MASTER NEGATIVE NO. 91-80200-24 MICROFILMED 1991 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the "Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States -- Title 17, United States Code -- concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material... Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: MULLER, LUCIAN TITLE: GREEK AND ROMAN VERSIFICATION PLA CE : BOSTON DA Τ Ε : 1892 COLUMBIA UNIVHRSTTY TTRRARIES PRES ! TlOl• ' siT Master Negative # BIBLiuCiRArill \ i I ( ; -u ■ i i • I ■> -4 \ Κ Cf iiT Restrictions on IJ 1 )ri igiihit ΜάίνϊιΛί /is Filmed ^ Fxi>ung Bii^liographic Record 8G7.GG ; i:832 D88 7. ^ ^'7^^i<'»^^ i ίί M'n vorsificatioi. λΙ!]^ ,η Ini loductiuii nn the developinont ofanciei r ι ^ i .:! ation Jn Lu-un Miiller. Tiaii- lat<^d by Samuel Ball Plainer ... Boston, AJIvn nnr] Bacon 18U2. 121 I). 10 rm 1892. t.Gi-oek Inn^na-e—M.. fries aihl r iiyihniics. inn la ngunire— Met- rics and ih.vthniics. i ilatncr. Saniiiel Ball, J5G,i-i:j21. '^""^^^''^^ (/•//// name: Kduanl I ri, hi i. nermann Liician Miillerj . "^ ("^-^^^'n::- I on ne:^t Qxufd) LihiMiy (.Γ Cnn-icss ' i ... .. , 13^-53uY / ^ ' ' ' ' /•. o.-^ / V J C<»i).vri-lit 18!>J: 2S4Ji} (3ϋΐ, ' r se: FILM 5ΙΖΙ::_ IMAGE PLACIiMI-NT: JA ( \ΪΑ/ IB IIB DATH FILMED: ^vS ? RLDUCTK. I Ν I ί I /\ I . S A \ / \ ί g \. y . I ί ^ ./ FILMED BY; RESEARCH PUBLlCAl KjNS. INC WOCM )iiRinC!• ( Τ tj'. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 LI 1.25 1^ ■to 1*0 12.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 1.4 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 - 150mm // PHOTOGRAPHIC SCIENCES CORPORATION 770 BASKET ROAD P.O. BOX 338 WEBSTER, NEW YORK 14580 (716)265-1600 - * r- ' ^ h%1.^S r^ss'^ ffiolumbta Imo^rattg fCtbrary Iffitrj} uiningBton ®l|0maB BORN 1835-DIED 1903 * FOR THIRTY YEARS CHIEF TRANSLATOR DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WASHINGTON, D. C. LOVER OF LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE HIS LIBRARY WAS GIVEN AS A MEMORIAL BY HIS SON WILLIAM S. THOMAS, M. 0. TO COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY A. D. 1905 \i % vtts: J; 1 '» III GREEK AND ROMAN VERSIFICATION WITH AN INTRODUCTION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANCIENT VERSIFICATION BY LUCIAN MULLER TRANSLATED BY SAxMUEL BALL PLATNER Professor in Adelbert College ALLYN AND BACON 1892 "■mi" TRANSLATOR'S NOTE. Copyright, 1892, By SAMUEL BALL PLAINER. LuciAN MUller's " Metrik der Griechen und Romer'' (2d ed., Leipzig, 1885) has met with so favorable a reception in Europe, and is in so many respects a valuable handbook, that it has seemed to be worth while to translate it into English, with the author's sanction. Almost all students in our preparatory schools and colleges are sadly deficient in their knowledge of Latin and Greek versification, and any help whatever towards remedying this condition of things may not be amiss. Hence this translation, in which no changes have been introduced except the musical notation. S. B. P. July, 1892. Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co., B oston. Pkesswork by Bekwick & Smith, Boston. 394^^.91 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. ■*9^ The kind reception of this book, which was pubHshed in the beginning of 1880 in Russian, and has already been most carefully translated into French and Italian, of necessity spurred me on to make it still better adapted to subserve its intended purpose. Hence the criticisms, offered in the different reviews of the book, as in the " Philologische Rundschau" (1881, No. 38) and the -Revue Critique" (1881, Nos. 36 and 52), have been conscientiously considered and, as far as possible, made use of. I am especially indebted to Professor A. Eussner, who has called my attention to various inequalities in the work. The addition of an Alpha- betical Index to this edition, as well as to the French and Italian translations, will please many readers. I have not succeeded in accomplishing the desire, several times expressed, to treat exhaustively of the metres of Catullus in this little book. For these I must refer to the ''Summarium rei metricse poetarum latinorum," St. Petersburg and Leipzig, 1878, a work which has retained its popularity even by the side of the German ' Metrik,' as is shown by the continuous demand for it. L. M. St. Petersburg, January i, 1885. The thought which has influenced me most in the compo- sition of this book, is that which I have already expressed on page loi of my Biography of Ritschl, namely, that a knowledge of the most usual classical metres, founded on a developed linguistic sense, is the most important and, in practice, the most necessary requirement — as well for the teacher as for the pupil in the gymnasium. Even among philologists there are few specialists in versification. How can more be asked of the students than is demanded above ? It is, however, a matter of great moment that this knowl- edge should not be simply mechanical, a mere exercise of the memory, but that it should be thoroughly understood and felt by the students, so that they, to speak with Horace, not only Iegiiimu7n sonum digitis ca/Ient, but, as is most im- portant, ai/re. Encouraged by the approval which has been bestowed in Germany, France, Russia, and elsewhere, upon my "Summary of Latin Versification," — a book intended, as is stated in the Preface, for students, teachers, and philolo- gists, who are not specialists in this line, — and by its wide circulation, in spite of the fact that it is written in Latin, I now have decided to write a treatise on the versification of the Greeks and Romans, especially adapted for the upper classes in the gymnasia. To this task I have been repeatedly urged by highly esteemed teachers. 5 Ά 6 Preface to First Edition. The method is exactly the same as that pursued in the "De re metrica poetarum latinorum." Following the examples of Hermann and Lachmann, and still more that of Bendey and Porson, the attempt is everywhere made to explain the phenomena of versification from a linguistic point of view. While there may be a difference of opinion concerning the scientific justification of this mode of procedure, a question that I have discussed at more length in the Biography of Ritschl, page loo, there can hardly be any doubt among intelligent teachers of its practical useful- ness for the purpose of this handbook. The great majority of judges who are qualified to express an opinion on the subject now acknowledge that gram- matical accent is wholly without influence so far as the rhythmical formation of the classical metres is concerned. My own theory, which goes much further and amounts to this, that the main object of the old poets was to produce as great variation as possible between the poetical rhythm and the grammatical accent, and that in general, 'in the structure of the verse, no regard was had for the accent, but only for the number of syllables, especially for the balancing of monosyllables and polysyllables, still encounters much opposition. My only hope is that after reading the Fifth Secdon, even my most stubborn opponents will acknowledge that this view can be put to excellent use in actual practice. In accordance with the object of this work the Greeks principally considered are Homer, the fragments of the Elegiac, Iambic, and .i:olic poets, as far as they serve to illustrate Homer ; among the tragedians, especially Sophocles ; of the Romans, Vergil, Horace, Ovid, Ph^edrus, Tibullus, and Propertius. Only occasional references are made to Preface to First Edition. the chorus and in general to the lyrical parts of the Greek tragedies, for the following reasons : — In the first place, the criticism and metrical reconstruction of these parts is very uncertain, just as in the cantica of Plautus. Besides, a metrical scheme of these passages is found in all the editions ordinarily used ; and although I have grave doubts about the accepted divisions, still any change in them would be dangerous without a longer argument, and polemical arguments would expand this book beyond its proper limits. Further, I am of the opinion that the teacher should read metrically the lyrical parts of tragedy, and require the same of the students, without lingering too long over the versification. Every teacher will admit that in the reading of a Greek drama in the gymnasia so many other difficult questions must be consid- ered, that only a small portion of time can be given to metrical questions, if the reading of any particular play is to be finished or even carried to any considerable length. It is the object of the gymnasium to develop the under- standing and imagination of the scholars, and to inspire in them a love and appreciation of classical antiquity, but not to make of them philologists or specialists in metre. Therefore I believe that I shall have fulfilled my duty if I succeed in bringing the students to know and understand the ordinary metres of those poets usually read in the gymnasia. I have therefore treated especially of the two most frecpent and noble metres, the Dactylic Hexameter and Iambic Trimeter (together with the Strophes of Horace), with the conviction that one who has thoroughly mastered these measures has already advanced a long way into the knowledge of ancient versification. 8 Preface to First Edition. Just because versification is so often unreasonably neglected, a great part of the charm that poetry afforded to the men of olden time is veiled or wholly taken away from students. Every teacher knows that for most students, until they reach the highest classes in the gymnasium, scanning is a veritable " ^νν/Λ," which has contributed not a little to keep alive the prejudice against classical authors, while in reality the most beautiful creation of the genius of language is the versification of the classic poets which are read in the schools. To produce a love for this versifica- tion and an understanding of it, which may outlive the years of school life, is the purpose of this book. Truly, I must beg for it an indulgent reception. It is not easy in a handbook, which should be at once thoroughly scientific, brief, and generally intelligible, to satisfy all fair demands, not to mention the unfair. The task was all the harder because, although for a long time I have had a lively interest in the practical questions of classical philology as well as in the needs of the gymnasia, still on account of my position I have come but litde into direct touch with these institutions, and so have been deprived of the equally inspiring and manifold impressions produced by daily immediate contact with youth. So much the more grateful ought I to be, that experienced teachers of different countries have assisted me with their advice. They were also, almost without exception, of the opinion that I should treat in only a cursory way of the lyrical parts of the (ireek tragedy. For the rest, perhaps this handbook, though primarily intended for the upper classes in the gymnasia, may prove not unwelcome to many students of philology, even the younger. Preface to First Edition. The introduction is, of course, principally for teachers and philologists. For the part treating of Greek versifi- cation I must ask indulgence, since in the metrical works known to me, even in the excellent book of Christ which I have often used, there is no simple connected statement of the development of Greek versification. For this part, as well . as for the whole book, any corrections or hints of qualified philologists or teachers will be most welcome. L. M. St. Petersburg, January i, 1880. CONTENTS. PAGE Translator's Note 3 Preface to the Second Edition 4 Preface to the First Edtiton 5 INTRODUCTION. Development of Classical Versification. 1. General Remarks 13 2. Greek and Roman VersiHcation compared 14 I. Greek. — 3. Hexameter and Pentameter 15 4. Archilochus 17 5. .ίΈοΗο Lyric Poetry. — Anacreon. Ilipponax. Ananius 17 6. Doric Lyric Poetry 18 7. The Attic Drama 20 8. The Alexandrian and the Later (ireek Poets. — Nonnus 23 II. Roman. — 9. The Earliest Period until Enniiis 24 10. Ennius. Lucilius. Accius ^ . . . . 26 11. Contemporaries of Cicero 28 1 2. Augustan Age 29 13. The First Centuries after Christ 32 14. Antiquarian Tendency in Versification ^3 IIL — 15. Final State of Greek and Roman Versification 34 16. Rhythmical Poetry 36 FIRST SECTION. General Introduction. 1 . Rhythm and Metre 37 2. Long and Short Syllables. Arsis and Thesis 38 3. Verse-feet. Basis. Anacrusis 38 4. Verse 40 5. Cxsura . 10 42 Contents. 1 1 PAGE 6. Final Syllables , 42 7. System. Strophe. Epode 43 8. Punctuation in Verse 43 9. Rhyme. Alliteration 46 SECOND SECTION. On Peculiarities of the Foot. ID. Synapheia 48 1 1. Resolution of Thesis and Arsis 48 THIRD SECTION. Description of the Most Important Metres, Strophes, and Systems. 12. Dactylic Metres 50 13. Anapcestic Metres 55 14. Iambic Metres 57 Iambics of Phuidrus 60 15. Trochaic Metres 62 16. lonici a Minori 64 1 7. Logaoedic Metres 64 18. Asynartete Verse (Mixed Measures) 66 19. The Elegiac Distich (Callinus, Archilochus) 67 20. The I^yric Strophes of Horace 67 21. Epodic Systems ... 71 FOURTH SECTION. On Metrical Licenses. 22. Preface 74 23. Metrical Licenses 74 FIFTH SECTION. On the Rhythmical Structure of the Verse. 24. General Remarks 77 25. Rhythmical Structure of the Hexameter and Pentameter 79 26. Rhythmical Structure of the Remaining Metres 83 SIXTH SECTION. Enclisis and Tmesis. 27. Enclisis 86 28. Tmesis , 87 12 Contents, SEVENTH SECTION. On the Tre.\tment of Siccessive Vowel Sounds. PAGE 29. Synizesis, Diaeresis, Crasis, Elision, Hiatus 89 30. Synizesis in Greek 92 31. Synizesis in Latin 93 32. Dixresis 95 2i2i' Elision 96 34. Elision in Greek. Crasis. Aphairesis 97 35. Elision in Latin 98 36. Differences in Elision in Greek and Latin Verse loi 37. Hiatus 103 38. Hiatus in Greek 104 39. Hiatus in Latin 106 EIGHTH SECTION. LENfiTHENING BY POSITION. 40. General Remarks 108 41. Greek 108 42. Latin 109 NINTH SECTION. Homeric Prosody. 43. Peculiarities of Prosody in Homer 1 1 1 TENTH SECTION. I^TiN Prosody. 44. Peculiarities of Latin Prosody τ • .' ELEVENTH SECTION. Lengthening. 45. Lengthening by the Thesis at the End of a Word 116 46. Greek 116 47. Latin 117 Alphabetical Indix 119 introduction. -00^:0^00- DEVELOPMENT OF CLASSICAL VERSIFICATION. 1. General Remarks. In both Greek and Latin poetry versification depends solely upon the length of the single syllable ; that is, upon the principle of quantity. The versification of the classic peoples developed in precisely the same way as the plastic art of the Greeks, and for the metrical form of language, originality did not appear to the poets to be the most important requirement. Rather was it the rule that when an exceptional genius had discovered the metrical form best adapted to a particular kind of poetry, this should be preserved ; and poets preferred developing in details the approved invention of another, to supplanting it by a new and perhaps less suitable form. Thus the Dactylic Hexameter became, through Homer, the accepted epic verse of all antiquity, and the Iambic Trimeter and the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic, both of which had their origin at the country festivals of the lonians, remained the favorite metres of the dialogue of tragedy and comedy, products also of those same festivals, long after these had developed into artistic poetical form. The younger generation of Athenian tragedians followed the metrical example of the great masters — .^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. For this reason a continuous, though not always equally 13 f -;*>-i ■ ..- ■; . ■(■••'■< 14 Development of Classical Versification. active and intelligent, tradition of metrical art runs throughout antiquity. This was greatly furthered by the guilds of poets formed in the centres of ancient culture, e.g. Athens, Alexan- dria, and Rome ; and again after the time of Alexander the Great, by the care of the grammarians, who not only carefully analyzed the versification of the classical poets, but also kept up uninterrupted intercourse with poets. 2. Greek and Roman Versification compared. If the Greek versification of the classical age, down to the time of Alexander the Great, is compared with the Latin up to Hadrian's time, it will be seen that the (ireek versification is distinguished by originality, boldness, versatility, grace, and variability, in consequence of which characteristics it some- times falls into arbitrary and irregular forms (though the Greek poets, and even Homer himself, are much stricter in their versification than was formerly supposed), while the Latin is distinguished by earnestness, dignity, and strictness of rule, which descends to the minutest detail, as well as by a clear understanding and judicious application of this strictness. This was well suited to the peculiarities of the Latin language, the strong, energetic, and sonorous, but much less rich and variable, sister tongue of the Greek; although, as a result, Latin verse sometimes suffered from monotony, pedantry, and excessive care. In the choice of metres for the different kinds of poetry the Greeks usually surpassed the Romans in taste, as it is generally the case that in the artificial imitation of the metres of another people mistakes in use easily arise. During the classical period of Roman poetry it is especially the polymetrical forms of verse of the contemporaries of Cicero that show uncertainty and misconception in this respect. t Hexameter and Pentameter. 15 I. Greek. 3. Hexameter and Pentameter. The oldest verse measure of a people is naturally κατά στίχον ] that is, it consists of one verse, recurring as often as the poet pleases. The first measure artistically developed among the Greeks was the Dactylic Hexameter. Its inventor, who belonged to the Ionic stock, is unknown.^ The lightness and mobility of the Ionic dialect ; its richness in short syllables ; the possibility of increasing still more the number of these short syllables, by placing long final vowels in a hiatus ; the possibility, on the other hand, of lengthening short vowels by position, or at the close of words by the thesis ; the varying quantity of many syllables, and the substitution of a long syllable for a pyrrhic arsis, — produced the rapid and peculiar development of this metre, of which the oldest repre- sentatives are the Homeric Hymns (about 900 r.c.) and the poems of Hesiod, and of the Homeric and Hesiodic school (about 800 B.C.). Monotony of rhythm in the Hexameter is avoided by the change from dactyl to spondee, and by the different caesuras. This metre continued to hold its place in general popularity, and, until the end of the Middle Ages, was used in the most different kinds of poetry. Sanctioned by the authority of the Homeric poems, it influenced not only the dactylic measures, but also the other different metres. Still the authority of * The ancients frequently confuse the inventor of a measure with the poet \vho first introduced it in literature, and so metres are often named, not after their inventors, but after the poet by whom they were most frequently employed. i6 Development of Classical Versification. Homer stood very much in the way of the proper development of the Hexameter from a popular to an artistic form, because in later times Homer's metrical rules and licenses were partially imitated, while the hnguistic phenomena which occasioned them were in large part not understood ; e.g, there was no knowledge of the digamma ceolicum as used by Homer, The evil became still worse in this respect, that the Alexandrian poets evolved from misunderstood passages in Homer a mass of absurd rules or exceptions, as e.g. the hypermetric Hexameter, and a new metre, the Hexameter viyurus : — Their theories in turn served as models for the Greek and Roman poets. The Pentameter was produced by repeating the first half of the Hexameter as far as the penthemimeral caesura. Hexam- eter and Pentameter together formed the first verse system, the Distich, which appears for the first time in the work of the Ionic poets Calhnus and Archilochus (about 700 B.C.). Through this change of metre the verse itself became more lively and passionate than in the unvarying Hexameter, and consequently the Distich resulted in giving more room for the subjectivity of the poet, and paved the way for lyric poetry. The Distich was the beginning of strophic forms, and it shows already the harmonious and artistic finish which every strophe of the Golden Age of Greek literature has, even if, in the strophes of the Doric lyric poets and the dramatists, the difficulty of their formation and the great corruption of the text often prevent us from completely appreciating the skill displayed in their composition. fi^'l . ^olic Lyric Poetry. 17 4. Archilochus. From early times it had been customary at harvest festivals and vintage time to recite or sing songs of a joking or mock- ing sort, usually written in alternate form, in which Iambic and Trochaic metres were employed. In these measures the thesis was not fixed, but could be resolved ; and in certain positions of the arsis a short vowel could be replaced at pleas- ure by a long. These metres came forth from obscurity into use at about the same time as the Distich, through the poems of one of the greatest artists of antiquity, — Archilochus of Paros, — who with perfect artistic knowledge used the Iambic Trimeter and Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic in their greatest beauty. He also employed various iambic and dactylic metres, dactyls with anacrusis, asynartetic verses, made up by a combi- nation of dactylic and iambic or trochaic measures. At the same time he developed tlie Epodic System, particularly by a union of iambic trimeters and dimeters, but also from dactylic or asynartetic and iambic (probably also trochaic) verses, and vice versa. 5. .aiolic Lyric Poetry. — Anacreon. Hippouax. Auanius. After Archilochus Greek versification made very rapid prog- ress. Among those especially influential in its development were the Mo\\q, poets Alcaeus and Sappho (about 600 d.c), who were the first to compose real strophes, consisting usually of two or four verses, of which two at least were alike, so that the metrical elements of the corresponding verses of the strophes were in general quite alike, except for single licenses in the basis, anacrusis, or middle of the verse. These poets seldom employed purely dactylic verse either in strophic or non-strophic poems, but more frequently such verse preceded 1 8 Development of Classical Versification. by a dissyllabic beat of any quantity, even pyrrhic, — seldom iambic or trochaic, — apparently without a resolution of the thesis, but especially logauedic, ionici a minori (sometimes also a majori, in combination with trochees), asynartetic measures, and mixed metres in great variety. The most remarkable of their strophes are the Sapphic, Alcaic, and Asclepiadean. The .^olic poets exercised great influence, especially on the Alexandrians and the Romans; e.g, the metre invented by Sappho, but named hendecasyllabiis pha- IcEcius, after an Alexandrian poet, was very often employed by both. Anacreon, an Ionian of Teos (about 550 B.C.), stands about midway between the versification of Archilochus and that of Alcieus and Sappho. The effeminacy of his nature appears especially in his frequent use of io?iici a minori, Glyconics, and the Anacreontic measures, named after himself. On the other hand, in other fragments, he appears as numeros ani- mosque seciitus Archilochi. In the formation of systems or strophes he was very fond of using Glyconic and Pherecratean measures. The spurious collection of poems which goes under his name is of no consequence in the discussion of his metrical forms. At about this same time the lonians Hipponax and Ananius gave to the Iambic Trimeter and Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic a new form by changing, in a curious way, the last iambus into a spondee, accented on the second syllable like the original iambus. These "limping iambics" found great favor among the Alexandrians and Romans. 6. Doric Lyric Poetry. The freest and boldest development of Greek lyric poetry took place among the Dorians. While the J^o\\c and Ionic Doric Lyric Poetry. 19 lyrics were intended primarily to be rendered by soloists, the Dorians wrote their songs principally to be sung by the chorus on sacred or holiday occasions, so that one of these poets, Stesichorus, is said to have derived his name from this custom. The Doric (like the dramatic) lyrical poetry preferred in general strophes of five or more verses, seldom over twenty, skilfully combined out of metres differing both in compass and component parts. In this \vay it happened that two or three shorter verses, or parts of verses, were united into one verse (Periods). The antistrophe corresponds exactly to the strophe. After the time of Stesichorus the antistrophe was often followed by the epode, to which the following epodes must exactly correspond. In contrast with the vivacity of the lonians and the passion of the Cohans, the lyric poetry of the Dorians is character- ized by earnestness, dignity, and calm in a degree appropriate to its object. Alcman is considered the father of Doric lyric poetry (about 612 B.C.). He was followed by Stesichorus, Arion, Ibycus, Simonides, Bacchylides, and finally Pindar about 480 B.C., the only Doric lyric poet from whom complete poems have come down to us. The last offshoot of Greek lyric poetry is the Dithyramb, originating in the worship of Bacchus, and characterized by the boldness and variety of its metres. It was introduced into literature by Arion (about 600 B.C.). Although this metre also was at first antistrophic, after the year 400 B.C. the antistrophe fell away, and in consequence of this the Dithyramb degenerated into such looseness that by the irregularity of its structure it seems to have passed 20 Dcvdofvicnt of Classical Versification, from the highest point of thought and metre into mere prose. „ 7. The Attic Drama. The drama that has developed out of the songs and dances of country festivals is a combination of epic and lyr,c poetry of such a kind that the dialogue parts repre- senting the action of the play form the epic element ; and the songs of the chorus or of individual members of the chorus or of the actors, the lyrical. . In a corresponding way, as regards the metres, the d,a- loc^ue is usually written in iambic or trochaic verses (especially iambic trimeter, more rarely trochaic tetrameter catalect.c in comedy frequently in iambic tetrameter catalect.c) ; and the songs in lyric metres, partly those used by the earher Ivric poets, and partly new and free inventions of the dramatists appropriate to the situation. Excellent evidence to show how the dramatists regarded the harmony and adaptation of the metre is found m thetr Stichomythy ; that is, the frequent cases where question and answer correspond with each other exactly in compass (usually one verse, sometimes two or more). The songs of the whole chorus which enters when the action has reached a point of rest or change, and also marks the end of an act, are characterized by the calmness and dignity of the rhythm. The songs of the individual members of the chorus and the actors show more liveliness, excitement, and variation, especially in Euripides, and fre- quently lack the antistrophic form (dTroXeXv^cVa). The metrical style of ^:schylus is strict and regular, some- times even harsh and rigid. The versification of Euripides is free and graceful, though often careless and arbitrary, or show- ing a striving after effect. These faults are particulariy con- The Attic Dra^na. 21 spicuous in the lyrical parts, however much they may please us by the change of measures and variety of rhythm. Sophocles stands, in respect to metre, midway between the two ; but, in general with the year 424 B.C., the metre of the tragedians becomes freer and lesi exact, as is shown by the Philoctetes of Sophocles and the later dramas of Euripides. Euripides, who differs strikingly in the metres of the dia- logue, and still more in the lyrical parts, from his prede- cessors, has had the greatest influence upon the later writers of Attic tragedy. Among the comedians, Aristophanes far surpassed all others in wealth of expression, skill, and tasteful employment of met- rical forms, and was for this reason ranked by antiquity with Archilochus. It goes without saying that the versification of tragedy is distinguished from that of comedy by its greater force and dignity, while the rhythm of comedy is gayer and freer. This fact is apparent not only in the choruses but also in the dialogue, and particularly noticeable in the ready admission of anap^sts in all the feet of the comic trimeter except the last. The epode rarely occurs in tragedy, and not always, as in the lyrical poetry of the Dorians, after one pair of strophes, but even after two or three, though without epodic correspondence taking place, as in Pindar. The dramatists were very fond of the anapaestic metre, which had been used in marching-songs by the Spartans from earliest times. It was often employed, partly in cho- ruses, especially where there was some movement of the chorus or announcement by the leader of the chorus, and partly in the songs of the actors, particularly where these expressed sorrow or complaint. :,-:i;^m-^m'.^m^:':J^ 22 Development of Classical Versification. The anapsstic system consists of dimeters interspersed with monometers, and forms usually the close of the cata- lectic dimeter (x'ersus paroemiacus^.-W.^ catalectic tetra- meter was used only in comedy. The lyrical portions, especially the strophes and anti- strophes, show the same variety of metres as the Doric lyric poetry. Along with iambic and trochaic rhythms, which are used with peculiar licenses in the resolution of the thesis, neglect of the cKSura, suppression of the arsis, etc., which are not allowed in the dialogues, we find also dactylic measures, often with anacrusis, epitrites, cretics, pKons, iouici a viinori (not a majori), dactylo-trochees, seldom dactylo-epitntes, bacchics, and other verses. The dochmiac rhythm deserves special mention, of which the original forms, as well as the most usual, are these ; — _il w w _ w -^ From this were developed numerous other forms by reso- lution of the theses and by replacing the short syllable preceding the last by a long. The dochmiac measure is sometimes combined with the cretic and trochaic, seldom with the bacchic and logaoedic, and most frecpiently with the iambic. It occurs rarely in the comedians, and still more rarely among the Dorians, but very frequently in tragedy, especially to express com- plaint and pain. Among the logaoedic verses, the favorite metres were the Glyconic and Pherecratean, partly in the stricter form of Anacreon, partly in the manner of the Dorians (with great freedom in the structure of the basis), and partly, after '»ίϊΒΓί=::Ί7ϊ Alexandrian and Later Greek Poets. 23 Sophocles, with transposition of the dactyl in polyschematic form. Not infrequently, as among the Dorians, shorter verses, or parts of verses, were united to form a longer verse or period. In the fourth century the choral lyrical part of tragedy degenerated, in the same way as the dithyramb, into loose- ness and trifling (illustrated by Chieremon) ; the Middle and New Comedy lacked the chorus, although not the lyric measures. 8. The Alexandrian and the Later Greek Poets.— Nonnus. The independent development of Greek versification ex- tends to about the age of Alexander the Great (330 n.c). In the following, so-called Alexandrian (330-30 B.C.), as well as in the Roman and Byzantine periods, hardly any addition was made to the previous stock of metres. The Sotadeus, indeed, ±JL^kj JLjLkjkj -^-^ww / / was an invention of the Alexandrians; but in point of fact the old Greeks had created such an astonishing number of different sorts of metres, systems, and strophes, that any increase was scarcely possible. The later Greeks restricted this metrical wealth, since in general they limited themselves to a comparatively small number of metres and short systems or strophes, and usually imitated in a mechanical way the Ionic and MoXxc poets. Poetry written κατά στίχον predominated, just as it did among the Romans after Augustus, and in this manner the Greeks as well as the Romans often employed verses which previously had formed parts of a system. 24 Development of Classical Versification. A marked peculiarity of the Alexandrian and later poets was the tendency towards artificial verses, the most remark- able examples of which are found in the poems of Simmias, Dosiadas, and Besantinus (Anthologia Lyrica, ed. Bergk p. 511 sqq.)• Another peculiarity was a great, and often pedantic and affected, carefulness in the structure of their favorite metres, in which attempt they were powerfully assisted by the grammarians, and, in fact, often led astray by their false theories. Almost at the end of Greek literature in the fifth century A.D., probably under the influence of Roman versification, Nonnus wrote hexameter verse of remarkable strictness and consistency, though not always with success, inasmuch as he had a decided preference for the dactyl (always in the fifth foot), made the το\ί.)] κατά τρίτον τροχαΐον the rulmg pause, avoided a word-end in the fourth trochee, introduced once more the strict rules of position, greaUy limited cases of elision, and still more cases of hiatus, and gave up length- ening short final syllables in the thesis. Though the next succeeding poets followed his example, Nonnus lived too late to effect any thorough reform in Greek versification. While music and dancing or rhythmical movements of the body were inseparable from the lyrical poetry of the old Greeks, after the Alexandrian period versification and music were sharply distinguished. The later Greek poets, even the dramatists, intended their works principally for reading or recitation without musical accompaniment. II. Roman. 9. The Earliest Period until Ennius. The oldest metre of the Romans was the Saturnian, T/ie Earliest Period nntil Ennius. 25 whose original form was made up by combining an iambic and trochaic series : — KJ malum dabunt Metelli Naevio poetae. This verse, which in course of time became confused on account of neglect of the caesura and frequent suppression of the third, and especially the sixth, arsis, could not, after the Punic wars, satisfy the artistic feeling of the Romans. It vanished with Nievius (died about 200 B.C.), although it was occasionally employed by later poets, like Accius, Varro, and Terentianus Maurus, in learned imitation of their predecessors. Since on occasions of public and private festivity, the ludi sccenici were presented as well as the ludi circenses, Livius Andronicus (after 240 B.C.), and his successors in tragedy and comedy, — Naevius, Plautus, Terence, Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, and others, — appropriated the scenic metres of the Greek drama, iambic, trochaic, anapaestic, cretic, bacchic, occasionally also dactylic, yet with the greatest licenses; as e.g. the short arsis in iambics and trochees could always be lengthened, except in the last iambic foot. In the resolution of the thesis and arsis, in the use of elision and synizesis, and in other respects, they often transgressed the rules. Further, in prosody they made use of many irregularities, occasioned by the archaic or plebeian pronunciation of the Latin language which had been so long neglected. In the dialogue parts the Romans, like the Greeks, used principally the iambic trimeter and trochaic tetrameter catalectic, and in comedy the iambic tetrameter catalectic also. These metres attained a comparatively high degree 20 Development of Classical Versificatioii. of finish, while the other iambic and trochaic metres, still more the cretic and bacchic, and the anapcestic most of all, remained in a very rude stage of development. There was no chorus in Latin drama until the time of Augustus, but there were lyrical passages (lantica) sung by the actors, which were usually written in anapaestic, cretic, and bacchic metres. In general the old dramatists, up to the end of the Republic, and particularly after the year 150 B.C., influenced by the contemporaneous dactylic poets, show a continual effort after a greater development of their art. On the other hand, the number of their metres steadily decreased, as is shown by a comparison of Plautus and Terence, so that finally the principal metres employed in the drama were the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetrameter catalectic, which were universally popular. The last representative of the old iambic versification was the fabulist Phc^drus (about 50 a.d.), who, in view of the Proverbs of Syrus, then much in vogue, admitted in his own fables, which were also devoted to ethical purposes, the spondee in the even feet of the iambic trimeter, but elsewhere showed almost nothing of the peculiarities of Plautus and Terence. Iambic and trochaic poetry, with the same free use of the spondee, appears occasionally in the antiquarian period of the Frontonians (about 150 a.d.) and at the end of Roman literature, in consequence of the increasing decadence of culture. 10. Ennius, Lucilius. Accius. As there was some reason to fear that the Latin language would again degenerate into the rudeness of the Saturnian verse through the irregularity of the dramatic metres and prosody, great credit is due to Ennius (239-169 b.c.) for I Ennius. Lucilins, Aecins. 27 his introduction of the dactylic hexameter, imitated with care and general good taste from Homer, Resolution of the thesis was excluded from Ennius' hexameter, and he adhered as closely as possible to the model of the Greeks in matters of prosody, as the prosody of Latin had been originally homogeneous with that of Greek, and had degenerated only after the lapse of time. Ennius still retained the original long quantity of the final syllables in a/, et, it (2d pers. as, es, is), as well as the contem- poraneous dramatists. Further, Ennius employed in his Satires the elegiac distich, besides the most common metres of the dramatists, the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetrameter catalectic, and finally, in imitation of the Alexan- drians, the wonderful Sotadic measure, though with various licenses. Although there are cases of harshness, the great majority of Ennius' hexameters are of remarkable beauty, because of the evident genius of the poet, who e.(^. has far fewer cases of eUsion in the Annates than any poet of the Republic, and also because of his rich and comprehensive knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Oscan ; but above all, because of the fact that Roman versification already before Ennius had followed the quantitative principle exclusively, so that he had only to remove the abuses of prosody which had crept in during the rude state of the language between 350 and 250 B.C. It is quite evident that Ennius attempted to direct the attention of Roman poets to the strictness and consistency of the metrical art. He exercised an immense influence over all later writers, the more so because, until Vergil's time, his much-praised epic, the Annates, was the most popular glorification of the heroic deeds of the old Romans. ■-■*.;'»¥ aTv r' 28 Development of Classical Versification. Next followed the satirist Lucilius, who employed the hexameter principally, besides the other metres used by Ennius, in his Satires, though he disdained the Sotadic. He marks an advance in metrical art, although there is no lack of harsh usages w^iich are partially excused by the light colloquial tone of satire. Accius, in his non-dramatic poetry, followed the metrical principles of Ennius. 11. Contemporaries of Cicero. Until the time of Cicero the dactylic poets contented themselves with the metres employed by Ennius; but they zealously furthered their artistic development. The most perfect example of this effort is the poem of Lucretius, composed correcdy and according to rule, but without grace and variety of rhythm. The younger contemporaries of Cicero, led by Laevius, like Catullus, Calvus, and others, disdained that simplicity, and introduced into Roman poetry a great number of metres, mostly or wholly borrowed from the Alexandrians, and which they used in general with great skill. Of course the hexameter was not neglected (cf. Varro Atacinus), but the distich remained undeveloped. Catullus was the first among the Romans to show attention to the .^olic poetry, by imitating Sappho. It is possible also that he was somewhat influenced by Anacreon. The Horatian epode was not unknown to this period; on the contrary, in imita- tion of the Alexandrians, poets already formed iambic and trochaic metres of various kinds according to the strict metrical laws of the Greeks ; indeed, pure iambic lines with complete exclusion of every other foot. Hipponactean Iambics and Hendecasyllabic PhaLxceans were particular favorites. Augustan Age. 29 Between Lucretius and Catullus, beside Lsevius, stood Varro Reatinus, who shows in his Satires, in imitation of the Alexandrians, great skill together with great variety of versification. He also employed iambic, trochaic, and Sotadic verses with the freedom of Ennius and Lucilius. The verse-systems found in Catullus are the two-lined Asclepiadean, the four-lined Sapphic, and two Glyconics closing with a Pherecratean, one four-lined, and one con- sisting of three and two lines. Catullus' versification had imitators and friends even in the Augustan Age, and in the first century a.d. His great variety of metres did not meet with general approval. Ί he Phaleecean continued to be popular until the end of Roman literature, and the Hipponactean until the time of Trajan, though both were more strictly treated. 12, Augustan Age. The age of Augustus (40 h.c. to 14 a.d.) brought the development of Roman metre to a close. The hexameter was brought to its highest perfection by Ver-il and Ovid. Vergil, indeed, believed that he could not wholly eliminate the licenses which the older Romans, especially Ennius, had allowed in respect to the rhythm>cal laws of the hexameter, harsh elision and hiatus, synizesis, lengthening of a final syllable in the thesis, etc. But he used them rarely and moderately, usually only to pamt the situation by the rhythm of the verse, -an art in wh.ch he is a master. Unfortunately, his versification is sometimes disfigured by a pedantic imitation of the Alexandrian philologists where they had misunderstood Homeric verses. Ovid diminished still more the number of licenses wh.ch Vergil had allowed, so that, although the hexameters of the ^o Development of Classical Versification. Metamorphoses are somewhat freer than the elegiacs, his verses, considered singly, are the most beautiful models of harmony and metrical skill. If read for any length of time, however, they grow tire- some because of their too great similarity, especially as Ovid comparatively seldom makes use of that rhythmical portraiture in which Vergil was so skilful. In the hexameter of Satire, which was distinguished from the prose language of the educated only by its metre, Horace preserved the licenses of Lucilius, but lessened his harshness. The verse of the Epistles, especially of the second book, is considerably more polished than that of the Satires. As would be expected in this sort of poetry, the licenses borrowed from the Greeks by poets of the higher style, e.g. hiatus and a spondee in the fifth foot, are almost wholly avoided. The distich also, which in Catullus still appeared rude, was perfected by Tibullus, by Propertius in his later works, and particularly by Ovid, although the latter, in the works written during his exile, dropped something of the metrical strictness shown in his erotic poetry. Horace introduced the epodic versification of Archilochus into Roman poetry, and also the lyrical measures of the ^olic poets Alcaeus and Sappho. Archilochus and Ana- creon also may have had some influence on the versification of the Odes. It is not certain whether the two metres not met with in Greek (Od. I. 8; Ep. 13), were invented by Horace or not ; also whether the division of the strophes into four lines, which is the universal rule in the Odes, — for Od. IV. 8 is interpolated, — was borrowed from Alcaeus or not. In general, we are in the dark about the origin of many Augustan Age. 31 of the strophes of Horace, on account of the loss of his Greek models and the contradictory statements of the Latin grammarians. On the other hand, Horace paid full regard to the spirit of the Latin language, partly by setting aside, and partly by reducing to a very small number, those licenses which the ^olic poets had allowed themselves in respect to csesura and syllaba anceps, and conseciuently his metres became more equal and dignified. Thus, for instance, the Asclepiads and the eleven-syllabled Alcaics and Sapphics received a firmly fixed caesura. In the Asclepiads the basis was always a spondee, and the Alcaic and Sapphic verses had a spondee always before the caesura. Still Horace has more cases of elision in his lyrical measures than the tragedian Seneca, and further allows monosyllabic conjunc- tions and prepositions at the caesura and at the end of the verse, contrary to Seneca's usage. No advance was ever made by the Romans beyond the lyrical versification of Horace. The attempt, condemned by Horace, but made by his contemporaries, to imitate the Odes of Pindar, found no sympathy. In the time of Augustus, tragedy, which had been zeal- ously cultivated in opposition to comedy, was emancipated from the metrical traditions of the Republic, and its iambics and trochaics were constructed according to the model of the Greek tragedians, and the rule adopted from the Alex- andrians, that the foot preceding the last iambus in the iambic trimeter and trochaic tetrameter catalectic must necessarily be a spondee or an anapaest. In general, much greater freedom was allowed the anapaest in iambic trimeter in Latin tragedy than in Greek. At the same time the chorus was introduced, — that is, in the manner of Euripides, — 32 Dcvclopiiicnt of Classical Versification. with a loose relation to the action of the drama from which was taken only a point of departure for general descrip- tions and reflections. In these choruses anapaestic mono- meters were employed in a most unartistic manner, besides the dactylic and logaoedic metres illustrated in Seneca. 13. The First Centuries after Christ. The first century after Christ, until Hadrian (117), represents the Alexandrian period of Roman versification. No further enrichment was made, and there were but few attempts to employ a great number of metres. Poets con- tented themselves with a consistent and tasteful though not infrequently pedantic improvement of the metres already in use. The grammarians were responsible for many false expla- nations of the metrical peculiarities of Vergil, who was studied with equal zeal, and enjoyed the same authority among the Romans as Homer among the Greeks, although their erroneous theories exercised little influence over the better poets even to the end of the fourth century, as is shown by Claudianus and Rutilius Namatianus in the time of Honorius. Moreover, it was unfortunate that the taste for the four-lined strophes of Horace, with the exception of the ever-popular Sapphic, disappeared so quickly, as the choruses of Seneca prove. Instead, poets began to use the lyrical measures of Horace in poetry written κατά στίχον. In a very peculiar manner Seneca, in two tragedies (Agamemnon and CEdipus), combined freer chorus songs out of the short verses or portions of verses of Horace. In the last centuries this custom of making new verses out of pnrts of Horatian metres became more common. In other respects the metrical art was very carefully developed ? Antiquana7i Tende7tcy in Versification. 33 in the most minute details, so that licenses which were common in the Augustan poets became rare, and those which were infrequent in the Augustan poetry were almost unknown. The post-Augustan poets generally took Vergil and Ovid for their models, but gave the most weight to Ovid's example. For as his distich was the pattern for most of them, so his influence was very considerable on the form of the other dactylic and logaoedic metres. In other lines Horace's lyrical and satirical metres were models. Remark has already been made about Catullus' influence (cf. 11). Here, too, must be mentioned that tendency, noticed already among the later Greeks, towards playing with words and affectations, which became stronger and stronger, the more the want of real substance in poetry was felt. The most remarkable example, unique in its kind, of this tendency is the poetry of Porfyrius Optatianus (about 14. Antiquarian Tendency in Versification. After the time of Hadrian and Fronto an antiquarian tendency made its influence felt in Roman poetry, to- gether with the steady imitation of Augustan versification, so that occasionally not only iambic and trochaic verses were written with the metrical (not prosodical) licenses of Plautus, but also poets returned to the metrical variety of Laevius and Catullus, as is seen in Septimius Serenus and Terentianus Maurus, poets of the third century. Their example was followed by the Christian writers after the fourth century, although they also employed the verses of Horace in their poetry. 34 Dcvelopmoit of Classical Versification. Final State of Greek and Ro7nan Versificatiofi. 35 III. 15. Final State of Greek and Roman Versification. The state of both Greek and Roman versification after the third century is so nearly the same that the subject can be treated as one. In both languages the most common metres continued to be the dactylic hexameter and pentameter, as well as various iambic and trochaic verses ; in Greek the iambic trimeter, in Latin the trochaic tetrameter catalectic and the iambic dimeter, partly κατά στίχον, pardy in strophes. As is shown by the latest ancient and by the mediaeval Greek and Roman poets, all appreciation of the strophe which, in ancient times, had represented the harmonious combination of different verses into one artistic whole, had vanished. All combinations of like or unlike verses, repeated in the same succession of verses and in the same numbers, if only they had a decided stop at the end, were considered as strophes. Such " strophes " were especially used for religious purposes (Christian hymns). In the structure of these hymns, among the Greeks after Gregorius Nazianzenus (360), the most serviceable metre was the iambic trimeter, and sometimes the catalectic iambic dimeter and Anacreontics : among the Romans the most used metres were the iambic dimeter and the catalectic trochaic tetrameter. At this same time men began to lose the exact appreci- ation of the peculiar appropriateness of each metre. From the third century Roman poets (Alfius Avitus, and later Festus Avienus) had employed iambic metres in epic representation, and the same thing was done in Greek in the seventh century by Georgius Pisides. On the other hand, after the same date, Latin tragedies (Medea and Orestes) had been written in hexameter. So, too, in lyric poetry litde taste was shown in the choice of metres, as we see in the case of Ausonius and Prudentius about 400 A.D. When after the third century thorough culture and, together with that, the appreciation of language declined, the erroneous theories of the grammarians exercised con- tinually greater influence on the ancient versification, and, further, many Roman poets, especially the Christians, began to neglect quantities, at first in proper names, particularly Greek, or in long words which were unsuited to the verse. This became much worse in the Middle Ages, though here, too, the poets were very different according to their time and training. Among the Greeks the laws of prosody were more strictly enforced. But the Byzantine poets, even the best of them after Georgius Pisides, allowed themselves to make the letters a, t, υ, which have not different forms for long and short, either long or short, except when length- ened by a strong position; η and ω and the diphthongs were always long, c and ο short, when a single consonant followed, and frequently when in weak position. Proper names and technical terms were treated very freely. The extinction of the old spirit of the language was shown in this fact that many Christian poets of Rome allowed no resolu- tion of the thesis in iambic and trochaic feet, and in general avoided trisyllabic feet, as was the rule among the Greeks after Georgius Pisides. Nevertheless, the quantitative poetry of the Middle Ages was stricdy separated in the consciousness of the poets from the rhythmical. A remarkable proof of this lies in the fact that the Byzantine poets who observed the principle ■11 36 Develofvient of Classical Versification. of quantity, when writing in iambics, always had a paroxy- tone word at the end of the trimeter. They wished thus to show that their verse took no account of grammatical accent, but rather that in the manner of the ancients the rhythmical accent differed as much as possible from the grammatical. 16. Rhythmical Poetry. On account of the extinction of the appreciation of long and short syllables, there was developed among the Romans after the third century, and among the Greeks in the first half of the Middle Ages when not earlier, the so-called rhythmical poetry, which, being steadily emancipated from the niles of prosody, though at first observing rhythmical laws, led naturally to the observance of the grammatical accent in certain cases, and restored, in Latin, beside the dactylic hexameter, generally popular iambic and trochaic metres, especially the iambic dimeter and catalectic trochaic tetrameter ; in Greek it restored the iambicus septenarius, which had always been popular, the so-called versus politicusy which always consisted of fifteen syllables. This metre was very common among the educated also after the twelfth century. In this, as in the rhythmical verses of the Romans, the caesura was generally retained {e.g. in the versus politicus after the fourth thesis) , just as was usual in metrical poetry. The same remarks apply to the strophes of rhyth- mical poetry that were made above, about the metrical strophes of the end of antiquity and of the Middle Ages. The last thing to be noticed is, that in most of the Greek and Latin poets of the Middle Ages all apprecia- tion of the difference between poetic and prosaic produc- tions was lost. Everything possible was written in verse, even such themes as he farthest distant from real poetry. FIRST SECTION. -ooJO^o-o- GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 1. Rhythm and Metre. The euphony of the classical languages depends, in prose, upon the Rhythm {numerus)-, that is, upon a grouping of the words of the sentence, especially at its beginning and end, which is harmonious and pleasing to the ear. In poetry it depends upon the Metre; that is, the artistic combination of long and short syllables in verse, system, or strophe. In olden times, in the structure of verse, the principle of quantity was the only one considered ; that is, the words making up the verse were measured according to the length of their vowels. The prose accent, as well as the logical importance of the words, or parts of words, was not taken into consideration. The combination of a raising and a lowering of the voice forms the verse- foot. The poets, too, followed the rules of rhythm partly by causing the accentuation of the verse-feet to vary as much as possible from the prose pronunciation of the words, partly by harmoniously joining the parts of the verse so that the compass of the individual words might differ as much as possible from that of the single verse-feet, and 37 38 General Introduction, partly by using at the end of each metrical series — as well of the divisions of the verse caused by the caesura as at the end of every artificial combination of verse-feet — the kind of verse-foot peculiar to this end. 2. Long and Short Syllables. Arsis and Thesis. Every vowel of a Greek or Latin word has an exact time {yjiovo%, tempus), and is either long or short, — with the exception of those cases, rare in prose, but more common in poetry, where the same vowel can be at the same time either long or short. A vowel is either long by nature or it is regarded as long on account of its position before two or more con- sonants. In versification, one long is equivalent to two short syllables. ^ i^^^' A cojnpleie verserfpot has at least one raising (^%?37τ) and one lowering i^Arsn) of tone, produced by a greater or less stress of the voice. The Tfeesis^is always long,.jxcept when it is resolved into two short syllables. The -AfSis is sometimes short, sometimes long. To scan is to read the verse according to the Thesis and Arsis. 3. Verse-feet. Basis. Anacrusis. The most common combinations of syllables, or verse- feet, are the following : — • ί \j w \J Pyrrhic legt t Trochee t^gi^ I \j Iambus du ces ^ | , Spondee legt I j I \j \j \j \j \J \j \j — \j \j \j \j \j \j ^j ^^ \j \j \j \j \j \j \j \j — \J \j \j \j — \j \j — — \j \j \j \j — \j \J Verse-feet, . Tribrach /egt te Γ ι | . Dactyl legi mus ι \ Γ . Anapcest legerent Γι i 39 A 1--U 1. S {supern^'m\Mcx^\ . Amphibrachus< ^ Λ, _ ^ r••• I ego ne ) } Γ Bacchius -| Antibacchius ( Palimbacchius {Antibacchius Palimbacchius Bacchius J Cretic ) ( Amphimacer j am teas legt sits ^ Ρ ^ err ^ ' f consules Molossus legerunt Γ Φ Φ Φ φ φ φ φ φ ! ι ι φ φ Φ Φ φ φ - Φ Φ . . Proceleusmaticus . . αηιηιύΐα .. V^ovi primus cdnsulibus . . Pieon secundus. . . . legenttbus ,w - - - Φ i . . Paeon tertius legitote Γ 1 Φ Φ Φ . . Paeon qiiartus ttinert Γ Ι I .. Ionic a minori reiultssent \\ | . . Ionic a majori confecerat Γ Γ LJ .. Choriambus contulerant Γ LJ .. Antispast legebarts t' Γ 1 ---— {Schot:} ^om,„a,r ^^^f^ ^ _ ^ Diiambus legam tnt L/lL' ^ First Epitrite relegeruni J | | _ ^ Second Epitrite eltgebant | ^ j ^ Third Epitrite selegertni | ( i^ ^ Fourth Epitrite collegtstis Dispondee seltgeruni ^ ^ _ Dochmius am'tcos ienes ^ [ I Φ Φ Φ φ Φ Φ '>3 .Q General Introduction. The combination of two feet is called a Dipody. Iambic, Trochaic, and AnapKstic verse, but not the Dactylic, is measured by Dipodies. The Iambic verse, contaimng six feet is therefore called a Trimeter. The greatest stress of the metrical Ictus is laid upon the first part of the Dipody, consequently on the odd feet. Basis is the term applied by later writers on metre to the dissyllabic prelude at the beginning of Phatecean, Phere- cratean, Asclepiadean, and other verses, which in Greek poetry consists of a Trochee, Spondee, Iambus, or Pyrrhic. Anacrusis is the name given to the monosyllabic prelude before the first thesis of the Alcaic Hendecasyllabic and Enneasyllabic, and other verses. This syllable is either long or short. 4. Verse. A Verse is a metrical series consisting of like or different feet, which, however, are not combined arbitrarily or mechani- cally, but according to the law of Symmetry and Euphony, as it presents itself to the artistic sense of the poet. A Verse must not number over thirty morce (a mora^ is the unit of measure, the time of one short syllable, a J in music) ; although in lyric poetry and in the choruses of the Greek drama there are found longer combinations, so-called Periods, of which no account is taken in the following pages. The metrical correctness of a verse — that is, the correct quantity of the syllables, the strict exclusion of all illegitimate feet — was a matter of course in the old poets until the degeneration of Latin and Greek literature; but metrical con-ectness by no means makes a verse a work of art, and it becomes such only by an exact keeping of the laws of rhythm, especially at the close of a metrical series. More- Verse. 41 111 f over, a longer verse needs at least one definite division (Caesura), which allows the voice to rest, and divides the verse symmetrically and harmoniously. Again, it is a law of euphony that the same letter must not recur too frequently in the same verse, as in Ennius : — Ο Tite tute tibi tanta tyranne tulisti. Just as much to be avoided are words of the same number of syllables, or those which are too long, as in Ennius and Namatianus : — sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret. Bellerophonteis soUicitudinibus. On the contrary, there must be a proper mingling of longer and shorter words. A verse of which the last foot is incomplete is called Catalectic, If this incomplete foot contains one syllable, it is called Catalecticus in syllabam; if two, Catalecticus in disyllabum, A verse can be called Hypercatalectic if it has one or two arses after the last complete foot. A verse is called Simple if it consists of like feet; Compound, if it consists of unlike feet. A verse in which Dactyls and Trochees are used together is called Logaoedic, Verses made up of two different metrical series are called Asynartete. At the end of the first series hiatus and syllaba anceps are generally allowed. In view of the great artistic taste of the Greeks and Romans, and the highly finished state of their languages, it can be assumed that their most usual verse-feet were also the most perfect. As such, the Dactylic Hexameter ! Gefieral Introduction. and Pentameter, the Iambic Trimeter, the Trochaic Tetra- meter Catalectic, the Anapsstic Dimeter and Tetrameter Catalectic, the Glyconic and Asclepiade» measures, and the Alcaic and Sapphic Strophes, are especially remarkable. 5. Caesura. In order to give the voice a rest, verses of more than ten syllables have usually one or two divisions (Ccesura, τομ,); but this rest or pause is shorter than at the end of the verse. Sometimes there is besides the Primary Cssura a Secondary C^sura, as e.g. in the Dactylic Hexameter we find the Tnthe- mimeres (caesura after the third half-foot), together with the Hephthemimens (cssura after the seventh half-foot). The division of the parts of the verse by the cssura is not accidental or mechanical, but depends upon the law of Symmetry and Euphony. Hence it often happens that the parts of the verse made by the c^sura (also called «Metncal Series") elsewhere appear as independent verses. This is also further explained by the fact that the caesura usually occurs about in the middle of the verse. The original metre is frequendy cut in two by the c^sura. So ec- the Penthemimeral and Hephthemimeral caesuras m the Dactylic Hexameter fall upon an Anap^st ; in the lamb.c Trimeter, upon a Trochee. The greatest stress of the met- rical ictus rests on the first half of the verse as far as the csesura. , „ ,, . , _ 6. Pinal Syllables. The Final Syllable of the verse is common; that is, it can be either long or short. Compare 10. For this syllable the law of Hiatus is not bmdmg. Elision and the Apostrophe are not allowed at the end of the verse except when several verses are united by Synapheia. In this System, Strophe, and Epode. 43 ί case neither Syllaba Anceps nor Hiatus is admitted; but Elision, and sometimes the division of a word at the end of the verse, occur> Compare 10. For the so-called Hexametri hypermetri, compare 36. 7. System. Strophe. Epode. A System is the combination of two or more verses so as to form an artistic rhythmical unity. Such Systems can be repeated as often as desired. It is not necessary, and indeed quite seldom happens, that the parts of a System of verses should be united to each other by Synapheia. If such a System is repeated one or more times, it is called a Strophe. In Doric and dramatic lyrical poetry the even (second, fourth, etc.) Strophes are called Antistrophes. Epode {epodus, €πωδ09, fem. gen.) is the name applied to the Verse-System which, in Doric lyric poetry and in the choruses of tragedy, follows the Antistrophe and closes this and the Strophe. Epode {epodus, επωδό., masc. gen.) is also the name appUed to a shorter or even a longer asynartete (Hor. Epod. II, 13) verse, which is combined with the preced- ing into a System. Again, the combination of two such verses, with the exception of the Elegiac Distich, is called an Epode (Horace). The repetition of Dactylic Distiches or Epodes is not considered as a Strophic structure. 8. Punctuation in Verse. Since the Verse, the parts of the Verse produced by the c^sura, and the Verse-Systems, are merely a result of the 44 General Inttvdnciion, Punctuation in Verse. 45 11 euphony and rhythm of language, they have originally nothing to do with the logical structure of the sentence, as it is represented to the eye by punctuation. Hence it may happen in verses united by Synapheia, that one word belongs to two different verses. Therefore it is by no means necessary that the verse, the caesura, or even the strophe or antistrophe and epode, should close at a point of punctuation, as e.g. Pindar and Horace show. Further, it introduces no difficulty that a word should stand at the end of a verse, or in the caesura, which is to be closely connected with what follows. Thus we often find, e.g. in Horace at the end of lyric verses (except at the end of the strophe) and of the satiric Hexameter et, aut, vel, etc., or a monosyllabic preposition (as in the strophes of the Greeks) . Even a full stop before the last syllable is not avoided, as in Catullus : — quid? non est homo bellus? inquies? est. and in Horace : — scitari libet ex ipso, quodcumque refers, die, ad cenam veniat. Still, the desire to make the metrical endings, marked out by the caesura and close of the verse, coincide with the divisions of the sentence, as well as to avoid harsh discords, is so deeply implanted in our poetic instinct, that, at least in verses which are not united in system or strophe, the poets early (as Homer shows) directed their attention to this point. Therefore it seldom happens outside of the strophe, especially among the Greeks, that the last syllable or the last foot of a verse belongs to the following sentence. In the same way a full stop after the first syllable or the first foot of a verse is avoided. Therefore such a case as II. I. 51, 52: — αΰταρ cTrctr' αντοΐσί β€λος €χ€π€νκ€ς cc^tcts βάΚλ^ ' αΐά δέ ττνραΐ νεκνων καίοντο θαμζχαί ; is not to be commended, although here the harshness is diminished by the logical importance of the first word and by the elision. Vergil sometimes for the sake of effect ends a rather long speech with an initial dactyl, ^n. IV. 5 70 : — femina.' sic fatus nocti se inmiscuit atrae. The placing of a full stop at the distance of a half-foot before or after the principal caesura is also avoided, and hence such a verse as the following is faulty {JEn. I. 17): — hie currus /uit; hoc | regnum dea gentibus esse. Still more this (^n. VII. 635) : — pulverulentus eques | /«rzV. omnes arma requirunt. So too these verses of ^schylus and Sophocles (Seven against Thebes, 1030; El. 1038) : — άλλ' ov πόλις στυγει, σν \ τιμησας τάφω; όταν γαρ cv φρονιβς, τό& η-γήσα συ νων. In Homer (Od. V. 234), on the other hand, we must write : — 8cuKcV ol TTcXcKW, /xcyav, αρμενον cv TraXa^rjaLv ; ' TcXcKW /xcyav. Still, the tragedians, especially after Sophocles, allow them- selves much freedom with respect to the disagreement of metre and punctuation, in order to increase the effect of passages in the dialogue which are expressive of lofty passion. Much more freedom does Horace allow himself 46 General Introduction. Rhyine. Alliteration. 47 li in his satiric Hexameter. Moreover, many other poets (among the Romans) are accustomed to place monosyllabic Conjunctions or Prepositions in the caesura of the Hex- ameter, especially when elision occurs, as Vergil : — si genus huma««;/; et mortalia temnitis arma. The Greeks are much stricter in this respect, and a verse like the following (II. I. 53) occurs but seldom: — €ννημαρ μίν άνα στρατον ωχετο κηλα θεοΐο. In the tragedians two verses like the following from Sophocles are rare : — κακόν δέ καν iv \ ημίρ(ΐ• "γνοίηζ μια. Therefore words like /aeV, δε, γάρ, ow, enim, aiitem, vera, which do not stand at the beginning of the sentence, are not usually found at the beginning of the verse. Since languages, with increasing age, always pay more regard to logic, in the poets since the Christian era it is the rule that the end of a Strophe like the Elegiac Distich shall coincide with a full stop; and these poets also, even the Romans, — at least at the end of the verse, — avoid harsh discords between the end of a metrical series and the punctuation or logical connection. 9. Rhyme. Alliteration. In order to emphasize words connected or related to each other by a similar sound, and because this sounded well to them, the Greeks and Romans often placed in the caesura and at the end of the verse words having a similar ending (rhyme, homaoieleuton), especially a noun and adjective, or appositive, so that usually the last one, but sometimes the last two, syllables of each word had the same sound. Thus Homer : — €σ7Γ€Τ€ vvv ftot Μουσαι, *Ολυ/χπια Βώματ Ιχουσαι. Ovid : — quot caelum siet/as, tot habet tua Roma puellas. Especially frequent is this assonance in the caesura and at the end of the verse of the dactylic Pentameter and the asclepiadeus minor, e.g.: — et teneat ζχλΗ jugera multa %oli terrarum άοτώ.ηο$ evehit ad azos. The laws of Rhyme in later poetry have been developed from this usage. The same purpose is served by Alliteration; i.e. a similar beginning, consisting of one or even two letters, of two or more words which follow each other. Among the Romans Alliteration appears ^frequently from the earliest time until Lucretius. Later, under the influence of the Greeks, who, with the exception of the comedians, were not fond of it, few instances occur, and these for the most part in single formulas, as pater patriae, more viodoqtie, etc., or in very artificial verses; in Vergil occasionally, in imitation of Ennius.^ 1 The relative merits and present relation of Greek and Roman versification are discussed in the Introduction. juit.itf: * ' 1- '■ 1.., ■=' 'ϊ . SECOND SECTION. -οοίΟίο*- ΟΝ PECULIARITIES OF THE FOOT. 10. Synapheia. The last syllable of every verse can be, as has been already said, either long or short. Yet the old poets were fond of ending verses, especially those closing with a thesis or a trochee, with a long syllable or one ending with a consonant. When several verses are joined together into one system by Sytiapheia, — that is, if the metre runs without break through the pauses of the verses to the end, — elision and the division of a word can occur at the end of every verse except the last. Hiatus and Syllaba Anceps, however, are not allowed. Especially frequent is Synapheia in lonici a minori, Glyconics, and Anapaests. Horace has Synapheia, but without eUsion and division of a word, in Od. HI. 12; sometimes also in his other lyrical measures the same thing is found. 11. Resolution of Thesis and Arsis. The Thesis of the dactylic verse, and of the logaoedic verse also in Ionic, ^olic, and Roman poetry, cannot be resolved. The Arsis in verses which have more than three feet can be replaced at pleasure by a long syllable. The Arsis of the anapaest can always be replaced by a long syllable. 48 ί ResoltUion of Thesis and Arsis. 49 In anapaestic, iambic, and trochaic metres the Thesis, except the last, can always be replaced by a pyrrhic. From this must be excepted iambic and trochaic verses ending with a spondee, as well as logaoedic metres ; but this, too, apart from the Doric lyric poetry and the lyric passages of the drama. Further, the shorter an iambic and trochaic measure is, the less often does Resolution occur. Wherever in iambic metre the spondee is allowed, it is occasionally replaced by an anapaest. This license is, however, found but seldom in the best poets, as the Greek tragedians and Horace. The Greeks allow the dactyl for the spondee in trochaic verse only in proper names. Since the end of the verse, which in the Hexameter consists of two feet, in the longer iambic and trochaic measures, as well as in the Paroemiac, of one and a half feet, must be preserved in its original purity, we seldom find a spondee in the next to the last foot of the Hexa- meter or Paroemiac, or a Resolution of the next to the last Thesis in iambic or catalectic trochaic verse. THIRD SECTION. 3»ίθ0 DESCRIPTION OF THE MOST LMPORTANT METRES, STROPHES, AND SYSTEMS. 12. Dactylic Metres. (i) The Dactylic Hexameter [Homer and Hesiod]^ : — / C^ — C7Z/ A. II v>w /- v^w ^ bJ ^ V. ΙΓ # φ u U\\\U Φ Φ u U Ρ *Ί The Hexameter was, in the Ciolden Age of antiquity, the only metre used for Epic poetry (versus heroicus), and for the responses of the oracles {versus Fythius). It was also the usual metre for Didactic and Bucolic poetry, and for Satire from Horace on; but it was seldom used in Epigrams other than those of folk-poetry. The tragedians employ it in some places, in especially solemn passages, and it occurs often in the strophes of Archilochus and Horace. By the variety of its rhythms and caesuras it is equally adapted to the most different kinds of poetry. The best Hexameters are those which are made up of three dactyls, and the spondees so arranged that the dactyls fall in the first, second, and fifth feet, as in Vergil: — arma virumque cano, Troiaeque primus ab oiis. 1 The name added to each metre in brackets indicates the poet by whom it was first used or through whom it first became known. 50 Dactylic Metises. 51 For too many dactyls make the rhythm too variable and restless ; too many spondees make it stiff and clumsy. Hexameters made up of spondees only do not occur in the poets considered in this book. Homer not excepted (the readings in Od. XXI. 15; XXII. 175 are corrupt). As would be expected from the flexibility of the lan- guage, among the Greeks the dactyl preponderates, so that its frequency of occurrence relatively to the spondee is as four to two. Homer, and oftener Vergil, employ the different feet for verse-painting, according as the meaning demands more rapidity or slowness of rhythm. Thus in the well-known lines (Od. XI. 598; ^n. VIII. 596; Georg. IV. 174) : — αυτί? £7Γ€ΐτα ttcSgvSc KvXtVScro λαα? άναιδϊ/?. quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum. illi inter sese magna vi bracchia tollunt. Compare also the description of the storm (^n. I. 81- 91 ; 102-123). In the fifth foot, especially in Latin, we do not often find the spondee {versus spo?idiazon), particularly in the Distich. In the Satires and Epistles of Horace it occurs only once (Ep. II. 3, 467). If a spondee occurs in the fifth foot, a dactyl usually stands in the fourth. The best and usual caesura is the Penthemimeral, after the third Thesis : — μηνιν aetSe, ^ca, j ΊΙηληιάΒεω *Αχι.Χηος, arma virumque cano | Troiaeque primus ab oris. Not less frequent in Homer and most of the Greek poets, much more frequent in Nonnus, is the τομή κατά 52 Metres, Strophes, and Systems. τρίτον τροχαΐον {i.e. after the second syllable of the third dactyl) : — άνδ^α /xot cVvCTTC, Μοίσα, | πολυτροττον, Ss μόλα ττολλά. On the other hand, this occurs but seldom among the Romans. With them the caesura which occurs most fre- quently after the Penthemimeral is the Hephthemimeral, which is rare in Greek {Mn. I. 251) : — navibus infandum ! amissis | unius ob iram. In Latin the Penthemimeral Caesura is by far the most frequent, especially so in the Distich, and in general in the most polished poetry. Every Hexameter verse which has not one of these c^suras is faulty, and such do not occur in the poets con- sidered in this book (the very few examples to the contrary are wholly cornipt readings). In addition to the Penthemimeral Caesura and the το/χή κατά τρίτον τροχαΓον, the so-called Bi^coL• C^sura {i.e. the c^sura especially used in Bucolic poetry) after the fourth dactyl occurs, but only in (Ireek (II. XXIH• 549 i Od. I. i) : — Ιση rot h κλισίτ) \ χρνσύς πολΰς, | cVrt Sk χαλκός. ivhpa fxoL Ivvt^t, Μοίσα, | πολυτροττον, | os /χάλα πολλά. In cases where such verses occur in Latin, as Bucol. 10, II, it is to be assumed that there is no caesura at all. As the simple Hephthemimeral Caesura divides the verse into two unequal parts, there is frequently found both in Greek and Latin, as a sort of support, the Trithemmieral Cxsura (after the second Thesis). So II. L 145 : — ^ Atas I 17 'iSojucvcvs I r; δΓο9 Όδνσσίυς. Daetylie Metres. 53 When the end of a word falls both in the second syllable of the third foot and in the fourth Thesis, in the Greek Hexameter the τομΐ] κατά τρίτον τροχαΐον is employed, and in Latin the Hepthemimeral Caesura, without regard to the punctuation (Od. IV. 126 ; ALn. IV. 582) : — Αλκάν^ρη ΐίολνβοίο | 8άμαρ, ος €vaL ivl 0r;^ry?. litora deseruere. latet | sub classibus aequor. The Hephthemimeral Caesura in Latin is most commonly found when at the same time the Trithemimeral occurs, and there is the end of a word in the third trochee : — infandum | xegina jubes | renovare dolorem. In this place, as at the end of the verse, too long words were avoided. Finally, wherever in Latin Hexameter a word ends with the third Thesis, and after the fourth a decided stop occurs, the Hephthemimeral maybe regarded as the proper caesura: — oscula libavit natae ; | dehinc talia fatur. When a word ends in the third trochee, a word ending also in the second or fourth trochee is not good, although in one case Horace has allowed himself both in one line : — dignum viente domoque | X^gentis honesta Neronis. In a case like this when the Trithemimeral Caesura does not occur, the best Latin poets are accustomed to unite the second and third feet in one word : — Mnesthea Sergestiwiqiie vocat | fortemque Sereslum. The Greeks in general very seldom place a trochaic word in the fourth foot, doubtless because they employ a trochee in the third foot so frequently. 54 Metres, Strophesy a?id Systems. (a) The Pentameter (Callinus and Archilochus) is made up by doubling the first half of the Hexameter, which has the Penthemimeral Caesura, though the spondee is allowed only in the first half: — / / / /CTW^OO^I — WW — WW — r cLnr Lnr i # ρ The most pleasing effect is produced when a spondee occurs only in the second foot : — et tene^/ cttlu jugera multa soli. The csesura occurs always after the third Thesis. The Distich is made up by the combination of the Pentameter (which almost never occurs alone) and the Hexameter. ji. I c?o /.CX/^woZ-l^W w — W W Ζ wO ^ 1χ] -/ W / (3) The Tetrameter (Archilochus) : - Z_ Ow JL. C70 — 1 CO -L- W W f i/r d/ Lit U This metre is employed by Horace and Archilochus in asynartete verse with a following trochaic Tripody. The last syllable is always short in Horace, but not in Archilo- chus. This verse also occurs independendy in Greek and Roman lyrical poetry, in which case the dactyl gready pre- ponderates. The caesura is the Penthemimeral. (4) Tetrameter Catalectic /;/ dissylldbum (Archilochus) : — _/. kTD /- 00 Z- w W — w Γ # • ψ 1/ r L•' Γ 5 Anapcestic Metres. 55 In Horace this is a part of the epodic and lyrical strophes. Only once (I. 28, 2) is a spondee found in the third foot, and then in a proper name. (5) Trimeter Catalectic in syllabam (Archilochus) : — — w w — w w f U\ υ Γ In Horace combined with the heroic Hexameter in the Odes. Elsewhere in the Epodes it is combined with the Iambic Dimeter into asynartete verse. (6) Dimeter Catalectic /// dissyllabum, versus adonUis (Sappho) : — ■ — \J \J — w φ φ f This forms the close of the Sapphic Strophe. 13. Anapaestic Metres. These do not occur in the Latin authors considered here, but frequently in the Greek dramatists. (7) Anapaestic Dimeter: — / /■ V^W WW WW WW v.>\> WW VA_/ (ww) 1 J 1 In place of an anapaest the spondee, dactyl, and proceleusmatic are allowed. The poets usually avoid the proceleusmatic, as well for one foot as for the Thesis and Arsis of two successive 56 Metres, StropJieSy and Systems. feet, although cases are found where three proceleusmatics follow each other : \J \J KJ \J \J \J ^^ \J \J \J \J \J \J \J 9 φ φ I # » J I L•' Γ The foUowmg form is usual : — _ovy_Z_ow_Z. In solemn and mournful poetry, as in the marching hymns of the Spartans, the spondee was employed by preference. The ciesura after the first Dipody is not always observed. (8) Anapaestic Monometer : — ♦ / ( / \ 1 1 . . . Μ uu u r This measure is often inserted in Anapaestic Systems. Since the Anapaestic verse is employed in systems with Synapheia, Hiatus and Syllaba Anceps are only allowed at the end where there is a change of person, and more rarely at a stop. Elision and Resolution of the last Thesis are allowed. Notwithstanding the Synapheia, however. Dim- eters and Monometers generally end with a complete word. (9) The close of the Anapaestic System is usually formed by an Anapaestic Dimeter Catalectic (^versus paroemiacus) -. — \.,r^^ _ \JKJ _ \^\^ — V^ I Γ Γ ί The rule is that this measure should have the form of the second half of the Hexameter after the Penthemimeral Caesura. Hence it is rare that the Theses (especially the last) are resolved, or a spondee placed in the next to the last foot. Iambic Metres. 14. Iambic Metres. 57 (10) Iambic Trimeter versus seiia7'ius (Archilochus) : — μι μ I .μ I ρ without Resolution or spondees. In Horace used with the dactylic Hexameter. (^A^) (v>w) {\Λ~Α ^ For Phaedrus' Iambics, see below. This is the most frequently used verse in the dialogue of Tragedy and Comedy and in the Epodes of Horace, and occasionally employed in other poetry, especially satirical and sarcastic. It is the favorite and most beautiful metre after the Dactylic Hexameter. Spondees are particularly numerous in the Trimeter of Tragedy, especially in ^schylus. In general, here and in what follows, we are concerned only with the Iambic and Trochaic verses of the dialogue, not with those of the lyrical passages, which have their own peculiar licenses in Resolu- tion, Caesura, etc. Resolution of the Thesis occurs rarely in Archilochus, and is confined to the first syllable of words. In ^schylus and the older plays of Sophocles, Resolu- tion of the Thesis in the second, third, fourth, or fifth foot occurred more rarely, and then generally in the begin- ning of words of three or more syllables ; less frequently in the case of dissyllabic words except prepositions, or monosyllables which belong closely to the following word beginning with a short syllable, e.g. the article. Euripides, in whose poetry Resolution is oftenest found, allows himself to unite a short monosyllable with a following short syllable when both words do not belong together. 58 Metres^ Strophes, a7id Systems, In words of four or more syllables in the second and fifth feet inclusive, Resolution through the two last sylla- bles occurs, but in Euripides only through the middle syllables. In the first foot it is naturally the second and third syllables of a word of three or more syllables which are employed in a Resolution of the Thesis. Yet Sophocles and chiefly Euripides (even ^schylus when the first foot is a dactyl) allow the verse to begin with a monosyllable. A Resolution is not allowed when its first syllable forms the close of a polysyllabic word. Resolution occurs most frequently in the third Thesis (after the CcXsura) and in the first, most rarely in the fifth. A dactyl instead of a spondee occurs only in the first and third feet. ^schylus has seldom two cases of Resolution in one verse ; Euripides has not seldom even three. Horace never divides a Resolution into two words, and out of the first foot, he uses it only twice in a dissyllable (Ep. 2, 23; 5, 87). A word consisting of three short syllables in Latin is used in the place of a trochee, never in place of an iambus, as is customary in Greek. Therefore in Latin verse it is possible to scan genevdi, never genera. In the same way the two last short syllables in words of more than three syllables, e.g. mater/^, are not used in a Resolution. Horace does not even use in this way the last syllables of a dactylic word like rbbora. He never resolves the fifth Thesis; the tribrach occurs most fre- quently in the second foot, and he rarely has two Resolu- tions in one verse, almost never three (cf. Ep. 17, 12). The anap^st can stand instead of the spondee in the first foot in tragedy, and for this a word of three or more syllables is generally used. Elsewhere the anapaest is Iambic Metres. 59 allowed only in proper names, but (in such names) in all feet except the last. Horace has an anapaest twice in the first foot, three times in the fifth (Ep. 2, 35; 65 ; 3, 35; 5, 79; 11, 23), always in a word of at least three syllables. The Arsis of an anapaest can never be formed by the two last syllables of a word of more than two syllables, or by the final of a polysyllable and the first syllable of the following word. The proceleusmatic is not allowed. As in the Dactylic Hexameter, the most usual caesura is the Penthemimeral after the third Arsis : — \j \j \j \j \j — \j ibis Liburnis | inter alia navium ; Next the Hephthemimeral after the fourth Arsis : V^ \J \J \j \j \j nam qualis aut Molossus | aut fulvus Laco. The Penthemimeral Caesura preponderates in Euripides more than in ^schylus and Sophocles, and most of all in Horace. Since the Hephthemimeral Caesura divides the verse too unequally, it is especially used when the second foot ends with the end of a word : — nam quah'j aiit Molossus aut fulvus Laco ; or when the second and third trochees of the verse are formed by one word : — quae sidera excantata voce Thessala. Finally, when the end of a word comes after the second trochee, and a stop after the third, the Hephthemimeral Caesura is to be assumed : — quid dixit aut quid tacuit? | ο rebus meis. 6ο Metres, Strophes, and Systems. The rules of the Hephthemimeral Caesura in the dactylic Hexameter are quite similar (cf. 12). A Trimeter without either the Penthemimeral or Hephthe- mimeral Caesura is fluilty. Such verses do occur in the tragedies, but not in Horace. In such cases a word usually ends with the third foot. Finally, it is to be noticed that when the fifth foot is a spondee, the tragedians are not accustomed to use the final of a polysyllabic word as its Arsis, except when an enclitic follows, or a monosyllable closely connected with the preceding word, as e.g. : — σπ€υδω/Α€ν, €γκονωμ.εν' rjyov /xot, yepov. οΙόν T€ /xoi τάσδ' £στι. θνητοΐζ yap yepa. Otherwise the last cretic would be too forcibly separated from the rest of the verse. Horace has observed this rule only in Ep. 17. Iambics of Ph/Edrus. Phxdrus allows the spondee or the anapaest in every foot except the last. In the fifth foot the spondee or anapaest predominate; the iambus is admitted principally when a four-syllabled word stands at the end of the line : — ranae vagantes liberis paludibus. In no case does a verse close with two iambic words. The tribrach occurs only in the second, third, and fourth feet; the dactyl generally in the first, third, and fourth. The Resolution of the Thesis follows in other respects the same rules as in Horace, except that pyrrhic words are more frequently employed, very rarely monosyllables, which Iambic Metres, 61 are usually closely connected with the following short syllable : — calumniator ab ove cum peteret canis. The verse in app. 10, 10, is an isolated case and probably to be emended : — non ut labores facio, sed tit istum domes. If the fifth Thesis is resolved, a four- syllabled word at least must stand at the end of the verse. The verses V. 7, 22 ; app. 9, 6, hardly constitute an exception. The anapaest stands everywhere in place of the spondee ; the two never follow each other immediately. Except in the first foot and (very seldom) in the fifth (III. 10, 4; 14, 11; app. 19, 3; 30, 10), Phaedrus follows exactly the same rules as Horace for the anapaest. In the first foot the Arsis is almost always formed by a dissyllable or the beginning of a polysyllable. The proce- leusmatic occurs only in the first foot ; in such wise that the Arsis always forms a word for itself, and the Thesis does the same, or at least forms the pyrrhic beginning of a word, e.g. : — ita caput ad nostrum furor illorum pertinet. itaque hodie nee lucernam de flamma deum. The caesura is exclusively the Penthemimeral or (more rarely) the Hephthemimeral. (11) Catalectic Trimeter (Archilochus) : — \^ — \j — \j ^ \J — \j jC- \J : r ν Γ r This is used by Plorace in the Odes. Resolution of the Thesis and the anapaest are not allowed; for the reading :--:^%i ■.■■">-.-.i3;^v\ 62 Metres, StropheSy and Systems. Trochaic Metres. 63 in II. 18, 34, is certainly corrupt. The c^sura is always the Penthemimeral. (12) Iambic Dimeter Hypercatalectic (Alcieus) : — ^^^ ^ w ^ _ -^ w / \j f Γ Ρ r r Γ Ρ Γ 5 This is used by AIccEus and Horace as the third verse of the Alcaic and logaoedic strophe, and therefore the Thesis is never resolved. This verse occurs only in Horace in the form given above. In Alcseus the first and fifth syllables can be either long or short. The Anacrusis is generally long in the first three books of Horace's Odes, and always long in the fourth. (13) Iambic Dimeter (Archilochus) : — Γ Γ ί Γ ύ r ύ r Used by Archilochus and Horace as the second verse of the Epode, and in asynartete verses ; by the other poets also as a separate measure. An iambus seldom occurs in the third foot. Resolution occurs in Horace only twice, once in the first foot, and once in order to produce a rhythmical picture (Ep. 15, 24; 2, 62). 15. Trochaic Metres. (14) Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic (Archilochus): — w^ \j \j W I* I PI μι l• I ill Ρ Γ ίΙΓ t> Γ •?Ι This metre is common in the Greek and Latin drama, and resembles closely the Iambic Trimeter, except that it is much more strictly formed in the Greek tragedy. Resolution of the Thesis takes place most frequently in the uneven feet and in the first half of the verse — very seldom in the seventh Thesis. In resolving the Arsis, Euripides first dared to make use of dissyllabic words, or the penultimate and final syllables of trisyllables. Very rarely do two monosyllables occur in the Resolution, if they are not closely connected with a follow- ing short syllable. The dactyl in place of the spondee is not allowed. The caesura falls in tragedy without exception after the second dipody (^sch. Pers. 164; Soph. Philoct. 1402 are corrupt readings). If the sixth foot is a spondee, it cannot be a dissyllable or the end of a polysyllable. (15) Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic : — Γ C Γ i Γ ί Γ This form occurs in Horace, Od. II. 18; also frequently in the lyrical parts of tragedy, and usually just as here given. (16) Trochaic Tripody, versus ithyphalliciis (Archilo- chus) : — Γ ί Γ i Γ ί Used by Archilochus and Horace in asynartete verses with a preceding Dactylic Tetrameter. 64 Metres^ Strophes, and Systems. 16. lonici a Minori. (17) Decameter (Alcaeus) : — \j\j —— \j\j jLjLkjkj jLL^j^j ^Z.\ This is used by Horace, in imitation of Alcaeus, in the Odes. The caesura falls after the fourth and eighth feet. 17. Logacedic Metres. (18) Glyconic (Sappho, Anacreon) ; in Horace in the following form : — / > / \j \j -L• \j — The Glyconic metre was originally a logacedic series ^ \j \j — \j — with a two- syllable Basis of any convenient quantity. This license belonged also to the Pherecratean and Asclepiadean verses, which were derived from the Glyconic. Catullus, the predecessor of Horace, used as the Basis of the Glyconic and Pherecratean, generally the trochee, more rarely the spondee and iambus. Horace, however, uses the spondee exclusively as the Basis of all these verses, as Catullus does in his Asclepiadean verses. The tragedians allow in the Basis of the Glyconic verse beside the trochee, spondee, iambus, and pyrrhic, also the tribrach, and Euripides even admits the anapaest. Sophocles, and much more frequently Euripides, created very varied forms of the Glyconic {glyconei polyschcmatisti) by means of a displacement of the dactyl and other licenses. Logacedic Metres. 6s (19) Pherecratean (Sappho, Anacreon) : — -^ (>> ^ w w ^ (>> (Γ J) •' I This metre is not used alone, but only in combination with Glyconic and Asclepiadean verses. (20) Lesser Asclepiadean (Alcaeus) : — jl^^^-/wwZ.|_vyw \j Γ Γ I r• y- c I Γ Μ r δ c I r c I r • I This verse is formed by the insertion of one choriambus after the Basis, as the following verse is formed by the insertion of two. The caesura after the sixth foot is always observed by Horace, though sometimes neglected by Alcaeus. (21) Greater Asclepiadean, dodecasyllabic (Alcaeus) : — ^-_j1 w ^ /. jLkj Kj Z. J^^J ^ J^KJ Z. Cf. No. 20. The caesura after the sixth and tenth sylla- bles is often neglected by Sappho, Alcaeus, and Catullus, never by Horace. (22) Greater Sapphic (Sappho): — ^ w Jl _ Z. \j \j — \j Z^ \j Two trochaic dipodies, divided by a dactyl. Horace employs always a spondee in place of the second trochee. In Sappho the fourth syllable is either long or short, and Catullus has sometimes a short syllable here. The caesura is generally after the third Thesis, occasionally (especially in the fourth book of the Odes and the Carm. Saec.) after 66 MctrcSy StropJieSy and Systems. the trochee of the third foot. This caesura is often neg- lected by Sappho — by Catullus only twice. (23) Lesser Sapphic, aristophaneus (Sappho) : — (24) The so-called Sapphic verse of fifteen syllables is formed by a combination from the beginning and end of the Greater Sapphic, but this occurs first in Horace : — ^ w -/ -^1 \j^^\Z.\j\^^\^^\j The fifth and eighth syllables are always final. (25) Alcaic Hendecasyllabic (Alcaeus) ; — Logaoedic Metre with Anacrusis, which is common in Alcaeus. In Horace the Anacrusis is generally long in the first three books of Odes and always so in the fourth. Alcaeus has often the original trochee instead of the spondee before the caesura. The caesura is sometimes neglected by Alcaeus, but only twice by Horace (I. 37, 14; IV. 14, 17, though these verses are probably corrupt). (26) Alcaic Decasyllabic (Alcaeus) : — — \J \J — \J \J — \J — KJ This forms the close of the Alcaic Strophe. 18. Asynartete Verse (Mixed Measures). (27) Greater Archilochian (Archilochus) : — A combination of the Dactylic Tetrameter (No. 3) and the Versus Ithyphallicus (No. 16). The Elegiac Distich. 6'j (28) Elegiambic (Archilochus) : — A combination of the Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic (No. 5) and the Iambic Dimeter (No. 13). Short sylla- bles and Hiatus occur in the third Thesis. (29) lambelegiac : — KJ /— \J — \J — \J — \—\J\J — \J\J — A combination like the preceding, but with the order of the measures reversed. This verse, which possesses much force and liveliness because of the transition from the Iambic to the Dactylic measure, is first found in Horace. A short syllable often occurs in the fourth Thesis. 19. The Elegiac Distich (Callinus, Archilochus). Z. \JO Z. \JO Z-\ Z- \j \j Z. \j\j Z- This is the oldest and most beautiful verse-system of the Greeks; a combination of the Dactylic Hexameter and Pentameter (Nos. i and 2). It was employed mostly in Epi- gram and Elegy. It is somewhat less appropriate for Didactic Poetry, though used by Ovid in the Fasti and by Propertius. It was a favorite metre among the Greeks, and still more so among the Romans, who developed it with marvellous artistic skill. 20. The Lyric Strophes of Horace.^ These Lyric Strophes of Horace are all composed of four lines, perhaps in imitation of Alcaeus, but not of Archilochus. 1 Here are given, just as in the case of the Distich, the most usual schemes of the individual verses. For everything else, see the discussion in the preceding section. 63 MctnSy StropJuSy and Systems. At the close of single verses Syllaba Anceps (sometimes with a final consonant) often occurs, more rarely Hiatus. Some- times at the ends of the first three verses we find a word divided or Elision. In both these cases the final syllable is always long. (i) Alcaic Strophe (Alcaeus) : — ^^^ Z.KJ z. jL^j ^ jl \J \J — KJ — \J This is made up of the Alcaic Hendecasyllabic (No. 25), the Enneasyllabic (12), and the Decasyllabic (26), and is characterized by force and energy. Therefore it is Horace's favorite metre, and employed by him especially in Odes of political and moral content, though also in those treating of erotic and convivial subjects. It is the metre of 37 Odes: I. 9. 16. 17. 26. 27. 29. 31. 34. 35• 37; H• i• 3• 5• 7. 9. II. 13-15. 17. 19. 20; III. 1-6. 17. 21. 23. 26. 29; IV. 4. 9. 14. 15. EHsion at the end of the verse occurs in II. 3. 27; III. 29• 35• (2) Sapphic Strophe (Sappho): — / j1 /.1 \J KJ Z- \J J^ \J Z. w -/ _ ^ / \j \j JL- \j — \j ^Kj Z. — Z.\ Kj Kj Z. ^ jLk^ / Z- \J KJ — \J Made up of the Sapphic Hendecasyllabic (22) and the Adonic (6). This strophe has more grace and tenderness than force and energy. Hence it would, perhaps, have been better if Horace had not used it so often in Odes written in lofty style. It occurs in 26 Odes: I. 2. 10. 12. Lyric Strophes of Horace. 69 20. 22. 25. 30. 32. 38; II. 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 16; III. 8. II. 14. 18. 20. 22. 27 ; IV. 2. 6. II ; Carm. Saec. Elision at the end of a verse occurs in II. 2, 18; 16, 34; IV. 2, 22; 23; Carm. Saec. 47. The division of a Avord, in each case at the end of the third verse, occurs four times: I. 2, 19; 25, 11; II. 16, 7; III. 27, 59. (3) Second Sapphic Strophe : — Z- \j \j Z- \j Z- \j Z-\j Z- ^Z- I \j\jZ-\Z\j\jZ.\jZ.\j Made up of the Lesser Sapphic (23) and the so-called fifteen-syllabled Sapphic (24). i, 8. (4) First Asclepiadean Strophe : — / / _£_ (_\j\jj— \j— \j\j±-\j / / / Made up of the Lesser Asclepiadean repeated (20). III. 30; IV. 8. (5) Second Asclepiadean Strophe: — Z.-.Z-KJKjZ-\Z-KJ^Z-\jZ. Li; / j1 w w ^ Z- \j \j Z- \j z. Z. — Z-Kj ^ Z-\ Z- ^ Kj Z-Kj Z- / Z- \j \j Z- \j Made up of the Lesser Asclepiadean (20) and the Glyconic (18). The metre of nine Odes: I. 6. 15. 24. 33; II. 12 ; III. 10. 16; IV. 5. 12. (6) Third Asclepiadean Strophe: — Z — Z.yu^Z.\Z-^yjZ.\jZ. / Z.KJ KJ Z^ /_ Z- \j \j / ^ ζ Z_ a- \j \j Z- \j / / Jl <_ \J W_i_W-l- / / Made up of the Lesser Asclepiadean (20), the Phere- 70 Metres, Strophes, and Systems. cratean (19) and the Glyconic (18). Occurs in seven Odes: I. 5. 14. 21. 23; III. 7. 13; IV. 13. « (7) Fourth Asclepiadean Strophe: — — \j \j — \j Z^ jLkj Kj ^ — \j \j — \j z^ jL._jLKjKjjLKjji. / jL^j ^ Δ. — \j \j — \j — Made up of the Glyconic (18) and the Lesser Asclepia- dean (20). This is the metre of 12 Odes: I. 3. 13. 19. 36; III. 9. 15. 19. 24. 25. 28; IV. I. 3. Elision at the end of a verse occurs in IV. i. 35. (8) Fifth Asclepiadean Strophe (used by Sappho and Catullus, but in couplets) : — / ^ w ^ ^ \j \j / — \j \j — \j Z- Made up of Greater Asclepiadean verses (21). I. it. 18; IV. 10. (9) First Archilochian Strophe : — — ^-^/"^ — v^v^» _ I \J\^ _ \^r^ Z. \J \J — \J — \j \j — \j \j A. Z. ^ΟΌ Z. ^JO Z. Z- \j \j Z- \j \j z. w^> _ \-/^ Z- \j \j Z- \j Made up of the Dactylic Hexameter (i) and Catalectic Trimeter (5). IV. 7. (10) Second Archilochian Strophe : — _ v>v>y _ O^^ _ WW Z. WV^ Z. w^ — N^ Zoo^oo^ fcd^w -£ow^ WW j1 <^>W _ V>W _ KJ \J _ \J — V^W _ V>W _ \J \J Z- KJ Made up of the Dactylic Hexameter (i) and the Cata- Epodic Systems. 71 lectic Tetrameter (4). i, 7, 28. Also used in Epode 12, but in couplets. (11) Third Archilochian Strophe (used by Archilochus in couplets) : — Z— \y^^ Z— v>^^ / KJ Z- ^ Z- ^D ow Z- \j \j \ Z- \j Z. \j Z. \j Z- \j Z- \j ZLkj Z.KJ Z. WW Z- k70 Z. I WW Z- \J \J \j Z- \j Z- Ό \ Z- \j Z- \j Z- \j Z^j Z. KJ Made up of the Greater Archilochian (27) and the Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (11), I. 4• (12) Hipponactean Strophe : — Z^Kj Z.KJ ZLk^ Z. \D Z- \J Z- \^ Z- \j Z- \j Z, \j Z.^ Z.KJ Z-^ Z- \J Zkj Z^^ 1 Z-^ Z-Kj Z.KJ A combination of the Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic (15) and the Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (11). II. 18. (13) Strophe of lonici a minori : — kjkjZ.Z.kjkjZ-Z-\j\^^Z.^^Z.Z.\ kjkjZ.^^^Z.Z.kjkjZZ.kjkjZ-Z.\kjkjZ.Z.kjkjZ-Z. Made up of the lonicus a minori Decameter (17) (repeated). III. 12. Syllaba Anceps and Hiatus are not allowed except at the close of the Strophe. 21. Epodic Systems. The Epodes of Horace are written in couplets, except the last, which is made up of Iambic Trimeters κατά στί')(ον. 72 Metres^ StropJies^ and Systems. (i) Iambic System (Archilochus) : — Made up of the Iambic Trimeter (io/5) and the Iambic Dimeter (13). Ep. i-io. (2) First Archilochian System: — (wv-/) \j /_\j \ jL KJ — '^^' /- \J ^ (ww) w J^ \j\j — \j \j — I \D —\j — "^ — \J — Made up of the Iambic Trimeter {\ob) and the Elegi- ambic (28). Ep. 11. (3) Second Archilochian System : — ^bd^w Made up of the Dactyhc Hexameter (i) and the lam- belegiac (29). Ep. 13. (4) Third Archilochian System : — i- \^ \J — \J Made up of the Dactylic Hexameter (i) and the Dac- tylic Tetrameter Catalectic (4). Ep. 12. Cf. also Strophe 10 of the Lyrical Metres. (5) First Pythiambic System: — "Ό — \J — \D — \j — \j Made up of the Dactylic Hexameter (i) and the Iambic Dimeter (13). Ep. 14. 15. Epodic Systems. η (6) Second Pythiambic System : — Made up of the Dactylic Hexameter (i) and the pure Iambic Trimeter (ιολ). Ep. 16. FOURTH SECTION. -oo^^^Ko*- ON METRICAL LICENSES. 22. Preface. The structure of the verse is determined by fixed laws, which, however, are sometimes neglected or evaded. Still such exceptions are almost never arbitrary in the classical writers; rather do they, too, fall under definite rules, which are of only less wide application than the general laws of the verse. They are, so to speak, disso- nances resolved into a higher consonance. 23. Metrical Licenses. The metrical licenses and peculiarities of the poets can be reduced to eight cases : — (i) The beginning of every metrical series has greater freedom than the end of the series formed either by the caesura or the close of the verse. (2) Long verses enjoy greater freedom than short; so long poems offer greater opportunity for metrical licenses than shorter ones which must be especially characterized by elegance and beauty of form. (3) \^ariation of subject-matter often introduces varia- tion of metrical laws, especially among the Greeks. Thus epic poetry, as well as didactic, satirical, and elegiac, has certain peculiar forms of the Hexameter. In the same 74 Metrical Licenses, 75 way, the lyric versification has its peculiarities, and that of comedy often differs widely from that of tragedy. (4) Further, it is clear that the inventor of a metre, or one who introduces innovations therein, treats it more freely than later writers who follow the path which he has opened up. The Hexameter of Ennius differs widely from that of Vergil ; the lyric measures of Horace from those of Seneca. In general, it is true that the more frequendy any metre is used, the more exact is its structure. (5) The later works of an author are usually more polished than the earlier. For instance, the Hexameters of Horace's Epistles are more carefully formed than those of the Satires. (6) As the metrical art of the famous poets of antiquity continued to be the standard for those who came later, or at least exercised great influence on them, it is very important to observe what model of versification each poet has fol- lowed. The Hexameters of the post-Augustan poets vary according as they follow Vergil or Ovid. (7) Frequently the metrical licenses of a verse can be explained by the occurrence in the verse of proper names, or (in Latin) of Greek words, especially immediately before such words; for proper names cannot be arbitrarily rewritten or altered. It is to be remembered, too, that the ancient poets employed these names much more frequently than those of modern times. Moreover, Greek words appear in Latin verse to justify of themselves, at the same time, the metrical licenses borrowed from the Greeks. In didactic poetry the so-called termiyii technici, in the Chris- tian writers sacred words as spiritus, eccksia, usually give rise to metrical licenses, for these words approach neariy to proper names. In the same class, too, fall sometimes 7(> Metrical Licciises. words of four or more syllables, as well as the most com- mon pronouns, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions, and certain fixed expressions like " ^ ού," " ergo age," " quare age. >» (8) Finally metrical licenses are not seldom occasioned by an impassioned movement of the language which shows itself in rhetorical figures, especially in the repetition of the same word (anaphora) or in antithesis. It is often true that several of these reasons combine to explain a single case of metrical license. In Greek poetry metrical licenses are much more fre- quent than in Latin, although there are cases where several of them occur in a single Latin Hexameter when some of the above-mentioned excuses are present. Thus the verse of Vergil : — Nereidum matri et Neptuno Aegaeo, contains two cases of hiatus — a spondee in the fifth foot, and a violation of the rhythmical laws of this same foot. ■ .'Tt'* ■-■" FIFTH SECTION. -οοίΟζοο- ON THE RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE VERSE. 24. General Remarks. (i) As poetry, at least in its higher forms, seeks to differen- tiate itself as widely as possible from the ordinary methods of expression in prose, the poets avoid allowing the rhythm of the verse to coincide with the prose accent of the words, as far as it is at all practicable. It is likewise considered improper to introduce a verse into prose. The first law, then, is that there shall be the greatest possible difference between the metrical rhythm and the prose accent. This law naturally has the least force in those parts of the verse which admit the greatest freedom of structure, as at the beginning of a metrical series, at the beginning of the verse, or after the caesura, as e.g. in Vergil : — litora, multum ille et terris jactatus et alto, ipse hostis Teucros | insigni laude ferebat. This law is further modified by the following rules. (2) As the verse becomes in the first instance a work of art by the close and harmonious combination of the feet, it is not usual, at least in the longer verses, to allow single feet to consist of single words. Consequendy the following Hexameter from Ennius is bad : — sparsis hostis longis campus splendet et horret. 77 78 RhytJiniical Structure of the Verse. In order therefore that the verse may not fall apart, the individual feet must run into each other as much as possi- ble, and this result is obtained most effectually by the greatest possible difference between the compass of the indi- vidual words and of the single feet. (3) Finally, the end of every metrical series, be it at the caesura or at the end of the verse, must faithfully represent the rhythm of the foot with which it ends, e.g. the anapaestic rhythm at the Penthemimeral Caesura of the Dactylic Hexameter, and the trochaic at the end of the whole verse. Since it is the first law of ancient versification that the metrical rhythm shall differ as far as possible from the prose accent, it is considered less objectionable when, at the end of a metrical series, the original rhythm is vio- lated in such a way that the poetical rhythm does not harmonize with the prose accent, than when the opposite is true. This can be observed in the rhythmical laws of the Hexameter. At the caesural pause, the end of the metrical series, the rhythm of which must be kept pure, consists of one foot ; at the close of longer verses of one and a half or two feet, and at the close of shorter verses of one. It is, however, clear that this rule is principally applica- ble to poetry written κατά στίχον^ and to such systems as are not united by Synapheia, as e.g. the Dactylic Distich an ' the Iambic Epode. AVhere Synapheia can or must occur, and the single verses form properly only sections of a single metrically harmonious whole, violations of the rule in question are more frequent and more easily pardoned. Above all, the occurrence of a monosyllable at the end of a metrical series is to be avoided, except where another Stnicttire of Hexameter and Pentameter. 79 monosyllable precedes, and this rule is so much the more to be observed, the longer the preceding word is and the greater the number of rnorce that it has. Therefore the least unpleasant effect is produced where a pyrrhic word precedes the monosyllable. Hence the verses from Vergil are bad : — et cum frigida mo7's anima seduxerit artus. dat latus. insequitur cumulo praeruptus aquae mons. The reason for this is that a monosyllable, on account of its small compass, has not the force necessary to draw towards itself a polysyllable, and the consequence is that in verses like those just quoted the end of the metrical series is separated. 25. Rhythmical Structure of the Hexameter and Pentameter. We wish to explain more at length the above-mentioned laws in the case of some of the most common metres, since these are at the same time the most carefully formed, and to do this by illustration from the Latin poets — for they developed the single metres especially as regards rhythm more carefully than the Greeks, — remembering that nearly the same rhythmical laws are valid also for Greek poetry. We consider first the Dactylic Hexameter. First of all, it is plain that no word ending with a dactyl can stand in the second and third foot of the Hexameter, — still less a word ending in a spondee, since the spondee is not the original measure of this verse. So we find only twice in Horace (Epist. I. 18, 52; II. 3, 41) a word ending with a dactyl in the third foot, and So Rhythmical Structure of the Verse. not at all in the other poets considered here. Further, Vergil and Propertius (not Ovid and Tibullus) have very seldom in the second foot a word ending with a dactyl, and never one ending with a spondee. In Horace in the Epistles and Satires this occurrence is somewhat more frequent. Hence the following lines cannot be recom- mended in this respect : — et cum frigida mors anima seduxerit artus. per conubia nostra, per inceptos hymenaeos. Still worse is this from Ennius : — ore Ceihegns Marcu' Tuclitano collega. Less frequently do we find before the Penthemimeral Ciesura a pyrrhic word followed by a monosyllable, as : — ille autem : neque te \ Phoebi cortina fefellit. Still worse is it to find two or three monosyllables : — Ο quoties ct quae \ nobis Galatea locutast. simplicior qiiis et est? \ qualem me saepe libenter. It is usual at the Penthemimeral Ceesura to find a word ending with an anapaest, spondee, or iambus. What has just been said holds also for the Hephthe- mimeral Ciesura. On the other hand, a dactylic word not seldom forms the arsis of the Trithemimeral Caesura, since this Ues in the first foot. At the end of the sixth foot a monosyllable is allowed only when the thesis is also a monosyllable : — at Boreae de parte trucis cum fulminat et cum. The thesis of the fifth foot can be a monosyllable if a pyrrhic word or two monosyllables follow : — nam neque Parnasi vobis juga, nam neque Pindi. cederet aut quarta socialiter. hie et in Acci. Structure of Hexameter and Pentameter. 8 1 But a monosyllable is disagreeable in the fifth thesis if a word of more than two syllables follows. In the same way the fifth thesis cannot be the end of a polysyllable, for in such a case this (thesis) becomes anapaestic through its close connection with the arsis of the fourth foot, while it is separated from the fifth arsis which belongs to it, by the end of the word. Consequendy verses hke the following seldom occur : — fixerit aeripedem cervam licet aut Erymanthi. tres Antenoridas Cererique sacrum Polyphoeten. Finally, it is not usual to make the fifth and sixth feet out of one word of five syllables, as in Horace : — divisit medium fortissima Tyndaridarum. The reason for this is that, in Latin, the two last sylla- bles of such long words are usually inflectional or derivative endings, and the beginning a preposition. As they there- fore have more sound than meaning, they seem feeble at the end of the verse which should close forcibly. It is for this cause and not for metrical reasons that they are avoided. In Greek, on the other hand, five-syllabled words are usually compounds of noun and verb, and not so empty of meaning as most Latin words of corresponding length. Hence there is far less reason for avoiding them. It is usual to find in the fifth foot a word with dactylic ending, and in the sixth a dissyllable ; or in the first case a word with trochaic ending, and in the second a trisyllable : — in nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas, insignem pietate virum tot ad/r^ labores. But the second arsis of the fifth foot can be a mono- syllable : — arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris. ■ i"• ' r•'"• "C"; 82 Rhythmical Structure of the Verse. Structure of the Remaiuing Metres. 83 A monosyllable in the sixth foot preceded by a polysyl- lable occurs more than forty times in Vergil ; in Ovid only eleven times. Vergil violates the rhythmical laws of the fifth foot about one hundred and twenty times ; Ovid only eighty times. Many of the later writers are still more strict. Horace, on the other hand, is less strict in the Hexameters of the Satires and Epistles. The exceptions found in Vergil and Ovid are almost always occasioned by one of the reasons noted in Section 4. Moreover, Vergil makes admirable use of discordant verse-endings in order to express by the rhythm itself what is dreadful, weird, or unexpected : — vertitur interea caelum et ruit Oceano nox. et nunc ille Paris cum semiviro comitatu. With comic effect in the Georgics, I. 181 : — tum variae illudant pestes: saepe exiguus mus. To excuse the license of a spondee in the fifth foot, the poets used most frequently a word of four syllables, or sometimes a trisyllable; but in this latter case another word of at least three syllables ordinarily preceded this trisyllable : — armatumque auro circumspicit Oriona. perque hiemes aestusque et inaeqiiales autumnos. Vergil has twice {JEn. HI. 12; VIH. 679) an ending borrowed from Ennius of this sort : — et magnis dis. It is never the case in Latin that a spondaic verse has a dissyllable in the fifth or sixth place. All these laws, with the exception of the use of five- syllabled words at the end of the verse, are equally valid for Greek poetry, although here exceptions are more numerous, especially as regards the verse-ending, and also the second foot where, on account of the frequency of the τομ.η κατά τρίτον τροχαίον, dactylic words occur not rarely, and spondaic words much more rarely, as in the first verse of the Odyssey : — avSpa μοί €VV€ire, Μούσα, ττολντροττον, ο? μάλα πολλά. Α spondaic verse with a dissyllable in the fifth or sixth foot never occurs in Homer. The rhythmical laws of the Pentameter are still more strict than those of the Hexameter. In the Latin writers considered here, a dactylic or spon- daic word never occurs in the second foot, and only once (Ovid, Pont. I. 6, 26) at the end of the verse do we find a monosyllabic enclitic word with preceding pyrrhic. Here, too, the Greeks are less strict than the Romans, but much stricter than in the Hexameter. The Greeks and many Romans are wont to close the Pentameter with any polysyllable, but the most careful Romans (Tibullus, Propertius in Bks. IV. and V., and Ovid in most of his post-exilian poetry and always in his pre- exilian) close this verse with a dissyllable preceded by a word with trochaic ending — evidently in order in this way to make its termination like that of a Hexameter ending with a trisyllable. 26. Rhythmical Structure of the Remaining Metres. The rhythmical laws of the Iambic Trimeter are precisely the same as those of the Hexameter. Consequently those verses cannot be approved which have at the Penthemime- ΐϊ; 84 RhytJnnical Structure of the Verse, ral Caesura a monosyllable with a preceding polysyllable, as in Horace : — dins agam vos^ dira detestatio. It is much worse when the third iambus closes with a word which has an iambic or spondaic (anapaestic) ending, as in the following examples : — regnante te Tides ut imperium cadat. sed simplici carmen per omne evectus est. For in these cases the verse is divided into two equal halves, and the Hephthemimeral Caesura loses almost all its force. Such verses never occur in Horace and Phaedrus, very seldom in the Greek tragedians, but more often in the Greek comedians. Phaedrus, in order not to dim the original iambic char- acter of his verse, never places a word which itself has a spondaic or anapaestic ending at the end of the second, third, or fourth foot. A monosyllable with preceding polysyllable at the end of a verse is bad, unless this monosyllable is enclitic, as in Sophocles : — ούδ' αν δικαίως Ις κακόν ττ^.σοιμ.ι τι, ΟΓ in Phaedrus : — timore mortis ille turn confessus est. Horace avoids even this, but the Greek tragedians occa- sionally admit monosyllables at the end of the verse when they are not at all enclitic. As regards systems and strophes in which Synapheia is allowed, — that is, in the ^olic, Doric, and dramatic, — it is clear that the rhythmical laws for caesura and verse-endings must be less strictly observed at the time when the appre- ciation of the original metrical unity of the individual parts Structure of the Remaining Metres. 85 of system and strophe is still lively. Hence even Horace has sometimes a monosyllable with preceding polysyllable at the end of a logaoedic verse, as : — alme Sol, curru nitido diem qui, audivcre, Lyce, di mea vota^ di. In the Alcaic hendecasyllabic an iambic word rarely occurs before the caesura, as III. i, 9 : — est ut viro vir latius ordinet. In too close imitation of the Alcaic hendecasyllabic, Horace avoids similar words in the same places in the Alcaic enneasyllabic, except at I. 26, 11 in a proper name. In Horace, too, a spondaic word-ending never occurs as the second foot of the Sapphic hendecasyllabic, but, on the other hand, he has sometimes a dactylic word before the caesural pauses of the Asclepiadean verses, as I. 6, 17: — nos convivia, nos | proelia virginum. In general, wherever the strophes were only mechanically formed, or the verses written κατά στίχον, the rules were much more strictly observed, as is shown in the tragedies of Seneca. SIXTH SECTION. -00>HOO- ENCLISIS AND TMESIS. 27. Enclisis. In order to correctly employ the rules already given, it is necessary to observe the rules of Enclisis and Tmesis. By Enclisis the enclitic word loses its own individuality and is merged into the preceding, so that ήο monosyllable really concludes the verse, as in the following example : — αλλ' ούδ* ως Ιτάρονς Ιρρνσατο, te/xei/os 7Γ€ρ. pectora quorum inter fluctus arrecta yxh^Cijue. It is natural that monosyllables which always stand in the second place, as /xcV, hi, yap, should be quite closely connected with the preceding word. The cases of Enclisis in Greek are well known. In Latin, besides ^in^, ve, ne, the monosyllabic forms of the indefinite pronoun quis, in combination with si, iie, niim, cum, and in the formula nescioquis, are used enclitically ; also' the pronouns me, te, se, nos, vos in combination with prepositions ending in tra and ter, as e.g. inter, intra. Finally the monosyllabic forms of the Indicative and Sub- junctive of sum were sometimes used as enclitics, when a pyrrhic, tribrachic, or trochaic word preceded, but only on condition that the syllable before the auxiliary remained short. It is to be noticed that turn cum usually becomes one word, as satisesse, quopacto, and often priusquam, iamiam. 86 Tmesis. 87 28. Tmesis. I. By Tmesis, in Homer and the tragedians, the prep- osition of a compound verb is frequently separated from its verb, generally by the interposition of one, or two or three short words, e.g. : — kv δ' apa ol φν χειρί, ^ττος τ ίφατ €Κ τ όνόμχιζε. The preposition stands only rarely after the verb, evi- dently because it might then easily seem superfluous. In Latin poetry, cumque is often separated from the relative pronouns and adverbs to which it belongs, and sometimes in prose. Thus in Horace : — gtiem sors dierum cumque dabit. Mihi cumque (Od. I. 32, 15) is a corrupt reading. Note the passage in Vergil, Georg. III. 381, septem subjecta trioni, which was imitated by Ovid, Met. I. 64, Scythiam septemque trione?n. Elsewhere in the poets of the Augustan age. Tmesis occurs only in the case of prepositions which are also used independently as adverbs, as in Horace : — circum spectemus vacuam Romanis vatibus aedem. Vergil, however, following the example of the older poets, has (Eel. VIIL 17; ^n. IX. 288; X. 794) P^ae, and the negative in (always with a following que) thus separated; and Ovid imitates him in Met. XII. 49 Τ- Η. Another kind of Tmesis, not expressed in the text, occurs when the monosyllabic preposition or negative in of a compound word is for metrical reasons attracted to the preceding word. ss Eficlisis and Tmesis. This occurs on account of the caesura in the following Horatian verses : — dum flagrantia de \ torquet ad oscula, ut adsidens in \ plumihus pullis avis, parentibusque ab \ ominatus Hannibal; and in this from Vergil : — magnanimi lovis /;/ | gratum adscendere cubile, to release the first syllable from the second part of the compound. This kind of Tmesis occurs (very rarely) in Vergil in the ^:neid, in Horace and Propertius, in Phgedrus III. 15, 6; V. 7, 19, but not in Ovid and TibuUus. SEVENTH SECTION. jXXOO- ON THE TREATMENT OF SUCCESSIVE VOWEL SOUNDS. 29. Synizesis, Diaeresis, Crasis, Elision, Hiatus. Introductory Remarks. — When two vowels come to- gether in the middle of a word or at the end of one word and beginning of another (in Latin also, when the first syllable or word ends with ;//, or the second syllable or word begins with h), there is a certain stopping of the voice, and a so-called Hiatus occurs. An attempt is made to avoid this in various ways, principally through a com- bination of the vowels by means of Contraction, Synizesis, and Elision. Among the Greeks those least sensitive to this Hiatus were the lonians, as is shown by the Homeric poems. The Romans were on the whole much more sensi- tive in this matter than the Greeks. Hiatus at the end of a word is the most unpleasant ; less so in the middle of a compound, and still less so in a simple word. Hiatus in Homer is often only apparent, as the digamma frequently is to be considered as removing it; e.g. ρεκηβόλο,, /reVo?, ροΐκο,, ροΐνο,, θεορ^ίκ^λο,, Άρί^ψ, άρ^κων, 'ArpepcSrj,, In course of time the Greeks and Romans became gradually less sensitive to hiatus, and there- fore cases of harsh synizesis and elision became rare. How- ever, greater freedom in the allowance of hiatus at the end 89 'ff^. ^μΛ-^Λ-^^ ^J*, 90 Treatment of Suecessive Vowel Sounds. of a word is not found in the most artistic poets, but in folk-poetry. Hiatus appeared especially harsh when in the body of a word the first of the two vowels was long. This was quite frequent in Greek, but rare in Latin {vocalis ante vocalcm brevis). Hence as early as Homer, the first vowel in 0Γ09, Ύΐρωο% (Od. VI. 303) was sometimes shortened, and perhaps in δτ;ιος also. The Attic writers did the same in the case of Ttoiiiu (for which in colloquial language 7Γθ€ω was com- mon), ToioiVos, etc., but generally only in the case of diph- thongs whose second letter was t. Thus for «ος, eta, ctov, occur frequently co?, ϊος, in Latin eiis, lus. In Latin the first long vowel in combinations is regularly shortened ; e.g. i{ehisa\ proinde, praeacutus. In Latin of the Augustan age the penultimate vowel is long in the endings ai, ei, ais, eis from nominatives in -"»?'H 104 Treatment of Successive Vozvel Sounds. Hiatus in Greek. 105 38. Hiatus in Greek. When a long final syllable occurs in the thesis of a dactylic measure, hiatus with the following vowel is allowed, e.g. : — So, too, in the arsis when the long vowel is shortened : - άνδρα μ.οι ivv€^i, Μούσα, πολύτρσπον. Hiatus also occurs with short vowels, especially such as are seldom or never eUded, as with ν and . in the dat.ve singular, in the genitive 0.0, in «, ..pi, °' 7".=.;7.7' , It is very rare in the thesis, and only adm.ss.ble m the regular Penthemimeral and Hephthemimeral C^sura, as II. II 781; V. 576; VIII. 556; XXIV. 285. An u;pleasa„t effect is produced if the long vowe of the arsis remains long, as sometimes is the case m the first and fourth foot of the hexameter, and especially w.th mono syllables, as e.g. : — χλαίνα, r ήδί χιτώνα τά τ αιδώ ίμφ^καλύ,τα. Ij xtdvi ψνχρώ V «ί ^δατο, κρνστάλλω. Hiatus of short syllables is most harsh in ^e case of a final . in monosyllabic and trocha.c words, and e.a^t arsh .n dactylic words. In these last, h.atus o-u:. most fre quentlyin the first and fourth foot (bucohc c^sura). Agam totus is sometimes allowed on account of the ro,, καχα τρίτον τροχαΐον, as e.g. : ίλλ• άκέονσα κάθησο, ^μω δ' ^^^ύθ.ο μ.ύθ^. Punctuation also relieves the harshness of hiatus in a similar way. Of course those cases in Homer where the following word has the digamma, or in earliest times began with a consonant, have nothing to do with hiatus, as e.g..— στψματ Ιχων h χ^ρσί ρ.κηβόλον Άπόλλωνο,. So e.g. SX.s = satis, i&o, = sedes, li^sex, Uop.. = sequor, 5, = siius. Cf. eg. Od. XVII. 303 : δ«ν»;σατο οΓο άνακτος. Cases of hiatus in Homer and Hesiod, which are not comprehended under the rules already mentioned, rest either on a corrupt text or are to be explained by old forms of the words now unknown, but which removed the supposed hiatus. " Homer was the model of the later epic poets, who through misunderstanding introduced hiatus in places where in Homer's time none existed because of the digamma. But hiatus occurred in this epic poetry less frequently than in Homer, and still less often in the bucolic and didactic poets. . In the fifth century after Christ Nonnus and his mutators restricted hiatu? to a few cases with long final syllable. Hiatus occurs more rarely in the elegiac hexameter, and still more so in the pentameter, where it appears usually in the first foot and the first dactyl after the cssura. At the c«sura it is doubtful. Cases of the hiatus of long syllables with shortening in the arsis of anapsstic metres are not uncommon. In the iambic trimeter and trochaic tetrameter of tragedy hiatus very seldom occurs in the thesis, and then before a stop, or where the same word is repeated, as Asch. Agam. 1216:— . , , , , ότοτοΓ, KiKU Άπολλον, 01 «γω, «γω. Such examples stand mostly by themselves, outside of the verse. Hiatus is not allowed in the arsis. ,• ,. •.!-•. ,. ■ \Κ ί>•>^ ιο6 Treatment of Successive Vowel Sounds. 39. Hiatus in Latin. Compare the general remarks in 37. Hiatus occurs extremely seldom in the Roman dactylic poets, especially m the arsis of the foot. In Vergil the hiatus of a short final syllable occurs only twice. Eel. II. 53 ; ^n. I. 405 •• -^ addam cerea pruml. honos erit huic quoque pomo. et vera incessu patuit de^. iHe ubi matrem, - in each case before a decided stop. Long monosyllabic words or those ending m m allow hiatus in the arsis if a short syllable follows; as once m the Satires of Horace : — si me amas inquit; cocto num adest honor idem? This kiixi Of hiatus is very common in Plautus and Terence, but generally in cases where these smal word form the first syllables of resolved lamb.c or trocha.c theses. The first kind of hiatus occurs sometimes m Vergil, e-g- Άχι. VI. 507 : — te, amice, nequivi. Elsewhere iambic or cretic words are sometimes short- ened in the arsis (as Ennius had already done), e.g. m Vergil (Eel. 3, 19) ^^"• ^^^' ^lO'• — et longum formose vale valt' inquit lolla. insuUz? lonio in magno. This hiatus occurs sometimes in Vergil ; in Propertius once, IV. rr, 17 ; >" Ovid three times, .Xm. II. -3, -; Met. I. ,55; III. 50.; the conjectural readmg m Horace Ep. II t, 6ς, din aphujue remis, is incorrect. SpJaic words at the hiatus occur only in Horace Ep. ^. 100 (probably a corrupt reading) and Vergil, Georg. I. 437 : Hiatus in Latin. 107 et Esquilina? alites. Glau« et Panopeai et Inoo Melicertae. In this verse in imitation of Euphorion, the spondaic word of the first foot is preserved unshortened with the hiatus. In the poets considered here hiatus in the arsis, except in Hor. Ep. 5, roo, and hiatus in the thesis, except in the dactylic tetrameter ossibus et capiti inhumato, Hor Ocles I. 28, occur only in hexameter verse. The final syllable is always long, except in three cases, Tibullus I. 5, 33 J Jrop. III. 15, t ; 3^, 45, where the syllable ends in m, and this svllable is always the final of a polysyllabic word except m Verg. Λ;η. IV. 235 : — quid struit aut qua spe iniraica in gente moratur. Most poets allow hiatus only in the regular c^suras of the hexameter or before Greek words, e.g. : — Nereidum matri et Neptu«o Aegaeo. Vergil, however, in imitation of Ennius, sometimes allows hiatus at other points in the verse, at the end of words having an anapaestic ending or before a stop: — evolat infelix et femineo ululatu. si pere», hominum manibus periisse juvabit. He allows this hiatus in the thesis perhaps forty times; Ovid has it only twenty-six times; Horace once (Ep. 13. 3) besides the example quoted above. Finally, it is to be noticed that the interjections . and a, both in thesis and arsis, before long and short vowels, can be kept long by the poets, e.g. : — . ./ de Latia, ο et de gente Sabina ; ego laer'us,- but not hett, which never occurs in a hiatus {ehet^ is always to be read instead of heu heu). Latin, 109 EIGHTH SECTION. 3XKO*- LENGTHENING BY POSITION. 40. General Remarks. A SHORT vowel followed by two or more consonants or by I, i, Ψ, was usually considered long, although in most cases it was pronounced as short. A short vowel was always regarded as long, when it was followed in the sam, word by two or more consonants, except a mute and a li(iuid ; e.g. τίμνω, Έ.ίρνσθ.ν,, «λ^γω, omnis, aspicio, aJluo. 41. Greek. Generally in Homer a short vowel is lengthened before a mute and a liquid, whether these occur in the same word or at the beginning of the following. Only if the second vowel is λ or ρ (except ^λ, γλ, δλ), a final vowel sometm.es, and a medial vowel less often, remains short. Hence the reading in II. XVI. 857, λ^πονσ av8porr;ra Kac ^h&m, is wholly corrupt and long since rejected. Homer's example was followed by the older epic poets, and the iambic writers like Archilochus. On the other hand, in the Old Comedy, only ^λ γλ usually, and γ;., γν, δ;χ, δν always, lengthen a precedu.g short vowel (correptio Attica^, The tragedians conform more to the example of Homer. 108 Consonants, not mutes and liquids, always render the preceding vowel long, although Homer shortens final syllables preceding the words σκβπαρνον, Ι^κάμανδρος, Ζάκυν6>ος, Zc'Xcta, as otherwise these would not fit the metre. 42. Latin. Plautus and Terence did not recognize the lengthening of a preceding short vowel by a following mute and liquid except gm and -;/, and usually in other cases, especially in dissyllables, e.g. Vic, hte, immo, esse, ferentarius, disregarded the rules of position. On the other hand, the dactylic poets followed the Greek system in the middle of a word at least, although a mute and liquid exercised a lengthening force on the preceding short less frequently than in Homer. Hence many com- binations of consonants, which appear frequently in (ireek, are quite foreign to the Latin language. Cycmis is always written with a short y ; in iZitrare the a is long by nature. A final short vowel remains short when followed by a mute and liquid except gn. Hence after a preceding short final vowel we must write Cnosiis, Cnidiis, narus, natus, nariis, instead of Gnosus, etc. Short final syllables before other combinations of con- sonants appear usually only in those cases where syllaha anceps is allowed, as in Horace, Ep. 17, 26: — levare tent^ spiritu praecordia. The oldest Roman poets sometimes permit a short vowel to retain its quantity before impure s {s followed by a con- sonant), especially after a dactyl in the first and fifth foot of the hexameter. This usage is limited in the Augustan poets no Lengthening by Position, to the words Zacynihus, Scamauder, smaragdus {zmarag- dus) , with these few exceptions ; in the Satires of Horace ; Propertius; Vergil, ^n. XI. 309; Ovid, Halieutica, 120; Phiedrus, III. 3, 14; app. 9, 12. Lengthening of a short final syllable when the next word begins with two or three consonants, does not occur in the poets considered here, except in TibuUus I. 5, 18 j 6, 34; and in general it is very rare. ^i^'*r ' '^ "^ NINTH SECTION. -»o)0{oo- HOMERIC PROSODY. 43. Peculiarities of Prosody in Homer. In consequence of the mobility of the Ionic dialect, in Homer's time the quantity of many syllables might vary, or at least the lengthening of short syllables would be less offensive to the ear, especially in words which otherwise would fit the hexameter metre either with difficulty or not at all, and in words of very frequent occurrence. The vowels, a, t, υ, show the most frequent exceptions to the usual quantity. Thus the penult is common in Homer in the names of the chief heroes of the poem, ^k^i\^v% and Όδυσεΰς ; the first syllable is often lengthened in αν-ηρ^ "^ρψ, Άπόλλωνο?, etc., άτάλλω, Γλαο9, ττρίν, πυαίνω, τίω, ρνομαι, ύδωρ, νω ; always lengthened in αθάνατος, ακάματος, άπον^οντο, ayopdaaOe, διογ£ν€9, Ζεφνριη, πιόμενος, ΤΙρυαμί^ης, 8νναμ€νοίο, θνγατίρεσσι. Sometimes this lengthening is expressed in the script, as in ηνεμόας instead of άνεμόεις, ήνς instead of cifs, Διώνυσο? instead of Αωννσος. The liquids λ, μ, ν, ρ, also ς and occa- sionally π and δ, helped on the lengthening of short vowels, because they were easily doubled in pronunciation, espe- cially in compounds and after the augment. Thus for instance κατάλοφάδ£ΐα. This lengthening is frequently ex- pressed by the doubHng of the consonant; thus in ελλαβε, III J, 2 lloincric Prosody. ίμμαθ., ίτάνυσσί, 5ππω5, and also ill Άχαλ^ν, and 'ΟδυσσίΛ. For ^iXavi (II. XXIV. 79) another reading gives ^c.'Xavt. For well-known reasons, metrical licenses not permitted elsewhere occur frequently in the first foot; thus e.g. δϊά (II III 357) ; oft«" ''^"^^ ^^ * Molossus ( )• Many cases of lengthening of short syllables are explained by an older form, as in the first syllable of Ζ(/:)ϊ«, and the second in άπο(ί)«πώ.. Thus the forms βα^ν^,-οοί, .Vve«, Kcx^ LENGTHENING. 45. Lensthenins by the Thesis at the End of a Word. General Remarks. -A short syllable at the end of a word could be lengthened more easily than one m the middle of the word, since in the former case a short pause of the voice naturally ensues. 46. Greek. Hence in Homer, the lengthening of short vowels occurs especially before those liquids λ, μ, -, ρ, which are easily doubled, and occasionally, too, before 8 and