m\. 
 
 (JAP IN 
 
 Conditions under which 
 Missionary Work has 
 been carried on since 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2017 with funding from 
 Columbia University Libraries 
 
 https://archive.org/details/conditionsunderwOOgree 
 
CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH MISSIONARY 
 WORK HAS BEEN CARRIED ON SINCE 1883. 
 
 The Rev. 1 ). C. Greene, D.D. 
 
 During the seventeen years since the last Mission- 
 ary Conference in 1883, Japan has witnessed some 
 of the most significant events of her dramatic history. 
 While the secular historian will not fi.K upon that year 
 as an epochal date in Japanese chronology, still it 
 stands near two important concessions to the nation’s 
 demand for representation institutions, namely, the 
 establishment of prov incial .assemblies in 1878, and 
 the Imperial Rescript definitely promising a national 
 constitution within ten years, which was promulgated 
 (October 12th, iSSi, — concessions which will receive _ 
 increasing attention from students of constitutional 
 government. 
 
 Few foreign observers appreciate the strain to 
 which the Government of Japan w'as subjected by 
 the eftbrts of the reactionists wdio made their last 
 desperate struggle in the .Satsuma Rebellion, on 
 the one hand, and those of the ultra-radicals on 
 the other. A recent Japanese writer with abund- 
 ant opportunities for knowing the opinions of the 
 leading statesmen of the time, referring to the condi- 
 tion of affairs during that period of conflict says ; — 
 ■“ The opposition divided itself into two factions ; re- 
 actionists who, profiting by the conservative spirit of 
 ■certain of the people, would establish a military oli- 
 garchy, if not a feudal system ; radicals, or rather 
 revolutionists, w ho, pushing the democratic principle 
 to an extreme, would transform Japan into a pure 
 parliamentary monarch)-, if not into a republic.” 
 
C 2 ) 
 
 A^aiii the same writer sa} s : — “ We believ e our 
 readers can easily iinaj^ine w hat the political condition 
 of our country would have been in case tire constitu- 
 tion had not been promised in 1881, nor promulgated 
 in 1889. . . . If the centralized form of Goverr.- 
 
 ment had been continued for ten or twenty years 
 after the organization of the Liberal and Progressive 
 parties, who can say that the passionate radicals 
 would not have appealed to violent means? . , . 
 
 The inauguration of constitutional Go\ ernment was 
 at that epoch the only natural, not to say possible’ 
 wav' of solving the eptestion at issue.”* 
 
 Those who recall the fierce antagonisms of that 
 period, of which 1883 might be looked upon as a re- 
 presentative year, will not regard this description as 
 exaggerated. It was a time of intense excitement, and 
 to all true friends of Japan one of great anxiety. The 
 <|uestion continually arose in the minds of thoughtful 
 men : Will the compromise measures and the ac- 
 companying promises of the Government serve to alia}' 
 the prevailing excitement ? 
 
 The place which political questions occupied at that 
 time in the minds of the public render it fitting that 
 in this account of the conditions under which mis- 
 sionar} work has been carried on, the first place 
 should be given to a brief sketch of the politics of 
 the period which this paper is expected 10 survey. 
 
 'rhe writer not long since was invited to dine with certain pro- 
 minent nten in a provincial capital. One of the guests was the 
 warden a large penitentiary and curiously enough ff)ur other guests 
 had in the troublous days referred to in the te.vt been arrested f<ir 
 political agitation and detained for a considerable time in a neigh- 
 bouring prefecture under the care of this same warden. Of these ex- 
 prisoners, one is a prominent member of the National Diet and' 
 another is the president of a local assembly. There couid hardh'- 
 be a belter illustration of tlie efbcacy of the pacific policy above 
 referred to. 
 
( 3 ) 
 
 I.NTHRXAI, I-OLITICS. 
 
 From the \ crv beginning of the Metji f’ra, tlie 
 question of representative (.io\ ernment has occupied 
 a prominent place in Japanese politics. In the so- 
 called "Charter Oath" taken by His Imperial 
 Majesty when he ascended the throne in 1868, the 
 first article stands as follows : — 
 
 “ A deliberati'. e assembly shall be formed and all 
 measures shall be decided Iry public opinion.” 
 
 How far the thoughts of His Imperial Majesty and 
 his counsellors had definitely crystalized at that time, 
 it is impossible to say ; but following the overthrow' 
 of the Shogunatc a special council composed of the 
 representatives of the feudal lords was organized. 
 This council came to an end with the breaking-up of 
 the feudal system in 1871. Other e.xpedients for 
 ascertaining the sentiments of the people were resort- 
 ed to, but nothing approaching the modern concep- 
 tion of representative institutions was ventured upon 
 until 1878, when in a cautious way provincial assem- 
 blies were established, simply for deliberation and 
 counsel. 
 
 These provincial parliaments rapidly outgrew their 
 constitution and took on a distinctly legislative 
 character. At first this growth of influence, and even 
 authority, was looked upon with suspicion by the 
 provincial prefects ; but the great advantage secured 
 by devoh ing responsibility upon the representati\ cs 
 of the people led \'er)' earh' to a modus viveudissXxvdn, 
 gave the people a substantial share in, one might 
 almost say the control of, the local administration. 
 
 The Imperial Rescript of 1881 W'as issued in the 
 light of this experiment, though before its fullest and 
 best fruit was known ; still the Rescript undoubtedly 
 
carried special weij;ht from the fact that it promised 
 something not altogether new, bnt rather the nation- 
 alization and enrichment of a scheme which in a local 
 and meagre fornr was known and prized. 
 
 Political excitement by no means disapj^eared, — 
 indeed, if we lea\’e out of account th.e armed conflicts 
 of the preceding decade, it may be cpiestioned 
 whether the excitement was not greater after than 
 before ; but 'howe\ er this ma)- lie. it cease'd to 
 assume a threatening character, and it became 
 evident that the wide statesmanship of the time was 
 C(.[iial to the emergency, in spite of some harsh meas- 
 ures of repression which may perhaps be condoned, 
 though they can hardh- be justified. 
 
 It was natural that the two great clans, Choshu and 
 Satsuma, which took the lead at the time of the 
 Ixestoration, should exercise great influence upon the 
 (lovernment. So strong was that influence and so 
 persistent, in spite of many changes of personnel, that 
 a new word was coined to indicate the origin of these 
 successive administrations. They were described as 
 so many different phases of the Sai-cho syndicate 
 which was said to control the Government. “ Down 
 with clan Government : ” became a party cry. How- 
 ever, in the main the combination worked well and 
 deserves much credit for what the nation has accom- 
 jjlished. Under this arrangement ministerial posi- 
 tions were not at all restricted to these two clans, but 
 the power w'as in their hands, one might say almost 
 continuously until the present cabinet was formed, 
 largely out of new men, with little no reference to 
 their clan relationship. 
 
 The promised constitution was promulgated Feb- 
 ruary nth, 1889, and the first Diet met for organiza- 
 tion in December, 1890. The Constitution provided 
 
for a ministry responsible sole!)’ to the Throne and 
 the action of the Diet was limited to a relatively 
 narrow sphere, fne bulk of the Ihidget being purpose- 
 ly placed outside its control. The House of Repre- 
 sentatives comprised 300 members from as many 
 election districts into nhich Japan proper was divid- 
 ed. The House of Peers vvas made up of (i) princes 
 of the Imperial Blood ; (2) princes (dukes) and mar- 
 quises sitting by virtue of their rank ; (3) representa- 
 tives of the counts, viscounts and barons elected by 
 their respective orders ; (4) one representati\ e from 
 each of the prefectures, chosen by the fifteen highest 
 tax-payers from among their own number ; (5) emi- 
 nent men front different walks of life, appointed 
 directly by the Emjreror. 
 
 From the first session of the Diet until the war 
 with China in 1S94, the struggle for party supremacy 
 begun outside was hoth' continued within the Diet, 
 greatly to the embarrassment of the Go\’ernmcnt.. 
 These parties were not differentiated so much 
 by radically different policies, as by c|uestions 
 of method, or of traditional association, or, it 
 would appear, often simpl}- by purely personal 
 attachments. As regards the purpose to secure 
 enlarged scope for legislation the overwhelming 
 majority of the lower house was stoutly opposed to 
 the Government and stood firmly together, so far as 
 destructive measures were concerned, — indeed, there 
 seemed no sufficient reason why the various clicjucs 
 should not unite into one strong party ; but such a 
 consolidation was not consummated, though a tem- 
 porary union was effected some years later. This 
 persistent conflict led to frequent dissolutions, but the 
 authority of the Lower House gained fuller recognition 
 and wider scope, notwithstanding the manifest pur- 
 
pose of the siiccessi\ c ministries to keep the Diet 
 strictly within the field marked out by the constitution. 
 
 The war with China brought ail parties into tem- 
 porary harmony in view of their common determina- 
 tion to maintain the prestige of Jiipan. The Govern- 
 ment received the enthusiastic support of the entire 
 people and conducted the war to a successful issue, 
 although owing to the interference of certain Powers, 
 Japan was deprived of some of the fruits of her 
 victory. To the effects of that war u]ron the life of 
 the nation reference will be made elsewhere in this 
 essay. It is sufficient here to note its influence upon 
 the relations of the Go\’ernment to the Diet. 
 
 The experience gained during the war showed 
 impressively the advantage to the Ministry of a strong 
 foiowing in the Lower House of the Diet. This led 
 tire later administrations to ally themselves with 
 one or another of the political parties. At times it 
 has seemed that their alliance would speedily open 
 the way for party government in the true sense of the 
 — indeed, the late Okuma Ministry was hailed by 
 some as a party ministry ; but the present trend of 
 affairs does not seem to be iir that direction. Some 
 of the ablest men, who a few years ago were the 
 untiring advocates of the party government, are now 
 urging the maintenance of the constitutional method 
 oHninistries responsible to the Throne. 
 
 It is interesting to note the synchronism between 
 this reaction against party government and that 
 manifest in recent years in Great Britain and even 
 in the United States. The well-known letter of 
 I’rof. Goldwin Smith to the London Jfwrw nearly two 
 years ago, in which he gave an affirmative answer 
 to the- question, “ Is Party Government decaying ? ” 
 was almost immediate!)' reproduced in the Kokinnin 
 
Shintbun. 'fhe distrust of parliamentary institutions 
 in the I'nited States on tlie part of certain thoughtful 
 men is also well attested. 
 
 Here in Japan, the new conservatives, if the)' may 
 be so called, are to be found often among th.e young 
 men of education, sonie of whom have gained high 
 scholastic honours aliroad. Such men appear to hold 
 their views tcnLali\ely, with as great a hatred of 
 bureaucracy as their radical confi'eres ; l)ut others 
 would enijrhasise the power of theGo\ ernment at e\ ery 
 turn, regarding the IMet as a necessary evil, the scope 
 of which should be narrowed at e\ ery point. Ap- 
 j)arently the political association lately formed under 
 the presidency of Marquis Ito represents the former 
 of these two sections of what, for lack of a better 
 name, may be termed the new conser\ati\es. So 
 far, howe\er, as this Association has declared its 
 purposes, it would seem to limit its conservatism 
 to the point now under consideration. In other re- 
 spects it bids lair to become the organ of a true liberal- 
 ism. The questions whiclt this reaction raises possess 
 great interest to the student of public affairs, but 
 time forbids an attempt to answer or even to state 
 them here. 
 
 This synchronism to which attention is called is not 
 a mere coincidence, — what some would st)le a Nip- 
 ponism which has just happened to manifest itself 
 at this particular time. Neither is it on the other 
 hand a mere imitation. It is rather a new and strik- 
 ing illustration of the close intellectual bond which 
 binds Japan to the West. It is the natural reproduc- 
 tion in Japan of a habit of thought now current 
 throughout the civilized world, and it is current here 
 because Japan is now a part of the civilized world. 
 
 In this connection, it is proper to note, as an inde.\ 
 
of the careful attention paid to the question of politi- 
 cal reform, the provision for minority representation 
 enacted by the present Diet. It is understood to be 
 chiefly due to the efforts of i\tr. Hayashida, the 
 Secretary of the Lower House. This scheme greatly 
 enlarged the election districts and provided that three 
 or more representatives to the respective provincial 
 and municipal assemblies should be chosen from 
 each district, but at the same time allowed each voter 
 to cast his ballot for a single candidate only. The 
 first elections under this law w ere held in August and 
 September of last year. The result is reported to 
 ha\'e been even more satisfactory than had been ex- 
 pected. The effect was to give the minority a repre- 
 sentation in each local assembly in very close accord 
 with its strength in its respectis e province or munici- 
 pality. An interesting exception to the ecpiitable 
 working of the system is, howev er, reported .Tom one 
 of the northern provinces, where it is said that a 
 candidate of unusual popularity lost his election sim- 
 ply because his followers, fearing that this popularity 
 would attract to him an undue proportion of the 
 x'otes, cast their ballots for the other candidates of 
 their party. The difficulty which this incident illus- 
 trates can, it is believed, be guarded against. At all 
 events it is not thought b)- the supporters of the 
 scheme to constitute a serious objection. A provision 
 of this law, by lowering the pioperty qualification, 
 increased the total number of voters at the local elec- 
 tions from about 450,000 to 2,100,000. The national 
 elections are now to be conducted upon a similar 
 plan. Both the Gov eminent and the Lower House 
 sought to place the suffrage upon the same basis as 
 in the case of the local elections, but the attitude of 
 the House of Peers rendered a compromise necessary. 
 
As a result, the number of persons entitled to vote in 
 the national elections became, it is ofiicially estimated, 
 about one million. 
 
 Another provision of the new election law is intend- 
 ed to enlarge the representation of the commercial 
 and industrial classes. Another removes the property 
 qualification for membership in the Lower House. 
 These two clauses working together will, it is belie\ - 
 ed, change considerably the complexion of the House, 
 and by bringing in' a larger proportion of samurai 
 raise somewhat the standard of education and gene- 
 ral intelligence. 
 
 LEfi.VL KrtFORM. 
 
 \'ery early in the J/ay/Era, the work of legal re- 
 form was seriously taken in hand, with the aid of 
 tlroroughly competent foreign advisors, the value of 
 whose services is gratefully remembered. Let any 
 one read, for example, Mitford's Tales of Old Japan, 
 or one of Encho’s novels, in imagination reconstruct 
 the society which they represent, and then contrast it 
 with that which exists to-day. The comparison can- 
 not fail to make a deep impression. The progress 
 which it reveals has never been seen elsewhere within 
 the same short space of time in all the world's history, 
 and this progress is on the whole fairly represented 
 by the codes. 
 
 Even as early as 1884 tire iurists and penologists of 
 Europe and America had in their hands the first edi- 
 tion of the criminal codes. Such men as Wines of 
 the United States, llerner of Lerlin, Alayer and Stein 
 of Vienna, Labbe of Laris and others thought them 
 worthy of high commendation. \'an Hamel of Am- 
 sterdam w rote ; — 
 
 “ A penal code far from all reminiscence of a back- 
 ward age and crude law, inspired by a liberal spirit. 
 

 ( lO ) 
 
 re\'ealin;4 a scientific sense, composed witli a legisla- 
 tive art worthy of praise ; a Code of Criminal Proce- 
 dure, which does not deserve it is true to figure in the 
 first rank and does not open any new liorizons, but 
 nex’ertheless sanctions, in general, the grand princi- 
 )iles of modern procedure, tlie irrevocable conquests of 
 <;i\ ilization and justice : such are the precious gifts the 
 Japanese' Government has just made, to its people.” 
 
 The Civil and allied Codes publish.ed more recent- 
 ly have been born of the same spirit. Their humane 
 ])rovisions have not in all cases been effcctix e, partly 
 no doul'it owing to the large allowance made in the 
 codes themseh es for traditional usage and local cus- 
 toms, an allowance in general suitab'lc and perhaps 
 necessary, but which it would appear has been at 
 times the occasion of serious injustice. This injustice 
 must not be minimized, but emphasise it as we may, 
 the administration of these various codes has resulted 
 in a benefit so great that it would be difficult to over- 
 state it. Both in the State and in the family, the in- 
 dividual has his rights defined and protection assured. 
 
 Van Hamel in the passage cited above refers to 
 these privileges as " the precious gifts of the Japan- 
 ese Government to its people," and he is justified in 
 so doing. It would not be right to infer, however, 
 that the people have had no share in the formation 
 of the general system of law which the codes em- 
 body. They are truly the fruit of a sentiment wide- 
 spread in the nation and which is in important par- 
 ticulars even in advance of the written law. 
 
 The press and the public school have fostered and 
 elisseminated this modern humanitarian sentiment — 
 this respect for man as man — throughout the com- 
 munity to an e.\tent not generally appreciated, and 
 
 Japan Weekly Mail, April 1884, p. 368. 
 
( II ) 
 
 there is no reason ,to apprehend a reaction in this rc- 
 card. There are, it is true, some points of importan ;e 
 \',hich await revision. In criminal procedure, the 
 liberty of the accused is unnecessarily restricted ; the 
 private examination of criminal defendants witliont 
 tire privilege of counsel, aljandoned by Germany and 
 France, is still in vogue ; the discretion of the jtidges 
 in the matter of bail and in the treatment of evidence 
 would seem to be excessive, or at least unwisely 
 exercised, to the extent ot seriously weakening th.e 
 defence, and it is to be feared also, of lessening un- 
 happii)’ the respect of the people for the judiciary. 
 Imprisonment figures far too large!)' also as a punish- 
 ir.ent for slight offences. 
 
 These codes and the administration of justice 
 founded upon them must, of course, be iudged from 
 the standpoint of the law and practice of Continental 
 Furope, and it is claimed that the revision of the crim- 
 inal laws now in progress will bring them up to the 
 high standard of France and Genuany. Even the 
 revised code, however, will present many points of 
 contrast with the English and American systems, and 
 it is difficult for one accustomed to the latter to speak 
 fairly of the former ; but it must not be forgotten that 
 some of the most learned jurists of the world take 
 sides against the English system and that, too, upon 
 humanitarian grounds. Flowever this may be, lire 
 Japanese codes, viewed as a whole, are the embodi- 
 ment of a noble conception of the relations of the in- 
 dividual to society and to the State. 
 
 INTERN.VTIONAL KELATIOXS. 
 
 When the period under review began, the question 
 of treaty revision was receiving the eager attention ot 
 all thinking Japanese. The burdens imposed by 
 extra-territoriality were serious at the outset and 
 
( 12 ) 
 
 became heavier as the foreign settlements increased 
 in size and the relations of Japan to the foreign 
 Towers became more complicated. Even at the 
 beginning, hlr. Townsend Ilarris percei\ ed the difn- 
 cuities which were impending. He wrote in 185S, 
 “ The provision giving the right of extra-territoriality 
 to all Americans in Japan was against my conscience.” 
 Again h.e wrote, “ I fear I shall not live to see it 
 abrogated ’’ * That the provisions of the old treaties 
 v.-ere necessary at the time will be conceded by most 
 candid students, both Japanese and foreign. That 
 the^i were attended by some incidental benefits of 
 great value is cpiite plain. Still, that they should have 
 been continued in force so long without amendment 
 was certainly not creditable to the Western Powers. 
 
 It is net necessary here to discuss the different at- 
 tempts at revision made prior to 1 894. The successive 
 disappointments, place the responsibility where we 
 may, produced a most unfortunate impression upon 
 the nation and sein ed to intensify the morbid nation- 
 alism which formed so unhappy a feature of the 
 history of the past decade. 
 
 The struggle for revision practically ended with the 
 signing of the British treaty in London, July 16, 1894. 
 Ratifications were exchanged in Tokyo, August 25, 
 of the same year. Treaties with the otlier Powers 
 followed in due course. All agreed in providing for 
 the assumption, on the part of the Japanese Gov- 
 ernment, of direct authority over resident foreign- 
 ers. These treaties, excepting those with France and 
 Austro-Kungary, came into operation on July 17th, 
 1899, those with the two Powers mentioned becom- 
 ing effective on the 4th of August. For many years 
 
 Thnes, July 21st, 1872. 
 
( 13 ) 
 
 ]irevious, the sentiment of the missionary cominiini- 
 ty had been decidedly favourable to the abolition of 
 extra-territoriality, and the missionaries accepted the 
 new conditions with great cordiality. It was ine\ it- 
 able that the change should bring with it some incon- 
 \ eniences arising from unfamiliarity with the Japan- 
 ese methods of governmental administration, bitt the 
 transition has taken place without serious friction in 
 any cpiarter, while experience certainly goes to show 
 that the new order is much more hivourable to heallh,- 
 ful progress in eveiy department of missionary work 
 than the old. 
 
 If regard be also had to the broader interests of 
 the whole body of foreign residents, in spite of certain 
 important questions now under discussion, a hardly 
 less favourable report must be made. While there 
 are certain features of the Japanese law which Anglo- 
 Saxons, at least, might wish different, and some which 
 tliey \-iew with deep regret, the system as a whole 
 promises to work well and to be in harmony with the 
 interests of all law-abiding residents. 
 
 'Fhe war with China, which was formally notific-l 
 to the foreign Powers August, 25, 1S94, and which 
 terminated with the treaty of peace signed at Shimo- 
 jioseki, April 20th, 1895, exerted, as has been de- 
 scribed, a powerful influence upon domestic politics. 
 Its importance in the history of international affairs 
 was not less marked. 
 
 Speaking in general terms, the war may be said 
 to have grown out of the constant interference of 
 China in Korea, which produced a condition of un- 
 rest, not only in Korea itself, but also in Japan. 
 Kfforts to secure a definite understanding with the 
 Chinese (Government failed, and it became evident 
 that China had resolved, so far from receding, to 
 strengthen her position by the use of an armed force. 
 
( 14 ) 
 
 The result was a war in which Japan exhiljited un- 
 e';pected military and na\ al strength, coupled with 
 great skill in organization. The war came too late 
 to exert an induence upon the movement for treaty 
 revision ; but, nevertheless, it secured for Japan a new 
 place in the family of nations. The instructions 
 issued to the commanders in the field embodied 
 an enlightened philanthropy which was in the 
 main manifest in the conduct of officers and men. 
 Tlie few lapses which occurred were in the face of 
 unusual provocation. They were far less aggravated 
 than some which ha\ e lately disgraced the Christian 
 name in North China. 
 
 There can be no question that it is not only the 
 purpose of the Government, but the will of the nation, 
 that the military and naval forces shall be kept in 
 strict discipline and restrained from all offences 
 against non-combatants. The degree of success her 
 commanders have met with in this regard has contri- 
 buted not a little to the respect which New Japan has 
 won from foreign observers. 
 
 The fact that the combined action of certain Euro- 
 pean Powers deprived her of what her people regard- 
 ed as the natural fruit of her \ ictory has affected un- 
 happily the life of the people ; for it has caused an 
 undue concentration of thought upon the question of 
 national defence and has led to an enlargement of 
 armaments out of proportion to the wealth of the 
 nation. Tlse con\ iction is very strong, however, in 
 all quarters, that encroachments upon the rights of 
 Japan can onl}' be pre^•ented b)' a vigorous prepara- 
 tion for armed resistance. 
 
 THE GROWTH OF THE NATION. 
 
 As one of the results of the War with China, the 
 island of Formosa and the Pescadores group, with a 
 population estimated at about 3,000,000, came into 
 
( 15 ) 
 
 the possession of- Japan. This new territory is held 
 as a colony with the view to its ultimate absorption 
 as an integral part of the Ern[)ire. There have been 
 many ditficiilties in the way of the administration of 
 the colonial po'. ernment, some of the most serious 
 being due to the lack of homogeneity in the popula- 
 tion. It cannot be said that they have been over- 
 come. Progress has been slow, and opinions differ 
 as to the degree of success obtained ; but Japanese 
 obseiaers in gejieral claim that substantitd results 
 have been gained and speak confidently of the 
 future. This confidence is shared l.iy some at least of 
 the resident foreigners, and would seem to ire justified. 
 
 The Plokkaido, the Jesso of the early Dutch geo- 
 graphers and the Yezo of later times, while no new 
 acquisition, has not even yet been accorded the full 
 rights and pri\ ileges enjoyed by the Empire at large. 
 It does not, for example, have rcjrresentatives, in the 
 Diet, and local self-government has been but partially 
 introduced. Still, arrangements ha\ e been made by 
 which six representatix es will be sent to the next 
 Diet. The population is yet sparse, but it is growing 
 — in certain portions \ ery rapidly. With the better 
 means of communication to be afforded by the 
 gradually growing railway system, and the harbour 
 improvements now in progress, immigration will 
 surely increase. The natural resources of the island, 
 both as regards agriculture and mining, suggest a 
 future of imusual material prosperity ; and the re- 
 sidents, in spite of the intense cold of the winters and 
 the many hardships of a ^Mrv/-colonial life, seem 
 contented and hopeful. 
 
 The population of Japan pnrper, that is, excluding 
 Formosa and the Pescadores, has grown from 
 37,451,764 in 1884 to 43,228,863 in 1897.7 
 
 I The Japanese census is taken on the 31st of December of each 
 
( i6 ) 
 
 Comparative statistics showing the distribution of 
 the population for the year 1884 are not at hand, but 
 it will be siifiicient for our purpose to take those of 
 1886 and compare them with the latest available, 
 namely those of December, iSgy.j 
 
 In the ele\ en years, the total population of Japan 
 ])roper increased from 38,151,217 to 43,228,863, 
 that this is to say, thirteen and one-third per 
 cent. The population of the cities and towns {s/ii, 
 t/io, w’l) of more than 10,000 inhabitants increased 
 durino' the same interval from 4,506,060 to 7,383,168. 
 that is. Slightly less than si.\ty-four per cent., nearly 
 five times the growth of the Empire at large. 
 
 It will, of course, be understood that certain allow- 
 ances must be made in quoting these figures. In the 
 first place, there was undoubted!)- in 1886 a consider- 
 able number of towns w hose population was verging 
 on 10,000. t he addition of a few score to the popu- 
 lation of such towns would materiallv affect the per 
 centage. Again, these divisions are governmental 
 rather than sociological, and sometimes include no 
 little rural population. For example, one mura in 
 the list has a population of 25,000. Several other 
 jiti/ 7 'a have o\ er 20,000. The presumption is v ery 
 strong that in these cases the population is altogether 
 rural. Still again, recent political reorganizations 
 have brought, not infreiiuently, outlying villages 
 
 year. Certain portions of the returns generally appear in tht* 
 Government Gazette in the fDlIowing autumn ; btU the fully tabulat- 
 ed report is not published until two years after each census. 'I'hat 
 report i.s called the 'lokci Xcnk'iuau. 'I'he Stati.stics of this paper 
 are taken from 'J'okci Xcnk'aHin published in December, 1899, which 
 gives the census of 1897. 
 
 I The growth of the urban population is unfairly represented by 
 the .statistics of tile cities mentioned. Ibspccially in Osaka, Tokyo, 
 and Yokohama, the urban population has far ever-leaped the 
 boun laries of the respective municipalities. 
 
( 17 } 
 
 under tlie government of cities, so that their popula- 
 tions have gone to swell the number of so-called city 
 residents. 
 
 Still, making due allowance for all these necessary 
 defects in our calculations, we may still safely con- 
 clude that the city population has increased nearl\-, 
 jrerhaps fully, three times as rapidly as that of the 
 nation as a w hole. The percentage of increase ot 
 some of the iinportant cities for these eleven years 
 were as follows : — 
 
 Osaka 58 Xagoya 55 
 
 \'okohama 54 Kobe 43/2 
 
 Hakodate 40 
 
 It we take the population of Hakodate given in the 
 last British Consular Report, apparently from ad- 
 ^ ance information from the census of 1899, we have 
 an increase for thirteen years of ninety per cent. 
 
 From these comparisons it will be seen that many 
 of the problems w'hich are now perplexing the socio- 
 logists of the West will soon force themselves upon 
 the attention of their Japanese colleagues. 
 
 The national revenue has risen rapidly, especially 
 -since 1891, when that derived from ta.xation stood at 
 yi'H 103,231,000. That for the fiscal year ending in 
 -\pril 1900 w’as j'cw 236,715,000.4 
 
 The Army on a peace footing in 1891 was 41,379. 
 It was in 1897 reported to be 97,379. 
 
 The navy in 1891 consisted of 30 vessels aggregat- 
 ing 42,284 tons, with a force of 9,563 officers and 
 .men. In 1898 there were 52 vessels aggregating 
 162,181 tons, with 24,779 officers and men. The 
 tonnage now actually at the disposal of the Govern- 
 ment is stated by competent authority to be about 
 
 ‘h Allowance must, of course, be made in these and following 
 statistics for the decline in the value of silver and the recent adop- 
 tion of the ^old standard. 
 
( ) 
 
 ::oo,ooo; wliile that under construction, or definitely 
 ])ro\ ided for, will briny the total to not far from 
 250,000. 
 
 THE NATIONAI, AVI'.AI.TH. 
 
 In describing the growth of Japan, the increase in 
 the national revenue has already been referred to. 
 It is fitting that the national wealth upon which that 
 revenue is based should also receive our attention. 
 It is of course impossible to attempt an exhaustive 
 statement, but it is essential to a comprehensi\ e \ iew 
 of the conditions under which the missionary work 
 has been carried on, that the degree of material pros- 
 |)erity which the nation has enjoyed should be indi- 
 cated. It will be sufficient for our ])urpose to cite, 
 certain illustrative statistics relating to different de- 
 partments of life. 
 
 In an old country like Japan one might not expect 
 to see striking progress in agriculture, but the figures 
 subjoined show a considerable increase in the area 
 under cultivation, as well as in production. In the 
 Hokaido alone in the single \ ear 1897, the area under 
 culti\ ation increased more than icx^.ooo acres. (See 
 Acting Consul Chalmers Trade Report for 1899.) 
 
 During the tw'eb e years from 1885 to 1897 the land 
 classed as ia (usually called rice land, but not all de- 
 voted to the cultiv ation of rice) increased to the extent 
 of 95,268 cho ; other tillage land, 399,1 38(7/ ; amount- 
 ing to 494,406 cho in all. A cho is etpial to aliout two 
 and one half acres, so that the total increase was, 
 roughly speaking, 1,230,000 acres, a trifle less than 
 eleven per cent. 
 
 Land actually under cultivation as rice land increas- 
 ed during the same inteiA al by 176,858 cho and that 
 devoted to ntugi, that is, wheat, barley and rye, 
 215,480 cho, or eight and three-fourths, and fourteen 
 
( 19 ) 
 
 per cent. respecti\ el,\’. In comparing tiie production, 
 there is more difficulty because of the irregularity due 
 to meteorological conditions : but if -,ve take the 
 average of the fi\ e years 1884-8 and compare it with 
 the average of the years 1894-8, the result will be 
 fairly trustworthy. Such a comparison shows a gain 
 in the production of rice of twelve and a half per 
 cent, and of a trifle less than twenty-eight jrer cent in 
 that of wheat, barle\', etc. 
 
 In the case of silk, statistics covering the same 
 period are not at hand, but during the years 1888-97 
 the increase in the area planted with mulberry trees 
 amounted to thirty-six per cent., while the production 
 of raw silk increased by fifty-four and a half per cent. 
 
 In 1884 the number of manufacturing companies 
 recorded was 379 with an aggregate capital oi yen 
 5,048,299. In 1897 there were i,SSi companies with 
 an aggregate capital oi yen 105,381,106 l a;/. In the 
 same interval the number of commercial companies 
 increased from 654 with a capital of yen 8,987,560, to 
 3,630 with a capital of yen 260,227,479. Transporta- 
 tion companies increased from 204, with a capital of 
 yen 6,891,534 to 454 with acapital oiyen 164,684,165, 
 
 The sum total of the foreign trade for 1884 
 was yen 66,141,044. In 1897 it had become yen 
 452,046,000. 
 
 None of these figures are indicative of greater 
 benefit to Japan than those bearing upop transporta- 
 tion. They suggest how' much has been done to 
 bring the different provinces together and all into 
 close relations with the centres of the national life. 
 It is, nevertheless, still true that the excessive cost of 
 transportation is a ljurden which weighs heavily, es- 
 pecially upon the interior provinces. 
 
 Aside from these statistics indicative of business 
 
( 20 ) 
 
 .ictivit}', it is worthy of note tluit the introduction of 
 honks, which are now found in all the larger towns, 
 and soinetinies also even in the \ illages, insurance 
 companies, public warehouses, etc., has tended to 
 lower the rate of interest and to lessen the speculative 
 clement in ordinary commerce, and in this way has 
 been of great seiwice to the middle classes. 
 
 'i'he increase in the volume of trade is of no little 
 importance as showing the gieater effectiveness of 
 labour. .Methods have been improved ; the work- 
 man multiplies himself by the use to no small e,\tent 
 of labour-saving machinery, often of a humble sort 
 no doubt, but still labour-sa\ ing. 
 
 The change in this respect has been much greater 
 titan is generally supposed. Perhaps no better 
 illustration can be given than that of the ordinary 
 blacksmith shops. They are humble enough, and 
 their owners are still content with methods w'hich 
 seem awkward and ineffective; but if their outfit be 
 compared w ith that which shojts of the same relati\ e 
 grade would have had thirty years ago, it will be 
 found that there has been added an imported anvil, 
 a \ ice, one or more screw cutting tools, and quite 
 likely an improved drill, representing altogether, pro- 
 bably, a capital several times the entire equipment 
 ■of their forerunners. The aggregate of such invest- 
 ments on the )rart of the artisan classes must be very 
 Ltrge. 
 
 Hut allow ingfor all this, there is, none theless, reason 
 to bclicwe that the average workman has become 
 more forceful and performs his tasks v\ ith more energy 
 than his fathers. In other words he has gained in 
 some way a new moral impulse. What in the w ri- 
 ter’s judgment the source of that impulse is will lx; 
 indicated later. At the same time the industrial acti- 
 
( 21 ) 
 
 vity thusillustrated lias natiiially lessened considerabK' 
 the attention 'Which might otherwise have been turned 
 to religion. 
 
 luifC.vnoN. 
 
 As the progress in education will lie discussed in 
 another paper, minuteness of detail will not be neces- 
 sary here ; still its importance and the close relation 
 it sustains to the missionary work demand a place for 
 it in this survey. 
 
 Owing to changes in the statistical arrangements 
 and in the educational system, the year 1 889 is taken 
 as the starting point of our comparisons. In the case 
 of the so-called ‘‘ higher schools,” which may be 
 said to carry their students, perhaps, somewhat farther 
 than the close of the .Sophomore year in the Amei i- 
 can college, the starting point is the year of their organ- 
 ization. Before that time, their place was partially 
 filled by schools of another name, but only pai-tiallv, 
 so that a comparison with them would be mislead- 
 ing. As the purpose is merely to illustrate the pro- 
 gress made, rather than to give an e-\hausti\ e state- 
 ment of either the present or the past condition of 
 the educational system of Japan, this lack of uniform- 
 ity will not prove a serious defect. 
 
 The number of students increased as follows ; — 
 
 Instruc- 
 
 
 Institutions. 
 
 tors. 
 
 Students. 
 
 ImperialUniver- 
 
 ( 1889 
 
 I 
 
 229 
 
 839 
 
 sides 
 
 i 1897 
 
 
 198 
 
 -* •>- - 
 
 Higher Schools. 
 
 j 1890 
 
 ( JB97 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 320 
 
 353 
 
 4.3 
 
 4,66b 
 
 Middle Schools. 
 
 ( 1889 
 
 55 
 
 1,123 
 
 I -.33:? 
 
 1 1897 
 
 159 
 
 2,308 
 
 53.691 
 
 Special Schools. 
 
 i 1889 
 
 t 1897 
 
 84 
 
 1.439 
 
 2.589 
 
 16,31 8 
 36,6 1 4 
 
( 22 ; 
 
 Instruc- 
 
 Institutions 
 
 i. tors. 
 
 Students. 
 
 1889 
 
 26,102 
 
 65,665 
 
 3,031,938 
 
 1S97 
 
 26,860 
 
 79.299 
 
 3,994,826 
 
 1889 
 
 25 
 
 278 
 
 3.274 
 
 1887 
 
 26 
 
 3 'o 
 
 6,799 
 
 ]^riinai'\' Schools 
 
 I 
 
 ('lirls' Scliools... - 
 
 The increased attendance at the universities and 
 middle schools is very marked, and it is said that the 
 supply of such schools is not yet cc|ual to the 
 demand. The attendance at the colleges has not 
 greatly changed, because the limit of accommodation 
 has been reached. The attendance at the primary 
 schools is still less than it should be. The law pass- 
 ed at the last session of the Diet abolishing the fees 
 hitherto paid by the pupils of the common schools 
 will, it is believed, prove a great boon to poorer 
 families. It will tend not only to bring more child- 
 ren into the schools, but also to keep them longer. 
 I 'nfortunatelv a large number of children have been 
 in the past withdrawn so early that their schooling 
 has been of small benefit. 
 
 The reform in the method of \\ rinng the language 
 which is receiving much attention in these days, if it 
 can be made effective, will simplify the task of the 
 children very greatly. Two methods have been pro- 
 posed ; one aijns merely at reducing the number of 
 Chinese characters to be used in ordinary literature 
 to perhaps 1,200 ; the other seeks to abolish the ideo- 
 graphs altogether and to substitute the Roman Alpha- 
 bet for the native syllabary. The Department of Edu- 
 cation is interested in both methods. The difficulties 
 in the way of transliteration are \ery grave, but 
 sooner or later Japan must come to a phonetic system 
 of writing, and the Roman letter possesses very great 
 advantages over the native syllabary. 
 
( 23 ) 
 
 'I'liere has been, certainly of late years under the 
 influence of an over-wrought nationalism, a disjrosi- 
 tion to bring' all primary and middle schools, both 
 public and private, into one inelastic system, with a 
 rigidly prescribed curriculum. It is true the plans of 
 the adv ocates of this system did not in terms include 
 a prohibition of schools outside the system, but the 
 pri\ ileges denied them, namely, postponement of mili- 
 tary serv ice and affiliatio!i with the higherGovernment 
 institutions, were so important, that it became a 
 serious c|uestion whether they could secure students. 
 This disposition found e.xpression in the Private 
 Schools’ Regulations of August, 1899. 
 
 Many of the Christian schools had joined the so- 
 called national system and had consequent!}' adopted 
 the prescrilred curricula. In the new regulations 
 there was a clause forbidding religious instruction in 
 any schools follow ing the curricula prescribed by law. 
 .Vs a consequence, most of the Christian schools gave 
 up their licenses and the attendant privileges. 
 
 It was strenuously denied that this clause indicated 
 any anti-Christian purpose, and some undouirted 
 Christians have sustained the policy of the Gov ern- 
 ment. The discussion which preceded the promulga- 
 tion of the regulations, when they were before the 
 High Educational Council, howev er, certainly showed 
 on the part of certain advocates of the measure a 
 decidedly hostile attitude to Christianity. The admi- 
 nistration of these regulations has been less stringent 
 than was feared and it is believed that the more 
 serious disabilities will soon be removed. The 
 privilege of postponing military service is ahead}- 
 granted, irrespective of the religious features of the 
 schools concerned. 
 
 This sketch of educational progress would be in- 
 
( 24 ) 
 
 complete without a reference to the number of Japan- 
 ese students who ha\e studied abroad. What this 
 number is, it is impossible to say, for there are no 
 available statistics, but it must be very large and in- 
 clude representatives of many departments of life. 
 Among them a remarkable proportion have received 
 recognition as advanced scholars in their special 
 branches. They form an important link iii the chain 
 which binds Japan to the countries of the West. Their 
 presence in their nati\e land must in the long run 
 tend toward harmony in thought and life between 
 Japan and her sister nations. 
 
 Tim PRESS. 
 
 After the school system and the supplementary 
 schools, perhaps the most important secular agency 
 at w'ork in Japan is the Pi-ess. The printed page is- 
 already ubiquitous. The following comparison will 
 indicate the progress during the period under survey. 
 
 1884. 1897. 
 
 Books (titles) published ... 9>893 25,578. 
 
 Newspapersand Magazines, 
 
 aggregate Circulation ... 61,162,611 431,813,536 
 
 As a result of the public school and the press many 
 even among the lowly have come to take an interest 
 in world politics. Some years ago the writer over- 
 heard two chair coolies on Mt. Hiei discussing the 
 questions at issue in an American presidential 
 campaign. A little attention to the subject will 
 disclose a very remarkable widening out of the 
 thoughts of many who seem to be living in the same 
 world w ith their fathers. 
 
 ELEEMO.S\ NAlt^- WORK. 
 
 An account of the e.vtraordinary eleemosynary 
 movement of the period might naturally find a place. 
 
( 25 ') 
 
 That movement, liowever, is so important and its 
 discussion would almost inevitably involve so much 
 of detail, that it has very proper!)- been made the 
 subject of a separate paper. Nevertheless, its close 
 relation to the spread of Christianity, and the fact that 
 it serves as a noteworthy exjxinent of the new con- 
 ception of the relation of the individual to societ)', 
 which plays so larj^e a part in the life of new Japan, 
 both render a passing reference imperative. 
 
 It is impossible to say what degree of interest in 
 the various forms of charity might have arisen, had 
 organized Christianity never -appeared in Japan, but 
 attention may well be called to the e.xtent to which 
 the starting jioint of charitable effort has been 
 found in the Christian community, as well as 
 to the further fact that the leadership in such matters 
 has been largely comriiitted to Christian men. With 
 no disposition to minimize the immense good accom- 
 ]jlished by the Red Cross Society and the many 
 iluddhist charitable organizations, it is impossible 
 not to see in the large volume of work controlled by 
 the Christian community, comprising about one-half 
 of one per cent, of the total population, the e\ idence 
 of a special sense of social responsibilit) . 
 
 THE ETHICAt- .SITf.VTIU.V. 
 
 It w'as inevitable that the social and political agita- 
 tion through which Japan has passed should leave a 
 profound impress upon the ethical sentiment of the 
 nation. The other day as the writer was riding by 
 one of the CiO\ ernment schools which prepare stud- 
 ents for the Military Academy, his jinrikisha coolie 
 remarked, " 1 have two nejihews in that school.” 
 The youths in question were the sons of a small 
 farmer in a neighbouring prefecture. Under the old 
 regime, men of that class would have been practically 
 
{ 26 ) 
 
 serfs. In some pro\ inces tliey belon^red to the land 
 and lived lives determined for them by a rigid cus- 
 tom which included the crops they should raise, the 
 clothes they should wear, and an abject subservience 
 to their social superiors. Now the pathway is open 
 not merely to military commissions, but to the highest 
 offices of State. Such a radical change in social rela- 
 tions induced a new atmosphere, which has permeat- 
 ed e\ cry corner of the land. 
 
 The ipiestion at once arises. Has this changed 
 atmosphere been fax ourable or otherw'ise to the char- 
 acter of the people ? Many observers both Japan- 
 ese and foreign think it has not. They claim 
 that the morals of the people ha\ e deteriorated, some 
 would say, to an alarming extent. It is asserted that 
 the criminal population has increased, and especially 
 that the number of j outhtul delinquents has become 
 disproportionately large ; that dissipation in various 
 forms is rife in many schools ; that politicians are cor- 
 rupt, etc. One in close contact w ith the people hears 
 such jeremiads almost daily. -Still there is room to 
 <|ucstion w hether the facts adduced w arrant the wide 
 inference drawn from them. As to the growth of 
 the criminal population, it is by no means certain 
 that this means an actual increase of offences against 
 life and property. Probably life and property were 
 never before so secure as now. The scope of law 
 has been widened and the complicated conditions of 
 modern life have brought within the jurisdiction of 
 the courts many acts which in other days, if they met 
 disapprobation at all, never came within the cogni- 
 sance of the Government. As to the schools, the 
 means of comparison hardly exist and the charges 
 are too indefinite, and affect too small a proportion of 
 the public schools to make them a satisfactory basis 
 
( 27 ) 
 
 for a wide generalization ; still there is reason to fear 
 that the middle school system which brings together- 
 large numbers of young boys with a very inadequate 
 substitute for parental guardianship is fraught with 
 grave evils. As to political corruption, there is doubt- 
 less far too much, ljut a somewhat close attention to 
 the political history of the past thirty years appears 
 to show that the charges are greatly exaggerated. 
 The most that can be said is that the new freedom, 
 the new educational arrangements, and the new 
 political system ha\ e been attended with certain 
 -serious c\ ils. 
 
 On the other hand, it is clear that the national 
 conscience is alive and that its criticisms extend 
 into a Ijroad territory which in former times was for 
 the most part outside its view. Take for example the 
 present attitude of public sentiment toward the low !/ 
 and despised, the ' oolie, the eta, and, recently, the 
 prostitute. It is not merely that the law is interpreted 
 in their favour, but that public sentiment is excited 
 and stimtilates the administration of the law. Take 
 also the new- sense of duty toward the afflicted and 
 suffering embodied in the eleemosynary efforts al- 
 ready referred to. Even as regards the evils mention- 
 ed and whose existence must be admitted, it may wc l 
 be doubted whether in any previous age, the condem- 
 nation by the public was ever so severe or so per- 
 ■sistent. 
 
 A certain school of w riters has demanded a specird 
 ethical system for Japan, based on the principle of 
 loyalty ; but there have not been w anting other forceful 
 writers who have showm that a national syste7n of 
 ethics in these modern times is as unthinkable 
 as a national system of mathematics or chemistry. 
 There is not space to treat this subject fully, but as 
 
( 28 ) 
 
 III! illustration of the enlarged scope of ethical thought 
 among leaders of public opinion, it is worth while to 
 rote two remarkable addresses delivered in the early 
 summer of 1895, one by Professor lyenaga, then of 
 the Keio Gijiku, Mr. Fukuzawa’s famous University, 
 and later of the Higher Commercial School of Tokyo, 
 and the other by Marcpiis Saionji, at that time 
 r.linister of Kducation. Professor lyenaga maintain- 
 ed that deeds like the attempted assassination of Li 
 Hung-chang could not be treated as mere sporadic 
 cases of crime, but that they were the legimate result 
 of the defects of the Confucian system and proved 
 its incompatilrility - with the facts of modern 
 life. The Marc[iiis Saionji in similar terms con- 
 demned the deficiencies of the old system and in- 
 dicated that his administration would favour a 
 i.'ioadcr and more cosmopolitan view of social 
 cbligations. 
 
 The rvriter hesitates to discuss the vexed t(uestion 
 C'f commercial morality, but he ventures none the 
 less to express his conviction that the development of 
 large business interests is having a most valuable 
 educati\ e influence upon the mercantile classes and 
 has already induced a more healthy public sentiment 
 regarding commercial questions. 
 
 Japan, like her sister nations, clearly has her own 
 jieculiar ethical problems — some of them of much 
 gravity ; but at the same time her statesmen and 
 moralists have every reason to be gratified by the 
 promptness with which the people have recognised 
 the responsibilities of the new regime and to believe 
 that their problems can and will be solved. Taking 
 the ethical situation as a w hole, the outlook is full of 
 encouragement. 
 
( 29 ) 
 
 THE KIH.IGIOC'S SITEATION. 
 
 Tlie most marked feature of the period under sur- 
 A ey has Ireen the rationalistic mo\ emcnt of the past 
 twelve years. From the beginnin;^^ of the period the 
 rationalizing spirit has been abroad in Japan. In the 
 first years, the deism of the eighteenth century at- 
 tracted much attention. The old arguments of Torn 
 Paine were revamped and used by the Buddhists as 
 weapons against Christianity. That form of attack 
 was not successful. While the onset was most 
 se\ ere the church seemed to grow most rapidly. 
 
 A few years later the new lilieralism entered japan. 
 It spread rapidly and widely and wrought sad ha\ o: 
 with the faith of some who had been looked upon as 
 leaders of the 3 oung church. .Some have been dis- 
 posed to place the responsibility with the representa- 
 tives of the liberal theology in the missionary body. 
 ]’ossil;)ly their presence may have accentuated the 
 movement, biit this is by no means certain. It had 
 already gained headway before they came and it 
 certainly went farther than most, perhaps than any, 
 of them wished or e.xpected. Among them were 
 found some of the strongest advocates of spiritual 
 religion, men who believed in and proclaimed a Cod 
 of providence, belief in whom was the crying heed of 
 Japan. 
 
 The more probable view is that this wave of 
 rationalism is simply the manifestation in Japa r 
 iinder special conditions of a force which has been 
 felt throughout the civilized world. It is associated 
 with the same agnostic philosophy and appears to be 
 closely connected with the same evolutionary theories 
 of the universe. The doctrine of evolution is not 
 itecessarily incompatible with a clear and definite 
 Christian faith. There is every reason to believe 
 
( 30 ) 
 
 t/.at the faith of the Church will in due time become 
 as fully adjusted to the doctrine of evolution as it is 
 to the Copernican theory of the universe, which once 
 was so serious a stumbling block ; but for the time 
 1 eing it has been a source of perplexity and doubt 
 to many souls even in the oldest Christian lands. 
 AVhat wonder then that in the Church of Japan, so- 
 \oung in experience, it should ha\ e chilled enthusi- 
 asm and checked the faith of many. 
 
 It was but a natural result that preaching should 
 l.ecome disproportionately apologetic and ethical, 
 that there should be too little nourishment for the 
 faith that worketh by love. The churches in every 
 quarter ha\'e suffered, — some jnore than others no 
 doubt, but all have had their life in some degree 
 impaired. .Signs are not wanting, how ever, of a re- 
 vival of faith. 
 
 It would appear that not Christianity alone has 
 felt the force of the incoming tide of rationalism. 
 As regards Shintoism, the effect is seen in the denial 
 t'lat its ceremonies embody the idea of worship. 
 They are, it is said, simply forms by which rev erence 
 for one’s ancestors is expressed and which may pro- 
 perly be observed by any one, whatever his religious 
 faith may be. 
 
 Among the Buddhists the result would appear to 
 he more similar to that among the Christians. There 
 is more stress laid on the ethical element iii religion, 
 at least this is the impression made upon the writer. 
 
 It is interesting to note, in passing, that as in other 
 lands so in Japan, the growth of a rationalistic habit 
 of thought among the more intellectual classes has 
 been attended by a marked reaction in other quarters. 
 The vagaries of Christian Science and other forms of 
 
r 31 ) 
 
 superstition in America find tfieir parallel in the 7 «v/- 
 rikyo and the Rcnunonkyo* of Japan. 
 
 Buddhism has felt in a marked dejjree the infiucnce 
 of Christianity, at least in its methods of work and in 
 the life which it inculcates. It essays to organize its 
 believers into young men’s associations, women's and 
 children’s societies of \ arious kinds, etc. They ha\ e 
 their hospitals, orphan asylumns and the foundation 
 at least of one child-saving society has been laid, not 
 to speak of a goodly number of schools formed in 
 apparent imitation of the Christian schools. 
 
 In some quarters this competition has been attend- 
 ed with ill-disguised hostility, but in the main there 
 has been little for the Christians to complain of,— 
 indeed, it is gratifying to record that while the so- 
 called Religions’ Bill was under discussion in 1899 
 and the early months of 1900, the Abbot of tlic 
 Western Branch of the great Shin sect used his in- 
 fluence in a most liberal and irenic spirit. 
 
 The only serious feeling of restriction came in con- 
 nection with the l’ri\ ate .Schools’ Regulations whose 
 effect upon the Chi istian Schools has been elsewhere 
 sufficiently discussed. 
 
 The Religions Bill referred to above, while it failed 
 to gain the sanction of the House of Peers, was 
 cvidentl)' in accord w ith public sentiment. It failed 
 of enactment chiefly Ijccause of the opposition of the 
 Ikistern Branch of the Shin sect ; but there is every 
 
 Tcnrikyo, or the 'I'eachin^i cf tlie Heavenly Principles, is a 
 reactionary sect of ShinU)ism originating with an old peasant woman 
 of Yamato. Its chief doctrine is that of faith-healing. Remmonkyo, 
 the Teaching of the Lotus (.late, is a similar sect also originating 
 with a woman. 'I'ho latter, tht»ugh born ol a peasant family in 
 C’hoshu, was chiefly associated with t«»wn life in northern Kyushu. 
 ^'hc adherents of these sects luiinber several millions. 
 
( 32 ) 
 
 reason to suppose that with some possi'ole modifica- 
 tions it will soon become law. 
 
 That Itill reco;^nizes the equality of Sliintoism, 
 Buddhism, and Christianity before the law. This is its 
 chief characteristic. It is based upon similar legisla- 
 tion in most of the countries of Continental Europe, 
 ljut is framed in a lilteral spirit. While there are 
 certain clauses the wisdom of which is at least ques- 
 tionable, there is nothing in it which will seriously 
 restrict the liberty of belief or practice. This mea- 
 sure when once sanctioned by the Diet will be a 
 lltting recognition of the position alread)- accorded 
 to the Christian Cliurch. 
 
 Another paper w ill narrate the history of the Chns- 
 tian movement, but it will not be out of place to 
 indiciite by a few illustrations the place which Chris- 
 tian men have won in Japanese society. In doing 
 so, use w ill be made of an article in the report of the 
 jaitan Mission of the Ameiican Board for the year 
 ending i\ larch 31st, 1900. 
 
 According to the latest statistics, the number of 
 enrolled Christians was as follows ; — 
 
 Protestants 41,808 
 
 Creek Catholics 25,231 
 
 Roman Catholics 53.924 
 
 1 20,963 
 
 1 lere w e ha\ e in round numbers 1 2 1 ,000 Christians, 
 representing a Christian community, including 
 children (which are not included in the Protestant 
 rolls) and other dej^endants, of not far from 225,000 
 souls, or about one-half of one per cent of the popula- 
 tion of Japan outside of Formosa. This compara- 
 tively small body has alreadv’ furnished one cabinet 
 minister, two justices of the Court of Cassation (the 
 
( 33 ) 
 
 national Supreme Court), two Speakers of the Lower 
 House of the Diet, one of them havino' been twice 
 elected, two or three vice-ministers of State, not to 
 speak of several heads of bureaux, judges of the 
 courts of appeal, etc. 
 
 In the first Diet, besides the Speaker, the Chair- 
 man of the Committee of the Whole, and eleven other 
 members were Christians, out of the 300 members of 
 the House, — nearly nine times the normal proportion. 
 In subseciuent Diets ,the proportion has never lieen 
 less than four times the normal. In the present Diet, 
 besides the Speaker, thirteen members of the 1 louse 
 are Christians, and among them are to Ire found 
 some of the most efficient men in the Diet. One of 
 tliem was elected in a strongly Piuddliisl district bs' a 
 majority of live to one. 
 
 la the executive Committee of the great Liberal 
 Party last year, two of the three memirers were Chris- 
 tians. while for the present year the ratio is one to 
 three in the same Committee. 
 
 In the army, there are said to be 155 Christian 
 officers, that is, about three per cent. In the navy, 
 too, there is a goodly pro|)ortion of Christian officers, 
 including two or three of high rank. The late Rear- 
 Admiral Serata was a most ardent Christian and pro- 
 minent in the activities of the Church. 
 
 In the universities and Covernment colleges, both 
 among the instructors and students, the Christians 
 are found in abnormal numbers. The same is true 
 of the students sent abroad at Go\-ernment' expense. 
 There are, it is said, at the present time six graduates 
 of one of the best Government colleges studying 
 abroad, and among these, five are Christians. 
 
 Not less than three of the great dailies of Tokyo 
 are largeh- in the hands of Christtan men, while in 
 
( 34 ) 
 
 the case of sev eral others, Christians are at tlte hedd 
 of departments on tlie editorial stall'. 
 
 As has been already noted, the most surces.sful 
 charitable institntions are also tinder Christian leader- 
 ship, and the volume of such work in Christian hands 
 is very large. The largest public institution for the 
 poor in all Japan is also greatly indebted to the wise 
 counsel and efficient service which it has drawn from 
 the same small fraction of tlie nation. 
 
 This prominence of Christian men in so many 
 departments of life is not clue — it cannot be due — to 
 accident ; it must be attributed to a certain slimulus 
 which is the product of their Christian faith. I hey 
 have made ;i deep imjrression npon society. They 
 lill these numerous positions of influence because, in 
 spite of much prejudice, they have proved themselves 
 worthy and have won the confidence of their country- 
 men. The influence accorded them is an unconscious 
 tribute to the faith which has made them what they 
 tire. 
 
 CONU.UStOX. 
 
 In the various changes which have been thus 
 hurriedly described, there is manifest the co-operation 
 of two forces born of contact with Western nations, 
 — two thoughts, whicli, if not strictly speaking new, 
 have >'et assumed such new definiteness in the minds 
 of the people that they are practically new thoughts. 
 They are the conception of national unitv and the 
 conception of the value of the individual, i hese 
 two new thoughts introduced into a strong and 
 vigorous nation have borne their natural fruit. 
 
 Those who years ago had the pleasure of listening 
 to the accounts the lamented J)r. Verbeck v, as accus- 
 tomed to give of his earl V experiences in Japan will 
 remember the vivid picture he drew of the fragment- 
 
( 35 ) 
 
 ary condition of society and tire intense jealousy and 
 suspicion between tlie s/iizokn of the different clans. 
 He stoutly maintained that national patriotism did 
 not exist save in a \ ery rudimentary form. Certain!}' 
 local interests were in those days the most prominent 
 and the most absorbiip:;-. Though we now know that 
 .a national mo\'ement had gained some headway, 
 there is no evidence that it would have prevailed 
 but for the effect of foreign intercourse. The 
 nation, however, soon became ripe for the revolu- 
 tion of 1868, which unquestionably v.as carried far- 
 ther than its promoters anticipated or desired, and 
 Japan became a true empire. 
 
 Since that day, the patriotic desire to forward the 
 interests of the Imperial House and of the nation has 
 been an ever-present force in the minds of all intelli- 
 gent subjects. This desire would in any case have 
 become a powerful factor in the building-up of caen- 
 tralized government, but within the period with which 
 we are now concerned, it allied itself with the new 
 nationalism (or shall we not say chauvinism r) which 
 has been so conspicuous a feature of European and 
 American history during the past twenty-fix e years. 
 As !)r. Nitobe has said, speaking of one aspect of 
 this nationalism, “the Japanese anti-foreign reaction 
 is but a wavelet in this universal wave.” The politi- 
 cal and social history of the period furnishes abund- 
 ant evidence of the strength and persistence of this 
 force and the great value, on the whole, of its opera- 
 tion. Its fruit may be seen in every department of 
 activity. 
 
 But emphasize this nationalism as we may, we 
 must not lose sight of the operation of the second, 
 and, as the writer believes, more potent, of the 
 two great forces, namely, the new conception 
 
( 36 ) 
 
 of the value of ihe individual. In another beclion 
 of this essay reference has been made to the vast 
 extension of the sphere of the individual and the 
 large liberty of action now guaranteed him under the 
 new regime. 'I'hc Japanese of to-day lives in a new 
 world. Under the influence of this changed moral 
 environment he thinks new thoughts, — he is a nesv 
 man. His sense of responsibility is increased, his 
 labour is more effective, and he has learned how to 
 combine the fruits of this increased energy so as to 
 multiply the national wealth and the national strength. 
 
 The effect of this new thought upon the life of 
 men, upon social and political reform, has been pre- 
 cisely what it has been in Western lands during the 
 past 400 years. In the West this thought was the 
 product of Christianity, of Christian preaching, and 
 came to men in an intensely religious form. They 
 began to realize that men without distinction of age 
 or sex stand face to face with a personal Cod. The 
 first effect was seen in a warmer religious life, but 
 that warmer religious life was followed by truer ethi- 
 cal conceptions, a keener sense of social responsibili- 
 ty, greater effectiveness of labour, and gradually try 
 increased national wealth and strength. 
 
 Referring to this general subject, the I.ondon 
 says (Aug. 21, 1897, p. 241): — 
 
 " ]>ut no religious mo\ ement like Alethodism, ever 
 stops short at moral results ; it stirs up the nhole 
 forces of our nature, it rallies and sustains the most 
 subtile and active powers of man. Just as no greater 
 harm was ever done to any nation, whether political- 
 ly, iirtellectually, morally, or socially than n'as done 
 to France by the banishment of the Huguenots, so 
 no more effective stimulus to activity in every depart- 
 ment of life has been applied than in the great reli- 
 
( 37 ) 
 
 ;;ious inovemenls of Kngland. Lollarclisni, Puritan- 
 ism, Methodism, all in their turn enlarged the nation- 
 al intellect, and the enlargement is seen just as truly 
 in political and industrial life as in tire region of faith 
 and morals. Men are not Iniilt in water-tight com- 
 partments, but the sea of thought surges all over 
 man’s nature and creates a soul under the ribs of 
 death." 
 
 In Japan the new life and energy may not have 
 come so directly from a religious source, yet they 
 have come from contact with Christian nations and 
 are indirectly at least the product of Christian 
 thought. They are also in the main developing in 
 harmony with Christian sentiment. They are the 
 result of a keener appreciation of the place of man 
 in nature and the strong, one might almost say, 
 dominating, power of his will. That appreciation 
 will be found in the long run to lead to a theistic 
 view' of the universe, that is, a view of the universe 
 which places it under the control of an ever present 
 Divine Will. 
 
 But this new’ life and energy have, even in Japan, 
 in an important degree developed under a strong 
 religious stimulus. In another section attention lias 
 been called to the abnormally large number of 
 Christians in high social and official positions. Con- 
 sciously or unconsciously they are moulding public 
 opinion. Christian congregations, too, are scattered 
 all over the land. It would appear that an army of 
 a.jcx), possibly 3,000, young people passes out of the 
 Christian schools every year, each having spent on 
 the average four years under Christian training, 
 and having come to be more or less controlled 
 by Christian conceptions of life and duty. They 
 edrry these thoughts with them wherever they go, 
 
( o8 ) 
 
 not always actively propagatin'^ them, but still living- 
 lives more or less framed under the inlluence of 
 Christian teaching-, 'and helping- to strengthen an 
 ethical sentiment in harmony N\ith it. W’hatcver 
 obstacles may for the time seem to stand in the way 
 of the progress of Christianity, so loi-ig as that senti- 
 ment grows and men become inneasingl)- accustom- 
 ed to the thought of their ])ersonal, individual, 
 lespon.sibility, the more sensitiv e must ihev become to 
 the appeals of a religion which speaks of a [lersonal 
 God and a persoi-ial Savior. 
 
 Another thought of great interest is suggested Iry 
 this review. It is the close intellectual relation 
 which Japan sustains to the West. This does not 
 n-iean that Japan has lost her independence, any 
 more than the close intellectual relation between the 
 United States and German)-, means that either nation 
 has lose her independence, — certainly there is no loss 
 in any invidious sense of the term. It is simplv- a 
 plain matter of fact that any deep-moving current of 
 thought or feeling -which appears in one country of the 
 civilized world, sooner or later, possiblv’ modified by 
 local influences, makes itself felt in other lands. 
 Japan in casting in her lot with the representativ es of 
 modern civilization has made 1-serseIf partner in the 
 good and ill which the great world movements 
 cause. The construction of a national system of 
 ethics or philosophy may for a time seem feasible to 
 some n-iinds, but in the face of such great tides of 
 thought, its foundations give way and the unity of 
 the family of Him who hath made of one blood all 
 nations of men asserts itself. 
 
 That Japan has already responded promptly and 
 strongly to the mo-.-einents of thought which agitate 
 the civilized world must be evident to any who have 
 
^ 39 ) 
 
 watrheil lier rerpiit liistory. The morhiil nationalism, 
 the loss of entlnisiasm for party ;4'0\erninent, the 
 eihical nio\'enients of llie past seventeen \ ears, — all 
 betrav' th.e same temlenry toward unity of thought 
 and life, 
 
 The nltra-liberalism, too, winch has checked the 
 growth of our churches is no isolated phenomenon 
 to be assigned to local causes ; it is rather the response 
 which Japan has made to a movement manifest 
 throughout the world. Local influences have no 
 doubt modified it in certain features, but their effect 
 would ha\ e been small, but for that tide of doubt 
 which has shaken the world. 
 
 To the Christian who IrelieN CS in the triumph of 
 the Ciospel of Christ and the certain establishment of 
 I lis Kingdom, this grow ing hai nion\' of thought and 
 feeling is a source of rich inspiration. If Japan 
 shares w ith Western lands the donbts and conflicts 
 of these troublous times, it is because she has become 
 a true sister nation. Wlien they shall ha\ e fought 
 the'r way to a clearer and more definite faith, she 
 will stand liy their side and lift her voice in the same 
 glad song of victory. 
 

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