 he declared himself independent ; 
 and two years afterwards he passed over 
 the corpses of his two elder brothers to 
 the throne of the shahs. At war with 
 the Usbek Tartars, the Turks, or his own 
 governors, he increased in ferocity as he 
 grew in years. On the side of India and 
 Turkey, he made some additions to his 
 empire ; and in his internal administra- 
 tion he exhibited extraordinary vigour. 
 He caused justice to be rigorously ob- 
 served, he improved the legal tribunals, 
 and raised the character of his troops by 
 many salutary regiilations. The success 
 of his arms and of his government, made 
 his name a universal one ; and ambassa- 
 dors visited him from the remotest coun- 
 tries of westei-n Europe no less than from 
 China and Tartary. Among his visitors 
 were the Shirleys of England, who wished 
 to enter his service, and who have given 
 an account of their travels, with proposals 
 from him to other nations. (See the 
 name.) He was the first monarch of 
 his family who established his court at 
 Ispahan. But all his great qualities were 
 sullied by his capricious cnielty. On 
 a mere unfounded suspicion that his son, 
 Sefi Mirza, entertained ambitious de- 
 signs, he ordered a courtier to put him to 
 death, and was promptly obeyed. When 
 remorse for this deed had taken possession 
 of his mind, he was disgusted with the 
 instrument which had perfonned it. 
 "Bring me the head of thy son !" said 
 he one day to tlie courtier : the head 
 was brought and laid at his feet. "Now 
 thou art unhappy as I am, since thou 
 hast no longer a son!" To make some 
 reparation for the rash act, he caused 
 the son of Seii to be recognised as his 
 successor ; and lest his two remaining sons 
 (uncles of the young prince) should here- 
 after rebel as he had done, he caused 
 both to be blinded. Suspecting that ihe 
 khans, or local governors of Mezenderan, 
 were not so faithful as they should be, he 
 repaired to Caswin, invited them to a 
 feast, and poisoned them all ; he had the 
 satisfaction to see all expire in his pre- 
 sence. Such were a few of his enormi- 
 ties. Did such a man deserve the title 
 of Great ? Let common sense answer 
 the question. He closed his guilty ca- 
 reer in 1628. (Malcolm's Persia. D'Her- 
 belot, Bibliotheque Orientale. See also 
 the History of the SiifFavean Dynasty in 
 the Encycl. Metropol. Hist, Div. vol. iv. 
 ch. cxvi.; 
 
 15 
 
 ABBAS II., great-grandson of the 
 above, (1629—1666) succeeded his father 
 Sefi about the age of 13, a.d. 1642. This 
 monarch is most celebrated for his drunk- 
 enness. To the utter confusion of all 
 devout mussulmans he indulged for days 
 together in the forbidden juice of the 
 grape. Strange the freaks, atrocious the 
 cruelties which he practised while in this 
 state. One day he cut out the tongue 
 of his cup-bearer, because he did not 
 receive an answer to please him. An- 
 other day, calling his women ai'ound him 
 while he drank deeply, he became so 
 ovei-powered that he fell asleep, and was 
 left alone. Awaking in a short time, he 
 caused the women to be brought back, 
 and burnt to death in his presence. On 
 another occasion, the most beautifid lady 
 of his harem he suspended in the chim- 
 ney until she was blackened and suffocated 
 by the smoke. His end was such, that one 
 might almost call it a judgment upon his 
 abominable hfe. He became the \actini 
 of a loathsome disease, the effect of his 
 licentious excesses, and he died in fi-ightful 
 tonnents. This is the monarch with whom 
 Chardin and Tavemier had the honour to 
 get drunk. He was not, however, so be- 
 sotted as wholly to neglect his duties. Can- 
 dahar, which his grandfather had subdued, 
 hut which Akbar had recovered, he annex- 
 ed to his empire. (Malcolm. D'Herbelot.) 
 
 ABBAS III. (1731—1736) was only 
 8 years of age when the ambitious Tha- 
 mas Kooli Khan, his minister, tutor, and 
 conqueror, caused him to be proclaimed 
 shah, during the life-time of his father 
 Thamas. He did not survive this event 
 more than five years, and he was the last 
 monarch of the dynasty of Sofi. Whether 
 his death was natural may well be 
 doubted. 
 
 ABBASSA, the sister of Haroun al 
 Rashid, the fifth khalif of the house of 
 Abbas. Her marriage with Giafar the 
 grand vizier, on the strange condition 
 that he should never exei'cise the rights 
 of a husband ; the violation of this en- 
 gagement by both ; the consequent death 
 of Giafar, and the punishment of the 
 princess, are matters, we are told, of 
 history. 
 
 ABBA THULE, (1740— 1792,) a chief 
 or king of the Pelew islands, with whom 
 om* seamen were frequently in contact, 
 and who was the ally of England. For 
 a barbarian, he had liberal and even en- 
 larged views ; and he has been called the 
 Peter-the-Grcat of those islands. 
 
 ABBATE, or ABATE. Of this name 
 there were several Italian artists. 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 1. Niccolo ddV Abate or Ahull, (1509 
 or 1512 — 1571,) a painter of Modena. 
 He painted twelve scenes from the^Eneid, 
 now in the gallery at Florence, and some 
 frescoes at Bologna, which were much stu- 
 died and admired by the Caracci. He ac- 
 companied Primaticcio to France in 1552. 
 
 2. Pietro Paolo, his brother, (fl. 1550.) 
 
 3. Guilo Caniillo, son, and Ercole, 
 grandson, of Niccolo. The latter was a 
 good artist, but a dissipated man. He 
 died 1615. (Lanzi Storia Pittorica, &c. 
 iv. p. 34, &c. Bryan's Diet., &c.) 
 
 ABBATUCCI, (J. P. 172G— 1812) a 
 Corsican general in the French armies ; 
 served first imder Paoli, then under 
 Louis XVI, tlien imder the republic. 
 Three of his sons fell in the service of 
 France. 
 
 ABBATUCCI, (Carlo,) a Corsican ge- 
 neral, who, with Napoleon, entered into 
 the service of France, and perished in 
 the Dutch campaign of 1796. 
 
 ABBE, H. (fl. 1670,) an artist of 
 Antwerp. 
 
 ABBO, a Norman by birth, and a 
 monk of St. Germain-des-Pres, who died 
 in 923, wrote an epic poem in three 
 books on the siege of Paris by the North- 
 men. As he was a witness of the events 
 he relates, his poem, barbarous as it is, 
 is of great value to the historian. The 
 best edition of it is that by Toussaint 
 Duplessis, in his Nouvelles Annales de 
 Paris. 4to. 1753. He left two other 
 works, one is to be found in the Biblio- 
 thcca Maxima Patrum, the other in the 
 Spicilegium of d'Acheri. (See more in 
 Cave, Hist. Lit.) 
 
 ABBO, a monk of Fleury in the 
 tenth century, was a poet, historian and 
 mathematician. His miscellaneous writ- 
 ings, however, are of no great value ; and 
 his letters are consulted for the incidental 
 light which they throw on the manners of 
 the times. That he was a scholar, in the 
 ordinary sense of the word, may be in- 
 feiTed from his mission to England, 
 which was to reform the studies of Ram- 
 say, a monastery which before the devas- 
 tation of the Danes had enjoyed much 
 literary celebrity. He died a. d. 1004. 
 
 His chief works were — the Life of St. 
 Edmund, King and Martyr, &c. ; the 
 Lives of the Popes ; which latter was pub- 
 lished at Mayence by P. de Busee, 1602, 
 4to ; and some collections of canons, let- 
 ters, &c. (See more in Cave, Hist. Lit. 
 ii. 104.) 
 
 ABBOT, (George,) archbishop of 
 Canterbury, son of Maurice Abbot, a 
 cloth-worker in the town of Guilford in 
 IG 
 
 Surrey, who married Alice March, and 
 sufiered persecution for his religion in 
 the reign of queen Maiy. They had six 
 sons, of whom Robert, the eldest, was 
 bishop of Salisbury, and Maurice, the 
 youngest, lord mayor of London, and 
 the first knight created by Charles I. 
 George was born at Guilford, Oct. 29, 
 1562, in a house, says Wood, which is 
 " now an alehouse, bearing the sign of 
 the Three Mariners, by the river's side 
 near to the bridge, on the north side of 
 the street, in St. Nicholas's parish." He 
 was educated at the free-school of his 
 native town, imder the care of Mr. 
 Francis Taylor ; and in 1578, being then 
 sixteen, was removed to Balliol college in 
 Oxford. On Nov. 29, 1583, being then 
 bachelor of arts, he was elected proba- 
 tionary fellow of his college, entered 
 holy orders, and became a preacher 
 of some eminence in the university. >In 
 1593, in company with his brother 
 Robert, he commenced bachelor of divi- 
 nity; in 1597, proceeded to his degi-ee 
 of doctor in the same faculty ; and the 
 same year was elected master of Uni- 
 versity college. At this time he de- 
 livered his tlieological preelections in the 
 divinity school in Oxford, which he pub- 
 lished the next year, with this title : 
 ' QuJEstiones sex totidem prselectipnibus 
 in Schola Theologica Oxonise, pro forma 
 habitis, discussse et disceptatse a. 1597, 
 in quibus e sacra Scriptura et Patribus 
 antiquissimis quid statuendum sit de- 
 finitum.' Oxon. 1598. 4to. Dedicated 
 to Thomas Sackville, baron of Buckhurst, 
 chancellor of the university of Oxford. 
 Reprinted at Frankfort, 1616, under the 
 superintendence of Abraham Scultetus. 
 Upon March 6, 1599, he was installed 
 in the deanery of Winchester, which 
 he held till 1609, and in 1600 was elected 
 vice-chancellor of the imiversity of Ox- 
 ford, when he published his sermons on 
 the prophet Jonah. Lond. 4to. 1600. 
 The same year, on occasion of the cross 
 in Cheapside being taken down, the 
 citizens of London desired the advice 
 of the two universities, whether or not it 
 should be re-erected. Abbot had already 
 distinguished himself in his new office 
 in the university by the zeal with which 
 he had destroyed all pictures connected 
 with sacred subjects, and was therefore, 
 as might be expected, opposed to the re- 
 storation of the cross. " I remember," 
 he says, in a letter addressed to the citi- 
 zens on this subject, " in that college 
 where I first lived, (Balliol,) a young 
 man was taken praying and beating his 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 breast before a crucifix in a window ; 
 which caused the master and fellows to 
 pull it down, and set up other glass ; 
 which example makes us nothing doubt, 
 but that the cross in Cheapside hath 
 many in the twilight and morning early 
 who do reverence before it. By all 
 which I do conclude that it is a monu- 
 ment of tlieir superstition ; a great in- 
 ducement, and may be a ready way to 
 idolatry." 
 
 But the more moderate judgment of 
 Whitgift, archbishop of Canterbmy, and 
 Bancroft, bishop of London, prevailed ; 
 the cross was repaired and restored, with 
 some slight alterations. (See a pamphlet 
 entitled, ' Cheapside Cross censured and 
 condemned, by a Letter sent from the 
 Vice-chancellor, &c. of Oxford.' 4to, 
 London, 1641.) In 1603, having been 
 again chosen vice-chancellor, he visited 
 Woodstock with the celebrated William 
 Laud, then proctor of the university, to 
 congratulate king James, who had suc- 
 ceeded on the 24th of March before to 
 the crown of England ; and about this 
 time commenced his difference with Laud, 
 who maintained the perpetual visibility 
 of the church, as derived from the apo- 
 stles to the chiu-ch of Rome, in oppo- 
 sition to Abbot, who, like Usher, had 
 endeavom-ed to trace it from Beren- 
 garius to the Albigenses, and from them 
 to Luther and Calvin. These tenets of 
 Laiid were extremely offensive to Abbot, 
 who united with Dr. Airy, the vice-chan- 
 cellor, in calling Laud to account for a 
 sermon preached by him at St. Mary's, 
 Oxford, in the year 1606, which con- 
 tained expressions at variance with the 
 Calvinistic and popular theology of the 
 day. In 1604 Dr. Abbot was one of the 
 eight Oxford divines engaged in the new 
 translation of the Bible ; and the same 
 year published his Answer to Dr. Thomas 
 Hill, who had quitted the church of Eng- 
 land, and embraced the Roman Catholic 
 religion — ' The Reasons, which Dr. Hill 
 hath brought for the upholding of Papis- 
 try, unmasked,' &c. Oxon. 4to. 1604. 
 In 1605 he was a third time vice-chan- 
 cellor ; in 1608, his patron, Thomas 
 Sackville, the earl of Dorset, died sud- 
 denly at the council-chamber ; and Dr. 
 Abbot, who had been his chaplain, 
 preached and afterwards printed his fu- 
 neral sermon. (London, 4to. 1608.) But 
 the loss which he experienced in the 
 death of this nobleman, was amply com- 
 pensated by the esteem and friendship 
 of George Hume, the earl of Dunbar, 
 treasurer of Scotland, one of king James's 
 
 VOL. I. 17 
 
 greatest favourites. This nobleman ap- 
 pointed Dr. Abbot his chaplain, and car- 
 ried him into Scotland, to assist in 
 re-establishing episcopacy in that king- 
 dom, and reducing it to uniformity. By 
 the sagacity of the earl, and the mode- 
 ration of his chaplain, the project so far 
 succeeded, that an act was passed in 
 the general assembly, which provided 
 that the king should have the calling of 
 all general assemblies ; that the bishops, 
 or their deputies, should be perpetual 
 moderators of the diocesan synods ; with 
 other concessions greatly in favour of 
 episcopacy. (Heylyn's History of the 
 Presbyterians, pp. 381, 382.) Abbot's 
 service in this affair was extolled by his 
 zealous patron, who took every oppor- 
 tunity of recommending him to the 
 king's notice and favour ; and his efforts 
 were advanced by the following circum- 
 stance. 
 
 Whilst he was in Scotland, George 
 Sprot, a notary of Ayemouth, was con- 
 demned and executed for having been 
 concerned in the Gowry conspiracy. 
 The execution of this man afforded an 
 admirable opportunity for settling men's 
 doubts as to the reality of the plot. 
 A long accovmt of his execution and 
 confession was published at London, 
 with a nan-ative prefixed to it by Dr. 
 Abbot, entitled, ' The Examinations, 
 Arraignment, and Conviction of Geoi-ge 
 Sprot, Notary, in Ayemouth ; written 
 and set forth by Sir William Hart, 
 &c. ; whereby appeareth the treasonable 
 device betwixt John, earl of Gowry, 
 and Robert Logane, of Restalrig (com- 
 monly called Lesterig), plotted by them 
 for the ci-uel murthering of our most 
 gracious Sovereign.' To this treatise a 
 Preface was prefixed (of 38 pp.) written 
 by George Abbot, Doctor of Divinity, 
 and Dean of Winchester, &c. 1608. 
 This performance was very acceptable to 
 the king, and paved the way to Abbot's 
 preferment : for on the death of Dr. 
 Overton, the bishop of Lichfield, Abbot 
 was appointed to succeed him, and was 
 consecrated on Dec. 3, 1609 ; and on the 
 20th of January following, he was trans- 
 lated to the see of London, void by the 
 death of Dr.Thomas Ravis ; and archbishop 
 Bancroft dying shortly after. Abbot was 
 chosen to succeed him. He was elected 
 by the chapter of Canterbury, March 18, 
 1611, and consecrated in the chapel at 
 Lambeth, April 9, by the bishops of Ox- 
 ford, Ely, Lichfield, Worcester, and Chi- 
 chester. The appointment was a great 
 mortification to the pious, learned, and 
 C 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 moderate portion of the community, more 
 especially to the English clergy, who had 
 wished and expected that bishop An- 
 drews or bishop Overall should have suc- 
 ceeded Bancroft ; prelates beloved and 
 admired by all pai'ties, of longer standing 
 in the church, greater experience, and 
 much greater learning. But the Scottish 
 party warmly supported Abbot, and car- 
 ried their point. " The bishop of Lon- 
 don," says secretary Calvert, in a letter 
 written at the time to Sir Thomas Ed- 
 monds, " by a strong north wind coming 
 out of Scotland, is blown over the Thames 
 to Lambeth, the king having professed 
 to tlie bishop himself, as also to the lords 
 of his council, that it is neither the re- 
 spect of his learning, his wisdom, nor his 
 sincerity (although he is well persuaded 
 there is not any one of them wanting in 
 him), that hath moved him to prefer him 
 before the rest of his fellows, but merely 
 the recommendation of his faithfid ser- 
 vant Dunbar, that is dead, whose suit on 
 the behalf of the bishop he cannot, and 
 will not suffer to lose his intention." 
 (Birch's Negociation, &c. p. 338.) His 
 predecessor, Bancroft, had acted with so 
 much judgment and diligence in the con- 
 troversies and discussions of these times, 
 as to win applause even from those who 
 were no friends to the church. (See 
 Osborne's Memoirs, p. 61.) But Ab- 
 bot was known to entertain very different 
 sentiments. He was a rigid Calvinist ; 
 had shov/n whilst at Oxford a marked 
 and decided opposition to those who en- 
 tertained different principles from his 
 own. He had no experience as a bishop ; 
 " He was not much beloved," says Fuller, 
 "by the inferior clergy, as over rigid and 
 austere. Indeed, he was mounted to 
 command in the church before he ever 
 learned policy therein ; made a shepherd 
 of shepherds before he was a shepherd 
 of sheep ; conseci'ated bishop before ever 
 called to a pastoral charge : which made 
 (say some) him not to sympathize with 
 the necessities and infirmities of poor 
 ministers." (Fuller's Ch. Hist. x. p. 87.) 
 These observations of Fuller are borne 
 out by the testimony of Bishop Hacket, 
 no great friend to Bancroft or Laud ; 
 who, speaking of Abbot's austerity in 
 the High Commission Court, observes : 
 " It was not so in his predecessor Ban- 
 croft's days, who would chide strictly, 
 but censure mildly. He considered that 
 he sate there rather as a father than a 
 judge. ' Et pro peccato magno paululum 
 supplicii satis esse putavit.' He knew 
 that a pastoral staff was made to reduce 
 IS 
 
 a wandering sheep, not to knock it 
 down." And in another place he ob- 
 serves : " That sentences (in that comt) 
 of great correction, or rather destruction, 
 have their epocha from his predominancy 
 in that court." (Life of Williams, p. 97.) 
 
 This promotion of Abbot, cai'ried 
 by a party by no means favourable to 
 the interests of the clergy, was part 
 of that WTetched policy prevailing in 
 this and the previous reign, which at- 
 tempted to neutrahze the power of the 
 church by promoting men of opposite 
 sentiments. " The two contrary fac- 
 tions at court," says Osborne, " one 
 of them thinking all things fit to be 
 destroyed, the other labouring to pre- 
 serve, did, upon the vacancy of every 
 bishopric, put one in suitable to their 
 humoiu-s that had the luck to prevail. 
 The cavise the present incumbent (Abbot) 
 did, like the web of Penelope, unravel 
 Avhat his predecessor had with more policy 
 and charity twisted." The consequence of 
 such policy was this ; that the best cler- 
 gymen were driven to despair, and knew 
 not how to proceed. They who endea- 
 voured to promote a reconciliation were 
 suspected by both parties ; and the divi- 
 sions thus promoted in the church, 
 branched forth into the city and country 
 into divers popular differences. 
 
 Nor was Abbot's conduct on his pro- 
 motion to this high station of such a 
 nature as was likely to remove the fears 
 entertained of his prudence and modera- 
 tion ; for in the first year of his appoint- 
 ment he used all his influence with lord 
 chancellor Elsmere, then chancellor of 
 the university of Oxford, to oppose any of 
 Laud's preferment in the university, "in- 
 sinuating that he was at best a papist in 
 heart, and cordially addicted unto po- 
 pery ;" and " that if he were suffered to 
 have any place of government in the 
 university, it would imdoubtedly turn to 
 the great detriment of religion and dis- 
 honom- of his lordship." ( Hey lyn's Laud, 
 p. 61.) 
 
 In 1611, when Vorstius was invited bv 
 the ciuators of the university of Leyden 
 to accept the professorship of divinity, the 
 archbishop used his influence with the king 
 to induce him to interfere, and to com- 
 mand Sir Ralph Win wood, the ambassador 
 at the Hague, to protest against the recep- 
 tion of Vorstius. (Wuiwood's Papers, iii. 
 296, 317.) On Easter-day, 1612, he con- 
 firmed prince Charles ; and the same 
 year attended prince Henry in his last 
 sickness, and preached his funeral ser- 
 mon (Ps. Ixxxii. 6). The next year he 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 solemnized the marriage between the 
 princess Elizabeth, daughter of James I., 
 and Fredei-ic, the elector palatine, who 
 was so well satisfied with the archbishop's 
 attentions, that, on leaving the kingdom, 
 he made him a present of plate to the 
 amount of 1,000/. Nor was Abbot un- 
 grateful for this kindness ; for when 
 in the year 1619 the elector accepted 
 the crown of Bohemia, the archbishop 
 used all his influence with the king to 
 induce him to support his son-in-law ; 
 and advised the king and his council to 
 countenance this usurpation against all 
 the world. (See his Letter to Naunton 
 in the Cabala, p. 102, and in the Biog. 
 Brit. — art. Abbot ; the original is in the 
 Bodleian.) 
 
 In the year 1613 he was nominated 
 one of the fii-st sixteen governors of the 
 Charter-house, of which the foundation 
 ■was then settled ; and the same year, 
 together with the bishops of London 
 (King), Winchester (Bilson), Lichfield 
 (Neyle), Rochester (Buckeridge), and 
 several laymen, was one of the commis- 
 sioners appointed to try the case of di- 
 vorce between lady Frances Howard, 
 daughter to the earl of Suffolk, and Ro- 
 bert, earl of Essex, her husband. All 
 the other ecclesiastical commissioners, 
 except the archbishop and the bishop of 
 London, gave sentence in favour of lady 
 Essex. To justify, therefore, his own 
 opinion, the archbishop drew up a paper, 
 entitled, ' Some observable things since 
 Sept. 25, 1613, when the sentence was 
 given in the cause of the Earl of Essex,' 
 &c. : reprinted in 1719 under a different 
 title. This paper the king himself re- 
 solved to answer, and wrote a very sen- 
 sible letter to the archbishop ; in which 
 he told him, that after he had considered 
 all his papers, he found his principles so 
 strange, and his doubts so far sought, that 
 he could not but think that the prejudice 
 the archbishop entertained towards the 
 persons was the chief cause of his doubts. 
 " In your last speeches with me," he pro- 
 ceeds, " you remember you told me what 
 assurance you had of the earl's ability 
 out of his own mouth, which you said 
 you could not but trust because he was 
 so religious a nobleman. But when I 
 told you of the other party's contrary 
 affirmation, you remember how you used 
 the word iniquity. Now, then, I would 
 ask you, what proof you have of the 
 one's religion more than the other's ; you 
 must answer me by judging upon the 
 exterior ; and how deceivable that guess 
 is, daily ex'perience teaches us." The 
 19 
 
 king was a better judge of characters 
 than the archbishop, for the earl became 
 a traitor in the succeeding reign. 
 
 Both the archbishop and Dr. King, who 
 voted with him, were too much influenced 
 by their feelings. The earl was a puritan ; 
 his countess related to the strictest and 
 most influential popish families in the 
 kingdom. Bishop Goodman tells us that 
 after the sentence of nidlity had passed, 
 he went to Overall and asked his opinion 
 concerning it ; who told him that he had 
 been with the 4jishop of London, Dr. 
 King, to expostulate with him for joining 
 with Dr. Abbot in opposing it, seeing 
 things were so manifest according to 
 the laws of the church. To this Dr. 
 King replied that his only reason for dis- 
 sent was this — that whereas many things 
 were proved upon oath, yet he could not 
 satisfy his own conscience for the truth of 
 those oaths, though he could not disprove 
 them ; but if his own conscience could 
 have been persuaded that the oaths were 
 true, then, without exception, the nullity 
 must needs follow. " There, then," (says 
 Goodman, and his words apply to both 
 prelates,) " was my lord bishop's mis- 
 take ; that either he did not desire fur- 
 ther time to examine those oaths, or 
 otherwise, according to the custom of 
 law, that he had not judged secundum 
 allegata et probata." (^lemoirs, p. 222. 
 Compare also the remarks of L'Estrange, 
 a writer of great moderation. Reign of 
 King Charles, p. 118.) 
 
 In the year 1614, when the House of 
 Commons had harshly refused to supply 
 the king's necessities, the archbishop, 
 upon the expiring of the convocation, 
 consulted with some of the bishops to 
 raise a loan among themselves, and pre- 
 sent it to the king as a free-will offering, 
 in testimony of their duty. Every bishop 
 resolved to send unto the king the best 
 piece of plate in his possession, the 
 archbishop setting the example ; and 
 such as had not a piece of plate sufficient 
 to express their zeal, sent in a smaller 
 piece, but filled with gold, to make it a 
 present of reasonable value. (See the 
 Archbishop's Letter addressed to the 
 Bishop of Norwich, in Mr. Brewer's Il- 
 lustrations of the Court of King James I. 
 i. 157). The same year, in order to 
 satisfy the Romanists of the validity 
 of the English ordinations, he as- 
 sembled several of the Romish priests 
 then in England, and placed in their 
 hands the original records of Archbishop 
 Parker's consecration. (Champnseus in 
 Epist. Ded. Georgio Abboto.) In 1G16 
 C2 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 he assisted at the creation of Cliarles 
 prince of Wales ; and the same year was 
 very earnest in bringing into England 
 Antonio de Dominis, the archbishop of 
 Spalato. This prelate having espoused the 
 cause of the Venetians in their quarrel 
 with the pope, was, on their mutual 
 reconciliation, desirous of finding an 
 asylum in England. For this purpose he 
 applied to Sir Dudley Carleton, then am- 
 bassador at Venice, expressing liis wish to 
 live and die a member of the Church of 
 England, (which he esteemed above all 
 others,) and to obtain him some small 
 means of support. The ambassador sub- 
 mitted the archbishop's request to the 
 king, who thought that the quarrel of 
 the pope and the Venetians had been 
 the effect of his book in defence of the 
 oath of allegiance ; and therefore entered 
 more heartily into the design of receiving 
 De Dominis. The king acquainted the 
 archbishop of Canterbury with it, who 
 showed his heartiness in the cause by 
 contributing towards a pension for De 
 Dominis, and readily offered him lodging 
 and diet at his own house at Lambeth. 
 (Goodman's Memoirs, i. 157.) 
 
 The same year saw the commencement 
 of the archbishop's troubles ; for Dr. 
 Mocket, his domestic chaplain, warden of 
 All-Souls, published a work entitled 'Doc- 
 trina et Politeia Ecclesiae Anglicanee,' &c. 
 1616, 4to. It contained a Latin transla- 
 tion of the English Liturgy, Catechism, 
 Thirty-nine Articles, the Book of Ordina- 
 tion of Bishops, Priests and Deacons, a 
 Latin abridgment of the Homilies ; and 
 an original treatise ' De Politeia,' &c. It 
 was published abroad, at Amsterdam, and 
 is mentioned in terms of strong reproba- 
 tion by Grotius in a letter to Vossius. 
 (" Prodiit de Politia Anglicana libellus 
 puritanissimus, Amstelodami cusus : sed 
 mutata est Epigrapha : credo ne urbs ilia 
 in Britannia infamaretm-. Video idem 
 illorum et eorum qui nos exercent esse 
 ingenium, contemnere vetustatem et 
 sanctimoniam ponere in Ecclesiae dilace- 
 ratione." Epist. Remons. p. 475.) The 
 work had been undertaken with the best 
 intentions, but the author's inclination to 
 Calvinism had so far swayed his judg- 
 ment, that his abridgment of the Homilies 
 was more in conformity with his own 
 than the sense of the Chmxh. He had 
 omitted part of the 20th Article ; but that 
 which gave the greatest offence, was his 
 claiming a power of the archbishop of 
 Canterbury for confirming the election of 
 bishops in his province, on the ground 
 of the canon in the Nicene council, which 
 20 
 
 had been confirmed by an imperial edict; 
 thus giving an obliging force to the canon 
 and civil law, " both which (says Fuller) 
 if crossing the common law of the land, 
 are drowned in their passage as they sail 
 over from Calais to Dover." Such an in- 
 fringement of his prerogative was very 
 distastefid to the king ; and his displeasvire 
 towards this book was augmented by 
 James Montague, the bishop of Win- 
 chester, a prelate of great influence, who 
 had hitherto supported the archbishop. 
 The book was publicly burnt, which 
 censiu'e the author took so much to 
 heart, that he shortly after died. It 
 was genei'ally conceived, says Heylyn, 
 (Life of Laud, p. 76, and in this statement 
 he is partly supported by Fuller,) " that 
 as the book fared the worse for the au- 
 thor's, so the author did not speed the 
 better for his patron the archbishop's 
 sake, betwixt whom and Dr. James Mon- 
 tague, then bishop of Winchester, there 
 had been some differences, which the rest 
 of the court bishops were apt enough to 
 make some use of to his disadvantage." 
 Shortly after the archbishop had the mis- 
 fortune to lose his bi'other, the bishop of 
 Salisbmy, between whom and himself (if 
 Heylyn may be trusted) there had hap- 
 
 })ened some differences a little previous to 
 lis death. These unhappy circumstances, 
 and his growing infirmities, fixed the 
 archbishop in his resolution of putting in 
 force a design which he had for some 
 time contemplated of building a hospital 
 in his native town of Guilford, which he 
 honoured with his presence, when Sir 
 Nicholas Kempe laid the first stone of it, 
 April 5, 1619. 
 
 Hitherto he had but tasted misfortune; 
 he was now to drain it and wring it out to 
 the dregs. In 1621, whilst taking a jour- 
 ney into Hampshire, the archbishop was 
 invited by Lord Zouch to hunt in Brams- 
 hill Park. Pretending to be a woodman, 
 he took up a cross-bow to make a 
 shot at a buck, but unhappily hit the 
 keeper, who had run in among the herd 
 of deer to bring them up to a fairer mark. 
 The arrow pierced the left arm, and di- 
 viding the large auxiliary vessels, caused 
 instantaneous death. " He never spake 
 after," says Fuller, " as the person still 
 alive at Croydon, Avho brought off his 
 body, infonned me." This untoward event 
 caused the greatest consternation — the 
 like had never happened in the church of 
 England ; it was a sore affliction to many 
 good men, who lamented the scandal 
 which must by this untoward accident 
 inevitably fall upon the chmxh; for 
 
ABB 
 
 A B B 
 
 in the eye of general councils and the 
 canon law the archbishop was wonder- 
 ftilly tainted and made incapable of per- 
 forming any sacred function. By the 
 common law, his personal estate was for- 
 feited to the king, who graciously sent 
 him a letter under his own hand, " that 
 he would not add affliction to his sorrow, 
 nor take one farthing from his chattels 
 and moveables." (Hacket, 65.) But the 
 scandal brought upon the church was not 
 so readily removed; it was a subject 
 of discourse in the foreign universities, 
 and after three sevei-al disputations was 
 declared by the Sorbonnists to amovmt 
 to a positive irregularity. To add to the 
 difficulty, four bishops elect were wait- 
 ing for their consecration — Dr. Williams 
 elect of Lincoln, Dr. Davenant of Salis- 
 bury, Dr. Gary of Exeter, Dr. Laud of 
 St.David's; all of whom, except Davenant, 
 who was imder personal obligations from 
 tlie archbishop, scrupled to have his 
 hands laid upon them, and declined his 
 consecration ; " not out of enmity or 
 superstition (says Hacket, p. 66) but to 
 be wary, that they might not be attainted 
 with the contagion of his scandal and 
 uncanonical condition." 
 
 To determine the question and settle 
 men's minds, the king directed a com- 
 mission on the 3d of October to the lord 
 keeper, (Williams,) the bishops of London, 
 (Mountague,) Winchester, (Andrews,) 
 and Rochester, (Buckeridge ;) to the 
 elects of Exeter, (Gary,) and St.David's, 
 (Laud;) Sir Henry Hobart, lord chief 
 justice of the common jileas ; Sir John 
 Doddridge, one of the justices of the 
 king's bench ; Sir Henry Martin, dean 
 of the ai-ches ; and Dr. Steward, a civi- 
 lian. The three following questions were 
 submitted to their decision. 
 
 1. Whether the archbishop wey-e irre- 
 gular by the fact of involuntary homicide ? 
 The two judges and two civilians held 
 the negative ; the others lield that he was- 
 irregular, except bishop Andrews, who 
 said that he could not conclude so. 2. 
 Whether the act might tend to a scandal 
 in a churchman ? — Bishop Andrews, Sir 
 H. Hobart, and Dr. Steward, doubted ; 
 the rest concurred that there might arise 
 from such an accident ' scandalum accep- 
 tum non datum.' 3. How the archbishop 
 should be restored, in case he should be 
 found irregular ? All agreed that it could 
 be no otherwise than by restitution from 
 the king ; but they dissented in the 
 m.anner of its being done. Andrews, 
 Hobart, and Steward thought it should 
 be done immediately from the king, and 
 21 
 
 from him alone, in the same patent with 
 the pardon; Williams, Mountague, Buck- 
 eridge, Gary, and Laud, wished that a 
 commission should be directed by the 
 king to some bishops, to absolve him 
 'manu clericali;' Doddridge and Martin 
 agreed in having it done both ways, for 
 the greater caution. The latter suggestion 
 was adopted ; for the king, under his 
 broad seal, granted the archbishop a full 
 and entire pardon, and restored him to 
 all metropolitical authority ; and on the 
 22d of Nov. issued a commission to the 
 bishops of Lincoln, (Williams,) London, 
 (Momitague,) Winchester, (Andrews,) 
 Norwich, (Harsnet,) Lichfield and Co- 
 ventry, (Morton, )Bath and Wells, (Lake,) 
 Ely, (Felton,) Ghichester, (Garleton,) to 
 grant the archbishop a dispensation in 
 full form ; which was done upon the 12th 
 of Dec. following, 1621. 
 
 But though the archbishop was thus 
 absolved, Williams and the others still 
 scrupled at receiving consecration from his 
 hands ; and the king therefore permitted 
 them (a few days before issuing the above 
 commission) to be otherwise consecrated; 
 Williams in king Henry VIL's chapel, 
 at Westminster, Nov. 1 1 ; Gary and 
 Laud in the chapel of the bishop of Lon- 
 don's palace, Nov. 18. The bishops who 
 performed the ceremony were — London, 
 (Mountague,) Worcester,(Thornborough,) 
 Ely, (Felton,) Oxford, (Howson,) Llan- 
 daff, (Godwin.) Thus was the arch- 
 bishop absolved from this unhappy busi- 
 ness, chiefly by the influence of Andrews, 
 whom he suspected for his greatest foe, 
 but who proved eventually his most firm 
 and eflPectual friend ; mildly checking those 
 who inveighed most against him, by 
 saying, " Brethren, let us not be too hasty 
 in condemning any for imcanonicalness 
 according to the strictness thereof, lest 
 we all render oiU"selves in the same con- 
 dition ; besides, we all know, 'canones qui 
 dicunt lapsos post actam pcenitentiam 
 ad clei'icatimi non esse restituendos de 
 rigore loquuntur disciplinae non injiciunt 
 desperationem indulgentise.' " (See Wil- 
 kins,. Goncil. iv. 462. Hacket's Life of 
 Williams, p. 66. Spelman's Reliquiae, p. 
 121 ; — where the arguments urged by 
 the different parties are given in detail ; 
 and GoUier's Ecclesiastical Hist. ii. 720, 
 who is astonished at the irregularity of 
 the means by which Abbot was restored.) 
 
 The archbishop, who had retired to 
 Guilford during the progress of these 
 debates, now returned to Lambeth and 
 resumed his functions, contrary to the 
 sense of many learned and pious men, 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 who thought that he should have spent 
 the remainder of his days in privacy. 
 And such appears to have been his 
 own feeHngs at the first, since (before 
 his acquittal) he petitioned the king 
 to be permitted to retire and spend 
 the remainder of his days at his own 
 almshouse at Guilford. (Howel's Letters, 
 p. 123.) He also instituted a monthly 
 Tuesday fast, in memory of this accident ; 
 and allowed the widow of the man an 
 annviity of 201. 
 
 In Jan. 1623, together with Dr. Moun- 
 tague, the bishop of London, he conse- 
 crated St. James's church in Aldgate ; and 
 the same year signed the ratification of 
 the Spanish match. Against the tolera- 
 tion contemplated in the articles of this 
 treaty, a letter was afterwards circulated in 
 his name. But this letter or speech (for in 
 contemporary copies it is called sometimes 
 by one and sometimes the other name) is 
 unquestionably a forgery, as both Hacket 
 and Heylyn have clearly proved. It was 
 first printed in this coimtry by the no- 
 torious Prynne, from a copy in the 
 French Mercmy, (Hidden Works, p. 39; 
 copied thence into the Cabala and various 
 other works, thirty years after the event, 
 and twenty years after the author's 
 death.) Its original has never been 
 found ; no two copies of it agree ; it is 
 not mentioned by the archbishop's con- 
 temporaries, nor in his own nan-ative ; 
 it is entirely at variance with his act 
 of signing the articles of the Spanish 
 match : and he who had the boldness to 
 address king James in the language attri- 
 buted to him in this letter, woidd not have 
 scrupled at openly refusing to sign the 
 articles, had he disliked them ; since it is 
 well known that at the very time when 
 they were debated, the king was so per- 
 plexed, and the lords so in-esolute, that 
 the least show of opposition on the part 
 of the archbishop woidd have decided 
 the question. If the letter be genuine, 
 we can scarcely acquit the archbishop of 
 tergiversation, a fault from which he was 
 to all appearance entii-ely fi-ee. 
 
 In the year 1626, though much broken 
 down in health, and suffering severely 
 from the gout, he assisted at the coro- 
 nation of Charles I. ; but his growing in- 
 firmities, and probably a dislike to the 
 dominant party, kept him away from 
 the court. In his narrative, (which is 
 pi-inted in Rushworth,) he says, " I 
 cannot deny that the indisposition of my 
 body kept me from coiu-t, and thereby 
 gave occasion to maligners to traduce 
 me, as withdrawing myself fi-om public 
 22 
 
 services, and therefore misliking some 
 courses that were taken ; which obstinacy 
 perhaps neither pleased the king, nor 
 the great man [Buckingham, I suppose] 
 that set them on foot. It is true that in 
 the turbulency of some things I had no 
 great invitements to draw me abroad, 
 but to possess my soul in patience, till 
 God sent fairer weather; but the true 
 ground of my abstaining from solemn 
 and public places was the weakness of 
 my feet, proceeding from the gout ; 
 which disease being hereditary unto me, 
 and having possessed me now nine years, 
 had debilitated me more and more, so 
 that I could not stand at all, neither 
 coidd I go up or down a pair of stairs ; 
 but besides my staft' I must have the 
 ser\'ice of one at least of my men, which 
 was not fit to be admitted in every place 
 Avhere I was to come." 
 
 These causes induced the king, upon 
 the 9th of Oct. 1627, to issue a com- 
 mission to the bishops of Durham, 
 (Neale,) Rochester, (Buckeridge,) Ox- 
 ford, (Howson,) and Bath and Wells, 
 ( Laud) , to execute archiepiscopal jurisdic- 
 tion in the place of the archbishop : " For- 
 asmuch as the said archbishop cannot at 
 this present in his own person attend 
 the services which are otherwise proper 
 for liis cognizance and jurisdiction, and 
 which as archbishop of Canterbury he 
 might and ought in his own person to 
 have performed and executed in causes 
 and matters ecclesiastical, in the proper 
 function of archbishop of that province, 
 we therefore of our regal powei", and of 
 our princely care and providence that 
 nothing shall be defective in the order, 
 discipline, government or right of the 
 church, have thought fit by the service 
 of some other learned and reverend 
 bishops, to be named by us, to supply 
 those things which the said archbishop 
 ought or might in the cases aforesaid 
 to have done, but for this present cannot 
 perfomi the same." The act is printed 
 in Rushworth, i. 431. 
 
 The only reason assigned in this docu- 
 ment for the archbishop's suspension was 
 his present inability for pei-forming his 
 functions ; a fact fully admitted by himself 
 in his own narrative. It appears also 
 that this suspension was only temporary, 
 for such time as his inability lasted ; — two 
 circumstances very necessary to be borne 
 in mind. For two different causes are 
 alleged for this proceeding ; one by the 
 archbishop himself in his own naiTative, 
 resting on his own suspicion, and some 
 court scandal (as he confesses, Naitative, 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 •p. 437) — a refusal to license a sermon 
 of Dr. Sibthorpe's, entitled ' Apostol- 
 ical Obedience,' containing sentiments 
 Avhich the archbishop disliked. " This 
 sermon was brought unto the duke," he 
 says, " when it came into his head, or was 
 suggested unto him by some malicious 
 person, that thereby the archbishop 
 might be put to some remai'kable strait. 
 For if the king shoidd send the sermon 
 unto him, and command him to allow it 
 to the press, one of these two things 
 would follow ; that either he should au- 
 thoi'ize it, and so all men that were in- 
 different should discover him for a base 
 and unworthy beast (!) ; or he should 
 refuse it, and so should fall into the 
 king's indignaton, who might pursue it 
 at his pleasure, as against a man tliat 
 was contrary to his service. Out of tliis 
 fountain flowed all the water that after- 
 wards so wet." Such was the archbishop's 
 surmise, resting only on suspicion, and 
 upon an observation of Lord Conway, a 
 creature of the duke's. The archbishop's 
 suspicion is scarcely probable ; for had it 
 been the real reason, it is not likely that 
 Conway would have revealed it to the 
 archbishop. Had the duke been desirous 
 of displacing Abbot, he had a much 
 plainer and easier course. Tlie groimds 
 for liis suspension, mentioned in the com- 
 mission, were simple and obvious, and 
 involved much less odium. Another rea- 
 son assigned is by Fuller, (mistaking, ap- 
 parently, the authority of L'Estrangc, 
 in his Life of Charles L p. 69) : " A 
 commission," he says, " was granted 
 nnto five bishops (whereof Bishop Laud 
 of the quorum) to suspend Archbisliop 
 Abbot from exercising his authority any 
 longer, because uncanonical for casual 
 homicide." And in his Appeal of Injured 
 Innocence, defending himself against 
 some remarks of Heylyn for this inac- 
 curacy in saying that Bishop Laud was of 
 the quorum, Fuller observes that he used 
 that word not in its legal strictness, and 
 then justifies his assertion by the following 
 anecdote : that " when the writing for 
 the archbishop's suspension was to be 
 subscribed by the bishops aforesaid, the 
 four seniors, London, Durham, Rochester, 
 and Oxford, all declined to set their 
 hands thereunto, and seemingly at the 
 last showed much reluctance and regret 
 thereat. ' Then give me the pen,' said 
 Bishop Laud ; and though last in place, 
 Jirst subscrib'^'l his name. Encouraged 
 by whose words ai.d example, the rest 
 after some demur did the like. This 
 was attested to me by him who had best 
 23 
 
 cause to know it, the good and credible 
 register, still alive, who attended in 
 the place upon them." This, though a 
 very positive statement, is certainly in-' 
 accurate. There was no commission of 
 this kind ever issued : the archbishop 
 was removed directly by the king ; and 
 the commission by which the king sus- 
 pended him, and delegated his archi- 
 episcopal powers to the bishops above 
 named, is still in existence. This anec- 
 dote, therefore, respecting Laud is utterly 
 false, or else some misrepresentation. 
 
 The suspension was of brief duration ; 
 for about Christmas, 1628, the arch- 
 bishop was restored to favour, at the re- 
 quest of the House of Lords, who made 
 suit to the king to receive him into 
 grace, (L 'Estrange, 81.) The king as- 
 sented, sent for the archbishop to come 
 to court, and appointed the archbishop 
 of York and the earl of Dorset to receive 
 him as he came out of his barge. They 
 conducted him to the king, who, giving 
 him his hand to kiss, enjoined him not 
 to fail the council-table twice a-week ; 
 and ft-om henceforth he continued to sit 
 in parliament in the exercise of his juris- 
 diction till the day of his death, (lb. 
 p. 95.) Upon the Friday after his return, 
 tlie bishops met him at his house in 
 Lambeth, in order to settle the contro- 
 versies occasioned by a letter which Dr. 
 Richard Mountague had addressed to the 
 archbishop. Towards the latter period of 
 his life he seems to have recovered his 
 health, for this year he consecrated 
 Richard Mountague bishop of Chichester, 
 attended his pai-liamentary duties, and 
 spoke at a conference held between the 
 lords and commons on the petition of 
 right (Ilushworth, i. 54G) ; and in 1632, 
 tlie year before his death, the following 
 pleasing anecdote of him is introduced 
 in a MS. letter in the British Museum, 
 from J. Pory to Sir Thomas Puckering, 
 dated Sept. 20, 1632: "One day the 
 last week, my lord of Anmdel, and his 
 son, my lord Maltravers, having espied 
 my lord of Canterbury's coach on Barn- 
 sted Down coming towards theirs, before 
 they came a butt's length short of it, 
 both their lordships alighted and went a 
 great pace towards his grace's coach, 
 who, when they were approached, said, 
 ' What ! and must my lord marshal of 
 England take so great pains to do me so 
 much honour ? Were my legs as good as 
 my heart, I should have met your lord- 
 ships the better half of the way.' Then 
 my lord of Arundel replied, ' It might 
 well become an earl marshal to give so 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 much respect to an archbishop of Can- 
 terbury ; ' besides the particular obliga- 
 tion from his lordship to his grace, for 
 his noble usage of his son and daughter 
 Maltravers, while they were his pri- 
 soners. His grace by his diet hath so 
 moderated his gout, as it is now rather 
 an infirmity than a pain. He looks fresh 
 and enjoys his health, and hath his wits 
 and intellectuals about him. So that if any 
 other prelate do gape after his benefice, 
 his grace perhaps, accoi'ding to the old 
 and homely proverb, [may] eat of the 
 goose which shall graze upon his grave." 
 (Harl. MSS. 7,000.) 
 
 He died next year, on Sunday, Aug. 
 4, 1633, at his palace of Croydon, aged 
 71 ; and was buried, as he had desired to 
 be, in the lady chapel of Trinity church, 
 at GuUford, in Sm'rey. Soon after his 
 death, a monmnent was erected over his 
 grave with his effigy, and a Latin in- 
 scription engraved on his tomb. Besides 
 building the hospital at Guilford, he 
 gave to the schools in Oxford 150/, In 
 1619, he bestowed a large sum of money 
 on the library of Balliol college, for aug- 
 menting the number of the books and re- 
 pairing the building ; and built a conduit 
 in the city of Canterbury. In 1624, he 
 contributed to the founding of Pembroke 
 college, and discharged a debt of 300/. 
 owing to that society from Balliol col- 
 lege. In 1632, he gave 100/. to the 
 library of University college ; and by his 
 will, left to the town of Guilford 100/., 
 to be lent without interest to four poor 
 tradesmen of that town, for two or three 
 years. To the poor of the town he left 
 20/. ; to the poor of Lambeth, 30/. ; to 
 forty of his inferior servants, 1 01. each ; 
 besides 40/. for those who had served 
 him, in case he had forgotten them. All 
 the books in his great study marked 
 with his name, to his successors for ever ; 
 those at Croydon, partly to the dean and 
 chapter of Winchester, partly to the dean 
 and chapter of Canterbiuy. (See his 
 will, printed at the end of his Life, 
 in 8vo.) 
 
 Like many prelates of his day, he was 
 never man-ied, and seems to have had 
 a natural antipathy to women. He was 
 extremely offended with his brother for 
 having man-ied after he had become a 
 bishop. And one day (as Fuller tells us 
 in his Appeal, &c.) returning in his 
 coach to Croydon, from which he had 
 been some time absent, many people, 
 most women, some of good quality, partly 
 from good-will, partly from curiosity and 
 novelty, crowded about his coach to see 
 24 
 
 him. Tlie archbishop, unwilling to be 
 gazed at, and never partial to females, 
 exclaimed, somewhat churlishly, " What 
 makes these women here?" " You had 
 best," said one of them, " shoot an arrow 
 at us." 
 
 In his private chai'acter he was sin- 
 cere and honest, courteous to those who 
 loved him and entertained the same 
 religious principles as himself. But in 
 general there was some moroseness in 
 his manners ; and so prejudiced was he 
 against those whose theological tenets 
 differed from his own, that when the 
 celebrated Grotius came to England in 
 1613, the archbishop could see nothing 
 to admire or praise in him, describing 
 him as no better than a smatterer and a 
 pedant. (See his Letter in Winwood's 
 Mem. iii. 459.) The same prejudices 
 blinded him to the merits of Laud, Cosins, 
 Neile, or others, and prompted him to 
 join the Commons and others against 
 them and those who adopted their sen- 
 timents. In his station as the greatest 
 prelate of the realm, his conduct was pro- 
 ductive of much injiu-y to the church. 
 " His extraordinary remissness," says 
 L'Estrange, " in not exacting strict con- 
 formity to the prescribed orders of the 
 church in points of ceremony, seemed to 
 resolve those legal detenninations to their 
 first principle of indifterency, and led in 
 such a habit of inconformity, as the 
 future reduction of those tender-consci- 
 enced men to long-discontinued obedi- 
 ence was interpreted an innovation." 
 (Reign of K. Charles, p. 131.) This is 
 the mild censure of one whose theological 
 principles resembled those of the arch- 
 bishop. In this all his contemporaries 
 agree, of whatever party or principle — • 
 Hacket, Fuller, Osbenie, Clarendon, San- 
 derson, Goodman, Heylyn, and others ; 
 and the justice of their censure is seen in 
 the archbishop's acts, as it might have 
 been gathered long before from statements 
 laid down in his writings, particularly in 
 his answer to Hill. And however men 
 may differ in the estimate of his cha- 
 racter, one thing is certain, that had a 
 man of his principles succeeded him, the 
 chmxh of England, if it had existed, 
 woidd have existed only as a monument 
 of disorder and confusion. (See Dr. White 
 Rennet's manuscript collections in the 
 British Museum, No. Ixxxix. passim, for 
 some particulars of Abbot, not mentioned 
 in the general biographies. 
 
 Besides the works already mentioned, 
 he was the author of ' An Exposition on 
 the Prophet Jonah.' Oxford, 1600. 4to. 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 A Form of Absolution given in his cliapel 
 at Lambeth to the marquess of Huntly, 
 July 7, 1616, and his Letter to the Arch- 
 bishop of St. Andrew's, in excuse for 
 so doing, (Spotswood's Hist. 526, 528.) 
 Letter to his Suffragans on the erection 
 of Chelsea College, in Fuller's C. H. His 
 correspondence with Sir Nat. Brent, then 
 at Venice, respecting Sarpi's History of 
 the Council of Trent, published by Dr. 
 L. Atterbury, in a pamplet, entitled, 
 ' Some Letters relating to the History of 
 the Council of Trent.' 4to. 1705. A 
 letter to Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, 
 Nov. 17, 1617, in Pagitt's Christianogra- 
 phy, App. p. 213. ' A brief Description 
 of the whole World, wherein is pai-ti- 
 cularly described all the Monarchies,' &c. 
 London, 4to. 1617; of which there have 
 been many editions. A Treatise of 
 the Perpetual Visibility of the Church ; 
 London, quarto. 1624. His Nan-ative, 
 published in Rushworth. The authen- 
 ticity of this work is ascertained by 
 quotations made from the original MS. 
 by bishop Hacket, in his Life of Williams, 
 i. 68, ii. 5, 19, &c. History of the Mas- 
 sacre in the Valtoline, printed at the end 
 of Foxe's Martyrs. His Judgment 
 of Bowing at the Name of Jesus ; 1632, 
 8vo. Some Letters and Papers unpub- 
 lished, in the MSS. of the Lansdowne 
 and Harleian Collection. Printed Letters 
 in Winwood, the Cabala, in the 2d vol. 
 of Mr. Brewer's Illustrations of the Reign 
 of James I. 
 
 ABBOT (Robert), elder brother to 
 George Abbot, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was born in the year 1560, in the 
 same house, and educated in the same 
 school, with his brother. Upon an ora- 
 tion made by him on the 17th of Nov. 
 the day of queen Elizabeth's inaugu- 
 ration, he was chosen scholar of Balliol 
 College, and was sent to the university 
 in 1575. (Featley, in Fuller's Abel Red. 
 p. 540.) In 1581 he was elected fellow 
 of his college ; the next year proceeded 
 to his degree of master of arts ; and 
 having entered into holy orders, was for 
 some time the lecturer in St. Martin's 
 church in Oxford, and at Abingdon in 
 Berkshire. Upon a sermon preached 
 by him at Worcester, he was made 
 lectiu-er of that city ; and soon after, in 
 1588, rector of All Saints' in the same 
 place, at which time he resigned his fel- 
 lowship. About this period, or shortly 
 after, he was presented to the rich bene- 
 fice of Bingham in Nottinghamshire, 
 by John Stanhope, esq. for a sennon 
 which he had preached at Paul's 
 25 
 
 Cross. In 1594 he obtained some cele- 
 brity as an author, for a book which he 
 published against a Romanist, entitled, 
 ' The Mirror of Popish Subtilities ; disco- 
 vering certain wretched and miserable 
 Evasions and Shifts, which a secret cavil- 
 ling Papist, in the behalf of one Paul 
 Spence, hath gathered out of Saunders 
 and Bellarmine, concerning the Sacra- 
 ments,' &c. London, 1594, 4to. In 1597 
 he was made a doctor of divinity ; in 
 1601 he published 'The Exaltation of the 
 Kingdom and Priesthood of Christ, being 
 a collection of Sermons on the First Part 
 of the 110th Psalm,' (London, 1601, 4to.) 
 which he dedicated to bishop Babington. 
 When king James ascended the throne 
 of England, he appointed Dr. Abbot his 
 chaplain in ordinary, and was so much 
 pleased with his treatise, ' Antichristi 
 Demonstratio contra fabulas Pontificias et 
 ineptam Rob. Bellarmini de Antichristo 
 disputationem,' (London, 1603, 4to.) that 
 he commanded his own Commentary on 
 the Apocalypse to be appended to the 
 second edition of this treatise, which ap- 
 pearedin 1 608, 8vo. The king, whose judg- 
 ment was excellent, and his proficiency by 
 no means despicable in theological dis- 
 cussions, was not mistaken in the opinion 
 which he had formed of this work, for, 
 if we may trust Dr. Featley, it was highly 
 esteemed and commended by that mirror 
 of learning and piety, the most admirable 
 bishop Andi-ews. (Abel Red. p. 540.) 
 But the most leai-ned and elaborate work 
 which Dr. Abbot ever published, was his 
 'Defence of the Reformed Catholic of Mr. 
 William Perkins, lately deceased, against 
 Dr. Bishop, Seminary Priest ;' of which 
 the first part appeared, London, 1606, 
 4to ; the second in 1607, and the third 
 in 1609. To this work he added a parti- 
 cular treatise, entitled, 'The true, ancient 
 Roman Catholic;' dedicated to prince 
 Henry ; for which the prince returned 
 him a letter of thanks written by his own 
 hand. In 1609, by the influence of arch- 
 bishop Bancroft, says Dr. Featley, he 
 was unanimously elected master of Bal- 
 liol college, an appointment in which 
 the archbishop's judgment was clearly 
 seen, and for Avhich Abbot was admi- 
 rably well adapted. He was a man of 
 moderate and even temper, though a 
 strict disciplinarian ; of warm and unos- 
 tentatious piety, without that alloy of 
 austerity which made his brother the 
 archbishop so unpopular ; less of a 
 rigid Calvinist, though inclined to the 
 Calvinistic theology, and throughout his 
 life actively engaged in opposing men 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 who had written against it. He was 
 rather, indeed, a captive to the trammels 
 of the system from edncation than from 
 choice, like Davenant and others ; and 
 like them he suffered his better judg- 
 ment to be swayed by the authority of 
 great names, persuaded beforehand that 
 their doctrines were the doctrines of the 
 catholic church ; receiving them as such 
 without sufficient examination, and with 
 the same temper of mind opposing any 
 thing which seemed at variance with 
 them, rather because it was at variance 
 with that which he had been taught to 
 believe was true, and was the doctrine 
 of those he had been taught to revere, 
 tlian from any innate unsoundness or re- 
 pugnancy to catholic antiquity. As the 
 head of a college, no man could furnish 
 a more excellent example ; by the firm- 
 ness and moderation of his conduct, he 
 reduced the society, which had fallen 
 into the greatest irregidarity under the 
 regimen of his predecessor, into order 
 and unanimity. He was careful, not 
 only for the learning and piety of those 
 committed to his charge, but likewise for 
 their ease and personal comfort ; regulat- 
 ing their expenses, and teaching them 
 good husbandry and habits of thriftiness, 
 no mean part of good divinity. He 
 followed his own lessons of piety, and 
 taught them as much by example as by 
 ju'ecept, never absenting himself from 
 the college chapel, morning or evening, 
 though the moi-nings were never so dark, 
 or the season bitter. 
 
 In May 1610 he was appointed one 
 of the fellows of Chelsea college, then 
 newly founded, and intended for a 
 school of conti'oversial divinity ; and in 
 November the same year was made pre- 
 bendary of Normantown in the church 
 of Southwell. The same year he pub- 
 lished a Sermon, preached in St. Mary's 
 church at Oxford, entitled, 'The Old 
 Way ;' which he dedicated to archbishop 
 Bancroft. At the latter end of the year 
 1611, on the death of Dr. Holland, rec- 
 tor of Exeter college, Dr. Abbot was 
 appointed the regius professor of divi- 
 nity, preferred to this appointment (on 
 the authority of Dr. Heylyn), by the 
 power and favour which his brother the 
 archbishop enjoyed with the king. (Life 
 of Laud, p. 66.) In describing the cha- 
 racters of the two professors. Dr. Featley 
 tells us " that they were both of extraor- 
 dinary learning and immense reading ; 
 yet might it be truly said of Abbot, 
 ' variam lectionem habuit in numerato' — 
 he had the command of his learning, 
 26 
 
 and could bring it to bear upon whatever 
 subject he was engaged in. Not so his 
 predecessor : the hearers of the one 
 always received from him what they ex- 
 jjected, but the auditors of the other 
 seldom received what they expected, or 
 expected what they received ; yet so full 
 was his reading, that they always went 
 away satisfied. The reason of it was 
 this," he continues ; " Abbot desired 
 rather imdtum legere than multa ; Hol- 
 land, rather multa than multum. The 
 meditation of the one wrought upon his 
 reading ; the reading of the other wrought 
 upon his meditation, and as it surcharged 
 his memory, so it overruled his invention 
 also." (Abel Red. p. 539.) Though less 
 of a rigid Calvinist than either of his pre- 
 decessors, he considered himself obliged, 
 from respect to his brother, to enter into 
 his prejudices against Laud and his party ; 
 for in the year 1612, he suspended Dr. 
 Howson, canon of Christ Chvuxh, and one 
 who had been vice-chancellor in the 
 imiversity of Oxford, for some remarks 
 which he had made in disparagement of 
 the notes in the Geneva Bible. (Heylyn's 
 Laud, p. 67.) And upon occasion of a 
 sermon preached by Laud on Shrove 
 Sunday, 1614, in which he had used 
 some words to this effect, that the Pres- 
 byterians were as bad as the papists, 
 Abbot, who Avas then vice-chancellor, 
 preaching at St. Mary's shortly after, 
 reflected so pointedly upon this sermon, 
 as must inevitably have caused a dissen- 
 sion in the imiversity, had not Laud very 
 wisely, at the suggestion of liis friend 
 Dr. Richard Neyle, the bishop of Lincoln, 
 forborne all notice of it. 
 
 Abbot did not remain long in his pro- 
 fessorship ; for in the year 1615 he was 
 promoted to the see of Salisbury. The 
 king was inclined to bestow this prefer- 
 ment on the celebrated Dr. Field, dean 
 of Gloucester, author of 'The Church;' 
 but the influence of some great persons, 
 supported no doubt by the archbishop, 
 prevailed upon the king to confer it 
 upon Dr. Abbot. A fragment of the 
 address which he pronoimced on leaving 
 the university was preserved by Dr. 
 Featley, and printed in Fuller's Abel 
 Red. p. 547. The activity he had shown 
 in his pastoral cure, and in his charge of a 
 college, he now manifested in the care of 
 his diocese. He was the same man in his 
 parish church, his professor's chair, his 
 episcopal seat. " As a violet," says one 
 who knew him well, " whether it be set 
 on a bank higher or lower, retains still the 
 same odour, so did he, whether higher or 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 lower in the churcli ; he did stUl keep 
 close to the earth, and retain his sweet, 
 meek, and humble disposition." Yet he 
 knew how to be firm, and severe too, 
 when the occasion demanded it. For 
 upon repairing to his diocese, having 
 found his beautiiid cathedral church 
 much fallen into decay, from the negli- 
 gence of his predecessors, and the rapa- 
 city of the deans and prebends, who 
 expended the money which should have 
 been employed in rebuilding the walls of 
 our Jerusalem, rather in bmlding their 
 own houses, and enriching themselves, — ■ 
 partly by persuasions (oil and balm) 
 partly by threats (pouring in vinegar) 
 where persuasion would not prevail, he 
 cured this wound, and obtained from 
 them 500/., which he laid out in repara- 
 tion of the church. Nor was he more 
 careful for the dead walls than for the 
 living members of the church; visiting 
 his whole diocese in his own person ; 
 providing spiritual and material bread 
 for his people. Let a bishop be given to 
 hospitality (says St. Paul) ; and oiu: apostle 
 obeyed the injunction ; feasting not those 
 only who could feast him again — the 
 mayor and coi-poration, and nobility of 
 the town — but those also who never sat 
 down to meat except at his table : fol- 
 lowing in this the great Master of apo- 
 stles, who giveth his rain and his sun 
 to the poor and rich alike. Besides 
 his extraordinary acts of hospitality, he 
 feasted all the poor at Christmas ; and 
 as the city of Salisbmy was then divided 
 into three parishes, he had a hundred 
 couple at the least every day : so that be- 
 sides the poorest of all, who were his 
 guests on Christmas-day, all the rest of 
 the needy in the city filled up the other 
 three open holidays. He died March 2, 
 1617, from a severe attack of the stone, 
 which he bore with great fortitude, having 
 held his see only two years and three 
 months. According to Dr. Heylyn, his 
 death was hastened by the grief which 
 he felt at his brother's resentment, who 
 was extremely indignant at his having 
 married a second wife, about two years 
 before. (Life of Laud.) His daughter 
 named Martha was married to Sir Na- 
 thaniel Brent, warden of Merton College, 
 Oxford. 
 
 Besides the works already mentioned, 
 he wrote also — 1. 'The True Ancient 
 Roman Catholic, against Dr. Bishop;' 
 Lond.1611. 4to. 2. 'Aiitilogia contra apo- 
 logiam A. Eudcemon-Johannem;' Lond. 
 1613, quarto; containing much curious 
 information on the Gunpowder Plot. 
 27 
 
 3. The lectures which he delivered during 
 his professorship were published together 
 after his death, with this title, — ' Exerci- 
 tationes de Gratia et Perseverantia Sanc- 
 torum.' Lond. 1618. Frank. 1619. They 
 were directed against two books which 
 created some noise ; one written by Pet. 
 Bertius, another by Richard Thomson, 
 ' De Intercisione Gratiae.' They were dis- 
 liked by the celebrated Dr. Field, (Wood's 
 Ath. i. 412); by Bishop Overall, whose 
 opinion may be seen in the Letters of the 
 Remonstrants, p. 488. See also Heylyn's 
 Life of Laud, p. 127. 4. ' De Suprema 
 Potestate Regia contra Bellarminum et 
 Suarez,' dedicated by his son Thomas to 
 his uncle the Archbishop. Lond. 1619. 
 4to. 5. A very complete Commentary on 
 the Romans in MS. now in the Bodleian 
 Library ; and some other impublished 
 treatises mentioned by Dr. Featley. 
 
 ABBOT, (Charles.) See Tenterden. 
 
 ABBOT, (Robe;-t,) another of the 
 same name, born about 1585, educated 
 at Cambridge, where he took his degree 
 of M.A., and was incorporated into the 
 university of Oxford, Jidy 14, 1607. 
 He was vicar of Cranbrook, in Kent ; 
 during which time he published a volume 
 of sermons, entitled, ' A Hand of Fellow- 
 ship,' &c. London, 1623, 4to. The first 
 two, dedicated to Sir Thomas Robards, 
 kt. and bart., in which he states that he 
 had received all his maintenance from 
 Dr. George Abbot, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury ; the next to Sir Henry Baker, kt. 
 and bart. ; the foin-th to Sir Thomas 
 Hendley, kt. ; the fifth to Walter Roberts, 
 esq. ; the last to Peter Courthorpe, esq. 
 About 1646 he was minister of South- 
 wick, in Hampshire ; and finally, of 
 St. Austin's, in Watling-street, London. 
 He was the author of several sermons 
 and tracts : — 1. Four Sermons; London, 
 1639, 8vo. dedicated to Walter Curl, 
 bishop of Winchester, to whom he had 
 been servant. 2. ' Milk for Babes, or a 
 Mother's Catechism ;' London, 1646, 
 pp. 222, dedicated to Lady Honoria Nor- 
 ton, Lady Baker, and Lady Dering. 
 Some other pieces mentioned by Wood, 
 Fasti, i. 177. 
 
 ABBOT, (Sir Maurice, or Morris,) 
 brother of the archbishop, was an eminent 
 merchant in the city of London. He de- 
 voted himself to the direction of the affairs 
 of the East India Company, and to the 
 promotion of foreign commerce. In this 
 capacity he was employed in the Treaty 
 concluded at London July 7, 1619, which 
 defined the possessions of the English 
 and of the Dutch East India Companies. 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 In 1G20 he was sent into Holland, with 
 Sir Dudley Diggs, to recover the goods 
 of some English merchants. In 1623 
 he was a farmer of the Customs ; and in 
 1624, one of the council for settling and 
 establishing the colony of Virginia. On 
 the accession of Charles I. he was the 
 first person on whom the king conferred 
 the honoiu- of knighthood; and in 1625, 
 served as a burgess in parliament. In 
 1627 he was sheriff of London ; in 1635, 
 he erected the monument in the town of 
 Guilford, to the memory of his brother, 
 the archbishop. In 1638 he was lord 
 mayor, and died Jan. 10, 1640. 
 
 ABBOT, (George,) son of the above, 
 elected probationary fellow of Merton 
 college in 1622, and Bachelor of Civil 
 Law in 1630. — Another of the same 
 name was the author of the ' Whole 
 Book of Job Paraphrased;' Lond. 1640, 
 4to. which he dedicated to his father-in- 
 law, William Pnrefey, esq. of Caldecott, 
 in Warwickshire. He was likewise the 
 author of a work entitled, ' Vindicise Sab- 
 bati;' London, 1641; intended chiefly 
 as an answer to Dr. Dow, and containing 
 a general view of the Sabbatarian Con- 
 troversy. 3. ' Brief Notes iipon the whole 
 Book of Psalms.' 4to. 1651. 
 
 ABBOT, (John,) a Jesuit, (?) author of 
 a poem, entitled, ' Jesus Prefigured, in 
 five books. Permissu Superiorum.' 4to. 
 1623. Dedicated to Prince Charles ; 
 prefixed is also a letter in Spanish by the 
 same person, ' A la Serenisima Seilora 
 Doiia Maria de Austria, Infante de Es- 
 pana, Pi-incesa de Gales ;' dated from the 
 Convent of St. John the Baptist, at Ant- 
 werp, Nov. 12, 1623. 
 
 ABBOT. Three persons of this name 
 are enumerated in the American Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary. 
 
 1. Hull Abbot, (1694—1774,) author 
 of some Sermons. 
 
 2. Samuel Abbot, (1732—1812,) one of 
 the founders of the Andover Theological 
 Seminary. 
 
 3. Abiel Abbot, D.D., (1770—1827,) 
 author of some Sermons ; and some Let- 
 ters from Cuba, 1829 (Posthumous). Dr. 
 Allen (author of the Biography, and a 
 Congregationalist himself) does not know 
 lO what sect he belonged, but his charge 
 was in Massachusetts. 
 
 ABBOT, (Lemuel, 1763—1803,) an 
 English portrait painter of some merit. 
 (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ABBOT, (Charles, Lord Colchester, 
 
 1 757— 1 829.) This distinguished public 
 
 functionary was the son of the Rev. John 
 
 Abbot, D.D., rector of All Saints, Col- 
 
 28 
 
 Chester, and having passed through" 
 Westminster school and Oxford with 
 credit to his scholai-ship,* he entered on 
 the study of the law, and was called to 
 the bar about the year 1782. In the 
 year 1795, he became M.P. for Halston, 
 and in the following year, on occasion of 
 the Seditious Meetings' Bill, he shewed 
 the soimdness of his principles and his 
 moral courage by a powei-ful anti-revo- 
 lutionary speech. His career from this 
 time was destined to be one of unwearied 
 activity to himself, and of great useful- 
 ness to his country. He gave his best 
 services as a member of the House of 
 Commons, to the conception and pro- 
 motion of the most useful of all objects, 
 practical, not theoretical, reform — to 
 those silent improvements in the method 
 of conducting public business, the bene- 
 fits of which have been universally ac- 
 knowledged. The chief points to which 
 his attention was directed, were — 1. The 
 mode of treating expiring laws ; and by 
 the improvements he introduced, the 
 anomalies which so frequently occuiTed 
 under the former methods were avoided. 
 2. The mode of bringing new laws into 
 general operation, by sending a copy of 
 them to all the petty sessions. 3. The 
 transactions of Mr. Pitt's finance com- 
 mittee, of which he was the chairman. 
 4, The state of tlie public records. In 
 Feb. 1800, he moved for a committee to 
 inquire into their condition, &c., and at 
 the end of the session their report was 
 presented. This was the origin, no 
 doubt, of the royal commission to effect 
 the same objects, which has since been 
 in operation. 5. To a consideration of 
 the population of Great Britain. In 
 1801, Mr. Abbot moved for a census 
 of the population of Great Britain, which 
 has since been taken at intervals of 
 ten years with manifest advantage, at 
 least to the science of statistics. And 
 here let that most valuable public ser- 
 vant, Mr. Hickman, clerk of the House 
 of Commons, receive his due share of 
 praise for the indefatigable industry, and 
 the extraordinary accuracy and intelli- 
 gence, with which he has executed the 
 important task of arranging and pre- 
 paring these records. 
 
 These are proofs of a turn of mind, 
 which looked for the means of bringing 
 into the practice of the House, and into 
 the an-angement of the business of the 
 nation, every practicable improvement; 
 
 * He obtained the prize at Oxford for Latiu 
 
 Verse in 1777. 
 
ABB 
 
 ABB 
 
 and these improvements were much for 
 one man to effect. 
 
 In 1801, on the formation of Lord 
 Sidmouth's ministry, Mr. Abbot was ap- 
 pointed Secretary for Ireland, but did 
 not hold this office long, being elected 
 Speaker of the House of Commons, Feb. 
 10, 1802. From his conduct in that ar- 
 duous office. Lord Colchester has de- 
 served the gratitude of his country by 
 the improvements which he introduced 
 into the mode of conducting the business 
 of the House, by the uniform order and 
 dignity which he was enabled to main- 
 tain, and by the example and the prece- 
 dents which he has left to his successors. 
 Two of the most useful improvements 
 introduced by him were relative to pri- 
 vate bills, and to the mode of an*anging 
 and delivering the papers called the 
 Votes of the House, &c. 
 
 In 1805, he gave a casting vote against 
 Lord Melville, when his lordship's con- 
 duct was brought before the House in 
 consequence of the inquiries of the finance 
 committee. 
 
 In 1813, Mr. Abbot defeated the 
 Roman Catholic bill in committee. For 
 fifteen years he held the office of 
 speaker, and on his retirement from it, 
 on account of ill health, lie was created 
 Baron Colchester, and a pension of 
 4,000/. a-year was voted to himself, and 
 3,000/. a-year to the next possessor of 
 the title. There is perhaps no situation 
 more arduous than that of speaker of the 
 House of Commons, none more trying 
 to the health ; and Lord Colchester pro- 
 bably suffered from his long occupation 
 of that office. He went abroad for his 
 health ; and having staid there three 
 years, he returned to England, and 
 divided his time between London and 
 Kidbrook in Sussex. Dm-ing the time 
 he held his seat in the House of Lords, 
 he introduced one or two usefiU changes 
 also in the mode of conducting their 
 business, and was the means of esta- 
 blishing a library attached to that branch 
 of the legislature. 
 
 In 1827, he visited the Highlands, 
 where he was enthusiastically received 
 in consequence of his exertions for the 
 advantage of that part of Great Britain 
 on all occasions when the execution of 
 public works there was brought before 
 the House. 
 
 Lord Colchester's health had long 
 been declining, and he died in 1829. 
 His character may be judged of from 
 the preceding details ; but it is right 
 to add one more trait, namely, the ex- 
 29 
 
 treme appropriateness of his addresses 
 on public occasions, and the dignity with 
 which he delivered them. Among tlie 
 many addresses of this kind which he 
 was called upon to make, the most re- 
 markable is that of the 1st of July, 1814, 
 in which he replied to the duke of Wel- 
 lington's acknowledgment of the thanks 
 of the House. It is a perfect model for 
 all similar occasions, — if a similar occasion 
 can ever occiu- ! 
 
 Lord Colchester man-ied, in 1796, the 
 daughter of Sir P. Gibbes, bart., and was 
 succeeded by his son, Capt. Abbot, R.N. 
 Some speeches of Lord Colchester 
 have been published, and also a work on 
 the Practice of the Chester Circuit. He 
 is also said to have been the author of an 
 anonymous pamphlet on the Use and 
 Abuse of Satu-e. Oxf. 1786. The Bio- 
 graphie Universelle relates an anecdote 
 of him, which, if authentic, is worth re- 
 peating. It is, that he himself told a friend 
 what his feelings were when the votes were 
 equal in Lord Melville's case. In the 
 midst of the confusion, and in the midst 
 of most turbulent and contending feel- 
 ings in his owm breast, which nearly 
 ovei-powered him, he took a moment's 
 breathing time, lifted up his eyes to 
 heaven, and prayed God most sincerely 
 to strengthen him. He took courage, 
 spoke calmly, and was listened to and 
 received most favourably ! (Annual 
 Obitiiary, 1830 — in an article founded 
 on the Gentleman's Mag. and the Par- 
 liamentary Register.) 
 
 ABBRACCIAVACCA MEO, a poet 
 of Pistoia, who flourished in the thir- 
 teenth century. (See Tiraboschi.) 
 
 ABBT, (Thomas, 1738—1766,) a na- 
 tive of Ulm ; a mathematician, lawyer, 
 and philosopher ; who, considering that 
 he died at the early age of twenty-eight, 
 wrote much, and who would have taken 
 a very high rank among German authors 
 had he reached a more mature age. On 
 leaving the gymnasium of Ulm he went 
 to the university of Halle, in order to 
 pm'sue the study of theology ; but mathe- 
 matics, modem languages, and belles let- 
 tres, proved more congenial to his taste. 
 In 1760 he was appointed extraordinary 
 professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on- 
 the-Oder, and in 1761 ordinary professor 
 of mathematics at the university of Rin- 
 teln. Before entering on the duties of 
 this office he remained some time at 
 Berlin, and became the fi'iend of Men- 
 delsohn, Nicolai, and other distinguished 
 literary characters, and contributed mucli 
 to their Letters on Modem Literature 
 
ABD 
 
 ABD 
 
 At Rinteln he ■\\Tote his essay Ueher 
 den Tod fiir das Vaterland (on Dying 
 for our Country), and that Vom Ver- 
 dienste (or, On Merit), which are con- 
 sidered his best productions. Disliking 
 an university life, he refused professor- 
 sliips at Halle and Marburg, and deter- 
 mined to enter into the world ; and for 
 this purpose having begun the study of 
 the law, he travelled through Germany, 
 Switzerland, and part of France. In 
 1765, William, count of Schaumbm-g- 
 Lippe, called him to his court at Biicke- 
 burg, and gave him ajudicial appointment, 
 (Regierungs-und-Consistorial-Rath.) He 
 died suddenly in 1766, of a kind of 
 cholera ; and his tomb was adorned with 
 an epitaph written by the count himself. 
 After his death Nicolai published his 
 works in 6 vols, small 8vo. Thomas 
 Abbt's, 8ic. Vermischte Werke, (Thomas 
 Abbt's Miscellaneous Works.) It is not 
 necessary to enumerate the contents of 
 these volumes : that they were indeed mis- 
 cellaneous may be seen from some of their 
 titles ; On the Friendships of Women ; 
 On the Influence of the Beautiftd on the 
 Severer Sciences ; On the Worship of 
 Astarte ; On Josephus, &c. 
 
 In 1767 a posthumous work appeared, 
 with a preface by J. P. Miller ; its sub- 
 ject was the early history of mankind; — 
 and also a translation of Sallust's Con- 
 spiracy of Catiline. The translation of 
 the Jugurthine War, attributed to him by 
 Wagner, has not a single line of his 
 writing. His admii'ers allow that his 
 notions were crude, and his style occa- 
 sionally affected ; but they contend that 
 with his clear intellect, his acute judg- 
 ment, and his powers of language, had 
 he lived longer he must have been most 
 eminent. Indeed, as it is. Dr. Wolff calls 
 him " unquestionably the best wi-iter of 
 his day, with the exception of Lessing." 
 He is thought to have done much for the 
 formation of a pure German style ; and 
 it is probably in this respect that he is 
 more to be esteemed than for any aug- 
 mentation to the stock of human know- 
 ledge from the matter of his works. 
 (Wolff's Cyclopadie der Deutschen Na- 
 tional- Literatur. Leipzig, 1S35. Herder 
 and Nicolai's Memorials of Abbt.) 
 
 ABCAR, a Mohammedan doctor of 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 ABDALLA, the father of Mahomet, 
 about whom some legends are told. Be- 
 ing sent by his father to purchase corn, 
 lie died at Medina, which was then called 
 Yatreb, leaving Mahomet, who was only 
 two months old, nothing but five camels 
 30 
 
 and an Ethiopian slave. Yet his follow* 
 ers assert that a queen of Syi-ia fell in 
 love with Abdalla, and that the future 
 pi-ophet was the result of this connexion. 
 
 ABDALLA, the son of Ali, and uncle 
 to the first two khalifs of the dynasty of 
 Abbas, distmguished himself in the war 
 with the last of the Omeyas, Meruan, 
 (see the name,) whom he was instrumen- 
 tal in dethroning ; but he disgraced his 
 victoi-y by perfidy and cruelty. On the 
 death of Abid Abbas el SafFan, the first 
 khalif of the Abbassides, he proclaimed 
 himself Commander of the Faithfid ; but 
 being vanquished by the general of his 
 nephew Mausur, he was pursued and 
 idtimately destroyed, with the house in 
 which he had taken refuge, a.h. 138, 
 (A.D. 755.) 
 
 ABDALLA BEN ALAFTAS, Mo- 
 hammedan governor of Badajoz, and 
 head of all the confederated tribes of 
 Moors and Arabs in Portugal, in the 
 eleventh centmy. 
 
 ABDALLA BEN BALKIN, Arabian 
 king of Granada, and one of the first 
 victims to the perfidy of Yussef ben Tax- 
 fin, emperor of the Almoravides. The 
 reader should here observe, that on the 
 decline of the Arabian monarchy in 
 Spain, at the close of the tenth century, 
 the walis or governors of the great cities 
 assumed the regal title, and proclaimed 
 their independence of Cordova. 
 
 ABDALLA BEN MOHAMMED, 
 (d. 901,) king of Mohammedan Spain, 
 succeeded his brother Almondhir in 888. 
 His reign was a troubled one, not from 
 the christian Alfonso, but from his own 
 subject, Calib ben Omar, a bandit chief, 
 who occupied some of his strongest for- 
 tresses, and brought into the field troops 
 numerous enough to contend with kings. 
 Behind the impregnable walls of Toledo, 
 the rebel covild bid defiance to the armies 
 of Abdalla. Two of the monarch's own 
 sons were also in open insun-ection ; but 
 these he defeated, and one of them he 
 probably put to death. That in general 
 he was a hvmiane, no less than an en- 
 lightened man, is expressly affirmed by 
 the Mohammedan writers of Spain. Su- 
 leyinan, formerly cadi of Merida, wrote a 
 bitter lampoon against him and his go- 
 vernment. The author was soon dis- 
 covered, and brought into the royal 
 presence. " I very much fear, my dear 
 Suleyman," said the monarch, " that my 
 favours to thee have been thrown away : 
 certainly I do not merit thy poetical 
 compliments. I might punish thee, but 
 I will not!" Anotlier instance of Ab- 
 
A BD 
 
 A BD 
 
 dalla's forbearance is still nobler. There 
 was a captain of the Berbers, Suleyman 
 by name, who was also a wazir, and 
 member of the council of state, distin- 
 guished for strict morals and high ho- 
 nour, but blunt, irascible, and too proud 
 to be the willing slave of a despot. Like 
 most of the Berbers, he was noted for a 
 long black beard, which formed a strik- 
 ing contrast with the short bushy ones of 
 their comrades, the Scythian guards : 
 and this venerable symbol of manhood 
 he perhaps prized more than his life. 
 Entering one day into the king's apart- 
 ment, the latter, who was noted for 
 facetiousness, repeated to him some 
 verses in wliich long beards were turned 
 into ridicule, — as indicative of any thing 
 but long heads ; and concluded by say- 
 ing, "Sit down. Long-beard!" The 
 wazir obeyed ; but his blood boiled with 
 indignation, and he could not forbear 
 replying — " We, (the Berbers,) a nume- 
 rous people, surely deserved to be called 
 fools for coming so far to crawl in the 
 palaces of kings. What humiliations 
 might we not have avoided ! It is am- 
 bition which blinds us, and we do not 
 see our stupidity until we descend into 
 the grave." He then arose and left the 
 palace, without deigning to notice the 
 king. Abdalla was somewhat surprised 
 at his manner, and still more so when 
 some days elapsed without his appear- 
 ance at court. A wazir was sent to 
 appease the offended African ; but he 
 had great difficulty in obtaining an en- 
 trance ; and even when suffered to pass 
 the threshold, his reception was insult- 
 ing : Sulejanan neither arose, nor invited 
 liim to sit. " Why dost thoxi not rise to 
 receive me V asked the offended mes- 
 senger, " am I not a wazir like th3^self ?" 
 " Such ceremony," replied Sideyman, 
 " was well enough so long as I was a vile 
 slave like thee ; but now I have broken 
 my chains!" Not all the expostulations 
 of the officer could prevail on the inde- 
 pendent African to resmne his employ- 
 ment, or even to revisit the palace ; and 
 Abdalla regretted that, through a harm- 
 less joke, he was deprived of the service 
 of a man whose fidelity and judgment 
 he had long learned to value. (Conde, 
 Ilistoria de la Dominacion de los Arabes. 
 Dunham's Hist, of Spain and Portugal.) 
 ABDALLA ABU MOHAMMED, 
 emperor of the Almohades in Africa 
 and Spain, a dynasty established in the 
 twelfth century, by Mohammed ben Ab- 
 dalla and Abdelmumen. (See the names.) 
 This monarch was always resident in 
 31 
 
 Spain, busily occupied in resisting the' 
 increasing power of the Christians. He 
 perished by the hands of his own sub- 
 jects, in the year of the Hejira 622, 
 (a.d 1225.) 
 
 ABDALLA BEN ZAGUT, wali of 
 Malaga in the eleventh century, was 
 one of the men who most strongly dis- 
 suaded Mohammed king of Seville from 
 invokingtheaidof the Almoravides, anew 
 dynasty in Africa. (Seethe next article.) 
 But his advice was disregarded, and Mo- 
 hammedan Spain became a province of 
 the Afi-ican empire. 
 
 ABDALLA BEN YASSLM, founder 
 of the gi'eat empire of the Almoravides, 
 in the eleventh century, — an empire which 
 exercised a resistless influence over north- 
 western Afi'ica and Spain, yet of which 
 little is known in this countrj\ Where 
 D'Herbelot, and Casiri, and Gibbon, how- 
 ever, and consequently our modern bio- 
 graphies, are silent or unsatisfactory, 
 Conde, and writers since Conde, recent 
 as he is, enable us to supply a curious, 
 and we may add important, addition to 
 our popular knowledge. 
 
 Yahia ben Ibrahim, the native of a 
 tribe originally derived from Arabia, and 
 settled in the country beyond Mount 
 Atlas from a period immemorial, was no 
 less pious, in the Mohammedan sense of 
 the word, than any of his countrymen. 
 He made the gi-eat pilgrimage of Mecca, 
 and beheved, as he was bound to do, that 
 it had obtained him the absolution of his 
 sins. On his retm-n tlu-ough Cairwan, 
 he met with an alfaqui, originally of Fez, 
 and named Abu Amram. With this 
 theologian, whose fame was widely spread, 
 he became intimate. Conversing one day 
 on the state of the Mohammedan religion 
 beyond the momitain chain, he ob- 
 served that if his countrymen were igno- 
 rant, they were desirous to learn, and 
 that if they were poor, they would readily 
 maintain a new teacher. In fact, people 
 so secluded from the vices of the world, 
 woidd be likely to prove better disciples 
 than the more polished inhabitants of 
 cities ; and he expressed a wish that some 
 disciple of Abu Amram woidd benefit 
 them by his instructions. But none of 
 those disciples had any inclination to 
 encounter a long jom-ney and a doubt- 
 ful reception by a barbarous people, 
 for the mere interests of knowledge ; 
 nor was it without considerable difficulty 
 that the pupil of another teacher was 
 induced to undertake the mission. This 
 was Abdalla ben Yassim, a man of great 
 entei-prise, gi-eat genius, and still greater 
 
ABD 
 
 ABD 
 
 knavery. By the tribe to wliicli Yaliia 
 belonged, — that of Gudala, — he was re- 
 ceived not merely with welcome, but with 
 enthusiasm. Such was the imsettled 
 state of the Mohammedan world, occa- 
 sioned by the frequent changes of the 
 khaliphat, by the perpetual rivalship of 
 sects, and by the wars to which both gave 
 rise, that he formed a design which in 
 other circumstances might have been 
 simply ridiculous — that of founding in 
 these vast and almost inaccessible regions, 
 a new sovereignty for the temporal no 
 less than the spiritual government of the 
 people. The empire which he had ob- 
 tained over the tribe of Gudala rendered 
 them his instruments for any purpose ; 
 and he had little difficulty in persuading 
 them that the dissemination of the holy 
 truths which he taught them, was their 
 first, most urgent, and most important 
 duty. The Prophet had set the example 
 of proselyting by the sword ; it was, there- 
 fore, a holy one : the tribe was valiant ; 
 the neighbouring one of Lamtuna was 
 there placed by heaven to be the first 
 conquered ; and a brave number of wai-- 
 riors arose to fight the battles of the 
 Lord. The people of Lamtuna were un- 
 able or unwilhng to resist ; in orthodoxy, 
 they soon rivalled their neighbours of 
 Gudala, and were no less eager to extend 
 the blessing which they enjoyed. Thus 
 the strong arms of two tribes were now 
 at his disposal. A third was, with equal 
 facility, persuaded or forced to receive 
 the new faith, — or rather the new modi- 
 fication of faith ; for the koran, however 
 diiferently it might be intei-preted, was 
 still the great authority in doch-ine, the 
 great rule in morals. As years rolled on, 
 so did his success, until all the people in 
 the vicinity of the ancient deserts of 
 Getulia had sworn obedience to this new 
 prophet. With resources such as he now 
 commanded, we are prepared for the in- 
 formation that not only the district of 
 Darah, but the whole country between 
 the Great Desert and the Atlas moun- 
 tains, — a region large enough for a king- 
 dom, — received his yoke. Conqueror as 
 he was, and unbounded as was the power 
 he exercised, he did not assume the title 
 of sovereign : that he left to the emir of 
 Lamtuna ; and on the death of that chief 
 in battle (a.h. 450, a.d. 1058), he raised 
 Abu Bekir ben Omar to the vacant dig- 
 nity. Before this event he had given a 
 name to his disciples — that of Murahittns, 
 or Almoravides, men consecrated to the 
 worship of God. It is under the latter 
 denomination, which, however, is the 
 32 
 
 same as the former, that they are known 
 in Spanish history. 
 
 On the death of Abdalla (also in battle), 
 AbuBekir inherited the whole of his power. 
 This prince had talents for the post. His 
 successes, his reputation, his proselytes 
 increased; until, finding that he was pow- 
 erful enough to attempt the subjugation 
 of the more desirable region north and 
 west of Momit Atlas, he crossed that 
 chain, and established himself in its 
 western declivity at the city of Agmat. 
 But Agmat was not large enough to con- 
 tain his immediate followers, still less to 
 become the capital of a great empire ; 
 and he looked for a site worthy of his 
 views. The valley of Eylana pleased 
 him ; and from it the city of Morocco 
 began to arise. To finish this great un- 
 dertaking — an undertaking which de- 
 manded years of patient industry, was 
 not reserved for him. In the midst of 
 his labour a deadly feud between the two 
 leading ti-ibes of Gudala and Lamtuna 
 induced him to recross the Atlas chain. 
 The progress of the building, the com- 
 mand of his troops, and a vice-regal au- 
 thority, he left to his cousin Yussef ben 
 Taxfin. 
 
 Scarcely had Abu Bekir departed, when 
 the ambitious Yussef, who had always been 
 popular, began to undermine the power of 
 his absent kinsman. Strong, active, un- 
 wearied; of a commanding presence, a 
 pleasing countenance ; endowed with great 
 generosity, love of justice, and many other 
 noble qualities ; imsurpassed in valour, 
 vmequalled in enterprise, this chief had 
 little difficulty in prevailing on the leaders 
 of the people to espouse his cause. His 
 success in more than one military expe- 
 dition, especially against the Berbers, 
 rendered him the idol of the multitude. 
 Yet he did not throw oflT the outward 
 semblance of allegiance to Abu Bekir; 
 on the contrary, he professed to act 
 merely as the wasir or lieutenant of the 
 lawful sovereign. Even when he had 
 finished the building, and transported to 
 it the inhabitants of Agmat, as well as 
 the residents of many other towns ; when 
 he had married — without the consent of 
 Abu Bekir — Zainab, the sister of his 
 master, he still used moderation. Nay, 
 when he had raised his followers to 
 100,000 men, and had subdued the whole 
 of Fez, (the ancient Tingitana,) and was 
 resistless in the field, he was too politic 
 to leave to posterity the example of suc- 
 cessfiU rebellion ; he was still the wasir 
 of Abu Bekir, the second governor of the 
 Murabitins. 
 
AB D 
 
 AB D 
 
 Yussef had just completed tlie con- 
 quest of Fez, (a.h.466, a.d. 1072,) when 
 Abu Bekir returned from the desert, and 
 encamped m the vicinity of Agmat. Of 
 his long absence, no explanation is given. 
 When informed of the boundless power 
 ■which his kinsman had assumed, he saw, 
 when too late, the true character of the 
 man whom he had trusted. AU men — the 
 high and low, the ministers of religion and 
 laymen, nay, his own adherents — were 
 loud in their admiration of the conqueror. 
 The horsemen whom he sent to Yussef 's 
 camp, were equally influenced by the 
 general praise. What could he do ? He 
 had not one-fourth of his kinsman's mili- 
 taiy force ; he had few resources, a small 
 reputation. He feared that his sceptre was 
 for ever departed; but he would adopt no 
 resolution until he had seen his formidable 
 wasir. Between Morocco and Agmat the 
 two chiefs met, and seated themselves 
 on the same carpet. Great was the con- 
 trast between them ; the one magnificent, 
 the other mean ; the servant proud, the 
 master humble. The appearance of Yu- 
 sef s formidable guard, the readiness with 
 which he was served, the mortifying dis- 
 tinction made between him and Abu 
 Bekir, convinced the latter that he had 
 nothing to hope, but, on the contrary, 
 much to fear. He made his decision, 
 professed his long dissatisfaction with em- 
 pire, which he would cheerfidly resign 
 into hands so worthy to receive it; and 
 his resolution to pass the remainder of his 
 life in private tranquillity. Yussef thanked 
 him for his volimtary abdication ; di-ew 
 round his sheiks to witness the formal 
 act ; and in tliis way the kinsmen parted. 
 The following day Abu Bekir received a 
 splendid gift from Yussef, which, as it is 
 characteristic of the age, we may specify. 
 Twenty-five thousand crowns of gold ; 
 seventy horses of the noblest breed, and 
 magnificently accoutred ; one hundi-ed 
 and fifty mules of gi-eat value ; one hun- 
 dred splendid turbans ; as many costly 
 habits ; four hundi-ed common turbans ; 
 two hundred white mantles ; one thousand 
 pieces of rich stuffs ; two hundred pieces 
 of fine linen ; one hundred and fifty black 
 slaves ; twenty beautiful damsels ; with a 
 large store of perfumes, corn, cattle, and 
 slaves, were certainly worthy of royalty, 
 and might almost compensate for its loss. 
 Yet such presents were frequently re- 
 peated during the lifetime of Abu Bekir. 
 
 Fi-om this period we hear no more of 
 Abu Bekir, who is lost to history. The 
 exploits of Yussef were numerous and 
 great ; but for these we must refer to the 
 
 VOL. r. 33 
 
 proper article. (See Yussef ben Taxfin.) 
 In the present one we have mentioned 
 him only as far as he is connected with 
 the origin of the great Murabitin djTiasty. 
 We may, however, observe, that on the 
 abdication of Abu Bekir, he exchanged 
 the humble title of emir for that of Al- 
 muslemin, or prince of the believers ; and 
 that of Nasareddin, or defender of the 
 faith. 
 
 Powerful as tliis dynasty was, its exist- 
 ence was a very short one. It consisted 
 only of the following princes : — 
 
 1. Yussef ben Taxfin, from 1094 till 1107 
 
 2. AU ben Yussef .... 1107 1143 
 
 3. Taxfin ben Ali .... 1143 1145 
 
 4. Ibrahim Abu Ishac . . 1145 1148 
 It was soon to be subverted by the dynasty 
 of the Almohades (see Abdelmumen), one 
 more unprincipled and atrocious than 
 itself. (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque. Ca- 
 siri. Bib. Arab. Hisp. Escurial. tom. ii. 
 Conde, Historia de la Dominacion de los 
 Arabes. Dimham, History of Spain and 
 Portugal.) 
 
 ABDALLA EL ZAGAL, the last of 
 the Moorish kings of Granada, ascended 
 the throne a.h. 889, or a.d. 1484. He 
 had to contend witli both a domestic and 
 a foreign enemy, — with his nephew, Abu 
 Abdalla, who aspired to the throne, and 
 with the formidable Fernando, king of 
 Christian Spain. It was owing to the 
 dissension of these two kings, more than 
 to any other cause, that Fernando made 
 such progress in the conquest of Gra- 
 nada, the last of the Mohammedan king- 
 doms. For a time, indeed, their arms 
 were combined, but they were soon dis- 
 united ; and while El Zagal threw him- 
 self into Guadix, Abu Abdalla sustained 
 the siege of Granada. Perceiving that 
 his strongest fortresses were in the power 
 of the Christians, and that Guadix could 
 not long hold out, the former hastened to 
 the camp of Fernando, and in return for 
 some extensive domains, resigned his 
 authority, and his best possessions, into 
 the hands of that king. Granada, the 
 capital, held out a short time only, and 
 then capitulated. (See Abu Abdalla.) 
 This convention, which took place in 
 about seven years after his accession, 
 led to the voluntary exile of El Zagal. 
 Unwilling to live as a subject where 
 he had reigned as a king, he passed into 
 Africa, and was lost to history. — The 
 Moorish romances of this period, which 
 are illustrative alike of the national cha- 
 racter and of the war, have been often 
 admired and often versified, and have 
 given to the subject an interest which it 
 
A B D 
 
 AB D 
 
 would otherwise have wanted. (Dun- 
 ham's Spain.) 
 
 ABDALLA BEN ZOBAIR, khalif 
 of Mecca ; was raised to that dignity in 
 consequence of the excesses committed 
 by Yezid, khalif of Syria, against the 
 offspring of Ali. This was in the year of 
 Christ 660, only 62 years after the Hejira, 
 or the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to 
 Medina. Ali (see the name) the cousin 
 and son-in-law of Mahomet, was held in 
 much veneration by the people of Mecca ; 
 and this persecution of his offspring was 
 deeply offensive to them. Hence the 
 proclamation of Abdalla, who had been 
 one of the greatest supports of that house, 
 of which he was a member. On hearing 
 this intelligence, Yezid, after a short ne- 
 gotiation, sent an army to besiege the holy 
 city. For a time the siege was pushed 
 with vigour ; but Yezid dying, the army 
 returned to Damascus, and Abdalla was 
 left in tranquil possession of the khalifat 
 during nine years. He was then opposed 
 by the khalif Abdelmelek, by whom he 
 was vanquished and slain. A brave and 
 pious man, he had yet one faialt, — that of 
 avarice. Hence the saying, that before 
 him, liberality had always been asso- 
 ciated with bravery. (D'Herbelot.) 
 
 ABDALLA IBN SAAD, the scribe of 
 Mahomet, who committed to writing 
 most part of the Koran, under the dic- 
 tation of that prophet. After a long 
 disgrace, owing, we are told, to his 
 con-uption of the holy volume, he ac- 
 companied Mahomet in his conquests. 
 Under the immediate successors of the 
 impostor he was honourably employed. 
 He invaded Abyssinia, was viceroy of 
 Egypt, overran Lybia, and was very ac- 
 tively employed imto liis death, about 
 the middle of the seventh century. 
 
 ABDALLA, fourth and last sheik of 
 the Wahabis, distinguished himself dur- 
 ing the life of his father, Schud, the third 
 prince of the dynasty. At war with the 
 Turks and the Egyptians, imder Maho- 
 met Ali, he had sometimes victory 
 sometimes defeat ; but he was always 
 indefatigable, always courageous. In 
 1813 he succeeded his father, and the 
 following year was called to measure 
 arms with the celebrated viceroy of 
 Egypt. He failed, and was compelled 
 to negotiate ; but this was only to gain 
 time. In 1816 hostilities recommenced 
 with new vigoiu: ; and the following 
 year the chief of the Wahabis was 
 signally defeated by Ibrahim Pacha. 
 At length he was besieged in the best 
 of liis fortresses, obliged to capitulate, 
 34 
 
 sent first into Egypt, and next to Con- 
 stantinople, where, in 1818, he was be- 
 headed by order of the sultan. 
 
 ABDALLA-EBN - CAIS - EL-FEZA- 
 RY was the first Mussulman who assailed 
 Sicily, in a.d. 667. He was the general 
 of the khalif Moawia, and his descent 
 was successful as far as phmder was con- 
 cerned. 
 
 ABDALLATIF, (1161—1231,) the 
 celebrated historian of Bagdat. As his 
 father was in easy circumstances, he was 
 enabled to acquire all the knowledge of 
 the age. Until his twentieth year he 
 studied medicine ; but this profession 
 being little to his taste, he abandoned it, 
 and gave up his whole time to history. 
 To collect materials, he repaired to Mus- 
 sul, Damascus, and Jerusalem ; and from 
 thence in the camp of Saladin, whose 
 vizir Bahadin encouraged him in all his 
 projects. Furnished with letters of re- 
 commendation by that chief, he next tra- 
 velled into Egypt, where he abode some 
 time. On his retm-n to Saladin 's camp 
 he was rewarded by a pension on the 
 treasvu*y of Damascus, and at Damascus 
 he fixed his residence for some years. 
 But the same ardent curiosity often led 
 him to other places, — to none without 
 improvement. Piety at length took him 
 to Mecca, and the recollections of his 
 j'outh to Bagdat ; but death surprised 
 him just when he had reached the latter 
 city. His works were exceedingly nu- 
 merous ; but on two of them liis repu- 
 tation must rest. The first, a Descrip- 
 tion of Egypt, has not found its way to 
 Europe ; and as copies in the east are 
 almost unknown, perhaps it never may. 
 The second, which is also on Egypt, and 
 comprehends the personal experience of 
 the author, his diligent observations, the 
 description of every thing he deemed 
 worthy of notice, has been published, 
 with a Latin translation, at Oxford (1800). 
 A German one had previously issued 
 from the press of Halle (1790) ; and a 
 French one, the best of all, has since 
 appeared by Silvestre de Sacy, Paris, 
 1810. He is said to be a most careful, 
 no less than a reflecting writer. 
 
 Of this name were two other orientals. 
 One, the son of Ulec Beg, king of Trans- 
 oxiana, rebelled against his father, whom 
 he defeated and slew. In six months 
 aflerwards (1452) he was himself slain 
 by an arrow from his own followers. 
 Whether the missile was accidental, or 
 intended to punish liis panicide, is 
 doubtful. 
 
 Another Abdallatif, son of Abdalla, 
 
A B D 
 
 AB D 
 
 prince of the Usbek Tartars, deserves 
 mentioning as the last of the race of 
 Ghengis Khan. He died a. h. 948, 
 A. D. 1541. (D'Herbelot. Preface of De 
 Sacy.) 
 
 ABDALRAHMAN IBN HUSSEIN, 
 a native of Cairo, took the part of the 
 French soon after their Invasion of Egypt. 
 On their expulsion by the English, he 
 wrote against them with equal facility. 
 In 1807 he presented his little work to 
 Mustapha IV., at Constantinople ; and 
 by that sultan's order it was translated 
 from Arabic into Turkish. A more im- 
 portant work is his Modern History of 
 Egypt (1688—1806), in 3 vols. This 
 work ought to be translated. Its publi- 
 cation was contemplated by Mehemet 
 Ali; but probably it will never see 
 the light unless it be issued from some 
 European press. 
 
 ABDALRAHMAN, an African prince, 
 a native of Timbuctoo, whose fate was 
 somewhat singidar. While in a city 
 which depended on Timbuctoo, in the 
 command of the troops, he was visited 
 by Mr. Cox, an American surgeon, to 
 whom he showed, during six months, 
 all the hospitality that could be expected. 
 Some years afterwards,being unsuccessful 
 in war, he was made a slave, sold to the 
 traders, embarked, and sent among the 
 Natchez. Here, as chance or provi- 
 dence dii'ected, he was again accidentally 
 met by the sm-geon Cox, who procured 
 his liberation, and enabled him to return. 
 He died, however, before he coidd revisit 
 his country (1829) ; and his death has 
 been much lamented by men of science, 
 from the belief that had his life been 
 spared, he would have been instnmiental 
 in opening a permanent communication 
 between Timbuctoo and the civilized 
 world. ^ 
 
 ABDAL-WAHAB, the true founder 
 of the Wahabis, a sect of Mohammedan 
 heretics, who began their opposition to 
 the sidtan of Constantinople about the 
 middle of the last century. The honour, 
 however, is usually attributed to his son 
 Mohammed. (See the name.) As there 
 can be no doubt that Mohammed had 
 more power than his father, and is the 
 only one of the two known to Euro- 
 peans ; as his exploits were far more sig- 
 nal than those of Abdal-wahab, whose life 
 was comparatively obscure, we refer to 
 that article for an examination of the reli- 
 gious and political tenets of this sect. 
 
 ABDAS, a Persian bishop of the fifth 
 century ; was consecrated to that region 
 on the consent of Isdegerd, its monarch, 
 35 
 
 to suffer the preaching of the gospel. So 
 long as Isdegerd lived, the missionaries 
 were not molested ; nor would they havje 
 been so in the reign of Varanes V., the 
 next king, but for the indiscreet zeal of 
 Abdas, who assailed one of the temples 
 of fire. The magians complained to 
 the sovereign, who merely reprimanded 
 the author of the outi'age, — a degree of 
 clemency unusual in the east, — and 
 only demanded that the temple should 
 be rebuilt at the expense of its destroy- 
 ers. Abdas reflised to do so ; and the 
 people's rage was immediately directed 
 against all the Christian churches, which 
 were soon levelled with the groimd. Nor 
 was this all ; a persecution followed, in 
 which many Christians perished. Some 
 were spared, in the hope of their retiu-n 
 to the ancient religion ; others, among 
 whom were two of the royal family, were 
 condemned to the vilest employments. 
 The worst of all was the war which the 
 Greek empire, at the solicitation of the 
 Christians,made on the monarch of Persia, 
 and which raged near thirty j^ears. Ab- 
 das was the first victim to the fury of the 
 men he had insulted and provoked ; yet 
 he is called a martjT, and is worshipped as 
 a saint.* (BoUandus, Acta SS. — Gibbon.) 
 ABDEL-ASIS, son of Muza, the con- 
 queror of Spain, who assisted his father 
 in that great undertaking. (See Muza.) 
 The gi-eat battle of Xeres (711) did not 
 decide the fate of the peninsula. Many 
 fortresses still held out ; and it re- 
 quired all the force, all the perseverance 
 of father and son, to reduce them. Ab- 
 del-asis had the glory of compelling 
 Theodomir, the successor of Rodrigo, 
 to suiTender the strong fortress of Ori- 
 huela. On this occasion he acted with a 
 generosity little known to Mohammedans; 
 he behaved to the royal captive with the 
 most respectful attention. In the sub- 
 sequent campaigns — and many years 
 elapsed after the battle of Xeres before 
 Spain was a Mohammedan pro^dnce — 
 the young emir exhibited great valour 
 and great enterprise. But the avarice of 
 his father, and that father's mean jealousy 
 of Tarik, (see the name,) were injurious to 
 him. By the khalif Walid, the successor 
 of Abdel-melic, Tarik and Musa were 
 summoned to Damascus ; and by the 
 latter, Abdel-asis was left with the govern- 
 ment of Spain. This emir was, in many 
 respects, deserv-ing of the trust : he sub- 
 dued Lusitania in person ; Navarre and 
 the north of AiTagon by his generals. 
 
 • See Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints, where 
 this saiBt is lepiesented more catholico, 
 D2 
 
AB D 
 
 AB D 
 
 That he had ambitious views, may be in- 
 ferred alike from his policy, and from his 
 marriage with Egilona, the widow of 
 Rodrigo. If, however, he had no such 
 views, she would have been sure to in- 
 spire him with them. They were soon 
 suspected ; and his private vices added to 
 the general dissatisfaction. The davighters 
 of the noblest chiefs he forced to become 
 his concubines. His conduct was nar- 
 rowly watched by Suleyman,the successor 
 of Walid, who punished the father, and 
 decreed the ruin of the son. Secret 
 orders were despatched for his death, 
 and that of his brother ; and while at 
 morning prayers in the great mosque of 
 Seville, he fell beneath the daggers of his 
 assassins. His trunk was buried in the 
 court-yard of his palace ; his head was 
 sent to Damascus, and shown by the 
 khalif to Muza. The afflicted father 
 turned away at the sight, exclaiming, 
 " Cursed be he who has slain a better 
 man than himself!" He left Damascus, 
 and retired into Arabia, where grief soon 
 brought him to the grave. Abdel-asis 
 fell in the year of Christ 716. Such was 
 the reward which the conquerors of Spain 
 received from their sovereign ! (Conde, 
 Historia de la Dominacion, tom. i. Isi- 
 doi-us Pacensis, Chronicon. Casm, Bib- 
 liotheca Arab. Hisp. tom. ii. 
 
 ABDEL-ASIS, chief of the Wahabis, 
 a Mahommedan sect at variance with both 
 the Persians and Turks, and whom both 
 heartily curse as heretics. (See Abdal- 
 Wahab.) Joined by many tribes of the 
 desert, he was formidable enough to defy 
 the tiiie believers. The holy city of Imam 
 Hussein fell into his power ; the still holier 
 one of Mecca soon obeyed him. In the 
 midst of his triumphs he fell the victim of 
 domestic treason, being stabbed at prayers 
 by a Persian who had tiu'ned Wahabite 
 with the resolution to murder him. This 
 event happened in 1803 ; but his domi- 
 nion, which had been founded by his 
 father, Ebn Shud, did not fall with him ; 
 he was succeeded by his son Shud, (See 
 Abdalla.) 
 
 ABDEL - CADER - BEN - MOHAM- 
 MED, a native of Medina, and a writer 
 on the cultivation of coffee in the 16th 
 century. 
 
 ABDEL -CAHER ABU BEKIR, a 
 philologist and grammarian of the 11th 
 century. 
 
 ABDEL-MELEK, the fifth khalif of 
 Damascus, of the house of Omeya, 
 succeeded his father, Merwan I. in 
 the year of the Hejira 65, (a. d. 685.) 
 His reign was a troubled one. Innu- 
 36 
 
 merable were the engagements which 
 he had with the armies of Abdalla ben 
 Zobair, (see the name,) whom the in- 
 habitants of Mecca had raised to the 
 khalifat. He had also to fight with the 
 Greeks, who were long too powerful for 
 him. At length, however, he had in- 
 ternal peace, and his domains were 
 augmented in the East and West. 
 Muza placed his victorious ensigns on 
 the extremity of Africa, and Spain was 
 soon to be added to the other provinces 
 of his widely-extended empire. Of his 
 personal qualities, avarice was the most 
 prominent ; and he is said to have been 
 partially cured of it by an apologue. 
 Being one day low-spirited, he com- 
 manded his jester to enliven him by 
 some story. " There was an owl at 
 Bussora, and another at Mussoul. The 
 owl of Mussoul asked the daughter of 
 the owl of Bussora for his son. 'Yes,' 
 replied the other owl, ' on one condition, 
 ■ — tliat thou givest thy son as a marriage 
 portion one hundred ruined buildings.' 
 'At present,' replied the sage of Mussoul, 
 ' I cannot fulfil this condition ; but if 
 through the grace of God om* khalif 
 reigns another year, I Avill give my son 
 the number thou requirest.' " From this 
 time, says the Arabian historian, Abdel- 
 melek was less avaricious, and more 
 attentive to the duties of his station. 
 
 There is a legend respecting this khalif, 
 which ought to be mentioned, as it has 
 found its way into the chronicle of the 
 destruction of Spain by the Mooi's, usu- 
 ally known as the Chronicle of Don 
 Rodrigo ; into the history of the arch- 
 bishop of Toledo ; and into a Moham- 
 medan history of Spain, that of Abul 
 Cassim. The original, which is doubt- 
 less from the east, is as follows : — 
 Abdel-melek, say tlie oriental writers, 
 subdued Spaki ; and he heard of a castle 
 which according to popular tradition had 
 been built by the fairies, and was filled 
 with riches. It was situated in the bosom 
 of the mountains, scarcely accessible to 
 mortals. As avarice was his ruling pas- 
 sion, he caused diligent search to be 
 made for this rich tower, and at length 
 it was discovered. Over the entrance 
 were four verses, wi'itten in a very an- 
 cient character : 
 
 Difficult will be the attempt to open 
 
 the gates of this castle. 
 The iron-tooth, rash traveller, which 
 
 thou seest, belongs not to the lock, 
 
 but to a fiu-ious dragon. 
 Be assured that no man will be able 
 
 to break this charm, 
 
ABD 
 
 ABD 
 
 Unless destiny put the right key Into 
 his hands. 
 The khalif's men desisted from the en- 
 terprise. 
 
 In the Spanish chronicles before men- 
 tioned, the honour both of the discovering 
 and of the opening is assigned to Rod- 
 rigo, the last Gothic monarch of Spain, 
 He and his predecessors had long heard 
 of an enchanted tower, or cave, which 
 was believed to contain not only im- 
 mense treasure, but ancient pi'ophecies 
 concerning the fate of the kingdom. If 
 it had been shunned by them, it was not 
 so by him ; and in spite of the svipplica- 
 tions of his councillors, Rodrigo opened 
 the mysterious tower. He found nothing 
 within but strange representations of 
 Saracens and Moors, who, as an inscrip- 
 tion bore, would soon conquer Spain. 
 
 This legend of the di-agon and the 
 treasure — of this enchanted fabric — is of 
 far higher antiquity and of more uni- 
 versal diffusion than is generally sup- 
 posed. It pervades the ancient history 
 of all nations, and is a portion of that 
 traditionary lore which both Celts and 
 Goths derived from some common source. 
 (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque. Cronica del 
 Rey Don Rodrigo. Rudericus Toletanus, 
 de Rebus Hispanicis.) 
 
 ABDEL-MELEK I. was the fifth 
 monarcli of the dynasty of Saman, (see 
 the name and that of Assad,) which ruled 
 over Transoxiana, a province that had 
 escaped from the yoke of the khalifs. 
 This prince ascended the throne in the 
 year of Christ 954, and died after a reign 
 of seven years, by a fall from his horse. 
 
 ABDEL-MELEK II. (d. 999,) the 
 ninth king of the Samanides in Transoxi- 
 ana, was raised to the throne by a faction 
 hostile to the sway of his brother Man- 
 soor, (see the name.) He was but the 
 slave of that faction. To rescue him 
 from dependence, a princely ally armed, 
 and defeated the two chief rebels. In 
 revenge, they prevailed on the weak Ab- 
 del-melek to invoke the aid of Ilek Khan, 
 monarch of Turkestan, whose secret crea- 
 tures they were. The barbarian obeyed 
 the call, crossed the Taxartes, advanced 
 to Bokhara, seated himself on the throne 
 of the Samanides, and sent Abdel-melek 
 to prison in Tm-kestan, where he died. 
 With him ended the dynasty of the Sa- 
 manides ; for though his brother Montasar 
 ■was proclaimed by the adherents of his 
 house, the latter was bvit a fugitive from 
 one province to another, and was at length 
 slain, after a reign of less than a year. 
 
 ABDEL-MELEK, a native of Ceuta 
 37 
 
 in Africa, and a commentator on the 
 poem of Ibn Abdun. 
 
 ABDEL-MELEK BEN SALAH, of 
 the family of Mahomet, was entrusted 
 by Aaroun al Raschid with the govern- 
 ment of Egypt, and by his son with that 
 of Syria. 
 
 ABDEL-MUMEN, (Abu Mohammed,) 
 founder of the great dynasty of' the 
 Almohades, and the associate of Mo- 
 hammed Abu Abdalla in that most im- 
 portant revolution. As this extraordinary 
 man has been inaccurately or imperfectly 
 represented in all the biographical col- 
 lections we have seen, we shall dwell 
 upon him at somewhat greater length than 
 we should otherwise be disposed to do. 
 We must, however, premise, that as the 
 dynasty of the Almoravides preceded 
 that of the Almohades in the same re- 
 gions, the reader will have a much better 
 conception of the latter revolution, if, 
 before he proceeds farther in this arti- 
 cle, he will turn to Abdalla ben 
 Yassim, Abu Bekir, and Yussef ben 
 Taxfin, the founders of the preceding 
 dynasty. 
 
 Under Ali, the successor of Yussef ben 
 Taxfin in the empire of the Almoravides, 
 there was a sti'ong dislike to that dynasty 
 in Spain, and no affection towards it in 
 Africa. In both countries it was totter- 
 ing to its fall. In the one the victories 
 of the Cliristians, in the other the ap- 
 pearance of a rival sect, was the cause. 
 The origin of this sect must be chiefly 
 attributed to Mohammed ben Abdalla, 
 whose character and exploits are so 
 closely connected with those of Abdel- 
 mumen, as to render them inseparable. 
 Mohammed was a native of Cordova, of 
 humble birth, but distinguished for great 
 ardour in the pursuit of knowledge. 
 Having acquired all that his native city 
 could impart, he repaired to Bagdat, 
 where there was supposed to be more learn- 
 ing and more orthodoxy than in any other 
 part of the Mohammedan world. At 
 Bagdat, he formed an acquaintance with 
 Abu Hamid Algazali, one of the most 
 learned doctors of the period. This Al- 
 gazali had written a book which the cadi 
 of Cordova had pi'onounced heretical, and 
 which in the opinion of many other doc- 
 tors contained propositions dangerous to 
 Islam. The emperor Ali had been called 
 upon to sanction the condemnation, and 
 the obnoxious book had been everywhere 
 committed to the flames. Great was the 
 rage of Algazali on hearing the fate of 
 his beloved writings ; and he prayed that 
 botli the judges who had condemned, and 
 
A BD 
 
 ABD 
 
 the monarcli who had confii-med the'de- 
 cree, might be visited with the fate which 
 they had passed upon his book. The 
 imprecation was loudly uttered in the 
 presence of the stranger student, who, 
 participating in the wrath of the rest, ex- 
 claimed to his master, " Add one thing 
 to thy curse, that I may be the instru- 
 ment for carrying it into effect !" and the 
 teacher did so. This exclamation ren- 
 dered him a favourite of Algazali, whose 
 peculiar doctrines he embraced with avi- 
 dity, and after some residence in Bagdat, 
 he became their apostle in Mauritania. 
 He did not, however, so slavishly adhere 
 to them, as not to inculcate a few of his 
 own ; for whatever might be his affection 
 for his master, he had a great deal moi'e 
 for himself ; and he was inordinately 
 ambitious, — ambitious of temporal no less 
 than of spiritual authority. Yet for 
 some time, his preaching was ineffec- 
 tual, and from more mosques than one, 
 in which he ventured to inveigh against 
 the ruling powers, he was glad to escape 
 with more precipitation than became the 
 dignity of a doctor. On his way to Tre- 
 mecen, he for the first time met with 
 Abdel-mumen, then a youth, of whose 
 previous history we kriow nothing. The 
 boldness, the fanaticism, the incipient 
 knavery of this youth, rendered him so 
 agreeable to Mohammed, that from this 
 moment their destiny was united, and 
 together they planned that stupendous 
 fabric of imposture which so long sur- 
 vived them. Emboldened by the coun- 
 sels of this new disciple, this friend, this 
 ally, the learned missionary assumed a dif- 
 ferent tone. Entering the great mosque 
 of Morocco, he seized on the highest 
 seat. "That seat is not for thee," was 
 the exclamation of a grave teacher, " it 
 belongs to the imam, the prince of the 
 faithful !" " The temples belong to Allah 
 and Allah alone !" was the reply of Mo- 
 hammed, taken from a celebrated chapter 
 of the Koran ; and he mmiediately recited 
 the following passages, on which he com- 
 mented as he went along. In the midst 
 of this exhibition, and before the proper 
 devotions of the day commenced, Ali 
 entered, and all rose to salute him except 
 Mahommed, who scorned to honour him 
 even by a glance. When the service 
 was concluded, however, he approached 
 the monarch, and in the hearing of all 
 present, denounced on him the vengeance 
 of Allah if he did not immediately cor- 
 rect the abuses under which his people 
 gi'oaned. Ali regarded him at first as 
 one of the devout ascetics, — one of the 
 38 
 
 popular saints to whom custom permits 
 great liberty of speech. Yet subse- 
 quently, he caused the avowed princi- 
 ples of the man to be examined, and they 
 were found to contain so much that was 
 dangerous, that he was advised to stifle 
 them in their birth. But he was satisfied 
 with banishing the new prophet from 
 Morocco. This was not a punishment ; 
 on the contrary, it added to the reputa- 
 tion of Mohammed, who retired to the 
 solitary places of the vicinity, where he 
 was soon visited by many who longed 
 for a change. That his eloquence was 
 great, is affirmed by all his biogra- 
 phers ; that he had the gift of prophecy, 
 was believed by the vulgar. He in- 
 veighed against the vices, the tyranny, 
 the impiety of the reigning dynasty ; and 
 so many listened to him with evident 
 pleasure, that Ali ordered hun to be 
 seized. But he had timely warning of 
 the fate intended him, and he fled to 
 Tinmal, in the province of Suz, where 
 he was joined by many disciples, — men 
 who were ready either to suffer or to 
 fight in his cause. 
 
 The success of Mohammed may be 
 easily explained. He asserted that the 
 great Mehedi, or twelfth imam, the doc- 
 tor and teacher of all the faithful, was 
 about to re-appear. Most readers are 
 little aware of the disputes among the 
 doctors of Islam, respecting the dig- 
 nity and person of this supreme chief. 
 Some contend that it is essentially 
 divine, and restricted to one holy family, 
 like the priesthood in the house of Aaron ; 
 others, that it is subordinate to the 
 khalifat, and may be exercised by any 
 family to which it may be confided ; 
 others again, that it is an office entirely 
 prophetic, and has no connexion with 
 worldly dignities. All agree, however, 
 that the imam for the time being had an 
 omnipotent power in matters of religion, 
 and that to resist his infallible will in the 
 slightest matter was rebellion against 
 heaven. The more numerous portion of 
 the Moslems, — in fact all who have any 
 claim to orthodoxy — restrict the office 
 to Ali (see the name) the son-in-law and 
 cousin of Mahomet, and the descendants 
 of Ali. All agree that twelve personages 
 invested with it, have appeared. 
 
 1. Ali, the 4th khalif. 
 
 2. Hassan, the eldest son of Ali, 5th 
 khalif, who abdicated. 
 
 3. Hussein, a younger son of Ali, who 
 fell in the battle of Kerbela. 
 
 4. Ali, surnamed Zin-alab-eddin, eld- 
 est son of Hussein. 
 
A BD 
 
 A BD 
 
 5. Mohammed Bakir, son of the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 6. Giafar Sadik, son of the preceding. 
 
 7. Muza al Kiadhem, son of the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 8. Ali Ridha, son of the preceding. 
 
 9. Ahu Giafar Mohammed, son of the 
 preceding. 
 
 10. Ali Askeri, sumamed Al-zek, son 
 of the preceding. 
 
 1 1 . Hassan ' Askeri, son of the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 12. Mohammed Abnl Cassim, son of 
 the preceding. 
 
 As the last of these great imams, — all 
 of All's second house, — lived in the third 
 and fourth centinries of the Hejira, (a. d. 
 869 — 938,) the existence of the twelve 
 generations was included within three 
 centuries. 
 
 Of these twelve imams, the Shiites 
 speak with the highest veneration, — as 
 beings superior to mankind. They are 
 the idolaters rather than followers of Ali 
 and his descendants. The office of imam, 
 they assert, must not be considered 
 merely as a point of discipline, but as a 
 fundamental article of faith ; and that 
 the person is no less divine. Where the 
 succession is not in the privileged family 
 of Ali, there can be no virtue in devo- 
 tion ; — a curse, not a blessing, must rest 
 on the faith of Islam. By a natural 
 and even necessary inference, the Shiites 
 held Ali and his posterity to be divine. 
 Some of them went farther still, and in- 
 sisted that Ali was either an emanation 
 of the divine nature, or an incarnation 
 of God himself; and consequently that 
 all religion consists in the true know- 
 ledge of, and obedience to, the true 
 imam. But the Khoreg'ites, or rebels, 
 utterly scouted these notions. They 
 contended that any Arabian, bond or 
 free, if possessed of the necessary learn- 
 ing and virtue, might exercise the func- 
 tions of imam ; that he was not infallible, 
 but might sin ; that if he did sin, he 
 might be deposed and put to death. But 
 these were desperate heretics — rebels, as 
 their name imports, to the spiritual autho- 
 rity of the holy family — and were few in 
 comparison with the Shiites. Their 
 opinions, however, have survived them. 
 At the present day, the Tm-ks reject Ali ; 
 while the Persians, who are Shiites, 
 curse the first three khalifs after Ma- 
 homet, as usurpers of the authority 
 which Ali alone shoidd have exercised. 
 
 It is about the twelfth of these imams, 
 Mohammed Abid Cassmi, that so many 
 fables have been invented by the Shiites, 
 39 
 
 and by all who follow the house of Ali. 
 He was the only son of Hassan, the 
 eleventh pontiff; and at nine years of 
 age his mother enclosed him in a cave, 
 where he remained until his last day. 
 That he was concealed during his whole 
 life, is certain ; nor can we have any dif- 
 ficidty in finding the motive, — fear of 
 the khalifs belonging to the dynasty of 
 Abbas, the implacable enemies of the 
 house of Ali. Hence the secrecy of his 
 communication with his followers, whom 
 he never saw, and whom he directed 
 through the agency of a few tried mes- 
 sengers. Some writers assert that he 
 died in a. h. 326, others in a. h. 330. 
 But there are not a few bold enough to 
 assert that he never died at all ; that he 
 still lives in the same grotto, inaccessible 
 to mortals. All agree that, whether 
 living or dead, he will re-appear before 
 the end of the world ; unite all the Mo- 
 hammedan sects ; and bring into the 
 bosom of Islam all Christians, all idola- 
 ters, all mankind. During the greater 
 part of a millennium, he has been ex- 
 pected by the Moslems with as much 
 anxiety as the Messiah by the Jews. It 
 must, however, be observed that by the 
 more rigid of the orthodox, he is to be 
 rather the apostle than the operator of 
 this change ; that Christ is to effect this 
 union of all religious creeds ; that the 
 latter will appear on earth a second time, 
 embrace the faith of Islam, beget chil- 
 dren, and kill antichrist ; and that the 
 great Mehedi will be the Elias, the fore- 
 runner of our Saviour's second advent. 
 
 In consequence of the general expecta- 
 tion of the coming of the Mehedi, it was 
 natural to suppose that many claimants 
 to this high office should arise, when so 
 many in the early history of the church 
 assumed that of Elias and the Messiah. 
 Thus in the reign of Al Mohdi, the third 
 khalif of the Abbassides, the famous 
 impostor, Hakem Ebn Haschen, sur- 
 named Al-Mokanna, or the veiled, a 
 native of Khorasan, declared himself this 
 expected prophet, — this incarnation of 
 deity, whom all the Shiites ought to 
 follow.* Thus also Baber, (see both 
 names,) assumed prophetic office in 
 Adherbijan, and during twenty years 
 defied the power of the reigning khalif. 
 Thus also Mohammed Ben Abdalla, and 
 his colleague Abdel-mumen, took advan- 
 tage of the popular credulity. 
 
 For some time, this impostor, though 
 
 • Our poet, Moore, has rendered this personage 
 familiar to every reader, as " The Veiled Prophet 
 of Khorasan.", 
 
ABD 
 
 ABD 
 
 zealously preaching the immediate ap- 
 pearance of the Mehedi, was not so 
 bold as to call himself the mighty pro- 
 phet. At length, however, when the 
 credulity of his followers ensured success 
 to the pretension, he and Abdel-mumen 
 devised the manner in which the long- 
 suppressed communication should be 
 made to the world. One day, when he 
 had been long expatiating in the public 
 mosque on the blessings which the pre- 
 destined teacher was to produce, Abdel- 
 mumen arose, and said, " Thou preachest 
 to us the coming of the Mehedi : thou 
 art he ; and we are ready to obey thee 
 in all things as our temporal and spiri- 
 tual ruler!" In accordance, no doubt, 
 with a previously concerted scheme, 
 many of the assembled chiefs arose from 
 their seats, and vowed an undying 
 fidelity. From this moment, he assumed 
 the awful title of Mehedi ; he established 
 a two-fold government ; nine ministers, 
 at the head of whom was Abdel-mumen, 
 formed his executive government ; and 
 subordinate to these, were seventy coun- 
 sellors, all Maiuitanian chiefs, or chiefs 
 who, though spmng from the ancient 
 Arab race, had long been located in 
 these extensive regions. And let it not 
 be supposed that there were no subjects 
 to be governed : many powerful tribes 
 acknowledged the new potentate ; an 
 army of 10,000 horse and twice the 
 number of foot were soon devoted to his 
 interests. Alarm now seized on the soul 
 of Ali. It was in the year of the Hejira 
 515, corresponding to a. d. 1121, that he 
 ordered the wall of Suz to assaidt the 
 rebels before greater reinforcements 
 should have arrived. Unable to cope 
 with the enemy, the Avali invoked the 
 aid of the supreme government, and of 
 Ibrahim, the brother of Ali, with troops 
 formidable enough to crush the insur- 
 rection at a blow. But little did the 
 imperial brothers know the spirit which 
 animated the proselytes, or the moral 
 contagion which had spread amongst 
 their own people. At the very onset the 
 Almoravides fled ! A second battle was 
 more fiercely contested, but victory 
 again declared for Abdel-mumen. In 
 great haste the troops of Ali were re- 
 called from Spain, and a vast army was 
 led against the rebels ; two more vic- 
 tories followed in rapid succession, and 
 the dynasty of the Almohades, viz. of the 
 Unitarians, — of those who worshipped 
 the unity of the godhead, and wlio de- 
 clared inextinguishable war against all 
 pagans, all idolaters, all who acknow- 
 40 
 
 ledged more than one God, — was now 
 in existence. The inaccessible fortress 
 of Tinmal, placed on the wildest peak 
 of the Daren chain, enabled these holy 
 banditti to defy the world. But to re- 
 main in fortresses was no part of Mo- 
 hammed's scheme, or of his minister, 
 Abdel-mumen. In 519, the latter be- 
 sieged Morocco, and for the first time 
 his arms were unsuccessful : he was 
 compelled to retreat, but this he effected 
 in an orderly manner. Severe as was 
 the loss of the Almohades, Abdel-mumen 
 yet lived ; and this, in the opinion of 
 Mohammed, was sufficient to counter- 
 balance the disasters of the siege. For 
 about three years, the Almohades re- 
 mained tranquil : time was necessary to 
 collect troops, and to make them forget 
 the past misfortime. In 523, Abdel- 
 mumen, at the head of 30,000 horse and 
 a corresponding number of infantry, 
 again tried the fortune of war. The 
 Mehedi Avas worn out by sickness, but 
 the vigour of his mind survived ; and 
 when conferring on his minister and 
 favourite the spiritual dignity of imam, 
 he felt assured of future success. The 
 general was victorious, and on his return 
 to Tinmal, he perceived that sickness had 
 made great havoc on the frame of the 
 Mehedi. In a few days, Mohammed con- 
 voked his chiefs, advised them to perse- 
 vere in the heavenly doctrine, and soon 
 afterwards expired. What form of govern- 
 ment should be adopted ? The inspired 
 leader was no more ; and could his hea- 
 venly gifts be transferred to any other 
 mortal ? It was agreed that they could : a 
 monarchy at once spiritual and temporal 
 was resolved upon ; and Abdel-mumen, 
 the general of the pm'e faith, the column 
 of the true religion, the friend, the con- 
 fidant, the minister of the deceased Me- 
 hedi, was unanimously proclaimed Imam 
 and Almumenin, or supreme head of the 
 religion and government. 
 
 If Abdel-mumen had, as a mere gene- 
 ral, exhibited so much valour in the 
 field, his spirit of enterprise was not 
 likely to be weakened on seeing himself 
 invested with the majesty of the khalifat. 
 So rapid were his successes, that all Fez, 
 all Teza, the whole region from Sale to 
 Darah, soon acknowledged his two-fold 
 yoke. On the death of Ali (a.h. 537, or 
 A.D. 1143,) and the accession of Taxfin, 
 the son of Ali, who had shown great va- 
 lour in Spain, hopes were entertained by 
 his people that the career of Abdel-mu- 
 men would be arrested. But if the latter 
 was once checked, he was victorious in 
 
ABD 
 
 A B D 
 
 two subsequent actions ; and Taxfin was 
 besieged in Tremecen ; at the head of a 
 desperate body of horsemen, he cut his 
 way through the besiegers, and threw 
 himself into Oran, whence he hoped to 
 escape into Andahisia ; but Oran was 
 also besieged ; and when amidst the si- 
 lence of night the unfortunate emperor 
 endeavoured to gain a vessel which 
 awaited him, he mistook his way, fell 
 down a precipice, and, at morning's 
 dawn, was found dashed to pieces. Oran 
 capitidated, and Abdel-mumen entered it 
 in A.H. 540. Some cities, however, among 
 which were Morocco and Fez, still held 
 for the Almoravides, who raised Ibra- 
 him Abu Ishac, son of Taxfin, to the 
 vacant throne. But Ibrahim was a ten- 
 der youth ; his inexperience could avail 
 nothing against the veteran Abdel-mu- 
 men : Tremecen was taken by assaidt ; 
 Fez shared the same fate ; Morocco was 
 besieged, and at length taken ; Ibrahim 
 was put to death ; a general massacre 
 followed ; the wild hordes of the desert 
 were brought to re-people the silent 
 streets ; and Abdel-mumen was the un- 
 disputed monarch of all the vast regions 
 which had constituted the empire of the 
 Almoravides. 
 
 ^ While these successes were passing in 
 Africa, the generals of Abdel-mumen were 
 subduing such fortresses of Spain as held 
 for the fallen dynasty. In the sequel they 
 proclaimed him emperor of all Moham- 
 medan Spain. That he aimed at the 
 entire conquest of the country, is evident 
 from his proclaiming the Albiged, or holy 
 war, and collecting troops from all the 
 countries between the Great Desert and 
 Ceuta, between Tunis and the ocean. 
 But in the midst of his mighty prepa- 
 rations death assailed him, the eighth 
 day of Jumadi II., 5.58, which con-esponds 
 to the 16th day of May, 1163. His cha- 
 racter will be sufficiently clear from his 
 exploits. Without him Mohammed would 
 never have been venerated as a prophet ; 
 without him the empire of the Almo- 
 hades would never have been founded. 
 (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, sub 
 vocibus. Casiri, Bib. Arab. Hisp. Escu- 
 rial, torn. ii. Conde, Historia de la Do- 
 minacion de los Arabes en Espaiia.) 
 
 ABDEL-REZZAK, founder of the 
 d3Tiasty of the Sarbedarians, whose capi- 
 tal was Schezwar in Khorasan. His 
 early life was passed in the service of 
 Abu Said, sidtan of the Mongul Tartars 
 of Transoxiana. But he was a dishonest 
 steward ; and his peculations would have 
 led to his destruction had they been dis- 
 41 
 
 covered before the death of Abu Said. 
 Knowing that the people were disaffected, 
 owing to the tyranny of a \azir, he pro- 
 claimed himself the redresser of wrongs, 
 the champion of the poor : by this means 
 he won the confidence of the multitude, 
 and in the com-se of a few years he 
 obtained the supreme authority. The 
 djTiasty whicli he founded, however, 
 was of short duration : it embraced in- 
 deed twelve princes, but their r.eigns 
 were comprised within the brief period 
 of thii-ty-five years — viz. fi'om a. h. 737 
 to 772, (a.d. 1337—1371.) The end of 
 most was tragical : Abdel-rezzak himself 
 was killed by leaping from a high 
 window to escape the fury of a brother. 
 The last prince of this line joined Timur, 
 whose empire absorbed the petty sove- 
 reignties which had once formed the 
 monarchy of Ghengis Khan. 
 
 ABDERAHMAN BEN ABDALLA,* 
 viceroy of Spain in the eighth century 
 for the khalif Yezid. To this high dig- 
 nity he succeeded at a period most criti- 
 cal for the Mohammedan arms, — just as 
 Alsama ben Melio had perished under 
 the walls of Thoulouse, and as the faith 
 of Islam had received its first great check 
 south of the Pyrenees. He saved the 
 remnant of the Moslem host, and de- 
 fended Narbonne against the whole power 
 of the Franks. For a short time he was 
 superseded by the emir of Almagreb, or 
 Western Africa, who, as the vicar of the 
 khalif, nominated the dependent govern- 
 ors of Spain ; but it was found that he 
 only was equal to the difficidties of the 
 station, and he was restored amidst the 
 universal shouts of the army. His second 
 administration is memorable in the an- 
 nals of christian Europe. Having pu- 
 nished the guilty tyrants, who, during 
 the preceding administrations, had en- 
 joyed as much impunity as they could 
 desire ; having restored to the christian 
 portion of the inhabitants the substance 
 of which they had been despoiled ; hav- 
 ing exercised justice to victors and van- 
 quished with an impartiality exceedingly 
 rare in a Mohammedan governor, he 
 turned his mind to a project which he had 
 long formed, — that of not only repairing 
 the disasters which the arms of the Pro- 
 phet had so recently experienced, but of 
 carrying the ensigns of his faith through 
 the heart of France and Germany, and 
 of planting them on the shores of the 
 Baltic. If he was a bold, he was not a 
 
 * Very erroneously as well as defectively treated 
 in the Biog. Univ. The name of this emir in full is 
 Abdul-Rahaman ben AbdooUah el Grafeeky. 
 
ABD 
 
 ABD 
 
 rash man ; he was sensible enough of the 
 dangers which menaced his entei-prize ; 
 and to neutralize them, he raised in 
 Western Africa and Spain an army more 
 numerous than any that had yet invaded 
 France. At its head he proceeded to- 
 wards the Pyrenees, and despatched 
 orders to Othman ben Abi Neza, (known 
 in christian history as Manuzza), to lay 
 waste the province of Aquitaine. But 
 Othman was the secret ally of duke 
 Eudes ; the daughter of that prince was 
 his wife ; he had concluded a long truce 
 with the Christians ; he was envious of 
 Abderahman's glory ; and he acquainted 
 Eudes with the approaching danger. The 
 viceroy, aware of this correspondence, 
 ordered Othman to be seized and put to 
 death ; and his lovely wife was trans- 
 ferred to the harem of the khalif at 
 Damascus. The progress of Abderah- 
 man was destructive ; he consumed eveiy 
 thing with fire and sword ; but he foimd 
 the French, with the allied Germans 
 near Tours, prepared to receive him ; 
 and the defeat which he sustained at the 
 hands of Charles Martel, was one of the 
 most signal ever inflicted on the enemies 
 of our faith. Europe was saved ; a ge- 
 neral Te Deiim resounded from one ex- 
 tremity to the other ; the barbarians were 
 no longer dreaded ; their loss had effec- 
 tually humbled them. On this great 
 day (733) Abderahman himself was mun- 
 bered among the slain. (D'Herbelot, 
 Bibliotheque Orientale. Conde, Historia 
 de la Dominacion. Gibbon's Decline 
 and Fall. ) 
 
 ABDERAHMAN BEN CABA,oneof 
 the Arabian viceroys of Spain in the eighth 
 century. Son of the virtuous Caba ben 
 Albegag, whose impartial administration 
 had been a blessing, he tried to emidate 
 the noble deeds of his father. On the 
 plains of Calatrava, he trimnphed over 
 Baleg the Syrian, one of the most feroci- 
 ous rebels of that period. The authority 
 which he exercised, however, was of a 
 precarious nature ; he was not acknow- 
 ledged by a fourth of Spain ; and the 
 short period in which he appears on the 
 stage of history, was passed in quelling 
 other rebels, or rather other aspirants to 
 the supreme power in this distant pro- 
 vince. 
 
 ABDERAHMAN BEN MOARWA,* 
 (or j4bdul Rahaman ben Moawyah,) the 
 first king of Spain of the house of Omeya 
 (731 — 787). During forty-five years after 
 the descent of the Arabs in Spain, there 
 
 • Another of the lives most inadequately treated 
 in all the biographical collections. 
 
 42 
 
 was universal anarchy in that kingdom. 
 The emir of Almagreb, or Western Africa, 
 on whose government Spain was a de- 
 pendency, was too miicli occupied in 
 exciting rebellion at home to have much 
 leism-e for other affairs. The local 
 governors appointed by him, or by the 
 khalif of Damascus, seemed to be in- 
 tent on one object only, that of enrich- 
 ing themselves by the plunder of the 
 people. So many viceroys succeeded 
 each other in rapid succession, that, from 
 the precarious tenure of office, they were 
 the more eager to turn it to advantage. 
 This state of things was affliction to the 
 people ; loud were the complaints which 
 arose on every side ; a wish was earnestly 
 expressed for some permanent governor, 
 who, being invested with the plenitude of 
 authority, could decide on every affair of 
 importance, without awaiting the orders 
 of the African emir, or of the more dis- 
 tant khalif. The anarchy, inseparable 
 from the position of these governors, was 
 increased by the war at Damascus be- 
 tween the house of Omeya and that of 
 Abbas. Meruan H. the fourteenth khalif 
 of that house, was defeated and slain by 
 Abul Abbas Azefiah, descended from Ab- 
 bas the uncle of Mahomet, and founder of 
 the dynasty of the Abassides. This new 
 dynasty was pi'oclaimed in Spain as in 
 Africa ; but many chiefs, from attach- 
 ment to the fonner race of monarchs, 
 refused obedience to their successors. 
 Hence there was not, and could not be, 
 any security for person or substance in 
 this distracted pi'ovince. To avert the 
 utter ruin of the Mohammedan cause in 
 Spain, about sixty chiefs assembled at 
 Cordova, in the year 754, and Hayut of 
 Emessa drew a melancholy pictm-e of 
 the state of things. He declared that 
 nothing could save them except a firm 
 local government, wholly independent of 
 the East. All present, who were the 
 secret adherents of the Omeyas, received 
 his discourse with applause, but where 
 was a prince to be found able to defend 
 them ? Had not all of the holy race 
 perished — all been treacherously slaugh- 
 tered by the usurping Abid Abbas ? 
 " No," replied Wahib ben Zair, whose in- 
 teresting relation may be thus abridged : — 
 Two sons of Meruan, the last khalif 
 of the Omeyas, had accidentally escaped 
 the general massacre of their kinsmen. 
 As Abul Abbas showed no disposition to 
 injure them (never was duplicity better 
 practised than by the heads of the Mo- 
 hammedan world), they were easily in- 
 duced to reside at the court of the new 
 
ABD 
 
 ABD 
 
 khalif. Perhaps he did not originally 
 intend to remove them, unless there 
 should be a rising in their favour ; per- 
 haps he thought his throne too well esta- 
 blished to be shaken by two powerless 
 youths. But he always beheld them 
 with jealousy ; spies were not wanting to 
 inflame the sentiment ; and he at length 
 gave the order for their execution. Su- 
 leyman suffered immediately ; Abderah- 
 man was at the moment absent from 
 Damascus ; and when informed, as he 
 soon was, by a trusty friend, of the un- 
 expected tragedy, he fled in a disguise to 
 the Bedoween Ai-abs. Here he was re- 
 ceived with the hospitality which his 
 birth and misfortunes demanded. But 
 he was too near Damascus ; and not- 
 withstanding the dangers which accom- 
 panied his steps, he fled into Eg}'pt, 
 and thence to the West. Here the 
 governor of Barca, hearing that a young 
 stranger had sought refuge with an 
 Arab tribe, and suspecting that it was 
 Abderahman, marched at midnight a 
 troop of cavalry to the place where the 
 tribe was encamped. The address of his 
 friendly host saved him from the peril : 
 the horsemen wei-e sent in a wrong direc- 
 tion ; and Abderahman fled to Tabart, 
 in Mam-itania, where the noble tribe of 
 Zeneta eagerly received him. "There," 
 concluded the speaker Wahib, " he now 
 is : let him be our sovereign." 
 
 The proposal of the aged sheik was re- 
 ceived with acclamation ; and he was com- 
 missioned by the assembly to offer the 
 throne to the last scion of the Onieyas. 
 The difficulties of the enterprise were not 
 concealed from the prince ; the unsettled 
 state of the country, its hostile factions, 
 and the desire of all for independence, 
 were candidly exposed; but in return, 
 he was assured that he might rely on the 
 aid of many stout hearts. The severe 
 school in which he had been trained had 
 given new vigour to his character. He 
 felt that he was equal to any vmder- 
 taking ; and whatever its issue, it was 
 preferable to the precarious and danger- 
 ous state in which he had long been. 
 With the consent of the tribe, therefore, 
 which had so hospitably received him, 
 he accepted the proposal, and with 750 
 men of that tribe he landed in Anda- 
 lusia early in the year 755. By all who 
 prefeiTed tranquillity to discord, by all 
 who sighed for a settled government, he 
 was received with open arms. His per- 
 sonal qualities increased the feeling in 
 his favour ; and in his march to Seville, 
 which was truly a splendid scene, 20,000 
 43 
 
 scymitars attended him. But Yussuf, 
 the usurping viceroy, and his friend 
 Samail, who exercised an independent 
 sovereignty over several provinces, were 
 not disposed to surrender an empire 
 without a straggle ; and in his march to 
 Cordova, the new king was assailed by 
 a considerable force. Victory declared 
 for him. While besieging that ancient 
 city, he was again assailed by an army 
 40,000 strong : again he conquered, and 
 Cordova became his. A third victory 
 over Yussuf and Samail was still more 
 decisive, and both were compelled to sue 
 for peace, which was granted them on 
 favourable terms. All these successes 
 were obtained in a single year. In the 
 sequel Yussuf rebelled, was vanquished, 
 and slain. His three sons renewed 
 the contest. The event was not more 
 propitious to them than it had been to 
 the father. In the first battle the eldest 
 was left on the field ; in the second an- 
 other was made captive, and consigned 
 to the dungeons of Cordova ; in the third, 
 the youngest was also made prisoner, and 
 safely lodged in one of the fortresses of 
 Toledo. That Abderahman should thus 
 spare the rebels, argues well for the ex- 
 cellence of his heart. But he had to 
 govern spirits which no clemency could 
 touch. The house of Abbas had many 
 partisans in the peninsula : if one army 
 was defeated, a second arose ; and the 
 captive of one day was the general of the 
 next. The African emirs, all dependent 
 on that house, were not slow to foment 
 the troubles of Spain. The reign of the 
 new monarch was passed in crushing 
 rebellion. In 778 a warrior more formid- 
 able than all of them, Charlemagne, 
 entered the field against him. His inac- 
 tivity on this occasion was doubtless 
 owing to his weakness : he could not 
 contend with the mighty Christian ; and 
 surrounded as he was by the adherents of 
 a rival power, he could not leave the 
 southern provinces to encounter a potent 
 enemy in Arragon and Catalonia. But 
 Charlemagne was recalled by a revolt of 
 the Saxons ; and was in the sequel too 
 much occupied to revisit Spain. And 
 v/hen the house of Abbas removed its 
 throne from Damascus to Bagdut, the 
 offices of so distant a province were neg- 
 lected, and the king was less troubled by 
 hired foes ; though the kinsmen of Yussuf, 
 and all who had participated in the 
 license of preceding times, were ready 
 enough to take up arms whenever the 
 opportunity arrived. Nor did the reign 
 of Abderahman pass without some hos- 
 
A BD 
 
 ABD 
 
 tllities with the infant state of the Astu- 
 rias. Once, or perhaps twice, his generals 
 were defeated by Fruela I. ; but the ad- 
 vantage could not have been very deci- 
 sive, if, as we have strong reason to 
 believe, the king of Cordova was acknow- 
 ledged the superior of the Asturias, and 
 received tribute from his feudatory. 
 
 The short intervals of peace enjoyed 
 by this monarch, enabled him to enlarge 
 and embellish Cordova his capital. By 
 naiTowing the bed of the Guadalquivir, 
 he reclaimed a considerable portion of 
 land, which he converted into magnifi- 
 cent gardens. In the midst rose a tower 
 of prodigious height. He was probably 
 the first Arab who transplanted the palm 
 into Western Europe ; and there is still 
 extant one of his poetical effusions to 
 that beautifid tree. It is of a sombre 
 character, strongly expressive of the 
 cares which daily and hourly distiubed 
 his rest. The active duties of i-oyalty, 
 however, left him little time for indiil- 
 ging in mournfid reflections : when he 
 had no eneiny in the field, his time was 
 occupied in the duties of administration, 
 in the reformation of the tribunals, in 
 the erection of fortresses, in the construc- 
 tion of ships. 
 
 This great prince died in 787. Just, 
 humane, enlightened ; faithful to his 
 friends, clement to his enemies, compre- 
 hensive in his views, brave in the battle- 
 field, active in the discharge of every 
 duty, he was just such a man as the 
 occasion required. A hero and a legis- 
 lator, he was of great service to Moham- 
 medan Spain. (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque. 
 Casiri, Bib. Arab. Conde, Historia. Dun- 
 ham's Spain and Portugal.) 
 
 ABDERAHMAN II., {ov Jbdid Rah- 
 aman ben All Hakem, surnamed El 
 Mussaffer, or The Victorioiis,) the fourth 
 Ommiade monarch of Spain, succeeded 
 his father Al Hakem, in a. h. 206, or 
 A. D. 822. His reign was a ti-oubled one. 
 First and foremost was domestic rebel- 
 lion, the curse of all Mohammedan go- 
 vernments. Next were the hostilities 
 of the Christian kings of Leon, who 
 Avere not likely to remain his vassals, 
 when they saw his natural subjects re- 
 sist him with something like impimity. 
 Then the French emperor, or the 
 vassals of France, frequently invaded 
 Catalonia and Arragon. Lastly, the 
 Scandinavians ravaged the coasts from 
 Galicia to Andalusia, and committed 
 great depredations in the neighboinhood 
 of Seville especially. Of that important 
 city they retained possession for some 
 44 
 
 time, — a proof that they must have ar- 
 rived in much greater numbers than is 
 generally allowed. Yet with all these 
 disasters the reign of Abderahman is 
 mentioned with great respect by Moham- 
 medan writers. In the first place, when 
 he did take the field, his arms were 
 generally successful ; and if his people 
 suffered, it was because the enemies in 
 many instances dispersed before he 
 coidd reach them. In the second place, 
 he was a magnificent patron of letters, 
 and literary men were sure to praise 
 him. In the third, he pleased the mul- 
 titude by the improvements which he 
 introduced into Cordova. If the erection 
 of new mosques satisfied the devout, and 
 the constniction of fountains the luxuri- 
 ous, the populace had quite as much 
 reason to be gratified with the pavement 
 of the streets and with the aqueducts, — 
 the former at least a novelty in Spain, 
 and the latter scarcely known since the 
 Roman times. How, amidst the anxie- 
 ties of rebellion, and of pei"petual war on 
 his frontiers, Abderahman could find 
 leisure or inclination for literary pursuits, 
 for the society of learned men who flocked 
 to his court from all parts of the Moslem 
 world, and still more for the cidtivation 
 of poetry, might sui-prise us, did we not 
 know that a Mussidman resigns himself 
 with singular complacence to his lot : ' It 
 is the work of fate ; to resist it therefore 
 is madness : enjoy the blessings within 
 thy reach, which the same fate has sent 
 thee.' Abderahman was a just king; he 
 made no distinction between the great 
 and the little, between the Mohammedan 
 and the Christian ; — no distinction, we 
 mean, as far as the administration of the 
 law was concerned ; for that he put the 
 Christians to death for speaking against 
 the Arabian prophet, will be seen in the 
 Martyrs of Cordova. See Perfecto, Au- 
 RELio, EuLOGio, &c. He died a. d. 852. 
 (D'Herbelot. Conde. Dimham.) 
 
 ABDERAHMAN III.,* (Abdul Ra- 
 haman ben Mohammed, surnamed Al 
 Nassir Ledin Allah, protector of God's 
 worship,) was the son of Mohammed, 
 and grandson of Abdalla, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 912. He was the eighth 
 Ommiade monarch of Spain, and the 
 first that assumed the holy attributes 
 of the khalifat. The title of Emir al 
 Mumenin, or Prince of the Believers, 
 a title which most of the old Spanish 
 chroniclers have corrupted into Mira- 
 molin, was assmned by him soon after his 
 
 * Very inaccurate in all the existing biogra- 
 phical collections. 
 
ABD 
 
 A BD 
 
 accession, conjointly Avith that of Al 
 Nassir Ledin Allah. Why he should 
 either voluntarily adopt, or be invested 
 with, a title which none of his seven 
 predecessors had used, and which had 
 hitherto been confined to the khalifs of 
 the East, we should vainly inquu-e. — From 
 his infancy this prince was a favovu-ite 
 with the people, and nothing could equal 
 their joy when his grandfather Abdalla 
 declared him Wall Alhadi, or presump- 
 tive heu" to the monarchy, in preference 
 to the gloomy Almudafar, the son of 
 Abdalla. Like his predecessors, he had 
 to contend with rebellion. When he 
 ascended the throne, nearly one half of 
 the kingdom was in possession of Calib 
 ben Omar, who reigned at Toledo. To 
 chastise this adventurer, the khalif took 
 the field at the head of 40,000 men, and 
 triumphed, though not without difficulty, 
 and not without the lapse of many years. 
 The truth is, that when any one of the 
 local walls was dissatisfied with the mo- 
 narch of Cordova, or with the ministers 
 of that monarch, he had only to shut 
 himself up in his strongest fortress, (and 
 Spain was full of them,) and enter into 
 alliance with some one of the Christian 
 princes, by whom he was sure to be sup- 
 ported. Above forty years passed away 
 before Toledo owned the lawful authority 
 of Abderahman. — In his transactions with 
 the Christians of Leon and the Asturias, 
 we find enough of contradiction. It is 
 certain that hostilities between the t-^-o 
 powers were almost continual ; and that 
 victory alternately visited the banners of 
 each. All the Christian biographers of 
 Abderahman assure us that in the battle 
 of Zamora against Don Romiro II. he lost 
 100,000 men. The truth, however, is, 
 that on that memorable occasion he had 
 only 80,000 to command; and that he 
 should lose one half or one quarter of 
 that number, will not be readily credited, 
 when we find that he returned slowly to 
 Cordova, and that he took Zamora by 
 assault in his retreat. Perhaps, how- 
 ever, as one account states, he left 
 20,000 men to invest that important 
 fortress, while with the rest of the army 
 he returned to his capital. The Mo- 
 hammedan writers assure us, that so far 
 from being the vanquished, he was the 
 victor in that great battle. Yet the ad- 
 vantage no doubt lay with the king of 
 Leon ; but it was so trifling a one as not 
 to deserve mention, were it not the subject 
 of so much contradiction. — In his African 
 Avars, Abderahman was not very suc- 
 cessful. He made conquests, indeed, but 
 45 
 
 he could not presei-ve them. In his reign 
 Ave perceive more of splendour than of 
 advantage ; he Avon battles, but made no 
 durable conquests ; and by his lavish ex- 
 penditm-e he destroyed the vitals of his 
 country. Yet that reign is, beyond all 
 doubt, the most brilliant period in the 
 history of the Spanish Arabs. He Avas 
 distinguished for many great qualities; 
 his mind Avas comprehensive, his love of 
 justice remarkable, his liberality exces- 
 sive, his taste refined. About tAvo 
 leagues from Cordova, rose his most 
 splendid erection,*— an erection Avhich, 
 in the description of Mohammedan 
 writers, may vie Avith any that fairy land 
 ever produced. This Avas the palace and 
 toAver of Medina Azhara, so called from a 
 favourite mistress. If, as Ave are assured, 
 " the roof of the palace was supported 
 by four thousand pillars of variegated 
 marble;" if "the floors and Avails Avere 
 of the same costly material;" if "the 
 chief apartments Avere adorned Avith ex- 
 quisite fountains and baths;" if, in the 
 magnificent and most extensive gardens 
 which sm-rounded it, " a pavilion arose, 
 resting on pillars of Avhite marble orna- 
 mented Avith gold;" if in the centre of 
 this pavilion " a fountain of quicksilver 
 constantly played, reflecting in a neAV 
 and Avondi'ous manner the rays of the 
 sun;" if the Avhole of the palace was 
 thus exquisitely built, and if the toAver 
 also had a mosque Avhich might vie Avith 
 the magnificent one of Cordova, (and the 
 description by the Arabian Avriters is 
 remarkably explicit,) then indeed Ave may 
 affirm that the most splendid descriptions 
 in the Thousand and One Nights have a 
 better foundation than is commonly sup- 
 posed. In other respects, the magnifi- 
 cence of this monarch was more worthily 
 displayed. He greatly augmented the 
 navy ; he gaA'e the utmost encourage- 
 ment to commeixe ; he caused the most 
 usefid, no less than the most elegant 
 manufactm-es to flourish ; he rewarded 
 industry, science, art, and above all lite- 
 rature, with a liberality truly imperial ; 
 and his paternal care Avas not confined 
 to Cordova ; it extended to many other 
 cities of Mohammedan Spain. 
 
 YetAvith all this splendour, Avith a fame 
 which the most distant nations admired, 
 Abderahman was not to be envied. He 
 himself declares, that during fifty years 
 of empire his happy days were only four- 
 teen ! The truth is, that notAvithstand- 
 ing the civil commotions of his reign, — • 
 commotions which aff"ected him less 
 deeply than we should suppose, — which. 
 
ABD 
 
 ABD 
 
 he regarded as necessary evils, to be 
 borne with stoical indifference — he was 
 too prosperous to be happy. Amidst all 
 the delights which the world could fur- 
 nish, venerated as the vicar of God's 
 Prophet, and exercising the most un- 
 bounded despotism over millions of in- 
 habitants, in a country which art and 
 nature had transformed into a paradise, 
 he heard not the feeble voice of war on 
 his distant frontiers ; still less did the 
 efforts of rebellion, which he was sure 
 ultimately to suppress, disturb his tran- 
 quillity. Uniform sweetness must cloy 
 any palate. Some of his verses display a 
 remarkable despondency ; and though 
 they are too much laboured to be literally 
 understood, — for the gi-ief which seeks 
 for elegant words, which luxuriates in 
 description, cannot be profoundly deep, — 
 no doubt can be entertained that to him 
 life was an object of indifference. Much 
 of this state of mind was the effect of 
 remorse : he had put to death his eldest 
 son Abdalla. Unfettered, like most of 
 the Moslem princes, by the strict laws 
 of succession, he had declared his se- 
 cond son Al Hakem to be Wall Alhadi, 
 or heir to the throne. Abdalla durst not 
 openly complain ; but he entered into a 
 conspiracy, of which the object seems to 
 have been the destruction of Al Hakem. 
 It was discovered ; Abdalla was thrown 
 into prison, and his death decreed. Many 
 chiefs interceded for the prince, but in 
 vain. Even Al Hakem begged for the 
 life of his brother, but Avith equal fruit- 
 lessness. This trait of magnanimity in 
 his favourite son, was appreciated by 
 Abdei-ahman. He praised it ; he de- 
 clared that if he wei'e a private indi- 
 vidual, Abdalla should be pardoned ; but 
 he was a king, and in justice to his peo- 
 ple, the execution must take place. It 
 did take place, but it produced no ap- 
 plause ; on the contrary, it was con- 
 demned. The act poisoned the remainder 
 of Abderahman's existence on earth. — 
 (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque. Casiii, Bib. 
 Arab. Conde, Historia de la Dominacion. 
 Dunham, Spain and Portugal.) 
 
 ABDERAHMAN EBN MOHAM- 
 MED, a Mohammedan general of the 
 seventh century. He served with much 
 distinction under the khalifs Moawia 
 Yezid I., and Abdelmelek. In Persia 
 and Cabul his success was great ; it 
 excited the jealousy of his superior, 
 who insulted him, and converted him 
 into a rebel. Being defeated by the 
 troops of Abdalmelek, he took refuge 
 in Cabul ; repaired into Khorasan ; was 
 46 
 
 driven again into Cabul, where he no 
 longer found the same hospitality. By 
 the king of that country, who feared 
 the generals of the khalif, he was be- 
 headed in the year 702. 
 
 ABDER-REZZAK, (Kemal-eddin,) a 
 Persian traveller and historian of the 
 fifteenth century. His father, Ishac, a 
 native of Samarcand, had been the imam 
 and cadi of a royal son of Timur, and 
 was enabled to give him a good educa- 
 tion. His commentary on a grammatical 
 treatise celebrated among the Persians, 
 procured him the same dignity as his 
 father had held. In 1442 he left Herat, 
 visited Arabia, Calicut, Bisnagar, and 
 other parts of India, on a mission at 
 once political and commercial, from the 
 shah his master. In three years he re- 
 turned, found his master dead, and Abu 
 Said Mirza fighting for the throne. On 
 recognising the sultan he was favour- 
 ably received, and enabled to devote his 
 future life to literary and religious pur- 
 suits. The most important of his works 
 is a history of the house of Timur, down 
 to the year 1470 : it is in the royal library 
 at Paris. It was translated by Galland, 
 but never published. It is to be hoped 
 that the Oriental Translation Society will 
 not overlook this and similar works. 
 
 ABDIAS of Babylon, a supposititious 
 person, once believed to be the author of 
 an apocryphal book, Historia Certaminis 
 Apostolici. 
 
 ABDISSI. See Ebed Jesu. 
 
 ABDJESUS, (Saint,) a bishop of Cas- 
 car, in Chaldea, suffered martyrdom by 
 order of Isdegerd, king of Persia. See 
 Abdas. 
 
 ABDOLONYMUS, a prince of Sidon, 
 so poor as to be compelled to cultivate his 
 own garden. In this occupation, says 
 Quintus Curtius, he was found by the 
 emissaries of Ephestion, to whom Alex- 
 ander the Great had confided the nomi- 
 nation of a new king ; was adorned with 
 the regal vestments, and brought before 
 the conqueror. " How hast thou borne 
 thy poverty ? " demanded the king. 
 " Would to heaven," replied Abdolon- 
 gurus, " I may support my prosperity as 
 well!" Such is the popular relation, but 
 it may well be distrusted. The work 
 from which it is taken has been long dis- 
 covered to be a I'omance ; and the cir- 
 cumstances are very differently related by 
 Diodorus and Plutarch. 
 
 ABDON, (Saint,) a Persian Christian, 
 who, together with his countryman Sen- 
 7ien, suffered martyrdom at Rome in the 
 persecution of the emperor Decius. 
 
ABD 
 
 ABP: 
 
 ABDUL-HAMID, the youngest of 
 the three sons of Achmet ; succeeded 
 to the Turkish throne in 1774, on the 
 death of his elder brother, Mustapha III. 
 Little was he fitted for government : 
 when called to the throne of Othman he 
 was advanced in years, and the whole of 
 his life had been passed, like a prisoner, 
 in the seraglio. Great were the humili- 
 ations which the Turkish arms sustained 
 in the war with Russia. By the dis- 
 graceful peace of Kainaiji the Porte ac- 
 knowledged the independence of the 
 Tartar tribes on the northern banks of 
 the Euxine, and opened all her seas to 
 Russian vessels. But Russia was not 
 satisfied ; war was soon afterwards de- 
 clared ; the Crimea was occupied ; and in 
 spite of England and Sweden, aU the 
 Turkish provinces north of the Danube 
 were subdued. When Oczakof, the key 
 of the Crimea, was taken, the Turkish 
 ministers dared not inform Abdul-hamid 
 of the fact. A fortress indeed, they 
 observed, was lost to the empire ; but 
 then it was not the great one of that 
 name, — it was little Oczakof. The sultan 
 was so ignorant of the geograpliy of his 
 kingdom as to believe them, until he was 
 undeceived by a maimed soldier in the 
 streets. The soldier begged for charity ; he 
 had lost a leg at the storming of that very 
 fortress ; and he hoped the commander 
 of the faithful would pity his misfortune. 
 " So thou wast at the siege of Little 
 Oczakof!" observed the sultan. "Little 
 Oczakof! Does not thy highness know 
 that there is only one Oczakof, and the 
 Russians have it?" The sultan returned 
 to his palace in great wrath, and punished 
 his ministers : but that punishment coidd 
 not recover his lost possessions ; and 
 when he died in 1789, he left to his 
 nephew, Selim IIL, an empire half 
 mined. 
 
 ABDUL-KERIM, a native of Cache- 
 mir ; escaped the massacre ordered by 
 Nadir Shah in 1738, and was taken into 
 the favour of that monarch. He made 
 the pilgrimage to Mecca, visited Medina 
 and Delhi, and wrote his Memoirs, which 
 are said to contain a very minute and very 
 accurate account of the military opera- 
 tions of his royal master. The greater 
 portion of these Memoirs were translated 
 and published by Gladwin, Calcutta, 
 1788. 
 
 ABDUL-RAHIM, one of the most 
 distinguished servants of the emperor 
 Akbar; translated into Persian the com- 
 mentaries of the emperor Babur. (Seethe 
 name.) The Bibliotheque du Roi has a 
 47 
 
 MS. copy of this work, which was of gi-eat 
 service to M. Langles in his account of 
 India. The author died in 1627. 
 
 ABEEL, (Vander James,) an English 
 Jesuit, born a.d. 1659, admitted into the 
 society at Watten, Sept. 7, 1671 ; died in 
 the English college at St. Omer, Feb. 10, 
 1698. 
 
 ABEILLE, (Gaspard,) a native of 
 Biez, in Provence, 1648 ; an ecclesiastic 
 and a dramatic writer, who died at Paris, 
 1718. His Argelie, Coriolan, Lyncee, 
 and other pieces, were often represented ; 
 but then- merit is small. He was in much 
 favour with the great for the brilliancy 
 of his conversational powers, and still 
 more for a remarkable flexibility of coun- 
 tenance, which spoke more impressively 
 than words. 
 
 ABEILLE, (Louis P. 1719—1807,) 
 a native of Toulon, who wrote on agri- 
 culture. 
 
 ABEL, (Vandel Baldwin,) born a.d. 
 1638 ; died at St. Omer, Oct. 13, 1679. 
 
 ABEL, king of Denmark in the thii-- 
 teenth century, and one of the worst of his 
 race. He had Sleswic and the south of 
 Jutland ; his brother Eric had the rest of 
 the kingdom, with the title of monarch. 
 Eric he invited to an entertainment, and 
 secretly mm-dered ; yet, as he pretended 
 great sorrow for the loss of his beloved 
 kinsman, aU Denmark believed him in- 
 nocent, and he became (1250) monarch 
 of the whole. But his crime went not 
 impunished ; in 1252 he was surprised in 
 his camp by the Frieslandei's, and slain. 
 
 ABEL, (Gaspard, 1676 — 1763,) a 
 preacher of Wertdorf,and a learned writer 
 on Hebrew, Greek, and German anti- 
 quities. He also wrote " Historia Monar- 
 chiarum Orbis Antiqui." 
 
 ABEL, (Frederic G. 1714—1794,) a 
 physician of Halberstadt, who practised 
 mucli, yet had no faith in his art. It 
 wanted, he observed, solid principles : 
 the organization of no two men is alike ; 
 the same disease, therefore, in different 
 individuals, cannot be cured by the same 
 process ; yet is not the process generally 
 the same? As he declared all medicine 
 to be quackery, he would probably have 
 done wisely had he adhered to his former 
 vocation — the ministry. He was, how- 
 ever, more attached to Juvenal and Per- 
 sius, whom he translated, than to either 
 St. Paul or Galen. 
 
 ABEL, (Charles F. 1719—1787,) a 
 German musician and disciple of Bach, 
 who met with gi-eat success in his own 
 country, in Poland, and in London, 
 where he died. Though he composed 
 
ABE 
 
 ABE 
 
 nearly thirty pieces, he was chiefly esteem- 
 ed as a musical pci-former. 
 
 ABEL, (Clark, M.D. d. 1826,) prin- 
 cipal medical officer and naturalist to 
 the embassy of Lord Amherst to China 
 in 1816. The loss of the Alceste on 
 its return is so well known from Mr. 
 MacLeod's Voyage of \he Alceste toChina, 
 that it is only necessary to say, that Dr. 
 Abel was a considerable sufl'erer by that 
 event ; as much of what he had collected 
 in China was lost, and the book, in 
 which he gave an account of the em- 
 bassy, was of course much injured by 
 such a loss. It contains, however, very 
 valuable information relative to the na- 
 tural history of China. It is entitled. 
 Narrative of a Joiuney in China, and of 
 a Voyage to and from that Country in 
 the Years 1816 and 1817. 4to. 1818. 
 It contains an essay on the geology of 
 the Cape of Good Hope, which is very 
 highly spoken of. He had previously 
 published a geological paper on the 
 Himalaya mountains, in the Calcutta 
 Asiatic Memoirs. R. Brown has given 
 the title of Ahelia to a genus in botany, 
 in honour of Dr. Abel. At the time of 
 his death, he was surgeon to the go- 
 vernor-general of India. (Biog. Univ. 
 Ann. Obituary, &c.) 
 
 ABEL, (N. H. 1802—1829,) a Nor- 
 Avegian mathematician, who distinguished 
 himself in an extraordinary manner, by 
 his successful researches in some of the 
 most difficult branches of analysis. In 
 1815 he entered the cathedral school of 
 Christiania, and in 1820 published some 
 papers on functions of one variable ; and 
 afterwards, being allowed to travel for 
 two years at the expense of the Swedish 
 government, he ixrged Crelle to the pub- 
 lication of his celebrated journal. In 
 France, he abridged for Ferrussac's Bul- 
 letin de Science, his own memoir on 
 the impossibility of resolving generally 
 equations of the 5th degree ; and he was 
 anxious to read some papers on tran- 
 scendental functions, to the Academic 
 des Sciences. M. Fourier, after long 
 solicitation, promised to print it, but it 
 remained long unnoticed by the Society. 
 In fact, at this time he met with no en- 
 couragement at Paris, and he returned 
 home neglected and disheartened, and 
 took an inferior situation. This was in 
 1825, but in 1828 he had made himself 
 so distinguished a name by his mathe- 
 matical papers, that- some of the most 
 celebrated scientific men of the day — 
 Le Gendi-e, Poisson, Lacroix, and Mau- 
 rice — di-ew up a letter, which they ad- 
 48 
 
 dressed to the king of Sweden, stating 
 the extraordinary merit of this young 
 man, and the advantages which woidd 
 accrue to science by placing him in an 
 atmospliere more congenial to his pur- 
 suits than that of Christiania. This letter 
 reflects the highest crecht on the feelings 
 of those who sent it; but it was disre- 
 garded ! Indeed, even the receipt of it 
 was never acknowledged. The credit 
 of this neglect must lie with Bernadotte ! 
 Tlie letter was dated 15th September, 
 1828; and in May 1829, Abel died of a 
 broken heart. The king of Prussia had 
 sent, just previously, the oflPer of an ho- 
 noiirable post in Berlin, to Abel, but the 
 ofler never reached him, — it was too late. 
 His death was deplored, as a loss to sci- 
 ence, all over Europe. He whom, a 
 year or two before, Paris had treated 
 with cold indifference, was deeply and 
 loudly lamented in France, in Germany, 
 and Italy ! The king of Sweden ^'ro- 
 mised to print, at his own exjoense, a 
 collected edition of his works. It would 
 be impossible here to enter into any of 
 his deep researches : it may be sufficient 
 to say, that besides papers in the Chris- 
 tiania Journal, he published several in 
 that of Schumacher, and twenty-one in 
 that of Crelle ;* and that a kind of gene- 
 rous rivalry existed between him and the 
 celebrated Jacobi. His most remarkable 
 papers are on Equations of the Fifth De- 
 gree, and on Elliptic Functions. Poisson 
 praises the generality and the novelty of 
 his views, and places him among first- 
 rate mathematicians. 
 
 ABELA, (J. F.) a knight of Malta in 
 the seventeenth century ; is well known 
 for a book on that island, Malta Illus- 
 trata, which appeared in 1647, and is 
 much valued for its antiquarian informa- 
 tion, and its general erudition. It was 
 translated into Latin, and published in 
 the vast collection of Graevius and Bur- 
 mann, Thesaiuus Antiquitatum. 
 
 ABELIN, (J. P.) a German historian 
 of the seventeenth century ; is identical 
 with J. L. Gottfried, a name which, for 
 some whimsical reason, he assumed. He 
 was engaged on that enormous compila- 
 tion, Theatrum Em-opa»Um, in 21 vols, 
 fol. ; in the Mercurius Gallo-Belgicus; in 
 a Histoiy of the World, of India, &c. His 
 merit as an historian is very small. 
 
 ABELL, (John,) an English musician, 
 much esteemed for his performances on 
 the lute, by a good judge, Charles II. In 
 1688 he was dismissed from the chapel 
 
 * The titles may be found in the tenth volume 
 of Crelle. 
 
 1 
 
ABR 
 
 ABE 
 
 royal because he was a papist, and he 
 earned his living as he could. 
 
 ABELLI, (Antoine, 1527 — 1596,) 
 Abbe of Livry, an obscure friar of the 
 order of Preachers, had, however, the good 
 or bad luck to be the confessor of Cathe- 
 rine de Medicis. His devotional compi- 
 lations do not merit any farther mention. 
 One thing, however, connected with them, 
 deserves notice — the errors into which 
 Bayle was led, while correcting Moreri 
 and striving after extreme accuracy. (See 
 the Biog. Universelle ; also Jos. Le Clerc, 
 Lettre sur le Dictionnaire de Bayle.) 
 
 ABELLI, (Louis, 1603—1691,) bishop 
 of Rhodez, WTote some theological and 
 biographical works, which were little es- 
 teemed in his day, and are no longer read. 
 
 ABEN-BITAR, (Abdalla benAhmed,) 
 a celebrated naturalist and physician of 
 Spain, who died at Damascus a. d. 1248. 
 He is celebrated for a most usefiil work 
 on all the herbs, plants, minerals, and 
 animals used in medicine. 
 
 ABEND ANA, (Jacob,) a Spanish 
 Jew, and rabbi of a London congrega- 
 tion, wrote a Spicilegium of explanations 
 on the more obscure passages of Scripture. 
 
 Another Avriter of this name, Isaac 
 Abendana, resided in England, especially 
 at Oxford, for some years. A work was 
 written by him, entitled, Discourses of 
 the Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the 
 Jews. 1706. 
 
 ABEN EZRA, (Abraham Ben Meir,) 
 a celebrated Jewish rabbi of the twelfth 
 century, and therefore a contemporary 
 of Maimonides, who esteemed him so 
 highly, that he enjoined his son to study 
 his works continually. He travelled 
 much, as the inscriptions (or epigi-aphs) 
 to his works show, which profess to be 
 printed in various countries. In 1145, 
 he was in Mantua; 1156, in Rhodes; 
 1159, in England; and in 1167, in 
 Rome. There is considerable doubt as 
 to the epoch of his death ; but from a 
 consideration of his age at the time, 
 which is known to have been more than 
 70, and from other circumstances, De 
 Rossi conjectures it to have taken place, 
 A.D. 1168. 
 
 He was a poet, a philosopher, and, if 
 we may trust the accounts of him, an 
 admirable mathematician and astrono- 
 mer. His commentaries have been held 
 in the highest estimation, but it is con- 
 fessed that there is considerable laxity in 
 some of his notions. His style is called by 
 some, who probably never read a line of 
 his works, ' ' clear, elegant, concise ; " and it 
 is added, that " his conciseness sometimes 
 
 VOL. I. 49 
 
 makes his style obscure." The young 
 hebraist who attempts to read this " clear" 
 author, will very soon find the truth of 
 the latter observation. Dr. M'Caul, one 
 of the most profound rabbinical scholars 
 of the present day, thus briefly character- 
 ises his commentaiy. " He {i. e. Rashi 
 or R. Solomon) was succeeded in the 
 next century by Abcn Ezra, who far 
 surpassed him in power and freedom of 
 judgment." (M'Caul's translation of 
 Kimchi's Zachariah, Pref. p. viii.) And 
 again, " Rashi, Aben Ezra, and Kimchi 
 endeavom-ed to get I'id of the Christian 
 interpretations, and Maimonides to root 
 out the Christian doctrines which had de- 
 scended from the ancient Jewish church. 
 
 The controversialist is obliged 
 
 to attack what is eiToneous, or even 
 absm'd in the oral law ; and the ignorant 
 or unthinking hastily conclude that all 
 the Jewish writings are of tlie same cha- 
 racter. The translation of Kimchi or 
 Aben Ezra would soon undeceive them." 
 (Id. pp. ix. X.) His commentary is 
 printed in Buxtorf's Biblia Rabbinica 
 on one side of the text, and that of Jarchi 
 on the other. His chief works are — 
 1. A Commentary on the Bible. Printed 
 in Buxtorf. Various parts of this have 
 been published in Latin by Munster, Ge- 
 nebrard, &c. Another Commentary on the 
 Minor Prophets is still in MS. 2. Sodoth 
 Hattorah ; Secrets of the Law. MS. in 
 Bodleian and elsewhere. 3. Tov Shem ; 
 The Good Name. 4. Ighereth Hashab- 
 bath ; Letter of the Sabbath. 5. Chai 
 Ben mekitz ; The Wakeful Son lives. 
 6. Jesud Mora ; The Foundation of 
 Fear. MS. 7. Mogenaim ; a Hebrew 
 grammar, Ven. 1546, and elsewhere. 
 8. Shaphah Berara; The Pure Lip. 
 Constantinople, 1530. (Very rare.) 9. 
 Tzacud ; or. Of Elegance : a gramma- 
 tical work. Ven. 1546. 10. Shephath 
 Jether ; Lips of Excellence : a gram- 
 matical work. MS. 1 1 . Chitta ; on the 
 Quiescent Letters (in Buxtorf's Bible, 
 and translated into Latin by David Cohen. 
 Leyd. 1658.) 12. Sod. MS. on the 
 Form of the Letters. 13. Ormad Ham- 
 mezimah ; Acuteness of Thought. MS. 
 Vat. and Oppenheim. 14. Shir ; The 
 Canticle of the Soul. MS. Vatican. 15. 
 Hammispar; Arithmetic. MS. Bodl, 
 et alibi. 16. Ahechad; Unity. MS. 
 Bodl. and Oppenheim, ^c. 17. Reshith 
 Chochmah ; The Beginning of Wisdom. 
 
 18. Sepher 01am; The Book of the 
 World. MS. Oppenheim and Leyd. 
 
 19. An astronomical work on Intercala- 
 tions, and two other astronomical works. 
 
ABE 
 
 ABE 
 
 20. A poem on Chess, published by 
 Hyde at Oxford, 1696, &c. 21. Several 
 hymns and poems ; some prmted, some 
 MS. (See De Rossi, Wolf, &c. See 
 also a very full list of his works in Ersch 
 and Grueber's Encyclopadie, sub voce.) 
 
 ABEN-MELEC, a Jewish commen- 
 tator on the Bible, who lived in the 
 seventeenth centmy. 
 
 ABEN-PACE, a native of Cordova, 
 who died at Fez, a.d. 1138. As a writer 
 on metaphysics, morals and theology, he 
 liad scarcely an equal for his age. 
 
 ABEN-RAGEL, (Ali,) an astrologer 
 of Cordova, in the eleventh century. One 
 of his works on the occult science was 
 translated into Latin under the title, De 
 Judiciis seu Fatis Stellarum. Ven. 1485. 
 ABEN-ZOHAR, a celebrated physi- 
 cian of Andalusia, a Jew by religion ; 
 Avrote much on his art. His pupil, 
 Aven-oes, mentions him with the deepest 
 respect, assuring us that he carried the 
 knowledge of medicine as far as mental 
 powers coidd caiTy it. By Yussef ben 
 Taxfin, emperor of the Almoravides, (see 
 the name,) he was enriched. His work on 
 Diseases and their Remedies has been 
 often printed in the Latin ti'anslation ; 
 so also have two smaller medical tracts. 
 
 A son of this doctor, of the same name 
 and profession, who died before the 
 father, was also distinguished in his day. 
 (See Wolf. Bibl. Hebr.) 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, (John, d. 1805,) a 
 Scotchman, who passed most of his life 
 in London, wrote much on gardening, 
 and was much patronized by royalty. 
 His works, published jointly in his name 
 and that of Mr. Mawe, have been useful 
 in their day and highly popular. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, (Patrick, 1656— 
 1716,) a Scottish physician and historian 
 of little merit. 
 • ABERCROMBY, (Sir Ralph, 1738— 
 1801,) one of our ablest generals, was a 
 native of Tillibodie in Clackmannan. 
 In 1756 he entered the army, and rose 
 through the several gradations to the 
 rank of major-general, which he obtained 
 in 1787. In 1793, he served in the 
 campaign of Flanders, under the duke 
 of York, and distinguished himself at 
 Dunkerque, Chateau Cambresis, and 
 Valenciennes. In this and the fol- 
 lowing campaigns he was noted alike 
 for his courage aTld his maintenance of 
 discipline. In 1795, being appointed 
 commander-in-chief in the West Indies, 
 he reduced Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vin- 
 cent, Trinidad, with the settlements of 
 Demerara and Essequibo. Promoted to 
 50 
 
 the rank of lieutenant-general, he re- 
 turned to England, was made governor 
 of the Isle of Wight, next transferred to 
 forts Augustus and St. George, and soon 
 to the chief command of the troops in 
 Ireland. In this last office he is said 
 to have been popular : with the natives, 
 because he was a good disciplinarian, 
 and kept an unruly soldiery in compara- 
 tive subordination ; with the English 
 party, because he was a steadfast up 
 holder of the dominant interest. In 
 Scotland, and in the same capacity, he 
 gave equal satisfaction ; and so well was 
 his reputation established, that when in 
 1800 he was appointed to the command 
 of the expedition destined to contend 
 against the French in Egypt, the public 
 voice sanctioned the nomination. His 
 voyage, disembarkation, and triumph 
 over the French at Aboukir, in March 
 1801, are matters of history, and glorious 
 for the military fame of England. The 
 pension granted to his family — the peer- 
 age with which his widow was invested, 
 with remainder to her issue male, and the 
 noble monument in St. Paul's, were well 
 merited proofs of the popular gratitude. 
 It would be an injustice to this most dis- 
 tinguished commander, to omit the beau- 
 tiful eulogium upon him contained in 
 the despatches of Lord Hutchinson, who 
 svicceeded him in the command of the 
 troops : — " We have sustained an irre- 
 parable loss in the person of our never- 
 to-be -sufficiently-lamented commander 
 in chief. Sir R. Abercromby, who was 
 mortally wounded in action on the 21st, 
 and died on the 28th of March, 1801. 
 He was wounded early, but he concealed 
 his situation from those about him ; and 
 continued giving his orders with that 
 clearness and perspicuity which had ever 
 marked his character, till long after the 
 action was over, when he fainted through 
 weakness and loss of blood. Were it 
 permitted for a soldier to regret any one 
 who has fallen in the service of his 
 country, we might be excused in lament- 
 ing him ; but it is some consolation to 
 those who tenderly loved him, that as 
 his life was honourable, so was his death 
 glorious. His memory will be recorded 
 in the annals of his country, will be 
 sacred to every British soldier, and em- 
 balmed in the recollection of a grateful 
 posterity." Baron Dumferline, the late 
 speaker of the House of Commons, is a 
 younger son of Sir Ralph. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, (Sir John R. 1774— 
 1817,) a Ueutenant-general who saw 
 much service in India. 
 
ABE 
 
 ABE 
 
 ABERCROMBY, (Christopher,) a 
 Scotch Jesuit. Procurator of the society 
 at Paris, June 18, 1686. In 1691, he 
 was associated with F. James Forhes, 
 rector of the college of Douay. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, (David,) a Scottish 
 Jesuit, probahly a missionary in Scot- 
 land, about 1680. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, (Robert,) a Scotch- 
 man of the same order, born a.d. 1533 ; 
 after the failm-e of the embassy of Gau- 
 danus, he left his native country with 
 F. James Hay, and laboured abi'oad for 
 twenty-three years in training novices 
 for the society. Having spent nineteen 
 years in the Scottish mission, he died at 
 Braunsberg, April 27, 1613. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, (Thomas,) a Scotch- 
 man and a Jesuit ; having served in the 
 English mission, he visited Scotland in 
 June, 1610; but fearful of persecution, 
 retired again into England, and died 
 there, Feb. 4, 1644. 
 
 ABERNETHY, (Thomas,) a Scottish 
 Jesuit ; visited Rome in 1633. Was, in 
 1636, a missionary in Scotland, and at- 
 tached to the family of the marquess of 
 Huntley. 
 
 ABERNETHY, (John, 1680—1740,) 
 a dissenting minister, first of Antrim, 
 next of Dublin, who wrote on the divine 
 attributes, some sermons, tracts, a diary, 
 &c. A good, but in some respects a 
 mistaken man, he lived not without 
 esteem even by those of a diiferent per- 
 suasion. But he was a firm sectarian, 
 and too fond of controversy for the culti- 
 vation of that christian charity which is 
 the brightest ornament of the profession. 
 
 ABERNETHY, (John, 1763—1831,) 
 an eminent surgeon. His birth-place is 
 doubtfiU ; being either the town of Aber- 
 nethy, in Scotland, or that of Derry, in 
 Ireland. He was removed at an early 
 age to London, and was educated at a 
 day-school in Lothbury. At the age of 
 sixteen he was apprenticed to Mr. (after- 
 wards Sir Charles) Blick, then surgeon to 
 St. Bartholomew's hospital. His fond- 
 ness for his profession was soon exhibited 
 in the ardour with which he applied 
 himself to the pursuit of information ; 
 and on the expiration of his apprentice- 
 ship, at the age of twenty-two, he was 
 deemed competent to perform the duties 
 of assistant-sm-geon to the hospital, and 
 was accordingly appointed to this office, 
 which was rendered vacant by the retire- 
 ment of Mr. Pott. Sliortly afterwards 
 he was likewise elevated, in the room 
 of the same gentleman, to the chair of 
 sm-gery and anatomy. Abernethy now 
 51 
 
 had ample means of distinguishing him- 
 self, which he very soon did, both as a 
 teacher and an author. At the death of 
 Sir C. Blick he succeeded as surgeon to 
 St. Bartholomew's hospital. 
 
 In 1 793 Abernethy began to give to 
 the world his series of physiological and 
 surgical essays, which at once exhibited 
 the originality and genius of their author, 
 as well as the truly philosophical spirit in 
 which he conducted his investigations : 
 in 1797 these essays were combined into 
 an 8vo volume. In 1784 he published 
 Part I. of his Surgical Observations, 
 containing a classification of tumors, with 
 cases to illustrate the history of each 
 species, &c. &c ; and two years subse- 
 quently. Part II. appeared, presenting 
 an account of disorders of the health 
 in general, and of the digestive organs 
 in particular, which accompany local 
 diseases and obstruct their ciu-e. In 
 1809 he gave to the public his work on 
 the Constitutional Origin and Treatment 
 of Local Diseases, and on Aneurism. A 
 separate volume was hkewise published 
 by him on Diseases resembUng Syphilis, 
 and Injuries of the Head ; as also (in 
 1814) An Inquiry into the Probability 
 and Rationality of Hunter's Theory of 
 Life, in which he embodied the substance 
 of the first two lectures he delivered be- 
 fore the College of Surgeons as their pro- 
 fessor, and wherein he maintained and 
 illustrated the doctrines of his great 
 master. These labours had now acquired 
 for Abernethy an European reputation ; 
 and at home he was reaping the reward 
 of his labom's in an extensive practice, to 
 which the proceeds from his lectures must 
 have added very considerably. Two years 
 before his death, his health, which had 
 been gradually declining, obliged him to 
 desist from lecturing, and shortly after- 
 wards to quit practice : he accordingly 
 retired to his country-seat at Enfield, 
 Avhere he expired on Wednesday, April 
 20th, 1831. His disease was asthma 
 (comphcated probably with diseased 
 heart, although he attiibuted much to 
 the stomach), and consequent dropsj% 
 His body was not examined, in accord- 
 ance, as it is undei'stood, with his own 
 request. 
 
 The period at which Abernethy came 
 forward into public Jjfe, was one weU 
 adapted to his energetic talents and 
 original mind : the impulse had been 
 already given to more accurate ana- 
 tomical and pathological' research for the 
 advancement of surgery and physiology, 
 by his immediate predecessors ; and the 
 E2 
 
ABE 
 
 ABE 
 
 industry and enthusiasm of such men as 
 the subject of this memoir, and others (of 
 whom some are likewise gone, and some 
 are still living), was alone required to 
 carry out the great principles which the 
 previous labours of Haller and J. Hunter 
 in particular had so largely contributed 
 in establishing, and to disperse com- 
 pletely the cloud of empyricism which 
 still overshadowed the science of sur- 
 gery. It were, perhaps, attributing too 
 much to Abernethy, to say that he was 
 the first to apply a knowledge of the 
 functions of organs to the more just and 
 accurate treatment of diseases, especially 
 such as fall to the share of the surgeon ; in 
 this respect he was following in Hunter's 
 footsteps : but to deny to him the merit 
 of great originahty of conception, and a 
 truly philosophical spirit in luifolchng 
 and applying these principles, would be 
 unjust. It would, in truth, be difficult 
 to find a better illustration of the value 
 of his doctrine concerning the " consti- 
 tutional origin and treatment of local 
 diseases," than in its practical recog- 
 nition by, we may venture to say, every 
 well-educated surgeon of the present 
 day. Our very familiarity with it, in fact, 
 renders more difficult a due appreciation 
 of the originality of the mind that first 
 broached many of the principles it in- 
 volves. It was thus the profession was 
 taught to give a due value to the important 
 part which the constitution plays in influ- 
 encing and determining local disorders ; 
 and to regard the latter as so many 
 indices of the deranged state of the 
 former ; and thus it was that the simple 
 art of healing by local treatment was 
 converted into the science of restoring a 
 healthy condition by discovering and 
 remedying the real source of the mis- 
 chief. This, however, was not all : a 
 further principle which Abernethy sovight 
 to establish was more peculiarly his own ; 
 viz, a reference of the greatest portion of 
 these disordered conditions, whether local 
 or general, to derangement of some part 
 of the assimilating apparatus, particularly 
 the stomach and bowels ; a doctrine 
 fraught with the deepest interest to him 
 who seeks scientifically to understand 
 and practise his profession. Yet even 
 this independent thinker has been cri- 
 ticised for having, in the opinion of 
 many, attempted a too comprehensive 
 and indiscriminate reference of disease 
 or disordered functions to this cause ; 
 and vast as unquestionably is the benefit 
 which we of the present generation are 
 deriving from the lessons he inculcated, 
 S>2 
 
 it cannot be denied that much mischief 
 has resulted from a misjudged employ- 
 ment of his means of treatment. It may 
 seem unjust to lay thus to Abernethy 's 
 charge the mischief arising from the 
 mal-practice of others ; nor should we 
 perhaps have felt this remark called for, 
 had he not himself so directly encou- 
 raged the abuse of that knowledge, which, 
 if properly and scientifically applied, is 
 so valuable in its results: and one can 
 scarcely regard as otherwise than para- 
 doxical, the fact, that a man of such 
 sound common sense, and so acutely 
 alive to the prejudices and ignorance of 
 the public in all that relates to medicine, 
 should have indiscriminately recommend- 
 ed the perusal of his work, which so few 
 out of the profession could appreciate or 
 beneficially avail themselves of. Indeed 
 this consideration in some sort explains 
 the abuse occasionally lavished upon its 
 author by those whose ignorance of such 
 matters renders them incompetent judges 
 of the utility of the principles involved : 
 the error was mutual — on the Doctor's 
 part in recommending "his book," and 
 on the part of the patient in condemning 
 opinions and advice which it was not to 
 be expected that he would know how to 
 appreciate. 
 
 As a surgeon, Abernethy was sur- 
 passed by none of his contemporaries. 
 Hunter had previously proposed and 
 practised the appHcation of ligatiu'e on 
 the femoral artery, for the cure of popli- 
 teal aneurism ; and this principle was 
 further and successfiilly extended by 
 Abernethy to the external iliac and carotid 
 arteries, in the treatment of the same dis- 
 ease in some of their offsets. But far be it 
 from those who honour his memory to 
 rest his reputation on the mere dexterity 
 with which he executed the mechanical 
 part of his profession ; let them rather 
 admire the bold yet philosophical spirit 
 with which such apparently desperate 
 operations were planned ; and reflect 
 with pleasure on the opinions regarding 
 operations generally, which this great 
 surgeon held in common with John 
 Hunter, " that they were a reflection on 
 the healing art ; and that the habitual 
 operator was as a savage in anns, who 
 performs by violence what a civilized 
 person would accomplish by stratagem." 
 His simple and impressive style of lec- 
 turing never failed to chain the attention 
 of his audience ; while a certain degree 
 of dogmatism and contempt of those who 
 differed from him, had too much the 
 effect of rendering his hearers any thing 
 
ABG 
 
 ABN 
 
 but huirible-minded in their judgment of 
 others. In his writings, as in his lectures, 
 his style is clear, simple, and concise. 
 
 The eccentricity of Abernethy's man- 
 ners on many occasions is well known. 
 Whether this characteristic trait were 
 originally natural, or (as we strongly 
 suspect, in his as in many analogous 
 instances) the result of a habit which 
 was rather encouraged than corrected, 
 certain it is that it was one of his greatest 
 failings ; and without giving credit to 
 the many exaggerated and disgusting 
 anecdotes of coarseness attributed to him, 
 it cannot be questioned that there was 
 foundation enough to establish for him 
 a character in this respect which merits 
 considerable condemnation. The sub- 
 ject of that work, which had acquired 
 for him his highest reputation with the 
 public, natiu-ally drew to him a class of 
 patients (dyspeptics and hypochondriacs) 
 who rendered themselves most obnoxious 
 to his rough treatment ; and it is strange 
 that he shoidd have failed to recognise 
 the importance of employing a know- 
 ledge of the reciprocal influence and 
 mutual re-action of mind and body (with 
 which no one could be better acquamted 
 than himself) as a remedial agent of no 
 trifling value. It ought to be added, 
 that in private and domestic life he was 
 a man of highly amiable disposition ; and 
 in spite of his uncouth manners, fidl of 
 kindness, generosity, and benevolence. 
 
 ABGAR, an emissary from Michael 
 of Sebastia, pontiff" of Armenia, to Rome, 
 in order to settle some religious disputest 
 This occurred about the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. He appears, if the 
 accounts of Roman Catholics may be 
 credited upon this point, to have per- 
 formed the duties assigned to him with 
 diligence and ability. (Audall's transl. of 
 Chamich's Hist, of Armenia, ii. 336.) 
 
 ABGARUS. Of this name were se- 
 veral kings in Mesopotamia. Two only 
 deserve commemoration. The first, an 
 unwilling vassal of the Romans, (a. c. 57,) 
 led Crassus and his army into the hands 
 of the Parthians. The second is said by 
 Eusebius to have communicated by letter 
 with our Saviour. But this correspond- 
 ence will not stand the test of criticism. 
 
 ABICHT, (I. G. 1672—1740,) a Ger- 
 man theologian and orientalist, wrote 
 much and largely on subjects of biblical 
 literature. A list of his works is given 
 in the Unpartheyische Kirchenhist (torn, 
 iii. p. 327.5). The most remarkable are 
 Select.i Rabbino-Philologica, and some 
 treatises on Hebrew accents, &c. 
 53 
 
 ABILDGARD,(P.C.d.l808,)aDamsh 
 naturalist of some note in his own coun- 
 try, but little known beyond its confines. 
 
 A brother of the above was an histori- 
 cal painter. 
 
 ABIOSI, an Italian physician and an 
 astrologer of the fifteenth centm-y. 
 
 ABLAVIUS, prsetorian prefect under 
 Constantine the Great, was murdered by 
 order of Constans. 
 
 ABLE, (Thomas,) an English divine 
 in the reign of Henry VIII., who had 
 the courage to write against the divorce 
 of that monarch from queen Catherine. 
 This conduct, united with his denial of 
 the king's supremacy in matters eccle- 
 siastical, led to his execution at Smith- 
 field in 154a. 
 
 ABLESON, (John, 1664,) a British 
 seaman, slain in his country's cause. 
 Like the majority of those early mariners 
 who have manifested conduct and cou- 
 rage in fight, and who have attained 
 celebrity only with the loss of life, no 
 trace remains either of his lineal descent 
 or professional novitiate. But for the 
 circumstances of his death, his name 
 would probably have been consigned to 
 oblivion. He fell in the hour of victory, 
 commanding the Gui?iea, a small fourth- 
 rate,* which took a prominent part in the 
 bloody and memorable battle in which 
 James Duke of York defeated the imfor- 
 tunate Dutch admiral Opdam. In this 
 achievement, which won for the royal 
 duke such naval renown, Ableson dis- 
 played ability and courage of the highest 
 order. The battle was fought on the 3d 
 of June, 1665 ; for the details of which, 
 vide memoir of James Duke of York. 
 
 ABNER, a Jewish rabbi of Vallado- 
 lid, who, on embracing Christianity in 
 1295, assumed the name of Alfonso of 
 Burgos. He was a sincere convert, and 
 wi"ote zealously in defence of his new 
 faith. He was also tie author of a work 
 on the plague. 
 
 ABNEY, (Sir Thomas, 1639—1722,) 
 deserves favourable mention for his care 
 of Dr. Watts during so many years of 
 bodily suffering. He received him into 
 his house when incapacitated for public 
 exertion ; and after the death of Sir 
 Thomas, his wife continued the same 
 kindness. He was an excellent London 
 magistrate (a native of Derbyshire) a 
 zealous member of parliament for that 
 city, and a truly religious man. 
 
 • The old authorities are all in error when they 
 denominate this ship "a small frigate of eisht and 
 thirty guns." In those days frigates of this force 
 were unknown. 
 
ABO 
 
 A BR 
 
 ABOAB, (Immanuel, d. 1629,) a Span- 
 ish Jew of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries. Wrote Nomologia, or Dis- 
 ciirsos Legales, a Defence of the Oral 
 Law ; published (at Amsterdam ?) after 
 his death. 
 
 ABOAB, (Isaac,) a Castilian Jew. 
 Driven from Spain in 1492, he died in 
 Portugal the next year. His works are — ■ 
 1. A Commentary on the Pentateuch. 
 Ven. 1548; Cracow, 1587; Wihnandorf, 
 1713. It contains many things against 
 Christianity. 2. Meroroth Hammeor : 
 The Lamp of Light ; a work of morality, 
 often printed in the original, in Spanish, 
 and in German. 
 
 ABOAB, (Isaac, 1609—1693,) a Por- 
 tuguese Jew of learning. He was em- 
 ployed at Amsterdam and in the Brazils, 
 and wrote some commentaries. See also 
 Delitzsch's Geschichte der Judisclien 
 Poesie, where this man, and Jacob Aboab 
 (fl. 1 700) are both mentioned as Hebrew 
 poets. 
 
 ABOS. Two brothers of this name, 
 both knights of Malta in the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth centuries, distinguished 
 themselves greatly by the defence of 
 Malta against the Turks, and by hostili- 
 ties against that power in various parts 
 of the Mediterranean. With one vessel 
 only, Maximilian d'Abos had the cou- 
 rage to assail five of the enemy. A tem- 
 pest casting him on the coast of Tunis, 
 he was sent a prisoner to Constantinople, 
 and put to death by order of the sultan 
 because he would not change his religion. 
 
 ABOVILLE (F. M. Count de, 1730— 
 1817,) a French general, who saw much 
 service in Evuope, and in America during 
 the war of independence. If he was a 
 good officer, he was a notorious time- 
 server; he fought, and as a member of 
 the legislature, voted, for every govern- 
 ment which ai-ose. 
 
 ABRAAMES, (Saint, d. 422,) bishop 
 of Carres in Mesopotamia. 
 
 ABRAAMIUS, (Saint,) bishop of Ar- 
 bela, suffered martyrdom in the persecu- 
 tion of Sapor king of Persia, a.d. 348. 
 
 ABRABANEL, or ABARBANEL, 
 (1437—1508.) This celebrated Jewish 
 author was a native of Lisbon, and de- 
 scended from an ancestry of much renown 
 among the Jews, although his direct 
 descent from king David has been shown 
 by De Rossi (p. 20), and Wolf (i. 658), 
 to be tolerably apocryphal ! Being of 
 an ambitious turn of mind, he paid great 
 attention to politics and finance ; and 
 for many years Alfonso V. honoured him 
 with high official appointments, and with 
 54 
 
 a seat among his councillors. In 1482, 
 on the death of Alfonso, his successor 
 John II. drove his father's favourites 
 and the Jews from his presence, and 
 Abrabanel sought an asylum in Castile. 
 He here turned again to the studies of 
 his youth, and partly composed his com- 
 mentary on Joshua, &c. But he was still 
 unreclaimed from the restlessness of an 
 ambitious spirit ; and though he had be- 
 gun his commentary on the book of Kings, 
 he forsook the kings of Israel for the ser- 
 vice of a modem court, namely that of 
 Ferdinand of Arragon, in which he was 
 just as well rewarded as he had been in 
 Portugal. It has, indeed, sometimes been 
 insinuated that his attention to matters 
 of finance was not quite free from a trait 
 of dishonesty, but the writer of this ar- 
 ticle does not know whether there is any 
 valid evidence to rest such a charge 
 upon. In 1492, Ferdinand banished the 
 Jews from his dominions; and though 
 Abrabanel exerted all his influence to 
 avert this blow against himself and his 
 fellow-sufferers, all his efforts were in- 
 effectual. On finding that he was im- 
 successfid, he embarked with his family 
 for Naples in the year 1493. Here again 
 he became a candidate for court favovu*, 
 and he was fortunate enough to obtain 
 the patronage of Ferdinand and of his suc- 
 cessor Alfonso. When, however, Charles 
 VIII. of France invaded Naples, he fled 
 with Alfonso to Messina, and after the 
 death of his patron retired to Corsica, a re- 
 sidence which he again exchanged in 1496 
 for Monopoli, in Apulia. He there wrote 
 the chief part of his works, attributing to 
 his worldly difficulties both the inclination 
 and the leisure for studies, which he had 
 never been able to pursue, when im- 
 mersed in political affairs and enjoying 
 all the luxuries of a high station. (See 
 the passage in which he speaks of this, 
 quoted in Wagenseil, Tela Ignea Satanse, 
 p. 75). From Monopoli he went to Ve- 
 nice, in order to make some arrange- 
 ments between that state and the court 
 of Portugal ; there he died in 1508, and 
 was magnificently interred in Padua. 
 His chief works are — 1 . His Commentary 
 on the Pentateuch : this, notwithstanding 
 the erroneous date of 1466 contained in 
 it, as the year of its composition, was in 
 all probability written in 1496 at Mono- 
 poli. It was printed in 1579 at Venice, 
 1728 at Hanover, and 1786 at Amster- 
 dam. The Commentary on Deuteronomy 
 called Marcheveth Hammishnah, The 
 Second Chariot, was printed separately 
 at Sabioneta (a very rare edition, which 
 
ABR 
 
 ABR 
 
 contains many attacks on Christianity 
 suppressed in other editions). 2. Com- 
 mentary on the Former Prophets (i. e. 
 Joshua, &c.), often reprinted. 3. Com- 
 mentary on the Later Prophets (Isaiah, 
 &c.) 4. Commentary on Daniel, called 
 The Fountains of Salvation, 1551, and 
 at Amsterdam, 1647. 5. Mashmiah Jesh- 
 iiah. The Herald of Salvation: Thessa- 
 lonica 1526, Amsterdam 1644, Offenbach 
 1767. This is a most bitter attack on the 
 christian interpretation of the prophecies, 
 and was published in 1711 in Latin, by 
 Mains at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. 6. 
 Rosh Hamanah, The Summary of Faith; 
 Constantinople, 1505 ; and in Latin by 
 Vorstius, Amsterdam, 1638. 7. Zevach 
 Pesach, The Passover Sacrifice ; Con- 
 stantinople, 1505. 8. Nachaloth Aboth, 
 The Inheritance of the Fathers ; a com- 
 mentary on the Pirke Avoth, 1505. 9. 
 Hatereth Zekenim, Tlie Crown of the 
 Aged; Sabioneta, 1557. 10. Miphaloth 
 Elohim, The Works of God. 11. Tzu- 
 roth Hajesodoth, Forms of Foundations : 
 printed with No. 9. 12. Teshuvoth, or 
 Answers. 13. Jeshuah Meshicho, The 
 Salvation of his Messiah : MS. in the 
 library at Paris. 14. Lahakath Han- 
 neviim. The Congregation of Prophets : 
 MS. 15. Jomoth 01am, The Days of the 
 World; or Chronicles : MS. 16. Tzedek 
 Olamim, The Justice of the Worlds (i. e, 
 this woi'ld and the next). 17. Shamaim 
 Chadashim, New Heavens. 
 
 Abrabanel is highly esteemed as a 
 commentator, for the fulness with which 
 he quotes preceding authors, and the 
 judgment and acuteness he displays in 
 discussing their opinions. He is bitter 
 beyond conception against the Christians 
 and Christianity ; but De Rossi- remarks, 
 that although he was ill-treated by two 
 christian sovereigns, yet he found fa- 
 vour with another, and both he and his 
 people were received with the utmost 
 humanity in the dominions of the pope. 
 That pope was, however, Alexander 
 VI. ! Bartolocci (Bibliotheca Rabbini- 
 ca, iii. 874, et seq.) says of him, that 
 he was a "^ man of acute but most 
 perverted mind, indefatigable in study, 
 patient in fasting, and able often to de- 
 vote the whole night to study, and so 
 rapid in composition that he could com- 
 ment upon and publish a book of scrip- 
 ture within a few days." He adds, that 
 his blasphemies against Christianity, the 
 pope, the cardinals, bishops, &c. deface 
 every page of his pestilent works. This 
 judgment is, perhaps, too harsh ; there is 
 much ground for censure on this head, 
 55 
 
 but still there is much of his works which 
 is valuable. His commentary on Plosea 
 was translated into Latin by Francis Van 
 Husen, and published at Leyden, 1687. 
 Buxtorf has published some scraps of 
 Abrabanel in Latin, and also Lud. Com- 
 piegne du Veil has translated the preface 
 to Leviticus, and published it with Mai- 
 monides De Sacrificiis ; Sprecher trans- 
 lated his Nahum and Habakkuk, &c. A 
 list of the parts of his works translated 
 may be found in Wolf. Bibl. Hebr. i. p.629, 
 et seq. (De Rossi, Wolf, Bartolocci, &c.) 
 
 ABRABANEL, JUDAH, son of the 
 above, (fl. early in the sixteenth century,) 
 called the " Hebrew Lion," &c. He was 
 a physician and philosopher of repute 
 among the Jews, and -wi-ote a work called 
 Three Dialogues concerning Love ; which 
 was translated into Italian (Dialoghi di 
 Amore di Leone Hebreo Medico. Venet. 
 1558 ; an earlier one at Rome, by Aldus, 
 1535, &c.), Spanish (two translations), 
 Latin and French (two translations, one 
 by Sauvage). The Latin, by Saracenus, 
 is to be found in Pistorius Scriptor. Artis 
 Cabalisticae. The others are very rare. 
 He was probably the Leo, author of the 
 MS. tragic tale Drusilla, mentioned by 
 Tiraboschi, vii. 1319. 
 
 ABRADATES, king of Susiana, and 
 a vassal of Assyria, joined Cynis the 
 Great, and was slain in battle with the 
 Egpytians. 
 
 ABRAHAH, prince of Yemen, of 
 whom strange legends are told by the 
 Mohammedans. As he was nominally 
 at least a Christian, he disliked the pil- 
 grimages to the Caaba, or square house 
 of Mecca; and near to that place he 
 built a church which he magnificently 
 adorned. In revenge, the idolatrous priests 
 desecrated his new place of worship. To 
 chastise them, he assembled an army and 
 marched towards Mecca ; but God, says 
 the koran, fought for the holy house, the 
 infidel prince was compelled to retreat, 
 and on his return was destroyed mira- 
 culously. This retreat has given rise to 
 an era, — that of the Elephant, the first 
 year of which corresponds to a.d. 571. 
 Mahomet, to enhance the sanctity of 
 Mecca, would have adopted legends much 
 more puerile than those relating to this 
 Arabian. See Maracci Refutationes in 
 Alcoranum, p. 824 ; and Prodromus in 
 Refutationes, &c. 
 
 ABRAHAM, (Saint,) an anchoret of 
 Mesopotamia, in the fourth century, 
 whose freaks might provoke the amuse- 
 ment, did they not also command the 
 pity of the Christian. This madman took 
 
ABR 
 
 ABR 
 
 a wife, left her the veiy day of his nup- 
 tials, and plunged into the wilderness 
 " to serve God." There he remained 
 fifty years. On the death of his brother, 
 Mary, his niece, was confided to his cai-e, 
 and he brought her up in his cave. But 
 with all his vigilance, he could not pre- 
 vent her seduction by an ecclesiastic, nor 
 her flight to a distant city, where she 
 lived in deplorable depravity. Whatever 
 might be the absurd asceticism of Abra- 
 ham, he had right feeling enough to re- 
 claim a lost niece to virtue. He soiight 
 her out, and conducted her back to the 
 desert, where she lived fifteen years 
 longer. This event, which we have on the 
 authority of the great Syrian doctor, St. 
 Ephrem, who knew them both, has given 
 rise to a notable drama by Roswitha, 
 nun of Gendersheim. (See the name.) 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN R. CHIGA, a 
 Spanish rabbi, who flourished in the ele- 
 venth and twelfth centuries. Wrote on 
 the resurrection, on the appearance of 
 the Messiah, on astronomy, on music, 
 goemetry, &c. Of his astronomical works 
 one was published at Basil in 1546. Like 
 all the scientific men of the middle ages, 
 he was a firm believer in astrology. 
 
 ABRAHAM, a Portuguese Jew in 
 the sixteenth century, was joined with 
 Athias in the Spanish translation of the 
 Bible. It is said to be a faithfid version ; 
 it is certainly more literal in appearance 
 than any we have consulted. 
 
 ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA, 
 (1642 — 1709,) the assumed name of a 
 Roman Catholic preacher of Vienna. His 
 real name was Ulrich Megerle ; and al- 
 though it is usually said that he was more 
 of a buffoon than a theologian, his popu- 
 larity and reputation were so great au to 
 entitle him to notice here. Indeed Dr. 
 Wolff, (Cyclopadie der Deutschen Na- 
 tional Literatur,) complains extremely of 
 the injustice done to his memory by this 
 character of him, which, however, seems 
 not to be altogether an unfounded one. 
 He was born at Krahenstetten, not far 
 from Mbskirch, in Suabia, and educated 
 at the latter place, Ingoldstadt, and Salz- 
 burg. At eighteen he entered into the 
 order of Barefooted Dominicans, and 
 pursued his studies in one of their mo- 
 nasteries at Vienna. He was, after a 
 while, sent to the monastery of Taxa, 
 near Dachan, in Bavaria, as a preacher, 
 and returned soon after to Vienna in the 
 same capacity. After an employment of 
 the same kind at Gratz, he was called 
 to Vienna in 1669, by Leopold I., as 
 Preacher to the Imperial Court; which 
 56 
 
 office he held for more than twenty years, 
 and after enjoying the highest dignities 
 of his ordei-, which he laboured to reform, 
 he died in 1709. He preached in 1689 
 often at Rome, to the great satisfaction of 
 his audience, and he received from Inno- 
 cent XI. a token of his approbation. He 
 was throughout his life a zealous, indeed 
 a bigoted Roman Catholic. 
 
 Dr. Wolff, who defends and admires 
 him, acknowledges that we must measure 
 his productions by a different standard 
 from that which we shoidd apply to ser- 
 mons in the present day. He attributes to 
 him the excellencies of warmth and zeal 
 for religion and virtue, great knowledge 
 of human nature, great powers of lan- 
 guage (although German was then in a 
 cmde condition), a rich and vigorous 
 imagination, great graphic power, strik- 
 ing wit, and cutting satire ; but acknow- 
 ledges that these are tarnished by want 
 of taste, an effort after effect and anti- 
 thesis, extravagance, and a style often 
 entirely beneath the dignity of his sub- 
 ject and positively low. 
 
 His learning was considerable ; he was 
 as free in lashing the vices of the great 
 as the poor ; he spared no one ; and his 
 boldness, combined with his powers of 
 amusement and wit, created for him a 
 popidarity of the highest order. His ha- 
 tred, too, of all but Roman Catholics, 
 may not have been against him in ob- 
 taining such popularity. 
 
 His most remarkable works are — 1. 
 Judas the Arch-scoimdrel (Judas der 
 Erz-schelm). 2. Up! up! Christians! 
 (AuflT! auff"! ihr Christen!). 3. Some- 
 thing for Everybody (Etwas fiir Alle). 
 
 4. You must die (Du musst sterben). 
 
 5. Fie on the world! (Huy und pfuy der 
 welt.) 
 
 The writer of this article does not pre- 
 tend to be deeply read in Abraham a 
 Sancta Clara's works, but he thinks from 
 what he has seen, that the above charac- 
 ter is too favourable. There is much 
 familiarity of language, a sort of provin- 
 cial dialect, and a great deal of buffoonery. 
 The very title of some of his works is an 
 argument of this latter quality. What 
 shall one say to a work entitled Gack, 
 Gack, Gack, Gack, a Ga (or Gack, Gack, 
 Gack, Gack, ein Ey) : i. e. Cluck, Cluck, 
 Cluck, Cluck, an Egg ! 
 
 There is a just character of this author 
 given in the Encyclopadie of Ersch and 
 Grliber, sub voce ; and it is there stated 
 that Schiller, in his Wallenstein's Lager, 
 has made up the priest's addresses out 
 of scraps of Abraham a Sancta Clara. 
 
 I 
 
ABR 
 
 ABR 
 
 ^WolfF, Cyclopadie. Conversations Lexi- 
 con. Ersch and Grueber.) 
 
 ABRAHAM II. and ABRAHAM III. 
 Two pontiffs of Armenia in the beginning 
 of the last century. The second of them 
 was a native of Crete, and bishop of Tha- 
 kirtagh ; and on the death of the former, 
 in 1 734, was so popular among the clergy 
 that he was unanimously elected, and 
 held the pontificate three years. He was 
 called upon by Thamaz Kouli Khan 
 (otherwise called Nadir Shah), to bless 
 his sword on the plains of Meeghan, 
 which, having done, he returned in peace. 
 (Audall's Armenia.) 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN CHANANIA 
 JAGEL, a converted Jew, who held 
 (under the name of Camillo Jaghel) the 
 office of censor of Hebrew books at An- 
 cona in 1619, 1620. While a Jew he 
 \\Tote — 1. LekachTov; Good Doctrine. 
 (Prov. iv. 2.) Ven. 1595 ; Amst. 1658. 
 It is translated into Latin by C. de Veil. 
 London, 1679 ; and by Carpzov, Pref. to 
 Raymund Martin's Pugio Fidei ; and 
 into German also. 2. Asheth Chail : 
 The Strong Woman. Ven. 1606, &c. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN ASHER, a rabbi 
 of Japhet, in Upper Galilee. Wrote Or 
 Hashechel : The Light of the Under- 
 standing ; a Commentary on the Mid- 
 rash Rabba. The part on Genesis was 
 printed with text. Ven. 1561. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN DAVID, or BEN 
 DIOR, the Levite. There are two 
 Jewish authors thus named: — 
 
 1. Abraham Ben David the Elder, (d. 
 1180,) a native of Toledo. His chief 
 work was, the Sepher Hakabbalah ; or, 
 the Book of Tradition : a work of great 
 celebrity, containing a history of the 
 doctrines of the Jews, as handed Aovm. by 
 uninterrupted tradition from Adam him- 
 self (!) to rabbi J. Meir, who died 1141. 
 It is written to confute the Karaites. It 
 has been published several times : — at 
 Mantua, 1513 (Heb. ; also a part of it 
 in Latin at the end of Genebrard's 
 Chronographia. Paris, 1600) ; Basle, 
 1580 ; Amst. 1711. He wi-ote also, 
 Amana Rama ; or. Lofty Faith, (MS, 
 Vatican and Turin) ; and some astro- 
 nomical books. (See M'Caul's Kimchi, 
 where the Seph. Hakabb. is often quoted.) 
 
 2. Abraham Beji David the Younger, 
 (d. 1198), a native of Peschera, in Cas- 
 tile. He was one of the most learned 
 Jews of his time, and vfxoie commentaries 
 on the Jad Hachazakah of Maimonides, 
 on the Siphra, on the Jetzirah ; a ritual, 
 entitled Baale Hannephesh ; or Animated 
 Beings, &c. (De Rossi. Wolf.) 
 
 57 
 
 ABRAHAM, called Horwitz, authot 
 of three works: — 1. Berith Abraham: 
 the Covenant of Abraham. Cracow, 
 1602. 2. Jesh Nochelin : There are 
 Heirs. Published by his son at Prague, 
 1615. 3. Amek Barakah : The Vale of 
 Blessing. Cracow, 1597. 
 
 ABRAHAM BAR CHASDAI, chief 
 rabbi of Barcelona, and a contemporary 
 of Kimchi, and therefore about the end 
 of the twelfth centiuy. He translated 
 from the Arabic, The Apple, and the 
 Mozene Zedek : The Scales of Righteous- 
 ness. (MS.) The Ben Hamelek ve 
 Hannazir : The King's Son and the 
 Nazarene ; a dialogue occasionally re- 
 printed. The edition of Constantinople, 
 1518, is very rare. — See more in De 
 Rossi. 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN DAVID, (of Os- 
 tra,) wrote The Golden Chain. Hanover 
 and Frankfort. 1681. 
 
 ABRAHAM, son of Judah, of Bar- 
 celona, a rabbi of the thirteenth century, 
 WTOte the Arba Turim : the Fom* Orders. 
 
 ABRAHAM, son of Judah, a chazan 
 or chaunter of the congi'egation, wrote a 
 book, entitled Chibbm-e Leket : Collec- 
 tions — i. e. from Aben Ezra, and other 
 rabbis. 
 
 ABRAHAM, called Gher, or Pro- 
 selyte, of Cordova. This man was an 
 apostate from Christianity to Judaism, 
 about the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century, and is the same person of whom 
 Barios speaks, in his History of Spanish 
 poets, as Abrahamo Pellegrino. He 
 wrote a work, called the Fortress of 
 Judaism, against Christianity, &c. (De 
 Rossi.) 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SABATAI CO- 
 HEN, (b. 1670,) a Hebrew poet, who 
 paraphrased the Psalms in his youth, and 
 published his paraphrase at Venice in 
 1719. (Deiitzsch. Geschichte der Jii- 
 dischen Poesie.) 
 
 ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL ZA- 
 CUT, (fl. 1490,) a Je\vish professor of 
 astronomy, &c. driven out from Spain in 
 1492 by Ferdinand's edict. He went to 
 Portugal, and became astronomer and 
 chronogi-apher to king Emmanuel. He 
 wrote — 1. Juchasin. Constant. 1566; Cra- 
 cow, 1580. This is an history of the 
 transmission of the Jewish doctrines, with 
 accounts of the kings, high priests, &c. 
 The title is taken from an older treatise, 
 the loss of which is deplored in the Tal- 
 mud. Cod. Pesachim. ch. v. f. 62. 2. 
 Some Astronomical Books and an Alma- 
 nack, in opposition to which that of 
 Alfonso of Cordova was published. 3. 
 
ABR 
 
 ABR 
 
 MatlioTc Lenepliesli : Sweet to the Soiil 
 (Prov. xvi. 24) ; a theological and moral 
 
 AIBRAHAMSEN, (Isaac, 16G3 — 
 1714,) a native of Flushing; is author of 
 a chronological work, in itself of no merit, 
 but valuable as containing some points 
 of Flemish ecclesiastical history not else- 
 where to be foimd. 
 
 ABRAHAMSON, (Peter,) a Swedish 
 jurisconsult of the last centur}^ 
 
 ABRAM, (Nicholas, 1589—1655,) a 
 Jesuit ecclesiastic of LoiTaine ; was a man 
 of considerable learning, and of great 
 modesty, but he had no logic, and he was 
 so diffiise as to be wearisome. His com- 
 mentaries on the Orations of Cicero, and 
 on Virgil, have been very useful to suc- 
 ceeding editors. To his theological works 
 little praise can be assigned. 
 
 ABRANCHES, (Alvaro d',) a Portu- 
 guese general, w^ho contributed much to 
 the restoration of Joam IV. in 1640. 
 
 ABRANTES, (Jose de Sa Almeida e 
 Menezes, Marquis of) one of the many 
 public men of Portugal, who proved trai- 
 tors to their country during the lasm-pa- 
 tion of Bonaparte. Born in 1782, of a 
 very noble family, he was in all the 
 vigour of manhood when Junot invaded 
 that countiy. Though his father had 
 been nominated by the prince-regent 
 president of the government during the 
 absence of the court in Brazil, he imme- 
 diately joined the invaders, and became 
 Junot's messenger to Bonaparte, at Bay- 
 onne, to procure the crown of Portugal 
 for that weak yet ambitious man. He 
 was, however, detained by the emperor 
 in Paris, until the events of 1814 enabled 
 him to revisit Lisbon. To Joam VI. he 
 applied for a dukedom, and failing in the 
 application, he opposed the government, 
 joined Don Miguel, and was exiled for 
 the rest of his life which he closed in 
 1826. 
 
 ABRESCH, (Frederic Louis,) was 
 born at Hamburgh, Dec. 29, 1699, where 
 his father was the chief civil officer. At 
 the age of 13, he was sent to learn 
 French with some refugees settled near 
 Greifenstein, where he made so rapid a 
 progress as to be able in seven months 
 to speak it as well as his native tongue. 
 Destined by his father for the church, he 
 applied himself to Latin, Greek, and He- 
 brew, at the college of Herborn. In 
 1720, he went to Utrecht; where the 
 lectures of Duker and Drakenborch gave 
 him a decided turn for classical literature, 
 and led him to abandon his intended pro- 
 fession. In 1723, he was appointed vice- 
 58 
 
 rector of the college of Middleburgh, and 
 two years afterwards he was promoted 
 to the office of rector. From thence he 
 removed to Zwolle, in 1741, where he 
 filled a simdar situation till his death in 
 1782, at the advanced age of 82. He 
 was a considerable and constant contri- 
 butor to the ' Observationes Miscellanese,' 
 which appeared at Amsterdam in 1735, 
 under the editorship of J. P. Doi-ville, and 
 Peter Burmann. Of his articles, some 
 are signed with his real name, others are 
 anonymous, or else under the signature 
 of H., or H. L., or P. B. A. A. H., and 
 some he subscribed with the name of 
 Petro-Basilius. They relate to Aristides, 
 jEschylus, Herodotus, Hesychius, and the 
 two Xenophons of Athens and Ephesus, 
 together with some on the New Testa- 
 ment. Living at a time when Hemster- 
 huis, whom he hailed as the restorer of 
 Greek literatiu'e in Holland, was asto- 
 nishing his contemporaries with the extent 
 of his researches, Abresch caught the 
 fever of the day, and wandered through 
 the whole range of Greek reading, with 
 the exception of the Neo-Platonists and 
 the Commentators on Aristotle ; and as he 
 was particularly conversant with the tri- 
 umvirate of the Greek fathers — Gregory, 
 Basil, and Chiysostom — he was enabled to 
 supply a great many words omitted in 
 Stephens's Greek Thesaurus. From the 
 courteous language adopted towards dif- 
 ferent scholars, it is evident that he was 
 a total stranger to those angry feelings, 
 which have brought no little discredit on 
 criticism. Even De-Pauw, whom almost 
 eveiy editor of ^schylus has abused or 
 despised, is spoken of as ' Aar doctissimus.' 
 Of his learned labours those on Hesy- 
 chius are the most valuable, as he was 
 the first to refer the glosses in that lexi- 
 con to their proper places in Herodotus 
 and Thucydides, and the remains of 
 the Attic stage. "Anxious to act," says 
 he, "the part of a grammarian, I have 
 chosen rather to defend passages from 
 alteration than to indulge in conjectures; 
 which I have found to be the resource of 
 persons either ignorant of the gramma- 
 tical constiniction, or imwilling to un- 
 dergo the trouble of thinking about it." 
 Despite, however, the sneer at emenda- 
 tor}' critics, he occasionally indulged in 
 guesses himself; but he was seldom suc- 
 cessful ; and even when he was more 
 than usually acute, the credit of his con- 
 jectui'es has been given to some other 
 critic, while the mass of the materials 
 which he collected has been of much 
 service to subsequent scholars. It must 
 
A BR 
 
 ABS 
 
 Be confessed, towever, tliat lie exhibits 
 but little of the high taste of a genuine 
 critic, when he would defend an ex- 
 pression in -iEschylus or Thucydides by 
 appealing to writers, no matter of what 
 age, or how far removed from the period 
 of pure Greek. His publications are — 
 1. Animadversiones ad iEschylum ; libri 
 duo. Accedunt annotationes ad qusedam 
 loca N. T. Medioburgi, 1743. 2. Aris- 
 taeneti Epistolae ; Lectionum Aristsiiete- 
 anim libri duo. Zwollse, 1749. 3. Dilu- 
 cidationes Thucydideae : quibus passim 
 cum N. T. tum aliorum scriptorum loca 
 illustrantur aut emendantur. Trajecti ad 
 Rhenum, 1755. 4. Philippi Cattieri Ga- 
 zophylacium Grseconim seu Methodus 
 admirabilis ad insignem brevi comparan- 
 dam verbonim copiam. ZwoUse, 1757. 
 5. Animadversiones ad ^schylum, liber 
 tertius. Accedit Dilucidationum Tliucydi- 
 dearum Auctarium. Zwollae, 1763. In 
 the preface to his edition of Cattier's 
 ■work wUl be found a few notes on his 
 Dilucidationes Thucydideae, communi- 
 cated by an anonymous friend, who was 
 probably Valckenaer, as may be inferred 
 from his notes on Phoen. 1409, andEpistoI. 
 ad Roever. p. 74. In the Miscell. Observ. 
 vi. p. 621, he replies to the objections 
 started by Duker in the preface to his 
 Florus, against the intei-pretation of 
 some passages in that author, proposed 
 by himself in Animadvers. in ^Eschyl. 
 p. 553. 
 
 ABREU, (Alexis,) a Portuguese phy- 
 sician, who in 1622 published a treatise 
 on the Diseases of Courtiers. 
 
 ABREU, (Josef Ant. d. 1775,) con- 
 tinued that immense heap of documents, 
 Colleccion de los Tratados de Paz, de 
 Alianza, &c. which Bertolano had com- 
 menced. His work is, however, rather 
 a new one than a continuation of Ber- 
 tolano's. 
 
 ABREU, (Joam M. 1754—1815,) a 
 Portuguese mathematician ; wrote two 
 works on geometiy, which were pub- 
 lished in France. 
 
 ABRIAL, (And. J. Count d', 1750— 
 1828,) an eminent French lawyer and 
 judge, who, however, ^vi'ote nothing. 
 
 ABRIANI, (Pablo, d. 1699,) a Car- 
 melite friar, once actively employed in 
 preaching, but at length dismissed from 
 his order. He translated a considerable 
 
 Eortion of Horace and the Pharsalia of 
 lUcan, and composed some poetry of his 
 own. 
 
 ABRIL, (P. S. 1530—1590,) a native 
 of Alcalas, in the diocese of Toledo, 
 taught the Latin and Greek classics at 
 59 
 
 Saragossa. He was probably one of the 
 first teachers that not only authorized, but 
 prepared, several interlinear versions of 
 the ancient writers, for the use of learners. 
 These versions he made as literal as pos- 
 sible, and his reputation was very high. 
 For this fact it is easy to account. Boys 
 will always like the masters who save 
 them trouble ; mothers will do the same ; 
 and fathers are but too much disposed 
 to judge favourably of their sons' pro- 
 gress, when they perceive all smooth 
 and satisfactory. If there be no royal 
 path to geometry, there is none to lan- 
 guages ; the knowledge which has not 
 been laboriously and even painfully ac- 
 quired, is of no great value. For this 
 reason, though we acknowledge the 
 merits of Abril as a grammarian, we 
 much doubt whether his manner of in- 
 stmction ever made one. For the same 
 reason too we shall give no list of the 
 numerous works translated by this Span- 
 ish Hamilton. 
 
 ABSALOM, archbishop of Lund, and 
 primate of the north, (1128 — 1191,) had 
 a great voice in Danish affairs under Wal- 
 demar, and Canute VI. At an early age 
 he distinguislied himself by his studies, 
 which he finished at the university of 
 Paris. In 1158 he was elected bishop 
 of Roskild, by the chapter of that cathe- 
 dral, at the instigation of the new king, 
 Waldemar, who had been his fellow- 
 student. As might be expected, he be- 
 came the minister and friend of Uie 
 monarch ; and to his counsels, no less 
 than his value, the nation was indebted 
 for many brilliant exploits. Among the 
 most signal of his expeditions, was the 
 one that he undertook against the Vend 
 pirates of Arkona, in the isle of Rugen. 
 There they were powerful alike for their 
 numbers, their fortifications, and their 
 remarkable valour. Religious fervour 
 was added to habitual courage. The 
 great idol of Swante\at, at the feet of 
 which was laid all the booty taken in war, 
 was held to be a true palladium : so long 
 as it was among them, there was no fear of 
 subjugation. Hence a body of 300 aiTned 
 men, the bravest of the people, were 
 stationed within this holy enclosure ; 
 and its four countenances, all horrible 
 enough, were believed to look favourably 
 on this consecrated band. Absalom as- 
 saulted the city, destroyed the temple, 
 broke the idol into a thousand pieces, but 
 spared the inhabitants on the condition 
 of their embracing Christianity. Over 
 the Jomsberg pirates too, (see Harold, 
 SwEYN,) he is said to have triumphed; 
 
ABS 
 
 ABS 
 
 and he may possibly have laid the foun- 
 dation of Dantzic, However this be, he 
 caused Denmark to be respected. In 
 1178, Eskild, Avho had been his personal 
 enemy, resigned the archiepiscopal throne 
 of Lund, and declared that no one was 
 so worthy to succeed him as Absalom. 
 The chapter thought so too, and he was 
 elected. But he had no great desire for 
 the dignity ; by his flock of Roskild he was 
 much beloved ; he had no wish to leave 
 them ; and he refused to remove, on the 
 just plea that he would not resign the 
 one, and that he could not canonically 
 hold the two. His superior, however, 
 Alexander IH., was less scnipulous than 
 he, and insisted that he shoidd hold both. 
 How indeed coidd he be condemned for 
 that which was tolerated in every part of 
 Cliristendom ? 
 
 Absalom was something better than a 
 warrior ; he was a man of some learning 
 himself, and a great patron of it in 
 others. At his instance two celebrated 
 writers, Sweyn Aggesen, and Saxo Gram- 
 maticus, undertook the national history ; 
 and under his patronage they finished it. 
 He had a great share in the compilation 
 of the legal code which Waldemar pub- 
 lished ; and he drew up the Jus Eccle- 
 siasticmn Selandise, a body of canon law 
 for the use of clergy and laity. To 
 reform his monasteries, especially that of 
 Sore, which he had founded, he brought 
 able monks from Paris. In some other 
 respects he was an enlightened prelate. 
 He abolished the fieiy ordeal in cases of 
 adultery. He placed bounds to the bene- 
 factions of the laity in favour of particular 
 ^churches. Yet with all his merits he was 
 sometimes the subject of complaint among 
 a people half pagans in their hearts. The 
 people of Scania would pay no tithes ; 
 and when the assessors tried to enforce 
 the collection they broke out into open 
 rebellion. Waldemar sent troops to re- 
 duce them, and they were signally de- 
 feated. Well for them that the mischief 
 ended here : the king was preparing to 
 make a terrible example of them, when 
 the archbishop appeared in the field, 
 begged, as the reward of his services, 
 that his flock might be spared ; and his 
 request was granted. — His noble stand 
 for the independence of Denmark is well 
 deserving of record. After the acces- 
 sion of Canute VI. the emperor Frederic 
 Barbarossa sent an ambassador to demand 
 homage and tribute for the provinces 
 which had been conquered from the 
 Vends. Both were refused. Frederic 
 then threatened to give the investiture 
 60 
 
 of those provinces to some other prince. 
 By the advice of Absalom, Canute re- 
 plied : " If the emperor is resolved to 
 give away that which is not and cannot 
 be his, let him first look for a man who 
 may be bold enough to receive it !" Still 
 Frederic, determined to carry his point, 
 sent another embassy, with orders to bring 
 Canute to submission by promises or 
 menaces. " Tell thy master," replied 
 Absalom, " that Denmark is not Thurin- 
 gia ; that before he can dispose of this 
 kingdom, he must conquer it ; that the 
 Danes have steel as well as the Germans; 
 that my sovereign fears not the threats of 
 thine!" To chastise this insxxlt, Frederic 
 engaged Bogislas, duke of Pomerania, 
 to declare war against Denmark. But 
 Absalom had a sword as well as a pen ; 
 he defeated the duke in a naval action, 
 and compelled him to do homage to 
 Canute, instead of Frederic. This ad- 
 vantage was followed by the reduction of 
 Mecklenbm-g, Esthonia, and some minor 
 districts, — exploits in which the arch- 
 bishop had no ordinary share. (Lan- 
 gebek, Scriptores Rerum Danicarum. 
 Stephanius, Notae ad Saxonem Gram.) 
 
 ABSCHATZ, (Hans Assman von, 
 1646 — 1699,) a German statesman and 
 poet. He was a native of Worbitz, in 
 Silesia, and educated at Liegnitz, and 
 then studied jurisprudence at Strasburgh 
 and Leyden. After travelling in France 
 and Italy he returned to his native 
 country, and held an official situation 
 at the com"t of Vienna, where he was 
 highly prized by Leopold I. After a life 
 passed with considerable reputation, he 
 had an official situation (Landes Haupt- 
 mann) at Leignitz, which he held till his 
 death. His poetiy is not remarkable for 
 genius or imagination, but it is simple 
 and correct — no trifling merit in the then 
 condition of GeiTnan literature. Some 
 of his hymns and religious songs seem 
 pretty; but probably their merit is not 
 great, as it does not appear that any of 
 them are inserted in Chev. Bunsen's Ver- 
 such Eines Allgemeimen Gesang-imd- 
 Gebet-Buch. He translated the Pastor 
 Fido, and imitated several other Italian 
 Avorks. His poems were published in 1 704 
 under the title of H. A. von Abschatz 
 Poetische Uebersetzungen imd Gedichte. 
 (Wolff's Cyclopadie.) 
 
 ABSTEMIUS, (Laurentius.) His Ita- 
 lian name was Astemio. He was bom at 
 Macerata, and became, in the course of 
 time, librarian to Guido Ubaldo, duke of 
 Urbino. He was the author of the fol- 
 lowing works: — 1. Libri duo de quibus- 
 
ABS 
 
 ABU 
 
 dam locis obscuris. 2. Hecatomythium, 
 sive Centum Fabiilae ex Graeco in Latinum 
 versae. 3. Hecatomythium Secundum. 
 The first appeared at Venice without a 
 date, in 4to, and has been reprinted by 
 Gruter in the Lampas Critica sive Fax 
 Artium, tom. i. p. 878. It contains ex- 
 planations of many passages in the Ibis 
 of 0\dd, which had been previously mis- 
 imderstood, and corrects an errror which 
 Valerius Maximus committed on a point 
 of history. The second work was ap- 
 pended to an edition of Valla's version 
 of thirty fables of jEsop, printed at Venice 
 in 1495, 4to. The third appeared like- 
 wise at Venice in 1499, 4to. The last two 
 were afterwards incoi-porated witli some 
 editions of jEsop printed at Venice, Frank- 
 fort, and elsewhere in 1505, 1519, 1520, 
 1530, 1580, 1610, and 1660. Of the 
 200 nearly sixty have been put into 
 elegiac verse by Hieronymus Ossius, in 
 a work vmder the title of Phryx iEsopus 
 habitu poetico Hieronymi Ossii Tyri- 
 getae.' Francofurti ad Maenum, 1584; — 
 a very rare work. Following the ex- 
 ample of Poggio, Abstemius gave a few 
 of his fables an indelicate turn, with the 
 view of ridiculing the clergy of his day ; 
 and hence his Hecatomythia are in- 
 cluded amongst the books prohibited by 
 the Catholic church. So far is he, how- 
 ever, from apologizing for this breach of 
 decorum, that he claims credit for his 
 forbearance. " I have taken," says he, 
 " especial care that the fablea should be 
 rather of a serious than a facetious cast ; 
 and hence I have designedly rejected 
 many ludicrous ideas that presented 
 themselves, as being too broad, and little 
 suited to the gravity of a court." The 
 greater part are merely alterations — fre- 
 quently for the worse — of the ^sopic 
 fables, \n-itten in Greek, Latin, German, 
 French, and Italian ; and which were 
 then current in different countries, where 
 they were perpetuated as the songs of 
 the nursery and children's games are 
 now. The Venice edition of 1499 was 
 reprinted at the same place in 1505 and 
 1519. It contains a prefatory letter to 
 Angelo Griphone, in which allusion is 
 made to the first Hecatomythium, de- 
 dicated to Octavianus Ubaldinus. The 
 fables are followed by a treatise, De 
 compluribus verbis commvmibus, quae 
 nunc male appellantur Deponentia; in 
 the preface to which he says he had 
 written a life of Epaminondas, which 
 never seems to have been pubhshed. He 
 wrote also a preface to Aurelius Victor, 
 which appeared at Venice in 1505. There 
 61 
 
 is also in the Barberini library at Rom^ 
 a large work of his on geography in 
 MS. 
 
 ABU BEKIR, the first of the, four 
 khalifs who immediately succeeded Ma- 
 homet. Before his conversion to the 
 faith of Islam he was called Abu Caab ; 
 but after that event he was named Ab- 
 dalla, servant of God, and Abu Bekir, 
 father of the virgin, because his daughter 
 fAyesha, the last and most beloved of 
 the prophet's wives, was the only maiden 
 thus honoured. This chief was one of the 
 earliest and most faithful of Mahomet's 
 adherents ; and that he was something of 
 an impostor, may be inferred from two 
 circumstances. He pretended to have 
 seen the nocturnal departure of the Pro- 
 phet for the realms above ; and after he 
 became khalif he was the first to collect 
 — no doubt to amplify — the scattered 
 chapters of the Koran. He succeeded 
 as the vicar of the prophet in the eleventh 
 year of the Hejira, or the year of Christ 
 632, being then 61 years of age. His 
 short administration was successful. He 
 subdued the rebels of Arabia, and tri- 
 umphed, through his generals, over the 
 Greek emperor Heraclius. By Moham- 
 medan historians he is particularly men- 
 tioned for the merciful directions which 
 he gave to his generals. " Spare the 
 women, the children, the aged." — " Make 
 not war untQ j'ou have invited the people 
 to embrace the holy law." — " Always 
 respect the character of an ambassador." 
 — " Avoid cruelty." — " Oppose your 
 enemy by open bravery, never by poi- 
 son." — " Spai-e the fruit-tree and the 
 corn-fields." These commands were dic- 
 tated by sound policy ; but this khalif 
 had more than policy to recommend him. 
 In his habits he was distinguished for 
 great humility. He took not from the 
 public treasury more than sufficed for 
 himself, a camel, and a slave ; his fare 
 was exceedingly frugal ; yet, on his 
 death, three drachmas only were found 
 in his possession. Well might his suc- 
 cessor, the khalif Omar, assert, that to 
 imitate him would be a hard task for all 
 future vicars of the prophet. 
 
 The reader should here observe that by 
 the Shiites, neither Abu Bekir, father-in- 
 law as he was of Mahomet, nor the three 
 successors of Abu Bekir, were the legi- 
 timate vicars of the prophet of God. The 
 right lay with Ali, cousin and son-in-law 
 of Mahomet. 
 
 .\BU HANIFA EL NOMAN BEN 
 THABET, chief of one among the four 
 great orthodox sects of Islam j was born 
 
ABU 
 
 ABU 
 
 at Cusa A. H. SO, or a. d. 699, His origin 
 was a humble one, and his calling hum- 
 bler still ; but devoting himself with ex- 
 traordinary zeal to tlie study of the 
 Koran, he was summoned to Bagdat by 
 the khalif Almansor, who insisted that he 
 shoidd undertake the office of cadi, or 
 judge. He refused ; alleging as the 
 cause, his want of the necessary quali- 
 fications ; nor coidd menaces or imprison- 
 ment shake his resolution. Nor was this 
 the only occasion on which he suffered 
 for his constancy. He was a great ad- 
 herent of the house of AH, and the conse- 
 quent enemy of the usurping Abbassides. 
 Having the courage to defend the people 
 of Mussoul before Abdalla H., he was 
 imprisoned and poisoned by order of that 
 khalif, A. H. 150. The greatest of his 
 works — that on which his fame as a great 
 doctor rests — is entitled Mesned, or Sup- 
 port : it brings the support of passages 
 from the Koran to all the fundamental 
 doctrines of Islam. Of his mildness, his 
 patience, which were almost superhuman, 
 an anecdote is related with great applause 
 by Mussulman writers. A man one day 
 boxed him on the ear. " If I were re- 
 vengeful," observed Abu Hanifa, " I 
 should return the outrage. If I were a 
 delator, I could accuse thee before the 
 khalif. All the revenge I shall take will 
 be this, — to pray God that we may enter 
 heaven together !" 
 
 ABU OBAID AL CASSIM BEN 
 SALLAM, a native of Herat in the 
 second century of the Hejira, wrote, or 
 rather compiled, much. His book of the 
 prophetic traditions, of which there is a 
 copy at Leyden, cost him many years to 
 collect. With another of his works, — a 
 collection of Apologues and Proverbs, — 
 European scholars are better acquainted, 
 through the publication of two hundred 
 Arabic proverbs by Erpenius at Leyden. 
 The author died at Mecca, a. d. 839. 
 
 ABU MANSUR, a celebrated Arabian 
 astronomer of the ninth and tenth cen- 
 turies, resided both at Bagdat and Da- 
 mascus. He was much honoured by the 
 khaUfs under whom he hved; and he 
 did much service to science by his Ob- 
 servations. A more intei-esting work 
 would be his lives of the Arabian poets ; 
 but, like too many other Mohammedan 
 treasures, it is not likely to become ours. 
 
 ABU MOSLEM, the chief to whom 
 the Abbassides were much indebted for 
 their accession to the throne of the kha- 
 lifs. The feebleness of the Omeyas be- 
 coming daily more manifest, and the 
 tyranny of their officers more intolerable, 
 62 
 
 Ibrahim, a prince of Mahomet's house, 
 aspired to the government of the Mo- 
 hammedan world, and sent Abu Moslem 
 to head his partisans in Chorasan. The 
 general put to flight the governor depen- 
 dant on Meruan, and rendered that vast 
 province submissive to the house of Ab- 
 bas. On the death of Ibrahim, Abid 
 Abbas el Saffah continued Abu Moslem 
 in the government of Chorasan. In a few 
 years he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, 
 and had the folly to offend Mansur, brother 
 of the khalif, who was soon destined to 
 succeed Abul Abbas. This wanton act 
 sealed liis fate ; for though Mansur spared 
 him until he had conquered Abdalla, who 
 aspired to the khalifat, he was assassi- 
 nated A.D. 755. Such was the reward 
 which his services obtained from the 
 house of Abbas. 
 
 ABU NOWAS, (Abu Ali Al-Hassan,) 
 an Arabian poet of the eighth centiuy, 
 was a great favomite at the court of 
 Aaron Al Raschid, 
 
 ABU OBEIDA, one of the generals 
 who most contributed to the triumph of 
 Mahomet's new religion in the reigns of 
 Abu Bekir and Omar. He had been 
 the favourite of the prophet, who asserted 
 that he was one of the men whose names 
 were written in the book of life. His 
 moderation in the hour of victory, and 
 in his government of Syria, prove that 
 he was influenced by the advice which 
 he had received from Abu Bekir, (see 
 the name. He died in the 18th year of 
 the Hejira, corresponding to a.d. 639. 
 
 ABU OSAIBAH, (Abid Abbas,) a 
 celebrated physician of Syria, who died 
 1269. He was a disciple of Aben Bitar, 
 and has left an important Biography of 
 Physicians. 
 
 ABU RYHEN, whose proper name 
 was Mohammed ben Mohammed, a phy- 
 sician, astronomer, and astrologer of the 
 10th century. He has left a Chronology, 
 or Introduction to Judicial Astrology, 
 and other works. 
 
 ABU SAHAL, an Arabian physician, 
 is said by D'Herbelot to have been the 
 master of Avicenna. 
 
 ABU SAID BEN ABUL HOSEIN, 
 translated into Arabic from the Hebrew, 
 The Five Books of Moses. Of this 
 translation there are several MSB. in the 
 great European libraries. 
 
 ABU SAID MIRZA, great grandson 
 of Timur, took advantage of the civil 
 wars of Transoxiana, to seize on that 
 province and Turkistan, about the middle 
 of the 15 th century. He was conse- 
 quently proclaimed sultan at Asterabad. 
 
ABU 
 
 ABU 
 
 Not satisfied with a success which he 
 could never have anticipated, he directed 
 his ambitious views to Irac and Adher- 
 bijan, which he invaded and partly sub- 
 dued. Falling into an ambuscade, how- 
 ever, he was taken prisoner and brought 
 before the sovereign whose dominions 
 he had so wantonly invaded, and who 
 put him to death, a.d. 1469. His em- 
 jiire, prior to this disastrous expedition, 
 comprised the regions between the Cas- 
 pian Sea and Hindostan, from Cashgar 
 to Tauris. 
 
 ABU TAXFIN, king of Tremecen, 
 succeeded by the crime of parricide, 
 A.D. 1318. Ambition leading him to 
 disturb his neighboui", the king of Tunis, 
 he incurred the hostility of the king of 
 Fez, who vanquished him, besieged him 
 in his capital, reduced, and slew him. 
 
 ABU TEMAM HABIB BEN AWS, 
 called the prince of Arabian poets, was 
 born in the neighbourhood of Damascus, 
 about A. H. 170, or a. d. 787. His origin 
 was humble, and his earliest calling 
 mean. According to one account, he 
 was employed in an Egyptian mosque, 
 to serve the worsluppers with drink : 
 according to another, he was a mason 
 of Damascus. However this be, genius 
 like his could not long remain hidden ; 
 and it soon procured him the favour of 
 the khalifs. In return, he flattered them. 
 He collected many of the Arabic poems 
 written before and after the prophet of 
 Mecca ; and after his death, his own 
 poems wei'e collected by Abu Bekir al 
 Sooly, who arranged them in the alplia- 
 betical order, and by Ali ben Hamza, who 
 more wisely placed them under the pro- 
 per subjects. The time of his death is 
 unknown : Abulfeda conjectures it to 
 have been in a. h. 228. Probably his 
 life was a short one ; for, in the language 
 of the East, " the keenness of his fancy 
 consumed his mind, just as the sharpness 
 of the blade wears the scabbai'd." Frag- 
 ments of what he collected, but not of 
 what he composed, have been published 
 in different works. 
 
 ABU THAHER, prince of the Car- 
 mats, a sect which began to arise about 
 the year 891, dethroned his brother in 913, 
 and showed that he was well fitted for a 
 bandit chief. In 923 he seized on Bus- 
 sora, which he plundered during a week, 
 and then retired with his booty. The 
 year following, Cufa shared the same fate, 
 and defeated the army of the khalif. 
 Bagdat trembled, but the robber was satis- 
 fied with plundering other towns. Mecca 
 was the last place which he visited. He 
 G3 
 
 slew the emir, and took away the Caaba, 
 or holy stone, wluch had so long adorned 
 the temple. 
 
 ABU THALEB AL HOSEINI, trans- 
 lated from Tartar into Persian the In- 
 stitutes of Timur. If so, how could he, 
 as the Biographic Universelle asserts, 
 flourish in the reign of Saladin, and dedi- 
 cate his translations to that monarch ? 
 
 ABU YUSSEF, (Yacub,) a celebrated 
 disciple of the above, who did much to 
 disseminate the doctrines of his master. 
 His learning was such that he was raised 
 to the dignity of chief cadi, the duties of 
 which high office he exercised under tliree 
 successive khalifs. He died in a. h. 182. 
 Of his modesty a favourite anecdote is 
 related. "Thou receivest large sums of 
 money from the khalifs treasury," said a 
 man ; " yet thou addest little to the stock 
 of legal knowledge." " I am paid for 
 what I know," was the reply : " if I were 
 paid for what I do not know, the khalif 
 would not be rich enough to satisfy my 
 claims !" 
 
 ABUCARA, (Theodore,) bishop of 
 Cairo in the eighth century, who, con- 
 sulting his interests quite as much as his 
 conscience, knew how to pass with safety 
 through a troubled period. He wrote 
 against the Jews, the Mohammedans, and 
 heretics in general. 
 
 ABUL ABBAS, surnamed Al-Saffa, 
 or The Bloody, (Abdalla,) was the first 
 khalif of the house of Abbas. He was 
 the son of Mohammed, Mohammed of 
 Ali, Ali of Abdalla, Abdalla of Abbas, 
 the uncle of the pi-ophet ; he was, there- 
 fore, a member of the holy family. On 
 the death of his brother Ibrahim, (see 
 the name,) being compelled to considt 
 his safety by flight, he repaired to Cufa, 
 by the inhabitants of which he was de- 
 clared khalif. To understand this revo- 
 lution, it is necessary to remember that 
 the people of Cufa had never been favour- 
 able to the Ommiades, or the khalifs of the 
 house of Omeya (see Othman, third khalif; 
 and Moakwa), who reigned at Damascus ; 
 and they had, or pretended to have, great 
 cause of complaint against the gover- 
 nors nominated by the Omeyans. Abid 
 Abbas promised to favour them ; and 
 being supported by them, he declared 
 war against Meruan, the last khalif of 
 that race, whom he dethroned and slew. 
 The manner in which he inveigled into 
 his power the other Omeyan princes, 
 and then put them to death, is the 
 foulest blot on his memory ; hence pro- 
 bably his surname of Al-saftat, the Bloody. 
 Abderahman, however, as we have be- 
 
ABU 
 
 ABU 
 
 fore seen, escaped his vengeance, and 
 founded a new dynasty in Spain. The 
 reign of Abiil Abbas was a short one, ex- 
 tending only from A.n. 132 to 136, or 
 from A. D. 749 to 753. He was succeeded 
 by thirty-seven khalifs of the same 
 dynasty, who are generally called the 
 Abassides, and who filled the throne of 
 the prophet 524 Mohammedan years. 
 
 ABUL CASSIM, a Mohammedan 
 general of Iconium, who distinguished 
 himself against the Greek emperor Alexis. 
 But he had also to oppose the king of 
 Persia, Melik Shah ; and as he was un- 
 able to contend with both, he became the 
 vassal of the Greek, and was enabled to 
 resist the Persian. In the end, however, 
 he was killed by order of Melik. 
 
 ABUL CASSIM, (Tarif Aben Tarik,) 
 the pretended author of a well-known 
 Spanish Chronicle on the Conquest of 
 Spain by the Arabs. This chronicle was 
 long thought to be a translation from the 
 Arabic, and its author to have been a 
 companion of Musa, the conqueror of 
 the Goths ; but the impostiu'e was at 
 length exposed by Nicholas Antonio and 
 other writers. Unfortunately, however, 
 for the interests of historical truth, its 
 fables were previously adopted by many 
 historians of Spain, especially by Mari- 
 ana, whose reputation is European. 
 
 ABUL PARAGE, (Gregory,) whose 
 name is generally latinized by Ahiilfa- 
 ragius, was born at Malatia, in Asia 
 Minor, a.d. 1226. His first piu-suit was 
 medicine, which had been that of his 
 father, but which he soon abandoned for 
 sacred literature. With Greek, Syriac, 
 and Arabic he was well acquainted, and 
 they assisted him in his study of divi- 
 nity, to which he devoted his future life. 
 Entering the church, he must have been 
 in priests' orders at an age not sanctioned 
 by the canons, for he was only 20, we are 
 told, when consecrated bishop of Guba. 
 The Jacobites, however, to whose order 
 he belonged, were not very observant of 
 ancient discipline. In a short time he 
 was translated to the see of Aleppo ; and 
 at 40 years of age he became primate of 
 the eastern Jacobites, a dignity which 
 he held till his death in 1286. He is 
 ■well known for a Universal History, from 
 the Creation to his own times. It is of 
 great value to the historian of the East, 
 especially in regard to the Mongul Tar- 
 tars, to Ghengis Khan, and to the Sara- 
 cens. He wrote it in Syriac, but at the 
 request of his friends he translated it 
 into Arabic. Hence his fame among the 
 Mohammedans, who have layislily praised 
 64 
 
 his great work, and have dignified hirti 
 Avith the highest names. It was pub- 
 lished by Pococke in 1663, together with 
 a Latin version. In Germany it has 
 been published in Syriac and Latin, with 
 very good notes. Of Abulfaragius, Gib- 
 bon speaks in high terms, and not more 
 highlv than he deserves. 
 
 ABUL FARAJ ALI, a celebrated 
 Arabic poet, was born at Ispahan a.d. 
 897. He was descended from the khalif 
 Meruan, the last of the Omeyas ; and was 
 educated at Bagdat, where he died in his. 
 70th year. Of the many works which 
 he wrote or compiled on history, juris- 
 prudence, medicine, or poetry, one only 
 is known in Europe. This is the Kiteb 
 Aghany, a collection of ancient Arabic 
 poems, which must be of inestimable 
 value to the historians of Arabic poetry, a 
 subject more vast than is generally sup- 
 posed. 
 
 ABUL FAZIL, (Alami,) the vizir of 
 the emperor Akbar, and according to 
 Ferishta, the most elegant wi'iter of 
 Hindoostan. He was certainly the most 
 usefiU. At the command of his imperial 
 master, he composed or compiled the 
 Akbar-Nameh, or Book of Akbar, in 3 vols. 
 It may be divided into three great parts. 
 The first treats of the ancestors of Akbar. 
 The second relates the actions of Akbar 
 down to the 47th year of his reign, when 
 the author died. The third, Ayeen 
 Akbery, Avhich was written by several 
 learned men of Akbar 's court, under the 
 direction of Abid-Fazil, is independent 
 of the two former. It is a description 
 at once minute and accurate of Hindo- 
 stan, in her geographical, statistical, and 
 physical relations. Each of the sixteen 
 governments dependent on Delhi, their 
 towns, fortresses, produce, revenues, and 
 gradual annexation to the empire of the 
 Mogids, may be seen in that important 
 division. Nor does it omit the moral 
 and religious condition of the people. It 
 contains an excellent condensation of the 
 Brahminical doctrines, and a view of the 
 philosophic systems which have in suc- 
 cession been adopted by the people. The 
 extracts from Sanscrit authorities, which 
 are translated into Persian, are very 
 valuable. A portion only of this great 
 work has been translated into English 
 by Mr. Gladwin, and his book is very 
 scarce. There is only one copy of the 
 original, and it is in France ; we hope, 
 however, that it will soon occupy the 
 attention of oriental scholars. 
 
 The end of Abul-Fazil was a tragic 
 one. So great was his favom- with Ak- 
 
ABU 
 
 ABU 
 
 bar, so great his reputation, that he in- 
 curred, first the envy, and next the 
 hatred, of Selim, heir to the throne of 
 the Moguls. At the instigation of this 
 prince, he was imprisoned and slain hy 
 a band of men, who were believed to be 
 mere robbers, a. d. 1604. His loss was 
 sensibly felt by the emperor. (Gladwin's 
 Preface. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ABUL FEDA, (IsmaH,) the celebrated 
 historian and geographer, born at Da- 
 mascus, A.H. 672, or A.D. 1273. He was 
 nobly descended, being sprung from 
 Ayub ben Shady, and consequently of 
 the same family as Saladin. Embracing 
 the profession of arms, in the service of 
 the Egyptian sultans, he was actively em- 
 ployed against the Christians in Syria, 
 whose empire in the east was now con- 
 fined to a few insignificant fortresses. 
 The troops which he commanded were 
 those of the principality of Hamah, in 
 S}Tia, which was a dignity in his family ; 
 and he had always the post of honour, 
 that is of danger, in the Moslem armies. 
 On the reduction of the Christian 
 knights, his next efforts were against the 
 Tartars. On the death of his cousin, 
 the reigning prince of Hamah, a. d. 1 299, 
 he succeeded to that dignity. But it 
 was disputed by his two elder brothers : 
 a civil war seems to have followed ; and 
 to extirpate it, a lieutenant of the sultan 
 took possession of the principality in tlie 
 name of his master. But Abul-feda 
 suffered no disgrace, and he hoped to 
 regain the principality. Nor was that 
 liope vain ; for though many years 
 elapsed, and many applications were 
 made, before he obtained the object of his 
 wishes, enough for him that his perse- 
 verance was at length rewarded. This 
 was in the year 1311. By his imperial 
 master he was peculiarly honoured ; his 
 government of Hamah was in the fullest 
 sense of the word absolute ; and the title 
 of Sultan, which gave him supremacy in 
 matters religious no less than temporal, 
 and which, in retin-ning from the pil- 
 grimage of Mecca, he received from the 
 klialif, placed him at the summit of his 
 wishes. We may, however, observe that 
 this high dignity was, at the period 
 before us, much too easily conferred : 
 there were sultans in most of the great 
 cities ; and the lustre of the office was 
 rendered less striking by its frequency. 
 No doubt the khalif, though his throne was 
 shaking imder him, was delighted with 
 the title of Supreme Commander of the 
 Faithful, — with being hailed as King of 
 Kings. Abul-feda enjoyed the dignity in 
 
 VOL. I. 65 ' 
 
 peace till the close of his life, a. d. 1331. 
 He had higher fame than that of a war- 
 rior. He was a good statesman ; a good 
 scholar ; zealously attached to literature 
 and science, and the patron of both in 
 a degree which we should not have 
 expected from the troubles of the times. 
 Of his works, two remain, which, both 
 in Asia and Eiu-ope, have always been 
 read with applause. The first, which 
 is purely historic, is an epitome of Uni- 
 versal History, and is divided into five 
 parts. The first treats of the patriarchs, 
 judges, prophets and kings of the Jews. 
 The second records the four ancient 
 dynasties of Persia. The third embraces 
 the kings of Egypt and Greece, the kings 
 and emperors of Rome. The fourth is 
 occupied by the kings of Arabia before 
 Mahomet. The fifth is devoted to many 
 people, — to the SjTians, Sabean«, Copts, 
 Persians, Greeks, &c., from the era 
 of Mahomet to a. d. 1328. If the author 
 has one great defect in common with 
 nearly all the Moslem historians, — that 
 of aridity ; if he relates facts without re- 
 flection, ^vithout colouring, without ima- 
 gination, he is superior to most of them 
 in the accm-acy of his statements, in the 
 extent of his materials, in the number 
 of his authorities, in the value of the 
 information which he has left us. Several 
 parts of this great woi'k have been trans- 
 lated into Latin, and even into some 
 vernacular languages of Europe. The 
 best known of these translations are the 
 Life of Mahomet, — Additions to the Life 
 of Saladin, — Mohammedan Annals, — 
 History of the Arabs before Mahomet. 
 Tlie gi'eater portion, however, of this 
 history is still in MS. 
 
 The second great work of Abul-feda 
 is a Universal Geography. It has two 
 divisions. The first contains a general 
 view of regions, lakes, rivers, seas, and 
 mountains. The second relates to cities 
 and towns, to the provinces in which 
 they are situated, to the manners, habits, 
 occupations and resources of the people. 
 It is interspersed with many curious ob- 
 servations concerning the ancient no less 
 than the modem state of those places. 
 Several parts of this work have also been 
 translated and published. It is much 
 to be regretted that any portion of the 
 royal historian's labours should remain 
 inaccessible to the scholars of Europe. 
 (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale. 
 Biograpliie Universelle. Gibbon, Decline 
 and Fall.) 
 
 In the Biographic Universelle, a list 
 of those parts of Abul-feda's great works, 
 F 
 
ABU 
 
 A BU 
 
 which have been published and trans- 
 lated is found, wliicli is here given in an 
 abridged fomi : — 
 
 I. His historical work, Al-Mokhtassar 
 fy Akhbar Albachar ; or. Abridged His- 
 tory of the Human Race. The portion 
 of this which relates to Sicily under the 
 government of the Arabians, was trans- 
 lated by Dobelius for his friend De Amico, 
 early in the seventeenth century ; and 
 Carusius (Bib. Sic.) and Muratori (Col- 
 lection of Historians of Italy) have pub- 
 hshed this translation. The other parts 
 of this work already published are, — 1. 
 De \Tita et rebus gestis Muhamedis Liber, 
 Arabice et Latine, edente, cum notis, 
 Job. Gagnier. Oxon. 1723. fol. 2. 
 Auctarium ad Vitam Salidini, &c., cum 
 versione Lat. ab Alberto Schultens, at the 
 end of the Vita et Res gesta; Sultanii 
 Saladini, aut. Bohcedino, Leyden, 1732, 
 fol. 1755. 3. Annales Muslemici Lat. 
 a J. J. Reiskio. Lipsite, 1754. (Con- 
 tains from the birth of Mahomet to a. h. 
 406, A.D. 1015.) 4. Abul-Fedse Annales 
 Muslemici, Arab, et Latine, opera et 
 studio J. J. Reiskii &c. nunc priminn 
 edidit Adler. Copenhagen, 1789-94. 
 5 vols. 4to. 5. Prof. White's edition 
 of the Specimen Historise Arabum. 
 Oxford, 1806. M. Silvestre de Sacy has 
 given the History of the Arabs before 
 Mahomet, in Arabic and Latin. 
 
 II. His great geogi-aphical work, called, 
 Tacouym El-Boldan. Of this there 
 have been published — 1. Chorasmias et 
 Mawaralnahrse, hoc est, regionum extra 
 lluvium Oxum descriptio, ex tabulis 
 Abul-Fedae Ismaelis Principis Hamah, 
 Arab, et Lat. a J. Gravio. Londin. 
 1650. 4to. (Reprinted in Hudson's 
 Minor Geographers, Oxf. 1698—1712. 
 4 vols. Svo ; and the Arabic is also foiuid 
 there.) 2. Geographia Latine facta ex 
 Ai-abico a J. J. Reiske. 3. Caput 
 Primum Geogi'apbiae, &c. in Muratori, 
 Antiquit. ItaU Medii ^Evi. 4. Tabula 
 Syriae, Arab, et Lat. cum notis Koehler 
 et Reiskii. 5. Descriptio ^Egypti, Arab, 
 et Lat., ed. J. D. Michaehs. Gott. 1776, 
 Svo. 6. Tabulae qusedam Geograpliicse 
 et alia ejusdem argumenti Specimina. 
 Ed. F. T. Rink. Lipsiae, 1791. Svo. 
 7. Africa, Arab, cum notis J. G. Eichom. 
 Gotting. 1791. S. Tabula Septima, &c. 
 Mesopotamiam exhibens, by Rosenmidler 
 and Paulus, in the 3d vol. of the New 
 Repertory of Oriental Literature. 1791. 
 9. The Arabia, by Chr. Rommel. Gotting. 
 1801. 4to.* 
 
 * De Laroque has also given a French trans- 
 lation at the end of the Voyage du Chevalier de 
 CG 
 
 ABUL GHASI BEHADER, usually 
 known by the name of Abulgasi Khan, 
 was a king of the family of Ghengis Khan, 
 and born in Kharasm, a. n. 1606. He 
 ascended the throne in 1645, but abdi- 
 cated it two or three years before his 
 death. He is well known for his Ge- 
 nealogical History of the Tartars, which 
 he composed after his secession from the 
 duties of royalty, and which is of great 
 use to the bistoi-ian of the east. It has 
 been translated into Russian, German, 
 and French, t 
 
 ABUL HASSAN, (Ali,) an astronomer 
 of Morocco early in the thirteenth cen- 
 tmy. One of his works was translated 
 into French by M. Sedillot in 1810. 
 
 ABUL MAHASAN, an Arabic histo- 
 rian of Aleppo, in the fifteenth century, 
 Avho wrote much, but whose chief work is 
 entitled, ' Shining Stars ; or, a History 
 of Egj'pt and Cairo.' According to Sil- 
 vesti'e de Sacy, this is one of the books 
 that most demands a translation. There 
 are several MSS. of it in most gi-eat 
 libraries of Europe. A small abridgment 
 of these annals was published at Cam- 
 bridge in 1792, with a Latin version by 
 Carlyle. Another work of this author, — 
 a biographical dictionary, of which 5 vols, 
 are in the royal hbrary of Paris, ought 
 also to be translated and pubUshed. 
 
 ABUL OLA, a celebrated Arabian 
 poet, (973 — 1057,) whose free opinions, 
 and still freer life, gave much scandal to 
 the devout Moslems. Though blind, he 
 exhibits considerable knowledge of the 
 world, which he is at no time disposed to 
 spare. Extracts from his poems are 
 given by Fabricius and Golius, but they 
 have no great merit. 
 
 ABUL WAFFA, (Mob. Ben Yahia,) 
 an Arabian mathematician and astro- 
 nomer of the tenth century. 
 
 ABUNDANCE, (Johan d') the as- 
 sumed name of a French poet, in the 
 16th century; wrote some mysteries and 
 moralities. He called himself also 
 Maistre Tyhurce. His Morality of the 
 Passion of our Lord is so rare, that the 
 copy in the Paris library is thought 
 unique. 
 
 Arvieux ; and Thevenot has given a translation 
 of some portions of the ivork in his Recueil des 
 Voyages; and lastly, in 180S, a translation of the 
 parts of Abul-feda, previously published, was 
 printed in Modern Greek at Vienna. 
 
 + The French edition was published at Leyden, 
 2 vols. 12mo, 1726, and is made from the German, 
 and enriched with excellent notes. M. Langles, 
 however, says, (Biog. Univers.) that he has pointed 
 out some of "the errors of this edition in his Notice 
 of the Khans of the Crimea, appended to the 3d 
 vol. of the Voyage de Forster. 
 
AB Y 
 
 A C A 
 
 ABYDENUS, an historian mentioned 
 by Eusebius, St. Cyril, and Syncellus. 
 Very little isknown of him. If, as the name 
 imports, he was a native of Abydos, we 
 are still far from learning where he lived, 
 since there were four places of the name. 
 What is certain is, that he made the pre- 
 ceding work of Berosus the foundation 
 of his own. If, as Scipio Tetti informs 
 us, the original work of Abydenus (which 
 we know only from the fragments pre- 
 served by the writers we have mentioned) 
 really exists in some ItaUan library, it 
 should be looked for without delay. 
 
 ACACIUS, (surnamed Monophthalmus, 
 or One-eyed,) bishop of Ceesarea, and 
 successor of Eusebius, was deposed by 
 the council of Sardis for his heretical 
 opinions in regard to the divinity of 
 Christ. He had, however, a party which 
 met at Philippopolis, in Thrace, and con- 
 demned the opposite party. Protected 
 by the emperor Constantius, he did not 
 hesitate to depose St. Cyril from the see 
 of Jerusalem, and to assist in the expvd- 
 sion of Pope Libei'ius. He died in 365. 
 He was said to be a man of talent 
 and eloquence, but of most unstable 
 opinions and versatile conduct. On 
 some occasions he went even beyond the 
 Arians themselves. His writings were 
 very numerous, but none remain, except 
 a long extract fi'om an answer of his to 
 Marcellus, which is preserved in Epi- 
 phanius Hasres. 72. He wrote a Mfe 
 of Eusebius, which might probably be 
 more valuable than his doctiines or his 
 commentaries. In proof of his imstable 
 opinions, the following summary of them, 
 from Mr. Newman's able History of the 
 Arians of the Fourth Century, may be 
 adduced. After praising his talents, he 
 adds, " He began at first with professing 
 himself a Semi-Arian, after the example 
 of Eusebius his master ; next, he became 
 the founder of the party which wll pre- 
 sently be described as the Homoean; 
 3dly, he joined himself to the Anomoe- 
 ans or pure Arians, so as even to be the 
 intimate associate of the wretched jEtius; 
 4thly, at the command of Constantius, 
 he deserted and excommunicated him ; 
 5thly, in the reign of the catholic Jovian, 
 he signed the Homoousion, or Symbol of 
 NicEea." (Newman, p. 296. See his his- 
 tory in the following chapter of the same 
 work. Cave, Hist. Lit. i. 206.) 
 
 ACACIUS, bishop of Berea in the 
 4th century, had notoriety enough for 
 his time. He shone in several disputes 
 and at several councils ; but his persecu- 
 tion of his former friend St. Chrysostom, 
 G1 
 
 and his assistance in the consecration 
 of Porphyiy as bishop of Antioch, brought 
 on his head the excommunication of the 
 pope, from which he was absolved in 
 about ten years. Some of his letters are 
 extant, and they seem to prove that he 
 was not very favourable to the conduct 
 of St. Cyril in the affair of Nestorius. 
 
 ACACIUS, bishop of Amida early in 
 the 5th century, has obtained even the 
 praise of Gibbon, for the noble charity 
 which caused him to feed and to redeem 
 7,000 Persian captives, by disposing of 
 the plate belonging to his cathedral. On 
 their mentioning this conduct to their 
 monarch, he consented to a peace with 
 Theodosius the younger, even when his 
 armies had triumphed. 
 
 ACACIUS, patriarch of Constantino- 
 ple in 471. This prelate lived in times of 
 difficvdty, and his history is not without 
 its difficulties, from the contending ac- 
 counts of friends and foes. He was so 
 strongly opposed to the supremacy of 
 Rome, that being excommunicated by 
 pope Felix, he defied his power, and 
 erased his name in return from the 
 sacred tablets. This contest with the 
 popes had chiefly arisen in consequence 
 of his patronage of Peter the Fuller, whom 
 he had fixed in the see of Antioch, a.d, 
 482, and in consequence of the famous 
 decree of the * Henoticon' (or decree of 
 union intended to reconcile the two par- 
 ties) wluch the emperor Zeno published 
 in the same year, by his counsel and 
 assistance. The Latin chinxh considered 
 this decree injurious to the doctrines 
 maintained in the council of Chalcedon ; 
 and although the Greek church defended 
 the memory of the patriarch for a time, 
 they consented to expunge his name 
 from the sacred diptychs, in a.d. 519. 
 Those who are desirous of investigating 
 these points, mil find copious references 
 in Mosheim, Part II. chap. v. § 15 — 23. 
 But, at all events, this decree was agree- 
 able to the views of Peter the Fuller, and 
 Mongus, the heads of the sect of the 
 Monophysites, although it went against 
 the Arians and Eutychians; and hence 
 theWestern church took doctrinal grounds 
 for an attack on Acacius. In former 
 days, Acacius had been a strong defender 
 of the coimcil of Chalcedon, and had 
 forced BasUicus to abandon his opposi- 
 tion to it, and he was very instrumental 
 in assisting Zeno to his throne. What- 
 ever may be thought of his doctrines, he 
 must be praised for his noble defence of 
 the empress Ariadne, whom Zeno had 
 commanded to be put to death, and whose 
 F 2 
 
AC A 
 
 ACC 
 
 life he was the means of. saving. He died 
 in 489. Two letters of liis are extant : 
 one to Peter the Fuller, on the Ti'isagium ; 
 the other to Simplicius, on the Alexan- 
 drian church. (Cave, Hist. Lit. vol. i. 
 Mosheim, id supra, &c.) 
 
 ACADEMUS, or HECADEMUS, a 
 private individual of Athens, who left to 
 the people a portion of ground for a 
 public walk. By Hipparchus, it was sur- 
 rounded Avith walls ; by Cimon, it was 
 planted with trees. By Plato and his dis- 
 ciples it was much frequented : hence the 
 term Academy, as applied to the meet- 
 ings of literary men or philosophers. 
 
 ACAMAPIXTLI, founder of the 
 Mexican kingdom, about a.d. 1380. Pi-e- 
 viously to this event, the Asteques, or 
 ancient Mexicans, were merely a leachng 
 tribe of a small locality, who had removed 
 to that locality from the north, and were 
 governed by many chiefs. Seeing the 
 advantages of combination, the warriors 
 resolved to have a supreme chief, or king, 
 and they elected Acamapixtli, the grand- 
 son of a neighbouring king with whom 
 they had been at war. Such is the native 
 tradition ; but there is reason to believe 
 that this prince was the conqueror of the 
 Asteques, and that he forced them to 
 receive his yoke. It appears, however, 
 that he governed with great success and 
 great moderation ; that he was the legis- 
 lator no less than the protector of his 
 people ; that he persuaded or forced 
 other tribes to unite with the Asteques ; 
 that he thus laid the foundation of a 
 great empire, and if he did not build, he 
 greatly enlarged his capital, Tenochitlam, 
 the modern Mexico ; that he dug canals, 
 threw bridges over the rivers, and con- 
 structed aqueducts which long afterwai'ds 
 commanded the admiration of the Spa- 
 niards. He was therefore the founder, 
 not merely of the empire, but of its 
 civilization. There seems, however, some 
 reason to doubt whether he rescued his 
 people from their dependence on 
 Tepeacan, a kingdom on the shores of the 
 Mexican Gulf. Be this as it may, he was 
 regarded with much reverence by his 
 contemporaries and by posterity. Though, 
 on his death, he left to his people the 
 free choice of their nder, they would not 
 overlook his own family, and the sceptre 
 was placed in the hands of his son 
 Vitzilocutli. 
 
 ACARQ, a French grammarian of the 
 last century, who wrote a philosopliical 
 grammar, critical observations on the 
 most eminent French writers, and many 
 other things which nobody read when he 
 68 
 
 was alive, and which arc not likely to be 
 more fortunate now. 
 
 ACC A, (Saint,) bishop of Hagulstadt, 
 or Hexham, in Nortlmmberland ; suc- 
 ceeded to the mitre of St. Wilfrid in 709. 
 Like his predecessor, whom he had 
 accompanied in many Avanderings, he 
 was a monk ; and what he had seen in 
 Italy he was anxious to imitate in the 
 Saxon province of Northumbria. Hence 
 after his election he greatly embellished 
 the cathedral of Hexham, and introduced 
 the Gregorian chaunt into the choir. He 
 died in 740. He wrote on the sufferings 
 of the saints ; offices for his churches ; 
 and some letters, among which there is 
 one addressed to Bede. Hist. Eccl. v. 21. 
 
 ACCACIUS, (St.) bishop of Antioch, 
 Asia Minor, is celebrated for his coura- 
 geous defence of Christianity before Mar- 
 tian. His examination being laid before 
 Decius, that emperor, admiring his intre- 
 pidity, ordered him to remain unmolested. 
 
 ACCARISI, (Alberto,) of Ferrara, the 
 first man, we are told, that published a 
 dictionary of his own language. 
 
 There were two other Italian writers 
 of this name. Francesco Accarisi was 
 a learned jurisconsult, who explained 
 the Institutes and the Pandects with 
 great applause. He died as professor at 
 Pisa in 1612. Jacopo Accarisi was a 
 rhetorician of Mantua, who died in 1654, 
 and who wrote a history of the Propa- 
 ganda missions, of the War in Flanders, 
 Latin Epistles, &c. 
 
 ACCIAIUOLI, (Nicolas,) grand se- 
 neschal of Naples, an adventurer from 
 Florence, who owed his fortune as much 
 to the favour of queens as to lois own 
 merits. He died very rich in 1366. 
 
 A nephew of the preceding, whom 
 Nicolas had called to the Neapolitan 
 court, was placed in the household of 
 Maria de Boxubon, titular empress of 
 Constantinople. Receiving from the im- 
 perial family, which, though exiled, had 
 still some possessions in Greece, the lord- 
 ship of Corinth, he annexed Athens to it, 
 and obtained the title of duke, as Re- 
 nier I. He died early in the fifteenth 
 century, without legitimate male issue ; 
 but his bastard son, Antonio, Avhom he 
 made lord of Corinth, subsequently ob- 
 tained the dukedom of Athens. 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI, (Donato,1428— 1478,) 
 a native of Florence, distinguished him- 
 self by his cidtivation of Greek Hterature, 
 no less than by the manner in Avhich he 
 discharged his important public duties. 
 Though enjoying the highest dignities of 
 the republic, he died poor — a rare instance 
 
ACC 
 
 ACC 
 
 of disinterestedness in so corrupt an age. 
 He wrote on the philosophy of Aristotle ; 
 translated into Latin some of Plutarch's 
 Lives, and into the Tuscan language a 
 Latin history of his country. See Tira- 
 boschi, vol. vi. p. 807. 
 
 Two poets of this name, Pietro and 
 Jacopo, both Florentines by descent, 
 ^\Tote good Latin poetry in the sixteenth 
 century. (Tiraboschi, vii. 1384, 5.) 
 
 A third, Zeusbio, a Dominican friar, 
 librarian of the Vatican, also a Floren- 
 tine, who died at Rome in 1519, translated 
 into Latin three of the Greek fathers. (Ti- 
 raboschi, vol. vii. p. 224, 1111, &c. 
 
 A fourth, Filippo, of the order of 
 Malta, (1637 — 1700,) wrote some musical 
 
 ACCIAJUOLI SALVETTI, (Mada- 
 lina, d. 1610,) was a poetess of some 
 note in her day. She left 2 vols, of 
 Rime Toscane, and an unfinished poem 
 on the flight of David. 
 
 ACCIEN, or properly Baghi Syan, 
 was the grandson of Alp Arslan, (see the 
 name,) who conferred on his father, Mo- 
 hammed, the government of Antioch. 
 To that government he succeeded, and 
 was reigning in 1097, when the city was 
 besieged by the crusaders. He defended 
 it with valour ; but the following year it 
 was betrayed into the hands of the 
 crusaders ; and Accien, who fled, was 
 killed by an Armenian. 
 
 ACCIO ZUCCO, surnamed Da Sum- 
 ma Campagna, an Italian poet of the 
 fifteenth century ; translated into Italian 
 sonnets the Fables of ^sop 
 
 ACCIUS NEVIUS, one of the Roman 
 augurs in the time of Tarquin the Elder, 
 who opposed the expedition of that king 
 against the Sabines. The fable of the 
 razor and the stone is too well known to 
 be repeated here. The augur seems to 
 have been removed by violence ; and 
 probably the statue wluch Tarquin erected 
 to him, and which was standing in the 
 time of Augustus, was the effect of 
 remorse. 
 
 ACCIUS, (Lucius,) called also Attius, 
 a tragic poet, was bom, according to 
 St. Jerome, about a. c. 170. He wrote 
 several tragedies, and is praised by Quin- 
 tillian, by Tacitus, and even by Horace 
 and Ovid. Of his pieces, which once 
 formed the delight of the Romans, some 
 inconsiderable fragments only remain. 
 They have been collected by Robert 
 Stephens. He is mentioned and quoted 
 more than once by Cicero also. For 
 more on Attius or Accius, see the com- 
 mentators on Hor. Sat. I. x. 53, the Ency. 
 69 
 
 Metr. Hist. Div. ii. 390, and Reuven'a 
 Collectanea Literaria. Leyden, 1815. 
 
 ACCOLTI. Of this name are several 
 distinguished Itahans. 
 
 1. Benedetto, a jurisconsult and his- 
 torian, of the fifteenth century ; was pro- 
 fessor at Florence, and ultimately chan- 
 cellor of that republic. He WTote on the 
 wars of the first crusade, and on the cele- 
 brated men of his own time. Died 1466. 
 
 2. Francesco, brother of the preceding, 
 was also svu-named of Arezzo, and Aretin, 
 from the place of his birth. He was also 
 a lawyer ; but he found time enough for 
 literary pursuits, especially for transla- 
 tions from the Greek. These were nu- 
 merous, but, from the judgment of Eras- 
 mus, we may conclude that they were of 
 no great merit. He appears to have been 
 more successftd in his works on juris- 
 prudence. As a poet, he seems just to 
 have reached mediocrity. Died 1483. 
 (See Tiraboschi, vi. 756.) 
 
 3. Bernardo, the son of Benedetto, was 
 a poet of greater reputation than his 
 micle, and was siu^named il Unico Aretin 
 — a preeminence which, judging from his 
 extant compositions, we should scarcely 
 have inferred. Still less should we have 
 concluded from them alone that they were 
 heard with such rapturous applause, that 
 when he entered a city it was all in mo- 
 tion to hear him ; that the house in which 
 he recited was absolutely besieged, and 
 guards placed at the gates to prevent an 
 ingi-ess sufficient to crush everj' one within 
 to death ; that the streets were illuminated, 
 and the very shops closed, when he was 
 thus exhibiting. Such statements we 
 cannot understand ; surely they must be 
 outrageous exaggerations. Probably much 
 of his fame rested on that which coidd not 
 descend to posterity — on his extempora- 
 neous verses. In this case well would it 
 have been for him had he written 
 nothing : we should then have been 
 unable to disprove the encomia of his 
 contemporories. By Leo X. he was much 
 beloved — perhaps enriched. The year of 
 his death is unknoAvn ; but he survived 
 Ariosto. (See Tiraboschi, vi. 835.) 
 
 4. Pietro, brother of the preceding, 
 and consequently son of Benedetto, (1455 
 — 1532,) born at Florence, professed law 
 at Pisa,'entered the church, became bishop 
 and cardinal, cardinal-vicar, and papal 
 legate. He is known in history as the 
 cardinal of Ancona. He drew up the bviU 
 which, in 1 5 1 9, was hurled against Luther ; 
 and he left some legal treatises of no great 
 merit. In few respects does he appear to 
 have much claim on our esteem. 
 
ACC 
 
 ACC 
 
 5. Benedetto, known as the cardinal of 
 Ravenna, nephew of the two preceding, 
 and grandson of Benedetto the historian. 
 Born in 1497, he was a cardinal (thanks 
 to his uncle !) in 1527. Like his uncle, 
 he left illegitimate childi-en ; and from 
 his imprisonment by the pope, we may 
 infer that this was not his .only crime. 
 He left some Latin compositions, espe- 
 cially poetry, which he wrote well 
 enough. He died at Florence in 1549. 
 (See Tiraboschi, vol. vii. p. 1387, et seq.) 
 
 6. Leonardo, son of Fabricio, who was 
 a bastard of the above cardinal. He 
 wrote the hfe of Benedetto, the founder 
 of the family, and a history of the war 
 against the infidels. 
 
 7. Pietj-o, brother of the preceding, 
 'wrote two trifles. 
 
 ACCORAMBONI. Of this name were 
 several Italians, of whom their own coun- 
 trymen think highly. 
 
 1. Geronimo, a physician, (1467 — 
 1557,) left three medical treatises. 
 
 2. Fabio, (1502—1559,) son of the 
 preceding, a jurisconsult who held some 
 dignities at the papal court, and left some 
 legal treatises. 
 
 3. Felix, the son or grandson of the 
 preceding, a physician, poet, and philo- 
 sopher ; commented on Aristotle, wrote 
 History of Plants, &c. 
 
 4. Virginia, belonging, we suppose, to 
 some branch of the family, was the wife, 
 first, of Francesco Peretti, nephew of 
 Sixtus v., and after his assassination, of 
 Pablo Girolamo Orsini, duke of Arcenno. 
 She lived in an age when virtue was at a 
 low ebb, and corriiption had established 
 itself in high places ; and she did not 
 escape suspicion, for she was accused of 
 murdering her first husband, and was long 
 a prisoner. In 1585 she fell beneath the 
 dagger of her second husband's kinsman. 
 She wrote some poetry. 
 
 ACCORSO. Of this name too there 
 were many persons of reputation in Italy. 
 
 1. Francesco, the jurisconsult, (1151 — 
 1229,) a native of Florence, and professor 
 at Bologna ; collected the opinions and 
 decisions of his predecessors on the most 
 important points of Roman law. His 
 work is called the Great Gloss, or the 
 Continued Gloss. It was a monument 
 of labour, of industry, of legal research, 
 and for the age was useful ; but the author 
 had not the general learning necessary for 
 the illustration of the laws ; he was not 
 historian enough to know the occasions 
 v/hich had pi-oduced them ; he knew little 
 of coins and inscriptions, which are pow- 
 erfid auxiliaries of Roman jurisprudence. 
 70 
 
 Hence his numerous errors, which have 
 caused more recent commentators to un- 
 dervalue his merits. They say that the 
 proverb ' Grsecum est, non legitur,' by 
 which the jurisconsults of those days 
 escaped a difficulty, arose from him. 
 Tiraboschi entirely doubts this story, but 
 doubts also his knowledge of Greek, 
 (iv. 344.) 
 
 2. Francesco, son of the preceding, 
 professed at Bologna with as much ap- 
 plause as his father had done. When, 
 in 1273, our Edward I. passed through 
 Bologna, he was so delighted with this 
 professor, that he made him royal offers 
 to undertake the same chair at Thou- 
 louse. The Bolognese would not hear of 
 his departure ; they threatened to con- 
 fiscate his property if he did. But he 
 secretly left, and his property was con- 
 fiscated. If there be any truth in a 
 weU-known anecdote, his abilities were 
 somewhat overvalued by Edward. As 
 he was one day explaining the text of 
 the law on usury to his hearers at Thou- 
 louse, one of them, whom he knew not, 
 and whom nobody had seen before, made 
 to his interpretation some objections 
 strong enough to surprise him, and to 
 make him confess that the disciple knew 
 more than the luaster. But this was not 
 a disciple ; it was the celebrated jiu'is- 
 considt Jacopo, of Ravenna, who had 
 attended the lecture incog. From Thou- 
 louse, Francesco was di'awn to Oxford, 
 where he remained some time. In 1280 
 he returned to Bologna, procured the 
 restitution of his property and his pro- 
 fessorship, and ched in 1328. 
 
 3. Cervot, brother of the preceding, 
 a lawyer also, but of much less note. 
 
 4. Mariangelo, a native of Aquila in 
 the kingdom of Naples, a good classical 
 scholar and ci'itic in the first half of the 
 sixteenth century ; was a great favourite 
 of the emperor Charles V. at whose court 
 he lived above thirty years. He was 
 famous too for his skill in modern lan- 
 guages ; and as Charles himself was a 
 good linguist, we may infer that his repvi- 
 tation in this respect was fully deserved. 
 To collate the MSB. and thereby to cor- 
 rect the text of ancient writers, was his 
 favourite occupation. Ausonius, Ovid, 
 Cassiodorus, and Claudian, were the au- 
 thors who benefited most by his critical 
 labours ; and these labours have not been 
 without their use to recent commentators. 
 Of Ammianus Marcellinus he published 
 a new echtion, and corrected above 5000 
 errors in the Editio Princeps. He -wi-ote 
 also a fable, some verses, and a satire. 
 
ACE 
 
 A CH 
 
 ACEPSIMAS, (St.) bishop of Honlta, 
 in Assyria, should be reverenced for the 
 indomitable courage with which he suf- 
 fered torments and martyrdom during 
 the persecution of Sapor, king of Persia. 
 Yet he was much of a fanatic, and he 
 was anxious to provoke his fate. 
 
 ACERBI, (Giuseppe,) of whom we 
 know nothing except that he travelled to 
 the North Cape, and published a relation 
 of what he had seen. When the Italian 
 edition appeared we know not, but in 
 1804 a French translation issued from 
 the press, and was soon followed by an 
 English one. This book is amusing in 
 general, though one is sometimes dis- 
 gusted with the author's flippancy and 
 evident laxity of principle. 
 
 ACERBI, (Enrico, 1785—1827,) a 
 native of Costano, became a celebrated 
 physician, and practised at Milan with 
 success. His medical treatises, however, 
 are of too local a character to be useful 
 beyond the confines of Italy. 
 
 ACERNUS, (S.B. 1551—1608,) a ma- 
 gistrate of Lubhn, wrote some Latin and 
 Polish poetry, and several prose tracts. 
 
 ACESEUS, a Greek artist, famous 
 for embroidering. Some of his handy- 
 work was to be seen in the temple of 
 the Pythian Apollo ; but his master- 
 piece, in which he was assisted by his 
 son Helicon, was the mantle of Minerva 
 in the citadel of Athens. 
 
 ACESIUS, bishop of Constantinople 
 in the reign of Constantine the Great, 
 was a disciple of Novatus, and noted for 
 the severity with which he would enforce 
 church discipline. The men who had 
 apostatized under persecution, or who 
 even had committed a mortal sin after 
 baptism, ought not, he contended, what- 
 ever the degree of repentance, to be 
 re-admitted to the communion of the 
 church. While supporting this outra- 
 geous opinion at the gi-eat council of 
 Nice (325), the emperor observed to 
 him : " Then, Acesius, you may make 
 a ladder for yourself, and ascend to 
 heaven alone !" 
 
 ACESTOR. Of this tragic poet no- 
 thing is known except what is stated by 
 the Schol. on Aristoph. 'Opv. 31, that 
 he was ridiculed for affecting to be an 
 Athenian, when he was in reality a 
 Mysian, and, as appears from the frag- 
 ments of contemporary comic writers 
 there quoted, the worst of dramatists. 
 
 ACEVEDO, (Alonso M.) an en- 
 lightened advocate of Madrid, who wrote 
 against the use of torture in all criminal 
 proceedings ; and other legal works, in- 
 71 
 
 dicative alike of his humanity and eru- 
 dition. He died about 1780. 
 
 ACEVEDO, (Felix Alvarez,) born in 
 the province of Leon, studied at Sala- 
 manca, was called to the bar at Madrid, 
 embraced the military career, and when 
 Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, was 
 nominated by the junta of Leon com- 
 mandant of the volunteers. During the 
 war of independence he attained the 
 rank of colonel. In 1820, when the re- 
 volution of the isle of Leon broke out, 
 he declared for the insin-gents, and was 
 declai-ed general of the Galician forces. 
 Forcing San Roman, who commanded 
 for the king, to leave the province, he 
 pursued him, and just as he had assailed 
 him at the village of Padoruela, received 
 three mortal wounds. 
 
 ACHA, (Mamen ben Cais,) an Ara- 
 bian poet, of or before the time of Ma- 
 homet. Of his only piece, which contains 
 no more than sixty-four vers'es, an ana- 
 lysis has been given by De Sacy. 
 
 ACH^MENES, brother of Xerxes, 
 commanded the naval expedition against 
 Greece. He fell against the combined 
 Athenians and Egj'ptians, a. c. 462. 
 
 ACH^US. There were three per- 
 sons of this name. The first was an 
 historian mentioned by the Schol. on 
 Pind. Ol. vii. whom Vossius (De Histor. 
 Graec. iv. 3, p. 501) is disposed to iden- 
 tify with the individual whom the Schol. 
 on Aratus unites ^vith Pherecydes, and 
 perhaps with the historian Archaeus, 
 quoted by the Schol. on Nicand. Ther. — 
 The second Achaeus was the Eretrisean, 
 and the son of Pythodoiiis, or Pytho- 
 doris. He was a little junior to Sopho- 
 cles, and a competitor with Euripides. 
 He wrote, says Suidas, according to 
 different accounts, forty-four, thirty-four, 
 and twenty-four plays. Eudocia (Violar, 
 p. 69) swells the list to sixty-four. But 
 be the number what it may, he obtained 
 the prize only once. He seems to have 
 been fond of the satiric di-ama, to which 
 nearly all of those whose titles have been 
 preserved confessedly belong. His re- 
 mains are to be found in the edition by 
 Ulrich — AcliEei quae supersunt, collecta 
 et digesta ; Bonnae, 1 834 ; who, however, 
 says Welcker, in the Rheinesches Mu- 
 seum, t. iii. p. 634, has not done much for 
 the improvement of the text. According 
 to a grammarian, quoted in Montfaucon, 
 Bibl. Coislin. p. 597, and Proclus, in 
 Chrestomath, p. 340, it appears that 
 Achseus, despite his ill success, was 
 placed by the Alexandrine critics in the 
 same class with vEschylus, Sophocles, 
 
ACH 
 
 A CH 
 
 Euripides, and Ion. — The third Achseus 
 was of Syi'acuse, and wrote ten tragedies, 
 according to Siiidas (Eiidocia says four- 
 teen), of which nothing is known, not 
 even the title of a single play. 
 
 ACHAIUS, king of the Scots, from 
 788 to 819. His reign is said to have 
 been a prosperous one ; but some fables 
 are recounted of him. He coidd not 
 send Alcuin and Joannes Scotus as am- 
 bassadors to Charlemagne, because from 
 782 to 804 the former was always in 
 France, and because the latter could 
 scarcely be born when the king died. 
 
 ACHARD, abbot of St. Victor at 
 Paris, and afterwards bishop of Avran- 
 ches, (d. 1171,) was high in the favoiu- of 
 our Henry II. He wrote De Tenta- 
 tione Christi, and De Divisione Animse 
 et Spiritiis. 
 
 This churchman should not be con- 
 founded with the Achard who in the same 
 century wrote the Life of St. Gesselin, 
 and who was a disciple of St. Bernard. 
 
 ACHARD, (Antoine, 1696—1772,) a 
 Calvinistic minister of Geneva and Ber- 
 lin, wrote some sermons, and was held 
 in much respect by his patron, the king 
 of Prussia. 
 
 A son of the preceding, Frant^ois 
 Achard, contributed many good papers 
 to the literary and scientific journals of 
 his time. 
 
 ACHARD, (Fran9ois, 1708 — 1784,) 
 probably a kinsman of Antoine, wrote 
 on the summation of infinite series. 
 
 ACHARD, (Claude F, 1753—1809,) a 
 physician, secretary and hbrarian of the 
 Marseilles academy, wrote some useful 
 books. Among these are — 1. Diction- 
 naire de la Provence, et du Comtat Ve- 
 naissin. (Marseilles, 4 torn. 4to. 1785.) 
 The first two vols, only are occupied by 
 the vocabulary ; the last two, which are 
 the more important, are devoted to the 
 biography of eminent natives of Pro- 
 vence. In this labour the author was 
 assisted by other pens. 2. Descrip- 
 tion Historique, &c. de la Provence, of 
 which one volume only was published. 
 3. Tableau de Marseille, which is also 
 imperfect. All three should be consulted 
 by the historian of France. 
 
 ACHARD, (F. C. 1753 — 1821,) a 
 chemist of Berlin, who enjoyed consider- 
 able celebrity from his successful conti- 
 nuation of the experiments of Marcgraf, 
 as to whether sugar coidd be extracted 
 from various roots. He soon proved that 
 it could, especially from the beet-root ; 
 and his success has given rise to many 
 large establishments in Germany and 
 72 
 
 France for the manufacture of that useful 
 commodity. Connected with this and 
 kindred subjects, he wi-ote sevei^l che- 
 mical works in the German language. 
 
 ACHARDS, (Eleazar F. de la Baume 
 des, 1679 — 1741,) a native of Avignon, 
 and titular bishop of Halicamassus, 
 passed many laborious years as a mis- 
 sionary in his own coimtry ; but he foimd 
 many obstacles from the rivalship of dif- 
 ferent ecclesiastical orders. When sent 
 to Cochinthina, he was not more edified 
 there than he had been in France : not 
 only was one order opposed to another, 
 but national rivalry set ecclesiastics of the 
 same order against one another. The 
 dislike of the Itahan missionaries to those 
 of France, was extreme. As Aasitor 
 apostolic, he endeavoured to effect peace 
 between the contending parties. " Peace!" 
 replied father Martioli, " I would as soon 
 make peace with the devil as with a 
 Frenchman!" What good could be ef- 
 fected by the poor bishop? He died 
 without doing any, in two years after his 
 arrival. 
 
 ACHARIUS, (Eric, 1757—1819,) an 
 eminent Swedish botanist. Born at Gcfle, 
 he received his education there, till he 
 went to the university of Upsal in 1773. 
 He was very poor, and obliged to main- 
 tain himself by giving private lessons. 
 In the course of some literary and scien- 
 tific occupation confided to him by the 
 university, becoming acquainted with 
 Bergius, Martin, and Wilcke, he made 
 great progress in different branches of 
 science, chemistry, &c. ; and by his con- 
 stant attention to the hospitals, he ren- 
 dered himself one of the most able 
 medical men in Sweden. In 1782 he 
 became M.D. of Limd. In 1801 he 
 became professor of botany, and he be- 
 stowed his attention on that science, to 
 which he had always been attached, 
 and especially to the large and compli- 
 cated class of Cryptogamic plants com- 
 prehended under the name of L\chen. 
 He subdivided the genus Lichen of Lin- 
 nseus into forty smaller genera, and these 
 again have been subdivided by succeed- 
 ing botanists. But it appears that he 
 was too much inclined to make subdi- 
 visions, and to rest his distinctive marks 
 on accidental differences, by which he 
 often separates species which ought to 
 be kept together ; and he has made con- 
 siderable confusion by this circumstance. 
 Still his labours have been highly useful, 
 and succeeding lichenists (Fries, Esh- 
 weiler, Meyer, Fee, Wallroth, Zenker, 
 Schultz, Reichenbach, and others) have 
 
ACH 
 
 ACH 
 
 gone over tlie ground trodden by Mm, to 
 improve and re-arrange this world of 
 minute plants. May it be permitted to 
 the writer of this notice, to express his 
 regret that the specimen of a Licheno- 
 graphia Britannica, projected and partly 
 executed by Messrs. W. Borrer and Daw- 
 son Turner, has remained imperfect, and 
 has only been issued for private circu- 
 lation ! It would have done service in 
 this branch of botany. Constant refer- 
 ence is made in it to Dr. Acharius. His 
 works are — 1. Lichenographiae Suecicse 
 Prodromus ; Lincoping, 8vo, 1798. 2. 
 Methodus Lichenum, &c. ; Stockholm, 
 1803, 8vo. 3. Lichenographia Univer- 
 salis ; Gottingen, 1804, 4to. 4. Synopsis 
 Methodica Lichenum ; Lund, 1814, 4to. 
 ACHARY, or ASHARI, foimder of 
 the sect of the Acharians in the ninth 
 century, who died at Bagdat in the tenth ; 
 was the disciple of Al-Jobbai, from whom 
 he separated on the following occasion : — 
 " A dispute arose between them respect- 
 ing three brothers; of whom one lived 
 righteously, the second wickedly, the 
 third died an infant. 'What is their 
 fate?' inquired the disciple. 'The first,' 
 replied the master, 'vnR go to heaven, 
 the second to hell, the third to neither, 
 for he wiU be neither rewarded nor pu- 
 nished.' This orthodox reply did not 
 satisfy the acute inquirer, who observed 
 that the third would have reason to com- 
 plain, since he might say, ' God, liadst 
 thou given me longer life, I might have 
 entered paradise with my believing bro- 
 ther !' ' But,' rephed Al-Jobbai, ' might 
 not Allah, with equal reason, say, I cut 
 thee off because I foresaw that thou 
 wouldst be wicked, and in consequence 
 damned?' 'That,' rejoined the disciple, 
 ' does not mend the matter ; for might 
 not the condemned brother say, Allah, 
 why didst thou not call me away while an 
 infant, that, like my brother, I too might 
 have escaped hell ?' To this observation 
 Al-Zobbai could make no other answer 
 than that the life of the condemned man 
 was prolonged that he might have the 
 means of salvation. 'Then,' rejoined the 
 pertinacioxis scholar, ' why not allow the 
 infant brother the same advantage V The 
 master, alike puzzled and enraged, de- 
 manded, ' Is not the devil in thee ?' ' No,' 
 replied Ashari ; ' but I plainly see that 
 the master's ass will not pass the bridge !' 
 Discontented with his teacher, Ashari left 
 him, and established a new sect. He al- 
 lowed the attributes of God to be distinct 
 from his essence ; but forbade the doctrine 
 to be pushed further. In regard to pre- 
 73 
 
 destination, he exhibited great subtlety. 
 He taught that God creates all human 
 actions, and thereby renders all inevit- 
 able ; but then, to reconcile this doctrine 
 Avith free-will, he places two co-existent 
 facidties in man — power and choice ; so 
 that the action itself wiU not start into 
 being, or rather \vill not outwardly mani- 
 fest itself, without the contemporaneous 
 exercise of the will. Thus, the action, 
 as created, is the work of God; as de- 
 veloped, it is that of man. This junc- 
 tion of the will with the pre-existing or 
 pre-determined action, is called the ac- 
 quisition of that action. But here, again, 
 many split on the rock of fatality ; for 
 making the power and choice alike in- 
 evitable, by subjecting the very intention, 
 no less than the action, to necessary and 
 uncontrollable influence, they render man 
 the mere insti-ument of his own destiny. 
 To reconcile these conflicting principles, 
 — to vindicate the justice of God and the 
 free agency of man, — the cadi Abu Bekir 
 contends that the essence or substance of 
 the action is from God ; but whether that 
 action be obedience, as prayer — or dis- 
 obedience, as fornication, entirely depends 
 on the power of men. 'But,' said this 
 primitive Moslem, let us not too nicely 
 examine these matters, but leave them to 
 Allah, and do the best we can ; knowing, 
 as we do, that the gviilt or merit of ac- 
 tions will be imputed to us.' " (Dun- 
 ham's Spain and Portugal, vol. iv. It is 
 condensed from D'Herbelot, and the 
 Introduction to Sale's Koran.) 
 
 ACHE, (the Count d', 1716 to about 
 1790,) a vice-admiral in the French navy. 
 During his command of a squadron in 
 the East Indies, his countrymen lost all 
 their settlements. 
 
 ACHE, (R. F. d', 1809,) of the same 
 family and profession as the preceding, 
 and no less unfortunate, was killed on 
 the French coast by the marine guard, 
 one dark night in September. 
 
 ACHEN, (John Van, 1556—1621,) 
 a native of Cologne, who, as a painter, 
 enjoyed some degree of celebiity in Ger- 
 many. He painted the Resurrection for 
 the Elector of Bavaria, his best work ; 
 and tlie emperor Rhodolphus was so 
 pleased with his Venus and Adonis, that 
 he patronized him through life. He was 
 one of the first to abandon the stiff old 
 style of drawing, and introduce tlie 
 graces he had learned in Italy. (Bryan's 
 Diet.) 
 
 ACHENWALL, (Godfrey, 1719— 
 1772,) a native of Elbing, in Prussia. Ho 
 has been called the founder of statistics, 
 
ACH 
 
 ACH 
 
 and he published several treatises con- 
 nected with the science. He also wrote 
 on the public law of Europe, on the law 
 of nature and of nations, &:c., during his 
 long professorship at Gottingen. 
 
 ACHERY, (Jean Luc d', 1609— 1685,) 
 one of the most distinguished members 
 of the congregation of St. Maur, was a 
 native of St. Quentin. In 1632 he pro- 
 fessed as a monk of St. Benedict in 
 the reformed order of St. Maur, re- 
 mained for some time in the monastery 
 of the Holy Trinity at Vendome ; and 
 then removed to the abbey of St. Ger- 
 main des Pres, Paris. Notwithstanding 
 his bodily infirmities, among which was 
 the stone, he applied himself with ardour 
 to ecclesiastical literature. The first of 
 his pubhcations was Epistola Catholica 
 S. Barnabae Apostoli, but as he made 
 use of the notes left by father Menard, he 
 did not prefix his own name to it. The 
 Life and Works of Lanfranc, archbishop 
 of Canterbury, was the next publication 
 of Dom Luc. Tlie Life he found among 
 the manuscripts in the monastery of Bee, 
 of which the illustrious prelate was once 
 abbot. The notes exhibit considerable 
 erudition ; and the appendix contains a 
 life of St. Herhiin, founder of Bee, and 
 of four other abbots ; a Chronicle of that 
 Monasteiy from 1304 to 1437 ; with some 
 dogmatic treatises intended to illustrate 
 the controversy between Lanfranc and 
 Berenger. In the same' year Dom Luc 
 published a catalogue of ascetic divines. 
 In 1651 appeared a work much more im- 
 portant, — one Avhich threw great light on 
 the history no less than the antiquities of 
 the church. This was the Life and Works 
 of Guibert, abbot of Nogent-sous-Couci, 
 in the twelfth century. It has recently 
 been translated by Guizot, in his Collec- 
 tion des Memoiresrelatifs a I'Histoire de 
 France. We have often consulted it with 
 advantage. But the best known, and to 
 the student of the middle ages the most 
 useful, of this monk's pubhcations is, Ve- 
 terum aliquot Scriptorum qui in Galhse 
 Bibliothecis, maxime Benedictinorum, 
 latuerant, Spicilegium (13 tom. 4to. 1653 
 ■ — 1677). Though the editor styles this 
 a Spicilegium, or gleaning only, it affords, 
 in truth, an abundant harvest to aU who 
 choose to labour in the field. Acts, 
 canons, covmcils, chronicles, biographies, 
 particular histories, epistles, poems, 
 diplomas, and other instruments at once 
 rare and cui-ious, attest his indefatigable 
 industry. But Dom Luc is somewhat 
 more than an editor. Each of the 
 thirteen volumes contains a preface, 
 74 
 
 intended to show the state of the Chris- 
 tian world, and of letters, when the pieces 
 were written ; and each is enriched by 
 notes, which, taken in connexion with the 
 introduction, exhibit an erudition so vast 
 as to svirprise the modern reader. It is, 
 however, more vast than methodical ; 
 and much inferior in this respect to the 
 new edition published in 1723 by La 
 Barre, in 3 vols. fol. This editor arranges 
 the pieces under the head of subjects, 
 and each subject chronologically, so as 
 to afford two advantages seldom to be 
 met in works of this kind. Yet La Barre 
 is not to be dismissed without censure. 
 He has mutilated the learned prefaces, 
 and has inserted his own coiTections in 
 the text. Dom Luc has another claim on 
 the gratitude of ecclesiastical students. 
 He collected many of the materials for 
 that ponderous work. Acta Sanctoi"um 
 Ordinis St. Benedicti in Sseculorum 
 Classes distributa, edited by Mabillon 
 (see the name), and extending to 9 vols, 
 fol. This monk was true to his profes- 
 sion ; he passed his years in literature 
 and devotion ; he hved as if buried to the 
 world; and he enjoyed the esteem of the 
 most distinguished persons of the age. 
 How one with so feeble a constitution, 
 and subject to so dreadfid a malady, con- 
 trived to reach his 76th year, cannot 
 easily be conceived. (Eloge de Dom 
 Luc d'Achery, per Maugendre. Les 
 Ecrivains de la Congregation de St. Maur. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ACHILLAS, minister and general of 
 Ptolemy, king of Egj^t, the brother of 
 Cleopatra, who expelled that princess, 
 assassinated Pompey, was defeated and 
 slain by Julius Caesar, a.c. 42. 
 
 ACHILLES,(Alexander,1584— 1675,) 
 a Russian noble, who imdertook an em- 
 bassy to Persia ; wrote on the causes of 
 earthquakes, &:c. 
 
 ACHILLES TATIUS, or STATIUS. 
 Respecting this writer, who is best known 
 by the Greek romance of Leucippe and 
 Clitophon, Suidas tells us that he was 
 born at Alexandria, and after his conver- 
 sion to Christianity, became a bishop ; 
 that he -wrote on the sphere, and on ety- 
 mology, and was the author of a miscel- 
 laneous history of many great and 
 wonderfiU characters. But as Photius 
 (Biblioth. cod. 73), who states that Helio- 
 dorus, the WTiter of another Greek novel, 
 obtained a mitre after giving up his pre- 
 vious pagan creed, is silent upon the 
 similar tradition relating to Achilles Ta- 
 tius, some doubts have been thrown upon 
 the accuracy of the account given by 
 
ACH 
 
 ACH 
 
 Suldas ; and equally suspected is the 
 story of his being the author of the 
 treatise on the sphere ; to which an 
 allusion is made byFirmicus, iv. 10, and 
 of which it is thought that a portion 
 exists in the Isagoge to the Phaenomena 
 of Aratus. If Suidas, however, correctly 
 assigns the two works to the same indi- 
 vidual, it is evident that Achilles Tatius 
 was anterior to Heliodorus, who flourished 
 at the end of the fourth century. On the 
 other hand, Huet (Origine des Romains, 
 p. 75), Bourdelot (on Heliodor. p. 18), 
 Coray (on Heliodor. pref. p. xiii.), 
 Chai-din de la Rochette (Melanges, ii, 
 p. 20), Schneider (on Anacreon, p. 240), 
 Manso (Vermische Schriften, ii. p. 297), 
 and Passow (Encycloped. i. p. 304), all 
 agree in considering Heliodorus to be 
 the older writer ; while Monnoye (in 
 Menagian. iii. p. 118) and Ast (in his re- 
 view of a German translation of the 
 Greek original, p. 72) conceive — the 
 former from the subject and the latter 
 from the style — that Achilles Tatius was 
 the predecessor of Heliodorus ; an idea 
 which is partially confirmed by the chro- 
 nological order in which all the Erotic 
 writers are mentioned by Photius (cod. 
 166). Besides, from the allusion to the 
 fable of jEsop, in ii. 23, and the rhetorical 
 amplification of it according to the prac- 
 tice of other sophists, nothing similar to 
 which is found in Heliodorus, it may be 
 inferred that the author lived at a time 
 when the fables of the past were inter- 
 woven with the fictions of the day, and 
 not a time when that system had fallen 
 into desuetude. Be this, however, as it 
 may, it is clear that the romance is quoted 
 under the title of Leucippe, by S. Maxi- 
 mus Confessor, and by Pseud-Eustathius 
 of Antioch ; by the aid of whose com- 
 mentary on the Hexaemeron, Jacobs has 
 been able to supply a lacuna in one pas- 
 sage, and to correct an eiTor in another. 
 The greater part of the novel first ap- 
 peared in a Latin translation by Annibal 
 Cruceius (de la Croce), Lugd. 1.544, and 
 afterwards in the second and fuller edi- 
 tion of Basle, 1554 ; having in the interval 
 been translated by Coccius at Venice, 
 1550, from a more complete MS. which 
 is probably now in the library of St. Mark. 
 The original Greek was first printed by 
 Commeiine, at Heidelberg, 1601, from a 
 Palatine MS. whose defects were first 
 supplied by Salmasius from two Codices 
 Regii — one in the royal library at Paris, 
 and the other formerly in the royal 
 library at St. James's, but at present in 
 the British Museum. To Salmasius 
 75 
 
 succeeded Boden, whose edition (see 
 Jacobs, Praef. p. Ivii.) little deserves the 
 name " ed. opt. ; " a title to which 
 the edition by Jacobs, Lips. 1821, can 
 alone lay the least claim. This ro- 
 mance has been translated into English, 
 German, and French. Of the French 
 versions, the last (in 1733) was done by 
 Adrien du Peron de Castera, and was 
 reprinted at Paris in 1 803, but with such 
 a change in the title and in the name of 
 the characters, as to prevent aU suspicion 
 of its being merely the resuscitation of a 
 forgotten work. It was called Le Nouvel 
 Antenor, ou Voyage et Aventures de 
 Thrasybule en Grece : ou^Tage pouvant 
 faire suite aux Voyages d'Antenor par 
 Lantier, Paris, 1803; and though a part 
 of the preface of Castera is preserved, 
 no other change is made but of Clitophon 
 into Thrasybidus, and of Leucippe into 
 
 ACHILLINI. Three ItaUans of this 
 name are mentioned by Tiraboschi. 
 
 1. Alexander, a native of Bologna, 
 (1463 — 1512,) a physician and philoso- 
 pher, who professed at Padua and Bo- 
 logna. He wrote De Humani Corporis 
 Anatomica, Annotationes Anatomies, De 
 Universalibus, and other subjects of ana- 
 tomy and metaphysics. He is said to 
 have made some usefid discoveries in 
 anatomy, especially that of the small 
 bones of the ear. 
 
 2. GiaDJiloteo, a yoimger brother of 
 the preceding, (1466 — 1538,) applied 
 himself to Greek, Latin, theology, phi- 
 losophy, music, antiquities, jurisprudence, 
 poetry, &c. ; and, as may be inferred, 
 succeeded in nothing. His poetry is the 
 only thing remembered, and it is below 
 mediocrity. (Tiraboschi, vi. 840.) He 
 wrote also some remarks on Italian : An- 
 notazioni della Lingua Volgare, 8vo. 
 Bologna, 1536, — to the disparagement of 
 Tuscan, and the praise of Bolognese, which 
 he had used in his poems. But this lat- 
 ter, notwithstanding, is one of the very 
 worst dialects in Italy. 
 
 3. Claudia or Clodio, (1574—1640,) 
 grandson of the preceding, professed 
 jurisprudence at Bologna, Fenrara, and 
 Parma, and wrote some bad poetry in 
 the vulgar tongue. His Latin epistles 
 are a little better, or rather not quite so 
 bad. He received from cardinal Riche- 
 lieu a gold chain or collar worth 1000 
 crowns, for some verses on the birth of the 
 Dauphin ; and not, as is sometimes as- 
 serted, for the famous sonnet beginning 
 " Sudate o fiiochi, a pi-eparar metalli ;" 
 and which was parodied by Crudeli in one 
 
ACH 
 
 ACH 
 
 beginning " Sudate o forni, a preparar 
 pagnotte," &c. (Sweat, O ye ovens! in 
 preparing cakes !) It must be only a 
 slip of the pen in Arteaga (which Tira- 
 boschi corrects), when he speaks of Louis 
 XIV. rewarding him like a prince ! 
 Louis XIV. was not three years old when 
 Claudio died. 
 
 i ACHMET. The Mohammedan world 
 rejoices in some hundreds of personages 
 who have borne this name. 
 
 1. Achmet hen Seiriur, who flourished 
 early in the niiath century of our era, 
 wrote in Arabic on the interpretation of 
 dreams. The original is lost, but we 
 have a Greek and Latin translation of it 
 ad calcem Artemidori, 4to, Paris, 1G03. 
 
 2. Achmet, eldest son of Bajazet II., in 
 whose favour he was preparing to abdi- 
 cate, when his second son, Selim, defeated 
 and slew him, and was proclaimed sultan. 
 Achmet marched against the usurper, 
 but was also defeated and put to death 
 by Selim, a. d. 1512. 
 
 3. Achmet I. sultan of Constantinople, 
 (1603—1617,) third son of Mahomet III. 
 succeeded at a very early age. He 
 was a mild, quiet, humane ruler, more 
 attached to luxury than to war ; yet he 
 fought against the Austrians and Shah 
 Abbas of Persia, not indeed with much 
 glory or advantage, but so as to preserve 
 the integrity of his dominions. 
 
 4. Achmet II. sultan, succeeded his 
 brother Soliman III. in 1691. His short 
 reign was disastrous : Kinperli, his grand 
 vizir, in a battle with the Imperialists, 
 headed by prince Louis of Baden, lost 
 25,000 men, and a gi-eat treasure. Fa- 
 mine, earthquake, and the plague, added 
 to the universal discontent, and alarmed 
 Achmet in the recesses of his harem. In 
 four years after his accession, he died of 
 the sickness produced by sorrow. 
 
 5. Achmet III. son of Mahomet IV. 
 and nephew of the preceding, ascended 
 the Turkish throne on the deposition of 
 Mustafa II. in 1703. This is the mo- 
 narch who received Charles XII. with so 
 much hospitality. Eveiy reader knows 
 in what manner he was brought into the 
 war with Peter the Great, and how in- 
 gloriously it was conducted. He was 
 also imfortunate against the Imperialists : 
 he lost Temeswar, Orsova, Belgrade, 
 Servia, and a portion of Wallachia. But 
 he took the Morea from the Venetians, 
 and triumphed over the Persians. Yet 
 his successes could avail him little against 
 the intrigues of the seraglio : in 1730 he 
 was hiu"led from the throne to a prison, 
 and his nephew Mahomet I. from the 
 
 76 
 
 prison to the throne. He was the third 
 sultan who in half a century thus ex- 
 changed the palace for the dungeon. He 
 survived his misfortune about six years, 
 and died of apoplexy. 
 
 6. Achmet, dey of Algiers from 1805 
 to 1808, was a man of ferocious cha- 
 racter. After killing some hundreds, 
 he was killed in his turn by his own 
 soldiers. 
 
 7. Achmet Basha, the Turkish com- 
 mander who in 1522 reduced the island 
 of Rhodes, so gallantly defended by the 
 knights of St. John. But the merits of 
 this service were soon counterbalanced 
 by his rebellion : he failed, and his head 
 was sent to Constantinople. 
 
 8. Achmet, surnamed Giedic, or Break- 
 tooth, (d. about 1482,) the vizir of Maho- 
 met II. was much engaged in war with 
 the Genoese, the Neapolitans, and the 
 Persians. This was one of the greatest 
 ministers that ever conducted the affairs 
 of a nation. What we most admire 
 in him is the honest freedom with 
 which he condemned the military con- 
 duct of Bajazet, son of Mahomet, and 
 heir of the monarchy, diu-ing an expe- 
 chtion against Persia. " I will one day 
 punish thee !" replied the angry prince. 
 " What wilt thou do ?" demanded the 
 aged warrior ; " I swear by my father's 
 soul that I will never di'aw sword in thy 
 service!" On the death of the sviltan, 
 when Bajazet succeeded, there was a 
 grand review of the troops, and Achmet 
 appeared at the head of the Spahis, with 
 his sword fastened to the pommel of his 
 saddle. There was, on this occasion, 
 something in the behaviour of Bajazet 
 nobler than even that which is recorded 
 of our Henry V. " Father !" cried he, 
 as he approached the haughty veteran, 
 " dost thou still remember the faidts of 
 ray youth ? Resume thy scimitar, and 
 with it strike my enemies as valiantly as 
 before !" Achmet obeyed, and was as 
 usefid as ever to the monarch and the 
 country. In 1482, however, he severely 
 condemned the treaty which Bajazet had 
 just made with the knights of Rhodes ; 
 by his angry master he was thrown into 
 prison ; but the army rose, marched to 
 the palace, and swore that the sultan's 
 head should answer for that of their aged 
 favourite. He was consequently en- 
 larged ; he foxmd excuses for his master, 
 and brought the people back to their 
 obedience ; but he could not appease 
 Bajazet, who caused him to be privately 
 assassinated. 
 
 9. Achmet Pacha was chosen vizir 
 
ACH 
 
 A CO 
 
 after the murder of Mustafa, heir to the 
 throne, by his own father, Soliman I. 
 He was too honest a man to be the tool 
 of Roxalana, the favoui-ite wife of the 
 sultan, who had counselled the death of 
 the prince that her own issue might 
 ascend the throne of Othman. He fell 
 the victim of his own fidelity and of her 
 wiles, in 1554. 
 
 ACHTSCHELLING, ( Lucas, ) a 
 painter, born at Bruxelles in 1570. He 
 is chiefly remarkable for his landscapes, 
 of which there are three in the church of 
 St. Gudule, at Bruxelles. 
 
 ACIDALIUS, (Valens, 1567—1595,) 
 a native of Wistoch, in the mark of 
 Brandenburg, wrote Latin poetry of no 
 great merit, but was much esteemed for 
 his Commentaries on Paterculus, Quintus 
 Curtius, Plautiis, &c. Had he lived to 
 the ordinary age of man, he would, as 
 Lipsius declared, have been one of the 
 pearls of Germany. 
 
 ACILIUS GLABRIO, (Manius,) in 
 the second century before Christ, be- 
 longed to a family which, though ple- 
 beian, had filled some of the highest posts 
 in the republic. As consul with Scipio 
 Nasica, and general of the Roman forces 
 against Antiochus, king of Syria, he 
 raised himself high in the opinion of the 
 world. He defeated that king, subdued 
 Thrace, Etolia, and Phocis, and returned 
 to Rome, where a triiunph awaited him. 
 
 Another Roman of this name was 
 consul in a. d. 91, conjointly with Trajan, 
 who was afterwards emperor. As he was 
 of great strength and great activity, he 
 was commanded by Domitian to descend 
 into the arena and fight a huge lion. He 
 slew the animal, and was greeted with 
 so much applause, that he roused the jea- 
 lousy of the emperor, who first banished, 
 and then put him to death on some frivo- 
 lous pretext. How wide the contrast 
 between the age of the first and that of 
 the second Glabrio ! 
 
 ACINDYNUS, (Septimus,) was con- 
 sul with Valerius Procidus a. u. c. 340. 
 He was governor of Antioch when a cir- 
 cumstance occurred which has occupied 
 the attention of biogi'aphers more than 
 it ought. A man being ordered by him 
 to pay a pound of gold into the pubHc 
 treasury, was unable to comply, and was 
 thrown into prison. To release him, 
 with his own sanction, his wife listened 
 to the persuasions of a rich man ; but the 
 rich man filled her purse with earth in- 
 stead of gold. He discovered the fraud 
 to Acindynus ; and he, justly condem- 
 ning himself for a rigour wliich had led 
 77 
 
 to the crime, paid the gold himself, and 
 gave her the field from which the earth 
 had been brought. It has been asserted 
 by Bayle and others, that St. Augustine, 
 who relates this anecdote, approves the 
 conduct of the woman : the zealous 
 Roman Catholics have defended their 
 idol ; but the truth seems to be, that he 
 neither applauds nor condemns her. 
 
 ACKERMAN, (Conrad, d. 1771,) a 
 celebrated actor, whom the Germans, 
 especially the people of Hamburg, regard 
 with as much veneration as we do Gar- 
 rick, or the French their Talma. 
 
 ACKERMAN, (J. C. G. 1756— ISOl,) 
 professor of medicine at Altdorf, wrote 
 on his profession, and very abundantly 
 on the lives of the ancient Greek phy- 
 sicians. These lives (Hippocrates, Galen, 
 Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Aretteus, and 
 Rufus of Ephesus) appeared in the edi- 
 tion of the Bibliotheca Grosca of Fabri- 
 cius, by Harles. His other works were — 
 1 . Institutiones Historiae Medicinse ; Nu- 
 remberg, 1792, 8vo. 2. Manual of Mili- 
 tary Medicine ; 2 vols. 8vo. Leipz. 
 1794-5 ; and 3. The Life of J. C. Dippel. 
 The last two in German. 
 
 ACKLAND, (Major,) a British officer, 
 who was wounded and taken prisoner at 
 the action mth the Americans, near Still- 
 water, in 1777. His wife, Lady Harriet 
 Ackland, sought him in the American 
 camp ; and after his death in a duel, she 
 married Mr. Brudenell, who had accom- 
 panied her in her perilous pursuit of her 
 husband from the camp at Saratoga. 
 (American Biog. Diet.) 
 
 ACKWORTH, (George,) an English 
 divine and civilian of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, who enjoyed considerable prefer- 
 ment in the English church, until his 
 dissipated conduct forced him to resign 
 it. He wrote against the Romanists, 
 probably at the instigation of his patron, 
 archbishop Parker. 
 
 ACLAND, (Anthony,) an English 
 Jesuit, probably a native of Devonshire. 
 In 1623 he resided at Rome, and was 
 associated with F. William Risdon, the 
 procurator there. He died there in 1626. 
 
 ACOLUTH, (Andrew, 1654—1704,) 
 a native of Bemstadt, and professor of 
 theology at Breslaw, was an excellent 
 oriental scholar. He published a speci- 
 men of the Koran in four languages, and 
 of Obadiah in Armenian and Latin. The 
 first of these is very scarce. Its title is 
 Teti-apla Alcoranica ; sive Specimen Al- 
 corani quadi'ilinguis Arabici, Persici, 
 Turcici, et Latini ; Berlin, 1701, fol. 
 For the second work, Obadias Armenus 
 
aCO 
 
 A C O 
 
 et Latinus cum Annotationibiis, (Leipz. 
 1680, 4to.) he had a fount of Armenian 
 t)rpe prepared ; but it is said to be an 
 incorrect work. 
 
 ACOMAT, a prince of Esclavonia, 
 ■who left his father's house, hastened to 
 Constantinople, and became Mussulman, 
 because that father had forcibly married 
 the lady to whom he was betrothed. 
 By Bajazet II. he was favom-ably re- 
 ceived, and he had the honour of mar- 
 rying a daughter of that monarch. He 
 accompanied liis father-in-law in the war 
 against Venice, and showed that, what- 
 ever his profession, he was stiU the friend 
 of the Christians. He it was who in- 
 clined the sultan to peace, and who 
 procured for John Lascaris, the agent of 
 Lorenzo de Medicis, permission to ran- 
 sack the libraries of Greece. 
 
 ACOMINATUS. See Nicetas. 
 
 ACONCIO, (Giacomo,) an Italian phi- 
 losopher of the sixteenth century. He 
 embraced the opinions of Calvin ; and to 
 escape the intolerance of the church he 
 had quitted, came to England, where he 
 was pensioned by Elizabeth. To please 
 his patroness, he wrote a book which 
 should both advocate her notions in 
 regard to the eucharist, and yet not dis- 
 please the Calvinists — which should com- 
 bine both the essence and the figure — 
 which should defend the docti'ine of con- 
 substantiation, or at least something very 
 like it. As a christian philosopher, lie 
 doubtless %vished to reconcile even the 
 Roman Catholics with the ultra-reform- 
 ers ; but he should have reflected that, 
 so long as the former insisted on an en- 
 tire change of substance, and the latter on 
 no change at all, either visible or spiri- 
 tual, he was attempting a hopeless thing. 
 But he went farther : reducing the essen- 
 tials of Christianity to a very few dogmas, 
 he endeavoured to show that all rehgions 
 might be united — that even paganism 
 might be conciliated ^vith the worship of 
 the true God. His laxity procured him 
 enemies. — He wrote on the study of the 
 arts, and on the defence of fortified 
 places. It was in his character of engi- 
 neer, not in that of religious polemic, 
 that the queen rewarded him. He was 
 a member of the Dutch church in Austin 
 Friars in 1560, and, together with Ha- 
 drian Hamstedius, was involved in a 
 censure of excommunication issued by 
 Grindall (then bishop of London), for 
 Anabaptist and Arian principles. He 
 wrote a long letter of remonstrance to 
 the Dutch chmxh on this occasion, which 
 is still in their library. His work, De 
 78' 
 
 methodo sive recta investigandarum tra- 
 dendarumque artium ac scientiarum ra- 
 tione libellus, (Basle, 1558,) has been 
 often reprinted, although eclipsed and 
 superseded by that of Descartes ; and is 
 inserted in the Utrecht collection De 
 Studiis bene institiiendis. Tiraboschi 
 praises its style very highly. There is 
 some dispute as to the fact, whether his 
 work on the Fortification of Places, (Ars 
 muniendorum oppidorum, Latin and 
 Italian, Geneva, 1585,) mentioned by 
 Mazzuchelli, was ever printed. Chaufe- 
 pie denies it, and Tiraboschi Avas un- 
 able to see a copy of it. See Tiraboschi, 
 vii. 375, 474, 555. (Biog, Univ. Chal- 
 mers, &c.) 
 
 ACORIS, a king of Egypt in the fourth 
 century before Christ, was always hostile 
 to Persia. He aided Evagrius of Cyprus 
 in the war which that king undertook 
 against Artaxerxes Mnemon. He placed 
 Chalcias the Athenian over the troops 
 which he had raised for a Avar with the 
 great king, but he died before he could 
 come into immediate contact with that 
 potentate. 
 
 AGOSTA. Portugal rejoices in several 
 persons of this name, which was orignally 
 written Da Costa. 
 
 1. Christopher, who was born in Africa, 
 and who, in the 16th century, after tra- 
 velling much, settled at Biu-gos, where he 
 published a ti'eatise on East India drugs. 
 
 2. Josef, Avho, though born at Me- 
 dina del Campo, was of Portuguese ex- 
 traction. At an early age, he entered 
 into the order of Jesuits, professed 
 theology at Ocaiia, and in 1572 went 
 to Peru, of which he became the pro- 
 vincial. Returning to Europe in 1588, 
 he won the favour of Philip II. From 
 the court of Philip he repaired to 
 Rome, and was sent back by the general 
 of his order, Aquaviva, as visitor of 
 Arragon and Andalusia. But he had 
 many disputes with his superiors ; the 
 Jesuits were then, as in more recent 
 times, much divided ; and more than 
 once he was compelled to live within the 
 walls of his monastery. He died in 1600. 
 He wrote — 1. Historia Natural y Moral 
 de los Indias ; a work much followed by 
 Robertson. 2. De Natura Novi Orbis. 
 3. De Promulgatione Evangelii apud 
 Barbaros ; and some other treatises of 
 less importance. 
 
 3. Mamiel, (1541—1604,) a Jesuit of 
 Lisbon, rector of Braga, then missionary 
 to the Azores ; was distinguished by his 
 zeal. He wrote a History of the Jesuit 
 Missionaries to the East. 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
AGO 
 
 A CR 
 
 4. Uriel, a gentleman of Oporto, sprung 
 from a Jewish family, and born towards 
 the close of the sixteenth century. His 
 opinions and adventiu-es gave him a me- 
 lancholy notoriety. Though educated for 
 the Roman-catholic church, and long a 
 zealous observer of her worship, he began 
 to suspect that his forefathers were wiser 
 than he, and that he ought to return to 
 the Jewish religion. Lea\dng Portugal, 
 therefore, he went to Holland, where he 
 became an Israelite. This step he soon 
 repented ; he found his new co-religion- 
 ists not a fraction less intolerant than his 
 old ones ; and because he ventured to dis- 
 pute what the rabbis had delivered, he was 
 solemnly excommunicated. His next step 
 was still more criminal ; it was to assail 
 the immortality of the soul; in other 
 words, to proclaim himself a Sadducee. 
 His book caused a great sensation : it was 
 laid before the tri1)unals of Amsterdam, 
 and he was imprisoned. But he had not 
 yet reached the summit of his unbelief; 
 in a few years he discovered that the law 
 of Moses was no revelation, that it was 
 purely the invention of men ; and that all 
 religion was knavery. A confirmed infidel, 
 he now became reconciled with the Jews, 
 and was re-admitted to their communion. 
 But in a short year they discovered his 
 laxity, his indifference, his contempt of 
 them, and they again excommimicated 
 him. At the end of seven years he re- 
 solved to commit suicide, but not until 
 he had mm'dered one of his kinsmen 
 who had been his most bitter enemj'. 
 He failed in his attack on his kinsman, 
 and immediately destroyed himself. — His 
 life affords a good moral lesson for men 
 who confide in their own powers of reason. 
 5. Joam, who, though born in 
 Bengal, (1775,) was of Portuguese ex- 
 traction. Having studied at Paris, he 
 retiuned to India, and applied himself 
 to literature and commerce. He was 
 connected with two periodicals, one of 
 which, The Calcutta Magazine, failed ; 
 but The Calcutta Times, of which he was 
 a large proprietor and sole editor, an- 
 swered his expectation. In both he en- 
 deavoured to explain the interests of com- 
 merce, and the character of the natives. 
 
 ACQUAVIVA, (M. 1456 — 1528,) 
 a Neapolitan nobleman, distinguished 
 himself as a partisan of the French. 
 By Gonsalvo, of Cordova, he was 
 made prisoner and earned into Spain; 
 but his confinement was not long, and 
 on liis return to Naples he became the 
 patron of letters. To literary men he 
 was indeed a benefactor : hence the 
 79 
 
 encomia which have been lavished upon 
 him, and which, more than any merit of 
 his own, obtained him distinction. Yet 
 he -\vi-ote one book at least, — a commen- 
 tary on the Latin translation of Plu- 
 tarch's Morals. 
 
 ACQUAVIVA, (Belisario,) younger 
 brother of the preceding, took the opposite 
 side in poKtics, and was a steadfast adhe- 
 rent of the Spaniards ; hence he was 
 enabled, not only to preserve his own 
 patrimony, but to procure the restitution 
 of his brother's. Like that brother, he 
 applied himself to letters, and left several 
 dissertations, collected since into 1 vol. 
 
 Of this illustrious name were several 
 other members attached to literature. 
 Two dukes of Atri were tolerable poets : 
 according to Crescimbeni they were more 
 than tolerable ; but we must always dis- 
 trust the judgment of one Italian when 
 he speaks of another. See Auuaviva. 
 
 ACREL, (Olaf, d. 1807,) a surgeon 
 and physician of Stockholm, the oracle of 
 his comiti-ymen ; who had perfected his 
 knowledge by study in foreign countries, 
 and who introduced many improvements 
 into Swedish practice. His discoiu-se on 
 the Reforms necessary in Siu-gical Opera- 
 tions made a deep impression. So did 
 his other works, On the Mode of Treating 
 Recent Wounds — On Surgery in general 
 - — On the Cataract of the Eye. His 
 honours equalled his success. 
 
 ACRON, the son of Xenon, was bom 
 at Agrigentmn ; and opened, in company 
 with Empedocles, a medical and philoso- 
 phical school at Athens. During the 
 plague, described by Thucydides, he re- 
 commended, says Plutarch, (De Isid. ii. 
 p. 383, D.) the practice of fumigations 
 to cm-e the infection supposed to be in 
 the air. But when the chronicler of 
 Chceronaea adds, that many were benefited 
 by it, he states what is distinctly denied 
 by Thucydides, who testifies to the in- 
 efficacy of all the means to which the 
 medical men had recourse. A similar 
 practice was recommended, says Galen, 
 (torn. xiii. p. 955, B. ed. Charter,) by 
 Hippocrates ; and hence he has been 
 thought to have got the idea from liis pre- 
 decessor, who wrote a work on medicine 
 in the Doric dialect, one book of which 
 was on the diet of persons in health,— on 
 the principle, probably, that prevention 
 is better than ciu-e. Acron was also one 
 of those who noticed the phenomena of 
 winds, from finding, it may be presumed, 
 that certain winds brought with them 
 certain disorders. Pliny (H. N. xxix. 1) 
 considers him as the first of the Em- 
 
A CR 
 
 ACT 
 
 p'lrics, or Experimentalists. But tliis has 
 been considered an error on the part of 
 the Roman natm-alist ; for the sect alhided 
 to did not arise till 200 years after the 
 time of Acron. On his return to his 
 native country, the physician asked the 
 senate for a spot of ground where he 
 might build a family tomb. The request 
 was refused at the suggestion of Empe- 
 docleSjWho conceived that such a grant for 
 such a purpose would interfere with the 
 principle of equality he was anxious to 
 establish at Agrigentum. As the epitaph, 
 said to be written by Simonides, on 
 Acron is probably the most complete 
 jeu de mots on record, and therefore 
 defies all ti-anslation, we wiU ventiire to 
 give it in the original, — AKpov n]rpov 
 AKpav AKpayavTivov Trarpos aKpov A/cpo- 
 TaTqs Kopv(f)T]s TVfxlSos aKpos Karexei- 
 
 ACRON HELENIUS. Nothing is 
 known of this person, except as one of 
 the earliest existing commentators on 
 Horace. Although he is quoted by 
 Porphp-io on Horace, (Sat. i. 8. 25,) and 
 Poi-phyrio byPriscian, (2,) and Charisius, 
 (p. 196,) yet, as the period when Por- 
 phyrio lived is equally unknown, Sm-in- 
 gar (Histor. Crit. Scholiast. Latin, iii. 
 p. 29.) confesses his inability to decide 
 upon the age of Aero. A part of the 
 Scholia have been printed, but other 
 portions are in MSS. and are likely to 
 remain so, as they are of little value : 
 such at least is the opinion of Manso, 
 (Horat. Vit. Chronolog. p. 86.) On the 
 other hand, Suringar (p. 41) does not 
 hesitate to contend that Acron has 
 been of great service for the interpreta- 
 tion of Horace, and such is likewise the 
 opinion of Janus ; while H. Stephens 
 (Diatrib. de edit. Horat. p. 56,) Waddel, 
 (Animadvers. p. 45,) Bentley, (Terent. 
 Andr. iii. 2. 49,) and Garatoni, (Ciceron. 
 pro Coelio. ii. 2,) have aU been able to 
 elicit some good readings from Aero and 
 Porphyrio, not to be obtained elsewhere. 
 Some critics have attributed to Aero the 
 Schol. on Pers. (Schoell. Hist. Lit. iii. 26.) 
 ACRON, or ACRONIUS, (John, 1520 
 — 1564,) a physician and mathematician 
 of Friesland, wrote on his profession and 
 also on astronomy. 
 
 ACROPOLITE, (George, 1220 — 
 1282,) was one of the Greek nobles sent 
 by his imperial master to negotiate a 
 union between the chmxhes of the east 
 and west. Though at the council of 
 Lyons (1274) he abjm-ed schism, and 
 subscribed to the unity of the cluu-ch, 
 the act was not sanctioned by Michael 
 Paleologus, and the chmxhes remained 
 80 
 
 disimited as before. He -wrote a chro- 
 nicle of Constantinople, or rather of the 
 empire, from the occupation of that 
 city by the Latin monarchs, to its recon- 
 quest in 1260 by the Greek emperor. 
 This has been printed in the Corpus 
 Hist. Byzant. ; but his theological works 
 will rest in MS. 
 
 ACROPOLITE, (Constantine,) son of 
 the preceding, was also a minister of Pa- 
 leologus, until he was disgraced. Under 
 Andi-onicus, however, he was again in 
 favour. Like his father, too, he wrote 
 much on theology (a queer employment 
 for a minister of state), especially on the 
 more recondite docti'ines, such as the 
 procession of the Holy Ghost. In com- 
 piling lives of saints he was more usefully 
 employed : that of St. John Damascenus 
 is in the huge collection of Bollandus. 
 
 ACROTATUS, eldest son of Cleome- 
 nes II., king of Sparta, of the venerated 
 family of the Heraclidfe, flourished, or 
 rather disgraced himself, in the 4th cen- 
 tury before Christ. His feeble conduct 
 at home and at Agrigentum, his base 
 murder of Sosisti-atus, and his death in 
 battle against the tyi-ant of Megalopolis 
 are known to all classical readers. 
 
 A gi'andson of the preceding ascended 
 the throne of Sparta, a.c. 268. In his 
 youth he had distinguished himself 
 against Pyrrhus ; a year after his acces- 
 sion he was slain in battle. 
 
 ACSENCAR, (Cassim Ed.) chief of 
 the Atabecs of Mussul, was one of the 
 great officers of Melik Shah, in the 11th 
 century. In 1084 he subjugated Diar- 
 bekir for his royal master, and was re- 
 warded with the government of Aleppo. 
 Ten years afterwards he fell in battle 
 against the prince of Damascus. 
 
 ACSENCAR-AL-BURSKI, caUed by 
 the writers of the Crusades, Borsequin, 
 Borgel, Borso, &c., was another great 
 officer of Mehk Shah. In 1086 he 
 was employed in Asia Minoi-, to re- 
 duce the emirs, who after the death of 
 Soliman had proclaimed their indepen- 
 dence. As governor of Bagdat and 
 Mussul, as general of the armies of Mo- 
 hammed and Mahmud, he was often in 
 action against the crusaders, with vari- 
 ous success. In 1124 he was assassin- 
 ated by the Ismalians. 
 
 ACTISANES, king of Ethiopia, who 
 assisted the Egyptians to dethrone their 
 own tyrannical king, Amenophis. To 
 record his success, they elected him king 
 of Egypt. At the head of two great 
 nations, he distinguished himself by his 
 love of justice, by his enlightened admi- 
 
 I 
 
ACT 
 
 ACT 
 
 nistration, by his zeal for the comfoi-t of 
 his people. He cleared the country of 
 robbers, by amputating their noses and 
 exiling them to a city of the desert be- 
 tween Egypt and Palestine. On his 
 death, he would not nominate a suc- 
 cessor, but left the choice to the Egyp- 
 tians. 
 
 ACTO, or ATTO, bishop of Vercelli, 
 a learned theologian and canonist, was 
 the son of Count Aldegar, and born in 
 Piedmont, early in the tenth century. 
 In 945 he was raised to the see of Ver- 
 celli. His learning, his piety, his mild- 
 ness of character, well deserved the 
 honour, though they had less influence 
 over his elevation than his noble birth 
 and his favour with princes. His writ- 
 ings evince his intimate acquaintance 
 with Scripture and ecclesiastical disci- 
 pline. His works have been collected 
 by Baronzio, (2 vols. fol. Vercelli, 1768.) 
 
 ACTON, (Edward,) a captain in the 
 British navy, distinguished for services 
 rendered to his country in the reign of 
 Anne. In Rook's vigorous and intrepid 
 attack of Gibraltar, he commanded the 
 Kingston, one of the battle-ships which 
 had been brought to bear against that 
 formidable fortress. Under the same 
 enterprising and successful chief, he took 
 part in the battle of Malaga ; but in this 
 encounter, as well as in that of the pre- 
 ceding, aspersions had been cast upon 
 his conduct. Indeed, in those days, no 
 less than in later times, calumny but 
 too often succeeded in detracting from 
 the merits of the brave. Fortunately, 
 however, for Acton, and others who 
 underwent the same ordeal, the eqiutable 
 decision of a court martial silenced 
 slander and exposed the fabrications of 
 an envious faction.* Of every charge 
 which had been alleged against him, he 
 was fully and honom'ably acquitted. 
 
 The circumstances which gave rise to 
 rumours of Acton's backwardness in 
 battle, ought to be recorded if only to 
 show with what semblance of tnith malice 
 may tell its tale. It would seem that in 
 cannonading the town and the lower-forts 
 of Gibraltar, the Kingston s guns were so 
 rapidly served, that Acton's shot had been 
 all expended before the batteries had been 
 silenced, and the landing efiected : and, 
 in this dilemma, for want of ammunition, 
 he was reluctantly compelled to quit the 
 line. Nor in his second encounter (not- 
 withstanding sixty-three of his crew had 
 fallen in fight,) were his endeavours to 
 
 • A political party •which sought to disparage 
 the achievements of Rook. 
 VOL, I. 81 
 
 renew action, thwarted as they were \>y 
 light airs, baffling winds, and other an- 
 noyances incidental to naval warfare, the 
 less subject to the animadversions of the 
 fire-side fighters and battle commenta- 
 tors* of the time. But Acton, to employ 
 a professional phrase, was not to be 
 " shelved" by the shafts of malice. His 
 services were again sought, and again 
 put in requisition. He was appointed 
 to the Grafton, (60,) and in this ship 
 was entrusted to him the discharge of 
 duties which required something more 
 than the mere acquisition of nautical 
 knowledge. On his return from foreign 
 service, he was selected, in conjunction 
 with commodore Wyld of the Royal Oak, 
 to convey to a certain latitude the mer- 
 chant ships assembled in the Downs, 
 bomid to Lisbon and the West India 
 isles. On the 1st of May, 1707, the 
 convoy weighed and set sail ; and, on 
 the following day, ere the sternmost 
 ships of the fleet had well brought 
 abreast the land of Dungeness, the Dun- 
 kirk squadron, consisting of ten sail of 
 the line and four smaller vessels, was 
 suddenly descried breaking through the 
 morning mist. Complying with the 
 signal to disperse, the British merchant 
 vessels were seen pressing sail, and 
 shaping separate courses, to distract the 
 pursuit of the frigates of the French ; 
 whilst the Count De Forbin, the French 
 admiral, cautiously attacked the Grafton 
 and the Royal Oak with his largest and 
 most powerful ships of the line. For a con- 
 siderable time, the Grafton was seen en- 
 veloped in a cloud of smoke, gallantly 
 retiurning the galling fire of the enemy's 
 ovei-whelming force. Still Acton sus- 
 tained a protracted struggle ; nor until he 
 was himself slain, and a considerable por- 
 tion of his crew killed and wounded, was 
 his shattered ship surrendered to the foe. 
 ACTON, (Joseph, 1737 — 1808,) 
 prime minister of Naples, was of a good 
 Irish family settled at Besanfon. The 
 son of a physician, he had all the 
 means of acquiring knowledge, but he 
 made little use of them. As he was 
 too ignorant for the learned profes- 
 sions, he went to sea, and obtained 
 the command of a frigate from Leopold, 
 grand duke of Tuscany. In this ca- 
 pacity he accompanied an expedition of 
 Charles III. against the Moors, and had 
 the glory to save three or four thousand 
 Neapolitans and Spaniards, whom the 
 inexperience of the com.mander had 
 placed in great jeopardy. For this 
 • Such writers as Bishop Burnet. 
 
 G 
 
ACT 
 
 AC U 
 
 courageous act he was employed in the 
 service of Naples, first as minister of 
 marine, and next of war. Feeling a 
 very deeply rooted aversion for France 
 he was ready to embarrass that power 
 in every shape. In a few years he 
 succeeded to the post of prime mi- 
 nister. In 1792, seeing the capital 
 menaced by the French, he was obliged 
 to make peace with them ; but in the 
 following years he caused them trouble 
 enough. After the defeat of Mack, how- 
 ever, French ascendancy prevailed, and 
 he was dismissed into private life. By 
 his French biographers, who detest his 
 memory, he is made much worse than 
 he really was. If he was afraid of as- 
 sassination, and frequently changed his 
 bed-chamber, it was from fear of the 
 French quite as much as of the Neapo- 
 litans. Avarice seems to have been his 
 greatest defect. 
 
 ACTON, (Thomas,) an English Jesuit, 
 whose real name was Dupuy, was born 
 A.D. 1662. He joined the society Nov. 
 25, 1684. In 1701 he resided at the 
 college of Liege, as prefect of the spirit. 
 In l704 he was a missionary in the col- 
 lege of St. Thomas of Canterbury ; and 
 died at St. Omer, March 21, 1721. 
 
 ACTUARIUS, a Greek physician, 
 who lived some time between the ele- 
 venth and fourteenth centimes, and who 
 wrote several books on medicinal sub- 
 jects. Some of them have been trans- 
 lated into Latin, and published in the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 ACUNA. Spain has produced many 
 distinguished men of this name. 
 
 1. Antonio Osorio de, was bishop of 
 Zamora, in the reigns of Fernando the 
 Catholic and Charles V. He filled that 
 see in 1519, when the civil war broke 
 out in Spain. Instead of espousing the 
 interests of the throne, he joined the 
 communeros, or municipal insurgents, 
 who had certainly many rights to vindi- 
 cate, many wrongs to be redressed, but 
 whose excesses were more fatal to the 
 country than ages of tyranny would have 
 been. It was not sympathy, however, 
 for popular rights, that led Don Antonio 
 to espouse the cause of the communities : 
 it was ambition, which led him to aspire 
 after the highest ecclesiastical dignities ; 
 and envy, which made him long for re- 
 venge on men who had been more for- 
 tunate than himself. When he appeared 
 at Tordesillas, the general rendezvous of 
 the discontented deputies, he was re- 
 ceived with enthusiasm : one of his ta- 
 lents, of his station, of his influence, was 
 82 
 
 sure to be welcome. Being entrusted 
 with ammunition and men, he marched 
 against the royal generals, and was for the 
 most part successful. In the view of iden- 
 tifying religion with liberty, he raised a 
 regiment of priests, whom he always 
 conducted to battle ; and though 60 
 years of age, he was sure to be in the 
 hottest scene of the action. " Follow me, 
 my parsons !" was his \isual exhortation, 
 as he plunged into the dense ranks of the 
 enemy. By the Conde de Haro, the 
 rebels were at length defeated ; but the 
 priests stood firm ; and dreadful was the 
 carnage which they produced among the 
 royalists. One of the number slew 
 eleven with his own hand. Before he 
 sent forth the fatal ball, he gave his 
 benediction to the intended victim ; and 
 to give his blessing all due authority, he 
 made with his musket the sign of the 
 cross in the air — wliiz went the bidlet, 
 and heaven had one inhabitant more ! 
 When Toledo was besieged by the royal- 
 ists, the bishop hastened to that city, not 
 so much to assist Maria Pacheco in repell- 
 ing the assailants, as to seize the vacant 
 archbishopric. By the populace he was 
 speedily proclaimed; and when the 
 chapter refused to elect him, he and 
 Maria committed the members to prison ; 
 and the latter were compelled to live on 
 bread and water until they had not only 
 elected Don Antonio, but given up their 
 treasures for the use of the insui'gents. 
 After Juan de Padilla was made prisoner, 
 (24th April, 1521,) the royalist cause 
 became triumphant. The fortresses sub- 
 mitted, and the bishop fled towards 
 France. In Navarre, howevei", he was 
 recognised, seized, and sent to the dun- 
 geon of Simancas. There he broke the 
 head of the alcalde with a brick, and was 
 escaping, when the son of the officer dis- 
 covered and secured him. This was his 
 last crime. By a papal bull, he was de- 
 graded, and delivered over to the secular 
 arm. He was tried, sentenced, and be- 
 headed in his prison. (Sandoval, Hist, 
 del Emperador Carlos I.) 
 
 2. Fernando de, anative of Madrid early 
 in the sixteenth century, was a favourite 
 of Charles V., not only for his military, 
 but for his literary talents. His ti-ans- 
 lation of the well-knowm romance of 
 Olivier de la Marche, under the title of 
 El Cavallero Detenninado, was much 
 esteemed by the emperor ; so indeed 
 were his translations fi-om Ovid and 
 Boyardo, and his Varias Poesias. As a 
 pastoral poet he excelled. Such poetry 
 has been long despised; but in the time 
 
ACU 
 
 ADA 
 
 of Fernando it was amazingly popular 
 in England, Italy and Spain. This 
 nobleman died at Granada in 1580. 
 
 3. Pedro de, governor of the Philippine 
 islands mider Philip II. and a knight of 
 Malta. He triumphed over the Dutch 
 and native princes of the Malaccas, 
 •which he subdued in 1605 and the fol- 
 lowing year. But he had many rivals, 
 who made poison the instrument of their 
 baseness immediately after his return to 
 his capital. He wrote an accomit of 
 the insurrection of the Chinese at Ma- 
 nilla. 
 
 4. Chr isiopher de, {1597 — 1676,) a native 
 of Burgos, and a famous Jesuit mission- 
 ary. Soon after his profession, he went 
 to South America, and laboured at the 
 conversion of the Penivians and Chilians. 
 He was rewarded by high posts in the 
 college of Cuen9a. In 1638, he was 
 chosen by the covmcil of Lima to accom- 
 X)any Texeiro, the Portuguese general, 
 lo traverse the Amazon to its source, 
 and open a communication through the 
 interior between Pern and Brazil. But 
 he had also a colleague, — Andres de 
 Cortieda, theological professor ; and this 
 circumstance woidd lead to the inference 
 that missionary stations were expected 
 to be opened in the interior of that vast 
 continent. Having received the neces- 
 sary instructions from the government 
 of Quito, the flotilla sailed up the river, 
 and did not reach Para before nine 
 months had elapsed. In this celebrated 
 voyage, father De Acuiia discovered many 
 tribes previously unknown to Europeans, 
 and of these a few were anthropophagi. 
 There is, however, something of fable in 
 the relation which in 1641 he published 
 of this remarkable voyage, under the 
 title Nuevo Descubrimiento del Gran 
 Rio de los Amazones. But for this the 
 good Jesuit is not accountable : he was 
 deceived by report. After all, his work 
 is as interesting as it is curious. The 
 objects of this expedition were not at- 
 tained : the troubles which long dis- 
 tracted the Peninsula, owing to the 
 separation of the Portuguese from the 
 Spanish crown, left neither government 
 time for colonizing. In a few years the 
 missionary returned to Peru, where he 
 ended his days. 
 
 ACUSILAUS. The son of Caba, or 
 Scabra, according to Diog. Laert. (i. 41,) 
 was born at Cercas, or Cecas, says Eudo- 
 cia, (Violar. p. 49,) in the coimtry of the 
 Argives. He flourished as a Greek 
 chronicler, a little anterior to the first 
 Persian invasion, and wrote the genea- 
 83 
 
 logics of the principal families of Greece ; 
 which it was reported, says Suidas, Ids 
 father had found engi-aved on some 
 brazen tablets, while he was digging in a 
 part of his premises. His works were still 
 extant in the time of Cicero, who describes 
 his style as being simple and miornament- 
 ed ; and they were preserved down to the 
 time of the sophist Sabinus, who lived 
 under Hadrian, and wrote a commentary 
 upon them. Nor were they lost till after 
 the time of Tzetzes, who quotes them on 
 Lycophr. v. 177. It is more probable, 
 however, that he got his information 
 second-hand, either from Clemens Alex. 
 (Strom, i. p. 321. A.) who is transcribed 
 as usual by Eusebius, (Prasp. Evang. x. 
 p. 498. D.) whom Syncellus has copied, 
 (Chronograph, p. 64. B.) or else from 
 Julius Aft-icanus, whom Eusebius follows, 
 (P. E. X. p. 489. A.) or from ApoUodorus. 
 From two passages in Suidas ('Icrropjj(rai 
 and 2vyypa(f)(i)) it might be inferred that 
 he wrote in verse, since what passed 
 under liis name in prose was considered 
 to be not genuine. On the other hand, 
 Clemens, (Strom, xi. p. 453,) asserts that 
 he merely put into prose what he foimd 
 in the verse of Hesiod. But though he 
 attached himself so closely to the 
 Ascrean, yet he seems to have deserted 
 his leader occasionally, as remarked by 
 the Scholiast (on ApoU. Rh. iv. 828.) 
 ApoUodonis, (ii. 2. 2; iii. 8. 1.) and 
 Tzetzes (on Lycoph. 177.) Whatever is 
 still remaining of his works have been 
 collected by Stiu-z and appended to liis 
 Pherecydis Fragmenta. Gerse. 1789. 
 
 ADA, queen of Caria, married her 
 own brother, after the manner of the 
 Carians and the Egyptians. After the 
 death of Artemisia she reigned seven 
 years conjointly with him ; and after his 
 death (a.c. 344) some years alone. Her 
 youngest brother indeed, encouraged by 
 Persia, aspired to the supreme authority ; 
 but she found a grand defender in Alex- 
 ander the Great, whom she adopted as 
 her son and heir. 
 
 ADAIR, (Jas. Makittrick, M.D., 1728 
 — 1802,) a native of Inverness, and son of 
 James Makittrick, an officer in the army, 
 who, having wasted his own fortvme, toge- 
 ther with that of his wife, a descendant of 
 the Adair family, idtimately became an 
 officer in the revenue department at Edin- 
 burgh. James, the subject of this notice, 
 his yoimgest son, was educated at the 
 grammar school and at the university of 
 Edinburgh. He embraced physic as a 
 profession, and was appointed surgeor' 
 mate of the Porcupine sloop of war, bound 
 G2 
 
ADA 
 
 AD A 
 
 to the Leeward Islands. He remained, 
 however, but a short time in this capacity, 
 returned to England, and shortly after 
 determined to proceed to Antigua, where 
 he became assistant to a relative, at whose 
 desire he had been bred to the medical 
 profession. He also undertook the ma- 
 nagement of an estate in this island, and 
 made himself familiar with the condition 
 of the slaves, for whose improvement he 
 was exceedingly anxious, but to whose 
 emancipation he was most decidedly 
 opposed. On the subject of the abolition 
 of slavery, lie published a tract in 1789, 
 in which he endeavoured to depict the 
 real state of slavery in the West Indies, 
 and the probable consequences of the 
 abolition of the slave trade ; to point out 
 also some grievances of the slave, which 
 required to be redressed, the means by 
 which they might be relieved, and, he 
 added, the necessary regidations of the 
 hospital for the management of the sick. 
 Humanity to slaves, and religious instnic- 
 tion, he held to be the only securities 
 upon which the West India planter could 
 safely rely. His own conduct towards 
 them was directed by every kindness. 
 He protected, he nurtured them as he 
 would his own children ; and they were 
 all much attached to him. He was ex- 
 amined on the Abolition question before 
 the privy council. In a few years he 
 quitted the West Indies, took a voyage 
 to America, and made the acquaintance 
 of Benjamin Franklin. After a tour in 
 the United States, he returned to Edin- 
 bui-gh, took his degree of M.D., and then 
 settled as a physician at Andover, in 
 Hampshire. On a short notice, and in 
 obedience to a call of friendship, he re- 
 turned to the West Indies. This was 
 after tlie war with America had com- 
 menced, and he was, upon his arrival, 
 appointed physician to Monk's Hill and to 
 the commander-in-chief and the troops, 
 and also one of the assistant judges of 
 the Courts of King's Bench and Common 
 Pleas. At this time he adopted the name 
 of Adair, having become the next male 
 heir to the estate of his mother's family. 
 In 1 783 he left the West Indies, returned 
 to England, and settled at Bath, where 
 he became involved in many disputes 
 with his professional brethren and otliers. 
 These arose partly from his determined 
 opposition to quacks and quackery : his 
 attempts to expose and suppress quackery 
 may be looked upon as quixotic, but they 
 were not the less laudable. His temper 
 was, however, altogether unfitted for the 
 warfare which he thus drew upon him- 
 84 
 
 self; for he was naturally querulous, hot, 
 and irascible, and his disposition had 
 been soured by disappointments in do- 
 mestic life. He was, however, a man of 
 an affectionate nature, and endowed with 
 lively sensibility. He was kind and ge- 
 nerous to the poor, and the profits of the 
 works he published were all given to the 
 support of the Bath hospital. His pro- 
 fessional acquirements were of no mean 
 description, and he appears to have been 
 a close and rational observer. He be- 
 came hypochondriacal, and died at Har- 
 rowgate in 1802. He published the fol- 
 lowing works: — 1. Medical Cautions for 
 the consideration of Invalids ; Bath, 
 
 1786, 8vo. Second edition, 1787. These 
 specially relate to diet and regimen, and 
 there is a table of the relative digestibility 
 of foods ; also essays on fashionable dis- 
 eases ; the dangerous effects of hot and 
 crowded rooms ; an inquiry into the use 
 of medicine during a course of mineral 
 waters ; and on quacks, quack medicines, 
 and lady doctors. 2. A Philosophical 
 and Medical Sketch of the Natui-al His- 
 tory of the Human Body and Mind ; Bath, 
 
 1787, 8vo. To this work is subjoined 
 an Essay on the Difficidties of attain- 
 ing Medical Knowledge. 3. Unanswer- 
 able Arguments against the Abolition 
 of the Slave Trade ; Bath, 1789, 8vo. 
 4. Essays on Fashionable Diseases ; 
 Batli, 1790, 8vo. 5. Essay on a Non- 
 descript, or Newly-invented Disease ; 
 1790, 8vo. He published some papers 
 in the Medical Commentaries, especially 
 one in vol. viii. on small-pox in the 
 West Indies, and in vol. xvii. on the 
 successfid use of cuprum vitriolatum and 
 conium, in two cases of phthisis ; some 
 strange memoirs relative to himself, &c., 
 under the title of P. Paragraph and B. 
 Goosequill ; and also some remarks on 
 Philip Thicknesse, under the same title ; 
 and two sermons addressed to sailors and 
 slaves in the West Indies. 
 
 ADAIR, (James,) seijeantatlaw, son of 
 Mr. Adair, an army agent. Was entered of 
 Peterhouse, Cambridge ; took the degree 
 of B.A. 1764, M.A. 1767. He was edu- 
 cated for the law, and in due course 
 called to the bar by the society of Lin- 
 coln's Inn, In the early part of the reign 
 of George III. he was ranked among the 
 advocates on the popular side; in 1771 
 he was employed as counsel in the famous 
 case of the House of Commons against 
 the printers ; and in this and other in- 
 stances gave so much satisfaction to the 
 citizens, that, on tlie death of Glynn, he 
 was elected recorder. In 1774 he took 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 the degree of Serjeant, and afterwards 
 confined his practice chiefly to the Com- 
 mon Pleas, in which court, — upon liis 
 promotion to be a king's serjeant, — he 
 for some years took the lead. On the 
 rupture of the Whigs after the French 
 revolution, he attached himself to the 
 moderate party of Bm'ke's division ; and 
 in 1794 was one of the counsel for the 
 crown against Hardy, Tooke, and others, 
 but had no very active part assigned 
 him. In 1796 he led against the crown, 
 with Erskine as his junior, in defence of 
 Stone, accused of treason, but acquitted. 
 At diiferent times he held a seat in par- 
 liament, and at the time of his death 
 was member for Higham Ferrers. He 
 also was counsel to the Board of Ordnance, 
 and Chief Justice of Chester. His man- 
 ner as a speaker was somewhat coarse, 
 but it was impressive ; he had great co- 
 piousness and fluency of delivery, and 
 his powers of reasoning were of the 
 highest order. He died suddenly at his 
 house in Lincoln's Inn-fields, on the 21st 
 of July, 1798. He was author of several 
 tracts: — 1. Thoughts on the Dismission 
 of Officers for their Conduct in Parlia- 
 ment; 1764. 2. Observations on the 
 Power of Alienation in the Crown ; 1 768. 
 3. Discussions of the Law of Libels, 1785. 
 
 ADAIR, (James,) a trader with the 
 Indians of the southern states. He re- 
 sided in their country forty years, begin- 
 ning in 1735, and was almost entirely 
 cut off from civilized society, and from 
 the year 1 744 he resided chiefly among 
 the Chickasaws. He published a very 
 elaborate work on their manners, endea- 
 vouring to prove them descended from 
 the Jews. It is entitled The History of 
 the American-Indians, particularly those 
 Nations adjoining the Mississippi, East 
 and West Florida, South Carolina, &:c. 
 London, 4to. 1 775 ; but the work has 
 been distrusted, although Dr. Boudinot, 
 in his Star in the West, has adopted his 
 views. (Allen's Dictionary.) 
 
 ADALARD, or ADALHARD, abbot 
 of Corbey, in Westphalia, (755—826,) 
 was of royal exti'action, his father being 
 Count Bernard, son of Charles Martel, 
 the brother of Pepin, and the uncle of 
 Charlemagne. In 772 he left the court, 
 and assumed the habit in the monastery 
 of Corbey, of which, after a short resi- 
 dence at Monte Cassino, he was elected 
 abbot. He was, however, removed from 
 the cloister to be the chief minister of 
 Pepin, king of Lombardy. The same 
 dignity he filled under Bernard, the suc- 
 cessor of Pepin ; but after the death of 
 85 
 
 Charlemagne he was disgraced, and with 
 him all his family. In 821, however, he 
 was restored to the government of his 
 monastery. His life was written by his 
 disciple, the celebrated Paschasius Rad- 
 bertus, and may be found in the collec- 
 tions of Bollandus and Mabillon. He 
 wrote much ; but only one of his works, 
 and that a compilation, — Statuta Anti- 
 qua Abbatise Corbeyensis, — has de- 
 scended to posterity, and is to be found 
 in the Spicilegium of D'Acheri. There 
 are, however, many fragments of his other 
 works. 
 
 ADALBERON, one of the most 
 learned of the French prelates during 
 the tenth century. He was the son of 
 Geoffiy, count of Ardennes, and was at 
 the same time archbishop of Rheims and 
 chancellor of France, through the reigns 
 of Lothaire, Louis V. and Hugh Capet, 
 the latter of whom he consecrated king in 
 987. He died in the January of the fol- 
 lowing year. His fame for learning threw 
 lustre over the school of Rheims, at that 
 time one of the most famous in Europe, 
 and drew thither a great multitude of 
 scholars. Few of his writings are pre- 
 served, and those not of any importance. 
 
 ADALBERON, sometimes called As- 
 celin, or Azelin, a celebrated French 
 prelate of the end of the tenth and be- 
 ginning of the eleventh centuries. He 
 was born in Lorraine, of a very rich 
 family, and, about a. d. 970, pursued his 
 stuches at Rheims, under the celebrated 
 Gerbert, afterwards pope Sylvester II. 
 Adalberon here made so great progress, 
 that he was soon famous as one of the 
 most learned men of his age. While 
 stiU very young, in the year 977, he was 
 made bishop of Laon ; after which he 
 became as celebrated for the part he 
 took in the politics of the time, as he 
 had previously been for his proficiency 
 in the sciences ; but his fame now was 
 of a much more equivocal character. He 
 was high in the favour of king Lothaire, 
 as well as of Louis V. the last of the 
 Carlovingian princes. After the death 
 of this latter monarch, who left no chil- 
 dren, Adalberon was deeply engaged in 
 the intrigues and troubles connected with 
 the rivalry between Hugh Capet and 
 Charles duke of Lorraine, the natural 
 son of Lothaire, who both laid claim to 
 the succession. Adalberon had sworn 
 fealty to Charles, as duke of LoiTaine, 
 and was one of his counsellors ; yet he 
 basely betrayedhim, along with his nephew 
 Arniilf, bishop of Rheims, who had firmly 
 sustainedhis cause, into the hands of Hugh 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 Capet, and thus secured to the latter the 
 quiet possession of the crown. The old 
 historians are loud in their exclamations 
 against Adalberon's treachery, and they 
 sometimes speak of him as " the old 
 traitor," ('vetulus ti'aditor,') and "the 
 false-hearted bishop of Laon," (' falsus 
 episcopus Lauduni.') Adalberon died 
 about A. D. 1030. He was a great bene- 
 factor to his church at Laon, which he 
 enriched with a part of his own private 
 property. He was the patron of Dudo 
 de St. Quentin, the historian of the Nor- 
 mans, whose history he revised before it 
 was published. He has left various 
 writings, not on the whole very nume- 
 rous, and few of them printed, except 
 some satirical Latin poetry, composed 
 during the reign of king Robert, full of 
 severe reflections and sarcasms on the 
 politics of that reign, on the errors and 
 corruptions of the state, and on his per- 
 sonal enemies, which is given in the 
 tenth volume of Dom Bouqviet's Collec- 
 tion of the French Historians. 
 
 ADALBERT, a famous impostor of 
 the eighth century, who pretended to 
 miracidous favours from heaven, and 
 even to personal interviews with beings 
 too holy to be mentioned. The confessors, 
 saints, martyrs, nay even the apostles, he 
 held to be much inferior to himself. The 
 hairs of his head, the parings of his nails, 
 were deserving of veneration. It would 
 scarcely be credited that this man obtained 
 consecration from the hands of bishops ; 
 that multitudes followed him ; that the 
 council of Soissons (744) was unable to 
 crush his opinions ; and that a subsequent 
 one was convoked at Rome by pope Za- 
 charias to condemn them, — were not all 
 these facts apparent from the acts of coun- 
 cils, and from the epistles of St. Boniface, 
 his contemporary. He probably died in 
 prison. 
 
 ADALBERT, duke of Tuscany, (847 
 — 890,) was the son of Boniface II. who 
 had been despoiled of his fiefs by Lothaire 
 I. The reign of Adalbert was long and 
 successful. He took the part of Carlo- 
 man against Charles the Bald, though the 
 latter was supported by the pope ; and 
 when the Roman coiu"t persisted in the 
 interference, he marched to the eternal 
 city, forced John VIII. to take refuge in 
 the church of St. Peter, and the Roman 
 citizens to swear fidelity to Carloman. 
 Little effect on him had the excommuni- 
 cation of pope John. 
 
 ADALBERT II. son of the preceding, 
 (890 — 917,) was much concerned in the 
 troubles of Lombardy, when so many 
 86 
 
 princes were contending for the Avrecks 
 of the Carlovingian empire. 
 
 ADALBERT III. was associated with 
 his father Berenger II. in the throne of 
 Italy, A.D. 950 ; but it was a nominal 
 rather than a real power which fell to the 
 lot of the son. In 961, when Otho I. 
 invaded Italy, and Adalbert marched to- 
 wards the Adige with 60,000 men, the 
 Italians refused to fight for Berenger : 
 they would not oppose the German em- 
 peror unless he abdicated in favoiu* of 
 his son. Berenger was too fond of power 
 to comply, and the army was immedi- 
 ately disbanded. There was, conse- 
 quently, no resistance to the imperial 
 monarch. After this event, Adalbert 
 found an asylum at Constantinople ; but 
 from the year 988 he is lost to history. 
 
 ADALBERT, marquis of Ivrea, mar- 
 ried Gisela, daughter of Berenger I. 
 marquis of Friidi ; and from this mar- 
 riage sprang Berenger II. king of Italy. 
 Ivrea was one of the most important fiefs 
 of Italy ; it held the key of the Alps ; 
 and from the advantage of this position, 
 Adalbert was able successfully to oppose 
 or to assist the designs of the French 
 princes on Lombardy. But he was gene- 
 rally opposed to his father-in-law Beren- 
 ger I., and was consequently the ally of 
 the Franks. By that king he was twice 
 conquered, and twice pardoned. On the 
 death of Gisela, he married Ermengard, 
 daughter of Adalbert II. duke of Tus- 
 cany, and her ambition led him to con- 
 spire still more zealously against the ruin 
 of Berenger. He died in 925, before the 
 accomplishment of his wife's projects. 
 
 ADALBERT, (St.) archbishop of 
 Magdeburg, and the apostle of the Sla- 
 vonic people, was at first designed (961) 
 to preach the gospel in Russia. Being 
 robbed and nearly murdered on the way, 
 he returned to his imperial master, Otho I. 
 who gave him the abbey of Weissenberg 
 in Alsace. From this place he was nomi- 
 nated to the archiepiscopal throne of 
 Magdeburg, — an appointment confirmed 
 by pope John XIII. (968), who added 
 some privileges to the new see. In this 
 station he founded several bishoprics, 
 and had the satisfaction to see the profes- 
 sion at least of Christianity daily spread 
 among these barbarous people. He died 
 in 981. 
 
 ADALBERT, (St. 939—997,) bishop 
 of Prague. This churchman, socelebrat- 
 ed in the annals of Bohemia and of the em- 
 pire, was a native of that Slavonic king- 
 dom, which in his day was not reclaimed 
 from idolatry. Dedicated from his infancy 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 to the service of the altar, he was sent 
 to prosecute his studies at Magdeburg, 
 then one of the most flourishing scholastic 
 institutions in Europe ; and on his return 
 to Prague he became a priest. On the 
 death of bishop Dithmar in 983, he was 
 raised to the see of Prague. This dig- 
 nity he little deserved : but he was of 
 noble birth, and, in the eyes of the Bohe- 
 mians, no less than of their duke Boleslas 
 the Pious, this was merit enough. What 
 is more extraordinary is the fact, that 
 empire and pope confirmed the election. 
 We may believe the biographers of Adal- 
 bert, when they assvxre us that he ac- 
 cepted the dignity with reluctance. The 
 country was so inveterately attached to 
 its paganism, that he could not hope to 
 reclaim it. Then the dying confession of 
 bishop Dithmar perpetually resounded in 
 his ears. Dithmar, on the bed of death, 
 felt quite sure he shoidd be damned. 
 Why ? He was a very moral man ; he 
 had learning and gravity enough, and 
 he had, in the opinion of the world, 
 done nothing to merit this self-condem- 
 nation. But he felt that he had been 
 sometimes remiss in the discharge of his 
 duties ; that he had lacked zeal. If he 
 had no vices, his people had enough for 
 all the world together ; and he felt that 
 he had not done what he should have 
 done to refonn them. Adalbert was 
 shocked at this confession ; he had a path 
 of equal difficulty before him ; and if his 
 eiForts were not more zealous, more suc- 
 cessful, he too might one day despair of 
 his salvation in the world to come. To 
 do him justice, he laboured incessantly 
 in his new office. He watched, prayed, 
 admonished, taught, with exemplary di- 
 ligence ; but he could not restrain his 
 clergy from concubinage,nor the laity from 
 frequent homicide, nor both fi'om di-un- 
 kenness. In despair, the good bishop left 
 liis flock, went to Rome — entered into the 
 great establishment of Monte Casino — 
 returned to Rome, and assumed the cowl 
 in that of St. Alexis. His monastic life, 
 we are told, was remarkable for its hu- 
 mility. It was, however, a short one, for 
 his flock soon claimed him, and received 
 him with public honours. So auspicious 
 was this commencement, that he fully 
 calculated on more docility than he had 
 yet found. He was soon undeceived : 
 the people adhered to their former vices. 
 A circumstance soon occurred which in- 
 creased his disgust so much, that he again 
 resolved to abandon his flock. A woman 
 was taken in adultery, and, what was 
 worse, with a clergyman. She fled to 
 87 
 
 the bishop, who, thinking that death was 
 too severe a punishment for the offence, 
 hid her among a community of nuns. 
 She was discovered, however, was brought 
 into the presence of the husband's kin- 
 dred, and, despite all the bishop could 
 do, was beheaded by the common exe- 
 cutioner. Again he repaired to Rome, 
 visited the emperor Otho, made several 
 pilgrimages to the shrines of saints, and, 
 on his return towards Bohemia, learned 
 that all his kinsmen had been massacred 
 in a church. The people, too, would not 
 again receive him, because if he deserved 
 the name of kinsman, he must seek re- 
 venge for this deed of blood, Adalbert, 
 therefore, repaired to Poland, resolved to 
 end his days in missionary laboiu-s. The 
 pagan Prussians seemed much in want of 
 his zeal ; and accompanied by thirty 
 Polish horsemen, whom the Polish duke 
 Boleslas had given to him as an escort, 
 he plvmged into that barbarous country. 
 At Dantzic he converted many ; but in the 
 rural districts, which he visited without 
 his escort, he was less successful. While 
 haranguing the people on an island in 
 Pomerania, a barbarian struck him to the 
 earth. The wound, however, was not a 
 dangerous one ; and he was told to leave 
 the country for ever ; for if he ventured 
 to return, certain death should be his 
 portion. But he had no intention to 
 leave it : he merely retired to a house on 
 the frontier, Avhere he remained until his 
 beard and hair were grown so as to cover 
 the shaven crown. He then laid aside 
 his episcopal garments, and in the garb 
 of the country he re-appeared amongst 
 the pagans. He was probably not re- 
 cognised, but his fate was not to be 
 averted. He was one day discovered 
 with other Christians — converts, no doubt 
 — engaged in worship, and the spear of 
 a pagan priest penetrated to his heart. 
 On the same spot he was beheaded, and 
 his head borne in ti-iumph on the top of 
 a pole. Duke Boleslas redeemed both it 
 and the trunk, and placed them where 
 they might be venerated in relics. Thus 
 perished the apostle of Pomerania — one 
 who in the performance of his duty feared 
 not stripes, or bonds, or death. (Cosma 
 Pragensis, Vita S. Adalberti, apud Fre- 
 herum ; Rerum Bohemicarum Scriptores.) 
 ADALRIC, supposed to have been a 
 son of Luther duke of Alemania, obtained 
 from Childeric II. in 662 the duchy of 
 Alsace, and the territory of Munster. In 
 an historical biography like the present, 
 he deserves mention as the progenitor of 
 the great.house of Hapsburg, and of ite 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 kindred branches in Lorraine and Baden. 
 Nor should we forget that he was the 
 father of St. Odila. This saint was born 
 bhnd, and was so much hated by her father 
 that he ordered her to be put to deatli. 
 By the mother, however, a sister of St. 
 Leger, she was saved, and brought up 
 in a convent. In after years she reco- 
 vered her sight, but many were elapsed 
 before he would look upon her as his 
 child. ■ At length he gave her the castle 
 of Hohemberg, and there founded a nun- 
 
 nery, 
 
 of which she became the first 
 
 abbess. Towards the close of his life, he 
 too, with his duchess, embraced the re- 
 ligious life, and died in 690. 
 
 ADALVALD, king of Lombardy from 
 the year 604, for some years conjointly 
 with his father, but afterwards alone. By 
 marrying a catholic princess, — Theodo- 
 linda, daughter of Theudebert II., king 
 of Austrasia, — he indisposed to his go- 
 vernment his Arian subjects, who con- 
 stituted three-fourths of the niunber. 
 The zeal of his queen in behalf of ortho- 
 doxy did notlessen the general discontent. 
 At length he was deposed — ostensibly for 
 the severity with which he punished 
 some of his chief nobles — in reality for 
 his openly favouring the Roman Catho- 
 lics. He died in 625. 
 
 ADAM OF BREMEN, so called be- 
 cause he was a canon in the cathedral of 
 that city, is well known to the ecclesias- 
 tical students of the middle ages as a 
 most useful and most interesting his- 
 torian. His canonry he received in 1067 
 from the hands of Adalbert the arch- 
 bishop ; and he was at the same time 
 placed over the school dependent on 
 that see — a school for the clergy much 
 more than for the laity. In the exercise 
 of these twofold functions, he passed his 
 life ; but his leisure hours, at least, must 
 have been devoted to the composition of 
 his great work — Historia Ecclesiastica 
 Ecclesiarum Hamburgensis et Bremen- 
 sis, Vicinorumque Locorum, ab anno 788 
 ad an. 1072. (4to. Helmstadt, 1670.) 
 The value of this book can be estimated 
 by those only who know how little of 
 these northern churches and countries 
 was before known to Europe, — how little 
 we should know if it were destroyed. It 
 is as useful to the civil as to the ecclesi- 
 astical historian. His materials, so far 
 as the modern portion of his laboui-s 
 were concerned, were derived from living 
 witnesses — from actors in the scenes he 
 relates ; for the times of St. Anscar, and 
 of subsequent missionaries, he followed 
 both tradition, and authorities which 
 
 have long ceased to exist, but which 
 then adorned the library of his school. 
 Besides this history he wrote a Geogra- 
 phical Description of the North, which is 
 exceedingly precious to the histoi'ian of 
 the middle ages. He also left a descrip- 
 tion of Sweden, the more valuable, as 
 Ohter and Wolfstan, whose narrative 
 king Alfred inserted in his translation of 
 Orosius, only described the coasts. In 
 the two last works there are many 
 fables ; but this defect was inevitable 
 when tradition and rumour were the 
 chief authorities for both history and 
 geography. It is the duty of the critical 
 reader to separate fable from truth. To 
 Adam must also be attributed a biography 
 of his patron Adalbert, which is of less 
 value, though it is far from useless, 
 (Fleury, Histoire Ecclesiastique, torn. xiii. 
 I3iog. Univ. This article, however, is 
 chiefly derived from original notes.) 
 
 ADAM OF FULDA, a monk of Fran- 
 conia in the fifteenth century. He wrote 
 a treatise on Music. 
 
 ADAM OF ST. VICTOR, canon regu- 
 lar of that church at Paris (d. 1177); 
 wrote some devotional treatises. 
 
 ADAM DE LA HALLE, a cele- 
 brated French poet of the thirteenth cen- 
 tm-y. He flourished about the year 
 1260, and was the minstrel of the earl of 
 Anjou. Little is known of his personal 
 history ; but he is famous as the author 
 of some of the earliest di'amatic poems in 
 the French language, particulai-ly the 
 elegant piece, entitled, Le Jeu de Robin 
 et Marion, of which an excellent edition 
 has been published at Paris by M. Mon- 
 merque. He seems to have been a 
 native of Arras, and was often charac- 
 terized by the title of Le Bossu d'Arras ; 
 but for what reason this name was given 
 to him is not quite clear, for in one of his 
 poems he distinctly declares that he was 
 not deformed : — 
 
 " Ne sai quel menestrel I'avoient depechie, 
 Mais jou Adans d'Arras I'ai a point radreciiie, 
 Et, pour cliou c'on ne soit de moi en daserie, 
 On m'apele bochu, mais jc ne le sni mie." 
 
 Jubiiial's Riitebeiif. (Paris, 1839.) t. i. p. 430. 
 
 ADAM DE MARISCO, {of the 
 
 Marsh,) a distinguished English scholar 
 of the middle of the thirteenth centiu-y 
 He was born in Somersetshire, but we 
 are unacquainted with the date either of 
 his birth or of his death. He studied at 
 Oxford, where he soon gained great fame 
 by his learning and acquirements, and he 
 enrolled himself in the Franciscan order. 
 In the schools of this order at Oxford he 
 long professed philosophy ; and became 
 the intimate friend of the famous Robert 
 
ADA 
 
 AU A 
 
 Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, and of 
 Roger Bacon. The latter speaks rather 
 disparagingly of his abilities, in one of 
 his works. Grosseteste, at his death, 
 from respect to Adam, left a great part of 
 his books to the library of the Francis- 
 cans in Oxford. In 1257, Adam was 
 nominated by the king and the arch- 
 bishop to the vacant bishopric of Ely, 
 but the pope confirmed the choice of the 
 monks who had previously elected Hugh 
 de Balsham. Many of this writer's works 
 are preserved in manuscript, and among 
 others a collection of letters written by 
 him to many of the most remarkable 
 people of his age, such as the queen, the 
 countess of Leicester, (the lady of the 
 celebrated Simon de Montfort), Robert 
 Grosseteste, &c., which contain numer- 
 ous interesting allusions to contemporary 
 history. There is a copy of these letters 
 in a manuscript in the British Museum. 
 
 ADAM OF MURIMOUTH, {Muri- 
 midhensis,) an English historian of the 
 fourteenth century. He was educated 
 at Oxford, and was afterwards a canon 
 of St. Paul's, in London. He was sent 
 by Edward H. on a message to the pope 
 and the king of Sicily ; and held at 
 different periods many ecclesiastical pre- 
 ferments. He appears to have died in 
 the reign of Richard H. His histoiy 
 commences near the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century, and ends with the 
 year 1380. It was printed at Oxford in 
 1 722 by Anthony Hall : and a small portion 
 ■was edited by Thomas Hearne, who was 
 ignorant of its author, and gave it anony- 
 mously in the appendix to the History 
 of Walter Hemingford, printed at Oxford 
 in 1731. 
 
 ADAM DU PETIT PONT, one of 
 the most celebrated professors of the 
 university of Paris in the middle of the 
 twelfth century. He was born in Eng- 
 land, and seems to have repaired to the 
 university of Paris while young. He 
 studied there imder Mathieu d'Angers 
 and Peter Lombard ; and was a zealous 
 partizan of Aristotle, His school, where 
 he taught, was situated near the Petit 
 Pont, from which circumstance his con- 
 temporaries commonly designated him 
 by the name of Adam du Petit Pont. 
 He here lectured chiefly on grammar, 
 rhetoric, and dialectics ; and his lectures 
 appear to have been attended by his 
 countryman John of Salisbiu-y, who was 
 ever afterwards his friend, and who men- 
 tions him with respect in his works. Adam 
 was afterwards made a canon of Notre 
 Dame, and as such he professed theology 
 89 
 
 in the episcopal school of the diocese. 
 He was one of the synod appointed under 
 the presidence of pope Eugene III., to 
 judge Gilbert de la Poiree. Adam was 
 called home from Paris, in 1175 or 1176, 
 to be made bishop of St. Asaph, and died 
 in England in 1180. In the writings of 
 his contemporaries, he is sometimes dis- 
 tinguished by the epithet oi Peripateticus, 
 on account of his attachment to the phi- 
 losophy of Aristotle; and sometimes by 
 that of Scholasticus, 
 
 ADAM SCOTUS, or The Scotchman, 
 so named because he was born in 
 Scotland, or at least descended of a 
 Scottish family. He was a monk of the 
 order Premontre ; floiu-ished about the 
 year 1172, and died in 1180. St. Nor- 
 bert, the institutor of that order, sent 
 him into Scotland to profess and teach 
 theology there. He was afterwards 
 made bishop of Withern. His works, of 
 which many are still found among old 
 manuscripts, are almost entirely theo- 
 logical. Several of them were printed at 
 Antwerp and Paris in the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries. 
 
 ADAM OF ORLETON, bishop of 
 Winchester, obtained no very enviable 
 notoriety by his intrigues during the 
 reign of the feeble Edward II. He is 
 said to have died in 1375, bhnd, at an ad- 
 vanced age. The story of the dubious 
 answer given by him to those who wished 
 to murder Edward ( Edwardum occidere 
 nolite timere boniim est) has not been con- 
 sidered quite authentic. 
 
 ADAM, (Melchior, d. 1622,) rector of 
 the college at Heidelberg, and a very 
 useful writer. The best of his works, 
 Vitse Germanorum Philosophonnu, (Hei- 
 delb. 1615—1620, in 4 vols. 8vo.) has 
 been of great use to biographers of more 
 recent times ; so also his Decades duas, 
 Continentes Vitas Theologorum extero- 
 rum Principum. (8vo. Francf. 1618.) 
 "I am much indebted," says Bayle, "to 
 the labours of Melchior Adam." Baillet 
 has a still higher eulogium on this 
 biographer. With regard to his great 
 biographical work in 4 vols, it ought to 
 be stated that the volumes are often 
 met with separately, and have often 
 been reprinted separately. Vol. I. con- 
 tains poets, historians &c. ; II. Theolo- 
 gians ; III. Jm-isconsults ; IV. Physicians, 
 &c. He wrote also some pieces on clas- 
 sical subjects. Henning Witte, in his 
 Diarium Biographicum, has done for the 
 theologians of the seventeenth century 
 what Adam did for the sixteenth. 
 
 ADAM, (Jacques, 1633—1735,) a 
 
AD A 
 
 ADA 
 
 native of Vendome, translated part of 
 Du Thou's Memoires, the Memoirs of 
 Montecuculli, (the relative of the Car- 
 dinal de Tournon,) and tlie whole of 
 Athenaeus. This last translation has not 
 been published ; but some use was made 
 of it by Lefebvre de Villebrune. If 
 Adam corrected, as he boasted, 2,000 
 errors in the Greek text wliich was in- 
 tended to accompany the translation, he 
 must surely have deserved something 
 more than the faint praise of Lefebvre. 
 His highest praise is, that he was asso- 
 ciated with the abbe Fleury in the educa- 
 tion of the prince de Conti ; that he 
 collected materials for the ecclesiastical 
 history of that celebrated wi-iter, by whom 
 he was highly esteemed. 
 
 ADAM, (Jean d', 1684,) a Jesuit pro- 
 fessor of Bordeaux, who obtained much 
 celebrity by his fiirious denunciations 
 against the Augustinians. Nor did he 
 spare that celebrated saint, whom he 
 called "this hot-headed African," and 
 other names. It was on this man, who 
 compared the queen to the Virgin Mary, 
 &c. that the celebrated witticism was 
 made — a nobleman declared his belief in 
 pre-Adamites, because, he said, " he could 
 not think father Adam the first of men." 
 His works were chiefly in favour of tran- 
 substantiation. 
 
 ADAM, (L. S. 1700—1759,) a native 
 of Nancy, and a sculptor, whose reputation 
 was almost European. His fii-st efforts 
 were to restore the great works of former 
 masters ; but his Neptune calming the 
 Waves; Neptune and Amphitrite ; St. 
 Jerome, &c. proved that he had a good 
 conception, and a better execution. His 
 taste, however, was bad, and he will 
 never rank higher than a second-rate 
 artist, even in France, where there is no 
 disposition to undervalue his merits. 
 
 ADAM, (N. S. 1705—1778,) brother 
 of the preceding, was about his equal in 
 merit. It was his daily prayer to God, 
 that he might neither be the first nor the 
 last in his profession ; and it was sure 
 enough granted. For liis Prometheus 
 Vinctus tlie king of Prussia offered him 
 30,000 francs — a great sum in France 
 nearly a century ago ; but he intended 
 it for his own royal master. 
 
 ADAM, (F. G. 1710—1759,) brother 
 of the two preceding, also a scidptor, but 
 in celebrity scarcely equal to either. 
 ^ ADAM, (Nicolas, 1716—1792,) a na- 
 tive of Paris, and professor of eloquence 
 at Lisieux ; wrote several elementary 
 ti-eatises, and ti'anslated Horace, Phae- 
 druS) and the Rasselas of Johnson. 
 90 
 
 ADAM, (Robert, 1728 — 1792), a 
 native of Kirkaldy, and an architect of 
 considerable reputation, especially with 
 his own countrymen. His father was an 
 architect also, and sent him to the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, where he became 
 acquainted with many of the distin- 
 guishedmen of his day, Hume, Robertson, 
 &:c. He went to Italy for improvement, 
 to enlarge his views of art altogether ; 
 and appears to have studied the remains 
 of antiquity with considerable diligence. 
 Anxious, however, to obtain a knowledge 
 of the habitations of the ancients, for 
 which the public buildings which remain 
 give little or no data, in company with 
 M. Clerisseau, a French artist, he visited, 
 in 1757, the ruins of Dioclesian's palace 
 at Spalatro. In 1762 he was appointed 
 architect to their majesties ; and in 1764 
 he published his account of the Ruins of 
 the Palace of Dioclesian at Spalatro in 
 Dalmatia, with many plates, — a work 
 which bears a high reputation. 
 
 His architectural labours enriched 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow witli many 
 buildings, which are praised ; and London 
 with the Adelphi (the joint work of him- 
 self and his brother), and Portland Place. 
 The two last works are certainly elegant, 
 if they can claim no higher praise ; and 
 their erection forms a sort of epoch in 
 the history of oiir street architecture, 
 the credit of improving whicli very ma- 
 terially is clearly due to Mr. Adam. 
 
 In conjunction with his brother James 
 (who died 1794) he published several 
 numbers of a book entitled. The Works 
 in Architecture of R. and J. Adam. 
 
 ADAM, (Alex. LL.D. 1741—1809), a 
 schoolmaster of Edinburgh, and a very 
 useful elementary writer on classical 
 subjects. A native of the county of 
 Moray, he was educated at Edinburgh, 
 and in 1761 was made schoolmaster of 
 AVatson's Hospital. In 1767 he was ap- 
 pointed assistant to the master of the 
 High School, and afterwai'ds, in 1771, 
 became the rector himself. His works 
 on Ancient Geogi-aphy and on Roman 
 Antiquities, and his other works, are too 
 well known to require any description. 
 Dr. Adam was imprudent and unwise 
 enough during the French revolution to 
 introduce some of the new political opi- 
 nions into his school, for which he has 
 been justly censured ; but in other re- 
 spects he was an excellent schoolmaster, 
 and raised the reputation of the High 
 School very considerably. 
 
 ADAM, or ADAMI, (Jacob,) an ec- 
 clesiastic of Pomerania, who did much for 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 the progress of the refonnation at Dantzic. 
 He wrote several treatises, which, among 
 the vast chaos of religious controversy, 
 are not likely to be distinguished. 
 
 ADAM, (Jacob, born 1768.) This 
 engraver was joined with Mansfeld in 
 engraving a series of Austrian portraits. 
 ADAM^US, (Theodoric, d. 1560,) 
 a writer of some merit, wished, like 
 Charles V. to whom he dedicated two of 
 his works, to produce an union between 
 all christian churches. Hence his trea- 
 tise, De Christiani Orbis Concorditi. He 
 also wrote on the knights of Rhodes, and 
 on the wars which those military eccle- 
 siastics sustained against the Turks ; and 
 translated from the Greek an abridgment 
 of jurisprudence. 
 
 ADAMANTIUS, a physician of Alex- 
 andria, and afterwards of Constantinople, 
 in the fom-th century. He wrote on phy- 
 siognomy, the most conjectmral of all 
 subjects. 
 
 ADAMANUS, or ADAMNANUS, 
 abbot of lona, (679 — 704,) and the 
 fourth who held that office after St. 
 Columba, is chiefly known as the ' bio- 
 grapher of that saint. He was evidently 
 a man of great piety, and of some learn- 
 ing, but he had that fatal defect of the 
 age, — unbounded credidity. His Life of 
 St. Columba abounds with it. Yet that 
 biogi-aphy will be read with interest, so 
 long as piety and virtue have any charms 
 for men. It may be found in Canisius 
 (Lectiones) andin Bollandus(die Sept.l5). 
 ADAMI, (Antonio F. 1720—1761,) 
 a native of Florence ; a miscellaneous 
 writer, but chiefly known as a poet, espe- 
 cially of the lyrical kind. 
 
 ADAMI, (Adam,) a Benedictine monk 
 of the I7th century, and subsequent 
 titular bishop of Hieropolis, who wrote a 
 history of the peace of Westphalia. 
 
 ADAMI, (Leonardo, 1690—1719,) a 
 native of Bolsema, Tuscany, was so far 
 extraordinary, that though he passed his 
 youth on the deep, he subsequently made 
 considerable progress in the oriental lan- 
 guages, especially in Hebrew, Arabic, 
 and Syriac, and still more in Greek, a 
 language not sufficiently studied by the 
 Roman Catholics of any country, and 
 least of all in Italy. Had his life 
 been spared, he would have been a pro- 
 digy. He left the first volume of a book, 
 which, considering his youth, was a mar- 
 vellous production : it is a history of 
 Arcadia, from the earliest times to the 
 reign of Aristocrates the Younger. The 
 second volume was to have finished the 
 work. The history of Adami has this 
 91 
 
 fault, — that the naiTative is perpetually 
 inteiTupted by quotations not always 
 pertinent to the subject. It resembles, 
 says Facciolati, a city in which there 
 are more strangers than native inhabi- 
 tants. A history of the Peloponnesus, a 
 new edition of Jomandes, and other 
 works, Avere projected by this young man. 
 
 ADAMI, (Ernest D.b. 1716,) a Pole, 
 who studied music and divinity. He 
 wrote a volume on a curious subject, — 
 on the threefold echo at the entrance of 
 the forest of Aderbach, in Bohemia. It 
 was published in German, atLignitz,l750. 
 
 ADAMI, (Andrea,) master of the 
 pontifical chapel early in the last cen- 
 tury ; wrote on the church service. 
 
 ADAMOLI, (P. 1707— 1769,) a na- 
 tive of Lyons, who held an official ap- 
 pointment in the city, was distinguished 
 for his love of literature, and for his 
 collections of books, MSS. and models, 
 which he bequeathed to the academy of 
 Lyons. In his will he declared that his 
 collection shovdd be open to the public 
 once a week ; that the librarian should 
 be an academician, and if possible the 
 father of a family ; but on no account 
 shoidd a monk, or a bookseller, fill the 
 post, lest rubbish should be mixed with 
 his valuable stock. His library is indeed 
 a choice one, yet it now extends to 12,000 
 volumes. 
 
 ADAMS. Many are the persons of 
 this name whom England and Scotland 
 declare to be worthy of commemoration. 
 
 1. William, who died in 1621, was one 
 of our earliest navigators into the East. 
 In 1598 he had the direction, as pilot, of 
 one Dutch vessel out of five, which were 
 subject to an admiral of that nation. So 
 little was navigation understood in those 
 days, that they proceeded westwards; 
 and when off" the Chilian coast, the fol- 
 lowing year,only two vessels remained,and 
 of these the crews were nearly consumed 
 by death or disease. One vessel only, 
 — that which Adams steered — reached 
 Japan. At first they were imprisoned 
 by order of the emperor, but soon after- 
 wards liberated and allowed to trade. 
 Adams, by his skill in mechanics, be- 
 came a favourite with the monarch. The 
 consideration with which he was treated, 
 the lands which he possessed, made him 
 in no huiTy to revisit England, and he 
 died at Firando, in about twenty years 
 after his arrival. He procured for both 
 the English and the Dutch, permission 
 to trade with those distant islands, and 
 to him their first commercial settlements 
 are owing. 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 2. Sir TJiomat, mayor of London, a 
 native of Weni, in Shropshire, 1586, will 
 be held in respect so long as loyalty 
 to the sovereign is esteemed a virtue. 
 Educated at Cambridge, and entered in 
 the drapers' company; in 1609, he was 
 chosen sheriff, and during that year he 
 entirely abandoned his own business, so 
 that he might devote his whole time to 
 his new duties. When alderman, lie 
 was elected president of St. Thomas's 
 hospital, and he is said to have been the 
 means of saving that institution from 
 total ruin, by discovering the frauds of a 
 dishonest steward. Though retiu-ned to 
 parliament, he declined to take his seat, 
 and for this obvious reason, — that he had 
 little community of feeling with the pu- 
 ritanical and disloyal party who consti- 
 tvited the majority of that assembly. In 
 1645, he was elected mayor of London. 
 Such was his known attachment to the 
 royal cause, that his house was searched 
 for treasonable correspondence ; and one 
 year he was committed to the tower by 
 the usurpers of the government. During 
 the exile of the second Charles, he ex- 
 hibited a notable proof of his loyalty, by 
 remitting 10,000/. to that monarch. He 
 was 74 years of age when sent conjointly 
 with general Monk to congratulate 
 Charles at Breda. By that monarch he 
 was knighted, a dignity which was soon 
 afterwards raised to a baronetcy. His 
 charities through life were great; he 
 was the friend of the poor ; and some 
 noble foundations attest his piety and 
 taste for letters. 
 
 3. Richard, a nonconformist divine, 
 a native of Cheshire, took his Master's 
 degree at Cambridge, in 1644. Having 
 studied at Oxford and held a fellowship 
 there, his opinions rendering him not 
 disagreeable to the men in power, he 
 succeeded to the living of St. Mildred's, 
 Bread Street, London, where he preached 
 until he was expelled for nonconformity 
 in 1662. He wrote some sermons, com- 
 piled the notes on St. Paul's Epistles to 
 the Philippians and Colossians, in Poole's 
 Bible, and assisted his brother Thomas 
 Adams, in other works. He died in 1684. 
 
 4. Thomas, brother of the preceding, 
 (d. 1670,) wrote on the Principles of 
 Religion, and against the Church Esta- 
 blishment. 
 
 5. Fitzherhert, (1651—1719,) a man 
 of some learning, we are told, but deserv- 
 ing of praise chiefly for the care with 
 which he enforced discipline, as vice- 
 chancellor of Oxford. He held a good 
 stall in Dm-ham cathedral. 
 
 92 
 
 6. John, took his Bachelor's degi-efi 
 at Cambridge in 1678, and in 1712 was 
 elected provost of King's, which he held 
 with some good preferments. He wrote 
 some sermons. 
 
 7. William, (1707—1789,) a prebend 
 of Gloucester, master of Pembroke, Ox- 
 ford, and archdeacon of Llandaff"; wrote 
 some sermons, and replied to Hume's 
 Essay on Miracles. This divine was 
 a friend of Dr. Johnson's. 
 
 8. Sariiuel, a native of Massachusetts, 
 and one of the most ardent defenders of 
 American independence. He was one 
 of the first, if not the very first, to or- 
 ganize societies of the people, and to 
 enrol troops. He is reported to have 
 said, on the day after the battle of Lex- 
 ington, ' It is a fine day, — I mean, this 
 is a glorious day.' His ardent zeal for 
 the independence of the colonies, was 
 rewarded by a seat in congress for the 
 state of Massachusetts. But he was a 
 furious zealot, an honest one indeed, but 
 not the less mischievous. He would 
 have no army, — this was an invention of 
 kings and tyrants : every citizen shoidd 
 be a soldier. Had his advice been fol- 
 lowed, there would soon have been an 
 end of the American confederation. To- 
 wards the close of his life, he grew more 
 rational. He died as he had lived — poor, 
 and for this reason has been called " the 
 American Cato." He was known as a 
 political writer against governor Shirley, 
 (see the name.) He was tax-gatherer, 
 and by this means had a wide acquaint- 
 ance and much influence, at Boston. His 
 first seat in the assembly of Massachusetts 
 Avas in 1765, and in 1774 he became a 
 member of the General Congress. In 
 1775 he was proscribed with John Han- 
 cock, by the last act of the British Go- 
 vernment. Governor Hutchinson spoke 
 of the impossibility of appeasing his op- 
 position to the British government by 
 any place, from th« inflexibility of his 
 indisposition ; but he accuses him of being, 
 as a political writer, the most artful and 
 insinuating of all men whom he ever 
 knew, and "the most successful in rob- 
 bing men of their characters, and calum- 
 niating governors and other servants of 
 the crown." He states also, that Mr. 
 Adams, by a defalcation as collector, had 
 injured his character ; but he adds, that 
 " the benefit to the town from his defence 
 of their liberties he supposed an equiva- 
 lent to his arrears as their collector." 
 President Adams speaks of him in the 
 highest terms : " his inflexible integrity, 
 his disinterestedness, &c. and his pure 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 public virtue, were not exceeded by any 
 man in America." His writings were 
 chiefly in newspapers and pamphlets ; 
 a collection of them, says president 
 Adams, would throw light on American 
 history for fifty years. Dr. Allen, who 
 seldom allows an English soldier to 
 escape without a remark on the unchris- 
 tian nature of all war, speaks in glowing 
 terms of the faith and christian dispo- 
 sition of Mr. Adams, though not a man 
 of very peaceable character : but the 
 cause, we presume, sanctifies the use of 
 war on one side. His correspondence 
 in 1790 with J. Adams, the jiresident 
 U. S., was published in 1800. (Allen's 
 American Biographical Dictionary.) 
 
 9. John, (1735—1826,) president of 
 the United States of America, was born 
 at Braintree, in Massachusetts. He was 
 of the same family as the preceding, and 
 could trace his ancestors to the original 
 settlers of the colony in 1608. He was 
 educated at Harvard College, and some 
 friends advised him to study theology ; 
 but he had imbibed opinions on religion 
 hostile to those of the New England 
 churches, and probably was, or became 
 afterwards, an Unitarian (see Allen's 
 Dictionary). He therefore preferred 
 following the legal profession ; and, in 
 1761, having practised some time at 
 Quincy, he was admitted to the bar. The 
 arguments of Mr. Otis against the intro- 
 duction of "Writs of Assistance," (a sort 
 of search warrant for certain goods not 
 having paid taxes,) by the British, made 
 a great noise at Boston, and produced 
 much effect on Mr. Adams. He said, 
 " then and there the child Independence 
 was born." In 1764 he man-ied Miss 
 Smith, a descendant of Colonel Quincy ; 
 and in 1765 he published his Essay on 
 Canon and Feudal Law (reprinted in 
 London), which was a kind of attack on 
 kings and priests. In 1765 he removed 
 to Boston, and refused a lucrative post. 
 In 1769 he was one of the committee of 
 Boston for drawing up instructions to 
 their representatives to resist the British 
 encroachments. In 1770 he, with Quincy 
 and Blowers, defended the soldiers ac- 
 cused of mvirder, in consequence of an 
 affray at Boston ; and procured their ac- 
 quittal, except two, who were branded 
 for manslaughter. In 1770 he became a 
 member of the legislature. In 1773 he 
 wrote in the Boston Gazette against 
 making judges dependent for their salary 
 on the crown. In 1773 he was elected 
 to Congress, before the declaration of in- 
 dependence was agx-eed upon ; but he had 
 93 
 
 resolved on " sinking or swimming with 
 his country," as he observed to his Tory 
 friend Sewall. These two friends had 
 a controversy in the Boston Gazette, 
 Adams as Novanglus, and Sewall as Mas- 
 sachusettensis, on the right of British in- 
 terference in taxation, &c. ; in which Mr. 
 Adams maintained the American side of 
 the question most strenuously. In 1 776 
 he seconded the motion of Mr. Lee in 
 Congress, " that the States are, and of 
 right ought to be, free and independent;" 
 and was one of the committee for draw- 
 ing up the Declaration of Independence. 
 The committee were Jefferson, Adams, 
 Franklin, Shennan, and R. H. Livingston, 
 of which the two first were the sub-com- 
 mittee ; and, at the request of Adams, 
 Jefferson drew it up. He accompanied 
 Dr. Franklin as ambassador to France, 
 to solicit the aid of that power. On his 
 return, he drew up a constitution for the 
 state of Massachusetts, which has been 
 mentioned with great applause by foreign- 
 ers, and is much esteemed by natives. 
 Ambassador to the States-General of 
 Holland, he di-ew them into a war with 
 Great Britain ; concluded a treaty of 
 peace and commerce with that power; 
 and he was one of the plenipotentiaries 
 to conclude a peace Avith England. When, 
 in 1787, a central administrative govern- 
 ment was established, of which the au- 
 thority in general matters was binding 
 in all the States of the Union, Jolm Adams 
 was elected vice-president, — the superior 
 chair falling to General Washington. 
 The period was a stormy one. The demo- 
 ci-atic pai-ty, at the head of which was 
 Jefferson, were hostile to the change in 
 the constitution ; and Adams, one of the 
 staunchest advocates for that change, was 
 assailed in terms of unmeasured abuse. 
 He was too good a lawyer — too well versed 
 in history — not to know that in every con- 
 stitution there must be some balance to 
 democracy, or anarchy will soon dissolve 
 the social fabric. When the French re- 
 volution broke out, the republicans — so 
 the democratic party were called — cla- 
 moured for a war with England : the 
 federalists, or rational supporters of the 
 union, — all the men of character and 
 talent in the new government, — were for 
 neutrality. The latter party triumphed. 
 Under the second presidency of Washing- 
 ton, Adams filled the second post in the 
 republic. When that general announced 
 his intention of retiring from his higli 
 post, there was a keen contest between 
 the republicans and the federalists, — the 
 former proposing Jefferson, the latter 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 Adams, to the high honour. The latter 
 triumphed, owing partly to the impru- 
 dence of the French ambassador, who 
 evidently aspired to an undue and dan- 
 gerous influence over the destinies of the 
 infant republic. It was in 1797 that 
 Adams was thus invested with the supreme 
 magistracy. His conduct was distin- 
 guished by great moderation, yet by 
 great firmness. He saw how necessary 
 it was to oppose every possible check to 
 the progress of democracy ; and he fore- 
 saw that in France the duration of the 
 republic woidd be much shorter than was 
 generally supposed. On the expiration 
 of his quinqviennial labours, however, the 
 democratic party prevailed, and Jefferson 
 was elected to the supreme office. From 
 this time, Adams retired into private life, 
 and devoted much of his leisure to lite- 
 rary pm'suits. He died at New York in 
 1826. It is remarkable enough that he 
 and Jefferson died on the smne day, and 
 that day the anniversary of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, the 4th of July, 
 just 50 years after the event. 
 
 The writings of Mr. Adams are less 
 known in this country than their merit 
 deserves. Besides his History of the 
 Quarrel between Great Britain and the 
 American Colonies, he published a De- 
 fence of the Constitution and Govern- 
 ment of the United States of America ; 
 or the Necessity of a Balance between 
 the Powers of a Free Government (Lon- 
 don, 1787). His next work, a History 
 of the Principal Republics of the World, 
 (3 vols. 8vo. London, 1794,) is an ampli- 
 fication of the principles contained in the 
 former. While advocating the advantages 
 of a republic, he proves that a pure demo- 
 cracy is the worst possible form of go- 
 vernment ; that it is but another word 
 for anarchy ; that it is inconsistent with 
 social security ; and that it cannot be 
 durable. This is both a learned and 
 a judicious work. (Allen's American 
 Biog. Diet. Biog. Univ. Life of Jefferson. 
 American Newspapers, &c.) 
 
 10. John, usually called the Patriarch 
 of Pitcairn's Island, was one of the crew 
 of the Bounty, who in 1789, mutinied 
 against captain Bligh, in the Friendly 
 Islands. He was indeed the ringleader 
 of the mutiny. After a residence at 
 Otaheite, Adams, who had reason to fear 
 the vengeance of the English govern- 
 ment, resolved to settle in some other 
 island less accessible to Europeans. 
 Accompanied by eight of the crew, and 
 many natives of Otaheite, he repaired to 
 Pitcairn's island, and on landing, caused 
 94 
 
 the vessel to be burnt. This was in 
 1790. A village Avas soon built; the 
 whole island was parcelled out amongst 
 the bold adventurers ; and the Otaheitans 
 were regarded merely as so many head 
 of cattle. But a civil war followed, in 
 which the coloured slaves perished. At 
 its conclusion, Adams, three other Eng- 
 lishmen, ten Otaheitan women, and some 
 children, were all that remained of the 
 original colonists ; and of these English- 
 men, one drank until his senses left him, 
 and he drowned himself. In a short 
 time, another of the Bounty's crew, who 
 endeavoured to seize the wife of his 
 countryman by force, was killed by the 
 injured husband. This was a sorrowful 
 beginning : of the civilized colonists, 
 Adams and Young only remained ; and 
 their existence was dubious. At this 
 crisis, the former, convinced that without 
 the sanction of religion, no society can 
 subsist, began to introduce family wor- 
 ship, and to read prayers to the rest of 
 the colonists. The example was followed 
 by the other families ; and public de- 
 votion was soon associated with private. 
 Sceptics, who deny the influence of 
 Christianity, — its regenerating effects — 
 will be at some loss to account for the 
 contrast in the condition of the colonists 
 before and after the institution of divine 
 worship. Peace replaced constant hos- 
 tility ; affection succeeded to unmitigated 
 enmity ; the self-denying virtues, to the 
 vices which vanity unrestrained by prin- 
 ciple is sure to engender. The children 
 were no longer brought up as pagans ; 
 they were taught to read and write, — 
 their duty to God, to their parents, to 
 their neighbours. In this work of civili- 
 sation. Young, who had some education, 
 was zealous. On his death in 1801, 
 Adams had the sole administration of 
 the colony. The women of Otaheite 
 were good helpmates in the work 
 of education ; tliey were docile, affec- 
 tionate, and most useful. In short, the 
 colony was one of the best regulated, 
 one of the happiest, on the face of the 
 earth. Still Adams was a mutineer ; a 
 king's vessel might one day arrive, and 
 bear him to England. In 1814, one did 
 arrive, — the Briton; and the captain 
 wished that Adams should accompany 
 him, — not, however, that he should be 
 punished, but that the British adminis- 
 tration should formally acquit him of the 
 penalty incurred by his conduct towards 
 captain Bligh. The grief, however, of 
 the inhabitants was such, that he de- 
 sisted. In 1825, captain Beechy touched 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 at the island, and was much interested 
 by the appearance of the excellent old 
 man and his subjects, — for subjects they 
 literally were. To tranquilhze his con- 
 science, the captain married him to a 
 Tahiti woman, with whom he had long 
 cohabited, — one blind and worn out. 
 The only apprehension of the patriarch 
 was, that the island would soon be un- 
 able to maintain the rapidly increasing 
 population. It was shared by the Eng- 
 lish government, who showed a dispo- 
 sition to transplant the colony to Tahiti, 
 or some other island ; but the cnielty of 
 removing the people from a scene to 
 which they had been so long accustomed, 
 and were so much attached, was apparent, 
 and the project was abandoned. This 
 attachment need not surprise us, when we 
 perceive that a missionary, who in 1828 
 landed on the island, refused to quit it ; 
 that he resolved to end his days there, 
 in the twofold office of minister and 
 schoolmaster. The spectacle of old 
 Adams acting as clerk to the minister, in 
 the celebration of public worship, was a 
 pleasing one. Adams died the following 
 year, and liis wife survived him a few 
 months only. We leave the reader, — 
 the christian reader, — to draw his own 
 inferences from tliis relation. We hope 
 too that it will not be lost on the infidel. 
 (See Beechy's Voyage to the Pacific 
 Ocean, and to Behring's Straits. Barrow, 
 History of the Mutiny of the Bounty.) 
 
 ADAMS, (James,) an English Jesuit, 
 born A. D. 1737; commenced his novi- 
 ciate at Watton, Sept. 7, 1756 ; aftenvards 
 taught the belles-lettres at St. Omer. 
 Having exercised his functions as a mis- 
 sionary for many years, he retired to 
 Dublin, Augvist, 1802, and died there in 
 the following month of December. He 
 was the author of the under-mentioned 
 works. 1 . ' Early Rules for Taking a 
 Likeness ;' with plates. 8vo. London, 
 1792 ; translated from Bonamici. 2. 
 ' Oratio Academica Anglice et Latine ;' 
 London, 1793. 3. ' Euphonologia Lingua 
 Anglicanae, Latine et Gallice ;' 8vo. Lon- 
 don, 1 794 ; for which he received the 
 thanks of the Royal Society. 4. ' Ride 
 Britannia, or the Flattery of Free Sub- 
 jects Expounded ; to which is added an 
 Academical Discourse;' London, 1798. 
 5. 'A Sermon preached at the Catholic 
 Chapel of St. Patrick, Sutton-street, on 
 Wednesday, March 7, the Day of Public 
 Fast;' London, 1798. 6. 'The Pronun- 
 ciation of the English Language Vindi- 
 cated;' Edinb. 1799. 
 
 ADAMS, ^Robert, b. 1540.) An ar- 
 95 
 
 chitect and engraver in London, and 
 Surveyor of the Works to Queen Eliza- 
 beth. He engraved a series of prints in 
 1589, exhibiting the battles between the 
 English fleet and the Spanish amiada. 
 
 ADAMS, (Joseph, M. D. F. L. S. 
 1756—1818.) The father of this phy- 
 sician was a practising apothecary in 
 London, a rigid dissenter, whose reli- 
 gious scruples would not permit him to 
 allow his son to gi-aduate at either of the 
 universities of Oxford or Cambridge. 
 He, however, received a good classical 
 education ; and having been apprenticed 
 to his father, became a member of the 
 Society of Apothecaries. He studied 
 under Dr. Pitcairn and Mr. Pott at St. 
 Bartholomew's, Dr. Saunders at Guy's, 
 and Mr. John Hunter at St. George's 
 hospitals. In 1790 he became a member 
 of the Corporation of Surgeons, and in 
 1795 published a small volume on 
 Moi-bid Poisons, which being sent to 
 the university of Aberdeen, he thereby 
 obtained a diploma of M.D., and in the 
 following year quitted London for Ma- 
 deira, where he resided during eight 
 years, engaged in much practice, and 
 occupied in medical researches. He 
 visited the lazaretto near Funchal, and 
 made himself acquainted with the le- 
 prosy, yaws, &c. ; the information re- 
 specting which, he printed in the second 
 edition of his work on Morbid Poisons, 
 by which he is principally known to the 
 medical profession. He has the merit 
 of having introduced the cow-pox into 
 Madeira. He returned to England in 
 1805, was admitted an extra-licentiate 
 (without examination) of the London 
 Royal College of Physicians ; and Dr. 
 WoodvUle dying in 1806, he succeeded 
 him as physician at the Small-pox Hos- 
 pital. At this time, the practice of vac- 
 cination was slowly recovering from the 
 effects of numerous unfounded attacks 
 by which it had been assaUed. A general 
 report was fonned under the inspection 
 of Dr. Adams, and circulated by the 
 committee of the hospital, to remove 
 alarm and inspire confidence. This, 
 together with a second report, was com- 
 municated to the College of Physicians, 
 printed and circulated, and passed 
 through thirteen editions. The produce 
 of the sale was appropriated to the hos- 
 pital ; a net balance of cash, amounting 
 to 1517/. 16*. 8d., being invested and 
 made available for the general pm-poses 
 of the institution. 
 
 Dr. Adams was a great advocate of the 
 opinion, that cow-pox and small-pox are 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 one and the same disease. This was the 
 opinion of Dr. Jenner, and has been 
 well established. Dr. Adams drew his 
 arguments in favour of their identity 
 from the near resemblance of the most 
 favourable kinds of small-pox to the 
 cow-pox, and presumptive proofs deduced 
 fi'om the laws of other morbid poisons, 
 that the variolous and vaccine is the same. 
 He contended that the character of the 
 disease might be changed by a selection 
 of the pustule from which the inoculation 
 should take place ; and that thus se- 
 lecting cases of what he denominated 
 pearl small-pox, and inoculating from 
 these, similar mild affections ensued, so 
 that it was exceedingly difficult to dis- 
 tinguish these cases from those of cow- 
 pox. 
 
 Having received in 1804 an accession 
 of private fortune, Dr. A. was enabled 
 to indulge his taste for study, and also 
 his philanthropy towards his more indi- 
 gent fellow-creatm-es. His attachment 
 to his profession was very ardent : be- 
 sides delivering several courses of lec- 
 tures, he edited the London Medical and 
 Physical Journal, for many years, with 
 great credit. His death followed a com- 
 pound fracture of the leg, and took place 
 suddenly and unexpectedly on the 20th 
 June, 1818, at the age of 62. He was 
 buried in Bunhill-fields, with the simple 
 motto of " Vir Justus et bonus," inscribed 
 on his tomb. He published the following 
 works: — 1. Observations on Morbid 
 Poisons, Phagedsena, and Cancer. Lond. 
 1795. 8vo. Second edit. 1807. 4to. 
 The singular title of this work is derived 
 from Mr. Hunter's division of poisons 
 into the natural and the diseased ; — those 
 belonging to an animal in health, capable 
 of affecting others, but producing no 
 noxious effect on the animal by which it 
 is formed ; and those which are the result 
 of diseased action, and capable of ex- 
 citing a similar condition in other indi- 
 viduals. He treats, among other dis- 
 eases, of Leprosy, or the Elephantiasis of 
 the ancients, the Elephantiasis of the 
 moderns, or the Barbadoes Leg, and the 
 Lepra Graecorum, &c. He also gives an 
 account of the Acarus Syro (Exulcerans 
 of Linnaeus) by some considered as the 
 Itch Insect. During these researches, 
 he inoculated himself and part of his fa- 
 mily with the insect, to prove that the 
 itch and the disease from the Acarus 
 were distinct from each other. To com- 
 prehend more precisely the nature of the 
 Sibbens or Sivvens, he made a joiu-ney 
 into Dumfries-shire, &c. ; and he has given 
 
 a good summary of all that is known 
 upon this subject. 2. Observations on 
 the Cancerous Breast. Lond. 1801. 8vo. 
 Second edit. 1805. He regards the 
 existence of cysts or hydatids, possessed 
 of a life independent of the subject in 
 which they grow, as constituting the true 
 essential character of the tiiie carcinoma. 
 Dr. Baron has since carried the matter 
 farther, and affirms that all tumours 
 take their origin from hydatids. 3. 
 Guide to Madeira. Lond. 1801. 8vo. 
 Second edit. 1808. 4. Answers to all 
 the Objections hitherto made against 
 Cow-pox. Lond. 1805. 8vo. 5. A 
 jjopular View of Vaccine Inoculation. 
 Lond. 1807. 12rao. G. Reports of the 
 Royal College of Physicians in London, 
 Dublin, and Edinburgh, on Vaccination ; 
 with introductoiy Remarks, and other 
 Papers. Lond. 1809. 8vo. These 
 being addressed rather to the public 
 than to the profession, are written in a 
 popular style, and served in a measure to 
 allay the anxiety naturally entertained 
 on such an important subject. 7. An 
 Inquiry into the Laws of Epidemics. 
 Lond. 1809. 8vo. In this work. Dr. 
 Adams assists in marking the distinction 
 between contagious and infectious dis- 
 eases. The first proposal for the esta- 
 blishment of savings banks appears in 
 this volume. Appendix, No. 4. 8. A 
 Republication of one of John Hunter's 
 Treatises, with a Commentary, which 
 possesses no particular claims to notice. 
 9. Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on 
 the Institutes and Practice of Medicine. 
 Lond. 1811. 12mo. 10. A Philoso- 
 phical Treatise on the Hereditary Pecu- 
 liarities of the Human Race : with Notes 
 illustrative of the subject, particulai'ly in 
 Gout, Scrofula and Madness. Lond. 
 1814. 8vo. Second edit. 1815. To 
 the latter is attached an Appendix on 
 the Goitres and Cretins of the Alps and 
 Pyrenees, which was originally printed 
 in the London Medical and Physical 
 Journal. 11. An Illustration of Mr. 
 Hunter's Doctrine, particularly concern- 
 ing the Life of the Blood. Lond. 1814. 
 8vo. His enthusiastic advocacy of the 
 doctrines of John Hunter, led Dr. Adams 
 to publish this reply to the observations 
 in the Edinburgh Review on Mr. Aber- 
 nethy's Physiological Lectures. 12. 
 Memoirs of the Life and Doctrines of the 
 late John Hunter, Esq. Lond. 1817. 
 8vo. Second edit. 1818. This life is as 
 injudicious, as that by Jesse Foot is ma- 
 licious. Sir Edward Home's is very 
 impei-fect 13. On Epilepsy. Lond. 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 1817. 8vo. This paper, (which is in- 
 serted in the Memoirs of the Medical 
 Society of London,) forms a good state- 
 ment of the imperfection of medical 
 science as it regards epilepsy, its causes, 
 modes of treatment, &c. His success in 
 the cui'e of acute epilepsy has not been 
 confirmed by subsequent experience. 
 
 ADAMS, (W.) a captain in the British 
 navy, slain in Boscawen's unsuccessful 
 siege of Pondicherry. (See Boscawen.) ^ 
 
 ADAMS, (Lieut.-General Alexander, 
 d. 1836,) an officer of very high merit, 
 who saw much service, principally in 
 India. He joined the 78th Higlilanders 
 in India, and in 1801 was the major in 
 command of it. He distinguished liim- 
 self highly under General Wellesley, 
 (the duke of Wellington,) in the Mahratta 
 war, and on several occasions received 
 the thanks of that commander. After 
 the settlement of Java, he was appointed 
 to a command in the army, and also as 
 minister at tlie court of tlie emperor ; and 
 discharged his delicate duties to the 
 great advantage of his country. He died 
 by an accidental discharge of his gun 
 while out shooting, in 1835. (Ann. Obit.) 
 
 ADAMS. Several persons of this 
 name are enumerated in the American 
 Biographical Dictionary. 
 
 1. EUphalet, (1732—1809,) a great 
 Hebrician (!) according to the American 
 authorities. He left some sermons. 
 
 2. John, (1704—1740,) a preacher for 
 some time in Rhode Island ; but known 
 (to Americans) as a poet and man of 
 literature. His poems were published at 
 Boston in 1745. The reader may like to 
 see a specimen of this volume. Dr. Allen 
 has selected the following lines on Cotton 
 Mather, which are here quoted verbatim. 
 
 What numerous volumes, scattered from his hand. 
 Lightened his own, and warmed each foreign land! 
 AVhat pious breathings of a glowing soul 
 Live in each page and animate the whole ! 
 The breath of heaven the savoury pages show, 
 As we Arabia from its spices know. 
 Ambitious, active, towering was his soul, 
 But flaming piety inspired the whole. 
 
 3. Matthew, called " a distinguished 
 ■writer" by Dr. Allen. He wrote some 
 of the essays in the New England 
 Journal: d. 1753. 
 
 4. Amos, (of Harvard college, 1727 — 
 1775,) a very diligent preacher. He 
 published many sermons, and a pamphlet 
 against Diocesan Episcopacy ; being the 
 Dudleian Lecture at Harvard college, 
 for 1770. 
 
 5. Zabdiel, (1739—1801,) minister of 
 Lunenburg, Massachusetts ; v.'rote several 
 sermons and controversial pamphlets. 
 
 VOL. I. 97 
 
 ADAMSON, (Patrick, 1543—1591,) 
 archbishop of St. Andrews at a very 
 troubled period, — when the Scottish 
 presbyterians were intent on destroying 
 what remained of the ancient form of 
 worship. A native of Perth, he sailed 
 into France as tutor, and was at Bourges 
 Avhen the diabolical massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew was pei"petrated. He and his 
 pupil escaped by secreting themselves 
 seven months in an obsciu-e tavern ; but 
 their generous host, though 70 years of 
 age, suffered for the act : he was pre- 
 cipitated from the roof of his own house, 
 and dashed to pieces. These months were 
 not idly spent by Adamson : he trans- 
 lated the book of Job into Latin verse, 
 and wrote his Latin tragedy of Herod. 
 In 1573 he returned to Scotland, entered 
 the church, was employed on the com- 
 mission for the settlement of the church, 
 was chaplain to the earl of Morton, and 
 on the death of Douglas was raised to 
 the archiepiscopal see of St. Andrews. 
 In this liigh office, he endeavoured to 
 retain whatever the presbyterians had 
 left his church. For this conduct he was 
 so detested by them, that apprehensions 
 were entertained for his personal safety. 
 By James VI. he was sent ambassador to 
 the court of Elizabeth, where he abode 
 some years. His mission was to 
 strengthen the party for the accession of 
 James ; nor did he lose sight of another 
 object, — that of protecting the episcopal 
 church of Scotland. In 1584 he was 
 recalled; was excommunicated by the 
 presbyterian sjiiod two years afterwards ; 
 and though on his submission absolved, 
 he had little to expect from the people 
 or the king. The church was, in the 
 eyes of its opponents and of the needy 
 in general, a fit object of plunder ; and 
 James granted the revenues of St. An- 
 drews to the duke of Lennox. The 
 prelate's future life was consequently 
 wretched. Yet he cannot be acquitted of 
 blame ; he certainly exhibited a criminal 
 pusillanimity in submitting to the General 
 Assembly — in betraying the interests of a 
 church which had subsisted for so many 
 ages. Besides the works we have men- 
 tioned, he left others in MS., some of 
 which were published by Wilson, his 
 son-in-law, 1619. (Spottiswoode's Church 
 History of Scotland. Mackenzie's Lives.) 
 
 ADANSON, (Michael, 1727—1806,) 
 one of the men who has done most 
 honour to the French nation by his re- 
 searches in natural history. Attached 
 to the household of the archbishop of 
 Paris, by whom he was placed in the 
 H 
 
ADA 
 
 ADA 
 
 university of that city, he received a good 
 education. Pliny and Aristotle were his 
 favourites; but on receiving a micro- 
 scope from an eminent naturalist, he 
 became an observer for himself. His 
 time was well divided between his studies, 
 his attendance on public lectures, at the 
 king's gardens, and private collections. 
 Reaumur, Bernard, and Jussieu were the 
 guides of his childhood : Linnisus ap- 
 peared, and gave him scope for reflection. 
 His progress was great, but it did not 
 equal his wishes ; and on reaching his 
 21st year, he departed, at his own ex- 
 pense (thereby exhausting his slender 
 patrimony), to the Senegal, to pursue his 
 botanical and other researches in that 
 unhealthy part of the world. There, 
 with the most patient industry, he re- 
 mained three years. On his retiu-n to 
 Paris, he published his Histoire Naturel 
 du Senegal, (4to. 1757,) which made a 
 great impression. His attempts at a new 
 classification, and a new nomenclature, 
 were, however, not well received, though 
 they have been since, partially at least, 
 adopted by the naturalists of France. 
 Some of his contributions to the Transac- 
 tions of the Academy of Sciences were 
 distinguished alike by their novelty and 
 force. During so many years his written 
 observations had attained a gigantic size, 
 and he formed the project of publishing 
 a natural history on a scale commensu- 
 rate with the vastness of the subject. 
 It was to be entitled Ordre Universel de 
 la Nature, to be comprised in 27 octavos. 
 But this was not all : it was to be ac- 
 companied by his Natural History of 
 Senegal, 8 vols. ; by a Course of Natural 
 History ; by a Universal Vocabulary of 
 Natural History ; by a Dictionary of 
 Natural History ; by 40,000 plates ; and 
 by the engraving of about 34,000 species 
 which he had preserved in his museum. 
 Astounded at such an announcement, 
 the Parisian world regarded him as half 
 mad. The government would not assist 
 him ; men of science declared his plan 
 to be impracticable ; and he was left to 
 accumidate materials as he pleased. He 
 was, however, more esteemed elsewhere, 
 and offers were made him by England, 
 Russia, Austria, and Spain, to reside in 
 each of those countries. These he de- 
 clined, from a resolution that France 
 only, imgrateful as she was, should re- 
 ceive the benefit of his labours. Still he 
 was not destitute : he had a small pen- 
 sion ; he held the office of royal censor ; 
 he was a paid academician ; and the 
 emoluments from all would have been 
 98 
 
 much more than sufficient for his wants, 
 had he not lavishly expended all that he 
 received on the objects of science. But 
 when the revolution came, he was indeed 
 left destitute. What troubled him still 
 more, was to see his garden, his grounds, 
 laid waste by a brutal mob. When the 
 Institiite was created, he was invited to 
 take his seat among the members : he 
 replied that he could not attend, because 
 he had no shoes ; and his letter induced 
 the minister of the Interior to procure 
 him a small pension. Many were the 
 MSS. which he left behind, and which 
 one day, perhaps ere long, will be turned 
 to good account by the enterprising sci- 
 entific men of Paris. (Supplement to 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ADARBI. See Isaac. 
 
 ADARSON. See Simon. 
 
 ADASCHEFF, (Alexis,) minister of 
 Ivan the Terrible, tsar of Russia in the 
 sixteenth century, was the only man that 
 exercised any influence over that whim- 
 sical despot. On the destruction of the 
 minister Zouiski, Adascheff" succeeded to 
 the post, and was usefully employed in 
 restraining the fury of his master. He 
 prevailed on Ivan to prepare a new code 
 of laws ; and the clergy Avere also re- 
 quired to draw up a body of regiUations 
 for the maintenance of discipline. Arti- 
 sans, mechanics, men of science and 
 literature, were, by permission of the 
 emperor Charles V. brought fi-om Ger- 
 many to Russia, and were employed in 
 the regeneration of the country. He 
 accompanied his master in the expedi- 
 tion to Kasan, and negotiated the peace 
 which followed. He had the sagacity 
 to perceive the advantages which, in a 
 commercial point of view, must accrue 
 to Russia from a treaty with England. 
 Richard Chancellor was the man whom 
 our Edward VI. despatched to the court 
 of the tsar. Alexis was the means of 
 imiting Livonia with the empire ; that 
 is, he furnished Ivan with the pretext 
 for invading it with 40,000 men, and 
 thus rendering it a province of Muscovy, 
 His sei'vices were appreciated by the 
 tsar, who did not fail to reward him ; 
 but his success inspired envy ; and Ivan, 
 who was credulous enough, was made to 
 believe that his minister had treasonable 
 designs. To escape the malice of his 
 enemies, he solicited the government 
 of Livonia ; but distance did not avail 
 him. Orders were despatched from 
 Moscow to throw him into prison, and in 
 prison he died, probably through poison. 
 
 A brother of this minister, Daniel 
 
ADA 
 
 ADD 
 
 Adaschejf, was general of the Musco- 
 vites against the Tartars of Tauris, and 
 was successful in his expedition. He 
 died a natural death ; an uncommon thing 
 in the generals and ministers of this 
 sanguinary monarch. (Karamsin. His- 
 toire de Russie.) 
 
 ADDINGTON, (Antony, d. 1790,) a 
 physician of Reading, who obtained 
 much local celebrity, and who was even 
 employed to negotiate the return of Lord 
 Chatham to the ministry.- He was the 
 father of Lord Sidmouth. He wrote on 
 the scurvy, and on the mortality of beasts. 
 
 ADDINGTON, (Stephen, 1729 — 
 1796,) a dissenting minister, a native of 
 Northampton, was a pupil of the cele- 
 brated Dr. Doddridge ; successively 
 preacher at Spaldwich in Huntingdon- 
 shire, and Market Harborough in Lei- 
 cestershire. He obtained some local 
 celebrity, especially as a schoolmaster. 
 For the benefit of his pupils, he wrote 
 some elementary works. In 1781 he 
 removed to London, and combined with 
 the care of a chapel the business of tui- 
 tion as before. 
 
 ADDISON, (Lancelot, 16.32—1703,) 
 father of the celebrated writer, was a 
 native of Crosby Ravensworth, in West- 
 moreland. As he was the son of a cler- 
 gyman, he was early designed for the 
 same j^rofession. At college he distin- 
 guished himself by his acqiurements, and 
 still more by his dislike of the ruling 
 hypocrites of the day. He therefore 
 obtained no preferment until the Refor- 
 mation, when loyalty, though often over- 
 looked, Avas freqviently rewarded. His 
 first preferment was a chaplaincy at Dun- 
 kirk ; next, one at Tangier; in 1670 he 
 was made king's chaplain ; soon after- 
 wards he was presented with the rectory 
 of Milston in Wiltshire, and a prebendal 
 stall in the collegiate church of Sarum. 
 In 1683 the commissioners for ecclesias- 
 tical aiFairs conferred on him the deanery 
 of Lichfield, in consideration of his ser- 
 vices at Tangier. In conjunction with 
 this preferment he held the archdeaconry 
 of Coventry. The publications of this 
 divine were numerous, but of no great 
 importance. They related to Barbary — 
 to the state of the Jews there ; to the 
 early history of Mohammedanism ; to the 
 plain duties of Christianity ; to the heresy 
 which denied the godhead of Christ. Of 
 these it is sufficient to observe, that they 
 were received with approbation. 
 
 ADDISON, (Joseph,) the son of the 
 preceding, was born at Milston on the 
 1st of March, 1672. After receiving the 
 99 
 
 rudiments of education in schools at 
 Amesbm-y and Salisbury, he was placed 
 at the Charter-house, where he continued 
 until his 15th year, when he was entered 
 at Queen's college, Oxford. (Wood. Ath, 
 Ox.) A copy of his Latin verses falling 
 accidentally into the hands of Dr. Lan- 
 caster, a fellow of Magdalen college, 
 obtained his election in 1689 as a demy 
 on that establishment. At the univer- 
 sity, Addison devoted himself to the study 
 of classical literature, especially the Latin 
 poets, and to the composition of Latin 
 poetry, in which he acquired consider- 
 able reputation. In his 22d year he 
 addressed a poem to Dryden in praise of 
 his translations, which was soon followed 
 by a version of the greater part of Vir- 
 gil's fourth Georgic, which received 
 Dryden's high commendations. The 
 preface to the Georgics, and many of 
 the arguments in Dryden's translation, 
 were \VTittjen by Addison. (Dryden, De- 
 dicat. ^neid; Tickell, Pref.) In the 
 next year he wrote a poetical account of 
 the most eminent English poets, which 
 he addressed to his friend, Mr. (the 
 afterwards famous Dr.) Sacheverell. Of 
 this poem it is sufficient to observe, that 
 in it he declares the desuetude of Chau- 
 cer's langiiage to have obscxired his wit, 
 and that he criticizes Spenser, whom he 
 did not read till fifteen years afterwards. 
 About this time he was introduced by 
 Congi-eve (with whom he had become ac- 
 quainted, probably, through Dryden) to 
 Montague, chancellor of the exchequer, 
 afterwards Lord Halifax, by whom he 
 was dissuaded from his original intention 
 of complying with his father's wishes, and 
 taking orders. Montague applied to the 
 president of Magdalen not to insist upon 
 Addison entering the chmxh in conse- 
 quence of " the pravity of public men 
 who wanted liberal education." (Steele, 
 Dedicat. Diiunmer. Hurd's Edit. Add. 
 Works, vol, vi.) A poem that Addison 
 addressed to king William in 1695, and 
 dedicated to lord keeper Somei's, intro- 
 duced him to the knowledge of that great 
 statesman, through whom he shortly ob- 
 tained a pension of 300/. a-year, to sup- 
 port him during his travels. Having 
 taken his degrees of bachelor and master 
 of arts, he left England some time in the 
 course of 1698 ; and after having spent a 
 year at Blois, passed through Marseilles 
 into Italy. (Add. Remarks on several 
 Parts of Italy.) Whilst in Italy, he wrote 
 his famovts poetical epistle to Lord Hali- 
 fax, and accumulated the materials for his 
 Dialogues unon the Usefulness of Ancient 
 H 2 
 
ADD 
 
 ADD 
 
 Medals, which he cast into form at Vi- 
 enna in 1702. About this time he wrote 
 the first four acts of his Cato, a tragedy 
 which he had very early projected, and a 
 sketch of which he probably completed 
 at Oxford. (Spence, Anecd.) His pension 
 being very irregidarly paid, he was, dur- 
 ing his sojourn abroad, reduced at times 
 to the greatest distress, and, we ai'e told 
 by Swift, was compelled to engage him- 
 self as a tutor to a travelling 'squire. 
 When prince Eugene began the war in 
 Italy, it was intended to have appointed 
 Addison to attend him as secretary on the 
 part of England; but the death of king 
 William defeated this design, and Addison 
 returned home by the way of Germany. 
 Upon his arrival he found his friends, 
 Lord Halifax and Lord Somers, no longer 
 in power ; but this did not deter liim 
 from dedicating his Travels in Italy to 
 the latter. This work is said in the 
 first instance to have disappointed the 
 pxiblic, who expected rather details of 
 the customs and the political institutions 
 of the Italian states, than criticisms in 
 Avhich ancient literature is illustrated by 
 the modern appearance of Italy. Its re- 
 putation, however, afterwards increased; 
 and, previous to the publication of a se- 
 cond edition, the value of copies was 
 raised to four or five times their original 
 price, (Tickell, Pref) Until the year 
 1704 Addison lived imknown, if not 
 neglected. Probably it was during this 
 interval that he undertook the edvication 
 of the young eai-1 of Warwick. (Young, 
 Letter to Mr. Tickell on the Death of 
 Addison.) But Addison always preserved 
 a studied silence upon this subject. 
 (Spence.) After the victory at Blenlieim, 
 the Lord Treasurer Godolphin, lamenting 
 to Lord Halifax that it had not been 
 celebrated in a manner fitting its import- 
 ance, inquired whether his lordship knew 
 any one capable of doing so. Halifax 
 replied that he did, but that as men of 
 inferior parts were so often prefen-ed to 
 men of genius, he shoidd not name liim. 
 Godolphin rejoined, that however just 
 the censure might be, whoever Halifax 
 might name should not find his labour 
 lost; upon which Halifax mentioned 
 Addison, and in consequence the trea- 
 surer sent Mr. Boyle to wait on him, and 
 propose the subject to him. Addison 
 readily undertook .^lie task, and the result 
 was — The Campaign. When lie had 
 completed the poem as far as the simile 
 of the angel, he communicated it to Go- 
 dolphin, who immediately appointed him 
 Commissioner of Appeals. (Budgell, 
 100 
 
 Mem. Boyle Fam.) In 1705 Addison 
 is said to have accompanied Lord Hali- 
 fax on his embassy to Hanover, and in 
 the next year was appointed Under- 
 secretary of State — an office he held first 
 under Sir Charles Hedger, and then un- 
 der the Earl of Sunderland. During his 
 tenure of this office he wrote his opera of 
 Rosamond, which did not succeed on the 
 the stage. About the same time he as- 
 sisted his friend and fellow Carthusian, 
 Sir Richard Steele, in his comedy. The 
 Tender Husband ; to which he also contri- 
 buted a prologue. (Steele, Dedicat.Drum.) 
 This play Steele dedicated to him. In 
 1709 Addison accompanied the Marquis 
 of Wharton, who had been appointed 
 Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, as liis secre- 
 tary — receiving at the same time the 
 office of Keeper of the Irish Records, the 
 salary of which was augmented in his 
 favour. Whilst he was in Ireland, his 
 fiiend Steele commenced the publication 
 of tlie Tatler ; the authorship of which 
 Addison detected from finding in the 
 6th number an observation he had him- 
 self communicated in a passage in Virgil. 
 He soon became a contributor. 
 
 Previous to the relinquishment of the 
 Tatler, Addison returned to England, and 
 shortly afterwards with Swift devised the 
 plan of the Spectator, the first number of 
 v/hich was published the 1st of March, 
 1711. At first his contributions mani- 
 fested his Whiggish predilections, but he 
 soon resolved to avoid all party topics, and 
 his prudence in this respect was confirmed 
 by the success of the work. Its circula- 
 tion is said to have reached at times 
 20,000 copies (Tickell, Pref), but 4000 
 was probably the maximum. (Compare 
 Spectator, Nos. 10, 445, 555.) Addison's 
 contributions to this periodical are sub- 
 scribed by some letters in the name 
 " Clio." In 1713 was produced his Cato, 
 which Steele showed, when in an un- 
 finished state, to Cibber and Pope, de- 
 claring that its author wanted courage to 
 suffer its performance. By the latter, 
 Addison was advised to content himself 
 with publishing it ; and this ad\ice he 
 was disposed to follow, but his political 
 connexions left him no option, and Cato 
 was accordingly brought out at Dniry- 
 lane. Although on the first night Steele 
 carefully packed the house (Dedicat. 
 Drum.), Addison was so apprehensive 
 of failure that he wandered among 
 the back scenes in a state of the most 
 painful anxiety. It succeeded, however, 
 amidst the applauses of both parties, 
 and was acted for thirty-five successive 
 
ADD 
 
 ADD 
 
 nights. Bolingbroke attended on the 
 first night, and between the acts sent 
 for Booth, who played the principal cha- 
 racter, and presented him with fifty 
 guineas, for ha\dng defended the cause 
 of liberty against a perpetual dictator, 
 alluding to the design then ascribed to 
 the Duke of Marlborough of obtaining 
 the appointment of commander-in-chief 
 for life. This play, the fifth act of which 
 was written in less than a week (Steele, 
 Dedicat. Dnim.), has been translated into 
 the French, German, Itahan, and Latin 
 languages. A Latin translation, made 
 by the Jesuits at St. Omer, was acted by 
 their pupils. Cato was attacked by Den- 
 nis, in a severe criticism, to which Pope, 
 owing Dennis a grudge, replied in so 
 savage a manner, that Addison commis- 
 sioned Steele to write to Dennis's pub- 
 lisher, and disclaim in his name any 
 connexion with his avenger. Dennis, 
 however, did not succeed in diminishing 
 the popularity of Cato, which was so 
 great that the queen expressed a wish 
 it should be dedicated to her ; but Addi- 
 son having designed that honour for 
 another, published it without any de- 
 dication at all. While Cato was in 
 the coiu^se of performance, Addison con- 
 tributed several papers (distinguished 
 by having the figure of a hand sub- 
 joined) to Steele's new pei-iodical. The 
 Guardian ; and also formed the project of 
 compiling a great English dictionary, for 
 which he made several collections. He 
 also contributed extensively to the Spec- 
 tator, then [18th June, 1714] newly re- 
 vived, and which lasted for six months ; 
 but political employment diverted him 
 from literary pursuits, as, on the death 
 of the queen, the lords justices made him 
 their secretary. In this character he was 
 required to apprise George I. of Anne's 
 death and his own accession ; and is said 
 to have been so overwhelmed with the 
 greatness of the event, and so fastidious 
 in the choice of his expressions, that the 
 lords justices, who could not wait for the 
 niceties of criticism, were compelled to 
 send for a clerk of the privy council, and 
 charge him with the task. However, it 
 is believed, that on the amval of the king 
 an eflSbrt was made to obtain for Addison 
 a secretaryship of state (Budgell, Letter to 
 Cleomenes, p. 20) ; and there is reason to 
 think he refused the honour. (Lady M. 
 W. Montague : Works by Lord Wharn- 
 clifFe, vol. ii. p. 111.) He then accom- 
 panied Lord Sunderland, who was made 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland, in quality of 
 his secretary (Eusden, Letter to Mr. Ad- 
 101 
 
 dison) ; but that peer soon resigning his 
 office, Addison returned to England, 
 where he was made one of the lords 
 of trade. He performed essential ser- 
 vices to the government when the Scotch 
 rebellion broke out, by publishing a poli- 
 tical paper called The Freeholder (23d 
 Sept. 1715), which he continued for nine 
 months. It ceased on the 29th June, 
 1716. In August in this year he mar- 
 ried, after a troublesome courtship, the 
 countess of Warwick ; a match which 
 contributed but little to his advance- 
 ment, and nothing to his happiness. In 
 the next year (16th April) he was made 
 secretary of state, — an oftice which he 
 was soon compelled to resign from his in- 
 creasing infirmities. Another motive has 
 been, indeed, assigned — that he felt him- 
 self incompetent to his post, from liis 
 deficiencies as a speaker, and his igno- 
 rance of public business (Pope, Spence) ; 
 and whether this were the case or not, it 
 must be acknowledged he was not quali- 
 fied to sliine in either of these departments. 
 Retired from public life, Addison 
 turned his attention chiefly to religious 
 subjects, and continued a work on the 
 evidences of Christianity, which he had 
 some years before designed, and in part 
 executed. This he never lived to com- 
 plete. A new poetical version of the 
 Psalms also occupied much of his attention. 
 The Peerage Bill of his friend and former 
 colleague. Lord Sunderland, giving birth to 
 a fierce controversy, withdrew for a time 
 his attention from these matters. The ob- 
 ject of the Peerage Bill was to prevent the 
 creation of more than a few new peers ex- 
 cept on the extinction of an old title, — a 
 measure which must ultimately have led 
 to an oligarchy. This measure had been 
 attacked by Steele imder the cognomen 
 of The Plebeian. Addison replied in a 
 pamphlet entitled The Old Whig ; to 
 which Steele rejoined in a second Ple- 
 beian. It is to Addison's discredit* that 
 he gave this paper war a personal cha- 
 racter by alluding, in an answer he put 
 forth to Steele's reply, to " httle Dickey, 
 whose trade it was to write pamphlets." 
 "Dickey," however, in his retort, con- 
 tented himself with quoting from Cato 
 some lines " which were at once detection 
 and reproof." (Johnson, Life of Addison.) 
 Addison did not long survive this dis- 
 
 * There is also another circumstance in his eon- 
 duct to Steele which seems to require censure ; viz. 
 his serving an execution on Steele for a debt of old 
 standing of one hundred pounds. But various 
 motives have been assijjned for it ; one of which 
 ■was a desire to check Steele in a course of extrava- 
 gance. 
 
ADD 
 
 ADD 
 
 pute. When he found himself dying, he 
 sent for Gay, and told him he had injui*ed 
 him, and that, if he recovered, he would 
 make him recompense. He had probably 
 been the means of withholding from him 
 some court preferment. He sent also for 
 Lord "Warwick, his step-son, whose licen- 
 tious habits he had long striven to reform. 
 "I have sent for you," he said, ".that 
 you may see how a Christian can die." 
 Having given directions to Tickell for 
 the publication of his works, he de- 
 parted this life, June 17, 1719, leaving 
 one child, a daughter, about a year old. 
 
 There have been some charges respect- 
 ing Addison's chai-acter which have now 
 to be considered. 1 . He has been charged 
 with having prompted Philips and others 
 to traduce Pope as a Tory and a Jacobite ; 
 2. With having, under the name of 
 Tickell, his secretary, translated the first 
 book of the Iliad, and published it at the 
 time Pope had commenced the publica- 
 tion of his Homer ; and, 3. With having 
 hired Gildon to write a libel on Pope and 
 his family. 
 
 1. The first charge is disproved by 
 facts. Pope himself asserts that he was 
 attacked by Philips in consequence of a 
 satirical notice on Philips's Pastorals, 
 which he had published in the Guardian, 
 (Ayre, Life of Pope, vol. ii. p. 88,) and 
 complains (Letter to Jervas, Works, vol. 
 vii. p. 297) that in revenge Philij^s had 
 endeavoured to influence Addison's mind 
 against him. 2. The second charge can- 
 not be so easily disposed of; on the sub- 
 ject much has been conjectured, and httle 
 is known. Pope never advanced this 
 charge until after the death of Addison, 
 There is no allusion to it in the famous 
 character of Atticus, written after the 
 publication of Tickell's Homer ; there is 
 no allusion to it in any of Pope's letters 
 during his quarrel with Addison ; nor 
 was any mention nrade of it during an 
 angry interview which was brought about 
 between the two poets by Sir Richard 
 Steele. (Ayre, Life of Pope, vol. i. p. 100. 
 Rose, Life of Pope. D 'Israeli, Quar. 
 Auth.) The circumstances which tell the 
 most against Addison, are — 1. Dr. Young, 
 Tickell's college friend, being unaware 
 that Tickell had translated Homer. 2. 
 Tickell's not knowing Lord Halifax at the 
 time, although the translation was dedi- 
 cated to him. 3. Tickell's saying to Pope 
 that there was something underhand in 
 the affair (Spence). 4. The passage in 
 Steele's preface to the Drummer, chal- 
 lenging Tickell to produce another book, 
 &c. The first two circumstances prove 
 102 
 
 nothing ; nor does the third do much 
 more. Does not the fourth merely 
 allude to the assistance of correction, &c. 
 given by Addison to Tickell? And be- 
 sides, when Addison, previous to Tickell's 
 publication, informed Pope of his inten- 
 tion, he showed no displeasm-e, nor did 
 he till Addison preferred Tickell's ver- 
 sion to his. (See Spence and Pope's 
 Works, Letter to Craggs, vii. p. 302.) 
 Dr. Warton d'eclares that a friend of Mr. 
 Nicols was assured by Mr. Watts, the 
 printer, that Tickell's translation of it 
 was in his handwriting, but mucli cor- 
 rected by Addison. (Life of Pope, p. 30.) 
 
 3. The third charge rests on evidence of 
 a more direct kind than the others. Pope 
 declares he received the information from 
 the earl of Warwick, Addison's step-son. 
 Sir William Blackstone (Notes to Kipp. 
 Biog. Brit. art. Addison), has, with much 
 ingenuity, endeavoiu'ed to explain away 
 this story by showing certain anachron- 
 isms in Pope's statement. But still, imless 
 we suspect Pope of invention in the main 
 particulars, the story is undoubtedly au- 
 thentic. But may it not have been an 
 invention of lord Warwick's, who was 
 fond of making Pope the subject of his 
 wit? (See Pope's Works, vol. ii. p. 360 ; 
 Colley Gibber's Letter to Pope, 1742, p.48. 
 
 As a man, it must be acknowledged 
 that there were many defects in the cha- 
 racter of Addison, which have perhajis 
 been too tenderly treated by his vene- 
 rable biographer. Much of his life was 
 spent in flattering the great ; and he was 
 the advocate of measures (witness the 
 Peerage Bill) which his own judgment 
 must have condemned. He appears to 
 have had too little sympathy for merit in 
 those who were poor and friendless. 
 There appears, also, to have been a cold- 
 heartedness about him, which prevented 
 his ever having a friend who loved him, 
 though all admired his respectability of 
 character. His situation in life may 
 have given him a certain degree of su- 
 perciliousness, which was set down to 
 the account of his shyness. If it was 
 this feeling, it was a pity that he should 
 show it to men so far superior to him in 
 intellectual powers as Pope and Swift. 
 
 So much for the unfavourable side of 
 Addison's moral character. That on the 
 opposite one much may be said, we rea- 
 dily admit. To set an example of jiiety 
 and virtue in an age more loose than we 
 generally imagine, was no little merit. 
 To advocate on all occasions the interests 
 of both, in the closet and the world, by 
 conversation and by the pen, was a 
 
ADD 
 
 ADD 
 
 greater ; and if there was something of 
 ostentation in the manner, there was 
 much of sincerity in the motive. No 
 charge save that of occasional deep- 
 drinking, has been made against him by 
 his greatest enemies : on the contrary, he 
 received from all the credit of every 
 moral virtue. 
 
 As a writer, Addison is perhaps better 
 known than any other in^our language, 
 with the exception of Pope. The papers 
 which he contributed to the Tatler, to 
 the Spectator, to the Guardian, to the 
 Freeholder — his poetry — his drama — his 
 numerous criticisms, are familiar to all of 
 us as the tales which delighted us in the 
 nursery. We all too remember the splen- 
 did but just cidogium which Dr. Johnson 
 has passed on liis manner and style. To 
 his quiet, delicate humour ; to his chaste, 
 elegant simplicity; to liis sparkling ima- 
 gination ; to his admirable good taste ; 
 to his constantly and inimitably sustained 
 elegance, we cannot easily award too 
 high a praise. Yet both as a poet and a 
 critic, he has been much overrated. In 
 his own time he was extravagantly flat- 
 tered, — partly because he was unprece- 
 dentedly fortunate ; and partly because 
 his reputation for virtue made the good 
 willing to heap every possible honour 
 upon him. But, as it has been weU ob- 
 served, " time generally puts an end to 
 artificial and accidental fame ; and Addi- 
 son is to pass through futurity protected 
 only by his genius." By a great writer 
 he has been styled " an indifterent poet, 
 and a worse critic." In this strong opi- 
 nion, there is doubtless much severity, 
 but there is also some truth. In the 
 former respect, he is not exactly " in- 
 different." If he is feeble, he is elegant; 
 if he has little vigour, he has much 
 grace ; if he has no ardour, no vehe- 
 mence, he has always imagination, which, 
 though it does not strike, is sure to 
 please us. If he is seldom animated, he 
 is always agreeable ; and if he writes 
 from books rather than from the inspira- 
 tions of genius, he is seldom duU. A 
 cultivated mind like liis is sm'e to inte- 
 rest; though it may seldom dehght, it 
 often instructs. Yet Addison is scarcely 
 a second-rate poet. Without ardour, with- 
 out vigour, without invention, he may be 
 a good versifier, but he is seldom more. 
 And even in this respect, how many in the 
 same century surpassed him ! To say 
 nothing of Pope, how much he is below 
 Collins, and Goldsmith, and Johnson, and 
 Gray ! — poets whom nobody will place in 
 the very first rank — while in fancy and 
 103 
 
 vigom-, in justness of description and 
 power of genius, he is immeasurably 
 their inferior ! His Campaign has been 
 styled by Warton " a gazette in rhyme," 
 — a censure wliich Johnson regards as 
 much too severe. It has certainly no 
 great merit ; it is throughout a forced pro- 
 duction ; and it has all the defects to 
 which a poet, invita Minerva, is liable 
 when he has none of the requisite in- 
 spiration, when harmony is to supply the 
 place of invention, and sound of native 
 vigour. In such a case it is difficult to 
 avoid bombast, and Addison has certainly 
 not avoided it ; while the meretricious 
 ornament which he has so lavishly be- 
 stowed upon it, makes the poem doubly 
 unwelcome. — As a dramatist, the merits 
 of Addison have been variously estimated. 
 Of Rosamond, and the Drammer, nothing 
 need be said. " The tragedy of Cato," 
 says Johnson, " is unquestionably the 
 noblest production of Addison's genius." 
 Yet it may be much doubted if this piece 
 will stand a very severe scrutiny. Its 
 unbounded applause may easily be traced 
 to other considerations than its merits. 
 As a Whig, the author was fond of scat- 
 tering liberal sentiments over the piece ; 
 and those of his own party — we must 
 not forget that the audience was packed — 
 gave undue importance to them by their 
 shouts of appi'obation. The Tories would 
 no more be thought enemies to liberty 
 than the Whigs : hence they applauded 
 the very same passages, both to show 
 that they did not feel the blow intended 
 for them, and that they cordially joined 
 in the sentiment. The success of the 
 piece, therefore, must in the first instance 
 be attributed to party zeal, at a time 
 Avhen that zeal was fiei'cer than it has 
 ever been in our time. Its success since 
 that period has been of a more doubtful 
 kind : how often has it been performed 
 within the last half century? It is, in 
 fact, no drama, but a " poem in dialogue." 
 There is nothing to rouse us. " The 
 events are expected without solicitude, 
 and are remembered without joy or sor- 
 row." Pope advised its not being acted; 
 and Johnson seems to take an unhand- 
 some delight in reprinting the criticism 
 of Dennis upon it. Before quitting the 
 subject of his poetry, we must remark 
 that he is the author of a few of the most 
 popidar hymns in oiu* language. 
 
 As a critic, Addison's main defect was 
 a want of acquaintance with the principles 
 of the art, and with human motives. 
 Well has Dennis exposed the chief canon 
 —if such it may be called — on which he 
 
ADD 
 
 AD E 
 
 founds his approbation of Chevy Chase, 
 that the ballad " pleases, and ought to 
 please, because it is natural." WagstafF's 
 criticism of Tom Thumb is at least as 
 good as Addison's on the deeds of the 
 Percy and the Douglas. Yet let vis not 
 be blind to the real merit of this writer. 
 Before his time, criticism had been con- 
 fined to the few ; he made it intelligible 
 to the many. His strictm-es are not 
 indeed remarkable for knowledge of 
 principles ; he had read little in the 
 great masters of the art : but they are 
 pleasing; they are generally pervaded 
 by good sense ; and they are adapted to 
 the comprehension of the multitvide. It 
 was for tlie multitude that Addison 
 wrote ; and he did more to refine their 
 taste, to teach them the duties and 
 decencies of life, than all other writers 
 put together. This is his true praise, 
 and a high praise it is. Had his learn- 
 ing or genius been greater, he would not 
 have been thus useful; he might have 
 blazed like a Dryden, but he would never 
 have been the steady light he was to the 
 half-educated people of his day. 
 
 From the preceding remarks, oiu' 
 opinion of AdcUson may be easily in- 
 ferred, — that while he had neither great 
 learning, nor great genius ; while he was 
 in nothing original, in all things imita- 
 tive ; while he was often feeble in senti- 
 ment and forced in diction, he had 
 qualities which rendered him at once the 
 most popular and useful writer of his age 
 and country. 
 
 The followingisalist of Addison's works. 
 His Latin poems are contained in theMu- 
 sarum Anglicanim Analecta, 2 vols. 1 2mo, 
 Ox. 1 699. His Translations and his Letter 
 fi'om Italy, in Dryden's Miscellanies. Re- 
 marks on several Parts of Italy ; Lond, 
 1705, 8vo. Rosamond, an Opera; Lond. 
 1707, 4to. Cato; Lond. 1713, 4to. After 
 his decease, Tickell published such works 
 as he had directed, (4 vols. Lond. 1721, 
 4to, ) amongst which are — Dialogues upon 
 the Usefulness of Ancient Medals ; a 
 pamphlet, published anonymously in 
 1707, entitled The Present State of the 
 War, and the Necessity of an Augmenta- 
 tion considered ; — five papers in the Whig 
 Examiner, the fisst number of which was 
 published 14th Sept. 1710 ; — a pamphlet, 
 published anonymously in 1713, entitled, 
 Tlie late Trial and Conviction of Count 
 Tariff. These, together with his Free- 
 holder, his Paraphrases of the Psalms, 
 some miscellaneous Poems, and his con- 
 tributions to the Tatler, Spectator, and 
 Guardian, form Tickell's edition. Be- 
 ]04 
 
 sides these, Steele has asci'ibed to him 
 The Drummer, a Comedy, which was 
 acted with indifferent success in 1715. 
 A work entitled A Discourse on Ancient 
 and Modern Learning, (4to, Lond. 1739,) 
 has been also attributed to Addison. The 
 authorship of the 10th and 39th numbers 
 of The Lover, and a work entitled Dis- 
 sertatio de Insignioribus Romanorum 
 Poetis, have been also attributed to him. 
 The Old Whig was published in 1 71 9, 4to, 
 anonymously. Dr. Hurd published an 
 edition of Addison's works, in 6 vols. 8vo. 
 (Biog. Britan. edit. Kippis. Johnson's 
 Life of Addison. Biog. Univ. Voltaire's 
 Character of Cato. Bowles's Life of Pope, 
 and the authorities cited in the Life. 
 
 ADDISON, (Thomas,) an English- 
 man, born A.D. 1634, and joined the 
 society of the Jesuits July 1, 1668. He 
 died in England, March 23, 1685. 
 
 ADDISON, (G. H. 1793 — 1815,) 
 aiithor of Indian Reminiscences, or the 
 Bengal Moofussul Miscellany, 1837. A 
 young man of high promise, prematurely 
 cut off in India. His knowledge of lan- 
 guages, his mathematical and classical 
 attainments, his excellent qualities, and 
 his christian character, are all highly 
 extolled in the preface to that work. 
 (British Mag. June 1839.) 
 
 ADDY, (William,) of the seventeenth 
 century, who is chiefly known for a 
 Treatise on Stenography. 
 
 ADEL, or ADIL, or ADILS,* the 
 son of Ottar, king of Sweden, of the 
 dynasty of the Yuglings, ascended the 
 throne of the Swiar, or Swiones, or 
 Swedes, whose capital was at Upsal, 
 about the year 505. He was a noted 
 pirate, who in summer visited and ra- 
 vaged most of the coasts round the Baltic. 
 On one occasion he descended on that of 
 Saxony, laid waste the coimtry, took 
 much spoil, among M'hich was Ursa, a 
 lady of surpassing beauty. Of her the 
 victor became enamoured, and he mar- 
 ried her; but being expelled from his 
 kingdom by Helge, the son of Halfdan, 
 who reigned at Ledra, this queen fell 
 into the power of the ■ victor, Avho also 
 man-ied her, and the issue of this union 
 Avas Rolfe Krake. But Ursa, who was 
 discovered to be the daughter of Helge, 
 returned to the court of Adils, with whom 
 she remained during the rest of her life. 
 On the death of Helge, in one of his pira- 
 tical expeditions, Rolfe, or Rollo, young 
 as he was, was acknowledged king of 
 
 * This article in the Biog. Univ. is erroneous, 
 the author of it having followed Saxo-Gramina- 
 ticus, instead of the Icelandic writers, 
 
AD E 
 
 AD E 
 
 Ledra. Adils did not long survive his 
 enemy ; he was killed by the fall of his 
 horse. (Suorronis Sturlonis Yuglinga 
 Saga, cap. 33. History of Denmark, &c. 
 vol. i. Lardner's Cab. Cyc.) 
 
 ADELAIDE, empress of Germany in 
 the tenth century, was daughter of Ro- 
 dolf II. king of Burgimdy. In. 947 she 
 was married to Lother, son of Hugh, 
 coimt of Provence, who had disputed 
 with Rodolf the throne of Lombardy. 
 This marriage was not a happy one : by 
 Berenger, marquis of Ivrea, Lother was 
 compelled to resign the authority in 
 favour of his son. In 950 he died, 
 probably through poison ; Berenger seized 
 the government, and wished to marry 
 Adelaide to his son Adalbert. The prin- 
 cess refused, and was long immured in 
 a fortress on the banks of the lake Garda. 
 She was at length delivered, conducted 
 to the fortress of Canossa, and married 
 in 951 to the emperor Otho I. who had 
 resolved to annex the northern provinces 
 of Italy to the empire. Her conduct 
 during the life of her second husband, 
 and of her son Otho II, was above all 
 praise. Her charities, however, were so 
 considerable as to make her son complain. 
 In 978 she had the misfortune to incm- 
 the anger of Otho, who exiled her from 
 the court. But in 980 she was recalled, 
 and three years afterwards she had no 
 little share in the administration of the 
 regency during the minority of her 
 grandson Otho III. The monasteries 
 which she founded attested her piety ; 
 her forgiveness of her personal enemies 
 proved that she had been taught in the 
 best of schools. She died 999, while on 
 her way to reconcile her nephew, Rodolf 
 II. of Burgundy, with his subjects. Her 
 name is not in the Roman martyrology, 
 but by the grateful clergy of the empire 
 she received the honours of a saint. Her 
 life was written by St. Odilo, of Clugny. 
 
 ADELAIDE, (Marchioness of Suza,) 
 was a contemporary of the celebrated 
 Matilda, duchess of Tuscany and bene- 
 factress of the papal see. As mother-in- 
 law of the emperor Henry IV., she was 
 necessarily opposed to Matilda, who so 
 zealously took the part of Rome. The 
 intrigues of these ladies were the most en- 
 grossing topic of the age ; but the cha- 
 racter of Adelaide was more amiable than 
 that of her rival. She was the founder 
 of the dominion of the house of Savoy in 
 Piedmont. 
 
 ADELAIDE OF FRANCE, suc- 
 ceeded Ausganda, who had been di- 
 vorced as wife of Louis-le-Begue. Though 
 105 
 
 the reigning pope would not approve the 
 divorce, and consequently not recognise 
 the validity of the second marriage, 
 Charles the Simple, the offspring of this 
 marriage, became king of France in 898. 
 
 ADELAIDE OF SAVOY, daughter 
 of the Count of Mauriana, married in 1114 
 Louis the Fat, king of France. By him 
 she had six sons and one daughter. On 
 his death she became the wife of Matthew 
 de Montmorency, constable of France, by 
 whom she had a son. The year before 
 her death (1153), she procured from her 
 husband permission to assume the veil in 
 the abbey of Montmartre, which she had 
 founded. 
 
 ADELAIDE, or ALEID, a Dutch 
 lady, the mistress of Albert duke of Ba- 
 varia, rendered herself alike memorable 
 and odious by her interference in the 
 troubles of Germany during the latter 
 half of the fourteenth century. William, 
 the son of Albert, formed a plot against 
 her, and effected her assassination in 1392. 
 
 ADELAIDE OF FRANCE, (1732— 
 1799), daughter of Louis XV. and aunt 
 of the unfortunate Louis XVI., was wise 
 enough to leave France in 1791, and to 
 settle at Rome. On the approach of the 
 French army in 1799, she retreated to 
 Trieste, where she died. 
 
 ADELARD, or ATHELARD, monk 
 of Bath in the reign of Henry I., deserves 
 mention as a learned man in an age 
 when, though a few were distinguished, 
 the majority even of churchmen were 
 comparatively illiterate. He travelled 
 much, and was a good Arabic scholar. 
 From that language he translated the 
 Elements of Euclid before any Greek copy 
 had been discovered. He wrote on the 
 seven Liberal Arts, on Natui-al Philo- 
 sophy, and Medicine. 
 
 ADELARDS, chief of the Guelf fac- 
 tion at Ferrara, in the twelfth century. 
 We cannot, however, enter into the ob- 
 scure broils of the Italian cities during 
 the middle ages ; and we can only add, 
 that besides relieving Avesna, then be- 
 sieged by a lieutenant of Frederic Bar- 
 barossa, he perfonned many other acts 
 useful to his party ; and that he died 1 1 84. 
 
 ADELBERT, archbishop of Bremen 
 and Hamburgh, (1043 — 1072,) received 
 his high dignity fi-om the hands of the 
 emperor Henry III. and of Pope Bene- 
 dict IX. If contemporary chronicles are 
 to be followed, he had few of the self- 
 denying virtues becoming the clerical 
 state. He was ambitious, haughty, ra- 
 pacious, venal, and an unblushing patron 
 of simony. These qualities, however. 
 
ADE 
 
 ADE 
 
 were not so offensive to the German 
 princes as liis attempts to stretcli the 
 imperial prerogatives further than they 
 had been carried since the days of 
 Charlemagne. A conspiracy was formed 
 to remove him from the councils of the 
 empire ; and Henry was informed that 
 he must part with either his minister or 
 his crown. The former alternative was 
 chosen. On his return to Bremen, Adel- 
 bert was powerful enough to sustain a 
 war with the duke of Saxony. It was 
 unfortunate; but he was recompensed 
 by being again summoned to the councUs 
 of his imperial master. At length, how- 
 ever, the infirmities of age creeping on 
 him, he repaked to the monastery of 
 Gosler, where he died. The celebrated 
 historian Adam of Bremen (see the name) 
 was the servant of this archbishop. 
 
 ADELBERT, (Saint,) a Northumbrian 
 missionary, and one of St. Willebrord's 
 companions in the preaching of the 
 gospel to the pagan inhabitants of Hol- 
 land and Frisia. As archdeacon of 
 Utrecht, he was a valuable assistant to 
 his Anglo-Saxon brethren, Avho esteemed 
 not their lives, so that they might win 
 these dark barbarians to the worship of 
 Christ. He died in 740. 
 
 ADELBOLD, nineteenth bishop of 
 Utrecht, to which see he was raised by 
 St. Henry, emperor of Germany. In the 
 earlier period of his prelacy, he was so 
 far misled by the martial spirit of his 
 age, as to engage in war with the court 
 of Holland. On the return of peace, he 
 applied himself to the proper duties of 
 his station — to the foundation of churches 
 and schools, and to the maintenance of 
 discipline. He died in 1027. Of his 
 benefactor, Henry II., he wrote a life, 
 part of which only has descended to us ; 
 and that so judiciously written, that we 
 may well regret the loss of the rest. He 
 also wrote on the sphere, the lives of some 
 saints, and some devotional treatises. 
 
 ADELBURNER, (Michael, 1702 — 
 1779,) a native of Nuremberg, was ori- 
 ginally a bookseller ; but that business he 
 abandoned to lecture at Altdorf on natu- 
 ral philosophy, astronomy, and logic. 
 He wrote two works on astronomy. 
 
 ADELER, (C. S. 1622— 1G75,) a Nor- 
 wegian by birth, who went to sea, and 
 obtained great distinction by his valour. 
 In the service of the Venetian republic, 
 he rose to the command of a fleet, and 
 the Mediterranean resounded with his 
 exploits. For one great victory over the 
 Turks (1654), he was made a knight of 
 Malta, and rewarded by a pension of 
 . 106 
 
 1400 ducats, to continue in his family for 
 three generations. In 1663, he was re- 
 called by his sovereign Frederic III., and 
 placed over the Danish navy. He found 
 few vessels to command, but he soon 
 buUt some, and by his gratefid master 
 was ennobled for his services. 
 
 ADELGIS, was associated in the 
 throne of Lombardy by his father Didier 
 in 759. In 770 he had the honour to be- 
 come the brother-in-law of Charlemagne 
 by a double alliance. Yet this connexion 
 did him harm instead of good ; it afforded 
 that ambitious king a pretext for invading 
 Lombardy, which he annexed to his 
 other states. Adelgis fled to Constan- 
 tinople, and after some years was en- 
 trusted with an armament for the recovery 
 of his hereditary possessions; he landed 
 in Calabria, and was signally defeated in 
 788. Whether he died in the field, or 
 returned to the capital of the Greek em- 
 pire, is disputed. 
 
 ADELGISIS, prince of Beneventinn, 
 succeeded his brother Radelgar in 854. 
 This principality was derived from the 
 Lombard kingdom, of which the preced- 
 ing personage, or rather his father Didier, 
 was the last monarch ; and it subsisted 
 long after the fall of the parent state. 
 This prince passed most of his life in 
 fighting against the Saracens, whom 
 fanaticism and the hope of booty brought 
 to the Italian shores. In 856 he was 
 signally defeated by them ; and six years 
 afterwards he became their tributary. 
 To oppose them, he invited the aid of 
 the Franks ; and the fortune of the war 
 was soon changed. But from one evil 
 he fell into another ; the Franks were 
 nearly as rapacious as the Arabs. To rid 
 himself of these troublesome guests, he 
 rose against them, and made the emperor 
 Louis his prisoner. But the Carlovingian 
 princes were the lords of Europe ; and 
 they were preparing to revenge the cap- 
 tivity of their chief, when the temfied 
 Adelgisis set him at liberty. In the 
 sequel, peace was effected between them 
 through the papal mediation ; but the 
 prince had still to fight the Mohamme- 
 dans, by whom he was more than once 
 defeated. In 879 he was assassinated by 
 members of his own family. (Sismondi, 
 Histoire des Republiques Italiennes du 
 Moyen Age, Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ADELGREIFF, (J. A.) a German 
 fanatic of the seventeenth century. AVas 
 the son of a village clergyman near Ei- 
 bing. His career was a remai-kable one : 
 who would have thought that pretensions 
 so monstrous as those which he advanced. 
 
A D E 
 
 A DE 
 
 would have found patient listeners ? At 
 first he was accompanied by seven angels 
 to banish all evil from the world, and to 
 represent God upon earth. Next he was 
 the king of heaven, judge of the living 
 and the dead, and God himself. In 
 1638 the maniac was accused of heresy 
 and magic, and put to death. Few rea- 
 ders will be prepared to hear that this 
 man was a scholar ; that he was versed 
 in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and several 
 modern languages. To the very last he 
 adhered to his imposture, by asserting 
 that he should rise on the third day. 
 
 ADELMAN, bishop of Brescia in the 
 eleventh century, was, first, clerk of the 
 church, next prefect of studies at Liege. 
 He studied under the celebrated Fulbert, 
 and had for his school-fellow the stiU 
 more celebrated Berenger, whose treatise 
 against transubstantiation made so great 
 a sensation amongst the ecclesiastics of 
 his age. Adelman answered that trea- 
 tise, and was imitated by many other 
 writers. A more useful work than this 
 is his poem De Viris Illustribus sui Tem- 
 poris, which he composed after his ele- 
 vation to the see of Brescia in 1048. The 
 time of his death is not exactly known ; 
 but it was between 1057 and lOGl. 
 
 ADELSTAN, or ATHELSTANE, 
 who has the glory of being styled the 
 first monarch of England (925 — 940), 
 was a greater prince than any of his 
 predecessors, excepting his grandfather 
 Alfred ; and in power he greatly ex- 
 ceeded him. Whether Athclstane's birth 
 was legitimate may perhaps be doubted ; 
 the probability seems to be that his father 
 king Edward married his mother Egwina, 
 — said to have been the daughter of a neat- 
 herd, — immediately before his birth. The 
 jealousy with which he regarded his 
 younger brother Edwin, whom he ba- 
 nished, and, if report be true, endea- 
 deavoured to destroy, appears to confirm 
 this conjecture. In the second year of 
 his reign he married his sister Edith to 
 Sigtric the Danish king of Northumber- 
 land. On Sigtric's death, he invaded the 
 province, and incoii>oi'ated it with the 
 kingdoms of the polyarchy. He was also 
 the first Saxon prince who established his 
 superiority over Cumberland. Over Scot- 
 land, too, as far as the Clyde and the 
 Frith of Forth, he was the lord paramount. 
 The battle of Brunenburg, in which lie 
 signally defeated the united Irish, Scots, 
 and Danes, is well known to every rea- 
 der of our history. It was indeed a splen- 
 did triumph, and was as much bewailed 
 in Scandinavia as it was valued in Eng- 
 107 
 
 land. From this moment the victor was 
 no longer satisfied with the title of his 
 ancestors, "King of the West Saxons," 
 he assumed that of " King of the Eng- 
 lish Saxons," or "King of the English;" 
 and more than once we find him in- 
 vested with the higher one, " King of 
 all Britain." His generosity was equal to 
 his power : three princes, Hako the Good 
 of Norway, Alan duke of Brittany, and 
 Louis d'Outre-mer of France, were edu- 
 cated at his court. (Saxon Chronicle. 
 Turner's Anglo-Saxons.) 
 
 ADELUNG, (J. C. 1734—1806,) a 
 learned and useful German writer, espe- 
 cially on subjects of philology. A native 
 of Spantekow, in Pomerania, he finished 
 his studies at the university of Halle ; 
 became professor at Erfurt, then removed 
 to Leipsic, where he remained imtil 
 1787, when, being nominated libra- 
 tian to the elector of Saxony, he re- 
 moved to Dresden, where he died. It 
 was at Leipsic that most of his great 
 labours were accomplished. Of these 
 the most considerable is his Grammatical 
 and Critical Dictionary, which is an at- 
 tempt to do for Germany what the aca- 
 demicians della Cruzca, and those of 
 Paris, had done for Italy and France. 
 It is much more ample than either ; the 
 first four volumes reaching to 1800 pages 
 each. In another respect it differs from 
 them ; it gives, like the dictionary of 
 Johnson, the etymology of words, and is, 
 in this respect, far superior to the English 
 work. Perhaps too, as the French and 
 German critics assert, it is superior in 
 the definition, filiation, and acceptation 
 of words. But in other respects it is de- 
 cidedly inferior : it does not exhibit equal 
 judgment in the choice of writers from 
 whom the words are taken ; it does not 
 give so good an historical view of the 
 progressive use of words ; and it has 
 more chasms than we should expect to 
 find. Though a new edition of this 
 work was published, with great aug- 
 mentations (Leipsic, 1793 — 1801), still 
 much remains to be done before it can 
 be called complete. Yet it is a stu- 
 pendous work, and one sufficient to im- 
 mortalize any writer. Adelung Avas a 
 man of words ; his whole life was passed 
 in deiiving, analyzing, and comparing 
 them. One of his most useful publica- 
 tions was the abridgment of Ducange 
 and Charpentier, under the title of Glos- 
 sarium Manuale ad Scriptores Mediaj et 
 Infimas Latinitatis. (6 vols. 8vo. Halle, 
 1772—1784.) Three of his grammars, 
 which are designed to explain every thing 
 
AD E 
 
 AD G 
 
 that should be known of his native lan- 
 guage, have been received with much 
 applause. Two of them are little more 
 than an abridgment of the first (2 vols. 
 8vo. Leipsic, 1782), which will attest the 
 erudition of the author for ages to come. 
 Connected with the German language 
 are some other publications, which, 
 thougli of less importance, have their 
 use for natives, and we fear for natives 
 only. His Cyclopaedia of all the Arts, 
 Sciences, and Trades, which minister to 
 the Necessities or Pleasures of Life (4 
 parts, Leipsic,1778 — 1788), is, though on 
 a diminutive scale, exceedingly usefid ; 
 since it is designed rather to explain the 
 origin and signification of the terms em- 
 ployed in those arts, than the arts them- 
 selves. His History of Human Folly, 
 his Essay on the Civilization of the 
 Human Race, and his History of Phi- 
 losophy, have no great merit : in these 
 subjects the author was not at home; 
 but in his ti-eatise on German Ortho- 
 graphy, and in his Mithi'idates, he was 
 rmrivalled. The latter is an attempt to 
 establish affinities between all known 
 languages, and to prove some one of 
 them to be the common root of all. The 
 first volume only, which is conversant 
 with the Asiatic languages, is the un- 
 aided work of Adelung : for the second, 
 which comprises the Basque, Celtic, 
 German, &c. he collected materials, and 
 the whole was completed by Vater, who 
 detected some curious affinities between 
 the Lettish, Laponic, Finnish, Hun- 
 garian, Albanian, Wallachian, &c. The 
 third volume, also under the superintend- 
 ence of Vater, contains the languages of 
 the New World. In this branch of the 
 subject Adelung had no concern ; and 
 the materials, we believe, were chiefly 
 collected by the celebrated traveller 
 Humboldt. Adelung was an extra- 
 ordinary man ; he has been called a uni- 
 versal one ; and so he is, if the term is to 
 embrace the derivations and affinities of 
 words. He was never married : his desk 
 was his wife ; the seventy volumes which 
 he published, or wrote, were his children. 
 Yet he loved good cheer ; he was parti- 
 cularly fond of choice foreign wines ; 
 and his cellar, which he called his Bib- 
 liotheca Selectissima, had as much of his 
 regard, and probcibly of his attention, as 
 any other room in his house. He was 
 a hard student through life, often read- 
 ing fourteen hours a day. 
 
 His nephew, Fiiedrich von Adelung, 
 imperial counsellor of state in Russia, &c. 
 has also highly distinguished himself in 
 108 
 
 philological researches, especially by his 
 Uebersicht aller Bekannten Sprachen, 
 Petersburg!!, 1820, 4to. ; and his Essay 
 on Ancient German Poetry, Konigsberg, 
 1796. (Biog. Univ. Foreign Quarterly 
 Rev. passim. Wolff's Cyclopadie.) 
 
 ADEN, (Guillaume,) a physician of 
 Thoulouse in the seventeenth century ; 
 wrote several medical books. 
 
 ADENES, or, as his name was some- 
 times spelt, Adans, one of the most 
 celebrated of the French poets who 
 flourished during the thirteenth century. 
 He was born in the duchy of Brabant, 
 about the year 1240, and exhibited so 
 mucli poetic genius, even in his child- 
 hood, that he obtained the especial 
 patronage of Henry III., duke of Flan- 
 ders and Brabant, who was not only the 
 great friend of j^oets, but also a distin- 
 guished poet himself. Henry watched 
 over the education of young Adenes, 
 and, when he attained a sufficient age, 
 made him his own minstrel. On the 
 death of Henry in 1260, the friendship 
 whicli the poet had received from him 
 was continued by his children ; and Marie 
 of Brabant, now become queen of France, 
 took him to Pai-is. His contemporaries 
 seem to have shown their esteem for the 
 talents of Adenes by making him king 
 of the minstrels, and he is most com- 
 monly designated by tlie title of Adenes 
 le Roi. We owe to tlie pen of tliis poet 
 four considerable romances, Cleomades, 
 Ogier-le-Danois, Buevon de Commarchis, 
 and Berte aux grans Pies. Of the latter, 
 a very neat edition has been recently pub- 
 lished by M. Paidin Paris. The romance 
 of Cleomades, the last of his productions, 
 consists of no less than nineteen thousand 
 lines ; in the composition of this poem he 
 tells us that he was encouraged and 
 assisted by his patroness queen Marie 
 and the lady Blanche of Artois. 
 
 ADENI. See Solomon. 
 
 ADEODATUS, (St.) was elected pope 
 in 614, as successor to Boniface IV. Of 
 his sliort pontificate of three years, 
 scarcely a record remains. 
 
 Another pontiff" of this name was 
 called to the chair of St. Peter in 673. 
 His reign too was short. He is praised 
 by Anastasius. 
 
 ADERED. See Solomon. 
 
 ADGANDESTES. See Arminius. 
 
 ADGIL I. (d. 710), was the first 
 Christian king of Frisia, to which dignity 
 he was raised by Clothaire, king of the 
 Franks. To dilFuse the new religion 
 was one of his laudable attempts : an- 
 other was to raise embankments for the 
 
AD G 
 
 ADH 
 
 protection of the land against the per- 
 petually encroaching sea. 
 
 The second prince of this name fol- 
 lowed a line of conduct nearly opposite, 
 and did all he could to bring back the 
 people to the old superstition. 
 
 ADHADEDDAULAH, (936—983,) 
 fourth prince of the dynasty of the Booides ; 
 succeeded his uncle, Imrad Eddaulah, in 
 the throne of Persia, m 949. But it was 
 in conjmaction with his father, Roku Ed- 
 daulah, that he reigned for seventeen 
 years. His exploits were more important 
 than they were honourable. If we except 
 the defeat of Sidtan Mansoor, in Kho- 
 rasan, which was a patriotic act, we find 
 little to praise in his early conduct. 
 When called to defend his kinsman, Az 
 Eddaulah, sovereign of Bagdat, he effect- 
 ed that object, but coveted that city, 
 which he would have retained but for the 
 menaces of his father. After that father's 
 death he resumed his ambitious views, 
 marched to Bagdat, expelled the king, 
 defeated the troops which were brought 
 against him, and made some other im- 
 portant conquests. He was a great patron 
 of learning, and his fame was great 
 throughout all Asia. It was now that 
 he made some amends for his former 
 injustice, by supporting the halt, the 
 blind, the orphans, the widows of his 
 states ; he founded hospitals, mosques, 
 and other superb buildings. But in the 
 midst of his prosperity he was a prey to 
 an incurable distemper, which allowed 
 him no rest, and which, ere long, proved 
 fatal. His true name Avas FanaChosroo; 
 the other was a title of honom- bestowed 
 by the khalif. 
 
 ADHED LEDIN ALLAH, (Abu 
 Mob. Abd.) fourteenth and last khalif of 
 the Fatimite dj'uasty, and the eleventh 
 that reigned in Egyjit ; ascended the 
 throne in 1160. He was a weak prince ; 
 he was governed first by Thelai, then by 
 Zarik, and lastly by Shawer, his viziers. 
 The khalif of Bagdat, who descended 
 from the house of Abbas, promised great 
 rewards to the man who should rid the 
 Mohammedan world of this anti-khalif. 
 Adhed, in alarm, implored the succour 
 of Amaury, Christian king of Jerusalem. 
 A better ally was Nooreddin, atabec of 
 SjTia, who sent an army to the aid of the 
 secluded khalif. In this army was Sa- 
 ladin, destined to so much celebrity in 
 the annals of the crusaders. The trai- 
 torous Shawer was slain ; another vizier 
 succeeded ; and then Saladin, who was 
 more perfidious than the rest. Insti- 
 gated by Nooreddin, by the khalif of 
 109 
 
 Bagdat, and still more by his own ambi- 
 tion, he caused the name of that khalif 
 to appear in the public prayers, to the 
 exclusion of Adhed's. The dynasty, 
 therefore, of the Fatimites, which had 
 reigned 261 years, was at an end, (a.d. 
 1171.) The dethroned khalif, who was 
 sick dm-ing this revolution, did not sur- 
 vive it a week. — See Saladin. (D'Her- 
 belot, Bibliotheque Orientale, Michaud, 
 Histoire des Croisades.) 
 
 ADHELM, or ADELHELMUS, 
 otherwise written Ealdhelm, and also 
 Aldhelm, a celebrated luminary of the 
 Anglo-Saxon chinch, and the first of the 
 Saxon ecclesiastics that distinguished 
 himself for learning. The exact year of 
 his birth is perhaps not now ascertain- 
 able, but his family was of princely blood, 
 his father being a kinsman of king Ina. 
 His early studies took place in Kent, 
 under the superintendence of the cele- 
 brated Adrian, who had been sent over 
 by the sovereign pontiff Vitalian, to 
 assist archbishop Theodore in adminis- 
 tering the duties of the pi-ovince of Can- 
 terbury. Under the guidance of this 
 able instructor, he became well versed in 
 Greek and Latin. He then retired to 
 Malmesbury, where an Irishman, named 
 Maidulf, had founded a monastery of the 
 poorest kind ; the means of the monks 
 being so scant, that they not imfrequently 
 had considerable difficulty to provide 
 themselves with sustenance. After a 
 while he returned to Kent, and resumed 
 his studies imder Adrian, till the feverish 
 state of his health obliged him to relin- 
 quish them, and again retire to Malmes- 
 buiy, probably in the year 666. From 
 this retreat he addressed several affec- 
 tionate letters to his old instructor, in 
 which he mentions the subjects of his 
 various pursuits — Roman jurisprudence, 
 Latin versification, astronomy, astrology, 
 and arithmetic, which last was, as he 
 tells us, a most laborious science ; and 
 if we consider that at that period all cal- 
 culations had to be performed by the 
 help only of the seven letters I, V, X, L, 
 C, D, M, we shall at once admit the jus- 
 tice of his remark. His success, how- 
 ever, seems to have been complete in 
 all the branches of his varied applica- 
 tion, as his learned reputation was so 
 great, that persons came from Scotland 
 and Fi'ance to study under his guidance. 
 He was ordained priest by Eleutherius, 
 bishop of Winchester, between the years 
 670 and 675, in which latter year he was 
 raised to the abbot's seat at Malmesbury. 
 In 674 queen Sexburga died, and the 
 
AD H 
 
 ADH 
 
 government of Wessex devolved upon 
 jEscuine and Centwine, both of the royal 
 blood of Mercia. These prmces, at the 
 request of the new abbot, rebuilt the 
 abbey of Malmesbury upon a large and 
 magnificent scale, and liberally endowed 
 it for the support of its learned inmates ; 
 and its privileges were confirmed by 
 Eleutherius, wlio had himself hand- 
 somely contributed towards the endow- 
 ment. In 689 Adhelm was at Rome, 
 whither he had gone in the escort of 
 king Ceadwealla, who went thither for 
 baptism ; and where he obtained from 
 pope Sergius a grant exempting his abbey 
 from episcopal jurisdiction, and confer- 
 ring on the monks the privilege of electing 
 their abbot. WhUst abbot of Malmes- 
 bury, he was chosen by a West Saxon 
 synod, convened for the promulgation of 
 Ina's laws, to write a treatise against the 
 British mode of celebrating Easter, and 
 against their mode of tonsiu'e. His trea- 
 tise, which is said by Bede to have made 
 many converts, Malmesbvuy regrets is 
 lost ; there is, however, extant a letter 
 from him to Gerontius, king of Cornwall, 
 on the subject, which has occasionally 
 moved the spleen of the centmiators of 
 Magdeburg. The English reader may 
 find it translated in Father Cressy, who 
 considers this letter to be the treatise 
 itself. Adhelm continued abbot of 
 Malmesbury till 705, when Hsedde, bishop 
 of Winchester, dying, his extensive dio- 
 cese was divided between Daniel and 
 Adhelm, the latter receiving the western 
 portion with the title of bishop of Sher- 
 born. For four years, says Bede, he 
 administered the duties of his diocese 
 with the most strenuous diligence, and 
 died May 25, 709, near Westwood. His 
 remains were removed to Mahnesbury 
 for interment, and at whatever places 
 they rested in the journey, crosses were 
 erected by the command of St. Egwin, 
 who assures us that he had been informed 
 of his death by revelation, and accord- 
 ingly had hastened to superintend the 
 removal of the body. His chief extant 
 works have been printed in the thirteenth 
 vol. of the Bibliotheca Maxima Patrum, 
 and in the eighth of the Magna Biblioth. 
 Vett. Patt. The latter is the work now 
 before the present writer. It contains 
 the poem De Laude Virginum, addressed 
 to the abbess Maxima ; the poem De octo 
 principalibus Vitiis ; the book of iEnig- 
 mas, in verse ; and also certain Mono- 
 stichs, attributed to him by Martin del 
 Rio the Jesuit, for no other reason than 
 because mention is made in them of 
 110 
 
 " the eight vices," an expression which 
 of course might be used by any imitator 
 of Adhelm. There also is printed his 
 prose treatise De Laudibus Virginitatis. 
 His letter to Gerontius has been already 
 mentioned as displeasing the centuria- 
 tors ; and it must be owned that it is 
 somewhat at variance with modern no- 
 tions of liberalism,* though it contains, 
 nevertheless, much that is excellent and 
 praiseworthy. It has been printed in 
 Gale, as have also some other of his 
 works. His Saxon poems, of which none 
 are known to survive, received a very 
 high encoffliiun from Alfred the Great, 
 and may therefore be considered as works 
 of considerable merit. A long list of 
 other works is given by the centuria- 
 tors, but it cannot be depended upon, 
 being in some parts palpably eri'oneous. 
 His writings are highly praised by Bede, 
 and after him by Malmesbury ; and, in- 
 deed, for a long period he seems to have 
 been in the very highest repute. And, 
 doubtless, it is highly to his credit, that 
 he was the first among his countrymen 
 who excelled in Latin composition. But 
 however over-estimated he may have 
 been by his contemporaries and some 
 succeeding generations, he appears to 
 the writer of this notice under-rated 
 by the pi-esent age. Dr. Lingard says 
 " his merit is not great;" and Mr. Sliaron 
 Turner gives a selection of specimens 
 from his works, to show his inflated 
 and bombastic style. The specimens 
 are perhaps hardly fair samples of his 
 general style, which was not always so 
 overwrought. It must, however, be 
 admitted, that his language is very fre- 
 quently overloaded with gorgeous rhe- 
 toric ; still we must admire the genius 
 and taste that could aiTange svich an 
 exuberance of ornament with so mucli 
 judgment and elegance, for though he 
 may sometimes weary with the copious- 
 ness of his figurative expatiations, lie 
 rarely, if ever, nauseates or disgusts. 
 His prose compositions show a great ac- 
 quaintance witli the Scriptures and the 
 principal fathers ; and his poems display 
 a knowledge of the chief Latin poets, 
 from whose works he occasionally bor- 
 rows passages Avith ingenuity and suc- 
 cess, especially from Virgil. Let him be 
 weighed in the balance of just and libe- 
 ral criticism, and allowance be made 
 for all the disadvantages of one who is 
 treading on unbroken ground, and the 
 father of Anglo-Saxon literature will be 
 
 * The British were still more so In their conduct, 
 if he gives a fair account of them. 
 
ADH 
 
 ADI 
 
 found not wanting of the just weight 
 and measure of a very great man. 
 
 ADHEMAR, (Guillaume,) a trouba- 
 dour of the thirteenth century ; was of a 
 knightly family, hut destined to remain 
 poor. He therefore became troubadour, 
 jongleur, and lastly, monk of the order of 
 Grammont. Eighteen of his songs are 
 in the public libraries of Paris. 
 
 AUHEMAR DE MONTEUIL, (Lam- 
 bert de,) prince of Orange, was chief of 
 that ancient and illustrious family. In 
 785 he married Madelina of Burgundy, 
 and in her right obtained vast estates in 
 that province. '^He was a great enemy of 
 the Arabs, whom he frequently defeated 
 on the shores of the Mediterranean. By 
 Charlemagne he was created duke of 
 Genoa in 800. 
 
 2. Another noble of this name and fa- 
 mily was bishop of Puy, but not until he 
 had distinguished himself in arms. And 
 after he had embraced the ecclesiastical 
 state, and reached the dignity of bishop, 
 his propensities were no less martial than 
 before. In 1095 he appeared at the 
 coimcil of Clermont, assumed the cross, 
 collected as many clerical and lay war- 
 riors as he could, and, under the banner 
 of Raymond, count of Thoulouse, set out 
 for the Holy Land. The intrigues of the 
 crusaders with Alexis Comnenus, Greek 
 emperor, must be sought in the history 
 of those extraordinary expeditions. At 
 the siege of Nice he gi-eatly distinguished 
 himself; at that of Antioch he proved 
 still more clearly that he was a brave 
 wan-ior, a great general, and a deep poli- 
 tician. Perhaps he was too deep an one to 
 be honest ; for there is some reason to infer 
 that he was no stranger to the pious fraud 
 which produced the lance that had pierced 
 our Saviom-'s side. This fraud saved the 
 Christians, who were in a woful con- 
 dition in beleaguered x\ntioch ; and who, 
 confiding in the virtue of the relic, now 
 slew myriads of the misbelievers. While 
 this great battle was fighting, Adhcmar 
 was in the van, bi-andishing ihe wondtiful 
 lance, and exhorting the Christians to 
 conquer or to die. Nor did he tiiist in 
 this fraud alone ; some horsemen clad in 
 white, who suddenly appeared on a 
 neighbouring hill, and whom the bishop 
 declared to be a celestial company, 
 headed by Saints George and Deme- 
 trius, were not brought there by chance. 
 The new vigour infused into the Christians 
 by their arrival, led to the splendid suc- 
 cess of this day. Adhemar died of a con- 
 tagious disease at Antioch, though Tasso 
 makes him fall at the siege of Jerusalem. 
 Ill 
 
 His death was deeply lamented by the 
 ciiisaders, who were soon notorious for 
 want of discipline, for ill-concerted mea- 
 sures, and, consequently, for disasters. 
 (Michaud, Histoire des Croisades. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 3. A third noble of this name and fa- 
 mily was made bishop of Metz in 1327. 
 He was no less martial than his kin- 
 dred chiefs ; and he doubtless esteemed 
 it an honour to measure weapons with 
 Raoul, duke of Lorraine, the most cele- 
 brated warrior of France. The fortune 
 of this and a subsequent war, was du- 
 bious ; in a third campaign he lost 2000 
 men ; but in a fourth he was victorious. 
 Pacified for a time by Philip de Valois, 
 king of France, he was quiet until the 
 death of Raoul at the battle of Cressy ; 
 but he found other enemies in the duchess 
 de Blois, and the duke de Bar. He was 
 one of the gi'eatest wan-ior bishops of 
 France ; and how he could find time for 
 the business of his diocese, we need not 
 inquire. He died in 1361. 
 
 ADHERBAL,the general of Carthage, 
 who, in the year before Christ 250, so 
 signally defeated the Roman fleet under 
 Claudius, off the coast of Sicily. Ninetj'- 
 three vessels, and 8000 men, and 20,000 
 prisoners, were lost to the Romans. 
 
 ADHERBAL, son of Micipsa, one of 
 the Numidian kings, who, conjointly with 
 his brother Hiempsal and his cousin the 
 notorious Jugurtha, divided that country 
 between them. The last, governed by 
 ambition, and unmindful of the genero- 
 sity which had placed him on an equality 
 with the two fonner, assassinated Hi- 
 empsal, expelled Adherbal, and became 
 monarch of the state. As an ally of the 
 republic, Adherbal applied to the senate 
 for redress. The members, gained by 
 the gold of Jugurtha, decided that the 
 usui-per should have the most valuable 
 portion of the ten'itory. Adherbal re- 
 tiu'ned, was again assailed by Jugurtha, 
 was defeated, besieged, obliged to capi- 
 tulate, and, in defiance of the article 
 which guaranteed his life, put to death, 
 A. c. 113. 
 
 ADIMANTUS, an Athenian general, 
 was the only one that, dui-ing the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, resisted the order to 
 amputate the right thumb of the captives. 
 In retimi, when the Athenian fleet was 
 captured by Lysander, (a. c. 403,) he 
 was the only one not put to death by the 
 \'ictors. 
 
 There was also a heretic of this name, 
 in the third century, a disciple of Manes, 
 who wrote a book to shew that the New 
 
AD I 
 
 AD O 
 
 Testament contradicts tlie Old, and con- 
 sequently that both cannot be of divine 
 authority. It was answered by St. Au- 
 gustine ; and in this, as in many other 
 cases where the poison has perished, the 
 antidote has survived. 
 
 ADIMARI. There are many Italians 
 of this name, all sprung from a Guelf 
 family of Florence, which from 1010 to 
 173G, never ceased to be before ' the 
 public eye. 
 
 1. Tegghiaio Aldohrandi, a magistrate 
 of the thirteenth century, was much es- 
 teemed for his firmness, and for his love 
 of justice ; but he had one great vice, for 
 which Dante places him in hell. (See 
 the Notes to Dante, Infern. vi. 79 ; xvi. 
 40—46.) 
 
 2. Forese, who in the following cen- 
 tury fought nobly for the Guelf party in 
 Lombardy and Naples. 
 
 3. Alessandro, (1579—1649,) a very 
 middling poet, produced, between 1637 
 and 1642, six collections of fifty sonnets 
 each, which he had the modesty to dig- 
 nify by the names of six Muses : he would 
 probably have run through the whole 
 nine, had he received encouragement. 
 He was called a good Greek scholar ; yet 
 in his bad metrical translation of Pindar, 
 he followed the Latin version of Erasmus 
 Schmidt. (See Tiraboschi, viii. 462.) 
 
 4. Ludovico, (1644 — 1708,) born at 
 Naples, educated at Pisa, died at Flo- 
 rence, where he was professor ; was es- 
 teemed in his day for his satirical poetry. 
 Besides sonnets, hymns, and at least one 
 drama, he wrote five satires against 
 women. Boileau allows that there were 
 three good ones in his time ; Adimari 
 does not know one, and he is quite sure 
 that his readers do not. Tiraboschi (ibid.) 
 says his version of the Penitential Psalms 
 was much admired. 
 
 ADLER, (Philip, fl. 1518,) an cngi-aver 
 of great merit, most probably a German. 
 He chiefly practised etching, and scarcely 
 used the graver. He appeal's to have 
 taken up the art of etching while in its 
 infancy, and to have promoted its growth 
 most wonderfully. He probably may have 
 led the way for the Hopfers, and after 
 them for that excellent artist Hollar. 
 Strutt (Diet. Engravers) supposes him 
 to have made much use of the prints 
 marked with a W, having an o on the 
 top of it, which are generally consi- 
 dered to be of Michael Wolgemuth, the 
 master of Albert Durer. Some fine 
 etchings of his exist on sacred subjects, 
 (Strutt.) 
 
 ADLERBETH, (Gudmund G. 1751 
 112 
 
 — 1818,) a learned Swede, educated at 
 Upsal, who devoted himself to law and 
 poetry — two rather dissimilar pursuits, 
 and also to history and antiquities. In 
 1809 he was made councillor of state, 
 and baron ; and was occupied in the 
 revision of the fundamental laws of the 
 kingdom. In 1813 he retired from his 
 official duties, and gave up the rest of 
 his life to literature, especially poetry. 
 His original contributions, however, were 
 trifling ; but his translations from Racine, 
 Horace, Virgil, and Ovid, are much 
 esteemed. 
 
 ADLERFELDT, (Gust, de) a native of 
 Stockholm, the historian of Charles XII, 
 Avho accompanied that prince in all his 
 operations down to the battle of Pultawa, 
 whe-re he perished. He left a kind of joiur- 
 nal, which fell into the hands of a prince 
 of Wurtemberg then with the Swedish 
 army, who placed it amongst the MSS. 
 of Stutgard. It next became the property 
 of the author's son, who translated it 
 into French, and it was published at Am- 
 sterdam, 1740, under the title of Histoire 
 Militaire de Charles XII. An addition, 
 comprehending the details of that fatal 
 battle, and of the monarch's exile in 
 Turkey, is by another eye-witness. 
 
 ADLUNG, (I. 1699—1762,) professor 
 of music at Erfurt, and organist, wrote 
 on the principles of harmony and the 
 construction of organs. Two of his 
 works bear a high repution, viz. The In- 
 troduction to Musical Science, Erfurt, 
 1758 ; and The Seven Musical Stars, 
 Berlin, 1768. 
 
 ADLZHEITER, (John, 1596— 1662,) 
 a statesman of Bavaria, is better known 
 for his history of that province from the 
 earliest period to the year 1662, under 
 the title of Annales Boicae Gentis. (Mon. 
 1662.) 
 
 ADMIRAL, (Henri, 1744—1794,) a 
 peasant who went to Paris to earn his 
 bread by menial laboui', will be remem- 
 bered in the annals of the Revolution, 
 for his unsuccessful attempt against the 
 lives of Robespierre and Collot d'Her- 
 bois, and for the coolness with which he 
 met his fate. 
 
 ADO, (St. 800—875,) archbishop of 
 Vienne, one of the most respectable 
 churchmen of his age, was remarkable 
 for his pi-ivate devotions, for his episco- 
 pal zeal, for the encouragement of litera- 
 ture. He wrote some valuable works, 
 among which are a Chronicle, a Mar- 
 tyrology, and the Lives of several Saints. 
 The Chronicle has been often printed 
 alone ; the rest of his works have ap- 
 
ADO 
 
 ADO 
 
 peared in Canisiiis, Bollandus, and Ma- 
 billon. 
 
 ADOLF II. (d. 1164), Connt of Hol- 
 stein, embraced the party of Henry the 
 Proud, duke of Bavaria, against that of 
 Albert the Boar, who contended for the 
 possession of Saxony. He took Lubeck, 
 but had the mortification to see it re- 
 taken by Henry the Lion, with whom he 
 quai-relled. He fell at the siege of a 
 fortress in Pomerania. 
 
 ADOLF OF NASSAU, king of the 
 Romans from 1292 to 1298, was raised to 
 that dignity through the inti-igues of his 
 kinsman, the archbishop of Mentz, con- 
 trary to the wish or the expectation of the 
 German people. The choice, however, 
 lay not with the people, but with the 
 seven great dignitaries called electors, 
 whom it was not difficult to bribe. Like 
 some of his predecessors, he made con- 
 cessions enough to the men who could 
 bestow a throne, especially the spiritual 
 electors. But he promised more than he 
 had the power to perform, and they were 
 soon willing to undo their own work. 
 Nor was his administration such as to 
 rally round him the heai'ts of the people. 
 Mindful only of his own or of his family 
 aggrandizement ; more ready to sell than 
 to bestow offices ; venal in every thing, 
 corrupt in every thing, without any one 
 great quality to counterbalance his many 
 defects, he was at once hated and de- 
 spised. To crowned heads he was equally 
 base ; witness the subsidy he received 
 from our Edward I. on the condition of 
 his going to war with the king of France, 
 yet his refusal either to fulfil that condi- 
 tion or to return the money. Of his 
 impopularity with the great and the little, 
 advantage was taken by his rival, Albert, 
 duke of Austria : the electors deposed 
 him, and Albert was raised to the va- 
 cant dignity. It was not to be expected 
 that Adolf would quietly submit ; he had 
 many kinsmen, many vassals, many de- 
 pendents, and he was enabled to bring 
 an army into the field. He was met by 
 Albert, and in the vicinity of Worms he 
 fell into an unlamented grave. 
 
 ADOLF X. count of Cleves and La 
 Marche, the second son of Adolf IX. 
 count de la Marche, was young when 
 elected to the see of Munster in 1357. 
 This was a turbulent churchman, and 
 generally engaged in war. Nor was his 
 private conduct good. Summoned to 
 answer for his crimes before the Pope 
 at Avignon, he resigned his dignity, 
 married, succeeded to the two lordships 
 we have mentionedj and left many cliil- 
 
 voi,. I 113 
 
 dren, of whom, the eldest, called after his 
 name, became duke of Cleves. Died, 1394. 
 
 ADOLF I. (1371 — 1448), duke of 
 Cleves, and son of the preceding, was 
 raised to the dignity by the emperor 
 Sigismund, in 1417. He had to sustain 
 a long war with his brother Gerard, for 
 the possession of La Marche ; but a com- 
 promise was at length effected. By 
 marrying Maria, daughter of John the 
 Intrepid, duke of Burgundy, he enlarged 
 his states and his power. 
 
 ADOLF VIII. (d. 1459), duke of 
 Sleswic, deserves praise for his modera- 
 tion in an age more than usually ambi- 
 tious. He fled from grandeur, he lived 
 frugally, he laboured for the happiness 
 of his people, and refused the crown of 
 Denmark when oftered to him in 1448 ; 
 recommending his nephew Christian I., 
 who was ci'owned in that year. 
 
 ADOLF, (1438—1477,) the only son 
 of Arnold, duke of Gueldres, is known 
 only for his detestable conduct towards 
 his father, against whom he was a rebel 
 all his life, and whom at one time he 
 succeeded in imprisoning. The duke, 
 however, was released and restored. This 
 unnatural son was in his turn a captive, 
 and on his enlargement lie fell in an ob- 
 scure fray. 
 
 ADOLF I. duke of Holstein, (1526 
 — 1586,) son of Frederic, king of Den- 
 mark, was a very warlike prince, whose 
 name appears constantly in the military 
 annals of Germany. 
 
 ADOLF, (John, 1685—1744,) duke of 
 Saxony, was much esteemed both as a 
 wai'rior and a politician, by Marlborough, 
 Charles XII. Augustus of Poland, and 
 the emperor Charles VI. His exploits 
 constantly recur in the history of the 
 times. 
 
 ADOLF FREDERIC, (of Holstein 
 Entin,) king of Sweden, succeeded Fre- 
 deric I. in 1751. His reign was a pro- 
 sperous one ; he was a great patron of 
 literature and science ; he founded schools 
 and hospitals, and he endeavoured to 
 prove himself the father of his people. 
 But he had to contend with the aristo- 
 cracy, who aimed at the establishment 
 of an oligarchy, and left him a mere 
 shadow of power. Some adherents, who 
 vainly attempted to restore the power of 
 the monarchy, he had the mortification 
 to see beheaded. He died in 1771, with 
 the character of a good but weak piince. 
 
 ADOLFI. There were two brothers, 
 natives of Bergamo, of this name, both 
 painters. 
 
 1. Giacomo (1682—1741). , 
 
ADO 
 
 ADR 
 
 2. Ciro (16S3— 1758). They both 
 pamted scriptural subjects, and adorned 
 the churches of Bergamo with many ad- 
 mired pictures and frescoes. 
 
 ADORNO. Italy has many sons of 
 this name. 
 
 1. Gabriele, doge of Genoa, (1363 — 
 1370,) the successor of Simon Bocca- 
 negra. Hitherto the dignity had -been 
 held by nobles, and Gabriele was the 
 first plebeian, or rather humble citizen, 
 who was raised to it. In this election, 
 the object of the citizens was to end 
 the contests for power which had so long 
 distinguished the magistrates of noble 
 family, and for ever to exile them from 
 the honom-able ofiices of the republic. 
 It was soon found, however, that ple- 
 beians like the Adorni, could be quite as 
 restless, as selfish, as turbulent as the 
 Dorias or Spinolas. After seven years' 
 administration, this doge was exiled. 
 
 2. Antonietto, brother or son of the 
 preceding, held the same dignity four 
 times between 1384 and his death in 
 1397. He was an able and most ambi- 
 tious magistrate, and a principal actor in 
 the Avarlike events of Italy. His triumphs 
 over the African pirates do him much 
 greater honour than even his deliverance 
 of pope Urban VI. But in one respect 
 his policy was pernicious, — that wliich led 
 him to place the republic under the pro- 
 tection of Fi'ance. 
 
 3. Giorgio, son of the preceding, elected 
 to the ducal throne in 1413, held it only 
 two years when he resigned, from his 
 inability to repress the contending fac- 
 tions. 
 
 4. Rajfaelle, son of the preceding, be- 
 came doge in 1443. He had to sustain 
 a war against the duke of Milan and the 
 king of Arragon and Naples, until he 
 made peace with the latter. But he too 
 was unable to contend with faction, and 
 in three years he resignedhis dignity. (See 
 Giustiniani, Stor. di Genov. 1. v.) Tira- 
 boschi (vi. 519) supposes it probable that 
 Raftaelle, after resigning the ofiice of doge, 
 became a professor of laws, 
 
 5. Barnabas, seized in 1447 the seat 
 which his kinsman had abdicated. He 
 reigned a month, and was expelled. 
 
 G. Prospero, expelled the French in 
 14G1. Jealous of the rival house of Fre- 
 goso, he was imprisoned by one of its 
 members. The Milanese released him, 
 but he soon quaiTelled with and defeated 
 them. At length he was expelled by his 
 rivals, and died in 1486. 
 
 7. jintonicito became doge through 
 the interest of France in 1513, and again 
 114 
 
 through that of his family in 1522. He was 
 abler than many of his predecessors, but 
 he was no less intriguing : dissatisfied with 
 France, he threw himself on Charles V. 
 by whom he was maintained in his post 
 until 1527, when Genoa was taken by 
 the French. Such was the fate of this 
 republic, that when there was no domestic 
 rebellion, it was sure to be oppressed by 
 France, or Spain, or Milan, or some one 
 of its more powerful neighbours. In 
 1528, Doria espoused the cause of the 
 emperor ; and Genoa again acknowledged 
 the protection of Charles. These changes 
 were melancholy ; they were justly attri- 
 buted to the intrigues of the Fregosi and 
 Adorni, whose administration had been 
 more calamitous than that of the nobles ; 
 the law which excluded nobles from the 
 magistracy was aboHshed, and the two 
 plebeian families were banished. (The 
 above sketches from Sismondi, Histoire 
 des Republiques Italiennes ; and from 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 8. Francesco, (1531 — 1586,) a Jesuit, 
 of the same family, studied in Portugal, 
 was called to Rome, where he professed 
 theology until he was nominated prefect 
 of the monastic establishment at Milan. 
 His next elevation was to the provincial 
 administration of Lombardy. His talents, 
 however, were not of a high order : his 
 treatise on ecclesiastical discipline, his 
 sermons, his Latin verses, &c. exhibit, 
 we believe, nothing that could raise him 
 from obscimty. 
 
 ADRAMAN, better known as " the 
 Butcher's Son of Marseilles," was taken 
 in infancy by the Tm-ks, circumcised, 
 robed, and turbaned. His abilities raised 
 him to the dignity of pasha of Rhodes. 
 He Avas strangled, however (1706), by 
 order of his Turkish master; and 
 though his innocence was afterwards dis- 
 covered, what could this avail him ? It 
 might, however, avail some one of his 
 twenty-two sons. 
 
 ADRAMYTHUS, king of Lydia, 
 founder of the city which bore his name. 
 
 ADRASTUS. He lived at the be- 
 ginning of the second centuiy, was a 
 Peripatetic, and the avithor of some com- 
 mentaries on Aristotle, which have been 
 lost. A work of his, however, Ilfpt 
 'Ap^oviKcov, is said to be still preserved 
 in some libraries, (Schoell. Hist. Lit. v. 
 p. 159.) 
 
 ADRETS, (F. de Beaumont, Baron 
 des, 1513 — 1586,) a name for ever famous 
 in the civil wars of France. Whether at 
 the head of the Protestants or the Roman 
 Catholics, Avhether in the communion of 
 
ADR 
 
 ADR 
 
 Calvin or of the pope, he was equally 
 celebrated for his valour, for his restless 
 activity, for his abUity, and for his ati'o- 
 cities. While general of the Protestants, 
 he took, amongst other cities, Montbrison. 
 He put the inhabitants to the sword, ex- 
 cept such as took refuge in the forti-ess. 
 When this was reduced, he beheaded 
 many of the defenders : the rest he would 
 make to leap from the summit of a high 
 tower, as a kind of dessert after dinner. 
 There he stood, noticing the successive 
 descents of the victims. One soldier, 
 forced like the rest to take a short run 
 before he leaped, stopped short at the front 
 of the wall. Des Adrets growled. He 
 did so a second time. " No more of this," 
 cried the baron : " I have no time to lose 
 in foolery. These two times thou hast 
 failed!" "Baron," replied the soldier, 
 " I will allow you ten before you leap !" 
 His wit saved him. It was because he did 
 not think his services sufficiently reward- 
 ed, that Des Adi-ets embraced the royal 
 party. " Hitherto I have made Hugo- 
 nots," he observed ; " now I will mimake 
 them !" In his second party, however, 
 he was not so fortunate ; he fell rather 
 below the expectations fonned of him ; 
 and he had the mortification to hear of 
 his two sons, both Protestants, being 
 killed by his new friends — one in the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew, the other 
 at Rochelle. Much exaggeration has ex- 
 isted relative to this man, but the Biog. 
 Univ. states that his name is even now 
 not pronounced in Dauphine without 
 shuddering. There are two other lives 
 of him, one by AUard (Grenoble, 1675, 
 12mo), the other by J.C.Martin, 8vo. 
 1803. (Lacretelle, Histoire des Guerres 
 de la Religion.) 
 
 ADREVALD, a monk of Flemy in 
 the ninth centiuy, acqmred some repu- 
 tation by his writings. The chief of 
 these was a Ti'eatise on the Eucharist 
 against Johannes Scotus. But more in- 
 teresting are his lives of some saints, 
 disfigm-ed as they are by puerile mira- 
 cles. Amidst rubbish of this description, 
 there are always some diamonds. 
 
 ADRIA, (J. J. d. 1560,) a physician 
 of Palenno, wrote on the plague, on the 
 use of the lancet and the bath, and on the 
 topography of Mazara, his native district. 
 
 ADRIAN, (P. jElius, 76—138,) em- 
 peror of Rome, was born, according to 
 some, in Spain, to others, in Rome ; but 
 all agree that on both sides he was of 
 Spanish descent. He was only ten years 
 old when he lost his father, ^lius Adri- 
 anu3 Afer, but the place was well sup- 
 115 
 
 plied by his tutors. He served in Spain 
 until he was recalled by his kinsman 
 Trajan. Towards the close of Diocle- 
 sian's reign, he led the second auxiliary 
 legion into Moesia. There he is said to 
 have learned from an astrologer that he 
 should one day command the Roman 
 world. If this were tiaie, it woidd only 
 prove that he was ambitious at an early 
 period, and that whoever flattered it, 
 was sm-e to be rewarded ; but probably, 
 like many other instances of the same 
 kind, it was a post, not a j3rediction. 
 When his kinsman Trajan was adopted 
 by Nerva, though he was not much loved 
 by that kmsman, his prospects bi-ight- 
 ened : when Trajan ascended the throne, 
 the empress Plotina procured him the 
 hand of Julia Sabina, a princess of the 
 imperial family. His promotion was now 
 rapid : he was first quasstor ; in the 
 twelfth year of Trajan's reign, he accom- 
 panied that monarch into Dacia ; he was 
 soon consul, ti'ibune of the people ; and 
 in a second expedition of Trajan, he dis- 
 tinguished himself so much, that he re- 
 ceived from the imperial hands the very 
 diamond which Trajan had received from 
 Nerva. This he regarded as an earnest 
 of his fuhu-e adoption. That the em- 
 peror had the intention, is probable 
 enough ; but whether it was can-ied into 
 execution, is very much disputed. Adrian, 
 during his prsetorship at Rome, and arch- 
 onship at Athens, had no intimation of it ; 
 nor are we sm"e that while governor of 
 Syr-ia he was acquainted with it. Some 
 writers assert that Plotina forged the 
 letters of adoption while Trajan was on 
 the bed of death in Syria. The conduct 
 of Adrian after liis accession to the em- 
 pire (a. D. 117) would seem to confirm 
 the inference. He ■wrote from Antioch 
 to the senate, that his soldiers had. forced 
 him to assume the dignity ; he remitted 
 many taxes ; he pardoned all his enemies ; 
 he shared the fatigues of liis soldiers ; 
 he lived fiiigally as they ; on them, and 
 all his chief adherents, he bestowed ex- 
 ti'aordinary largesses ; and he greatly 
 improved the administration of the laws. 
 These acts look like those of an usui-per. 
 His conduct in other respects was distin- 
 guished by deep policy. He would not 
 prosecute the war which Trajan had im- 
 dertaken, because he was jealous of that 
 monarch's glory, and because his soldiers 
 were averse from it ; yet, to prove that 
 he had no jealousy, he caused the honours 
 of a triumph which the senate wished to 
 offer him, to be paid to the statue of his 
 predecessor. Hainng remitted all the 
 12 
 
ADR 
 
 ADU 
 
 arrears of taxes during the sixteen years 
 preceding, and burnt the hooks, that no- 
 body might be asked for them, he would 
 now add military to his civil glory. 
 He humbled the Sarmatians, and he 
 might now, he thought, punish some of 
 his personal enemies ; in a letter to 
 the senate he denounced foiu- consular 
 citizens, whom tliat obsequious body put 
 to death. The Romans grumbled ; Adrian 
 returned, and disavowed the act. His 
 next great object was to travel over the 
 chief provinces of his empire : he would 
 be like the sun, which sees every thing. 
 First he repaired to Gaid, then to Ger- 
 many, then to Britain, where, to repress 
 the incursions of the Caledonians, he 
 built the celebrated wall from the river 
 Eden in Cumberland, to the Tyne, about 
 eighty miles long. Wherever he went, 
 he left monuments of his magnificent 
 taste behind him : Gaul and Spain, in 
 particular, were enriched with them. In 
 Africa he learned the death of Plotina : 
 he returned to Rome, placed her amongst 
 the gods, and proceeded to Egjrpt. There 
 he rebuilt Pompey's tomb. But there 
 too he disgraced himself by his sensu- 
 ality, and by his superstition : to prolong 
 his life, the boy Antinous, the favourite 
 of Adrian, sacrificed himself. To Anti- 
 nous temples were erected, altars blazed, 
 and priests sacrificed, while the emperor 
 bemoaned the catastrophe more than if 
 a favourite wife had died. When his 
 sister Paulina paid the debt of nature, 
 there was little pomp for lier ; and the 
 contrast was displeasing even to the 
 corrupt Romans. The Jews now re- 
 volted : by Julius Severus Jerusalem was 
 retaken, and reduced to ashes, a. d. 136 ; 
 but the reduction of the other places, 
 and the complete resubjugation of the 
 country, occupied many years. In this 
 war above half a million Jews were slain ; 
 most of the survivors were sold in the 
 public fairs, each for the price of ahorse ; 
 and such as would not sell, were delivered 
 to the Egyptians, to be insulted, trampled 
 on, and put to death, just as the Egyptians 
 pleased. Having reduced by his generals 
 the Alans and Massagetas, Adrian went 
 to Athens, where, as in many other cities, 
 proofs of his splendour soon arose ; among 
 them was an altar dedicated to himself 
 as a divinity ! Why should not he, who 
 had made so many gods, be a god him- 
 self? After seventeen years' absence in 
 the provinces, he returned to Rome, and 
 adopted Commodus Verus, — for reasons, 
 if history be tnie, which add infamy to 
 his name. Verus died, and was made a 
 116 
 
 god. Titus Antoninus was next adopted, 
 on condition that he would adopt Marcus 
 Aurelius and Lucius Verus, the son of 
 Commodus. Seized by the illness which 
 was destined to end fatally — the result 
 probably of his own intemperance — 
 Adrian became ferocious, and many were 
 the citizens who fell victims to his sus- 
 jiicions. His sufferings were so great, 
 that he called upon his domestics to kill 
 him, but none, we are told, durst attempt 
 it. Well for them they did not attempt 
 it; could he not have killed himself, if he 
 sincerely wished for a release ? He took 
 an easier way — he drank himself to death. 
 This emperor was a poet, a judge in 
 painting, ai'chitecture, and music. Some 
 of his pieces remain, but they have no 
 great merit. One of them, his Adda-ess to 
 the Departing Soul, is well known, as the 
 fomidation of Pope's 'Vital Spark,' &c. 
 which is still better known. Remember- 
 ing only his cruelties, the senate proposed 
 to abolish his decrees ; but this was re- 
 sisted by Titus Antoninus : it would have 
 annulled his own election. After all, 
 divine honours were paid to his memory ; 
 and the place of his sepidture was long 
 admired : since the days of Justinian it 
 has been used as a forti'ess, and known 
 as the castle of St. Angelo. The succes- 
 sors of Adrian knew how to make gods as 
 well as he did. (Suetonius. Dio Cassius. 
 Crevier's Roman Emperors. Gibbon.) 
 
 ADRIAN. So highly did his con- 
 temporaries think of the talents of this 
 sophist, that we shoidd have regretted 
 deeply the loss of his writings, had not 
 three of his slighter pieces been pre- 
 served to prove how little confidence is 
 to be placed in such eulogists. Born at 
 Tyre, he went, at the age of 18, to 
 attend the school of Hcrodes, at Athens, 
 and succeeded to his chair during the 
 lifetime of his master, having previously 
 opened a school of his own at Ephesus. 
 He seems to have valued himself not 
 only on speaking extemporaneously and 
 with great fluency, but on the univer- 
 sality of his acquirements — at least, if, 
 according to Kayser, (Philostrat. Vit. 
 Sophist.) he is the person ridiculed by 
 Lucian in Demonact. § 14. The pro- 
 mise he gave in early life of future ex- 
 cellence was so great, that when Herodes 
 Atticus heard an off-hand speech of his, 
 M'hen Adrian was very young, he ob- 
 served it was the fragment of a colossus ; 
 by which he intended not only to praise 
 the production, but to point out its 
 abnipt character. On taking his seat at 
 the head of the rhetorical school, he 
 
ADR 
 
 commenced liis inaugm-al speccli by- 
 saying — ' Letters have come once again 
 from Phoenicia;' in allusion to the fact of 
 Greece having obtained her language 
 from the land of his birth. Like Hip- 
 pias, he paid great attention to his per- 
 sonal appearance, and was bedizened 
 with precious stones; and went to his 
 lectui-es in a chariot drawn by horses in 
 gilt harness. During the time when he 
 was the star of rhetoric at Athens, 
 Marcus Aurelius arrived there to take 
 part in the mysteries ; and he was so 
 struck with the powers of the sophist as 
 to invite him to Rome, where he loaded 
 him with gifts and honours. There he 
 passed the remainder of his days, and 
 died at the advanced age of 82. Judging 
 from the few fragments published by 
 Leo Allatius, under the title of Excerpta 
 Varia Graecorum Sophistannn, &c. 
 (Rom. 1541,) it would seem that he took 
 for his model Isocrates, whose perpetual 
 antithesis gives the reader as much pain 
 to peruse as it did the author himself to 
 compose. They have been recently re- 
 printed in Walchi i. Rhetor. Graec. i. 526. 
 ADRIAN, a writer of the filth cen- 
 tury, — whether a Latin or a Greek, is 
 disputed. He wrote an Introd. to the Holy 
 Scriptures, which obtained the praise of 
 Photius : the Greek original is in the 9th 
 vol. of the Critici Sacri. (Cave, Hist. Lit.) 
 ADRIAN, a native of Africa, and a 
 celebrated churchman of the seventh 
 century. He was abbot of a monastery 
 near Monte Cassino in the Neapolitan 
 territory ; and on the death of Deus- 
 dedit, bishop of Dover (archbishop of 
 Canterbury), in 664, pope Vitalian sent 
 for Adrian in order to persuade him to 
 accept the vacant see. Adrian, thinking 
 himself unworthy, refused the honoui-, 
 and eventually Theodore was consecrated 
 to that dignity, and Adrian agreed to 
 accompany him. He is said by Bede to 
 have been an excellent Latin and Greek 
 scholar, and well skilled in every thing 
 pertaining to ecclesiastical discipline, &c. 
 (Bede, iv. 1, 2. See more in BoUandi 
 Acta SS. Jan. i. 595. Inett's Origines.) 
 
 ADRIAN I. (Pope, 772—795), will 
 always be remembered for his corre- 
 spondence with Charlemagne. That 
 monarch protected him against the 
 Lombards and the Greek emperor ; in 
 return, Adrian declared him a Roman 
 patrician, and gave him so much in- 
 fluence in the eternal city, that he might 
 be said to have succeeded to the rights 
 of the Roman emperors. This pope was 
 a good man; he was deeply regretted 
 117 
 
 ADR 
 
 by the Romans, and by Charlemagne, 
 whose verses on the occasion may be 
 transcribed : — 
 " Nomina junfjo simul titulis, elarissime! nostra: 
 
 Adrianus.'Carolus,— rex ego, tuque pater. 
 Guisque legas versus, devoto pectore supplex, 
 
 • Amborum, mitis,' die, ' miserere Deus !' " 
 
 ADRIAN II. (Pope, 8G7— 872), suc- 
 ceeded Nicholas I. He did not seek the 
 dignity ; twice he had refused it ; and 
 nothing short of the universal cry could 
 now induce him to accept it. His election 
 furnishes a good illustration of the con- 
 nexion between the empire and the 
 priesthood. The ambassadors of Louis II. 
 complained that they had not been in- 
 vited to it: the reply was, that the 
 reason was not any want of respect, but 
 an apprehension lest the custom of 
 waiting for the imperial envoys should 
 become invariable, — a necessary con- 
 dition. The people wished Adrian to be 
 hnmecUatehj consecrated ; but this had 
 not been usual, it had been the excep- 
 tion to the rule : and the confirmation 
 of the emperor was solicited before it 
 took place. The period had not yet 
 arrived when the mitre was to be wholly 
 independent of the crown, still less when 
 it was to assume the disposal of the crown. 
 AVhen elected, Adrian had a wife; but 
 as required by the canons, he had long 
 separated from her; — he coidd not, in- 
 deed, exercise the functions of priest 
 until he had for ever promised to ab- 
 stain " ab usu matrimonii." Though 76, 
 he shewed great vigour of character. He 
 condemned Photius, patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople ; he held bold language to 
 the emperor Basil ; he procured the de- 
 position of Lambert, duke of Spoletto; 
 and he took a decisive part in the qiiar- 
 rels between the Carlovingian princes 
 of his time. He evidently aspired to 
 raise the altar above the throne. Hinc- 
 mar of Rheims did not hesitate to tell 
 him that he was stepping far beyond his 
 proper sphere. In other respects Adrian 
 was a good man ; he had great talents, 
 great virtues. Some of his letters are 
 stiU extant. (Baronius, Annales. Fleury, 
 
 T-Ijof T* CCiGS I 
 
 ADRIAN III. (Pope, 884—885), was 
 at variance, like his predecessor Mari- 
 nus, with the patriarch Photius, because 
 the latter rejected the doctrine that the 
 Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father 
 and the Son. 
 
 ADRIAN IV. (Pope, 1154 — 1159), 
 the only Englishman that ever ascended 
 the throne of St. Peter, was of very 
 humble extraction. His name was 
 Nicholas Breakspear, and his native 
 
ADR 
 
 ADR 
 
 place was Langley, near St. Albans. 
 Conformably with the custom of the 
 times, his father had become a lay- 
 brother of St. Albans ; and during his 
 childhood he himself was employed in 
 the menial offices of that celebrated esta- 
 blishment. Wishing to receive _ the 
 monastic habit, he applied to be admitted 
 to his novitiate ; but as he had received 
 little education, the abbot Richard told 
 him to attend the school longer, mitil he 
 were better qualified for admission. For 
 this the abbot is censured by Pitts ; but 
 the relation of Matthew Paris affords 
 no ground for the censure. Adrian, 
 however, left England in the hope that 
 he should be more fortunate abroad. 
 He traversed France, and entered the 
 monastery of St. Rufus, in Provence, 
 where he was received merely as a lay- 
 brother. But he applied himself dili- 
 gently to his studies ; and his progress 
 was rapid, and he became a favomite 
 of the monks, who admitted him into 
 their community. In 1137, they elected 
 him abbot. This election of a foreigner 
 gave umbrage to some of the monks ; 
 and they complained of him to pope 
 Eugenius III. Such complaints were, 
 and are, of frequent occm-rence in most 
 religious orders. The abbot went to 
 Rome to defend his own cause ; and he 
 was honourably acquitted by the pope, 
 who told the monks to return home, 
 and elect another superior with whom 
 they might be able, or rather with whom 
 they might be willing, to live in peace. 
 His preferment was now sure; in 1146 
 he was made cardinal bishop of Albano, 
 and sent as papal legate into Denmark 
 and Norway. In those regions, he la- 
 boured with much success to extirpate 
 the lingering traces of idolatry, and to 
 settle the infant chiuch. In 1154, he 
 was chosen successor to Anastasius, and 
 he took the name of Adrian IV. — a 
 name dear to the Italians. Robert, ab- 
 bot of St. Albans, accompanied by some 
 monks and three English bishops, arrived 
 at Rome to congratidate him by order 
 of Henry II. ; and they were the bearers 
 of rich presents. Some of them the pope 
 accepted ; the rest he refused ; nor could 
 he avoid observing with a smile, that 
 their present liberality formed a contrast 
 with their former want of it when they 
 had refused him the habit. However, 
 his good feeling prevailed over his re- 
 sentment ; and he exempted the monas- 
 tery from episcopal jurisdiction, by 
 placing it immediately under the holy 
 see. To Henry, on a subsequent occa- 
 118 
 
 sion, he granted permission to conquer 
 Ireland. Why Henry should apply for 
 it, and passively at least acquiesce in 
 the monstrous claim that all insular 
 kingdoms belonged to St. Peter, might 
 surprise us, if Ave v.'ere not aware how 
 easily he could sacrifice his policy to his 
 immediate interests. With equal vigour, 
 Adrian supported the interests, or we 
 shoidd rather say the pretensions, of the 
 church against Frederic Barbarossa. 
 With William, king of Sicily, he was 
 still more energetic : he raised troops, 
 marched against that monarch, and de- 
 feated Mm ; but in his tm-n he was de- 
 feated, besieged in Benevento, and 
 forced to grant more favourable condi- 
 tions than he wished. William, how- 
 ever, submitted to an annual tribute. 
 In his private life, Adrian was very re- 
 spectable : he was frug-al, simple, a lover 
 of truth, and a patron of merit. That 
 he found no joy in his elevation, is evi- 
 dent from his conversation with John of 
 Salisbury. He almost wished that he 
 had never left England. His great fault 
 was his high notion of the papal prero- 
 gatives. Some letters and sermons of 
 this pontiff remain ; he \vrote also an 
 account of his own legation into the 
 north, and a treatise on the Miraculous 
 Conception. (Baronius, Annales. Fleury, 
 Histoire. Biog. Britan.) 
 
 ADRIAN V. (Pope, 1276), a Ge- 
 noese, succeeded to Innocent V., but 
 reigned only one month. 
 
 ADRIAN VI. (Pope, 1522—1523), 
 a native of Utrecht, in 1459, was edu- 
 cated at Louvain, the highest dignities 
 of which he attained. As preceptor of 
 Charles V. he could not fail to expect 
 higher honours. By Fernando of Spain, 
 to whom he was sent ambassador by 
 Maximilian I., he was made bishop of 
 Tortosa : after Fernando 's death, he be- 
 came regent conjointly with cardinal 
 Ximenes ; and in 1517 he was himself 
 raised to that dignity. For the office of 
 regent, he had few qualifications : he 
 had little knowledge of the world, less of 
 the state of parties, less still of the Spa- 
 nish character ; yet, had he governed it 
 at a more fortunate period, his defects 
 would not have been perceived. He 
 was always sincere, always Avell-mean- 
 ing, always ready to do the best he 
 could. The civil war in Spain, raised 
 by the communeros, or advocates for 
 municipal freedom, against the authority 
 of the crown, gave him trouble enough : 
 had not Charles associated other persons 
 with him, the insuiTCction might have 
 
ADR 
 
 ADR 
 
 become too powerful to he crushed, even 
 by the lord of many kingdoms. At 
 length it was suppressed, and it was 
 scarcely so before he received the news 
 of his elevation to the pontifical throne, 
 through the influence of Charles. It 
 was unfortunate for him that he had to 
 govern a people so fond of pomp as the 
 Romans, and to succeed so splendid a 
 sovereign as Leo X. They were no judges 
 of his austere virtues, which they had 
 not principle enough to admire. His 
 frugality ; his parsimony even ; the re- 
 formations which he attempted amongst 
 the clergy, from the highest to the lowest 
 rank ; his admission, through his nuncio, 
 at the diet of Nuremberg, that the vices 
 of the church had produced the heresy 
 of Lvither ; his humility, his constant 
 piety, rendered him obnoxious to the 
 interested, to the worldly-minded, to 
 nearly all the inhabitants of Italy. But 
 the church was not long blessed with this 
 admirable pontiiF: in about a year he paid 
 the debt of nature, or he was poisoned. 
 " To the liberator of his country" was 
 written on the door-post of his physician, 
 who perhaps deserved the compliment. 
 Adrian wrote several works, chiefly phi- 
 losophical. Before his elevation to the 
 chair of St. Peter, he laid down the 
 maxim that popes might err even in 
 articles of faith : when pope, he re- 
 printed the work, and did not expunge the 
 maxim. (Robertson's Charles the Fifth. 
 Dunham's Spain and Portugal, vol. v.) 
 
 ADRIAN, the Carthusian, who lived 
 at a monastery of his order near Ger- 
 truydenberg, early in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, is the author of a moral work, 
 "Liber deRemediis utriusque Fortunee," 
 so rare as seldom to be seen. 
 
 ADRIAN, cardinal and bishop of 
 Wells, was a native of Cornetto, a small 
 town in Tuscany. He studied at Rome, 
 where he distinguished himself, and 
 where his merit was rewarded. By 
 Boniface VIII. he Avas sent as nuncio 
 into Scotland ; but passing through Eng- 
 land, the disturbed state of that kingdom 
 prevented his proceeding to his destina- 
 tion. At the recommendation of Morton, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, he Avas ap- 
 pointed the agent of our Henry VII. at 
 Rome. As a reward for his services, he 
 was presented successively with the 
 bishoprics of Hereford and Wells. But 
 he did not reside in his sees, and his 
 duties, like his enthronement, were per- 
 formed by proxy. By Alexander VI. he 
 was invested with several dignities, and 
 at length with the pui-ple. His riches 
 119 
 
 excited, we are told, the cupidity of 
 Caesar Borgia, who caused poison to be 
 administered to him ; but he recovered. 
 Subsequently he was compelled to leave 
 Rome, and was, it is said, degraded from 
 the purple. Of his end we have no cer- 
 tain account ; but the public opinion is, 
 that he was slain by one of his servants 
 who coveted his wealth. Adrian wrote 
 two good works, — De Vera Philosophia, 
 which is a religious ti"eatise, and De Ser- 
 mone Latino, which is a history of that lan- 
 guage. He also wrote some Latin poetry. 
 
 ADRIAN, or ADRIANSEN, (C. 1521 
 — 1581,) a native of Dordrecht, entered 
 the order of St. Francis, interfered in the 
 political affairs of the Netherlands, 
 always adhered to the successful party, 
 and was always worthless. 
 
 ADRIAN, the first bishop of St. An- 
 drew's, in Scotland, killed by the Danes, 
 A.D. 872. (Spottiswood.) 
 
 ADRIAN I. Of this name we shall 
 select three Italians only. 
 
 1. Marcello VmjUio, (14G1 — 1521,) 
 professor and chancellor of the Florentine 
 republic ; is chiefly known for a transla- 
 tion of Dioscorides, with a Commentary. 
 
 2. Giovanni Batista, (1513 — 1579,) 
 son of the preceding, first a soldier, next 
 a professor of eloquence ; wrote a His- 
 tory of his Times, which may be called 
 a continuation of Guicciardini's, and 
 wliich has received miich praise. He 
 also composed the funeral oration of 
 three princes — Cosmo I. Charles V. and 
 Ferdinand I. 
 
 3. Marcello, (1533—1604,) son of the 
 preceding, professor of belles lettres in 
 the imiversity of Florence ; published 
 the History of his Father, translated the 
 Morals of Plutarch and another Avork from 
 the Greek, and Avrote some Lectures on 
 the Education of the Nobles of Florence. 
 
 ADRIANO, (d. 1630,) of Cordova, a 
 barefooted Carmelite who bad a great taste 
 for painting. His Crucifixion remains. 
 
 ADRIANSEN, (Alexander,) a Flemish 
 painter, famous for representing fish ; b. 
 about 1625. 
 
 ADRICHOMIUS, (C. 1533—1585,) a 
 native of Delft in Holland, became a 
 Roman-catholic priest, and AA'rote two 
 Avell knoAvn Avorks, — Vita Jesu Christi, 
 and Theatrum Terrae Sanctae. 
 
 In the same centiuy lived a Dutchman 
 of this name, Cornelio Adricomia, whom 
 Bayle has praised for his knoAvledge of the 
 ancient languages, history, and theology. 
 
 ADRY, (J.F. 1749— 1818,) a native 
 of Burgundy, and a priest of the Oratory, 
 became librarian of his order at Paris, 
 
A Dll 
 
 yE G I 
 
 which post he filled until the Revolution 
 deprived him of this employment. Then 
 commenced his privations, and he woidd 
 probahly have died of want, had not pri- 
 vate friendship found the way to relieve 
 his necessities without hurting his feel- 
 ings, lie is known both as an author 
 and as the editor of republications, to 
 which he affixed very good prefoces,- and 
 which he frequently accompanied by 
 notes. He wrote several treatises on 
 biographical subjects, and two or three 
 elementary ones. Some valuable biblio- 
 graphical books also were left by him in 
 MS. which it would be desirable to have 
 published. See a catalogue of them in 
 the Suppl. to Biog. Univ. 
 
 ADSON, (Hermer,) a native of the 
 Jm-a mountains, who flourished in the 
 tenth centiu-y, was educated in the mo- 
 nastery of Luxexiil. In that celebrated 
 house he assumed the cowl, and became 
 its thirty-sixth abbot, according to tlie 
 catalogue of Dunod; yet since the founda- 
 tion of the monastery by Columbanus, 
 scarcely three centuries had elapsed ; and 
 we can only account for this number by 
 the probable conjecture that the monks 
 elected to the abbacy were generally 
 advanced in years. The school attached 
 to this religious foundation enjoyed con- 
 siderable celebrity ; and Adson was soli- 
 cited by several bishops to place those 
 of their dioceses under similar regula- 
 tions. He died in 992. Of his writings, 
 the most valuable were the lives of some 
 saints, of which most are probably lost. 
 That of St. Mansuetus, bishop of Toul, 
 is in the Thesaurus Novus Anecdotorum 
 of JMartene ; that of St. Walbert is in 
 the collection of Mabillon ; and there is 
 a Treatise on Antichrist, supposed to be 
 his, in most editions of Alcuin and of 
 Rabanus Maurus. A list of his works 
 may be found in Cave, Hist. Lit. 
 
 ADVENIER FONTENELLE, (H. A. 
 1773 — 1827,) a French engineer attached 
 to the army, and subsequently examiner 
 of accounts, wrote some entertaining 
 pieces for the stage. 
 
 ADVENTIUS, 'bishop of Metz, (855 
 — 875,) was a prelate who had much 
 concern in the political and religious 
 affairs of his time. The part, however, 
 which he took in the divorce of Lothaire 
 from Theutberga, and the marriage of 
 that monarch witli Waldrad, do little 
 honour to his memory. He was one of 
 the churchmen who sacrificed conscience 
 to the pleasure of a king. By pope Ni- 
 cholas I. he was degraded, but at the 
 instance of Charles the Bald, restored. 
 120 
 
 iEACIDES, son of Arymbas king of 
 the Molossi, succeeded to the throne after 
 the death of Alexander, brother-in-law 
 of Philip king of Macedon, on whom the 
 Molossians were dependent. Influenced 
 by Olympias, the mother of Alexander 
 the Great, his conduct gave offence to his 
 subjects and allies, and he fell in battle 
 against those v/ho laboured to prevent 
 his retin-n to Epirus. 
 
 jEDESIUS, of Cappadocia, an ascetic 
 philosopher, who, preferring wisdom to 
 riches, was expelled from the paternal 
 roof; but his father at length consented 
 to receive him, and even sanctioned the 
 continuance of his studies. Having made 
 great progress in them, he repaired to 
 Syria, became the disciple of Jamblichus 
 the Chalcidian, and obtained considerable 
 renown. On the death of the master, 
 he was forced to become head of that 
 pagan school, — no enviable dignity, con- 
 sidering the active persecution which 
 at that very moment Constantine the 
 Great was carrying on against all pagan 
 philosophers. Removing to Pergamos, 
 success still more splendid attended his 
 instructions. Chrysanthus, Maximus of 
 Ephesus, Eusebius, and the emperor 
 Julian, were his disciples. 
 
 iEGEATES, (John,) a Nestorian 
 monk, probably of the fifth century. He 
 wrote an ecclesiastical history, wliich is 
 lost, except a small fragment. 
 
 iEGIDIUS, a Benedictine monk, a na- 
 tive of Athens, flourished in the eighth 
 century. To him is sometimes ascribed 
 an obscene medical poem. 
 
 iEGIDIUS, a deacon and poet of 
 Paris, who flourished in the thirteenth 
 century. He \vrote a history of the first 
 crusade to Jerusalem, which is in the 
 collection of Duchesne. 
 
 iEGIDIUS, (John,) a native of St. 
 Albans, was educated at Paris, and was 
 the first Englishman that joined the Do- 
 minicans. He taught and lectured in the 
 two schools of his order at Oxford. By 
 Grossetete bishop of Lincoln, he was 
 removed, and made assistant of that pre- 
 late in the administration of his diocese. 
 
 tEGIDIUS, (Peter,) of Antwerp, 
 edited the Latin poems of Politian. 
 
 Another iEgidius, (Gabriel,) who lived 
 in the seventeenth century, ^\Tote two 
 philosophical works. Many of this name 
 might be enumerated, but they scarcely 
 deserve to be rescued from oblivion. 
 
 ^GIDIUS A COLUMN A. SeeCo- 
 LONNA (Giles). 
 
 iEGIDIUS CORDUBENSIS. See 
 Giles of Cordova, 
 
MGl 
 
 JEL¥ 
 
 JEGIMVS, a Greek physician, anterior 
 perhaps to Hippocrates. According to 
 Galen, he was the first that reduced pid- 
 sation to a science. 
 
 JELF, (Samuel,) a learned Swedish 
 theologian of the last century, pi'ofessor at 
 Upsal. He wrote some good Latin poetry. 
 
 ^LFRIC, (964—1051, also written 
 Alfric or Elfric,) a famous ecclesiastic of 
 the tenth and eleventh centuries, to whom 
 ■we owe a large portion of the Anglo-Saxon 
 literature that has come down to us. His 
 history is involved in considerahle ob- 
 scurity, but has within the last few years 
 been much illustrated in a treatise, pub- 
 lished without the author's name, luider 
 the title of Antient History, English and 
 French, exemplified in a regidar Dissec- 
 tion of the Saxon Chronicle ; London, 
 1 830. Some further light has been thrown 
 upon the subject by Mr. Soames in his 
 Anglo-Saxon Church. He appears to 
 have been born about the year 965, appa- 
 rently not earlier than 964, but of his 
 parents nothing whatever is known. His 
 education was begun imder a clergyman of 
 but meagre attainments, as we may learn 
 from the Preface to his Translation of 
 Genesis ; but he seems at a proper age 
 to have been removed to Winchester, and 
 to have finished his studies in the cele- 
 brated school there established by I)ishop 
 Ethelwold, then in his old age. Ethel- 
 wold delighted in the work of instructing 
 young persons who were willing to learn, 
 and his kindness seems to have made a 
 deep impression upon the mind of young 
 Alfric, who ever after remembered him 
 with the greatest tenderness and vene- 
 ration. Ethelwold had been zealous in 
 establishing the Benedictines in the 
 place of the SaeciUars, and his pupil 
 warmly espoused his principles ; he 
 strongly advocated the monastic system, 
 and entertained high prejudices against 
 married clergy. Indeed he seems to 
 have imagined that without the rule of 
 St. Benedict, good ministerial qualifica- 
 tions were altogether unattainable. As 
 he appears to have been a man of sober 
 mind, it is probable that his preference 
 for the monastic party was not founded on 
 mere prejudice, but on what he thought 
 substantial reasons. Possibly their great 
 services to literature may have influenced 
 his judgment ; for however it may be 
 the fashion of the present age to ridicide 
 monkery and monks, it is quite certain that 
 both for literature and the seminaries of 
 literature, we and their contemporaries 
 are deeply their debtors. His studies at 
 Winchester he seems to have prosecuted 
 121 
 
 with diligence and success, as we find 
 him occupying an honorary rank among 
 the monks, though what rank is here de- 
 nominated by the word " proepositus,"* it 
 is perhaps impossible now to ascertain. 
 The venerable Ethelwold had been ga- 
 thered to his fathers in 984, according to 
 the Saxon Chronicle, and was succeeded 
 by St. Elphegus, by whom Alfric was 
 selected to govern the abbey of Cernc, in 
 Dorsetshire, lately founded by Ethehnar, 
 earl of Cornwall. Thither then he went 
 in the year (according to Wharton) 987. 
 Here, beside his regular duties, he ini- 
 dertook and completed a work of great 
 general utility. The clergy were bound 
 both by usage and law to give a sermon 
 every Sunday; and this must have been 
 a task to M'hich comparatively few, iu 
 that unhappy period of English his- 
 tory, were reasonably competent. lEA- 
 fric accordingly selected and translated 
 forty homilies from the works of St. Au- 
 giistine, St. Jerome, Vcn. Bede, St. Gre- 
 gory, Smaragdus, and Hajmio, which he 
 submitted to Sigeric archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, by whom they were approved, 
 and their use authorized. These were 
 followed l)y forty more, which were 
 equally successful. It was probably dur- 
 ing his residence at Cerne, that he was 
 I'equested by his diocesan, Wulsinus, 
 bishop of Sherborn, to compose a sum- 
 maiy of useful information, by way of a 
 circular to the clergy. This, like his 
 Paschal Sermon, is particvdarly valuable, 
 as containing a direct and strong testi- 
 mony against the Tridentine dogma of 
 transubstantiation. His words are trans- 
 lated from Rabanus Maunis ; they arc 
 at variance ^vith Rome, and precisely in 
 unison with the doctrine of the Anglican 
 Church. There is extant in the Bodleian an 
 epistle to Wulstan II. archbishop of York, 
 similar to that to Wulsinus (which latter 
 has been frequently printed), containing 
 an equally decisive contradiction to tlie 
 Romish dogma. He also translated several 
 parts of the Holy Scripture. The vener- 
 able Ethelwold, before he died, had re- 
 stored the abbey of Peterborough, then 
 called Medehainpstead, and sometimes 
 Burch, which had lain near a century in 
 ruins, since its destruction by the sons of 
 Ragnar Lodbrog. Hither was iElfric 
 translated with the title of abbot in the 
 year 1004-5. Here he seems to have 
 composed his Latin Grammar in the 
 Saxon language, and here he completed 
 his Life of Ethelwold. The date of this 
 
 • Whartcn considers the word to mean ■' abbot," 
 but there r.cver was an abbot of Wincliester. 
 
MLF 
 
 ^LF 
 
 lattei- work is fixed by its being addressed 
 to Kenulf, bishop of Winchester, who 
 held the see but one year, and died in 
 July 1006. He was iElfric's predecessor 
 at Peterborough. It was here probably 
 that he wrote his Glossary, and also pro- 
 duced a body of monastic discipline, and 
 other pieces. The learned energy of his 
 earlier years has indeed rarely been siur- 
 passed ; and though, like other Anglo- 
 Saxons, he wrote but little quite original, 
 yet, considering the time of his appear- 
 ance, he has fully earned a foremost rank 
 in the Hterature of England. 
 
 Dm'ing his abode at Peterborough he 
 seems to have been much endangered by 
 a party of plundering Danes, but escaped 
 safely in the escort of queen Emma, the 
 wife of Ethelred, over into the dominions 
 of Richard, duke of Normandy, a. d. 
 1013. Ethelred's sending his queen 
 under the care of ^Ifric and Alfhun, 
 bishop of London (some say Alfdun, 
 bishop of Durham) into Normandy, was 
 but a preparatory step to his going thither 
 himself. How long JElMc remained on 
 the continent we cannot accurately ascer- 
 tain ; but it cannot have been very long, 
 since in the year 1023 we find that his 
 remarkable qualifications had, if one may 
 judge from the language used, for some 
 time attracted the attention of the shrewd 
 and discerning Canute, under whom he 
 was promoted to the archbishopric of 
 York, and in 1026 went to Rome and 
 received his pall at the hands of the 
 sovereign pontiff John XVIII. on the 
 12th of November. With the arch- 
 bishopric of York he probably held the 
 bishopric of Worcester also, as had been 
 done by the three preceding archbishops. 
 Worcester catliedral had been con- 
 verted into a Benedictine abbey, which 
 York had not ; and these archbishops, 
 being Benedictine monks, held in com- 
 mendam a see which offered them a 
 cathedral where they might reside in 
 their character of abbot. He seems, 
 however, to have resigned Worcester 
 about 1034, in which see he was suc- 
 ceeded by Britegus. The archbishopric 
 of York he held a quarter of a century, 
 and died at Southwell, in the year 1051. 
 His remains were interred in his own 
 abbey of Peterborough. His ashes ap- 
 pear to have been once translated ; for 
 dm-ing the atrocities of the rebellion, 
 Cromwell quartered himself at Peter- 
 borough in the summer of 1643, where 
 he sacked and spoiled the church, level- 
 ling the high altar, a beautifully curved 
 structure, with the ground. In 1651 
 122 
 
 the munificence of a private individual 
 undertook, not indeed to restore the altar 
 to its former condition, but to level the 
 steps with the pavement of the chou', and 
 thus remove the appearance of violence. 
 The removal of this brought to light two 
 chests of about three feet long each, one 
 of which contained the bones of Kinsinus, 
 archbishop of York, and the other those 
 of jElfric, as appeared by the inscriptions 
 upon them. Their original coffins must, 
 of course, have been larger ; on which 
 account it is considered that they were 
 translated ; and indeed this is clear, for 
 Abbot John mentions that in his time 
 they were enshrined. The shrines, accord- 
 ing to Patrick (who wrote in 1686), still 
 remain just northward of the high altar. 
 
 His character was upright and honour- 
 able in the highest degree, and his dili- 
 gence and learning prodigious : in spite, 
 however, of his vigorous understanding, 
 he is said to have put fidl faith in the 
 miraculous privileges of relics, and to 
 have been a diligent collector of them. 
 In addition to the works already men- 
 tioned, he appears to be the author of a 
 considerable portion of the Saxon Chro- 
 nicle. His treatise on the Old and New 
 Testament has been printed by L'Isle, as 
 also the Paschal Homily, and a part of 
 the Epistle to Wulsinus ; the whole of 
 which last is given in Latin in the ninth 
 volume of Cossart and Labbeus's General 
 Councils. His translations from the Old 
 Testament are published by Thwaites ; 
 and the preface to the book of Genesis 
 has been reprinted in Thorpe's Analecta. 
 There are said to be a treatise on the 
 Marriage of the Clergy, a translation of 
 St. Gregory's Dialogues, several Lives of 
 Saints, a Penitential, and many other 
 works by him in the different MS. libra- 
 ries of this kingdom. Singular as it may 
 appear, the history of this great man is 
 involved in much obscurity ; and, con- 
 sidering the fame and voluminousness of 
 ^Ifric, and that Osbern and Malmesbiuy 
 lived but shortly after him, it seems dif- 
 ficult to acquit them of a deliberate in- 
 tention to suppress his memory, and bury 
 his very name under a mass of confusion 
 and uncertainty. The evidence of this is 
 traced by the ingenious author of the 
 Dissection of the Sax. Chron., but cannot 
 be entered into in a work like the pre- 
 sent ; suffice it here to say that both were 
 adherents of Lanfranc, and the new Nor- 
 man theology, and therefore bitterly op- 
 posed to the catholic doctrine of the 
 Eucharist, so powerfully maintained by 
 iElfric. Those who desire to see how 
 
M L F 
 
 ^LI 
 
 his writings have been treated, are re- 
 ferred both to the little book above cited, 
 and especially to Mr. Soames's Bampton 
 Lectures, p. 428 — 442, in which work 
 some other of his homilies are printed. 
 (See also Cave, Hist. Lit. ii. 108.) 
 
 ^LFRIC. Another ecclesiastic, partly 
 cotemporary with, frequently confounded 
 with, the preceding. Like the great 
 JEAiv'ic he seems to have been a disciple 
 of Ethelwold, though not at Winchester. 
 Ethelwold was then abbot of the newly- 
 restored abbey of Abingdon ; and on his 
 removal to the see of Wincliester in 963, 
 jElfric succeeded him at Abmgdon. We 
 meet with nothing else concerning him 
 tiU the year 990, when he was pre- 
 ferred to the bishopric of Wiltun, and 
 thence, in 996, to the arcliiepiscopal see 
 of Canterbury. In the succeeding year 
 he proceeded to Rome to receive his pall 
 from pope Gregory V. and died in the 
 year 1005, and was biu'ied at his monas- 
 tery of Abingdon. He diligently sup- 
 ported the monks against the seculars. 
 
 .iELFRIC, surnamed Bata. This per- 
 son is mentioned by Hickes as a disciple 
 of the great jElfric, and a very infei'ior 
 man : but little is known of the particu- 
 lars of his life ; he lias, however, pre- 
 served to us a document which illustrates 
 the Anglo-Saxon method of teaching. It 
 is a colloquy in Latin between a master 
 and his pupils, written originally by the 
 great jElfric, for the purpose of teaching 
 children Latin, and was afterwards con- 
 siderably enlarged by Bata. It has been 
 printed by Mr. Thorpe in his Analecta, 
 and is accompanied by an interlinear 
 Anglo - Saxon gloss, thus facilitating 
 to the learner the acquisition of the 
 Latin language by means of a Hamil- 
 tonian version. It would seem, however, 
 that jElfric Bata was no contemptible 
 opponent to the new Romish theology of 
 the Normans, for he is attacked by Os- 
 berne with a foolish story, in which the 
 gliost of St. Dunstan is represented as 
 appearing, and stating, as the cause of 
 the usual miracles at his tomb being sus- 
 pended, that he had been absent oppos- 
 ing jElfric Bata, who was endeavom-ing 
 to disinherit the church of God. Os- 
 bcrne's object in making this tale was 
 evidently to brand indirectly the name of 
 ^Ifric with heresy, which he dared not 
 do openly. jElfric Bata calls himself a 
 monk, though the abbey to wiiich he 
 belonged, as well as the dates of his 
 birth and death, are a matter of uncer- 
 tainty. Mr. Sharon Turner makes jElfric 
 Bata the preceptor, and not the disciple 
 123 
 
 of .(Elfric of York. (Ang. Sax. torn. iii. 
 p. 424.) Bata, however, himself states 
 the contrary ; and, moreover, had the 
 case been as Mr. Turner states, he could 
 not have lived long enough to move the 
 hatred of Osberne. 
 
 jELIAN. History has recorded four 
 individuals of tliis name, 
 
 1. jEUanus Meccius, a physician, who 
 lived in the time of Hadi'ian, He was 
 the first to employ medicinal preparations 
 of poisonous animals to act as an antidote 
 for the plague, as we learn from Galen 
 (T. xiii. p. 963, ed. Charter,) who there 
 speaks in high terms of his oldest master. 
 
 2. jnUanus Claudius, who wrote a 
 work on Military Tactics, which he dedi- 
 cated to Hadrian. It was held in such 
 esteem in former times, that the emperor 
 Leo transcribed whole passages out of it, 
 when giving instructions for the military 
 department of the government. It was 
 first edited by Robertelli (Ven. 1515), 
 then by Meursius (Lugd. Bat. 1613), with 
 the notes of Sixtus Arcerius. It was 
 translated into Italian by Lilio Carani, 
 (Fiorenze, 1552;) into French, by Louis 
 de Machault, at the end of his Polybius, 
 (Par. 1615;) and by Bouchard de Bussy, 
 (Par. 1757;) and into English, by Bing- 
 ham, (Lond. 1616,) and by Visct. Dillon, 
 (Lend. 1814.) To use the language of 
 Bingham in liis dedication to prince Mau- 
 rice of Nassau, " In a little volume is so 
 expressed the whole art, that nothing is 
 more short, nothing more Unked toge- 
 ther, in coherence of precepts, and yet 
 distinguished with such variety, that all 
 the motions requisite to be used in a 
 battle are fully expressed therein." Pot- 
 ter, in his Antiquities of Greece, has 
 made a considei'able use of Bingham's 
 book, which is full of learned and valu- 
 able matter, as remarked by Visct. Dillon ; 
 who has appended to his version of the 
 Greek, a translation of the Memorial 
 Topographique et Militaire redige au 
 Depot Genei-al de la Guerre. The cata- 
 logue, with which it concludes, lays down 
 the most complete course of reathng for 
 those desirous of studying the art of war 
 scientifically. The same jElian wrote, he 
 says himself, a work on Naval Tactics ; 
 but which is no longer in existence. 
 
 3. This is the author of the History 
 of Animals, the Various History, and 
 the Treatise on Providence. Of these 
 Avorks, the first has, with the exception 
 of a few lacume, come down 'to us in its 
 oi-iginal form. It commences with a 
 Prologue and finishes with an Epilogue, 
 and runs through seventeen books. The 
 
M L I 
 
 ^LT 
 
 Var. Hist, contains only fourteen ; and 
 even of these, according to Kulni, merely 
 some extracts have been preserved, as 
 shown by the compiler's usual 'Oti, 
 found at the commencement of many 
 chapters. It is quoted by Steph. Byz. 
 (in Xeppovr](Tos), and by Lactantius 
 (Divin. Instit. i.) It seems to have been 
 little else than a common-place book 
 similar to the Apophtliegms of Plutarch, 
 and has been called the first of the -ana ; 
 and though the author is frequently con- 
 tent to retail in his own language what 
 he found in other writers, the work is 
 not without its use, as it commmiicates 
 some facts not mentioned elsewhere. Of 
 the treatise, Ilept Ylpovoias, or Ylepi 
 Qeicov Evepyeicov, nearly the whole has 
 been handed down m the numerous frag- 
 ments preserved by Suidas, (Herodot. 
 vii. 11. n. 10.) Its object was to prove, 
 what the Epicureans denied, the ex- 
 istence of a Providence. The account 
 given by Philostratus (Vit. Soph.) of 
 ./Elian is, that although he was by 
 birth a Roman, he wrote with all the 
 purity of an Athenian ; and though he 
 was hailed by the honourable name of 
 sophist, he bore liis faculties meekly ; and 
 that, conscious of his unfitness to appear 
 in public as a declaimer, he applied liim- 
 self to compositions in the closet, where 
 he exhibited the ease of Nicostratus and 
 the strength of Dio. Of these composi- 
 tions, one seems to have been an invec- 
 tive against a recently deceased tyrant, — 
 according to Pei'izonius, Elagabalus ; and 
 when ^lian had read it with great spirit, 
 and at the pitch of his voice, to the elder 
 Philostratus, the latter observed, "that a 
 child could trample on a dead tyrant, but 
 a man shoidd cut up a living one." We 
 learn, moreover, from the younger Phi- 
 lostratus, that iElian had been the pupil 
 of Pausanias ; was a great admirer of 
 Herodes Atticus ; and that so far from 
 venturing upon a voyage, he had never 
 put his foot on board a vessel, and knew 
 notb.ing of the sea but from hearsay. 
 According to Suidas, however, ^Elian was 
 born at Prseneste ; while the author of 
 the Var. Hist. (xii. 25 ; xiv. 45,) calls 
 himself a Roman ; and in Hist. Anim. 
 (xi. 40,) testifies that he had been to 
 Alexandria, and saw there the five-footed 
 bidl, sacred to Serapis. To solve the 
 difficulty, Perizonius conceives that Phi- 
 lostratus has written with his usual care- 
 lessness ; while Jacobs (Prcef.iElian. H.A. 
 p. 37) fancies that the work on Na- 
 tural History was written at a period of 
 iElian's life later than that to which Phi- 
 124 
 
 lostratus alludes. Valckenaer (Phalarid. 
 Epist. Pnef.) supposes the two works to 
 be written by different persons, despite 
 the resemblance which Perizonius, with 
 whom Jacobs agrees, has noticed in their 
 style and sentiments. This opinion, 
 says Wyttenbach, (Biblioth. Crit. iii. 4. 
 12. p. 16,) Valckenaer would have repu- 
 diated on second thoughts. Bernhardy, 
 on the other hand, conceives (Syntax, 
 p. 37, n. 61,) that it is the only correct 
 view of the matter. But how much soever 
 the learned may differ on this point, all 
 have been ready to adopt the notion of 
 Perizonius, that the iElian to whom 
 Philostratus alludes did not live under 
 Hadrian, to whom the writer on Tactics 
 dedicated his work, but imder Alexander 
 Severus. This, says Perizonius, is evi- 
 dent from considering that Philostratus 
 takes the sophists in their chronological 
 order, from the time of Hadrian to that 
 of Alexander Sevenis ; and as ^Elian is 
 preceded by Philiscus and followed by 
 Heliodorus and Aspasius, the last of 
 whom was a fellow-disciple of Pausanias, 
 the Greek traveller, who is known to have 
 lived in the time of Severus, the period 
 of JElian is fixed at once. Kayser, how- 
 ever, asserts that Perizonius is completely 
 mistaken ; that the Pausanias alluded to 
 is not the traveller, but the sophist of 
 Caesarea, a pupil of Herodes Atticus ; and 
 that the words of Suidas, em tcov fxfra 
 Adpiuvov y(pov(iiv refer to the sophist 
 Adrian, and not the emperor of that 
 name. But in that case the Greek would 
 have been tTrt rav fiera tov ABpiavov 
 Xpovcov — •to distinguish the individual 
 from the emperor, whose name is always 
 used in such a formida without the arti- 
 cle ; and were the fact other\vise, yet 
 as the editor of Philostratus has not de- 
 stroyed the argument drawn from the 
 chronological order in which the lives 
 are arranged, it is not likely that he 
 will make many converts to his opinion. 
 The editions of the Var. Hist, are — by 
 Kuhn,' Argentor. 1685; by Perizonius, 
 Lugd. Bat. 1701, and by Gronovius, Lugd. 
 Bat. 1731, 4to, which contains all that 
 is found in the other two, and something 
 to boot ; while those of the Natur. Animal, 
 are by Gronovius, Lond. 1744, re- 
 printed at Basle, 1750; by Coray, in 
 his IIpo8poiiosBilS\io6T]K. 'EXXrjviK. Par.; 
 and by Jacobs, Jena, 1822, which is 
 in reality an improved reprint of Schneid- 
 er's, Lips. 1784, and is particularly valu- 
 able for the collations of several MSS. 
 and the imedited notes of Reiske. 
 
 4. The last jElian was a general in the 
 
-SL I 
 
 ^NE 
 
 time of Valens, as we learn from a frag- 
 ment of Eunapius, preserved by Suidas 
 (in AiXiavos and AvearTjKoys). He was 
 bom at Syedi-a, a town of Isauria ; v/as 
 of great bodily strength, and of such de- 
 cision as to make action follow close 
 upon council ; nor did he suffer the rough- 
 ness of the soldier to be enervated by the 
 cultivated education of the citizen. 
 
 To the preceding must be added the 
 unknown author of the Letters published 
 by Aldus, Ven. 1499, 4to. These are said 
 by Anthon (Lempriere) to be on rural 
 affairs ; but they are in fact merely ima- 
 ginary letters from persons living in the 
 countrj^, and similar to those of Alci- 
 phro and Aristeenetus. They are evi- 
 dently a cento from Greek comedy, and 
 have been applied by Bergler for the 
 illusti-ation of Aristophanes, oftener than 
 once. The 18th Letter, especially, was 
 probably taken entirely from the Tfcopyoi 
 of Menander. Jacobs attributes them to the 
 author of the Var. Hist, and Hist. Anim. 
 ^LIUS SEXTUS POETUS CATUS, 
 a celebrated jurisconsult, was consul 
 A. u. c. 556, at the conclusion of the 
 second Punic war. He had previously 
 served the ofRce of edile with consider- 
 able reputation. 
 
 jELRED. See Ethelred. 
 ^LST, or AALST, (Evert Van, 1602 
 — 1658,) a Dutch painter, a native of 
 Delft. He was famous for his paintings 
 of game, fish, vases, &c. 
 
 jELST, (WilHam Van, 1620—1679,) 
 nephew of the preceding, also a native 
 of Delft, and a painter in the same line 
 of art, but of greater repute. In Am- 
 sterdam, where he lived in the latter 
 part of his life, he could hardly satisfy the 
 demand for his paintings. (Bryan's Diet.) 
 jEMILIA, (Juliana, 1637—1706,) 
 countess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, a 
 Gennan poetess. She was the daughter 
 of Count Barby, and married the Count 
 of Scliw.-Rudolstadt in 1665. She wrote 
 many h3'mns, which she was too modest 
 to acknowledge in her lifetime. About 
 400 (some say 600) of her compositions 
 appeared in The Spiritual Bridal Attire 
 of the Friend of the Lamb ; Rudolstadt, 
 1714 (Geistlicher Brautschmuck der 
 Freundin des Lammes) ; and The Daily 
 Morning and Evening Sacrifice ; Rudol- 
 stadt, 1699. There is a dispute as to 
 the authorship of the pleasing hymn be- 
 ginning " Wer weiss wie nahe mir mein 
 ende " (Who knows how near my end 
 may be), whether it is hers or Dr. Pfeff- 
 erkom's. (Wolff, Cyclopadie.) Chev. 
 Bunsen (Versuch eines Allgemeinen 
 125 
 
 Gesang-und-Gebet Buch, p. 887) v.'ho 
 assigns it to her, says it was written on 
 the sudden death of the Duke of Sach- 
 sen-eisenach. He has inserted it, with 
 fom- more of her hymns, in his volume. 
 Her poetry is simple, and the sentiments 
 pious and good, but sometimes deficient 
 in spirit. (Wolfl", Bunsen.) 
 
 jEMILIANUS. See Emilianus. 
 
 ^MILIUS. See Emilius. 
 
 EMILIA GENS. See Lepidus— 
 ScAURus — Paullus. 
 
 EMILIUS, (Antony, 1589 — 1660,) 
 professor of history at Dordi-echt, who 
 succeeded Vossius, is known as a com- 
 mentator on the Annals of Tacitus. 
 
 Another writer of this name, a kins- 
 man of Luther, wrote Latin verses, and 
 even translated the Gospels into heroic 
 metre — Evangelica Heroico Carmine red- 
 dita ; which has been often reprinted. 
 
 ^NEiE, (Henry, 174,3—1812,) a na- 
 tive of Frisia, and a philosophei-, who 
 wrote little, but whose name will be re- 
 membered in Holland. 
 
 ^NEAS GAZ^US. Of this Chris- 
 tian philosopher, who lived, as remarked 
 by Bellarmine, (De Scriptor. Ecclesiast. 
 p. 129,) towards the end of the fifth cen- 
 tury, in the time of the emperor Zeno, 
 there is only a single dialogue remaining, 
 under the title of Theophrastus, on the im- 
 mortality of the soul. The original Greek 
 was first printed by Gesner, together 
 with Canon. Apostol. et Veter. Concilior. ; 
 Ignatii Epistol. ; Athenagoras Apolog. ; 
 Demetrii Cydon. de Morte Contem- 
 nenda ; Hermise Irrisi. ; and Agapeti 
 Diacon. Capit. Admonit ; (Tiguri, 1559 ;) 
 from whence it was reprinted in the 
 Bibliotheca Patrum. Its latest editor 
 was Caspar Barthius, Eques ; who pub- 
 lished it with the Dialogue of Zacharias, 
 bishop of Mitylene, De Opiflcio Mundi ; 
 Lips. 1655. Clavier (Biographic Univer- 
 selle) wished that some scholar Avoidd 
 give a new edition of a treatise, wiitten 
 in rather a good style, and containing 
 not uninteresting matter, especially as 
 there is an excellent MS. of it in the 
 Royal library at Paris. Whoever under- 
 takes the work, we may add, should 
 compare carefully the Latin version of 
 Ambrosius Camaldulensis, printed at 
 Venice in 1513 ; as it was evidently made 
 from a more complete MS. than the one 
 from which Gesner printed the original 
 Greek. Of this fact, Barthius was not 
 ignorant ; who, in p. 59, might have 
 elicited from the Latin of Ambrose, — 
 " Enimvero Atticus ille priscus, Platonis 
 imprimis studiosus amator," the Greek of 
 
yE N E 
 
 iERT 
 
 Gazaeus, 6 8e TraXaios eneivos Attikos, 
 6 Tov TiKarcovos epacnrjs, — where the 
 Vulgate has^o be ivoKvs kul Attikos ; — 
 although it is true, as remarked by Bar- 
 thius, that the philosopher Atticus, who 
 is supposed to he H erodes Atticus, could 
 scarcely he called " the old" by an author 
 who lived only foui* centuries after him. 
 It is to be hoped, therefore, that the MS. 
 to which Clavier alludes will oiFer to 
 Boissonade, (who, as stated in his edition 
 of Theophylacti Simocattte Epistolae, in- 
 tends to publish iEneas Gazseus and 
 Psellus,) a better reading than the Vulgate 
 iToXvs, our TTuKaios, and the 7Tpor]Kos 
 which is found, says Barthius, elsewhere. 
 Of the value of the Paris MS. some spe- 
 cimens are given by Boissonade, in his 
 Anecdota. The Dialogue was translated 
 into French, as stated by Verdier, (Bibl. 
 Gall. p. IG,) and appeared in German at 
 Frankfort, 1671. To the same author are 
 attributed some of the Epistolaa Grreca- 
 nicEe, published by Aldus at Rome, 1499 j 
 and which, says Fabricius, (Bibl. Gr. 
 ii. 10,) were imjustly considered spurious 
 by Barthius, (Adversar. iii. 20.) 
 
 ^NEAS SYLVIUS. See Pius II. 
 ^NEAS TACTICUS. Of the period 
 when this writer lived, nothing is known 
 for certain. Hoffman (Lexicon Univer- 
 sale) says he flourished in the time of 
 Aristotle. Casaubon, who first published 
 the original Greek at the end of his 
 Polybius, (Paris, 1609,) thinks it not 
 improbable that he is the ^neas of 
 Stymphale, mentioned by Xenophon. 
 (H. Gr. vii. 3. 1.) His work, to which 
 allusion is made by Polybius, (x. p. 615. 
 A.) was abridged, says Suidas, by Cineas 
 the Thessalian, for the use of Pyn-hus, 
 king of Epirus ; and it is probably the 
 abridgment only which is now extant. 
 The latest edition of it was published by 
 Conrad Orelli, under the title of jEneas 
 Tactici Commentarius, sive Supplemen- 
 tum Polybiauffi editionis Schweigliseu- 
 seranse; Lips. 1818. It forms likewise 
 an Appendix to the Polybius by Grono- 
 vius, Amstel. 1670; and by Ernesti, 
 Lips. 1763. To the arguments of Casau- 
 bon, with whom Schneider agrees in 
 Xenophon, (K. A. ix. 7. 13,) it may be 
 added, that the story of the manner by 
 which a panic in an army was stopped, 
 (as detailed in § 27,) is the identical one 
 told by Xenophon, (K. A. ii. 2. 20,) to 
 whom however no reference is made by 
 jEneas, who would assuredly have quoted 
 his author, had he lived in the time of 
 Aristotle ; and a similar remark is ap- 
 plicable to his allusion to the events 
 126 
 
 which took place at Platsea, where, with- 
 out any reference to Thucydides, the 
 story is told as if it were well known and 
 of recent occurrence. 
 
 ./ENESIDEMES, a phUosopher of 
 Crete, and contemporary of Cicero. He 
 taught at Alexandria, and according to 
 Diogenes Laertius, wrote eight books of 
 sceptical philosophy, of which a frag- 
 ment only remains in Photius. He was 
 the restorer of the Pyrrhonists, who had 
 then fallen into disrepute. 
 
 ^PINUS, (John, 1499—1553,) a 
 fellow-labourer of Luther in the great 
 work of the Reformation. In England 
 he became a friar of St. Francis ; and on 
 his return to Germany, he pursued his 
 theological studies under Luther, at Wit- 
 temberg. The opinions of that reformer 
 he soon embraced, and was anxious to 
 introduce them into his native province, 
 the march of Brandenburg ; but in that 
 region he had no success : he was even 
 imprisoned by his countrymen. Yet, 
 having obtained his freedom, he preach- 
 ed, first at Stralsund, next at Hambiu'g, 
 with a reputation little inferior to that 
 of Calvin at Geneva. More fanatical 
 than Melancthon, or even Luther, he 
 opposed most of the overtures of con- 
 ciliation made by Charles V. He as- 
 sailed, however, the Anabaptists. His 
 works are controversial, and chiefly 
 directed against the Roman catholics. 
 
 A philosopher of this name (1724 — 
 1802,) a native of Rostock, studied elec- 
 tricity and magnetism with more success 
 than any man of his time. His Tenta- 
 men Theorifje Electricitatis et Magnetismi 
 is said to exhibit a profound knowledge 
 of principles established by successive 
 experiments. His Reflections on the 
 Distribution of Heat over the Earth's 
 Surface, are mentioned with equal ho- 
 nour ; and so indeed are many of his 
 contributions to the philosophical journals 
 of the Continent. 
 
 AERIUS, founder of the heresy which 
 bears his name, floiu'ished in the fourth 
 century. The fundamental point of his 
 discipline was, that bishops are not supe- 
 rior to priests, — that the New Testament 
 makes no distinction between them. In 
 this he was wrong ; the apostolic fathers, 
 especially St. Ignatius, could have taught 
 him better. Another of his notions, that 
 we need not pray for the dead, is more 
 deserving of praise. In the time of St. 
 Augustine, the sect was numerous. (See 
 Mosheim, vol. i.) 
 
 iERTS, (Richard, 1482—1577,) son 
 of a poor fisherman of Wyck in North 
 
^RT 
 
 JESC 
 
 Holland. He lost his leg in youth ; and 
 showing a talent for painting, he was 
 educated as an artist. He painted much 
 at Haerlem and Antwerp. (Bryan's 
 Diet.) 
 
 iERTSEN, (Peter, 1519—1573,) a 
 Dutch painter, a pupil of Alhert Claessen. 
 His great work is the altar-piece of the 
 church of Our Lady at Amsterdam, re- 
 presenting the Death of the Virgin, and 
 also the Nativity, and Adoration of the 
 Magi. M. Coxie, the famous Mechlin 
 painter, declined to work at Amsterdam, 
 saying, that while Peter ^rtsen was 
 there, they had no need of him. (Bryan's 
 Diet.) 
 
 _ ^SCHINES. Of this name eight in- 
 dividuals are mentioned by Diogenes 
 Laertius, ii. 64. 
 
 1. The Socratic philosopher. 
 
 2. The author of The Science of Rhe- 
 toric. 
 
 3. The orator, and rival of Demos- 
 thenes. 
 
 4. A pupil of Isocrates, and by birth 
 an Arcadian. 
 
 5. The Rhetoro-Mastix of Mitylene. 
 
 6. The academic philosopher of Naples, 
 and the pupil of Melanthius of Rhodes. 
 
 8. The sculptor. 
 
 Of these it is probable that the second 
 and fifth were the same person, and tliat 
 a portion of The Science of Rhetoric was 
 devoted to the flagellation of the rheto- 
 ricians, and in a style more caustic than 
 the irony and ridicule which Plato and 
 Lucian adopted towards the sophists and 
 philosophers of their day. To the pre- 
 ceding list Menage adds six others : — 
 
 1. The sonof Nothon, who is described 
 by Herodotus (vi. 100) as the leading man 
 of Eretraea. 
 
 2. The son of Sellus, ridicided by 
 Aristophanes in 0pp. 823, as boasting of 
 his wealth although really poor. 
 
 3. The physician of Athens, men- 
 tioned by Pliny, H. N. xxviii. 4. 
 
 4. Tlie Elean, whose two victories at 
 the Olympic games are recorded by lau- 
 sanias, vi. 14. p. 488. 
 
 5. The physician of Chius, by whose 
 skill Eunapius, in Proseres. p. 76, ed. 
 Boissonod. says, he was rescued from 
 death. 
 
 6. The historian quoted by Eusebius. 
 To the foregoing list Fabricius(Bibl. Gr. 
 
 ii. 24. p. 691,) has added three more : — 
 
 1. The contemporary of Synesius, 
 mentioned in Epist. 1. 3. 
 
 2. The physician of Lampros, whom 
 Plutarch speaks of in Aristid. 
 
 3. The Eleusinian, whom Apolionius, 
 
 127 
 
 in his life of the orator, identifies with 
 the author of The Science of Rhetoric ; 
 and wlio is supposed by some persons to 
 be the same as the Milesian, whom 
 Cicero, in Bnit. ii. 95, describes as re- 
 markable not only for his flowery style, 
 but for his polished wit. 
 
 Amongst the whole number, howe ver, 
 only two have been able to obtain any 
 place in history ; these are, the pupil of 
 Socrates and the antagonist of Demos- 
 thenes. 
 
 ^sc/t/nes the Philosopher was the 
 son of Charinvis, the sausage-seller, or, 
 as Photius says, (in Biblioth. cod. 61,) 
 of Lysanias. At an early age he attached 
 himself to Socrates, to whom when he 
 presented himself he said, as we learn 
 from Diog. Laert. ii. 34, "Money I have 
 none ; but wliat I have I will give — 
 myself." "Know you not, then," said 
 Socrates, " you are giving me a thing 
 of the greatest value?" This compli- 
 ment, so delicate, and so completely 
 in unison with another remark of So- 
 crates, who said that " iEschines alone 
 knew how to do him honoiu-," has 
 been rendered almost ridicidous by the 
 laboured overlaying of Seneca, de Bene- 
 fic. i. 8. After the death of Socrates he 
 was compelled by poverty to emigrate to 
 Sicily ; where, says Plutarch (ii. p. 67), 
 he was at first neglected by Dionysius, 
 until, at the intercession of Plato, he was 
 received at the court of Syracuse. There, 
 according to Lucian, (in Parasit. § 32,) 
 he soon unlearned the precepts of the phi- 
 losopher, and, adopting the practice of 
 the parasite, forgot entirely the advice of 
 Socrates, who told him that " a poor man 
 should always borrow from himself, by 
 diminishing the cost of his food." After 
 his return to Athens, he seems to have 
 opened a school, where the auditors paid 
 for the privilege of attending, and to 
 have employedhimself in writing speeches 
 for persons concerned in law-suits ; and 
 in which, by taking Gorgias for his 
 model, he gained some reputation, and 
 especially by his defence of the ftither of 
 Phseax. The dialogues attributed to him 
 are the following : — 1 . Alcibiades ; 2. As- 
 pasia; 3. Axiochus ; 4. Callias; 5. Mil- 
 tiades ; 6. Rhinon ; 7. Telauges — toge- 
 ther with those which, from the abrupt 
 manner of their commencement, were 
 called " the headless," under the titles 
 of Draco, Erasistratus, Eryxias, Plijedo, 
 Polyaenus, and The Scythians. Of these 
 the first has been attributed to Antis- 
 thenes, as stated by Diogenes Laertius. 
 To the second, fourth, and seventh, 
 
JESC 
 
 /£S C 
 
 allusion is made by Athengeus, in v. 
 p. 220, and who tliere details a portion 
 of their suhject-niatter. The fiftli is 
 quoted by Lucian, in Parasit. § 32. The 
 seventh is mentioned by M. Antonin. 
 vii. Gfi, and by Pscudo-Dcmetr. Phaler. 
 §. 310; the latter of whom observes, that 
 it is hard to say whether it was written 
 in a vein of real admiration or of con- 
 cealed banter. It would seem that of 
 the whole nvunber, not a single one has 
 been preserved ; although a fragment of 
 the Aspasia is found in Cicero de Invent. 
 i. 31. There are two, indeed, under the 
 titles of Axiochus and Eryxias amongst 
 the Pseudo-Platonic Dialogues ; yet the 
 former has been attributed to Xenocrates 
 by Ficinus, and abjudicated by other 
 scholars, on the authority of Pollux, vii. 
 135, who says thatyEschines used the word 
 aXcKTpvoTpocfioi in his Axiochus, which 
 is not to be found in the still-existing 
 dialogue of that name. Athenocus too, 
 in V. p. 220, testifies that iEschines in 
 his Axiochus ran down Alcibiades ; a 
 remark that cannot apply to the Axiochus 
 we now have, where no mention is made 
 of Alcibiades at all. On the other hand, 
 the Pseudo-Platonic Sisyphus, which is 
 one of " the headless," has been attributed 
 to iEschines ; and if the dialogue be 
 really his, one would suspect that the 
 title 2kv6ikol given by Suidas is a cor- 
 ruption of 2i(Tv(f)os ; and this with the 
 greater probability, as it contains in § 3 
 an allusion to an /Esopic fable, preserved 
 in its original Choliambic form in the 
 Vatican MS. (De Fur. No. 351), and 
 which both Lucretius, in i. 968, and 
 Cicero, N. D. i. 20, seem to have had in 
 their eye. Thus, too, we can account, 
 not onl}' for the suspicions of Aristippus, 
 who, when he heard ^schines read one 
 of his dialogues, cried out, " Where did 
 you get those ideas, j-ou thief?" but 
 likewise for the tradition that states that 
 ./Eschines obtained from the widow of 
 Socrates the unpublished MSS. of his 
 master, Avhich he passed off for his 
 own productions : and though, says 
 Diogen. Laert. (ii. 61) they wanted the 
 nerve of a genuine Socratic dialogue, (by 
 which he probably meant those of Plato,) 
 yet, according to Aristides, (Orat. Platon. 
 i. p. 367, ed. Cant.) they were a more 
 faithful representation of the real senti- 
 ments of Socrates ; " for jEschines," says 
 he, " appears to have put down what he 
 actually heard, or something vciy like 
 it, while Plato has put into the mouth of 
 his master much of what it is confessed 
 he never uttered." With regard to the 
 128 
 
 style of ^schines, it is described by 
 Ilcnnogenes (Uepi iSeco^, ii. 2, p. 894, 
 Walch.) as far superior to Xenophon's in 
 ease and simplieit}^, as the latter ex- 
 ceeded that of Plato ; and hence it was 
 considered by Phrynichus the grammarian 
 one of the models of Attic propriety, as 
 we learn from Photius, cod. 61. An edi- 
 tion of the Pseud-^schinean dialogues, 
 with numerous notes, was given by Fis- 
 schcr. Lips. 1786, and reprinted in the 
 Variorum Plato, Lond. 1826, while a 
 solitary epistle, falsely ascribed to ./Es- 
 chines, is to be found in Orelli's edition of 
 the Socraticorum Epistolce, Lips. 1815. 
 
 uEschincs the Orator was the son of 
 Tromes ; who, says Demosthenes, (Ilfpi 
 2Te0aj/. § 129,) afterwards called himself 
 Atrometus, — to conceal, it would seem, 
 the fact of his being originally a slave ; 
 for tlie Greek Tpoprjs would thus answer 
 to the Latin Dromio. His mother's name 
 was Glaucis, or Glaucothea, in allusion 
 probably to her grey eyes ; while her 
 nick-name was Empusa (E/n7roucra), that 
 being the appellation given to the chil- 
 dren's ?;w^rtioo at Athens ; and which was 
 the more applicable to her, as she is said 
 to have kidnapped young pei-sons in her 
 dishonourable trade of a procm-ess, or in 
 the situation she held as the attendant 
 on the ablutions, which those about to 
 be initiated in the mysteries were re- 
 quired to luidergo. Lucian, in Somn. 
 calls her a Tvp.Travi<TTpia, literally a 
 player on the tambourine, unless it con- 
 ceals an allusion to some other meaning. 
 In the early part of his life he attended 
 his father's school as an usher ; but con- 
 ceiving from his clear voice that he 
 should make some figure on the stage, 
 he attached himself to a histrionic com- 
 pany, and appeared as a third-rate per- 
 former. But falling clumsily on the 
 stage while, in the character of (Enomaus, 
 he was pursuing Pelops, he left the stage 
 and became a lawyer's clerk. Being 
 thus brought into contact with the courts 
 of law, he turned his attention to poli- 
 tics, and soon figured as one of the lead- 
 ing demagogues of the day. He was at 
 the head of those who wished peace to 
 be preserved with Philip, at any price, 
 and opposed, therefore, to the war-party 
 of which Demosthenes was the leader. 
 Of the preceding account so disparaging 
 to his rival, Demosthenes has ftirnished 
 the principal materials, but it is singularly 
 at variance with the story told by J^s- 
 chines himself; \\\\o, in the Ilfpi Jlapa- 
 npea-^, § 42 — 49, says that his famild 
 was connected with the Eteoboutatey, 
 
iESC 
 
 ^sc 
 
 from whom was selected the priestess 
 who presided in the temple of the tute- 
 lary deity of Athens ; that his father, 
 then ninety-two years of age, was one of 
 the oldest citizens ; that previous to losing 
 his property hy war, he was driven from 
 home by the Thirty Tyrants, and had 
 served as a soldier in Asia, where he 
 gained some reputation by his contempt 
 of danger ; and that his ancestors on his 
 mother's side were all freemen ; while of 
 himself he says (p. 49) that as soon as he 
 was of a military age he served with the 
 young troops, and subsequently obtained 
 at one place the praises of the command- 
 ing officer, and at another the victor's 
 crown. During his political career he 
 was employed on two embassies sent by 
 the Athenians to Philip ; and on both 
 occasions he seems to have sacrificed the 
 interests of his country through bribeiy 
 or blindness, for which he was threat- 
 ened with an impeachment by Timar- 
 chus ; but by a dexterous manoeuvre he 
 turned the tables upon his accuser, and 
 in his speech against him exposed so 
 completely the licentious life and innnoral 
 conduct of the prosecutor, that the latter 
 destroyed himself, as we learn fi-om Pho- 
 tius (cod. 264) and the Pseudo-Plutarch's 
 life of iEschines ; both of whom evidently 
 drew from the same source, as that 
 to which Tzetzes had recourse in Chiliad 
 vi. 61. The story is, however, doubted 
 by Taylor, because no allusion is made 
 to it by Demosthenes in his speech Ilfpt 
 Uapanp. ; as if a skilful advocate would 
 not designedly omit a circumstance so 
 likely to prejudice his cause, from the 
 inference to which it would lead respect- 
 ing a consciousness on the part of Timar- 
 chus of the truth of the charges brought 
 against him, and from the infamy of 
 which he could escape only by an act of 
 suicide ; to say nothing of the bad logic 
 of drawing an argument from the silence 
 of one writer against the positive asser- 
 tion of another. But however able iEs- 
 chines might have been to crush an 
 inferior antagonist like Timarchus, he 
 must have fallen himself under the 
 more vigorous attack of Demosthenes, 
 had not his patron, Eubulus, conre to 
 his rescue, and, by an arrest of judgment, 
 obtained a virtual acquittal for jEschines. 
 The story seems, however, at variance 
 with the tradition, which states that the 
 speeches of neither parties were actually 
 spoken, as hinted by Plutarch, in Demos- 
 thenes, §15, who remarks that the ac- 
 count given by Idomeneus of jEschines 
 escaping by only thirt}' votes does not 
 VOL. r. 129 ' 
 
 seem to be credible ; as neither jEschines 
 nor Demosthenes alludes to the cause re- 
 specting the embassy coming to ti-ial ; 
 nor is it unreasonable to suppose that the 
 trial went off by a tacit consent of the 
 parties while preparing for the great 
 contest on which their futiu'e fortunes 
 were to hang. Although we are told 
 by Philostratus, (Vit. Soph. i. 18), that 
 jEschines could speak extempore with 
 considerable effect, still it is evident that 
 his attack upon Ctesiphon was the result 
 of much study and deep reflection ; so 
 skilful is the arrangement of all its parts, 
 and so judiciously are the facts and argu- 
 ments made to bear upon each other. 
 Of his orations only the three alluded to, 
 and which went under the name of " the 
 Graces," have been preserved ; but they 
 were deemed so exquisite in their kind, 
 that when Dionysius had read them, he 
 remarked, says Photius (cod. 61), in allu- 
 tion to the commencement of the one 
 against Timarchus, where iEschines takes 
 credit to himself for having never brought 
 a charge against any other public cha- 
 racter, that he wished he had " brought 
 many such;" so delighted was Dionysius 
 with the speech in question. The place 
 which Quintilian has assigned to iEschines 
 as being second only to Demosthenes, is 
 the one which he still holds ; and such 
 was the admiration which Cicero felt for 
 the oration againstCtesiphon that he trans- 
 lated it into Latin, as we learn from Sidon. 
 Epistol. ii. 9. His style is rapid, yet not 
 without weight ; and though he was de- 
 feated by his mighty rival on the merits 
 of the general question, — whether De- 
 mosthenes deserved the crown, — yet on 
 the legal point he proved incontestably 
 that Ctesiphon had violated the law in 
 pi-oposing that Demosthenes should be 
 crowned in the theatre of Bacchus, and 
 during the time when the new tragedies 
 were brought out on the stage. For his 
 power in arranging his ideas with pre- 
 cision, and clothing them in a transparent 
 garb, he was indebted, says Philostratus, 
 to his attendance on the schools of Plato 
 and Isocrates ; while his eventual oppo- 
 sition to the politics of Demosthenes, with 
 whom he at first fought against the party 
 of Philip, arose fi-om a difference in their 
 dispositions. The austere and ascetic life 
 of the latter, whose drink was water, was 
 little suited to the temperament of the 
 former, whose beverage was the juice of 
 the grape ; and who found far more to 
 admire in the policy of a liberal prince, 
 ready to supply the wants of his friends, 
 than in that of a money-grudging people, 
 K 
 
JESC 
 
 iESC 
 
 ever underrating the services done to the 
 state, and who considered banishment as 
 the best reward for those who had checked 
 or cherished the prejudices of the many- 
 headed mob. After his defeat he went 
 to Epliesus, in the hope that Alexander 
 would restore him to his country; hut 
 hearing of the death of the king, and the 
 differences that arose amongst his suc- 
 cessors, he retired to Rhodes, where, 
 on being urged to open a school of rhe- 
 oric, he said that he knew nothing of 
 t le art of speakmg ; nor was he willing 
 tc mix himself up with law-pleadings, 
 CO iceiving that, as he had failed at home, 
 he was not likely to succeed elsewhere. 
 S ttling eventually at Samos, he took up 
 his father's trade of a schoolmaster, and 
 died there at the age of 75. During the 
 time of his residence at Rhodes, he is 
 said to have read in public his speech 
 against Ctesiphon ; and wlien his audi- 
 tors expressed their astonishment at the 
 failure that followed such an oratorical 
 display, " You would not have wondered 
 at all," he said, "had you heard the 
 monster roar," in allusion to the stento- 
 rian voice of his antagonist. With regard 
 to the twelve epistles attributed to 
 .^schines, although Photius (cod. 61) 
 acknowledges nine of them, which he 
 says were called "The Muses," to be 
 genuine, yet, from the time of Taylor, 
 they have been all rejected as spmious. 
 So, too, upon ^schines was fathered a 
 Delian oration ; but that, says Photius, 
 was assigned by CEecilius to a contempo- 
 rary of the same naiue. The orationsand 
 epistles are to be found in the edition of 
 Reiske, Lips., and the reprints of it by 
 Schsefer and Dobson, and in that by 
 Bremi, Tm-ici, 1823, who might have 
 improved the text by paying a greater 
 attention to the manuscripts. The last 
 edition is by Dindorf, who has given the 
 readings of a Copenhagen MS. 
 
 iESCHRIO. Of this name there were 
 six wi'iters. 1 . The poet of Samos, a few 
 of whose Choliambic verses have been 
 preserved by Athenaus and Tzetzes on 
 Lycophron. 2. The epic poet of Mity- 
 lene, who, says Suidas, was a friend of 
 Aristotle, and accompanied Alexander 
 in his march to Asia, and wrote, as Fa- 
 bricius infers fi'om Tzetz. Chil. viii. 198, 
 the Ephemerides, or Daily Chronicle 
 of the expedition, probably in verse, and 
 similar to the Dionysiaca of Nonnus, and 
 the Alexandreis of Gualter. 3. The 
 father of Lysanias, mentioned in Diog. 
 L. vi. 23. 4. The preceptor of Galen, 
 as we learn from the pupil's dissertation, 
 130 
 
 De Simplic. Medic. Fac. ii. p. 148 ; Baa 
 He was a believer in astrology, as well 
 as a physician ; and in prescribing a 
 remedy for the bite of rabid animals, he 
 recommends that the shell-fish whose 
 ashes fonn a part of his medicine, sliould 
 only be burnt in a certain season of the 
 moon. 5. A ^vriter of a work on Agri- 
 culture, quoted by Varro. 6. The gram- 
 marian mentioned by Eustathius in II. 
 X. ii. p. 841, 24. 
 
 ^SCHYLUS, the son of Euphorion, 
 was born e.g. 525, at Eleusis, one of the 
 174 burghs of Athens, and was descended 
 fi'om one of the aboriginal families of 
 Attica. While yet a boy, and emploj'ed 
 in watching a vineyard, he fell asleep, 
 and dreamed that Bacchus appeared to 
 him, and bade him turn his talents to 
 writing for the stage. The story, says 
 Pausanias (ii. 21), was told by^schylus 
 himself; but as neither the place nor 
 occasion are mentioned, it is probable 
 that the fact was got from some comic 
 waiter, who put it into the mouth of 
 iEschylus, when he was introduced on 
 the stage after his death, just as he ap- 
 pears in ' The Frogs ' of Aristophanes. To 
 the same source, perhaps, is due the 
 anecdote mentioned by Philostratus, Vit. 
 Apollon. vi. 6 ; who says, that " the 
 Athenians considered ^Eschylus as the 
 father of tragedy, and invited him Avhcn 
 dead to the Dionysia ;" a passage, which 
 in the original Greek evidently conceals 
 a comic distich ; unless it be said that 
 Philostratus alluded to the remark put 
 by Aristophanes into the mouth of 
 jEschylus, that though he is dead him- 
 self, his plays are not, like those of 
 Euripides, defunct. Be the origin, how- 
 ever, of the story about the dream what 
 it may, it seems to have given rise to the 
 report, perpetuated by Lucian (Enco- 
 mium Demosth. § 15), and by Plutarch, 
 (S}anp. i. 5), that iEschylus wrote imder 
 the influence of liquor ; that he felt with 
 Cratinus, whose sentiment hasbeen trans- 
 lated by Horace, that " water-drinkers 
 make only milk and water poets;" and 
 that, to do honour to the god of wine, 
 he did not hesitate to introduce dnmken 
 characters on the stage, as we leam from 
 Athenaeus, x. p. 428, E. But when, in 
 connexion with this anecdote, it is stated 
 that Sophocles sneered at ^Eschylus for 
 writing well without knowing it, the re- 
 mark carries its own refutation on the 
 face of it ; for Sophocles must have 
 kno^vn from his own experience that 
 proper words do not fall into proper 
 places, except after continued medita- 
 
^sc 
 
 X.SC 
 
 tion. Of the events of his private life 
 little is known, except that he acted up 
 to the sentiments he has put into the 
 mouth of Amphiraus, who, though con- 
 scious of his impending fate, chose rather 
 to brave danger than to fly from it ; nor 
 was it with little self-satisfactioii that he 
 wrote the following epitaph upon hirfi- 
 self:— 
 
 "This tomb of ^schylus, Euphorion's son, 
 At Athens born, the land of Gela shows. 
 Let Marathon tell what feats by him were done, 
 And what the vanquished long-haired Mede well 
 knows." 
 
 To understand this allusion to Gela it 
 should be stated, that after a residence of 
 three years in Sicily, he met with his 
 death there in rather a singular manner. 
 His Greek biographer tells us that when 
 ^schylus arrived in Sicily, Hiero was 
 building the town of ^Etna, and that to 
 gi'atify his host, the tragedian wrote a 
 play under the title of ' The iEtneans,' 
 auguring, as the Poet does in ' The Birds' 
 of Aristophanes, every tiling fair and for- 
 tunate for the new city ; and that while 
 jEschjdus was sitting with his head bare 
 in some open space, an eagle, mistaking 
 his skull for a stone, dropt upon it a toi-- 
 toise, for the purpose of breaking the 
 shell of the animal, whose flesh it was 
 anxious to get at ; and that this accident 
 verified the prophecy — 
 
 "Thee, ^Eschylus, a darffrom heaven shall slay, 
 When treacherous skies portend a fatal day" — 
 
 where the second vei'se, omitted by the 
 Greek biographer, has been preserved in 
 the Latin of Pliny ; whose words are, in 
 Hist. Nat. X. 3, " Sors interemit poetam 
 j?i^schylum pradictam fatis, ut ferimt, ejus 
 diei ruinani secura coeli fide carentem." 
 
 The residence, howeverj of only three 
 years, mentioned by the biographer, 
 seems at variance with the assertion of 
 Athenagus, who says that he stayed long 
 enough in Sicily to impair the purity of 
 his native tongue, as shown by the use 
 of some Sicilian words, still to be found 
 in the remaining plays. To meet this, 
 and other difficulties started by Boeckh, 
 Hermann supposes that jEschylus went 
 twice to Sicily, with an interval of some 
 twelve years between the two trips. 
 
 He first gained the prize in the dra- 
 matic contests b. c. 484, the very year 
 when Herodotus was born ; and he was 
 beaten by Sophocles b.c. 468, a year no 
 less remarkable for the birth of Socrates. 
 Tlie vexation arising from this defeat 
 has been assigned by Plutarch, in Ci- 
 inon, § 8, as the cause of his quitting 
 his native land ; and on this defeat 
 131 
 
 jEschylus has been thought to have said, 
 as we learn from Athenaeus, (viii. p. 347,) 
 that he dedicated his tragedies to Time, 
 from Avhom he felt assured he should re- 
 ceive the honour due : and so the event 
 proved ; for after his death not a few of his 
 plays were brought upon the stage, and 
 carried off" the prize. Besides, such failures 
 were surely too common at Athens to lead 
 any person to leave the country of his 
 birth, and to break off" all the endearing 
 ties connected with it. It is far more 
 reasonable to suppose that he had made 
 himself obnoxious to a people, whose 
 temper was more than usually fickle ; and 
 he was, therefore, unwilling, like Ari- 
 stotle in after times, to trust himself to the 
 tender mercies of the many, after he had 
 wounded their superstitious prejudices, 
 by alluding in too open a manner to the 
 Mysteries. That this was a dangerous 
 ground for a public man to tread upon is 
 shown in the case of Alcibiades, who 
 owed his condemnation less probably to 
 the mutilation of the Hermae, than to his 
 ridiculing the dress and ceremonies of the 
 initiated. But as ^Eschylus was guilty of 
 this indiscretion oftener than once, accord- 
 ing to Eustratius, in Aristot. Nicomach.iii. 
 p. 40, quoted by Stanley on 'lepeiat, 
 Fr. 3, it seems sti-ange that he should not 
 have been checked at first, rather than 
 suffered to repeat the allusions in four 
 different plays ; unless it be said that all 
 four were brought forward at one time, 
 and made up a single teti-alogy. Another 
 account attributes his migration to Sicily 
 to the mortification he felt at being de- 
 feated by Simonides, when the dramatic 
 and lyric poets were competitors for the 
 prize to be given to the best writer of the 
 epitaph upon those who fell at Plataea. 
 Of the one said to be composed by Si- 
 monides the following is the translation: — 
 
 " Farewell, ye chieftains of the war, whose fame 
 Hath shed on Athens' youth an honoured name ; 
 Who, first of horsemen, for your land didst yield 
 Your life, and foremost braved the battle field:" 
 
 while that of jEschylus was to this effect : — 
 
 " still lives of dead the fame, whose dust the sod 
 Of Ossa keeps, and tells where brave men trod; 
 Whom dark-eyed Destiny hurried to the grave, 
 What time the spear they raised their land to save." 
 
 The story is, however, rejected by Blom- 
 field (Praef. Pers.) on the ground that 
 there is no ether evidence to prove that 
 Simonides was ever concerned in an 
 elegiac contest. It would perhaps be a 
 stronger ground to state that iEschylus, 
 whose mind, as remarked by his bio- 
 grapher, had little in common with the 
 frivoUty of elegiac poetry, would scarcely 
 K2 
 
^sc 
 
 JESC 
 
 have deigned to enter tlie arena with one 
 better fitted by nature for such a simple 
 style of writing ; and hence the pathos 
 of Simonides is well contrasted with the 
 sublimity of iEschylus by Basil, Epist. 
 379, quoted by Vossius on CatuU. p. 93. 
 
 Another reason assigned for the self- 
 banishment of jEschylus is in the wish to 
 avoid the punishment he would have 
 otherwise have suffered for his represen- 
 tation of the Eumenides ; when, says his 
 biographer, " mothers miscarried, and 
 children were frightened into fits," by a 
 scene the counterpart of the concluding 
 one in Don Giovanni ; as if even at Athens 
 the life of a dramatist would be put into 
 jeopardy by a prosecution on such 
 grounds. It is true that another version 
 of the story states that the Eimienides 
 was written with the view to turn aside 
 the rising storm of popular indignation, 
 by throwing round the court of the Areo- 
 pagus a halo of holiness, which the dra- 
 matist had in other plays called in 
 question ; and when, according to jElian 
 (V. H. V. 19), he was saved from de- 
 struction only by his brother coming for- 
 ward and pointing to his own mutilated 
 arm, and the many wounds ^Eschylus 
 himself had received m the naval ^'ictory 
 at Salamis. 
 
 The last reason assigned is that to 
 which Suidas alludes ; who says that 
 when jEschylus and Chserilus were the 
 competitors of Pratinas, the benches 
 were broken on which the spectators 
 were standing. But if the accident took 
 place when all the three poets were en- 
 gaged in the same contest, the mere 
 circumstance of its happening during the 
 representation of a play of jEschylus 
 could hardly be laid to the poet's charge, 
 imless we suppose that one of the cha- 
 racters was then uttering an impious 
 sentiment, enough to call down the 
 vengeance of the gods, and the punish- 
 ment of the spectators ; some of whom, 
 according to Libanius (Argiiment. in 
 Demosth. Olynth. 1), got a few bruises, 
 and others some broken bones. Besides, 
 if this accident were really the cause of 
 the ill-will felt by the people towards 
 iEschylus, he would surely have left his 
 coiuitry at an earlier period, and not 
 have remained there till he was nearly 
 66 years old. Thus, then, it appears 
 that the real motive for jEschylus expa- 
 triating himself is left in its original ob- 
 scurity, and all that seems to be positively 
 known respecting his residence in Sicily 
 is, that he there wrote some new plays, 
 and reproduced some old ones. Amongst 
 132 
 
 the latter was The Persians, which his 
 Greek biographer says was revived at 
 the request of Hiero ; and to the former 
 has been assigned by modern ci'itics The 
 Prometheus, from its containing an allu- 
 sion to an eruption of Mount iEtna, which 
 took place not long before the arrival 
 of iEschylus in Sicily. Of the plays 
 which he wrote, the number, says his 
 biographer, was about seventy ; the titles, 
 however, of ninety-nine have come down 
 to us : but of these it were easy to show 
 that about thirty have been reckoned 
 twice under different titles ; and though 
 only seven out of the seventy have been 
 preserved, it is gratifying to know that 
 they are some of the author's best pieces, 
 and completely confirm the character 
 given of his high-sounding words, and 
 spirit-stirring sentiments, by one to whom 
 the whole seventy were known, and who, 
 in a fragment preserved by the bio- 
 grapher of iEschylus, says, that the tra- 
 gedian — 
 
 " With altars, trumpets, tombs, and ghosts, 
 And furies made the folks stare ;" 
 
 evidentl}' in allusion to the Choephori, the 
 Seven Chieftains, and the Eumenides of 
 the dramatist. The peculiar features of 
 jEschylus have been thus delineated by 
 an admired son of song, and a still more 
 exquisite painter of fictions in prose. 
 "At his summons," says Sir Walter Scott, 
 " the mysterious and tremendous volume 
 of destiny, in which are inscribed the 
 doom of gods and men, seemed to dis- 
 play its leaves of iron before the appalled 
 spectators, and the more than mortal 
 voices of deities. Titans and departed 
 heroes were heard in awful conference. 
 Olympus bowed and its deities descended. 
 Earth yawned and gave up the pale 
 spectres of the dead, and the yet more 
 undefined and grisly forms of those in- 
 fernal deities who struck terror into the 
 gods themselves." But though the 
 dramas of ^schylus are fidl of terrible 
 interest, they are deficient in grace and 
 softness. His sublime conciseness devi- 
 ates into harshness and obscurity, and 
 his plots appear rude and inartificial, 
 contrasted with those of his successors. 
 It is scarcely fair, however, to censvu-e 
 an author Avho lived at an early period 
 of the drama, for the want of those em- 
 bellishments to which the progress of the 
 art gave rise ; and it is still less fair to 
 infer from the seven plays before us that 
 all the sixty-three unfortunately lost, ex- 
 hibited a similar want of dramatic inven- 
 tion : and ^though it may be conceded 
 
^s c 
 
 .^s c 
 
 ttat the masculine mind of iEschylus 
 would rather reject than adopt such re- 
 sources of art, as being at variance with 
 the simplicity of nature, which requires 
 a play to reflect life as it is, not what 
 fancy may paint it ; yet we know that 
 he not only made improvements himself 
 upon the practice of preceding drama- 
 tists, but adopted those introduced by 
 others. Thus, previous to his time the 
 whole business of the play was carried 
 on by the chorus and a single actor, to 
 which he added a second, and as soon 
 as Sophocles had introduced a third, he 
 immediately adopted a plan by which he 
 saw a wide field would present itself for 
 stage effect. We must remark that 
 Thespis had already turned the vintage 
 hymn to Bacchus, and the extemporary 
 parody upon it, into a settled entertain- 
 ment, consisting of a hymn or ode, the 
 foundation of the chorus (where the allu- 
 sion to Bacchus was soon lost — see Bent- 
 ley on Phalaris, p. 293, ed. Dyce), and 
 an address by a regular member of the 
 company of players. (See Pratinas, 
 Hegemon, and Epicharmus.) 
 
 After the introduction of a single 
 interlocutor, the step to a second woidd 
 scarcely fail to present itself, whose busi- 
 ness would be at first to act the part 
 of a messenger, and to tell of something 
 that happened at a distance, and of whicli 
 he had been the eye-witness ; and it was 
 probably by a pathetic descrijition put 
 into the mouth of a messenger, that 
 Phrynichus drew tears so plentifully fi'om 
 the audience, in the Taking of Miletus ; 
 and thus led the way to similar descrip- 
 tions in succeeding writers for the stage. 
 Of this dramatic device. The Seven 
 Chiefs of jEschylus exhibits a remark- 
 able instance ; where one-third of the 
 play is taken up with the descriptions of 
 the messenger. The last innovation in 
 the nimiber of interlocutors in tragedy — 
 for in comedy there was no limit — was 
 begun by Sophocles, who added a third 
 speaker. The practice was adopted 
 eventually by jEschylus, who is thought 
 to have introduced even a fourth speaker 
 in the Choephori ; but the passage has 
 been corrected by Burges on Eumen. 
 415, and the law of Horace vindicated, 
 which forbids more than three characters 
 to keep up a conversation together. 
 Hermann, however, in Dissertat. de'^Es- 
 chyl. Psychostas. p. 16, thinks the tristich, 
 which Burges assigns to Electra, was 
 spoken by Pylades when off the stage, 
 and who appeals to the oracle of Apollo, 
 as if he were the unseen God himself, 
 133 
 
 and thus acts a part similar to the Ghost 
 in Hamlet, who, speaking from the grave, 
 urges Laertes to swear, as Pylades does 
 Orestes, to kill his mother. Before, how- 
 ever, iEschylus fell into the new fashion, 
 he chose to take an intermediate step. 
 Thus, although in the Prometheus and 
 Agamemnon, three characters are brought 
 on the stage, yet the conversation is kept 
 up by two alone ; and neither Prome- 
 theus nor Cassandra open their lips, until 
 in the fonuer case Vulcan and Force, and 
 in the latter Agamemnon and Clytgem- 
 nestra, have left the stage. Whatever 
 was the number of the dramatis personce, 
 they were all required to be performed 
 by only three actors, who changed their 
 di-esses, the female characters being also 
 represented by male performers. As the 
 number of characters and actors in- 
 creased, that of the chorus diminished. 
 Thus in the Suppliants, the oldest play 
 of ^schylus, where the characters are 
 only three, and the actoi's two, the chorus 
 consists of the fifty daughters of Danaus ; 
 while in the Eumenides, the last of the 
 plays of ^schylus that have come down 
 to us, while the characters are five, and 
 the actors three, the chorus is reduced to 
 three, as Blomfield has shown satisfac- 
 torily, in Proef. Pers. p. 24 ; nor can any 
 argument be drawn in favour of a greater 
 number from v. 571, which is faulty on 
 other grounds, and has been corrected 
 by Burges. We find indeed, in the 
 Prometheus, six characters and three 
 actors, while the chonis consists of the 
 numerous daughters of Ocean ; but it is 
 evident that the whole fifty did not ap- 
 pear together upon the stage, for they 
 are represented as coming in a single 
 winged car, and are supposed to be 
 standing on the plateau of the rock, to 
 which Prometheus was chained. It is, 
 therefore, reasonable to suppose, that if 
 the Prometheus was ever acted — of which 
 there is no evidence — the number of 
 the chorus was diminished considerably. 
 With regard to the tradition preserved by 
 Pollux, iv. 120, touching the large num- 
 ber of the choiois in the Eumenides, and 
 the laws which subsequently reduced it. 
 in consequence of the fright into which 
 the audience were thi'own, Blomfield has 
 well observed that the effect woidd be the 
 same whether the number were fifty or 
 three ; for the horror of the scene arose 
 from beholding unearthly beings, with 
 hair, where snakes acted the part of curls, 
 and who brandished their torches, filled 
 with resin, to increase the glare. The last 
 question of dramatic history to which the 
 
^sc 
 
 ^TH 
 
 life of iEscliylus naturally gives rise, is 
 respecting the trilogy, or tlie simultaneous 
 representation of three pieces. The au- 
 thor of the Argument of' the Agamemnon 
 says that jEschylus gained the prize in 
 Ol. 80 (b. c. 458), with the Agamemnon, 
 Chbephori, and Eumenides, and the sa- 
 tyric Proteus. So, too, the Schol. on 
 Aristoph. Barp. 1155, tells us that Aii- 
 starchus and ApoUonius acknowledged 
 the trilogy, hut omitted the satyric 
 drama. Hence, says Blomfield, in Mu- 
 seum Criticum, ii. 77, " the three trage- 
 dies were sometimes of a kindred argu- 
 ment, as in the case of the Agamemnon, 
 Choephori, and Eumenides, all of which 
 related more or less directly to the story of 
 Orestes ; and hence the trilogy of which 
 they formed the principal part, was called 
 TerpaXoyia Opeareia ; imder which name 
 Aristophanes alludes to the Choephori in 
 Barp. 1124." We must however re- 
 mark, tliat in the few trilogies of which 
 we have any account, and they are all 
 collected hy Musgrave in his Chrono- 
 logia Scenica, prefixed to his edition of 
 Euripides, neither the same stoiy, nor 
 even parts of the same story, are ever 
 found as the subject of the three plays ; 
 and that in the Agamemnon, the very 
 name of Orestes is not mentioned at all. 
 Surely, then, in Aristophanes, the word 
 Opeareias agrees with rpaycodias mider- 
 stood, and not Tpikoyias* Moreover, if 
 in Aristophanes we are to understand 
 not a single play, hut a trilog}', how 
 coidd ^schylus guess that Euripides 
 alluded only to the Choephori ? But the 
 best argument that the trilogy did not 
 embrace three plays on the same subject, 
 is the story of CEdipiis. Did we not 
 know, from indisputable sources, that 
 the ffidipus Coloneus was written forty 
 years after the Antigone, and that it was 
 never acted at all till after the death of 
 Sophocles, none would have hesitated to 
 put the two, ffidipvis and Antigone, in 
 the same trilogy ; just as the Scholiast 
 ■on the Frogs has the Orestean, and the 
 Scholiast on Thesmoph. 135, the Lycur- 
 gean ; which, he sa5's, embraced the Bas- 
 sarides, the Edoni, the Yomig Men, and 
 the satyric Lycurgus. In truth, the 
 whole question respecting the ti'ilogy of 
 the Athenian stage, is involved in great 
 obscurity ; nor have all the labours of 
 Welcker, Hermann, and others, thrown 
 the least light upon it. 
 
 • May not the rerpaXoyia Havidivii (Schol. Opr. 
 280) refer to one pla)', although, perhaps, one of a 
 Bet on the same subject, composed at different 
 times. 
 
 131 
 
 Speaking of the stage improvements 
 introduced by ^Eschylus, Horace says, 
 " Et modicis instravit pulpita tignis, Et 
 docuit magnumque loqui nitique co- 
 thiu-no." With regard to his other 
 scenic improvements, Philostratus (Vit. 
 Apell. vi. 61) tells us that he was the first 
 to practise the Horatian precept of not 
 killing persons on the stage ; he has, 
 however, neglected the unities of time 
 and place in the Eumenides, where the 
 scene shifts from Delphi to Athens. But 
 it shovdd be borne in mind that the cha- 
 racters introduced are deities, who can 
 fly without let or hinderance from pole to 
 pole, &c. It is probable the same license 
 would not have been taken in the case of 
 mere mortals. As a philosopher, ^schy- 
 lus is ranked by Cicero, in Tusc. ii. 9, 
 amongst the Pythagoreans ; but it is 
 scarcely fair to judge of an author's real 
 sentiments l)y those v/hich he puts into 
 the mouth of fictitious characters. Of 
 the seven remaining tragedies, none seem 
 to have been translated by the dramatists 
 of Italy. The fragments of Accius, 
 quoted by Cicero and others, are taken 
 from the Prometheus Unboimd, and Pro- 
 metheus the Fire-bearer. The most com- 
 plete editions of his remains are by 
 Butler, who first printed the MS. notes 
 of Stanley, by Blomfield, who has given 
 the Prometheus, Sept.Theb., Pei'sse, Aga- 
 memnon, and Choephori, which Burges 
 has completed with his Eumenides and 
 Supplices ; and by WcUauer, who has, 
 however, omitted the Fragments ; and so 
 did Porson, in the Glasgow edition, so 
 celebrated for a few of the choicest 
 emendations ever made upon an ancient 
 author, and which were unblushingly 
 pillaged by Schutz in his second edition. 
 The most complete edition of the Frag- 
 ments is by Dindorf, assisted by a review 
 of Schutz 's fifth volume, which appeared 
 in the AUgemeine Literatur-Zeitung, 
 March 1822. 
 
 iESCHYLUS. Of the less known 
 persons of this name, history records — 
 1. The pupil of Hippocrates, mentioned 
 by Aristotle in Meteorol. i. 6. 2. A 
 rhetorician of Cnidus, of whom Cicero 
 speaks in Brut. § 91. 3. The Eretriasan, 
 described as an opponent of Meredemus 
 by Diogen. L. ii. 141. 4. The Corin- 
 thian, alluded to in Plutarch. Timoleon i. 
 p. 237, and Maxim. Tjt. xxiv. p. 283, 
 Davis. 5. The Argive, in Plutarch. 
 Arat. i. p. 1038. 6. The Sicihan in 
 Cicero. Verr. iv. 22. 
 
 ^SOP. See Esop. 
 
 jETHERIUS, a Greek architect in the 
 
^TH 
 
 iETI 
 
 reign of Anastasius I., is said to liave 
 erected the great wall at Constantinople, 
 to protect the city against the Goths, 
 Huns, Bulgarians, &c. It was eighteen 
 leagues in length and twenty feet in 
 breadth. 
 
 ^ETION, a Greek painter, whose Mar- 
 riage of Alexander and Roxana was 
 beheld with high admiration at the Olym- 
 pic games. 
 
 iETIUS, a celebrated heretic of the 
 fourth century, a native of Antioch. 
 Without fortune or connexions, and hating 
 industry, he became an adventurer. 
 First he practised medicine, tlien taught 
 dialectics, to which he added theology. 
 Of the last science, he had little know- 
 ledge ; and as he was imaginative, rash, 
 unrestrained by love of truth, he fell into 
 many dangerous errors. Of 300 propo- 
 sitions contrary to the faith of the church, 
 about 70 have been noticed by St. Epi- 
 phanius. He contended that the Son of 
 God was not like the Father ; that many 
 vices are merely the physical necessities 
 of our nature; that faith alone, without 
 works, can save us ; that the prophets 
 and apostles often erred, even in matters 
 of faith. By Constantius he was ex- 
 iled. This was enough to raise him in 
 the estimation of Julian, who invited him 
 to the imperial com-t, and gave him 
 estates in the neighbom-hood of Mytilene, 
 in Lesbos. He afterwards became an 
 Arian bishop. 
 
 ^TIUS, the celebrated Roman gene- 
 ral of the fifth century, who pei-formed 
 so memorable a part in the last decline 
 of the Latin empire. His father was 
 Gandentius, a Scythian, whom some re- 
 bellious soldiers murdered. Educated 
 amongst the guards of the reigning em- 
 peror, he was one of the hostages deli- 
 vered to the dreaded Alaric ; and while 
 he remained in that situation, he learned 
 the art of war, and formed connexions 
 likely to assist him in his future life. At 
 first the enemy, he became the friend of 
 Valentinian, whose mother, Placidia, then 
 governed the Roman world. Favoured 
 by that princess, his intrigues soon com- 
 menced. He persuaded Boniface, the 
 African governor, to revolt; the Vandals 
 were invited into Africa ; and though an 
 interview between Placidia and Boniface 
 discovered the treachery of ^tius, he 
 could not be openly punished, because he 
 was then in Gaul, at the head of the Ro- 
 man legions opposed to the Franks and 
 Burgundians. The only revenge she 
 could take was to confer higli honours on 
 Boniface. The enraged ^tius immedi- 
 135 
 
 ately invaded Italy, fought Boniface, and 
 Avas vanquished, but he had the satisfac- 
 tion of killing his rival in the battle. He 
 then fled to the Huns, and returned with 
 60,000 barbarians, to ask the pardon of 
 Placidia. Restored to his honours, he 
 returned to Gaul, and served the empire 
 well, so long as his own passions did not 
 interfere with his duty. Over the isolated 
 tribes which had just crossed the Rhine, 
 he triumphed ; but the approach of the 
 terrible Attila required all the forces he 
 could raise. Against this common dan- 
 ger, he had the dexterity to array those 
 very tribes, together with the Saxons and 
 Wisigoths. In 451 he met, on the plains 
 of Chalons-sm"-Saone, that scourge of 
 God. The result is well known ; Attila 
 was checked, and glad to retreat. Whe- 
 ther jEtius, had he persevered, coiUd 
 have destroyed Attila, may be doubted ; 
 but he might certainly have prevented 
 the royal Hun fi-om doing any more in- 
 jury to the empire. It was not his policy 
 either to destroy his enemies, and thereby 
 render his own services less needed, — or 
 to aggrandize his allies ; hence he suf- 
 fered Attila quietly to decamp, and take 
 the way of Italy. His tragical end is 
 well known ; being summoned to the 
 presence of Valentinian, he was assassin- 
 ated by that despicable monarch, a.d. 
 454. With him fell the only support of 
 the Western Empire. (Orosius. Gibbon. 
 Sismonch, Histoire des Franfois.) 
 
 ^TIUS. There were three physicians 
 of this name ; one a Sicilian, to whom 
 has been ascribed the book De Atrabile, 
 which has been attributed to Galen, and 
 is certainly di'awn from his writings ; the 
 second born at Antioch, lived in the time 
 of Julian the Apostate, abandoned physic 
 for the cluu-ch, and arrived at the dignity 
 of a bishop in the fourth centuiy (see 
 the name above) ; and the third born 
 at Amida, a city of Mesopotamia, on 
 the banks of the Tigris, to whom this 
 notice refers. The period in which he 
 lived is not quite certain, but it was 
 proljably about the beginning of the 
 sixth centmy, as he refers to St. Cyril of 
 Alexandria, and Petrus Archiater, phy- 
 sician to Theodoric. His WTitings con- 
 sist of a collection or digest from other 
 authors, interspersed with observations, 
 the residt of his own practice. He has 
 preserved several fragments of ancient 
 medical writers, whose observations are 
 nowhere else to be found — of Soranus 
 the methodist, Leonides the eclectic, and 
 Marcellus Sidetes ; an author who, ac- 
 cording to Freind, lived under Adrian 
 
yETI 
 
 AFA 
 
 and Marcus Antoninus, and wlio wrote 
 forty-two books concerning distempers, 
 in heroic verse, ^tius studied at Alex- 
 andria, where he is supposed to have de- 
 rived all his knowledge ; and for the time 
 in which he lived, he is very copious in 
 his description of the symptoms of dis- 
 eases, and the modes of cure. He has 
 no anatomy, hut his surgery is extensive, 
 and diffused through his writings. He 
 details many operations, and varieties in 
 the mode of performing them. He de- 
 scribes castration, scarification for ana- 
 sarca, and is remarkably copious on the 
 diseases of the eye. In his seventh book 
 he treats of no less than thirty different 
 diseases of this organ, and his account 
 appears to be the result of personal ex- 
 perience, and not derived from previous 
 writers. Celsus describes only thirteen 
 maladies of the eyes. jEtius collected 
 carefidly from all preceding writers, and 
 gives several of the receipts of his pre- 
 decessor Oi'ibasius. He relied much 
 upon external remedies, and devotes 
 nearly an entire book to the subject of 
 plasters. He is sarcastic upon the quacks 
 and impostors of his day, and gives the 
 composition of some of their boasted re- 
 medies, apparently with the view of ridi- 
 cvding them. Dr. Freind says, that 
 .^tius seems to be the first Greek writer 
 in physic among the Christians who gives 
 us any specimen of medicinal spells and 
 charms, so much in vogue with the old 
 Egyptians. He is conjectured to have 
 been a Christian, as he makes mention 
 of a short prayer, in which he recites the 
 raising of Lazarus from the tomb by 
 Jesus, and Jonah's coming out of the 
 whale's belly ; but in calling upon St. 
 Blase to remove a bone which had fixed 
 itself in the tonsils, he pi"udently suggests 
 to the physician the propriety of catching 
 the patient by the throat (vol. ii. cap. 50.) 
 Among his most favourite applications 
 was the cautery, either actual or poten- 
 tial, for the relief of paralysis, asthma, 
 phthisis, empyema, &c. For these he 
 recommends several eschars to be made, 
 and describes the mode in which they 
 are to be produced, by which it is clear 
 that issues are not of modern invention. 
 He direc};s no less than fourteen to be 
 made in different parts of the trunk in 
 cases of inveterate asthma. In paralysis 
 lie quotes from Archigenes, and urges 
 the making one in the nape of the neck, 
 near the origin of the spinal marrow, two 
 more on each side, and three or four on 
 the crown of the head, one in the very 
 centre, and three others surrounding it; 
 136 
 
 and he remarks, that if the discharge con- 
 tinues for some time, hopes may be en- 
 tertained of recovery. Almost the only 
 subjects of surgery on which he has 
 omitted to treat are those of fractiu-es 
 and dislocations, of which he says nothing. 
 He gives an account of hydrophobia, re- 
 commends the cautery to be repeatedly 
 used to the bitten part, and that should 
 the wound heal up, it is to be again 
 opened, and made to discharge for forty 
 or sixty days. He is the first from 
 Leonides to describe the Dracunculus, or 
 Guinea Worm. He particidarly treats of 
 the diseases of children. As there is 
 nothing of anatomy in the writings of 
 iEtius, so there is but little of physiology. 
 The doctrine of temperaments distin- 
 guished into hot, cold, dry, and humid, he 
 appears to have considered as governing 
 or controlling the various functions of 
 the body ; and those states are applied to 
 the different viscera of the chest, abdo- 
 men, &c., to explain some of the phe- 
 nomena of the animal economy. His 
 pathology is humoral. In the treatment 
 of acute diseases he accords with the prac- 
 tice of Hippocrates, and recommends 
 bleeding in the exanthemata when the 
 fever is unusually violent. 
 
 The Editio Princeps of ^tius, in the 
 Greek language, was published in folio 
 by Aldus at Venice in 1534. It contains 
 only eight books. The first Latin edition 
 was printed in folio at Venice by L. A. 
 Junta in the same year. It was made 
 by J. B. Montanus and Janus Cornarius. 
 An edition by Frobenius was printed at 
 Basle in 1535. These contain the eight 
 books of the Greek edition translated 
 into Latin, and others collected by the 
 translators. The most complete edition 
 was made by Cornarius, and published at 
 Basle in 1542, and again in 1549, under 
 the following title : ^tii Amideni Con- 
 tractfe ex VeteribusMedicinjsTetrabiblos, 
 hoc est, xvi. Sermones ; Basileae, 1542, 
 folio. (Inserted by Henry Stephen, in 
 his collection Medicje Artis Principes 
 post Hippocratem et Galenum ; Paris, 
 1567.) Six Discourses, De Cognoscendis 
 et Curandis Morbis, were published at 
 Basle in 1533, in folio. A ninth book, 
 printed from a Greek manuscript, was 
 printed at Leipsic in 1754, in 4to. 
 
 AFANDOPOLO, (Caleb,) a Caraite 
 Jew, who lived about the close of the 
 fifteenth century. He has left many 
 works, which are still preserved in MS. 
 by those of his own sect. The following 
 are his chief works : — 1. Gan Hammelek, 
 The Garden of the King (see No. 4), 
 
AFA 
 
 AFF 
 
 2. Sepher Hasharah Maamaroth, The 
 Book of the Ten Treatises, a commen- 
 tary on the 119th Psahn. 3. Chima, On 
 the Laws about Incest. 4. A Supple- 
 ment to the work of his master, Ehas 
 Bescitzi, called Adereth Eliab. In this 
 he refers to No. 1, which he calls his 
 great work. R. Mardocheus, in his 
 Notice of Caraites, speaks highly of 
 Afandopolo. (De Rossi.) 
 
 AFEIl, (Domitius, b.c. 15 — a.d. 59,) 
 an orator, a native of Nismes. Raised to 
 the prsetorship, he became ambitious of 
 higher dignities, scriipled not to turn 
 infonner against Claudia Pidchra, cousin 
 of Agi-ippina ; and gained the cause. He 
 soon ranked among the first orators ; rose 
 high in the favour of Tiberius, who hated 
 Agrippina, yet he incuiTed not the re- 
 sentment of the latter, who little suspected 
 that he was the author of the process. 
 More distingiiished for his ability than his 
 probity, and rendered daring by success, he 
 next impeached Quintilius Varus, the son 
 of Claudia ; and still advancing in repute, 
 he became colleague in several causes 
 with Publius Dolabella ; and finding that 
 the disreputable career he had chosen was 
 the surest path to wealth and honours, 
 he persevered in these accusations, till 
 age had greatly impaired his faculties. 
 Yet on one occasion, the adroitness of 
 Afer in flattery appears to have saved 
 his life. He had erected a statue to 
 Caligula, and in the inscription upon it 
 stated that Caligula had twice been con- 
 sul at the age of twenty-seven years, 
 (the laws fixing the age at twenty-five 
 for the consulship.) He intended this 
 as a compliment to the merits of Caligula. 
 He, however, feeling jealous of Afer's 
 reputation for eloquence, took this occa- 
 sion to accuse him of having satiinzed 
 his youth, and spoke against him in 
 person in the senate. Afer threw him- 
 self at the feet of his accuser, repeated 
 the most brilliant passages of the speech, 
 and declared that he feared his eloquence 
 more than his sovereign power, &c. Ca- 
 ligula was softened — nay more, he was 
 charmed, and obtained the appointment 
 of Afer as consul. Afer maintained his 
 position under Claudius and Nero. Quin- 
 tilian was his scholar; — perhaps this is 
 the most creditable circumstance in his 
 life. It speaks well for his talents, and 
 thus may diminish the contempt his pro- 
 fligacy of principle and vicious habit 
 create. He wrote two treatises, — one 
 on Witnesses, — spoken very highly of by 
 Quintilian ; the other, on the Art of 
 Oratory. Quintilian also speaks of the 
 137 
 
 witty anecdotes he used to introduce in 
 his speeches, and of a collection of his 
 bon mots. 
 
 AFESA, (Pietro, fi. about 1650,) a 
 Neapolitan painter, whose works adorn 
 many of the churches in Naples. Do- 
 menici, in his " Lives of Neapolitan 
 Painters," speaks highly of him . (Bryan's 
 Diet.) 
 
 AFFAITATI, (Fortunis,) a philoso- 
 pher of Cremona, who, coming to Eng- 
 land, was disowned in the Thames in 
 1550 ; whether voluntarily or accident- 
 ally, is not very clear. Of his works, 
 one dedicated to pope Paul III. — Con- 
 sideration es Physicae ac Asti'onomicae, 
 merits attention for the singularity of 
 two treatises contained in it — De Varia 
 Gemellorum Fortuna, and De Andro- 
 gyne a se ipso concipienti. How came 
 the pope (inquires the Italian biogra- 
 pher) to accept the dedication of such 
 a woi-k ? 
 
 AFFICHARD, (Thomas L',) born at 
 Pont-Floh, in the diocese of St. Pol de 
 Leon, 1698 ; was a theatrical writer who 
 devoted himself to the French and the 
 Italian theatres. A list of his works is 
 found in the Dictionnaire des Theatres 
 de Paris. He would appear to have been 
 a dramatist of very moderate talent, if 
 there is any justice in the humorous epi- 
 gi-am of one of his contemporaries : — 
 
 " Quand I'afEcheur afScha I'Affichard 
 L'afRcheur afEcha le poete sans art." 
 
 AFFLECK, (Sir Edmund,) a naval 
 ofiicer of considerable repute. He entered 
 the navy at an early age, and during the 
 stin-ing times of George II. served in the 
 several capacities of lieutenant, master- 
 and-commander, and post captain. In 
 the succeeding reign, after a lapse of 
 long and continued toil, he had conferred 
 on him the higher rank of an established 
 commodore, — a rank prized in the service 
 as one not only ensuring its possessor the 
 certainty of active employment afloat, 
 but also as indicating, in the authorities 
 administering the naval affairs of the 
 nation, a public recognition of profes- 
 sional merit.* It was not, however, until 
 the year 1782 had become, — as it might 
 be historically stated, — a memorable 
 epoch in the maritime annals of England, 
 and that valour, ability, and boldness in 
 battle, had retrieved for the nation its 
 naval name, that opportunity had been 
 
 • It is Tvell worthy of remark, that the majority 
 of officers who have attained the rank of commo- 
 dore, will be found enrolled in the list of the most 
 celebrated chiefs the Britibih r.avy ha? produced. 
 
AFF 
 
 AFF 
 
 afforded to Affleck to acquire celebrity 
 and establish his professional fame. 
 
 About this period his broad pendant 
 (the commodore's symbol of office) was 
 flying on board the Bedford, attached to 
 the fleet then employed in the West 
 Indies, under the orders of Sir Sanmel 
 Hood. In the cautious and somewhat 
 speculative * encounter which took place 
 in Basse-terre Roads,f between Hood 
 and the celebrated Count de Grasse, it 
 fell to the lot, or, — as he would have said 
 himself, — good fortune of Affleck, who 
 each day commanded X the rear division 
 of the British line, to sustain the brunt of 
 the enemy's attack. His conduct on 
 this occasion drew from the commander- 
 in-chief, a public expression of praise. 
 
 "The enemy," says Sir Samuel, in his 
 official despatches, " gave the jjreference 
 to Commodore Affleck, but he kept uji so 
 noble a fire, and was so well supported 
 by his seconds. Captain Cornwallis and 
 Lord Robert Manners, that the loss and 
 damage sustained in those ships were 
 very trifling, and they very much pre- 
 served the other ships in the rear."§ 
 
 In furthering the fond aspirations of 
 Affleck, time was any thing but tardy. 
 On the 9th and 12th of April ensuing, 
 opportunity was again afforded him to 
 increase his laiirels. In the well-known 
 conflicts which took place on those dif- 
 ferent days between Rodney and the 
 Count de Grasse, and particularly in the 
 memorable battle of the 12th, the com- 
 modore, in bringing up the rea?- \\ of the 
 centre division of the British fleet, mani- 
 fested the most noble bearing. For the 
 services rendered to his country in this 
 glorious achievement, his sovereign con- 
 ferred on him the dignity of baronet of 
 Britain ; and out of compliment to his 
 gallanti-y and general conduct, the elec- 
 tors of Colchester returned him to repre- 
 
 • In the application of this phrase the reader is 
 not to suppose that the slightest shadow of censure 
 is cast on the conduct of the British chief. A 
 reference to the Memoir of Sir Samuel Hood will 
 at once explain the propriety of tlie term employed. 
 
 t Anchorage or roadstead in the waters of St. 
 Christopher. 
 
 t The 25th and 26th of January, 17S2. 
 
 § Despatches are sometimes strangely worded. 
 Surely "the other ships in the rear," were compe- 
 tent to contribute to their own preservation. 
 
 II A singular error appears in Rodney's official 
 account of this battle. Sir George says, " Nor can 
 less [praise] be given to commodore Affleck for his 
 gallant behaviour in leading the centre division." 
 Now it happens, that instead of " leading the centre 
 division," Affleck's ship, the Bedford, was the last 
 but one of that squadron. Captain Sol. Thompson 
 of the America, the eldest seaman in the fleet, led 
 the centre division of the British line ; and this 
 ■will be seen by a reference to Rodney's own return 
 of his line-of-battle. 
 
 138 
 
 sent that borough in parliament. In 
 tiu'n he attained his flag rank, but in the 
 capacity of achniral he was never em- 
 ployed afloat. He died in London on 
 the 19th of November, 1787. 
 
 AFFLECK, (Philip,) a British admi- 
 ral — a younger brother of Sir Edmund. 
 Although not equally fortunate in having 
 had opportimities afforded to him to win 
 for himself a degree of distinction similar 
 to that which had been acquired by the 
 commodore ; still Philip, when serving 
 afloat, had often encountered the enemy, 
 and, on more than one occasion, evinced 
 considei-able daring in conflicts which are 
 technically termed "cutting out;" in- 
 deed at the siege of Louisburgh, he 
 obtained his commander's commission 
 for the intrepidity and coiurage he dis- 
 played in boarding, and capturing with 
 the boats of the squadron^ two French 
 vessels of war of considerable force. 
 After a series of constant and active 
 service he attained the rank of admiral, 
 and was considered an officer of such 
 professional experience as to become, in 
 the year 1 793, one of the commissioners 
 selected to execute the office of Lord 
 High Admiral. 
 
 AFFLITTO, (Matthew, 1430—1510,) 
 a lawyer, the grandson of Matthew Af- 
 flitto, councillor royal in 1409, under 
 Ladislaus, was a native of Naples. Early 
 in life he so much distinguished liimself 
 in his profession, that he was promoted 
 to the council of state by king Ferdi- 
 nand I., and also was in the confidence 
 of his son, afterwards Alphonsus II. 
 Being appointed president of the royal 
 chamber, he was employed in important 
 transactions under five successive kings 
 of Naples. To the deep knowledge shown 
 in his works he joined the utmost probity 
 and kindness of heart with very engag- 
 ing manners. He reached the advanced 
 age of eighty, notwithstanding the dis- 
 tractions of the times in which he lived, 
 and his numerous labours. His chief 
 works are, — 1. Commcntarius in Consti- 
 tutiones Siciliae et Neapolis ; Francf. 1 603, 
 fol. 2. 2. Commentarius super tres Libros 
 Feudorum ; Venice, 1534, fol.; Lyons, 
 1548 and 1560; Francfort, 1598, 1608, 
 1629. 3. Decisiones Neapolitanse Anti- 
 qtiae et Novae ; Venice, 1564, 1600, and 
 1635, fol. ; and Francfort, 1616, and 1635. 
 fol. ; besides numerovis other works on 
 law and jurisprudence. 
 
 AFFLITTO, (John Mario,) a Domini- 
 can, who applied mathematical science 
 to the art of fortification. Invited by 
 Don John of Austria to Spain, he there 
 
A FF 
 
 AFF 
 
 published a treatise upon the art in 2 
 vols. 4to. He also published theological 
 and philosophical tracts, and died at 
 Naples 1673. 
 
 AFFLITTO, (Gaetan Andrew,) an 
 advocate ; printed Pleadings and De- 
 cisions of Law. 
 
 AFFLITTO, (Cesar d',) an able jiu-is- 
 consult, wi-ote Inquiries into Feudal 
 Tenures, &c. 
 
 AFFLITTO, (Father Eustace d',) a 
 Dominican, who wrote Memorie de gli 
 Scrittori del regno di Napoli, 4to.( Naples, 
 1782,) but left the care of completing his 
 undertaking to the Abbe Gualtieri, one 
 of the royal librarians of Naples, after- 
 wards bishop of Aquila. Vol. ii. was 
 published 1794. It is a work far superior 
 to that of Toppi, of Nicodemo, or Tafuri, 
 but was never completed. It appears, 
 (says Weiss, in the Biog. Univ.) to have 
 been conceived on so vast a scale that 
 there was no chance of completing it. 
 Vol. i. only contained the authors in 
 letter A. See Tiraboschi, Stor. della Liter. 
 Ital. i. p. 114, note, who speaks very 
 highly of the learning and accuracy of 
 this work. 
 
 AFFO, (Ireneus,) a native of Bussetto, 
 was professor of philosophy at Guastalla, 
 where he wrote his Historia di Guastalla, 
 4 vols. 4to. It commenced with the 
 reign of Charlemagne, comprised the 
 tliree dynasties of this petty state, up 
 to 1776, viz. the Torelli's, the Gonzago's, 
 and the Bourbons. So great was 
 the reputation it acquired liim, that 
 he was appointed superintendent of the 
 valuable library at Parma. Though a 
 diffuse writer, his researches are valuable, 
 and his statements correct. He ^vi'ote 
 also, Historia di Parma, 2 vols. 4to, and 
 other works connected with the antiqui- 
 ties of these states. He died at the age 
 of 56, and left a manuscript Histoiy of 
 Peter Louis Farnese. Tiraboschi con- 
 stantly quotes his works with approba- 
 tion, especially his Poetical Dictionary, 
 and his Memoirs, and other pieces inserted 
 in the Raccolta Ferrarese di Opuscoli. 
 
 AFFPtY, (Louis Auguste Augustin d',) 
 son of Fran9ois d'AfFry, lieutenant-gene- 
 ral in the service of France, was boi'n at 
 Vei'sailles in 1713 ; entered the army and 
 was present at the battle of Guastalla, 
 where his father was killed. He subse- 
 qiiently distinguished himself both as 
 a commander and a diplomatist, and sus- 
 tained the high reputation he had gained 
 in several active campaigns, and im- 
 portant embassies. He was also colonel 
 of the Swiss guards, coinmanded the 
 139. 
 
 troops charged with the protection of 
 Louis XVI., and on the dreadfid days 
 of the 5th and 6th of October, 1789, 
 evinced the utmost zeal in the service of 
 that unfortunate prince. On the depar- 
 tm-e of the king for Varennes, though 
 enfeebled by age, he was the first to offer 
 his sword to the National Assembly. 
 Subsequently to 1792, he took no part in 
 political events, but was arrested, and 
 thrown into prison on the 10th of August. 
 Being fortunate enough to obtain his 
 liberty, he retired to his castle at Barthe- 
 lemy, in the canton de Vaud, where he 
 died in 1793, inconsolable for the death 
 of his son, slain at the Tuilleries on the 
 day of his own arrest. (Biog. Nouv. des 
 Contemporains, &c. &c.) 
 
 AFFRY, (Louis Augustin Philippe, 
 Comte d',) son of the preceding, born 
 at Fribm-gh in 1743, was eai'ly destined 
 for the military profession. He accom- 
 panied his father in quality of attache to 
 the Hague ; became major in the Swiss 
 guards ; and, subsequently, lieutenant-ge- 
 neral. On the breaking out of the revo- 
 lution, he commanded the army of the 
 Upper Rhine, till the disbanding of the 
 Swiss in 1792, when he withdrew into 
 his native place and joined the secret 
 council of Friburgh. He was appointed 
 to the command of the troops when this 
 canton, in common with all Switzerland, 
 was in 1798 threatened at once with a 
 revolution and with an invasion. The 
 count, in this emergency, conducted him- 
 self with singular prudence, and suc- 
 ceeded in protectmg his native city from 
 the horrors of war and civil discord. 
 Upon its occupation by the French troops, 
 he became one of the members of the 
 provisional government, but was removed 
 dm-ing the period of the revolution. He 
 took no part against the new Helvetic 
 government, kept aloof from the insur- 
 rections of 1801 and 1802, but willingly 
 accepted an appouitment to Paris, when 
 the first consid, oflering his mediation, 
 summoned the Swiss deputies to that 
 capital. He was distinguished among 
 the deputies by the chief consid, who 
 selected him for the establishment of a 
 constitution, and presented with his own 
 hand the act of mediation, in which the 
 count was appointed " Landammann" for 
 that year. Upon his retm'n into Swit- 
 zerland, he was nominated by his fellow- 
 citizens, chief magistrate of Friburgh, 
 and showed equal energy and skiU in 
 repressing violence and allaying the ani- 
 mosities of party. He took the same 
 leading part in the affairs of his country. 
 
AFF 
 
 A F R 
 
 up to the close of his useful career, his 
 last public embassy being to congratulate 
 Napoleon on his marriage with Mai"ia 
 Louisa of Austria. Before he could give 
 an account of his mission, he was seized 
 with apoplexy, and died on his way to 
 Berne, the 26th of June, 1810. His 
 memory will long be held dear by the 
 Swiss states. 
 
 AFFRY, (Charles Philippe Comte d', 
 1772 — 1818,) son of the preceding, was 
 a lieutenant in the Swiss guards on the 
 10th of August, 1792, and escaped the 
 massacre of that day by having been 
 detaclied with his company into Nor- 
 mandy. He retired to his native place, 
 but subsequently became colonel of a 
 Swiss regiment, and distinguished him- 
 self in several campaigns against the 
 Russians, particidarly in the terrific re- 
 treat of 1812. He was employed after 
 the restoration, and on the return of 
 Napoleon resisted offers personally made 
 to him by that ruler, and continued 
 faithful to the king, by whom he was 
 afterwards rewarded and promoted. 
 
 AFRANIA, a Roman lady of the time 
 of Caesar, remarkable for pleading public 
 causes, but whose satirical attacks were 
 so severe as to tend to the adoption of a 
 law that no Avoman should be allowed to 
 plead. 
 
 AFRANIUS, (L.) a comic poet of 
 Rome. He lived about 100 b. c. He 
 was one of the writers of that class of 
 comedy called togata, and appears to 
 have imitated Menander. Mention is 
 made of him by Horace, Cicero, (Bru- 
 tus,) Quintilian, who says, " In togatis 
 excellit Afranius ; " and by Gellius, 
 xiii. 8, who quotes a couple of lines from 
 him. Quintilian, however, blames him 
 on the score of indecency. The folloAving 
 extract is from the Encyclopaedia Metro- 
 politana,Hist. Div. vol. ii. " The principal 
 writers of the Coma?dia Togata were 
 Trabia, Lamia, Pomponius, Atta, Titi- 
 nius, and Afranius. The loss of the 
 writings of the last -mentioned poet, 
 which were committed to the flames by 
 the intemperate zeal of Gregory L, is an 
 irreparable calamity to literature. From 
 the character which he possessed among 
 his countrymen, and which has been 
 so beautifully given in one line by 
 Horace — 
 
 ' Dicitur Afrani toga convenisse Menandro ' 
 
 there is reason to believe that his dramas 
 were at once excellent and original ; and 
 it must have been curious to see what 
 the vigorous mind of a Roman dramatist 
 110 
 
 could have produced, when, drawing 
 from the great model — nature, he con- 
 tinually corrected and refined his copy 
 from the elegant proportions of the 
 Attic Thalia. Stephens has collected a 
 few scattered fragments of this author; 
 and though little judgment of the poet 
 can be formed from them, some of 
 them evince great delicacy and ele- 
 gance ; it must, however, be remarked, 
 that Quintilian blames him for the inde- 
 licacy of some of his dramas. The few 
 fragments which remain of Afranius 
 may be found in the Corpus Poetarum 
 of Maittaire (London, 1713), and the 
 Collectio Pisaurensis. 
 
 AFRANIUS NEPOS, ( L. ) served 
 under Pompey, and was raised by him 
 to the consulship, the year of Rome 
 694, when he began to dread the influ- 
 ence of Caesar. On the breaking out of 
 the war he was in Spain, commanding as 
 Pompey 's lieutenant with Petreius ; and 
 after Csesar entered that country, they 
 joined their forces, and gave him battle 
 near Lerida. Csesar was beaten in the 
 first action, and was completely blockaded 
 in his camp by the rising of two rivers. 
 It was believed at Rome that he was 
 lost, and the wife of Afranius received 
 congratulations on her husband's success. 
 But the genius of Caesar triumphed ; and 
 he compelled Pompey 's generals to lay 
 down their arms. At Pharsalia Afra- 
 nius commanded the right wing of Pom- 
 pey 's army; and he was afterwards, with 
 Faustus Sylla, defeated and taken pri- 
 soner by Sitius, one of Caesar's lieutenants, 
 by whose soldiers he was killed. 
 
 AFRICANUS, (Julius,) a christian 
 historian, born at Nicopolis, in Palestine, 
 in the third century. He wrote a chro- 
 nology by the title of Chi'onographia, 
 which was divided into five books, form- 
 ing an universal history from the creation 
 of Adam, to the third year of the reign 
 of Heliogabalus, viz. a.d. 221. Only 
 that portion of it has survived which is 
 found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, and 
 the Chronicon Paschale and Syncellus. 
 He wrote a letter to Origen concerning 
 the history of Susannah, which he judged 
 to be spurious, and one to Aristides, to 
 reconcile the genealogical tables of St. 
 Matthew and St. Luke. These afford 
 one of the earliest specimens, as Neander 
 has remarked, of critical inquiries ap- 
 plied to the New Testament. The re- 
 building of Nicopolis on the spot where 
 the village of Emmaus stood, was under- 
 taken by Heliogabalus at the special 
 recommendation of the historian, who 
 
AFR 
 
 AG A 
 
 resided there. A mathematical work, 
 entitled Ot Kco-rot, has also been attri- 
 buted to him. Such fragments as remain 
 were printed among the Mathematici 
 Veteres at Paris in 1693, folio, and 
 were translated into French by M. Guis- 
 card. Cave supposes that he died at 
 an advanced age, about the year 232 ; 
 but Lardner thinks not so soon. See 
 more on this writer in Cave, Hist. Lit. i. 
 110. 
 
 AGANDURO (Rodrigo M.), an Au- 
 gustinian friar ; was one of the most 
 zealous of his order in propagating the 
 gospel in Japan. But he was too zealous 
 for the interests of religion : like most of 
 the Roman-catholic missionaries, he bap- 
 tized before he had insti'ucted. Hence, 
 though the progress of the faith was 
 apparently rapid, it was transitory ; the 
 people relapsed into their ancient idola- 
 try ; and those of Lucon only transmitted 
 to their children any tincture of the ti-uth. 
 In 1640 Agandmo was sent to Rome to 
 lay before Urban VIH. the homage of 
 the new converts. He is the author of 
 two works, which may be consulted with 
 profit by the future histoinan — a Relation 
 of the Mission to Japan and the Philip- 
 pine Islands, and a History of the Phi- 
 lippine and Molucca Islands. 
 
 AGAPETUS, deacon of the church of 
 Constantinople in the sixth century, pre- 
 sented the emperor Justinian with a 
 work which has been called Charta Re- 
 gia, containing advice upon the duties 
 of a christian prince. Its high repu- 
 tation caused him to be ranked amongst 
 the best writers of his age. It was 
 printed in Gr. et Lat. at Venice, 1509, 
 8vo, and is often printed in the same 
 volume with various editions of jEsop's 
 fables. The most correct edition is that 
 of Banduri, in his Imperium Orientale. 
 Paris, 1711. 2 vols. fol. Louis XIII. in 
 his youth translated it from Latin into 
 French. It was printed in 1612, and 
 has often been reprinted. 
 
 AGAPETUS I. (S.), raised to the 
 papal chair June 535 ; was a Roman, 
 and became ai-chdeacon of the church 
 during the period when Italy was imder 
 the scourge of the Goths. Agapetus 
 was, in fact, sent by the king Theodotus 
 on an embassy to Constantinople, with a 
 view of diverting the emperor Justinian 
 from his design of reconquering Italy, 
 which took place some years afterwards 
 by the famous Belisarius. So great was 
 the poverty of his holiness, that he was 
 compelled to take the sacred vessels of 
 the church to defray the expenses of his 
 141 
 
 travels. His embassy failed, and he 
 devoted himself, thenceforward, to his 
 religious duties, and regulating the con- 
 duct of the patriarchs. He died at Con- 
 stantinople in the year 536. 
 
 AGAPETUS II., elected pope in 946, 
 when Italy was a prey to rival preten- 
 sions ; embraced the party of Otho, the 
 king of the Germans, in opposition to 
 Berenger, who aspired to the crown. He 
 sent a legate to Otho, lu-ging him to 
 assemble a coimcil, which was held at 
 Ingelheim, in which the claims of the 
 contending monarchs were vainly dis- 
 cussed. He died, regretted for his vir- 
 tues, in 956. 
 
 AGAR, (Jacques de, 1640—1716,) a 
 French portrait painter, who visited 
 England, and ended his days at Copen- 
 hagen, where he was much patronized by 
 the court. (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 AGARD, (Arthur,) a learned anti- 
 quary, born 1540, at Foston, in Derby- 
 shire ; was the son of Clement Agard, by 
 Eleanor, daughter of Thomas Middle- 
 borough, of Egbaston, in Warwickshire. 
 He studied for the law, but does not 
 appear to have been at either of the uni- 
 versities ; became a clerk in the Exche- 
 quer office ; and in 1570 was made 
 deputy-chamberlain, — a place which he 
 held during forty-five years. He had 
 thus ample leism-e to indidge his natural 
 taste, and fonned large collections in 
 every brancli of antiquarian science cal- 
 culated to illustrate his native country. 
 His zeal procured him the friendship of 
 Sir Robert Cotton, which lasted through 
 life. But Agard's antiquarian knowledge 
 cannot be attributed to this acquaintance 
 (as it has been by Wood, Athen. Oxon.), 
 as Sir Robert was born only in the same 
 year that Agard came into office. He 
 numbered, indeed, among his coadjutors 
 and friends, all the most eminent and 
 learned men of his age ; and when, in 
 1572, the first society of antiquarians 
 was formed by Archbishop Parker, his 
 name appeared at the head of the list of 
 distinguished members. In this society 
 he read three essays, published by Hearne 
 in his collection of Curious Discom'ses, 
 1720 and 1775, 2 vols. Agard's discourses 
 are— 1. Opinion touching the Antiquity, 
 Power, Order, State, Manner, Persons, 
 and Proceedings of the High Court of 
 Parliament, in England. 2. On this 
 question. Of what Antiquity Shires were 
 in England ? In this ]VIr. Agard was of 
 opinion that King Alfred was the author 
 of this division. 3. On the Dimensions 
 of the Lands in England, 4. The Au- 
 
A G A 
 
 AGA 
 
 tliority, Office, and Privileges of Heralds 
 in England. He considered this office to 
 be of the same antiquity with the insti- 
 tution of the Garter. 5. Of the Antiquity 
 or Privileges of the Houses or Inns of 
 Court, and of Chancery. Here he ob- 
 serves, that before the time of Magna 
 Charta, our lawyers were of the clergy ; 
 that in the time of Edward I. the law 
 received its proper foi'm ; and that the 
 Exchequer was formerly styled the 
 "mother court" of all courts of record. 
 It was then, he supposed, that lawyers 
 began to have settled places of abode, 
 but he knew of no privileges. 6. Of 
 the Diversity of Names of this Island. 
 From this we find that the first Saxons 
 came into this island in the year 435 ; 
 that the reason why England was not 
 called Saxon-land, was because the An- 
 gles, after the subjection of that part of 
 the island, were more numerous than 
 the Saxons. After this conquest the 
 name of Briton grew into distaste ; all 
 valued themselves on being Englishmen. 
 The Society was dissolved in 1604, and 
 did not revive until the last century. 
 
 Agard endeavoured to explain Dooms- 
 day Book in a treatise which is preserved 
 in the Cotton Library, imder Vitellius, 
 C. IX. He compiled also A Catalogue of 
 all such Records as were in the Four Trea- 
 suries belonging to his Majesty. All the 
 rest of his collections — more than twenty 
 volumes, be bequeathed to Sir Robert 
 Cotton, in whose library they were depo- 
 sited. Previous to his death he had a 
 monument erected for himself and his 
 wife near the chapter-door, in the cloister 
 of Westminster Abbey. He died August 
 22, 1615. 
 
 AGAS. See Aggas. 
 
 AGASIAS, a sculptor of Ephesus, 
 scholar or son of Dositheos. According 
 to Fuseli, it is possible that he may be 
 the Egesias of Quintilian and Pliny ; 
 and he considers the letters of the in- 
 scription to indicate the same age as that 
 attributed by Quintilian to Kalon and 
 Egesias. The great work of Agasias is 
 the statue of The Gladiator, as it is 
 called, although it is now pretty well 
 agreed upon that it does not represent a 
 gladiator at all. Winkleman and Fuseli 
 both speak of it most highly. It was found 
 with the Apollo Belvedere at Nettuno, the 
 ancient Antium, the birth-place of Nero, 
 where he had deposited a large number 
 of the chef-d'oeuvres collected in Greece 
 by the freedman Acratus. This statue. 
 The Fighting Gladiator, or The JBor- 
 ghese Gladiator, as it is called from 
 142 
 
 having been in the Borghese Villa, is 
 placed by K. O. Miiller (Handbuch der 
 Archaologie der Kunst, 2d ed. Breslau, 
 1835, p. 155) in the fourth period 
 of Greek art (from 336 to 146 e.g.); 
 and he observes that there were three 
 Ephesian sculptors of this name, and he 
 refers to Bcckh, Corp. Inser. 2285 b. for 
 the second of them (Agasias, the son of 
 Menophilos). With regard to the Fight- 
 ing Gladiator, he remarks, this statue, 
 described in Visconti and Clarac's Cata- 
 logue of the Louvre,* No. 304, (edition 
 of 1830,) is probably a warrior defending 
 himself, with his shield and lance, against 
 an enemy on horseback, and was probably 
 taken from a larger group of warriors, in 
 order to treat it with every refinement of 
 art. (See Maffei, Race. 75. Piranesi, 
 Stat. 13. Mus. Roy. i. 8. Clarac, pi. 304.) 
 Lessing (Werke, vol. ii. p. 384, or Lao- 
 coon, § xxviii.) thinks it the statue of 
 Chabrias, as described by Cornelius 
 Nepos in his life of that warrior. Miiller 
 adds that Mongez (Mem. de 1' Inst. Nat. 
 Litt. ii. p. 43) considers it an athlete ; 
 Gibelin (Ibid. iv. p. 492) and Hirt a 
 discobolus (Ballon Schleudrer) ; and Quat. 
 de Quincy (Mem. de I'lnst. Roy. vol. iv. 
 p. 165) makes it an hoplitodromos. 
 In another part of the same work he 
 enumerates (from Jean Galbert Salvage, 
 Anatomic du Gladiatein* Combattant, 
 Paris, 1812) the muscles delineated in 
 this statue. An engraving of it will be 
 found in the Encyclop. Metropol. Mixed 
 Sciences, vol. iii. art. Sculpture. (Biog. 
 Univ. Miiller's Handbuch.) 
 
 AGASICLES, a king of Sparta, men- 
 tioned by Herodotus, of whom nothing 
 remarkable is recorded. 
 
 AGATHA, (St.) a christian martyr, 
 born at Palermo, or Catana, of a distin- 
 guished family ; was early devoted to a 
 religiovis life. Quintianus, governor of 
 Sicily, struck witli her charms, availed 
 himself of the existing edicts against the 
 Christians to seize her person. She was 
 brought before his tribunal, but resisted 
 alike his tlueats and his allurements j 
 was thrown into prison, where she en- 
 dured the most cruel torments with 
 heroic constancy; and died with apraver 
 upon her lips. 
 
 AGATHANGELUS, an Armenian 
 historian, lived in the fourth century. 
 He was secretary to king Tiridates, whose 
 life he wrote, as well as that of St. Gre- 
 gory the Illuminator — the latter at the 
 
 * This statue was one of those carried away to 
 France, but now restored to Rome. It is (the 
 writer believes) now in the Vatican. 
 
AG A 
 
 AG A 
 
 particvilar desire of the king. But it 
 cannot be ascertained in what language 
 the historian wrote his work. Some, 
 however, assert that the history was 
 waitten in Armenian, with Greek cha- 
 racters ; others in Greek, and that it was 
 translated into Armenian. The latter 
 is the most probable, as a complete his- 
 tory of Agathangelus, written in the 
 Greek language, exists to this day. It 
 was published at Constantinople in 1 709. 
 (Audall's Armenia, Pref. p. xxv.) 
 
 AGATHARCIDES was born at Cni- 
 dus, by profession a grammarian and 
 rhetorician, and a philosopher of the sect 
 of Peripatetics. He lived in the time of 
 Ptolemj' Philometor, and wrote a work 
 in 10 books upon Asia; in which he 
 touched upon the exploits of Alexander 
 the Great, and the history of his suc- 
 cessors, as Fabricius infers from Josephus, 
 p. 1050, and who would assign to the 
 same work a passage in his ^pvyioKa, 
 which is quoted by Pseudo - Plutarch 
 on Rivers, p. 1154. Photius likewise 
 mentions a work of his upon Europe, in 
 49 books ; and attributes to him an Epi- 
 tome of what he had previously written 
 on the Red Sea, together with five books 
 on the Troglodytae, (cavern-dwellers,) on 
 the Winds, and an epitome of the Lyde 
 of Antimachus. The last was, however, 
 in all probability, merely a commentary 
 upon the histories introduced into the 
 elegy of the grammarian and poet of 
 Colophon ; who no doubt gave as much 
 trouble to scholiasts, as ApoUonius has 
 done by his learned allusions in the Ar- 
 gonautica. To the Cnidian has been 
 referred a work on Persia, quoted by 
 Plutarch in Parallel, p. 305. But as the 
 writer is there described as a Samian, 
 Fabricius conceives that Agathyrsides of 
 Samos is the person alluded to, whose 
 nepaiKa is quoted by Stobeeus VII. ; and 
 in like manner he woidd substitute Aga- 
 th)'^rsides for Agatharcides in Pseudo- 
 Plutarch, p. 1153. He affected, it seems, 
 an Attic purity, although, says Phouus, 
 he sometimes used a word belonging to 
 a lower age. Of all his works only some 
 fragments have been preserved by Pho- 
 tius, cod. 250 ; and to them is to be re- 
 ferred the Epitome of the Collection of 
 the Wondei'ful Things of Histoiy, and a 
 Dissertation nepi ttjs irpos (pikovs 
 cfii\ias. He has given a detailed ac- 
 count of the manner of working gold 
 mines near the Red Sea ; and it appears 
 from Pliny, Hist. Nat. vii. 2, that he 
 told a marvellous tale of a nation in 
 Africa, called the Psylli, from whose 
 143 
 
 bodies exuded a poison fatal to- serpents, 
 and the very smell of which put them to 
 sleep. The fragments are to be found 
 in Geographi Minores, ed. Hudson. 
 Oxon. 1698. 
 
 AGATHARCUS, an ancient painter, 
 son of Eudemus, was born at Samos, and 
 pursued his art at Athens. He was re- 
 markable for his rapidity of execution, 
 and for his skill in painting ornaments 
 and decorations. Zeuxis, on hearing 
 him boast of this rapidity, which is al- 
 ways unfavourable to excellence, replied 
 coolly, " that he piqued himself on his 
 slowness." From his connexion with 
 Zeuxis and Alcibiades, it is probable 
 Agatharcus lived about the 95th Olym- 
 piad, or 400 B.C. 
 
 AGATHEMERUS. Neither the time 
 when, nor the place where this geogra- 
 pher was born, has been made out satis- 
 factorily. From internal evidence, how- 
 ever, furnished by the word 'larravia, 
 first applied to Spain by Ptolemy, to 
 whom Agathemerus refers, and from an 
 allusion to the fact of Babylonia be- 
 coming a Roman province under Severus 
 in A. D. 201, Dodwell places the author 
 in the commencement of the third cen- 
 tury. From the sixth chapter of the 
 first book, it appears that Agathemerus 
 Avi-ote his Delineation of Geography for 
 the use of one Philo. But the work has 
 come down to us in a very imperfect 
 state, is full of contradictions, and very 
 obscure. Malte-Brim conceives the two 
 books to be extracts from the same 
 course of lectures on geography. They 
 were first printed from a MS. belonging 
 to Chiflet by Tennulius at Amsterdam, 
 1671, and subsequently reprinted by 
 Hudson in his Geographi Minores, Oxon. 
 1703, and by Gronovius in Geographia 
 Antiqua, Lugd. Bat. 1700. St. Croix 
 accuses Hudson of having neglected 
 some coiTect readings which Holstein 
 had obtained from the Paris MSS. ; and 
 confirms the inference ch'awn by Dod- 
 well, touching the age of Agathemerus, 
 by showing that the Greek geographer 
 alludes to the wall which was drawn across 
 England during the reign of Severus. 
 
 AGATHIAS, of Myrine, a city of 
 jEolis in Asia Minor, was the son of 
 Memnonious and Periclea. He was 
 brought up to the study of the civil law 
 at Alexandria, from whence he went to 
 Constantinople. He began his literary 
 career as the writer of amatory and other 
 poems, wliich he called Daphniaca ; and 
 was the editor of the new circle of Greek 
 Anthology, which he arranged under 
 
AG A 
 
 AG A 
 
 nine different heads. Of his own epi- 
 grams nearly one hundred have come 
 down to us. Dissatisfied, however, with 
 writings from which little honour was to 
 be acquired, and which, as he grew older, 
 he perhaps conceived to be little suited 
 to the character of a Christian — for to 
 that creed he is supposed to allude, when 
 he speaks of " the most correct doctrine," 
 which the Franks had adopted — he 
 turned his talents to historical compo- 
 sition ; and continued the history of Pro- 
 copius, which he has brought down to the 
 defeat of the Huns by Belisarius, a. d. 
 569, [It appears, however, that he could 
 give only his spare time to letters, being 
 compelled to gain his livelihood by his 
 professional pursuits. " I wovdd wish," 
 says he " were it in my power, to unite 
 the Graces with the Muses," — where he 
 alludes to a passage in the Hercules of 
 Euripides, v. 673. His talents as an 
 liistorian and poet are much upon a par. 
 In both he is rather the imitator of the 
 thoughts of others, than the promulgator 
 of his own ; but though we may lament 
 his want of originality, we cannot but do 
 justice to the correctness of his taste in 
 selecting the best authors for his models. 
 So closely has he followed the footsteps 
 of his predecessors, that a critical reader 
 of Thucydides will find in the pages of 
 the Byzantine historian something for 
 the emendation of the text of the Athe- 
 nian. Amongst the curious facts detailed 
 by Agathias, the one most interesting to 
 the present age is where he states how 
 Anthemius imitated the effects of an 
 earthquake by the explosion of a steam- 
 boiler, and almost verified the story of 
 Archimedes setting fire to the Roman 
 fleet at Syracuse by means of burning 
 glasses of extraordinary power. The 
 history of Agathias was first published in 
 an imperfect form in the Latin trans- 
 lation of Personna at Rome, in 1516, and 
 afterwards in the original Greek by Bona- 
 vent. Vulcanius ; Lugd. Bat. 1594 ; which 
 was reprinted at Paris in 1660 ; and it 
 now forms a part of the Coi-pus Byzanti- 
 norum Scriptorum, of which the last 
 edition is by Niebuhr, who has, however, 
 made no use of the V. MSS. which still 
 exist in the Vatican imcollated. 
 
 AGATHO. Of this Athenian dra- 
 matist, and the young friend of Euripides, 
 and in honour of whom the older trage- 
 dian is said by ^Elian (V. H. ii. 21) to 
 nave written his play called Chrysippus, 
 nearly all that is known is through the 
 medium of the comedies of Aristophanes 
 and the dialogues of Plato ; the latter of 
 144 
 
 whom has made Agatho's house the 
 scene of his banquet, where he has put 
 into the mouth of the host a speech in 
 favour of love, in unison, no doubt, with 
 the sentiments expressed by Agatho in 
 the very play whose success the banquet 
 was given to celebrate, — at least if any 
 inference can be drawn from the nume- 
 rous fragments of verse to be detected in 
 the speech of the dramatist. That he pos- 
 sessed no inconsiderable talents is shown 
 by the fact, that Aristophanes thought 
 proper to make him the principal butt for 
 his ridicide in the Thesmophoriazusas ; 
 from whence we learn that he was equally 
 effeminate in dress, manners and mind, 
 and was much given (as remarked by 
 Aristotle oftener than once) to antithesis 
 and other rhetoi'ical ornaments ; while 
 Philostratus in Vit. Sophist, i. 497, tells 
 us, evidently in allusion to that identical 
 play of Aristophanes, that he, whom 
 Comedy called the sweet-tongued Agatho, 
 frequently talked like Gorgias — a pas- 
 sage that plainly seems to lead to yop- 
 ytfet in Thesm. 56, spoken by Mnesilo- 
 chus, in ridicule of Agatho, instead of 
 yoyyvki^ii, — a word which is very un- 
 suitable in all respects. Only a few of 
 the titles and fragments of his plays have 
 been preserved ; although more would 
 doubtless have been discovered, had we 
 fuller scholia on the latter plays of Ari- 
 stophanes ; for we learn that the opening 
 verse of the Ecclesiazusas was taken 
 from Agatho. Once only is it stated 
 that he got the prize. He was the first 
 to introduce, says Aristotle, Poetic. § 7, 
 extraneous matter into the choral songs, 
 and to desti'oy the simplicity of the 
 argument by a multiplicity of events; 
 and according to Plutarch, in Sympos. 
 iii. 1, he made in The Mysians some 
 alterations in the choral music, to suit 
 probably his own voice ; for it appears, 
 from the Schol. on Aristoph. (Thesm, 
 101) that he was an actor as well as 
 dramatist. The titles too of his plays 
 were connected neither with the chorus 
 nor the principal character of the piece ; 
 and he thus led the way to the senti- 
 mental dramas of the new comedy. Like 
 Euripides, he left Athens for the court 
 of Archelaiis in Macedonia ; a circum- 
 stance to which allusion is made in The 
 Frogs of Aristophanes, (v. 84,) where 
 the Scholiast, transcribed by Suidas, evi- 
 dently read something more than we 
 have at present in the text ; for, as it is 
 absurd to suppose that Aristophanes 
 would stultify himself by ridiculing 
 Agatho in one play and praising liim in 
 
AG A 
 
 A 
 
 another, so is it reasonable to suspect 
 that he wrote what is still visible in the 
 Greek commentary, and asserted that 
 Agatho was a doer of good, and regretted 
 by the clever fellows, the pupils of So- 
 crates, by whom, although he kept a 
 splendid table for them, he was still 
 made their butt. As a specimen of 
 Agatho 's language, Aristotle has quoted 
 a distich, of something like the following 
 sense : — 
 
 If I speak true, I shall not give delight ; 
 
 But if I please, my words will not lie right. 
 
 AGATHO, a confessor, imprisoned in 
 Diocletian's persecution, a. d. 304. The 
 account given of him and Agape the 
 martyr, in Baronius and Surius, is stated 
 by Henschen to be a spurious document. 
 (See Ruinart. Acta Sincera Martyrum, 
 p. 390.) 
 
 AGATHOCLES, a tyrant of Syracuse, 
 ■was born about the year 359 b. c. For 
 some time he practised the trade of his 
 father Cercinus, a potter, but soon aban- 
 doned it for the more active life of a 
 common soldier. His noble figm-e and 
 great strength drew the admiration of the 
 general of the Agrigenti, a man of aban- 
 doned manners, who pi-omoted him to the 
 rank of chiliarch, or leader of a thousand 
 men. After the death of his commander, 
 he espoused his widow, the heiress to 
 immense wealth, and thus at once be- 
 came a powerful and dangerous citizen. 
 Upon the death of Timoleon, Syracuse, 
 a prey to anarchy, favoured the designs 
 of Sosistratus, who compelled his demo- 
 cratic rival to fly and seek refuge in 
 Crotona. Both there and at Tarentum, 
 he again usurped the public authority, 
 experienced the same fate, but still made 
 himself formidable as the leader of a 
 powerful banditti. Sosistratus, in his 
 turn, having incurred the enmity of the 
 people, Agathocles was recalled to lead 
 the rival faction, and became distin- 
 guished for his military discipline and 
 prowess. He defeated his rival, sup- 
 ported by the Carthaginians ; seized the 
 supreme power, and exercised it with so 
 much severity as to drive the Syracusans 
 to appeal for aid to the Corinthians. 
 Suddenly attacked fi-om without, and by 
 the indignant citizens, Agathocles only 
 escaped death by giving his own arms 
 and dress to a soldier who greatly re- 
 sembled him, and who being taken and 
 slain, still farther favoured the tyrant's 
 escape. What then was the surprise, 
 the terror of Syracuse, when he re- 
 appeared with a formidable army before 
 its walls ; then, adding stratagem to force, 
 
 VOL. I. 145 
 
 he offered to spare the city and to main- 
 tain the public liberty, if restored to his 
 former authority and rank. But no 
 sooner was he firmly seated, than he 
 gave the signal to his troops, and the 
 nobility, the wealth, and the beauty of 
 that princely city became the spoil of his 
 mercenary and ferocious troops. During 
 successive nights and days, Syracuse 
 was abandoned to rapine and slaughter , 
 and when they ceased, the tyrant calmly 
 informed the survivors, that it was done 
 to establish a democracy upon the heads 
 of their haughty and wealthy enemies, 
 whose riches the commonwealth might 
 now enjoy. For his share, he declared 
 that he was only desirous of retiring to a 
 private station and living in peace. At 
 these woi-ds, throwing away his sword, he 
 mingled with the populace, as if leaving 
 them to " wield their fierce democracy " 
 at pleasure, and his ferocious bandits 
 and assassins in consternation and dis- 
 may. The ruse succeeded ; his chief 
 soldiers gathered round, and decreed him 
 the supreme authority and a crown. His 
 first act was to abolish all debts, and 
 make an equal distribution of the lands. 
 Gratified by his popularity, he affected 
 an affable demeanour, promulgated some 
 equitable decrees, and restored order and 
 public credit. He then increased his 
 army and the number of his vessels, and 
 within two years became master of nearly 
 the whole of Sicily. The Carthaginians, 
 taking alarm, sent Hamilcar to oppose 
 him : but he was routed, and his camp 
 was being pillaged when a strong rein- 
 forcement arrived ; and the victors were 
 put to flight. Agathocles, undismayed, 
 formed the hardy design of carrying the 
 war into Africa ; he obtained a naval 
 victory, and having effected a landing, 
 he burnt his own fleet to cut off every 
 hope except that of success. He over- 
 threw an army of 40,000 men, the flower 
 of the Carthaginians ; and by intrigue 
 and treachery gained yet more than by 
 arms. Towns and cities fell before him ; 
 and aided by the Lybians, he prepared 
 to lay siege to Carthage itself. He also 
 assumed the title of king of Africa ; 
 while the people of Syracuse, equally 
 fortunate, repulsed and took prisoner 
 Hamilcar in a great battle, and sent his 
 head as a trophy to their monarch. 
 Several towns of Sicily, however, having 
 formed a league against him, Agathocles 
 gave the African command to his son, 
 and hui-ried back to Sicily. The fame 
 of his victories restored obedience, even 
 before the terror of his presence; and 
 
A GA 
 
 AGE 
 
 he returned to prosecute his African 
 campaign. He found his army in flight ; 
 rallied, and led them at once against the 
 enemy. He was repulsed and hard 
 pressed by the enemy; the Africans aban- 
 doned him, and his own troops revolted. 
 He was seized by them and imprisoned, — 
 the Carthaginians advanced, and in the 
 panic, Agathocles effected his escape. 
 Upon his return, he succeeded in placing 
 himself at the head of another army, — 
 committed the most fearful excesses, and 
 triumphed over all his enemies. He sub- 
 sequently devastated parts of Italy, and 
 the Lipari isles ; and on his return, 
 every vessel except the one in which he 
 sailed was lost. A more terrible death 
 was reserved for him. A poison was 
 administered to him by one of his own 
 grandsons, and his sufferings were so 
 extreme, that he caused himself to 
 be placed alive upon a pile, and fire 
 to be applied to it. Thus perished 
 Agathocles, in the 72d year of his age, 
 and the 28th of his usurped power, in 
 the year 287 b. c. ; a death so exti'aor- 
 dinary as to have excited the doubts of 
 many historians. A number of classical 
 writers concur in bearing testimony to 
 the military genius and the extraordinary 
 powers, and versatility of character, pos- 
 sessed by the gi"eatest conqueror and 
 tyrant Syracuse ever knew. A Life of 
 Agathocles was published in London in 
 1661, and translated into French by 
 Eidous ; Paris, 1752. 8vo. It was in- 
 tended as a sort of satire upon the usur- 
 pation of Cromwell. The same work 
 supplied Voltaire with the subject of his 
 last tragedy ; and M. Philippon also 
 published a little work, entitled, Agatho- 
 cles et Monk, on lArt d'abattre et de 
 relever les Trones. Orleans, 1797. 8vo. 
 
 AGATHON, (St.) Pope, born at Pa- 
 lermo, entered the order of St. Benedict, 
 and became treasurer of the church. He 
 was remarkable for his humility and his 
 love of doing good. His reputation 
 caused him to be raised to the pontifical 
 seat, 26th June, 678 ; he abolished the 
 tribute before exacted by the emperors 
 at the papal election, and signalized his 
 pontificate by the condemnation of the 
 monoth elites, adjudged in the sixth 
 general council held at Constantinople, 
 in which the reigning emperor assisted. 
 He died in 682, regretted and honoured 
 by the church. 
 
 AG AY, (Fran9ois-Marie Bruno Comte 
 
 d',) born 1722, was intendant of Picardy, 
 
 and advocate-general to the parliament 
 
 of Franche - Comte. He was after- 
 
 • 146 
 
 wards called to Paris, where he filled 
 several legal ofl[ices of importance. He 
 promoted the prosperity of his native 
 province, by encouraging works of great 
 importance connected with commerce 
 and the arts, and by modifying the re- 
 strictions upon agriculture, manufactures, 
 and all useful trades. Amiens owes to 
 him some of its noblest public edifices ; 
 and canals, roads, and various public 
 Avorks, both useful and ornamental, bore 
 testimony to his activity and zeal. Nor 
 were literature and science forgotten ; 
 he was the friend of Delille and Sells, 
 and took delight in fostering talent in 
 those institutions calculated to diffuse 
 knowledge and a taste for intellectual 
 pursuits among the people. But Agay 
 lived in unhappy times ; the subintend- 
 ants and public men connected with him 
 were not actuated by the same principles, 
 and through their acts he incurred his 
 share of public odium at the outset of the 
 revolution. He was compelled to fly 
 with his family to Paris, where he con- 
 tinued concealed during the whole period 
 of the revolution. He died there at the 
 advanced age of 83, in 1805, so com- 
 pletely forgotten that not a single journal 
 announced his decease. He AATote several 
 treatises, chiefly upon scientific subjects, 
 national improvements, and the useful arts. 
 
 AGAZZARI, (Agostino,) born of a 
 noble family, at Sienna, about 1578, was 
 taken into the service of the emperor 
 Mathias, and became director of music 
 at Rome. He acquired the theory of 
 Harmony from Viadana ; and upon re- 
 turning to Sienna, towards the year 1630, 
 he was appointed superintendent of the 
 cathedi-al chapel. His compositions are 
 various, both of a temporal and sacred 
 character ; and his hymns, and other 
 ecclesiastical pieces, as well as his trea- 
 tises upon the art, were much appreciated 
 during the latter period of his life. 
 
 AGAZZIN, (Alphonsus,) a native of 
 Sienna, born in 1549, the first Jesuit 
 who was rector of the English college at 
 Rome, over which he presided for nine 
 years, to which post he had been ap- 
 pointed in 1579. He died at Rome, 
 March 30, 1602. (See More's Hist. Prov. 
 Aug. 57, 138. Sacchini, iv. p. 210.) 
 
 AGELADAS, or AGELAS, a Greek 
 sculptor, some of whose works, the 
 Infant Jupiter and the Young Hercules, 
 were highly admired. He is supposed to 
 have been the master of Phidias. Sillig. 
 (Catalogus Artificum, p. 17,) places his 
 birth, B. c. 540. See more concerning 
 hun in that work. 
 
AGE 
 
 AGE 
 
 AGELET, (Joseph le Paute de,) born 
 at Thone-la-long, near Montmedi, in 
 1757. He studied astronomy under 
 Lalande. He accompanied an expedition 
 to Australia, in 1773 ; became a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences, to which he 
 presented his journals, containing more 
 than 1600 observations on the planets 
 and fixed stars. In 1785, he joined the 
 expedition intended to sail round the 
 world under Peyrouse, in which un- 
 fortunate voyage he perished. 
 
 AGELLIUS, or AGELLI, (Antonio, 
 d. 1608,) bishop of Acerno. This learned 
 man, a native of SoiTento, and a Theatine 
 monk, having attracted the attention of 
 Gregory XIH., was selected by him to 
 examine the Septuagint, and superintend 
 the edition of it then pubhshing at Rome. 
 He was also made superintendent of the 
 Vatican press, and afterwards bishop of 
 Acerno. His chief works are — Com- 
 mentaries on Jeremiah, Habakkuk, 
 Psalms, Proverbs, &c. ; and an edition 
 of Cyrillus Alexandi'inus contra Nes- 
 torium. 
 
 AGELNOTH, in Latin, Achelnotlms, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, in the reign 
 of Canute the Great, was the son of the 
 earl of Agilmer, and was sumamed the 
 Good, from his extraordinary benefac- 
 tions. He went to Rome, after being 
 promoted to his see in 1020, and re- 
 ceived his pall from pope Benedict VIH. 
 He was much in favour with king 
 Canute, and employed his influence to 
 excellent purposes. By his advice, large 
 sums were sent over for the support of 
 the foreign churches ; and Malmesbury 
 says that the king was only restrained 
 fi'om vicious actions by the regard he 
 had for the archbishop. Upon Canvite's 
 death, Agelnoth refused to crown his 
 son Harold, declaring that he had given 
 the king a promise to set the crown upon 
 none but the issue of queen Emma. He 
 died Oct. 29, 1038. Sir F. Palgrave, 
 Hist, of England, (Fam. Libr.) calls him 
 Etitelnotli. 
 
 AGER, or AGERIUS, (Nicholas), 
 professor of medicine and botany at 
 Strasburgh, in the seventeenth century, 
 was the contemporary of the learned 
 brothers, John and Gasper Bauhin. In 
 honour of him, a species of the genus 
 Paederota, which he first made known, 
 was named Ageria. He was also distin- 
 guished for his knowledge of natural 
 philosophy and natural history. He 
 published, Disputatio de Zoophytis. 
 Strasburgh, 1625, 4to; and De Anima 
 Vegetativa, ibid. 1629, 4to. 
 147 
 
 AGESANDER, a sculptor of Rhodes, 
 executed, in concert with his sons Athe- 
 nodorus and Polydorus, that splendid 
 moniunent of Grecian art — the group of 
 the Laocoon. This is supposed to be the 
 same that decorated the baths of Titus 
 in the time of Pliny ; it was discovered 
 in those baths in the time of Julius II. 
 A.D.1506. Borghini and Winkelman place 
 the Laocoon and its sculptors in the most 
 brilliant era of Grecian art ; while Les- 
 sing, in his ' Laocoon,' attempts to prove 
 that the statue was made after the pas- 
 sage in Virgil ; and from its exquisite 
 finish, compared with the works of the 
 Grecian artists, he considers that it was 
 executed inider the Caesars. Midler 
 (Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst) 
 places Agesander in his fourth period 
 of Greek art (from 336—146 b.c.) He 
 thinks the Laocoon too theatrical for the 
 earlier times, and too deeply imbued with 
 pathos. The age of this sculptor is 
 therefore, it would seem, highly imcer- 
 tain. (Plin. xxxvi. 4, 11. Midler, &c.) 
 
 AGESILAS. See Agis IV. 
 
 AGESILAUS II., son of Archidamus, 
 king of Sparta, on the death of his elder 
 brother, Agis, aspired to the crown in 
 opposition to his nephew. Agesilaus 
 carried his point, and ascended the 
 throne in the year 399 e. c. Sparta 
 was then in tlie height of her glory ; 
 the power of Athens had fallen with 
 its walls. By advice of Lysander, 
 Agesilaus resolved to piish the war \ngo- 
 rously ; embarked at Aulis, and passed 
 into Asia with 8000 men, b. c. 395 ; and 
 through Lysander's means became suc- 
 cessful, and was soon master of the 
 greater part of Asia. It was only by 
 bribery that Artaxerxes arrested the 
 progress of his arms, and formed a league 
 against the Lacedemonians. Upon quit- 
 ting Asia, he passed through Macedonia 
 and Thessaly ; and afterwards, in Boeotia, 
 he gained a signal victory over the com- 
 bined forces of the Boeotians, the Ar- 
 gians, and the Athenians. He was next 
 successfid in the Peloponnesus, and after- 
 wards compelled the Arcananians to ac- 
 cept terms. He was not present at the 
 battle of Leuctra, so fatal to Sparta ; but 
 being invested with extraordinary powers 
 by the state, he did much to retrieve the 
 loss, and eventually saved Sparta in the 
 battle of Mantinea. Agesilaus subse- 
 quently passed into Egypt, took the 
 command of the troops of Tachos, who 
 had risen against the Persian king. He 
 next entered the service of Nectanebus, 
 a cousin of Tachos, and his rival, and 
 L2 
 
AGE 
 
 AGI 
 
 obtained for him two brilliant victories ; 
 and having established him upon the 
 throne, set sail for Sparta, loaded with 
 treasures. Being overtaken by a storm, 
 he put into Menelas, on the African 
 coast, where he died, in the year 361 b.c. 
 aged 84. His life was written by Xeno- 
 phon, who has shown, perhaps, too much 
 partiality to his hero, although it must 
 be confessed that his merits were great. 
 
 AGESIPOLIS I. son of Pausanias, 
 king of Sparta. He was still a child at 
 the time his father was compelled to fly 
 and abandon him and his brother Cleom- 
 brotes. Aristodemus, also of the race 
 of the Heraclidae, was his tutor. On 
 assuming the government, he led the 
 Lacedemonians in several expeditions 
 against the Argians and the Arcadians, 
 greatly signalized himself in other ac- 
 tions, but died suddenly in the flower of 
 his age, 380 b.c 
 
 AGESISTRATE, mother of Agis IV. 
 See Agis. 
 
 AGEZIO, (Thaddeus,) a Bohemian 
 astronomer and physician of the sixteenth 
 century, at the court of the emperor 
 Maximilian, was the first modern writer 
 upon the science of physiognomy, after- 
 wards so much extended and methodized 
 by Lavater. He published a Description 
 of the Comet of 1578. A Treatise upon 
 Metoposcopy, in other words. Physiogno- 
 my, his favourite study. Aphorisms on 
 the same ; besides some polemical tracts. 
 
 AGGAS, (Ralph,) an engraver and 
 surveyor, who flourished in the latter half 
 of the sixteenth century. The few plates 
 which he engraved are now very rare : 
 his Plan of London, which was repub- 
 lished by Vertue in 1748, was his first 
 work ; and Vertue's plates were purchased 
 by the Society of Antiquaries some time 
 afterwards : he also drew plans of Ox- 
 ford, Cambridge, and Dunwich in Suffolk, 
 but it is uncertain whether the second of 
 these was published. He also wrote a 
 Treatise on Surveying, the only copy of 
 which that we have seen was in the late 
 Mr. Heber's library. In MS. Lansd. 
 Mus. Brit. No. 73, is "a note for the per- 
 fection of land-measure and exact plat- 
 ting of cittyes, castles, &c." addressed to 
 Lord Burghley, by R. Agas, and dated 
 22d February, 1592. 
 
 AGIER, (PieiTe-Jean,j president of 
 the chamber of the Cour Royale at Paris, 
 was born in 1748, distinguished himself 
 both at the university and the bar, and 
 was elected deputy in 1789 to the States- 
 General. He became president of the 
 Tribunal of Ten, of the Tribunal d'Arron- 
 148 
 
 dissement, and was required to take the 
 oath of liberty and equality to the Tri- 
 bunal. . He refused, and retired till 
 January 1795, when he was induced to 
 resume his legal functions, and in 1796 
 was called to preside in the national court 
 convened at Vendome to try Babeuf and 
 his accomplices, but took no part in the 
 deliberations of the jury. After the esta- 
 blishment of the consular government, he 
 was made judge of the Court of Appeal 
 at Paris, and president of the Criminal 
 Court for the department of the Seine. 
 Upon the restoration of the Bourbons in 
 1815, he was confinned in his functions, 
 and became justly reputed for the equity 
 and impartiality of his decisions. Agier 
 devoted much of his time to other studies 
 besides jurispnidence ; he took part with 
 the Jansenists, and was an unflinching 
 advocate for the liberties of the Galilean 
 church. He died at Paris the 22d Sep- 
 tember, 1825. His works are — 1. Le 
 Jurisconsulte National, ou Principes sur 
 les Droits les plus importants de la 
 Nation; Paris, 1789, 3 parts in 1 vol. 
 8vo. 2. Vues sur la Reformation des 
 Lois Civiles, d'un Plan et d'une Classifi- 
 cation de cesLois; Paris, 1793. 3. Du 
 Marriage dans ses Rapports avec la Re- 
 ligion et les Lois NouveUes ; Paris, 1800, 
 2 vols. 8vo. And in addition to these we 
 might cite a number of religious compo- 
 sitions, and some political tracts, for a 
 list of which the reader is referred to the 
 Biographic Universelle. 
 
 AGIER, (Charles Gui Fran9ois,) a 
 cousin of the preceding, and member of 
 the Constituent Assembly, was born 1753. 
 He Avas also elected deputy from Poitou 
 in 1789 to the States-General; and in 
 all the stormy discussions of the period, 
 he was remarkable for the judgment and 
 moderation of his councils, but chiefly 
 confined his attention to the affairs of 
 his own province. He voted for the 
 suppression of the monastic orders, sub- 
 stituted the name of communes for that 
 of parishes, declared for the non-respon- 
 sibility of municipal officers, and opposed 
 the demand of Robespierre to try the 
 king. Soon afterwards he retired to his 
 native province, where he was impri- 
 soned during the reign of teiTor. He 
 was made procureur du roi upon the re- 
 turn of the Bourbons, and died in 1828. 
 His son was councillor to the Royal Court 
 at Paris, and elected member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies for the department 
 of Deiix SevTes. 
 
 AGILAN, (549—554,) the foiu-teenth 
 king of the Spanish Wisigoths, from 
 
AG I 
 
 A G I 
 
 Ataulphus (Adolf), who first established 
 his throne on the confines of the Pyre- 
 nees. The predecessor of Agilan was 
 Theudisel, a monster of licentiousness, 
 whom a conspiracy hm'led from the 
 throne to make room for the new king. 
 But these conspirators were not the na- 
 tion, which refused to ratify the choice ; 
 and the reign of Agilan was signalized 
 by civil war. Cordova was the first 
 great city to oppose his government ; he 
 marched against it, was defeated, and 
 was forced to fly to Merida. This dis- 
 aster increased the number of his ene- 
 mies ; all Andalusia joined the people of 
 Cordova ; Athanagild, a noble Goth, as- 
 sumed the command ; to strengthen 
 himself the more, he invoked the assist- 
 ance of the imperial troops, which held 
 some of the maritime forts ; and witli 
 their aid the king was again defeated. 
 Short in those days was the progress 
 from defeat to worse evils ; and Agilan, 
 whose vices hastened the catastrophe, 
 perished by domestics in his fortress of 
 Merida. 
 
 AGILES, (Raymond d',) a canon of 
 Pay, who wrote L'Histoire de la Croi- 
 sade de 1095, in which he accompanied 
 his bishop Adhemar. The count of Tho- 
 louse made him his chaplain, and gave 
 him also a place in his councils. Upon 
 his return he arranged the materials 
 which he had collected, and produced 
 his History, in which he gives a faithful 
 account of the events which he had wit- 
 nessed. Its fault is the want of dates ; 
 it is difficult to follow the narrative ; 
 but it served as a guide for William of 
 Tyre. 
 
 AGILMAR, or AIMAR, a bishop of 
 Clermont in the ninth century. The 
 date of his birth and that of his death 
 are equally uncertain ; but he is sup- 
 posed to have been descended ft-om the 
 counts of Amaous in Upper Burgundy, 
 where he sought shelter with his kindred 
 when the incursions of the Normans 
 drove him from his episcopal see. In 
 876, he was one of the bishops who 
 joined in the council of Pontigny ; and 
 in the year following we find him at 
 Pavia, in Italy, swearing fidelity to 
 Charles the Bald. In 878, he was sent 
 from pope John VIII. to king Louis le 
 Begue, and was bearer of a letter of cre- 
 dence, of which a fragment has been 
 printed in the Acta Sanctorum of the 
 Bollandists, and in some other works. 
 
 AGILULPHUS, duke of Tm-in, and 
 king of Lombardy. When Antharis the 
 third king died, the chiefs invited 
 149 
 
 Theodelinde his widow to select another 
 consort, whom they promised to recog- 
 nise as their head, smd she chose Agilid- 
 phu3, a warlike prince, who, to uncommon 
 grace of person, added the most fasci- 
 nating manners and engaging address. 
 Nor were his merit and virtues less con- 
 spicuous ; and the queen having already 
 fixed her heart upon him, took upon her- 
 self to negotiate the affair. Without 
 announcing her intentions, she requested 
 the pleasure of his company at her court. 
 She took with her an escort to meet him 
 as far as Lomello. When they met, she 
 called for a cup of wine, and having 
 drunk half of it, she oftered the other to 
 the duke. On returning the cup, he 
 kissed her hand as a mark of respect ; 
 when, turning to him, covered with 
 blushes, she said, " That is not the salute 
 I ought to expect from my lord and hus- 
 band." She tiien acquainted him with 
 the wishes of the Lombards, and her own 
 choice — and the duke became a king. 
 The Lombards had been long at war 
 with the Greeks, who still possessed the 
 exarchy of Ravenna and the duchy of 
 Rome. They incited many of the Lom- 
 bards, and the duke of Berengia, against 
 the new king ; who, however, beat the 
 duke, and laid siege to Rome. Pope 
 Gregory the Great was in the greatest 
 terror, the more as he knew that the king 
 and his whole army professed Arianism ; 
 but Theodelinde, being attached to the 
 Catholic religion, interposed her good 
 offices. Grateful for the clemency shown 
 him, Gregory succeeded in negotiating 
 a peace between the king and the Greek 
 emperor Maurice in 599 ; but the exarch 
 having, after repeated insults, attacked 
 and carried oflTthe son-in-law of the king, 
 with his whole family, the warlike prince 
 laid siege to Padua, carried it by storm, 
 and razed its walls to the ground. He 
 then took Cremona and Mantua, libe- 
 rated his daughter and her family, and 
 concluded a peace. About the same 
 time he abandoned Arianism, and em- 
 braced the Catholic faith ; then assem- 
 bling his chiefs at Milan, associated his 
 son with him in the government, and 
 had him solemnly crowned in presence 
 of the people. He renewed the national 
 league with the king of the Franks, whose 
 ambassadors assisted at the inauguration 
 of the young prince ; embellished and 
 fortified Ferrara, a mere village before 
 that period ; and erected walls and public 
 edifices so as to render it one of the most 
 important cities of Italy. 
 
 After a prosperous and vigorous reign 
 
AGI 
 
 A GI 
 
 of twenty-five years, this fortunate pi-ince, 
 Avho had so singularly attained royal 
 power, died in the year 615 or G16, re- 
 gretted by his subjects, leaving his son 
 Adelvald akeady in possession of the 
 throne. He also left the kingdom of the 
 Lombards in a state of perfect tranquil- 
 lity, its power extending over the whole 
 of Italy with exception of Ravenna and 
 Rome. The crown of gold worn by this 
 prince was richly decorated with figures 
 of saints ; it was long preserved in the 
 cabinet of medals belonging to the impe- 
 rial library, whence it was stolen in the 
 year 1504, and believed to have been 
 melted down by the thieves. 
 
 AGINCOURT. See Seroux d'Agin- 
 
 COURT. 
 
 AGIS I. son of Emysthenes, king of 
 Sparta, reigned about 980 b. c. It is 
 conjectured that he was the first who 
 brought the inhabitants of Helos under 
 the yoke, and it is known that the Spar- 
 tans sent out many colonies in his time. 
 He was succeeded by his son Echestratus, 
 and the kings of his family assumed the 
 name of Agiades. 
 
 AGIS II. son of Archidamus, the se- 
 cond branch of the Spartan kings, mount- 
 ed the throne about 427 e.g. in the fovu'th 
 year of the Peloponnesian war. He com- 
 manded the Lacedemonians in several ex- 
 peditions ; but having concluded a peace 
 mth the Argians at a moment when he 
 might have struck a decisive blow, he was 
 brought to judgment, but escaped being 
 condemned. Soon afterwards, the war 
 being renewed, he attacked the Argians 
 near Mantinsea, and gained a complete 
 victory. He was successful also against 
 the Athenians and other enemies, and 
 died honoured for his victories in 399 
 B. c. It was this Agis who is reported 
 to have replied to an ambassador whose 
 address had been none of the most brief, 
 " Go, and tell your employers that you 
 ■were sadly perplexed to finish your 
 speech, and I to listen to it !" 
 
 AGIS III. son of Archidamus, the 
 second branch of the Heraclides, and 
 grandson of Agesilaus, mounted the 
 throne 338 years b. c. In his youth he 
 was sent on an embassy to Philip, king 
 of Macedon, then in the height of his 
 power. Seeing him unaccompanied, 
 while numerous deputies fi-om a single 
 state in honour of him stood around, 
 Philip exclaimed : " What ! Sparta sends 
 only one ambassador !" " One," replied 
 Agis, in a laconic style, " is enough for 
 one man!" He succeeded his brother 
 346 years b. c. and tliough he abhorred 
 150 
 
 the dominion of the Macedonians, he 
 patiently waited the departure of Alex- 
 ander upon his grand expedition. After 
 the battle of Issus, a number of Greek 
 mercenaries in the pay of the Persian 
 king, having sought an asylum in their 
 own country, Agis enrolled a body of 
 8,000 with the money sent him by Da- 
 rius, and equipping a fleet, set sail for 
 the isle of Crete, part of which he sub- 
 dued. When Alexander won the battle 
 of Arbela, Agis incited many of the 
 Greek states to shake off the Macedonian 
 yoke, and raised an army of 40,000 men. 
 Antipater, governor of Macedonia, ad- 
 vanced against him with superior num- 
 bers, but Agis, with the old Spartan 
 spirit, scorned to shun the combat. The 
 battle was sanguinary ; but after long 
 sustaining the shocks of the Macedonian 
 horse, the Lacedemonians were broken, 
 and Agis wounded. He refused to be 
 borne from the field, and died bravely 
 fighting where he fell, after a reign of 
 nine years. He was succeeded by his 
 brother Eudamidas. 
 
 AGIS IV., son of Eudamidas II., was 
 king of Sparta, 243 years B.C. The state 
 was then rapidly falling to ruin ; there 
 remained only 700 Spartiates, of whom 
 600 had no proprietorship, the territory 
 being parcelled out among 100, and the 
 greater number women, all who had 
 been left to inherit the possessions of a 
 race of kings and heroes. Agis did 
 every thing to aiTest its progress ; and 
 though brought up with tenderness, and 
 even effeminacy, by his relatives, he had 
 the resolution at 20 to renounce the 
 pursuit of pleasure. His colleague, 
 Leonidas, who had beheld the pomp of 
 Asiatic courts, and formed luxvu"ious and 
 expensive habits, incited a party in op- 
 position to him. It did not deter Agis, 
 however, from his purpose. Assisted by 
 Lysander, he proclaimed the abolition of 
 debts, and a new partition of lands ; the 
 adoption of strangers ; and threw the 
 whole of his own lands and six himdred 
 talents in silver into the common stock. 
 But the wealthy citizens warmly op- 
 posed him, and he was constrained to 
 confine his views to the abolition of 
 debts. Agis, being obUged to march to 
 the assistance of the Achaeans, carried 
 with him those young men who were 
 most attached to him. He was vic- 
 torious, after giving the most briUiant 
 proofs of courage ; but his enemies, 
 profiting by his absence, excited the 
 people on the ground of his abandonment 
 of the public appropriation of lands; 
 
A G I 
 
 AGN 
 
 and finding himself on his return utterly 
 deserted, he sought an asykim in the 
 temple of Minerva. He was, however, 
 allured from his retreat, seized, and con- 
 demned. No executioner coidd be found 
 to execute so unmerited a punishment, 
 when Demochares, formerly his friend, 
 but who had now denounced him to the 
 Ephori, himself dragged him to the place 
 of his execution. Seeing one of the 
 executioners weep, " My friend," said 
 Agis, " do not weep for me. T have 
 done nothing to merit punishment. I 
 am happier than the men who have 
 condemned me contrary to law and 
 justice." His mother, Agisistrate, and 
 his grandmother, Archidamia, both 
 shared the same fate ; but his brother, 
 Archidamus, succeeded in making his 
 escape. The death of Agis has furnished 
 the subject of several tragedies, and in 
 particular of one by Alfieri. He perished 
 235 B.C. 
 
 AGIS, or, according to some, HAGES, 
 according to the accounts of Quintus 
 Curtius, one of the most wretched of 
 poets, and as bad a parasite. Arrian de- 
 scribes him in the same colours ; yet he 
 obtained the favour of Alexander by 
 perpetually repeating the same theme : 
 that " on his an-ival in Olympus, Her- 
 cules, Bacchus, Castor and Pollux, would 
 each vie in giving up his seat to him." 
 Athenaeus records that he wrote also on 
 a subject better adapted to his powers — 
 on the cidinary art. 
 
 AGIUS DE SOLDANIS, (Pietro 
 Francesco,) a learned Maltese, bom in 
 the isle of Gozo the beginning of the last 
 century. Embracing an ecclesiastical 
 life, he became a canon, and spent his 
 time between the discharge of^his duties 
 and the study of archaeology. In 1780, 
 he went to Rome, where, among other 
 labours, he published a Maltese Gram- 
 mar, under title, Delia Lingua Rmica 
 presentemente usata da Maltesi. Rome, 
 1750. 8vo. This is curious and inte- 
 resting from its antiquarian and histo- 
 rical researches; and he added also a 
 Maltese Italian and Italian Maltese Dic- 
 tionary Indeed, he published a variety 
 of interesting works upon language and 
 antiquities. In one of his treatises upon 
 tlie shipwreck of St. Paid, in the Adriatic, 
 he attempts to prove that he actually 
 landed at Malta; Avignon, 1757. He 
 published also Commentaries upon the 
 Comedies of Plautus. Rome, 1758. 
 
 AGLAOPHON, a painter of Thasos, 
 flourished in tlie 90th Olympiad, 420 
 years b.c. Quintilian says, that the 
 151 \ 
 
 simplicity of his colouring, announcing 
 the dawn of the art, was preferred for its 
 nature and truth to the high finish of the 
 great painters who followed him. Athe- 
 naeus says, that he painted Alcibiades 
 and the courtezan Nemea. 
 
 AGLIATA, (Francesco,) of Palermo, 
 son of the prince of Villa Franca, author 
 of Chansons Siciliennes, in the seven- 
 teenth century. He must not be con- 
 founded with Gerard Agliata, of another 
 family, who in the sixteenth century 
 composed some verses inserted in the 
 Collection of the Academy of the Accesi 
 at Palermo. Francis Agliata was pro- 
 thonotary of Sicily in the time of Al- 
 phonso and Joanna II. ; he left some 
 productions imder the title of Alle- 
 gazioni ; and there were others of the 
 family who became eminent in poetry 
 and letters. 
 
 AGLIO. See Corradino DallAglio. 
 
 AGLIONBY, (Edward,) educated at 
 Eton, and elected to King's college, 
 Cambridge, 1536, where he distinguished 
 himself, and became a fellow and M.A. 
 He was afterwards justice of peace in 
 Warwickshire ; ^vrote the genealogy of 
 queen Elizabeth, and was presented by 
 her with an annual pension of five 
 pounds. He was author of a Latin poem, 
 which is prmted in Wilson's Epigram- 
 mata. 1552. 4to. 
 
 AGLIONBY, (John,) an eminent 
 divine, of an ancient family whose name 
 was De Agiulon, corrupted into Aglion- 
 by. The son of Edward Aglionby and 
 Elizabeth Musgrave, of Crookdayke, was 
 admitted a student of Queen's college, 
 Oxford, in 1583. He went into orders, 
 and became an eloquent preacher ; tra- 
 velled abroad, where he formed an ac- 
 quaintance with cardinal Bellarmine ; on 
 his return was made chaplain to Eliza- 
 beth, and took his degree of D. D. in 
 IGOO. He took a considerable share in 
 the translation of the New Testament 
 ordered by king James I., to whom he 
 was also chaplain ; and his name occurs 
 among those of other Oxford divines, 
 who were to translate the Gospels, Acts, 
 and Apocalypse. 
 
 Dr. Aglionby died at Islip, Feb. 6, 
 1609-10, aged 43. He was deeply read 
 in the fathers, and also a distinguished 
 scholar and critic. 
 
 AGNAN, (St.) called by historians 
 Anianus, a native of Vienne in Dau- 
 phiny, was ordained priest, — had charge 
 of the monastery of St. Laurent des 
 Orgerils, — and succeeded to the ministry 
 of the holy bishop Euverte. He rebuilt 
 
 -Ai 
 
A GN 
 
 A GN 
 
 the church of Sainte Croix, and is said 
 to have first established the privilege 
 peculiar to the bishops of Orleans of 
 liberating the prisoners on their entrance 
 into that town. He occupied this epi- 
 scopal see sixty years ; and when Orleans 
 was attacked by Attila in 481, having 
 foreseen the storm, he applied for assist- 
 ance to Aetius, general of the Romans. 
 He sustained the courage of the besieged 
 till succoiu's arrived. The town was 
 saved, and the grateful inhabitants attri- 
 buted their deliverance no less to the 
 virtues and the prayers of their pastor 
 than to the courage of the Goths and 
 Romans. This virtuous prelate died in 
 453; and as recently as the year 1803 
 there was published in French at Orleans 
 an Abridgement of the Life and Miracles 
 of St. Agnan. 8vo. 
 
 AGNEAUX DEVIENNE. See De- 
 
 VIENNE. 
 
 AGNELLI, (Giuseppe,) a learned Je- 
 suit, born at Naples, and for many years 
 governor of the colleges of Monte Pul- 
 ciano, Macerata, and Ancona. He wrote 
 numerous works, and died Oct. 8, 1706. 
 The most celebrated is II Parrochiano 
 Instruttore. Rome, 1677. 
 
 AGNELLO, (Andrea,) a priest of Ra- 
 venna in the ninth century, and author 
 of the Liber Pontificalis, or, Lives of the 
 Bishops of Ravenna ; published by Bac- 
 chini in 1708, and inserted by Muratori 
 in the 2d vol. of his Scriptor. Rer. Ital. 
 His family had suffered from the popes, 
 and he is unfavourable to Rome ; but 
 although an author of no great merit, 
 his work contains information not to be 
 met with elsewhere. He must not be 
 confused with Agnello, archbishop of 
 Ravenna, who lived three centuries be- 
 fore him. (Tiraboschi, iii. 212.) 
 
 AGNELLO, (John,) lord of Pisa, a 
 merchant sprung from an obscure family 
 at Pisa ; but being sent as envoy to 
 Bernabas Visconti, lord of Milan, was 
 instigated by him to usui-p the supreme 
 power in that small republic. He sup- 
 plied the merchant with money and sol- 
 diers ; and at midnight in August, 1 364, 
 the traitor made himself master of the 
 public palace, roused the magistrates 
 from their slumbers, and acquainted 
 each separately that the Virgin Mary 
 had invested him with the lordship of 
 Pisa, and exacted fi'om them an oath of 
 fidelity at the point of the sword. Sur- 
 rounded by his satellites, he assumed 
 royal pomp, and condemned the inhabit- 
 ants to a servitude the most galling and 
 humiliating. His severity made him 
 152 
 
 dreaded; and on the 5th Sept. 1368, he 
 took the title of Doge, conferred upon 
 him by the emperor Charles IV. Com- 
 pletely armed, he ascended a magnificent 
 stage, on which he had before received 
 the emperor, to exhibit himself to the 
 people in his new character. Suddenly 
 the scaffolding gave way, he was precipi- 
 tated to the ground, and broke his thigh ; 
 on learning which, the inhabitants ran 
 to arms, drove his hirelings from the 
 fortresses, and recovered their freedom. 
 
 AGNES, (St.) a virgin martyr, aged 
 only thirteen years, when in 303 Diocle- 
 tian commenced his persecution of the 
 Christians. Having refused, under the 
 heaviest threats and penalties, to offer 
 sacrifice to the pagan idols, she v/as 
 denounced as a Christian. She went to 
 the place of punishment not only with 
 serenity, but with joy. Thus much 
 St. Ambrose attests, lib. i. De Vii'ginibus, 
 cap. 2, (if this treatise is genuine.) 
 Prudentius, in his hymn on the subject, 
 relates other circumstances ; such as her 
 being condemned at first, not to death, 
 but to violence of a different nature ; 
 and he adds, that on the son of the pre- 
 fect's approaching her, he was struck 
 blind, &c. St. Augustine mentions her 
 death and constancy. Sermo. 273, cap. 6. 
 The circumstances mentioned by Pruden- 
 tius apjiear to be poetical embellishments. 
 A church was erected on the site of her 
 tomb : pope Innocent erected another 
 upon the spot, it was declared, where the 
 chastity of the virgin saint had been 
 exposed to danger. The fete of St. Ag- 
 nes is mentioned in all the books of mar- 
 tyrology, but not on the same day. (See 
 Ruinart, Acta Sincera Martyrum, pp. 
 457—461.) 
 
 AGNES, of France, empress of Con- 
 stantinople, and sister of Philip Augustus, 
 was born in 1171. At eight years of age 
 she was betrothed to the young Alexis, 
 son of the Greek emperor, and sent to 
 Constantinople, where her nuptials were 
 celebrated with great magnificence. When 
 only eleven she saw her betrothed hus- 
 band assassinated before her eyes, by 
 order of the savage Andronicus Comne- 
 nus, and became the prey of the mur- 
 derer along with the imperial crown. 
 Four years afterwards, the tragical death 
 of Andronicus freed her from so revolt- 
 ing an union before she had borne any 
 children. She remained at the court of 
 Constantinople in Avidowhood during a 
 period of twenty years ; after which, in 
 1205, she espoused Theodore Branus, 
 governor of Adrianople. 
 
A GN 
 
 A G N 
 
 AGNES, queen of France, daughter 
 of the duke de Meranie, became the con- 
 sort of Philip Augustus in 1196, after 
 his divorce of Ingelburga, daughter of 
 the king of Denmark. The pope, highly 
 indignant, proceeded to such extreme 
 measures, that Philip, on the point of 
 being condemned by a special coxmcil, 
 hurried to the convent where his former 
 wife was immured, and brought her back 
 to his com't. Agnes de Meranie died at 
 the castle of Poissy in 1201, the same 
 year in which she had been compelled to 
 renounce her title of queen. 
 
 AGNES, of Austria, daughter of 
 the emperor Albert I. and granddaughter 
 of Rodolph, of Hapsburgh, was born in 
 1280. She had the same firmness and 
 vigour of character as her sires ; and 
 without her the house of Austria would 
 have fallen from its high position after 
 the death of the emperor. She ascer- 
 tained that his assassination was not 
 caiised by the general detestation in 
 which his tyranny was held, but from 
 revenge on the part of one of his 
 nephews. She instantly roused her bro- 
 thers Fredei'ick and Leopold to take 
 arms against the conspirators, who had 
 taken refuge in one of the fortresses ; 
 but being unable to defend themselves 
 they took to flight, and the inhabitants 
 of all the towns through which they 
 passed bore the punishment of having 
 been even visited by them. At the insti- 
 gation of Agnes, her brothers jiut to 
 death tlie garrisons of the successive 
 places that had given them a temporary 
 asylum. Death was decreed on all their 
 domestics and vassals ; confiscation of 
 goods, and perpetual banishment against 
 their families. The widow of Albert 
 added her ferocious vengeance to that of 
 his daughter. One of her sons, Frederick, 
 wishing one day to stop the effiision of 
 blood, "It is plain," exclaimed his 
 mother, " that you regarded not the 
 bloody corpse of your father, and my 
 husband. I would consent to live by 
 the work of my hands, or to beg my 
 bread on the highways, to recall my 
 Albert to life." Seated on a kind of 
 throne, Agnes dealt out the severest 
 punishments to the unhappy peasants 
 brought before her, because they belonged 
 to the estate of one of the assassins. 
 During the execution she repeated the 
 words of an ancient legend attributed to 
 St. Elizabeth, " I bathe me now in the 
 soft dews of May." She bound Rodolph 
 de Wart to the wheel, and witnessed his 
 dying agonies ; and would have strangled 
 153 
 
 with her own hands his infant son, had 
 not her own soldiers snatched him from 
 her grasp. Ten thousand victims are 
 recorded to have perished, sacrificed to 
 the manes of Albert. Agnes then founded 
 a convent on the spot where the murder 
 was committed, and devoted herself 
 strictly to a religious life continued 
 upwards of a period of fifty years. A 
 poor hermit, it is recorded, on his way 
 from Switzerland, arrived at the gates, 
 where he was received by Agnes with 
 every demonstration of respect ; but 
 bending on her a severe eye, he said, 
 "Princess! houses built with the blood 
 and spoils of innocent families are hateful 
 in the eyes of God and of his servants. 
 Heaven requires forgiveness of injuries, 
 compassion, and pity." Agnes, in 1296, 
 had married Andrew, king of Hungary, 
 who died shortly after their marriage. 
 She lived to upwards of 80 years of age. 
 AGNES SOREL, or Soreau, daughter 
 of the Seigneur de St. Gerand, attache to 
 the com-t of Clermont, was born at Fro- 
 menteau, in Lorraine, about 1409. To 
 the advantages of education she united 
 the most brilliant beauty and sweetness 
 of manners. At fifteen she was placed 
 as maid of honour with Isabel of Lor- 
 raine, duchess of Anjou, one of the most 
 accomplished women of her times. Agnes 
 accompanied her to Paris in 1431, when 
 she created a lively sensation, no less by 
 her transcendent beauty, than by the vi- 
 vacity of her manners, the charm of her 
 conversation, and her fine genius, which 
 shone conspicuous even in the refined 
 circles of the court. Charles VII. strvick 
 with so many charms, sought to retain 
 her at his court by giving her the same 
 situation near the queen, which she now 
 occupied with the duchess. For some time 
 she resisted his importunities ; but the 
 numerous favours showered on her rela- 
 tives, and the magnificence and costliness 
 of her establishment, soon removed the 
 veil of mystery so cautiously thrown over 
 their loves, and gave rise to considerable 
 scandal, particidarly at a court the most 
 indigent of any in Europe. When in 
 1437 she appeared in the queen's suite, 
 the indignation of the people, expressed 
 in loud murmurs, deeply offended the 
 sensitive Agnes, and she expressed her 
 opinion of the Parisians in no very flat- 
 tering terms. Half France was then 
 under the dominion of the English ; and 
 Charles, who had distinguished himself 
 in several engagements against them, 
 seemed now to despair of his country, 
 and, sunk in the lap of pleasure, was deaf 
 
A GN 
 
 AGN 
 
 to the remonstrances of his best friends, 
 and even of the queen. The lovely 
 Agnes roused him fi-om his trance. An 
 astrologer having appeared at the court, 
 in the fashion of the day, Charles con- 
 versed with him in the presence o.f his 
 mistress. The learned seer, tiu-ning to 
 her, said it was predestined she was long 
 to fix the heart of a great monarch. 
 Taking advantage of these words, Agnes 
 made a profound obeisance to the young 
 king, and requested his permission to 
 retire to the court of England, that she 
 might fulfil her destiny. Brantome says 
 that Charles was so affected by this appeal 
 to his honour, that he shed tears ; then 
 at once throwing aside all frivolous pur- 
 suits, he led his armies against the enemy, 
 and drove them from the country. 
 
 Whatever degree of credit may be due 
 to this anecdote, it is certain that Agnes 
 employed her influence in awakening him 
 to a sense of what he owed to himself and 
 to his people. This appears clearly from 
 the opinion entertained at the court of 
 Francis I., and from the elegant lines 
 attributed to that prince : — 
 
 " Gentille Agn&s, plus d'honneur tu merites, 
 La cause etant de France recouvrer, 
 Que ce que peut dedans un cloitre ouvrer 
 Clause nonain ou blen devot hermite." 
 
 The king's triumphs gave increased 
 influence to his favourite, and drew 
 upon her the resentment of the dau- 
 phin, afterwards Louis XI. It is re- 
 lated that in one of his spleenish fits 
 he actually struck her a box on the ear, 
 at the castle of Chinon. The king, liow- 
 ever, continued fondly devoted to her ; 
 but in 1445 she retired to Loches, 
 where Charles had built for her a beau- 
 tiful castle, besides presenting her with a 
 number of rich seignories. She ceased 
 to appear at court during five years, 
 though she maintained an intimate cor- 
 respondence with the king, who made 
 frequent excursions into Touraine. At 
 length, in 1449, she was prevailed upon 
 by the queen to retm'n to the court, and 
 took up her residence at the castle of 
 Masnal-la-Belle, about a league from the 
 abbey of Jumiege, where Charles had 
 taken up his winter quarters. Here, it is 
 said, she acquainted the king with a con- 
 spiracy formed against his person, which 
 she had detected, and conjured him to be 
 upon his guard. Before she had outlived 
 the love so long inspired, she was attacked 
 by a severe iUness, so sudden and singidar 
 in its symptoms, as to lead to a suspicion 
 that she had taken poison — a suspicion 
 strengthened by the character and enmity 
 154 
 
 of the dauphin. She died February 1450, 
 and was inten-ed in the collegiate church 
 of the castle of Loches. Her epitaph 
 attested the nimierous benefactions she 
 had bestowed upon that church ; and 
 when, subsequently, the canons of the 
 town petitioned Louis XI. to have the 
 tomb removed, as an object of scandal, 
 he intimated his willingness, provided 
 they first paid back the sums of money 
 which they had received from her. 
 
 Few historians are agreed in their 
 opinion as to the character of Agnes ; 
 some speaking of her with severity, as 
 the cause of the dissipation, the extrava- 
 gance, and the sort of lustre given by her 
 qualities and accomplishments, to infamy 
 and vice. Others extol her as the liberator 
 of France, and the inspirer of noble ac- 
 tions in her lover; equally gentle, spirited, 
 beneficent, and kind to all around her ; 
 and so amiable and fascinating as to win 
 the love and admiration of the queen 
 herself. She never abused her power ; 
 and continued affectionately attached to 
 Charles, whose interests, in common 
 with those of his people, were dear to 
 her heart. 
 
 AGNESI, (Maria Gaetana, 1718— 
 1799.) This lady, a native of Milan, 
 was early distinguished for her pro- 
 ficiency. She has acquired by her pro- 
 found knowledge of mathematics, a re- 
 putation something like that of Madame 
 du Chatelet, or Mrs. Somerville. At five 
 years of age she spoke French with the 
 same facility as her native tongue ; and 
 at eleven, it is said that she wrote with 
 taste and correctness, in the following 
 languages — Italian, French, Latin, Greek, 
 German, Hebrew, and Spanish. At four- 
 teen she translated II Combattimento Spi- 
 rituale del. P.Lorenzo Scupoli, into Greek, 
 and some Latin works into Italian, French, 
 German, and Greek. For her own use 
 she composed a Greek and Latin lexicon 
 of 13,300 words, in three small volumes. 
 Having shown such powers of acquisi- 
 tion, the most celebrated literary men of 
 Italy interested themselves in her im- 
 provement. Fathers Manara and Casati 
 taught her Euclid and the elements of 
 physical science ; and in 1738 she pub- 
 lished, mider the title of Propositiones 
 Philosophiae, 191 theses, which she had 
 maintained. Ramir Rampanelli, of Bres- 
 cia, a very able man, now instructed 
 her in the higher branches of pure 
 mathematics, and she justified the pains 
 he had bestowed on her by her great 
 proficiency. After ten years' labour she 
 produced her celebrated Instituzioni 
 
AGN 
 
 AGO 
 
 Analiticlie, 2 vols. 4to, 1748. This work, 
 which is said to have some value even 
 now, was the first work of this nature in 
 Italian, and it caused a great sensation in 
 the scientific world. It was translated 
 into French by Anthelmi, with notes by 
 Bossut. It was also translated into 
 English by the Rev. J. Colson, Lucasian 
 professor of mathematics at Cambridge, 
 who is said to have learnt Italian at an 
 advanced age, solely for the purpose of 
 reading this work. His translation was 
 published at the expense of Baron Ma- 
 seres, 2 vols. 4to. 1801. In 1750 Bene- 
 dict XIV. made her honorary professor 
 of mathematics at Bologna, but without 
 her own solicitation. Indeed the common 
 account that she took her father's place 
 as professor of mathematics, is erroneous, 
 for he never occupied that chair. She 
 retired, latterly, into a convent at Milan, 
 where she died. Her eloge, written by 
 Frisi, and translated into French by Bou- 
 lard, is published separately, and is also 
 to be found at the end of the Bienfaits de 
 la Religion Chretienne, 2 vols. 8vo. 1807. 
 (Biog. Nouv. des Contemporains, &c.) 
 
 AGNODICE, a young Athenian girl, 
 disguised herself in manly attire in 
 order to enter the medical schools, en- 
 trance into which was forbidden by law 
 to the female sex. Having studied for a 
 considerable period under the celebrated 
 Herophilus, and still preserving her dis- 
 guise, she practised with distinguished 
 success, although she chiefly devoted 
 her attention to the branches of mid- 
 wifery and the diseases of women. Seve- 
 ral physicians, envious of her reputation, 
 cited her to appear before the Areopagus, 
 alleging that she had only made her pro- 
 fession the means of coiTupting the mo- 
 rals of the sex. The discovery of her 
 own sex was a sufficient answer to this 
 calumny ; and she was then more boldly 
 accused of having violated the existing 
 law. This being known, the wives of the 
 most celebrated men of Athens came 
 foi'ward to support her, and' finally suc- 
 ceeded in repealing the obnoxious statute. 
 
 AGNOLO, (Baccio d',) born at Flo- 
 rence in 1460, a sculptor and architect; 
 distinguished for the beauty of the inlaid 
 work with which he decorated the stalls 
 of the church of Santa Maria Novella. 
 The beautiful carved work on the organ 
 is also by his hand, as well as that on the 
 altar of dell'Annuuziata. He went to 
 Rome to study architecture ; and made 
 designs for triumphal arches when Leo X. 
 passed through Italy. Yet he continued 
 to give exquisite specimens of his carved 
 155 
 
 work ; and on returning to Florence he 
 opened an academy, to which amateurs 
 and strangers, as well as students, re- 
 sorted. Raphael and Michael Angelo are 
 said to have been present at these parties. 
 He soon became employed on some of 
 the most splendid edifices in Florence ; 
 but his best work is to be seen in the 
 Bartolini palace and gardens. Baccio 
 lived to the advanced age of 83, and died 
 still in high respect for his works in 1543. 
 AGNOLO, (Gabriel d',) a Neapolitan 
 architect, who lived about 1480 ; and 
 abandoning the ancient Greco-gothic 
 manner, studied the classic monuments 
 at Rome, and assisted in restoring the 
 reign of good taste. The rival of Novello 
 di San Lucano and Gio. Francesco Mor- 
 mando, he made designs for the palazzo 
 Gravina, erected the churches of Santa 
 Maria and San Giuseppe, and some 
 other public monuments. 
 
 AGNOLO, (Angelo da Siena.) See 
 Agostino. 
 
 AGOBARD. This distinguished pre- 
 late was born in 779, in Spain, as it is 
 said, though of a Gallic family. In 782, 
 his family settled in the district known 
 by the name of Gallia Narbonensis, from 
 whence he went to Lyons. He was per- 
 haps carried thither in 798, by archbi- 
 shop Leidrade, who was ever afterwards 
 his constant friend. Leidrade 's confi- 
 dence in his integrity and abilities was 
 so great, that, early in the ninth century, 
 when the infirmities of old age rendered 
 him unequal to the duties of his station, 
 he entrusted to Agobard the administra- 
 tion of his diocese. He also conferred 
 upon him the episcopal ordination, and, 
 in 816, by the consent of Louis le Debon- 
 naire and of a council of French 
 bishops, Leidrade instated Agobard in 
 his own episcopal see, and, without re- 
 signing it himself, retired into a monas- 
 tery, so that there were two archbishops 
 of the same see at once. This anomalous 
 proceeding made much noise at the time, 
 and was severely censured by some, 
 whilst others tried to excuse it. How- 
 ever, the friends of Agobai'd triumphed, 
 and as archbishop of Lyons he was one of 
 the most learned and distinguished men 
 of his age. 
 
 Agobard was a zealous champion of 
 truth, and seems to have been led by an 
 enlightened judgment, which was much 
 superior to the age in which he lived. 
 In 818, he was busily engaged in com- 
 bating the errors of Nestorianism, as they 
 had been revived by Felix d'Urgel. He 
 acted with much vigour in repressing the 
 
AGO 
 
 AGO 
 
 insolence of the Jews, who were then 
 numerous at Lyons, and M^rote various 
 treatises against their doctrines and con- 
 duct. He attacked luiscrupulously the 
 corruptions whicli had crept into the 
 church, and on that accoimt his works 
 have heen often quoted with advantage by 
 protestant writers. Indeed, the Roman 
 CathoHcs of a hitcr period were so much 
 scandalized by his treatise against the 
 worsliip of images, that the edition of 
 Agohard's collective works Avas visited 
 by the censure of the Inquisition. He 
 was not only opposed to the superstitions 
 of tlie clergy, but he did his best to ex- 
 tirpate the popular superstitions of tlie 
 vulgar. He also carried this reforming 
 spirit into the civil affairs of the state. 
 By his writings, and by his personal ex- 
 ertions, he obtained the abolition of the 
 law of trial by ordeal and by personal 
 combat. Many instances are recorded 
 of Agohard's firmness and zeal. 
 
 So far, nobody can difier in estimating 
 the honesty of Agohard's character ; but 
 his interference in politics has subjected 
 him to the censure of many. He took 
 an active part with Lothaire, in the re- 
 bellion against Louis le Debonnaire, and 
 distinguished himself by his writings 
 against the king's party ; he is even sup- 
 posed to have composed the letter which 
 pope Gregory IV. published against him, 
 and he presided over the bishops who 
 assembled at Compiegne in 833, to 
 pronounce the deposition of that mo- 
 narch. (See, however, P. De Marca, De 
 Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii, iv. 11.) 
 Whilst Agobard was with Lothaire in 
 Italy, in 835, the council of Thionville 
 deposed him from his archbishopric. 
 But towards the close of tlie year 837, 
 after peace had been established, he 
 was restored to his see ; and even suc- 
 ceeded in gaining the good graces of 
 king Louis le Debonnaire, who honoured 
 him with his confidence, and frequently 
 employed him in public business. While 
 thus occupied, Agobard died at Saint- 
 onge, on the 6th June, a. d. 840. 
 
 The writings of Agobard are nume- 
 rous, though none of them very long. 
 They exhibit much good sense and sound 
 judgment, though his zeal sometimes 
 leads the author to use rather violent 
 expressions. His principal works are, — 
 a Treatise against Felix d'Urgel ; various 
 Tracts against the Jews ; one against the 
 law of Gondebaud, which ordained the 
 trial by combat ; a Treatise on the Pri- 
 vileges and Rights of the Priesthood ; a 
 Discourse against the Popidar Belief of 
 156 
 
 the Lyonese in Sorcery ; and the cele- 
 brated Treatise against the Worship of 
 Images. Papyre Masson, accidentally 
 finding a manuscript of the works of 
 Agobard in the hands of a bookbinder, 
 who was going to cut it up to make 
 covers for books, bought it, and printed 
 from it the first edition, in one octavo 
 volume, Paris, 1605. This edition was 
 full of faults, which induced Baluze to 
 give a more correct and complete edition 
 of the writings of this celebrated prelate, 
 in 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1666. The text was 
 reprinted from this latter edition in the 
 fourteenth volume of the Bibliothcca 
 Patrum, fol. Lyon, 1677, with the inju- 
 dicious omission of Baluze's notes. (His- 
 toire Litteraire de la France). 
 AGOCCHI. See Agucchio. 
 AGONIDES, one of those Athenian 
 sophists, who had the temerity to advance 
 a charge of imjiiety against Theophrastus. 
 It was rejected in the public assembly 
 with indignation, and the orator himself 
 had nearly fallen a victim to his own 
 folly. Being exiled by Antipater, with 
 many of his contemporaries, after that 
 general's death, he got permission from 
 Phocion to return. He became instru- 
 mental in that great man's death, and 
 justly paid the penalty of his criminality 
 by suflering the same fate. 
 
 AGORACRITUS, of Pares, the fa- 
 voxirite pupil of Phidias, who to place 
 him above all his rivals, inscribed his 
 name upon the productions of his own 
 hand. The imposture, however, was 
 soon discovered ; for Agoracritus con- 
 tending with another of his pupils, a na- 
 tive of Athens, for the prize — a statue of 
 Venus — had the mortification of seeing 
 the work of the young Athenian preferred 
 to his own. In a fit of indignation, 
 Agoracritus sold his statue to the inha- 
 bitants of Rhamnus in Attica, under the 
 express clause that it should never be 
 sent to Athens ; and to perpetuate his 
 resentment, he gave to it the naine of 
 Nemesis. Hence, it is asserted, was de- 
 rived the adjunct of Rhamnusian some- 
 time bestowed by the ancients upon the 
 goddess of Vengeance. Varro considered 
 it one of the finest statues of antiquity. 
 Pausanias, however, (I. 33. 2.) calls this 
 the work of Phidias. (See Sillig. Cata- 
 logus Artificum.) 
 
 AGOSTI, (Giulio,) an Italian writer 
 of Reggio, who died young, in 1704. He 
 wrote two tragedies, Artaxerxes (1700), 
 and Ciunippus (1709). He is mentioned 
 with praise by Apostolo Zeno, who re- 
 gretted his early death. 
 
AGO 
 
 AGO 
 
 AGOSTIN, (Miguel, 1560 — 1630,) 
 one of the few Spanish writers who has 
 conferred much benefit on agriculture. 
 His Libro de los Secretos de Agricul- 
 tura, which has been frequently re- 
 printed, is much esteemed in Spain. 
 
 AGOSTINI, (Niccolas degli,) a Ve- 
 netian poet of the sixteenth century ; 
 author of a poem in Ottave Rime on 
 the Wars of Italy ; was criticized by his 
 contemporaries, and is mentioned by 
 Tiraboschi as a poet, who had no merit 
 beyond that of writing in verse. He was 
 the author of several romantic poems in 
 imitation of Ariosto, the titles of which 
 are undeserving of mention. 
 
 AGOSTINI, (Lionardo,) an antiquary 
 of the seventeenth centiiry, who resided 
 in the court of Cardinal Barberini, under 
 the pontificate of Urban VIII. and after- 
 wards received the appointment of ex- 
 aminer of antiquities in the Roman 
 territory from pope Alexander VII. who 
 is said to have had a great esteem for 
 him. His great work upon Sicilian me- 
 dals, founded on that of Filippo Paruta, 
 was reprinted at Lyons, 1697, but the 
 original edition is the most esteemed. 
 It was published at Rome (1649, folio), 
 from the original edition of Paruta at 
 Palermo, 1612. The most complete is 
 that which Havercamp published in 
 Latin at Ley den, 1723, 3 vols, folio, with 
 a commentary ; they form part of Grae- 
 vius's Thesaurus. Another work, no less 
 usefid and valuable, as throwing con- 
 siderable light upon the historical re- 
 searches of modern ^vriters, is his work 
 upon Ancient Gems, which added greatly 
 to the reputation he had befoi^e acquired. 
 A splendid edition was published at 
 Rome, in 4 large vols. 4to, with a vast 
 number of additions by Maffei, though 
 the first, on account of the singular beauty 
 of the plates, is still held in the highest 
 esteem. 
 
 ■ AGOSTINI, (Giovanni degli,) a learn- 
 ed monk of Venice, distinguished for his 
 extensive knowledge and researches in 
 various branches of learning, particularly 
 history, antiquities, and the arts. He 
 gave lectures in the different convents 
 belonging to his order, and in 1730 was 
 appointed librarian in that of La Vigna, 
 which he enriched with a valuable collec- 
 tion ; and from his extraordinary memory 
 and acquirements was extremely courted 
 by the learned and the great, among 
 whom were Mazzuchelli, Costadoni, and 
 Marco Foscarini, afterwards doge of Ve- 
 nice. All were passionately attached to 
 literary history, and at the warm sugges- 
 1.57 
 
 tions of his friends, Agostini undertook 
 to write the literary annals of his native 
 country, a design which he abandoned 
 only upon hearing that Sforza, with the 
 cooperation of ApostoloZeno, was engaged 
 in a work on a similar plan. The death 
 of Sforza, however, led him to resume the 
 subject; and the result was that excellent 
 critical work so much valued by Mazzu- 
 chelli, and so useful to the critic and 
 bibliographer in treating of the Italian 
 writers of the middle ages, entitled No- 
 tizie Istorico-critiche intorno la Vita e le 
 Opere degli Scrittori Veneziani, &c. 2 
 vols. 4to. The first appeared in 1752, 
 and the second in 1754, and together 
 contain the lives of sixty-six authors, who 
 flourished between the years 1315 and 
 1591. The style is rather difluse, but the 
 work is remarkable for the accuracy of 
 its facts and dates. The titles of some 
 other productions of less extent are to be 
 found in the work of father Moschini, 
 La Storia della Letteratura Veneziana del 
 xviii. Secolo. 
 
 AGOSTINO, (Paolo,) of Valerano, an 
 eminent musician, born in 1593, was the 
 scholar ofNanini,and successor to Soriano, 
 in the pontifical chapel. He became 
 celebrated for his scientific compositions 
 in eveiy branch; and when master of the 
 chapel of St. Peter's at Rome, astonished 
 the musical world with his productions 
 for fovu", six, and eight choi-uses, which 
 might be sung in four or six parts only, 
 without diminishing or enervating the 
 harmony. Agostino died in 1629, in the 
 prime of life. 
 
 AGOSTINO and ANGELO DA 
 SIENA, (from about 1296—1338,) two 
 brothers, sculptors and architects, natives 
 of Siena, were both distinguished for the 
 excellence of their prodvictions in the 
 infancy of Italian art. They belonged 
 to an illustrious family, several members 
 of which had already signalized them- 
 selves in the same career, particidarly 
 one, who, in 1190, built the fountain 
 called Fonv- Branda at Siena. In 1284 
 the celebrated architect Giovanni of 
 Siena (see the name), being at Siena for 
 the purpose of building the cathedral, and 
 having observed the rising talents of 
 these brothers, confided to Agostino the 
 direction of this work. He joined his 
 brother with him, and both together 
 went to Pistoia, Pisa, &c., with their 
 master Giovanni, and on returning to 
 Siena they were appointed the architects 
 of that state (a.d. 1317). Nor did they 
 disappoint the public expectations ; they 
 built the beautifiU Roman gate, and that 
 
AGO 
 
 AGO 
 
 called la Tufi, designed the cliui-ch and 
 convent of St. Francis, and were invited 
 to conduct the most important works in 
 other cities of Italy. Inseparable com- 
 panions, and favoured by fortune, these 
 two artists inspired the famous Giotto, 
 on passing through Orvieto, with the 
 highest admiration of their works. He 
 engaged them to execute from his designs 
 the celebrated tomb of Guido, lord and 
 bishop of Arezzo, and they produced one 
 of the aiiost beautifid monuments of the 
 fourteenth century. Vasari has de- 
 scribed the sixteen bassi relievi which 
 are found upon this monument. When 
 Bologna was ceded to pope John XXII. 
 that pontiff' employed the brothers to 
 construct an immense fortress to curb 
 the spirit of the Bolognese, which was 
 subsequently destroyed by the en- 
 raged citizens, when they shook off" the 
 pontifical yoke. In the science of 
 engineering their genius was no less 
 conspicuous on occasion of a terrific 
 inundation of the Po, by which 10,000 
 people perished; and which was only 
 arrested by the ingenuity of two men. 
 After travelling through every part of 
 Italy, the brothers once more returned to 
 their native city,which they fiu'tlier adorn- 
 ed with their works ; and the churches, 
 fountains, palaces, and monuments of 
 princes, which excited so long the ad- 
 miration of every stranger, were nearly 
 all designed or executed by the brothers 
 of Siena. It seemed as if their fate, like 
 their works, was destined to be united 
 to the last ; for after the death of Agos- 
 tino, we hear no further mention of his 
 brother, and the time and circimistances 
 of his death remain unknown. 
 
 AGOSTINO, (Antonio.) See Au- 
 
 GUSTIN. 
 
 AGOSTINO, or AUGUSTIN, a prin- 
 ter of the fifteenth century, who took the 
 name of Carnerio. He received an excel- 
 lent education, for which he was indebted 
 to his father, a distinguished bookseller, 
 and testified his gratitude in different 
 editions of the works printed by liim. He 
 gave out vai-ious editions of the classics, 
 and in particular of Horace ; of the Lives 
 of the Holy Fathers, translated from St. 
 Jerome, and also a Latin Grammar by 
 Leonicenus ; La Teseide of Boccaccio ; 
 the Metamorphoses of Ovid ; and several 
 others, printed in round character and on 
 fine paper, amounting to seven, are ex- 
 ceedingly valuable and rare. 
 
 AGOUB, (Joseph,) born at Cairo, 
 1795 ; returned to France with the 
 Egyptian expedition when only 16 vears 
 158 
 
 of age. He early distinguished himself 
 by his poetical and philosophical essays, 
 and in 1820 commenced his literary 
 career at Paris. He studied with assi- 
 duity, especially the Arabic language and 
 ■writers, and his knowledge of the com- 
 mon tongue was of great utility in regard 
 to French diplomacy and commerce. He 
 became professor of Arabic in the college 
 of Louis-le-Grand ; translated the ancient 
 Bidpai, which it was his eager wish to 
 bring out in a more complete form, and 
 with a purer text than had yet appeared. 
 His health suffered by his extreme ex- 
 ertions, when in 1831 he was deprived 
 almost altogether of his salary, — an in- 
 justice against which he vainly sought to 
 struggle, with the assistance of his best 
 friends. He was compelled to abandon 
 the work, and retired to Marseilles, where 
 he soon afterwards, in 1832, is said to 
 have died of a broken heart. His last 
 composition was a beautiful efflision ad- 
 dressed to the poet Delavigne, by whom, 
 and a large circle forming the Philotech- 
 nic Society, he was sincerely regretted, 
 as one of its greatest ornaments. As a 
 linguist, a journalist, and a critic, his 
 contributions to several of the first pe- 
 riodical works of his times, gained him 
 high reputation. Among these are — 
 1 . Discours Hist, sur I'Egypte ; Paris, 1 823, 
 8vo. 2. La Lyi'e brisee ; second edition, 
 8vo, translated by one of his Arabic 
 pupils at Paris. 3. Dithyrambe sur 
 I'Egypte (Revue Encycloped. 1820). 4, 
 Discours sur I'Expedition des Fran9ais 
 en Egypte, consideree dans ses Resultats 
 Litteraires. In addition to wliich are 
 several other productions, poems, and 
 reviews ; and some Arabic songs of singu- 
 lar pathos and beauty. As a poet alone, 
 to say nothing of his learning, Agoub will 
 rank with some of the first lyric writers 
 of the day. 
 
 AGOULT, (Charles Constance Cesar, 
 &c.) born 1747, was early destined for 
 the church, and attained several eccle- 
 siastical dignities ; but possessing remark- 
 able talents for political science and 
 economy, and for commercial and finan- 
 cial inquiries, he was making rapid pro- 
 gress, when interrapted in his plans by 
 the French Revolution. Soon after 1 789 
 he quitted France and retired to Soleure, 
 where he published several reports and 
 accounts both of ecclesiastical and civil 
 matters appertaining to local interests. 
 He returned to Paris, where he had 
 several interAaews with the mifortunate 
 Louis XVI. in 1790, concerted with him 
 and the queen plans for making their 
 
AGO 
 
 A GR 
 
 escape, and retired himself into Swit- 
 zerland about a month before the journey 
 to Varennes. Hence he passed into 
 England ; where he resided till 1801, and 
 subsequently died at Paris in 1824. His 
 writings were various, embracing subjects 
 connected with ecclesiastical, political, 
 economical, and civil interests ; and espe- 
 cially those upon finance obtained for 
 him considerable reputation, both in this 
 country and in France. 
 
 AGOULT, (Antoine Jean Vicomte d',) 
 brother of the preceding, born 1749, 
 embraced the profession of arms. He 
 rose through the usual grades till he 
 reached that of mestre-de-camp, and was 
 made commander of the order of St. La- 
 zarus, when withdrawing in 1787 from 
 Paris, he joined the emigrant princes, 
 and made the campaign of 1792. He at- 
 tended Louis XVIII. till the restoration, 
 when he was promoted to the rank of 
 marechal-de-camp, and received the 
 order of St. Louis, honours Avhich he re- 
 tained up to his decease in 1828. 
 
 AGOULT, (Guillaume d',) aProven9al 
 poet of some celebrity in the twelfth cen- 
 tury. He was chief gentleman in the 
 household of Ildefonso, the first king of 
 Arragon, and prince of Provence, and 
 married Jausserande de Lunel, in whose 
 praise many of his songs were composed. 
 He wrote also a treatise entitled, La 
 Maniera d'Amar del Temps passat, (The 
 Manner of Loving in the by-gone Time,) 
 because, as he complained, people did not 
 love in his time so well as they had done 
 formerly. Died, 1181. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AGR^US, (Claude John,) a learned 
 Swedish lawyer of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. He was professor in the imiversity 
 of Dorpat, and published some able 
 works, which throw considerable light 
 upon the legislation of the northern 
 tribes. They were published at Stock- 
 holm, 1666. Other Swedish writers of 
 the same name have written upon anti- 
 quities, history, and moral science. 
 
 AGRAIN, (Eustache d',) princ? of 
 Sidon and Cesarea, and viceroy of Jeru- 
 salem. He joined Raymond of Tliolouse, 
 (see the name,) in the first crusade, and 
 distinguished himself by his exploits in 
 the Holy War. He was ultimately chosen 
 viceroy of Acre, and obtained such signal 
 victories over the sultan, as to merit the 
 expressive title of " The Sword and 
 Shield of Palestine." He died early in 
 the eleventh century. His grandson, 
 Hugo d'Agrain, was sent on an embassy 
 to Cairo, by Amaury, king of Jerusalem, 
 in 1182, and concluded a peace with the 
 159 
 
 khalif. The family was allied afterwards 
 with royalty in 12.53, by Julian marrying 
 the daughter of the king of Armenia. 
 They had the privilege of carrying a 
 drawn sword on certain festivals, in 
 honour of their services in the East. 
 Some branches of the family still exist. 
 
 AGRAZ, (Anthony,) born at Palermo, 
 1 640, was the son of Alphonso Agraz, and 
 was employed in a magisterial capacity 
 under Peter of Arragon, viceroy of Naples, 
 and under two popes, Clement IX. and X. 
 He published two treatises in Latin ; one 
 addressed to Clement X. Rome, 1671 ; 
 and another entitled, Donativiun Volun- 
 tarium Politicum ; Diatribe ; Romae, 
 1672. 4to. He also left several unpub- 
 lished works, of which a list is given in 
 the Bibliotheca Sicula of Mongitore. 
 
 AGREDA, (Marie de, 1602—1665.) 
 This person was of the family of Coronel, 
 the whole of which took upon them re- 
 ligious vows. Her father (Fran9ois Co- 
 ronel) and her two brothers, embraced 
 the ride of St. Fi-ancis. Her mother and 
 her sisters entered a convent founded 
 by this family at Agreda, on the fron- 
 tiers of Arragon, in obedience to a pre- 
 tended revelation. Marie took the vows 
 in 1620, and in seven years was elected 
 superior of the convent. From this time 
 she pretended to have constant visions, 
 in which God and the Virgin Mary 
 ordered her to write the life of the 
 Virgin. After a thousand absurdities, 
 she finished this work in 1655, and it 
 was published at Lisbon, Perpignan, 
 &c. It is fidl of blasphemies, absm-di- 
 ties, and indecencies, but the style is 
 said to be clever. It was translated into 
 French by Father de Crozet, imder the 
 title of La Mystique Cite de Dieu aux 
 Marseille, 1696. This publication ex- 
 cited great contention in the Sorbonne ; 
 some defended — others condemned it. 
 A pamphlet was published at Cologne in 
 1696, on this trumpery affair, called 
 Affaire de Marie d'Agreda et de la 
 maniere dont on a cabale en Sorbonn^ 
 sa condemnation. It defends all the 
 follies of the original work. Notwith- 
 standing the efforts of the Spanish am- 
 bassador, the censure was not withdrawn ; 
 and it was ratified at Rome in 1681, with 
 a special exemption in favour of Spain, 
 where the work had always been popu- 
 lar. F. Crozet's work was reprinted 
 twice at Bruxelles, 1715. 3 vols. 4to. 
 1717. 8 vols. 8vo. 
 
 AGRESTI, (Livio, d. 1580,) an artist 
 of Forli, employed by Gregory XIII. in 
 painting part of the Vatican, &c. 
 
A G R 
 
 A GR 
 
 AGRICOLA, (Cnreius Julius,) born at 
 the colony of Forum Julii, or Frejus in 
 Provence, a. d. 40, in the reign of Cali- 
 gula, studied philosophy and civil law at 
 Marseilles. He served also in the cam- 
 paigns of Suetonius Paulinus in Britain, 
 and on his return to Rome married 
 Domitia Decidiana; was chosen questor 
 in Asia, and offered a rare example of 
 integrity in a wealthy and corrupt pro- 
 vince, though his colleague threw the 
 greatest temptations in his way. He was 
 chosen tribune of the people, and their 
 praetor under the emperor Nero. In the 
 time of Vespasian, he was made legate 
 in Bi-itain, and on his return was ranked 
 among the Patricians, and afterwards 
 appointed governor of Aquitania. He 
 was finally chosen consul, and then 
 governor of Britain, where he distin- 
 guished himself by his admirable con- 
 duct in several campaigns. He extended 
 his conquests to the most remote parts 
 of Britain, consolidated the Roman 
 power, corrected the abuses of former 
 governors, and caused justice to be im- 
 partially administered. On the death 
 of Vespasian, Titus continued him in 
 the government ; and under this extra- 
 ordinary man the civilization of Britain 
 advanced with rapid strides. In his 
 third and fourth campaigns, he subdued 
 the Picts and S^ots, and built castles and 
 fortresses as a bari-ier against those who 
 lay beyond. He had also prepared for 
 a descent upon Ireland, when the British 
 and the more northern tribes rose in 
 immense strength to throw off the Roman 
 yoke. But he again routed them in 
 several battles ; nor was his career 
 checked until Domitian grew jealous of 
 his glory. Under the pretext of making 
 him governor of Syria, he was recalled 
 from Britain, and his subsequent death 
 was suspected to have been occasioned 
 by poison given him by that emperor. 
 He died on the 23d of August, a. n. 93, 
 in the 54th year of his age. It is need- 
 less to dwell longer on the life of this 
 eminent man, as the accoimt of him by 
 Tacitus, his son-in-law, is in every body's 
 hands. 
 
 AGRICOLA, (George, 1494—1555,) 
 a German physician, a native of Glaucha, 
 in Misnia, was celebrated for his skill in 
 metallurgy. He studied in Italy; and 
 the discoveries he made in Bohemia 
 after his return, led him to employ all 
 the time he could possibly spare in the 
 study of fossils. Although engaged in 
 the practice of physic, he not only spent 
 his income in the pursuit, but the pen- 
 160 
 
 sion procured for him from the duke of 
 Saxony; and when duke Maurice went 
 to join Charles V. in Bohemia, Agricola, 
 to show his attachment, accompanied 
 him, although it obliged him to quit the 
 care of his family and estate. He died 
 at Chemintz, Nov. 21, 1555. He wrote 
 several works, — most of them on subjects 
 connected with his favourite inquiries ; 
 one of which — De Re Metallica, was 
 published at Basle, in fol. 1546, and was 
 often reprinted. He wrote many other 
 works also ; some of them theological, 
 as that De Traditionibus Apostolicis ; 
 some medical, as that De Peste. Basle, 
 
 1538. There is also a treatise by him, 
 De Lapide Philosophico. Cologne, 1531 ; 
 and also another work — De Mensuris et 
 Ponderibus Romanorum et Graeconun. 
 1550, fol. 1553, 4to. Cuvier, in the 
 Biog. Univ. says, he was in mineralogy 
 what Conrad Gesner was in zoology. 
 (See more in Melchior Adam's work.) 
 
 AGRICOLA, (Michael,) a native of 
 Finland, and a Lutheran divine of de- 
 served repute in the sixteenth century, 
 studied both divinity and medicine at 
 Wittemberg. He was recommended by 
 Luther to Gustavus I. ; and on his return 
 to Sweden was made rector of Abo in 
 
 1539. He went into Lapland to preach 
 Christianity; in 1554, was appointed 
 bishop of Abo, and subsequently made a 
 journey into Russia to confer with the 
 clergy of that country. He died in 1557. 
 His works are — A Translation of the New 
 Test, into Finnish ; Stockholm, 1458 ; and 
 also a book in the same language, entitled, 
 Rituale Ecclesiae ab Erroribus Pontifi- 
 ciorum repurgatum, is attributed to him. 
 
 AGRICOLA, (Rodolphus,) bom in 
 1442, in the village of Baffeln, near 
 Groningen in Friesland. Having taken 
 his degree of M.A. at Louvain, he de- 
 clined the offer of a professorship, as it 
 would prevent his travelhng for further 
 improvement. He went from Louvain to 
 Paris, and to Italy ; resided two years at 
 Ferrara, where he learnt Greek and 
 taught Latin, — held some learned dis- 
 putations in prose and verse, and was 
 much noticed and esteemed by the 
 duke. He was received on his re- 
 turn with the most gratifying offers of 
 employment ; accepted a post at Gro- 
 ningen, and attended the court of Maxi- 
 milian for a period of six months. He 
 then resumed his travels for many years, 
 and fixed at length in the Palatinate, 
 influenced by the persuasions of the 
 bishop of Worms, whom he had in- 
 structed in the Greek language. At the 
 
AGR 
 
 A G R 
 
 desire of the elector, he composed an 
 Abridgement of Ancient History; and 
 he also read public lectures at Worms, 
 where, in his 40th year, he began to 
 study divinity, applied himself to a 
 knowledge of Hebrew, and had made 
 rapid progress in his new studies, when 
 he was seized with an illness, of which 
 he died on the 28th of October, 1485. 
 
 This learned and excellent man was 
 skilled likewise in music and poetry, which 
 he cultivated for his amusement. There 
 are only two of his works extant — De 
 Inventione Dialectica ; Louvain, 1516; 
 and an Abridgement of Ancient History, 
 2 vols. 4to. Erasmus gives him a very 
 liigh character for talent and learning ; 
 and by his admirers, he was compared to 
 Vii-gil in verse, and to Politian in prose. 
 
 AGRICOLA, (C. L.) a painter and 
 engraver born 1667, known by an en- 
 graving of a landscape with Diana. 
 
 AGRICOLA, (John Ammonius,) a 
 German physician, who practised to- 
 wards the close of the fifteenth century. 
 He was also professor of the Latin and 
 Greek tongues at Ingolstadt ; and he is 
 esteemed one of the best commentators 
 of Hippocrates and Galen. He pub- 
 lished two books — De Medicina Her- 
 baria : the one giving a description of 
 plants made use of by the ancient phy- 
 sicians ; the other of those which had 
 been employed since the time of Galen. 
 He wrote, moreover, a discourse, en- 
 titled De Prtestantia Corporis Humani. 
 
 AGRICOLA, (John Frederick,) a 
 composer of music, bom in 1718, in the 
 principality of Altenburgh. He studied 
 at Leipsic, under John Sebastian Bacli, 
 went to Berlin in 1741, and became 
 celebrated for his compositions, and an 
 excellent organist. He was appointed 
 director of the chapel royal ; published 
 several valuable dissertations upon the 
 art ; and was soon distinguished for his 
 operatic productions, among which his 
 Achilles at Scyros, and his Iphigenia in 
 Tauris, were highly applauded. He died 
 Nov. 12, 1774. 
 
 AGRICOLA, (John, 1490 or 1492— 
 1566,) called also Magister Islehhis, or 
 Magister Eisleben, from the place of his 
 birth, a town of the county of Mansfield, 
 famous for the birth of Luther also. His 
 real name was Schnitter or Reaper, 
 which he latinized according to the fa- 
 shion of the day. 
 
 The first public action of this divine 
 of which we hear, is his attending the 
 Diet of Spires in the train of the elector 
 of Saxony (1525), and the convention of 
 
 VOL. I. 161 
 
 Augsburgh in 1530. This divine wr;> a 
 disciple of Luther, but entertained doc- 
 trines i-especting works which led Luther 
 to enter into controversy with him ; and 
 Agricola recanted his notions, which 
 were charged, justly or unjustly, as the 
 origin of Antinomianism. The common 
 account given in Mosheim, Dr. Hey, &c. 
 is, that when Luther in 1538 was urging 
 very strongly the doctrine of justification 
 by faith alone, Agricola founded upon 
 this doctrine some unwarrantable no- 
 tions. Mosheim has stated that his doc- 
 trines upon the whole amounted to this : 
 That the Law, by which he understood 
 the Ten Commandments, was meant for 
 Jews, and may be laid aside by Chris- 
 tians, for whom it is sufficient to explain 
 and enforce what the New Testament 
 teaches as to the means of grace and 
 salvation, and the obligations of repent- 
 ance and virtue, — a doctrine almost 
 identical with that of the Whately 
 school. The disputes originated by this 
 doctrine apparently caused him to quit 
 Wittenberg, and go to Berlin as first 
 preacher there, a post offered to him in 
 1540 by the elector of Brandenbm-g. 
 The history of this recantation, and the 
 unhandsome conduct of Agricola towards 
 Luther relative to it, will be found in 
 Walchii Introductio in Libros Symboli- 
 cos, p. 809 — 816, with full references to 
 Seckendorf and many otlier writers. 
 Dr. Hey supposes that Luther was the 
 first to apply the name of Antinomian 
 to him ; but be this as it may, at the end 
 of this year he recanted. His name follows 
 that of Melancthon in the signatures 
 to the Smalcald articles, (1537,) which 
 Melancthon signed, but with a protest 
 on one point. The name of Agi'icola is 
 not subscribed to the additional Smalcald 
 article on the primacy of the Pope, and 
 the agreement of the subscribers with 
 the Augsburgh Confession and the Apo- 
 logy. That of Stephen Agricola is found 
 in both. (See Augusti Libri Symbolici, 
 pp. 259, 274, &c.) We must remark, 
 however, that he had at first signed the 
 Augsburgh Confession in 1530. (Melcli. 
 Adam, p. 409.) In 1548, he was one of 
 the three divines who di'ew up the Inte- 
 rim. (Sec Pflug and Sidonius.) The 
 extreme dissatisfaction justly given by 
 the Interim to the Evangelical party 
 is too well known to be narrated here 
 (see Sleidan, Comment, xx. xxi.), and 
 Agi'icola gained no credit by his share in 
 its composition. In his later years he 
 was chiefly occupied in the controversy 
 on the Adiaphora, but apparently 
 M 
 
AG R 
 
 A G R 
 
 without much advantage. Upon the 
 whole, his character as a theologian is 
 open to chai'ges of inconsistency, and a 
 want of straightforward dealing ; but in 
 our estimation of him we must remember 
 that he lived in times of almost unparal- 
 leled difficulty and excitement. His 
 theological works are, principally, his 
 Commentationes in Lucam, and a Re- 
 futation of Muncer's Explanation of the 
 19th Psalm. He is known also under 
 another point of view — as a writer on the 
 German language, in which respect he is 
 highly praised by Wolff, (Cyclopadie, &c.) 
 as having much merit, considering the 
 time in which he lived. His principal 
 work in this character is A Collection of 
 750 German Proverbs, at first printed in 
 three parts separately. The title of the 
 first, as first printed, was — Dre hundert 
 Gemener Sprekwbrde, der wy Diidschen 
 uns gebruken, unde doch nicht wetten 
 wohar se komen, dorch Dr. Johann 
 Agricolam von Islewe. Magdeburg, 
 1526, 8vo. The same book was pub- 
 lished in Hochdeutsch at Eisleben, 1528. 
 The most correct edition of the whole 
 Sieben hundert und funffzig Deutscher 
 Spriichwcirter, &c. is that of Wittenberg, 
 1592. (Melchior Adam; Sleidan; Wal- 
 chius, &c. ; and Hey's Lectures, vol. iii. 
 pp. 36 — 41, where some remarks on his 
 theological opinions will be found.) 
 
 AGRIPPA, (Camillus,) a distinguished 
 architect of Milan, of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He published several works, called, 
 1. Trattato di Scientia d'Arme con un 
 Dialogo de Filosofia ; Rome, 1553. 2. 
 Dialogo sopra la Generazione de Venti ; 
 Rome, 1584, 4to. 3. Nuove Invenzioni 
 sopra il Modo di Navigare ; Rome, 1595, 
 4to. 4 Trattato di trasportar la Guglia 
 in su la Piazza di San Pietro ; Rome, 
 1583, 4to. In the last he gave an ac- 
 count of his method of removing a vast 
 obelisk to St. Peter's square, in which he 
 was employed by pope Gregory XIII. 
 All his works are very rare. 
 
 AGRIPPA A NETTESHEIM, 
 (Henry Cornelius, 1486—1535.) A Ger- 
 man alchemist, physician, and philoso- 
 pher. This eccentric man was born at 
 Cologne, Sept. 14, 1486. (Brucker, Hist. 
 Philos. iv. 387.) His family was noble, 
 and had long been attached to the Aus- 
 trian princes. After a suitable education, 
 he was sent at an early age to the camp 
 of Maximilian I., in which he served 
 seven years. If his own boasting asser- 
 tions may be credited, he was at first 
 employed as secretary to that prince, 
 but as his sojourn in Spain (more than 
 162 
 
 seven years afterwards) was in the 
 year 1509, he could not have been more 
 than 13 years of age at the period of his 
 joining Maximilian. He was, according 
 to his own account also, highly distin- 
 guished both in his diplomatic and mili- 
 tary capacity, and obtained the honour 
 of knighthood. In 1507 he returned to 
 Cologne, and pursuing his studies with 
 great ardour, he received the degree of 
 doctor in the faculties of law and medi- 
 cine. He remained in hopes of some 
 high employment, but the truth seems to 
 be, that he had deluded the princes, to 
 whom he had access, with hopes of the 
 philosopher's stone, and he fovmd that 
 their promises of preferment were as 
 little to be trusted for realizing a fortune 
 as his alchemy. Indeed, he had so noto- 
 I'iously deceived them that he fled to 
 escape their resentment, and from this 
 time his life assumed a wandering cha- 
 racter. (See Brucker, iv. 389.) He re- 
 treated to Spain, then to Avignon, where 
 he set up as an alchemist, and being 
 soon compelled to quit that country, he 
 took refuge at Dole, in Burgundy, where 
 he was made professor of Hebrew. He 
 was a follower of the school of Reuchlin 
 in philosophy, and read lectures on his 
 Treatise de Verbo Mirifico, which were 
 attended by the most learned civilians 
 and theologians, and obtained him a 
 great reputation. But his abusive dis- 
 position rendered him satirical on the 
 monks, in these lectures, and John Cati- 
 linet, the provincial of the Franciscans, 
 in Burgundy, endeavoured to convict 
 him of heresy. He was now obliged to 
 leave Dole ; he went to London, published 
 an answer to Catilinet, and after a few 
 months returned to Cologne, where he 
 remained till 1511, when, it is said (but 
 the authority is doubtful) he was invited 
 by cardinal Santa-Croce to attend him to 
 the coimcil of Pisa. We find him next 
 lecturing on Hermes Trismegistus, at 
 Pavia, which he soon left, and was em- 
 ployed for a time at Metz, in the capa- 
 city of syndic and orator of that city, 
 but was obliged to leave it under suspi- 
 cion of heresy, a.d. 1520. He had, in 
 fact, ventured to doubt the tradition 
 which assigns three husbands to St. Ann, 
 and he had opposed the torturing of a 
 woman, accused by the inquisitors of 
 sorcery. Again upon the wing, in 1520 
 — 1523 he visited Geneva, Friburg in 
 Switzerland, and Lyons, (1524,) in which 
 place he settled, with the promise of a 
 pension, as physician to Louisa of Savoy, 
 the mother of Francis I. Having, how- 
 
A G R 
 
 A G R 
 
 ever, declined to become her astrologer 
 also, declaring that he would not satisfy 
 a vain and unlawful curiosity, he fell 
 into disgrace, and his pension was with- 
 drawn. It must be remarked, that at 
 the very time he thus condemned judi- 
 cial astrology before the queen, he had 
 cast the nativity of her enemy, the Con- 
 stable Bourbon, and predicted the most 
 complete success to his arms. His con- 
 dition was now desperate, and yet such 
 was his reputation for learning, that 
 crowned heads and nobles petitioned for 
 his presence in their respective countries. 
 Henry VHI. of England, and Margaret 
 of Austria, the governess of the Nether- 
 lands, were among the number ; and in 
 1528, he joined the court of the latter at 
 Antwerp, and became historiographer of 
 the empire. Here he suffered a severe 
 domestic calamity in the loss of his wife, 
 who died in giving birth to a son. His 
 abuse of the monks brought him again 
 into trouble, and he would soon have lost 
 the favour of the princess also, but death 
 removed her, and he pronounced her 
 funeral oration. His book, De Vanitate 
 Scientiarvnn, (whether published a little 
 before at Cologne, or now at Antwerp,*) 
 gave great offence ; and his persecutors, 
 the monks, spread i-umours against his 
 orthodoxy, and rendered him odious and 
 his life miserable : indeed, on the publi- 
 cation of his Treatise de Occulta Philo- 
 sophia, he was imprisoned for a year at 
 Bruxelles. On his release he returned 
 to Lyons, where he was imprisoned again, 
 for what he had formerly written against 
 the queen-mother. On the termination 
 of this imprisonment he went to Bonn, 
 and soon after to Lyons or Grenoble, and 
 died at the latter place in 1.535. 
 
 Thus ended his eventful life. He was 
 one of those inconsistent and eccentric 
 characters which defy delineation. Rest- 
 less, ambitious, enthusiastic, and credu- 
 lous ; a dupe himself, and a deceiver 
 of others ; his career was one unbroken 
 series of disappointments and broils. 
 Like Ishmael, his hand was against every 
 man, and every man's hand against him. 
 That his learning and talents were of no 
 ordinary kind, is unquestionable ; and it 
 is equally evident they were miserably 
 abused, although the age in which he 
 lived may form some excuse for this 
 misapplication of them. As a philoso- 
 
 • Chalmers, in his Life, possibly following 
 Brucker, iv. 396, who calls the edition of 15S0, the 
 first, says it was published in 1530 ; but in his enu- 
 meration of the works of Agrippa, he gives the 
 editions mentioned in the Biog. Univ. of which the 
 tecond is dated 1527. 
 
 163 
 
 pher, he is classed by Bnicker among 
 those opponents of the Aristotelian sys- 
 tem, who formed a kind of philosophy 
 out of the Neo-Platonic doctrines, chris- 
 tianized and mixed with views deduced 
 from an imperfect acquaintance with the 
 Jewish Cabbala, a follower of Reuchlin 
 (otherwise called Capnio), Picus of Mi- 
 randola, &c. In his book De Occulta Phi- 
 losophia, he speaks of magic as the 
 complement of philosophy, the key of the 
 secrets of nature, and represents it under 
 three forms — natiu^al, celestial, and 
 religious or ceremonial, agreeably to the 
 three old divisions of the coi-poreal, celes- 
 tial, and intellectual world. "He enume- 
 rates, with a show of scientific classifica- 
 tion, purely superficial, the hidden powers 
 which the Creator has assigned to the 
 different objects of the creation, through 
 the. agency of the spirits of the world." 
 (Johnson's Tenneman, p. 270.) His 
 book. On the Vanity of Human Know- 
 ledge, is a clever production, but a painful 
 one to read. It is the work of an acute 
 mind ransacking all its stores to prove 
 all mankind wicked and foolish, and to 
 show that there is no certainty and no 
 utility in human knowledge. But its 
 downright abuse is, at least, less hateful 
 than the sneer of Voltaire, and the author 
 always professes a thorough regard for 
 Christianity, and its peroration is a 
 noble in\dtation to go to the Bible, the 
 Spirit of God, and to Jesus Christ, as the 
 source of all knowledge. In fact, the 
 book is like himself, inconsistent ; at one 
 moment mischievous, sophistical, and 
 venomous ; and the next, eloquent, just, 
 and wise. The very master, whose sys- 
 tem he commented upon in another work, 
 he rejects with scorn here as a sophist 
 and deceiver, viz. Raymund Lulli. (See 
 § ix. of Agrippa de Vanitate). It was a 
 work of high reputation in its day, and 
 will always remain a monument of his 
 great abilities, and leave us to regret that 
 they were not united with more steadiness 
 of mind and conduct, which might have 
 rendered them a blessing to their owner 
 and to the world at large. Agrippa has 
 been called a protestant; but although he 
 spoke favourably sometimes of Luther, 
 it does not appear that he left the Romish 
 communion, and his employment by 
 Charles V. argues against it. He was 
 twice married ; some authors say three 
 times, and that he divorced his third 
 wife. 
 
 His works are : — 1 . De Incertitudine 
 et Vanitate Scientiarum ; without date, 
 8vo; Cologne, 1527, 12mo ; Paris, 1531, 
 M2 
 
A G R 
 
 A G R 
 
 8vo, &c. The editions subsequent to 
 1539, are mutilated. It has been trans- 
 lated into most European languages. 
 2. De Occulta Philosophia, Libri Tres. 
 (N.B. The fourth book found in his works 
 is not his.) Antwerp and Paris, 1531, &c. 
 Translated into French by Le Vasseur ; 
 (the Hague, 1727, 2 vols. 8vo.) 3. De 
 Nobilitate ct Prsecellentia Sexus Foeminei ; 
 Antwerp, 1529, 8vo ; written to please 
 Margaret of Austria. It is annexed to 
 modern editions of the De Vanitate. 4. 
 Commentaria in Artem brevem Raymundi 
 Lulli ; Cologne, 1533. 5. Orationes de- 
 cem ; de duplici Coronatione Caroli V. 
 apud Bononiam, &c. ; Cologne, 1533, 8vo. 
 The only good edition of Agrippa's works, 
 is that of Leyden, (apud Beringos, with- 
 out date,) in Italic lettei"s. The coun- 
 terfeit editions are in Roman type. 
 (Agrippa's works, Brucker, Tenneman, 
 Biog. Univ. &:c.) 
 
 AGRIPPA LANATUS, (Menenius,) 
 consul of Rome in the year of the city 251. 
 His colleague, Tuburtus, having been 
 beaten by the Sabines, Agrippa, at the 
 head of the Roman youth, marched to 
 their succour, and obtained a complete vic- 
 tory over the enemy. He was the first to 
 receive the honour of a public triumph. 
 
 AGRIPPA, (Marcus Vipsanius, b. c. 
 63 — 12,) son of Lucius Agrippa, accord- 
 ing to the medals, was of a family so ob- 
 scure or reduced, that but for the reputa- 
 tion of the son the name of his father 
 would have been unknown. The origin 
 and impoi't of the surname "Agrippa" 
 are explained, though mth some discre- 
 pancy, by Pliny, Solinus, and Aulus 
 Gellius. It signified in the language of 
 obstetric art a false presentation at birth. 
 In the mythical portion of Roman his- 
 tory it occurs as the surname of an Alban 
 king, and in the later periods is afiixed 
 to the gentile names Furius, Menenius, 
 Posthumus, &c. Probably it was seldom 
 a personal designation, although Pliny 
 the elder conceives it to have been so in 
 the instance of Marcus Vipsanius. He 
 was born in the same year with Octa- 
 vianus Ca?sar, b. c. 63 ; since he died in 
 his 51st year, in b. c. 12. Agrippa was 
 the companion, perhaps the fellow-stu- 
 dent of Octavianus, at Apollonia in Illy- 
 ria, where the youthful Cresar pursued 
 his studies under the care of Apollodorus 
 and Theagenes, while awaiting with the 
 advanced guard of his uncle's army the 
 Dacian and Parthian campaign. When 
 the news of the dictator's violent death 
 readied Apollonia, Salvidienus, another 
 of the personal friends of Octavianus, 
 164 
 
 and M. Agrippa, urged him to accept 
 the offer of the legions to accompany 
 him to Italy, and to support him in an 
 immediate assumption of the name and 
 authority of Csesar. The proposal, how- 
 ever, suited neither the cautions temper 
 of Octavianus, nor the fears of hia 
 mother Atia, and her husband Marcius 
 Philippus. Agrippa, probably, attended 
 his friend to Rome ; since we next find 
 him as the accuser of C. Cassius, in the 
 general impeachment of those who had 
 conspired against the late dictator as 
 traitors and parricides. We have no 
 account of Agrippa during the first 
 period of the civil wars that followed the 
 expulsion of Brutus and his associates 
 from Rome and Italy. But on the 
 breaking out of the Perusine war, 
 Agrippa, by occupying Sutrium [Sutri] 
 on the Cassian way, prevented Lucius 
 Antonius, the triumvir's brother, and his 
 lieutenants Ventidius and Asinius Pollio, 
 from cutting off Salvidienus, who had 
 been recalled by Octavianus from his 
 march to Spain. Lucius, after a fruitless 
 attempt to effect a junction Avith Venti- 
 dius, and harassed in his tiu-n by Salvi- 
 dienus, retired to Perusia, which was 
 speedily invested by three divisions of 
 the Ccesarians. Agrippa seems to have 
 commanded the blockade, while Caesar 
 and Salvidienus prevented any diversion 
 or relief on the part of the Antonians. 
 Perusia surrendered in b.c. 40 : and the 
 next service Agrippa rendered to Octa- 
 vianus was that of persuading two le- 
 gions, of the division of Munatius 
 Plancus, which had been intercepted at 
 Cameria, to desert. In the same year, 
 or at the beginning of 39, M. Agrippa 
 went to the relief of Thurii and Con- 
 sentia in Bruttii, then besieged and their 
 lands laid waste by Sextus Pompeius. 
 On his way thither from Etraria he sum- 
 moned the veterans, who were settled in 
 the neighbourhood of the great roads, or 
 in the colonial towns, to serve against 
 Sextus. But the remembrance of M. 
 Antony, always the favourite of the sol- 
 diers, was stronger than the arguments 
 of Agrippa, or the authority of Cassar, 
 and many of the veterans deserted when 
 it was reported among them that Mark 
 Antony approved the war. In 38 b.c. 
 Agrippa was engaged in reducing Trans- 
 alpine Gaid to obedience, and in driving 
 back the German tribes across the Rhine. 
 For having carried the Roman arms be- 
 yond that river into the forests and 
 morasses of Germany, where hitherto 
 Julius Ccesar alone had penetrated before 
 
A G R 
 
 R 
 
 hlni, Agrippa received, in 37, from Oc- 
 tiivianus, together with the consulship, 
 tlie triumphal oniaments, the substitute 
 for the old imperatorial procession. But 
 Caesar's affairs at this period did not 
 admit of any unnecessary delay or exult- 
 ation, and Agrippa was recalled from 
 Gaid to supermtend the equipment and 
 discipline of the naval armament, then 
 preparing on the coast of Campania 
 against Sextus Pompems, who was 
 master of Sicily and the Mediterranean, 
 and swept the western coast of Italy with 
 a formidable fleet of Liburnian galleys. 
 Agrippa executed this important com- 
 mission with eminent skill and expedi- 
 tion. Italy, in proportion to its long 
 line of coast, enjoys naturally few good 
 harbours, and Octavianus had already 
 suffered severe losses in his fleet from 
 the west and African winds blowing 
 upon an open beach. The lake Avenius 
 was converted into a secure and spacious 
 roadstead, by opening a communication 
 with the sea and the basin of lake Lucri- 
 nus. The Portus Jidius, as it was after- 
 wards called in honour of Augustus, 
 served for exercising the galleys ; and to 
 this practice, and to another — according 
 to an anecdote preserved by Servius, of 
 instructing the rowers to work against 
 wind and tide, and the soldiers to dis- 
 regard the dashing violence of the waves, 
 — Caesar is said to have been indebted for 
 his victory over Pompeius, and, subse- 
 quently, for his final triiunph over An- 
 tony at Actium. 
 
 The armament being ready, Octavius 
 sailed to Vibo (Bivona) in Bruttii : 
 Agrippa having the command of the 
 fleet, and Messala and Statilius Taurus 
 of the land-forces. Caesar left Agrippa 
 at Strongyle, one of the jEolian (Lipari) 
 islands, while he attacked Tauromenium 
 with his whole army. — Agrippa crossed 
 over to Hiera ; and off the bay of Mylee 
 engaged a superior force of the Pom- 
 peians under Demochares. Pompey's 
 vessels were lighter, and more expert in 
 their evolutions : but the galleys of 
 Agrippa were better fitted for close com- 
 bat, and the valoiur of his soldiers was 
 steadier. After an obstinate conflict, in 
 which the galley of Demochares was 
 split by that of Agrippa, Pompeius gave 
 the signal for retreat, having lost thirty 
 of his own vessels, and destroyed or 
 taken only five of the enemies'. Agrippa 
 remained at sea great part of the night, 
 in readiness to renew the engagement if 
 Pompey's ships had quitted the shallows 
 among which they had taken refuge. A 
 165 
 
 few days after he surprised Tyndaris, 
 but, though admitted by the townspeople, 
 was repulsed by the garrison. He was 
 enabled, however, to place garrisons in 
 several places on the Sicilian coast, to 
 relieve Cornificius and his division from 
 a situation of great danger, and, in a 
 second attempt, to make himself master 
 of Tyndaris and its ample magazines. 
 A last and decisive battle was fought by 
 Agrippa off Naulochus ; Pompey's entire 
 fleet was taken or destroyed ; and him- 
 self in a few days fled with only seven- 
 teen galleys to Antony in Asia. 
 
 For these services Agrippa was pre- 
 sented by Caesar with a rostral, or naval 
 crown — an unprecedented distinction, 
 imless Pliny is correct in ^stating that, 
 afler the completion of the war against 
 the Cilician pirates, Cneius Pompey con- 
 ferred that honom* on M. Varro. 
 Agi-ippa (b. c. 35) accompanied Caesar as 
 his lieutenant, to the Illyrian war, and 
 attacked and subdued successively, the 
 Japyds, the Dalmatians, and the Panno- 
 nians. In 33 b.c. he was, at his own 
 request [«kcbi'], aedile, after having been 
 consul in 37. His year of office was dis- 
 tinguished by the splendour and utility of 
 his public works, and the munificence of 
 his largess and exhibitions to the people. 
 The Appian, Marcian, and Aniensian 
 aqueducts, that, during the long civil 
 distiirbances, had f.illcn into ruin, he 
 restored, adorning their margins with 
 statues and columns, and supplying many 
 districts of the city, and many stations on 
 the gi-eat roads, with reservoirs of fresh 
 and sparkling water. At this period, 
 probably, for the date is not accurately 
 known, he brought the Aqua Tepula, and 
 Aqua Virgo, from the lands of LucuUus, 
 near Tuscidum, to Rome. The river- 
 like sewers that cany into the Tiber 
 the waters drained off from the Forimi, 
 the Velabrum, the Valley of the Circus, 
 and the Subura, the imperishable struc- 
 tures of Tarquinius, and the kingly age 
 of Rome, were filled in several places and 
 choked up with rubbish. Agrippa forced 
 seven toiTents of water into the different 
 entries of these cloacae, cleared them 
 from all obstructions, and sailed imder 
 their lofty vaidts of hewn sti ue imtil 
 he emerged upon the stream of the 
 Tiber. A less useful, but not a less 
 popular mode of employing his ample 
 revenues, was entertaining, for fifty-nine 
 successive days, the citizens of Rome, 
 with exhibitions of all kinds, from the 
 pantomime to the combat of gladiators ; 
 diu-ing Avhich time provisions were gra- 
 
A G R 
 
 A GR 
 
 tuitoiisly distiibuted to the spectators. 
 The people were indulged with the novel 
 amusement of a scramble ; and from the 
 roof of the theatre a species of lottery- 
 tickets was thrown down among the au- 
 dience, that entitled the fortunate ohtainer 
 to a prize of money, or plate, hand- 
 some furniture, or clothing. A hun- 
 dred and seventy baths, open to all 
 classes, and maintained at his cost dur- 
 ing the year of his sedileship, attested 
 Agrippa's zeal for the health and recrea- 
 tion of his countrymen. And such was 
 his passion for embellishing Rome, and 
 making her the metropolis of the arts, as 
 well as of the world, that in a speech, 
 which PHny calls magnificent and worthy 
 the " greatest of the citizens," he recom- 
 mended that all private collections of pic- 
 tures and statues should be rescued from 
 the obscurity of country-houses and pro- 
 vincial towns, and displayed in the tem- 
 ples and porticos of the capital. 
 
 The year 32 was taken up with pre- 
 parations for the final struggle between 
 Antony and Caesar. And in the following 
 year the well-appointed fleet and army 
 that crossed the Ionian sea from Brimdu- 
 sium to the Ambracian gulf, bespoke the 
 cai"e and experience of Agrippa. Before 
 the decisive battle of Actium he had 
 stormed Methone, twice repidsed the An- 
 tonians, and occupied Leucas, Patrae, and 
 the western port of Corinth. He was the 
 principal commander at Actium, having 
 M. Larius on his right, and An'untius on 
 his left wing, while Caesar, in a light gal- 
 ley, went from ship to ship, wherever his 
 presence was most required. The event 
 of the day, as is well known, was owing 
 to the superior skill and discipline of 
 Caesar's fleet, which was imequal in 
 weight and number of vessels to that of 
 Antony. Agrippa was presented by 
 Caesar with a blue standard. 
 
 After the svirrender of Antony's army 
 had completed the victory in the Ambra- 
 cian Bay, Agrippa was despatched to 
 Italy to superintend the pay and grants 
 of land to the veterans, and, if possible, 
 to keep order among those turbulent par- 
 tisans of Caesar. Maecenas, Caesar's pre- 
 fect in Italy, being only of equestrian 
 rank, and without military reputation, it 
 was feared he might be unequal to the 
 task of satisfying them. He and Agrippa 
 were now in such high esteem with 
 Caesar, that the letters he addressed to 
 the senate were first submitted to them, 
 and on the most virgent business he cor- 
 responded with them in a peculiar cipher, 
 and furnished each of them with a dupli- 
 166 
 
 cate of his own seal-ring. Agrippa's 
 name does not occvir in the history of the 
 Alexandrian war, b. c. 30. In 28 and 27 
 he was the colleague of Caesar in his sixth 
 and seventh consulships. In Agrippa's 
 second consulship a census of the Roman 
 citizens was held : in his third, Octavianus 
 Caesar received the title of Augustus, and 
 Tiberius Nero, afterwards the Caesar, the 
 manly gown. The following years were 
 occupied with the campaign against the 
 Asturians and Cantabrians in Spain, and 
 with the subjugation of the mountain 
 tribes of the Graian and Pennine Alps. 
 But, in these, Agrippa was only par- 
 tially engaged, since, in this interval, in 
 the absence of Augustus, he presided at 
 the marriage of Marcellus and Julia, and 
 restored, or added to, the public edifices of 
 Rome. Soon after this marriage, Agrippa, 
 either dissatisfied with the honours heaped 
 upon Marcellus, or at some change in the 
 behaviour of Augustus, retired to Myti- 
 lene, in Lesbos. He did not return to 
 Rome until after August, b. c. 23, and 
 maiTied the widow of Marcellus in 21, 
 Maecenas having hinted to Augustus that 
 having made Agrippa so great, not to 
 make him greater might be dangerous. 
 Cains Caesar was born in b. c. 20, and 
 Lucius in 17, and both, after the birth of 
 the latter, were adopted by their grand- 
 father into the family of Caesar and the 
 succession of the empire. In 18 b.c. 
 when the power of Augustus was renewed 
 for five years longer, Agrippa was ap- 
 pointed to the inviolable, but anomalous 
 dignity of tribune. In the following year 
 he celebrated with Augustus, for the fifth 
 time, the secular games ; and soon after 
 the birth and adoption of Lucius Caesar, 
 he went with Julia into Syria. 
 
 Agrippa reached Asia at the approach 
 of winter. Herod the Great, king of 
 Judea, met him soon after he landed, 
 and besought him to become his guest, 
 who had so long, and on so many occa- 
 sions, been his friend. Agrippa's progress 
 through the dominions of Herod was a 
 succession of festivals, in which the 
 Roman splendour and predilections of 
 the tyrant were contrasted with the pecu- 
 liar ceremonies of the nation. Agrippa 
 sacrificed a hecatomb at Jerusalem, and 
 entertained the citizens at public tables. 
 His visit was shortened by the approach 
 of winter, and the necessity of returning 
 to Ionia while the voyage was yet prac- 
 ticable. In the following spring Agrippa 
 sailed up the Bosphorus to Sinope in 
 Pontus, where Herod rejoined him. They 
 returned overland, through Cappadocia 
 
A G R 
 
 AGR 
 
 and Upper Phrygia, to Ephesus. During 
 his sojourn in Ionia, Agrippa, at the re- 
 quest of Herod, or persuaded by the elo- 
 quence of Nicolaus of Damascus, con- 
 firmed the Jews, settled in the province 
 of Asia, in the exercise of their civil and 
 religious immunities. In her journey 
 through the Troad, Julia was endangered 
 by a sudden overflow of the Scamander, 
 and the citizens of Ilium, a town that 
 claimed a kindred origin with Rome, 
 oifended Agrippa by neglecting to come 
 to her assistance. He imposed a heavy 
 fine upon them ; but Nicolaus, who was 
 present, had sufficient influence with 
 Herod to induce him to become their 
 advocate with Agrippa. He affected to 
 be moved with the plea set up by the 
 rhetorician of their consanguinity to 
 Rome, and remitted the penalty. 
 
 Agrippa returned from Asia in 13 b.c. 
 after, according to Josephus, an adminis- 
 tration of ten years. But, in this com- 
 putation, he includes his retirement in 
 Lesbos, B. c. 23. His tribunitian dignity 
 was renewed in the following year (12) 
 for a second period of five years ; and he 
 was sent into Pannonia upon some symp- 
 toms of disaffection on the frontier. The 
 revolt was put down ; but his march had 
 been in the winter season, and Agrippa, 
 throughout his active and restless life, 
 had been afflicted with the gout. Upon 
 his return he fell sick in Campania, at 
 the time of the Quinquatria or Pana- 
 thenaic festival [March 19 — 23], and 
 died before Augustus, who was exhibit- 
 ing a combat of gladiators in honour of 
 Caius and Lucius Caesar, could arrive. 
 He was in his fifty -first year at his 
 death. 
 
 Agrippa was thrice married : — 1 . To 
 Caecilia Attica, daughter of Titus Pom- 
 ponius Atticus, by whom he had Agrip- 
 pina Vipsania, married first to Tiberius 
 Nero CfEsar, and secondly to Asinius Gal- 
 lus Saloninus. 2. To Marcella, daughter 
 of Octavia, by C. Marcellus, consul in 
 50, whom her uncle Augustus caused 
 him to put away, that he might marry — 
 3. Julia, by whom he had Caius and 
 Lucius Caesar, and Posthumus Agrippa, 
 born after his father's decease, and two 
 daughters, Julia and Agrippina. 
 
 Agrippa appears on the medals Avith 
 the rostral crown ; and on the reverse a 
 laureated head of Augustus ; or, with the 
 mural and rostral crown, and a similar 
 reverse. (See Akerman's Roman Coins, 
 vol. i. p. 141.) 
 
 In the reign of Augustus the Cam- 
 pus Martins was surrounded by many 
 167 
 
 porticos and sumptuous buildings, the 
 structures, at his own cost, of M. Agrippa. 
 Foremost was the celebrated Pantheon, 
 built after the battle of Actium, and, as 
 its name implies, dedicated to all the 
 gods. Agrippa intended to have placed 
 Augustus in the circle of divinities, and 
 to have named the edifice after him ; but 
 as he declined such a distinction, Julius 
 Csesar was placed within the temple, and 
 Augustus and Agrippa in the portal. It 
 was decorated with cariatides, the work 
 of Diogenes the Athenian. Contiguous 
 to the Pantheon were the baths and gar- 
 dens, which Agrippa, at his death, be- 
 queathed to the people. The portico of 
 Neptune, adorned with the story of the 
 Argonauts — that of Octavia — the Septa 
 Agrippiana, a sort of enclosm-e or colon- 
 nade, like our bazaars — the Diribitorium, 
 in which largesses were distributed to 
 the soldiers, and the Portico of Pola, were 
 the principal of " many excellent struc- 
 tures that Agrippa gave to the people." 
 
 Agrippa is celebrated by Horace, lib. i. 
 od. vi. 5, mentioned in several passages, 
 and, perhaps, noticed for a peculiarity in 
 his dress, Sat. i. 2, v. 26. But he did not 
 enter, like Mesaffa and PoUio, into the 
 literary circles of the Augustan age. He 
 publislied, however, a Statistical Survey of 
 the empire, which had been projected by 
 J alius Caesar. It was the official chart of 
 the empire, and re-edited by Marcus 
 Aurelius and Alexander Severus. (See 
 ^thici Prsef. Cosmograph. Mannert In- 
 trod. sect. i. p. 3. Wesseling, Prasf. ad 
 Antonin. Itinerar.) 
 
 AGRIPPA, (Marcus Jidius, b.c 12— 
 A.D. 14,) son of the preceding by his wife 
 Julia, and surnamed Posthumus, having 
 been born subsequent to his father's death, 
 inhei'ited none of the great qualities of liis 
 father. He was adopted by Augustus at 
 the same time with Tiberius, a.d. 4, but 
 was subsequently disgraced — according to 
 some writers, on account of his scandalous 
 life, and the extreme vulgarity of his man- 
 ners—but if we may believe Tacitus, 
 owing to the artifices of Livia to promote 
 the elevation of her son Tiberius. One of 
 the first acts of that tyrant on assuming 
 the imperial power, was the murder of the 
 young Agrippa, even before the death of 
 Augustus was publicly announced. Ti- 
 berius had even the audacity to state 
 that it was done by order of the djring 
 emperor, — an attempt to blacken the 
 fame of a benefactor whose clemency 
 formed his sole glory, which met with 
 the credit due to it. 
 
 AGRIPPA; (Herod,) king of Judaea, 
 
A GR 
 
 A G R 
 
 soil of Aristobulus and Berenice, daughter 
 of Herod the Great, was brouglit np in 
 the court of Augustus with Drusus, son 
 of Tiberius. Attaching himself to the 
 party of Caligula, he was thrown into 
 prison, where he continued till the death 
 of Tiberius. Caligula, on becoming em- 
 peror, not only set him at liberty, but 
 presented him with a chain of gold of the 
 weight of the irons he had worn, with the 
 title of king, and the addition of two te- 
 trarchies. One year afterwards, Agrippa 
 set out to visit his kingdom, proceeding 
 by Alexandria, which he entered with so 
 much pomp as to excite the ridicule of 
 the inhabitants, who insulted him by a 
 mock procession, in which a mendicant 
 played the part of a Jewish king. 
 
 But Agrippa was soon established in 
 his throne, and received many marks of 
 the favour of Caligula. He was, how- 
 ever, thrown into much difficulty by the 
 attempt of the emperor to force the Jews 
 to worship his image ; and from this dif- 
 ficulty he was only relieved by the death 
 of Caligula. Agrippa was then employed 
 to negotiate between Claudius and the 
 senate ; and, according to Josephus, 
 prevailed upon the former to accept 
 the empire. The new emperor not 
 only confirmed him in his power, but 
 added to his kingdoms of Judaea and 
 Samaria the extent of dominion possessed 
 by Herod the Great. Agrippa took up 
 his residence in Judaea, and governed his 
 subjects with mildness, although he intro- 
 duced the manners and customs of the 
 Romans, especially the gladiatorial exhi- 
 bitions, to the great scandal of the Jews. 
 To please his Jewish subjects he per- 
 secuted the Christians ; and to this 
 prince are owing the martyrdom of St. 
 James, the brother of St. John, and 
 the imprisonment of St. Peter. At Ce- 
 sarea he held a brilliant court, and cele- 
 brated Roman games in honour of 
 Claudius ; made an oration to the depu- 
 ties of Tyre and Sidon, who had attended 
 to solicit his favour ; but when the para- 
 sites cried out that his voice was that of a 
 god and not of a man, he appeared sen- 
 sibly affected ; nearly at the same time 
 he was seized with violent pains, and 
 after suffering prolonged agonies, died in 
 the year 44, at the age of 54, after a 
 reign of seven years. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AGRIPPA, (Herod,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Rome after the Roman 
 conquest of Judaea, was brought up by 
 his uncle Herod, king of Chalcis, and 
 was by him appointed to the superintend- 
 once of the temple, and afterwards to 
 168 
 
 succeed him in his kingdom, to the ex- 
 clusion of Aristobidus, son of the de- 
 ceased. Having heard the noble defence 
 of Paul before Festus, he became almost 
 a convert to the christian faith, and gave 
 marked offence to the Jews. In an 
 attempt to suppress a revolt of the 
 people, he was fiercely attacked and 
 driven out of Jerusalem. He fled to 
 the Roman governor Cestius, whom he 
 assisted in subduing the refractory citi- 
 zens. Upon the arrival of Vespasian, he 
 joined him with a considerable reinforce- 
 ment, and during the siege of Jerusalem 
 rendered the greatest services to Titus. 
 After its downfall he accompanied his 
 sister Berenice, with whom he was sus- 
 pected of holding too familiar an inter- 
 course, to Rome, where he lived to the 
 advanced age of 70, dying in the year of 
 our Lord 90. With him the race and 
 title of the Herodian kings became ex- 
 tinct. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AGRIPPA, an astronomer, who flou- 
 rished towards the close of the first cen- 
 tury of the Christian era. He became 
 celebrated for one of his astronomical 
 observations upon the moon, which he 
 made the 4th year of the 217th Olympiad 
 (the year of our Saviour 92), when that 
 planet appeared in conjimction with the 
 Pleiades. (See the Almagestus of Pto- 
 lemy, lib. vii. c. 3, p. 176, of the edition 
 of Basle, 1538.) 
 
 AGRIPPINA I. Julia and Agrip- 
 pina, the daughters of M. Vipsanius 
 Agrippa and Julia, were man'ied the for- 
 mer to L. Paulus, son of Paulus ^milius 
 Lepidus, censor with Munatius Plancus, 
 B.C. 22 ; by whom she had M. jEmilius 
 Lepidus, put to death by Caligula, whose 
 sister Drusilla he manned; and Emilia 
 Lepida, betrothed to Claudius Csesar, but 
 married to Appius Junius Silanus. 
 
 Agrippina married Caesar Germanicus 
 (see Germanicus), by whom she had 
 nine children : two died in infancy, an- 
 other in boyhood, — a child of such grace 
 and beauty that Livia placed a statue of 
 him as Cupid in the temple of the Capi- 
 toline Venus ; and Augustus kept a simi- 
 lar one in his chamber, whi'^h he always 
 saluted on entering. Their other chil- 
 dren were Nero and Drusus, put to death 
 by Tiberius ; Cains, afterwards the em • 
 peror Caligula ; Agrippina, the mother 
 of Nero by Domitius Ahenobarbus, and 
 afterwards the wife of Claudius Caesar, 
 her uncle ; Drusilla (see Caligula) ; and 
 Livilla (or Julia) married to M. Vinicius, 
 and put to deatli by Claudius at the in- 
 stigation of Messalina. 
 
A G R 
 
 A G R 
 
 The hovisohold of Augustus was simple 
 and even parsimonious : his own dress 
 was, for the most part, the work of Livia, 
 his daughter, and his grandchildren ; 
 and if the two Julias disgraced the les- 
 sons and examples of their early years, 
 the virtues of the first Agrippina illus- 
 trated and enforced them. Suetonius 
 has preserved part of a letter from Au- 
 gustus to her, commending her talents 
 and disposition, and impressing upon her 
 the necessity of purity and conciseness in 
 writing and conversation. 
 
 P'or the campaigns of Germanicus be- 
 yond the Rhine, see Gekmanicus. He 
 was consul in a.d. 12; and in that, or in 
 the following year, returned to the army. 
 Agrippina was with him when the news 
 of the death of Augustus reached the 
 legions on the lower Rhine. When the 
 mutiny broke out at Ubiorum Ara, pro- 
 bably near Cologne, Germanicus dis- 
 missed his wife and infant son Caligula 
 to a place of safety. They were, how- 
 ever, detained by the soldiers, wbo were 
 struck with sbame and contrition at be- 
 holding the wife of their general, the 
 grand-daughter of Augustus, the mother 
 of so many children, of equal beauty and 
 virtue, driven fi-om the camp with her 
 infant son, to seek refuge from their vio- 
 lence among the enemies of Rome. In 
 the following year, a.d. 15, when a de- 
 tachment under A. Csecina had pene- 
 trated into the territory of the Cherusci, 
 to revenge the death and collect the re- 
 mains of Vanis and his legions, a nimour 
 was spread in the camp, on the Gallic 
 side of the river, that the Romans had 
 again been surrounded and cut off. In 
 the panic that ensued, the soldiers would 
 have broken down the bridge over the 
 Rhine, had not Agrippina, during the 
 interval of absence and uncertainty, 
 acted with a decision and spirit worthy 
 of the daughter of Agrippa. When Cse- 
 cina and his division returned, she awaited 
 them, as they defiled across the river, at 
 the head of the bridge, distinguishing with 
 praises and thanks the bravest of the le- 
 gionaries, and relieving, in person, the sick 
 and wounded. Such behaviour alarmed 
 the jealousy of Tiberius : Agrippina, he 
 said, had qvielled a sedition that neither 
 the influence of the proper generals nor 
 the authority of the emperor coidd allay. 
 Some disturbances in the east afforded a 
 decent pretext for removing Germanicus 
 from the command of the German to that 
 of the Syrian army. For the death of 
 Germanicus at Antioch, a.d. 19, and the 
 secret instructions to Piso and Plancina, 
 169 
 
 see Germanicus. In his last moments 
 he commended to the Roman people the 
 grand-daughter of Augustus and her six 
 children. 
 
 Agi'ippina, impatient of every thing 
 that delayed her hopes of revenge, though 
 worn with sickness and grief, embarked 
 for Rome with her children and the 
 ashes of Germanicus. Although her 
 voyage was in the winter season, she 
 proceeded at once up the Ionian Sea to 
 Corcyra, and having remained in that 
 island to recover her strength, crossed 
 over to Brundusivim. As soon as her 
 approach was known, the harbour, the 
 coast, the walls and house-tops of the 
 city, and even the neighbouring hills, 
 were covered with an immense mul- 
 titude of silent and anxious spectators. 
 Veterans who had served vmder Ger- 
 manicus, his personal friends, strangers 
 from the nearest towns, and some who 
 thought only of paying court to Ccesar, 
 flocked to the place of landing. Her 
 journey to Rome was a funeral proces- 
 sion. The remains of Germanicus were 
 carried on the shoulders of tribunes and 
 centurions ; and when they passed the 
 colonial towns, the people came out in 
 mourning habits, and the wealthier in- 
 habitants burnt fragrant gums and costly 
 gai-ments by the wayside. Drusus and 
 his brother Claiidius, with the children 
 of Germanicus who had been left behind, 
 the consuls, the senate, and the greater 
 part of the citizens, met the procession 
 at Terracina, and accompanied it to 
 Rome. For the events of the day on 
 which the ashes of Germanicus were de- 
 posited in the mausoleum of Augiistus, 
 we must refer to Germanicus. But 
 nothing in tbe circumstances that fol- 
 lowed the death of his adopted son 
 touched Tiberius so nearly as the popu- 
 lar feeling towards Agrippina. The as- 
 sembled multitude had called her the 
 sole remaining honour of her country, 
 the last representative of her ancient 
 race ; and offered up prayers and vows 
 for ber life and safety, and the welfare 
 of her children. The life of Agrippina 
 was, henceforward, a series of insults 
 and neglect. Outwardly, and for a time, 
 Tiberius affected to put the childi-en of 
 Germanicus on an equality with his own 
 son Drvisus. In a.d. 20, Nero, the eldest, 
 was introduced to the senate, and mar- 
 ried to Julia, the daughter of Drusus ; 
 but, in the public estimation, the cere- 
 mony was profaned by the beti-othment 
 of the son of Claudius to the daughter of 
 the low-born Sejanus. In a.d. 23, Drusus, 
 
AG R 
 
 AG R 
 
 the second son, received the manly gown, 
 and the same immunities and privileges 
 which had been granted to the elder bro- 
 ther were renewed in his favour. On the 
 death of his son Drusus, Tiberius com- 
 mended Nero and his brother to the senate, 
 as the props of Livia's declining age, and 
 the sole remaining hopes of the state. 
 
 But the favour with which all classes 
 at Rome regarded the sons of Germani- 
 cus, and their presumptive succession to 
 the empire, awakened the fears of Tibe- 
 rius and the jealousy of Sejanus. The 
 latter could not rid himself of the nume- 
 rous family of Agrippina with the same 
 ease with which he had removed Drusus ; 
 and in Agrippina he found no second 
 Livia. But the violence of her temper, 
 her pride of birth and consciousness of 
 virtue, and her recollections of the place 
 she had held in the esteem of Augustus, 
 were turned against her. She was vulner- 
 able in her friends and childi-en. Claudia 
 Pidcra, her cousin, was accused by Do- 
 mitius Afer of adultery, and of conspiring 
 by magical practices against the life of 
 Caesar, and condemned. The reclama- 
 tions of Agrippina drew from Tiberius 
 the sarcastic rejoinder, conveyed in a 
 Greek verse, that " Because she reigned 
 not, therefore she was wronged." Caius 
 Silius, and Titius Sabinus, and Sosia the 
 wife of Silius, were adjudged to death or 
 exde, for frequenting the house, or shar- 
 ing the counsels of Agrippina. Her 
 doors were beset by spies and informers ; 
 her words, even her looks and her silence, 
 noted in journals ; and the ancient hatred 
 of Livia to the family of Caesar stimu- 
 lated to fresh activity. At the imperial 
 table, Agrippina refused some fruit offered 
 her by the emperor. He affected to 
 consider it as an insinuation that there 
 was a design to poison her, and invited 
 her no more : whereas, says Suetonius, 
 it was a device of his own that she should 
 so refuse, and thereby give him a handle 
 against her ; he having, by one of his 
 creatures, previously warned her of eat- 
 ing any thing presented by the emperor. 
 The popularity of Nero and Drusus, in 
 whose features the Romans fancied they 
 saw the living image of Germanicus, 
 hastened their ruin ; and when, in the 
 consulship of Cethegus and Visellius 
 Varro, the pontifices and the other col- 
 leges of priests included their names in 
 the form of supplication for the life and 
 welfare of Caesar, Tiberius sternly de- 
 manded of them whether they had done 
 so at the entreaties or the threats of 
 Agrippina. 
 
 170 
 
 Their destrviction was resolved upon. 
 Nero, his wife and brother having been 
 persuaded by Sejanus to watch, report, 
 and pervert his words and his actions, 
 his complaints and his silence, was ba- 
 nished to Pontia, an island on the La- 
 tian coast, and di-iven probably to self- 
 destruction. Drusus, similarly betrayed 
 by his wife iEmilia Lepida, after being 
 carried about in chains and a close litter 
 by Tiberius during his journeys in Cam- 
 pania, was starved in an obscure chamber 
 of the imperial palace. The remains of 
 both were dispersed, and Agrippina de- 
 nied the consolation of collecting their 
 ashes. Herself, accused of adultery, of 
 wishing to move the commiseration of 
 the people by fleeing to the statues of 
 Augustus, of attempting the loyalty of the 
 soldiers by reviving the memory of Ger- 
 manicus, was banished to Pandataria, the 
 place of her mother's exile. Her high 
 spirit never forsook her. While strug- 
 gling with the soldiers sent to arrest her, 
 and heaping maledictions on Tiberius, 
 one of her eyes was struck out by a cen- 
 turion. She attempted to put an end to 
 her miserable existence by abstaining 
 from food; but it was forced upon her 
 by the orders of Tiberius, who dreaded 
 the hatred of the people. She persisted, 
 however, and left an unblemished repu- 
 tation, and an earnest feeling of compas- 
 sion, in an age when the utterance of 
 any worthy sentiment was a political 
 crime, and pm'ity or rectitude of life was 
 treason. 
 
 AGRIPPINA II. daughter of Ger- 
 manicus and Agrippina I. She married, 
 at the end of a. d. 28, Cn. Domitius 
 Ahenobarbus, of a noble and ancient 
 house, nearly allied to the Caesars. His 
 character seems to have been an equal 
 composition of cruelty and fraud; and 
 he was so well aware of his own vices, 
 and the disposition of Agrippina, that, 
 when congratiUated upon the birth of a 
 son (Nero), he is said to have replied, 
 " Nothing but what was hateful and per- 
 nicious to mankind could ever come from 
 Agrippina and himself." Domitius died 
 about four years after the birth of Nero 
 (i.e. A.D. 37) ; and Galba, afterwards em- 
 peror, was solicited by Agrippina, even 
 while his wife Lepida was living, with 
 so much importunity to marry her, that 
 she brought on herself rebuke, and even 
 chastisement, from Lepida's mother. In 
 common with her sisters Julia and Dru- 
 silla, she submitted to an incestuous in- 
 tercourse with her brother Caligvda, and 
 indidged in criminal intrigues with 
 
AGR 
 
 A GR 
 
 Lepidus her sister's husband, with Sopho- 
 nius Tigellinus, with the freedman Pallas, 
 and with whoever could promote her 
 interest or ambition. Upon suspicion of 
 being engaged in the conspiracy of Le- 
 pidus, she was sent by Caligula, with her 
 sister Julia, to the island Pontia (Ponza), 
 on the Latian coast ; and the punishment 
 of Agrippina was rendered more striking 
 and severe by her being compelled to 
 carry as far as Rome the urn that con- 
 tained the ashes of her paramour. They 
 must have returned in the early part of 
 Claudius's reign, since in 41 Julia was 
 again banished, and two years later put 
 to death, Avith her cousin Julia, the 
 daughter of Dnisus, at the instigation of 
 Messalina. Agrippina experienced the 
 hatred of Messalina, but had the art 
 or the good fortune to elude it ; and the 
 empress soon after (a.d. 48) fell a sacri- 
 fice to her own shameless and insane ex- 
 cesses. Agrippina aspired to rule 
 Claudius and the empire. She had, how- 
 ever, formidable rivals to contend with ; 
 and, among others, JElia Petina, whom 
 Claudius had already divorced, and Lollia 
 Paullina, the daughter of M. Lollius. But 
 the influence of Pallas, the favourite 
 freedman of Claudius, and the opportu- 
 nities which her relationship to the em- 
 peror afforded for access and familiarity, 
 gave Agrippina advantages she was not 
 backward in using. Nothing but the 
 ceremony was shortly wanting to com- 
 plete the union of Claudius and Agrip- 
 pina ; and although there were few 
 precedents for the marriage of an uncle 
 and a niece, Vitellius, who had ti-ansferred 
 his services from Messalina to her suc- 
 cessor, undertook to propose, and the 
 obsequious senate sanctioned, the inno- 
 vation. The government of Agrippina 
 was more favourable to public morals 
 and decorum than the loose misrule of 
 Messalina. The court assumed the ap- 
 pearance of virtue, and a decent veil 
 of order and propriety was thrown over 
 the darker vices of pride and hatred. 
 Seneca (see Ann^us Seneca) was re- 
 called from his banishment in Corsica, 
 appointed to the prsetorship, and en- 
 trusted with the education of the young 
 Domitius (see Nero). The espousals of 
 Domitius and Octavia, the daughter of 
 Claudius by Messalina, were sanctioned 
 by the senate : he was adopted into the 
 Patrician house of the Claudii, and placed 
 on an equality with Britannicus. (See 
 Britannicus.) 
 
 But Agrippina offended the prejudices 
 of the Romans as much by hetpride, as 
 171 
 
 Messalina by her excesses. For her 
 rapacity, the profusion of the late em- 
 press afforded, perhaps, some excuse ; but 
 her giving audience on a raised chair, 
 beside the emperor, and beneath the 
 standards of the praetorians ; her ridmg 
 up to the capitol in a covered chariot 
 a privilege hitherto confined to the mi- 
 nisters of religion ; her presiding at naval 
 games of extraordinary splendour upon 
 the lake Fucinus [Lago di Celano] in a 
 mantle of golden tissue ; her assump- 
 tion of the title of Augusta, with her 
 excessive favour and hatred, made Agrip- 
 pina more dreaded, and hardly less ab- 
 horred, than Messalina herself. Lollia 
 Paullina, her rival, was sentenced to 
 banishment by the senate, and com- 
 pelled to die by Agrippina. Vitellius 
 was rescued from an accusation of 
 treason, and his accuser, Junius Lupus, 
 interdicted from fire and water. Nor 
 was Agrippina secure of her power until 
 Lusius Geta and Rufus Crispinus were 
 removed from the command of the prra- 
 torians, and their office conferred upon 
 Burrus Afranius, a man of ability and 
 integrity, but not altogether insensible to 
 his own interests. To display her power 
 to the empire, as well as within the city, 
 she established a colony of veterans in 
 her birth-place, the chief town of the 
 Ubii, from that time (a.d. 51) Colonia 
 Agrippinensis, the modern Cologne. 
 
 In a moment of drunken carelessness, 
 Claudius remarked it had always been 
 his fate to have bad wives, and to kill 
 them. The hint was not thrown away ; 
 and Agrippina having first removed Do- 
 mitia Lepida, her rival in birth and 
 intrigue and in the aftections of the fu- 
 ture emperor (see Nero), turned her 
 thoughts to the readiest mode of getting 
 rid of Claudius. He had been for some 
 time in ill-health, and had gone to Sinu- 
 essa for the benefit of the air and the 
 waters. An anxious consultation was 
 held upon the different kinds of poison 
 (see Claudius), and he was dispatched 
 by an extract of mushrooms infused in 
 some favourite dish, on his return to 
 Rome. 
 
 At first the entire administration was 
 yielded to Agrippina. On the first day 
 of the new reign, the symbol given to the 
 cohort or guard was " Optima Mater," 
 " the best mother." She appeared in 
 puohc in the same litter with the emperor ; 
 two lictors were assigned her; and, but 
 for the adroit management of Seneca and 
 Burrus, she wovdd have seated herself 
 beside Nero upon the imperial throne, 
 
A G R 
 
 AGU 
 
 on solemn occasions of audience or state. 
 And had not the praetorian prefect, and 
 the tutor of the emperor, instilled milder 
 counsels, the beginning of Nero's reign 
 would have been as tragic as the later 
 periods of it. Already, in the early days 
 of her tutelage, Junius Silanus, proconsul 
 of Asia, whose principal crime was being 
 related to the house of the Caesars — and 
 Narcissus, the rival of Pallas — had fallen 
 victims to the fears or the hatred of 
 Agrippina. 
 
 But Nero's vices, and the imperious dis- 
 position of Agrippina, who could give him 
 an empire, but could not endure that any 
 should reign but herself, rapidly dissolved 
 the authority of Agrippina. Seneca and 
 BuiTUS encouraged the loose follies of 
 their pupil, to divert him from the darker 
 vices of his mother. Claudius Senecio 
 and Otho (see Otho) obtained an influ- 
 ence over him, through his mistress Acte 
 (see Nero), that was for some time un- 
 known to, and then vainly resisted by, 
 Agi-ippina. For the progi-ess of the 
 quarrel between the son and widow of 
 Domitius we must refer to Nero. In 
 her attempts to regain her power she 
 passed fi-om passionate opposition to the 
 extremes of compliance, and criminal 
 indidgence ; but Seneca and Burrus 
 warned Nero against the arts of a woman 
 always fonnidable and now false. In 
 the fate of Britannicus, whom, in a mo- 
 ment of excitement, she had called "a 
 genuine Caesar," Agrippina read her own 
 fall. Her residence was removed from 
 the palace of Caesar to the house of An- 
 tonia ; her guard withdrawn ; and, with 
 the exception of a few women, whom 
 affection or malice, habit or curiosity re- 
 tained, the crowded retinue of the ex- 
 empress dwindled to a few menials. 
 Nero's visits were few ; he came attended 
 by a numerous staff, and withdrew after 
 a brief and formal salutation. Her wealth, 
 which she amassed and husbanded with 
 more diligence than ever, her talents for 
 intrigue, her influence as the representa- 
 tive of the Caesars, and her long habits 
 of power, rendered her, however, a for- 
 midable rival; and Nero had for some time 
 desired her death, before the arts of Pop- 
 paea led him to plan and accomplish it. 
 
 Whether Seneca and Otho were ac- 
 quainted with his pui-pose, is not ascer- 
 tained ; but many consultations were 
 held as to the mode of removing her 
 without awakening her suspicions, or the 
 indignation of the people at the enormity 
 of the crime. Thrice poison was tried, 
 but she was secured by antidotes ; the 
 172 
 
 ceiling of her bed-chamber was to have 
 fallen upon her, but she had too many 
 spies for accidents to succeed. At length 
 Nero, feigning a wish for reconciliation, 
 and industriously spreading the report of 
 his repentance, induced her to celebrate 
 the Quinquati'ia or Festival of Minerva 
 (March 19) with him at Baiae. His de- 
 meanour was full of well-acted fondness 
 and regret ; and when she departed, a 
 handsomely decorated galley was ready 
 to convey her home. Although the night 
 was unusually serene, and the sea calm, 
 the vessel was expected to split at a proper 
 distance from the land. This also failed; 
 and Agrippina, although thrown over- 
 board, swam to the shore. Her attend- 
 ant Acen'onia was dispatched by a blow 
 intended for herself; but she was wounded 
 on the head by an oar, and arrived at her 
 country house convinced that her life had 
 been attempted, but that her only chance 
 was in dissimulation. Nero, however, 
 had gone too far to recede ; and Anice- 
 tus, who had contrived the last attempt, 
 was ordered to complete it. On pretence 
 that the messenger who brought word of 
 his mother's safety to Nero was an assas- 
 sin, Anicetus was sent with a guard to 
 put Agrippina to death. The murder was 
 committed by the leader of the party, by 
 Herculeius the commander of a trireme, 
 and Oloaritus a centurion in the marine 
 service. Agrippina was dispatched with 
 many wounds, and frequently exclaimed 
 " Ventrem feri," that had given birth to 
 her son. For the events that followed, 
 see Nero. 
 
 AGRCECIUS, a rhetorician, extoUed 
 by Ausonius in the fifteenth epigram of 
 his work entitled Commeraoratio Profes- 
 sovum Burdigalensiiun. Not any of this 
 orator's works have been sufficiently au- 
 thenticated to cite with certainty ; and 
 even his real name appears to have been 
 doubted by some writei's. 
 
 AGRCETIUS. See Agroscius. 
 
 AGUADO, (Francis,) a Spanish Jesuit, 
 born 1366, atTorrejon, near Madrid, and 
 entered the society of Jesuits at Alcala 
 in 1588. He was governor of several 
 houses of the order, presided over the 
 province of Toledo, and was sent as 
 deputy to the congregations at Rome. 
 The king, Philip IV., selected him for 
 his pi-eacher ; and the count Olivarez, 
 when prime minister, appointed him his 
 confessor. Aguado died at Madrid in 
 1654. His works, in six volumes folio, 
 were printed at Madrid in 1629, and 
 went through six subsequent editions. 
 He publish'jd, also, a Life of Father 
 
A GU 
 
 AGU 
 
 Goudin, the Jesuit, 8vo, 1643; and left 
 several unpviblished treatises. 
 
 AGUCCHIA, an old engraver, known 
 bylusengravingof the Cathedral of Milan. 
 
 AGUCCHIO, (John Baptist,) arch- 
 bishop of Amasia, born at Bologna, 1570; 
 WHS educated by Philip Sega, his uncle, 
 afterwards cardinal Sega, and by his 
 brother Jerome Agucchio, who was also 
 made cardinal by pope Clement VIII. in 
 1604. John Baptist applied himself with 
 success to the study of polite literatm'e. 
 He accompanied cardinal Sega to France, 
 where he served as legate from the pope ; 
 and after the death of that prelate was 
 appointed secretary to cardinal Aldobran- 
 dini, nephew to pope Clement, and at- 
 tended him on his mission to Henry IV. 
 of France. Of this embassy he has 
 left a very pleasing and well-written 
 account ; and so entirely did he conduct 
 himself to his patron's satisfaction, that 
 on his return the cardinal committed to 
 him the management of his affairs, — a 
 post which he filled up to the death of 
 Clement VIII. and that of his brother 
 the cardinal Agucchio, at which time his 
 declining health obliged him to retire 
 from the court. He then spent some 
 time in Rome in study and retirement ; 
 after which Aldobrandini again received 
 him into his former employment, in 
 which he continued till that cardinal's 
 death. Subsequently he became secre- 
 tary to Gregory XV., a situation which 
 he held during the life of the pontiff; 
 when his merits becoming more gene- 
 rally appreciated, he was sent in 1624 by 
 Urban VIII. as nuncio to the republic of 
 Venice. Here he displayed his eminent 
 qualities as a diplomatist, maintaining 
 with ability the rights of the see of 
 Rome, and making himself generally 
 esteemed for his varied knowledge and 
 acquirements, as well as the urbanity of 
 his manners. He died at Friidi in 1632. 
 Among his works are enumerated, A 
 Treatise upon Comets and Meteors ; The 
 Life of Cardinal Sega, and of his brother 
 Jerome Agucchio ; and a Letter on the 
 Origin of the City of Bologna, 1638, 4to ; 
 besides various other letters and moral 
 treatises not published. 
 
 AGUESSEAU, (Henry Francis d', 
 1668 — 1751,) a statesman of distin- 
 guished talents, born at Limoges, of a 
 noble family, which had produced many 
 able magistrates ; became at the age of 
 only 22 years advocate-general of the 
 parliament of Paris. The king, in ap- 
 pointing him to an office so important, 
 was guided entirely by his father's re- 
 173 
 
 commendation of him. " I know him to 
 be incapable of deceiving me," said his 
 majesty, " even in the case of his own 
 son;" and the young advocate justified 
 the choice which he had made. Denis 
 Talon, who had obtained a high reputa- 
 tion in the same office, declared " that 
 he should have been proud to finish as 
 this young man had begun." Aguesseau 
 soon became procurator-general, an ofHce 
 in which he had occasion to display new 
 talents in the public service. He esta- 
 blished an improved system in the hos- 
 pitals ; restored order and discipline in 
 tribunals ; and in the war of 1709, when 
 public distress was followed by famine, 
 he chsplayed equal energy and judgment, 
 added to some of the noblest qualities of 
 the heart. He presided over a com- 
 mittee of the principal magistrates ; dis- 
 covered and denounced the monopolizers 
 and forestallers of provisions ; pvmished 
 them, and restored public credit and con- 
 fidence. From this time the value of 
 his services was fidly appreciated, and 
 on all emergencies, in all points of finan- 
 cial as well as political difticidties, appeal 
 was made to his judgment in order to 
 decide upon the measures to be pursued. 
 In the ultimate resort he alone was en- 
 trusted to draw up memorials for the 
 king. Towards the close of the reign of 
 Louis XIV. he was first threatened with 
 disgrace, owing to his stern refusal to 
 register the famous bull Unigenitus. The 
 authors of the Biographic Universelle 
 here remark, tliat D 'Aguesseau, without 
 profoundly inquiring into the doctrines 
 condemned there, saw that this bull 
 (Unigenitus) was in truth dangerous to 
 the monarchy, and that he dared to 
 defend the monarchy even against the 
 monarch himself. He expressed this in 
 so happy a manner to Quirini, the pope's 
 nuncio, who came to visit him at Fresnes, 
 that his own words oughf to be given. 
 " It is here, then," said the nuncio, " that 
 weapons are forged against Rome ! " " By 
 no means," said D'Aguesseau : " these 
 are not weapons, they are shields."* It 
 was on this occasion, when going to the 
 king at Versailles, that Madame D'Agues- 
 seau addressed him in those noble words, 
 
 • The history of the subsequent reception of this 
 bull is briefly given in the continuation of Mosheira, 
 vol. vi. pp. 204 — 210. But those who wish for full 
 information on the subject of the Gallican church, 
 besides the common sources of information, De 
 Marca, Pithou, &c. will find many references, and 
 much curious information, in the Report of the 
 Select Committee of the House of Commons on the 
 Regulation of Roman Catholic Subjects in Foreign 
 States, printed in 1816; as well as in O'Sullivan 
 and Phelan's Digest of the Roman Catholic Evi- 
 dence, and Dr. Philpott's Letters to Butier. 
 
A GU 
 
 A GU 
 
 " Go, and before the king forget your 
 wife and children ; lose every thing 
 except your honour." Louis, however, 
 died, and during the regency D'Agues- 
 seau exercised all the influence which 
 his virtues so well merited. In 1717 he 
 succeeded Voisin as chancellor, but in- 
 dignant at his opposition to the establish- 
 ment of the royal bank and other projects 
 of Mr. Law, the regent at length deprived 
 him of the seals, which were given to 
 D'Argenson, and ordered him into exile. 
 His predictions, however, regarding the 
 hollowness of the paper system, aiad its 
 necessary results, could not be so easily 
 banished ; and while the enlightened 
 statesman and the benefactor of his coim- 
 try was enjoying learned leisure and re- 
 pose at his estate of Fresnes, in less than 
 two years the bubble burst. The govern- 
 ment became embarrassed ; the people 
 dissatisfied ; and the regent was reduced 
 to the humiliation of soliciting the man 
 whom he had discarded from his councils 
 to return and guide the helm of the half- 
 shipwrecked state. From his windows 
 at Fresnes this truly great man beheld 
 Mr. Law himself, deputed by the regent, 
 and accompanied by the Chevalier de 
 Conflans, first gentleman of the chamber 
 to the regent, approaching his house, as 
 if in fulfilment of his evil prognostics to 
 the letter, and thus affording him one of 
 those triumphs of which the intellectual 
 character has a right to be proud. He 
 Avas restored to the service of his country ; 
 and though blamed by some members of 
 the parliament and men of letters for ac- 
 cepting again of office, especially through 
 the hands of Mr. Law, he had too much 
 patriotism and magnanimity to notice 
 their strictures, and justly considered it 
 an honour to be recalled in the hour of 
 danger. " He would have been more 
 hlameable," it has been remarked, "had 
 he refused wliat less resembled a favour 
 than a reparation for injury offered by 
 the head of the state." He thought it 
 nobler to repair the mischief done in his 
 absence, than to resent an affront. Instead 
 of rushing upon national bankruptcy, as 
 it was intended, he threw himself into 
 the breach ; he refused to compromise 
 the honour of a whole people ; and he 
 met the notes issued by the bank, as far 
 as the national resources and considera- 
 tion for individuals would allow him. 
 But another storm was gathering, which 
 he was not prepared to oppose with his 
 former resolution ; nor did he evince that 
 consistency and decision of character 
 which had before raised him so high in 
 174 
 
 the opinion of all parties. Tlie regent, 
 who had coaxed the parliament into nul- 
 lifying the will of Louis XIV. now urged 
 D'Aguesseau to register the declaration 
 in favour of the bull Unigenitus. This 
 was intended to please Du Bois, now be- 
 come archbishop of Cambray, who, in 
 hopes of a cardinal's hat, had promised 
 the court of Rome to endeavour to obtain 
 this registration. M. D'Aguesseau had 
 refused to do this, as we have seen ; but 
 circumstances were now changed ; he 
 considered it his duty to negociate with 
 the parliament ; but the latter rejected 
 his propositions, and the regent had then 
 recom-se to the grand covmcil for the 
 registration of the famous bull. In this 
 solemn assembly the proposition made by 
 the chancellor was still resisted by some 
 members, and particularly by Perelle. 
 D'Aguesseau inquired where he had 
 found so many ingenious arguments 
 against it? "In the pleadings of the late 
 chancellor D'Aguesseau," was the unex- 
 pected repartee ; and other sarcasms were 
 launched against him on the same occa- 
 sion. The court now threatened to banish 
 the parliament of Blois, and the chan- 
 cellor wished to resign the seals : the 
 regent refused to accept them ; and at 
 length the parliament consented to re- 
 gister, with some modifications, which 
 were the work of two counsellors, MM. 
 Menguy and Pucelle, who possessed an 
 overwhelming influence over the whole 
 assembly. In 1722 he again lost the 
 seals, owing to his refusal to give up the 
 presidency of the council to cardinal Du 
 Bois ; and as it was the object of that mini- 
 ster to keep every man of virtue and cha- 
 racter at a distance from court, the banish- 
 ment of the chancellor was decided upon. 
 D'Aguesseau did not reappear in public 
 affairs till the year 1 727 : in the mean time 
 parliament had continued at variance with 
 the court ; and when cardinal De Fleury 
 wished to engage his support for the 
 latter, it was soon evident that he was 
 considered to have compromised the 
 cause which he had before so strenuously 
 defended. Still he once more was chan- 
 cellor in 1737; and wearied with the 
 intrigues and affairs of the court, he 
 confined himself to the discharge of 
 his judicial duties, was most instru- 
 mental in bringing the laws into a more 
 sound condition, and in rendering their 
 administration imiform throughout the 
 country. He did not so much attempt 
 a complete reform in the laws, as to de- 
 termine their spirit ; and he published, as 
 chancellor, many ordinances with this 
 
AG U 
 
 A GU 
 
 intention, especially those relating to 
 testaments, donations, &c. and others 
 relating to judicial proceedings, especially 
 in cases of forgery, &c. Having reached 
 the advanced age of 82, he felt himself, 
 for the first time, vmequal to the dischai'ge 
 of his high duties, and soon afterwards 
 tendered his resignation to the king. 
 The honours of the office of chancellor 
 were, however, continued to him, and a 
 royal pension of 100,000 francs, which 
 he did not long enjoy. The death of 
 this eminent lawyer and statesman took 
 place Feb. 9, 1751. Louis XV. caused a 
 magnificent monument to be erected over 
 his tomb, which remained until destroyed 
 by the revolutionary rabble. It has since 
 been repaired at the public expense ; and 
 in 1810 the statue of D'Aguesseau was 
 placed before the peristyle of the legis- 
 lative palace, parallel with that of the 
 famous L'Hopital. 
 
 This upi-ight magistrate and illustrious 
 statesman was also one of tlie most ac- 
 complished and extraordinary men of his 
 age — the age of Louis XIV. His know- 
 ledge of languages, ancient and modern, 
 is said to have been at once extensive 
 and accurate. Some of his biographers 
 have iustly drawn our attention to the 
 religious character of this statesman, as a 
 refutation of the idle calumny, that Chris- 
 tianity either shackles the understanding 
 or retards the progress of knowledge. 
 But on that topic it will be needless to 
 enlarge : on those who can give any credit 
 to such folly, his example, which is 
 only one amidst a thousand as bright or 
 brighter, would be lost ; and therefore 
 we shall simply content ourselves with 
 remarking his profound veneration for 
 revealed religion, and his study to im- 
 prove hunself by its precepts and its 
 wisdom. As a statesman, his character 
 has received the tribute of the highest 
 praise from his contemporaries. St. 
 Simon speaks of him thus : " Talent, in- 
 dustry, penetration, universal knowledge, 
 dignity, equity, piety, and innocence of 
 life, are the foundation of M. D'Agues- 
 seau's character." He certainly modifies 
 this encomium by accusing him of tardi- 
 ness and indecision in the business of 
 liis court. "When I remember," said 
 D'Aguesseau to the count Cereste Bran- 
 cas, who reproached him on this score, 
 " that a decision of the chancellor is a 
 law, I may be allowed to reflect long 
 before I pronounce it." It has also been 
 said of him (especially by Duclos, in his 
 Memoirs) that he wanted the firmness to 
 carry through those measures which he 
 175 
 
 thought right and necessary, and espe- 
 cially that he dared not introduce 
 certain measiu-es, of which he approved, 
 in order to diminish the expenses of 
 suits, for fear of injuring the attorneys 
 and others who lived by them. How- 
 ever, on these points it is difficidt now 
 to give a judgment, from want of exact 
 information ; and his contemporaries 
 were not without their prejudices, and 
 were perhaps anxious to find some faults 
 in one whom they could not help esti- 
 mating so highly. His pleadings and 
 his judgments support the high character 
 which they always bore ; the learning they 
 display, and their beautiful simplicity 
 and elegance, and above all their clear- 
 ness, render them admirable models of 
 forensic writing. His eloquence was 
 sometimes highly touching ; and an in- 
 stance is recorded where, in pronouncing 
 the evdogium of M. Nain, his colleague 
 and friend, " he was interrupted by his 
 own grief, and by the sobs of all who 
 heard him." Among his works (in the 
 13th vol.) is found an eulogiimi on his 
 father, not intended to be published, 
 fi'om which it appears that he was a man 
 of most amiable character, and an useful 
 public functionary. He (i. e. his father) 
 was highly instrumental in finishing the 
 canal of Languedoc, in founding cloth 
 manufactories, and above all, during the 
 season of the cruel persecution of the Pro- 
 testants, after the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes, he showed himself so tolerant 
 that he was recalled from the government 
 of his province. He was also the first to 
 suggest the formation of the order of St. 
 Louis. The works of D'Aguesseau, com- 
 prised in 13 vols. 4to, were published at 
 Paris, 1759-89. 
 
 AGUESSEAU, (Henri Cardin Jean 
 Baptiste, Marquis d',) a grandson of 
 the great chancellor, was born at the 
 castle of Fresnes, 1746. Less indebted 
 to his talents than to his name for the 
 favours bestowed by Napoleon, he did 
 not justify the expectations early formed 
 of him, although raised to a succession 
 of legal dignities till he was made pre- 
 sident of the court of appeal at Paris. 
 In 1803, he was sent as minister-pleni- 
 potentiai-y to Copenhagen ; was made a 
 senator in 1805, a count of the empire, 
 and commandant of the legion of honour. 
 In the senate, he was the mere instru- 
 ment of imperial intrigue and despotism ; 
 but of too weak a character to com- 
 promise himself, he was equally favoured 
 upon the Restoration ; made a peer of 
 France, but disappeared during the 
 
A GU 
 
 A G U 
 
 hiuidred days, nnr resumed his honours 
 and dignities till after the second resto- 
 ration. These however obtained for him 
 the additional honour of being elected 
 member of the French academy ; where 
 his influence, however, was beneficially 
 exerted, no less than in promoting many 
 useful and charitable institutions, in all 
 which his ready assistance to the extent 
 of his means, and his real kindness of 
 heart, gained him the esteem which not 
 the most brilliant talents could have 
 done. He passed the latter years of his 
 life at Fresnes, and died in January, 
 1826. 
 
 AGUILA, (C. J. E. H. d',) an officer, 
 of whose origin, life and adventures, 
 little is known beyond what he has him- 
 self recorded in a preface containing an 
 itinerary prefixed to one of his works. 
 He appears to have been an indefatigable 
 traveller; and his first voyage, in 1770, 
 was to the New World. From America 
 he went to England, and in 1772 pro- 
 ceeded in company with some parties 
 interested in a political mission to Stock- 
 holm, and was thus enabled to form 
 correct opinions by mixing with men of 
 different views respecting Sweden and 
 its connexions with other powers. He 
 made no fewer than seven voyages 
 through the whole extent of the Baltic, 
 one into the Northern seas, and another 
 across the Frozen sea. He then visited 
 the lakes of Bothnia, parts of Finland, 
 Abo, St. Petersburgh, and Upsal. Sailing 
 from Denmark through the straits of the 
 Sound, he tried to make out the situation 
 of the celebrated observatory of Urani- 
 boin-g, of which, however, he could per- 
 ceive no traces. In 1774, he took ship 
 at Venice for Constantinople, and from 
 the last city returned to France ; quitted 
 that country at the Revolution, and went 
 upon a commission from the emigrant 
 princes, according to his own account, to 
 the court of Sweden. His narrative of 
 events commences from 1798, and he 
 returned to France in 1802. Besides 
 the narrative of his voyages, he published 
 a variety of works, political, scientific, 
 astronomical, &c. some of which are 
 written in Latin, and for an enumeration 
 of which the reader is refen-ed to the 
 Biographic Universelle. 
 
 AGUILLON, (Francis d', 1567 — 
 1617,) a Jesuit of Brussels, who was the 
 first to introduce the study of mathe- 
 matics among his contemporaries in the 
 Low Countries. He became professor of 
 philosophy at Douay, and of theology at 
 Antwerp, where he was also rector. He 
 176 
 
 is the author of a treatise upon Optics in 
 6 books, (Antwerp, 1613 ;) and it is in this 
 work that mention is made for the first 
 time of the term — Projection stcrengra- 
 phique, notwithstanding that it \vas 
 known from the time of Hipparchus. 
 (Biog. Univ. Gen. Diet.) 
 
 AGUIRRE, (Juan Saens de, 1630— 
 1699,) a native of Logroiio, was first a 
 Benedictine monk, and rose through the 
 gradations of the hierarchy until he 
 reached the dignity of cardinal. His 
 Ludi Salmanticenses, his Opera Varia, 
 his S. Anselmi Theologia, and his Col- 
 lectio Concilioi-um omnium Hispanic, 
 attest his gi-eat erudition, his solid judg- 
 ment, and his piety. The same praise 
 cannot be passed on his Defensio Cathe- 
 drae S. Petri, which carries the notions of 
 the papal prerogative to a very high 
 pitch. For this reason it was condemned 
 in Spain, which has always been the 
 advocate of her own ecclesiastical inde- 
 pendence, except in a few unimportant 
 matters ; and by the church of France it 
 was equally reprobated. Great has always 
 been the mortification of the Italians that 
 they could not force their abominably 
 slavish doctrines on the clergy of those 
 two great kingdoms : papal infallibility 
 is scouted by both, especially by that of 
 Spain, which has generally declared against 
 all interference of the pope in the dis- 
 cipline and government of the national 
 church. But if cardinal Aguirre was a 
 mistaken, he was a good man, and he 
 had the esteem of those who differed 
 from him. Even Bossuet, the great 
 advocate of the Galilean church, calls 
 him "a light of the church," "a model 
 of the virtues," an "example of piety." 
 His great collection of coins (continued 
 by Catalani) is highly valuable for the 
 history of Spain. 
 
 AGUIRRE, (Lope de,) a native of 
 Oiiate in Guipiscoa, early in the sixteenth 
 century ; has obtained a terrible immor- 
 tality in the annals of ci-ime. Allured, 
 like so many others of his poor country- 
 men, to the shores of Peru, l.e there dis- 
 tinguished himself by his vicious quali- 
 ties. But his former atrocities sink into 
 the shade when compared with those 
 which he committed during the expedi- 
 tion of Pedro de Orsua into the interior 
 of South America, in quest of the ima- 
 ginary El Dorado. It was in the year 
 1.560 that the expedition descended the 
 Huallaga. Aguirre was one of the 
 leaders. His first stop was to involve 
 the party in treason, that none of them 
 could have any hope of pardon from the 
 
A GU 
 
 A H L 
 
 king of Spain ; and he succeeded so far 
 as to persuade Orsua to assume tlie regal 
 title. They were ahout to discover a new 
 and rich coimtry ; in it they would found a 
 new kingdom ; — and a fig for Don Philip 
 at home ! His next step was to murder 
 the puppet king, and usurp the command. 
 Many were the monsters whom Spain 
 sent to the New World, but never was 
 any so savage as this Lope de Aguirre. 
 He put to death all whom he suspected — 
 all whom he disliked — all who displeased 
 him in the minutest point ; and though 
 alike hated and feared by all, he retained 
 his ascendancy to the last. The crimes, 
 the whimsical proceedings of this tyrant, 
 would fill a volume ; and they do fill one, 
 which we owe to Southey — TheExpedition 
 of Orsua, and the Crimes of Aguirre. At 
 length, being deserted by the few men 
 whom his cruelty had spared, he was 
 assailed and killed by the Spanish autho- 
 rities of Venezuela. 
 
 AGYL^US, (Henry,) an advocate 
 and law-writer, born at Bois-le-duc 
 about 1533, was also distinguished as a 
 Greek scholar. In early life he bore 
 arms against the king of Spain ; was ap- 
 pointed deputy to the States-general, a 
 member of the supreme council, and 
 advocate-fiscal. He was still more dis- 
 tinguished for his learning and writings. 
 He died April 1595. He was eminent 
 likewise for his correct and enlarged 
 editions of the Roman and other laws. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AHLE, (John Rodolph,) born at Mul- 
 hausen in 1G25, went to Gottingen in 
 1643, where he pinrsued his studies 
 imder J. A. Fabricius. From there he 
 passed to the university of Erfvu-t two 
 years subsequently, where he established 
 the musical school of St. Andrew, of 
 which he was made director. In 1649, 
 he was chosen organist to the church of 
 St. Blaise at Mulhausen ; became a 
 councillor some years afterwards, and 
 finally obtained the office of burgo- 
 master. He died at the age of 48. He 
 composed and published a variety of 
 pieces, besides some treatises which we 
 cannot here enumerate. Among others 
 are — 1. Dialogues Spirituels ; Erfurt, 
 1648. 2. Compendium pro Tenellis ; 
 8vo, Erfurt 3. Trente Symphonies, 
 Padouannes, AUemandes, &c. ; to five 
 instruments; Erfurt, 1650. 4. Thimn- 
 gischerLustgarten ; Erfurt, 1657. Besides 
 others of a sacred character, a list of 
 which is to be found in the Biographic 
 Universelle. 
 
 AHLE, (John George,) son of the 
 VOL. I, 177 
 
 preceding, also a musical professor ; suc- 
 ceeded his father at Midhausen, became 
 a senator, and died there in 1707. He 
 was also celebrated as a poet, having 
 been honoured with the laurel crown as 
 early as 1680. A great part of his 
 works, however, were lost in the great 
 fire at Midhausen in 1689; though the 
 names of a number of them have sur- 
 vived, which are given at length in the 
 same biographical work which contains 
 those of his father. 
 
 AHLWARDT, (Christian Wilhelm, 
 1760 — 1830,) professor of ancient litera- 
 ture in the university of Greifswald, and 
 a celebrated linguist. He was a native 
 of Griefswald, and educated in early 
 youth under Hagemeister, the rector of 
 the grammar school (Gelehrtensclude), 
 at Anklam, from whom he probably im- 
 bibed his love of Homer. A character- 
 istic anecdote is related of him at this 
 season. One of the assistant-masters, in 
 lecturing on the New Testament, which 
 was nearly the extent of the Greek 
 taught in schools then, had called Homer 
 a liar. " That is not true, sir," said the 
 bold young scholar. " Have you read 
 Homer?" was the reply. "Yes, sir," 
 said Ahlwardt. " Well, then," replied 
 his master, " you may be right, for I 
 have, not." Ahlwardt's habits at the 
 university were peculiar ; he would lock 
 liimself up for some weeks together, (only 
 opening his door for food, &c.) and mas- 
 ter some author, or some new language ; 
 and then, by way of relaxation, plunge 
 into all the excesses of a wild student, till 
 some new object engaged his attention. 
 Having entered into a private family as 
 teacher in 1782, he quitted it in 1783, and 
 became a private teacher of ancient and 
 modern languages at Greifswald. His 
 pay was wretched, and his work was in- 
 cessant; but he found time to publish 
 some romances, and some remarks on the 
 Idylls of Theocritus. In 1792 he left 
 Rostoch, and in order to maintain his 
 wife (for he had now married) and him- 
 self, he took a situation in a school at 
 Demmin, and there he laboured besides 
 with public lectures and private pupils, 
 the latter of which he was obliged to take 
 early and late, just in such hours as his 
 duties left free. Here he learned Arabic, 
 and translated Callimachus, of whose 
 epigrams he said, that to compare them 
 with Italian madrigals v/ould be doing 
 them too much honour, and that all the 
 Greek epigrams together were not worth 
 a few odes of Sappho or Alcaeus ! He 
 now translated part of Ariosto, and in 
 N 
 
A H L 
 
 AHM 
 
 1795, in Wieland's German Mercury, 
 he gave specimens of a translation of 
 Camoens's Lusiad, in otfuve rime. In 
 1795, Michaelis made him rector of the 
 grammar school of Anklam. He was here 
 also ill-paid, and left it after two years. 
 He was much dissatisfied here with one 
 of the duties of this situation — viz. preach- 
 ing in a small chiu-ch on Sunday after- 
 noons; and as the other clergy, to whom 
 he was subordinate, sometimes announced 
 to him on Saturday e\^ening that he was 
 to preach the next day, he used to read 
 a printed discourse. On one occasion he 
 had the ill-luck to stumble upon a thanks- 
 giving sermon after a fire, which he was 
 obliged to go through with. In 1797 he 
 became rector of the gymnasium at 01- 
 denbtu'g, where he remained fourteen 
 years ; and, besides other employments, 
 made himself master of Gaelic, and 
 translated much of Ossian (Leipzig, 
 1811), for which he is best known. 
 Balbi and Himiboldt have praised his 
 knowledge of Gaelic. In 1811 he was 
 officially called to Greifswald, where he 
 remained to the day of his death, quar- 
 relling with most of those around him, 
 whom he called half-educated, and com- 
 paring them to the inhabitants of Krah- 
 winkel in Kotzebue's Comedy. Indeed 
 he seems to have been rather of a snarl- 
 ing disposition, a portion of which he 
 may partly have owed to the French 
 Encyclopedists and Voltaire, whose works 
 misled him in early life, and partly to his 
 struggles with poverty. To his scholars 
 he apparently made himself pleasant, but 
 there was much that appears unamiable 
 in his character ; and if the extracts of 
 his own letters, given by his biographer, 
 may be trusted, he was one who, though 
 he satirized others, was not without his 
 own absurdities. His life gives so curious 
 a picture of the labours and studies of a 
 German scholar of the last age, that 
 more detail has been entered into than 
 would otherwise be justifiable, although 
 his works are highly esteemed in Ger- 
 many. The chief of them are trans- 
 lations, remarks on Latin verbs, on Ho- 
 meric verse, and other philological essays ; 
 but his fame rests on his Ossian. He 
 published, in the Greifswald Academical 
 Archives, an Essay on the Nibelungen 
 Lied. He left a Portuguese Lexicon in 
 MS. and published a grammar and chres- 
 tomathyin the same langviages. (Schro- 
 der, in Hasse's Zeitgenossen, Third Se- 
 ries ; 3d Band. No. xviii.) 
 
 AHLWARDT, (Peter,) a professor 
 of logic and metaphysics at Greifswald, 
 178 
 
 was born in that town, Feb. 19, 1710, and 
 died there in March, 1791. His father 
 was a poor shoemaker ; and it was only 
 by the practice of economy derived from 
 this source, that his son was enabled to 
 pursue his studies in the outset of his 
 distinguished career. He became the 
 founder of an order which he entitled 
 the Abelites, of which the laudable object 
 was the observance of perfect candour 
 and sincerity. His favourite maxim 
 was, — " Give all the attention in your 
 power to the subject, however trivial, 
 with which you are occupied for the 
 moment." He was also of opinion that 
 to the want of this attention was to be 
 attributed our lukewarmness in the cause 
 of virtue, and the greater number of the 
 vices of mankind. He imputed to his strict 
 observance of his own rule, his unshaken 
 attachment to the duties of his office and 
 of religion. His principal works are — 
 1. Brontotheologie ; pious meditations 
 on the phenomena of thunder and light- 
 ning; Greifswald, 1745. Svo ; translated 
 into Dutch, 1747. 2. Reflections on the 
 Augsbm'gh Confession; 3 vols. 1742. 
 3. Some Sermons and Philosophical 
 Dissertations. 
 
 AHMED BEN FARES, surnamed El 
 Razy, a lexicographer and lawyer, con- 
 temporary with the celebrated Djewhary. 
 He was the author of an Arabic Dic- 
 tionary, of which there is a MS. copy in 
 the Leyden library, and another in the 
 Bodleian. He also produced some works 
 on jurisprudence ; and died in Hamdan 
 about the year 999 of the Christian era. 
 
 AHMED BEN ALHASSAN, a poet 
 and a robber of the twelfth century, was 
 a native of Silves, in Algarve. Origin- 
 ally a merchant, his ambition led him to 
 despise his calling ; he thirsted for power, 
 which, as he was not likely to attain it 
 by ordinary means, he hoped to procure 
 by a reputation for sanctity. Giving his 
 wealth to the poor, he retired to a 
 moimtain solitude, to occupy himself 
 with devout contemplation, and with 
 observances much akin to those which 
 during the same period a Christian en- 
 thusiast would have adopted. Ahmed, 
 as a true Mussidman would say, had no 
 vocation for the state ; his converts were 
 of a dissipated character ; all soon fomied 
 a noble company of robbers ; and their 
 depredations were lamented by the whole 
 country. Yet all this time he did not 
 lay aside his spiritual character : he was 
 still the prophet destined for the i-egene- 
 ration of men ; and not a few of his de- 
 luded followers began to regard him as 
 
A H M 
 
 A H M 
 
 a true imam. The facility with which 
 sevei-al villages owned his temporal no 
 less than his spiritual sway, and above 
 all his conquest of Mertola in the Alem- 
 tejo, added strength to the delusion. 
 He was now joined by a body of Almo- 
 ravides, with whom he reduced Evora, 
 Silves, and even Seville. At length for- 
 tune deserted him, and to escape the 
 vengeance of his enemies, he swallowed 
 poison. 
 
 The ally and colleague of this bandit 
 chief was Mohammed ben Omar, a na- 
 tive of the same city. Mohammed 
 studied the law at Seville ; but his am- 
 bition being too great for so humble a 
 sphere, he too fled from the society of 
 men to acquire sanctity in retreat. But, 
 as in the case of his friend Ahmed, liis 
 sanctity was only the means to an cii J ; 
 on the solitary sea coast of the Algarves 
 liis hut soon arose to attract the atten- 
 tion of the pious. Like Ahmed, he had 
 soon his disciples ; but perceiving that 
 the latter was advancing to empire, he 
 joined him, and contributed with all his 
 might to the success of the new prophet. 
 To raise Ahmed to the throne of Anda- 
 lusia, was his great object; and to attain 
 it he displayed a valour which even liis 
 friend and chief could not equal. In 
 the sequel, however, he seems to have 
 abandoned his chief; or perhaps he 
 wished to reign as Ahmed's vassal : we 
 know that for twelve days he did reign 
 at Cordova ; that he fled, was van- 
 quished, committed to prison, deprived 
 of his eyes, released by the Almohades, 
 and sent to Africa, whei'e he ended his 
 days, A. H. 574. 
 
 Who would have thought that spirits 
 so turbulent as tliese would have found 
 delight in the most pacific of arts ? Yet 
 both are said by Mohammedan critics 
 to have excelled in it. (Casiri. Conde. 
 Dunham. 
 
 AHMED BEN MOHAMMED, (Abu 
 Amru,) a poet and historian of Jaen, 
 who died through excessive drinking in 
 970. He was the first of the Spanish 
 Arabs who composed epic poems in the 
 oriental style. The fragments preserved 
 of him prove that he had vigour and 
 genius. A more useful work, of which 
 both Casiri and Conde have availed 
 themselves, is the Annals of Spain under 
 the Dynasty of the Omeyas. 
 
 AHMED BEN THOULOUN, (Aboul 
 Abbas,) chief of an Egyptian dynasty, 
 was born at Samirra in a.h. 220 (a.d. 835). 
 He was first named governor of Egypt, 
 where, profiting by the weakness of the 
 179 
 
 khalifs, he soon rose to sovereign power. 
 He extended his conquests ; became 
 master of Barca, and even Damascus, 
 nor stopped till he can'ied his arms to 
 the gates of Tarsus, when exhaustion 
 and famine at length placed bounds to 
 his ambition. While subsequently en- 
 gaged in the conquest of Syria, one of 
 his ministers, in 882, organized an insur- 
 rection, which he was unable to quell ; 
 and not long afterwards, a.m. 270, he died 
 at Antioch, from the effects of di-inking 
 too much milk. He is represented by 
 historians as generous and brave, dis- 
 tinguished for promptness and dispatch, 
 just towards his subjects, and the pro- 
 tector of men of letters. He kept open 
 palace both for grandees and for the 
 people, besides distributing monthly 1000 
 dynars to the poor. The founder of a 
 dynasty known by the name of theThou- 
 lounides, wliich continued till a.d. 905, 
 when it was destroyed by the khalif Mok- 
 tafy, who conquered and killed Haroun, 
 great-gi-andson of Ahmed. (Biog. Univ.) 
 AHMED SHAH L'ABDALY, founder 
 of Candahar, rose from the character of a 
 mere partisan into a distinguished com- 
 mand. Of the illustrious family of the 
 Seidou, of the tribe of the Affghans, he was 
 in his youth imprisoned with his brother in 
 a fortress by Hussein Khan, governor of 
 Candahar. He owed his freedom to 
 Nadir Sliah during his invasion of the 
 province, and followed the fortmies of 
 that conqueror. He distinguished him- 
 self in his service ; and upon the assassi- 
 nation of his benefactor, after making 
 every effort to bring the delinquents to 
 justice, he made an able retreat, and 
 repulsed all the attacks of the Persian 
 army. After intercepting a convoy with 
 immense treasure, he brought off the 
 Affghans safe to their mountains ; and 
 both at Candahar and Kaboul was i-aised 
 to the sovereign authority. He assumed 
 the title of Ahmed Shah, carried his 
 armies to the north of the Indus, andj 
 becoming master of the territories of the 
 Grand Mogul, celebrated at Delhi the 
 alliance of his eldest son, Timur Shah, 
 with the daughter of Alem Guyr II. It 
 did not prevent the Affgiians from pur- 
 suing their conquests ; and in 1758 
 Ahmed was called by the nabobs into 
 Hindustan, to oppose the power of the 
 Mahratta chiefs. Being joined by the 
 Rajahs, he pushed on ; but his fortunes 
 had reached their zenith ; he could not 
 resist the combination of Mahratta chiefs ; 
 they took Delhi, and the imperial family 
 and all their treasures fell into the hands 
 N 2 
 
AHM 
 
 AHU 
 
 of the victors. But in the campaign of 
 1761 he again attacked and routed tliem 
 with immense slaughter ; subdued tlie 
 Sikhs, and opened to the Affghans the 
 route to Cashmir. That fine country 
 was ceded to them by the treachery of 
 the governor ; and, after a chequered 
 but brilliant career, Ahmed Shah died, 
 not far from the city of Candahar, begun 
 by Nadir and finished by himself, trans- 
 mitting the sovereignty to his eldest son 
 Timnr. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AHMED DJESAIR. See Aveis II. 
 
 AHMED KHAN, the ninth emperor 
 of Mogul ; succeeded his brother, Abaka 
 Khan, 681 of the Hejira, and was the 
 first of the dynasty who embraced Islam- 
 ism ; by this step he became involved 
 in continual broils with his family. He 
 deprived the Jewish doctors and astro- 
 logers of their pensions, and declared 
 himself a zealous friend of the Mus- 
 sulmans. He I'aised magnificent mosques 
 upon the ruins of ancient temples. In- 
 dignant at these innovations, the emirs 
 united with his brother to overthrow 
 his authority ; but being discovered, 
 the latter was seized and put to death, 
 and the insurgent princes were thrown 
 into dungeons. Still his court continued 
 a prey to factions, and his nephew, 
 Arghoun Khan, had recourse to amis, 
 was conquered, and made prisoner. Be- 
 ing freed, however, by some rebellious 
 emirs, he reappeared at the head of an 
 army, pxu'sued, and made himself master 
 of the emperor's person, whom he con- 
 signed to the vengeance of Khanghour- 
 Pai's children. He was subjected to the 
 fate Avhich he had inflicted upon his 
 brother, after a reign of two years and 
 nine months, in 1284, — an example of 
 the danger of attempting imnecessary 
 innovations. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AHMED RESMY HADJY, a coun- 
 cillor and chancellor of the Sublime 
 Porte ; was employed by Mustapha III. 
 as ambassador to the court of the empress 
 Maria Theresa, in 1758. Having suc- 
 ceeded perfectly in the pacific mission 
 upon which he was sent, he was invested 
 with still greater powers, and repaired to 
 the Prussian court to congratulate Fre- 
 derick the Great upon the brilliant vic- 
 tories which he had gained over the 
 Russians, the Austrians, and the French. 
 By the new treaty concluded with Prussia, 
 advantageous to both countries, he ren- 
 dered distinguished services to the Porte, 
 and Ahmed did not return to Constan- 
 tinople till the year 1763. The account 
 ■given by this able diplomatist of his em- 
 180 
 
 bassies, contains some brief but piquant 
 observations, with remarks iipon the 
 countries he visited, and the remarkable 
 characters with Avhom he came in con- 
 tact. They are the more curious from 
 the peculiar prejudices and points of 
 view which the)' exhibit. His respect 
 for the talents of the great Frederick, as 
 a soldier and a politician, led him to 
 devote a whole chapter to the subject. 
 There are two of these productions, and 
 both have been inserted in the annals of 
 the Ottoman empire by Ahmed-Ouassyf- 
 EfFendi, between the periods of 1754 and 
 1774, printed in Turkish at Scutari, 2 vols, 
 folio. They have been translated into 
 German, and published by M. Nicolai, 
 with notes by him, by the translator, and 
 by Major Menu de Minotoli, a Prussian 
 oflicer. Berlin, 1809. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AHUITZOL, the eighth monarch of 
 the Astequi, or ancient Mexicans, suc- 
 ceeded in 1477 to Axejacatli, whom he 
 had maintained on the throne. He en- 
 larged the bounds of the empire by 
 adchng a new province, — an obligation 
 contracted by all emperors on their ac- 
 cession, and as the historical reader will 
 recollect, by other potentates than those 
 of Mexico. When this object was at- 
 tained, he suddenly renounced conquest, 
 and applied his revenues to the encou- 
 ragement of the useful arts, and the 
 embellishments of his capital. He was, 
 however, too fond of splendour, con- 
 sidering his limited means ; and on 
 one occasion his improvements were 
 nearly fatal to him. He brought to Te- 
 nochtitlan, (the modern city of Mexico,) 
 the waters of the river Huitzilopochoco, 
 by means of an aqueduct, and the dis- 
 charge of the superfluous waters into the 
 lake Tezcuco considei-ably increased the 
 bulk of the latter. A courtier ventured 
 to acquaint him with the danger which 
 menaced the capital, and was put to 
 death for the boldness, — a melancholy 
 instance of despotism in a state yet in its 
 infancy, and half savage. The element 
 flowed into the streets; even the im- 
 perial palace was filled by it; and the 
 monarch, while striving to flee, nearly 
 lost his life. To repair the mischief, he 
 caused a ditch to be enlarged, which 
 Montezuma I. had dug. His subsequent 
 conduct was more rational. He endea- 
 voured to abolish the horrible custom of 
 iminolating prisoners to the native gods ; 
 and if he did not wholly extii-pate, he 
 greatly diminished the evil. He died 
 universally regretted, and was succeeded 
 by Montezuma II., destined to a painful 
 
AH U 
 
 A 1 U 
 
 immortality from liis tragical end by the 
 Spanish conqueroi-s. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AIBEK, (Azecl Eddyn,) first sultan of 
 Egypt, of the dynasty of the Baharyte 
 Mamaliikes, was by birth a Tm"k, and 
 usurped part of the power of the descend- 
 ants of Saladin. The power of the fa- 
 mous Mamalukes took its origin in the 
 body-guard of these princes, who, having 
 experienced the ti'eachery of their own 
 families and their troops, purchased 
 young slaves at Mogol, and had them 
 brought up apart and strictly disciplined ; 
 when, their education being completed, 
 they became freedmen, and the highest 
 offices and dignities were placed within 
 their view. Being brought up in an island 
 of the Nile, opposite Cairo, they were 
 called Baharytes or Maritimes, as Arabs 
 call great rivers Bahar or Sea. They 
 rose rapidly into repute ; and among the 
 bravest the com'age and talents of Aibek 
 shone conspicuous ; and in the Egyptian 
 campaigns against St. Louis in 1 250, he 
 sustained, at the head of his companions, 
 the shock of the French h""orse. St. Louis 
 was taken piisoner, and in a subsequent 
 meeting of the Baharytes, the sultan 
 being assassinated, Aibek was raised to 
 the chief command of the troops. They 
 were preparing to put the king of France 
 and the other prisoners to death, when 
 Aibek, aware of the value of their ran- 
 som, drew his sword, and declared that 
 he would never permit so base a violation 
 of military faith. They were restored to 
 liberty. Aibek espoused the queen Shadir 
 Eddour, and for some period exercised 
 the supreme authority, till tlie jealousy of 
 the Mamalukes induced him to surrender 
 it while he retained the military power. 
 Melek-Al-Acln-af, the pupil of Aibek, 
 was then raised to the throne. Egypt and 
 Syria were then separate empires, and 
 had each their sultan. The Syrian sultan 
 advanced against Aibek with a powerftd 
 army, and gained some advantage, but 
 was eventually worsted, and compelled to 
 submit to the conqueror's terms. Elated 
 with succesS; he deprived the young 
 pi'ince of his crown ; when his consort, 
 suspecting that it was his intention to 
 espouse the young daughter of the king 
 of Moussoul, caused the new sultan to be 
 assassinated just as he considered him- 
 self firmly seated in his power. He was 
 cut off April 1257, (a.h. 665.) From 
 his character and exploits, Aibek was 
 named Melek-el-Moezz, or " Mighty 
 King;" he was attached to literature and 
 science ; and erected a superb college in 
 old Cairo, upon the banks of the Nile. The 
 181 
 
 first sultan of the race of the Baharytes, 
 or Egyptian Mamalukes, so great was 
 the veneration in which his talents and 
 services were held, that his death was 
 speedily revenged by his army ; and his 
 son Aly, by the name of Melek-al-Man- 
 sour, the Victorious, was raised to the 
 supreme power upon his death, but was 
 soon deposed again by Kouthouz. (See the 
 name, and see also Baekok. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AICARDO, (John,) an Italian archi- 
 tect, born in Piedmont, repaired to Genoa 
 the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 and was employed in the construction of 
 store-houses near the gate of St. Thomas. 
 He also built other public edifices — the 
 choir of the church of St. Dominick, and 
 tlie magnificent aqueduct which supplies 
 the whole town of Genoa. This splendid 
 undertaking was only completed in the 
 year of Aicardo's death, in 1625, when it 
 was finished by his son Giacomo, an 
 artist of very great merit, who executed 
 a variety of beautiful works, particularly 
 the elegant foimtain near the Ponte 
 Reale. Giacomo died in 1650. 
 
 AICARTS DE FOSSAL, a trouba- 
 dour of the tliirteenth century, known as 
 the author of a curious production upon 
 the contest for the crown of Naples, 
 which Innocent IV. had bestowed upon 
 prince Edmund, son of Henry III. of 
 England, to the prejudice of Conrad IV. 
 king of the Romans. The poet assumes 
 that the crown had been given to Charles, 
 duke of Anjou, although in fact it was 
 not till the death of Conrad that Clement 
 concluded a treaty with Charles. He 
 draws a startling picture of the liorrors of 
 war, and pronounces in favour of no one 
 of the candidates. "The eagle," he says, 
 " boasts a title so near the flower, that 
 it was impossible for the laws to decide, 
 and the decretals are opposed to neither. 
 For this cause they will descend into the 
 plains, and he who shall make the stoutest 
 defence will doubtless carry the day." 
 
 AICHER, (Otho,) a Benedictine, and 
 professor of grammar, poetry, rhetoric, 
 and history, at Saltzbm'g, where he died 
 in 1705. He wrote commentaries on 
 Tacitus, &c. His principal works were 
 printed at Saltzburgh. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AID AN, (d. 651,) bishop of Lindis- 
 farne, or Holy Island. This prelate was 
 originally a monk of the island of Hij or 
 lona, one of the Hebrides, from which 
 he was sent to preach Christianity to the 
 subjects of Oswald, king of Northumber- 
 land, in the year 631 or 635. (See Ste- 
 venson's Bede, p. 193.) It appears that 
 Oswald had requested a priest for this 
 
A I D 
 
 AI G 
 
 purpose from the Scots, and tliat the 
 priest who was sent was a man of such 
 austere manners, that he made no im- 
 pression on the people. On his return 
 to lona without success, the monks de- 
 liberated what steps ought to be taken, 
 and Aidan addressed the unsuccessful 
 missionary thus : " It appears to me, 
 brother ! that you have made no progress 
 because you were more severe than was 
 proper with ignorant hearers, and did 
 not, according to the apostolic custom, 
 first feed them with the milk of mild 
 doctrine, until they were able to receive 
 the more perfect law, and keep the purer 
 precepts of God." The impression made 
 on the assembly by this specimen of 
 moderation at once induced them to offer 
 the appointment to Aidan, who accepted 
 it, and became bishop of Lindisfarne. 
 This story, however, Bede only mentions 
 as a report current in his day, not as an 
 authentic history for which he could 
 vouch. But to Northumberland Aidan 
 was sent, and was eminently successful 
 in promoting religion. On the death of 
 Oswald, in 641, (Bede, iii. 12,) Aidan 
 continued his labours inider his suc- 
 cessors, Oswi, king of Deira, and Oswin, 
 king of Bernicia, (Bede, iii. 14,) the two 
 provinces into which his kingdom was 
 divided. Oswin was very dear to him 
 for his numerous virtues, and especially 
 for the humility he had shown in receiv- 
 ing a rebuke from the mouth of Aidan ; 
 and on his death Aidan took it so much 
 to heart, that he survived him only twelve 
 days, and died Aug.31, 651. (Bede,iii.l4.) 
 The character given of Aidan by Bede 
 is very striking : his activity in visiting 
 his diocese, chiefly on foot, his humility, 
 his constancy in prayer, meditation, and 
 scriptural study even on his journeys, 
 and in the house of the king, bespeak 
 him a truly apostolic bishop. The anec- 
 dote related of his humility in giving a 
 splendid horse richly caparisoned (a pre- 
 sent to him from the king) to a beggar, 
 who solicited alms, savours more of im- 
 pulse than judgment. Some miracles 
 are attributed to him by Bede, which 
 hardly deserve serious consideration ; but 
 the prediction of Oswin 's death, as one 
 too humble and holy to live long on 
 earth, is curious enough. Bede, how- 
 ever, gives us to understand that how- 
 ever holy Aidan was, he was wrong in 
 his views respecting the time of keeping 
 Easter — he was a stiirdy quartadeciman ! 
 It must be understood that this term 
 does not imply that he would keep 
 Easter on any dav except Sunday, but 
 iS2 
 
 only that he included the 14th day of 
 the moon and excluded the 21st as days 
 on which it might be kept. (See Usher. 
 Britt. Eccles. Antiquit. p. 479 ; and see 
 also his Discourse of the Religion of the 
 Irish, ch. ix. and x. and his Veteitim 
 Epistolarum Hibernicarum Sylloge, Ep. 
 Bingham, Ant. xx. 5. 2. &c.) This 
 
 XI 
 
 dispute may now appear of trifling im- 
 portance, although serious inconvenience 
 was felt from it in those days — some 
 fasting and some feasting at the same 
 moment, and each party blaming the 
 other. But whatever may have been its 
 importance then, it is happy for us that 
 it occurred, and that it has been re- 
 corded as one of the many proofs of 
 the independence of the early British 
 cliurches on tlie church of Rome. There 
 is also a pleasing trait recorded of Oswald 
 by Bede, viz. that while Aidan, who 
 knew English imperfectly, was preaching 
 to the people, Oswald, who had been 
 long in Scotland, would translate for his 
 audience (iii. 3). The immediate suc- 
 cessor of Aidan in Lindisfarne, whither 
 he transferred the see in 635 (from York), 
 was Finan, who was succeeded by Col- 
 man, who is called by Chalmers the suc- 
 cessor of Aidan. The authorities quoted 
 above will enable the reader who is de- 
 sirous of more details on this pi-elate, to 
 investigate his history more minutely, 
 but he will do well also to consult the 
 Annals of Tigernach, and of Ulster, 
 published by Dr. O 'Conor, as refei-red to 
 in Mr. Stevenson's edition of Bede ; and 
 the Book of Armagh, pviblished in Sir 
 W. Betham's Irish Antiquarian Re- 
 searches. The Roman Catholic account 
 of Aidan is in Bollandus, Mens. Aug. 
 vol. vi. p. 688. (Bede, Usher, &c.) 
 
 AIGNAN, (Stephen, 1775—1824,) a 
 very laborious French writer, horn at 
 Beaugency, 1773, and educated at Or- 
 leans. At the age of 19 he was named 
 procureur-general-syndic for the depart- 
 ment of the Loire, and was for a period 
 can-ied away by the republican mania of 
 the times. According to the authors of 
 the Bibliotheque Royaliste, he was known 
 by the appellation of ^'Brutus;" but his 
 conduct was moderate and humane, and 
 he was soon conducted a prisoner to the 
 Conciergerie. He was saved by the death 
 of Robespierre ; resumed his public func- 
 tions amidst the congratulations of his 
 fellow - citizens ; and received public 
 thanks, as one among the first who 
 had denoimccd the system of terror 
 which led to the downfall of the de- 
 stroyer. He was chosen to compose the 
 
A I G 
 
 A I G 
 
 funeral orations to the memory of the 
 fallen citizens ; and he wrote a tragedy 
 ujjon the execution of Louis XVI. by 
 wliicli he ran the utmost risk of losing 
 his own life ; subsequently he became 
 secretary-general of the prefecture of 
 the Cher, and accompanied the pre- 
 fect, M. De Lufay, to Paris, where he 
 devoted himself with assiduity to the 
 cultivation of letters. He was employed 
 by Napoleon, and also by Louis XVIII. 
 on his first restoration, but having again 
 taken office under Napoleon, he was not 
 in office after the 100 days. His works 
 consist of tragedies, most of which were 
 unsuccessful, novels, and political pieces. 
 The latter are more valua])le, and among 
 them the following may be noticed :— 1. 
 De la Justice et de la Police, &c. ; Paris, 
 1817. (" This was occasioned by the affiiir 
 of the black pin." Biog. Univ. Supp.) 2. 
 De I'Etat des Protestants en France de- 
 puis le 16"ie Siecle jusqu'a nos Jours, 
 &c. ; Paris, 8vo, 1819. In this he com- 
 pared the persecution of Louis XVI. to 
 the reign of terror, which caused a con- 
 siderable controversy, in which Benj. 
 Constant took the part of Aignan, but 
 rather modified the view he had taken. 
 Aignan's own reply to his opponents was 
 in the Minerve, and in the second edition 
 of his book. One of his chief oppo- 
 nents was M. Auger, in the 12th No. of 
 the Spectateur Politique et Litteraire. 
 i'5. Des Coups d'Etat dans la Monarchie 
 Constitutionelle ; 1813. 4. Histoire du 
 Jury; 1822. His more important literary 
 works are — 1 . Bibliotheque Etrangere 
 d'Hist. et de la Litterature Ancienne et 
 Moderne; 1823-4, 3 vols. 8 vo. There 
 were to be six. 2. Extraits des Memoires 
 relatifs a I'Histoire de France, depuis 
 I'annee 1787 jusqu'a la Revolution, &c. 
 
 AIGNEAUX, (Robert and Anthony, 
 le Chevalier Sieurs d',) two brothers, 
 born at Vire, in Normandy, towards the 
 middle of the sixteenth century, whose 
 lives and pursuits were so inseparably 
 connected as to render the relation of 
 one that of both of them. The encou- 
 ragement given by Francis I. to the fine 
 arts, diffused a taste for them even into 
 the provinces ; Normandy became dis- 
 tinguished for the number of its students ; 
 and among these the two brothers were not 
 the least conspicuous. They first devoted 
 themselves, at Paris and at Poictiers, to 
 the study of law and medicine ; and 
 having gone through a course of general 
 science and literatm'e, they again with- 
 drew to their native seat, and gave them- 
 selves up wholly to the cidtivation of 
 183 
 
 poetry. They translated tlie works of 
 Virgil and Horace ; the former in lieroic 
 verse, which contributed considerably to 
 their reputation. The Virgil appeared in 
 1582 in 4to, and there was soon another 
 edition m 8vo, with the Latin text ; and at 
 the close appears the translation of the 
 Moretura, and some other pieces attributed 
 to Virgil. The version of Horace was not 
 equally happy, nor was it so successful. 
 This appeared in 1588, and was followed 
 by other poems, printed at the close of a 
 collection of commendatory pieces in 
 their praise, and published by their coun- 
 trjTuan Sallieres. Both these amiable 
 men died young. 
 
 AIGREFEUILLE, (Charles d',) a 
 French doctor of theology, and canon of 
 the cathedi-al of Montpellier, lived towards 
 the middle of the eighteenth centmy. He 
 wrote the history of that town from its 
 origin — a work published in folio, 1737, 
 and extending to twenty books. Although 
 little known beyond the country of the 
 authoi-, it has been highly spoken of by 
 contemporary critics, and the most learned 
 writers of other countries. It was fol- 
 lowed by the Histoire Ecclesiastique de 
 Montpellier, 1739, fol. in thirteen books. 
 
 The family of Aigrefeuille, in Langue- 
 doc, produced several other characters of 
 some note in the clerical and magisterial 
 annals of that province. 
 
 AIGUEBERRE, (John Dumas d',) a 
 councillor in the parliament of Thoulouse, 
 lived in the eighteenth century, and is 
 known as the author of several works. 
 He published — 1. Les Trois Spectacles, 
 1 729, 8vo, consisting of a sort of prologue 
 in prose; of Polixene, a tragedy, in verse ; 
 and of L'Avare Amoureux, a comedy in 
 one act. Also, 2. Pan and Doris, an 
 heroic pastoral, or sort of opera, which 
 was set to music by Mouret, and repre- 
 sented with success ; besides many other 
 di'amatic pieces. 
 
 AIGUILLES. See Boyer. 
 
 AIGUILLON, (Marie Madeleine de 
 Vignerod, Duchesse d' ; d. 1675,) a 
 daughter of Rene de Vignerod, lord of 
 Pont Courlay, and Frances Duplessis, 
 sister of cardinal Richelieu ; first appeared 
 as maid of honour to the queen Mary of 
 Medicis, at the court of Louis XIII. In 
 1620 she maiTied Anthony du Roure de 
 Combalet, and became involved in the 
 quarrels of her mother with the cardinal. 
 That princess, notwithstanding the orders 
 of Louis, withdrew her daughter from 
 the court, and, on her return, made an 
 attempt to carry her oft' in the public 
 streets of Paris. The king, informed of 
 
AIG 
 
 AIK 
 
 this circumstance, declared that he would 
 not have hesitated to march at tlie head 
 of 50,000 men into Flanders, to restore 
 her to liberty. The cardinal, on his part, 
 an equal admirer of the generous cha- 
 racter of his niece, was ambitious to see 
 her elevated to higher rank ; and upon 
 the death of her consort, spared no pains 
 to unite her to the Comte de Soissons, 
 gi-andson to the prince of Conde ; and 
 failing in this, entered into negotiations 
 to obtain for her the hand of the cardinal 
 of Lorraine. Spite of every obstacle, the 
 adventurous minister undertook to bring 
 as her dowry the duchy of Bar into the 
 house of LoiTaine ; but this project also 
 fell to the gi-oimd. Still ardently attached 
 to his niece, he purchased for her the 
 duchy of Aiguillon ; and the manner in 
 which she employed her wealth, and 
 adorned her rank and fortune, showed 
 how well the high opinion of the great 
 statesman had been merited. She de- 
 voted her influence and resourees only to 
 the noblest purposes ; and which becom- 
 ing extended after her uncle's death, she 
 endowed hospitals, ransomed the cliristian 
 slaves of Africa, and founded the Hotel 
 Uieu at Quebec, of which she herself 
 drew up the regulations. Her piety was 
 equal to the extent of her benefactions ; 
 and on her death, which enriched nu- 
 merous charitable institutions, she was 
 deservedly regi-etted, both for her virtues 
 and her high talents, by people of every 
 rank. Her funeral oration, pronoimced 
 by the eloquent Flechier, was heard by 
 an immense concourse, including persons 
 of the highest rank, among whom her 
 memory and example were not without 
 their effect. 
 
 AIGUILLON, ( Armand - Vignerod 
 Duplessis-Richelieu,1720 — 1780,)nephew 
 of the preceding, appeared young at the 
 court of Louis XV. He owed to the 
 favour of the court both his militaiy and 
 civil appointments ; and in regard to the 
 former, he was accused, though per- 
 haps unjustly, when engaged with the 
 British upon the shores of Brittany, of 
 having left his post, and retired to the 
 shelter of a neighbouring mill. " He is 
 covered with flour, if not with glory," was 
 sarcastically remarked ; and so indignant 
 were the men of Brittany, that they peti- 
 tioned to have him disgraced. He was 
 also employed in several embassies and 
 ministerial offices, biit with little credit ; 
 and it woidd be useless to pm-sue the 
 career of a man who appears to have 
 owed his good fortune least of all to his 
 own talents. 
 
 184 
 
 AIGUILLON, (Armand - Vignerod - 
 Duplessis-Richelieu Due de,) son of the 
 preceding, a peer of France, and com- 
 mander of the light cavalry of the king's 
 guard. He became involved in the in- 
 trigues and violence of the revolutionary 
 factions ; superseded general Custines in 
 the army employed at the passes of Po- 
 rentruy ; and being in his turn denounced, 
 was compelled to seek an asylum in Ger- 
 many. He died in exile in 1800. 
 
 AIGUILLON, (Armand Louis de 
 Vignerod-Duplessis, Due d',) born 1683, 
 was the author of several works, which, 
 by some writers, have been erroneously 
 attributed to his son, 1. A most infamous 
 collection of impious and licentious poems ; 
 happily, only seven copies were printed. 
 2. Suite de la Nouvelle Cyropedie ; ou 
 Reflexions de Cyinis sur ses Voyages; 
 Amsterdam, 1728. He is stated to have 
 had for his collaborateiu's in this under- 
 taking, the princess of Conti, the Abbe 
 Grecourt, and Father Vinot. In 1718 he 
 maiTied Anne Charlotte de Cnissol de 
 Florensac, a lady of Uterary taste, who 
 published a variety of lighter pieces, 
 and who is said to have retained to 
 the last her good looks and vivacity, 
 which earned her the name of la bonne 
 ducheRse d'yiigiiillon though the Mare- 
 chale de Mirepoix said " her smiles were 
 as dangerous as the bite of the duke of 
 Ayen." 
 
 AIKIN, (John, M.D. 1747 — 1822,) 
 bonr at Kebworth Harcourt. This well- 
 known writer was the only son of Dr. J. 
 Aikin, (for some years teacher of divinity 
 in the dissenting academy atWaiTington 
 in Lancashire,) and educated by him. He 
 was destined for the medical profession ; 
 and having attended in the class of Dr. 
 John Hunter in 1770, he commenced 
 business at Chester ; but after a short stay 
 removed to Warrington. He almost im- 
 mediately also commenced aiithor ; and 
 three small essays, published successivel)', 
 on pi-ofessional subjects, were so favour- 
 ably received, that from this period his 
 devotion to the press was fixed. His first 
 work, not professional, was Essays on 
 Song Writing (in 1772), which were sub- 
 sequently re-formed and re-issued under 
 the title of Vocal Poetry. In this same 
 year he man-ied a cousin of his own, 
 named Martha Jennings. A Specimen 
 of the Medical Biography of Great Bri- 
 tain, in 1775, was so highly approved, 
 that he felt encouraged to prepare a 
 volume of Biographical Memoirs of Me- 
 dicine in Great Britain, from the revival 
 of Literature to the time of Hervey, pub- 
 
A I K 
 
 A I K 
 
 lislied in 1780. He now went to Leyden, 
 and took the degree of M.D. On his 
 return he made his first trial as pliysician 
 at Yarmouth, and there, with a slight in- 
 terval, he continued to practice until 1792, 
 when prudence dictated a removal to 
 London. A large body of his supporters, 
 zealous members of the Established 
 Church, had taken umbrage at the part 
 acted by him while the repeal of the Test 
 and Corporation Acts was under discussion 
 in Parliament. He wrote two pamphlets on 
 the question. In this same year appeared 
 his View of the Character and Public 
 Services of the late John Howard. His 
 intimacy with Howard, and the interest 
 which he had taken in the projects of the 
 philanthropist, enabled him to present a 
 lively, and, with a grain of allowance for 
 predilections, an accurate delineation of 
 his hero. About the same time the Doctor 
 and his sister commenced the Evenings at 
 Home, which they completed in six small 
 volumes, in June 1795. Not more than 
 one-twelfth part is said to have been the 
 lady's share. These little books are too well 
 known to require any comment, and they 
 have led the way to many others of a similar 
 kind. The work is still deservedly popu- 
 lar, and " has been translated into almost 
 every European language." His next 
 literary production was the Letters from 
 a Father to a Son, on various Topics rela- 
 tive to Literature and Science ; a work of 
 reputation in its day. In 1796 he became 
 literary editor of the Monthly Magazine 
 on its first establishment, and continued 
 so for ten yeai's. At the end of this time 
 (in January, 1807) he started a new 
 magazine, named the Athenaeum, which 
 endured no longer than two and a half 
 years. This periodical (as well as the 
 Monthly, during Aikin's superintendence 
 of it) was distinguished by some valuable 
 contributions from gentlemen of con- 
 siderable eminence, in the connexion of 
 the editor, especially from Gilbert Wake- 
 field. In the same year, 1796, he com- 
 menced his General Biography, in which 
 he was aided b/ Drs. Enfield and Mor- 
 gan, by Mr. Nicholson, and others. This 
 work extended to ten 4to. vols, and his 
 own portion is said to have amounted 
 to almost one-half. He was engaged 
 upon it for nearly twenty years ; yet 
 during those years he found time for 
 various other publications, as editor, 
 translator, and author. 
 
 After an excursion of a few months to 
 
 Dorking, for the benefit of his health, 
 
 with so little success that on his return 
 
 m Oct. 1798 he felt obliged to relinquish 
 
 185 
 
 his profession altogether, he settled at 
 Stoke Newington, and there he resided 
 until his death. In addition to the 
 labours already referred to, he in 1811 
 undertook the editorship of Dodsley's 
 Annual Register, and this was conducted 
 four years in conjunction with the General 
 Biography. In 1820, his last publication, 
 the Select Works of the British Poets, with 
 Biographical and Critical Prefaces, made 
 its appearance ; and " the contents of this 
 volume are so comprehensive, that few 
 poems (he believes) are omitted, except 
 such as are of secondary merit, or vm- 
 suited to the perusal of youth." Ben 
 Jonson stands first in the series (thirty- 
 five in the whole), and Beattie the last. 
 In 1817 a severe stroke of the palsy had 
 deprived him of his faculties ; he survived, 
 with a partial recovery, through more than 
 five years, when, on Dec. 7th, 1822^ a 
 second blow proved fatal. 
 
 Dr. Aikin was by birth and education 
 a dissenter ; and though the character of 
 a candid as well as enlightened man may 
 be freely awarded to him, yet in his bio- 
 graphies there is a disposition to regard 
 with too friendly an eye individuals of 
 sentiments consentaneous to his own, 
 and to raise them something above their 
 due level. In his general writings, even 
 those intended for young persons, he 
 does not afi:ect to conceal a latitudinarian 
 liberality of dissent. In Evenings at 
 Home, a father instructs his son that 
 " Religion is one of the things in which 
 mankind were made to differ." He 
 might as tndy have taught them that 
 teeth were made to ache, — which, as Paley 
 sensibly observes, they were not ; they 
 were made to eat. His style of compo- 
 sition possesses considerable fluency and 
 animation, and, at times, even of ele- 
 gance. He was altogether very ardent 
 and persevering in the pursvut of literature 
 and science, and a very useful and suc- 
 cessful cultivator of them also. He is 
 likewise represented, by those who best 
 knew him, to have been a virtuous and 
 amiable man. A memoir was published 
 of his life and writings in 1823, from the 
 pen of his daughter, Lucy Aikin. His 
 principal works, besides those already 
 enumerated, were — On the Ligature of 
 the Arteries; 1770. On the External 
 Use of Preparations of Lead. On Hos- 
 pitals. Miscellaneous Pieces, in con- 
 junction with Mrs. Barbauld; 1773. 
 Translation of the Agricola and De 
 Moribus of Tacitus ; 1774. Lewis's His- 
 tory of the Materia Medica, 1784. Va- 
 rious small books on Natural History. 
 
A IK 
 
 A I L 
 
 Various Poems, separately, of our En- 
 glish Poets, Thomson, Green, Somerville, 
 Pope, with appropriate prefaces. An edi- 
 tion of Spenser. Translations of Select 
 Eulogies fi-om D'Alembert, 1799 ; of 
 Huet's Memoirs of Himself, 1802; of 
 Zschokke's History of the Invasion of 
 Switzerland, 1803. Lives of Selden and 
 Usher; 1812. Annals of George III.; 
 1816. 
 
 AIKMAN, (William, 1682—1731,) a 
 Scotch painter of some eminence, chiefly 
 in portrait-painting. In early life he v/as 
 the friend of Allan Ramsay, and also was 
 the means of introducing the poet Thom- 
 son to Sir Robert Walpole, to Pope, 
 and other literary characters. He tra- 
 velled, for improvement in his art, to 
 Italy, Turkey, and Smyrna, &c. On his 
 return, he was persuaded by the duke of 
 Argyll to come to London, where he re- 
 sided till his death. He was a favourite 
 portrait-painter with the fashionable peo- 
 ple of his day. An unfinished picture 
 of the Royal Family, painted by him 
 for lord Burlington, is in the duke of 
 Devonshire's possession. He appears to 
 have been a man of cultivated mind, and 
 of repute in his profession ; and Thom- 
 son the poet wrote a well-known poem 
 on his death. 
 
 AILHAUD, (John,) a French sur- 
 geon of Provence, who owed his celebrity 
 to the virtues of the peculiar powder 
 which bears his name. Its success ob- 
 tained for him sufficient I'eputation to 
 establish himself as a doctor at Aix. 
 He took out a license, and opened places 
 for the sale of his drug in almost every 
 town throughout the country. He ac- 
 quired an immense fortune ; and his son, 
 who purchased a large estate, became a 
 bai-on, and took a public office under the 
 crown. This celebrated charlatan lived 
 to the advanced age of 82, and died in 
 1786. 
 
 AILLAUD, (Peter Toussaint, 1759— 
 1826,) a French ecclesiastic, and pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric at Montauban, was an 
 author of mediocre talent. It is enough 
 to state, that he was fond of re-writing 
 the woi-ks of others, and undertook a new 
 Lutrin, and a new Heni'iade. 
 
 AILLY, (Peter d',) a cardinal, desig- 
 nated as the " eagle of the doctors of 
 France, and the hamiuer of heretics," 
 was born at Compeigne in 1350, of an 
 obscure family, but raised himself by the 
 force of his talents to the first dignities 
 of the church. He distinguished him- 
 self at the college of Navarre, and before 
 tho age of 30 published treatises upon 
 186 
 
 philosophy, adopting the principles of the 
 Nominalists, whose disputes with the 
 Realists formed the favourite theme of 
 the day. He was already a doctor in 
 1380, and four years afterwards grand 
 master of the college of Navarre. Se- 
 lected to plead at Avignon before pope 
 Clement VII. the cause of the university 
 of Paris against Jean de Monteson, he 
 acquitted himself with such credit, that 
 on his return he was made chancellor of 
 the institution, almoner and confessor 
 of Charles VI. Being sent by this mo- 
 narch on a mission to the anti-pope Peter 
 de Lune, on his return he prevailed 
 upon the council to acknowledge Peter 
 as the legitimate pope, by the title of 
 Benedict XIII. Shortly afterwards he 
 was appointed successively to the epi- 
 scopal sees of Puy and Cambray ; and 
 such was the eloquence he displayed be- 
 fore the new pope, preaching on the sub- 
 ject of the Trinity, that Benedict, in his 
 grateful zeal, instituted for that alone 
 the festival known by the same name. 
 His next care was to extinguish the schism 
 which prevailed in the Roman church ; 
 and he brought about the convocation of 
 a general council at Pisa, in 1409. At 
 this he greatly distinguished himself by 
 his wisdom and prudence, and two years 
 subsequently was raised to the puq:)le by 
 John XXIII. and sent into Germany in 
 quality of legate. But it was by the part 
 he acted in the council of Constance that 
 this prelate rendered his name so cele- 
 brated. He presided over its third session, 
 and came to the decision that the retreat of 
 John XXIII. and his cardinals could not 
 affi?ct the authority of the council, and, 
 both by his discourses and writings, la- 
 boiued to prove the superiority of councils 
 over the papacy, and the necessity of a 
 reformation in the church, to commence 
 with the head. Upon occasion of being 
 appointed legate to Avignon by pope 
 Martin V., he gave up his sees in 1411, 
 and died at that city in 1420, as appears 
 in the account of his obsequies by Jean 
 le Robert, written at the time when they 
 were celebrated, and in the acts of the 
 chapter general of the Chartreux, held at 
 the same period. He left his books and 
 manuscripts to the college of Navarre, 
 a list of which has been preserved by 
 Montfaucon in his Bibliotheque Nou- 
 velle des Manuscrits, and by Laimoi (in 
 the Gersoniana of Dupin). His works 
 consist of liis Traite de la Reforme de 
 I'Eglise, published in the last edition of 
 Qiuvres de Gerson ; in which he inveighs 
 against the mendicant orders, the pomp 
 
A I L 
 
 AIM 
 
 of ecclesiastics, excommunications, and 
 the multiplying of festivals. But, not- 
 withstanding his zeal for reform, he main- 
 tained the supremacy of the ecclesiastical 
 power in the disposal of crowns, and was 
 a heliever in judicial astrology, in his 
 Concordantia Astronomi.-E cum Theologia 
 et Concordantia Astronomige cum His- 
 toria, (Vienna, 1490,) in which he con- 
 siders the revolutions of empires and 
 religion in conjunction with the planets, 
 and supposes that the deluge, the advent 
 of the Saviour, and the miracles, were 
 all foretold by the aid of astronomy. His 
 Treatises and Discourses were printed at 
 Strashurgh, 1490 ; his Life of Pope Ce- 
 lestin V. at Paris, 1539; and his Me- 
 teores at Strashiu-gh, 1504, and Vienna, 
 1509. His Treatise on the Reform of the 
 Church is to be found also in Brown's 
 Fasciculus Rerum Expetendarum, &c. 
 vol. i. 
 
 AILMER. See Aylmer. 
 
 AILRED, (or, as some writers spell 
 the name, Ethelred, or Ealred,) of Rie- 
 vaux, an English histf)i-ian, who flourished 
 during the reigns of Stephen and Henry 
 n. Leland suspects that he was born in 
 Scotland. The date of his birth is as- 
 certained to have been a.d. 1109, and 
 from his childhood he was educated in 
 Scotland, along with Henry, son of Da- 
 vid, king of that country. He afterwards 
 came into England, embraced a religious 
 life, and became, first, abbot of Revesby, 
 in Lincolnshire, and afterwards of the 
 celebrated abbey of Rievaux. He is said 
 to have died in 1166. Ailred was a vo- 
 luminous writer, and many of his works 
 are preserved in manuscript. Some of 
 them are historical, as his Histories of 
 the War of the Standard, under King 
 Stephen, and of David, king of Scotland, 
 — others biographical, as his Lives of 
 Edward theConfessor, and of St. Margaret, 
 queen of Scotland, — and many of them 
 theological. His History of the War of 
 the Standard, his Genealogy of the Kings 
 of England (including the Life of David), 
 the Life of Edward the Confessor, and 
 the Story of the Nun of Watton, are 
 printed in the Decern Scriptores, by 
 Roger Twysden. His Life of St. Mar- 
 garet was printed by Surius. Some of 
 Ailred's theological pieces were printed at 
 Douay in 1631, and were afterwards in- 
 serted in the BibHotheca Cisterciensis, 
 vol. V. and in the twenty-third volume of 
 the BibHotheca Patrum. 
 
 AIMAR RIVAULT, (Aimarius Ri- 
 valius,) a learned advocate of Dauphiny, 
 who practised in the reigns of Charles 
 1S7 
 
 Vn. and his next tw^ successors. He 
 became professor in the university, and 
 was selected as counsellor to the parlia- 
 ment of Grenoble. His works were de- 
 servedly held in high repute ; one of 
 wliich, his Historia Jiu-is tJtriusque, was 
 published atMayence,1533 andl539,8vo. 
 His researches, however, do not appear 
 to have been carried far enough, and 
 although interesting as relates to the Law 
 of the Twelve Tables, and the Roman 
 Pandects, the works of Baldus, Grotius, 
 and Decarenus are considered more per- 
 fect, as well as moi*e extensive and 
 useful. 
 
 ALMAR VERNAL (Jacques,) a pea- 
 sant of St. Veran in Dauphiny, was one 
 of those common impostors who, by pre- 
 tensions to the infallibility of the divin- 
 ing rod, became celebrated for the use 
 of its miracidous powers. Not only 
 could he reach seci'et springs and metals, 
 but bring delinquents of every degi-ee to 
 justice by the directions of his wonderful 
 rod, till he was at length detected -and 
 exposed. See more on this curious sub- 
 ject in the Life of P. de Brun, in the vo- 
 lume of Thiers on Superstition, usually 
 appended to Picart's Ceremon. Relig."; 
 also For. Quart. Rev. iv. p. 562. 
 
 AIMERI DE BELENVEL. See 
 Belenvel. 
 
 AIMERI DE BELMONT. See Bel- 
 mont. 
 
 AIMERIC MALEFAYDA, or of 
 Mnlefayc, (d. 1187,) patriarch of Antioch 
 in the twelfth century, was a native of St. 
 Viance in the Limousin territory. He was 
 distinguished in the crusade preached by 
 Urban II., made dean and afterwards 
 patriarch of Antioch. He endeavoured 
 to reform the hermits of Mount Carmel, 
 and, imiting them in one congregation, 
 he gave them a rule; and his reform hav- 
 ing been confinned by the pope (Alex- 
 ander III.) in 1180 the Carmelites arose 
 from it. His brother St. Berthold was 
 the first general of the order. His works 
 are — 1. De Institutione Primorum Mo- 
 nachorum, &c. a translation of a spurious 
 work attributed to John of Jerusalem, 
 written to prove that Elias (Elijah) is the 
 founder of the order of Carmelites : the 
 same absurdities may be found in the 
 Abbe Musson's Ordres Monastiques, &c. 
 2. Salachn's Siege of Jerusalem. 3. Epis- 
 tola ad Hugonem Eterianum in Martene's 
 Thesaurus, vol. i. 
 
 AIMERIC DE PEGUILAIN, one of 
 the most famous of the troubadours, or 
 poets who Avrote in the langue d'oc. He 
 was born at Toulouse, about the year 1 1 75. 
 
A IM 
 
 A I M 
 
 his father being a draper in that city. 
 At an early age he fell in love with the 
 wife of a citizen, and changed his father's 
 trade for that of a poet. But the hus- 
 band of the lady having discovered suf- 
 ficient to excite his jealousy, a duel 
 ensued, in which Aimeric wounded his 
 antagonist on the head, and was in con- 
 sequence obliged to fly from the place of 
 his nativity. He found shelter with a 
 brother poet in Catalonia, Guillaume de 
 Bergedan, wlio, pleased with his talent, 
 treated him generously, and introduced 
 him to the court of Alphonso XI. king of 
 Castile. Among the poems of Aimeric 
 which are preserved, we have a tenson, 
 or poetical contest, between him and 
 Guillaume de Bergedan, in wliich the 
 subject disputed is, " Whether it be better 
 to be loved by a lady without loving her, 
 or to love her without obtaining any re- 
 turn," It was Aimeric who sustained 
 the former position, and his opponent 
 rallies him on the inconsistency between 
 his words and his actions : — 
 
 " Bar N'Aimeric, ja no us euidetz gabar; 
 Que s'aniassetz tan cant aysi eus vanatz, 
 Ko us foratz tan de Tholoza lunliatz." 
 
 " Noble Aimeric, do not think to joke with us ; 
 
 If you had made love in the way you talk of, 
 
 You would not liave removed so far from Toulouse." 
 
 After spending several years in the 
 courts of Castile and Arragon, Aimeric 
 left them to take up his residence in Italy, 
 visiting Toulouse and his ancient mis- 
 tress by the way. He spent the rest of 
 his life in the courts of the various Italian 
 princes, and outlived all his benefactors 
 and friends ; having, at his death, in about 
 1255, when he must have been more than 
 80 years old, exercised the profession of 
 poet during upwards of half a century. 
 About fifty poems by Aimeric are pre- 
 served in difterent manuscripts, of which 
 a few have been printed by Raynouard. 
 Many of these pieces are panegyrics on 
 his difterent patrons. He is classed by 
 Petrarca among the first poets of his 
 age:— 
 
 " Amerigo, Bernardo, Ugo, et Anselmo, 
 Et mille Altri ne vidi, a cui la lingua 
 Lancia e spada fu senipre, et scudo et elmo." 
 
 Pelrarc. Trionfo d'Amore, capitolo iv. 
 
 A long account of Aimeric and his 
 writings will be found in tlie Histoire 
 Litteraire de la France, torn, xviii. pp. 
 684—698. 
 
 AIMERICH, (Matteo, 1715—1799,) 
 a native of Bordil in Girona, entered into 
 the society of Jesus, and was expelled 
 when that order was banished from Spain. 
 Repairing to Ferrara, he applied himself 
 to study, and produced some works, 
 188 
 
 evincing at once his modesty and his 
 erudition. Of these tlie most elaborate 
 and the most esteemed is. Novum Lexi- 
 con Historicum et Criticum Antiquse Lit- 
 teraturffi deperditse vel latentis, aut 
 Romanorum Eruditorum qui ea florue- 
 runt ab Urbe Condita ad Honorii Augusti 
 Interitum (Bassano, 1787) ; of this a spe- 
 cimen had previously been published in 
 1 784. His other publications are Nomina 
 et Acta Episcoporum Barcinonensium ; 
 8vo, Barcelona, 1760. Quinti Censorini 
 de Vita et Morte Linguae Latinse Para- 
 doxa Philologica, &c. (Ferrara, 1780) ; 
 with a defence of this last woi'k under 
 the title of Relatione Autentica dell'Ac- 
 caduto in Pai-nasso (Ibid. 1782). 
 
 AIMOIN OF FLEURY, one of the 
 most celebrated of the early French his- 
 torians. He was born of a noble family 
 in the province of Perigord, at a place 
 then called Ad-Francos, now Ville-Fran- 
 che, between the i-ivers Isle and Doi'done. 
 From his early childhood, he was edu- 
 cated at Fleury-sui"-Loii-e, where he em- 
 braced the monastic profession about 
 A.D. 978. Under the tuition of the cele- 
 brated Abbo, who taught publicly there, 
 and was afterwards abbot of the place, he 
 became very skilftd in all kinds of learn- 
 ing, and obtained the warm friendship of 
 his teacher, which lasted during their 
 lives. Almoin was present, in 1004, 
 when Abbo was slain. He is supposed 
 to have died himself about four years 
 later. His chief work is the History of 
 the Franks, beginning with the origin of 
 that nation, and intended to be continued 
 to the reign of Pepin-le-Bref ; but either 
 a part of it is lost, or its author never 
 proceeded further than the sixteenth year 
 of Clovis II. The continuation of this 
 history was written by some monk of St. 
 Germain-des-Pres. Aimoin's style is mo- 
 dest, and his language much more cor- 
 rect and elegant than that of most of his 
 contemporaries ; but, as a historian, he 
 is very inexact. His history has been 
 fi'equently printed; but the best editions 
 hitherto published are those given in the 
 collections of Duchesne and Dom Bou- 
 quet. Aimoin's veneration for St. Benoit, 
 the patron saint of his monastery, is ex- 
 hibited in various works on his life and 
 miracles. His life of his friend and in- 
 structor Abbo is full of curious details. 
 He is also said to have written a history 
 of the abbey, or rather of the abbots, of 
 Fleiu'v, wliich is now lost. 
 
 AliVION DE VARENNES, a French 
 poet of the early part of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. His name is spelt variously, Aymar, 
 
A I M 
 
 A IN 
 
 Aimes, Aimons, &c. He was the autlioi* 
 of the Roman de Florimont, or of Philip 
 of Macedon, of which thei'e are several 
 copies among the manuscripts in the Bih- 
 liotheque du Roi at Paris, and one in the 
 British Museum. He tells us in the poem, 
 that he composed it at ChatiUon ; but the 
 different manuscripts vary as to the date, 
 though it cannot have been composed 
 earlier than the thirteenth centin-y, as its 
 author mentions the Roman d'Alexander 
 composed at the beginning of that same 
 centiu-y. 
 
 " Seignor, je sa assez de fi 
 Que d'Alixandre avez o'i: 
 Mais ne savez encora pas 
 Dont fu sa m^re Olimpias ; 
 Del roi Filipont ne savez. 
 Qui fu son pere, et dont fu nez." 
 
 AINDJY, (Soliman,) grand vizier, 
 born a Christian in Bosnia, i-ose by rapid 
 steps till he became seraskier in 1685, 
 and overthrew the Poles, led by the 
 grand-general Jablownowski. By his 
 skill and prudence he counteracted all 
 the plans of his rivals ; was made grand 
 vizier, but failing in his campaigns 
 against the Christians, his troops marched 
 to Constantinople (whither he had fled 
 from them in consequence of a mutiny), 
 and they demanded his head from Ma- 
 liomet IV., who, after some delay, was 
 obliged to yield, and thus Aindjy pe- 
 rished. 
 
 AINSWORTH, (Henry, d. 1622,) a 
 nonconformist divine of the sixteenth 
 century, the date and place of whose 
 birth are unknown ; joined the Brownists 
 in 1590, and shared in their persecutions. 
 He was an excellent Hebrew scholar, 
 wrote some esteemed commentaries on 
 the Scriptures, and supported the opi- 
 nions he had embraced with singular 
 ability. He was at length compelled to 
 fly to Holland, the asylum of so many 
 of the nonconformists during the reign 
 of Elizabeth. At Amsterdam he assisted 
 Mr. Johnson in raising a church, of 
 which he became the minister ; and also 
 in conjunction with him, in 1602, he 
 published A Confession of Faith of the 
 People called Brownists. A schism, 
 however, having sprung up in their new 
 church, dissensions ran so high that 
 Johnson excommunicated his own father 
 and brother ; and both refused to listen 
 to the mediation offered by the presby- 
 tery of the city which afforded them a 
 refuge ; half the congregation joined 
 Ainsworth, and excommunicated John- 
 son, whose party retorted in the same 
 spirit upon the minister. It became im- 
 189 
 
 possible for both to continue in the same 
 city, and Johnson with his congregation 
 repaired to Embden, where he soon after- 
 wards died. 
 
 This secession did not wholly remove 
 the cause of strife, and Mr. Ainsworth, 
 resigning his ministry, retired into Ire- 
 land, till at length the violence of party 
 having had time to exhaust itself, he 
 returned to Amsterdam, and continued 
 with his old congregation till the close 
 of his life. His death was not without 
 suspicion of violence : having accidentally 
 found a diamond of great value, he adver- 
 tised it, and its owner, a Jew, offered him 
 any gratuity he might desire. Though 
 poor, Ainsworth only asked that he would 
 obtain for him a conference with some 
 of his rabbis, upon the prophecies of the 
 Old Testament relating to the Messiah ; 
 this the Jew promised, but not having 
 sufficient inffuence, it was thought that, 
 to save his own reputation, he caused the 
 christian preacher to be poisoned. His 
 Annotations on the Psalms were printed 
 in 1612, 4to ; on the Pentateuch, 2 vols. 
 4to. 1621 ; and again in 1627 (foUo) and 
 1639. Among his Controversial Treatises 
 is A Comiter-Poison against Bernard and 
 Crashaw ; 1608 (4to.) and 1612. Bishop 
 Hall answered this ti'act. He was also 
 the author of several other works, all 
 of them of a religious and controver- 
 sial character. One of them was an 
 Animadversion on Mr. Richard Clifton's 
 Advertisement, &c. which related to 
 the scliism in the Amsterdam congre- 
 gation. 
 
 AINSWORTH, (Robert,) author of 
 the well-known compendious Dictionary 
 of the Latin Tongue, was born at Wood- 
 yale, near Manchester, in Sept. 1660. 
 After he had finished his own education, 
 he commenced schoolmaster at Bolton : 
 hence he removed to London ; and at 
 Bethnal Green, Hackney, and other 
 suburban villages, continued to keep a 
 school, initil he was fortunate enough to 
 realize a competency, some years too 
 before his death. In 1736, after about 
 twenty years' labour, he published his 
 gi-eat work, with a dedication to Dr. 
 Mead, and a preface explaining his 
 reasons for undertaking it. Improved 
 editions by Patrick, Ward, Young, and 
 Morell have successively appeared ; Ward 
 and Young's (1752) in folio, the others 
 in 4to. Dr. Carey's (1816) is the last, 
 and esteemed the best. There are also 
 abridgments by Young and MoreU. This 
 dictionary was undoubtedly a great im- 
 provement upon all that had preceded it 
 
A I N 
 
 AIT 
 
 in England : that of Dr. Adam was a fur- 
 ther advance ; but a good school diction- 
 ary is still wanted, and the works of Fac- 
 ciolati and Scheller, now so accessible to 
 the English scholar through the transla- 
 tions of Bailey and Riddle, present abun- 
 dant assistance towards the composition 
 of such a book. Ainsworth was author 
 of A Short Treatise on Grammar, and 
 some smaller pieces. He is said to 
 have been a hunter after old coins and 
 other curiosities. He died on the 4th 
 April, 1743, at the age of 77. He was 
 buried at Poplar, and an inscription in 
 Latin verse, written by himself, was 
 placed over his remains and those of his 
 wife. 
 
 AIOUB-BEN-CHADY, (Nedjm- 
 Eddyn, d. 1173,) father of Saladin, and a 
 curd of the famous tribe of Roudyah, be- 
 came chief of the Aioubites of Egypt. He 
 was made governor of Balbec, where he 
 was besieged and compelled to suiTender 
 by Atabek Atsec, prince of Damascus. 
 He was pi'esented by the conqueror with 
 some territory, where he continued till 
 his son, the great Saladin, having be- 
 come vizier of the khalif Adhed, invited 
 him to his court. Aioub made his entry 
 into Cairo in 565 h. (1169), and Avas re- 
 ceived by his son with marks of respect 
 and honour ; Avhile to honour that son 
 the more, the khalif himself went forth 
 to greet him. Seldom has history re- 
 counted more generous traits in the cha- 
 racters of conquerors. Saladin placed his 
 dignities at his father's disposal, who, while 
 he declined to accept them, continued 
 near his son, and spent his days in tran- 
 quillity. Upon his death he was mourned 
 and honoured by his noble son, who 
 placed his tomb in the imperial palace, 
 whence it was afterwards removed to 
 Medina. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AIRAULT. See Ayrault. 
 
 AIRAY, (Christopher, 1601—1670,) 
 born at Clifton in Westmoreland, was 
 admitted a student in Queen's college, 
 Oxford, in 1621, where he was elected a 
 fellow, and proceeded B.D. in 1642. 
 He wrote a work upon Logic, for the be- 
 nefit of students, besides other small 
 pieces, the titles of which Wood has not 
 recovered. He subsequently became 
 vicar of Milford in Hampshire, where he 
 remained till his death. 
 
 AIRAY, (Henry, 1559—1616,) pro- 
 vost of Queen's college, Oxford, was born 
 in Westmoreland in 1559, educated under 
 Bernard Gilpin, known as the northern 
 apostle, and by him sent to St. Edmund's 
 hall in 1579. He was subsequently 
 190 
 
 chosen fellow of Queen's, whither he 
 soon removed. He entered into holy 
 orders ; took the degree of B. D. ; was 
 elected provost, and in 1606 vice-chan- 
 cellor ; and produced several able works 
 upon subjects of divinity. He wrote the 
 following — 1. Lectures upon the whole 
 Ejjistle of St. Paid to the Philippians ; 
 London, 1618, 4to, 2. The Just and 
 Necessary Apology touching his Suit in 
 Law, for the Rector of Charlton on Ot- 
 more in Oxfordshire ; London, 1621, 8vo. 
 3. A Treatise against Bowing at the 
 Name of Jesus. Airay was always 
 strongly attached to the Puritan party, 
 as the following quotation from Heylyn's 
 Life of Laud will show. " In 1606, he 
 was questioned by Dr. Airay, being vice- 
 chancellor for that year, for a sermon 
 preached in St. Marie's church on the 
 26th of October, as containing in it sun- 
 dry scandalous and popish passages ; the 
 good man taking all things to be matter 
 of popery which were not held forth unto 
 him in Calvin's Institutes, conceiving that 
 there was as much idolatry in bowing at 
 the name of Jesus, as in worshipping the 
 brazen serpent," &c. (Heylyn's Laud, 
 p. 54.) Some lands lying in Garsington, 
 near Oxford, were bequeathed by hhn to 
 Queen's college. 
 
 AlSSfi, (Mdlle. 1693—1731,) a fair 
 Circassian, bought at four years of age 
 by count de Ferriol, French ambassador 
 to Constantinople, carried to France, and 
 educated by his sister-in-law. She is 
 known by her unhappy life, in which 
 she is said to have become the mistress 
 of the ambassador. She subsequently 
 lived in adultery with the chevalier 
 D'Aidy. She bore a daughter to him in 
 England ; and when Lady Bolingbroke 
 (the niece of Madame de Maintenon) had 
 placed this daughter (Miss Black) in a 
 convent, the mother began to repent of 
 her evil life. She did more — she quitted 
 it, and she devoted herself to religious 
 duties and to charity for the rest of her 
 days. She showed many traits of gene- 
 rosity even in her earlier life, especially 
 in giving up to the sister of count Ferriol 
 the property bequeathed to her ; and, 
 indeed, there appear to have been qua- 
 lities in her nature, which show what, 
 with better principles, she might have 
 become. Her letters have often been pub- 
 lished — first, 1 787, with notes by Voltaire ; 
 and afterwards in 1806, 3 vols. 12mo : 
 they contain many anecdotes of remark- 
 able pei-sons of that day. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AITKEN, (Robert, 1734—1802,) a 
 printer of Philadelphia, supposed to be 
 
A I T 
 
 A K A 
 
 the author of An Inquiry into the Prin- 
 ciples of a Commercial System for tlie 
 United States ; 1787. (Allen's Diet.) 
 
 AITON, (William, 1731 — 1793,) a 
 native of Lanarkshire. He was indebted 
 to his own intelligence, good conduct, 
 and exertions, for his success in life. He 
 began his career as a simple labourer ; 
 and in 1754 wandered for employment 
 to the southern parts of the kingdom. 
 In the following year he obtained the 
 notice of ilr. Miller, author of the Gar- 
 dener's Dictionary, then superintendent 
 of the Botanical Garden at Chelsea. He 
 was afterwards recommended to the prin- 
 cess dowager of Wales, and in 1 7.59 he 
 was appointed to the superintendence of 
 the garden at Kew, which aflbrded ample 
 display for his peculiar talents. The 
 improvements he introduced were most 
 valuable, and were conducted on princi- 
 ples which are still in use. So gi'eat was 
 his professional knowledge, in addition 
 to his experience and practical skill, that 
 he ranked among the first botanists of 
 his time ; and in 1764 he contracted with 
 Sir Joseph Banks a friendship which 
 ended only with life. In 1783 he was 
 advanced to the more lucrative ofHce 
 of conducting both the pleasure and 
 kitchen gardens at Kew, while he was 
 permitted to retain his former post. In 
 1789 he published an ample catalogue 
 of the plants at Kew, with the title of 
 Hortus Kewensis, 3 vols. 8vo : it con- 
 tained a full account of the foreign plants 
 which had been introduced into tlie 
 English gardens at different times. A 
 second edition was published by his son, 
 Wm. Townsend Alton, in 1810. He was 
 succeeded by his eldest son in his offices. 
 AITZEMA, (Foppe Van,) a gentle- 
 man of Friedland, and resident of the 
 States-General at Hamburgh, was em- 
 ployed in several missions in Germany, 
 and in 1636 to engage the emperor to 
 preserve the neutrality. He was com- 
 missioner also from Holland and Bohe- 
 mia at the imperial court ; but unable to 
 counteract the influence of France and 
 Spain, he was compelled to return to the 
 Hague without success. He was sus- 
 pected, from the favours bestowed upon 
 him by the emperor, of having favoured 
 the interests of Vienna rather than of his 
 adopted country, and was summoned to 
 appear before a court ,of inquiiy. He 
 was, however, honourably acquitted, and 
 subsequently engaged to attend the diet 
 in Lower Saxony, as well as on a secret 
 mission to the chancellor of Sweden, then 
 at Magdeburg. But fresh accusations hav- 
 191 
 
 ing been brought against him by the prince 
 of Orange, he fled to Prague, and subse- 
 quently sought an asylum in the impe- 
 rial court, where he died soon after his 
 arrival. Aitzema published in 1607 a 
 collection of Latin poems at Helmstadt, 
 and also Dissei-tations sur le Droit Civil, 
 reprinted by Meerman in his Thesaurus 
 Novus Juris Civ. et Eccles. 
 
 AITZEMA, (Leo d', 1600—1669,) 
 nephew of the preceding, and bom at 
 Doccum. He distinguished himself by 
 his literary attainments, no less than by 
 his success in political life. At the age 
 of 16 years he had already published Iris 
 Poemata Juvenilia ; and under the aus- 
 pices of his uncle. Resident for the States- 
 General at Hamburgh, was soon engaged 
 in more serious studies, and in a short 
 time was appointed counsellor of the 
 Hanse towns, and their Resident at the 
 Hague. He came twice into England 
 upon public aifairs, and obtained soon 
 afterwards a high reputation both as a 
 writer and a diplomatist. He produced 
 a history of the United Provinces, entitled 
 Zaken van Staat en Oorlog, which met 
 with a favourable reception, and went 
 through two large editions. It consisted 
 of 16 vols. 4to, 1657 — 1671, and included 
 the period between 1621 and 1G68. The 
 second edition is in 7 vols, folio, 1669 — 
 1671, with an account of the peace of 
 Munster, and a treatise entitled the Lion 
 Restored, or an account of Dutch affairs 
 in 1650 and 1651. His intimate ac- 
 quaintance with men in office gave him 
 peculiar advantages, of which he is said 
 to have sometimes availed himself in a 
 manner not very delicate or ingenuous. 
 He was reproached by the Dutch with 
 divulging their secret coiTCspondence, 
 especially with England, for a proof of 
 which Wagena-ir the historian refers to 
 Thurloe's State Papers (Vauderslanche 
 Historic, vol. xiii. p. 435) ; and Wicque- 
 fort speaks slightingly of the original 
 part of his great work, in which opinion 
 Bayle says he cannot agree with him. 
 It has, however, thrown much light upon 
 the history of those times ; and fi-om it 
 the Histoire des Provinces Unies, 8 vols. 
 4to, Paris, 1757 — 1771, was principally 
 compiled. Aitzema died in 1669 at the 
 Hague, where he usually resided. 
 
 AKAKIA, (Mai'tin,) professor of me- 
 dicine in the university of Paris, was a 
 native of Chalons, and according to the 
 custom changed his name from Sans- 
 Malice, or Harmless, to that of Akakia, 
 a Greek word of the same import. He 
 translated Galen, De Ratione Curandi ; 
 
A K A 
 
 AK B 
 
 Ars Medica, quae est Ars Parva ; Con- 
 silia Medica ; and 2 vols, on Female 
 Diseases. He enjoyed a high reputa- 
 tion ; was physician to Francis I. and 
 one of the deputies from the tmiversity 
 to the council of Trent in 1545. He 
 died in 1551. 
 
 AKAKIA, (Martin,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, received his diploma at Paris in 
 1570 ; was appointed professor of surgery 
 in the royal college, and second physician 
 to Henry III. He has been supposed 
 by some the author of the Treatise upon 
 the Diseases of Women, usually attri- 
 buted to his father. 
 
 The same family produced several 
 other members distinguished in the me- 
 dical profession, one of whom died of 
 disappointment at having been suspended 
 from its exercise for a period of six 
 months, on accoimt of holding a consul- 
 tation with foreign doctors, contrary to 
 the tenor of his oath. 
 
 AKBAR, son of Aureng-Zebe. See 
 Aueeng-Zebe. 
 
 AKBAR PADSHAH, (Jelal-ed-din 
 Mahmud, 1543 — 1604,) one of the great- 
 est of the emperors of Hindoostan, com- 
 monly but improperly called the Great 
 Moguls. He was the son of the emperor 
 Himia3ain, and descended through Baber 
 from Timurleuk or Tamerlane. The 
 emperor Humayun, deprived of his 
 throne and exiled from his kingdom, was 
 a helpless, hopeless wanderer in Persia 
 when the young prince was born. While 
 yet an infant, Akbar was seized by one 
 of his uncles as a hostage, but was, after 
 some time, restored to his father, who 
 had become a pensioner on the bounty 
 of Shah Tamasp, king of Persia. Under 
 the uncei-tain protection of this capricious 
 tyrant, who sometimes loaded them with 
 favours, and sometimes threatened them 
 with death unless they abandoned the 
 Soonnee creed and embraced the Shceah 
 doctrines, Humayun and his son re- 
 mained for ten or eleven years, when 
 new revolutions in India and Afghanistan 
 opened to the former an opportunity for 
 the recovery of his throne. In the de- 
 cisive battle which delivered the empire 
 of Delhi from the Afghan usui-pers, 
 Akbar, tliough only in the 13th year 
 of his age, displayed so nmch courage and 
 conduct, that his father, immediately 
 after his restoration, entrusted him with 
 the command of the forces sent to com- 
 plete the reduction of the Pimjab. 
 
 The emperor Humayun did not long 
 retain his recovered crown. Walking 
 one eveiihig on the terrace of the library 
 If. 2 
 
 at Dellii, he sat down to enjoy the fresh 
 air ; after which, while in the act of de- 
 scending the steps to go below, he heard 
 the voice of the muezzin from the 
 minaret of the royal mosque, announcing 
 the hour of prayer. Like every good 
 Mussulman, he stopped still to repeat 
 the creed of Islam, leaning on a staff 
 which he held in his hand : the staff 
 slipped on the marble slabs, and the 
 king fell headlong over on the pavement 
 below ; he was borne senseless to his 
 apartment, and died within three days. 
 
 Intelligence of the sad event was sent 
 to the army in the Punjab ; they assem- 
 bled, and placed Akbar on the tnvsmtd, 
 A.D. 1556, when he was only 13 solar years 
 and 9 months old. Notwithstanding his 
 extreme youth, Akbar began his reign 
 by acts of wisdom and justice, very un- 
 usiial among oi'iental sovereigns. He 
 forbade the usual presents to be ex- 
 acted from the nobles and governors of 
 provinces, and he chose as his pi'ime 
 minister his former tutor Beiram Khan, 
 to whom he gave the tender name of 
 Baba, or father. The Patans or Afghans 
 no sooner heard of Humayiin's death, 
 than they levied immense forces, cap- 
 tured Agza and Delhi, and at lengtli 
 drove the imperial forces across the 
 Sutlej. Akbar concentrated his followers 
 at Lahore, but they were so disheartened 
 that the leading chiefs proposed to aban- 
 don India and found a new empire in 
 Cabul. From this fatal resolution they 
 were dissuaded by Beiram Khan, and 
 induced to hazard a decisive engage- 
 ment. The armies met at Paniput, and 
 the battle was fiercely contested until 
 Hemoo, the leader of the Afghans, was 
 shot through the eye with an arrow, and 
 sunk down in his howdah from extreme 
 agony : his immediate followers, believing 
 him mortally v/ounded, fled ; and though 
 Hemoo drew the arrow, and with it the 
 eye out of the socket, which he wrapped 
 in a handkerchief, and attempted to rail} 
 his troops, all his eflbrts were vain. At 
 length the driver of his elephant trea- 
 cherously brought him into the hostile 
 lines ; Hemoo was dragged from his 
 howdah, and instantly beheaded. The 
 Patans never recovered their defeat at 
 Paniput, and the provinces which had 
 revolted in hopes of their protection were 
 successively reduced to obedience. 
 
 Beiram Khan having tasted the sweets 
 of power, was unwilling to resign the 
 regency ; and he laid a plot with the 
 queen dowager to seize and confine Ak- 
 bar, who had given some hints of his 
 
AKB 
 
 A KB 
 
 anxiety to take the direction of affairs 
 into his own hands. Tiie plot was dis- 
 covered; and Bc-iram Khan, escaping 
 from court, raised the standard of revolt. 
 His rebellion was unsuccessful ; he was 
 soon forced to surrender at discretion ; 
 but Akbar, remembering his former ser- 
 vices, spared his life on condition of his 
 undertaking the pilgrimage to Mecca. 
 The emperor now reigned without a 
 director : he summoned to his aid the 
 most able men of the country, without 
 any regard to their creed or race ; but 
 while he listened to the advice of all, he 
 delegated his authority to none. During 
 the preceding reign, the obedience of the 
 provinces had been merely nominal : 
 Akbar's vigorous exertions to make his 
 sovereignty a reality, provoked revolts 
 in Malwah, Guzerat and Bengal ; though 
 the insurgents were vigorously supported 
 by the Afghans on one side and the in- 
 dependent Hindoos on the other, they 
 were all successively subdued, and Akbar 
 established undisputed sway over the 
 entire of India Proper, from the Hima- 
 layan mountains to the Deccan. 
 
 The power and splendour of the Delhi 
 empire became celebrated throughout 
 the east, and not without reason, for Ak- 
 bar's skill in consolidating and tranquil- 
 lizing the dominions he had gained was 
 even more conspicuous than his skill and 
 courage in conquest : imlike the other 
 Mohammedan rulers of India, he made 
 no distinction between the Hindoos 
 and the followers of Islam ; he promoted 
 several Brahmins to high offices at his 
 court, enrolled a corps of Rajpoots in 
 his service, and received with kindness 
 the Parsees who fled from the persecu- 
 tion of his more bigoted neighbours. 
 Though so continually occupied by wars, 
 he devoted a large share of his attention 
 to religious subjects ; and as his reason 
 was shocked by some parts of the Mo- 
 hammedan system, he endeavoured by 
 all the means in his power to procure in- 
 formation respecting other creeds. Seve- 
 ral Brahminical treatises were translated 
 from Sanscrit into Persian at his expense, 
 and large sums were spent in collecting 
 from among the Parsees, fragments of 
 the sacred books ascribed to Zoroaster. 
 But Christianity particularly engaged the 
 attention of the emperor ; he wrote a 
 letter to the king of Portugal, requesting 
 a translation of the Gospels into Persian, 
 and the aid of missionaries to explain 
 their meaning. 
 
 •Geronimo Xavier, a relation to the 
 famous St. Francis Xavier, imdertook to 
 VOL. I. 193 
 
 gratify the emperor ; he translated the 
 Gospels into Persian, but, probably in the 
 hope of accommodating them to eastern 
 taste, he mixed some of the most childish 
 legends of the Romish church with their 
 simple truths, and the New Testament 
 thus corrupted was not less repulsive to 
 Akbar than the Koran had been. Dis- 
 appointed in his endeavours to find a re- 
 ligion by which he could be satisfied, 
 Akbar resolved to form one for himself, 
 and with this view he held solemn con- 
 versations at his palace, in which the 
 most enlightened and learned men of 
 every sect and race that could be assem- 
 bled, discussed in the emperor's presence 
 the great mysteries of time and eternity. 
 The residts of these discussions are col- 
 lected in that extraordinary work, the 
 Dalustan, which was published after 
 Akbar's death, but was probably compiled 
 under his direction. So far as Akbar's 
 proposed religion received a definite 
 form, it appears to have consisted in a 
 simple acknowledgment of the Divine 
 Unity and the Attributes, and a rejection 
 of all other positive dogmas. At one 
 time he intended to claim the rank of an 
 inspired prophet, but the remonstrances 
 of his minister, Abu'1-Fazl, induced him 
 to abandon this design. The plan of 
 forming a mixed religion from Hindooism 
 and Mohammedanism, was a favourite 
 specidation with many of the philoso- 
 phers of the Delhi empire : about a cen- 
 tury after Akbar's death, it was revived 
 by Nanee, the founder of the Sikhs, and 
 carried into effect during the long series 
 of civil wars which followed the death 
 of Aurungzebe. Without directly reckon- 
 ing Akbar among their saints, the Sikhs 
 hold his name in the highest reverence, 
 and pay great respect to his tomb. Ak- 
 bar was an accomplished, but not a very 
 profound scholar ; he wrote a brief his- 
 tory of his own career, and several poems 
 of some merit, especially translations of 
 the Indian fables. His letters are more 
 remarkable for their straightforward 
 common sense than for any beauty of 
 composition : that which he addressed to 
 the king of Portugal is a very interesting 
 and chai'acteristic document ; it has been 
 translated and published in Mr. Eraser's 
 Life of Nadir Shah. 
 
 But Akbar's highest fame arises from 
 the internal administration of his king- 
 dom. The Ayiri Akberi (mirror of Ak- 
 bar) composed by his vizier, Abu'1-Fazl, 
 contains a very minute account of the 
 multifarious reforms introduced by the 
 emperor into every department of the 
 O 
 
AK B 
 
 AKB 
 
 government. He constructed immense 
 lines of road to connect the different 
 pro^^nces, and established posts through- 
 out his dominions, having two horses 
 and a set of footmen stationed at every 
 ten miles. His frontiers, and the pro- 
 vinces most likely to be disturbed by 
 marauders, were secured by a series of 
 fortresses, so judicioiisly placed that they 
 are still admired by European engineers ; 
 he instituted a system of police far more 
 complete in its arrangements and details 
 than any which has since existed in 
 India ; and the statistical survey of the 
 extent, popidation, wealth and resomxes 
 of his empire, made imder his own 
 superintendence, is still regarded as the 
 best account of the provinces that has 
 yet existed. No monarch of the east 
 carried the system of training and em- 
 ploying pigeons as coui'iers to the same 
 extent as Akbar, but the result of his 
 experiments appears to have been very 
 unsatisfactory, and towards the close of 
 his reign the pigeon establishment began 
 to be gradually neglected. 
 
 The happiness of Akbar would have 
 been complete but for his troubles in 
 domestic life. For a long time he had 
 no children ; and when he was at length 
 gratified with three sons, their mis- 
 conduct proved the bane of his existence. 
 Selim, the eldest, was a bigot to the 
 most orthodox of the orthodox Moham- 
 medan sects, and made no scruple to 
 stigmatize his father as a heretic and 
 infidel : Morad was a debauchee ; he 
 sunk into premature decrepitude from 
 licentious indulgence, and died miserably 
 " of old age in his youth" as the Persian 
 historian declares : Daniel was a drunk- 
 ard, and died of apoplexy produced l)y 
 intemperance. The last was Akbar's 
 favourite child, and had he lived would 
 probably have been his adopted heir, for 
 Selira had forfeited his right by repeated 
 rebellions. Grief for his loss brought 
 Akbar to the grave in the 50th year 
 of his reign and 64th of his age, a. h. 
 1014, A.D.I 60.5. 
 
 The particulars of Akbar's death are 
 recorded in the memoirs of his son Selim, 
 better known by the name of Jehangueir ; 
 but they are too long to be extracted, 
 and we refer the curious to the trans- 
 lation of the emperor Jehangueir's auto- 
 biograph}', published by the Oriental 
 Translation Committee. We need only 
 add, that most of Akbar's improvements 
 perished with him : Selim or Jehangueir 
 was at once a profligate and a bigot ; and 
 his chief aim during his reign was to undo 
 194 
 
 all his father had done, — to destroy all 
 whom his father had loved, and to restore 
 all that his father had overthrown. 
 
 AKBEH BEN NAFY, Arab governor 
 of Africa under the khalif Moawyah, 
 was one of those celebrated followers of 
 the Prophet, whose rapid conquests over 
 the tribes and nations of the East pre- 
 pared the way for those of the West. 
 He it was who, after routing the Berbers, 
 and all the most formidable generals 
 opposed to him, at length came to the 
 ocean, — when, with the soul of a true 
 Mussulman, drawing his sword, he 
 spurred into the water, exclaiming, 
 " Mighty God ! were it not for these 
 thy waters, I would penetrate to the far- 
 thest regions of the west ; I would pro- 
 claim the unity of thy holy name upon 
 my Avay ; I woidd exterminate every 
 other people who adored other god but 
 thee." He was assassinated a.h 63. 
 (a. D. 682), after having reduced Africa 
 under the Arabs, and directed their 
 path towards Spain. 
 
 AKBEH BEN HEJADI, or much 
 more correctly, Ocha hen Alhegag, (736 
 — 741,) Arabian viceroy of Spain, suc- 
 ceeded the emir Abdelmelic ben Cotan. 
 He had acquired considerable fame in 
 the wars of Mauritania, and hopes were 
 entertained that he would be able to 
 fepair the disasters recently experienced 
 in Gaul by the Moslem arms. His im- 
 partial, severe justice towards the great 
 Avas sure to be hailed by the poor, who 
 are willing enough to be governed by 
 law when they perceive the same law 
 obligatory on those above them. The 
 merit of Ocba in this respect was the 
 more remarkable when contrasted with 
 the laxity of his predecessors. To intro- 
 duce the most important reforms into 
 the administration, to extirpate bands of 
 robbers, to found mosques and schools, 
 were his constant objects. How well he 
 succeeded may be inferred fi'om the 
 hatred which the tjTannical ivalis, or local 
 governors, bore towards the man who did 
 notscreen even them — whorendered them 
 as much amenable to the jurisprudence 
 of the Koran as the meanest disciple of 
 the Prophet. To sustain the declining 
 empire of the Mohammedans in the 
 south of France, this able and virtuous 
 man was constrained to pass the Pyve- 
 nees ; but he Avas speedily recalled to 
 quell an insurrection of the African Ber- 
 bers. During his absence in Mam-i- 
 tania, which he expected would be very 
 brief, he appointed no deputy; but on 
 all the walls he incxilcated the necessity 
 
AKE 
 
 A KE 
 
 of justice, of harmony, of adhering to 
 the best precepts of the Koi"an. That 
 absence, however, was prolonged to three 
 years ; and so little effect had his admo- 
 nitions on the local governors, that they 
 reverted to more than their former ty- 
 ranny. Great was his consternation to 
 learn that his predecessor only, Abdel- 
 melic ben Cotan, had remained free from 
 the general contagion. Exhausted by 
 his efforts, and despairing of a better re- 
 sult, he obtained his own dismission and 
 the restoration of Abdelmelic. (Conde. 
 Historia de los Arabes in Espaiia. Dun- 
 ham, History of Spain, vol. i.) 
 
 AKENSIDE, (Mark, M.D. F.R.S., 
 1721 — 1769). This distinguished poet 
 and physician entered as a pupil at Edin- 
 burgh when in his nineteenth year, at 
 first with the intention of becoming a 
 dissenting preacher, but he soon turned 
 his thoughts to medicine, which he stvi- 
 died diligently for two years. He did 
 not graduate at Edinburgh, but at Ley- 
 den, where he took his degree of M.D. 
 May 16, 1744, and submitted a thesis, 
 De Ortu et Incremento Foetus Humani, 
 which he printed and inscribed to Dr. 
 Mead. Two years previously to this he 
 styles himself, in a letter to Mr. Dyson, 
 his great friend and patron through life, 
 " Sui-geon in Newcastle-upon-Tyne." He 
 commenced practice as a physician at 
 Northampton, in June 1744, but he re- 
 sided there only a year and a half, for 
 Dr. Stonehouse absorbed all the practice 
 of that city and the neighbourhood. 
 Having settled in London, the Royal 
 College of Physicians, on June 20, 1751, 
 associated him as a licentiate ; and April 
 8, 17.54, he was elected a Fellow of the 
 College, having in 1753 been admitted 
 by mandamus to a doctor's degree at 
 Cambridge. His practice as a physician 
 was never extensive, but it was not in- 
 signficant. Mr. Dyson enabled him to 
 support all the necessary expenses at- 
 tending equipage, &c., by assigning to 
 him an annual income of 300/. In 1759, 
 he was chosen assistant physician to St. 
 Tliomas's hospital, of which he almost 
 immediately became one of the chief 
 physicians, and was made one of the 
 physicians to the Queen. He was selected 
 by the College of Physicians to deliver 
 the Gulstonian lectui'es, in 1755, and the 
 Croonian in 1756. He also pronounced 
 the Harveian Oration in 1759, printed 
 it, and dedicated it to the president, Dr. 
 Reeve. According to the annals of the 
 college, he was thanked by the college in 
 1766, for liis trouble in preparing the 
 195 
 
 college edition of the works of Harvey 
 for the press, and for \vriting the preface 
 which was attached to it, accompanying 
 a Life of Harvey composed by Dr. Law- 
 rence. These appointments and engage- 
 ments must have arisen from the sense 
 entertained by the college and the public 
 of his professional merits, and the ac- 
 knowledged elegance and excellence of 
 his literaiy productions. The personal 
 accounts of Akenside are few and unim- 
 portant. Mr. Pettigi-ew has placed upon 
 record a painful statement from a MS. 
 left by Dr. Lettsom, who was a pupil at 
 St. Thomas's hospital during the time 
 Akenside was one of its physicians. Dr. 
 Lettsom describes Akenside as " superci- 
 lious and unfeeling." He says that "if 
 the poor affrighted patients did not retm'n 
 a direct answer to his queries, he would 
 often instantly discharge them from the 
 hospital; that he evinced a particular dis- 
 gust to females, and generally treated them 
 with harshness. One leg of Akenside 
 was considerably shorter than the other, 
 which obUged him to wear a false heel. 
 He had a pale, strumous countenance, 
 but was always very neat and even ele- 
 gant in his dress. He wore a large white 
 wig, and carried a long sword." Lettsom 
 never knew him to spit, nor woidd he 
 suffer any pupil to spit in his presence. 
 One of them once accidentally did so, 
 yet standing at some distance behind 
 him ; the doctor instantly spun round on 
 his artificial heel, and hastily demanded 
 who was the person that spit in his face. 
 Sometimes he would order some of the 
 patients, on his visiting days, to precede 
 him with brooms, to clear the way, and 
 prevent the patients from too nearly ap- 
 proaching liim. On one of these occa- 
 sions, Richard Chester, a quaker, one 
 of the governors of the hospital, up- 
 braided him for his cniel behaviour : 
 "Know," said he, "thou art a servant 
 of this charity." On one occasion his 
 anger was excited to a very high pitch, 
 by the answer which Mr. Baker, the sur- 
 geon, gave to a question the doctor put 
 to him respecting one of his sons, who 
 was subject to epilepsy, which had some- 
 what impaired his understanding. " To 
 what study do you purpose to place him?" 
 said Akenside to Baker. "I find," re- 
 plied Baker, " he is not capable of mak- 
 ing a surgeon, so I have sent him to 
 Edinburgh, to make a physician of him." 
 Akenside turned round from Baker with 
 impetuosity, and would not speak to him 
 for a considerable time afterwards. Dr. 
 Lettsom's statement is borne out in a 
 O 2 
 
A K E 
 
 AKE 
 
 measure by the testimony of Mr. Mey- 
 rick, a surgeon and apothecary wlio fre- 
 quently called in Akenside, with whom 
 he was in habits of intimacy. " We were 
 not very much alike, either," says Mr. M. 
 " for he was stiff and set ; and I, all life 
 and spirits. He often frowned upon me 
 in a sick room. He could not bear to 
 see any one smile in the presence of an 
 invalid, and I think he lost a good deal 
 of business by the solemn sententiousness 
 of his air and manner. I wanted to 
 cheer patients up." Akenside was, how- 
 ever, in favour -with the pupils, as he 
 would occasionally condescend to explain 
 a case of disease, and his observations 
 were always sagacious. The subject 
 selected by Akenside for the Gulstonian 
 Lectiu-es, was the Functions of the Lym- 
 phatic or Absorbent System, the real na- 
 tiu'e of which was not in his time clearly 
 ascertained. By Galen and other ancient 
 authorities, the IjTnphatics were regarded 
 as forming a part of the venous system : 
 hence arose the opinions concerning 
 venous absoi-ption, a doctrine espoused 
 by many distinguished physiologists, men 
 indeed no less celebrated than Rviysch, 
 Boerhaave, Meckel, Swammerdam, and 
 Haller. Dr. William Hunter, and Dr. 
 Monro, (secundus,) embraced a contrary 
 opinion, denied venous absorption alto- 
 gether, and assigned to the lymphatics 
 the sole possession of that pecidiar office. 
 A conti'oversy sprung up between Hun- 
 ter and Monro, as to priority in promul- 
 gating this view of the subject. Their 
 opinions were not put before the public 
 until 1757 ; whereas it really appears 
 that Akenside had taken the same view 
 in the Gulstonian lectures, delivered 
 at the Royal College of Physicians, 
 on May 28, 29, and 30, 1755, as 
 stated in the records of the college. 
 Akenside did not print his lectiu'es, so 
 that his claim could be faii-ly and indis- 
 putably maintained ; but it is not vmrea- 
 sonable to suppose that the dispute which 
 ran very high between Hunter and 
 Monro, occasioned him to lay before the 
 Royal Society a paper which was read 
 Nov. 10, 1757, containing extracts from 
 his lectures. These were printed in the 
 Philosophical Transactions,(vol.l. p. 322,) 
 and they entitle him to claim the doc- 
 trine. In these extracts, however, he 
 makes no allusion to the pretensions of 
 others, but calmly states his objections to 
 the doctrine of Boerhaave and the me- 
 chanical philosophers, and contends for 
 the independency of the lymphatic sys- 
 tem. Dr. Monro was not slow to notice 
 196 
 
 these in a Postscript to his Observations 
 Anatomical and Philosophical; which was 
 replied to by Akenside in a pamphlet, 
 quoted from by the Rev. Mr. Dyce, and 
 published in 1758. His principal medi- 
 cal work, De Dysenteria Commentarius, 
 was first published in 1764, and its lati- 
 nity has always been deservedly admired. 
 His history of dysentery, and the means 
 suggested for its relief, are entitled to 
 commendation. Pathology has made 
 great advances since the time of Aken- 
 side, and the distinction between inflam- 
 mation of the serous, muscular, and 
 mucous textures, are now better under- 
 stood. The treatment of dysentery de- 
 pends upon the condition of those struc- 
 tures, and Akenside's book is therefore 
 no longer sought after but as a specimen 
 of elegant Latin composition. He was 
 also (besides some occasional papers) the 
 author of some observations on putrid 
 erysipelas, which were intended to have 
 been printed in the second volume of the 
 Transactions of the College of Physicians. 
 To prepare them for the press, the paper 
 had been sent to him from the college, 
 to which they were never returned, as 
 his death unexpectedly occuiTed from an 
 attack of putrid sore throat. 
 
 The above details belong to the life of 
 Akenside as a physician, but he is chiefly 
 known as the author of The Pleasures of 
 Imagination, and some other poems. Of 
 his minor poems there is little to be said. 
 Dr. Johnson has remarked of his odes, 
 that the sentiments commonly want foi-cc, 
 nature, or novelty ; and pointed out their 
 other defects. He speaks more favoui- 
 ably of the Pleasures of Imagination. 
 Of its plan he says : " The parts seem 
 artificially disposed, with sufficient co- 
 herence, so as that they cannot change 
 their places without injury to the design." 
 To the writer of this notice, that design 
 appears so indefinite, as to leave the 
 reader in some doubt what it really was, 
 nor do the various parts seem to be ar- 
 ranged round any leading view. This 
 remark applies to the poem as at first 
 published; it is unfair to make such an 
 objection to the poem in its second 
 form, as that was never finished. It is 
 rather an eulogy on mental pleasures 
 than on pleasures of the imagination in 
 particular. The beginning and the end 
 (the eulogy on nature as the expression 
 of what God loves) are the most agree- 
 able parts of it — at least they are the 
 simplest. The vision of Hamaodius, in 
 the second book, is as heavy as allegory 
 can make it, although, perhaps, not so 
 
AK E 
 
 AK I 
 
 dull as the episode of Solon, in the third 
 book of the improved poem. Indeed, 
 however extraordinary the poem may 
 appear, as the work of a young man of 
 twenty-three, it has little to make it 
 generally and permanently acceptable. 
 Its subject precludes its general popu- 
 larity with ordinary people ; and with the 
 higher class of minds, the deficiency 
 caused by confining its contemplations to 
 this woi-ld alone, will always leave an 
 unsatisfactory impression. It is written 
 in the conventional language of the clas- 
 sical school, and belongs to the didactic 
 and descriptive class of poems. It will 
 always maintain a certain reputation, and 
 it will always be more praised than read. 
 AKERBLAD, (John David,) a Swed- 
 ish philologist, born 1760 ; became 
 attache of the embassy to Constantinople, 
 of which he was subsequently made secre- 
 tary. He visited Palestine and Troy ; 
 went to Gottingen about the year 1800, 
 and afterwards occupied the post of 
 charge d'affaires at Paris. His oriental 
 studies led him to examine the National 
 Library, where he discovered some Coptic 
 MSS. the characters of which were un- 
 known, but of which he found the key, 
 sent to M. Silvestre de Sacy, and pub- 
 lished in the Magasin Encyclopedique. 
 Dissatisfied with some political aiTange- 
 ments, he next went to establish himself 
 at Rome, where he drew the attention of 
 the duchess of Devonshire and other 
 patrons of literature and the arts, who 
 enabled him to pursue his favourite 
 studies without interruption. But he 
 died suddenly at Rome in 1819, at the 
 age of 60, and his remains were interred 
 near the Pyramid of Cestius. The works 
 of Akerblad attest his varied and exten- 
 sive aquirements, more particularly his 
 profound knowledge of the oriental lan- 
 guages, many of which he coidd speak 
 with perfect ease. 1. Inscriptionis Phoe- 
 nicias Oxoniensis Nova Intei-pretatio ; 
 Paris, 1802, 8vo. 2. Lettre sur I'ln- 
 scription Egyptienne de Rosette, adressee 
 a M. Silvestre de Sacy ; ibid. 3. Notice 
 sur deux Inscriptions en Caracteres Ru- 
 niques trouvees a Venise, et sur les 
 Varanges ; avec les Remarques de M. 
 D'Ausse de Villoison. 4. Inscription 
 Grecque sur ime Plaque de Plomb 
 trouvee dans les environs d'Athenes ; 
 Rome, 1813. 5. Lettre sur une Inscrip- 
 tion Pht'nicienne trouvee a Athenes ; 
 Rome, 1814. Of these researches, the 
 whole are remarkable for profound know- 
 ledge of his subject, for correct and 
 ingenious deductions ; and, in fact, his 
 197 
 
 labom-s paved the way for the succeeding 
 inquiries of Young and Champollion, and 
 for all that has been done to elucidate 
 the ancient hieroglyphics of older Egypt 
 and the East. Much of M. Akerblad's 
 remarks on the Rosetta stone will be 
 found in the Cambridge Museum Criti- 
 cum, vol. ii. and in the Arch^ologia, vol. 
 xviii. from which that article is chiefly 
 drawn. With regard to his merits in 
 deciphering Punic inscriptions, the reader 
 is referred to the last publication of 
 Gesenius on that subject, and to the 
 articles Champollion and Young, in this 
 Dictionary. (See Gesen. Inscript. Phcen.) 
 AKERMAN, a Swedish engi-aver, 
 born at the commencement of the eigh- 
 teenth century. His talents becoming 
 favourably known to the Academy of 
 Sciences at Stockholm, that society, in 
 the year 1750, enabled him to open an 
 establishment at Upsal for making celes- 
 tial and terrestrial globes. His globes, 
 as improved by Akrel, another Swedish 
 engraver, have been highly esteemed. 
 AKHSCHID. See Ykhschid. 
 AKIBA, a Jewish rabbi of great re- 
 putation, whose name constantly occurs 
 in the Talmud. His history, like that of 
 most of the Talmudic doctors, is involved 
 in obscurity and fable. The chief facts 
 connected with his history are, however, 
 as follows. After the quarrel and re- 
 conciliation between Gamaliel and R. 
 Joshua, new schools arose in different 
 parts of Palestine — that of Eliezer-ben- 
 Hyrcanus in Lydda, that of Akiba in 
 Banibrah, and that of Joshua in Phekiin. 
 The second of these teachers, R. Akiba, 
 was the son of a Jewish woman, but 
 not of a Jewish father, and for many 
 years of his life was cow-herd to Calba 
 Shebua, a rich citizen of Jerusalem. 
 Having, however, gone to the schools of 
 Joshua and Eliezer, and made great pro- 
 gress under their instmctions, he married 
 the daughter of his fonner master, and 
 received with her a large dowry. The 
 school of Eliezer in Lydda was continued 
 by Akiba, and maintained a high repu- 
 tation. On the appearance of Bar-Cho- 
 chab, R. Akiba prepared in some degree 
 the way for him by predicting that he 
 was to prove the Messiah, and he is said 
 to have been the first adherent of that 
 seditious impostor. By the orders of 
 Adrian, Rufus, the governor of Pales- 
 tine took sevei^e measures with the Jews, 
 who showed symptoms of revolt, and 
 among otliers Akiba was imprisoned. 
 When Bar-Chochab was killed at the 
 storming of Bethar (Bitter, or Bethar, 
 
A K I 
 
 A KO 
 
 see Reland), with so many thousands of 
 his followers, Akiba was executed in the 
 most cruel manner imaginable, his flesh 
 being torn to pieces with iron combs, 
 A.D, 135. The Talmud, however, asserts 
 that so invincible was his fortitude, that 
 he died saying the Shema Israel, &c, 
 (the daily prayer of the Jews.) The 
 Talmudic passages, on which this account 
 is founded, are quoted in Wagenseil, 
 Sota, p. 982 (his youth and education) ; 
 Raymund, Pugio Fidei, p. 326 (his joining 
 Bar-Chochab) ; and by Dr. Pinner, in 
 his Compendium des Hierosolymitischen- 
 und-Babylonischen Thalmud, p. 33 — 37 
 (his death and fortitude). It was said 
 in the beginning of this article that his 
 history is extremely obscure and fabu- 
 lously told : the following remarks wiU 
 show that this is not an idle accusation. 
 In one passage of the Talmud it is stated 
 that he was executed by the order of L. 
 Turnus Rufus (properly L.Annius Rufus), 
 which is rather remarkable, because in 
 another passage of the same work it is 
 stated, that he married the widow of this 
 very Rufus, whom he had converted to 
 Judaism after her husband's death ! (See 
 Dr. Pinner, ubi supra.) So much for the 
 consistency with which his story is told ! 
 Let us now consider its fables. In the 
 passages quoted by Wagenseil it appears 
 that his master's daughter mari'ied him 
 secretly when he was about 40 years of 
 age, and then persuaded him to go to 
 one of the schools of the law to improve 
 his mind. Her father, discovering the 
 matter, turned her out of doors, with an 
 oath that she should never receive a 
 penny from him. R. Akiba, after twelve 
 years, returned with 12,000 scholars in 
 his train ; but this did not satisfy the 
 lady's desire for his improvement. She 
 requested him most affectionately to re- 
 turn to his school, which he did for twelve 
 years longer, and again appeared with 
 12,000 more scholars at his heels. His 
 wife came out to meet him, and scan- 
 dalized his scholars extremely by the 
 poverty and scantiness of her attire, but 
 R. Akiba told them that he and they 
 owed all their learning to her. Her 
 father now was desirous of restoring his 
 daughter to something a little better than 
 starvation, and without knowing who 
 Akiba was, applied for his advice how to 
 evade his oath. The rabbi, as a Tal- 
 mudic doctor or a Jesuit is alwaj^s bound 
 to do, furnished him with an admirable 
 evasion, discovered himself, and they 
 were reconciled, and Akiba received half 
 his property as dowry ! But this is 
 19S 
 
 nothing to other parts of his history. 
 His 24,000 scholars all died together, 
 and were all buried in the same tomb 
 with him and his wife ! ! He reached 
 the age of 120 years, and the day on 
 which he died, R. Juda the Holy was 
 born ; so that when one sun set, another 
 rose. (Wagenseil, ubi supra.) 
 
 The more sober account which is given 
 above is chiefly taken from the autho- 
 rities quoted, and from the AUgemeine 
 Geschichte des Israelitischen Volkes, by 
 Jost, who is himself a Jew, as well as 
 Dr. Pinner. The works attributed to him 
 are as follows : — 1 . Jetzirah, or The Cre- 
 ation, (a cabalistic book, sometimes attri- 
 buted to Abraham himself !) printed at 
 Mantua 1562 ; Constantinople 1724; in 
 Latin, Paris, 1552; Amsterd. 1642, by 
 Rittangel. (De Rossi Diz. voce Jetzirah.) 
 2. Othioth, or The Letters ; another caba- 
 listic book, published at Constantinople 
 early in the sixteenth century, and occa- 
 sionally reprinted elsewhere. 3. Taghin, 
 4. Mechiltin, a commentary on the cere- 
 monial law. 5. Abdalla, a cabalistic 
 book on the Sabbath (MS. in the Oppen- 
 heim Library). G. Some Prayers in the 
 Machazor. Dr. Pinner attempts to de- 
 fend the Talmud and the rabbles against 
 all their opponents, and seems to admire 
 Akiba very much. 
 
 For more on this man, see Raymund, 
 Pugio Fidei, Eisenmenger's Eutdecktes 
 Judenthum ; Jost ; Pinner ; Wolf, Bibl. 
 Hebr. and De Rossi Dizionario Storico, 
 &c. Bartolocci, Bibl. Rabb. and Leusden, 
 Pirke Aboth ; Bayle; Ersch and Grueber's 
 Encyclopedia. It appears that the Jews 
 attribute all the oral law to Akiba, and 
 that R. Meir took it down ! This is an- 
 other of the silly tales in which Jewish 
 tradition delights. It must be added, 
 that there is little reason to suppose 
 R. Akiba the author of the works attri- 
 buted to him. 
 
 AKIMOFF, a Russian painter, who 
 travelled in Germany, France, and Italy, 
 with a view of improving himself in the 
 art. He visited Rome, Florence, and 
 Bologna, and was most assiduous in his 
 study of the great masters. He had real 
 talent, and was the first of his country- 
 men who had successfidly cultivated the 
 fine arts. He became the instructor of 
 persons of the first rank. On his return 
 to Russia he was chosen director of the 
 academy of St. Petersburgh, was made 
 counsellor of state, and received the de- 
 coration of several orders. He died 15th 
 May, 1814. 
 
 AKOUI, a Tartar general, jmd first 
 
AK O 
 
 ALA 
 
 minister at the court of Peking in the 
 reign of the emperor Kienlong, during 
 the eighteenth century. He was early 
 distinguished hy his uncommon assi- 
 duity and application to every branch of 
 science. His talents and merit soon 
 brought him into public notice, and he 
 rose to the most important offices, civil 
 and military, in the state Akoui suc- 
 ceeded in military enterprises where his 
 most eminent predecessors had failed. 
 He was pre-eminently fortunate, skilful, 
 and cautious in all his campaigns, espe- 
 cially in subduing the mountainous pro- 
 vinces of Miao-sse, inhabited by bold 
 and desperate tribes of warriors, uncon- 
 quered till then. As a statesman and a 
 man of science, his abilities were still 
 more remarkable ; his public works were 
 all conducted upon a magnificent scale, 
 and executed with complete success. He 
 turned the course of rivers, formed aque- 
 ducts and canals, opened new roads, and 
 reclaimed large tracts of land from the 
 rivers and swamps. His services, at 
 once splendid and useful, rendered the 
 I'eign of his sovereign, whom he survived 
 long enough to see the happy result of 
 his labours, one of the most fortunate 
 and beneficent which the Chinese empire 
 had ever known. 
 
 The precise year of the decease of this 
 enlightened minister has not been ascer- 
 tained, but it is recorded that his great 
 and useful laboiu's continued to improve 
 and enrich the people beyond the period 
 of 1782. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AKRA, (Abraham,) author of two 
 works on the language of the Talmud 
 and the Midrash : — 1. Mearere Nema- 
 rim; Venice, 1599. 2. Chilele Midrash 
 Rabba; ibid. 1601. (De Rossi.) 
 
 AKRISC, a Levantine Jew, who lived 
 at Constantinople, and in 1562 made a 
 voyage into Egypt. He wi'ote Kol Me- 
 basher, The Voice of him that preacheth 
 Good Tidings ; a work to prove that the 
 Jews, even in their exile, have in some 
 sense a kingdom. It has often been 
 printed, and has been translated into 
 German. (De Rossi.) 
 
 ALA EDDYN HASSAN, ruler of the 
 Ghaurides in Eastern Persia and Northern 
 India, in 543 (1151) threw ofl^ the yoke 
 of the Ghaznevides, and ha\ang become 
 independent, invaded Khorassan and 
 attacked the sultan, Sandjar. He was 
 vanquished and taken prisoner ; but 
 found a generous conqueror, who had 
 the rare magnanimity to treat him with 
 kindness at his own court. The gratitude 
 of Ala Eddyn appeared extreme, and so 
 199 
 
 completely did he succeed by his flatteries 
 in conciliating the sultan's regard, as to 
 obtain his liberty and his dominions. 
 Some of his relatives, however, and also 
 his brother, having rebelled and been cut 
 oft", Ala Eddyn, transported with rage, 
 marched against Ghaznah, commanded 
 by the nephew of the sultan, gained a 
 complete victory, and used it with the 
 utmost barbarity, destroying or taking 
 prisoners the entire population. He was 
 in consequence called Djihansouz. (In- 
 cendiary of the world). 
 
 The sultan was unable to afford his 
 nephew the slightest relief, being at- 
 tacked and taken prisoner the same year 
 by the Turcomans, who had invaded 
 Khorassan. But Ala Eddyn maintained 
 himself in the mountains of Ghaur, and 
 after the retreat of the barbarians, re- 
 covered his dominion over the Ghaz- 
 nevides, and left it to his son Saif Eddyn 
 Mohammed. Ala Eddyn died about 
 551 (1156). His son's reign was brief; 
 he was succeeded, most probably re- 
 moved, by his relatives, who subsequently 
 became powerful princes in eastern 
 Persia and parts of India. 
 
 ALA EDDYN I., twenty-ninth em- 
 peror of Hindostan, second of the dynasty 
 of the Khaldjides, of Afghan origin, was 
 nephew and son-in-law of his predecessor 
 Fyi'ouz Shah II. Appointed soubah of the 
 province of Gurrah, he repulsed the in- 
 roads of the Hindoos, passed the Ner- 
 buddah, 692 h. (a.d. 1292,) devastated 
 their country, destroyed their idols, and 
 returned loaded with immense wealth. 
 Ala Eddyn now conceived the project 
 of conquering the entire Peninsida, and 
 began by treachery. In 1294, pretend- 
 ing to go on a hunting party, and con- 
 cealing his army, he suddenly fell upon 
 Ramdeo, one of the most powerful rajahs 
 of the Deccan. He succeeded in break- 
 ing up the confederacy of the rest, routed 
 an immense army led by the son of Ram- 
 deo, and pillaged the country. Leaving 
 a strong garrison in Ellichpoor, he re- 
 tiu'ned to meet his benefactor the em- 
 peror ; and imposing upon him by the 
 most specious pretences, not only dis- 
 armed his anger, but by affecting the 
 greatest alarm, induced him to come 
 almost imaccompanied to meet the young 
 conqueror. The latter threw himself at the 
 emperor's feet, making a signal the same 
 moment for the assassins to approach. 
 Having thus disposed of the emperor, he 
 marched against the capital of Delhi, 
 entered it in triumph, and usurped the 
 throne. He then seized upon the two sons 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 of Fyroiiz, put out theii- eyes, and left 
 them to perish miserably in prison. He 
 soon defeated the Moguls in immense 
 force, and put his prisoners to death. 
 Guzzerat next fell ; another invasion of 
 the Moguls was overthrown ; till, elated 
 with successive triumphs, Ala Eddyn 
 expressed his ambition to become as 
 great as Alexander and the prophet 
 Mohammed in one person. But con- 
 fining himself to a warlike career only, 
 by the advice of his oldest counsellors, 
 he carried his arms as far as Golconda, 
 subdued Malwah, and completed his 
 conquest of the Deccan. His general, 
 Khodjah Kafour, penetrating through the 
 Mahrattas, entered the Camatic in 1310, 
 and collected such immense booty, that 
 his common soldiers threw away all their 
 silver spoils to enable them to carry more 
 gold. But having overthro'wn his ene- 
 mies, Ala Eddyn had now to contend with 
 repeated conspiracies, in one of which he 
 was attacked andleft for dead, the assassins 
 having refused to cut off the head of the 
 great emperor. But he survived ; and 
 taking the hint, was led to consider seri- 
 ously his position, and set about a reform. 
 He summoned a general assembly of his 
 ministers and the most able men of his 
 vast empire ; they were commanded to 
 ascertain the real causes of the evil, 
 namely, his own unpopularity ; and 
 they reported, that the source of the 
 people's suiFei-ings lay in the monopoly 
 of interests and employments in the 
 hands of a wealthy few — in unjust privi- 
 leges, and the imposition of public bur- 
 dens too great to be borne. Added to 
 these were the alliance of a few rich 
 houses ; the imlimited power of govern- 
 ors ; the immoderate use of spirituous 
 liquors, and the coiTuption of public func- 
 tionaries, extending through all ranks. 
 The emperor instantly set to work in all 
 departments of the state ; — made a ge- 
 nei'al clearance, — a more equal partition 
 of lands, — compelled the wealthy classes 
 and monopolizers to disgorge part of their 
 ill-gotten wealth. He forbade marriages 
 between the Omrahs without his express 
 permission ; reduced taxes ; enforced 
 justice, so that robberies were no longer 
 heard of. Moreover he forbade the use of 
 wine, ixnder penalty of death, command- 
 ing the imperial cellarages to be emptied, 
 and the rich wines to be turned into 
 rivers down the public streets and squares. 
 He endowed schools and colleges ; re- 
 moved all restrictions ; introduced a new 
 cuiTency, so as to fix low prices for all 
 the necessaries of life ; and established 
 200 
 
 large magazines of public stores. Un- 
 fortunately, after having organized a 
 new and sound system of government, 
 he at length relaxed from his noble 
 efforts ; became enervated, and trusted 
 the reins to a minister who abused 
 his confidence. In parts of his vast 
 dominions, munnurs were again heard ; 
 his army suffered a reverse ; and upon 
 becoming sensible that his prime mi- 
 nister had betrayed him, he was seized 
 with rage and indignation, such as, added 
 to previous illness, carried him off in 
 1316, and in the 20th year of his reign. 
 
 Subsequent to his death, the treache- 
 rous and inhuman Kafour deprived of 
 sight the two eldest sons of his royal 
 master — a singular retribution ; — and 
 to attain his own objects, placed the" 
 yomigest on the throne. He too was 
 assassinated, and was succeeded by the 
 third son of the deceased monarch, who 
 lived and died a tyrant, the dynasty with 
 him becoming extinct. The subsequent 
 one of Touglouk Shah lasted for nearly 
 a century. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALABASTER, (Wilham,) an EngUsh 
 divine, born in Suftblk, educated at Cam- 
 bridge,where he took the degree of M.A. ; 
 was afterwards incorporated of the uni- 
 versity of Oxford, June 7, 1592. He is 
 pronounced by Wood the rarest poet and 
 Grecian that any one age or nation pi-o- 
 duced. He attended the earl of Essex 
 in his expedition to Cadiz, as his chap- 
 lain ; was induced to declare himself a 
 Roman Catholic, and published Seven 
 Motives for his Conversion ; but it is 
 observed that he discovered more for 
 returning to the church of England. 
 
 Alabaster made great proficiency in 
 what is termed cabalistic learning, which 
 consists in the combination of particular 
 words, letters, and numbers, by which it 
 is pretended you can see clearly into the 
 sense of Scripture. But he was also 
 made prebendary of St. Paul's ; doctor 
 of divinity ; and rector of Tharfield in 
 Hertfordshire. He died 1640; andleft 
 the following works : — 1 . Lexicon Penta- 
 glotton, Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syria- 
 cum, &c. ; Lond. 1637, fol. 2. Com- 
 mentarius de Bestia Apocalyptica ; 1621. 
 As a poet he was highly applauded ; he 
 wrote the Latin tragedy of Roxana, of 
 which Dr. Johnson observes — " If we 
 produced any thing worthy of notice 
 before the elegies of Milton, it was, per- 
 haps. Alabaster's Roxana." It bears date 
 of 1632, and was acted in Trinity-college 
 hall, Cambridge. 
 
 ALACAMPE, (Edward,) an Engliah 
 
A L A 
 
 ALA 
 
 Jesuit, born in 1581, became a member 
 of the English college <at Rome in 1605. 
 Three years later he entered the society 
 of the Jesuits ; in 1614 at the new college 
 in Liege ; afterwards he held the office of 
 procurator at Rome, and died in the house 
 of probation at Ghent, Feb. 6, 1646. 
 
 ALACOQUE, (Marguerite,) who as- 
 sumed also the name of Marie, was born 
 in 1647, in the diocese of Autun, and 
 devoted herself early to a conventual life. 
 A real or pretended enthusiast, her 
 visions, her raptm-es, and her miracles, 
 were the theme of monkish eidogy and 
 the som'ce of popular imposition ; and the 
 narratives of her signs and wonders 
 served to confirm, the reputation of the 
 lives and legends of the Roman-catholic 
 saints. Among her mystical works — 
 La Devotion au Ccsur de Jesus, edited 
 by father Croises, 1698 ; and La Vie de 
 la veritable Mere INIarguerite Marie ; 
 Paris, 1729, 4to, published by Jean 
 Joseph Languet. She left also letters, 
 and some little treatises on various sub- 
 jects. Her name has been rendered 
 more celebrated by the satiric lines of 
 Gresset in his Vert-Vert. 
 
 Vert- Vert etait unperroquet devot, 
 II disait bien son benedicile ; 
 Et notre mdre, et votre charite, 
 11 savait meme un peu de soliloque 
 Et des traits fins de Marie Alacoque. 
 
 ALADIN, (Ala Eddyn,) the eighth 
 prince of the dynasty of the Seldjoucides 
 of Anatolia, who lived in 611 h., (a.d. 
 1219,) was raised from a dungeon to 
 a throne ; and by his conquest of Cara- 
 mania, and by other distinguished actions, 
 not confined to war, showed how much 
 more worthy he was to reign than the 
 brother who had inunured him in a 
 prison. But the Tartars arrested him in 
 his career, and deprived him of the title 
 he had assumed of " King of the world!" 
 He died in 634, (1236,) and the Tartars 
 deprived his son Kaikhosrou of his 
 throne. 
 
 ALAGON, (Louis d',) baron of Me- 
 rargues, born in Provence in the six- 
 teenth century, fell a victim to his own 
 treachery. He entered into a plot (1605) 
 to deliver up the town of Marseilles to the 
 Spaniards. It was discovered by means 
 of a convict, to whom he had confided 
 his criminal project ; and Alagon was 
 taken at Paris in the act of communi- 
 cating upon the subject with the secre- 
 tary of the Spanish ambassador. The 
 whole scheme in writing is said to have 
 been found upon the person of the latter, 
 concealed under his garter, and affording 
 undeniable evidence of the unhappy 
 201 
 
 man's guilt. The Spanish ambassador 
 remonstrated, but in vain ; and his se- 
 cretary, being himself safe, had the vile- 
 ness to reveal every thing he knew. 
 
 Alagon was tried December 1605, and 
 condemned to lose his head — a sentence 
 which took place in the Place de Greve. 
 The body was quartered and exposed on 
 four gates in Paris, while his head was 
 sent as an example to the people of Mar- 
 seilles. It is related that the king pro- 
 posed to commute the punishment ; but 
 that the guilty man's relatives — the duke 
 de Montpensier and the cardinal de 
 Joyeuse, exclaimed, " that if no other 
 executioner could be found for such a 
 crime, they would execute him them- 
 selves ;" a reply which at once stopped 
 the fount of royal mercy. 
 
 ALAIN, (Robert,) born at Paris, 1680, 
 a dramatic writer of very mediocre repu- 
 tation, who wrote several comedies. 
 ALAIN CHARTIER. See Chartier. 
 ALAINE, (Robert,) a person who 
 held an office under some nobleman in 
 the time of queen Elizabeth, and who is 
 now only known by an elaborate treatise 
 on astronomical instnmients, preserved 
 in the library of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. 
 
 ALALEONA, (Giuseppe,) bom atMa- 
 cerata in 1670 ; was educated to the law, 
 and became professor in his native town, 
 afterwards its governor, and also Auditor 
 de Rota at Perugia. He died in 1749, 
 and left several professional treatises ; 
 also a letter upon the Considerations of 
 the Mai-quis Orsi, respecting the work 
 entitled De la Maniere de bien penser ; 
 and which gave rise to a curious literary 
 controversy. Alaleona's letter is a cri- 
 tique upon the terms employed by the 
 academicians of the Crusca ; and presents 
 a happy piece of badinage upon their 
 peculiarities, elucidated by an encounter 
 of the wits between two millers, but 
 which could not be very well rendered 
 to the taste of Engish readers. The pro- 
 duction is, however, extolled in the 
 Giornale de' Letterati d'ltalia, with re- 
 gard to the good taste, the elegant 
 touches, and the judgment which it dis- 
 plays. The author left several other 
 pieces interspersed throughout different 
 collections of the times. 
 
 ALAMANNI, (Luigi, 1495—1556,) 
 a native of Florence, and son of Piero-di- 
 Francesco Alamanni, and of Francesca 
 Paganelli. The instructions which he 
 received from Francesco Cattani of Diac- 
 ceto, a very learned man of his time, 
 procured him the acquaintance and the 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 friendsliip of many of the scholars and 
 members of the Platonic academy, which 
 had been established by Cosimo L at the 
 instance of Semistus Plato, for the sake 
 of superseding the philosophy of Ari- 
 stotle. To obtain this great object, the 
 study of the ancient Greek writers was a 
 matter of absolute necessity, to clear up 
 and establish the different doctrines 
 Avhich they wished to introduce. Ala- 
 manni therefore applied himself closely 
 to the attainment of the Greek language ; 
 in which he made so great a progress, 
 that at the age of 21 years he published 
 his Greek grammar, dedicating it to his 
 Florentine teacher, Eufrosino Bonino, 
 and published in 1516, under the title of 
 Enchiridion Gramatices. In the follow- 
 ing year he entered into a conspiracy 
 against the cardinal Giulio de MecUci, 
 and was obliged to fly to Venice, an 
 asylum which he was also obliged to quit 
 as unsafe when this cardinal succeeded 
 Adrian VIL on the pontifical throne, 
 under the title of Clement VII. In 
 his flight, however, he was arrested 
 at Brescia, and woidd perhaps have 
 ended his days by the hand of tlie 
 executioner, had it not been for the 
 senator Carlo CappeUo, who allowed 
 him to escape. Obliged then to seek for 
 safety, he led a wandering life till the 
 year 1527, when the Medici having lost 
 their power, he was recalled to Florence. 
 In the three following years he under- 
 took many journies, and performed se- 
 veral embassies to defend and establish 
 the liberty of his country ; but the Medici 
 having once more regained their autho- 
 rity, he was again obliged to go to Pro- 
 vence, where he remained three years ; 
 but being in the end declared a rebel, 
 he retired to France, where he was well 
 received by Francis I., by whom he was 
 entrusted with different employments, 
 honoured with the order of S. Michel, 
 and ultimately by Catharine de Medici 
 appointed to the office of house-steward 
 in 1537. In this character he had occa- 
 sion to visit Rome and Naples, and for 
 some time he was in the service of car- 
 dinal Ippolito d'Este the younger, who 
 was very much attached to the interest 
 of Francis. On his return to France, he 
 was, in the year 1544, sent as ambassador 
 to Charles V., before whom whilst he 
 was one day making a long speech, 
 praising many acts of that emperor, and 
 often using the word Aquila, Charles 
 repeated some of the verses which 
 Alamanni had written in favour of 
 Francis I., in which he had stigmatized 
 202 
 
 the emperor's conduct by saying, " the 
 rapacious eagle, which in order to de- 
 vour more has two beaks ; " to which 
 Alamanni, without the least discom- 
 posure, immediately replied, " Your 
 majesty ought to remember that at 
 that time I was writing as a poet, to 
 whom it is allowed to use fiction and 
 fable ; but now I am speaking as an am- 
 bassador, to whom it is not pei-mitted to 
 depart from truth." This answer pleased 
 not only the emperor, who loaded him 
 with distinctions and honour, but also 
 Francis, who gi-anted the abbey of Belle 
 Ville, worth a thousand ducats a-year, to 
 his son Battista, and soon after also the 
 bishopric of Bazos and^of Macon. At the 
 deatli of Francis, Alamanni was equally 
 protected, employed, and favoured by 
 Henry II., who succeeded to the throne 
 in 1547; and from whom he received a 
 very large golden flem--de-lis, wliicli he 
 sent to Genoa as a present in 1551. He 
 died in 1556 in the city of Amboise, and 
 was interred in the church of the Coi'- 
 deliers in Paris. The works of Alamanni 
 (all in Italian and in verse) are nume- 
 rous, and were first published in Lyons 
 in 1532 and 1533 : they consist of elegies 
 (which he first ventured to write in 
 Italian verse), eclogues, satires, sonnets, 
 hymns, penitential psalms, stanzas, small 
 poems, 'selve,'and the translation of the 
 Antigone of Sophocles. They are much 
 and deservedly esteemed for their ele- 
 gance and good taste ; for he seems to 
 have been born a poet — so much so as to 
 be able to dictate sonnets extempore, and 
 may justly be reckoned amongst the m- 
 provvisatori. He also wrote a poem, 
 entitled, Girone il Cortese ; and left to 
 Battista, his son, another poem, I'Avar- 
 chide, on the siege of Bourges, which by 
 some has been called by the Latin name 
 of Avaricum, from which he formed his 
 title. Neither of these poems is worth 
 much : the former is a translation of the 
 old French romance of Giron le Courtois, 
 and the latter a very close imitation, if 
 not a copy, of the Iliad. The same must 
 be said of La Flora, a comedy written in 
 verses of sixteen syllables oAXeASdruccioli. 
 But his most celebrated work is a poem in 
 blank verse, divided into six cantos under 
 the title. La Coltivazione, which is by some 
 considered little inferior to the Georgics. 
 He is the author also of some esteemed 
 epigrams, and of a novel, dedicated to 
 Bettina L. Spinola : the latter is still in 
 MS. in the Nani library at Venice. 
 
 ALAMANNI, (Joseph,) born at 
 Milan in 1572, entered at 16 the order 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 of the Jesuits, and died at Asti, 1630, 
 aa;ed 74. He wi'ote — Histoire de I'lniage 
 Miraculeuse, &c. ; a Discourse pro- 
 nounced in the Senate of Genoa ; and 
 Traite de la Largesse Chretienne. 
 
 ALAMANNI, (Cosmo,) his brother ; 
 also a Jesuit. Published a work called 
 Somnie de toute la Philosophie, d'apres la 
 Doctrine de S. Thomas d'Aquin ; Pavia, 
 1618; reprinted at Paris. 
 
 ALAMANNI, (Niccolo.) See Ale- 
 
 MANNI. 
 
 ALAMOS DE BARRIENTOS, (Bal- 
 tasar, 1560 — 1640,) is best known as the 
 translator of Tacitus into Spanish. He 
 wrote, however, some other things, which 
 were esteemed in their day. 
 
 ALAN DE LYNN, or Alarms de 
 Lynna, a famous theologian of the first 
 half of the fifteenth century. He flourished 
 about 1420. He was born at Lynn in 
 Norfolk, and studied philosophy and 
 theology at Cambridge with much credit, 
 and took the degree of Doctor there. He 
 afterwards returned to his native place, 
 where he entered the order of the Car- 
 melites, and spent the rest of his life. 
 Alan de Lynn was a most laborious 
 writei", and left a multitude of books that 
 were the fruits of his pen ; but they seem 
 to have been more remarkable for their 
 number, than for any interest they are at 
 present calculated to excite. A long list 
 will be found in Tanner, which it woidd 
 serve little purpose to repeat here. He 
 followed the taste which was common in 
 his age, of expounding Scripture allego- 
 rically ; but he has been praised for his 
 general method of treating theological 
 subjects, and particularly for his dili- 
 gence in making indexes. Alan de Lynn 
 was much distinguished among his con- 
 temporaries for his talent in preaching. 
 
 ALAN OF TEWKESBURY, the au- 
 thor of a Latin treatise on the Life and 
 Banishment of Thomas a Becket, Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbvu-y. (See Alanus de 
 Insulis, p. 204 of this Dictionary). 
 
 ALAN, ALLEN, or ALLYN, (Wil- 
 liam,) cardinal, son of George Allen, of 
 Staffordshire, was born " of gentile pa- 
 rentage" (says Fidler), at Rossal, Lanca- 
 shire, in 1532. He entered Oriel college, 
 Oxford, in 1547, where " he profited to a 
 miracle in logic and philosophy under 
 Morgan Philips, the chiefest tutor in 
 Oriel " (Wood) ; and after various aca- 
 demical distinctions, was in 1556, in the 
 reign of queen Mary, chosen principal 
 of St. Mary's hall. l\\ 1558 he was 
 made canon of York, and here that 
 preferment to which his learning and 
 203 
 
 abilities might 
 wholly ceased. 
 
 conducted him, 
 year Elizabeth 
 
 have 
 This 
 ascended the throne, and Allen, a zealous 
 Romanist, retired to Louvain, and applied 
 himself to the service of Roman catholics, 
 and the maintenance of their cause. 
 During a short return to England on the 
 score of health, he rendered himself so 
 obnoxious by his exertions to convert 
 and reclaim, that he was obhged to con- 
 ceal himself, and in 1568 again to quit 
 the country. He was very warmly re- 
 ceived abroad, and at various colleges 
 honours were conferred upon him. At 
 Douay, Rhemes, and Rome he esta- 
 blished schools for the education of 
 English Roman catholics. His zeal now 
 overpowered all feelings of loyalty ; 
 and such were the spirit and tenour 
 of his writings, that correspondence 
 with him was held to be a treasonable 
 offence. Thomas Alfield, a Jesuit, 
 was tried and executed in 1585, for 
 bringing some of his books into the 
 kingdom. His name, Willam Allyn, 
 stands first among the translators of the 
 New Testament, printed at Rhemes in 
 1582, into " what they," says Lewis, " call- 
 ed English;" and also of the Old Testa- 
 ment, forming part of the Douay Bible, not 
 published till 1607. He combined with 
 Parsons, the Jesuit, in urging Philip of 
 Spain to invade England, and in writing 
 two small books ; — the one, maintaining 
 that by virtue of the bull of pope 
 Sixtus V. the queen was accursed and 
 deprived of her crown, and that crown 
 transfeiTed to Philip ; the other, pro- 
 claiming her schismatic, heretic, usurper, 
 and declaring her subjects absolved from 
 their oaths of fidelity. These were 
 printed at Antwerp, for dispersion in- 
 England on tlie anticipated landing of 
 the Spaniards. When upon the detection 
 of Babington's conspiracy, Sir William 
 Stanley surrendered Deventer, the capital 
 of Overyssel, to Spain, Allyn wrote 
 Epistola de Daventriae Ditione, in which 
 (says Fuller) " he did not only commend 
 the treason, but excited others to the like 
 exploit of perfidiousness, as if they were 
 neither bound to serve or obey an excom- 
 municated queen." He was in reward 
 created cardinal of St. Martin's by the 
 pope ; and after the failure of the in- 
 vasion (1588) he was made archbishop 
 of Mechlin by the king of Spain. We 
 learn fi-om Bacon, that a hope was held 
 out in England of his being elected pope. 
 He settled at Rome, and resided there till 
 his death in 1594, (not, it was surmised, 
 without the aid of poison from his asso- 
 
ALA 
 
 A LA 
 
 dates the Jesuits,) and was buried in the 
 English college there. He had out- 
 stripped in violence a few more sober 
 Roman catholics, and towards the close of 
 his life was himself visited by some pangs 
 of compunction. He was desirous to 
 have had an interview with the English 
 students at Rome, but the Jesuit who 
 attended him, and whose society did not 
 approve the apparent backsliding of 
 A.llen, prevented it. He is allowed to 
 liave been one of the most able advocates 
 of the Romish church of his time. His 
 character is drawn in very different 
 colours by popish and protestant writers ; 
 but " let them say what they please, 
 (quoth Wood), certain it is, he was an 
 active man, and of great parts and pru- 
 dence." His books are numerous : — The 
 Declaration of the Sentence of Pope 
 Sextus V. and An Admonition to the 
 Nobility and People of England, before 
 alluded to. Tracts on Purgatory and 
 Pray^s for the Dead ; on the Power of 
 the Pi-iesthood to remit Sins ; on Con- 
 fession ; on Indvdgences ; on the Sacra- 
 ments ; Worshipping Saints, &c. &c. 
 A true, sincere, and modest Defence of 
 Christian Catholics, printed in 1583, in 
 answer to a book written by Lord Bur- 
 leigh, is deemed the best of his pro- 
 ductions. 
 
 ALAND, (John Fortescue,) first Baron 
 Fortescue of Credan, a baron of the 
 exchequer, and puisne judge successively 
 of the King's Bench and Common Pleas, 
 was descended from the famous Sir John 
 Fortescue, chancellor of England in the 
 reign of Henry VL ; was born March 7, 
 1670, and was the son of Edmund For- 
 tescue, Esq. of London, and Sarah Aland 
 of Waterford, whose name he assumed. 
 He became a member of the Inner 
 Temple, of wliich society he was reader 
 in 1716. On the 22d of October, 1714, 
 he was appointed solicitor-general to the 
 Prince of Wales (Raymond's Reports) ; 
 and, on the 21st of December, 1715, 
 solicitor-general to the king (Beatson's 
 Index). On the 24th of January, 1717, 
 he was made a bai'on of the exchequer, 
 from whence in the next year (May 19) 
 he was transferred to the King's Bench, 
 in which office he continued until 1727. 
 In the next year Aland was made a 
 })uisne judge of the court of Common 
 Pleas ; from whence he retired in 1 746, 
 in consequence of his great age and in- 
 creasing infirmities. As a mark of his 
 approbation, the king created Aland an 
 Irish peer, but this honoiu" he did not 
 long enjoy, as he died on the 19th of 
 204 
 
 December in the same year ; — about six 
 months. Aland edited a work of his 
 great ancestor, Su John Fortescue, en- 
 titled, The Difference between an Abso- 
 lute and Limited Monarchy (8vo. London 
 1714), to which he prefixed a preface, 
 which evidences an extensive acquaint- 
 ance with Anglo-Saxon Literature. So 
 highly were his literary attainments es- 
 teemed, and his judicial merits appreci- 
 ated, that the university of Oxford con- 
 ferred on him, by diploma, in 1733, the 
 degree of doctor of civil law; from whence 
 some writers have presumed he had been 
 educated at that university. The facts, 
 however, that this circumstance is not 
 mentioned in the diploma, and that his 
 name does not appear in the list of gra- 
 duates, are sufficient to rebut this pre- 
 sumption. After his death was published 
 a collection of reports taken by him and 
 called by his name (folio, 1748). It 
 may, perhaps, be as well to observe, that 
 Lord Fortescue has been frequently con- 
 founded with William Fortescue, Master 
 of the Rolls in 1741, who was the inti- 
 mate friend of Pope and the wits of his 
 day. 
 
 ALANSON, (John,) probably a native 
 of Northumberland ; became a member 
 of the society of Jesuits in 1621 ; in 1676 
 he was prefect of the society at St. Omer. 
 He died in England, Feb. 10, 1684. 
 
 Another of the name of Alanson was a 
 member of the same society, but nothing 
 more is known of him. 
 
 ALANUS DE INSULIS, or Alan de 
 L'Isle. There were two persons in the 
 twelfth centm-y of this name, both men 
 of celebi'ity, which has been the cause 
 of much confusion ; the more so, as 
 little is known of the life of either. The 
 first, who was senior at least by some 
 years to his more celebrated namesake, 
 was better known as Alan bishop of 
 Auxerre, and was born at L'Isle (or, as 
 it is more commonly spelt, Lille), in 
 Flanders, somewhere near the beginning 
 of the twelfth century. About a.d. 1128 
 he studied under St. Bernard, at Clair- 
 vaux, and soon distinguished himself 
 above his companions in learning. St. 
 Bernard placed him over the abbey of 
 La Rivour, in the diocese of Troyes in 
 Champagne, and in 1151 caused him to 
 be appointed to the bishopric of Auxerre. 
 He quitted his see in 1167, and retired 
 to Clairvaux, where he died in 1181. 
 His principal work is the Life of his 
 master St. Bernard, which is pi-inted 
 with St. Bernard's works. The Com- 
 mentary on the Prophecies of Merlin, 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 frequently attributed to him, belongs, 
 there can be little doubt, to the second 
 Alan de Tlsle. 
 
 Of the life of this latter, who was one 
 of the greatest scholars and most famous 
 men of his time, and who obtained by 
 his extensive acquirements the appella- 
 tion of Doctor UiiiversaUs, very little is 
 known that can be trusted in. It is even 
 doubtful of what country he was ; although 
 it seems nearly certain, that if he were 
 not an Englishman by birth, he was at 
 least so by his kindred. We may observe 
 that the manner in which, in Alan's prin- 
 cipal poem, the Anti-Claudianus, he men- 
 tions the poem of Joseph of Exeter on 
 the Trojan war (a passage which has not 
 hitherto been noticed), seems to show that 
 he was an Englishman : 
 
 " Illic patinoso plebescit carmine nosier 
 Eiiniiis, et Priami fortunas intonat." 
 
 A very learned article devoted to the bio- 
 grapliy of this writer will be found in the 
 sixteenth volume of the Histoire Litteraire 
 de la France ; the writer of which arrives 
 at the result, by the comparison of various 
 scattered passages of early authors, that 
 Alan, whom he supposes from his name 
 to have been born at Lille, wrote his 
 first works, that is, his poetry, either in 
 England, or at all events in some town 
 on the continent which was then subject 
 to the English king. His reputation 
 seems to have drawn him into Sicily, 
 imder the government of king Roger and 
 his children, where he was made canon 
 of Benevento. When, in 1169, the 
 French were expelled from the Two 
 Sicilies, Alan seems to have returned 
 into France or to have come direct to 
 England. All tliese are little better than 
 presumptions : but this is certain, be- 
 cause it is vouched by Gervase of Dover, 
 that, about the year 1174, he became a 
 monk at Canterbury. About the year 
 1 1 79, it is probable that he accompanied 
 the archbishop of Canterbuiy to Rome 
 to the council of the Lateran, in which the 
 errors of the Waldenses and other here- 
 tics were proscribed ; and the pope is 
 said there to have charged him with the 
 task of writing against them, which he 
 performed with much vigom', as may be 
 seen from his works which remain. 
 
 In this same year, Alan was chosen 
 prior of Canterbury, in which dignity he 
 exhibited extraordinary vigour in de- 
 fending the privileges of the church, 
 against both the king and the archbishop; 
 and, in order to remove liim from a place 
 where his opposition created much em- 
 205 
 
 barrassment, he was in 11 86 elected abbot 
 of Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire, at 
 which place he wrote the life of St.Thomas 
 of Cantei-bury, which forms part of the 
 Quadrilogus. From tliis period we have 
 no certain information on the life of this 
 universal scholar ; but the popular ac- 
 count represents him as having retired 
 to Citeaux, where he is supposed to have 
 ended his days in the first year of the 
 thirteenth century. If this be true, it is 
 probable that his zeal liad been no less 
 conspicuous at Tewkesbury than at Can- 
 terliiny, and that he had found his abbey 
 too disagreeable a residence to remain 
 there. 
 
 The obscurity of Alan's life has been the 
 cause of many errors, and also of many 
 fables. He has been sometimes con- 
 founded with others of the same name ; 
 and in one case an insulated circumstance 
 of his life has given materials for the 
 creation of another person of his name, 
 for Tanner and others speak of Alan of 
 Tewkesbury, the author of the Life of 
 Thomas a Becket, as a different person. 
 The great celebrity of Alan de L'Isle 
 gave rise, as is said, to a proverbial say- 
 ing, Siifficiat vobis vidisse Alatium ; but 
 a popular legend explained this saying 
 in a different manner. While Alan was 
 at Paris, as we are told, where tradition 
 said that he taviglit the seven arts, with 
 the laws and the decretals, he undertook 
 to explain in public the mystery of the 
 Trinity. On the evening which preceded 
 the day when he was to give effect to 
 his promise, as he was walking along 
 the river side, he saw a child who was 
 occupied in carrying water from the river 
 and poui'ing it into a hole which he had 
 made in the sand. " What are you 
 doing, my child?" asked the universal 
 doctor. " I intend to pour all the water 
 of the river into this hole," replied the 
 child, " and I will not give over imtil it 
 is done." " Nay," said the doctor, " thou 
 art a child indeed, for the thing is im- 
 possible. And pray, wlicn dost thou 
 expect to have done?" " Sir," said tlie 
 child, " I shall succeed in this under- 
 taking much easier and sooner than you 
 will succeed in the design you have in 
 your head." " And what design is that?" 
 said Alan. " You want to make a parade 
 of your knowledge, by explaining the 
 mystery of the Trinity : but that is more 
 impossible than this which I have in 
 hand." The doctor was astonished and 
 disconcerted : in the morning he went 
 to the appointed place, and ascended the 
 chair ; and then, raising himself before 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 the auditors, he pronoiinced the words^ 
 " Let it suffice you to have seen Alan !" 
 (Siifficiat vohis vidisse yllaninn,) and, 
 turning ahout, immediately left the as- 
 sembly. It may he observed, that this 
 story (as far as the i-ebuke of the child is 
 concerned) is but a repetition, with some 
 little variation, of one which had p:e- 
 viously been related of St. Augustine. 
 (See Lancillot de Vita Sti. Augustini, 
 ii. 8.) 
 
 The works of Alan de Lisle are rather 
 numerous, both in prose and verse, but 
 many of them still remain inedited. 
 They all show us that the character for 
 learning which his contemporaries gave 
 him was not unfounded. His style is 
 better in his verse than in his prose, and 
 is indeed piuer than most of the writers 
 of that age of comparatively good Latin 
 composition. Alan's most famous work 
 is a poem entitled Anti-Claudianus, in 
 nine books, called by some The Encyclo- 
 pedia, from the number and variety of 
 the subjects on which it treats. It is a 
 kind of moral and didactic poem, in 
 which almost all the arts and sciences, 
 as well as the virtues and vices, are in- 
 troduced. In the thirteenth century this 
 poem had already become a classical book 
 in the schools, and a commentary was 
 written upon it by an English scholar 
 named Ralph de Long-Champ, and again, 
 in the fourteenth, by Adam de la Bassee, 
 a canon of Lille. Editions of this poem 
 were printed at Basil in 1536, at Venice 
 in 1582, and at Antwei-p in 1625, without 
 the author's name. Another famous 
 work by this author is commonly found 
 under the title of De Planctu Natura?, 
 and is directed against the general luxury 
 and viciousness of his contemporaries. 
 It is written partly in vei'se and partly 
 in prose, and is intended to be an imita- 
 tion of the work of Boethius De Conso- 
 latione Philosophise. This work was 
 published with notes by Leo Allatiiis. 
 Of the Parabolse, another poetical work 
 of this author, there were printed several 
 early editions ; and in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury it was translated into French. Alan's 
 chief prose works are — a collection of 
 Sermons, which by some authors have 
 been much praised ; his Commentary on 
 the Prophecies of Merlin, in which he has 
 collected much historical information, 
 and makes frequent quotations from the 
 English chronicles ; his treatise Contra 
 Albigenses, Waldenses, Judaeos, et Pa- 
 ganos, published in 8vo. by Mascon, at 
 Paris, in 1618 ; his Dicta de Lapide Phi- 
 losophico, printed at Leyden in 1600, &c. 
 206 
 
 All these works (except the Commentary 
 on Merlin), with several others, were col- 
 lected into one volume folio, by Charles 
 de Visch, prior of the monastery of 
 Dmies, and published at Antwerp in 
 1564. Pez, in his Anecdota, tom. i. 
 part 2, has printed a work by Alanus de 
 L'Isle, in five books, entitled De Arte 
 seu Articulis Catholicse Fidei. The Life 
 of Thomas of Canterbury will be found 
 in the edition of St. Thomas's Letters. 
 For a more detailed account of Alan aird 
 of his writings, we refer to the article 
 in the Histoire Litteraire de France. An 
 account of his poems will be found in 
 Leyser, Hist. Poet. Med. ^vi, where also 
 are printed the first book of the Anti- 
 Claudianus, the metres of the work De 
 Planctu Naturae, and the whole of the 
 Parabolze. 
 
 It may be observed that, among the 
 nimierous persons of some little note, 
 who, during the twelfth, thirteenth, and 
 fourteenth centuries, bore the name of 
 Alanus or Alan, there was one, a cele- 
 brated jiu-isconsidt of the end of the thir- 
 teenth century, who lived at Bologna, 
 who was also distingviished by the name 
 of the Universal. 
 
 ALARD, (Francis,) of Brussels, born 
 about the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, became a convert to the opinions 
 of Luther, and escaped from his convent 
 belonging to the order of Dominican friars, 
 by whom he had been greatly admired 
 as a preacher. He then studied divinity 
 at Jena and Wittemberg ; but on the death 
 of the faithful friend who had aided him 
 in his escape, he retui-ned to Brussels 
 and solicited the assistance of his father. 
 Having first, however, met liis mother, 
 who was a violent bigot, she not only 
 reproached him bittei-ly, but denounced 
 him to the Inquisition. So great was 
 her indignation on his refusal to become 
 reconciled to the catholic church, that 
 she is said to have called for his con- 
 demnation, and even offered to supply 
 the wood to burn him. On the night 
 before his appointed execution, it is de- 
 clared that he heard a voice, saying, 
 "Francis, arise and depart;" and how 
 far the particulars given of his escape 
 are true, is not known. By some means, 
 however, he was enabled to leave his 
 prison, and arrived in safety at Olden- 
 burgh, where he was made almoner to 
 the pi'ince. Here he continued till reli- 
 gious toleration was proclaimed at Ant- 
 werp, when he again returned, and was 
 earnestly solicited by his father to 
 embrace the faith he had abandoned : 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 but so convincing were the arguments 
 of the son, tliat the parent also was 
 induced to renounce the errors of popery. 
 When the persecutions of the duke of 
 Alba at length drove him from the 
 Netherlands, he sought an asylum in 
 Holstein, where he was appointed by 
 Christian IV. of Denmark, to the curacy 
 of Wilster, in which he continued till his 
 death, 1578. His works are — 1. The 
 Confession of Antwei-p ; 2. Exhortation 
 of the Minister of Antwerp; 3. Agenda, 
 or Discipline of Antwerp ; 4. Catechism ; 
 5. Treatise on Original Sin, &c. 
 
 ALARD, (William, 1572—1644,) son 
 of the preceding. After receiving his 
 education, he went to Wittemberg, where 
 he distinguished himself by his theses. 
 In 1595 he was called home, and made 
 joint rector of the college of Krempen, 
 and afterwards pastor of the . church 
 in the same place. He was the au- 
 thor of several Latin treatises, held in 
 some repute at the period of their 
 publication. 
 
 ALARD, (Lambert,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, born 1600; studied at Krempen, 
 and also at Hamburg. He completed 
 his education at Leipsic, and upon his 
 return to his native place, his high repu- 
 tation as a scholar and a poet led to his 
 being appointed dean of the college. He 
 became subseqviently inspector of the 
 schools at Brunswick, and assessor of the 
 council of Meldorf. He died May 29, 
 1672. His works ai'e — Delicise Atticse; 
 Leips. 1624, 12mo. 2. Heraclius Saxo- 
 nicus, &c. ; ibid. 1624, 12mo. 3. Grascia 
 in Nuce, seu Lexicon Novum omnium 
 Graecas Linguae Primogeniarum ; Leips. 
 1628—1632, 12mo. 4. Promptuarium 
 Pathologicum Novi Testament! ; Leips. 
 1635, 1636, 12mo. 5. Lavirifolia, sive 
 Poematinn Juvenilium Apparatus, 1627; 
 besides other works in prose and verse. 
 
 ALARIC I. As this is the first gi-cat 
 Gothic personage whom we have yet 
 met with in the present work, and as 
 many names connected with the nation 
 or with him will hereafter occur, Alai'ic 
 will require a somewhat larger space than 
 we can devote to any of the rest. 
 
 The Goths had been spread over most 
 of northern Europe for centuries, when 
 Alaric arose to fix upon himself the at- 
 tention of mankind. With the exception 
 of those settled in the three kingdoms of 
 Scandinavia, few of them had any per- 
 manent location. Restless by character, 
 and averse from the peaceful arts, they 
 had Mien on most of the tribes between 
 the Euxine and the Baltic. Sometimes 
 207 
 
 the arrival of strangers more power- 
 ful than themselves had driven them 
 from their habitations in Hungary, Po- 
 land, and Germany, and forced them to 
 carry their predatory arms into more 
 distant regions. The state of the Roman 
 power, too, had some influence on their 
 destiny. While the reins of empire were 
 held by vigorous hands, the barbarians 
 were content to place themselves on the 
 distant Dneister ; when they knew those 
 hands were feeble, they ravaged both 
 sides of the Danube. This latter river, 
 indeed, seemed to be the natural boun- 
 dary between the Roman and the barbaric 
 world ; and the wisest emperors were 
 those who regarded the intervening re- 
 gion as the debateable ground, where tlie 
 battles of the empire were to be fought. 
 The Danube, however, was frequently 
 passed ; and the money of Rome was 
 sometimes required to effect what her 
 arms vainly attempted, — the reti'eat of 
 the invaders. After the destruction of 
 Decius and his army, (a.d. 250,) in the 
 ancient Moesia, Rome dreaded the Goths ; 
 for though she sometimes vanquished 
 them, the chastisement was felt only for 
 a time, and required another to render it 
 effectual. The expedient of paying them 
 money to prevent their incursions into 
 the provinces, was the very worst that 
 could have been devised. The money 
 was regarded as tribute ; it caused them 
 to despise the unwarlike hands that offered 
 it ; and if it were not punctually paid, it 
 afforded them a good excuse for re- 
 crossing the Danube. But frequently 
 they did so without one ; and when the 
 frontier happened to be well defended, 
 they carried their arms into the provinces 
 bordering on the Bosphorus. As they 
 could budd fleets in the ports of that sea, 
 and in those of the Euxine, no coast of 
 Greece or of Asia Minor was secure from 
 their ravages. Hence the anxiety of 
 succeeding emperors to make them the 
 allies, if possible the subjects, of Rome. 
 Though Claudian had triumphed over 
 them, his successor, Aurelian, entered 
 into a treaty, by which he engaged a 
 body of 2000 horse to join his army, and 
 left the great province of Dacia to their 
 undisturbed possession. Frequently, 
 too, their infantry was required to 
 oppose the other enemies of Rome. But 
 what dependence could be placed on a 
 people split into different tribes, and 
 under the command of rival chiefs? Con- 
 stantine the Great found it necessary to 
 oppose them, and he did so on two occa- 
 sions with success. They had other 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 enemies, of whom the most formidable 
 were the Huns. Humbled by these 
 strangers, they threw themselves on the 
 mercy of Valens, (376,) who allowed 
 them to settle in Moesia. Their arms, 
 it was hoped, would repress the invasions 
 of other barbarians over the Danube. The 
 policy of Valens has been much censured 
 by historians. To admit, within the 
 confines of the empire, a body of people 
 approaching a million in number, was 
 certainly not a wise policy ; but the 
 emperor doubtless remembered that his 
 predecessors had often treated with them ; 
 tliat they were converted to Christianity ; 
 and he might indulge the hope that in 
 time they would become no less obedient 
 than the people of Gaul or Britain. But 
 instead of confidence, he treated them 
 with suspicion ; before crossing the 
 Danube, he deprived them of their arms ; 
 his officers offended them by petty vexa- 
 tions, and exasperated them by insult. 
 Injury will often be more willingly borne 
 by high-souled barbarians, than insult, 
 especially when it comes from men 
 despised as cowai-ds. To vindicate their 
 new rights, they frequently recuiTed to 
 arms ; they ravaged Thrace ; and though 
 they were checked at the battle of Sali- 
 ces, (377,) their numbers were soon aug- 
 mented by new swarms from the great 
 cradle of their race. In 378, Vailens 
 himself found it necessary to march 
 against them ; but he was unable to 
 oppose the tide, and in the vicinity of 
 Adrianople he lost his army, his empire, 
 and his life. On the bulwarks of that 
 city they could make no impression, but 
 for their failure they were sufficiently 
 consoled by the plunder of the neigh- 
 bouring provinces. In the depredations 
 of the country, the Ostrogoths under 
 Hermanric were not more dreaded than 
 the Wisigoths under Fritigern. But on 
 the death of this latter monarch in 379, 
 there was nothing but disunion in the 
 camp ; the Wisigoths themselves had 
 several chiefs who pursued diflTerent in- 
 terests ; the Alans and Huns, who for 
 some time had been united with them, 
 were discontented; Theodosius, the suc- 
 cessor of Valens, was able by promises, 
 and still more by money, to procure the 
 submission of several chiefs, and their 
 example constrained the rest to accept 
 his offers (382). Even Athanaric, whose 
 pretensions equalled those of Fritigern, 
 was persuaded to embrace the friendship 
 of the emperor. Most of the Wisigoths 
 enlisted under his banners ; an army of 
 the Ostrogoths, whom the hope of booty 
 208 
 
 drew across the Danube, was surprised 
 and slain, and the ferocity of the nation 
 was crushed for a season. While a 
 large colony of the Wisigoths was settled 
 in Thrace, the remnant of the Ostrogoths 
 was transplanted to Phrygia and Lydia ; 
 and thus a twofold advantage was antici- 
 pated, — the separation of two dangerous 
 people, who, when imited, were truly 
 formidable ; and the protection of two 
 distant frontiers. That hope, however, 
 was very partially realized. If they fre- 
 quently repelled the invaders, they no 
 less frequently rose against the provin- 
 cial governors ; they plundered the colo- 
 nists ; they intercepted the contributions 
 exacted by the government ; and they 
 were quite as ready to rob as to 
 defend the region committed to their 
 charge. But their irregularities were 
 unnoticed, partly from inability to punish 
 them, and partly from a consideration 
 of their real ser\'ices. The aid which 
 they afforded to Theodosius, in the de- 
 struction of Maximin, (388,) was such 
 indeed as might atone for many acts of 
 rebellion. 
 
 In 394 Alaric appears more promi- 
 nently on the stage of history. Belonging 
 to the noble family of the Batti (Battha- 
 rum ex genere origo mirifica), the second 
 in dignity among the Goths, and sprung 
 from a deified source, he had learned the 
 art of war under Fritigern, and received 
 from Valens lands in Thrace on the con- 
 dition of military service. Of his early 
 exploits we know nothing, except that 
 he was one of the chiefs that helped to 
 destroy Maximin and Eugenius. So 
 long as Theodosius lived, there was no 
 outward hostility between the Romans 
 and their allies. Dissatisfied as they fre- 
 quently were, the latter respected the 
 genius and loved the virtues of that em- 
 peror ; but when his two sons succeeded, 
 Arcadius to the eastern and Honorius to 
 the western world, the friendly bond was 
 destroyed. The Gothic population, from 
 the Adi'iatic to the Bosphorus, was soon 
 in motion ; and new swarms of barba- 
 rians crossed the undefended Danube to 
 share in the plunder of the provinces. At 
 the head of this force was Alaric, whose 
 valour and military talents must have 
 been equal to his birth, and whose mili- 
 tary career must have been successful, 
 ere so important a trust could be reposed 
 in him. //« object was ambition ; theirs, 
 sordid plunder. Thrace and Dacia had 
 been ravaged enough ; Constantinople 
 was too strong to be assailed ; but Greece 
 exhibited a tempting prey ; and if it were 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 subdvied, regions enough would remain 
 to occupy him and his followers. His 
 correspondence with Rufinus, the trai- 
 torous minister of Arcadius, was more 
 than suspected ; and from two circum- 
 stances, — the flight of the local gover- 
 nors, and the exemption of that minister's 
 domains from Gothic pillage, — it was in- 
 ferred that this expedition was under- 
 taken at the instance of Rufinus himself. 
 The fields of Macedonia and Thessaly 
 were traversed without opposition ; at 
 the dreaded pass of ThermopyltE not a 
 defender appeared ; the fertile plains of 
 Phocis and Boeotia were ravaged with 
 impunity ; everywhere the men able to 
 bear arms were massacred ; everywhere 
 the fairest women, the flocks and herds, 
 were made to increase the spoil of the 
 victors. Thebes indeed did not open its 
 gates ; but probably it was not sum- 
 moned : the object of Alaric was to 
 hasten to a more tempting prize, — 
 Athens, and the cities of the Pelopon- 
 nesus. The worshippers of Minerva had 
 no confidence in her tutelary powers ; 
 and they offered him a large sum of 
 gold — all that they could raise — as the 
 condition of his sparing their lives and 
 houses. The offer was accepted : Alaric 
 preferred the advantages of victory with- 
 out bloodshed ; a Christian, though an 
 Arian, he was more humanized than any 
 pagan conqueror ; and if he suffered the 
 massacre of the men able to bear arms, 
 the cause probably was, either that they 
 refused to join him, or that his followers 
 were more ferocious than himself. The 
 whole of Attica was next ravaged. The 
 destroying tide then passed the Isthmus 
 of Corinth, and spread over the Pelopon- 
 nesus ; so that from Sparta to Thermo- 
 pylae, every thing was overwhelmed. The 
 rage of the victors was particularly di- 
 rected against the monuments of pagan- 
 ism. Unable to distinguish between the 
 inspirations of genius, and the objects of 
 a gross superstition, the Goth demo- 
 lished the noblest efforts of the sculptor 
 and the painter. 
 
 To arrest the progress of Alaric (397), 
 Stillicho, the general of Honorius, has- 
 tened from the west. He feared, and 
 with reason, that if this province of 
 the eastern empire shoidd be ruined, 
 Italy and Gaul would next suffer. From 
 the sequel we may doubt whether the 
 ministers of Arcadius were sincerely 
 grateful for the aid : some of them had 
 been in the league with Rufinus. How- 
 ever, Stillicho was determined to do his 
 duty. The two antagonists were worthy 
 
 VOL. I. 209 
 
 of each other ; but the advantage lay 
 with the Roman, whose followers were 
 better disciplined and better armed. In 
 the battle which followed in the moun- 
 tains of Arcadia, victory declared for 
 Stillicho (398) ; Alaric retreated to 
 the summit of the Pholae ; and his en- 
 trenched camp was invested by the 
 Romans. The situation of the Goths 
 seemed critical ; but they were saved by 
 the genius of Alaric, who, taking advan- 
 tage of Stillicho's absence from the camp, 
 passed into the province of Epirus. It 
 was now that his secret understanding 
 with the ministers of Arcadius was ma- 
 nifest. The Romans were coolly in- 
 formed that their services were no longer 
 required ; and by an imperial edict the 
 Gothic general was invested with the 
 government of Eastern lUyricum. In 
 this station he was not inattentive to his 
 duties ; but his great aim was to hasten 
 the manufacture of arms for all his fol- 
 lowers. So well satisfied were they with 
 his part, so confident of his future suc- 
 cess, that they raised him on the shield, 
 and proclaimed him monarch of the 
 Wisigoths. This double authority was 
 imposing ; his position on the frontier of 
 two empires was equally so : his friend- 
 ship was sought by the ministers of both ; 
 and he flattered or intimidated each in 
 succession, according to the interests of 
 the moment. But his ultimate decision 
 could not long be delayed. He was 
 already the vassal of the Greek emperor ; 
 the European provinces of that potentate 
 were already devastated ; the Asiatic 
 were beyond his reach ; while Italy, with 
 her numerous cities, her fertile districts, 
 her accumulated wealth, opened the most 
 alluring prospect to his ambition. In 
 his contemplated invasion of that coun- 
 try, he was not likely to meet with any 
 resistance from Arcadius ; and he longed 
 to return the evils which a Roman army 
 headed by Stillicho had occasioned him. 
 Towards Italy therefore he marched (401, 
 402), but did not venture to enter it 
 imtil he had recruited his army from the 
 kindred tribes of Germany. Stillicho 
 was no less active. From the Rhine, 
 from Spain, even from Britain, the legions 
 were withdrawn to protect Rome and 
 Italy. But before they could march to 
 Milan, then the residence of Honorius, 
 Alaric passed the Alps, advanced to that 
 city, and had the satisfaction to perceive 
 the emperor of the West flee before him. 
 Closely invested within the town of Asta, 
 there was no hope to Honorius of a pro- 
 tracted defence. But at the critical 
 P 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 moment, Stillicho arrived with tlielegions. 
 The fortmie of the war was instantly 
 changed ; supplies were thrown into the 
 place ; the Goths were driven from the 
 walls ; then- camp, entrenched as it was, 
 was menaced ; the soldiers of the west 
 silently gathered around them ; and a 
 council was assemhled to consult on the 
 means of safety. The rest of the chiefs 
 were for a retreat ; Alaric alone voted for 
 battle, and by his eloquence he induced 
 them to venture on that hazardous expe- 
 riment. The battle of Pollentia (403) 
 was stoutly contested ; victory was long 
 doubtful, but in the end it declared for 
 the Romans. Thousands of Goths lay 
 on the field ; the entrenched camp was 
 forced ; and abundance of spoil remained 
 to the conquerors. Among the prisoners 
 was the wife of Alaric, who had expected 
 a very different result. The conduct 
 of the king has obtained the praise of 
 history. His was not a mind to be ener- 
 vated by disaster ; his talents were equal 
 to the difficulties of his position ; and 
 with his cavalry, which had suffered 
 little in comparison with his infantry, he 
 retreated in good order from the field. 
 His object was to force a way through 
 the passages of the Apennines, to tra- 
 verse the fertile plains of Tuscany, to 
 march on the eternal city, and conquer 
 or die before it. He was again baffled 
 by the activity of Stillicho ; but he was 
 so formidable, alike from his genius and 
 his resolute character, that negotiations 
 were opened with him by liis rival. To 
 them he was individually opposed ; but 
 he had little authority over the proud 
 chiefs of his army, especially since the 
 disaster of Pollentia. Many of them 
 were bribed by the ministers of Hono- 
 rius ; they resisted his will, commu- 
 nicated his designs, and rendered it 
 incumbent on him to accept the terms 
 proposed. He therefore agreed to aban- 
 don Italy ; but it was with the design of 
 surprising Verona in his passage, of 
 penetrating into Germany through the 
 Rhsetian Alps, and of carrying the war 
 into the fertile provinces of Gaul. Here 
 again he was baffled by domestic treason : 
 on reaching the mountains, he found the 
 passes occupied, the garrison of Verona 
 strengthened, and the enemy ready to 
 enclose him on every side. The battle 
 which ensued was not less disastrous 
 than that of Pollentia ; and the king 
 owed his safety to the fleetness of his 
 horse. In the defiles he was again in- 
 vested ; but he attained an eminence, 
 and still presented so formidable a front, 
 210 
 
 that he was allowed quietly to continue 
 his retreat. 
 
 For two or three years after this re- 
 treat, we hear httle of Alaric. He retired 
 to his government to watch the progress 
 of events ; to wait for an opportunity of 
 resuming his baffled schemes. Not 
 satisfied with his position in Illyricum, he 
 hoped to wrest from Honorius some 
 Roman province in the west, more fertile 
 than the one wlxich he inhabited. Pro- 
 bably the intention was known and ap- 
 proved by StiUicho : certainly the two 
 chiefs cultivated a good mulerstanding 
 with each other ; and through the influ- 
 ence of that powerful man, the Gothic king 
 was nominated general-in-chief of the 
 Roman armies throughout the prefecture 
 of Illyricum. In accepting this dignity, 
 which placed him at the head of two 
 armies, he ceased to be a vassal of the 
 Greeks : he became indeed their enemy ; 
 and it was alike his obligation and his 
 intention to extend the boundary of the 
 western at the expense of the eastern 
 state. How far he hoped individually 
 to profit by his conquest, can be only 
 matter of conjecture ; but with all his 
 great qualities, he had the selfishness of 
 the barbarian. He saw that he was 
 necessary to Stillicho, who had many 
 enemies at the imperial court ; and that 
 he was feared by Honorius, whose domi- 
 nions were soon menaced by another 
 conqueror, the redoubtable Radagaisus 
 {see the name). During the invasion of 
 Italy by that pagan barbarian, he ob- 
 served a strict neutrality ; and this he 
 thought merit enough, since by throwing 
 his sword into the scale of the invaders, 
 he might have ensured the destruc- 
 tion of Rome. Nor, after the defeat 
 of Radagaisus, did he fail to demand a 
 suitable recompense fi-om the imperial 
 court, — -some province where he might 
 locate his people ; which meant, some 
 province where he might erect an inde- 
 pendent sovereignty : on this condition 
 he promised to march against the usurper 
 Constantine. Four thousand pounds of 
 gold were dispatched to him by the senate 
 at the persuasion of Stillicho, who evi- 
 dently maintained with him some corre- 
 spondence more important than history 
 has mentioned. On the fall of the favourite 
 (408) by the hands of domestic ti-eason, 
 the Gothic king was no longer restrained 
 from the step which he had so long 
 meditated. He declared himself the 
 friend, the ally, the avenger of the 
 murdered Stillicho ; and the numbers 
 of discontented Italians, and of ill-used 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 mei'cenaries, who every clay flocked to 
 his standard, encouraged him to the 
 great undertaking; and above all, tlie 
 letters which he received from many 
 about the person of Honorius, whose 
 court was established in the impregnable 
 fortress of Ravenna, put an end to liis 
 hesitation. He had learned wisdom by 
 experience ; adversity had sharpened his 
 talents, and without destroying his 
 ardour, had fortified his caution ; nor did 
 he quail at an undertaking which 
 had just proved fatal to Radagaisus, and 
 which had nearly been so to himself. 
 
 Alaric entered Italy in the autumn of 
 408. His pretext that he was come 
 merely to demand satisfaction for his 
 own services and the wrongs of his 
 fi-iend, and that he would retire on ob- 
 taining it, lulled the apprehension of 
 many. Though 30,000 auxiliaries joined 
 him, no eftbrt was taken by the ministers 
 of Honorius to arrest his progress : the 
 fairest cities in the north he took and 
 plundered ; and if Ravenna was spared 
 for its impregnability, the cities along the 
 Adriatic and the Flaminian way, expe- 
 rienced his success. This steady march 
 was towards Rome, which, during more 
 than six centuries, had never been ap- 
 proached by hostile foot. Encamping 
 under the walls, he closely invested it. 
 As usual in such cases, there was first a 
 scarcity of provisions, then a famine, 
 then disease ; so that more were carried 
 off by these means than by the sword 
 of the enemy. The particulars of this 
 famous siege may be found in contem- 
 porary writers, (Zosimus, Sozomen, 
 Olympiodorus,) and they will prove that 
 few cities not taken by stonn have 
 suffered more than this mistress of the 
 world. At length all hopes of resistance 
 failing, recourse was had to the clemency 
 of the victor ; and after some negotiation 
 he was persuaded to receive 5,000 
 poimds of gold, 30,000 of silver, 4,000 
 robes of silk, 3,000 pieces of fine scarlet, 
 and as many pounds of pepper, by way of 
 ransom. In this conduct, we must award 
 him the praise of extreme moderation ; 
 and we must equally admire the strictness 
 of discipline which he maintained in his 
 camp, the fidelity with which he adhered 
 to all his engagements. Retii'ing from 
 the city with a glory which no warrior 
 had obtained for so many centuries, he 
 pitched his camp in the plains of Tus- 
 cany. While he diligently recruited his 
 forces, he continued to negotiate ; and 
 the moderation of his demands would 
 excite our surprise, if we did not reflect 
 211 
 
 that his great object was to obtain from 
 Honorius the lawful command of the 
 Roman legions. The7i he would have 
 been able to obtain for himself an empire 
 in Gaul or Spain, or Britain. The feeble 
 emperor, who had no will of his own, 
 evaded or temporized, imtil Alaric in 
 wrath led his army a second time against 
 Rome, (409.) He seized the magazines, 
 and forced the Romans to receive a new 
 emperor in Attains, prsefect of the city, 
 whom most of Italy acknowledged. The 
 minister of Honorius, in a conference 
 with the new emperor and the Goths, 
 proposed a cUvision of the west ; but 
 Attains would be satisfied with nothing 
 less than the unconditional abdication of 
 his rival. At this moment, Honorius 
 was meditating an escape to the court 
 of his nephew, the emperor of the east ; 
 but events favoured him. A band of 
 faithfid veterans arrived to defend him 
 in Ravenna ; Africa remained attached 
 to her ancient masters ; and Attains was 
 degraded by the very hands which had 
 elevated him. "Why he did not as- 
 sume the purple himself, can be only 
 matter of conjecture ; but probably he 
 found the disposition of men's minds un- 
 favourable to the change : probably too 
 he had little wish to govern subjects at 
 once cowardly and traitorous. However 
 this be, he advanced to Ravenna to re- 
 sume his negotiations with Honorius. 
 They led to no residt, and the victor in 
 anger returned to Rome, Avhich he now 
 resolved to plunder. It fell into his 
 power almost without a struggle ; and 
 now began all the horrors which had 
 been contemplated. The streets were 
 filled with dead bodies ; the slaves whom 
 Alaric had freed, were the most eager in 
 the task of individual slaughter; the 
 noblest matrons and virgins suffered 
 worse than their murdered husbands and 
 fathers. Compared with these evils, the 
 entire plunder of the city, and the de- 
 struction of many noble works of art, 
 dwindle into insignificance. Yet there 
 must be some exaggeration in the 
 general picture, whatever the truth of 
 the details. 
 
 From Rome, Alaric, on the sixth day 
 after its fall, led his troops to ravage 
 Italy. We cannot accompany his foot- 
 steps to the south ; and we must be 
 satisfied with the general observation, 
 that he found no resistance. He was 
 preparing to pass into Sicily, when death 
 surprised him, (410,) after a short illness. 
 His funeral was worthy of the barbaric 
 geniu'? that framed it. The course of the 
 P 2 
 
ALA 
 
 ALA 
 
 river Busentinus was diverted ; the royal 
 tomb was dug in the vacant bed ; with 
 the corpse were deposited the choicest 
 spoils of Rome ; the waters of the river 
 were turned into their natural channel ; 
 and to ensure the secrecy of the place 
 where the mighty hero was laid, the 
 workmen were massacred. (Jorfiandes, 
 De Rebus Geticis. S. Isidorus, Chroni- 
 con. Gibbon, Decline and Fall.) 
 
 For the subsequent exploits of the 
 Goths, see Ataulphus, the brother-in-law 
 and successor of Alaric I. 
 
 ALARIC IL, (483— 506,) king of the 
 Wisigoths, the eighth monarch of that 
 people after Ataulplius, the brother-in- 
 law of Alaric the Great. Ataulphus, 
 who fixed the seat of his empire at Nar- 
 bonne, had reigned four years (411 — ■ 
 415) ; and had been followed by six 
 elective princes, down to 466, when 
 Euric, the father of Alaric IL, succeeded 
 to the throne of the Goths. Euric was 
 the true founder of the Gothic monarchy 
 in Spain : his predecessors had reigned 
 in Gaul, and had overrun rather than 
 subdued the peninsula. By the reduction 
 of Tan-agona, the last stronghold of the 
 Romans, and the subjection of the Suevi, 
 Euric might be called the monarch of 
 Spain. Gratitude to the memory of the 
 father induced the chiefs assembled at 
 Aries, (to which Euric had transferred 
 the court, and which had been wrested 
 from the Burgimdians,) to raise Alaric to 
 the dignity. But he was unfit for it : he 
 had not the talents or the enterprise of 
 his predecessors ; and he submitted to 
 affronts from Clovis, the new king of the 
 Franks, which would have fired any 
 other rider. And he was base as well 
 as poor-spirited. "When Syagrius fled to 
 him for protection against the vengeance 
 of Clovis, he imdertook to fulfil the 
 duty ; yet he was so terrified by the 
 menaces of that barbarian, as to sur- 
 render the fugitive, who was eventually 
 put to death. This meanness provoked 
 the hostilities of Clovis, who vowed that 
 he would expel the Arian Wisigoths from 
 the soil of Gaul. Fearful of the stonn, 
 Alaric implored the aid of his father-in- 
 law, Theodoric, who had just founded 
 the Ostrogothic empire in Italy; and 
 until it ai-rived, he hoped to defend him- 
 self in his entrenched camp. But the 
 pride of his people would not suffer him 
 thus to seek refuge beyond fortified 
 lines, and he was compelled to risk an 
 action. It was fatal to most of his army 
 and to himself; he fell by the royal hand 
 of Clovis ; most of the Gothic possessions 
 212 
 
 in Gaul were become the prize of the 
 victor, when Theodoric arrived in per- 
 son. That powerful monarch dictated 
 terms of peace to Clovis, and placed for 
 a season the crown of the Wisigoths on 
 his own head. (Idatii Chronicon. St. 
 Isidorus, Historia Regum Gothorum. 
 Jornandes, De Rebus Geticis.) 
 
 ALARY, (John,) a French advocate 
 of mean reputation, who published a col- 
 lection of poems, Recueil des Recrea- 
 tions Poetiques, dedicated to the queen 
 Marguerite ; 4to, printed at Paris. There 
 is nothing remarkable, or better deserv- 
 ing attention in the narrative of his life 
 and works. 
 
 ALARY, (Piene Joseph, 1690—1770,) 
 prior of Gournay-sur-Marne, was the 
 pupil and friend of the Abbe de Longue- 
 rue. He was accused of taking part, 
 in 1718, in the conspiracy of Cellamare; 
 but his defence proved the foundation of 
 his fortune, and he was made preceptor 
 to Louis XV. 
 
 ALARY, (John,) a physician of the 
 seventeenth century, left the following 
 works. 1. Abr6g6 des Longues Etudes. 
 
 2. Vertu Triomphante de la Fortune; 
 1622, 4to. 
 
 ALARY, (Francis,) is said in the Biog. 
 Univ. to have r epr hi ted atRouen in 1701, 
 La Prophetie du Comte Bombaste, Che- 
 valier de la Rose Croix, neveu de Para- 
 celse; pubUee en I'annee 1609, sur la 
 Naissance de Louis le Grand. (N. B. 
 Louis was born 1638). 
 
 ALASCO. See Lasco. 
 
 ALASKAR, (Moses,) a judge among 
 the Egj'ptian Jews, and author of some 
 Hebrew works. 1. Assagoth, (written 
 in 1495,) or Pteflections on the Shem 
 Tob ; Fe.rrara, 1557. 2. Legal Ques- 
 tions ; Constantinople and Sabioneta. 
 
 3. Commentary on the Pirke Aboth. 
 (De Rossi.) 
 
 ALATINO, (Moses,) a Jewish phy- 
 sician of Spoleto, in the sixteenth cen 
 tury, who translated part of Galen into 
 Latin, and also Themistius on Aristotle 
 from the Hebrew. 
 
 Another of this name, viz. Vifale Ala 
 tino, was also a celebrated physician of 
 Spoleto. (De Rossi.) 
 
 ALAVA ESQUIVEL, (Diego de, d. 
 1562,) a native ofVittoria, at first ap- 
 plied himself to the law, and filled an 
 honourable post at Granada. Entering 
 the church, he became bishop of Astorga, 
 and in this capacity was present at the 
 council of Trent, where he distinguished 
 himself by his zeal against pluralities. 
 On his return, he was translated to 
 
ALA 
 
 ALB 
 
 Avila, and subsequently to Cordova. He 
 wi'ote a useful work on General Councils ; 
 Gran. 1581. 
 
 Other members of this family, or at 
 least of this name, have obtained a repu- 
 tation in history or letters. Of them, 
 one ^vrote on the military art ; another, 
 Francisco Ruiz, wrote a history of St. 
 Bartholomew's college in Salamanca. 
 
 ALAWY, (Nabob Moatemid El-Ma- 
 louk Seyd Alawy-Khan, 1669—1749,) 
 head physician to Nadir Shah, was a man 
 of great learning and versatility of talent. 
 Sprung from a family of great medical 
 reputation which had for some time been 
 settled at Shiraz, Mirza Mohamed Has- 
 lem (afterwards dignified with the title of 
 A'lawy-Khan, the lofty lord) was pre- 
 sented to Aureng-Zebe in 1700, who was 
 then occupied in the Mahratta war. By 
 him he was appointed to a situation near 
 his son ; and while he was basking in the 
 sunshine of royal favour, he man-ied most 
 advantageously. Under the reign of Be- 
 hader Shah he obtained his title of A'lawy- 
 Khan, &c. ; and by Mohammed Shah 
 he was presented with his weight in gold, 
 and with a still higher title, Moatemid- 
 el-Malouk, {support of kings.) After the 
 taking of Delhi by Nadir Shah, (see the 
 name,) he was received into the service 
 of the conqueror, and is said to liave 
 cured him of a dropsy. He now made 
 the pilgrimage to Mecca, with Abdul- 
 Kerim, (see the name,) who says of his 
 medical encyclopsedia called the Djem' 
 a Al-Djewami, that it contains the whole 
 art of healing. He left a variety of other 
 medical works. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALAYMO, (Marc Antonio, 1590— 
 1662,) a celebrated physician of Palermo. 
 His reputation, among all ranks, rose 
 very rapidly during the pestilence which 
 raged around Palermo in 1624, when 
 his humanity, equalled only by his skill 
 and astonishing success, won him the 
 respect and admiration, as well as the 
 benedictions, of a whole people. Such 
 was his prosperous career, that he de- 
 clined to accept a professor's chair in 
 the university of Bologna, and the office 
 of first physician to the king of Naples. 
 He founded the medical academy in 
 Palermo, and was also distinguished for 
 his piety and munificence towards reli- 
 gious institutions. He published some 
 medical treatises, and left in MS. a Com- 
 mentary on part of Hippocrates. 
 
 ALBA, or ALVA, (Fernando Alvarez 
 
 de Toledo, duke of, 1508—1582,) a 
 
 noble, doomed to a melancholy notoriety 
 
 in the annals of Spain. Descended from 
 
 213 
 
 one of the noblest families of Castile, he 
 entered into the army, was present at 
 the battle of Pavia, in the expedition 
 into Hungary, at the siege of Tunis, in 
 the armament against Algiers, and in 
 the resistance to the French in Navan-e 
 and Catalonia. Cautious, slow, politic, 
 no great opinion was entertained of his 
 military talents ; they were, on the con- 
 trary, long imdervalued ; but this opinion 
 of others was useful to himself, inasmuch 
 as it prompted him to more heroic deeds 
 than any he had yet performed. In the 
 civil wars between Charles V. and the 
 Geniian protestants, he distinguished 
 himself by his valom-, and alas ! by his 
 inhumanity : he was one of the men who 
 most strongly exhorted the empei-or not 
 to spare the captive elector of Saxony 
 after the battle of Mulberg. In Italy, 
 whei-e he next served, his pride would 
 not allow him to be a simple viceroy : he 
 must be vicar-general of all the Spanish- 
 Austrian possessions in the country. His 
 exploits against the French, and the 
 pope the ally of the French, are well 
 known. Rigid Roman catholic as he was, 
 he was displeased when his new master 
 Philip II. commanded him to make 
 peace with the pope, whose capital he 
 had seized. Such delicacy he could not 
 understand ; it little agreed, he observed, 
 with either sound policy, or success in 
 war. His character was most developed 
 in the next post which he held, — that of 
 viceroy of the Low Countries. Those 
 provinces were, on political no less than 
 religious grounds, hostile to the Spanish 
 yoke : a formidable insurrection, headed 
 by counts Horn, Egmont, and the prince 
 of Orange, distracted the regent, Mar- 
 garet, duchess of Parma, sister of Philip ; 
 and Alva, as the fiercest of the Spanish 
 nobles, was sent to subdue or to extir- 
 pate the rebels. He was well fitted for 
 the task. His arrival was like a 
 thunderbolt to the people : WUliam of 
 Orange had the wisdom to flee ; his 
 example was followed by many thousands 
 of the people, who carried their useful 
 trades into England, GeiTnany, Switzer- 
 land, &c. ; but counts Horn and Egmont 
 had the folly to remain, were arrested, 
 committed to prison, and soon executed. 
 The new tribunal which Alva created, 
 and which he called the Council of Tu- 
 mults, was worse than the inquisition : 
 confiscations, imprisonments, tortures, 
 executions, evinced its baneful activity. 
 These atrocities naturally drew the 
 people to the absent prince, who, how- 
 ever, was long unsuccessful, — who had 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 110 veteran forces, and whose military 
 talents were not of a high order. The 
 failure of the first campaign afforded 
 Alva an abundant harvest of proscrip- 
 tions, confiscations and executions. The 
 Roman catholics at length were dissatis- 
 fied with the extent of his exactions ; 
 the protestants were more exasperated 
 than before ; Zealand revolted ; English 
 adventurers, at whose departure Eliza- 
 beth connived, swelled the number of 
 insurgents ; the Spanish fleet was de- 
 feated; and Philip, at length convinced 
 that no good was to be effected by 
 cruelty, recalled Alva in 1573. On his 
 return to Madrid he was received with 
 much distinction ; but in two years he 
 fell into disgrace because he assisted in 
 the escape of his son, who had seduced a 
 court lady, and he was exiled to his castle 
 of Uzeda. There he remained until the 
 prior de Crato assumed the crown of 
 Portugal, when he was again placed at the 
 head of an army to subdue that country. 
 That object he soon eftected ; but his 
 conduct proved that he had not forgotten 
 his old vices. Death, however, soon rid 
 Portugal of the scourge. With all his 
 savage qualities, Alva was a great man. 
 As a general and a statesman, he was 
 held among the chief of his time ; his 
 loyalty to the throne, his integrity, his 
 honour, were unequalled. Unhappy, 
 that qualities so splendid should have 
 been associated with those of a demon ! 
 For a little incident in the life of the 
 duke of Alva, unnoticed here, see Catha- 
 rine OF ScHWARZBUEG. (The usual histo- 
 rians of Spain.) 
 
 ALBAN, (St.) the protomartyr of 
 England. His title to this honourable 
 name is attested by Gildas, Bede, and 
 many other writers, whose testimony is 
 adduced in Usher, (Eccles. Britt. Anti- 
 quitates, pp. 76 — 89.) The circumstances 
 of his martyrdom, as related in Gildas 
 and Bede, when divested of the miracles 
 atti'ibuted to him, are these. He was a 
 soldier in the Roman armies in the 
 time of Diocletian ; and he gave re- 
 fuge, during a season of persecution, to a 
 priest, by whom he was converted to 
 Christianity. On the commander being 
 informed of this, he ordered the priest to 
 be brought forward, but Alban deter- 
 mined to appear in the clothes of his 
 guest, and to suffer instead of him. The 
 change was discovered, and he was mar- 
 tyred together with Herculius, a soldier 
 who reftised to execute him, a.d. 305. 
 This took place at Verulamium, ("or 
 Verlamacfestir, or Vaetlingacsestir." — 
 214 
 
 Bede,) now St. Albans. (Gildas. Hist. 
 § 11 ; Bede, L vii. IG— 20.) Offa, king 
 of the Mercians, in a. d. 593, founded a 
 monastery in honour of St. Alban, at the 
 place of his martyrdom; and in 1257, it 
 is said by Matthew of Paris, and others, 
 that a leaden tablet w;!s found, on which 
 were inscribed the following words : — 
 " In hoc mausoleo inventum est venera- 
 bile corpus Sti. Albani protomartyris 
 Anglorum." (Gildas. Bede. Usher, ubi 
 supra. See Stevenson's Notes on Gildas. 
 Acta Sanct. Mens. Jun. iv. p. 146 — 171. 
 In Usher there is a full account of the 
 various legends respecting St. Alban, 
 pp. 76—89.) 
 
 ALBANEZE, an Italian soprano 
 singer, was educated at Naples, and was 
 very successful in France, which country 
 he visited in 1747. He composed several 
 airs and duets full of melody and grace. 
 He died about the year 1800. 
 
 ALBANI, (Giovanni Girolamo, 1504 
 — 1591,) a cardinal and jurisconsult of 
 considerable reputation. He was the 
 son of count Francesco Albani, a man 
 of learning, who, although he destined 
 his son for the profession of arms, gave 
 him a learned education, especially in 
 civil and canon law. After serving in the 
 Venetian army, he was appointed chief 
 magistrate of his native town, Bergamo, 
 where he made the acquaintance of car- 
 dinal Alessandrini, who was then papal 
 inquisitor. His zeal for the church in- 
 duced him to exercise the full severity 
 of the law towards one of his own rela- 
 tions, accused of heresy ; and his conduct 
 so pleased the cardinal, that in 1566, 
 when he became pope under the name 
 of Pius v., he called Albani to Rome, 
 and made him a cardinal. Albani had 
 been married, but had lost his wife. It 
 is said that, but for his children, the 
 conclave would have elected him pope at 
 the death of Gregory XIII. the successor 
 of Pius V. The Albani of Bergamo, the 
 commentator of Bartoli, praised by Pan- 
 ciroli, of whom Moreri speaks, appears 
 to be the subject of this memoir. His 
 chief works are — 1. De Immunitate 
 Ecclesiarum, 1553. 2. De Potestate 
 Papae et Concilii ; Lyons, 1558; Ven. 
 1561. 3. De Cardinalibus et de Do- 
 natione Constantini. He was a friend to 
 Tasso ; and a letter of his, in favour of 
 Tasso to the duke of Ferrara, has been pub- 
 lished by Serrassi. (Tiraboschi, vii. 379.) 
 ALBANI, (Alessandro, 1692—1779,) 
 a member of the same noble family, 
 made cardinal by Innocent XIII. He 
 was a man of great knowledge and taste. 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 In 1762, his collection of drawings was 
 sold to the king of England for 14,000 
 crowns. An elaborate account of cardi- 
 nal Alessandro Albani forms the first 
 ai'ticle in Tipaldo's Biografia degli Itali- 
 ani Illustri, &c. ; Venice, 1834. 
 
 ALBANI, (Giovanni Francesco, 1720 
 — 1803,) nephew to the preceding. He 
 was educated for the church, in which he 
 speedily attained the highest honours. 
 He was chiefly celebrated, however, like 
 his uncle, for his patronage of learning, 
 and for his zeal in adding to those rare 
 and valuable monuments of art, for 
 which the villa Albani was so long cele- 
 brated. In 1767, he strongly opposed 
 the suppression of the Jesuits. The 
 French, when they took possession of 
 Rome, perpetrated outrages on the Al- 
 bani family, which were prompted by 
 the basest motives. This family was re- 
 lated to the imperial house of Austria, 
 and the invaders thought that by in- 
 juring them, they also degraded the 
 latter : accordingly, their estates were 
 confiscated, their Roman palace plun- 
 dered, and their villa pillaged and de- 
 stroyed. Albani took refuge first in a- 
 convent on the southern frontiers of the 
 Roman stfrte, and afterwards at Messina. 
 On the expidsion of the French, he re- 
 turned to Rome, where he took private 
 lodgings, but could never bear to visit 
 the ruins of his palace and villa; nor 
 could he hear them mentioned without 
 poignant grief. He died in 1803. He 
 was bishop of Ostia and Velleti-i ; in the 
 latter of which he had the power of a 
 sovereign. His hatred to the principles 
 of the Revolution may have been one 
 cause of his persecution by the French, 
 which, atrocious as it was, is passed over 
 very lightly in the French biographies, 
 as an act of confiscation ! In his latter 
 years it is said that he was much under 
 the influence of a domestic, named Mari- 
 anino ; and when the pope remonstrated 
 at some disorders, which were connived 
 at in consequence, in the state of Velletri, 
 the old cardinal replied, "Ah! yovn- holi- 
 ness ! we all of us have our Mai'ianino 
 of some kind," alluding to the influence of 
 Gonsalvi. 
 
 Another cardinal of this noble family, 
 Giuseppe Albani, died in 1834. (See 
 Tipaldo's Biografia, &c. iv. 85. ) 
 
 ALBANO, or ALBANI, (Francesco, 
 1578 — 1661,) a celebrated painter, a 
 native of Bologna. He first studied 
 under Denys Calvart, an artist of Flemish 
 extraction : amongst his fellow-students 
 was Guido, by whose lessons he profited, 
 215 
 
 and whose friendship he enjoyed for 
 some time ; subsequently, their rivalry 
 cooled their attachment. (See, however, 
 the note of Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. vol. v. 88, 
 on this rivalry.) Albano, after having 
 greatly improved himself under the Ca- 
 racci, went to Rome, where he remained 
 for some time, and where he married; 
 but his wife dying in child-bed, he re- 
 tui'ned to Bologna, where he again en- 
 tered into the matrimonial state. His 
 second wife was a very accomplished and 
 beautiful woman ; and it has been said 
 that she and her children saved him the 
 necessity of having recourse to other 
 models. But it has been well observed 
 in the Biog. Univ. that, as he painted 
 for upwards of sixty years, this account 
 is rather doubtful ! He had a villa, de- 
 lightfully situated, where he was sur- 
 rounded by the scenery which he so 
 often imitated in his works. In drawing 
 the female figm-e, he particularly ex- 
 celled ; but his men were not so happily 
 executed, and called forth severe criti- 
 cisms from the scholars of Guido, who 
 maintained that the style of Albano was 
 tame and enervated : but still the heads 
 of his male figures must be admitted to 
 be both dignified and expressive. His 
 earliest work of any importance was in 
 the chapel of San J3iego, in the church 
 of the Spaniards at Rome, where he was 
 selected by Annibale Caracci to finish 
 the works which he was vmable from 
 sickness to complete. He then painted 
 Neptune and Galatea, and Uie Fall of 
 Phaeton, for the palace of the Marchese 
 Giustiniani at Bassano, and afterwards 
 stories from Ovid in the Verospi palace 
 at Rome. He was then invited by the 
 duke of Mantua, where he painted Venus 
 and Cupid, Diana and Actseon, &c. Some 
 of the most exquisitely gracefiU of his 
 compositions are pictures of the Elements 
 in the royal palace at Turin. When he 
 returned to Rome, he painted some large 
 works for the tribune of the Madonna 
 della Pace ; a martyrdom of St. Sebas- 
 tiano, (for the church called by that 
 name,) in conjunction with Guido; and 
 many other works of repute. At Bologna, 
 his chief works are the Baptism of Christ, 
 in S. Giorgio ; the Resurrection, in S. 
 Maria de Galeria ; and the Annunciation, 
 in S. Bartolomeo. " He has," sr.^s Lanzi, 
 (v. 86,) " sometimes been called the 
 Anacreon of painting," and he has some 
 claim to the name. His best paintings 
 are his small ones ; and his favourite 
 subjects, nymphs, Venus and Cupids, &c. 
 Among his more eminent pupils were 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 Mola, Cignani, &c. Avtaud (in the 
 Biog. Univ.) has remarked, that he out- 
 lived his powers, and that it would have 
 been well for his reputation had he 
 ceased to paint long before his death. 
 There are, in fact, two epochs in his 
 works : the first, a long series of success- 
 ful efforts ; the second, full of failures 
 and weakness. Albani left a few writings, 
 which have been preserved by Malvasia, 
 and are reckoned valuable from the 
 number of important precepts they 
 contain. He also attempted the art of 
 engraving, in which, however, he was far 
 from successful. A small folio etching 
 of the Death of Dido, executed by him, 
 is a decided failure. Two of his figures 
 in fresco appear to have suggested the 
 Night and Morning of Thorwaldsen. 
 (Bryan's Diet. Biog. Univ. Lanzi, &c.) 
 
 He had a brother. Giovanni BatHsta,\v\io 
 painted much in his style, but excelled to be ignorant of astronomy and Latin ! 
 
 ALBATEGNIUS, an Arabian astro- 
 nomer of the tenth century. He wrote 
 a treatise on the zodiac of the stars, 
 published several times on the continent, 
 and the best edition of which is that of 
 Bologna, 154.5. Wallis, in his treatise 
 on Algebra, says that Robert of Chester, 
 about 1150, compiled a set of astrono- 
 mical tables after the doctrine of Alba- 
 tegnius, and accommodated to the me- 
 ridian of London. He died in 929. 
 De Lambre (in the Biog. Univ.) states 
 that tlie observations of Albategni em- 
 brace a period from a. d. 877 — 929, and 
 that these observations of forty-two lunar 
 years are reported in the Sabean Table 
 (Zydge Saby) which was published at 
 Nuremberg in 1537, under the title, De 
 Scientia Stellarum, and also at Bologna 
 in 1645. The book is badly translated 
 from the Arabic, for the translator appears 
 
 principally in landscape. He died in 1668 
 ALBANY, (L. M. C. A., Countess of, 
 1733 — 1824,) the mistress of Alfieri. 
 She was a native of Mons, was the 
 daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, prince 
 of Stolberg-Goedern. She was educated 
 in a Flemish convent, and in 1772 she 
 was united to prince Charles Edward, 
 the last of the Stuarts, under the auspices 
 of the courts of Versailles and Naples, 
 which guaranteed them a sufficient re- 
 venue. Her husband was thirty-two 
 years her senior ; and she was separated 
 from him in 1780. (See Alfieri.) On 
 the death of Alfieri, in 1 803, the countess 
 caused a superb monument to be erected 
 to his memory in the church of Santa 
 Croce, at Florence, under the direction 
 of Canova. She also published a very 
 fine edition of his select works. 
 
 ALBAQUI, general of the Moriscos 
 of Granada, who, incensed at the perse- 
 cutions they had sustained from their 
 Spanish victors, elected a prince of their 
 own nation, and fought for independence 
 in the mountain fortresses of that pro- 
 vince. Albaqui was opposed to Don 
 Juan of Austria ; but he was not faithful 
 to Muley Abdalla ; on the contrary, he 
 held a treasonable correspondence with 
 the generals of Philip, and persuaded 
 other chiefs to follow his example. 
 There was, however, not the slightest 
 hope of success ; and resistance could 
 only have brought destruction on the 
 heads of all. Passing from camp to 
 camp, or rather from cavern to cavern, 
 to prevent the necessity of submission, 
 he was betrayed and assassinated by 
 order of Muley in 1569. 
 216 
 
 But there is a curious system of trigono- 
 metry in it, differing from that of the 
 Greeks, and founded on the principles of 
 orthographic projection. Sines are used 
 under the names of chords, and De Lam- 
 bre suggests th at Regiom on tanus m ay hav e 
 derived his idea of tangents from this work. 
 
 ALBELDA, (Moses,) a rabbi of Salo- 
 nichi (Thessalonica) in the sixteentli 
 century. He wrote — 1. Olath Tamid ; 
 The Perpetual Oftering ; Ven. 1601 ; (a 
 commentary on the Pentateuch.) 2. Dis- 
 courses on the Pentateuch; ibid. 1603. 
 3. Reshith Daath ; Principles of Know- 
 ledge; ibid. 1583. 4. Shaare Dimma; 
 Tlie Gates of Tears ; a commentary on 
 the Lamentations; 1586. (De Rossi.) 
 
 ALBEMARLE. See Monk. 
 
 ALBENAS, (John Poldo d', 1512— 
 1563,) a lawyer and antiquary, of Nismes. 
 He originally studied for the bar, but 
 Nismes becoming, in 1552, the seat of the 
 presidial court, he was appointed to the 
 oftice of counsellor, which he held with 
 
 much reputation. 
 
 devoting 
 
 his leisure 
 hours to jurisprudence and literature. 
 His most curious work is his History of 
 Nismes, fol. 1557, illustrated by many 
 wood-engravings of views and monu- 
 ments, and very singular specimens of the 
 art at that time. He was one of the first 
 to embrace the reformed religion, and 
 contributed not a little to its extension. 
 Before his death, the greater part of the 
 inhabitants of Nismes and its neighbour- 
 hood professed Calvinism. 
 
 ALBENAS, (J. Joseph, Viscount of, 
 1760 — 1824,) a French oflScer, who 
 served in the war of Amei-ican independ- 
 ence. He afterwards took a part in the 
 
ALB 
 
 A 1-B 
 
 French revolution, and was appointed in 
 1803 counsellor of the prefecture of 
 Gard. He left some poetical, and fugi- 
 tive political writings. 
 
 ALBER, (Erasmus,) a Gennan theo- 
 logian of the sixteenth century. His 
 birth-place is unknown, being by some 
 thought to be Wetterau, by others Sprend- 
 lingen ; but in 1521 he studied at Wit- 
 tenberg, where he became one of the 
 warmest friends and most violent par- 
 tizans of Luther. He afterwards be- 
 came preacher to Joachim IL, elector of 
 Brandenburg, who dismissed him be- 
 cause he protested against the tax which 
 that prince levied on the clei-gy, who 
 were very poor. He was a preacher or 
 teacher in many places successively, e. g. 
 St. Ursel in 1525, Gotzenhain in 1527, 
 Sprendlingen, Neubrandenburg, Staden, 
 in 1542, &c. His congregations could 
 not bear his philippics against all evil 
 practices, and all of which he disap- 
 proved, and they usually deposed him 
 very soon. In 1548 he was preacher at 
 Magdeburg, and in 1553 he received a 
 clerical appointment in Mecklenburg, 
 where he died on the 5th of May of the 
 same year. Alber published, in German, 
 a portion of the famous work of Albizzi 
 of Pisa, entitled. Conformity of St. Francis 
 with Jesus Christ, to which Luther wrote 
 a preface. This work was soon trans- 
 lated into French, Latin, and Dutch, and 
 is known as the Alcoran des Cordeliers. 
 His other works are — Neue Zeitimg vom 
 Rom, &c. (News from Rome, &c.) 1541. 
 A Dialogue on the Interim, &c. 1548 
 (a bitter satire against it). He pub- 
 lished also two attacks on George Wicel, 
 who had returned to the church of Rome 
 from the Lutheran, and he compared 
 him to Judas Iscariot. He wrote also a 
 book on Marriage, some Hymns, a Rhym- 
 ing Dictionary, and forty-nine fables, 
 under the title of The Book of Wisdom 
 and Virtue, 1550. His chief character- 
 istic is severe but broad coarse satire. 
 His life was published at Hanau in 1751 
 by J. J. Kbrber. (Wolffs Cyclopadie. 
 Hoffman, Deutsche Philologie.) 
 
 ALBERGATI, (Fabio,) a native of 
 Bologna, flourished in the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. His writings on 
 moral subjects were collected byZanetti, 
 and published at Rome in 6 vols. 
 
 ALBERGATI CAPACELLI, (the 
 Marquis Francis, 1728 — 1804,) senator of 
 Bologna. He was a man of dissolute 
 habits, extremely fond of the theatre, an 
 amateur actor himself, and a writer of 
 plays. He was separated from his first 
 217 
 
 wife, and his second he killed in a quar- 
 rel, although in Tipaldo's Biografia it is 
 said that one of his friends undertook 
 to defend him from this charge. Late 
 in life ha married a dancer, Zampieri, 
 who avenged his two former wives ! He, 
 was a friend of Goldoni, Voltaire, Alfieri, 
 &c. The comedies of Albergati were 
 collected and published at Bologna, in 
 1784, in 12mo: he particularly excelled 
 in one-act pieces. He left behind him 
 also some miscellaneous writings. 
 
 ALBERGONI, (1560— 1G36,) an 
 Italian preacher, a native of Lombardy. 
 In 1611, he was appointed bishop of Mon- 
 marani. He left some theological works. 
 
 ALBERGOTTI, (Francesco, d. 1376,) 
 an Italian lawyer, was born at Arezzo, 
 near Florence, in the fourteenth century. 
 He studied philosophy and jurisprudence 
 under the celebrated Baldi, and after- 
 wards practised as an advocate in his 
 native town. He went to Florence in 
 1349, and here his great erudition, his 
 talents, and his integrity, earned him 
 the title of Doctor solidfE verifatis. He 
 was employed as a diplomatist by the 
 republic of Florence, by which he was 
 ennobled. His principal works are — 
 Commentaries on the Digest, on some 
 books of the Civil Code, and Consulta- 
 tions. His father, Alberic Rosiati of Ber- 
 gamo, wrote a Dictionary of Law, and a 
 work on the 6th book of the Decretals. 
 
 2. Lii'igi, the son of Francesco, followed 
 the path of his father, and was also emi- 
 nent for his learning. 
 
 3. MarceUini, rendered great services 
 to Innocent IV. against Frederick II. 
 
 4. Giovanni, was a useful agent of 
 Gregory XL in the quarrels of that pon- 
 tiff with GaleazzoVisconti, duke of Milan. 
 
 ALBERIC I., a Lombard gentleman, 
 having quitted the party of Guido for 
 that of Berenger I., was created by the 
 latter marquis of Camerino, towards the 
 end of the ninth century ; he maiTied 
 Marozia, daughter of Theodora, a Roman 
 lady, who by her gallantry and intrigues 
 had possessed herself of the sovereignty 
 of Rome. Alberic afterwards added the 
 duchy of Spoleto to the territories of 
 himself and his wife. In 916 he under- 
 took, with pope John X., a successful 
 expedition against the Saracens, who had 
 established themselves near the Garigli- 
 ano. He was killed by the Romans about 
 ten years afterwards, at Citta d'Orta, 
 whither he had retired. 
 
 ALBERIC II. was the son of the 
 preceding, and was the brother of the 
 pope John XI. (See the name Marozia.) 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 On the marriage of his mother witli Hugh 
 of Provence, king of Italy, in 932, a quar- 
 rel took place, and Marozia was thrown 
 into prison, and John XI. placed under 
 surveillance; and Alberic recei\ied the go- 
 vernment of Rome under the title of grand 
 consul : Alberic afterwards married Alda, 
 the daughter of Alberic. He continued to 
 govern for twenty-three years the ancient 
 capital of the world, at a period when 
 the empire of the west was without a 
 chief, and that of the east without power. 
 The eyes of all Italy were fixed upon 
 him, for the popes, his contemporaries, 
 had lost the respect of the people. But 
 he lived at a period when history is 
 shrouded by impenetralile obscurity ; and 
 there exists at present scarcely a trace 
 of his long reign. He died in 954, and 
 his son, Octavian, inherited the temporal 
 sovereignty of Rome, of which, two years 
 afterwards, he became the spiritual chief, 
 being chosen pope as John XII. 
 
 ALBERIC DE RHEIMS, archbishop 
 of Bourges, a celebrated French prelate 
 in the twelfth century. The date of his 
 birth is not known exactly ; but we know 
 that he studied theology under Anselm 
 of Laon, and that he became one of the 
 warmest partizans of the doctrines of the 
 Realists. He himself afterwards taught 
 in the school at Rheims with great suc- 
 cess, although his manner was con- 
 demned by many as being diffuse and 
 confused. His reputation indeed was so 
 great, that in 1126 he was unanimously 
 elected bishop of Chalons, but the elec- 
 tion was not confirmed by the pope. He 
 accordingly continued his lessons at 
 Rheims till 1136, when he was elected 
 to the see of Bourges. He died in 1141. 
 Although in his own time his fame was 
 so great, and he is enumerated among 
 the doctors who filled the world with their 
 doctrine and writings, the only work by 
 Alberic de Rheims which is now known 
 to exist, is a small tract on the subject 
 of marriage, printed by Martenne in the 
 first voliune of his great collection. 
 
 ALBERIC DES TROIS FON- 
 TAINES, a French historian of the thir- 
 teenth century. He seems to have been 
 a Cistercian monk, of Val de St. Lam- 
 bert, near Liege. In the 18th volume 
 of the Histoire Litteraire de la France, 
 will be found a learned and able article 
 on the chronicle which has hitherto gone 
 under the name of Alberic des Trois 
 Fontaines, and which was first printed 
 by Leibnitz. The author of this article 
 has shown clearly that the chronicle was 
 not written by Alberic, but by an anony- 
 21S 
 
 mous monk of the order of St. Augustine, 
 and canon of the abbey of Neumoutier, 
 near Huy, in the diocese of Liege, who 
 lived early in the thirteenth century ; and 
 that Alberic is oidy the interpolator and 
 continuator of the work. This chronicle 
 closes with the year 1241. 
 
 ALBERICI, (Enrico, 1714—1775,) a 
 painter of Bergamo, who is praised by 
 Tassi in his Lives of the Bergamesque 
 Painters. He was a scholar of Ferdi- 
 nando Cairo, of Brescia, in the church of 
 which town are sonie scriptvu^e pieces by 
 him. (Bi-yan's Diet.) 
 
 ALBERON I., bishop and prince of 
 Liege in 1 1 23, was a prelate of a mild and 
 pure character. His reign was remark- 
 able for nothing but the su])pression of the 
 right of mcmi morte, which he abolished 
 in his territories long before Henry III. 
 duke of Brabant. He died Jan. 1, 1128. 
 ALBERONI, (Giulio,1664, Placentia; 
 — 1752, Rome) the celebrated cardinal, 
 was the son of a poor gardener. Unable 
 to obtain the advantages of education, he 
 laboured for some time at his father's 
 business ; but his soul was too aspiring 
 for this obscure calling ; and in his 
 twelfth year he became attached to the 
 service of a parish clerk, or rather leader 
 of the choir. This was humble enough ; 
 but it brought the youth into connexion 
 with some clergymen ; and by one he 
 was taught to read, first Italian, and 
 then Latin. His genius, his love of 
 study, procured him admission into a 
 school of the Jesuits ; and under those 
 excellent masters, his progress in solid 
 learning, in polite literature, and in dis- 
 simidation, surprised even them. Such 
 a man, it was evident, required oppor- 
 tunity only to reach eminence ; but that 
 opportunity must be discovered by him- 
 self: he had no wish to enter the order of 
 the Jesuits ; he preferred to labour for his 
 own advantage rather than for that of a 
 community ; and he endeavoured to find 
 some patron to whom he might become 
 necessary, and by whose aid he might 
 obtain distinction in the world. He first 
 attached himself to Gardini, of Ravenna, 
 judge of the criminal court at Placentia; 
 and though the latter was disgraced, and 
 compelled to seek refuge in Ravenna, 
 young Giulio accompanied his patron to 
 that city. This step, however, was dic- 
 tated, not so much by attachment to Gar- 
 dini, as by the conviction that he should 
 obtain little honour in his own country. 
 His next patron v/as the vice-legate count 
 Bazni, who being nominated bishop of 
 Placentia, selected him for his steward. 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 But this post did not please him; in 1690 
 he embraced holy orders, and obtained 
 a small cure, vdth a stall in the cathedral, 
 which he owed to the liberality of the 
 count. Still his native city was not the 
 best sphere of his labours, and he gladly 
 accompanied the nephew of his patron 
 to Rome, as preceptor and companion. 
 There he improved himself in his know- 
 ledge of antiquities, of modern literature, 
 of philosophy, and, above all, in the 
 French language, which soon became 
 one of the most useful steps to his eleva- 
 tion. There, too, he formed some con- 
 nexions, the influence of which might 
 aid him in his career of ambition. But 
 he owed most of his advantages to his 
 own merits, or good fortune. While on 
 a visit to Placentia, the duchy was in the 
 hands of the French, vmder Vendome, 
 whose exactions were felt to be in- 
 supportably oppressive. To obtain a 
 mitigation of the biu'den, the bishop of 
 St. Domino, whom he had known at 
 Rome, was sent by the duke to the head 
 quarters of the invaders. The bishop 
 being ignorant of French, chose Alberoni 
 to accompany him as secretary and in- 
 terpreter. In vivacity of manner, in 
 elegance of address, in playfulness of 
 wit, nobody could equal the j'oung 
 canon, who, determined to be agi-eeable, 
 was sure to become so. His knowledge 
 of the world and of man — for he was an 
 acute observer — made his conversation 
 as instructive as it was entertaining. He 
 was the dehght of every social circle ; 
 even the rough Vendome relaxed in his 
 presence, and paid him marked attention. 
 Of loose morals, and little principle, he 
 did not scruple to gratify the gross tastes 
 of the marshal ; and his influence greatly 
 sm-passed that of the bishop, who had 
 too much \drtue, and too much refine- 
 ment, to be pleased with the daily task of 
 flattering the blunt, licentious soldier. 
 In the end, with the full sanction of the 
 prelate, the negotiation was confided to 
 the canon ; and he conducted it so well 
 as to obtain from the duke a stall in the 
 cathedral of Parma, with a residence, 
 where he might entertain his new friends 
 the French oflScei's. When Vendome left 
 Italy he could not dispense with his 
 " cher abbe;" and the dear abbe had 
 no objection to exchange the service of a 
 poor prince for that of a powerfid con- 
 queror. Become the secretary, the friend 
 of the marshal, he was present throughout 
 the campaign of Flanders ; and with such 
 zeal and intelligence did he acquit him- 
 self in his new duties, that on the powerful 
 219 
 
 recommendation of his patron, he had 
 a considerable pension from Louis XIV. 
 But the reputation of Alberoni is con - 
 nected with Spain, which he first entered 
 with his patron in 1709. At that time 
 the war of the succession was raging 
 furiously in that country. The French 
 and the Spaniards on the one side, the 
 Austi'ians, English, and Dutch on the 
 other, were displaying aU that valour, all 
 that skill, all that intrigues could sug- 
 gest, — the former in behalf of Philip 
 the Fifth, the latter in behalf of the 
 ai'chduke Charles. The reputation for 
 ability wliich the Abate had obtained in 
 Italy and the Low Countries, was much 
 augmented in Spain. In some of the 
 oflicial despatches his praises were in- 
 serted : his address, his dexterity, his 
 seci'et intrigues, his commanding talents, 
 coidd not fail to be appreciated by Ven- 
 dome, or by the French king. The prin- 
 cess Orsini, a French lady, ruled the 
 court of Philip V. through the queen, 
 whose influence over her uxorious hus- 
 band was boundless. The princess, 
 therefore, must be flattered and kept in 
 good humour, or how could she become 
 the instrument of the designs formed by 
 Louis ? The Abate was fixed on for the 
 post ; and his genius soon gave him the 
 ascendancy over the most intriguing of 
 women. Pensioned by Philip no less 
 than by Louis, enjoying the revenues 
 of his Italian stall, employed in some 
 profitable undertakings (among these was 
 the compilation of a new financial system 
 for Spain) his circumstances were affluent. 
 On the death of Vendome he repaired to 
 the French capital to acquaint Louis with 
 the plans which had been adopted for the 
 administration of the army. He was re- 
 ceived with much distinction ; his services 
 were too valuable not to be liberally re- 
 warded ; and he returned to the court at 
 Madrid with more than the usual confi- 
 dence. The man who could please at 
 once Louis, Philip, the French ambas- 
 sador, the princess Orsini, and the queen, 
 — who not only pleased them but enjoyed 
 their confidence — must have had talents 
 of an extraordinary kind. But whatever 
 favour he might enjoy in Spain, he knew 
 courts too well to expect that it would 
 continue for ever ; and during his season 
 of prosperity he did not lose sight of his 
 own countr3\ He it was who, when the 
 agent of the duke his sovereign was about 
 to quit Spain, because that sovereign 
 had acknowledged the archduke Charles 
 as king of Spain, obtained pennission for 
 him to remain. To that oliice hj was 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 soon appointed himself ; and on the death 
 of the queen, he was able to place a 
 princess of Parma on the throne of 
 Spain. The manner in which this im- 
 portant affair was managed, strongly 
 illustrates his character. He knew that 
 Philip would not long remain without a 
 wife ; that the princess Orsini wished for 
 one like the last, — one that would allow 
 her to govern ; and he was determined 
 to end her career of ambition by making 
 her the instrument of a choice that must 
 for ever exile her from Spain. " Being 
 engaged in conversation with Alberoni 
 while the funeral procession of the late 
 queen was passing, she remarked, ' We 
 must provide a new wife for the king,' 
 and added the names of different prin- 
 cesses. The wily Italian raised objec- 
 tions to each ; and penetrating her 
 design, observed, ' You must find one 
 quiet and docile, and not likely to inter- 
 fere in state affairs.' The princess asking, 
 ' Where shall we discover such a person?' 
 he rapidly recapitulated the princely 
 families of Europe; and then, as if by 
 accident, recollecting himself, carelessly 
 mentioned Elizabeth Farnese, daughter 
 of Edward, deceased duke of Parma; 
 adding, with the same tone of indiffer- 
 ence and simplicity, ' She is a good girl, 
 plump, healthy, and well-fed ; brought 
 up in the petty court of her uncle, duke 
 Francis, and accustomed to hear of 
 nothing but needle-work and embroi- 
 dery.' He dexterously adverted also to 
 her reversionary claims on the duchies of 
 Parma and Tuscany, which might afford 
 the means of regaining the Spanish 
 power in Italy." (Coxe, Memoirs, vol. ii. 
 chap. 20.) The addi-ess of the artfid Italian 
 was not lost; the princess became his 
 dupe ; she intrigued for Elizabeth Farnese, 
 and was cordially assisted by Alberoni. 
 As the future queen was related to the for- 
 mer, a papal dispensation was secretly and 
 promptly obtained. The favourite, indeed, 
 soon discovered that she had been duped ; 
 that Elizabeth was of a superior genius, 
 of commanding talents and uncontrollable 
 pride ; and in her alarm she sent a con- 
 fidential messenger to suspend the cere- 
 mony of marriage by proxy, until she 
 should find the opportunity entirely to 
 break it off. That messenger reached 
 Parma on the morning of the ceremony ; 
 but his purpose was suspected, and he was 
 persuaded, or forced, to remain quiet 
 until its conclusion. In a few days the 
 new queen set out for Madrid ; passed 
 along the southern coast of France, and 
 at Panipeluua was met by Alberoni, who 
 220 
 
 was now elevated to the dignity of count, 
 and from the subordinate rank of agent, 
 to that of envoy from the court of 
 Parma to Madrid. Very different was 
 the reception of the princess, whose fate 
 had been determined beforehand, both 
 by the king and queen. When she 
 advanced to meet him she was treated 
 with contumely, andimmediately escorted 
 over the frontier. (The extraordinary fate 
 of this lady, before and after this event, 
 may be seen under her name). From 
 the moment of the queen's arrival in 
 Spain (early in 1716), may be dated the 
 increased influence of Alberoni. He 
 was her countryman ; to him she owed 
 her elevation ; his experience would be 
 her surest guide in a strange court ; and 
 she reposed entire confidence in his cha- 
 racter. As minister of her uncle, the 
 duke of Parma, he had always access to 
 the palace ; he studied the inclinations of 
 the royal pair ; and he was soon consulted 
 in every matter of importance. For a 
 time he was satisfied with the privileges 
 Avithout the title of minister ; but in a 
 few months after the arrival of the queen 
 he replaced the cardinal del Giudice, the 
 head of the Bourbon party, in the chief 
 direction of affairs. To imderstand the 
 policy of his administration during a 
 most eventful period (1716 — 1720), we 
 must advert, for a moment, to the cir- 
 cumstances which had led to the actual 
 position of the country. 
 
 On the death of Charles II. (1700,) the 
 Spanish monarchy comprised, besides 
 Spain and the Indies, Naples, Sicily, 
 Sardinia, Milan, and the Low Countries. 
 In conformity with the will of that sove- 
 reign, and, indeed, with the recognised 
 law of succession, the vast inheritance fell 
 to Philip, duke of Anjou, who descended 
 fr-om the eldest daughter of Philip IV. 
 Philip, indeed, was not so near to the 
 thi-one as an elder brother ; but that bro- 
 ther being the acknowledged heir to the 
 French throne, was induced to abandon 
 his right to the duke of Anjou. But 
 there was another claimant, the arch- 
 duke Charles of Austria, descended fi-om 
 a younger daughter of Philip IV. He, 
 too, claimed in virtue of the renunciation 
 of an elder brother ; so that in this re- 
 spect the two candidates were on equal 
 terms. The French pi-ince, however, 
 as sprung from the elder daughter of 
 Philip, had, to say nothing of the de- 
 ceased monarch's will, the better claim. 
 But with Austria, which was determined 
 to support the alleged rights of its house, 
 this claim had little weight ; and it was 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 odious to England and Holland, the here- 
 ditary enemies of France, who dread'jd 
 tlie power of Louis XIV, and expressed 
 their determination to resist what they 
 called a virtual union of two crowns on 
 the same brow. There was surely as 
 nuich danger to he apprehended from the 
 union of the Austrian with the Spanish 
 crown, — that another Charles V. might 
 arise to disturb the tranquillity of Europe ; 
 yet tlie two powers allied themselves 
 with the former power. Fortunately for 
 the duke of Anjou, now Philip V., the 
 Spaniards themselves were for him ; and 
 he liad all the support which his grand- 
 father Louis could afford. He therefore 
 triumphed in the Peninsula, but the 
 treaty of Utrecht (1713) sadly diminished 
 his splendour. By it he was acknow- 
 ledged king of Spain and the Lidies only. 
 Milan, Naples, Sardinia, and the Nether- 
 lands were ceded to the emperor ; Sicily, 
 with the regal title, went to the duke of 
 Savoy ; and Gibraltar was confirmed to 
 England. In other words, nearly half 
 of the European possessions of Spain 
 were thus wrested from the crown ; and 
 Philip was constrained, both by the allies 
 and his grandfather Louis, to sanction 
 the spoliation, and to renounce for ever 
 all claim to the crown of France. That 
 he did so unwillingly, that he felt 
 many emotions of shame and of indig- 
 nation at the dismemberment of the 
 monarchy in behalf of his rival the Aus- 
 strian prince, was only what might 
 have been expected. He looked upon 
 these acts of renunciation as invalid, be- 
 cause they were compulsory; and as 
 unjust, because they were at variance 
 with the interests and the will of his 
 people. If he bent to the necessity, he 
 did so in the resolution to recover at 
 least his Italian possessions, whenever 
 war should arise between the contracting 
 parties, or whenever he should find them 
 so much occupied with other affairs as 
 to justify the aggression. To the attain- 
 ment of that object, his energies, (such as 
 they were,) hispolicy, his whole atttention, 
 was given. His marriage with Elizabeth 
 Farnese seemed to favovu* his claims. 
 Her relations, the dukes of Parma, Pla- 
 centia, and Tuscany, were without male 
 issue ; and if they died without any, she 
 was the heiress of those possessions. If 
 her son, Don Carlos, (bom in 1716,) could 
 not succeed to the Spanish throne, from 
 which Philip's two sons by the former 
 queen excluded him, he might look to 
 Italy for a sovereignty ; — to Naples per- 
 haps, or to Milan, or at least to Parma 
 221 
 
 and Placentia, — perhaps to all of them. 
 Her influence over Philip, independent 
 of his paternal affection, was sufficient 
 to make him espouse with ardour the 
 interests of Carlos. If Europe would 
 not allow his eldest son to possess these 
 Italian sovereignties in conjunction with 
 Spain and the Indies, there could be no 
 injury to the balance of power in placing 
 a younger son over these sovereignties. 
 Yet the interests of Carlos, so far at least 
 as Naples, Sicily, and Milan were concern- 
 ed, were subordinate to his own ; he would, 
 if possible, reduce them to his own govern- 
 ment ; and if this object were impracti- 
 cable, then he would provide for another. 
 These explanations afford the key to 
 Philip's policy, and consequently to that 
 of Alberoni. Scarcely had the latter 
 assmuedthe reins of administration, when, 
 to please the royal pair, he commenced 
 his intrigues with regard to Italy. The 
 difficulties with which he had to contend 
 were of no common order. The duke 
 of Savoy, now king of Sicily, was anxious 
 to exchange that island for Lombardy, 
 and was endeavouring to obtain the 
 assistance of the Austrian family in this 
 object. The emperor himself, Charles 
 VL would not renounce his claim to the 
 Spanish throne, much less consent to any 
 aggrandizement of Philip in Italy. But 
 on the other hand there was still a Span- 
 ish party in Sai;dinia, and Sicily, and 
 Naples. The pope was not much grati- 
 fied with so formidable a neighbour as 
 the emperor, on the throne of Naples ; 
 and France could not be expected to 
 oppose with vigour the designs of the 
 Bourbon family in that quarter. There 
 wanted but the neutrality of England 
 and Holland, in any struggle that might 
 arise, to afford good hope of success. To 
 propitiate both, therefore, by exti-aordi- 
 nary mercantile privileges, was for some 
 time the object of Alberoni. But he was 
 sadly disappointed in his hopes : Eng- 
 land, and Holland, and France entered 
 into an alliance to preserve the integrity 
 of the peace of Utrecht, and the ties of 
 friendship between England and Austria 
 were more closely drawn. Still he pushed 
 his prepai-ations for war, with an energy 
 almost unexampled ; and to allay the 
 apprehension of Europe, he declared that 
 he intended to make war on the Turks. 
 Yet at this very moment he was negoti- 
 ating with Turkey, to make a diversion 
 on the side of Hungary and Transylva- 
 nia, so as to occupy the arms of the em- 
 peror far enough from Italy. Had he been 
 allowed a few years' longer time for pre- 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 paration, lie would indeed, as he boasted, 
 have i-endcred his sovereign one of the 
 most powerful in Europe ; but a cir- 
 cumstance occurred which made Philip 
 plunge into the war long before the 
 minister wished him. This was the arrest 
 of the Spanish ambassador, in Italy, by 
 order of the emperor. The act roused the 
 king, who, in opposition to the remon- 
 strances, the entreaties of Alberoni, com- 
 manded hostilities to be immediately 
 undertaken. Alberoni was now cardinal 
 and bishop of Malaga : he was expect- 
 ing the bulls for the archbishopric of 
 Seville ; he was a grandee of the first 
 class, and as he had received every thing, 
 so he hoped every thing, from the bounty 
 of Philip. He therefore submitted his 
 own judgment to the authority of his 
 master, and commenced the war with an 
 alacrity characteristic of himself. In 
 August 1717, an armament carrying 
 nine thousand men left Barcelona; and, 
 while Europe was ignorant of its destina- 
 tion, steered for Sardinia, which in two 
 months acknowledged the domination of 
 the catholic king. In the mean time 
 other preparations were pushed with 
 equal vigour and equal secresy ; and 
 their destination was Sicily or Naples. 
 But Europe had already taken the alarm, 
 and before the second armament of 
 twenty thousand men left Barcelona, 
 (1718,) an English flee^t, under admiral 
 Byug, was sent to resist the meditated 
 aggression. Then was formed the cele- 
 brated Quadruple Alliance between Eng- 
 land, France, and Austria, (Holland, 
 the fourth power, did not join it im- 
 mediately,) and founded on that of 
 Utrecht. To pacify Philip, the rever- 
 sion of Tuscany and Panna was secured 
 to Don Carlos ; and in exchange for 
 Sicily, which the king "Victor Amadeus 
 little esteemed, and which was to be 
 surrendered to the emperor, Victor was 
 to receive Sardinia. But Sicily was 
 now invaded by the armament of Philip ; 
 Palermo and Messina were taken ; and 
 the whole island was about to submit, 
 when Byng arrived, and annihilated the 
 Spanish fleet. To the cardinal this was 
 a cruel blow. In revenge, he entered 
 into the alliance with Charles XII. of 
 Sweden, and the tsar Peter, to place the 
 exiled Stuart on the throne of Great 
 Britain. The idea was, for a court like 
 that of Madrid, a magnificent one ; but 
 whatever it undertook against this go- 
 vernment, failed ; the death of Charles, 
 before an obscure fortress of Norway, 
 rendered that scheme abortive. Albe- 
 222 
 
 roni's policy against France was not more 
 successful : to invest his master with the 
 government of that kingdom, in opposi- 
 tion to the treaty of Utrecht, was one of 
 his darling schemes, after the death of 
 Louis XIV. and the Dauphin. The 
 regency, during the minority of Louis 
 XV., had been seized by the duke of 
 Orleans : Philip believed that he had a 
 better right to it than that ambitious 
 kinsman ; and a conspiracy was formed 
 by the bold Italian to seize the regent, 
 bring him to Spain, and proclaim Philip. 
 Tliis design failed, and naturally ren- 
 dered the duke one of the most bitter 
 enemies of his kinsman. War was de- 
 clared, troops marched to the northern 
 frontier, and several fortresses both in 
 Navarre and Catalonia reduced before 
 the eyes of the cardinal and the king. 
 Yet neither was dismayed ; Alberoni in 
 particular seemed to acquire new vigour 
 from every failure. His next object was 
 to equip at Cadiz a formidable armament, 
 which he asserted was designed against 
 Sicily, but which received orders to sail for 
 Scotland, and assist James in ascending 
 the throne. The same fatality attended 
 this as all tlie other great designs of the 
 cardinal : off" the Galician coast, the fleet 
 was dispersed by storm ; two frigates 
 only reached their destination, and the 
 troops disembarking were immediately 
 compelled to surrender. These disasters 
 were followed by the adhesion of Victor 
 Amadeus and Holland to the quadruple 
 alliance ; by the disembarkation of Aus- 
 trian troops in Sicily ; by the expulsion 
 of the Spanish soldiers from the island, 
 except in two or three fortresses. As 
 Alberoni had dreaded, and had in fact 
 predicted, Spain now stood exposed to the 
 vengeance of armed Eiu-ope. Yet Philip 
 regarded his minister with ill-will ; in- 
 trigues were devised to ruin him ; the 
 great powers threw their weight into the 
 scale against him, fi-om a conviction that 
 if suflered to remain at the helm of aflairs, 
 he would soon bring on a general war. 
 His enemies in Spain, — and how could a 
 foreigner, a proud, haughty foreigner, 
 escape enemies in such a country ? — re- 
 doubled their exertions, until he received 
 from the king an order to quit Madrid 
 in a week, the Spanish dominions in 
 three. Yet when his disgrace was known, 
 the Spaniards remembered only his ge- 
 nius : they crowded to his antechamber, 
 and, by their attentions, endeavoured to 
 shew their respect. On his way to the 
 frontier, he was twice plundered, and he 
 had to assmne a disguise before he could 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 safely traverse Catalonia. From thence 
 he proceeded into Italy. 
 
 If greatness is to be estimated by suc- 
 cess (the favourite maxim of Richelieu), 
 certainly Alberoni could advance no claim 
 to it. All his foreign projects failed. 
 Nobody, however, will deny that they 
 were the offspring of a comprehensive 
 and a daring mind. That they failed, 
 was owing to no inherent defect in them, 
 but to combinations of circumstances 
 which no wisdom could have foreseen. 
 Forced by the impatience of his royal 
 master into the war before his plans 
 were matured, he had always to struggle 
 against obstacles become for this reason 
 invincible. He could not foresee the 
 death of Charles XII., nor the disper- 
 sion of his fleet by a storm, flor a hun- 
 dred accidents which baffled his designs. 
 Much of what he attempted, he effected. 
 He conquered Sardinia ; and he had re- 
 duced most of Sicily when the English 
 fleet interrupted him in his career of 
 victory. Internally, his administration 
 was equally great and more successful. 
 The improvements which he introduced 
 into the finances, into the marine, into 
 the military department, into the whole 
 domestic administration, into the whole 
 national economy, were the subject of 
 universal admiration. In the short and 
 troubled period which saw him at the 
 helm of affairs, he founded schools, 
 established printing offices, changed the 
 mode no less than the nature of the cus- 
 toms, gave vigour to many branches of 
 the national industry, introduced others' 
 which had not yet been attempted, made 
 Cadiz a flourishing port, launched four- 
 teen men-of-war from the different ports, 
 left as many more nearly completed, 
 abolished many useless offices, rendered 
 some more efficient, curtailed the emo- 
 luments of others, created new ones re- 
 quired by the exigencies of the public 
 service, augmented the army, and re- 
 formed it throughout ; and though com- 
 pelled to exact some heavy contributions, 
 he caused them to fall liglitly on the 
 mercantile, the industrious, the poor 
 classes of the population. How, with the 
 limited means he possessed, he effected 
 such wonders ; how, without money, he 
 created an army and a navy, and made 
 Spain, suddenly rising fi'om the slumber 
 of a hundred years, take her place amidst 
 the leading powers of Europe, is a pro- 
 blem very difficult of solution. It must 
 be refeiTed to a genius of the highest 
 order — commanding, incessantly active, 
 embracing the most complex combina- 
 223 
 
 tions, at once comprehensive and minute. 
 Nor in his foreign policy was he so un- 
 successful as many writers would have 
 us believe. His vigorous demonstrations 
 caused the members of the Quadruple 
 Alliance to provide for the succession of 
 Uon Carlos to the duchies of Tuscany 
 and Parma ; and was the foundation of 
 that prince's success in a more important 
 enterprise — his accession to the throne 
 of the Two Sicilies. From national and 
 political prejudice, justice was long re- 
 fused him ; but modern statesmen, eco- 
 nomists, and philosophers, in the country 
 which can best judge of his merits, do 
 not hesitate to rank him with cardinal 
 Ximenes Cisneros, with Mazarin and 
 Richelieu. Assuredly, with the excep- 
 tion of that cardinal, Spain had never so 
 gi'eat a minister. 
 
 The activity with which the king and 
 queen persecuted the cardinal after his 
 expulsion from the realm, proves how 
 much they dreaded his genius. He was 
 not suffered to enter the papal ten-itory ; 
 by the senate of Genoa he was arrested, 
 but soon liberated, as the charges against 
 him were evidently dictated by malice. 
 During his short stay in that republic, 
 he published a justification of his con- 
 duct, and in it he did not spare either 
 Philip or the queen. The boldness, and 
 still more the success of his defence, gave 
 new umbrage to the court of Madrid ; 
 but though it procured his expulsion 
 from the Genoese temtory, it could not 
 procure his degradation from the piu'ple. 
 Directing his course through the Apen- 
 nines, he was for some time lost to the 
 world. He retired to Lucarno, one of 
 the Italian bailiwicks, where he was pro- 
 tected by the regency of Coire against 
 the attempts made to seize his person. 
 From that place he was transferred by 
 the same friendly hands to a solitary 
 fortress in the Grisons, where he re- 
 mained a year. On the death of Cle- 
 ment XIII., who had been prejudiced 
 against him, he obtained a safe-conduct, 
 and in defiance of Spain, which had 
 everywhere its agents to intercept him, 
 proceeded secretly and rapidly into the 
 papal territories, and entered Rome to 
 assist in a new election. The fame which 
 he had acquired, was evident from the 
 restless impatience of the Romans to see 
 him. His entry was a triiunph : he was 
 the only one observed ; and though the 
 cardinals were at first sufficiently hostile 
 to him, his insinuating address, his dig- 
 nified manners, his sobriety of conduct, 
 and his commanding talents, removed 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 their antipathy, and he was siiiFered to 
 join in the acts of the sacred college. 
 But the commission of four cardinals 
 which Clement had appointed to examine 
 the charges brought against him, still 
 continued its functions ; and in the end 
 he was condemned to a three years' re- 
 sidence in a monastery. Was this done 
 to propitiate the Spanish and French 
 courts ? So thovight the world, after 
 reading the masterly vindication which 
 he published under an assumed title. So 
 thought the pope, who limited the period 
 of his seclusion, honourable as it might 
 be considered, to one year. By the new 
 pope Innocent XIIL he was solemnly 
 absolved from all charges, and invested 
 with all the rights, all the privileges of 
 the purple. By Benedict XIIL he was 
 conseci-ated bishop of Malaga, and pen- 
 sioned. The French government too, 
 through the interest of cardinal Polignac, 
 did him tardy justice for the persecu- 
 tion if had occasioned him, by two con- 
 siderable grants, a gift of 10,000 crowns, 
 and a pension of 17,000 livres. But for 
 the intrigues of the British cabinet, which 
 dreaded his return to Spain, even Philip 
 would have been reconciled with him. 
 When, in 1732, Don Carlos took posses- 
 sion of Parma and Placentia, he was 
 graciously received by that prince, who 
 allowed him to reside in his native city. 
 There he founded and endowed a semi- 
 nary outside the walls. In 1746 it was 
 occupied by the German troops ; and the 
 cardinal was glad to seek a refuge within 
 the city during the siege. He was as 
 well adapted for straitened as for pro- 
 sperous circumstances. In his one hum- 
 ble apartment, containing a bed, a table, 
 and four chairs, though fourscore years 
 of age, he would have no servant to wait 
 upon him : he made his own fire, cooked 
 his own meals, and conversed with the 
 garrulity natural to age. His language 
 was energetic, rich, and polished, and 
 unexampled for its information. At 
 this time Placentia was defended by 
 Spanish troops, who treated him with 
 profound veneration : they remembered 
 his administration with pride, for he had 
 again fixed on their country the anxious 
 eyes of Europe. Subsequently he was 
 made vice-legate of Romagna, where, 
 notwithstanding his advanced years, he 
 sliowed great activity and great genius. 
 He drained the marshes in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Ravenna ; confined the 
 Ronco and the Moncone within narrower 
 bounds ; and dug numerous canals to 
 carrv off the superfluous waters into the 
 224 
 
 Adriatic. " These, and other works in 
 the same district," says an Italian writer, 
 " will remain to posterity an illustrious 
 monument of the abilities and talents of 
 cardinal Alberoni." Yet even on this 
 insignificant stage, he could not refrain 
 from intrigues. The petty repubhc of 
 San Marino he endeavoured to reduce 
 into subjection to Rome ; but the plot 
 was discovered, and his conduct was 
 disavowed by pope Benedict. He died 
 at Rome, aged 88. 
 
 That the principles of this extraordi- 
 nary man were not the soimdest, is evi- 
 dent from the tenor of his life, especially 
 his political Hfe. It was his boast, no 
 doubt a tnie one, that his moral conduct 
 became his station in the church. But 
 he consulted the decencies of that sta- 
 tion, rather than his religious obliga- 
 tions : like Talleyrand, or Fouche, he 
 would have considered an useless immo- 
 rality as " worse than a crime — as a 
 blunder." Yet we do not assert that he 
 was wholly without religious feeling. The 
 numerous remarks and notes which he 
 made in the margin of his Thomas a 
 Kempis show that he coidd often reflect 
 on the best subjects. His woi'st enemies 
 could not deny that he bore his reverses 
 with calm dignity ; that he foimd consola- 
 tion, if not in religion, certainly in letters 
 and philosophy. (Vita del Card. Alberoni. 
 Storia del Card. Alberoni. El Marques 
 de San Felipe, Comentarios. Memoires 
 de St. Simon. Ortiz, Historia Crono- 
 logica. Coxe, Memoirs of the Bourbon 
 Kings of Spain.) 
 
 ALBERS, (John Abraham, 1772— 
 1821), a distinguished physician. He 
 studied at Gottingen and Christiania, and 
 afterwards visited England. He wrote 
 on the Croup (a prize-essay) ; on the 
 Exhibition of Nitric Acid internally ; on 
 the Efficacy of the Volatile Alkali admi- 
 nistered alternately with Opium in Spas- 
 modic Affections, &c. &c. He published 
 also some plates of Comparative Anatomy, 
 fol. Leipzig, 1818. 
 
 ALBERS, (H. P. F. 1768—1830,) 
 physician to the king of Hanover; was 
 inspector of the mineral spring of Reh- 
 bourg, on which he wrote. 
 
 ALBERT DE STADE, an abbot of 
 the convent of St. Mary, at Stade ; lived 
 in the thirteenth century. He wrote in 
 Latin a Chronicle from the Creation 
 to the year 1256, which was published at 
 Helmstadt in 1587, by Reiner Reineck, 
 with notes. 
 
 ALBERT OF STRASBURG, some- 
 times called Argentinensis, lived in the 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 fourteenth century, and wrote a chronicle 
 from the year 1270 to 1378, which Cus- 
 pinian often quotes, (see Cuspinian:) Ur- 
 sticius has published the whole of it in 
 his Scriptores Germanici, ii. 97. His 
 other works are enumerated in Du Pin's 
 Bibliotheque for the fourteenth century. 
 According to Sinner, (Catalog. Codd. 
 Bibl. Bernensis, ii. 520,) Mathias of 
 Nuwemburg or Neufchatel is indicated 
 in other MSS. as the author of this 
 chronicle. 
 
 ALBERT, Benedictine of the monas- 
 tery of Siegbei-g, near Cologne, lived 
 about the year 1450. He wrote, in Latin, 
 a history of the popes, from Gregory IX. 
 to Nicholas V. ; and a history of the 
 Roman emperors, from Augustus to Fre- 
 derick in. These two works are con- 
 tained, in manuscript, in the Imperial 
 Library at Vienna. 
 
 ALBERT THE FORTUNATE, Latin 
 patriarch of Jerusalem, and legislator of 
 the order of Carmelites, was born near 
 Parma in the twelfth century. He was 
 fixed upon by Barbarossa and pope Cle- 
 ment III. to decide the disputes between 
 them. He was chosen patriarch 1204, 
 when he took up his residence at St. Jean 
 d'Acre, Jerusalem being still in the hands 
 of the infidels. It was at tliis time that 
 he established wise rules for his order, 
 but so severe, that they were mitigated in 
 several points by commissioners appointed 
 to examine them by Innocent IV. Albert 
 was assassinated at Acre, Sept. 14, 1214, 
 by a man whom he had reproached for 
 his crimes. 
 
 ALBERT (or ALBERIC) D'AIX, 
 canon of the church of Aix in Provence, 
 and chiefly known as one of the histo- 
 rians of the crusades. It is said that, 
 disappointed in his intention of accom- 
 panying the first cnisade, he detennined 
 to follow its movements spiritually, and 
 with this feeling undertook to write its 
 history. He has been praised for the 
 simplicity and natural manner in which 
 he relates events ; but, in common with 
 many other middle-age historians, he 
 shows himself rather too fond of the mar- 
 vellous. His history was first printed 
 with notes by Reiner Reineck, in 2 vols. 
 4to. at Helmstadt, in 1584, under the 
 title of Chronicon Hierosolimitanum ; 
 and afterwards inserted by Bongars in 
 the first volume of the Gesta Dei per 
 Francos. 
 
 ALBERT I. or ALBRECHT, (1248— 
 1308,) duke of Austria and emperor, 
 was the son of Rudolph of Hapsburg, 
 who, from a comparatively obscure 
 
 VOL. I. 225 
 
 station, had raised himself to the 
 head of the German empire. On the 
 death of his father, Albert, without 
 waiting for the decision of the diet, he 
 seized upon the imperial insignia : this 
 precipitation, and his character for arro- 
 gance and tyranny, induced the electors 
 to set aside his claims and to elect 
 Adolph of Nassau. He at first seemed 
 resolved to oppose this nomination, but 
 was diverted from his purpose by a 
 revolt of some of his Swiss subjects, 
 headed by the bishop of Constance, 
 whom, however, he quickly defeated, and 
 succeeded in repressing for a time the 
 insuiTection, but not without adopting 
 the most rigorous measvires. These 
 disturbances prevented him from prose- 
 cuting his ambitious views ; he recog- 
 nised Adolph; delivered up the im- 
 perial insignia ; and consented to do 
 homage for his fiefs to the new emperor. 
 Troubles broke out soon afterwards in 
 Austria and Styria ; and a rumoiur that a 
 violent illness, in which he lost an eye, 
 had proved fatal to him, emboldened the 
 archbishop of Salzburg to invade his 
 dominions. Albert now showed himself 
 more lenient than formerly towards his 
 subjects, and more equitable towards 
 neighbouring princes : this change of 
 policy conciliated the affections of the 
 whole empire, which Adolph, on the 
 other hand, soon entirely lost ; so that 
 when the latter was deposed by the diet 
 at Mayence, June 23, 1298, Albert was 
 chosen to succeed him. The change 
 was not effected without a battle between 
 the two rivals, which was fought at 
 Gelheim, between Worms and Spire, and 
 in which Adolphus was slain. Albert 
 was again formally chosen emperor by 
 the diet, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 Aug. 24, 1298. Boniface VIII. however, 
 who pushed the pretensions of the pa- 
 pacy to an extravagant degree, denied 
 the right of the electors to choose an 
 emperor, which dignity he claimed for 
 himself. He forbade the states to re- 
 cognise Albert, and absolved them from 
 their oath of fidelity. Gerard, arch- 
 bishop of Mentz, seconded the ambition 
 of the pope, and said to Albert, " I have 
 only to sound a horn, and another em- 
 peror will rise from the earth." But 
 the emperor, having allied himself with 
 France, and secured the neutrality of the 
 electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, 
 soon reduced this prelate to subordina- 
 tion. Boniface, intimidated by his suc- 
 cess, and thwarted by this reverse in his 
 schemes against France, entered into 
 
 Q 
 
A L B 
 
 ALB 
 
 negotiations witli Albert, who consented 
 to break his treaty with PhiHppe-le-Bel, 
 to acknowledge that the empire of the 
 West was a concession made by the pope 
 to the emperors, and that the right of the 
 electors to choose a king of the Romans 
 was derived from the holy see. He 
 agreed to other conditions equally fa- 
 vourable to the pontiff, in return for 
 which the latter excommunicated Phi- 
 lippe, and gave the crown of France to 
 Albert. Philippe, however, put a stop 
 to the violent career of Boniface by cap- 
 turing him, and keeping hini in severe 
 confinement ; from the effects of which 
 he died, shortly after his liberation. His 
 successor, Benedict XL, negotiated a 
 truce between France and Germany, 
 which was prolonged indefinitely by the 
 embarrassments into which the despotism 
 and ambition of the emperor precipitated 
 him. The evil qualities of Albert seem 
 to have returned with his aggrandize- 
 ment : no sooner was he on the throne 
 than he attacked Holland, Zealand, and 
 Friesland, claiming them as fiefs of the 
 empire. Defeated here, and compelled 
 to conclude a peace, he marched against 
 the Hungarians, and invaded Bohemia, 
 the miners of which country suddenly 
 started out of the ground before him, 
 and drove him back in confusion. 
 Nevertheless, he shortly afterwards suc- 
 ceeded in causing his son Rodolph to 
 be elected king of Bohemia : this prince 
 was of a mild and virtuous character ; 
 but under the dictation of his father, the 
 customs of the country were outraged, 
 the churches pkmdered, and the clei'gy 
 proscribed. A revolution was the con- 
 sequence, and Rodolph died whilst be- 
 sieging one of his insurgent cities. The 
 emperor invaded Bohemia again, seeking 
 to place his second son on the throne ; 
 but his army was routed, and he was 
 compelled to evacuate the country, of 
 which Henry of Carinthia, his brother- 
 in-law, was chosen king. He next turned 
 his arms against Thuringia, but was here 
 again completely defeated. The Swiss 
 now rose in rebellion against him : he 
 had long treated their privileges with 
 contempt, and had oppressed them for 
 the purpose of exciting a revolt, in sup- 
 pressing which he expected to be able 
 thoroughly to crush them. Whilst 
 marching against them, he was murdered 
 by his nephew John, whom he had de- 
 prived of his heritage ; and the son of 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg died May 1st, 
 1308, in the arms of a beggar-woman, 
 who boimd his wounds with rags. The 
 22G 
 
 wife of Albert was Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Meinhard, duke of Carinthia, by wlunn 
 he had twenty-one children, none of 
 whom succeeded him as emperor. (Biog. 
 Univ. See also Count Mailath's Hist, of 
 Austria, vol. i.) 
 
 ALBERT n. (1298—1358,) duke of 
 Austria, surnaraed The Wise, son of the 
 preceding, was still very young when 
 his father was assassinated : he had three 
 elder brothers, who all died without pos- 
 terity, and to whose possessions he suc- 
 ceeded. He refVised the imperial crown, 
 which pope John XXIL offered him, 
 after having deposed Lewis IV. of Ba- 
 varia. The intestine divisions of Swit- 
 zerland induced him to invade that 
 country, and he marched against Ziuich 
 at the head of 16,000 men : he was joined 
 by the emperor at the head of all tlie 
 contingents of the German states; but 
 rivalry shortly sprang up amongst the 
 confederates, and Albert was left to 
 prosecute the siege alone. Unable to 
 conquer by force, he had recourse to 
 corruption ; he bought over Rudolph 
 Brunn, a factious demagogue, by whose 
 means Zurich declared for him ; other 
 cantons began to speak of neutrality, the 
 first step towards defection ; and the 
 Helvetic confederates were on the point 
 of losing the fruits of fifty years of war, 
 when the mountaineers of Schweitz alone 
 flew to arms, defeated the agents of Al- 
 bert, and the general alliance being re- 
 newed under their auspices, compelled 
 the duke to return to Vienna, where his 
 courtiers made a law never to pronounce 
 in his hearing the name of Swiss. Albert 
 died of grief," Aug. 16, 1358, in the 60th 
 year of his age. A generous trait is re- 
 corded of this prince in refusing to take 
 advantage of an earthquake, which had 
 tin-own down tlie walls of Basle ; indeed, 
 he caused them to be rebuilt, though the 
 city of an enemy. He was the first who 
 decreed that the hereditary states of the 
 house of Austria should not be divided 
 amongst the different members of the 
 reigning family, but should devolve on the 
 eldest son : this decree was not obeyed 
 after his death, but it was renewed 
 under Maximilian, and has ever since 
 been rigidly observed. 
 
 ALBERT HL (1349—1395,) duke 
 of Austria, son of the preceding, was 
 called to the government 1365. His 
 younger brotlier, Leopold (see the name) 
 forced him, in spite of the decree of their 
 father, to give up a share of his teri'ito- 
 ries, and received indeed the greater 
 part of the Austrian states. Albert, 
 
A I B 
 
 ALB 
 
 thougii unambitious, showed himself an 
 able governor ; he compelled the Bava- 
 rians to reverence the Tyrol, and at 
 home improved the institutions of his 
 country. Warlike enterprises, however, 
 he was not altogether averse to : invited 
 by the inhabitants of Trieste, he endea- 
 voured to wrest that city from the hands 
 of the Venetians, but was repulsed : he 
 seconded the Teutonic order in a sort of 
 crusade against Prussia : finally, the Bo- 
 hemian nobles having revolted against 
 their sovereign Wenceslas, he embraced 
 their cause, and marched into the coun- 
 try at the head of an army ; but was 
 suddenly taken ill, and died. 
 
 ALBERT IV. (1378—1414,) duke 
 of Austria, only son of Albert IIL, and 
 surnamed the Pious, was called to the 
 throne in 1395. He was obliged to 
 share the government with his cousin 
 William, whom he shortly left to rule 
 uncontrolled in Austria, whilst he himself 
 undertook a romantic pilgrimage to the 
 Holy Land, which has been often cele- 
 brated both in prose and verse : in the 
 fabulous recitals of the time he is called 
 the " wonder of the world ;" but we have 
 no space here for the religious and chi- 
 valric anecdotes with which his name is 
 connected. On his return to Vienna, he 
 married Jane of Holland, by whom he 
 had a son. Whilst assisting his imcle 
 Sigismund, king of Hungary, to reduce 
 to submission some of his rebellious 
 nobles, he was poisoned by one of the 
 latter, whom he had besieged in the for- 
 tress of Znain : he died in 1414, at the 
 age of 27. Albert IV. was extremely 
 devout : not contented with having 
 visited the holy sepulchre, he led, on his 
 return to Europe, in as far as he was 
 able, the life of an anchorite. He per- 
 secuted cruelly those whom he called 
 heretics in Styria, causing them to be 
 branded with a hot iron, and throwing 
 them into prison, or condemning them to 
 be burnt to death. 
 
 ALBERT V. (1397—1439,) son of 
 the preceding, and known as emperor by 
 the title of Albert II. After a stormy 
 minority, imder the guardianship of 
 Leopold and others, Albert assumed the 
 reins of. government about 1411, and ex- 
 erted himself in reforming the abuses 
 and repressing the disorders of his coun- 
 try, which soon became a model for good 
 order and security. This prince accom- 
 panied the emperor Sigismund in his 
 deplorable war against the Hussites, and 
 made with him a grand entry into Prague 
 in 1420, to the splendour of which the 
 227 
 
 electors of Cologne, of Mayenc.'. of Bran- 
 denburg, of Treves, and several other 
 princes contributed ; but, twenty-four 
 days afterwards, all these sovereigns, and 
 their troops, fled before a Httle band of 
 Hussites amied with scythes and sticks. 
 Albert is accused of having been guilty of 
 horrible cruelties in his retreat ; it was 
 with diflicidty that the bishop of Passau 
 prevented him from consigning to the 
 flames every thing which he encountered 
 on his route. In 1421 he drove out of 
 Austria Procopius the most formidable 
 of the successors of Ziska. In 1437, he 
 was called, on the death of Sigismund, 
 to mount the throne of Bohemia, vvhere 
 he encountered obstinate enemies in the 
 Hussites, who still continued under arms, 
 but over whom, v/itli the assistance of his 
 ally the elector of Brandenburg, he was 
 at length victorious. In the mean time 
 the Himgarians, menaced at once by the 
 Poles and by the Turks, chose him for 
 their king. The imperial crown was 
 afterwards conferred upon him, which, 
 from this time, continued in his family. 
 His conduct here gave gi-eat satisfaction, 
 as he aimed at a general improvement 
 of all the institutions of his country. 
 Albert, whom disease had not spared, 
 was forced to retreat, and the complica- 
 tion of moral and physical suftering 
 vvhich he now endiu-ed was fatal to his 
 existence. He died at a small village in 
 Bohemia, Oct. 27, 1439. (These sketches 
 of the Alberts of Austria, and a few of 
 the succeeding ones, are principally de- 
 rived from the Biographic Universelle.) 
 
 ALBERT OF MECKLENBURG, 
 king of Sweden, was the second son of 
 Albert I. of Mecklenburg, and of Euphe- 
 mia, daughter of Magnus, king of Swe- 
 den. He was elected king of Sweden in 
 1363, his grandfather having been de- 
 posed by the nobles. Wishing to conso- 
 lidate and extend his power, he committed 
 the same faults which had caused Magnus 
 to be dethroned, seeking to render his 
 authority absolute by introducing Ger- 
 mans into his army, and even into the 
 senate, contrary to the express laws of 
 the kingdom, and taking violent posses- 
 sion of a third of the property of the 
 clergy and laity. The nobles flew to 
 arms, and summoned to their assistance 
 Margaret, then queen of Denmark, sur- 
 named the Semiramis of the North ; but 
 the people sided with Albert. A battle 
 ensued, in which Albert was defeated 
 and taken prisoner. After a cruel war, 
 which was continued for several years 
 longer, Margaret obtained possession of 
 Q2 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 the wliole of Sweden. Albert remained 
 five years in captivity ; he spent the lat- 
 ter part of his life in retirement, in the 
 convent of Doberan in Mecklenbm-g, 
 where he died, it is believed, in 1412, — 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALBERT, arch-duke of Austria, go- 
 vernor of the Low Countries, tlie' sixth 
 son of Maximilian XL, was born in 1559. 
 He was at first destined for the church, 
 and w'as appointed, whilst still very 
 young, cardinal archbishop of Toledo. 
 Philip IL his uncle, sent him, in 1587, to 
 Portugal as viceroy, and afterwards to 
 the Low Countries as governor; in 1389, 
 he married his cousin Isabella, the daugh- 
 ter of Philip. He and his wife were 
 regarded as sovereigns in the Roman- 
 catholic Low Countries ; they made a 
 public entry into Brussels with great 
 pomp in 1599. The arch-duke sought to 
 reduce Holland to submit to the house of 
 Austria, and had recourse to arms for 
 that purpose ; but he was defeated by 
 prince Maurice at Nieuport, in 1600. 
 In the following year he commenced the 
 siege of Ostend, which did not terminate 
 till 1604. Finally, he was obliged to 
 conclude a truce with Holland ; shortly 
 after the expiration of which he died, at 
 the age of 62, without posterity, and re- 
 gretted by his subjects. 
 
 ALBERT THE BEAR, called also 
 the Handsome, margrave of Brandenburg, 
 son of Otho the Rich, born 1106, was the 
 founder of the house of Brandenburg. 
 In his youth fortune loaded him with 
 favours ; he obtained possession of Lu- 
 sace and of Salzwedel, and the emperor, 
 Conrad III., gave him the duchy of 
 Saxony, but the Saxons not only refused 
 to acknowledge him as their sovereign, 
 but flew to arms in defence of the rights 
 of their lawful prince, Henry the Lion, 
 and not only defeated Albert, but de- 
 spoiled him of his other conquests, and 
 deprived him of his own territories, 
 which, however, he recovered by a treaty 
 concluded at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, in 
 1143. He was unfortunate in his later 
 wars, particularly in that against Jazko, 
 king of Poland, in 1159. He peopled 
 his territories by inviting Dutch, Flemish, 
 and other ruined foreigners to come and 
 settle in them. Being at length left in 
 trancpiil possession of Brandenburg, he 
 imdertook, in 1158, a pilgrimage to Je- 
 rusalem, of which the most important 
 result was the introduction of the knights 
 of St. John into his dominions. It is 
 probably to him that Berlin, Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder, Bernan, Landsburg, &c. 
 228 
 
 owe their origin. He died in 1170. 
 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALBERT, (1414—1486,) margrave 
 and elector of Brandenburg, surnamed 
 the Achilles and Ulysses of Germanj'. 
 He first bore arms in the service of the 
 emperor, and distinguished himself, in 
 1438, in the campaign against the Poles. 
 In this and subsequent wars he displayed 
 an heroic valour : on one occasion he 
 alone combated sixteen adversaries, ex- 
 claiming, '* Where could I die more glo- 
 riously ?" In 1476 he confided to his 
 son, John Cicero, the administration of 
 his states, reserving to himself the elec- 
 toral dignity. 
 
 ALBERT, margi'ave of Brandenbiu-g, 
 first duke of Prussia, born May 17, 1490, 
 was appointed, in 1510, grand master of 
 tlie Teutonic order, and refused to ren- 
 der the homage to Sigismund, king of 
 Poland, which in this capacity he owed 
 him. In 1525, however, having no allies, 
 and being hard pressed by the Poles, he 
 conchided a treaty at Cracow, by which 
 he renounced the title, and received 
 Lower Prussia as a fief of Poland. About 
 the same time he embraced the Protest- 
 ant religion, and married, in 1527, 
 Dorothy, the daughter of the king of 
 Denmark ; and this change, togethe 
 with the treaty of Cracow, created him 
 numerous enemies. Charles V. declared 
 that the latter was null, as contrary to 
 the interests of the pope, of the empire, 
 and of the Teutonic order : Albert was 
 in consequence outlawed. The king of 
 Poland, however, interfered, and averted 
 the storm which menaced him, by means 
 of energetic remonstrances. Albert in- 
 troduced throughout his territories the 
 confession of Augsburg, founded the uni- 
 versity of Konigsberg, and caused both 
 commerce and agriculture to prosper. He 
 died in 1568. 
 
 ALBERT THE WARLIKE, (1522— 
 1558,) was the son of Casimir, margrave 
 of Cidmbach. He distinguished himself 
 in the war of Charles V. against France, 
 but was defeated at Rochlitz, fighting for 
 the emperor against the Protestants of 
 Saxony and Hesse, and taken prisoner. 
 He afterwards joined the French against 
 the emperor, at the head of a body of 
 adventurers, but at the siege of Metz 
 deserted again to the emperor. A league 
 of his former allies was now constituted 
 against him, and they totally routed his 
 army in 1553. After having been again 
 defeated by the duke of Brunswick, he 
 fled from the country, and languished 
 for some time abroad in poverty. 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 ALBERT, (1490—1545,) cardinal, 
 elector of Mayence, was the son of John, 
 elector of Brandenburg ; he was at once 
 archbishop of Mayence and archbishop 
 of Magdeburg ; and this union of eccle- 
 siastical dignities, though unexampled in 
 Germany, was sanctioned by the pope. 
 Albert contracted a debt of 30,000 ducats 
 to the counts of Fugger ; to assist him to 
 discharge which, Leo X. gave him the 
 power of selling indulgences, and he 
 employed in this traffic the dominican 
 Tetzel. Luther having opposed this 
 abuse, the archbishop sought to arrest 
 him, and was presented by the pope, in 
 order that he might the more easily re- 
 press the growing spirit of Protestantism, 
 with a cardinal's hat and a consecrated 
 sword. The Reformation made fresh 
 progress daily. Albert declared himself 
 the protector of the catholic cluirch, 
 but was shortly compelled to grant to the 
 inhabitants of Halberstadt and Magde- 
 burg the free exercise of the reformed 
 religion. He was of a conciliating cha- 
 racter ; he delighted in adorning churches, 
 and was accustomed to say, Dilexi decor e7n 
 domus Dei. He was a patron of leai'n- 
 ing, and Erasmus and Ulrich von Hutten 
 loaded him with praise. He founded, in 
 1506, the University of Frankfort-on-the- 
 Oder, and projected the establishment of 
 the one at Halle, from which project he 
 was diverted by the troubles of the time. 
 He was the first German prince who re- 
 ceived and protected the Jesuits. 
 
 ALBERT, (Anthony, 1708—1791,) a 
 native of Carcasonne ; was a physician 
 pensioned by the king, and by the pro- 
 vince of Languedoc, on account of the 
 fortunate chemical discoveries which he 
 made in the art of dyeing. 
 
 ALBERT, or ALBERTI, (Heinrich, 
 1604 — 1668,) a native of Lobenstein in 
 Voigtland, who studied law at Leipzig, 
 but is chiefly known as a composer of 
 music and a poet. He left Dresden in 
 1626 for Konigsberg, where he became 
 organist in 1631. He used to set his 
 own compositions and those of his friends 
 to music. Simplicity, cheerfulness, and 
 elegance characterise his poems — no small 
 merit in the age in which he lived. His 
 Morning Hymn is beautiful. His musical 
 works are enumerated in Wolff"s Cyclop. 
 (Wolff. Hoftinan, Deutsche Philologie.) 
 
 ALBERT, (Charl. d'). See Luynes. 
 
 ALBERT, (L. Ch. d'). See Luynes. 
 
 ALBERT, (Hon. d'). See Chaulnes. 
 
 ALBERT, (Louis- Joseph d', 1672— 
 1758,) the chevalier d'Albert, ninth child 
 of Louis Charles, duke of Luynes, grand 
 229 
 
 almoner of France. He served in the 
 army, and was in 1688 at the siege of 
 Philipsbm-gh, in 1690 at Fleurus, and 
 at Steinkirk in 1693. He afterwards 
 entered into the service of the elector of 
 Bavaria, who created him a count. In 
 1742, he was sent by the same prince 
 (then Charles VH.) to France, as am- 
 bassador extraordinary, and created 
 pi'ince of Grimberghen. He wrote The 
 Dream of Alcibiades, and Timander in- 
 stmcted by his Genius. 
 
 ALBERT, (Henry Christopher, 1762 
 — 1800,) professor of the English lan- 
 guage, of which he wrote an excellent 
 grammar, and also a German one for the 
 use of the English. His other works are 
 Essays on Shakspeare, Inquiries on the 
 English Constitution, and a drama on 
 the Life and Death of Charles I. 
 
 ALBERT DURER. See Durer. 
 
 ALBERT DE RIOMS, (the count of, 
 1740,) a French naval commander. He 
 served with distinction, in 1779 and the 
 succeeding years, against the English. 
 After having been appointed by the 
 king, diu-ing the Revolution, to the com- 
 mand of a fleet of thirty vessels, in which 
 he found that it was impossible to main- 
 tain any discipline, he emigrated, and 
 took part in the campaign of 1792, at 
 the termination of which he retired into 
 Dalmatia, where he lived for some years 
 in obscm-ity. He returned to France 
 during the reign of Napoleon, but died 
 before the Restoration. 
 
 ALBERTANO OF BRESCIA, judge 
 or governor of Gavardo, flourished in the 
 thirteenth century, and WTote three trea- 
 tises in Latin on moral subjects, of which 
 an Italian edition was published at Flo- 
 rence in 1610, by Bastian des Rossi, re- 
 printed at Mantua in 1732, 4to. 
 
 ALBERTAS, (the Marquis Suzanne d', 
 1750 — 1829,) a zealous loyalist during 
 the Revolution. He did not emigi-ate; 
 and became prefet of the Bouches-du- 
 Rhone at the Restoration. 
 
 ALBERTET, troubadour, born near 
 Gap, in Provence, in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, called by some writers Albert de 
 Shteron, was equally devoted to litera- 
 ture and to the fair sex, and composed 
 several poems in honour of his pi .tonic 
 mistress, the marchioness of Malespine. 
 
 ALBERTI, (Leon Batista.) This 
 great scholar, and most eminent artist, 
 was of a noble and very ancient family ; 
 but the date and place of his birth have 
 caused a great dis]-,ute amongst biogra- 
 phers. The most received opinion, ac- 
 cordiiig to Tiraboschi, is, that he was 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 born in the year 1404, probably in Venice. 
 He was distinguished in his youth, not 
 only for his attention and proficiency in 
 his studies, but also for his wonderful agi- 
 lity and strength. He could jump over a 
 man with his joined feet; shoot an arrow 
 through a thick iron breast-plate ; throw 
 a small silver coin to the top of a very 
 high church. Some of his relations, as 
 he himself relates, having become jealous 
 of his great progress, he, being at the 
 time only 20 years of age, for the sake 
 of alleviating the vexation they caused 
 him, wrote, in Latin, a comedy entitled 
 Philodoxius, which was very much ad- 
 mired, he having distributed it as the work 
 of an ancient poet. But ten years after, 
 when, having completed his studies, and 
 taken orders, and the degree of LL.D., 
 he improved, corrected, and published it 
 as his own, he tells us that such was the 
 jealousy of his friends, it was despised 
 and criticised. This accovmt, which was 
 first given by Tiraboschi, explains the 
 origin of the mistake made by Aldo 
 Manuzio the Younger, v.-ho, in 1588, 
 published it under the name of Lepidus, 
 an ancient comic poet. 
 
 In the midst of his studies he was 
 attacked by a malady which impaired 
 his strength and almost destroyed his 
 memory ; and afterwards we find him 
 dedicating his talents to philosophy and 
 mathematics, and even writing a few 
 small works, which have been published 
 as Opuscoli Morali ; an Italian moral 
 dialogue, entitled Theogenio, with other 
 compositions ; amongst which, the Ephe- 
 bia, and the De Religione, which are 
 lost ; and a little after, the first three 
 books Delia Famiglia. 
 
 The works of this great man, in almost 
 every department of science, are very 
 numerous, and all are highly esteemed, 
 especially those on the arts ; amongst 
 which are his treatises on Sculpture, 
 printed at Basle in 1540, and republished, 
 together with the works of Leonardo da 
 Vinci, at Paris, in 1631 ; and that on 
 Painting, in three books, translated into 
 Italian by Domenichi, first printed at 
 Elzevir in 1649, and reprinted at Am- 
 sterdam, at the end of Vitruvius, in 
 1646. The work, however, from which 
 he derives the greatest reputation, is that 
 on Architecture, which has been trans- 
 lated into Italian, French, and English, 
 and often published ; a beautiful edition 
 in English and Italian, adorned with 
 copper-plates, appeared in London in 
 1726, in 3 vols. fol. by Leoni. Amongst 
 his other works, besides those we have 
 230 
 
 mentioned, there are — 1. his dialogues, 
 entitled Momus de Principe, published 
 at Rome in 1520. 2, Trivia, sive de 
 Causis Senatoriis. 3. His treatise De 
 Jure, which has given to Bartoli (his 
 translator into Italian) the materials of 
 his fifth and sixth books of the Momus. 
 4. A poem, entitled Hecatomphile, or the 
 Art of Love, also translated into Italian 
 and French. 5. A Short History of the 
 foolish Conspiracy against Pope Nicholas 
 V. ; with many eclogues, elegies, sonnets, 
 fables, and other poems, in which he 
 wished to introduce the Latin rhythm, 
 but without success ; and lastly, his Dis- 
 putationes Camaldulenses, which con- 
 tained the subjects of his conversations 
 in the Eremo di Camaldoli at Florence, 
 on moral philosophy, with the most emi- 
 nent literary men, amongst whom were 
 Lorenzo and Giuliano de Medici, Ficino, 
 Acciajuoli, Rinuccini and Gandino. He 
 was also successful in his scientific dis- 
 coveries, if they may be so called, such 
 as the invention of an instrument to 
 measure the depth of the sea ; of a me- 
 thod of raising and replacing the deck 
 of a ship, and of the means he employed 
 for raising, though in pieces, a ship 
 which had been sunk, as the report was, 
 by Trajan. He is said also to have in- 
 vented the Camera Ottica, but this has 
 been also attinbuted to Giambatista Porta 
 by writers of the sixteenth century, 
 Tiraboschi, on the authority of Pal- 
 mieri, who was a contemporary of Al- 
 berti, fixes his death in 1472. 
 
 But neither the personal accomplish- 
 ments nor the productions in general 
 literature of Albert! have acquired him 
 such reputation, as his profound ac- 
 quaintance with architecture, and the 
 noble edifices which he erected in various 
 parts of Italy. He, who has seen and 
 studied his productions in architecture, 
 must recognise him as one intimately 
 acquainted with the powers of his art, 
 versed in the precious relics of ancient 
 Rome, and deeply imbued with their 
 spirit. He has transfused into the build- 
 ings, which he designed, much of the 
 poetry, imagination and appropi'iateness 
 of antiquity ; throwing off" in a surprising 
 degree the trammels with which another 
 mind might have been embarrassed, from 
 old associations and the prejudices of 
 early education. It is true that his ele- 
 vations partake somewhat of tlie di-yness 
 which characterises tlie works of the 
 Cinquecentisti, but they have loss of the 
 barbarisms of his predecessors and con- 
 temporaries ; and his example was most 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 influential in bringing back his country- 
 men to the study of the monuments of 
 antiquity. The church of S. Andrea at 
 Mantua is one of the most remarkable, 
 in a country abounding in churches, 
 which offer every variety of plan and 
 elevation, that the lively imaginations of 
 a highly imaginative people can suggest. 
 The connoisseur, who may have contem- 
 plated almost to satiety the ecclesiastical 
 architecture of the various Italian cities, 
 is refreshed with the originality of the 
 design of this church, the hannony of its 
 proportions, and the elegant arrangement 
 of its chiaroscuro. His Malatestan church 
 at Rimini displays the same qualities of 
 originality and grace : and the Rucellaj 
 palace at Florence presents a beautiful vein 
 of architectural enrichment, little perhaps 
 in its parts, but graceful in its details, 
 and sufficiently varied to render a large 
 mass devoid of heaviness. The choir and 
 tribime to the church of the Annunciation 
 in the same city, bespeak the hardihood 
 of a man relying upon the prodigious 
 powers of his own universal genius. The 
 form is circular, about sixty-six feet in 
 diameter, surrounded by nine large 
 niclies sunk in the thickness of the outer 
 wall, which gives an extreme diameter 
 of about ninety-three feet. The effect 
 of the whole with its painted dome is 
 imposing ; and although the details may 
 be subject to objections, like the one 
 suggested by Vasari, yet he, wlio could 
 conceive such beauties as are displayed 
 by the whole design, may without much 
 impeachment to his taste have allowed 
 an inaccuracy to escape him, which with a 
 little study he might easily have avoided. 
 Alberti seems to have united in his 
 own person all those acquirements which 
 Vitnivius thought necessary to constitute 
 a perfect architect ; and he had this ad- 
 vantage over the Roman, that he left to 
 posterity works, which fully realized those 
 principles of science and taste which he 
 promulgated in his De Re Edificatoria. 
 
 ALBERTI, (Benedetto,^ a Florentine 
 of the fourteenth century, rendered him- 
 self conspicuous by his agitation in 
 favour of republican equality ; and was 
 the author of the terrible revolution of 
 the Ciompi, in which the government 
 was subverted, and a hon'ible anarchy 
 substituted for it, Alberti himself contri- 
 buting to the destruction of several dis- 
 tinguished men of the aristocratic party. 
 He appears to have been a more con- 
 sistent democrat than the rest of his 
 confederates, who all desei-ted their prin- 
 ciples as soon as they arrived at power : 
 231 
 
 but on the restoration of the aristocracy 
 in 1382, he shared the banishment to 
 which they were all condemned. He 
 died at Rhodes, returning from a pil- 
 grimage to the Holy Land. 
 
 ALBERTI ARISTOTILE, called also 
 Midolfo Fioraventi, a celebrated archi- 
 tect, engineer and mechanic of the 
 fifteenth century, was born at Bologna. 
 Astonishing performances are ascribed 
 to him. He constructed bridges and 
 other works in Hungary so much to the 
 satisfaction of the emperor, that the 
 latter created him a chevalier, and 
 allowed him to coin money with the im- 
 press of his own bust. He is said also 
 to have been employed in Russia, in the 
 erection of several churches. 
 
 ALBERTI. There are several artists 
 of some celebrity of this name — all of the 
 same family, and natives of Borgo S. Se- 
 polcro. 
 
 1. Durante, (1538—1613.) He painted 
 a celebrated Nativity in the Vallicolla at 
 Rome ; but Lanzi considers him an 
 artist more remarkable for his pains- 
 taking than for his genius (" pittor di 
 fatica piu che d' ingegno.") Other 
 works ot his are also mentioned with 
 praise. 
 
 2. His son, Pietro Francesco, born 
 1584, painted in his style, and was the 
 engraver of a plate called Academia de 
 Pittori. 
 
 3. Michele, (born about 1527,) sup- 
 posed to be the brother of Dvnante (al- 
 though Vasaci calls him a Florentine.) 
 He was a scholar of Daniel di Volterra, 
 and painted the Murder of tlie Innocents, 
 in the Trinita de Monte. 
 
 4. Cheruhhio, (1552—1613,) some- 
 times called the son of Michele, although 
 his contemporary Baglione calls him the 
 son of Alberto Alberti, a wood-engraver. 
 This artist painted some works of con- 
 siderable reputation. His principal works 
 are in Rome in the church of St. Maria 
 in Via, the chapel of Minerva, and the 
 cathedral of Borgo. He was, however, 
 chiefly known as an engi'aver, and he 
 has left nearly 180 engravings, great and 
 small — 75 of his own composition, the 
 rest from Michel Angelo, Raphael, 
 Polidoro, Andrea del Sarto, &c. : tiiey are 
 recognised by this mark : ^^J, 
 
 5. Giovanni, (1558 — 1601,) a brother 
 of Chembino, and his coadjutor in several 
 of his works at Rome. His most ad- 
 mired productions are the frescoes in 
 the sacristy of St. John Lateran and in 
 the " Gran Sala Clementina." (Lanzi, 
 Stor. Pitt. i. 184. Bryan's Diet.) 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 ALBERTI, (George William, 1725— 
 1758,) preacher at Tundem in Hanover, 
 spent several years in England, and 
 wrote Thoughts on Hume's Essays on 
 Natural Religion. On his return to 
 Germany he published Letters on the 
 State of Religion and the Sciences in 
 Great Britain, and an Essay on th« Re- 
 ligion, *c. of the Quakers. 
 
 ALBERTI, (John, d. 1559,) a German 
 lawyer and orientalist of the sixteenth 
 century, published an abridgment of the 
 Koran with critical notes, in 1543 ; a 
 work which procured him the title of 
 chancellor of Austria, and chevalier of 
 St. James. The emperor, Ferdinand L, 
 authorized him to print a New Testa- 
 ment in Syriac : this was the first book 
 published in Europe, in which the Syriac 
 character was used. He is the author of 
 a Sp-iac grammar. 
 
 ALBERTI, (John,) professor of divi- 
 nity in the university of Leyden, born 
 1 698, at Asse in Holland ; collected, after 
 the examples of Eisner, Raphelius and 
 Lambert Bos, from profane authors, all 
 the parallel passages in favour of the 
 Greek phrases in the New Testament 
 which have been called barbarous by 
 some philologians : the result of his la- 
 bours was his Observationes Philologicee 
 in Sacros Novi Foederis Libros ; 1725; 
 and his Periculum Criticum in quo loca 
 quasdam cum V. ac N. T. tum Hesychii 
 et aliorum, illustrantur, vindicantur, 
 emendantur; Leyden, 1727, 8vo. He 
 also published, with a comment and some 
 critical pieces, a glossary of the words of 
 the New Testament, sent to him by Fa- 
 bricius. In 1746 appeared the first vol. 
 of his admirable edition of Hesychius, 
 his labours in which were inteiTupted by 
 death in 1762. He had arranged his 
 manuscript as far as the word cf)aiXov7]s : 
 the work was completed by Ruhnken, 
 Leyden, 1766. 
 
 ALBERTI, (Leander, 1479—1522,) a 
 Bolognese Dominican monk, who wrote a 
 history of Bologna in Italian, a chronicle 
 of the principal Bolognese families, and 
 a Descrizione di tutta ITtalia. The 
 latter work has often been reprinted. 
 He is also the author of some Latin pro- 
 ductions. . 
 
 ALBERTI, (Michael, 1682 — 1757,) 
 professor of medicine at Halle, an able 
 scholar, and supporter of the opinions of 
 Stahl. Haller gives a list of his works, 
 and of his disputations. Those which 
 have most contrilnited to his faine, are — 
 1 . Introductio in Universam Medicinam ; 
 S vols. 4to, Halle, 1718, 1719, 1721. 
 232 
 
 2. Systema Jurispru dentine Mc>dicrt»;, 
 1725—47, 6 vols. 
 
 ALBERTI, (Solomon, 1540—1600,) 
 professor of medicine at Wittemberg ; 
 born at Nuremberg, 1540 ; was the pupil 
 of Jerome Fabricius at Padua, and be- 
 came one of the founders of modern 
 anatomy. His principal work is a his- 
 tory of several parts of the human body. 
 He discovered the valve called the valve 
 of Basilius, the cochlea of the ear, the 
 lachrymal ducts; and was the first to give 
 an exact description of the kidneys, and 
 of the urinary passages. 
 
 ALBERTI, (Valentine,) professor of 
 divinity at Leipsic, where he died in 
 1697, aged 62; wrote against Puffendorf, 
 the Cartesians, and the adversaries of the 
 Augsburg communion ; he attacked also 
 Spener, the celebrated pietist. His more 
 noted works are, his Compendium Juris 
 Naturae, and his Interesse prgecipuarum 
 religionum Christ. : he also wrote two 
 curious dissertations — De Fide Hsereticis 
 servanda; Leipsic, 1662, 4to. 
 
 ALBERTI DI VILLANOVA, (Fran- 
 cis d',) born at Nice, 1737; author of the 
 best French and Italian, and Italian and 
 French Dictionary ; published also a 
 Universal Dictionary of the Italian Lan- 
 guage; Lucca, 1797. He died at Lucca, 
 1800. 
 
 ALBERTINELLI, (Mariotto di Ba- 
 gio,) born about 1475, pupil of Cosimo- 
 Rosselli, was a painter, of violent passions 
 and irregular life, whose works have 
 been confounded from their similarity 
 with those of his friend, Baccio della 
 Porta, better known by the name of Fra 
 Bartolomeo. His St. Domenic and St. 
 Catherine of Siena before the Throne of 
 the Virgin is in St. Silvestro on Monte 
 CavaUo ; and at Florence two of his best 
 pictures are in St. Guiliano ; but his chef 
 d'ceiivre, the Visitation, was transferred 
 from its original place to the tribune of 
 the Royal Gallery. He had several scho- 
 lars ; amongst others, Giuliano Bugiar- 
 dini, Franciabigio, and II Visino, all 
 three Florentines. 
 
 ALBERTINI, (Francis,) an ecclesi- 
 astic and able antiquary of Florence, 
 flourished at the commencement of the 
 sixteenth centmy. He wrote a work — 
 De Mirabilibus Novae et Veteris Urbis 
 Romae; Rome, 1505 ; — also a Tractatus 
 brevis de Laudibus Florentiae et Saonae ; 
 and a memoir, in Italian, on Ancient 
 and Modern Statues and Paintings in 
 Florence; 1510, 4to. 
 
 ALBERTINI MUSSATUS. See 
 
 MUSSATUS. 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 ALBERTINI, (Paolo, 1430—1475,) a 
 celebrated divine and politician, a native 
 of Venice. He entered into the religious 
 service of the Servites ; he taiight philo- 
 sophy, was employed by the republic of 
 Venice in many affairs of state, and sent 
 ambassador to Turkey, when a medal 
 was struck in honour of his memory. 
 He left some theological works, and an 
 explanation of Dante, which have been 
 falsely attributed to Paul Nicolletti. 
 
 ALBERTINI, (Johann. Baptist von, 
 1769 — 1831,) a Moravian bishop of some 
 reputation, bom at Neuwied. He was 
 educated in the Moravian establishments 
 at Niesky and Barby, and at the age 
 of 20 became a teacher in those institu- 
 tions. He occupied himself here chiefly 
 with oriental languages, mathematics, 
 and botany. He pviblished, in conjunc- 
 tion with Schweiniz, a book on the 
 Fungi of Niesky, (Conspectus Fungorum 
 in Lusatiae Superioris agro Niskiensi 
 crescentium ; Lips. 1805.) In 1814 he 
 became bishop, and afterwards atttained 
 the highest position and tlie greatest in- 
 fluence among the United Brethren. He 
 published two volumes of Sermons, and 
 a collection of Hymns for the Moravians, 
 called Geistliche Lieder fiir Mitglieder 
 und Freunde der Briidersgemeine, &c. ; 
 Bunzlau, 1821. His hymns have some 
 of the peculiarities of Moravian works, 
 but are highly animated and original. 
 (Wolft"s Cyclopadie.) 
 
 ALBERTINI, (Francesco Ippolito, 
 1662—1738,) a celebrated Italian phy- 
 sician, a pupil and friend of Malpighi, 
 with whom he was connected. Zanotti 
 and Malpighi praise him highly ; and in 
 the Commentarii of Zanotti two treatises 
 of Albertini are inserted, one on * Injuries 
 of the Heart as connected with Difficult 
 Respiration,' and another on Peiiivian 
 Bark. In 1699, he was made lecturer 
 on medicine in Bologna. (Tipaldo's 
 Biografia, 1838, vi. 130.) 
 
 ALBERTINI, (Giorgio Francesco, 
 1732—1810,) called Giorgio Maria also,) 
 professor of dogmatic theology at Rome, 
 and afterwards in the university of Padua. 
 He was a native of Parenzo in Istria, and 
 entered the Dominican order at the age 
 of 13, and became a celebrated preacher 
 and a highly popular lecturer. His 
 principal works were, some observations 
 on the Antifilosofo of Riccati ; Ferrara, 
 1781. Riccati's book was an answer to 
 a deistical French work, but Albertini 
 considered the answer unsound also, and 
 answered it anonymously. In 1797, he 
 published II Piano Geometrica, &'c. ; an 
 233 
 
 essay to prove that the common date of 
 the birth of our Saviour is correct. In 
 1803, his Analisi appeared. In 1798 — 
 1802 his Lectures on Theology were 
 published in 5 vols, under the name of 
 Acroasi ; and in 1808 a sixth volume 
 appeared. This work involved him in 
 considerable controversy with the party 
 called Tomisti (or followers of Thomas 
 Aquinas), especially with Pellegrino (see 
 the name), who is said in Tipaldo's Bio- 
 grafia to have treated him unhandsomely ; 
 but he was much applauded by other 
 theologians. (Tipaldo's Biografia, ii. 
 
 ALBERTINUS ^GIDIUS, (1560— 
 1620,) a satirical writer, whose religious 
 works were formerly popular. He was 
 a native of Deventer, and became private 
 secretary to Maximilian of Bavaria. His 
 chief works, besides a free imitation of 
 Guzman of Alfarach, were — 1. Lucifer's 
 Konigreich, &c. (Lucifer's Kingdom) ; 
 Munich, 1017. 2. ^Egidii Albertini 
 Hirnschleifter ; Koln, 1645— 1686. He 
 wrote in a style somewhat resembling 
 that of Abraham a Sancta Clara, (see the 
 name,) but was hardly equal to him in 
 power, although less provincial and less 
 burlesque in his language. (Wolft"s Cy- 
 clopiidle.) 
 
 ALBERTRANDY, (John Chrzciciel or 
 Christian, 1731—1808,) bishop of Zeno- 
 polis, a Polish histoi'ian and prelate, bom 
 at Warsaw, entered at 16 into the society 
 of the Jesuits. After having travelled 
 with Felix Lubienski, nephew of the 
 archbishop Lubienski, he received from 
 king Stanislas Augustus the appoint- 
 ment of his reader, and director of his 
 cabinet of antiquities. In 1782 he 
 visited Italy for the second time, and 
 was occupied during three years in copy- 
 ing, from works in the library of the 
 Vatican, matter concerning the history 
 of his coimtry : his manuscripts at the 
 end of that period formed 110 vols. fol. 
 He afterwards visited Stockholm and 
 Upsal, and increased them to 200 vols, 
 folio. This literary treasure now belongs 
 to the library of the gymnasium of 
 Krzemieniecz in Volhynia. He left 
 several works on Roman and Polish 
 history. 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS. Authors 
 diflTer as to the date of the birth of this 
 great scholar ; some, with most proba- 
 bility, fixing it in 1193, while others 
 bring it down to 1205. His nati\e town 
 was Lauingen, in Swabia. He was of 
 the family of the counts of Bollstaedt, 
 and seems to have been placed, in hia 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 youth, under circumstances favourable 
 to the development of his uncommon 
 talents. After having pursued his studies 
 with great success at Pavia, he entered 
 the religious order of the Dominicans in 
 1221, at the instigation of his master 
 Jordanus. He now repaired to Paris, 
 where, in spite of the papal bull that 
 proscribed the works of the ancient 
 peripatetic, he lectured upcn Aristotle 
 with great reputation, and his course 
 was attended by crowds of scholars. In 
 1254 Albertus was chosen to fill the dig- 
 nity of provincial of the Dominicans in 
 Germany, where he established his resi- 
 dence at Cologne, which might then be 
 almost considered as the centre of the 
 learning of western Europe. During 
 his long and laborious life, he ever ex- 
 hibited a marked predilection for this 
 place, which no oft'ers or inducements 
 coidd overcome. Pope Alexander the 
 Fourth in vain sought to bring him to 
 Rome by the offer of the office of master 
 of his palace; but his election in 1260 
 to the bishopric of Ratisbon, a dignity 
 which he held only three years, caused 
 a temporary absence from the favourite 
 scene of his studies. After having fol- 
 lowed the fashion of his age in preach- 
 ing the crusade in Germany and Bohemia, 
 and assisted at the general council of 
 Lyons in 1274, Albertus finally retm-ned 
 to Cologne, and died there in 1280. 
 
 Albertus, like Gerbert and Roger 
 Bacon, was the subject of many legendary 
 stories. His preeminence over his con- 
 temporaries in learning, his extraordinary 
 proficiency and experiments in the me- 
 chanical and physicial sciences, were 
 enough, in the eyes of the vulgar, to 
 subject him to the suspicion of dealing 
 in magic. We are told, that at the first 
 outset of his career of learning, the dif- 
 ficulties he met with at tl«e threshold, 
 and the consciousness of his own ineffi- 
 ciency to overcome them, discouraged 
 him so much, that he was on the point of 
 abandoning the path ; but suddenly the 
 Virgin appeared to him, opened the eyes 
 of his understanding, and encouraged 
 him to proceed by the promise of future 
 advancement. Thus it was that he be- 
 came endowed with those astonishing 
 powers of acquiring and applying know- 
 ledge, which he afterwards exhibited. 
 But, as people said, he sometimes left 
 the high road to wander in the for- 
 bidden paths of occult science. It was 
 thus that he made an image which could 
 move and speak, and which his disciple, 
 Thomas of Aquinas, broke to pieces with 
 234 
 
 his staff, in the belief that it was an agent 
 of the evil one. On another occasion, 
 he gave to the king of the Romans 
 (William, count of Holland) a splendid 
 banquet in the garden of his cloister at 
 Cologne, when, in the middle of winter, 
 the garden suddenly took all the clotliing 
 of spring, and preserved it until the 
 repast was ended. Such were the opera- 
 tions which, according to popular belief, 
 Albertus Magnus was in the habit of 
 performing. 
 
 The acquirements of Albertus were, 
 for his age, sufficiently wonderful. With 
 him began what has been distinguished 
 as the second period of the scholastic phi- 
 losophy. He attempted to reconcile the 
 two contending schools of the Realists 
 and the Nominalists, or rather to combine 
 them in an intei-mediate system ; but he 
 only multiplied the difficulties and con- 
 tradictions which already existed, and 
 excited the dissatisfaction of both parties. 
 He was deeply versed in all the authors 
 who were then read, and has left a vast 
 mass of commentaries upon such works 
 of Aristotle as were then in use in Latin 
 translations. His commentary on the 
 Opus de Animalibus pi-esents so many 
 curious supplements, that it has been 
 supposed that Albertus had a translation 
 of some of Aristotle's works which are 
 not now preserved. In theology he was 
 a follower of Peter Lombard. 
 
 The world has seen few more vo- 
 luminous writers than Albertus Magnus. 
 No complete list of his woi-ks has yet 
 been made. PieiTe Jammi, a Dominican, 
 collected a great number of them, and 
 published them in twenty-one volumes, 
 folio, at Lyons, in 1651. A catalogue of 
 the different treatises printed in this col- 
 lection, will be found in Fabricius (Bibl. 
 Lat. Med. et Inf. Jitatis, in Albertus). 
 The most extensive list of Albertus's 
 writings wliich has yet been made, is 
 given in the first volume of the Scrip- 
 tores Ordinis Prsedicatorum, by Quetif 
 and Ecliard, where it extends through 
 tv/elve pages in folio. An article on Al- 
 bertus Magnus will be found in the six- 
 teenth volume of the Histoire Litteraire 
 de la France. 
 
 ALBERTUS, a German monk, who 
 was sent to England as legate by the 
 pope in 1252, to offer the kingdom of 
 Sicily to Richard, duke of Cornwall. He 
 was nominated to the bishopric of Lin- 
 coln, by the pope, in opposition to Robert 
 Grosseteste, but the power of the barons 
 was too great to allow the latter to be 
 ejected from his see. He was afterwards 
 
A L B 
 
 ALB 
 
 iir-de archbishop of Armagh, and finally 
 1 It England to receive a prelacy in his 
 native country. He wrote several trea- 
 tises on the life and miracles of St. Ed- 
 mund of Canterbuiy, which are printed 
 in the Thesaurus Anecdotum of Martene 
 and Durand. 
 
 ALBERT, or AULBERY, a writer in 
 the early part of the seventeenth century. 
 He wrote the Vie de S. Sigis1)ert, Roi 
 d'Austrasie, printed at Nancy, 161G, 
 with a description of Lorraine and 
 Nancy ; and also some Hymns, &c. His 
 books are rare. 
 
 ALBI, (Henry), born 1590 at Bolene, 
 in the Comtat Venaissin, entered the order 
 of the Jesuits at 16 ; afterwards studied 
 divinity, and was successively rector of 
 several colleges in the south of France. 
 He died at Aries in 1659. He wrote 
 Eloges Historiques des Cardinaux Fran- 
 cais et Etrangers mis en Parallele ; Paris, 
 1644, 4to, — a superficial work; also, 
 L'Anti-Theophile Paroissial, and an 
 Apology for the same ; some biographies 
 of pious persons, and other religious 
 pieces ; and a Translation of Father 
 Alexander's History of Tunquin, and 
 the Progress of the Gospel there, from 
 1627 to 1646 ; Lj^ons, 1651 ; a curious 
 work. His other writings are enume- 
 rated in the M^moires de Niceron, torn, 
 xxxiii. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALBICANTE, (Giovanni Alberti,) a 
 wretched Milanese poet, of a violent 
 temper, from which he was surnamed 
 Fiiribondo and Beatiale, lived in the six- 
 teenth century. He wrote poems on the 
 War of Piedmont, on the entry of Chas. V. 
 into Milan, on the glorious deeds of 
 the same emperor, and on the Anatomy 
 of Love. 
 
 ALBICUS, archbishop of Prague, 
 whose character has been designedly 
 misrepresented by popish writers, was 
 born ill Moravia ; studied medicine in 
 the university of Prague, and in 1404 
 took a doctor's degree in law at Padua. 
 For thirty years he practised medicine at 
 Prague, and with such reputation that 
 Wenceslaus IV. appointed him his first 
 physician ; and on the death of the arch- 
 bishop in 1409, Albicus, at his recom- 
 mendation, was elected, though not very 
 willingly, by the canons, as successor to 
 the dignity. At first he was strenuous 
 in his endeavours to suppress the doctrines 
 of Wickliffe and Huss ; but subsequently, 
 when the latter came to Prague, and 
 formed a sti'ong party, he relaxed in his 
 eiforts, either from timidity or principle, 
 and resigned the archbishopric, and re- 
 235 
 
 tired into privacy. He has been attacked 
 alike by the Hussites and by the Papists. 
 Whilst he wore the mitre he bestowed 
 every attention on the progress of litera- 
 ture. The only works he left are on 
 medical subjects. 
 
 ALBIGNx\C, (Louis Alexandre d', 
 17!^9 — 1820,) a French general who saw 
 much service in America, Corsica, and 
 India ; also in the armies of the Alps and 
 the Rhine in 1790-3. 
 
 ALBIGNAC, (P. F. Mamice Comte 
 d', 1775—1824,) a French officer. He 
 emigrated in 1792, and afterwards served 
 under Jerome Bonaparte and in the Rus- 
 sian campaign, but was loyal to the Boiur- 
 bons in 181.5. 
 
 ALBIGNAC, (the Baron d', 1782— 
 1823,) a pi-ivate soldier, who became aide- 
 de-camp to Ney, and served in Spain in 
 1808-12. He afterwards joined the 
 Bourbons, and served as a general in 
 Spain again in 1823. 
 
 ALBIN, (Robert,) a native of Lan- 
 cashire, born in 1630, died at Tangiers, 
 near Liege, whilst attending the Scotch 
 soldiers who were infected by the plague, 
 Dec. 8, 1667. 
 
 ALBIN I, (Franz Joseph Freyherr or 
 Baron von, 1748 — 1815,) an Austrian 
 statesman of considerable reputation, and 
 a native of St. Goar. He was educated 
 at Pont a Mousson, DUlingen and Wiirz- 
 burg ; and on receiving the degree of 
 doctor of laws at the latter university, 
 he wrote a thesis on the Definitive Year, 
 1624, sometimes called the Normal Year, 
 to prove the inapplicability of its pro- 
 visions to trades, (see the Articles of the 
 Peace of Westphalia,) which, except 
 some reports of Decisions printed in 
 Hoscher's Rechtsfiillen, is his only 
 publication. Ha%ing held many judical 
 situations from 1770 to 1787, in which 
 he distinguished himself highly, he was 
 named, in 1787, by the rector of Mentz, 
 (Mayence,) as imperial-referendary at 
 Vienna, where he became much attached 
 to the emperor Joseph II. During the 
 reign of Leopold II. and part of that 
 of Francis II. he was chiefly employed 
 by his own court of Mentz ; and in the 
 revolutionary war, beginning in 1792, he 
 shewed great spirit in organizing the 
 forces of the elector, his sovereign. Albini 
 had so much confidence in the main- 
 tenance of the integi-ity of the empire, 
 that about the time of the peace of Campo 
 Formio, he did not hesitate to purchase 
 an estate on the left bank of the Rhine ! 
 It is now well known, that the great 
 powers ceded the left bank of the Riiine 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 to Frtmee by a secret article in this 
 tr^^aty, to the great consternation of the 
 elector, who, after the evacuation of 
 M Mitz hy the Au^trians and the entry 
 of the French, assured Mortier at Asch- 
 afFeiiberg that he should oppose the 
 French. He was, however, soon in- 
 formed by a messenger from iVlbini, that 
 he was deserted by the great powers ; and 
 submitted. Albini had afterwards the 
 presidency of the congress of Rastadt; 
 and wlien the French envoys were barba- 
 rously murdered, he endeavoured with 
 all his energy to discover the authors of 
 the deed. For some years now, Albini 
 became more a soldier than a statesman ; 
 he organized the Land-sturm of Mentz, 
 and harassed the army of Augereau ex- 
 tremely, showing great military skill. 
 In 1802, on the death of the elector 
 (Friedrich Karl), Albini showed the 
 greatest activity in obtaining the recog- 
 nition, &c. of his successor. Albini con- 
 tinued still to labour for the good of his 
 country, and his labours are looked upon 
 as having highly promoted the national 
 interests of the German people. His 
 conduct is minutely detailed in the life 
 given in the Zeitgenossen, but cannot be 
 described here. Suffice it to say, that 
 the Germans reverence his name, and 
 the French cast no imputation on him. 
 He was named by the emperor in 1815, 
 as Austrian plenipotentiary at the con- 
 ference of Frankfort, but died before he 
 entered on his office. (Zeitgenossen. 
 First Series. 3d Band, No. x. Conver- 
 sations-Lexicon. Heeren's Manual, vol. 
 ii. 201, 247. Biog. Univ. Suppt., where 
 it is said that baron Albini's note to the 
 French ministers on the Rastadt affiiir 
 is to be found in vol. v. of the Memoires 
 tires des Papiers d'un Homme d'Etat.) 
 
 ALBINO, (Giovanni,) a Neapolitan 
 historian, who lived towards the end of 
 the fifteenth century. He wrote a 
 chronicle of the kingdom of Naples, 
 reaching down to his own days. Tira- 
 boschi (vol. vi. p. 743) refers to several 
 Italian authors who have given an ac- 
 count of him, and speaks of him as a 
 x^ery elegant writer. 
 
 ALBINOVANUS, (Pedo.) To this 
 Roman poet, Ovid, when in exile, ad- 
 dressed one of his Epistolse e Ponto. 
 Only a few of his hexameters have been 
 preserved. Some scholars have, how- 
 ever, attributed to him the elegies fol- 
 lowing : — 1. Consolatio ad Liviam. 2. 
 De Obltu Mciecenatis. 3. De Mtecenate 
 Moi'ibundo. But his claims to the Conso- 
 latio, although supported by Scaliger, have 
 236 
 
 not been deemed fully established ; while 
 the other two pieces have been rejected 
 as quite unworthy of the age of Augustus. 
 He wrote likewise some epigrams, ac- 
 cording to Martial, v. 5. But if he be 
 the Celsus Albinovanus to whom Horace 
 addressed his Epist. i. 8, and to whose 
 plagiarisms he alludes in Ep. i. 3, 15, we 
 have little reason to lament the loss of 
 his works ; even though Quintilian says 
 of him, (x. i.) that he will serve to amuse 
 an idle reader. His name of Pedo was 
 perhaps derived from Pedum, a town 
 about ten miles from Rome, but which 
 was no longer in existence in the time 
 of the Scholiast on Horace, Ep. i. 4, 2. 
 
 ALBINUS. 1. The Platonic philo- 
 sopher, who lived at Smyrna, and was 
 contemporary with Galen ; and of whose 
 Introduction to the Platonic Philosophy, 
 a fragment has been preserved. It was 
 first published by Fabricius in Biblioth. 
 Gr. T. ii. ; but omitted in the reprint 
 by Harles, because it is to be found 
 prefixed to Etwall's edition of three 
 dialogues of Plato, Oxon. 1771 ; and to 
 Fischer's four dialogues of Plato, Lips. 
 1783; neither of whom, it seems, either 
 would or could supply from other MSS. 
 the lacunee in the one used by Fabricius. 
 The author, who lived after the time 
 of Thrasyllus, has adopted his division 
 of the Dialogues, as detjiiled by Diogen. 
 Laert. into physical, moral, logical, 
 &c. ; and has marked out the order in 
 which they ought to follow each other, 
 according to the different objects which 
 different readers have in view. Like the 
 rest of the Neo-Platonists, he acknow- 
 ledges the genuineness of the first Alcibi- 
 ades, which has been abjudicated by the 
 school of Schleiermacher. 
 
 2. The Peripatetic philosopher; who 
 wrote in Latin some works on geometry 
 and music, as we learn from Boethius 
 and Cassiodorus; and to whom is per- 
 haps to be attributed the book on Metres 
 to which Victorinus alludes in p. 1957, 
 ed Pubsch. 
 
 ALBINUS, (Bernard,) an anatomist 
 and physician of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, was born in 1653 at Dessau, the 
 capital of Anhalt, a Saxon duchy in the 
 north-west of Germany. His eai'lier pro- 
 fessional studies were pursuedprincipally 
 at Bremen and Leyden, at wliich latter 
 place he took his degree ; and after tra- 
 velling for some time in France and Flan- 
 ders, he ultimately settled himself as 
 professor of medicine at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Oder. He here gained considerable re- 
 putation, and was appointed physician to 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 the "great elector" of Brandenburgh, 
 Frederic William ; but on being subse- 
 quently invited, be repaired in 1702 to 
 Leyden, where he continued to hold his 
 professorship in that university until his 
 death, which occurred nineteen years 
 afterwards, in 1721. His eloge was de- 
 livered by the famous Boerhaave, his 
 contemporary and fellow-professor at 
 Leyden. Of his works, which are nu- 
 merous, the principal are — 1. De Cor- 
 pusculis in Sanguine Contentis. 2. De 
 Tarantula Mira. 3. De Sacro Freyen- 
 waldensiiun Fonte. 
 
 ALBINUS, (Bern. Siegfried,) son of the 
 preceding, attained to a higher degree of 
 celebrity than his father. He was born 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1697; and 
 exhibited at an early age, imder his 
 father's tuition, great general talent, and 
 a particular taste for the cultivation of 
 anatomy, v/hich appears to have been, 
 through life, his favourite and almost ex- 
 clusive pursuit. Having been initiated 
 in the rudiments of this science beneath 
 the paternal roof at Leyden, during 
 which period he also profited by the in- 
 structions of the great Boerhaave and 
 Ran, the latter of whom was then pro- 
 fessor of anatomy in the university, he 
 continued his studies under the direc- 
 tion of Ruysch, and subsequently in 
 France, under Winslow and Senac, 
 witli whom he continued on after-terms 
 of intimacy. His merits appear to 
 have been appreciated by his preceptors, 
 whose recommendation, backed by his 
 acknowledged attainments, procured 
 for him, at the early age of 22, the pro- 
 fessorship of anatomy at Leyden (ren- 
 dered vacant bythe death of Rau), an 
 appointment which his talents and inde- 
 fatigable application seem to have quali- 
 fied him to undertake. In the course of 
 the extended period during which he 
 filled this chair, he did much to enrich 
 the science he professed, and to aid in 
 extending its usefulness as a teacher ; in 
 which latter capacity he is recorded to 
 have been eminently successful. The 
 engravings which he caused to be exe- 
 cuted under his superintendence, more 
 particularly those of the bones and mus- 
 cles, are not only beautifid in themselves 
 as works of art, but serve as exemplifica- 
 tions of the accuracy of his dissections, 
 and his intimate acquaintance with his 
 subject. He also edited successively the 
 works of Harvey, the anatomical and 
 surgical works of Vesalius, the Anatomy 
 of Fabricius of Acquapendente, and the 
 anatomical plates of Eustachius. His 
 237 
 
 principal productions are the following : 
 — 1. De Ossibus Corporis Humani; Svo. 
 1726. 2. Historia Musculorum Hominis ; 
 4to, 1734. Subsequently, Treatises on 
 the Vascular System of the Intestines, 
 and Bones of the Foetus ; and plates 
 representing the Normal Position of the 
 Foetus in Utero, as well as Annotationes 
 Academics, in 4 vols. 4to, with figures. 
 His splendid illusti-ations still maintain a 
 justly-merited reputation, and have long 
 served as copies for minor works of a 
 similar desci'iption. He died at Leyden 
 in 1770, after having held his professor- 
 ship for fifty years. 
 
 His brother. Christian Bernard Al- 
 himis, also distinguished himself, though 
 in a minor degree, as professor of the 
 same science at Utrecht. 
 
 ALBINUS, (Decimus Claudius, d. a.d. 
 197.) This unfortunate opponent of 
 the emperor Severus, was by birth an 
 African, but descended from noble Ro- 
 man families. Although he had received 
 a literary education, he could not resist 
 the temptation to enter on the profession 
 of arms. In his youth he had, however, 
 so profited by his studies, that he was 
 the author of two works ; the one a 
 treatise on Agricultiure, and the other a 
 set of Stories. During the revolt of 
 Avidius Cassius, a.d. 175, he prevented 
 his soldiers from joining the standard of 
 rebellion in Bithynia, where he was in 
 command ; and M. Aurelius is said to 
 have bestowed the consulship upon him 
 in consequence, but his name is not 
 found in the Fasti Consulares. He after- 
 wards commanded in Gaid and in Britain, 
 where he was at the time of the death of 
 Commodus. Durinsf the contest between 
 Severus and his opponents Julianus and 
 Pescennius, Severus contrived to amuse 
 Albinus by bestowing on him the dig- 
 nity of Caesar. But afterwards fearing 
 him as a rival, he sent persons to assassi- 
 nate him ; and Albinus then assumed 
 the title of emperor, and prepared to 
 support his claim by force of anns. The 
 armies met, a.d. 195, nearTrevoux, and 
 Albinus was entirely defeated. His 
 death is differently told by different his- 
 torians. Some say that he died of his 
 wounds in the presence of Severus ; but 
 Dio Cassius (Ixxv. 7), who intimates 
 that the bulletin of Sevei'us was by no 
 means correct, states that he slew him- 
 self in a house near the Rhone, to which 
 he had fled, and that Severus treated 
 his corpse with indignity. His wife 
 and children were massacred by the 
 conqueroi-. 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 ALBINUS, (Peter,) a historian and 
 poet, born in Misnia in the sixteenth 
 century ; was professor of poetiy at Wit- 
 teniberg, and afterwards historiographer 
 and private secretary to the house of 
 Saxony. He was a learned and accurate 
 writer ; his principal works are — 1. Meis- 
 nische Land und Berg-Chronica ; Dres- 
 den, fol. 1580 — 1599. 2. Scriptores 
 Varii de Russorum Ileligione ; Spire, 
 1582. 3. Genealogical tables of the 
 House of Saxony (in German) ; Leipsic, 
 1602. His Latin poems were printed at 
 Frankfort, 1G12, 8vo. 
 
 ALBIS, (Thomas d'.) See White. 
 
 ALBITTE, (Antoine Louis, d. 1812,) 
 advocate of Dieppe, and one of the most 
 violent and sanguinary partizans of the 
 French Revolution. Not content with 
 voting for the immediate execution of his 
 own king, in 1791 he guillotined in effigy 
 most of the sovereigns of Em-ope. It 
 woidd have been well had his rage been 
 expended on inanimate objects ; but his 
 cruelties dm-ing his revohitionary mission 
 to the department of Mont Blanc and 
 L'Ain have stamped his name with exe- 
 cration. He attached himself to Napo- 
 leon, and perished in the retreat from 
 Moscow. 
 
 ALBIZZI, (Bartolomeo, d. 1401,) 
 called also Bartholomew of Pisa, born in 
 the fourteenth century at Rivano, in 
 Tuscany ; was of the order of Franciscans, 
 and derived much fame in the eyes of his 
 brethren by a work in Latin, on the 
 Conformity of St. Francis with Jesus 
 Christ ; which impiovisly compares that 
 saint with the Saviour : it was first 
 printed at Venice, folio, without date or 
 printer's name ; the second edition was 
 printed at Milan, in folio, 1510, in black 
 letter, and another at Milan, 1513, of the 
 same form and type ; all of which are 
 scarce, and seldom complete. In 1590, 
 father Bucchi (a Franciscan) published 
 another edition at Bologna, but with 
 considerable curtailment ; and as it did 
 not sell, it was republished in 1620 with 
 the first two leaves changed, in order to 
 disguise it. The approbation of the 
 chapter of the order is found in this 
 edition, bearing date Aug. 2, 1399. 
 Tirabosclii, (i. 181,) who is very angry 
 with Marchand for occupying sixteen 
 columns of the Diet. Hist, with an enu- 
 meration of the editions of this work and 
 answers to it, shoidd have remembered 
 that after such an approbation, it is no 
 longer the mere woi-k of an individual. 
 In 1632, it was published at Cologne 
 with a new title, and in 1658 at Liege, 
 238 
 
 but very much altered. Wading (Bibl. 
 Ord. Min.) has given a catalogue of 
 Albizzi's other works, which has been 
 copied by Casimir Oudin and Fabricius. 
 
 ALBIZZI, (Pietro,) whose family, in 
 the fourteenth century, came to be con- 
 sidered as the principal directors of the 
 Guelph party in Florence, was, in con- 
 jimction with Lapo di Castiglionchio and 
 Cliarles Strozzi, at the head of affairs 
 during the glorious war against Gregory 
 XI. which was called the war of liberty. 
 Suddenly the revolution of the Ciompi, 
 excited by the Medici, the Alberti, &c., 
 broke out ; the Guelphs were overthrown ; 
 and Albizzi was brought to trial, accused 
 of having conspired against the demo- 
 cratic party, with several magistrates. 
 Tile populace clamoured for his condem- 
 nation ; and Albizzi, seeing its rage, felt 
 that his case was hopeless, and that if he 
 did not die by the hands of the execu- 
 tioner-, his life would nevertheless be 
 sacrificed, and in a still more hoi-rible 
 manner ; and would be followed by the 
 entire ruin of his family. Accordingly, 
 he prevailed on his companions in mis- 
 fortune to accuse themselves voluntarily 
 of having engaged in conspii-acies of 
 which they were altogether guiltless. He 
 summoned the jxidge to communicate 
 these unex]iected confessions, and march- 
 ed magnanimously to the scaffold. 
 
 ALBIZZI, (Tommaso, 1347—1417,) 
 nephew of the above, was the chief of the 
 Florentine republic from 1382 to 1417. 
 He was banished after the revolution of 
 the Ciompi, but retin-ned to triumph over 
 his enemies : the Ricci were without a 
 chief, and powerless ; the Alberti and 
 Medici were either exiled or excluded 
 from the magistrature ; the Albizzi 
 reigned without rivals. The cities of 
 Pisa, Arezzo and Cortona were subdued 
 the nobles of the Apennines held 
 obedience ; two powerful enemies, Vis- 
 conti, duke of Milan, and Ladislas, king 
 of Naples, now jrielded to the fortune of 
 Florence, whose pre-eminence during 
 this period is mainly owing to the talents 
 and conduct of her ruler. 
 
 ALBIZZI, (Rinaldo,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, allied himself with the Medici, 
 the enemies of his family, against Niccolo 
 d'Uzzano, the friend and successor of his 
 father. The new allies soon quarrelled ; 
 Nicolas died in 1433, when Rinaldo 
 drove Cosmo de Medici into banishment. 
 Cosmo was recalled by the mediation of 
 pope Eugene IV., and Rinaldo was soon 
 after exiled, and remained to the end of 
 his days an exile. 
 
 in 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 ALBO, (Josef, d. 1430,) a native of 
 Sona in Old Castile. He was one of the 
 rabbis who took part in the celebrated 
 conference in 1412, before BenedictXIII. 
 between Jerome (Girolamo) a Christian, 
 and the Jews. Li order to re-establish 
 the Jews in their faith, which had suf- 
 fered in this dispute, he wrote the book 
 of Ikkarim, or Foundations, of which 
 De Rossi has given an account in his 
 Diz. Storico, &c., and also in his Biblio- 
 theca Judaica Antichristiana. In his 
 Annales Hebr. Typograph. p. 44, he 
 states that the edition published at Son- 
 cino is an extremely rare book. (De 
 Rossi in locis citatis.) 
 
 ALBOIN, king of the Lombards, was 
 son of Audouin, to whom he succeeded 
 in 561. He reigned in the districts 
 which now form Austria and a part of 
 Hungary. His first wife was Clodos- 
 vinda, daughter of Clothaire ; and his 
 second Rosmonda, daughter of Cuni- 
 mund, king of the Gepida?, whom he 
 slew with his own hand in a battle, in 
 which the Gepidae were not only de- 
 feated, but almost all destroyed. The 
 Lombards had inhabited Pannonia for 
 forty-two years, when Alboin, in 568, 
 determined to abandon this district, and 
 to conquer a new kingdom : his terri- 
 tories, which extended from the confines 
 of Sirmia to those of Tyrol, devastated 
 by long wars, and without cultivators, 
 could no longer support a race, whose 
 custom was to live by war and not by 
 labour. Twenty thousand Saxons joined 
 his expedition : he conquered Venetia, 
 and the country between the Alps and 
 Apennines, excepting a few places ; pur- 
 sued his conquering career into Tuscany, 
 in 570 ; and one of his generals, Zotton, 
 penetrating into the south of Italy, 
 founded, in 571, the duchy of Benevento. 
 Pavia surrendered in 572, after a siege 
 of nearly three years ; at this city Alboin 
 and his successors fixed their residence, 
 and made it the capital of Lombardy. 
 Alboin, after having reigned three years 
 and a half in Italy, was assassinated, 
 June 8, 573, at Verona, by an agent of 
 his queen, Rosmonda, to whom, in a 
 drunken fit, he had sent a cup made out 
 of the skull of her father Cuninnmd, in- 
 viting her to di'ink from it. Whether 
 Alboin, as Pavdus Diaconus asserts, (De 
 Gestis Langob. ii. 5, in the first vol. of 
 Scriptor. Rer. Ital. p. 427,) was invited 
 to attack the western empire by Narses, 
 (see the name,) in revenge for the in- 
 gratitude of his masters, has been much 
 disputed. (See Baron. Annal. Eccles. 
 229 
 
 sub. ann. 568. Muratori, Annal d'ltal. 
 ann. 567. See also Tiraboschi, iii. 82 ; 
 Encyclop. Metrop. vol. ii. p. 283.) The 
 common opinion is, that this story is not 
 true. 
 
 ALBON, (James d'.) See St. Andre, 
 ALBON, (Claude Camille Fraufois, 
 count d', 1753 — 1789,) a descendant of 
 the Marechal de St. Andre. He was the 
 author, among other works, of — Dialogue 
 entre Alexandre et Titus, 8vo ; in which 
 he pleads the cause of humanity against 
 those who are called heroes and con- 
 querors ;— a discom'se on the question, 
 whether the age of Augustus ought to 
 be preferred to that of Louis XIV. which 
 he decides in favour of the latter ; — and 
 also. Political, Historical and Critical 
 Discourses on some of the Governments 
 of Europe; 1779, 3 vols. 8vo. Also of 
 the Eloge de Court de Gebelin. This 
 protestant having been refused christian 
 burial, Albon gave his body a resting- 
 place and a tomb in his garden at Fran- 
 conville, in the Vallee de Montmorenci. 
 His works have been much ridicided, 
 especially by Rivarol, in his Petit Diet, 
 de nos Grands Hommes. 
 
 ALBORNOS, (Gil Alvares Carillo,) 
 cardinal, was a native of Cuen9a, of the 
 royal blood of Arragon, and a student of 
 Toulouse. Entering the church, he 
 became successively almoner to Alfonso 
 XL archdeacon of Calatrava, and arch- 
 bishop of Toledo. The last dignity he 
 attained while merely a youth. Accom- 
 panying his royal master in the cam- 
 paign against the moors of Andalusia, 
 his sacerdotal character did not prevent 
 his fighting, and he had the good for- 
 tune to rescue Alfonso from n position 
 of some danger ; in return he was 
 knighted, and in 1343 he commanded at 
 the siege of Algesiras. On the accession 
 of Pedro the Cruel, he ceased to be a 
 favourite ; he even incurred the wrath 
 of the monarch, and was glad to seek a 
 refuge at the papal court, then held at 
 Avignon. By Clement VI. he was raised 
 to the dignity of cardinal, and was em- 
 ployed in the most important of secular 
 negotiations. The archbishopric he re- 
 signed, — a mark of disinterestedness 
 worthy of a prince. By Innocent VI. 
 he was equally trusted, and equally ho- 
 noured ; and to him was confided the 
 difiicidt task of allaying the popular dis- 
 content in the Roman states, and of 
 diverting the Germans from the conquest 
 of Rome. Cola di Rienzo, tiibune or 
 senator of Rome, wlio had so much in- 
 fluence over the inhabitants, was no 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 match for him in subtlety ; and liis 
 valour enabled him to reconquer most 
 of the fortresses in the ecclesiastical 
 states. In the midst of his successes, an 
 intrigue of the papal court recalled him 
 to Avignon ; but his successor being un- 
 able to continue his work, he was again 
 sent to the scene of his triumphs. After 
 he had finished the resubjugation of the 
 states from the tyrants who had usurped 
 them, he distinguished himself by his ad- 
 ministration. To Bologna he gave a 
 constitution ; its university he amplified 
 by a new college for Spaniards ; in other 
 cities of the states he promulgated new 
 laws ; and at length he invited the pope 
 to return to Rome, where no tyrant re- 
 mained. At Viterbo, Urban V. requested 
 him to give an account of the ample 
 treasiu-es which he had expended. The 
 cardinal, opening a large chest full of 
 keys, replied, " Holy father, I have ex- 
 pended those treasures in making you 
 master of the fortified places of which 
 you see the keys !" Sensible of his in- 
 justice. Urban embraced him. Having 
 entered with the pope the capital of the 
 christian world, Albornos returned to 
 Viterbo, where he died in 1367. Italy 
 had not occupied all his attention : he 
 had been legate in Spain, to enforce the 
 discipline of the church, and above all 
 to separate the married clergy from their 
 wives. Juan de Ruiz, arch-priest of 
 Hita, (see the name,) had been one of 
 the ecclesiastics whom, for contumacy, or 
 licentiousness, he had confined. (Fer- 
 rera's Histoire d'Espagne by Hermilly. 
 Of this prelate some account may also 
 be found in Ayala, Cronicas de los Reyes 
 de Castilla.) 
 
 ALBORNOS, (Diego Felipe,) a canon 
 of Carthagena, who translated from the 
 Italian of Bissacioni, a history of the civil 
 wars of England ; and wrote a moral and 
 political treatise, — Cartilla Politica y 
 Christiana; Madrid, 1666. 
 
 ALBOUY. See Dazincourt. 
 
 ALBRECHT, (John Sebastian,) pro- 
 fessor of natm-al pliilosophy at Coburg ; 
 born 1695, devoted himself principally 
 to the study of curiosities and monstro- 
 sities ; on various specimens of which he 
 published memoirs inserted in the Annals 
 of the Academy of Natural Philosophers. 
 
 Another Albrecht {Benjamin Gottlieb) 
 is the author of a work entitled, De Aro- 
 matum Exoticorum Noxa, et nostratium 
 prsestantia; Erfurt, 1740, 4to. 
 
 ALBRECHT, (John William,) pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Gottingen, where 
 he was succeeded by Haller, is frequently 
 240 
 
 quoted with approbation by the latter. 
 Amongst his works may be mentioned 
 his De Effectibus Musicis in Coiinis 
 Animatum; Leipsic, 1734. 8vo. He died 
 1736, at the age of 33. 
 
 ALBRECHT, (John Lawrence,) born 
 1 732, in Thuringia ; chief singer and 
 musical director in the principal church 
 of Muhlhausen, was equally esteemed as 
 a didactic writer on music, and as a 
 composer. He died in 1773. 
 
 ALBRECHTSBERGER, (John Geo.) 
 a celebi-ated organist and musical com- 
 poser, born 1729; was appointed, in 
 1772, organist to the court, and member 
 of the musical academy of Vienna. He 
 has left several compositions, but the 
 work which does him most honour is his 
 Elementary Guide to Composition ; Leip- 
 sic, 1790. 
 
 ALBRET, (Charles Sire d',) count of 
 Dreux, cousin of Charles VI. accom- 
 panied Louis II. duke de Bourbon, in 
 his African expedition in 1390, and was 
 afterwards at the siege of Tunis. In 
 1402 he was appointed constable, and 
 in 1405 and 1406, he commanded in 
 Guienne against the English. In 1412 
 he marched against Henry V. with 
 14,000 men at arms, and infantry much 
 more numerous than the English ; but 
 was totally defeated at Agincourt, where 
 he fell at the head of his army. 
 
 ALBRET, (Cesar Phebus d', 1614— 
 1672,) known at first imder the name of 
 Miossins, and afterwards as Marechal 
 d'Albret, was an adroit and assiduous 
 courtier, who owed his military fortune 
 much more to the favour with which he 
 was regarded by Anne of Austria, and 
 by Mazarin, than to his talents. He 
 figm-ed amongst the lovers of Ninon 
 d'Enclos, and amongst the friends of 
 Mdlle. d'Aubigne. St. Evremond has 
 celebrated in Albret, — 
 
 " Un marechal, I'oniement de la Prance, 
 Rare en esprit, magnifique en depense." 
 
 Madame Cornuel, however, calls him, 
 " un grand faiseiu* de galimathias :" she 
 said, when he ceased to pursue her with 
 his addresses, " In truth I am vexed at 
 his leaving me, for I began to under- 
 stand him." He is the military man 
 who deprived D'Ammont of his box at 
 the opera, upon which the latter re- 
 venged himself by exclaiming, " Behold 
 the handsome marechal, who never took 
 any thing but my box !" 
 
 ALBRIC, (Albricus,) a celebrated phi- 
 losopher and physician, born in London, 
 in the eleventh century, according to the 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 Biographie Universelle, although Leland 
 conjectures that he lived in the reigns of 
 king John and of king Henry IIL He 
 is said to have studied at Cambridge and 
 Oxford, which could scarcely have been 
 the case if we give him the earlier date ; 
 and afterwards to have travelled abroad 
 in search of knowledge. Several works 
 go under his name, as one, De Origine 
 Deorum ; another, De Ratione Ve- 
 iieni ; a third, entitled Virtutes Anti- 
 quorum, in which he treated of the 
 wisdom of the ancient philosophers, and 
 the virtue and prudence of the great men 
 of former times ; and a fourth, called 
 Canones Speculativi. Albric bore a very 
 high character for learning, although 
 so little is now known of his personal 
 history. His works are found in manu- 
 script in different English libraries. 
 
 ALBUCASIS, called Albitcasa, Buclia- 
 sis, Bulcaris-Gafar, Azaravius, &c., but 
 whose proper name is Aboul-Cassem- 
 Khalaf- Ben - Abbas, was an Arabian 
 physician of Spain, who died early in the 
 twelfth century. His celebrity was great ; 
 but his works, which consist of thirty-two 
 treatises, and which have been translated 
 by an enthusiastic Jew, — Riccio, the 
 physician of Maximilian L — prove that 
 he was little more than a compiler, and 
 even a plagiarist from Arrasi or Rhazes 
 (see the name). He was a surgeon also ; 
 and he not only mentions instnunents, 
 but gives drawings of them. At Oxford, 
 in 1778, there appeared a new edition of 
 his surgical treatises, 2 vols. 4to, Arabic 
 and Latin. 
 
 ALBUMAZAR, (805—885,) a cele- 
 brated Arabian astronomer. His several 
 treatises, astronomical and astrological, 
 are very common among MSS., and the 
 editions most numerous : a list may be 
 found in Panzer, and Casiri, Bibl. Arab. 
 Hisp. i. 351. The table, called Zydj 
 Aboii-Mashar was calculated on his ob- 
 servations ; but his most celebrated work 
 is his astrological treatise, called, Thou- 
 sands of Years, which settles the time of 
 the world's creation and dissolution, &c. 
 It is reported that he observed a comet 
 in his time above the orbit of Venus. 
 A very curious English version of his 
 Flores, of the fourteenth centiuy, is in 
 the library of Trinity college, Cambridge. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, (Juan Alfonso de,) 
 minister of Pedro the Cruel, king of Cas- 
 tile, was descended from the royal family 
 of Portugal. By Alfonso XI. he had 
 been made governor of Pedro ; and on 
 the accession of the new king, whose 
 vices he flattered, he became the most 
 ' VOL. r. 241 
 
 powerful noble in the state. When Pedro 
 fell in love with an attendant on his lady, 
 Doila Maria de Padilla, he encouraged 
 the connexion ; but seeing the empire 
 which she soon obtained over his mind, 
 — the influence of her family no less than 
 her own,: — he repented of his facility, and, 
 in the view of humbling the vipstarts, 
 prevailed on Pedro to marry a French 
 princess, the unfortunate Blanche de 
 Bourbon. (See the name). His marriage 
 had an effect directly contrary to the one 
 intended ; — Pedro forsook his queen, to 
 adhere more closely to his mistress. The 
 minister lost his favour, was banished 
 from the court; and as he plotted against 
 the authority of the new favourites, he 
 was soon compelled to seek a refuge in 
 Portugal. Even here, however, he could 
 not be quiet ; he collected around him 
 all the discontented Castilians, with many 
 adventurers ; and to these joining his own 
 vassals, penetrated into the dominions of 
 Pedro. In the midst of his operations, 
 death — probably through poison — sur- 
 prised him in 1354. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE,* (Alfons de, 1452 
 — 1515,) usually called the great viceroy 
 of India, was a native of Lisbon, and 
 descended from the royal house of Por- 
 tugal. The career of discovery and of 
 colonization on which his countrymen 
 had entered in the East, excited his am- 
 bition ; and in 1503 he was sent by his 
 sovereign, Dom Manuel, Avith a small 
 squadron, to reinforce Vasco de Gania, 
 the Portuguese viceroy in India. He 
 served with great distinction in the wars 
 which his countrymen had to sustain 
 against the native chiefs of Hindostan. 
 Once, if not twice, he revisited Europe 
 to obtain reinforcements. In 1508 he 
 was nominated successor of Francisco de 
 Almeida, in the vice-regal government ; 
 but before entering on his post, he re- 
 solved to signalize himself. He assailed 
 Ormuz ; and though it was defended by 
 20,000 men, headed by Sheifedin II, 
 or rather by the eunuch Atar, minister of 
 that king, he was victoriovis : Sheifedin 
 was to reign as a vassal of Manuel, and 
 to assist in the construction of a forti- 
 fied town, destined to be the centre of 
 Portugviese commerce in that part of the 
 world. Against Ormuz, he failed : in 
 vain did he surroimd the capital ; his 
 forces were unequal to the entei-prise, 
 and he hastened to Malacca to enter on 
 his charge as viceroy. At first Almeida 
 refused to surrender the dignity, but 
 better feelings prevailed ; and he sailed 
 ♦ Very inaccurate in the Biog. Univ. 
 
 R 
 
ALB 
 
 ALB 
 
 for Europe, which, however, he was des- 
 tined never to see. — Albuquerque began 
 his renowned administration by the in- 
 vasion of Goa. The governor, Idal Khan, 
 being absent, he forced the inhabitants 
 to receive a Portuguese garrison. That 
 garrison, however, was soon expelled by 
 the enraged governor, and the viceroy 
 had again to subdue it. He succeeded, 
 but tarnished his lam-els by a horrible 
 carnage. From this time Goa became 
 the capital of the Portuguese empire in 
 India. His great object was to extend 
 his country's domination over the whole 
 of the western coast of the Peninsida, 
 and in pursuing it he was inflexible as the 
 rock. He took revenge for all the hu- 
 miliations which had been experienced ; 
 he caused himself to be feared and re- 
 spected by his enemies, even by the most 
 powerful of the Mohammedan princes. 
 Returning to the Persian gulf, from the 
 Persian king he wrested permission to 
 erect an almost impregnable fortress on 
 the island of Ormuz, and thus attained 
 one of the greatest objects of his ambi- 
 tion. Yet, with all his merit, he was su- 
 perseded by orders from Lisbon. Perhaps 
 that merit was his greatest enemy, since 
 it enabled the men who were jealous of 
 his fame, easily to persuade the king that 
 he was aspiring to an independent sove- 
 reignty in those distant regions. Disap- 
 pointed ambition, sorrow at his disgi-ace, 
 sunk deeply into his soul ; and he died 
 before the arrival of his successor. One 
 of his last acts was to petition the king 
 to take care of a natiu-al son, — the only 
 reward which he asked for his long and 
 splendid services. If some of his acts 
 were violent, — such were the imprison- 
 ment of a minister on the isle of Ormuz, 
 and the execution of a Malacca king, 
 whose only crime was a wish to banish 
 fi-om that peninsula a band of most ava- 
 ricious strangers — he was, beyond all 
 doubt, one of the greatest viceroys Por- 
 tugal ever despatched into the East. The 
 prosperity which the Indian possessions 
 of that power enjoyed during his admi- 
 nistration, rendered him a blessing to 
 them. Impartial, just, rigorous in the 
 punishment of offences, he knew how to 
 maintain internal peace. Comprehensive 
 in his views, enlightened in his policy, 
 firm in his purposes, he did more for the 
 interests of the Portuguese empire in 
 India, than all his predecessors, in the 
 aggregate. Hence his surname of the 
 Great Albuquerque. Dom Manuel, when 
 too late, was sensible of his injustice ; and 
 the only reparation which he could make 
 242 
 
 was to confer unusual honours on the son 
 of his viceroy. (La Clede, Histoire 
 Generale de Portugal, torn. iv. Lemos, 
 Historia Geral, torn. x. Dunham, Spain 
 and Portugal, vol. iii. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, (Matteo de,) one 
 of the few scientific generals of Portugal, 
 was sent in 1628 into the Brazils, to de- 
 fend the province of Pernambuco against 
 the Dutch. He repulsed their attacks, 
 and in 1635 was recalled. In the revolu- 
 tion which placed the house of Braganza 
 on the thi'one of Portugal, he acted a lead- 
 ing part. In the battle of Campo Mayor 
 he obtained a decisive advantage over the 
 Spanish forces ; and was made Conde de 
 Alegretto, and gi-andee of the first class. 
 Subsequently, he was less fortimate, — 
 owing, we are told, to the intrigues of 
 some envious nobles ; was disgraced, and 
 forced to retire to his rural estate, where 
 he died in 1646. 
 
 There was another Portuguese general 
 of this name — Andrea, who fought in 
 the same war, and was slain at the battle 
 of Elvas, in 1659. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, (the duke of, d. 
 1811,) distinguished for his resistance to 
 Napoleon in the fii-st invasion of Spain, 
 and still more for the zeal with which he 
 prevailed on the inhabitants of Cadiz to 
 defend that important city against the 
 French. A member of the celebrated 
 jimta of that place, he was too fond of 
 power willingly to obey the regency ; and 
 his embassy to London, where he died, 
 was intended as a kind of honourable 
 exile. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE COELHO, (Duarte 
 de,) marquis of Basto, a gentleman at- 
 tached to the household of Philip IV- 
 king of Spain, distinguished himself in 
 the war of Brazil, against the Dutch. On 
 his return to Madrid, where he died in 
 1658, he ^vl•ote a jom-nal of that war. 
 
 ALBUTIUS, (Titus,) a Roman Epi- 
 curean philosopher, lived in the seventh 
 century from the building of the city. 
 He studied at Athens, and affected the 
 manners of a Greek. Appointed to the 
 government of Sardinia, he was accused 
 of extortion, and banished ; he retired to 
 Athens, where it is believed that he died. 
 
 ALBUTIUS, (Caius Silus,) a cele- 
 brated orator and rhetorician of the time 
 of Augustus, was born in Novarra, a city 
 of Lombardy, which he left, because, 
 whilst exercising the office of eedile, those 
 whom he condemned took hold of his 
 legs and di-aeged him from his seat to 
 the gi-ound. Havmg settled at Rome, 
 he associated himself with Munacius 
 
ALC 
 
 A LC 
 
 Planius, but soon after he opened a sepa- 
 rate school ; and sometimes, though sel- 
 dom, he spoke in the forum, with various 
 success ; till a rather singular adventure 
 obliged him to give it up. In pleading 
 a cause, he thought to make use of an 
 oratorical flourish, by saying to the oppo- 
 site party, " Swear by the ashes and the 
 memory of your mother, and you shall 
 gain your cause ;" to which his adver- 
 sary immediately replied, " We accept 
 the condition." In vain then Albutius 
 pretended to persuade the judges that 
 his offer ought not to be taken literally, 
 as it was simply a figiue of speech. They 
 admitted the oath, and Albutius lost his 
 cause. After this we hear no more of 
 him till in his old age ill health obliged 
 him to return to has native country, 
 where, in the presence of the people, 
 he detailed the reasons of a resolution he 
 had taken to starve himself; which he 
 did soon after. Seneca and Suetonius 
 speak at gi-eat length of his merit, as 
 well as of his vices, which were not a few ; 
 and a passage in Quintilian seems to 
 grant him the merit of having composed 
 a Treatise on Rhetoric. 
 
 ALCADINUS, a celebrated physician 
 of the twelfth century, at first professor 
 at Salerno, and afterwards physician in 
 ordinary to the emperor Henry VI., and 
 to his successor ; wrote eulogies on his 
 imperial patrons, and a series of Latin 
 epigrams for Frederic II., entitled, De 
 Balneis Puteolanis. The time of his 
 death is not ascertained. 
 
 ALC^US. The annals of Greek lite- 
 rature present us with three poets of this 
 name ; lyric, dramatic, and epigram- 
 matic. 1. The lyric was of Mitylene, 
 in Lesbos, a contemporary with Sappho 
 and Stesichoi-us, and the first to string 
 the lyre and unsheath the sword in the 
 cause of liberty. After aiding Pittacus 
 in his successful endeavours to free their 
 common coimtry, he became his foe, 
 when the latter changed the character of 
 a deliverer for that of despot ; by whom 
 the poet, when he gave vent to his indig- 
 nation in verse, was banished ; but when, 
 after a fruitless appeal to arms, he fell 
 into the hands of the victor, the former 
 friend forgot his present foe, and spared 
 the politician in the poet ; who, by his 
 conduct in the field, verified the senti- 
 ment of Hudibras ; who says, — 
 
 " For he who flies may fight again, 
 Which he can never do who's slain." 
 
 A chivalrous attempt has indeed been 
 
 made to rescue the character of the bard 
 
 from the charge of cowardice. But the 
 
 243 
 
 language of the poet is too precise to 
 admit of more than one conclusion. From 
 the fragments that have come down to 
 us, we can form a fair idea of the loss that 
 literature has sustained in the destruc- 
 tion of poetry, whose echo is but faintly 
 heard in the polished stanzas of the 
 Roman lyi'ist ; who, conscious of his in- 
 ability to equal the vigour of the original, 
 determined to surpass him in the har- 
 mony of the verse, to which nothing 
 similar, or second, has yet been seen, for 
 the union of flexibility with firmness, and 
 of sweetness with strength. It is therefore 
 to be deeply regretted that Horace 
 thought of translating Alcaeus before he 
 had gained a mastery over his muse ; 
 for then he would not have converted 
 the nervous Alcaic into the flimsy Ascle- 
 piadean — "O navis, referent," &c. ; the 
 original of which, saj's Heraclides, AUe- 
 gor. Homeric, p. 413, was written when 
 the bard was unable to express openly 
 what he thought ; while the vivid descrip- 
 tion of a vessel in a stonn was probably 
 a real picture drawn during his voyage 
 to Egypt, mentioned by Strabo, i. p. 63, 
 and from whence we can understand the 
 " dura navis, dura fug^e mala," to which 
 Horace alludes ; who has, in a couple of 
 stanzas in Od. i. xxxii. 6 — 12, detailed 
 all the subjects touched upon by Alcaeus. 
 The fragments of the poet, (who, says 
 Quintilian, is Homer-like — a compliment 
 as high as any writer could wish for at the 
 handsof such a judge, )have been collected 
 by Blomfield in the Museum Criticum, 
 i. p. 492 ; to which neither Matthiae, in 
 his edition printed at Lips. 1827, nor 
 Dindorf, in his Poetae Minores Graeci, 
 (Lips.) have been able to add much that 
 was wanting, or to correct any thing that 
 was wrong. 
 
 2. The Dramatist, one of the writers 
 of the middle comedy, at Athens. Of 
 his plays only a few fragments have 
 been preserved by Athenaeus. 
 
 3. The Epigrammatist, who has given 
 rise to much dispute amongst the learned; 
 nor is it yet settled whether (see Bayle 
 in Alcaeus) he was or was not the person 
 alluded to in Plutarch Flamin. p. 373 ; 
 or the Epicurean of Messene, banished 
 from Rome by a decree of the senate, u.c. 
 580, as we learn from Athen. xii. p. 547 ; 
 ^lian, V. H. ix. 12; A. Gell. xv. 11 ; 
 Senec. Consolat. § 10; and Sext. Empiric, 
 c. Mathem. p. 69. 
 
 ALCAFORADA, (Mariana de,) a 
 
 Portuguese nun of the seventeenth cen- 
 
 tmy, who has been termed the Eloisa 
 
 cf her nation. While in her convent 
 
 R 2 
 
ALC 
 
 ALC 
 
 in the Alemtcjo, she had the misfor- 
 tune to see a French officer, who in- 
 spired her with love. In one respect she 
 greatly resembled her predecessor : her 
 letters (five in nmnber) addressed to the 
 absent lover, describe in the most gra- 
 phic, the most natm-al, the most touching 
 terms, the state of lier heart, her scru- 
 ples, her struggles with the all-powerful 
 influence. In another she was less for- 
 tunate ; she had no devoted Abelard : 
 instead of loving, the officer despised her, 
 and to humble her still more, had the 
 baseness to publish her letters. They 
 produced a great sensation in France. 
 They are certainly striking, and must 
 always be read with interest. The best 
 edition is that of Paris, by Sousa, Portu- 
 guese and French, 1824. The different 
 French versions and editions of these 
 letters (to which seven spurious ones were 
 commonly appended), are enumerated in a 
 note to the supplement to the Biog. Univ. 
 
 ALCALA, (Parafan de Rivero, duke 
 of,) viceroy of Naples, under Philip II. 
 king of Spain. He succeeded the duke 
 of Alva, whose sternness contrasted 
 greatly with his mildness. He was con- 
 sequently the favourite of the people; 
 nor was the sentiment less ardent when 
 he opposed the establishment of the in- 
 quisition in Naples, and persuaded his 
 sovereign to declare that it never shoidd 
 be established in that kingdom. In other 
 respects he was a usefiil governor : he 
 repulsed the Turks, arrested the progress 
 of the plague ; preserved the inhabitants 
 from famine; and adorned the city by 
 many improvements. In 1571 he died, 
 after a government of twelve years. 
 
 ALCALA, (Fray Pedro de,) a monk 
 of the order of St. Jerome, was one of the 
 missionaries employed by Fernando and 
 Isabel to convert the Mohammedans of 
 Granada, after the conquest of that king- 
 dom in 1491. His mission was so far 
 useful that it made him learn Arabic, 
 and attempt teaching it to others in his 
 Arte para saber la Lengua Ai'abiga. 
 
 ALCALA -Y-HENARES, (Alfredo 
 de,) a Spanish poet of the seventeenth 
 century, who settled at Lisbon, where he 
 engaged in trade. Literature, however, 
 was the occupation of his leisure hours. 
 His Viridarium Anagrammaticum, and 
 his five Novelas, are conceited perform- 
 ances without merit of any kind. 
 
 ALCAMENES, son of Teleclus, 
 mounted the throne of Sparta about the 
 year 747 b. c. He terminated the war 
 of Helos, and commenced that of Mes- 
 sena, 743 b. c. ; he died shortly after- 
 244 
 
 Wards, and was succeeded by Polydoiiis, 
 his son. 
 
 ALCAMENES, a celebrated Athenian 
 sculptor. Sillig, from a comparison of 
 Pliny, xxxiv. 8, 19, Pausanias, viii. 
 9, 1, and ix. 11, 4, and other passages, 
 determines the age at which he flourished, 
 and supposes him to have been born 
 about Ol. 77, and to have lived to Ol. 95, 
 (from about 470 — 400 b.c.) He is said 
 to have contended with Agoracritus (see 
 the name), and to have obtained the vic- 
 tory with a Venvis, which was placed in 
 a part of Athens, {ev KrjTron.) Several 
 other works of his are enumerated in 
 Sillig, with references to the passages in 
 which they are mentioned, chiefly in 
 Pausanias and Pliny. (Sillig, Catalogus 
 Artificum. Midler, &c.) 
 
 ALCAZAR, (Luis de, 1554—1613,) 
 a native of Seville, entered into the order 
 of the Jesuits, taught theology at Cor- 
 dova, and passed much of life in writing 
 a commentary on the Apocalypse. His 
 commentary is, however, of little value. 
 
 ALCAZAR, (Baltasar de,) a poet of 
 whom little is known, beyond his birth 
 at Seville, in the sixteenth century, and 
 his residence at Jaen and Ronda. He is 
 supposed to have been a soldier, and to 
 have served in the campaigns of Italy. 
 His Epigrams have long been the boast 
 of Spain. By his veiy contemporaries, — 
 by such men as La Cueva and Cervantes, 
 he was highly praised ; and the voice of 
 posterity has ratified the judgment. We, 
 however, cannot see " the delicate inge- 
 nuity and taste" which his countrymen 
 see ; still less can we join in the lavish 
 encomium which declares him " compa- 
 rable a los mas celebres epigrammaticos 
 de los Griegos y Latinos." They who 
 compare him with Martial, have not 
 read, or do not understand, that ancient 
 poet. 
 
 ALCHABITIUS, an Arabian astro- 
 nomer of the twelfth century. He wrote 
 a treatise on the Judgment of the Stars, 
 and another on the Conjunction of the 
 Planets ; both printed at Venice in 1491, 
 and sevei'al later editions. The Latin 
 translations were made by John of Spain, 
 who also translated the works of Albu- 
 mezar. 
 
 ALCHINDUS.— See Alkindi. 
 
 ALCIATI, (Andi-ea, 1492—1550,) son 
 of Ambrogio Alciati, a Milanese noble- 
 man who held the office of decurion, 
 was born, according to Tiraboschi, not in 
 Milan, but in Alzete, a town in the dio- 
 cese of Milan, on the 16th of May, 1492. 
 From his youth, he applied himself to 
 
ALC 
 
 ALC 
 
 tlie study of jurisprudence. Giano Par- 
 ragio taught him the Greek and Latin 
 languages in Milan. In Pavia he at- 
 tended the law lectures of Giasone 
 Maine, and in Bologna (and not in Co- 
 logne) those of Carlo Ruino, At the 
 age of 22 he took his law degree, and in 
 the same year published the explana- 
 tions and corrections of the Greek words 
 which are found in the Digest under the 
 title of — Paradoxes of Civil Law ; a work 
 which he had WTitten seven years before, 
 at the age of fifteen. In 1521, he was 
 elected a law-professor in the university 
 at Avignon, and discharged his duty 
 with such success, that his pupils were 
 estimated at 800 ! The prospect of hav- 
 ing his salary diminished, induced him 
 to return to Milan, where the improve- 
 ments he introduced in the study of the 
 law excited against him the persecution 
 of all the other professors, vv'hose schools 
 were deserted ; and he fled for safety to 
 France. There Francis I. persuaded 
 him to accept the law-chair in the uni- 
 versity of Bourges, with the salary of 
 600 crowns, which was doubled in the 
 following year. Francis Sforza, duke of 
 Milan, conceiving it a sort of dishonour 
 to allow so great a man to employ his 
 talents amongst foreigners, was anxious 
 to call him back to Milan ; and this he did, 
 first by the threat of confiscating all his 
 property, and secondly by the promise 
 of a large salary, and by conferring on 
 him the dignity of a senator. After a 
 short time, such was his restless dispo- 
 sition, he left Milan for Pavia ; soon 
 after he removed to Bologna, where he 
 remained four years with a salaiy of 
 1200 crowns, and returned to Pavia, 
 where his salary was increased to 1500; 
 but even there he coidd not remain. 
 The large offers of the duke Ercole of 
 Este enticed him to Ferrara ; and after 
 remaining there four years he returned 
 to Pavia, and died in January 1550, at 
 the age of 58 years. 
 
 The vanity of Alciati was equal to his 
 cupidity. One of his friends joking with 
 him on his restlessness, " Where is the 
 man," said he, " that will condemn the 
 sun going round the earth to impart life 
 and warmth to all things ? Though 
 people may admire the fixed stars, there 
 is no one who will despise the planets." 
 Boyle, who relates the anecdote, ob- 
 serves, that since he compared himself 
 to the sun, like that luminary he ought 
 to have remained stationary in the cen- 
 tre, and illuminated the whole. But the 
 fact is, Alciati, by selling his services to 
 245 
 
 those who offered him most, accumu- 
 lated an immense fortune besides his 
 dignities and honours. Paul III. had 
 given him the lucrative office of protho- 
 notary, and offered him ecclesiastical pre- 
 ferment. The emperor Charles V. had 
 created him count Palatine and senator. 
 The king of Spain had made him a pre- 
 sent of a golden chain of considerable 
 value. Yet, notwithstanding his avarice, 
 he was by no means sparing of expense for 
 his table; "Avarior habitus est," Panci- 
 roli says of him, "et cibi avidior;" and 
 it has been supposed that his intemper- 
 ance hastened his end. 
 
 But if these faults tainted his moral 
 character, he was, at least, pre-eminent 
 in the knowledge of literature and law. 
 By joining them together he explained 
 many obscure and, till then, unintelli- 
 gible passages ; and, according to Ter- 
 rasson, there is no lawyer to whom the 
 students of ancient jurisprudence owe 
 equal obligations. His works were pub- 
 lished at Lyons in 1560 in 5 vols, fol., 
 and at Basle in 1571 in 6 vols, fol., and 
 again at Strasburgh in 1616, and at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 1617. So 
 many editions of a work of such magni- 
 tude are a striking proof of the merit 
 and talents of Alciati. The edition 
 of 1571 contains thirty-three treatises, 
 amongst which are the two versions of 
 the Treatise on Emblems, (printed in 
 vol. iv. and reprinted in vol. vi. with 
 alterations,) Notes on Tacitus, and a 
 Treatise on Weights and Measures ; but 
 besides these he wrote — 1. Responsa 
 nwiquam antehac edita. 2, De Formula 
 Romani Imperii. 3. Epigrammata se- 
 lecta ex Anthologia Latine versa. 4. 
 Rerum Patriae, seu HistoricE Mediola- 
 nensis Libri Quatuor. 5. De Plautinorura 
 Carminum Ratione. 6. Judicium de 
 Legum Interpretibus Parandis. 7. Enco- 
 mium Historise. 8. Palma. 9. Judi- 
 ciarii Processus Compendium. 10. Contra 
 Vitam Monasticam. 11. Notse in Epis- 
 tolas FamiUares Ciceronis. 12. Twenty- 
 seven Letters in Sudii Epistolae, and 
 others ; amongst which are the work on 
 Duels ; the Book of Emblems, in which, 
 by symboUcal figures, he describes the 
 virtues and vices in elegant epigrams. 
 This work was very popular at the time, 
 when emblems were in great fashion 
 both in France and Italy, and has been 
 translated into the language of both 
 these countries. There are, besides, in 
 the library of Este, a great number of 
 manuscript letters, a short treatise on 
 Versification, and on Plautus. 
 
ALC 
 
 A LC 
 
 ALCIATI, (Francis,) nephew of the 
 al3ove, was an eminent professor of law 
 at Pavia, where Borromeo was his pupil. 
 He was made a cardinal by Pius VI. and 
 died at Rome in 1580, leaving several 
 works in MS. 
 
 ALCIATI, (John Paul,) a natiye of 
 Milan, forsook his country in the six- 
 teenth century, and became a Socinian. 
 He and others began their innovations 
 at Geneva, but were soon glad to remove 
 to Poland, where they professed their 
 heresies with more safety and success. 
 Alciati afterwards retired to Dantzic, 
 where he died, some say in the Maho- 
 metan faith, but this Bayle takes pains 
 to refute. He published two letters to 
 Gregorio Pauli, against the pre-existence 
 of Christ. Calvin and Beza speak of him 
 as a raving madman. 
 
 ALCIATI, (Terence,) a learned Je- 
 suit born at Rome, and patronized by 
 pope Urban VIII., who intended to con- 
 fer upon him the dignity of cardinal, but 
 was prevented by the death of his pro- 
 tege in 1651 ; left behind him some 
 curious materials for a history of the 
 council of Trent, in answer to that of 
 Sarpi, and which were made use of after 
 his death, in a work on the subject by 
 cardinal Pallavicini. 
 
 ALCIBIADES. In delineating the 
 character of the son of Clinias, Cornelius 
 Nepos has truly said, that nature seems 
 to have tried what she could do in making 
 a man a mass of contradictions. With a 
 versatility unparalleled, he was the gayest 
 of the gay at Athens ; while at Sparta 
 he excelled all in the coarseness of his 
 diet and dress ; at Thebes, he lived the 
 life of a student, and in Persia, of a 
 prince. Of high birth, ample fortune, 
 and surpassing beauty, and v/ith talents 
 fitted equally for the council, the hust- 
 ings, and the field, Alcibiades could 
 scarcely have failed to be, like his guar- 
 dian Pericles, the good genius of his 
 country's destiny, had he not possessed 
 failings, fatal alike to himself and to all 
 that came within the orbit of his attrac- 
 tion. To gratify an ungovei-nable self- 
 will, and ambition without bounds, no 
 sacrifice was deemed too great. The 
 claims of country and the calls of honour 
 were alike forgotten or derided, and all 
 the distinctions between right and wrong 
 confounded in practice, as they had been 
 taught in theory, by the sophists who 
 then SAvarmed at Athens. Had, indeed, 
 Socrates possessed more than a transient 
 control over the waywai'dness of his tem- 
 per, Alcibiades would have shone as the 
 246 
 
 vivifying sun of Greece, instead of blaz- 
 ing like a comet with all the brilliancy 
 of a pestilential meteor. By his father's 
 side, says Plato, Alcibiades traced up 
 his pedigree to the heroic ages; while 
 his mother, Deinomache, was a descen- 
 dant through Megacles of the noble race 
 of Alcmaeon ; and so minute are the 
 particulars collected of his life, that, while 
 the mothers of other great men are un- 
 known, the very name, says Plutarch, 
 of his Laconian niu-se, Amycla, and his 
 tutor, Zopyrus, have been preserved. 
 At an early period, he showed that he 
 was, what Aristophanes calls him, "a 
 lion's whelp;" for while he was playing 
 at marbles in a narrow street, a cart was 
 about to pass over the hole into which 
 he was going to throw his marble, when 
 the carter was requested to stop awhile ; 
 on his refusal to do so, Alcibiades laid 
 himself on the ground in the way of the 
 cart, and bade the man drive over his 
 body. He had scarcely come of age 
 when he entered upon his political life, 
 and became leader of the war party, and 
 the opponent of Nicias ; who, taught by 
 his earlier victories the uncertainty of 
 war, and cooled by age and experience, 
 was anxious rather to preserve peace at 
 any price not inconsistent with the wel- 
 fare of his country. All the arguments 
 of prudence were, however, rejected by 
 those, whose national vanity and love of 
 glory or gain, inherent in states puffed up 
 by success in trade, Alcibiades moulded 
 to his piu-pose ; and led them to enter 
 upon the expedition to Sicily, which was 
 destined to be the grave of the cautious 
 Nicias and the dashing Demosthenes ; 
 and from which Alcibiades escaped only 
 because his fickle countrymen were de- 
 termined to destroy the object of their 
 previous worship, unconsciovis of the 
 mischiefs which he could and did bring 
 upon the land of his birth. Timon, the 
 misanthrope, seems, however, to have 
 taken a correct view of his character. 
 Meeting Alcibiades as he was returning 
 home followed by a great concoui'se of 
 people, he thus addressed him : — 
 
 " Well done, my boy; still big and bigger grow; 
 Full-sized, much ill on these thou'lt shortly 
 throw." 
 
 And with a similar feeling Archestratus 
 said, the earth could not bear two suns, 
 nor Greece two Alcibiades. No sooner 
 did he appear in the arena of politics, 
 than he eclipsed (says Plutarch) all the 
 demagogues of the day ; and though he 
 had a defect in his delivery from con- 
 founding the letter r with I, and wanted 
 
A L C 
 
 ALC 
 
 I 
 
 the fluency of an Jischines, yet for the 
 pertinence of his matter and the choice 
 of his words, Theophrastus testifies he 
 was all-svifhcient ; as may be infeiTcd 
 from the imitations of his speeches pre- 
 served in Thucydides ; for the speeches 
 tliemselves were probably not published ; 
 at least Demosthenes, when alluding in 
 his Midian Oration, p. 139, to Alcibiades, 
 as being a powerful speaker, refers merely 
 to a hearsay on the subject. The first 
 occasion in which he was opposed to the 
 policy of Nicias, was relative to the sur- 
 render of the pi'isoners taken by Cleon 
 at Pylus; which Nicias had undertaken 
 to bring about to gratify the Lacede- 
 monians, whose pride had been piqued 
 at finding some of the peers of Sparta 
 amongst the captives. The arrangement 
 was, howevei', foiled by Alcibiades; who, 
 at the very moment when he was de- 
 ceiving the Spartan ambassadors, was 
 considered by his dupes a mail of no 
 common talent. Previous to the sailing 
 of the Sicilian expedition, in which Alci- 
 biades was appointed joint-commander 
 with Nicias and Lamachus, it happened 
 that certain statues, sacred to Hermes, 
 were one night mutilated. Suspicion 
 fell upon Alcibiades, as the author of an 
 act of impiety ; about which, for some 
 reason not sufficiently explained, a great 
 stir was made at Athens, as it was sup- 
 posed to be connected with a design to 
 overthrow the democratic form of govern- 
 ment. These suspicions, which were 
 almost laid to rest previous to the de- 
 parture of the troops, broke out again 
 with redoubled force diu-ing the absence 
 of Alcibiades, and he was ordered to 
 return home to stand liis ti'ial. Antici- 
 pating a fatal result, he escaped from 
 the state vessel sent to fetch him ; and 
 after a brief concealment in Italy, ap- 
 peared at Sparta to verify his assertion, 
 that though the Athenians had decreed 
 his death, he would show them he was 
 still alive. At his instigation, the Spar- 
 tans sent Gyhppus to Sicily, and gave 
 the SjTacusans what they stood most in 
 need of, a general fit to compete with 
 the best of those from Athens. He 
 likewise recommended the Lacedemoni- 
 ans to carry on the war with vigour in 
 Greece, while the elite of the Athenian 
 troops were in Sicily. Disgusted at tlie 
 usual sluggishness and imperturbability 
 of the Spartans, so contrary to his own 
 activity of mind and body, he crossed 
 over to Asia, but not before he had been 
 engaged in an adulterous intercourse 
 with Timsea, the wife of Agis, one of the 
 247 
 
 kings of Lacedemon, — an act to which 
 Alcibiades was led not so much by pas- 
 sion, as by the vanity of saying that his 
 blood flowed in one of the royal houses 
 of Sparta. Arrived at the coiu-t of Phar- 
 nabazus, one of the satraps of the Persian 
 empire, he so gained the ear of the vice- 
 roy, as to lead him to unite with the 
 Lacedemonians in assisting to break off 
 the connexion that existed with Athens 
 and Ionia ; while he found for himself a 
 protection against the attempts made on 
 his life by Agis, and others whom he had 
 injured or insulted. But though he 
 was thus doing no little mischief to the 
 land of his birth, he still felt a desire 
 to retm-n to it. Accordingly he left no 
 means unemployed to excite the mutual 
 jealousies of the Persians and Lacede- 
 monians, and to secure to Athens the 
 influence it once possessed in Samos. 
 In both endeavours he was equally suc- 
 cessful, but not before he had incurred 
 the suspicion of Tissaphernes, whom the 
 Lacedemonians accused of harboiu-ing 
 an enemy of theirs ; and as such com- 
 plaints were likely to reach the ear of 
 the king, Tissaphernes, for his own safety, 
 and to show his zeal in the cause of his 
 master, laid hold of Alcibiades, and de- 
 tained him as a prisoner at Sardis. 
 After the lapse of a month, however, 
 Alcibiades contrived to make his escape, 
 and then accused Tissaphernes of having 
 let him go. Finding that he had made 
 an enemy of Tissaphernes and the Lace- 
 demonians, he boldly joined the Athe- 
 nian fleet, by whom he was received 
 with welcome, not so much as a deserter 
 from the enemy, and being privy to their 
 plans, as from the dread, which his coun- 
 trymen no longer felt, that his talents 
 would be directed against themselves. 
 Shortly after his junction, the Athenians 
 gained a decided victory over the com- 
 bined forces of Mindarus and Pharna- 
 bazus, another Persian satrap, and thus 
 recovered the power and places they 
 once possessed on the continent. As 
 soon as this success v/as made known at 
 Athens, all impediments to his return 
 were I'emoved at once ; his sentence of 
 outlawry was reversed ; and he entered 
 the city, not with the downcast look of the 
 forgotten exile, but with all the pcnip of 
 a victor upon whom every eye was turned, 
 anxious to see the man who had first 
 destroyed, and then restored, the power 
 of their comitry, and, what tickled the 
 Athenians still more, had enabled a 
 people fond of amusement to enjoy again 
 the procession from Eleusis by land, which 
 
A LC 
 
 A L C 
 
 the occupation of Deceleia by the Spar- 
 tans (the very step that Alcibiades had 
 recommended) had prevented, and com- 
 pelled it to go by sea, shorn of half its 
 splendour and fun. Such was the 
 enthusiasm excited in his favour, that 
 he was actually urged, like Caesar, to 
 make himself king, and rise above the 
 shameful decrees which the malice of 
 mob-leaders had directed against him. 
 After a short stay at Athens, he returned 
 to Ionia, where, in consequence of the 
 failure of an inferior officer, he inctirred 
 the suspicion of having sacrificed the in- 
 terests of his country — for it was said 
 that had he exerted himself, success would 
 have been certain. Being superseded in 
 the command of the fleet, he retired to 
 Thrace. Still his heart was in his coun- 
 try's cause ; and though he warned the 
 Athenian admirals to be on their guard 
 against the plans the enemy would pro- 
 bably adopt in their attack, yet his ad- 
 vice was disregarded ; nor was its value 
 known till after Lysander had gained 
 the victory at ^gos - Potamos ; from 
 whence he sailed to Athens, and making 
 himself master of the city, placed in it 
 the Thirty Tyrants. Aware of the active 
 part he had lately taken against the vic- 
 torious Lacedemonians, Alcibiades de- 
 termined to put himself, as Themistocles 
 had done, under the protection of the 
 king of Persia. For this purpose he 
 went to Pharnabazus. But scarcely had 
 he arrived there, when a message was 
 sent to the sati-ap from Sparta, requesting 
 him to take Alcibiades dead or alive. 
 The task was imposed upon two Persians, 
 who, not daring to enter the house where 
 he was, set fire to it ; but while he was 
 making his escape, he was struck by a 
 stone and killed. Thus ended the career 
 of a man, whose early life was as much 
 envied as his death was to be pitied. 
 He was the only private person who 
 had ever sent down to the Olympic 
 games seven chariots, and carried off the 
 prize as first, second, and third, in three 
 contests respectively ; and after his vic- 
 tory entertained the whole company 
 assembled there ; while the splendid man- 
 ner in which he did the duties of the 
 Choregus at Athens, and defrayed the 
 expense of the three contests of the 
 Dionysia, dramatic, lyric, and dithriam- 
 bic, was such as only a person of princely 
 mind would have conceived, or of princely 
 fortune executed. 
 
 ALCIDAMAS, the pupil of Gorgias, 
 lived about 425 b.c. He is probably the 
 rhetorician to whose Encomium on Death 
 248 
 
 Cicero alludes in Tusc. i. 48. He wrote 
 likewise a work on rlietoric ; another 
 called ^va-iKov ; a third Movcreiov ; a 
 fourth De Naide Mereti-ice ; and was 
 supposed to be the author of The Con- 
 test between Homer and Hesiod. The two 
 declamations, however, which pass under 
 his name, and are to be found in Reiske's 
 Oratores Grgeci, are evidently of a later 
 age. The one put into the mouth of 
 Ulysses seems to have been written in 
 reply to The Apology for Palamedes, 
 attributed to Gorgias ; but which one 
 would rather assign to Alcidamas, whom 
 Plato, in Phaidr. p. 351, A. calls " the 
 Eleatic Palamedes;" while Gorgias is 
 compared to Nestor, and Thrasymachus 
 to Ulysses. Of the other declamation, 
 written in a better style, the object is to 
 prove that a public character should 
 rather study to speak like an orator than 
 to write like a sophist. It would seem 
 to have been directed against Isocrates, 
 who is said to have expended ten years 
 on his single speech the Panegyric ; and 
 it was perhaps from this identical decla- 
 mation that Tzetzes, in whose time the 
 Encomium on Death was already lost, 
 says, in Chiliad, xi. 752, that Alcidamas 
 found fault with Isocrates. 
 
 ALCIMUS, (Latinus Alethius,) was a 
 historian, orator, and poet, born at Agen 
 in the fovu-th century ; of whose works 
 nothing has been preserved but an epi- 
 gram on Homer and Virgil, in the Corpus 
 Poetarum of Maittaire; London, 1714, 
 2 vols. fol. 
 
 ALCINOUS, a Platonic philosopher, 
 whose age and country are equally un- 
 known. He has left An Introduction to 
 the Doctrines of Plato. It should be 
 called, as it is in some MSS., An Epitome 
 of the Platonic Doctrines, relating to 
 God, Man, Matter, &c. arranged under 
 different heads. The style is perspicuous 
 and elegant; but the subject is occasion- 
 ally obsciu-e, especially in § 13, from the 
 want of geometric diagrams. From the 
 fact of finding in Eusebius, Prsep. Evang. 
 xi. 23, a passage quoted from Didymus, 
 which exists in Alcinous, § 1 2, Fabricius 
 inferred that the latter borrowed from 
 the former, or else that both drew from 
 a common source. The writer keeps so 
 close to his subject, as to introduce only 
 once a quotation from any writer but 
 Plato, and that is a passage from the 
 Medea of Euripides, probably obtained 
 second-hand from Chi-ysippus. It was 
 first made known by the Latin version 
 of Petrus Balbus, and printed, 1472 ; 
 then by the translation of Marsilius 
 
A LC 
 
 A LC 
 
 Ficinus, done when he was a very young 
 man, and printed by Aldus, Venet. 1497. 
 The latter has been often reprinted, and, 
 like Valla's version of Thucydides, 
 adapted to the Greek text ; which was 
 first published by Mich. Vascos. at Paris, 
 1533, and then tjy D. Heinsius, at Lugd. 
 Bat. 1607, who put it at the end of his 
 edition of Maximus Tyrius. It is to be 
 found likewise in the Prolegomena to 
 Fischer's edition of the Four Dialogues 
 of Plato ; Lips. 1783. Thomas Stanley, 
 too, translated it into English, and sub- 
 joined it to the Life of Plato, in his His- 
 tory of Philosophy. 
 
 2. There is another Alcinous, a writer 
 of Epigrams in the Anthologia Latina 
 of Burmann, i. p. 355, of whom, like the 
 Greek philosopher, nothing is known. 
 
 ALCIONIO, (Pietro, 1487—1527,) 
 was born in Venice of poor and low pa- 
 rents, towards the end of the fifteenth 
 century. It has been asserted that Al- 
 cionio was not his family name, but he 
 assumed it for vanity's sake, to conceal 
 the lowness of his birth, and give him- 
 self an air of antiquity. From Marco 
 Musuro he learned the ancient languages, 
 and such was his progress in them as to 
 be a candidate for the chair, which had 
 become vacant by the death of his mas- 
 ter ; in the mean time he was the correc- 
 tor of the press to Aldo Manuzio, and is 
 therefore entitled to a share of the praise 
 bestowed upon the editions of that cele- 
 brated printer. He translated into Latin 
 the orations of Isocrates, Demosthenes, 
 and several works of Aristotle. They 
 were severely criticised by Sepulveda, in 
 a printed work, containing all the mis- 
 takes which he had committed ; and such 
 was the vexation which Alcionio felt, that 
 he bought all the copies he could find, 
 not of his own work, as many winters 
 have asserted, but of Sepulveda's, and 
 burnt them. In 1522 he left Venice, 
 and went to Florence, where, through 
 the protection of the cardinal Sicelio Co- 
 lonna, he obtained the Greek professor- 
 ship, with a liberal salary, to which the 
 cardinal added a pension of 120 ducats, 
 to translate into Latin the work of Galen, 
 De Partibus Animalium. 
 
 When that cardinal was elected pope, 
 under the name of Clement VII., Alcio- 
 nio, in the hope of bettering his fortune, 
 went to Rome, against the will of the 
 Florentines. During the troubles that 
 took place between the Colonnas and this 
 pope, Alcionio continued faithful to him ; 
 and even when the emperor's troops took 
 the city in 1527, he was wounded by a 
 249 
 
 shot whilst retreating with him to the 
 castle of St. Angelo. But not receiving 
 the reward which his v;.nity led him to 
 expect, as soon as the siege was raised, 
 he was base enough to desert Clement, 
 and go over to his enemy cardinal Pom- 
 peo Colonna. His ingratitude, however, 
 did him no good, for he died a few 
 months after, at the age of 40 years. The 
 fact is, Alcionio was of a satiric character, 
 fond of abuse and detraction, and ex- 
 tremely vain ; which is sometimes the 
 case with those who, raising themselves 
 by their own exertions and talent, wish 
 to conceal the lowness of their origin. 
 Giraldi, in his Dialoghi sopra i Poeti of 
 his time, says, that Alcionio " was not 
 less imprudent than impudent." 
 
 Of the works of Alcionio, that which is 
 most celebrated is the ti-eatise, Medices 
 Legatus, sive de Exilio ; printed in Ve- 
 nice in 1522, and reprinted by Mencken, 
 in Leipsic, in 1707, with those of Vale- 
 rianus and ToUius, under the title of 
 Analecta de Calamitate Litteratorum. 
 The appearance of this work exposed 
 him to the heavy accusation of having 
 stolen, and embodied into it, the treatise of 
 Cicero, De Gloria, and for the sake of 
 concealing his theft, to have burnt the 
 MS., the only copy then in existence. 
 The first person who brought this accu- 
 sation against Alcionio was Paolo Ma- 
 nuzio, who pretends that a copy of this 
 work, De Gloria, was left by Bernardo 
 Giustiniani, with the whole of his library, 
 to a nunnery ; and that Alcionio, having 
 been entrusted with the care of this 
 library, had stolen it. The same accu- 
 sation was afterwards repeated by Paul 
 Jovius, and others ; but the arguments 
 in favour of its fallacy are so many and 
 cogent, that we cannot but subscribe to 
 the judgment of the indefatigable and 
 accurate Tiraboschi, who, in the first vo- 
 lume of his Storia della Letteratura Ita- 
 liana, fully acquits Alcionio. 
 
 The fact is this : it is beyond question 
 that Petrarch had a copy of Cicero's book 
 De Gloria ; for he relates how he had 
 acquired it, and how he lost it. He says 
 one of his former masters asked for the 
 loan of the manuscript. Although Pe- 
 trarch " prized this book moi'e than a 
 treasure," yet he did not refuse ; but 
 after a long time he requested his master 
 to restore it. On being much pressed, 
 he at last confessed that through poverty 
 he had pledged it, " but Petrarch coidd 
 never prevail on him to divulge the 
 name of the person who had advanced 
 the money. At last the master died iu 
 
ALC 
 
 ALC 
 
 Tuscany, whilst Petrarch was in France ; 
 and notwithstanding all his efforts, he 
 never could obtain the least intelligence 
 of the book, and nothing more was heard 
 of it. Giustiniani died in 1489; Paolo 
 Manuzio wrote about the middle of the 
 sixteenth century ; and the book De Exilio 
 of Alcionio was published byAldo inl522. 
 ALCIPHRO. Neither the age nor 
 country of this writer of imaginary 
 letters has been made out satisfactorily. 
 From the fact of finding in the letters of 
 Arista?retus, a correspondence carried 
 on between Lucian and Alciphro, it has 
 been inferred that the writer considered 
 the parties as contemporaries ; and al- 
 though Alciphro seems to have borrowed 
 much from Lucian, it has been argued 
 that such resemblance is owing to the 
 fact of both having drawn from a com- 
 mon source, the remains of the comic 
 stage of Athens : there is, however, this 
 difference between the two, that Lucian 
 resorted to Ai'istophanes, and borrowed 
 only occasionally from Menander, while 
 Alciphro followed almost entirely the 
 new comedy, and took but little from the 
 old. Li fact, he seems to have amused 
 himself with taking a speech in a play, 
 and throwing it into the shape of a letter 
 in prose, and this with alterations so 
 trifling as to require but little trouble 
 to recover the original poetical form. 
 From the use of certain words, either 
 modern or used in a modern sense, it is 
 evident that he was not an Athenian, 
 although he introduces some of his cha- 
 racters as living at Athens. The ima- 
 ginary writers are fishermen, country- 
 men, courtezans and parasites, and their 
 talk is evidently got from books, not 
 natiu-e. The work is not quoted by any 
 writer older than the author of the Ety- 
 mologicon Magnum, who is supposed by 
 Fabricius to refer to him in AtreXyaii/f ti/ ; 
 while he is distinctly mentioned oftener 
 than once by Eustathius, and described 
 by the appropriate title of Atticist. 
 Forty-four letters were first published by 
 Aldus ; and subseqvxently in a more per- 
 fect form by the learned and eccentric 
 Stephen Bergler, at Leips. 1715, 8vo ; 
 who added twenty-eight letters not pre- 
 viously published. Bergler's edition was 
 reprinted l)y Wagner, at Leips. 1798, 
 but in a very unscholarlike manner. 
 Bast, from whom Wagner received the 
 collations of two Vienna MSS., com- 
 plains in his Epistola Critica, p. 1G4, ed. 
 Lips., of Wagner's inability or unwilling- 
 ness to use the readings which the best 
 MSS. offered — a charge that may be 
 230 
 
 made against more than one editor of 
 ancient authors. He confesses, however, 
 in p. 223, that the collection of the frag- 
 ments given by Wagner is as perfect as 
 it could be made without the assistance 
 of the Paris MSS. The letters were 
 translated into English by Monro and 
 Beloe; Lond.1791, 8vo; who seem to have 
 known nothing of the French version 
 which appeared at Paris in 1784, 3 vols., 
 under the title of Lettres Grecques par le 
 Rheteur Alciphron, ou Anecdotes sur les- 
 Moeurs et les Usages de la Grece, &c. 
 
 ALCIPPUS, a Spartan, who was ac- 
 cused of having wished to change the laws 
 of the republic, and banished a little before 
 the third Messenian war. 
 
 ALCMiEON, a philosopher of Crotona 
 and disciple of Pythagoras, flourished pro- 
 bably about 500 B.C. He acquired a high 
 reputation in the Italian school, having 
 been, it is said, the first to attempt the 
 dissection of the dead body. He wrote 
 a work on the Nature of Things, which 
 was refuted by Aristotle, but his treatise 
 is lost. The opinions of Alcmaeon may 
 be gathered from Plutarch and Stobasus. 
 ALCMAN, one of the few poets to 
 whom Laconia is said to have given 
 birth. By some the burgh of Messoa 
 has been assigned as liis native place. 
 But Crates, the grammarian, with wliom 
 Velleius Paterculus, i. 18, and ^lian, 
 V. H. xii. 50, agree, says that he was of 
 Sardis in Lydia, the son of Damas or 
 Titarus, and originally a servant of He- 
 gesidas, or more probably Hegesilas. 
 He flourished about b. c. G70, and was 
 the first Greek poet who gave up the 
 heroic measures for lyric ; and as he 
 wrote for the Lacedemonians, adopted 
 the Doi-ic dialect. His poems, chiefly 
 amatory, were collected into six books, 
 under the title of Ilapdevfia, " Virgin 
 Songs;" an expression that will be best 
 explained by the passage in Horace, — 
 " Carmina non prius Audita, Musarum 
 sacerdos, Virginibus puei'isque canto ;" 
 and who there probably alludes to the 
 fragment of Alcman preserved by the 
 Scholiast on Hermogenes, p. 400, Ald- 
 walch, of which the sense is — 
 
 " Come, Muse, come, and sweetly sing; 
 Soft 's the strain, and new 's the string; 
 Oil ! lead along 
 The virgin throng." 
 
 Amongst his poems, mention is made 
 of one with the title of Ko\vfj.^a)<Tai, 
 *' The Divers ;" which, says Ptolomteus 
 Hephcestion, qvioted by Photius, Biblioth. 
 was found inider the pillow of Titony- 
 chus of Chalcis, just as tiie Hybristodicae, 
 a play of Eupolis, was under that of 
 
ALC 
 
 ALC 
 
 Ephialtes, and the Eunida; of Cratinus 
 under that of Alexander the Great. 
 Hence, from the mention of the plays of 
 Eupolis and Cratinus, Welcker fancies 
 that the Alcman alluded to was not the 
 lyric poet, but a comic one of the same 
 or a similar name, who wrote perhaps the 
 play of The Divers ; and though he seems 
 disposed in the Addenda to repudiate 
 this notion, he does not state what could 
 have induced a lyric writer to call one 
 of his pieces by so strange a title. The 
 fact is, he did not perceive that KoXvfj.- 
 fieocrai is only a corruption ofKoXvfi^rjTai ; 
 which, says Hesychius, means those who 
 draw up buckets from a well ; and who, 
 as shown by a fragment of Callimachus, 
 quoted by the Scholiast on Aristophanes, 
 (Frogs, V. 1297,) were accustomed to sing 
 a song called 'luatov, " the rope-song ;" 
 which, as stated by Trypho, quoted by 
 Athenseus, xiv. p. 618, was similar to 
 the song sung by persons at a tread-miU. 
 For such kind of songs there was pro- 
 bably a prize at Sparta ; since we learn 
 from Hesychius, that there was a contest 
 instituted by the Lacedemonians in 
 honour of Diana, called KaXaoiSta — a 
 word derived from koXws, a rope, and 
 aoiorj, a song. The fragments of Alc- 
 man have been edited by Welcker at 
 Gissen, 1815, 4to. They are very few 
 and brief. He died, according to Ari- 
 stotle (Histor. Anim. i. 5. 31.), of the 
 morbus pedicidosus. 
 
 ALCOCK, (Nathan, 1707—1779,) a 
 physician, was educated by his brother- 
 in-law, Mr. Cowley, a schoolmaster in 
 Lancashire, &c. He afterwards studied 
 at Edinburgh ; and at Leyden, under 
 Boerhave, Gaubius, Albinus, and Grave- 
 sand, and there he took the degree of 
 M.D. in 1737. On his return to Eng- 
 land, he read lessons privately on ana- 
 tomy and chemistry at Oxford, and in 
 1741 was incorporated M.A. of Jesus 
 college, by degree of convocation. He 
 subsequently took the degree of M.D. 
 and became a fellow of the college of 
 physicians in 1750. He continued to 
 pursue a successfid career at Oxford, and 
 had many urgent invitations to establish 
 himself in London, with which his health 
 did not permit him to comply. In 1759 
 he retired to Runcorn, his native place, 
 where he remained till his death. A me- 
 moir of him was published in 1780. 
 
 ALCOCK, (Dr. John,) was born at 
 Beverley, Yorkshire ; completed his edu- 
 cation at Cambridge, and took there the 
 degree of LL.D. In quick succession 
 he was dean of Westminster, bishop of 
 251 
 
 Rochester, Worcester, and m 1186 he 
 succeeded Morton in the see of Ely. His 
 secidar advancement was equally rapid : 
 in 1462 master of the rolls, in 1470 a privy 
 councillor and ambassador to the court 
 of Castile, a commissioner to treat with the 
 Scotch commissioners, lord president of 
 Wales, and in 1472 he was made lord 
 chancellor by Henry VII, "for whose 
 diet," says Fuller, " a dunce was no 
 dish." His skill in architecture was so 
 eminent, that the king appointed him 
 comptroller of the royal works and build- 
 ings. His episcopal palaces, especially 
 that of Ely, were improved by his taste. 
 He founded in 1486 a school at Kingston- 
 upon-Hull. In 1496 he founded Jesus 
 college at Cambridge, and appropriated 
 to its use a house formerly occupied as a 
 nunnery, (that of St. Rhadegund,) but so 
 given up to irregularities that it was sup- 
 pressed. Such at least is the account 
 of Camden and others, and Bale bestows 
 upon it an appellation in strict accord- 
 ance with this account ; but bishop God- 
 win (De Praesulibus in Episc. Eliens. an. 
 1486) says that its reveimes were decayed, 
 and the nuns had all left it but two. 
 Archbishop Parker, in his catalogue of 
 Vice-Chancellors of Cambridge, at the 
 end of his Antiq. Eccles. Brit, mentions 
 the irregularities of the abbess and the 
 desertion of the nuns, and states that 
 bishop Alcock brought this before the 
 pope. Alcock was as distinguished for 
 his virtues as for his learning and abili- 
 ties ; as a preacher, he was noted for the 
 length of his discourses. He died Oct. I, 
 1500, at Wisbeach, and was bin-ied in 
 the beautiful chapel in Ely Cathedral, 
 built by himself. He wrote several 
 small woi'ks : — Mons Perfectionis. Ab- 
 batia Spiritus Sancti. Homilese Vul- 
 gares. Meditationes Pias. Penitential 
 Psalms; and Spousage of a Virgin to 
 Christ. He also wrote a little treatise 
 entitled, in allusion to his own name, 
 Galli Cantus ad Confratres suos : prints 
 of the bird decorate the first pages. He 
 is celebrated by A. Barclay, under the 
 name of the Gentle Cock. 
 
 ALCOCK, (John,) an English Jesuit, 
 whose real name was Gage, born in 1651. 
 After studying at St. Omer's, he became 
 a novitiate of the society Sept. 7, 1670. 
 He died in England, Dec. 29, 1703. 
 
 ALCUIN (S. Albinus Flaccus Alcui- 
 nus) was born in or near the city of 
 York, before the middle of the eighth 
 century. His family was noble, and at 
 an early age he was placed under the 
 care of Egbert, archbishop of York, wl:o, 
 
A LC 
 
 ALC 
 
 like his venerable preceptor Bede, super- 
 intended personally the instruction of 
 the rising generation in the school at- 
 tached to the cathedral of York. Alcuin 
 soon attracted the attention of Egbert by 
 his docility, talents, and obedience, in- 
 somuch that at his death, which took 
 place in 766, he selected him for his suc- 
 cessor in the business of education, and 
 bequeatlied him his valuable library. 
 The abilities and diligence of young 
 Alcuin justified the high estimate formed 
 of him by the good prelate, and the fame 
 of his learning soon brought students 
 from Gaul and Germany to attend his 
 lectures. At the hands of iEthelbert, 
 who had succeeded Egbert in the see of 
 York, he received the order of deacon 
 on the festival of Candlemas, at which 
 festival in a former year he had received 
 the tonsure. The health of archbishop 
 ^thelbert was however very infirm, and 
 it seems probable that he was greatly 
 dependent upon Alcuin, who was cer- 
 tainly admitted to his fullest confidence. 
 His infirmities increasing, he perceived 
 his end approach, and Alcuin was ad- 
 mitted to witness the last hours of liis 
 venerable friend. The archbishop's 
 parting recommendation to his faithful 
 deacon was to go to Rome, and return 
 thence by way of France ; " for," said he, 
 " Christ will be your guide, and will 
 have much fi-uit of you." Having then 
 blessed him, he departed this life on the 
 8th of Nov. 780. On the death of ^thel- 
 bert, Eanbald, the friend and pupil of 
 Alcviin, was raised to the vacant see, 
 and immediately gratified his friend by 
 sending him to Rome to obtain the pall 
 at the hands of the sovereign pontiff 
 Adrian I. In returning home, he at 
 Parma met with Charlemagne ; and as 
 he had already been at the French court 
 on an important mission from ^thelbert, 
 that enlightened prince was no stranger 
 to his transcendent merit, and accord- 
 ingly formed the design of retaining 
 him. The noble charge of leading the 
 Iiteratiure of Charlemagne's extensive em- 
 pire was a worthy object for Alcuin 's 
 ambition, and lie was perhaps also swayed 
 by the recollection of jEthelbert's pai-ting 
 words ; and he therefore promised that, 
 with the consent of his king and his 
 diocesan, he would return to France. 
 He remained, however, at the French 
 court till 790, during which time he in- 
 structed Charles in rhetoric, dialectics, 
 and astronomy (to the last of which 
 sciences the king was especially partial), 
 and contracted a lasting friendship with 
 252 
 
 Agilbert, and Riculfus, afterwards arch- 
 bishop of Mentz. He then returned to 
 England, charged with the negotiation 
 of an alliance between Charles and Offa 
 of Mercia ; and having obtained the per- 
 mission of Eanbald and the usurper 
 Ethelred to depart, we find him again at 
 tlie court of Charlemagne in the winter 
 of 792. 
 
 iEthelbert at his departure had charged 
 him vigilantly to oppose all innovation, 
 and to use every means for the fin-ther- 
 ance of the catholic faith. In this holy 
 object he found the emperor a most ready 
 co-operator, not only enrolling liimself 
 among his pupils, but by his example 
 inducing the most influential among the 
 nobility and clergy to do the same. 
 Monasteries, those most powerful instru- 
 ments of education, rose in different 
 parts of France and Germany, and the 
 abbeys of Ferrieres and St. Lupus at 
 Troyes were conferred by Charles upon 
 Alcuin, and afterwards that of St. Martin 
 at Tours. In the mean time Felix, bishop 
 of Urgel in Catalonia, and Elipantiis, 
 archbishop of Toledo, had advanced their 
 heresy respecting the sonship of Mes- 
 siah, which drew from Alcuin a treatise 
 in seven books in reply to Felix, and a 
 short letter to Elipantus. Felix recanted 
 before pope Hadrian, but Elipantus re- 
 plied in an abusive letter to Alcuin, 
 which drew from the Anglo-Saxon abbot 
 a treatise in four books, written in a mild 
 appealing style, well worthy of their 
 author. But Elipantus, though above 
 80 years of age, was inflexible, and in 
 799 addressed to Felix, who had again 
 resumed his heresy, a letter, in the most 
 barbarous Latin, filled with furious in- 
 vective against S. Beatus and Alcuin. 
 Alcuin, however, seems to have taken 
 no notice of this. 
 
 But another controversy appears during 
 these years to have exercised the mind 
 of Alcuin. The decrees of the Deutero- 
 Nicene Synod, ordering the worship of 
 images, had in 792 been sent by Hadrian 
 to Charles, and by him communicated 
 to Oifa of Mercia. The Saxon monarch 
 laid them before his clergy, who looked 
 on them with indignation and alarm. 
 The English clergy had long received 
 pleasure and improvement from inter- 
 coui-se with Rome, and looked upon her 
 with filial affection as a mother cluu-ch. 
 They, however, sternly rejected the de- 
 crees, and denounced especially the 
 image-worship, as a thing altogether ex- 
 ecrated by the chui-ch of God (" quod 
 omnino Eccles. Dei exsecratur "). Alcuin 
 
 I 
 
A LC 
 
 A LD 
 
 carried this answer back to Chai'les, and 
 undertook also to write upon the subject. 
 The work lie produced has not been pre- 
 served with his venerated name attached 
 to it, but there is every reason to believe 
 that it is no other than the famous Caro- 
 line Books. Dr. Lorenz, the last biogra- 
 pher of Alcuin, discusses this question, 
 and considers these books to be written 
 by him. 
 
 Alcuin's health seems to have been in 
 general bad ; and as his age and infir- 
 mities increased, he became desirous to 
 retire from the court into a religious 
 tranquillity such as he had enjoyed at 
 York : he therefore requested permission 
 of the emperor to withdraw himself to 
 the abbey of St. Boniface at Fulda. This 
 Charlemagne would not permit, but suf- 
 fered him to disti-ibute his monasteries 
 among his pupils, and retire himself to 
 that of St. Martin at Tours. Here he 
 selected the spot for his tomb, composed 
 his epitaph, and prepared himself for 
 death by an austere and rigorous course 
 of living, though till his end he conti- 
 nued his favourite occupation of teaching, 
 and his school at Tours was frequented 
 by foreigners from all parts, especially 
 his own countrymen. He died, lamented 
 and respected by all, on Whit-Sunday, 
 the 19th of May, 804. 
 
 Alcuin must be looked upon as the 
 restorer of letters in France, and his 
 writings are voluminous. Besides the Ca- 
 roline Books, and the Canons of Frank- 
 fort, which are ascribed to him, he is the 
 author of several works which have been 
 printed in folio at Paris in 1617, edited 
 by Andreas Quercetanus (Andre de 
 Chesne) of Tours. These are divided 
 into three parts ; the first part contains — 
 Questions and Answers on Genesis ; a 
 Homily on Gen. i. 26 ; Exposition of 
 the Penitential Psalms ; Exposition of 
 the 118th (119th) Psalm; Exposition of 
 the Joyfi.ll Psalms ; on the Use of the 
 Psalms ; Offices for the Holy Days ; A 
 Letter on Cant. Canticor. vi. 8 ; Com- 
 mentary on Ecclesiastes ; Commentary 
 on St. John ; Epigrams. The second 
 part contains — Treatise on the Holy Tri- 
 nity ; Questions on the Holy Trinity ; 
 Letters on Eternity ; De Animce Ratione ; 
 seven books against Felix of Urgel ; 
 Letter to Elipantus ; four books in reply 
 to Elipantus ; Letter on the Confession 
 of Felix ; De Divinis Officiis ;* Letter on 
 
 • This tract, it would seem, is spurious, as the 
 author cites some verses of Theodulf, bishop of 
 Orleans, whose works could not of course have been 
 Been by Alcuin. — Sirmonds's Notes to Theodulf. 
 253 
 
 Sexagesima, Quinquagesima, and Quad- 
 ragesima ; on Baptism ; on Confession ; 
 on the Sacraments ; Three Homilies ; 
 Life of Antichrist ; on Virtue and Vice ; 
 Fragment on the Seven Arts ; Grammar ; 
 Rhetoric ; Dialectics ; Conversation with 
 Pipin. The third part contains — The 
 Life of St. Martin of Tours, and a Ser- 
 mon on his Death ; Lives of St. Vedast, 
 St. Richarius, and St. Willibrord (this 
 last both in prose and verse, with a ho- 
 mily on his birth-day, and a panegjTic 
 of St. Wilgisus) ; 115 Letters ; fragments 
 of other letters ; and various poems. 
 
 His style is plain and simple, with but 
 little ornament, and that little not always 
 very judiciously introdu.ced ; and his 
 works contain but little original matter. 
 As a controversialist, he is gentle and 
 moderate, and his arguments, if not in 
 all cases conclusive, are at least modestly 
 and fairly stated. Elipantus reproaches 
 him with his enormous wealth, but there 
 is no reason to believe that his character 
 was polluted by a sordid passion for gain. 
 He never proceeded beyond the order of 
 deacon, but this appears to have been 
 rather the residt of humility than of care- 
 lessness for holy things. 
 
 ALDEGATI, (Marco Antonio,) pro- 
 fessor of Latin poetry at Ravenna in 
 1483 ; the author of a poem, in twelve 
 books, in Latin, entitled Gigantomachia, 
 still in manuscript, contained in the 
 library of the Aldegati at Mantua : in a 
 library at Modena, there is also the 
 commencement of another Latin poem, 
 entitled Herculeidos, written in honour 
 of Hercules L duke of Ferrara. The 
 Laurentian library at Florence possesses 
 four books of elegies by this writer, of 
 which Bandini has given a notice and 
 some exti'acts in his catalogue of manu- 
 scripts of that Hbrary. (Tiraboschi, \i. 
 829.) 
 
 ALDEGONDA, (St.) born in 630 at 
 Cousolre in Hainault (now the arron- 
 disscment d'Avesnes), was daughter of 
 Walbert, who was of the blood-royal of 
 France, and of Bertilie, also of illustrious 
 origin. After the death of her parents, 
 she took the veil, and dedicated all her 
 fortune to the erection of a nunnery. 
 The celebration of her "fete" on the 
 30th of January, is of very ancient date 
 in Hainault. The name occurs in very 
 old calenders published by D'Achery, in 
 his Spicilegium. For more on this saint, 
 the reader may be referred (besides the 
 Bollandists) to C. Smet, in the Acta 
 Sanctorum Belgii (Bruxelles, 1783) ; to 
 the Histoire du Hainaut par Jacques de 
 
ALD 
 
 A LD 
 
 Guyse, published at Paris in 1829 by the 
 Marquis de Fortia; and to Triquet's Life 
 of her (Liege, 1625). Mabillon has pub- 
 lished a Life of her, written a. d. 900, by 
 Hucbaud a monk of St. Amand. (Biog. 
 Univ. Supplement.) 
 
 ALDEGR^F, or ALDEGREVER, 
 (Henry, 1502 — 1558,) a painter and en- 
 graver, a pupil of Durer, born at Zoust in 
 Westphalia, in 1502, is entitled to a higher 
 place amongst those who are called small 
 masters, or little masters, i. e. engravers 
 of small plates. The principal part of 
 his paintings are in the churches and 
 convents of Germany. His engravings, 
 on which his reputation is principally 
 founded, are 390 in number, and sold in 
 France in 1805 for more than 261. The first 
 collection of them was made by the bur- 
 gomaster Six, and afterwards completed 
 by Mariette. The mechanical part of his 
 engraving is exti-emely neat : his drawing 
 of the naked figure is more correct, and 
 his taste is not so stiff as amongst the old 
 German masters generally. His prints 
 are of unequal merit. He died in po- 
 verty in 1558. 
 
 ALDERETE, or more correctly Al- 
 drete. Of this name there are four 
 writers well known in the literary annals 
 of Spain. 
 
 1. Diego Graciano de, was early sent 
 to Louvain, where he studied under the 
 celebrated Vives, and made considerable 
 progress in Greek, Latin, and philosophy. 
 By Charles V. he was made private secre- 
 tary to that emperor ; and he filled the 
 same place under Philip II. This is a 
 proof alike of his ability and integrity. 
 Much of his time was passed in literary 
 pursuits. From the Greek he translated 
 Xenophon, Thucydides, considerable por- 
 tions of Plutarch, Isocrates, Dio Chrysos- 
 tom, and Agapetus ; and from the Latin, 
 the best part of the Oflficia of St. Am- 
 brose. His other translations are less 
 important. He wrote an account of the 
 conquest of Ceuta, on the coast of Bar- 
 bary ; and left many other things in MS. 
 He should be reverenced as one of the 
 men who gave most impulse to the lite- 
 rary progress of his comitiymen. 
 
 2, 3. Josef and Bernardo, twin bro- 
 thers, natives of Malaga, who applied 
 themselves with equal ardour and suc- 
 cess to the study of literature and an- 
 tiquities. In other respects they were 
 alike ; in their stature, their looks, their 
 profession, (the ecclesiastical,) and their 
 affection. Having obtained a prebendal 
 stall in the cathedral of Cordova, Josef 
 resigned it in favour of Bernardo, entered 
 
 254 
 
 the society of Jesus, and became rector 
 of the college of the order, in Grenada. 
 He wrote two works — one on the Ex- 
 emptions of the Secvilar Orders, the other 
 on the Observance of Ecclesiastical Dis- 
 cipline. Bernardo became vicar-general 
 to the archbishop of Seville, but obtained 
 permission to reside at Cordova. He 
 was probably more learned than his bro- 
 ther : his Origen de la Lengua Castellana, 
 however, was in part the composition of 
 Josef. This is a book of considerable 
 merit. His Varias Antiguedades de Es- 
 paria, Africa, y otras Pi'ovincias, attest 
 his antiquarian zeal. His Boetica lUus- 
 trata, which has disappeared, would pro- 
 bably have been equally useful. His 
 religious treatises, which would have no 
 interest in this country, we shall not 
 auention. Josef lived from 1560 to 1616 : 
 the year of Bernardo's death is imknown. 
 
 4. Bernardo, a native of Zamora to- 
 wards the close of the reign of Philip II. 
 entered into the order of Jesuits ; and 
 so far excelled in theology, that though 
 a Jesuit, he was admitted professor at 
 Salamanca: there he died in 1657. He 
 commented the third part of Thomas 
 Aquinas, and wrote several treatises on 
 scholastic theology. He was a learned 
 man. 
 
 ALDHUN, ALFUN, or ALDUNE 
 (d. 1018). This prelate is stated to have 
 been the individual who removed the 
 body of St. Cuthbert (see the name) from 
 Chester-le-Street (or Cmieagester), whi- 
 ther it had already been removed from 
 Lindisfarne, or Holy Island. Aldhun 
 having fixed vipon the spot then called 
 Dunelm, or Dunholm, now Durham, for 
 the purpose of building a stone church, 
 and placing permanently the remains of 
 the saint, accomplished his purpose at the 
 end of the tenth century. (See Simeon. 
 Dunelm. op. x. Scriptor. col. 79, 80.) The 
 see was then transferred to Durham, and 
 bishop Aldhun died in 1018, in the thir- 
 tieth year of his episcopate. The see 
 was much enriched by his patron, king 
 Ethelred. It is said that he had a 
 daughter named Eagfrid, who was mar- 
 ried to Ucthred, son of Waltheof, earl of 
 Northumberland ; and that on his divorc- 
 ing her, the bishop received back the 
 lands he gave with her. When the 
 family of Ethelred fled from Sweyn (see 
 the name), bishop Aldhun conducted them 
 to the court of Richard of Normandy. 
 He had been preceptor to Ethelred's two 
 sons, Alfred and Edward. For some fur- 
 ther account of this prelate, see Surtees's 
 Durham, vol. i. pp. x. xi. 
 
A LD 
 
 A LD 
 
 ALDINI, (Tobias,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and botanist of Cesena, in the 
 seventeenth century, was superintendent 
 of the botanical garden of cardinal 
 Odoard Farnese, to whom he was ^ also 
 physician. He is sometimes mentioned 
 as the author of a Descriptio Plantarum 
 Horti Farnesiani ; Rome, 1625, fol. ; 
 which was written by Peter Castelli, a 
 physician at Rome. 
 
 ALDINI, (the Count Antonio, 1756 — 
 1826,) nephew of the celebrated Galvani, 
 horn at Bologna in 1756, studied law at 
 Rome, and was appointed professor in 
 this department in the university of his 
 native city. When the French invaded 
 Italy, he warmly espoused their cause, 
 and became a great favourite with Buo- 
 naparte. After the downfall of the 
 Corsican he made his peace with the 
 emperor of Austria, who employed him 
 in a mission to Vienna. He died at 
 Milan, Oct. 5, 1826. 
 
 His brother, Giovanni Aldiyii, professor 
 of physics at the university of Bologna, 
 wrote several works in French and 
 Italian on Mechanics and Physical Phi- 
 losophy, one of which had the singular 
 fortune to be translated into Turkish. 
 He had several other offices besides that 
 of professor of physics ; but he appears 
 to have been highly instrumental in 
 introducing into his country all the 
 useful inventions of other nations. His 
 merits in this respect are enumerated at 
 length in Tipaldo's Biografia, iv. 287. 
 
 ALDOBRANDINI, (Silvestro, 1500 
 — 1558), a Florentine px-ofessor of law at 
 Pisa for some time, involved himself on 
 his return home in the prevailing po- 
 litical contests ; and having opposed the 
 Medici, was banished, and his property 
 confiscated. He took refuge at Rome, 
 where he was employed by Paul III. 
 He left several works on jurisprudence, 
 enumerated by Mazzuchelli. He was 
 the father of pope Clement VIII. 
 
 ALDOBRANDINI, (Tommaso,) ano- 
 ther son of the above, secretary of briefs 
 after the death of Poggio in 1568, was 
 born at Rome and died in the prime of 
 life. His translation of Diogenes Laer- 
 tius was published at Rome, 1594, fol., 
 at the expense of his nephew : he also 
 wrote a commentary on Aristotle's trea- 
 tise De Auditu. There have been several 
 cardinals of the same name and family. 
 
 ALDOBRANDINO, professor of me- 
 dicine at Bologna, whence the jealousy 
 of his colleagues drove him to Sienna, 
 lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries, and died at Florence in 1327. 
 255 
 
 He wrote notes on Avicenna and Galen, 
 and on some parts of Hippocrates. He 
 was also a cultivator of literature, and 
 wrote a commentary on the celebrated 
 song of Cavalcanti on Love. 
 
 ALDRED, an Anglo-Saxon prelate, 
 who acted rather a conspicuous part in 
 the political events which preceded and 
 followed the Norman Conquest. He 
 seems to have been an ambitious and 
 intriguing man. All that we know of 
 his earlier life, is, that he was first a 
 monk of Winchester, and afterwards 
 abbot of Tavistock. Under Edward the 
 Confessor, with whom he was a great 
 favourite, he was chosen to the see of 
 Worcester. He afterwards obtained the 
 administration of those of Wilton and 
 Hereford, and at last obtained the arch- 
 bishopric of York, with permission to 
 retain the bishopi-ic of Worcester along 
 with it. King Edward entrusted Aldred 
 with an important embassy to the em- 
 peror, Henry II., and he remained in 
 Germany a whole year. He afterwards 
 made a visit to Jerusalem, and is said to 
 have been the first English prelate who 
 went to the holy city. After the death 
 of King Edward, Aldred showed himself 
 a warm adherent of his successor, Harold. 
 But after the death of the last of the 
 Anglo-Saxon monarchs in the field of 
 Hastings, Aldred went to Berkhamp- 
 stead, to meet the conqueror ; and, when 
 Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury, re- 
 fused to crown William king, that cere- 
 mony was performed by the archbishop 
 of York, although he is said to have 
 exacted, as a condition, that the king 
 should sti-ictly observe the laws of his 
 new subjects. Some writers say that 
 the prelate had afterwards spirit and 
 courage enough to reproach the king 
 with the breach of his promise. The 
 concluding years of Aldi-ed's life are in- 
 volved in some obscurity. He is said to 
 have died in a. d. 1069, of vexation and 
 gi'ief caused by the insurrection of the 
 inhabitants of his diocese in the north, 
 who, supported by a party of the Danes, 
 had declared for Edgar Atheling, whose 
 cause the archbishop himself is said to 
 have taken to heart. Tanner, upon very 
 doubtful authority, ascribes to Aldred 
 two works : — Pro Edgaro Rege contra 
 Tyrannidem Normannorum, lib. i. et 
 Epistolas ad Exules, lib. i. 
 
 ALDRED, (Robert,) born in 1674, 
 entered the order of the Jesuits in 1697. 
 He built the priests' house at Little 
 Crosby in Liverpool in 1719, and died 
 there Feb. 23, 1728. 
 
A LD 
 
 ALD 
 
 ALDRETE, count of the palace to 
 Ramiro 11, king of the Asturias, in the 
 ninth century; conspired against the king, 
 was discovered, deprived of his eyes, and 
 committed to prison. 
 
 ALDRIC, (St.,) hishop of Mans, was 
 born about the year 800, and speht his 
 youth in the court of Charlemagne. He 
 was offered state-employments by Louis 
 le Debonnaire, but went to Metz and 
 took orders, and the emperor recalled 
 him to be his chaplain and confessor. 
 In 832 he was appointed to the see of 
 Mans, in which, after having been 
 driven from it by Lothaire, he was re- 
 established in 841 : he afterwards em- 
 ployed his time in restoring ecclesiastical 
 discipline, and in impi'oving the morals 
 of his diocese by his example. He died 
 of the palsy, Jan. 7, 856. What remains 
 of his writings was published by Baluze, 
 and his Life was written by Bollandus. 
 
 ALDRICH, (Henry, D.D.,) born in 
 Westminster in 1647, was a pupil of Dr. 
 Busby, and in 1662 was admitted of 
 Christ Church, Oxford. His character 
 stands high as a controversialist ; and for 
 the zeal and ability displayed by him 
 against popish writers in the reign of 
 James II., he was rewarded after the 
 Revolution by the deanery of Chi'ist 
 Church, which had been abandoned by 
 the papist Massey. He was afterwards 
 (in 1702) prefei-red to the rectory of 
 Wem, in Shropshire. In 1689, the king 
 (William) siunmoned a convocation, and 
 in September of that year issued a com- 
 mission to ten bishops and twenty divines 
 to prepare matters to be considered by 
 the convocation. Among the divines 
 was Aldrich, who, after short progress 
 made, withdrew in company with Dr. 
 Jane and bishops Sprat and Mew ; 
 Birch says, dissatisfied. Whatever other 
 grounds of dissatisfaction Aldrich may 
 have had, it is not improbable that his 
 love of church music was hurt by the 
 very first resolution of the commission, 
 which was, " That the chanting of the 
 divine service in cathedral churches 
 should be laid aside, that the whole 
 might be rendered intelligible to the 
 common people." Aldrich has left be- 
 hind him sufficient proofs of his skill 
 and taste both in music and architecture. 
 Sir John Hawkins and Dr. Burney both 
 have celebrated his abilities as a mu- 
 sician. He composed for the church 
 about twenty anthems ; adapted English 
 words to the notes of various Italian 
 composers, some of which are yet 
 sung as anthems in our cathedi-als. 
 256 
 
 Though he confined himself chiefly to 
 sacred music, yet he coidd relax into the 
 lighter and the humorous, as " Hark, the 
 Bonny Christ Church Bells," and "A 
 Smoking Catch," to be sung by four men 
 with pipes in their mouths, sufficiently 
 testify. The celebrated square, called 
 Peckwater Quadrangle, the parish church 
 of All Saints, and the chapel of Trinity, 
 were designed by him. Materials for a 
 history of music remain in manuscript in 
 his college; and in 1789, a new edition 
 of his Elementa Architecturae Civilis was 
 published at Oxford, with a ti-anslation 
 from the original Latin by the Rev. Phi- 
 lip Smyth. A copy of an edition of this 
 work, in a thin 8vo volume, without title, 
 or any thing to show when or where 
 printed, is in the British Museum. To 
 these accomplishments he added that of 
 Latin poetry, and some of his compo- 
 sitions are preserved in the Musae Angli- 
 canse. He was, moreover, a man of very 
 extensive acquirements and of very supe- 
 rior abilities; of a cheerful and amiable 
 disposition, much beloved and respected, 
 a great encourager of learning to the ex- 
 tent of his means, an excellent governor 
 of his college, and very assiduous in pro- 
 moting its interests. He died on the 
 14th of Dec. 1710, in the 63d or 64th 
 year of his age, lea\ang an order to be 
 biu'ied without any memorial in the ca- 
 thedral. His principal publications are — 
 A Reply to Two Discourses lately printed 
 at Oxford (written by Abraham Wood- 
 head, Fellow of University College), con- 
 cerning the Adoration of our blessed 
 Saviour in the Holy Euchai'ist ; 1687. 
 A Defence of the Oxford Reply ; 1688. 
 And annually, for a series of years, some 
 piece or portion of a Greek author, as a 
 new year's gift to the students of his 
 college : among these were a few of the 
 smaller writings of Xenophon, various 
 Symposia, Epictetus, and Theophrastus. 
 He also assisted in other literary labours, 
 and in 1691 published Artis Logicas 
 Compendium. " It was written for the 
 sake of the most hopeful youth, Frederick 
 Christian Howard, son to Charles Earl of 
 Carlyle." This is the work by which Al- 
 drich is now best known. The author 
 avows himself a follower of Aristotle ; his 
 book evinces a thorough mastery over 
 all the forms of Aristotelian logic, and 
 great subtlety in arranging and expound- 
 ing them. 
 
 ALDRICH, or ALDRIDGE, (Robert,) 
 bishop of Carlisle in the reigns of Henrv 
 VIII. Edward VI. and Mary, born <tt 
 Burnham in Buckinghamshire, educated 
 
ALD 
 
 ALD 
 
 at Eton and Cambridge ; after re- 
 ceiving various preferments was conse- 
 crated bishop of Carlisle, July 18, 1537. 
 He became in 1534 register of the order 
 of the Garter, in the room of Dr. Syde- 
 noi"e, archdeacon of Totnes. He was 
 praised by Erasmus, while he was a fellow 
 of King's College, as a young man of 
 eloquence ; and Leland, the antiquary, 
 who was his friend, has celebrated him 
 in a copy of Latin verses. He was both 
 master and provost of Eton; but in 1529 
 he retired to Oxford and was incorporated 
 B. D. and afterwards proceeded D. D. in 
 that university. His principal works are 
 — 1. Epistola ad Gulielmum Horman- 
 num. 2. Epigrammata varia. 3. Several 
 Resolutions concerning the Sacraments. 
 4. Answers to certain Queries concerning 
 the Abuses of the Mass. He was the 
 familiar acquaintance of Leland, and cor- 
 responded with Erasmus. He died March 
 25, 1555 ; at Horn castle in Lincolnshire. 
 (Wood's Athenas Ox. Biog. Britt.) 
 
 ALDRIGHETTI, professor of medicine 
 at Padua in the seventeenth century, de- 
 voted himself exclusively to practice on 
 the breaking out of the plague, to which 
 he fell a victim in 1631, at the age of 58. 
 He published a medical treatise, dictated 
 by Hercules Saxonia, Padua, 1597, 4to. 
 
 ALDRINGER, (John,) field-marshal 
 under the emperor Ferdinand H., born 
 of an obscure family in Luxemburg, was 
 first secretary to an Italian nobleman, 
 and afterwards enlisted in the imperial 
 army, in which he gradually rose to the 
 highest rank. In 1625, he was com- 
 missary-general in the army of Wallen- 
 stein in Lower Saxony ; he afterwards 
 served under the latter, and under Tilly. 
 He was drowned in the Iser, in attempt- 
 ing to oppose its passage by the Swedes. 
 
 ALDRINGTON, (Thomas,) whose 
 real name was Wakeman, a Jesuit, who 
 died in England, April 29, 1649. 
 
 ALDROVANDI, (Ulisse, 1522 — 
 1605,) son of Teseo Aldrovandi, and of 
 Veronica Marescalchi, both of very noble 
 families of Bologna ; was born on the 1 1 th 
 of September, 1522. His early youth 
 gave indications of his powers of mind 
 and his strength of character. At twelve 
 years of age, he went to Rome without 
 saying a word to his mother ; and on his 
 return, after a short time, he set out again 
 clandestinely, to make the same journey. 
 On his return, he happened to fall in 
 with a pilgrim who was going to St. 
 James of Galizia, and he immediately 
 took the resolution of accompanying him. 
 He then travelled into Spain on foot, 
 
 VOL. r. 257 
 
 and after meeting with many perils and 
 adventures, returned home in the same 
 dress in which he had set out. This 
 bold and adventurous spirit at so early 
 an age, appears to give proiuise of a 
 splendid career in after life ; and indeed, 
 when his first youthful ardour began to 
 subside, and he applied himself to stu- 
 dies, both in Bologna and in Padua, 
 there was scarcely any department of 
 science in which he did not make the 
 most extraordinary progress. Being 
 suspected, with other eminent citizens of 
 Bologna, of not entertaining proper senti- 
 ments on religion, he was obliged once 
 more to visit Rome, where, whilst he had 
 the good fortune, not very common in 
 tliose miserable times of bigotry, to prove 
 his innocence, he now attentively ob- 
 served all the ancient monuments, and 
 presented the fruit of his labour to Lucio 
 Mauro, who was then wiiting a book on 
 that subject. The work of Mauro, and 
 the treatise on Ancient Statues by Al- 
 drovandi, were published together in 
 1556. There, also, he laid the founda- 
 tion of his great reputation, by making 
 the acquaintance of Guglielmo Ronde- 
 lezio, who was then studying the natural 
 history of fishes. Joining him in that 
 pursuit, on his return to Bologna he 
 applied himself to all the departments of 
 that science, and went to Pisa to improve 
 the knowledge he had acquired in botany 
 under the instniction of Ghini. In 1553 
 he took his doctor's degree, and in the 
 year after he was elected professor of 
 logic and philosophy, which he kept for 
 eight and forty years. During this pe- 
 riod he succeeded in establishing, in 
 1571, the Botanic Garden, of which he 
 was appointed and continued to be the 
 curator till the year 1600. At the same 
 time he wa? occupied in writing his 
 works, which, by the great number of 
 volumes, and the vast erudition tliey 
 contain, seem more than one man could 
 have lived to accomplish. In order that 
 his works might be more valuable and 
 coiTect, he set about collecting, in Bo- 
 logna, all the most remarkable and 
 scarce specimens in natural history, 
 throughout the world ; and though very 
 much assisted by the senate, at his own 
 great expense he collected in the Bo- 
 tanic Garden the most useful and rare 
 plants, and formed in his house a mu- 
 seum of natural productions, the largest 
 then in existence, and a voluminous 
 library in all the branches of natural 
 history ; which very much impaired his 
 fortune. He began then to illustrate aU 
 S 
 
A LD 
 
 ALE 
 
 the departments of that science, in thir- 
 teen vokimes folio, in which he treated 
 of birds, insects, fishes, quadrupeds, mon- 
 sters, metals, and trees. (See the name 
 Gessner in this Dictionary.) He was 
 destined, however, to see only the first 
 four volumes printed, and the others 
 were published after his death. Of the 
 four he published himself, three were on 
 birds, one on insects. His widow pub- 
 lished another in 1606; and Cornelius 
 Uterverius, Thomas Dempster, B. Am- 
 brosini, all of them pi'ofessors at Bo- 
 logrna and Montalbani, were occupied 
 either in compiling or editing the suc- 
 ceeding volumes. Dempster, indeed, 
 republislied part of what Utei'verius had 
 done. Besides this great work, there is 
 an immense number of tracts, treatises, 
 letters, and observations, which are pre- 
 served in manuscript in the library of 
 the institute at Bologna : most of these 
 belong to natural history, with a great 
 many more on painting, architecture, 
 music, poetry, antiquity, history, me- 
 chanics, geography, criticism, medicine, 
 philosophy, ethics, mathematics, and even 
 theology, as it appears from the catalogue 
 published by count Giovanni Fantuzzi. 
 His great merit could not fail to procure 
 him envious enemies ; who, though they 
 could not lessen his reputation through 
 life, have endeavoured to darken his me- 
 mory. Some of his biographers have criti- 
 cized his works, and quoted tlie strictures 
 which Buffon passed on them, who speaks 
 of the idle stories and fables they contain ; 
 but without recording the great eulogium 
 he- bestows on their accm-acy, by stating 
 them to be " the best in existence on all 
 the branches of natural history." Others 
 have said that he died in great poverty ; 
 without considering that at his death, 
 which happened on the 10th May, 1605, 
 at the age of S3, he left his museum and 
 his copious library to the senate of Bo- 
 logna, who, of course, could not possibly 
 allow a man of that merit to end his da3's 
 in disti-ess. Tlie fact is, both these accu- 
 sations have been contradicted by Tira- 
 boschi. (Tiraboschi vii. 610, &c. ; who 
 refers to the Life of Aldrovandi by Gio- 
 vanni Fantuzzi, Bologna, 1774.) 
 
 ALDUS. See Manuzio, or Manutius. 
 ALEA, (Leonard,) who died at Paris 
 about 1812, is the author of a work, well 
 known and deservedly esteemed in 
 PVance, entitled La Rehgion Triomphant 
 des Attentats del 'Impiete ; 2 vols. 8vo, 
 1802. He also wrote Reflexions contro 
 le Divorce; Paris, 1802, 8vo. 
 
 ALEANDER, (Jerome,) a Roman 
 258 
 
 cardinal, one of the most determined 
 enemies of the Reformation, born 1480, 
 at Motta, in the Trevisan territory, was 
 educated at Venice, and at the age of 
 24 was reputed one of the most learned 
 men of his time. Aldus Manutius dedi- 
 cated his Iliad to him, as to a man of 
 preeminent classical acquirements : he 
 was also acquainted with some oriental 
 languages, with mathematics, and with 
 other branches of knowledge. Louis XIL 
 invited him to the university of Paris in 
 1508, where his success was such that he 
 became rector, notwithstanding the sta- 
 tutes which excluded foreigners from that 
 honour. The celebrated Vatablus was 
 among his scholars there (Tiraboschi). 
 On the breaking out of the plague, he 
 attached himself to the prince of Liege, 
 who made him his chancellor, and sent 
 him in 1517 to Rome, where he was 
 retained by Leo X., and afterwards ap- 
 pointed librarian of the Vatican. In 
 1520 (or 1519, according to Ersch and 
 Grueber's Encycl.) he was sent, with Ca- 
 racciolo, as nuncio to the imperial diet at 
 Worms, to resist the doctrines of Luther. 
 (See Sleidan, Comment, ii. & iii.) The 
 shameful treatment of Luther there, the 
 proscription of his person, and the burning 
 of his books, is said to have been mainly 
 owing to the influence of Aleander. His 
 conduct displeased more moderate men, 
 especially Erasmus, who broke oft' his 
 friendship with Aleander. [See Palla- 
 vicini Istoria del Concilio Tridentino, i. 
 23 — 28, who gives a very partial account 
 of the conference at Worms, drawn up 
 from MS. papers of Aleander. See, on 
 the other hand, Seckendorf "s relation of 
 the same event. His MS. de Concilio 
 habendo was often consulted during the 
 Council of Trent.] He now quarrelled 
 with Erasmus, whose intimacy he had for- 
 merly enjoyed. Clement VII. appointed 
 Aleander nuncio to Francis I., by whose 
 side, clothed in episcopal robes, he rode 
 at the battle of Pavia, and was taken pri- 
 soner with him ; he was ransomed for 
 500 ducats. He was afterwards employed 
 in several embassies, and was promoted 
 to the rank of cardinal by Paul III. He 
 died of a slow fever, Feb. 1, 1542. His 
 published works are only a Greek Gram- 
 mar and Lexicon ; his MSS. were used by 
 Pallavicini, as quoted above. Some Latin 
 verses by Aleander are pilblished in 
 Tuscanus's Carmina Illustrium Poetarum 
 Italonun. (Tiraboschi, vii. 285, who re- 
 fers to Mazzuchelli, and to Giangiuseppe 
 Liruti, on the literary men of Friuli, 
 Biog. Univ. &c.) 
 
ALE 
 
 A L E 
 
 ALEANDER, (Jerome,) called the 
 Younger, gi'and-nephew of the preceding, 
 born 1574, studied at Padua, where he 
 so distinguished himself that Baillet has 
 classed him among his Enfans Celebres 
 
 f»ar leurs Etudes. He afterwards studied 
 aw, and in his 26th year published com- 
 mentaries on the Institutions of Caius. 
 When he went to Rome he was employed 
 as secretary to cardinal Octavio Bandini, 
 with whom he continued for twenty 
 years. He was one of the first members 
 of the Society of Umoristi ; wrote a 
 learned treatise on its device ; and dis- 
 played his talent on many different sub- 
 jects. He afterwards, by the agency of 
 pope Urban VIII., who had a great es- 
 teem for him, became secretary to cardi- 
 nal F. Bai'berini. He died in consequence 
 of an excess at table, March 9, 1629. 
 His patron gave him a magnificent fune- 
 ral, which was attended by the Academy 
 of Umoristi. He is the author of seve- 
 ral works, principally poetical, which are 
 extravagantly eulogized by Fontanini, in 
 his Aminta Difeso and Biblioteca Ita- 
 liana. 
 
 ALEAUME, (Louis, 1525—1596) a 
 magistrate of Oi'leans, esteemed for his 
 knowledge and integrity ; is the author of 
 some Latin poems contained in the first 
 volume of the Deliciae Poetarum Gallo- 
 rum Collect. Ranutio Ghero (Grutero) ; 
 Frankfort, 1609. (Biog. Univ. Supp.) 
 
 ALEDRAN, (died 858,) count of 
 Barcelona, who governed for Charles, 
 son of the emperor Louis. He had to 
 contend with Wilhelm, son of Bernardo, 
 the late count, who aspired to the govern- 
 ment; and once was compelled to flee 
 from the city ; but Wilhelm falling by the 
 hands of conspirators, he returned to his 
 fief. But his dignity was unenviable. 
 Part of his government, — the whole of 
 Narbonensian Gaul, was added to the 
 domain of the count of Thoulouse ; and 
 Barcelona itself was betrayed to the Arabs 
 by the Jews, 
 
 ALEGAMBE, ( Philip, ) a Jesuit, 
 born at Brussels, 1592 ; educated in 
 Flanders, went to Spain, and entered 
 into the service of the duke of Ossuna, 
 viceroy of Sicily. He became a Jesuit 
 at Palermo, 1613; pursued the study of 
 divinity at Rome, whence he was sent to 
 teach philosophy in the university of 
 Gratz, where he subsequently was ap- 
 pointed professor of school-divinity. He 
 afterwards accompanied the son of the 
 prince of Eggemberg on his travels, and 
 was his confessor at Rome, when he was 
 sent there by the emperor Ferdinand III. 
 259 
 
 as ambassador of obedience to the pope. 
 At Rome the general of the Jesuits re- 
 tained him as secretary of the Latin des- 
 patches for Germany, in which laborious 
 office he continued for four years, when 
 he resigned it on account of the weakness 
 of his sight. He was now appointed pre- 
 sident of spiritual affairs in the professed 
 house, and had the office of hearing con- 
 fessions in the church. He died of the 
 dropsy, Sept. 6, 1652. He is now prin- 
 cipally known by his — 1 . Bibliotheca 
 Scriptorum Societatis Jesu ; Antwerpiae, 
 1643, fol. This work was begun by Riba- 
 deneira, much improved by Alegambe, 
 and again much extended by N. Sotvell 
 {i.e. Southwell) in 1675. In this last 
 edition, however, the works enumerated 
 by Alegambe, which had caused disputes 
 in the Roman Catholic world, are omitted. 
 (Sotwell's Preface.) 2. Vita P. Joannis 
 Cardin. Lusitani, ex Societate Jesu ; 
 Romae, 1649, 12mo. 3. Heroes et Vic- 
 timse Charitatis Societatis Jesu ; Rome, 
 1658, 4to; continued by Nadasi from 
 1647 to 1657: (these victims were such 
 as perished in attending persons affected 
 with the plague.) 4. Mortes Illustres et 
 Gesta eonim de Societate Jesu, qui in 
 odium fidei ab hasreticis vel aliis occisi 
 sunt; RomsB, 1657, folio. 
 
 ALEGRE, ( d',) a French writer, 
 
 of whom very little is known ; died at Paris 
 in 1736, leaving behind him a poem, en- 
 titled The Art of Love ; a romance called 
 The History of Moncade, of which the 
 scene is in Mexico; and some translations 
 from eastern writers. 
 
 ALEGRE, (Yves Baron d',) of an an- 
 cient family in the Auvergne, followed 
 Charles VIII. to the conquest of Naples, in 
 1495. He was afterwards governor of the 
 duchy of Milan under Louis XII. The 
 comrade of Bayard, and of Gaston deFoix, 
 he accompanied the latter in his expe- 
 dition against pope Julius II. ; and was 
 made governor of Bologna in 1512, in 
 which year he decided the battle of Ra- 
 venna in favour of Bayard and Gaston ; 
 but his son having fallen in this contest, 
 (the second he had lost on the field of 
 battle,) he was unable to bear the bereave- 
 ment, but rushed into the midst of the 
 enemy's army, exclaiming, " I follow you, 
 my children !" and was slain. He was 
 one of the most virtuous and skilful com- 
 manders of his time. The family of 
 Alegre was noted in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury for several murders, of which its 
 members were either the perpetrators or 
 the victims ; the most remarkable was 
 that of Antoine d'Alegre, by his cousin 
 S 2 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 Duprat, baron de Viteaux, near tlie 
 Louvre, 1571. 
 
 ALEGRE, (Yves Marquis d',) mar- 
 shal of France, distinguished himself at 
 the battle of Fleurus, in 1690; served 
 afterwards in Germany till the peace of 
 Riswick. He was made prisoner in 
 Flanders when the lines of Tirlemont 
 were forced, and was taken to England. 
 He did not return to France till the peace ; 
 served, in 1712, at the siege of Douay ; 
 took Bouchain ; joined, in the succeeding 
 year, the army in Germany ; and was 
 made, in 1724, marshal of France. He 
 was afterwards commandei'-in-chief in 
 Brittany, where, in the quality of com- 
 missary to the king, he presided over the 
 states of that province. He died at 
 Paris in 1733, aged 80. 
 
 ALEMAGNA, (Giusto d',) painter, 
 the author of a fresco in the convent of 
 S. Maria di Castello at Genoa, repre- 
 senting the Annunciation ; of which the 
 execution is careful and finished, like 
 that of a miniature ; lived in the fifteenth 
 century. He signed himself Justus de 
 Alemania, and was probably not an Ita- 
 lian but a German. 
 
 ALEMAN, (Louis,) cardinal, born 
 1390, of a noble family of Bugey ; rose by 
 degrees to be archbishop of Aries ; vl&s 
 sent, in 1422, by pope Martin V. to 
 Sienna, to direct the translation to that 
 city of the council of Pavia : shortly af- 
 terwards he was charged with the reform 
 of the police in the Romagna. Aleman 
 was excommunicated, and declared un- 
 worthy of holding any rank in the church, 
 by pope Eugenio, the successor of Martin; 
 but was restored to all his dignities by 
 Nicholas V. who sent him as legate into 
 Lower Germany. On his return, he re- 
 tired to his diocese, where he occupied 
 himself in re-establishing discipline 
 amongst his clergy, and in instructing 
 the people. He died at Salon, at the 
 age of 60. 
 
 ALEMAN, (Matteo,) a native of 
 Seville, wlio flourished in the sixteenth 
 and seventeenth centuries. He was one 
 of the officers of finance to Philip II., 
 and he discharged his duties with credit ; 
 but the love of repose, and above all that 
 of letters, induced him to apply for his 
 release, and he retired into private life. 
 In 1604, he published at Seville a life 
 of St. Antony of Padua, which has the 
 usual defect of hagiological works. He 
 is much better known for his Vida y 
 Hechos del Picaro Gusman de Alfarache, 
 (Madrid, 1599,) from which the French 
 novelist, Le Sage, has borrowed so much. 
 260 
 
 This novel was in prodigious vogue, and 
 was no less known in France and Italy 
 than in Spain. It had been translated 
 into French long before Le Sage em- 
 ployed so many of its incidents in the 
 compilation of his own witty story. The 
 two first French translations were by 
 G. Chappuis, 1600, and by Chapelain, 
 1632. 
 
 ALEMAND, (Louis Augustin, 1643— 
 1728) a French writer of some note ; born 
 at Grenoble, of protestant parents, whose 
 faith he abjured ; studied medicine, and 
 was admitted doctor at Aix. Having, 
 however, failed in this profession, he 
 came to Paris, where he published a ma- 
 nuscript of Vaugelas, entitled Nouvel- 
 les Remarques sur la Langue Fran9oise, 
 OuvragePosthume, avec desObservations 
 deM. H. ; Paris, 1690, 12mo ;— respect- 
 ing the authenticity of which he quar- 
 relled with his former friend, father 
 Bouhours. He also wrote — 1 . Nouvelles 
 Observations, ou Guerre Civile des Fran- 
 ^ais sur la Langue ; 1682, 12mo ; — a kind 
 of attempt towards a verbal and critical 
 dictionary, which was to be comprised in 
 2 vols, folio ; the publication of which was 
 prevented by the Academy, their own work 
 being then in contemplation. 2. Histoire 
 Monastique de I'lrlande ; 1690, 12mo. 
 3. Journal Histor. de I'Europe for the 
 year 1694; Strasburg (Paris), 1695,12mo, 
 concerning which the memoirs of the 
 Abbe d'Artigny may be consulted, vol. i. 
 p. 282. He also published a translation 
 of Sanctorius's Statical Medicine. 
 
 ALEMANNI, (Nicolo, 1583—1626,) 
 a learned antiquary, bom of Greek pa- 
 rents, and educated in the Greek college 
 founded by Gregory XIII. ; took orders 
 in the Romish church, employed himself 
 in teaching Greek to several persons of 
 distinguished rank, was first secretary to 
 cardinal Borghese, and afterwards keeper 
 of the Vatican library. He died July 
 24, 1626 — it is said, from too close an 
 attendance on the erection of the great 
 altar of the church of St. Peter : whilst 
 watching that none of tlie earth whicli 
 had been sprinkled with the blood of tlie 
 martyrs should be caiTied away, he con- 
 tracted a disease, which soon ended his 
 days. He published Procopii HistoricB 
 Arcana, Gr. et Lat. Nic. Alemanno in- 
 tei-prete, cum ejus et Maltreti Notis ; 
 Paris, 1663, folio; — and a Description of 
 St. John Lateran, 1665. In the former of 
 these works he has been accused of great 
 injustice towards Justinian. The latter 
 was reprinted in the eighth vol. of the 
 Thesaurus Antiquitatum Italise, and also 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 separately at Rome in 1756, with remarks 
 by Assemanni, &c. (Biog. Univ.) 
 ALEMBERT. See D'Alembert. 
 ALENgON. The following mem- 
 bers of this noble family deserve notice. 
 
 1. Charles de Valois, Conite d'Alen(;on, 
 brother of king Philippe de Valois, was 
 the head of the branch of Alencon, 
 which became extinct in 1525. He was 
 killed at the battle of Crecy, where he 
 commanded the van-guard, in 1346. 
 Alencon was raised to the rank of a 
 duchy in the time of his grandson, John 
 first duke of Alen9on, who was killed at 
 the battle of Agincourt. 
 
 2. John II. Due d' Alencon, surnamed 
 Le Beau, son of John I., was born in 
 1409. He was noted for his luxurious 
 habits, and for possessing the most beau- 
 tiful horses in France. He distinguished 
 himself in the service of his country ; but 
 having had the imprudence to treat with 
 the English, at the solicitation of the dau- 
 phin, afterwards LouisXL, againstCharles 
 VII., he was condemned to death by the 
 king in the court of peers. His life, 
 however, was spared, but he continued in 
 confinement till the accession to the 
 throne of Louis. Having held commu- 
 nication with Charles duke of Burgundy, 
 a second decree of death was pronounced 
 against him, which was commuted to 
 imprisonment for an indefinite period at 
 the Louvre, where he remained seventeen 
 months. Louis XL restored him to liberty 
 in 1475, and he died in the following year. 
 
 3. Rene, third Due d' Alencon, son of 
 the preceding, was hated by Louis XL 
 who withdrew his pensions, deprived him 
 of his possessions, and afterwards con- 
 fined him in an iron cage at Chinon, 
 where he only received food through the 
 bars. The chamber of peers, by whom 
 he was tried, wished to save him without 
 irritating the king, and found him guilty 
 only of disobedience ; but he was not 
 restored to his titles and property till after 
 tlie death of Louis, by Charles VIII. 
 He died Nov. 1, 1492. 
 
 4 Charles, fourth Due d'Jlen^on, son 
 of the preceding, born 1489, followed 
 Louis XII. into Italy ; married, 1509, 
 Marguerite d' Angouleme, afterwards 
 queen of Navarre, only sister of Francis 
 I., who caused him to be acknowledged 
 the first prince of the blood. He caused 
 the loss of the battle of Pavia, by retreat- 
 ing with the left wing, instead of leading 
 it to the succour of the king. The in- 
 dignant murmurs of the whole country 
 at his conduct, and the reproaches with 
 which the duchess d' Angouleme loaded 
 261 
 
 him, produced such an effect upon him, 
 that he died of shame and vexation at 
 Lyons, April 21, 1525. He was the last 
 prince of the branch of Alen9on, of which 
 the duchy was afterwards given as an 
 apanage to the fifth son of Henry II. 
 
 ALENCON, ( — d',) son of a huissier 
 of the parliament of Paris, was the author 
 of two comedies_ played at the Theatre 
 Italien. He published an edition of the 
 works of I^ueys and Palaprat, 5 vols. 
 12mo. He collected the works of Riviere 
 Dufresny, printed in 1747, in 6 vols. 
 12mo; and the fugitive productions of the 
 Abbe Pons, which were published in 1738, 
 with his Eloge by Melon. D'Alen9on 
 died 1744. He was crooked, and so also 
 was the Abbe Pons, who said of poor 
 D'Alen9on, for attempting to appear as a 
 man of wit, " This animal disgraces the 
 corps of humpbacks." 
 
 ALEN, or ALLEN, (Edmond,) a na- 
 tive of Norfolk, elected fellow of Corpus 
 Christi college Cambridge in 1536, be- 
 came their steward in 1539, and not long 
 after obtained leave of the society to go 
 and study abroad. He became, accord- 
 ing to Strype, a great proficient in the 
 Greek and Latin tongues, an eminent 
 Protestant divine, and a learned minister 
 of the gospel. He was in exile during 
 the reign of Mary ; but Elizabeth, on 
 coming to the crown, appointed him one 
 of her chaplains, gave him a commission 
 to act under her as an ambassador, and 
 promoted him to the see of Rochester, 
 which however he did not live to fill. 
 It is said he was buried in the church 
 of St. Thomas Apostle, in London, Aug. 
 30, 1559. He translated into English, 
 Alex. Alesii De Authoritate Verbi Dei 
 (12mo) and Phil. Melanch. super utraque 
 Sacramenti Specie, et de Authoritate 
 Episcoporum (12mo, 1543), whilst abroad; 
 as likewise, Conrad. Pelicanus super Apo- 
 calipsin. He wrote A Christian Introduc- 
 tion for Youth, containing the principles 
 of our faith and religion (1548 and 1550, 
 12mo; 1551, 8vo.) 
 
 ALENIO, (Giulio,) a Jesuit, born at 
 Brescia, in the republic of Venice ; tra- 
 velled into the East, taught mathematics 
 at Macao in 1610, went thence to China, 
 where he spent thirty-six years as a 
 christian missionary. He was the first 
 who planted the faith in the province of 
 Shan-si, and he built several churches in 
 the province of Fokien. He died in 
 Aug. 1649, leaving behind him several 
 works in the Chinese language : — 1. The 
 Life of Jesus Christ, in 8 vols. 2. Of 
 the Sacrifice of Mass. 3. The Original 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 of the World. 4. The Dialogue of St. 
 Bernard betwixt the Soul and Body, in 
 Chinese verse. 5. The Theatre of the 
 World, or Cosmogi-aphy, &c. &c. 
 
 ALEOTTI, (Giambattista,) was born 
 at Argenta, from obscure parents, in the 
 dukedom of Ferrara, and in his youth 
 was placed as an apprentice to a builder. 
 His natural tm-n for architecture, and the 
 progress he made in the study of mathe- 
 matics and literatiu-e, soon acquired him 
 distinction and employment. He pub- 
 lished some works on the occasion of the 
 inundations which took place in the be- 
 ginning of the seventeenth century in 
 the provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, and 
 Romagna, under the title of Difesa per 
 riparare alia Sommersione della Polesine ; 
 printed at Ferrara in 1601. He also 
 translated from the Greek into Italian 
 the work of Heron on Spiral Motion ; 
 and by pope Clement VH. was employed 
 to build the citadel of Ferrara. Several 
 monuments erected after his designs are 
 still in existence at Mantua, Modena, 
 Parma, and Venice. He died in the 
 year 1630. 
 
 ALER, (Paul, 1656—1727) a Jesuit, 
 born at St. Guy, in the Luxemburg; 
 studied at Cologne, where he was pro- 
 fessor of philosophy, theology, and the 
 belles lettres, until the year 1691. In 
 1701 he gave lectures on theology at the 
 university of Treves, and was appointed 
 in 1703 regent of the gymnastic school : 
 about the same time he organized the 
 gymnastic academies of Munster, Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, Treves, and Juliers. He wrote 
 the Gradus ad Parnassum, a book well 
 known in all the schools of Europe ; some 
 Latin tragedies, as Joseph, Tobias, &c. ; 
 and some philosophical works. 
 
 ALES, (Alexander,) a celebrated di- 
 vine, born at Edinburgh, April 23, 1500. 
 He was at first much opposed to the 
 opinions of Luther. His faith in his own 
 doctrines was however much shaken by 
 the discourse of Patrick Hamilton, and 
 by the constancy which he showed at the 
 stake. (See the name.) During the per- 
 secution which arose after his martyrdom 
 in 1527, Ales was cited to appear before 
 bishop Ross, at Holyrood House, on a 
 charge of heresy. This was in 1534. As 
 he did not appear, sentence was passed 
 against him and others, among whom 
 were John Macbee (better known as 
 Doctor Machabeus), and they fled into 
 England. " Alesse, by the recommenda- 
 tion of the lord Cromwell, came in favour 
 with Henry VIII. and was commonly 
 called the king's scholar ; as he was in- 
 262 
 
 deed a man of good learning, and gave 
 thereof a notable proof in his dispute with 
 Stockeslie (Stokesly) bishop of London, 
 in 1537." (Spotswood.) He wrote an 
 account of this conference, which was 
 translated by Edmund Allen. (See Bur- 
 net's Reformat, vol. i. b. iii. ann. 1537.) 
 Spotswood adds, that on the death of 
 Cromwell he went with John Fife into 
 Saxony, where they lived professors 
 together a long time in the university 
 of Leipsic. He was in the interim 
 professor at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, but 
 retired in consequence of a controversy 
 as to the power of the civil magis- 
 trate to punish fornication. In the dis- 
 pute, raised by G. Major, on the ne- 
 cessity of good works to salvation, he 
 espoused the side of Major. (See an ac- 
 count of this dispute in Walchii Intro- 
 ductio in Libros Symbolicos, pp. 794 — • 
 806.) He died at Leipsic in 1565. His 
 principal works are — 1. De Necessitate 
 et Merito Bonorum Operum ; disputatio 
 proposita in celebri academia Lipsica ad 
 29 Nov. 1560. 2. Commentarii in Evan- 
 gelium Joannis, et in Utramque Epistolam 
 ad Timotheum. 3. Expositio in Psalmos 
 Davidis. 4. De Justificatione, contra 
 Osiandium. 5. De Sancta Trinitate, 
 cum Confutatione Erroris Valentini. 6. 
 Responsio ad triginta et duos Articulos 
 Theologorum Lovaniensum. Also a Latin 
 work on the right of the laity to read the 
 Scriptures in the Vernacular tongue, and 
 a defence of that work against Cochloeus. 
 He also translated Ed. VI. 's first Liturgy 
 for Bucer's use. (See Ersch and Grue- 
 bcr's Encyclopaedia, and the authorities 
 quoted above.) 
 
 ALES, (Peter Alexander d',) viscount 
 de Corbet, a French marine officer, born 
 in 1715 ; is the author of a work on the 
 Origin of Evil ; Paris, 1758. A Disser- 
 tation on Irish Antiquities, the title-page 
 of which bears the name of Fitz- Patrick, 
 has also been attributed to him. His 
 family boasted of an illustrious Irish de- 
 scent. Besides these works he wrote on 
 the Origin of the French nobility. The 
 period of his decease is not known. 
 
 ALESIO, (Matthew Peter,) a painter 
 and engraver, bom at Rome, was a pupil 
 of Michael Angelo. Whilst young he 
 went to Seville in Spain, where he painted 
 in fresco, in the cathedral, a gigantic St. 
 Christopher, of which the design is re- 
 markably correct, and the execution care- 
 fully finished ; nevertheless, he had the 
 modesty to prefer to it the Adam and 
 Eve of Louis de Vargas. He retiu-ned 
 to Rome, where he died in 1600. 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 ALESSANDRI, (John degli, 1765— 
 1828,) a Florentine. He was appointed 
 in 1796 vice-president of the Academy of 
 Fine Arts by Ferdinand III. grand duke 
 of Tuscany. After the union of Tuscany 
 with France, he was elected member of the 
 legislative body. In 1815 he was sent to 
 Paris to reclaim the objects of art, of which 
 the French had deprived his native coun- 
 try ; and this mission he performed greatly 
 to the satisfaction of his sovereign. 
 
 ALESSI (Galeazzo) was an Italian 
 architect of exti'aordinary merit, born at 
 Perugia at the very commencement of 
 the sixteenth century. He distinguished 
 himself at an early period by his progress 
 in literature and mathematics, and learned 
 the rudiments of civil and military archi- 
 tecture, under the instructions of his fel- 
 low-townsman Giambatista Caporali, the 
 translator and commentator of Vitiiivius. 
 He next went to Rome, and among the 
 magnificent remains of the immortal 
 city, which were then more numerous 
 and better preserved than at the present 
 day, he completed those studies, which 
 were to result in productions so important 
 to his art, and which shed such lustre 
 upon the city of his future adoption. To 
 Genoa his genius has given a reputation, 
 which, unlike the fame of her former 
 greatness in commerce, and her ancient 
 glory in arms, still remains to command 
 the admiration of all who visit her ; 
 those are now, alas ! mere matters of 
 history; but the palaces, churches, and 
 other public buildings of Alessi still exist, 
 and prove the right of Genoa to be called 
 in every sense, the " Superb." While he 
 was perfecting himself in his art at Rome, 
 he became intimately acquainted with 
 Michael Angelo Buonarotti and the other 
 great men, who distinguished that period. 
 There cannot be a doubt of the important 
 moral influence of this friendship upon 
 the mind of the young architect ; and 
 that seeing the noble conceptions of tliis 
 golden age of art, and conversing with 
 the lofty spirits which gave them birth, 
 he must have imbibed deeply the same 
 impassioned feelings and the desire to 
 distinguish himself by productions, which 
 should render him worthy the distinction 
 of being the companion, the friend, and 
 the rival of those illustrious artists. His 
 first essays in architecture were in his 
 native town, where, under the protection 
 of the cardinal Parisani, he was employed 
 to complete the works of the fortress of 
 Perugia, begun by San-Gallo, and to add 
 A'arious apartments, which gave indica- 
 tions of his genius. 
 
 263 
 
 History is silent upon the immediate- 
 motives which led him to Genoa ; but 
 his talents and personal character were 
 such as to induce the rich merchants of 
 that city to employ him in works of the 
 first importance. Genoa, at that period, 
 was one of the great emporiums of Italian 
 commerce, extending its mercantile rela- 
 tions to the most distant regions then 
 known ; feared and respected for its mili- 
 tary power; and its merchant princes 
 abounding in riches from the success of 
 their commercial specidations. The town 
 occupies the sides of a series of lofty hills, 
 part of the range of the Apennines, which, 
 in the form of a theati-e, surround the port. 
 Around this vast semicircle the streets 
 run in parallel lines, rising one above 
 another ; and over them are a series of 
 rising terraces occupied by gardens. The 
 city itself was thus placed in a most en- 
 chanting and picturesque situation ; but 
 the narrowness of its streets, which re- 
 sembled alleys, the largest being some 
 twelve or fifteen feet wide, and the 
 ^vretchedness of the houses, ill corre- 
 sponded with the importance of the state, 
 and the affluence of the citizens. The 
 mind of Alessi was equal to the occasion, 
 and he converted a group of wretched 
 dwellings into a city of palaces ; fully 
 realizing the patriotic and magnificent 
 \'iews of the wealthy Doria, Grimaldi, 
 Spinola, and other noble-minded men 
 of the day. Genoa, even at present, 
 may be said to have only two streets, the 
 Strada Niiova and Nuovissima, the former 
 of which was formed upon the design of 
 Alessi, by cutting through the densely 
 formed masses of houses, and erecting 
 on each side palaces for the most distin- 
 guished families, no less imposing from 
 their scale, than from the splendour of 
 the materials of which they are con- 
 structed. The rapid declivity upon which 
 the city is built imparts a pecidiar feature 
 to the distribution of the Genoese palaces. 
 The entrance-floor forms, as it were, but 
 the access to the living apartments, and 
 consists of open spacious vestibules, lead- 
 ing up, by a flight of steps, to an ample 
 court surrounded by porticoes, at the end 
 of which is usually a magnificent marble 
 staircase conducting to the range of 
 apartments on the first floor, where the 
 visitor finds himself on a level with the 
 garden behind. The first-floor, or piano 
 nobile, contains a grand suite of rooms, 
 resplendent with gold, marble, and other 
 precious materials, ennobled by the chisel 
 of the sculptor and by the pencil of the 
 painter, and communicating with an open 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 colonnade, which looks into the court. 
 The next floor lias a similar distribution ; 
 and thus story rises above story, creating 
 new sensations of wonder and sui^mse at 
 the profusion and richness, which attach 
 to the residences of these merchants of 
 ancient times. The vicinity of the marble 
 quarries along the contiguous coast affords 
 a splendid material for their columns and 
 the linings of their walls ; and their well- 
 appointed ships brought from the more 
 distant parts whatever could contribute, 
 however costly, to the magnificence of 
 their palaces. But, replete as they are 
 with all the charms of imagination and 
 variety, and all the pomp and splendor 
 that can minister pleasure to the senses, 
 it must be confessed that they are not 
 equally distinguished by purity and refine- 
 ment. The several stories of their palaces 
 are generally too distinctly marked in 
 the elevation by a separate order to each, 
 thus producing littleness in the archi- 
 tectural features ; their style of ornament 
 is not sufficiently chastened, and degene- 
 rates into a profuse gorgeousness, that is 
 inappropriate ; tliere is also a certain cor- 
 ruption in the details. From these de- 
 fects Alessi was more free than his fol- 
 lowers, who probably sought to eclipse 
 him in a lavish application of brilliant 
 enrichment, as they could not excel him 
 in that effect, which is the result of fine 
 proportion, of judicious aiTangement, and 
 of a sober application of decoration. These 
 great principles of composition alone are 
 consistent with those standards of imita- 
 tion, the monuments of the ancients, 
 which our architect adopted in his early 
 years as models of purity and taste, that 
 should guide the future productions of 
 his happy genius. The Brignola, Carega, 
 Lescari, Giustiniani, and Sauli palaces, 
 the Palavicini and Giustiniani villas, the 
 Loggia, or old Exchange, and the superb 
 Church of the Madonna di Carignano, may 
 be cited as his finest productions at Genoa. 
 At Bologna, also, he executed various 
 works, and at Milan he constructed the 
 Palazzo Marini, the front of the church of 
 S. Celso, the hall of the Exchange called 
 the Uditorio, and the whole of the church 
 of S. Victor. He also furnished designs 
 for various edifices at Naples and in 
 Sicily ; and being invited to submit a 
 project for the Escurial, he was treated 
 with great distinction by the court of 
 Spain, and received the honour of knight- 
 hood from the king of Portugal. 
 
 Alessi, prosperous in every undertak- 
 ing, and having acqiured a well-earned 
 reputation tiu-oughout Europe, died in 
 261 
 
 tlie year 1572, and was buried in the 
 family tomb at Perugia. His descendants 
 long flourished at Genoa, many of his 
 family having distinguished theinselves 
 by their talents, and having filled im- 
 portant offices in the Republic. (Vasari, 
 Vite dei piu eccellenti Pittori, Scultori, 
 Architetti, coUe Noti e Illustrazioni di G 
 Bottari. — Milizia, Memorie degli Archi- 
 tetti. — Quatremere de Quincy, Diction- 
 naire Historique d'Architecture. Histoire 
 de la Vie et des Ouvrages des plus Cele- 
 bres Architectes. — Gauthier, Principaux 
 Edifices de Genes.) 
 
 ALESSIO, (called Marchis,) bom at 
 Naples in 1700, was a painter, princi- 
 pally of landscapes. The galleries of 
 Weimar, Naples, and Florence contain 
 several of his works. He imitated Tem- 
 pesta, but did not equal him. He died 
 about 1740, after having worked for some 
 time at Rome. Care is required in dis- 
 tinguishing the works of Alessio from 
 those early ones of Zuccharelli, executed 
 before he had fully developed his talent. 
 ALEXANDER. The name of Alex- 
 ander is unknown in pure Greek history. 
 It is found in the fictions of the Iliad, as 
 one of the appellations of Paris. Its 
 indigenous soil v/as in the north of Greece, 
 where it was borne by several persons, 
 of whom the most celebrated is the son 
 of Philip of Macedon. 
 
 ALEXANDER I. was the son of 
 Amyntas I. He is best known for the 
 manner in which he avenged the insult 
 done to his mother and sisters by the 
 seven Persian ambassadors, sentbyMega- 
 bazus to demand the submission of his 
 father the king of Macedonia. Dressing 
 up some beardless young men in women's 
 clothes, and arming them with a con- 
 cealed dagger, he bade them, when the 
 Persians began to take indecent liberties, 
 to stab each of the party sitting by their 
 side. Nor with less skill did he avoid 
 the punishment which such an act would 
 have brought with it. For when Boubares 
 was sent to inquire into the death of his 
 countrymen, and to punish the nuu- 
 derers, he made a friend of the Persian, 
 by not only loading him with presents, but 
 giving him his sister Gygea in man-iage. 
 After the death of his father, whom he 
 succeeded b.c. 501, he followed in the 
 train of the Persian invaders, and recom- 
 mended the Greeks to retire from the 
 position they occupied near Tempe ; ad- 
 vice which, says Herodotus, vii. 173, was 
 adopted, not so much from the confidence 
 that the Greeks had in the good-will 
 of the Macedonian, as from their own 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 fears, when they heard that the enemy 
 could penetrate into Greece by another 
 route. Previous to the battle of Platcea 
 he was sent by Mardonius to detach the 
 Athenians from the other allied states ; 
 a mission which he probably took care 
 to defeat, as we are told by Herodotus, 
 ix. 44, that on the eve of the battle he 
 went in person to the Grecian camp and 
 betrayed the secret of IMardonius's in- 
 tended attack on the following morning, 
 and the perilous state of the Persian 
 forces. After a reign of nearly half a 
 century, he died b. c. 45L 
 
 ALEXANDER IL was the son of 
 Amyntas IL and the elder brother of 
 Philip the father of Alexander the Great. 
 On his first assumption of the reins of 
 government, he exhibited some enter- 
 prising spirit in defending the Aleuadse, 
 tbe royal family of Larisste, in Thessaly, 
 against his namesake the tyrant of Pherse, 
 who had made himself master of Larissas 
 and Crannon. His success, however, 
 was not equal to his chivalry ; for on his 
 return to Macedonia, to suppress the re- 
 volt of Ptolemy of Alorus, he was com- 
 pelled to call in the aid of Pelopidas, one 
 of the Theban generals, when the rebels 
 were put down ; but within a short period 
 he was assassinated by the very Ptolemy 
 whom he had defeated, at the instigation 
 of his own mother Eurydice, as Wes- 
 seling infers from comparing Diodorus 
 xvi. 71 with Justin vii. 5. 
 
 ALEXANDER, tyrant of Pherse in 
 Thessaly, was the son of Polydorus, and 
 nephew of Polyphronj who having mur- 
 dered his brother, to become sole instead 
 of joint rider, was put to death by Alex- 
 ander, B. c. 368. Enacting the part, says 
 Plutarch, (in T. ii. p. 333. ed. Xyl.) of a 
 real tyrant, he led his subjects to rebel, 
 and to call in the aid of Alexander II. of 
 Macedon, and subsequently of theTheban 
 forces under Pelopidas. His compulsory 
 submission was, however, of short dura- 
 tion. At the liead of an army, which he 
 had re-assembled, he received Pelopidas, 
 when he came to make some overtures, 
 and detained him a prisoner until lie 
 was liberated by Epaminondas. No 
 sooner, however, had the Thebans re- 
 turned home, than Alexander broke the 
 truce he had sworn to preserve, and 
 treacherously murdered the citizens of 
 Scotussa, whom he had called to meet him 
 at a place which he surrounded with his 
 troops. To punish his repeated treache- 
 ries, Pelopidas was sent with an army of 
 7000 men ; and though Alexander had a 
 numerical superiority of three to one, he 
 265 
 
 was defeated on the plains of Cynos- 
 cephale, and compelled to give up all the 
 places he had taken. Wearied at length 
 with his cniclties, his brothers-in-law, 
 Lycophron and Peitholaus, undertook to 
 murder him. While the tyrant was 
 sleeping, they were introduced into his 
 chamber by his wife Thebe, whose jea- 
 lousy he had excited ; and who, when 
 the brothers hesitated to strike the blow, 
 threatened to wake her husband, and put 
 into his hand the sword she had taken 
 from his side. Amongst his acts of 
 cruelty, Plutarch, Pelopid. § 29, says, 
 that he used to bury persons alive, and 
 set dogs to worry human beings, sewed 
 up in the skins of wild boars and bears. 
 Light as Alexander considered the obli- 
 gation of an oath, he was no hypocrite 
 in sentimental feeling ; for happening to 
 be present at the representation of the 
 Troades of Euripides, he left the theatre 
 suddenly, saying, that he was ashamed 
 to let the people see a person weep at 
 fictitious miseries, from whom no real 
 woes could draw a tear. 
 
 ALEXANDER, the fourth of this 
 name, but the third of Macedon, was the 
 son of Philip, by Olympias, the daughter 
 of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus. He was 
 born at Pelloe, b. c. 356, on the day when 
 Herostratus set fire to the temple of 
 Diana at Ephesus, and when his father 
 received intelligence of his forces having 
 gained a victory over the Illyrians, and 
 himself being a successfid competitor at 
 the Olympic games. According to ^Elian, 
 V.H.ii.25,it was the sixth of Thargelion 
 (Febmary), the very day of the month 
 on which Alexander died. On the morn- 
 ing of his birth his father wrote a letter 
 to Aristotle, in which he thanked the 
 gods, not so much for giving him a son, 
 as for his birth happening at a time when 
 the boy might pi-ofit by the lessons of 
 such a teacher ; expressing at the same 
 time a hope that his son would not dis- 
 grace his father, tutor, or throne, (A.Gell. 
 N. A. xix. 3.) Alexander's first in- 
 structors were Leonidas, a relative of 
 Olympias, and Lysimachus; whose man- 
 ners formed a singular contrast with each 
 other; for the former had all the stiffness 
 of the philosopher, the latter all the sup- 
 pleness of the parasite ; nor did he hesi- 
 tate to call Philip the Peleus of the past, 
 Alexander the still living Achilles, and 
 himself a second Phoenix. 
 
 Of the earlier years of Alexander little 
 is known beyond what is related by jElian 
 (V. H. iii. 32), who says, that when the 
 young prince was learning to play the 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 harp, and had struck a wrong chord, he 
 asked the music-master, who had pointed 
 out the error, " Of what consequence 
 coukl such a mistake be?" when he re- 
 ceived for answer, "None to a future 
 prince, but much to a future harper." 
 During tlie time that Aristotle presided 
 over the instruction of his illustrious pupil, 
 the Stagirite is said to have written a lost 
 work on the Science of Government ; for 
 the one which still exists in Latin, Arabic, 
 and Hebrew, under that name, and attri- 
 buted to Aristotle, is considered by Buhle 
 and others to be spurious. 
 
 Amongst the works which Aristotle 
 put into the hands of his pupil, were 
 the Iliad and Odyssey ; the former of 
 which it is said Alexander could repeat 
 by heart, and a great portion of the lat- 
 ter ; and such was the interest he felt in 
 "the tale of Troy divine," that he even 
 turned a commentator upon Homer, and 
 deposited his copy, enriched with the 
 variofum notes of Aristotle, CaUisthenes, 
 and Anaxarchus, in a splendid casket 
 which he found amongst the spoils of 
 Darius. The story, although attested by 
 Strabo, (xiii. p. 409) Plutarch, (Alexandi*. 
 § 8) and PImy (vii. 30.) is not without 
 its difficulties. For the word vapdrj^, 
 used by Strabo, was never employed 
 to denote "a casket." It means only 
 " a hollow reed." Enamoured as Alex- 
 ander was with the poeme of Homer, 
 one can readily believe the account of 
 Plutarch, who says that he ordered 
 Harpalus to procure for him the tra- 
 gedies of Sophocles and Euripides, so 
 many of which turn upon Homeric sto- 
 ries : but it is not so easy to understand 
 what interest he could feel in the Dithyr- 
 ambics of Philoxenus and Telestes, and 
 the works of Philistus ;* unless he was 
 deficient in critical taste — which a pupil 
 of Aristotle was little likely to be — and 
 taken with a bombastic style, as his mo- 
 dern counterpart, Napoleon, was with Os- 
 sian. Nor was the care bestowed upon 
 his education altogether without its effect 
 upon Alexander, despite the endeavours 
 of a profligate mother to give her son no- 
 tions at variance with the precepts of phi- 
 losophy. To the lessons of the master, 
 whom the pupil loved to call his second 
 father (Plutarch, Alex. § 20.), is doubtless 
 due the self-command of Alexander, who 
 
 * The P)iilistus alluded to can scarcely be the 
 historian of Syracuse who was the friend of the two 
 Dionysii, and described by Cicero as the " pasne 
 pusillus Thucydidcs ;" unless it be said that Alex- 
 ander wished to have his YEgyptiaca to serve as a 
 jiind of manual for the governors he intended to 
 ippoint over that portion of his future empire. 
 266 
 
 resisted all the blandishments of the 
 Thessalian courtezan Callixena, although 
 she was encouraged by his mother Olym- 
 pias. See Athen. x. p. 435. Amongst the 
 early proofs of his personal courage is the 
 oft-told story of his breaking-in Bucepha- 
 lus, a horse whose spirit no riding-master 
 could tame. It was upon this occasion, 
 we hear, that Philip told his son to seek 
 another kingdom, for Macedonia was too 
 small for him ; although the sentiment 
 seems scarcely fitted for such an act. 
 
 At the death of his father, who was 
 murdered probably by a paramour of his 
 mother Olympias, Alexander ascended 
 the throne of Macedon, when he was 
 scaixely twenty years old. But though 
 he was pressed on every side by enemies, 
 who anticipated the easy destruction of a 
 kingdom where an inexperienced boy had 
 put on the crown of a veteran in arms 
 and in politics, yet so well did the 
 son follow the footsteps of the father, 
 that by conciliating some states, and 
 threatening others, the storm, which 
 seemed ready to burst, passed over with- 
 out doing the slightest luischief. He was 
 even enabled to inflict a signal punish- 
 ment on Thebes, by razing to the ground 
 every house there except the one in 
 whicli the muse of Pindar had dwelt; and 
 made it to an admirer of the bard a holy 
 shrine. With a rapidity of movement 
 which even now would be considered 
 extraordinary, he returned from the Da- 
 nube, whither he had gone in the pursuit 
 of his enemies, and in little more than 
 a week arrived on the borders of Bceotia, 
 where he said to his companions in arms, 
 " Demosthenes called me a boy when I 
 was amongst the Triballi ; a lad when I 
 arrived in Thessaly ; but he shall find 
 me, under the walls of Athens, a full- 
 grown man." The speech, which has 
 been perpetuated by Demades (p. 274, 
 ed. R.) would have been acted upon to 
 the very letter, had not Alexander already 
 dreamed of being not the king of Greece, 
 but the monarch of the world. 
 
 On his return to Macedonia he made 
 preparations for his invasion of the East. 
 Confiding his country to the care of his 
 able general and faithful friend Antipater, 
 and his intriguing mother Olympias, who 
 seems to have done little more than op- 
 pose the plans of Antipater, he collected an 
 army of 30,000 foot and 4500 horse, with 
 provisions barely suflScient for a month, 
 and with very trifling pecuniary resources. 
 Crossing the Hellespont'khe arrived on 
 the plains of Troy, where he sacrificed 
 to Minerva ; and adoi-ned the tomb of 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 Acrixlles with a chaplet of flowers, and 
 envied the hero a Homer who had ini- 
 mortahzed the son of Pelens. 
 
 Alexander's first i-encontre with the 
 Persians was on the hanks of the Gra- 
 nicus, now SousoiighirU, where he de- 
 feated an army of 20,000 horse, and as 
 many foot ; the latter of which were 
 chiefly mercenaries, and were all cut to 
 pieces, while the Persian cavalry owed 
 their safety to flight. The loss of the 
 Macedonians was inconsiderable : it in- 
 cluded, however, twenty-five of the body 
 guard of Alexander, to each of whom 
 Lysippus was ordered by the victor to 
 make a statue of bronze, and to place 
 them in a temple, probably of Jupiter, 
 at Dium in Macedonia, from whence 
 they were carried eventually to Rome, as 
 we learn from Veil. Paterc. i.ll, and Plin. 
 H. N. xxxiv. 19. After the battle, Alex- 
 ander overran the whole country to 
 Halicarnassus, which was defended by 
 Memnon of Rhodes till he had exhausted 
 all the resources of military skill. Pur- 
 suing his victorious career, he arrived at 
 Gordium in Phrygia. Here an oracle had 
 said, that the man who could undo a knot 
 into which the cord that imited the yoke 
 of a chariot to the pole was tied, and so 
 twisted as to conceal the ends, would be 
 master of Asia. Alexander, disdaining 
 to waste his time on a trifle, cut the knot 
 with his sword ; and thus showed that 
 kingdoms are to be won, not by the in- 
 tricacies of policy, but by striking a de- 
 cisive blow. 
 
 From Gordium Alexander marched 
 without resistance to Tarsus, where his 
 dream of universal empire was neai'ly 
 dissipated by death. Bathing, when in 
 a state of perspiration, in the cold waters 
 of the Cydnus, he caught a violent fever, 
 from which he recovered through the 
 skill of his physician, Philip of Acar- 
 nania. While the latter was attending 
 on his patient, Parmenion sent to say that 
 Philip had been bribed by Darius to poi- 
 son Alexander. To show how indisposed 
 he was to harbour the least suspicion 
 against the integrity of his medical friend, 
 he gave with one hand the letter to Philip, 
 and with the other carried the cup to his 
 lips and drank it. Scarcely was he re- 
 stored to health, when he heard of Ua- 
 rius's intention to attack him. After some 
 marching and countermarching, to which 
 Alexander had recourse for the pm-pose 
 of drawing Darius to a spot unfavom'able 
 to the fidl use of his immense masses, the 
 armies met near Issus, a town of Cilicia, 
 on the confines of Syria, afterwards fa- 
 267" 
 
 mous for the defeat of Niger by Severus, 
 A. D. 194. The battle was long and 
 bloody, and contested by the Persians 
 with more than usual spirit ; nor did they 
 give it up for lost until they heard that 
 Darius had quitted the field, when he 
 found his right wing had been routed. 
 During the engagement Alexander (says 
 Chares, quoted by Plutarch), received a 
 wound from the hand of Darius himself, 
 who, according to Justin, did not go im- 
 hurt. Both accounts are discredited by 
 Sainte-Croix, but scarcely on sufficient 
 grounds. To commemorate his victory, 
 Alexander built, on the banks of the Pi- 
 narus, now Delison, three altars, to Jupi- 
 ter, Hercules, and Minerva, to which 
 Cicero alludes in Epist. Famil. xv. 4. 
 
 After the battle of the Issus, Alexander 
 met with little to impede his progress till 
 he reached Tyre. Its obstinate resist- 
 ance was favoured by its insidar position : 
 but even a siege of seven months ended 
 only in the destruction of a city, which 
 had been, whatVenice became afterwards, 
 the merchant-queen of theMediterranean. 
 The only place not levelled to the ground 
 was the temple of Baal, the Hercides of 
 the Greek mythology, where Azelmicus. 
 the king of Tjnre, had taken refuge. 
 AVith the exception of 1.5,000 citizens of 
 both sexes, saved by the humanity of the 
 people of Sidon, all the rest of the popu- 
 lation were either massacred or sold into 
 slavery. It was dm-ing the siege of Tyre 
 that Darius proposed to ransom his fa- 
 mily, whom Alexander had taken pri- 
 soners at Issus, with the payment of ten 
 thousand talents, the surrender of all the 
 country on this side of the Euphrates, 
 and the offer of his daughter's hand in 
 maiTiage. The proposals were, however, 
 rejected by the haughty victor, who 
 would be content with nothing less than 
 unconditional submission, observing that 
 the world could not bear two suns, nor 
 the earth two masters. 
 
 The resistance of Tyre was partially 
 imitated by Gaza ; and both shared the 
 same fate. Egypt more wisely received 
 the conqueror with open arms ; where, to 
 signalize his past conquests, or to eni-ich 
 his future coffers, he founded Alexandria, 
 at a spot where the productions of Eu- 
 rope, Africa, and Asia, might meet at a 
 central point, and be exchanged for each 
 other at the grand market of the woidd. 
 
 From the nascent entrepot of his future 
 empire, Alexander crossed the desert to 
 consult the oracle of Amnion ; and having, 
 says Arrian, iii. 4, heard what he wished, 
 he retui-ned to Egypt. From thence, after 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 receiving somereinforcements from home, 
 he advanced towards the Euphrates. Here 
 Mazaeus, to whom Darius had entrusted 
 the defence of the passage of the river, 
 deserted his post, and retreated, laying 
 waste the country from which the enemy 
 were to draw their supplies. This, how- 
 ever, formed no impediment to the march 
 of Alexander. Within four days after 
 passing the Euphrates, he overtook a 
 body of Persian cavalry, and learnt from 
 the prisoners that Darius was in consider- 
 able force near the i-iver Baumade, and 
 close to Gua-gamela (Camel's-Stall), in 
 tiie neighbourhood of Arbela. The Per- 
 sian army is said to have amounted to 
 500,000, of which not one half probably 
 earned arms. To these Alexander had 
 to oppose only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. 
 But with that confidence which continued 
 success never fails to inspire, he did not 
 hesitate to begin the attack ; when, after 
 routing the enemy's left wing, and getting 
 in their rear, he was enabled to assist 
 Parmenion, who was nearly overpowered 
 by the masses in his front. 
 
 Defeated in his second attempt to ar- 
 rest the progress of the victor, Darius 
 retired to the northern boundaries of his 
 once extensive empire, and left Alex- 
 ander to occupy in succession Babylon 
 and Suza, and after routing Ariobarzanes, 
 who had occupied the only road to the 
 capital with 40,000 men, to make his 
 triumphal entry into Persepolis. Here, 
 like the troops of Hannibal at Capua, 
 the Macedonians gave themselves vip to 
 all kinds of intemperance ; and the pupil 
 of Aristotle, forgetting the precepts of 
 philosophy in the fumes of debauch, con- 
 sented, in order to gratify a Grecian 
 courtezan, to give the cedar palace of the 
 kings of Persia a prey to the flames. 
 
 Leaving Persepolis, Alexander, who, 
 like Charles XIL of Sweden, 
 
 " Thought nothing done, while auglit remained to 
 do," 
 
 proceeded to Ecbatana, where Darius was 
 said to have taken refuge. But he soon 
 learnt that Bessus had loaded the unfortu- 
 nate monarch with chains, and had sliortly 
 afterwards caused him to be murdered, 
 less to secure his own flight than to in- 
 gratiate himself with Alexander ; from 
 whom he received the only reward his 
 treachery deserved, when he was handed 
 over to Oxathres, the brother of Darius, 
 by whom he was put to death, with more 
 than usual tortures ; while to the dead 
 body of Darius Alexander paid every ho- 
 nour, and even threw his own cloak over 
 268 
 
 It, as stated by Plutarch, De Fortun. 
 Alexand. p. 314. R. 
 
 Pursuing his career northwards, Alex- 
 ander arrived at the borders of the Cas- 
 pian ; from whence he directed his 
 course eastward, until he reached the 
 Indus ; where he formed an alliance 
 with Taxilus, the king of the country, 
 and by whom he was conducted to the 
 Hydaspes ; the passage of which Porus 
 was prepared to oppose with all his 
 forces, amongst which he relied not a 
 little on his elephants. Alexander, how- 
 ever, with his usual success, passed the 
 river and defeated the son of Porus ; who 
 then determined to attack the enemy in 
 person, but met with no better fate. 
 When taken prisoner, he asked how he 
 was to be treated. " Like a king !" re- 
 plied Alexander;" to whose inquiry. Did 
 he wish for any thing else ? Porus an- 
 swered, "No; for those words comprise 
 every thing." 
 
 Still continuing his march westward, 
 Alexander made himself master of thirty- 
 seven towns, whose population varied 
 from seven to ten thousand persons ; nor 
 is it easy to say where he would have 
 stopped, had not his ambition been 
 checked by the mui-murs of his soldiers, 
 who found that every victory only carried 
 them further from their friends, and 
 brought them, as in the case of Porus, 
 in contact with more powerful foes. 
 Vainly did Alexander urge them to pass 
 the Hyphasis, the modern Beyah. To 
 all the appeals of their chief the troops 
 turned a deaf ear ; and he was compelled 
 to retrace his steps. To mark, however, 
 the terminus of his expedition, he erected 
 on the east bank of that river twelve 
 altars, to as many of the greater gods of 
 Greece. 
 
 Hitherto the army had traversed on 
 foot the whole distance fi'om the Helles- 
 pont to the Hyphasis. But on their 
 retuni, a part of the troops were sent 
 down the Hydaspes, and afterwards the 
 Indus, in boats ; while others proceeded 
 along the banks of those rivers, imtil 
 they reached the sea. Here Alexander 
 divided his anny into three corps : one 
 was conunanded by Craterus, with orders 
 to return to the Hydaspes ; another was 
 put on board the fleet of Nearchus, to 
 coast the Persian gulf; while the third, 
 led by Alexander in person, was to take 
 the direction of Gedrosia, now Mekran. 
 Previous to passing through that coimtry, 
 so much did the troops suffer from want 
 of water and provisions, and the moving 
 columns of sand, that scarcely a fourth 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 part of the number who left Persia re- 
 turned alive. 
 
 Pursuing his route westward, Alex- 
 ander traversed Carmania, now Kennan, 
 and arrived at Parsagarda ; where are 
 still to be seen the ruins of the tomb of 
 Cyrus, under the modern name of Mour- 
 gaub. From thence he marched to Suza ; 
 where he celebrated his own marriage 
 with Barsine, the daughter of Darius, 
 and at the same time of 10,000 Mace- 
 donians with as many girls of Persia. 
 Arriving at Opis, in the Tigris, he had 
 to appease a mutiny of the Macedonian 
 troops, disgusted with the preference he 
 had shewn for oriental customs, and the 
 formation of a guard of Persians dressed 
 and disciplined after a Greek fashion. 
 At the height of the revolt, he bade the 
 Macedonian and Persian troops sepa- 
 rate; and bidding the former choose their 
 own chief, " I will," said he, " put my- 
 self at the head of the Persians. If 
 you are victorious, I will do all you de- 
 sire. If defeated, you will know your 
 weakness, and be henceforth quiet." 
 Such is the pithy account given by Poly- 
 Eenus, iv. 3, 7; that of Arrian, vii. 10, is 
 longer, but not the less remarkable ; 
 where Alexander thus closes his address 
 to the mutineers: — "It was my inten- 
 tion to send home all those unfit for 
 service, and to make their lot not only 
 happy but envied. Since, however, you 
 all wish to leave me, go ; and when you 
 reach your hearths, say that you aban- 
 doned Alexandei", not Alexander you. 
 Go. Desert your prince, and leave him 
 to the protection of barbarians you have 
 beaten ; and, abjuring all the ties that 
 men hold honourable, and the gods holy, 
 go. 
 
 From Suza, Alexander marched to 
 Ecbatana, where, says Arrian, (vii. 14,) 
 in the midst of games, sports and wassail, 
 to celebrate his successes, Alexander 
 received intelligence of the dangerous 
 illness of his friend Hephaestion ; who, 
 unwilling, perhaps, to mar the merri- 
 ment, had concealed his illness for a 
 week ; and, though Alexander made all 
 haste to visit him, died before Alex- 
 ander's arrival. Of the honours paid to 
 the deceased, Diodoinis has given a de- 
 tailed account, which will be noticed 
 under Heph^.stion. Suffice it to say, as 
 stated by An'ian, that Alexander ab- 
 stained from all food for three days, and 
 was torn only by force from the dead 
 body, on which lie had thrown himself, 
 giving vent to his sorrow in sobs, or in 
 the agony of silent grief; nor did he re- 
 269 
 
 turn to himself, until he was called upon 
 to check the brigands of Cosse, who, 
 trusting to their mountain fastnesses, to 
 which they could retire when attacked, 
 had plundered with impunity the neigh- 
 bouring Ouxii, and had made themselves 
 formidable, says Strabo (xi. p. 461), even 
 to the kings of Persia. Despite, how- 
 ever, the snows of winter, Alexander 
 (Diodorus, xvi. 3) destroyed them, to a 
 man, as a kind of funeral offering to the 
 manes of Hephaestion. The story is dis- 
 credited by Sainte-Croix ; but it is quite 
 in unison with the character of Alex- 
 ander, eager to follow the example of 
 Achilles, who sacrificed twelve Trojan 
 youths at the tomb of his friend Patro- 
 clus. Arrian, indeed, says in his Indica, 
 (§40,) that Alexander civilized the Cos- 
 seans by introducing agriculture amongst 
 them. But a soldier was little likely to 
 patronize such pursuits, even had the 
 country been better adapted for such a 
 purpose. 
 
 In his advance towards Babylon, and 
 during his stay at Ecbatana, he sent 
 Ileraclides, the son of Arga?us, to Hyr- 
 cania, to build ships in the Greek 
 fashion, vnih and without decks, which 
 were to be launched on the Caspian, to 
 ascertain with what ocean that sea was 
 connected, whether it was a part of the 
 Black sea to the west, or the Indian to 
 the east. At this period he fell in with 
 some Chaldean soothsayers, who pre- 
 dicted that if he returned to Babylon, 
 whither he was bendmg his way, he 
 would not leave it alive. Despite, how- 
 ever, of this and other attempts to dis- 
 suade him from his purpose, Alexander 
 made his entry into Babylon, where he 
 was met by deputies from different states 
 of Gi-eece, congratulating him on his 
 victories and safe return ; to whom he 
 gave up all the spoils that had been 
 carried from Greece during the Persian 
 invasion ; just as the allied forces did, 
 when they restored to Italy and Ger- 
 many what the French had carried away 
 to grace their capital. 
 
 It was dui-ing his sojourn at Babylon, 
 that Alexander met the flotilla of Near- 
 chus, which had sailed from the Indus, 
 and after coasting the Persian gulf had 
 ascended the Euphrates to Babylon ; 
 from whence Alexander intended to 
 send another naval expedition down the 
 river, with orders to coast along the 
 Arabian gulf and to go up the Red sea. 
 But all the dreams of future conquests, 
 (for Arabia had not as yet seen the victor 
 of the world,) were cut short by death. 
 
ALE 
 
 A L E 
 
 Of his last moments, some cm-ioiis de- 
 tails have been preserved by Arrian and 
 Plutarch, from the Ephemerides, and 
 jom'nal of Alexander's expedition, com- 
 piled by one of the scientific staff which 
 accompanied Alexander from Macedonia, 
 as Denon and others did Buonaparte from 
 Paris, when the modern counterpart of 
 the ancient hero invaded Egypt. These 
 specimens of the oldest bulletins in exist- 
 ence are highly interesting, and would 
 well deserve extracting, did our space 
 permit. 
 
 For the sudden death of Alexander 
 various reasons have been assigned by 
 different authors. The opinion adopted 
 by the generality is, that he died of 
 poison, which Antipater prepared from 
 a receipt given by Aristotle, and was 
 carried in the hoof of a mule to lolas. 
 The story is disbelieved by Sainte-Croix 
 on the authority of Plutarch, (in Alex- 
 ander, p. 99, R.), who says, that the body 
 presented no marks of poison, although 
 it was exposed for some days to the 
 action of the sun in a hot climate. But 
 as the same writer, in his treatise De 
 Invid. ii. p. 538, ed. Xyl., confesses that 
 Alexander perished by the plots of his 
 enemies, no reliance can be placed on 
 such conflicting testimony. Perhaps 
 the real cause of his death is to be traced 
 to a cold he caught in an excursion up 
 the Euphrates, which we learn that he 
 made, from Arrian (vii. 22) : as he sailed 
 to the marshes where the tombs of the 
 Assyrian kings were situated, a marsh 
 fever may have been the consequence. 
 
 Thus ended, at the age of 33, the 
 career of a man, whose life was brief 
 indeed, but so fidl of events that it 
 would seem to be, what it has actually 
 become in the East, a romance, did we 
 not possess sufficient evidence to prove 
 that in this case truth has sui'passed 
 even the bounds of fiction. It was 
 Alexander's wish for his body to be sent 
 to the temple of Jupiter Ammon. But 
 Ptolemy Soter detained it in Alexandria, 
 in consequence of the soothsayer Aris- 
 tander declaring that the country where 
 the bones of Alexander rested woxdd 
 never know a foreign lord — a prediction 
 evidently framed on a similar tradition 
 relating to the ashes of (Edipus. The 
 sarcophagus in which the body was de- 
 posited, is said to be in the British 
 Museum. But, does the evidence ad- 
 duced by Clark to prove its identity out- 
 weigh the testimony of St. Chiysostom, 
 who, in a passage quoted by Sainte-Croix, 
 (p. 520,) asserts that the very existence 
 270 
 
 of the tomb was imknown more than 
 1,400 years ago? The tomb was visited 
 by Julius Cctsar, who lamented that he 
 had done nothing worthy of mention, at 
 an age when Alexander had died after 
 being the victor of the world; while 
 Augustus, says Dio Cassius, (li. 16,) in 
 the true spirit of a modern antiquaiy, 
 carried off a bit of the hero's nose. Dio- 
 dorus has given an elaboi-ate account 
 of the car in which the body was carried 
 from Babylon to Memphis ; and if all 
 that he says be true, it bespeaks gi"eat 
 infatuation, for the coffin was used as a 
 kind of oracle in their councils. 
 
 Of a person who acted so conspicuous 
 a part in past times, no contemporary 
 records have reached us. A few allu- 
 sions to him are to be found only in the 
 speeches of the orators at Athens. 
 Luckily, however, in the pages of jElian, 
 Arrian, Athenteus, Diodorus, Polyaenus, 
 Polybius, Plutarch and Strabo in Greek, 
 and of Justin and Quintus Curtius in 
 Latin, we meet with extracts from the 
 wi-itings of Aristobulus, Callisthenes, 
 Clitarchus and Ptolemy Soter; and, 
 though their agreement in the same 
 facts offer the only security for their ac- 
 curacy, yet they tell us not a little of a 
 man who has been called, not unjustly, 
 the Great. Amongst the mass of ancient 
 marble, only a single Hermes has been 
 found with Iris name affixed to the por- 
 traits. According to Chrysostom some 
 Christians used to wear an amulet, with 
 the head of Alexander on one side, and a 
 monogram of Christ on the other. Over 
 his private life, it were well if history 
 could draw a veil ; not that he exhibited 
 more irregularities than others have 
 done, but because it is sad to find how 
 little the lessons of philosophy avail in 
 correcting the heart, when power gives 
 a scope to passion, and flatterers take the 
 jjlace of friends. The abusive language 
 of the drunken Clitus should have been 
 punished, but not by the sword of the 
 intoxicated Alexander ; and the sei'vices 
 of Parmenion ought to have outweighed 
 the suspicions excited by the jealous 
 rivals of the absent veteran ; who could 
 have no motive to join, although some to 
 conceal the plots, if plots they were, of 
 his own son Philotas ; whose only crime 
 was the womid he inflicted on the pride 
 of the prince, when, as stated by Quintus 
 Curtius (vi. 10,) he told Alexander that 
 he congratidated him on being placed 
 amongst the gods by the priest of Am- 
 mon, but lamented the fate of slaves, 
 compelled to serve a prince, who consi- 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 dered himself more than man : for, 
 according to Ephippns, quoted by 
 Athenseus, (xii. p. 356,) " Dressed in a 
 purple robe, and wearing on his head 
 the ram's horns of Jupiter Ammon, and 
 with the bow and quiver of Diana, Alex- 
 ander was at one time drawn in a car, at 
 another he appeared with the insignia 
 of Mercury, or else with the lion's skin 
 and club of Hercules. Before him 
 myrrh and frankincense were burnt, as to 
 a god ; and as he passed along, a pro- 
 found and respectfid silence was observed 
 through the fear of exciting his sullen 
 and sanguinary hvimour." Phylarchus, 
 too, testifies that the splendour of Alex- 
 ander's camp quite eclipsed that of the 
 ancient kings of Persia ; while to do 
 honour to his nuptials at Suza, where he 
 married at one time, Barsine (Stateira,) 
 the daughter of Darius, and Parysatis 
 of Ochus, Greece, Asia, and even India, 
 sent artists of every kind to keep up the 
 festivities of five days. 
 
 Of the cruelty with which he carried 
 on war in India, modern history can 
 furnish many parallels ; but only a few 
 of the bad faith with which, in violation 
 of a truce, he massacred the inhabitants 
 of an Indian town ; the only stain, says 
 Plutarch, to tarnish the lustre of his 
 wars, caiTied on elsewhere as became a 
 king. At the suggestion, probably, of 
 Aristotle, (see Diog. Laert. v. 1,) Alex- 
 ander planted Greek colonies in Asia, 
 distant, says Diodorus, (xvii. 83,) a day's 
 journey from each other ; one of which 
 was called after a favourite dog, and 
 another after Bucephalus, who having 
 carried his master from Pella to the 
 Hydaspes, died at the age of 30 ; as did 
 the horse which Platoft', the hetman of 
 the cossacks, had ridden through the 
 invasion of Russia by the French, and 
 gave at the end of the war to the duke 
 of Wellington. 
 
 For the persons connected with the 
 history of Alexander, see Anaxarchus, 
 Antipater, Bagoas, Calanus, Callis- 
 
 THENES, CaSSANDER, ClITARCHUS, CrATE- 
 
 Rus, Darius, Demetrius, Dinocrates, 
 Eumenes, Harpalus, Iolas, Lysimachus, 
 Lysippus, Marsyas, Memnon, Nearchus, 
 Olympias, Onesicritus, Oxydrabes, Par- 
 
 MENION, PeRDICCAS, PeUCESTES, PhILO- 
 
 TAs, PoRus, Ptolom;eus, Timotheus. 
 
 ALEXANDER, son of Lysimachus, 
 (one of the lieutenants of Alexander the 
 Great, and to whom, in the division of 
 the latter's territories, Thrace and Cher- 
 sonesus were allotted,) and of Amestris, 
 was educated at the court of his fatlier, 
 271 
 
 whence, not considering himself in safety 
 after the death of Agathocles, he fled 
 with Lysandra, widow of that prince, to 
 Seleucus, king of Syria. Lysimachus 
 having fallen in a battle against Seleucus, 
 Alexander by his prayers prevailed on 
 the latter to give him up the body of his 
 father, which he carried into Chersouesus 
 and buried there. He was one of the 
 three competitors for the throne of Ma- 
 cedonia, after the death of Sosthenes, 
 278 B.C. ; but he was not successful, and 
 what became of him afterwards is not 
 known. 
 
 ALEXANDER, son of Polysperchon, 
 took an active part in the .affairs of 
 Greece, and especially of Athens, where 
 he was connected with the party opposed 
 to Phocion (Diodor. xviii. 65). Having 
 become master of Peloponnesus, he form- 
 ed an alliance with Antigonus ; but was 
 afterwards connected with his enemy 
 Cassander. He was assassinated by the 
 partizans of Alexion, while retiring from 
 Sicyon. After his death his wife Cra- 
 tessipolis took affairs into her own hands, 
 and restored Sicyon and Corinth to 
 Ptolemy, according to Diodor. xx. 37. 
 
 ALEXANDER, the third son of Per- 
 seus, the last king of Macedon. When 
 quite a cliild he was entnisted by his fa- 
 ther to the care of a former friend, Ion ; 
 by whom, after the defeat of Perseus by 
 Paulus ^milius (b. c. 168), he was given 
 up to the conqueror, to grace his triimiph 
 at Rome, where, says Plutarch, in Paul. 
 .iEmil. § 33, the splendour of the show 
 was almost lost in the pity for the chil- 
 dren of Perseus ; two of whom, a boy 
 and a girl, died young, but the third 
 lived to carry on the trade of a carver in 
 small work, and eventually to become a 
 valuable government secretaiy. 
 
 ALEXANDER, the brother of Olym- 
 pias, and the husband of Cleopatra, the 
 sister of Alexander the Great, "was placed 
 on the throne of Epirus at the age of 20. 
 Conceiving, says Justin, xii. 2, that the 
 western world would be his, as the eastern 
 was destined to be his nephew's, he wil- 
 lingly passed over into Italy, when in- 
 vited by the people of Tarentmn, to aid 
 them against the Bruttii. After gaining 
 some successes he was killed (b. c. 328) 
 near Pandosia, on the banks of the 
 Acheron, and was thus cheated, says 
 Strabo, vi. p. 393, by the oracle of Do- 
 dona, that bade him beware of Pandosia 
 and Acheron, which he conceived to be 
 in Thesprotia, and not, as shown by his 
 death, in Italy. 
 
 ALEXANDER, son of Pyrrhus, king 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 of Epirus, seeking to revenge the death 
 of his father, entered Macedonia with an 
 army, whilst Antigonus was occupied in 
 Greece : the latter having returned to 
 combat him, was abandoned by his army, 
 but Demetrius, having assembled a new 
 force, not only expelled Alexander, but 
 deprived him of his own territories. 
 Alexander fled to Acarnania, whence he 
 was soon after recalled to Epirus. He 
 man-ied Olympias, his sister, by whom 
 he had three children, who wei-e very 
 young when he died. He wrote a trea- 
 tise on Military Tactics, which is praised 
 by Arrian and ^Elian, but which has been 
 lost. 
 
 ALEXANDER BALAS. This ad- 
 venturer, whose name, according to Eu- 
 sebius, is derived from Bala, a. con- 
 cubine, was brought forward by the 
 opponents of Demetrius Soter, to claim, 
 as the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, the 
 crown of Syria. Accordingly he went 
 to Rome, accompanied by Heraclides 
 and Laodice, the real daughter of Anti- 
 ochus, to request the support of the se- 
 nate, or at least no impediment to his 
 endeavour to recover his rights. But 
 though, says Polybivis, (Excerpt. Legat. 
 140,) all sensible persons saw it was 
 merely a farce got up by Heraclides, yet 
 the clever orator contrived to get a de- 
 cree in favour of Balas, and on the 
 strength of it to collect an army, with 
 which Alexander attacked Demetrius ; 
 who in the first battle, says Justin, and 
 in the second according to others, lost 
 his crown and life ; but not before he 
 had given some proofs of courage by 
 fighting on foot, after he had lost his 
 horse in a bog, as stated by Josephus, 
 (Antiq. Jud. xiii. 5.) Intoxicated with 
 his success, Alexander gave himself up 
 to a life of pleasure, relying for security 
 on his Cretan mercenaries. The people 
 of Antioch, however, being desirous, says 
 Justin, (xxxi. 2,) to repair the injury 
 done to Demetrius, took the part of his 
 eldest son, then scarcely out of his teens ; 
 while soldiers flocked to his standard, 
 disgusted with the pride of the prince 
 and the rapacity of his principal officers. 
 In this dilemma, Alexander applied for 
 assistance to Ptolemy, v.'hose daughter, 
 Cleopatra, he had married. His father- 
 in-law sent at first some troops ; but 
 hearing, or pretending to hear, that 
 Alexander was plotting against him, he 
 turned against his son-in-law, and in 
 favour of the young Demetrius. To op- 
 pose their united forces, Balas brought 
 an army into the field, but was beaten 
 272 
 
 in the first battle, and was afterwards 
 murdered by Diocles, an Arab chief, to 
 whom he had fled for protection, and 
 whom Wesseling, in Diodor. Fragm. 
 identifies with Malchus, (mentioned in 
 Joseph. Antiq. Jud. i. 11. 39,) and with 
 El-Malchu-el, or Simalcue, (in 1 Maccab. 
 xi. 39;) or Zabdiel (ibid. ver. 17. See 
 Cotton's Notes.) 
 
 ALEXANDER, third son of Cassan- 
 dei-, king of Macedonia, was competitor 
 for the throne of that country with his bro- 
 ther Antipater, He was assassinated by 
 Demetrius, son of Antigonus, whom he 
 had called to his aid, 295 b. c. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., called Zahhias in 
 Diodorus, Zebinas in Josephus, (Antiq. 
 Jud. xiii. 9. 3,) and Zahbineiis in the 
 preface to Trogus, p. 9, (and which, in 
 Syriac, means "a purchased slave,") was 
 the son of Protarchus, a chapman in 
 Egypt, and sent by Ptolemy Physcon to 
 make himself master of Syria, to which he 
 laid claim as the adopted son of Antiochus. 
 There, after defeating Demetrius, he 
 began to look down on Ptolemy himself; 
 who, to punish his insolence, sent some 
 troops to aid Gryjjus, the son of Deme- 
 trius, by whom Alexander was defeated, 
 and compelled to take refuge in Antioch. 
 Being in want of money to pay his 
 troops, he took from the temple of Ju- 
 piter a golden statue of Victory, " with 
 which," said he, jokingly, " Jupiter had 
 accommodated him;" — a remark scarcely 
 intelligible, unless we bear in mind that 
 Jupiter was frequently i-epresented with 
 a statue of Victory in his hand, stretched 
 out as if in the act of making a present. 
 In a few days afterwards, he endea- 
 voured to take away the golden statue 
 of Jupiter himself; but being opposed in 
 this second act of sacrilege, he was com- 
 pelled to fly ; when, overtaken by a 
 storm, he fell into the hands of pirates, 
 who sent him to Grypus, by whose orders 
 he was put to death. Such is the ac- 
 count given by Justin, (xxxix. 1,) from 
 which that of Diodorus seems, as far as 
 one can judge from the fragments, to 
 have differed considerably. 
 
 ALEXANDER,( Janneeus,) king of the 
 Jews, third son of Hyrcanus, succeeded 
 his brother Aristobulus, 105 b. c. (Cot- 
 ton's Maccabees), though some say 102 
 B.C. He was defeated on the banks of 
 the Jordan by Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of 
 Egypt. Gaza, which had rebelled against 
 him, he took by stratagem, slaughtered its 
 inhabitants, and reduced it to ashes. His 
 ill success in a war against the Arabians 
 again induced his subjects to revolt, and 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 a civil war ensued, in which no less than 
 50,000 Jews lost their lives. He es- 
 poused the side of the Sadducees. It 
 was in vain that the rebels called to 
 their aid Demetrius : Alexander conti- 
 nued his ferocious career ; in one day he 
 crucified 800 of them, and slew their 
 wives and children before the eyes of his 
 concubines, whom he feasted in a pavilion 
 on the occasion. Having victoriously 
 terminated the civil war, he turned his 
 arms against his neighbours, and con- 
 quered a great number of places in Syria, 
 Phoenicia, Arabia, and Idumea. He died 
 whilst besieging the castle of Ragaba, 
 76 B.C. (Prideaux's Connection. Jose- 
 phus, xiii. Maccab. b. v. &c.) 
 
 ALEXANDER, son of Aristobulus IL 
 king of Judaea, made prisoner, with his 
 father, and taken to Rome by Pompey ; 
 afterwards escaped, and put himself at 
 the head of an army in Judea, which was 
 defeated by Mark Anthony near Jeru- 
 salem. He afterwards, at the head of 
 30,000 men, was totally routed by Gabi- 
 nius near Mount Tabor. No less than 
 10,000 Jews were killed in this battle. 
 Alexander fell at length into the hands 
 of Metellus Scipio, who caused him to 
 be beheaded at Antioch, 49 b. c. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS. Bassi- 
 anus Alexianus, afterwards Aurelius Alex- 
 ander Severus, — according to Xiphilin, 
 son of Gessius, or Genesius Marcianus ; 
 according to LampricUus, of Varius and 
 Mamaea, — was connected with the family 
 of Severus by his grandmother, Jidia 
 Msesa, sister of the empress Julia; and was 
 first cousin to the emperor Elagabalus. 
 (See Elagabalus.) Alexander was born 
 December 12, 205, a. d. ; since he was in 
 his 16th year when nominated Caesar in 
 A.D. 221, and in his 30th, when he was 
 killed, Maich 19, 235. His birth-place 
 was Area, or Arcena, in Phoenicia; but, 
 after his accession to the empire, the 
 genealogists ingrafted his Syrian descent 
 upon the ancient stock of the Metelli. 
 At the instigation of his grandmother, 
 Julia Maesa, Alexander was adopted by 
 his cousin, and invested with the title of 
 Caesar. But his virtues awakened the 
 jealousy of Elagabalus, who determined 
 either to corrupt or destroy him ; and 
 it required the united vigilance of the 
 senate, the praetorians, and his own 
 family, to protect him. Upon the mur- 
 der of Elagabalus, March 10, a.d. 222, 
 Alexander was declared emperor by 
 the guards, and their choice confirmed 
 by the acclamations of the senate. His 
 education had been entrusted by his 
 VOL, I. 273 
 
 mother ManiEea — who had the ambition, 
 perhaps the avarice, but not the other 
 vices of the second Agrippina — to the 
 most eminent rhetoricians and philoso- 
 phers of the age ; while, during the 
 minority of the emperor, the regency 
 was committed to a select coimcil of the 
 wisest and most virtuous senators. Do- 
 mitius Ulpian, equally celebrated for his 
 love of justice and his knowledge of the 
 laws, was praetorian praefect — in modern 
 language, the prime minister of Mamaea. 
 Their first care was to retrench the pro- 
 digal expenditure, and to remove from 
 office the wortliless favourites of the last 
 reign. Their next, as far as possible, to 
 restore, throughout the empire, the mild 
 and vigilant government of the Anto- 
 nines ; — and their efforts were so success- 
 ful, that, about a year from his accession, 
 the senate, after waiting to see whether he 
 would not assume it among the hereditary 
 titles of the monarchy, decreed to Alex- 
 ander the name of Antoninus. He de- 
 clined an appellation which Commodus, 
 Caracalla, and Elagabalus, had succes- 
 sively profaned, but persevered in the 
 exercise of those virtues which originally 
 had made it venerable. 
 
 The journal of his life is the best 
 proof of the virtues, the abilities, and 
 the proficiency of Alexander. Without 
 minutely sifting the dull panegyric of 
 the Augustan history, (GElii Lamprid. in 
 Alex. Sever.) we may gather from it, 
 that he rose early ; that his morning hoiu's 
 were divided between devotion and busi- 
 ness ; that the bath, the gymnasia, or 
 military exercises employed the middle 
 of the day ; that the afternoon was en- 
 gaged in dictating to his secretaries, or 
 in private studies'; and that, at the even- 
 ing, the principal, meal of the day, the 
 conversation of learned men, among 
 whom Ulpian was always one, or the 
 recital of some pleasing composition, sup- 
 plied the place of those grosser amuse- 
 ments which so frequently relieved the 
 tediousness of a Roman banquet. The 
 emperor was better acquainted with 
 Greek than with Latin literature, yet the 
 Offices and the Republic of Cicero were 
 among his favourite studies; he pre- 
 ferred Horace and Serenus Sammonicus, 
 among the poets, and esteemed Virgil 
 the Roman Plato. His dress was modest 
 and simple, his table frugal, his de- 
 meanour com-teous and affable ; his 
 palace, at certain hoiu^s, was open to all 
 his subjects, but an inscription on the 
 walls, and over the portal, reminded 
 tliem of the great negative principle of 
 T 
 
'ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 justice, " Do nothing unto others you 
 would not they should do unto you;" 
 and the voice of a crier, as in the mys- 
 teries of Eleusis, was heard from time to 
 time, proclaiming, " Let none enter these 
 holy walls, unless he is conscious of a 
 pure and innocent mind." 
 
 The civil reforms of Alexander were, 1st, 
 sumptuary ; directed to the social habits 
 of his subjects, whom the riot and profu- 
 sion of the late reigns had impoverished 
 and corrupted ; and 2dly, judicial, or the 
 restoration of the domestic and provin- 
 cial administration of the Antonines. 
 Taxes were transferred fi"om the neces- 
 saries to the luxuries of life ; the prices 
 of provisions and the rate of interest 
 were reduced, and the provinces relieved 
 from the oppressive tributes of Caracalla. 
 But although the legions at first loved 
 Alexander as their pupil, and afterwards 
 revered the active simplicity of his life, 
 the revival of military discipline was 
 beyond his power. The violent death 
 of Ulpian, whom the praetorians, after a 
 three days' conflict in the streets of Rome, 
 murdered, as the author of the attempted 
 reforms (see Ulpian), under the shelter 
 of the imperial purple ; and the attack 
 upon the historian Dion Cassius (see 
 Dion), who had commanded with too 
 much strictness the Pannonian legions, 
 showed that the events of the last forty 
 years had irretrievably loosened the habit 
 and the principles of subordination. The 
 Persian campaign did not introduce a 
 better spii-it among the soldiers. For 
 although in a serious mutiny at Antioch 
 Alexander shamed the legions into obe- 
 dience by addressing them as " quirites" 
 (citizens) instead of "milites" (soldiers), 
 his success against Arfaxerxes is doubt- 
 ful. The speech attributed to Alex- 
 ander by Lampridius, would seem in- 
 tended to excuse a defeat ; it is in the 
 vein of captain Pyrgopolinices in Plautus. 
 (Miles Gloriosus, act i. sc. i.) Eckhel, 
 (Doct. Num. vet. vii. 276) indeed, says 
 that Alexander had too much modesty 
 and wisdom to permit himself to receive 
 honours he had not deserved. He cer- 
 tainly triumphed for successes obtained 
 in the Persian war. Historians are, how- 
 ever, divided: Lampridius, Victor, and 
 Eutropius, speak of victoi-ies ; Herodian 
 alone of defeat. 
 
 The latter years of Alexander were 
 clouded by the unpopularity of Mamaea, 
 and by his separation from a wife whom 
 beloved, Memmia, daughter of Sulpicius, 
 a man of consular dignity. Mamtea, 
 unable to resign the dignity of Augusta, 
 274 
 
 put Sulpicius to death, on pretence of 
 treason, and banished her daughter-in- 
 law to Africa, Jidian, in his Csesai-s, 
 (p. 315) glances at the Syrian effeminacy 
 of the son of Mamasa; and it appeared 
 on this occasion ; " he mourned," says 
 Dio, "but he dai-ed not to remonstrate." 
 From some causes imknown, the legions 
 transfen-ed their affections to Maximinus, 
 one of his generals ; the prospect of a 
 new donative inflamed their discontent ; 
 and Alexander was murdered in his tent 
 at Mayence in a sudden outbreak of 
 their avarice or anger. 
 
 Herodian, Xiphilin, and Lampridius, 
 are the historians of Alexander; it is dif- 
 ficult to reconcile, and sometimes to un- 
 derstand their accounts. His abilities 
 were better suited to judicial administra- 
 tion than to military command. His 
 Augustan biographer, who dedicated his 
 work to Constantine, insinuates the Chris- 
 tianity of Alexander. His piety was cer- 
 tainly indiscriminate, since the familiar 
 objects of it were Abraham, Orpheus, 
 Alexander, and Christ. The first and 
 the last members of his private pantheon 
 might have been supplied by Origen, 
 who, at her own desire, had several con- 
 ferences with Mamsea at Antioch. But 
 his evangelical precept of " doing nothing 
 to others he would not they should do to 
 him," he had probably read in Isocrates. 
 Mamsea perished with her son, who, it is 
 said, in his last moments, attributed his 
 ruin to her pride and avarice. 
 
 ALEXANDER, emperor of the East, 
 born about 870, ascended the throne in 
 911. He abandoned himself to the do- 
 minion of his passions, and made the 
 ministers of his pleasures the rulers of 
 the state. Having insulted Simeon, king 
 of the Bulgarians, that prince assembled 
 all his forces, and prepared to invade the 
 empire. Alexander did not live to wit- 
 ness the fatal consequences of his con- 
 duct : after he had reigned a year and 
 twenty-nine days, death tenninated an 
 existence pernicious to the state, and de- 
 graded by the most shameful vices. 
 
 ALEXANDER, a saint and martyr, 
 born in Phrygia, and a physician by pro- 
 fession, was put to death a. d. 177, during 
 the persecution that raged against the 
 churches of Lyons and Vienne. He was 
 condemned to be devoured by wild beasts 
 in the amphitheatre, and died " neither 
 uttering a groan nor a syllable, but con- 
 vei'sing in his heart with God." (Epist. 
 Eccles. Lngd. et Vienn. apud Euseb. 
 Hist. Eccles. lib. v. cap. 1 , p. 1 G3 ; Ed. 
 Paris, 1659.) 
 
ALE 
 
 A LE 
 
 " ALEXANDER, (St.,) patriarch of 
 Alexandria, succeeded St. Acliillas, in 
 the year 313. His doctrines were at- 
 tacked, out of envy, by Arius, who him- 
 self had pretensions to this see, and 
 whom, after mildly exhorting to return 
 to the truth, he cited before an assembly 
 of the clergy at Alexandria ; and on his 
 refusing to recant his errors, excom- 
 municated him and his followers. This 
 sentence was afterwards confirmed by 
 above a hundred bishops in the council 
 of Alexandria, in the year 320. Alex- 
 ander was present at the council of 
 Nice, and died Feb. 26, 326, appointing 
 Athanasius for his successor. Of his 
 numerous epistles written against the 
 Arian heresy, two only remain : — one 
 in Socrates, lib. i. c. 6 ; and in Gelasius 
 Cvzicenus's History of the Council of 
 Nice, lib. ii. c. 3. The other, addressed 
 to Alexander of Byzantium, is in Theodo- 
 ret, lib. i. c. 4. Fragments of a third are 
 in S. Maximus Opus. Theol. et Polem. 
 vol.ii. 152, 15.5. 
 
 ALEXANDER iEGEUS, of the first 
 century, is sometimes confounded with 
 Alexander Aphrodiseus. He was one 
 of Nero's preceptors, and is said to have 
 contributed to the corruption of his pu- 
 pil. He ■wrote a commentary on Ari- 
 stotle's Meteorology, in the manner of 
 the ancient Peripatetics. 
 
 ALEXANDER APHRODISIENSIS, 
 (so called from Aphrodisias, a city of 
 Caria, where he was born,) a famous 
 teacher of the Peripatetic philosophy, 
 and commentator on Aristotle's works, 
 flourished (as we learn from his own 
 writings) about the beginning of the third 
 century. As he dedicates his work, De 
 Fato, to the joint emperors Septimius 
 Sevenis and Caracalla, he must have 
 composed it before a. d. 211, in which 
 year Severus died ; and as he calls it 
 his " first- fiiiits, " * we may suppose so 
 voluminous a writer to have lived for 
 some years after that time. He studied 
 the Peripatetic philosophy under Her- 
 minus,f and Aristocles the Messenian,t 
 and was afterwards himself professor, 
 but whether at Athens or at Alexandria 
 is uncertain. His reputation among suc- 
 ceeding commentators on Aristotle was 
 so great, that he is called, -par excellence, 
 
 * De Fato, initio. 
 
 + Simplieius in lib. ii. Aristot. De Coelo, Com- 
 ment 23. 
 
 X Simpl. in i. De Coelo, Comm. 36 ; and Cyril. 
 Alex. cent. Julian, lib. ii. p. 61, and lib. v. p. 157 
 (ed. Paris, 1638), "ubi maid ' Alexander Arhtolelis 
 discipulus' pro ' Aristoclis,' ut pulchrd observatum 
 Nunnesio ad vitam Aristotelis, num. 26." (Fabric. 
 Bibl. Gr.) 
 
 275 
 
 o (^rjyrjTTjs, " the interpreter ;" and his 
 expositions were followed not only by 
 Themistius, Ammonius, Philoponus, 
 Olympiodorus, Simplieius, and Michael 
 Ephesius among the Greeks, and Boe- 
 thius among the Latins, but also by 
 " Averrois, che '1 gran comento feo." 
 (Dante, Inf. c. iv.) Of his writings, 
 which were very numerous, some are lost, 
 some exist only in manuscript,* and 
 others were printed in the fifteenth and 
 sixteenth centuries, at which time they 
 still retained so much of their former au- 
 thority as to excite the indignation of 
 the elder Scaliger against the absurd 
 obstinacy of those who would rather 
 " Alexandri sectatores esse quam prin- 
 cipes veritatis " f — " be followers of Alex- 
 ander than leaders in the path of truth 
 themselves." He adhered much more 
 closely than his predecessors to the opi- 
 nions of Aristotle, restored the original 
 doctrines of the Peripatetic school, and 
 rejected the admixture of Stoic and Pla- 
 tonic philosophy that had been intro- 
 duced by Ammonius. J In several pas- 
 sages of his works he expressly denies 
 the immortality of the soul, § and em- 
 ploys a good deal of subtle argument to 
 prove that it is ei8os ti tov crmfiaTos 
 npyaviKov, Kat ovk ovaiav riva avrqv 
 Kad' avTr]v,\\ "a characteristic and essen- 
 tial part of the organized animal frame, 
 and not a distinct substance of itself." 
 On account of these and other similar 
 passages in his works, he has been ac- 
 cused of atheism ; \ but it should in 
 justice to him be stated, that he elsewhere 
 speaks with great piety of the nature 
 and attributes of God,** and in one place 
 
 * See in Fabricius (Biblioth. Gr. torn. v. p. 666, 
 ed. Harles) a list of his works either " deperdita, 
 vel quae inedita adhuc delitescere fenintur." 
 
 t Jul. CsBS. Scaliger, De Subtilitate ad Carda- 
 num, Exerc. cccvii. § 12, p. 939. 
 
 X Viz. Plutarch's Tutor. The Ammonius men- 
 tioned above is commonly called " the Son of 
 Hermeas," to distinguish him from several other 
 philosophers of the same name. 
 
 § Ad lib. ii. Topic, pp. 77, 81 fed. Aid.) and in 
 many other places. At p. 72 he says, that " who- 
 ever declares the soul to be separable (from the 
 body) and immortal, is as far from the truth 
 (>J/ei/deTai) as if he were to say that two and two 
 make five." 
 
 II See Queest. Natur. lib. ii. c. 8, seq. and both his 
 treatises De Anima. Eiooe is translated as above, 
 in accordance with what Alexander himself says, 
 Quaest. Natur. lib. ii. c. 10, Kalio ie to ^mov, ^a>ov 
 CiTTtv, eiduv rovTO auTOv' ttclv I'ap KaOo XeycTat re 
 Kai e<TTiv To3e ti, eicSo? tovto, " per quod autem 
 animal, animal est, hoc est ejus forma ; omne 
 enim secundum quod dicitur et est hoc aliquid, est 
 forma." 
 
 % See .To. Fr. Picus, De Providentia, c. x. ; Paul. 
 Jovius, Elog. Doct. Vir. Num. 71, p. 135. 
 
 *• In Metaphys. vii. p. 282, he calls him " omni 
 honore dignissimum, et cunctis votis expetendum, 
 ac omnium parentem." In Jletaphys. ix. p. 320, 
 
 T 2 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 asks, " What would be left behind if we 
 were to take away from snow its white- 
 ness and its coldness, fi-om fire its heat, 
 from honey its sweetness, from animal 
 life (^/'vx'?) its power of motion, and /rora 
 God his attribute of providence ?" * (For 
 more on the subject of Alexander's phi- 
 losophical opinions, and on the Peripa- 
 tetic system in general, see Brucker, 
 Hist. Crit. Philos. ; Ritter's Geschichte 
 der Philos. ; and Fr. Patritii Discuss. 
 Peripatet.) 
 
 The following is a list of such of his 
 philosophical works as have been printed. 
 1. De Fato, et de eo quod in nostra 
 Potestate est; first published by Aldus, 
 Venet. 1534, fol. Graece, at the end of 
 an edition of Themistius, edited by Trin- 
 cavelli. The last edition is by Orellius, 
 Turici, 1824, 8vo, Grsece. 2. Comment. 
 in Primum Priorum Analyticorum Ari- 
 stot. Librum ; Venet. Aldus, 1520, fol. 
 Graece. 3. Comment, in Topica Aristot. ; 
 Venet. Aldus, 1514, fol. Grsece. 4. Com- 
 ment, in Sophisticos Aristot. Elenchos ; 
 Venet. Aldus, 1520, fol. Graece. 5. Com- 
 ment, in Xn. Aristot. Libros de Prima 
 Philosophia ; Paris, 1536, fol. Lat. (The 
 Greek text has never been printed.) 6. 
 Comment, in Librum Aristot. De Sensu, 
 &c. ; Venet. Aldus, 1527, fol. Grajce. 
 
 7. Comment, in Meteorologica Aristot. ; 
 Venet. Aldus, 1527, fol. Graece, at the 
 end of Joannes Grammaticus. (Attri- 
 buted by some persons to Alexander 
 ^g£eus ; see Fabricius and Brucker.) 
 
 8. De Mistione; Venet. Aldus, 1527, 
 fol. Graece, at the end of the preceding. 
 (A treatise against the opinion of the 
 Stoics on the Penetrability of Bodies.) 
 
 9. De Anima Libri Duo ; Venet. Aldus, 
 1534, fol. Graece, edited by Trincavelli, 
 at the end of Themistius. (Not the first 
 and second books of the same work, but 
 two separate treatises on the same sub- 
 ject.) 10. Physicorum Scholiorum per 
 Dubitationes et Solutiones (ad varia 
 Aristot. loca) Libri Quatuor ; Venet. 
 1536, fol. Graece, ed. Trincav. (Some- 
 times called Qucestiones Naturales.) 
 
 Besides these works there are extant 
 two books of larpiKa Kai ^vcriKa IIpo- 
 ^Xrjfiara, Problemata Medica et Natu- 
 ralia, which bear the name of Alexander 
 Aphrodisiensis, but which most persons 
 suppose to have been written by some 
 later author ; for, fw the first place, they 
 appear to be the work of a man who not 
 
 he says, " Deus Optimus Maximus non gignitur 
 neaue interit." See also in Metaphys. xii. pp. S88, 
 395, 398 (ed. Paris, 1536). 
 
 * Quwst. Natur. lib. ii. cap. 21, p. 17 (ed. Venet. 
 153C). 
 
 276 
 
 only was well acquainted with physic, 
 but who also himself practised it ; • 
 secondly, the style and language of Alex- 
 ander's acknowledged writings is saidf 
 to be much superior to that of these two 
 books ; and thirdly, the author plainly 
 declares X the soul to be immortal, which 
 (as was noticed above) Alexander posi- 
 tively denies. They are commonly at- 
 tributed to Alexander Trallianus ; and 
 this opinion is perhaps somewhat sup- 
 ported by their contents, which consist, 
 in great measure, of an explanation of 
 various morbid symptoms, which is known 
 to have been one of the chief excellen- 
 cies of that physician. Many of the 
 questions discussed are ti-ifling, but there 
 are several curious and interesting re- 
 marks on medicine and physiology to be 
 found here and there. He notices the 
 fact of round ulcers being more difficvdt 
 to heal than any others ; § in hemiphlegia 
 extending to the face, the cheek which 
 appears contracted and distorted is in 
 fact the sound one ; || phthisis is conta- 
 gious ;Tf as is also ophthalmia ;** short 
 men are generally more sensible than tall 
 ones ; " hence Homer represents Ulys- 
 ses, who was a little man, as being very 
 wise, and Ajax, who was a large one, as 
 being very foolish."tt Upon the whole it 
 is a curious work, and well worth looking 
 into. It was first published in a Latin 
 translation by Georg. Valla, Venet. 1488, 
 fol. It first appeared in Greek at the 
 end of Aristotle's works, Venet. Aldus, 
 1495, fol. and it was published separately, 
 Gr. and Lat. Paris, 1540-41, 12mo, edited 
 by J. Davion. 
 
 There is also extant, under the name 
 of Alexander Aphrodisiensis, a short 
 treatise, Hepi TIvpeTcov, De Febribus, 
 This has also been attributed to Alex- 
 ander Trallianus, but those who have 
 done so have probably forgotten that the 
 whole of his twelfth book is devoted to 
 the treatment of fever, and that it is ex- 
 tremely improbable that he should have 
 written a second treatise on the same 
 subject without once referring to his 
 former one. Then, again, it is entirely 
 a theoretical work, enumerating the 
 causes and dilFei-ent kinds of fever, &c. 
 but without any directions about the 
 treatment, and without mentioning a 
 
 * See lib. 11. Vrobl. 11, Trpoa-cpepo/iei/ ra ^orfiir 
 /uara, " we apply remedies." 
 
 t Theod. Gaza, in Prsef. ad ed. Venet. Aldus, 
 1504 
 
 X Lib. ii. Praef. and Probl. 63, 67. 
 
 § Lib. i. Probl. ^^9. \\ Lib. ii. Probl. 11. 
 
 If Lib. ii. Probl. 42. ♦* Lib. i. Probl. 35. 
 
 tt Lib. i. Probl. 20. 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 single medicine : * the writings of Alex- 
 ander Trallianus, on the contrary; are 
 almost entirely of a practical nature, and 
 abound especially in prescriptions. To 
 this it may be added, that Empedocles, 
 Zenon, and Areteeus, who together with 
 Hippocrates are the only Avi-iters quoted 
 in this short treatise, are not mentioned 
 by Alexander ; whUe Galen, whom he 
 refers to so constantly, is not once named 
 by the author of this treatise. It could 
 hardly have been written by Alexander 
 Aphrodisiensis, as -the author addresses 
 it to a medical pupil, and professes his 
 willingness to instruct him in any other 
 branch of the science (p. 362) ; so that 
 upon the whole it seems to be most pro- 
 bably the work of some other person of 
 the same name. The author says (p. 375, 
 &c.) that there are three kinds of fever, 
 and "neither more nor less;" viz. the 
 " ephemera " (or diaria), " putrida," and 
 " hectica,"and in this division agrees with 
 Alexander Trallianus, lib. xii. c. 1. He 
 notices that " cold water warms the body, 
 and hot water cools it ;" which he ex- 
 plains by saying, that in the one case 
 " the pores and outlets of the body are 
 rendered dense and clogged up, and so 
 prevent caloric from escaping outwards ;" 
 and in the other, " they are i-arefied and 
 expanded so as to facilitate its escape," 
 (pp. 385, 386.) It was first published in 
 a Latin translation by George Valla, 
 Venet. 1489, fol. ; the Greek text was 
 first printed in 1821, in the Cambridge 
 Museum Criticum, vol. ii. pp. 359 — 389, 
 transcribed by Schinas from a MS. at 
 Florence. There is an edition in Greek 
 and Latin by Passow,Vratislav. 1822, 4to. 
 ALEXANDER PHILALETHES, a 
 physician, who succeeded Zeuxis as head 
 of a celebi'ated Herophilean school of 
 medicine established in Phrygia, between 
 Laodicea and Carura. As Strabo speaks 
 of him as a contemporary,! we may 
 suppose him to have flourished about 
 20 B.C. or 734 a.u. c. He is several 
 times quoted by Galen, and appears to 
 have written a work on the Pulse, and 
 another De Placitis, neither of which are 
 now extant, t He was tutor to Aris- 
 toxenus and Demosthenes Philalethes, § 
 and is probably the person mentioned by 
 Theodorus Priscianus || (who however 
 
 • i. e. As a means of cure, for pepper and opium 
 are mentioned p. 385 (Mus. Crit. ), but only to 
 illustrate something that the author had been 
 saying. 
 
 + Strabo, lib. xii. cap. 8, sub finem. 
 
 J Galen. De Different. Puis. lib. iv. c. 4, 10, &c. 
 
 § G.ilen. loc. cit. 
 
 II Lib. iv. De Phys. Scient. p. 102. Ed. Argent. 
 1532. 
 
 277 
 
 calls him the pupil of Asclepiadesj, as 
 author of a work De Semine. 
 
 ALEXANDER. The following an- 
 cient physicians of this name (besides 
 those already noticed) are enumerated 
 by Fabricius (Biblioth. Grasca.) : — 
 
 1. Alexander Laodicensis, (quoted by 
 Coel. Aurel. Morb. Acut. lib. ii. cap. 1,) 
 probably the same as Alex. Philalethes. 
 
 2. Alexander Parvus, quoted by Rha- 
 zes, lib. contin. i. cap. 9. 
 
 3. Alexander Myndius, a writer on 
 natural history, often quoted by Athe- 
 naeus, lib. ii. p. 65, a; v. 221, b; ix. 392, 
 c, &c. 
 
 4. Alexander Sophistce, Liber de Tem- 
 peratura et Mixtione Herbarimi Sacra- 
 rum. An unedited manuscript, with 
 this title, is in the Bodleian at Oxford, 
 cod. Barocc. 150. 
 
 5. Alexander, mentioned by Lucian, 
 De Morte Peregrini, sub fin. 
 
 6. The bare name, without any dis- 
 tinguishing epithet, occurs in Galen,* 
 Paulus iEgineta,t and Serapion.J 
 
 ALEXANDER, a celebrated physi- 
 cian, commonly called 2'raUiamis, from 
 Tralles in Lydia, his native city. (Aga- 
 thias, Histor. lib. v. p. 149). His father's 
 name was Stephanus, who also seems to 
 have been a physician (Alex. Trail, lib. 
 iv. p. 230, Ed. Guint.) ; and he had four 
 brothers, all of whom were eminent in 
 their several pi-ofessions. (Agath. Hist.) 
 As Alexander quotes Aetius (lib. xii. 
 p. 779), who flourished about the end of 
 the fifth century a. d. and is himself men- 
 tioned by Paulus iEgineta (lib. iii. 28 ; 
 vii. 5, 11, 19), who lived about the be- 
 ginning of the seventh, he may be placed 
 chronologically somewhere between these 
 two authors ; and as we find his name 
 in Agathias, who wrote his history about 
 the year 565 a. d. we may conclude that 
 his principal medical work was composed 
 about the middle of the sixth century. 
 After travelHng in Italy (Alex. Trail, 
 lib. i. p. 80), Gaul (p. 81), and Spain 
 (p. 82), he finally settled at Rome, where 
 he enjoyed a great reputation (Agath. 
 Hist.) ; and in his old age, when no 
 longer able to bear the fatigue of prac- 
 tice, he compiled from the record ; of his 
 own experience, his work called BiiSXia 
 larpiKa AvoKaiSeKa, Libri duodecim de 
 Re Medica. (Alex. Trail, lib. xii. p. 666.) 
 From one or two passages § at the end 
 
 * Medicara. KartV rriiror?, lib. ii. pp. 557, 580 : 
 De Reraed. Parab. lib. iii. p. 510. Ed. Kiihn. 
 
 t Lib. iii. c. 28, 78; and vii. c. 5, II, 19. 
 
 t SImplic. Medic, lib. vi. c. 2. Ed. Veuet. 1552. 
 
 § In exorcising the gout, he says (lib. xi. p. 058), 
 " I adjure thee by the great name lawO lafiawO, 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 of the eleventh book, we may conjecture 
 that he was either a Jew or a Christian, 
 and, from his frequently prescribing 
 sivines flesh, (pp. 157, 291, 297, 324, 586, 
 592, &c. &c.) most probably the latter. 
 But however that may be, there is cer- 
 tainly an air of piety and religion in 
 several of his expressions ; as, e.g. where 
 he calls one Psychrestus a man " who 
 showed gi'eat love to God in the exercise 
 of his profession" {deocjiiKfa-Taros Trepi 
 TTjv T€xvT]v), lib. V. p. 249 ; he gives a 
 cough mixture the name of GeoSoroj/, 
 i.e. " given by God" (lib. v. p. 260) ; 
 and a medicine for the stone he calls 
 Qeov xft'P, "God's hand" (lib. ix. p. 534). 
 Indeed, in some places his piety may 
 more properly be called superstition, as 
 in his use of God's name (above alluded 
 to) in exorcising the gout ; and this be- 
 lief in the power of charms and amulets 
 is the more remarkable when it is con- 
 trasted with the soimd judgment and 
 common sense shown in other parts of 
 his writings. Some of these are too 
 curious to be omitted : for a quotidian 
 ague, " Gather an olive leaf before sun- 
 rise, write on it with common ink ko, 
 poi, a, and hang it round the neck " 
 (this he says he has often tried, lib. xii. 
 p. 757) : for the gout, " Write on a thin 
 plate of gold, during the waning of the 
 moon, fifi, 6pev, fjLop, (pop, rtv^, ^a, ^toi', 
 6e, Xov, xpi, ye, ^e, cav, and wear it roimd 
 the ankles ; pronouncing also la^, a^v(p, 
 ^vcop, 6pfv^,$aiv, ;(a)fflK " (lib.xi. p. 657) ; 
 or else this verse of Homer (II. ^. 95), 
 TeTprjxet 8'ayopi], vno 8' 6(rroj/a;^t^ero 
 yaia, " while the moon is in Libra ; but 
 it is much better if she should be in 
 Leo" (lib. xi. p. 656). There are several 
 others of the same sort. But, notwith- 
 standing these absurdities, it is agreed 
 on all hands that Alexander's twelve 
 books, De Re Medica, are some of the 
 most valuable remains of antiquity. His 
 style is plain, and upon the whole very 
 good, though now and then deformed by 
 barbarisms : his aim was, as he tells us 
 himself (lib. xii. p. 667), " to be short 
 and clear, and to use common words, 
 and such as are easily understood by 
 ordinary persons." In his an-angement 
 of diseases he is the most methodical of 
 all the Greek writers except Aretseus ; 
 he treats of them in order, from head to 
 foot, beginning with the falling off of the 
 
 (niSl2!5 rr^n^^) the God who lald the foun- 
 tlation of' the earth, and fixed the sea, making it 
 abound -with flowing rivers ; who dried up Lot's 
 wife, and made her into salt." And a little farther 
 on (p. 659), " I adjure thee by the holy names, 
 
 278 
 
 hair, &c. head-ache, phrenzy, lethargy, 
 epilepsy, palsy, melancholy (lib. i.), then 
 going on to the diseases of the eyes 
 (lib. ii.), ears, nose, teeth (lib. iii.), 
 throat (lib. iv.), breast (lib. v. and vi.), 
 stomach (lib. vii.), liver, intestines (lib. 
 viii.), kidneys (lib. ix.), the colic (lib. x.), 
 and so on to the gout (lib. xi.), and the 
 different kinds of fevers (lib. xii.), with 
 which he concludes. In a work like the 
 present, it would take up too much space 
 to give any thing like a complete ana- 
 lysis of his knowledge of diseases and 
 mode of treatment, which however well 
 deserve the attention of every well-edu- 
 cated physician. The following are some 
 of the points most worthy of notice : — 
 1. He is the first author who mentions 
 rhubarb (lib. viii. p. 470), though he 
 seems only to have known it as an as- 
 tringent, as he says nothing of its pur- 
 gative qualities. 2. He was the first 
 person who gave the sesquioxide of iron 
 internally (lib. viii. p. 497). 3. The first 
 also who directed the opening of the jugu- 
 lar veins (lib. iv. p. 232). One of his 
 great merits is the accui'acy of his dia- 
 gnosis, on the importance of which he 
 insists in several places in his work (lib. 
 v. p. 239 ; viii. p. 455 ; ix. p. 512). He 
 several times ventures to contradict and 
 con-ect Galen (lib. xii. pp. 675, 732, 744, 
 &c. &c.), though he always treats him 
 with the greatest respect, and seldom 
 mentions him without adding 6 dfioTaroi, 
 "the most divine," (lib. iii. p. 175 ; iv. 
 p. 223 ; v. p. 244, &c. &c.) It is remark- 
 able that he nowhere mentions women's 
 diseases, nor does he at all treat of sur- 
 gery, properly so called ; though he ex- 
 presses his intention (lib. i. p. 61) of 
 writing a book on fractures, and also on 
 wounds of the head (p. 29). He appears 
 to have had a great knowledge of mate- 
 ria medica, and there are a vast quantity 
 of formulse both for external and internal 
 medicines collected in his works. 
 
 Besides the twelve books already no- 
 ticed, Alexander wrote a short treatise, 
 Ilfpt 'E\p.iv6o3v, De Lumbricis, which is 
 still extant. He mentions three kinds 
 of worms — the Ascarides, the Lumbricus 
 Teres, and the Taenia ; gives the dia- 
 gnostic signs of each ; and then proceeds 
 to the treatment, which is different ac- 
 cording as the case is, or is not, attended 
 with febrile symptoms. With the excep- 
 tion of mercurial preparations, the me- 
 dicines he prescribes are much the same 
 as those in use at the present day. A 
 treatise, De Urinis, written by Alexander, 
 but now lost, is alluded to by Joannes 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 Actuarius (De Urinarium Differentiis, 
 cap. 2) ; and he himself mentions (lib. ii. 
 p. 122) a work of his Ilepi tchv ev 0(})6a\- 
 fiois Hadav, De Moi-bis et AfFectibus 
 Oculorum, which is no longer extant. 
 Man}- persons suppose him to be the au- 
 thor of some medical works which bear 
 the name of Alexander of Aphrodisia. 
 (See Alex. Aphrod.) 
 
 His work entitled Bt/3Xta larpiKa Avo- 
 KaideKa, Libri duodecim de Re Medica, 
 was first published in Latin (Lugd. 1504, 
 4to.) per Franc. Fradin, cum Exposi- 
 tione Glose (sic) interlinearis Jacobi de 
 Partibus et Januensis in margine posite 
 (sic). The first Greek edition* was 
 printed at Paris ap. Rob. Stephanum, 
 Ed. Jac. Goupylus, 1548, fol. The only 
 Greek and Latin edition is by Jo. Giun- 
 ter, Basil, per Henr. Petrum, 1556, 8vo. 
 The last and most complete Latin edi- 
 tion is by Haller, (Lausann. 1772, 8vo, 
 2 vols.) containing also the letter, De 
 Lumbricis, and a Latin translation of 
 Rhazes de Variolis et Morbillis. 
 There is no English translation ; but 
 Edw. Milward, M. D. pubUshed (8vo, 
 Lond. 1734) a sort of abridgment, under 
 the title of Trallianus Reviviscens ; or, 
 an Account of Alexander Trallian, one 
 of the Greek writers that flourished after 
 Galen : showing that these authors are 
 far from deserving the imputation of 
 mere compilers, &c. Alexander's Letter, 
 JJepi 'E'KfiivBo)!/, De Lumbricis, was fii-st 
 edited by Hieron. Mercurialis ; Gr. and 
 Lat. 4to, Venet. 1570. It is also to be 
 found (Gr. and Lat.) in Fabricii Bib- 
 lioth. Gr. (vol xii. p. 602, &c.) and a 
 Latin translation is in Haller's edition of 
 Alex. Trail. (Lausannse, 1772) men- 
 tioned above. 
 
 ALEXANDER OF PLEURON, in 
 .3iLtolia, was the son of Satyrus, and one 
 of the seven writers called 77ie Pleiades, 
 who flourished in the time of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus at Alexandria. They were 
 Qiantides, Alexander, Dionysiades, Ho- 
 mer junior, Lycophron, Philiscus or 
 Philicus, and Sositheus, according to the 
 Scholiast on Hephasstion. To these 
 Suidas adds Sosithenes, a corruption pi'o- 
 bably of Sositheus, for both are said to 
 be natives of Syracuse. Only a few 
 fragments of his works have been pre- 
 served. 
 
 ALEXANDER OF MILETUS, says 
 Suidas, (but according to Stephan. Byz. of 
 Cotyaeum in Phrygia,) obtained the ho- 
 
 • Which contains also " Rhazse de Pestilentia 
 Libellus ex Syrorum Lingua in Gracam trans- 
 laXus." 
 
 279 
 
 nourable title of Polyhistor. He was a 
 domestic slave in the family of Cornelii;s 
 Lentulus, whose name, according to usvial 
 practice, he assumed, and became the 
 tutor of his children. After his manu- 
 mission he lived at Laurentium, where 
 he was burnt to death in his patron's 
 house ; which so affected his wife, that 
 when she heard of it, she hanged herself. 
 His works extended to more than forty 
 books, and are frequently quoted by 
 Athenaeus, Clemens of Alexandria, St. 
 Cyril, Diogenes Laertius, Pliny, Plutarch, 
 and Stephan. Byz. Amongst them were 
 five volumes relating to Rome, in which he 
 said that there was a woman called Moso, 
 whose writings became a law to the He- 
 brews ; a story evidently modelled upon 
 the one where Numa was said to have 
 obtained his laws from Egeria. 
 
 ALEXANDER the Rhetorician was 
 the son of Numenius the sophist, who 
 lived in the time of the emperor Hadrian. 
 He wrote a work on the Figures of 
 Rhetoric, first printed by Aldus, and 
 subsequently by Normann at Upsal, 
 1690; a very rare volume; and whose 
 notes have been therefore all reprinted 
 by Walz, in Rhetor. Grsec. vol. viii. 
 where the lacuncB of previous editions, 
 have been supplied from the Paris MSS. 
 Like the generality of similar works, the 
 examples are taken chiefly from Homer, 
 Demosthenes, and iEschines, to which 
 are added about a dozen from Euripides, 
 Hei'odotiis, Isoci'ates, Sophocles, Thucy- 
 dides, and Xenophon. He has preserved, 
 however, a fragment of Euripides and of 
 Menander, not found elsewhere. 
 
 ALEXANDER OF .EGE, a peripa- 
 tetic philosopher, and the preceptor of 
 Nero, whom he characterised as a com- 
 povmd of mud and blood. It woidd seem 
 from Suidas, who tells the anecdote, that 
 the teacher had thrown in his teeth the 
 saying — 
 
 " Where bad are pupils, teachers must be worse." 
 
 ALEXANDER, a geographer, and 
 contemporary of Ptolemy, who says, in 
 ii. 14, that he discovered what is now 
 called the Isle of Borneo. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGO- 
 NIAN, an impostor and magician, born 
 in Asia Minor, travelled in the company 
 of another rogiie, selling predictions and 
 secrets. He performed some fortunate 
 ciu-es, which gained him credit ; he ob- 
 tained the confidence of Marcus Aure- 
 lius, who sent for him to Rome in the 
 year 174, where he caused himself to be 
 venerated as a dispenser of immortality, 
 
LE 
 
 ALE 
 
 prophesied that he should be killed by 
 lightning at the age of 150, and died at 
 70 of an ulcer in the leg. Lucian has 
 written his history, which would appear 
 a romance, were it not accredited by 
 medals of Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, 
 and L. Verus. It was in vain that ra- 
 tional men raised their voices against 
 him : he denounced his opponents as 
 Epicureans and Christians; showed a 
 serpent which he had adroitly made to 
 issue from an egg, and which he called 
 the god Esculapius ; and by such tricks 
 as these gained the support of the multi- 
 tude. 
 
 ALEXANDER L (St.) elected pope 
 in 109, the successor of St. Evarist, died 
 in 119. Fleury allows that the dates of 
 this epoch are uncertain, but states the 
 order of succession of the popes as un- 
 doubted. Nothing is known of the life 
 of Alexander L The epistles which bear 
 his name appear to be supposititious. 
 
 ALEXANDER II., whose name was 
 Anselmo di Bagio, elected pope in 1061, 
 was of an ancient and noble Milanese 
 family. The Germans refused to ac- 
 knowledge him, because the emperor, 
 though entreated so to do, had not for- 
 mally consented to his election ; and 
 Peter Cadalous, bishop of Parma, a pre- 
 late of loose moral character, who had 
 thrice been excommunicated, was op- 
 posed to him, under the title of Hono- 
 rius II. The antipope resolved to sup- 
 port his pretensions by force of arms, 
 and appeared suddenly before Rome 
 at the head of an army, April 14, 1062. 
 His troops obtained at first some advan- 
 tages ; but the duke of Tuscany marched 
 to the aid of Alexander, and Cadalous 
 was only able to escape by means of en- 
 treaties and presents. He did not, how- 
 ever, desist from his enterprise, though 
 it was never favoured by fortune. The 
 emperor of Germany, Henry IV., con- 
 tinued to be inimical to Alexander ; he 
 was fm'ther exasperated by the refusal 
 of the council of Mayence to sanction 
 his divorce from Bertha, daughter of the 
 marquis of Italy ; and under the suc- 
 ceeding pope, his resentment was attended 
 by the most untoward residts. When 
 William of Normandy undertook his ex- 
 pedition against England, Alexander 
 sent him a standard, as a mark of the 
 protection of St. Peter. After his con- 
 quest, William sent to the pope the 
 standard of Harold, and with it large 
 sums of gold and silver. The pope took 
 great care to secure the primacy in this 
 kingdom to the see of Canterbury, then 
 280 
 
 filled by Lanfranc. Alexander under- 
 took to repress simony, and to correct 
 the morals of the clergy, the abuses 
 amongst whom were now at their height, 
 especially in Germany. He died April 
 21, 1073, universally regi-etted. Several 
 miracles Avere attributed to him. Forty- 
 five of his letters are extant, all on points 
 of discipline and morality. 
 
 ALEXANDER III. of Sienna, was 
 known, before his elevation to the papal 
 see, as Rolando Ramuzio. At first canon 
 of Pisa, he was called to Rome by pope 
 Eugenio, who loadedhim with distinctions,, 
 and made him chancellor. His election to 
 the papal see, Sept. 7, 1159, was attended 
 with disgraceful scenes of violence. Of 
 twenty-five cardinals assembled on the 
 occasion, three refused him their suf- 
 frages, and chose Octavian, one of their 
 number, under the name of Victor IV. 
 Alexander was already invested with the 
 scarlet mantle, when his rival snatched 
 it from him ; one of the senators present 
 then seized it ; but Victor, with the aid 
 of his chaplain, again got possession of it. 
 These disorderly proceedings obliged 
 Alexander and his friends to take refiige 
 in the fortress of St. Peter, where they 
 remained nine days, guarded by soldiers 
 in the pay of the party of Victor, whence 
 they were carried to a prison beyond the 
 Tiber, but were finally liberated by the 
 people, headed by the nobles. Alex- 
 ander was then conducted to a place at 
 some distance from Rome, called Sancta 
 Nympha, and was there consecrated by 
 six bishops. The two rivals both wrote 
 to Frederic Barbarossa to solicit his ap- 
 probation. The emperor cited them 
 before the council of Pavia, which he 
 was about to assemble in order to pre- 
 vent a schism. By this council Alex- 
 ander was deposed, and he revenged 
 himself by excommunicating Frederic, 
 in an assembly of bishops and cardinals 
 held at Anagni. He afterwards fled 
 into France, the king of which countr}', 
 and Henry II. of England, both recog- 
 nised him : Palestine and the crusaders 
 were als? ranged on his side. It was in 
 France that Alexander became ac- 
 quainted with Thomas a Becket, whose 
 murder excited the greatest indignation : 
 his canonization, and the absolution of 
 Henry II. were the work of this pontiff. 
 In the mean time Victor died, and a 
 successor to him was appointed by 
 Frederic, imder the name of Pascal III. 
 The new antipope did not live long, and 
 was succeeded by Calixtus III., who 
 shortly renounced his pretensions, and 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 threw himself at the feet of Alexander, 
 who received him with joy, and treated 
 him with kindness. The schismatics, 
 however, raised up another pretender in 
 the person of Lando Sitino, whom they 
 named Innocent III. : he was afterwards 
 imprisoned at Cava. About this time, 
 Frederic, the emperor, was defeated by 
 the Venetians at the battle of Lignano ; 
 and it was after this event, that Alex- 
 ander presented his ring to the doge, 
 telling him to throw it into the sea, 
 which he gave him for a wife. A formal 
 reconciliation between the pope and the 
 emperor now took place at Venice, 
 whence Alexander returned to Rome. 
 His first care was to remedy the evils 
 which had been caused by the long 
 schism. He assembled the third council 
 of Lateran, where the East and West were 
 alike represented, and where the neces- 
 sary reforms were the subjects of dis- 
 cussion : amongst other matters it was 
 decreed, that henceforth two-thirds of 
 the voices of the cardinals should suffice 
 for the election of a pope. The unfor- 
 tunate state of Palestine induced Alex- 
 ander to preach a new crusade, in which 
 Philip Augustus, and Henry II. of Eng- 
 land engaged. Under this pontiff, it was 
 decreed that all Christians should be 
 exempt from slavery. He ched Aug. 30, 
 1181. He was famed for learning and 
 eloquence, but has left no works by 
 which we can appreciate them. 
 
 ALEXANDER IV., whose name was 
 Renaldo de Conti di Segni, was elected 
 pope at Naples, Oct. 25, 1254; he was 
 of the family of Signi, and the nepliew 
 of Gregory IX. He offered the king- 
 dom of Sicily, which was claimed by 
 the illegitimate son of Frederic II., to 
 Edmond, son of Henry III. of Eng- 
 land ; but this project was not executed. 
 During the whole course of a troubled 
 pontificate, he occupied himself assidu- 
 ously in the dischai'ge of his ecclesias- 
 tical duties ; but was a man of weak 
 character. It was in his days that the 
 Flagellants first appeared, a.d. 1259. 
 
 ALEXANDER V. whose name was 
 Philargo, was bom in the isle of Candia, 
 of poor and obscure parents, and spent 
 the first years of his life in begging from 
 door to door. An Italian brother of one 
 of the lesser orders, observing that he 
 possessed considerable talents, caused 
 him to be received into his fraternity, of 
 which the superiors afterwards sent the 
 youth to finish his studies at Oxford and 
 at Paris. Galiazo Visconti made him pre- 
 ceptor of his son, and he vras afterwards 
 281 
 
 promoted to the archbishopric of Milan. 
 Innocent VIII. invested him with the 
 purple, and at the age of 70 he was 
 raised to the see of Rome, by the council 
 of Pisa, June 26, 1409. It was hoped 
 that he would terminate the schism which 
 then prevailed in the West, and prove a 
 respectable adversary to Benedict XIII. 
 and to Gregory XII., but the hopes en- 
 tertained of liim were disappointed. He 
 did nothing for the reformation of the 
 church. His historians praise the purity 
 of his morals, but are silent on his other 
 qualities. He died at Bologna, after a pon- 
 tificate of only ten months and eight days. 
 ALEXANDER VI. was born at Va- 
 lentia in Spain, in 1430 or 1431, and 
 elected pope in 1492. His name was 
 Roderigo Lenzuoli, but he took that of 
 his mother, Borgia, who was the sister 
 of Calixtus III. and descended from an 
 ancient and niusti'ious family. He sig- 
 nalized himself in his youth by his talents 
 and by his profligacy. He had for a mis- 
 tress Rosa Venozza, a woman celebrated 
 for her beauty, and by whom he had five 
 children, of whom one, Lucretia, was 
 married four times, and suspected of in- 
 cestuous relations with her father and 
 brothers. Summoned to Rome by his 
 uncle Calixtus, he quitted Venozza, and 
 affected to practise the most rigorous mo- 
 rality. His mistress, however, soon joined 
 him, in the pontificate of Innocent VIII. 
 during whose last illness he purchased 
 the suffrages of several cardinals, and on 
 his decease was declared his successor, 
 Aug. 11, 1492. Under his predecessors 
 the authority of the sovereign pontiff 
 had been enfeebled, and the public trea- 
 sure had diminished ; and in restoring 
 these he contributed to the elevation of 
 his family, which seconded his endea- 
 vours. He formed an alliance against the 
 French with the king of Naples, on whom 
 he quartered three of his sons; he stretch- 
 ed out the hand of friendship even to the 
 Turks, persuading them that they had 
 every thing to fear from the ambition of 
 Charles VIII. of France, whose formid- 
 able attack upon Naples in fact compelled 
 the king Alfonso to take refuge in Sicily. 
 But a league formed between the pope, 
 the emperor Maximilian, the republic of 
 Venice, and the duke of Milan, obliged 
 Charles to withdraw from Italy ; and no 
 sooner had he departed, than Alexander 
 set about the accomplishment of his pro- 
 jects against the Roman barons, most of 
 whom had favoured the arms of the 
 French. In the midst of the intestine 
 commotions which ensued, Francis Bor- 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 gia, duke of Gandia, was assassinated. 
 His brother Csesar was said to have mur- 
 dered him fi-om envy, but the pope did 
 not appear to accuse liim ; on the con- 
 trary, he loaded him with favours, and 
 divested him of his dignity of cardinal 
 and bishop to raise him to still higher 
 honours, seeking to procure him for a 
 wife the daughter of Frederic, king of 
 Naples, who was then at the court of his 
 ally, Louis XIL king of France. By the 
 latter potentate Caesar was created duke 
 of Valentinois, and received with great 
 pomp at his court ; but the Neapolitan 
 princess repulsed with disdain the ad- 
 dresses of a Boi'gia. To revenge this 
 insult the pope deposed the king of 
 Naples ; and Louis consoled his protege 
 l)y marrying him to the daughter of 
 Albi-et, king of Navarre. Louis, who 
 had entered into a treaty with Ferdinand 
 the Catholic respecting the partition of 
 Naples, conciliated the affection of Alex- 
 ander in order the better to accomplish 
 his designs; and'the latter hoped that by 
 the successes of the French he should be 
 enabled the more easily to destroy or 
 despoil a multitude of princes and nobles, 
 who, under the title of vicars of the 
 church, had enriched themselves from 
 its ancient domains. The project, how- 
 ever, of the pope was discovered and 
 revealed by Ludovico Sforza ; but Alex- 
 ander did not the less persevere in his 
 schemes of aggrandizement. To defray 
 his immense expenses, he imposed, osten- 
 sibly for the purpose of a cnisade, enor- 
 mous taxes on all the states of Christen- 
 dom ; in Venice alone he levied a sum 
 equivalent to 799 pounds' weight of gold. 
 He sold indulgences, and set aside, in 
 his own favom-, the wills of sevei-al car- 
 dinals. These excesses roused the in- 
 dignation of Savonarola, a dominican of 
 Florence, who, both with the pen and 
 from the pidpit, inveighed against him, 
 and sought to induce the people to rise 
 in arms and depose him. His zeal met 
 with little sympathy, and the people at 
 length took part against him ; he was 
 excommmiicated, and afterwiirds hanged 
 and burnt. Alexander died Aug. 18, 
 1503, aged 74; some say, from taking by 
 mistake poison which he had prepared 
 for cardinal Adrian, Corneto, and several 
 others. His life appears to have been 
 one continued series of vices, which no 
 one can palliate, and none have been 
 able to deny. The principal historians 
 who have written upon Alexander are 
 Guiciardini, Burchard, Tomasi, P. Jovius, 
 and Gordon. 
 
 282 
 
 ALEXANDER VII. bom at Sienna 
 Feb. 12, 1599, of the illustrious family 
 of the Chigi, was elevated to the see of 
 Rome, April 7, 1655. His first public 
 act was to confirm the condemnation of 
 the propositions of Jansenius, the dispute 
 respecting which had occupied the two 
 preceding popes. He received at Rome 
 the famous Christina, queen of Sweden, 
 who had previously abjured Luthei'anism. 
 He canonized St. Francis de Sales and 
 St. Thomas de Villeneuve ; embellished 
 Rome with several edifices ; spent a con- 
 siderable sum in completing the College 
 de la Sapienza, to which he added an 
 excellent library ; and appointed the 
 learned librarian to the Vatican, Leo Al- 
 latius. He loved literature, which he him- 
 self cultivated with some success. A vo- 
 lume of his youthful poems was published 
 at the Louvre, 1056, fol. entitled Philo- 
 mathi Musae Juveniles. His character was 
 versatile, and he belied in his old age tJie 
 austerity which he had formerly prac- 
 tised. He placed a coffin imder his bed, 
 to familiarize himself with the idea of 
 death ; but this did not prevent him 
 from indulging afterwards in luxury. 
 He was a man of a little mind, and un- 
 equal to his station, but no serious charge 
 can be brought against his morality. 
 He died in 1667. An account of his 
 difficulties with the Jesuits, in regard to 
 the Chinese Mission, will be found in 
 Mosheim, vol. v. § 1. 
 
 ALEXANDER VIII. whose name was 
 Pietro Ottoboni, was son of the grand 
 chancellor of the Venetian republic. He 
 Avas chosen pope in 1689. He showed 
 himself inflexible in the disputes of the 
 church with Louis XIV., and siipplied 
 the Venetians and the emperor Leopold 
 with large sums of money to carry on 
 their war with the Turks. He was a 
 man of eloquence and ability, but his 
 pontificate was too short to furnish much 
 matter for history : he died Feb. 1, 1691. 
 His figure was noble, his manners en- 
 gaging, his conversation agreeable though 
 somewhat satirical. On his death-bed 
 he distributed to his nephews all the 
 money he had amassed ; which gave oc- 
 casion to Pasquin to say, " It would 
 have been better for the chuixh to have 
 been his niece than his daughter." (This 
 and the preceding sketches of popes are 
 taken chiefly from the Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALEXANDER I. king of Scotland, 
 and son of Malcolm III. and Margaret, 
 succeeded his brother Edgar about the 
 year 1106. His reign was chiefly re- 
 markable from the struggle which he 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 maintained for the independence of the 
 church of Scotland against the arch- 
 bishops of Canterbury and York, each of 
 whom claimed a superiority over Scot 
 land. He was surnamed The Fierce. 
 (Scott's History of Scotland.) 
 
 ALEXANDER IL (1198 — 1249,) 
 king of Scotland, was the son of William 
 the Lion and Ermengarde de Beaumont, 
 Having ascended the throne in 1214, he 
 was soon engaged in war with king John, 
 but afterwards (1221) married his daugh- 
 ter Joan. His reign was remarkable 
 chiefly for the difficulties which he met 
 with in repressing the violence of his 
 subjects towards each other, especially in 
 the case of the earl of Caithness and the 
 bishops of that diocese. He died in 1249 
 in Kerrara, one of the Hebrides, whither 
 he had gone to enforce his authority. 
 By Joan he left no family ; but by his 
 second wife, Mary de Couci, he left 
 a son, Alexander, who succeeded him. 
 (Id.) 
 
 ALEXANDER IH. (1241—1285.) 
 This sovereign, on coming to the throne 
 at 8 years of age, was involved in a dis- 
 pute with Henry III. of England, who 
 claimed a feudal superiority over Scot- 
 land, and endeavoured to prevail on the 
 pope to suspend the coronation of Alex- 
 ander. This, however, he refused to do, 
 and after some time Henry and Alex- 
 ander were reconciled, and the youthful 
 monarch of Scotland was betrothed to 
 Margaret, the daughter of the English 
 king. The contemporary historians (Mat- 
 thew of Paris, &c.) give a most remark- 
 able account of the magnificence of the 
 wedding festival at York, but space will 
 not permit our entering into these de- 
 tails. Comyn, earl of Menteith, in whose 
 hands the greater portion of the power 
 seems to have been vested, was accused 
 of secluding the queen in a lonely castle ; 
 and Henry took arms in his daughter's 
 behalf, while Durward seized the person 
 of the king and queen, and carried them 
 off to the English monarch. For some 
 years now the countiy was distracted by 
 the ambitious schemes of its nobility, 
 who tried to seize the king's person, as 
 their surest means of obtaining autho- 
 rity. These are matters however which 
 cannot be dwelt upon. The great 
 event of Alexander's life is his defeat of 
 Haco, the Norwegian king, who made a 
 descent on Scotland, near the mouth of 
 the Clyde, with a large armj', a,d. 1263. 
 The elements did much for Alexander in 
 dispersing and destroying many of the 
 enemy's ships ; and, under Providence, 
 283 
 
 the valour and the conduct of Alexander 
 completed the work, and the Norwegian 
 king was signally defeated at Largs. 
 Haco shortly after died, and his son Mag- 
 nus renounced his claim to the greater 
 part of the Norwegian dominions in Scot- 
 land. His daughter Margaret was after- 
 wards (1282) man-ied to Eric, the young 
 king of Norway, and died in giving birth 
 to the celebrated Maid of Norway, whose 
 untimely death was the cause of so much 
 conftision in Scotland, by opening the way 
 to a dispute on the succession. In 1284 
 Alexander, having become a widower, 
 married Joleta, daughter of the count of 
 Drew, but soon after his second marriage 
 he was accidentally killed by his horse 
 falling down a cliff in Fife. (Sir W. 
 Scott's Histoiy of Scotland. P. F. Tytler's 
 Scottish Worthies, &c.) 
 
 ALEXANDER JAGELLON, king 
 of Poland, succeeded his brother, John 
 Albert, in 1501. He was chosen from 
 his being duke of Lithuania, in order 
 that he might combine the interests of 
 the Poles and Lithuanians, and termi- 
 nate the fatal quarrels which had hitherto 
 raged betwen them. He commenced his 
 reign by an act of perfidy : instead of 
 succouring as an ally Schamatei, chief 
 of the Bulgarians, he seized that prince, 
 contrary to the law of nations, and kept 
 him in confinement. He held the reins 
 of government but feebly, and at length 
 surrendered them entirely to the guid- 
 ance of his favourite, Gliuski, who made 
 him the tool of his passions and caprices. 
 This prince, who was taciturn and me- 
 lancholy, weak and indolent, profuse 
 without being magnificent, and prodigal 
 without being generous, reigned fourteen 
 years in Lithuania and five in Poland. 
 
 ALEXANDER, (Benedict Stanislas,) 
 son of John Sobieski, king of Poland, 
 was born at Dantzic in 1677. In 1697 
 he was a pretender to the throne of Po- 
 land, but five years afterwards reiiised 
 the crown, when it was off'ered him by 
 Charles XII. This versatile prince died 
 at the age of 37 at Rome, where he had 
 become extremely devout. A short time 
 before his death he assumed the habit of 
 a Capuchin friar. The pope caused him 
 to be inteiTed with pomp, at the expense 
 of the apostolic chamber. 
 
 ALEXANDER, bishop of Lincoln, 
 one of the most magnificent prelates of 
 his day, was bom in Normandy, and Avas 
 nephew to the famous Roger, bishop of 
 Salisbiu-y. He was elected to the see of 
 Lincoln in 1123. He built several 
 princely castles, by which he excited the 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 jealousy of king Stephen, who besieged 
 the baronial prelate in Newark castle, 
 which he took, and consigned the bishop 
 to prison. Alexander, after some months, 
 obtained his delivery by giving up to the 
 king his castles and his treasures. In 
 1142 he went to Rome, from whence he 
 returned to England in the quality of 
 legate. In 1147 he died in his native 
 country, Noi-mandy, when on his return 
 from a second journey to Rome. He 
 rebuilt Lincoln cathedral after it had 
 been destroyed by fire, and founded two 
 monasteries. He was also an encourager 
 of literature, and the patron of Geoffrey 
 of Monmouth, who says of him, in the 
 Introduction to the Prophecies of Merlin, 
 " Non erat alter in clero sive in populo 
 cui tot famularentur nobiles, quos ipsius 
 inansueta pietas et benigna largitas in 
 obsequium ejus alliciebat." 
 
 ALEXANDER, (D. St., 1220—1263,) 
 surnamed Nevski/, grand prince of Russia, 
 was the third son of Jaroslaf II. 
 
 To understand Russian history during 
 the middle ages, it is necessary to ob- 
 serve that the country was split into 
 sevei'al principalities, governed by mem- 
 bers of the same family, and dependent 
 (in theory, at least, for in practice the 
 connexion was frequently disregarded) 
 on a feudal superior, the grand prince, 
 who held his court at Vladimir, and who 
 was the chief of the great dynasty de- 
 scended from Ruric (see the name) ; and 
 the established order of succession was, 
 that the brothers of a deceased grand 
 prince should succeed in preference to 
 his sons. Thus Jaroslaf, the father of 
 St. Alexander, succeeded his uncle, 
 Jury II., who died in 1238 ; not his 
 father, Usevolod III., who died in 1212. 
 When each prince of the family arrived 
 at a suitable age, he was invested with a 
 feudal government, by waj^ of appanage. 
 Jai'oslaf, when called to the supreme 
 dignity, was prince of Novogrod : his 
 first act of authority was to invest his 
 son Alexander with it ; and leaving that 
 son in Novogrod (1238), he hastened to 
 Vladimir. 
 
 No period in Russian history is so 
 melancholy as the one before us ; and 
 before we advert to the leading incidents 
 of prince Alexander's life, we must cast 
 a glance at events which had just tran- 
 spired. 
 
 In 1223, the Mongol Tartars, forming 
 a portion of the army of Ghengis Khan, 
 had first entered Russia, and committed 
 atrocities which almost exceed belief. 
 A river of fire, to use the expressive 
 284 
 
 language of the chroniclers, had passed 
 over it, and destroyed every thing in its 
 course. Novogrod, and some districts 
 in the north, had escaped, — for what 
 reason we know not; but the Tartars, 
 when within twenty leagues of the city, 
 had suddenly turned round, and repaired 
 to the head-quarters of Ghengis, in Great 
 Bokhara. 
 
 After an absence of about a dozen 
 years, viz. in 1236, the Tartars returned. 
 They were headed by a grandson of 
 Ghengis, the formidable Baty, khan of 
 Kaptschak, or the Golden Horde. Rezan 
 and Kief, and twelve of the chief cities, 
 were laid in ashes. The destroying tide 
 rolled on towards Vladimir, before any 
 serious effort was made to arrest it. 
 What indeed could arrest half a million 
 of men? Yet Jury, the grand prince, 
 might surely have found a more fitting 
 time for entertainments than one when 
 the conquerors of Asia were at his gates, 
 literally making a desert as they passed 
 along. At length he fled, leaving the 
 inhabitants of Vladimir to resist or capi- 
 tulate as they coidd. That city suffered 
 the fate of many others : it was taken, 
 reduced to ashes, and its inhabitants 
 slaughtered : not one, we are told, 
 escaped death. Thus Baty proceeded ; 
 but he had no intention to remain long 
 in a country which his followers had 
 previously devastated. Having exacted 
 tribute from the Russian princes, he 
 proceeded to the south, and after sub- 
 duing many nations, established himself 
 on the banks of the Amoor, as a kind 
 of central position where he might super- 
 intend his conquests, receive his tributes, 
 and depart for new enterprises. To 
 his court, all the Russian princes were 
 compelled to send their tributes : there, 
 too, each was to receive investiture on 
 succeeding to his fief. If a city rebelled, 
 or omitted to send the stipulated reve- 
 nues at the exact time, a host of warriors 
 immediately issued from the Golden 
 Horde, and that city was swept from the 
 face of the earth. Strange to say, how- 
 ever, the clergy were protected ; nay, 
 their privileges were much increased. 
 If a favour was to be obtained, they 
 only coidd be employed ; and insult 
 towards them was punished by death, 
 even if the offender was one of the 
 bravest servants of the khan. On the 
 other hand, the princes and nobles were 
 treated with rigour, often with con- 
 tumely. 
 
 Reverting to the youthful Alexander, 
 who, as we have already observed, was 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 invested with the fief of Novogrocl on 
 the elevation of his father to the throne 
 of Vladimir. In conformity with the 
 general practice, Jaroslaf proceeded to 
 the Golden Horde for investituie; and 
 he procured it, — less through his ab- 
 stract right, than through the presents 
 which he bore to the great king. Alex- 
 ander, therefore, did not dread any new 
 hostility from his Tartar superior ; but 
 he soon found that he had other enemies. 
 The misfortunes of Russia encouraged 
 the Lithuanians, the Livonians, the Tar- 
 taric knights, and the Swedes, to enci'oach 
 on her western frontier. A body of 
 Scandinavians, commanded by Birger, 
 son-in-law of the Swedish king, entered 
 the Neva, and summoned Alexander to 
 yield or fight. The young hero adopted 
 the latter alternative, flew to the banks 
 of that river, obtained a complete victory, 
 and was thenceforth surnamed Nevsky, 
 (or Nefsky) from the locality which wit- 
 nessed the exploit. Great was the joy 
 of the citizens at the success ; but their 
 gratitude was not commensurate. They 
 accused the prince of tyranny, — perhaps 
 not altogether without foundation ; and 
 gave him so much trouble, that he left 
 them to join his father at Vladimir, 
 which was already risen from its ashes. 
 Another of Jaroslaf 's sons was sent to 
 supply his place, while he was invested 
 with another and inferor principality. 
 That governor soon showed his incom- 
 petency; and as the enemy again ap- 
 peared, the citizens, apprehensive for 
 the result, solicited Alexander to re- 
 turn. He sternly refused. New enemies 
 arriving, ( Livonians, Swedes, Slavonic 
 adventurers,) a second embassy was sent 
 to him, and at its head was the metro- 
 politan Cyril. He coidd no longer resist, 
 especially when his father's commands 
 were added. At his approach, the 
 invaders retired into Livonia ; he pursued, 
 and obtained a complete victory. To 
 the Germans he was clement ; to the 
 Slavonic adventurers he showed no 
 mercy. A second victoiy was no less 
 decisive, and no less splendid : four hun- 
 dred Livonian knights fell on the spot ; 
 fifty were made prisoners. Flushed with 
 his success, Alexander appeared befoi-e 
 the gates of Riga ; but he was not so 
 quixotic as to pursue his advantage fur- 
 ther, and he returned in triumph to 
 Pskof, which he had rescued from the 
 foreign yoke. His reception was a noble 
 one. A subsequent expedition was no 
 less fortunate ; it was even brilliant. In 
 short, his administration was one of 
 285 
 
 glory ; and the report of his merits 
 reached even the Golden Horde. 
 
 On the death of Jaroslaf, in 1247, 
 Sviatoslaf succeeded to the grand princi- 
 pality of Vladimir, with the superiority 
 over the rest of the family. To him 
 succeeded Andrew, (1251, 1252,) who 
 having a spirit too high for dependence 
 on the Tartars, disobeyed them and fled. 
 During the short reign of both, Alex- 
 ander distinguished himself by his pru- 
 dence. He punctually sent his tribute ; 
 and on the flight of his brother, was de- 
 clared grand prince by the khan of the 
 Golden Horde. To that potentate he 
 repaired for investiture, leaving his son 
 Vassily governor of Novogrod. He was 
 well received ; a proof that the Tartars 
 were not so insensible of real n.erit as 
 the chroniclei's of the times woidd have 
 us believe. His reception at Vladimir 
 was enthusiastic. Indeed, if there was 
 any hope for Russia at this period, it lay 
 in him ; for he excelled in the two 
 qualities most necessary to a ruler, — 
 prudence and valour. But he had all 
 the weakness of a father ; he shut his 
 eyes to the misconduct of his sun Vassily, 
 and was deeply offended with the people 
 of Novogrod for expelling him. When 
 the citizens had again need of the father's 
 aid against the Swedes, Finns, and Ger- 
 mans, they restored the son. The in- 
 vaders were soon expelled, and Finland 
 laid waste by the grand prince. 
 
 In 1256, Alexander again visited the 
 Golden Horde, partly to do homage to 
 the new khan, Birky, and partly to avert 
 from northern Russia a capitation tax, 
 Avhich had already been imposed on the 
 southei-n provinces. The Tartaric en- 
 campment was now removed to the 
 banks of the Volga, — no doubt to be 
 nearer the supplies which Russia fur- 
 nished. His application was unsuccess- 
 ful ; and the collectors of this obnoxious 
 impost followed in his steps. Nowhere 
 was it so obnoxious as at Novogi-od ; yet 
 Alexander was enjoined to protect the 
 collectors in that city. He therefore 
 commanded his son Vassily to perform 
 this painfid duty; but to his surprise 
 that son refused, at the instigation of the 
 chief inhabitants. Knowing that resist- 
 ance to the tax might lead to the entire 
 ruin of the empire, he caused Vassily to 
 be ari'ested, and his advisers to be exe- 
 cuted, — a dreadfid act, which does little 
 credit to his memory. The truth is, 
 that he was too ready an instrument of 
 Tartaric despotism. Nothing short of 
 his personal influence could have dis- 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 posed the people of Novogrod to obey ; 
 and sometimes that was scarcely sufK- 
 cient ; but at length the tax was collected, 
 and he returned to his principality of 
 Vladimir. 
 
 In 1262, the grand prince a third 
 time repaired to Kaptschak. His object 
 seems to have been twofold : to procure 
 a countermand of the order, that Russian 
 troops were to fight the battles of the 
 khan in Asia ; and to justify himself 
 from a suspicion, that he had connived 
 at the massacre of some Asiatic mer- 
 chants who had farmed the revenues, 
 and collected them with much severity. 
 He had, probably, not the power to 
 punish. The khan, who was at Sarai on 
 the Volga, was a man of more cultivated 
 manners than Baty : he was a friend of 
 literature and science, and so liberal that 
 lie allowed the metropolitan to found a 
 cathedral in his very sight. Alexander 
 succeeded in both his objects, and was 
 detained a full year, a guest of the mo- 
 narch. In the autumn of 1263, he took 
 his leave of Birky, but he was never 
 again to see either Vladimir or Novogrod: 
 he died at Gorodetz in the November 
 following. In his last moments he as- 
 sumed the monachal habit, — a common 
 practice at that time. The anguish of 
 his attendants was so great, that he bade 
 them retire, lest the sight of it should 
 disturb his fleeting spirit. Soon after 
 his death, miracles were said to be 
 wrought at his tomb ; but we know not 
 that he was finally received amongst the 
 tutelary deities of Russia until a com- 
 paratively recent period. By Peter the 
 Great his bones were removed from the 
 monastery in which they had been de- 
 posited, to the banks of the Neva, where 
 victory had immortalized him. By the 
 empress Elizabeth, a silver tomb was 
 erected in his honour. A military order, 
 as every body knows, has beeai esta- 
 blished under his advocation. [Levesque, 
 by Malte Brun and Depping, Histoire de 
 Russie, tom. ii. Karamsin, Histoire, 
 tom. iv. Tooke, History of the Russian 
 Empire, vol. i.] A very elaborate article 
 on this sovereign, with large references to 
 Russian authorities, will be found in 
 Ersch and Grueber's Encycl. 
 
 ALEXANDER DE BERNAY, or 
 Alexander of Paris, a French poet of 
 the beginning of the thirteenth century, 
 of whom nearly all that is known is 
 conveyed in a single sentence of his own 
 greatest poem. He says that he was 
 born at Bernay, in the diocese of Lisieux, 
 in Normandy, but that he had spent 
 286 
 
 the greater part of his life in Paris, on 
 which account he was more frequently 
 designated by the latter of the two names 
 we have given, than by the former. He 
 is best known for the romance of Alex- 
 ander, a long poem, which seems to have 
 been partly written by another poet, 
 Lambert de Chasteaudun, before he took 
 it up. This we learn from some lines in 
 the introduction, already referred to : — 
 
 La verite de I'istoire si com li roys la fist, 
 
 Un clerc de Chasdiaudun, Lambert li cors, I'escrit, 
 
 Qui du Latin la trest et en Romant la mist. 
 
 » » • * • 
 
 Alixandre nous dit que de Bernay fu nez, 
 Et de Paris refu ses sournoms appellez, 
 Qui ot les siens vers o les Lambert mellez. 
 
 Alexander also wrote two other romances, 
 one entitled Athis and Profilias, the other 
 the romance of Helen the mother of St. 
 Martin. The latter appears to be lost. In 
 the 15th volume of the Histoire Litteraire 
 de la France, along with a notice of the 
 author, are given detailed abstracts, with 
 extracts, of the two poems of Alexander, 
 which are preserved. The writer of this 
 article thinks they were written towards 
 the end of the twelfth century ; but we 
 are more inclined to ascribe them to the 
 earlier part of the thirteenth. Many 
 writers have erroneously attributed to 
 this poet the invention of Alexandrine 
 verses, which they suppose to be named 
 from him. 
 
 ALEXANDER, called also Celestinus, 
 was a Sicilian monk of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, who wrote a history of the life and 
 reign of Roger, king of Sicily, which is 
 contained in the fifth volume of the Col- 
 lection of Muratori. 
 
 ALEXANDER ESSEBIENSIS, (of 
 Ashby,) a celebrated English theologian 
 and poet, who flourished about the year 
 1220. Scarcely any thing is known of 
 his history, except that he appears to 
 have been prior of Ashby Canons, in 
 Northamptonshire. Some writers make 
 him a native of Somersetshire ; others of 
 StaflTordshire ; and some have confounded 
 him with Alexander Necham. He wrote 
 various theological and liistorical works 
 in prose, particidarly a chronicle of 
 England, which are still found scattered 
 in manuscripts. His poetry, in which 
 he sovight to imitate Ovid and Ausonius, 
 is much praised by Bale. Amongst 
 other poems, we may enumerate one in 
 elegiacs, giving a description of all the 
 saints' days throughout the year, with 
 lives of the saints who were celebrated 
 on each ; a metrical compendium of Bible 
 History; and a Life of St. Agnet. Af\ir- 
 ther account of Alexander's works will be 
 
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 found in Tanner's Bibliotheca, and in 
 Leyser's Hist. Poet. Med. JEvi. 
 
 ALEXANDER, called by Bale Le 
 Pargiter, an English ecclesiastic of the 
 thirteenth century. He was first a Bene- 
 dictine monk of the monastery of St. 
 Augustine, at Canterbury, of which 
 house he was made abbot in 1213. He 
 was distinguished by his steady adhe- 
 rence to king John, in opposition to the 
 pope, for which reason he was excom- 
 municated by Pandidf, the legate, and 
 
 zig in 1594, at Venice again in 1575, 
 and at Cologne in 1621. The Summa 
 was still more frequently printed : editions 
 are mentioned, printed at Venice in 1475, 
 at Nuremberg in 1481 and 1482, at Paris 
 in 1489, at Venice in 1496, at Basil in 
 1502, at Lyons in 1515 and 1516, and 
 in 1575 and 1576 (in 4 vols, folio), at 
 Venice, also in 4 vols, in 1576, at Cologne 
 in 1622, &c. 
 
 ALEXANDER DE VILLE-DIEU, 
 {de Villa Dei,) a grammarian and poet 
 
 deprived of his clerical station. He died of the thirteenth century, who is supposed 
 
 in great poverty about the year 1220, 
 according to the best authorities, though 
 some place his death in 1217. He wrote 
 several works, which are enumerated by 
 Tanner. 
 
 ALEXANDER DE HALES, one of 
 the most profound theologians of the 
 thirteenth century, though his personal 
 history is involved in much obscurity. It 
 is not certain where or even when he 
 was born ; but it is supposed that he re- 
 ceived his surname either from being 
 born in the village, or from having been 
 a monk in the monastery, of Hailes in 
 Gloucestershire. At an early age he 
 had so far distinguished himself by his 
 
 to have been born some time in the latter 
 part of the twelfth century, and to have 
 died about the year 1240. Some writers 
 say that he was born at Dol in Brittany, 
 and give him the name of Alexander 
 Dolensis ; while others make him a na- 
 tive of Ville-Dieu in Lower Normandy. 
 The only incident of his life that we know, 
 is preserved in an entry in a manuscript 
 at Helmstadt, and which has been printed 
 by Polycarpe Leyser, in his History of 
 the Middle-Age Latin Poets. Accord- 
 ing to this entry, there were three cele- 
 brated scholars at the same time, who 
 were driven b}'^ poverty to set up separate 
 schools, and to teach grammar in the 
 
 learning, as to be raised to the dignity of university of Paris ; these were an indi- 
 archdeacon. He afterwards went over vidual named Yso, an Englishman whose 
 to France in order to pursue his stu- name was Rodolf, and Alexander ; and 
 dies in the university of Paris, where, they agreed together that each should 
 after having taken the degree of doctor, lecture upon separate parts of the sub- 
 he himself gave lessons in philosophy ject. In course of time, the Englishman 
 and theology. In the midst of his ce- was made a bishop, and Yso died, and the 
 
 lebrity, in the year 1222, he suddenly 
 entered into the oi'der of the Francis- 
 cans ; and he set the first example of 
 a monk of this order retaining the title 
 of doctor. Alexander de Hales was most 
 celebrated between the years 1230 and 
 1240. It was in 1243 tliat, by the ex- 
 press order of pope Innocent IV., who 
 had formed a very high opinion of his 
 lectures, Alexander arranged the large 
 system of theology which is known as 
 his Summa. The great fame of this 
 writer, and the little which seems to have 
 been ever known of his personal history, 
 left room for the invention of many 
 fables, which have been repeated by 
 some of his biographers. An article of 
 some extent, by M. Daimou, is dedicated 
 to Alexander de Hales, in the eighteenth 
 volume of the Histoire Litteraire de la 
 France. Many works have been attri- 
 buted to him, but none, as it appears, 
 with much reason except the Summa 
 above mentioned, and some commenta- 
 ries on the Scriptures. The commentaries 
 were printed at Venice in 1496, at Leip- 
 287 
 
 papers (or rather the parchments) of 
 both fell into the hands of Alexander de 
 Ville-Dieu, who reduced the whole mass 
 of doctrine into one treatise, and turned 
 it into verse; and although the doctrines 
 it contained belonged to the three, yet 
 as Alexander had put it into verse, it 
 always went by his name, and was gene- 
 rally spoken of under the title of Docfri- 
 nale Magislri Alexandri. The date of 
 its publication was perpetuated in the 
 following three lines : — 
 
 " Anno milleno ducentenoque noveno, 
 Doctor Alexander egregius atque magister, 
 Doctrinale suura dedit in commune legendum." 
 
 The grammar thus composed in 1209 
 continued to be one of the most populai 
 elementary books in use even for some 
 time after the revival of learning. It is 
 found in numerous manuscripts, and was 
 very frequently printed in the fifteenth 
 century. One of these editions is said 
 to have appeared so early as 1470. Alex- 
 ander de Ville-Dieu was the axithor of 
 several other poems ; as a compendium 
 
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 of the Bible, printed by Jean de la Haye in 
 his edition of the Bible in 1660; a poem 
 on the twelve months, and on the saint 
 days, under the title of Massa Compoti, 
 which was printed at a very early date ; 
 another poein on the Sphere, and a third on 
 Arithmetic, which latter has been printed 
 recently by Mr. Halliwell, in the Rara 
 Mathematica (1839). A translation into 
 Latin verse of the Acts of the Apostles 
 has also been attribvited to this writer. 
 An article of some extent on Alexander 
 de Ville-Dieu will be found in the eigh- 
 teenth volume of the Histoire Litteraire 
 de la France. It is somewhat remark- 
 able that the writer of that article has so 
 far misunderstood the paragraph printed 
 by Leyser, that he makes Yso, and not 
 Rodolph, the Englishman. 
 
 ALEXANDER AB ALEXANDRO, 
 a Neapolitan lawyer of noble family, 
 born about 1461, studied at Rome, then 
 practised as advocate at Naples, but 
 abandoned his profession from the ini- 
 quity of the judgments which he wit- 
 nessed. He devoted himself to literature, 
 particularly to philology and antiquarian 
 studies. His work, the Genialium Die- 
 rum, a miscellany of learning and phi- 
 lology, is modelled somewhat after the 
 Noctes Atticas of Aldus Gellius. Tira- 
 boschi speaks of it as a magazine of mat- 
 ter, fi'om which a skilful hand is required 
 to extract what is valuable. The first 
 edition was printed at Rome, 1522, folio. 
 Tiraqueau bestowed a commentary on it 
 entitled Semestria; Lyons, 1586, folio. 
 The best edition is that of Ley den, 1675, 
 2 vols. 8vo. Mr. Roscoe, in his Life of 
 Leo, praises Alexander as a man of ex- 
 tensive reading, great industry, and con- 
 siderable critical ability. He died at 
 Rome, aged about 62. 
 
 ALEXANDER, (Noel, in Latin Na- 
 talis,) a learned ecclesiastical writei', of 
 the order of St. Dominic, born at Rouen, 
 in Normandy, in 1639 ; was professor of 
 philosophy and theology for twelve years 
 in his order ; was provincial in 1706 ; in 
 1709, was banished to Chatellerault for 
 having svibscribed to the celebrated Cas 
 de Conscience; and in 1723, was de- 
 prived of his pension on account of his 
 opposition to the bull Unigenitus. He 
 died at Paris in 1724, after having lost 
 his sight some time before in consequence 
 of his great labours. His opinions on 
 Jansenism did not prevent him from re- 
 taining to the last the esteem of the most 
 illustrious prelates of the French church, 
 and even of Benedict XHL, who called 
 him his master. Between 1676 and 1686, 
 288 
 
 appeared his Ecclesiastical Histofy, in 
 24 vols. 8vo. This work was pTo- 
 scribed by Innocent XI. on account of 
 the boldness with which the author de- 
 clared himself for the interests of France ; 
 but this did not prevent him from con- 
 tinuing his labovn-s, and from publishing, 
 on the same plan, in 1689, the History 
 of the Old Testament, in 6 vols. Svo. 
 In 1693, he wrote a work on Moral The- 
 ology, according to the order of the 
 Catechism of the Council of Trent, of 
 which the best edition is that of Paris, 
 1703, folio, 2 vols : shortly afterwards 
 appeared his Commentaries on the New 
 Testament, 2 vols, folio. This learned 
 Dominican is also the author of several 
 other less considerable productions, e.g. 
 of Dissertations against Frassen, on the 
 Vulgate ; against Launoi, to prove the 
 authenticity of some works of S. Thomas 
 Aquinas ; La Denonciation du Peche 
 Philosophique ; Lettres sur le Thomisme ; 
 Apologie des Dominicains Missionaires 
 de la Chine ; Conformite des Ceremonies 
 Chinoises avee ITdolatrie des Grecs et 
 des Romains. A list of the rest of his 
 works is contained in the fom"th volume 
 of the Necrology of the most celebrated 
 defenders of the Faith. Although gene- 
 rally opposed to the vltra moitane notions 
 of the authority of the pope, he is blamed 
 in the Biographic Universelle for his de- 
 fence of those princes, who persecuted 
 the Albigenses with fire and sword. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALEXANDER, (William, earlof Ster- 
 line, or Stirling,) son of Andrew Alex- 
 ander, of Menstrie, Clackmanan, was 
 born in 1580. He enjoyed in his youth 
 the advantage of travelling as tutor or 
 companion to the earl of Argyle. In his 
 15th year he commenced a series of 
 songs, sonnets, and elegies, which he 
 completed on his return from abroad, 
 and gave to the whole the title of Aurora, 
 containing the first fancies of the author's 
 youth. One huncked and odd sonnets, 
 with a dozen songs and elegies, are a 
 tolerable specimen of the fecundity of 
 genius suffering under unrequited love. 
 The lady having married, he consoled 
 himself by doing the same ; the daughter 
 and heiress of Sir Wm. Erskine became 
 his wife, and by her he had a family of 
 three sons and two daughters. The mind 
 of Alexander was of a contemplative, 
 philosophic, and religious cast, and he 
 devoted the next efforts of his muse to 
 the instruction of princes and rulers. 
 In 1603 he published Darius, a tragedy, 
 or rather a dramatic poem, on the fall of 
 
ALE 
 
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 that monarch under the arms of Alex- 
 ander. This was repnhlished next year 
 with Croesus, and a Paraenesis, or Ex- 
 hortation on Government, addressed to 
 pi'ince Henry, the eldest son of James. 
 The Croesus includes the stories of So- 
 lon, and of Atys and Adrastus, so beau- 
 tifully told by Herodotus. Pinkerton 
 styles the Paraenesis a noble poem, and 
 it certainly contains many sentiments 
 and some stanzas deserving that name ; 
 it contains sage and sound advice for the 
 choice of counsellors, and enforces the 
 study of history, and generally the pur- 
 suit of knowledge, as peculiarly incum- 
 bent upon those who are installed on a 
 throne. In 1604, also, the Aurora was 
 published ; and in 1 607, the Alexandrsean 
 tragedy and Julius Caesar were added to 
 tlie Darius and Croesus, under the title of 
 The Monarchicke Tragedies enlarged. 
 The Alexandraean tragedy details the 
 midtitude of murders committed by Cas- 
 sander, " which gave to him (says the 
 author) the crown of Macedonia, and to 
 me the subject of this polyti-agicke tra- 
 gedie." Each drama opens with a long 
 soliloquy, to the extent of even five folio 
 pages, and the whole, except the cho- 
 ruses, are written in quatrain stanzas of 
 alternate rhymes. They all abound with 
 wholesome lessons on the inconstancy 
 of fortune, the instability of wealth and 
 grandeiu', the madness of ambition, and 
 the abuse of power, conveyed in strains 
 of impressive, but prolix and rather heavy 
 poetry. The choruses (after the mea- 
 sures of the Greeks) are contained in 
 Chalmers's Edition of the Poets. Alex- 
 ander never degraded himself by wTitings 
 in servile flattery of the king ; and James, 
 who had discrimination enough to see so 
 far into the character of our author's 
 productions, as to confer upon him the 
 name of My Philosophical Poet, appointed 
 him, in 1613, one of the gentlemen 
 ushers to prince Charles. The next year 
 he published at Edmburgh his large 
 work, Doomesday, or the Great Day of 
 Judgment. This poem, which is divided 
 into twelve books, called hours, is written 
 in a spirit of deep and fervent piety, and 
 the same spirit may support a reader to 
 travel to the end of it. In this same 
 year Alexander was knighted, and he 
 now began to act a more enterprisng 
 part in life. The pacific reign of James 
 was favourable to the establishment of 
 colonies : Alexander, associating with 
 otker adventurers, projected a settlement 
 in Nova Scotia, and of this territory the 
 king made to him a grant. Tlio scheme 
 vol.. I. 289 
 
 eventually failed, and Alexander sold his 
 grant to the French, for, it is said, between 
 five and six thousand pounds. Charles 
 had continued to encourage the project 
 after his father's death, and had created 
 a certain number of baronets, who pur- 
 chased their titles, and had in return a 
 certain portion of land allotted to them. 
 When their chief sold the whole to the 
 French, these persons were left in the 
 lurch. Though the knight incuired much 
 obloquy by his conduct, he retained the 
 favour of the king, who, in 1626, made 
 him secretary of state for Scotland; in 
 1630 created him viscount ; and in 1633, 
 on the coronation at Holyrood, an earl. 
 In 1637 he republished, in one folio vo- 
 lume, under the title of Recreations with 
 the Muses, an improved edition of his 
 poetical works, with the exception of 
 Aurora, and the addition of the first 
 book of Jonathan, An heroicke Poem in- 
 tended. He died on the 12th of Febniary, 
 1640. The title became extinct in 1739, 
 on the death of the grandson of his own 
 second son Henry. A claimant appeared 
 in 1776, who did not succeed in esta- 
 blishing his title ; and at this time, 1839, 
 there is an individual, who has for some 
 years been prosecuting a suit to be ad- 
 mitted to the earldom. Besides the 
 poetical works already mentioned, and 
 some few sonnets accompanying the 
 works of other writers, Alexander revised 
 a version of the Psalms, and also wrote 
 some pieces in prose ; — A Supplement to 
 Sidney's Arcadia, 1621 ; — An Encourage- 
 ment to Colonies, 1625; — A Map and 
 Description of New England ; 1630. 
 Various contemporary poets have com- 
 memorated his virtues as a man, and 
 his excellences as a writer. Among 
 these is Drayton, who must be allowed 
 to close this memoir — 
 
 " Yet in speaking thus, 
 I do but show the love, that was 'twixt us, 
 And not his numbers; which were brave and high : 
 So like his mind was his clear poesy." 
 
 ALEXANDER, (Nicholas,) a Bene- 
 dictine of the congregation of St. Maur, 
 born at Paris in 1654, died at St. Denys in 
 1 728, is the author of two useful woi"ks — 
 La Medicine et la Chirurgie des Pauvres ; 
 Paris, 12mo, 1738: and a Dictionnaire 
 Botanique and Pharmaceutique ; 8vo. 
 
 ALEXANDER, or ALEXANDRE, 
 (Dom Jacques,) known by his Treatise on 
 Clocks, was born at Orleans, January 24, 
 1653. His work, which is now scarce, is 
 principally valuable for the list it con- 
 tains of all preceding writings on the same 
 subject. He wrote also on tides, attri- 
 U 
 
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 bating them to the motion of the earth 
 round the moon. He was an ecclesiastic 
 of the congregation of St. Maiir, and died 
 in the monastery de Bonne-Nouvelle at 
 the age of 82. 
 
 ALEXANDER D'IMOLA. SeeTAR- 
 
 TAGNI. 
 
 ALEXANDER, (John, 1736—1765,) 
 a dissenting nunister at Longdon, near 
 Birmingham, and the author of a Para- 
 phrase on the Fifteenth Chapter of the 
 Epistle to the Corinthians, and a Disser- 
 tation on the Sixth and Seventh Chapters 
 of the Epistle to the Romans, published 
 posthumously by J. Palmer, also a dis- 
 senting minister. He was author of 
 some essays in The Library, &c. His 
 father was an English cUssenting minister 
 settled in L'eland. His brother. Dr. 
 Benj. Alexander, translated Morgagni 
 de Morbis, &c. ;3 vols. 4to. 1769. 
 
 ALEXANDER, (William, 1767 — 
 1816.) This artist was the son of a 
 coachmaker at Maidstone. In 1784, he 
 became a student of the Royal Academy, 
 from which time until 1792, when he was 
 appointed one of the draughtsmen to the 
 embassy to China, he assiduously applied 
 himself to the study of liis profession, 
 and obtained the notice and approbation 
 of Sir Joshua Reynolds. He proceeded 
 witli the earl of Macartney as far as Pe- 
 kin, where he made the drawings for the 
 plates which accompany Sir George 
 Staunton's account of that embassy ; and 
 afterwards published also The Costuiue of 
 China, illustrated by ninety-six coloured 
 engravings, (2 vols. 4to. 1805 — 1815.) 
 The other principal works of this artist 
 were Views of Headlands, Islands, &c. 
 taken during the Voyage to China, 1 798 ; 
 the drawings from Mr.Daniells's Sketches, 
 for Vancouver's Voyage to the North 
 Pacific Ocean, and the descriptive plates 
 to Mr.Barrow's Travels in China, andVoy- 
 age to Cochin China. In the years 1810, 
 1812, and 1815, three volumes of en- 
 gi-avings from terra cottas and marbles 
 in the British Museum, were published 
 by the ti-ustees of that institution, the 
 drawings for which were executed by 
 him, the descriptive letter-press being 
 from the pen of Mr. Taylor Combe. 
 Before his death, Mr. Alexander had 
 completed drawings for a fourth volume. 
 In 1802, he was appointed professor of 
 drawing at the Military College at Great 
 Marlow, which office he resigned in 
 1808, upon obtaining that of assistant 
 keeper of the antiquities in the British 
 Museum. The leading characteristics 
 of this artist's works, which were usually 
 290 
 
 executed in water colours, were clearness 
 and harmony of colour, simplicity and 
 taste in composition, grace of outline, 
 and delicacy of execution. Besides his 
 works as a draughtsman, there are se- 
 veral engravings by his hand : the prin- 
 cipal one of which is a representation of 
 tlie Festival given by the Earl of Rom- 
 ney to the Kentish Volunteers, on the 
 1st of August, 1799, from a drawing 
 made by himself. 
 
 ALEXANDER, (John,) a Scotch en- 
 graver, who settled at Rome about 1718. 
 His works are of a very inferior quality ; 
 the principal of them are from Pictures 
 by Raffaelle, a set of six of which are 
 dedicated to Cosmo III. grand duke 
 of Tuscany. (Heinecken, Diet, des Ar- 
 tistes. Strutt's Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 ALEXANDER, (Paulowitz, 1777— 
 1825,) emperor of Russia, was the eldest 
 son of Paul I. and of Maria Federowna, his 
 second wife. He was born at Petersburgh, 
 Dec. 13, 1777. He was educated under 
 the superintendence of his grandmother, 
 Catherine II., who kept him apart fron> 
 his father, intending him to succeed, 
 instead of the latter to the throne. At 
 16, he was married to the granddaughter 
 of the grand duke Frederick of Baden, 
 who, on becoming a member of the 
 Greek church, assumed the name of 
 Elizabetli Alexiewna. On the night of 
 the 23d of March, 1801, Paul I. was 
 assassinated, and immediately afterwards 
 Alexander was saluted as emperor by 
 the conspirators. Tliough he had been 
 well aware of the conspiracy against his 
 father, he had only contemplated his de- 
 thronement ; and it is said that he liesi- 
 tated at first to accept the crown ; but 
 this hesitation was of short dm'ation. 
 His accession was signalized by a series 
 of beneficial measures, many of them 
 revoking the absurd and vexatious ordi- 
 nances which his father had lately issued. 
 He put an end by a convention to the 
 differences which Paul had had with 
 England, and maintained the ti-eaties 
 existing between Russia and France. 
 In June 1802, he had an interview at 
 Memel with the king of Prussia, of which 
 the object was the independence of Ger- 
 many, then menaced by the encroach- 
 ments of France. On his return, he 
 labom-ed strenuously to improve the 
 administration of justice throughout his 
 dominions ; he encouraged letters and 
 the arts, established gymnasiums, founded 
 three additional universities, and created 
 schools of chemistry, medicine, and navi- 
 gation, in different parts of the empire : 
 
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 seconded by his mother, he also built 
 several hospitals, asylums, and other cha- 
 ritable institutions. In 1803, the Russian 
 army was increased to 500,000 men : the 
 emperor had announced at his accession 
 that he should carry out the system of 
 policy of Catherine IL which is well 
 known to have been no other than that 
 of establishing the preponderance, or 
 rather the domination of Russia, both in 
 Europe and Asia. The murder of the 
 duke d'Enghien excited the most violent 
 indignation on the part of Alexander. 
 He refused to acknowledge Napoleon as 
 emperor, and soon afterwards entered 
 into a coalition with Austria, England, 
 and Sweden, against France. The short 
 campaign which ensued was terminated 
 by the battle of Austerlitz, after which 
 Alexander retreated into Poland. He 
 still, however, determined to make head 
 against his enemy ; and it was not till 
 after hotly contested actions had taken 
 place at Czamowo, Pultusk, and Goly- 
 min, that his ardoiu" abated : he then 
 concluded an armistice, which was 
 equally desired by the French, and which 
 was prolonged till the spring of 1807. 
 In the East, in the mean time, he had 
 been more successful, except against the 
 Turks, with whom, after the death of 
 Selim, he entered into a treaty. The 
 war with France in 1807 was again un- 
 successfid ; and after the defeat of Fried- 
 land, he made proposals of peace to 
 Napoleon, which were followed by the 
 memorable conferences of Tilsit. 
 
 Alexander was now obliged to consent 
 to terms himiiliating to himself, most 
 prejudicial to his Prussian ally, and dis- 
 astrous to the liberties of Europe ; but 
 he appears only to have acquiesced in 
 them by necessity, and secretly to have 
 favoured England. In 1808 Alexander 
 unjustly seized upon Finland, and incor- 
 porated it with his territories. Shortly 
 after, the Russian fleet under Siniawin 
 was captured by the English, but was 
 restored at the termination of the war. 
 At Erfurt, in October 1808, Alexander 
 and Napoleon again indulged in public 
 demonstrations of regard, but they were 
 insincere. Alexander, after declaring 
 war against Austria, failed to assist Na- 
 poleon with his promised contingent. By 
 the treaty of Schonbrunn, which shortly 
 followed, the district of Cracow was an- 
 nexed to Russia. In 1809 a war broke 
 Out with Turkey, which lasted for some 
 time, assuming at length a favovxrable 
 aspect for Russia, but which Alexander, 
 nipnaced by Napoleon, was compelled to 
 291 
 
 terminate by a treaty of peace, concluded 
 at Bucharest in 1812, under the me- 
 diation of England : the hostilities 
 which had for some time been carried on 
 against Persia ceased at the same period. 
 War with France had long been inevit- 
 able ; and the French having crossed 
 the Niemen on the 24th of June, 1812, 
 Alexander announced in a proclamation 
 the approaching campaign. Zeal for 
 their country, and indignation against 
 the French, animated all classes of Rus- 
 sians. Alexander entered into an alli- 
 ance with England, acknowledged tlie 
 Spanish cortes assembled at Cadiz, and 
 by specious promises won over Berna- 
 dotte to his cause. The disastrous cam- 
 paign of the French, the conflagration 
 of Moscow, and the retreat of the scanty 
 remnant of their army, must be read in 
 the history of that eventful time. There 
 also the details of the second expedition 
 of Napoleon in 1813 must be sought. 
 In these great events, Russia, under the 
 guidance of Alexander, bore a most con- 
 spicuous part. In the campaign of 1814, 
 so fatal to France and to all the countries 
 traversed by the contending armies, the 
 benevolence and affability of Alexander 
 tended to assuage the sufferings insepa- 
 rable fi"om the train of war ; but they did 
 not cause him to abandon the firmness 
 and resolution with which he had en- 
 gaged in and prosecuted this mighty 
 contest. On the 31st of March, 1814, 
 he entered Paris at the head of his troops, 
 showing himself most graciously disposed 
 towards its inhabitants : he refused to 
 inhabit the Tuileries, and took up his re- 
 sidence at the house of Talleyrand. He 
 declared that he had fought against Na- 
 poleon, and not against the French, of 
 whose freedom he pronounced himself 
 the friend, sanctioning the introduction 
 of liberal institiitions : all the prisoners 
 whom he had made during the war he 
 caused to be liberated. Deferring the 
 consideration of political questions, he 
 appeared for some time solely to labour 
 to render himself popular with the Pari- 
 sians, with whom accordingly he soon 
 became a great favourite. He break- 
 fasted with marshal Ney, visited Lafitte, 
 and had several interviews with Josephine 
 at Malmaison. On the 31st of May, 
 after dining with Louis XVIII. at the Tuil- 
 eries, he quitted Paris for England, ac- 
 companied by the king of Prussia ; the 
 duke of Clarence commanded a squadron 
 which escorted him across the straits of 
 Dover. He appeared at Carlton House 
 in an English uniform, and with the in- 
 v2 
 
ALE 
 
 signia of the order of the Garter. In 
 London he was the caiise of as great ex- 
 citement as in Paris. He returned to 
 Russia by way of Holland, and re-entered 
 his capital July 25, 1814. He had pre- 
 viously sent an order to the governor of 
 St. Petersburg to suspend the splendid 
 preparations made for his reception, 
 saying, " The events which have termi- 
 nated the sanguinary wars of Europe are 
 the work alone of Almighty God ; it is 
 before him that we must prostrate our- 
 selves." His first care was to heal the 
 wounds which the war had inflicted on 
 his dominions. After taking measures 
 with this intent, and concluding an ad- 
 vantageous treaty with Persia, he pro- 
 ceeded to join the congress of Vienna, 
 and reached that capital Nov. 23, 1814. 
 On the escape of Napoleon from Elba, 
 Alexander made instant preparations for 
 renewing the war ; he ordered a force of 
 170,000 men to move upon France, and 
 was at Heidelberg when the intelligence 
 reached him of Napoleon's total defeat 
 at Waterloo. In the second visit which 
 he now paid to Paris, Alexander showed 
 himself naturally imder much less popu- 
 lar coloiu's than at the first. Struck with 
 the perils to which democracy and irre- 
 ligion exposed the thrones of Europe, he 
 now conceived the project of the Holy 
 Alliance, which was realized by an act 
 which, on the 26th of Sept. 1815, he 
 signed, together with the empei'or of 
 Austria and the king of Prussia. The 
 principal object of this novel treaty, in 
 originating which Alexander is said * to 
 have been much influenced by the Ba- 
 roness de Krudener, was to establish and 
 maintain, on the invariable basis of re- 
 ligion, justice, and legitimacy, the peace 
 and order existing in christian countries. 
 He returned to Russia at the end of 1815, 
 and was xmwearied in his exertions to 
 improve the condition of his dominions. 
 He was, like Napoleon, impatient of re- 
 
 i)ose ; half of his life may be said to 
 lave been passed in travelling and in 
 military expeditions. In 1818 he opened 
 the Polish diet at Warsaw, and then 
 quitting this capital, visited the southern 
 provinces of his empire. Towards the 
 end of the year he joined the congress of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, where he again showed 
 himself lenient towards France. On his 
 return he ameliorated the condition of 
 the peasants, enfranchised numerous 
 serfs, completed the organization of six 
 universities, placed the Lixtherans and 
 
 * This is denied by La Harpe. See Heeren's 
 Manuiil, ii. 441. 
 
 292 
 
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 Calvinists under the protection of his 
 government, though himself zealously 
 attached to the Greek Church, and ba- 
 nished the Jesuits from Russia. The con- 
 stitution which he had given to Poland 
 was far from working as he expected ; 
 the debates of the diet were stormy, 
 its proceedings violent ; he accordingly 
 closed it, and took vigorous measures 
 to counteract the revolutionary spirit 
 already prevalent. In the negotiations 
 of Troppau and Laybach, he was evi- 
 dentlv actuated by the spirit which dic- 
 tated' the Holy Alliance. With respect 
 to the war which soon afterwards broke 
 out between the Greeks and Turks, he 
 gave orders that a strict neutrality should 
 be observed : the sidtan regarded him as 
 an insidious enemy, but an open rupture 
 did not ensue. In 1821, and the suc- 
 ceeding years, he continued his exertions 
 in the interior of the empire. In the 
 autumn of 1825, he visited Taganrog, at 
 which the empress Elizabeth had already 
 taken up her residence for a short time, 
 on account of the mildness of the air. 
 After remaining here a month, he set 
 out on a journey through the Crimea, 
 fi-om which he returned to Taganrog in 
 November, bringing with him the seeds 
 of a mortal malady. It was of a febrile 
 nature, and advanced so rapidly that, 
 in twelve days, it was thought proper to 
 announce to him his imminent danger. 
 On the 30th of November he became 
 senseless, and died the following morn- 
 ing in the arms of the empress. It has 
 been said that he was poisoned, but there 
 is not the shadow of proof for such an 
 assertion. 
 
 The manners of Alexander were ex- 
 tremely afiable, and his person was 
 agreeable. The facts detailed in the pre- 
 ceding sketch will better enable the reader 
 to judge of his character than any la- 
 boured description. He has been ac- 
 cused of concealing much dissimulation, 
 under an air of great frankness, but 
 these accusations are more easily made, 
 than they can be either "proved or dis- 
 proved. Napoleon, whom he deceived, 
 said of him at St. Helena, " He is a 
 Greek of the Lower Empire ; it is neces- 
 sary to distrust him:" but on such a 
 point, the evidence of an inveterate 
 enemy is not the most convincing. He 
 neglected his empress at a very early 
 period of their union, and in his subse- 
 quent attachments he was very fickle and 
 capricious. M. Michaud, in the Suppl. 
 to the Biog. Universelle, has emmierated 
 a great many works which throw light 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 on the biography of this sovereign. See 
 also Heeren's Manual of Europ. State- 
 System, vol. ii. ; and Danilefsky's Rus- 
 sian Campaign of 1814. 
 
 ALEXANDER, the English name of 
 Wamsutta, an Indian chief He was 
 son and successor of Massassoit (see the 
 name), and being suspected of conspiracy 
 against the English, was taken by sur- 
 prise by Major Winslow, about the year 
 1662. Having fallen sick of a fever, he 
 was allowed to return on a pledge to ap- 
 pear at the next court, but he died on 
 the way. (Allen's American Dictionary.) 
 
 ALEXANDER, (William, died 1783,) 
 commonly called Lord Stii-ling, a major- 
 general in the American army. He was 
 taken prisoner at Long Island in 1776, 
 after distinguishing himself very much 
 in the engagement. He was imable to 
 make out his claim to the earldom of 
 Stirling, but he received the title from 
 his friends by courtesy. (Allen's Diet.) 
 
 ALEXANDER, (Caleb, D. D.) gra- 
 duated at Yale CoUege, 1777 ; was or- 
 dained at New Marlborough, Mass., in 
 1781 ; and dismissed in 1782. He sub- 
 sequently had the charge of the academy 
 at Onandago Hollow, where he died in 
 1828. He published a work on the 
 Deity of Jesus Christ, 1791, &c. (Allen's 
 Diet.) 
 
 ALEXANDRE, (1649 — 1718,) a 
 painter of history and portraits, born at 
 Paris. His family were of Polish origin, 
 and named Ubeleski. He executed many 
 works, but they are scarcely known out 
 of France. He was a member of the 
 Academie Royale. (Heinecken, Diet, 
 des Artistes.) 
 
 ALEXANDRINI DE NEUSTAIN, 
 (Jidius,) a native of Trente, was suc- 
 cessively physician to the emperors 
 Charles V., Ferdinand I., and Maximi- 
 lian II., the last of whom, whose health 
 frequently required his attendance, be- 
 stowed upon him many favours and ho- 
 nours. He died in 1590, leaving behind 
 him works in prose, which are chiefly 
 commentaries on Galen. 
 
 ALEXIAS, a physician, a pupil to 
 Thraseas, of Mantinea, was a contempo- 
 rary of Theophrastus, and therefore may 
 be supposed to have flourished about 
 B. c. 350, (01. cvii. 3.) He was a man of 
 great talents and acuteness, equal to his 
 master in knowledge of Botany, and supe- 
 rior to him in other branches of the profes- 
 sion. Theoph. Hist. Plant, lib. ix. c. 17. 
 
 ALEXINUS OF ELIS, called by a 
 play on his name EXty^ivos, Elenxinus, 
 from his love of loirical, ov. as Cicero 
 293 
 
 says in Academ. iv. 24, illogical argu- 
 mentation, opened a school of philosophy 
 at Olympia, with the intention of found- 
 ing the Olympic sect ; but he was quickly 
 deserted by his scholars, unable to sup- 
 port the insalubi'ity of the place. While 
 bathing in the river Alpheus he was 
 wounded with a reed, from the effect of 
 which he died; so says Diog. lib. ii. 109. 
 But how an aquatic plant could inflict a 
 fatal wound, it is difficult to understand. 
 It is more probable to suppose that he 
 was drowned by the reeds twisting 
 round his body, and drawing him un- 
 der the water. If such were tlie fact, 
 we nnist read in Diogenes eXix^rivai, for 
 vvxdi]vai. He seems to have abused all 
 sects equally. Aristocles (De Philosopb. 
 vii.) quoted by bishop Lloyd, says that 
 he wrote Facetious Memoirs, in which 
 he supposed a conversation to take place 
 between Alexander and Philip, where 
 the son found fault with his father for 
 giving him such an insti^uctor as Ari- 
 stotle, whom Alexander, as we learn from 
 Plutarch's Life, § 74, accused of acting 
 like the philosopher in Hudibras, who— 
 
 " Could take each side, and still confute." 
 
 He wrote a hymn on Cratenis of Mace- 
 don, to which Athenaeus alludes (xv. 
 p. 696, E). 
 
 ALEXION, the friend and physician 
 of Cicero, who praises his medical skill, 
 and deeply laments his sudden death. 
 Epist. ad Att. vii. 2 ; xiii. 25 ; xv. 1, 2. 
 
 ALEXIPPUS, a physician mentioned 
 by Plutarch, in his life of Alexander the 
 Great (p. 689, a. ed. Paris, 1624), as 
 receiving a letter of thanks from the king 
 himself, for having cured Pencestes, one 
 of his officei's. 
 
 ALEXIS, (1630 — 1676,) tsar of 
 Russia, was the second monarch of the 
 Romanof dynasty (see Michael Ro- 
 manif), which in 1613 succeeded to the 
 extinct I'ace of Ruric. 
 
 On his father's death (1645), Alexis 
 was only in his sixteenth year ; he was 
 therefore confided to the care of a mini- 
 ster and tutor, named Morosof, — a man 
 of considerable talent, and of greater am- 
 bition. Many of this boyard's measures 
 were popidar ; but his inordinate love of 
 power soon made him enemies. To 
 maintain his authority, he married the 
 sister of the tsarina ; but this connexion 
 with the imperial family was precisely 
 one of the circumstances that led to his 
 downfal, since it raised the jealousy of 
 the nobility. Whether through his fault 
 or by his misfortune, the administration 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 of justice became very corrupt ; but in 
 either case, he is more deserving of 
 blame than of indulgence. If he did not 
 create, he certainly connived at the cor- 
 ruption ; and there is reason to infer that 
 he profited by it. Add to this the im- 
 position of extraordinary taxes, and we 
 shall not be sm-prised at the murmurs 
 which arose on every side against this 
 minion of fortune. Mvurmurs were suc- 
 ceeded by open complaints ; and the 
 latter, by petitions to the tsar, exposing 
 intolerable wrongs, and calling aloud for 
 punishment. None of these representa- 
 tions reached the eyes of Alexis, the 
 avenues to whom were carefully closed 
 by the all-powerfid minister. At length 
 the people of Moscow assailed the mo- 
 narch as he returned from church, and 
 in such a manner as convinced him that 
 there was some deep cause of complaint. 
 He inqiured and punished; but, as is 
 usual in such cases, the chief, or at 
 least the most powerful criminal, escaped. 
 Morosof was only dismissed, but infeinor 
 delinquents were put to death. To this 
 act of justice Alexis was reluctantly 
 forced by the mob, which in despotic 
 governments has always the most power. 
 In other cities, especially Pskof and No- 
 vogrod, there were disturbances arising 
 from the same cause ; but they were 
 quelled with less difficulty. 
 
 Under this monarch, Russia made 
 large strides towards greatness. Her 
 territorial accessions in the Ukraine were 
 immense, and were owing to the tyranny 
 of the Polish government, on which that 
 fertile region was then dependent. For 
 ages the Cossacks, its inhabitants, had 
 acknowledged the superioritj' of the Po- 
 lish diet ; but the tyranny of the local 
 governors was felt to be intolerable. One 
 of the chiefs, Bogdan Kmielniski (see 
 the name), had individual, in addition to 
 greater wrongs, for which vengeance was 
 due. He had a mill and a domain which 
 attracted the avarice of the Polish gover- 
 nor. To obtain this property, the go- 
 vernor brought some fi-ivolous accusa- 
 tions against Bogdan before the tribunal 
 of the province. When these charges 
 were rejected, the tyrant seized on all 
 he coveted. In vain did the injm-ed 
 chief appeal to the diet; he could not 
 obtain a hearing. Indignant at the result, 
 he went to obtain allies among the neigh- 
 bouring Tartars. During his absence 
 his wife was violated, then murdered, 
 and his house with his infant son con- 
 sumed by fii-e. His WTongs were more 
 eloquent than his language ; Cossacks, as 
 294 
 
 well as Tartars, arose in his behalf; and 
 at the head of one hundred thousand 
 men, he advanced against the Poles. 
 Two of their armies he almost annihi- 
 lated ; and the peasants, alike of the 
 Polish nobles and crown, he made cap- 
 tive. Much of his success must be attri- 
 buted to the interregnum, which preceded 
 the election of John Casimir to the throne. 
 That monarch, immediately after his elec- 
 tion, began to treat with hiin ; but in the 
 midst of the negotiations, the Tartar 
 camp was surprised, and the imsus- 
 pecting people slaughtered. This act 
 of perfidy filled the soul of Bogdan 
 with gall. He retreated to collect fresh 
 troops ; and at the same time he ap- 
 plied to Alexis for aid : in return, he 
 proposed to become the vassal of the 
 monarch, and to bring the whole Cos- 
 sack nation under the sway of the auto- 
 crat. The offer was a tempting one to 
 the tsar ; but its acceptance must entail 
 no ordinary responsibility. Was it the 
 will of Heaven that he should embrace 
 the cause of the deeply-injured appli- 
 cant ? To ascertain this important point, 
 he caixsed two bulls, the one named 
 Poland, the other Moscovy, to oppose 
 each other ! Moscovy was vanquished ; 
 and the tsar woidd have declined the 
 offer of Bogdan, had not the patriarch 
 convinced him that it was his duty to 
 succour those of his own religious com- 
 munion, viz. the members of the Greek 
 church, against their Roman Catholic 
 persecutors. War, therefore, was de- 
 clared. Smolensko, Witepsk, Polotsk, 
 Mohilof, Severin, Semigallia, and other 
 important places, fell before the Russians, 
 while Bogdan, at the head of his Cos- 
 sacks, reduced others no less important 
 on the Moldavian frontier. At these 
 successes, Sweden, which had always 
 urged her claims to Livonia, took the 
 alarm ; but instead of opposing Russia, 
 she resolved to conquer other Pohsh 
 domains, before the armies of Alexis 
 could penetrate to the west. With the 
 events of the Swedish war, we have, in 
 the present article, no concern ; and we 
 shall only observe, that at the peace, the 
 whole country between Courland and 
 Moscovy was surrendered to Alexis. 
 Besides this acquisition, there was the 
 vast territory, which the submission of 
 Bogdan brought to the empire of the 
 tsar, viz. that between the Lake Ilmen, 
 and the Black Sea. 
 
 Alexis Avas not exempt from the curse 
 of internal rebellion. The Cossacks of 
 the Don, indignant at the tyranny of 
 
ALE 
 
 A h V. 
 
 their local governors,revolted against him, 
 just as those of the Ukraine had revolted 
 against Poland. No less than two hun- 
 dred thousand men rose to vindicate 
 their rights. But most of these were 
 moved by imaginary grievances, and by 
 the deceptions of Radzin their chief. 
 The insurrection was at length quenched 
 in the blood of Radzin, and twelve thou- 
 sand of his followers. 
 
 In his internal administration, Alexis 
 was also fortunate ; he improved the 
 judicial functions of government ; and he 
 flattered the pride, not merely of the 
 boyards, but of the biu-ghers, by considt- 
 ing them on extraordinary occasions. 
 He not only enlarged the bounds of the 
 empire, but consolidated its power. Pri- 
 soners of war he would no longer permit 
 to remain under the control of the cap- 
 tors : he sent them to colonize the unin- 
 habited disti-icts. He was the first of the 
 Russian sovereigns who constructed ships 
 of war. If we add that he was of a mild 
 and even amiable disposition, we should 
 have said enough m his praise. Yet, how 
 fatal is despotism to the heart ! This 
 emperor, who never punished any body 
 until he was forced to do so, was subject 
 to strange fantasies. An anecdote will 
 illustrate his character, or rather the cha- 
 racter of all men who are accustomed to 
 unbounded power. He was one day bled 
 by his surgeon. No sooner was the 
 opei'ation completed, than he invited the 
 surrounding courtiers to follow his ex- 
 ample. All consented except one, an 
 old man, whose quantity of blood was 
 little enough already. Though this ve- 
 nerable man was allied to the imperial 
 family, Alexis grossly abused, and then 
 struck him. But his better feeling re- 
 turned, and he offered the boyard rich 
 presents. 
 
 Another anecdote will illustrate the 
 character of Russian autocracy. Alexis 
 was very familiar with his dependents, 
 and often used to pay them unexpected 
 visits. One day he entered the house 
 of Matveef, a courtier, just as the dinner 
 cloth was laid ; and he insisted in 
 dining with the family. Present was a 
 young lady, Natalia by name, a kins- 
 woman of Matveef, and so poor as to be 
 dependent on him for a home. Her 
 beauty, her accomplishments, her mo- 
 desty, made her captivating in the eyes 
 of the tsar. Again he saw her, and the 
 first impression was deepened. At length 
 he determined to marry her. Instead of 
 rejoicing at the proposal, Matveef trem- 
 bled at it. He well knew what enemies 
 29.5 
 
 the regard of his sovereign had already 
 procured him ; and he also knew that the 
 number would be increased by the medi- 
 tated imion. However, as there was no 
 way of dissuading the tsar from the pro- 
 ject, he suggested the expediency of 
 calling together a considerable number 
 of young ladies, and of making his choice 
 from them. If that choice were already 
 fixed, the world would not know it. 
 Alexis followed the advice, and Natalia 
 was selected. She became the mother of 
 Peter the Great. 
 
 We must add, that in the time of 
 peace, Alexis maintained a standing 
 army of one hundred thousand men, 
 which he more than doubled in time of 
 war; and that he welcomed military 
 adventurers from all nations, especially 
 from France, Germany, and Scotland. 
 (Levesque, Histoire de Russie, torn. iv. ; 
 Tooke's History, vol.ii. ; History of Rus- 
 sia, vol. i. ; Lardner's Cyclopaedia.) 
 
 ALEXIS, (1690—1718,) the tsaro- 
 vitcb, son of Peter the Great. As the 
 fate of this prmce, independent of its 
 connexion with the founder of Russian 
 civilization, is not only extraordinary in 
 itself, but involves one of the most contro- 
 verted problems in history, we shall dwell 
 on it at some length. We need scarcely 
 observe, that its interest is European, 
 and tliat it has occupied a hundred pens. 
 
 The facts of this prince's life prior 
 to its closing scene are, on all hands, 
 allowed to be indisputable. His mo- 
 ther, Eudoxia (see the name), the first 
 vnk of Peter, was of an ancient noble 
 house, and taught alike by prejudice 
 and habit to hate the innovations of 
 her husband. If she dared not oft'er 
 an active, she knew how, by her in- 
 trigues, to interpose in passive resistance 
 to his reforms. Her conduct coidd not 
 escape his penetration ; he saw that she 
 would never be his helpmate in the vast 
 projects he was executing ; and in about 
 nine years after his marriage, he exiled 
 her to a monastery. In her retreat, she 
 was regarded by the old party as a martyr 
 to their ancient institutions. If Alexis, 
 at this period, was too yoimg to be in- 
 fluenced by her maxims, he was subjected 
 to an influence similar in kind, and quite 
 as fatal. His governors, his domestics, 
 were secretly attached to the former re- 
 gime. Hence his aversion, which he did 
 not always conceal, to the policy of his 
 father. In other respects, he was no 
 favourite of the tsar's. He hated study ; 
 he hated military duty ; he hated acti- 
 vity in any shape. As he grew in 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 years, he plunged into the worst vices 
 of his age. To reclaim him from one at 
 least, a wife was found him in a princess 
 of Brmiswick - Wolfenbuttel, a lady of 
 great virtues, and of an affectionate dis- 
 position. But he forsook her society for 
 that of a Finnish concuhine, of low ex- 
 traction, and very illiterate; and treated 
 ]\ev, in other respects, with so much 
 cruelty, that a broken heart, much more 
 than a delicate constitution, brought her 
 to the grave in little more than two 
 years after her ill-starred union. She 
 left a daughter and a son, — Nat alia, and 
 Peter, who afterwards succeeded to the 
 throne. 
 
 The behaviour of Alexis to this excel- 
 lent princess had naturally incurred the 
 displeasure of the tsar. In vain had he 
 exhorted him to reform ; to forsake his 
 guilty connexion with his Finnish para- 
 mour ; to cherish one whose qualities 
 well deserved his attentions. In vain 
 too had he remonstrated, earnestly and 
 frequently remonstrated, with him on 
 his other vices. The state of his feelings 
 is well described in the letter which, im- 
 mediately after the death of the princess, 
 he addressed to the tsarovitch. He first 
 dwells on the utter disregard which 
 Alexis had shown to the military profes- 
 sion ; yet by arms alone could the inde- 
 pendence of any people be preserved. 
 If a king had no knowledge of that pro- 
 fession, how could he reward the skilful, 
 how punish the ignorant officer? He 
 then proceeds to complaints of his obsti- 
 nacy, his depravity, and his wanton ex- 
 cesses. The conclusion is sufficientlj- 
 admonitory : " It is high time to acquaint 
 you with my final resolution. I will wait 
 some time longer for your amendment. 
 If j'ou remain incorrigible, I will cut 
 you off from the succession, just as we 
 cut off an incurable member. Though 
 you are my only son, do not suppose 
 that I say this merely to frighten you. 
 If I spare not my own life for the good 
 of my coimtry, and the happiness of my 
 people, why shoidd I spare yours, if you 
 are undeserving of it? Much sooner 
 would I bequeath the empire to an entire 
 stranger, if he Avere deserving of it, than 
 to my own son, if undeserving ? " 
 
 Thus spoke the enlightened monarch, 
 the ardent patriot. What was the reply 
 of the prince ? He at once expressed his 
 intention to resign a crown, for which he 
 acknowledged his unfitness, (in the in- 
 terim another son was borne to the tsar 
 by the empress Catherine ;) and he re- 
 quested onlv a provision for Jiis children 
 29G 
 
 — (those by his mistress, Euphrosina, 
 since the two by his deceased wife were 
 sure to be well provided for) ; and a siut- 
 able maintenance for himself. This re- 
 ply cUd not satisfy the tsar ; it expressed 
 no conti'ition for past misconduct ; it 
 promised no reformation ; and it was 
 evidently dictated as much by spleen as 
 by fear. He wrote again in terms still 
 sti-onger : "I observe that you speak 
 only of the succession, as if this were a 
 subject which did not entirely depend on 
 my own will, and one in which it were 
 necessary for me to consult you. You 
 say not a word of my dissatisfaction at 
 your conduct, though that dissatisfaction 
 was the principal subject of my letter. 
 I therefore perceive that my patient ex- 
 hortations are lost on you, yet I write 
 once more. If you despise my advice 
 while I am alive, what reason have I to 
 tliink that you will respect it when I am 
 dead ?....! cannot leave you to your 
 caprice. Reform ; become worthy of the 
 throne ; or retire into a monastery. 
 Through you I have no longer any 
 peace ; and this I feel the more now 
 that my health is giving way. As soon 
 as you receive my letter, return me a 
 categorical answer, either by writing or 
 in person ; otherwise I shall deal with 
 you as a criminal ! " To this decisive 
 letter Alexis replied ; but still he ex- 
 pressed no sorrow for his past miscon- 
 duct : he merely intimated that he had 
 made his choice, and should enter the 
 cloister. To avoid WTiting a long letter, 
 he feigned indisposition, and kept his 
 bed. There he was visited by the tsar, 
 who was about to visit Germany, and 
 who conversed with him on the resolu- 
 tion he had formed, — on the duties of the 
 state he wished to embrace, — duties 
 which seemed alien enough from his 
 past conduct. At the close of the inter- 
 view, he gave him six months longer 
 before a final decision would be re- 
 quired, and immediately went out upon 
 his journey. 
 
 The conduct of Alexis after the de- 
 parture of his father sufficiently con- 
 firmed the forebodings concerning him. 
 He instantly rose from his bed, to cele- 
 brate his indecent orgies with his low 
 companions. He suftered seven months 
 to elapse, yet wrote not a line to the ab- 
 sent emperor. In much anger, Peter 
 wrote from Copenhagen (Aug. 27, 1716), 
 to complain of the delay. If he had de- 
 cided on reformation, he must repair to 
 Copenhagen in one week, and join in 
 the campaign which he was about to 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 open. If, on the contrary, he was still 
 iletermined to assume the cowl, he must 
 name the monastery to which he would 
 retire, and the day on which he would 
 take the irrevocahle vows. He now de- 
 cided that he would join the tsar; pro- 
 cured money from Menzikoff (see the 
 name) ; andwithasviitableretinuetookthe 
 way towards Germany. On the borders of 
 Poland, however, he suddenly abandoned 
 his route, and proceeding to Vienna, 
 demanded the protection of the emperor 
 Charles VL Charles, who had no wish 
 to embroil himself with the Russian 
 court, assigned him a fortress in the 
 T3T0I, until a reconciliation could be 
 effected between him and his father ; 
 but without waiting for the result, he 
 left his hiding-place, and proceeded to 
 a fortress in the kingdom of Naples. 
 There he addressed two letters to the 
 senate and clei-gy of Moscow, represent- 
 ing himself as the victim of ill-usage, 
 and inviting their assistance. But they 
 never reached their destination ; they 
 were intercepted by the Austrian com't, 
 and forwarded to the tsar. 
 
 Great was the dismay of Peter on 
 learning the evasion of his son : all his 
 cares, all his perils, all he had done and 
 suffered for so long a period, would be 
 lost, imless he could regain the imdutiful 
 prince. For this purpose he determined 
 to promise any thing ; and he at the 
 same time determined to destroy him, 
 when again in his power. Two of his 
 confidants, men ready to act as his in- 
 struments in any affair, repaired to the 
 tsarovitch, with a letter (July 10, 1717) 
 characteristic enough of the writer. Hav- 
 ing reproached him for his misconduct, 
 and for his placing himself under the 
 protection of a foreign power, he com- 
 manded him to obey Tolstoy and Ro- 
 manzoffin everything; he promised, if 
 his son would obey, to love him better 
 than ever; but if he would not, to treat 
 him like a traitor. The promise and the 
 threat woidd probably have been equally 
 unavailing, had not the two messengers 
 (the one a privy-councillor, the other an 
 officer of the imperial guard) bribed 
 Euphrosina, the mistress of the prince, 
 to use her influence over him. Yielding 
 to the voice of all three, to the oath of 
 his father, and to the intervention of the 
 Neapolitan viceroy, that his presence 
 could no longer be tolerated in that 
 country, he returned to Russia, which he 
 reached in January 1718. 
 
 What follows is momentous enough. 
 Immediately the city of Moscow was filled 
 297 
 
 with troops under arms ; the issues were 
 strictly guarded ; the great bell was tolled ; 
 and the boyards, privy councillors, and 
 senators, were assembled in the fortress ; 
 while the bishops, archimandrites, the dig- 
 nified clergy, and the professoi-s of divinity, 
 repaired to the cathedral. Before the foi*- 
 mer Alexis was conducted a prisoner, and 
 by his father promised forgiveness only on 
 two conditions : first, that he should re- 
 nounce tlie hope of succession ; next, that 
 he should declare who had been the ac- 
 complices to his flight, and to his projects 
 against the new order of things. After so 
 solemn a pledge of pardon, this proceed- 
 ing was strange to the tsarovitch ; but he 
 was in the power of the despots, and he 
 had no alternative but obedience. Indeed, 
 by the Russian law the power of life and 
 death was invested in a parent over his 
 child ; how much more then the power of 
 disinheriting ! Alexis signed the instru- 
 ment of renunciation. He confessed on 
 the holy gospels that by his crime against 
 his sovereign and father, he had justly 
 forfeited all claim to the succession : he 
 therefore swore by the most Holy Trinity, 
 and by the last judgment, that he would 
 in all things submit to his father's will ; 
 that he would never seek, or desire, or 
 even accept the throne if offered to him. 
 In conclusion, he acknowledged his bi-o- 
 ther the tsarovitch, Peter, as the only 
 lawful heir to the Russian sceptre. The 
 assembled boyards and councillors swore 
 to enforce the observance of the act. It 
 was then taken by the emperor himself 
 to the cathedral, and the same oath ex- 
 acted from the heads of the church. The 
 same oath too was afterwards taken by the 
 army, and by all the functionaries of the 
 administration. 
 
 But only half the business was yet 
 effected : l3efore Alexis could hope for 
 pardon, he must reveal the names of 
 those who at any time had encouraged 
 him in his designs. That he had confi- 
 dants, that he had advisers, is exceedingly 
 probable ; — to him indeed the old party 
 looked for the i"estoration of the ancient 
 order of things ; — but there is- no e^ddence 
 that any one had ever wished him to dis- 
 obey his sovereign, during whose life no 
 change could be expected : he was to 
 wait imtil he had succeeded to the throne 
 before he could undo any one of his 
 father's labours. So far he might have, 
 and probably had, advisers ; and in the 
 opinion of the tsar, this was quite enough, 
 for, as he observed, whosoever was not for 
 him was against him. The prince was 
 still kept a close prisoner ; menaces of an 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 extreme kind, even of death, were 
 held out to hhn if he concealed any thing; 
 and from his mistress, who had betrayed 
 him throughout, and who was now his 
 accuser, sufficient was collected to impli- 
 cate a few of the nobles. Discouraged 
 by confinement, weak in body, weaker 
 still in mind, he, when summoned, as he 
 repeatedly was, before the secret tribu- 
 nal which had been nominated to try 
 him, and at which the tsar sometimes 
 presided, he confessed every thing that 
 he was desired to confess. The acts of 
 pi-ocedure on the occasion, the means 
 adopted to ensnare him, the forcible con- 
 struction put on events in themselves of 
 no great moment, would fill many sheets. 
 The two letters which he had addressed 
 from Austria to the senators and dignified 
 clergy, were the most important of the 
 documents produced ; yet though they 
 certainly convicted him of imprudence, 
 and even of criminal ivislies, they oifered 
 nothing tangible enough for the purposes 
 of justice. Mere report, — mere hear- 
 say, — was next adduced in evidence, and 
 with better effect ; for here indeed was 
 a copious source of accusation. He had 
 been heard to declare, perhaps in a fit of 
 anger, " I will speak to the bishops, and 
 they to the priests, and the priests to the 
 people, and by them I shall be placed on 
 the throne even against my will." This 
 was vague ; and all that could be inferred 
 from it was that if he indulged in ana- 
 bitious projects, he took no measures to 
 realize them. Again, his mistress Euphro- 
 sina deposed that he had frequently ex- 
 pressed his dissatisfaction with his father, 
 and wished for his death. Tliat the wish 
 was expressed, is probable ; but surely it 
 did not amount to treason ; and it might 
 be accompanied by some palliating ob- 
 servations which she forgot to mention. 
 And should not the evidence of such a 
 woman have been received with distrust 1 
 But whoever coidd depose any thing 
 which ingenuity might turn against the 
 unfortunate pi-ince, was readily received 
 by the tsar. That his destruction was 
 resolved, was clear from the whole course 
 of the investigation, and from the treat- 
 ment which he received the moment he 
 reached Moscow. The persons to whom 
 Peter confided the conduct of that inves- 
 tigation were no less ready to condemn 
 him. They had gone too far to hope for 
 pardon from Alexis, should he ever suc- 
 ceed his father, and their only safety lay 
 in his death ; hence they sedulously fo- 
 mented the displeasure of one who had 
 never loved his son, whose severity was 
 298 
 
 proverbial, and whose suspicions were 
 too strongly excited to leave him in peace 
 so long as that son lived. To procure 
 more evidence against the vmfortunate, 
 imprudent, and in some respects guilty 
 Alexis, his confessor was required to be- 
 tray the secrets of that tribimal, and 
 when he refused, was put to the torture. 
 In the extremity of pain he owned that 
 Alexis had accused himself of wishing 
 his father's death, and that he (the priest) 
 had assured the prince, this was no 
 great sin, for the whole Russian nation 
 wished the same. This is perhaps the 
 first instance in all history where the con- 
 fessional has been adduced as a judicial 
 proof. 
 
 In these proceedings many distin- 
 guished names were comprised. The 
 mother of Alexis, whom, as we have 
 already intimated, the tsar had long 
 repudiated, and whom he had con- 
 signed to a monastery, was suspected, — 
 perhaps with some justice, — of having 
 counselled his flight. She detested her 
 confinement ; and indulged, it is said, in 
 profligate habits. She and the tsar's sister, 
 the princess Mary, were brought fronr 
 their convent to St. Petersburgh, together 
 with the confessors of both, the procura- 
 tor of the convent, the archbishop of 
 Rostof, and some other persons accused 
 of participation in the plot. Under the 
 torture, the ecclesiastics admitted that 
 for nine years Eudoxia had carried on a 
 criminal intrigue with General Glebof. 
 That there was some truth in this ap- 
 pears from the confession of the lady 
 herself, who threw herself upon the mercy 
 of the tsar. But where torture is em- 
 ployed, any confession may be obtained ; 
 and we may doubt whether one half of 
 the statements contained in the manifesto 
 which the emperor published on the oc- 
 casion had any real foundation. However 
 this may be, he was resolved to take a sig- 
 nal vengeance. Glebof was impaled alive, 
 and the corpse laid on a scaffold in the cen- 
 tre of the public square of Moscow. On a 
 pole at each coi-ner of the scaffold were 
 the heads of the tsarina's brother, of two 
 bishops, and of a commissioner of the 
 admii'alty. Many more — among them 
 fifty priests and monks — were executed 
 around them. The tsarina herself was 
 flogged by two nuns, and confined in a 
 monastic dungeon the rest of her days. 
 Some other nims received the knout, and 
 were imprisoned, or exiled into Siberia. 
 
 These dreadful executions, and the dis- 
 may which they produced throughout the 
 city, — no inhabitant, under pain of death, 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 being permitted to leave it, — destroyed 
 what little reason was left in the mind 
 of Alexis. Dragged repeatedly from his 
 dungeon before his terrible father, he 
 confessed every thing of which he was 
 accused. When the proofs were consi- 
 dered complete, Peter convoked a general 
 assembly of his counsellors, senators, nobles 
 (June 1718), and undertook in person the 
 affair of public accuser of his son. 
 
 Having dwelt on the vices of the 
 prince, and showed how little the em- 
 pire had to hope from such a man ; he 
 observed, that though by the laws of 
 Russia he, like the meanest of his people, 
 had a right to pass sentence on his son, 
 he would leave judgment to his coun- 
 sellors, whose award would be perfectly 
 unbiassed. He exhorted them to dis- 
 charge this great duty without fear and 
 without partiality. In a manifesto which 
 he addressed to the dignitaries of the 
 church he repeated the same statements, 
 and called on them to say, from holy 
 Scripture, what punishment his son might 
 deserve. In both steps he was artful 
 enough : the sentence, whatever it might 
 be, would entail even more responsibi- 
 lity on the chiefs of his people, or the 
 nobles and bishops, than on himself. 
 
 The clergy were the first to deliver 
 their opinion. It was a remarkable docu- 
 ment. It began by declaring that the 
 affair did not lie within the cognizance of 
 the ecclesiastical coiu-ts, but solely within 
 the jurisdiction of the sovereign, who owed 
 no responsibility to man, but to God 
 alone. It then adduced passages from 
 Scripture of an entirely opposite chai'ac- 
 ter, some in favour of judgment, others 
 of mercy, and left the decision to him- 
 self. The church, therefore, would not 
 interfere ; but so far as it could be said 
 to have a bias, that bias was in favour of 
 pardon, or at least of a slight punish- 
 ment. The secidar judges were not so 
 considerate : having weighed the evi- 
 dence, and heard the confession of the 
 criminal, that he was guilty of every 
 thing laid to his charge, they uncere- 
 moniously condemned him to death, with 
 some expressions of sorrow indeed, but 
 wholly affected. The following day the 
 tsarovitch being again brought before his 
 judges, again confessed the truth of all 
 the charges, heard his sentence, and was 
 reconveyed to his dungeon. Why did 
 Alexis so readily, nay, so eagerly, confess 
 all that was requu-ed? Doubtless, be- 
 cause he had been assured that from such 
 a step only could he hope for safety ; that 
 his only alternative was to throw himself 
 299 
 
 on the mercy of his father, who at the 
 worst would only send him to the cloister. 
 He, like the whole empire, thought that 
 the tsar could not, and would not, pro- 
 ceed further. Neither he nor the empire 
 knew that extraordinary man. In little 
 more than twenty-four hours after the 
 sentence had been read to him, Alexis 
 had ceased to exist ! 
 
 The current version of this catastrophe, 
 — that which the tsar himself published, 
 and with which European cabinets pro- 
 fessed themselves satisfied, — is, that on the 
 morning of Jidy 7th, Peter was informed 
 tliat his son was dangerously ill, and wished 
 to see him; that, accompanied by his 
 chief officers, he hastened to the fortress 
 where the prisoner was confined ; that the 
 interview between them was affecting ; 
 that Alexis begged for pardon, which the 
 emperor, "according to christian and pa- 
 ternal duty," granted; that some hours 
 after his return to the palace, he was 
 again informed by a messenger that the 
 illness of his son had alarmingly in- 
 creased; and that, while on his way to 
 pay a second visit to the couch of the 
 tsarovitch, he met another messenger, 
 with the tidings that the prince had 
 ceased to exist. 
 
 If courts were, as they professed to be, 
 satisfied with tliis version of the story, 
 the world in general was not. The vin- 
 dictive character of Peter ; the fondiress 
 witli which he contemplated reforms that 
 had cost him a whole life of incredible 
 efforts ; his apprehension lest all those 
 efforts should prove vain ; the apprehen- 
 sions, too, of the courtiers, lest one whom 
 they had offended beyond the hope of 
 pardon, should one day become their 
 master ; and above all, the few hours that 
 intervened between the sentence and the 
 death of Alexis ; led most people to sus- 
 pect that the event was tragical. Many 
 pretended to have a better foundation 
 than probability for the catastrophe, and 
 entered into details which, had they been 
 uniformly given, might have demanded 
 our attention. But no two versions of the 
 story were alike : they differed widely in 
 the incidents, and even in the characters. 
 One account says that the prince was 
 poisoned by order of Catherine, his step- 
 mother ; and another, by the hand of the 
 tsar. That writer asserts that he was 
 beheaded by Marshal Weyde ; this, that 
 Peter himself was the executioner. It 
 was indeed notorious, that after his death 
 the corpse of the victim was exposed for 
 some time to the public ; but then the 
 head had been so dexterously sewn to 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 tlie body again, that nobody could detect 
 the deed. Such rumours, however high 
 the authority which has adopted them, 
 are too idle to deserve refutation. So far 
 was Catherine from lu-ging her husband 
 to extreme measures in regard to the 
 prince, that she urgently dissuaded him 
 from them. She observed, that seclusion 
 in a monastery was a punishment severe 
 enough for the occasion ; thid it would 
 not only answer the ends of justice, but 
 obtain the approval of all Europe ; Avhile 
 a contrary conduct might have conse- 
 quences too serious for the repose of the 
 court, and even of the empire. 
 
 But while condemning the absurdity 
 of the rumours to which we have alluded, 
 it must be admitted, that strong evidence 
 has been adduced to show that he died 
 by poison, administered at the instance 
 of his father. The statement of Captain 
 Bruce, an officer in the Russian service, 
 one ardently attached to the tsar, and 
 an eye-witness (one might almost say 
 an actor) in the last scene of the prince's 
 life, is of a very decisive character. 
 While Peter, Marshal Weyde (to whom 
 Bruce was aid-de-camp), and other of- 
 ficers, were in the ante-chamber of Alexis, 
 the very day on which he died, " Marshal 
 Weyde came out," says the captain, " and 
 ordered me to go to Mr. Bear, the drug- 
 gist, whose shop was hard by, and tell 
 him to make the potion strong which he 
 had bespoke, as the prince was then very 
 ill. When I delivered this message to 
 Mr. Bear, he turned quite pale, and fell 
 a shaking and trembling, and appeared in 
 the utmost confusion, which surprised me 
 so much that I asked him what was the 
 matter with him ; but he was unable to 
 return me any answer. In the mean 
 time the marshal liimself came in, much 
 in the same condition with the druggist, 
 saying he ought to have been more ex- 
 peditious, as the prince was very ill of an 
 apoplectic fit. Upon this the druggist 
 delivered him a silver cup with a cover, 
 which the marshal himself carried into 
 tlie prince's apartment, staggering all the 
 way as he went like one drunk. About 
 half an hour afterwards the tsar, with all 
 his attendants, withdrew, w'ith very dis- 
 mal countenances ; and when they went, 
 the marshal ordered me to attend at the 
 prince's apartments, and in case of any 
 alteration to inform him immediately 
 thereof. There were, at that time, two 
 physicians and two surgeons in waiting, 
 with whom, and the officers on guard, I 
 dined on what had been dressed for the 
 prince's dinnei-. The physicians were 
 
 r,oo 
 
 called in immediately after to attend the 
 prince, who was struggling out of one 
 couAidsion into another ; and after great 
 agonies, expired at five o'clock in the 
 afternoon." 
 
 To estimate the degi-ee of credit due 
 to this relation, we nmst attend to the 
 circumstances of the relator.* He was, as 
 we have already observed, a great ad- 
 mirer and sincere panegyrist of the tsar. 
 On this transaction, indeed, he makes 
 no comment ; and how could he ? He 
 evidently believes his imperial master 
 guilty of the crime, the motive for which, 
 — a desire to rescue Russia from restored 
 barbarism,^ — -he almost thinks ought to 
 atone for the deed. He writes what 
 justice compels him to write, and with 
 evident reluctance. To the tsar he owed 
 every thing : gratitude, therefore, no less 
 than admiration, woidd have led him to 
 vindicate that extraordinary man from 
 any unjust charge. In other parts of his 
 work he does vindicate Peter from injus- 
 tice ; in all he is eager to display his 
 subject in the most favourable light. To 
 this testimony we cannot refuse consi- 
 derable weight. 
 
 Posterity, therefore, must continue to 
 believe in the guilt of the emperor until 
 some evidence, formal and decisive as 
 that of Bruce, fix it on another delin- 
 quent. But no such evidence is likely 
 to be adduced. There cannot, we think, 
 be a reasonable doubt on the subject. 
 Indeed, Peter himself was more than 
 once heard to declare, that he had 
 sacrificed his son to his patriotism, to a 
 stern sense of duty. (Levesque, Histoire 
 de Russie, tom. v. Mottley, History of 
 the Life of Peter the First. Nestesu- 
 ranoi, Memoires du Regne de Pierre le 
 Grand. Voltaire, Histoire de Pierre le 
 Grand. Memoirs of Peter Henry 
 Bruce, Esq. (1782). Archdeacon Coxe, 
 Travels in Russia. History of Russia, 
 vol. ii. Lardner's Cabinet Cycl.) 
 
 ALEXIS, of Thurium in Italy, from 
 whence he went to Athens, floiu-ished as 
 a comic writer about 363 e. c. He was 
 the uncle of Menander. and wrote nearly 
 two hundred and fifty plays. The titles 
 of more than one hundred and ten have 
 been preserved, and fragments of them 
 are to be found in the collections of Me- 
 rellius, Hertclius, and Grotius. Some 
 were translated by the comic writers of 
 Italy, as we learn from A. Gell. (ii. 23). 
 
 * There is, however, one circumstance to he 
 considered— the improbability of making the che- 
 mii-t a ccnfidant, if by " itrovg poiiun" indsun was 
 inttndtd. 
 
LE 
 
 AL£ 
 
 He lived, s.iys Plutarch, (ii. p. 430, 
 Xyl.) to nearly one hundred, and died, 
 according to the same author, (ii. p. 785,) 
 while in the very act of being crowned in 
 a dramatic contest. He was the first, as 
 it appears from Athenteus (vi. p. 235, F.) 
 to introduce upon the stage the character 
 of a parasite, fovmded probably on the 
 flatterers of Eupoly. 
 
 ALEXIS, of Samos, a prose ethical 
 writer, of whom nothing is known, ex- 
 cept through two quotations in Athenreus. 
 
 ALEXIS (Guillaume), svunamed ' Le 
 Bon Moine,' was a Benedictine monk of 
 the abbey of Lyre, in the diocese of 
 Evreun. The dates of his birth and 
 decease are unknown, but he was living 
 in 1505. He was the author of many 
 works of much naivete and merit, though 
 now little read. The chief of these are — 
 1. Le Grant Blason des Faulces Amours. 
 Paris, 1493 ; often reprinted. 2. Le Passe- 
 temps de tout Homme et de toute Femme, 
 avec I'A B C des doubles, le tout en vers. 
 Paris, 4to, without date ; often reprinted. 
 This is a kind of translation of a work 
 De Vilitate Humanse Conditionis, attri- 
 buted to Pope Innocent III., and was 
 finished in 1480. It is chiefly on human 
 misery, and recommending a contempt 
 of the world. Alexis, in 1486, was at 
 Jerusalem, and there composed his Dia- 
 logue du Crucifix et du Pelerin. Paris 
 et Rouen, 4to, s. d. He returned to 
 France, and publishlu other works ; 
 although the Contre Blason des Faulces 
 Amours states, that he was put to death 
 at Jerusalem by the infidels. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ALEXIS DEL ARCO. See Arco. 
 
 ALEXIS, a Piedmontese, the reputed 
 author of a book of " Secrets," printed 
 at Basil, 1536, 8vo, which has been fre- 
 quently translated into French, and, in- 
 deed, into every European language : an 
 abridgement of them was long a popular 
 book at foreign fairs. Haller says, that 
 the real name of this avithor was Hiero- 
 nymo Rosello. 
 
 ALEXIUS I. (Comnenus,) emperor 
 of Constantinople, born in 1048; com- 
 menced his military career under his 
 brother Isaac, in the imfortimate expe- 
 dition of the latter against the Turks. 
 As a reward for his services in the in- 
 terior of the empire, the emperor Michael 
 afterwai'ds married him to Irene, grand- 
 daughter of John Ducas. Under the 
 succeeding emperor Nicephorus Boto- 
 niates, he was also successful in suppress- 
 ing various insuiTections ; and his talents 
 and good fortune excited the envy of the 
 301 
 
 ministers of state, who, in council as- 
 sembled, decreed his destruction. Warned 
 of his danger, he quickly left the capital ; 
 betook himself to the army ; was there 
 joined by the nobility of Constantinople, 
 and by the Csesar John Ducas, and pro- 
 claimed emperor in 1081. His fii'st step 
 now was to march upon the capital, which 
 he surprised, and gave up to such a hor- 
 rible pillage by his soldiers, that he was 
 afterwards obliged to do public penance, 
 in order to remove the odium which the 
 cruelties committed on his entrance into 
 Constantinople cast upon him. Sur- 
 rounded by factious and ambitious chiefs, 
 Alexius was obliged to create a number 
 of new dignities in order to satisfy his 
 rivals, his relations, and his partisans. 
 From abroad, he was menaced on the one 
 hand by the Turks, and on the other by 
 Robert Guiscard, son of Tancred de 
 Hauteville, who surrounded Dyrrachium 
 with his army, and whom, but not be- 
 fore he had himself suffered a defeat at 
 his hands, he compelled to return into 
 Italy. The Scythians, too, of whom an 
 innumerable multitude passed the Da- 
 nube, and ravaged Thrace, he succeeded 
 in entirely defeating, after an arduous 
 struggle. He next overthrew Tzachas, 
 who, at the head of a body of Turks, had 
 taken Mytilene, and several other cities, 
 and had declared liimself independent. 
 He now promised himself repose, but 
 had scarcely sheathed his sword, when 
 the first crusaders arrived, in 1096, now 
 demanding his aid, and now insulting 
 him in his own palace, and finally forcing 
 him to join them. This alliance was not 
 of long duration ; a war soon broke out 
 between the cnisaders and the emperor, 
 in which the latter was successful. He 
 died in 1118, after a reign of thirty-seven 
 years. Historians have portrayed his 
 character in very different colours ; his 
 daughter, Anna Comnena, who wrote his 
 life, seeks to justify his whole conduct. 
 
 ALEXIUS II. (Comnenus,) emperor 
 of Constantinople, born in that city in 
 1168, was at first under the tutelage of 
 his mother, and afterwards under that 
 of Andronicus Comnenus, who married 
 him to his daughter Irene ; and after 
 having caused himself to be associated 
 with him in the government, declared him 
 inifit for its duties. After having borne 
 the title of emperor for three years, this 
 vmfortunate prince was assassinated by 
 order of the perfidious usiu-per, in 
 1183. 
 
 ALEXIUS III. (Angelus,) emperor 
 of the East, usurped, in 1 195, the sceptre 
 
ALE 
 
 ALE 
 
 of his brother Isaac, whose eyes he put 
 out, and whom he kept in captivity. 
 But he did not obtain a tranquil posses- 
 sion of power. The people were inimical 
 to his family; and the empire was at- 
 tacked on one side by the Turks, and on 
 another by the Bulgarians ; whilst the 
 coasts were infested with pirates. The 
 empress Euphrosyna attempted, but with- 
 out success, to remedy the evils caused 
 by the weakness of the emperor : the 
 revolts and invasions increased. In 1203, 
 an army of crusaders, who had espoused 
 the cause of the young Alexis, son of the 
 supplanted Isaac, appeared before Con- 
 stantinople. The emperor, devoted to 
 pleasure, and the victim of his own ex- 
 cesses, had made no preparations for 
 defence. Lascaris, his general, who at- 
 tempted to dispute the passage of the 
 Bosphorus, was defeated ; and the Latins, 
 though comparatively few in number, 
 commenced the siege of the city. They 
 finally entered it by means of a general 
 assault : a desperate struggle was' main- 
 tained in the streets. At night-fall the 
 event seemed uncertain ; but the empe- 
 ror, by the persuasion of his courtesans 
 and flatterers, fled from the scene of 
 danger to Zagora, a city of Thrace, thus 
 abandoning his sceptre, his empress, and 
 all his family, except his daughter Irene, 
 whom he took with him. The unfortu- 
 nate Isaac was now delivered from prison, 
 and it was he who received his son in 
 Constantinople. Alexius made some at- 
 tempts to recover his throne, and ad- 
 vanced with an army as far as Adi'ianople ; 
 but his eflbrts, which he continued to 
 repeat during the next seven years, were 
 none of them crowned with success. He 
 terminated a life, dishonoured by odious 
 vices and shameful cowardice, in a mo- 
 nastery of Nice, where he was confined 
 by Theodore Lascaris. 
 
 ALEXIUS IV. (the Young,) empe- 
 ror of Constantinople, was the son of 
 Isaac Angelus, who was dethroned and 
 depi'ived of his sight by Alexius III. 
 The weakness of his character, the sub- 
 sidies which he was compelled to levy in 
 oi'der to satisfy the Latins, by whose 
 means Alexius III. was driven from 
 Constantinople (see Alexius III.), and 
 himself placed on the throne, and the 
 favour which he showed these allies, 
 incensed the Greeks against him. He 
 was at length thrown into prison by his 
 perfidious favourite, Alexius Ducas, sur- 
 named Murzuphle, who after having 
 twice attempted to poison him without 
 success, strangled him, after they had 
 302 
 
 dined together in his dungeon, Feb. 8, 
 1204, and then broke his bones with a 
 club, in order to make it be believed that 
 he had killed himself by a fall. Alexius 
 only reigned six months ; during which 
 time he manifested none of the qualities 
 which are requisite in a ruler. 
 
 ALEXIUS V. emperor of Constan- 
 tinople, surnamed Murzuphle, was of the 
 illustrious family of Ducas. (See Gibbon, 
 ch. Ix.) He ascended the throne, after 
 he had assassinated Alexius IV. (see 
 Alexius IV.) He sought to conciliate 
 the favour of the Latin chiefs, but the 
 negotiations were broken off" (see Gib- 
 bon) ; and they determined on the par- 
 tition of the empire of the East On tlie 
 9th of April, 1204, they attacked Con- 
 stantinople. The Greeks, animated by 
 Alexius, and covered by excellent forti- 
 fications, made a vigorous defence ; but 
 a second more determined assault having 
 been made, Alexius fled from his capital, 
 taking with him the treasures of his pa- 
 lace, and accompanied by Euphrosyna, 
 wife of Alexius III. and her daughter 
 Eudocia, whom he had married, though 
 he had already two wives. He fled to 
 Thrace to his father-in-law, Alexius, who 
 received him kindly, but shortly after- 
 wards caused his eyes to be torn out, and 
 deserted him. Murzuphle now attempted 
 to pass into Asia, but was arrested and 
 carried before Baldwin I. emperor of the 
 East, who causei^ him to be tried by his 
 barons for having murdered liis sove- 
 reign. He defended himself with bold- 
 ness ; but was condemned to be precipi- 
 tated from the column which the great 
 Theodosius had erected at Constanti- 
 nople ; and this sentence was executed 
 in the year 1204. 
 
 ALEXIUS, surnamed the Impostor, in 
 the reign of Isaac Angelus, sought to 
 profit by some resemblance which he 
 bore to Alexius II. in order to pass for 
 the son of Manuel Comnenus. At the 
 head of 8000 men, he caused himself to 
 be proclaimed emperor, and ravaged the 
 country bordering on the Meander. An 
 Asiatic priest, incensed at the sacrileges 
 committed by his undisciplined soldiers, 
 who were for the most part Mussulmans, 
 entered into his chamber one day, when 
 he was stupified with wine, and slew him 
 with a sword, which they found suspended 
 at the head of his bed. 
 
 (This and the preceding sketches of 
 Alexius, I. to V. are taken from the Bio- 
 graphic Univ. See also Gibbon, vol. xi.) 
 
 ALEXUS, or ALEXAS, of Ionia, a 
 writer of indelicate poetry, and the pre- 
 
ALE 
 
 A-LF 
 
 (lecessor of Sotades, as we learn from 
 Athenaeus (xiv. p. 620, E.) 
 
 ALEYN, CHARLES, a poet in the 
 reign of Charles L was of Sidney college, 
 Cambridge ; became usher to the cele- 
 brated Farnaby, at his school, in Gold- 
 smith's Rents, and afterwards tutor to Sir 
 Edward Sherburne, himself a poet. He 
 died about 1640. His works are. The 
 Battle of Crescey and Poictiers, 1632 ; 
 the Historic of Hen. VH. with the famed 
 battle near Bosworth, 1638 ; and the 
 Historic of Eurialus and Lucretia, 1639, 
 from a story in the Latin Epistles of 
 iEneas Sylvius. Aleyn seems to have 
 been much esteemed and beloved by co- 
 temporaries of some eminence. To his 
 first poem are prefixed commendatory 
 verses in Latin, by Tliomas May, and 
 in English, by John Hall and Henry 
 Blount ; Sherburne and Edward Prideaux 
 lent their names to the second. The 
 poems are composed in stanzas of six 
 lines — four alternate and two rhymes. 
 A writer in the Britannica is very pro- 
 fuse in praise of them, but his quotations 
 will scarcely invite to a perusal of more. 
 ALEYRAC. See Daleyrac. 
 ALFANL (Domenico di Paris, 1483, 
 was living in 1536,) a native of Perugia, 
 and pupil of Pietro Perugino. Together 
 with his son Orazio he executed the altar 
 piece of the Crucifixion between St. 
 ApoUonia and St. Jerome, at the church 
 of the Conventuals at Perugia. Orazio 
 di Paris Alfani, the son of Domenico, was 
 born at Perugia, 1510, and was also a 
 scholar of Perugino, and enlarged the 
 style of that master. He studied the 
 works of RafFaelle, and imitated them 
 witli such exactness that many of his 
 pictures have been mistaken for the pro- 
 ductions of that great artist. Orazio was 
 the chief of the academy for design, 
 which was founded in his native city in 
 1573. He died in 1583.— (Lanzi, Stor. 
 Pittor. ii. Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ALFARABI, so called from Farab, 
 now Othrar, a town in Asia Minor, where 
 he was bom, his real name being Moham- 
 med, was of Turkish origin, but quitted 
 his country, and studied the Aristotelian 
 philosophy at Bagdad, and logic at 
 Harran, under John, a christian physi- 
 cian. After a visit to Egypt, he settled 
 at Damas, where the prince Seif-ed-Dau- 
 lah took him under his patronage. He 
 excelled in music, as well as in philoso- 
 phy and philology. He wrote many 
 treatises on different parts of the Aristo- 
 telian philosophy, and these were read 
 and admired not only among the Ara- 
 303 
 
 bians, but also among the Jews. His 
 treatise De Intelligentiis was published in 
 the works of Avicenna, Venice, 1495 ; 
 another, De Causis, is in Aristotle's 
 works, with the commentaries of Aver- 
 roes ; and his Opuscida Varia were 
 printed at Paris in 1638. One of his 
 most famous works is a kind of encyclo- 
 predia, in which he gives a short account 
 and definition of all branches of science 
 and art : the manuscript of this is in the 
 Escurial. This celebrated philosopher 
 died in the year 950. 
 
 ALFARO, (y Gamon, Don Juan dc, 
 1640 — 1680,) a Spanish painter, pupil of 
 Antonio de Castile, and afterwards of 
 Velasquez, whose style he adopted. He 
 painted both portraits and history ; of 
 the latter, his two most celebrated works 
 are the Incarnation in the church of the 
 Carmelites, and the Guardian Angel in 
 the church of the Imperial college at 
 Madrid. (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ALFENUS, (Varus,) a celebrated 
 Roman lawyer, was born in the year of 
 Rome 713 at Cremona. He was at first 
 a shoemaker under Servius Sulpicius, and 
 raised himself by his talents and probity 
 to the rank of consul. He was the first 
 who made those collections of civil law 
 called digests ; but none of his writings 
 are now extant. 
 
 ALFERGAN, (Ahmed- Ben -Kothair, 
 or Moliammed-Ben-Ketei) Al Fergani, 
 so called from Ferghanah a town of 
 Sogdiana, his native place. He was a 
 celebrated astronomer, and from his skill 
 in calculations received the name of" The 
 Calculator." The date of his birth and 
 death are unknown — it is only known 
 that he lived in the time of the Khalif-al- 
 Mamoun, who died 833. He is the author 
 of an Introduction to Astronomy, in thirty 
 books, which was an abridgement of the 
 Greek astronomy which then began to 
 be studied by the Arabians. The num- 
 ber of the stars is there made 1022, as in 
 the Almagest — the obliquity of the eclip- 
 tic is 23'= 35'. There are three later 
 translations of this book : 1 . one by Johan- 
 nes Hispalensis, made in the 12th cen- 
 tury, printed at Ferrara 1493, and 
 reprinted at Nunenburgh 153 7, with a pre- 
 face by Melancthon ; 2. that of J. Christ- 
 man 1590, from a Hebrew translation; 
 and lastly, that of Golius in 1069. Alfer- 
 gan wrote also on Solar Dials and on the 
 Astrolabe. De Lambre speaks of his 
 Introduction to Astronomy as a very 
 superficial woi-k, and full of errors. — 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 ALFES, (Isaac, 1013~n 03,) a native 
 
ALf 
 
 A LF 
 
 of a village near Fez, who took refuge 
 in Spain, about 1088, in consequence of 
 some troubles. He is the author of a 
 commentary on the Talmud, called Al- 
 fesi, from his name, and also The Little 
 Talmud, from its being a compendium of 
 that work. It has often been printed : at 
 Constantinople, 1509 ; at Sabioneta, 1554, 
 &c. (See de Rossi, Diz. Stor. et An- 
 
 Titles &C.) 
 
 ALFIERI, (Vittorio, 1749—1803,) is 
 one of those men whose personal life 
 would scarcely deserve notice, were it 
 not for the celebrity which his works 
 have acquired, although much of that 
 celebrity may be traced to his adoption 
 of what may be called the new opi- 
 nions. He was born at Osti, in Pie- 
 mont, of noble and affluent parents, and 
 had the misfortune to lose his father 
 ■when scarcely a year old. For some 
 time he and his sister Giulia lived with 
 his mother, who had married again ; but 
 Giulia having been sent to a nunnery, 
 he was placed under the tuition of a 
 priest, fi-om whom he learnt the rudi- 
 ments of the Latin language. It was 
 imhappy for Alfieri that he was left 
 without any companion at so early an 
 age, and it probably exerted a very un- 
 favourable influence on his character in 
 after life. 
 
 At the age of nine years, througli the 
 interference of his uncle and guardian, 
 Pellegrino Alfieri, he was sent to the 
 academy -of Turin, and this was another 
 great misfortune. Of the studies he pur- 
 sued, and the education he received, he 
 gives the most unfavourable account ; 
 and it is almost inconceivable that such 
 a system could have been adopted, and 
 that the teachers should be so ignorant 
 and so negligent. No maxims of mo- 
 rality, no rules of conduct, were ever 
 inculcated on the pupils ; nor do the pro- 
 fessors appear to have been fitted to im- 
 part them. 
 
 His education here was miserable. At 
 thirteen he studied philosophy and geo- 
 metry in the morning, and logic in the 
 afternoon ; but the lectures were in Latin, 
 of which he knew scarcely any thing. 
 As to geometry, having gone through six 
 books of Euclid, he was unable to under- 
 stand the fourth proposition of the first ! 
 The lectures on logic must have presented 
 a curious scene. " The students WTapped 
 in their cloaks, fell soundly asleep, and 
 the professor, only half-awake, drawled 
 out his explanations in Latin, while the 
 pupils now and then interrupted him by 
 their snoring ! " 
 
 304 
 
 His removal to what was called the 
 first apartment, then much frequented 
 by young foreigners with little restraint, 
 brought him into collision with the au- 
 thorities, who confined him for three 
 months. 
 
 The marriage of his sister with count 
 Cumana at length gave him liberty ; and 
 having now attained the age of sixteen, 
 which rendered him master of his pro- 
 perty, he fell into all sorts of extravagant 
 expenses. He now entered the army, 
 with the rank of ensign, in a provincial 
 regiment, which assembled for a few 
 days twice in the year. 
 
 At the age of seventeen, he obtained 
 the king's leave to travel for a year 
 under a tutor, whom he left at Naples, 
 and coming back by way of Venice and 
 Genoa, he went to Toulon and Mar- 
 seilles, and reached Paris in August 
 1767, looking with the utmost indiffer- 
 ence upon every thing he saw. 
 
 In Paris the bad weather, the mean 
 appearance of the buildings, the dirt of 
 the streets, and the painted faces of the 
 women, made upon him a sad and last- 
 ing impression, and after a few months 
 he came to England. From the first he 
 was pleased with the country, whose ad- 
 vantages seemed to him to " arise from 
 the best of governments." But here, too, 
 his restless and mad disposition soon 
 made him dislike society, and instead of 
 joining in parties like a gentleman, he 
 preferred being a coachman, driving his 
 friend by day through London, and wait- 
 ing for him at night before the houses 
 where he was passing his time, during 
 the whole winter of 1 764. In the spring 
 he went to Holland, where he engaged 
 in an intrigvie with a married woman, 
 which he followed with all his usual 
 madness, and even attempted suicide. 
 From Holland he ran to Italy, as usual 
 admiring nothing — to Vienna, where he 
 would not be introduced to Metastasio, 
 because he had seen him perform the 
 accustomed genuflexion to the empress 
 Maria Theresa — to Prussia, where he 
 looked upon Frederic the Great with 
 horror — to St. Petersburgh, where he 
 avoided the sight of the " philosophic 
 Clytemnestra," as he calls Catherine — 
 to Denmark, which he admired, because 
 it was unlike Prussia — to Sweden, where 
 he was delighted with the forests, frozen 
 lakes, and mountains — and at last, tired 
 of the north, he returned to England, 
 leading everywhere a life of the most 
 abominable profligacy. 
 
 In London, in Spain and Portugal, 
 
A L F 
 
 A L F 
 
 and in Turin, he still continued his pro- 
 fligate career ; and in the latter, after a 
 severe illness, he wrote some scenes of 
 Cleopati-a, which was his first essay in 
 the Italian language. He next wrote 
 two tragedies, Philip and Polinice, in 
 French prose, the only language he 
 knew ; and that too he only knew im- 
 perfectly. To improve his Italian, or 
 rather to learn it, he went to Tuscany, 
 and in Florence he made the acquaint- 
 ance of the lady who fixed him for ever. 
 This was Louisa, daughter of the prince 
 Stolberg Goedern, so well kno^vn as the 
 countess of Albany, and wife of Charles 
 Edward Stuart, called the young Pre- 
 tender, whose character, coarse and ty- 
 rannical, had obliged her to separate 
 herself from liim, and retire to a convent 
 in Rome, and afterwards reside with her 
 brother-in-law, cardinal York. Alfieri, 
 for the sake of enjoying her society, had 
 no objection " to pay his court, and sub- 
 mit to a thousand meannesses, to con- 
 ciliate the good will of the priestlings, 
 who interfered in her aifairs." He seems 
 here to have forgotten that he had foi*- 
 merly declined seeing Metastasio, be- 
 cause he had paid the proper mark of 
 respect to the Empress, in whose ser- 
 vice he was. When the coimtess left 
 cardinal York, Alfieri followed her where- 
 ever she went; and after the death of 
 her husband, in 1788, it is asserted by 
 some that they were privately married, 
 and by others denied. Be this as it may, 
 there is no doubt that to this lady Alfieri 
 owes the literary eminence which he 
 afterwards attained. . In Sir J. C. Hob- 
 house's illustrations of Childe Harold, 
 the negative is very strongly maintained, 
 p. 396. 
 
 In the mean time he completed four- 
 teen tragedies ; ten of which were pub- 
 lished at Sienna. They were well criti- 
 cized by Calsabigi, to whom he replied 
 in a long letter, and came again to 
 England to buy horses ; he then joined 
 the countess in Paris, where he superin- 
 tended the edition of his tragedies by 
 Didot ; and soon after published his 
 other miscellaneous works at Kehl, and 
 continued to. live quietly with the coun- 
 tess in Paris till the revolution drove 
 them away, not without great personal 
 danger, and the loss of all their property, 
 under the plea that they were emigrants. 
 Returning to Florence, he wrote his 
 Misogallo, a collection of satirical sonnets, 
 letters, and epigi'ams, in which he has 
 embodied all his early dislike and recent 
 detestation of the French people. At 
 
 VOL. I. 305 
 
 the age of forty-six, he began to study 
 the Greek language ; and without any 
 assistance, in two years he was able to 
 understand the Greek writers.* After- 
 wards, he applied himself to Hebrew, 
 and continued to live quietly in Florence, 
 seeing nobody but the comitess and his 
 friend, the Abate Caluso, till the year 
 1 803, when an attack of the gout, added 
 to his constant application, and a worn- 
 out constitution, put an end to his life. 
 He was bm'ied in the chm-ch of Santa 
 Croce, where the countess, who never left 
 him in his last moments, had a fine monu- 
 ment raised to him by the celebrated 
 Canova. 
 
 Such was the end of Alfieri — a melan- 
 choly instance of a neglected education, 
 and a wa}nvard and profligate disposition. 
 Under due control, and with religious 
 principles, he might have been a shining 
 light ; but he is now only a beacon, to 
 warn men against his errors and his vices. 
 His works, indeed, have their admirers, 
 but it is chiefly from the boldness of his 
 views, and his attacks on the present 
 order of things. 
 
 Lord Byron, who in many respects 
 resembled him, and who by analyzing 
 his own sentiments, could very easily 
 and tndy define those of Alfieri, says 
 of him with much truth, — " Alfieri was 
 an aristocrat at heart ; he preached 
 liberty, because he coidd not bear con- 
 ti'ol ; had he been a king, he would have 
 been a tyrant." 
 
 In regard to his merit as a tragic 
 writer, his admirers and his enemies 
 have both gone too far. G. Calsabigi, 
 and A. W. Schlegel, in his course of 
 dramatic literature, have criticized him 
 very shai-ply. To the former Alfieri 
 himself replied in a long letter ; to the 
 latter, Gherardlni, in the notes to the 
 Italian translation of his works, to which 
 we refer our readers for further informa- 
 tion. On the other hand, M. Sismondi 
 has placed him by the side of the great 
 tragic writers of France, and above those 
 of all other nations ; and Mr. Forsyth 
 agrees with him, and asks, " Where lives 
 the tragic poet equal to Alfieri?" To 
 tliis we beg leave to answer. Not in France, 
 but in Germany, England, and Italy. 
 Schiller, Goethe, and Joanna Baillie, and 
 Monti, are all superior to Alfieri. 
 
 In his ti-agedies, Alfieri has preserved 
 the unities ; the characters are few ; the 
 
 *■ Sir J. C. Hobhouse, however, (Hist. lUusfr. 
 of Childe Harold, p. 33,) mentions a curious anec- 
 dote, indicating that he obtained the assistance of 
 a young scholar for this purpose. 
 
A LF 
 
 A L F 
 
 act'on is not internipted l)y midev-plots ; 
 and the sentiments ai-e ex])ies.sed with 
 an abruptness of lanji;^uage, which, though 
 not always correct, does not fail to pro- 
 duce a deep impression. By examining 
 himself, he has been able to put the ex- 
 pression of his own feelings into the 
 mouth of his characters, and the conden- 
 sation of his own passions is what ren- 
 ders them so natural. He delineates all 
 his characters, whether historical or ima- 
 ginary, not as they are, but as he con- 
 ceives them, according to the violence of 
 his own temper and passion ; and this 
 very violence fills the spectators, not with 
 terror, but too often with disgust. The 
 fact is, he was never deterred by the 
 nature of the story, nor by its repug- 
 nance to the feelings of mankind. Of 
 this we have a striking example in his 
 Myrrha, a subject so hateful, that though 
 we may admire the skill with which it is 
 treated, we can never lose the sense of 
 disgust. In every point of view the sub- 
 ject was injudicious : it is monstrous to 
 the imlearned, for they understand no- 
 thing of the pi'inciple by which it is 
 mitigated ; and is offensive to the scholar, 
 for the alterations introduced in a story 
 so well known. In the same way in 
 Brutus, he outrages alike our best feel- 
 ings, our common sense, and historical 
 truth ; and yet, from the licentious bold- 
 ness of the opinions advocated in them, 
 these two tragedies are the most admired 
 by many of the modern school. Upon 
 the whole, Saul is the best of his trage- 
 dies, and the Filippo is perhaps the next 
 to it in merit. 
 
 One great merit of Alfieri consists in 
 having avoided every sort of attack or 
 
 sneer against religion and dece 
 
 and 
 
 -br— 6 ...ccncy : 
 
 this merit would have been still more 
 enhanced, if he had shown the same 
 modei'ation in the history of his life, or 
 rather, if he had not written it at all, for 
 its tendency is abominable. Another 
 great merit is the simplicity of his lan- 
 guage, and the absence of all superfluous 
 narrative. In the opening oi liis dramas, 
 he generally is particularh' happy ; no- 
 thing, for instance, can be compared 
 with that of the " Ottavia." 
 
 His minor works are several, and of 
 various sorts. There are four comedies, 
 which are satires on the different systems 
 of government ; the Tirannide, which is 
 a vehement invective against tyranny, in 
 imitation of Macchiavelli's Principe, with 
 this difference, that Macchiavelli de- 
 scribed what he saw, and Alfieri what 
 he chose to imagine ; an Apology for 
 30G 
 
 Louis XVI. ; a translation of Sallust; a 
 miscellaneous work, called the Antigal- 
 lican, which we have already noticed; 
 and his own Life, from which we have 
 extracted the foregoing notice. His 
 works have gone through many editions, 
 both collectively and in parts. 
 
 ALFIERI, (O.) of Asti, in Piedmont, 
 wrote in the 13th century a history or 
 chronicle of his coruitry, down to the 
 year 1294, derived, according to his own 
 account, from more ancient chronicles, 
 which is inserted in the great collection 
 of Muratori. (Script. Iler. Ital. vol. xi.) 
 
 ALFIERI, (Count Benedict Innocent, 
 1700 — 1767) an architect and advocate of 
 Asti, bom at Rome, was the author of 
 the designs of the theatre, and several other 
 buildings, at Turin. He was ai'chitect to 
 King Charles Emanuel, with whom he 
 was a great favourite. He furnished the 
 plan for the beautifid facade of the tem- 
 ple of St. Peter at Geneva. 
 
 ALFONSO. On this name, which has 
 been borne by so many kings of the 
 Peninsrda, we must dwell at some 
 length. For the sake of clearness, we 
 arrange them under the heads of the 
 states which they governed. 
 
 1. Kings of the Aslurias and Leon. 
 
 Alfonso I,* (739 — 7.57,) was the son- 
 in-law of Pelayo, the founder of the As- 
 turian kingdom, and the third regal chief 
 of the infant state, — his immechate suc- 
 cessor being Favila, the son of Pela3'o. 
 He was descended, we are told, from 
 Leovigild, king of the Wisigoths : it ap- 
 pears certain that in the reigns of Egica 
 and Witiza he had distinguished himself 
 by his military talents ; and that he was 
 one of the most ardent supporters of the 
 new state in the Asturias. For his valour, 
 no less than for his royal birth, he was 
 rewarded with the hand of Ermesinda, 
 daughter of Pelayo. Both considerations, 
 too, led to his election after the death of 
 Favila ; for though this king left chil- 
 dren, they were probably too young ; 
 they were certainly deemed unequal to 
 tiie duties of royalty at such a period. 
 Among these rude mountaineers there 
 was as little respect for the hereditary 
 principle, as there had been among their 
 Gothic sires ; the bravest chief was the 
 most necessary, and therefore the most 
 frequently chosen. It must, however, be 
 observed, that the choice was always con- 
 fined to the family of the reigning king, 
 
 • It will be observed that this life widely differs 
 from that given in the Biographie Universelle. The 
 aiithors of that work have chiefly followe'J Mo- 
 rales and Mariana, instead of Mondejar and Masdeu. 
 
AL F 
 
 A L F 
 
 and generally to the brother or son at his 
 decease, provided he were not disquali- 
 fied by age or infancy, by impotence of 
 body or of mind. Alt'onso soon proved 
 that he was worthy of their choice ; he 
 became a conqueror ; and in that age the 
 desire of conquest was a virtue. Lugo, 
 Orense, and Tuy, in Galicia ; in Portugal, 
 Braga, Oporto, Viseo, and Chaves ; in 
 Leon, Astorga, Simancas, Zamora, Sala- 
 manca, Ledesma, and the city of Leon ; 
 in Castile, Avila, Sepulveda, Segovia, 
 Osma, Coniila del Conde, Lara, and Sal- 
 daiia, with some other places of less note, 
 were rescued from the Mohammedans. 
 When he ascended the throne, the limits 
 of the new kingdom were restrained to 
 the mountainous district surrounding the 
 capital, Cangas de Onis ; but he extended 
 it from the Biscayan Sea to the confines 
 of Toledo ; and from the bordei-s of Ga- 
 licia in the west, to those of Arragon in 
 the east. If many of these possessions 
 were lost by his successors, the fault was 
 not his. But with all his conquests he 
 did not remove his capital from Cangas, 
 though he sometimes resided at Oviedo, 
 and occasionally in other towns, for the 
 more easy administration of justice. Can- 
 gas was the strongest place ; and he had 
 no wish to expose the seat of govern- 
 ment to the perpetual inroads of the 
 Arabs. The worst feature of his character 
 is, his cruelty to the Mohammedan cap- 
 tives, and the inhabitants in general : he 
 made a desert that his own Goths might 
 colonize it. In the eyes of his bishojis, 
 however, this was scarceljr a fault ; and 
 if it were, he redeemed it by the churches 
 and monasteries which he founded ; and 
 he built, as well as fortified, many towns. 
 From this period, though the records are 
 lost, must he dated many communities to 
 which charters were given, — municipal 
 corporations, which, during a great part 
 of the middle ages, guaranteed the liber- 
 ties of the people. The memory of this 
 prince has been always reverenced in 
 Spain. The epithet Cnii'ioUcvi'ns pi'obably 
 preserved by his attachment to religion ; 
 but he was near being worshipped as a 
 saint. It is said by Sebastian of Sala- 
 manca, that a choir of angels descended 
 to conduct his sovd to heaven ; and the 
 assertion is repeated by all the histo- 
 rians of Spain, from that bishop to Mas- 
 den, and even Ortiz ! (Dunham's His- 
 tory of Spain, vols. i. and iv.) 
 
 Alfonso II., siu-named the Chaste, 
 
 the eighth sovereign of the Asturian 
 
 and Leonnese dynasty, was the son. of 
 
 Fruela I., whom the people had murdered. 
 
 307 
 
 Probably he was an infant when this deed 
 was performed : we know that four princes 
 ( Aurelio,Silo,Mauregato, and Bermudo I.) 
 reigned between his father and himself. 
 One reason for his exclusion was doubt- 
 less the fear lest he should seek to revenge 
 his father's death. From his accession, 
 791, to his decease in 842, he was fre- 
 quently engaged in hostilities with the 
 Arabs ; and \'ictory generally shone on his 
 banners. Probably he had as much trouble 
 from Ills own restless nobles, as from the 
 enemy : once he was seized by a large 
 body of rebels, and confined in a monas- 
 tery ; but a faithfid band of vassals has- 
 tened to release him, and bore him in 
 triumph to Oviedo, where he established 
 his seat of government. That city he 
 both enlarged and embellished ; and 
 where humble wooden houses had before 
 stood, buildings of stone, at once exten- 
 sive and massive, now arose. The church 
 of San Salvador, which was thirty years 
 in building, was magnificent as well as 
 extensive. His surname of the Chaste 
 arose from his continence towards his 
 own wife, a French princess, if any faith is 
 to be placed in Don Lucas, bishop of Tuy; 
 but many writers contend that he never 
 did marry. His sister, it is also asserted, 
 fell in love with Sancho, count of Saldaiia, 
 whom she privately married when Alfonso 
 would not consent to the match : her preg- 
 nancy betrayed her ; she was immured in 
 a nunnery — the count in a prison ; and the 
 issue was Bernardo del Carpio, so famous 
 for his exploits against the Moors. All 
 this is romance : Alfonso had no sister ; 
 there was no Sancho count of Saldaiia, 
 and, consequently, there was no Ber- 
 nardo. (The same history, which is 
 taken from contemporary authorities.) 
 
 Alfonso lit. (reigned from 866—910), 
 the eleventh king of Leon and the Astu- 
 rias, was the son and successor of Or- 
 doiio I. The very beginning of his reign 
 was troubled. By a count of Gallicia his 
 capital was taken, and he was compelled to 
 flee into the mountain fastnesses of Alava; 
 but by the senate of Oviedo the usurper 
 was slain, and Alfonso was restored. A 
 second rebellion by a covmt of Alava was 
 more easily suppressed. In the pre- 
 cincts of his palace he found the dag- 
 ger ready to shed his blood ; the death 
 of the conspirators struck a salutary fear 
 into the rest. Over the Mohammedans 
 he was victorious ; and he wrested from 
 them the country as far as the Sierra de 
 Cucnza, in the territory of Toledo ; as frr 
 as the Duero in Estremadura and Por- 
 tugal, and, in one instance, as far as tl:e 
 X 2 
 
A LF 
 
 ALF 
 
 Giiadiana. These regions, indeed, had 
 been overrun by Alfonso I., but they had 
 since been recovered by the Arabs ; and, 
 in a century afterwards, they were again 
 to be recovered by the great Ahnansor. 
 His reign, too, was memorable for his 
 conduct in regard to Navarre. The 
 people of that province, or at least of 
 Pamplona, its capital, had been always 
 disposed to hostilities against the kings 
 of the Asturias ; prob;.'bly the great vas- 
 sals were dependant on the successors of 
 Charlemagne, not on those of Pelayo ; 
 and this dependence may account for the 
 ill-will borne towards Navarre by the 
 latter kings. We know at least that war 
 was frequent, and that it was occasioned, 
 in many instances, by the ambition of 
 the French and Asturian kings. To 
 have some hold on the allegiance of a 
 portion at least of the country, Alfonso, 
 in 873, bestowed on Sancho liiigo, count 
 of Bigorre, a valiant Frank, the govern- 
 ment of Navarre, which Sancho was to 
 hold on the usual feudal terms. Sancho 
 was thus the vassal of two crowns, — of 
 the French, as far as his lordship of 
 Bigorre, and perhaps a portion of Na- 
 varre were concerned ; — of the Astui'ian, 
 for the southern, western, and perhaps 
 central portion of the province. This 
 was not wise policy : the lords of Navarre 
 were not likely to prove a bulwark against 
 the Mohammedans on the one hand, or 
 the Franks on the other ; they would 
 naturally aim at their own independence 
 of all three. The last years of the king's 
 reign were troubled. His son Don Garcia 
 rebelled against him ; the undutiful prince 
 was unsuccessful, and consigned to a for- 
 tress three years. Hearing that Garcia 
 was treated with rigour, the nobles armed 
 to release him ; and to avoid a civil war, 
 Alfonso resigned the crown in his favour. 
 He did not long survive his abdication. 
 Having paid a visit to the shrine of San- 
 tiago, in Gallicia, he obtained, on his 
 return to Astorga, permission from his 
 son to strike a parting blow at the Mo- 
 hammedans ; and he made a destructive 
 irruption into their tei'ritory. On his 
 death, in 910, he left behind him the 
 reputation of being one of the greatest 
 princes Spain had ever produced. (Fer- 
 rare's Hlstoria de Espaiia. Masdeu, His- 
 toria Ci'itica de Espaiia. Dunham, History 
 of Spain, vol. ii. and iii.) 
 
 Alfonso IV. (reigned 925—930,) son 
 of Ordoiio H., and grandson of Al- 
 fonso HI., was the successor of his 
 imcle, Frucla H. He was a feeble 
 prince : thiough piety he resigned his 
 
 crown, and retired to the monastery of 
 Sahagun ; but he soon repented of the 
 step, hastened to Leon, seized the dig- 
 nity, was besieged, taken, blinded, and 
 sent again to his monastery by his bro- 
 ther, Ramiro H. 
 
 Alfonso V. (reigned 999—1027,) son 
 of Bermudo H., succeeded at a time 
 when the victorious arms of Almansor 
 (see the name) had subdued most of the 
 kingdom of Leon. Though on his ac- 
 cession he was only five years old, the 
 affairs of the kingdom were ably admi- 
 nistered by a regency, which, in 1001, 
 triumphed over Almansor, who was left 
 dead on the field. As Alfonso grew in 
 years, he zealously repaired the disasters 
 which the Moslem wars had uifiicted on 
 his country. He rebuilt and repeopled 
 Leon, which again became his capital ; 
 he restored to the church and to indi- 
 viduals the property of whicli both had 
 been despoiled; he promulgated many 
 salutary laws ; and controlled, as much 
 as he could, the tyranny of his locfil 
 counts. He was killed at the siege of 
 Visen, in Portugal, by an arrow from 
 the Mohammedan garrison.* 
 
 Alfonso, in 1021, betrothed his son 
 Bermudo to Ximena, the sister of Don 
 Garcia, the infant count of Castile, and 
 his daughter Sancha to Don Garcia him- 
 self, who was to receive the title of king. 
 This latter marriage Avas pi-evented by 
 the assassination of Don Garcia in 102G. 
 In Bermudo, the male line of the house 
 of Leon was extinct. 
 
 JIfonso T'l.f (reigned 10G5— 1109,) the 
 second son of Fernando I. king of Leon an d 
 Castile (see the last note) entered on tlie 
 government of the former kingdom at tlie 
 same time that his brother Sancho under- 
 took that of Castile, and his brother Gar- 
 cia that of Gallicia. For some time, the 
 three brothers remained at peace ; hvA 
 it was a peace that could not be lasting. 
 
 • In order fully tn understand the Spanish bio- 
 graphy of this period, the reader ought to be ac- 
 quainted with the history of the counts of Castile. 
 Dr. Dunham. (Hist, of Spain, ii. p. 144.) has >;iven 
 an abridgement of it, which separates the historic:il 
 from the fabulous, especially in the rase of Fernnn 
 Gnnsalez, who lirst made the fief hereditary. It is 
 onlv necessary for our present purpose, as an intro- 
 duction to the life of Alfonso Vi., to state that 
 Sancho el Ma\or, king nf Navarre, having claimed 
 the sovereignty of Castile, in right of his queen, 
 Maria Elvira, elder sister of the Ximenamentioned 
 above, Sancho divided his possessions at his death 
 among his children, giving the new kingdom of 
 Castile to Fernando, who inherited Leon at the 
 death of Bermudo. Sancho was thus the first, and 
 Fernando the second /;^>ic/ of Castile. Fernando 
 dyinj,' in 1065, divided his dominions also. 
 
 t In the Biog. Univ. this article is half romance, 
 and still more disgraceful for its omissions. 
 
AL F 
 
 A L r 
 
 la 1068, Alfonso was defeated by Sancho 
 on tlie banks of the Pisuerga; in 1071, 
 on those of the Carrion he was victor ; 
 but he was surprised in liis camp, made 
 prisoner, and consigned to the monastery 
 of Saha^un, where it was mtended he 
 should embrace the ecclesiastical state. 
 Soon afterwards, however, we find him 
 at the court of Aben Dylnun, king of 
 Toledo ; whether he had been exiled, or 
 had contrived to escape, we should vainly 
 inquire. In 1072, Sancho being assassi- 
 nated before the walls of Zamora, Al- 
 fonso hastened to the city, and was 
 acknowledged king of Leon and Castile. 
 But even this success did not satisfy 
 him ; and he dethroned his brother, Don 
 Garcia, whom he consigned to the castle 
 of Luna, and whom he treated wltli 
 royal magnificence indeed, yet closely 
 guarded. From this time he became a 
 great conqueror over the Moors. He 
 reduced Coi-ia, Toledo, Madind, Guada- 
 lajara, &c., and rendered the kings of 
 Saragossa and Badajos, &c. tributary. 
 In short, he became so formidable, that 
 the Moors called in the aid of Yussef Ben 
 Taxfin, (see the name.) 
 
 The conqueror was besieging Sara- 
 gossa when he heard of Yussef 's dis- 
 embarkation ; but he raised the siege, 
 and met the African emperor on tlie 
 plains of Zalaca. As the latter was 
 zealous for the Koran, he summoned 
 Alfonso to turn Mussulman, or to pay 
 tribute, or to prepare for war. The in- 
 dignant Christian, in presence of the 
 Moorish ambassador, trampled the letter 
 under his feet, saying, "Tell thy master 
 what thou hast seen ! Tell him, above 
 all, not to hide himself during the ap- 
 proaching battle!" Never was a day 
 more fiercely contested. The onset of 
 Alfonso at the head of the christian 
 cavalry, threw the Almoravides into 
 confusion ; at the same moment, his 
 imcle, the king of Navarre, forced back 
 the Andalusians ; but Yussef, advancing 
 with the rear, which consisted of the 
 flower of his troops, the contest was 
 maintained with great obstinacy, imtil 
 nightfall, when Alfonso, who was severely 
 wounded, retreated from the field. If 
 his loss was great, that of the Almora- 
 vides must also have been equally so, for 
 he was not pursued. 
 
 This great prince died in 1109. As 
 his only son, Don Sancho, had fallen 
 in battle with the Almoravides, he left 
 to his eldest daughter, Urraca, (now 
 widow of Raymund count of Burgvmd}', 
 or very recently married to her second 
 309 
 
 luisband, Alfonso I., king of Aragon and 
 N.ivarre,) the united crowns of Leon 
 and Castile ; and to their son, Alfonso 
 Raymund, the lordship of GaUicia, as an 
 hereditary fief. Some years before, he 
 had conferred on Henry count of Be- 
 san9on, who had married his daughter, 
 Theresa, all his Lusitanian conquests, 
 from Oporto on the Duero to the con- 
 fines of Badajoz. This was bad policy, 
 but it vv'as the fault of the age. (Ferreras, 
 Histoire Generale d'Espagne, by Her- 
 milly, torn. iii. Dunham's Spain and 
 Portugal, vols. ii. and iii.) 
 
 Jjjonso VII. (reigned 1109—1114,) 
 the husband of Urraca, who ruled con- 
 jointly with her, was unable to bear her 
 capricious, sometimes violent disposi- 
 tion ; still less her infidelities to his 
 bed. Being separated from him on 
 the ground of affinity, a civil war fol- 
 lowed, then a reconciliation ; but her 
 conduct was so bad, that he re-entered 
 tlie field. But the council of Palencia, 
 (1112,) and subsequently the pope, de- 
 clared the marriage null and void ; and 
 Alfonso retired to his hereditary domi- 
 nions of Ai-agon, (see Alfonso I.) 
 where he ended his days in 1134, eight 
 years after the death of Urraca. 
 
 AIfoiis'> VIII. (reigned 1126—1157,) 
 usually called tlie Einperor, son of Ur- 
 raca and Alfonso VII., succeeded his 
 mother in the kingdoms of Leon and 
 Castile in 1126. For some years he was 
 not on the best vmderstanding with his 
 father, Alfonso, the seventh of Leon and 
 the first of Aragon. And after the 
 accession of Ramiro II. he invaded 
 Aratjon : some fortresses of which he 
 reduced, and refused to restore them 
 except as fiefs. These and similar suc- 
 cesses against Navarre and Barcelona 
 elated him so much, that he assumed 
 the empty title of emperor of all Spain, 
 v.hile much was independent of him. 
 The princes of Navarre and Portugal 
 took up arms against him, and soon 
 forced him to make peace. In his con- 
 tests with the Mohammedans, he was 
 more fortunate : assisted by his name- 
 sake of Aragon, he removed the christian 
 frontier from the Tagiis to the Sierra 
 Morena, and made tributary the Moorish 
 governors of some places in Andalusia 
 itself, as Baeza and Andujar. His last 
 great action against the Moors, — that 
 of 1157, which he contested with the 
 Cid Yussef, son of Abdelmmnen, was 
 indecisive. — With all his vanity, Alfonso 
 was no common monarch. In his crown 
 of Leon, he was succeeded by his son, 
 
A LF 
 
 ALF 
 
 Fernando II. ; in that of Castile by his 
 son, Sancho III. (Masdeu, Historia 
 Critica. Dunham's Spain and Portugal, 
 vol. ii.) 
 
 Alfonso IX. (reigned 1188 — 1230), 
 son of Fernando II., and therefore 
 grandson of Alfonso VIII., _ was fre- 
 quently at variance with his cousin, 
 Alfonso III. of Castile. Feeling that he 
 was not a fit match for the latter king, 
 (Castile had recently much increased in 
 power,) he entered into a close alliance 
 with his uncle Sancho I. of Portugal, 
 whose daughter he married. But in this 
 marriage the church had not been con- 
 sidted ; council and pope threatened ; 
 and when the parties would not separate, 
 an interdict was laid on the kingdom. 
 This measure caused the superstitious 
 multitude to complain; and in 1195, 
 Alfonso and Theresa obeyed the haughty 
 mandate of the pope. During the two 
 following years, there v/as open war be- 
 tween the kings of Leon and Castile. 
 The latter, being defeated by the Mo- 
 hammedans on the plains of Alarcos, 
 used some insidting expressions to his 
 cousin of Leon, who had ventured to 
 upbraid him for his folly in withstanding 
 alone the vast forces of the Almohades ; 
 and Alfonso of Leon laid waste Castile 
 in revenge. This was followed by re- 
 prisals ; and in 1197, both kings met, 
 each at the head of a formidable armj', 
 to decide each other's fate. But the 
 nobles and prelates of the two armies 
 were averse from the shedding of chris- 
 tian blood, at a time when the Almo- 
 hades were on the watch to recover 
 Spain ; and peace was effected on the 
 condition that Alfonso of Leon should 
 marry Berengaria, daughter of the Cas- 
 tilian king, who by her mother, Eleanoi-, 
 was nearly connected with the English 
 Plantagenets. Yet the two parties were 
 within the foi'biddcn degrees of consan- 
 guinity ; and how they could expect the 
 pope to be more tractable than before, 
 is inconceivable. Innocent insisted on 
 their separation, and ordered his legate 
 to lay an interdict on both kingdoms in 
 the event of a refusal. The legate, who 
 had more sense and moderation than his 
 master, hesitated to execute the atro- 
 cious sentence, until he had tried what 
 his own representations might effect 
 with the pope. The latter, however, 
 was obstinate ; the interdict was laid 
 on Leon ; and the king and queen 
 were excommunicated. For some years, 
 their love made them disregard the 
 menace ; but the complaints of the 
 310 
 
 people at length forced them to separate, 
 on the condition that their children were 
 declared legitimate by the pope, and ac- 
 knowledged to be so by the states of 
 Leon. "Tlie condition was granted, and 
 Fernando, the eldest, received the ho- 
 mage of the states as the successor of his 
 father. In 1217, Fernando succeeded 
 to the throne of Castile ; yet so hostile 
 were the two kingdoms, that Alfonso 
 laid waste the territories of his son : the 
 truth is, he wished to i-eign in Castile as 
 well as Leon, during the rest of his life, 
 — well knowing that Fernando muse in- 
 herit both. But he soon desisted from 
 the enterprise, and joined his son in 
 waiTinp- against the Mohammedans, 
 From 1225 to 1230, the christian arms 
 had considerable success ; Alfonso him- 
 self reduced the important fortress of 
 Badajoz, and extended his frontier in 
 that direction. On his death in the lat- 
 ter year, the states of Leon and Castile, 
 which had been sepai-ated above two 
 centuries, were for ever united. (The 
 Archbishop Don Rodrigo, De Rebus His- 
 panicis. Ferreras. And especially Dun- 
 ham, History, vol. ii.) See St. Fernando, 
 
 2. Kings of Castile. 
 
 Jlfonso I. (1072—1109,) of Castile, 
 and the sixth king of Leon of that name, 
 has already been treated of under Alfonso 
 VI. of Leon. 
 
 Aljon>o II. (the eighth of Leon, and 
 surnamed the Emperor, 1126 — 1157.) 
 See Alfonso VIII. of Leon. 
 
 Alfonso III. (reigned 1158—1214,) 
 the son of Sancho III. and grandson of 
 Alfonso the Emperor, succeeded on the 
 death of his father to the throne of Cas- 
 tile, while his imcle Fernando II. held 
 that of Leon, When that event took 
 place, he was only three years old, and 
 the reins of government were conse- 
 quently entrusted to a regent. But the 
 office was disputed between the rival 
 families of the Castros and Laras, whose 
 ambition was fatal to the prosperity of 
 the kingdom. By the will of Sancho, 
 indeed, "the trust had been confided to a 
 noble of the former house ; but when a 
 living sovereign was disobeyed, a dead 
 one was not likely to be more potent. 
 During twelve years there Avas little 
 tranquillity ; but from the marriage o- 
 Alfonso (1170) with Eleanor, daughter 
 of our Henry II., we read no more of 
 civil wars. Yet the reign of Alfonso 
 was not without disasters. From 1170 
 to 1188 he was frequently at war with 
 his uncle Fernando of Leon, and some- 
 times with the Moors. After the death 
 
A LF 
 
 A Li' 
 
 of Fei'nanclo, he was equally at variance 
 with his cousin Alfonso VIII. the son 
 of that prince. First, the two sovereigns 
 (juarrelled ahout some unimportant for- 
 tresses in Estremadura, which their united 
 arms had reverted from the common 
 enemy. Alfonso of Leon claimed a share 
 of them ; Alfonso of Castile would have 
 the whole. Again, in 1195, Alfonso of 
 Castile having the imprudence to engage 
 a vast African 
 
 force 
 
 on 
 
 the pla 
 
 of 
 
 Alarcos, without waiting for the junc- 
 ture of his cousin's army, and being 
 defeated with great loss, could not bear 
 the reproaches of the latter monarch, 
 and a new war ensued, which, as we 
 have before observed, was ended by the 
 marriage of Berengaria, daughter of 
 Alfonso III. with Alfonso VIII. of 
 Leon. We have related, too, the obsti- 
 nacy with which the pope insisted on the 
 dissolution of this marriage, but that the 
 issue was declared legitimate. In virtue 
 of this declaration, Fernando, the eldest 
 son of Alfonso VIII. was declared heir 
 of Leon. The nullity of this marriage, 
 however, led to renewed hostilities be- 
 tween the two Alfonsos ; and they would 
 probably have ended disastrously for one 
 of the parties, had not the Castilian king, 
 alarmed at the progress of the Almohades, 
 consented to an alliance against those 
 formidable Africans. On the plains of 
 Tolosa, in 1212, Alfonso nobly redeemed 
 his defeat on those of Alarcos, in 1195. 
 This great victory he survived only two 
 yeai-s, leaving the kingdom of Castile to 
 his son Enrique I. Enrique died while 
 yet a child ; and the result, so import- 
 ant for Spain, was the perpetual union 
 of the two crowns in St. Fernando and 
 his posterity. (Ferreras. Conde. Dun- 
 ham.) 
 
 3. Kings of Leon and Castile. 
 Alfonso X. (reigned from 1250 — 1284,) 
 surnamed El Sabio, or the learned, was 
 the son of St. Fernando, the first monarch 
 of the incorporated states, and conse- 
 quently the grandson of Alfonso IX. of 
 Leon. His reign is in some respects re- 
 markable ; and it is the first, after that 
 of his father St. Fernando, that drew the 
 attention of Europe towards Spain. This 
 monarch has generally been called 
 Alfonso the Wise : never was an epithet 
 worse applied, — a truth sufficiently evi- 
 dent, from his conduct both foreign and 
 domestic. 1. In the former respect, his 
 first act was to obtain possession of 
 Gascony, which he claimed in right of 
 his ancestor, Alfonso III. of Castile, 
 who was to have received, but who never 
 311 
 
 had received it, as a marriage portion 
 with a French princess. But possession 
 was held by our Henry III., and feeble 
 as Henry was, Alfonso was not powerful 
 enough to subdue it. After much useless 
 expenditure, peace was made by the 
 marriage of Edward, the eldest son of 
 Henry, with Eleanor, sister of Alfonso. 
 Scarcely was the aft'air settled when a 
 more serious one intervened. In right 
 of his mother Beatrix, daughter of Philip, 
 duke of Swabia and emperor of Germany, 
 he laid claim to that duchy ; but by tlie 
 states Conradin (see the name) was pre- 
 ferred, and after the premature death of 
 the last scion of the splendid house of 
 Hohenstauffen, his claim was urged with 
 equal inefficiency. He continued this 
 expensive but unavailing contest against 
 Richard, earl of Cornwall, for the impe- 
 rial crown, and on his death, in 1271, he 
 tried again, but Rodolf of Hapsburg was 
 the successful candidate. 2. His inter- 
 nal administi-ation added to the exasj^er- 
 ation of his people. They murmured at 
 his expensive folly in regard to Ger- 
 luany : they denounced with rage his 
 cession of the Algarves to the king of 
 Portugal, as a marriage portion M'ith his 
 illegitimate daughter Beatrix de Guz- 
 man. To lead him to a better policy, 
 some of his barons confederated, armed, 
 and in alliance with Aben Alhamar, king 
 of Grenada, broke out into open rebel- 
 lion. Instead of meeting this boldly, 
 he conceded, what was demanded — a 
 course which naturally led to new de- 
 mands and new concessions. On the 
 death of his eldest son, Fernando 
 de la Cerda, he caused his second son 
 Don Sancho to be proclaimed, though 
 Fernando had left sons. This act 
 offijnded many of his nobles, and still 
 more the French king, whose sister 
 Fernando had married, and who con- 
 sequently supported the rights of his 
 nephews. His attempt to allay this 
 quarrel by giving Murcia as an inde- 
 pendent sovereignty to the sons of Fer- 
 nando ; his debasement of the coin, 
 while he ordered its value to remain 
 the same ; and his petulant tempei", 
 which broke out in acts of tyranny 
 (such as the murder of his brother), dis- 
 gusted all. His son Sancho made war 
 upon him, and soon left him only Bada- 
 joz and Seville. In 1283, he disinherited 
 Don Sancho in favour of the sons of 
 Fernando, and in their defaidt, the king 
 of France was to inherit. The pope took 
 his part, and Don Sancho, who was 
 beghming to repent, fell sick. What- 
 
ALF 
 
 ALF 
 
 e-vev were the failings of Alfonso, he 
 was not deficient in paternal affection ; 
 and no sooner did he hear of his son's 
 danger, than he too feU sick. The 
 vigour of youth caused the son to re- 
 cover, but Alfonso soon breathed his last. 
 He did not, however, revoke his last will. 
 This monarch is now to be considered 
 as a legislator, a pliilosopher, a poet, an 
 historian, and a man of letters. 1. As 
 the compiler of the Siete Partidas, 
 he is entitled to the reverence of pos- 
 terity. This code was derived from the 
 four preceding codes of Spain, viz. the 
 Justinian, the Wisigotliic, the P'uero 
 Juzgo, and the Fuero Real ; from tlie 
 local fueros, or privileges, conceded to 
 the municipal corporations by the pre- 
 ceding kings of Leon and Castile ; from 
 the canons of councils ; and from the 
 maxims of philosophers. It is a com- 
 plete digest of Roman, feudal, and canon 
 law ; and is by far the most valuable 
 monument of legislature, not merely 
 Spanish, but European, since the publi- 
 cation of the Roman code. It is still the 
 basis of Spanish law ; for though more 
 recent compilations exist, they are chiefly 
 foimded on it. If all the written codes 
 were banished, Spain would still have 
 a respectable body of jurisprudence. 
 An analysis of it may be found in Dun- 
 ham's Spain, vol. iv. How much of it 
 was the composition of Alfonso himself? 
 This question can never be answered. 
 Many were the jurisconsults whom he 
 brought from Italy and Germany into 
 Spain ; three at least he established in 
 the new university of Salamanca ; and 
 he had several about his person to assist 
 him in the decision of cases which per- 
 petually arose. Much of this compila- 
 tion is doubtless attributable to them, 
 but much also to himself. 2. The 
 " Alfonsine Tables" evince the taste of 
 this monarch for astronomy. That they 
 were chiefly contributed by the scientific 
 Moors whom he had drawn from Gre- 
 nada to his own court, is certain ; but we 
 have evidence enough of his skill in that 
 branch of science. The blasphemous 
 expression which he is said to have 
 used,- — that if he had been present at 
 the creation, he coidd have advised 
 some things for the better, — it is to 
 be hoped was never uttei'ed ; merely 
 intended to ridicule the Ptolemaic sys- 
 tem. Like all the astronomers of that 
 period, he was a believer in judicial astro- 
 logy, and in the possibility of finding 
 tlie philosopher's stone : nay, he de- 
 clares that he certamly knew it through 
 312 
 
 the help of an Egyptian, whom he had 
 brought from Alexandria. 3. The verses 
 of Alfonso are didactic, dry, unima- 
 ginative ; but their style is pure. • Of 
 these the Tesoro, which contains precepts 
 for the transmutation of metals, is the 
 most curious. Like many other men, 
 Alfonso was enthusiastic, and easily de- 
 ceived by some artful impostor, who 
 pretended to the knowledge which had 
 been sought for so many ages. The 
 Cantigas, or poems in honour of Our 
 Lady, are in the Gallician dialect, for 
 which he seems to have had a taste. 
 Of his Querelas, or Lamentations against 
 his desertion by his courtiers, fragments 
 only remain ; but they exhibit extraordi- 
 nary elegance. 4. How much of the 
 celebrated Cronica General de Espaiia 
 should be attributed to this writer, must 
 ever remain doubtful. One manuscript 
 of the works distinctly affirms that it was 
 composed (compuesto) by him ; but this 
 is not of equal antiquity with the rest, 
 which have, (jue mando fazer, " which 
 he commanded to be made." From the 
 use, however, of the first person plural 
 in the prologue, and from several passages 
 in the body of the history, it is plain that 
 his own pen wrote some of the work. It 
 is chiefly a compilation from preceding 
 historians ; but the fourth part, which is 
 mostly fabulous, is probably derived from 
 the songs and ballads of the time. It is, 
 beyond doubt, one of the most curious 
 and interesting books in the Spanish lan- 
 guage. 5. The Letters and the Miscel- 
 laneous Works of Alfonso (of which most 
 have perished) evinced his taste and his 
 diligence. Indeed, if the number of 
 writings generally ascribed to him were 
 really composed by him, he must have 
 passed many years of his life in his closet. 
 By his liberality, no less than his ex- 
 ample, he gave an impulse to literature 
 which no other monarch of Spain ever 
 did. On the whole, it may be said of 
 him that if he was esteemed a prodigy in 
 the thirteenth, he would be hailed as a 
 man of learning in the nineteenth cen- 
 tury. (Nicolas Antonio, BibliothecaVetus. 
 Tlie Spanish Translators of Bouterwek, 
 Historia de la Literatma Espaiiola. 
 Sanchez, Proemio al Tomo I. in Colec- 
 cion de Poesias Castellanas anteriores 
 al Siglo XV. Dunham, History of Spain, 
 vols. ii. and iv.) 
 
 Alfonso XI. (1312—1350,) son of Fer- 
 nando IV. and great grandson of Alfonso 
 el Sabio, was an infant on his father's 
 death. His minority, as was usually the 
 rase, was one scries of troubles ; and 
 
A LF 
 
 ALF 
 
 even after his assumption of the govern- 
 ment, he had many enemies in the princes 
 of his family, and in the family of Lara. 
 Some he removed hy violence ; some he 
 gained by magnificent offers ; others, 
 without breaking out into open rebellion, 
 refused to obey him. For this reason he 
 had little time to combat the enemies of 
 his country and faith ; but when he did 
 enter the field, he fought not unworthily 
 of his great ancestors. The most famous 
 of his exploits was the great victory of 
 Tarifa (1340) over the allied Moors of 
 Andalusia and Africa. It was, indeed, 
 one of the greatest ever won lay chris- 
 tian monarch. Though his own loss was 
 not great, to the Mohammedans it was 
 immense ; according to the historian Abu 
 Abdalla, it was unequalled. He was 
 certainly one of the greatest princes 
 Spain ever produced. He had many 
 noble qualities ; yet they were stained 
 by his criminal connexion with Leonora 
 de Guzman, whose tragical fate will be 
 recorded in the reign of his son, Pedro 
 the Cruel. Nor must we forget that 
 Alfonso was a man of letters. At least 
 he was a poet, though the Metrical Chro- 
 nicle, ascribed to him by Nicolas Antonio 
 and Bouterwek, is certainly not his. 
 4. Kings of Ar agon and Navarre. 
 Alfonso I. was the fourth king of Ara- 
 gon, and the nuilh of Navarre.* His 
 genii;s was even more warlike than that 
 of his predecessor, the best of all qualifi- 
 cations at a period when so large a por- 
 tion of Spain groaned under the yoke 
 of the misbelievers. Unfortunately for 
 his kingdom, his marriage with an un- 
 principled woman, Urraca of Leon (see 
 the name) long prevented him from pro- 
 secuting the conquests which he had medi- 
 tated ; but when his arms were at Uberty, 
 he showed that he was one of the greatest 
 heroes Spain had ever produced. For 
 some years he was employed in the re- 
 duction of the places north of the Ebro, 
 conquests as useful as they were endm-ing. 
 By degrees he obtained possession of all 
 those sun-ounding Saragossa, and by 
 thus isolating that important city, ren- 
 dered its ultimate fall inevitable. In 
 vain did the last Mohammedan king of 
 that place implore the aid of his coun- 
 trymen : Alfonso pressed the siege, and 
 in 1118 had the glory to reduce it. Nor 
 did these brilliant successes satisfy him. 
 
 * For the grounds on which the kingdom of 
 Navarre is made to be^in with Garcia I. in 88.5, 
 3Qd for the origin of that kingdom, and that of 
 Aragon, the reader is referred to Dunham's Hibt. 
 of Spain, vol. iii. pp. 1—7, and 78. 
 
 313 
 
 In 1120 he defeated, on the plains of 
 Daroca, a vast force of the Almoravides, 
 leaving 20,000 dead men on the field. Tu- 
 dela, Tarragona, Calatayud, Daroca, Me- 
 quinencia, and many other important 
 fortresses, were successively reduced by 
 him. Valencia he oveiTan, and Anda- 
 lusia did not escape his ravages. He 
 was the first christian prince that, since 
 the fall of Rodrigo the Goth, had carried 
 his arms into the latter country. Hence 
 he was surnamed El Batallador, or the 
 fighter. Eut his attempt before Fraga 
 was fatal to his army. Whether he fell 
 amidst thousands of Aragonese on that 
 eventfid day, or whether he fled from 
 the scene of battle to the monastery of 
 St. Juan de la Peira, where grief in a few 
 days brought him to his end, is imcer- 
 tain. (Moret, Anales de Navarra, lib. 
 XV. and xvii. Zurita, Anales de Aragon, 
 lib. i. Dunham's Spain, vol. iii.) 
 
 The remaining kings named Alfonso 
 were kings of Aragon only. 
 
 Alfo7iso II. (reigned 1163—1196,) the 
 seventh king of Aragon, was the son of 
 Petronilla (see the name), sovereign queen, 
 and of Raymund, count of Barcelona. 
 Hence he succeeded to both govern- 
 ments ; which he amplified still more by 
 the incorporation of Rousillon with Cata- 
 lonia, and of Provence with both. He 
 also took from the Moors several for- 
 tresses, of which the most considerable 
 was Teruel. 
 
 Alfonso III. (reigned 1285—1291,) 
 son of Pedro III. does not occupy a very 
 shining post in history. He reduced, 
 indeed, the Balearic Isles, of which his 
 uncle, a vassal of Catalonia, was king, 
 and he resisted France and the pope, who 
 were in alliance against him ; but he 
 made no conquests from the Moors ; and 
 he was compelled to grant so many pri- 
 vileges to his nobles, to part with so 
 many of his royal prerogatives, that his 
 government was rather an aristocracy 
 than a monarchy. He was succeeded 
 hy his brother, the king of Sicily, who 
 reigned as Jayme II. 
 
 Alfonso IV. (1327 — 1336,) son of 
 Jayme II. had much annoyance from his 
 new possession of Sardinia, which his 
 father had obtained in consideration of 
 abandoning the claims of the Aragonese 
 crown, or that of Sicily. (See Jayme II.) 
 The Genoese were his enemies, and they 
 found him enough to do. He fomented 
 the internal distiu'bances of Castile, wliich, 
 diu-ing the reign of Alfonso XI. were, as 
 we have before related, perpetual ; but 
 the rebellion of his own son, Pedro, 
 
ALF 
 
 A L F 
 
 miglit have taught him how imprmlent 
 it was to act thus. Pedro, however, had 
 no wish to dethrone his father, whom a 
 dropsy soon hrought to tlie grave. 
 
 Alfonso V. (reigned 1415 — -1458,) son 
 of Fernando I. was also king of Sicily, 
 which dignity he inherited from his 
 father, (see Fernando I.) and eventually 
 of Naples. He has been called the Mag- 
 nanimous ; and in one act, at least, 
 he certainly deserved the epithet ; for 
 hearing, soon after his accession to 
 tlie tlirone of Aragon, that some of 
 his subjects were consjiiring in favour 
 of the Count de Urgel, who had claimed 
 the ci'own in opposition to his father, 
 he refused to read the list which con- 
 tained their names, though he took 
 effectual measures to crush the conspi- 
 racy. Nor was he less firm in main- 
 taining the rights of his crown against 
 the democratic membei-s of his coi-tes, 
 who insisted that he should be as much 
 the slave of their will as some of his pre- 
 decessors had been. The vigour of his 
 character awed the demagogues, who 
 were glad to escape from his presence. 
 But this vigour was sometimes misap- 
 plied : in one instance at least it rendered 
 him criminal. The archbishop of Sara- 
 gossa, who had offended him by espous- 
 ing the democratic interests, and by a 
 traitorous correspondence with the enemy 
 of Aragon, disappeai'ed in 1429, and was 
 no more heard of. That he was removed 
 by the royal order, is certain ; and it is 
 equally certain that no inquiry was made 
 into the mysterious affair. The prelate 
 nuist surely have committed some deed 
 more heinous than even treason to be 
 thus treated ; and it was probably the 
 conviction of this fact that prevented the 
 pope from interfering. 
 
 The ti-ansactions of this king in Italy 
 occupied the greater portion of his reign. 
 His first object was to redeem the islands 
 of Corsica and Sardinia, which had been 
 conferred on one of his predecessors, but 
 which had perpetually revolted, and cost 
 immense waste of blood and treasure to 
 the Aragonese. Some fortresses on the 
 coasts were all that the superior lords 
 could hold ; tlie war which followed — a 
 war in which the islanders were aided by 
 the Genoese — was generally successful 
 to Alfonso; but in the midst of it he re- 
 ceived a proposal so agreeable to his 
 ambition, that he instantly suspended Iiis 
 present operations, and eagerly accepted 
 it. Joanna, queen of Naples, after dis- 
 appointing many princes, had married 
 the Count de la Marche, of the roj'al 
 314 
 
 house of France. From the fickleness of 
 her character, she was soon disgusted 
 with her husband ; she expelled both him 
 and all of his nation ; and when she heard 
 that the duke of Anjou was coming to 
 protect the interests of France, she offered 
 to adopt Alfonso as her heir, if he would 
 assist her in repelling the menaced ag- 
 gression. The hope of a crown which 
 had so long glittered in the eyes of his 
 pi'edecessors, made Alfonso eagerly ac- 
 cept the condition. He hastened to 
 Naples, raised the siege, was immediately 
 acknowledged heir, and put in possession 
 of Calabria. But his success filled the 
 queen with jealousy ; she tried to remove 
 him by violence ; and to effect the de- 
 struction of his followers, she again 
 courted the alliance of the French. The 
 valour of the king befriended him, and 
 he subdued most of the kingdom. Being 
 summoned to Spain, however, his con- 
 quests were lost, and the duke d'Anjou 
 adopted as heir to the Neapolitan crown. 
 Again had he to commence the work of 
 conquest ; some of the barons were still 
 friendly to him ; and with her usual fic- 
 kleness, even the queen revoked her 
 adoption of the duke, and confirmed his 
 own. On her death, he claimed the king- 
 dom ; but so also chd the pope ; and a 
 war ensued, in which, though Alfonso 
 was made prisoner by the pope's ally, 
 the duke of Milan, he was soon released : 
 victory so far shone on his banners, that 
 Calabria and Apulia acknowledged him, 
 and that both the reigning popes (it was 
 the time of the schism) proposed to in- 
 vest him with the Two Sicilies on the 
 condition of his doing homage to each. 
 He accepted the proposal of Eugenius IV. 
 in preference to that of Felix V. ; he 
 consented not only to reign as the vassal 
 of the holy see, but to assist the former 
 in the recovery of Ancona ; and in re- 
 turn his bastard son, Fernando, whom he 
 designed as his successor to the throne of 
 the Two Sicilies, was declared legitimate. 
 Henceforth he was the ally of the pope ; 
 and he plunged into the interminable sea 
 of Italian politics. His Spanish subjects 
 had little reason to be satisfied with the 
 brilliancy of his conquests, which, though 
 purchased by their blood and their 
 treasure, were of no value to tlieni ; and 
 their dissatisfaction was still fai'ther aug- 
 mented by his preference of Naples as a 
 residence to Saragossa, or any other city 
 of Aragon. His neglect too of a vir- 
 tuous and dutiful wife for an Italian 
 mistress, was offensive. In other respects 
 he was an extraordinary man. He rciid 
 
A L F 
 
 A LF 
 
 as much as his dissipations, or his war- 
 like deeds would allow him ; he was the 
 patron of letters ; he was the correspon- 
 dent of literaiy men, the most eminent of 
 his time ; and the praises which tliey, liow- 
 ever differing in politics, bestowed upon 
 him, are some presumption of his merit. 
 The fearlessness with which he dispensed 
 with his retinue — asserting that the hearts 
 of his people were his best guards ; his 
 frequent attendance on public lectures ; 
 the intrepidity with which, on more oc- 
 casions than one, he risked his own life 
 to save that of others (witness his ven- 
 turing into the sea during a furious storm, 
 to save the crew and passengers of a 
 sloop which was about to sink, and his 
 noble declaration that he would rather be 
 the companion than the useless spectator of 
 their death), prove that he had the ele- 
 ments of greatness in his composition, 
 and that he was not undeserving of the 
 epithet witli which both his contempo- 
 rai'ies and posterity have honoured him, 
 Alfonso the Magnanimous. (Lucius Ma- 
 rin^eus Siculus, De Rebus Hispanige, lib. 
 xi. Zurita, Anales de Aragon, tom. ii.) 
 
 5. Khigs of Portugal. 
 
 Alfonso T. son of Henry of Be- 
 sanfon, by Tei"esa, daughter of Alfonso 
 VI. of Leon, (see the name,) who gave 
 the territories between the Minlio and 
 Tagus to his son-in-law, as a fief. On 
 his death, in 1112, Teresa had tlie power, 
 Alfonso being an infant, and she would 
 not resign it to him long afterwards, until 
 compelled by an unsuccessful contest. 
 
 Alfonso was, for many years, content 
 with the title of count ; but by his re- 
 sistance to the king of Leon he clearly 
 aspired to an independent sovereignty. 
 Peace being made with Leon, he turned 
 his arms against the Mohammedans, to 
 whom he became a more formidable 
 enemy than his father had ever been. 
 In 1139 he entered on the career of 
 conquest which has immortalized his 
 name. His splendid victory over the 
 Moors on the plains of Curique em- 
 boldened him to assume the regal title, 
 and to declare his independence of Leon. 
 In 1146, he reduced Santarem, whicli 
 had again fallen into the power of the 
 Almoravides ; the following year lie re- 
 covered Lisbon ; and in the interval 
 between 1147 and 1165 he won Cintra, 
 Alcazar do Sal, Coimbra, Palmela, Evora, 
 Beja, and a multitude of other fortresses. 
 His career was once interrupted by a 
 serious war with Leon, and in an ag- 
 gression on that power, he was made 
 prisoner ; but he was courteously enter- 
 315 
 
 tained, and speedily released. One of his 
 last triumphs was over the fonnidable 
 Yussef, emperor of the Almoravides, who 
 died before Santarem, a few months only 
 prior to Alfonso's own death, in 1185. 
 That this founder of the Portuguese mo- 
 narchy was a great prince, cannot be 
 disputed. He was a hero, a legislator, 
 a patriot ; and making all due allowance 
 for the supernatural circumstances which 
 the Portuguese have invented respecting 
 him, he was well deserving of the almost 
 unrivalled reputation which he enjoys. 
 With his great public virtues, indeed, he 
 combined some private vices ; but these 
 were inseparable from the period. He 
 was succeeded by his son, Sancho I. 
 (Lemos, Historia Geral de Portugal, 
 tom. iii. La Clede, Histoire Generale, 
 tom. ii.) 
 
 Alfonso IT. (reigned 1211 — 1223), 
 son of Sancho I. and consequently 
 grandson of the founder of the Portu- 
 guese monarchy, was the third king of 
 that country. His reign was less glo- 
 rious than that of his predecessors. One 
 of his first acts was to evade the exe- 
 cution of his father's will, and thereby 
 to deprive his brothers and sisters of the 
 dowry which had been left them. A 
 war with Leon, which was little to his 
 advantage, and the interference of the 
 pope, compelled him to be just. In his 
 wars with the Mohammedans, he was 
 slow and feeble ; l)ut he recovered some 
 fortresses. His disputes with the church 
 were frequent. He was naturally averse 
 to the clerical immunities ; and he sub- 
 jected churchmen to the ordinary tri- 
 bunals, and rendered their substance 
 available to the necessities of the state. 
 The reforms which lie introduced into 
 the secidar courts of justice, do honour 
 to his memory. He was the friend of 
 the poor; to the accused, he afforded 
 ample means of defence ; and when the 
 sentence was pronounced, he insisted 
 tliat between it and the execution twenty 
 days should elapse. His ecclesiastical 
 reforms were disagreeable to the pro- 
 fession. The archbishop of Braga ven- 
 tured loudly to condemn them, but he 
 could not withstand the monarch; he 
 was deprived of his revenues, and forced 
 to consult his safety by flight. He com- 
 plained to the pope ; the pope threaten- 
 ened, excommunicated, and laid an 
 intercUct on tlie kingdom. The im- 
 pression made by these measures on his 
 people, compelled Alfonso to make peace 
 with the pope and the archbishop ; but 
 he did not live to enjoy the good fruits 
 
A L F 
 
 A LF 
 
 of the reconciliation. (Lemos, Historia 
 Geral, liv. xii. La Clede, Histoire, liv. vi.) 
 
 Jffonso in. (reigned 1248 — 1279), 
 second son of Alfonso II. succeeded his 
 brother, Sancho II. not in the course of 
 nature, but by a decree of the council of 
 Lyons. The truth is, Dom Sancho (see 
 the name) abused his power to such a 
 degree that prelates and barons appealed 
 for redress to the council, and by that 
 assemblv,which considered Portugal a fief 
 of the church, the royal title indeed was 
 left to Sancho, but the administration was 
 entrusted to Alfonso. At this moment the 
 infante was at Boulogne-sur-Mer, the fief 
 of wliich he had received with his wife, 
 the countess Matilda. Leaving her and 
 the lordship, he hastened to Portugal, 
 and after some difficulties, he became, on 
 the death of Sancho in 1248, the real 
 kinof of Portii^al. Alfonso was an active 
 monarch ; he expelled the Moors from 
 the fortresses which they still held in the 
 Algarves. A few years after his acces- 
 sion, he quarrelled with his namesake of 
 Castile respecting that southern province. 
 To avert a war, it was agreed that the 
 Portuguese should marry the daughter of 
 the Castilian, Doiia Beatrix de Guzman. 
 Yet Matilda was still alive, and he had the 
 baseness to pretend that their marriage 
 was invalid, ab initio, in order to marry 
 Beatrix. Matilda had married him when 
 lie was poor and without hopes ; this was 
 the reward she reaped. On her coming 
 to Portugal, she was sent back to Bou- 
 logne ; but the pope, to his honour, de- 
 clared her his lawful wife, and excom- 
 municated Alfonso. In 1262, on the 
 death of Matilda, Alfonso was remarried, 
 and his children declared legitimate by 
 the pope. In other points of his charac- 
 ter Alfonso has just as little claim to cur 
 respect. He broke the promises by which 
 he first gained popularity, and when 
 secure on his throne was tyrannical. He 
 opposed the immunities of the chui'ch, 
 but net with the purest motives, and he 
 exacted from his son and successor, Dinis, 
 a promise to respect them. (Lemos. La 
 Clede.) 
 
 Jlfonso IV. (reigned 1325 — 1357), 
 surnamed the Brave, was the son of 
 Dinis, the grandson of Alfonso III. and 
 the seventh king of Portugal. Before his 
 accession he was often in arms against 
 his father, on account of the preference 
 shown by Dinis to an Olegitimate son, 
 Alfonso Henriques, who gave him also 
 much trouble when he began to reign. 
 His neglect of serious affairs, and his 
 love of hunting, gave much disgust to 
 316 
 
 his nobles. The early years of his reign 
 were occupied in disputes with Castile, 
 though his daughter was the wife of 
 Alfonso XI. king of that country. The 
 discontented nobles of both kingdoms, 
 especially the royal princes, were eager 
 enough to widen the breach. When Al- 
 fonso of Castile dismissed his queen, and 
 took a mistress, the notorious Leonora de 
 Guzman (for whose tragical fate see the 
 life of Pedro the Cruel), a harassing but 
 indecisive war followed, to which the 
 intervention of the pope put an end. He 
 forced the Castilian to take back his 
 queen, but he still retained his mistress 
 also. If Alfonso of Portugal was an un- 
 dutiful son and a stern father, no doubt 
 can be entertained that he possessed 
 some noble qualities. Whatever his 
 causes of complaint with his son-in-law, 
 he did not fail to assist him in the wars 
 against the Mohammedans. He was 
 present at the celebrated battle on the 
 banks of the Salado, but would have no 
 share in the innnense plunder, which he 
 left to his son-in-law. To the close of 
 the Castilian's life, he continued to aid 
 the christian cause in Andalusia. 
 
 The last troubles of Alfonso arose from 
 his son Pedro (see the name), whose 
 connexion with the guilty and far-famed 
 liies de Castro (see the name) he termi- 
 nated by the tragical death of that lady, 
 Pedro, in revenge, laid waste Tras os 
 Montes and Entre Douro e Minho, but 
 the interference of the queen and of some 
 prelates effected a reconciliation. (La 
 Clede. Lemos. Ferreras.) 
 
 Alfonso V. (reigned 1438 — 1481), 
 was only six years of age when he suc- 
 ceeded to his father, Duarte. The re- 
 gency was at first exei'cised by Leonora, 
 the queen-mother, but she was obliged 
 to resign it to Pedro, duke of Coimbra, 
 one of the uncles of the king. She was 
 assisted in her attempts to regain it by 
 the conde de Barcelos, a natural brother 
 of Pedro, but she was unsuccessful. She 
 died 1445. When Alfonso reached his 
 majority, the age of fourteen (a. d. 1446), 
 it was hoped these troubles would cease. 
 He married Isabel, the daughter of Pedro, 
 to whom he had been affianced at the 
 age of ten years, but the enemies of 
 Pedro contrived to poison the royal mind, 
 and he retired to his estates. This re- 
 treat only added to his misfortune ; so 
 busy was calumny that by public edict 
 Alfonso prohibited all Portuguese from 
 holding any intercourse with the duke of 
 Coimbra. At the instance of the duke 
 of Braganza, he was next declared a 
 
A L F 
 
 A LF 
 
 traitor, and was besieged in Coimbra. 
 Alfonso, who loved his wife, would par- 
 don her fatlicr if he would acknowledge 
 his crime. The high-soided prince re- 
 fused, simply because he had no crime to 
 acknowledge. He continued to resist ; 
 he was assailed by troops ; he defended 
 himself and fell ; and his corpse was dis- 
 honoured by order of the wrathful king. 
 But Alfonso soon repented of his conduct : 
 all Europe cried for vengeance on the 
 murderers of a great prince, and they 
 would have been punished had the queen 
 lived ; but fearing her influence, the vile 
 house of Braganza removed her by poison. 
 Alfonso was a warlike sovereign. He 
 had prepared, like many other christian 
 princes, a powerful armament against the 
 Tm-ks, when the fall of Constantinople, 
 and the death of the pope, dissolved 
 the confederacy, and he turned his arms 
 against Africa. In 1457 he reduced 
 Alcazar Seguer ; in vain did the king of 
 Fez try to recover it ; it manfully resisted, 
 and occasioned the Moorish king the loss 
 of two firniies. On Tangier he failed, 
 and the flower of the Portuguese chivalry 
 fell at tlie siege. In 1471, however, he 
 reduced Arcilla, and the inhabitants of 
 Tangier were so terrified by the fate of 
 tlie gr.rrison, which was mercilessly put 
 to the sword, that they abandoned the 
 city, and the Portuguese converted it 
 into a bishop's see. Hence Alfonso was 
 honoured with the surname of Africanns ; 
 but he little deserved it, for in these wars 
 he exhibited no ability, and the successes 
 which were gained were owing to his 
 generals. In his transactions with Cas- 
 tile, he added no lustre to his name. 
 Enrique IV. having proclaimed Juana, 
 (who was reputed his daughter, but 
 known to be that of Beltran de la Cueva, 
 and hence called the Beltraneja,) his 
 successor, in opposition to Ferdinand and 
 Isabel, the hand of Juana was offered to 
 Alfonso by her party, on condition tliat 
 he would vindicate her claims. He ac- 
 cepted the condition, invaded Castile, 
 and applied to the pope for a dispensa- 
 tion to marry her, which was refused. 
 Louis XI. indeed, for his own purposes, 
 promised him aid ; and he went to Pai'is, 
 where the crafty king amused him for 
 some time. At length the veil dropped 
 from his eyes, and he saw that he might 
 probably be delivered into the hands of 
 Fernando. In the first burst of his dis- 
 appointment, he resolved to visit Pales- 
 tine, and authorized his son Joam to 
 assume the government. Joam was ac- 
 Qordinglv proclaimed ; but Alfonso aban- 
 317 
 
 doned his purpose, arrived in Portugal, 
 and found his son exceedingly averse to 
 resign the crown. In the end, however, 
 through the advice of the duke of Bra- 
 ganza (see Braganza), the latter con- 
 sented to live as a subject. Peace was 
 now made with Castile, and Juana, aban- 
 doned by all, was glad to take the veil in 
 the convent of St. Clair. Two years after- 
 wards, Alfonso died of the plague. 
 
 The reign of this monarch, feeble as 
 he was, is remarkable for the spirit of 
 discovery which animated the Portu- 
 guese. The Madeiras, the Canaries, the 
 Cape de Verds, and other islands west of 
 the African continent, were for the first 
 time known to Europeans. No merit, 
 however, is due to the king ; it must be 
 awarded solely to the infant Henrique, 
 (see the name), who dedicated his whole 
 life to maritime discoveries. In some 
 other respects Alfonso deserves praise. 
 He was a patron of learning ; he col- 
 lected libraries ; and appointed historio- 
 graphers to write the national history. 
 He was also the founder of a new order, 
 that of the Tower and Sword, which 
 requires some explanation. According 
 to tradition, a mysterious sword was care- 
 fully kept in a tower in the city of Fez. 
 Respecting it, there was a prophecy that 
 it, and the city which contained it, must 
 one day be possessed by a christian king. 
 Alfonso would fain believe, that the ac- 
 complishment of this prediction was re- 
 served for him ; and this was one of the 
 motives which led him to the African 
 war ! Some of his predecessors were 
 equally credulous, or rather equally su- 
 perstitious. (La Clede. Lemos. Fei'- 
 rei-as. Dunham.) 
 
 Alfonso VI. (reigned 1656 — 1685), 
 the second prince of the house of Bra- 
 ganza, succeeded his father Joam IV. 
 in his thirteenth year. There was conse- 
 quently a regency, and in his case it was 
 prolonged by the will of Joam luitil he 
 sliould attain his majority, and if neces- 
 sary still farther. The weakness of his 
 intellect and the capriciousness of his 
 disposition, were the causes of a provision 
 so unusual. His mother, a Spanish prin- 
 cess, was the regent, and she continued 
 the war between Spain and Portugal, 
 which was of slight moment, till other 
 nations engaged in it — the Portuguese 
 appearing with foreign auxiliaries under 
 Schomberg, and the Spaniards under 
 Don Juan of Austria. We shall not 
 enter into details, but observe that no 
 permanent advantage rested with either 
 party ; that if the Spaniards reduced a 
 
A LF 
 
 A L F 
 
 fortress one day, it was recovered tlie 
 next ; mitil Don Juan, disgusted with liis 
 post, complained, and was superseded by 
 an ignorant grandee. Tlien followed the 
 victory of Villaviciosa, which may be 
 said to have secured the independence of 
 Portugal. Some of the auxiliaries were 
 English, which our Charles II. in virtue 
 of his alliance with Portugal, and of his 
 man-iage with the infanta, Catherina, 
 sent to the peninsula. 
 
 What share had Alfonso in these trans- 
 actions ? None whatever : long before the 
 victory of Villaviciosa, he had been 
 lunited from the throne. His life had 
 been one of shameless debauch and open 
 profligacy ; and though he drove his 
 mother from the regency, he paid no 
 attention to his duties as a king. His 
 wife, a daughter of the due de Nemours, 
 with Don Pedro his brother, plotted his 
 removal from tlie throne, and she aftei-- 
 wards married Pedro, by a dispensation 
 from Rome, obtained on a very ground- 
 less pretence. Whatever their conduct, 
 the fate of Alfonso was deservedly scaled. 
 He was removed for a time to the Azores, 
 but brought back to Cintra, where in 
 1683 he died. 
 
 Before tiiis event, the regent Pedro- 
 had the satisfaction to make peace v/ith 
 Spain, under the mediation of her son 
 Charles. All conquests were restored by 
 both parties ; and Sjiain recognised the 
 independence of her neighbour. (La 
 Clede. Lemos. Ortiz, Compendio Crono- 
 logio. Silva. Ferreras. Dunham.) 
 
 A LFONSO, bishop of Avila in the reign 
 of Juan II. king of Castile. He owed 
 his elevation to his own merits ; he was 
 much addicted to literature and science ; 
 and his reputation vras as high at Rome 
 as in Spain. 
 
 ALFONSO, (Peter,) a learned Jew 
 of Huesca, in Aragon, born in the year 
 1062. His original name was Rabbi 
 Moses Scphardi ;* but in the year 1106, 
 he embraced the christian faith, and was 
 baptized in his native town on St. Peter's 
 day, by Stephen, bishop of Huesca. 
 Alfonso, king of Aragon and Navan-e, 
 happened to be at Huesca at the time, 
 and he was so much pleased by the con- 
 version of Rabbi Moses, that he insisted 
 upon acting as godfather at the cere- 
 mony. In honour of the saint on whose 
 day it took place, and of the monarch 
 who took so much interest in it, the new 
 convert received the name of Peter Al- 
 phonso. The Jews, who were liighly 
 
 * Sephardi, in Rabbinical Hebrew, means "of 
 Spain." 
 
 .318 
 
 scandalized by the secession of a man so 
 profoundly erudite in their own writings 
 as Rabbi Moses, spread abroad every 
 kind of calumny against him, and 
 ascribed to him the most dishonourable 
 motives. To defend himself, and to 
 show the real motives of the step which 
 he had taken, Peter Alfonso published 
 a book, in which he introduced a Jew, 
 under his former name of Moses, and a 
 Chi-istian, under his new name of Peter 
 Alfonso, arguing the merits of their 
 different creeds, and in which the latter 
 succeeds in convincing his antagonist. 
 Tliis book, WTitten in Latin, mider the 
 title of Dialogues, was printed sepai-ately 
 at Cologne, 8vo, 1.536, and was after- 
 wards inserted in the Bibliotheca Magna 
 Patnnn. It has frequently been the 
 subject of the eulogies of learned men. 
 But the most celebrated production of 
 this writer is a Latin book, entitled, 
 Disciplina Clericalis, wherein a philoso- 
 2:)hcr is made to instruct a youth by a 
 series of entertaining tales, and which is 
 not only interesting in itself, but which 
 is extremely valuable on account of the 
 light it throws upon the history of fable 
 and romance. This book was very po- 
 pular in the middle ages, and is con- 
 tinually found in ancient manuscripts. 
 It was translated into several languages, 
 both m prose and verse. The Latin 
 text, v/ith earl}'^ versions in French prose 
 and French verse, was published by the 
 Societe des Bibliophiles Francais, 2 vols. 
 12mo; Paris, 1824. A better edition 
 of the Latin text has since that time 
 been published at Leipzig. We may refer 
 to the Introductions to these two editions 
 for further information relating to its au- 
 thor, as also for an account of other books 
 which have been attributed to him, mostly, 
 as it appears, without any good reason. 
 The date of his death is not known. 
 
 ALFONSO. For other personages of 
 this name, see ALBuauERQUE, Ahner, 
 Castro, Cordova, Este, Mela, Payva, 
 Pedro, Quintanilla, Tostado, Vivera, 
 &c. 
 
 ALPORT, (Niccolo Guglielmi,) an 
 engraver, a native of Lorraine, but who 
 resided at Rome. At what exact period 
 he flourished is not known. There are a 
 set of twelve small upright plates of 
 flowers, executed by him in a mastei'ly 
 manner, though not very delicately en- 
 graved. They are subscribed, Nicolaus 
 GmlielmusAlj'orcELotharingusfecitRomee. 
 — (Strutt, Diet, of Eng. Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ALFORD, (Michael,) an English Je- 
 suit, whose real name was Griffith, was 
 
ALF 
 
 A L F 
 
 bovn at London in 1587. In 1G07 he 
 entered the society at Louvain ; and after 
 having studied philosophy at Seville, and 
 theology at Louvain, he visited Italy, 
 and during the period from 1615 to 1G20, 
 filled the office of poenitentiarius ponti- 
 ficius at the Vatican. Having been 
 despatched by his order to England, lie 
 was arrested as he landed at Dover, was 
 taken to London, but released by the 
 interference of queen Henrietta Maria. 
 Taking up liis residence at Holt, he de- 
 voted himself to study, chiefly to eccle- 
 siastical history; and the first-fniits of 
 liis researches was ' A Life of St. Wine- 
 fride;' 8vo, 1635. In 1611 he published 
 his ' Britannia illustrata ; cum Appendice 
 de tribus liodie controversis ; de paschate 
 Britannorum ; de clericormn nuptiis, et 
 nunc olim Britannia coluerit Romanain 
 Ecclesiam;' Antwerp. To complete his 
 laborious researches into the ecclesias- 
 tical annals of Britain, he passed over to 
 St. Omer, where he was attacked by a 
 fever, which terminated his life, Aug. 1 1 , 
 1652. His work upon the ecclesiastical 
 annals of his country, extending to the 
 year 1189, was published in four volumes 
 folio after his death, under this title : 
 ' Annales Ecclesiastici et Civiles Britan- 
 norum, Saxonum et Angloiiun;' 1663. 
 This work is very useful to the student of 
 early English history. 
 
 ALFORD, (Robert,) alias Griffith, a 
 native of Surrey, born in 1582, studied 
 at the English college at Rome : liaving 
 joined the society of the Jesuits, he was 
 sent to make proselytes in England, and 
 died in the college of the Holy Apostles, 
 July 8, 1610. 
 
 Another of the same order, named 
 William, died Jan. 8, 1675. 
 
 ALFORD, (John, 1686—1761,) was 
 the founder of a professorship of natural 
 religion, moral philosophy, and civil po- 
 lity, in Harvard college, which was first 
 held by Levi Frisbie. (Allen's Diet.) 
 
 ALFRAGANUS, see Alfergan. 
 
 ALFRED, (the Great.) The brightest 
 name that iUumines Anglo-Saxon his- 
 tory, and perhaps the most illustrious 
 monarch who ever filled the English 
 throne. In writing the history of this 
 remarkable man, we have the advantage 
 of a biography of him, written by an ac- 
 complished cotemporary, a bishop of the 
 church, and a confidential friend of the 
 suliject of his memoir, Asser Menevensis, 
 and it is his authority wliich will be 
 chiefly* followed in the following me- 
 
 * Not. however, to the exclusion of other autho- 
 rities, where their acount appears more probable, 
 or where Asser is defective. 
 
 319 
 
 moir. Alfred was born at Wanading 
 (Wantage), in Berkshire, in the year 
 849. He was the youngest son of king 
 jEthelwulf, the reigning monarch ; and 
 his mother, Osburgh, was a woman of 
 real piety and excellence, but dying soon 
 after the birth of lier son, she had not 
 the satisfaction of developing his early 
 talents. In the fifth year of his age, 
 Alfred was sent by liis fatlier to Rome, 
 wliere he received the apostolic benedic- 
 tion from Pope Leo IV. who adopted 
 him as his son, and conferred on him 
 the title of king of Deraetia, or South 
 Wales. Two years after this, in 855, 
 iEthelwulf having arranged the tythings 
 of his kingdom, himself visited Rome, 
 taking Alfred with him ; and having been 
 there honourably entertained for above 
 a year, returned to his country, bringing 
 with him Juditli, daughter of the Prankish 
 monarch, as his wife. Doubtless the 
 varied scenes which in his two visits to 
 the apostolic see, and in his residence 
 at the court of France, he had witnessed, 
 inspired in the mind of young Alfred a 
 desire of improvement ; still he was a 
 favourite child, and indulgence and ig- 
 norance seem as j'et to have been his 
 lot. In Alfred's tenth year, 858, his 
 father jEthelwulf died, and his two eldest 
 sons, ^thelbald and iEthelbert, who had 
 already for some time enjoyed a subordi- 
 nate share of the government, divided 
 the kingdom, and with the former of 
 them, Judith disgraced herself by an 
 incestuous marriage. None of the princes 
 had been taught to read, and it is to 
 Judith that we owe the first impulse that 
 stimulated the genius of Alfred. He had 
 for some time taken pleasure in listening 
 to the poetry of his native language ; and 
 when he was about twelve years old, 
 Judith on one occasion was sitting sur- 
 rounded by her family, and holding in 
 her hand a manuscript of Anglo-Saxon 
 poetry, and with a happy judgment pro- 
 posed it as a gift to him who should first 
 learn to read it. The elder princes de- 
 clined the task, but the beauty of the 
 illuminated capital had captivated the 
 fancy of Alfred ; he took the book, and 
 before long was master of its contents ; 
 after which his piety led him to the 
 study of the Psalms, and horary prayers, 
 which, says Asser, he always carried 
 about with him. I5ut here a bar pre- 
 sented itself to his fartlier improvement. 
 The literature of the Anglo-Saxons was 
 in the Latin language ; to obtain a teacher 
 of which, during that unhappy period of 
 Northmen's depredations, was by no 
 
ALF 
 
 A L F 
 
 noatis an easy matter even for a prince. 
 His principal instructors in Latin were 
 (as he tells lis in his preface to his 
 Gregory's Pastoral, printed at the end of 
 Wise's Asser) Plegmund, his archbishop, 
 Asser, his bishop, and Grimbold and 
 Joannes (Erigena), his mass-priests ; but 
 this was after his accession to the throne. 
 But while Alfred diligently cultivated 
 his mind, he did not neglect those bodily 
 attainments, which were so necessary in 
 those dangerous times ; and we find him 
 accordingly strengthening his constitu- 
 tion by the pleasures of the chase, for 
 his skill in which he was very remark- 
 able. The peaccfid studies of Alfred's 
 appi'oaching manhood were, however, 
 soon cut short by a tremendous event, 
 ^thelbert, the last of Alfred's two eldest 
 brothers, died, and the third brother, 
 /Ethered or jEthelred, * acceded to the 
 crown in 866, when the sudden descent 
 of the sons of Ragnar Lodbrog, with a 
 vast army of Northmen, covered the whole 
 country with desolation and slaughter. 
 Northumberland rapidly fell before the 
 invaders, and they were preparing to 
 enter Mercia, when jEthelred joined the 
 king of Mercia, to oppose their progress. 
 During this time (868), Alfred, who had 
 been raised by his brother to a share 
 in the sovereignty, married Ealswitha, 
 daughter of jEthelred Mucil (the Large), 
 a Mercian nobleman. Alfred then joined 
 his brother in his expedition. They found 
 the Northmen in possession of Notting- 
 ham, where, unable to meet the Anglo- 
 Saxon ann anient in the field, they re- 
 mained within the fortifications of the 
 town ; and the allied sovereigns, not 
 perceiving the danger of suffering them 
 to remain within the island at all, con- 
 tented themselves with binding them by 
 a treaty to retire to York. This mad 
 policy brought the result that might 
 have been expected. The next year the 
 invaders ravaged all Lincolnshire and 
 East Anglia, and in 871 occupied Read- 
 ing. Defeated in a great battle at iEsces- 
 dim by the kings of Wessex, they took 
 refuge within the fortifications of Read- 
 ing ; but the Anglo-Saxons suffered so 
 severely in the contest, that the Danes, 
 reinforced by new accessions of allies 
 from the north, routed them fourteen 
 days after at Basing; and again, two 
 months after this, at Merton. In this last 
 battle, jEthelred was mortally womided, 
 
 • Malmesbury, and in modern times, Mr. 
 Sharon Turner, write it jEthelred ; but Asser, 
 Alfred's Will, and the Chronicle, have .lEthered. 
 The former orthography is evidently right, but <he 
 latter probably near to the ordinary pronunciation. 
 320 
 
 and died soon after Easter (871),* and 
 was buried in Winburn Abbey. The 
 deceased monarch left some children, 
 but the times were not such as to allow 
 of the sceptre's being wielded by an in- 
 fant hand; and Alfred was constrained 
 unwillingly to accept the crown. In the 
 first year of his reign, the West Saxons 
 maintained eight pitched battles, beside 
 numerous skirmishes, with the Northmen, 
 whose numbers were, however, recruited 
 from beyond sea faster than the Saxon 
 sword could thin them ; and the very 
 opening of the reign was marked by 
 signal defeat, suffered by the Anglo- 
 Saxons at Wilton. This was followed 
 by seven years of generally unfavourable 
 fortune to the Anglo-Saxon arms, which 
 Alfred considerabl}^ aggravated by a 
 weak and temporizing policy. These 
 disasters naturally made Alfred unpo- 
 pular ; and in spite of the warning rebuke 
 of his venerable kinsman, St. Neot, he 
 completed the alienation of his subjects 
 by haughtiness, tyi'anny, and cruelt)^ 
 Deserted by his people, and with the 
 whole country in possession of the in- 
 vaders, the king retired before the storm, 
 and in 878, for a time, disappeared alto- 
 gether from public view. The place of 
 his retreat was a woody and marshy 
 plat, in Somersetshire, called Athelney, 
 (iEthelinga- ige, Prince's island,) sur- 
 rounded by marshes, so as to be inac- 
 cessible, or nearly so, to persons unac- 
 quainted with the ground. Hither, with 
 a few of his nobles, and some soldiers 
 and vassals, he retired, and led an unquiet 
 life in much tribulation, and subsisting 
 (says Asser) by plunder of the pagans, 
 or of those who had }'ielded to them. 
 He lived during this period in the cot of 
 one of his own neatherds, f To the wife 
 of this person he was unknown, and by 
 her is said to have been angrily repri- 
 manded for suffering some cakes to burn 
 upon the hearth, when she had bidden 
 him watch them. In this retreat he 
 kept up a constant communication with 
 confidential friends, and soon organized 
 an efficient band of trusty followers. 
 With these he harassed the Danes by 
 successions of rapid incursions, and 
 taught by experience the value of dili- 
 
 • This Is the date given by As-;er and the Sax. 
 Chron. Ingulf and Walniesbury place these events 
 and Alfred's accession a year later. 
 
 t Observing literary talent in thi.-- peasant, whose 
 name was Denulf, Alfred recommended him to 
 study, and enter the ecclesiastical piofession. lie 
 did so; and so much to ihe satiffactinn of his 
 royal master, that in 879, he was marie Bishop of 
 Winton ; unless, as 1 suspect, tliis he another De- 
 nulf. 
 
A L ¥ 
 
 AL F 
 
 gcnce, he gave them no rest. The spirit 
 and confidence of his subjects rapidly 
 revived. Uhbo, * the only survivor of 
 the children of Ragnar Lodbrog, who 
 had conducted the first fatal fleet to 
 England, had been harassing the Britons 
 of South Wales. Sailing along the north 
 of Devonshire, he attacked the castle of 
 Kin with ; but the garrison, by a vigorous 
 sally, completely routed his army, leaving 
 him among the slain, and captured their 
 consecrated standard, the celebrated Rea- 
 fan f (Raven), which, to the eye of their 
 supei-stition, was a more fatal disaster 
 even than XJbbo's death, and their own 
 defeat. After Easter, Alfred, with his 
 little force, raised a small castle at iEthel- 
 ney, and was soon at the head of all the 
 warriors of Somersetshire, Wiltshire, and 
 Hampshire, and about Whitsuntide gave 
 battle to the Danes at JLthandune (Yat- 
 ton, near Chippenham), where he com- 
 pletely routed them, besieged them in 
 their fortifications, and after fourteen 
 days, reduced them to supplicate for 
 mercy. The conditions he imposed on 
 them were, to give him what hostages he 
 should choose, and to swear to depart the 
 kingdom. Oaths, however, the North- 
 men -vyere not likely to attend to, and he 
 therefore formed the design of chris- 
 tianizing and civilizing them ; he there- 
 fore persuaded many to embrace Chris- 
 tianity, and on these terms permitted 
 them to settle in East Anglia, as peace- 
 able agricultural colonists. Godrimi, 
 their king, with thirty of the principal 
 chiefs, set the example of acceding to 
 these conditions ; and seven weeks after 
 the suiTender, proceeded to Aire (Aulre, 
 near jEthelney), where they were bap- 
 tized, Alfred himself standing sponsor 
 for Godrum. Eight days after, they re- 
 ceived the chrism at the royal city of 
 Wsedmore (near Wells, and about twelve 
 miles from jEthelney), and after remain- 
 hig twelve days with the king, were dis- 
 missed with the present of large and 
 valuable estates. The next year the 
 pagans, according to their promise, left 
 Chippenham, and proceeded to Cyren- 
 cester, where they remained a year, and 
 then marched into East Anglia in 880, 
 and divided it, under Godrum's directions, 
 according to the treaty. Thus, by fixing 
 these as settlers on the most exposed 
 part of his coast, Alfred provided a strong 
 barrier against the future invasions of 
 their ferocious countrymen. During 
 
 • Asser writes tlie name Habba. 
 t It had been enibroidered by the daughter of 
 Ragnar. 
 
 VOL. r, 321 
 
 Alfred's residence at ^thelney, which ap- 
 pears to have lasted about six months, an 
 incident occvirred which places his cha- 
 racter in a peculiarly amiable light. One 
 loaf and a little wine were the whole store 
 which remained to him, when a poor 
 mendicant gently tapped at his door, re- 
 questing alms, and he immediately bade 
 his thegn relieve the poor claimant with 
 part of their scanty provision. 
 
 Alfi.-ed was now sovereign of all Eng- 
 land. Mercia, by the defeat of the 
 Danes, fell entirely into his power ; and 
 it is probable that in his treaties with 
 the Danes, on whom he conferred East 
 Anglia and Northtimbria, he reserved a 
 superior sovereignty to himself. The 
 remainder of his reign was wise and 
 prosperous. He repressed both on land 
 and sea the invasions of the Northmen, 
 of whom a large swarm had wintered in 
 879 at Fulham, under the celebrated 
 Haesten, or Hastings ; but not being 
 joined by Godi-um, the next year went 
 to pillage the coast of France. In 888, 
 he brought the two learned men, Joannes 
 Erigena and Grimbold, into England ; 
 and the year following, Asser and many 
 others were called to his coiu-t. He 
 also received the congratidations of the 
 court of Rome, and a reputed portion of 
 the real Cross. In 886, he refortified 
 the city of London, and restored it so 
 that the citizens, who had been driven 
 out by the desolations of the late war, 
 were enabled to return. He also re- 
 paired and fortified the other towns and 
 castles throughout his dominions. He 
 divided the whole country into hundreds 
 and tythings, for the better administra- 
 tion both of civil and military matters. 
 These prudent measures served both to 
 overawe the Northmen in the country, 
 and put it in a condition to resist future 
 invasion. He also appears to have paid 
 attention to the restoration and extension 
 of his navy ; though at a subsequent 
 period he did this the more effectually. 
 Still, however, at this time, what he did 
 was sufficient to render his marine a 
 serviceable body. 
 
 During this period Asser tells us that 
 Alfred studied diligently; and it was about 
 this time that he sent out Bishop Swith- 
 elm to visit the shrine of St. Thomas in 
 India ; and probably his relation of 
 Othere's voyage of discovery towards the 
 North is also to be ascribed to this in- 
 terval. To the year 883 we must refer 
 Alfred's foundations at Oxford, where he 
 fixed Grimbold, who seems, however, to 
 have been somewhat unpopular among 
 
A LF 
 
 A LF 
 
 the old students, as three years after 
 we find Alfred obliged personally to go 
 thither to appease then- discords. 
 
 But the most brilliant achievement of 
 Alfred's life remains yet to be related, 
 but we have no longer the accomplish- 
 ed contemporary biographer to guide 
 us.* Fifteen years had now elapsed 
 since his restoration to the throne, wlien 
 on a sudden his learned labours were in- 
 teiTupted by the arrival of a powerful 
 enemy. In 893 Hsesten returned from 
 the continent with a numerous host of 
 " Baltic locusts" in eighty ships, and 
 encamped at Milton, close by the Isle of 
 Sheppy, while another portion of the ar- 
 mament, with two hundred and fifty ships, 
 entering the Limne (Rother) at Rye 
 Harbour, encamped at Appuldre (Apple- 
 dore), and proceeded to ravage the 
 country. In Haesten Alfred had a power- 
 ful opponent. In his former wars he had 
 had to contend chiefly with furious dis- 
 ordei'ly valour and powerful numbers ; but 
 Hsesten was an able veteran, well skilled 
 in the arts of war by more than thirty 
 years' successful practice. His position 
 was judiciously chosen, for Godrum 
 being dead, it was not probable that he 
 would be attacked by his countrymen in 
 East Anglia and Essex ; and if they chose 
 to aid him, they were close at hand. 
 Alfred vainly endeavoured to bind these 
 latter by hostages and oaths, but their 
 old appetite for plunder overcame their 
 young Christianity and honour, and we 
 find them pretty generally joining Haes- 
 ten, or aggressing themselves. Alfred 
 prepared a vigorous resistance. Neglect- 
 ing the East Anglians, he chose a strong 
 position between the two armies of inva- 
 ders, not suffering them either to unite 
 with each other or with the East Anglian 
 rebels, and, by keeping patrolling parties 
 ever scouring the country, chastised all 
 attempts at plunder. He moreover di- 
 vided his army, keeping one-half only in 
 the field at a time, so that by a continual 
 system of relieving, he had always a 
 strong body to restrain the enemy. This 
 confined Hsesten and overawed the 
 rebels. The Danish general, aware that 
 this must soon reduce him, devised a 
 scheme to deceive Alfred. He sent his 
 two sons to be baptized, and swore to 
 leave England ; but as he took to his 
 shipping, his main army suddenly passed 
 
 • The Saxon Chronicle, however, is probably a 
 contemporary document, being sui)posed to be as 
 far as the year 923, or thereabouis, the work of 
 Phlegmund, who died in that year. The account 
 there given of the invasion of Hassten is tolerably 
 circumstantial. 
 
 322 
 
 into the interior of the country. Alfred's 
 vigilance soon detected the cheat, and 
 overtaking them at Farnham, he com- 
 pletely routed them, and drove them into 
 the Thames. Such as could swim es- 
 caped into Middlesex. Alfred quickly 
 followed them, and drove them across 
 Essex into the isle of Mersea, where he 
 reduced them to sue for mercy. They 
 however were soon reinforced by large 
 bodies of their countrymen from East 
 Anglia and Northumbria, and sailing 
 round the coast, besieged Exeter, while 
 another fleet attacked North Devon. 
 Alfred therefore, leaving some troops to 
 continue the blockade of Mersea, pro- 
 ceeded to relieve Exeter. Meanwhile 
 Hsesten abandoning Kent established 
 himself at St. Beamfleet, near Canvey 
 Island, in South Essex, his camp in Kent 
 having beeii stormed and pillaged, and 
 his wife and children taken. These latter 
 Alfred libei'ally sent back. Haesten, 
 having fortified Beamfleet, was joined by 
 his countrymen from Mersea; he then 
 proceeded to ravage Mercia, but the 
 Londoners uniting with the army that 
 had blockaded Mersea, sacked his forti- 
 fication at Beamfleet, and his wife and 
 children were again brought prisoners to 
 Alfred, who again sent them back free 
 to his rival. During this time Alfred 
 reached Exeter, and his presence imme- 
 diately dispersed the besiegers, who pre- 
 cipitately returned to their ships and 
 fled. Hsesten collected the remains of 
 his army, and being joined by a new 
 detachment from Northumberland, built 
 a strong fort at Sceobrig (Shoeberg), near 
 Southend, and sailed up the Thames to 
 plunder the interior of the kingdom. 
 The thegns however assembled, and be- 
 sieged him in Buttington in Montgo- 
 meryshire, and reduced him to great 
 extremities by famine. In this distress 
 they made a desperate sally, and were 
 repulsed, many were slain, many drowned 
 in the Severn, and the rest escaped. 
 Alfred's attention was at this time en- 
 gaged on his marine, b\xt the levies and 
 successes of his thegns show how effi- 
 cient had been his measures for the 
 defensive organization of the country. 
 The runaways joined their companions 
 in Essex, whence, being joined by another 
 large reinforcement from Northumber- 
 land, they proceeded to Cheshire, which 
 they ravaged ; and having plundered in 
 Wales, returned to Mersea in Essex, 
 passing througli Northumbria, in order 
 to avoid Alfred's army, which was watch- 
 ing for them in Mercia. In the Autumn 
 
ALF 
 
 A LF 
 
 Alfred encamped near London to protect 
 the harvest, and perceiving the enemy in 
 their ships on the river, ordered three 
 channels to he cut, by which he drew oiF 
 so much water as to leave them aground, 
 on which they precipitately sent their 
 wives and children into East Anglia, and 
 themselves hastily by night fled to Quat- 
 bridge (Bridgenorth probably), where 
 they fortified themselves. The Londoners 
 made a booty of the ships, and Alfred fol- 
 lowed the enemy to Quatbridge. The 
 entrenchments were too strong to be 
 taken, so that the winter was passed 
 there ; but after three years' fruitless toil, 
 the spirit of the Northmen began to bend 
 before the vigorous genius of Alfred, and 
 early in the succeeding year, 897, the 
 ferocious Vikingr gave up his attempt 
 upon the English crown, his army dis- 
 banded and scattered themselves in 
 Northumberland and East AngUa, while 
 those of them who were penniless, re- 
 turned to their ships to seek plunder on 
 the coast of France. Some attempts 
 were made to ravage the coast of Wessex 
 by naval incm-sions, but Alfred liad large 
 vessels buUt, of an improved construction, 
 with more than sixty oars a-piece, nearly 
 double the ordinary length, and much 
 steadier and swifter than any previously 
 constructed, and by this means all depre- 
 dators were restrained. Haesten returned 
 to France, where he settled on an estate 
 given him by the king, and thus termi- 
 nated this formidable invasion. 
 
 Alfred's sovereignty was now firmly 
 established over not only the Anglo- 
 Saxons, but also the "Welsh, and the re- 
 mainder of his days he passed in peace 
 and literary improvements ; but he did 
 not many years enjoy his fortune, being 
 taken to his reward on the 26th of October, 
 901. Alfred's health was very infirm; 
 for on the day of his marriage, in the 
 20th year of liis age, he was suddenly 
 attacked by an excruciating internal pain, 
 which to the day of his death never left 
 him for more than a few hours together. 
 When we consider that his great achieve- 
 ments were accomplished under this tre- 
 mendous affliction, the gigantic propor- 
 tions of his character are doubled. 
 
 In estimating Alfred's literary cha- 
 racter, we must recoUect that he lived at 
 a period when, owing to the devastating 
 incursions of the barbarous Vikingr of 
 the north, the learning of the Anglo- 
 Saxons was all but extinct ; and mili- 
 tary vigilance and prowess were inevi- 
 tably the prevailing object of their edu- 
 cation. And when this is duly weighed, 
 323 
 
 Alfred's acquirements will indeed appear 
 astonishing. But his diligence and per- 
 severance overcame every difficulty ; and 
 we have to this day several monuments 
 of his labour and success. His Anglo- 
 Saxon version of the venerable Bede's 
 Church History has been printed in Cam- 
 bridge by Wheloc, 1644, and afterwards 
 in handsome folio by Smith, in 1722. 
 He also translated the De Consolatione 
 Philosophiae of Boethius ; and his version 
 was printed by Rawlinson in 8vo. in 1698, 
 and again also in 8vo. by Cardale in 1829. 
 In the latter work the metres of Boethius 
 are given in Saxon prose. Alfred, however, 
 translated them also in verse, and so they 
 were printed by Rawlinson. They have 
 since been published sepai-ately in small 
 8vo. in 1835, by the Rev. Mr. Fox. In the 
 execution of this work, Alfred did not con- 
 fine himself to mere translation, but often 
 amplified a short sentence of his author 
 into a beautifid moral essay. His trans- 
 lation of Orosius, wliich is peculiarly 
 valuable for the new geographical matter 
 which he inserted in it, and in which he 
 describes the state of the chief Teutonic 
 nations of his age, and gives an ac- 
 count of the voyages of Othere toward 
 the North Pole, and of Wulstan to the 
 Baltic,was pi'inted by Mr. Daines Barring- 
 ton in 8vo. in 1773. Alfi-ed also translated 
 Pope Gregory's Pastoral Care, and of this 
 there is a MS. in the Bodleian, and 
 another in the Cottonian library. The 
 latter was, however, much injured by the 
 fire at that library, which destroyed so 
 much valuable antiquity. His preface to 
 this work has been printed at the end of 
 Wise's Asser. The Dialogues also of Gre- 
 gory were translated by Bishop Were- 
 frith, under the direction of Alfred, who 
 prefixed to the work a preface, which has 
 been printed by Wanley. There is also 
 in the Cottonian library a MS. of selec- 
 tions, translated from St. Austin's Solilo- 
 quies, by King Alfred. Malmesbury also 
 tells us, that he began a translation of 
 the Psalms ; but wliether this work be 
 among the extant Anglo-Saxon versions 
 of the Psalter cannot now be ascertained. 
 Some have asserted that he translated 
 the whole Bible ; but on very slender au- 
 thority. Portions of it he however did 
 translate, as we know, for his own use. 
 In the Harleian library there is an old 
 French translation of iEsop's Fables, 
 made by a lady in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. The authoress tells us that her 
 translation is a rendering of King Alfred's 
 English version ; but, whether the version 
 she used were really the work of Alfred, 
 Y 2 
 
ALF 
 
 A L G 
 
 is at any rate doubtful. Asser tells us, 
 that Alfred instructed his own sports- 
 men; and in the sixteenth century there 
 was in Christcliurch library a treatise of 
 his De Custodiendis Accipitribus. His 
 Memorandum-book existed in Malmes- 
 bury's time ; and a collection of his Para- 
 bles was much admired in the reign of 
 Henry II.; but none of the three last- 
 mentioned works are now known to be 
 extant. 
 
 Besides his literary performances, Al- 
 fred appears to have advanced the state 
 of art considerably in his dominions. 
 Asser tells us, that in the grandeur and 
 costliness of his architecture, and the 
 machinery which he used in building, 
 he surpassed all his predecessors ; and 
 that he himself instructed his artificers 
 and gold-workers. There is still pre- 
 served in the Ashmolean Museum a spe- 
 cimen of his art, which was dug up near 
 iEthelney. It is a jewel of gold chased 
 on both sides. 
 
 On the character of Alfred English- 
 men will always dwell with pleasure, with 
 admiration, and with pride. His talents, 
 whether as a general or as a statesman, 
 have rarely, if ever, been equalled. His 
 piety was deep and unaffected ; and his 
 magnanimity must command the respect 
 of all. The extent and universality of 
 his knowledge, considering the circum- 
 stances under which it was obtained, are 
 truly surprising : his diligence was un- 
 bounded, and his perseverance invin- 
 cible ; and when we add, that all his vast 
 achievements were accomplished under 
 the pressure of intense bodily agony, it 
 is scarcely possible to set bounds to 
 our admiration of his transcendent qua- 
 lities. Others may have enjoyed greater 
 fame, and have lived in greater splen- 
 dour ; but, all things considered, England 
 may challenge mankind to produce, 
 among the kings of the earth, an equal 
 to her immortal Alfred! 
 
 ALFRED, an Enghshman, commonly 
 designated by the title of The Pliiloso- 
 pher, who flourished in the latter half of 
 the thirteenth century. He was chiefly 
 distinguished by his commentaries on 
 the ditterent works of Aristotle then 
 read. He also wrote a dissertation on the 
 Motion of the Heart. A commentary on 
 Boethius is also attributed to him. 
 
 ALFRED OF BEVERLEY, (some- 
 times spelt Alured,) an early English 
 historian, who has had considerable re- 
 putation, because he is supposed to have 
 given the history of king Arthur, &c. 
 before the time of Geoffrey of Monmouth. 
 324 
 
 He was born at Beverley, is said to have 
 been educated in the university of Cam- 
 bridge, and to have devoted himself 
 there diu-ing several years to the most 
 profound studies. He afterwards re- 
 turned to Beverley, was made a canon 
 of the church, and also elected to the 
 office of treasurer in it ; though some 
 have sustained the opinion that he ob- 
 tained his title of Alfred the Treasurer, 
 simply because his book was a treasure 
 of history, a character however which it 
 scarcely merits. He is said to have died 
 in 1126 or 1136. We have little doubt, 
 however, that he has been placed much 
 too early ; for his book is evidently a 
 mere abridgement of the work of Geoffrey 
 of Monmouth. It was printed Ijy Thomas 
 Hearne, at Oxford, 8vo. 1716. See the 
 name Alred. (Tanner.) 
 
 ALFRED OF MALMSBURY, abbot 
 of Malmsbury, and afterwards (in 990) 
 bishop of Crediton, a writer of some 
 celebrity in the tenth century. By some 
 he has been called Alfric. He composed 
 a book, entitled, De Naturis Rerum, and 
 is said to have written a liistoiy of his 
 abbey. Some also have attributed to 
 hiin a Life of Aldhelm, 
 
 ALGARDI, (Alessancbo, 1593 — 
 1694,) a native of Bologna, and a scidp- 
 tor of some celebrity, as well as an archi- 
 tect. He received much instruction 
 from Ludovico Caracci, and lived after-, 
 wards on intimate terms with Albano. 
 His rank as a scidptor has been compared 
 to that of Albano as a painter. He ex- 
 celled particidarly in delineating infants : 
 and it is said, made use of the children 
 of Albano (see the name) as models. 
 At Rome he was employed as an archi- 
 tect as well as a sculptor, and built the 
 Casino of the Villa Pamphili, and the 
 facade of the church of St. Ignatius. 
 His most celebrated pieces of scidpture 
 are — St. Leon forbidding Attila to ap- 
 proach Rome, in St. Peter's, for wliich 
 he received a large sum from pope Inno- 
 cent X. ; his statue of St. Philippo de 
 Neri, in the church of St. Maria in Na- 
 vicella ; the high altar of the church of 
 St. Nicholas Tolentine. He executed 
 also the colossal statue of St. Leo, in 
 bronze, in the museum of the capital. 
 (Biog. Univer.) 
 
 ALGAROTTI, (Francesco, 1720— 
 1764,) an Italian author of considerable 
 reputation. He was the son of a rich 
 Italian merchant, and educated at Rome, 
 Venice, and Bologna. His progress in 
 mathematics, astronomy, anatomy (which 
 he studied for its use in the fine arts), 
 
A L G 
 
 A L G 
 
 ■w^re rapid, a-? well as in llterat\ire and 
 languages. He went to Florence, for 
 the purpose of impi-ovement in his 
 own language ; and in 1 733 he took up 
 his abode for a time in France, where he 
 vn-ote his celebrated Neutonianismo per 
 le Dame. From Paris he went to London, 
 and thence to St. Petersburgh, with Lord 
 Baltimore, which gave occasion to his 
 Lettere sulla Russia. From Russia he 
 went to Prussia, and became the friend of 
 Frederick the Great, then Prince Royal. 
 He resided also some time at the coxu't 
 of Augustus HL elector of Saxony, and 
 was the friend of several princes of Italy. 
 When Frederick came to the throne of 
 Prussia, he invited him, by a letter in his 
 own hand-writing, to come to his court, 
 where he conferred on him, and on his 
 brother Bonomo, the title of count, and 
 made him his chamberlain, &c. 
 
 His sojourn in Germany having been 
 prejudicial to his health, he returned to 
 his own country, where he resided some 
 time at Venice and Bologna (where he 
 established the Academy of the Indo- 
 miti;) and he died at Pisa after a linger- 
 ing illness. His disorder was pvilmonary 
 consumption. Voltaire, with whom he 
 was intimate, was veiy anxious to have 
 him at Ferney in this illness ; but he 
 declined. His epitaph he composed him- 
 self. It consists only of these words : — 
 " Hie jacet Fr. Algarottus non omnis." 
 Frederick of Prussia had a monument 
 erected to him in the Campo Santo of 
 Florence, on which he wished the fol- 
 lowing inscription to be placed : — " Al- 
 garotto ; Ovidii emulo, Newtoni discipulo. 
 Fredericus Rex." The last word was 
 changed by the heirs of Algarotti into 
 Magnus. Ugoni, in his life of Algarotti, 
 says, however, that Frederick never paid 
 for this monument! 
 
 His works on art are esteemed ; and 
 all his works have had their day of ad- 
 miration. His early poetical effusions 
 were collected and puljlished with some 
 letters by Bettinelli, and also with a 
 severe criticism on Dante and Petrarch, 
 which made much noise in Italy. Alga- 
 rotti disclaimed all knowledge of this 
 work, which is now known to have been 
 by Bettinelli. 
 
 Algarotti's works were published at 
 Leghorn, 176.5, 4 vols. 8vo; and at Ve- 
 nice, 17 vols. 8vo, 1791 — 1794, which is 
 the most complete edition ; but Tipaldo, 
 in his life of him, speaks of a selection of 
 them in 3 vols. 8vo, as the most correct. 
 It is published among the Classici Italiani, 
 Milan, 1823. 
 
 325 
 
 Many of them have been translated 
 into English and French. The Neutoni- 
 anismo, &c., by Mrs. Carter. This, as 
 well as II Congresso di Citera, and others, 
 have been published in French sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 Tipaldo, in his Biografia, &c. has given 
 a list of writers who have ti-eated of the 
 life of Algarotti, vol. vi. p. 175. 
 
 AL-GAZELI, or AL-GAZEL, (Abou- 
 Hamed-Mohammed, 1072—1127), a na- 
 tive of Tus or Thous, and a celebrated 
 Arabian philosopher and metaphysician. 
 He studied in the College of Iman-Al- 
 Hareme'in, and after the death of his 
 master, he repaired to Bagdad, where he 
 was made president of a college. After 
 presiding over it four years, he embraced 
 a monastic life, and after travelling 
 much in SjTia and Palestine, he settled 
 at Alexandria, where he remained for 
 the rest of his days. In his philosophi- 
 cal writings he opposed the eternity ot 
 the world, which some philosophers who 
 imitated the Grecian philosophy then 
 maintained. His work, called, "The 
 Annihilation of the Philosophers" (which 
 is in manuscript, in Leyden and Paris), 
 was answered by a treatise of Averroes, 
 which is appended to some editions of 
 Aristotle, and is found in a Latin trans- 
 lation, fol. Ven. 1497—1527. Some of 
 his papers, containing censures of points 
 of 5lohammedan law, were seized and 
 burned. (See Abdelmumen.) His "Trea- 
 tise of Religious Knowledge" is very 
 celebrated in the East. One of his works 
 was published at Cologne, in 1506, called 
 Philosophica et Logica Algazeli. (Biog, 
 Univ. Ersch and Grueber. Johnson's 
 Tenneman, § 254 — 256.) 
 
 ALGAZI, (Samuel,) of Candia, a 
 Jewish author of the 16th century. He 
 wrote the Toldoth Adam, Ven. 1587, and 
 several other Hebrew works. 
 
 One Solomon Algazi, who died in 
 1680, was also a Jewish author. 
 
 ALGER, a priest of Liege, in the 
 twelfth century, who led a life of retire- 
 ment and study, from which no offers of 
 advancement could draw him. His his- 
 tory, therefore, presents few ^^cissitudes. 
 In his latter days he retired to Cluny, 
 where he died about 1131. He was the 
 author of numerous works, many of 
 which are now lost, particularly his Let- 
 ters, and his history of his church ot 
 Liege. Among those which have been 
 preserved,we may enumerate, — a Treatise 
 on Mercy and Justice, printed in the fifth 
 volume of the Anecdota of Martenne ; 
 a Treatise, in three books, oh the Sacra- 
 
ALG 
 
 ALH 
 
 ment of the Body and Blood of Christ, 
 published by Erasmus at Friburg in 
 1530, and afterwards inserted in the 
 Bibliotheca Patrum ; and a tract, De 
 Libero Arbitrio, \\hich was edited by 
 Pez, in the fourth volume of his Anecdota. 
 This last book has been much praised for 
 its argumentative conciseness. A longer 
 account of Alger of Liege is given in the 
 Hist. Lit. de la France, torn. xi. p. 158. 
 
 ALGHIZI, (Thomas 1669—1713,) a 
 celebrated lithotomist of Florence, is the 
 author of " Lithotomia, overo del cavar 
 la Pietra," Firenza, 1707. fol. 
 
 ALGRIN, or HALGRIN, (John,) 
 a cardinal, known also under the name 
 of John D'Abbeville, was born about the 
 end of the 12th century. Under Gre- 
 gory XL he was employed in Spain to 
 preach a crusade against the Saracens : 
 on his return, he was sent on a mission 
 to the emperor Frederick IL He died 
 in 1237. 
 
 ALHAITAM BEN OBEID, a Syiian 
 viceroy of Spain, the immediate succes- 
 sor of Othman ben Abi Neza, or Manuza, 
 (a. H. 109.) He was one of the worst of 
 his class ; his atrocities reached the ears 
 of the khalif Hixem, who sent a mes- 
 senger into Spain to inquire into the 
 truth of the charges, and if proved, 
 to punish the guilty emir: Alhaitam 
 was consequently hurled from his pre- 
 eminence to a dungeon. One account 
 says that he was paraded on an ass 
 through the streets of Cordova, as a 
 terror to ill-doers. 
 
 ALHAKEM L (796—822,) the son 
 of -Hixem, grandson of Abderahman I. 
 and, consequently, the third Omeyan 
 ruler, found his crown enveloped with 
 thorns. First he had to oppose two of 
 his uncles, who, in the unsettled state of 
 the succession, thought they had as much 
 right to the throne as he had. Over these 
 he triumphed, — one being left dead on the 
 field, the other conditionally pardoned. 
 His next enemy was Louis duke of Aqui- 
 taine, who sent or led successively two or 
 three armies into Catalonia and Aragon, 
 and reduced several fortresses. Tliese 
 were, however, recovered by Alhakem. 
 But with Alfonso the Chaste, king of the 
 Asturias, he was not equally successfid. 
 When he personally appeared in the 
 field, he was fully a match for the Chris- 
 tian ; but immediately after his return, 
 the war recommenced, sometimes to the 
 disadvantage of his generals. In other 
 respects his reign was troubled. The 
 tyranny of his walls, especially that of 
 Toledo, excited many insurrections, and 
 326 
 
 to crush them blood flowed in profusion. 
 On one occasion the heads of 400 guests 
 were displayed in the public sqxiare of 
 Toledo, by order of the wall Amru ; on 
 another, Alhakem himself caused 300 to 
 be exhibited to the populace of Cordova. 
 The appetite for blood is said to m- 
 crease with what it feeds on ; so it 
 seemed with this monarch, whose sur- 
 name of the Cruel was well deserved. 
 Averse from the duties of government, he 
 devolved them on his son, Abderahman, 
 that he might abandon himself without 
 inten-uption to his sensual enjoyments — 
 to wine, women, music, and the dance. 
 From the hidden recesses of his harem, 
 however, mandates of blood were often 
 issued, and proved too Avell that the 
 tyrant existed. Such a man had need of 
 guards, and guards well paid. He had 
 a formidable body, 5000 strong, to sup- 
 port whom he levied severe contributions 
 on his people. The people of Cordova at 
 length arose ; they marched to the pa- 
 lace ; Init their tone of bravado was soon 
 changed : the king rose from his sloth, 
 seized his arms, and at the head of a 
 formidable body of cavalry, charged the 
 multitude in the streets, and slew a great 
 number. Many were subsequently im- 
 paled ; the houses of the rest were de- 
 molished, and they were spared their 
 lives on the condition of perpetual exile. 
 Eight thousand settled in the new city 
 of Fez, and were located in what is 
 called the Andalusian quarter. Twice 
 that number repaired to Egypt, and after 
 making Alexandria tremble, proceeded 
 to Crete, where they settled. The greater 
 number, however, did not leave Spain, 
 but chose residences for themselves in 
 Toledo, and in the cities of Valencia and 
 Sai-agossa. This act of Alhakem was as 
 senseless as it was cruel ; it banished the 
 most industrious of the people, and with 
 them the usefid arts which they had so 
 well cultivated. The tyrant did not long 
 survive it ; and his latter days were ren- 
 dered intolerable by remorse. (Casiri. 
 Conde. Dunham.) 
 
 ALHAKEM II. (961—976,) son of 
 Abderahman III. (see the name) gave 
 good earnest of his future disposition by 
 the zeal with which, as we have related 
 in the sketch of the father, he interceded 
 for the life of his brother Abdalla. He 
 was, indeed, a good, and even a great 
 monarch. For war he had no predilec- 
 tion ; he yearned not for the laurels 
 which flourish in blood and tears ; he 
 cultivated peace, which appears to have 
 been only twice interrupted, and that 
 
ALU 
 
 A L I 
 
 momentarily, — once by reducing Fez to 
 obedience, and once by a skirmish rather 
 than a battle v/ith the count of Castile. 
 For this very reason, his life has few 
 materials for biography. Yet his was 
 the golden age of the Mohammedan do- 
 mination in the peninsida. As khalif, — 
 a dignity, as we have already observed, 
 first assumed by his father, — he justly 
 thought the encouragement of letters an 
 imperative duty. He pensioned, or other- 
 wise rewai-ded, every man of merit ; the 
 zeal with which he collected books was 
 unequalled ; eveiy winter of reputation 
 at home or in foreign countries was 
 applied to for a copy of his works, and 
 was always nobly paid ; he had numerous 
 agents dispersed over the Mohammedan 
 world to purchase books for him, and if 
 any one could not be procured for gold, it 
 was sure to be transcribed. By these means 
 he amassed the most extensive library 
 Eirrope had ever seen, of which the 
 very catalogue, though unfinished, ex- 
 tended, in the time of Aben Hayan, to 
 forty-four volumes. It must not, how- 
 ever, be supposed that this khalif was 
 inattentive to the other duties of his sta- 
 tion. That he might have time for the 
 inevitable calls of justice and the admi- 
 nistration, he devolved on one of his 
 brothers the care of his magnificent li- 
 brary, on another that of rewarding lite- 
 rary men. 
 
 ALHAUR BEN ABDERAHMAN, 
 (717 — 721,) Arabian viceroy of Spain, 
 whose rapacity was equal to that of any 
 other emirs. The complaints against 
 him were embittered by the defeat of the 
 Mohammedans by Pelyzo, king of the 
 Asturias. They were effectual ; for Al- 
 haur was deposed by the emir of Alma- 
 greb, and succeeded by Alsama ben 
 Melic. 
 
 ALHAZEN, an Arabian wTiter, who 
 lived in the eleventh centm-y. He is 
 known by his unsuccessful attempts to 
 resti'ain the Nile. Having boasted that he 
 could do this, the Fatimite khalif Hakem 
 Bi-Amrillah gave him the opportunity of 
 trying his skill. Alhazen saw his error, 
 and returned to Caii-o full of shame. 
 Fearing the anger of the khalif, he 
 feigned madness, and supported himself 
 by copying books. He died at Cairo, 
 A. H. 430, (a. d. 1038.) (Biog. Univ.) 
 He wrote a treatise on asti-ology, which 
 was frequently printed. His principal 
 production is a treatise on optics, which 
 was printed at Basil in 1572, and else- 
 where. Before tlie rediscovery of Pto- 
 lemy's work on the same subject, it was 
 327 
 
 supposed that Alhazen s was in a great 
 degree copied from it. The originality 
 of Alhazen, and his superiority in many re- 
 spects to Ptolemy, are now fidly admitted ; 
 his applications of geometry are of a very 
 refined and skilfid description. He sug- 
 gested the explanation of the apparent 
 magnification of the heavenly bodies 
 near the horizon, before referred to. He 
 treated of refraction, and gave an ex- 
 planation of the law of twilight. His 
 investigation of the atmospheric refrac- 
 tion as applied to astronomy is the only 
 point in which he is inferior to Ptolemy. 
 He appears to have thrown out some 
 good conjectures on the optical structure 
 of the eye, and remarks, that when cor- 
 responding parts of the retina of each 
 eye are affected, we see but one image. 
 His writings are prolix and without 
 method. (See the Edinbui'gh Review on 
 Whewell's History of the Inductive 
 Sciences, and Professor Powell's Histoiy 
 of the Physical Sciences.) 
 
 ALHOY, (L. 1755—1826,) a native 
 of Angers, succeeded Sicard in 1797, as 
 director of the institution for the deaf 
 and dumb. He was afterwards professor 
 of Belles-Lettres at the college of Ven- 
 dome. He left behind him a work on 
 the Deaf and Dumb, and some poetical 
 productions. 
 
 ALI, the fourth of the khalifs, was 
 the son of Abu Taleb, the uncle of Mo- 
 hammed : he was born at Mecca about 
 the commencement of the seventh cen- 
 tury of the christian era ; and as his 
 father had a numerous family, he was 
 taken into the household of his cousin to 
 receive his education. The future pro- 
 phet paid great attention to the boy ; and 
 perceiving his early promise of talent, 
 changed his first name, Kayed, into Ali, 
 which signifies sublime. Ali repaid this 
 kindness with the most ardent gratitude. 
 When Mohammed announced his mis- 
 sion, he was one of the first, if not the 
 very first, to proclaim himself his dis- 
 ciple, and thenceforward he adhered to 
 the perilous fortunes of Islamism with a 
 fidelity which knew no limits. When 
 Mohammed fled from Mecca to Medina, 
 Ali remained behind in the prophet's bed, 
 to prevent the idolaters from suspecting 
 his evasion ; and when Mohainmed be- 
 gan to organize a band at Medina, Ali 
 hastened to tender the aid of his sword. 
 Mohammed rewarded his fervour by giv- 
 ing him his daughter Fatima in marriage. 
 This union was productive of greater do- 
 mestic felicity than is usually found in 
 the east : Ali treated his wife as his com- 
 
AL I 
 
 AL I 
 
 panion and his friend ; she shared equally 
 in all his counsels and all his honours ; 
 but these privileges excited great envy, 
 and particularly stimulated the jealousy 
 of Ayesha, the favourite wife of Mo- 
 hammed. 
 
 During Mohammed's life Ali acted a 
 leading part in public afiairs ; and his 
 abilities, both as a warrior and a states- 
 man, were highly estimated by the pro- 
 phet : he frequently nominated him his 
 lieutenant ; and it was generally believed 
 that he would appoint him his successor. 
 This was, however, frustrated by the cau- 
 tious Ayesha : from the moment that Mo- 
 hammed's last illness threatened a fatal 
 termination, she took care that none but 
 herself, and those on whom she could 
 rely, should approach his dying bed ; and 
 the prophet was thus deprived of the 
 power of making any testamentary 
 dispositions ; or if, as some believe, he 
 did make a will, it was suppressed. 
 Abd Bekr, Omar, and Othnian, were 
 chosen khalifs in succession, to the 
 exclusion of Ali. During their reigns 
 he continued in privacy, though con- 
 stantly urged by liis friends, and espe- 
 cially by the members of Mohammed's 
 family, to make an attempt on the kha- 
 lifate. He replied, that he would never 
 consent to take the throne until he was 
 called to it by the free suffrage of all 
 Mussulmans ; and that he would not peril 
 the triumphs of the faith by making divi- 
 sions in the body of Islam. At length 
 Othman, the third khalif, having been 
 assassinated in an insurrection, Ali was 
 almost unanimously proclaimed khalif. 
 (a. h. 35, A. D. 656.) 
 
 Ali had taken no part in the murder 
 of Othman ; on the contrary, he had en- 
 deavoured to protect him from the con- 
 spirators ; and his eldest son was wounded 
 while fighting in the khalifs defence. 
 So shocked, indeed, was he with the 
 crime, that he at first refused to profit 
 by it ; and it was only by the most urgent 
 solicitations that he was induced to as- 
 cend the throne. 
 
 All's naturally mild and gentle dispo- 
 sition unfitted him for ruling over a di- 
 vided and disordered state ; his old im- 
 petuosity and fire had gradually declined 
 during the period that he was excluded 
 from public affairs ; and the peacefid pur- 
 suits of literature, to which he had of late 
 exclusively devoted himself, did not tend 
 to raise his chai'acter with men who, 
 since the days of Omar, had learned to 
 look to their khalif only for new oppor- 
 tunities of acquiring fame and plunder. 
 328 
 
 Immediately after his elevation, Ali found 
 that his opinions were directly opposed 
 to those of most of the provincial gover- 
 nors, and he therefore prepai'ed to make 
 an entire change of administration. In 
 this hazardous enterprise he was secretly 
 encouraged by his personal friends, who 
 were exasperated by the long exclusion 
 of their patron and themselves from all 
 political power. At their instigation the 
 khalif deposed all the governors of pro- 
 vinces on the same day ; and thus created 
 discontent in every part of the empire at 
 the same time. 
 
 The most powerful of these governors 
 was Moawiyah, the ruler of Syria; he was 
 the son of Abu Sofian, the chief leader of 
 the idolaters of Mecca, and long the most 
 inveterate enemy of Mohammed. When 
 the prophet was received back to his 
 native city, m order to conciliate the 
 most dreaded of his opponents, he made 
 Moawiyah his private secretary. After 
 the prophet's death, Moawiyah embraced 
 the cause of Abu Bekr and Omar, by the 
 latter of whom he was appointed gover- 
 nor of Syria ; and he had ruled over this 
 great province fifteen years when he 
 received his letters of recal. Crafty, de- 
 signing, firm of purjjose, and unmeasur- 
 ably ambitious, Moawiyah at first tried 
 to temporise; but finding that Ali was 
 determined on his removal, he boldly 
 accused the khalif of the murder of 
 Othman ; declared that as a near rela- 
 tive he felt himself bound to take re- 
 venge; and though Othman had left 
 children, proclaimed himself his heir and 
 successor. 
 
 Whilst the Syrians were preparing for 
 war, a revolt was raised against Ali in 
 the centre of Arabia itself. Ayesha, the 
 prophet's widow, animated by jealousy 
 of Fatima and by hatred of Ali, who had 
 accused her of infidelity to her husband, 
 proclaimed herself also the avenger of 
 Othman, though she had been opposed 
 to him during his life, and had taken an 
 active part in organizing the revolt that 
 had led to his death. She was joined by 
 Talha and Zobeir, two of the principal 
 companions of the prophet, who had been 
 foremost in swearing allegiance to Ali, 
 but wlio were now seduced to desert him 
 by the bribes and promises of Ayesha. 
 
 Hastily collecting his forces, Ali 
 marched to suppress this dangerous in- 
 surrection. The hostile armies met near 
 Bassorah ; and, after a fierce engage- 
 ment, Talha and Zobeir were slain, 
 Ayesha taken prisoner, and the insui- 
 gents completely routed. Ali dismissed 
 
AL I 
 
 A LI 
 
 Ayesha in safety, with a slight rebuke, 
 and commanded his soldiers to spare 
 their brethren ; bvit the fury of civil dis- 
 cord was too great to be checked by the 
 authority of the khalif, and the victors re- 
 fused quarter to the rebels who submitted. 
 From this field of victory Ali marched 
 against the Syrian insurgents. Moa- 
 wiyah had procured from Medina the 
 bloody shirt worn by Othman when he 
 fell under the daggers of the assassins ; 
 and this he displayed as the standard of 
 his army. Such was the enthusiasm 
 created by this spectacle, that though it 
 was the middle of summer, thirty thou- 
 sand persons boimd themselves by an 
 oath not to taste fresh water until they 
 had avenged the murder of Othman. 
 Moawiyah, also strengthened himself by 
 alliances with other discontented gover- 
 nors, the most important of whom was 
 Amru, the conqueror of Egypt, equally 
 remarkable as a statesman and a warrior, 
 but no less conspicuous for his total want 
 of principle. 
 
 The two armies met on the banks of 
 the Euphrates, at a place called Saffein, 
 not far from the city of Racca. Islamism 
 had never yet collected such forces : 
 All's army amounted to ninety thousand 
 men, and that of Moawiyah to eighty 
 thousand. Neither commander, how- 
 ever, was willing to hazard a decisive 
 engagement : the annies remained in 
 presence of each other for ninety days, 
 which were spent in constant skirmishes. 
 This was a species of warfare, in which 
 the personal intrepidity of Ali was cal- 
 culated to shine. Abulfeda declares, that 
 in one night he slew four hundred of the 
 enemy with his own hand. Though this 
 may be an exaggeration, his repeated 
 challenges to Moawiyah to decide their 
 claims by single combat, greatly in- 
 creased the courage of the Arabs, while 
 Moawiyah's refusals equally dispirited 
 the Syrians. 
 
 At length, Moawiyah's cause seemed 
 utterly hopeless ; he stood on the very 
 brink of ruin, when in concert with 
 Amru, he contrived a scheme which 
 changed the entire fortune of the war. 
 One day, when his soldiers were hard 
 pressed, he fastened a copy of the Koran 
 to the top of a lance, and riding with it 
 into the lines, proclaimed aloud, " Let 
 there be no more blood, but let all con- 
 troversies be decided by this holy book !" 
 All's soldiers stopped short in their 
 mid career, and clamorously demanded 
 a truce. The khalif vainly urged them 
 to complete the victory already half- 
 
 won ; they declared that they would not 
 fight against the book of God. Nego- 
 tiations were instantly commenced, and 
 Moawiyah nominated Amru as his re- 
 presentative. All's soldiers then declared 
 that the matter should be referred to 
 arbitration ; and without allowing the 
 khalif a voice in the matter, they 
 delegated his interests to a person of 
 suspicious fidelity, whose only merit was, 
 that he had been employed as a copyist 
 of the Koran. When the two arbitra- 
 tors met, Amru easily acquired the as- 
 cendency : he proposed that both Ali 
 and Moawiyah should be deposed, and 
 that a new khalif should be chosen by 
 the fi'ee suffrages of all true Mussulmans. 
 Either through weakness or treachery, 
 All's delegate assented, and a day was 
 fixed for announcing the decision of the 
 arbiti'ators to both armies. 
 
 A species of pulpit was erected in the 
 plain between the two camps ; and when 
 the soldiers on both sides were gathered. 
 All's commissioner, as had been agreed, 
 ascended to pronounce his decision. 
 Drawing a ring from his finger, he said, 
 " I depose Ali and Moawiyah, and de- 
 prive them of the khalifate, as I take 
 this ring from my finger." He then 
 made way for Amru, who declared 
 " You have heard the dethronement of 
 Ali, in which I concur ; I invest Moa- 
 wij'ah with the khalifate, as I now put 
 this ring on my finger." 
 
 This unexpected declaration produced 
 a violent tmnult. All's delegate bitterly 
 reproached Amru for his perfidy and 
 falsehood ; but Amra replied, that his 
 bi'other arbitrator was a pedant burdened 
 with learning, like a donkey laden with 
 books, of which he chd not understand a 
 syllable. Such was the confusion, that 
 both armies retired from the field, and 
 were soon dispersed. 
 
 This strange event proved a serious 
 injury to the cause of Ali. The soldiers 
 who had forced him on such an im- 
 prudent course, felt that they could no 
 longer expect his confidence, and aban- 
 doned his standards ; others, taking ad- 
 vantage of their fidelity, accused him of 
 weakness, and said he had abandoned his 
 own rights. Fanaticism increased this 
 discontent ; some said that Ali, by aban- 
 doning to human arbitration what pro- 
 perly belonged to God, had committed a 
 grievous sin, and was unworthy to reign 
 over true believers. Ali was obliged to 
 use force against the last party, and thus 
 still fiu-ther diminished the number of 
 his followers. 
 
A L I 
 
 A L I 
 
 In the desultoiy warfai'e that ensued, 
 the most savage ferocity was displayed on 
 all sides. The son of Abu Bekr, who had 
 taken a part in the murder of Otliman, 
 and had warmly espoused the cause of 
 Ali, having been made prisoner by Moa- 
 wiyah, was condemned to death ; and, 
 without any respect to the memory of 
 his father, Abii 13ekr, or the recent ser- 
 vices of his sister Ayesha, he was igno- 
 miniously fastened unto an ass's hide, 
 and burned alive. 
 
 Ali's cause was rapidly declining, but 
 his pretensions still kept alive the flame 
 of ci\'il war, when three fanatics acci- 
 dentally met in the temple of Mecca, 
 and after deploring the calamities of 
 Islam, proposed to remove them by as- 
 sassinating Ali, Moawiyah, and Amru. 
 The agreement was soon made, and each 
 went to attack the victim he had selected. 
 Two of the assassins failed : Moawiyah 
 escaped with a slight wound ; Amru's 
 secretary fell instead of his master; Ali 
 alone received a mortal blow. It is said 
 by the historians, that the unfortunate 
 khalif had a strong presentiment of 
 his end for more than a fortnight before 
 his death, and that while going to the 
 mosque at Cufa on the fatal day, he ex- 
 pressed his belief that the termination of 
 his life was at hand. He survived his 
 wound only three days, and with his 
 latest breath he pronounced the pardon 
 of his assassin ; but the khalif's sur- 
 viving friends put the wi'etch to death 
 by cruel tortures. Such was the fana- 
 ticism of the age, that a poet celebrated 
 the assassin of Ali as a saint and martyr, 
 and the memory of Ali was daily cursed 
 in all the mosques subject to Moawiyah 
 and his successors for more than sixty 
 years after his death. His family also 
 was most cruelly persecuted ; but for an 
 account of their suiFerings, we must 
 refer to the articles — Hasan, Hassein, 
 and Imam. 
 
 The sect of the Sheeahs (or Shiites), 
 venerates Ali as a prophet, second only 
 to Mohammed, and love to quote the 
 saying traditionally ascribed to the 
 prophet — "I am the city of science, 
 and Ali is its gate : " whenever they 
 pronounce his name, they add, " May 
 God render his face glorious ! " They 
 esteem the period of his death (a. h. 
 40, A. D. 661) the end of the true 
 khalifate, which some believe will be 
 hereafter restored by Ali himself, whom 
 God will send from paradise for the pur- 
 pose. His supposed tomb, Meshed-Ali, 
 is one of the most ccle])rated places of 
 330 
 
 pilgrimage in Persia. Even the Sonnite 
 Mohammedans acknowledge that Ali was 
 a legitimate khalif ; and though they 
 do not hold him in the same reverence 
 as the sheeahs, they join in reprobating 
 Moawiyah as a murderer and an im- 
 postor. (Abulfeda. Zabari. Ockley, 
 &c.) 
 
 ALI BEN HAMAD, wall of Ceuta 
 eai-ly in the eleventh century, who passed 
 an army into Andalusia to avenge the 
 death of his sovereign Hixem II. khalif 
 of Cordova, who was supposed to have 
 been murdered by Suleymen, the usurper 
 of his throne and honours. Ali triumphed 
 over Hixem, whom he put to death ; but 
 instead of placing some descendant of 
 the great Abderahman on the vacant 
 seat, he usurped it himself. His reign 
 was transient ; he was suffocated in the 
 bath by his Slavonic domestics. 
 
 ALI BEN YUSSEF, (reigned 1107 
 — 1144,) second emperor of the Al- 
 moravides, in Africa and Spain. (See 
 Abdalla ben Yassim, Abu Bekir ben 
 Omar, and above all, Yussef ben Tax- 
 fin.) Though the second son, he was 
 proclaimed Wah Alhadi at Cordova, 
 A.H. 496, (a.d. 1102-3.) This distinc- 
 tion was the reward of his valour and 
 conduct : four years afterwards (a. h. 500) 
 by Yussef 's death, he ascended the im - 
 perial throne. He was a warlike prince. 
 The year after his succession, his brother 
 Temim cut to pieces a chi-istian army 
 near Ucles. In 1109 he himself entered 
 Spain at the head of 100,000 men ; but, 
 though he laid siege to Toledo, he was 
 forced to abandon it, and all he coidd do 
 was to lay waste New Castile. Two, or 
 even three armies which he sent into 
 Aragon, to the assistance of the Mo- 
 hammedan king of Saragossa, were 
 equally unsuccessful. His sway was not 
 popular ; he wished to quell a formidable 
 insurrection at Cordova, and he was 
 forced to treat with his subjects. The 
 Andalusians in particular disliked him, 
 because his officers were rapacious, and 
 because he did not punish their rapacity. 
 But the blow which was to subvert his 
 empire came from Africa, not fi-om 
 Spain ; it was destined to be wielded by 
 the founder of the Almohades. (See 
 Abdelmumen.) The way in which Mo- 
 hammed, the coadjutor of Abdelmumen, 
 insulted Ali in the imperial mosque, and 
 the successes of the two adventurers, 
 have been already recorded. The arms 
 of the Almoravidan emperor were not 
 more fortunate in Spain : the hostilities 
 of the Andalusians, of the Aragonese, 
 
A LI 
 
 AL I 
 
 Castiliaiis, and Portuguese, gradually 
 wrested from hiin his finest cities. The 
 last of his humiliations was the loss of 
 Portugal, or, we shoiild rather say, of the 
 two most important provinces, on the dis- 
 asti-ous field of Curique. (See Alfonso I. 
 king of Portugal.) That these disasters 
 tlirew Ali into despondency, and has- 
 tened his end, is attested both by Chris- 
 tian and Mohammedan writers. (Casiri. 
 Masdeu. Conde.) 
 
 ALI EFFENDI, born at Philippo- 
 polis, in Bulgaria, flourished under the 
 sultan, Selim II. He wrote, in an im- 
 partial and moderate spirit, A History of 
 the four Sultans, Mahomet II. Bajazet II. 
 Selim and Soliman. 
 
 ALI PASHA, capitan pasha under 
 the sultan, Selim II. commanded the 
 Turkish fleet in the war of 1570 against 
 the Venetians. Having ravaged the 
 coasts of Dalmatia, Istria, and Italy, with 
 such fury that the Venetians trembled 
 for their capital, he set sail for the gulf 
 of Lepanto : thither he was pursued by 
 the combined christian fleet of the Ve- 
 netians, the Spaniards, and the Italian 
 princes, commanded by Don Juan of 
 Austria. A council of war was held, 
 and his lieutenants maintained that there 
 was no necessity to give battle ; but the 
 ardent commander resolved to combat 
 without delay. Oct. 7, 1571, was fought 
 the most memorable contest which these 
 seas had witnessed since the battle of 
 Actium. The Turks long supported with 
 intrepidity the unequal contest. Ali 
 caused his vessel to be driven with such 
 impetuosity upon the galley of the ene- 
 my's admiral, that the prows of both 
 ships were broken off and fell into the 
 sea ; the combat between them was terri- 
 ble ; until at length the vessel of Ali was 
 boarded, he himself slain, and his head 
 exposed aloft on a pike, as a signal of 
 victory. A panic now seized the Turks, 
 and the greatest part of their fleet was 
 either sunk or burnt. 
 
 ALI, or ALLY (Vizier, ex-nabob of 
 Oude, 1781—1817). This prince was 
 the adopted son of Asuf-ud-Dowlah, late 
 nabob of Oude. His mother was aforash 
 (a low menial servant), and lay-in at the 
 palace of Asiif, who, when he casually 
 saw a preguant woman, whose appear- 
 ance pleased him, used to invite her to 
 the palace for her accouchement. Asuf 
 was a prince of enormous wealth and 
 great eccentricity. He used to expend 
 200,000/. in English manufactures, and 
 to pay 500,000/. to the East India Com- 
 pany for subsiiliary foi-ces, to protect him 
 331 
 
 from hostile invasion ; and, as it was 
 tlu'ough the English that he had suc- 
 ceeded to the musnud (throne) of Oude, 
 lie was always partial to them. 
 
 The sprightliness of young Ali pleased 
 him much ; and having no legitimate 
 children of his own, he determined to 
 adopt him, and gave him an education 
 suited to this determination. The Mo- 
 hammedan law giving the same privi- 
 leges to adopted as to legitimate chil- 
 dren, on the decease of Asuf, Ali was 
 supported, against his relations, in his 
 claim to the throne. He broke his faith, 
 however, with the English, was deposed by 
 them, and pensioned off", and his throne 
 occupied by Sadut Ally, the brother of 
 the late nabob. It was thought proper 
 that he shoidd be under the eye of the 
 government ; and arrangements were 
 made for his reception at the presidency, 
 in consequence of which he pi'oceeded 
 from Lucknow to Benares, where Mr. 
 Cherry, the English resident, invited him 
 to breakfast shortly after his arrival. He 
 came, attended by an armed retinue, who, 
 on a certain signal, rushed in and killed 
 both Mr. Cherry and Mr. Graham, his 
 assistant. They then proceeded to attack 
 Mr. Davis, who defended himself, till res- 
 cued by a party of the Company's troops. 
 Vizier Ali escaped into the territory of 
 the Rajah of Berar, who would only de- 
 liver him up on condition of his life being 
 spared. This was granted ; and he was 
 confined above seventeen years in an 
 iron cage at Calcutta, where he died in 
 May, 1817. (Annual Obituary, 1819.) 
 
 ALI BEY, or ALI BEIGH, first in- 
 terpreter to the sultan Mahomet IV. 
 born at Leopold in Poland, about the 
 beginning of the 17th century, was car- 
 ried ott' whilst quite young by the Tartars, 
 and sold to the Turks, who brought 
 him up in a seraglio. His Polish name 
 was Bobrowsky, or Bobowsky. Though 
 obliged to conform to Mohammedanism, 
 he remained all his life attached to 
 Christianity. He is said to have known 
 seventeen languages. He translated the 
 Bible (now in MS. at Leyden) and the 
 English Church Catechism into Turkish, 
 and composed a grammar and lexicon 
 of the Turkish language. In 1691, Dr. 
 Hyde published his curious and valuable 
 work — Tractatus Albert! Bobovii de 
 Turcarum Liturgia, Peregratione Mec- 
 cana, Circumcisione, iEgrotorum Visita- 
 tione, &c. with Notes ; Oxford. His 
 Dialogi Turcici, and his Translation of 
 Commenius's Janvia Linguarum, are in 
 manuscript in the royal library at Paris 
 
A L I 
 
 A L I 
 
 It is said that he intended to return to 
 Cliristianity, and to reside in England, 
 Lut liis plan was frustrated by his death 
 at Constantinople in 1675. 
 
 ALI, surnamed Cotimourffi, who at- 
 tracted, whilst a child, the favour of Ach- 
 niet from his beauty, was raised to the 
 rank of Grand- Vizier, in 1714, and be- 
 came the most formidable opponent to 
 t!ie intrigues and projects of Charles 
 XII. His policy with regard to Venice 
 led to a war with Germany, in which he 
 had the foolish ambition to seek person- 
 ally to distinguish himself: he entered 
 Hungary at the head of 150,000 men; 
 and in the battle which ensued at Peter- 
 waradin, between him and the imperial 
 commander, prince Eugene, he was com- 
 pletely defeated and slain. 
 
 ALI BEN ABBAS. See Haly Ab- 
 bas. 
 
 ALI BEY, chief of the Mamalukes, 
 born about 1728, in the country of the 
 Abazes, near the Caucasus, was carried to 
 Cirand Cairo as a slave at the age of about 
 twelve, and sold to Ibrahim-Kiaya, the 
 chief of the Janissaries, who had him 
 educated in all the warlike exercises of 
 the Mamalukes, and in other accom- 
 plishments. At the age of twenty he 
 was enfranchised, and was soon after- 
 wards apjiointed one of the twenty-four 
 beys who govern Egypt. After the 
 death of Ibrahim he was banished. On 
 his return to Cairo in 1766, he decapi- 
 tated four of the beys, his enemies, and 
 soon saw himself at the head of the go- 
 vernment. He increased his standing 
 army, and established a rigid discipline. 
 In 1768, the grand seignior, suspecting 
 him of treachery, sent a capigi with four 
 attendants to take off his head. V/arned 
 of his danger, he caused them to be 
 arrested on the road, and put to death ; 
 he then assembled his chiefs, and it was 
 resolved that war should be proclaimed 
 against Turkey. He set on foot two 
 armies, and equipped a good fleet for 
 the Red Sea, remaining at home himself, 
 attentive to the internal police of the 
 kingdom. He reformed the custom- 
 house, granted immunities to the Euro- 
 pean merchants, and encouraged com- 
 merce. His arms were successfid against 
 the Turks; and in 1771, having joined 
 Sheik-Daher, a rebel against the Porte, 
 he despatched an army to attempt the 
 conquest of Syria. Mohammed-Bey, his 
 adopted son, who commanded this army, 
 revolted, returned to- Egypt, and drove 
 him from Cairo. 
 
 On this he fled to his old all}'. Sheik 
 332 
 
 Daher ; and liaving raised the siege orf 
 Sidon, then invested by the Turks, they 
 defeated the Turkish amiy in June 1772, 
 and after an eight months' siege made 
 themselves masters of Jaflli. The urgent 
 entreaties of his partisans at Cairo in- 
 duced him to attempt a return to his 
 former station ; but he was met on his 
 return by Murad-Bey, who had pledged 
 himself to deliver him up to Mohammed 
 Bey. His wife had previously been given 
 up to Murad. Murad woimded him, 
 took him prisoner, and brought him to 
 Cairo to Mohammed, who pretended to 
 treat him with great respect, as his for- 
 mer master. In three days, however, 
 he died, either from poison, or from the 
 effects of his wounds, in April 1773. 
 
 His character and actions are very 
 differently reported in different works. 
 The above account is chiefly taken from 
 the Biograpliie Universelle ; from which, 
 that given in Chahners, and founded on 
 Volney's Syria and the History of the 
 revolt of Ali-Bey, differs in many parti- 
 culars. Among his projects was one of 
 making the voyage by the Red Sea the 
 direct route from India. 
 
 ALI, commonly called Ali Pasha. 
 This remarkable man was born at Tepe- 
 leni, soon after the year 1740, but the 
 precise peiiod is not known. His family 
 name was Hissas, and although he had a 
 pride in being considered of Turkish 
 origin, his family was really Albanian. 
 He was the grandson of Monctar, who 
 perished in the siege of Corfu, about the 
 year 1716. He left three sons, Salek, 
 Mehemet, and Veli. Veli was the son of 
 a slave, and his elder brothers deprived 
 him of his inheritance, for which, as soon 
 as he had acquired a sufficient force by 
 his predatory incursions, he revenged 
 himself by storming their castle, and 
 burning them in their pavilion. Veli 
 now fixed his residence at Tepeleni, and 
 mai-ried Khamco, the daughter of the 
 bey of Konitza, and by her he left two 
 children, Ali, and a daughter named 
 Shainitza. By a favourite slave he left 
 three other children. 
 
 Veli, before his death, had suffered the 
 loss of much of his inheritance, having 
 Jbeen engaged in constant warfare with 
 his neighbours ; and his widow Khamco 
 carried on a sort of wild warfare with the 
 shattered remains of his irregular parti- 
 sans. In the midst of this warfare, Ali 
 received the greater part of his educa- 
 tion. After a variety of reverses, he 
 became so formidable that the govern- 
 ment sent a commission to Kurd Pasha, 
 
A LI 
 
 ^A L I 
 
 vizier of Berat, and Dervendji- Paslia, 
 or chief inspector of roads, to put a 
 stop to his movements. Ali was taken 
 prisoner, but was received at the court 
 of Berat, and maintained there for some 
 years. 
 
 At the age of 24 he mamed Emina, 
 daughter of Capelan Pasha, and after 
 some time contrived to involve his father- 
 in-hiw in deep disgrace with the Porte 
 and obtain his decapitation. Ali had 
 hoped to profit by his death in two ways, 
 by succeeding to his government, and ob- 
 taining his property ; but the Porte ap- 
 pointed Ali, bey of Argyro Castro, to the 
 pashalik, and by him the property was 
 secured to the Porte. He now effected a 
 man-iage between the newly appointed 
 pasha and his sister Shainitza, but to his 
 own extreme mortification he was disap- 
 pointed in a matrimonial scheme of his own 
 for marrying the davighter of Kurd Pasha, 
 who on his death-bed betrothed this 
 daughter to Ibrahim, bey of Avlona, 
 against whom Ali vowed eternal ven- 
 geance. He now obtained possession of 
 Tepeleni, by an artifice which enabled 
 liim to make away with his opponents 
 under the plea of having combined 
 to assassinate him, a plot which, it is 
 said, he devised himself. Once master 
 of Tepeleni, he was desirous of establish- 
 ing and extending his power ; and 
 after endeavouring in vain to persuade 
 Shainitza to poison her husband, he suc- 
 ceeded in inducing Soliman, the brother 
 of Ali-Bey, to shoot him in his own 
 palace. S'.iainitza having afterwards 
 married Soliman, it was supposed that 
 she was privy to this transaction. This 
 crime, however, for the moment, did not 
 appear to foi'ward his purposes, for the 
 vacant pashalik was conferred on Selim 
 Bey Coka, whom Ali afterwards ac- 
 cused of treason, and dispatched him 
 in his own palace by virtue of a fir- 
 man from the Porte. Ali was still ap- 
 pointed only to a subordinate office, that 
 of lieutenant to the Dervendji-Pasha, 
 which he contrived, with his chiiracteris- 
 tic adroitness, to render profitable to 
 himself by receiving enormous bribes 
 from the MepJdes, or robbers, who infested 
 them. The consequence of this conduct 
 was the recal and decapitation of his in- 
 ferior officer, because of the height of 
 daring to which the klephtes had ad- 
 vanced ; but Ali, with his usual good 
 fortune, and aided probably by bribes, 
 esca])ed punishment. Wc are now ar- 
 rived at an era of some importance in his 
 life, the year 1788, in which he vas ap- 
 333 
 
 pointed to a pashalik, a dignity to which 
 it had been the object of all his crimes to 
 attain. As pasha of Trikala in Thessaly, 
 and Dervendji, he began a campaign 
 against his former friends the klephtes, 
 and nearly exterminated them. 
 
 In 1787, in the war which broke out 
 between the Porte and Russia (on which 
 see Heeren's Manual, vol. ii. 223) Ali 
 distinguished himself much, and after a 
 few months he contrived to possess* 
 himself of Joannina, then in a state of 
 anarchy, and to obtain the pashalik of 
 that place, which remained afterwards 
 the seat of his power. He received this 
 appointment in 1788. Khanico his 
 mother had died in bis absence. 
 
 For an account of Joannina the reader 
 must be referred to the different travel- 
 lers, who have described it, particularly 
 Dr. Holland and Mr. Hughes, and to 
 Davenport's Life of Ali Pasha. 
 
 Ali was now anxious to extend and 
 consolidate his power, and was engaged 
 for many years in wars which were di- 
 rected to this end, or to anotlier equally 
 dear to his heart — revenge on his former 
 enemies. The latter object stimulated 
 him to an enterprise against Chormovo, the 
 inhabitants of which town had joined 
 with those of Gardiki, when Ali, his 
 mother and sister, had been taken prison- 
 ers and ill-treated many years before. 
 He deluded the Chormovites into security 
 and confidence, and got about a hundred 
 of the principal inhabitants into a church 
 in order to sign a treaty, seized their 
 arms (which they left outside the church), 
 took them prisoners, and led his troops 
 against their town and slaughtered the 
 inhabitants with the most relentless fury 
 and cruelty.f Another enemy of whom 
 he was anxious to avenge himself was 
 Ibrahim, pasha of Berat, who had mar- 
 ried the daughter of Kurd Pasha in spite 
 of All's attempts to obtain her for him- 
 self. After a few battles, peace was made, 
 and Mouctar, All's son, was to wed the 
 daughter of Ibrahim. Ali endeavoured 
 now to inspire Ibrahim with a suspicion 
 that his wife wished to poison him, but 
 failed in this attempt. He succeeded, 
 however, in removing Sepher Bey, the 
 brother of Ibrahim, by poison, through 
 the instrumentality of a physician, a pre- 
 tended fugitive from his court, whom he 
 
 • It is stated in Hiigfhes's Travels that this was 
 effected by a forged firman, which he substituted 
 for one in which his enemies were favoured, and 
 that the Porte confirmed tliis strolie of policy. 
 
 + Mr. Hughes places this exploit previous to his 
 becoming pasha of Joannina. 
 
A L I 
 
 A LI 
 
 hanged as soon as he returned to daim 
 the reward of his crime. 
 
 His war with the Suliots lasted nearly 
 thirteen years, and ended in their exter- 
 mination. But it was not till after Ali 
 had met with many reverses and san- 
 guinary defeats from these brave bands 
 of predatory warriors, under their daring 
 leaders Lambro Tzavella, Foto Tzavella, 
 Samuel the monk, and others. The de- 
 tails of this war cannot be given here ; 
 they bear the marks of All's usual 
 cimning and cruelty ; but the enemy 
 with whom he was engaged, if not his 
 equal in craft, was at least as reckless 
 and savage. 
 
 In the mean time Ali was accused of 
 a secret correspondence with Russia, and 
 letters with his own signatm-e and seal 
 were brought in evidence before the offi- 
 cer sent by the Porte to investigate the 
 charge. Ali persuaded a Greek to ac- 
 knowledge that he was the writer of the 
 letters, and had surreptitioiisly used the 
 seal of Ali. Ali had promised him fidl 
 indemnity, but the moment the con- 
 fession had been made he contrived that 
 he should be hanged without the oppor- 
 tunity of disclosing the villany of his 
 master. 
 
 About the year 1797, Ali began to en- 
 ter into some communication with Napo- 
 leon and General Gentili, commander of 
 the French foixes in the Ionian Isles 
 (afterwards replaced by General Chabot) ; 
 and. pursued his favourite scheme of ag- 
 granchzement on the eastern coast near 
 Prevesa. On Easter-eve, in 1798, he fell 
 upon the Christians of some small towns 
 (Aghio Vasili, Nivitza, and Udessovo) of 
 the Kimara mountains, as they were 
 assembled for worship, and having mas- 
 sacred them and burned many of their 
 habitations, he waited his opportunity 
 for an attack on Prevesa, then governed 
 by the French. For this exploit (or for 
 his services against Passwan Oglou, the 
 revolted vizier of Widdin) the Porte gave 
 him the name of Asian, or the Lion. He 
 now took possession of Butrinto, and on 
 the 22d October, 1798, attacked Pre- 
 vesa with an overwhelming force ; took 
 La Salcette, the French commander, and 
 the garrison prisoners. His conduct to- 
 wards them was extremely cruel, but the 
 atrocities inflicted on the Prevesans, and 
 their slaughter by wholesale, casts it into 
 the shade. The Porte was confirmed in 
 its possession of these towns by the 
 treaty of 1800 between the Turks and 
 Russians, which called the Septinsular 
 Republic into existence. 
 334 
 
 About 1 804 Ali was appointed Rumeli- 
 Valisec, or viceroy of llumelia, an office 
 which he contrived to render profitable 
 instead of being a biirthen as formerly. 
 He was, however, soon deprived of this 
 dignity for a time, and then reinstated. 
 The history of All's relations with France, 
 Russia, and England, for some years, is 
 very complicated, and the different ac- 
 counts of it vary extremely. He appears 
 to have watched their policy, and endea- 
 voured to hold himself in readiness to join 
 whatever power seemed the most likely to 
 further his schemes. He was assisted 
 by France, but he coiTesponded with 
 Lord Collingwood, and received an 
 English agent (Major Leake) at his 
 court. M. Beauchamp (Suppl. Biog. 
 Univ.) says that the appointment of his 
 two sons, Mouctar and Veli, as pashas of 
 the Lepanto and the Moi-ea, in 1806, was 
 owing to the influence of France at the 
 Porte. He had also to subdue several 
 revolts in Thessaly — imder Demetrio Pa- 
 leoponto, who was driven into banishment, 
 — under Niko-Tzarras ( 1 807) — and under 
 Euthemos Blacavas. In 1 809 peace was 
 effected between Great Britain and Tur- 
 key, and Ali endeavoured to profit by it. 
 Ali made war on Ibrahim, pasha of Berat, 
 and took him prisoner, on the ground of 
 having corresponded with the French ; 
 and he obtained the transfer of his 
 authority to JNIouctar. In 1812, he had 
 the opportvmity of wreaking his ven- 
 geance on the town of Gardiki. His 
 atrocious cruelties there, and his massacre 
 of the inhabitants, imder promise of an 
 amnesty, are matters of history too well 
 authenticated to be denied, and too hor- 
 rible to admit of palliation.* 
 
 One of his favourite projects, pursued 
 for many years without success, was the 
 occupation of Parga, a small coast town 
 a few leagues to the N. W. of Prevesa. 
 After a constant struggle of the Par- 
 ghiotes against him, it was ceded to the 
 Porte by Great Britain in negotiations 
 which lasted from 1816 — 1819, in which 
 year the Parghiotes abandoned their 
 country after receiving a paltry sum of 
 about 140,000/. as indemnification for 
 property which they valued at 400,000/. 
 The motives which induced the Bri- 
 tish cabinet to yield this town must 
 be left to the discussion of the historian 
 and the politician, but it may be 
 safely affirmed that the decision entailed 
 the extreme of wretchedness on an un- 
 offending population. It is possible that 
 
 • See Mr. Hughes's description of the town, two 
 years afterwards. 
 
ALI 
 
 A L I 
 
 the difficulty of retaining it, in case 
 of any rupture, may have been one 
 reason to induce them to consent to this 
 cruel arrangement. Ali received an 
 empty town, its inhabitants having been 
 conveyed in the Glasgow frigate to 
 Corfti. 
 
 Ali was now in the zenith of his power ; 
 indeed it began to wane. The instni- 
 ment to whom his downfal is chiefly at- 
 tributable, is one of those whom he had 
 pursued for years with his usual thirst 
 for vengeance. Ismael Pasho Bey had 
 been sent by Ali as selictar to Veli 
 when he went to the Morea, but it 
 is supposed with a sinister intention 
 of finally destroj-ing liim. Ismael 
 accused Ali to his son of having 
 formerly had an incestuous intercourse 
 with his (Veli's) wife, and immediately 
 afterwards fled to avoid the consequences 
 of having dividged the secret. He was 
 hunted from one place to another by 
 emissaries fi-om Ali, but finally went to 
 Constantinople, and obtained mvich influ- 
 ence in the Divan. Through him and 
 another member of the Divan the Porte 
 was induced to deprive Ali of his do- 
 minions, and Ismael was to be appointed 
 to the pashalik of Joannina. Tlie Porte 
 began by displacing the governors who 
 were attached to Ali, and prepared the 
 way for their final measures ; and Ali 
 neglected his usual means of bribery. 
 Ali was AecXave A fermanly, or under the 
 ban of the empire, and* Ismael was ap- 
 pointed to command the expedition 
 against him. Ali's troops deserted him, 
 and when he had given up Joannina to 
 tlie plunder of his Albanians, and retired 
 within his fortress, and was even deserted 
 by his own sons, Ali still remained un- 
 broken in spii'it, and sustained a long 
 siege, till at last the soldiers opened the 
 gates to the enemy. On the 5th February, 
 1822, Ali was despatched under the 
 authority of the Porte, by Mohammed 
 Pasha, who plunged a dagger into his 
 breast. 
 
 This, at least, is the accomit given in 
 the relation published at Constantinople, 
 and it is added that a contest ensued be- 
 tween the followers of Ali and the Tm-ks. 
 Other accounts state that Ali fired the 
 first shot, and was only slain after an ob- 
 stinate resistance. It ought perhaps to 
 have been stated, that when Kurschid 
 Mohammed Pasha assumed the command 
 of the Turkish army acting against Ali, 
 he retired to a tower, with one hundred 
 devoted followers, and threatened to blow 
 it up with an enormous quantity of 
 335 
 
 powder, if too hardly pressed. He was in- 
 duced to leave this tower, probably under 
 some assurances of the Sultan's clemency, 
 but these were, of course, delusive. 
 During the time he was besieged, his 
 sister Shainitza died, which afiected him 
 extremely. 
 
 The statements respecting Ali Pasha 
 differ so much, that it is difficult, if not 
 impossible, to draw any satisfactory con- 
 clusion about his character. That he 
 was stained with crimes of the deepest 
 hue, can hardly be denied ; that he had a 
 disposition capable of much amelioration 
 is shown by the strength of his domestic 
 aff^ections, especially towards his mother, 
 his sister, his descendants, and also towards 
 his last wife Reine Vasaliki. His cruelty, 
 his treachery, and his extortion, must 
 also be admitted; but the notions of those 
 among whom he was trained and lived 
 deserve to be considered when we look 
 at this portion of his character. He was 
 educated amidst treachery, cnielty, reck- 
 lessness of human life, and all that can 
 deteriorate the heart of man. His early 
 years were spent in poverty and struggles, 
 due to the injustice of his own family — 
 one of the hateful but natural residts of 
 polygamy. His contests were often with 
 men, almost as unscrupidous as himself, 
 which, though it cannot justify him, 
 must be taken into the account when we 
 judge him. After all deductions, enough 
 remains to cast the darkest shade upon 
 his name, especially his conduct in regard 
 to Gardiki, and other similar atrocities. 
 The accusations of parricide, of the mur- 
 der of one of his nephews (as related 
 above), the alleged mm-der of his wife 
 Emina, and some of the crimes with 
 which even the sketch we have here 
 given charges him, {e.g. the murder of 
 the Greek secretary whom he induced to 
 confess to the use of his seal, &c.) rest 
 on evidence which is subject to some 
 degree of doubt, although we do not 
 assert that they may not be founded in 
 truth. They have been mentioned here 
 because confidently alleged against him 
 by some writers ; but it belongs to more 
 elaborate and extended works than a 
 general Biographical Dictionary criti- 
 cally to investigate their truth. It re- 
 mains to point out some works fi'om 
 which much may be gleaned in reference 
 to the subject of this article. The Travels 
 of Mr. Hughes, of Dr. Holland, Sir J. C. 
 Hobhouse, &c. all contain considerable 
 information, and will be necessary to the 
 future historians of Albania. The Tra- 
 vels and other works of Mons. F. C. H. L. 
 
A L I 
 
 A.L I 
 
 Pouqueville, also the Memoirs by General 
 Vaudoncoiirt ; the Life of Ali Pasha by 
 Mons.Beauchamp and that by Mr.Daven- 
 port, from which this sketch is chiefly 
 compiled, must also be consulted. 
 
 ALI, (Khodja,) was proclaimed dey 
 of Algiers by" the soldiers, after the 
 assassination of Achmet Pasha, in No- 
 vember, 1808. He only enjoyed his 
 new dignity for a few days, and paid with 
 his life the transitoiy fortune which had 
 suddenly raised him from the rank of a 
 sort of curate in a mosque to supreme 
 povv'sr. 
 
 ALI BEN AL ABBAS AL MAD- 
 JOUCY, a celebrated physician of Per- 
 sian origin, is the author of the work 
 known under the name of Al-Kamel, i.e. 
 A Complete Treatise of Medicine, 
 published in Latin, at Venice, 1492, fol. 
 and at Lyons, 1523, 4to. ; and of Al- 
 Maleky, or The Royal Book. 
 
 ALIADEULET, son of Zunlcadir, a 
 prince of Armenia, reigned in 1514 (a.h. 
 030) over the vast region which extends 
 from Amasia to the confines of Caramania. 
 Having treacherously deceived his ally, 
 Selim I, in the war of the latter against 
 Persia, he was attacked by the Sultan, 
 defeated, and driven from mountain to 
 mountain for refuge. Whilst hid in a 
 cave with all his children, he was be- 
 trayed into the hands of his pursuer, 
 who caused him to be executed, after 
 having loaded him with reproaches. 
 
 ALIAMET. There wei-e two engravers 
 of this name, who were brothers, and 
 both natives of Abbeville : 
 
 1. Jacques, born 1728, died at Paris, 
 1788, was the pupil of J. P. le Bas, and 
 was first employed by booksellers in en- 
 graving vignettes, in which he showed 
 considerable taste. His reputation, how- 
 ever, rests on his large plates, engraved 
 after Berghem, Wouwermans, Vander- 
 velde, Teniers, &c. &c., and some very 
 fine ones after Vernet. The most 
 excellent of his works are certainly his 
 engravings of landscapes and sea pieces. 
 In his works he far exceeded his former 
 master ; they are clear, forcible, and free 
 from heaviness. Jacques was a member 
 of the Academic Royale. 
 
 2. Fi-an^ois Germain, born in 1734; 
 learnt the art in Paris, and then came to 
 London, where he was some time under 
 Sir Robert Strange, and afterwards 
 . worked for Mr. Boydell, from pictures 
 by the old masters, and also from those 
 of English artists. (Heinecken's Diet. 
 des Artistes; Bryan's Diet.; Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALIBERTI, (Giovanni Carlo d'Asti, 
 33G 
 
 1680 — 1740,) a Piedmontese artist, born 
 at Asti, in the churches of which city he 
 executed several frescos. The best of his 
 works is in that of S. Agostino, the cupola 
 of which contains the representation of 
 the patron saint borne to heaven by a 
 band of angels ; and in the prcsbyteiy of 
 the same church the saint is painted in 
 the act of baptizing the newly-converted 
 in the church of his town of Ippona. 
 Aliberti had a son, the Abate Aliberti, 
 who painted at the same places as his 
 father, and also at Rome. There is a fine 
 picture of the Holy Family by him, in 
 the church of the Carmine. (Lanzi, Stor. 
 Pitt. V. 325.) 
 
 ALIBRAI, see Dalibrai. 
 
 ALIBRANDI, (Girolamo, 1470 — 
 1524,) a painter, born at Messina, and 
 studied imder Giovanni Bellini, at Venice, 
 and afterwards at Milan, became the dis- 
 ciple of Da Vinci. His works are chiefly 
 in his native city. In the church Delia 
 Candelora, the chef d'oeuvre of the pic- 
 tures of Messina, representing the Puri- 
 fication, is from his hand. He died of 
 the plague. He is classed in the Vene- 
 tian school ; though from his study of the 
 works of artists of other schools, many of 
 his pictures are considered to be the pro- 
 ductions of different hands, and of various 
 schools. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. ii. 252.) 
 
 ALIBRANDO, (Francis,) a Sicilian 
 lawyer of the seventeenth century, pub- 
 lished several works on law, and some 
 poetical pieces in the Collections of the 
 Academia della Fucina. 
 
 ALICE, fourth daughter of Tibalt, 
 count of Champagne, third wife of Louis 
 VII., and mother of Philip Augustus; 
 sustained an unsuccessfid contention with 
 her son for the regency, on his accession 
 to the throne, at the age of fifteen, but 
 was eventually reconciled to him. She 
 was appointed regent of the kingdom 
 in 1190, when Philip undertook an ex- 
 pedition to the Holy Land. She governed 
 with mildness and wisdom, and resisted 
 with firmness the pretensions of the 
 pope. She died at Paris, June 4th, 
 1206, respected by the nobles, and sin- 
 cerely regretted by the people. History 
 makes mention of several other prin- 
 cesses of the name of Alice. Louis 
 VII. had two daughters of this name, 
 of whom one, betrothed at first to Richard 
 of England, was the cause or pretext of 
 the civil war which broke out between 
 that pi-ince and his father Henry II. 
 On her return from England, where she 
 had been sent, this princess was married 
 to William, count of Ponthieu. 
 
A L I 
 
 ALI 
 
 ALICE OF SAVOY, called also Ade- 
 laide. See that name. 
 
 ALIDOSIO II. of Imola, caused that 
 city to throw off the dominion of the 
 Bolognese, hecame himself its governor 
 in 1292, and established so well the 
 authority of his family, that his de- 
 scendants continued in possession of the 
 supreme power till 1 424. Amongst these 
 descendants may be enumerated Lippo 
 and Guy Alidosio, his two sons, who 
 reigned conjointly after the death of their 
 father ; Azzo, the third lord of Imola, who 
 died in 1373 ; Bertrand, the fourth, who 
 died in 1399 ; and, lastly, Lewis, the 
 fifth, who was taken pi-isoner by Vis- 
 conti, duke of Milan, and only liberated 
 on condition that he should become a 
 Benedictine monk : he died in a monas- 
 tery at Modena, and was the last of the 
 Alidosios who reigned in Imola. 
 
 ALIGNAN, (Benedict,) born of a no- 
 ble family, at Alignan du Vent, at the end 
 of the twelfth century, became a Bene- 
 dictine monk, and in 1224, was Abbe de 
 la Grasse, in the diocese of Carcassonne ; 
 shortly afterwards he was made bishop 
 of Marseilles. He was of great assistance 
 to Louis VIII. in his war against the Albi- 
 
 fenses. He was appointed by Gregory 
 X. to reform the Benedictines, and in 
 1239 joined the crusaders, and distin- 
 guished himself by his eloquence in Syria. 
 He wrote a work against heresies, Trac- 
 tatus Fidei contra Diversos Errores, super 
 Titulum de Summa Trinitate, &c., the 
 preface to which, and a treatise of his on 
 Tithes are published in Baluze Miscel- 
 lanea, tom. vi. In the Spicilegium of 
 d'Achery, tom. vii. is a Letter of his, 
 De Rebus in Terra Sancta gestis, ad- 
 dressed to Innocent IV. In 1260 he 
 again visited Palestine, and in 12G4 was 
 ordered by Alexander IV. to preach a 
 new crusade. He resigned his bishopric 
 in 1266, after having had frequent dis- 
 putes with the inhabitants of Marseilles, 
 and entered an ecclesiastical order, of 
 which the rules were much more aus- 
 tere than those of the Benedictmes : he 
 died in 1268. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALIGRE, (Etienne d', 1559—1635,) 
 chancellor of France in 1624, and chief of 
 the magistracy, having offended Gaston, 
 the brother of Louis XIII. was dismissed 
 from office by the agency of Richelieu. 
 He died at his estate, De la Riviere du 
 Perche, leaving behind him a high repu- 
 tation. Etienne d'Aligre, his son, suc- 
 cessively member of the grand council, in- 
 tendant in Languedoc and in Normandy, 
 embassador to A''enice, director of finance, 
 
 VOL. I. 337 
 
 dean of the counsellors of state, keeper 
 of the seals in 1672, and chancellor two 
 years afterwards, died October 25, 1677, 
 at the age of eighty-five. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALIGRE, (Etienne Francois d',) of 
 the same family as the above, bom be- 
 tween 1720 — 1730, Avas appointed in 
 1763, under Louis XV. first president 
 of the parliament of Paris ; at the head 
 of which, during the two years which 
 preceded the revolution, he frequently 
 remonstrated against the imposts and 
 other measures of the ministers, when 
 they appeared to him injurious to the mo- 
 narchy, which he always defended with 
 courage. After predicting the revolution 
 privately to the king and Neckcr in 
 1788, he resigned his office. He was 
 one of the first to emigrate, and chose 
 London for his retreat, where he had a 
 fortune of four and a half millions of 
 francs in the bank. In the course of a 
 few years he returned to the continent, 
 and died at Bnmswick, in 1798. 
 
 ALIMENTUS. See Cencius Ali- 
 
 MENTUS. 
 
 ALINARD, or HALYNARD, arch- 
 bishop of Lyons, in the eleventh century, 
 was one of the most illustrious prelates 
 of France. The wisdom of his admini- 
 sti-ation, and the sanctity of his life, caused 
 him to be greatly esteemed by the kings, 
 Robert and Henry I., and also by the 
 German emperors, Conrad and Henry 
 III. He was in Rome in 1047, and so 
 beloved by the Romans, that on the 
 death of Clement II. they wished to 
 make him pope. He was poisoned in 
 1052, at Rome, where he was buried : the 
 author of the crime was never discovered. 
 
 ALIPIUS. See Alitius. 
 
 ALIPRANDI, (Bonamente,) of Man- 
 tua, born in the latter part of the four- 
 teenth century, wrote, in terza rima, the 
 history of his country dowTi to the year 
 1414, which Muratori has inserted in the 
 fifth vol. of his Antiquitates Italise medise 
 aevi ; but its value is little except where 
 the author treats of his own times. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ALIX, or ALLIX, (Thierri, 1534— 
 1597,) seigneur of Veroncourt and of 
 Forcelles, was counsellor of state, and 
 president of the chamber of accoimts of 
 Lorraine, under Charles III. He was 
 employed, with credit to himself, in some 
 important missions to different European 
 courts. He left some manuscripts, which 
 are very valuable for the exact account 
 they give of the north-east of France in 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 ALIX, (Peter, 1609—1676,) a native 
 
A L I 
 
 ALK 
 
 of Dole, and canon of the ehuvcli of St. 
 John, at Besancon, defended with spirit, 
 against Alexander VII., the rights of 
 his chapter touching the election of 
 archbishops. His writings on this sub- 
 ject are now very scarce. The first was 
 entitled. Pro Capitido Imperiali Bisun- 
 tino de Jure Eligendi, &c. 1672 ; and 
 one of them, a satirical Dialogue entre 
 Porte -Noire et le Pilori, was censured 
 by the inquisitor of Besan9on, when he 
 replied by a very scarce tract, Eponge 
 pour effacer la Censure du P. Doni. 
 Vernerey. Some treatises on Algebra 
 which he composed have been lost. 
 James Alix, his brother, advocate at 
 Dole, published some funeral orations, 
 and the Panegyric of J. J. Bonvalot, 
 president of the county of Burgundy, 
 Besan9on, 1667. 
 
 ALIX, (Ferdinand, 1740—1825,) a 
 native of Frasne, and a French ecclesi- 
 astic, who deserves mention for his re- 
 fusal to take the oaths in 1791, and for 
 his endeavours afterwards to be of ser- 
 vice to his former parishioners of Borey, 
 by residing near them. He was at last 
 forced to quit France for a time, and in 
 Switzerland he wrote some works on 
 schism, which he caused to be distributed 
 through his diocese. After three years 
 he returned,and wrote — 1. Le Manuel des 
 Catholiques ; 2. Les Impies Modernes, &c. 
 
 ALIX, (Jean,) a French painter and 
 engraver, scholar of Philip de Cham- 
 pagne. No account can be found of his 
 works as a painter ; but he etched a Holy 
 Family, from Raifaelle, pleasingly exe- 
 cuted, and marked R. V. P., for llafFaello 
 Urbino pinxit. He flourished about 
 1672. (Strutt, Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 ALKABETZ, (Solomon,) a rabbi of 
 Safet in Galilee, who was born about the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century. He 
 was alive in 1561, and probably died 
 soon after. He wrote, 1. Ajeleth Havim : 
 a Commentary on the Song of Solomon, 
 4to, Ven. 1552. 2. Shoresh Ishi : the 
 Root of Jesse. Constant. 1561. 3. Ma- 
 noth Levi, 4to, a commentary on Esther, 
 Ven. 1585 ; and some cabalistic treatises, 
 not published. (De Rossi.) 
 
 ALKEMADE, (Cornelius van,) a 
 learned Dutch antiquary, born 1654, 
 pubUshed, in 1699, a Dissertation on 
 Tournaments, especially in Holland, of 
 which the third edition, 1740, was en- 
 larged by his son-in-law. He was after- 
 wards editor of the Metrical Chronicle, 
 of Stoke, Leyden, 1699, fol. containing 
 the history of Holland down to 1337, 
 with portraits of all her counts. He 
 338 
 
 wrote also a Mimtspiegel der Graven 
 van Holland, a chronological series of 
 coins, struck from the reign of Floris 
 III. to Philip II. ; also a Treatise 
 on Modes of Burial, Delft, 1713, 8vo ; 
 and Nederlandsche Displechtigheden, 
 1732, 3 vols. 8vo, his principal work, ex- 
 tremely curious for its information on the 
 ancient manners of the Dutch, and for its 
 beautiful engravings. He died at the age 
 of eighty-three. 
 
 ALKINDI, the name commonly given 
 to a famous Arabian physician and phi- 
 losopher, who is called in his own lan- 
 guage, Yactib Ben Ishak Ben Alsahah Abu 
 Yushf Alkindi* His family was de- 
 scended from the kings of Arabia (Po- 
 cocke. Spec. Hist. Arab. p. 365), and 
 his father was governor of Cufa, in Irak 
 Arabi, under Mohammed Mahadi, and 
 the famous Haroun Al Raschid, the third 
 and fifth caliphs of the house of tlie Ab- 
 basides (Abul-Phar. Dyn. IX. p. 273, ed. 
 Pococke). f He himself was born at 
 Basra (or Basora), and lived under the 
 khalifs, Mamon, Motassem, and Vathrek 
 Billah (Poc. Spec. Hist. Arab.), who 
 reigned from a. h. 195 (a. d. 810), to 
 A. H. 232 (a. d. 846). Abul-Pharaj 
 says, " he was so v.'ell versed in medi- 
 cine, philosophy, arithmetic, logic, music, 
 geometry, and astronomy, and composed 
 so many long ti-eatises and famous books 
 in most of these sciences, that he was the 
 only man among the Mohammedans of 
 that time eminent enough to be called a 
 philosopher," (Dpi. IX. p. 273.) D'Her- 
 belot adds, (Biblioth. Orient, p. 469,) 
 that he was the greatest astrologer of his 
 age, and that he was accused by the 
 Moslem doctors of being a magician ; 
 and gives two anecdotes as specimens 
 of his skill in divination. He attached 
 
 * He is also sometimes called, Chindi, Kendi, 
 Chindseus, Kindseus, Alchindi, Alchindus, Alcin- 
 diis, Alkindus, Alkeiidi, A! Kendi, Alkhendi, Alcen- 
 dius, Alkendins, ElkiiuU, EI Khindi, Elkindus, 
 &.'C. — His Arabic name and titles (which are taken 
 from Casiri's Bibl. Ar. Hisp. Escur. tom. i. p. .IS.S) 
 mean, " Jacob, the son of Isaac, the son of Alsa- 
 bah, the father of Joseph, theKindian," (so called, 
 because he belonged to the tribe of Kindah or 
 Kendah. See Poc. Spec. Hist. Arab. p. 41, &c.) 
 
 + Several modern writers have fallen into great 
 mistakes, as to the time when Alkindi lived. 
 Omitting less famous names, it may be useful to 
 point out the error of Fabricius, who places him 
 in the I2th century, (Biblioth. Gr. vol. xiii. p. bi.) 
 And this is noticed, not from any wish to triumpli 
 over that great man, but that others may not be 
 misled by his authority. For the same reason, a 
 statement of D'Herbelot may be corrected, who 
 says (Bibl. Orient, p. 46!),) that he was a " Jew, 
 both by birth and by religion ;" whereas, the author 
 of the Arab. Philos. Bibl., quoted by Casiri. re- 
 jiresents him as descended from the kings of the 
 tribe of Kendah, and Abul-Pharaj expressly calls 
 him a Mohammedan. 
 
A L K 
 
 ALL 
 
 himself to the Peripatetic school of phi- 
 losophy, wrote commentaries on most of 
 the works of Aristotle, (D'Herb. Bihl. 
 Or. p. 957,) and abridged some of those 
 of Escander Al Afrodissi (i. e. Alexander 
 ylphrodisiensis), (D'Herb. p. 320.) He 
 also translated into Ai'abic, with notes, 
 the work of Antolycus, " De Sphaera," 
 (Abnl-Phar. Dyn. IV. p. 77,) which 
 D'Herbelot mentions (pp. 153, 957) as 
 still extant under the title, Okar al 
 Motaharakat. Besides these, he wrote 
 a vast multitude of works, the bare titles 
 of which (copied from Arab. Philos. 
 Biblioth.) take up moi'e than three folio 
 pages in Casiri's Biblioth. Arabico- 
 Hispana Escurialensis (T. L p. 353, 
 &c.), and are divided into different 
 classes ; viz. Opera Philosophica, Lo- 
 gica, Arithmetica, Sphserica, Musica, 
 Astrologica, Geometrica, De Orbe Coe- 
 lesti. Opera Medica, Astrologica, Problem- 
 atica, De Anim&, Politica, Meteorologica, 
 Optica, Prolegomena, Miscellanea. On 
 account of some passages in one of his 
 works, De Theoria Magicarum Ar- 
 tium, he has been accused by some 
 modern authors of " heresy, blasphemy, 
 and absurdity," as well as magic; but 
 has been defended from the charge by 
 Navide, in his History of Magic, &c. 
 eh. 14. Cardan, on account of his work, 
 De Rations Sex Quantitatum, ranks 
 him among the twelve greatest geniuses 
 that ever lived, (De Subtil, lib. xvi. 
 p. 445 ;) and Andres calls him " the 
 Phoenix of his age," " the Thales and 
 Pythagoras of Mohammedans," (Delia 
 Letteratura, &c. tom. v. p. 507.) His 
 moral character (if we may judge from 
 the anecdote told by Abul-Pharaj (loc. 
 cit.) of the way in which he behaved to 
 one of his enemies, the famous Albu- 
 masar,) seems to have been as amiable and 
 magnanimous, as his talents were varied 
 and acute. Little is known of the events 
 of his life, except that he lived at Bag- 
 dad (Casiri, 1. c), and was held in high 
 estimation by the reigning caliphs (Poc. 
 Spec. Hist. Arab. 1. c.) ; his death has 
 been dated a. h. 266 (a. d. 880). 
 
 Of all his medical writings one only 
 remains, a short treatise, sometimes 
 called De Rerum Gradibus, some- 
 times De Medicamentis Compositis ; 
 and this piece is perhaps one of the 
 greatest proofs, and also one of the best 
 specimens, of his extraordinary subtilty 
 of mind. It is not of much value as a 
 medical work, as Avill readily be ima- 
 gined when it is known to be an attempt 
 to explain the action of medicines on the 
 339 
 
 principles of geometrical proportion and 
 musical harmony. It would take up too 
 much space to give any thing like a com- 
 jilete idea of this very complicated sys- 
 tem, which Averroes justly considers to 
 be a mere specidation (Averr. Colliget, 
 lib. V. cap. 58, p. 92) ; it will be suffi- 
 cient to state here, that it is founded upon 
 the assumption, that " tlie quality of a 
 medicine in the compound increases al- 
 ways in a double proportion," (Freind's 
 Hist, of Med.) Tliose who are curious 
 to see a more detailed explanation, may 
 find it in Sprengel, Hist, de la Med. 
 tom. ii. p. 281, &c. 
 
 There is no Arabic edition of this 
 work, but a Latin translation was seve- 
 ral times published in tlie sixteenth cen- 
 tury. The first edition was printed at 
 Argent, fol. 1531, at the end of EUu- 
 chasem Elimithar and Albengnefit. 
 
 The best modern accounts of Alkindi 
 are to be found in D'Herbelot, (Biblioth. 
 Orient, pp. 85, 469, and 957 ;) Moreri 
 and Bayle ; Bnicker, (Hist. Crit. Philo- 
 soph. tom. iii. p. 63, &c. ;) and De Rossi, 
 Dizion. Stor. degli Autori Arabi. There 
 is also a little worli by J. G. Lakemacher, 
 called Dissert, de Alkindi, Arabum Phi- 
 losophorum Celeberrimo, Helmst. 1719, 
 4to, which the writer of this article has 
 not been able to consult. 
 
 ALKMAR, or ALKMAAR, (Henry,) 
 the supposed author of the popidar poem, 
 Reineke der Fuchs, or Rynke de Vos, 
 /. e. Reynard the Fox. See more on 
 this subject, under the name Baumann. 
 
 ALLACCI, see Allatius. 
 
 ALLAIN, (Andrew, 1655 — 1685, 
 was the son of low parents, at Garsing- 
 don, near Oxford, and was educated under 
 a noted schoolmaster of that day, Mr. 
 William Wildgoose, of Brazennose, at 
 Denton, near his native place. In 1671, 
 he entered at St. Edmmrd's hall, of 
 which he subsequently became the princi- 
 pal. In 1680 he took holy orders. His 
 chief works are some additions to 
 Angliae Notitia (1684), and to Helorius's 
 Historical and Chronological Theatre, 
 (published 1687) ; the Epistle prefixed to 
 Dr. Cosins's Ecclesije Anglicanae Poli- 
 teia, &c., containing an account of the 
 Doctor's life ; a translation of the life of 
 Iphicrates, Oxf. 1684. He assisted Ant. 
 Wood in his Athense Oxon, and had 
 projected a Notitia Ecclesiae Angli- 
 canae, or History of Cathedrals, but 
 was prevented by death from completing 
 his design. (Biog. Brit.) 
 
 ALLAINVAL, (the Abbe Leonor- 
 Jean-Christine-Soulas d',) born at Char- 
 Z 2 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 tres, lived in destitution, and died in the 
 Hotel-Dieu, at Paris, in 1753. He wrote 
 several comedies, wliicli were tolerably 
 successful ; Anecdotes of Russia, under 
 Peter L 1745, 12mo; and edited a 
 methodical and well-digested work, 
 Connaissance de la Mythologie, 1739, 
 1 2mo ; as well as some other works. 
 
 ALLAIS, (Denys Vairasse d',) lived 
 in the seventeenth century, travelled to 
 England in his youth, and wrote, on his 
 return to France, works on French gram- 
 mar, besides a political romance of little 
 value, entitled. The History of the Seva- 
 rambians, 5 vols. 1677 — 1679, 12mo. 
 
 ALLAIS DE BEAULIEU. See 
 Beaulieu. 
 
 ALLAMAND, (John Nicolas Sebas- 
 tian, 1713 — 1787,) a native of Lausanne, 
 who studied at Leyden, where, in 1749, he 
 succeeded S'Gravesande in the chair of 
 philosophy. He collected and arranged 
 the materials of the Historical Dictionary 
 of Marchand. He published an Intro- 
 duction to Philosophy, and edited the 
 philosophical and mathematical works of 
 S'Gravesande. He translated also seve- 
 ral scientific works from the English, and 
 published papers on questions of natural 
 history. In the edition of Buffon, Am- 
 sterd. 1766 — 1779, he added the descrip- 
 tion of three animals, not described by 
 BufTon. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALLAMAND, a protestant minister 
 at Bex, in the Pays de Vaud, of whom 
 Gibbon speaks in terms of praise in his 
 memoirs, wrote an anonymous Letter on 
 the religious assemblies in Languedoc ; 
 Rotterdam, 1745. Another Allamand, 
 professor at Lausanne, wrote Pensees 
 Anti-philosophiques, and Anti-Bernier, 
 ou Nouveau Dictionnaire de Theologie ; 
 Geneva and Berlin, 1770, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 ALLAN, (William,) an English Jesuit, 
 born Feb. 6, 1733 ; entered on his novi- 
 ciate at Walton at the age of 17 ; resided 
 and died at Isleworth Jan. 26, 1814, and 
 was bin-ied in the churchyard of Ham- 
 mersmith. 
 
 ALLAN, (George,) an English anti- 
 quary, and an attorney at Darlington, is 
 the author of several works relating to the 
 history and antiquities of the county of 
 Durham, and greatly aided Mr. Hutchin- 
 son, in his history of that county. He 
 Presented to the Antiquarian Society of 
 london, 26 quarto vols, of MS, re- 
 lating principally to the University of 
 Oxford, extracted from the public libra- 
 ries there. He died July 31st, 1800. 
 He possessed a private printing press, at 
 which he printed several works ; among 
 340 
 
 them was a reprint of that curious and 
 scarce work — Hegg's Legend of St, 
 Cuthbert. See Hegg. 
 
 ALLAN, (David, born about 1735, 
 died 6tli August, 1796,) a painter of 
 portrait, history, and landscape ; was a 
 native of Edinburgh, and received the 
 rudiments of art in the academy esta- 
 blished by the Messrs. Foulis, at Glasgow, 
 whence he removed to Italy, and perse- 
 veringly studied the works of the great 
 masters. In 1773 he gained the prize 
 medal given by the Academy of St. Luke, 
 at Rome, for the best historical composi- 
 tion. During his residence in Italy, he 
 painted many landscapes in the style of 
 Gaspard Poussin, besides a vast number 
 of pictures in several departments of the 
 art of painting. He returned in 1777, 
 and for a few years lived in London ; but 
 removed to Edinburgh in 1780, to super- 
 intend the academy established there for 
 diffusing a knowledge of the principles of 
 the fine arts and of design, with a view 
 to improve manufactm-es in that respect. 
 Many of his works have been engraved, 
 particularly the Origin of Painting, in 
 wiiich the Corinthian Maid is repre- 
 sented drawing the shadow of her de- 
 parting lover ; and four plates engraved 
 by Paid Sandby, from designs made at 
 Rome, sliowing tlie sports of the carnival 
 in that city. Besides his other qualifica- 
 tions, he etched with great spirit. 
 
 ALLARD, (Guy,) a native of Dau- 
 pliiny, a voluminous writer on the history 
 of that province, and counsellor to the 
 king, died in 1716. Besides his histori- 
 cal and antiquarian works he is the author 
 of a novel, Zlzime, 1673, 1712, 1724, 
 12mo. 
 
 ALLARD, (Joseph Felix,) an eccle- 
 siastic, born at Marseilles in 1795, was 
 one of the contributors to the Bidletin 
 Universel of M. de Ferussac. He died 
 in 1831, at Paris. 
 
 ALLARD. There are three Dutch 
 engravers of this name, none of whom 
 appear to have attained to eminence. It 
 is not known when they lived, or whether 
 they were related. Their woi-ks are gene- 
 rally confovmded, on account of the simi- 
 larity of their execution. Their names 
 
 were :- 
 
 1 . Hiiych, who marked his plates Iluych 
 Alaerd, sen. 
 
 2. Abraham, who lived at Leyden, and 
 was both engraver and printseller. 
 
 3. Charles, who was also a printseller, 
 and scraped some mezzotintos. There is 
 a large plate in the British Museum, 
 paitly etched, and finished with th" 
 
ALL 
 
 AIL 
 
 graver, marked A. Allard cecinit — C. 
 xillard edit. (Strutt, Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 ALLART, (Mary Gay, 1750—1821,) 
 a minor French writer, who translated 
 some English romances. In 1818 slie 
 published an original tale, Albertine de 
 St. Abbe, 2 vols. 12mo; Paris. Her 
 daughter, Mdlle. Hortense Allart, has 
 written La Conjuration d'Amboise, and 
 some Letters on Madame de Stael's works. 
 (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALLATIUS, or ALLACCI, (Leo, 
 1586 — lGi)9.) This learned ^vl•iter was a 
 native of Cliio, but at nine years of age 
 lie went to Calabria, and in 1600 to 
 Rome, where he obtained several em- 
 ployments. In 1622 he was sent to 
 Germany by Pope Gregory XV. to bring 
 to Rome the Heidelberg library, presented 
 to the pope by the Elector of Bavaria. 
 Cardinal Barberini made him his libra- 
 rian ; and he was made librarian of the 
 Vatican, in 1661. One of the anecdotes 
 relating to him is worth recording. " Why 
 do you not take orders ?" said Alexander 
 VII. to him. " That I may marry when 
 I please," was the reply. "Then why do 
 you not marry?" "That I may take 
 orders when I please." He was a man of 
 most studious habits, of great memory, 
 and great erudition ; indeed he was more 
 remarkable for his erudition, than his 
 fairness or judgment. He was the 
 most strenuous advocate of the Roman 
 see, against his own countrymen, the 
 Greeks, whom he considered as schis- 
 matics. He is said to have written forty 
 years with the same pen, and to have 
 cried on losing it. He is also said to 
 have been able to write so rapidly that 
 he copied the Diarium Romanoiiim Pon- 
 tificum, in one night. 
 
 His principal works are — 1 .De Ecclesiee 
 Occidentalis et Orientalis Perpetua Con- 
 sensione ; Coloniae, 1648. This has 
 always been considered a disingenuous 
 work. It is idle to attempt to prove 
 that the Greeks and Latins agree in 
 the great doctrine of the procession of 
 the Holy Spirit, when it is luanifest 
 that their differences are substantial. 
 His defence and eulogy of Cp'il of 
 Bercea, has also given great offence. (See 
 Covel on the Greek Churchy p. 128.) 
 2. De Utriusqvie Ecclesiae in Dog - 
 mate de Purgatorio Consensione, 8vo, 
 Rom. 1659. 3. De Libris Ecclesiasti- 
 cus Grsecorum, Paris, 1645. 4. De 
 Templis Graecor'um recentioribus, 8vo, 
 Colon. 1645. 5. Greeciae Orthodoxas 
 Scriptores, Rom. 1652 — 1657, 2 vols. 
 4to. 6, Philo Byzantinus de septem 
 341 
 
 Orbis Spectaculls, Svo, Rom. 1640. 7. 
 Eustathius Antiochenus in Exaheme- 
 ron ; ejusdem de Engastrimytho in 
 Originem Dissertatio, &c. 4to. Lugdun. 
 1629. 8. Summicta, sive Opusculorum 
 Graec. et Lat. &c. Collectio. fol. Colon. 
 1653. 9. De Mensm-a Temporum, &c. 
 Colon. 1645. 10. Concordia Nationum 
 Christianai-um Asiee, Africa? et Europae, 
 in Fide Cathohca. 11. De Octava Photii 
 Synodo, Rom. 1662. He also wrote 
 several works on literary questions : 
 
 1. On the Country of Homer, (re- 
 printed in Gronovii Antiq. tom. x.) 
 
 2. Apes Urbanse, 1635, (reprinted by 
 Fabricius, at Hamburgh, in 1711;) also 
 a Catalogue of Italian Dramatic Works, 
 and a Collection of Italian Poets, fi-om 
 MSS. in the Vatican and Barberini libra- 
 ries (Naples, 1661, Svo.) See more in 
 Niceron, on his works. (Biog. Univ. 
 Waddington's Greek Church. Covel's 
 Greek Church.) 
 
 ALLE, (Jerome,) born at Bologna, 
 about the end of the sixteenth century, en- 
 tered into the congregation of St. Jerome 
 di Fiesole, in which he arrived at the 
 highest dignities. He was a distinguished 
 preacher, and joined the study of letters 
 to that of divinity. The affectation of 
 his style may be judged of by the title 
 of one of his moral works, as follows : 
 II concatenato sconcatenamento dei 
 pensieri, parole cd azioni umane, che 
 letto e praticato concatena la virtu nell' 
 animo, e li sconcatena i vizii ; Bologna, 
 1653, 4to. 
 
 ALLECTUS, tja-ant of Britain, in the 
 third century, assassinated the usurper 
 Carausius, of whom he had been the 
 confidant, assumed the imperial purple, 
 and maintained his authority for three 
 yeai's, until Constantius Chlorus invaded 
 England, defeated and slew him, and 
 reduced that country again to a Roman 
 province. 
 
 ALLEGRAM, (Christopher Gabriel,) 
 a French sculptor, whose performances 
 were superior to those of his contempo- 
 raries, worked for Madame du Barry, who 
 placed several of his statues in her garden 
 of Luciennes. His " Venus entering the 
 Bath," and his "Diana," for which every 
 form of praise was exhausted at the 
 time, prove that he was worthy of a bet- 
 ter epoch than that in which he lived. 
 
 ALLEGRE, (Antony,) canon of Cler- 
 mont, born at Tour, in Auvergne, trans- 
 lated some works from the Spanish, 
 which he published in French, in the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 ALLEGRETTI, (Jacopo,) of Forli 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 Latin poet and astrologer of the fourteenth 
 century, founded an academy at Rimini. 
 His works have remained in manuscript. 
 Marchesi has written his Hfe in his Vitse 
 Ilhistrium Foroliviensium. See Tira- 
 boschi, V. 609. 
 
 ALLEGRETTI, (Allegretto degh,) 
 wrote, in Italian, a Journal of Sienna, 
 from 1450 to 1496, which has been pub- 
 lished by Muratori, in his Scriptor. 
 Rerum Ital. vol. xxiii. : it descends to 
 minute and often frivolous details. 
 ALLEGRL See Corregio. 
 ALLEGRI, (Alessandro,) a satirical 
 poet, born at Florence about the end of 
 the sixteenth century, served in the army 
 when young, and afterwards became an 
 ecclesiastic. His principal works are 
 Rime Piacevoli, printed after his death, 
 in four separate parts, with which are 
 generally bound in the same volume, 
 his Letter e di Ser Poi Pedante, Bo- 
 logna, 1613 ; and his Fantastica Visione 
 di Parri da Pozzolatico, Lucca, 1613 ; 
 both of which are in ridicule of pedantry. 
 He is also the author of a tragedy on the 
 subject of Idomeneus, and of Some Latin 
 poems of the heroic kind. 
 
 ALLEGRI, (Geronimo,) a celebrated 
 chemist of Verona of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, president of the academy of "Ale- 
 thophilists," which was devoted to the 
 detection of popular errors in the practice 
 of medicine, neglected the objects of the 
 institution to follow astrological specu- 
 lations, and the hermetic philosophy. 
 He wrote on Chemistry, on the compo- 
 sition of Theriaque, Algaroto powder, &c. 
 ALLEGRI, (Gregorio,) a Romish 
 ecclesiastic and musical composer, was a 
 pupil of Nanini, and admitted, in 1629, 
 as a singer into the pope's chapel. Of 
 his celebrated Miserere, the pope pre- 
 sented a complete copy to George III. in 
 1773. He was a devout and charitable 
 person : his death occurred February 
 16th, 1640. 
 
 ALLEGRINI, (Francesco, 1587 — 
 1663,) an artist of the Roman school — 
 a fresco painter ; frequently called Di 
 Gubbio, from the place of his birth. He 
 was a pupil of the Cavaliere GeosefFo 
 Cesare d'Arpino, and much imitated 
 the style of that painter, as appears 
 by his work in the cupola of the Sa- 
 crament in the cathedi'al of Gubbio, 
 and another of his compositions at the 
 Madonna de Blanche. Several of his pro- 
 ductions are to be foimd at Savona, and 
 at Genoa. He decorated in fresco, as 
 well as in oil, some of the palaces and 
 churches in Rome ; painted many small 
 342 
 
 hunting and battle pieces ; and added 
 figures to the landscapes of Claude, two 
 of which were in the Colonna Palace. 
 He had two sons, Flam'mio and Angelo, 
 who were also his pupils, and who painted 
 history. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. ii. 107, 108, 
 117. Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ALLEGRINI, (Giuseppe,) an Ita- 
 lian engraver, who flourished about 
 1746. On one of his plates, representing 
 the Circumcision, is the following inscrip- 
 tion : " Gius. Allegrini Stamp, in rame 
 delle croce rosa." There is another en- 
 graver of this name, Francesco Allecirim, 
 born at Florence about 1729, who was 
 also a designer. He engraved a vast 
 number of portraits from different mas- 
 ters. (Strutt, Diet, of Eng. Bryan's Diet.) 
 ALLEIN, (Richard, 1611—1681,) son 
 of the rector of Ditchet, in Somer- 
 setshire, was educated at Oxford, be- 
 came afterwards a zealous covenanter, 
 and was appointed, as was also his father, 
 assistant to the commissioners appointed 
 by parliament for ejecting scandalous 
 ministers. At the restoration, from not 
 being able to accede to the terms of con- 
 formity, he was ejected from his living, 
 which he had held upwards of twenty 
 years : he continued, however, to exer- 
 cise his function privately. Subsequently, 
 he was often summoned to the quarter- 
 sessions, and severely reprimanded as 
 the keeper of a conventicle. His princi- 
 pal work is Vindicise Pietatis, which is 
 highly esteemed by Calvinists. 
 
 ALLEIN, or ALLEN, (Thomas,) a 
 pious divine, born about 1682, educated 
 at Oxford, was presented in 1714 to the 
 rectory of Kettering, where he died sud- 
 denly. May 31, 1755. He was exemplary 
 in the performance of his pastoral duties, 
 and an indefatigable, though not very 
 successful writer. His most noted works 
 are The Practice of a Holy Life, 1716, 
 8vo ; and The Christian's sure Guide 
 to Eternal Glory. 
 
 ALLEINE, (Joseph,) son of Tobias 
 Alleine, born at Devizes in 1633. Hav- 
 ing entered at Corpus Christi, Oxford, 
 he was so distinguished for piety and 
 studiousness, that he was made chap- 
 lain, and, having taken the degree of 
 B. A. in 1653, tutor in his college. In 
 1655, he was an assistant minister at 
 Taunton, in Somersetshire ; and in 1662, 
 was one of the two thousand silenced by 
 the Act of Uniformity. He continued 
 his labours, however, very assiduously 
 and zealously as a preacher, until, in the 
 next year, " he was (says Wood) snap- 
 ped for a conventicler," and committed 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 to Ilchester gaol, tried with others at the 
 assizes for the offence of preaching, found 
 guilty, and fined one hundred marks. 
 He expressed his gladness that all which 
 had been deposed against him was — 
 " that he had sung a psalm, instrixcted 
 his family, others being there, and in his 
 own house." He was a second time 
 found offending, and severely punished 
 by an imprisonment which destroyed 
 his health, and in November 1668 he 
 died, in the thirty-fifth year of his age. 
 Alleine is said ever to have regretted the 
 necessity of separating from the church : 
 the character he acquired at college he 
 retained through life ; and the punish- 
 ment of such a man is one of the 
 acts which reflect discredit on that 
 age.* His widow, Theodosia, against 
 whom Wood seems to have indulged a 
 bitter antipathy, published The Narra- 
 tive of her Husband, from his Silencing 
 to his Death. There is also a Life 
 written by Baxter and others. Alleine's 
 works were, and some of them still are, 
 very popvilar — especially his Alarm to 
 the Unconverted, published in 1672, 
 and of which 20,000 were sold ; and in 
 1675, republished under the title of A 
 Sure Guide to Heaven, — when 50,000 
 were sold. Among his other works 
 are, An Explanation of the Assembly's 
 Shorter Catechism, 1656; Christian Let- 
 ters, Cases of Conscience, Remains, 1672. 
 
 ALLELUIA, (Mahaleel,) died 1680, 
 was author of a commentary on the 
 Pentateuch, quoted by Azulai, but never 
 printed. 
 
 ALLEMAND, (Count Zachary James 
 Theodore, 1762 — 1826,) a successful 
 French admiral, who spent more than 
 twenty-six years of his life at sea. He 
 began life at the age of twelve, as a ship 
 boy, under his father, an inferior officer 
 in the French navy. His first command 
 was the Sans-Souci, (a corvette,) in 1792 ; 
 the same year he was promoted to the 
 Carmagnole, a frigate which assisted at 
 the capture of the Thames frigate, and 
 several English merchant vessels. In 
 the year 1798, he distinguished himself 
 on the coast of Labrador, and took a con- 
 voy boimd for Quebec. After a good 
 deal of service he was nominated, in 1 809, 
 
 * Alleine's punishment is, indeed, to be deplored 
 and condemned ; but it is too much the fashion in 
 speaking of the harsh measures which succeeded 
 the Restoration, to forget tlie persecutions which 
 preceded it. When we hear of the two tliousand 
 ejected ministers, it is seldom stated how many 
 had been ejected to make way for them. To gain 
 a just notion of those days. Walker's " Sufferings of 
 the Clergy" ought to be considered, as well as the 
 complaints of the nonconformists. — Ed. 
 343 
 
 to the command of the fleet in the 
 Basque roads, a few days before it was 
 driven ashore, and partially destroyed by 
 Lord Cochrane. In spite of the disgrace 
 he incurred in this matter, he continued 
 in employment till the year 1813, when 
 his haughty manners towards the officers 
 imder his command induced the govern- 
 ment to supersede him. As a compen- 
 sation, he was made grand officer of the 
 legion of honour. In 1814, he was 
 created chevalier of St. Louis : he was 
 also made treasurer of the Society of the 
 Holy Sepulchre, and was said to have 
 abused the tiiist reposed in him, with re- 
 gard to the disposal of the decorations of 
 that order. His success seems rather to 
 have been owing to his activity and good 
 fortune, than his valour. His private 
 character is unfavourably represented by 
 his own countrymen. (Suppl. Biog. Univ. 
 James's Naval History.) 
 
 ALLEMANT. See Lallemant. 
 
 ALLEN, (John,) archbishop of Dub- 
 lin in the reign of Henry VIII. was born 
 about the year 1476, educated at Oxford, 
 but took his degree of B.L. at Cambridge. 
 In Jan. 1507, he received the church 
 of Sandrythe in Kent, and subsequently 
 held various churches in divers parts of 
 England. He was sent by Ai'cnbishop 
 Warham to Rome on ecclesiastical af- 
 fairs ; there he remained for about nine 
 years, and on his return was appointed 
 by Wolsey his chaplain, and also com- 
 missary in his court ; in which latter 
 office he stands accused of acting with 
 gross criminality. Wolsey, too, by no 
 fair means pi-ocm'ed for him the living 
 of Dalby in Leicestershire. In 1525, he 
 took the degree of LL.D. at Oxford ; and 
 on the 12th of March, 1528, he was conse- 
 crated archbishop of Dublin ; and shortly 
 afterwards made chancellor. " At length 
 (says Wood) being taken in a time of 
 rebellion by Thomas Fitz-Gerard, or G e- 
 rald, eldest son of the earl of Kildare, he 
 was by his command most cruelly mur- 
 dered by being brained like an ox, at 
 Tartaine in Ireland, 20th July, 1534, 
 aged fifty-eight." His works are, Epi- 
 stola de Pallii Significatione : — De Con- 
 suetudinibus ac Statutis in teritoriis causis 
 observandis ; and several other pieces 
 relating to the church. 
 
 ALLEN, or ALLEYNE, (Edward,) 
 son of Edward AUeyn, of Wyntyn, 
 Bucks, was born Sept. 1, 1556.* (Biog. 
 Brit.) in the parish of St. BotolphJ 
 
 * This is from a memorandum in his own hand- 
 writing, and differs from the age given on his 
 tombstone and his picture. (Biog. Brit.) 
 
ALL 
 
 A L I, 
 
 Bishopsgate. He devoted himself very 
 early to the stage, and rose rapidly to 
 eminence : his personal accomplishments 
 were highly favourable to his success. 
 He is much celebrated by contemporary 
 poets, especially dramatists, in whose 
 pla)'s he had performed. Heywood de- 
 scribes him to have been inimitable, the 
 best of actors ; and Ben Jonson, as 
 having outstript both Roscius and jEsop. 
 George Peele writes to a friend, that at 
 a meeting, when they " were all very 
 merrye at the Globe, Ned Allyn did 
 not scruple to affirm pleasauntly to thy 
 friend Will, that he had stolen his speech 
 about the qualitys of an actor's excel- 
 lencye in Hamlet hys tragedye from con- 
 versations manyfold whych had passed 
 between them, and opinions given by 
 Alle3'ne touchyng the subject. Shake- 
 speare did not take this talke in good 
 sorte — but Jonson put an end to the 
 stryfe with wittylye remarking : — This 
 affaire needeth no contentione. You 
 stole it from Ned — no doubte. Do not 
 marvel. Have you not seen him act 
 tymes out of No. ?" From performer 
 Allen became proprietor ; and, in con- 
 junction with Philip Henslowe, whose 
 step-daughter he had married, a builder of 
 one theatre — the Fortune, in Golden-lane. 
 He was also partner in a bear-garden, 
 and master of his Majesty's games of 
 bulls, bears, &c. From these sources, 
 aided by some paternal pi'operty, he 
 amassed considerable wealth ; and then 
 "following Christ's councel (says Fuller), 
 he made friends of his unrighteous mam- 
 mon, building therewith a fair college at 
 Didwich in Kent, for the relief of poor 
 people." — " No hospital (he adds) is 
 tyed with better or stricter laws, that it 
 may not sagg from the intention of the 
 founder." He endowed it with propei-ty 
 producing an income then of 800/. ; since 
 increased to an extent quite dispropor- 
 tionate to the limitations of the founder. 
 The building, situate, as Evelyn thought, 
 " in a melancholy part of Camerwell," 
 was finished after the design of Inigo 
 Jones in 1617. When the patent was 
 laid in Augiist 1618, before Bacon, as 
 chancellor, he "stayed it at the seal," 
 being averse to his Majesty "amortizing 
 his tenures," and this " being a licence 
 to give in mortmain 800/. land." It 
 was, however, passed on the 21st of 
 June in the next year ; and on the 13th 
 September following, the college, under 
 the name of God's Gift College, was 
 opened in form, Bacon himself, and 
 other persons of rank and distinction, 
 344 
 
 being present. The college consists of a 
 master and warden, who are always to 
 be of the name of the foimder, four 
 fellows, six poor men, six poor women 
 (the whole to be and remain unmarried), 
 and twelve poor boys, to be educated 
 by two of the fellows. The boys at 
 proper age are placed out apprentices. 
 The visitors, who are the churchwardens 
 of certain parishes in London and South- 
 wark, have so far sagged from the inten- 
 tion of the foimder, as to send none of 
 the boys to the university, though en- 
 joined so to do — in compliance with that 
 declared intention — by different arch- 
 bishops. 
 
 Allen himself was twice or thrice mar- 
 ried, but left no issue. He founded ten 
 alms-houses in the parish in which he 
 was born, and the same number in St. 
 Savioin-, Southwark. He died at Dul- 
 wich, 25th November, 1626, and was 
 buried in the chapel of the college. 
 Aubrey preserves a story that Allen was 
 frightened by the devil, who appeared to 
 him when performing on the stage ; but 
 he does not seem to have thought, that 
 either as actor or proprietor, he had 
 done aught requiring expiation, for 
 after the college was occupied, he still 
 continued to keep his play-houses and 
 bear - garden ; and in his Diary, pre- 
 served in the Library at Dulwich, he 
 thanks God for the good income pro- 
 duced by them. This Diary extends 
 from the 29th Sept. 1617, to the same 
 day, 1 622 : large extracts are made from 
 it in Lyson's Environs of London. 
 
 ALLEN, or ALLEYN, (Thomas, 1542 
 — 1632,) a mathematician and astrologer, 
 of much renown in his day. He was a 
 native of Uttoxeter, and educated at Tri- 
 nity college, Oxford. The earl of Leicester 
 (Queen Elizabeth's favourite) had a great 
 esteem for him, and would have made 
 him a bisliop, but he never took orders. 
 He was also the friend of Camden, Spel- 
 man, &c. His works are — 1. Claudii 
 Ptolemei Pelusiensis de Astrorum judi- 
 ciis aut, ut vulgo vocant, quadripartitae 
 constructionis. Liber Secundus, cmn Ex- 
 positione Th. Allen Angli-Oxoniensis. 2. 
 Ejusdem Lib. Tertius. These works in 
 Ms. fell into the hands of Lilly, who 
 gave them in 1652 to Elias Ashmole. 
 See the name. (Biog. Brit.) 
 
 ALLEN, (Thomas, 1572—1636,) a 
 divine, and friend of Sir H. Savile — a 
 fellow of Merton college. He wrote the 
 Obsei'vationes in Libellum Chrysostomi, 
 &c. in Esaiam, printed in Savile's Chry- 
 sostom, vol. viii. (Biog. Brit.) 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 ALLEN, (Ralph,) a native of Lon- 
 don, became a member of the college at 
 Douay in 1572, and entered the order of 
 the Jesuits. He served in the capacity 
 of a missionary, and died abont 1587. 
 
 ALLEN, (Thomas, 1608— 1G73,) a 
 nonconformist minister at Norwich, the 
 place of his birth. He was educated at 
 Caius college, Cambridge ; silenced in 
 1636, by Bishop Wren, for refusing to 
 read the Book of Sports. In 1638 he 
 went over to New England, and became 
 a preacher at Charlestown. He retui'ned 
 to Norwich in 1651, and was ejected in 
 1662. He has left some practical jjieces, 
 among others. The Glory of Christ, being 
 the substance of some sermons from 
 John iii. 34 — 36, and A Chain of Scrip- 
 ture Chronology. He also wrote a pre- 
 face to a work by Shepard, on Liturgies. 
 (Allen's American Diet. Chalmers, &c.) 
 
 ALLEN, (Sir Thomas,) a British 
 admiral of high professional repute in 
 the reign of Charles IL, one of the few 
 attached to that monarch's fleet who, it 
 might be said, had brought with his 
 " WaiTant " sufficient experience and 
 nautical knowledge to ensure efficiency 
 in the discharge of every duty indis- 
 pensable to an officer when in chief 
 command afloat. Allen, indeed, to judge 
 from his popularity with the petticoated* 
 tars of his time, possessed all the qua- 
 lities and acquirements essential to con- 
 stitute the seaman. And here it may be 
 well to remark, that with seafaring folk, 
 the interpretation of the word "seaman" 
 differs materially from that usually re- 
 ceived by the landed community. 
 
 Allen, it would seem, was a native of 
 LowestofF, in the county of Suffolk. 
 Ever attached to the cause of royalty, 
 and having commanded one of the ships 
 pertaining to that division of the fleet 
 which revolted in favour of the prince 
 of WaleSjf he procm-ed an appointment 
 
 * In those times, the seamen of England, as well 
 as of Holland, were attired in " petticoat-trousers." 
 
 t " The revolt of the fleet," says Clarendon, in 
 his History of the Rebellion, " was owing entirely 
 to the disposition of the common seamen. When 
 the parliament had thought fit to bring in new 
 officers, and to place Colonel Rainsborough as vice- 
 admiral of the fleet, the sailors, who had been for 
 some time poiilicians, had, after mature delibera- 
 tion, settled these three points amongst themselves. 
 The first was, that the parliament must be either 
 doing or contriving something very bad, because in 
 Scotland, Essex, Lancashire, Herts, and especially 
 London, people were generally discontented ; and 
 also because they could not trust those good old 
 officers who had so faithfully served them at sea, 
 but were putting others into the fleet, in whom, 
 though the\ might, the seamen could not at all 
 confide. They were likewise very clear, that as the 
 king's cause declined from the moment" {as it 
 siways will) " the fleet left him, so without doubt 
 345 
 
 to one of the first ships which had been 
 commissioned by the duke of York. 
 Rapidly, and indeed deservedly, rising 
 in his patron's estimation, his flag-pro- 
 motion followed fast. In 1664, after 
 retaining several important commands, 
 in which the full exercise of discretionary 
 power was conceded to him, he be- 
 came successor to Sir John Lawson, as 
 chief of the Mediterranean fleet. Cruis- 
 ing with a portion of this force, outside 
 the Gut of Gibraltar, he had " the good 
 fortune to fall in with the Dutch Smyrna 
 fleet, consisting of forty sail, under con- 
 voy of four men-of-war."* According 
 to the custom of the period, the Dutch, 
 preparatory to battle, brought into their 
 line the largest of their merchant-ships 
 to take part in the coming fight. The 
 British squadron consisted of nine sail — 
 not all of the line, but of vessels varying 
 in size and metal. Closing with the 
 enemy, (for it would appear, as far as 
 we can collect from the wretched details 
 of this recorded afiair, Allen possessed the 
 weather-gage,) the British commenced 
 a vigorous attack, which, it seems, was 
 long and gallantly contested. But 
 Bracknel, the Dutch commodore, was 
 eventually killed, ^ — his line was broken 
 and disordered,— several of his vessels 
 were sunk, and four of the largest and 
 richest of his traders captured. The un- 
 assailed portion of the enemy's fleet 
 retreated, and, crowding sail for Cadiz, 
 ultimately found refuge in a friendly 
 port. 
 
 On his return to England, Allen re- 
 ceived the honour of knighthood. Some 
 authorities record his services in the 
 duke of York's memorable defeat of the 
 Dutch in June 1665 ; and we have every 
 reason to believe he did participate in 
 that great and glorious achievement. 
 In the following year, we find his flag 
 
 it would recover when the fleet. returned to his 
 service ; which was a point so clear in marine po- 
 litics, it was never once controverted." And in 
 The Civil Wars of England, p. 231, we find that 
 when Rainsborough went on board the fleet in the 
 Downs to induce the seamen to turn over to the 
 Parliament, " they sent him back to the shore 
 accompanied by a boatfull of his new captains." 
 
 * The records of the period, often collected from 
 the prejudiced details of political partisans and un- 
 professional writers, compel us to adopt this inde- 
 finite term. Upon every occasion, when speaking of 
 vessels of sufficient force to be classed in the line- 
 of-battle. all authorities employ this unmeaning 
 appellation. The smallest armed cutter, carrying 
 a pendant, comes as much under the denomination 
 of a " man-of-war," as the largest first-rate ship of 
 the line. Hence it is by the misapplication of 
 terms originating in the ignorance which, to pro- 
 fessional readers, biography so often betrays, that 
 print after print perpetuates blunder, and that the 
 naval annals of the nation become such unintel- 
 ligible tomes. 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 flying in the Royal James, as con ducting- 
 admiral of the white division of the fleet, 
 then under tliose celebrated soldier- 
 sailors, prince Rupert and the veteran 
 Monk. At this juncture, war had been 
 just declared with France ; and rumour 
 having reached Whitehall that the 
 French fleet, under the duke of Beau- 
 fort, had departed port, and already was 
 proceeding up channel with a view of 
 forming a junction with the Dutch, 
 Allen's division was promptly despatch- 
 ed to oppose this expected enterprise. 
 On this service. Prince Rupert accom- 
 panied Sir Thomas, removing with all 
 his retinue to the admiral's ship. But 
 rumour, a faithless guide in matters of 
 war, eventually proved its little title to 
 trust. After a fruitless pursuit, founded 
 on a "false report," (a deceptive ruse 
 practised by the French,) Allen's division 
 rejoined Monk in time to turn the scale 
 in favour of the English, even when the 
 British chief had," according to Campbell, 
 "found it necessary to retreat;" and 
 which, the same authority states, " he 
 performed with wonderful courage and 
 conduct. On the 4th of June," con- 
 tinues the same historian, " the Dutch, 
 who were still considerably stronger than 
 the English, were almost out of sight ; 
 but the duke of Albemarle having pre- 
 vailed on the prince to follow them, 
 about eight in the morning they engaged 
 again ; and the English fleet charged five 
 times through the Dutch ; till Prince Ru- 
 pert's ship being disabled, and that of the 
 Duke of Albemarle very roughly handled, 
 about seven in the evening the fleets 
 separated, each side being willing enough 
 to retire." 
 
 In every research we have made, (and 
 we have consulted the several concurring 
 and conflicting authorities of the time,) 
 we cannot discover the slightest clue 
 which might lead to a probable conjec- 
 ture touching the relative position of the 
 contending "fleets, when that of the 
 British performed the extraordinary, and 
 to us incomprehensible feat of " charging 
 five times through the Dutch." " Charges" 
 of cavalry the reader can easily conceive, 
 bvit squadrons of horse and squadrons of 
 ships are not moved by similar means. 
 Unless the British possessed the weather- 
 gage, and had, as the old authorities 
 term it, " the wind of the Dutch," these 
 five charges could only be made, with any 
 degi-ee of certainty and of celerity, hy five 
 different divisions of the fleet, severally 
 eftecting the iimch-bruited movement, — 
 technically termed, " breaking the line." 
 346 
 
 Be this as it may, it is manifest, that in the 
 three recorded days of this bloody fight, 
 the British displayed more of courage 
 than of skill. But the two fleets again 
 met : that of the Dutch, being first re- 
 fitted, was first at sea. The English 
 force consisted of " eighty vessels of war, 
 great and small, and nineteen fire-ships ; ' '* 
 the fleet of the Dutch forming a force of 
 eighty -eight fighting vessels, exclusive of 
 fire-ships twenty in number. " On the 
 20th of July," as we collect from the 
 several accounts detailing this " desperate 
 fight," " the English, about noon, came 
 zip with the enemy ott" the North Fore- 
 land. Sir Thomas Allen, with the white 
 squadron, began the battle by attacking 
 Evertz," whose entire division (without 
 stating in what position of the line it was 
 placed) " was thoroughly defeated by 
 that of the British, under the intrepid 
 AUen. In this defeated division alone, 
 three flag-oificers fell in fight." 
 
 Thus nuich, as far as relates to Allen's 
 intrepidity and boldness in battle, 
 may be gathered from all avithorities, 
 however conflicting ; but in no instance 
 is the slightest mention made as ta the 
 manner in which the battle began, — 
 whether Allen, who conducted the van, 
 or white division of the British fleet, at- 
 tacked, " in coming i/p with the enemy," 
 the van, or rear, extremity of the Dutch 
 line. 
 
 In our memoir of Monk, we hope to 
 throw some little light upon the nautical 
 evolutions practised by that mUitary 
 chief: as also, to show the errors into 
 which unprofessional writers and unjust 
 critics have fallen in treating of the 
 naval affairs of those times. After a 
 series of separate commands, and the 
 completion of several services which 
 were each and all crowned with signal 
 success, Sir Thomas Allen sought re- 
 tirement in private life. In 1G68 he 
 repaired to his seat in Sowerby, and en- 
 joyed a peaceable retirement, necessary 
 to the latter days of an officer who had 
 served his country with such unceasing 
 assiduity. 
 
 ALLEN, (Floppart Van,) a German 
 designer and engraver, who flourished 
 about the year 1686. In that year Muller 
 engraved a view of Vienna, from a draw- 
 ing by him. A view of the city of Prague, 
 engraved by him, is marked Fa7i Allen. 
 He is also sometimes called Van Alten 
 Allen. (Strutt, Diet, of Eng. Bryan's 
 Diet.) 
 
 • Campbell and other authorities agree in this 
 particular. 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 ALLEN, (Francis,) an engraver of 
 little note. He executed the frontispiece 
 to a book, entitled " Dialogus D. Urbani 
 Regi," dated Liibeck, 1652. (Strutt, 
 Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 ALLEN, (Francis,) admitted into the 
 order of the Jesuits Oct. 9, 1678 ; died 
 at Liege March 22, 1712, at the age 
 of 67. 
 
 ALLEN, (Anthony, died 1754,) a 
 native of Great Hadhani, Herts, educated 
 at Eton and King's college, Cambridge : 
 B.A. 1707, M. A. 1711. He became a 
 master in chancery. He collected a 
 biographical account of the members of 
 Eton college, and considerable materials 
 for an English dictionaiy of obsolete 
 words. Of the former, one copy was placed 
 in King's, one in Eton college library, and 
 one by his will was to be given to Mr. 
 Speaker OnsloWjhis patron. (Chalmers's 
 Diet.) 
 
 ALLEN. Besides the foregoing, se- 
 veral other persons of this name are 
 enumerated in the American Biogra- 
 phical Dictionary, from which the fol- 
 lowing are selected. 
 
 1. Allen, John, secretary of Connec- 
 ticut, about 1664 and 1683. He is said 
 to have communicated to Inci'ease Mather 
 the account given by him of the Pequot 
 war. 
 
 2. Allen, WllUam, (died 1780,) chief 
 justice of Pennsylvania, who being a 
 sti'ong royalist, retired to England at the 
 approach of the Revolution. He assisted 
 Franklin in establishing the college in 
 Philadelphia. In London, 1774, he pub- 
 lished The American Crisis, with a plan 
 for restoring the dependence of America 
 to a state of perfection. His sons were 
 royalists, and joined the English. 
 
 3. Allen, Henry, (1748—1784,) a na- 
 tive of Rhode Island, and a preacher in 
 Nova Scotia. He was a teacher of very 
 strange doctrines, viz. that the souls of 
 men are all emanations of the one Great 
 Spirit, and were present with our first 
 parents in Eden, who were pure spirits 
 without bodies. He contended for a 
 spiritvial, not a literal interpretation of 
 Scripture. 
 
 4. Allen, Ethan, (died 1789.) An 
 American brigadiei'-general in the war 
 with Great Britain. He was a native of 
 Connecticut, but early in life went to 
 Vermont. In 1770, he took an active 
 part in favour of " the Green Mountain 
 Boys," as the settlers were called, in 
 opposition to the govei'nment of New 
 York. He was outlawed; but from his 
 numerous troops could not be taken. 
 
 347 
 
 On heax-ing of the battle of Lexington, 
 Colonel Allen determined to take part 
 in this war. With Colonel Easton and 
 several others at Pittsfield, he projected 
 the attack on Ticonderoga ; and being 
 joined by Colonel Arnold, he marched 
 for that point, which he reached on the 
 evening of May 9, 1775. Attacking the 
 fort in the night, and sui'prising the gar- 
 rison. Colonel Allen called on Captain 
 de la Placette, the commander, to sur- 
 render it to him. " By what authority 
 do you demand it?" inquired the asto- 
 nished commander. " I demand it," 
 replied Allen, '■ in the naiue of the great 
 Jehovah, and of the Continental Con- 
 gi'ess !" The stores taken were very 
 valuable. The capture of Crown Point 
 the same day, and of a sloop of war soon 
 afterwards, made the Americans master 
 of Lake Champlain. 
 
 In the autumn of 1775, he was taken 
 prisoner in a most daring attack on 
 Montreal, sent to England, and confined 
 in Pendennis Castle. He was after- 
 wards transferred to New York ; and 
 after an imprisonment (part of which 
 was on parole) of a year and a half, 
 he was exchanged in 1778 for Colonel 
 Campbell, and offered his services to 
 Washington, in case his health shoidd be 
 restored. He then retired to Vermont, 
 and died in 1789 at his estate in Col- 
 chester. He was not employed after his 
 exchange in any military eapacity,but was 
 supposed by the British to have acceded 
 to some proposals made to unite Vei-- 
 mont with Canada. Sir H. Clinton wrote 
 to Lord Germaine in 1781, that " there 
 is every reason to suppose that Ethan 
 Allen has quitted the rebel cause." 
 He was a very eccentric man. His 
 opinions on religion were absurd to the 
 last degree. Believing in the transmi- 
 gration of souls, he told his friends he 
 expected to reappear in the shape of a 
 large white horse. It is useless to waste 
 a moment's thought on deciding whether 
 he really believed such trash, or dreaded, 
 as Dr. Allen intimates, lest Christianity 
 should be ti'ue. He wrote a work, in- 
 tended to ridicule the doctrine of Moses 
 and the prophets ; but Dr. Allen calls it 
 harmless, for no one could have the 
 patience to read it. He published also 
 an account of his suff'erings as a pri- 
 soner, and charges the English with 
 treating their American prisoners with 
 great cruelty. 
 
 One of his daughters entered a nun- 
 nery. His brother, Ira Allen (1752 — 
 1814) was secretai'v of Vermont, and 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 veiy active in asserting its independence. 
 He went to France in 1795 to pur- 
 chase arms ; but after shipping half his 
 purchase, he was taken prisoner in 1796, 
 and was charged with supplying the 
 rebels in Ireland with arms. He re- 
 turned to America in 1801. 
 
 5. ylllen, Moses, (1748—1779,) mini- 
 ster of Midway, Georgia, was educated 
 at New Jersey college. In 1778, Ge- 
 neral Prevost dispersed his society, and 
 burned the meeting-house, and many 
 dwelling-houses, &c. When Savannah 
 was taken, he was also taken prisoner, 
 and sent on board the prison-ships. He 
 was very active both in exhortation and 
 in actual service in the field. He was 
 drowned in an attempt to escape ; and 
 Dr. Allen states, that the captain of a 
 British vessel refused boards to make 
 him a coffin — a statement not to be 
 credited without good authority. 
 
 6. Allen, Thomas, (1743—1810,) bro- 
 ther of the preceding, and first minister 
 of Pittsfield, Mass., was educated at 
 Harvard college, and appointed in 1764 
 to the charge of Pittsfield, then a new 
 settlement. He joined the army in 
 
 1776 as a volunteer chaplain, and in 
 
 1777 became a soldier as well as a 
 preacher. In 1799 he came to England 
 to bring home an infant grandchild left 
 by his daughter — her husband being in 
 the East Indies. He here became ac- 
 quainted with Newton, Rowland Hill, 
 Haweis, Bogue, &c., whose sentiments 
 in religion suited him. In politics he 
 was a fierce democrat. He is very highly 
 extolled by Dr. Allen, in his capacity of 
 minister. Politics, it seems, however, 
 caused a schism in his congregation in 
 1808. 
 
 7. Allen, Solomon, {\75\—\^2\,) bro- 
 ther of the preceding. He was for a 
 long time a soldier. When the unfortu- 
 nate Major Andre was taken, Lieutenant 
 Allen had the charge of conducting him 
 to West Point, the whole of which jour- 
 ney is very circumstantially detailed by 
 Dr. Allen. Till forty years of age he 
 had been thoughtless of religion, but in 
 his latter life he became a zealous mis- 
 sionarv preacher. 
 
 8. Allen, WilliamHenrij, (1784 — 1813,) 
 a skilful and bi'ave American naval of- 
 ficer. He served on board the Constitu- 
 tion, under Commodore Ilodgers in 1 805 ; 
 the Chesapeake in 1807, when she struck 
 to the British frigate Leopard, without 
 fighting, for which he urged the trial of 
 Commodore Barron ; on the United 
 Slates in 1809, under Decatur, who in 
 
 348 
 
 1812 took the Macedonian. The supe- 
 rior gunnery of that ship was said to be 
 owing to Allen. He was taken prisoner 
 in tlie brig Argus, by the English brig 
 Pelican, and died at Plymouth of his 
 wounds. 
 
 9. Allen, Solomon Metcalf, (1789 — 
 1817,) professor of languages at Middle- 
 bury college, killed by a fall from the 
 roof of the building, is liighly eidogized 
 by Dr. Allen, and in Wilcox's Remains. 
 
 ALLEON, (Didac John Lewis, died 
 1768,) born at Lyons; he left the bar 
 and undertook the management of the 
 post office, at St. Etienne, in Forez, in 
 order that he might be enabled to devote 
 himself to the study of natin-al history 
 and mineralogy. He has left — 1. Me- 
 moires pour servir a I'Histoire Naturelle 
 des Provinces du Lyonnais, 2 vols. 12mo. 
 2. Melanges d'Histoire Naturelle, the 
 last edition of which is in 6 vols, 12mo. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALLERSTAIN, orHALLERSTAIN, 
 (died before 1777,) a German Jesuit, who 
 went as a missionary to China. By 
 means of his knowledge of mathe- 
 matics and astronomy, he gained the 
 confidence of the emperor Kien Long, 
 who made him a mandarin, and president 
 of the mathematical board. He trans- 
 mitted to Europe an account of the popu- 
 lation of China, taken in 1 760, and again 
 in 1761 ; the numbers given for the two 
 years are respectively 196,837,977 and 
 198,214,624 souls. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALLESTREE, (Ricliard, D. D.) pro- 
 vost of Eton, and regius professor of 
 divinity in the university of Oxford. His 
 father, Robert Allestree, descended from 
 an ancient but decayed family in Derby- 
 shire, was steward to Sir Richard New- 
 port, afterwards Lord Newport, of Arcot, 
 and settled at Uppington, near the 
 Wreken, in Shropshire, where this son 
 Richard was born in March 1619. The 
 rudiments of his education he received 
 at a country free-school in the neigh- 
 bourhood, and afterwards at one of some 
 note in the country, where Philemon 
 Holland, the celebrated translator, was 
 one of the masters. In 1636, being then 
 17 years of age, he was removed by his 
 father to Oxford, and entered a com- 
 moner at Christ-church, under the care 
 of Richard Busby, afterwards the cele- 
 brated master of Westminster school. 
 Six months after his settlement in the 
 university, Dr. Samuel Fell, the dean of 
 the college, observing his parts and in- 
 dustry, made him a Student, a title 
 which he made good by his careful and 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 happy application to study. As a further 
 encouragement to his studies, after he 
 had taken his degree of B. A. in 1640, 
 he was chosen moderator in philosophy, 
 re-elected from year to year, till the dis- 
 turbances of the kingdom interrupted 
 the repose of the university. 
 
 In the year 1641, king Charles having 
 issued a commissiori of array thi'oughout 
 the kingdom, Mr. Allestree, among other 
 students, engaged in the king's service, 
 in which he continued till Sir John Byron 
 retired from Oxford, when he retired once 
 more to his studies. But soon after. Lord 
 Say, with a party of the rebels, having en- 
 tered the city, Mr. Allestree was near fall- 
 ing a victim to their fury, for the soldiers 
 having plundered the colleges of their 
 plate, attempted to break into the trea- 
 sury of Christchurch ; but after effecting 
 their object, found nothing to recompense 
 their trouble but a groat and a halter at 
 the bottom of a large iron chest. En- 
 raged at the disappointment, they pro- 
 ceeded to plunder the deanery, and locked 
 up their booty in a chamber, intending 
 to return and dispose of it the next day ; 
 but before their return, every thing had 
 been removed from the chamber, Mr. 
 Allestree possessing a key to the deanery. 
 For this he was suspected and seized ; but 
 the rebels having been suddenly drawn off 
 by the earl of Essex, he was thus provi- 
 dentially rescued from their fury. 
 
 In October following he was again 
 in arms, and was present at the battle 
 of Kimton-field in Warwickshire ; but 
 in returning to Oxford, to prepare for 
 the king's reception, he was taken pri- 
 soner by a party of horse, and confined 
 a short time at Broughton-house, then 
 garrisoned by Lord Say. Regaining his 
 liberty, he returned to his stuches, and 
 took his degree of M.A. the next year, 
 (June 2, 1643,) but shortly after was near 
 losing his life from a pestilential fever 
 which raged in the gamson. Having a 
 little recovered his health, he was again 
 employed in active service, with other 
 volunteers of the university, and continued 
 therein till the end of the war, devoting 
 to study the little time which he could 
 rescue from military duties, and not un- 
 frequently joining both together, holding 
 his musket in one hand and his book in 
 the other, and making the watchings of 
 a soldier the lucubrations of the student. 
 (See Dr. Fell's preface to Dr. Allestree 's 
 sermons.) 
 
 When, however, all the efforts of loyal 
 hearts and learned heads had been frus- 
 trated, and the rebels were proceeding 
 349 
 
 to consummate their tragedy of blood 
 and rebellion, Mr. Allestree entered holy 
 orders, and exercised the office of pri- 
 vate tutor and censor in the college, 
 and joined in the decree of the university 
 of Oxford against the solemn league and 
 covenant, notwithstanding the threats 
 and menaces of the rebel garrison which 
 then held the city. For this loyal act he 
 was most disloyally expelled by the par- 
 liamentary visitors, who had now come 
 down with a new commission to kill and 
 talce possession. In this difiusive ruin, 
 which, like a rude storm, swept away the 
 best promise of the imiversity, and left 
 little else but the scum and the weeds, 
 Mr. Allestree was involved, and proscribed 
 about the middle of June,1648. He was 
 treated with great severity ; not per- 
 mitted the least respite for settling his 
 affairs, but driven at once from Oxford, 
 for no other reason than, as Dr. Rogers, 
 one of the visitors, was pleased to declare, 
 because that he was an eminent man ! 
 
 Havhig thus left this once famous imi- 
 versity a prey to these " bats and owls," he 
 retired into Shropshire, and was enter- 
 tained as his chaplain by the Honourable 
 Francis Newport, afterwards Viscount 
 Newport, till the death of his father, 
 Richard Lord Newport. This nobleman 
 dying abroad in Fi-ance, where he had 
 retired to avoid the insolence of the rebels, 
 Mr. Allestree was sent thither to take 
 care of his effects. On returning to Eng- 
 land, after the escape of king Charles at 
 Worcester, Mr. Allestree was desired to 
 attend the king, and proceeded to Rouen 
 to receive his majesty's despatches. On 
 his return into England, he found his 
 friends, Mr. Dolben, afterwards arch- 
 bishop of York, and Mr. Fell, afterwards 
 bishop of Oxford, who, although they 
 had been banished from tlie university, 
 had adventured to stay there privately, and 
 perform the offices of the church of Eng- 
 land. With them he continued some 
 time, tUl Sir Anthony Cope, a loyal gen- 
 tleman of Oxfordshire, prevailed upon 
 him to live in his family. 
 
 Thus safely provided for, Mr. Allestree 
 was enabled to employ himself without 
 interruption in the king's service, and 
 frequently conveyed messages from the 
 king's friends in person. After several 
 journeys of this kind, on retin-ning 
 from Flanders, the winter before the 
 king's restoration, he was seized by 
 a party of soldiers at Dover, who had 
 been watching for his landing. Hav- 
 ing been carried to London, he was 
 examined by a committee of the Council 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 of Safety, charged with corresponding 
 with the king, and with hringing letters 
 fi'om him into this kingdom. But his 
 great presence of mind in secmnng his 
 letters, and in answering the questions 
 of his examiners, saved him from betray- 
 ing himself or others ; notwithstanding 
 he was sent prisoner to Lambeth-house, 
 and detained there about eight weeks. 
 But the tide of popular favour now 
 setting strong in favour of the king and 
 the Restoration, many of the leaders 
 of the rebels, desiring to swim with it, 
 and to recommend themselves by show- 
 ing kindness to the loyal party, Mr. 
 AUestroe obtained his liberty at an 
 easier rate, and once more returned into 
 Oxfordshire. Shortly after, intending to 
 visit his excellent fi-iend Dr. Hammond, 
 at Westwood, near Worcestershire, on 
 entering his gate he met the corpse of his 
 friend as it was carried out to its biu-ial ; 
 a circumstance deserving to be men- 
 tioned, as that eminent writer at his death 
 gave this proof of his esteem for Mr. 
 Allestree, by bequeathing unto him his 
 valuable library, as to one who was most 
 competent to use it. 
 
 Shortly after the king's restoration, 
 Mr. Allestree was made canon of Christ- 
 church, and used all his means in re- 
 pairing the ruins which had been made 
 by the hands of the sacrilegious invaders 
 of the univei-sity. At the same time he 
 gratuitously supplied one of the lecture- 
 ships of the city of Oxford, distributing 
 the salary to the poor. In 1660 he pro- 
 ceeded to his degree of doctor of divinity, 
 was appointed one of the king's chap- 
 lains in ordinar}', and soon after was 
 chosen to succeed Dr. William Creed, as 
 regius professor of divinity. In 1665, 
 when the provostship of Eton fell void, 
 it was offered him by the king ; but re- 
 fused by him for some time, till, fearing 
 that if he resisted the wishes of his friends 
 any longer, it would be given to Mr. 
 Waller, the poet, who was making great 
 interest to procure it, and thus a layman 
 be preferred to an ecclesiastical appoint- 
 ment, he at last consented, and held the 
 provostship till the end of his life ; reso- 
 lutely refusing, for the same reason, every 
 offer of preferment which might cause a 
 vacancy to the provostship, and expose it 
 to its former hazards. His health and eye- 
 sight decapng, he resigned his divinity 
 professorship in 1 079, and was succeeded 
 by his friend Dr. Jane ; but his infirmities 
 increasing, and terminating at length 
 in a dropsy, he removed to London for the 
 better advice and readier means of con- 
 350 
 
 suiting with the physicians. All medi- 
 cines, however, proved ineffectual, and he 
 died in Januaiy 1081, and was buried in 
 Eton chapel, under a monument of white 
 marble, on which an inscription was en- 
 graved to his memory, printed in the 
 prefiice to his sermons ; and in the Biog. 
 Britannia, art. Allestree. As a sound 
 and orthodox divine, he was greatly es- 
 teemed by the learned men of his time, 
 numbering among his intimate friends. 
 Dr. Hammond, Dr. Fell, Dr. Barwick, Dr. 
 Dolben, Dr. Lamplugh, and others. His 
 influence with the loyal party was consi- 
 derable ; as one who had been mainly 
 instrumental in the Restoration, and who 
 had done much to preserve unbroken 
 the succession of the Anglican bishops. 
 But though he had sacrificed much time 
 and encountered many dangers for the 
 welfare of the church and the state, and 
 had frequently adventured his life in the 
 king's service, he received no other pre- 
 ferment than the provostship of Eton. 
 But this apparent neglect neither soured 
 his temper, nor diminished his kindness 
 towards all around him. His conversa- 
 tion was cheerfid and entertaining, yet 
 the pleasm-es of society never interfered 
 with his studies, which generally em- 
 ployed him until eight o'clock at night, 
 when he was called away to college 
 prayers. The fatigues which he thus 
 incm-red were augmented by a life of 
 severity ; he habitually devoted stated 
 periods to fasting and abstinence. His 
 charity was unbounded, in which he was 
 the better able to indulge, as he always 
 remained unmai'ried : he expended 1500/. 
 on the grammar school. He found the 
 college at Eton, at his coming, in a poor 
 and ruinous condition, engaged in a deep 
 debt by the fradulent conduct of his par- 
 liamentaiy jiredecessors ; but by retrench- 
 ing his own dues, and by prevailing on 
 the society to do the like, within a few 
 years the college was enabled to pay ofl' 
 its debt, and expend above two thousand 
 pounds in repairs. When appointed to 
 the divinity chair in Oxford, to which a 
 canonry in Christchurch, and the rec- 
 tory of Ewelme was annexed, he gave 
 the profits of his canonry to the college 
 for its repairs, and the living to a friend 
 whose circumstances required it. His 
 valuable collection of books he be- 
 queathed to his successors in his divinity 
 chair at Oxford, for ever. 
 
 He was the author of, — 1. The Privi- 
 leges of the University of Oxford, in 
 point of Visitation, in a letter, 4to, 1647. 
 2. Forty Sermons. Oxford, 1684, fol. 
 
ALL 
 
 A L I, 
 
 published by Dr. Fell, bishop of Oxford, 
 with an excellent Life, prefixed by the 
 same prelate. The first edition of the 
 first ten sermons in this collection was 
 published for the benefit of his kinsman, 
 James AUestree, a bookseller, who had suf- 
 fered great losses from the fire of London. 
 Among the Sloane MSS. in the British 
 Museum, No. 4275, is an original letter 
 from Dr. AUestree to Dr. Fell, bishop of 
 Oxford, dated April 29, 1675, informing 
 him that Dr. Busby is willing to endow 
 the college of Christchurch, Oxford, with 
 the livings of St. Ebbs and St. Peters, 
 and to increase their value, if the lord 
 keeper, the pati'on, will consent to part 
 with them. 
 
 ALLESTRY, (Jacob, 1653—1686,) 
 an English minor poet, of loose habits, 
 which brought him to an untimely end. 
 He was educated at Westminster, after- 
 wards at Christchmxh, where he was 
 elected student in 1672. He wrote 
 several pieces in the Examen Poeticum. 
 (Biog. Brit.) 
 
 ALLET, or ALET, (Jean Charles,) a 
 -French engraver, an imitator both of 
 Spierre and Cornelius Bloemaert, though 
 an unsuccessful one. He flourished about 
 from 1 690 to 1 732, and is supposed to have 
 died at Rome. He sometimes marked his 
 plates with one, and sometimes with both 
 his baptismal names, which has led to the 
 erroneous supposition that there were two 
 engravers of the name. (Strutt, Diet, of 
 Eng. Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ALLETZ, (Pons Augustin, 1703— 
 1785,) a French advocate of good cha- 
 racter, who left his profession, and at- 
 tained to some eminence as an useful 
 compiler of books of education. His 
 summary of Grecian history was trans- 
 lated in 1769. The most valued of his 
 works, which are very numerous, are— 
 L'Agi'onome, 2 vols, Svo. (a dictionary 
 of husbandry) ; Tableau de I'Histoire de 
 France, 2 vols, 12mo ; L'Esprit des Jour- 
 nalistes de Trevoux, 4 vols, 12mo ; 
 L'Espi'it des Journalistes de HoUande, 
 2 vols, 1 2mo ; and Les Ornamens de la 
 Memoire, 12mo, (a collection of extracts 
 from the poets of his country.) 
 
 ALLEY, (William, b. about 1512— 
 1570,) an English prelate, who translated 
 the Pentateuch for Archbishop Parker's 
 Bible, was born at Great Wycomb, Bucks, 
 and educated at Eton, from whence in 
 1528 he went to King's college, Cam- 
 bridge, where, after having taken his 
 B. A. degree, he removed to Oxford. 
 Afterwards he mari'ied, was beneficed, 
 and became a zealous reformer. On 
 351 
 
 Queen Mary's accession, he left his cure, 
 and travelled from place to place in the 
 north of England, where he was not 
 known, maintaining himself by occasion- 
 ally practising physic and giving instruc- 
 tion to youths. When Queen Elizabeth 
 succeeded to the throne he came to Lon- 
 don, and read the divinity lecture in St. 
 Paul's, which, says Wood, being admi- 
 rably well performed, he was called 
 thence to be bishop of Exeter, and con- 
 secrated the 14th of July, 1560, and D.D. 
 in 1561. He had a well-stored library, 
 which he made good use of, being deeply 
 learned himself, and giving ready access 
 to it to scholars. He was a man of some 
 pleasantly, constant in preaching, liberal, 
 kind-hearted, although appearing at first 
 somewhat austere. He wrote a Hebrew 
 Grammai", and has left in print The Poor 
 Man's Libraiy, 2 vols, fol. 1571, being 
 lectures on the first epistle of St. Peter. 
 His Judgment concerning the Doctrine 
 and Discipline of the Church is in Str3'pe's 
 Annals. He left a son, Roger Alley, 
 archdeacon of Cornwall ; and his great 
 grandson, Peter Alley, died in 1763, at 
 the age of more than 110 years, being 
 seventy-three years rector of Donamow 
 in Ireland. 
 
 ALLEYN. See Allen. 
 
 ALLIACO. See Ailly 
 
 ALLIBOND, (Peter, 1500—1629.) 
 This divine was educated at Magdalen 
 hall, Oxford, and then travelled. He died 
 rector of Cheyneys, Bucks. He trans- 
 lated from the French, L'Espine's Com- 
 fort for an afflicted Conscience, (1591,) 
 and a Confutation of Transubstantiation, 
 (1592.) His son Job turned papist, and 
 Richard, (son of Job,) was made a justice 
 of K. B. 1687, and died 1688. (Wood's 
 Ath. by Bliss, ii. 440.) 
 
 ALLIBOND, (John, d. 1658,) D.D. 
 of Magd. coll. Oxf., son of the preceding, 
 and master of the free school adjoining 
 Magdalen. He wrote a satire in Latin 
 verse, on the parliamentary visitors, 
 " Rustica Academise Oxoniensis nuper 
 rcformatae descriptio una cum comitiis 
 ibidem, 1648 habitis, — now very rare. 
 A IMS. Key to this satire is mentioned 
 in Wood's Fasti, by Bliss, ii. 09. He 
 died rector of Bradwell, Gloucestershire. 
 
 ALLIER, (Louis, 1766 — 1827,) a 
 celebrated antiquary, who assumed in 
 the latter part of his life the name of 
 Hauteroche. In 1795, he received an 
 appointment in the French pi'inting- 
 office at Constantinople, which aflforded 
 him the opportunity of travelling in Asia 
 Minor and Greece, where he began the 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 collection of medals, which, at his death, 
 contained more than 5,000 pieces ; 325 
 of which were in gold. He wrote some 
 archaeological and numisinatical essays, 
 said to be full of erudition. Some mem- 
 bers of his family distinguished them- 
 selves by their attachment to the royalist 
 party, and were guillotined in the French 
 revolution. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALLINGTON, (Argentine,) a captain 
 in the British navy. He fell in battle 
 when defending the Guernsey frigate, 
 one of two vessels of war convoying 
 a fleet of British merchantmen. Off 
 Cape de Gatte, the Advice and Guernsey 
 were attacked bj' an Algerine squadron, 
 consisting of seven sail ; Allington, and 
 Captain Yoimg of the Advice, were both 
 slain. The merchant-ships all escaped, 
 and owe their deliverance to the gallant 
 and meritorious conduct displayed by 
 both these lamented officers. 
 
 ALLIONI, (Carlo, 1725—1805,) a 
 Piedmontese physician, and professor of 
 Botany in the imiversity of Turin. He 
 was the author of several botanical and 
 medical vvorks, which prove him to have 
 been a skilful observer, being possessed 
 of remarkable clearness of understanding, 
 and a thorough knowledge of his pro- 
 fession. His chief work is Flora Pede- 
 montana, 3 vols, fol. Turin, 1785. He 
 published also, from the papers of J. 
 Giudice, an Enumeratio Stirpium litoris 
 et agri Nicseensium, &c. Paris, 1757, 
 which relates to the flora of Nice, and to 
 some of the invertebrate animals of that 
 place. Also a work on the fossils of 
 Piedmont : Oryctographiae Pedemontanie 
 Specimen, &c. &c. 
 
 ALLIOT, (Peter,) a physician, bom at 
 Bar-le-duc, who pretended to have dis- 
 covered a specific against cancer, which, 
 according to Haller, was tried in vain 
 in the case of Anne of Austria, mother of 
 Louis XIV., to whom he was appointed 
 physician in ordinary. His remedy was 
 a preparation of arsenic. 
 
 ALLIX, (Peter, 1641 — 1717,) a 
 learned defender of the protestant faith, 
 son of a minister at Alen9on, was edu- 
 cated first at Saumur, afterwards at Sedan, 
 where, at the age of 19, he distinguished 
 himself by his theological theses on the 
 Last Judgment. St. Agnobile, in Cham- 
 pagne, was the first scene of his labours ; 
 but in 1670 he was called to succeed the 
 celebrated Daille in the principal church 
 of the reformed atCharenton, near Paris, 
 where he was a fellow - labourer witli 
 Claude in preparing a new French 
 version of the Bible, and distinguished 
 352 
 
 himself in controversy with Bossuet. Tlie 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 
 obliged him to take refuge, with his 
 family, in England, where he became the 
 minister of a French congregation in 
 conformity with the established cluu-ch. 
 Within three years after his ai-rival in 
 England, he proved that he had mas- 
 tered our language, by publishing, in 
 1688, the work by which he is at present 
 perhaps best known. Reflections upon 
 the Books of Holy Scripture, to establish 
 the Truth of the Clu'istian Religion. In 
 1690 Bishop Burnet made him treasurer 
 of Salisbury cathedal ; and tlie same year 
 he was complimented with the degree of 
 D. D. by the university of Cambridge. 
 He made several attempts, among the 
 ministers of Holland, Geneva, and Ber- 
 lin, towards establishing a perfect union 
 among the reformed churches. He was 
 deeply learned in Hebrew literature and 
 tlie fathers. His writings are very nume- 
 rous ; they embrace a great variety of 
 matter, and are written with a peculiar 
 liveliness of style. The following is a 
 list of Dr. Allix's cliief works. 1. Re- 
 ponse a la Dissertation sur Bertram et 
 Jean Scot ou Erigene qui est a la fin du 
 1 torn, de la Perpetuite de M. Arnaud. 
 This was printed at the end of Claude's 
 Answer to Arnauld, 1670, and Father 
 Anselm Paris (the author of the Disser- 
 tation), replied by a treatise called Cre- 
 ance de I'Eglise Grecque sur la Transub- 
 stantiation. Dr. AUix then published — 
 2. Ratramne ou Bertram, &c. en Latin 
 et en Fran9ais ; Rouen, 1672, 12mo. 3. 
 Dissertatio de Trisagii origine ; auctore 
 P. A. V.D.M. Rothomagi, 1674, 8vo. 
 4. Dissertatio de Sanguine D. N. J. C. ad 
 Epistolam St. Augustini qua num adhuc 
 existat inquiritur. 5. Dissertatio de Ter- 
 tulliani Vita et Scriptis. 6. Dissertatio 
 de Conciliorum quorumvis Definitioni- 
 bus. 7. Anastasii Sinaitse Anagogica- 
 
 DO 
 
 laim Contemplationum in Hexahemeron, 
 lib. xii. hactenus desideratus, Graece et 
 Lat. cum Notis Dacerii, Praemissa Expos- 
 tulatio de St. J. Chrysostomi Epistola ad 
 Caesarium a Parisiensibus Theologis nu- 
 per suppressa; Londini, 1682, 4to. 8. 
 Reflections upon the Books of the Holy 
 Scriptures, &c. dedicated to King James ; 
 London, 1688, 2 vols, 8vo. 9. Deter- 
 minatio F. Joannis Parisiensis de Modo, 
 existendi Corp. Christ, in Sacramento 
 Altaris alio, quam sit ille quem tenet 
 Ecclesia, &c. Lond. 1686, with a History 
 of Transubstantiation. 10. Remarks on 
 the Churches of Piedmont, 1690. 11. 
 Remarks on the Ancient Churches of the 
 
ALL 
 
 ALL 
 
 Albigenses, 1692. 12. The Judgment of 
 the Jewish Church against the Unitarians, 
 &c. 13. De Messiae duplici advcntu 
 Dissertationes Duae adversus Judfeos ; 
 Lond. 1701, 12ino. 14. Dissertatio de 
 J. Chi-isti D. N. anno et mense natali ; 
 Loud. 1707 and 1710. 15. The Prophe- 
 cies which Mr. Whiston applies to the 
 Times immediately following the Ap- 
 pearance of the Messiah, considered and 
 examined; Lond. 1707, 8vo. 16. Pre- 
 parations a la Cene, 8vo. Also some 
 Sermons in French, &c. 
 
 ALLIX, (Peter, died 1795,) a French 
 advocate, known as the author of some 
 agreeable verses, was raised to a judicial 
 post in the early part of the French revo- 
 lution. Being continually weighed down 
 with terror at the excesses of the domi- 
 nant pai'ty, he died suddenly while en- 
 gaged in the discharge of his public 
 duties. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALLOISI. See Galanino. 
 
 ALLORI, (Alessandro, called Bron- 
 zino, 1535 — 1607,) a painter of the Flo- 
 rentine school ; was born at Florence, and 
 was the nephew and pupil of Bronzino, 
 whose surname he sometimes inscribed 
 on liis pictures. Before he was seventeen 
 years of age, he painted an altar-piece 
 representing the Crucifixion, excellent 
 both for composition and colour. At 
 nineteen he visited Rome, where he care- 
 fully studied the works of Michael An- 
 gelo. After his return to Florence, he 
 was greatly patronized by the ducal fa- 
 mily, who employed him to finish the 
 pictures in their palace at Poggio a Caia- 
 no, begun by order of Leo X. by Andrea 
 del Sarto, Franciabigio, and Pontonno ; 
 opposite to which he painted, from his 
 own invention, the Gardens of the Hes- 
 perides, the Feast of Syphax, and Titus 
 Flaminius dissuading the Etolians from 
 the Achaean league. He also painted 
 many portraits, some of which, when in- 
 troduced in his larger compositions, are 
 defaced by the then prevailing folly of 
 clothing the moderns in the ancient cos- 
 tume. In 1590 he published a book on 
 the art of drawing the human figure, 
 illustrated with anatomical prints, from 
 his own designs. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. i. 
 172. Biog. Univ. Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ALLORI, (Cristofano, called also, 
 sometimes, Bronzino, 1577 — 1621,) a 
 painter of the Florentine school ; the son, 
 and for some time the pupil, of the pre- 
 ceding, but subsequently studied under 
 Santi di Tito, and finally improved 
 himself in colouring by imitating the 
 works of one of the scholars of tliat 
 
 VOL. I. 353 
 
 master, Lodovico Cardi, called Cigoli. 
 Beauty, grace, and exquisite finish are 
 the characteristics of his works, of which 
 the picture of St. Julian, in the Pitti Pa- 
 lace, is considered the grandest eSbrt of 
 his genius. Cristofano was a painter of 
 varied powers, for he excelled in land- 
 scapes and portraits as well as history, the 
 former of which are enlivened by the in- 
 troduction of the most exquisite figm-es. 
 There are many of his works in the prin- 
 cipal churches, and also at the Medici 
 palace at Florence. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. i. 
 197, 220, 222. Bryan's Diet. &c ) 
 
 ALLOUETTE, (Ambrose and Francis 
 Philip.) See L'Allouette. 
 
 ALLOUETTE, (Francis d',) a learned 
 French antiquary and philologist, born 
 at Vertus, in Champagne, of which place 
 he was afterwards bailli. Besides several 
 genealogical works, he has left some 
 writings on jurispnidence, a Treatise 
 against Astrology, and a work on the 
 Origin of the French Nation. The last 
 is still in MS. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALLUT, (John,*) the signature of a 
 French fanatical writer of the eighteenth 
 century named Elias Marion, who re- 
 tired at the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes to the mountains of Cevennes, 
 and headed a band of mountaineers, 
 whom he had contributed to excite by 
 his preaching, and who defended them- 
 selves for some time against the troops 
 sent to quell their turbulence. He was 
 forced to surrender to Marshal ViUars in 
 1704, and after some ineffectual attempts 
 to renew the insurrections, he retired in 
 1706 to London, where he gave himself 
 out for inspired ; and some of his ravings 
 were committed, on different occasions, 
 to the press. Upon the complaint of the 
 consistory of the French church, he was 
 sentenced to the pillory. In 1714 he 
 was still in London. What became of 
 him afterwards is unknown. A cata- 
 logue of the printed works of himself, 
 and some of his comrades, may be seen 
 in the Supplement to the Biog. Univer- 
 selle. Some of his predictions, &c. are 
 found in the Theatre Sacre des Cevennes, 
 published by M. Misson at London in 
 1707, which was translated into English, 
 and published, with a preface, by J. 
 Lacey, one of the English prophets of that 
 period, in the same year. Court de Ge- 
 belin, in liis Histoire des Troubles des 
 Cevennes, makes mention of AUut. His 
 
 » In the Catalogue de la Bibliothfeque Casanate 
 this name is supposed to be coramon to Marion 
 and his associates; butBarbier, in his Dictionnaire 
 des Anonjmes, 2d ed. No. 4609, has shown that it 
 belongs only to Marion. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.J 
 
 A A 
 
A L T, 
 
 A LM 
 
 Prophetical Warnings (under his own 
 name of Elias Marion) are often quoted 
 in Goode's Modern Qaims to the Gifts 
 of the Spirit stated and examined ; Lon- 
 don, 1833 ; a work which is highly valu- 
 able for its account of the French pro- 
 phets of that day. See also Hickes's 
 Spirit of Enthusiasm exorcised. The 
 writer of this article cannot find any 
 mention of Marion in Col. Cavalier's Wars 
 of the Cevennes. Some very curious 
 works on this subject are enumerated in 
 Walchii Bibliotheca Theologica, vol. ii. 
 pp. 105— 111. 
 
 ALLUT, (Anthony, 1743—1794,) a 
 writer in the Encyclopedie, who em- 
 barked in the revolution, but not going 
 the same length as the ruling party, was 
 guillotined as a federalist. He came to 
 Paris in early life, with his sister Susanna, 
 known afterwards as Madame Verdier, 
 the authoress of some minor poetical 
 pieces of considerable merit. 
 
 His cousin, Sclpio Allut, in 1779, pub- 
 lished anonymously some translations 
 from the minor Greek poets, and was 
 employed at the time of his death in 
 translating Lord Chesterfield's Letters. 
 (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALLWOERDEN, (Henry d',) a pupil 
 of Mosheim, who gave him materials for 
 writing the Life of Servetus, which was 
 published in Latin in 1728, in 4to, and 
 was translated by Mosheim himself into 
 Gei'man, with additions ; 4to, Helmstadt, 
 1748, and a Supplement 1750. 
 
 ALMAGRO, (Diego de, 1463—1538,) 
 one of the most celebrated adventurers 
 in the New World, was a native of Al- 
 magro, in Spain, but of his family nothing 
 is known. Bred in the camp, the disco- 
 very of the West Indies, and ultimately 
 of Mexico, excited his ambition as power- 
 fully as that of Pizarro, his friend and 
 associate. The discovery and conquest 
 of Peru were the great object of both. 
 They had in a few years evidence enough 
 of its existence ; but how to subdue it with 
 the handful of volunteers they were able 
 to raise, was one of those problems which 
 other men would never have thought of 
 solving. The confidence with which, 
 before they sailed from Panama, they 
 divided amongst themselves the autho- 
 rity over this unknown empire, — Pizarro 
 to be the governor, Almagro the lieute- 
 nant-governor, and a third associate, 
 Hernando de Luque, to be the bishop — 
 would have amazed any sane mind. The 
 disasters which attended their first ef- 
 forts of discovery, the number of men 
 they had lost, the treasures they had 
 354 
 
 wasted, might have taught them to be 
 less sanguine ; but had they been less 
 confident, would they have ventin-ed in 
 so hazardous an undertaking ? To pro- 
 cure the sanction of the Spanish mo- 
 narch, Pizarro repaired to Spain, where 
 attention to his own interests made him 
 lose sight of Almagvo's. While procur- 
 ing for himself the supreme authority 
 over a territory two hunxlred leagues 
 in extent, he was satisfied with stipu- 
 lating for his companion the govern- 
 ment of a fortress. The latter resented 
 this base conduct ; and on the return 
 of Pizarro, it required all his address 
 to procure a reconciliation. At length 
 it was effected on the condition that 
 Almagro should be the adelantado of 
 the whole region, and hold besides an 
 indejiendent government. In 1531, Pi- 
 zarro again sailed, while Almagro re- 
 mained at Panama to collect reinforce- 
 ments, with which he was to join the 
 chief. The exploits of Pizarro (see the 
 name) may be found in the article de- 
 voted to him, which indeed ought to be 
 perused before the present one. Almagro 
 could not join the chief until the inca Ata- 
 hualjja (see the name) was a captive in the 
 hands of the Spaniards. The reinforce- 
 ment which he conducted was most wel- 
 come to Pizarro, who was in the midst 
 of a hostile country, with scai'cely two 
 hundred men. Almagro shared in the 
 amjDle treasures which were amassed for 
 the ransom of the inca. But he was re- 
 solved that this ransom should never be 
 effected ; he called loudly for the cap- 
 tive's death, which he regarded as a 
 necessary preliminary towards the sub- 
 jugation of the empire ; and he had the 
 satisfaction of sitting as one of the judges 
 at the strange ti'ial of the monarch. The 
 execution rapidly followed the sentence. 
 After this execrable act, he assisted in 
 the conquest of Peru. In recompense of 
 this service, the emperor Cluu'les con- 
 ferred on him the government of two 
 hundred leagues of territory south of 
 that assigned to Pizarro, with the title of 
 adelantado. With his master, therefore, 
 he was satisfied, but he soon discovered 
 gi'ounds of dispute with his colleague. 
 Cuzco, the residence of the incas, he 
 claimed as within the bounds of his juris- 
 diction. It was an impudent claim, and 
 was resisted by Pizarro. They were on 
 the point of deciding the dispute by the 
 sword — for each had followers enough — 
 when another forced reconciliation was 
 effected. The chief condition was that 
 Almagro should begin the conquest of 
 
ALM 
 
 ALM 
 
 Chili, the country assigned him by the 
 emperor ; and if he did not find it equal 
 his just claims, a part of Peru should be 
 surrendered to him. Accompanied by 
 five hundred and seventy Europeans, — 
 the greatest number yet congregated in 
 the New World, — he began his opera- 
 tions. Despising difficulties and dangers 
 of every kind, he chose the mountain 
 tract, which was almost impracticable, 
 in preference to that which lay near the 
 coast. Hence he lost many of his fol- 
 lowers. And when he descended into 
 the plains of Chili, he found a people 
 very different from the Peruvians, — a 
 martial, intrepid, and fierce people. The 
 issue wovdd have been doubtfid, had he 
 persevered; but he was recalled by a 
 revolution in Peru. Manco Capac, the 
 puppet inca, whom he and Pizarro had 
 called the successor of Atahualpa, had 
 found means to organize a conspu-acy to 
 rid Peru of its invaders. Through the 
 efforts of many native chiefs, two large 
 armies were assembled, and while one 
 besieged the three brothers of Pizarro in 
 Cuzco, another invested Pizarro himself 
 in Lima. Both places must soon have 
 fallen but for Almagro. His object, 
 however, in returning to Cuzco, was not 
 so much to aid his rival, as to claim that 
 city ; he had just received his patent from 
 Europe, and he was more than ever con- 
 vinced that Cuzco lay within the limits 
 of his government. He defeated the 
 Peruvians, and then quarrelled with the 
 PizaiTos, of whom he killed one, and 
 the rest he took prisoners. But this di- 
 version had enabled Francisco Pizarro 
 also to raise the siege of Lima, and to 
 defeat the other Peruvian army ; and 
 ignorant of what had just takeu place at 
 Cuzco, he sent five hundred men thither, 
 under Alonzo de Alvarado. Almagro 
 led this force into a false position, and 
 took the leader prisoner. Had he march- 
 ed on Lima at this moment, he would 
 have had no competitor, and Peru would 
 have been his. But he listened to the 
 hollow overtures of Pizarro ; he consented 
 to refer the matters in dispute to the em- 
 peror ; he released the captive prisoners ; 
 and soon heard, what he might have 
 foreseen, that Pizarro refused to admit 
 any other umpire than the sword, and 
 was on the march against him. On the 
 plain of Cuzco, where he awaited the 
 approach of his rival, he was defeated, 
 and made prisoner. His fate was decreed 
 from this moment ; but as many of the 
 soldiers whom he had so often led to 
 victory were still in Cuzco, nothing de- 
 355 
 
 cisive was adopted until they were re- 
 moved. He was then brought from his 
 prison, tried, and condemned. He who 
 had so often defied death in the field, — 
 whose valour had been the theme of ad- 
 miration, — now so far forgot liimself as to 
 beg piteously for his life. His unmanly 
 degradation availed him nothing ; neither 
 his grey hairs (he was now seventy-five 
 years of age), nor his ancient intimacy 
 with Pizarro, coidd save him ; he was 
 strangled in prison, and then publicly 
 beheaded. At the last he recovered liis 
 courage, and died as became a veteran 
 soldier. (Orellano, Varones Illustres del 
 Nuevo Mundo. Garcilasso de la Vega, 
 Comentarios Reales, tom. ii. Robertson's 
 America.) 
 
 ALMAGRO, (Diego, died 1542,) son 
 of the preceding, by an Indian woman, 
 was declared by his father's will governor 
 of Chili, in conformity with the patent 
 which the emperor Chai'les had granted 
 to that celebrated adventurer. This will 
 was disregarded by Pizarro ; but if it had 
 not been, of what use could it be to a 
 man who had neither money nor troops 
 to conquer that kingdom ? Almagro re- 
 mained at Lima, occupied, young as he 
 was, in secret schemes for the removal of 
 Pizarro, and for the furtherance of his 
 own ambition. The followers of his fa- 
 ther, veterans though they were, had no 
 share in the division of the territory 
 which Pizarro had made after the execu- 
 tion of the chief. They were conse- 
 quently dissatisfied ; they repaired to the 
 young Almagro's house ; held many con- 
 sultations with him ; and ended by the 
 resolution of removing Pizarro, and of 
 raising Almagro to the government. In 
 conformity with it, Pizarro was assassi- 
 nated, and by many Almagro was hailed 
 governor of Peru. But some places, 
 and many soldiers, refused to recognise 
 him. At this moment arrived Vaca de 
 Castro from Spain, with full authority 
 from the emperor to reform the govern- 
 ment, to punish the guilty, and to ap- 
 point whatever officers he pleased ; he 
 was, in fact, to exercise supreme power. 
 As the murderers of Pizarro could expect 
 no forgiveness, they resisted the authority 
 of Vaca. But he defeated them ; and tried 
 the survivors. Almagro, with forty of 
 his associates, was condemned and exe- 
 cuted by order of the inflexible judge. 
 The same place witnessed the execution 
 of the son, as had witnessed that of the 
 father ; the same hands separated the 
 head from the body. 
 
 ALMAIN, (Jaiues, d, 1515, ^ a learned 
 A A 2 
 
A LM 
 
 A L M 
 
 scholastic writer, a follower of Scotus, 
 born at Sens, appointed professor of divi- 
 nity in the college of Navarre, at Paris, 
 in 1508. He has left comments on the 
 sentences of Lombard, Moralia, and some 
 works on the authority and power of the 
 church, in which he defended the doc- 
 trine of the council of Pisa against Car- 
 dinal Cajetan, who set the pope's authority 
 above councils. His collected works, 
 with the exception of the Moralia, were 
 republished at Paris, 1517, fol. 
 
 ALMAMON. See Mamon and Mo- 
 hammed Aben-Amer. 
 
 ALMAN, (John,) of Constantinople. 
 Tliis rabbi flom-ished about the end of 
 the fifteenth century, and was the Hebrew 
 instructor of Picus of Mirandola. He 
 was the author of several works, quoted 
 by rabbinical writers, but never pub- 
 lished. (De Rossi.) 
 
 ALMANSOR. See Mansor. 
 
 ALMARUS, or ^LMERUS, abbot 
 of the monastery of St. Austin, at Can- 
 terbury, made bishop of Sherborne in 
 1022. Having lost his sight, he lived in 
 retirement as a simple monk till his 
 death. (Biog. Univ. Suppl.) 
 
 ALMEIDA. Of this name are seve- 
 ral personages illustrious in the annals 
 of Portugal. 
 
 1. Francisco de, Conde de Abrantes, 
 who began his military career by joining 
 as a volunteer the army of Fernando and 
 Isabel against the Moors of Granada. 
 In this war he obtained great distinction. 
 It was for his merits as much as his 
 birth, or his favour with the sovereign 
 Dom Manuel, that in 1505 he was no- 
 minated viceroy of the Indies. His 
 administration was a glorious one for 
 Portugal. At Quiloa he deposed the 
 Mohammedan king, who was hostile to 
 the strangers, and elevated another, who 
 was to reign as the vassal of Dom Ma- 
 nuel. This was in about seven years 
 after the first discovery of the coimtry 
 by Vasco de Gama! At Cananor and 
 Cochin, he established factories for the 
 interests of Portuguese commerce, and 
 entered into the most advantageous 
 treaties with the native princes. His 
 son, Lorenzo de Almeida, in obedience 
 to his orders, extended the supremacy of 
 Portugal over the Maldive isles, and 
 established a well - protected factory in 
 the important island of Ceylon. He him- 
 self next assailed the city of Calicut, 
 which had endeavoured to form a league 
 for the expulsion of the Europeans, and 
 reduced it to more than a nominal sub- 
 jection. Goa he also humbled; and it 
 356 
 
 was in conformity with his advice that 
 another armament was sent to form es- 
 tablishments in the island of Sumatra, 
 and in close commercial alliance with the 
 king of Malacca. In the midst of his 
 successes, he was superseded by Fran- 
 cisco de Albuquerque. As he had just 
 commenced the war with Calicut, he 
 refused to resign his charge imtil he had 
 concluded it. A dispute followed be- 
 tween the two nobles, and Almeida was 
 so far provoked as to imprison his rival ; 
 but he soon returned to better thoughts, 
 released Albuquerque, resigned his com- 
 mand, and embarked for Europe. Yet 
 Europe he was no more to see. On the 
 coast of CafFraria, where he landed for 
 fresh water, he had a dispute with the 
 natives, in which himself and a portion 
 of his crew perislied. Thus he who had 
 humbled so many Indian sovereigns, 
 who had annihilated in the Indian seas 
 the power of the Egyptian soldan, who 
 had founded a great empire, was des- 
 tined to die in a petty affray with a 
 handful of savages ! This was in March 
 1509. Dom Manuel lamented him; 
 Ferdinand and Isabella went into public 
 mourning for him. (Barros, Os Feitos ; 
 Lemos, Historia Geral ; Dunham, Spain 
 and Portugal.) 
 
 2. Lorenzo de, son of the preceding, 
 who, as we have just related, formed es- 
 tablishments in Ceylon and in the king- 
 dom of Malacca. It was his destiny, 
 too, no more to revisit his native countiy : 
 he fell in a naval action off' Calicut. 
 
 3. Manuel, (1580—1646,) a native of 
 Viseu, who entered, at an early age, into 
 the Society of Jesus, and went out as a 
 missionary to India. In 1622 he was 
 selected, by the general of his order, as 
 ambassador to the emperor of Abyssinia. 
 By that prince he was well received, but 
 the successor expelled him and his com- 
 panions. On his return to Goa, after 
 thirteen years' absence, he was made 
 provincial of his order, and inquisitor. 
 There he died. 
 
 4. Teodoro, (1722—1803,) a native of 
 Lisbon, and a priest whose philosophical 
 works (5 vols. 8vo. Lisbon, 1751,) pro- 
 cured him a name. 
 
 5. Nicolas Tolentino de, (1745—1811,) 
 a poet of Lisbon, who wrote against the 
 minister Pombal, and therefore gained 
 the favour of Pombal's successor. A 
 chair of rhetoric, and a sinecure office 
 in the state, were more than a sufficient 
 reward for his merits. In his subse- 
 quent pieces he was less personal ; his 
 satire, consequently, was less poignant. 
 
AL M 
 
 A L M 
 
 6. Antonio tie, (1761 — 1822,) a native 
 of Beira, and one of the best sui'geons 
 Portugal ever produced. The success 
 with which he practised in the hospital 
 at Lisbon, caused the government to send 
 him, with a few others, to improve him- 
 self in France and England. France, 
 however, he did not visit, it was in too 
 agitated a state ; but in London he re- 
 .sided for some time, and was very assi- 
 duous in his attendance at operations. 
 His knowledge of English, too, enabled 
 liim to profit by the public lectiu-es. On 
 his return to Lisbon, he was held in high 
 honour : his operations, especially for the 
 stone, were successful, and his surgical 
 treatises were printed at the expense of 
 government. His political tendencies 
 caused him to be exiled for a time in 
 1810; but whether in London or at Rio 
 Janeiro, he was diligent in his profes- 
 sion. The best of his writings are his 
 Obras Cirurgicas, 4 vols. 8vo. Lisbon, 
 1814. (From the Bibliotheca Lusitana, 
 Nicolas Antonio, &c.) 
 
 ALMEIDA MELLO E CASTRO, 
 (Joam de, 1757—1814,) Conde das Gal- 
 veas, a Portuguese minister of state, a 
 great advocate for the English alliance, 
 and consequently an enemy to tlie 
 French. For this reason he has not 
 been well treated by writers of the latter 
 nation. Accompanying his sovereign to 
 Rio Janeiro, he there died. 
 
 ALMELIK. See Melik. 
 
 ALMELLA, (Pedro Rodriguez de,) 
 canon of Carthagena in the sixteenth 
 century ; compiled an account of about 
 two hundred and thirty battles, from the 
 earliest period to the conquest of Me- 
 rida by Fernando and Isabel. 
 
 ALMELOVEEN, (Theodore Jansson 
 Van, 1657 — 1712,) a Dutch physician, 
 and the learned editor of various 
 classical and medical works, was born at 
 Mydregt, near Utrecht, where his father 
 was minister of the refoi-med church. 
 His mother, Mary Jansson, was a re- 
 lation of the celebrated printer of Am- 
 sterdam. After studying under various 
 eminent men, such as Graevius for 
 belles lettres, Leusden for theology, 
 Munnich for medicine, &c., he deter- 
 mined to give up his father's profession, 
 for which he had been intended, and 
 devote himself to medicine. He was ad- 
 mitted doctor of physic in 1681. In 
 1687, he went to reside at Gouda, 
 where he married. In 1697, he was 
 invited to Harderwick, to become pw)- 
 fessor of Greek and history ; and in 
 1702^ he was appointed professor of 
 357 
 
 medicine, retaining both offices until his 
 death. He bad a great knowledge of 
 books. Besides editions with notes of 
 Strabo, Juvenal,Quintilian, theAphorisms 
 of Hippocrates, Celsus, Apicius, Aure- 
 lian on Diseases, and Decker's Treatise 
 on Supposititious Writings, he has left 
 a work in Flemish on the anatomy of the 
 muscles, several bibliographical treatises 
 in Latin, among which are a work — De 
 Vitis Stephanorxmi, a list of Plagiaries, 
 and a list of books promised that never 
 appeared. He published also the Ono- 
 masticon Rerum Inventanmi, et Inventa 
 Nov-antiqua, &c. Amst. 1684; which is 
 a history of medicine. 
 
 ALMELOVEN, (John,) a Dutch 
 painter and engraver, born about 1614, 
 principally known for some neatly-exe- 
 cuted etchings of landscapes, from his 
 own designs. (Strutt, Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 ALMENAR, (Juan,) a Spanish phy- 
 sician of the fifteenth century. 
 
 ALMENDINGEN, (Louis Harschar 
 d', 1766 — 1827,) a learned Gennan 
 jm-ist. He was born at Paris, and edu- 
 cated by his fatlier until the year 1 789, 
 when he went to Gottingen, where he 
 applied himself to the study of law and 
 history under professors Runde, Hugo, 
 Putter, and Spittler; andm 1794, he was 
 elected professor of law at Herborn 
 (Nassau). In 1796, he married a 
 daughter of Adam Hoffman, professor 
 of medicine. While he was at Herborn, 
 he received offers from six universities ; 
 none of which he accepted, becaxise his 
 aged parents, who lived with him, were 
 averse from moving, and his wife at Her- 
 born was smTounded by her family. He 
 was a very proUfic author at this period, 
 as may be seen by a reference to Meu- 
 sel's Gelehrtes Deutschland. His writings 
 were varied : sometimes translations 
 from English works, &c. ; but chiefly 
 legal treatises and papers relative to 
 civil law, legislation, &c. In 1802, he 
 accepted the situation of counsellor to 
 the newly-erected court of appeal at 
 Hadamar, an office which he filled at 
 Dusseldorf, during the disturbances of 
 Nassau; but being recalled, in 1811, to 
 the service of the duke of Nassau, he 
 became vice-director of the aulic tribimal 
 of Wisbaden, and referendary of the 
 minister of state. In 1813, being made 
 member of the commission of legis- 
 lation, he applied himself to the framing 
 several useflil legal reforms, most of 
 which have since been adopted. In 
 1816, he Avas made vice-president of the 
 aulic tribunal of Dillcnburg ; and shortly 
 
A LM 
 
 ALM 
 
 afterwards, he was named counsellor of 
 state. He had for a long time pleaded 
 the cause of the widowed duchess of 
 Anhalt-Schaiunhurg, (as guardian of her 
 children,) against the duke of Anhalt 
 Bernhurg, in a question relative' to the 
 validity of the transference of some pro- 
 perty ; and the course of the suit re- 
 quiring his presence at Berlin, he re- 
 paired thither in 1819 ; but the views of 
 the question which he took were not 
 recognised by the tribunals. In conse- 
 quence, he wrote a history of the Anhalt 
 Suit, in which he made some very severe 
 reflections on Prussian legislation. He 
 was, in consequence of this, condemned 
 in 1822, by the authorities at Berlin, to 
 a year's imprisonment ; the disgrace of 
 which sentence, although never carried 
 into eflect, affected him so deeply as to 
 cause him wholly to retire from society 
 until the period of his death. His 
 writings are very numerous : the most 
 important are some contributions to a 
 periodical work — the Library of Criminal 
 Law, published by MM. Feuerbach and 
 GroUmann ; on the Origin of War and 
 its Influence of Civilization, 1788; on 
 the Progress and Decay of the Sciences, 
 1 789 ; on the Rights and Constitution 
 of the Germanic Diet during the vacancy 
 of the imperial throne, 1792 ; a philo- 
 sophical essay on the Penal Laws of the 
 French Republic ; the Past, Present, 
 and Futin'e Condition of Germany con- 
 sidered politically. His works are enu- 
 merated, and a very elaborate account 
 of him is to be found in Hasse's Zeit- 
 genossen, 3d Series, vol. i. bd. v. from 
 which, and the Supplement of the Biog. 
 Universelle, this article is compiled. 
 
 ALMERAS, (Baron Louis, 1768— 
 1828,) a French general of the humblest 
 origin. He distinguished himself under 
 Napoleon in Italy and Egypt, and was 
 taken prisoner by the Russians in the 
 retreat from Moscow. Returning to 
 France after Najjoleon's fall, he was 
 made chevalier of St. Louis in 1814; 
 and in 1823, governor of Bordeaux, 
 where, prematurely old through hard 
 service and wounds, he ended his days. 
 (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALMICI, (Pietro Camillo, 1714 — 
 1779,) a priest of the oi'atory, of distin- 
 guished theological attainments, born at 
 Brescia, of a noble family. He has left 
 critical reflections on the work of Febro- 
 nius de Statu Ecclesise, together with 
 some treatises, part of which are still in 
 manuscript, especially one on the Life 
 of Father Sarpi. 
 
 358 
 
 ALMICI, (Giambattista, 171' — 
 1793,) the brother of Pietro Camillo, and 
 a celebrated Italian jurist ; born near 
 Brescia, and educated under the Jesuits 
 there and at the University of Padua. He 
 finally gave himself up to legal studies. 
 After some official employments in which 
 he gained great popularity, he travelled 
 over Italy and Sicily, and was much 
 prized by the learned and excellent. His 
 marriage in 1771, and his numerous fa- 
 mily, seem only to have induced him to 
 live in a more retired manner, and devote 
 himself more to study. He published, 
 1. Saggio sopra la ragione, ossia Legge 
 Naturale contro i disapprova tori di un 
 tale Studio. Brescia, 1748. 2. II Diritto 
 della Natiira e delle Gente, &c., di Sam. 
 Barone di PufFendorf, rettificato, &c. 1 757, 
 4 vols. 4to. 3. Institutiones Juris na- 
 turae et gentium juxta Catholica prin- 
 cipia. 4. Osservazioni sopra il Libro del 
 Sig. Elvezio intitolato lo Spirito. 4to. 
 Brescia, 1766. His attack on Helvetius 
 is blamed by his biographer, (in Tipaldo's 
 Biografia,) but he acknowledges its justice 
 in many points. (Tipaldo Biografia.) 
 
 ALMODOVAR, (the duke of, d. 1794,) 
 a Spanish diplomatist in Russia, Portu- 
 gal, and England. Under the name of 
 Malo de Luque, he translated much of 
 the famous work of the Abbe Raynal, 
 which was suppressed in Spain. 
 
 ALMOLI, (Solomon,) a rabbi, who 
 lived about the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century in the Levant. He wrote, 
 1 . Mefasher Chalamin : the Intei-preter 
 of Dreams. 2. Shaar Adonai ; the Gate 
 of the Lord. 3. Holcoth Sheva ; a small 
 grammatical treatise. (See De Rossi, 
 Annals, 1501 — 1540.) Also a Hebrew 
 Dictionary, as far as Nun, which Barto- 
 lotti says was printed at Constantinople, 
 but De Rossi doubts it. 
 
 ALMON, (John, 1738—1805,) a lite- 
 rary bookseller of democratical principles, 
 who rendered himself notorious as the 
 publisher of several violent political 
 pamphlets, some of which he is supposed 
 to have written : they related to Lord 
 Geoi'ge Sackville, Lord Chatham, Lord 
 Bute, Mr. Wilkes, of whom he was an 
 exti'avagant admirer, &c. His Anecdotes 
 of Lord Chatham, 2 vols. 4to. have been 
 often reprinted. He published, besides 
 three volumes of Anecdotes of the most 
 noted of his contemporaries, a Life of 
 Wilkes, prefixed to a collection of his 
 letters, &c. Late in life, having married 
 the widow of Mr. Parker, he became the 
 proprietor and editor of the General 
 Advertiser, for a libel in which he was 
 
 ( 
 
A L M 
 
 A LO 
 
 imprisoned. The close of his life was 
 sjient in Hertfordshire in great poverty. 
 A list of his writings may be found in 
 Chalmers's Dictionary by those who think 
 it worth while to collect them. 
 
 ALMONDE, (Philip Van, 1646 — 
 1711,) a Dutch admiral, born at Brielle. 
 After having seen a good deal of service 
 under Admiral Ruyter and Cornelius 
 Trump, he distinguished himself greatly 
 at the battle of La Hogue in 1692, where 
 he commanded the vanguard of the allied 
 fleets. His svibsequent gallant conduct 
 off the coast of Spain, where he was 
 • sailing in company with the English 
 admii-al, Sir George Rooke, spread his 
 renown through Europe. His enterprise 
 is said to have been the chief cause of 
 the capture of the galleons in Vigo har- 
 bour. His death took place at his seat 
 at Haaswyk, near Leyden. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALMOSNINO, (Moses,) a rabbi, born 
 at Salonichi in 1523, who was highly 
 distinguished for his learning and his 
 talents in preaching. He wrote, 1. A 
 Commentary on the Megilloth, called 
 Jodei Mosheh : the Hands of Moses. 
 Salonichi, 1572 ; Venice, 1597. 2. Pirke 
 Mosheh : a Commentary on the Pirke 
 Avoth. Salonichi, 1563. 3. Tephilla le- 
 Mosheh : the Prayer of Moses. Ibid. 
 1563. Cracow, 1586. 4. Meametz Coach : 
 the Strengthener. It consists of twenty- 
 eight discourses, some of them funeral 
 sermons. Ven. 1588. 5. Regimiento 
 de la Vida, in Spanish, but in Hebrew 
 characters, &c. 
 
 Another of tliis name wrote some com- 
 mentaries, inserted in the Biblia Rab- 
 binica of Amsterdam, 1724. 
 
 ALMS, (James,) a captain in the 
 British navy, was a native of Gosport, 
 in the county of Hants, and the son of 
 an honest and industrious man, who, 
 originally, according to Charnock, 
 " boasted of no higher appointment than 
 that of an inferior domestic in the house- 
 hold of the duke of Richmond."* Dm-- 
 ing his early services in the subordinate 
 ranks, he had been often engaged with 
 the enemy ; and in 1749 was one of the 
 fortimate few saved out of the Namur, 
 when that ship was wrecked on the coast 
 of Coromandel. Although, as master 
 and commander, he had signalized him- 
 self in several " single combats,"! still 
 it was not till the year 1765 he attained 
 tlie rank of post-captain. His gallant con- 
 
 duct when in the command of the Mon- 
 mouth sixty-four, in Sir Edward Hughes's 
 severe struggle with the celebrated Suf- 
 frein, off Trincomali, * deserves to be re- 
 corded with the deeds of the brave. On 
 this day he was second to Sir Edward. At 
 one period of the action. Alms perceiving 
 that Suifrein had put up his helm with 
 a view of boarding the British chief, 
 luffed his ship into the " veiy eye of the 
 wind," threw into the Frenchman's bows 
 a raking broadside, and frustrated the 
 enemy's daring design. Subsequently to 
 this manoeuvre, the Monmouth had to sus- 
 tain a terrific fire from Suffi'ein and his two 
 seconds, which continued until the main 
 and mizen-masts of the former fell over 
 the side. Already had the British co- 
 lours been twice shot away, but they 
 were now nailed to the stimip of the 
 mizen-mast, with Alms's dkections, 
 "never to be struck." 
 
 In this furious though undecided con- 
 test, the Monmouth had seven guns dis- 
 mounted, — the wheel twice cleared, — and 
 two seamen only, besides the captain, 
 left alive on the quarter-deck. Forty- 
 five men were killed, and one Inmdred 
 and two wounded. Alms himself re- 
 ceived two splinter-wounds in the face, 
 and two musket-balls went through his 
 hat. Amid these well-earned laurels, 
 this worthy and gallant officer sustained 
 in the same battle an irreparable loss. 
 His son, who was serving as lieutenant 
 of the Superb, the flag-ship of Sir Edward 
 Hughes, fell early in the action. 
 
 ALNANDER, author of the History 
 of Printing in Sweden, was born towards 
 the end of the seventeenth century, at 
 Norkoping. For an analysis of his His- 
 toriola Artis Typographicae in Suecia, 
 Upsal 1722, see Acta Eruditorum Lip- 
 siens. Supplem. viii. 506. A brief view 
 of its plan is given in the Suppl. Biog. 
 Univ. 
 
 ALOADIN, or ALA EDDYN, 
 seventh pi'ince of the Ismaelians, or As- 
 sassins (see Hassan-Ben-Gabbah), ac- 
 cording to Abulfeda, succeeded his father 
 Djelal Eddyn, in a.h. 618 (a.d. 1221). 
 He was then only nine years of age ; but 
 the ferocity of his disposition early 
 manifested itself. He was persuaded 
 that his father's ministers had intended to 
 poison him, and he had them all executed. 
 He passed his days in profligate de- 
 bauchery, but the terror of his name kept 
 
 * Ultimately, Mr. AJmt's fitber became steward 
 to the duke of Richmond. 
 
 t Single combats, nautically speaking, signify 
 battles between single ships. 
 359 
 
 • It is worthy of remark, that this encounter 
 took place on the same day Il-niney had achievtJ 
 his glorious victory in the West Indies, 12th April, 
 1782. 
 
A L O 
 
 ALP 
 
 the governors of Syria, of Cairo, of Bag- 
 dad, &c. tributary to him. Indeed he ex- 
 acted tribute from the king of Hungary 
 and Frederic II. the emperor of Germany, 
 on their arrival in Palestine. When 
 Louis IX. left his captivity in Egypt 
 and went with the wreck of his army 
 to Palestine, Aloadin demanded tribute 
 for the " Old man of the mountain," 
 but Louis, on the contrary, refused to 
 give him any presents until he showed 
 signs of subjection, which at length he 
 did. Not long after this transaction, 
 Aloadin was deposed by a conspiracy, 
 and died leaving a son whom he hated 
 (Rokn Eddyn), his successor, and leaving 
 a name for ever infamous for cruelty 
 and despotism. In his son's days the 
 Tartars ruined his small possessions. 
 
 ALOARA, (d. 992,) widow of Pan- 
 dulph, surnanied Ironhead, prince of 
 Capua and Benevento, governed her 
 states with great ability. Baronius re- 
 lates that St. Nilus foretold to her, as a 
 punishment for the murder of her hus- 
 band's nephew (whom she had just put 
 to deatli for fear he shoidd interfere with 
 her son's rights), that her offspring should 
 not reign in Capua — a prophecy that was 
 justified by the event. 
 
 ALOISI, (Balthazar, 1578—1638,) a 
 painter, born at Bologna, the relative 
 and pupil of the Carraccis. His com- 
 positions were excellent ; but not meet- 
 ing with sufficient encouragement, he 
 went to Rome, and gave himself up to 
 portrait painting. His pictures have 
 great vigour and cleai'ness of relief. 
 (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALOMPRA, (1710—1760,) founder 
 of the present dynasty of the Birman 
 empire. When the king of Pegu attacked 
 Ava in 1 752, Alompra, who was of low 
 extraction, was continued in the govern- 
 ment of a village, Munchaboo, where, 
 having collected a small band of patriots, 
 he successfully resisted the Peguers, re- 
 taking Ava in 1753, and two years after 
 expelling them from the northern pro- 
 vinces of Birmah. The war continued 
 till the year 1757, in which year the city 
 of Pegu was tsken by storm. He died 
 while engaged in the conquest of Siam. 
 His wisdom in consolidating and securing 
 his power was as conspicuous as his valour 
 in the acquisition of it. He reformed the 
 courts of justice, and prohibited gaming 
 and the use of spirituous liquors. He 
 was supported by the English, the French 
 siding with the Peguers. 
 
 ALOPA. (Laurentius,) a learned 
 printer of the fifteenth century. He 
 360 
 
 probably fixed his workshop at Florence 
 about the year 1481. His editions of 
 the Anthologia (4to, 1494), the Hymns 
 of Callimachus, Hippolitus, Alcestis, and 
 Andi'omache of Euripides, and the Ar- 
 gonautica of AppoUonius Rhodius, beau- 
 tifully printed in capital letters, fi.-om a 
 type founded by John Lascaris, are in 
 great request. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALOPEUS, (Baron Maximilian, (1748 
 - — 1822,) a Russian diplomatist, born at 
 Wibourg in Finland, educated at Abo, 
 afterwards at Gottingen, was intended 
 for the ecclesiastical profession, but 
 being employed as secretary by Count, 
 Panim, Rvissian ambassador at the 
 Swedish court, he rose gradually till he 
 was named minister plenipotentiary at 
 the court of Berlin, by the Empress 
 Catherine, in 1790. In 1795, Prussia 
 having withdrawn from the coalition by 
 the treaty of Basle, he remonstrated, 
 and in 1796 he left Berlin, to which 
 court he did not return till 1802. At 
 the time of the peace of Tilsit, he was 
 in London, on a special mission. He re- 
 tired from diplomacy in 1820, to Frank- 
 fort- on-the-Maine, where he ended his 
 days. He is said to have left very 
 valuable MS. memoirs. (Suppl. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ALOPEUS, (Count David d', 1796— 
 1831,) brother of the preceding, by whom 
 he was brought forward. In 1809, having 
 been sent to the court of Sweden, as 
 Russian minister, he was arrested upon 
 the discovery of a correspondence which 
 implicated him in a charge of corrupting 
 the Swedish army. Upon the forced abdi- 
 cation, however, of Gustavus, he received 
 full compensation from his master for the 
 disgrace he had been subjected to, and 
 he died mmister plenipotentiary of 
 Russia at the court of Berlin. (Suppl. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALPAGO, (Andrew,) an Italian phy- 
 sician, at the commencement of the 
 sixteenth century, who went to the East, 
 and made himself acquainted with Arabic 
 for the purpose of getting a correct text 
 of Avicenna ; he died suddenly, shortly 
 after having been appointed professor of 
 medicine at Venice. The folio edition 
 of Avicenna, published by Gerard of 
 Cremona, at Venice, in 1544, is enriched 
 with notes by Alpago, who also trans- 
 lated into Latin, Avicenna's treatise, De 
 Syrupo Acetoso. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALPAIDE, the concubine of Pepin 
 Heristal, and mother of Charles Martel. 
 Lambert, bishop of Liege, refusing to 
 countenance her union with Pepin, is 
 
ALP 
 
 ALP 
 
 said to have been murdered by her bro- 
 ther. After Pepin's death, in 714, through 
 fear of his wife Plectrude, whom she had 
 supplanted, she retired to a monastery, 
 where she died. 
 
 ALPALAS, a rabbi of Salonichi, wrote 
 Ohil Mosheh, and some moral dis- 
 courses, printed at Venice, 1599. 
 
 ALPHARABIUS, (James,) a Latin 
 writer of the fifteenth century, born at 
 Leonessa, in the kingdom of Naples, 
 author of a treatise on the use of crowns 
 among the ancient Romans, first pub- 
 lished at Leipsic, in 1759, in 4to. (Suppl. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALPHEN, (Jerome Van, 1746— 
 1803, )a Dutch poet, of considerable merit, 
 born at Gouda, educated at Leyden, 
 where he took his degree as doctor of 
 laws, in 1768, and was shortly afterwards 
 named procureur-general at the com't of 
 Utrecht, afterwards pensionary of the 
 city of Leyden, and eventually counsellor 
 and treasurer-general of the Union. On 
 the invasion of Holland by the French, 
 he resigned his offices, and retired to the 
 Hague. Besides several collections of 
 small poems, he has published the Chris- 
 tian Spectator, and some essays on the 
 advantages that would accrue to states, 
 if political theories were formed in ac- 
 cordance with the maxims of the Bible. 
 (Van Kampne's Literaiy History, ii. 175. 
 Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALPHERY MEKEPHOR, or NIKE- 
 PHOR, an English clergyman, remark- 
 able for the singularity of his destiny, 
 was born in Russia, of the family of tlie 
 Czars. On accoimt of the troubles in 
 his native country, he was sent with two 
 of his brothers to England, where at 
 the close of the sixteenth century, while 
 the three were pursuing their studies 
 at Oxford, two were carried off by the 
 small pox. The survivor entered into 
 holy orders, and was presented in 1618 
 to the rectory of WooUey, in Hunting- 
 donshire, where he remained till his 
 ejection in 1643, notwithstanding two 
 invitations to return to Russia, which 
 he received from some who were de- 
 sirous of placing him on the throne of 
 his forefathers. His wish for a peaceable 
 life was not however gratified ; he was 
 treated with great harshness by the 
 soldiery of the commonwealth, and it 
 was with difficulty that he coidd main- 
 tain his family, upon the pittance allowed 
 to him by the rebels fi:om his benefice, 
 added to the proceeds of a small farm, 
 which he had found means for purchas- 
 ing. At the restoration, being upwards 
 361 
 
 of eighty, he found himself incapable 
 of performing the duties of tlie cine, in 
 which he had been replaced, and fixing 
 a cm-ate at Woolley, he retired to the 
 house of his eldest son, at Hammersmith, 
 where he died at an advanced age. 
 Chalmers states that the last survivor 
 bearing his name, married a cutler at 
 Huntingdon, named Johnson, and was 
 the mother of eight children : she was 
 living in 1784. She is said to have re- 
 ceived considerable respect from the 
 courtesy of her neighbours, in considera- 
 tion of her illustrious origin. (Walker's 
 Sufferings of the Clergy, p. 183. Biog. 
 Brit.) 
 
 ALPHONSE, (Louis, 1743 — 1820,) 
 a French apothecary, born at Bordeaux, 
 who became a believer in Mesmerism. 
 Subsequently, his ardent temper led him 
 to take a deep interest in politics, siding 
 with the revolutionary party. Having 
 experienced considerable losses, he re- 
 tui'ned to his shop at Bordeaux in 1799, 
 where he died. He was the author of a 
 Memoire sur la Monnaie de Billon, and 
 several pamphlets on matters connected 
 with the town where he resided. (Suppl. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALPINI, (Prospero, 1553—1617,) a 
 celebrated physician and botanist. He 
 was born at Marostica, in the republic 
 of Venice ; and studied at Padua, where 
 he was early chosen deputy to the rector 
 and syndic to the students. He took his 
 degree of M.D. in 1578, and commenced 
 practice at Campo San Pietro, a small 
 town in the vicinity of Padua. A love 
 of botanical science induced him to travel 
 m search of exotic plants, following the 
 example of Galen, and visiting the places 
 in which they grew. He fortunately 
 obtained an appointment as physician to 
 George Emo, the Venetian consul in 
 Egypt, and he arrived at Grand Cairo in 
 1580. He travelled in the East during 
 three years, minutely examining and in- 
 qumng into all matters connected with 
 botany and medical science. The fruits of 
 these researches he gave in various works 
 upon his return to his native country. 
 He was appointed physician to Andrew 
 Doria, prince of Melfi, and then resided 
 at Genoa, where he established his fame 
 as a physician. The reputation he ac- 
 quired occasioned him, in 1593, to be 
 called to Padua. He was there made 
 professor of botany, and curator of the 
 botanic garden, offices which he held 
 until his death in 1617. Many testi- 
 monies have been given to the talents 
 and labours of Alpini ; and a family of 
 
ALP 
 
 A L Q 
 
 plants, the Alpinia, of the class Monan- 
 dria, and order Monogijnia, have been 
 named after him by Phunier and Lin- 
 nieus, in acknowledgment of the services 
 he rendered to botany. The following 
 are the pubHshed works of this author : — 
 1. De Balsamo Dialogus. Venet. 1591; 
 Patav. 1639, Lugd. Batav. 1718. 4to. 
 In French by Colin, Lyon, 1619. 8vo. 
 In this work, Alpini treats of the Opo- 
 balsam, the Balm of Gilead (Amyi-is 
 Gileadensis), which he esteems as the 
 balm of the ancients ; and he speaks of 
 tlie plant which fm-nishes the white 
 balsam. 2. De Medicina jEgyptiormn, 
 lib. iv. Venet. 1591 ; Paris, 1646 ; Lugd, 
 Batav. 1719, 4to ; the latter with the 
 work of Bontius, De Medicina Indorum. 
 A fifth book is reported to have been 
 preserved in MS. In tliis work, the 
 author gives several particulars relative 
 to the medical and surgical practice of 
 the ancient and modern Egyptians. He 
 also gives a very curious account of a 
 mode of extracting the stone from the 
 bladder, which, rude as it was, Alpini 
 saw successfully tried upon a Tm'kish 
 general. Alpini describes the operation 
 of paracentesis for the dropsy. He 
 notices also the practice common in 
 some of the nations of the East of taking 
 ojjium for the purpose of intoxication ; 
 and he dwells upon the gi-eat depression 
 and languor which those who have habi- 
 tuated themselves to this practice suffer, 
 and the necessity of employing aromatics 
 of great power to rouse them from their 
 stupor. 3. De Plantis iEgypti Liber. 
 Venet. 1592, 1633; Patav. 1640, 4to. 
 The engraved figures in this work are 
 too small to be useful ; and some of the 
 jjlants are not to be recognised. The 
 work, however, contains many good de- 
 scriptions of their chai-acters and pro- 
 perties ; and he is the first to have cor- 
 rectljr explained the physiology of the 
 generation of plants, especially in the 
 case of the Date. He is also cited as the 
 first author to describe the coffee plant, 
 and to notice its properties. He saw it 
 cidtivated in the garden of a bey at 
 Grand Cairo. llauwolf, however, ap- 
 pears to have previously noticed it. 4. 
 De Preesagienda Vita et Morte ^gro- 
 tantium, lib. vii. Patav. 1601. 4to ; Venet. 
 1601, 1705, 4to; Francof. 1601, 1621, 
 Svo. ; Lugd. Batav. 1710, 4to, corrected 
 by Rudolph Dyker, and with a Preface 
 by Boerhaave, Lugd. Batav. 1733, 4to, 
 with the corrections of Gaubius. Ham- 
 burg!, 1734, 4to. An English trans- 
 lation by Dr. 11. James, Lond. 1746, 
 3S2 
 
 Svo, 2 vols. Of this work, the celel)rated 
 Boerhaave said, that it supplied " method 
 to the facts recorded by Hippocrates," 
 He has also added the fi-uits of Galen's 
 observations, and those of later writers, 
 and his own experience on this important 
 subject. 5. De Medicina Methodica, 
 lib. xiii. Patav. 1611, fol. ; Lugd. Batav. 
 1719, 1729, 4to. The doctrine of the 
 methodists is amply and faithfully dis- 
 played in this work. Alpini was un- 
 questionably imbued with the principles 
 of the methodic sect. 6. De Rhapon- 
 tio Disputatio, Patav. 1612, 1622, 4to; 
 Lugd. Batav. 1718, 4to. 7. De Plantis 
 Exoticis, lib. ii. Venet, 1627, 4to. Alpini 
 enriched the botanic garden of Padua 
 with many exotics, particularly from 
 Egypt. 8. Historise Naturalis JEgypti, 
 lib. iv. Lugd. Batav. 1735, 4to. A fifth 
 book in MS. is said to be in existence. 
 These two last works were published 
 by the care of his son, his successor in 
 the chair of botany. Some MSS. are 
 also mentioned as the works of Alpini, 
 but they have not been printed. He is 
 said to have written a treatise, De Sur- 
 ditate, giving the results of his researches 
 into a calamity with which towards the 
 close of his life he was seriously afflicted. 
 Upon the authority of Boerhaave, it may 
 be stated, that he wrote a work — De 
 Preesagiendis Morbis in Sanitate. Eloy 
 names another work mider the title of 
 Prgelectiones in Gymnasio Patavino 
 habitse. 
 
 ALPTEGHYN, (d. 975,) the founder 
 of the dynasty of the Gasnevides, was 
 originally a juggler, and slave to Sultan 
 Ismael, one of the Samanides. Having 
 obtained his freedom, he rose to be made 
 governor of Khorasan, under Sultan 
 Abdalmelek ; at whose death, having 
 opposed the succession of his son, he 
 fled with 700 men, by whose aid he pos- 
 sessed himself of the city of Gasna, where 
 he was acknowledged as sovereign, and 
 died after a reign of sixteen years. 
 
 ALQUIE, (Francis Saviman d',) a 
 •French writer at the close of the seven- 
 teenth century, who compiled an account 
 of the siege of Candia in 1669, chiefly 
 from the information of J. B. Rostagne, 
 an eye-witness. He was the author of 
 some other pieces, the titles of which 
 may be seen in the Biog. Univ. 
 
 ALQUIER, (Baron Charles Jean 
 Marie, 1752 — 1826,) an able French 
 diplomatist. He began his studies in 
 the congregation of the Oratory, with the 
 intention of remaining there, but after- 
 wards went to the bar. On the breaking 
 
A L Q 
 
 ALS 
 
 out of the revohition, he sided with the 
 strongest party, voting for the execution 
 of the king. His early education ap- 
 pears to have impressed him with no 
 favourable sentiments towards the minis- 
 ters of religion ; but the leading feature 
 in his character was a regard for his 
 own preservation, and he seems to have 
 watched the course of affairs with con- 
 siderable sagacity. In 1795, he was 
 elected secretary of the council of the 
 ancients; and in 1798, he was sent to 
 the elector of Bavaria, to press the re- 
 payment of some money which had been 
 advanced by France. In 1799 there 
 was an idea of appointing him prefect 
 of police ; but Napoleon doubted the 
 strength of his character, and he was 
 sent, in 1800, as ambassador to the 
 Spanish court. In 1801 he was replaced 
 by Lucien Buonaparte, and sent to Na- 
 ples, where he remained till the invasion 
 of that kingdom in 1805. Afterwai'ds, 
 he was employed successively at the 
 courts of Rome, Stockholm, and- Copen- 
 hagen, by Napoleon, who needed the 
 intrigues of such a man, and who seems 
 never to have been disappointed in his 
 estimate of his abilities. He was recalled 
 from Denmark in 1814, by Louis XVIII. 
 and exiled as a regicide by the law of the 
 12th Januaiy, 1816. He retired to Bel- 
 gium, but obtained permission to return 
 in 1818. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AL RAXID, son of Mohammed, king 
 of Seville and Cordova, did all that he 
 could to deter his father from an alliance 
 with Yussef ben Taxfin, emperor of the 
 Almoravides. He saw and predicted the 
 subjugation of Andalusia by that un- 
 principled ally. When the villany was 
 consummated, he, his sisters, and his 
 father were made captives, and doomed 
 to end their days in poverty, in the for- 
 tress of Agmat. 
 
 ALRED, (called also Alfred and 
 Alured.) Under the article Alfred of 
 Beverley, it has been stated, that this 
 writer is usually placed too early. It 
 ought, perhaps, to be added, that the 
 authors of the Biog. Brit, maintain a 
 different opinion ; and also, that a MS. 
 history of the church of St. John of 
 Beverley, by him, is said to exist in the 
 Cotton library. 
 
 ALSAHARAVIUS. See Abulcasis. 
 
 ALSAMA BEN MELIC, Arabian 
 ■\-iceroy of Spain, in the first half of the 
 eighth century. Whether this chief was 
 the one defeated by Pelayo, has been 
 disputed ; but as the period and the 
 name nearly correspond, we may infer 
 363 
 
 that he was. If so, he was doubly un- 
 fortunate ; for though he took Carcas- 
 sonne and Narbonne, he fell, with great 
 loss, before Toulouse. 
 
 ALSHECH, (Moses,) a celebrated 
 rabbi of Safet in Upper Galilee. He was 
 of a family which had long been esta- 
 blished in Spain. He studied under 
 Karo, and became one of the most cele- 
 brated commentators of the sixteenth 
 century. He died between 1592 and 
 1601. He wrote, 1. Toratli Mosheh : a 
 Commentary on the Law of Moses. 2. 
 Maroth Hatzabaoth : a Commentary on 
 the early Prophets. 3. A Commentary 
 on the later Prophets. 4. Romemoth- 
 El : the Exaltation of God. A Commen- 
 tary on the Psalms. 5. Rav Peninim : 
 the Multitude of Pearls. A Commentary 
 on the Proverbs. 6. Commentaries on 
 different books of the Megilloth, i. e. 
 Ruth, Canticles, &c. under various names, 
 which were published together at Prague 
 in 1601, and Amsterdam 1698, and 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 1717. 7. Cha- 
 vatzeleth Hasharon : the Rose of Sharon, 
 a Commentary on Daniel. He Avi-ote 
 also a work on Talmudic phrases, &c. 
 He was much attached to the mystical 
 and allegorical interpretation of Scrip- 
 ture. (De Rossi.) 
 
 ALSOP, (Anthony, died in 1726,) an 
 English scholar and wit. He was elected 
 from Westminster to Christchurch, Ox- 
 ford, where he became censor ; M. A. 
 1696; B.D. 1706. In 1698, he pub- 
 lished Fabulanun ^sopicarum Delectus, 
 with a poetical dedication to Lord Scuda- 
 moi'e, in which he sided with Boyle 
 against Bentley. Sir Jonathan Trelaw- 
 ney, bishop of Winchester, made him his 
 chaplain, — gave him a prebendal stall, 
 and the rectoiy of Brightwell, Bei'ks. 
 He left the kingdom for some time, in 
 consequence of a verdict of 2,000/. 
 against him, in a suit for breaclr of pro- 
 mise of marriage by a lady of Oxford 
 named Astrey. His death was occa- 
 sioned by his falling into a ditch near 
 his garden-door. Sir Francis Bernard, 
 who published two books of his Latin 
 odes in 1752, praises highly his taste and 
 scholarship. Some of his English poems 
 are to be found in the early numbers of 
 the Gentleman's Magazine, and in Dods- 
 ley's and other collections. 
 
 ALSOP, (Vincent, died 1703,) an 
 English nonconformist minister. He 
 was born in Northamptonshire, and edu- 
 cated at St. John's college, Cambridge. 
 He was ordained deacon, and settled 
 as assistant-master at Oakham-school. 
 
AL S 
 
 A LS 
 
 Coming under tlie influence of Mr. King, 
 a puritan minister, whose daugliter he 
 afterwards married, he received ordi- 
 nation as a Presbyterian, and settled at 
 Wilby in Northamptonshire ; whence, in 
 1062, he was ejected for nonconformity. 
 He afterwards succeeded Mr. Cawton, in 
 tiie care of a dissenting congregation in 
 Westminster. He is supposed to have 
 been the author of the Presbyterians' 
 Address to James H., towards whom he 
 felt strong gratitude, in consequence of 
 his pai-doning his son, who had been 
 engaged in some treasonable practices. 
 He lived to be a very old man. He 
 wrote a pamphlet, called Antisozzo, 
 against Dean Sherlock's treatise con- 
 cerning the knowlege of Jesus Christ, in 
 which he thought he discovered a ten- 
 dency to Socinianism. Besides Melius 
 Inquirendum, and some other controver- 
 sial pieces, he was the author of Practical 
 Goodness the Ornament of Religion, and 
 of several sermons. (Biog. Brit.) 
 
 xiLSOUFY, (903—986,) an Arabian 
 astronomer, who devoted himself early 
 to study, and gained the favour and 
 friendship of his prince Adhad Eddaulah. 
 He has left a catalogue of the fixed stars, 
 an astronomical table, and a geometrical 
 treatise on Projection. Large extracts 
 from the first of these were published by 
 Dr. Thomas Hyde, in his Notes on the 
 Observations of Ulugh Beigh, published 
 in 1665, 4to. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALSTEDIUS, (John Henry, 1588— 
 16.38,) one of the German divines that 
 assisted at the synod of Doi't, and the 
 author of an Encyclopaedia, in 2 vols, 
 fol. and several voluminous works ; was 
 professor of philosophy and theology at 
 his native place, Herborn, in Nassau, 
 whence he afterwards removed to Weis- 
 semburg, in Transylvania, where he died. 
 Bayle says, he answered wondei'fvdly weU 
 to the anagram of his name, Sediditas. 
 
 ALSTON, (Charles, 1683 — 1760,) 
 an eminent botanist and physician, 
 king's botanist in Scotland, and professor 
 of botany and the materia medica in the 
 university of Edinburgh. He was the son 
 of Mr. Alston, of Eddlewood, in the west 
 of Scotland, who studied physic, and 
 travelled with some families in a pro- 
 fessional capacity; after which, he re- 
 linquished practice, and retired to live 
 upon his estate. Upon his death, the 
 duchess of Hamilton, to whom he was 
 related, undertook the education of the 
 son, and was desirous of devoting him to 
 the profession of the law ; but his passion 
 for botany and attachment to medical 
 364 
 
 pursuits, proved how fruitless would have 
 been the attempt to give such a direction 
 to his studies. Having received the 
 usual education at the university of 
 Glasgow, he, before the year 1716, was 
 named superintendent of the royal gar- 
 den of Edinburgh ; and at the late 
 period of 33 years of age, he went to 
 Leyden, to study under Boerhaave. Here 
 he contracted a fi-iendship with the cele- 
 brated Dr. Monro, afterwards his col- 
 league at the imiversity ; and this 
 attachment remained during their lives. 
 Alston is to be looked upon as one of the 
 founders of the celebrity of the Edin- 
 burgh school of medicine, acting in con- 
 cert with Monro, Rutherford, Sinclair, 
 and Phmimer. He filled the chair of 
 botany and the materia medica for 
 twenty years, and was highly esteemed 
 by his contemporaries. Dr. John Hope 
 has said of him, "As a man, he was 
 candid, upright, and sincere, learned in 
 his profession, and humane; as a pro- 
 fessor, communicative, and knowing no 
 greater pleasure than to form the minds 
 of his pupils in such a manner as to 
 I'ender them able in their profession, and 
 useful members of society." Mutis, a 
 botanist of New Granada, named a genus 
 of plants the Alstonia, in honour of 
 Alston. His time was almost wholly 
 devoted to teaching ; and he left but few 
 works. These ai-e, — 1. Index Plantai-um, 
 preecipue officinalium, quae in horto 
 medico Edinburgensi studiosis demon- 
 sti'antur. Edinb. 1740, 8vo. 2. Index 
 Medicamentorum simplicium triplex. 
 Edinb. 1752, 8vo. "These are to be 
 looked upon as manuals, written for the 
 use of his pupils. 3. Two Letters on 
 Lime and Lime-water. Phil. Trans, for 
 1751. These led to the publication of, 
 4. A Dissertation on Quick-lime and 
 Lime-water. Edinb. 1752, 12mo; a 
 second dissertation in 1755, 12mo; and 
 a third in 1757, Svo. These are in- 
 genious, and treat of lime-water as a 
 lithontriptic, an antiseptic, and a diuretic. 
 He shows its applicability to the relief 
 of various diseases. 5. Tyrocinium Bo- 
 tanicum Edinburgense. Edinb. 1753, Svo. 
 Alston arranged his plants after the 
 method of Tom-nafort. He rejected the 
 classification of Linnaeus ; and he en- 
 deavoured to refute the docti'ine of the 
 celebrated Swedish naturalist, with re- 
 gard to the sexes of plants. 6. A Dis- 
 sertation on the Sexes of Plants ; in the 
 first volume of Essays and Observations, 
 Physical and Literary. Edinb. 1754. Svo, 
 This is a translation of a part of the pre- 
 
A LS 
 
 ALT 
 
 cediiiiT work. 7. Lectures on the Ma- 
 teria, Medica. Lond. 1770. 4to. 2 vols. 
 These contain a great variety of informa- 
 tion on all matters relating to botany 
 and the materia medica, and display in 
 a favourable point of view the erudition 
 of the professor. They were edited by 
 Dr. Hope, the professor of medicine and 
 botany in the university of Edinburgh. 
 Alston communicated three papers to the 
 5th vol. of Medical Essays and Observa- 
 tions : — 1 . Powder of Tin, an Anthel- 
 mintic Medicine. 2. A Dissertation on 
 Opium. 3. Case of Extravasated Blood 
 in the Pericardium. 
 
 ALSTORPH, John, (1680—1719,) a 
 German antiquary, born at Groningen, 
 educated at Harderwick, under Alme- 
 loveen. He has left two dissertations, 
 much valued by scholars, on the beds 
 and litters of the ancients, and on 
 the spears of the ancients. The latter 
 essay was in the press at the time of the 
 author's death ; and through fear of a 
 scanty sale, the engravings for its illus- 
 tration were never executed : the preface 
 is from the pen of Christopher Sax. (See 
 his Onomasticon, torn. v. p. 534. Suppl. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALSTROEMER, (Jonas,1685— 1 761 ,) 
 a man who exercised a remarkable in- 
 fluence on the industry of Sweden, was 
 born of poor parents at Alingsas, in West 
 Gothland. After struggling some time 
 with want, he came to London, and en- 
 gaged in commercial speculations. Re- 
 turning to his country, he cherished the 
 hope of giving material assistance to the 
 endeavours jvist then made to promote 
 the useful arts. Li 1723, he requested 
 from the states a license to establish ma- 
 nufactures in his native town, which 
 soon became the seat of industry, that 
 spread over other parts of the country. 
 At Gottenburg, having entered into 
 partnership with Nicholas Sahlgren, he 
 established a sugar-house, and inti'o- 
 duced some essential improvements in 
 rural economy, cultivating some plants 
 for dyeing, and extending the culture of 
 potatoes. His ships traded to the In- 
 dies and the Levant, and he went in 
 person to Germany, Holland, and Flan- 
 ders, to collect able workmen and the 
 best models : he also impi-oved the wool 
 trade, by importing the sheep of Spain 
 and England, and even the Angora goat. 
 It was not to be expected, that all the 
 plans of so entei-prising an adventiu'er 
 should meet with success ; but the com- 
 merce and prosperity of Sweden are 
 deeply indebted to him : he was rewarded 
 365 
 
 by king Frederick with tlie title of Coun- 
 sellor of Commerce, and the order of the 
 Polar Star. Adolphus Frederick granted 
 him letters of nobility, and the Academy 
 of Sciences chose him a member. His 
 statue was placed by the states on the 
 Exchange at Stockholm, with the in- 
 scription — Jonas Alstroemer artium fa- 
 brilium in patria instaurator. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ALSTROEMER, (Claude, 1 736 — 
 1794,) son of the preceding, devoted 
 himself to the study of natural history 
 and philosophy ; he was a pupil of Lin- 
 naeus, who has named a genus after him 
 of liliaceous plants. In the papers of 
 the Stockholm Academy, of which he 
 was a member, there is a paper by him 
 descriptive of the Simla Mammon. His 
 three brothers, Patrick, John, and Au- 
 gustus, were distinguished for talents and 
 patriotism ; the first two were member? 
 of the academy of Stockholm. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ALT, (Francis Joseph Nicholas Baron 
 d', 1689—1771,) the author of a History 
 of Switzerland, in ten vols. 8vo, was born 
 of an ancient patrician family at Fri- 
 bourg, captain in the Austrian service 
 in 1718. He returned soon to his native 
 country, over which he long presided, 
 having been appointed avoyer, or magis- 
 trate, in 1737. His historical work has 
 not obtained great reputation. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ALTANI, the name of an ancient 
 and noble family, settled near Friuli, 
 fonnerly known by the name of San 
 Vito ; its head has lately assumed the 
 name of count de Salvarolo. Henry 
 Altani the yoimger printed the memoirs 
 of its most illustrious members at Venice, 
 in 1717. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALTANI, (Antonio, d. 1451,) patri- 
 arch of Aquileia, and aftenvards bishop of 
 Urbino. In 1431, he was sent as nuncio 
 to the council of Basle by Eugcnius IV. 
 and gave such proof of his abilities, that 
 he was employed for the remainder of 
 his life on different confidential missions 
 to the court of Rome, being sent succes- 
 sively to Scotland, England, and Spain. 
 (Liruti, History of Men of Letters of 
 Friuli, tom. ii. p. 304. ed. Ven. 1762, 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALTANI, (Antonio, 1505—1570,) the 
 younger of the same family ; also an 
 ecclesiastic well read in the fathers, and 
 the author of a great many poems that 
 have never been printed. See the book 
 of Liniti, cited above. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALTDORFER, (Albert, 1488— 153S,) 
 
ALT 
 
 A LT 
 
 n painter and ehgi-avor, who was long 
 supposed to be a Swiss, and still appears 
 to be so considered by M. Durdent, in 
 the Biographie Universellc, who states 
 his birth-place to be the town of Altorf, 
 in the canton of Uri ; but M. Heinecken, 
 (Dictionnaire des Artistes dont nous avons 
 des Estamjies, &c.,) has shown very good 
 ground to contend that he was born at 
 Altdorff, in Bavaria. Some of his paint- 
 ings, which, however, are executed in a 
 hard, dry manner, and with little regard 
 to perspective, are preserved with great 
 care at Ratisbon ; and in the Town-house 
 there is a complete collection of his en- 
 gravings. He is called by the French 
 Le petit Albert, because he engraved small 
 prints only ; and for this reason he is 
 ranked amongst the artists distinguished 
 by the name of the ' Little Masters.' He 
 engraved both on wood and copper ; and 
 his works amount to upwards of one hvm- 
 dred and seventy in number. His wood- 
 cuts are, in several instances, nearly 
 equal to those of Holbein, who is believed 
 to have adopted his style. Altdorfer is 
 said, but with no great show of authority, 
 to have been a scholar of Albert Durer. 
 He became a citizen of Ratisbon ; and 
 after passing through all the civil offices 
 of the place, was made a member of the in- 
 ner senate, and ultimately was appointed 
 architect to the town. There are several 
 specimens of his work as a painter, besides 
 those at Ratisbon, preserved in the gal- 
 leries of Vienna and Munich. He is 
 stated in the Biographie Universelle to 
 have died in 1578; but M. Heinecken 
 has given the date as above. (Heinecken, 
 Diet, des Artistes. Ersch and Griiber's 
 Encycl. Strutt's Diet, of Eng. Bryan's 
 Diet. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALTER, (Franz Karl, 1749—1804,) 
 a German critic. He was born at En- 
 glesberg, in Silesia, and died at Vienna. 
 He was a member of the Society of the 
 Jesuits, and professor of Greek in the 
 Gymnasium of St. Ann, and that of the 
 Academy at Vienna. He wrote a vast 
 variety of essays, dissertations, &c. on 
 classical and oriental subjects. He is, 
 however, most known in England as 
 having published an edition of the New 
 Testament. Its basis is the Codex Lam- 
 l)ecii L (in Griesbach, No. 218), a MS. 
 of Vienna. The first volume appeared 
 in 1786, and the second in 1787. It is 
 collated with the other MS. of Vienna, 
 and some Sclavonic and other versions, 
 &c. Bp. Marsh has given a character 
 of tliis edition in the Supplement to his 
 translation of Michaelis ; and Griesbach 
 366 
 
 has shown, in a long note to Section 2 
 of his Prolegomena, the inconveniences 
 which arise from Alter 's adoption of tlie 
 text of this MS. for the basis of his edi- 
 tion. The results of Alter 's collations 
 are incorporated in Griesbach's editions, 
 among all other various lections, a cir- 
 cumstance which of course diminishes 
 the value of the original work. The 
 other works by which Alter is known, 
 are editions of Lysias, parts of Cicero, 
 Lucretius, Homer, Plato, Thucydides, 
 &c. He also published, for the first 
 time, the Greek Chronicle of George 
 Phranzes, or Phranzas, at Vienna, in fol. 
 1 796. A notice on Georgian literature (in 
 German). Most of his essays appeared 
 in the Memorabilien of Paulus, and the 
 AUgemeine Litt. Anzeiger of Leipsic. 
 
 ALTHAMER, (Andrew, died 1.540,) 
 called also Andrew Brentius, from Brentz 
 in Suabia, the place of his birth, a zeal- 
 ous and learned Lutheran minister at 
 Nuremberg. In 1527 and 1528, he as- 
 sisted at the conferences at Berne, on 
 the mode of Christ's presence in the 
 euchai'ist ; he sometimes assumed the 
 fictitious name of Palseo Sphyra. He 
 shared in Luther's early prejudices against 
 the epistle of St. James : he has left, 1. 
 Conciliationes Locorum ScripturFe, 8vo. 
 
 2. Annotationes in Jacobi Epistolam. 
 
 3. De Peccato Originali. 4. De Sacra- 
 mento Altaris. He likewise published 
 a dictionary of Scripture names, and 
 some notes on tlie Germany of Tacitus. 
 J. Arnold Ballensted published a life of 
 him in 1740. See Bayle and Secken- 
 dorf s History of Lutheranism. 
 
 ALTHUSEN, orALTHUSIUS,(John,) 
 syndic at Bremen, and professor of law 
 at Herborn, at the close of the sixteenth 
 century, where he published in 1603 his 
 Politica Methodica Digesta, a book re- 
 markable for the boldness of the demo- 
 cratical principles it inculcates : lie has 
 left also ti'eatises — De Jurisprudentia 
 Romana, and De Civili Conversa- 
 tione. 
 
 ALTICOZZI, (Lorenzo, 1689—1777,) 
 a learned Jesuit, born at Cortona. His 
 chief work is his Sum of St. Augustine, 
 Rome, 1761, 6 vols. 4to, in which he 
 gives a good history of Pelagianism. He 
 wrote against Beausobre's History of 
 Manicheism, and some of the Materialists 
 of his day. 
 
 ALTICOZZI, (Renaud - Angillieri,) 
 born also at Cortona, of noble family ; 
 he published at Florence, in 1749, the 
 Epidicus of Plautus, together with an 
 excellent translation into Italian verse. 
 
ALT 
 
 ALT 
 
 (Bibliotli. des Traducteurs, ed. Milan, 
 17G7, vol. V. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALTILIO, (Gabriello,) one of the 
 Latin poets who flourished in Italy in 
 the fifteenth centiu-y. He was a native 
 of Basilicata, or according to others, of 
 Mantua, and studied at Naples, where 
 he became the friend of all the literary 
 men of that age, esjjecially Sannazarius. 
 He was preceptor to Ferdinand, the son 
 of Alphonso II. who ceded the throne in 
 his son's favour. Altilius was nominated 
 bishop of Policasti'o in 1471, according 
 to Ughelli, in his Itaha Sacra, who places 
 his death in 1 484 ; but Mazzuchelli, 
 whose testimony is preferable, and has 
 been confirmed by Afflitto, (Mem. degli 
 Scritt. Napolit. i. 246,) quoted by Tira- 
 boschi, gives the date of his episcopate 
 as 1489, and of his death 1501. He was 
 a very influential member of the Aca- 
 demy of Pontanus. His poetical re- 
 mains are very few, but they are highly 
 esteemed, especially his Epithalamium 
 on the marriage of Isabella of Aragon, 
 daughter of Alfonso II. with Giovanni 
 Galeazzo Sforza, duke of Milan. It was 
 printed, with some other of his pieces, by 
 Aldus, in 1.533, in his Collection of the 
 poems of Sannazarius, and others. It is 
 also found in the Carmina illustrum 
 Poetarum Italorum of Toscanus, and the 
 Delicise Poetarum Italorum of Gruter, 
 and in the editions of Sannazarius, pub- 
 lished by Comino in 1719, &c. More 
 may be found on Altilius, in Tafuri Scrit- 
 tori del Regno di Napoli, and the autho- 
 rities cited above. (Biog. Univ. Tira- 
 boschi, vi. 955, &c.) 
 
 ALTING, (Menso, 1541—1617,) bom 
 at Fleda, died president of the consis- 
 tory at Embden, after having faithfully 
 preached the doctrines of the reformation 
 under the tyi*annical government of the 
 duke of Alva, for nearly forty years. 
 The study of the Epistle to the Romans 
 is said to have brought him from the 
 opinion of Luther to those of Calvin, in 
 whose defence he wrote against Ligonius 
 and Hunnius. His life was written by 
 Ubbo Emmius. (Biog. Univ. See Sax. 
 Onomast. Litt. p. v. p. 541 . 
 
 ALTING, (Henry, 1583—1644,) son 
 of the above, a learned divine of the 
 reformed church, who attended the Synod 
 of Dort, and assisted at the revisal made 
 at Leyden of the Dutch translation of 
 the Bible. After having studied at Gro- 
 ningen and Herborn, he accompanied 
 the electorial Prince Palatine as precep- 
 tor on his travels through France, and 
 
 On 
 367 
 
 went with him in 1612 to England 
 
 the marriage of the elector with tlie 
 princess Elizabeth in 1613, Alting left 
 England for Heidelberg, where he was 
 elected Professor locorum communium. 
 In 1616, he became director of the Col- 
 legium Sapientise; and in 1618 might 
 have succeeded Coppenius as second pro- 
 fessor of divinity, but declined in favour 
 of Scidtetus. In 1622, on the capture 
 of Heidelberg by Tilli, he narrowly 
 escaped being murdered. It is said 
 that the colonel of a regiment, after 
 telling him that he had killed ten men 
 with his axe that day, and would add 
 Alting to the number if he could find 
 him, asked Alting who he was. He 
 answered that he had been president in 
 the Collegium SapientiEe, which answer 
 not being understood, he escaped. After 
 living an luisettled life for two years, he 
 retired in 1624 to the Hague, and was 
 reinstated as instructor to the prince by 
 his sovereign, the king of Bohemia, but 
 did not resume his functions as a public 
 teacher till 1627, when he accepted the 
 professorship of divinity at Groningen. 
 He always visited his royal master once 
 a year after his retirement from his 
 kingdom. The close of his life was sad- 
 dened by the loss of his eldest daughter, 
 and subsequently of his wife, which af- 
 flictions brought on the lethargic disorder 
 of which he died. He appears to have 
 been highly valued for his attainments 
 and personal worth. He was employed 
 by the count of Bentheim to inspect and 
 regulate the churches of Steinfurt, for 
 the pm-pose of counteracting the ten- 
 dency to Socinianism with which they 
 Avere affected. He has left several pieces 
 against the Arminians, and also against 
 the adherents to the Confession of Augs- 
 burg. His chief works are, 1. Notte in 
 Decadem Pi-oblematum Johannis Behm, 
 &c. Heidelb. 1618. 2. Loci Communes. 
 3. H. Altingi Disputatio Harmonica, Con- 
 fessionum Augustanse, Palatinse, et Hel- 
 veticse Orthodoxarum Consensum exhi- 
 bens. Heidelb. 1620, 1647, 1652. 4. 
 Explicatio Catecheseos Palatinse, &c. (in 
 the collected woi-ks of the Heidelberg 
 theologians.). 5. Historise Ecclesiae Pa- 
 latinae. Amst. 1644, Groningen, 1680. 
 In the Biog. Univ. his Theologia His- 
 torica, Amst, 1644, is said to have been 
 one of the earliest sketches of the his- 
 tory of christian dogmas, which have 
 become such a favourite theme in Ger- 
 many. (Biog. Univ. Walchii Bibliotheea 
 Tlieologica, &c.) 
 
 ALTING, (James, 1618 — 1679,) a 
 learned Hebrew and oriental scholar, 
 
ALT 
 
 ALT 
 
 son of the above, born at neklelhnvg, 
 and educated at Groningcn. In IGIO, 
 he visited England, and was ordained by 
 Bishop Prideaux of AVorcester. In 1G43, 
 however, he returned to Germany, to 
 accept the professorship of Hebrew at 
 Groningen, vacated by the death of Go- 
 niarus. Des Marets was at the same 
 time elected to the professorship of divi- 
 nity, which Gomarus had also held. In 
 1667, he was chosen professor of divinity 
 at Groningen, in conjunction with Des 
 Marets, with whom, as being attached 
 to the subtleties of the schoolmen, Alting, 
 who professed to lecture solely from the 
 Scriptures, had a long and painfid con- 
 • troversy. It was referred to the Leyden 
 divines, and was only terminated by a 
 formal reconciliation with Marets on his 
 death-bed. J. Alting wrote many disser- 
 tations on Hebrew and oi-iental anti- 
 quities — commentai'ies on many of the 
 books of the Bible — a Chaldee and a 
 Syi-iac Grammar. One of his works de- 
 serves mention by its proper title — He- 
 braeorum Respublica Scholastica, seu 
 Historia Acaderaiarum et Promotionum 
 Academ. in Populo Hebreeorum, 1652, 
 12mo. His works were published in 
 5 vols, fol. at Amsterdam, in 1687, by 
 Balthazar Becker, with a Life of Alting 
 prefixed. 
 
 ALTING, (Menso,1636— 1713,) cousin 
 of the above, a learned burgomaster of 
 Groningen, celebrated for his topogra- 
 phical writings. His principal works 
 are, Notitia Germaniae inferioris. Amst. 
 1697, fol. Descriptio Frisiae, fol. 1701. 
 
 ALTISSIMO, a celebrated Italian 
 improvisatore of the fifteenth century, 
 whose verses were often collected and 
 published ; he was living in 1514. There 
 is an indifferent translation by him into 
 Ottava rima of the famous " I Reali di 
 Francia," 4to, Ven. 1534. Tiraboschi, 
 vi. 838, mentions Altissimo, but not this 
 translation, which he was probably un- 
 acquainted with, for he disapproves of 
 the opinion of Crescimbeni that Altissimo 
 was only an epithet, and that his christian 
 name was Cristoforo — both which facts 
 are supported by the title-page of this 
 volume. 
 
 ALTMANN, (Jean Georges, 1697— 
 1758,) a learned Swiss historian and di- 
 vine. From 1734 to 1737, he was pi-ofessor 
 of Greek and Moral Philosophy at Berne. 
 In conjunction with Breitinger, he com- 
 piled the Tempe Helvetica, 6 vols. 8vo. 
 Zurich, 1735—1743. He has left Melete- 
 niata Philologico-critica in Nov. Test. 
 ^ 3 vols. 4to. Utrecht, 1753, and some 
 368 
 
 valuable memoirs en the geography, 
 history, and antiquities of Switzei'land ; 
 also Principia Ethica ex Monitis Legis 
 Naturae et Praeceptis Religionis Chris- 
 tianas deducta, 2d edit. 2 vols. Svo. 
 Zurich, 1735. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALTOMARI, (Donato Antonio,) an 
 eminent natural philosopher and phy- 
 sician, was born at Naples about the be- 
 ginning of the sixteenth century. He 
 was forced by the calumnies of his ene- 
 mies to take refuge at Rome, until hav- 
 ing obtained the protection of Paid IV. 
 he returned to his native city. He is 
 charged with being too servile a copyist 
 of Galen ; but his works must have been 
 held in high esteem by his contempo- 
 raries, as they were published in folio 
 many times m Italy, during the latter 
 part of the sixteenth century. His 
 treatise, De Mannae diflPerentiis ac virir 
 bus, &c. contains some curious observa- 
 tions on Manna. 
 
 ALTOMONTE, (Andre,) an engraver, 
 but of what country is not known. This 
 name appears as an assistant to Prenner 
 in the engraving of some plates from 
 pictures in the imperial gallery at Vienna, 
 published in 1728. (Strutt. Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 ALTON, (Richard Count d',) a gene- 
 ral in the service of Austria, who held a 
 command in 1789 against the insurgents 
 in the Low Coiuitries. At first he had 
 some success ; but when they seized 
 Ghent, he retired to Brussels, from 
 whence, after a short time, being fright- 
 ened by the spirit shown by the inhabi- 
 tants, and by the desertion of his troops, 
 he withdrew to Vienna, where he died. 
 His brother, Count d'Alton, served fii'st 
 against the Turks, afterwards against the 
 French. He commanded a body of 
 troops in the siege of Valenciennes, in 
 1792, and was killed in thfe battle near 
 Dunkirk in 1793. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALTORFER, (Albert, 1488—1578,) 
 a painter, and engraver in wood and 
 metal, born at Altorf, in Switzerland, 
 died member of the senate of Ratisbon. 
 His works are vigorously conceived in 
 the old Gothic style, giving all the de- 
 tails of the design, but with little know- 
 ledge of perspective. 
 
 ALTOUVITIS, (Marseille, 1550 — 
 1606,) born at Marseilles, of an ancient 
 Florentine house. She wrote in Italian 
 and French some agreeable poetical 
 pieces, inserted in the collections of her 
 time. The Abbe Goujet (Bibliotheque 
 Fran9aise, torn, xiii.) gives an ode by her 
 in praise of Louis Belland and Pierre 
 Paul, the restorers of Proven9al poetry. 
 
ALT 
 
 A L V 
 
 ALTOVm, (Antonio, 1521—1573,) 
 born of an ancient family at Florence, 
 of which place he was made archbishop 
 in 1548; although, in consequence of 
 some suspicions of the grand duke, he 
 did not take possession of the see till 
 nineteen years afterwards. He was one 
 of the prelates at the council of Trent. 
 He was a man of ready wit, well versed 
 in dialectics and theology. Two of his 
 notes are published in the decisions of 
 the rota at Rome. He has left also the 
 decrees of a diocesan and a provincial 
 synod held by him, with some MS. trea- 
 tises enumerated in Negri's History of 
 the Florentine Writers. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALTSCULLER NAPHTALI, a Ger- 
 man Jewish rabbi of the sixteenth cen- 
 tin-y ; author of a commentary on the 
 whole Scriptm-e, called Ajala Schelucha, 
 The Sent Stag, published at Cracow, and 
 translated into German by Cnollenius, 
 (De Rossi.) 
 
 ALTZENBACK, (Wilhelm.) There 
 were two engravers of this name, father 
 and son, both Wilhelm, and who en- 
 graved some time during the seventeenth 
 century. They worked at Paris, and 
 afterwards at Strasburgh, where many 
 of their plates were published by Gerard 
 Altzenback. They frequently worked 
 together, and sometimes conjointly with 
 other artists. (Strutt. Diet, of Eng. 
 Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ALUNNO, (Francesco,) an Italian phi- 
 lologist and mathematician, born at Fer- 
 rara during the latter half of the fifteenth 
 centmy. He has left Observations on 
 Petrarch, the Riches of the Italian Tongue, 
 and a Dictionary of Italian words, called 
 " Fabbrica del Hondo," (1546,) which 
 was a work of much reputation, though 
 badly arranged. Tassoni rather ill-na- 
 turedly called it " Fabbrica di Mattoni 
 mal cotti," ("A Manufacture of badly- 
 baked Bricks.") (Tiraboschi, vii. 1572.) 
 
 ALUNNO, (Niccolo,) a painter of the 
 early Roman school, who appeal's to 
 have flourished between 1458 and 1500, 
 and somewhat later. He painted in 
 distemper, as was common before the 
 works of Pietro Perugino ; and his co- 
 louring has stiU retained its lustre. In 
 the church of St. Niccolo, at Foligno, is 
 an altar-piece by him of the Virgin siu'- 
 rounded by saints, and underneath small 
 histories of the Passion ; but all his works 
 are said by Vasari to be sui-passed by his 
 picture of the Pieta in the same church. 
 Some of his performances are dated soon 
 after 1500. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. ii. 21. 
 Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 VOL. I. 369 
 
 ALVA. See Alba. 
 
 ALVA Y ASTORGA, (Pedro de, 
 d. 1667,) a Franciscan monk, and a mis- 
 sionary to Peru in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. He wi"ote a parallel between our 
 Saviour and St. Francis, and had the in- 
 genuity to discover foin* thousand points 
 of resemblance. Works of this class, 
 and treatises on the Immaculate Concep- 
 tion, constitute nearly the whole of his 
 voluminous writings, which honour the 
 Virgin Mary, to the prejudice of the 
 only tiaie object of human worship. The 
 crown of this friar's merits is his Abeceda- 
 rio de Maria, which, had he lived to finish 
 it, must have extended to about 18 vols, 
 folio. This is a book of praises in ho- 
 noiu" of the Virgin Mary, arranged ac- 
 cording to the letters of the alphabet : 
 the letter A alone comprises 3 vols, folio ! 
 The ingenuity of one who collected so 
 many epithets, cannot be questioned ; 
 but it would have been well if this writer 
 had sometimes abstained fi-oni speculation 
 upon subjects which cannot be approached 
 without profaneness. 
 
 ALVARADO, (Pedi-o de, d. 1541,) a 
 native of Badajoz, assisted Hernando 
 Cortes in the conquest of Mexico; was 
 the lieutenant of that celebrated adven- 
 tvu-er — himself scarcely less celebrated — 
 and governor of Guatimala. The part 
 which he took in the chief adventures of 
 Cortes, before and immediately after the 
 captiu-e of Montezuma, wiU be best ex- 
 plained in the account of that chief; but 
 he had also to perform an individual 
 part, which, independently of his other 
 exploits, would have obtained him a 
 name for ever memorable in the annals 
 of discovery. When Cortes marched 
 from Mexico to oppose Narvaez, he con- 
 fided the care of Montezuma's person, 
 and the management of the natives, to 
 Alvarado. This veteran had only 150 
 men under his orders. He soon per- 
 ceived that the Mexicans were plotting, 
 not only the liberation of their monarch, 
 but the destruction of his little party. 
 Had he possessed half the address of 
 Cortes, he would have dissipated the con- 
 federacy by fair words ; but he was a 
 blunt soldier, whose only policy was 
 force. On the return of a solemn festival, 
 when the people were occupied in the 
 great temple, he seized the avenues 
 which led to it ; assailed them, unsus- 
 picious of an attack, and unarmed ; and 
 committed a terrible slaughter among 
 them ; in fact he spared none whom he 
 could reach, though many did contrive 
 to escape over the battlements of the 
 BB 
 
AL V 
 
 AL V 
 
 temple. This act so much enraged the 
 natives, that they arose, burnt the two 
 brigs which Cortes had constructed, 
 massacred all the Spaniards whom they 
 could seize, destroyed their magazines, 
 and besieged them within their fortifica- 
 tions. Had not Cortes vanquished Nar- 
 vaez, and returned with incredible 
 celerity to the assistance of Alvarado, 
 the garrison must have perished, if not 
 by the sword, certainly by famine. The 
 joy which the two parties felt at this junc- 
 tion — a junction which the Mexicans, 
 had they known any thing of war, might 
 easily have prevented — rendered them 
 for a moment insensible of their danger, 
 and instead of conciliating, they exaspe- 
 rated the natives still more. The death 
 of Montezuma, the expulsion of the Spa- 
 niards from the city, their retreat into 
 Tlascala, their return with numerous 
 Tlascalan allies to Mexico, their siege of 
 that capital, their captiu-e of Guatmozin, 
 successor of Montezuma, and their sub- 
 jugation of the empire, will be related 
 under the proper heads. Of Alvarado 
 it may be said that he contributed as 
 much as any other Spaniard to these ex- 
 traordinary successes. Accused of abus- 
 ing his power in the conquest of Mestecca, 
 Socomesco, and Guatimala, he vindicated 
 himself so much to the satisfaction of the 
 emperor, that he was invested with the go- 
 vernment of Guatimala. But tranquillity 
 suited not a disposition so adventurous. 
 Affirming that Quito was not included 
 within the limits assigned to the govern- 
 ment of Pizarro, with 800 followers he pe- 
 netrated into that region. His countrymen, 
 however, wished for no companions ; they 
 wanted the glory and profit for them- 
 selves ; and Alvai-ado had the option 
 either of fighting or of receiving a large 
 sum of money as the condition of re- 
 nouncing the entei-jmse. He chose the 
 latter; and subsequently he made an ex- 
 pedition into California. He perished in 
 1541, while chastising the Indians of 
 Xalisco, who had tlirown off the yoke. 
 (Barcia, Historiadores Pi'imitivos. De 
 Soils, Historia de la Conquista. Torque- 
 mada, Monarchia Indiana.) 
 
 ALVARADO, (Alfonso de, d. 1554,) 
 of Burgos, one of the generals who con- 
 tributed to the conquest of Peru. In 
 the disputes between Almagro (see the 
 name) and Pizarro, he adhered to the 
 latter, and was defeated by the former ; 
 but in 1538 he shared in the triumph 
 over Almagro. After the murder of 
 Pizarro he fought under the ensign of 
 Vaca de Castro, (see the name,) and in 
 370 
 
 1542 he led the right wing of the army 
 which at Chupas destroyed the hopes of 
 the young Almagro. Against the rebels 
 he distinguished himself, and was made 
 captain-general of Peru; but in 1553 he 
 was vanquished, and his mortification at 
 the disaster seems to have hastened his 
 end ; we know that he did not long sur- 
 vive it. (Barcia. Robertson, &c.) 
 
 ALVARES, (d. 1585,) a native of the 
 Azores, who, in the sixteenth century, 
 had the boldness to give himself out as 
 Dom Sebastian, (see the name,) king of 
 Portugal, whose death in Africa had so 
 deeply afflicted his people. Having 
 passed some time in the monastery of 
 Santa Cruz at Cintra, this impostor, for 
 the purpose of extending his reputation 
 by ascetic observances, retired to a her- 
 mitage. He must have borne some like- 
 ness to the unfortunate king ; and this 
 circumstance was probably the cause of 
 his assuming the character. The pea- 
 santry of Portugal, like the Welsli and the 
 Britons of a former age, were imwilling 
 to believe that their favourite king had 
 perished: they were quite sure he would 
 one day return to receive the sceptre. 
 Hence the readiness with which so many 
 hastened to the hermitage of Alvares, 
 who held out his hand to be kissed very 
 royally. Soon he had his household 
 officers, and he issued his mandates to 
 all the authorities in the kingdom imme- 
 diately to acknowledge him. The efforts 
 to take him, dead or alive, were for some 
 time fruitless ; the coimtrymen favoured 
 his concealment ; and he evaded the mi- 
 nisters of justice sent to apprehend him. 
 But at last numbers overcame him ; he 
 was taken to Lisbon, and executed amidst 
 the scorn of the people. 
 
 ALVARES, (Francisco,) of Coimbra, 
 almoner of Dom Manuel, king of Portu- 
 gal, was sent in 1515, with Duarte Gal- 
 vaon, on an embassy to David (see the 
 name) king of Abyssinia. He did not 
 reach Gondar until five years after his 
 departiu-e from Lisbon. In 1527 he re- 
 turned, and was rewarded by a good 
 benefice. The result of his observations, 
 and a curious book it is, he gave in Por- 
 tuguese to the public in 1540. From that 
 period, Prester John and his kingdom 
 were in the mouth of most readers in 
 Europe. Its translation into French, 
 Spanish, and Italian, was the chief cause 
 of its popularity. 
 
 ALVARES, (Manuel, 1526—1583,) a 
 Jesuit of Madeira, who taught Latin with 
 much applause at Lisbon and Coimbra. 
 His work, De Institutione Grammatica, 
 
A L V 
 
 AL V 
 
 was ^videly clifiiised : that De Mensuris, 
 Ponderibus et Numeris, had much less 
 celebrity. 
 
 ALVARES DE ORIENTE, (Fer- 
 nando,) a native of Goa, and a poet 
 much esteemed in Portugal. His Lusi- 
 tania Transformata is in the style of 
 Montemayor's Diana. The sentiments 
 and versification are much better than 
 the subject. 
 
 ALVAREZ, (Diego, d. 1635,) a Do- 
 minican of Rio Seco, professor of the- 
 ology in Spain and Rome, became 
 archbishop of Trani, in the kingdom of 
 Naples. His dignity he owed chiefly to 
 his publications, of which the most cele- 
 brated were, De Auxiliis Divinje Gratire; 
 Concordia Liberi Arbitrii cum Prtedesti- 
 natione ; with commentaries on Isaiah, 
 and the Summa of Aquinas. He was 
 a learned man, and a man of consider- 
 able reflection ; and was particularly 
 conversant with the admkable works of 
 St. Anselm and the Angelic Doctor. 
 
 ALVAREZ, (Martin, 1714—1819,) a 
 native of Andalusia, who entered the 
 army while very young, was made conde 
 de Colomei-a, captain-general in the 
 Spanish armies, and viceroy of Navan-e. 
 His talents, however, were not of a high 
 order : entrusted in 1 794 with the de- 
 fence of the Navarese frontier against 
 revolutionary Fi-ance, he obtained as 
 little reputation as he had previously done 
 in the defence of Gibraltar against the 
 EngUsh. He was soon replaced by a 
 younger general, the Prince of Castel 
 Franco. He acknowledged Joseph as 
 king of Spain ; and his great age pro- 
 tected him against the vengeance of 
 Fernando VIL He sunk latterly into 
 extreme insignificance. 
 
 ALVAREZ, (d. 1830,) a celebrated 
 scidptor, of whom his coimtrymen of Va- 
 lencia have reason to be proud. By his 
 government he was pensioned and sent 
 to study at Rome. His talents procured 
 him the esteem of Canova andThorwald- 
 sen. Grateful for the benefits which he 
 had received from the Bourbons, he re- 
 fused to acknowledge King Joseph : he 
 was therefore confined in the castle of 
 St. Angelo, but was soon enlarged — pro- 
 bably thi-ough the interference of General 
 MioUis and Canova. On the restoration, 
 King Fernando created him a baron, but 
 whether the pension was also restored we 
 have not the means of ascertaining. We 
 only know that he lived and died poor. 
 He married a Fleming, and never would 
 return to his own country. His statue 
 of Adonis, executed in 1811, is much 
 371 
 
 admired. He may be said to have im- 
 bibed the spirit of the antique ; his works 
 are gracefid, and executed in a delicate 
 yet masterly manner. 
 
 ALVAREZ DE CASTRO, (Mariano, 
 1770 — 1809,) a Spanish colonel, born at 
 Osma, whose patriotic defence of Girona, 
 of which he was the military comman- 
 dant, entitles him to the respect of pos- 
 terity. With a garrison of only 2500 
 men, he defended that place during forty- 
 eight days against the ovei-powering 
 forces of France. The very women 
 fought with him. The plague thinned 
 his troops one half; and when the place 
 could no longer hold out, he refused to 
 sign the capitulation. He died in prison, 
 of the contagion which had been so fatal 
 to his brave companions. 
 
 ALVARO OF CORDOVA, (more 
 generally known by his latinized name of 
 Alvarus Cordubensis,) the continuator of 
 San Eulogio'sMemoriale Sanctorum, after 
 the martyrdom of that writer, and an 
 eye-witness of many of the scenes de- 
 scribed by him. His authority, there- 
 fore, is of great weight. See Eulogio, 
 and AuRELio. 
 
 ALVARO PELAGIO, (d. 1352,) 
 bishop of Silves, in Algarve, passed the 
 greater part of his life in Italy, and was 
 high in favour with John XXII. at 
 Avignon. He wrote De Planctu Ec- 
 clesiae Speculum Regum Liber Unus, 
 &c. 
 
 ALVAROTTO, (Jacopo, d. 1452,) a 
 learned canonist, professor of law at Pa- 
 dua, the author of Commentaria in Libros 
 Feudorum, a work frequently quoted by 
 Italian lawyers. 
 
 ALVENSLEBEN, (Philip Charies, 
 Count d', 1745 — 1802,) an able Prussian 
 diplomatist and statesman. During the 
 seven years' war, he was brought up at 
 Magdebourg with the prince, afterwards 
 Frederick William II. He studied law 
 at Halle, and was appointed referendary 
 in the court of accounts at Berlin. In 
 1775, he was sent as envoy extraordinary 
 to the elector of Saxony. During the 
 war for the succession of Bavaria, he 
 acted as intermediate agent between the 
 king of Prussia and the old electoi'ate 
 court. In 1787, he was sent ambassador 
 to France ; in 1788, to Holland ; in 1789, 
 to England. In 1790, he was recalled, 
 and appointed minister for foreign 
 affairs ; and was the means of founding 
 several benevolent institutions at Berlin, 
 where he died. He was the author of an 
 historical work — Essai d'un Tableau 
 Chronologique des Evenemens de la 
 BB2 
 
A L V 
 
 AL X 
 
 Guerre depuis la Paix de Munster jusqu'a 
 celle de Hubertsbourg. 8vo. Berlin, 
 1792. 
 
 ALVENSLEBEN, (Charles Gerhard 
 d', 1778 — 1831,) a Prussian general of 
 great bravery, born at Schochurtz. He 
 distinguished himself at the battles of 
 Lutzen, Dresden, and under the walls of 
 Paris. He retired from the service in 
 1829 to his native place, where he died. 
 (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALVIANO, (Bartolomeo, 1455 — 
 1515,) a Venetian general. His first 
 command was in 1508, when he gained, 
 in a winter campaign among the Julian 
 Alps, such advantages over the Emperor 
 Maximilian, that the republic decreed 
 him triumphal honours. The caution of 
 the senate forbidding him to act on the 
 offensive was the cause of the loss of the 
 battle at Ghiaradadda, (1509,) where 
 10,000 of his men being slain, he was 
 taken prisoner by Louis XII., after being 
 severely wounded in the face. In 1513, 
 when the Venetians became the allies of 
 France, he recovered his liberty ; and 
 under the command of the duke of Mi- 
 lan, took Brescia and Bergamo, and 
 shut up the Spanish troops near Vicenza, 
 in such a way, that could his impetuosity 
 have been restrained from offering battle, 
 they must have surrendered at discretion. 
 An engagement took place at Creazzo, 
 Oct. 7, 1513, in which Alviano was 
 worsted ; a disgrace which he soon wiped 
 off by the capture of Cremona and Lodi. 
 At the head of less than 300 horsemen, 
 he came so opportunely to the assistance 
 of Francis I. at the battle of Marignan, 
 in 1515, that he had the credit of turning 
 in his fa.vour the fortunes of the day. 
 Three weeks afterwards, he inciUTed 
 such fatigue in inspecting the works in 
 the siege of Brescia, as threw him into 
 a fever, of which he died, Oct. 7, deeply 
 regretted. The Venetians settled a pen- 
 sion on his son, and gave dowries witli 
 his daughters in man-iage. Alviano cul- 
 tivated literature and poetry. He was 
 the founder of an academy in his domain 
 at Pordenone, which has sent forth se- 
 veral distinguished men. (Sismondi, in 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALVINTZI, (Peter,) a Protestant ec- 
 clesiastic, who flourished in the early 
 part of the seventeenth century. He 
 was born in Transylvania ; and after 
 studying in several universities, settled 
 in Hungary, where he entered into a 
 eliarp controversy with the Jesuit, Peter 
 Pazmany, afterwards archbishop of Gran. 
 H^ wrote several polemical tracts in the 
 372 
 
 language of Himgary ; also a grammar 
 of that tongue. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALVINZY, (N. Baron d', 1726 — 
 1810,) a field-marshal in the service of 
 Austria, born in Transylvania. Having 
 seen a good deal of service in the war 
 with France, he was appointed to the 
 command of the army in Italy, where, 
 at first, he had some success ; but being 
 completely defeated in the battles of 
 Rivoli and Areola, he was superseded. 
 Through the favour of his sovereign, 
 (whom he had instructed in the art of 
 war,) he was named, in 1798, com- 
 mander-general in Hungary,- where he 
 died, greatly beloved. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALVISET, (Dom Benoit, d. 1673,) 
 a Benedictine monk, born at the com- 
 mencement of the seventeenth century 
 at Besan9on ; the author of a learned 
 treatise on the privileges of the regular 
 orders, entitled, Murenure sacrae Vestis 
 Sponsae Regis seterni vermiculatae ; 4to, 
 Ven. 1661. It contained some ex- 
 pressions not pleasing to the court of 
 Rome, and was put into the Index Ex- 
 purgatorius. It has, nevertheless, been 
 reprinted without alteration at Kempten, 
 (Campdona,) in Saxony, in 1673. (Suppl. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALVISET, (Dom Arsene, d. 1698,) 
 younger brother of the preceding ; the 
 author of an unpublished Latin com- 
 mentary on the rule of St. Benedict. 
 (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALXINGER, (Johann Baptist von, 
 1775 — 1797,) a native of Vienna, whose 
 poems have obtained some celebrity. 
 His parents, who were in good circum- 
 stances, gave him an excellent education, 
 during which he studied inider Eckel, the 
 celebrated numismatic writer. Having 
 studied law, he became doctor of law 
 and agent to the imperial court. In 
 1794, he received another official em- 
 ployment — inspector of the court-theatre 
 (Hof theatersecretiir.) He was consi- 
 dered the first poet of Vienna ; but Dr. 
 Wolff remarks, that Vienna was then not 
 remarkable for poetical talent. In 1788, 
 he published, at Klagenfurth and Lay- 
 bach, a collection of poems ; and in 
 1794 another at Vienna ; in 1792, a 
 poetical version of Florian's Numa Pom- 
 pilius. But the two most celebrated of 
 his pieces are two romantic poems in 
 imitation of Wi eland. 1. Doolin von 
 Maynz, ein Rittergedicht. Leipzig, 
 1787. 2. Bliomberis, ein Rittergedicht, 
 Leipzig, 1791. There is considerable 
 elegance and command of language in 
 these poems ; and they are highly ere- 
 
A LX 
 
 A MA 
 
 ditable to the talents of an author who 
 died so yonng, although Dr. Wolff speaks 
 of them as alread)^ forgotten. He was 
 much beloved by those around him, and 
 his death extremely regretted. (Wolff's 
 Encyclopadie. Conveisations-Lexicon.) 
 
 ALY-SHIR,orALiscHiR,(Emir,) a Per- 
 sian poet and statesman ; his education 
 was watched over with great care by his 
 father, who occupied an eminent post 
 in the court. On the death of his 
 sovereign, Aboul Cassim Babour, who 
 was a great patron of letters, he retired 
 for the sake of study to Meshed, and 
 subsequently to Samarcand. His repu- 
 tation, however, was too great to admit 
 of his remaining in obscurity ; and he 
 was sent for by Hassein Myrza, the suc- 
 cessful aspirant to the throne of Khora- 
 san, who received him at Hei-at with 
 great honour, and made him his grand 
 vizier. Aly-Shir, however, longed for re- 
 tirement ; and after some years spent in 
 filling the highest offices of state, he de- 
 voted the remainder of his life to litera- 
 ture. He was a great patron of scholars, 
 and was himself the author of several 
 poems in Turkish and Persian. He died 
 A. D. 1,500, A. H. 906. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALYM-GUERAI, thirty-fourth khan 
 of the Crimea, appointed by the Ottoman 
 Porte, about the middle of the eighteenth 
 century, as the successor of Arslan his 
 cousin. He was a man of great abilities, 
 but of uncertain conduct ; and having 
 appointed his son in 1757 governor of the 
 TcU'tars, in defiance of their laws, they 
 broke out into open rebellion, upon the 
 occasion of an unusual demand made 
 upon them for provisions, to supply a 
 scarcity at Constantinople. Alym-Guerai 
 having joined the rebels, and attempted 
 to cut otf the supplies of Constantinople, 
 was deposed in 1758. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALYON, (Pierre Philippe, (1756 — 
 1816,) a French apothecary, who was 
 employed previously to the Revolution, 
 as tutor to the children of the duke of 
 Orleans. He was for some years much 
 occupied in medical researches, but they 
 have not been the means of advancing 
 medical science. He was appointed chief 
 apothecary in the Hospital du Val de 
 Grace, and in that of the Imperial Guard. 
 Besides a medical essay, he has left two 
 elementary treatises on botany and che- 
 mistry. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ALYPIUS, of Alexandria, a writer on 
 music ; of whose works a small fragment 
 has been preserved, under the title of 
 'E.icraywyr} Movctikt;, and printed in the 
 Antiquse Musicse Scriptores of Meibo- 
 373 
 
 mius, Amstel. 1652, 4to, who not only 
 made use of the MS. belonging to Joseph 
 Scaliger, from which Meursius gave the 
 first edition, but others also existing in 
 England and Italy. Alypius is the only 
 ancient writer who has preserved the 
 musical notes of the Greeks. His age is 
 uncertain. De la Borde, in his Essai sur 
 la Musique, iii. 133, places him towards 
 the end of the fourth century. 
 
 ALYPIUS, of Antioch, tlie architect, 
 to whom Jvdian, according to Ammianus, 
 xxxiii. 1 , entrusted the rebuilding of the 
 temple of Jerusalem ; but from which the 
 workmen were frightened by fires that 
 proceeded from the earth. Amongst the 
 letters of Julian, are two addressed to 
 Alypius, one inviting him to Rome, and 
 the other thanking him for his treatise 
 on Geography, accompanied with a map, 
 and to which the geographer had prefixed 
 a copy of Iambic verses, in praise of 
 Julian's activity. 
 
 ALYPIUS, aphilosopher of Alexandria, 
 of exceedingly diminutive stature ; he 
 was contemporary with Jamblichus, who 
 wrote his life, and who speaks in the 
 highest terms of the acuteness of his 
 understanding, and the integrity of his 
 character. None of his writings have 
 come down to us, his communications to 
 his pupils being entirely oral ; he died at 
 a great age in Alexandria. 
 
 ALYPIUS, (died 430,) the friend of 
 St. Augustine, baptized with him at 
 Milan in 388, consecrated bishop of Ta- 
 gasta in Africa in 394. In 403 he 
 assisted in the attempt made to bring 
 the Donatists to unity in the council of 
 Cai-thage. In 411 he assisted St. Augus- 
 tine in the conference at Carthage, on 
 the same subject. In 419 he was sent 
 by the African bishops to Honorius, when 
 he was employed by pope Boniface in 
 confuting the Pelagians. 
 
 ALZATE Y RAMIREZ, (Jose An- 
 tonio,) a celebrated Mexican astronomer 
 during the last century, who deserves 
 commendation, not merely for the pro- 
 gress which he himself made in that and 
 the kindred sciences, but for the ardour 
 with which he induced many of his 
 countrymen to follow his example. This 
 he did through a periodical which he 
 long conducted — the Gaceta de Litera- 
 tura. His scientific writings are numer- 
 ous, but they are not of the first order. 
 
 AMABLE, S. (died 464,) minister and 
 patron saint of Riom in Auvergne. An 
 account of his power over serpents ma}' 
 be seen in Gregory of Tours. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
AM A 
 
 A M A 
 
 AMAC, surnamed Bokharai, one of the 
 most distinguished of tlie poets and ilhis- 
 trious men who in the eleventli century 
 adorned the Persian court of Kheder 
 Klian, He for some time profited largely 
 by the bounty of his sovei-eign, but was 
 supplanted by Rashidi, another celebrated 
 Persian poet. In his old age he regained 
 the patronage of the com't by composing 
 a beautiful elegy on the daughter of the 
 Sultan Sandjar. His most celebrated work 
 is a poetical version of the history of 
 Joseph, as given in the Koran. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 AMAD EDDOULAT. See Imad Ed- 
 
 DOULAH. 
 
 AMADEI, (Carl Antonio, d. 1720,) 
 a physician and botanist of Bologna, who 
 applied himself with great success to the 
 microscopical observation of the structure 
 of plants. Gaetano Monti has recorded 
 two cases of his observation of the plants 
 of the equator in Italy. (Memoirs of the 
 Institute of Bologna, vols. iii. and v.) He 
 made great additions to the flora of his 
 country, but he has left no writings. His 
 son, J. J. Amadei, prebendary of Bologna, 
 also a botanist, distinguished himself by 
 his profound knowledge in bibliography. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMADESI, (Domenico, 1657—1730,) 
 a Bolognese merchant, the author of 
 several poems published in Gobbi's col- 
 lection, Venice, 1726, under the anagram 
 Simonide da Meaco. Many of his pieces 
 were written on the occasion of the death 
 of his wife ; some were published by his 
 friend Zanotti in 1723; others remained 
 in MS. till after his death. His son, Lelio 
 Alberto, (1692—1758,) was also distin- 
 guished by his learning, and his talent for 
 poetry. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMADESI, (Guiseppe Luigi, 1701 — 
 1773,) born at Leghorn; keeper of the 
 archives at Ravenna, and secretary to 
 the archbishop of that see. He had an 
 extensive acquaintance among men of 
 letters, by whom he was much valued. 
 He has published some antiquarian works 
 on the rights of the archbishops of Ra- 
 venna, and was the author of some witty 
 Italian poems. For an account of his 
 writings, see the fii-st volume of Fantuzzi's 
 work on the Bolognese writers. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 AMADUZZI, (Giancristoforo, in the 
 Latin Amadutius,) a distinguished philo- 
 logist, who flourished during the latter 
 half of the eighteenth century. He was 
 superintendent of the press connected 
 with the Propaganda college at Rome, 
 and was the means of giving to the world 
 374 
 
 several fragments of ancient authors ; for 
 which see Biog. Univ. and Tipaldo's Bio- 
 grafia, vol. iii. 
 
 AMALABERGUA, daughter of Theo- 
 doric. (See Hermanfroi.) 
 
 AMALARIC, (reigned 522—531,) 
 Wisigothic king of Spain, was the son of 
 Alaric II. who fell in 506, imder the arms 
 of Clovis. As he was very young when 
 this event happened, the throne was 
 usurped by his bastard brother Gensaleie. 
 To restore him to his rightful inheritance, 
 his grandfather Theodoric, king of the 
 Ostrogoths, led an ainiiy into Gotliic 
 Gaul, and triumphed over Gensaleie, 
 who was pursued and slain. This was in 
 511. But the conqueror did not imme- 
 diately restore his gi-andson : eleven years 
 he reigned over the Wisigoths no less 
 than the Ostrogoths ; and at the end of 
 that period, he resigned the latter crown 
 to Amalaric. Amalaric was the first of the 
 Wisigothic kings that established his 
 court in Spain : Narhonne had been the 
 capital ; Seville now enjoyed the honour. 
 His reign was an unfortunate one. To 
 reward Athanai-ic, the successor of Theo- 
 doric, he ceded a portion of Gothic Gaid, 
 viz., the portion between the Rhine and 
 the Alps ; and to be secure against the 
 French, he obtained the hand of Clotilda, 
 daughter of Clovis. Yet this marriage led 
 to his ruin. He was an Arian ; Clotilda 
 was orthodox : the one attempted to con- 
 vert the other ; they quarrelled ; and at 
 length Amalaric insisted that she should 
 enter his communion. This she refused 
 to do, and he treated her veiy ill — we are 
 told, with brutality. She complained to 
 her brother Childebert; Childebert in- 
 vaded the dominions of the Wisigothic 
 king, who fell either on the field of battle, 
 or in a church to which he had fled for 
 sanctuary. With him expired the race 
 of the great Alaric. (Masdeu. Historia 
 Critica.) 
 
 AMALARIUS,(Fortimatus, died 814,) 
 a monk of Madeloc, who rose to be arch- 
 bishop of Treves in 810. In the following 
 year he re-establir.hed the christian re- 
 ligion in the northern part of Saxony, 
 and consecrated the first church in Ham- 
 burgh. In 813 he went to Constantinople 
 to ratify the peace concluded by Charle- 
 magne with Michael the Phrygian, em- 
 peror of the East. A treatise of his on 
 baptism, in answer to a circvilar letter 
 from Charlemagne, is printed among the 
 works of Alcuin, from whose pen it could 
 not have proceeded, being within eight 
 years after his death. (Cave, vol. ii. p. 7.) 
 AMALARIUS,(Symphosius,) a learned 
 
AW A 
 
 AM A 
 
 ritualist of the ninth century ; deacon 
 and priest of the church of Metz ; abbot 
 of Hornbeck ; coadjutor to the bishop of 
 Lyons, and then to that of Treves. In 
 the year 825, he assisted at the coun- 
 cil of Paris. His most valuable work is 
 his De Divinis sive ecclesiar.ticis Officiis 
 Libri 4, written in 820 ; rewritten 827. 
 Some of the expressions in this on the 
 eucharist formed a ground for the accu- 
 sation brought against him by Agobard, 
 arclibishop of Lyons, at the council of 
 Thionville. He also wrote, De Ordine 
 Antiphonarii Liber, (after 827,) andlnsti- 
 tutio Canonicorum. A work which ap- 
 peared in 847, of the opinions of Hincmar, 
 archbishop of Rheims, on predestination, 
 has been attributed to him ; some of his 
 letters to bishops have been printed by 
 D'Achery, Spicileg. vi. p. 164. 
 
 AMALASUNTA, (Amalasventa,) 
 queen of the Ostrogoths in Italy, was 
 tlie only daughter of Theodoric I. and of 
 Audesteda, daughter of king Childeric 
 In 515 she married Eutaric Cilicus, a 
 descendant of the royal family of Amali, 
 who held the throne of the Goths at the 
 beginning of the fourth century. Being 
 left a widow during the lifetime of her 
 father, Atalaric, her only son succeeded 
 to the throne of Italy in 526, under the 
 guardianship of his mother. Endowed 
 with courage, wisdom, and foresight, and 
 according to the account of the histo- 
 rians, worthy to be put on a par with the 
 most celebrated queens, Amalasunta had 
 the prudence to retain in the same otfice 
 of minister and secretary the great 
 Cassiodorus, a Roman, who had began to 
 introduce amongst the Goths the usages 
 and customs of his nation, proper re- 
 spect fur the laws, and a love for every 
 thing that still existed of the ancient 
 civilization. In the execution of this 
 admirable design, Amalasunta continued 
 to follow the footsteps of her father ; to 
 conciliate the good-will of the conquered 
 Italians, by the wisdom of her laws ; 
 by granting favours and immunities to the 
 people ; by reducing the amount of taxa- 
 tion ; by maintaining at her own ex- 
 pense the troops of the empire ; by the 
 prudent manner in which she carried on 
 the intercoiu'se with foreign nations ; in 
 short, by doing every thing that could be 
 done, to remove from the Goths, by in- 
 spiring them with a proper respect for 
 her virtues, the shame they might feel in 
 being obliged to pay obedience to a 
 woman. In order to acquire the love of 
 the Romans, she even restored to the 
 childi'en of Simmacus and Boetius the 
 375 
 
 paternal fortunes which had been con- 
 fiscated by Theodoric, after the death of 
 their fathers ; and placed about her son, 
 Atalaric, learned Romans, to instruct 
 him in literature, and in the liberal arts. 
 Unfortimately these men, in teaching the 
 young king, employed fear and punish- 
 ment, and it is even asserted that one 
 day she herself gave him a box on the 
 ear. This was a grave offence in the 
 eyes of the Goths, who brought up their 
 children in a very different manner. 
 " He who has trembled," said they, '* un- 
 der the scourge of a pedagogue, will 
 never look without fear at the sword of 
 the enemy." In consequence of this 
 reasoning, many of the most influential 
 of the Goths told her that they did not 
 wish to have a learned king, but a war- 
 rior ; and as these two qualifications could 
 not be joined together, they insisted that 
 his present instnictors should be dis- 
 missed, and others appointed fi-om their 
 own nation. Amalasunta was too well 
 aware of what she had to dread from her 
 people, in case of a refusal, and was. 
 obliged to yield. Atalaric was then sur- 
 rounded by young and dissolvite men, 
 who drove him into all sorts of dissipa- 
 tion, and in a short time he died, at the 
 youthful age of eighteen years, in 534 — 
 leaving, however, from his letters, which 
 are still in existence, a positive proof 
 that had he lived, and continued in the 
 same original plan of learned education, 
 he woidd have contributed much to the 
 happiness of Italy. 
 
 In order to preserve her throne, Ama- 
 lasunta was obliged to divide it by maiTy- 
 ing Teodatus, her cousin, son of Amala- 
 freda, sister of Theodoric, and last heir of 
 the family of Amali. If we were to con- 
 sider only his learning, and his proficiency 
 in scientific knowledge, no prince could 
 have better suited the views, and formed 
 the happiness of Amalasunta and her 
 people. But Teodatus was a bad man, a 
 coward, and avaricious ; quite ignorant 
 of military affairs, and had been some 
 time before offended by her. From the 
 first moment of his maniage, he re- 
 moved from court all her faithful ser- 
 vants, and before the end of the year, 
 confined her to a small island on the 
 lake of Bolsena, where a little after, 
 either through his order, or by his con- 
 sent, she was strangled. 
 
 Her death, however, did not remain 
 unpunished ; it offered to Justinian a 
 pretence for sending over a powerful 
 army, under the command of Belisarius ; 
 and in the war which ensued, Teodatus 
 
AM A 
 
 A MA 
 
 showed himself so great a coward that 
 his own soldiers killed him. 
 
 AMALFI, (Costanza d'Avalos, Duchess 
 of, died 1560,) a lady of great worth, who 
 cultivated Italian poetry with great suc- 
 cess. Charles V. gave her the title of 
 princess, as a mark of his esteem. Her 
 poems have been published several times 
 with those of Victoria Colonna : there 
 are several of her pieces also in the col- 
 lection by Ludovico Domenichi, Lucca, 
 1559, 8vo ; and Naples, 1595. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 AMALIE, (Duchess- dowager of Saxe- 
 Weimar, 1739 — 1809,) a great patroness 
 of literature, whose court boasted of 
 Herder, Goethe, and Wieland, as its orna- 
 ments. Being left a widow in 1758, two 
 years after her marriage, she had full 
 scope for the exercise of her admirable 
 tmderstanding and soundness of heart, 
 during the long regency which elapsed 
 before her son could take the administra- 
 tion of affairs into his own hands. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 , AMALRIC, (Arnaud, d.l225,) seven- 
 teenth Abbot of Citeaux, was sent in 1204, 
 by Innocent III. with Peter of Castelneau 
 and Arnoul to attempt the conversion of 
 the Albigenses. Failing in this, he distin- 
 guished himself by the zeal with which he 
 incited men by his preaching to the cru- 
 sade against these unfortunate heretics. 
 He was named archbishop of Narbonne 
 about 1212, on his return, according 
 to Moreri, from an expedition into Spain, 
 to encourage the Christians against the 
 Moors. Of this expedition he has left us 
 an account. His stirring spirit embroiled 
 him with his sovereign, Simon de Mont- 
 fort. In 1224, he presided in the coun- 
 cil of Montpelier, assembled to consider 
 the complaints of the Albigenses. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 AMALRIC, (Augeri,) an Augustinian 
 monk of the fourteenth century, the au- 
 thor of an unpublished history of the 
 popes, (Chronicon Pontificale,) reaching 
 to John XXII. It is dedicated to Urban 
 V. (elected Pope 1362.) (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMALRIC. See Amauri. 
 
 AMALTEO, (Pomponio,1505— 1588,) 
 a painter of the Venetian school, was 
 the pupil of Giannantonio Licinio, after- 
 wards called Pordenone, whose son-in- 
 law and successor in his school at Frivdi 
 he became. He was born at San Vito, a 
 town in Friidi ; for the churches and 
 public places in the vicinity of which he 
 executed many historical works. There 
 are also five pictures of his, representing 
 subjects of Roman history, which adorn 
 376 
 
 the hall of the notai'ies at Belluno. His 
 shading is less strong, his colours are 
 brighter, and the proportions of his 
 figures are less elegant, than those of 
 Pordenone, and altogether he is con- 
 sidered inferior to his master, though 
 undoubtedly the most accomplished and 
 original of his pupils. His death is stated, 
 in Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and 
 Engravers, to have happened in 1576 ; 
 but Lanzi, on the -authority of Rinaldis, 
 dates it as above. He had a brother 
 named Girolamo, who is supposed to 
 have assisted him in his labours ; and a 
 daughter Quintilia, who had the reputa- 
 tion of a fine genius, familiar with the 
 principles both of painting and engi-av- 
 ing, and more particularly excellent in 
 portraits. Girolamo, besides the works 
 in which he aided his brother, executed 
 small pictures, painted in fresco, and 
 produced an altar-piece for the church of 
 San Vito. He died young, but at what 
 exact time does not appear. Ridolfi 
 commends him highly for his spirited 
 manner ; and another of the old writei's, 
 as we learn from Rinaldis, gives his 
 opinion, that if he had flourished for a 
 longer period, he would, perhaps, have 
 proved no way inferior to the great 
 Pordenone. t'Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. iii. 80, 
 81, 82. Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 AMALTHEI, (Paolo, 1460—1517,) a 
 Minorite friar, born at Pordenone. Be- 
 coming celebrated as a Latin poet, he 
 was crowned by the Emperor Maximilian 
 at Vienna, where he was professor of 
 literature. Some of his pieces have been 
 printed ; others remain in manuscript 
 in the library of St. Michel de Murano, 
 at Venice. He was assassinated at 
 Vienna, but by whom, or for what mo- 
 tive, was never known. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMALTHEI, (Marc Antonio, 1475— 
 1558,) brother of the preceding, was also 
 distinguished for his poetical talents ; he 
 died at Pordenone, having been a teacher 
 of literature in several towns in Friuli : 
 a manuscript volume of his Latin poems 
 is preserved in the library at Venice, 
 mentioned above. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMALTHEI, (Francesco,) yoimger 
 brother of the two preceding ; teacher of 
 literature at Oderzo and Pordenone ; 
 himself a poet, and the author of some 
 historical essays, but most distinguished 
 as father of the three brothers, next to 
 be mentioned. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMALTHEI, (Girolamo, 1506— 
 1574,) professor of medicine and moral 
 philosophy in the University of Padua, 
 considered by Muret the first poet and 
 
AM A 
 
 A M A 
 
 most skilful physician of Italj'. His 
 poems, with those of his two bi'others, 
 nave been reprinted several times ; the 
 famous epigram — 
 
 Lumine Aeon dextro, capta estLeonilla sinistro : 
 Et potis est forma vincere uterque Deos. 
 Parve puer, lumen quod habes, concede sorori 
 Sic tu cascus Amor, sic erit ilia Veuus ; 
 
 is from his pen. His eldest son, Octa- 
 vius, (1543 — 1626,) also a physician, 
 is the author of several pieces in Calo- 
 gera's collection : his second son Attilius, 
 (1550 — 1633,) archbishop of Athens, was 
 employed in several important services 
 by Gregory XIII. and Clement VIII. 
 
 AMALTHEI, (Giambattista, 1525 — 
 1573,) brother to Girolamo, a very dis- 
 tinguished scholar, bom at Pordenone, 
 died at Rome ; was employed at the age 
 of twenty as tutor in the noble family of 
 the Lippomani ; in 1554 he accompanied 
 the Venetian ambassador Michele to 
 England. He was afterwards made 
 secretary to the republic of Ragusa ; 
 and thence was invited to Rome, where 
 he was made secretary to Pius IV. He 
 accompanied the cardinals deputed to 
 the council of Trent. In 1567 he was 
 at Milan with Carlo Borromeo. 
 
 AMALTHEI, (Cornelio, 1530— 
 1603,) a physician and poet, he suc- 
 ceeded his brother John as secretary to 
 the republic of Ragusa; and in 1561 
 was called to Rome to assist Paulus 
 Maniitius in translating into Latin the 
 Roman catechism. The Latin poems of 
 these three brothers are contained in 
 the first volume of the Deliciae Poet. 
 Ital. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMAMA, (Sixtinus, 1593—1629,) 
 a protestant theologian, educated at 
 Franeker, under Drusius. About 1613 
 he went over to England, and resided in 
 Exeter college, Oxford, where he gave lec- 
 tures in Hebrew. On his return he was ap- 
 pointed professor of Hebrew at Franeker, 
 from whence he was invited to succeed 
 Erpenius at Leyden ; he remained, how- 
 ever, at Franeker till his death. He 
 meditated a critical examination of the 
 Vulgate translation. The part which 
 treated of the Pentateuch was published 
 in 1620. He was called off from this to 
 the collation of the Dutch version of the 
 Scriptures, (made from Luther's,) with 
 the originals ; the results of which 
 (Bybelsche Conferencie) were published 
 at Amsterdam in 1623. In 1628 he 
 published the Anti-Barbarus, which con- 
 tains a reply to Merseimus's Strictures on 
 his previous work on the Pentateuch, and 
 a critique upon the remainder of the 
 377 
 
 Vulgate, as far as the commencement ot 
 the Prophets. This book was reprinted in 
 1656, with observations on the Vulgate 
 version of Isaiah and Jeremiah. He pub- 
 lished also a dissertation De Nomine 
 Tetragrammato. His works had great 
 effect in calling attention to the Hebrew 
 originals of the Scriptures. While pro- 
 fessor at Franeker, he exerted a very 
 salutary influence in checking the habits 
 of dnmkenness, which prevailed among 
 the students. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMAND, (St.) succeeded St. Delphin 
 in 402 or 403 as bishop of Bordeaux, a 
 prelate of great zeal and vigilance. The 
 substance of a letter of his addressed to 
 St. Jerome, is preserved in one of the let- 
 ters of that father. The stories of his 
 resigning his bishopric in favoru" of 
 Severinus, and of his preser\'ing the works 
 of his convert Paulinus, rest on very 
 slender foundation. (Biog. Univ. Butler's 
 Lives of the Saints, June 18.) 
 
 AMAND, (St. 593—679,) born near 
 Nantes, entered a monastery in the little 
 isle of Oye at the age of twenty. Having 
 been ordained at Rome as a missionary 
 bishop, he preached with great success 
 amono; the Belgians. He founded several 
 monasteries, and was elected agamst his 
 will bishop of Tongres in 628, but resigned 
 three years afterwards in favour of St. Re- 
 madus. (Butler gives Maestricht as the 
 place, and 649 for the date.) He died 
 broken with infirmities m his monastery 
 at Elnon, which he had governed for four 
 years as abbot. (Butler, on Feb. 6. Bol- 
 landists.) 
 
 AMAND, (Peter, died 1720,) an ac- 
 coucheur, bom at Riez in Provence, the 
 inventor of an obsolete surgical instru- 
 ment. He has printed some observations 
 connected with his profession. Par. 1 713. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMANDUS, (^nceus Salvius,) a 
 Roman general, who about the year 
 285 put himself, in conjunction with 
 Aidaeus Pomponius jElianus, at the head 
 of the insurrection of the Bagaudae in 
 Gaul. The revolters were quelled by 
 Maximian, the colleague of Domitian : 
 Amandus perished in the struggle. (Biog. 
 Univ. Gibbon, xiii.) 
 
 AMANIEU DES ESCAS, a trouba- 
 dour of the thirteenth century, much 
 esteemed by his sovereign, Jayme II. 
 king of Aragon. Four of his composi- 
 tions are still extant. 
 
 AMANT. See St. Amant. 
 
 AMAR, (J. P. 1750—1816,) one of 
 the most ferocious of the revolutionary 
 leaders in France, was born at Grenoble, 
 
AM A 
 
 A M A 
 
 and became advocate to the pai-liament 
 and treasurer to France. On the first 
 breaking out of the revolution, lie blamed 
 its excesses, but soon sided with the most 
 violent party. In 1792 he was sent to 
 the national convention for the depart- 
 ment of Isere — he voted for the immediate 
 execution of the king — and was one of the 
 most clamorous for the execution of Kel- 
 lermann. Being sent, contrary to custom, 
 as commissary to his own department, he 
 was guilty of great cruelties. His power 
 did not reach its height till after the fall 
 of the Girondists, whom he persecuted 
 with relentless severity, most of the orders 
 for their execution being signed by his 
 hand. He was denounced on several oc- 
 casions, and manifested considerable 
 cowardice ; but his life was preserved to 
 be passed in obscvirity under the govern- 
 ment of Napoleon, and closed in outward 
 peace at Parisunder Louis XVIII. (Suppl. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMARAL, (Andrea,) a Portuguese 
 knight of St. John of Jerusalem, and 
 chancellor of the order, who for some 
 time distinguished himself against the 
 Egyptians and the Turks. Disappointed 
 in obtaining the post of grand master, he 
 is said to have turned traitor, and to 
 have concerted with the Sultan Amurath 
 the surrender of Rhodes into the hands 
 of that monarch. His previous ser- 
 vices, and the constancy with which 
 ke supported torture and death (1522), 
 seem to contradict the charge, which 
 rested only on the evidence of his own 
 servant. 
 
 AMARAL, (Antonio Gaetano do, 
 1753 — 1820,) a learned historian and 
 antiquary of Lisbon, contributed to the 
 Transactions of the Royal Academy of 
 History in that capital, some valuable 
 dissertations on the ancient inhabitants 
 of Lusitania, on their laws, manners, 
 customs, &c. 
 
 AMARA-SINGHA, alearned Hindoo, 
 and counsellor to the celebrated Rajah 
 Vikramadeiteya ; the author of a very 
 valuable Sanscrit dictionary, written in a 
 species of verse, the first part of which 
 was published by father Paulin, of St. 
 Bartiiolomew, 4to, Rome, 1798. He 
 flourished in the century before our 
 Saviour. His work is not in alphabetical 
 order, being divided into sections, which 
 treat successively of the names of the 
 gods, the stars, the elements, &c. There 
 exist several translations of it into the 
 languages of India ; a MS. of the whole 
 is in the Imperial Library at Paris. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 378 
 
 AMARITON, (Jean, died 1590,) a 
 learned Jesuit, descended from Peter 
 Amanton, chancellor of John, duke de 
 Berry, the brother of Charles V. ; he was 
 born at Nenette, practised as an advo- 
 cate at Paris, where being imprisoned by 
 the leaguers he died. His commentaries 
 on the Epistle of Cicero and Horace 
 were printed at Paris in 1553 ; his Notes 
 on the 39th Book of Ulpian, at Toulouse, 
 in 1554. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMASEO, (Romolo, 1489—1552,) a 
 celebrated Italian scholar, son of Gre- 
 gory Amaseo, Latin professor at Venice. 
 He was born at Udina, and educated first 
 under his father and uncle, afterwards at 
 Padua, where in 1508 he gave lectures. 
 Being driven from hence in 1509, by the 
 war caused by the league of Cambray, 
 he retired to Bologna, where he married, 
 gave lectures, and was restored to the 
 rights of citizenship possessed by his an- 
 cestors. He was a])pointed first secre- 
 tary to the senate in 1530, having been 
 fixed on by Clement VII. to deliver, on 
 the 1st of Jairuary in that yeai", in the 
 presence of Charles V. and himself, a 
 Latin speech on the peace concluded be- 
 tween them. In 1543, he was invited 
 to Rome by Paul III. who employed him 
 on many political missions; and in 1550, 
 after the death of his wife, he was ap- 
 pointed secretary of the briefs. He has 
 left Latin translations of the Cyropaedia 
 and Pausanias, eighteen Latin orations, 
 and a book on Education. His son 
 Pompilio, (d. 1584,) Greek professor at 
 Bologna, translated two fragments of Po- 
 lybius, and wrote in Latin an unprinted 
 history of his own time. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMASIS, (d. 525 e.g.) a very able 
 man, of low birth, who having gained the 
 confidence of Apries, king of Egypt, 
 took advantage of a popular tunndt to 
 supplant his master, (569 b. c.) The 
 fruits of his activity and care were soon 
 seen in the prosperity of Egypt. He 
 encouraged strangers, and having mar- 
 ried a Greek woman, he contributed 
 liberally to the cities and establishments 
 of her countrymen : he conquered and 
 levied tribute from Cyprus. The close 
 of his life was, however, troubled by the 
 great preparations made by Cambyses 
 for the invasion of Egypt, by the deser- 
 tion of Pharies, and by a rupture with 
 Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, the preludes 
 to that storm with which his son Psam- 
 meticus was overwhelmed. (Herod, ii. 
 Diod. Sic. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMASTRIS, daughter of Oxathres, 
 the brother of Darius Codomanus. She 
 
A M A 
 
 A MA 
 
 was given in marriage by Alexander the 
 Great to Craterus ; but being neglected 
 by him, she married Dionysius, tyrant of 
 Heraclea, in Bithynia. After his death 
 she married Lysimachus, king of Thrace, 
 with whom she lived till his union with 
 Arsinoe, when she retired to the domi- 
 nions of her former husband, and founded 
 a city called after her name. Her chil- 
 dren conspired against her. Lysimachus 
 avenged her death. Some of her coins 
 are extant. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMATI, (Pasquale, 1716—1796,) an 
 Italian antiquary, born at Savignano, 
 and educated at Cesena, Rimini, and 
 Rome. On his return to Savignano, he 
 wrote his two Dissertazione (Faenza, 
 17G1-63) to prove that the Rubicon was 
 the river Savignano. He published also 
 a Dissertazione sul castro Mutilo degli 
 Antichi Galli e sul Passagio d'Annibale 
 per I'Appennino, Bologna, 1776. Ap- 
 pointed to inspect the press at Pesaro, 
 he published a collection of Classics, his 
 Biblioteca di Storia Letteraria, 6 vols, 
 8vo, 1768. But his best known disser- 
 tation is that — De Restitutione Purpu- 
 rarum, in which he investigates the purple 
 dye of the ancients very profoundly. In 
 1786, he became professor of the Pan- 
 dects at FeiTara, which he retained till 
 his death. He left two sons, both of 
 literarj' reputation. 
 
 1. Girolamo (1768 — 1834.) In his 
 youth he was so precocious, that at seven 
 years of age he was a good scholar. 
 His attention was early turned to in- 
 scriptions. After a time, he became 
 seci'etary to Monsignor Caleppi, and by 
 his desire wrote a life of Cardinal Ga- 
 rampi, in order to replace a miserable 
 one before a catalogue of that prelate's 
 library. The author of the rejected life, 
 however, contrived to keep Amati's per- 
 formance out of every copy of the cata- 
 logue, except that given to Monsignor 
 Caleppi ! He wrote a dissertation to 
 prove that the Treatise of the Subhme 
 was written not by Longinus, but by 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus. In 1798, 
 he was highly instrumental in preserving 
 the archives of the Vatican, &c. from 
 the French ; and after the troubles were 
 over, he became secretary to Cardinal 
 Gabi-ieUi, but afterwards gave himself up 
 wholly to literary pursuits. He wrote 
 several dissertations on inscriptions, and 
 was constantly associated with Akerblad 
 in his studies. In Tipaldo's Biografia, 
 an essay of his in the Giornale Arcadico, 
 tom. xlii. (Di alcuni Vasi Etruschi Italo- 
 greci recentemente scoperti,) and his 
 379 
 
 cleverness in deciphering some ancient 
 Greek tachygraphy, are highly praised. 
 His collation of some MSS. of Xeno- 
 phon's Anabasis (used in Gail's edition) 
 is in the Royal Library at Paris. 
 
 2. BasUio, (1780—1830,) who MTote 
 L'Isola del Congresso triumvirale, &c. 
 and other learned works and some poetry. 
 (Tipaldo, Biografia.) 
 
 AMATIUS, a Roman of obscure ori- 
 gin, who, as grandson of Marius, pre- 
 tended after tlie murder of Julius Caesar 
 to near relationship with him, and to the 
 right of avenging his death. Great ex- 
 cesses were committed by his followers. 
 He was arrested and strangled by order 
 of Anthony. 
 
 AMATO, (Joam Rodrigues, bom 
 1511,) more generally known by his 
 Latinized name of Amatus Lusitanus, a 
 native of Castel-branco, in Portugal, and 
 a Jew by descent, was much esteemed in 
 his profession, viz. that of physic, and dis- 
 tinguished for his general learning. Hav- 
 ing professed medicine with applause at 
 Ferrara and Ancona, a suspicion of his 
 leaning to Judaism brought him under 
 the notice of the inquisition, which would 
 have dealt with him in a summary way, 
 had he not seasonably fled to Thessalo- 
 nica. It is said that he there professed 
 Judaism openly, thus justifying the accu- 
 sation of Mattioli, a literary rival, (see 
 the name.) His writings, which consist 
 chiefly of commentaries on the ancient 
 physicians, were once much valued for 
 their acuteness. He wrote Exegemata in 
 Dioscoridem. Antwerp, 1536, 4to, (re- 
 published at Venice, 1553, in 8vo, with 
 additions, and called Enarrationes in 
 Dioscoridem), and Curationum Centurije 
 Septem. First published separately, and 
 then collectedly. Lyons, 1580, &'c. 
 
 AMATO, (Vincenzo,) a gentleman of 
 Cantazaro in Italy, published in 1670 
 some historical memoirs of his native 
 town. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMATO, (Giovanni Antonio d', called 
 // Vecchio, bom about 1475, died about 
 1555.) This painter, an artist of the 
 early Neapolitan school, was born at 
 Naples, and was a diseiple of Silvestro 
 Bruno ; and upon the death of that 
 artist, which happened whilst Amato was 
 yet young, he studied the style of Pietro 
 Perugino, excited to do so, it is said, from 
 having seen the paintings of the Duomo 
 at Naples from the hand of that master. 
 There are several of his works in the 
 churches of his native city, and a Holy 
 Family in the chapel of the family of 
 Carrafa, in St. Dominico Maggiore. " He 
 
A M A 
 
 AM A 
 
 is highly extolled," says Lanzi, " for his 
 Dispiite of the Sacrament, painted for the 
 metropolitan church, and for two other 
 pictures placed in the Borgo di Chiaia, 
 the one at the Carmine, the other at 
 St. Leonardo." He worked hoth in oil 
 and in fresco. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. ii. 248, 
 2G1. Bryan's Diet.) There is another 
 artist of this name, Francesco Amato, 
 who was both a painter and an engraver, 
 but of his pictures little is known. Some 
 slight but spirited etchings are attri- 
 buted to him, wliich are executed in the 
 style of Biscaino, some of which are 
 marked Franciscus Amalus in. (Strutt. 
 Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 AMATO, (Vincenzo, born 1629,) an 
 Italian who has composed several pieces 
 of sacred music. 
 
 AMATO, (Michele de, 1682—1728,) 
 a learned Neapolitan clergyman, ap- 
 pointed in 1707 first chaplain of the Castel 
 Nuovo. He was the writer of several 
 learned essays on subjects of cmaous in- 
 quiry in theology — on the use of fishes 
 in Lent — on the omission of the words 
 ' Descendit in inferos,' in the Nicene 
 creed. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMATRICE, (Cola dell',) painted in 
 1533, and resided at Ascoli del Piceno, 
 and enjoyed a distinguished name both 
 in architecture and painting throughout 
 that province., He had somewhat a hard 
 manner in some of his earlier paintings, 
 which was greatly improved in his sub- 
 sequent works. His picture in the 
 oratory of the Corpus Domini at Ascoli, 
 representing the Last Supper, is highly 
 pi-aised. He is classed amongst the 
 artists of the modern Neapolitan style, 
 founded on the schools of Michael An- 
 gelo and of Raffaelle. (Lanzi, Stor. 
 Pitt. ii. 262.) 
 
 AMATUS, a monk of Mount Casino, 
 and bishop in Italy during the eleventh 
 century ; the author of four unpublished 
 books in verse, De Gestis Apostolorum 
 Petri et Pauli, dedicated to Gregory 
 VII. ; and of several other poems. A 
 history of the Normans, in eight books, is 
 mentioned by Canonico Mari, in his 
 Notes on Peti-us Diaconus, as existing 
 in his] convent. But Tiraboschi (iii. 
 341,) on the authority of Eust. AfHitto 
 (Memorie degli Scritt. Napol. i. 272,) 
 assures us that this MS is no longer 
 to be found in the Monastery of M. Ca- 
 sino. (Biog. Univ. Cave. ii. 150. Tira- 
 boschi.) 
 
 AMAURI,or Almeric I. (] 138— 1 1 73,) 
 a prince of considerable abilities, but of 
 a fiery and ambitious spirit, succea-^ed 
 380 
 
 his bi'other Baldwin III. as king of Jeru- 
 salem in 1165. He began his reign with 
 hostilities against the khalif of Egypt, 
 M'ho making peace with him, engaged 
 his arms against the sultan of Aleppo. 
 Amauri having returned crowned with 
 success, projected the conquest of Egypt ; 
 he engaged with himself in this en- 
 terprise, the grand master of the knights 
 of St. John, and the emperor of Con- 
 stantinople, whose davighter he had 
 married. Having captured Pelusium, 
 he gave it as a possession to the knights 
 of St. John, and marched to Cairo, 
 where after he had been bought off with 
 a large sum by the unfortunate khalif, 
 Hour Eddin, the sultan of Aleppo 
 obliged him to relinquish his spoil, and 
 drove him back to Jerusalem. Egypt 
 was united to the possessions of the sid- 
 tan of Aleppo ; and its governor, the 
 famous Saladin, having succeeded to the 
 throne, began that series of attacks upon 
 Jerusalem, which ended in its capture, 
 four years after the death of Amauri, 
 who was succeeded by Baldwin IV. 
 
 AMAURI II. of Lusignan, (died 
 1205,) succeeded his brother Guy as king 
 of Cyprus. On the death of Henry, king 
 of Jerusalem, he mamed his widow 
 Isabella, and was crowned king of Jeni- 
 salem at Ptolemais in 1194. He was 
 a feeble prince, and being ill supported 
 by the armies of Europe, was never able 
 to make good his claim. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMAURY, of Chartres, (spelt in the 
 different old writers jJlmaricus, Amal- 
 ricus, Amorriciis, and Elmericus,) a cele- 
 brated philosopher of the beginning of 
 the thirteenth century. He was born 
 at Bene, a village in the district of 
 Chartres, and went to study at Paris to- 
 ward the end of the twelfth century. 
 His progress in philosophy was so rapid 
 and so great, that at the opening of the 
 thirteenth century he was already known 
 as one of the most distinguished profes- 
 sors in the university of Paris, where he 
 lectured in dialectics and the arts, the 
 trivium and qnadrivium of the schools. 
 The works of Aristotle, which were but 
 newly introduced from the east, were the 
 especial subject of his studies, and the 
 deductions which he made from them 
 were the groundwork of the strange 
 system which he propagated. 
 
 Amamy, indeed, afforded a remark 
 able instance of the rashness of mixing 
 philosophical theories with the christian 
 revelation. He published a system, 
 which was pro])erly characterised bv 
 some of its opponents, as being that of a 
 
AM A 
 
 A M B 
 
 madman rather than that of a heretic, in 
 a book entitled Physion, or a treatise on 
 natural things. The book itself has long 
 ceased to exist, and we are obliged to 
 form our view of his doctrines upon the 
 scattered allusions to them which are 
 made by other writers. He taught 
 that God was an immaterial substance, 
 without form or figure, from which sub- 
 stance all souls were derived, and into 
 which after death they were all to return. 
 He made three distinct persons of the 
 Trinity, and divided the history of the 
 world into three periods ; in the first of 
 which, ending with the birth of Christ, 
 God the Father governed the world; in 
 the second period, the power of the 
 Father was superseded by that of God the 
 Son ; and in the third, which was to 
 commence with the thirteenth centuiy, 
 the Son was in his tui'n to be superseded 
 by the Holy Ghost, who was to continue 
 his rule for evei*. He is said to have 
 given it as his opinion, that God spoke 
 as distinctly through the mouth of Ovid, 
 as through that of St. Augustine. He 
 said that during the second period, or 
 the reign of God the Son, every body 
 was as really and tridy a member of 
 Christ's own body, as the consecrated 
 wafer in the eucharist was believed to 
 be ; and that the time was come when, 
 by the opening of the reign of the Holy 
 Ghost, Christianity was to be extinct, 
 and all its forms, sacraments, and cere- 
 monies, abolished, and that the internal 
 infusion of the grace of the Holy Ghost 
 was to be sufficient for salvation. Of 
 course, he denied the resurrection of the 
 body. These doctrines were immediately 
 denounced by the church, and his book 
 was condemned to be burnt by a bull of 
 Pope Innocent HI. in 1204. The vex- 
 ation and mortification caused by his 
 being obliged to retract his opinions, is 
 said to have been the cause of Amaury's 
 death, which is supposed to have hap- 
 pened in the following year. 
 
 The disciples of Amaury carried his 
 doctrines to a much greater pitch of 
 extravagance than he had done himself. 
 They said that God the Father had been 
 incarnated in Abraham, just as God the 
 Son was in Jesus Christ. They attacked 
 the pope and the clergy, and did not 
 hesitate to designate the former as anti- 
 christ. They are even said to have de- 
 nied the distinction between vice and 
 virtue, teaching that the internal grace 
 rendered such distinction unnecessary, 
 and in pursuance of this doctrine, they 
 were accused of addicting themselves to 
 381 
 
 the most scandalous and disgraceful ex- 
 cesses. A council was assembled at 
 Paris in 1209, in which they were con- 
 victed of heresy, and the year following 
 many of them perished by the flames. 
 By order of this council, the body of 
 Amaury was also disinterred and burnt, 
 along with his books and those of his 
 disciples, as well as the Metaphysics of 
 Aristotle, which was said to have been 
 the groundwork of his errors. An article 
 on Amaury of Chartres will be found in 
 the Hist. Litteraire de France, torn. xvi. 
 p. 586. 
 
 AMBERGER, (Christopher,) was born 
 at Nuremberg, about the year 1485, was 
 the disciple of Hans Holbein, and painted 
 so much in his style, that the works of 
 the two have sometimes been confounded. 
 He designed correctly ; his figures are 
 Avell disposed ; his coloui's managed with 
 great dexterity, and the perspective ex- 
 cellently introduced. Although he is 
 principally known as a portrait painter, 
 his history of Joseph and his Brethren, 
 consisting of a set of twelve pictures, 
 gained him considerable reputation. He 
 was invited to Augsburg in 1530, by the 
 Emperor Charles V. whose portrait he 
 painted, with which work that monarch 
 was so pleased, that he gave him a gold 
 chain and a medal, and declared his opi- 
 nion to be that it was equal to any of 
 the pictures painted by Titian. " Mais 
 cette comparaison," justly observes M. 
 Guizot, in the Biograplrie Universelle, 
 " prouvait plus contre le gout de I'em- 
 pereur, qu'en faveur de I'ai-tiste." Am- 
 berger died at Augsburg, in 1550. 
 Several of his works are preserved in the 
 Royal Gallery at Munich, and a print is 
 engraved after his pictures, representing 
 the decollation of Jit. John the Baptist, 
 in half figures. (Bryan's Diet. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 AMBERIEU, (Pierre Dujat d', 
 1738—1821,) lord of the manor of Am- 
 berieu in Bugey, the author of some 
 good ephemeral poetry, and other pieces. 
 He took refuge during the revolution in 
 Switzerland, and finally fixed at Lyons, 
 whence he was summoned by Napoleon 
 on his return from Elba in 1815, as mem- 
 of the Municipal Council, but refused to 
 appear. On the second return of the 
 Bourbons, he was named president of the 
 Electoral College in Ain. His son has 
 composed some romances, and was joint 
 editor of the Flora, printed by Bruyset. 
 (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMBIGAT. See Bellovese. 
 AMBILLON. See Bouchet. 
 
A MB 
 
 AMB 
 
 AMBIORIX, prince of the Eburones, 
 a tribe of the Gauls that dwelt between 
 the Meuse and the Rhine. When Julius 
 Caesar began the conquest of Gaul, b. c. 
 58, he treated Ambiorix with great kind- 
 ness, and thought himself secure of his 
 services. During the cold weather, while 
 the Roman legions were dispersed in 
 their winter quarters, Ambiorix treach- 
 erously formed a plan for their extermi- 
 nation, which was in part successful, but 
 his troops being routed and cut in pieces 
 by Cassar, he was compelled to seek for 
 safety, by hiding himself in the caverns 
 and forests. (Caesar, Bel. Gal. v. vi 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMBISA BEN JOHIM, Arabian 
 viceroy of Spain (724 — 726), obtained 
 the dignity rather through intrigue than 
 merit, and at the expense of Abderahman 
 ben Abdalla (see the name.) Though 
 rapacious himself, and compelled to wink 
 at the rapacity of his ti'oops, he admi- 
 nistered justice with impartiality, and 
 protected the christian inhabitants, so 
 long as they paid the stipulated tribute. 
 In France he reduced Carcassonne and 
 Nismes ; and had not a sudden death as- 
 sailed him, he would no doubt have gained 
 more important triumphs. 
 
 _ AMBLIMONT, (Fuschemberg, coimt 
 d', died 1797,) a French admiral, who 
 entered the Spanish service after the re- 
 volution, and was killed commanding in 
 a ship of 1 12 guns, in the battle off St. Vin- 
 cent. He has left a good work on Naval 
 Tactics, 4to, Paris, 1788. (Biographic 
 Universelle.) 
 
 AMBLY, (Le Marquis Claude Jean 
 Antoine d', 1711 — 1797,) a field marshal 
 in the French army, of great spirit and 
 bravery. He served at the siege of 
 Prague in 1743 ; at Donaverth he re- 
 captured the standards of his regiment. 
 In ] 767, he was made field marshal, and 
 commander of St. Louis : created a mar- 
 quess in 1768. Being deputed to the 
 States-general in 1789, he showed him- 
 self a zealous defender of the authority 
 of the king, and signed all the protests 
 of the minority against the innovations 
 of the revolutionary party. On the 
 2d December in the same year, he chal- 
 lenged Mirabeau. In 1790, his energetic 
 speech in defence of his old comrade, 
 Toulouse Lautrec, made a great impres- 
 sion. At the end of the session he emi- 
 grated; and in spite of his great age, 
 made several campaigns in the army of 
 the princes. He died at Hamburgh. 
 (Supp. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMBOISE, (George d', 1460—1510,) 
 382 
 
 cardinal and prime minister to Louis 
 XII. of France, a statesman of gi-eat 
 merit, who was honoured, as well as his 
 master, with the title of " Father of the 
 people." Born of an illustrious house, 
 he was named bishop of Montaubon, in 
 his fourteenth year. Louis XI. chose 
 him one of his almoners. On the death 
 of this prince in 1480, Amboise being 
 closely imited with the duke of Orleans, 
 joined with him in his intrigues upon 
 being excluded from the government by 
 the regency of Anne of Beaujeu, and 
 was with him cast into prison. Being 
 liberated on Charles VIII. taking the 
 government into his own hands, he was 
 made archbishop of Narbonne, which 
 see he exchanged in 1493 for that of 
 Rouen. The duke of Orleans being go- 
 vernor of Normandy, gave him authority 
 for carrying into effect those reforms 
 which produced such happy results over 
 the whole kingdom. After the duke's 
 succession to the throne as Louis XII. 
 upon the death of Charles in 1498, on 
 the disgrace of Marshal de Gie, Amboise 
 was raised to the first place in the councU, 
 which he retained tUl his death. His 
 foreign policy has been blamed, espe- 
 cially the disastrous war in Italy, and 
 the treaty of Blois in 1504, (see History 
 of France.) But his domestic admini- 
 stration, his reforms in legislation, espe- 
 cially his financial arrangements, have 
 raised him to a high place among those 
 statesmen, who have made the interests 
 of the people their first care. His pri- 
 vate character was amiable and disin- 
 terested. He was a candidate for the papal 
 chair in 1503 ; but Giuliano de la Rovera, 
 having persuaded him to withdraw the 
 French troops from Rome, gained the 
 election himself, and took the name of 
 Julius II. He died in the convent of the 
 Coelestines, at Lyons, of the gout in the 
 stomach, having been the intimate friend 
 of his sovereign for twenty-seven years. It 
 is said that he often repeated to the friar 
 who attended him dui-ing his last illness, 
 " Brother John, why have I not during 
 my whole life been brother John ?" Car- 
 dinal Mezeray said of this minister, " he 
 was beloved by France and by his master, 
 for he loved them both equally." A Life 
 of him was published in 1721 by the 
 Abbe le Gendre. His letters to Louis 
 XII. were printed in 1712, 4 vols, 12mo. 
 The eldest brother of the cardinal will 
 be mentioned in this woi'k, under the 
 title — Chaumont. The second brother, 
 Aimery d' Amboise, grand - master of 
 Rhodes in 1503, a wise and able prince. 
 
AM B 
 
 A M B 
 
 is celebrated for the naval victory which 
 he gained over the sultan of Egypt in 
 1510, near Montenegro. He died in 1512. 
 
 AMBOISE, (Francis d', 1550—1620,) 
 son of John d'Amboise, surgeon to the 
 kings of France from Francis I. to 
 Henry III. He was educated at the ex- 
 pense of Charles IX., and for some time 
 practised as an advocate with gi-eat repu- 
 tation. He accompanied Henry III. to 
 Poland, and composed an account of that 
 kingdom. On his return to France he 
 was raised to several offices of high 
 trust, and in 1604 was made counsellor 
 of state. He pursued letters as a relaxa- 
 tion, and is now chiefly known for the 
 pains he took in collecting and writing 
 an apologetic preface to the works of 
 Abelard, published in 1616. Chalmers 
 says that he died before that edition was 
 printed. He printed besides, imder the 
 name of Thierri de Thymophile, a gen- 
 tleman of Picardy, three curious works ; 
 1. Notable Discours, &c. on Perfect 
 Friendship, (translated fromPiccolomini,) 
 Lyons, 1577. 2. Dialogue et Devis des 
 Demoiselles pour les rendre vertueuses, 
 &c. bien heiureuses en la vraie et pai- 
 faicte Amitie. Paris, 1581 and 1583. 
 3. Regrets facetieux et plaisantes Ha- 
 rangues funebres sur la mort de divers 
 animaulx, (translated from Ortensio 
 Lando.) lb. 1576 & 1583. And several 
 lighter pieces, of which the principal 
 were : — 1. Les Neapolitains, Comedie 
 Fran9aise, &c. Paris, 1584. 2. Desespe- 
 rades ou Eclogues amoiireuses, &c. 
 Paris, 1572. His younger brother, 
 Adrian, (1551 — 1616,) rector of the uni- 
 versity, and grand master of the college 
 of Navarre ; made bishop of Treguier 
 in 1604; wrote when young, Holofernes, 
 a sacred tragedy, 8vo, Par. 1580. (See 
 Niceron, torn, xxxiii. for a list of his 
 works.) 
 
 AMBOISE, (Jaques d', died 1606,) 
 brother of the preceding, followed his 
 father's profession. In 1594, after Henry 
 IV. had reduced Paris to loyalty, Am- 
 boise became rector of the university, 
 the condition of which he much im- 
 proved. He took a leading part in the 
 legal process against the Jesuits, which 
 ended in their expulsion from the uni- 
 versity. He has printed two Latin 
 orations against the Jesuits, entitled Ora- 
 tiones Duse in Senatu habitas pro Uni- 
 versis Academiae ordinibus, in Claromon- 
 tenses, qui se Jesuitas dicunt, Paris, 1595 : 
 and also Questions medicales, to be found 
 in Carrere's Bibliotheque de la Medicine, 
 Sic. He was carried off by the plague. 
 383 
 
 AMBOISE, (Michel d', died 1547,) a 
 miscellaneousFrench writer, who assumed 
 in his works the title of Seigneur de 
 Chevillon, son of Chaumont d'Amboise, 
 viceroy of Lombardy ; was born about 
 the commencement of the sixteenth 
 century ; he was educated with his half- 
 brother, George d'Amboise, and des- 
 tined for the bar. His father dying in 
 1511, before making any provision for 
 him and his brother, being killed in the 
 battle of Pavia, he was left without re- 
 sources, as he had displeased his relations 
 by giving himself to poetry instead of 
 attending to his profession. He mamed 
 a lady of rank without fortune, whose 
 death two years afterwards, with that of 
 his only son, sunk him, depressed as he 
 was by writing for bread, into the grave. 
 His works, some of which are transla- 
 tions from Ovid and Juvenal, have no 
 great merit ; a list of them is given in 
 tlie Biog. Univ. 
 
 AMBRA, (Francis de, died 1558,) 
 consul of the academy at Florence in 
 1549, where he often delivered public 
 lectures. He is the author of three come- 
 dies, that have been printed several 
 times. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMBROGI, (Dominico degli, or Me- 
 nichino del Brizio,) so called, according 
 to Malvasia, from being the scholar of 
 Francesco Brizio. He was a native of 
 Bologna, a distinguished artist of the 
 Bolognese school, and was living in 1678. 
 He painted both in oil and fresco, and 
 excelled as well in historical composition 
 as in landscape painting, and in subjects 
 containing extensive perspective and ar- 
 chitectural views. He sometimes painted 
 in conjunction with Dentone and Co- 
 lonna ; and was the preceptor of Fumiani, 
 and master of Pierantonio Cerva. In 
 the church of St. Giacomo Maggiore, 
 is a picture by this master representing 
 the Guardian Angel, and in the Nunziata, 
 St. Francesco, with a glory of angels. 
 In 1653, according to the same authority, 
 he executed on wood from his own de- 
 signs some prints in chiaro-scuro. (Lanzi, 
 Stor. Pitt. V. 124. Bryan's Diet. Strutt's 
 Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 AMBROGI, (Antoine Marie, 1713— 
 1788,) an Italian Jesuit, bom at Florence. 
 For thirty years he filled with great abi- 
 lity the chair of Eloquence and Poetry 
 in the university of Rome. He published 
 in 1763 a splendid edition of Virgil, 
 translated into blank verse, with en- 
 gravings, from the illuminations of the 
 Vatican MS. In 1765, he published a 
 description of the Kircherian Museum, 
 
AMB 
 
 AM B 
 
 which was under his care, 2 vols, folio ; 
 he has left also some translations, a Latin 
 discourse on the Election of Joseph II. 
 king of the Romans, and an unpuhlished 
 Latin poem on the Culture of the Lemon- 
 tree. (Biog. Univ. Diet. Hist.) 
 
 AMBROGIO, (Teseo, 1469 — 1540,) 
 a learned Italian orientalist, of the noble 
 family of the counts of Albanese. Hav- 
 ing shown great promise of abilities, he 
 entered early into the order of regular 
 canons of St. John of Lateran, but did 
 not come to Rome till the fifth Lateran 
 Council in 1512, where he took advan- 
 tage of the presence of the eastern eccle- 
 siastics to learn their languages, in which 
 study he attained such proficiency, that 
 he could speak with facility eighteen 
 dialects. At the request of the cardinal 
 Santa Croce, he was employed to trans- 
 late from Chaldean into Latin the eastern 
 liturgy. Leo X. appointed him public 
 teacher in the university of Bologna, of 
 the Syriac and Chaldee. His manu- 
 scripts were dispersed during the inva- 
 sion of Italy by the French in 1527; a 
 calamity that prevented the publication 
 of the Psalter in Chaldee, for which he 
 had made considerable preparations. The 
 introduction to the Chaldee, Armenian, 
 and Syriac languages, with which it was 
 to have been accompanied, was printed 
 at Pavia in 1739. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMBROSE, (St.,) a celebrated prelate 
 of the Latin church, and one of the chief 
 among the fathers of the fourth century. 
 His father, who was of the same name,* 
 enjoyed under the sons of Constantino 
 the dignity of pretorian prefect of the 
 Gauls, and Ambrose was born in 340 in 
 the pretorian palace, probably at Treves, 
 though the honour of having given him 
 birth has been claimed also by Aries and 
 Lyons. In his earliest infancy his futm-e 
 eloquence was prefigured by a remarkable 
 event. While sleeping in his cradle in 
 the court of the palace, a swarm of bees 
 settled on his lips, an omen immediately 
 interpreted by his father, as presaging 
 future greatness. The elder Ambrose, 
 however, died during t}ie infancy of his 
 child, and the widowed mother retired 
 with her family to Rome. Here she 
 
 * The Centuriatours of Magdeburg, Cent. iv. ex. 
 1147, vainly imagine that the Symmachus, whose 
 kindness to Ambrose's elder brother Satyrus caused 
 that iirelate, in his book on the death of Satyrus, to 
 style him the father (parente) of his brother, (De 
 Excess. Fratris Satyri, lib. i. sect. 32. Opera, edit. 
 Paris, 1836, torn. iv. p. 146,) was the real father of 
 the family, whereas he was only an influential friend 
 of Anicius Probus. Paulinus, the contemporary 
 biographer and amanuensis of St. Ambrose, states 
 that Ambrose was the name of his father. 
 384 
 
 superintended the education of her chil- 
 dren with diligence and success ; but it 
 was to his sister Marcellina, who at 
 Christmas 353 had been devoted to ce- 
 libacy by Pope Liberius, that Ambrose 
 was pi'incipally indebted for his christian 
 knowledge. On aiTiving at years of 
 maturity, Ambrose chose the legal pro- 
 fession, and pleaded with so much suc- 
 cess, as to gain the notice of Anicius 
 Probus, pretorian prefect of Italy, by 
 whom he was appointed governor of the 
 provinces of Liguria and jEmilia, with 
 consular dignity, and came accordingly 
 to reside at Milan, in 374. Before Am- 
 brose had been many months in this 
 situation, the city of Milan, which for 
 twenty years had suffered under the 
 tyranny of the persecuting Arian bishop, 
 Auxentius, was liberated by the death of 
 the tyrant.* The emperor Valentinian 
 righteously refused to coerce the choice of 
 the council of bishops, who had assembled 
 to elect the new prelate. The church had 
 suffered too severely under the iron ride of 
 Auxentius to allow willingly the suc- 
 cession to continue in the hands of the 
 heretics. The dispute became warm, 
 and it was feared would come to vio- 
 lence, when Ambrose, to preserve order, 
 proceeded to the cathedral. Whilst he 
 was addressing the assembled multitudes, 
 on the duty of avoiding sedition and 
 obeying the existing laws, an infant voice 
 on a sudden exclaimed, " Ambrose is 
 bishop." At these words, the whole 
 multitude with one accord joined in the 
 cry, and the assembled bishops, looking 
 on the sudden consent of the divided 
 and tumultuous meeting as something 
 supernatural, ratified the choice. Am- 
 brose was really unwilling to assume so 
 high a dignity ; but precipitately leaving 
 the church, mounted his tribunal, where 
 he oi'dered instruments of torture to be 
 displayed, in order to destroy among the 
 people his reputation for humanitj-. 
 When, however, he found the people firm 
 in their choice, he fled by night, but was 
 deceived by his guides, and the next 
 morning by day -break found himself 
 again at Milan. Valentinian and the 
 Prefect Probus supported the choice of 
 the people, but while they were delibe- 
 rating, Ambrose again fled, and concealed 
 himself in the house of his friend Leon- 
 tius. The emperor, however, ordered 
 
 * See Paulinus, sect, o, 7, 8, 9. Socrates, Iv. 30. 
 Theodoret, iv. 7. Of modern authorities. seeDupin, 
 Bib. Aut. Eccles. on S. Ambrose, and Fleury, Hist. 
 Eccles. torn. iv. p. 301. Gibbon, ch. xxvii. Tille- 
 mont, Mem. Eccles. torn. x. 
 
A M B 
 
 A M B 
 
 the provincial vicar of Italy to publish a 
 decree against any, who, knowing where 
 he was, should not give him up, on which 
 Leontius was obliged to betray him. 
 Considering, therefore, that the will of 
 God was sufficiently revealed with re- 
 spect to his elevation, he yielded, and 
 returned to Milan, where, careful to 
 avoid the poison of the Arian heresy, he 
 was baptized (for he was yet but a cate- 
 chumen) by an orthodox bishop, and 
 eight days after, to the great joy of all, 
 was invested with the episcopal dignity, 
 Dec. 8. 374. He now applied himself 
 closely to study, and to the duties of his 
 sacred function; he preached, attended 
 to the hospital, and decided without ap- 
 peals to law all differences between Chris- 
 tians ; and so great was his reputation in 
 a short time become, that St. Basil wrote 
 to him from the east an epistle of con- 
 gratulation, and many females crossed 
 the seas from Africa, to receive the veil 
 at the hands of the bishop of Milan. His 
 temporals were managed by his brotlier 
 Satyrus, while he himself gave his whole 
 attention to the duties of his office, 
 to continual preaching, and daily mini- 
 stration of the holy communion. Thus, 
 during the first three years of his episco- 
 pate, appeared his Treatises De Para- 
 diso, De Cain et Abel, De Virginibus, 
 De Viduis, and De Tobia; and in the 
 beginning of the next year (378), his 
 treatise De Fide. During this period 
 the pious Valentinian had died, and the 
 young princes, Gratian and Valentinian, 
 the younger, were on the throne. The 
 pious youth Gratian loved Ambrose as 
 a father, and to him in 381 the holy pre- 
 late sent his treatise on the Holy Spirit.* 
 The younger prince Valentinian, to whose 
 share Italy fell, being but four years old, 
 his mother Justina, a violent Arian, acted 
 the part of regent. She proceeded to 
 attack the bishop of Milan, first ex- 
 citing a riot at Sirmium,t whither he had 
 gone to consecrate a new bishop, with a 
 view to having him violently dealt with, 
 and on his return to Milan, demanding of 
 him to cede to the Arians a church in 
 his cathedral town. The bishop would 
 tolerate no such sacrilege, and was sum- 
 
 • It is lamentable to see the spirit in ■which cri- 
 ticisms are too often written, even by great and 
 good men. No one that is acquainted with this 
 beautiful work of St. Ambrose, and with those 
 otlier works of the holy Fathers, of whose labours 
 he availed himself in the composition of this trea- 
 tise, can fail to be painfully struck by the illiberal 
 criticism of St. Jerome, who, noticing the vrork, 
 compares its author to jEsop's informis cornicula 
 alienis colorihus adornala. 
 
 t Paiilinus, § 11. 
 
 VOL. I. 385 
 
 moned before the council in consequence ; 
 but the people showed so unequivocally 
 that they would not suffer him to be per- 
 secuted, that the terrified ministers of 
 the empress, instead of pronouncing on 
 him a sentence of exile, humbly implored 
 him to exercise his authority to prevent a 
 tumult taking place. No sooner were 
 the fears of the perfidious court allayed, 
 than they recommenced hostilities ; and 
 the treachery of the empress in this per- 
 secvttion of St. Ambrose is heightened by 
 ingratitude, as it was to his diligence and 
 dexterity that she owed the safety of 
 herself and her son Valentinian, when 
 Maximus, reeking with the murder of 
 Gratian, was restrained by his eloquence 
 and conduct in 383. They* first de- 
 manded the Portian Basilica, without the 
 walls, and then the new one within the 
 city, and armed soldiers were sent to oc- 
 cupy them. The people were excited at 
 this violence, and the Arian clergy coiUd 
 not appear in the streets without danger 
 of their lives ; indeed, in some instances, 
 Ambrose had himself to rescue his per- 
 sonal enemies from the hands of the en- 
 raged multitude. The court, considering 
 the resistance of the citizens as seditious, 
 laid a hea-vy fine on the merchants, and 
 many of them were in consequence com- 
 mitted to the prisons. St. Ambrose was 
 again ordered to compose the tumult, 
 and resign the church. He answered, 
 that if they asked for his patrimony, his 
 wealth, his liberty, or his blood, he was 
 re.-idy to resign them, but that divine 
 things were not subject to the emperor's 
 power. " I will not," said he, " defend 
 myself with a wall of followers ; I will 
 not lay hold upon the altar and pray for 
 life ; but for the altar's sake I am ready 
 and willing to be sacrificed." He added, 
 that God alone could mitigate the tumult 
 Before day -break next morning, the 
 church was surrounded by a band of 
 Goths, the obstinate Justina supposing 
 the known Arianism of this people to be 
 a pledge for their not deserting her cause. 
 These, however, having learned that the 
 bishop had passed on them the sentence 
 of excommunication, were alarmed, and 
 entering the church, implored permission 
 to join in prayer with the catholics. St. 
 Ambrose then addressed to them a power- 
 ful discourse, t comparing Justina to the 
 wife of Job, Jezebel, and Herodias ; and 
 addressing the emperor, he added, " ' Ren- 
 
 * He details the whole proceedings himself in a 
 letter to his sister. Epist. xx. Opera, tom. iv. p. 2fi7, 
 Paris, 1836; and Paulinus, § 13. 
 
 t Letter to his Sister, § 14. 
 2 C 
 
AMB 
 
 A MB 
 
 der to Caesar the things that are Csesar's, 
 and unto God the things that are God's.' 
 To the emperor helong the paLaces of the 
 ■world ; but the churches to the priesthood 
 of the Lord." The eloquence of the 
 preacher, and constant supplication of 
 the troops, overcame the mind of the 
 emperor, and the day was passed in de- 
 liberation by the court, and in painful 
 suspense by the catholics ; but the next 
 morning the merchants were liberated, 
 and the soldiers were ordered to relin- 
 quish the churches, and leave them to 
 be peaceably possessed by their proper 
 owners, though Justina never forgave 
 this triumph of the man of God. 
 
 The next year the empress prepared 
 to revenge herself on St. Ambrose, and 
 accordingly promulgated a law for esta- 
 blishing the Arian heresy forced by Con- 
 stantius upon the Council of Ariminum* 
 (Rimini). This atrocious proceeding Avas 
 boldly opposed by St. Ambrose, who de- 
 spised their vain threats. f The sentence 
 of exile was passed upon him, it was en- 
 deavoured to thrust an Arian preacher 
 into his seat, and soldiers were again 
 poured around the churches. But the 
 indignant citizens rushed to the rescue of 
 their bishop, guarding the gates of the 
 cathedral and the palace, that none should 
 lay hands upon his sacred person. It 
 was now that he introduced the anti- 
 phonal style of singing into Milan cathe- 
 dral, and this beautiful and inspiring 
 music raised the enthusiasm of the people 
 to such a pitch, that all Milan felt they 
 were ready to die for Ambrose and the 
 catholic faith. t But while the court Avas 
 vainly labouring to contend with the 
 ascendency of the saint, a circumstance 
 occurred which again made them his 
 suppliants. Regardless of his most so- 
 lemn promise, Maximus was approaching 
 Italy, and Ambrose was again sent to 
 Treves, where he then was, to persuade 
 him to desist. He was this time unsuc- 
 cessful ; and accordingly Justina was 
 forced to fly with Valentinian into the 
 east, to implore the assistance of Theo- 
 dosius, while Maximus proceeded to 
 Rome, and re-establish the pagan altar 
 of Victory. All fled who could, but 
 Ambrose remained. But the next year, 
 the power of the usurper fell before the 
 arms of Theodosius, and Valentinian was 
 
 * Concerning this council/ see Labbajus and 
 Cos.sart, torn. ii. 791 — 802 ; or see Newman's Arians, 
 c. iv. § 4. 
 
 t MopfioXvKeia yap inriXafie Taina. Theodoret, 
 E. H. V. 13. 
 
 t See the Sermon de Basil, non trad, at end of 
 Letter xxi. torn. iv. 273. 
 
 386 
 
 accordingly restored ; but this year freed 
 St. Ambrose from a powerful and implac- 
 able enemy, the Empress Justina, who 
 about this time paid the debt of nature. 
 
 To avoid breaking the narrative of the 
 persecution at Milan, we omitted to notice 
 in its proper place the provincial synod 
 of Aquileia, which took place in 381, and 
 at which St. Ambrose was present. Two 
 bishops, Palladius and Secundianiis, being 
 charged with heresy, denied the charge, 
 and appealed to a general council. But 
 St. Ambrose justly objected that it was 
 unreasonable to disturb the whole chris- 
 tian world for two individuals; and the 
 emperor yielding to this reasoning, a 
 provincial synod only was summoned. 
 The heretics behaved with considerable 
 havightiness, but were refuted by the supe- 
 rior knowledge of Ambrose, and convicted 
 of Arianism.* Two years before this he 
 had lost his bi-other Satyrus, at whose 
 death he was much afflicted, and composed 
 two elegant little tracts on the subject. 
 
 While Theodosius remained at Milan, 
 an incident occuiTed which paints the 
 character of St. Ambrose in glorious 
 colours.! Buthericus, a military magis- 
 trate residing at Thessalonica, had im- 
 prisoned a popular charioteer for a brutal 
 oflence, and at the race-time the people 
 loudly demanded his release. On Buths- 
 ricxis' refusing to comply with their 
 unreasonable demand, a sedition was 
 immediately raised, and he, with some 
 other magistrates, were stoned to death, 
 and their mangled bodies treated with 
 furious insult. This was a case which 
 the emperor could not possibly treat with 
 lenity, but Theodosius set no bounds to 
 his indignation. By a treacherous pro- 
 mise of entertainment, he collected the 
 people in the circus, which he surrounded 
 with soldiers, and then gave orders for 
 an indiscriminate butchery. In this 
 massacre seven thousand persons pe- 
 rished, according to the most moderate 
 accounts. Shortly after he presented 
 himself at the door of Milan cathedral ; 
 but on the steps he was encountered by 
 the dauntless prelate, who had before 
 wi'itten to him on the subject. J Laying 
 hold upon the emperor's purple, "Stay !" 
 exclaimed St. Ambrose ; " in the pro- 
 faneness of sin, with hands polluted with 
 innocent blood, none may enter the holy 
 
 ' * For the proceedings of the synod, see Cossart and 
 Labbseus. Cone. torn. ii. 979 — 1001. Or, St. Ambrosii 
 Op. torn. iv. 223 — 243. Edition before cited. 
 
 t See the account in Paulinus, § 24. Sozomen, 
 vii. 25. Theodoret, v. 27, 28. 
 
 t See", the letter, numbered Ii. in torn. iv. 
 p. 337 
 
AMB 
 
 AMB 
 
 place, and partake of the sacred myste- 
 ries."* The emperor felt the justice of 
 the sentence, and returned in tears to the 
 palace ; and after eight months' peni- 
 tence, was at Christmas 390, readmitted 
 to the communion of the faithful, having 
 puhlicly done penance in the cathedral, 
 casting himself upon the ground, and re- 
 peating the words of David, " My soid 
 cleaveth unto the dust ; O quicken thou 
 me according imto thy word ;" smiting 
 liis brow and breast, and weeping with 
 unfeigiaed shame and sorrow. But St. 
 Ambrose was not contented with this ; 
 he prevailed upon the emperor to pass a 
 law, that the execution of all decrees 
 touching the lives or property of his sub- 
 jects should be deferred till thirty days 
 after their promidgation, thus providing 
 a safeguard against all such outbursts 
 of momentary passion for the future. 
 "What a picture," observes an elegant 
 popular modern writer, f "does this scene 
 bring before the eyes ! If we go back in 
 imagination to the time of Theodosius ; if 
 we reflect that at that epoch, sovereignty, 
 equally despotic and military in its na- 
 ture, rarely deigned to act but by the 
 sword alone ; we must hold in veneration 
 the memory of the virtuous pontiff, who 
 thus daring to raise his single voice in 
 the midst of an enslaved world, had 
 the courage to forbid the entry of the 
 church to a monarch covered with the 
 blood of his subjects, until he had puri- 
 fied himself by repentance." 
 
 The same year two Persians of famous 
 knowledge came over to Milan, having 
 heard the fame of Ambrose, to prove 
 him with hard questions ; and after 
 fourteen hours' interview, departed in 
 unbounded admiration of his vast attain- 
 ments. J None could ever hear him and 
 be dissatisfied. St. Augustine, before he 
 embraced the faith, attended his mini- 
 strations, with the view of criticizing his 
 style, but conversion was the result ; and 
 the magnificent hymn of Te Deum lau- 
 damus is said to have been poured forth 
 unpremeditatedly by him and Ambrose, 
 in alternate verses, immediately after he 
 had received baptism from the hands of 
 the latter. 
 
 In 392, Theodosius having returned to 
 Italy, Valentinian, under the able teach- 
 ing of St. Ambrose, soon lost all traces of 
 the Arian heresy, and was soon to have 
 
 • E-Tnirxes, icpr\, mudpi lap biro afiapTta'; /3e/}i]\w, 
 Kai ras x^'pa? rjfia-Ynevaf ouk ev 6tKti ExoyTi, ou 
 $e^iTov TTpo fjLeravoia^, rr^t tov tepov em/Saiveiv 
 ovdovt ti ^v(TTT}piwv 0ei(i:v lioivuiveiv. Sozom. Jbid. 
 
 + Author of the Book of the Jathers, p. 328. Life 
 of St. Ambrose. 
 
 t Paulinus, § 25. 
 
 387 
 
 received baptism from his venerable in- 
 structor. He was residing at Vienne in 
 France, where he was sti-angled by some 
 of his guards, at the instance of Arbo- 
 gastes, a powerful pagan count, whom 
 he had a few days before deprived of his 
 military rank. The assassin placed upon 
 the throne Eugenius, a creature of his 
 own, and entering Italy, approached 
 Milan. The bishop fled to Bologna, and 
 thence, by Faenza, to Florence, whence 
 he wrote to Eugenius, reprimanding him 
 for his favour * towards heathenism. He 
 also the same year published a tract on 
 the death of Valentinian. But the ener- 
 getic emperor of the east did not suffer 
 the usurper and assassin to go unpun- 
 ished ; he soon poured his legions upon 
 the west, and Ambrose, assvn-ed of his 
 success, returned to Milan. Theodosius- 
 soon overcame all opposition, and merci- 
 fully confined his vengeance to the two 
 heads of the revolt, Arbogastes and Eu- 
 genius, whom he executed, pardoning 
 all other parties, and establishing himself 
 as sole emperor. The rebels, when they 
 set out from Milan to oppose Theodosius, 
 threatened to do in Milan, that which in 
 more modern times the puritans actually 
 did in many instances in our country, 
 viz. make a stable of the cathedi-al;f but 
 St. Ambrose had a happier lot than our 
 martjTed primate ; the cause of truth 
 with him was triumphant, and he had 
 the honourable satisfaction of saving fi-om 
 execution all his enemies, except the 
 two whom justice could in no wise par- 
 don. During tliis year appeared his 
 Ennarrationes in Psal. xxxv. xxxvi. 
 xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. xl. (xxxvi. — xli). 
 
 In 393 died the great Theodosius, and 
 was succeeded by Arcadius and Honorius. 
 The funeral oration on the deceased em- 
 peror was pronomiced by Ambrose, who 
 did not long survive him, but left this 
 earth to receive his crown on the 4th of 
 April, 397. His remains were interred 
 under the high altar in the Ambrosian 
 church, and were followed to the grave 
 by a vast body of mourners, among 
 whom were many Jews and pagans, for 
 St. Ambrose's unbounded charity of spirit 
 had embraced all mankind, and in him 
 all mankind had lost a sincere and well- 
 proved friend. 
 
 The works of St. Ambrose are said by 
 Duping to have been more corrupted in 
 the common editions than those of any 
 other of the fathers. They were printed 
 
 * Paulinus, § 27. The letter is numbered Ivi. 
 and is in torn. iv. p. 364. 
 t Paulinus, § 31. 
 
 j Nouvelle Bibl. des Aut. Eccles. torn. ii. p. 253 
 2 C 3 
 
A M B 
 
 A M B 
 
 at Paris in 3 vols, folio, 1549 ; and again 
 afterwards at Rome more incorrectly. 
 But the best edition is that of the learned 
 Benedictines of St. Maur, printed at Pai-is 
 in 2 vols, folio, IfiSG. This edition has 
 been reprinted at Venice, in 4 vols, folio, 
 1748; and its text, without its copious 
 indices, again at Paris in 4 vols, 8vo, 
 I8'i6. His works consist of six books 
 on the days of the Creation, called Hex- 
 ameron, which appeared in 389 ; De 
 Paradiso, 37.5 ; De Cain et Abel, libri 
 duo, 375 ; De Noe et Area, and a frag- 
 ment on the same subject, 379; De 
 Abraham, libri ii. ; De Isaac et Anima ; 
 De bono Mortis ; De Fuga Saeculi ; De 
 Jacob et Vita beata ; De Joseph ; and 
 De Benedictionibus Patriarcharum ; all in 
 387 : De Tobia, 377 ; De Interpellatione 
 Job et David, 383 ; Apologia Prophetge 
 David, addressed to Theodosius, about 
 384; a second treatise on the same sub- 
 ject, of doubtful genuineness ; Ennarra- 
 tionesinPsalmos* i. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxvii. 
 xxxviii. xxxix. xl. xliii. xlv. xlvii. xlviii. 
 Ixi. written at different times ; Exposition 
 of Psalm cxviii. (cxix.) 386 ; Expositio 
 Evang. Luc. in ten books, 386 ; three 
 books De Officiis Ministrorum, 391 ; 
 De Virginibus, three books, addressed to 
 his sister Marcellina, 377 ; De Viduis, 
 377; De Virginitate, 378; De Institu- 
 tione Virginis et St. Marise perpetua Vir- 
 ginitate, 392 ; Exhortatio Virginitatis, 
 about 393 ; De Lapsu Virginis, supposed 
 by some to be spurious ; De Mysteriis, 
 387 ; De Fide, five books, addressed to 
 the emperor Gratian, 379 ; De Spiritu 
 Sancto, three books, addressed to Gratian, 
 381 ; De Incarnat. Domin. Sacramento, 
 about 382 ; De Poenitentia, libri ii. 384; 
 De Sacramentis, libri sex ; two books, 
 caused by the death of his brother Saty- 
 rus, De Excessu Frat. Satyri, and De 
 Resurrectione, 379 ; De Obitu Valenti- 
 niani Consolatio, 392 ; De Obitu Theo- 
 dosii, 393 ; twelve hymns, ninety - one 
 letters, and a fragment preserved in 
 Greek by Theodoret. 
 
 The style of St. Ambrose Is easy and 
 gentle, but firm and bold, with but little 
 ornament. His eloquence is simple and 
 solid, and appeals straight to the heart 
 and imderstanding, and but little to the 
 ear. In the six books, De Sacramentis, 
 it is remarkable that only two sacraments, 
 holy baptism and the holy eucharist, are 
 treated of, beside which there is only an 
 exposition of the Pater-noster ; which 
 would go to show that St. Ambrose used 
 
 • The Psalms are here numbered according to 
 
 the Vulgate. 
 
 388 
 
 the word " sacramentum" here in the 
 sense, kut e^oxnv, the sacraments, though 
 not to the exclusion of the others. 
 
 Whatever judgment men may pass 
 concerning some of the views to be found 
 in the works of St. Ambrose, (as, for ex- 
 ample, his admu-ation of celibacy, frc.) 
 without question, his personal charac- 
 ter is deserving of our highest reve- 
 rence, and the larger portion of his works 
 is profitable for all ages and nations * 
 
 AMBROSE, (the deacon,) of Alex- 
 andria, was the friend of Origen, who 
 converted him from the heresy of Valen- 
 tinus (Euseb. H. E. vi. 18,) to a sound 
 faith. He was ordained deacon of the 
 church of Alexandria, and being a man 
 of property, he not only incited Origen 
 to write commentaries on Scripture, but 
 liberally supplied him with upwards of 
 twenty amanuense and copyists of both 
 sexes. (Euseb. H. E. vi. 23. See Hei- 
 nichen's Notes.) Origen and he were 
 intimately connected also in their studies, 
 and Origen calls him his task-master, 
 {epyobionKT-qg.) A passage in Eusebius, 
 being misimderstood, has given rise to 
 the notion that he was one who suffered 
 by the persecution of Maximinus, but 
 this does not appear to be the case. He 
 survived Maximinus, but Origen survived 
 him, because he has been blamed for 
 leaving nothing to Origen, who was poor. 
 The name of his wife was Marcella, and 
 he had several children. He left no 
 writings which have come 'down to us. 
 Other writers have said that he was a 
 Marcionite, not a Valentinian, previous 
 to his conversion. (See Epiphanius, 
 Haeres. xxxvi.) (For more on Ambrose 
 of Alexandria, see Origen. Philocalia, 5. 
 Euseb. in loc. cit. ; with Heinichen's 
 Notes. Cave, i. 122, &c.) 
 
 AMBROSE, (the Camaldolese, 1378— 
 1439,) a native of Portico, and de- 
 scended from the Traversari, an illus- 
 trious family of Ravenna. He entered a 
 
 • In this account it will be observed no notice is 
 taken of the preternatural occurrences which are 
 said to have taken place at the disinterment of the 
 martyrs Gervasius and Protasius, — (see Ambros, 
 Ep. Ixxxv. and Serm. xci. torn. iil. 278 and 407, 
 ed. Frobenii,) — or of the miraculous circum- 
 stances recorded in the life written by Paulinus. 
 It is not necessary to discuss their crediliility. 
 They will probably find but few, even among those 
 who revere St. Ambrose, who believe them in the 
 present day. But it is hoped that there are many, 
 who while tliey reject the miraculous part of the 
 narrative do not think it necessary to go to the other 
 extreme, and like some modern authors of more 
 flippancy than wit or knowledge, accuse St. Am- 
 brose himself of a pious fraud. The circumstances 
 mentioned by Paulinus (except the halo round 
 the head of St Ambrose on his death-bed, which 
 may be otherwise accounted for,) are on hearsay 
 evidence, and do not bear any rigid examina- 
 tion. — Ed. 
 
A M B 
 
 A M E 
 
 Camaldolese convent in 1100, and in 
 1431 became general of his order. He 
 was highly esteemed by Pope Eugene IV. 
 who sent him to the councils of Basle, of 
 Ferrara, (where he addressed the Greek 
 emperor in Greek with the fluency of a 
 )iative,) and of Florence, where he was 
 employed in drawing up a formulary of 
 the union of the two churches. He was 
 also entrusted with the reformation of 
 the convents of his order, and he has 
 given an account of the journey he took 
 for this purpose in 1431, in his Hodoe- 
 poricon. He has left several Latin trans- 
 lations from Greek fathers, and other 
 works. In Martenne's Amplissima Col- 
 lectio, his letters are found divided into 
 twenty hooks, chiefly relating to the 
 affairs of his convent, but containing 
 many interesting details. A list of his 
 published and unpublished works may 
 be seen in the Appendix to Cave, Hist. 
 Lit. p. 155. His Hodceporicon was pub- 
 lished in 1 678, (Fab. Bibl. Lat. Med. et Inf. 
 -^tat. I.) and by Bartholini, at Florence 
 and Lucca, 1681, (Append, to Cave.) 
 The Biog. Universelle and Chalmers quote 
 two editions, which they call rare, in 
 1431 and 1432, which must be an error.* 
 AMBROSE, (Isaac, died 1664,) mi- 
 nister at Garstang, and afterwards at 
 Preston, Lancashire. Being admitted of 
 Brazennose college, in Oxford, in 1621 
 lie entered into holy orders, and was ap- 
 pointed one of the king's preachers for 
 the county of Lancaster. In 1641 he 
 went over to the Presbyterian party, and 
 was very active in assisting the com- 
 missioners for the ejection of those whom 
 they called " scandalous, ignorant, and 
 insufficient ministers and schoolmasters." 
 In 1662 he was rejected for nonconfor- 
 mity. His works, which are chiefly 
 practical, were collected after his death, 
 and published in one vol. fol. 1674, which 
 has been subsequently reprinted more 
 than once. His personal piety is highly 
 praised. He is said to have retired once 
 a year for a month into a hut in the 
 woods for religious contemplation. (Biog. 
 Brit. Chalmers, &c.) 
 
 AMBROSE, (de Lombez, 1708 — 
 1778,) a Capuchin, of a very humble and 
 devotional turn of mind, whose family 
 name was La Peirie, successively professor 
 of theology, guardian and definitor of his 
 order. He has left two small volumes, 
 1. Traite de la Paix Interieure ; 2. Lettres 
 Spirituelles sur la Paix Interieure. 
 
 • There is, however, an edition printed at Flo- 
 rence, nine annu. See Payne and Foss's Catalogue, 
 IbiO. 
 
 380 
 
 AMBROSINI, (Bartolomeo, died 
 1657,) physician and professor of botany 
 at Bologna, and a practising physician 
 also, whose services were highly valu- 
 able during the plague there in 1630. He 
 has left a tract, De Varietate Capsicorum, 
 12mo. 1630, besides several medical 
 pieces. He was also the ecUtor of the 
 ninth to twelfth (inclusive) volumes of the 
 works of Aldrovandi, (see the name.) 
 Biog. Univ. 
 
 AMBROSINI, (Hiacinto,) brother of 
 the preceding, succeeded him in the 
 care of the Botanical garden at Bologna, 
 of which he published a catalogue in 
 1657. He compiled also the first por- 
 tion of a botanical dictionaiy, called 
 Phytologia, &c. Bologna, 1666, folio. 
 The second part, which was to treat of 
 trees, never appeared. 
 
 AMBROSIUS, (Aurelianus,) the ad- 
 versary of Hengist, was one of the British 
 kings. By some he is identified with Na- 
 tan-leod, and by Ussher with Uther Pen- 
 dragon. (See Userii Antiq. p. 249.) 
 It is said that king Arthur learnt under 
 him the art of war. According to some 
 authors, he was slain in a battle with Cer- 
 dic, king of tlie West Saxons, in 508. 
 (See Gildas, § 25, and Stevenson's note.) 
 AMBROSIUS, (Autperlus, died 778.) 
 a French Benedictine monk and abbot of 
 St. Vincent, near Benevento ; his election 
 having been protested against, Charle- 
 magne referred the matter to Pope 
 Adrian. Ambrosius was summoned to 
 Rome, where he died. He has left a 
 Commentary on the Apocalypse, (Cologne, 
 1536,) written in very pure Latin, the lives 
 of his predecessors, St. Paldon, Tason, and 
 Taton, published in Ughelli. Ital. Sacra, 
 and in Mabillon. Act. Ord. Ben., with 
 some Homilies. (Biog. Univ.) 
 AMEDEO. See Savoy. 
 AMEDROZ, (Jacob, 1719—1812,) a 
 Swiss officer, who entered the French 
 sei'vice at the age of eighteen. He de- 
 fended himself with great gallantry, when 
 in command of the garrison at Capel. 
 (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMEIL, (le Baron Auguste, 1775 — 
 1822,) a French general of great bravery, 
 who gave in his adherence to the Bour- 
 bons in 1814, but changing sides more 
 than once during the year 1815, com- 
 manded a body of cavalry at Waterloo 
 in Napoleon's army. He escaped aftei-- 
 wards to England, and subsequently to 
 Hanover, where he died a lunatic, hav- 
 ing been imprisoned at Heldesheim. 
 In 1816, sentence of death was passed 
 on him at Paris. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
AME 
 
 AME 
 
 AMEILHON, (Hubert Pascal, 1730 
 — 1811,) member of the Academy of 
 Belles-lettres, and keeper of the public 
 library at Paris. Having assumed when 
 young the ecclesiastical habit, he devoted 
 liimself entirely to literature. He entered 
 with great ardour into the revolutionary 
 spirit of 1793, being one of the most 
 active in that commission which em- 
 ployed itself in attempting to obliterate 
 every vestige of the nobility of France, 
 More than six hundred and fifty volumes, 
 and cases of patents of nobility and heral- 
 dic documents entrusted to his care in the 
 National Library, were by him committed 
 to the flames ; he rendered, however, 
 considerable service to literature in pre- 
 serving many valuable libraries that were 
 exposed to plunder at that melancholy 
 period. His publications are very nume- 
 rous. He wrote the concluding volumes 
 of Le Beau's History of the Lower Em- 
 pire, some antiquarian essays, particularly 
 on subjects connected with the cultiva- 
 tion of the mechanical arts among the 
 ancients ; a Histoiy of the Commerce 
 and Navigation of the Egyptians ; and 
 several articles in the Memoirs of the 
 French Institute. Some of the subjects 
 of his memoirs are the ordeals of the 
 ancients ; on their arts of swimming, 
 diving, &c. ; also on many subjects con- 
 nected with the trades and arts of the 
 ancients ; and one against Dutens, who 
 imagined that the ancients were ac- 
 quainted with the telescope. A slight 
 account of most of these pieces is given 
 in the Suppl. to the Biog. Univ. He 
 assisted also in editing the Journal de 
 Verdun, Journal des Savans, Jom-nal 
 d'Agriculture, Commerce, Arts, et Fi- 
 nances, and the Magasin Encyclop^dique. 
 
 AMELGARD, priest of Liege, towards 
 the end of the fifteenth century, author 
 of two Latin histories of Charles VII. 
 and Louis XI. preserved among the 
 MSS. of the Royal Library at Paris. 
 He also composed an inquiry into the 
 trial of Joan of Arc. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMELIA, (Anne, 1723—1787,) sister 
 of Frederick II. of Prussia, a princess of 
 great merit. She set to music " The 
 Death of the Messiah" of Ramler, in a 
 trial of skill against Graun. She denied 
 herself many gratifications for the pur- 
 pose of having money to bestow on the 
 poor. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMELIER, (de Toulouse,) a trou- 
 badour of the twelfth century. He left 
 some Sirventes, in which he has lashed 
 the abuses of liis times with more bold- 
 ness than wit. (Biog. L^niv.) 
 390 
 
 AMELIN, or HAMELIN, a French 
 officer of the sixteenth century, who, 
 following the example of his master, 
 Armand de Biron, applied himself to 
 literature as a profession. His version 
 of the third Decade of Livy appeared in 
 1557. He had previously translated 
 some speeches out of the same author. 
 He wrote a panegyric on Henry II. of 
 France ; a Poem in praise of the duke of 
 Guise (Par. 1558) ; and some works that 
 have not been printed ; among which was 
 a History of France. It is alluded to in 
 Rousard's Poems. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMELINE, (Claude, (1624—1706,) 
 was educated for the bar, but entered 
 the congregation of the oratory in 1660. 
 Going to Saumur to study theology, he 
 became the friend of Malebranche. He 
 was ordained priest in 1663, and ap- 
 pointed precentor (grand-chantre) of the 
 church of Paris ; but this situation af- 
 fording no scope for his zeal, he ex- 
 changed it with Claude Joli for that of 
 grand archdeacon. He has left treatises 
 on the Will, on the Love of the Chief 
 Good. Some also think that he wrote the 
 Art of Living Happily, Par. 1 690, attri- 
 buted by others to Louis Pascal. 
 
 AMELIUS, (Gentiliahus,) an eclectic 
 philosopher of the third century, the 
 contemporary of Poi-phyiy, (see Por- 
 phyry, Vit. Plot. 7,) born in Tuscany, 
 His first master was Lysimachus, the 
 Stoic ; but he afterwards adopted the 
 tenets of Platonism from the study of 
 Numenius ; and about the year 240, be- 
 came the disciple of Plotinus, with whom 
 he associated till the period of his death 
 in 270, when he retired to Apamea in 
 Syria : none of his numerous writings 
 are extant. A passage from one of 
 them, where he cites the beginning of 
 St. John's Gospel in confirmation of the 
 doctrine of Plato, has been transcribed 
 by Eusebius, (Prep. Evan. xi. 19,) 
 and others. In Eunapius' Life of the 
 Greek Sophists, he is noticed vmder the 
 name of Amerius, a name which he is 
 said to have preferred to that of Amelius, 
 which in the Greek language is expres- 
 sive of carelessness. See more on Ame- 
 lius, in Mosheim's Translation of Cud- 
 worth, i. 451, 854. A few passages in 
 Proclus quote or mention Amelius. (See 
 Proclus in Theol. Platon. ed. Marini. 
 p. 1. 257.) 
 
 AMELOT, (de la Houssaye, Nicholas, 
 or Abraham Nicholas, 1634 — 1706,) a 
 French translator and political writer, 
 was born at Orleans, and sent in 1669 as 
 secretary to the French ambassador at 
 
A M E 
 
 A U E 
 
 Venice. His works were very numerous, 
 but his literary labours would not have 
 raised him above indigence, had he not 
 been supported from other resources. 
 His chief works are, 1. Histoire du Gou- 
 vernement de Venise, &c. (3 vols, 12mo, 
 1705, Amsterdam, but published pre- 
 viously also in 1683.) 2. Abrege du 
 Proces fait au Juifs de Metz, avec plu- 
 sieurs AiTets du Parlement, 1670, 18mo. 
 3. Histoire de Philippe-Guillaume de 
 Nassau et d'Eleonore-Charlotte de Bour- 
 bon sa Femme, &c. (published in 1754 
 by Abbe Sepher.) 4. Memoires Histo- 
 riques, Pohtiques, &c. 2 vols, 8vo, 1727; 
 3 vols, 12mo, 1737 and 1741. He was 
 certainly not the author of the whole 
 of this work. 5. Lettres du Cardinal 
 d'Ossat. 1697 and 1708, 5 vols, 12mo. 
 6. La Morale de Tacite, 1686. He also 
 translated the Coui'tier, from the S^janish 
 of Balthazar Gracian, and Father Paul's 
 History of the Council of Trent, (imder 
 the name of La Mothe Josseval.) Tliis 
 latter work was the subject of much con- 
 troversy in France, and attempts were 
 made to suppress it : also nine books of 
 the Annals of Tacitus, &c. 
 
 AMELOT, (Sebastian Michel d', 
 1741 — 1829,) a French prelate of great 
 moderation and piety, was consecrated 
 in 1775 bishop of Vannes. On the 
 breaking out of the revolution in 1790, 
 after being imprisoned in Paris, he es- 
 caped to Switzerland. In 1800 he settled 
 in London. He was among the number 
 of those who refused to resign their sees 
 to Pius VlL On the restoration of the 
 Bourbons, he declined the offer made 
 him by his successor of vacating his see, 
 and transferred to him a considerable 
 smn of money for distribution at Vannes. 
 Having lost one eye in England, he be- 
 came totally blind shortly after his return 
 to France. 
 
 Amelot, minister of the household to 
 Louis XVI. was imprisoned in the Lux- 
 embourg in 1794. See in this Dictionary 
 the name Masers de Latude. (Suppl. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMELOTTE, (Denis, 1606—1678,) 
 entered the congregation of the oratory 
 in 1650, and was one of the staunchest 
 supporters of Father Burgoing's despo- 
 tism. His enmity to the members of 
 the Port-Royal brought him under the 
 lash of Nicole ; but he revenged himself 
 by inducing the chancellor Sequier to 
 withhold permission for the publication 
 of the Mons version of the Scriptures. 
 His own version, (which was chiefly 
 taken from that of ]\Ions, which he 
 391 
 
 contrived to see before its publication,) 
 was published in 1666-68, with a de- 
 dication to M. de Perefixe, archbishop 
 of Paris, in which there were some 
 severe reflections on the members of 
 tlie Port - Royal. This dedication was 
 suppressed m the succeeding editions of 
 t!ie translation, which have been very 
 numerous. It is made with considerable 
 elegance, although not free from gross 
 faults. He wrote also the lives of Charles 
 de Gondren, the second supei'ior of his 
 society, and of La Sceur Marguerite du 
 Saint-Sacrement ; an Abridgement of Di- 
 vinity ; a Catechism for the Jubilee ; a 
 Manual of Piety. His works are said to 
 be deeply tinctured with mysticism. To- 
 wards the close of his life, he made an 
 ineffectual application for the small bi- 
 shopric of Sarlat. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMELUNGHI, (Geronimo,) one of the 
 earliest burlesque Italian poets. He wrote 
 the War of the Giants, first published in 
 1566, under the name of Forabosco, to- 
 gether with the War of the Dwarfs, by 
 one Francesco Amenta. Among the Songs 
 of the Carnival, there is one by Ame- 
 lunghi, called The Scholars. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMENTA, (Nicholas, 1659—1719,) a 
 Neapolitan laM-yer and wit, who fcr the 
 first fourteen years of his life was kept in 
 a darkened chamber, on account of the 
 weakness of his eyes. On his recovery, 
 he made great progress in his studies, 
 attaining to considerable eminence as a 
 pleader, and finding his relaxation in 
 miscellaneous literature. His writings 
 are in the purest Tuscan : among them 
 are seven prose comedies; Advertisements 
 from Parnassus ; Observations on Father 
 Daniel Bartoli's work on the Italian Lan- 
 guage ; twenty - four burlesque satirical 
 pieces, styled Capitoli, after those of 
 Berni ; the lives of Scipio Pasquali and 
 Leonardo ; a work on the Italian lan- 
 guage ; and some occasional poems. 
 
 AMENTA S, a surgeon, mentioned by 
 Galen (De Fasciis, cap. 58, 61, 89, ed. 
 Chart.) as the inventor of some ingenious 
 bandages ; one for a fracture of the ossa 
 nasi, another for straightening a nose in- 
 clined to either side, and the third for a 
 broken rib, &c. There is a surgeon 
 called Amyntas, (of which name Amentas 
 is very possibly a coiTuption,) some of 
 whose works are included in the Col- 
 lect. Chirurg. Graec. by Nicetas. (See 
 
 NiCETAS.) 
 
 AMER. (TheFatimitekhalif.) SccEmr. 
 
 AMERBACH, (Vitus, 1487—1557,) 
 born at Wendingen in Bavaria, studied 
 at Wittenberg, and became one of the 
 
AM E 
 
 A ME 
 
 followers of Luther ; but returning to 
 the Romish communion, died professor 
 of philosophy at Ingolstadt. He has 
 translated into Latin some speeches from 
 Isocrates and Demosthenes ; Chryso- 
 stom's Treatise on Providence ; the An- 
 coratus of Epiphanius. He has written 
 also a treatise on Natural Philosophy, 
 Commentaries on the Classics, and seve- 
 ral short poetical pieces. 
 
 AMERBACH, (John, died 1515,) a 
 learned and accurate printer of Basle, 
 born at Rutlingen in Suabia. He intro- 
 duced tlie round type in the place of the 
 Italic and the Gothic, in the first edi- 
 tion of St. Augustine (150G). His sons 
 completed after his death his edition of 
 St. Jerome. His eldest son, Boniface, 
 who died in 1562, after being twenty 
 years professor of jurisprudence at Basle, 
 was the author of several works, and one 
 of the contributors to the Bibliotheca 
 Amerbachiana, (4to, Bas. 1659,) a book 
 that throws considerable light on the 
 early history of printing. 
 
 AMERBACH, (Basil, 1534—1591,) 
 grandson of the above, a learned jurist. 
 After studying at Bologna, he was named 
 rector of the Academy at Basle, the place 
 of his birth. In 1561, he was elected 
 professor of law ; and two years after- 
 wards, he succeeded in the chair of the 
 Pandects, his father, who was carried 
 off by a contagious disease, which also de- 
 pi-ived Amerbach of his wife and only son. 
 He founded a class in the gymnasium at 
 Basle, which still bears his name. See 
 AthenaeRauricEe,115. (Supp. Biog.Univ.) 
 
 AMERGIN, a personage of consi- 
 derable celebrity in what we may at least 
 call the uncertain portion of early Irish 
 history. He is one of the sons of the 
 Spanish king Milesius, or Mileagh. His 
 brothersHeber and Heremon having taken 
 possession of the whole of Ireland, Amer- 
 gin was appointed arch-bard, or a sort 
 of minister to preside over the laws, the 
 poetry, the religion, and the philosophy 
 of the country. According to O'Reilly (on 
 the Brehon Laws) he was the brehon, 
 (a sort of provincial judge, under the 
 Tanist, see Ware, Ant. Hib. c. viii. 
 Leland, Hist, of Ireland, Prelim. Disc, 
 p. XXV.) or legislator of the colony. Heber 
 and Amergin both lost Iheir lives in 
 battle against Heremon. The century to 
 which these events may be referred, is 
 not agreed upon. Three poems attri- 
 buted to Amergin are still extant. One 
 of them is printed in the second volume 
 of Hardlman's Irish Minstrelsy. His 
 poems are accompanied by an interlinear 
 392 
 
 gloss, which is, itself, in an obsolete 
 language. For more on this supposed 
 author, the reader must be referred to 
 the professed antiquaries of Ireland. 
 He will find some references in Moore's 
 Hist, of Ireland, i. 107, from which this 
 statement is partly taken. 
 
 AMERIAS, (of Macedon,) appears from 
 Athenseus and Hesychius to have been 
 the Du Cange of his day ; and had his 
 Glossaries come down to us, they would 
 have been doubtless of great service to 
 Sturz in his treatise De Dialecto Mace- 
 donica. 
 
 AMERIGHI, or MORIGHI CAV. 
 See Caravaggio. 
 
 AMERIGO, (Vespucci.) See Ves- 
 pucci. 
 
 AMERVAL, or AMERLAN, born at 
 Bethune, towards the close of tlie four- 
 teenth century, the author of a curious 
 poetical dialogue between two daemons 
 on the sins of men, published at Paris, 
 fol. 1508; 4to, 1.531. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMES, (William, 1576 — 1633,) a 
 puritan divine of considerable reputation. 
 Educated at Christ college, Cambridge, 
 under the celebrated Dr. Perkins, he im- 
 bibed strongly Calvinistic opinions ; and 
 during his tenure of a fellowsliip, he gave 
 much offence by his strenuous advocacy 
 of his own views. About the year 1610- 
 11, a sermon of his gave great offence, 
 according to Fuller, who relates that Mr. 
 Ames " preaching at St. Mary's," or to 
 use his own expression, " having the 
 place of a watchman for an hour in the 
 tower of the university," inveighed against 
 sundry practices of that day — especially 
 against the custom of " Lords of mis- 
 I'ule, then kept up in some colleges, a 
 pagan custom, which Polydore Virgil 
 had observed, remained only in England." 
 He then condemned cards and dice ; 
 stating, that as " God invented the one- 
 and-twenty letters, whereof he made the 
 Bible, the devil, saith an author, found 
 out the one-and-twenty spots on the die ;" 
 that " canon law forbids the vise thereof, 
 seeing Inventio Diaholi nulla co7isuetu- 
 dine potest validari," &c. Fuller says, 
 that he left the univei'sity in consequence 
 of the offence thus given, and in order 
 to avoid expulsion ; but he adds, " the 
 rather, because there was a concurrence 
 of much nonconformity." It has some- 
 times been asserted or insinuated, that 
 the persecution of Archbishop Bancroft 
 drove Ames from England ; (see Neal's 
 Puritans, vol. i. p. 436, 4to, 1754, sub 
 anno 1604, and Dr. Maclaine's Note on 
 Moshcim, cent. xvi. sect. iii. part ii. § 37 ;) 
 
A ME 
 
 AM E 
 
 but It is only necessary to observe, tbat 
 this very sermon was delivered some 
 months after that prelate's death. 
 
 Ames, however, did go to the Hague 
 as chaplain in the English church there ; 
 and in 1613, his dispute with Grevin- 
 chovius, minister at Rotterdam, appeared 
 in print. He was afterwards invited to 
 take the divinity chair at Franeker in 
 Friesland, which he occupied for twelve 
 years. He was at the Synod of Dort in 
 1618, and informed king James's am- 
 bassador of what passed in that assembly. 
 After relinquishing his professorship at 
 Franeker, he went to Rotterdam, in hopes 
 that the air might suit him better. He 
 here wrote his " Fresh Suit against Cere- 
 monies;" but did not live to publish it. 
 He had inteiided to go to New England ; 
 but this, too, was frustrated by his death. 
 His wife and family embarked for Ame- 
 rica after his death, and took with them 
 his valuable library. 
 
 His chief works are the following — 
 Medulla Theologica, a treatise of Mora- 
 lity. Puritanismus Anglicanus, 1623. 
 (In English, 1641.) Disceptatio Scho- 
 lastica inter N. Grevinchovium et G. 
 Amesium (against the views of Armi- 
 niuson Election, &c.) Amst. 1613. Dis- 
 putatio inter Amesium et Grevincho- 
 vium, (about reconciliation by the death 
 of Christ,) Rott. 1615. Coronis ad Col- 
 lationem Hagiensem, (against the answers 
 of the Arminians to the Dutch pastors.) 
 De Incarnatione Verbi, (against the So- 
 cinians,) 1626. Bellarminus Enervatus, 
 1627. De Conscientia, 1630. (In Eng- 
 lish, 1643.) A Reply to Bishop Morton, 
 (on Ceremonies.) Fresh Suit against 
 Human Ceremonies in God's worship 
 (against Dr. Burgess,) 1633. Antisyno- 
 dalia, 1629, (against the Remonstrants.) 
 Rescriptio ad Grevinchovaum, an. 1634. 
 Christianas Catecheseos Sciagraphia, &c. 
 Also Commentaries on St. Peter and the 
 Psalms. Most of his works were re- 
 printed several times. (Biog. Brit, and 
 the authorities cited above.) 
 
 AMES, (Fisher, LL.D. 1758—1808,) 
 son of Nathaniel Ames, a physician of 
 Dedham, Massachusetts. They were not 
 descended, as some supposed, fi'om W. 
 Ames, the puritan. Fisher Ames is very 
 highly esteemed by the Americans, who 
 speak much of his great talents and his 
 high moral and religious character. He 
 at first studied the law, which he aban- 
 doned for the more stin-ing pursuits of 
 politics. He was a member of the con- 
 vention of his own state, which consi- 
 dered and ratified the federal constitution ; 
 393 
 
 and when the general government of the 
 United States commenced its operations 
 in 1789, he appeared in the national 
 legislature as the first representative of his 
 district, and for eight successive years 
 took a distinguished part in their national 
 councils. A few years before his death 
 he was chosen president of Harvard Col- 
 lege, but declined the office from ill health , 
 His speech on the British treaty, de- 
 livered April 28, 1796, is highly spoken 
 of. He published an oration on the 
 death of Washington in 1800. His writ- 
 ings were collected together and pub- 
 lished with a memoir of him by president 
 Kirkland in 1809. (Allen's Amer. Diet.) 
 
 AMES, (Joseph, 1689—1759,) a cele- 
 brated writer on typographical antiquities. 
 He was a native of Yarmouth, and de- 
 scended from a family which may be 
 traced in Norfolk from the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. He was sent by his 
 father, (who appeal's to have been the 
 master of a ship that traded between 
 Yarmouth and London,) to a school in 
 Wapping, and at fifteen was apprenticed 
 to a plane maker, near Guildhall. He 
 settled as a ship chandler or ironmonger 
 near the Hermitage, Wapping, and re- 
 mained there till his death. 
 
 Mr. Ames early displayed a turn for his- 
 torical and antiquarian researches, which 
 was fostered by his intercourse with seve- 
 ral kindred spirits : among them was Mr. 
 Lewis, the clergyman of Margate, who 
 suggested to him the idea of writing a his- 
 tory of printing in England. After five- 
 and-twenty years of research, he published 
 his most celebrated work in 1749, in one 
 vol. 4to. It is entitled. Typographical 
 Antiquities, being an Historical Account 
 of Printing in England, with some Me- 
 moirs of our Ancient Printers, and a 
 Register of the Books printed by them, 
 from the year 1471 to 1600 ; with an 
 Appendix concerning Printing in Scot- 
 land and Ireland to the same time. It 
 was dedicated to the lord chancellor, 
 (Lord Hardwick.) Mr. Ames had, in 
 1 736, been elected a fellow of the Society 
 of Antiquaries, and in 1741 had been 
 appointed secretary to that body. He 
 was also a fellow of the Royal Society, 
 and he was much esteemed by Sir Hans 
 Sloane, then its president, who named 
 him one of his trustees. 
 
 His great work has been twice re- 
 edited ; once by Mr. W. Herbert, (see 
 the name,) in three vols, 4to, 1785 — 
 1790 ; and again by the Rev. T. F. Dib- 
 din, D.D. 1810—1819, 4 vols, 4to. 
 
 His other works are, 1. Catalogue of 
 
AME 
 
 A M H 
 
 English Printers from 1471 to 1700, 4to. 
 
 2. An Index to Lord Pembroke's Coins. 
 
 3. A Catalogue of English Heads, &c. 
 8vo, 1748. This Avas an account of about 
 two thousand prints, forming the ten 
 volumes of English portraits collected by- 
 Mr. Nicholls of Ware, and sold after his 
 death, in 1745, to Dr. Fothergill. 4. Pa- 
 rentalia, or Memoirs of the Family of 
 Wren. Mr. Ames is buried in the church 
 of St. George in the East. An account 
 of the sale of his coins, &c., his library 
 and MSS. may be found in Mr. Gough's 
 Life, prefixed to Herbert's edition of the 
 Typographical Antiquities. See more 
 also in Chalmers. 
 
 AMESTRIS, the wife of Xerxes, hav- 
 ing discovered an intrigue between her 
 husband and Artaynta, by means of a 
 robe, which she had given to her hus- 
 band, and he to Artaynta, contrived to 
 obtain from Xerxes power over the per- 
 son of Artaynta's mother ; and after 
 cutting off her breasts, nose, ears, and 
 lips, sent her home again. Under the 
 no less powerful feeling of superstition, 
 Amestris, when she was growing old, 
 ordered fourteen childi'en of Persians of 
 rank to be buried alive, as an offering to 
 the god of the grave, — a custom, it would 
 seem, not confined to Persia, as stated 
 by Herodotus, vii. 112, for Horace al- 
 ludes to something similar, in Epod. 5, 
 as taking place at Rome. 
 
 AMFREVILLE, the name of three 
 brothers of great bravery, who were of- 
 ficers in the French navy during the 
 reign of Louis XIV. The eldest, the 
 Marquis d'Amfreville, died at a great age, 
 lieutenant-general of the naval forces, 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMHERST, (JefFery,Lord,) the second 
 son of JefFery Amherst, Esq. of River- 
 head in Kent, by Elizabeth, daughter of 
 Thomas Kerril of Hadlow, in the same 
 county, Esq. was born on the 29th of 
 January, 1717. He appears to have been 
 educated chiefly in his father's house ; 
 and at the early age of fom-teen entered 
 the army as an ensign, in one of the 
 regiments of guards. How he spent the 
 first few years of his military life, does not 
 exactly appear ; but during the seven 
 years' war he served a great deal on the 
 continent, andwas present as aide-de-camp 
 to Lord Ligonier at the battles of Rou- 
 cox, Dettingen, and Fontenoy. Being an 
 officer of much promise and most distin- 
 guished gallantry, he soon attracted the 
 attention of the duke of Cumberland, by 
 whom he was transferred to the staff of 
 the head-quarters ; in which capacitv, as 
 391 
 
 aide-de-camp to the duke himself, he wit- 
 nessed the battles of Laffeld and Hasten- 
 bech. From that date his promotion 
 was very rapid. In 1756 we find him 
 in command of the fifteenth regiment of 
 foot, and in two years afterwards he 
 attained to the rank of major-general. 
 
 General Amherst's character was too 
 well established to permit his absence 
 from any field where the honour of the 
 British arms required to be maintained. 
 On the breaking out of hostilities between 
 England and France in 1757, he was 
 appointed to command in North America, 
 and soon found an opportunity of justi- 
 fying the choice which the war-minister 
 had made. In the summer of 1758 he 
 vmdertook an expedition against Cape 
 Breton, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 and made himself master of it with all 
 its dependencies. This was a very valua- 
 ble conquest, not only because of the 
 blow which it struck at the enemy's 
 commerce, but because of the command 
 which it gave to the English of the navi- 
 gation of the St. La^vrence, and the open- 
 ing which it made for them into the 
 heart of the Canadas. Neither did it 
 stand alone. In November of the same 
 year, Fort Du Quesne, another of the 
 keys of Canada on the side of the Lakes, 
 was skilfully invested under his auspices ; 
 and the place being stormed by Brigadier 
 General Forbes's detachment, was carried 
 with little loss. Then followed the bril- 
 liant campaign of 1759, which gave to 
 the English the forts of Niagara, Ticon- 
 deroga, and Crown Point, — the first cap- 
 tured on the 24th of July by Sir William 
 Johnson ; the second, two days later, by 
 General Amherst in person ; the third 
 capitulating, after an obstinate resistance, 
 on the 18th of the ensuing September. 
 But the exploits which give its chief 
 eclat to this celebrated year were, the 
 battle on the heights of Abraham, and 
 the surrender of Quebec, the capital of 
 tlie French possessions in North America. 
 Of the process by which this important 
 success was achieved, we shall give a 
 fuller account when we come to speak of 
 the gallant Wolfe, who immediately com- 
 manded. Nevertheless, it is due to Lord 
 Amherst to state, that the plan of the 
 campaign was by him digested and drawn 
 up ; and that if the part which he took 
 in the execiition of his own designs was 
 less brilliant than that entnisted to the 
 hero of Quebec, with him rests the merit 
 of having projected the whole series of 
 operations, as well as of an active and 
 useful diversion from the side of the 
 
 I 
 
AMH 
 
 A M H 
 
 Lakes, without which not even Wolfe's 
 energies could have overcome the ob- 
 stacles that were opposed to him. 
 
 General Amherst inarching from Ti- 
 conderoga, made himself master, while 
 Wolfe was in the St. Laurence, of Isle 
 au Noix and Picquet's Island. He then 
 pushed upon Isle Royale, which likewise 
 submitted ; and on the 8th of September 
 took possession of Montreal. There the 
 intelligence of Wolfe's victory and death 
 reached him, on which he prepai'ed to 
 advance against Quebec ; but the fears 
 of its new governor (M. Montcalm, like 
 his rival, had fallen in battle,) anticipated 
 him. The city opened its gates on the 
 18th; and the Canadas became fi'om 
 thenceforth a portion of the British 
 empire. Yet ^the indefatigable general 
 would not be content so long as there 
 remained to the enemy a single pos- 
 session within the extreme points of 
 Virginia and Honduras bay. He sent 
 his brother, Colonel Amherst, at the head 
 of a force against the island of New- 
 foundland, of which the French had 
 some time previously taken possession, 
 who reduced the several strongholds 
 which had been erected in the place, 
 made the gan'isons prisoners, and every- 
 where restored the British dominion. 
 
 The war was at an end, and General 
 Amherst returned to New York, where he 
 was welcomed with the distinction his emi- 
 nent services merited. The thanks of the 
 House of Commons had already been voted 
 to him; and in 1761 he was elevated to 
 the dignity of a Knight of the Bath. In 
 1 763 he resigned his command in Ame- 
 rica, and returned home. Thei-e too 
 honom's and favours awaited him ; for 
 the king received him Avith every mark 
 of respect, and conferred upon him the 
 gratifpng distinction of governor of the 
 province of Virginia. It would appear, 
 however, that from some cause or an- 
 other, a misunderstanding between his 
 majesty and the general arose. It seems 
 to have been bitter while it lasted ; but 
 it was not of long continuance ; for to- 
 wards the end of the year 17G8, he was 
 appointed colonel of the third regiment 
 of foot, in addition to the appointment 
 which he already held, as colonel of the 
 Royal Americans. Moreover, in 1770, 
 he became governor of Guernsey and 
 its dependencies ; and two years after- 
 wards was sworn of the privy council, the 
 office of lieut.-general of the ordnance 
 being at the same time conferred on 
 him. 
 
 From this date up to the year 1778, 
 395 
 
 his rank in the army was that of lieut.- 
 general. He acted, however, all the 
 while as commander-in-chief of his Ma- 
 jesty's land forces ; and continued to hold 
 the appointment up to 1782, when poli- 
 tical considerations induced him to resign. 
 In 1780 he exchanged the first regiment 
 of foot for the second troop of horse- 
 grenadiers ; and on the 2Gth of May, 
 1776, was advanced to the dignity of the 
 peerage. He took for his title Baron 
 Amherst of Holmesdale, in the county 
 of Kent; and in 1787, received a second 
 patent as Baron Amherst of Montreal, 
 with remainder to his nephew, William 
 Pitt Amherst. 
 
 One of the last public services which 
 Lord Amherst found an opportunity of 
 performing for his country, was the sup- 
 pression of the riots in London in 1780. 
 He acted on that occasion with his accus- 
 tomed spirit, yet was nowise indifferent 
 to the loss of life ; indeed the instructions 
 which he issued to the troops remain to 
 this day a lasting monument both to his 
 firmness and humanity. 
 
 Lord Amherst resigned the command 
 of the army and the ordnance in 1782, 
 in consequence of the change of Lord 
 North's administration ; and continued 
 to lead a private life till 1793. He was 
 then, however, reappointed at the Horse 
 Guards, — over the heads, too, of General 
 Conway, the duke of Gloucester, Sir 
 George Howard, the duke of Argyle, 
 General John Fitzroy, and Sir Charles 
 Montagu. But the infirmities of age 
 were beginning to grow upon him, and 
 in 1795 he made over his command to 
 his late Royal Highness the Duke of 
 York. It would appear, indeed, that 
 with this arrangement he was not quite 
 satisfied, — at all events it is certain, that 
 both an earldom and the rank of field 
 marshal were offered to him and refused. 
 But the latter dignity he accepted in 
 1796 ; and for little more than a year he 
 retained it. Lord Amherst died at his 
 seat, Montreal, in Kent, on the 3d of 
 August, 1797, in the eighty-first year of 
 his age, and was buried on the 10th in 
 the family vault, within the church of 
 Seven Oaks. 
 
 Lord Amherst was twice married ; first 
 to Jane, the daughter of Thomas Dalli- 
 son, of Manton in Lincolnshire, Esq. ; 
 and next to Elizabeth, eldest daughter 
 of General Carey, and niece to Lord 
 Falkland. He had no issue by either of 
 his wives ; and was succeeded in his title 
 and estates by his nephew, the son of the 
 brother whom he had employed in the 
 
AMH 
 
 AM I 
 
 reduction of Newfoundland. His cha- 
 racter is best described in his life. He 
 was a brave man, a good soldier, a skil- 
 iul commander, a zealous public servant ; 
 and his moral qualities are universally 
 admitted to have been of equal worth 
 with his talents. 
 
 AMHURST, (Nicholas, 1706—1742,) 
 the associate of Pulteney and Boling- 
 bi'oke in the conduct of The Craftsman, 
 was educated first at Merchant Tailors', 
 afterwards at St. John's college, Oxford, 
 from whence he was expelled on a charge 
 of libertinism and irregularity. He re- 
 venged hunself by satirizing the univer- 
 sity in his Oculus Britanniae, 1724, and 
 in his Terras Filius, 1726 : the latter 
 book, though full of malignity and exag- 
 geration, contains some curious anecdotes 
 illustrative of the state of feeling at that 
 time prevalent at Oxford. He was the 
 author also of a volvune of miscellanies ; 
 an Epistle to Sir John Blount ; a poem to 
 the Memory of the Duke of Marlborough ; 
 some translations from Addison's Latin 
 poems ; and two satirical pieces, entitled, 
 btrephon's Revenge and the Convocation. 
 On the downfal of Walpole's power, not- 
 withstanding the abilities he had shown 
 as a political writer, he was neglected by 
 his party, and died in great distress. 
 (Biog. Brit.) 
 
 AMICO, (Antonino, died 1641,) of 
 Messina, historiographer to Philip IV. of 
 Spain, and canon of the cathedral church 
 at Palermo, the wi-iter of several learned 
 works on the history and antiquities of 
 Sicily, some of which have been printed 
 
 See Mongitore, Bibl. Sic. (Biog. Univ.) 
 AMICO, (Bartolomeo, 1562—1649,) 
 a learned Jesuit professor of theology 
 and philosophy in the college at Naples, 
 the author of seven folio volumes on the 
 philosophy of Aristotle, (Naples, 1623 — 
 1648,) and of some other pieces, for 
 which see Alegambe, Bibl. Script. Soc. 
 Jes. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMICO, (Bernardino,) a Franciscan 
 of Gallipoli, prior of his order at Jeru- 
 salem in 1596, where he resided for five 
 years, and made drawings of the chief 
 objects of interest, that were afterwards 
 engraved by Callot, and published in 
 1 620 with descriptions by Amico. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 AMICO, (Stefano d', 1572—1662,) a 
 monk of Monte-Casino, prior, abbot, and 
 vicar-general of his order : he has pub- 
 lished a 12mo volume of poems, under 
 the anagram of Fanesto Musica, entitled. 
 Sacra Lyra. Palermo, 1650. See Mongi- 
 tore, Bibl. Sic. (Biog. Univ.) 
 396 
 
 AMICO, (Fillippo, born 1654,) pub- 
 lished some historical reflections on what 
 ancient authors had written concerning 
 his native place, Milazzo. 4to, Ca- 
 branca, 1700. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMICO, (Diomede,) a physician, born 
 at Plaisance : was the author of two 
 medical treatises in 4to. 1. De Morbis 
 Communibus, Ven. 1596. 2. De Morbis 
 Sporadibus, 1605. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMICO, (Faustino, (1534 — 1558,) 
 an Italian poet of great promise. A copy 
 of exquisite Latin verses, addressed to his 
 friend Alexander Campesano, was pub- 
 lished at Venice in 1564. Some of his 
 Italian poems are to be met with in the 
 collections of Gobbi and others. (Bioar. 
 Univ.) ^ 
 
 AMICO, (Vito-Maria, 1697— 1762,) a 
 nobleman of Catania in Sicily. He en- 
 tered into the monastery of Monte Casino, 
 and was professor for many years in 
 philosophy and theology, in Sicily. He 
 was elected prior of his order in 1733, 
 (1743 according to the Biog. Univ. and 
 Chalmers,) and afterwards made an 
 abate in 1757. In 1751, Charles III. of 
 Spain made him historiographer-royal. 
 He wrote the following works : — 1. Ca- 
 tana Illustrata, &c. 4 vols, folio. Catania, 
 1740. 2. Lexicon Topographicum Sicu- 
 lum. Panormi (i.e. Palermo) 1757, 3 vols, 
 4to, in 6. 3. Fazellse (Thomas), de Rebus 
 Siculis Decades duo, &c. cum Animad- 
 versionibus V. M. Amico, et Statella. 
 Catania, 1749-51, 3 vols, folio 4. Pirri 
 (Rocchi), Sicilia sacra, &c. Accepere, 
 Additiones et Notitise Abbatianmi Ord. 
 S. Bened., Cisterciensium, &c. authore 
 P. D. V. M. Amico. Panorm. 1733, 
 2 vols, folio. Also two pieces in the 
 Opuscul. Sicil. : one of them on the Tes- 
 taceous Hills of Sicily, (vol. i.) ; the other, 
 Diomii Amenanii de Maniiore Anagly- 
 pho Epistola, (vol. viii.) (A. Longo in 
 Tipaldo. Biografia, iii. 190.) 
 
 AMICO, (Luigi, 1757—1832,) count 
 of Castellalfero, a Piedmontese nobleman, 
 employed by his sovereign, Victor Ame- 
 deus III. as Sardinian minister at the 
 courts of Naples, Vienna, and Prussia. 
 When Piedmont was occupied by tlie 
 French in 1 798, he refused for some time 
 to change his masters ; but being threat- 
 ened with the confiscation of his estates, 
 he accepted the office of chamberlain to 
 the Princess Borghese, and was present 
 at the marriage of Napoleon with Maria- 
 Theresa in 1810. In 1814, he retiirned 
 to the ancient court, and was named 
 minister plenipotentiary at the court of 
 Florence, where he died, the last of a 
 
AMI 
 
 AMI 
 
 very ancient family. (Suppl. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 AMICONI, or AMIGONI. There 
 were two artists of this name: — 1. Ot- 
 tavio, (1605 — 1661,) native of Brescia, 
 a scholar of Antonio Gandini, and 
 a painter of the Venetian school at 
 the period of its decline. He excelled 
 principally in fresco. In the Carmelite 
 church, in his native city, is a very con- 
 siderable work in fresco, the subjects 
 being taken from the life of S. Alberto, 
 executed in conjunction with Bernar- 
 dino Gandini, the son of Antonio. 
 
 2. Jacopo, (16S5 — 1752, or 1758.) 
 This artist was a native of Venice, and is 
 classed in the Venetian, though, as will 
 be seen, his works show more of the ex- 
 cellence of the Flemish school of colour. 
 His first works were two altar-pieces in 
 the chm-ch of the fathers of the Oratorio, 
 and a picture of St. Catherine and St. 
 Andrew, for the church of S. Eustachio ; 
 but Lanzi (Stor. Pitt. iii. p. 220) observes, 
 that this artist can scarcely be justly 
 estimated in Venice, where there is no- 
 thing remaining of his best work, ex- 
 cepting his picture of the Visitation, at 
 the monastery of S. Filippo. He visited 
 Rome, whence he went to Munich, where 
 he settled for some time ; after which, in 
 1729, he removed to England, and con- 
 tinued there in practice for many years. 
 He painted both history and portrait, and 
 was employed by several of the nobility 
 in OT-namentlng their houses. From 
 England he removed to Spain, in which 
 coimtry he was painter to the court at 
 the time of his death. Of the merits of 
 this painter, opinions seem much to vary. 
 Bryan coldly observes, " Whatever may 
 be the merit of his works, they were for 
 some time in great vogue:" whilst Za- 
 netti, speaking of his improvement after 
 studying the master-pieces of the Flemish 
 school, says, " He achieved the art of 
 attaining, by force of shades, even to 
 pure black, which colour he employed to 
 produce perfect clearness, without in- 
 juring the beauty of his piece ;" and 
 Lanzi himself speaks in very high terms 
 of him. Amigoni frequently executed 
 little histories and conversation pieces in 
 the manner of the Flemish artists. He 
 amused himself with engravings, in which, 
 however, his proficiency was but small ; 
 and he is chiefly remarkable in that art 
 as having taught it to Joseph Wagner, 
 who was afterwards the instructor of 
 Bartolozzi. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. iii. 203, 
 220. Bryan's Diet. Strutt's Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 AMIDANO, (Pomponeo,) a native of 
 397 
 
 Parma, and an artist of that school, who 
 flourished about 1595. From the resem- 
 blance of his style to that of Parm,egiano, 
 he is asserted to have been a pupil of 
 that celebrated painter. He was at all 
 events a most successful imitator, and is 
 said to have had one of his altar-pieces 
 which adorns the church of Madonna del 
 Quartiere, attributed, by artists of judg- 
 ment, to the hand of Parmegiano. The 
 expression of his heads is very fine ; his 
 compositions are graceful, but his style 
 and the general effect of his pictures are 
 frequently apt to appear somewhat flat. 
 (Lanzi, S"tor. Pitt. iv. 87.) 
 
 AMIDANI, (Guglielmo,) called also 
 Guglielmo da Cremona. See Cremona. 
 
 AMIELS, (Gaubert,) a knight of.Gas- 
 
 cony, and one of the troubadours. The 
 
 time at which he lived is not precisely 
 
 known, but he is described as a poor 
 
 knight (paubres cavalliers). One of his 
 
 pieces is quoted in Mr. Taylor's Lays 
 
 of the Minnesingers ; beginning — 
 
 " De trop ric amour non ai soiiig 
 Sol de mon paratge n'agues," &c. 
 
 (See Raynouard, Choix, torn. v. p. 157. 
 Millot, tom. iii. p. 21.) 
 
 AMILCAR. See Hamilcar. 
 
 AMIOT, (Father, 1718—1794,) a 
 learned French Jesuit, who went as mis- 
 sionary to China in 1750, and being 
 invited to Pekin by the emperor in 1751, 
 remained there till his death. He was a 
 man eminently qualified to profit by all 
 the advantages which his situation af- 
 forded him, of becoming deeply acquainted 
 with the history of China, and the Chinese 
 and Tartar languages. His laborious 
 industry appeared to know no bounds, 
 and his researches were, till lately, the 
 most fruitfid source of our knowledge 
 on the affairs of China. His publications 
 were very numerous, and are most of 
 them to be found in the Memoires con- 
 cernant I'Histoire, les Sciences, etles Arts 
 des Chinois, 15 vols, 4to. His works, 
 besides most numerous letters, &c. in that 
 collection, are, 1. Eloge de la ViUe de 
 Moukden, Poeme Chinois, compose par 
 I'Empereur Kien-Iong ; Paris, 1770, 8vo. 
 2. Art militaire des Chinois ; Paris, 1772, 
 4to ; reprinted in the Memoins, tom. 
 vii. 3. Lettres snr les Caracteres Chi- 
 nois, addressed to the Royal Society of 
 London; Mem. tom. i. These were 
 written to show that the Egyptian cha- 
 racters on the bust of Isis, in the Royal 
 Cabinet at Turin, bore no resemblance to 
 the Chinese characters. 4. De la Musique 
 des Chinois ; Mem. tom. vi. 5. Vie 
 de Confucius ; Mem. tom. xii. 6. Die- 
 
A M T 
 
 A MM 
 
 tionnaire Tatar- Maiitcheiio-Fran^ais ; 
 Paris, 1789, 3 vols, 4to, printed with 
 tjrpes cast for the purpose, hy his direc- 
 tion, but at the expense of M. Bertin, a 
 minister of state. The supei'intendence 
 of this work was confided to M. Langles. 
 In the 13th voknne of the Memoires, 
 an abridged grammar of this language is 
 given by Father Amiot. The materials of 
 these fifteen volumes of Memoires have 
 been well abridged and condensed in 
 Grosier's Description de la Chine, 4 vols, 
 8vo, 1818. But since the time of Father 
 Amiot, the literature, languages, and 
 history, &c. of China, have received much 
 fresh light from the researches of De 
 Guignes, Sir G. Staunton, Messrs. Davis, 
 Marshman, Morrison, Abel-Remusat, 
 GutzlafF, &c. 
 
 AMIPSIAS, a comic writer of Athens, 
 contemporary with Aristophanes, from 
 whose Birds he got the prize with his 
 Revellei's. He is nevertheless spoken 
 of as a spiritless writer by the Scholiast 
 on Ai'istophanes, who couples him with 
 Lyeis and Phrynichus, in his notes on the 
 the Frogs. Tlie titles of only ten of the 
 plays of Amipsias have been preserved, to- 
 gether with a few fragments by Athenssus. 
 
 AMIR, (died 1345,) sovereign of 
 Smyrna, in the middle of the fom-teenth 
 century, one of the chiefs who at the 
 death of Aladdin, sultan of Iconium, 
 divided Asia Minor with Othman. Can- 
 tacuzene, the Greek emperor, being beset 
 by domestic foes, called him to his suc- 
 cour, and Amir obeyed the summons by 
 delivering the empress Irene out of the 
 hands of the Bulgarians. He then be- 
 sieged Thessalonica, and after spreading 
 terror around him, even to the very city 
 of Constantinople, he returned laden 
 with spoils. Shortly afterwards Amir 
 was killed in an assardt upon the citadel 
 of Smyrna, which had been taken by a 
 body of christian ti-oops that had landed 
 on the shores of Ionia. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMLING, (Carl-Gustav. ab. 1G51 — 
 1702,) a designer and engraver, a native 
 of Nuremberg, pupil of Francis de Poilly, 
 whose style he followed. He engraved 
 both history and portraits, in the latter 
 of which he was most successful. His 
 drawing is incorrect, and in his historical 
 subjects there is a want of effect. He is 
 said by Basan, (Diction, des Graveurs,) 
 to have been engraver to the duke of 
 Bavaria. His works are very nmnerous. 
 (Strutt's Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 AMM^US, (Dominic, 1579—1637,) 
 descended from a noble family, who de- 
 rived their name from the village of 
 398 
 
 Amm, near Franeker, was born at Leu- 
 warden. He was first of all a student 
 at Franeker, from whence he removed to 
 Jena, and was there appointed professor 
 of laws in 1602. He is considered the 
 father of the German publicists, inas- 
 much as he was the first who lectured on 
 constitutional law under that naiue, and 
 as a distinct science. Before his time 
 the subject of this important branch of 
 the law was wanting in precision, and 
 based on speculative notions ; and it was 
 considered as depending upon the Roman 
 law, a mode of treatment which could 
 not fail to give rise to numberless in- 
 congruities. Van Amm, however, raised 
 the subject of constitutional law to the 
 dignity of an independent science, founded 
 on principles of its own. His great 
 work is named Discursus Academici de 
 Jure Publico ; Jente, 1617-23, 5 vols, 4to. 
 He was also the author of several other 
 works, much esteemed in their day, but 
 now forgotten. The most important is 
 the Discurs. Acad, ad Auream Bullam 
 Caroli IV. ; Jenee, 1617, 4to. Foppens, 
 Bibl. Belg. 246 ; and Paquot, Memoires, 
 ii. 461 ; have a complete catalogue of his 
 writings. 
 
 AMMAN, (Jost, Jodocus, or Justus, 
 1539 — 1591,) a laborious artist, who was 
 both a painter and engraver, but prin- 
 cipally the latter. In the former art the 
 only account of him is that his works in 
 stained glass were richly and brilliantly 
 coloured. His pen drawings are exe- 
 cuted with great spirit. He was born at 
 Zurich, in Switzerland, and resided at 
 Nuremberg, of which town he became a 
 freeman, and where he died. He was one 
 of the luost prolific of the engravers ; his 
 works amounting to upwards of five 
 hundred and fifty prints, many of which 
 were executed for booksellers, by whom 
 he was much employed. He engraved 
 both on wood and copper, but he was not 
 very successful in the latter. In his 
 designs the grouping and disposition of 
 his figures are good, and his drawing is 
 tolerably correct ; in his style of en- 
 graving he was neat and decided, and 
 from the circumstance of their minute- 
 ness, he has been ranked amongst those 
 who are denominated the little masters. 
 His principal Avorks are portraits of the 
 kings of France from Pharamond to 
 Henry III. published in 1576 ; Panoplia, 
 omnium liberalium mechanicarum et 
 sedentariarum artium genera continens, 
 &c. a woi-k consisting of representations 
 of the different tradesmen and artists in 
 their respective employments, amounting 
 
A M M 
 
 A M M 
 
 to one hundred and fifteen prints, in 
 which it is said that Amman has given 
 his own portrait in the plate of the art of 
 engraving. It was pubhshed at Frank- 
 fort in 1564, and in 1586. His work on 
 female costume, entitled Gynseceum, sive 
 Theatrum Midierum, &c., was produced 
 at the same city. M. Guizot, in the 
 Biogi'apliie Universelle, states his birth to 
 have been in the year 1559, and not 1539. 
 
 Tliere was another engraver of this 
 name, a Gennan, John Amman, who 
 lived at Hanau, about 1640, who was 
 also a bookseller. A set of small wood- 
 cuts representing the Passion of our 
 Saviour, published at Amsterdam in 
 1623, are attributed to him. They are 
 executed in a very neat and spirited style. 
 (Strutt's Diet, of Eng. Bryan's Diet. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMMAN, (Paul, 1634—1691,) a 
 learned physician and botanist, born at 
 Breslau; studied in Germany, Holland, 
 and England. Being appointed a super- 
 numerary professor at Leipsic, he settled 
 there. He was promoted to the botanical 
 chair in 1674, and to that of physiology 
 in 1682. He was a man of great erudi- 
 tion, but paradoxical in his opinions, and 
 very severe in his criticism on others, 
 and apt to descend to a tone of ridicule 
 unbecoming his subject. His fost was a 
 critical extract from the decisions in the 
 registers of the faculty at Leipsic, 
 (Erfurt, 1670,) which was condemned 
 by the faculty the same year. His other 
 productions are, 1. Parsenesis ad docentes 
 circa Institutionum Medicaiiim emenda- 
 tionem ; Rudolstadt, 1673. A work in 
 which he vehemently attacks all esta- 
 blished systems in medicine, and is very 
 severe on Galen. 2. An answer to the 
 impugners of this work, entitled Ai'chceas 
 Syncopticus, 1674. 3. Irenicum Numre 
 Pompilii cum Hippocrate, &c. compar- 
 ing civil law and medicine, and their 
 abuses, on which he is, as usual, very 
 severe ; Frankfort, 1 689, 8vo. 3. Praxis 
 Vulnerum lethalium, Ibid. 1689. His 
 botanical labours appear to entitle him 
 to more respect than his medical works. 
 He wrote a description of the garden of 
 Leipsic, with the synonymes of the vari- 
 ous plants cidtivated there ; and a trea- 
 tise entitled. Character Naturalis Plan- 
 tarum, 1676 ; a work which tended very 
 much to establish the science of botany 
 on its present basis. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMMAN, (John Conrad, 1669— 
 
 1724,) a Swiss physician, born at Schaff- 
 
 hausen, who, towards the end of the 
 
 seventeenth centmy, exercised his pro- 
 
 399 
 
 fession at Amsterdam. He was very 
 successful in his treatment of the deaf 
 and dumb. His works on this subject, 
 (Surdus loquens, 8vo, 1692, and De 
 Loquela Dissertatio, Ams. 1700,) have 
 been often reprinted. He published also 
 a good edition of Caelius Aurelianus, 
 with notes by Janson d'Almeloveen, 
 Amst. 1709, 4to. 
 
 AMMAN, (John, 1707—1740,) son 
 of the preceding, born at SchafFhausen. 
 He became professor of medicine and 
 botany at Petersburg ; and began the 
 year before he died the publication of a 
 valuable work on the botany of Asiatic 
 Russia, only one volume of which was 
 printed. It was entitled Stirpium rario- 
 rum in Imperio Rutheno provenientium 
 Icones et Descriptiones, &c. Petropoli, 
 1739. In the Memoirs of the Academy 
 at Petersburg, he has given the charac- 
 ters of many previously undescribed 
 plants. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMMANATI, (Bartolomeo, 1510— 
 1592,) a native of Florence, and a cele- 
 brated architect and scidptor. Having 
 lost his father at twelve years of age, 
 and being left in very moderate circum- 
 stances, he was obliged to look to a pro- 
 fession as a means of livelihood. His 
 inclination for sculpture led him to study 
 for a short pei-iod imder the celebrated 
 Baccio Bandinelli, whom he soon quitted, 
 and then went to Venice to perfect him- 
 self in his art under his countryman 
 Sansovino, who was established in that 
 city in the possession of a brilliant repu- 
 tation, employed upon woi-ks of the 
 highest class of art both as a sculptor 
 and as a architect, and whose success 
 doubtless induced Ammanati not to limit 
 himself to his original pursuit. Having 
 returned to his native city, he was em- 
 ployed to execvite various pieces of sculp- 
 ture ; and modelled in stucco the tomb 
 of the Duke Fracesco Maria at Urbino, 
 where he married the celebrated poetess 
 Laura, the natural daughter of Gianan- 
 tonio Battiferri, an imion which was tiie 
 source of uniuixed happiness to our 
 artist. He then went to lipme, where, 
 through the intervention of Vasari, Mi- 
 chael Angelo was induced to promote 
 the interests of Ammanati, although he 
 had been offended with him for having 
 formerly taken away from Antonio Mini, 
 a pupil of Buonarotti, some drawings of 
 his master, which, however, were re- 
 stored to their owner, upon the strong re- 
 presentations of Michael Angelo. Vasari 
 very good-humouredly assured the latter, 
 that had he taken away the drawings, he 
 
A M M 
 
 A M M 
 
 should have valued them too much to 
 have given them up so easily. It was 
 at Rome that Ammanati was first called 
 upon to give evidence of his taste in 
 ai-cliitecture, as he there built a principal 
 portion of the Jesuits' college, and the 
 palace now called the Ruspoli in the 
 Corso, and the Palazzo Nigrone, formerly 
 Mattei, in the street of the Botteghe 
 Oscure. The merit of these works con- 
 sists in a great breadth and simplicity of 
 effect; but there is, at the same time, in 
 the two former, a striking moftotony, re- 
 sulting from the midtiplicity of openings, 
 and the unvaried repetition of the same 
 features, defects arising probably from 
 the imperfection of his early studies. 
 The finest portion of the Palazzo Rvis- 
 poli is the superb cornice, which was 
 subsequently erected after the design of 
 Bartolomeo Breccioli, and the celebrated 
 marble staircase executed by Martino 
 Lunglii, each step consisting of one 
 block, above eleven feet long ; the rise, 
 however, of the steps is not in proportion 
 to tlie width of tlie tread, and the upper 
 surface not being horizontal renders the 
 ascent fatiguing. In the court of the 
 Palazzo Pitti, at Florence, be was more 
 successful, and gave evidence of a bril- 
 liant genius. It will be perceived in the 
 life of Brunelleschi, that that master left 
 this palace incomplete, which was com- 
 menced for the noble Florentine whose 
 name it still bears. It was sold, ere 
 finished, to the Duchess Eleonora of To- 
 ledo, who employed Ammanati to carry 
 on the work. The severe aspect of the 
 principal front obliged him to adhere to 
 the same style of architecture in the 
 court ; but he has modified the harsh- 
 ness of the character by arcades of 
 less massive proportions, and by the 
 introduction of an order, to each story, 
 with lighter dressings to the windows ; 
 still, however, retaining the rustications 
 throughout. The result is more satis- 
 factory, and presents a composition at 
 once varied and imposing. The small 
 circular grotto next the garden displays 
 with much fancy and propriety a mix- 
 ture of shell-work and regular architec- 
 ture, and is surmoimted by a fountain. 
 
 But the noblest monument of the science 
 and taste of Ammanati, is the bridge of 
 the Holy Trinity at Florence, a mas- 
 tei-piece of skill and grace. A dread- 
 ful flood in the year 1557 carried away 
 a cumbrous bridge, which formerly occu- 
 pied the same site, materially damaged 
 the Ponte alia Carraja, and carried de.=!o- 
 lation throughout the city. The Duke 
 400 
 
 Cosimo confided to our architect the 
 erection of the new bridge, in which he 
 surpassed every work of the like nature 
 then existing, and in which he has not 
 been excelled by any subsequent artist. 
 The bridge is three hundred and fifty 
 feet long, having at its extremities four 
 pedestals with statues of the seasons ; 
 and consists of three pointed arches, 
 the intersection at the crown being con- 
 cealed by an enriched kej'-stone, which 
 circumstance has led many to consider 
 them ellipses. The piers are about twenty- 
 seven feet wide, or equal to nearly one- 
 fourth the opening of the arches, the 
 centre of which has ninety-six feet span, 
 and the two side ones almost eighty-six 
 feet ; the rise of the centre arch is little 
 more than fifteen feet, that of the side 
 ones fomteen feet ; the extreme width of 
 the bridge, exclusive of the cut-water, 
 is thirty-seven feet. Vulliamy, in his 
 accurate work on this bridge, observes, 
 " that the principal object of Ammanati 
 appears to have been to obtain great 
 strength in the piers, with the least pos- 
 sible obstruction to the stream ; to pi-e- 
 serve sufiicient water-way, and to keep it 
 undiminished at the highest point to 
 which the water ever rose ; and not to 
 raise the top of the bridge so high as to 
 make the ascent of the roadway incon- 
 veniently steep. To accomplish these 
 desirable objects, it was necessary to 
 have a new form of arch, for the segment 
 of a circle, as used by the Romans, 
 caused too much interruption to the 
 water wben it rose above the springing. 
 He therefore made use of a form of 
 arch, before his time unknown, in which 
 he endeavoured to combine the advan- 
 tages and reject the inconveniences of 
 the others." The arches are constructed 
 of rubble-work, with bands of wrought 
 stone occasionally carried through to 
 connect the opposite facings, which are 
 of marble. In his declining years the 
 feelings of Ammanati, as well as those of 
 his accomplished wife, assumed a deeply 
 religious tone ; and having no children, 
 they resolved to devote the riches, which 
 they had inherited from Battiferri, and 
 the fruits of his distinguished talent, to 
 increase and embellish the Jesuits' esta- 
 blishment or college ; led perhaps to the 
 choice of this order, as objects of his 
 munificence, from having experienced 
 the patronage of that body at Rome in 
 his earlier years, when their coimtenance 
 and support were of such essential service 
 to his struggling exertions for fame and 
 fortune, xlmmanati directed the works 
 
A MM 
 
 A M M 
 
 and found the necessary funds for the 
 erection of the church of St. Giovannino 
 at Florence, and was ultimately buried 
 at tlie age of eighty-two, with liis wife, 
 (who died 1589,) in this monument of 
 his piety and taste. His works as a 
 sculpT;or, both in marble and bronze, exist 
 in all the principal towns of Italy ; and 
 are valued for their imposing character 
 and thorough knowledge of the human 
 form. Of these the most distinguished is 
 the colossal Neptune of the grand foun- 
 tain in the Piazza del Gran Duca at 
 Florence. In the latter years of his life 
 Ammanati, possessed with his pious feel- 
 ings, carried perhaps to the very ex- 
 treme of refinement, regi'etted that he 
 should have applied his chisel to the 
 illustrations of profane subjects ; and 
 although he never executed a work in 
 which an absence of decency compro- 
 mised the feelings of the artist, he ac- 
 cused himself for having represented 
 several of his figures without drapery, 
 ill a letter which he addressed to the Aca- 
 demy of Design, and which is published in 
 the Lettere Pittoriche. He composed a 
 work entitled, La Citta, containing de- 
 signs for gates, palaces, temples, foun- 
 tains, an exchange, theatres, bridges, 
 public squares, houses, and in fact for all 
 sorts of edifices necessary in a large town. 
 The celebrated Viviani casually became 
 the possessor of this valuable collection 
 of drawings, which subsequently passed 
 into the hands of the senator Luigi de 
 Ricci, who gave them to Ferdinand the 
 Great, prince of Tuscany, since which 
 it has not been ascertained satisfactorily 
 where they are, although stated to be 
 in the Gallery at Florence. Milizia, in 
 his characteristic manner, puts the ques- 
 tion, " Ora chi sa dov' hV (Vasari, Vite 
 dei pill eccellenti Pittori, Scidtori, Ar- 
 chitetti colle Noti e lUustrazioni di G. 
 Bottari. Milizia, Memorie degli Archi- 
 tetti. Quatremere de Quincy, Diction- 
 naire Historique d' Architecture — Histoire 
 de la Vie et des Ouvrages des plus cele- 
 bres Architectes.) 
 
 AMMIANUS, (Marcellinus,) the last 
 subject of Rome who composed a pro- 
 fane history in the Latin language. The 
 name of Marcellinus is of frequent occur- 
 rence ; but the family of the historian is 
 unknown. He was, however, of Greek 
 origin, and, probably, a native of An- 
 tioch. 
 
 Ammianus received an excellent edu- 
 cation. His familiarity with Latin lite- 
 rature renders it likely that some part 
 of his boyhood was spent in the western 
 
 VOL. I. 401 
 
 division of the empire ; since, until liis 
 fiftieth year, an active life left him little 
 leism-e for the critical study of writers 
 with whom the Greek provincials were 
 seldom well acquainted, (see Plutarcl;. 
 Demosth. c. 2.) Early in the reign oi" 
 Constantius II. he was appointed to the 
 company of Ursicinus, master of the 
 cavalry, in which he served during at 
 least the latter part of the Persian war, 
 (3j5 — 351 A. D.) Upon their recall, Am- 
 mianus was enrolled among the household 
 guards ; fi-om which it may be inferred 
 that his family was illustrious, his interest 
 great, or his services extraordinary ; 
 since to be enrolled among the " Domes- 
 tic Protectors ' of the emperor was the 
 prospect and reward of the most deserv- 
 ing officers. 
 
 In A. D. 354, he accompanied Ursicinus 
 to Milan, at that time the imperial resi- 
 dence ; and in 355, he assisted in put- 
 ting down the rebellion of Sylvanus, who 
 had assumed the purple at Cologne. He 
 seems to have remained in western Gaul 
 until a short time before the battle of 
 Strasburg (Argentoratum) in 357, when 
 he followed Ursicinus to Sirmium, then 
 the seat of fniitless negotiations with 
 Persia. They were sent into Mesopo- 
 tamia, and Ammianus was despatched to 
 watch the Persians who were preparing 
 to cross over the Tigris. He took an 
 honourable part in the siege of Amida, 
 (Tigranocerta, Dikranagerd, according to 
 St. Martin, Memoir. Hist, sur I'Armenie, 
 vol. i, 432,) the operations of which he 
 has minutely described, (xix. 1 — 9.) 
 After that city was stormed by the Per- 
 sians, he rejoined Ursicinus at Antioch, 
 
 Ursicinus had been superseded and 
 summoned home soon after the com- 
 mencement of the war; but upon his 
 arrival in Thrace he was coimtermanded, 
 without, however, any public appoint- 
 ment, to Mesopotamia. Ammianus ac- 
 companied him in these journeys, and was 
 chosen by him to ti-eat with the satrap 
 of Corduene. Ursicinus was dismissed 
 at the end of the war, but Ammianus 
 retained his post in the household guard. 
 He attended Julian in his Persian cam- 
 paign, A.D. 363 ; and served, but in what 
 station is uncertain, under Valentinian, 
 Valens, and Gratian. Under the second 
 Valentinian and Theodosius, he became 
 count of the " private estate," ( trea- 
 surer,) an office, in the elaborate house- 
 hold of the Byzantine court, of great trust 
 and dignity. 
 
 In the final division of the empire that 
 took place in the neighbourhood of Nais- 
 D D . 
 
A MM 
 
 AMM 
 
 STis, A. D. 364, (June,) Ammianus seems to 
 h:ive followed Valens and the East. He 
 witnessed, and suffered both in person 
 and estate from the severe inquisition 
 into the crime of magic so rigorously 
 prosecuted at Antioch, in a.d. 373. " In 
 those days," he says, " we crept about 
 in Cimmerian darkness, and we felt like 
 the guests of Dionysius." Tlie danger 
 of the times justified the metaphor. (See 
 Ammian. xxviii. 1 ; xxix. 1,2; and Zo- 
 simus, iv.) ; and he at length resigned 
 his official duties, and quitted Antioch 
 and the East. His residence in the capi- 
 tal of the western empire was well-suited 
 to the historian of his own times. His 
 histoi-y was begun after his fiftieth year. 
 It was recited, or rather declaimedhefore a 
 noble and literaiy audience at Rome, and 
 probably each book as it was published — 
 a circumstance that, together with the 
 cornipt taste of the age, will accovmt for 
 many of the defects, and for some of the 
 liveliness of the historian. The work of 
 Ammianus consisted originally of thirty- 
 one books. It comprised the entire time 
 between the accession of Nerva and the 
 reign of Theodosius. The first thirteen, 
 a superficial epitome of two lumdred and 
 fifty years, are lost; the last eighteen, 
 which contain no more than twenty-five 
 years, still preserve the copious and au- 
 thentic history of his own times. Of the 
 time and manner of the death of Ammi- 
 anus nothing certain is known. His 
 works have been frequently published ; 
 two editions may be mentioned, that of 
 Ernesti, 1773 ; and that of Wagner and 
 Erfurdt, Lips. 1808, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 It is a literary problem, whether Am- 
 mianus were a Christian, which it is 
 impossible to decide from his works. If 
 he speaks of Christianity with modera- 
 tion, he always mentions paganism with 
 respect. The subject is fully considered 
 from the opposite points of view by 
 Chifflet, de A. M. Vita et Morib. p. 92, AT. 
 Funcc. de Veget. L.L. Senect. § 57. Hen. 
 Vales, de Vit. A. M. Ixxix. Hadr. Vales. 
 ib. p. xlii. ff. Moller. Dissert, de A. M. 
 Altorf. 1685, 4to, § 14. Fabric. Bib. 
 Lat. p. 159. Tiraboschi, i. 1, § 5. 
 Schrbckh, Christ. Kirchgeschicht,vii. s.61. 
 AMMIRATO, (Scipione, 1531 — 
 1601,) was born in Lecce, a city of the 
 kingdom of Naples. Destined by his 
 father to the profession of the law, he 
 was sent to Naples ; but instead of attend- 
 ing the law schools, he fonned an ac- 
 quaintance with Bernardino Rota, and 
 Angelo di Costanza, both very celebrated 
 poets at the time : soon after he took 
 402 
 
 orders. Being, however, obliged to leave 
 his country on account of a satirical com- 
 position, he went to Venice, and then to 
 Padua, and receiving no assistance from 
 his father, was obliged to return to 
 Lecce, where he entered the service of 
 the Bishop Broccio Martelli, who gave 
 him a canonry, which enabled him to 
 return to Venice. Amongst the valuable 
 acquaintances he made there was that of 
 the senator, Alexander Cantarini ; but 
 this friend he soon lost, for Cantarini 
 became jealous of the familiarity of Am- 
 mirato with his wife, and Ammirato with 
 difficulty escaped with his life. After 
 the election of Pius IV. he went to Rome, 
 and became familiar with his niece Briana 
 CaiTafa, but wishing at the same time 
 to be the friend of Catterina Carrafa, 
 sister of that pope, the misunderstandings 
 which ai'ose between these two women 
 obliged Ammirato again to fly and return 
 to Lecce, where he established the aca- 
 demy of the " Trasformati." He wished 
 again to try his fortune by entering the 
 service of the marchese di Capurio, a 
 favourite of Bona Sforza, queen of Po- 
 land, who was then at Bari, but the 
 events which took place obliged him to 
 return to Lecce. At the instance of his 
 father he went again to Naples to prose- 
 cute his studies, but his career of irre- 
 gularity was not yet over. After many 
 vicissitudes, however, he was appointed 
 to write the history of the kingdom of 
 Naples.' Thinking the means they gave 
 him not sufficient, he went to Rome, 
 without finding a Maecenas, and in 1570 
 settled in Florence. There he was com- 
 missioned by Cosimo Medici to wi'ite the 
 history of that city, and was lodged by 
 Cardinal Ferdinando Medici in his palace 
 and in his country villa, and he received 
 besides a canonry in the cathedral. In 
 this place he continued for thirty years, 
 writing the greatest part of his works, 
 and always complaining of the neglect of 
 fortune, and the hardship of his situation, 
 to which his restless and inconstant cha- 
 racter, and perhaps some actions of his 
 life, must have necessarily contributed. 
 He died in January 1601, leaving all his 
 inheritance to Cristoforo del Bianco, the 
 son of a bricklayer, who had been his 
 amanuensis, on condition of assuming his 
 name ; who accordingly called himself 
 " Scipione Ammirato il Giovane," and 
 afterwards improved and edited many of 
 his benefactor's works : amongst which 
 was his History of Florence, the most im- 
 portant of all, and the best that exists up 
 to his time. 
 
AM M 
 
 AM M 
 
 The other works of Ammirato are, 
 
 1. Delle Famiglie Nobili Napoletane, in 
 two parts ; the first by far the best. 
 
 2. Discorsi sopra Cornelio Tacito, which 
 have gone through many editions. 3. Ora- 
 zioni a Diuersi Principi intomo a' Pre- 
 paramenti contro la Potenza del Turc. 
 
 4. Delle Famiglie Nobile Florentine. 
 
 5. I Vescovi, di Fiesole di Volterra e di 
 Arezzo. 6. Opuscoli Contenti Discorsi 
 Lettere Dialoghi, Rittratti, Pasci di Fi- 
 losofia Morale, Poesi, &c. It is asserted 
 that he wrote the History of his Life, the 
 MS. of which is preserved in the library 
 of the hospital of St. Maria and VarceUa 
 in Florence. 
 
 AMMON, there were two engravers of 
 this name : — 
 
 1. Clement, an engraver, son-in-law to 
 Theodore de Bry, whose work, Bibliotheca 
 Calcographica, in six quarto volumes, he 
 continued in two volumes, respectively 
 published at Frankfort in 1650 and 1652. 
 (Heinecken, Diet, des Artistes.) 
 
 2. Johann, a native of Schaffhausen, 
 who flourished about the year 1700. He 
 engi-aved a few portraits, among which 
 is one of John Locke. (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 AMMONIO, (Andrea, 1477—1517, 
 the friend and correspondent of Erasmus, 
 was born at Lucca, and sent to England 
 as apostolic notary, and collector for the 
 pope. About 1513 he became Latin 
 secretary to Henry VIIL and celebrated 
 his victories in France in a copy of 
 verses (Panegyricus), highly praised by 
 Erasmus. In 1512 he received a stall at 
 Westminster, and was afterwards also 
 prebendary of Wells and of Salisbury. 
 In 1514, he was naturalized by lettei's- 
 patent. Leo X. appointed him shortly 
 afterwards as his nuncio in this coimtry. 
 Tliere are extant a small piece of his in 
 the Bucolicorum Auctores, Bas. 1546, 
 8vo, and a few of his letters to Erasmus. 
 His will is dated Aug. 17, 1517, and 
 on Aug. 19, Sir Thomas More wrote a 
 letter, regretting his death ; the date 
 of which must, therefore, be pretty nearly 
 determined. (Ath. Ox. by Bliss, i. 20, 21, 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMMONIUS OF LAMPRiE, a village 
 of Attica, was the preceptor of Plutarch, 
 and flourished at the close of the first 
 century. " So thickly" (says Eunapius, 
 in Proem, Vit. Soph. p. 8,) " are the 
 notices of the master and scholar scat- 
 tered through the works of the latter, 
 that a quick person could, by following 
 the hints there given, and putting the 
 parts together, make up nearly the whole 
 biography of both." The observation, 
 403 
 
 however, does not apply to the still ex 
 isting works of Plutarch, where mention 
 is made of Ammonius, only in i. p. 283 ; 
 ii. pp. 70 and 385, ed. Xyl. But it might 
 have been true with respect to some of 
 the lost treatises, amongst which was one 
 under the title of Ammonius, or. On the 
 Impossibility of living a Wicked Life 
 pleasantly. To the Lamprian have been 
 attributed two works quoted by Athe- 
 nseus ; one on the Courtezans of Athens, 
 from which the Deipnosophist got perhaps 
 some of the anecdotes to be found in 
 his thirteenth book ; and the other, on 
 Altars and Sacrifices, to which reference 
 is made in the Lexicons of Ammonius and 
 of Harpocration, and by the scholiast 
 on Hermogenes. 
 
 AMMONIUS, (Saccas,) so called (says 
 Theodoret, Therap. vi. p. 96) from the 
 trade he carried on at Alexandria of a 
 wheat-sack porter, previous to his turn- 
 ing philosopher. He is identified by 
 Corsini, in the Life of Plutarch, prefixed 
 to his edition of the treatise De Placitis 
 Philosophorum, with the Lamprian ; be- 
 cause, although Plutarch says in Sympos. 
 V. 5, that he had visited Egypt, yet he 
 could scarcely have made himself so ac- 
 quainted with the superstitions and reli- 
 gious rites of that country, as was doubt- 
 less the author of The Symposiacs, and 
 the treatises, De Defectu Oraculorum ; 
 De Delphico Et ; and De Isidi et Osi- 
 ride ; all of which are full of information, 
 that only an Egyptian by birth was likely 
 to possess, or could impart. To these 
 specious arguments of Corsini, Fabricius, 
 (in Bibl. Gr. I. v. p. 713, ed. Harles) op- 
 poses his assertion, that the preceptor of 
 Plutarch preceded Ammonius Saccas by 
 at least a century. The question is one 
 of no little difliculty ; nor is it less re- 
 specting another circumstance in the life 
 of the same individual, who appears fi'om 
 Porphyry quotedby Eusebius, (Hist. Eccl. 
 vi. 19,) to have been bom of christian 
 parents ; but that he afterwards became a 
 pagan, when he had learnt to think for 
 himself. The story of his apostasy is, 
 however, denied by Eusebius himself, 
 and Hieronymus in Catalog. S. E. c. 55, 
 p. 132, and justly so in the opinion of 
 many modern writers. Balte, in his 
 Defense de S. S. Peres accuses de Pla- 
 tonisme, i. 3, p. 21, proposes to solve the 
 difliculty by considering the Ammonius 
 of whom Eusebius speaks, to be a difle- 
 rent person from the philosopher ; a solu- 
 tion which those will best decide upon, 
 who have made themselves masters of 
 the arguments brought forward by the 
 D D 2 
 
A MM 
 
 A M M 
 
 writers quoted by Fabricius and Havles. 
 From Poi-phyry's Life of Plotinus, (§ 20,) 
 it appears that Ammonius left nothing 
 written behind him ; that he taught 
 viva voce, and comnumicated his doctrines 
 under the promise of secrecy, those pro- 
 bably, which, like Aristotle, he consi- 
 dered to be of an esoteric kind ; but that 
 his scholars, Herennius, Origen, and 
 Plotinus, afterwards promulgated them, 
 probably without breaking their word, as 
 they considered themselves at liberty to 
 communicate what was of an exoteric 
 cliaracter. He was the founder of the 
 Eclectics, a sect, who selected from the 
 conflicting theories of Plato and Ari- 
 stotle what they conceived to be based on 
 sound sense, and thus hoped to put an 
 end to the schism that had arisen in dif- 
 ferent schools, and by which philosophy 
 could not fail to be sacrificed eventually. 
 Such was the reputation of Ammonius 
 for wisdom, that he was called "the god- 
 taught," as we leai'u from Hierocles, 
 quoted by Photius, Cod. 251. He died 
 about 230 a. c. 
 
 AMMONIUS, the son of Hermias, 
 was cari'ied after the death of his father 
 from Alexandria to Athens, where he 
 became the pupil of Proclus, and the 
 preceptor of Simplicius, Asclepius Tral- 
 lianus, and John Philoponus. Like the 
 school to which he belonged, he endea- 
 voured to reconcile Plato with Aristotle — 
 an attempt as futile as the endeavours of 
 modern Eclectics to reconcile the mate- 
 rialism of Locke with the idealism of 
 Berkeley. His lost treatise on The 
 Eternity of the World was answered by 
 Zacharias of Mitylene, whose work is to 
 be found at the end of Barthius' edition 
 of ^neas Gazseus, He was rather fond 
 of mathematics ; for he could not fail to 
 perceive that without some knowledge of 
 geometry and the doctrine of numbers, 
 it is impossible to undei-stand so much of 
 Plato's theories as are derived from the 
 school of Pythagoras. A list of his Com- 
 mentaries on Aristotle and of the authors 
 there quoted, is given by Fabricius ; who 
 observes that the Life of Aristotle, attri- 
 buted to Ammonius, was written by John 
 Philoponus. The second section of his 
 Commentary, Uepi 'Ep/xTji^etur, relating 
 to fate and free-will, was joined by Gro- 
 tius to the treatise of Alexander of Aphro- 
 disiag on a similar subject, and printed 
 at Paris, 1648, which Ray croft reprinted, 
 Lond. 1638, and Orelli, Turii, 1824. 
 His Commentary on the Topics of Ari- 
 stotle have been translated into Arabic, 
 while those on the Metaphysics remain 
 404 
 
 still imprinted in a Baroccian MS. in the 
 Bodleian library at Oxford. 
 
 AMMONIUS, (the grammarian of 
 Alexandria,) was, together with Helladius, 
 the preceptor of Socrates, as the latter 
 testifies in his Histor. Eccles. v. 16. 
 During the persecutions of the pagans 
 by Theodosius, he was compelled to leave 
 his native land, where he had been a 
 priest in a temple dedicated to the wor- 
 ship of the ape, and fled to Constanti- 
 nople. To him is attributed the work, 
 Ufpi 'Ofioiav Kai Aiacpopav Xe^fcoj/ : 
 which Valckenaer would carry up to an 
 Ammonius, who lived in the flourishing 
 age of the Alexandi-ine school of criti- 
 cism, towards the end of the first or tlie 
 beginning of the second century. Fabri- 
 cius, however, and otlicrs, bring it down 
 as low as the close of the fourth; and it 
 should be carried still lower, if the Nilus, 
 quoted under the word neipaa-rrji, be the 
 martyr of that name, and to whom there 
 are two references in Suidas. The most 
 elaborate edition of the Lexicon is by 
 Valckenaer, in Lugd. Bat. 1739, 4to, 
 who subjoined some previously unedited 
 treatises of a similar character, attributed 
 to Eranius, Lesbonax, and others ; but tlie 
 most complete one is a reprint of Valckc- 
 naer's by Schaefer, Leips. 1822, 8vo, who 
 has subjoined theunedited notes of Kulen- 
 kamp, and the Epistola Critica of Segaar, 
 addressed to Valckenaei", and published 
 at Ultraject, 1766, 8vo. There are also 
 some MS. notes of Pierson, the pupil of 
 Valckenaer, preserved in a copy men- 
 tioned by Harles. The same Lexicon is 
 to be found at the end of Scapula's 
 Lexicon, edited by Gaisford. There is 
 likewise a treatise of Ammonius, JJepi 
 AKvpoXoyias, " On Words without au- 
 thority," still in MS. 
 
 AMMONIUS, an ancient physician, 
 and a native of Alexandria. He lived in 
 37 A. c. and is celebrated in the annals of 
 surgery for having been the first to pro- 
 pose and to perform the operation of 
 breaking a stone in the bladder, when 
 found to be of a size too large for ex- 
 traction with safety entire. His celebrity 
 was such that he was surnamed Lithoto- 
 7)ius. Celsus (lib. vii. c. 26,) has de- 
 scribed his method : a hook is to be so 
 insinuated behind the stone as to resist 
 and prevent its recoiling into the bladder, 
 even when struck ; then an iron instru- 
 ment is used, of considerable thickness, 
 but flattened towards the end, thin, but 
 blimt, which being placed against tlie 
 stone and struck on the farther end, 
 cleaves it ; care being taken at the same 
 
AM M 
 
 A M O 
 
 time that neither the fragments of the 
 stone fall back into the bladder, nor the 
 bladder itself be injured by the instru- 
 ments. 
 
 AMNER, (Richard, 1736—1803,) a 
 dissenting preacher at Hampstead, where 
 he incurred the emnity of George Ste- 
 vens, who most unjustifiably wrote some 
 immoral notes on several passages in 
 Shakspeare's piays, subscribing them 
 with Anmer's name. He afterwards had 
 charge of a congregation at Cosely, in 
 Staffordshire, and died at his native town 
 Hinckly. He busied himself very un- 
 profitably in Biblical criticism, leaving 
 several works, which are not worth enu- 
 merating. They are only remarkable 
 for the laxity of their notions on the in- 
 spiration, &c. of the Scriptvu'es, and for 
 tlie wildness of their misinteqiretations. 
 They relate to the inspiration of Scrip- 
 ture, the resurrection, the prophecies of 
 Daniel, Isaiah, and the Apocalypse, &c. 
 Their titles are given in Chalmers. 
 
 AMOLON, (died 852,) the disciple 
 and successor of Agobard, archbishop of 
 Lyons in 840 ; some letters of his, in 
 which he shows great sagacity and wis- 
 dom, are inserted in Baluze's edition of 
 Agobard, 1666, and in the Bibliotheca 
 Patrum. He is said by some to have 
 been the author of the treatise against 
 the Jews, published in 1656, at Dijon, 
 under the name of Rabanus Maurus. 
 
 AMONTONS, (William, 1663— 1705,) 
 an ingenious French mechanic, and in- 
 ventor of the telegraph. In early life 
 his loss of hearing, after a severe illness, 
 led him to find his resources in himself, 
 and he applied with great success to the 
 study of mathematics and geometry ; he 
 exercised his ingenuity also on the con- 
 struction of hour glasses made with 
 water, hygrometers, barometers, ther- 
 mometers, &c. the results of which may be 
 seen in the small volume published by 
 him in 1695, in several communications 
 to the Jovu'nal des Savans, and in the 
 Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for 
 the years 1696-99, 1702-5. Fontenelle 
 has described the method of telegraphing, 
 which he proposed ; viz. by placing per- 
 sons at a distance from each other, to 
 communicate in cipher by means of tele- 
 scopes, which seems clearly to point out 
 the invention of telegraphs, which were 
 not used, however, for fifty years after 
 his time. But Chalmers refers to a book 
 De Secretis, by Wecker, in which Car- 
 dan suggests a method of communication 
 by means of torches, which he supposes 
 jiiay have given Amontons the first idea 
 405 
 
 of this matter. Unless, however, some- 
 thing more definite is produced, the 
 honour of the invention of the telegraph 
 must rest with Amontons. 
 
 AMORETTI, (Charles, 1740—1816,) 
 a geographer and naturalist of some re- 
 putation, was originally an Augustinian 
 monk, and professor of canon law in the 
 university of Panna. Afterwards becoming 
 a secular priest, he settled in 1772 at Mi- 
 lan, where he died. Besides several me- 
 moirs in the Magasin Encyclopedique, the 
 Transactions of the Italian Society, &c., 
 he has left a life of Leonardo da Vinci, a 
 translation of Winckelmann on Ancient 
 Art, and several other pieces ; he edited 
 also, from manuscript in the Ambrosian 
 library, the First Voyage round the World 
 of Pigafetta, and the Voyage of Mal- 
 donado to the Atlantic, with French 
 translations. (Elogi di Liguri Illustri. 
 fol. livr. xiv. ; and Lombardi Storia della 
 Lett. Ital. ii. 72. Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMOREUX, (Pierre Joseph, died 
 1824,) librarian of the medical school at 
 Montpellier ; the author of a number of 
 works (chiefly anonymous,) on subjects 
 connected with medicine and natural his- 
 tory, the titles of some of which may be 
 seen in the Suppl. Biog. Univ. 
 
 AMOROSI, (Antonio,) a painter of the 
 Roman school, a native of Comunanza, 
 near Ascoli, who flom-ished about 1736. 
 He painted some few pictures for the 
 churches in Rome, one of which is in 
 S. Rocco ; but he is better known as a 
 painter of hamboccate, and fancy sub- 
 jects, in which he displayed considerable 
 comic powers, and was sometimes satiri- 
 cal. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. ii. 225. Bryan's 
 Diet.) 
 
 AMORT, (Eusebius, 1692—1775,) 
 canon regular of the order of St. Au- 
 gustine, and dean of the convent of 
 Pollingen in Bavaria. He accompanied 
 Cardinal Lercari to Rome, and having 
 returned to Pollingen, was elected mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences at 
 Munich in 1735. He" was a great sup- 
 porter of the authoi'ity of the pope. His 
 chief writings are a Dissertation on the 
 Authorship of the De Imitatione Jes.-C. 
 which he attributes to Thomas a Kempis ; 
 Theologia Polingana, a history of indul- 
 gences ; Rules li-om the Holy Scripture 
 and the Fathers respecting Aj.paritions, 
 Revelations, &c. ; in which 1 :st book he 
 has combated some of the popular super- 
 stitions of his time. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMORY, (Thomas, 1701—1774,) an 
 English presbyterian minister of Arian 
 principles, associate and afterwards prin- 
 
A M O 
 
 A M O 
 
 cipal tutor in the academy at Taunton, 
 under the care of his uncle, Mr. Grove. 
 In 1759 he removed to London, to be- 
 come Dr. Samuel Chandler's colleague, 
 as minister of the congregation that 
 assembled in the Old Jewry. He en- 
 tered warmly into politics, was the as- 
 sociate of Dr. Price, and received in 
 1768 the degree of D.D. from the uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. Besides smaller 
 pieces, he published two vokimes of Ser- 
 mons, the Lives of Dr. Grove, Dr. Sam. 
 Chandler, and Dr. Benson. 
 
 AMORY, (Thomas,) an eccentric win- 
 ter of the eighteenth century, who seems 
 to have given a picture of himself in a 
 fiction called the Life and Opinions of 
 John Buncle, Esq. fii'st published in 175G- 
 1 766 ; he had previously written some 
 smaller pieces, in one of which he pro- 
 mised, in a most extravagant tone, some 
 account of Dean Swift, whom he had 
 known in Ireland. This accovmt never 
 appeared. He is said to have been 
 educated for a physician, but is not 
 known to have ever practised. He 
 appears from his works to have been 
 evidently deranged. His great zeal for 
 Unitarianism was displayed in finding 
 out that almost every one about whom 
 he chose to write, was an Unitarian also. 
 There are two or three letters relative to 
 the family and the eccentric habits of 
 this individual, in the Gentleman's Ma- 
 gazine, vols. Iviii. and lix. Two are 
 written by his son. Mr. Thomas Amory 
 died 1788, aged 97. 
 
 AMOUDRU, (Anatole, 1739—1812,) 
 born at Dole, was educated as an archi- 
 tect, and accompanied his master Louis 
 to Poland. On his retm-n to France he 
 was employed in several buildings. He 
 returned to his birth-place in 1775 ; was 
 admitted advocate into the parliament, 
 and elected in 1790 the first mayor of 
 Dole. He was afterwards made judge of 
 his district, a dignity which he resigned 
 in 1797. The latter portion of his life 
 was busied in fixing the Cadastre parcel- 
 laire of his neighbourhood ; and in some 
 inquiries into the lengths of the mea- 
 sm-es of Franche-Comte, as compared 
 with those of the new system. The re- 
 sults of his labours in both these matters 
 are in print. He left in manuscript an 
 historical notice of Dole, which he be- 
 lieved to be the ancient Didatimn. (Suppl. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMOUR, (Guillaume de Saint,) born 
 at the beginning of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, at the town of St. Amour, in 
 Franche-Comte ; was in many respects 
 406 
 
 one of the most remarkable men of his 
 age, and was especially famed for the 
 part he acted, and the persecutions he 
 sustained in defending the university of 
 Paris against the encroachments of the 
 ecclesiastical power. He was canon of 
 Beauvais, where he first distinguished him- 
 self as the champion of the university. 
 
 Under the minority of St. Louis, and 
 the regency of Queen Blanche, the uni- 
 versity of Paris had been compelled to 
 disperse by the violences to which it 
 was subjected by the temporal power ; and 
 some of its members took refuge at Or- 
 leans, and other places, whilst not a few 
 fled to England to pursue their studies, 
 thus inten-upted, at Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge. During the time that the univer- 
 sity of Pai'is was thus deserted, the Domi- 
 nican monks, who had never before taken 
 degrees, obtained the consent of the bishop 
 of Paris to be received doctors, and to es- 
 tablish a temporary chair in theology. 
 When the troubles were calmed, and the 
 university reopened its schools, the Domi- 
 nicans not only retained their chair, but 
 they established a second in spite of the 
 expostulations of the others. The uni- 
 versity now fearing that the other orders 
 of monks might follow the example of the 
 Dominicans, issued a decree, which, with- 
 out hindering the monks from teaching 
 theology to their brethren, interdicted 
 them from deli vering public lectures within 
 their limits to laics. This decree gave rise 
 to long and bitter dissensions between the 
 university and the monks, until in 1255 
 the former, irritated by repeated provoca- 
 tions and encroachments, issued a decree 
 which entirely separated the Dominicans 
 from its body. The monks now carried 
 their complaints before the government, 
 and before the pope ; and Innocent IV. 
 so far interfered in their favour, that he 
 issued a bull of suspension against the 
 laics, which their adversaries eagerly 
 published in the parish chmxhes. The 
 university answered this act of hostility 
 by publishing, and executing still more 
 openly and vigorously, their decree which 
 severed the monks from the body of the 
 university, by rendering those who had 
 not taken the university oath incapable 
 of receiving degrees. 
 
 In all these disputes, Guillaume de 
 Saint-Amour distinguished himself by 
 his zeal in the cause of the university, 
 and by his hostility to the Dominicans. 
 Alexander IV., the successor of pope 
 Innocent, espoused warmly the cause of 
 the monks ; and on the 14th of April, 
 1255, published a bull; by which ho 
 
A MO 
 
 A MO 
 
 autliorized all the orders of monks to 
 establish public chairs. The animosities 
 of the two parties increased, and at each 
 attack of the monks, Guillaume replied 
 with new vigour and nerve. The Domi- 
 nicans now changed their general attack 
 on the university into a personal attack 
 upon its champion ; and they accused 
 him before the bishop of Macon of utter- 
 ing calumnies against the pope and 
 against the church in general. He 
 was acquitted here ; but his accusers 
 next laid their charge before the pope's 
 nuncio, who sent them to the bishop 
 of Paris. The intrepid doctor, far from 
 shrinking from the trial, prepared to 
 confi-ont Iris adversaries, who did not 
 venture to present themselves, and the 
 bishop of Paris also was obliged to acquit 
 liim. 
 
 These successes of Guillaume de Saint- 
 Amour only made the enmity which the 
 monks bore to him more bitter. The 
 Dominicans excommunicated the acade- 
 micians ; and, wearied by these increasing 
 troubles, the professors wrote to the pope 
 against the friars, and declared that they 
 would rather carry their schools into 
 some other kingdom than support the 
 yoke of the ecclesiastics. The monks on 
 the other hand presented to St. Louis a 
 list of the erroi's which they attributed to 
 Guillaume de Saint-Amour. The latter 
 lost no time in confronting publicly his 
 accusers, and again came oft' victoi'ious. 
 In the moment of his trumph, in 1256, 
 he published his famous book. On the 
 Perils of these Latter Times, in which he 
 inveighs against the monks for their in- 
 subordination to the spiritual pastors. He 
 gives the following account of this work. 
 " The prelates of France," he says, " anx- 
 ious to preserve the Gallic church, which 
 was entrusted to them, from the perils 
 of the latter times, which were to arrive 
 by the false preachers who penetrate into 
 people's houses ; having charged the 
 masters in the university of Paris with 
 the task of collecting and translating the 
 passages of the holy Scriptures, and of 
 the canons which spoke of those things ; 
 several masters and myself, after having 
 assembled all these authorities, have ar- 
 ranged them in a volume under particular 
 heads." It appears, therefore, from his 
 own declaration, that Guillaume de Saint- 
 Amour was not the only person con- 
 cerned in this work. 
 
 It was Guillaume, however, who had 
 to sustain the bnmt of the personal at- 
 tacks which it excited on the part of the 
 enraged Dominicans. In 1256, they 
 407 
 
 obtained a bull of the pope which threat- 
 ened the academics with excommunica- 
 tion, and even with the infliction of 
 punishment by the secular arm, (bi-achii 
 secidaris ;) and soon afterwards, when 
 the friars showed some inclination to 
 make peace with the university, Alex- 
 ander IV. absolutely forbade any such 
 advances, and issued a bull depriving 
 Guillaume de Saint-Amour, and other 
 members of the imiversity, of all their 
 dignities and benefices, as well as of their 
 position as masters, forbidding any one 
 to attend their lectures, under pain of a 
 similar punishment, and ordaining that 
 they should be banished from the king- 
 dom of France. 
 
 This violent measure only tended to 
 make matter's worse. The friars not only 
 prepared to renew their encroach- 
 ments upon the university, but they 
 redoubled their personal attacks upon 
 Guillaume de Saint-Amour, and accused 
 him of preaching what was contrary to 
 religion and good manners. The king 
 himself took part with them, and the 
 Book of the Perils was condemned to be 
 bmmt by four cardinals, who gave judg- 
 ment upon it that it was impious, wicked, 
 and execrable. The university, on the 
 other hand, did not lose their courage, 
 but they determined again to confront 
 publicly their adversaries ; and they 
 chose Giullaume de Saint-Amour, with 
 the others who had been named in the 
 pojie's bull, to carry their expostulations 
 to the pope himself, and to demand a 
 public hearing of their defence ; for after 
 all their exertions, none of the other party 
 could point out any single article in 
 Guillaiune's book which really merited 
 reprehension, and they did not dare to 
 condemn it as containing heresy, but 
 only quia contra prcefatos religiosos sedi- 
 tionem et scandala concitabat. On their 
 way, however, Guillaume's companions 
 lost their courage, and he alone reached 
 Rome, where he acted with his usual 
 courage and firmness. He there de- 
 manded a day of hearing, and defended 
 himself with so much ability and energy, 
 that the very cardinals who had con- 
 demned his book, were obliged to absolve 
 its author. 
 
 This was a decided triumph for the uni- 
 versity ; yet, although its champion passed 
 with increase of reputation through every 
 trial, he had become too powerful an 
 obstacle to the ambition of the Romish 
 church. On his return from Rome, he 
 found on the frontier a bull which 
 banished him from the kingdom of 
 
AMO 
 
 A M P 
 
 France, and which the weak St. Louis so 
 far disregarded justice and his own dignity, 
 as to put in execution. Guillaume de 
 Saint-Amour retired to his own native 
 town of Franche-Comte, which was not 
 then sul)ject to the crown of France, and 
 even there he was not permitted to live 
 in quietness ; for the pope fearing his in- 
 fluence might still be exerted on the 
 university, bj^ another bull forbade any 
 one to write letters to him or to receive 
 letters from him, and soon afterwards 
 ordered his book on the Perils to be pub- 
 licly burnt at Paris. This book had be- 
 come so populaf, that it was already 
 translated into the vidgar tongue. After 
 the death of Pope Alexander, Guillaume 
 was allowed to return to Paris, where he 
 was received with a public triumph, amid 
 the rejoicings and acclamations of the mul- 
 titude. He there died, according to the 
 most authentic account, in 1272, after 
 having had for adversaries three of the 
 greatest men of the age, Albertus Mag- 
 nus, Thomas of Aquinas, and St. Bona- 
 venture. His party was espoused by 
 most of the lay men of letters, and par- 
 ticularly by the popular poets, who 
 have left us some spirited songs against 
 his adversaries. Several of these will be 
 found in M. Jubinal's edition of the 
 works of Rutebeuf, to which work we 
 refer for further particulars. 
 
 The works of Guillaume de Saint- 
 Amour were first published collectively 
 at Basil, in 1555. A second and more 
 complete edition was published in a 4to 
 volume at Paris in 1632. The works it 
 contains, among which is the celebrated 
 treatise on the Perils, are nearly all di- 
 rected against the Dominican friars. 
 This edition, immediately on its appear- 
 ance, drew forth a royal ordonnance for- 
 bidding its circidation on pain of death to 
 those who might be concerned in selling 
 or distributing it, and of a fine of three 
 thousand livres for any person who shoidd 
 be known to have a copy in his possession, 
 
 AMOUR, (Louis Gorin de St., 1619 
 — 1687,) a celebrated doctor of the Sor- 
 bonne. He was the son of the king's 
 coachman, and after a distinguished 
 career as student in the imiversity of 
 Paris, he became doctor of the Sorbonne 
 in 1644. His opposition to the condem- 
 nation of the celebrated " Five Proposi- 
 tions " obtained him so much credit, that 
 he was appointed to negotiate matters at 
 the court of Rome, and to obtain from 
 Innocent X. that an explanation of the 
 sense in which the propositions were to 
 be imderstood should be inserted in the 
 40S 
 
 judgment upon them. But the Jesuits 
 were successful against him, and he 
 returned to France. He was afterwards 
 excluded from the Sorbonne, for his 
 support of Arnaidd. He wrote an ac- 
 count of what passed at Rome respecting 
 the Five Propositions, from 1646 — 1653, 
 folio, 1662 — a work of reputation, but 
 which was publicly burnt in 1684, (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 AMPHIBALUS, (died 286,) one of 
 oiu" early British confessors, who is said 
 to have converted and suffered martyr- 
 dom with St. Alban, in the persecution 
 under Dioclesian. Geoifry of Monmouth, 
 according to Abp. Usher, is the first au- 
 thor by whom he is mentioned. (See 
 Alban, St.) 
 
 AMPHILOCHIUS, (St.) a zealous and 
 able prelate, the friend of Basil and Gre- 
 gory of Nazianzum, After having de- 
 voted himself to a life of religious retire- 
 ment, he was made bishop of Iconiiun in 
 374, where in 376 he held a council 
 against the Macedonians. He attended 
 the council of Constantinople in 381, 
 and presided at that of Sidae, at which 
 the Thessalians were condemned. He 
 engaged the emperor Theodosius to inter- 
 fere for the suppression of the assemblies 
 of the Arians, by slighting the prince, 
 his son, in his presence, and so fixing his 
 attention on the criminality of those who 
 were wanting in reverence to the Son of 
 God. (Eus.Hist.Eccl.vii.8.) Amphilochius 
 was living in the year 394, and is said to 
 have died at an advanced age ; a collec- 
 tion of pieces imder his name, some of 
 which are probably spurious, was pub- 
 lished by Combesis in 1644, A treatise 
 of his on the Divinity of the Holy Spirit, 
 not now extant, is referred to by St, 
 Jerome. 
 
 AMPHINOMUS, See Anapius. 
 
 AMPHIS, the son of Amphicrates, a 
 writer of the middle comedy at Athens, 
 The titles and fragments of twenty-four of 
 his plays have been preserved, 
 
 AMPHOUX-CHASSEVENT, (Made- 
 leine Achard,) the name of a famous 
 manufactress of liqueurs, who died at 
 Martinique in 1812, at the great age of 
 one hundred and five years. A cele- 
 brated liqueur in France is named after 
 her. (Supp. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMPSING, (John Assuerus, 1559— 
 1642,) was first a minister at Haerlem, 
 but afterwards studying physic, became 
 medical professor at Rostock. He has 
 written Dissertatio Iatro-Mathematica,(in 
 which he insists on the necessary con- 
 nexion between medicine and astronomy, 
 
AMP 
 
 AMR 
 
 setting them above all other sciences;) 
 I)e Morbonun DifFerentiis Liber; and 
 some other pieces. 
 
 AMR* EBN AL-AS, one of the most 
 celebrated personages of the early time 
 of Islam. His mother was a woman of 
 such dissolute morals, that the father of 
 Amr was determined only by the greater 
 resemblance he bore to Al-As : a stain on 
 his birth with which he was afterwards 
 reproached by a spirited old woman in the 
 presence of the Kbalif Moawiyah. At the 
 commencement of Mohammed's career, 
 Amr was one of his most vehement op- 
 ponents : in conjmiction with Abu-Sofian 
 and another, he galled the prophet by 
 bitter lampoons directed against his mis- 
 sion ; and when Othman, afterwards kha- 
 lif, took refuge with other Moslems in 
 Abyssinia, from the persecution of the 
 Koreish, he was one of the envoys fruit- 
 lessly sent to demand their suirender ; f 
 in the eighth year, however, after the 
 Flight, Amr, together with the famous 
 Khaled, abandoned the declining cause 
 of idolatry, and was received with high 
 distinction by Mohammed. After the 
 death of the prophet, he received from 
 his successor, Abubekr, a command in 
 the army in Syria, under Abii-Obeidah : 
 he fought at the victory of Aiznadin, and 
 the sieges of Damascus and Jerusalem, 
 " imiting with the temper of a chief, the 
 valour of an adventurous soldier." (Gib- 
 bon.) But in 638, he was appointed to 
 the more independent command of the 
 army destined for the conquest of Egypt. 
 By a stratagem he evaded the order of 
 recall despatched after him by the timid or 
 suspicious OniJir, took Farmah, or Pelu- 
 sium, and stormed Memphis, after a siege 
 of seven montlis. The final conquest of 
 the kingdom was facilitated by the reli- 
 gious dissensions of the Greeks and Copts, 
 who mutually regarded each other as 
 schismatics : the Copts agi'eed to pay 
 tribute and homage to the khalif, and the 
 Greeks, far inferior in numbers, were 
 obliged to retreat to Alexandria, where 
 they were speedily invested by Amr. 
 After a siege of fom-teen months, marked 
 by numerous salhes and assaults, (in one 
 of which the Arab general was taken 
 
 • Generally, but erroneously written and pro- 
 nounced Amru, thedamma' being added merely to 
 
 distinguish > rr^ from jv^ Omar, and never sound- 
 ed by the Arabs. See note to Burckhardt's Travels 
 in Arabia, vol. ii. p. 416, 8vo ed. See also Mal- 
 colm's History of Persia, vol. i. p. 152, 8vo. ed. 
 under Amerebn-Lais. 
 
 t Gibbon treats this as doubtful ; but it is ex- 
 pressly stated by Abulfeda. 
 
 409 
 
 prisoner, but saved by the adroitness of a 
 slave,) the Greeks evacuated the town, 
 Dec. 640 ; and Amr announced to the 
 khalif the submission of Egypt, with its 
 capital, the " great city of the West." 
 This mighty achievement is tarnished by 
 the stigma, which popular story attaches 
 to tlie name of Amr, of the destruction of 
 the Alexandrian library, by order of the 
 khalif: but this act of barbarism, which 
 is repugnant to the customs of the Mos- 
 lems in all ages, is noticed by no nearly 
 contemporary historian of either party : 
 Abul-Faraj, a christian writer of 600 
 years later date, is apparently the first 
 who mentions it ; and an impartial exami- 
 nation of evidences will probably justify 
 the conclusion that few, if any, of the 
 700,000 volumes collected by the Mace- 
 donian kings had escaped the tumults and 
 conflagrations of which Alexandria had 
 frequently been the scene, even before the 
 general pillage and destruction which ac- 
 companied the demolitionbytheChristians, 
 in the reign of Theodosius, of the statue 
 and temple of Serapis. (Orosius. Gibbon.) 
 After completing the subjugation of 
 Egj'pt, Amr carried the Moslem arms in 
 triumph both to the west and the south, 
 into Barca and Nubia ; and while reliev- 
 ing, out of the abundance of Africa, a 
 famine which wasted Arabia, he de- 
 voted a third part of the revenues of 
 Egypt to the maintenance of the public 
 Avorks, opened a canal eighty miles long, 
 from the Nile to the Red Sea, and, (if the 
 improbable statement of the IVIoslem 
 writers may be credited,) first abolished 
 the inhuman practice of annually throw- 
 ing a virgin into the Nile, whicli they 
 allege to have been continued from Pagan 
 times under the Greek emperors ! On 
 the accession of Othman, Amr was for a 
 time removed from the vice-royalty of 
 Egypt ; but the recapture of Alexandria 
 by the Greeks, and the clamours of the 
 Egyptian Moslems, who regretted their 
 old commander, soon occasioned his 
 restoration, which he signalized by the 
 speedy and final expidsion of the enemy. 
 After fom- years, however, he was again 
 deprived of his government, and resided 
 in privacy in Palestine till the murder of 
 Othman, when he embraced the party oi 
 Moawiyah, in opposition to that of Ali, 
 on the promise of being reinstated in the 
 administration of Egypt. He now became 
 the mainstay of the Ommiyan party, and 
 it was by his policy that the attempt at a 
 compromise was frustrated : but he had a 
 narrow escape from the dagger of the 
 fadatic who, in concert with two others. 
 
AMR 
 
 AMR 
 
 determined to destroy the causes of dis- 
 cord by the assassination of Ali, Moawi- 
 yah, and Amr. The blow was fatal only 
 to Ali ; Moawiyah escaped with a wound ; 
 and the lieutenant of Amr, who sat in his 
 place in the mosque, was murdered in his 
 stead by the third assassin, who bore the 
 same name as his intended victim. On 
 the establishment of Moawiyah in the 
 khalifate, Amr was placed in posses- 
 sion of Egypt and all its revenues, 
 burdened only with the maintenance of 
 the troops necessary for the defence of the 
 counti-y : but he did not long survive to 
 enjoy these lucrative honours, dying, ap- 
 parently at an advanced age, in the third 
 year of Moawiyah's reign, a. h. 43, (a. d. 
 (363.) " It is reported by tradition," says 
 Ockley, " that Mohammed said, ' There 
 is no truer Mussulman, nor more stedfast 
 in the faith, than Amr.' He was justly 
 reckoned one of the most considerable 
 men among the Arabians, both on ac- 
 count of the quickness of his natui'al 
 parts, his valour, and good judgment." 
 His death is erroneously placed by 
 D'Herbelot in a. h. 65, " after the death 
 of Yezid, son of Moawiyah :" but this is 
 certainly inaccurate. (Abulfeda. Abul- 
 Faraj. Elmacin. D'Herbelot, Ockley. 
 Gibbon.) 
 
 AMR EBN LAIS, the second of the 
 Softarian dynasty in Persia, succeeded, 
 on the death of his brother Yakub, a. h. 
 265, (a. D. 878,) to the dominions of his 
 family, which comprehended nearly the 
 whole of the modern kingdom of Persia. 
 He commenced his reign by sending a 
 submissive embassy to Motamed-Ala'Ilah, 
 the Abbasside khalif of Bagdad, (with 
 whom his brother had been engaged in 
 war at the time of his death,) and under- 
 went the form of receiving investiture, as 
 tlie lieutenant of the feeble commander 
 of the faithful, of the provinces which he 
 already held in absolute possession by the 
 sword. In 884, however, a rupture broke 
 out between the khalif and his too power- 
 ful vassal : Amr approached Bagdad at 
 the head of an army, but was overthrown 
 by Mowaffik, the valiant brother of the 
 khalif, and fled precipitately to Seistan. 
 His power, however, soon recovered from 
 tliis shock, and ere long, by defeating the 
 insurgent prince of Khorasan, Mohammed 
 Ebn Ziyad, whom he brought in chains 
 to the feet of the khalif, he succeeded in 
 re-establishing friendly relations with the 
 court of Bagdad. But this reconciliation 
 was hollow and insincere : in an inter- 
 view with the khalif Motahded (the ne- 
 jilievv and successor of Motamed) Amr 
 410 
 
 treacherously attempted to seize the per- 
 son of his sovereign ; but his design liad 
 been foreseen, and after losing one of his 
 eyes, and neai'ly all his followers, in a 
 conflict with the khalif's guards, he with 
 difticulty effected his escape from Bagdad. 
 In order to rid himself eff'ectually of so 
 dangerous an enemy, the khalif now in- 
 cited against Amr the Turkish ruler of 
 Transoxiana, Ismail Samani, the founder 
 of the dynasty of the Samanides. Not- 
 withstanding their vast superiority of 
 numbers, the forces of Persia were unable 
 to withstand the impetuovis valour of the 
 Turks, and Amr, after a reign of twenty- 
 three years, (a.h. 287, a.d. 900,) fell 
 into the hands of the victor, and was sent 
 as a prisoner to Motahded, by whom, after 
 two years' confinement, he was put to 
 death, only a few hours before the death 
 of the khalif himself. With him fell the 
 short-lived power of the Soffarides ; for 
 though some of the family appear as ex- 
 ercising a limited and provincial authority 
 for more than a century afterwards, they 
 never attained the rank or attributes of 
 independent monarchy. The devotion of 
 Amr to the doctrines of the Sheah sect 
 has occasioned his being represented in 
 the most favourable colours by the Persian 
 historians ; but though not deficient either 
 in courage or conduct, he was certainly 
 far from possessing the great qualities of 
 his brother Yakub, and the luxury in 
 which he lived formed an unfavourable 
 contrast to the frugal manners of his pre- 
 decessor : his affability endeared him to 
 the lower classes of his subjects, but he is 
 said to have been harsh and even cruel to 
 his officers and nobles, and all his good 
 qualities were obscured by avarice and 
 rapacity. (Abulfeda. Khondemir. D'Her- 
 belot. Malcolm's History of Persia.) 
 
 AMR EBN LAHI, an ancient sove- 
 reign of the Hedjaz, said to have been 
 the first who placed idols in the Caaba. 
 (Pocock. Spec. p. 80.) 
 
 AMR EBN AL-ABD, a celebrated 
 Arabian poet, one of the seven authors of 
 the Moallakat. See Tarafa, the name by 
 which he is visually known. 
 
 AMR EBN KALTOOM AL-TAG- 
 LEBI, another of the authors of the 
 Moallakat. See Sir Wm. Jones's version 
 of his poem. 
 
 AMR EBN MASADAH, a celebrated 
 vizier of the Khalif Mamoon. See Ma- 
 moon and Masadah. 
 
 AMRIAL CAIS, the most celebrated 
 of the ancient Arabian poets, was one 
 of the seven authors of the Moallakat, or 
 poems suspended in the Caaba at Mecca. 
 
AMR 
 
 AMU 
 
 He was poisoned while attempting to 
 avenge his father's death, who had been 
 murdered by his subjects, tlie tribe of 
 Benou-asad. Amrial Cais was the writer 
 of some satirical verses on Mahomet, with 
 whom he was contemporary. His poem 
 was published at Leyden in 1748 : a 
 translation by Sir W. Jones appeared in 
 1782. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMSDORF, (Niklas, 1483—1563,) a 
 warm adherent of the Reformation. This 
 Lutheran divine was born of a noble 
 family at Wartzen, in Misnia. (Melch. 
 Adam, p. 68.) He studied at Witten- 
 berg, and after some years became a licen- 
 tiate in theology. This school had only 
 been opened in 1502, under the auspices 
 of the elector of Saxony. Having joined 
 the Reformation, he accompanied Luther 
 in 1521 to the diet of Worms ; and they 
 were together also during a part of Lu- 
 ther's retirement. (Comp. Melch. Ad. 
 pp. 68 and 122, in Vit. Lutheri.) When 
 the elector of Saxony required a report 
 from the university on the cessation of 
 the service of the mass in the Augustinian 
 churches, Amsdorf was associated with 
 Melancthon and others in drawing it up, 
 and they begged for the abolition of it 
 in all churches. In 1523, he wrote to 
 the elector a preface to a book against 
 popery, to show that the pope is anti- 
 christ. In 1524, he became pastor of 
 Magdeburg, at the instance of Luther — 
 an office which he exercised for eighteen 
 years. In 1536-7, he was engaged in 
 drawing up the Articles of Smalcald, with 
 Spalatinus and Agricola. (Walchii In- 
 troductio in Libros Symbolicos, p. 490.) 
 In 1541, he was appointed bishop of 
 Naunburg, by the elector, and, as it is 
 said, consecrated (episcopus ordinatus est, 
 Melch. Adam,) by Luther and others. He 
 was, however, obliged by Charles V. to 
 yield up his bishopric to Julius Pflug, 
 and escape to Magdeburg. During the 
 Adiaphoristic controversy, he warmly 
 opposed the Wittenbei-g party. One of 
 his latest performances was his dispute 
 with G. Major. The latter having main- 
 tained the necessity of good works to 
 salvation, Amsdorf undertook to show 
 that they are hurtful to salvation ! This 
 was in 1551. Doubtless the proposition 
 admits of a different sense from that 
 which at first sight appears its meaning, 
 but it was a mode of expression into 
 which no heat of controversy ought to 
 have carried him. He was a warm 
 opposer of the Interim. His character 
 appears to have been one of much force, 
 and perhaps violence. The works of 
 411 
 
 Amsdorf are chiefly controversial, and a 
 list of them may be found in Joecher 
 and Adelung, and in Walchii Bibliotheca 
 Theologica. 
 
 AMSTEL, (Cornelius Ploos Van,) an 
 eminent amateur engraver, born at Am- 
 sterdam, in 1732. He imitated, with great 
 success, many of the drawings of the 
 most celebrated Dutch masters. His 
 plates are dated from 1764 to 1782. 
 (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 AMTHOR, (Christopher Henry, 1678 
 — 1721,) born at Stollberg, was educated 
 at Rundsbourg by an uncle, and elected 
 professor of jurisprudence at Kiel in 
 1704. Having composed some verses in 
 praise of the Danish ministers, and so 
 lost the favour of the court at Holstein 
 Gottoi-p, in 1713 he entered the service 
 of Denmark, and was named historio- 
 grapher to the king, in which capacity he 
 wrote several pamphlets on the diffe- 
 rences between his new and his old 
 masters. In 1715 he was invited to 
 Copenhagen, appointed counsellor of jus- 
 tice, and had apartments in the royal 
 castle of Rosembourg till his death. He 
 has written Meditationes Philosophicse 
 de Justicia divina et materiis cum ed 
 connexis; Poems and Translations, (in 
 German,) &c. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMULIUS, king of Alba, the younger 
 brother of Numitor, grandsire to Romu- 
 lus. The weU-known story of his cruelty 
 to his brother's family may be seen in 
 Livy, i. 3, 4, and in Plutarch's Life of 
 Romulus. 
 
 AMULIUS, a painter, who lived in 
 the time of Nero, by whom lie was 
 chiefly employed in the embellishment 
 of his house of gold. His works were 
 afterwards, together with the palace, de- 
 stroyed by fire. He is mentioned in 
 Pliny, XXXV. 10. 30, unless Sillig's emen- 
 dation of Fabidlus is admitted into the 
 text, (Catal. Artificum, p. 215.) The 
 writer of this notice is not aware that he 
 is mentioned elsewhere. He is said to 
 have worked only a few hours each day, 
 and never when divested of his toga. 
 
 AMURATH. See Mourad. 
 
 AMURATH, or MOURAD, (died 
 1695,) bey of Tunis, son of Mahomet Bey, 
 was shut up by his uncle Ramadan in the 
 castle of Sour about 1690. Escaping, he 
 was joined by abody of troops, with whose 
 assistance he took Tunis, and caused 
 Ramadan to be strangled. He then en- 
 gaged in a disastrous war with the Al- 
 gerines, who had been favourable to his 
 uncle. His career of cruelty was cut 
 short by the sword of Ibrahim, the cap- 
 
AMU 
 
 AMY 
 
 tain of his guards, who made himself 
 bey in his place. (Biog. Univ.) 
 AMY. See Lamy. 
 
 AMY,(N., died in 1760,) an advocate in 
 the parliament of Aix, who made several 
 observations on the filtering and purifi- 
 cation of water in tanks of different 
 metals, the resvdts of which he published. 
 (Diet. Hist. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMYN AHMED. See Razy. 
 
 AMYN, (Mohammed AlAniyn.) See 
 Mohammed. 
 
 AMYN, (Jean Claude, 1735—1803,) 
 a farmer of Poligny, who in 1792 was 
 launched into public life, by being sent 
 to the National Convention. He was at 
 first hurried away by the tide of revolu- 
 tionary feeling ; but retaining much of 
 his native simplicity of character, he 
 was glad to retire in 1797 to the place of 
 his birth, where being named associate 
 in the mayoralty, he led the way in re- 
 turning to principles of order and reli- 
 gion. (Sup pi. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMYNANDAR, king of the Atha- 
 menes, a people bordering on the ^Etolians, 
 for whom he obtained peace with Philip, 
 king of Macedon, b. c. 208. Sometime 
 afterwards he joined the Romans against 
 Philip, and for a short period was driven 
 from his throne. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMYNTAS I. king of Macedonia, the 
 firm ally of Xerxes, during the invasion 
 of Greece, succeeded his father Alcetas, 
 B. c. 507. He submitted himself to 
 Darius on his return from his Scythian 
 expedition ; but the insolent behaviour 
 of the Persian ambassadors led Alexan- 
 der the son of Amyntas to effe£t their 
 assassination, whose prudence found 
 means also to stifle the inquiry made on 
 their disappearance. Amyntas died a 
 few days after the 
 B. c. 480. (Herod. 
 Justin, 7, 3.) 
 
 AMYNTAS II. son of Philip, and 
 grandson of Alexander, was seated on the 
 throne of Macedon by Sitalces, king of 
 Thrace, b. c. 428. Shortly afterwards 
 Sitalces having made an alliance with 
 Perdiccas, the uncle of Amyntas, the 
 latter was compelled to retire. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 AMYNTAS III. grandfather to Alex- 
 ander the Great, ascended the throne on 
 the assassination of Pausanias, son of 
 ^I'opus, B. c, 392 : he was afterwards 
 driven from the kingdom by Argus, 
 brother of Pausanias ; but being restored 
 by the Thessalians, he established his 
 family on the throne, and acted with 
 great political wisdom in forming alli- 
 412 
 
 battle of Salamis, 
 Terps. 17 — 21; 
 
 ances with Sparta and others, so as to 
 extend the power of Macedon, and make 
 it respectable among the states of Greece. 
 He died b. c. 368. (Justin, vii. 4 & 9. 
 Diod. 14, &c. Plutarch in Pelopidas.) 
 
 AMYNTAS, son of Antiochus, left 
 Macedon on the death of Philip, through 
 hatred to Alexander the Great. He 
 joined Darius, and commanded a body 
 of Greek auxiliaries at the battle of Issus. 
 After the defeat he fled to Egypt, and 
 surprised Pehisium, pretending to be 
 sent as viceroy from Darius. Finding 
 himself at the head of some Egj'ptian 
 troops, he proclaimed his intention of 
 driving the Persians out of Egypt. He 
 defeated Mozares the Persian general, 
 who retired into Memphis ; from whence 
 having made an unexpected sally, Amyn- 
 tas was slain. (Curt. iii. 9.) There was 
 also in the time of Alexander the Great, 
 a son of Andromenes by this name, who 
 commanded part of the phalanx, and fell 
 under a suspicion of being implicated in 
 the conspiracy of Philotas. He was killed 
 shortly afterwai'ds by an arrow in siege, 
 (Curt. iv. 16; vi. 9; viii. 12.) Another 
 Amyntas, one of the chiefs of the Mace- 
 donian garrison in Cadmea, the citadel 
 of Thebes, was slain there by the exiles 
 on their return. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMYNTIANUS, a Greek historian of 
 great pretensions in the age of Marcus 
 Antoninus, mentioned by Pliotius, who 
 wrote an inflated panegyric on the life 
 of Alexander. He wrote also the Lives 
 of Olympias, Philip, and some others, 
 none of which have come down to us. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 AMYOT, (Jacques, 1513—1593,) the 
 French translator of Plutarch, was born 
 of an obscure family at Melun. . Some 
 of the stories of his early youth are quite 
 apocryphal, being related only on the au- 
 thority of St. Real, and contradicted by 
 known facts. It seems, however, cer- 
 tain, tliat he was very poor; and it is 
 said that, when he went to Paris to study, 
 his only support was a loaf sent to him 
 weekly by his mother, and that he sup- 
 plied the remainder by becoming a kind 
 of servant to other scholars. Having 
 applied to his studies with great assi- 
 duity, he (by the influence of Margaret, 
 the sister of Francis I.) became professor 
 of Greek and Latin in the university of 
 Bourges at an early age, where he pub- 
 lished a translation of the Greek romance 
 of Theagenes and Chariclea, and some of 
 the Lives of Plutarch. This last work 
 was dedicated to Francis I. and procured 
 for liim the abbey of Bellosane, vacant 
 
A MY 
 
 AMY 
 
 by the death of Vatabhis. With a view 
 of obtaining fiirther materials for the 
 improvement and continuation of his 
 translation of Plutarch, he accompanied 
 Morvillier, the French ambassador, to 
 Venice ; and proceeding to Rome, in- 
 gratiated himself with Cardinal de Toui-- 
 non, who employed him to carry a letter 
 from Henry II. to the council of Trent, 
 which contained a remonstrance against 
 some of their decrees. He executed this 
 commission highly to their satisfaction ; 
 and when the coimcil was ofiended at 
 the use of the word conventus applied to 
 them, he showed them that though in 
 modern Latin conventus was used for a 
 convent, its proper meaning was an 
 assembly or council. Cardinal de Tournon, 
 on his return to Paris, recommended him 
 as tutor to the royal family. He found 
 leisure in this situation to finish the 
 translation of Plutarch's Lives, and to 
 commence that of his Morals ; a work 
 which was dedicated to his pupil, Charles 
 IX. who made him grand almoner of 
 France, curator of the university of Paris, 
 and bishop of Auxerre. Henry III. his 
 other pupil, having come to the throne, 
 continued him in his posts, and made 
 him commander of the newly -created 
 order, du St. Esprit, and in honour of 
 Amyot, annexed that office to that of 
 grand almoner for ever. The closing 
 years of his life were spent in retirement 
 and study at his bishopric. He suffered 
 considerably from the civil wars, parti- 
 cularly at the time of the murder of the 
 Due de Guise, 1563. The people of 
 Auxerre accused him of having connived 
 at this assassination, and the partisans of 
 " The League" ti-eated him very roughly. 
 De Thou accuses him of ingratitude 
 and infidelity to Henry III. ; but his 
 severe treatment by The League for being 
 too much attached to the king, defends 
 him from that accusation. He did much 
 for the restoration of his cathedral; and yet 
 by his parsimony he contrived to amass 
 200,000 crowns. 
 
 His translation of Plutarch is acknow- 
 ledged to be often very erroneous ; but 
 its style has always been admired. He 
 is considered by French critics to have 
 done much towards fixing and improving 
 the French language. His works are — 
 1. A Ti'anslation of the Historia j^Lthio- 
 pica of Heliodoiiis, or the Loves of 
 Theagenes a Thessalian, and Chariclea 
 an j5ithiopian, &c. 1547, fol. 1549, Svo. 
 Amyot, when he was at Rome, having 
 found a complete MS. of Heliodorus in 
 the Vatican, retouched his translation, 
 413 
 
 and republished it in l.")59. 2. Sertn 
 books of Diodorus Siculus, (xi. — xvii.) 
 translated from the Greek, 1554. 3. A 
 translation of the Daphnis and Chloe of 
 Longus, 1559, Svo. Often as this has 
 been reprinted, it would be no loss to 
 the world, if it had remained un- 
 translated. 4. Plutarch's Lives and 
 Morals, published at various times. The 
 edition by Brotier and Vauvillier, in 
 22 vols, Svo, is esteemed (1783 — 17S7), 
 and was reprinted with additions by 
 Clavier. 5. Lettre a M. Morvilliers, 
 Maitre des Requetes du 8 Sep. 1551, 
 gives an account of his mission to the 
 Council of Trent, and is printed in Var- 
 gas's and in Dupuy's Memoirs of the 
 Council of Trent, and in Pithou's Ec- 
 clesia Gallicanse in Schismate Status. 
 6. Projet de I'Eloquence Royale, com- 
 posee pour Hen. III. &c. first printed in 
 1805. 
 
 AMYR- BE- INKAMILLAH. See 
 Amr. 
 
 AMYRAUT, (Moise,) or AMYRAL- 
 DUS, a distinguished minister among 
 the Reformed in France, was born at 
 Bourgueil in the Touraine in 1596. He 
 first studied law at Poictiei-s, and gi-aduated 
 in that faculty ; but afterwards applied 
 himself to the study of divinity, and was 
 a pupil of the celebrated Cameron at 
 Saumur. After having spent some time 
 as a country pastor, he was in 1633 him- 
 self called to the professorship of theo- 
 logy at Saumur, and in that office attained 
 a high degree of reputation. At the re- 
 quest of Cardinal Richelieu, he endea- 
 voured to ascertain, and if possible to 
 remove, the obstacles which stood in the 
 way of the union of the different chris- 
 tian bodies. But the latter object soon 
 appeared impracticable. His great learn- 
 ing, his well-known moderation, and his 
 elegant manners, procured him great in- 
 fluence. His paraphrases of the New 
 Testament and the Psalms were greatly 
 valued ; and his Morale Chretienne was 
 the first work of the kind which pro- 
 ceeded from the Reformed. He was also 
 a distinguished preacher. His attempts 
 to soften the rigour of the strict Calvinism 
 which had hitherto prevailed among his 
 party, brought him into difficulties, and 
 he was called upon to explain his opi- 
 nions before the Synod of Alen9on in 
 1637, though he had only departed so 
 far from the docti"ines of Dort as to 
 maintain that " the benefits of Christ's 
 death were sufficient for all men, though 
 they were only efficacious for the elect." 
 The circimistances of the interview with 
 
AMY 
 
 ANA 
 
 Father Audebert (a Jesuit), by request of 
 Cardinal Richelieu, as related in Bayle 
 on the authority of the son of Amyraut, 
 are treated as a fable in the Biog. Uni- 
 verselle ; but in the same worlc it is also 
 doubted whether such a book as his 
 Irenicum exists ! Amyraut wrote some 
 pieces in favour of the doctrine of passive 
 obedience, especially in his Souverainete 
 des Rois, published on the murder of 
 Charles I. He died in 1664. His book 
 De Secessione ab EcclesiaRomana ( 1 647), 
 and his Irenicon (1662), exhibit alike 
 his learning and his charity. 
 
 His works are voluminous. The most 
 remarkable besides those already men- 
 tioned, are — Traite des Religions, contra 
 ceux qui les estiment indifferentes. Traite 
 des Songes. Two ti-acts against the Millen- 
 narians, especially M. de Launai. Traite 
 de I'Etat des Fideles apres la Mort, written 
 to console his wife on the loss of their 
 daughter. Du Gouvernement de I'Eglise. 
 A Treatise on the Natural Law of Mar- 
 riages, and a Life of the celebrated 
 Huguenot waiTior, Francois La Noue, 
 surnamed Iron -Arm, (Bras-de-Fer.) 
 Some portions of his works have been 
 translated into English, viz. the Treatise 
 on Indifference, and on Dreams men- 
 tioned in Scripture. 
 
 AMYRUTZA, (George,) a native of 
 Trebizond, and a favouiite of David the 
 Emperor. A work of his on the Council of 
 Florence is quoted by Leo Ailatius. On 
 the taking of Trebizond in 1161 by Ma- 
 homet II. he followed the conqueror to 
 Constantinople, and became a Manometan. 
 Bayle thinks there were two of the name. 
 See Append, to Cave. Hist. Lit. p. 183. 
 
 AMYTIS, daughter of Astyages, and 
 wife of Spitames, by whom she had two 
 sons, according to Ctesias. Astyages 
 being conquered by Cyrus, fled to Ecba- 
 tana, where he was concealed by his 
 daughter and son-in-law, whom Cyrus 
 ordered to be tortured ; but Astyages 
 surrendering himself, Cyrus pardoned 
 him, and married Amytis, by whom he 
 had Cambyses and Tanyoxerces. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANACHARSIS, the son of Gnyrus, 
 according to Temnes, quoted by Hero- 
 dotus, iv. 76, visited Greece in the time 
 of Solon ; where, says Lucian, in Scyth. ii. 
 after being made an Athenian citizen, 
 he was the only barbarian ever initiated 
 into the mysteries of Eleusis. His mother 
 is said to have been a Greek ; and from 
 her he derived his knowledge of that 
 language. On his return to Scythia he 
 sto))t at Cyzicum, duving the celebration 
 414 
 
 of the rites of Cybele ; when he made a 
 vow, that if he got back safe, he would 
 introduce her worship into his own coun- 
 try. Accordingly he celebrated them at 
 Hylla, near " the Race-Course of Achil- 
 les," in the Black Sea, now called Kil- 
 burun, as shown by Goodenough, in the 
 Journal of the Geographical Society, i, 
 p. 118. The ceremonies were seen by a 
 Scythian, who communicated the fact to 
 Saulius, the brother of Anacharsis, the 
 king of the country, by whom he was 
 slain with an arrow, for introducing a 
 foreign fonn of worship. Strabo, vii. 
 p. 464, on the authority of Ephorus, 
 attributes to him the invention of the 
 bellows, together with the anchor, and pot- 
 ter's wheel. But as the last was known to 
 Homer, Strabo conceives that Anacharsis 
 can lay no claim to the discovery ; and he 
 might have added, that a Scythian was 
 not likely to invent an anchor, for which 
 there could be no use, except to a mari- 
 time people, which the Scythians never 
 were. The story probably owes its origin 
 to the fact, that on the coins of some 
 cities on the borders of the Black Sea, a 
 fish-hook is seen, as in the case of By- 
 zantium, single or double. He is said 
 likewise to have been an ethical poet, 
 and to have written eight hundi-ed hex- 
 ameters on the customs of Scythia and 
 Greece, and on what relates to a frugal 
 life and to war. But Diogenes, to whom 
 we are indebted for the anecdote, and 
 who is seldom to be trusted on his own 
 authority, probably mistook the sense of 
 the author whom he copied ; or else his 
 own words, in i. 101, have been corrupted 
 by transcribers ; for they are scarcely 
 intelligible as they now stand, although 
 copied as usual with all their imperfec- 
 tions into the Lexicon of Suidas. By 
 comparing, however, a passage in Strabo, 
 vii. p. 461, it would seem that Anacharsis 
 contrasted the simple life of his country- 
 men with the luxmy he found in more 
 civilized nations, and which he feared 
 wovdd convert the milk-drmkers of the 
 north into the wine-drinkers of the soutli. 
 To the same biographer of the philo- 
 sophers of antiquity we owe the presei'- 
 vation of some of the apophthegms of 
 Anacharsis ; and though they carry with 
 them a doubt of their genuineness, yet 
 they seem to have been acknowledged 
 as authentic by Aristotle ; who in his 
 Postei-ior Analytics, i. appeals to one 
 found in Diogenes, as an instance of 
 a remote cause being assigned in place 
 of a proximate one ; and has at the same 
 time preserved the coiTect reading, avXt]- 
 
A N A 
 
 ANA 
 
 TpiBes, where Diogenes has av\oi, incor- 
 rectly. * For when Anacharsis was 
 asked, — Whether the Scythians had 
 music - girls ? he replied, "Not even 
 vines" — a reply suggested by the inse- 
 parable union of the two in Greece ; 
 where music-girls were introduced cen- 
 stautly, as the guests became warmed 
 with the grape ; a plant that, said Ana- 
 charsis, bore three kinds of fruit, plea- 
 sure, intoxication, and sickness ; and it 
 was in consequence of his traditional wit 
 and wisdom that the Scythian was intro- 
 duced by Plutarch into The Banquet of 
 Sages, and by Barthelemy into his Travels 
 of Anacharsis. Amongst the spurious 
 epistles to be found in Diogenes, one is 
 given to Anacharsis. But it betrays at 
 once the hand of a sophist. 
 
 ANACLETUS, called by the Latins 
 Cletus, bishop of Rome from the year 78 
 to 91. Tliere are some spurious Decretals 
 extant under his name. (Euseb. Hist. 
 Eccl. iii. 13, 15. Iren. iii. 3. Dupin. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANACLETUS, (died 1138,) anti-pope, 
 elected in 1130, after the death of Hono- 
 rius n. whose recognised successor as 
 bishop of Rome was Linocent IL He 
 was of Jewish extraction. His gi-and- 
 father, Peter of Leon, as well as his father, 
 men of great wealth and abilities, had 
 been able servants to the court of Rome. 
 Anacletus, who in eai-ly life was known 
 by his grandfather's name, took the habit 
 of the order of Cluny, and having been 
 sent as hostage to the archbishop of Co- 
 logne, was given back in 1119, at the 
 council of Rheims. He was made car- 
 dinal by Calixtus II. who sent him to- 
 gether with Innocent II., his future rival, 
 as legate to France. Having been 
 elected on the death of Honorius II. by 
 a small party among the cardinals, he 
 gained the support of Roger, duke of 
 Sicily, to whom he gave his sister in 
 marriage, and the title of king, and kept 
 possession of Rome till his death, in spite 
 of the Emperor Lotharius II., the con- 
 demnation of the councils of Pisa and 
 Rheims, and the protest of nearly all 
 Christendom. Upon his death. Innocent 
 II. was universally acknowledged as pope, 
 and the schism ceased. The memory of 
 Anacletus is loaded with the reproach of 
 scandalous vices, the justice of which 
 accusations cannot now be veiy accu- 
 
 • The reading of Diogenes is, however, supported 
 hy Strabo, xiv. p. 1017, who alludes to the answer 
 of Anacharsis, but in such a way as would have 
 baffled all attempts at explanation, had not Aristotle 
 and Diogenes been preserved. 
 415 
 
 rately determined. (Fleury, Hist. Eccl. 
 Dupin in S. Bernai-d. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANACOANA. See Ovando. 
 
 ANACREON. Of a poet better known 
 by what he did not write than what he 
 did, history has preserved but little 
 relating to his private life. Suidas, pro- 
 bably on the authority of the scholiast od 
 Aristoph. Thesm. assigns him four fathers, 
 Scythinus,Eumelus, Parthenius, and Ari- 
 stocritus. It is agreed, however, by all 
 that he was born at Teos, a city in Ionia, 
 and that when the inhabitants migrated to 
 Abdera, in Thrace, unable, says Hero- 
 dotus, i. 169, to endme the yoke of their 
 Persian masters, Anacreon sought an 
 asylum with Polycrates, tyrant of Samos ; 
 of whom, according to Strabo, xvi. 945, 
 Anacreon made frequent mention, just 
 as Horace does of his patron Maecenas. 
 But exciting, it would seem, the jealousy 
 of Polycrates, from the preference shown 
 to the poet over the prince by their com- 
 mon friend Smerdias, as stated by Athe- 
 naeus and iElian, he quitted Samos and 
 went to Athens. There he became a 
 favourite of Hipparchus ; and after the 
 expiilsion of the Peisistratidse, lived it is 
 not known where, and died at the age of 
 eighty-five, says Lucian, by swallowing a 
 grape-stone, but a raisin according to Vale- 
 rius Maximus, ix. 12, while Pausanias, i. 
 p. 23, tells us that his statue, erected at 
 Athens, represented him as a drunken 
 man singing. From the genuine speci- 
 mens of his poetry preserved by Athe- 
 nseus and Dio Chrysostom, it is easy to 
 see that he sti-ung his harp to songs of 
 love and vrine ; although he is called 
 (To(f>os by Plato in Phaedr, p. 235, ai\ 
 epithet that would have excited some 
 suspicion of its being a literal error, 
 were it not acknowledged by a quota- 
 tion of Athenaeus, and explained (ro<^to-T»js 
 by Maxim. Tyr. viii.= xxiv. With regard 
 to the odes that pass under his name, they 
 were not even heard of till they were 
 printed by H. Stephens, (Paris,! 554,) from 
 two manuscripts ; one of which he said 
 was written on parchment, and the other 
 on the bark of a tree, but so defaced 
 that some of the letters were illegible. 
 On their very first appearance they were 
 condemned by Robortellus as the for- 
 geries of Stephens. But it is now as- 
 certained that he was not the author ; for 
 they have been found in a Palatine ma- 
 nuscript, in the Vatican ; from which 
 Stephens got a transcript, it is supposed, 
 by some unfair means, which he was 
 anxious to conceal ; and thus acted the 
 part of Victorius, who first printed the 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 Electra of Euripides, without giving tlie 
 least hint of the place where he found 
 the original manuscript ; while strange to 
 say, the story of tlie bark manuscript, un- 
 less it be a mere fiction, has its counter- 
 part in the recent discovery of a portion 
 of the Iliad in a papyrus found in the 
 island of Elephanta, as stated in the 
 Philological Museum, N. i. p. 177. By 
 comparing, however^ Victoi*. Var. Lect. 
 XX. 17, it would seem that the story of 
 the bark had its origin in the account 
 there given by Victorius, that he dis- 
 covered an ode (xv.) on the binding 
 of an old book. Since the time of Robor- 
 tellus, almost all the critics of any tact 
 have considered the greater part of the 
 odes as spurious ; although none liave 
 been able to say when, why, and by 
 whom such elegant pieces were written ; 
 certain it is they do not answer in mat- 
 ter and dialect to the account given 
 of Anacreon's odes by Maximus Tyrius, 
 xxi.= xxxvii. who says that they hymned 
 the hair of Cleobulus, (whose name 
 is found in the genuine fragment pre- 
 served by Dio,) and the flute of Ba- 
 thyllus, of whom mention is made but 
 once in the still existing odes : while 
 of the Ionic strain, to which Maximus 
 alludes, only a few traces can be dis- 
 covered. The dialect is rather Attic 
 than Ionic. The metre, too, is at va- 
 riance with that of the genuine odes, 
 which are all written in stanzas — a prac- 
 tice uniformly adopted by Horace, and 
 from wliich he swerved only in two Ascle- 
 piadean, two Antispastic, and one Ionic 
 a minore odes. It seems, however, to 
 have been known in the time of Euri- 
 pides and Aristophanes, and devoted to 
 subjects of a lively cast ; for it is found 
 in the Cyclops of the one, and in the 
 Frogs of the other. The last proof of 
 their spuriousness is furnished by the 
 fact, that none of them are quoted by 
 any writer older than Nicetas Euge- 
 nianus ; who has transferred the sub- 
 stance of some of them into his wearisome 
 work, edited by Boissonade. Aulus 
 Gellius indeed has preserved a beautiful 
 ode in xix. 9, in the Anacreontic mea- 
 sure, of the genuineness of which there 
 can be little doubt ; as it contains just 
 such an allusion to the shield of 
 Achilles as one woidd expect to find in 
 Anacreon. The most complete collec- 
 tion of the Anacreontic odes and frag-- 
 ments is by Fischer, Lips. 1793, whose 
 bulky volume of five hundred and nine- 
 teen octavo pages is filled with matter, 
 which only Irmisch, the editor of Hero- 
 41G 
 
 dian, could wade through, and forms a 
 curious contrast with the diminutive edi- 
 tion of Boissonade. Par. 1823. Among 
 the other editions of Anacreon, deserving 
 of notice, are the Editio Princeps, Paris, 
 1554; that of Barnes, 1705 and 1721; 
 of Maittaire, 1725 ; and that printed in 
 4to at Parma, in 1784 ; of which only 
 one hundred and twelve copies were 
 printed. 
 
 ANAFESTUS, (Paolluccio, died 717,) 
 the first doge of Venice. The Venetian 
 islands were originally governed by tri- 
 bunes, but in the year 697, they agi'eed 
 to unite under a single governor, when 
 Anafestus of Heraclea was chosen. He 
 in concert with Liutprand fixed the boun- 
 daries of the Venetian territory. He 
 was succeeded by Marcello Tagliano. 
 (Biog. Univ."* 
 
 ANAGNOSTA, (John,) a Byzantine 
 historian of the fifteenth century, who in 
 his work De Rebus Constantinopolitano- 
 rum Macedonius has given an account 
 of the siege of Thessalonica, by Amurath, 
 in 1430, at which he was present. 
 
 ANAN, (Ben David,) the restorer of 
 the Karaite sect of the Jews. The dates 
 of his birth and death are not precisely 
 known, but as he was contemporary with 
 R. Jiidah Gaon, who died 763, and 
 (according to the Karaite doctors, R. 
 Jafet and Mordecai,) with the khalif 
 Abu-Jaafar, called also Al Mansor, whose 
 reign began 754, we may place him 
 in the middle of the eighth century. 
 (De Rossi.) Morinus and Father Simon 
 call him the founder of the sect, (Trig- 
 land, Diatribe, p. 34, 35 ;) but this opi- 
 nion has been strenuously combated, 
 especially by Triglandus in his Diatribe 
 de Secta Karteorum. Jost also (himself 
 a Jew, and a warm defender of the Tal- 
 mud,) advocates the opinion that he 
 founded the sect. (Allgem. Geschichte 
 des Israelitischen Volks, vol. ii. 218,) 
 and relates the common story, which 
 is given by the supporters of the Tal- 
 mud, about the cause of what they 
 deem Anan's heresy. They say that 
 on one occasion, at an election of a 
 gaon, or a resh-glutha,* his brother was 
 preferred to him, but his numerous ad- 
 herents would only acknowledge and 
 obey him.. He was arrested, and a 
 
 * Gaon is a title of honour, prince or excellency, 
 originally taken by the head of the school of Sura ; 
 (see Jost. ii. 202,) and Resh-glutha (Id. ii. 145,) was 
 the name of the prince of the captivity, or head of 
 tlie colony, originally applied to an officer elected 
 among the Jews dispersed in the east, and en- 
 trusted with some civil power and privileges. See 
 more in Jost. 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 Mahommedan heretic, confined in the 
 same prison, advised him to appeal to the 
 khalif, which he did, and by flattering 
 his love of astronomical science, &c. ob- 
 tained his release from prison, and be- 
 came the head of a sect. This is denied 
 by the Karaites, who say that Anan was 
 the resh-glutha at Bagdad in the time of 
 the khalif Abu-Jaafar, or Giafar, snr- 
 named Al Manser ; and that he made a 
 stand against the corruptions introduced 
 into religion by the teachers who main- 
 tained the principles of R. Hillel. The 
 Karaites reject tradition, and abide by 
 the text of the Bible alone. They do not, 
 however, as some suppose, follow the 
 Samaritans in rejecting all Scripture ex- 
 cept the law. See Trigland, Diatr. p. 152. 
 Only fragments of his works remain. 
 (De Rossi. Wolff". Bibl. Hebr. Jost and 
 Trigland, as above.) 
 
 Another Jewish writer of this name is 
 also mentioned, who lived in the third 
 century, and pretended to liave received 
 revelations from Elias, (Elijah.) For 
 more on his pretended revelations, see 
 De Rossi. 
 
 ANANIA, or ANAGNY, (John d',) a 
 very learned priest of the fifteenth century. 
 Being of obscure origin, he took the 
 name of an ancient town of Latium. He 
 was pupil to Florianus, and afterwards 
 professor of canon and civil law at Bo- 
 logna, where he was archdeacon. He has 
 left commentaries on the fifth book of 
 the Decretals ; a volume of Consultations ; 
 a treatise De Revocatione Feudi alienati ; 
 aworkon Magic and Sorcery. (Biog.Univ.) 
 
 ANANIA, (John Lorenzo d',) a geo- 
 grapher, who lived about the close of the 
 sixteenth century ; native of Taverna in 
 Calabria. His Cosmographia, written in 
 Italian, was published at Venice 1576, 
 4to; he has also written a treatise De 
 Natura Dsemonimi. Ven. 1582, 8vo. 
 
 ANANIAS, (son of Isaac,) a Jewish 
 author, whose treatise on philosophy con- 
 tains various pieces from Greek and La- 
 tin philosophers ; translated into Arabic, 
 and then into Hebrew by the celebrated 
 Charizi. (De Rossi.) 
 
 ANAPIUS and AMPHINOMUS, two 
 brothers of Catana, in Sicily, who, during 
 an eruption from Mount ^Etna, saved 
 their parents on their shoulders. The 
 burning lava, it is said, parted and flowed 
 on either side, leaving them unharmed. 
 They received divine honours in Sicily. 
 (Val. Max. v. 4. Strabo, 6. 
 
 " Turn Catane nimium ardenti vicina Typhaeo, 
 Et generasse Pios quondam celeberrima Fratres." 
 Sil. It. xiv. ly6-7 ) 
 
 VOL. I. 417 
 
 ANASTASIA, the name of several 
 female martyrs in the Roman church ; 
 one of these, a lady of noble birth, is said 
 to have been a pupil to St. Chrysogonus, 
 and to have been burnt alive, a. d. 304. 
 (Butler's Lives of the Saints, Dec. 25.) 
 Another of this name is said to have 
 been beheaded in the reign of Nero, 
 (lb.) Another is said to have suflTered 
 martyrdom at Sirmich. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANASTASIUS, the author of an epi- 
 gram of eighteen lines, De Ratione 
 Victus Salutaris post Incisam Venam et 
 Emissum Sanguinem, printed in the 
 Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum, ed. 
 Jo. Curio, Antwerp. 1557, 12mo. It 
 contains directions for the course of diet, 
 exercise, &c., to be observed by the 
 patient on each of the eight days fol- 
 lowing the operation. A remedy for 
 the gout, by a physician of the same 
 name, which is to be continued diu-ing a 
 whole year, is to be found in Aetius, 
 Tetrab. iii. Serm. iv. cap. 47. He must 
 therefore (if he is the same person,) have 
 lived some time before the end of the 
 fifth century. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I. (died 402,) pope, 
 succeeded Siricius in 398 or 399. Under 
 his pontificate Flavianus, and the eastern 
 bishops, were reconciled to the western 
 church. At Jerome's instigation, he pro- 
 scribed Origen's work, Ilepi Apxoov, which 
 had been translated by Rufiinus. He 
 was a wise and zealous maintainer of 
 church discipline. Two of his letters are 
 printed by Coutant ; there are extant 
 also some spurious decretals under his 
 name. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANASTASIUS II.(died 498,)succeeded 
 Pope Gelasius in 49G. He had to strug- 
 gle with the Arian faction under the 
 protection of Anastasius, emperor of the 
 East. He WTote to this prince, entreating 
 him to prevent the mention of the name 
 of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 
 in the church. He wrote to congratulate 
 Clovis on his conversion. We have also 
 a letter of his on the divisions between 
 the churches of Vienna and Aries, (see 
 Labb. Concil.) Baluze has printed, be- 
 sides, the fragments of a letter relative to 
 the heresies in the east. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, anti-pope in 855. 
 See Benedict III. 
 
 ANASTASIUS III. (died 913,) a man 
 of inoffensive character, succeeded Pope 
 Scrgius III. in 911. 
 
 ANASTASIUS IV. (died 1154,) a 
 Roman of great virtue, named Conrad. 
 In 1153 he was elected successor to Pope 
 Eugene III. when very old. He founded 
 
 E E 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 (he i-ising oi'der of St. John of Jerusalem : 
 nine of his lettei's are given in Labbe. 
 (Bioc^. Univ.) 
 
 ANASTASIUS, elected bishop of An- 
 tiochin.561. His zealous opposition of 
 those heretics who held that the body of 
 Christ was incorruptible and impassible, 
 drew upon him the resentment of the 
 Emperors Justinian and Justin II. ; by 
 the latter of whom he was driven into 
 exile. He was recalled by Maurice. He 
 translated the Pastor of Gregory the 
 Great into Greek, for the use of the 
 eastern churches. Three of his dis- 
 courses are extant in the Auctuarium of 
 Combefis, and five in the Lectiones An- 
 tiqucC of Canisius. (Evagrius, iv. 40 ; 
 V. 5 ; vi. 24. Nicephorus, xvii. 36 ; xviii. 
 26, 31, 44. Fabr. Bibl. Grteca. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANASTASIUS, a monk of Mount 
 Sinai, who was still living in the }'ear 
 678. He was often called from his soli- 
 tude to combat the Acephali, the Seve- 
 rians, and the Theodorians of Egypt and 
 Syi'ia. He has left— 1. a work against 
 the Eutychians, under the name of ot^rj- 
 yos, or the Guide. 2. Considerations 
 upon the work of Creation : of this trea- 
 tise eleven books were printed in Latin, 
 in the Bibliotheca Patnnn. The twelfth, 
 which, according to Aliix, contains some 
 things contrary to transubstantiation, was 
 not printed till the year 1682, when 
 AUix published the oi'iginal Greek with 
 a Latin translation. 3. One Hundred 
 and fifty-four Questions and Answers, 
 being a collection of ])assages from Fathers 
 and Councils on the Spiritual Life. These, 
 if they arc not the work of another writer, 
 have been much interpolated : with seve- 
 ral pieces against the heretics of his time. 
 Some sermons of his were printed at the 
 end of the Philocalia of Origen, printed 
 at Paris in 1618. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANASTASIUS I. (430—518,) empe- 
 ror of the East, an aged domestic of the 
 palace, to whom, forty days after the 
 death of Zeno, his widow Ariadne gave 
 her hand and the imperial title, (a. d. 
 491.) His elevation was welcomed with 
 the cry — " Reign as you have lived!" 
 The objections raised by Euphemius, 
 patriarch of Constantinople, upon the 
 ground of Anastasius's attachment to the 
 Eutychian heresy, were removed by his 
 signing a confession of faith in conformity 
 with the decisions of the council of Chal- 
 cedon. His reign began favom-ably, but 
 the religious factions into wliich Constan- 
 tinople was torn, harassed his declining 
 years, extorting from him unworthy com- 
 418 
 
 pliances, and in some instances engaging 
 him in the commission of acts of the 
 most disgraceful cruelty. His weakness 
 and inexperience being fully occupied 
 with the disorders of his capital, the 
 seditions and invasions with which the 
 rest of the empire was distressed wei'e 
 left to the care of his generals. He died 
 little regretted, leaving behind a name 
 darkened by cowardice, treachery, and 
 avarice. He was the first sovereign 
 against whom sentence of excommuni- 
 cation was uttei-ed, a bull to that effect 
 having been published by Symmachus, 
 bishop of Rome, in tlie year 500, in con- 
 sequence of Anastasius's harsh treatment 
 of the orthodox. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANASTASIUS II. the name which 
 Artemius, a secretary of the empire, as- 
 sumed upon being raised to the imperial 
 throne by the voice of the senate on 
 the deposition of Phillppicus^ a. d. 713. 
 During his short reign, he displayed the 
 virtues both of peace and war; but his 
 subjects were unworthy of such a chief. 
 A sedition broke out in the fleet in 716; 
 Anastasius was deposed, and being or- 
 dained a priest, was banished to Thessa- 
 lonica. He could not forget his past 
 glory, and engaging in a plot for the 
 recovery of the throne, he was beheaded 
 in 719. (Gibbon, 48. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANASTASIUS, (died 753,) chief clerk 
 to Germanus, patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople. He managed to supplant his 
 superior, having Insinuated himself into 
 the favour of Leo the Isaurian, and was 
 made bishop of Constantinople in 730. 
 It is said, that in early life, following 
 Germanus up the steps of the palace, he 
 trod on his robe by accident, " Not so 
 fast, Anastasius," said his master; " you 
 will arrive soon enough at the Hippo- 
 drome :" words that passed afterward for a 
 prophecy. Anastasius, on his elevation, 
 while he showed himself ready to enter 
 into all the excesses of the iconoclasts, 
 lost no opportunity of recommending 
 himself to the empei'or : he yielded up 
 the treasures of the clnnch to Leo, and 
 having sided witli the dominant party 
 during the temporary deposition of Co- 
 pronymus, his eyes were put out, and he 
 was exposed on the back of an ass for a 
 whole day to the jeers of the populace in 
 the Hippodrome. He was, however, not 
 degraded from the episcopal chair, which 
 he dishonoured until his painfid deatli 
 in 753. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANASTASIUS, (Bibliothecarius,) an 
 ecclesiastical writer of the ninth cen- 
 tury. He was abbot of S. Maria trans- 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 Tiberim, and librarian of the Vatican. 
 The latter appointment he received from 
 Jolm VIIL, wlio became pope in 872. 
 By that prelate's desire, he also rewrote 
 the acts of the seventh (falsely called) 
 genei-al council, held at Nice, (Nicaea,) 
 in 787. The date of Anastasius's death 
 is not known ; he is supposed to have 
 lived till 887. He was present at the 
 eighth (pseudo) general council of Con- 
 stantinople, the acts of which he wrote 
 in Latin. His version is much longer 
 than the Greek which is published. He 
 professes to have made it literally from 
 the Greek copy in the archives of the 
 Roman church, (see Salmon, Traite de 
 I'Etude des Conciles, p. 311,) but he 
 has been by others supposed rather to 
 amplify what he found there. (See Cave, 
 11, 58.) The work, however, by which 
 he is principally known, is the " Liber 
 Pontificalis," or the Lives of the Popes, 
 from St. Peter to Nicolas I. It appears, 
 however, (see Cave, Hist. lib. i. 231, on 
 Damasus, to whom a part of it has been 
 falsely attributed,) that it was a medley 
 from various catalogvies and writers, and 
 that, as Anastasius refashioned it, and 
 added some lives, (according to Ciam- 
 pini. those of Gregory IV. Sergius II. 
 Leo IV. Benedict III. and Nicolas I.) 
 it has passed under his name. It was 
 first published at Menlz, in 1602, by 
 Father Busee, and afterwards at the end 
 of the Historia Ecclesiastica of Ana- 
 stasius, published by Fabroti, Paris, 1649. 
 It was also republished in 1718-35, by 
 Francis and Joseph Bianchini, in 4 vols, 
 folio; and by the Abbe Vignoli, in 1724 
 — 1753, in 3 vols, 4to. It is also inserted 
 in Muratorii Script. Rerum Ital. vol. iii. 
 The Historia Ecclesiastica of Ana- 
 stasius is chiefly a version and abridge- 
 ment of Symellus, Theophanes, &c. 
 His accounts of the tvv^o councils are 
 found in the usual editions of the coun- 
 cils. The other works by Anastasius 
 still extant are enumerated in Cave, with 
 references to the collections in which 
 they occur. This writer has often been 
 confused with another Anastasius of the 
 same age, called Anastasius Cardinalis, 
 ordained by Leo IV. to the chm-ch of 
 St. Marcellus, but without reason. The 
 latter appears only remarkable by the 
 irregularity of his conduct in abandoning 
 his church, and which brought him more 
 than once under excommunication. The 
 question of their identity has often been 
 discussed, by Ciampini, Cave, &c. (See 
 also Tiraboschi, iii. 213-14.) The residt 
 appears to be, that the latter has impro- 
 419 
 
 perly been called Bihliothecarius, which 
 he never was ; and the former Cardinalis, 
 a title to which he has no claim. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, apostle of Hungary, a 
 Benedictine monk at Rome, who accom- 
 panied St. Adalbert, bishop of Prague, on 
 his return to Bohemia, and was by him 
 named abbot of the monastery ofBraunau. 
 His original name was Astric ; but he 
 took that of Anastasius upon being con- 
 secrated to the bishopric of Colocza, one 
 of the six sees into which Duke Stephen 
 divided his domain in 996. Four years 
 afterwards Anastasius was sent to Rome 
 to obtain the pope's sanction to the ec- 
 clesiastical an'angements that had been 
 made in Hungary, and to request the 
 title of king for Duke Stephen, who was 
 shortly afterwards crowned by Anasta- 
 sius upon the authority of Silvester II. 
 The archbishop of Strigonia, metropolitan 
 of Hungary, being afflicted by a tem- 
 porary blindness, Anastasius for three 
 years supplied his place. On his reco- 
 very, Anastasius returned to his former 
 see, where he shortly afterwards termi- 
 nated his honourable career. (Suppl. 
 Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANASTASIUS, (Ohvier de St.) the 
 assimied name of a Carmelite preacher 
 of the seventeenth century, called De 
 Crock, the author of several writings, 
 whose titles savour too much of the 
 quaintness and undue fEvmiliarity with 
 which the most sacred subjects are 
 treated occasionally. He died at Brus- 
 sels in 1674. He wrote — Le Jardin spi- 
 rituel des Carmes, emaille des Vertus des 
 Saints les plus celebres de ce saint Ordre, 
 &c. Antwerj). 2 vols, 12mo, 1659 — 
 1661. 2. Le Combat spirituel d'Aniour 
 entre la Mere de Dieu et les Serviteurs 
 de rOrdre du Mont Carmel, avec egal 
 A vantage des deux Cotes, Antw. 1661, 
 12mo. 3. Pleias Mystica calculata ad 
 Meridionem desolati Belgii, 1669. Some 
 other works in Latin, besides selections 
 and translations from St. Cyril, accom- 
 panied by some poetry. Antw. 1669. 
 
 ANASTASIUS, (Father.) See Gui- 
 
 CHARD. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, (of Alexandi-ia,) a Peri- 
 patetic philosopher, born of christian 
 parents, bishop of Laodicea in the year 
 269. A tract of his on the time of cele- 
 brating Easter is printed by Bucherius 
 (Antw. 1634) in his Doctrina Temporimi. 
 There are extant also some fragments of 
 an arithmetical treatise by him in the 
 second vokmie of Fabricius' Bibliotheca 
 Graeca. The genuineness of the tract 
 about Easter has been debated ; Du Pin 
 E E 2 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 attacking and Dr. Cave defending it. 
 It is qnoted in Euseb. H. E. viii. 32. 
 Dr. Cave considers that the arithmetical 
 treatise is not by him. 
 
 ANATOLIUS, one of the tutors of 
 Jambhchus, (Eunap. in Vita Jambl.) wlio 
 therefore nuist have lived towards tlie 
 end of the third century after Christ. 
 He is often qnoted in the Geoponica* 
 and Hippiatrica;t and Fabricius has in- 
 serted in his Biblioth. Grgeca, vol. iv. pp. 
 297 — 301, a fragment of a treatise of his, 
 Hepi 2vfnra6ec(ov Kai AvTinadeicov, De 
 Sympathiis et Antipathiis. This seems 
 to have been a work on zoology, and 
 (judging from the small portion that re- 
 mains,) must have been of very little 
 value ; for though the author promises to 
 write notliing l)ut what he has found to 
 be true by his own experience (p. 296), 
 he has mentioned hardly any thing but 
 the most absm-d fables ; c. g. that ants do 
 no work on the Sabbath-day, (p. 299,) 
 (though this is not mentioned on /lis ojvn 
 authority) ; tliat the salamander is not 
 burned by fire, (ibid.) ; that lions are 
 afraid of a white cock, (ibid.) ; and other 
 stories almost all equally foolish, and 
 many of them too indelicate to be quoted. 
 The only true statement of any impor- 
 tance contained in the fragment is, that 
 iron is attracted by the magnet, (p. 300.) 
 
 ANATOLIUS, a jurist in the time of 
 Justinian, who was employed by him in 
 the compilation of the Digesta, and rose 
 to the dignity of consul. Agathias, a 
 contemporary historian, says that he died 
 from being struck by a block of marble 
 that was shaken from the cornice of the 
 room in whicli he was sitting by an 
 earthquake, and that the people regarded 
 his death as a judgment on him for 
 frauds committed in his judicial capacity. 
 His father Leontius, and his grandfatlier 
 Eudoxius, were both learned in the law. 
 Another Anatolius was one of the three 
 jurists employed by the Emperor Phocas 
 in translating into Greek the code of 
 Justinian. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, the son of Enhulus, 
 or Hegesibidus, was born at Clazomene, 
 now Kelisman, in Ionia. At the age of 
 twenty he applied himself to geometry 
 and natural philosophy. Although a 
 man of family and fortune, he took no 
 part in politics, observing, when re- 
 proached for his indifference to the af- 
 fairs of this world, that heaven was his 
 
 • Lib. ii. cap. 10; v. 10, 18, 2.5, 26, et s^pe, (Ed. 
 Cantab. 1704.) 
 
 t Lib. i. pp. 3, 21. 22, 23, et alibi, (Ed. Paris, 
 1530, fol.) 
 
 420 
 
 country ; and on giving up his property 
 to his relations, said, that if he kept it, 
 and paid attention to lands and cattle, 
 he should know nothing of science. On 
 quitting Asia Minor, he settled at Athens, 
 where Pericles and Euripides became 
 two of his most celebrated pupils ; the 
 latter of whom has embalmed some of 
 his master's doctrines in his own dramas, 
 as shown in Valckenaer's Diatribe on 
 the fragments of Euripides ; while to 
 Pericles, Anaxagoras owed the preserva- 
 tion of his life, when, becoming old and 
 poor, he determined to starve himself to 
 death. This resolution, (says Plutarch, in 
 Pericl. ss. 16,) was prevented by the pupil, 
 who bewailed not so much the philoso- 
 pher's fate, as his own misfortune, should 
 he lose such a preceptor. The story is 
 called in question by Bayle ; who says 
 that Anaxagoras could scarcely be more 
 than fifty-five at that time, if he came to 
 Athens when he was only twenty. But 
 though he arrived thei-e at that period of 
 life, he would surely have waited some 
 years before he opened a school of phi- 
 losophy that persons like Pericles would 
 be led to attend. Besides, as it is con- 
 fessed that Anaxagoras was reduced to 
 poverty by his devotion to specidative 
 pm-suits, he would natm'ally exhibit even 
 earlier than usual the infirmity of old 
 age, and require, as he said, fi-om 
 Pericles, if he wanted to keep alive the 
 lamp of life, some means for feeding the 
 wick with oil. 
 
 Another no less celebrated pupil was 
 Thucydides, according to Marcellinus ; 
 and from the philosopher the historian 
 is said to have imbibed atheistical no- 
 tions. Hence we can account for the 
 tradition, which states that Cleon, whom 
 Thucydides evidently disliked, accused 
 Anaxagoras of impiety, from which he 
 was saved only by the exertions of Peri- 
 cles. Others assert that Thucydides, a 
 relative of Cimon, and politically opposed 
 to Pericles, chai'ged the philosopher with 
 treason to the state, and obtained a ver- 
 dict, by Anaxagoras failing to appear in 
 covirt. Still further, to show the uncer- 
 tainty of this portion of ancient history, 
 Hieronymus (says Diogenes) asserted 
 that Pericles supported the philosopher 
 as he tottered into court, worn down in 
 mind, and emaciated in body, when he 
 owed his acquittal rather to the pity than 
 the judgment of the jury ; while others 
 say he heard his sentence of death with 
 perfect indifTerence, observing that nature 
 at his birth had doomed him to die. 
 During the period of his imprisonment, it 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 is said he attempted to square the circle, 
 in a work to which allusion is made in 
 Plutarch, (De Exilio, t. xi. p. 607,) while 
 from Vitruvius, (Praef. in vii. § 11,) we 
 learn that he understood the theory of 
 perspective. On his sentence being 
 commuted for banishment, he retired to 
 Lampsacus, where he died at the age of 
 seventy-two or seventy-eight ; for autho- 
 rities differ. On his death-bed he was 
 asked by the chiefs of the city, whether 
 he had any commands to give ? Let 
 children, said he, keep the anniversary 
 of my death as a holyday — where he pro- 
 bably sneered at the grown-up children 
 of Athens, to whom his death he knew 
 would be a source of delight. The re- 
 quest was complied with, and the holy- 
 day called by his name. According to 
 yElian, (V. H. viii. 19,) two altars were 
 erected in his honour, one to Mind and 
 the other to Trath ; while on his tomb 
 (says Diogenes) Avas inscribed an epi- 
 taph — 
 
 " Here Anaxagoras lies; who best could scan 
 The truth, and show of heavenly worlds the plan." 
 
 In the altar to Mind, allusion was 
 made to the name Novs, by which he was 
 best known, and most frequently ridiculed 
 by Aristophanes, in consequence of his 
 commencing his work on natural philo- 
 sophy with the sentence — " The universe 
 was a confused mass, which Mind put 
 into order" — a doctrine, that Diogenes 
 in his Proem says was taken from the 
 first verse of a poem by Linus. 
 
 The religious opinions of Anaxagoras 
 have caused much dispute ; some main- 
 taining that he was an atheist, others 
 denying it. Bayle, in an elaborate article, 
 has endeavoured to show that he was the 
 first to hitroduce the notion of a prime 
 mover, and thus to rescue him from that 
 charge. But it must be remembered, as 
 Brucker has justly observed, (t. i. p. 508,) 
 that he might maintain this notion, and yet 
 his other opinions, respecting the eternity 
 of matter, might utterly neutralize the 
 admission, as implying a Deity ; and thus, 
 though he might profess a belief in a 
 Supreme Mind, his docti-ines might lead 
 to a contrary conclusion. Now, that 
 matter, according to Anaxagoras, existed 
 before mind, appears to be shown in 
 Aristotle, quoted by Bayle ; where the 
 Stagirite, comparing the theories of the 
 Athenian and Ionian philosophers, says, 
 (in Metaphysic. i. 7, p. 651,) that Anaxa- 
 goras considered matter to be in a state 
 of rest, till Mind put it into motion ; 
 while Plato conceived matter to have 
 421 
 
 originally an irregular motion, until God 
 gave it a regular one." * 
 
 Amongst much that is absurd in his 
 opinions, there are mixed up some curious 
 discoveries of and approximation to truth. 
 Thus Anaxagoras asserted that wind was 
 produced by the rarefaction of the air ; 
 that the rainbow was caused by the 
 refraction of the rays of the sun ; and 
 that the moon is an opaque body en- 
 lightened by the sun, and has mountains 
 and valleys. The last notion is, how- 
 ever, attributed to Xenophanes by Cicero, 
 (Academ. ii.) but Plato, in Apolog. ss 10, 
 agrees with Diogenes in giving it to 
 Anaxagoras. Respecting the celebrated 
 doctrine, adopted by Euripides in the 
 Orestes, and rejected by Socrates, that 
 the sun is a mass of heated stone, Bayle 
 wonders at Charjjentier for explaining 
 fjLvdpov by a liery mass of iron. The 
 fact is, Bayle did not remember that 
 fj.v8pos always conveys the idea of iron- 
 stone, or even iron itself, but not stone 
 simply ; and it is fair to infer that the 
 origin of the theory is to be traced to 
 the fact of Anaxagoras finding meteoric 
 stones to be really masses of iron, which, 
 coming as he conceived from the svm, 
 proved not only that luminary to be 
 itself a globe of ignited fire-stone, but 
 that large masses of matter were made 
 up of homogeneous smaller particles. No 
 less ridicule has been thrown on the 
 prediction of Anaxagoras, touching the 
 fall of a meteoric stone, that is said to 
 have taken place at iEgos Potamos. Now 
 Damachus, (or Lamachus rather,) quoted 
 by Plutarch in Lysander, testifies that 
 previous to the fall of the stone, there 
 was seen (simultaneous with the appear- 
 ance of a comet, according to Pliny 
 and Plutarch,) for many days a large 
 mass of fiery matter, assuming the ap- 
 pearance of falling stars, a circumstance 
 
 * Lucian, In Timon . ss. 11 , makes Jupiter say that 
 "he hurled his thunder against Anaxagoras, be- 
 cause he had endeavoured to persuade the world 
 there were no gods ; and though he missed his aim, 
 in consequence of Pericles interposing his arm, yet 
 tlie bolt struck the temple of Castor and PoUux, 
 and set it on fire :" a circumstance to which allusion 
 is made in The Clouds of Aristophanes, written 
 while Anaxagoras was at Athens ; and from whence 
 we learn that it was not the temple of the Twins, 
 but of Jupiter himself that was struck. Lucian, 
 however, is not the only person of past times, who 
 saw this tendency of the doctrines of Anaxagoras. 
 Socrates, according to Xeiiophon, (Memorab. iv.) 
 rejected them, as physically false, and according to 
 Plato, (PhEEdon. p. 72,) as morally useless: and yet 
 in the face of this opposition to the fundamental 
 doctrines of Anaxagoras, Socrates has been num- 
 bered amongst his pupils on the authority of Ari- 
 stides, who (in iii. p. 218. Cant.) has converted 
 SwKpuTef, which he found in Platon. Alcibiad. i, 
 p. 118, into 6 SwKparrjs'. 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 that would furnish ground for conjecture 
 
 as to the reasons which led him to make 
 
 this prediction.* The last curious point in 
 
 the history of Anaxagoras is that he was 
 
 the first to find in the poems of Homer 
 
 a manual of moral philosophy, which, in 
 
 the words of Horace — 
 
 " Quid pulchrum sit et utile, quid non 
 Plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore dicit." 
 
 His remains, chiefly preserved in the 
 pages of Simplicius' commentary on Ari- 
 stotle's Physics, have been collected by 
 Schaubach, Lips. 1827, who conceives 
 that Anaxagoras did not go to Athens 
 till he was forty-five ; and would therefore 
 change k into fi, in the passage of Diogenes. 
 
 To those who desire to examine at length 
 into the opinions of Anaxagoras, Brucker 
 and Tenneman will afford ample refer- 
 ences for the pui-pose of their inquiries. 
 See also Mosheim's notes to his trans- 
 lation of Cudworth's Intellectual System, 
 i. 212 — 220. A short summary of his 
 notions is given in Tenneman's Abridge- 
 ment, ti'anslated by Johnson ; and refer- 
 ences to many monographs respecting 
 his doctrine of the homogeneous consti- 
 tuent elements of matter (ra Sfioiofifpr]) 
 will also be found there. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, the name of an 
 orator, the disciple of Isocrates; and of a 
 grammarian, the disciple of Zenodotus ; 
 and of a sculptor, born at JEg'ma, who 
 executed the statue of Jupiter, raised by 
 the Greeks at Elis, after the battle of 
 Platffia : he wi'ote a treatise on scene- 
 painting, mentioned by Vitruvius, in 
 which it seems that the chief rules of 
 perspective are set forth. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANAXANDRIDES, (died b. c. 515,) 
 son of Leon, ascended the throne of 
 Sparta b. c. 550. Having no children by 
 his first wife, he married a second, of 
 whom was born Cleomenes, his successor. 
 His first wife shortly afterwards bore 
 children, the youngest of which was the 
 celebrated Leonidas. Anaxandrides was 
 successful in war against the Tegeates. 
 Several of his apophthegms have been 
 preserved by Plutarch. 
 
 ANAXANDRIDES, the son of Anax- 
 ander, was born at Rliodes, or, as some 
 say, Colophon ; and flourished as a comic 
 writer during the time of Philip of Ma- 
 cedon. Pie wrote sixty-five plays, ten 
 of which got the prize. The titles and 
 fragments of twenty-eight have been pre- 
 served, and are peidiaps all that outlived 
 him ; for when he grew old, he tore up his 
 
 * Of which we can only make a guess ; for it 
 appears from Plutarch [in Nic. p. 538, Xyl.) that he 
 kept some of his doctrines secret. 
 122 
 
 unsuccessful pieces, and sent them, as we 
 learn from Athenseus, ix. p. 374, ven- 
 dentes tlius et odores; or, in modern phrase, 
 to the butter-shop. He was tall and 
 handsome, and the very pink of an Athe- 
 nian beau ; and used to read portions of 
 his successful plays in public, while rid- 
 ing on horseback. He was the first to 
 introduce subjects of female seduction on 
 the stage, and was particularly severe on 
 the philosophers, especially Plato, who 
 was no friend to the fair sex. Having 
 libelled the government, he was con- 
 demned to be starved to death, an inci- 
 dent to which Ovid is thought to allude 
 in Ibis, v. 52,3. 
 
 " Deprived of food, may starving be my fate, 
 Like his whose satire lashed the Athenian state." 
 
 Of the libels alluded to, a specimen 
 has been preserved, where he parodied 
 the line of Euripides, 
 
 " Nature, which knows no law, will have it so," 
 by saying, 
 " The state, which knows no law, will have it so." 
 
 Aristotle has twice quoted a fine senti- 
 ment of his : 
 
 " Glorious it is to yield one's breath. 
 Ere one has done what merits death." 
 
 His name is sometimes confouaded 
 with Alexandrides, a prose v/riter, as 
 remarked by Fabricius. 
 
 ANAXARCHUS OF ABDERA, one 
 of the preceptors of Alexander the Great, 
 or rather, as Lucian says, of his parasites ; 
 for when the prince in a passion killed 
 Clitus, he had the baseness to say that 
 " kings, like the gods, could do no 
 wrong." He could, however, in his cha- 
 racter of court-jester reprove the vanity 
 of the so-called son of Amnion ; for when 
 he saw blood trickling from a wound 
 Alexander had received, he said, quoting 
 a passage from Homer : 
 
 " This is not ichor such as flows from gods." 
 
 Although fond of pleasure, he coiild 
 endure pain with fortitude. Being once 
 asked by Alexander, what he thought of a 
 feast, at which he was present, he re- 
 plied, "it was excellent, and only wanted 
 the head of Nicocreon as a dainty." This 
 so enraged the satrap of Egypt, that when, 
 after the death of Alexander, he got 
 Anaxarchus into liis power, he poimded 
 him in a mortar ; whereupon the philoso- 
 pher kejit crying out, " Pound away the 
 sack of Anaxarchus ; himself you cannot 
 bruise :" a story to which allusion is made 
 by Ovid in Ibis. 
 
 " Aut ut Anaxarchus pila moriaris in alta, 
 Jactaque pro solitis frugibus ossa soncnt." 
 
ANA 
 
 ANA 
 
 Menage on Diogen. 1. ix. 58, and 
 Luzac in Lectiones Atticse, have col- 
 lected all that is known of Anaxarchus. 
 ANAXILAUS I., king of Rhegium, 
 the descendant in the fomlh generation 
 ft-om Alcidamidas of Messene. After the 
 capture of Ira, (b. c. 625,) he drew a 
 number of Messenians, that were un- 
 willing to submit to Lacedeemon, to his 
 capital. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANAXILAUS II. (died b.c. 476,) de- 
 scendant of the preceding, son of Crete- 
 neus, succeeded to the chief power at 
 Rhegium, b. c. 494. He drove the Sa- 
 mians from Zancle, in Sicily ; and having 
 colonized it, gave it the name of Messina, 
 after having, according to Herodotus, 
 (vi. 23,) persuaded them to seize on it 
 three years before his accession to the 
 throne. He engaged the Carthaginians 
 to make war on Gelon and Theron, who 
 had banished his father-in-law Terillus, 
 tyrant of Himera. Pausanias confoimds 
 him with the preceding. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANAXILAUS, a Pythagorean philo- 
 sopher and physician, born at Larissa ; 
 accused of practising magic, and banished 
 from Rome and Italy by Augustus, 
 (Euseb. Chron. ad Olymp. clxxxviii.) 
 He seems to have been considered a ma- 
 gician on account of his superior skill in 
 what may be called " natural magic," of 
 which he used to give specimens by per- 
 forming certain wouderftd tricks, {naiyvia, 
 Epiphan. adv. Hseres. lib. i. torn. iii. 
 Heer. 14 ; " ludicra," S. Iren. lib. i. cap. 
 4.) Some of these are recorded by 
 Pliny ; e. g. he used to make all the per- 
 sons in a room appear as pale as ghosts, 
 by means of the fumes of some sulphur, 
 to which he set light, (Hist. Nat. lib. 
 XXXV. cap. 15 ;) he said that if a tree 
 were wrapped roimd with asbestos (which 
 Pliny calls a sort of flax,) it might be 
 cut down without any noise, as the sound 
 of the strokes of the axe would be en- 
 tirely drowned, (Hist. Nat. lib. xix. cap. 
 1. See also Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xxviii. 
 cap. 11, and lib. xxxii. cap. 10.) 
 
 ANAXIMANDER OF MILETUS, a 
 pupil of Thales, was born about b. c. 610, 
 and died at the age of sixty-fom\ He was 
 the first to prove the earth was a sphere, 
 and to construct globes and maps, and as 
 some say, sun-dials. He conceived mat- 
 ter to be infinite, and, as a whole, inva- 
 riable, although variable in its parts. 
 The least intelligible portion of his theory 
 is that to which Cicero refers in N. D. 
 i. 10, who says that Anaximander thought 
 " there were native gods of the east and 
 west, (or, it mav be, rising and scttine,) 
 423 
 
 and separated from each other by a long 
 interval, and that there were innumerable 
 worlds." Of his theory we should have 
 known more had his own summary been 
 preserved, which appears to have been 
 extant in the time of ApoUodorus. An- 
 other person of the same name and place 
 wrote a history in the Ionic dialect, and 
 a commentary on the Symbols of Pytha- 
 goras. He flourished in the time of 
 Artaxerxes Mnemon. 
 
 ANAXIMENES OF MILETUS, the 
 son of Eurystratus, and a contemporary of 
 Anaximander. He conceived the air to 
 be difftised through all space, and to be 
 the active power of creation ; and that 
 water, earth, and fire, were only difterent 
 modifications of air resulting from ex- 
 pansion and contraction. 
 
 ANAXIMENES OF LAMPSACUS, 
 was the son of Aristocles, and a disciple of 
 Diogenes, the Cynic. He is said to have 
 been one of the preceptors of Alexander 
 the Great, and to have accompanied him 
 in his eastern exjocdition ; during which 
 he contrived to save his native place from 
 destruction by the following act of clever- 
 ness. The city had sided with the Persians, 
 and Alexander threatened, as soon as he 
 entei'ed it, to lay it in ashes. To pre- 
 vent the execution of the threat, he was 
 sent as a suppliant to the conqueror : 
 who, when he saw him, and guessing the 
 purport of his visit, swore that he would 
 not grant his request ; whereupon Anaxi- 
 nienes requested him to desti'oy the city, 
 and not to spare a single person. The 
 prince, pleased with his presence of mind, 
 and imwilling to forswear himself, left 
 the place as it was. 
 
 ANAXIPPUS, a dramatist of the new 
 comedy at Athens, flourished in the time 
 of Demetrius Poliorcetes. The titles 
 and fragments of only four of his plays 
 have been preserved by Athenseus, Ju- 
 lius Pollux, and .^lian, Hist. Anim. 
 
 ANAYA MALDONADO, (Diego,) 
 boi'n at Salamanca, about the middle of 
 the fourteenth century, wtis first the 
 tutor of the sons of Juan I. king of Cas- 
 tile. The discharge of this trust pro- 
 cm-ed him the see of Salamanca. In that 
 dignity he founded a college for the gra- 
 tuitous mstruction of youth, and endowed 
 it with ample revenues : it is the college 
 of San Bartolomeo el Viejo. But he 
 had the misfortune to adhere to the 
 anti-pope, Pedro de Luna, by whom he 
 was made archbishop of Seville ; and 
 by the legitimate pope he was deprived 
 of his dignities ; yet in the end he was 
 restored. 
 
ANA 
 
 ANC 
 
 AN AY A, (Don Pedro.) See Annaya. 
 
 ANCANTHERUS, (Claude,) a learned 
 physician, historiographer to the empe- 
 rors of Germany, who floiu-ished at 
 Padua during the" latter half of the six- 
 teenth century. Many books enriched 
 with his manuscript annotations are pre- 
 served in the library at Vienna, in which 
 are contained also some of his unpub- 
 lished writings. Some Latin verses and 
 panegyrics from his pen have been 
 printed. (Gregoire, Annales Encyclo- 
 pediques: Sept. 1817. Suppl. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANCARANO, (Peter John,) an Italian 
 jurist and poet, born at Reggio, in the 
 early part of the sixteenth century. There 
 are extant from his pen several sonnets, 
 and a volume, Familiarium Juris Quaes- 
 tionum. Ven. 1569, 8vo. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANCARANO, (Gaspard,) a priest of 
 Bassano, who published in Italian, at 
 Venice, several hymns and poetical ver- 
 sions of parts of the Bible, during the 
 latter part of the sixteenth century. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANCARANO, (Peter, 1330—1410,) 
 a learned canonist of the noble family of 
 the Farneses, born at Bologna; wlio 
 having studied under Baldus, read pub- 
 lic lectures on law at Padua, Bologna, 
 Sienna and Ferrara. At the council of 
 Pisa in 1409, he distinguished himself by 
 his learning and eloquence, maintahiing 
 its authority against the schismatical 
 Popes Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII. 
 He has left commentaries on the Decre- 
 tals ; fol. Bol. 1581. Lectures on the 
 Clementines ; fol. Lyons, 1549. Ques- 
 tions in Jurisprudence, in 3 vols, fol. ; and 
 other works. 
 
 ANCHARARA, (James.) SeeTERAMo. 
 
 ANCHER, (Peter Kofod,) a Danish 
 lawyer, who having filled several impor- 
 tant posts in the administration of his 
 country, was made, towards the end of 
 the eighteenth century, counsellor of con- 
 ference. He has left a history of Danish 
 legislation from the time of King Harold 
 the Stammerer, to that of Christian V. ; 
 3 vols, 8vo, 1769, Copenhagen : besides 
 several elementary works on the juris- 
 prudence of his country. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANCHERSEN, (Peter,) a very learned 
 Dane, professor in the gymnasium at 
 Odense, in the island of Funen, during 
 the first half of the eighteenth century. 
 He has left Origines Danicse, 1747 ; De 
 Suevis, 1746; with several other pieces 
 on literary and historical subjects. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANCHIETA, (Jose de,) a Portuguese 
 424 
 
 missionary, surnamcd the Apostle of the 
 Netv World, born in 1533, in the island 
 of Teneriffe. At seventeen years of age he 
 entered into the society of Jesus; and in 
 1563, with six other ecclesiastics, he 
 accompanied into Brazil Dom Duarte 
 de Acosta, second governor-general of that 
 vast region. After many labours, he 
 founded a college at Piratiningua, — the 
 first that Brazil had seen. One of his 
 objects was to rear native ecclesiastics, 
 in order to accelerate the progress of the 
 christian ftiith. The college took the 
 name of St. Paul, and so did the town 
 which gradually rose near it. In its 
 origin it was a rude hut, which served for 
 school, infirmary, dormitory, refectory, 
 and kitchen. But here the good father 
 taught Latin, and here he learned the 
 language of the people. In that lan- 
 guage he was soon able to compile a 
 grammar and dictionary for the use of 
 future missionaries. To the barbarous 
 natives he gave his days and nights ; he 
 was their teacher in the arts ot life, as 
 well as in religion ; he was their physi- 
 cian and surgeon. Encouraged by the 
 governor - general, he sometimes made 
 extensive tours into the interior, every 
 where endeavouring to destroy the horri- 
 ble custom of eating human flesh. In 
 concert with his fellow-labourer Nobrega, 
 he was often the advocate for peace be- 
 tween the natives and the colonists. On 
 one occasion, at least, he obtained it 
 when the latter were in a perilous con- 
 dition : this was gi-anted to his character. 
 Another time, however, when he assisted 
 in the expulsion of the French from the 
 establishments which they had formed 
 near Rio Janeiro, he surely forgot his 
 apostoHc calling. He died in 1597, 
 leaving behind him a reputation seldom 
 equalled. (Southey, History of Brazil.) 
 ANCILLON,(David, 1617— 1692,) son 
 of a learned jurist, of the reformed reli- 
 gion at Metz. He was at first educated 
 there among the Jesuits, who attempted 
 in vain to induce him to join the Ro- 
 manists. In 1633 he went to Geneva, 
 where he studied under Spanheim, Dio- 
 dati, and Tronchin ; in 1641 he was re- 
 ceived as minister at Charenton, and 
 placed at Meaux, where he married a 
 lady of good fortune. The history of 
 this marriage is curious. It is said that 
 his congregation fearing that he would 
 leave them to go to Metz, endeavoured 
 by all means to induce him to stay. At 
 last they remembered that a Mr. Ma- 
 caire, a man of fortune at Meaux, had 
 said on hearing him preach, that he had 
 
ANC 
 
 ANC 
 
 an only daughter, wlioni Tie would gladly 
 niaiTy to M. AnciUon, should he ask her. 
 As he remained in the same mind, the 
 marriage was soon agreed on, and took 
 place in 1G49, the lady being only four- 
 teen years of age. In 1653 he was 
 called to his own country, where he 
 exercised his ministry with the highest 
 reputation, till the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes, 1685. He retired first to 
 Frankfort, and afterwards preached in 
 the churcli at Hanau, drawing very large 
 audiences, which excited the jealousy of 
 two of his colleagues ; upon which An- 
 ciUon retired to Berlin, where he died; 
 leaving behind him the reputation of a 
 man of great piety and rare talents as a 
 preacher. His library was very large ; it 
 is said that it was completely plundered 
 by the Roman Catholic ecclesiastics of 
 Metz, after the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes. Though a hard student, he has 
 only left a few works ; they are a Rela- 
 tion of his Conference with M. Bedacier, 
 Bishopof Aost ; Sedan,4to, 1657. An Apo- 
 logy for Luther, ZuingHus, Calvin, and 
 Beza ; Hanau, 1666. A Tast sermon, 
 entitled, The Tears of St. Paul ; and the 
 liife of Guill. Farel, or the Idea of a 
 Faithful Pastor. Some collections from 
 his Table Talk were published by his son, 
 the subject of the succeeding article. It 
 was published at Basle, 1698, 3 vols, 
 12mo, and entitled. Melanges Critiques 
 de Literature, &c. An edition at Am- 
 sterdam was printed with spurious matter, 
 which induced the editor to disown that 
 edition. The title of the Amsterdam 
 edition of 1706, erroneously attributes 
 these miscellanies to J. Le Clerc. 
 
 ANCILLON, (Charles, 1659—1715,) 
 son of the above, an able and learned 
 defender of the protestant cause. Hav- 
 ing attended lectures in civil law at Mar- 
 purg, Geneva, and Paris, (where he was 
 admitted advocate,) he returned to prac- 
 tise at his native city Metz, in 1679 ; 
 from whence he was deputed in 1685 to 
 court, to obtain an exemption for his fellow- 
 citizens from the consequences of the revo- 
 cation of the edict of Nantes. All that 
 he could obtain was that they should be 
 treated wiih some lenity. He followed 
 his father to Berlin, where the elector of 
 Brandenburg appointed him judge and 
 director of the French in that city. In 
 1695, having been sent on an important 
 negotiation to Switzerland, he gained 
 the confidence of the marquess of Baden- 
 dourlach, with whom he staid as coun- 
 sellor till 1699 ; when returning to Berlin, 
 he was appointed historiographer to his old 
 425 
 
 master, (iiow become king of Prui<sia,) 
 and superintendent of the French school. 
 He was the author of some publications 
 on the Revocation of the Edict of Nan- 
 tes ; of a Life of Soliman II. ; of the 
 Lives of about a dozen of his contem- 
 poraries, intended as a Supplement to 
 Bayle ; and of some other pieces, the titles 
 of which may be seen in Chalmers 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANCILLON, (Joseph, 1626—1719,) 
 younger brother of David, a very learned 
 lawyer, whom his fellow-citizens endea- 
 voured in vain to retain at Metz, after 
 the revocation of the edict of Nantes. 
 He found refuge with the rest of his 
 family at Berlin, where he died. He 
 has left one or two pieces on the Muni- 
 cipal Rights of Metz, one of which was 
 printed in 1698, 12mo. The celebrated 
 German author AnciUon, born in 1766, 
 at Berlin, of a French refugee family, 
 (Wolff,) is probably a descendent of one 
 of these brothers. He has written Ueber 
 Glauben und Wissen in der Philosophic ; 
 also, Zur Vermittelung der extreme in 
 der Meinungen, 1825—1831, &c. 
 
 ANCILLON, (Louis Frederic, 1744— 
 1814,) the author of some literary pieces 
 of considerable merit on sacred subjects. 
 Among which are, 1. Judicium de Judi- 
 ciis circa Argumentum Cartesianum pro 
 Existentia Dei. 2. Tentamen in Psal- 
 mo, 68vo. denuo vertendo. 3. A Dis- 
 course on the Rhetorical and Poetic 
 Beauties cf Holy Scripture, which re- 
 ceived the prize from the Academy at 
 Rouen. 4. An Eloge on Salmasius, 
 crowned by the Dijon Academy ; besides 
 several pieces in the Memoirs of the 
 Berlin Academy. 
 
 ANCINA, (Juvenal, 1545—1604,) a 
 man of versatile powers, and very gi-eat 
 attainments. He distinguished himself 
 in early life by his skill in mathematics, 
 and his facility in writing Latin verses. 
 Having studied medicine at Padua, he 
 was made medical professor in the uni- 
 versity of Turin. Afterwards accom- 
 panying the ambassador from the coiu"t 
 of Savoy to Rome, he applied himself to 
 the study of theology, and entered into 
 holy orders. In the year 1602, his mas- 
 ter, Charles Emmanuel I. duke of Savoy, 
 obtained for him the bishopric of Sa- 
 luzzo from Clement VIII. where he died, 
 leaving behind him the character of a 
 man of great piety and unbounded liber- 
 ality towards the poor. There are ex- 
 tant several of his compositions in Latin 
 verse, some of which are on sacred sub- 
 jects. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
ANC 
 
 AN C 
 
 ANCKARSTROM, (John Jacob,) a 
 Swede. He was of a noble, though not 
 of a very ilkistrious family ; and served 
 in the guards of the king of Sweden, with 
 the rank of captain ; but in consequence 
 of misconduct, he was dismissed the ser- 
 vice, and banished to Goethland. Some 
 writers, however, assert that he left the 
 army voluntarily, and was not dismissed. 
 He endeavoured to raise an insurrection 
 among the peasantry, but was vmsuccess- 
 ful. This regicide, who was by nature 
 gloomy, restless, and revengeful, could 
 not forget the treatment which he had 
 received ; and though the king had 
 granted liim his pardon, and even allowed 
 him to return to his native town, his re- 
 sentment continued so strong, that on re- 
 ceiving information of a conspiracy, 
 which was plotting by some nobles, who 
 were dissatisfied with the revolution 
 brought about by that prince, he offered 
 them his services to assassinate his sove- 
 reign. In the night between the 16th and 
 17th of March, 1792, GustavusIH. having 
 gone to a masked-ball at the opera, in defi- 
 ance of the warnings which had been given 
 him of the dangers to which he exposed 
 himself, was surrounded by a number of 
 masks, and wounded by a pistol shot, 
 which struck him between the right hip 
 and the spine of the back. The assassin, 
 says his biographer, had the precaution to 
 di'op a second pistol, and a kind of poi- 
 nard, with which he was armed, and 
 it was impossible to distinguish him in 
 the crowd. These weapons were taken 
 up and examined ; the pistol was loaded 
 with one round, and one small ball, a 
 quantity of small shot, and several nails. 
 The knife had a crooked point, and was 
 owned by a cutler in Stockholm, who de- 
 clared that he had sold it a few days bo- 
 fore to Captain Anckarstrom. In con- 
 sequence of this information, the regicide 
 was aiTested on the 18th of March. He 
 was several times placed on the rack, and 
 confessed his crime : but no positive 
 avowals could be extorted from him, 
 which would throw any light on the con- 
 spiracy. He was sentenced to stand for 
 two hours in the pillory, and to be whip- 
 ped in the three public squares ; the in- 
 strument of his crime, and a bill, in which 
 he was proclaimed a regicide, suspended 
 over his head ; lastly, to have his right 
 hand and his head cut off. This sentence 
 was carried into execution on the 19th, 
 20th, 21st, and 22d of April, 1792. 
 He bore all these tortures with unshaken 
 fortitude. It is asserted, when his body 
 was left exposed, according to the custom 
 426 
 
 in Sweden, to public view, that a note, 
 containing these words, 
 
 " Blessed be the haud which saved our country, " 
 
 was found every moi-ning in his hand, 
 and that the government ordered the 
 coi-pse to be removed in consequence. 
 
 Count Horn, who is said to have given 
 him the signal by which he recognised the 
 king, was banished with Col. Lilienhorn, 
 and Count Ribbing. No other pei-son 
 was executed. 
 
 ANCONA, (Andrea Lilio, or Lillio, d', 
 nella Marca, called also Andrea Anco7ii- 
 tano, 1555 — 1010,) a painter, born at 
 Ancona, was an imitator of the style 
 of Barocci, especially in colour. He 
 was employed with others, particularly 
 with Viviani of Urbino, in the works 
 which were carried on under Pope Six- 
 tus the Fifth : he remained in Rome un- 
 til the reign of Paul the Fifth. In that 
 city some of his works are the ornaments 
 of the library of the Vatican ; the frescos 
 of Moses striking the Rock, and Moses 
 with the Brazen Serpent, in the Scala 
 Santa, in the palace of St. John of La- 
 teran ; the archangel Michael driving 
 out the evil spirits, in the Chiesa Nuova ; 
 and in S. Maria Maggiore, is a fine 
 fresco of our Saviour washing the feet of 
 his Disciples. Ancona possesses several 
 of his pieces in fresco, varying in their 
 merit, as well as some of his oil pictures 
 at the Paolotti : in S. Agostino, and in 
 the Sacristy, some pictvires, which are 
 highly prized, from the life of S. Ni- 
 cholas. The most celebrated is his Mar- 
 tyrdom of S. Lorenzo, in the church of 
 St. Catherine ; but his greatest work is 
 the altar-piece in the Duomo at Fano, re- 
 presenting all the saints, containing a 
 vast number of figures, well grouped and 
 well contrasted, and if not very coiTectly 
 designed, still possessing Barocci's tone of 
 colour. He is sometimes called Ancona, 
 and sometimes Anconitano, whence it is 
 erroneously supposed that they were two 
 artists. (Bryan's Diet. Lanzi, Stor. 
 Pitt. ii. 131.) 
 
 ANCONA, (Cardinal d',) See Accoi-ti. 
 
 ANCORA, (Gaetano d', 1751—1816,) 
 a Neapolitan antiquary of considerable 
 reputation. He was the son of a wealthy 
 merchant, and received a liberal educa- 
 tion. At eighteen he was honoured with 
 a professorship in the military academy. 
 At an early age also he found a patron in 
 Mr. (afterwards Sir W.) Hamilton, to 
 whom he dedicated his fii'st work — an 
 explanation of an ancient bas-relief, pub- 
 lished at Naples in 1778. The king was 
 
A N C 
 
 AND 
 
 so much pleased witli this performance 
 that lie hestowed on him a secretaryship, 
 which he held for thirty-eight years. He 
 did not, however, ahandon his literary 
 pursuits. In 1782, he published his 
 Memoria suUa Osservanza degU Antichi 
 del Silenzio ; in 1787, his Saggio sail uso 
 dei pozzi presso gli Antichi per presei'- 
 vativa dei terremoti, &c. He WTote also 
 on the Fables of Esop, on the Greek 
 Games, on Giants : a letter Sui Segni di 
 Virginita presso gli Antichi ; Philosophi- 
 cal Researches concerning Metallic Pro- 
 ducts of Calabria ; a Guide to Pozziioli ; 
 a work on the Sacred Lustrations of the 
 Ancients ; another on the Excavations 
 at Herculaneum and Pompeii. He was 
 invited to take a professorship at Wilna, 
 and on his refusal, the emperor of Rus- 
 sia ordered liis name to be entered as 
 honorary professor. On the return of 
 Ferdinand in 1815, d'Ancora was named 
 secretary of the commission of public in- 
 struction, but his health obliged him to 
 relinquish it almost immediately. He 
 appears to have been much respected 
 and beloved. (Vaccolini in Tipaldo's 
 Biografia, ii. 382.) 
 
 ANCOURT. See D'Ancourt. 
 
 ANCRE, (Concini Concino, Marechal 
 de,) the son of a notary of Florence, 
 who havhig married Leonore Galiga'i, 
 the daughter of the nurse of Mary de 
 Medicis, accompanied that princess to 
 France in 1600, and gradually rose to 
 the highest offices of state during the 
 feeble minority which succeeded the 
 death of Henry IV. He acquired im- 
 mense wealth ; the hatred of the nobles 
 having raised an insurrection, he levied 
 7000 men at his own charges for the 
 maintenance of his power. The in- 
 solence with which he treated Louis 
 XIII. becoming at last intolerable to the 
 young prince, he contrived a plan for 
 Ancre's assassination, which took effect 
 on the 24th of April, 1G17, His body 
 was disinten-ed by the populace, and 
 treated with the utmost indignity. His 
 wife was tried on a charge of being a 
 Jewess and a sorceress ; some Hebrew 
 books found in her cabinet being deemed 
 a sufficient explanation of the extra- 
 ordinary influence she had acquired over 
 the queen : when questioned on this sub- 
 pect she replied, " My magic is only the 
 power which strong minds must ever of 
 right exercise over weak ones." She 
 was, however, condemned to be bm'nt, a 
 fate which she met with calmness and 
 fortitude. She had made herself many 
 enemies by her haughtiness and her 
 427 
 
 caprice, but her chief crime was probably 
 the extraordinary wealth acquired by her 
 husband. Their son was declared igno- 
 ble and incapable of holding any situa- 
 tion. 
 
 ANGUS, (Martius, died b.c. 617,) son 
 of Numa's daughter Pompilia, succeeded 
 Tullius Hostilius as fourth king of Rome, 
 B. c. 641. This is not a place to enter 
 into the disputed questions relating to 
 the Roman kings. The story of Ancus 
 Martius, as told in the common histories 
 of Rome, amoimts to this. His con- 
 quests extended to the mouth of the 
 Tiber, where he established a colony 
 under the name of Ostia : the inhabitants 
 of the vanquished district were transferred 
 to the capital, where lands were assigned 
 to them on the Aventine, without the 
 walls, and certain civic rights conferred, 
 wliich laid the foundation of the plebes, 
 or commonalty of Rome. He built the 
 Pons Sublicius, (a wooden structure re- 
 paired from time to time by the Ponti- 
 fices,) which lasted till b.c. 23, and the 
 prison between the Capitol and the Fonnn. 
 He is said also to liave dug salt pits, and 
 by distributing the salt to the people, to 
 have originated the benefactions known 
 afterwards under the name of Conginria. 
 The aqueduct called the Aqua Martia, 
 and the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, are 
 also attributed to him. (Livv, i. 32 — 35. 
 Dion.iii. 9. Flor. i.4. Virg. ^n. 6, 815.) 
 
 ANCWITZ, (Comit, 1750—1794,) a 
 Pole of noble family and considerable 
 abilities, who in 1793 signed, as minister 
 plenipotentiary of Stanislaus, the treaty 
 by which the partition of Poland Was 
 accomplished. Having received a pen- 
 sion of 30,000 florins from Russia, and 
 being named a member of the permanent 
 council, he took up his residence at 
 Warsaw, where, after some judicial forms, 
 he was beheaded during the insurrection 
 of 1794. His body was treated with the 
 utmost indignity by the populace, who 
 looked upon him as a traitor to his 
 country. 
 
 ANDALO, (de Negro.) See Negro. 
 
 ANDECA, the last Suevic king in Spain 
 (583 — 587), conspired against his prede- 
 cessor Eboric, whose head he shaved, and 
 wliom he consigned to a monastery. The 
 Suevi were not well affected to the Wisi- 
 goths, who had rendered them tributary ; 
 under Andeca they showed some impa- 
 tience of the yoke ; and Leovigild, taking 
 advantage of the dissensions among them, 
 marched against them, vanquished them, 
 and sent Andeca to a monastery too. 
 Thus ended the Suevic rule, about one 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 hundred and seventy years after the ar- 
 rival of Hermenric, the first king. 
 
 ANDEIRO, (Juan Fernando,) the 
 guilty favourite of Leonora Tellez, con- 
 sort of Fernando, king of Portugal. The 
 intimacy commenced in a tower in which 
 Andeiro had been confined by a friendly 
 order of Fernando ; and it was continued 
 to the close of the feeble monarch's life. 
 Nor was the injured husband insensible 
 of it ; but so much was he awed by the 
 superior genius of the queen, that he 
 had not firmness enough to vindicate his 
 honour. After the death of Fernando, 
 (1383,) he was assassinated by the regent 
 Joam, grandmaster of Avis, who two 
 years afterwards ascended the Portuguese 
 throne as Joam I. 
 ANDELOT. See D'Andelot, and 
 
 COLIGNI. 
 
 ANDERSON, or ANDREW, (Lau- 
 rence, 1480 — 1552,) chancellor of Gus- 
 tavus Vasa, and archdeacon of Upsal at 
 the period when Olaus Petri was spread- 
 ing through Sweden the doctrines of the 
 Reformation. He was a man of great 
 abilities, and he appeal's to have been 
 the chief person among the clergy of 
 Sweden by whom the new doctrines were 
 favoured. At Westeraas, in 1525, sccoikI- 
 ing the views of his sovereign, he induced 
 the assembly of the states to vote for 
 the reception of Lutherism, which was 
 almost immediately followed by the ac- 
 knowledgment of the king as the earthly 
 head of the church. Afterwards, being 
 accused of concealing some information 
 with regard to a conspiracy against Gus- 
 tavus, he was compelled to redeem his life 
 by the payment of a large sum of money ; 
 after which he retired to Strengnaas, 
 the town where he had in early life offi- 
 ciated as a priest. The vei'sion made 
 by him of the Bible was, according to 
 some, the first Swedish translation of the 
 Scriptures. Mosheim places that made 
 by Olaus Peti'i first. (Mosheim, cent. 
 xvi. sect. 1, c. 2. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDERSON, (Sir Edmund,) Chief 
 Justice of the Common Pleas in the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth, was boi-n of a 
 respectable family, originally Scotch, and 
 afterwards settled either at Broughton, 
 (Wood. Ath. Oxon.) or at Flisborough, 
 ( Lloyd, State Worthies,) in Lincolnshire. 
 He received his education at Lincoln 
 c )llege, Oxford, and the Inner Temple, 
 of which society, in the ninth year of 
 Queen Elizabeth's reign, he was both 
 Lent and Summer reader, and in the 
 sixteenth year of the same reign, double 
 reader. (Dugd. Orig. Jurid.) Three 
 428 
 
 years after this he was made queen's 
 seijeant, (Dyer,) and appeared for the 
 crown at the trial of Campion, in 1581, 
 (1 State Trials, 105.) In the same year 
 he was included in the commission, and 
 travelled the Norfolk circuit. Before 
 him, and the chief justice with whom 
 he was associated, was brought Robert 
 Browne, the founder of the sect of 
 Brownists, charged with " delivering unto 
 the people corrupt and contentious doc- 
 trine." By the exertions of these judges, 
 the turbulence of the sect was much 
 diminished ; so much so, indeed, that 
 Freke, the bishop of Norwich, wrote to 
 Lord Ti'easurer Burleigh, soliciting him 
 to obtain for them some mark of the 
 queen's approbation. (Stryjie, Annals.) 
 In the next year, Anderson was made 
 chief justice of the common pleas, and 
 in the following, knighted. In 1584, he 
 sat on the commission for the trial of Dr. 
 William Parry. He was, in 1586, one 
 of those before whom Babington and his 
 accomplices were ari-aigned; and in the 
 same year was nominated a commis- 
 sioner for the trial of Mary, queen of 
 Scots : he sat also in the Star Chamber 
 when she was declared guilty. In the next 
 year, he sat again in the Star Chamber, 
 when, by the queen's command, Davison, 
 the secretary of state, was aiTaigned for 
 having issued the warrant for the execu- 
 tion of the Scottish queen without Eliza- 
 beth's knowledge. In 1589, at Lincoln 
 assizes, he delivered two charges, in 
 which he insisted with much earnestness 
 on the unsettled state of the country, 
 produced by the machinations of dis- 
 contented dissenters. (Strype, Annals. 
 Lansd. MSS. No. 82.) A witness, by no 
 means friendly, has charged him with 
 having displayed towards nonconformists 
 a spirit, not only inconsistent with the 
 impartiality of the judicial character, but 
 deficient in christian charity. (Letter 
 in the Supplement to Strype's Annals.) 
 We, however, well knowing the perils to 
 which the church was in those days 
 exposed, from the inti-igues of the papists 
 and the disaffection of the puritans, must 
 pause ere we condemn as unnecessarily 
 severe, conduct, to which, under God, 
 the church is indebted for her preserva- 
 tion. Being one of the ecclesiastical 
 commissioners, Anderson was present 
 when John Udall, a puritan minister, 
 was brought before that body in 1689, 
 charged with having written a libel on 
 the discipline and constitution of the 
 Cliurch of England. The examination 
 was conducted principally by the chief 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 justice, who displayed more zeal than 
 discretion in attempting to -vvrest from 
 Udall a confession of the authorship of 
 the libel. This proceeding, however 
 repugnant to our notions of the adminis- 
 tration of law, was an ordinary practice 
 in this court. (1 State Trials, 1271. 
 Neal's History of the Piu-itans, vol. i. 
 p. 340.) On the accession of James I. 
 Anderson was confirmed in his office, 
 and was one of the commissioners at 
 Raleigh's trial. He died at London, on 
 the 1st of August, 1605. He is said to 
 have been a mere lawyer, and to have 
 had little of the statesman or man of the 
 world ; trying all things by the strict 
 rides of law, without suffering considera- 
 tions of policy or convenience to influ- 
 ence his judgment. (Lloyd.) He was 
 while at the bar an eloquent advocate : 
 his speech on the an^aignment of Cam- 
 pion appears to have excited considerable 
 notice at the time. If we may credit an 
 anecdote recorded by Camden, (Annal. 
 sub anno 1601, Lloyd, State Worthies,) 
 Anderson, when on the bench, could not 
 tolerate the affectation of logical subtle- 
 ties which characterised the speeches of 
 counsel in those days. When Cuffe, 
 Lord Essex's secretary, was on his tried, 
 the counsel for the crown accused the 
 prisoner in a string of syllogisms, to 
 which Cuffe replied with great acuteness. 
 The chief justice, however, checked both 
 prisoner and prosecutor, and angi'ily bade 
 the latter leave his logic for law. We 
 learn fi-om Lloyd that Anderson accu- 
 mulated a large fortune by the practice 
 of his profession. 
 
 ANDERSON, (Adam, 1692—1765,) 
 author of the Historical and Chronolo- 
 gical Deduction of Trade and Commerce. 
 He died chief clerk of the stock and new 
 annuities in the South Sea House, having 
 been connected with that establishment 
 forty years. He was appointed one of 
 the trustees in the charter granted for 
 the colonization of Georgia, (1732.) He 
 was also one of the court of assistants 
 of the Scots corporation in London. 
 The first edition of his work appeared in 
 1762, two vols, folio ; a second in 1764 ; 
 a third edition, in four vols, 4to, (the 
 fourth volume new; and by a different 
 compiler,) 1782. This work contains a 
 large collection of facts ; in the earlier 
 portion of it, however, use has not been 
 made of the best sources of information. 
 Macpherson's Annals of Commerce, four 
 vols, 4to, 1805, is nearly a reprint of the 
 last three volumes of Anderson's work; 
 that portion whicli treats of the history 
 429 
 
 of commerce to the fifteenth century 
 having been rewritten. 
 
 ANDERSON, (James,) brother of the 
 above, known among his acquaintance 
 by the name of Bishop Anderson, was 
 the editor of some Genealogical Tables of 
 Kings from the earliest times, and of a 
 Genealogical History of the House of 
 Ivery, also of the Constitutions of the 
 Freemasons. He was for many years 
 minister of the Scottish Presbyterian 
 chm-ch in Swallow-street, London. 
 
 ANDERSON, (Alexander,) born at 
 Aberdeen, was Mathematical Professor 
 in the university of Paris early in the 
 seventeenth centiny. He proved him- 
 self a great master of the ancient ana- 
 lysis by supplying, in his Supplementum 
 ApoUonii Redivivi, (4to, 1612,) what 
 Ghetaldi had left incomplete. It appears 
 that he was the friend or pupil of Vieta, 
 some of whose posthumous works he 
 published. The daughter of his cousin, 
 David Anderson, (also celebrated for his 
 mathematical abilities,) was mother to 
 Gregory, inventor of the reflecting tele- 
 scope, and great grandmother to Dr. 
 Thomas Reid. 
 
 ANDERSON, (Robert,) a London 
 silk-weaver in the middle of the seven- 
 teenth centm-y, who published two works 
 of some importance on the measurement 
 of the contents of vessels — (Stereometric 
 Propositions, 8vo, 1068 ; Gauging per- 
 fected, Bvo, 1669.) (Montucla. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANDERSON, (James,) an eminent 
 Scottish antiquary and lawyer, was the 
 son of a nonconformist minister, who 
 was at one time a prisoner in the Bass. 
 He was born at Edinburgh on the 5th 
 of August, 1662 ; was educated at the 
 university of his native place, where he 
 took his degree of Master of Arts on the 
 27th of May, 1680, (Chalmers's Life of 
 Ruddiman ;) and was admitted a writer 
 to the signet in 1691. Atwood, who had 
 been chief justice of New York, having, 
 in 1704, published a work, entitled The 
 Superiority and direct Dominion of the 
 Imperial Crown of England over the 
 Crown and Kingdom of Scotland, in 
 which, by the testimony of a variety of 
 documents, he had endeavoured to prove 
 that the kings of Scotland had done 
 homage and paid fealty for their king- 
 dom to the kings of England, as lords 
 paramount, and having mentioned An- 
 derson in such a way as would induce an 
 opinion that he agreed in this attempt 
 to degi-ade hiscoimtry, Anderson resolved 
 as well to relieve himself from this stigma, 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 as to vindicate the independence of hia 
 native land ; and accoi-dingly pnblished, 
 in 1705, a reply, under the title of An 
 Historical Essay, showing that the crown 
 and kingdom of Scotland is imperial 
 and independent. So highly was this 
 work esteemed, that the parliament of 
 Scotland passed a vote of thanks to the 
 author, which was, by their order, deli- 
 vered to him by the lord chancellor, in 
 the presence of the queen's high com-, 
 missioner and the estates assembled, 
 (Biron MSS.) ; the parliament at the 
 same time ordered Atwood's book to 
 be burnt by the common hangman. 
 Anderson having in the course of his 
 professional studies, as well as in the 
 preparation of this work, paid great 
 attention to the ancient charters of Scot- 
 land, and other muniments of a similar 
 charactei', resolved to publish a collection 
 of these, with fac-similes of the seals of 
 the Scottish kings. In this design he 
 was encouraged by the parliament, wlio 
 imdertook to defray the expenses, and 
 accordingly voted him for the purpose, 
 first 300/. and afterwards 1050/.; the 
 last of these two sums, it has been said, 
 was never paid. (Chalmers's Life of 
 Ruddlman.) The parliament further 
 recommended him to the queen, as a 
 person deserving her favour. For the 
 purpose of carrying his pi'oject into 
 execution, Anderson relinquished his 
 profession, and came up to London. In 
 1715, he was appointed postmaster- 
 general for Scotland, in which office he 
 was in 1717 superseded. Shortly after 
 this, he put forth his prospectus of his 
 work, Selectus Diplomatum et Numis- 
 matum Scotire Thesaurus, which, how- 
 ever, was not published until 1739, eleven 
 years after the author's death, which 
 happened through apoplexy, on the 3d 
 of April, 1728. In addition to the works 
 of which we have spoken, Anderson 
 published, in 1727-8, in 4 vols, 4to, 
 Collections relating to the History of 
 Mary, Queen of Scots. He was married, 
 and left several children. He was at 
 several periods of his life in the greatest 
 pecuniary difficulties, and care and want 
 clouded its close. 
 
 ANDERSON, (George,) a traveller, 
 born at Tundern, in the duchy of Sles- 
 wick, whose quick observation and 
 retentive memory enabled him to acquire 
 a vast fund of knowledge. During the 
 period 1644-50, he travelled through 
 Arabia, Persia, India, China, Japan ; 
 returning through Tartary, Mesopotamia, 
 Syria, and Palestine. Having entered 
 430 
 
 the service of the duke of Holstein Got- 
 torp, wlio endeavoured in vain to obtain 
 a written account of his travels, the 
 duke drew him into conversation on the 
 subject for an hour a day, the particvdars 
 of which being noted down by Adam 
 Olearius, who was concealed behind the 
 tapestry, Anderson was induced to revise 
 the manuscript, which was published at 
 Sleswick, by Olearius, 1669, in German, 
 folio. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDERSON, (John, 1674—1743,) 
 a learned German, educated as a lawyer. 
 Being appointed, in 1708, syndic of his 
 native city, Hamburgh, he was employed 
 in various negotiations in the principal 
 courts of Europe. On his return in 
 1723, he was made burgomaster and 
 cliief of the city of Hamburgh. His 
 Natural History of Greenland, published 
 after his death, with some account of the 
 author, was translated into French by 
 Sellius, in 1754. He has left besides, 
 Glossarium Teutonicum et Alemanicum ; 
 Philological and Physical Observations 
 on the Bible, (in German;) Observationes 
 Juris Germanici, which last remains in 
 manuscript. 
 
 ANDERSON, (John, 1726—1796,) 
 an English physician, the author of 
 several usefid works, and professor of 
 natural philosophy at Glasgow for forty- 
 one years. Tive editions of his Insti- 
 tutes of Medicine were published during 
 his lifetime. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDERSON, (George, 1760—1796,) 
 an English peasant, born at Weston, in 
 Buckinghamshire, whose mathematical 
 talents attracted the notice of Bonny- 
 castle. He was sent by Mr. King, vicar 
 of Whitchmxh, to Wadham college, Ox- 
 ford, and ordained deacon. Being, how- 
 ever, appointed to a situation in the 
 board of control for Indian affairs, he 
 rose to the office of accountant-general, 
 where his close application brought on 
 an illness, which in a few days termi- 
 nated his life. In 1790, he published a 
 translation, with notes, of the Arenarius 
 of Archimedes ; and in 1791, A General 
 View of the Variations in the Affairs of 
 the East India Company, since the con- 
 clusion of the war, in 1784. 
 
 ANDERSON, (James, 1739—1808,) 
 a Scotch farmer, born at Hermiston, near 
 Edinbui'gh. Being called at the age of 
 fifteen to occupy the land which his fore- 
 fathers had held for many generations, 
 it occurred to him that the knowledge of 
 chemistry would add to his skill as an 
 agriculturist. He therefore attended the 
 lectures of Dr. Cullen, whose friendship 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 was of service to him in the acquisition 
 of various branches of knowledge. In 
 1763, he took a long lease of a farm, 
 called Monkshill, in Aberdeenshire, con- 
 sisting of 1300 acres of land, that had 
 been veiy imperfectly cultivated. In 
 1771, his first puljlication (Essays on 
 Planting) appeared in the Edin])urgh 
 Weekly Magazine, under the signature 
 of Agricola. These were collected and 
 i-epublished in 1777. In 17S0, several 
 treatises having come from his pen, he 
 was made doctor of laws by the uni- 
 vei-sity of Aberdeen. He removed to 
 Edinburgh in 1783, and was employed 
 the following year by the government in 
 taking a survey of the western coast of 
 Scotland, with reference to the British 
 fisheries — a subject on which he had 
 pve\aously written. In 1791, he com- 
 menced the publication of The Bee, 
 a weekly magazine, which had great 
 success. Most of the papers that are 
 without a signature, as well as those 
 marked Senex, Timothy Hairbrain, and 
 Alcibiades, are by Dr. Anderson. In 
 1797, he fixed his residence near London, 
 where, in 1799, he began publishing his 
 Reci-eations in Agriculture — a periodical, 
 in which appeared for the first time the 
 theory of the origin and progressive 
 increase of rent, commonly distinguished 
 by the name of Mr. Ricardo. (See part 
 viii. p. 401, published in 1801.) Dr. 
 Anderson's writings are very numerous : 
 besides the agricultui-al articles contri- 
 buted to the Monthly Review, and some 
 articles in the first edition of the Ency- 
 clopedia Britannica, he has printed A 
 Practical Treatise on Chemistry, 12mo, 
 177G ; Essays relating to Agriculture, 
 1777; Observations on Slavery, 1789; 
 Letters to General Washington, 1800; 
 On an Universal Character, 1795; with 
 various pieces, a list of which may be 
 seen in Chalmers. See Gent. Mag. 1808. 
 ANDERSON, (Walter, D.D.) fifty 
 years minister of Chii'nside, in Scotland, 
 where he died in 1800. He has printed, 
 1. A heavy compilation, of very little 
 value, on the history of France, from 
 1559 to the peace of Munster, published 
 at intervals (1769-75-83) in 5 vols, 
 4to ; 2. The Philosophy of Ancient 
 Greece Investigated, a tolerably learned 
 and accurate work. See Gent. Mag. 
 vol. Ixx. 
 
 ANDERSON, (William, April 21, 1757 
 — May 12, 1837,) a painter of marine 
 subjects, was a native of Scarborough, in 
 Yoi'kshire, and remained with his parents 
 at South Shields till about tlie age of 
 431 
 
 fifteen. While at home he applied himself 
 so closely to drawing, that his father sent 
 him to London, and apprenticed him to a 
 painter ; but not being aware of the dis- 
 tinction between a painter and an artist, 
 he unfortunately placed him with a house 
 and ship painter. Though greatly disap- 
 pointed in his expectations, Anderson 
 diligently applied himself, during his 
 leisure hours, to painting pictui'es. At 
 that period it was the custom to ornament 
 the sides and sterns of ships with trophies 
 and figures, at which work Anderson 
 greatly excelled. He was thus soon 
 brought to the notice of several merchants, 
 for whom he painted portraits of their ships ; 
 and after being in business as a house and 
 ship painter for a few years, he, by the 
 advice of Ibbetson, relinquished his trade, 
 and commenced marine painter. This 
 he did without having had the advantage 
 of previously studying under any master. 
 During the late war, he was introduced 
 to some of the first officers in the navy, 
 for whom he painted ; but from his natural 
 difiidence he preferred retirement, and 
 resisted the efforts of his patron to bring 
 him into notice. He continued in com- 
 parative self-seclusion to advance in pro- 
 fessional attainments, by the exercise of 
 which alone he brought up a very large 
 family, and painted to the advanced age 
 of eighty years. He completed a pair of 
 pictures a few days before his decease. 
 He rarely exhibited his works, and then 
 only at the solicitation of his friends. 
 Mr. Dayes, in his Works edited by Mr. 
 Brayley, observes — " His style of colour- 
 ing is clear and bright, and his aerial per- 
 spective is well understood. The hand- 
 ling is clear, firm, and decisive ; but of his 
 works, the smaller pictures are by far the 
 best : some of them are of the very first 
 degree of eminence. Thovigh it does not 
 appear that his nautical knowledge is 
 equal to that of some of his contempo- 
 raries, yet in the other excellencies of 
 his line he goes far beyond them." 
 Notwithstanding the opinion of Mr. 
 Dayes, in preference of this artist's 
 smaller works, his pictvu'e of London 
 Bridge and the Shipping in the River was 
 one which conduced very greatly to his 
 high reputation. It was one of his 
 largest compositions. 
 
 ANDERTON, (James,) an able con- 
 troversial writer, born at Lostock, in 
 Lancashire, who published, in 1604, 
 under the name of John Brerely, a 4to 
 volume, entitled, The Apology of Pro- 
 testants for the Roman Religion, in which 
 he attempts to prove the truth of the 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 Romanist doctrines out of the works of 
 Protestant writers. It was answered by 
 Morton's Appeal, published in lOOfi. 
 The second edition of Anderton's work, 
 with answers to his antagonists, was 
 printed in 1608. It was translated into 
 Latin by Dr. William Reynes, in 1615. 
 A Treatise on the Mass, 4to, and The 
 Religion of Saint Augustine, 8vo, were 
 printed in Latin at Cologne in 1620. 
 (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDERTON, (Lawrence,) also a 
 Lancashire man, and perhaps of the 
 same family as James, having embraced 
 the Romanist faith, distinguished himself 
 among the Jesuits as a controversialist 
 and a preacher. He has left A Treatise 
 on the Origin of Catholics and Protes- 
 tants, Rouen, 1632, 4to ; The Triple 
 Cord, St. Omer, 1634, 4to. (Suppl. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANDERTON, (Henry,) an English 
 painter, who flom'ished about 1660. He 
 was a scholar of Streater, and afterwards 
 went to Italy for improvement. He 
 painted historical subjects, but princi- 
 pally portraits. By a portrait of Mrs. 
 Stuai't, afterwards duchess of Richmond, 
 he acquired the patronage of Charles II. 
 He died about 1665. (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ANDIER, engravei". See Desroches. 
 
 ANDLAU, (Peter of,) a writer on the 
 constitutional law of the Germanic Em- 
 pire, flourished in the latter half of the 
 fifteenth century. Of his personal his- 
 tory but few particulars are known. He 
 studied at Pavia, where he seems to have 
 in a great measure employed his time in 
 transcribing the works of the Roman 
 classics ; a specimen of these labours is 
 still to be found in the library at Stras- 
 burg, which contains a copy of Cicero de 
 Officiis and Terence, made by him during 
 his stay at Pavia. He took the degi-ee 
 of doctor of canon law at Basil, where 
 he was subsequently professor in that 
 department, head of the law faculty, and 
 finally vice-chancellor : he likewise filled 
 the situations of provost of the collegiate 
 church of Lautenbach and canon of Col- 
 mar. According to Piitter, he was of 
 high extraction, being allied to the noble 
 family of Von Andlau, who derived their 
 name and title from the town and castle 
 of Andlau in Alsace : it is, however, very 
 doubtfid whether our author has any 
 claims to such a distinguished origin. 
 In his work he always speaks of himself 
 as " de Audio Alsatice opp'ido agnomen 
 trahens :" on the other hand, he never 
 makes use of any stich periphrasis when 
 speaking of his patron {mi/ii inter 7nor- 
 432 
 
 tales colendisshni doimni) George von 
 Andlau, rector of the university of Basil; 
 nor does he anywhere claim relationship 
 with him. Considering the extravagant 
 praises bestowed by him on the German 
 nobility, and, amongst others, on the 
 house of Von Andlau, which he reckons 
 one of the four knightly families of the 
 empire, one may feel assured that if 
 Dr. Peter had really belonged to this 
 honourable race, he would not have left 
 the fact unnoticed. For other arguments 
 in support of this opinion, which the 
 limits of the present work do not admit 
 of being given, we refer the reader to an 
 article by Hugo in the Zeitschrift fiir 
 geschichtliche Rechtswissenschaft (bd. i. 
 p. 346). The work of Von Andlau on 
 the constitution of the German empire 
 is entitled, De Imperio Romano Ger- 
 manico, lib. ii. and is dedicated to the 
 Emperor Frederick III. The time of its 
 composition is not exactly known, but 
 as our author in one place mentions the 
 capture of Constantinople by the Turks 
 (a.d. 1453) as having taken place only 
 a few years before, and in another speaks 
 of George von Andlau, who died a.d. 
 1466, as still living, Piitter 's conjecture 
 that the treatise was written about the 
 year 1460, probably approximates to the 
 truth. It was first published, many 
 years after the author's death, from a 
 manuscript in the Heidelberg library, by 
 Freher, who added copious notes to it 
 (Strasb. 1603, 4to) ; and was afterwards 
 reprinted in the " Representatio Rei- 
 publ. Genn. sive Tractatus varii de 
 S. R. G. I. Regimine, (Norib. 1657, 4tc> > 
 In the Royal Library at Paris there is a 
 manuscript (No. 6030) of this work, 
 which is said to differ in many places 
 from Freher's edition. The authorities 
 on which Von Andlau relies, and which 
 he quotes very copiously, are, the Bible, 
 the Corjous Juris civilis et canonici, with 
 the glosses on them, and the golden bull 
 of Charles IV. A very cursory exami- 
 nation of the work is sufficient to show 
 that Von Andlau's exposition of the 
 imperial constitution, so far as it pretends 
 to be founded on history, is perfectly 
 erroneous. But in forming an estimate 
 of his merits we nmst keep in mind that 
 these historical errors, gross as they appear 
 to us, were for some centuries received as 
 undoubted truths, upon which a great 
 part of the constitutional law of the 
 middle ages was based, and that they are 
 errors not peculiar to him, but to be met 
 with in almost every writer of those 
 times. Considei'ed in this lij^^ht, this 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 work is well worth perusing, as affording 
 a good specimen of the state of political 
 science in the fifteenth century, and of 
 the manner in which his contempoi'aries 
 treated the subject. It may also be ob- 
 served, that though we find Von Andlau 
 adopting implicitly the erroneous views 
 of historical events which were current 
 in his day, yet on the other hand he is 
 favourably distinguished by an acquaint- 
 ance with the ancients, and by an attempt 
 to imitate them, which is i-arely to be 
 met with in the writers of that pei-iod, 
 particularly in Germany. (Piitter, Litte- 
 ratm- des T. Staatsrecht, vol. i. Mag. 
 Encycl. vols. i. and ii.) 
 
 ANDLO. See Des Maeets. 
 
 ANDOCIDES, (the son of Leogoras,) 
 was born at Athens, b. c. 468, and 
 traced his descent up through Ulysses to 
 Mercury, the supposed founder of the 
 family of State-Heralds, according to 
 Hellanicus, quoted by Pseudo-Plutarch 
 in his Lives of the Ten Orators ; from 
 whom we learn that he was sent with 
 Glaucon to assist the Corcyreans, b. c. 
 432. Taylor, however, in Lect. Lysiac. 
 c. V. asserts that the biographer con- 
 founded the son with the grandfather, 
 mentioned by Thucydides, i. 51. On the 
 other hand, Rulmken, in Hist. Orator. 
 Grac. p. 47, conceives that the orator 
 was the admiral alluded to by the histo- 
 rian, and so does Dobree in Adversar, i. 
 p. 201. But neither Photius in Biblioth. 
 cod. 261, who evidently drew from the 
 same soiuxe as the Pseudo- Plutarch did, 
 says anything on the subject, nor does 
 Andocides himself in his speech on the 
 Mysteries, ss, 47, where he alludes to the 
 numerous victories gained by his family 
 while serving as generals. Be however 
 this as it may, it is certain that Ando- 
 cides was accused of being implicated in 
 the mutilation of the Hermae, that took 
 place just pre\dou3 to the sailing of the 
 Sicilian expedition. To the charge, how- 
 ever, of his escaping punishment by in- 
 forming against his own father, he gives 
 a flat denial ; although he confesses he 
 did lay bare the perjury of Dioclidcs, on 
 whose evidence many suffered banish- 
 ment or death, but who, through the 
 exertions of the orator, was eventually 
 executed for , his villany, as we learn 
 fi'om ss. 66. Previous to this period he 
 seems to have been a ship owner, and 
 probably a slave-dealer : at least he is 
 said to have carried to Cyprus a daughter 
 of Aristides, and a relation of his own ; 
 but being threatened with a prosecution 
 for the abduction, he sent her back again, 
 
 VOL. I. 433 
 
 but was thrown himself into prison by 
 the king of Cittium, enraged at the loss 
 of the lady. Escaping from Cyprus, he re- 
 turned to Athens, where he made him- 
 self obnoxious to the government of the 
 four hundred, from the part he took in 
 the affairs of Samos, as may be inferred 
 from the speech on his Return from 
 Exile, s. 77 ; while dui-ing the reign of 
 the thirty tjTants, he withdrew to Elis. 
 After their expulsion, he once more re- 
 turned to his country, where he held dif- 
 ferent public offices in succession, and all 
 with credit to himself. It was at this 
 period that he excited the resentment of 
 Agyrius and his party, by exposing their 
 knavery as farmers of the revenue, and 
 by whom he was indicted for a violation 
 of the law relating to the Mysteries, and 
 other matters ; but as the acts with 
 which he was charged had been com- 
 mitted previous to the general amnesty- 
 bill passed on the expulsion of the thirty 
 tjTants, it is probable that Andocides was 
 acquitted. He did not,however, meet with 
 equal success, Avhen brought to trial for 
 the part he took in the peace, it is sup- 
 posed of Antalcidas ; in favour of which 
 his speech is still extant. For though 
 Dionysius, as we learn from the author of 
 the argument, considered it spurious, and 
 its genuineness is doubted by Harpocra- 
 tion, and it has been rejected by Taylor, 
 with whom Hemsterhuis appears to have 
 agreed, from the similarity of its com- 
 mencement with the exordium of the 
 speech of ^schines, Hept Hapatrp, and 
 its deviation from historic truth in attri- 
 buting the peace of Cimon to Miltiades ; 
 yet Valckenaer considered it genuine, 
 and so did Sluiter ; who was the first to 
 publish the manuscript notes of his illus- 
 trious countryman. With regard to the 
 result of the trial, both Pseudo-Plutarch 
 and Photius agree in stating that Ando- 
 cides went in exile, probably to Cyprus ; 
 where he says, in his speech on the 
 Mysteries, ss. 4, he possessed some valua- 
 ble landed property. Of the time and 
 place of his death nothing is known. 
 To the preceding accoimt it may be 
 added, if any dependence could be 
 placed on the imperfect oration of Ly- 
 sias against Andocides, that he never 
 served in any expedition. But that 
 speech has been rejected by Ruhnken, 
 Sluiter, and Dobree, and is evidently not 
 from the pen of Lysias.* 
 
 * May it not have come from the Phseax, to whom 
 
 Taylor has (probably without reason,) attributed 
 
 the oration of Andocides against Alcibiades ? The 
 
 arguments of Taylor, although acceded to by 
 
 F F 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 Of his style, Hermogenes says that it 
 is unconnected and indistinct, and exhi- 
 bits but little polish, and still less of 
 nerve ; while Herodes, as we leam from 
 Philostratus, conceived himself superior 
 to one of the ten orators of Athens — an 
 opinion in which the sophist is singular 
 in the eyes of Sluiter, who says that 
 Andocides excels Lysias as much in 
 strength as he yields to liim in art ; that 
 he attacks with vehemence and defends 
 with dignity ; is equally powerful in 
 melting the heart to pity, or firing it with 
 indignation ; and is in argument acute, 
 in diction pure, and of right Attic taste. 
 
 The few fragments of Andocides have 
 been all collected by Sluiter, who might 
 have refeiTcd the one quoted by Suidas 
 in 2Kav8i^, to the speech on the Peace, 
 and have inserted the whole passage af- 
 ter the word ajiapraveiv in ss. 32, and 
 here referred to Thucydides, ii. 52. 
 
 Andocides was first printed by Aldus, 
 Ven. 1513, from a manuscript, which he 
 says he obtained from Mount Athos, and 
 returned. It is therefore in all probability 
 the identical one, brought from thence 
 by tlie travellers Cripps and Clarke, and 
 sold to Dr. Burney, whose library was 
 purchased for the British Museum. Since 
 the time of Aldus, Andocides has been 
 reprinted in the different collections of 
 Greek orators by Stephens, Reiske, Bek- 
 ker, Dobson, and Schaefer ; and sepa- 
 rately by Schiller, who has likewise 
 reprinted, Lips. 1838, the Lectiones An- 
 docidcce of Sluiter, which appeared Lugd. 
 Bat. 1804. Schiller quotes also a work 
 on Andocides by A. G. Becker, and by 
 Osann ; but neither have been seen by 
 the writer of this article. 
 
 ANDOQUE, coimsellor of the pree- 
 sidial court at Beziers, where he died in 
 1664. He has left A History of Langue- 
 doc, down to the year 1612, foho, 1648 ; 
 and A Catalogue of the Bishops of Be- 
 ziers, down to the year 1650. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANDOUINS, (Diana d'.) See Guiche. 
 
 ANDRADA. Of this name are seve- 
 ral Portuguese. 
 
 1. Diego Pmjva de, (1528—1575,) a 
 theologian of Coimbra, who wrote some 
 controversial works. 
 
 2. Francisco, brother of the preceding, 
 historiographer of Philip III. king of 
 Spain and Portugal, wrote the history of 
 Joam III. king of Portugal. 
 
 3. Tomas, another brother, who ac- 
 
 Hemsterhuis, were successfully combated by Rulin- 
 ken and Valckenaer, simultaneously, but en dif- 
 ferent grounds. 
 
 434 
 
 companied Dom Sebastian in the disas- 
 trous expedition to Africa. A prisoner 
 and laden with fetters, he refused to be 
 ransomed. Why ? that he might continue 
 to console his fellow-prisoners ! In pri- 
 son he died (1582), after composing 
 a book on the sufferings of Jesus, — a 
 book said to be exceedingly, pathetic. 
 
 4. Diego, son of Franciso, (died 1660,) 
 a poet and critic of considerable celebrity. 
 In the former character he Avrote ten 
 books on the siege of Chaoul. In the 
 latter he criticized Brito's Monarquia 
 Lusitana, and established some canons, 
 which his countrymen would do well to 
 follow. He also wrote a moral work — 
 O Casamento perfecto. 
 
 5. Antonio, (1580 — 1634,) a jeiuit 
 missionary, whose zeal for the conversion 
 of the heathen led him from Goa into 
 Thibet and Tartary. Whether Marco 
 Palo had ever visited the former coimtry, 
 may be doubted ; but from his time there 
 can be no doubt that it had never been 
 visited by Europeans. The marvels 
 which he relates of it favour the sus- 
 picion that he uses a ti'aveller's license. 
 His relation was published at Lisbon in 
 1626. 
 
 6. Jacinto Freire de, (1597 — 1657,) a 
 native of Beja, who, though he wrote in 
 favour of the house of Braganza, was 
 patronized by the prime minister of 
 Spain, Olivares, Avho gave him the va- 
 luable abbey of Maria de los Campos. 
 On the accession of Joam IV. he was 
 invited to undertake the tuition of the 
 prince of Brazil, whicli he declined, and 
 with equal disregard of worldly advan- 
 tage, he refused the see of Viseu. He 
 wrote Latin verses ; a life of Dom Joam 
 de Castro, viceroy of the Indies ; and a 
 book on the Trinity. 
 
 7. Gomes Freire de, nephew of the 
 preceding, who wrote a history of the 
 Maraiion, which has not been printed, 
 but which ought to be. 
 
 8. Alfonso de, (1590 — 1672,) who, 
 though born at Toledo, was by descent a 
 Portuguese. Received in 1622 into the 
 order of Jesus, he lectured in moral 
 theology, and wrote several works, of 
 which the chief are. Lives of the most 
 illustrious Jesuits (2 vols, fol. Madrid, 
 1666) ; an Historical Itineracy (2 vols, 
 4to, 1657) ; and Meditations for every 
 Day in the Year, (4 vols, 12mo, 1660.) 
 
 ANDRAGATHUS, general of the 
 cavalry to Maximus, whose interests he 
 effectually served by putting Gratian to 
 death in 383. When Maximus was 
 defeated and slain in 388, Andragathus, 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 despairing of pardon, drowned liimself. 
 (Gibbon, 27. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRE,(Jean,1662— 1753,) a painter, 
 born at Paris. At seventeen years of 
 age he became a Dominican, and was 
 sent by his superiors to Rome, where he 
 studied not only divinity, but the finest 
 works of the great masters. On his 
 retiu'n to Paris, he painted many pic- 
 tures, principally devotional subjects, 
 which were placed in the churches of 
 that city. They are now, however, for 
 the most part scattered or lost. His 
 talents as a painter appear to have been 
 but moderate, yet they were held in 
 esteem by Lafosse and Jouvenet ; and 
 he was offered a seat in the academy, 
 an honour which he modestly declined. 
 Brother Andre lived to ninety-one years 
 of age. He numbered amongst his 
 pupils Dumont, called Le Romain, Chasle, 
 and Tar aval. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRE, (de Longjumrau,) bom at 
 a hamlet of this name, distant about five 
 leagues from Paris, early in the thirteenth 
 centiuy, is chiefly known by his missions 
 to the Tartars, and to other people in the 
 East, during the reign of St. Louis. 
 He was a Dominican monk, and is 
 mentioned by various authors of the 
 thirteenth century, particularly by Vin- 
 cent de Beauvais, Rubruquis, William de 
 Rangis, &c. (See the Histoire Litteraire 
 de France, tom. xviii.) 
 
 ANDRE, (St. Nicholas de, 1650— 
 1713,) a Carmelite monk, the author of 
 some antiquarian essays, chiefly on sub- 
 jects relating to Besan^on, the place of 
 his death, one or two of which have been 
 printed. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRE, (the Abbe,) editor of the 
 works of the Chancellor d'Aguesseau, 
 passed some years of his life in the con- 
 gregation of the oratory. He published 
 several pieces without his name, among 
 which are some Strictures on the Works of 
 Rousseau ; a Letter on the Missions of 
 Paraguay ; Extracts from the Writings of 
 M. Duguet, &c. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRE (Yves Marie, 1675—1764,) 
 a man of lively temper and great taste 
 ajid subtlety of intellect, the fi-iend and 
 coiTespondent of Malebranche, was born 
 at Chateaulin, in Lower Brittany ; entered 
 the order of the Jesuits in 1693. The 
 moderation of his sentiments and his 
 admiration of St. Augustine met with 
 no favour from his superiors. From 
 1726 to 1759, he held the king's pro- 
 fessorship of mathematics at Caen. His 
 Essai sur le Beau appeared in 1741 ; it 
 was reprinted, with hisTraite del'Homme, 
 435 
 
 in the collection of Iris works published 
 by the Abbe Guyot in 1766, five vols, 
 12mo. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRE, (le Petit Pere.) See Boul- 
 
 LANGER. 
 
 ANDRE, (d'Arbelles, 1770—1825,) a 
 political writer, who began life as secre- 
 tary to Count Stanislaus de Clermont 
 Tonnerre, with whom he emigrated in 
 1792, returning in 1798 ; he became at- 
 tached to Talleyrand, whose endeavours 
 in 1814 for the restoration of the Bour- 
 bons, he seconded with all his energies : 
 on the return of Napoleon, refusing to 
 take the oath of allegiance, he gave up 
 his employment. After 1815, his fidelity 
 was rewarded by his being appointed 
 prefect of Mayenne, and master of re- 
 quests. He died prefect of Sarthe, be- 
 ing trampled on by a runaway horse. A 
 list of his numerous writings may be 
 seen in the Suppl. Biog. Univ. One of 
 his brothers, Claude, who died in 1818, 
 aged 75, was named Bishop of Quimper 
 in 1801, but being a man of strict inte- 
 grity and unbending temper, he was 
 little fitted to sympathize with the new 
 regime ; he consequently resigned his see 
 in 1802. He was afterwards named 
 canon of St. Denis. Another of his 
 brothers was guillotined at Lyons in 
 1794. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRE. See Murville. 
 
 ANDRE, (Johann, 1741—1799.) A 
 native of Offenbach, who was celebi-ated 
 in his day as a musical composer. He 
 was in a measure self-educated ; his 
 mother, who was at the head of a silk 
 manufactory, wishing to educate him as 
 a merchant. The success of his first 
 opera. The Potter, decided his profes- 
 sion ; and, in 1775, he became the musical 
 director of the chief theatre at Berlin, 
 where he produced many of his pieces. 
 He afterwards returned to his native 
 country, and after living for some time at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Maine, he set up, in his 
 later years, a large music-shop in Offen- 
 bach. He was an author as well as a 
 composer, for he used to ^vrite or trans- 
 late from the French the words for his 
 operas and musical pieces. His songs 
 were highly popidar as musical compo- 
 sitions, and Wolff speaks of some of his 
 wi'itings as rather clever and epigram- 
 matic. A list of his works will be found 
 in Wolff's Encyclopjidie, who refers also 
 to Goethe's Nachgelassene Werken. Bd. 
 viii. p. 42. His works are of no interest 
 now. He died in his native place. 
 
 ANDRE, (Bardon.) See D'Andre. 
 
 ANDRE, (John,) a British officer, who 
 ff2 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 acted in tlic capacity of adjutant-general 
 in the army, under the command of Sir 
 Henry Clinton, during the war of Ame- 
 rican independence. The peculiar cir- 
 cumstances under which he terminated 
 his brief career have given an interest to 
 his name which it might have otherwise 
 failed to acquire ; and entitle him to a 
 somewhat extended place in this collec- 
 tion. John Andre was born in London 
 sometime in the year 1 750. He was the son 
 of a respectable merchant in the city, and 
 received the rudiments of his education 
 in St. Paul's school, whence he passed to 
 Geneva, at the university of which he 
 spent some time. Being of an active and 
 inquu'ing mind, he appears to have ap- 
 plied himself diligently to his studies, 
 and became in consequence one of the 
 most accomplished young officers of his 
 standing. His knowledge of mathema- 
 tics and of military drawing was likewise 
 extensive ; indeed he owed his rapid ad- 
 vancement in the service, (and for the 
 times in which he lived, his rise was 
 unusually rapid) mainly to the posses- 
 sion of the latter talent. 
 
 Mr. Andre's services, however meri- 
 torious, were of necessity such as to 
 attract very little attention, till Sir 
 Henry Clinton succeeded General Howe 
 in command of the English army in 
 North America. He was then brought 
 into situations of greater trust, and he 
 conducted himself in all of them with so 
 much zeal, diligence, and ability, as to 
 secure the friendship of the general 
 commanding, and the respect of the 
 whole army. At length, in the autumn of 
 1780, the delicate negotiation for the sur- 
 render of West Point on the river Hud- 
 son, the key of the position by which 
 Washington intei^posed himself between 
 New York and the Canadas began, and to 
 Major Andre was the task assigned of 
 conducting it. The circumstances of 
 the case were these : — 
 
 Major-General Arnold, an officer in 
 the service of the republicans, for rea- 
 sons which shall be explained, when we 
 come to speak of the individual himself, 
 became disgusted with the party to which 
 he was attached, and anxious to abandon 
 it. He wished, however, in passing over to 
 the king's standard, to establish for him- 
 self a claim on the gratitude of his new 
 master ; and with this view he undertook 
 to deliver up to Sir Henry Clinton the 
 forts at West Point, to the command of 
 which Washington had appointed him. 
 The business was one which required on 
 the part of such as shoidd conduct it the 
 436 
 
 utmost circumspection, as well as cou- 
 rage, and as Andre was conspicuous for 
 the latter of these qualities, and nowise 
 deficient in the former, he was selected by 
 General Clinton as the fittest person in 
 the army to act as his own represen- 
 tative. 
 
 For a while the plot Avas carried on 
 by epistolary correspondence only ; and 
 the better to guard against the risk of 
 detection, the coiTespondents wrote as if 
 they were engaged in some great com- 
 mercial speculation. Arnold took the 
 name of Gustavus, Andre that of Ander- 
 son, and a person whose house lay on 
 the neutral groimd between the outposts 
 to the two armies, acted as their mes- 
 senger. At length the rumoured de- 
 parture from Europe of a strong French 
 coi"ps, which was to give to Washington a 
 decided superiority in the ensuing cam- 
 paign, determined Sir Henry Clinton to 
 bring the negotiation in some shape or 
 another to a close ; Andre was therefore 
 directed to press the point more firmly, 
 and Arnold falling in with his views, 
 suggested that his correspondent shoidd 
 give him the meeting, during the tem- 
 porary absence of Washington from the 
 lines, which was expected to take place 
 on the 15th of September. 
 
 Arnold had been somewhat premature 
 in his anticipations of General Washing- 
 ton's departure. The latter did not quit 
 his head-quarters in the army till the 
 1 7th ; but Arnold had an opportunity of 
 warning his confederate of the circum- 
 stance, and no evil arose out of it. 
 Indeed the skill with which the plot was 
 conducted throughout had been such, 
 that no suspicion appears to have been 
 awakened on either side ; and Lad Ar- 
 nold been somewhat less headstrong in the 
 end, the same good fortune might have 
 attended it throughout : but Arnold was 
 not willing to commit himself beyond 
 the possibility of retreat, except after 
 a personal interview with Sir Henry 
 Clinton's agent; he would not therefore 
 entrust to the care of the ordinary mes- 
 sengers the documents which he had 
 prepared for the guidance of the English 
 in their attack. Accordingly, having 
 staid his progress a couple of days in or- 
 der that Washington might be well out 
 of the way, Andre took with him Colonel 
 Beverly Robinson, an American refugee, 
 who was in the secret, and embarking on 
 board of the Vulture sloop of war, steered 
 his course up the river. 
 
 There were several motives which in- 
 fluenced General Clinton to associate 
 
AN D 
 
 AND 
 
 Colonel Robinson with Major Andre in 
 this hazardous enterprise. In the first 
 place, it was through Colonel Robinson 
 that General Arnold had originally made 
 known his willingness to abandon the 
 cause of the independents. In the next 
 place, Robinson, being the owner of the 
 house which General Arnold occupied 
 as his head quarters, no excuse coidd be 
 far to seek in order to account for any 
 communications which might pass be- 
 tween them ; and last of all. Colonel Ro- 
 binson was regarded as a man singularly 
 prudent and circumspect, and as such 
 was not unlikely to keep under control 
 the more buoyant impetuosity of his 
 companion. It is just possible that to 
 an excess in this latter quality, tlie tra- 
 gical end of poor Andre may, in some 
 measure, be attributed ; but however 
 this may be, the two friends set out on 
 the 19th in the highest spirits. Next 
 day they reached fort Montgomery, a 
 redoubt five miles below West Point, on" 
 the same side of the river : and here, 
 just out of reach of the enemy's guns, 
 they cast anchor. Unfortunately they 
 had not calculated the effects of the ebb- 
 tide, which, in a short time, left them 
 aground, and so exposed them to more 
 than common observation by the Ame- 
 rican officer, who commanded at Ver- 
 planks Point. He tried his small guns 
 upon them without effect ; lie next sent 
 to General Arnold a request for some 
 pieces of larger calibre, and was very much 
 surprised that the cannon were refused. 
 No communication with the shore had 
 as yet taken place ; but the two British 
 officers, convinced that Washhigton was 
 gone, determined to make no delay in 
 opening it. Accordingly, Colonel Ro- 
 binson wrote such a letter, as could not, 
 if it fell into improper hands, do mischief 
 1o any body, for it related entirely to the 
 property which he had hastily abandoned, 
 and besought Arnold to grant liim an 
 interview, for the ostensible purpose of 
 making arrangements concerning it. As 
 fortune would have it, the letter in ques- 
 tion fell into Arnold's hands while lie 
 was in the act of conducting Washington 
 across the river ; and he, apprehensive 
 as the result proved unnecessarily, that 
 the circumstance might have caused some 
 suspicion, gave it to Washington to read, 
 and requested his advice. Washington 
 read the lettei', and returned it again to 
 Arnold, and in the liearing of those that 
 were by recommended that the meeting 
 for which Colonel Robinson had applied, 
 should not be granted. Nevertheless, 
 437 
 
 Arnold waited only till the next day, when 
 he knew that the general-in-chief must 
 be far advanced on his journey, and then 
 sent a person called Joshua Smith to the 
 Vulture, with two passports — one for 
 Colonel Robinson, another for Major An- 
 dre, and desired them both, in a letter, 
 of which Smith was likewise the bearer, 
 to come and settle their business with 
 him on shore. 
 
 It had never entered into the contem- 
 plation of the young men that a demand 
 of this kind would be made. They ex- 
 pected, on the contrary, to receive a visit 
 from Arnold, not to pay one to him, and 
 Colonel Robinson positively refused, let 
 the consequences be what they might, to 
 quit the ship. But Andre was more 
 daring. He would not, for the mere 
 piu-pose of escaping a personal hazard, 
 return to New York without completing 
 his business, so putting on a grey great coat 
 over his half uniform, he returned with 
 Ai-nold's messenger in the boat. He 
 was met by Arnold himself on the beach, 
 conducted to Smith's house, and was 
 there put in possession not only of all 
 the details of the plan on which it woiUd 
 be necessary to act, but with accurate 
 drawings of the fort, and of the several 
 roads by which the English troops were 
 to advance upon it. 
 
 The return of Washington to the 
 frontier was not looked for before the 
 27th or 28th of September. The inter- 
 val was to be used by Sir Henry Clinton 
 and Arnold in carrying their design into 
 execution ; and Andre was fully instructed 
 both as to the signals to be used, and 
 the facilities which would be afforded 
 for the advance of his own people, by 
 breaking the chain that ran across the 
 Hudson, and planting all the American 
 troops, where they must either submit or 
 be destroyed. Thus loaded with docu- 
 ments, the possession of which seemed 
 to obviate every possibility of failure 
 in the enterprise, Andre set out on the 
 following morning towards the shore, 
 which he reached only to discover that 
 the Vulture had changed her position 
 ui the night, and that the ferrymen to 
 whom he trusted for putting him on 
 board coidd not be prevailed upon to 
 foUow her. The truth is, that on the 
 previous day, the same American officer 
 who had applied to Arnold for heavy 
 cannon, and was refused, brought one 
 of his four-pounders to bear upon the 
 Vulture ; and that Colonel Robinson, 
 perceiving that she received some damage, 
 no sooner fouiid her afloat again, than 
 
AND 
 
 AND, 
 
 he caused her anchor to be raised, and 
 a new position taken up, several miles 
 below that where Andre expected to find 
 her. Disappointed by the obstinacy of 
 the boatmen, Andre returned to Arnold, 
 and entreated that he woidd force a 
 compliance -with their wishes ; butArnold 
 feared that there might be danger in this, 
 and declined to interfere. It woidd be 
 better, he said, that Andre shoidd lay 
 aside his uniform altogether, and return, 
 under the protection of a passport, by land. 
 The American accounts of the trans- 
 action go on to say, that Arnold would 
 have willhigly reclaimed, at the same 
 time, the plans and written instructions 
 with which, under very different circum- 
 stances, Andre had been entrusted ; and 
 that he urged a compliance with this wish, 
 as a measure of simple prudence. We 
 have the best ground for asserting, how- 
 evei-, that the statementis altogether incor- 
 rect. Andre had been especially desired 
 by Sir Henry Clinton not to encumber 
 himself with any papers or plans. He had 
 been charged, moreover, neither to lay 
 aside his uniform, nor assume a base 
 name ; but under the sanction of a flag of 
 truce, to come and go openly, as became 
 a British officer. Unfortunately, General 
 Arnold's persuasions induced him in 
 every instance to violate these instruc- 
 tions ; and the results were such as it 
 is our melancholy duty to relate 
 
 A great deal of unnecessary stress was 
 laid at the time, and has ever since been 
 laid by the Americans, on the fact, that 
 Major Andre, the better to secure himself 
 against interruption while returning to 
 New York, laid aside his military uni- 
 form, and put on a coat belonging to 
 Joshua Smith. The nature of a man's 
 dress makes no such distinction in these 
 cases as has been assumed. Whether he 
 had worn his own clothes, or the clothes 
 of Smith, Major Andre was in either 
 case a spy, that is to say, he had pene- 
 ti-ated within the enemy's lines, for the 
 purpose of negotiating with one of the 
 enemy's generals a piece of treason, and 
 unwisely endeavoured to regain his own 
 camp destitute of the protection of a flag. 
 But as there was nothing in the trans- 
 action which threw upon his name the 
 faintest shade of dishonour, so was an 
 adherence to the strict letter of military 
 law, by which, without doubt, his life 
 became forfeited, a procedure for which, 
 in these days at least, we find it hard to 
 frame an excuse. It is as well known 
 to the generals at the head of opposing 
 armies, that spies are continually about 
 438 
 
 them, as the degree of confidence reposed 
 in these spies respectively is known to 
 the parties by whom they are employed; 
 nor would any man now think of putting 
 an enemy's officer to death, because he 
 trusted himself on so hazardous a service, 
 and wore no uniform. At the period 
 when Major Andre lived, howevei-, a 
 different view was taken of the matter ; 
 every man knew that he had placed his 
 neck in jeopardy, the moment his am- 
 bition, or his zeal in the cause which he 
 served, urged him to undertake a mis- 
 sion of this nature. 
 
 There was a great deal of patrolling 
 over all the space of grovmd which lay 
 between the advanced posts of the British 
 army and those of tlie Americans. It 
 would have been imprudent, therefore, 
 for Major Andre to begin his homeward 
 joui-ney before dusk, and also to travel, 
 even at night, in the gai-b of an English 
 officer. He accoi'dingly exchanged, as has 
 just been stated, his uniform coat for one 
 belonging to Mr. Smith ; wliile the plans, 
 and drawings, and papers, which he had 
 received fi-om Aniold, he concealed in 
 his boots. This done, he and his host 
 set out ; but at Crompond, an officer of 
 militia, stopped them by saying, that 
 they could not go further with safety 
 till the morrow, and as they were not 
 willing to excite his suspicion, they 
 agreed to spend the night in his quarters. 
 Next day, being the 23d, the journey 
 was resumed. They crossed the Hudson 
 at King's feny, traversed all the Ame- 
 rican posts by means of their passports, 
 reached a village on the Croton, whence 
 the ground occupied by the English sen- 
 tinels could be descried, and believed that 
 their dangers were surmounted. Smith,* 
 therefore, wishing his companion fare- 
 well, rode back towards his home, and 
 Andre, nothing doubting of a cordial 
 welcome by his friends, put spurs to his 
 horse, and pushed forward. 
 
 He had proceeded some way, perhaps 
 about three or four leagues, — had come 
 again in sight of the Hudson, and was 
 about to enter the village of TorrytoAvn, 
 the last that interposed between him and 
 his own people, when a man armed witli a 
 gun, but not dressed in any uniform, sud- 
 denly sprang out of a thicket, and seizing 
 his bridle, demanded " whither he was 
 bound." Major Andre seems to have 
 lost at that critical moment the presence 
 of mind which was habitual to hun ; he 
 
 * J. H. Smith, who was accused of betraj'ing 
 Andre, published a defence and narrative of Andre's 
 capture. Lend. 1&08. 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 neither produced his passport, nor spurred 
 his horse, nor made any other eftbrt to 
 hreak away, but parlied with the man 
 till two others, armed like him, and like 
 him in the common dress of the country, 
 came up ; still it was not too late to pro- 
 duce the passport. Whatever the per- 
 sons before him might have been, no 
 harm could have residted from the dis- 
 play ; because if they were Americans, 
 he Avould have doubtless got rid of them ; 
 if English, they would have merely 
 led him as a prisoner to the point, to- 
 Avards which he was tending ; but these 
 obvious truths appear not to have oc- 
 curred to him, for he contented himself 
 by demanding in his turn, " Whence are 
 ye?" " We are from below," said they ; 
 on wliich Andre exclaimed, " And so 
 am I. I am an English officer on urgent 
 business, and do not wish to be longer 
 detained." " Oh ho," was the reply, "you 
 belong to our enemies, we arrest you." 
 The passport was now produced, but it 
 came too late. He offered them his purse, 
 his watch, any amount of ransom in gold 
 or dry goods, if they would permit him to 
 proceed; but they were deaf to all his 
 entreaties. To their immortal honour be 
 it recorded, a sense of duty was more 
 precious to their minds than any hope 
 of reward. They caused him to dis- 
 mount, examined his person, found the 
 papers in his boots, and carried him im- 
 mediately before Colonel Jameson, who 
 commanded the American outposts. 
 
 Major Andre's self-possession re- 
 turned with the assvrrance of accumu-» 
 lated danger ; and regardless of him- 
 self, he begged, with the view of saving 
 Arnold, that Colonel Jameson would send 
 to inform that officer, how John Ander- 
 son, travelling under the protection of 
 his passport, was detained. Colonel 
 Jameson not caring to entangle the busi- 
 ness too much, gave orders, at first, that 
 Anderson should be carried in person be- 
 fore Arnold ; but recollecting afterwards 
 that all the wTitten statements Avere in 
 Arnold's hand, he countermanded that or- 
 der, and sent him to Old Salem. And it is 
 a curious fact, that at the very same time 
 he acquainted Arnold of all that hap- 
 pened. With respect to Andre, he waited 
 only till he conceived that there would 
 be time for Arnold's escape, and then 
 frankly declared himself to be the adju- 
 tant-general of the British army. He 
 was placed in close confinement by 
 General Washington's orders, and a court 
 of inquiry met soon afterwards to inves- 
 tigate the case. 
 
 439 • 
 
 The result of the deliberations of that 
 court, which was presided over by major- 
 general Green, is well known. Major An- 
 dre was pronounced a spy, and as such 
 sentenced to sufi'er death : but we have 
 reason to believe that there is a circiun- 
 tance connected with the transaction 
 wliich has not heretofore come generally to 
 light, and we are therefore tempted to re- 
 fer to it. General Washington, it is well 
 known, was most reluctant to carry the 
 sentence into execution. To the remon- 
 strances and enti-eaties of theEnglish gene- 
 ral, he turned, it is true, a deaf ear ; but he 
 arranged a plan in private for the seizure of 
 General Arnold in New York, the success 
 of which would have enabled him, as he 
 expressed it, to restore the amiable and 
 unfortunate Andre to his friends. He 
 caused a sergeant-major of Lee's light 
 horse, by name Champe, to pass over as 
 a deserter into the English lines, and en- 
 tmsted him with the care of this impor- 
 tant business. Unfortvmately for Andre 
 the plan miscarried, and Washington 
 could no longer refuse to be guided by 
 the decision of the court. Andre was 
 condemned to be hanged, and even the 
 poor consolation of dying, as he termed 
 it, the death of a soldier, was denied him. 
 Andre suffered at a place called Taphan, 
 in the province of New York, on the 2d 
 of October, 1780. He walked to the 
 place of execution with perfect compo- 
 sure between two American officers, who 
 had charge of him, and wore his royal 
 uniform to the last. They buried him 
 beneath the gibbet ; but a few years ago 
 one of his countrymen caused his bones 
 to be dug up, and removed them to the 
 land which gave him birth. They are now 
 deposited in Westminster abbey, not far 
 from a costly monument, which had been 
 previously erected to his memoiy. An- 
 dre's poem, the Cowchase, was published 
 1781. Lond. 4to. 
 
 ANDRE, (Christian Karl, 1763 — 
 1831,) a native of Hildburghausen, who 
 appears to have laboured very merito- 
 riously in several situations connected 
 with the education of youth : — first at 
 Schnepfenthal (1785), — then at Gotha 
 (1790), as director of a ladies' school, — 
 and lastly, as director of the protestant 
 school at Biiinn. In the latter place he 
 published several works, especially con- 
 nected with education. He left the 
 Austrian states in 1812, and ended 
 his days at Stuttgard in an official em- 
 ployment. He was honoured by the 
 court of Wirtemberg in 1821 with the 
 title of Hofi-ath. Among his works may 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 be mentioned Gemeinniitzge Spazier- 
 gange, or, Profitable Walks, ten parts, 
 (in conjunction with Beckstein) 1700 — 
 1797; A Geographical and Statistical 
 Account of the Austrian Dominions. Wei- 
 mar, 1813. He was the editor of the 
 Patriotic Journal, Briinn, 1800 — 1805, 
 Hesperus, &c. ; and lattei-ly, of the Cor- 
 respondence of the Wirtemberg Agricul- 
 tural Society, of which he was secretary, 
 and of the German National Kalendar. 
 (Wolff's Encyclopiidie.) 
 
 ANDRE. See St. Andre. 
 
 ANDREA, (Giovanni, died 1348.) 
 The mistakes, the fables, and the absur- 
 dities which have usually made their way 
 into the biographies of this eminent 
 canonist, render it necessary to bestow 
 some little space in enumerating and 
 correcting the most impox-tant of them. 
 The leading events of his life will be 
 stated, and if they appear to differ from 
 those accounts which have usually been 
 given, the reader is referred to the ju- 
 dicious and indefatigable Tiraboschi, 
 whose authority has been followed. 
 
 Giovanni Andrea was born at Bologna, 
 from parents who were natives of Mu- 
 gello, in the territory of Florence, and 
 rather in easy circumstances. At the 
 time of his birth, which took place about 
 the latter end of the thirteenth century, 
 his father kept a grammar school at 
 Bologna, opposite the church of St. Bene- 
 dict in Porta Nuova ; but eight years 
 aftei", having obtained the living of St. 
 Maria de' Galluzzi, he took orders, and 
 at his own expense rebuilt that church, 
 which was in ruins. These notices must 
 suffice with regard to liis parents and the 
 place of his birth. 
 
 As to his education, (another source 
 of mistakes,) it is quite clear that after 
 having received from his father the first 
 rudiments of grammar, he went to the 
 school of Bonefacio, or Bonaccio da Ber- 
 gamo, and afterwards he studied civil 
 law under Martino Sulimans and Ricardo 
 Malombra, and the canon law under 
 Guido da Baijo. From him, Andrea 
 received the means of taking the doc- 
 tor's degree, which (it has been asserted) 
 through his poverty he was unable to do. 
 The words, however, Sub ciijus umbra 
 quiesco, et doctor sedeo, which he 
 writes in the beginning of his Decretales, 
 do not imply any assistance of money, 
 but, from what has been stated, they may 
 with more justice be referred to the in- 
 struction derived from him ; unless indeed 
 they be applied to the professoi-ship, 
 which by the interest of Baijo he obtained 
 410 
 
 not in Padova, but in Bologna. In 
 Padova he had kept a school before that 
 time, but was recalled to Bologna, where 
 he acquired the greatest reputation. In 
 1328, he was by Cardinal Bertrando in- 
 troduced to Pope John XXII., in Avi- 
 gnon; and when four years after the 
 cardinal was obliged to run away from 
 Bologna, Andrea was one of those who, 
 to protect him against popular fury, 
 accompanied him to Florence, but did 
 not remain there long ; for in the year 
 1337, when Taddeo Pepoli took posses- 
 sion of Bologna, he was one of the 
 ambassadors sent to Venice and Padova 
 to give information of the circumstance. 
 In the year 1340, he was a member of 
 the general council of Bologna, and as 
 after this year there is no mention made 
 of him till 1348, in which he died, it is 
 supposed that if he ever was professor at 
 Pisa, it must have been during this inter- 
 val ; and that on his return he fell a vic- 
 tim to the plague, which was then raging 
 at Bologna. He was buried in the church 
 of St. Domenic. 
 
 As to what has been related of his 
 having been made a prisoner on his return 
 from Avignon, and recovering his liberty 
 by paying six thousand florins — of the 
 poor opinion which Petrarca had of his 
 literary merit — of his immoral conduct 
 and natural children — of his pedantic 
 pride — and other matters of the same 
 kind, they must all be ascribed to a spirit 
 of detraction, arising, probably, from 
 envy. The honovn-able titles which were 
 bestowed on him of archidoctor decre- 
 torum, rabbi doctorum, lux, censor, 
 normaque morum, show at once the 
 public opinion of his learning and his 
 morals, which latter circumstance is also 
 confirmed by Volterrano and Filippo 
 Villani, who testify the austerity of his 
 life, and speak of his attenuation from 
 his watchfulness in prayer, and from 
 fasting, and sleeping on the bare ground 
 wrapt up in a bear's skin. 
 
 The story of his daughter Novella rests 
 upon no more solid basis. It is reported, 
 that when her father was prevented from 
 reading his lectures, she was accustomed 
 to supply his place, and lest her beauty 
 should engage too much the attention of 
 the students, had a little curtain drawn 
 before her ; and, lastly, that her father, 
 to perpetuate the memory of this daugh- 
 ter, entitled the commentary upon the 
 Decretals of Gregory "Novella," from 
 her name. This is a conceit worthy the 
 French woman who has ventm-ed to pub- 
 lish it, when, in point of fact, Andrea 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 gave the title of Novella to this commen- 
 tary, for the same reason as Justinian did 
 to tlie fourth part -wliich constitutes the 
 Corpus Juris, to supply and explain the 
 preceding books. 
 
 The works which have reached us of 
 this eminent canonist are, 1. Commen- 
 tary upon the Decretal, and the Sextus 
 Decretalium. 2. Commentary upon the 
 Clementines, and the Novellae of Cle- 
 ment V. 3, Additions to the Speculum 
 Juris of Durando, taken literally from the 
 Consilia of Oldradus ; and in the same 
 manner he has appropriated to himself 
 the book De Sponsalibus et Matri- 
 monio of Jon Anguisciola. 
 
 ANDREA, (Giovanni, 1417—1475,) 
 a native of Vigevano, whose family name 
 was Bossi, or Bussi. He is celebrated in 
 the literary world, as having been highly 
 instrumental in introducing printing into 
 Rome. He superintended the works 
 printed by Sweynheim and Pannartz, 
 and wrote the prefaces to them. The 
 Works of Caesar, Cicero's Epistles, Pliny, 
 Gallius Apuleius, and Jerome's Epistles, 
 Livy, Virgil, Cyprian, Ovid, &c. are 
 among the editions printed imder his 
 care. He was at first very poor, but 
 was afterwards made bishop of Accia, 
 and then of Aleia in Corsica. 
 
 ANDREA DEL SARTO, (1488— 
 1530.) This eminent painter, whose 
 name was Andrea Vannucchi, but who 
 was called del Sarto, from the occupation 
 of his father, that of a tailor, was born at 
 Florence, and having shown an early 
 predilection for the fine arts, was placed 
 with a goldsmith to learn the art of en- 
 graving on plate, and afterwards under 
 the tuition of Giovanni Barile. This 
 preceptor is by some called a mean 
 painter, by others an engraver on wood, 
 and by Lanzi, a " good carver in wood, 
 employed in the ceilings and doors of the 
 Vatican, after the designs of Ratfaello; " 
 but all agree in assigning him a low 
 standard as an artist. After remaining 
 with Giovanni three years, that painter 
 recommended Andrea as a disciple of 
 Pietro, or Pier di Cosimo, who was ac- 
 counted one of the best painters in Italy. 
 Lanzi, however, describes him as a 
 "practical colourist, but by no means 
 skilled in drawing or in composition ; 
 hence," he adds, "the taste of Andrea in 
 these arts was framed on the Cartoons of 
 Vinci and Buonarrotti ; and, as many 
 circumstances indicate, on the frescos of 
 Massacio and of Ghirlandaio, in which 
 the subjects were more suited to his mild 
 disposition." 
 
 411 
 
 In the school of Cosimo he exerted 
 himself with extraordinary diligence, and 
 it is said that he appropriated every 
 saint's day and festival to designing after 
 the works of Rafiaelle, Michael Angelo, 
 and Leonardo da Vinci, upon the style of 
 the latter of whom he ultimately built his 
 own. The progi-ess of Andrea del Sarto 
 was not marked by any extraordinary 
 rapidity or brilliancy ; his improvement 
 was rather the residt of sobriety of judg- 
 ment and unweai'ied practice.* 
 
 Quitting the school of Cosimo, in con- 
 sequence, it is said, of the morose dispo- 
 sition of that painter, Andrea formed an 
 intimacy with Francesco Bigio,with whom 
 he dwelt, and in conjunction with whom 
 he painted many works in the churches 
 and convents at Florence. He was engaged 
 to paint in fresco, in the cloister of the 
 church of the Scalzi, or barefooted Car- 
 melites, in that city, a series of twelve 
 pictures of the life of St. John the 
 Baptist, in chiar-oscuro, the cartoons of 
 which are preserved in the Palazzo 
 Rinuccini ; in which work, says Lanzi, 
 " we may notice some palpable imitations, 
 and even some figiu'es boiTowed from 
 Albert Durer." The same undisguised 
 imitation of that master is observable in 
 his Baptism of the Saviour. His next 
 great undertaking was the life of S. 
 Filippo Benizi, in ten pictures, in the 
 lesser cloister of the church of the Servi. 
 " In these," says Bryan, "the genius of 
 Andrea took a bolder flight, and they 
 are considered among the most graceful 
 of his works, though they were executed 
 when he was still young, and before he 
 had been at Rome." 
 
 At what particular period he visited 
 the "eternal city" is not known; but 
 Vasari asserts, that on his arrival, " on 
 seeing those works which had been the 
 object of his jouniey, despair of ever 
 being able to rival them affected his 
 timid disposition so much, that he made 
 haste to leave the city, and returned to 
 Florence." This story has been disputed, 
 because Andrea, in many of his works, 
 appears evidently to have imitated the 
 style of Rafiaelle, which he could scarcely 
 so well have done, if he had not taken 
 some time to study his works and pi-inci- 
 ples.f 
 
 * The remark of Lanzi, i. 131, that " this artist 
 demonstrates the ascendency of native genius over 
 precept," is much modified by the admissions he 
 afterwards makes of his gradual progress, p. 132. 
 
 t Lanzi, by a reference to similar traits of pusil- 
 lanimity in Andrea, and to tlie contemporary testi- 
 mony of Vasari, shov/s that there is probably some 
 truth in the account. 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 On his return from Rome, he finished 
 three pictures for the monastery of S. Salvi, 
 the suhjects of whicli were, the Birth of the 
 Virgin, the Descent of the Holy Ghost, 
 and the Last Supper. Speaking of the 
 latter, Lanzi says, " The soldiers who be- 
 sieged Florence in 1529, and destroyed 
 the suburbs of the city, undoubtedly 
 admired it : after demolishing the belfry, 
 the church, and part of the monastery, 
 they were astonished on beholding this 
 Last Supper, and had not resolution to 
 destroy it ; imitating that Demetrius, 
 who, at the siege of Rhodes, is said to 
 have respected nothing but a picture by 
 Protogenes." (See Pliny, xxxv. 10). His 
 most celebrated production is his famous 
 picture of the Holy Family reposing, de- 
 nominated La Madonna del Sacco, from 
 the circumstance of St. Joseph, who 
 is near her, reclining on a sack of corn. 
 Of this admirable performance, an excel- 
 lent plate has been engi'aved by Raphael 
 Morghen. 
 
 The fame of Andrea induced Francis I. 
 of France to commission him to ^laint a 
 picture, which he accordingly did, repre- 
 senting a Dead Christ, with the Virgin, 
 St. John, Mary Magdalen, and other 
 figures, painted in his finest manner, 
 and which is now deposited in the gallery 
 of the Louvre. The king invited him to 
 court, and directed his agent at Florence 
 to furnish the painter with the means of 
 undertaking the journey. Andrea, at 
 that time reduced to penury by the 
 troubles of his country, as well as from 
 the abandonment of his employers, occa- 
 sioned, it is said, by his injudicious 
 marriage with Lucrezia del Fede, gladly 
 accepted the offer, and was received by 
 the monarch, and the whole court, with 
 the most flattering marks of distinction. 
 In Paris, he painted a portrait of the 
 Dauphin, for which Francis paid him 
 three hundred crowns in gold, a picture 
 of Charity, now in the Louvre, and a 
 number of works for the nobles about the 
 court. In the midst of this success, whilst 
 he was painting a portrait of the queen- 
 mother, and before he had completed 
 it, he received letters from his wife, 
 pressing for his return to Florence ; and 
 he obtained leave for his departure, 
 promising the king that he would return 
 with his family, and settle in France. His 
 confiding and munificent patron conferred 
 large presents upon him, and, at the 
 artist's suggestion, confided a large sum of 
 money to him for the purpose of buying 
 such statues, pictures, or other works of 
 art as he deemed worthy of the royal 
 442 . 
 
 collection. On his return to Florence he 
 forgot his engagements, broke through all 
 ties of gratitude and honour, and basely 
 squandered both the gifts and the trust 
 of his generous patron with his improvi- 
 dent wife and faithless associates, and 
 returned no more to France. Reduced 
 at last to that state of poverty, in which 
 he had, on the authority of Vasari, left 
 his father and mother, he sunk into a state 
 of gloomy despondency, aroused to con- 
 sciousness only by the recollection of his 
 perfidy and ingratitude, aggravated by 
 his jealousy of his wife, by whom, and 
 his false friends, he was rdtimately aban- 
 doned. He died of the plagiie which 
 afflicted his native city in 1530. 
 
 This artist possessed an extraordinary 
 talent for imitating the style, and copying 
 the works, of other masters, with an 
 accuracy Avhich sometimes deceived even 
 the painters themselves. Of this, Vasari 
 mentions a very remarkable instance, of 
 which he was himself an eye-witness. 
 Raffaelle had painted for Cardinal Giulio 
 de Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII. 
 the portrait of Leo X. seated between 
 that prelate and Cardinal Rossi, in which 
 the background and drapery were painted 
 by Giulio Romano. Frederick II. duke 
 of Mantua, passing through Florence to 
 Rome, had seen this pictui'e, and had re- 
 quested Clement VII. to make him a 
 present of it, when the pope gave direc- 
 tions to Ottavia de Medici to send the 
 portrait to Mantua. Unwilling to deprive 
 Florence of so interesting a work of art, 
 Ottavia de Medici employed Andrea del 
 Sarto to make a copy of it, which was 
 sent to the duke of Mantua at the time 
 when Giidio Romano was in his service. 
 No person suspected the deception ; even 
 Giulio himself was deceived, and was 
 only convinced of the fact by Vasari 
 assuring him that he had seen it painted, 
 and by showing him the private mark of 
 del Sarto. 
 
 Andrea painted a great deal, and on 
 this account is well known beyond the 
 limits of his own country. One of his 
 best works is in Genoa, which was taken 
 from the church of the Dominicans, at 
 Sarzana. It is composed in the manner 
 of Fra. Bartolomco, and besides the saints 
 distributed round the Virgin, or on the 
 steps, fom- of whom are standing, and 
 two on their knees, there are two 
 large figures in the foreground that seem 
 to start from the lower part of the picture, 
 and are seen as high as the knee — a dis- 
 position of figures much criticized, but 
 defended by Lanzi, His Holy Families 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 are in most of the best collections. The 
 Marquess Rinuccini, at Florence, possesses 
 two, and there are many at Rome, but 
 all are diffei-ent, excepting that the features 
 of the Virgin, which Andrea usually- 
 copied from his wife, have always some 
 resemblance. Many other of his pictures 
 are at Rome, in Florence, and in Lom- 
 bard)'. 
 
 The praises bestowed on Andrea del 
 Sarto have sometimes been extravagantly 
 high. Vasari calls him the prince of 
 Tuscan painters ; and his works at the 
 Portico of the Annunciata procured him 
 the title of Andrea senza errori — Andrea 
 the faultless. He has, however, been 
 more rigidly criticized in modern days. 
 It appears to he admitted on all hands 
 tliat in genius he was inferior to Raffaelle, 
 and that his design was correct ; but there 
 is considerable difference of opinion re- 
 specting some essential points connected 
 with his merits. Fuseli has given an 
 elaborate character of his style in his 
 edition of Pilkington, which those who 
 are desirous of estimating this artist will 
 do well to study. There are also some 
 judicious remarks upon him in Bryan. 
 (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt, i. 130; seqq. Bryan. 
 Fuseli's Pilkington.) 
 
 ANDREA, or ANDREW, (Jacob or 
 James, 1528 — 1590,) a celebrated Lu- 
 theran divine. He was the son of a smith 
 at Waiblingen, in the duchy of Wirtem- 
 berg, and was sometimes called Schmid- 
 lin on this account. His talents as a 
 boy appeared so promising, that his 
 fellow-townsmen, on the recommendation 
 of Schneffius, jointly paid the expenses 
 of his schooling at Stuttgard. He was 
 then sent to Tubingen, where he took 
 his master's degree in 1545. In 1546, 
 he became deacon of the church of Stutt- 
 gard, and in the same -year married a 
 native of Tubingen, by whom he had a 
 family of eighteen children, nine of whom 
 survived him. During the occupation 
 of Stuttgard by Charles V., Andrea con- 
 tinued to officiate, and astonished and 
 pleased one of the Spanish officers of 
 that monarch by repeating the Apostles' 
 Creed during the baptism of a child. 
 (Melch. Adam, p. 637.) This Romanist 
 had previously considered the protestants 
 to be worse than heathens ! On the 
 promulgation of the Interim in 1548, 
 Andrea took refuge in Tubingen, having 
 refused to subscribe that formula. He 
 was appointed deacon of the church there 
 in 1549. In 1550, he lost one patron, 
 TJlric, duke of Wirtemberg, but found 
 another in Christopher his son, who 
 443 
 
 succeeded him. In 1553, he became a 
 doctor in theology, and was appointed 
 pastor of the church of Guppingen, with 
 some authority over the neighboiiring 
 churches. He was now busily employed 
 in promoting the reformation, and esta- 
 blishing churches, &c., in various districts 
 to which the ruling princes invited him 
 — Helfenstein, Baden, &c. In 1557 he 
 was appointed one of the notaries for the 
 conference about to be held at Worms, 
 wliich afterwards was frustrated because 
 the Romanists would not abide by scrip- 
 ture as the "judge of the controversy."* 
 In 1558 he was engaged in a controversy 
 with Staphylus, who had apostatized to 
 the Romanists, and answered his Epi- 
 tome Trimembris Theol. Lutheranre. In 
 1559 he attended the diet of Augsburgh, 
 where the acts of the conference at 
 Worms, which was broken off in its very 
 beginning, were to be read ; and he 
 preached two sermons, one on justifica- 
 tion, and the other on the Lord's supper, 
 of both of which large editions were 
 sold. (M. Adam, p. 642.) He was now 
 also highly instrumental in converting a 
 Romanist nobleman, named Liebenstein, 
 at whose request he constantly went 
 gratuitously to preach to his tenants in 
 a neighbouring village. He also recon- 
 ciled again to the Lutheran church one 
 of its ministers, who had embraced Cal- 
 vinistic views. In 1561 he went to 
 Erfurth, for a theological conference, in 
 consequence of Frederic the elector pa- 
 latine having departed from the Confes- 
 sion of Augsburgh in regard to the Lord's 
 supper. But his services here were 
 ineffectual. In the same year also, he 
 was sent with B. Bidenbach and J. 
 Beurlin, to the conference of Poissi, but 
 it had broken up when he arrived, (M. 
 Adam, p, 644. See also the Life of Beza 
 for more on this conference.) Beurlin 
 died at Paris of the plague, and on An- 
 drea's return he succeeded to the office 
 which his companion had held, of chan- 
 cellor of the university of Tubingen. In 
 1562, the cardinal de Lorraine attempted 
 again to treat with the protestants at 
 Saverne, wliither Andrea went ; but the 
 massacre of Vassyf put an end to any 
 
 * They maintained Scripturam sacram, literam 
 esse mutam, mortuam, ambiguani, adeoque non 
 esse vocem judicis : sed niateriam litis ; ex qua 
 certa controversiarum dijudicatio depromi non 
 possit. (Melch. Adam. 1. c.) 
 
 t Mezeray says that the duke of Guise going 
 to quell some quarrel -which had arisen between 
 the Huguenots and his people, was wounded in the 
 face by a stone, and that his people in consequence 
 slew about sixty, and wounded above two hundred 
 more. This appears to Mezeray quite a trifle, and 
 he wishes entirely to exculpate the duke himself. 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 hopes of cordiality between tlie parties. 
 In 1563 lie was sent to Strasbiirgli, to 
 reconcile Zanchius, who h^gan to main- 
 tain that " regenerate believers could 
 not fall from grace." In 1567 he was 
 engaged in opposing the anabaptists, 
 Schwenkfeldians, &c., at Eshng. In 
 1568 he was called by Julius, the new 
 duke of Brunswick, to assist in the 
 reformation of that country. In 1571 
 he was engaged in a controversy with 
 M. Flaccus Illyricus. After a variety of 
 employments at Lindau, Ratisbon, Src, 
 he was appointed one of the divines to 
 compose the differences in the Lutheran 
 church ; and with Chemnitius, Chytaeus, 
 Selnecker, and others, in 1574, pre- 
 pared the celebrated Formula Concordiae, 
 (sometimes also called the Book of Berg, 
 from the town in which it was finally 
 agreed on,) now recognised as one of 
 the symbolical books of the Lutheran 
 church. It had at first been devised at 
 Torgau, in 1569. (See "Walchii Intro- 
 ductio in Libros Symbolicos, pp. 709 — 
 722.) The principal points discussed 
 are original sin, free will, justification, 
 good works, the law, the Lord's supper, 
 the person of Christ, ceremonies, and pre- 
 destination, &c. (See the chapters of the 
 formula itself, in any edition of the Libri 
 Symbolici.) In 1583, having lost his 
 wife, he married a second time. About 
 the same time, he wrote an answer to 
 the Consensus Orthodoxus, and main- 
 tained the ubiquity of Christ. The sense 
 in which he maintains this is explained 
 in M.Adam to be, that " Christ, both as 
 God and man, is universally present, but 
 in a spiritual and supernatural manner," 
 &c. In 1586 he met Beza at Mompel- 
 gard, in a conference, the acts of which 
 were shortly after published. The re- 
 formed party attacked him now for having 
 published argrnnents which they never 
 used ; but Andrea offered to show the 
 senate of Berne these propositions under 
 their own autographs. The reformed 
 party, however, (Beza, Grynceus, and 
 others,) dejDrecated this measure, and 
 Andrea contented himself with explain- 
 ing his own views on the controverted 
 points. His health was now declining ; 
 and in the midst of public labours, 
 preaching, attending conferences, writing, 
 &c., he Avas at length called away to his 
 rest from his labours. His end was 
 signalized by christian patience and 
 resignation under great suffering, by a 
 holy zeal for religion, and by a Christian's 
 humble trust in his Redeemer's sacrifice. 
 He was, among other absurd calumnies, 
 444 
 
 most falsely accused of having apostatised 
 to the church of Rome in his last hours. 
 His works are most numerous ; upwards 
 of one hundred and fifty pieces are said 
 to have been written by him. His labours 
 were chiefly directed to produce unanimity 
 among the Lutheran churches, and we 
 have seen that his labours were very 
 instrumental in effecting this object. The 
 FormulaConcordiae was published in 1577, 
 and in 1580 had received the assent of 
 most of the protestant princes and cities. 
 He was a warm adherent of the Lutheran 
 doctrines, and a violent opponent of those 
 of the reformed. 
 
 ANDREA, (Johann Valentin, 1586— 
 1654,) the grandson of the above, bom 
 at Ilerrenberg, where his father was 
 pastor. He entered the imiversity of 
 Tubingen in 1601, and having completed 
 his studies in 1607, travelled through 
 Germany, France, Switzerland, and Italy. 
 On his return, he was appointed deacon 
 of the church of Bachingen (1614), pas- 
 tor of Calw (1620), consistorial coun- 
 sellor and court preacher at Stuttgard 
 (1639), doctor of theology (1640), church 
 counsellor of Augustus, duke of Bruns- 
 wick-Wolfenbiittel(1641), andlastly, ge- 
 neral superintendent in Adelberg (1650). 
 He was the disciple and friend of Johann 
 Arndt, and assisted that excellent man 
 in his attempts to substitute a practical 
 style of preaching for the scholastic 
 method which was in possession of the 
 German pulpit. His connexion with 
 some of the secret societies of Germany 
 is involved in great obscm-ity. Much 
 has been written upon it by his country- 
 men in modem days, but the nature and 
 extent of his connexion with them is 
 still a subject of debate. Herder, in the 
 German Museum of 1770, decided against 
 his being the reviver of the Rosicrucians ; 
 but INIurr, in a w'ork on the origin of the 
 Rosicrucians, published at Sidzbach in 
 1803, and Bulile, in a Latin dissertation 
 before the Royal Society of Gottingen, 
 (afterwards published in German, in 8vo, 
 1804,) have supported a contraiy opinion. 
 His autobiography was translated by 
 Seybold from a Latin MS., and pub- 
 lished in his autobiographies of celebrated 
 men, in 1799, at Winterthur. In Her- 
 der's Zerstreute Blatter, bd. v., many of 
 his German writings will be found ; and 
 the same author also wi'ote a preface to 
 Sonntag's German translation of his 
 Latin poems. His chief works were in 
 Latin, and very numerous ; and most of 
 them are rare. A list of them was 
 published at Tubingen by M. P. Burk, 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 (VcUstandiges Verzeiclmiss, &c.) in 1793, 
 to which some additions are made in the 
 Leipsic Allgemein. Liter. Anzcige, 1798. 
 Among the best known of his Latin 
 works are the following pieces: — 1. De 
 Chi-istiani Cosmoxeni Genitiira, Mont- 
 Lelliard, 1G12, 12mo, (against astrology) ; 
 2. Menippiis s. Dialogorum Satiricormn 
 Centm-ia, &c., 1617, 12mo ; 3. Civis 
 Christianus, 1619; 4. Mythologies Chris- 
 tianse, &c. libri iii. 1619. (See Her- 
 der's and Sonntag's hook mentioned 
 above, for a translation of a great part 
 of these.) Among his German works 
 must be mentioned the — 1. Christlich 
 Gemal, Tubingen, 1612 (Christian Hus- 
 band) ; 2. Geistliche Kurzweil (Spi- 
 ritual Pastime), Strasburgh, 1619. It 
 appears that there is some doubt whether 
 the Rosa Florescens is his work or not. 
 The writings to which those who believe 
 in his revival of the Rosicrucians appeal 
 chiefly, are the Reipublicae Christianopo- 
 litanae Descriptio; Tun-is Babeli ; Judi- 
 ciorum de Fraternitate Rosacea Crucis 
 Chaos ; Christianse Societatis Idea; aU 
 published at Strasburgh in 1619. After 
 the eidogium passed upon him by so 
 competent a judge as Herder, it would 
 be superfluous to discuss his merits as a 
 German writer. Those poi-tions of his 
 works which the writer of this notice has 
 read appear to him to justify this eulo- 
 gium. His poems have much merit ; 
 his fables and stories great terseness, 
 boldness, and originality. A work was 
 published at Berlin in 1829, called An- 
 drea und sein Zeitalter (Andrea and his 
 Times), by W. Hossbach. (Ciog. Univ. 
 WoW's Encyclopadie, &c.) 
 
 ANDREA OF PISA, was a celebrated 
 sculptor and architect ; born 1270, died 
 1345. He designed the castle of Scar- 
 peria, built in Mugello, at the foot of the 
 Apennines. The circular church of San 
 Giovanni, at Pistoja, is attributed to him. 
 Gualtiero, duke of Athens, who then 
 governed Florence, employed him in 
 enlarging the Palazzo del Gran Duca, 
 and he rendered more efticient the forti- 
 fications of the city, by the addition of 
 towers and gates, which he would have 
 completed by the erection of a citadel, 
 had not the citizens, wearied with the 
 yoke of the duke of Athens, driven that 
 prince from the city. Andrea, although 
 he had been attached to the service of 
 the prince, had acquired the esteem and 
 respect of the citizens, who continued to 
 employ him in important works, and be- 
 stowed upon him many honourable posts. 
 The history of the architecture of this 
 445 
 
 period is better illustrated by tlie nu- 
 merous monuments of those times, which 
 now remain, than by the memoirs of 
 those architects, notices of whom have 
 been handed down to us, for there are 
 few the events of whose lives are 
 known. Andrea has the good fortune to 
 possess a celebrity, greater than he might 
 othei'wise have enjoyed, from the circum- 
 stance of some few facts connected with 
 his works being recorded by writers of 
 the period in which he flourished. Many 
 of his pupils distinguished themselves in 
 architecture ; among whom may be no- 
 ticed Tommaso da Pisa, thought to be 
 his son, and who finished the chapel of 
 the Campo Santo and the celebrated 
 falling tower of Pisa. (]\Iilizia, Memorie 
 degli Architetti. Quatremere de Quincy, 
 Dictionnaire d Architecture.) 
 
 ANDREA, (Alexander d',) an Italian 
 historian of the sixteenth centmy, the 
 author of a work, Delia GueiTa di Cam- 
 pagna di Roma, e dell Regno di Napoli, 
 nel Pontificate di Paolo IV., I'anno 1556 
 et 1557, printed by Ruscelli, at Venice, 
 1560, 4to. According to Toppi, (Bibl. 
 Neap.') Andrea translated the Emperor 
 Leo's work on the art of war. This has 
 not been printed. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDREA, priest and canon of Ber- 
 gamo, towards the close of the ninth 
 century. He was the author of a chro- 
 nicle extending fi'om the invasion of 
 Italy by the Lombards, to the death of 
 Louis 1 1. (874.) This has been printed by 
 Muratori, Antiq. Ital.i. p.42. (Biog.Univ.) 
 
 ANDREA. See Nerciat. 
 
 ANDREW, (John,) keeper of tlie 
 archives to the counts of Nassau for forty 
 years, during the early part of the seven- 
 teenth centmy. He has written a very 
 voluminous history of the house of Nassau, 
 containing valuable materials for the his- 
 tory of the thirty years' war, besides 
 many docmnents not to be formd else- 
 where. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDREiE, (John Gerard Reinhard. 
 1724^1793,) an apothecary at Hanover 
 of great learning and integrity. Having 
 studied at Berlin and in England, he 
 returned to his native place, where he 
 formed an excellent museum of natural 
 history, and occupied his leisiure in con- 
 tributing some interesting papers to the 
 Hanoverian Magazine, on medical and 
 chemical subjects. In 1769 he pub- 
 lished the results of an examination of 
 the different kinds of earth in the elec- 
 torate of Hanover, undertaken at the 
 request of the king of England. (Biog. 
 Univ. Schlichtegroll's Necrology.) 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 ANDREADA, (Fernando de,) an en- 
 terprising Portuguese admiral, who in 
 1518 appeared off the coast of China, 
 and entered into commercial relations 
 with the people. His good faith, and 
 the efforts which he made to keep his 
 followers from excesses, would probably 
 have led to a cordial intercourse with 
 that distrustful nation, had not his bro- 
 ther Simeon arrived also, and perversely 
 enough pursued a line of conduct so op- 
 posite, as to cause the Chinese ports to 
 be closed against the Portuguese. 
 
 A'NDREANI, (Andrea,1540— 1623,) a 
 painter and very celebrated engraver on 
 wood, was a native of Mantua. He is 
 frequently miscalled Andreossi, and some- 
 times confounded with Andrea Man- 
 tegna, who lived neai'ly a hundred years 
 earlier, and with Altdorfer. He is little 
 known as a painter, but from the time of 
 his settling in Rome, which he did in 
 early life, and remained till his death, he 
 devoted himself to engraving on wood. 
 His drawing is correct, his execution is 
 neat and spirited, and his style masterly. 
 A charge has been made against him, 
 which appears pretty clearly established, 
 of having procmxd the blocks executed 
 by other artists, and after retouching 
 them, publishing them as his own. (Hei- 
 necken's Diet, des Artistes. Strutt's Diet, 
 of Eng. Brvan's Diet. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDREAS, the leader of the turbu- 
 lent Jews, who in the eighteenth year of 
 the Emperor Trajan spread desolation 
 through Libya. He is called Lucuas by 
 Eusebius. (Hist. Eccl. iv. 2.) 
 
 ANDREAS, a physician of Carystus 
 in Euboea,* and son of Chrysalis,! was 
 one of the followers of Herophilus, who 
 gave particular attention to botany and 
 materia medica.t He was physician to 
 Ptolemy Philopater, king of Egj-pt, and 
 was killed while in attendance on that 
 prince, shortly before the battle of Ra- 
 phia, (01. cxl. 4, b. c. 2l7.§) The titles 
 of several of his works are preserved, 
 but none of his writings remain, except 
 a few medical formula;, &c., cpoted by 
 Celsus and Galen. Athenaeus mentions 
 a work by him, rrept tchv \j/ev8(os tvovl- 
 crreu/xfi'CDi', De Quibusdam falso creditis, 
 (lib. vii. sect. 90) ; and another, irepi 
 baKeTMV, De Sei-pentibus (ibid.) ; and 
 Soranus (in Vita Hippocr.) infonns us 
 that he wrote one, jrepi rrjs larpiKrjs yevea- 
 
 • Cassius, Probl. 58. 
 
 t Galen, in Explic. Voc. Hippocr. in voc. 
 
 (vdtKov. 
 
 t Cels. de Med. lib. v. Praef. ; Dioscor. Mat., Med. 
 Praef. 
 
 , § Polyb. Hist. lib. v. cap. 81. 
 446 
 
 Xoyias, De MedicingeOrigine ; in which 
 he gave a false and scandalous account 
 of Hippocrates. Galen speaks of him 
 with very little respect (De Simplic, 
 Medicam. lib. vi. Prooem.) ; and Erato- 
 sthenes accused him of plagiarism, (Ety- 
 mol. Magn. in voc. Bi^XiaiyicrSos, which 
 was the name Eratosthenes applied to An- 
 dreas.) The name is to be found in several 
 ancient authors, (e. a. Pliny, Hist. Nat. 
 XX. 18 ; xxii. 23 ; xxxii. 7 : S. Epiphan. 
 adv. Haeres. lib. i. torn, i.^ c. 3. Schol. 
 ad Aristoph. Aves, v. 267. Schol. Ni- 
 cand. Ther. vv. 823, 684, &c.) ; but it is 
 impossible to say whether all these pas- 
 sages refer to the same person, or to dif- 
 ferent physicians of the same name : 
 indeed it is not quite certain that all those 
 quoted above allude to Andreas of Carys- 
 tus. It may, however, be added, that 
 Andreas Archiatrormn Comes, mentioned 
 by Aetius, (Tetrab. iii. Serm. i. cap. 16, 
 and Serm. iv. cap. iilt.) is certainly not 
 the same person, as the title of Archiater 
 did not exist till nearly three hundred 
 years after his death, and that of Archia- 
 tronnn Comes was of still later origin. 
 
 ANDREAS, archbishop of Crete, 
 was born at Damascus, and educated 
 in a monastery at Jerusalem. The period 
 during which he lived is not clearly as- 
 certainable. He is mentioned as the con- 
 temporary of Sophronius, patriarch of 
 Jerusalem, who flourished about the year 
 635, and he was innted by Theodoret to 
 attend the sixth general council at Con- 
 stantinople, (a. d. 680.) His works, con- 
 sisting chieflv of homilies, have been 
 published by Combefis, Par. 1644, 1648; 
 but in these, Cave traces the interpola- 
 tions of a later age. (Combefis, Auct. 
 Nov, ii. Hist. Monothel, p. 235. Cave, 
 Hist. Lit. sub anno 635.) 
 
 ANDREAS, (Onuphrius, died 1647,) a 
 Neapolitan poet of no great merit. He 
 has left Aci, a poem in eight cantos ; 
 Italia liberato, in twenty cantos ; two 
 dramas, some IjTical pieces, and some 
 discoiu'ses in prose. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDREAS, (Valerius, 1588—1656,) 
 libi'arian and king's professor of law at 
 Louvain, the author of a valuable bio- 
 graphical work, Bibliotheca Belgica, of 
 a catalogue of Spanish Avriters, and of 
 some other pieces. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDREAS, of Panormus, gave an 
 account of the towns of Sicily, which 
 must have been rather voluminous, as the 
 thirty-third book is quoted by Athenaeus. 
 
 ANDREHAN, (Amoul Sire d',) mare- 
 chal of France. He gained the favour 
 of King John before his coming to the 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 throne, and was by him assigned an al- 
 lowance out of the royal treasury in 
 1343, and six months afterwards named 
 sovereign captain of Angouleme. In 
 1351 he was taken prisoner at Saintonge. 
 At Poictiers he led the attack at the 
 head of three himdred men, when he 
 was surrounded by the Enghsh archers. 
 On regaining his liberty, he commanded 
 in Languedoc, and followed Du Guesclin 
 into Spain, where he was again taken 
 prisoner at Navaretta. In 1367, although 
 he resigned his baton on account of his 
 extreme age to CharlesV., he was but little 
 able to bear inaction, and returning to 
 the war in Spain, was seized by the sick- 
 ness, which terminated his life in 1370. 
 
 ANDREINI, (Francesco), an Italian 
 actor of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries. He was long celebrated in his 
 profession, at first in the representation 
 of lovers, but afterwards more especially 
 in that of a character called " Capitan 
 Spavento deUa Valle Infema." He was 
 anxious that this reputation should be- 
 come permanent, and endeavoured to 
 effect this by the publication of a book 
 called " Le Bravmre del Capitan Spaven- 
 to." 4to, Venice, 1609. It consists of 
 sixtj'-five ragionamenti, or dialogues 
 between the captain and his servant 
 Trappola. He afterwards published 
 other works, nz. some Ragionamenti in 
 prose, 1612 ; and two dramatic pieces, 
 the L'Alterezza di Narciso, and the In- 
 gannata Proserpina. 
 
 ANDREINI, (IsabeUa, 1562—1604.) 
 The family name of this most celebrated 
 actress is not kno-wn. From the city of 
 Padova, in which she was bom, in 1562, 
 she was commonly called Isabella di Pa- 
 dova, till the time of her marriage with 
 the subject of the last article, Francesco 
 Andreini of Pistoja. The dramatic com- 
 pany of which they were the directors, 
 had assumed the title " I Gelosi," 
 with the motto " Virtti fama ed onor 
 ne fer gelosi. " She became also a 
 member of the academy of " Degli 
 Intenti," with the name of " Accesa." 
 From her earliest youth Isabella showed 
 the most promising dispositions. She 
 scarcely knew how to read when she 
 wrote a pastoral drama ; and added to 
 her Mterary and poetical pursuits that of 
 philosophy. After having enchanted the 
 ItaUans, she ■with her husband went to 
 France, where her success with the nation 
 as well as with the court was of the most 
 flattering kind. Beautiful, livelj-, with 
 an elegant figure, and a charming voice, 
 proficient in singing, and placing on 
 447 
 
 several instruments, conversant with the 
 French and Spanish languages, acquaint- 
 ed ^vith philosophy and science, and still 
 cultivating literatiire and poetrj', she was 
 universallj' admired. Her death, which 
 took place at Lyons in 1604, at the early 
 age of fort}' -two, overwhelmed her hus- 
 band with the deepest sorrow. Her loss 
 was lamented in Italian and Latin elegies 
 by all the contemporary poets ; and even 
 a medal was struck to her memorj' with 
 the inscription, " .Sterna fama." The 
 academicians of Pavia bestowed upon her 
 the titles of " Comica gelosa, accademica 
 intenta, detta gelosa." 
 
 Amongst her works are, 1. MirtUla 
 favola pastorale, after the example of 
 Tasso : it has often been reprinted. 2. 
 Rime ; printed several times both in 
 Milan and Paris. 3. Letters, mostly on 
 love, printed in Venice, 1607. 4. Fram- 
 menti di alcune Scrittm-e, which are for 
 the most part dialogues on love : publish- 
 ed by her husband in Venice. AU of them 
 inferior productions. 
 
 ANDREINI, (Giovanbattista,) son of 
 the two preceding. This author has 
 obtained a greater celebrity than the 
 intrinsic merit of his works could warrant, 
 in consequence of the notion that one of 
 them suggested to Milton the idea of his 
 Paradise Lost. The notion was first set 
 on foot by Voltaire, during his visit to 
 England in 1727. It was very xmcere- 
 moniously treated, till Hayley, in his life 
 of Milton, again brought it before the 
 world ; and poor as the performance of 
 Andreini is, the coincidences between 
 the two are now considered sufficient to 
 show that this piece gave the hint to 
 Milton. It is a sacred drama, in five acts, 
 entitled " Adamo," with choruses, &c. 
 His other performances are enumerated 
 at greater length in the Biog. L'niverselle 
 than their merit would Avarrant, but with 
 a very severe criticism upon them. M. 
 Ginguene there says of the " Adamo," 
 and the notion of Milton haA^ing borrow- 
 ed from it, " C'est faire trop d'honneur a 
 un tel ouvrage." He adds, however, that 
 the English have bought up so many 
 copies of it, that it is scarce and dear on 
 the continent. It has most ludici'ous illus- 
 trations by Procaccino. Milan, 1613 and 
 1617, 4to. An edition was also pub- 
 lished at Lugano, 1818; and, in 1834, 
 by Scolari, at Venice, with his Essay on 
 Milton. The two other works of his, 
 which are most curious, are his " Madda- 
 lenaLasciva ePenitente." Mantua, 1617, 
 4to, and Milan, 1620, 8vo, and his "La 
 Centaura." Paris, 1622. 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 ANDRELINI, (Publio Fausto, died 
 1518,) a modern Latin poet of conside- 
 rable reputation. He was born at Forli, 
 about the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. At twenty-tvro years of age he 
 received the poetic crown awarded to 
 liim for his Livia. Having entered the 
 sei'vice of Cardinal Gonzaga, he accom- 
 panied him to Mantua, as his poet ; but 
 in 1488, he went to Paris, where he re- 
 ceived a professorship at the university. 
 Here he taught for thirty years, both in 
 public and in private. Charles VIII. 
 Louis XII. Francis I. Queen Anne of 
 Brittany, styled him their poet, and be- 
 stowed on him pensions and honours. 
 He assumed, accordingly, the title of 
 " Poeta Regius et Regineus." Charles 
 on one occasion being pleased with one 
 of his poems, (on the Conquest of Naples,) 
 gave him a bag of gold so heavy that 
 he could scarcely carry it. Notwitii- 
 standing the many contests in which he 
 was involved, he had a high reputation 
 among his contemporaries. Erasmus 
 himself, who abused him, and vilified his 
 morals after his death, eulogized him 
 highly during his life-time. His works 
 do not inspire us with a high opinion of 
 his talents and acquirements ; but the 
 time at which they were written ought 
 to be considered in judging of them. 
 They are, 1. Livia, sen Amorum Libri 
 iv. Paris, 1494. 2. Elegiarum Libri 
 iii. Ibid. 1494. 3. EpistoljB prover- 
 biales et lepidissimae necnon senten- 
 tiosae, (often reprinted.) These epistles 
 justify the censures of Erasmus on his 
 petulance, &c. 4. De Neapolitana Vic- 
 toria, 149G. 5. De secunda Neapol. 
 Victoria, &c. 1502. 6. De Regia in Ge- 
 nuensis Victoria, 1509. 7. Bucolica, 1501; 
 The advertisement ad Lectorem, com- 
 pares the author to Virgil and Calpm-- 
 nius ! Could Andrelini write this him- 
 self? 8. Hecatodistichon, 1512; a work 
 twice translated into French. 
 
 ANDREOSSI, (Francis,) a French 
 engineer of the seventeenth century, who 
 has been set forward as the rival to 
 Riquet, in his claim to be considered the 
 projector of the Languedoc canal. An 
 impartial discussion of this question may 
 be seen in the Histoire du Corps Impe- 
 rial du Genie, by M. Allent. (Biog. 
 Univ.) "" 
 
 ANDREOSSI, (Antoine Franfois, 
 Count, 17G1 — 1828,) a distingiiished 
 French officer and scientific writer. He 
 was born at Castelnaudary, and descended 
 from the subject of the preceding article. 
 At twenty years of age he entered tlie 
 448 
 
 artillery, and was taken prisoner by the 
 Prussians, in the campaign in Holland, 
 in 1787. At the commencement of the 
 revolution, lie was supposed to be at- 
 tached to the " ancicn regime," but 
 suddenly embraced the principles of the 
 revolution, and served with distinction 
 in all the revolutionary campaigns, espe- 
 cially at the siege of Mantua. He 
 accompanied Napoleon to Egypt, where 
 he again obtained high military fame, 
 and becoming a member of the institute 
 formed at Cairo, he wrote many scien- 
 tific memoirs, which appear in the great 
 French work on Egypt, and have also 
 been published separately. He was an 
 active partisan of Napoleon in the eigh- 
 teenth Brumaire, and in 1800 he was 
 named commander of Mayence. He 
 was ambassador at the English court 
 after the peace of Amiens, and in London 
 he purchased the collection of drawings 
 formerly in possession of Calonne. He 
 was at the battle of Austerlitz, and was 
 after the battle of Wagram made com- 
 mander of Presburg. He was afterwards 
 ambassador at Constantinople, where he 
 arrived too late to further the schemes 
 of Napoleon against Russia, the peace of 
 Bucharest having already taken place. 
 In 1814 he was superseded. He had 
 occupied himself here with scientific 
 pursuits, which furnished him with the 
 subject of some of the memoirs he pre- 
 sented to the Institute, and were the 
 foundation of his great work. On the 
 return of Napoleon he joined his cause, 
 but was instrumental in moderating the 
 decree against the royal family ; and after 
 the battle of Waterloo, he was one of the 
 five commissioners appointed to nego- 
 tiate an armistice with the allied forces, 
 and agreed to the immediate recall of the 
 Bourbons. On their return, he retired 
 into private life, but afterwards again 
 took part in public affairs, particularly 
 as director of the commissariat. He 
 became a member of the Academy in 
 1828, having been an unsuccessful can- 
 didate in 1826. He appears to have 
 been much beloved, and his deatb, which 
 was sudden, much lamented. He was 
 to have been grand chancellor of the 
 order of Trois Toisons d'Or, projected by 
 Napoleon, but merged in the old order 
 of the Toison d'Or, on his marriage with 
 Marie Louise. The details of this may 
 be seen in the Suppl. to the Biographic 
 Universelle. His works are — 1. Histoire 
 du Canal du Midi (formerly called that 
 of Languedoc,) 1802, 8vo, and 1804, 
 2 vols, 4to. 2. Memoires sur le Lac 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 Menzalez, &c. 1800, 4to, (also in the 
 work on Egj^it.) 3. Campagne sur le 
 Mein et la Rednitz, Src. 1802, 8vo. 4. 
 Voyage a rEmbouchure de la Mer Noire, 
 ou Essai sur le Bosphore et la Partie du 
 Delta de Thrace, comprenant le Systeme 
 des Eaux qui abreuvent Constantinople, 
 1818, 8vo. 5. Memoires sur les Depres- 
 sions de la Surface du Globe, Paris, 182G, 
 Svo. Also two memoirs in 1824 and 1826, 
 in refutation of some attacks on the 
 commissariat. (Biog. Univ. Suppl.) 
 
 ANDREOZZI, (Gaetan,) a musical 
 composer, born at Naples, v.'ho flourished 
 during the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century. A list of his principal pieces 
 may be seen in the Suppl. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ANDRES, (Juan, 1740—1817,) a na- 
 tive of Valencia, embraced the rule of 
 St. Ignatius, and for some time was pro- 
 fessor of Belles-Lettres in the Academy 
 of Candia. On the expulsion of the 
 Jesuits from Spain, the Spanish Jesuits 
 were sent to Rome. Pope Clement would 
 not receive them, and they ran much 
 risk of starvation, when Paoli gave them 
 a temporary asylum in Corsica. Their 
 sufferings were great ; and Andres, in the 
 relation which he drew up of them, took 
 care that they should be laid before the 
 pope. This relation was the chief cause 
 perhaps of their admission into Italy. 
 The author taught philosophy at Fer- 
 rara, until Clement XIV. abolished the 
 order througliout the catholic world. 
 More fortunate than many of his bre- 
 thren, Andres found an honourable subsis- 
 tence in the house of a Mantuan noble, 
 whose children he educated. One of his 
 earliest literary efforts was an Essay on 
 the Philosophy of Galileo, which esta- 
 bhshed his reputation, and would have 
 procured him a professor's chair in any 
 Italian university, had he not resolved to 
 devote the remainder of his life to the 
 composition of a vast work — one that 
 should embrace the progress of the hu- 
 man mind, from the earliest period to 
 his own times. To collect materials for 
 his gigantic task, he buried himself for 
 some years in the great libraries of Italy 
 and Germany. On his return to Man- 
 tua, he prosecuted his labours with un- 
 wearied industry, imtil the arrival of the 
 French anny (1796) compelled him to 
 flee. Fortunately the duke of Parma 
 provided an asylum for him, and gave 
 him the pay, without the duties, of a 
 professorship. After more than twenty 
 years of constant application, he finished 
 in 1799 the pubHcation of his last volume, 
 Dell' Origine, dei Progress! e dello Stato 
 
 VOL. I. 449 
 
 Attuale d'Ogni Letteratura, (7 vols. 4to. 
 Parma, 1782—1799,) of which many 
 subsequent editions— some considerably 
 augmented — have since appeared. The 
 erudition of this work is not more con- 
 spicuous than its good taste : it is indeed 
 a glorious monument of human learning. 
 Yet with all due admiration for it — 
 and we have often consulted it — it is 
 mucli less useful than we should have 
 expected. The author embraced too 
 vast a range ; he might examine the 
 sin-face, but he could not go below it. 
 There is too much of general declama- 
 tion ; and in many branches of his sub- 
 ject, he has been misled by incompetent 
 or prejudiced guides. In general, in- 
 deed, he was carefid to select those of 
 the highest authority ; but writers even 
 of this class often write carelessly, and 
 are at few pains to verify what they 
 assert. — Many other works were pro- 
 duced by this indefatigable Jesuit : 
 among these Avere dissertations on the 
 use of the Greek language in Naples ; on 
 the worship of Isis in that kingdom ; on 
 the discoveries at Pompeii and Hercu- 
 lanemn ; and on several s\ibjects of 
 science. (Sismondi, Histoire de la Lit- 
 terature du Midi de I'Europe.) 
 
 ANDREUCCI, (Filippo, 1733—1807,) 
 a native of Siena, an official person con- 
 nected with the Tuscan custom-house, 
 who was zealous for the improvement 
 of the Maremma Grossetana, to which 
 his duties often compelled him to go. 
 He wrote an essay on the increase of 
 cattle in Tuscany, 1769. (Tipaldo, i. 
 209.) 
 
 ANDREW. Four Russian princes 
 of this name deserve commemoration 
 here. 
 
 1. Andrew T'laclimirowitz, or Vladimi- 
 rovitch, (i.e. son of Vladimir,) surnamed 
 the Good. On the death of his father, 
 Vladimir Monomachus, (a.d. 1125,) the 
 elder son, Mstislas, took the title of grand 
 prince, while his other children were 
 settled in their respective appanages, of 
 which Vladimir fell to Andrew. He 
 died highly respected and beloved, about 
 the year 1140. (Karamsin, Hist. vol. ii. 
 ch. X.) 
 
 2. Andrew, surnamed BogoUoubshj, 
 prince of Suzdal, was the son of George, or 
 Youri, Vladimirovritz, surnamed Dolcor- 
 ouki, or Longhand. During the troubles 
 wliich occurred after the death of Igor, 
 George appointed Andrew to the prince- 
 dom of Suzdal. Kief on the Dnieper was 
 at that time the capital of the Russian 
 dommions, but Novgorod (or Nowogorod) 
 
 G G 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 was rising into gi'eater importance every 
 day. Andrew was clear-sighted enough 
 to perceive, that parcelling out the ter- 
 ritoiy into a number of appanages was 
 destruction to the empire, and aimed at 
 consolidating a power which might have 
 some hope of permanence. He endea- 
 voured to improve his ovvn dominions, 
 and to make himself master of those 
 around him. He obtained Kief, (which 
 his father had also held,) by taking it in 
 one of his warlike expeditions ; but he 
 failed in marching against Novgorod. 
 Novgorod, however, after a time acknow- 
 ledged his supremacy. But the time for 
 consolidation was not yet arrived ; and 
 his empire was torn by dissensions, which 
 left him little more than an empty name 
 of sovereignty. His father (according 
 to the modern Russian annals) had 
 decapitated a boyard (or noble), on the 
 banks of the Moskwa, and pleased with 
 the beauty of the situation, founded a 
 town there, and gave the daughter of 
 the boyard in mamage to Andrew. (Ka- 
 ramsin, ii. p. 273.) This took place 
 before a.d. 1147, and thus arose the 
 city of Moscow :* but this alliance was 
 in after years the cause of Andrew's 
 death. The relations of his wife caused 
 his assassination, a.d. 1174. He has 
 been highly praised for his policy and 
 sagacity, and styled by his coimtrymen 
 a second Solomon. He appears in some 
 respects to have been wise and politic 
 beyond his age, though not exempt from 
 its warlike ambition. (Karamsin, vols. 
 ii. and iii. See also Bell's Russia, vol. i.) 
 3. Andreiv Yaroslawitz, the elder bro- 
 ther of Alexander Neusky, (see the 
 name,) and grand prince of Russia. He 
 accompanied his brother in his journey 
 to the great khan, after his visit to Batz, 
 the chief of the Golden Horde. In 
 1249, the brothers returned from their 
 long and dangerous journey, and An- 
 drew was placed on the throne of Vla- 
 dimir, with feudal superiority. His flight 
 in 1252, and the succession of Alexander, 
 have been already mentioned, (see Alex. 
 Neusky ;) but after some years of exile 
 in Sweden, Andrew returned and lived 
 at Suzdal. Andrew and Alexander made, 
 in 1256 or 1257, another visit to the 
 Golden Horde, and were confii-med in 
 their powers. When, however, th.e Tar- 
 tars of the Golden Horde wished to levy 
 a capitation tax, all these districts rebelled, 
 and the Tartars were massacred. An- 
 drew and Alexander repaired to the 
 
 * The circumstances of the foundation of Mos- 
 cow are differently told in Bell's Hist, of Russia. 
 450 
 
 Golden Horde to offer their explanations, 
 which were accepted. On their return, 
 Alexander perished ; but as Andi-ew 
 survived him only a few months, the 
 succession devolved on the other brother, 
 Yaroslaf. (Karamsin, vol. iv.) 
 
 4. Andrew yllexandroivit%\Na.& the second 
 son of Alexander Neusky, and was the 
 pi'ince of Gorodetz, while his elder, Dmi- 
 tri, or Demetrius, was grand prince of 
 Russia. Andrew attempted to excite a 
 rebellion against his brother, and supplant 
 him in the sovereignty, by means of the 
 influence of the Tartars, whom he did 
 not scruple to bring into his country to 
 plunder it. This they did effectually; 
 and Dmitri took refuge under the pro- 
 tection of the terrible Nogay, who, though 
 at first a voivode only, and dependent on 
 the khan, had made himself independent 
 and terrible to all around him. Nogay 
 replaced him on the throne, and thus 
 Andrew failed (1283). But he was 
 afterwards revenged on his brother by 
 the same means ; for he contrived to 
 induce Nogay again to invade Russia 
 against his former friend, Dmitri. His 
 restless ambition was at last gratified, 
 after the death of Dmitri in 1294, with 
 the supreme dignity. His reign was 
 unquiet; and he died in 1304, leaving 
 behind him the reputation of having 
 irreparably injured his country in the 
 earlier sti-uggles of his ambition, and of 
 having effected no good when he was at 
 the head of affairs. (Karamsin, vol. iv.) 
 ANDREW I. king of Hungary. This 
 prince was the eldest son of Ladislas the 
 Bald, and the rival of Peter I. sur- 
 named the German. His two brothers 
 were also candidates for the throne, but 
 Andrew was obliged to fly into Russia 
 to escape from Peter in 1044. The 
 Himgarian nobles, discontented with 
 Peter, recalled Andrew in 1047, and he 
 then obtained the throne. He forced 
 his subjects to embrace Christianity, and, 
 contraiy to his engagements, procin-ed 
 the coronation of his son Solomon — thus 
 infringing the rights of his brother Bela, 
 duke of Hungary. The latter fomented 
 divisions in the kingdom, and met his 
 brother in the field in 1061. Andrew 
 was defeated and fled, and soon after 
 died of vexation. His brother Bela suc- 
 ceeded him. 
 
 ANDREW II. king of Himgary, 
 called Andrew of Jerusalem, was the 
 second son of Bela III., and revolted 
 against Emeric, his elder brother, who 
 succeeded his father. He was unsuc- 
 cessful, but pardoned by his brotlier, ar.d 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 afterwards firmly supported the throne. 
 In 1204, he was elected king. After 
 twelve years of peace, he joined the 
 crusaders in 1217. In 1218, he retinned ; 
 but the motives of his crusading expe- 
 dition and his return are variously related. 
 It is said that during this time his wife 
 was assassinated in her palace by Banc- 
 banus, his regent, (see the name,) in 
 revenge for the outrage committed by 
 her brother on his sister. During this 
 exjiedition also he married his son to the 
 daughter of Theodore Lascaris, the Greek 
 emperor. In consequence of financial 
 and other diflicxdties, Andrew called a 
 general diet in 1222, and in that assembly 
 lie delivered the celebrated constitution 
 called the Bulla Aurea — the foundation- 
 stone of the constitutional privileges of 
 the Hungarians. It contains many im- 
 munities and privileges, and ends by an 
 oath, binding himself and his successors 
 to the observance of them, under penalty 
 of forfeiting the throne. This wise and 
 renowned prince died in 1235, and was 
 succeeded by his eldest son Bela. 
 
 ANDREW III. king of Hungary, 
 grandson of the preceding, was born at 
 Venice, and hence surnamed the Vene- 
 tian. Brought in his youth to the court 
 of Ladislas, he was acknowledged as his 
 heir, but was absent at the time of his 
 death. In returning, Albert, duke of 
 Austria, arrested him, and only gave him 
 liberty on a promise of espousing his 
 daughter, Agnes. He was proclaimed 
 king in 1290, and prepared to make war 
 on Austria, but the emperor Rodolf found 
 him employment at home, by means of 
 rivals — his own son, Albert, and Charles 
 Martel, son of the king of Naples. He 
 now married Agnes, but could not so 
 easily shake off his rival, Charles ; and 
 in fact they bore a divided sway, which 
 only ended by their death in the same 
 year, 1301. In him the line of St. 
 Stephen became extinct. 
 
 ANDREW OF HUNGARY, king of 
 Naples, called Andreasso by the Neapoli- 
 tans, was the second son of Caribert, king 
 of Hungary. Robert, king of the Two 
 Sicilies, who had robbed Caribert of his 
 lawful throne of Naples, wished to restore 
 it to the rightful heirs, he himself having 
 no children. With this view he married, 
 in 1333, Andrew, his grand-nephew, 
 to Jane, his gi-and-daughter. Andrew 
 was then only seven years of age, but 
 showed early symptoms of resolution 
 and independence. Robert had Jane 
 crowned alone, and gave him only the 
 title of duke of Calabria. The vices of 
 451 
 
 liis wife led her to form a conspiracy 
 against her husband, and her paramour, 
 Louis of Tarentum, and an infamous 
 female attendant, Philippine Cabane, 
 m-ged her to assassinate him. In fact, 
 he was murdered at Aversa, in the year 
 1345, at the age of only nineteen years. 
 (This and the three Hungarian kings are 
 chiefly taken fi-om the Biog. Universelle.) 
 
 ANDREW, (Tobias, 1604—1676,) 
 grandson through his mother to John 
 Piscator, was upwards of forty years pro- 
 fessor of history and Greek literature at 
 Groningen. His admiration of Des 
 Cartes led him to undertake the prosecu- 
 tion instituted by that philosopher against 
 Martin Schoockius, for accusing him of 
 atheism. The accuser in the cud ac- 
 knowledged Des Cartes's innocence, but 
 was allowed to escape without punishment. 
 Andrew published two pieces in. defence 
 of Des Cartes's philosophy, and gave 
 lectures on it at his own house. 
 
 ANDREW, (James, 1773—1833,) was 
 educated at Aberdeen. When the East 
 India Company resolved to educate the 
 young men intended for tlie artillery 
 service separately from the king's cadets, 
 they made choice of Dr. Andrew's pri- 
 vate seminary for that purpose, and 
 shortly afterwards purchasing Addis- 
 combe house, Dr. Andrew was established 
 as head master and professor of mathe- 
 matics — a post which he filled with great 
 diligence till within ten years of his 
 death. He was the author of a Hebrew 
 grammar and dictionary, some astrono- 
 mical tables, and other pieces. He died 
 at Edinburgh. (See Gent. Magazine for 
 July 1833.) 
 
 ANDREWES,(Gerrard, 1750—1825,) 
 a clergyman of great piety and consi- 
 dei'able abilities as a preacher, who, 
 although he published very little, did 
 much by his character and attainments 
 to spread serious feelings among the 
 higher classes of his contemporaries in 
 England. He was born at Leicester, 
 and educated at Westminster school, fi'om 
 which place he was elected scholar, and 
 subsequently fellow of Trinity college, 
 Cambridge. From the year 1772 to 1784, 
 he filled the place of assistant master at 
 Westminster, and during this period 
 became known as a preacher in London. 
 In 1802, he was collated to the rectory 
 of St. James's, Westminster, by Bishop 
 Porteus ; and in 1809, he was made dean 
 of Canterbury. In 1812, he was offered 
 the bishopric of Chester by Lord Liver- 
 pool, vt'hich he declined, thinking so 
 arduous a station would be better filled 
 
 GG 2 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 by one younger and more capable of 
 active exertion than himself. There are 
 extant from his pen two sermons preached 
 on public occasions, and some lectures 
 in the publication styled Onesimus. (An- 
 nual Obituary for 1825.) 
 
 ANDREWS, (Lancelot,) successively 
 bishop of Chichester, Ely, and Winchester, 
 was born, of respectable and pious pa- 
 rents, Sept. 2,5, in the year 1555, in 
 Thames-street, in the parish of AUhallows 
 Barking. His father, who was descended 
 from an ancient family, settled in Suffolk, 
 passed tlie greater part of his life on the 
 sea, and was, during the latter years of his 
 life, one of the masters of the Trinity- 
 house. At an early age, young Andrews 
 Avas sent to Cooper's free-school, in Rad- 
 cliffe, then imder the direction of Mr. 
 Ward, by whose generous solicitation he 
 ■was destined to receive a liberal educa- 
 tion, his parents having originally in- 
 tended him for some other occupation. 
 From Radcliffe he was removed to ^ler- 
 chant Tailors', and was placed under the 
 care of Mr. Mulcaster, a schoolmaster of 
 very considerable eminence. Under both 
 these masters he made rapid progress in 
 his studies, and laid the foundation of 
 his extraordinary learning, and great 
 facility in acquiring languages, for which 
 he was, in after life, so much distin- 
 guished. His natural abilities, for which 
 he was even then remarkable, were still 
 more enhanced by his assiduous and 
 earnest application, it being a, never- 
 failing practice with him to rise at four 
 in the morning to prosecute his studies, 
 and so continue them, with little intei'- 
 ruption, until late at night. In this custom 
 he persevered to advanced years, even 
 when his station in the church, and his 
 maturer years, seemed to demand from him 
 a greater degree of indulgence. Until 
 twelve at noon he disliked to be dis- 
 turbed in his prayers, his meditations, 
 and his study, saying of any who ven- 
 tured to call upon him, or interrupt him, 
 that he feared they were no scholars, or 
 else they would have better estimated the 
 value of time. 
 
 The progress which he thus made 
 under his early masters, and their care 
 and attention, was never forgotten by 
 him in his most exalted state ; for he 
 ever studied to do them good, and to 
 repay them Avith grateful kindnesses. 
 Dr. Ward he promoted to the parsonage 
 of Waltham ; Mr. Mulcaster he assisted 
 liberally, and left his son Peter a legacy 
 of 20/. And, as if desirous of never for- 
 getting the respect which he owed to his 
 452 
 
 early schoolmaster, he placed his picture 
 conspicuously over the door, to serve as a 
 constant memorial of one who had been 
 the earliest director of his studies. 
 
 His excellent parts attracting the 
 notice of Dr. Watts, prebend residentiary 
 of St. Paul's, and archdeacon of Middle- 
 sex, who, about this time, had founded 
 some new scholarships at Pembroke Hall, 
 in Cambridge, young Andrews was ap- 
 pointed, by him, a scholar on his new 
 foundation ; and he often lamented, in 
 after life, that he never could find a fit 
 opportunity of showing his thankfulness 
 to Dr. Watts, or to any of his posterity ; 
 but to express his gi-atitude in some 
 degree, he founded two fellowships for 
 the same college, ordering thatDr.Watts's 
 scholars should, in all elections for the 
 same, have the preference whenever they 
 were found eligible. 
 
 Having taken his degree of B.A., he 
 was chosen a fellow of his college ; his 
 competitor being Dr. Dove, afterwards 
 lord bishop of Peterborough ; and about 
 the same time he was appointed one 
 of the first fellows of Jesus college, Ox- 
 ford, then newly founded by Hugh Price. 
 His reputation as a scholar and divine, 
 not slight before, was now greatly en- 
 hanced by his appointment to the divi- 
 nity lectureship in his college. In this 
 new capacity he delivered his celebrated 
 catechetical lectures on the ten com- 
 mandments, every Saturday and Sunday, 
 at three o'clock in the afternoon ; and 
 so eminent was his character, that not 
 only the members of the nniversitj'-, 
 but persons from the country flocked to 
 hear him. Nor is it sui-prising that 
 these lectures should have attracted so 
 much attention ; they show the deep 
 foundations which he had then laid in 
 the best learning of every kind, and the 
 great abilities and parts with which he 
 was furnished. " He that shall read and 
 peruse these labours of this reverend 
 author (justly observes the writer of the 
 Preface to the second edition, 1650) will 
 find them to be as useful and profitable 
 as any hitherto extant in this kind ; and 
 that they contain the most full, complete, 
 learned, and elaborate body of practical 
 divinity that hath been hitherto pub- 
 lished." They show that he had, even 
 then, " gone through the whole ency- 
 clopsedie of divine and human learning," 
 and into these lectures he distilled the 
 very quintessence of all his vast studies, 
 and the matured and active conceptions 
 of his noble soul. It may well raise our 
 admiration, how any scholar at so early 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 and young an age (for lie was then but 
 thirty) could have so completely mastered 
 the writings of fathers, schoolmen, ca- 
 suists, and jurists. So ripe an ac- 
 quaintance with any one class had 
 been enough for a staple reputation for 
 general scholars, but his knowledge in all 
 was equally profound ; so that he alone 
 was master of all, as completely as if he 
 had devoted his time to one subject onl}'. 
 Indeed, so surpassing were his abilities 
 and attainments, that of him it might be 
 tiidy said, more truly than ever it was of 
 the person to whom the words were origi- 
 nally applied : Scientia magna, memoria 
 major, judicium maximum, atindustriain- 
 Jinita ; his knowledge was great, his me- 
 mory greater, his judgment exceeded 
 both, but his labour and industry were 
 infinite, and went beyond them all. 
 
 In what estimation these Lectm^es were 
 held, may be inferred from the fact of 
 their being published by a presbyterian 
 bookseller, and a presbyterian editor, in 
 1642, under the following title : — "The 
 Moral Law Expounded — 1. Largely; 
 2. Learnedly ; 3. Orthodoxly. That is, 
 the long-expected and nuich-desired work 
 of Bishop Andrews on the Command- 
 ments ; being his Lectures, many years 
 since, in Pembroke-hall chapel, which 
 have ever since passed from hand to 
 hand in manuscripts, and been accounted 
 one of the greatest treasures of private 
 libraries, but never before this published 
 in print ; and hereunto is annexed nine- 
 teen Sermons of his, on Prayer in general, 
 and upon the Lord's Prayer in parti- 
 cidar. Also seven Sermons upon our 
 Saviour's Temptations in the Wilderness ; 
 both which two latter treatises, though 
 before printed, yet being much worn out 
 of press, were thought fit, for divers 
 reasons, to be added to this work." 
 
 The publisher of this work was the noto- 
 rious puritan bookseller who published 
 Prynne's works, Michael Sparke, who has 
 placed his own eflSgy among the spectators 
 to Laud's trial, prefixed to Prynne's Hid- 
 den Works of Darkness. It was dedicated, 
 by John Jackson, to the two houses of 
 parliament, who was probably the same 
 person who, in 1643, a year after this 
 publication, formed one of the assembly of 
 divines, and was preacher at Gray's Inn, 
 (see Wood's Fasti, i. p. 279.) He was 
 a member of the university of Cam- 
 bridge, and in all probability one of 
 the bishop's auditors ; for he says, in his 
 Dedication, " The author of this book is 
 enough praised in naming of him ; it was 
 Dr. Andrews, the late bishop of Win- 
 453 
 
 Chester, a man, both at home and abroad, 
 of a good favour for his regular and strict 
 life ; of whom the less is said, the more 
 is said, for that to fetch lustre to his 
 name from a mean style or pen, is to go 
 northward for heat. The work itself is 
 such as, in those days when it was 
 preached, he was scarce reputed a pre- 
 tender to learning and piety, then in 
 Cambridge, who made not himself a 
 disciple of Mr. Andrews by diligently 
 resorting to his lectures ; nor he a pre- 
 tender to the study of divinity who did 
 not transcribe his notes ; and, ever since, 
 they have in many hundreds of copies 
 passed from hand to hand." These ex- 
 tracts are sufficient to show in what 
 estimation he was held by all parties, 
 and this testimony to his integrity coming 
 from a presbyterian divine is the more 
 remarkable, since they seldom failed to 
 asperse, most unjustly, the prelatical 
 divines, as they termed them. 
 
 But, as might be expected from the 
 method of its publication, in this edition of 
 his Lectures, these dejecta membra retained 
 scarcely the lineaments of the original, 
 " the rudera of those stateful structures 
 which that skilful architect had made." 
 A new edition was accordingly published, 
 in 1650, with a very learned and judicious 
 preface, the writer of which it is not easy to 
 discover, but who is stated to have had 
 some relation to the author. He published 
 these Lectures from the bishop's own copy, 
 containing many alterations which had 
 been made from j'car to year, and some 
 notes were added, chiefly from the bishop's 
 later WTitings, but in a different type. 
 
 It was scarcely to be expected, in a time 
 when nobility sought to patronize learn- 
 ing, that one so eminent should be long 
 suffered to remain in Cambridge. He 
 was invited by Henry, earl of Hunting- 
 don, at that time president of the north, 
 to pay him a visit, with which he com- 
 plied, remaining there some time, em- 
 ploying himself in preaching and in 
 converting the popish recusants, in which 
 he was not without success. But Sir 
 Francis Walsingham, then secretary of 
 state, not willing that sucli excellent 
 parts should remain in a partial obscu- 
 rity, designing to make him a reader of 
 controversies in Cambridge, procured for 
 him, first, the lease of the parsonage of 
 Alton, in Hampsliire ; afterwards, the 
 vicarage of St. Giles's, Cripplegate ; 
 then, in 1589, the prebend of St. Pancras, 
 and residentiary's place of St. Paul's ; 
 and, eventually, a prebend in the colle- 
 giate church of Southwell. 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 A letter which he wrote about tliis 
 time to Sir Francis Walsingham, hitherto 
 unpublished, on the subject of these 
 prebends, is here inserted from the MSS. 
 in the British Museum : — " I do, in 
 humble manner, crave pardon of your 
 honour in that I have not myself at- 
 tended in the re-delivery of the enclosed 
 to render to your honour my bounden 
 duty of thanks for the contents thereof. 
 Being, besides mine exercise to-mor- 
 row, on Monday morning, at the feast of 
 my father's company, to preach at Dept- 
 ford, I promised myself from your 
 honour a favourable dispensation for the 
 forbearing of my presence till then, 
 what time I shall wait on your honour, 
 to present unto the same my unfeigned 
 humble thanks, and not my thanks only, 
 but my service and myself too, to be 
 ordered and employed by your honoiu* 
 every way. The same of my right and 
 duty belonging to your honour, as well 
 in regard of your honour's great bounty 
 to me these years past, which, while I 
 live, I am bound to acknowledge, as now 
 for the instant pi-ocm-ement of these two 
 prebends, the one of them no sooner 
 ended than the other of them straight 
 begun. Tliey are to me both sufficient 
 witnesses of your honour's care for my 
 well-doing, and mindfulness of me upon 
 any occasion. My jjrayer to God is 
 that I may not live unworthy of these so 
 honourable dealings, but that in some 
 sort, as his holy wisdom shall appoint, I 
 may prove serviceable to your honour, 
 and to your honour's chief care, this 
 cluu'ch of ours. What your honour hath, 
 and further shall vouchsafe to promise in 
 my name, in this or aught else, shall be, 
 I trust, so satisfied as shall stand with 
 your honour's liking every way. So, 
 recommending to your honour the per- 
 fecting of j'our honour's own benefit, 
 with my %'ery humble duty I end. 
 
 " The Lord Jesus, of his great good- 
 ness, grant unto this realm long to enjoy 
 your honour. Amen. May 24. 
 
 " Your honoin-'s in all humble duty 
 and service so most bound. 
 
 " L. Andkewes." 
 
 [Addressed]—" To the Right Ho- 
 noiu-able Sir Francis Walsyngham, knight, 
 principal secretary to the Queen's High- 
 ness, and one of her Majesty's most 
 honourable privy council at Barne 
 Elmes." 
 
 [Endorsed]—" 24th May, 1589, from 
 Mr. Andrewes." (MS. Harl. 6994, 
 fol. 96. Original.) 
 
 Bought of H. Wranley.] 
 454 
 
 The lectures which he delivered 
 in St. Giles's church, or rather notes, 
 some notes of them were afterwards 
 published, under the title of Airoaiva- 
 a-fiaria Sacra; or, a Collection of Post- 
 humous and Orphan Lectures, de- 
 livered at St. Paul and St. Giles his 
 Churches, &c. Lond. 1657. The writer 
 of the Preface (T. P.) a true son of the 
 Church of England, candidly acknow- 
 ledges that this volume was only taken 
 by the ear, from the voluble tongue 
 of the dictator, as he delivered them out 
 of the pulpit ; and so are infinitely short 
 of their original perfection ; a confession 
 which is exceedingly true, for they fall 
 far short of the pithy and sententious 
 style of Andrews. Fortunately, from some 
 oversight, one or two of the lectures are 
 but abridgements of the complete sermons 
 in the ninety-sixth collection, so that 
 the reader may judge from the one of 
 the fidelity of the others. It ajipears 
 from tliis, that the bishop sometimes 
 preached his court sermons in the city ; 
 as his admirable one on the Crucifixion, 
 p. 639. But generally to these lectures 
 the bishop's own words were applied, 
 that " when he preached twice a day at 
 St. Giles's, he prated once." 
 
 In 1589, on the death of Dr. Fulke, 
 Margaret professor of divinity, and 
 master of Pembroke hall, Andrews was 
 elected to the vacant mastership, a place 
 of more honour than profit, in which his 
 expenditure far exceeded the emolu- 
 ments. At this time he took his degree of 
 doctor in divinity; and the thesis which he 
 delivered on that occasion, in the public 
 schools, was in defence of tithes ; decimcs 
 non sunt ahrogandce, (since published in 
 his Opuscula, p. 140,) in opposition to 
 the opinions which were then broaching 
 to the contrary. His Concio ad Clerum 
 was taken from Proverbs xx. 25, La- 
 qucus est liomini devorare sacra ; printed 
 also in his Opuscula, p. 1. In both of 
 which he has firmly and temperately set 
 before his hearers the enormity of that 
 crime which was then too prevalent, and 
 countenanced by the highest authorities 
 of the realm. Some few years after this, 
 he was appointed chaplain in ordinary to 
 Queen Elizabeth, who was so much do 
 lighted with him as a preacher, that she 
 conferred upon him, first, a prebend ; 
 and, afterwards, in 1601, the deanery of 
 Westminster, on the death of Dr. Good- 
 man. He preached before her very 
 frequently, in the years 1589, 1590, 
 1593, 1594, 1596, 1597, 1598, 1599, 
 (upon the expedition of the earl of 
 
 4 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 Essex,) and in 1602; but, notwithstand- 
 ing his known piety and ability, like his 
 great contemporary Hooker, he was 
 never raised, during this reign, to any 
 higher ecclesiastical dignity than his 
 deanery of Westminster. He had in- 
 deed (according to his biographers) many 
 offers of a bishopric, and might readily 
 have obtained this promotion would he 
 but have consented to an alienation of 
 revenues, which he consistently and 
 piously resisted. But though his merits 
 were neglected by Queen Elizabeth, he 
 was esteemed and rewarded by her suc- 
 cessor, King James, to whom (what- 
 ever may have been his faults) this 
 country is indebted for encouraging and 
 rewarding, and bringing into publicity, 
 those great men, whom his predecessor 
 suffered to languish in obscin-ity, who 
 have justly been esteemed, throughout 
 the world, the glory of the English na- 
 tion. For Andrews this king ever held the 
 greatest esteem ; though too apt to coarse- 
 ness in his manners and conversation, as 
 Fidler observes,and never over-scrupulous 
 about the cleanness of the way, either in 
 his expressions or his hunting, (provided 
 it was the shortest,) yet in the presence of 
 Andrews he abridged himself of his usual 
 liberty. He appointed him to preach con- 
 tinually in his presence ; made him, first 
 of all, his almoner, then bishop of Chiches- 
 ter, in 1605, and because of the poverty 
 of that see, gave him the parsonage of 
 Cheynham to hold in commendam, which 
 the bishop freed for ever from a pension 
 of 400/., hitherto annually paid by him- 
 self and his predecessors. In 1609 he 
 advanced him to the see of Ely, then 
 appointed him privy counsellor, first for 
 England and Scotland, and afterwards 
 took him with him in his progress 
 through this kingdom; and in 1618 
 preferred him to the see of Winchester, 
 and the deanery of the Chapel Royal. 
 
 " His life," says Bishop Buckeridge, in 
 his funeral sermon, " was a life of 
 prayer ; a great part of five hours every 
 day did he spend in prayer and devotion 
 to God." To one who had led such a 
 mortified and pious life death was a 
 welcome visitor. After the death of 
 his brother, Mr. Thomas Andrews, in 
 the time of the sickness, for whom he 
 entertained a great affection, he began 
 to foretel his own death before the end 
 of the year ; and his brother, Mr. Nicho- 
 las Andrews, dying about the same time, 
 was considered by him as a sure warning 
 for his own departure. From that time 
 until the hour of his dissolution, the rest of 
 455 
 
 his life was spent in prayer, and his prayer- 
 book was seldom out of his hands. In 
 the time of his fever and last sickness, 
 besides the usual praj^ers which were 
 read to him, in which he constantly re- 
 peated the confession to the petitions 
 with an audible voice, as long as hi* 
 strength permitted him, he continually 
 prayed with himself, although apparently 
 in a slumber ; when his voice failed him he 
 prayed by lifting up his hands and eyes ; 
 when voice, hands, and eyes, no longer 
 performed their office, he still prayed 
 with his heart, imtil it pleased God to 
 take his blessed soul. 
 
 So died he, aliorum majore danmo quani 
 suo, to the loss, not only of this church, 
 but of all Christendom. He died on the 
 same day of the year on which he was 
 born, September 25, 1626, about four 
 o'clock in the morning, at Winchester 
 house in Southwark. 
 
 His humility was as profound as his 
 reputation was great, and his abilities 
 pre-eminent. His usual confession of 
 his own insufficiency was, that he was 
 but imdilis scrvus, atque imttile pondus. 
 When promoted to the see of Chichester, 
 he adopted for his motto the words of 
 St. Paul — Et ad hcec quis idoneiis ? 
 
 His bounty and liberality were almost 
 unexamj^led, and being unmarried all 
 his life, he was enabled to gratify his 
 love of hospitality and doing good unto all 
 men. What was once said of an orator, 
 nihil tetigit quod non ornavit, may be 
 applied to him with a little variation, 
 ni/iil tetigit quod non locupletavit ; 
 wherever he came and lived all tasted of 
 his bounty, and all were relieved by his 
 goodness. ' As a parish priest, he distri- 
 buted his alms regularly every Sunday. 
 When in greater estate, his charities in- 
 creased in proportion. His left hand 
 knew not what his right hand disti'ibuted, 
 for his alms were privately administered 
 by his servants. In the last years of his 
 life his private alms amounted to upwards 
 of 1300/. In his last will he left 4000/. 
 to purchase annuities for aged and de- 
 cayed poor men. At St. Giles's he sacri- 
 ficed his own interests for the better 
 maintenance of the place and repairing 
 the house. Pembroke hall, which he 
 received pennyless, he left with ready 
 money in its treasury to the amount of a 
 thousand pounds. When residentiary of 
 St. Paid's, he built the house in Creed-lane 
 belonging to the prebend, and annexed 
 it to the church. He repaired the dean's 
 lodgings in Westminster, the palace at 
 Chichester, and the house in Aiding- 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 boiirne. Upon Ely house in Holboni, 
 Ely palace at Downham, and Wisbech 
 castle, he expended 2000/. ; and the 
 same sum also on Winchester liouse, 
 Farnham, Waltham, and Wolvestry. 
 
 But not satisfied with these expres- 
 sions of a generous spirit, his bounty 
 sought out other channels. He was the 
 most liberal patron of all scholars, either 
 of his own or other nations. He never 
 left the university without leaving 100/. 
 
 or 
 
 50/. to be distributed among the 
 
 poorer scholars. Casaubon, Cluverius, 
 Vossius, Grotius, and Erpenius, were 
 beliolden to his generosity ; and he 
 oftered the last of these scholars a liberal 
 stipend out of his own purse to teach the 
 oi'iental languages in England. 
 
 When dean of Westminster, he gave 
 particidar charge to the masters to use 
 none but the most classical authors ; 
 frequently in his own person supplied 
 the place of head schoolmaster and usher, 
 for the space of a week together ; giving 
 no time for loitering from morning until 
 night. And, still more to encourage the 
 scholars, he caused their exercises in 
 prose and verse to be brought to him, 
 that he might examine their proficiency 
 in style and composition. He never 
 Avalked to Chiswick for his recreation 
 without being accompanied by some of 
 them, and scarcely spent a week without 
 sending two or three times for the upper 
 scholars to his lodgings, and instructing 
 them in the best rudiments of the Greek 
 tongue, and the elements of the Hebrew 
 grammar, and all this without the least 
 severity or compulsion. " Alas," says 
 Hacket, who had thus the happiness of 
 being one of his early pupils, " Alas ! this 
 is but an ivy leaf crept into the laurel of 
 his immortal garland. This is that 
 Andrews, the ointment of whose name is 
 sweeter than all spices. (Cant. iv. 10.) 
 This is that celebrated bishop of Winton, 
 whose learning King James admired 
 above all his chaplains ; and that king 
 being of most excellent parts himself, 
 could the better discover what was emi- 
 nent in another. Indeed, he was the 
 most apostolical and primitive-like di- 
 vine, in my opinion, that wore a rochet, 
 in his age ; of a most venerable gravity, 
 and yet most sweet in all commerce ; 
 the most devout that ever I saw vrhen he 
 appeared before God ; of such a growth 
 in all kinds of learning, that very able 
 clerks were of a low stature to him ; 
 Colossus inter icunculas, full of alms and 
 charity, of which none knew but his 
 Father in secret ; a certain patron to 
 scholars of fame and ability, and chiefly 
 45 G 
 
 to those that never expected it. In the 
 pulpit, an Homer among preachers, and 
 may fitly be set forth, in Quintilian's 
 judgment of Homer, ' Nonne humani 
 ingenii modum excessit? Ut magni fit 
 viri virtutes ejus non aemulatione quod 
 fieri non potest sed intellectu sequi.' 
 I am transported, even as in a rapture, 
 to make this digression ; for who could 
 come near the shrine of such a saint, and 
 not offer a few grains of glory upon it, or 
 how durst I omit it? for he was the first 
 that planted me in my tender studies, 
 and watered them continually with his 
 bounty." (Life of Williams, i. 45.) 
 
 But we must conclude these remarks, 
 however reluctantly, for his very memory 
 is a perfume : — " quantum meniinisse 
 jurabit!" Such of his writings as have 
 not been mentioned before, are here sub- 
 joined : — 1. His Opuscula Posthuma, pub- 
 lished by the same editors, in 1629, 
 containing four Latin sermons, delivered 
 at different times ; a Treatise on Oaths, on 
 Usury, on Tithes, thi-ee Letters, in reply 
 to three of Peter du Moulins, on Episco- 
 pacy — all in Latin ; a brief Answer to 
 the 18th Chap, of the First Book of Card. 
 Perron's Reply, and to the 20th Chap, of 
 the Fifth Book ; a Speech, delivered in 
 the Star-chamber, against Traske ; a 
 Speech, in the same, concerning Vows, 
 in the Countess of Shrewsbui'y's case. 
 
 2. Tortura Torti sive ad Matthei Torti 
 Librum Responsio, pro Juramento Fideli- 
 tatis. Lond. 1609. Being an answer to 
 Card. Bellarmine's upon King James's 
 Book, concerning the oath of allegiance. 
 
 3. Responsio ad Apologiam Card. Bellar- 
 mini quam nuper edidit contra Prsefa- 
 tionem monitoriam, &c. Jacobi Regis. 
 1610. These two, especially the latter, 
 are justly esteemed the most learned of 
 his works. 4. Ninety-six Sermons, first 
 published, in 1628, by William Laud, 
 then bishop of London, and John Bucke- 
 ridge, bishop of Ely, at the king's com- 
 mand. " To them," say the learned 
 editors, " he had been most kind, and in 
 them he most excelled." And, as they 
 fmlher observe, " the christian world 
 hath not many such bodies of sermons." 
 
 5. Private Devotions, Src, first published 
 by Dr. Duke, in 1648, and the author's 
 original Greek and Latin at Oxford, in 
 1675. An accurate translation of this 
 exquisite production has lately been pub- 
 lished by the Rev. Suter Hall; 1839. 
 
 6. Institutiones Pie ; or, Holy Devo- 
 tions ; published originally under the 
 name of H. I. (Henry Isaacson) in 1630, 
 but generally ascribed, and not without 
 reason, to Bishop Andrews. 7. Various 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 Letters in the Epistolse Remonstrantium ; 
 and the Letters of Casaubon ; and a single 
 Letter respecting the Woi'ks of Hooker, 
 
 ANDREWS, or ANDREWE, (Euse- 
 bius,) a colonel in the service of King 
 Cliarles I. He served that sovereign 
 with great courage till the defeat at 
 Worcester in 1645, after which he retired 
 to London, and did not mingle in public 
 business. He was closely watched by 
 the parliament, but appears to have con- 
 ducted himself with prudence, till urged 
 in 1649 to join in a plot for seizing on 
 the isle of Ely, and promoting the 
 return of Charles IL He was led into 
 this by a spy, named Barnard, who was 
 afterwards hanged for a robbery. Col. 
 Andrews, however, saw that this coidd 
 not answer, and refused to enter upon it ; 
 but was induced to go to Gravesend in 
 furtherance of another scheme for King 
 Charles IL, where he was apprehended, 
 and afterwards executed, having been 
 tried before the High Court of Justice. 
 He drew up a protest against this court, 
 which is supposed to have had much influ- 
 ence in procuring its suppression. (Biog. 
 Brit.) 
 
 ANDREWS, (James Pettit, 1737— 
 1797,) an English gentleman, who during 
 the last ten years of his life published 
 several pieces which prove him to have 
 been a man of considerable reading and 
 judgment. Among these are, A Collec- 
 tion of Anecdotes, 2 vols, 8vo, 1789-90; 
 the History of Great Britain connected 
 with the Chronology of Europe, from the 
 Conquest to the Accession of Edward VI. 
 2 vols, 4to, 1794-95 ; a Continuation of 
 Henry's History of Great Britain, 1 vol, 
 4to, 1796. 
 
 ANDREWS, (Peter Miles, died 1814,) 
 the second son of a London merchant, 
 who by his talents and wealth rose to a 
 considerable rank in the world of fashion. 
 His father's acquaintance with Garrick 
 and Foote led him to turn his thoughts 
 to the stage, and he composed some ten 
 or twelve dramatic pieces, a list of which 
 may be seen in the Gentleman's Maga- 
 zine for August 1814. On the death 
 of his eldest brother, he came into the 
 possession of a large fortune, derived 
 from some powder mdls. He was 
 lieutenant-colonel of the St. Martin's 
 volimteers, raised during the war, and at 
 the time of his death member for Bewd- 
 ley — a place which he had represented 
 diu'ing several successive parliaments. 
 
 ANDREZEL, (Barthelemi Philibert 
 Pigon d', 1757—1825,) a French eccle- 
 siastic of noble family. Eai'ly in life he 
 was enriched by valuable preferment, 
 457 
 
 but refusing to take the oath tendered 
 to the clergy in 1792, he retired to 
 England. On his return to his native 
 country, he maintained himself for some 
 time by writing articles in the news- 
 papers. Shortly after the establishment 
 of the new university at Paris, he was 
 named one of its inspectors-general — a 
 post which he filled till compelled to 
 retire in 1824. He translated into French 
 the historical fragment of Fox, 2 vols, 
 Svo, 1809. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRI. See Andry. 
 
 ANDRIA, (Niccola, 1748—1814,) an 
 Italian physiologist. He was a native 
 of Massafra, and educated at Naples, 
 where he exchanged the study of law 
 for that of the natural sciences. He be- 
 gan with experimental chemistry, which 
 he taught at twenty-three years of age ; 
 and after an unsuccessful contest with 
 Domenico Cirillo in 1775 for the chair 
 of practical medicine, he became pro- 
 fessor of agricidture, then of physiology, 
 (1801,) and then, in 1808, of theoretical 
 medicine, and lastly, in 1811, of patho- 
 logy ; but his health failed very soon 
 after. He Avrote, 1. Sidle Acque Mine- 
 ral i ; 2d ed. Naples, 1783. 2. Istitu- 
 zioni di Chimica Filosofica ; 3d ed. 1803. 
 
 3. Elementi di Fisiologia, 2d ed. 1801. 
 
 4. Dissertazione sulla Teoria della Vita, 
 1804. 5. Elementi di Medicina Leorica, 
 (1787, in Laiin,) translated into Italian 
 in 1814, by his son. 6. Storia dci Ri- 
 medi, 1787; and 7. Istituzioni di Me- 
 dicina Pratica, 1 790 ; both of which 
 were republished in Italian in 1811 and 
 1812 by Dr. Tauro. From the analysis 
 given of these works by his biographer, 
 they appear to contain many doubtful 
 opinions, but he claims for them the 
 merit of anticipating several discoveries 
 of men of other nations. But it must 
 be remembered, that it is not uncommon 
 among the Italians to make such claims. 
 (St.Grottanelli de Santi, in Tipaldo, i. 210.) 
 
 ANDRIEN, (Marie Martin Antoine, 
 1768 — 1802,) entered the French army 
 as captain in 1791, and by his bravery 
 raised himself within ten years to the 
 rank of adjutant-general. It is probable 
 that Napoleon did not consider him 
 entirely devoted to his person and pro- 
 jects, as he was ordered to join the fatal 
 expedition to St. Domingo, where he 
 soon fell a victim to the ravages of the 
 climate. (Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRIEU, (Bertrand, 1761—1822,) 
 a celebrated engraver of medals. He 
 was born at Bordeaux, (24th Nov.) and 
 gave early intimation of his talents. 
 Proceeding to Paris at a very early age, 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 to use the cautious language of the Sup- 
 plement to the Biographic Universelle, 
 " he was for forty years charged with the 
 execution of the medals relative to the 
 most important events." This was puh- 
 lished in 1834. What those important 
 events were, will be inferred from the 
 statement that in the " MedaUic History 
 of Napoleon," (London, 4to, 1819, and 
 Supplement, 1821,) — a work in M'hich a 
 series of upwards of five hundred medals, 
 coins, and jettons, is described and en- 
 graved, — more than sixty of the works 
 of Andrieu are enumerated and figured. 
 The writer in the Biog. Univ. selects for 
 commendation Andricu's Great Minerva 
 sitting, distributing crowns ; the eques- 
 trian statue of Henry IV. ; Vaccination ; 
 Study ; the Re-establishment of Divine 
 Worship ; and France in Mourning on 
 the 20th March ; many of which medals 
 belong to the Napoleon series. See for 
 example Nos. 61, 93, and 269, in the 
 work last cited. The works of Andrieu 
 are recognisable by the words Andrieu 
 FECIT, and more commonly by the shorter 
 inscription Andrieu f. One medal is 
 inscribed merely An. It is observable, 
 however, that on many occasions, he ex- 
 ecuted the obverse alone, — or the reverse 
 alone ; and, in some instances, the same 
 obverse recurs in connexion with a va- 
 riety of reverses. The testimony which 
 Mr. Millingen, the learned editor of the 
 work above quoted, bears, in his preface, 
 to Andrieu's mei'it, deserves to be cited 
 in this place : " The heads (of Napoleon), 
 by Andrieu and Droz, from the bust of 
 Chaudet, are some of the best executed 
 since the revival of the arts. To a strik- 
 ing resemblance, they unite ideal beauty 
 and character. This union is what dis- 
 tinguishes the portraits of ancient artists, 
 and what ought to be the principal object 
 with sculptors and artists when they take 
 resemblances." 
 
 Andrieu may be justly said to have 
 been eminently instrumental in rescuing 
 the art, to which he devoted his energies, 
 from the state of inferiority and decay in 
 whicli he found it ; but his health, which 
 had been early impaired, was at last 
 broken by his indefatigable assiduity ; 
 and he died (6th Dec.) a few months 
 after finisliing the medal struck by order 
 of the prefect of the Seine, on the occa- 
 sion of the birth of the duke of Bordeaux. 
 Louis XVIII created him a chevalier of 
 the order of St. Michel. 
 
 ANDRIEUX, (Francis William John 
 Stanislaus, 1759—1833,) a French dra- 
 matist and poet. He was born at Stras- 
 458 
 
 burgh, and educated at Paris for the 
 legal profession. In 1781, he was ad- 
 mitted advocate at the parliament of 
 Paris. The weakness of his constitution 
 and voice did not alloAV his abilities fidl 
 play as a pleader ; he nevertheless applied 
 himself with diligence and success to his 
 profession, till the appearance of his 
 comedy of Les Etourdis, in 1787, placed 
 him in the first rank of living authors. 
 On the breaking out of the French 
 Revolution, he sided with the party 
 which declared for liberty, and was ap- 
 pointed Chef de bureau a la liquidation 
 genei-ale. He filled this office with great 
 integrity till his dismissal after the revo- 
 lution of the 31st of May, 1793. In 
 1796 he was appointed one of the judges 
 in the court of repeal, and imanimously 
 chosen vice-president. Having resigned 
 this post, in 1798 he was chosen one of 
 tlie council of the five hundred, in which 
 body his knowledge of jurisprudence 
 and political science speedily raised him 
 to distinction. He was appointed tribune 
 in 1800; his love of liberty, however, 
 made him obnoxious to Napoleon, whose 
 decree rednced him, with Benjamin 
 Constant, Ginguene, Daunon, and others, 
 to the ranks of private life. He was 
 offered the censorship of the press by 
 Fouche, but his independent spirit shrunk 
 from accepting an office which he looked 
 on as a disgrace to a nation of freemen. 
 He had been in early life the friend of 
 Joseph Buonaparte, who did not forget 
 him on his elevation to the dignity of 
 prince : Andrieux was appointed his li- 
 brarian, with a salary of 6000 fi-ancs. 
 In 1804 he was made librarian to the 
 senate, and shortly afterwards professor 
 of belles-lettres and examiner at I'Ecole 
 Polytechnique, where his lectures drew 
 crowded audiences. In 1807 he pub- 
 lished his Cours de Grammaire et de 
 Belles Lettres, in 4to. In 1814 he was 
 appointed professor of literature in the 
 Royal College at Paris, in which station 
 he remained greatly honoured until his 
 death. A lengthened criticism on his 
 dramatic pieces, in which his wit and 
 taste are very highly commended, may 
 be seen in the Suppl. Biog. Univ. 
 
 ANDRIOT, (Francois,) an engraver 
 who worked bills in France and Italy, 
 was born in Paris about 1655. He en- 
 graved several historical and other prints 
 from pictiues by the greatest masters, 
 executed principally with the graver in 
 the style of Francois de Poilly, but they 
 are far inferior to that artist's works. His 
 drawing is .stifi', and the extremities of 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 tlie figures heavy. One of his plates is 
 dated 1672, and another 1G91. (Hei- 
 necken, Diet, des Artistes. Strutt's Diet, 
 of Eng. 
 
 ANDRISCUS, according to Pausan, 
 vii. 1 3, the son of Perseus, and the grand- 
 son of Phihp, thence called Pseudo- 
 Philip by Strabo, xiii. p. 926, and Appian, 
 Punic, ss. 135, commenced the third 
 Macedonian war against the Romans, 
 B.C. 150. Although of the meanest 
 origin, and uncertain, says Florus, iii. 14, 
 whether he was a slave or a freeman, yet 
 trusting to the resemblance he bore to the 
 person of Philip, he laid claim to the throne 
 of his pretended parent, and after defeat- 
 ing the prjfitor Juventius, or according to 
 Eutropius, iv. 14, Panaetius, he was de- 
 feated in turn by Metellus, assisted, says 
 Strabo, by Attains, and carried to Rome 
 . to grace the triumph of the conqueror, 
 after he had been treacherously given 
 up by a petty prince in Thrace, to whom 
 he had fled for refuge. Such is the 
 account of Florus. In Liv. Epitom. 49, 
 the story is told with all the interest of a 
 modern romance. Secretly leaving Rome, 
 whither he had been sent by Demetrius 
 Soter, king of Syria, as the son of Per- 
 seus of Macedon, he got together an 
 army, and seized upon the whole of 
 Macedonia, willing to receive or unable 
 to oppose him. There he gave out that 
 he was the illegitimate son of Perseus, 
 and had been entrusted to the care of a 
 Cretan to bring him up, in case of his 
 father falling in his contest with the 
 Romans ; that on the death of Perseus 
 he lived till his twelfth year at Adra- 
 niy tteum in the Troad, conceiving himself 
 to be really the son of his foster-father ; 
 but that he discovered the secret of his 
 birth by means of a document written 
 in the hand of Perseus, and with his 
 seal affixed, which his foster-mother was 
 ordered to give him wlien he had grown 
 up, but in the mean time to keep the mat- 
 ter a profound secret. On opening the 
 papers, he learned that his father had 
 deposited money in two places of con- 
 cealment — for such is probably the 
 meaning of the duo tliesauri in the ori- 
 ginal. In fear for his life, should the 
 news of his existence reach the ears of 
 his fatlier's enemy Eumenes, the Moman 
 urged him to leave her roof, when he 
 put himself under the protection of 
 Demetrius, and in Syria first publicly 
 declared who he was ; but on his invasion 
 of Thessaly met with the fate already 
 described. Lucian says he was a fuller ; 
 but Ammianus Marcellinus, the son of 
 459 
 
 one, and that he taught the legitimate 
 son of Perseus the trade of a blacksmith, 
 to enable the youth to obtain his liveli- 
 hood. 
 
 ANDRISCUS. Of the historian of 
 Naxus nothing is known but from a 
 passing quotation by Athernaedus, ii. p. 78, 
 and Parthenius Erolic. ss. 9. 
 
 ANDROCLES, a demagogue of Athens, 
 and one of those who accused Alcibiades 
 of mutilating the HerniiE, and mimickhig 
 the mysteries at a wine-party, according 
 to Plutarch, in Alcibiad. ss. 19. Ari- 
 stotle, Rhetor, ii. 19, has perpetuated and 
 found fault with a saying of his, who 
 when the mob were displeased at his 
 remarking that " the laws required a law 
 to put them right," added, "and so does 
 fish salt, to keep it sweet." 
 
 ANDROCLIDES OF THEBES was, 
 with his friend Ismenias, of tlie democratic 
 faction, and wlien the opposite party had 
 put the Spartans in possession of the 
 citadel during the feast of Ceres, he was 
 compelled to quit his country. According 
 to Pausanias, he was one of the political 
 leaders, who, with Ismenias and Galax- 
 idorus received a portion of the gold 
 which Timocrates the Rhodian carried to 
 Greece from the Persian coiu't, as stated 
 by Xenoph. H. Cr. iii. 5. 
 
 ANDROCLIDES, the son of Synesius 
 the Lydian philosopher, taught in the 
 time of Porphyry, of whom he made 
 mention in his work on contemporary 
 rhetoricians. 
 
 ANDROCYDES, a physician, men- 
 tioned in Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xiv. cap. 
 5, as having wi'itten a letter to Alexander 
 the Great, warning him against the im- 
 moderate use of wine. He is also said 
 to have observed that the vine seemed 
 to avoid and turn away from a radish, 
 if growing near it ; and therefore ordered 
 his patients to eat one as a preservative 
 against intoxication. (Plin. Hist. Nat. 
 lib. xvii. cap. 24, sub fin.) 
 
 ANDROMACHUS, the father of Ti- 
 mseus the historian, of whom Plutarcli, 
 in Timoleon, ss. 11, says, that when a 
 Carthaginian ambassador, imperfectly 
 acquainted with the Greek spoken at 
 Tauromenium, arrived there, and bade the 
 people send away their Corinthian allies, 
 he threatened on their refusal to destroy 
 the city — an act which he represented 
 by first turning up the palm of his hand, 
 and then turning it down again, and 
 saying that such the town had been, and 
 such it would be. Tickled with this 
 piece of pantomimic eloquence, Andro- 
 machus made no other reply than by 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 turning up the palm of lils hand likewise, 
 and then inclining it downward, and 
 telling the ambassador to depart forth- 
 with, vmless he wished his vessel to be 
 not on the water, but under it: 
 
 ANDROMACHUS, (the sophist,) of 
 Neapolis, in Syria, was the son of Zonas, 
 or Sabinus, and taught at Nicomedia in 
 the time of Diocletian. 
 
 ANDROMACHUS, (the elder,) a na- 
 tive of Crete, and physician to the 
 emperor Nero, abotit the year 65 A. d. 
 He is famous for being the inventor of a 
 celebrated compound medicine called 
 Theriaca, {QrjpiaKi]) ; and also for being 
 the first person who bore the title of 
 Archiater, (Apxiarpos.) The Theriaca 
 was composed originally as an antidote 
 against poisonous animals, (whence its 
 name, from drjpiov, a venomous animal,) 
 and superseded that which IMitliridates 
 invented, and called after his own name, 
 Mithridate, (Galen, de Antid. lib. i. 
 cap. 1 ;) it afterwards, however, began 
 to be considered a kind of specific against 
 all sorts of diseases, and got into such 
 repute that the emperor Marcus Aure- 
 lius Antonihus used to take a small 
 quantity eveiy day, (Galen, ibid.) This 
 reputation it has maintained until quite 
 modern times ; no preparation which was 
 not composed exactly according to the 
 directions given by Andromachus would 
 satisfy the public ; the composition of it 
 was considered an important affair of 
 state, particularly at Venice, where it 
 was to be had in such perfection that 
 Venice treacle, and treacle of Androma- 
 chus, were synonymous, (see Salmon's 
 New London Dispensatory, 1678) ; and 
 in Paris, even as late as 1787, it was pre- 
 pared with certain medical ceremonies and 
 solemnities, (Sprengel, Hist, de la Med.) 
 It consisted of more than sixty ingre- 
 dients, squill, opium, pepper, various 
 gums, &c. ; the most important part, 
 however, in the opinion of the ancients, 
 was a dried viper's flesh ; and it was 
 the addition of this substance principally 
 which made it superior to the Mithri- 
 date, with which in most other of its 
 component parts it exactly agreed. An- 
 dromachus has left us the directions for 
 mailing this strange compound, in a 
 Greek elegiac poem of one hundred and 
 seventy-four lines, which is dedicated to 
 the emperor Nero, and is the only work 
 he ever published. Galen says (loco 
 cit.) that he chose to put his formula 
 into verse in order to secure it from be- 
 ing altered after his death ; and he has 
 himself inserted it at full length in his 
 460 
 
 treatise De Antidotis, (lib. i. cap. 6. torn, 
 xiv. pp. 32—42, ed. Ktihn.) 
 
 With respect to the title of Archiater, 
 there appears to have been great 
 doubts and discussions as to its pre- 
 cise meaning, viz. whether it was phy- 
 sician to the emperor, or head (or 
 chief) of the physicians ; though, 
 judging from the analogy of other words 
 similarly compounded, {e, g. apxi^fpe^s, 
 apxi-enia-KOTTos, &c.) it seems tolerably 
 certain that the latter is the original and 
 true sense of the word, and that the 
 former (in which sense the title is still 
 employed in some foreign countries,) 
 arose naturally from the other, inasmuch 
 as the chief physician, as being at the 
 head of his profession, woiild be most 
 probably chosen to be physician to the 
 sovereign. (For more on the subject 
 of the Archiatri, consult Le Clerc, Hist, 
 de la Med. ; Haller, Bibhoth. Med. 
 Pract. ; and Sprengel, Hist, de la Med.) 
 
 Besides being inserted among the works 
 of Galen, the poem of Andromachus 
 has been published separately. Thorini, 
 1607, 4to. ed. Fr. Tidicseus, Gr. et Lat. ; 
 and Norimberg, 1754, fol. ed. J. S. Lein- 
 kcr, Gr. et Lat. There is a French 
 translation by Moses Charas, printed at 
 Paris, 1668, 12mo; and a German one 
 by E. W. Weber, in his Elegische Dichtcr 
 der Hellenen ; Frankf. a M. 1820, Svo. 
 p. 361. 
 
 ANDROMACHUS, (the yoimger,) son 
 of the preceding, Avas also a physician 
 to tlie emperor Nero. He was the au- 
 tlior of a v>'ork Ilept 2vv6f(re(os '^appaKwv, 
 De Compositione Medicamentorum, di- 
 vided into two books, of which the first 
 treated of external remedies, the second 
 of internal. To these he added a third, 
 on medicines for the eyes, all of which 
 are praised and frequently quoted by 
 Galen, but of which nothing remains. 
 He is also often mentioned by Aetius ; 
 and Erotianus dedicated to him his work, 
 Vocum, qua? apud Hippocratem sunt, 
 Collectio. He invented four-and-twenty 
 remedies for different diseases of the ear, 
 (Gal. de Composit. Medic, secundum Loca, 
 lib. iii. p. 191) ; a great number for 
 haemorrhage, (ibid. p. 202) ; and various 
 plasters, to which he chose to give pom- 
 pous and high-sounding names, (ibid.) 
 But notwithstanding his skill in the com- 
 position of medicines, Galen speaks of 
 him as not at all superior to his contem- 
 poraries in the art of using them. 
 
 ANDRON. Of this name we meet 
 with the persons follovi'ing. L A mu- 
 sician of Catana, who, according to 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 Theophrastus, was the first to accompany 
 music with the motions of the body. II. 
 An historian of Halicarnassus, known 
 only by the quotations in Phitarch, Thcs. 
 ss. 25, Eudocia, p. 439. Tzetzes on Ly- 
 cophon, and the Schol. on Homer and 
 jEschylus. III. A musician and geome- 
 trician, the master of Marcus Antoninus, 
 as stated by Julius Capitolinus. IV. A 
 biographer of Ephesvis, who wrote on the 
 seven wise men of Greece, as mentioned 
 by Diogen. Laert. i. 119, Clem. Alex- 
 andi-. and Schol. on Pindar. To the 
 same person has been attributed a trea- 
 tise on Sacrifices, quoted by ApoUon. 
 Dyscol. Hist. Mirab. ss. 8. V. A tra- 
 veller, who crossed a desert in Africa 
 without drinking, as stated by Aristotle 
 and Diog. Laert. ix. 81. VI. A navigator 
 of Teos, mentioned by Schol. on Apollon. 
 Rhod. VII. A physician, known from 
 Athenffius, Galen and Celsus. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, an actor, who obtain- 
 ed some celebrity by his performance of 
 a play of jEschylus, or as Brimck thinks, 
 of Sophocles; for Athenseus, who mentions 
 the anecdote, does not give the name of 
 the dramatist in xiii. p. 584. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, (M. Livius,) the 
 earliest dramatic writer in Roman litera- 
 ture, and a lyric, and by his translation 
 of the Odysseia, an epic poet. He be- 
 gan to exhibit b. c. 240. But there is 
 considerable difficulty in reconciling with 
 one another the facts that have been pre- 
 served respecting him. He was probably 
 a Tarentine Greek, perhaps a captive, 
 and a freed man of the Livian house, 
 whence he dei-ived his principal name. 
 M. Livius Salinator, whose children he 
 is said to have instructed, and who, 
 according to the usual account, emanci- 
 pated him, and was his patron, was Con- 
 sul I. in 219 B. c, twenty- one years 
 after the first exhibition of Livius. Cicero 
 Brutus, 1 8, notices the error into which 
 Ateius, (Attius, Arrj'ios ; see Appian. 
 Bell. Syr. and Plutarch, Crassus, c. IG ; 
 also Sueton. de 111. Gramm. c. 10,) has 
 fallen, and which perhaps led Hieronym. 
 in Euseb. Chronic. 01. 148, 2, into a 
 farther mistake of fixing Livius's first 
 performance at b. c. 187, (see Scaliger's 
 Note ad loc.) ; but he does not draw the 
 conclusion, that had Andronicus been 
 taken when Fabius recovered Tarentum, 
 B. c. 209, he was, probably, nearly fifty 
 years old (Cic. de Senect. c.) when he 
 began to adapt plays to the Roman stage, 
 and when he sang, recited, acted, and 
 danced in them himself. Andronicus 
 died about 533—540 u. c. (221—214 
 4G1 
 
 E. c.) Hence, if Andronicus were cap- 
 tured at Tarentum, and not a purchased 
 slave, it was more likely when that city 
 was first taken in 272 b. c, after the war 
 with Pyrrhus, by the consuls L. Papi- 
 rius Censor, and Sp. Carvilius Maximus, 
 than in 209, when it was recovered. And 
 it is also probable that he was emanci- 
 pated by some member of the Livian 
 house elder than Salinator. 
 
 Cicero compares Livius's translation of 
 the Odysseia, which was in the Saturnian 
 measure, to an old carving of Daedalus, 
 and his plays he pronounces unworthy 
 to be read. The poems of Livius were, 
 however, cried up during the antiquarian 
 fever that prevailed at Rome in the age 
 of Augustus ; and they were used as 
 school-books in the boyhood of Horace, 
 (see Hor. Ep. ii. i. v. 70.) In the year 
 B. c. 207, probably after the defeat of 
 Hasdrubal on the Metaurus, the priest- 
 hood ordered a solemn procession to the 
 temple of Jupiter Stator, (the Stayer of 
 flight, see Liv. i. c. 12 ;) and a hymn 
 from the poems of Andronicus, — for ac- 
 cording to the computation we have 
 adopted it could not have been written 
 by him for the occasion, — was chauiited 
 by twenty-seven young virgins of noble 
 houses. These various productions, how- 
 ever rude and imperfect, were invalua- 
 ble at a time when the Romans had 
 not begun to imitate a foreign litera- 
 ture, and were dependent for amuse- 
 ment on Greek slaves or Etruscan 
 mimes. His dramatic performances 
 were an epoch in Roman art, since, 
 although the spectators thought them 
 flat in comparison with the native farce 
 and pantomime, the favourite enter- 
 tainment of the Italians in every age, 
 they introduced the practice of some- 
 thing more refined ; and from about this 
 time the favourite after-pieces (exodia) of 
 the Roman stage were appropriated to 
 the popular taste, while song and recita- 
 tion of a mythic or heroic story, (Tabula,) 
 became the more decorous part of the 
 exhibitions. Livius was the author of 
 the singular distinction between the spoken 
 and the acted performances that prevailed 
 on the Roman stage, until the action 
 superseded the dialogue, and the audience 
 beheld in silent wonder, or with eager 
 applause, the mute contests of Pylades 
 and Bathyllus. — For having become 
 hoarse with the repetition of his part in 
 some popular recitation, he obtained 
 leave to employ a slave to play on the 
 flute, and recite the words of the mono- 
 logue, while liimself furnished the accom- 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 paniment of acting. It is disputed (see 
 Osann. Analect. Critic) whether the first 
 performance of Livius were a tragedy or 
 comedy. The fragments and titles of his 
 plays, and of his version of the Odysseia, 
 are collected by Bothe. Poet. Seen. La- 
 tin. V. pp. 7 — 22. Suetonius, de III. 
 Gramm. i., makes him to have been a 
 grammarian, i. e. a public lecturer on 
 language and rhetoric, as well as a lyric 
 and dramatic poet ; but he probably 
 alludes merely to his having instructed 
 the sons of Salinator ; since the profes- 
 sion of grammarian was not introduced 
 at Rome until a later period. His plays 
 were extant in the reign of Numerian. 
 See Vopiscus. in Numerian. c. 13. 
 
 ANDRONICUS I. (Comnenus, 1110 
 — 1185,) the last emperor of the family 
 of Comnenus. He was the son of Isaac, 
 and grandson of Alexis Comnenus. 
 Having been favoured by Manuel, his 
 shameless profligacy, and especially his 
 connexion with Eudoxia, (niece to the 
 emperor, and sister to his mistress,) and 
 his state intrigues, compelled the emperor 
 to confine him in a tower of the palace, 
 in which he passed twelve years. On 
 recovering his liberty he was useful in 
 the Hungarian war, but his excesses, in- 
 trigues, and profligacy, rendered him 
 again suspected. On the death of Ma- 
 nuel, after many crimes perpetrated to 
 attain his object, he became, in September 
 1183, the colleague of Alexis, whose 
 assassination he caused a few days after- 
 wards. His short reign was marked by 
 sanguinary wars, and as sanguinary pi-o- 
 scriptions, till the successful revolt of 
 Isaac Angelus closed his career, and 
 Andronicus was placed in the hands of 
 the populace, who put him to death in 
 the midst of the most cruel torments. 
 (Biog. Univ. See Gibbon also, vol. ix.) 
 
 ANDRONICUS II. (Palseologus, com- 
 monly called Andronicus the Elder, 1258 
 — 1332.) This Greek emperor was the 
 eldest son of Michael Palaeologus, (Gib- 
 bon, ch. G2,) and in the year 1273 se- 
 ceived a share in the throne of his father, 
 and in 1282 was proclaimed sole em- 
 peror. His first object in his johit empire 
 was to bring the Greek and Latin 
 churches again into imion. The means 
 by which this was eflTected are related by 
 Gibbon (ch. 62), with his usual con- 
 temptuous treatment of their differences. 
 His conduct to his brother Constantino 
 Porphyrogenetes, whom he plundered 
 and imprisoned, has been justly con- 
 demned. In 1293 he associated his son 
 Michael in the empire, in the hope of 
 462 
 
 support during the troubles and wars 
 wliich threatened him. The son of 
 Michael, named Andi'onicus (see the 
 next article) demanded on his father's 
 death to be admitted to the same position ; 
 and on the refusal of his grandfather, 
 their quarrels disturbed the empire, till 
 finally, in 1325, he succeeded in this ob- 
 ject. Andronicus the Elder, however, 
 still gave him some uneasiness, and he 
 seized upon the throne, determined to 
 reign alone. In 1330, Andronicus the 
 Elder was compelled to take the monastic 
 habit, in which he died, under the name 
 of Brother Antony. (Gibbon, vol. xi. 
 ch. 62, 63. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRONICUS III. (Palaeologus, 
 died 1341.) He was the grandson of the 
 subject of the last article. Brought up 
 in luxury, he was unhappily a prey 
 to the vices of the luxurious. His jea- 
 lousy of some unknown rival in the 
 favours of a worthless woman, induced 
 him to take measvu'es to destroy that 
 rival. It proved to be his brother Ma- 
 nuel, who was pierced by the arrows of 
 his archers ! The gi'ief caused by this 
 tragic event, was a death-blow to his 
 fatlier. He was tried in consequence, 
 but before sentence was pronounced, he 
 had attempted a rebellion, and with the 
 assistance of John Cantacuzene, was suc- 
 cessful in his struggles (1321 — 1325), 
 first by receiving a share (1325), and af- 
 terwards the whole of the empire. After 
 a reign of some years, in which his arms 
 were tolerably successful, and his mea- 
 sures prudent, particularly in making 
 alliances with France and Naples, &c. 
 against the Turks, he died of premature 
 decay in the forty-fifth year of his age. 
 (Gibbon, ch. 63. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANDRONICUS OF RHODES, was 
 contemporary with Tyrannion, who was 
 brought to Rome by Lucullus after the 
 defeat of Mithridates. Andronicus was the 
 first to arrange the works of Aristotle and 
 Theophrastus under their respective sub- 
 jects, and to reject some treatises which 
 had been fathered upon the former ; and 
 it was from him that Aldus Gellius, says 
 Fabricius, probably obtained a knowledge 
 of the letters that passed between the 
 Stagirite and his successor. There is a 
 paraphrase on the Nichomachean Ethics 
 which passes under his name ; but it 
 was repudiated by the learned, even be- 
 fore the discovery of the Paris MS. 
 which, according to Sainte-Croix, in his 
 Examen des Historiens dAlexandre, 
 p. 524, ascribes the work to one Heli- 
 odorus. It was first printed by Daniel 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 Heinsius, Lugd, Bat. 1617, and more 
 recently at Oxford. 
 
 ANDRONICUS CALLISTUS, of 
 Thessalonica, was one of the Greeks who, 
 after the taking of Constantinople by the 
 Turks, fled to Italy, where he became 
 the instructor of Politian and Valla. 
 From thence he went to Paris, where he 
 was the first to introduce the literature 
 of Greece. To him has been attributed 
 a treatise TLepi IlaBau first printed by 
 Hoeschel, August. Vindelic. 
 
 ANDROSTHENES OF THASUS,ex- 
 plored with Nearchus the Indian Ocean, 
 and gave an account of his voyage in his 
 UapanXcoi, from which Theophrastus 
 probably obtained his knowledge of the 
 2)earl ; a word which seems to be the 
 corruption of an Asiatic one, that Andro- 
 sthenes, as stated by Athenaeus, iii. p. 93, 
 expressed by the Greek letters (Bep^ept. 
 
 ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, 
 (Jacques,) a French architect, and au- 
 thor of several works on architecture. 
 He obtained, through Cardinal d'Arma- 
 gnac, the means of travelling in Italy and 
 elsewhere to improve himself in his art. 
 The ruins at Pola in Istria attracted his 
 particular admiration, and furnished him 
 with models for some portions of his 
 works. The Pont Neuf, at Paris, was 
 commenced by him in 1578 by order of 
 Henry III., but the completion of it was 
 reserved for Guillaume Marchand. He 
 built the hotels of Carnavalet, Fermes, 
 Bretonvilliers, Sully, Mayenne, and other 
 residences in Paris ; and continued the 
 Gallery of the Louvi'e, which he left to 
 Etienne du Perac to finish. Androuet 
 was a protestant and a strong Calvinist, 
 which compelled him to quit France, and 
 he died abroad ; but the time and place 
 of his death are not known. His chief 
 works are, 1. Livre d' Architecture, (with 
 designs of fifty buildings,) 1559, fol. (re- 
 printed 1611.) 2. Second Livre d'Ar- 
 chitecture, 1561, fol. 3. Les plus ex- 
 cellens Batimens de France, 1576, (repr. 
 1607.) 4. Livre d'Architecture, &c., with 
 plans for covintry houses, &c. 1582, fol. 
 5. Les Edifices Romains, (views of Rome 
 taken on the spot,) 1583, fol. 6. Le9ons 
 de Perspective, 1576, fol. He himself 
 etched the plates to these works. 
 
 Thelllustrations of the Edifices of France 
 are extremely interesting, as containing 
 the only remaining records of numerous 
 palaces, castles, and country houses, 
 many of them conspicuous for their de- 
 lightful arrangements of plan, and pic- 
 turesque combination of masses ; and 
 valuable, as illustrating the architecture 
 463 
 
 of the renaissance, and of the previous 
 period in France. The greater part of 
 these noble buildings have been swept 
 away during the revolution, and now 
 exist only in these books, or in the vivid 
 descriptions of writers who loved to dwell 
 upon the magnificence of these erections 
 of the "olden time," connected as they are 
 with the general history of the country. 
 His own designs for town dwellings are 
 more common-place ; and, as Milizia 
 observes, " d'una maniera secca;" but 
 many of his compositions for country 
 houses are distinguished by more playfid 
 arrangement in plan and elegant variety in 
 elevation. The volume of Roman Edi- 
 fices evinces a lively imagination, but 
 shows, at the same time, little purity of 
 taste, and an incorrect knowledge of 
 antique art; and proves that Androuet 
 had but a mere smattering of archaologi- 
 cal research. (Biog. Univ. Quatremere 
 de Quincy, Dictionnaire d'Architec- 
 ture.) 
 
 ANDROS, (Edmund,) governor of 
 New England, and other states of Ame- 
 rica, in the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century. In 1674 he was governor of 
 New York, and Dec. 20, 1685, arrived 
 at Boston, with a commission from King 
 James for the government of New Eng- 
 land. His promises at first were specious, 
 but his acts proved oppressive. In Oct. 
 1686 he went with troops to Hartford, 
 and demanded the surrender of the char- 
 ter of Connecticut, but Captain Wads- 
 worth removed it, and hid it in a hollow 
 oak. In 1689 an insurrection took place, 
 in which he was imprisoned, and after- 
 wards sent to England for trial, but the 
 government at home declined giving sen- 
 tence. From 1692 — 1698 he governed 
 Virginia with the approbation of all 
 parties. He died in London, at an ad- 
 vanced age, in 1714. He published in 
 1691 a narrative of his proceedings in 
 New England: republished 1773. (Al- 
 len's Amer. Diet.) 
 
 ANDROTION, the son of Andron, 
 is, in the opinion of Ruhnken, Hist. Orat. 
 GrffiC. the person desciibed by Harpo- 
 ci'ation as one of the 500 at Athens. 
 Against the pupil of Isocrates, Demos- 
 thenes spoke in behalf of Diodorus an 
 oration still extant ; written, says the 
 scholiast on Hermogenes, with the 
 greater care, as the orator knew the skill 
 of the school in which his opponent had 
 been brought up. To the same Andro- 
 tion, Jonsius refers a work on Attica, 
 but which was, perhaps, written by the 
 person mentioned by Pausanias, and who 
 
AND 
 
 AND 
 
 is tliouglit to be the party alluded to by 
 Plutarch, who says that he was one of 
 those who wrote their works in exile, and 
 in which it would appear from iElian, V.H. 
 viii. 6, that he denied the existence of 
 the Thracian Orpheus, as did Aristotle 
 likewise, quoted by Cicero de N.D. 
 
 ANDRY, (Nicolas, surnamed Beau- 
 Regard, 1658—1742.) He was the son 
 of a merchant, was born at Lyons, and 
 received his education in that city, which 
 he quitted for Paris to study philosophy. 
 His means were so confined, that to 
 support himself he was under the neces- 
 sity of taking pupils. He was made a 
 professor in the college of Grassins. His 
 first publication was a translation of Paca- 
 tus's Panegyric on Theodosius the Great. 
 His object was to enter the church, but 
 he abandoned the study of theology, and 
 tm-ned his attention to physic, took his 
 degree of M.D. at Rheims in 1693, then 
 joined the Royal Society of Medicine 
 of Paris, which was suppressed in 1694, 
 and in 1697 was admitted of the faculty 
 at Paris. He was distinguished by sa- 
 tii-ical humour, became one of the writers 
 of the Journal des Savans, in which 
 publication he is said to have spared nei- 
 ther friend nor foe, and consequently 
 brought upon himself many severe at- 
 tacks. No one has ever denied to him 
 the possession of merit and ability ; but 
 his success has been conceived to have 
 principally arisen from his turn for in- 
 trigue. He was chosen one of the pro- 
 fessors of medicine of the Royal College 
 in 1701, and in 1702 one of the censors. 
 In 1724 he was elected dean of the fa- 
 culty. He was a great advocate for the 
 preeminence of physic over surgery, and 
 upon accession to office he reserved to 
 the faculty the right of inspection over 
 the practice of surgery, and went so far 
 as to forbid the performance of the ope- 
 ration of lithotomy by any surgeon, vm- 
 less in the presence of a physician. It 
 will not be a matter of surprise that, after 
 this attempt, it should be followed up by 
 endeavours to dictate to the faculty it- 
 self; and he essayed, but in vain, to obtain 
 for his friend Helvetius the appointment 
 of first physician to the king, and pro- 
 tector of the faculty. The defeat of 
 these attempts occasioned the adoption of 
 a wise resolution by the college, by 
 which it was ordained that all decrees 
 were to be signed by a majority, and not 
 liable to alteration by the dean. Andry 
 became obnoxious to many members of 
 the faculty, and he was not re-elected 
 to his office. Geoffroy succeeded him, 
 464 
 
 and was tbenceforth subjected to his 
 splenetic attacks. The cardinal Fleury 
 ceased, however, to attend to his repre- 
 sentations, and his power was at an end. 
 He published several works, many of 
 which have been frequently reprinted 
 and translated into other languages : 
 
 I. Traduction du Paneg}T.'ique de Theo- 
 dose le Grand, du Latin de Pacatus ; 
 Paris, 1687, 12mo. 2. Les Sentimens de 
 Clearque sur les Dialogues d'Eudoxe et 
 de Philanto; Paris, 1688, 12mo. 3, 
 Reflexions ou Remarques sur I'Usage 
 present de la Langue Franj oise ; Paris, 
 1692, 12mo. 4. Suite de ces Reflexions; 
 Paris, 1694, 12mo. These are attacks 
 on the philological opinions of Father 
 Bouhours. 5. Traite de la Generation 
 des Vers dans le Corps Humain ; Paris, 
 1701, 8vo. Amst. 1701, 8vo. He at- 
 tributes the presence of worms in the 
 different parts of the human body, to the 
 introduction of their ova, either by re- 
 spiration, by taking food, or by contact. 
 He makes as many species of worms as 
 there are parts forming the body, and 
 carries his views to a ridiculous excess. 
 Hunauld nicknamed him Homo Venni- 
 culosus, in a violent satire which he di- 
 rected against him. 6. Eclaircissemens 
 sur le Livre de la Generation des Vers dans 
 le Corps de I'Homme, contenant des 
 Remarques nouvelles siur les Vers et les 
 Maladies vermineuses ; Paris, 1704, 
 Amst. 1705, 12mo. This was wi-itten in 
 reply to an attack of Lamery in the 
 Journal de Trevoux, in revenge for one 
 made in the Journal des Savans by An- 
 dry on the Ti'aite des Alimens. Vallis- 
 mieri also attacked Andry, with consider- 
 able judgment, in a letter addressed to 
 him in 1727. 7. Remarques de Mede- 
 cine sur difFerens Sujets, principalement 
 sur ce qui regarde laSaignee et la Purga- 
 tion ; Paris, 1710, 12mo. This is also 
 controversial, and aimed at Hecquet, 
 who had published anonymously on the 
 subject. 8. Le Regime du Careme con- 
 sidere par rapport a la Nature du Corps 
 et des Alimens; Paris, 1710, 12mo. 
 This is likewise an attack upon Hecquet. 
 
 9. La The de I'Europe ; ou, les Proprietes 
 de la Veronique ; Paris, 1712, 12mo. 
 
 10. Traite des Alimens de Careme; Paris, 
 1713, 12mo. A continuation of No. 4. 
 
 I I . Goiflbnum, i. e. Verminum a el. viro 
 Dno. Goiffonio Medico Lugd. in Causam 
 Pestis erectorum debellatio ; Lipsise, 
 1722, 12mo. This was published \mder 
 the anagrammatical name and title of 
 Closani Drany, Medici Serapiensis. (Ni- 
 cola.'' Andry Mediei Parisiensis.) 12, 
 
AND 
 
 AN E 
 
 Examen de difFcrens Points d'Anatomie, 
 de Cliirurgie, de Physique, and de Mede- 
 cine; Paris, 1725, 8vo. The chief object 
 of this work was to attack the esteemed 
 treatise of J. L. Petit, on the diseases of 
 the bones. He imjustly ridicules the 
 author's account of rupture of the Tendo 
 AchiUis, the possibility of which accident 
 he positively denies. Posterity has done 
 justice to Petit. 13. Remarqucs de Chi- 
 mie touchant la Preparation de difFerens 
 Remedes; Paris, 1735, 12mo. This is an 
 attack on Malouin's Chimie Medicale. 
 14. Lettres de Cleon a Eudoxe touchant 
 la Preeminence de la Medecine sur la 
 Chirurgie ; Paris, 1738-39, 12mo, 2 vols. 
 A favourite topic of the author, who 
 wished to give imdue preference to the 
 study of medicine, though at the same 
 time it must be admitted he very pro- 
 perly directed that surgery should form 
 a part of the education of the physician. 
 The division of medicine and surgery is 
 entirely arbitrary, the branches are indi- 
 visible. 15. Orthopedic, on I'Art de 
 prevenir et de corriger dans les Enfans 
 les DifTormites du Corps; Paris, 1741, 
 12mo. A sequel to this work was pub- 
 lished in 1742. It is altogether a judi- 
 cious performance on a subject which has 
 since attracted much and deserved atten- 
 tion. The rules proposed with regard to 
 regimen, bandages, machines, &c., are 
 stated with great propriety and clearness. 
 Andry is also the author of some The- 
 ses, and his son-in-law, Dionis, published 
 a Treatise on the Plague, which he had 
 drawn up and delivered at the Royal Col- 
 lege by command of the regent. 
 
 ANEAU, (Bartholomew,) or Anulus, 
 was born at Bruges, and educated under 
 Melchior Volmer. He was professor of 
 rhetoric, and in 1542 principal of the 
 college of the Trinity at Lyons. He fa- 
 voured the protestant cause, and taught 
 the doctrines of the reformation ; but in 
 1565 his exertions were terminated by a 
 fatal accident. On the feast of the Sa- 
 crament, a stone was thro^vn from the 
 windows of the college upon the host 
 and the priest who boi-e it, as it passed 
 in procession. The people broke into the 
 college, and fixing upon Aneau as the 
 author of this insult, assassinated him. 
 He was the author of one hundred and 
 four Latin and some Greek poems, and of 
 many other woi-ks, among which may be 
 mentioned, 1. A Mystery on the subject 
 of the Nati\dty of our Lord, to be foimd 
 in a work called Chant Natal. Lyons, 
 1539, 4to. 2. Lyon Marchant, &c. ; 
 a drama, acted at the College de la 
 465 
 
 Trinite, Lyons, 1542, 4to, S. A Trans- 
 lation of the Emblems of Alciati, Lyons, 
 1549, Svo. 4. Picta Poesis ; a collection 
 of Emblems, Lyons, 1552. 5. A Transla- 
 tion of Sir T. More's Utopia. 6. Alector, 
 or, the Cock : a pretended translation 
 from the Greek, which appears to have 
 done no great credit to the author. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANEAU, (Lambert d'.) SccD'Aneau. 
 
 ANEL, (Dominic), a surgeon of cele- 
 brity at Turin, born towards the close of 
 the seventeenth century. He was sur- 
 geon-major to the regiment of cuirassiers 
 and to the court of Savoy, and introduced 
 several improvements into the practice of 
 surgery. He is best known for his 
 method of treating the fistula lachry- 
 malis ; but his earliest production related 
 to a subject which attracted in its day 
 remarkable attention — the possibility of 
 extracting by suction the venom from 
 poisoned wounds without imbibing the 
 poison itself. The danger attending the 
 operation by means of suction with the 
 lips, was known to arise principally from 
 the exposure of any abrasion of the 
 surface of the skin to the action of the 
 poison, which would then be readily 
 admitted into the system. To obviate 
 this serious, and, in many cases, fatal 
 effect, Anel published a ti'eatise, sug- 
 gesting the employment of certain 
 instruments as substitutes for this pur- 
 pose, but these were so cmnbrous and 
 inefficient, that they were not brought 
 into use. In the treatment for anem-ism, 
 he simplified the operation common in his 
 time. He made an incision over the aneu- 
 rismal sac, passed a ligature on the artery 
 above it, and left the contents of the tumour 
 to be removed by nature. This plan met 
 with much opposition, but was adopted by 
 several surgeons, and with a successfiil 
 issue. His mode of cure for the fistula la- 
 chrymalis places him in the ranks of those 
 who have contributed to the improve- 
 ment of ophthalmic surgery. He invented 
 a very fine flexible silver tube, to which 
 a syringe was attached ; the tube was to 
 be introduced into the obstructed lachry- 
 mal duct, and the obstruction then re- 
 moved by an injection, conveyed by 
 means of the syringe. This mode of 
 treatment, notwithstanding the just oppo- 
 sition offei-ed to it by numerous eminent 
 siu'geons, gained the approbation of the 
 College of Surgeons of Paris, and may 
 fairly be stated as having led to the im- 
 proved methods that have been since 
 successfully introduced. 
 
 The works of Anel are, 1. L'Art__de 
 ir H 
 
ANE 
 
 ANF 
 
 sucer les Plaies sans se* servir de la 
 Bouche d'un Homme : avec im Dis- 
 coiirs, &c. ' Amst. 1707, 171G, 1732, 12mo. 
 2. Observation singidiere sur la Fistule 
 Lacrymale, dans laquelle Ton apprendre 
 la Methode de la guerir radicalement ; 
 Turin, 1713, 4to. The first case on which 
 Anel employed his mode of treatment, 
 was that of the Abhe Fieschi, nephew of 
 the archbishop of Genoa. Like most 
 inventions or discoveries of importance, 
 it was first abused and condemned, and 
 when established, the author was denied 
 the merit of the invention. There is no 
 reason to question the right of Anel to 
 the discovery, although Morgagni has 
 remarked, that Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. 
 vii. cap. 53,) makes mention of Cains 
 Jidius, a physician who devoted himself 
 much to the treatment of the diseases of 
 the eye, having been in the habit of 
 introducing a stilette into the lachrymal 
 passage. Plater also mentions _ the case 
 of a girl affected with the fistula lachry- 
 malis, in which he injected the lachrymal 
 passages. The obscurity, however, of 
 these narrations is such, that Anel ought 
 not to be deprived of the merit attaching 
 to his proposal and practice. His claims 
 have been admitted to novelty and inge- 
 nuity by the Academy of Sciences of 
 Paris. Fantoni, Mangetus, Woolhouse, 
 Molinetti, Lancisi, Vallisnieri, Morgagni, 
 and others, have written in favour of 
 Anel's claims and method, and their let- 
 ters upon this sidiject have been collected 
 together, and attached to the two follow- 
 ing works : 3. Nouvelle Methode de 
 guerir les Fistules laciymales, Turin, 
 1713, 4to. 4. Suite de la nouvelle Me- 
 thode de guerir les Fistules Lacrymales, 
 Turin, 1714, 4to. 5. Dissertation sm- la 
 nouvelle Decoiiverte de I'Hydi-opisie du 
 Conduit Lacrymal, Paris, 1716, 12mo. 
 G. Precis de la nouvelle Maniere de gue- 
 rir les Fistules Lacrymales, 1713, com- 
 ^ lunicated to the Academy of Sciences 
 ot Paris. 7. Observation singuliere 
 d'un Foetus trouve dans une Masse mem- 
 braneuse rendue par une Dame au six- 
 ieme Mois de sa Grossesse, &c. 1714 ; 
 this case was also transmitted to the 
 Academy. 8. Relation d'une enorme 
 Tumeur occupant toute I'Etendue du Ven- 
 tre d'un Homme, un Hydropique, et 
 remplie de plus de 7000 Corps etrangers ; 
 Paris, 1722, 8vo : an extraordinaiy case 
 of hydatids. 
 
 ANELIER, ("William,) a troubadour 
 
 of tlie first half of the thirteenth century, 
 
 who has left four sirventes, or political 
 
 poems, of which extracts will be foiuid in 
 
 4GG 
 
 Rapiouard, and in the eighteenth vo- 
 lume of the Histoire Litteraire de Fi'ance. 
 All that is known of his personal history 
 is, that he was born at Toidouse towards 
 the end of the twelfth century. 
 
 ANELLI, (Angelo, 1761—1820,) an 
 Italian jooet, born at Desenzano. He 
 was professor of Latin and Italian litera- 
 ture before he was twenty years old, and 
 in 1 793 went to study jurisprudence at 
 Padua. When the French entered Italy, 
 Anelli hastened to assist his native town ; 
 this activity procured his imprisonment 
 upon the breaking out of the revolution 
 in Brescia, but he was soon liberated, 
 and entered the French artillery. Auge- 
 reau, who commanded at Verona, em- 
 ployed him as his secretary, and he was in 
 1797 commissary to the directory in the 
 department of Benaco, (afterwards called 
 that of la Mella,) upon resigning which 
 he refused to fill any other office. Finally, 
 disgusted with politics, he returned to 
 literature, and became professor of elo- 
 quence at Brescia in 1802. He was in 
 1809 made professor of forensic elo- 
 quence at Milan ; and on the re-organiza- 
 tion of the school of law there in 1817, 
 he seems to have been much wounded 
 in spirit from supposing that his employ- 
 ment (his only hope of support for his 
 family) would not be continued to him, 
 and this chagrin is supposed to have 
 shortened his days. He Avi-ote Odas et 
 Elogiae, Verona, 1780. 2. L'Argene No- 
 vella Morale, Ottava Rima, Ven. 1793. 
 3. Le Cronache di Pindo, a poem in 
 seven books, characterising the great au- 
 thors of ancient and modern days. Also 
 several dramatic pieces. (Suppl. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANEMAS, (the,) four brothers, who 
 were condemned to death for a conspi- 
 racy against Alexis Comnenus in 1105. 
 Their pardon was procured by Anna 
 Comnena, and they spent their lives in 
 prison. 
 
 ANES, GILLES. See Gilianer. 
 
 ANESI, a painter, a native of Flo- 
 rence, who flourished about the year 
 1720. He painted landscapes, some of 
 which are in the palaces and private 
 collections of his native city, and at 
 Rome. He was one of the instructors 
 of Francesco Zuccherelli. (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ANFINOMUS. See Anapius. 
 
 ANFOSSI, (Pasquale,) an Italian 
 musical composer ; born about 1736. 
 He was brought up at Naples, and pro- 
 duced his " Inconnue perseclitee," 
 " La finta Giardiniera," and " II Gcloso 
 in cemento," at Rome. In 1783 Anfossi 
 
ANF 
 
 ANG 
 
 had the Italian Opera in London. He 
 died in 1795. 
 
 ANGARA.no, (Ottaviano.) Accord- 
 ing to Zanetti, this artist was of a 
 patrician family of Venice, and floiunshed 
 about the year 1650. It is not men- 
 tioned by whom he was instructed ; but 
 he painted history, and obtained repu- 
 tation for a picture of the Nativity in 
 the church of S. Daniele at Venice, from 
 which there is an etching by himself. 
 (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ANGE DE LA BROSSE, (de St. 
 Joseph, died 1697,) better known as 
 P. Ange de St. Joseph, was a native of 
 Toulouse, a missionary to the East, and 
 provincial of the barefoot Carmelites in 
 Languedoc. He wrote Gazophylacium 
 Linguee Penarum, Amst. 1684, a work 
 which, though curious and useful, is full 
 of errors. His Pharmacopoeia Persica was 
 shown, by Dr. Hyde, to have been in fact 
 translated from the Persian by Mathieu : 
 La Brosse was further exposed by him 
 for his mistaken censure of the Pei'sian 
 version in Walton's Polyglott, in his (Di-. 
 Hyde's) Castigatio in Angelum a Sancto 
 Joseph. This was published in conse- 
 quence of a visit made by La Brosse to 
 Oxford, in order to confute Hyde in a 
 personal conference, in which, however, 
 Hyde had far the superiority. It is sub- 
 joined to Hyde's translation of Bobowski's 
 Catechism. See the name Ali Bey. 
 
 ANGE DE STE. ROSALIE, (1655— 
 1726,) a very laborious French writer, 
 whose family name was Francois Vassard. 
 He belonged to the order of barefooted 
 Augustinians, and woidd have been pro- 
 fessor of theology, had he not preferred 
 devoting himself to historical and diplo- 
 matical studies. In conjunction with 
 otlier writers he swelled the' historical 
 work originally published by Father An- 
 selme (see the name) into 9 vols, folio. 
 It is entitled, " Histoire de la Maison de 
 France et des grands Officiers de la Cou- 
 ronne," 9 vols, folio. He wrote also a 
 work entitled, " Etat de la France," 5 vols, 
 12mo; republished in 1749 by the Bene- 
 dictines, in 6 vols, 1 2mo. It contains an 
 account of the officers of the crown, the 
 ceremonies of their offices, &c. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANGEL, (John,) an English clergy- 
 man and nonconformist, was admitted at 
 Magdalen hall, Oxford, in 1610: took 
 orders and became a popular preacher. 
 In 1634 he was suspended for preaching 
 without a license, at Leicester, from 
 which he was driven by the Independents 
 in 1650, for refusing to subscribe their 
 467 
 
 engagement. He was then appointed 
 lectm-er of Grantham, where he lived till 
 his death in 1655. 
 
 ANGELE, (Merici, 1511—1540,) the 
 foundress of the Ursulines. She was 
 born in 1511, at Desenzano, and toge- 
 ther with a sister, devoted much time, 
 at an early age, to prayer and religious 
 exercises. On the death of this sister, 
 she took the habit of the third grade of 
 St. Francis, and redoubled her austerities. 
 She went to the Holy Land. On her 
 return she visited Rome, and in 1537 
 laid the foundations of the order of St.Ur- 
 sula, of which she was the fii-st superior. 
 She intended that the Ursulines should 
 live with their parents or friends ; but 
 they were soon collected together into 
 convents. The regulations of the Ursu- 
 lines of Paris may be seen in the Abbe 
 Musson's Hist, des Ordres Monastiques. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGELERIO. See Akgelieri. 
 
 ANGELI, ( Bonaventura,) an Italian 
 historian of the sixteenth centmy. He 
 was a good lawyer, and managed the af- 
 fairs of the dukes of Ferrara, his native 
 place. Tiraboschi (vii. 962) informs us, 
 that being suspected of heresy he quitted 
 Ferrara, and after some time settled at 
 Parma, having renounced his errors. He 
 WTote the history of Parma — (Istoriadella 
 Citta di Parma e Descrizione del Fiume 
 Parma, lib. viii. Parma, 1591) — and dedi- 
 cated each of the eight books to some 
 nobleman of Parma. It was printed in 
 1589, but several sheets being cancelled 
 it did not appear till 1591. This, Tira- 
 boschi states, entirely destroys the sup- 
 position of the author's death in 1576, 
 which Baruffiildi (in the Supplement to 
 his History of FeiTara) and Mazzuchelli 
 have maintained. He wi'ote also, 1. La 
 Vita di Ludovico Cati, Gentiluomo Ferra- 
 rese, &c. 1554. 2. Gli Elogi degli Eroi 
 Estense. 3. De non Sepeliendis Mortuis. 
 4. Discorso intornorOrigine de' Cardinali, 
 1565. For more on this writer see D. 
 Clement in his Bibliotheque Curieuse, i. 
 p. 325. The copies of his history of 
 Parma, containing some reflections on 
 P.L.Farnese (afterwai'ds suppressed) are 
 said to be very rare. (Tiraboschi. Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANGELI, (Peter.) See Angelio. 
 
 ANGELI. See Angely. 
 
 ANGELI, (Stefano,) a Jesuit and 
 distinguished geometrician. Between 
 1658 audi 662 he published a number of 
 works on transcendental geometry. An- 
 geli taught mathematics at Padua. (Biog. 
 Univ.) J 
 
 n H 2 
 
AN G 
 
 ANG 
 
 ANGELICO. See Fra. GioVANNt, 
 
 ANGELIERI, (Bonaventiire.) A mi- 
 nor friar of St. P'rancis, born at Meriala 
 in Sicily. He publislied two volumes, 
 the first of a series of twenty-four on the 
 same subjects, entitled, " Lux Magica, 
 &c." at Venice ; the first under the 
 name of Livio Betani. He was vicar- 
 general of his order at Madrid, and was 
 alive in 1707. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGELIO, or DEGLI ANGELI, 
 (Pietro, 1517 — 1596,) an Italian poet, a 
 native of Bargamo in Tuscany, from which 
 he derived his surname of Bargeo. He 
 had projected his most celebrated poem, 
 the Cynegeticon, before he left the uni- 
 versity of Bologna, which he was obliged 
 to do in consequence of having written 
 some satirical vei'ses. He then obtained 
 employment from the French ambassador 
 at Venice, in correcting the copies taken 
 from Greek MSS. there, by order of 
 Fi'ancis I. This led to a journey with 
 another French ambassador, to Constan- 
 tinople, Asia Minor, and Greece. In 
 1543 he accompanied the Turkish fleet, 
 under Barbarossa, to Nice, and was pre- 
 sent at the siege by the French. An- 
 gelio hei-e fought a duel with a Frenchman, 
 and killed his adversary, which com- 
 pelled him to leave his patron, and return 
 to Florence. In 1546 he was chosen 
 professor of Greek and Latin at Reggio, 
 from which place he went to Pisa. In 
 the war of Sienna, when the grand duke 
 Cosmo I. was forced to suspend the 
 salaries of the professors, Angelio re- 
 mained in Pisa, at the saci'ifice of pawn- 
 ing his books and furniture. On the 
 approach of the Siennese army, imder 
 Strozzi, to Pisa, Angelio armed and dis- 
 ciplined the students of the university, 
 and defended the city, till the grand duke 
 sent them assistance. He went to Rome 
 in 1575, and, imder the patronage of the 
 Cardinal Fei'dinand de Medicis, continued 
 his Syrias, a poem on the Christian Con- 
 quest of Palestine, commenced thirty 
 years before. He reprinted and dedicated 
 to the cardinal all his poems in 1585, and 
 died at Pisa after some years' retirement, 
 and was buried in the Campo Santo. 
 
 His works consist of, 1. Three Fune- 
 ral Orations in Latin on Henry II. of 
 France (1559), Cosmo (1574), and Fer- 
 dinand de Medicis (1587). 2. De Ordine 
 legendi Scriptores Historiae Romanae ; 
 twice printed separately, and to be found 
 in the collection of Grotius de Studiis 
 Instituendis. 3. Poematia Omnia, &c. 
 Rome, 1585. (Most of these had been 
 separately printed.) 4. De privatorum 
 468 
 
 publicorumque Urbis Romanse Everso- 
 ribus Epistola, Florent. 1589, intended 
 to show that the misdirected zeal of some 
 of the popes had eiFected more towards 
 the destruction of the public edifices of 
 Rome, than the Goths had done. 5. 
 Poesie Toscane, with a translation of the 
 Oedipus Tyr. 1589; and lastly, his Me- 
 moirs of his own Life, pul)lished by Sal- 
 vino Salvini, in the Fasti Consolari of the 
 Academy of Florence. 
 
 ANGELIO, (Antonio,) elder brother 
 of the preceding, taught publicly at Flo- 
 rence in 1541, and was tutor to Francis 
 and Ferdinand Medici. In J570 he was 
 bishop of Messa, in the province of Sien- 
 na, and died in 1579. 
 
 ANGELIS, (Dominico de,) an Italian 
 author, was born in 1675, at Lecce, the 
 capital of Otranto. He took orders 
 early, and was canon and grand peniten- 
 tiary of Lecce, vicar-general of Vierti, 
 Gallipoli, and Gragnano ; first chaplain 
 to the troops of the Neapolitan and Papal 
 states. Angelis was named Historian to 
 Louis XIV. and Philip V. of Spain. He 
 died in 1718. Among his works are, 1. 
 Delia Patria d'Eunio, Rome, 1701 ; 
 Naples, 1712. 2. Discorso istorico, &c. 
 or an account of the city of Lecce, Lecce, 
 1705. 3. Le Vite de'Letterati Salentini. 
 
 ANGELIS, (Jerome d', 1567—1623,) 
 a Jesuit missionaiy to Japan ; was born 
 in Sicily, and in 1596 sailed from Lisbon, 
 but was wrecked on the coast of Brazil, 
 returned to Portugal, and finally reached 
 Japan in 1602, where he learned the 
 language, and made great progress in 
 converting the natives, till the expul- 
 sion of the Jesuits in 1614. After- 
 wards he obtained permission to remain, 
 and increased the number of Chris- 
 tians from 1000 to 11,000. Angelis 
 perished, Avith two other Jesuits, and 
 forty-seven Japanese converts, during a 
 violent persecution of the Christians. 
 He gave himself up to the government 
 to save his host, and he was burnt alive 
 24th Dec. 1623. A letter of his, relative 
 to the kingdom of Yesso is found at the 
 end of P. Morin's French translation of 
 the Account of the Transactions in Japan, 
 1619-21, originally written in Italian. 
 
 ANGELIS. There were several 
 artists of this name, both engravers and 
 painters : 
 
 1. Jean de, a French painter, the date 
 of whose birth does not appear. He 
 painted three pictures for the history 
 of Charles I., which were respectively 
 engraved by N. Dupuis, B. Baron, and 
 Du Bosc; also a portrait of Bernard 
 
 I 
 
AN G 
 
 AN G 
 
 Picart, engraved by J. Vander Schley, 
 also by Peter Aveline. (Heinecken, 
 Diet, des Artistes.) 
 
 2. Peter, (1685 — 1734,) a painter, 
 born at Dunkirk, whence, after having 
 learned the rudiments of design, he re- 
 moved to Flanders and Germany, and 
 resided some time at Dusseldorp, where 
 he studied in the Electoral Gallery. He 
 came to England about 1712, where he 
 had great encouragement, and i-esided 
 sixteen years. In 1728 he went to Italy, 
 and resided at Rome three years. In 
 his return from Italy, with the intention 
 of again visiting England, he stayed at 
 Rennes, in Bretagne, and met with so 
 much employment, that he settled in 
 that city, where he died. He painted 
 compositions, and landscapes with small 
 figures, into which he frequently intro- 
 duced fruit and fish. His style was a 
 mixture of those of Teniers and Watteau, 
 with more grace than the former, and 
 more nature than the latter. His pencil 
 was easy, bright, and flowing ; but his 
 colouring was occasionally faint and 
 nerveless. (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 3. Secondo de, an engraver at Naples, 
 who was employed upon the woi'ks on 
 Herculaneum during the years 1757 to 
 1762. (Heinecken, Dictionnaire des 
 Artistes.) 
 
 4. Filippo de, (1600—1640,) said to 
 be the same painter known by the names 
 of Filippo di Liagno, and Filippo Na- 
 politano. He was born, according to 
 Baglioni, at Rome, and was taken at 
 an early age by his father to Naples, 
 (hence his designation Napolitano,) where 
 he learned the principles of his art, which 
 he practised there with great success, as 
 well as at Rome, to which he returned, 
 and where he died in the pontificate of 
 Urban VIII. On the return of Filippo 
 to his native city, he diligently studied 
 the antique, but soon adopted the style 
 of a Flemish painter called Mozzo, or 
 Stump, because having lost his right 
 hand, he painted with his left. His 
 principal pictures were battle-pieces, but 
 he also pi'aetised landscape painting, in 
 which he introduced into Florence a 
 dark powerful style. He was long 
 retained there at the court of Cosmo II. 
 In addition, he painted views of 
 public buildings, porticos, and public 
 sports and entertainments, containing 
 multitudes of figures, disposed with 
 propriety and elegance. There is one 
 work known to have been engraved 
 by him, consisting of thirteen quarto 
 plates of military dresses, &c. attached 
 
 469 
 
 to which is an inscription, giving, it is 
 supposed, his true name, Thcodor. Filippo 
 de Liagno Nap. inv. et fee. Another 
 is so supposed, namely, a portrait, en- 
 graved in 1604, of Cardinal Ximenes, 
 and marked P. Angelus pinx. ; but this 
 must be a mistake of M. Heinecken, for 
 Filippo was born only in 1600. (Pil- 
 kington's Diet, of Painters, by Fuseli. 
 Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. i. 220; ii. 117. Hei- 
 necken, Diet, des Artistes.) 
 
 5. Giovanna Batista de, an Italian 
 artist, who, according to Pascoli, engraved 
 some plates in Italy; but there is no 
 particular account of him or his works. 
 (Sti-utt's Diet, of Eng. Heinecken, Diet, 
 des Artistes.) 
 
 ANGELO. See Buonakoti. Cara- 
 
 VAGIO. CaMPIDOGLIO. 
 
 ANGELO, ANGELICO, or ANGI- 
 OLI, (Jacopo,) a Greek scholar, born at 
 Scarperia, in the valley of Mugello, in 
 the fourteenth century. He accompanied 
 Manuel Chrysoleras and Demetrius Si- 
 donius on their return from Venice to 
 Constantinople, and travelled in Greece. 
 He contested the post of apostolic secre- 
 tary with Leonard d'Arezzo ; and seems 
 to have held that office in 1420, after 
 which nothing is known of him. He 
 left several Latin translations of Greek 
 books, the principal being Ptolemy's 
 Cosmographia, and some of Plutarch's 
 Lives, especially that of Cicero. 
 
 ANGELO, son of Paul de Castro, 
 taught jurisprudence at Padua in the 
 fifteenth century. His name is preserved 
 on the tomb in which he lies with his 
 father. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGELOCRATOR, (Daniel, 1569— 
 1635,) a divine of the reformed chui'ch, 
 was born at Corbach. He was pastor of 
 Koethen, was present at the synod of 
 Dordrecht in 1018, and in Cassel when 
 taken by Tilly, in 1626. He wrote 
 " Chronologia Autoptica," a learned but 
 inaccurate work ; a treatise on Ancient 
 Metres ; and on Weights, Measures, 
 and Coins. His family name was Engel- 
 hardt. (Biog, Univ.) 
 
 ANGELOME, a learned Benedictine 
 of Luxeuil, in the ninth centviry, where 
 he died in 854. He is the author of 
 commentaries on several books of Scrip- 
 tin-e, two of which were printed at Co- 
 logne in 1530. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGELONI, (Francesco,) born at 
 Terni, was secretary to Cardinal Ippolito 
 Aldobrandini, and apostolic prothonotary. 
 His collection of works of art at Perugia 
 was so extensive as to be called the Ro- 
 man Museum. Angeloni published a 
 
ANG 
 
 ANa 
 
 series of Roman medals in 1641, the exe- 
 cution of which was severely criticised ; 
 and the publication of a second and im- 
 proved edition was prevented by his death 
 at an advanced age in 1652. It was, 
 however, brought out by his nephew 
 Belloni in 1685. Other works were writ- 
 ten by Angeloni: Storia di Terni, Rome, 
 1646 and 1685 ; some comedies, of which 
 two have been published ; some works of 
 amusement, e.g. Dialoghi piego del 
 Signor Agrestino de'Calzanti ad Erasto 
 Afrone, per fugir le Fraudi delle Cattive 
 femine, Ven. 1615, &c. 
 
 ANGELUCCI, (Teodoro, died 1600,) 
 a poet and physician, born at Ancona. 
 He is celebrated for his literary contro- 
 versy with Francesco Patrizzi, in favour 
 of Aristotle. He belonged to the Vene 
 
 ANGELUS, (Christopher,) a native of 
 Greece, which he was compelled to leave 
 l)y the Turkish persecvition of Christians, 
 and came to England. He spent three 
 years at Trinity college, Cambridge ; and 
 in 1610 removed to Ijaliol college, Ox- 
 ford, where he taught the Greek language 
 till his death in 1638. He published an 
 account of his sufferings at Athens, on 
 account of his religion, (Greek and Eng- 
 lish, 1619 ;) also an Enchiridion de Insti- 
 tutis GriKcomm, (Greek and Latin, Camb. 
 1619 ;) an Encomium on Great Britain and 
 her Universities ; and a Treatise de Apo- 
 stasia Ecclesiae et de Homine Peccati, scil. 
 Antichristo, Lond. 1624. 
 
 ANGELUS, or ENGEL, 'a Gennan 
 historian, born at Strasburg in 1561, of 
 which place he was pastor, and died 
 
 tian academy, and was principal physician there of the plague in 1598, whicli, ac 
 
 at Montagnana, where he died, but was cordmg to a prediction made by hmiself, 
 
 buried at Treviso. His chief works are, ceased three days after his death. He 
 
 1. Sententia quod Metaphysica sit eadem wrote Annales Marchise Branden- 
 
 quse Physica, Ven. 1583. 2. Exercita- burgicae, Frankf.-Oder, 1593, and other 
 
 tionum cum Patritio Liber, lb. 1585 ; m 
 defence of the former book ; and some 
 medical works, particularly one on the 
 treatment of malignant fever, (Ven. 
 
 works. 
 
 ANGELUS, (Peter, lived 1611.) He 
 was an engraver of little note. The only 
 work known as from his hand is a fron- 
 
 1593,) and a reply called 'Bactria,' &c. tispiece, mentioned by Strutt, to a folio 
 to a severe critique upon it by Donatelli volume of Lud. Tcna's Commentaries 
 
 di Castiglione. He wrote also a Capitolo 
 in Lode della Pazzia ; a Praise of Mad- 
 ness, inserted in Garzoni's Ospitale de' 
 Pazzi, Ven. 1586; and a translation of 
 Virgil's ^neid (Naples, 1649,) in verso 
 scioltc, which is a rare book. 
 
 ANGELUCCI, (Liborio,) was bom at 
 Rome in 1746, and practised there as an 
 accoucheur. On the. breaking out of the 
 French revolution, he was the leader of the 
 
 upon St. Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews, 
 in the Harleian Library at tlie British 
 Museum. This work is very deficient in 
 taste as well as drawing and effect. 
 (Strutt's Diet, of Eng.) 
 
 ANGELY, (L',) was court fool to 
 Louis XIII. In this capacity he is men- 
 tioned by Boileau in his first and eighth 
 satires. It was said of him, that of all 
 the fools who followed Conde to Flan- 
 ders, Ansfelv alone had made his fortune. 
 ""-^ ■ - ■ -~ Ed. 
 
 democratical party in Rome, and was im _ 
 
 prisoned by Pius VI. for a short time in See the Menagiana, vol. i. p. 18 
 1793. He also suffered a year's impri- 1715. (Biog^UnivO 
 sonment at Civita Vecchia in 1796, from 
 which he was released by Buonaparte 
 after the treaty of Bologna. On his re- 
 turn from a visit to Paris, Angelucci was 
 one of the five consuls imder the French, 
 and displayed equal vanity and absiu'dity 
 in his office. He annoimced that the 
 
 ANGENNES, (Renaut d',) lord of 
 Rambouillet, and chamberlain to Charles 
 VI. of France, Avhose son, the dauphin, 
 was his pupil. In 1392 he was garde- 
 capitaine of the Louvre, and in 1424 died 
 at the battle of Verneuil. Another An- 
 gennes (Jacques) of the same family, 
 
 cares of governing Rome should not in- was captain of the body guard, general 
 terfere with his professional practice ; and of the army, and governor of .Metz,_un 
 
 the door of the consular palace was fur- 
 nished with two bells, one for the consul, 
 and the other for the accoucheur. He 
 left Rome on its evacuation by the French 
 army in 1799, and was in Paris till after 
 the battle of Marengo. He opposed the 
 erection of the imperial government by 
 Napoleon in Italy, but entered its service 
 as army-surgeon, in which capacity he 
 died at'Milan in 1811. (Biog Univ.). 
 470 
 
 der the French kings, from Francis I, 
 to Charles IX. and died in 1562. His 
 son Claude (1538—1601) was bishop of 
 Noyon and Mans. This last wrote, 1. 
 Remontrance du Clcrg6 de la France, 
 1585 ; and 2, a second in 1596. 3. Let- 
 tre de I'Eveque du Mans, &c. 1589, 
 (on the king of NavaiTe and on Jacques 
 Clement). 4. Avis de Rome, 1589. Let- 
 tre a Henri III. 
 
ANG 
 
 AN G 
 
 ANGENNES, (d',) cardinal of Ram- 
 bouillet. See Rambouillet. 
 
 ANGERIANO, (Girolamo,) a Neapo- 
 politan poet of the sixteenth century. 
 His Erotopaegnion, a collection of ama- 
 tory verses, (Naples, 1520,) was reprinted 
 at Paris in 1542. 
 
 ANGERSTEIN, (John Julius, 1735— 
 Jan. 22, 1823,) a very eminent merchant 
 of London, was born at St. Petersburg, 
 and came to England about the year 
 1749. After passing some time in the 
 counting-house of Andrew Thompson, a 
 Russia merchant, he became a member 
 of Lloyd's Coffee-house. This place was 
 the resort of brokers and underwriters, 
 whose business it is to insure the safety 
 of ships in their voyages from place to 
 place, at a certain rate of per centage. 
 In a short time Mr. Angerstein became 
 very eminent amongst the members, and 
 it is said that when his name appeared on 
 a policy, it was sufficient recommenda- 
 tion for other underwriters to follow, 
 without further examination. He ren- 
 dered many services, not only to the 
 particular branch of trade in which he 
 was engaged, but to the commercial world 
 in general. One instance may be men- 
 tioned. It was formerly the practice, 
 wiien vessels acquired a bad repute from 
 their unseaworthy state, to send them to 
 some port where they were not known, 
 and by re-naming them, make them pass 
 for ships fit for use. To remedy this, 
 Mr. Angerstein applied for, and obtained 
 an act of parliament, by virtue of which 
 every owner was prohibited from chang- 
 ing the name by which his vessel was 
 originally distinguished. In 1793, at a 
 time of great depression in ti-ade, arising 
 from a variety of causes, he procui-ed 
 from Ml-. Pitt, then prime minister, a loan, 
 through the medium of exchequer bills, 
 for the purpose of assisting merchants, 
 in partially realizing a sum of money, 
 to an immense amount, which then lay 
 dormant in colonial produce. By this 
 step the embarrassment was relieved ; and 
 it idtimately ceased. To his exertions 
 also is mainly due the re-establishment of 
 the Veterinary college. He took a pro- 
 minent part in inducing the government 
 to establish lotteries, a scheme of more 
 than questionable morality, the mischief 
 arising from which, it is but fair to pre- 
 sume, he did not contemplate. In 1811 
 he retired from active life, but continued 
 to collect the pictures which have since 
 become the foundation of the National 
 Gallery. In selecting these works, he 
 was aided by the professional experience 
 471 
 
 of the late Mr. West, the president of the 
 Royal Academy, and of his old friend 
 and intimate associate, Su* Thomas Law- 
 rence. By his will Mr. Angerstein di- 
 rected these pictures to be sold, and the 
 same were in 1824 purchased by govern- 
 ment for 57,000/. This collection has 
 been properly described as amongst the 
 most celebrated in London ; though sur- 
 passed by some in extent, it is at least 
 equal to any in excellence. They were 
 principally selected from the Orleans, the 
 Borghese, and Colonna collections, and 
 from the private galleries of the king 
 of Sardinia, the duke de Bouillon, and 
 others. For some years they were exhi- 
 bited at Mr. Angerstein's late residence 
 in Pall Mall, but are now deposited in 
 the National Gallery. 
 
 The following is a list of the works of 
 this important collection. The Raising- 
 of Lazarus, by Sebastian del Piombo, 
 painted for Cardinal Giulio de Medici, 
 afterwards Clement VII. and purchased 
 out of the Orleans collection. The Em- 
 peror Theodosius refused admittance to 
 the Church at Milan by Archbishop Am- 
 brose, painted by Vandyke. An original 
 picture of this subject was executed 
 by Rubens ; and is in the collection of 
 the emperor of Austria at Vienna, from 
 which Vandyke, who was then his pupil, 
 composed this picture, with very little 
 variation. A portrait of Gevartius, and 
 a portrait of Rubens, by the same painter. 
 The Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba 
 by Claude, a picture which was formerly 
 in the collection of the Duke de Bouillon, 
 and was purchased in the early part of 
 the French revolution. The Marriage of 
 Rebecca ; a companion picture to the 
 Queen of Sheba, and painted by the same 
 master. Also " Morning," " Evening," 
 and a Landscape and Figures by Claude. 
 Ganymede, by Titian, formerly in the 
 Colonna Palace at Rome. Venus and 
 Adonis, and a Concert, by the same. 
 The Rape of the Sabines, by Rubens. 
 St. John in the Wilderness, and Apollo 
 and Silenus, by Annabale Carracci. 
 Susannah and the Elders, by Ludovico 
 Carracci. Bacchanalian Triumph, by 
 N. Poussin. Abraham and Isaac, and a 
 Land Storm, by G. Poussin. Erminia 
 with the Shepherds, by Domenichino. 
 Philip the Fourth of Spain and his Queen, 
 by Velasquez. Pope Julius II. by Raf- 
 faelle. Christ Praying in the Garden, 
 and Studies of Heads, by Correggio. 
 The Nativity, and the Woman taken in 
 Adultery, by Rembrandt. A Landscape, 
 with Cattle and Figures, by Cuyp. Six 
 
AN G 
 
 AN G 
 
 Pictures of the Marriage a la Mode, and 
 a Portrait of Hogarth, by Hogarth. Por- 
 trait of Lord Heathfield, by Sir Joshua 
 Reynohls ; and a Village Holiday, by Sir 
 David Wilkie ; and the Birth of Eve, and 
 the Deluge, by Fuseli. , . 
 
 ANGHIARA, (Pietro Martire d', 
 1455—1526,) often cited as Peter Martyr, 
 was born at Arona, on the Lago Mag- 
 giore. He spent ten years in the service 
 of the archbishop of Milan, and in 14 87 
 went to Spain, and after serving two 
 years in the Spanish army, became an 
 ecclesiastic, and gave instructions in lite- 
 rature at the court of Queen Isabella. 
 He was sent by Ferdinand in 1501 on a 
 mission to Egypt, and on his return con- 
 tinued to reside at court, and was made 
 counsellor for the affairs of India, apo- 
 stolic prothonotary, and in 1505 prior of 
 Grenada, where he died. His chief 
 works are, 1. Opus Epistolarmn Patri 
 Martyris Anglerii, Mediolanensis, an 
 historical work of much interest. 2. De 
 Rebus Oceanicis et Orbe novo Decades, 
 (compiled from the papers of Columbus, 
 Paris, 1536, &c.) ; also, 3. De Insulis, 
 nuper Inventis, &c. Basle, 1521. 4. De 
 Legatione Babylonica Libri HI. usually 
 printed with his Decades. He gives an 
 account here of his embassy to the sultan 
 of Egypt. 
 
 ANGIELELLO, (Giovanni Mario,) 
 born at Vicenza. He wrote, in Turkish 
 and Italian, a life of Ussum-Cassan, (or 
 Hassan,) king of Persia, and a history of 
 Mahomet II. (inserted in Ramusio's 
 "Voyages, Venice, 1559). The author 
 was with Mahomet's expedition against 
 Ussum-Cassan in 1473, as one of the 
 young sultan Mustapha's slaves. He 
 was alive in 1524. 
 
 ANGIER, (Paul,) author of a poem, 
 entitled rExperience de M. Paul Angier, 
 contenante une Defense pour I'Amye 
 de Court, centre la Centre Amye, being 
 a defence of a poem by La Broderic, 
 against Charles Fontaine ; printed at 
 Paris in 1545. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGIER, (Paul,) an engraver and 
 printscller, who resided in London about 
 the middle of last century. What coun- 
 tryman he was is not known, but Hei- 
 necken calls him an Englishman. He 
 was instructed in his art by John Pinney, 
 but never attained to great eminence. 
 He died at about thirty years of age. 
 His best works are two landscapes, en- 
 titled, Vue de Tivoli, after Moucheron, 
 and a View of Roman Ruins, after 
 Panini, neatly engraved, but the figures 
 very indifferently drawn. The latter is 
 472 
 
 dated Nov. 4, 1749. (Bryan's Diet, 
 Strutt's Diet, of Fug. Heinecken, Diet. 
 
 ANGILBERT, abbot of Centiile, or 
 St. Riquier, in the ' ninth century. 
 He v.^as a pupil of Alcuin, and brought 
 up at the court of Charlemagne, who 
 gave him his daughter Bertha in mar- 
 riage. He became a monk, in fulfilment 
 of a vow made during a dangerous ill- 
 ness, and his wife at the same time took 
 the veil. He was secretary to Charle- 
 magne, (who used to call him Homer,) 
 and thrice ambassador to Rome. Angil- 
 bert was also prime minister to Pepin, 
 in his Italian kingdom, and died in 814. 
 His account of his monastery is inserted 
 in Mabillon, in his Annals of the Bene- 
 dictine order. 
 
 ANGIOLILLO, (called di Roccadi- 
 rame,) a Neapolitan artist, who flourished 
 about the year 1450. He was a disciple 
 of Antonio Solario, called II Zingaro, 
 and, according to Domenici, painted se- 
 veral pictures for the churches at Naples. 
 One of his most esteemed works was a 
 picture in the church of Lorenzo, repre- 
 senting the Virgin and Infant Jesus, 
 with St. Francis, St. Anthony of Padua, 
 and St. Louis. Lanzi says that he, " in 
 the church of St. Bridget, painted that 
 saint contemplating in a vision the birth 
 of Christ ; a picture which, even with the 
 experienced, might pass for the work of 
 his master." (Bryan's Diet. Lanzi, Stor. 
 Pitt. ii. 246.) 
 
 ANGIOLINI, (Francesco, 1730— 
 1788,) a native of Piacenza, and an au- 
 thor of some repixtation in Italy. He 
 joined the Jesuits at an early age, as did 
 also his five brothers. His progress in 
 languages was so i-apid that at eighteen 
 he understood about ten. He taught 
 the belles-lettres in Modena for some 
 time. On the suppression of his order, 
 he went to Verona, and devoted himself 
 to literature ; but in 1783, he left Italy 
 for Russia, with two of his brothers, in 
 order to give in his allegiance to Stanis- 
 laus Chernievidski, the general of his 
 order. The brothers were very active in 
 teaching mathematics, &c., and Francesco 
 soon learned Russian and Polish so 
 thoroughly as to compose a comedy in 
 Polish, and to write a grammar of Tooth 
 languages. He died suddenly, from acute 
 fever. He published — 1. A translation 
 of Josephus; Verona, 1779, 4 vols, 4to ; 
 (also, Milan, 1821, 7 vols, 8vo.) 2. A 
 translation of the Electra, (Edipus, and 
 Antigone of Sophocles, and the Cyclops 
 of Em-ipides, with notes, &c. Rome, 1782. 
 
 4 
 
ANG 
 
 ANG 
 
 3. Essay on Poetry. Rome, 1782. A 
 MS. history of the Jesuits in Russia, hy 
 him, is in the hands of the general of tliat 
 order. His brother Giuseppe wrote a 
 course of Philosophy, printed in Polock ; 
 and his brother Gaetano, (an architect,) 
 \vi'ote a Sure Guide to Heaven. St. Peters - 
 burgh, 1803; Rome 1817, (Tipaldo's 
 Biog. i. 11.) 
 
 ANGIVILLER, (Count Charles 
 Claude Labillarderie d',) was master of 
 requests, counsellor of state, superintend- 
 ent of buildings, and director of the Jar- 
 din du Roi, under Louis XVI., and a 
 great patron of the arts and sciences. 
 He was a royalist, and in 1791 was 
 obliged to leave France, and died in 
 Germany in 1810. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGIVILLER, (E. J. Laborde, com- 
 tesse d'), wife of the preceding. She was 
 a brilliant ornament of Louis XVth's 
 court, and her house was the rendezvous 
 of the most distinguished society of Paris. 
 She died at Vei-sailles in 1808, aged 
 eighty-three. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGLE, (Jer. Ch. de 1'). See Fleu- 
 
 KIAU. 
 
 ANGLEBERME, (Jean PyiThus d', 
 1470 — 1521,) was pi-ofessor of jui'ispru- 
 dence in the imiversity of Orleans, and 
 afterwards member of the sovereign coun- 
 cil at Milan. He is called by Chaides 
 Dumoulin, his pupil,"jurisconsultissimus 
 de utriusque linguce peritissimus," and 
 his merits are cordially recognised by all 
 who mention him. (Biog. Univ. Suppl.) 
 
 ANGLES, (Charles Gregoire, 1736— 
 1823,) born in Dauphine, was president 
 of the Cour Royale of Grenoble, and 
 represented the department of Isere in 
 the chamber of deputies, always voting 
 with the cote-droit. He died in 1823. 
 Count Jules Angles, his son, (1778 — 
 1828,) was attached to the Bourbons, 
 and became prefet of police under Louis 
 XVIII. (Biog. Univ. Suppl.) 
 
 ANGLICUS, (Gilbertus.) See Gil- 
 
 BERTUS, 
 
 ANGLICUS, (Richard.) See Richard. 
 
 ANGLIVIEL. See Beaumelle, La. 
 
 ANGLURE, (Saladin, or Oger d',) 
 lived in the time of Philippe Auguste, 
 grandfather of St. Louis. He was taken 
 pi-isoner in the east by Saladin in 1204, 
 and released, with a promise to pay a 
 large ransom. D'Anglure could not 
 procure the required sum, and returned 
 to captivity ; but Saladin dismissed him, 
 only desiring that he and his descendants 
 should bear his name. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGLUS, (Benjamin,) an engraver, 
 mentioned by Heinecken, but no account 
 473 
 
 is given of the place of his bhlh, or when 
 he lived. That author mentions two 
 emblematical subjects engraved by him; 
 one after Antonio Tempesta, and the 
 other most probably from his own designs, 
 as he adds the word " fecit " to his own 
 name. (Strutt's Diet, of Eng. Hei- 
 necken, Diet, des Artistes.) 
 
 ANGLUS, (Thomas.) See White. 
 
 ANGOT, (Robert,) author of a collec- 
 tion of odes, sonnets, epigrams, and 
 elegies, called the Prelude Poetique, at 
 Paris, 1603. 
 
 ANGOT, a native of Dieppe, of which 
 he was governor under Francis I. An- 
 got's wealth, originally acquired by com- 
 mercial navigation, was much increased 
 by successfid privateering. Great rivalry 
 existed between the inhabitants of 
 Dieppe and the Portuguese, in trading 
 to India ; and one of Angot's vessels was 
 seized by them. He sent seventeen 
 vessels to Lisbon, and in the absence of 
 their fleet, continued to ravage the coast, 
 till an ambassador was sent to tlie king 
 of France, on which he withdrew his 
 forces. He died in 1551. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGOT, (Des Rotours.) See Des 
 
 ROTOURS. 
 
 ANGOULEME. See Aymar. 
 
 ANGOULEME, (Charles de Valois, 
 due d', 1573—1650,) was the illegiti- 
 mate son of Charles IX. by Meira 
 Touchet, (the mother of Henry IVth's 
 mistress, the marquise de Verneuil.) 
 The estates of Auvergne and Lauraguais 
 were left him by Catherine de Medici, 
 on which he quitted the order of Malta, 
 and married Charlotte, daughter of Henry 
 Montmorenci, constable of France. 
 These possessions were afterwards taken 
 from him, and given to the dauphin 
 (Louis XIII.) ; but he retained the title 
 of comte d'Auvergne till his creation as 
 due d'Angouleme in 1609. He was 
 among the first to recognise Henry IV. 
 and served for him at Arques, Ivry, and 
 Fontaine Fran^aise. For some treason- 
 able attempts, with his sister de Verneuil 
 in 1614, he was condemned to death; 
 however, he was at the siege of Soissons 
 in 1617. Charles de Valois was, in 1620, 
 sent as ambassador to the emperor Fer- 
 dinand II. ; of which an account is given 
 by Henri comte de Bethunc, published 
 in 1667. In 1628, the famous siege of 
 Rochelle was commenced under him, and 
 he took part in tlie wars of Languedoc, 
 Germany, and Flanders. Fran^oise de 
 Nargonne, his second wife, (married 
 1644,) died one hundred and forty-one 
 years after her father-in-law Charles IX, 
 
ANG 
 
 ANG 
 
 in 1715, aged ninety-two. The memoirs 
 were written by the clue d'Angoiileme 
 from the first vohime of Memoires pour 
 servir a I'Histoire de France, 1756. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANGOULEME, (Louis Emmanuel de 
 Valois, due d',) second son of the pre- 
 ceding, at first comte d'Alais, born in 
 1596, was bishop of Agde ; but on his 
 elder brother's becoming insane, became 
 a soldier, and was at B-ochelle, and in the 
 wars of Italy and Lorraine. In 1637 he 
 was governor of Provence, succeeded to 
 the dukedom in 1650, and died in 1653, 
 leaving a daughter-, who died witliout 
 issue. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGOULEVANT, (Cadet,) the name 
 appended to a collection of jjoetry, pub- 
 lished at Paris in 1615, probably written 
 by d'Auvray de Motin, or some other 
 poet, wlio chose to adopt this disguise, 
 as no other mention is to be fomid of 
 such a person. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANGOULEVANT. See Imbert, Ni- 
 cholas. 
 
 ANGRAN, (dAlleray, Denis Fran- 
 9ois, 1715 — 1794,) a learned French 
 judge of Paris, born in 1715. In 1774 he 
 commenced his presidency in the court 
 of the chatelet, as lieutenant-civil ; and in 
 the discharge of his duty, in a post al- 
 ways filled by eminent men, obtained the 
 confidence of the public, and the esteem 
 of the bar. Some want of decision at- 
 tached to his judicial character, but was 
 redeemed by his extensive learning and 
 great benevolence. In 1787 he was in 
 the assembly of notables, and in those of 
 1789, in which year he resigned the 
 place of lieutenant-civil. He perished 
 on tlie scaffold, during the reign of ter- 
 ror, in 1794, aged seventy-nine years. 
 (Biog. Univ. Suppl.) 
 
 ANGRIANI, or AYGNANI, or AIG- 
 NAN, (Michael,) known as Michael 
 of Bologna, a learned Carmelite, in the 
 fourteenth century. He was made vicar- 
 general by Pope Urban VI., and in 1381 
 was general of his order, and died in 
 1400. He is the author of the commen- 
 tary called Incognitus in Psalmos. 
 His works were printed at Paris in 1626, 
 and Lyons in 1652 and 1673. 
 
 ANGUIER. There were two sculp- 
 tois of this name, brothers, and sons of 
 a carpenter at Eu, in Normandy. 
 
 1. Francois, (1604 — 1669,) was sent 
 early to Paris, where he was placed with 
 Guillain, a sculptor of inferior abilities. 
 He made so much progress that he was 
 sent to England, where he gained the 
 means of travelling to Italy. At Rome, 
 474 
 
 lie associated with many celebrated 
 painters, such as Poussin, Mignard, Du- 
 fresnoy, and Stella. After he had studied 
 two years, lie returned to Paris, where 
 Louis XIII. assigned him an apartment 
 in the Louvre, and appointed him to the 
 care of the antiquities. We are told 
 that on the foiunation' of the Academy of 
 Painting, &c. he declined to become a 
 member. Tlie principal works of Frau- 
 9ois are in the churches of Paris. He 
 also executed the ornaments on the Porte 
 St. Denis, erected after the design of 
 Blondel ; and decorated tlie Porte St. 
 Antoine witla two statues in the niclies, 
 one representing Hope, the other Public 
 Safety ; the former executed after the 
 peace between France and Spain in 1659. 
 His principal woi-k was the monument 
 of Henry duke of Montmorency, be- 
 headed at Toulouse in 1632, intended 
 for the church of the nims of Ste. Marie 
 at Moulines, and which is undestroyed. 
 A too great degree of heaviness is the 
 principal fault of the works of this artist. 
 (Biog. Univ. Heinecken, Diet, des Ar- 
 tistes.) 
 
 2. Michel, (1612 — 1686,) yoimger 
 brother of the former. At fifteen years 
 of age he executed at Eu, without having 
 had the advantage of either masters or 
 models, some works for the altar of the 
 order of the Jesuits. After having stu- 
 died some time in Paris under Guillain, 
 he ventured on a journey to Rome, with- 
 out any resources but his own abilities. 
 He remained ten years at Rome. On 
 his return to France in 1651, he was 
 greatly impeded by the political troubles, 
 notwitlistanding which, amongst others, 
 lie executed a model of a statue of Louis 
 XIII. as large as life, whicli was cast in 
 bronze, and erected at Narbonne. He 
 also decorated the apartments of the 
 queen, Anne of Austria, in tlie old Louvre, 
 with many figures and bas-reliefs, ac- 
 companied by paintings by Romanelli. 
 The chief part of the sculptures at the 
 church of Val-de-Grace are by him, and 
 his chef-d'oeuvre is the group in marble 
 of the Nativity, placed on the high altar. 
 He was received into the Academy in 
 1668, the same day appointed assistant 
 professor, and a few days afterwards 
 professor. In the following year lis 
 presented to the Academy a group in 
 terra-cotta of Hercules and Atlas, and 
 was made assistant rector, and in 1671 
 rector. He completed about this time 
 a grand composition of the Appearance 
 of our Saviour to St. Denis and his com- 
 panions, which Anne of Austria had 
 
AN G 
 
 ANG 
 
 ordered for the high altar of St. Denis 
 de la Chatre. Mons. Durdent, in the 
 Biographie Universelle, says that Michel 
 was the artist, and not his brother, who 
 decorated the Porte St. Denis, which is 
 contrary to the statement of M. Hei- 
 necken, as mentioned in the last article. 
 Le Brun, who in quality of first painter 
 to the king wished to exercise a supre- 
 macy over the arts, to which the sculptors 
 of the time submitted, with the single 
 exception of Puget, deprived Anguier 
 of the merit of the design, by forcing 
 him to work after his own ; but the 
 sculptor sustained his reputation by the 
 manner in which he executed these great 
 works. Age and long labour had im- 
 paired his health, when he was required 
 to sculpture a mai'ble crucifix for the 
 Sorbonne. He had been always a reli- 
 gious man, and observed when executing 
 it that he could not finish his career by 
 a work more consonant to his feelings. 
 On dying, he gave to his parish church 
 of St. Roch a Christ carved in wood, 
 which was afterwards placed in the cha- 
 pel of Calvary in that church. He was 
 buried at St. Roch, near his elder bro- 
 ther. (Biog. Univ. Heinecken, Diet, 
 des Artistes.) 
 
 ANGUILLARA, (Giovanni Andrea 
 dell',) an Italian poet, bom in 1517, at 
 Sutri, in Tuscany. For some time he 
 corrected proofs for a bookseller in Rome, 
 and was afterwards employed at Venice, 
 on his translation of Ovid's Metamor- 
 phoses. He was always unlucky, and 
 died in great distress at Rome. His 
 version of the Metamorphoses, in ottava 
 rima, but rather a free imitation than a 
 correct translation, has always had a 
 great reputation. Anguillara also wrote 
 a kind of expansion of the CEdipus Rex, 
 which was performed at Vicenza inl565 ; 
 metrical arguments to the books of the 
 Orlando Furioso ; and four Capitoli, or 
 satires, to be found in several collections. 
 (Biog. Univ. Tiraboschi.) 
 
 ANGUILLARA, (Louis, or Aloysio,) 
 born at Anguillara, in the papal states, 
 at the commencement of the sixteenth 
 century. He was complimented by the 
 Venetians with the title of Simplicesta, 
 or chief botanist, and was director of the 
 botanic garden at Padua, which he left 
 in 1561, and died at Florence in 1570. 
 He paid much attention to the plants 
 mentioned by Greek and Latin authors ; 
 and a collection of his letters on botani- 
 cal subjects was published at Venice in 
 15G1. (Biog. Univ. Tiraboschi.) 
 ANGUILLESI, (Giovanni Dome- 
 47c 
 
 nico, 1766 — 1833,) an Italian poet and 
 scholar. Attaching himself to one of the 
 numerous Italian societies, where the 
 members give themselves romantic names, 
 he wrote an Elegy on the Death of Luisa 
 Cicci, prefixed to her Poems, 1799. He 
 translated Chateaubriand's Genie du 
 Christianisme ; and after being secretary 
 to the grand duchess of Tuscany, (Napo- 
 leon's sistei-,) he was, in 1814, made 
 professor of Latin at Naples ; and in 
 1824, chancellor of that imiversity. He 
 ■wrote several pieces. (Tipaldo's Biog.) 
 
 ANGUS. There were two artists of 
 this name. 
 
 1. W., an English engi-aver, who 
 flourished about 1790. He engraved 
 several landscapes and views in a very 
 beautiful and masterly style. They are 
 chiefly executed with the graver. (Bryan's 
 Diet.) 
 
 2. William, (1752— Oct. 12, 1821,) an 
 Englishlandscape and historical engraver, 
 was pupil of William Walker. His prin- 
 cipal works, whicli are executed in a free 
 style, were engravings of the seats of 
 the nobility and gentry in Great Britain, 
 with letter-press descrijjtions, 4to, 1787 
 — 1815. He also engraved many designs 
 after Stothard. 
 
 ANGUSSOLA, or ANGOSCIOLA. 
 There were four sisters of this name, all 
 of whom attained to eminence in paint- 
 ing. They were members of an ancient 
 and noble family, and v.'ere born at Cre- 
 mona. Their names were — 
 
 1. Sofonisha, (1533—1626,) generally 
 styled only Sofonisba, was first instructed, 
 together with her younger sister, Elena, 
 who afterwards took the veil, by Bernar- 
 dino Campi, upon whose removal to 
 Milan she became a scholar of Bernardo 
 Gatti, called Sojaro. She soon was 
 considered as one of the most finished 
 painters of that period. She at first 
 educated her four younger sisters, whose 
 names were Lucia and Minerva, and 
 who died young ; Europa and Anna Ma- 
 ria, of whom the fonner married, and 
 died in the flower of her age ; the second 
 likewise married, of whom no fiu-th.er 
 account is preserved. Besides a great 
 number of portraits, Sofonisba painted 
 some historical subjects of small size, 
 v.'hich are highly valued. Her fame in- 
 duced Philip II. of Spain, to invite 
 her to his court, and in 1560 she 
 arrived in Madrid, accompanied by 
 three of her sisters ; and a portrait of 
 Queen Isabella by her was sent from the 
 king as a present to Pope Pius IV. 
 accompanied by a letter from her, dated 
 
AN G 
 
 ANH 
 
 ICtli of September, 1561, to which the 
 pontift' replied in an epistle dated the 15th 
 of October following, highly praising her 
 performance. The pictm-es of this lady 
 are much lauded by Vasari, as are also 
 those of her sisters. She married first one 
 Moncada, with whom she resided some 
 years at Palermo ; and afterwards a gentle- 
 man of the name of LomeUino, of Genoa, 
 at which city she died infirm and blind, in 
 her ninety-third year ; though Paloncino 
 Velosco eiToncously states that she died 
 at Madrid in 1575. She continued to con- 
 verse upon the art until her last moments ; 
 and Vandyke is recorded to have said that 
 he received more beneficial knowledge 
 of the true principles of liis art from one 
 blind woman, than by studying all the 
 works of the greatest masters of Italy. 
 Her portraits are highly admired, espe- 
 cially those she painted of herself, one of 
 which is in Earl Spencer's collection, 
 (Pilkington.) A marriage of St. Cathe- 
 rine is at Wilton, (Bryan.) (Lanzi, Stor. 
 Pitt. iv. 122. Pilkington's Diet, by Fuseli. 
 Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 2. Lucia painted portraits, and gained 
 a high reputation as well for excellence 
 of resemblance, as for truth and delicacy 
 of colour. (Pilkington's Diet.) 
 
 3. Europa showed an extraordinary 
 talent for painting from her earliest 
 infancy. Her works are distinguished 
 for taste and elegance of design. (Ibid.) 
 
 4. Anna Maria was greatly estimated, 
 but she and her other sisters, Lucia and 
 Europa, were eclipsed by the great merit 
 of Sofonisba. (Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ANHALT - COETHEN, (Rodolph, 
 prince of,) son of Prince George of Anhalt- 
 Zerbst-Dessau, who died in 1474, a dis- 
 tinguished soldier in the time of the 
 Emperor Maximilian. He commanded 
 in the wars of Gueldre and Venice, and 
 in 1513 defended Verona against the 
 Venetians, but in the same year died by 
 poison. 
 
 ANHALT-ZERBST-DESSAU, (Joa- 
 chim Ernest, Prince of,) succeeded 
 Charles, his bi-other, in 1561, and after- 
 wards his cousin Wolfgang, so that he 
 had the whole principality of Anhalt. 
 He died in 1586, leaving six sons. 
 
 ANHALT-BERNBOURG, (Prince 
 Christian I. of, 1568—1630,) son of Joa- 
 chim Ernest. He took Juliers, along 
 with the prince of Orange, in 1619; and 
 in 1620 was beaten at the battle of 
 Prague. His son Ernest (1608 — 1632) 
 died from wounds received at the battle 
 of Lutzen. 
 
 ANH\LT-BERNBOURG, (Prince 
 476 
 
 Christian II.) son of Christian I. (1599 — 
 1656,) was with his father at Prague in 
 1620, and afterwards travelled much in 
 Europe. 
 
 ANHALT- COETHEN, (Louis, prince 
 of, 1579 — 1650,) was a distinguished 
 patron of literature in Germany. He 
 served under Gustavus in the thirty 
 years' war, and was in 1631 governor of 
 Magdeburgh and Halberstadt. 
 
 ANHALT, (Antonio Gunter, prince 
 of, 1653—1714,) son of John prince of 
 Anhalt-Zerbst, was general of the Prus- 
 sian armies. He was at the sieges of 
 Grave and Oudenarde in 1676, and at 
 that of Philipsburgh, and at the battles 
 of Steinkii-k and Nerwinde. 
 
 AN HALT-DESSAU, (Leopold, prince 
 of, 1676 — 1747,) field-marshal of Prussia 
 and of the empire. He made his first 
 campaign on the Rhine in 1695, and was 
 present at the taking of Nam ur. In 1698 
 he undertook the government of Dessau, 
 but did not remain long at home. He 
 was present at most of the battles in the 
 war of the succession, and was highly 
 praised by Prince Eugene for his beha- 
 viour at Hochstadt. Leopold commanded 
 the Prussian auxiliaries in Italy, at the 
 battles of Cassano and Turin ; and from 
 1710 to 1712 commanded the Prussian 
 army in Flanders. In 1715 he accom- 
 panied Frederick William to Pomerania 
 against Charles XII. Avhom he drove 
 from the isle of Rugen. He was opposed 
 to Frederick lid's system of war against 
 Austi'ia, but accepted the command of 
 the Prussian forces, and in 1745 won the 
 decisive battle of KesseldorfF. This was 
 the last action in which, after forty years' 
 service, he was engaged ; and peace 
 being concluded, he retired to Dessau, 
 where he died. The discipline of the 
 Prussian army under Frederick II. was 
 much indebted to the prince of Anhalt. 
 His statue (from Schadow) is at Berlin. 
 Memoirs of this prince will be found in 
 the Biographical Monuments, Berlin, 
 1825, and in Busching's Memoir's for the 
 Biography of remarkable Men. (Biog. 
 Univ. Lord Dover's Life of Fred. II.) 
 
 ANHALT-DESSAU, (Leopold Maxi- 
 milian, 1700 — 1751,) son of the preced- 
 ing. He served with distinction in Him- 
 gaiy and on the Rhine, and in the war 
 of Silesia ; and was field-marshal in 
 Frederick lid's army. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANHALT-DESSAU, (Leopold Fre- 
 derick Franz, 1740 — 1819,) son of Leo- 
 pold Maximilian. He entered the Prus- 
 sian army at an early age ; but on 
 Frederick's refusing to allow him to 
 
ANH 
 
 AN I 
 
 accompany the army in 17oG, on account 
 of liis youth, he volunteered under Prince 
 Maurice, and was present at the siege of 
 Prague, and at the battle of Collin. In 
 1758 he assumed the government of 
 Dessau, of which his uncle Thieni was 
 previously regent. After some time 
 spent in foreign travels, during which he 
 visited England, he returned to Dessau 
 in 1 769, married, and applied himself to 
 the cares of government and the im- 
 provement of his country. On the death 
 of the last prince of Anhalt-Zerbst in 
 1793, and the division of that princi- 
 pality, the town of Zerbst fell to his lot, 
 and he extended to it all the advantages he 
 had confeiTcd on Dessau. After the 
 battle of Halle in 1807, Napoleon fol- 
 lowed the Prussians in their retreat 
 through Dessau, and was i-eceived by the 
 prince, who made so favourable an im- 
 pression upon him, that he declared the 
 territory of Dessau neutral, and invited 
 the prince to visit him at Paris. In the 
 same year he joined the confederation of 
 the Rhine, and took the title of duke ; 
 in 1808 he went to Paris, and met with 
 a distinguished reception. In 1812 the 
 Dessau contingent to the troops of the 
 confederation was sent to Spain, and de- 
 stroyed, as was its successor at Kovno. 
 The duke was aftei'wards obliged to fur- 
 nish Napoleon with a regiment of cavalry, 
 who were made prisoners at Culm, but 
 sent troops to the allies in 1814. He 
 died in 1817, after a reign of fifty-eight 
 years, devoted to the good of his subjects. 
 His latter days were much cloiided by 
 the death of his only son, 1814. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANHALT-COETHEN, (Frederick 
 Ferdinand, duke of, 1769—1830,) was 
 son of Frederick Erdmann, duke of An- 
 halt-Pless. He served with great distinc- 
 tion in the Prussian army from 1786 to 
 1818, when he succeeded to the sove- 
 reignty of Anhalt-Coethen. In 1796 
 he became, on the death of his father, 
 sovereign of Anhalt-Pless. He was at 
 the battle of Hochheim, in the campaign 
 of 1793-4, and in the campaign of 1806 
 at Jena. In 1824 he was converted to 
 popery at Paris, and announced his 
 change in a proclamation 13th Jan. 1826. 
 (Biog. Univ. Suppl.) 
 
 ANIANO, or ANIENO, secretary of 
 Alaric II. king of the Wisigoths, whose 
 name has been isnmortalized in conjunc- 
 tion with the celebi'ated code of laws 
 which that monarch caused to be com- 
 piled for the Roman and Gothic inhabi- 
 tants of Spain, under the title of Brevia- 
 477 
 
 riiini y^iilani. This code, which was 
 derived from two distinct sources — the 
 traditionary customs of the Goths, and 
 the written law of Rome, long continued 
 in vigour : to it additions were made 
 by succeeding kings, until it formed the 
 Liber Judicum, or book of the judges, 
 so famous in Spanish jurisprudence. 
 Though a lawyer, or rather jurisconsult, 
 and probably a Roman, Aniano was a 
 warrior ; and the field which witnessed 
 the fall of his royal master (506), also 
 witnessed his own. 
 
 ANIANUS, or ANIEN, an Itahan 
 Pelagian, author of a Latin translation of 
 Chrysostom's Homilies on St. Matthew 
 and St. Paid, (published in the Benedic- 
 tine edition,) lived in the times of Jerome 
 and Augustine. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANIANUS, an astronomer and poet 
 of the fifteenth century ; author of an 
 astronomical poem, " Computus Mannalis 
 magistri Aniani," published at Sti-asburg 
 in 1488. The nniemonic couplet. 
 
 Sunt Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo 
 , Libraque, Scorpius, Arcitenens, Caper, Amphora, 
 " Pisces, 
 
 is ascribed to him. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANIBERT, (Louis Mathieu, 1742— 
 1782,) author of Memoirs on the ancient 
 repubhc of Aries, published in 1779 and 
 1782. 
 
 ANICETUS, (St.) tenth bishop of 
 Rome, (Euseb. v. 6,) disputed with St, 
 Polycarp on the settlement of the feast 
 of Easter, and suffered martyrdom in 
 161, under Marcus Aurelius. On his 
 dispute with Polycarj^, see Neander, 
 vol. i. p. 341, (Engl, transl.) ; and Euseb. 
 v. 24 ; also Augusti Denkwiirdigkeiten, 
 iv. 396. 
 
 ANICH, (Peter, 1725—1776.) He 
 was of humble parentage, and dur- 
 ing his youth was an agricultural 
 labourer. At the age of twenty-eight he 
 commenced the study of the exact 
 sciences rmder the Jesuits at Inspruck, 
 in some departments of which he attained 
 great excellence, and was employed by 
 the empress Maria Theresa in mapping 
 the Tyrol. His maps were published at 
 Vienna in 1774; and his life at Munich in 
 1767. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANICHINI. There were two artists 
 of this name : 
 
 1. Louis, a medal engraver, was born 
 at Ferrara, some time in the sixteenth 
 century, whence he went to Venice. His 
 medals of Henry II. of France and Pope 
 Paul III. are much valued. He attained 
 to great precision and finish in his works, 
 some of which are of very minute size. 
 
AN I 
 
 ANN 
 
 Michael Angelo is said to have heen so 
 satisfied with his lahours, that upon at- 
 tentively considering one of his medals, 
 he prononnced it to be his ojiinion that 
 the art had attained perfection. The date 
 of his death is not known. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 2. Pietro, an Italian engraver, who 
 lived in the middle of the seventeenth 
 contur.y, but we have no account of his 
 life. Amongst other plates engraved 
 by him we have the following : a Holy 
 Family, small plate, lengthways, dated 
 1655 ; tlie Good Samaritan, small, length- 
 ways ; a portrait, inscribed Cosmus P. 
 Etrurite, P. Anichinus fee. ; and the 
 portrait of Torrieelli, mathematician to 
 Ferdinand II., grand duke of Tus- 
 cany, placed at the beginning of his 
 Academic Lessons, printed at Florence 
 in 1715. (Strutt's Diet, of Eng. Hei- 
 necken's Diet, des Artistes.) 
 
 ANIELLO. See Massaniello. 
 
 ANILEE AND ASINEE, Jews of 
 Babylon, brothers and apprentices to a 
 weaver. Tliey took arms, and with their 
 companions defended themselves in the 
 marshes of the Euphrates, against the 
 governor of Babylon. They wei-e allowed 
 to keep tlie district they had seized ; but 
 afterwards Asinee was poisoned, and 
 Anilee surprised and killed by the Baby- 
 lonians, in 40 A. c. 
 
 ANIMUCCIA, (Giovanni, about 
 1490 — 1559,) a native of Florence, who 
 became master of the chapel of St. Peter's 
 at Rome. He is celebrated as the master 
 of Palestrina, the great composer of 
 sacred music ; and to Animuccia is also 
 ascribed the first idea of those musical 
 performances, which v/ere improved by 
 degrees, and especially by Filippo Ncri, 
 till they became oratorios. In tlie Sup- 
 plement to the Biog. Univ. some of his 
 compositions are enumerated. (Ersch 
 and Grueber.) 
 
 ANISIO, (Giovanni, or Janus Any- 
 sius,) a modei'n Latin poet, born at 
 Naples about 1472, died about 1540. He 
 wrote Jani Anysii Poemata et Satyrae, ad 
 PompeiumColumnamcardinalcm, Naples, 
 1531 ; Protogenos Trajsedia, Naples, 
 1536; and other works. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANISSON, (Laurent,) a printer at 
 Lyons. The Bibliotheca maxima ve- 
 terum Patrum, et antiquorum Scripto- 
 rum, issued from his press in 1677. His 
 two sons and two grandsons are also 
 known as booksellers and pi-inters. His 
 great grandson, Etienne Alexandre 
 Jacques, (1748—1794,) was director of 
 the royal press, and afterwards of the 
 national. He was guillotined. 
 478 
 
 ANITUS. See Anytus. 
 ANJOU, (Franfois de France, duke 
 of, 1554—1584,) son of Henry 11. and 
 Catherine de Medicis, and brother of 
 Francis II. Charles IX. and Henry III.; 
 at first duke of Alen^on. His mother 
 seems to have taken an early dislike to 
 him ; but he was much attached to 
 Coligny, and did not conceal his abhor- 
 rence of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 
 On tlie death of Charles IX. the pro- 
 testants fixed on the due d'Alen^on as 
 his successor, instead of Henry III., then 
 king of Poland ; but this scheme was 
 frustrated by his own treachery and 
 weakness. Notwithstanding this, in 1575, 
 the duke had the command of the 
 Huguenot army ; peace, however, being 
 soon concluded, he obtained the duchies 
 of Anjou, Tourraine, and Bern. War 
 broke out afresh in the following year, 
 and the duke of Anjou now led the 
 catholic forces. He was made sovereign 
 of the Netherlands in 1581, and went to 
 England to urge his suit for the hand of 
 Queen Elizabeth. Coligny had formerly 
 suggested him to Walsingham as a proper 
 match ; and he was now supported by 
 Henry III. and his mother. No one of 
 her suitors was so nearly successful, but 
 Elizabeth drew back, after giving him 
 every encouragement, and finally dis- 
 missed him. His arbitrary designs, and 
 total disregard of his subjects' interests, 
 occasioned his expulsion from the Nether- 
 lands, and he died soon after, in 1584, 
 leaving enormous debts. Henry IV. 
 said of him, "that he had so little cou- 
 rage, so little address, and so false a 
 heart, that he would never do anything 
 great." (Biog. Univ. Mem. de Sully, 
 liv. i. ii.) 
 
 ANJOU. See Charles, Louis, Mar- 
 guerite, Marie, Rene, Robert d'. 
 
 ANKARCRONA, (Theodore,) a 
 Swedish admiral, born in 1687. In early 
 life lie served the Dutch East India Com- 
 pany, and was afterwards a lieutenant in 
 the English navy. In 1715 he conveyed 
 Cliarles XII. from Stralsund, and was 
 governor of the province of Stockholm. 
 He died in 1750. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANKARSTROOM. See Anckar- 
 strom. 
 
 ANLY, (Jean d',) a French historian 
 in the sixteenth century. 
 
 ANNA COMNENA, daughter of 
 the emperor Alexis I., was born in 1083, 
 and married Nicephorus Briennius, for 
 whom she attempted to gain the empire 
 from her father during his last illness ; 
 Alexis, however, refused to disinherit his 
 
 I 
 
ANN 
 
 ANN 
 
 own son, who succeeded to the throne. 
 Anna afterwards employed all her influ- 
 ence in a plot to dethrone him, and put 
 her husband in his place, which mis- 
 carried through his want of vigovu' and 
 coiu'age. Pardoned by her brother John, 
 she was, however, forced into retirement, 
 when she composed her Alexiad, a life 
 of her father, in fifteen books, which was 
 completed in the year of her death, 1148. 
 She was instructed in poetry, philosophy, 
 mathematics, and all the learhing of that 
 age ; which, united to great natural 
 abilities, and a masculine spirit, made 
 her one of tlie most remarkable person- 
 ages of her time. 
 
 ANNA IWANOWNA, (1693—1740,) 
 empress of Russia, was daughter of 
 Iwan, elder brother of Peter the Great. 
 In 1710 she mai'ried the duke of 
 Courland, who died the next year. In 
 1 730, on the death of Peter II., she was 
 chosen to succeed him, by the council 
 of state, and the senate, assembled at 
 Moscow. It was their intention to 
 have restricted the powers of the crown, 
 but Anna on her arrival declared herself 
 empress and autocrat of all the Russias, 
 and completely frustrated the designs of 
 the party who, with that view, had ele- 
 vated her to the throne in preference to 
 Elizabeth, afterwards empress, daughter 
 of Peter the Great. Her favourite, Biron, 
 a man of low birth, whom she made duke 
 of Courland, now in fact governed 
 Russia ; and, by his oppressive conduct, 
 rendered her reign very unpopular : 
 neai'ly 12,000 persons were executed 
 during it, and 20,000 banished. Anna 
 supported Augustus III., and succeeded, 
 with Austriii, in placing him on the 
 throne of Poland, against Stanislaus 
 Lackzinsky ; and her armies, imder 
 Munich, were engaged" in war with the 
 Turks from 1736 to 1740. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANNA PETROWNA, eldest daughter 
 of Peter the Great, was born in 1706, 
 mamed in 1725 the duke of Holstein- 
 Gottorp, and died in 1728, leaving an 
 only son, afterwards the unfortunate 
 Peter III. 
 
 ANNA, (Baldassare d',) a Venetian 
 painter, but of Flemish extraction, a 
 pupil of Leonardo Corona, who floiu-ished 
 in the latter part of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. Anna was an excellent imitator 
 of his master's style, and finished some 
 of his pictures. He produced some 
 original pieces for the Servi and other 
 churches, which, Lanzi says, " though 
 inferior to those of Corona in the selec- 
 tion of forms, yet surpass them in the 
 479 
 
 softness, and sometimes in the force of 
 their chiaro-scuro." (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt, 
 iii. 165.) 
 
 ANN^US. See Cornutus. 
 
 ANN AND, (William, 1633—1689,) 
 dean of Edinbiu'gh. He was educated 
 at Oxford, and was a strong royalist. 
 He was vicar of Leighton-Buzzard ; and 
 in 1662, went to Scotland as chaplain to 
 Lord Middleton, the king's commissioner 
 to the clun-ch of that kingdom. In 1603 
 he was instituted to the Tolbooth church 
 at Edinbin-gh, and removed afterwards 
 to the Tron church ; and in 1676 was 
 nominated to the deanery of Edinbiugh. 
 His works are — Fides Catholica, Lond. 
 1661; Panem Quotidianum ; Paternos- 
 ter; Mysterium Pietatis ; Doxologia; et 
 Dualitas, Edin. 1674. 
 
 ANNAT, (Fran9ois, 1607—1670,) a 
 learned .lesuit, was professor of philo- 
 sophy and theology for thirteen years at 
 Toulouse, provincial of his order in 
 France, and in 1654 was appointed con- 
 fessor to J^ouis XIV. ; v.'hich post he 
 held till within a few months of his 
 death. He is called by Sotwell, in his 
 edition of the Libraiy of Jesuits, (see 
 Alegambe,) the Hammer of Heretics, 
 especially of the new heresy of Jansenism. 
 He took a violent part in the Jansenist 
 controversy, and the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth of the Lettres Provinciales are 
 addressed to him. His polemical works 
 were collected in 3 vols, 4to, Paris, 1660. 
 AN NAY A, (Pedro de,) a Portuguese 
 admiral, was entrusted by Don Manuel 
 in 1508 with the task of forming a mili- 
 tary and commercial establishment at 
 Sofala, on the eastern coast of Africa. 
 He compelled the African king to grant 
 the permission demanded ; but the latter 
 watched his opportunity for i-evenge. 
 Seeing one day that the fortress was ill 
 defended, and that three of the six vessels 
 had been despatched elsewhere, he assailed 
 the fortress and was repulsed ; the fol- 
 lowing day Annaya, who had only thirty 
 men, assailed the palace, was wounded, 
 but had the satisfaction to kill the king. 
 A son of the deceased was placed on the 
 throne as a vassal of Don Manuel ; and 
 Quilva and Mombaya, on the same coast, 
 were soon added to the Portuguese em- 
 pire in the east. 
 
 ANNE OF RUSSIA, daughter of 
 Jaraslas, married in 1044 Henry I. of 
 France ; who at the age of thirty-nine, 
 and without an heir, was desirous of 
 forming a second marriage. At that time 
 all the princes of Europe were allied in 
 blood, and Henry, anxious to avoid any 
 
ANN 
 
 ANN 
 
 alliance wlilcli might subject liim to the 
 interference of the church, chose a wife 
 to whom no sucli danger could attach. 
 Anne was the mother of Philip I.; and 
 after Henry's death, was again married 
 to Raoul, count of Crepi, but died in 
 Russia. (Biog. Univ.) ^ 
 
 ANNE OF DAUPHINE, daughter 
 of Guigucs VI. and Beatrice of Savoy, 
 was in 1282 the sole representative of 
 her family. Her rights were attacked 
 by Robert duke of Burgundy, who as- 
 serted tliat Dauphine was a male fief, 
 and could not descend to her. She, how- 
 ever, together with her husband, Humbert 
 de la Tour-du-Pin, the owner of vast 
 estates in Dauphine, whom she married 
 in 1273, succeeded in maintaining her 
 sovereignty. On the attainment of his 
 majority by their son, all acts of state ran 
 jointly in their three names, Humbert, 
 Anne, and Jean ; and on her deatli in 
 1299, the government wholly devolved 
 on him. See Humbert I. and Jean 11. 
 
 ANNE OF SAVOY, empress of Con- 
 stantinople, daughter of Amedee V., 
 coimt of Savoy, married in 1327 Andro- 
 nicus, emperor of the east. On his 
 death, John Paljeologus, her son, was a 
 minor ; when she attempted to wrest the 
 regency from Cantacuzenus ; but in 1317 
 was at length forced to receive him in 
 Constantinople, and divide with him the 
 title and honours of empire. In 1351 
 she endeavoured to reconcile her son and 
 Cantacuzenus — and their dissensions were 
 ended by the abdication of the latter. 
 She died soon afterwards. (Biog. Univ. 
 Gibbon.) 
 
 ANNE OF CYPRUS, duchess of Sa- 
 voy, daughter of James, king of Cyprus 
 and Jerusalem, married Louis of Savoy, 
 son of Amedee VIII. in 1433, with a 
 dowry of 100,000 gold crowns. She 
 obtained such an influence over her hus- 
 band by her beauty and talents, that on 
 his succeeding to the ducal crown in 
 1451, she had the whole management of 
 the state. She died at Geneva in 14G5. 
 
 ANNE OF FRANCE, eldest daughter 
 of Louis XI. married to Pierre II. lord 
 of Beaujeu, duke of Bourbon, was regent 
 of France during the minority of Charles 
 VIII. The duke of Orleans, as nearest 
 to the throne, appeared in arms to claim 
 a share in the government ; but was 
 beaten and taken prisoner, and confined 
 for two years. Nevertheless, she was 
 treated with great consideration by him, 
 wlicn king, as Louis XII. She died in 
 1522. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANNE OF BRETAGNE, (1476- 
 480 
 
 1514,) queen of France. Solo heiress to 
 the dukedom of Bretagne, she espoused 
 Maximilian of Austria, widower of the 
 duchess of Burgundy. Charles VIII. of 
 France, however, interfered to prevent a 
 match which would unite those powerful 
 principalities, and himself maiTied Anne 
 in 1491. During his absence in Italy, 
 Anne governed the kingdom with great 
 ability ; and on his death in 1498, retired 
 to Bretagne. Louis XII. in order to 
 avail himself of an article in her mar- 
 riage contract which bound Anne to 
 marry her husband's successor, was di- 
 vorced from his wife, and, in 1499, mar- 
 ried to the widow of Charles VIII. The 
 eldest daughter of this marriage after- 
 wards marrying Francis I. the dukedom 
 of Bretagne became permanently attached 
 to the crown of France. In 1501, Anne 
 at her ov/n expense equipped twelve large 
 vessels for the christian expedition against 
 the Turks ; and she expended large sums 
 in charitable purposes from the revenues 
 of Bretagne which had been reserved to 
 herself. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANNE OF HUNGARY, daughter of 
 Ladisias VI. of Poland, and sister of 
 Louis II. king of Hungary, brought the 
 crown of Hungary to her husband, Fer- 
 dinand of Austria, in 1527. At the siege 
 of Vienna by Soliman and Zapolya in 
 1529, she distinguished herself by her 
 courage, and materially assisted the de- 
 fence of the place. Anne died in 1547. 
 Mary of Medicis and Anne of Austria 
 were her granddaughters. (Biog. Univ.) 
 ANNE OF AUSTRIA, daughter of 
 Philip II. of Spain, married Louis XIII, 
 in 1G15. She did not conceal her dis- 
 content at his want of confidence in her, 
 nor lier continued attachment to her own 
 family. Although France and Spain 
 were politically at war, Richelieu took 
 advantage of this to fill the king's mind 
 with suspicion, and destroy what little 
 influence slie did possess with him ; so 
 tliat she remained neglected and power- 
 less till the birth of a son (Louis XIV,) 
 in 1G3S, and the subsequent deaths of 
 the king and Richelieu, entirely altered 
 her position. Sole regent of the king- 
 dom, slie was determined that the royal 
 autliority should lose nothing during her 
 administration of it ; and to Mazai'in, an 
 Italian, was committed the whole manage- 
 ment of affairs. The misconduct of some 
 financial operations was the immediate 
 occasion of the troubles and wars of the 
 Fronde, which ended in the establishment 
 of a monarchy, as absolute as Richelieu, 
 Anne's former enemy woiUd have wished. 
 
ANN 
 
 ANN 
 
 Throughout, Anne showed a firmness 
 and perseverance which well entitled her 
 to the gratitude of Louis XIV. who 
 deeply regretted her death, in 1666. 
 The memoirs of this princess were written 
 by her favourite Madame de Motteville, 
 who was her attendant and her confi- 
 dante during many years. Anquetil, 
 in his agreeable work, Louis XIV. sa 
 Cours, (Preface, p. xxxi.) gives a high 
 character of this work. It is interesting 
 enough, but it must be acknowledged 
 that it is rather prolix ; a fault which he 
 admits, but palliates. Much information 
 also relative to this princess may be 
 found in the Memoirs of the Cardinal du 
 Retz, and the Memoirs of Guy Joli. Her 
 spirited reply to Cardinal Mazarin, when 
 he spoke of the possibility of Louis XIV. 
 marrying one of his nieces, is well known. 
 ANNE BOLEYN. See Boleyn. 
 ANNE OF CLEVES. See Cleves. 
 ANNE, queen of England, second 
 daughter of James II. by Anne Hyde, 
 was born 6th February, 1664; in 1683 
 married Prince George of Denmark, 
 (who died 1708.) In 1688 she and her 
 husband abandoned James II. who was 
 much affected by her desertion ; and the 
 subsequent act of settlement secured to 
 her and her children, (in default of issue 
 to William and Mary,) the English crown. 
 She was coldly treated by William, till 
 the death of her sister Mary without 
 issue, in 1694, altered her position, as her 
 son, the infant duke of Gloucestei', the 
 only survivor of many children, was now 
 heir presumptive to the crown. He, 
 however, died in 1699, aged twelve, and 
 the Princess Sophia and her protestant 
 descendants were declared next heii-s, 
 failing direct issue to William or Anne. 
 William died in 1 702, and Anne became 
 queen. In the same year war was de- 
 clared against France and Spain, by 
 England, the empire, and Holland, 
 Louis XIV. having recognised the claim 
 of James II. 's son to the throne of 
 England, in opposition to Anne ; and 
 that of his grandson Philip of Anjou, to 
 be king of Spain, in contravention of the 
 Partition Treaties of 1698 and 1700. Up 
 to 1710, the Whigs were predominant : 
 the duchess of Marlborough ruled an 
 vmcontroUed favourite in the palace ; Go- 
 dolphin and Sunderland headed the 
 ministry at home ; Marlborough com- 
 manded the annies abroad. But the 
 political doctrine of the divine right of 
 kings had been revived ; Sacheverel had 
 preached it, been impeached, and virtually 
 acquitted, and was the idol of the nation. 
 VOL. I. 481 
 
 By the elections of 1710, the majority in 
 the House of Commons was transferred 
 to the Tories ; while the creation of twelve 
 peers secured the upper house. Mrs. 
 Masham succeeded the duchess, Ormond 
 the duke, and St. John and Harley were 
 the new ministers. Negotiations were 
 commenced with France, and in 1713 
 the war was concluded by the Peace of 
 Utrecht. Queen Anne died 1 2th August, 
 1714, amidst the quarrels of Bolingbroke 
 and Oxford, general clamours against 
 the peace of Utrecht, and discontent 
 with the Scottish union. She seems at 
 heart to have always favoured her 
 brother's claims to succeed her, and is 
 said to have seen him in London on the 
 subject, shortly before her death. During 
 her reign, Ramilies, Oudenarde, Blen- 
 heim, and Malplaquet, were fought ; 
 Gibraltar and Port Mahon taken ; Marl- 
 borough and Peterborough by land, 
 Leake, Rooke, Shovel, and Stanhope 
 by sea, raised the name of England to 
 a higher pitch of military and naval re- 
 nown than at any former period. 
 
 ANNE OF FERRARA. See Ferrara. 
 
 ANNE OF GONZAGUE. See Gon- 
 
 ZAGUE. 
 
 ANNE, duchess of Guise. See Guise, 
 
 FRAN9OIS, DUKE OF. 
 
 ANNEBAUT, or Annebaud, (Claude 
 de,) marshal and gi-and admiral of France 
 under Frrncis I. who was much attached 
 to him, placed great confidence in him, 
 and on his death-bed recommended him 
 to his successor. His integrity, abilities, 
 and courage, amply deserved this dis- 
 tinction. At Pavia, in 1525, he remained 
 with the king ; and was afterwards em- 
 ployed by him in the campaigns of Italy 
 and Flanders. In 1545 he commanded 
 the naval armament against England, 
 and afterwards negotiated and concluded 
 peace with her. Henry II. paid no 
 attention to the advice of Francis I. and 
 Annebaut was deprived of the adminis- 
 tration of affairs by him. Catherine de 
 Medicis, however, recalled him to the 
 council-board. He died in 1552. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANNEIX. See Souvenel. 
 
 ANNESE, (Gennaro,) successor to 
 Massaniello, as leader of the Neapolitan 
 insurrection of 1647. He was chosen 
 chief of the people, after they had assas- 
 sinated F. Toraldo, prince of Massa, who 
 as captain-general had betrayed his trust, 
 and placed at the head of the munici- 
 pality. Henry of Lon-aine, duke of 
 Guise, wa3 invited to become the pro- 
 tector of the new republic ; and on his 
 I I 
 
A'NN 
 
 ANN 
 
 arrival in Naples, was invested with the 
 command af the military, while Annese re- 
 tained the civil government. Misunder- 
 standings soon arose between them, which 
 ended in the re-delivery of Naples to the 
 Spaniards (mider Don Juan of Austria, 
 who had succeeded the duke of Arcos,) by 
 Annese, and his own death, which took 
 
 fdace among the executions which fol- 
 owed, notwithstanding a general amnesty 
 had been granted, and the terms of which 
 were violated by the Count Annate, who 
 succeeded Don Juan. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANNESLEY, (Arthur,) earl of Angle- 
 sea, and lord privy seal under Charles II. 
 was born in 1614, studied at Oxford and 
 Lincoln 's-inn, made the tour of Europe, 
 and returned to England in 1640. At 
 the beginning of the civil wars, he in- 
 clined to the royal cause, but afterwards 
 adopted the parliamentary side, and in 
 ] 647 was at the head of the commissioners 
 who received Dublin from the duke 'of 
 Oraiond. On the death of Cromwell, he 
 exerted himself to procure the recall of 
 Charles II. and in 1660 was chosen pre- 
 sident of the council of state. On the 
 restoration he was created earl of Angle- 
 sea, and in 1673 lord privy seal, which 
 post he had to give up in 1682, on the 
 occasion of having made some reflections 
 on Lord Castlehaven's memoir on the 
 state of Ireland, in which he attacked 
 the duke of York. Nevertheless he was 
 again in favour under James II. and died 
 in 1686. He is the author of several 
 political and religious works, besides the 
 remarks on Lord Castlehaven. They are 
 chiefly — I. Truth Unveiled, a Defence of 
 Mr. Standish's Sermon before the King, 
 1676, with a Treatise on Transubstantia- 
 tion. 2. A true Account of the Proceed- 
 ings between himself and the Duke of 
 Ormond, 1676. 3. A Letter of Remarks 
 on Jovian, 1683. 4. A work on the 
 Privileges of Parliament, 1671 ; another 
 on the King's Right of Indulgence in 
 Spiritual Matters, 1688; and lastly, Me- 
 moirs addressed to Sir P. Pett. There 
 is a very elaborate article on Lord An- 
 glesea in the Biog. Brit. There is a 
 cmnous memorandum written by him in 
 a copy of the Eikon Basilike, to prove 
 Bishop Gaudcn the author of that work, 
 and not Charles I. This note occasioned 
 a wann controversy at the time, and its 
 genuineness was disputed; but on this 
 subject the reader must be referred to 
 the memoir of Bp. Gauden. His lord- 
 ship was a strenuous opponent of the 
 Romanists. He has been severely at- 
 tacked by many writers, especially An- 
 "■ • -" 482 
 
 tony Wood and Bp. Burnet ; but others 
 have amply defended him. In the Biog. 
 Brit, full references will be found on these 
 points. 
 
 ANNIBAL. See Hannibal. 
 
 ANNIBAL CARO. See Caho. 
 
 ANNICERIS. . Of this name there 
 were two individuals, both of Cyrene. 
 The older of the two seems to have been 
 the greatest charioteer of his day. Ac- 
 cording to iElian, V. H. ii. 27, he could 
 drive a chariot in a circle with such ac- 
 curacy, that the wheels never swerved 
 from the same track. When Plato wit- 
 nessed the feat, which excited the ap- 
 plause of the by-standers, the philoso- 
 pher remarked, that to pay attention to 
 such trifling pursuits was the mark of a 
 little mind. Plato, however, if we are 
 to believe Aristid. Orat. Platon. ii. and 
 Diogenes Laertius, iii. 20, lived to find a 
 friend in the person thus sneered at ; for 
 when a fine of thirty minae had been in- 
 flicted on the philosopher, for transgress- 
 ing the law made against the first Athe- 
 nian who should set his foot in jEgina, 
 after it had been restored to its original 
 inhabitants by Lysander, Anniceris paid 
 the fine on the instant ; and when the 
 friends of Plato at Athens, or, as Ari- 
 stides says, Dion of Syracuse, offered to 
 refund the money, Anniceris refused to 
 accept it, observing that they were not 
 the only persons to whom Plato was dear. 
 The second and junior Anniceris was an 
 Epicurean philosopher, the disciple of 
 Parabates, the master of Posidonius, and 
 the founder of the sect that went by his 
 name. 
 
 ANNIUS OFVITERBO, (born about 
 1432.) His real name was Nanni, latin- 
 ized Annius, or, according to his epitaph, 
 Nannius. He was a Dominican, and 
 became distinguished for his extensive 
 acquaintance with Greek and Latin, and 
 the Oriental languages. He was invited 
 to Rome, and obtained the esteem of the 
 popes Sixtus IV. and Alexander VI. the 
 last of whom made him master of the 
 Sacred Palace. It was no easy task for 
 Annius to keep the favour of this pontiff, 
 and his son Cassar Borgia, more profligate 
 than himself; but he was supported by 
 the duchess de Valentinois, Caesar's 
 wife, and as virtuous as he was aban- 
 doned. There is some suspicion that 
 the death of Annius, which took place in 
 1502, was occasioned by poison, given by 
 Ccesar Borgia, who was weary of his re- 
 monstrances and advice. Annius wrote 
 a great nvnnber of works, of which 
 the most celebrated at the time were — A 
 
ANSr 
 
 ANQ 
 
 Treatise on the Empire of the Turks, and 
 De futuris Christianormn Triumphis in 
 Turcas et Saracenos ad Xystum IV. et 
 omnes principes Christianos, Genua, 
 1480, which forms a commentary on 
 the Apocalypse ; Super MiUuo Judaico 
 et Civili et Divino, 1492. But he is 
 best known by a collection published 
 at Rome in 1498, Antiquitatum varia- 
 rum volumina xvii., cum Commen- 
 tariis fr. Joannis Annii Viterbiensis, pur- 
 porting to contain many works previously 
 supposed to have been lost, such as Be- 
 rosus, &c. Their authenticity was for 
 some time in dispute, and they come down 
 to us now as specimens of a most impu- 
 dent impostor. Tiraboschi, however, ac- 
 quits Annius of forgery ; he accuses him 
 only of excessive credulity. See Tirabos- 
 -ehi, Stor. della Letter. Ital. v. 6, part 2, 
 pp. 16, 17, 4to, of Modena. Also Stilling- 
 fieet's Origines Sacrse, &c. See Milo. 
 
 ANNON, or HANNON, (St.) arch- 
 bishop and elector of Cologne, was of the 
 family of the counts of Sonnenberg, of 
 Suabia. The emperor Henry III. sent 
 him as ambassador to Cologne, where lie 
 conducted himself with such ability that 
 the archbishop Hermann recommended 
 him as his successor, in 1055. He was 
 Tecalled by the Empress Agnes, who con- 
 fided to him the education of the young 
 .emperor Henry IV. and the administra- 
 tion of the empire. He died in 1075. 
 ■(Biog. Univ.; 
 
 ANNONE, (Jean Jacques de, 1728— 
 1804,) born at Bale. A learned antiqua- 
 •rian and naturalist ; and professor of elo- 
 •quence and jurisprudence at Bale. 
 Sevei-al memoirs by him are in the Acta 
 -Helvetica, and other periodicals ; and 
 .contributions on ancient money to Du- 
 cange's Glossary. (Biog.Univ.) 
 
 ANOT,(Pierre Nicholas, 1762—1823,) 
 was canon and vice-principal of the col- 
 lege at Rheims. He is author of Annales 
 ■du Monde, 1816; Les deux Voyageurs, 
 ou Lettres sur la Belgique, &c. 1803; 
 Oraison funebre de Louis XVI. 1814; 
 and some sermons. (Biog. Univ. Suppl.) 
 ANQUETIL-DUPERRON, (Abraham 
 Hyacinte,) an oriental scholar of great 
 distinction, brother to the historian, was 
 ■.born in Paris 1731. He acquired there 
 ■an extensive knowledge of Hebrew, and 
 ■JVI. de Caylus, bishop of Auxerre, invited 
 him thither, and endeavoured to per- 
 suade him to enter the ecclesiastical 
 'state. Nothing, however, could lead 
 him from the study of the oriental lan- 
 guages, and he returned to Paris, where 
 his, constant assiduity in the Bibliothuquc 
 483 
 
 du Roi, attracted the notice of the Abbe 
 Sallier, keeper of the manuscripts, who 
 provided him with the means of continu- 
 ing his studies. Some manuscripts in 
 the Zend language, which fell in his way, 
 filled him with an irresistible longing to 
 visit the East in search of the works of 
 Zoroaster, said to be written in it. An 
 expedition was fitting out for India, 
 which he entered as a common soldier; 
 but was provided afterwards by govern- 
 ment with a free passage, and suitable 
 accommodations. In 1755 he reached 
 Pondicherry, where he stayed long 
 enough to learn the modern Persian, and 
 proceeded to Chandernagor to • learn 
 Sanskrit. Sickness, however, and the 
 breaking out of war between the English 
 and French, frustrated liis plans, and he 
 was forced to return to Pondicherry, from 
 which he Avent to Surat. Here, after 
 some difficulty, he acquired from the 
 priests a knowledge of Zend and Pehlevi. 
 The taking of Pondicherry by the Eng- 
 lish forced him to return to France, and 
 abandon a design of studying the Hindoo 
 language and antiquities at Benares. In 
 1762, after visiting England, he arrived 
 in Paris, and obtained a pension, with 
 the title of Oriental Interpreter, in the 
 Royal Library. In 1771 he published 
 the Zend-Avesta, or the Sacred Books of 
 the Parses. His other works are, Legis- 
 lation Orientale, 1778, in answer to 
 Montesquieu. Rccherches historiques et 
 geographiques sur ITnde, 1786. De la 
 Dignite du Commerce, 1789, L'Inde 
 en Rapport avec I'Eiu-ope, 1 798. Upa- 
 nischada, 1804. He died in 1805. 
 
 ANQUETIL, (Louis Pierre, 1723— 
 1808,) was born at Paris. In 1759 he 
 was appointed prior of the Abbaye de la 
 Roe, in Anjou, and afterwards director of 
 the college of Senlis. In 1766 he had 
 the cure or priory of Chateau-Renard, 
 near Montargis, which he left at the be- 
 ginning of the revolution, for La Villette, 
 near Paris. During the reign of terror, 
 he was imprisoned at St. Lazare, where 
 he continued his Histoire Universelle. 
 On the formation of the Institute, he was 
 chosen a member of the second class, 
 and was soon after employed in the office 
 of the minister for foreign affairs. His 
 chief works are, Histoire civile et politique 
 de la Ville de Reims, 1756, written toge- 
 ther with Felix de la Salle, who had the 
 greatest share in it, but published under 
 d'Anquetil's name. Almanach de Reims, 
 1754. Intrigue du Cabinet sous Henri 
 VI. and sou? Louis XIII. terminee par 
 la Fronde, 1780. Louis XIV. sa. Cour 
 ii2 
 
ANQ 
 
 ANS 
 
 et le Regent, 1789. Vie du Marechal 
 de Villers ^crite par lui-m5me, 1787. 
 Precis de I'Histoire UniverscUe, 1797. 
 Motifs des Guerres et des Traites de Paix 
 de la France, pendant les Regnes de 
 Louis XIV. XV. ct XVI., 1798. His- 
 toire de France, 1805 et seq. — a work 
 commenced by him when nearly eighty 
 years old, which shows marks ofthe haste 
 with which it was written, and the age 
 of the author. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANRAAT, (Peter Van,) a painter of 
 history, horn about the year 1635, but 
 at what place is not known. He was 
 an artist of ga-eat merit, notwithstanding 
 which very few of the circumstances of 
 his life are known. Houbraken mentions 
 a very capital picture of this artist, the 
 subject of which is the Last Judgment, 
 containing a multitude of figures, and in 
 his opinion well designed, and painted 
 in a bold and free manner. (Pilkington's 
 Diet. Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 ANSALDI, (Father Caste Innocente, 
 1710 — 1779,) a native of Plaisance. In 
 1726 he became a Dominican. In 1737 
 he was chosen extraordinary professor of 
 theology in the university of Naples, but 
 in the following year was obliged to quit 
 it, on receiving orders from his superiors 
 to repair to Bologna, which he seems to 
 have disobeyed ; and to avoid the conse- 
 quences, he remained for some time in 
 concealment. However, in 1745, he was 
 appointed first teacher of theology in the 
 Dominican convent at Brescia ; and after- 
 wards fulfilled similar duties at Ferrara 
 and Milan. He held the chair of philo- 
 sophy at Turin for nearly twenty years 
 previous to his death, with great distinc- 
 tion. The works of Ansaldi are very 
 numerous. Some of the chief ones are — 
 Patriarchae Josephi, jEgyptii olim Prore- 
 gis, Religio a Criminibus Basnagii vin- 
 dicata. Nap. 1738. Dissertatio de veteri 
 ^gj'ptiorum Idolatri^, in the Raccolta 
 Calogei-ana, 23, 135. De Causis Inopias 
 veterum Monumentorum pi'o copia Mar- 
 tyrum Dignoscendi. De Martyribus sine 
 Sanguine Dissertatio, Milan, 1739. De 
 Principiorum Legis naturalis Traditione 
 Libri tres, Milan, 1742. De Forensi 
 Judaeorum Buccina Commentarius, 
 Bresc. 1745. De Romana tutelarium 
 Deorum in Oppugnationibus Urbium 
 Evocatione, liber, Bresc. 1745 ; reprinted 
 at Oxford in 1765. De Authenticis S. 
 • Scripturse apud sanctos Patres Lectioni- 
 bus, Verona, 1747. Epistola ad Alb. 
 Mazzolenum de Tarrensi Hercub, 1749. 
 De Baptismate in Spiritu Sancto, &c. 
 Milan, 1752. De sacro et publico apud 
 484 
 
 Ethnicos Pictarum Tabularum CuUu, 
 &c, Ferrara, 1752. Delia Necessita e 
 Verita della Religione Naturale e Reve- 
 lata, Venice, 1755. Herodiani Infanti- 
 cidii vindiciae, Brescia, 1757. De Future 
 Sa^culo, &c. Delia Speranza e della 
 Consolazione di Rivedere i Cari nostri 
 neir altra Vita, Turin, 1772. Saggio 
 intorno alle Immaginazione, 1775. Re- 
 flezzioni sopra i Mezzi di Perfezionare 
 la Filosofia morale, 1778. (Biog.Univ.) 
 
 ANSALDI, (Innocenzio Andrea, 1734 
 — 1816,) painter and author, was a native 
 of Pescia, Tuscany, and at an early age 
 displayed a passion for the fine arts. 
 After spending several years at Rome 
 he returned to his own country, and 
 devoted his leisure to the decoration 
 of its churches and galleries, and to the 
 cultivation of literature. He ^vrote — 
 A Description of the Works of Art in 
 Pescia; Bologna, 1771. A transla- 
 tion of Dufresnoy's Poem on Painting. 
 II Pittore Instruito, a didactic poem, pub- 
 lished in 1820, with a notice of his life, 
 by Canonico Moreni. In Moreni's Life, 
 in Tipaldo's Biografia, this poem is called 
 II Pittore Originale. (Tipaldo, Biog. 
 Suppl. Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANSALONI, (Giordano,) a Sicilian 
 missionary, who was put to death in Ja- 
 pan. He was a Dominican, and after 
 some time spent in study at Salamanca, 
 in 1625, accompanied a missionary expe- 
 dition to the PliiJippine Islands. He 
 occupied himself at Manilla in learning 
 the Chinese language, supposing that his 
 services might be required in the Celes- 
 tial empire, but received orders to pro- 
 ceed to Japan, which he reached in 1632. 
 At this time a persecution of the Chris- 
 tians was raging violently, and after a 
 ministry of two years, Ansaloni suffered 
 martyrdom in 1634. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 Ai>JSALONI, (Vincenzio,) a painter 
 of tlie Bolognese school, and a disciple 
 of Ludovico Caracci, was born at Bo- 
 logna. He was one of those of the 
 academy of the Caracci who devoted 
 themselves to the figure, others becoming 
 painters of landscape or perspective. He 
 is spoken of by Malvasia with much 
 commendation, for an altar-piece in the 
 chapel of the family of Fioravanti, in the 
 church of St. Stefano at Bologna, repre- 
 senting the martyrdom of S. Sebastian ; 
 and for a picture in the church of the 
 Celestine monks, representing the Virgin 
 and Infant Jesus in the clouds, and 
 below S. Roch and S. Sebastian. Lanzi, 
 speaking of him, says, he " gave only 
 two altar-pieces to the public, but suf- 
 
ANS 
 
 ANS 
 
 ficient to establish his title to the cha- 
 racter of a great artist. (Bryan's Diet. 
 Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. v. 126.) 
 
 ANSART,(AndreJoseph,1723— 1790,) 
 an historian and ecclesiastical writer. 
 He was a native of Artois, and entered 
 the order of Benedictines ; and having 
 been appointed procureur of one of their 
 houses, disappeared with the money in 
 his hands. He was afterwards an advo- 
 cate, and doctor of laws of the faculty of 
 Paris, and prieur-cure of Villaconin. 
 His works are. Dialogues, &c., 1768; 
 Exposition sur le Cantique des Cantiques, 
 1770; Histoire de St. Maur, Abbe de 
 Glanfeuil, 1772 ; Eloge de Charles V. 
 1777; Esprit de St. Vincent-de-Paul, 
 1 780 ; Histoire de St. Reine d' Ahse, 1783; 
 Histoire de St. Fiacre, 1784; Biblio- 
 theque Litteraire de Maine, 1784 ; La 
 Vie de Gregoire Cortez, 1786. He is 
 said to have been both ignorant and 
 idle, and to have stolen these works from 
 the archives of St. Germain-des-Pres. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANSBERT, (St. bishop of Rouen,) 
 was born at Chaussy. He appeared, 
 while young, at the court of Clotaire HI., 
 and was offered in marriage the daughter 
 of the Chancellor Robert. He was, after- 
 wards, himself made chancellor, but 
 Preferred the solitude of the abbey of 
 'ontenelle to the court. In 683 he was 
 made bishop of Rouen, for which he was 
 banished, by order of Pepin d'Herisbal, 
 the mayor of the palace, to the monastery 
 of Haimont, in Hainault, where he died 
 in 698. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANSBERT, an Austrian prince in the 
 twelfth century, who accompanied the 
 army of Frederick Barbarossa to the 
 East. He wrote an account of this cru- 
 sade, which, after remaining unknown 
 for some centuries, was given to the 
 world in 1824, by Dobrowski. The de- 
 fects of a copy, which came by accident 
 into his hands, were supplied from one 
 previously known to have existed in the 
 njonastery of Rayhrad ; and a perfect 
 copy of the chronicle secured. It was 
 printed at Prague, in 1827, and contains 
 a complete history of Barbarossa's expe- 
 dition, and some account of the previous 
 crusades. An extract from it may be 
 seen in the third volume of the Biblio- 
 theque des Croisades. 
 
 ANSCARIUS, surnamed the Apostle 
 of the North, was born in Picardy in 
 801. He received his education in a 
 Benedictine convent at Corbi'e, and f tier- 
 wards at Corvey, in Westphalia, where 
 he advanced so rapidly that, in 821, he 
 485 
 
 became rector of the school of the con- 
 vent. The king of Denmark, Harold, 
 who had received baptism at Mayence, 
 was returning to his kingdom, from the 
 court of Louis le Debonnair, and was in 
 search of some person who might assist 
 him in his intention of introducing 
 Christianity into Denmark, Anscarius and 
 his friend Autbert accompanied him ; 
 but on arriving at the frontiers of Den- 
 mark, Harold found the party who had 
 before expelled him too strong to admit 
 of his advance ; and the two missionaries 
 remained with him in Friesland, where 
 they laboured with great success, for two 
 years, till Autbert's death. In 829, 
 Anscarius was sent, by Louis, to Sweden, 
 which he reached with a colleague after 
 many dangers, and being favourably 
 received by the King Bisern, preached 
 the gospel there for six months. On 
 returning to Louis, Anscarius was ap- 
 pointed first archbishop of the new see 
 of Hamburgh, which was intended to be 
 the metropolis of all countries north of 
 the Elbe that should become Christians. 
 But, in 854, the town was taken and 
 plundered by pirates, and the archbishop 
 escaped with difficulty to Bremen, the 
 bishopric of which was conferred on him 
 in conjunction with his archbishopric, 
 and the two were ever afler united. 
 Anscarius, however, did not rest, but 
 again visited Denmark and Sweden, and 
 established Christianity in each. He 
 died at Bremen in 864, and was canonized 
 by Pope Nicholas I. He was author of 
 many books, but none are extant except 
 Liber de Vita et Miraculis S. Wilonadi, 
 printed, with his Life, at Cologne, in 1 642. 
 His Life is found in Langebek's Script. 
 See also Holler's Hist. Cimbriae Literariae. 
 
 ANSEAUME, was author of several 
 dramatic pieces, and pi-ompter at the 
 Theatre Italien in Paris, where he died 
 in 1784. A list of his pieces may be 
 found in the Biog. Univ. 
 
 ANSEGISUS, (abbot of Fontenelles, 
 Luxeuil, and Flavigny,) lived in the 
 ninth century. In 827 he collected the 
 capitularies of Charlemagne, and his son 
 entitled it " Capitida seu Edita Caroli- 
 magni et Ludovici pii, Imperatorum." 
 Of this there are several editions, the 
 contents of which differ extremely. He 
 died in 834. He has often been con- 
 fused with the subject of the following 
 notice. The most splendid edition of 
 his Capitularies is that by M. Chiniac 
 (Paris, 1780). His Chronicle of Fonte- 
 nelles is in D'Achery Spicileg. iii. 240. 
 (Biog. Univ.) 
 
ANS 
 
 ANS, 
 
 ANSEGISUS, (archbishop of Sens,) 
 in 871, was sent by Charles the Bold as 
 ambassador to Pope John VIII., who 
 raised him to the primacy of the Gauls 
 and Germans ; a precedence, however, 
 which was not allowed him by some of 
 the other bishops. He died in 883. 
 
 ANSELM, one of the most profound 
 doctors of the Roman church, was not 
 less remarkable for the part he acted in 
 the political events of his age. He was 
 born about the year 1034, of noble pa- 
 rents, at Roviste (Augusta), on the con- 
 fines of Burgundy and Lombardy. Whilst 
 young he gave many proofs of his ta- 
 lents, but his conduct was marked by 
 some irregularities, and, in consequence 
 of a dispute with his father, he went into 
 France, and there spent three years in 
 seeking instruction at different schools, 
 until he came to Avranches, where he 
 heard of the fame of Lanfranc, prior of 
 Bee, whose school was at that time nuich 
 frequented. Anselm soon became Lan- 
 franc's favourite disciple, and he repaid 
 his attentions by the great advances he 
 made in scholastic learning. By the 
 united advice of Lanfranc and of Mau- 
 rice, archbishop of Rouen, he became in 
 his twenty-seventh year a monk in the 
 abbey of Bee. 
 
 When Lanfranc was removed to the 
 new monastery at Caen, Anselm suc- 
 ceeded him as prior of Bee, and on the 
 death of the abbot Herlewyn, he was 
 further raised to be abbot of the same 
 monastery. In the mean while his an- 
 cient instructor, Lanfranc, was made 
 archbishop of Canterbury, and was vi- 
 sited by Anselm, whose reputation was 
 so great in England, that shortly after- 
 wards, on Lanfranc's decease, Anselm 
 was invited over a second time by 
 king William Rufus, who received him 
 with wonderful marks of respect and 
 friendship, and appointed him to the 
 vacant see. As archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, Anselm soon gained, by his humi- 
 lity and his strict sanctity of life, the 
 love and veneration of the people. But 
 the fickle friendship of William Rufus 
 was of short duration ; their quarrel is 
 said to have originated in a dispute about 
 money, but it soon merged into that 
 more general contention between the 
 civil and ecclesiastical powers, each of 
 which was continually endeavouring to 
 encroach upon the other ; and the divi- 
 sion was widened by tlie circumstance 
 that the king and his Ijarons openly sup- 
 ported tlie party of the antipope Guibert, 
 who, under the title of Clement HI., had 
 ,486 
 
 been raised in opposition to Pope Urban 
 II. Anselm wished to quit the king- 
 dom, but the king refused to give his 
 consent; and, soon afterwards, a com- 
 promise was made between William and 
 his archbishop, and the former ceased 
 from his opposition to the legitimate pope. 
 The firmness with which Ansehn sup- 
 ported the pope's claim to the sole and 
 absolute disjiosal of all ecclesiastical 
 benefices and dignities, soon led to 
 a new quarrel, and at last the arch-^ 
 bishop obtained permission to leave 
 England, and went to Rome. His de* 
 parture was greatly lamented by the 
 people of his diocese, and wherever ho 
 passed he was attended by crowds of all 
 classes of people ; but in spite of his 
 high reputation at Rome, his cause was 
 neglected, for it was the interest of the 
 pope to temporize, and secure the support 
 of the English king. 
 
 Anselm retired to Lyons, where, as 
 well as during his temporary residence 
 in Italy, he betook himself to the peaceful 
 studies of his youth. Many of his more 
 important works were written while he 
 was prior and abbot of Bee ; among these 
 are enumerated by his biogivipher Ead- 
 nier, a book Ue Veritate, another, De Li- 
 bertate Arbitrii, and a third, De Casu 
 Diaboli ; to which he adds the dialogue 
 De Grammatica, and the two well-known 
 theological works entitled Monologion 
 and Proslogion. In the intervals of his 
 duties and troubles in England he had 
 commenced an elaborate work entitled 
 Cur Dens Homo ; and the completion of 
 this treatise was his occupation during 
 his exile. 
 
 Anselm remained in France till the 
 death of William Rufus, when his suc- 
 cessor, Henry I., anxious to conciliate the 
 good will of his new subjects in every 
 manner he could, recalled the archbishop 
 to his see. But the limits between the 
 rights of the pope and the king soon be- 
 came as much a subject of contention 
 with Henry as it had been with his pre- 
 decessor William ; and after long disputes 
 was only partially settled by an under- 
 standing that the court of Rome should 
 retain the right of nomination and in- 
 vestiture, and that the king should receive 
 the oath of allegiance from the clergy for 
 their temporal properties and privileges. 
 In spite of these disputes, Anselm warm- 
 ly espoused the party of Henry I. against 
 his brother the duke of Normandy, and 
 when the latter prepared for the invasion 
 of England, he furnished Henry with 
 nieu and money, and went in person to 
 
ANS 
 
 AN S 
 
 exhort his soldiers to behave themselves 
 manfully. After his return to his arch- 
 bishopric, Anselin wrote one of his most 
 important works, the treatise DeConcordia 
 •Prsescientiae, Prsedestinationis, et Gratise 
 Dei, cum Libero Arbitrio. He died on 
 the 21st of April, 1109. 
 
 Anselm was one of the best scholars 
 of his day : he is supposed to have been 
 tolerably well acquainted with Greek ; 
 his Latinity is pure, and his style is re- 
 markably clear and precise. But his 
 taste lay principally towards metaphysics, 
 which from being entirely neglected he 
 raised Up into a system and a science. 
 In the Monologion and the Proslogion he 
 applied his metaphysical reasonings to 
 theology, and he there robs Descartes of 
 the honour of the famous proof of the 
 existence of God. His object in the for- 
 mer is to prove by the force of natural 
 reason both the existence and the attri- 
 butes of God ; and in the second he 
 undertakes to prove the same thing by 
 one single continued argument. The 
 latter was criticised by a monk of Mar- 
 montier, named Ganilon, which drew 
 from its author a tract in its defence 
 (Apologeticus), in which Anselm gave 
 greater detail and clearness to some of 
 his reasonings which his opponent had 
 not understood. As a philosopher, An- 
 selm represents the extreme party of the 
 realist school. His treatise on the Tri- 
 nity was directed obliquely against Rosce- 
 lin. 
 
 The works of Anselm have been fre- 
 quently printed collectively. His most 
 important writings are those already 
 mentioned ; the printed editions contain 
 many smaller tracts, and among the rest 
 his Homilies and Meditations, some 
 hymns, and between four and five hun- 
 dred letters. The Meditations have 
 separately passed through innumerable 
 editions. His Letters are valuable, but 
 much less interesting than might be ex- 
 pected. Several books have been inserted 
 among the works of Anselm which do 
 not belong to him, particularly a fine 
 poem De Contemptu Mundi, which 
 was written by Roger de Caen, monk of 
 Bee ; the Elucidarium (an abridgement 
 of theology) ; and the popvdar tract on 
 cosmography, entitled Imago Mundi. 
 The latter is only found in the older 
 editions. The first edition of the works 
 of Anselm was printed in folio at Nu- 
 remberg, 1491, and reprinted at the 
 same place in 1494. Many editions in 
 the same form appeared in Germany and 
 France during the sixteenth century. In 
 487 
 
 the following century, the echtions be- 
 came more complete ; that of Cologne, fol. 
 1612, first contained the poem De Con- 
 temptu Mundi and the Elucidarium ; a 
 much better edition was edited by a 
 Jesuit named Theophilus Raynaud, fol. 
 Lyons, 1630 ; and another, more com- 
 plete, edited by Gerberon, was printed 
 at Paris, 1675, fol. The best editions 
 are that in 1 vol. fol. Paris, 1721, (con- 
 taining the works of his disciple Eadmer,) 
 and that printed at Venice in 1744, 2 
 vols, folio. 
 
 Tlie life of Anselm was written by his 
 disciple Eadmer, and will be found in 
 Wharton's Anglia Sacra ; another sketch 
 of his life is given by William of Malms- 
 bury, in his book De Pontificibus ; and 
 mucli information concerning him is 
 scattered over the pages of other con- 
 temjjorary or nearly contemporary wri- 
 ters. A long article on Anselm will 
 also be found in the Histoire Litt^raire 
 de France, vol. ix. pp. 398 — 465. 
 
 ANSELM OF LAON, (surnamed the 
 Scholastic.) He was born before the 
 middle of the eleventh century, of poor 
 parents, in the neighbourhood of that 
 town, and appears to have been a disci- 
 ple of Anselm of Canterbury, whilst the 
 latter taught in the abbey of Bee. An- 
 selm of Laon began to teach at Paris, 
 with great success, about a. d. 1076, and 
 to him in no small degree the university 
 of Paris is said to owe its origin. Among 
 his disciples was William de Champeaux, 
 the preceptor of Abelard. Towards the 
 beginning of the twelfth century Anselm 
 left Paris, and established himself at 
 Laon, his native place, where he taught 
 theology, whilst his brother Ralph de 
 Laon lectured on the belles-lettres and 
 dialectics. Under them the school of 
 Laon became soon one of the most fa- 
 mous in Europe, and from it came many 
 of the greatest scholars and prelates of 
 the age. Abelard himself went to hear 
 him, but he speaks very chsparagingly of 
 Anselm 's abilities ; whilst others, such as 
 John of Salisbury, praise him without 
 measure. He died July 15, 1117. An- 
 selm is principally famous for his com- 
 mentaries on the Scriptiu'es. His inter- 
 linear gloss on the whole of the Old and 
 New Testament was frequently printed 
 during the sixteenth and earlier part of 
 the seventeenth century. A detailed 
 account of his works and of his disciplea 
 will be found in the tenth volume of the 
 Histoire Litteraire de France. 
 
 ANSELME, (St.) succeeded his uncle, 
 Pope Alexander II., in the bishopric of 
 
AN S 
 
 ANS 
 
 Lucca, in 1061. He was Leo IXtli's 
 legate in Lombardy, and died at Mantua 
 in 1086. He wrote an apology for 
 Gregory VII., and a Refutation of the 
 Pretensions of the Anti-Pope Guibert, 
 which are to be found in the Lectiones 
 Antiquae of Canisius, and in the Biblio- 
 theque de Paris. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANSELME, bishop of Haerlbourg, 
 in Saxony, was ambassador from Lothaire 
 II. to Constantinople, in 1140, and after- 
 wards went to Greece, to negotiate a 
 treaty with Manviel Comnenes, for the 
 emperor Frederick, on returning from 
 which he became archbishop of Ravenna, 
 where he died in 1149. Some interest- 
 ing illustrations for the ecclesiastical his- 
 tory of tlie twelfth century, by him, are 
 in vol. xiii. of the Spicilegium, by D. 
 d'Achery. He was a strenuous advocate 
 for the Latins against the Greeks. 
 
 ANSELME, (Jacques Bernard Mo- 
 deste d',) general of division in the 
 French revolutionary army, was born in 
 1740. In 1792 he joined the army of the 
 Var, imder Montesquieu, with the rank 
 of lieut.-general, and performed the ser- 
 vice of taking Nice, the fort of Montalban, 
 and the castle of Villa Franca, which 
 yielded without much resistance. He 
 succeeded to the command of the Italian 
 army, but failed in preserving its disci- 
 pline, and was accused of not only per- 
 mitting, but encouraging the excesses of 
 his soldiers. The National Convention 
 sent a commission of inquiry, and in De- 
 cember, 1792, he was suspended, and in 
 the following year arrested and brought 
 to Paris, where he remained in prison till 
 the ninth Thermidor, 1794, set him at 
 liberty. He died about 1812. (Biog. 
 Univ. Suppl.) 
 
 ANSELME. See Ascelin. 
 
 ANSELME, (de Sainte-Marie,) com- 
 monly called le Pbre PieiTe de Guibours, 
 an Augustine, is the author of I'Histoire 
 Genealogique et Chronologique de la 
 Maison de France, et des Grands OfR- 
 ciers de la Couronne, 1674 ; a work 
 which was continued by Du Fourni, Ange 
 de Ste. Rosalie, (see the name,) andSim- 
 plicien ; La Science Heraldique, 1675; 
 Le Palais de I'Honneur, 1663—1668, 
 being an account of the houses of Lor- 
 raine and Savoy, and other families ; 
 Le Palais de la Gloire, 1664, a similar 
 work on several noble families of France 
 and Europe. He died in Paris, 1694, 
 aged sixty-nine. 
 
 ANSELME, (Antoine, 1652—1737,) 
 a celebrated French preacher. At the 
 age of twelve, he was able to repeat any 
 488 
 
 sermon that he heard, and distinguished 
 himself by some juvenile poems. He 
 made his first appearance in the pulpit 
 at Gimont, with such success that he 
 received the name of tlie " Little Pro- 
 phet," which he never lost. The mar- 
 quis de Montespan, delighted with his 
 preaching at Toulouse, made him tutor 
 to his son, the marquis d'Antin, whom 
 he accompanied to Paris. In 1681 he 
 was chosen by the Academy to deliver 
 the panegyric on St. Louis. His popu- 
 larity was so great, that he constantly 
 had engagements to preach of four and 
 five years' standing, during a residence of 
 thirty years in the capital. In 1710 he 
 became an associate of the Academie des 
 Inscriptions, to which he gave some 
 valuable assistance. In 1724, Louis XIV. 
 gave him the abbey of St. Sever, in Gas- 
 cony, to which place he retired, and led 
 a life of literary occupation at home, and 
 active benevolence abroad. Four volumes 
 of his sermons were published in 1731, 
 and several papers by him are to be 
 found in the Memoires de 1' Academie 
 des Inscriptions, from 1724 to 1729. 
 
 ANSELME, or ANSELMO,(Antony,) 
 of Antwerp, an eminent lawyer, died in 
 1688, aged eighty. He wrote several 
 works on civil law : Codex Belgicus, 
 Antw. 1649 ; Tribimianus Belgicus, 
 Brussels, 1663 ; a Collection of Edicts, 
 1648 ; and another of Consultations, 1671. 
 
 ANSELME, (George,) a Latin poet of 
 the sixteenth century ; was born at Parma. 
 He was a physician, but also distinguished 
 in litei-ature. His volume of Latin poetry 
 is rare ; it is entitled Georgii Anselmi 
 Nepotis Epigrammaticon libri vii. ; Sor- 
 thyrides ; Palladis Peplus ; Eclogae IV., 
 Venice, 1528. He Avrote some Illustra- 
 tions of Plautus, and the Life ofCavicco, 
 a romance writer, who died in 1511, 
 which is prefixed to his romance Libro 
 del Peregrine, Venice, 1526. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANSELME, a Benedictine monk of 
 Rheims, who wrote an account of the 
 visit of Pope Leo IX. to Rheims, in 1049 ; 
 on which occasion the chuixh of St. Remi, 
 founded by the abbot Herimer, was con- 
 secrated by him, and a council held. It 
 is called Itineraire du Pape Leon IX., 
 and is inserted by Mabillon in the Acta 
 Ord. S. Benedicti. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANSELME OF LIEGE, completed a 
 History of the Church of Liege, com- 
 menced by Herige in 991, and finished 
 in 1056. It is in the ninth vol. of the 
 Acta Ord. S, Bened. Anselme of Gem- 
 blours, a Benedictine of the twelfth cen 
 
AN S 
 
 AN S 
 
 tury, continued the Chronicle of Sigehert 
 from 1112 to 1137. (Biog. Univ.) 
 
 ANSELMI. — There are two artists of 
 this name : — 
 
 1. Michael Angela, of Parma, (1491 
 •^1554,) called Michaelangiolo da Lucca, 
 and more commonly Da Siena; was 
 born at Sienna, and was a disciple of 
 Giannantonio Razzi, sm-named II So- 
 doma. His principal residence was at 
 Parma, where one of his first perform- 
 ances was a considerable work, 2>ainted 
 from a design by Giulio Romano, repre- 
 senting the crowning of the Virgin. 
 Lanzi says that he considers him to 
 belong to the school of Parma, as he left 
 no work in Siena, except a fresco in the 
 church of Fonte Giusta, a production of 
 his youth, and not worthy of so great a 
 name.* 
 
 When Correggio, in the year 1522, was 
 engaged to paint the cupola of the cathe- 
 dral and the Great Tribune, Anselmi, 
 together with Rondani and Parmigianino, 
 were fixed upon to adorn the contiguous 
 chapels. The undertaking was never 
 executed ; but this selection indicates a 
 successful imitation of Correggio 's style. 
 He is full in his outlines, extremely 
 studied in his heads, glowing in his tints, 
 and very partial to the use of various 
 shades of red. Perhaps his least merit 
 consists in his composition, which he 
 sometimes overloads with figures. He 
 painted in various churches at Parma. 
 His largest work, however, is to be met 
 with at the Steccata, where, upon the 
 testimony of Vasari, he executed the 
 cartoons of Giulio Romano. But this is 
 disproved by the contract, which assigns 
 to Anselmi himself a chamber in which 
 to compose his cartoons ; nor did Giulio 
 do more than send a rough sketch to 
 Parma. In collections, the specimens of 
 Anselmi are rare and valuable, although 
 he flourished, undoubtedly, as late as 
 1554, in whicli year he added a codicil 
 to his will. (Lanzi, Stor. Pitt. i. 282 ; 
 iv. 79, 80. Bryan's Diet.) 
 
 2. Giorgio, (1723—1797,) born at 
 Verona, of the family of Cignaroli ; was, 
 at one time, the pupil of Balestra. His 
 principal work was the painting of the cu- 
 pola of San Andrea, at Mantua. (Lanzi, 
 Stor. Pitt. iii. 234.) 
 
 ANSGARDE, first wife of Louis le 
 
 • Lanzi, afterwards, says that his famil;/ vms of 
 Parma, but he was called Da Lucca, having been 
 bom there, and Da Siena, probably because he 
 studied there. At Siena, he certainly produced tlie 
 altar piece at Fonte Giusta. His early master is 
 doubtful, but it is certain he improved himself 
 much, in later years, from Correggio. 
 489 
 
 BSgue, married to him against the con- 
 sent of his father, Charles le Chauve, 
 which was supposed to invalidate the 
 marriage ; nevertheless his sons by her 
 succeeded to the crown ; and on his repu- 
 diating her to marry Adelaide, the arch • 
 bishop of Rheims and Pope John VIII. 
 refused to sanction the divorce and crown 
 the new queen. Thus the legitimacy of 
 the issue of the second marriage was 
 questionable ; but Charles le Simple, son 
 of Adelaide, also succeeded his father. 
 
 ANSI AUX, (Emanuel Antoine Joseph, 
 1761 — 1800,) a lawyer and litterateur, 
 was born at Liege. He was driven from 
 Liege by the revolution, and died at 
 Munster. He is the author of several 
 historical memoirs and pamphlets. (Biog. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANSIDEI, (Baltazar, 1556—1614,) a 
 native of Perugia, was a distinguished 
 pupil of Horace Cardoneti, whom he suc- 
 ceeded as professor of the belles-lettres in 
 that place. He was afterwards keeper of 
 the library of the Vatican, and the ar- 
 chives at St. Angelo, and is highly spoken 
 of by all his contemporaries. He published 
 some pieces relative to the column of the 
 Temple of Peace. 
 
 ANSLO, (Reinier, 1622—1713,) a 
 Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam, in 1622. 
 In 1649 he travelled to Italy, where he 
 acquired considerable reputation, espe- 
 cially for Latin verses. He Avas honoured 
 with a medal from Innocent X. and a 
 gold chain from Queen Christina. He died 
 at Perugia. A collection of his poetry 
 appeared at Rotterdam in 1713. (Biosr. 
 Univ.) 
 
 ANSON, (George, Lord,) the cele- 
 brated circumnavigator, was the second 
 son of a gentleman in Staffordshire, and 
 born at Shugborough Manor, in the pa- 
 rish of Colwich, on the 23d of April, 1697. 
 At an early age, under the patronage of 
 Sir Thomas Parker, who married his 
 mother's sister, and who subsequently 
 became earl of Macclesfield, he was 
 placed in the navy, and in 1711 joined 
 the Rub7j (64.) It has been asserted that 
 he acquired the rudiments of navigation 
 from Mr. William Jones, the father of 
 the celebrated Sir William Jones, Avho, it 
 would seem, at one period of his life, 
 served in the enviable capacity of school- 
 master afloat ; but this account can 
 scarcely be true.* 
 
 In the ladder of promotion, Anson 
 made a rapid ascent. It is clear that we 
 
 • The writer of the recently published Life op 
 Lord Ay son, shows clearly, that when Mr. Jones 
 left the Navy, and established himself in London, 
 Anson was no more than five years of age. 
 
ANS 
 
 ANS 
 
 must attribute his elevation in every rank 
 to family influence and family con- 
 nexion. Within the little lapse of five 
 years, Anson was advanced in the three 
 grades of Lieutenant, Master-and-Com- 
 mander, and Post-Captain : and, as the 
 times in which these respective ranks 
 were severally attained were anything 
 hut " stirring," or what might he termed 
 periods of enterprise, it is only fair to 
 infer that they were not bestowed as 
 tributes of reward for extraordinary ser- 
 vice, or daring intrepidity. 
 
 Space will not permit an enumeration 
 of Anson's several early commands, — 
 suffice it to state, he commanded three 
 ships employed on what would be now 
 termed the "particular service" of pror 
 tecting the trade of the young colony of 
 South Carolina : and such was his predi- 
 lection for this distant station, that after 
 he had returned to England and " paid 
 off" his second ship, he contrived to be 
 sent out again in command of a third. 
 
 On the declaration of war with Spain 
 in 1739, the British ministry resolved 
 upon sending out two expeditions with a 
 view of annoying the enemy's foreign 
 possessions. The first of these projected 
 expeditions was intended to be vmder the 
 command of Anson, who arrived oppor- 
 tunely in the Centurion at Spithead, on 
 the 10th November, 1739. Here he 
 found an official letter, directing him to 
 proceed immediately to the Admiralty, 
 where he was informed that the squadron, 
 to the command of which he would be 
 appointed, was to take on board three 
 independent companies, of one hundred 
 men each, and Bland's regiment of foot, 
 the colonel of which would himself em- 
 bark with it; — that the object was, to 
 attack and carry Manilla ; — that a second 
 squadi'on was intended to be sent round 
 Cape Horn into the South Seas, range 
 along the western! coast of South Amei-ica, 
 attacking the enemy in those parts, and 
 attempting to take or destroy the Spanish 
 settlements on that coast ; then to cross 
 the Pacific, and form a junction with the 
 former squadron at or near Manilla ; re- 
 fresh, andrefit, and wait for further orders.* 
 
 In the course of a week Anson re- 
 ceived instructions to take under his com- 
 mand the ships named in the note below. f 
 
 This squadron Anson was directed to 
 
 •Life of Lord Anson. 
 
 tCenturion ... 60 guns. 400nien.Geoige Anson. 
 Gloucester.. 50 .'iOO Richard Norris. 
 
 Severn 50 300 Hon. E. Lesgi'. 
 
 Pearl 40 250 Matthew Mitchel. 
 
 Wager 28 1(30 Dandy Kidd. 
 
 Trjal, sloop. 8 100 Hon. V. Murray. 
 
 Two Pinks as Victuallers, 
 490 
 
 prepare for sea ; but in January following, 
 he was again ordered to repair to the 
 Admiralty, where he was informed that 
 the expedition to Manilla was abandoned; 
 but that the other part of the contem- 
 plated plan was to proceed, and that he 
 and the squadron which had been in- 
 tended for the eastern service, should be 
 employed on the western expedition. 
 On the lOtli of January, 1740, he re- 
 ceived his commission, appointing him 
 commodore of the above squadron ; but, 
 according to Barrow, " lie was not to 
 wear a broad pendant, nor to have a 
 captain under him."* The ships of the 
 squadron were, at once, equipped and 
 " victualled " for the voyage ; but the 
 complement of their several crews con- 
 tinued incomplete. Although the official 
 " orders and instructions for the commo- 
 dore's future guidance " bore date the 
 31st of January, yet they Avere not de- 
 livered to him until the 28th of June. At 
 this j)eriod the squadron was still short 
 three hundred hands. Tlie authorities 
 at Whitehall had already assured Anson 
 that Sir John Norris, who then com- 
 manded the channel fleet, would furnish 
 him with the necessary numbers, but the 
 admiral himself was in need of men, and 
 consequently could only spare him 170, 
 of whom 32 were from the liospital, and 
 98 were soldier-raaxiwes. Moreover, in- 
 stead of Bland's regiment with three 
 independent companies of 100 men each, 
 as land forces, it was now announced that 
 500 invalids woidd be sent to him, col- 
 lected from the out-pensioners of Chelsea 
 Hospital. t 
 
 Remonstrance was vain. Authorities 
 were deaf to every representation touch- 
 ing the impolicy, to say nothing of the 
 inhumanity, of sending such decrepit 
 creatures on an expedition, purporting to 
 perform a distant voyage, mucli more 
 contend with the rigours of a passage 
 round Cape Horn. 
 
 It was not, however, until the beginning 
 of August, that these unfortunate beings 
 were collected at Portsmouth, and ordered 
 to embark : but instead of 500 making 
 their appearance on board, the force was 
 reduced to 259 — " for all those," says the 
 writer of the narrative, " who had limbs 
 and strength to walk out of Portsmouth, 
 deserted, leaving behind them such as 
 
 * There are reasons to believe that Anson him- 
 self suggested this arrangement. It was more to 
 
 his private advantage to share, in respect to prize- 
 money, in common with the other captains of the 
 squadron, th.in to receive the portion to which he 
 would be entitled as ciimmodore. 
 
 t Campbell, Barrow, Cbarnock, and Narrativsi 
 of a Voyage to the South Seas. 
 
 1 
 
ANS 
 
 ANS 
 
 were literally invalids, most of tliem being 
 60 years of age, and some of them upwards 
 of 70." To supply the place of the 240 
 invalids who had deserted, 210 marines, 
 raw and undisciplined recruits, " with no- 
 thing more of the soldier about them than 
 their regimentals," were distributed in 
 the different ships of the squadron. 
 
 At length, after various vexations and, 
 indeed, prejudicial delays, originating 
 in the vacillating conduct of the govern- 
 ment, Anson was permitted to proceed to 
 sea ; but not imtil he had been saddled with 
 a large fleet of merchantmen, to which 
 lie was to give escort to a certain latitude. 
 
 Owing to the crawling progi-ess of the 
 convoy, and the long continuance of 
 contrary winds, the passage to Madeira 
 became imusually protracted, forty days 
 having elapsed ere the squadron reached 
 Funchal-roads.* Here Anson remained a 
 week, procuring wood and water, and 
 the necessary supplies to pursue his 
 Voyage. Dm-ing his stay at this anchor- 
 age, he received intelligence that a 
 Spanish squadron, consisting of some 
 seven or eight vessels of war, had been 
 cruising for several days to the westward 
 of the island. To ascertain the true po- 
 sitioii and particulars of this superior 
 force, f a small vessel was promptly de- 
 spatched ; but returning to the roads 
 without having effected the object of her 
 search, or procuring the least information 
 of the enemy's "motions," the commo- 
 dore departed Madeira on the 3d of No- 
 vember, steering for the coast of Brazil. 
 
 On the 28tli of November the squadron 
 crossed the line, and on the 21st of De- 
 cember it reached the island of St. Ca- 
 therine's, on the coast of Brazil. Several 
 men had already died of fever and dysen- 
 tery, and upwards of seventy of the sick 
 were landed from the Centurion alone, 
 and as many in proportion from the rest 
 of the squadron. 
 
 In this port Anson remained a month, 
 but without the benefit to the health of 
 his men which he had hoped for; indeed, 
 twenty-eight oOheCenturions crew died. 
 On the 18th of January, 1741, the squad- 
 ron being fully refitted, the sick re-em- 
 barked, and places of rendezvous pre- 
 viously appointed, sailed from St. Cathe- 
 
 * Here Captain Norris of the Gloucester, resigned 
 his command, and Lieutenant Cheap obtained the 
 command of the Tryal. 
 
 t ISarrow makes no mention of this circumstance; 
 hut states, in another plat'c, that the Spanish go- 
 vernment, as might have heen foreseen, had pro- 
 vided and sent out a strong squadron of six sliips 
 of «ar undur Admiral I'izarro, f^ur of tliem of tlie 
 line, to intercept Ansnn nn his passage tn Cape Horn ; 
 and he details the disastrous fate of this squadron. 
 491 
 
 rine's; Port St. Julian, on the coast of 
 Patagonia, was to be considered as ren- 
 dezvous the first, — the island of Socoro, 
 in the South Seas, the second, — and Juan 
 Fernandez, the third. In proceeding to 
 the first port a violent storm separated 
 the Pearl from the squadron, and, in the 
 same gale, the main-mast of the Tryal 
 went by the board. After these and other 
 minor disasters, Anson pursued a southerly 
 course, passing the mouth of the Plata, and 
 coasting the shores of Paraguay. On the 
 18th of February* the Pearl rejoined the 
 commodore. During her absence from the 
 squadron her captain (Kidd) had died, and 
 tlie ship had narrowly escaped capture. f 
 
 The Pearls junction with the com- 
 modore occurred on the day prior to his 
 an-ival at St. Julian's. " It was here 
 decided at a council of war, in the 
 first place, to attack Valdivia ; the 
 rendezvous was to be off the island of 
 Socoro, each ship to continue cruising off' 
 that island fourteen days, and if not 
 joined by the rest of the squadron, to 
 make the best of her way to the island of 
 Juan Fernandez." But the decision of 
 the council of war appeared not to take 
 into account the natural consequences of 
 warring with the elements. " On the 7th 
 of March," says Anson, in his official re- 
 port, " I entered the straits of Le Maire 
 with a favourable gale and fine weather, 
 but no sooner got through the straits than 
 I met very hard gales of wind from the 
 high lands of Terra del Fuego ; insomuch 
 that I was obliged to reef my courses, 
 whicn continued reefed fifty-eight days." 
 
 In these boisterous gales, in which the 
 commodore's weak-handed ships were 
 buffeting the agitated seas, the Centurion 
 separated with the Gloucester, Wager, 
 Tryal, and Pink — the Severn and Pearl 
 having parted during the worst of the 
 weather, were never again seen, which was 
 also the case of the IFager.X At length 
 Anson reached the island of Socoro. 
 Here he entertained the hope of falling 
 in with some of his dispersed squadron ; 
 
 * Camphell, Charnock, and other authorities here 
 differ from Barrow. The latter states that " on the 
 18th of January the Pearl joined the commodore." 
 Now, it happens that on that very day, the squadron 
 sailed from St. Catherine's. 
 
 t Through the treachery of the Portuguese at St. 
 Catherine's, every movement of Anson was for- 
 warded to Pizarro at Buenos Ayres ; and so correct 
 was the information conveyed, that the Spanish 
 commander was enabled to imitate the general 
 guise and appearance of the British ships. It was 
 in til is way that the Pearl, mistaking Pizarro's 
 squadron for that of her own, was within gun-shot 
 UL-iore she discovered her error. 
 
 t The wreck of this vessel, and the varied ad- 
 ventures and distresses of her crew^ will appear ijv, 
 the memoir of Captain Cheap. 
 
AN S 
 
 AN S 
 
 and after cruising in the vicinity of this, 
 the second rendezvous, for several days, 
 the gloomy suggestion " occurred to him 
 that they had all perished." 
 
 " The land wore a tremendous aspect ; 
 the Cordilleras of the Andes were covered 
 with snow ; the coast rocky and barren, 
 and being utterly unlinown to them, and 
 the westerly gales prevailing, they (mean- 
 ing Anson and his crew) continued for a 
 fortnight in imminent peril of the loss of 
 the ship and of their lives. By this time 
 the scurvy had desti"oyed a great part of 
 the crew, and almost all the remaining 
 part were so much affected with it that 
 they could with great difficulty work the 
 ship. All the various disasters, fatigues, 
 and terrors, that here befel them, con- 
 tinued to increase till the 22d of May, 
 when the fury of all the storms seemed to 
 combine in one tremendous hurricane, 
 that threatened instant destruction totlie 
 ship ; but this was the last effort of this 
 stormy climate." 
 
 After having passed a fortnight in the 
 vain expectation of meeting with some of 
 the separated ships of his squadron, An- 
 son determined to shape a course for the 
 island of Juan Fernandez. On the morn- 
 ing of the 28th, the land was " thought 
 to be seen," but in matters of sight, 
 thought may be said to be a thouglitless 
 agent. Anson, according to all autliori- 
 ties, "was impressed with the belief that 
 he did see it, but the officers viewing it 
 only as a cloud, and that they were too far 
 to the westward, it was decided to stand 
 to the eastward in the parallel of the 
 island. On the second day after this ill- 
 fated alteration of course,* the crew were 
 convinced of their error,f by making the 
 high land of Chili covered with snow ; 
 and this too when all with eager and ex- 
 pecting eyes were looking for Juan Fer- 
 nandez. At length the long wished-for 
 island was made on the 9th of June. So 
 reduced was the crew of the Centiirmi by 
 scurvy and fatigvie, that of four hundred 
 and fifty men, who three months before 
 had passed the straits of Le Maire in 
 what might be comparatively called 
 "health and vigour," hardly half that 
 
 • It is but just to observe that at this period chro- 
 nometers were not known, nor were the astrono- 
 mical means, now so generally used for ascertaining 
 the longitude at sea, then practically applied to the 
 purposes of navigation. 
 
 t In consequence of the error of standingeast in- 
 stead of west " we lost,'" says the narrator of the 
 voyage, '• between seventy and eighty of our men, 
 whom we should doubtless have saved, had we 
 made the island that day (28th May), which, had we 
 kept our course a few hours longer, we could not 
 have failed to have done." 
 
 492 
 
 number were alive ; and so many of the 
 survivors confined to their hammocks, 
 that with the manual assistance of all the 
 officers, without exception, it was with 
 the utmost difficulty they could muster 
 sufficient strength to bring the ship to an 
 anchor on the following day. 
 
 The Centurion's anchor had been 
 hardly dropped, when the Tri/al made 
 her appearance ; and in the following 
 fortnight a ship was discovered from the 
 heights, which proved to be the Glou- 
 cester. Boats laden with water, fish, 
 and vegetables, were immediately dis- 
 patched for the relief of her wretched 
 crew. "With all the assistance that 
 Anson could afford in provisions and 
 water, by boats and men, and all the 
 attempts that were made, she coidd not 
 be bi'ouglit into the bay for a whole fort- 
 night. Even after this, she disappeared 
 for the space of a week, and every hope 
 of her safety vanished. However, she 
 again approached, and the Centurion's 
 long-boat was again sent off with a sup- 
 ply of water and provisions." "Had it 
 not been," says the narrative, "for this 
 last supply by our long-boat, both the 
 healthy and diseased must have all pe- 
 rished together for want of water ; and 
 their calamities were the more terrifying, 
 as fliey appeared to be without remedy, 
 for the Gloucester had already spent a 
 month in her endeavovu's to fetch the 
 bay, and she was now no further ad- 
 vanced than at the first moment she 
 made the island." In short, she once 
 more disappeared, and did not reach her 
 ancnorage until the 23d of July. Her 
 crew were reduced to less than fourscore. 
 "To these," says the writer of the Life 
 of Anson, " who by their sufferings had 
 been reduced to the verge of death, and 
 who had not set foot on land for the 
 space of more than one hundred days,* 
 Juan Fernandez appeared like what it 
 has been described — an earthly paradise. f 
 The Avoods, the groves, the aromatic 
 shrubs, the limpid streams, the great 
 variety of vegetable productions of in- 
 digenous growth, as well as the remains 
 
 * In after times, the crews of blockading fleets 
 have been more than twice this number of days 
 ■vvithout setting foot on shore. 
 
 t Pascoe Thomas, who officiated as preceptor of 
 navigation on board the Centurion, and in whom 
 was even then practically illustrated the since 
 popular saying of the "schoolmaster abroad," speaks 
 of the appearance of the island and its productions 
 in a highly poetic strain. " There can scarce," says 
 the schoolmaster, " any where be found a more 
 happy seat for the Muses, and the flights of fancy," 
 (as his narrative evinces,) "or pleasures of the 
 imagination." By this account, as Barrow observes, 
 Selkirk must have lived in a state of luxury. 
 
AN S 
 
 ANS 
 
 of cultivation, all conspired to make the 
 men not only forget their long sufferings, 
 but to instil into the minds of the most 
 reduced a hope of speedy recovery." 
 
 After some fifteen weeks' stay at this 
 favoured and favourite isle, the sickness 
 entirely subsided ; but the " muster of 
 men " in each ship brought to mind 
 painful reflections, when compared with 
 the numerical strength of the squadron 
 upon leaving England. "The Centurion 
 had buried two hundred and ninety-two, 
 and had left two hundred and fourteen ; 
 the Gloucester had lost the same nmnbcr 
 as the Centurion, and had only eighty- 
 two remaining alive ; the Tryal had 
 buried forty, and had thirty-nine remain- 
 ing alive."* And the mortality amongst 
 the marines and Chelsea invalids exceeded 
 in proportion that of the seamen. f Pre- 
 parations had been already made for 
 departing port ; and imder the following 
 disposition of his feeble force, Anson 
 sailed from Juan Fernandez : — The Tryal 
 to proceed off Valparaiso ; the Glotccester 
 to cruise off the high land of Paita, where, 
 at a certain fixed time, she would be 
 joined by the Centurion and the Tryal. 
 This latter ship fell in with and cap- 
 tured the Nuestra Senhora del Monti 
 Carmel. with twenty-five passengers on 
 board. The Centurion on her cruise fell 
 in with another prize of the Tryal, called 
 the Arranzuga, of six hundred tons 
 burthen ; and as the Tryal herself on 
 joining was found to have sprung all her 
 masts, and was in so leaky a state as with 
 difficidty to be kept afloat, Anson ordered 
 her stores, guns, and ammunition to be 
 put into her prize, and commissioned the 
 latter as a frigate in his Majesty's navy, 
 under the name of the Tryal' s Prize ; 
 and the crew being transfeixed to her, 
 the Tryal was scuttled and sunk." 
 
 The delicacy of Anson's conduct to- 
 wards some Spanish ladies, (one of whom, 
 aged about fourteen, was said to "be 
 extremely beautiful,) who were passen- 
 gers in one of the prizes, has been much 
 praised. He declined seeing them, but 
 gave such orders, and made such regula- 
 tions with regard to their treatment, that 
 their fears were wholly allayed, and they 
 were preserved from any annoyances 
 which might have hurt their feelings. It 
 
 * Charnock. 
 
 ■(• According to the best authorities, the number 
 of sailors and soldiers with which the Tryal, the 
 G/oKcesicr, and the Ce»<«r;"on left Eni<land, amounted 
 to nine hundred and sixty-one, of whom six hun- 
 dred and twenty-six had already perished, leaving 
 only three hundred and thirty-five for the three 
 ships, a number short of the proper complement of 
 the Centurion alone. 
 
 493 
 
 is not too much to say, that the conduct 
 of every ofticer pretending to character 
 in her Majesty's service would have 
 been, under the same circumstances, 
 quite as considerate. 
 
 In proceeding to join tlie other two 
 ships off Paita, the boats of the Centurion 
 chased and captured a vessel of consi- 
 derable value. Her hull and cargo were 
 estimated at 400,000 dollars. Ascertain- 
 ing from his prisoners* that a considerable 
 treasure was then lying at Paita, and that 
 the town, which was then but a few 
 leagues distant, was weakly defended, 
 Anson determined to surprise it, and, if 
 possible, carry it by a coup de main. 
 
 Tins enterprise was entrusted to Mr. 
 Brett, the commodore's first lieutenant. 
 The barge and two pinnaces, manned 
 and armed, were despatched fi-om the 
 ship about ten at night. Brett's force 
 consisted of fifty-eight picked men ; and 
 such was the adroitness and spirit which 
 characterised the conduct of this chosen 
 band, that by morning they found them- 
 selves in the undisturbed possession of 
 the town, together with a small fcrt, 
 which was its only defence. The com- 
 modore and his consort stood after the 
 boats under easy sail, and at daybreak 
 the next morning had the satisfaction of 
 seeing the English coloiu's flying on the 
 enemy's fort. The removal of all valu- 
 able property! immediately took place. 
 In the transit afloat, which occupied three 
 days, the enemy remained tranquil, the 
 governor and garrison having retired on 
 a distant hill. After failing to procure 
 ransom for the propei-ty taken in the 
 town, he set fire to it, and sunk every 
 vessel he found afloat unworthy of cap- 
 ture. One vessel, called the Solidad, 
 was added to the squadron ; more parti- 
 cularly, as carrying with her the appear- 
 ance of a fast sailer, the commodore 
 considered she might be useful in his 
 future operations. 
 
 On the 1 6th of November Anson sailed 
 from Paita, and two days afterwards was 
 joined by the Gloucester, which ship had 
 taken two small prizes, the one containing 
 treasure to the amount of 12,000/. the 
 
 • Campbell says, Anson " made the prisoners 
 interested in his success, by taking two of the 
 principal as guides, and promising the liberty of 
 the others as a reward for ihe'n fidelily : threatening 
 them with death if they proved treacherous or 
 negligent." One of them, he adds, " had twenty 
 years before been taken by an English ship, and 
 obliged by the captain in the capacity of guide in 
 a similar undertaking." 
 
 t The booty carried off amounted to 30,000/. ; 
 but the loss sustained by the Spaniards, including 
 property destro5'ed, was estimated at a million and 
 a half of dollars. 
 
AN S 
 
 ANS 
 
 other of 7000/. From one of tlie prizes 
 -it had heen ascertained that Vernon's 
 .attack on Carthagena had failed, — a cir- 
 cumstance at once rendering unavailahle 
 the project of cooperating with the forces 
 on the other side of tlie isthmus of Pa- 
 nama.* It was consequently resolved 
 to proceed to the coast of California, to 
 cruise for the Manilla galleon, which was 
 bound to the port of Acapulco. Previ- 
 ously unloading and destroying two of 
 the prizes, the squadron, now consisting 
 of five vessels, proceeded to Quibo, near 
 Panama, to replenish their wood and 
 water. At Quibo they procured a supply 
 of tm-tle, sufficient for four months' con- 
 sumption. This nutritious food appeared 
 to have a wonderful effect in the reco- 
 very of those who had been afflicted 
 with scurvy. 
 
 It is unnecessary to dwell on the anx- 
 ious watchings, the judicious measures, 
 and the incessant attention of every one 
 in this little squadron to discover the 
 object of their search. Every cloud was 
 converted by the credulous eye of fancy 
 into a distant "sail;" and every fire on 
 the coast pronounced to be the "gal- 
 leoners' binnacle light." Four inonths, 
 however, having passed away since the 
 squadron departed Quibo, it became 
 necessary to put into the harbour Che- 
 queton, a port about thirty leagues to 
 the westward of Acapulco. Here Anson 
 refitted his ships and refreshed his people, 
 preparatory to pursuing his voyage across 
 the Pacific. But before starting, three 
 of the captured vessels, including the 
 Tryal-Prize, being considered unfit for 
 further service, were severally scuttled 
 and sunk. On the 28th of April, the Cen- 
 turion and G/oe/cesier pursued their course 
 to the westward, landing previously fifty- 
 seven of their prisoners near Acapulco. 
 
 " On the 15th of Jime," says the com- 
 modore in his official report, " the Glou- 
 cester found her mainmast sprung at 
 the head, which upon examination was 
 discovered to be entirely rotten. On the 
 29th July, the Gloucester carried away 
 her foretop-mast and fore-yard. My 
 ship's company are now miserably af- 
 flicted with the scurvy, the ship very 
 leaky, the men and officers that are well 
 being only able to make one spell at the 
 pump." This is all Anson says of the 
 second attack of this afflicting malady. 
 
 On the 26th July, after the Gloucester's 
 spars had been carried away, the " ship 
 had no less than seven feet water in the 
 
 * Conformable with the commodore's " Instruc- 
 tions." 
 
 401 
 
 hold;" and from the unseaworthy state 
 of the ship, and distressed condition of 
 the crew, it became necessary to remove 
 into the Centurion the few remaining of 
 her feeble hands, and finally set fire to 
 the ship. " Thus perished H.M.S. Glou- 
 cester." After this new misfortune, An- 
 son continued his course across the Pacific 
 ocean. Nothing remarkable occurred; 
 "but the scurvy," as Campbell observes, 
 " raged on board the Centurion, and her 
 crew perished, as it were, by heaps." 
 
 At length, on the 20th of August, the 
 Centurion reached Tinian, one of the 
 Ladrone islands, which, in beauty and 
 fertility, seemed to rival the scenery arid 
 climate of Juan Fernandez. The ship's 
 company were immediately landed. The 
 mortality was so great, that twenty men 
 died on the same day ; but such was 
 "the salutary influence of the land," of 
 tlie vegetable refreshments, " and parti- 
 cularly the fruits of the acid kind,"* that 
 during a two months' stay at Tinian, two 
 men only had died. 
 
 With the exception of the Centurion, 
 the ships of the squadron had been al- 
 ready all dispersed and destroyed ; she 
 alone, of all that had doubled Cape Horn, 
 was destined to return home. It was 
 now about the middle of September. 
 The convalescents were again embarked ; 
 but the commodore, who was himself ill 
 of the scurvy, had a tent erected for him 
 on shore, where he meant to stay a few 
 days for the recovery of his health. On 
 the 23d of September a violent gale off 
 the land, suddenly arising in the night, 
 drove the ship from her anchors, and 
 forced her to sea ; while the commodore, 
 many of the officers, and a considerable 
 portion of the crew, amounting altogether 
 to one hundred and thirteen persons, 
 were left on shore. In this emergency, 
 Anson conceived the notion of length- 
 ening the Spanish bark he had detained, 
 about twelve feet, which would give her 
 tonnage and capacity enough to carry 
 them all to China. This vessel was ac- 
 cordingly hauled on shore, and the 
 proposed task at once undertaken.! 
 
 * " Tliat this public and strong testimony to the 
 infallible cure of scurvy, by the use of vegetable 
 acids, should have lain dormant for thirty years, 
 till revived by Cook, is indeed a lamentable proof, 
 among many others, of the tardy adoption of use- 
 ful discoveries." — Life nf Lord Ansot7. 
 
 t " While thus employed one day, some of the peo- 
 ple suddenly called out 'a sail!' Every one im- 
 mediately, elated with joy, concluded it to be the 
 Centurion, just emerging above the horizon; a 
 second sail was announced ; this destroyed their 
 first conjecture. Anson, eagerly turning his glass 
 towards the spot, saw at once they were only two 
 sailing boats : the thought immediately occurred 
 
ANS 
 
 ANS 
 
 Nineteen days had now elapsed since the 
 departure of the ship, when, on the 11th 
 of October, one of the men from the 
 heights discovered the Centurion, on 
 which, hastily descending the hill, he 
 vociferated, in jo^-ous ecstasy, " T/ie 
 ship ! the ship !" On hearing this happy 
 and unexpected news, " the commodore 
 threw down his axe with which he was 
 then at work, and, by his joy, broke 
 thi-ough, for the first time, the equable 
 and unvaried character which he had 
 hitherto preserved." About five o'clock 
 in the evening, the ship resumed her 
 anchorage. 
 
 According to Charnock,* a second 
 tremendous gale drove the Ce7itiirion 
 once more to sea, and a second attempt 
 was made (on a different principle) to 
 adapt the Spanish bark for a voyage. 
 
 Experience having taught the commo- 
 dore the danger of continuing in so im- 
 safe an anchorage at that season of the 
 year, every exertion was made to refit 
 the ship, and procure wood, water, pro- 
 visioris, fruits, and refreshments, neces- 
 sary to'pursue his contemplated course, 
 f On the 21st of October the Centurion 
 sailed from Tinian; and on the 12th of 
 November arrived in the roads of Macao, 
 a Portuguese settlement near the en- 
 trance of the river Canton in China. 
 Here the commodore was destined to 
 encounter a variety of unforeseen diffi- 
 culties and vexatious delays, from the 
 duplicity and equivocating conduct of 
 the Chinese authorities; but by Anson's 
 prudence, firmness of piu'pose, together 
 with an occasional display of the Centu- 
 rion's artillery, he succeeded in procuring 
 the means for the refitment of his ship, 
 for replenishing his stores and provisions, 
 and in increasing his crew, " having en- 
 tered twenty-three men, most of them 
 Dutch, and the rest Lascars." 
 . On the 19th of April (1743), the 
 Centurion departed Macao, " ostensi- 
 bly," according to Barrow, "for Batavia, 
 on her way to England, but in reality to 
 endeavour to intercept the Acapulco ship, 
 expected to arrive about this time at 
 
 to him that the Centiirinn was gone to the bottom, 
 and that these were her two boats, bringing bacic 
 the surviving part of her crew; and this sudden 
 thought acted so powerfully on his feelinprs, that, 
 in order to conceal liis emotion, it is stated, he 
 instantly, and without speaking a word to any one, 
 retired to his tent, where he passed some bitter 
 moments in agony of grief; firmly believing that 
 the ship was lost, that most of tlie people had 
 perished, and that every hope had vanished, which, 
 until now, he had continued to cherisli." — Bar- 
 row's Life nf Lord Anson. 
 
 * Campbell and Harrow make no mention of this 
 second accident. 
 
 495 
 
 Manilla." " There never v/as, perhaps," 
 continues' the above-mentioned biogi'a- 
 pher, (and in the remark we fully concur,) 
 " a stronger instance of firmness of purpose 
 on the part of the commander, coupled 
 with a conviction of the reliance to be 
 placed on the bravery and fidelity of 
 British seamen, than that displayed in 
 the resolution here taken by Anson." 
 
 On clearing the land, he addressed the 
 ship's company assembled on the quar- 
 ter-deck, and declared it to be his 
 intention to ciaiise in pursuit of the 
 expected galleons, — assuring his people 
 that he was impressed with the firm con- 
 viction that their vigilance and zeal woidd 
 soon be rewarded with signal success. 
 Anson was no orator ; public speaking 
 was not his forte; and in private, his 
 talent for taciturnity* had been long pro- 
 verbial. But on this occasion there was 
 no need of rhetorical flourish to urge a 
 body of seamen in the pursuit of an ob- 
 ject which had so long haunted the 
 thoughts of all borne on the books. The 
 commodore's simple address met with 
 the ready response of three strenuous 
 cheers. 
 
 Pursuing her course, the Centurion,' on 
 the latter end of May, reached her cruis- 
 ing ground to the southward of the straits 
 of Manilla. Here, he cruised for thirty- 
 one days, until Anson's patience, as well 
 as that of his crew, was nearly exhausted ; 
 but their vinremitting perseverance was 
 at length happily rewarded at sun-rise on 
 the 20th of June, by the appearance of 
 a large ship standing towards them, with 
 the standard of Spain flying at the main- 
 top-gallant mast-head. 
 
 " On the 20th of June," says the com- 
 modore in his official report, " I got sight 
 of her and gave chase,f she bearing down 
 on me before the wind ; when she came 
 within two miles she brought to, to fight 
 me. After engaging her an hour and a 
 half, within less than pistol shot, the 
 admiral struck his flag at the main-top- 
 mast-head. She was called the Niiestra 
 Senhora del Caho Donga, Don Geronimo 
 admiral ; had forty-two guns, seventeen 
 of which were brass, and twenty-eight 
 pateraroes ; five hundred and fifty men, 
 
 * Anson was wont to be designated "the Silent 
 son-in-law of the Chancellor." 
 
 t This seems a singular mode of expressing the 
 movement made by tlie Centurion. Anson made 
 sail to close with the enemy, who by " bearing 
 down before the wind," was already closing with 
 him. The fact is, neither vessel could be said to 
 be in c/iase, for instead of one Hying from the 
 other, both had adopted the readiest means to ac- 
 celerate approach. But, indeed, Anson's public let- 
 ters are, to say the least of them, but bad specimens 
 of official correspondence. 
 
ANS 
 
 ANS 
 
 fifty-eight of ■ whom were slain, and 
 eighty-three wounded. Her masts and 
 rigging were shot to pieces, and one hun- 
 dred and fifty shot passed through her 
 hull, many of which were between wind 
 and water, which occasioned her to be 
 very leaky. The greatest damage I 
 received was by my foremast, mainmast, 
 and bowsprit being wounded, and my 
 rigging shot to pieces, having received 
 only fit'teen shot through my hull, which 
 killed sixteen men, and wounded fifteen. 
 I was under great difficulty in navigating 
 two such large ships in a dangerous and 
 unknown sea, and to guard four hundred 
 and ninety-two prisoners." 
 
 Thus fell to the Centurion this rich 
 prize, amounting in value to nearly a 
 million and a half of dollars. Proceeding 
 to Canton, the Centurmi and her prize 
 arrived there together in the middle of 
 July. The difficidties thrown in Anson's 
 way by the Chinese, when he wished to 
 provision his ship for a voyage to Eng- 
 land, cannot be nan-ated here, nor his 
 visit to the vice-king in order to obtain 
 their removal. It must, however, be 
 remarked, that in his official despatch he 
 states the orders he gave to Captain 
 Brett, " whom he appointed captain under 
 him" during his absence on his visit. 
 
 Having sold to the merchants of Ma- 
 cao the galleon, from which the money, 
 &c. had been removed, the Centuriori, 
 with her "shipped" treasure, sailed for 
 England on the 15th of December, 1743. 
 To the latest period continued the for- 
 tuitous escapes which characterised the 
 career of this celebrated ship.* In en- 
 tering the Chops of the Channel, favoured 
 by a fog, she passed unobserving and 
 imobserved through the enemy's fleet; 
 and on the 15th of June, 1744, arrived 
 safe at Spithead. 
 
 "Thus," says the writer of the Narra- 
 tive, "was this expedition finished, when 
 it had lasted three years and nine months ; 
 after having, by its event, strongly evinced 
 this important tnith — that though pru- 
 dence, intrepidity, and perseverance 
 imited, are not exempted from the blows 
 of adverse fortune, yet in a long series of 
 transactions they usually rise superior to 
 its power, and in the end rarely fail of 
 proving successful." In this implied 
 moral each and all of the biographers of 
 tlie circumnavigator appear to acqui- 
 esce, and this too without the slightest 
 appearance of investigation as to how 
 
 • Subsequently a fortunate ship in the Indian 
 seas. She remained eleven years without returning 
 to England. 
 
 496 
 
 far the writer's "important truth" be- 
 comes applicable to the case of Anson. 
 That ultimately his patient endurance of 
 peril, sufi'ering, and disaster, vmparalleled 
 perhaps in the naval annals of the world, 
 and his persevering pursuit of the Ma- 
 nilla galleon, were rewarded by his being 
 personally enriched to an extent then 
 unequalled in the service, no one will 
 attempt to dispute. But instead of "prov- 
 ing successful in the long series of trans- 
 actions" in which he was publicly em- 
 ployed, the expedition to the South Seas 
 waited not for the impartial decision of 
 posterity to pronounce it " an unfortunate 
 failure."* But this very failure, which 
 by the disappointed and discontented 
 portion of the nation had been deserv- 
 edly ascribed to the ignorance and ob- 
 stinacy of an imbecile minister, operated 
 in a tenfold degree in favour of Anson. 
 His suff"erings excited much of the public 
 sympathy ; his fortitude, no little of po- 
 pular applause ; and upon both of which, 
 it may be safely asserted, were founded 
 much of his professional fame. 
 
 On his arrival in England, Anson, 
 according to Barrow, " did not find mat- 
 ters at the Admiralty wearing so smiling 
 an aspect as his brotlier had described. f 
 In reply to his letter of the 14th of June, 
 from St. Helen's,* announcing his arrival, 
 and transmitting an account of the trans- 
 actions at Canton, including that of the 
 capture of the Acapulco ship, the secre- 
 tary coolly acknowledges the receipt, 
 adding, " and I take the opportunity of 
 wishing you joy on your arrival in Eng- 
 land." And this was all, "chilling 
 , enough, it must be admitted," adds Sir 
 John, "in reply to a man wiio for four 
 years nearly had suffered more hardships 
 than had fallen to the lot of almost any 
 human being : but Anson was not a man 
 of much punctilio, and wrote in a quiet 
 manner another letter to their lordships, 
 stating the circumstances under which 
 he had made his first lieutenant, Brett, 
 acting captain of the Centurion in his 
 absence, to wait upon, and arrange im- 
 portant matters with the viceroy of Can- 
 ton ; and requested his commission might 
 be confirmed. He was told he had no 
 
 * A contemporaneous authority observes, that 
 "had the Manilla ship escaped the vigilance of the 
 English commodore, he would, in all probability, 
 have been laid aside on his return to England as a 
 superannuated captain, and died in obscurity ; but 
 his great u-ealth created considerable influence, and 
 threw a new lustre on those talents which would 
 otherwise have passed unobserved." 
 
 t In a letter addressed to the commodore prior 
 to his departure from Canton. 
 
 I The Cenlurion anchored in St. Helen's on the 
 Hth, and on the ISth reached Spithead. 
 
AN S 
 
 ANS 
 
 power to make sueli an appointment, and 
 of course that it could not be confirmed. 
 
 " Just at this time, (the 19th June,) a 
 promotion of three rear-admirals was 
 made, of whom Anscn was one ; and he 
 was informed by letter, which enclosed 
 his commission, that the king had been 
 pleased to raise him to the rank of rear- 
 admiral of the blue. As no further 
 notice had been taken in favour of his 
 lieutenant and friend, Brett, he at once 
 returned the commission of rear-admiral 
 of the blue, expressing his concern to 
 find himself under the necessity of de- 
 clining that mark of regard, which his 
 Majesty had been pleased to bestow on 
 him, and which he found he could not 
 accept with honom-. "This high feel- 
 ing," says Barrow, "will perhaps be 
 considered to have led him rather too 
 hastily to adopt, and to act upon such a 
 resolution." Not so the board of Admi- 
 ralty ; for it was not till eight days after 
 Anson had returned his commission, that 
 their lordships " came to the resolution 
 to cancel it." The resolution thus stands 
 recorded in the minute-book of the Ad- 
 miralty : 
 
 " Saturday, 30th of June, 1744— Pre- 
 sent, the Riglit Hon. the Earl of Winchel- 
 sea, Mr. Cockburn, Di-. Lee, Sir Charles 
 Hardy, Mr. Pliillipson. A letter from Ad- 
 miral Anson, dated the 2'2d inst., was read, 
 enclosing his commission of rear-admiral 
 of the blue, and representing his concern 
 to find himself imder the necessity of 
 resigning the same, because a commission 
 he had given to Captain Brett to com- 
 mand the Centurion under him was not 
 confirmed. Resolved, That the said com- 
 mission be cancelled." 
 
 " Lord Winchelsea," continues the 
 biographer, " had the reputation of being 
 a very upright and honest man ; but he 
 certainly did not act towards Anson witli 
 that generosity which, if not guided, as 
 in all probability he was, by the advice 
 of a set of incapables, he would in this 
 case have shown to such a man, under 
 such circumstances ;" * * * * 
 
 " But there were others who knew 
 how to appreciate the merits of Anson. 
 Winchelsea and his board were turned 
 out in the month of December, 1741. 
 The duke of Bedford succeeded to the 
 administration of naval affaii-s, and this 
 distinguished circumnavigator was se- 
 lected by his grace to become a mem- 
 ber of his board ; and to make amends 
 for the injustice done him by a former 
 board, on the 20th of April in the fol- 
 lowing year, Mr. Anson obtained two 
 
 VOL. I. 497 
 
 steps of rank at once, by being appointed 
 rear-admiral of the tvhite." 
 
 From the cursory reader, the above re- 
 marks will, doubtless, receive a ready 
 assent ; but, if the merits of tlie case be 
 thoroughly sifted, it will be found that, 
 not only had the secretary of the board 
 written a private letter to Anson, replete 
 with good sense and feeling, but also 
 that eight days, as the Admiralty minute 
 shows, had been purposely allowed him 
 to reconsider his rash and hasty resolve. 
 It is easy to talk of " injustice," and to 
 advocate offended feeling ; but place, 
 for a moment, Anson's self-willed re- 
 signation, or rather refusal of rank, in 
 juxta-position with the arbitrary act 
 which caused the ill-treated Vernon to be 
 struck off the flag-officer's list, — to say 
 nothing of the callous and cold-hearted 
 conduct manifested in the case of the 
 imfortunate Byng,* and then, let the 
 impartial reader decide who had most 
 reason to complain of the " injustice" of 
 those in office. 
 
 Anson retained his seat at the Admi- 
 ralty for several years ; and ultimately 
 filled the office of first commissioner, or 
 first lord, of which we shall presently 
 speak. Li 1746, having been promoted 
 to the rank of vice-admiral of tlie blue, 
 he was appointed to conunand the chan- 
 nel fleet, as successor to vice-admiral 
 Martin. During this service nothing 
 worthy of note occuiTed. 
 
 In the early part of the following 
 year, information having been received 
 that two strong squadrons, intended to 
 escort the French East and West India 
 convoys, were on the point of sailing 
 from Brest, Anson, who then was con- 
 sidered the " working-man" of the Ad- 
 miralty-board, again left office ashore, to 
 take upon himself command afloat, with 
 a view of intercepting the enemy s force. 
 The enemy had originally intended that 
 the united squadrons of Jonquiere and 
 Lentendeur should sail together, and 
 keep company till they arrived at a 
 certain safe latitude. But the division 
 of the latter chiefs not being fully 
 cquijiped, and the French count im- 
 patient of delay, Le Jonquiere's 
 squadron was directed to proceed to sea 
 
 * Sir Jolm Barrow states that a note in Anson's 
 handwriting, supposed to be addressed to Fox, was 
 found, as follows : — " Dear Sir, I am entirely of 
 your opinion with regard to securing Admiral 
 Byng in the Tower ; for I do think (from his former 
 situation in the fleet) he might have a chance to 
 escape, if he has any sucli intention. A letter ia 
 wrote to the secretary of war for a strong guard to 
 bring him to town from Portsmouth." 
 K K. 
 
AN S 
 
 AN S 
 
 without waiting for tliat of Lentendeur. 
 This decision proved fatal to the French. 
 
 On the 9th of April, 1747, Vice-Ad- 
 miral Anson sailed from Plymouth.* 
 ; On the 16th of May, Captain Dennis, 
 of His Majesty's ship Centurion,\ ar- 
 rived at the Admiralty with a despatch 
 from Vice-Admiral Anson, giving an 
 accoiuit of his having, on the 3d of May, 
 fallen in with, and engaged the enemy's 
 squadi'on, off Cape Finisterre. After 
 mentioning the manner and the form of 
 sailing in which he descried the enemy's 
 fleet, the chief proceeds : — 
 
 " At one o'clock I made the signal 
 for the line of hattle abreast; and, in 
 half an hour afterivards, for the line 
 a-head. About three I made the signal 
 for the ships in the rear to lead more 
 large, in order to come to a close en- 
 gagement with the enemy ; who, getting 
 the fore-tacks on board, and loosing their 
 top-gallant sails, convinced me that their 
 sole aim was to gain time, and endea- 
 vour to make their escape under favour 
 of the night, finding themselves deceived 
 in our strength ; upon which I made the 
 signal for the whole fleet to pursue the 
 enemy, and attack them without having 
 any regard to the line of battle. 
 
 " The Centurion having got up with 
 the sternmost ship of the enemy, about 
 four o'clock, began to engage her, upon 
 which two of the largest of the enemy's 
 ships bore down % to her assistance. 
 
 * The squadron under his orders consisted of the 
 following ships : — 
 
 Prince George...90 s.770m.|X''^^-^'^'S- ^eo. Anson 
 ° (.Captain Bentley 
 
 Devonshire G6 5S5 \ JJ'^^'A'^"- ?• barren 
 
 (.Captain West 
 
 Namur 74 C50 Hon. Capt. Boscawen 
 
 Princess Lonisa.CO 400 Capt. Watson 
 
 Monmouth C4 480 Capt. Harrison 
 
 Prince Frederick(J4 480 Capt. Norris 
 
 Defiance 60 400 Capt. Grenville 
 
 Nottingham 60 400 Capt. Saumarez 
 
 Yarmouth 64 480 Capt. Brett 
 
 Windsor 60 480 Capt. Hanway 
 
 Faulkland 50 300 Capt. Borrodel 
 
 Centurion 50 375 Capt. Denis 
 
 Bristol 50 300 Hon. Wm. Montague 
 
 Pembroke 60 400 Capt. Fincher 
 
 Ambuscade 40 250 Capt. J. Montague 
 
 Falcon, sloop 
 Vulcan, fire ship 
 
 The reader will perceive that the Centurion, 
 when Anson sailed in her, as commodore, from 
 Spithead, was rated 60— with 400 men ; in this 
 affair, under Dennis, one of Anson's ofhcers, her 
 metal is reduced by ten guns, though her comple- 
 ment of men retained short of twenty-five. 
 
 t It would seem that Anson could not forego the 
 gratification of selecting his old and favourite ship 
 to convey tidings of so pleasing a nature. 
 
 X As Anson, with all his minutia of detail, says 
 nothing touching the direction of the wind, we are 
 quite at a loss to conceive how, after making the 
 signal for the ships in the van to lead more large, in 
 order to come to a close engagement, " two of the 
 largest of the enemy's ships bore down, to assist 
 the sternmost ship, which the Centurion had 
 •198 
 
 The Namur, Defiance, and Windsor, be- 
 ing the headmost ships, soon entered into 
 the action, and after having disabled 
 those ships'' (what ships?) "in such a 
 manner that the ships astern must come 
 vip with them, they made sail a-head to 
 prevent the van of the enemy making 
 an escape, as did also several other ships 
 of the fleet.* 
 
 " The Yarmouth and Devonshire hav- 
 ing got up and engaged the enemy, and 
 the Prince George being near the Invin- 
 cible, and going to fire into her, all the 
 ships in the enemy's rear struck their 
 colours between six and seven o'clock ; 
 as did all those that were in the line be- 
 fore night. I brought to at seven, 
 having ordered the Monmouth, Yarmouth, 
 and Nottingham, to pursue the convoy, who 
 then bore W. by S., at the distance only 
 of four leagues, so that I am in hopes of 
 having a very good account of them. 
 
 « * * » • 
 
 " I have taken, in all, six men-of-war 
 and four Indiamen, of which are the par- 
 ticulars as under :f — 
 
 " The Ruby had struck several of her 
 guns into the hold, having all the guns 
 and stores on board for a new frigate at 
 Quebec. I have put the prizes into a con- 
 dition to proceed with me to Spithead, 
 and am in hopes that I shall arrive there 
 in a few days ; but it has taken up so 
 much of our time, together with shifting 
 and distributing our prisoners, that I 
 have not hitherto been able to get a per- 
 fect account of the killed and wounded 
 on either side. Our loss is not very 
 considerable, except that of Captain 
 Grenville, who was an excellent oificer, 
 and is a great loss to the service in 
 general. Captain Boscawen was wounded 
 in the shoulder by a musket-ball, but is 
 almost recovered. 
 
 " To do justice to the French officers, 
 they did tlieir duty well, and lost their 
 ships with honour ; scarcely any of them 
 striking their colours till their ships were 
 dismasted. M. St. George kept his 
 
 brought to action." We suspect the vice admiral 
 should have said wore round. 
 
 * What would be said were an officer who had 
 held the situation of conducting lord of the Admi- 
 ralty, now to pen, in a public despatch, a paragraph 
 so truly unintelligible as that which appears above? 
 j.T„c'-: .,„ en ~ I M. Le Jonquiere,Clief- > ta 
 
 tLeSerieux 66g. | ^'escadre )i 
 
 Le Diamant 66 M. Hoquart ( » 
 
 Le Rubis 52 M. de Ceuty / ^ 
 
 Le Gloire 44 M. Salese I S 
 
 L'Invincible 74 M. St. George ) s 
 
 Le Jason 54 M. Buard ^ [,ta 
 
 ^ ("Le Philibert . 30 M. Cclie |2| 
 
 I ) L'Apollon .... 30 M. de Santon V ^ =■ 
 
 ;;q i La Thetis . . 20 M. Magon &" 
 
 5 VLeDartininitli 18 M. I'iuoclic - .- r 
 
ANS 
 
 AN S 
 
 coiours flying some time after the general 
 had struck. The French general, M. de 
 le Jonquiere, is womided in two places, 
 the captain of the Gloire killed, and the 
 second captain of the Invincible had his 
 leg shot off. I am, &c., 
 
 (Signed) " Anson."* 
 
 The French, in this unequal comhat, 
 fought most gallantly. Their loss, as 
 afterwards ascertained, amounted to some- 
 thing close to seven hundred killed and 
 wounded ; that of the British, to about 
 five hundred and twenty. " No one," 
 says Barrow, " could doubt the issue, 
 with so great a superiority over the 
 enemy, both in ships and men ; but the 
 neat manner in which the whole were 
 swept into the toils, reflects credit on the 
 seamanship and discipline of the British 
 ships ; and great merit is due to Anson 
 for so promptly annidling the signal for 
 the line a-head, the moment he observed 
 the French making sail, and for throw- 
 ing out that for a general attack, without 
 regard to the line of battle." 
 
 Instead, however, of eulogizing An- 
 son's tactical skill, we should say, a 
 writer conversant with this subject 
 would be more inclined to express sui'- 
 prise that the original formation of 
 tlie British fleet was such as to reduce 
 it to the unheard-of alternative of 
 altering twice, in the short interval of 
 half an hour, tlie order of battle. f And, 
 again, as to the " great merit due to 
 Anson for so promptly annulling the 
 signal to form in ' line a-head,' " we 
 believe few seamen covdd entertain the 
 notion of pursuing a flying, and above 
 all, an inferior force, in any " order 
 of battle," much more that of sailing 
 in succession, or, what is technically 
 termed, " in line a-head." 
 
 The detached ships, under Rear-Ad- 
 miral Warren, picked up, according to 
 Barrow, "three of the enemy's sliips of 
 war, the Viyilant and Modeste, of twenty- 
 tv/o guns each, and the Dartmouth,X of 
 eighteen guns, besides captui-ing the 
 remainder of the India squadron that 
 were not in the action. They also cap- 
 tured six others of the convoy. The 
 treasure found in the squadron amounted 
 
 • V.'e copy this letter from Sir John Barrow's 
 work, but, if correctly given, we cannot account for 
 the admiral signing "Anson" without prefixing his 
 christian name. lie was not a peer when this letter 
 was written. 
 
 t " At one o'clock I made the signal for the line 
 of battle abreast, and in half an hour afterwards, 
 for the line ahead." — Anson's Official Letter. 
 
 X This ship appears in Anson's ofiicial returns, 
 and therefore we think the biographer is here in 
 error. "The rest of the convoy made their es- 
 cape." — Chainock. 
 
 499 
 
 to about 800,000/., besides stores of all 
 kinds, of great value. The money, on 
 the ai-rival of the ships at Portsmouth, 
 was put into twenty waggons, conveyed 
 to London, and taken in grand military 
 procession through the sti-eets of the city 
 to the Bank, amidst the acclamations of 
 many thousand persons. The houses were 
 illuminated, and bonfires in every street." 
 
 It has been observed by some of the 
 most dispassionate, competent, and im- 
 partial of our naval historians, (and the 
 ti-uth of the observation few wiU dispute,) 
 that, " considering the disparity of 
 force," Anson's affair with le Jonquiere, 
 " was not an event that called for bon- 
 fires and illuminations." But Barrow 
 justifies these rejoicings, by asserting 
 that " the navy had, as yet, done nothing 
 effectually in the war, and the unfortu- 
 nate affair of Matthews and Lestock had 
 cast a gloom and despondency over the 
 nation." This clearly shows, that the 
 adventitious aid of circumstances were 
 not wanting to magnify, into a " great 
 and glorious achievement," an affair 
 which, standing alone on its own merits, 
 could only be regarded in the light of a 
 timely and fortuitous capture of an infe- 
 rior force.* 
 
 On the 13th of June, his Majesty was 
 pleased to create "Vice-Admiral Anson a 
 peer of Great Britain, by the title of 
 Lord Anson, baron of Soberton, in the 
 county of Hants. In the early part of 
 1748, lus lordship married the eldest 
 daugliter of the Lord Chancellor Philip, 
 first earl of Hardwick. In 1751 he 
 succeeded the earl of Sandwich, in the 
 situation of first commissioner of the 
 Admiralty, a station in which he conti- 
 nued, with a very short intermission, for 
 nearly eleven years. 
 
 " The unfortunate conquest made by 
 the French of the island of Minorca 
 being, however, attributed, by many 
 persons, to a neglect in his lordship's 
 department, a general clamour was ex- 
 cited, which caused his retirement from 
 that board" (the Admiralty) " on the 28th 
 of Novembei-, 175G ; from this time, till 
 the beginning of July, 1757, he enjoyed 
 a temporary relaxation from the fatigues 
 of public business,! when Mr. Pitt re- 
 called him to resvune oflSce, and again ad- 
 minister to the affairs of the navy. 
 
 * " This blow was most severely felt by France, 
 who had vainly flattered herself that, by the means 
 of the armament, she should render herself mistress 
 of the Indian seas, and, by that superiority, be 
 enabled to wrest from the hands of the British, 
 their most valuable possessions in that part of the 
 world." — Charnock. 
 
 t Charuock. 
 
ANS 
 
 AN S 
 
 " In the year 1758 he took command 
 of the main fleet, intended for channel 
 service ; and to. amuse or oppose the 
 principal naval force of the enemy, while 
 an inferior squadron covered the landing 
 of a formidable body of British troops on 
 the very vitals of France. The force 
 under Lord Anson consisted of twenty- 
 two ships of the line, with a proportionate 
 number of frigates and smaller vessels. 
 With this fleet, he sailed from Spithead 
 on the 1st of June, Sir Edward Hawke 
 being his second in command. This plan 
 of operation answered the intended pur- 
 pose. The French fleet was confined to 
 the harbour of Brest, while the British 
 squadron under Commodore Howe, per- 
 formed every service that was required 
 of it, withmit the smallest molestation on 
 the part of the enemy." After having 
 executed this service, his lordship re- 
 signed his command afloat, and resumed 
 his office on shore. 
 
 After the accession of King George 
 III., and his conclusion of a treaty of 
 marriage between himself and the Prin- 
 cess Charlotte of Mecklenbm-g Strelitz, 
 his lordship was chosen to command the 
 squadron destined to convey the intended 
 queen from Germany. He accordingly 
 sailed from Harwich on the 17th of 
 August, 1761 ; and, after a tedious and 
 tempestuous passage, landed his royal 
 passenger at the same port, on the 17th 
 of September, having been just one 
 month absent on that service. Subse- 
 quently to this period, his lordship never 
 went to sea. He had for a long time 
 been in a very languishing state of health, 
 and was advised by his physicians to 
 di-ink the Bath waters, from which he 
 was thought to have received consider- 
 able benefit ; but, soon after his return, 
 was seized with a very sudden indisposi- 
 tion, having just before been walking in 
 his garden, apparently in as good health 
 as he had been seen for some time past. 
 He died in consequence of that stroke, 
 at his seat in Moor Park, in Hereford- 
 shire, on the 6th of June, 1762. By his 
 Avill he bequeathed the bulk of his fortune 
 to his sister's son, Geoi-ge Adams, Esq., 
 member for Saltash, in Cornwall, who 
 immediately assumed the name of Anson, 
 in pursuance of his lordship's duections. 
 
 Much has been said of Anson's admi- 
 nistrative acts, when presiding over the 
 affiiirs of the navy ; but, to class them as 
 they merit, they must be brought under 
 two distinct heads ; and, for the sake of 
 brevity, are placed under that of good 
 and that of evil. Of the latter, first 
 stands his illiberal and futile amendment 
 of the regulation touching the promotion 
 of flag-officers.* Secondly, His arbitrary 
 attempt, in conjunction with Lord Sand- 
 wich, to bring oflScers on half-pay under 
 the jurisdiction of martial law. And, 
 lastly. His unaccountable and mystei'ous 
 conduct regarding the arrest and trial of 
 the unfortunate Byng ; and for which, as 
 it has been justly observed, " a dubious 
 shade has fallen on his character, which 
 no biographer has been able to remove." 
 The GOOD resulting to the service may 
 be placed thus : — His putting into prac- 
 tice the plan of the duke of Cumberland, 
 respecting the permanent establishment 
 of that inestimable corps — the Royal 
 marines. His adopting the valuable 
 suggestion of applying copper, with 
 which to sheathe the bottoms of vessels 
 of war. His effecting a partial improve- 
 ment in the build, size, and capacity of 
 our ships of the line. And here we close 
 our memoir of Anson, with the conclud- 
 ing remarks of a by-gone authority : — 
 " His actions have shown that he was 
 firm, methodical, persevering, prudent, 
 and decisive ; that he was addicted to no 
 excesses ; and that he had none of that 
 enthusiasm which is inseparable from 
 greatness of character. Nor was he a 
 man of genius, or one of those rare cha- 
 racters who form eras in human affiiirs : 
 he was, however, well fitted to assist in 
 preserving an existing state of things 
 soiuid and vigorous ; and he therefore 
 owed his fame as much to the circum- 
 stajices in which he happened to be 
 placed, as to the nature of his own prin- 
 ciples of action." 
 
 * This was not the first instance in which 
 Anson's illiberality to the seamen became apparent. 
 His disputing tlie legal right of the Gloucester's 
 crew to share prize money in the case of the cap- 
 tured galleon, because ihay happened to be "borne 
 as supernumeraries on the books," can never be 
 forgotten. It is needless to add, that law and 
 equity secured to the Gloucester' s'^to^\e their indis- 
 putable right. 
 
 END OF VOL. I- 
 
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