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This Institution reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: ABBOTT, FRANK FROST TITLE: SHORT HISTORY OF ROME . . . PL A CE: CHICAGO DA TE: 1906 Restrictions on Use: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET Master Negative # ^5-^/2 .J Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record f874 (AbZ y ■^■ivqa Wpi i ■ ■ » ■ n il- 1. Rome— Hist. Library of Congress J DG210.An Copyright Abbott, Frank Frost, I86O-1924, A short history of Rome, by Frank Frost Abbott ... Chicago, bcott, Foresman and company, 1906. 3M p. front., ilhis., plates, maps, plans. 19}'". "Brief list of books for a school library" : p. 290-291. 6-29990 TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA REDUCTION RATIO: FILM SIZE:___:|'^/^i*i^ IMAGE PLACEMENT: If fllA^ IB IIB DATE FILMED: Wj^^^ffj INITIALS__j5/i^ FILMED BY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. INC WOODBRIDGE. CT U^- BIBLIOGRAPHIC IRREGULARITIES MAIN ENTRY: A. ^rri. A^^/y .-P L,^p , I I Bibliographic Irregularities in the Original Document List volumes and pages affected; include name of institution if filming borrowed text. « Page(s) missing/ not available: / yolumes(s) missing/not available:. .lUegible and/or damaged page(s): JiA/) ri>^fi^ fXlrl^ tJ^M- Tr^j^^) ;*, ^}&:e^ Page(s) or volumes(s) misnumbered: Bound out of sequence: Page(s) or illustration(s) filmed from copy borrowed from:. Other: m il ' r Association for Information and image Management 1 1 00 Wayne Avenue. Suite 1 1 00 Silver Spring. Maryland 20910 301/587-8202 Centimeter 12 3 4 1111 nil nil iiiiliiii II ill! 1 II iliiii Tl tT ii|ijii|iyi|i II i^ii ii|ii ii|ii|i Inches 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 mm ImmIiiiiIiiiiIiiiJiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIimiIiiii iiiiliiiiliii^ I I I I I I I I I 2 3 T I 1 1.0 Ik 13. m H ■ 63 11 ||A0 1.4 2.5 ?? I.I 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.25 T T I I MRNUFRCTURED TO fillM STflNDfiRDS BY fiPPLIED IMRGE, INC. \ "M i jif '■"^ h: LIBRARY l.^. :: \ ■ f} ^^' A SHORT IhISTORY of ROME u m I t Wm * JjR Htf ..,„ IfySi KJK.^^^^^^^IB ^^J ^H ^ gj^B, ^^p iM ■ " '^ ^^^^I^^HL. a S^ i^_ , .i ji i i. ^ fl^W .!■■" ' ■ -^^^ * ;*?#«• K ^^^. I *^feJe KY FRANK FROST ABBOTT// fi^^ Professok in The Univeksity ok Chicago, author of • ROHAN Political Institutions ' CHLICAQO SOOTT, FOJELBSMAN AND OOMPAJSHT i9oe i./ ^^. |> lii! A SHORT HISTORY OF ROME BY FRANK FROST ABBOIT// f i' t) Pkofessok in The University of Chicago. Adthor of •ROMAN Political INSTITUTIONS •' [I CHICAQQ SOOTT. FORJBSMAN AND COMPANY 1906 PREFACE . . .('lM'.VlU(ilil\ 1906.. ' i * » % TYPOORArMY PRCSSWOUK— BINDING ROBERT O LAW COMPANY CHICAGO. I LL The primary purpose of this vohinir is to ^/\\v tlir inij)ortant facts of Roman histurv, and to hrin^: out ch^arlv their coiuiection with one another. The author has also aimed to put the material in a form simph' and eompaet eiiou'.>;h to enahk^ teachers who use the book to cover the entire period to the rei<^n of Charle- magne in the time commonly ^Awn to this hraiuh of history. Besides showino^ the qualities wliieh every historical narrative should have, an introductory manual sliould, in the first place, be concrete, and, in the second place, it should present the facts in such a way that their logical sequence will be apparent at once. It can be made concrete by avoidinjij abstract state- ments, where it is possible, and l)y usintr the personality of a great leader, like Sulla, or (\iesar, or (liarlemagne, in describing the movement with which lie was associated. In hke manner the atmosj)here of the times may be reproduced by (pioting freely from the sources. The second quality mentioned, unity in the story, is still more important. The student, as he reads, should feel that each lu^w deyelo])mcnt wjis the natural outgrowth of the situation which i)receded it. This method of treating the sul)ject not only gives him some idea of the real meaning of history, but it relieves liim from the painful task of memo- rizing a series of loosely connected incidents. Furthermore, a history of Rome should include in its logical treatment not only the story of political development but all sides of the people's life. The literature, the religion, and the social life of a particular period reflect its temper as clearly as the form of government or the political })olicy, and should not be treated as separate topics, but should be made a part of the main narra- tive. In this method of presentation the reader will see clearly 3 4 '* 4 ROM A\ HISTORY that tht' form which these |)has(vs of Roniaii life took from j^enera- tion to geiK-ration was a natural expression of the tendenev of the times. An earnest etlort has heen made to foihjw these canhnal principles in the preparation of this hook. 'Vhv maps in black and white show the scene of operations for each of the important wars, ^irivin^^ only those i)laces which are mentioned in the text. I'he colored maps illustrate the ^n^owth of tlie Em[)ire from one |)erio-T)ay Fk^misfiece An Etht^cw Saim'TH \(ir^ A Grkkk I'empli-: at I'aeshm. A Vesial ViRcnx (ehom IIiel^ex. Forum Romanum) .SEiTLCHitAL Trx f<»u Asin:s (Kkom Ih-ELM X, Forum Uomunum) The Capitolixe \\\.v A Pl)HTI*»\ OF THE M:KV1 AN WaLI Ax AxciEXT IxsnuHEi) Stone MOXEMEXT ShoWINc; CrHl'LE ChAIK and I'AX'ES ' FroM SCHREIHER, Mlos) The Ari'iAX Way xear R( »me The Fslam) ex the TiiiER Stormixc a Town (From Schrkiher, At}as) Roman Glade\ for Chafel IX House A Romax Theatre at Pomfeii Scexe from a Comedy ToMH OF a Centurion (Fr..m Schreiher, Mlus) ToMiuoF A Standard Hearer (From Schreiher, Atlu^) PortdTn (it the Rostra (From Huki^-fa. Forum Ro- monfl!' Cicero i, Fr-m liERNoULLi, h'Omisrh,- lkono(}ra phlc) Julius Caesar A Roman Calley (From Herschee. Fronlinus) Peristyle of a Pomfeian Villa Augustus ^^^'"9 The Claudian Aqueduct Nero. 18 19 27 31 33 38 46 02 78 81 97 127 128 129 129 Fil ir2 15S KJl 171 175 176 185 191 192 The Seven-hranched Candlestick from the Auch OF 1 ITUS ^^^ The Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre 200 Panorama in' I*omfeii Funng 201 A Mosaic, Showinc Parrots 202 Trajax (From 1U:rnoulli. h'dnnsrhr Ikonogrnpluf) 206 PAGE Hadrian (From Bernoulli, Rdmisrhc Ikonogntphic) 21 1 The Paxtheon 21 "^ The Mausoleum of Hadrian 2F1 Marcus Aurelius in his Triumphal (Chariot 210 The Arch of Seftimius SEvrERUS 224 Julia Domxa (From Berxoulei, Rdmii^rhc Ikonogrnphic) . . . . 227 The Triumphal Arch ..e Ci.nstaxtine 233 The Moxas iery of Moxte Cassixo Facing 251 From a M \nuscript of Vergil 251 Sr SopHi \ AT Constantinople 261 ,wvv 271 CHARLE^^v(;xE St. Peter's at Rome. 275 (II AFTER I INTUODl ( roHV SURVEY How Korne dt'veloped out of u city-state into an empire, aiul how her history ruiuvrns us. 1. The Conquests of Rome. The history of Rome is the storv of the (level()j)inent of a city-state into an empire of world- wide extent, which finally of its own weight broke into pieces. In the first stage of her t^^rowth this single city on the Tiber makes herself a leader among the neighboring towns which lie in tile low country known as Latium, to the south of the river. Tsing tliese towns as her allies and de|)endents, she conquers the Etruscans to the north, and the Samnites in the hills to the east. In this wav she lias scarcely become mistress of central Italy when the fortunes of war bring her into conflict with the peo})les of Magna Griecia, as southern Italy was called, and their champion IVrrhus. The conquest of southern Italy follows. Rome now controls the wliole peninsula and is a world-power. Her outlook is towards the West and the trend of events plunges her into a struggle with Carthage, the other great power of the West. She cruslies Carthage and strips from her Sicily, Sar- dinia, and Spain. Then she turns for the first time toward the East and forces Greece, Macedonia, and Asia Minor to yield to her. Her great leader, Julius (^aesar, conquers central Europe and begins the subjugation of Britain. In this way the limits of her empire are steadily pushed forward until throughout the civilized world, from the Atlantic on the west to the Euphrates on the east, from the Sahara on the south to the Rhine and the Damibe on the north, the authority of Rome is recognized, the Latin language is spoken, and Roman institutions are firmly established. 13 14 ROM AX HISTORY iXTRODirTORV SURVEY 15 2. Rome a City-state. For this vast area the seat of gov- ernment was located at Rome. There the consuls and emper- ors fixed their official residences; there tlic senate met, and thence officials were sent out to govern the provinces. But Rome was not simply a capital, like Washington or London. It was more than that. A citizen of the United States or a British subject living in any small town whatsoever has the same political powers and privileges as one who resides in the capital city, because he can cast his vote in his native town and have tlie representatives thus chosen pass the laws which he wislies. Not only was the city on the Tiber the seat of legislative and administrative activity, but meetings of the popular assemblies to choose magistrates and enact laws could be held iiowliere else. This k^ft the power of electing magistrates and making laws to those who lived in Rome or near enough to the city to go there to deposit their votes. In other words the government of tlie world, even after tlic franchise had been granted to towns throughout Italy, was left to the city of Rome^ When the city-state became an empire and the right of electing magistrates antl of voting on laws i)assed out of the hands of tlie [)eo[)le, as it at last did, the city was reduced to the position of a modern capital, and finally lost even this distinction, when the empire which had brought the different sections of the world witliin its limits began to fall to pieces. 3. Internal Struggles. For several centuries the govern- ment rested in the hands of the few, while the great mass of the people were excluded from the offices, and gained the right to hold them only as the result of a long and painful struggle. With this great contest for equality between those who enjoyed political privileges and those who were deprived of them, there was interwoven the struggle between the rich and the ]ioor; a struggle which was intensified when the great mass of the people — the plebeians as they were called — had secured political equality. 4. Changes in the Form of Government. Meantime the growth of the empire had an influence upon the political and social development of the city. The great armies which were needed in acquiring new territory, and in -— '"? °f ^ throughout the territory already acqmred, secured a control- ling influence in domestic affairs, for the consuls and the sen- ate could not enforce their authority successfu ly agamst a Marius. a Sulla, a Pompey, or a Caesar, bo m Inne the e ns of government passed from the annually elected consul and the senate, both of whom reflected the w^ies of the Peop^ ^VJ'^"-' to the emperor, who represented better the mterests of the em- pire; and the government of the world for the benefit of a .mgle city gradually gave way to a policy which was better adapted to the interests of the whole Roman world The orm of government ha^ passed through a complete cycle in its develop- ment. The monarchy gives way to a repubhc; the repubhc is transformed into a democratic empire and out oi f^ }^''e^ develops an autocracy, or state in which one man holds the su- ^T'soclal Changes. The social changes which Rome and Italy underwent were as marked as the political. At the be- ginning the people were tillers of the soil, of simple tastes, possessed of the bare necessities of Ufe, and inured to warfare. L trade developed, and tribute came to them from the prov- inces, their wealth increased, and with wealth came a taste for luxury, and a loss of the physical and moral strength which had brought them their earlier successes. They enro led barbarians in the army to fight for them, and imported hordes ot slaves to till their fields. In their weak and helpless state they were no longer able to hold back the Germanic peoples of northern Eu- rope who steadily pushed on to the south and finalb; made them- selves masters of the western part of the empire. 1 hen the proc- ess of conquest and unification begins again this time under the Franks! and is carried to completion by their great leader Charlemagne. , . i „^ 6. The Task of the Historian. It is our object to see how this great territory was acquired and governed, how the city- state developed into an empire, how the great mass of the Ro- 16 ROMAX HISTORY mans gained their political rights, how the character and mode of living of the people gradually changed, and finally to ask our- selves how and why the vast structure disintegrated and society reformed itself into the states of Medieval Europe. 7. Significance of Roman History. Our inheritance from Rome has been so large, and lier law, her institutions, and the Latin language, are so interwoven in the fabric of our own public and private life that wc cannot understand modern civilization without a knowledge of Roman history. But to us Anglo-Saxons the story of Rome will always appeal with peculiar force because it is the history of a peo{)le who sliowcd, as we liave shown, a steadfastness of purpose, a knowledge of i>ractical affairs, a skill in adapting means to an end, and a regard for tradition. It is the history of a people whose success in colonizing other lands and in moulding other civilizations into a likeness to their own, finds perhaps no other parallel than tliat which the history of the Anglo-Saxon peof>le otters. (1IAPTEU 11 Tin: LAM) AND THE PEOPLE HOW the .eo^aphy of Italy t.nd.l ^o^^^:^^^^^^ IrJ^r^r^C^wr^o:;;^^^^ t.e natural capital -HOW the Italians lived. ^ 8 The Peoples of Italy. Wc have just token a bird s-eye view of the stcry of Rome, an.l huve notieed some of the ques- tions wliich tlic student of Roman history asks himself lo ..nswor th.se ,,uestions wc must first know somellung of the antecclcnts and character of the Roman ,.<.„plc somethmg of their country and of the peoples about them. AMu-n our m- terest in Italy 1«-Rins there were three races reprcsen c.l w h „ its limits with whom we are especially concernc.l: the btrus- cans, the Greeks, and the Italians. 9. The Etruscans. Whcic- the Etruseans came, how they entered Italy, or with what people they were related, .s st. a mysterv, but in early tinu., at .he height of thcnr PO-'er, the,r territorv'tn the. north included the valley oi the Po, and to the south extended into Campania, possibly inelud.ng Latmm The southern eountries, however, thn.v o« thetr yoke m the fifth centurv ». c and the pressure of the Gauls robbed them of their nonhern possessions, so that in tinie Etruria proper ex- tended only from the Arnus to the Tiber. . , , 10. Their Influence on the Italians. Etruna played an importont part in the development of I'^^"';"/'^';;^-^'";" ^^ "■ troducing a knowledge of Greek art and Greek - '~. Her merchants visited the eities of Greeec; she had a neh firmly established nobility, which fostered the arts, and jhe Etruscans lived in eities and were not simple herdsmen or farm- ers, like the Itolians. All these circumstances led them to ac- 17 18 ROMAN HISTORY eept eagerly and to dcvcloi) ilic material side, at least, of Greek civilization, and tlirougli the Etruscans Greek culture made itself felt in some measure in Italy long before the Italians were brought into direct contact with the Greeks. From them the Romans learned, for instanif, the construction of the arch which they used so etiectivcly later in their public buildings and AN r;i Ki -.< AN \U( Ol'UAQUS aqueducts. From tlicin they accpiired some skill and taste in the manufacture, from clay and metal, of artic^les of use and ornament. Dancers and j)ipe players found their way from l^truria to Rome, and from the Etruscans the Romans bor- rowed the practice of celebrating festivals with gladiatorial combats. 11. The Greeks. The most important Greek settlements in Italy were Cumje, Tosidonia or l^estum, Thurii, Rhegium, Croton, Metapontum, and Tarentum. M we look at the loca- tion of these towns on the map, we see that the main Greek colonies are all on or near tlic seaboard, and run from Campania, southward along the western coast and northward to the head TiiE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 19 of the-Gulf of Tarentum along the east side of the great prom- ot.tne oui earhest of these onlory which runs d(A\n toward r^icuy. x ,ouioi> ^ Rome Itself, bitu- settlements, Cmnie, was a. o.d a. tlic city oi • ^^_ ated on the Cay of Niiples, with the nch plains ot Campania be h"i it, its growth was rapid, and it became a JVJos,^^^ town. It was the nearest to Rome of any of he ^'^^^^\^.f ^^^^^j and maintained friendly relations with that city, so that it is not urpris^r^^ from an early period it should have exerted a ru influence or» the Latins. Frequent references to the Cu- Sil on^le in early Roman tradition, and the introduction A GKEKK TEMPLE AT PJESTUM into Latium of the Cunuvan alphabet, testify to tWs facj^ Rhe- ,,u. ced it3 hnponanee •; j| ^^ ^ , ^1^1^ city Messana, on the c^oast of ^i" T <'PP°^'t^*° ' ^ . the Strait of Messina. But of all the cities in Magna GnBcm o southern Italy, Tarentum .as the "-^ A-^^;-^^^ ^^^ fine harbor made it the natural port of entry from Greec^ and the Orient and the most important commere.al and manu L?;; point in southeastern I-^V and when in *e^^^^^^^^ n„e, the inevitable eonflict between the <-f ^ that Tarlmn the Italians to the north came, it was natural t'-* Ta-'J"^^; should become the centre of resistance against the Italian invaders. 18 IvoMW IllsroHV TllK LAND AM) TUK I'KOl'LE 19 cepl eajrcHy ami to llic inalcrial side, at least, ol" (ireek rivilization, and llir(m<([i the Kfniscans (ireek eulture miidv itself felt ill some measure in Italy long before the Italians were hroui^-lit into direct euiilaet with the (Jreeks. From them the Romans learned, for instance, tlic con>trnction of the arch which thev uscl :m> ctl"ecli\ely later in their public buildings and A \ 111; I -( \ I 'i'ii.\<; 1 s aciueducls. From them they ac(|uirc(l >ome skill and taste in the mamifacture, from clay and metal, of articles of use and ornament. Dancers and pipe players found their way from Ktruria to lUniiv, and froui the I'iruseans the Ronums bor- rowed the practice of cclcl)ratinortant Greek settlements in Italy w.-re (\una', Posidunia (.r rastum, llnirh, Rhegium, Troton, Metapontum, and Tarentum. If we look at the loca- tion of these towns on the map, we see that the main Greek colonies are all on or near the Maboard, and run from Campania, southward alon^r du. western coast and northward to the head A r.KKi K ll.Ml'Ll. AT r-T-^1 ^ -^I i.Uo Luliun, of .lu. (•»......,. Mphal. ... U-.tily ... this fact Rhe- ,iu,n owed its i.nporta.uv l:u-,,.!y to „. 1-at.on N '- ^ " eUy Messana, on the .-..as. of Su-ily oi-posUc to ,. U cout o lul he Strait of Messina. 15ut ot all the ...ks n. Ma^na Or.e .tuthenn Italy, Ta.en,.nn was the "^"^^ ^"^"^"^ ^ «„e harbor n.ulc it the natural port oi entry Iron. W c .nd ,hc Orient, and the uk.sI i,n,.orlanl eonuner,- al and manu inc v^riLMi. ,„.„ l|.,lv and when, n the course of fietnrin<' lionil ni sonllua-lein 11.11%, auu , ., . •:;:;;: ilevilahle ......het ..etween the < ^^^^^ ;';;;; ^:;l the Italians to the north came, it was -^--'. ""\ J^^^^;;; should become the centre of resistance aganist the Italian invaders. 20 i;t».\i\\ Hisioia 12. Their Character. Al! ol tin m- nnt.^ enjoyed a flourish- ing trade, and becauie |jro.s{Mr(>iLs and influential. * Tliey fostered the arts, and Un>k a deejj intere^t in piiilosoplij and literature, and the real bepniiing.s of literature and art in Rome date from the campaii^'iLs wiiicii tlic Hon>-n,. carried on in Magna Griecia in the third century behn. uui era. But it was well for the Roman people that they wviv not brouglit into contact with the Greek cities of the S.muIi at an earlier date, l)efore Roman po- litical ideals had l)econie fixed and before Roman jmblic and private character had liad an opportunity to dexelop along their own characteristic lines, for the (ireek colonies in southern Italy showed all the i)olitica! \\eakne>se.s of the mother country. They not only lacked cohesion among themselves, but the several towns were ccmstantly rent l>y Internal dissen-.-., and partisan fcelmg ran so high in tin- struggles between tiu aristocratic and ^U'UUKTixiw tactions, that a party cften {^referred to call in a foreigner and submit to him raiher tlian to vield to its political opi)onents. This inability to act in harmony which the (ireek colonies showed of ctnirse made their ultimate concpicst by Rome a comi>arativeIy easv n»-itter. T ]^' ^f ^*^^^^°s. The Italians proi>er occui)ied central Italy, rhey were divided into tu„ l,ranches. One was made ui) olthe Unibrians and the ()sean-si)eaking peoi)les; the other was Latm The Umbrians dwelt in the territory between the Tiber and the Apennines. The met i>owerful of the Oscan- speakmg peoples were the Samnites, some of whom dwelt in httle VI lages in the mountains of central Italv, and lived the sunple hfe of their fathers, while others had descended into tne j)Iains of Campania. I.ucania, and southern Italy and had adopted the mode of living of the Greek coast towns.' Akin to the Sammtes were certain tril>es in central Italy like the Volscians, Aequians, and Herniei, the three ,XH,i)les who shut in Latium the country o^ the Latins, to the east anridge(l over the long stretch to Africa, and still Italy was not (•l..^<' enough to either region to lose her own individuality. It had been otherwise with Greece. The islands scattered at convenient intervals through the .Egean Sea, brought her into too close relations with the Orient to'allow her to develo|) a unified national life, (urece faced the Orient too, while the harbors of Italy are to th(> west-— away from the centres of the older civilizations. The development of a country is determined in large measure by its rivers and by the trend of its mountains. Kiver valleys an- apt to be fertile and they, there- fore, tempt the settler, and as trade grows up. the rivers them- selv(\s afford a convenient means of communication. Moun- tain chains furnish a natural defense, and a boundary beyond which a people, in its early history, at h>ast, is not likely to ex- tend its settlemt, and that to the west of the Apennines. Each of these distm i. is marke.l oil' from the other and capable of independent development. 17. The Valley of the Po. The valley of the Po is shut in on the north by the Alps and on the south by the main chain of the Apennines, which runs from the Gulf of Genoa in a somewliat southeasterly direciitM. to the Adriatic. The Po is a broad, sluggish stream, so that it is navigable and yet at the same time it can hv easily forded. The Ai>ennines separate this vail, y >o markedly from the rest of the penin.sula that its earlv historv was quite distinct from that of Italy proper. In fact it is commonly known i*. the Romans as Cisalpine Gaul. 18. The Adriatic Coast. Italy itself is divided into two strips by the mountain chain which runs through the central part parallel to the coast line. The eastern section is turned toward the cold winds of the North and East; its lowlands are narrow, and its soil comparatively sterile; it is nearly cut off from communication with the rest of the world, because it is easily ap- proached by land only from the North, it has few rivers and harbors, and in ancient times the opposite coasts of the Adriatic were inhabited by uncivilized peoples. 19. The West Coast. The plains on the w^est coast are broader and more fertile; they are protected by the mountains from the cold north winds; the rivers are dee|)er and the bays and harbors more numerous. All of these facts gave the Mediter- ranean side of the j)eninsula a great advantage over the Adriatic coast, and go far toward explaining the earlier development and the greater importance of that part of Italy. We should remember also that the Greeks made no settlements on the Adriatic side, but did colonize the western coast. This fact was of great moment, because the civilizing influence which they exerted and the spirit of imitation or of resistance which they aroused in the Italians west of the Apennines, tended strongly to further the develo[)ment of that portion of the peninsula. 20. Location of Rome. At the centre of this favored coast, and near the mouth of the Tiber, Rome was situated. One needs only to recall the Nile, the Tigris and Eui)hrates, the Indus and Ganges, to appreciate how great a part rivers played in an- cient times in making communities ])olitical and commercial centres. The Romans of the later period understood how much * the city owed to its fortunate location. The historian, Livy, w^ell sums up these advantages when he writes: "With great wisdom have gods and men selected this site for the city — a spot where there are health-giving hills, on the banks of a river, on which the fruits of the earth from the lands behind us may be brought hith- er, on which produce from abroad may come, w^ith the sea close enough to l)e of service — a place not so near the coast as to be exposed to danger from hostile fleets, in the centre of Italy, 24 1;mMa\ llisToliY TlIK LAN I) AN I' 1 iH' ' • 25 and peculiaHv ailaptt'»l U* iii.sun- the }.'io\\th ol a ^"ity-" In brief, it may Ik- said tliat tho jjartitioii nf Italy among several independent states to which tlie diversity of her races, soil, and climate seemed to |)oint, w i- nuidi' impossible by the fact that her natural boundaries ^':a\. mi unity, tliat the conformation of the countrv led to the dcvcl(.j)incnt of the west coast first, and that the location of Uoinc on a navii.(ablc river at the middle point of this c(»ast niadf licr the inevitable j»olitical and commer- cial capital of tlie wh«)le country. 21. The Italians an Agricultural People. The Liitins, as well as the other Italians, })rol)ably entered Italy from the North. They were [)rimarily an arr//.v, cattle, and oxen and slieep formed the (.Idest mele life. ( )nly with the development of urban life came tlie growth of an artisan class. What we know of the primitive religion of the Italian an die state of society in the early i>eri(..l. Tliey thought of the gtids as liei|)ing or hindering them in cultivating the fields, in rai.sing cattle, and in waging war, and to these functions the powers of most of their divinities were confined. Sucli a «<>iiception indicates plainly enough that the great material interests of the people did not extend beyond these three occupations. The manual arts and commerce were still undeveloj)ed, as we see from the fact that the divinities, Minerva and Mercury, who in the later period helped and guarded the artisan and the merchant respectively, were unknown in the early Koman religion, and that Neptune had not yet become the god <»f the sea and of seafaring men. 22. Their Character. The wliole history of the Italians 1 f cr.u^i] sense wit, self-control, shows that Ihey were a ,.c«,.k. ot 8""^ ^ ' ' , ,,^ ;„ a.eir , , • ,»w.ri Thev were industrious anu sinii and detcrnunauon. 1 h > - endurance, a great respec tastes; they had rejnarkabM^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^,^^^ j„,,„,al for authority, and a vMllmgnLbs lo interests to the conunon g""^' j,^, ..^ganizatlon 23. The Family and the Clan. 1 he ^ • - ^,^^^ . V,.i nn\v the s uves, l)i.l tuc uimnti was very compact. Not on y ^^^ j^^,, children owed in>,.hc.. obedience to U c i ^-. ^^.^^^ -^ '--' "r ''7 '" ^t;lt nTt aiher to a connnon ancestor. Jl «-.'>' ^ .^^ „,,, „.^„, p,, .nutual ,^0- ,nenO,ers o! h. . n ^^,^^,^,,j ,,^.^,, „„, ,„„iUer „,,„„„ ,,v.ral ol U - ' •■ '- ; ,^, ,^,k, ,,fu.e in l.n.e aUout SOUK- forUiH-,1 l.oint « c . U. ^ „, i„.livi,h.als l.ut . ■ Ti,.. 1 ,iid or " na V lu'longeil not to i""" of danger. 1 lu -ul ' •^■. ■ .,,^^j „„,„„. Ute several to the clan, at.d the cio,,. I on, .1 N c .,,iioned to in- 1 1 1 i.\..n liter the arable laaci was app^^ households. Kn n a U U. ,,,„a.land was held as the dividual owners, the lut-Uni-UnQ an a c-onnnon property of the e.ttire ">'"";"'2;. o>at the state of 24. Religion. Wc have ;->''- '^"^^ ^y period i. re- society and the character oi the P-P' J f^ J ide of their fleeted in their relig.ons ^y^^"^^' J^^l^, understand later life will be of tnuch f--";,';;; ^ ^ ^.-oven with public history, because relju.n ^u. > cl> • ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^.^^^ ^^^ and private affairs, that >«^^'" ^ • ' ^^^^ i^ took to- eharacter of their J-^-^; ^ , ,.ad upon the life and ward them, and what " A"^' ^ ; ^.^-^^ ;„ Uiis chapter development of the people. a 1 - ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ of the character ='"'1/-'' :":"""' '^^ ,, ,,,,,1 confine our Italians. In discussing religious "'■'*^;^; ; .^^^^^^..^ ;„ "Ib" soured rrour Knowledge. Fortunately for our pur- 25 Sources ot ,,„„,„,a,ive in all matters, were pecu- pose the Romans, vNho wcr. practices sur- iarly so where religion was concerned, and main I ROMAN HISTORV vived in later years whicli carrv ijs back almost to the beginning of things Ronii;ii, and siiow us what the j^eople thought and did in early days. One piece of vx'ulvncv which helps us is furnished by the extant calendars of religious festivals which give us a list of the gods in whose hi)n,,r i)ublic celebrations were held. The oldest of these calendars goes back, it is true, to a date only shortly before the birth <.}' ('l,ris(, but it contains the record of eeremonies wliich liad been observed year after year for centuries before that period. From writers upon antiquity, like Varro and Aulus Gellius, from inscriptions iq.on altars, temi)les, and tombstones, and from tablets engr;iv< d for priesthoods, like the tablets of tiie ArN a! lirothcrs. wlii have a fairly clear i.lea of tl,<. pri.nitive religious svstem of the Romans. 26 Foreign Religions. To apprfciaU. „ne fun.lan.ental point oi diikToiuv 1„.|«,.,.„ il„.ir altitude in religious matters and our own, we must l>.ar the la.l in mind that the Romans had many^gods, and tliat a p.opie wi,i,l, itself believes in many divine bemgs reeeives li,e k,„|, „f „||„.,, „„,i„„^ hospitably. The people of Rome lormed u„ ex.epli,,,, to this principle. They took the pos.tmn that there were t;ods unknown to them, and in early day,, at h a.i, u lun a new connnunitv was incorporated in the state or transtVrrcd to Rome, its right to eurry o.i the Worship of its old divimtRs was fully nrof-nized, and in many cases the new religion was offieially a.lopte,!. In this wav the number of Roman or Latm .hvinities stea'-' r';;;;;",;!, warrior. Jupiter, gods of the herdsman, the '-";""; ^„„,v,i„e to nourish r '-' '' '"' '''r'i:i rZ^ with him, e^erdse d the crops. Juno. ^^'^^ '^ l^^^amiHMHIl similar functions. iellus and Ceres presided over the fields where the seeds were planted and over the grow- ing crops. Saturnus was the god of tlic sowing; Silvanus and Faunus of the woods; Mars was the god of war, but was thought of especuilly as protecting the fields and ■ the herds from the incursions of the enemy. To Vesta and the Lares and Penates was entrusted the care of the house and the household. Their altar is llie hearth, the central point in the house, .here the food for the lum.ly ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ is prepared, and l.etore a ^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^ „,eal a IHtle wine was pour out^^^^J.i,, household. Like food offered to these dcitu. ^^V^^^ .^ ^ ,, ,,Uere a the family the -^^^^^^^^nor of Vesta, or F..a fire was always J^'^l'V ''""!"." ,„, „, ^hg ,vas called, by six pMica populi «---/^';;;i^":;po; Homan deities inter- Vestal Virgins chosen ior '^''^^'""^"^ ^hev were national ested themselves in IJ-- ;;;="- ^ J^^^, ,,Ugion was in the «trictestsense of I. ^^^^ ^^ government. as purely a national "-^ »"' "" '^ ^h^ number of deities 28. The Less ^-^^^"^^^^ the gods of other ~l:njr ttbe R^an practice of thinking of ",fl 20 i;<»\i \\ iiisr(.ii^ viu-d in later years wliieh earrv iis hack almost to the l.e^rinning of thinjjs Koiiiaa, and sliiiw us w hat the j)e()ple tli{)u<,dit and did in early diys. ( )ne j.ieee of evidence u iiieh helps us L furnished by the extant ealen.lars of reii^qous festivals which .rive us a list of the <.^ods in \v!i,,>r houi.r public celebrations were held. The oldest of the-.. < alent. but it e.,nlains the reeord of eereinonies which had b.'en observed year after year for eenturies before that periocL From writers upon antiquity, like Varro and Auhi. (Mlliu.., from inscriptions upon altars, "temples, ami tombstone^ and from (ablets en.n-rav..l lor i.riesthoods, like the tablets of the Arval lirothers, which record ceremonies and prayers usedbydieui h.r -cneralion.s, wc learn imich about the way in whieh the ^^(mI. were \\urshipp,«,| iu the earlv p.-riod, as well as about the u-od. ihcmM-lvcs. |'„(tin ll„. j;,„|s ,,r olher nalions hospitably. The peoj.le ot KoMie loniicl no ,x,-,|,|i„,i („ ,|,i, pnneipJe -pj^^^,^, took the position thai ll,,,,. we,v ^ods nnknoun to them, and in early day., al ha.l, ul„ „ a new .oinmnMilv «as incorporated in the stale or tran.l,.rr.d In Uon.e, ils righl lo earry on the worship of Its old divnnlies ua. tnlly n-eofcnized, and in n.anv eases the new religion was oili.ially adopted. In this wav the number of Koman or Latin divinities Meadily ineieased, and il is dilfieult to say ,n all .aM-s whieh weiv il,e ,// n./i;,,,,.. or original gods, of he Roman., and whieh il,e ,// „,„.,„./,/,., or naturalized ^^ • .^^,j_ ^,^ deities, the ^li ""'';/'"-\;'-;\,;;;;', , ,., wari-ior. Jupiter, gods of the herdsman, the ';";;, ^„„,,.„., ,., nourish similar functions. 1 ''H"- and (Vtcs presi.led over the fields where the -<•. .Is were planted and over the grow- ing crops. Saturnus was the god of the .sowing; Silvanus ,„ul Faunus of ll>e "'«"1'^' Mars was th<> g"'l "' '''"■• but was thought of -■sP'"'''":- as proteeling the lu'hls and the herds from tlie incursions of the enemy. To V,>ta an-! the Lares and IVnales was entrusted the care ol the hoU.sc mid the household. Their altar is tl»- '"■"">' the central point in the house, ^vhere the food fo'" H"' '^'""'y ■ ^ ^., „„, ,,„„,. is prepared, and l»to,v a ^^_^j ^ ,i„,^. nu-al a l''''''' -'"^^l'^ '"'":;; ted the househol.l. I-ik.' '''■'-'""•^••■'■^'-''''r^ V . u-th in a temple where a ^'-f='■''''^'''■"t■,:Tm 1 ■- l"-orofVe.sta. ..rr.^ fire was always l^'-l" ,'""."';. ,,^ ,,,, ,vas calle.l, by si.x p„W,>a M'"" «"""""/';;;', ,oc. Uoman deif.es inter- Vestal Virgins chosen loi llu. pu 1 ^^^^^.^^^^^, ested themselves in ';•>•■-- ;':;., 't ulan's religion was in the strictest -•>-;'.';;;;;.: ,,s his form of government. as purely a national "-'"""";. t^,,, „„,„ber of deities 28. The Less ^-Pf ^ ,^ ' "imiuing the gods of other was made v'-.v Peat n to ^^_^^^^^^ ^^^^.^^ ^^ ^^^ „, communities, l)Ut also >>> i«0 i!i>\i\\ irisTouv some protccinfr sriril ns |.,vsulinR ..vcr ,.l,nos, ..v.rv Inmmn action an,i naturd ol.j...,. ( ,„.. „{ ,|u.lr .Mh,,uaiian.s calcu- lates that ,„ Ihc la...,- ,„.H,„| ,|„. ,{,„„„,, ,,^„, ,i^ „,,^^,^^__^, ailterent smU. TU,. ,i,,ii ■ ,,.,1,.,. .1, .• > 11 Z' iNi >|,iia„ 1.1 ualci, the lorcst. and the vallcv each had ,l.s own guanlia,, ,l,.,tv. ( )x,„ w,.,-,. ..rotecled h'v one supernatural l.cin;,, sh...,, l,v another. A special god took charge of one in going „„, „,■ , |,„„,,, .,„,, ^,^^^^,|_^,_. ^,.^ ._^.^^ guarded a person on his ,v,y |„„ne. We .an r,.a,lilv s,-,- (hat the danger of ollen.ling .unn- .l.-ily, m„,-.. they w.-r,. s., numerous was an ever present <,n... and n.a.l,- >\u- R.'nnan u;-r constant m Ins prayers arul sacrifices. 29. The Ritual Complex. His .lifM..nl,i.s ...,,. augmented by the fact that no pul.lic or priva,,. I,u.,„,.ss of anv im|,ortance could Ke transact...! wi.hon. .livin,. san.-lion, an.l thai ,he proper oksenan.v of v.-ry .•o,npli,.a.,.,l ...r.-monics was ,..ential in wnnmg ih,. favor of a fn..n,lly go.| or in app.-asini^ tlu- wrath of one that was hostih.. This s,.,,,- of ,hings, how..v..r, ha.i its compen.sat.,ry f..a.ur..s. smhc ,h, ,v w.Te .leiti.-s who interested themsehcs in ....^v a.-l of his llf., ,,n,| „ „„ ■ . ' undertakmg .he lion.an l...|i..v,..| ,ha. ,h..r,. was a p^r.icul-.V god who ..,n,...rn,..l hin,s,.|f with d,,,, um.I.t, ,|f ,1, ; relations w„h .he g...|s ,he lio„,a„s .l,.,.!,,,,,,, ,„ ,„ ,,„,,„ji' , ' extent, and its .hv.h.pmeni - . I,-,,-,,., .■ ■ .■ ^"■"rlleges of priests, like the Augurs or the Salii attached to the worship of Mars, were either the serv- ants of the gods, and guarded their insignia or celebrated their public festivals, or they were tlie representatives of the wliole connnunity in il> dealings with the supernatural powers. Nei- ther was religion independent of the state, for the priest was sub- ,,nl-iate to the magistrate. We may say of the position of the priests in the community, that the great number of the gods and the complex character of the ritual made them men of im- portance. They (done knew the necessary formulas and cere- monies to appease the gods, and yet tlicy never formed a sei)arate caste, as was freiiuently the case in the Orient. 32. Influence of this Religion. Such a religion and such a religious organization as we have outlined could not fail to exert a great infkuMice u])on the intellectual and moral life of the people. The gods of the (Jreek were exalted Human beings, en- dowed with all the faculties of men and women, but they were free from disease and pain and the other physical imperfections and limitations from which mortals suffer, and were perfect in form and beauty. They furnislied the iihilosopher, the poet, and the artist, therefore, ^^ ith their ideals of ])ower, beauty, and wisdom. Poetry, art, and |)hiloso])hy among the Greeks all sprang from religion. The colorless conceptions which the Italians had of their gods, lacking the elements of personality, furnished no such inspiration to the jioet. Their history, carry- ing liim no farther l)ack toward the beginning of things than did the founding of his own state, f idled to stimulate his intercut 30 RDMAN HISTORY in the liroadcr (jucstioiis of man's oritjin, his place in nature, and the nuaiiin^i^ of liuniaii life. ( onsequently his thoughts were directed only to the alVairs of everyday life. The practical bent of his mind, wliich of course determined the form of his religion, was in turn empliasized hy that rcliijion itself. So far as char- acter was concrriicd, his o(k1s \\( tc >peal to spiritual motives of a hi<^h order, but it did enforce the observance of good faith, it inculcated a spirit of discipline, a high regard for the integrity of family life aiid a re- spect for the orderly conduct of alfairs, and all this serxcd to strengtlien the moral fibre of the people. 33. Summary Description of Italy. A survey of Italy in the early period shows us that the important peoi>les were the Etruscans, the (irecivs, and of the Italic stock, the Latins, and the tribes whicli sj)ok<' ( >scan. Klruria is of special interest to US because she introduced some elements of (ireek civilization among the I^atins. Laler tlie Latins were greatly influenced by the Greek t(iwns along the coast of southern Italy. The fact that Italy was occnpIef cHmates and |)roducts would tend to make her a land of many peo}»les, each under its own government, but the sea to tlie east, south, and west, and the Al[)s to the north ultimately ensured her unity. Komt; on tlie \\est coast, wliere the plains and the harbors lie, was lier natural capital. The Italians were mainly farmers and slieplierds, had a compact family organization, and worshi[)ped many gods. (TIAPIl^U Hi K()MI<: I XDKli rilK KINCJS (TO 50*.) H. < .) How tlie city of Rome developed and was goverueCf5 CI' IN' THK FOKUM; I'ltonAni.v OF phi: i;i<:h'1'H oh ninth cen- THHV BKEOHK fllKIST .30 ICOMW IIISIOUV in tlie hriKMlcr (jucstloiis of hkiu's origin, his [)la('» in nature, and llic NK aiiiii;;' <»!" IniirKiii litV. ( '(»iiM'(jUcntly his thoughts wfrt (Hrectt'd onh to the atVairs of ('\!es v\ cit the Etruscan>, the (ii*eelv~, audof ihe Italie slock, the liatin^, and the trihes w hieh spoke ( )sean. I^lrui'ia is of special interest to US hecaiix' -.he introduced some elements of (Jreek civilization amoni>' t!ie Latins. I.jiter tlie Latins were I.I{ riM- K1N*!>^ (TO oO'.) H. ( .) How the city of lionic develciu'.l uii.l was j^^overiuHl .lurin- the o'.xal period -How tlie stories of tlie seven kiii^^s ^^evv up. 34. What Determined the Location of Rome. The Ro- ma ns were undonhtedly right in attrihutin..!; the importance of Ihcir native city U> the connnereial advantages which its location u-ave it, hut tliese advan- tages can hardly have counted h>r much In the minds of the lirst selth'is on lhel'iber,whohad little to sell to others, and re- (|uire(I little from ahroad to satisfy their simple needs. They chose this sj)ot on the left hank of the Tiher hecausc it was easy to deh'ud. The hills furnished them a natural stronghold. The sur- rounding plain was rea- sonahly wcdl adapted to tillage and i)aslnragc. The Tiber alh>rded a protection to the iHuMh, and yet the island which lies in the river opt)osite the city made it eom[)aratively easy h)r them to cross to the northern hank. Finally, the l(»cation chosen was h)urteen miles from the mouth of the river, and, therefore, out of the reach of pirates. 35. The Growth of the Early City. The earliest settlement was on the PalatiiH' hill, and pi»rtions of its encirchng wall may 31 SI I'll. fill! \i, TUN r-'U \sin.s (in Tin; ^^hai-i. ,,,- ^ s, n VI. IAN Ml I >. Wnil OIIIKU SMAI.l. \i; I I, I.I s I \ I l.l.V Dlf! I r IN IHi; FOKl M'. |.i;nii \ iti.v «•! 1111. i i<:iirn «'i: ninih i'I.N- 11 It V Itl.l < IKI. < Micis r SJd ROM VV HlSToltV still Ik" st'cii, tnun avIikIi lite <«iiii|»jiss of tin- juimitivc city iiiav he fairly well iiifcn-ctl. A> tiinrwcnt on, llic jK>(>ulatinii in llic city and in tlic district iiiiiiicdiatcly aUoiit it ^rcw, for the ad- vaiita*rcs (tf tlic location attractcil many, ami iicw-coniers wi-rc gladly rccciv.'d hccansc «.f tlic fi<':litin,u' ^trcnj^th which they added to tlic c»»innnniity. Independent sctiicfnents had l»ccn made iij)on sonic of the ncij^diliorini: hilN, .nid in coni-sc of time thc\ too cast in their l<»t witli the Palatine <-oinniiniity, aFul a jn'cat wall \v:i> Iniih which made Home flie ( ity of tlic Seven Hills, for it includcil within its limits the I'al itiiic. the » "apitoline, the (^ni- rinal, the Ks(|iiiline, the (a-hiin, th<' \'iiniiial, and the Aventine. 36. The Legendary Ancestors of the Romans. ( rreek and Ivoiaan writers, without any historical eviden* •' on which \(t base tlicir conclusions, d.ite the tonndini^- ^>\' the .ity all the wav from 75.*] to 7 17 H. ('. The fir>t of these date>, which Varro. a Roman antiquarian of ('icero'> time, adopted, is |H>rha|)s the one most <-omnifnily accepted l»y the ancients. Sclwtlars liave csiahlished tile fact that ihe peojile v ho founded Home, lik-- the other Italians, came from the same stock he (Jreeks, and proh- al»Iy entered the pciiiiiMiJa from the north, hut the ac<-ount of their l ..f Italy, where he was kindlv re- ceived hy Kino- I.atinus. Acia-as to(.k Lavinia, the kini^^'s dauirh- ter. in m:iirii"-e. an >nccecdcd his tather Aen< c. and fe( ndaiit. rei^nied for iiiany ; 37. The Legend of Romulus and Remus. \ow it . ame to pas^ that uiiilr Ximutor v\ a > ».ti the thn.tir .,f Alha hi> vourif^er brother, Amuliiis, foiancil a wicked plot a^aiii>f him, Kr STTK! INC KOMI II ^ \ \ |> lO'.MeS (»|)ulation in the eity and in the district inniiediatcly ahont it grew, for the ad- vanta^ns of the location attracted many, and new-coraers were gladly received hecansc of the fijuditing strength which they added to tlie eommnnity. Independent s<'ttlcmcnts had heen made upon some of the ncigliltoritiu: hills, and in course of time they too cast in tlieir lot with the Palatine ass that while Xumitor was on the throne of Alba his younger brother, Ainulius, formed a wicked plot against him, drove him into exile, slew his sons, and forced his dam/hter I' hea Silvia to become a ^'-Mal \'innn. Hut lihea Silvia was beloved of the god Mars, and she hore him twin sons. Whereupon Amu- ROME rXDER THE KTNG.S 33 lius was wroth and set the bovs adrift in the Tiber, but the river carried the basket in wdiich they had been placed to the foot of the Palatine, where they were found and suckled by a she-w^olf. The king's shepherd, Faustulus, came upon them, took them with him to Iiis own house, l)rought them up in his household, and named them Romulus and Remus. When they had reached man's estate they slew the usurper, Amuhus, and restored their *■ ^*k~-:>^i'»!S^' Iwi.*;*.-- ■■- -A^-la.-^-tatu^tm'd n -J i ^^'Z L THE een gathered to his fathers, the senate chose Numa I*ompilius, a Sabine, to reign in his stead. Now Numa loved })eace and turned the people from war to working witli tlieir hands and to tilling the soil. King TuIIus Hostilius was a man of war. He conquered and destroyed the citv of Alba Lon^ra, and brought the Albans to Rome, settUng them u|)on tlie Ca/lian hill. Ancus ^Martins, the fourth king, followed in the footsteps of his grandfather, Numa. 39. Tarquinius Priscus. While Ancus still sat on the throne, a Greek, Lucumo by name, frorn Tarquinii in Etruria, came to Rome with his wife Tanarjuil, and as they drew near to the city an eagle came from on liigli, ])luckedoff the cap of Lucumo, and then, descending, placed it again upon his liead. From this omen Tanaquil knrw tliat the gods planned great things for her husband. At Rome he found favor with the king and with the people, and when Ancus Martins died, he was raised to the throne with the title of Tarcpiinius Priscus, from the city whence he came. He waged war against the Sabines and Latins and overcame tliem. He l>uilt a circus for tlie peoj)le in which races might be held, drew off the water from between the hills by a great drain, and did many things to make the city beautiful. 40. Servius TuUius. In the household of King Tarquin was a slave l>oy, Ser\ ins 'rullins l)y name, and one day as this boy slept, those near liim beheld a flame burning about his head, and yet he suffered no harm tlierefroni. Thereupon the queen knew that he had been cliosen for some high place, and she married him to one of her (laughters, and when Tarquinius had been slain bv men whom the sons of Ancus Martins had chosen to that end, Servius Tullius was made king in his stead. During his reign tlie Qnirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline hills were added to the citv, and he built a great wall about Rome, and ROME I NDEK THE KINGS 35 divided the i)eoi)le into classes according to their wealth, and each class into centuries, or companies of one hundred, to serve under him as fighting men, some as liorsemen and some on foot, and these companies of warriors met, when the king called them together, to decide u[)on war or peace, and certain other great matters. 41. The Myth of Tarquin the Proud. But Servius Tullius was slain by the son of Tanpiinius Priscus, to whom he had given his daughter, TuUia, in marriage. When Tullia heard of her father's death she drove to the senate house to greet her husband. In the way lay the dead body of her father, yet she turned not her chariot aside and her chariot wheels were stained with her father's blood. Tarquin the Proud, as the new king was called, forced the people to labor at the great works which his father had begun, until they murmured. Now, it chanced that the king was besieging Ardea, in the country of the Rutulians, and his son Sextus, leaving the canq) secretly by night, betook him- self to the house of his cousin Tarquinius Collatinus and dis- honored Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus; and Lucretia told Collatinus and her father Lucretius of what had befallen her, and when she had told them all, she thrust a knife into her heart. Thereupon Lucretius and Collatinus, with their friends Publius Valerius and Junius Brutus, called the people together, and the king with his whole household was driven into exile.. 42. Analysis of the Regal History. This is the story, with variations at certain points, of the founding of Rome and of the seven kings, which is recounted in prose by Cicero and Livy, and in verse by Vergil. It is manifestly fictitious. It is reason- ably certain that the Romans kept no records during the regal period, and even if records had been kept, they would have been destroyed in the fourth century B. c. when the city was taken and burned by the Gauls. There were no documents, then, upon which this account could rest, and if it is based on oral tradition, absolutely no reliance can be placed upon it, because in the cen- turies which elapsed before this tradition was reduced to a writ- ten form, the true course of events must have been hopelessly 36 ROM AX HISTORY lost iiiul (listortfd. If thru" wen- no other reason, the similarity which iiuuiy of the lioinaii tales l)ear to stories told in Greek literature would show that lliev do not belon'^^ to Roman history. Several cities of Greece and of southern Italy, for example, ac- cording to the mythical accounts of their early history, were founded by twins, wlio were cast out hy tlieir natural protectors, and suckled 1)V animals. The stor\- wlilch attributed the found- ing of the city to twin brotliers was adofitcd, because it furnished a ready-made ex[)lanatioii of tlic hitci- svstem of government by two consuls. The name Romuhis was derived from Roma, and Remus comes from tlic sana- source with a slight modification. Mars was made the father of T^omuhis and Remus because of the warlike character of the Romans, and the two bovs are reared by a wolf, because the wolf was a sacred animal among the Latins. In a word, a large part of the traditional narrative of events at Rom*' during the regal |)eriod is made u|) of Greek stories; and more or less cleverly dovetailed into these produc- tions of the Greek fancy, or into tlie tales borrowed from Greek history, are folklore stories, explanations invented at a com- paratively late date to account for the existence of ancient monuments, of old customs and of long established institutions, and some remnant of authentic tradition. 43. The Growth of the Narrative. The process of select- ing suitable elements for the story of Rome from this constantly growing mass of myths, and of welding them into a continuous narrative extended without doubt over many generations. In all probability the story of the early period first became coher- ent and took on a permanent fonn when it was set down in writing in the third century b. c. by the poets Naeviiis and Ennius and the prose writer Fabius Pictor. 44. What our Sources of Information Are. Notwith- standing the fictitious character of the story of the seven kings, we can get some light upon tlie life and institutions of the early city. Tradition helps us a little, when it is supported by other evidence. The remains which exist of the period, like the ROME t NDER THE KIN'(;S 37 "Wall of Scrvius" and articles of ])ottery, teach us something of the size of the city and of the progress which the Romans in early times had made in the arts. THK SKUVIAN CITY 45. The Appearance of the City. From some of these sources of information we get an idea how the city of Rome must have looked in carlv times. The houses were built of wood and thatched with straw. The roofs were pointed and had open- ings in the centre which let out the smoke and admitted the light to the single s((uare room within, which was tlie living room for the entire family. Some houses doul)tless had small sleeping rooms or store rooms adjoining, but there was no second story. Within the wall of the city we must think of buildings of this sort grouped together in little villages on the tops of the several hills, while between these small communities lay fields and valleys. Each of these hill-settlements had its characteristic life, which found ex|)rcssion especially in the worship of its tutelary deity or deities at the turf altars to be s(vn here and there. 38 ROMAX HI STORY 46. Improvements made by the Tarquins. The valleys l)et\veen the hills were sul)ji'('t to iniinthitions from tlie Tiber, and one of the earliest improvements of the eity eonsisted in eon- 4{..struetinf]j a hii^^e sewer known as the Cloa ea Ma xima, which drained the market })la(e or Forum, and protected the city in times of hii^h water. Tliis structure is attribut(;d by tradition to the Tarcjuins, who are also said to liave erected temples and other public buildini^s, the most notal)le of which was the temple of Jupiter on the Caj)itoline. To this period of the last three kings, tradition also assigne(l the eoiistruetion of the great en- circling wall. Tlie assigmiieiit of tliese ;;rcat pubHe works to A POHTION OK THK SKKVIAN WALL the Tarcpiins harmoniz(\s well witli tlie tradition that the first Tarcjuin carijc from Ktruria, because the art of building was de- veloj)ed at an «arlier period in Ktruria than in liatium, and cer- tain features (»f early Latin areliifeeture — the use of the arch, for instance — were aj)parently borrowed from the Etruscans. 47. Agriculture the Main Industry. The main industry of the people was agriculture, and for generations, or centuries even, it was regarded as the freeman's natural occupation. This fact was of immense importance in determining the eh^Facter of the individual Roman and of the state which he bui^ up. A nation of independent farmers is jdmost sure to sho\wiore stead- fastness and cons(T\atism tlian a people made up of traders and ROME UNDER THE KINGS 39 i handicrafts-men. Tliis characteristic bent of the Romans to- ward farming accounts in part also for the permanency of their subsequent coiKpiests. Having conquered a peoj^le, they in- variably took from them a part of their land, settled their colonists on the newly acvpiired fields, and made the territory Roman in the strictest sense of the word. INIembership in the military organization of the regal period, jis we shall presently see, was practically restricted to freeholders, so that before the close of the j)erio(l elan ownership of arable land must have given place to individual ownersliip. There were probably fcAV slaves, and the small farms were tilled by the pafcrfamilias and his sons. Larger ])ropertii's were held by the knights, as those who served as horsemen in the army were ealleasture- landswere not acijuired l)y individuals when the arable land was divided, but passed over from llu' elan to the state. Upon these lands citizens, on the payment of a small sum, were allowed to pasture their cattle. One can readily see that the rich "man, through the large politicjd influence which his wealth gave him, might crowd the poor man out of this land and out of the rest of the state land, and it is not surprising that the control of state *^ land was one of the earliest questions at issue between the rich and the poor. 49. The Industrial Arts and Trade. The natural bent of the Romans for agriculture and the premium put on the owner- ship of land by the military system of the early ])eriod tended to dei)ress the industrial arts, but in tlie city itself such crafts as those of the coppersmith, goldsmith, carpenter, and potter, flourished. The existence of the goldsmith's art indicates that some trade was carried on, for no gold is found within the limits of Latium, but the trade must have been insignificant, * RO.MAX lllsroKV 46. Improvements made by the Tarquins. Tlie valleys bt'twcrn \\w liills wvrv subject to inundations from the Tihcr, and one of tlie earliest inij)rovcnients of the eilv consisted in con- struetiiiii; a hui':e scwcr known as the ( 'loaea Maxima, wliicli drained the market j)hiee or Forum, and j»role( tcriod clan owncrshij) of arable land must have oiven j)la('e to individual ownership. 'Hiere were probably few slaves, and the snuill farms were tilled by the jiafrrfdinilids' and his sons, r^artrer properties were Ix'ld by the knij^rhts, as those who served as horsemen in the army were called, who probably planted small lioldiuiis to tlk' landkvss on condition of recei\in*i" a shar<' of the produce. \v\ this way ;i relation of dei)en(lence, or clicntshii) as it was called, j^rew up. 48. State-ownership of Pasture-iands. The pasture- lands were not ac(phrcd by individuals when the arable land was divided, but passed over fiom the clan to the state. l;|)on these lands citizens, on the payment of a small sum, were allowed to pasture their cattle. ( )ne can readily see that the richinan, throuore over tiie left shoulder a I bundle of rods, called the /r/.vcr.v, within which was an axe to typify the king's power to infli -t corporal punishment or to im- pose the deatli penalty. In time of war lie wore the trahca, a purple cloak, in time of peace a purple for/a . He was assisted by cpiaestors, or detective officers, Ijy the duumviri prrducllioni,^, or board of two men w ho investigated charges of treason, and l)y a tribune wlio commanded the cavalrv. « 62. The Senate, (\istoni made it incumbent on the kinjr to seek tlie advice of the senate in im|»ortant matters, but it was left for him to decide w liether to bring a |)articular subject be- fore it or not, anx*<:i<" rtipi Tin: WAKS WITH THE KTUUSCANb, AEQUIANS, VOLSCIANS, AND SAMNITKS they rarely staked their fortunes on such a contest. The Aetpii- aiis, descending to the i)lains like a whirlwind, seized their booty and were back in their mountain fastnesses before the troops of the allies could intercept them, and once in their native hills it was dangerous to follow them. It would hardly be profitable for us to follow out in detail the stubborn struggle with these two peoples. Their power was broken in 425, and by the middle of the next century Rome had established colonies at Satricum, Setia, Antium, and Tarracina, and against the Volscians had made good Iier claim to the plain as far south as the last men- tioned town. The territory of the Aecjuians was annexed in 304, and we hear no more of tliem as an independent people. 63. Why the Romans Succeeded. The comparative suc- cess, which, as we have noticed, attended the Roman armies from 46 ROM AX HISTORY the middle of the fifth century on, may have been due partly to the improvement of conditions at home, which had brought about a better feeling betwcrn the patricians and the j)lebeians, and made these two elements of the population join more har- moniously in tlie common defense. It may be traced in part also to the fact tliat the enemies of Home were l)eing attacked by foes behind them. Tli(> Ac<|iiians and Volscians were weakened by tlic constant assaults ol tlie fierce tribes bevond them, and the strength wliich they niiirht otherwise have used against the Romans was exliaustcd in reiielling the attacks of the enemy in their rear. The Etruscans, whose power Rome would have had still greater reason to dread, and whose hostility was evident in the early l>art of the fifth century, hnd suffered serious re- \<'rses both on sea and land. Ex(e[>t for the en- niily of Veii, Rome had little to fear from them. 'J1ic Syracusa ns inflicted a disastrous defeat upon them in a naval battle off ('uma,^ in 474, and rav- aged the coast of Etruria; the Samnites captured Capua in 423 and robbed them of their territory in Campania, and through- out this century the Etrus- cans were engaged in a fierce struggle with the Celts, or the Gauls as the Romans called them, on their nortliern frontier. 64. The Invasion of the Gauls, 387-382 B. C. These people came into northern Italy, perhajis from the valley of the AN ANCIENT INSCRIBED STONE LATELY rOUND IN THE FORUM THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 47 Danube, and swept everything before them. They entered Italy in 3S7, drove back the Ligurians, robbed the Umbrians of their territory on the Adriatic, and seized the |)ossessions of the Etruscans on the banks of the Po. In 382 the Senones, a branch of the Celtic l>e()ple, liaving crossed the Apennines, laid siege to Clusium in Etruria. A Roman embassy at Clusium, it is said, aided the people of the town, and so angered the Celts that they advanced upon Rome. The Roman army which met them on the banks of the AUia a few miles from Rome was annihilated. The city was panic-stricken. The fire of the Vestals and the utensils sacred to the gods were carried to Caere; some of the citizens fled to the neighboring towns, and others took refuge in the citadel. For seven months, we are told, the barbarians laid siege to the citadel, but without success, although one night, ac- cording to a fanciful popular tale, they had nearly succeeded in scaling the heights and entering the fortress when its Roman defendants were roused by tlie cackling of the sacred geese of Juno, and the Ca|)itol was saved. 65. Withdrawal of the Gauls in 382 B. C. Wearied by the long siege, or alarmed by the report that their possessions in the North were threatened by the Veneti, they accepted a ransom of one thousand j)oun(ls of gold, or al)out $225,000, as the price of their withdrawal and returned to the North, making no effort to hold permanently what they had overrun in central Italy. Twice in subsequent years the raids of the Celts brought them within striking distance of Rome, viz., in 360 and 348. On the first occasion the Romans did not venture to give them battle; in 348, however, the Romans and their allies met them boldly, and the Celts retreated in disorder. 66. Events Following the Gallic Invasion. Strange as it may seem, the invasion of the Celts was probably of permanent advantage to Rome. The losses which Etruria suffered at their hands, following closely, as these disasters did, on the fall of Veii, made it easy for Rome to extend her control over southern Etruria. Four new tribes were established in tlie territory of Veii, Capena, and Falerii, and within twenty years after the 46 ROMW HISTORY the middle of the fiftli (•ciitun- on, may liave been (hie i)artly to the improvement of conditions at home, wliieh had hron^dit about a Ix-tter feehnj,^ between the jcitricians and the i)lel)eians, ami made tlie^e two elemenf> of the popuhition join more har- moniously in the connnon defense. It may be traced in part also to tlie fact that the enemies of Rome were bein,eians were weakened by the constant assaults of the fierce tribes bevond them, and the stren<(th which they iiii'j:ht othcrwiM- have used a^'ainst the Romans was exhausted in n^pellin*^' the attacks of the enemv in their rear. Tlie Etruscans, whose power Home would have had still <^n'eater reason to drend, and whose hostility was evident in the earlv part of the fifth century, had sullered serious re- \ei-ses both on sea and land. Iv\«cj»t for the en- mity of Veii, Rome had little to fear from theni. The Syracusan^ inflicted a disastrous defeat U])on tliem in a njival l)attle off ( "unue in 474, and rav- aired the coa-t of Etruria; llic Samnites captured Capua in 423 and robbed them of their territory in Tampania, and through- out this ccnturv the Etrus- cans Were engaged in a fierce struggle with the Celts, or the Gauls as tlie Romans called them, on their nortliern frontier. 64. The Invasion of the Gauls, 387-382 B. C. These people came into northern Italy, perhaps from the valley of the AN ANCIKNT INsriUHKD STON!-; LATELY I- O U N D I N T II L 1 O U U M THE roXQUEST OF ITALY 47 Danube, and swept everything before them. They entered Italy in 387, drove back the Ligurians, robbed the Umbrians of their territory on the Adriatic, and seized the possessions of the Etruscans on the banks of the Po. In 3S2 the Senones, a l)raneh of the Celtic jK'ople, having crossed the Ajiennines, laid siege to Clusium in Etruria. A Roman embassy at Clusium, it is said, aided the ])eoi)le of the town, and so angered the Celts that they advanced upon Rome. The Roman army which met them on the banks of the Allia a few miles from Rome was annihilated. The city was panic-stricken. Tiie hre of the Vestals and the utensils sacred to the gods were cjirried to Caere; some of the citizens fled to the neighboring towns, and others took refuge in the citadel. For seven months, we are told, the barbarians laid siege to tlie citadel, but without success, although one night, ac- cording to a fanciful popular tale, they had nearly succeeded in scaling the heights and entering the fortress when its Roman defendants were roused by the cackling of the sacred geese of Juno, and the Capitol was saveid <]:ro\vth of Rome's power, or the ehange whieh her attitude i)robably underwent in conse- quence of it, stirred up wars with some of her Latin allies, but peace was restored in the y(\'ir .'^."iS, although probably the po- sition of Rome's allies was less favorable than it had l>een before. 67. Growth of the Samnites. Wliile the Romans were pushing their boundaries north into Etruria and south into the Volscian territory, another peo|)le of central Italy was following a career of conquest equally brilliant if less permanent in its character. We have already had occasion to notice that the Samnites, issuing from their mountain fastnesses, overran and occupied the territory of rain{)ania and Lucania. In the latter half of the fourth century the Etruscan city of Capua, and the Greek city of Cumie fell l)eforc them. Tlie facility with which the conquerors accepted tlie (ivilization of the conquered is in- credible. In their native hills they had supported themselves by rearing flocks and herds, and had lived the simple life of the mountaineer. On the fertile plains of Campania they collect- ed in cities and adopted the luxurious mode of living of their Greek neighbors. They seemed to retain little of their past, ex- cept the Oscan language and the loose form of government which was characteristic of the Samnites. The tie of blood which bound them to their kinsmen in the hills was soon for- gotten, or at least disregarded, by the latter, who plundered and pillaged them as they had plundered and pillaged the Greeks and Etruscans before them. 68. Their Relations with the Rf>mans. At this point the Romans enter the story. Harried by the Samnites of the hills, the people of Campania, according to tradition, appealed to Rome for aid. The Romans came to their help, made an alliance with them, declared war against the Samnites in 343, and after a successful campaign of two years, forced them to retire from the lowlands. This is the story of the first Samnite war, as Ro- man historians tell it. The truth of the matter probably is that Rome, instead of supporting the Campanians in resisting the encroachments of the Samnites, joined with Samnium in a peace- ful division of certain territ(3ry belonging to their weaker neigh- bors. 69. End of the Latin League, 338 B. C. The ambitious spirit of expansion which Rome showed in dealing with smaller states, supported as she was now by Samnium, suggests also a sufficient explanation of the desperate struggle w^hich the Latin communities at once made to break her power. The explana- tion which has been given above of Rome's policy in Campania, accounts for the fact also that the Campanians allied themselves ^ with the Latins against Rome, which they would scarcely have done had Rome so lately and so generously lent them her aid, as Roman tradition says she did. The war lasted for two years, from 340 to 338. It was l)rought to an end by the battle of Sinuessa, where the Latins and their allies suffered a disastrous defeat. With this war the Latin League came to an end. Rome made a separate treaty with each one of the Latin communities, with the express purpose of preventing confederations between them in the future, and they lost many of the rights which they hjid enjoyed. The terms adoi)ted varied from state to state, but almost all the members of the old league were apparently restricted in their right to trade with one another. This con- tinued to be the position of these towns down to the first century B. c, when they acquired Roman citizenship. 70. Military Reforms. The long wars which the Romans ^^'cre now carrying on had led to many improvements in the equipment and organization of the army. These reforms are attributed to the dictator Camillus who brought the long siege of Veil to a successful termination. In the early days the Roman soldier had been called out for short summer campaigns only, and gave his services to the government without charge. Now that his term of ser\ ice extended through the year, and sometimes 50 ROMAN HISTORY through several years, it hecjiine iieccssary for the state to pay him. The money whicli was paid him made it possible for any Roman, no matter how [)oor he mi<^ht be, to i)rovide his own equipment, and it also allowed a reorganization of the army on a new basis. Under the old system, when the individual pro- vided his own armor, only the rich men could afford to buy a full equipment. They, therefore, were placed in the front ranks, while the light-armed j)oor men fought in the rear. Now that the })ayment of the troops made it possible for each soldier to provide himself with the sort of armor which he could use to the best advantage, length of service was made the basis of classifi- cation, the younger men being placed in the front ranks, and the veterans in the rear, each line with its characteristic and appropriate weapons. The new system promoted the efficiency of the army, because under it each soklier performed the particu- lar ser\ ice for wiiieh his natural ability and his (.'xperience best (jualified him. The extension of the term of service led also to a better training of the individual soldier, and to better dis- ci[)line in tlie army as a whole. The cluinge carries us a long way forward from the old militia s\ stem toward that of a regular army, and the Roman who left liis home for a long term of ser- vice in Etruria or Campania stands midway in the line of de- velijpment between the citizen of the early days who, to defenil his city from attack, left his fields after the sowing and returned before tlie harvest, and the professional soldier of the late re- public who gave his life to the pursuit of arms. 71. Second Samnite War, 326 - 304 B.C. The conclusion of the war with the Latins left the Romans free to carry out their ambitious designs in Campanian and Volscian territory. Sam- nium had fixed her eves on the same districts, and a conflict between the two peoples broke out. No trustworthy account of the earl\ \'ears of the war has come down to us. The narrative is hopelessly altered to suit Roman national pride, but even the patriotic chronicler could not gloss over the overwhelming dis- aster wliich the Roman caiisr suffered at ilie Caudine Forks in 321. Decoyed into an ambush in a narrow defile in the Apen- THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 51 nines, the entire armv was forced to surrender, and the Romans were obliged to give uj) the territory w^iicli they had captured. But in 314 fortune returned to Rome. The Samnites in Cam- pania were driven back, the cities whiph had rebelled returned to their alliance with Rome, and a colony was established at Interamna on the Liris to protect the great military road which Vv'as built down to Capua in 312. The following year the Ro- mans carried on their military operations in Apulia, and with success, but they were recalled in 310 by danger in a new quarter. This time it was the Etruscans, who were besieging the Colony of Sutrium, but the brilliant campaign of the consul Quintus Fabius in Etruria relieved Sutrium and forced the Etruscans to give up their warlike designs. For five years more the war dragged on, but the Samnites lost ground steadily, and in 304 were forced to sue for j)eace. 72. Some Reasons for the Success of the Romans. In numbers, courage, and skill in fighting, the Romans and Sam- nites had been well matched. With the Romans, however, lay the advantage which a united i)eople always has in fighting a con- federation of independent states. Both i)eoples showed remark- able powers of endurance, but the Romans surpassed their foes in the [)ersistence with wliich they held what they had accjuired, and in the care and wisdom which they displayed in making their acquisitions secure by building roads and founding colonies in the newly acquired territory. The Romans showed more diplomatic skill also than their opponents, for they succeeded in winning the support or in securing the neutrality of the people of Apulia and Lucania, as well as of some of the mountain tribes in central Italy. Perhaps the dread which the smaller states had of the Celts and Etruscans, and the feeling which they cherished that Rome could protect them against the encroachments of these peoples of the North better than Samnium could, made them incline to her side. 73. Some Results of the War, The war with Samnium served to knit the Romans and Latins together. The bitterness which the Latins must have felt after their defeat and loss of CO KOMAN Hisr'»|;>, prestige in 33S was forj^ollcn in tlic' lon^ ^tru<^^K' in wliidi they fought side hy siih- with tlic Konuuis, it> nicn <>i" a coninion .^luek, and rci>rescntin<.' the civilization of the i)hrni against an aUen p€oj)le of the mountains. 74. Third Samnite War, 298-290 B. C. The peace with the Sainnites proved to lie only a susi>ension of hostihtles, for wlien tidings reaehed them tliat the Cells were Jigain moving southward, tliey joined tlie invaders against their old enemies at Rome, but tlie allies were overwlielmed at the battle of Senli- num in 295. Five years later Samnium was forced to sue for peace, and Roman interests in tlie .north were protected against the Celts by the founding of a Roman colony in their country at Sena Galliea on the Adriatic. 75. The New Conquests are made Permanent. The con- quest of central Italy was now complete. On the east side of the peninsula from Sena Galliea in the territory of the Senones to the Roman outposts at Veimsia and Canusium in Apuha, and on tlie west coast from Sutrium to Cunue, the overlordship of Rome was recognized. The newly acciuired territory was secured l)y the establishment of strong fortieses, and the first step was taken toward the introduction of Roman ideas and Roman in- stitutiuas by sending out Roman and Latin colonists. In the centurv which comes to an end with the battle of Sentinum fif- teen or twenty colonies were estiiblished l)y the home govern- ment. ::trategic considerations determined their location, and the choice was made with great wisdom. Fregellae and Inter- amna commanded tlie [iassage of the Liris, and kept a line of communication o]hmi to Cai)ua along the great higliway whieli Appius Claudius coublructed in 312; Alba Fucens and Carsioli held the Aequians in subjection, and guarded the new military road, later known as tlie Valerian road, w liich had l)een l)uilt through their country; Xarnia in southern Uir»bria protected the valley of the Tiber and the Flaminian Road, and on the borders of th(^ Ciniinian forest stood Sntnum and Xciictc, "the gates (.f Etruria." Th«" establishment of sln.iig military out- posts of twenty-five huiulred and tw.nty thousand colonists at THE CONQUEST OF ITAT.V 53 Luceria and Venusia respectively brought the Romans within the Greek si)here of influence, and is the first step toward the coiu[nestof Magna Gr.ecia. 76. Samnium Encircled by Fortresses and Roads. These fortresses and military roads shut Samnium in upon all sides, and took from her the hope of joining her forces to those of any (ither people in central Italy. Rome was in this respect carrying out in military matters the same policy of isolating her rivals which she had adoi)ted for political reasons in deaUng with the nieml)crs of the Latin league. Alba Fucens and Carsioli, and the Valerian and Flaminian roads, would prevent the Samnites from again entering Etruria ; Salicula and the frontier fortresses to the south would protect (':!iiii»ania, and the strong outposts in Apulia hemmed Sanininni in lo the M)nlheast. 77. Maritime Colonies and Foreign Trade. The mari- time Cf)lonies which were foundeil during llie century under con- sideration are of |H>cnliar inl(>rest. The earliest of these was AiUinni, which was established in ;WS. Then follow the colony (m the island of Pontia in M^, MinturiKe and Sinucssa in 29G, Ilatria in 2S9, Sena (lallica and Castrimi Novum in 283. This new (h'velo})ment of the national life i)oints to the existence of a seagoing trade, or foreshadows its (>arly growth. A com- mercial trer.ty which was made with Carlhage in -vhS, and re- newecl in :j()(), is also an indication that foreign trade; was devel- oj)ing, and that Roman interests were extending beyond the limits of Italy. 78. The Roman Fleet. The eslal)lishment of these towns on the coast, and the simnltaiieoiis apl)ointnient (311 B. C.) for the first time of ntival officers, bearing the title of duoviri navalcs , make it reasonably certain also that within this ])eriod fall the Ix^srinnings of an organized fleet of war vessels, and probably the operations of the Roman forces on land were supplemented, now and then, by i)iratieal enterprises along the coast. The establish- ment of garrisons at Ilatria, Sena Galliea, and Castrum Novum on the Adriatic, which would furnish excellent naval stations in the future, is especially significant in this connection. 54 ROMW HISTORY 79. The Lucanians and the Greek Coast Towns. It was the possession of a fleet and the oi)enin^ of naval stations on the Adriatic, as we siiall presently see, which first bronc^ht the Uo- nians into coniiict witli the (i reeks of southern Italy, and led to the conquest of that |)art of the peninsula. For many years the Lucanians, Bruttians, and Apulians had heen encraged in inter- mittent warfare with the thriving (ireek towns idong their coasts. Many of these towns had fallen Ijefore their attacks, and the Lucanians a|>parently made it a part of the l)argain, under which they allied themselves with Home during the Samnite wars, that they should V)e given a free hand in dealing with those which still maintained their inde|)endence. Thurii and Tarentum were among the coast cities wliich still hrld out. Accordingly, no sooniT was the great struggle in »-cntnd Italy at an cud than the Lucanians and Bruttians renewed llieir attacks on the (Ireek cities l>y laying siege to Thurii. 80. The Incident at Thurii, 285 - 282 B.C. The people of this town applied to Uome for lielp.and the Uomaiis, forgetting tlieir compact with the Lucanians, or anxious to get a foothold in southern Italy, forl)a(h' their allies to carry out their hostile designs. This was in 2s.'), hut tlie Romans were prevented from enforcing their prohibition at once by the ui)rising of the Celts in northern Italv. The settlement of att'airs m that (piarter left Rome free to take a hand in matters in the South. In 2S2 the consul Gains Fabricius Luseimis raised tlie siege of Thurii, and . -talilished a Hornan garrison tlure, as well as at ( roton, Loeri, and Rhegium. 81. The Quarrel with Tarentum. At this point Tarentum was drawn into the (luarrel. She must have wjitched with hatred and jealousy the gradual approach of Roman i)ower along the coast, and when a Roman fleet of ten vessels on its way from the west coast put into the harI>or of Tarentum, the passion of the people burst into flame. The action of the Roman admiral in entering the port was in violation of an old treaty between Rome and Tarentum under whicli Roman vessels were not to sail Ijcvond the Lacinian promontorv. Tlie people were in their THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 55 theatre, overlooking tlie harb)r, when the Roman fleet appeared. In a transport of fury they rushed to the harbor, put out in their galleys, sunk or cai)tured several of the vessels, and sold or put to deatli the members of the crews. Then they sent an expe- dition to Thurii whicli expelled the Roman garrison, and pun- ished her citizens for soliciting aid from Rome. 82. Pyrrhus Aids Tarentum. Li si)ite of these outrages the Romans adopted a very temperate course, but the peo])le of Tarentum were bent ui>on war, and sent for aid across the Adri- atic to Pyrrhus, the king of Ei)irus, whose long ex[)erience in the field ami wliose knowledge of the military art made him one of the greatest leaders of his time. 83. His Ambitious Designs. The aml)ition and the abil- ities of such a man could not be satisfied in the little kingdom of E[)irus. Fortunately f(»r him, at the very moment when his dream of building up a great power in Greece had been rudely shattered, cam(^ tlie call for aid from Tarentum. lie responded, not with the expectation of merely driving back the rude enemies of the Italian Greeks, but in the ho|)e of making himself master of southern Italy and of Sicily, and of building up an empire in tlie West, as Alexander had done in the East. Since Sicily was included within the seoi)e of his plan, his aml)itious designs threatened both the great powers of the West— Carthage as well as Rome. In fact, Carthage, in view of her Sicilian holdings, was more intimately concerned than Rome, whose possessions in southern Italy were not yet important. 84. His Campaign against the Romans, 280-275 B.C. Pyrrhus landed in Italy in the year 280 with some twenty thou- sand foot soldiers and three thousand cavalrymen. The Roman legions could not make a stand against the Thessalian cavalry and the ele|)hants which the king had brought with him. They were routed at Heraclea and in the following year at Asculum. After the battle of Asculum negotiations were opened with Pyrrhus. Cineas, the king's minister, was sent to Rome to arrange the terms of the treaty, but the senate refused to make peace so long as Pyrrhus was on Italian soil. Tradition attrib- 56 itrivf v.\ lii>iulti utes its refusal to the iiidomitahlr splril ami tlie chHjurrirc of the hliiidoM senator Aj>i>iiis ('laudiiis, who liad hiinselt' carrieci to tlio ^fMiate-liouse to oppose* the iH'ixotiations, Imt prol)al)ly the appeaiaiiee in the harhor of O.^tiaof a ( -arlha^niiiaii fleet 1/ 1 /.■/■ 1 /lruseau league frll into tlie hands of the Romans, and Rome was m w mistress of all Italy as far north as the A runs. 86. Relations of the Italian Communities to Rome. New terriloiy hantntive svstem, and vet thev were so far away that it was rarelv |)ossil)le for them to go. They, as well as the people of other Italian communities wliich tlid not have the full rights of citizen- ship, followed the leadership of Rc^me. Rome alone had the right to declare war against foreign nations, and to make peace with them, and Roman coins were used throughout the pen- insula. 88. Classes of Citizens. All the |)eoples of Italy fell into two classes, cives, or citizens, and socil, or allies. Citizens were 58 ROMAN HISTORY THE CONQUEST OF ITALl 59 of two sorts, those who had both private and [)oHtical rights, and those who had [private but lacked political rights. The latter were called civc^ sine suffraglo. Private rights included the riglit to hold and exchange property and be protected in its possession, the right of appealing to the people in case a magistrate imposed certain severe penalties, and the right of contracting a marriage valid under Roman law. Those who had both private and political rights had tlir privileges just mentioned, and could also vote for magistrates at Rome, and were eligible to office in the Capital. 89. Additions to the Citizen Body. In the early period while Rome was struggling with states which were her rivals in point of strength and size, she freely admitted certain commu- nities to the rights of citizenshi[). In fact, she forced certain con- (piered peoples to accept these rights. It has been calculated that at the close of the war with Pyrrhus the district occupied by Roman citizens "extended northward as far as the neighbor- hood of Caere, eastward to the Apennines, and southward as far as, or beyond, Formiie." Within these limits there were, to be sure, certain towns which did not have these rights, and beyond them were a few cities to which they had been given, but, speak- ing with sufficient exactness, the district indicated above is the territory within whose limits the inhabitants enjoyed the priv- ileges of Roman citizens. Besides incorporating communities Rome also sent out colonies of Roman citizens. Almost all of these settlements were located on the coast. 90. Gives Sine Sufifragio. Communities with private rights only were subject to all the burdens of state, such as furnishing troops and paying taxes in time of war. Their local governments varied in independence according to the privileges allowed them by Rome. Caere was forced to accept citizenship without polit- ical rights in 351, and Capua and some other towns were put in the same category later. The total number of citizens, including both those who had full rights and those \\ ho had private rights only, has been estimated at two hundred and eighty thousand for the period immediately after the conquest of Italy. 91. The Latins and Other Allies. Of the allies, or the socii as the Romans called them, the Latins had the most advan- tageous position. These were not citizens of the Latin towns which in early days had made up the Latin league, for the mem- bers of that organization had either been destroyed or incor- porated directly into the Roman state, but they were colonists Hving in towns founded in newly acquired territory to whom Rome gave private rights, an independent local government, and the privilege of voting at Rome under certain circumstances. This was the status of almost all the colonies planted in the interior. The other allies had their own courts and local magis- trates, as the Latins had, but the citizens of these communities could not vote at Rome. The one duty wliich all the allies had to perform was to furnish Rome with their prescribed cjuota of troops, which was fixed from year to year by the senate. The relations which tliese states bore to Rome were established by charters or treaties. 92. Preparations for Conquest beyond the Sea. A new turn was given to the develonment of the Roman state by the con- (juest of tlie Greek coast towns in soutliern Italy and by the es- tablishment of maritime colonies on both the east and the west coasts of Italy. In the earlier period the Romans had been so absorbed by their struggles on the mainland that they had been able to give little attention to the development of a navy, and their maritime interests had suffered in consequence. A treaty with" Carthage which limited their right to trade in the ^Nlediter- ranean, and the treaty with Tarentum which forbade their ships to sail beyond the Lacinian promontory, furnish proof of this fact. But the control of all the important harbors in Italy, and the power which the Romans now had to call upon the Greek towns for requisitions in ships gave promise of the development of a strong navy and a merchant marine, and indicated that Rome would soon be in a position to gratify beyond the sea that appetite for conquest which successes in Italy had developed. The troops were now paid, and had become accustomed to the long periods of service which wars in foreign lands require, and ■f Kl ROMAN' insTnliV Roman commandinj]: offictrs liad acciuired the ability to conduct serious cain[)ai.i,nis, and to control laro;e iKxlies of men. 93. The Proconsulship Established, 327 B. C. The estai)- hslnnent of the procoiisulshii), like tlie iMiil.ling up of sea j)ova r and the development of a veteran army, helped also to put the Romans in a [)ositi(.n to carry on forci,i,ni wars with suc- cess. The consul who connnanded the army, held office for a vcar onlv, and at the cud of the vcar hecame a private citizen a<4aiy. If a nation is carrvlnt,^ on a lon<^ war at a distance trom liome, it cannot im[)eril its success by a frc((uent change of com- marulino; officers. This the Romans felt in :\27, when tlic term of oihce of the consul, I\il)Iilius Thilo, their successful general, came t(» an end at a (a'ifical moment in the mtoikI Sammle Vvar. To meet the emcruciu v he was aulhori/cr< ( ^^ary as it was in long wars ol con<|nest, eslahlished a dan-en. lis pr(>cedcnl, and the fre([Ucnt adi»ption of the device accustomed the Romans to the i»nilricted exercise irc. 94. Summary Account of the Conquest of Italy, 509- 264 B. C. An c\aminati<.n (.f the hist(»ry of the early Repub- lic shows us that Rome, aided hy the Latin League, carried on a long series of wars with southern Etrnria, with the Aecjuians, Volscians, Gauls, and Samnites, in all of which, thanks to her geographical position, her government, and the character of her j)eopk', she was in the end victorious. The successful comple- tion of these wars made central Italy .subject to her, while the war witli Pvrrhus le*! to the eonquest of southern Italy, so that at last the whole l»eiiinsula was brou;j:ht under her control. i ROMAN TERRITOIiY in 509 B.C. 1 ROMAN TERRITORY in 264 B.C. Roman Terriu>rj < -i DEVELOPMENT OF ROMAN TE^KITOKY FROM 509 TO 264 B. C. (Ill H<)\1V\ iiisr<.i;v Koiiian coinmamlino: oi!i(vis li:i.l ac.iiiiiv.l llir :.l)ililv lo (•..ii:ii,Liiis, i[\u\ to control lai-;^t' JM)(lir> ol iirmk 93. The Proconsulship Established, 327 B. C. The ('st;i:>- lislmiciit of the i>rocoii.Mi!>!ii|>, Hk- l!i'' ''-iiMiii.u- "p of >.'a iM.vvcr and lln- (lc\v!<.|.iii('nt of a wt.raii aiiny, h('llH' in a position («> rariT on foivi irs with -ai<- (*t -^. '!'!i(' consul wlio coinni.-nidcd llic army, luM ollicc l(*r a Year .ai!. . and at the (Mid of die ve-ir l)ccani»- :; private citizen * ' ' • :i4:iiu. If lion i> can-viu',:' on ' lotrr t a distance troiu home, it eaniK.t imperii il. n iVh in :;27, v iicn the ti-rm of (.(lice of the c.n^nh Pulihlin. Thilo, ihcir sik cessfiil ^vnerah came to an end a! a ( ritica! monu nt in th- ■ < ond >ainmle ^ ar. To ine<-t the (anein'encv he nihori/.( d io naiiain in char,'.-:e of h:sarm\ nf>> cm widi diepo\( rof a c(.n-ai!, until tin- cam|»aiiin wa^ hnidied. The innov alioii v dan;;'erons de- vi.-e I'nan a pohtiia! point ol ■ •■ f' •• 'I'h an cvlension of the lerm of a o-.-ma-nr- <-omniainl, t '- il \v;i - in lonol confjne-,1, cstahiished a d a n p a'o i h pieced( nl, and the fre(pienl :Ml..pl!on of die di m rns|oinife. 94. Summary Account of the Conquest of Italy, 509- 264 B. C. An cxaininalion of the history of the c riy Hcpul)- hc shows us that Rome, aidej(M-l to Ikm', whi!( the war with Tx rrlnw led t^. the cn'irjncl of sontluaai Italy, x* that at last ihu who: jninnxih ■> is hroii^ht un\i 50!> To Jt'tl u. c. t CM Al'TKR V TllF. srcCKSSFTL STIllCICiLES Ol rilE I'LEBLIANS (5()1)-2()1 H. ('.) How the plebeians won their ricclits -How the nol.ility rose Into power- Mow an advance in civilisation foliowcd tlio conquest of tSoutliurn Italy. 96. The Consul. The most important result of the revoki- tion of 509 consisted in tlie changes which the chief magistracy underwent. In j)lace of a single magistrate, the king, who was selected hy the senate, and held office for life, two chief executives, called consuls, were chosen each year by the whole body of citi- zens. The new system diifered in three essential points from the old one. It involved a cliange in die number of magistrates, in their term of office, and in the method of choice. The change in the method of choice was of small importance at first, since the popular assembly, in which the consul was chosen^ was con- trolled by the |)atncians, just as was the senate which had chosen the king. But the other t w< > points of difference were far-reaching. A chief executive who holds office for a limited i)eriod only, as the consul did, can l)e held accountal)le for his conduct at the close of his term of office. This, of course, had been impossible in the case of the king. Furthermore, there were two execu- tive officers henceforth, and to each of them was given the right to |)revent his colleague from taknig any action of which he disap})r()ved; and this veto power, as the Romans called it, would naturally prevent a magistrate from becoming tyrannical. It is surprising that this dual system of government was workable. The ]K)liticaI theorist would have been justified in saying that a scheme under which one magistrate could l)lock the action of the otlier and stop the wheels of government at will could n(^vcr last. That it did serve the purposes of the Romans admirably for centuries is one of the many proofs which history offers of 61 62 ROMW HISTORY the eminently practieal character of the Romans and their skill in avoiding difficulties. Tlie consuls — and a similar statcmeni may be made of colleagues in the other official boards established later — avoided conflict^ bv alternating in the active exercise of tlieir autliority or by a^Mgning specific duties on the basis of seniority or by lot. Tlius, for instance, one consul took prece- dence o\ er his colleague in the first month, and then relinquished his priority during the second month, or one consul commanded the army one day and liis colleague the next day. 96. The Dictator. Now and then, however, in moments of peril the Romans found it desirable to place the fortunes of the state in the hands of a single magistrate, unhampered by a col- league. Not long after the establishment of the consulshi[) such an emergeui y aro^e, the consuls chose a dictator to meet it, and subordinated themselves to him until the danger was passed. At intervals during the first three centuries of rej)ublican rule, esjieeially when the consuls seemed unable to cope with wars abroad or insurrections at liomc, such an ofHcial was appointed, and all the powers of the state were placed in his hands. 97. The Consul's Insignia and Attendants. The consul inherited all the powers of the king except the king's religious functions, which were delegated to priests. His dig- , nity was indicated to the eye by the purple-bordered toga praetexta, Avhich he wore in the city, by a short ( > -. — -..■ ■ ■. . ' ^^^ r-^rr^^r^^ v^d cloak, which he used when -:. -r, •>4v=*'^;'::':*«'^;;XVi;'V^;'''iA abroad, and bv the curule chair M.>NUMEN-T SHOWINO CURULE "P^^" ^^'"^^^''^ ^^^' '^'^^ ^^'^ lomial OCCa- sions. l.":%--M ;i!fi:r'---UvV'T ' — ' * i»>i» -»;A*' -J- »mnmwmr\ ...» fK '' .lll l l-- ' tf ..it lpl l. li l j / ■.■■ -1..; - •■ Jiiii.iiMi.. I. ..,w'..,>.iwir CHAIH AM> FASCES 93. The Centuriate Organization. We have already had occasion to notice tluy^the new chief magistrate was ciiosen not "^ THE srrrKSSFUL STRUGGLES OF THE PLEBEIANS 63 by the senate but by the people. His most important duty would consist in leading the array, and it was very natural that he should be chosen by the fighting men of the community as- sembled in centuries. The organization became, therefore, in the matter of choosing the consul, a political body. It is known in history as the centuriate comitia. The fact that, from this time on, appeals in a case of life and death were referred to it contributed also to its importance. This assembly was con- trolled by the rich, because they made up a majority of the centu- ries, and, since most of the rich landholders were probably patricians, the body had a pronounced aristocratic character also. 99. The Plebeians Oppressed. The king had held his position for life. Class prejudice, therefore, would not count for nnich in his case, but the consul, who was chosen from the ranks of the patricians, held office for a year only, and then returned to their number. Consequently his action must have been large- ly influenced by prejudice in favor of the patricians. We are not surprised, therefore, that the plebeians found their position intolerable under the new chief magistrates. 100. The Tribunate Established, 493 B.C. The condition of foreign affairs, however, helped them to wrest from the aristoc- lacy some protection against the patrician consuls. In 494, when Rome was engaged in a fierce struggle with the Aequians and Volscians, the plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy, and, taking up their position on a hill a few miles from the city, returned only on condition that they should be allowed to elect five, or possibly two, annual officials, called tribunes, with power to protect them against the tyrannical action of the consuls. In a few years the number was increased to ten. Provision was also made for the election of two new plebeian officials, known as aediles, to assist the tribunes in the performance of their duties. 101. Meaning and Importance of the Office. This solu- tion of the question at issue between the patricians and plebeians seems a strange one. Instead of protecting the plebeians by laws which limited the power of the patrician magistrates, the 64 HOMAX HISTORY pIflHiaiis an* ^/ivvm ollicials of their own who can step hi and pre- vent a ma^nslratf from arrestiii;:- or puiii.shin<^' a citizen or from taking any action a*(ainst him of which the i)lebciau oihcial oints were: the improvement of the |)lebeian organization, the more e<[uitable division of the public land, and the ^-<'tting down in a written form of the customary law. 103. The Concilium Plebis. The first object was accom- plished witliout serious difiiculty. At tlie outset tlie tribunes and their assistants, the aediles, had been chosen in a [)lebeian assembly made uj) of ctirlur, Inii in 471 the plel)eian assembly was organized l)y tribes, and all the plebeian landov.ncrs were eiu'olled in it. Tliis body was known as the coticiliiim plrbl.s. 104. The Land Question. A reform in the method of partitioning tlu> public land was not brought about so easily as this political eliange had been. State lam! was made up of tlie pasture-ground which lia2, an ten tables of laws, l)Ut left their task unfinished at the end of their term of office. 107. The Commission of the Second Year. To complete their work a new l)oar|)cned in the second year canjiot be made out, but probably the new^ commission, whicli was partly composed of plebeians, and was largely influenced in its action by Apj)ius Claudius, a man of great ability and far-sightedness, tried to incorporate in tlu^ tables certain changes which the ])atrieians wouhl not acccj)!, and was dri\cn on I of of lice by them. 66 ROMAN HISTORY THE Sr( CESSFUL STRUGGLES OF THE PLEBEIANS 67 108. Secession of the Plebeians, 449 B.C. The plebeians were naturiilly angry at this unfair action on the j>art of the |)atricians, and besides they were probably left without adequate protection, since the tribunate had been suspended or abolished when the decemvirs were chosen. Accordingly they withdrew a second time to tlie Sacred Mount, as the hill was called wliitlier they had seceded just before the tril>uiiatc was established, and exacted, as the j)rice of their return, an ackiiowledtjment of the validity of the last two tables, the rest(»ration of the tribunate, and a })romise of further concessions. 109. Character of the Laws of the Twelve Tables. L iv^ characterizes the twelve tables which the decemvirs preparetl as "the source of all public and private law." Strangely enough, to our way of thinking, although tluy were the outcome of this long struggle between the two orders, they do not form in aiiv sense a great document, like our .Vnglo-Saxon "Hill of Rights," in which fundamental principles of justice were set down, but they contained simply inetliods of procedure in bringing a legal action, and a s|)eciiication of otl'enses against the law, witli their penalties. The primary importance of the incident lies in the fact that henceforth the bofly of the law was known to all and was the same for all. Although these laws wen- not of great con- stitutional importance, and do not in this res|)ect justify I. ivy's characterization of them, tluy form the earliest Roman colebeian assembly and of the tril)unate. Uj) to this time the assembly of the plcbs had done nothing more than to elect trib- unes, and perhaj)s to meet for the discussion of matters of interest to the connnon j)eople. Henceforth, under the limi- tiilion mentioned above, it was a law-making body, and the trib- une, its presiding officer, had the right to introduce measures, and l)ecame, therefore, an effective leader of the plebeians in their efforts to secure their rights. 113. Why the Plebeians Succeeded. The great constitu- tional gains which the j)lebeians made during these first fifty \ears of the republic bear a close relation to the fact that Rome was harassed throughout this i)eriod by the fierce raids of the Etruscans, the Aecpiians, and the Volscians. The patri- cian state needed the support of the plebeians, and that could be had only in return for certain |)o]itical concessions. 114. The Comitia Tributa Established, 447 B.C. The 68 itoM w msi'oin- trilial Hssemhly ;»f vvliicli uc ii;iv( jiisl Immii s|H'akin,i^ was inadf U|) of picluians <.ply, l>nt Irom slalcmciils iiiadr hy Cicero and livy it sccins rcasonaMy ccrlaiii tlial in tins jK-riod a tribal as- senihlv iucludiiiii: l)oth patririaiis and pk-lMians, and known as 1\k) c(miift(t frihiild, was cstaMislieil. By this assembly, wliicli |)robal>ly dates 1 nnn tin- year I 17, the (|Uaestors, who had formerly IxTn a[>|K)inted by the kin^' or eonsnl, were henceforth elected. In this body one man's vole eonnle*! for as mneh as another's. It was, tlierefore, a mneh more democratic organization than the centunate comitia. For this reason, and on the score of con- venience, because it met in the centre of the city, while the centuriate comitia held its meetin;rs in the ('[impns Martins, it ac(iuired in time }.^rcat impoitancc as a le^'islative body, and ultimately in lar;;;*- measnre sn|>|>lanted its rival in making laws. 115. The Canuleian Law of 445 B. C. A i^reat soci d change with important j)olilieal results was elfectcd in 415 by ih;' jKissaj^e of the Camilcian law which removed all leral hinlel)cian cause and helped to unite the patriei:in> and plebeians into a harmonious community. 116. The Plebeians Aspire to the Consulship. The great majority of the measiu'es wlio.se passaj^e the plebeians hal secured since ')()'.» had for their avowed object the |)rotectiou of the plebeians against tlic class prejudice of the patrician consul an. The patricians had always claimed the exclusive right to this ofiice, and made good their claim to it. 117. The Military Tribunate, 445 - 367 B. C. They op- posed vigorously, therefore, the proposal which the tribune Canuleius submitted in 4 lo, that the j)lebeians should be repre- sented in the c(msulship, but in the following year tliey granted a compromise by providing that each year the senate should decide whether the chief magistrates were [o be consuls or niili- THE SUCCESSFUL STIH (JCJLES <>F Tm-: IMJ-.HI:! A\S ()9 tary tribunes with consular powtMs. 11ie military tribunate was open to i)lebeians as well as to patricians, so that by this con- cession the demands of the j)lel)cians were nominally recognized. It was a nominal and not a real concession, however, because th<^ patricians managed to i)revent plel>eians from being elected to the ollice. 118. The Censorship Established, 443 B.C. In their anxiety to conccd«* as little as possible to the plebeians, the l)atricians, when they allowed the sul)stitution of the consular tribunate for the consulship, detached certain functions from the office of the chief magistrate, and assigned them to the in- cuml)ents of a new magistracy. At least this seems to be the natural exi)lanation of the establishment in 448 (or possibly in 435) of the censorshi|), t(» which only patricians were eligible. The new office was really needed in carrying on public business in the city, b(H-ause the consuls were absent so nuich of the tune i„ conducting military cam|)aigns that they could not jM-opcrly attend to their civil duties, which were rapidly increasing with the growth of the city. The censor's duties consisted in as- sessing the property of citizens, and arranging them in tribes, classes, and centuries, and in managing the finances of the state. Lnter, as we shall see, tlu^ duty of revising the lists of senators anidding an individual to occupy more than five hundred iufjird of arable land belonging to the state, and to pasture more than one Inmdrcd head of cattle and five lnuidree increased to ten, and that five of them shouM be j)lebeians. 122. Admission of the Plebeians to the Consulship. Tlie first article in these laws which gave the plebeians a eonsul marks the beginning of tlie end of the struggle between them •r'r'" THE SUCCESSFUL STRUGGLES OF THE PLEBELVNS 71 and the patricians. When the plebeians carried this stronghold of patrician exclusiveness, the other positions of patrician priv- ilege could not hope to hold out long. That this victory was not a nominal one, as had been in some degree the plebeian success in the case of the consular tribunate, is shown by the fact that in the year following the passage of these laws one of the plebeians who proposed them, Lucius Sextius, was elected to the consulship. 123. Other Articles of the Law. Tlie second law was a gen- eral measure applicable to any time and to any place, whereas the agrarian bills which had preceded and which followed itapi)licd to a i>articular district, and ceased to be of effect when the allot- ment in that territory had been made. If the third provision, which the Greek historian Ai)pian tells us was a part of these laws, really belongs to this period, its appearance sliows us that even at this early date free lal)orcrs were beginning to suffer from comi)etition with the slaves, who we know were captured and brought into Italy in such large numbers in the next century. Tlie fourth article too points to an evil of which we hear a great deal more in the next century, and it foreshadows a redivision of the peoi)le into the ricli and the poor as soon as the i)lebeians liave secured political ecpialily. The admission of the plebeians to the exclusive college of l)riests which had charge of die Sibyl- line books indicated tlie early admission of the plebeians to all the important priesthoods, to which hitherto i)atricians alone had been eligible. 124. The Praetorship and Curule Aedileship, 366 B. C. In 36G two new offices were established, those of praetor and cu- rule aedile, and certain judicial duties which the consul had per- formed were transferred to the praetor. In this way, when the consulship w^as thrown open to the plebeians by the Licinian laws, the patricians reserved for officials of their own order cer- tain magisterial powers, because plebeians were not eligible to the praetorshii). The curule aedileship also was open only to members of the favored order, and apparently the establishment 79 ROM \\ IIISTOKV of these two iiiaj^nstraeies was j>art of the liarj^ain on the l)asis of which the patricians adiiiittrd [\iv plebeians to the eonsul- ship. In this v-ase, however, as in that of tfie <'eiisorshi|), there was probably also a real nccil of more officials to attend to the [)ubHe biisinrss. 125. Compromise Arranged between the Senate and the Tribunes. 'I'he tendency of the patricians and [)lcl)cians to work lo<,^'thcr more luirnionionsly is shown in tlic dcvelo|)inent of more friendly relations between the tribune and the senate. The iini)rovenient in their relations came about in this war. The senate niijrht pass a bill, but as soon as the nui^^nstrate tried to a|>ply it to the citizens c(>ncernercised freely in later times, of calling- meelin*4s of the seiiiite and laying- matters bcf(»re it lor <(»nsideration. This was another step —and a \'ery tialura! one toward ihe amalj^a- liiiition of the two elements in the conuiuniitv. 126. Further Successes of the Plebeians. When the in- te*?rity of the patrician system had been successfully assailed at one point, we are not surjuised to find that it soon yielded atoth- ers also. In 339 a law was jjassed providing that one of the two censors sliould be a {ilebeian; in 337 the great plebeian leader (^uintus Pul)lilius Philf)was eh-ctcd to the praetorship, and even theeurule aedileshii) was throw u u|>en to the plebeians in alter- nate years. Consecpiently, before the elose of the fourth century, the plebeians had gained one of the important politieal rights for which they were struggling, viz., the right to hold any one of the magistracies the consulship, praelorship, censorship, (juaes- Tii?: surcEssFiL sTHr(;(;i.i:s oi- tmk i'Lf:bp:ians 73 torshij), and curule aedileship. A plebeian was even appointed dictator in 3r)(). 127, The New Nobility. By these measures a profound change was effected in the organization of the ruling class. The first result of them, of course, was the actual election of i)lebeians to the magistracies. A second, and perhaj)s more im|)ortant, outcome of this legislation was unexj)e<'ted. ( )ne would natu- rally have suj)posed that, since elevation to a magi.itraey came through free election in the ])(»pular asseml)lies, of two plebeian candidates, the abler man wouhl always be chosen; and this was probably the way things went at first, but in a sliort time the eomparalively few plebeian families with ancestors who had held a curule oflice and distinguished themselves in the service of the state, ac(|uir(Ml such prestige, that "new men," as tho.se were called who could j)oint to no ancestral consul or praetor, had little chaFK'c of securing politi<'al honors. With his deeply ro<»led resp(H t for the past the Komaii jireferred for the consul- ship a man whose falh -r or grandfather liad been consul. lie seiMued to feel that political ability descended from one genei- ation to another, and the family name seemed to him a guaran- tee of comi>etence. Then, too, those who belonged to this })riv- ileged class exerted themselves vigorously to keep all new as- |)irants out of it. In this way a new nobility grew up, composed of those in whose families there had been curule magistrates, and the new nol)ility became hereditary, and was well-nigh as ex- clusive as the patriciate had been. The privileges of theuew^ aristocracy dcjH'ndcd, as we see, not on the law, but on the organ- ization of society. Consecpiently notliing but a revolution eould take them away. 128. The Nobility Acquires Control of the Senate. A measure, known as the ( )vinian law, and pas.sed toward the elose of the fourth century, made the influence of the new order still greater and its position still more exalted. This empowered the censors to draw up the list of senators, and instructed them in making it out to give a preference to ex-magistrates. Conse- quently, membership in the senate also became practically the 74 ROMAN HISTORY hereditary privilege of the new .iristocracy, and tlie eontrol ot botli the exeeiUive and the legisluin e hraiiches of the government passed into its hands. 129. The Consul Becomes the Senate's Minister. All of the senators were now men of cxperienee in government. They often had a mure intimate knowledge of the teehnieal matters whieh eame before them than their [iresiding oifieer, the consul, had. Some of them were ex-eonsuls, and had filled with dis- tinetion tlie i)osition whieh he held at the moment. They were bound togetiicr by mutual interests in defending one anoUier and in advaueing the |)restige of the body to wliieh they all be- longed. Their rsprtf dc corps ^\'as not unlike that of our own Senate. In many ways, also, they could thwart the eonsul's political plans and ])ersonal ambition. The result was incvital)le. The consul was forced to yield to the .senate, and In-caiiu- its minister in executing its wishes, and the senate bccanu: the real source of authority in all matters of stale. 130. The Publilian and Hortensian Laws. Two impor- tant |»icccs of legislation in the period under discussion remain tor eonsivermnent. All these ( han^cs are over- shadowed, however, by the <,'rowth of a new nobility, which is made up of |>atricians and plebeians, j)eri)etuated from ! was as marked as the j)olitical. The |)ractice of barterin<,r conunodities, for instance, had hmg beiMi <,nven up, and the use of cop|)er money, which succeeded that, gave way in 2(;S to a currency made up of silver and <-opper coins. \\ the same time a common mone- tary stjinc hi rd was adopted for the \vhol<> j)eninsula,a.nd the right to coin monev, with one or two uniin|)ortant exceptions, was re- served by Home as her exclusiv.- j)rerogafive. These ehanges, it will be noticed, followed closely on the conelusion of the war with Pyrrhus and the subjugation of Magna GraH'ia. They pi>iiit clearly to the develo|)ment of commercial relations be- tween the different parts of Italy, to the increase of wealth, and to an intention on tlie part of Rome of making iMrself the com- mercial centn" of th<' peninsula. 134. The Italian Yeomanry. The Licinian laws, by n- stricting the amount of arable state land whied to increase the number of small farmers. The policy of sending out colonies of needy citizens to newly acquired territory tendc^l in the same direction. Upon the jjopulation of Italian yeom- n thus developed depended in lart'c measure the sturdv r<'sisl;ince which R< me made in the next :; Till-: sr(( i:ssirK sTitrc.'JLEs ok the plebeians 77 few «re„(M-ations u-der the crushing weight of the wars with ( /I ri 1 KM**!*, 135.^Great Estates and Slaves. ^Fhe increase of wealth, however, which we have already noticed, threatened the i)eas- ant projH-ietor. The rich accpiired great estates in Italy, had them cultivated by slaves, and, carrying on the cultivation of the land on a large scale withcheai) labor, could undersell the free owneu of a >.mall farm. It was this state of things which the Licinian laws vainly sought to remedy through the provision which limited thenmnber of slaves to be employed on a given estate. The number of slaves any Api)ius Claudius. Within a short time this road was ext( nd(>d to l^rundisium. Before the close of the next two centuries four otlier great ll.oroughfares, and numerous con- ncMtiiH' roads, had beim constructed in the peninsula. The Via Fhiminia, which was begun in 2\)\) n. c, ran almost due north to Ariminum, and under the name of the Via Aemilia was ■TT7r»7»*|^ ,;^;;, 78 ROilAX HISTORY continued to Placentia. Tiic Via ( assia pas^iii^' through central Italy was Imilt as far as I. una in ('isalj)inc (iaul about 171 B. < . The Via Aurelia was the (oast road to tlie same point, and was prolon<;ed to (u'Ikki in 109 h. c. T\\v fourth <;reat road, the Via Popillia, took its name from l\)pi]luis, the consul of 1)]2 n. r. It hranclied off from tlie Via A])pia at ('aj)ua, and ran to Uhe- gium. The provinces also were i)ro\ided with an excellent sv>tem of roads. So, for instance, in tlie middle of the second century n. €., innnediately after the ac(juisition of Macedonia, a road was built to connect Dyrrachium, the port of entry from THE APPIAN WAY NEAR ROME, WITH TOMBS Brundisium, with Thessalonica, and the Via AunTui, in cjiursc of time, was extended throuj]rh southern (iaul and alou;j the eastern coast of Spain to the straits of Gibraltar, with branches running to all the important towns in tlie interior. These roads, like the Trans-Siberian railway in Russia, first of all served the purposes of the f^'overnment in sendin^^ communications, supplies, and troops to points in Italy and the f)rovinces, but in a greater degree they facilitated trade throughout the em[)ire, and formed THE SUCCESSFTTL STRIKJGLES OF THE PLEBEIANS 79 I r a l)owerlul agency in introducing Roman civilization, in making the empire a unit, and in developing a common life and common mstitutions throughout the world. Portions of these roads which are still in existence show the care with which they w^ere built. Some of them were constructed of as many as five layers of rubble and thick flat stones, with a top layer of hard paving blocks. Under the empire a regular postal svstem was instituted along the ])ublic roads, inns were built, and relays of horses and \chicles were obtainable. 138. Influence of Magna Graecia upon Rome. That Rome came into contact with the (ireek civilization of southern Italy at the moment when her wealth was increasing rapidly had a marked effect on social conditions and on the state of the arts a.uong the Romans. They accpiired a taste for luxuries and for the rehncnuMits of life and at the same time the means to gratify It. The Roman soldiers serving in ]\Iagna Gra^'ia came to know something of Greek styles of arcliitecture and ornamen- tation in private and public buildings, of the appliances which make life more comfortable, of the use of more beautiful mate- rials to ])lease the eye, or of delicacies to tempt the appetite, or of |)leasures, like the theatre, to divert. 139. Religious Changes. Upon the character of the Roman religion the Greeks exerted a i)rofound influence. All of the (ireek gods had forms and (pialities not unlike those of men and women, so that when they were brouglit to Rome they were rep- resented by statues and had temples built for them in which they were thought of as living. The tendency to personify the gods naturally extended to the national Roman deities. So, for instance, at an early period we liear of a statue of Jove and a temi)le of Jove on tlie Capitol. This change in the conception of the gods brought men into closer relations with them, and made peoi)le take a more active part in public worship. We have noticed a few of the point.s at which the contact of the Romans with the Greek civilization of southern Italy made itself felt. How profoundly Greek influence developed or moulded Roman religion and literature, and how it affected the daily 'V UO-MA.N lllsKHv^ continued to Plaet'ntia. 'V\iv \'ia (avsia |)a>^ini.'- thron^h central Italv \va> Imih a> far a> liUna in < "i>al|Mnc (laul ahont 171 B. <'. The \'ia Aurelia was the eoast road to the >anie j)oint, and was prolonj^'ed to (iencia in lO'J n. c. The fourth ^reat road, tiie Via I'oj»illia, look it^ name from I'o|)in'U>, the consul of l.'J_' n. c. It hranehed olV from the Ma A|)j)ia at ("a|Hia, and ran to Uhe- ^nuin. Tlie provinces alM» were |)ro\ided with an exeeilent sv>tem of road^. So, for iiislan**-, in the middh- of the -.ecoiid centurv n. c, innnediatciv after the ae(|ui.sition of Ah'eedoiiia, a road was built to eonneet Ihrraehium, tiie port of iiilrv from Tin: AI'PIAN WAY M.AK liOMK. W 1 1 H TOMIJS Hrnndisinm. with The^aloniea, and the \'ia Aureha, in course of time. wa> cxlended ihrou^j^h southern (iaul and alon;^' the oastern coast of Spain to the straits of (Iil>raltar, with hranehes ruiHiin;^' to all the inijiortaiit towns in the interior. These roads, like the Trans-Sil)erian railway in liussia, first of all served the purpoN(s of the;:()V(Tnnient in sendinu- communication-. su|)|)hes, and ti'oops to p(»inl>- in Italy and the pi'o\inces, hut in a ^i-eater decree they facilitated trade throughout the empire, and formed Till.: SI ((Kssiri, sTm (a.j.Ks of the pi.kbeiaxs 79 a |)owerlul agency in introdueing Roman civilization, in makin- 'Ih' en.pire a unit, and in developing a ( on.n.on life and eommon ..isl.tutions throughout the world. Portions of these roads which are still m existenee show the eare with which they were huilt Some of them were constructe.l of as manv as five la vers ol rubble ami thick flat stones, with a top layer of hard paving l>Iocks. I nder the empire a ivgular postal svsteni was instituted along the public roads, inns were built, and relays of horses and vehicles were obtainable. 138. Influence of Magna Grascia upon Rome. That I^)meeame int(, contact with the(;reek civilizati\v on Ihe ( apitol. This change in the concepti(m of the gods brought men into closer relations with them, and made people take a more active part in public worship. We liave noticed a few of the points at which the contact of the Romans with the Greek civilization of southern Italy made itself felt. II(,w profoundly Greek influence developed or moulded Roman religion and literatuie, and how it affected the daily 80 noMW insToKV liiV and u av of tliinkin*; of tlii- Hcm.aiis as time wrnt on, we shall Mr more clearly, a> ^^v Innc ll.r <(»nrsr ..f alVairs in suhsrciunit jH'iiods. >l -D P 140. Summary of Events at Home from 509 to 264 B.C. At llu' l)c^niuiin<^ of thi. iKTiod. as ^vv liaxv >.rn, a revolution leads to thesuhstituHou ol the eonsulshii) for the kinnssa«r<" of the Licinian laws, admission to the consulshij) and to the newly established oHiccs. These victories brinlebeians for l)olitical e(iuality with the patricians. The nc.bility improved, and the c(.n ri;i, <»i ihe Maseru Meiiiterraiieaii vouiilr.e,;. 141. Rome*s Preparation for Wars Abroad. With the fall of Tarentum and the snbju^ation of the other cities of Maei-ii-nce in the management of large bodic> ut troops. The adoption of th- proconsular system has made it possible to carry out eoiisisleiitly a j)lan of campaign running through >e\(i;d ycar> I In soldiers are well trained and etiicient. 80 ROMAN HISTORY life and wav of thinking; of the Remans as time went on, we shall see more elearly, as wr Irace the <-oursc of affairs in subseciuent 1 140. Summary of Events at Home from 509 to 264 B. C. At the beKiuning of tliis period, as we have seen, a revoUition leads to the substitution of the eonsulshii) for tlie kinjijship. The l)lebeians obtain the tribunate, a better political orc^anization, the i>u})lieation of the common law, and the rij^ht to intermarry with the i)atrieiaiis. Afte a long struggle they secure the passage of the Licinian laws, admission to the eonsulshii) and to the newly established offices. These victories bring to a successful com- pletion the long struggle of the i)lebeians for political ecpiality with the patricians. Thr nobility gains control of the senate, and through the senate (controls the magistrates. The Pubhhan and Ilortensian laws make the popular assemblies nominally, but not really, independent of the senate. Acpieduets and roads are buih; the money is improved, and the condition of the farmers in Italv is trini)orarilv relieved. ♦ (TIAFTEK VI EXPANSION liKYONI) TIIK SKA (2r4-133B. C.) Ifow Rome wn^sttnl from Cardiaiio the oontrol of the Western, from Mace- ottom of a deep bav whose EXPANSION BEYOND THE SEA 83 sides extend out to form the ]>r()montories of A|)ollo and of Hermes. It was built on a })eninsula which ])r()jects into the open bay, was provided with i\ citadel, or Byrsa, considered im-, pregnable, two artificial harbors, as well as an open roadstead, and was said to contain over seven hundred thousand inhal>itants. 146. Her Colonial Empire. The leadership of Carthage was acknowledged by the coast towns of northern Africa as far west as the Pillars of Hercules, by certain colonies on the oi)posite coast of S]>ain, and by important commercial centres in Sicily and Sardinia. Her ambitions were purely commercial. Wherever tlie natural advantages seemed tempting, her enter|)rising mcr- ehanls established a trading-post, or founded a manufacturing colony, or developed the mineral wealth of the country. 147. Her Government, Army, and Navy. The goyein- ment of Carthage was conducted by a "committee of one hun- dred," membershii) in which became hereditary in the families of the mercantile aristocracy, but the elfective administration of pub- lic afi'airs by this oligarchy was seriously hampered by the great influence which the army accjuired in political matters. When Rome was brouglit into conflict with her, the armies of Cartilage were made up of mercenaries of Xumidian cavalry, of slingers from the Balearic Isles, of trained (ireeks and undisciplined (;auls. Her men-of-war, on the other liand, were manned by citizens who had si)ent their lives at sea, and the number and size of her vessels made her the foremost naval i)owcr in the wor id. 148. Elements of Weakness : Her Extended Territory. The points in wliicli Carthage was weak when comj)ared with Rome are apparent. Her territory was matle up of a narrow strip of land stretching for hundreds of miles along the northern shore of Africa. Her possessions in Spain and Sicil}' were also confined to the coast. To i)rotect so straggling a domain, and to secure prompt, concerted action from peoples so widely scat- tered was well-nigh impossible. Tlie territory of Rome on the other hand was compact, and Italy was a geographical unit. 84 IJOMAX iii>ioia' 149. Her Loose Organization. This rl( tm nt of diffcreiKT was iiicivasrd Uy tlie fad tliaf tin- colonial cnifiirc of Caiilia^v was an ( irj^anization wliosi- parts wtvrc very loosi'ly liekl togelluT, while tlic several Italian states were weKled \nU> a stron*;' eon- federation wliieli iiad eonie lu i.- o^nize tilt- cniiipara tive liheral- ity of Home's iM»li(\ t(»v\ard ilieni aiul the 'Ai^doiii of aeee|)tin<^ her leadersliij). The war apiin>t the foieijj:n kini!;, Pyrrhus, had even developed in them iitinient of regard fur United Italy. 150. Her People Less Hardy. Then, too, the Konums were a raee of soldiers, and had heeii trained for ji:enerations in the ^ehool of war. Their new territory liad l)cen gained and held l)y h»ree of arms. The primary |Mn-|>ose of the Carthagini- ans, on the othei- hand, was the extension of iheir eommerce, and their outposts wt-re held rather In the trader than the man-at- arms. Fiirtherm(»re, a> Polyhius, the (Ireek historian says, in comparing the two peojiles, "the I talian- iiatioii are l>y nature superior to Phoeniriaiis atnl r.il>vaii>. Koth in physical strength and eoura^re." 151. Her Home Government Narrow. Both governments wen controlled hy an aristo( racy, but the Carthaginian nol)ility perhaps showed more class selfishness and more jealousy of its suecessful connnanders than did the Roman ari>tocracy. This very fa( t often deprived it of the loyal su|)port both of the g hid -oi iinn,u-tant Keai-ing upon tlie out- come of the .^LiUggle Ik i til im luo peoples. The Cartha- ginians hlnn] mercenaries to do tlieir fighting for tliem, so that die great liody of tlie citizens continued to carry on their occupation's EXI'AXSIOX nFYOXI) TITF. SRA 85 I ; : I as usual during a war. A cann)aign meant to them, therefore, merely a tein])orary increase in taxation. When Rome engaged in ;i war her active, able-bodied citizens wave drafted for service, juid the very strengtli of the state was sapped. This Ls, ho\vever, onlv one side of the ease. The other side lias been clearly seen by Polybius: "The Carthaginians have their ho[)es of freedom e\er resting o'l the courage of mercenary troops; the Romans on the valor of their own citizens and the aid of their allies. The result is that even if the Romans liave suffered a defeat at first, ihev renew the war with undiminished forces, which the Cartha- giniaiis cannot do. For, as the Roiiians are fighting for country and children, it is impossible for them io relax the fury of their struiTLde: but th dangerous IS when they seem reduced to desj>« ration. 153. Carthage and Syracuse, llic int(M-estsof the Cartha- U'inians in Sicily brouidit them into rivalry with the (iivek towns (if tl. 't island. The most powerful of these t(>wns was the city of Svrac use, and some of the ablest rulers of that city had suc- ceeded in confining Carthage to the western end of the island. But the Syracusans found it impossible to check permanently die advance of their enemies, and in the early part of the third century the Carthaginians eontrollecl two-thirds of the island, that is to say, the portion which lies between Camarina and the west(M'n coast. 154. The First Punic War Begins in 264 B.C. The situ- ation had now become ominous for Rome and Italy. If the Car- thaginians should reach the eastern coast of Sicily, the safety and freedom of southern Italy would be imperilled. A sudden turn of fortune gave them a foothold there. A band of Cam- panian mercenaries liad occupied the town of Mes.sana on the Strait of Messina, and were besieged by Iliero, king of Syracuse. One party ap[)eale(l to Carthage, the other to Rome, for help. The Carthaginians granted the request for aid, and after much hesitation tlic Romans, too, .sent a relief expedition, which suc- ceeded in landing in Sicily, in s[)itc of the efforts made by the 86 ROM.W HISTORY ( 'artluit^iriicUi fleet to jn'cvcnt llieir crossing the Straits, and de- feated first \hv Syrdcusan, then the Carthaginian forces. Mt.Ei'e*'* I »ri' nil 'I in 1 1 O C Kill nniii'liiiiiii Heraclt u gt.Ecno'^ [Roman Territory ICarthaginian Terfitor^ Allies of Carthage li* 204 B. C. A t.'ri».'i iiliin Sjrruru!.* CuiuunuaV UcluruB SICII.v: THK FIRST PUNIC WAK 155. Progress of the War in Sicily. Fortunately the Ro- mans came to ati undtTstanding witli Hicro, and, profiting by their alUaiice with him, they found no serious difficulty in mak- ing themselves masters of those Carlliaginian towns in Sicily whicli lay at a distance from the coast. ^J'hcy <'ven captured Agrigentum, which the enemy had made its liead({uarters, but they could not take the sea|)orts, l)eeause they could not blockade them l)y scji, and the Carthaginian fleet constantly relieved them with supplies and rcitiforcements of men. To nuike matters worse, tlie coast town.^ uf Italy were exposed to naval attacks against which they had no adecpiate means of defense. To quote a comparison often applied to tlie contest, it was "a battle between a whale and an elephant." 156. Construction of a Fleet in 260 B.C. The needs of the situation were brought home to the Romans so forcibly that they determined to l)uil;i\v tlic 'ctow.s' raised aloft on the j>rows of tin * a-ral sliips, tluy were for a time in a state of i)eri)lexity.' Feelin*:, however, great disdain for their oj)- fx>nents, those on board the ships tliat were in the van of th.' S(iuadron eharged without fhnchin*]:. But as soon as they came to close (juarters their slii|)s were iiivariahly ti<,ditly o^rappled by these machines; the enemy boardeoint of falling into the hands of the Roman leader liegulus, but it chanced that at this moment her recruiting agent brought back with him from Greece a Lacedaemonian named Xanthip])us, who was trained in. the Spartan discipline, and was an ex})erienced soldier. His skill in handling troo]>s and Ins success in enforcing dis- cipline and in insjiiring eiitliusiasm in the army was so apparent that the Carthaginians entrusted the defense of the city to him. 160. The Defeat of Regulus and the Loss of the Fleet. The essential j)t)int in liis method of fighting lay in the choice of level ground where the cavalry, in which the Carthaginians out- numbered and surpassed their opponents, and the elephants could l)e used to the best advaniair< The clepliants were placed in a single line in front of the whole army, and the cavalry was EXPANSION' BHVOND TUK SKA 89 t #. t ^-■ '^ I stationed on the wings. When the two forces met, the elei)hants broke through the centre of the Roman line and crushed the Ro- mans by their mere weight, while the cavalry swept around the enemy's flanks and threw the rear into confusion. This plan worked well, for Regulus was taken prisoner, and barely two thousand of his army escaped from the l)attle-field and were rescued by a Roman fleet. As if misf(M'tunes would never cease, this fleet encountered a fearful storm on its return voyage to Italy and out of three hundred and sixty-four vessels only eighty escaj>ed. 161. The First Punic War Ends in 241 B.C. The scene of active operations ^^'as now transferred to Sicily, where war raged for nearly fifteen vears. At last Ilamilcar Barcas ("the Thunder- bolt"), the brilliant leader of the Carthaginians, \vas hemmed in by land and sea and forced to surrender. A treaty was made in 241 under which the Carthaginians were obliged to give up their Roman prisoners, to surrender their holdings in Sicily, and to pay the Romans in ten years the sum of three thousand two hundred Attic talents, or about $3,8()(),()()(). 162. The Results of the War for Carthage. The loss of Sicily and the i>ayment of an indemnity constituted l)Ut a small part of the damage done to Carthage. Her resources had been exhausted by the demands of the war; her trade had dropped away; she had lost control of the sea and of the commerce of the w^estern iMediterranean, and her colonial empire was thrown into confusion. To crown her misfortunes, no sooner was the war over, than an insurrection broke out among her soldiers, and when Hamilcar set out with a fleet to quell the mutinous troops in Sardinia, which still belonged to Carthage, the Romans claimed that the expedition was really directed against Rome, and the poor Carthaginians found no other way to satisfy them than by giving up Sardinia to Rome and paying an indemnity of twelve hundred talents more. Corsica w^as occupied by the Romans at the same time. 163. The Results of the War for Rome. The material gains which Rome made lay in the actiuisition of Sicily, Sar- 90 ROM AX HISTORY dinia, and Corsica, in her growth as a naval and commercial |>ower, and in the jjreatrr ^cnsc of security which Italy fch with the two neighboring islands u?idcr Roman control. Sicily is so much nearer to Italy than to any otlicr part of the mainland that it is natural to think of it as belonging politically to the peninsula. At all events, to see it in the hands of another strong and ambitious |)o\vcr might well be a source of great anxiety to Italy. Consc((uently the First I*unic War was not in its primary purpose a simple war of coiKjUcst for the sake of accpiiring more territory, nor was it a conscious step toward ex|>ansion. The desire to extend trade, and an ambition to make Home one of the world-powers were among the motives for the first expedition to Sicily, it is true, but the war was I)rimarily waged for the defense of Italy against an ami )it ions rival who seemed steadily creeping nearer and nearei-. It was a war to prexcnt the town of Messana, and the < onsecpient control of navigation in the Strait (»f Messina, from passing into the hands of Carthage. But with the winning of Sicily and Sar- dinia, the appetite for contjuest S|)rang u\) at Home, and the commercial ambitions of the peo|)le developed. Henceforth the merchant is constantly sending the soldier forth to open up new avenues for commerce, and to j»roteet his commercial en- terprises in fields whicli liave already been occupied. 164. The Government of Sicily. How to govern territory outside of Italy was a new [)r()blem for the Romans, and it was fourteen years after the acquisition of Sicily before a |)ermanent system was ado|)ted for the island. The Italian policy of isola- ting communities, and of varying the relations which they bore to Rome, was apj)lied to Sicily also, but in most other res})ects she was put on a different basis from the con(juered states in the jieninsula. The Romans |)robably thought that loyalty to the home government could not develop so easily, and that Ro- man institutions could not be introduced so readily in Sicily as in tlie communities of Italy, on account of her position outside of Italy, and lHMau>e of the allegiance which her people had lately borne to another goveriuiient. So in place of the military service EXPANSION BEYOND THE SEA 91 required of the Italian states they substituted tribute, in the form of tithes, and governed the province, as the new territory was called, by a praetor sent out from Rome. 165. The Illyrian War, 229 - 228, and the Gallic Wars, 238 - 222 B.C. Roman energy had been so absorbed during the war with Carthage by the struggle to the south, in Sicily and Africa and in the adjacent waters, that trade in the Adriatic had been left to the mercy of the Illyrian pirates. A campaign of two years drove them from the sea, however, and led many of the towns (jn the Greek coast across the Adriatic to join the Roman alliance. An uprising among the Gauls in northern Italy was also checked after a hard struggle, and their territory was oc- cupied. The road to the north, known as the via Flaminia, was extended to Ariminum, and Latin colonies were planted at Placentia and Cremona. This conquest brought the district of Cisalpine Gaul within the confines of Italy, and extended the Roman frontier to the xVlps. Rome was henceforth mistress of all Italy from the Alps to the Strait of Messina, and now that the pirates had been swept from the Adriatic and northern Italy protected by the barrier of the Alps, she could look for- ward to the impending struggle with Carthage with a reasonable hope that she would not be harassed by enemies in the rear. 166. Carthage Develops her Power in Spain. While the Romans were engaged in strengthening themselves in the North, Carthage liad built up a new empire in the West. Shut out of lier old trading posts in Sicily and Sardinia, she allowed her brave and capable leader, Ilamilcar Barcas, to cross over to Spain, and develo}) her interests there. He found the country fertile and ricli in minerals, and, thanks to the vigor and wisdom which he showed in dealing with the natives, the territory within which the authority of Carthage was recognized grew with extraordinary rapidity. When Ilamilcar died in 228, his son-in-law Hasdrubal, who succeeded him, carried on the same policy of developing the country and with equal success. The Romans were too much occupied with the Gallic wars at the time to watch closely the course of events in Spain, and contented themselves with 09 ROMAN HISTORY EXPA\810X BEVOXB THE SEA 93 hiiuliii/^ Hasdruhal in 22() by a trealy not to advance hevond the Eljro, while ^nviiig liiiij a free hand to the south of that river. 167. The Character of Hannibal. On Hasdrubal's death in 221 the coinniand of tlie army [Kissed to Hannibal, the eldest son of Haiuilear, who was at this time in his twenty-seventh year. Even his enemies recognized in him a born soldier and leader. As Livy says of Iiim, ** Never was a genius l)etter quali- fied for two most contrar} duties — obeying and commanding. . . . He combined the greatest fearlessness in facing perils with the greatest wisdom when surrounded by them. By no hardshii)s could his body be wearied or his courage l)roken. With ecjual indifference he bore heat and cold. The amount which he ate or drank was determined by the needs of nature and not by the cravings of the palate. He had no fixed periods by day or by night for working or sleeping. The time which was left him after finishing his work, he gave to sleep. Sleep he did not woo on a soft couch, nor in a quiet spot, but often you wouleen joined." 168. Immediate Cause of the Second Punic War. One city to the south of the Ebro had not acce[)ted the ruk^ of Hanni- bal—the town of Saguntum. This city was under the pro- tection of liome and in case of war, Roman trooi)s might at any moment enter Carthaginian territory through this gateway. Hannibal saw that he nmst take it. He found a })retext, at- tacked Saguntum, and, after a hard ::iege of eight months, took it. Carthage ratified his course, and Rome declared war against her. 169. Hannibal's March into Italy in 218 B.C. The Ro- man plan of campaign was comprehensive. It included the simul- taneous invasion of Spain and Africa. But Hannibal did not give the Romans time to i)ut it into execution. Assembling an army at his capital. New Carthage, in the spring of 218, he boldly set out to invade Italy by land. It was a plan which only a Hannibal, a Caesar, or a NajKileon could have conceived or carried out. It in\ohed taking a large army with all its sup- plies, its equipment, and beasts of burden along almost the entire eastern coast (jf Spain and through southern Gaul. It involved thecrosshigof the swift Rhone in little boats, and the passage of the Ali)s in the late autumn. As soon as he crossed the Ebro, Hannibal was in hostile territory, and from that point on he had to make his way by jiersuasion or by force of arms until lie entered northern Italy. At the Rhone he found a large force of the natives collected on the eastern bank to prevent his passage, but he sent a detachment of his troops across at a point higher up the stream, where the water was shallower, took the enemy by surprise in the rear, and brought his soldiers over in canoes and his elephants on huge rafts. After having received this salutary lesson the barbarians did not molest him again until he reached the moun- tains. The i)assage of the Alps was attended by untold diffi- culties. "Tlie paths w^ere narrow and rough, and flanked with precipices, and at every movement which tended to throw the line into disorder, large numbers of the beasts of burden were hurled down the steeps with their loads on their backs. Mean- while the Gauls from their vantage-ground above moved aloncr tlie slopes parallel with the army below, and bv rolling down boulders, or throwing stones, reduced the troops to a state of utmost confusion and danger." At one point the path was too narrow for the elephants and beasts of burden, and with in- finite toil his troops constructed a road along the face of the precipice. They found the summit covered with snow and bare of trees and vegetation. Battling their way down the southern slopes against heavy snow-storms, exhausted by cold, fatigue, and hunger, the troops at last reached the plains of 'northern Italy. The passage of the Alps had occupied fifteen days; the entire march from New Carthage five months, and on the\vay the army had been cut down from fifty thousand infantrv and nine thousand cavalry to twenty thousand infantry and six'thou- sand cavalry. 94 ROMAN HISTOP^' 170. Battles on the Ticinus 218, on the Trebia 218, and near Lake Trasimene 217 B. C. I'he Roiiuiils were taken by siirijri.se; their cavalry was routed on the l)anks of the Ticinus; twenty thousand of their sohhers were caught in a tra}) and fell in the f»attlc on the Trel)ia;and the army of Flaniinius, enticed into a narrow valley near Lake Trasinune, and envel- ojied in a mist so tliick that the Roman soldiers ccnjjd not tell friend from foe, was com[)letcly annihilated. 171. Q. Fabius Maximus. The news of the hatlle of Lake Trasimene made a deep impression at Rome, and the jx'ople chose a dictator, Q. Fahius ALiximus, who adopted an entirely new j)oliey. Without offering Hannibal battle, he hovered in his neighl>orhood, occupied the points of vantage, and cut off his foraging parties. This plan of campaign was little to the taste of the Roman p(»pnla(«', who nicknamcMl Fabius "Cunc- tator," or **the Laggard," and insistccl that more vigorous meas- ures should be taken against the enemy. 172. Cannae, 216 B. C. Accordingly, in the s})ring of 21(> the new consuls, L. Aemilius Pauhis and ('. Terentius Varro, set out with an army of eiglity thousjind inianlry and six thousand cavalry, almost double the lone of Ilamiilial, t(» crush the invader once for all. They found liini at (Jeruniiim, near the nortliern l)order of Apulia. Their ex|)erience at the I'rebia and Lake Trasimene had led them to dread his ruses, and, when the Cartliaginians, not long after their arrival, broke camp, the Romans, fearing another traj), made no move, until, to tlieir astonishment, thev found that Hannibal had marched to ■* ■«■■ Canna' and seized their supplies. They w ere forced to fight or to retire in the face of the enemy. They chose the former alter- native and joined battle with Hannibal at ( "anuie, on the banks of the Aufidus. On each side the cavalry was |)laced on the wings and the infantry in the centre, l)Ut tlie Carthaginian centre was weak and gave way, as Hannil)al intended it to do, before the on<1;iught (»f the heavy Roman formation. The very succc^.^ ui the Rcjmans ])roved to be their undoing, for in pursuing its opponents the Roman infantry lost its formation. » I EXPANSION BEYOND THE SEA 95 and advanced so far as to expose its right flank to the Libyan infantry, while in the meantime the heavy-armed Carthaginian cavalry circled about the Roman army and attacked it in the rear. The legions were now^ exposed to attack on three sides; a strong south wind drove the dust in the faces of the soldiers, the sun shone in their eyes, and their close formation prevented them from using their weapons effectively. Of the seventy-five thousand Romans who took part in the battle a bare three thousand escaped l)y fiight, with their leader Varro. Hannibal lost about six thousand men. 9G ROMW FT T STORY EXPAXSTOX BEYOND THE SEA 97 173. The War in Italy from 216 to 211 B.C. The victory of the ('artliagiiiiaiis chd not turn northern iinel central Ital}', nor even the Greek coast towns in southern Italv, from their loyal sui)i)ort of K(jnie, hut many of the Italian communities in the South went over to the side of Hannibal after the battle of Cannje, and for the next fi\«' \('ars it was the first object of the Romans to recover these rel)ellious towns and to carry out the Fabian i)olicy of weakcnin^i: the force of Hannil)al and of C'Uttin^^ off his supplies. In siu'te of some serious reverses, tliese tactics were in the main su».ivx>ful. Casilinum and Arpi were retaken and in 212 the siejije of Capua began. Hannibal came to its relief, but he could not raise the blockade. He marched north to the very gates of Rome, hoi)ing in this way to draw the besieging forces away from Capua, but recruits flocked into Rome. Hannibal's army was not well provided with machines for a siege, his cavalry — the strongest i)art of his force — vviis of little use in such an enterprise, and he was forced to withdraw, without either taking Rome or relieving his allies in Campania. Weakened by the long siege, and reduced to the direst straits by hunger, Capua fell in 211. The Romans inflicted such a i)unish- ment ujMjn her as might well serve to deter other Italian cities from allying themselves witli Hannibal. Her nobles were put to death; the common peo|)le were sold as slaves; the city was deprived of her constitution, and her [)ublic l)uildings and land were api>ropriated by Rome. 174. The War in Sicily from 216 to 210 B.C. But the fate of Hannil)al was really decided outside of Italy — in Sicily, Macedonia, and S|)ain. The death in 216 of Hiero of Syracuse, tile faithful friend and allv of Rome, was a severe blow to the Romans. He had loyally helf>ed them in fair weather and in foul. After his death Syracuse hesitated for a time, but ulti- mately threw in her lot w ith Carthage. Her example was fol- lowed l)y Agrigentum and many other Sicilian towns. In 214, IVIarcellus, tiie Roman conunander, appeared before Syracuse, and l>egaii the siege of the city by land and sea. Forts and walls afl'ordcd it admirable i)rotection; a Carthaginian army and fleet i came to its sui)[)(M-l, but the city founort of Home, hut many of the Italian eomuiunilies in the South went ov<>r to the side of Ilaimihal after the haltle «>f Canna*, ami for the next fi\<' \'eai-s it was the first <»hjeet (.'f the ilomans to i- i- these rel»elliou> to\siis ami to carry out the l''al)ian poliey of weakeninjx the force of IIannil)al ami of cutting!: off his su|)|)lic>. In spite of sonic serious reverses, these tactics were in the main succe»fnL ( asihnum ami \\\n were retaken and in 212 the sie;,^' c.f Cajiua be^jjan. Hannibal eauie to its relief, hut he could not raise the blockade. He inarched north to the \cry ^^ates of I{ome, hoitin;^- in this way to draw the bcsi(Mfiu»r fon-t-s a\\n\ from ('apua, but recruits flocke> army was not well provided with m;ichines for a siei^e, liis cavalry — the stronj^^-st part of his font — was of little use in such an enterprise, and he was forci^d to withdraw, without eitlier taking" Rome or rclicviu;,^ his allies in Campania. Weakencfl by the lonji; sie^^e, and reduced to the direst straits by hunger, ( 'a|)Ua fell in 21 1. The Romans inflicted sucli a jmnish- ment upon her as mi^dit well serve to deter other Italian cities from allyin*:: themselves with Hannibal. Her nobles were put to deatli; the common pi'ople were sold as slaves; the eit\' was «»f Hitro of Syracuse, tlie f.iithful friend and allv of R<»me, was a .severe blow to the Romans. He had loyally helped them in fair weather and in toul. After liis deatli Syraeus*' hesitated for a time, but ulti- mately tlu-eu- in lier lot witli Carthage. Her e.\ample was fol- lowed l)y A*i:ri^^entum and many other Sicilian towns. Tn 214. Marcelhis, the Roman commander, ajtpearcd before S\raeusc, and bci^-an the sietreof the eify by hnid and sea. Forts and walls alTorded it ehnirable protection ; a rartlui^inian armv and fleet f KXPWSIOV HF.VOXD TITK SKA 97 came to its support, but the city found its most eU'ective defen.se in the in^rcniiity of Archimedes, the oreat mathematician of Syra- cuse. He invented catapults which hurled oreat stones upon the decks of the Roman ships and >^ni\k them, huo-e cranes with i;rapplin^ hooks which seized the enemy's vessels by the bows and overturned them, and he even set their ships on fire, if W(i ^iUllMlSr. A IUW.n; Ul.Lll.l lltUM THAJW's ( Ol.UMN- may believe the story, with immense !inrni!i<^- olasses. For two years the sie^-(> was carried on wilhout avail, but in 212 Marcellus, takiiii,^ advantage of the festival of .Vrtemis, eau^dit the defenders of the city off their n-uard, and took it. I'hc con- fjuest of the rest of Sic ily (piickly followed, and in 210 the Cartha- ^ijiians had been entirely driven from the island. 175. Philip of Macedon Allies himself with Hannibal in 215 B.C. Hannibars success at ranujv, which had brouirht so many towns in southern Italy over to his side, also led Philip V of Afaccdon to listen favorably to the j)roposa.ls of the Tartha- ^nnians. He a of success, but the dan^^er of an invasion of Italy by the Macedonians the Itomans cleverly averted by torm- iuf^an alliance with the Cireck stat(\s which were hostile to Mace- donia. This coalition kept Philip out of It.dy, and took his un- divided attention for ten vears. m ROMAN HISTORY EXPANSION BEYOND THE SEA 99 176. The Battle on the Metaurus in 207 B. C. In Spain the slru<>j^He ht'twteii the liomans and the Carthaginians was a bitter one. ILisdrubal, the l)n>ther of Haimibal, attacked sepa- rately and defeated the two Uoiiuin armies under Pubhus and Gnaeiis Scij)io, and ehidiug young Pubhus Cornehus Seipio, wlio hiid been sent to Spain at tlie liead of new levies, set out on the long overland march toward Italy to relieve his brother. He crossed tlie Alps in the spring of 207 and descended into Italy with an army of over fifty thousand men. The fortunes of Rome seemed at their lowest ebb. Her own population was nearly exhausted; her allies were none too loyal; her land liad almost passed out of cultivation, and famine stared her in the face. But the lioman steadiness in a crisis, a piece of good for- tune, and the brilliant move of the consul, Gains Claudius, saved the (lav. He had been sent south to watch Hannibal, and for- 4 tnnately the nu'ssengers whom Hasdrubal had despatched post- haste to apprise his brotluT of his aj)proach fell into the hands of ( laudius. Withdrawing the greater part of his force without exciting tlie suspicion of Hannibal, he sent it with all speed to reinforce his colleague Livius in the North. The two armies effected a junction, fell upon Hasdrubal on the banks of the Metaurus near Sena (tallica, routed his army completely, and killed Ilasdrul>al. His head severed from the body, carried off by tiie victorious Ronuin army, and cast into Hannibal's camp, informed the Carthaginian commander of his brother's fate and of his own desperate situation. 177. Publius Cornelius Seipio. Meanwhile Publius Cor- nelius Seipio had made u|) for his l)Iunder in allowing Hasdrubal to slii) past liini by bringing the cam])aign in Spain to a brilliant end. In I'OO he retiu-ned to Home and claimed without boast- ing that he had fought against four generals and four victorious armies, and liad not left n single Carthaginian soldier in Spain. His success in Spain, his |)opularity with the masses, and his family connection won him an election to the consulship for the following \ear. Rome had at last found in him a worthy leader to pit against the great ( 'arthaginian captain who for thirteen f i: i t years had worsted every Roman general sent against him, from the impetuous Flaminins to the cautious Fal)ius. Polybius, who lived not long after Seipio, might well say of him that "he was perliaps the most illustrious man of those born before the present generation." 178. He Proposes to Invade Africa. Upon taking up his office he showed his daring and originality l)y i)roposing, not that the Romans should bend their energies to crush Hannibal in Italy, but that they should invade Africa and force the home government to recall Hannibal. His proposal was bitterly o])- posed l)y the timid, who feared the presence of Hannibal in Italy, by the conservative leaders, like Fabius, who were naturally dis- trustful of so bold an enterprise, and by the senate, which dread- ed the ascendency of one num. 179. Preliminary Movements in Africa in 204- 203 B.C. He received from the govenunent, therefore, only a half-hearted support for his enterprise, but suj)])len»enting the insufficient force which the state allowed him with the recruits who flocked to his standard, Seipio crossed over from Sicily in 204 and ef- fected a landing at Utica. The (Carthaginian army under Has- drubal Gisgo and the Xumidians under their king Syi)hax were defeated in turn, and the Carthaginians were forced to sue for ])eace. One of the conditions insisted on by Seipio was the recall of Hannibal. To this the Carthaginian senate agreed, and Hannibal with his troops landed at Leptis. 180. Battle of Zama in 202 B. C. But the return of Hannibal inspired the Carthaginians with courage again, and they reoi)ened hostilities. Seipio thereupon advanced farther into Carthaginian territory. His army had been meanwhile greatly strengthened by the adhesion of Masinissa, the rival of Syphax for the throne of Xumidia. The combined forces met Hannibal near Zama, and about five days' march from Carthage. Hannibal's elephants charged harmlessly through the wide alleys which Seipio had left between his columns for their passage, or were turned by the Romans against the Punic cavalry; the Roman veterans broke the enemy's line; the cavalry of ^lasinissa IIH) ROMW HISTORY I'lieirclecl the ciutin, and the nnil of tlu T irlha com- j)lete. Hannibal escaj)c(l to HadrunKtuni. 181. The Treaty of Peace in 201 B.C. Alter this defeat Carthage gave up the struggle. She agreed to relinciuish Spain, and not to make war at all outside of Afriea and in Africa only with Uonie's (oMseiit, and to surrender her fleet. She bound herself also to mv within fifty \'ears a sum of ten thousand talents, or about $12,000,000. To ensure the observance (»f these conditions, liostages were exacted of her, and Xuniidia, under Masinissa, Konie's efficient all} , was made an inde[)endent state to watch all her movements. 182. How Rome Acquired Supremacy in the West. Tlie unification of Italy was the first step in the develoi)ment of the P.oman empire. The second ^tage came to an end with the defeat of Carthage. Tlie control of the western Mediterranean, to wliieh Home's geographical position and the fact that her harbors faced the we>t ]>rey the political and conmiercial ambitit)ns of her people. To protect the southern coast of Italy she opix^cd the growth of Carthaginian power in Sicily, ;ind finally droVc the ( 'arthaginians out of the island. The same mstinct of self-lJreservation led her later to exj)el tliem from Sardinia also. At this point l)otli peoples opened their eye> to the fact that tlie combat was a life-and-deatli struggle for sui)remacy in the West. The fever- ish eagerness witli which Carthage souglit to l)uild up a new colonial emj»ire in Spain seems to indicate that she first saw that the conflict was inevitaltle and that defeat meant ruin. Thus, starting with the sole object of ensuring the integrity of Italy, with no large schemes of conciuest beyond the sea, Home drifted into the struggle for supremacy, and the outcome left her mis- tress of the West. 183. The Relations of Rome with the East. Now that the power (»f her only rival was broken, and her authority reeog- ni/.ed in tliis (juarter of the world, tlie prol)lem before lierwas to pacify, to consolidate, and to civilize her newly aenuired territory; KXPAXSION BEVOXI) TIIR SEA 101 but the situation in the Pkst claimed her immediate attention, and diverted her from this work before it was actually begun. With the development of the Eastern (juestion begins the third stage in Home's career of expansion. In the political drama which comes to an end with the defeat of Carthage the action is com- j>aratively .simple. Tlie minor role which Syracuse or Capua plays never really distracts our attention from the two leading characters, Home and Carthage. In the East the movement is much more com|)lex. Home, ^lacedonia, Syria, Egypt and a [lost of small states are all concerned, and for the simple motives of sclf-[)reservation or commercial and political ambition which actuated Home and Carthage we find substituted a large number of pf)litieal, personal, and even sentimental considerations. 184. Macedonia, Egypt, and Syria. The far-reaching em- |)ire of the East which Alexander left at his death in 322 b. c. broke u)) into the llircc great kingdoms of Macedonia, Egypt, and Syria. Macedonia controlled the gnniter part of the Balkan peninsula, Thessaly and some of the smaller states of Greece. Egyj)t, besides her territory in northern Africa, controlled Juda?a and Plioenicia, a strip of land along the coast of Asia ^Minor, and I'hracc, and most of the islands in the eastern ^Mediterranean. The authority of Syria was recognized in the interior of southern Asia Minor, along the eastern Mediterranean coast from Tyre to Seleucia, and in tlie country to th(* east through the valley of the Eu})hrat(\s and Tigris as far as the borders of Media. 185. Ambitious Designs of Macedonia and Syria. The trouble in the East began in 205, on the death of Ptolemv Philopator of Egypt, who left the throne to his infant son. There- upon Philip of INIacedon and Antiochus III of Syria seized the opportunity to (^xtend their territory at tlie ex|)ense of Egypt. Philip directed his efforts against the P]gyptian dependencies on the Aegean coast, and against the coast towns in southern Thrace and on the Hellespont. Hhodes, which was a most flourishing and independent commercial state, was unwilling that this great thoroughfare should fall into his hands, and made war upon him, and both Egy])t and Hhodes asked Home to intervene. Rome 102 ROM ^\ HISTORY EXPANSION BEYOND THE SEA 103 was only too williiitr to do so, because of the alliance which Macedonia had a few years hefore iiiade with Hannibal, and on account of the threatening growth of Macedonian power. \lii.nx'Ch'i OREECE AND ASIA MINOR ! THE WAR8 WITH THE MACEDONIANS AND ANTIOCHU8 186. Second Macedonian War, 200- 196 B.C. Macedonia refased to make the concessions to Egypt and Rhodes which Rome pro|)os(Ml, and Koine declared war upon Philip. Antio- clnis was indufcd to sever iiis comiection with Philip, and the successes of tlie Koinans during the first vear of the war l)rouiun imj)osrd liard conditions u])on liim. lie agreed to relin(juish all conquered territory, to grant the Greeks their freedom, to surnnder his fleet, to pay a war indemnity, and to I I f I i 1 r direct his foreign poricy in accordance with the wishes of the Ro- mans. Rome annexed no territory, established no garrisons in the country of her late enemy, and left Macedonia and the Greek states free to manage their own internal affairs. Polybius gives us a graphic account of the way in which the proclamation of inde])endence was received by the Greeks at the Isthmian Games in July, 196 b. c. "While people were still in a state of un- certainty, all the world being assembled on the stadium to watch the games, the herald came forward, and having proclaimed silence by the sound of a trumpet, delivered the following procla- mation: 'The senate of Rome and Titus Quinctius [Flaniininus], proconsul and imperator, having conquered King Philip and the Macedonians in war, declare the following peoples free, without garrison, or tribute, in full enjoyment of the laws of their res|)ective countries; namely, Corinthians, Phocians, Locrians, Eulxeans, Achaians of Phiotis, Magnesians, Thes- salians, Perrhtebians.' Now, as the first words of the jjroc- lamation were the signal for a tremendous outburst of clapping, some of the people could not hear it at all, and some wanted to hear it again; but the majority, feeling incredulous, and thinking that they heard the words in a kind of dream, so utterly unex- pected was it, another impulse induced every one to shout to the herald and trumpeter to come into the middle of the stadium and repeat the words. . . . But when the herald, having ad- vanced into the middle of the crowd, once more, by his trumpeter, hushed the clamor and repeated exactly the same proclamation as before, there was such an outbreak of clapping as is difficult to convey to the imagination of my readers at this time, — and after the games were over, in the extravagance of their joy, they nearly killed Flaniininus by the exhibition of their grati- tude. Some wanted to look him in the face and call him their preserver; others were eager to touch his hand; most threw garlands and fillets upon him; until between them they nearly crushed him to death." 188. The Reasons for Rome's Generous Policy. The self-restraint which Rome showed in her arrangements with 104 ROMAN HISTORY Macf.loniu and her «:('i!cn)iis trealnient of tlic Greek states may be tnieed partly to sentiiiieiital, partly to praetieal, eoiisitleratioiis. The Romans admired the (ireeks; they l)elieved in their capac- ity for self-government, and tliey had repeatedly promised to [live the Greek states tlieir fnvdoin. Flamininiis, in ])articuUir, wlio led the Roman peace commission, showed marked sym- I)athv witli the (ireek passion for inde])en(k"nce. The hos- tilitv to an Eastern war which the great mass of the common people at Rome had shown at the ontset also [irol)ably prevented tliegovermnent,at the close of the war, from oc(iii)ying territory which might involve it in complications in the fntiire. In fact, the constant (puirrels between the several (ireek states and leagues might well deter Rome- fn.m assuming any authority and responsil)ility in that ([uarter. Finally, if the integrity of Mace- donia was res[)ected she could ])rotect l^onum interests against the ( iauls and Thracian>, while the (ireek leagues would hold in check Macedonia's ambitious licn<^!hcning the weak ones. Syria was robbed of so \'dr as a counterpoise to Svria, just as the kingdom of Numidia had been created to hold Carthage in clieck. 194. Third Macedonian War, 171- 168 B.C., and its Re- sults. Macedonia iii.ide one more cflort under her king Perseus to recover lier position, but was licaten at tlic battle of Pydna, and lost her integrity as a result of the war. Tlie country was divided info four districts, which were allowed to manage their own internal affairs Iml not to make war or jteaee. lUyria, too, which had sidc^l with I*ersens, was divided into three separate; states. The other states and the individuals who had es[)oused the cause of Perseus weic treated with the utmost severity. A thousand Achaian>, suspected of sympathy with him, were transported to Italy and held in confinement without trial for fuany years. Among them was the historian Poly!>ius, to whose enforced stay in Italy we i)rol)ably (nve his account— the most detailed and accurate one we have — of the events of this period. 195 Macedonia Made a Province in 146 B. C. The f)lan of isolating l)ut leaving inde})cndent the newly created. Macedonian slates did not work as well as a similar policy had done in 'Italy. The situation inevitably tempted ambitious IVIacedonian leaders to try to bring about a reunion of the four districts. After an attempt of this sort had been made by a cer- tain Andriscus, the senate gave up the plan, and made Mace- donia a province like Sicily and Spain. 196. Greece Subdued in 146 B. C. The arrangement in Greece pro\ed as unsatisfactory as had that in Macedonia. The jealousy which the different states felt toward one another broke out in 148 into ojien war between the Achaian league and KXPANRION BEYOXT) THE SEA 107 Sparta, and the Achaians tried to mjike Sparta yield to their confederation. When Rome intervened, the league, forgetting the severe lesson Avhich the Greeks had been taught after the third Macedonian war, boldly challenged her. The struggle was short and decisive. All the towns which had taken part in the movement were razed to the ground. Corinth, the principal town of the h^ague, and one of the most beautiful cities of antieninsula was \hr ^rcrio <^\' revolt after revolt. These wars were pointed Roman general, tliough he was the brother of Servilianus, treacherously broke the treaty, and reopened hostilities against the Ijusitanian chief. 200. The Murder of Viriathus, 139 B.C. Finding him- self unal)le to cope with tlie enemy he brought the war to an end in a way which harmonized well with the treacherous methods which the Romans had adoi)ted in all their dealings with the Lusitanians. Ilis o1)ject was accomplished during an interval between the campaigns, when peace negotiations EXPANSION nEYoM) THE SEA 109 were going on. The story is t(»ld by Appian in The War.s- in 8/)(iiN : "Viriathus sent his most trusted friends, Audax, Ditalco, and Minurus, to Caei)io to arrange terms of peace. Caei)io bribed them, by large gifts and promises, to assassinate Viri- athus, which they did in this way. Viriathus, on account of his excessive cares and labors, slej)t but little, and for the most part took rest in his armor so tliat when aroused he should be pre|>arcd for every emergency. For this reason it was per- mitted to his friends to visit him by night; taking advantage of this custom, those who were associated with Audax in guard- ing him entered his tent as if on pressing business, just as he liad fallen aslccj), and killed him by stabbing him in the tliroat, which was the only part of liis body not protected by armor." Thus pjissed away the leader against whom the Romans had scut legion after legion ^\•ithout avail for nearly ten years. After his death the rebellion collapsed. All this took place in Farther Sj)ain. 201. The War with Numantia, 143 - 133 B.C. Li tlie })rov- ince of Hither Spain, w^ar was going on at the same time. Its story is a similar one of broken pledges, incapable connnanders, and undisciplined armies. At last the'Romans found an able leader in Scii)io Aemilianus, who had already distinguished himself in Africa, and the last opposition to Roman rule dis- a})peared wlien Numantia was blockaded by him and reduced after an heroic resistance. 202. Carthage Recovers her Prosperity. AVe have traced the history of the two provinces which Rome exacted from Carthage as the spoils of war. We must turn now for a moment to follow the career of Carthage herself. The restoration of peace in 201 brought her prosperity again. Her commerce sprang up; the city grew, and the wealth of lier citizens increased. This very development, although Carthage faithfully observed her treat V obligations both in letter and s}>irit, excited anxiety, jealousy, and the old animosity at Rome. In the cpiarrcls whicli arose between licr and hei- neighbor ^lasinissa, king of Numidia, Rome steadily abetteil and favored INlasinissa, watching 110 ROMAN HISTORY EXPANSION BEYOND THF SEA 111 for somv i>relext to (lochirc war n\mu Cartluij^i^ M Utst the Cartlia-ini;n.^ -Irivm t(, (lrs|HTati.,n by llu' cncroadimenls of Masinissa, u^K'nvd \h>s[\\\[\v> a<:ainsl him. 203. The Third Punic War, 149 - 146 B.C. 1 o wage war in Africa without UoiiuA con.riil wa.; in violation of the treaty of 201, and the war party in Konie, \vd by M- Poreius Cato, ea^rerly seized tliis pretext to invade Africa, and demand the iimnediate subnns.i<.n of ( artlia^^e. The Carthaginians has- tened to vield. Tliev condeninrd to nate, while each province was governed by a praetor. The >eeond iin[)ortant dill'erence consisted in tlie fact thai tlie Italians were free from taxation, while most of the pn»vineial towns were sultjeet to ee?-tain imposts. The provincial tax usually took tlie form of a fixed contnl)Ution, or .st/pnidiinn laid u|)on a comnnmity, or else a certain proportion of the annual returns from the land, a rnilfjal, was required. The metliod of managing local affairs varied in different provinces, and was ada|)ted ifi some measun' to the lu'cds and traditional practices of the j)eople, and the degree of independcnee allowed to a town depended upon the attitude which she took or had taken toWiird Uomc. Com- munities which were loyal to her sometimes became free states. Tho.sc whicli resisted her autliority were made dependent, while towns, like Carthage and Xuniantia, which op[)osed hvv to the vnd, were destroyed. Free vf-.i, < enjoyed the privilege of local .self-government, but weie not allowed to enter into negotiations with other states. l)e|>endent communities paid taxes, and conducted their local alfairs under the supervision of Roman officials. /f. lA ?^ ROMAN TERRITORY in 201 B.C. K-miin TtTTit-rv / ROMAN TERRITORY in 133 B.C. Koiuan I i. EXPANSION BEYOND THE SEA 113 ft 1 DEVELOPMENT »)F ROMAN TEKRITOHY FROM 201 TO 133 B.C. 1 in T'-rrit'try at th>' tn't'lrinim: "f the Vn- M;ip facing' i 208. Summary Account of the Conquest of Mediterra- nean Lands, 264-133 B. C. We have iiotieed that Koine's war with Pyrrhus made her at hist mistress of all Italy, gave her a hirge, well-trained army, and so raised her to the j)osition of a Mediterranean power, and made her the rival of Carthage for the trade and the political control of the western Mediterranean. Rome had an advantage in the com[)actness of her territory and in tlie composition of her army; Cartilage in the excellence of her navy. The war was carried on mainly in Sicily and the adjacent waters, and ended with the triumph of Rome. She won Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and thus ac(piired her first tei-ritory outside of Italy, and established her first })rovincc. Both Rome and Carthage pre})arcd for another struggle, Rome l)y i)rotecting herself in the rear, Carthage by establishing her- self in Spain. The Second Punic War began with a (piarrel over Saguntum. Ilannibjd, after taking the city, marchecl ox-cr- lanry and in the conij)osition of her army; ('arlha^'c in the excellence of her navy. The war was carried on mainlv in Sicilv and the adjaci'iit waters, and ended with the triumph of Koine. Slie won Sicily, Sardinia, and ("orsiea, and thus accpiired her first territory outside of Italy, and established her first j)rovince. Kotli lioine and Cartha'^c j)rej)are(l for another strurotec- torale was establislied ovei^ l^'.^ypt- With the fall of Carthaj^^e Koine's «»ld-timc rival disapjicarcd. At the close of the period Koine was in control of both the (astern and western Medittr- raiieaii. T>F.VV:I.OPM K\"T "'F H<>M\N I! (n{!li>';v i n i i \t JO] | . \ 'A:', M CHAPTER VII THE ROMAX ST VTE AND HER PROVINCES (2()4-133,n. r.) How tho sontfp controlled affairs at lioiiu' ami abroad —How the conQuest of Me*littTraa. la lands altected Italy. 209. Political Inactivity at Rome. The first two centuries of tlie He|)iil)lir IkhI Ix't'ii years of creative activity in political alfairs. Offices liad been established, principles of government a(loj>lc(l, and precedents set wliicii were permanent and far- j(':icliing in their appHcation. But the passa^ije of the Ilorten- sian law marked the end of the struj^gle. The ])leheians had secured })oIitical equality. In thi- period whose external history we have been followinfij in tlie last chapter, the enerjijies of the Ilomans are (*xj)ended in striig<^les with their Mediterranean rivals, and in es.ablishing an orderly goverinnent in the prov- inces. Tlie scene of political activity is changed from Rome to the newlv acquired territorv outside of Italy. At home the Romans content themselves in the main with adapting the newl} e>tal>lished institutions, like the magistracies and the popular assemblies, to the pressing needs of the community. 210. Reform of the Centuriate Assembly about 241 B.C. The most comprehensive political change in domestic affairs was the reform of tiie centuriate assembly. Under the old arrangement there were moic centuries in tlie first class, made up of tlic rich, than there were in the lower classes, luid con- se(juently the rich controlled the assembly. In the reformed organi/.atlon each one of the five classes, into wliich the citizens were divided according to their wealth, had the same number of centuries, and by the change the vote of a poor man counted for almost as naich as that of the rich man. 211. Control of Affairs by the Senate. The composition of this liodv, liowever, was not a matter of much moment at 114 THE ROMAN STATE AND HER PROVINCES 115 II the time, partly because tlu^ tribal asscnibhes were preferred to the centuriate comitia on account of their simpler and more democratic organization, but mainly ))ecausc the greater part of the legislation of the period emanates from no poj)ular assemblv whatsoever, but from the senate. Government bv the senate had its advantages and its disadvantages. It gave a continuity to Roman ])()licy, \\Jiich chief magistrates, changing from year to year, could not have secured. It j)revente(l liic individual commander or magistrate from sul)(>rdinating the public good to his personal ambition. On the other Iiand it hampered the commander in the field and the governor in a province, and in some measure took the management of distant affairs out of the liands of those who were on the sjx)!, and, therefore, best quaUfied to reach a wise decision. Rut i)erhaps its greatest disadvantage was on the score of morals rather than of efficiency. A bodv of men will oftentimes instruct its cxecu- tive to perform an act which an individual member of the body, with the full sense of responsibility resting upon him, would neither carry out of his own initiative, nor authorize another to carry out. Such an act, for instance, was the burning of Carthage, which Scipio Aemilianus carried out against his will under exi)ress orders from the senate. 212. How the Senate Maintained its Exclusive Charac- ter. The senate managed to make itself essentially a close cor- poration. Only a man like Cato, of exceptional ability and force of character, if he were outside the charmed circle of the nohill- tas, could hope to secure office and thus enter the senate. Like every other oligarchy, this body had to protect itself at two points. It must keep outsiders from getting in, and it must prevent any citizen, whether one of its members or not, from acquiring great power, and from limiting its influence by exercising this power. The circumstances which gave to it its exclusive character we have already observed, and the new weapons which it forged against the knights, the rich men out- side its number, we shall have occasion to notice shortly. 116 ROMAX HISTORY 213. How It Held Popular Favorites in Check. To pro- tect itself cifi^airist jntihitions individuals, the ii(»l)ility in the year 180 seeiired the pa;v^a-r of a law fi\in«j,- dire<'tly or iiidiivctly the age at which citizens iniji:lit heeoine eandiihites for the more important ofliees. This law covered only two or tln-ee of the principal niaj^nstraeies, l>nt the praeti )f many years had fixed the position of flu oiIht offices also in a carefully gradeil system, so that the cui.^u.^. houanun, or fixed order in which the magistracies were to l)e held, was established — an arrange- ment resting partly on law and partly on custom. In this establislied order the military Irihunale came first, then a i)osi- tion as one of the twcnh-^ix coiinnissioners who had charge of the mint, of the >trc( i . aiai odier malkrs, hjllowed hy die quaestorshij), the tribunate of the [)]ebs (recjuired of plebe- ians only), the aedilcship, the pracl(n-ship, and die consulshij). Aliout the middle of the secon»l century reeleclion to the consul- ship was lot-bidden. 1>v tbe V\r<\ < if* ■mard, that is, by the establisliment of the rm.su.s niinfinun, liie Miiate aimed to make the political })romotion of a p(»pular favorite as slow and as regular as |)ossible, by obliging him to take the lower magis- tracies l>efore he could be advanced to the higher. Hy the second measure, which [)rf>liibitcd recKftion t(> llie consulship, it hoped to prevent an ambitious politu lan from holding office too long. 214. Misgovernment in the Provinces. We already know the general form of government which the senate after some exi)eriment^ worked out for the provinces. All'airs were at first administered by ju-aetors sent out each year from Koine, and later by proj)raetors and |)roconsuls, tha* is, by ex-magistrates holding the rank and power> of i praetor or consul. The (•■ovcrnor was assist(>d bv a (iuae>tor. or treasurer, and a board of advisers, representing the sen..i<. At first sight it would seem as if tlie i)rovinees might exj)ect a reasonably just and eniclent govermnent under tliis system, es|)ecially since each [iroA ince had a constitution, and since, after I H», governors were lial»le to trial for misconduct before a peniianent court. THE ROMAN ST.\TE ANB riER PROVINCES 117 ii u II But the management of tlie provinces was far from being either just or efficient. It was not just because the natives had no real protection against the unbridled avarice of the governor and the taxgatherer. It was inefficicMit because Roman officials had no acquaintanc(^ with Uie conditions of the provinces over which they were placed. 215. The Autocratic Power of Governors. When the niiigistrate passed beyond the bounds of Italy, all the con- stitutional limitations laid upon his action were suspended, and he became a ruk'r witli arbitrary power. He had no colleagues; the |)r(jvincial haosed the shield of his [)rotection between the autocrat and tlu* subject. The (juaestor had no independent authority, and the members of the provincial lK)ard of advisers were api)ointed by the governor liimself, and could be trusted not to thwart his wishes. Hven the constitution of the province afforded the natives little protection. It was a costly matter to bring an action in Rome against a governor who liad violate was little hope of justice from a court whose members either o[)enly sympadnzed with the culprit, or could be bought by his money, or who based dieir verdict on I)arty consick'rations. 216. Their Rapacity. What the fat(M)f the provinces was unck'r this system, when they fell into the hands of inrn whose only objects in going abroad were to recoui) themselves for the immense sums which they had sikmU in securing election to olHcc at Rome, and to amass a fortune to meet their future needs at home, is shown clearly «'nougli at a later date in Cicero's .scathing arraignment of Vern s, the governor of Sicily. 217. Their Ignorance of Local Conditions. Even if a governor were honest, the cas(> was almost as bad. He would probably have little or no previous knowledge of his province or its people; his staff was composed of men as ignorant of the conditions as himself, and in the twelve months of his term of otfice, he could g.\in little information, correct few abuses, and ns ROMAN HISTORY THE ROMAN STATE AND HER PROVINCES 119 « ^tablisli no policy of his own. In sucli circumstances, to send ott* to Asia, aiaonir ( )ncnfal^. a irovcnior who knew nothing but Roman institutions and Koinaii \ui,\.^ of living and thinking could not fail to result in misgovernnient. If one calls to mind England's method of governing India, for instance, one sees by contrast how fundamentally wrong the Roman system was. The u-i.vTrmir-general of England's eolony anil his council hold oflice usuallv for five vears, and the majority of the council must hiive been in the Indian service for ten years at least, before they are appointed eouncillors, while subordinate posts are filled by men who liave si)ecially j)repared themselves for tlie W(»rk, and intend to spend a large i)art of their lives in India. 218. Economic Condition of the Provinces. In the train of the -rovernor came the trader and the tax-farmer. Roman merehants and bankrrs abM)rl)ed [hv trade of tlie province, and loaned iiiomy at usurious rales to impoverished communities arul indivuluals, enforcing their nefarious contracts with the jomiivanee, :ind often with tlie direct sup|)()rt, of the governor. Taxes in the j)ro\inees were not eolle«te(l by government oHieials, but the stat*' sold at auction to the liighest bidder the riirht to collect them. The |>ro(it of the tax-farmer kiv in what lie ((tiild eolleet over and nbove the amount which he had bid for tlie privilege, and he, like the banker and th<' merchant, relied uixai tlie gofxl offices of the gov«'rnor, and woe betide tlie governor who atteinj»ted to defend the native against the extortionate deniaitffs of llie taxgnlherer and liis rich and influential backers at U#n}^. IJetween the re([uisitions of the irt.vernor, the usurious practices of the monev lender, and the insatiable demands of the puhHratnis, or taxgatlierer, the poor {)rovincial sunk into a hopeless state of debt and misery, or sought relief in a de-i^ lute attempt to throw off the yoke of liis Roman master. 219. The Benefits which Rome Conferred on the Prov- inces. This i> the dark side of the pictur(% but it has its bright side. Evil as the Roman administrativ<' and financial system ' in the provinces was, in many cases it com[>ared favorably with that which had j^reteded it. In most localities probably the tribute paid directly or indirectly to Rome was no greater than the provincial had in former days paid to the native ruler, and it was of the greatest advantage to him that Rome estab- lished order in each community, prevented the i>etty states from making war on one another, introduced a uniform system of laws, opened courts for the orderly settlement of cases under civilized methods of prwedure, l)uilt roads and l)ridges, excava- ted harbors, and protected each province against the incursions of its less civilized neighbors. These were the i)ermanent teie- fits which Rome conferred on her provinces, and one can readily see that if, in the course of time, a governoi- is chosen on the score of fitness, with a reasonably long term of office, and is made subject to i)ro})er limitations on his exercise of authority, and if the abuses of the tax system are removed, the territory which Rome has actpiired will have gained in a material way, at least, by its transfer to Roman authority. And this hai>py result came in time, as wc shall sec. 220. Soldiers Unfitted for Peaceful Occupations. Tlie political and social changes which war and the expansion of Roman territory ett'ected in Italy were almost as marked as those which the coiupiered nations tliemselvcs exi)erienced. The citizen-soldiers of earlier days returned at tlie end of a summer's caini)aign to resume their old vocations and to take their part again in the political life at home. But men who had served, perhaps for years, in (ireece, Africa, or Spain, who had known the perils and the excitement of a soldier's life, and who had filled their purses from the Ijooty of a captured town, were quite unfitted to settle down to the lal)orious, lium- druin life of a farmer and an artisan. They were really soldiers by profession, and with the close of a campaign their occupation was gone. They had become accustomed to depend upon the state for their livelihood in time of war, and in time of peace they looked to the same source for their support. The restora- tion of peace, therefore, threw upon the community a great 120 R«>\l\\ HISTORY THE ROMAN STATE AND HER PROVIXCES 121 body of men disiiKHiicd lo any ]Maccfiil o<-cH|>ali()n, and nnfitti'd for it. 221. Unfitted for Political Life. In die spliciv of [jolitics the rt'sult was alniDsl as u.s. The spirit of drnKKTacy has little in eoninion with military ideals. The freeman should think ami act and \<>iv for liimself. The soldier must sur- ri'uder his own opinion and judi^nneiil to aiiolln-r. To put it in another way, the sneeessful prosecution of a eampai<(n calls for the complete snhmission of iht- individual soldier to the will of his connnarider, whil(< sncrr-^^fnl democratic «i:overmnent de[)ends nj>on the active, intelligent, and free participation of the individual citizen in the conduct of all'airs. Kveu if the returned soldier had heen inclined to take up his jxjlitieal dutl.'s aji:aiii, and ca|»aMe of it, he wonld have found that the M-nalc ha«l taken to itself the nal fnnctions of *(overnment, while to him was left .tnly participation in thr rather meaniu'dess meet- iugs of the comitia. 222. Decline of Italy. The «ronomic condition of Italy outside of Kome was worse than that of the capital, hecaiise the trade (»f the city developed, whereas the country districts depend(Ml entirely ..u aKriculdnv, and a,srri<'ulture was ruined. War had drafted (.If the vi-rorous younir hh-h, and nuicli of the land relai)sed into its primitive >| it(. tor lack of cultivation. The cam{)ai;,nis of Ilaunihal in Italy also had laid waste a great |)art of the peninsnla. IJut the accpiisitiou of Sicily, Sar- dinia, and Africa dealt the severest blow of all to Italian a*>ri- eulture. These three fertile reiri,,„s .^ent their grain to he sold in Rome at price, with which the Italian farmer could not compete, and, to make matters worse, in times of scarcity the govermnent itself sold grain at j.rices far helow their natural level. The e,,n(liti„n of the Italian i)easant went from had to worse. He struggled as long as lu^ could to make a living in these adverse circumstance, nntil hnally, weighed down hy debts and mortgages, lie was forcc.l to sell his little farm to swell the estate of some landed projirietor. In this way die peasant 5 i T jM-oprietor was crowded out by tlie great landow^ner. The lot of the free agricultural laborer was ecpially unfortunate. Thousands of prisoners had been taken in war, l)rought as slavivs to Italy, and set to work in the country. The free laborer could not and would not compete with them. There was noth- ing left for him to do but to betake himself to the capital along with the baidvrupt farmer, and join the great army of the unemployed, in the Iiope of picking up a precarious living by honorable or dishonorable means, or of being supj)orted by the government. 223. Accumulation of Large Fortunes. While the poor became] KM )rer, the well-to-do and the rich amassed great fortunes. The destruction of Carthage and Corinth, and the decline of Rhodes made Home the connnercial and banking centre of the Mediterranean. Ilcr ships absorbed the carrying trade, her men hants and money lenders penetrated to all parts of the world, and her citizens secured the contracts for the construction of roads and bridges aiieriod, when a man's j)roperty had reached a certain amount he was liable to service in the cavalry, and the title was still given to those whose fortunes amounted to a certain sum, even after they were no longer expected to serve as horsemen. The new opportunities for making money wliich the expansion of Roman territory offered, in(Tea»sed inunenselv the size and influence of this class of citi- zens, which became essentially, but not yet legally, a new order 122 ROM AX HISTORY of nol)ilitv, iust helow the senate in social and political impor- tanee. 225. They Aspire to Political Honors. The i)olitical ambitions of its nienilnM-s hrou-jjlit it into sliaq) conflict with the senate and the uohilitas. The senatorial nohility had managed for generations to keep all the olHces in its own hands. The cqiiitc.'^ challenged tins privilege, and they snpi)orted their claims l)y the la\ isli nse of money for political pnrposes upon the needy fanners and farm laborers who had thronged to the city and npon the veterans whom the retnrn of peace had left without employment. In such circumstances wide- spread political corrui)tion was inevital>le. It was to prevent the cqin'fr\' from buyint!; tlie votes of these classes of peoi)le at the eleeinMis that the seiiatorial nobility secured the passage, in the second century, of laws against bribery, and of measures which provided for a secret ballot at the meetings of the comitia. 226. Growth of Luxury. The evils which naturally follow a sudden increase of wealth were aggravated by the fact that thecon(|uest of Magna (Ira^'ia and the East brought the Romans into contact with a highly developed civilization to wliich their previous simple life was in markeRY 229. The Effect of Greek Influence on the Romans. In fact, tlie coiU(Uc.st ij( (ireecc iiml uf tlk- coiiiitries in which Greek oiviHziitioii existed worked a e(>in{)lete transformation in the life and character of the Komaii.s. A^ xion as Ronu" became the capital of tlie world, throngs of (neeks (locked there, or were broni^lit tliere as slaw's. d'hoiisands of Romans too en;^'aged in trade with (rreek lands, or went to the East as soldiers or officials. f a more higlily civilized rac<'. TIkw were hardly pre[)arelc. 230. Narrow-mindedness Disappears. By (oming into contact with the outside world Rome in a large measnre lost her contempt for other j)coples and her belief in the i)erfcction of her own institutions. Slie went ^o far as to recognize the fact that the individual freeman, whether a Roman or a for- eigner, had certain rights, and wlien settling judicial (piestions, even those in whicli foreigners wei'e eoneerned, slie did not insist upon the aj»[)lication of Roman law in all its details, but ap|)iic(l tile ''n eivili/ed world, and thus develo{>ed the ///.v fjrnlin III , ai\ international })ri\afe lau'. Such concessions as this show clearly enough that Koine was losing her narrow- mindedness and was abJ«' to fiml somctliing worth a HER PROVIXCES 125 I w ^ ) 231. Changes in Roman Character. Tliis tolerant atti- tude toward foreign i«leas and practices had its drawbacks, however. In the e\-eryday life of the citizens the ///o/v.v nuuorani, or practices of the fathers, lost much of theii' compelling power, and were no longer obiyed withont (juestion. Simj)licity of life, the ability to endnre hardshij), u|)riglit conduct, and the maintenance of pcrscmal dignity and independence ceased to be the universal iileals which they had l)een in tlie past. Men developed a craving for the comforts and luxuries of life, and in order to get them were willing to sacrifice their honesty and self- res jH'ct. Those who |)ossessed a large nu'asure of the good things of the world were j)ulTcd up by their possessions, and were fawned upon or cnvii'd by their less fortunate fellow-men. The inve<'tivcs of Gato, the prosecutions for extortion, the laws atrainst bril)erv, all of which we have alreadv noticed, and the struggle between the |)oor and the rich in the generation which follows bring out plainly the.e changes in Roman character. 232. Changes in Education. '11 le influence of Greek cul- ture both for good and for evil was the more eirective l)ecause it was brought to bear directly uj)on the young. In early days a Roman l>oy received his training from his father. It was very simple. It consisted in the main of such physical exercises as swimming, running, riding, and tlu^ use of arms, and the ac(juisition of jin ability to read, write, and make simple calcula- tions. This was the sort of education which Cato gave his son. The girl was ti"aine(l by her mother so that she might be able to manage a household when the time came for her to marry. From tlie bcji'inning of the second ceiiturv l>efore our era the hardening phvsical exercises fell more into disuse, and in their stead tliere were substituted the study of Latin and Greek literature, rhetoric, and law, and what was a still more significant cliange, a l)oy's training was entrusted to a professional Greek teacher, who was often a slave in the household. No way more effective than this of grafting Greek qualities on the old Roman stock could have been devised. 126 ROMAN HISTORY THE ROMAN STATE AND HER PROVINCES 127 233. The Integrity of the Family Weakened. The new influences threaleniMl tlie unity of llie family. Wives Mucessfully asserted their fn-edoin in certain matters from the control of their husbands. In sonir cases women on marrying even re- tained control of their own property. Divorce was not un- known. A son too acquired some measure of independence, and not infrequently slaves by their cleverness and ability gained a virtual control of the household. Such a state of affairs was far removed from tliat of the primitive days, wlien marriage was indissoluble and the right of the father over the life and property of every member of his houseliold could not be ques- tioned even bv the state. 234. New Inventions. It was during this period that manv of the conveniences of civili/ed life were introduced into Rome. From the Egyptians, for instance, came the water- clock and the liydraulic pnni|); from the (irccks various musical instruments; from the (lauls vehicles of ditt'erent kinds, and tiles to be used in building. 236. New Industries. That life in Home was l)ecoming more complex is clearly shown also by the introduction of new industries and occui)ations. W'v hear, for instance, of inn- keepers ajid dealers in wine, of pnjfessional cooks and scribes, of |)hysicians, actors, and gladiators, and of teachers of nuisic and dancing. The city took on more of a metropolitan ai)pear- ance from the fact that men engaged in the same trade showed a tendency to gather at a given point. For example, the butchers and oil-merchants had their stands in the Velabrum, as we know from Plant us. 236. Extravagance. The passion wliich the common peo- ple developed for theatrical and gladiatorial |)erformances shows itself in a marked way in this period. Figlits with wild beasts and contests between [)rofessional athletes were intro- duced in 1^<), and elaborate nuisical entertainments al)out twentv vear> later. As for tlie well-to-d(i, wv have noticed that * t. they spent their money with the lavi.shness characteristic of those who have become suddenlv rich. They built fine houses and villas, laid out magnificent gardens, bought costly articles of furniture, nuide collections of works of art and bric-a-brac, and employed large numbers of house slaves. Trade with the Orient responded quickly to the demands for articles of luxury by pouring into Rome purple stuffs from Miletus, glassware and gar- ments of linen and cotton from Egypt, fine wines from Greece, and s})ices from Et hiopia and Syria. 237. Religious Changes. The crude conceptions which the Ro- mans in the early days had of the gods would not harmonize with the wider knowledge which they had acciuired from contact with the outside world. The old reli- gion secnu'd cold, formal, and colorless, too, in comparison with the religions of Greece and Asia, and ceased to satisfy the aspira- tions of the ])eople. The need for something more personal and more spiritual was supplied in j)art by investing certain Roman gods with the attributes of the Greek deities which were most like them, and by introducing bodily the worship of certain foreign gods. Thus the Roman Jupiter and the Greek Zeus were identified, Juno and Hera, Mercury and Hermes, Mars and Ares, the worship of Serapis was brought from Egypt, and that of Cybele from Asia Minor. Reverence was still paid to the Lares and Penates in the household, and the state still main- lained the forms of the old faith for official purposes, but for the niiuss of the peoi)le the old religion was ra})idly losing its meaning and its restraining force. The more intelligent had become skeptical, and the common peo])le were la])sing into the lower forms of superstition. ROMAN GLADIATOR 12(> 1{(>\IA\ HISTORY THE ROMAN STATE AND HER PROVINCES 127 233. The Integrity of the Family Weakened. The new infhience> threatened the unity of the fiunily. \Vive> >u((e>>fully ii->MTte(l th«-ir freedom in rcrtain matters from tlie eontrol of their husbands. In >oine caxs women on marrvin bccomino more c(nnple\ i^ clearly >hown als(» l)y the introduction of new industries and occupations. We hear, for instance, of inn- keepers antl dealers in wine, of |>rofessional cooks and scribes, of j)hvsicians, actors, and ^dadiators, ami of teachers of music and dancino;. The city took on more of a metropolitan a])pear- ance from the fact that men en^^a*,'ed in the same trade showed a tendency to jjather at a «riven point. For e\ani|)le, the butchers and oil-merchanls liad their stands in the Velabrum, as we know from Plautus. 236. Extravagance. The passion which thccomnuHi peo- |)le (kvelo|)ed for theatrical and ^dadiatorial performances shows itself in a marked way in this pericMl. Fi^dits with wild beast-> and contests l)ctween professional athletes wr-rc intro- (luce for the well-to-do, \\«' haxe noticed that they spent their moin-y with the lavishne>- characteristic of those who lia\e l>eeome suddenlv rich. Tliev built fine houses and villas, laid out inaj^nificent o^ardens, b()Uo;ht costly articles of furniture, mack' collections of works of art and bric-a-brac, and employed lar, in comparison with romax nT.Ai.iAxou the religions of (ireece and Asia, and ceased to satisfy the aspira- tions of the j)eopl(\ The need for something more personal and more spiritual was sup|)lied in part by investing certain Roman gods with the attributes of the (Inn-k deities which were most like them, and l>y intnulucing bodily the worship of certain foreign gods. Thus the Roman Jupiter and the Oreek Zeus were identified, Juno and Hera, Mercury and Hermes, Mars and Ares, tlie worship of Serai)is was brought from Egyj)t, ;ind that of (A'bele from Asia Minor. Reverence was still paid to the Fares and Fenates in the household, ;ind the state still main- tained the forms of the ol in tli(> l.m^^ nm U\I\.\ STAll. AM) IIKH PH()V1X(KS 129 and, lindmj: no snitaMc l)0()k to nsc in tcachin*]: Latin, trans- lated the ()(ly->ry into Latin verse. Later, in 240, when the Romans wislied t(. « clehrate tlieir success over the Carthaginians A KO-MAN Tin.ATRI. AT I''>M1M:II |,v a di.iniatie festival, Living Andronicns j)ro- i> f Ml r wo S f M I X N A Vi J> I > I B-^ I A cnMMr- j;tKix- iiP'fefiS* ( IM 11(1 IM \ litMl l>\ se(|nenlh he eomj)osed hymns lor another occasion. K;)ic, (h-amatic, and lyric |)oetry, therefore, hejrin with him. 'V\\v 128 ROMAX TIISTOKY 238. Roman Poetry. IVrhaii.s in the lon^ run Roman litcraturt' wimhl have iIcvrlojxMl in a more hcaltliy and cliar- acU'ristic way, if it liad not hccn hrou^dit at the outset under Greek influenee. Whatever opinion we may liold upon this ■>Miik^JUkdhlM^i^fe^ i' tH \ i'l 1 IN n«lUHU I>oint, it is undoul»l<*dly true that the first impulse to literature came from (Jncee. M'lie father of Roman literature was I.ivius Andronieus, wh(. was l»nHi;'ht to Home id'ter the capture of Tarentum in 272. Ilr toi^k up the teaehinjr of Latin and (n-eek, III .1 \d k THE ROMAN STATE AND HER PROVINCES 129 and, findmg no suital>le hook to use in teaeiiinj]: Latin, trans- lated the Odyssey into Latin verse. Later, in 240, when llie Romans wished to celebrate their success over the Carthaginians A ROMAN THFATRK AT POMPEII hy a dramatic festival, Livius Andronieus pro(hieed Latin translations of aCJreek tragedy and a Greek comedy, and sul)- P f Ml r HO S t H I X N AV & 1$ t B^I A CflMMtS SINtX' '■.t!| SCKNl. I'KUM A COMI^DY sequently he composed hynms for another occasion. Epic, dramatic, and lyric i)oetrv, therefore, l)egin \vil\\ him. The %j » •' 130 ROMAN lilsrOKY THE ROMAN STATE AND HER PROVINCES 131 Hist native I.at'in poet was Gnaeiis Nacviiis, wlio is best known for liis national epic, which Ver<,nl lias tollowed at many points in iheAnffid, luit Xacviiis's ucrk was surpassed hy the Annals, the j^reat e|)ic juK'ni of Hnniiis. .1 citizen of (Vlahria. In this composition the story of the Romans was told from the arrival of AcMieas in Italy down to the time of tlie writer. Some six hnndred lines of tlie poem are extant, and they justify the admira- tion which tlie Romans had for it. Tins is the flourishing period of Roman tragedy, whicli rea. .ud its high(\st point of develop- ment in the dramas of I'aeuvins and Accius. Unfortunately their writings haxc conu^ down to us only in fragments, so that we can form no ade(|uate notion of the merit of the complete works. We arc much more fortunate in the case of comedy. Some twenty comedies of llautus and six of IVrence are extant. ThvY are translations or adaptations from the New Attic comedy which flourished shortly after the death of Alexander. Comedy, like tragedy, really begins and ends in the years under considera- tion. Fn this jieriod satire also is cultivated by Ennius and Lucilius. 239. Roman Prose. The first im[)ortant work in Latin prose we owe to Marcus Poniiis (\ito. His ])urp()se was to tell tlie history of his native land and to show that Latin as well as Greek could be used in i)rose com|)osition. Tn his work cjilled the Onxfines, he traced tlie history of Rome from the beginning down to the year 141). This l)ook is lost, but we have his treatise On. Afjrirulture, which was very likely intended in part to check the growing tendency to give up agricvdture for commercial occupations. We know from statements made b\- writers in the first century Ijefore our era that the great speech wliicli Appius daudius ( kecus delivered in the senate in 2S0 against the ratification of the treaty with Pyrrhus was written out and handed down to succeeding generations, but it was Cato who first ina.le a colliH'tion of speeches. One huntlred and fifty of liis orations were kiu)\vn in Cicero's time, and were held in high regard. The natural bent of his mind turned the Roman to the study of law, an( I in the early part of the second century systematic works on legal subjects l)egan to appear. The three forms of literature mentioned al)ove — history, oratory, and jurisprudence— proved to be the most characteristic types of Roman i)rose, and it is interesting to l)ear the fact in mind tliat two of them originated with Cato, the sturdy and unconi[)romising representative of everything Roman. 240. Summary of Events at Home from 264tol33B. C. It is clear that tliroughout this i)erif)d affairs at home jmd abroad were managed by the senate, which found means to control the magistrates and hold in check popular leadens. Abroad, the point of greatest ])olitical interest was the develo|)inent of pro- vincial government, which was inefficient, but gave the i)rovincials law and ordiT. At home, in the country districts slave labor, the sale of imported grain at low prices, and the growth of large estates were ruining the small farmer; in the city great fortunes were actpiired in trade with the provinces, and the knights be- came influential. Contact with Greece and the East led to the introduction of new inventions and industries, to important changes in the Roman religion and cliaracter, and to the devel()j)ment of literature. Taken all in all, the concjuest of ISlcditerranean lands brought about profound changes in the Roman character and civiUzation. THE (ONQIKST OF OAfl. AND OF ASIA MINOR i:« ciiAPTKU vni TIIF (ONtil ISI ol «;\l I, WO ol \.SI\ MINOR (i;« VJ U. C.) II(tw thrciuKiufst of (Jjiiil by ( ';i>s;ir and "f Ami Minor by I'onipry cliaiij^tMl ImjHi leal roiulii ions, anroutrht niouarchy U'';irtr. 241. Gallia Narbonensis Organized as a Province about 118 B. C. "^riir coiKincsl of ( 'is.'ilpiiic (J;ml in the early |>nrt nf tlic x'coikI «'(*iitiiry li.-bl cariird llir liiiiil> of Hoinaii tcrrifory to [\\v Alj)s. luiv a hall" rciiliiry tlicrraftci- flicsc inoiiiilains were acc(|>t(M| as a nahnal fnmlirr, Iml, tlianks lo inads and colonics, in llicsc (illy years lli<- dislriel lo llic sonHi of (lie Alj)s, known as ri^;d|»ine (Janl, liad idly tlial tlic ^rcat retnrns uliicli ca|»ilal and indiistiT win in a new land Were III* lonijer to Ite liail, and llie ea^'er inercliant and eapi- lalist wefe easlinjL;; <-ovelons j.';!-""'"^ aer<»s llie Alps, and wailinji: inipalii-ntly for tlie time when Uoniaii arms .shonld open the country to trade. 'Hie need of Ketlcr coinninnication . between Italy ;ind the Spains was also appai'cnl. An oppor- tunity to accomplish hoth these dhjects was olFcrcd in 12') hv the reipicst which the city of Mas.silia mad( tor help aj.':ainst the tribes to the north of her. An expedition was willin<^|y sent to her relief. v\lii<'h bnju;i:hl the hostile tribes to submission without serious dilllculty. In fact, the ^^Teater part of southern (laul was subdued and ori^ani/,cd into a pro\'inec whieh took its niiiuc of (iallia Narbonensis fi-oni the Honiaii <-(.li(ii\- otjib- lished at its ca]>ital, Xarbo, on the icconstructed \'ia l>omiti,i from the Khone to Spain. 242. The First Province of a New Empire. Witli the oerupatirm of southern (raul a new chaot<'r of expansion begins. Just as the passa<;c of the Straits ui .Vii ..^ina had led on step by 132 > w I /■> i I' step to the uccpiisition of Sicily, Sardinia, northern Africa, and Spain, so, when the tide of con(piest had once passed beyond the Alps, its prot^ress was not st()j)ped until it had swept across (iaul, (jcrniany, and even Hritain. The j)etty successes of Fulvius and Fabius over the Arverni and their neireat empire which within the ne.xt one hundred and fifty years the Romans created in central Europe. 243. Invasion by the Cimbri and Teutones, 113-101 B. C. '^rhe immediate efVect, however, of the |)olicy of expand- ing to the north was disastrous. IlilhcTto Roman territory liad I)een protected a^^ainst the tribes of central KurojH^ by bar- riers of mountains I'aly by the Alps, .Spain by the IVrenees. Now Rome was called upon to maintain her authority in a rejxion whieh had no such bulwark behind it. 'i'he (Jallic tribes in the past hai!-it, so that when in thesiM'ond <'enlury n c, a horde of (icrmaii warriors advanced southward from their homes on the Raltic Sea, they met little ell'ccti\e resistance from tlie (Jallic tribes on the frontiers of tlie Roman territory. These (ierman peoples, known as tlie Cimbri and Teutr)nes, were not makinjjj a simj)le incursion into Roman t<'rritor\' for the sake of bootv, but w^ere accompanied by tfieir wives and children, and were planninji; lo seize and ocxtia' and destroyed their army, and in the following year hastened into Italy to relieve Catulus, who had been obliged to retire before the ('iml)ri. The two Iloman forces engaged tlie enemy on the Raudine Plains near Vercelhe, and annihilated their entire force of one hundred thousand men. 245. Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 58-50 B. C. Henceforth for several centuries Italy had no occasion to fear an inroad of the l)arbarians, and for nearly lialf a century i)eace along the northern frontier was broken only l)y lh<' occasional upris- iniTs of iH'llv tribes. But in oS b. r. tlie Roman jtrovince in southern (iaul and the pcoph-s to the north of it ^vere threatened by a movement not imlik*- that of the riml)ri and Teutones. In that year the Ilclvetii, to the munber of Uiree hundred and .sixty-eight tliousand, who had l(.ng been making preparations for the puri»»se, >et out from their old home with their wives and children, to seek new lands to the west. To check this movement <'. Julius ( acsar, who liad been consul the preceding year, was made governor of the three provinces of (Tsalpine Gaul, Illyricum, and Transalpine Ciaul, and conunander of the troops .i^igned to the protection of tliesc |M-ovinecs, for a period of five years counting fr(»m ^lareh 1, o9 B. C. March- ing rapidly to tlie north, Caesar forced the Ilclvetii to give up their intention of |)assing through the province, and ultimately defeated them near Bibracte and oblige*! them to return to their own country. Later in the year the dermans, who had < ro^M d tlic Rhine into Gaul, were forced to return and to accejH the Rhine as marking the limits of their territory. In the follow- ing year he reduced the confederated states of the Belgae, whicli occui>ie(l the territory between the the Seine and the Uliinc, and penetr;i.te*l t«» tlie North Sea. He even made two r i / \ expeditions across the Channel into Britain. No nujre serious movements occurred in Caesar's provinces until 52 h. c In that year the (iauls found an able commander in their chief Vercingetorix. He gave strict orders to his own people and their allies to burn all their towns and their stores, and with his cavalry he swept through tlie country and laid it waste, in order that the enemy might be starved into submission. Never before had Caesar been reduced to such straits. His soldiers were nearly famished; his assault ui)on the stronghold of Gergovia was beaten back, and the Gallic cavalry liarasscd his troo})s in their retreat to the north. But in spite of all Uiese OAl'L In thf time "f CESAR. dilhculties (^lesar succeeded in shutting up Vercingetorix in his fortified camj) at Alesia. Emissaries sent throughout (iaul by the beleaguered town brought to its succor a fresh army of two hundred and fifty thousand men, but the legionaries not only succeeded in rei)elling the relief party, but maintained so Iic r\(Miiti(>iicr Inr lii> l»i;i\c roi Liiice to the Romans. 246. The New Empire in the North. Tlic fall .,r Alcsia put an end to all serious resist;, me in (Jaiil, and, as a rrsnlt of tlie cainpaijj^ns wliidi \im\ In-^itu M\vn\y-ii\v years before with tile expedition to the relief of Mussilia, Roman authority was now reeol of the Knxine. For many years Fontn^ was the failhfnl ally of Iconic, but, witli tlic accession of Mithridalo the Creat in 11 I, she chan<,H'd her jMiiicy. The new kini: was a man of indomitabh' energy, of versatility, aiid of oreal political ability. Without serious difficulty he made himself master of the (Iwrk setth'inents alon^r the north shore of the Knxine, of llie states in Asia Minor which had been allied with Rome, and of the islands alon^ the coast. 248. The Three Wars with Mithridates, 88-84, 83-81, 74-63 B. C. But his attempt to <»ccn|)y (Heece was thwarted by tlie R(.man leader Snlla, and he was h.rced to oivt. u[) his conquests in .Vsia Minor. The Irregular ho.stili'ties which followed the cotu-lusion of peace took the form of o{)en war in 74 wlicn the kino'dom of Hithynia, which had been a builVr slate between I*ontus and the pn.vince (.f Asia, fell into the hands of the Romans. LncnJhis, who conunanded the Roman ^L irl troops, drove Mithridates out of Pontus, defeated the army of his son-in-law Tignuuvs, the kiu"; of Armenia, with whom he had taken refuge, and seemed on tlie point of bringing the war to lui end; l)Ut, before he could make his eonciuests permanent, his soldiers, who were clamoring for release from service, mutinied, and the senate at Roiue, listening to the tax-contractors, whose exorbitant demands Lucullus had cheeked, transferred his command to another. 249. Pompey Subdues the Pirates in 67 B. C. The recall of Lucullus and the diversion of Roman energy to the supi)ressi<)nof piracy in the eastern ^rediterranean gave Mithri- dates and Tigranes an opportunity to recover their strength and to regain some of tlie territory taken from them by Lucullus. From the l>eginning of the war with Mithridates the i)irates Imd taken advantage of tlie turmoil to ply their trade vigorously along the coast of Asia Mu\in\ With the progress of the war their numbers and their boldness increased. "Tliey fell ui)on unfortified towns," as Applan tells us. "They undermined or battered down the walls of othci-s. They carried olf the wealthier citizens to their haven of refuge and held them for ran- som. . . . They had castles and towers and desert ishuids and retreats everywhere. . . . When the Romans could no longer en- dure the damage and disgrace they nuide (Jnaeus romi)ey, who was then their man of greatest reinitation, conunander by law for three years, with al)solute i)ower over the whole sea within the Pillars of Hercules, and of the lanon him by the l^onians. . . . The terror of his name and the greatness of his j)reparations produced a panic among the robbers. . . . Within a few days lie took seventy-one ships by capture and three hundred and six by surrender from the pirates, and one hundred and twenty of their towns, castles, and other places of rendezvous. About ten thousand of the pirate>i xere slain in battle." 138 KOAIAN HISTORY 250. Pompey Brings to an End the Third Mithridatic War, 66-63 B. C. PomiH-y was still in ('iliciii, the country of the I'iniU's, when tlu- ShinW'uin law addnl to liis naval power the irovcrnorsiiii) of Bithynia and (liitia, and tlic c-onclnci of the war a<^ain>t Milliriia events moved rapidly. He drove Mitlu'idates out of Ponlu. and forced him to lake rcFno-e (.11 the north -h,.n. of llie iMixine. He entered Armenia, and received the uooindilional >urivn.ler of Ti-^ranes.^ All this was accomplished in the tirst year's cainpalun. AVitliin the next two years he aime\»'d Syria., took Jerusidem, and restored order in l*alestinc. While on lli^ way lowanl Jerusa- lem in th- sprin": of (')-> he Irarned that MIthridate-, deM'rted by his favorile .v,n Pharnale^ w carricil, inscribed witli the names and titles of the nation^ v^ci - hich he triumphe ridates and tier five sons, and some Scythian wr)men." At th(^ head of the ])roeession which entered bv one of the city o-ates and i):issed throu2;h tiie Forum along the Sacred Way to the Capitol, were the senate and the magistrates. Behind tlie tablets, the trophies, tlie captives, and the white bulls intended for sacrifice, preceded by lictors with tlieir fasces crowned witli laurels, came Pompey standing in a chariot drawn by four horses. He wore a gold-embroidered rotje and a flowered tunic. In his nrht hand he held a laurel bough; in his left a sceptre, and on his head rested a laurel wreath. The streets and stpiares were crowded witli ])eople; die shrines were decorated with flowers, and througli the open doors of every temoh^ could be s(^en thi- smoke of incense rising from the altars. 252. The Credit due to Pompey. Pompey well deserved the honors which his fellow-citizens paid him on his return. In threc^ years he had brought to an (Mid a state of hostility which ha«l alternated between r)p(>n war and armed truce for a (juarter of ;i century. lie estal)lished |)ermanent peace where his presor., Sulla and Lucullus, liad only secured a tempo- rary cessation of hostilities. P>ut it is only fair to Sulla, and to Lucullus especially, to renn'mln r that lh(y broke th(> ])ower of .Midiridates and shattered his prestige. It was Pom{)ey's good fortiHie to grasp tlie laurels wdiich they had brought within his reach. 253. Political Reorganization of Asia Minor. In his political reorganization of Asia Minor his policy w^as so thorough and so wise that his arrangements were left without important change for many d(H'ades. Western Pontus and Bithynia were united and Syria was made a province, jdthough certain prin- cii)alities were still allowed to exist within its borders. Out- side of these districts, and of tlie province of Asia, the rest of Asia ?.Iinor was left in tlie hands of princes whose fidelity to Rome was un(iuestioned. 254. The Financial Condition of Asia. The management of Asiatic finances shows a steady improvement from the time of Sulla to that of Pompey. When Mithridates in his early 140 ROMAN rn STORY cainpaiixns liad made liirnsclf master of Asia, he courted the poimlarity of the i>roviiHiaIs hy releasin-j; tliem altonvth.'r from the payment of tribute. The taxes were thus left uni>aid for five years, and one of Sulhi's first measures, after recon- querin^ij the province, was to rey cutting down tlie rate of interest to twelve per cent. Pompey in his turn sup|)rcsscd the i)iratcs who had preyed upon the sliips tradin<,' in the Mediterranean, and had plundered the coast towns; ln' restoreeasu''e of freedom t(; the commercial towns. 265. Effect on the Home Government of the Policy of Expansion. \\\ the concpiesls of T'aesar and Pompey the frontiers of tln' riii[>ire AVcre j)ushed on the eastern border to Tin: CONCiUEST OF CiAUl. AND OF ASIA MINOR 141 the Euphrates, north to the Uhine, and weslward to the Atlantic, while the enlire Mediterranean coast, with tlu^ exception (>f Maurclania, was brought under Roman control. The acquisi- tion of this great territory aiul the pro- visions made for its government had a reflex ellVct upon the character of the home government and the relative importance of the elements which inadc> it up. Practices altogrthcr out of harmony with tradition were ad()])ted, and unwritten laws which had thwart(>d the projects of ambitious leaders in the past were violated. I'o put it briefly, the ohl machinery (»f govcrmnent broke down under the strain put u|)()n it by the demands of imperialism. The traditional preju- dice against the reelection of the chief mairistrate was thrown to the winds when ^larius was elected six times to the consulship. A similar jMriXMlcnt was violated when Caesar was matle |)n>C{)nsul for hve years, and when Pompey was given charge of the hjrces acting against the pirates for a ]ieriod of thn-e years. The very length of their terms of odice freed Pomi)ey and ( ^lesar in large measure from the danger of being held to account for their actions, and rendered imj)ractical)le any serious jittemjJts whicli the senate miglit make to control the direction of campaigns. In the old days the senate limited tli(^ powers of its commanders and kejit them in hand l)y holding back the appropriation l)ills. This policy was now given up. Indeed, it is remarkable thfvt Rome carried on her long foreign wars successfully on the old plan. When Pompey assumed command against the i)irates he \vas granted an unlimited imperium; he was authorizinl to collect all the troops and supplies he might need, and Roman officials TOMB or A CKNTUUlON Jl*Xad IMM \\ iiisiokY and allit'd slalrs wcr- iHivcti'd to lender liim all iio.ssibie assist- ance. Such itowcrs ntade liini not the mihtary rej»re.sentative of the senate, nor even of the state, l)Ut an indej)endent Eastern nionareh. Tlie lon leaders, and to make il possible iuv the armj tii control the -late. TOMB OF A (5T.VNi;AHD BE.1RER ^ ROMAN TERRITORY in 63 B.C. Roman Territory in 00 B.C. Territiry ac'iuireil by Pompfv. X ROMAN TERRITORY in 44 B.C. Roman Territory in 50 B.C., Territory ae.fiir. 1 '.y Catsar. DEVELOPMKNT OF ROMAN TKHRITORY FROM 133 TO 44 B.C. 4 t 112 ItOM V.\ ilisluin and allicl si;' uiv "liivclcd to i-i-iidiM" liitn all |M.^->il)ic a>M.st- aiK <•- Siicli pDwcis iifadr liiiii iiol the niilitai'v r<'|M-c>('iitati\(' (jf the senate, iiortArii of the -late, (ml at) hidi'peiidciil I^astcrn iiifHiarc li. The loiijj,- lernis wliieli iii.iiiv of tlie soldic- -rpxcd undei' Alaiiiis, ^iilla, I'oiiipey, and ( 'aesar tinned tlieif feeling" of alle;.rian( e awav fron. till -r!iate or the ]>e()j)le to theii iiiilitarv leader, while U)i the many f()fei;r!ier< who ser\ed in tin- (jalli( army jiatriotisni meant iiMliJ more than loval!^' lo Caesar. In a word, tile development of a eoloiiial empire had transferred the real power fr(nn the.^enaU' I*- the eonnnander> of llic armies. - 256. Summary Account of the Conquests of Gaul and Asia Minor, 133-49 B.C. hi this peri«»(l we have seen lioine extend her eon(jUe>l> in the \\f>i and m the Ivisl under her - two <;-reat leader^ (';uar aii territory from the tril»e> to the nc^rth lh( coiKineNl of all Craul l»y ( "ae>ar seemed necessary. In the East, piracy w a.> >U[)prr->eIc leader^, and to m.tivi It i-«. ;' ti: U>r the .i!in\ lo control the -l.ttc. L_ ■' TOMB OF A biANLvlclJ Bl •^ ROMAN TERRITORY in 63 B.C. ROMAN TERRITORY in 44 B.C. 1)KV1 lAM' Mi Nl 111 hi>\l\\ I 1 I'.UI 1 'liO i !iOM l;io TO 44 H. CIIAPTEIl IX \i THE iJEGINM\(; OI THE KEVoLL TlON (133-40 B. C.) How The struf^fflo acrainsf tlir s^nato aiKi tho rich, boginning under the Gracchi, was advanced by Mariiis, was chock.-.l by Sulla, and developed into a personal contest between Caesar and Ponip.-y for the supreme power. 257. The Desire of Tiberius Gracchus to Relieve the Poor. We have already had occasion to notice that the lonlclv because of their poverty. It is clear that his measures could not have removed the real evil of the situation. That lay in the fact that the farmers and free farm laborers were ruined, as we have already <>vv\\, bv the low price al which imported corn was s(»ld and bv the use of slave labor. Til)eriu.s's bill did in)t touch these difficulties. 261. It is Finally Adopted. It met with violent opposi- tion from the ricli wln> were in possession of tln' land of which the state [)r(jposed to resume control, and they j)revailed upon Octavius, one ()f the tribunes, to interpose his veto. This opposition drove Tiberius to adopt an extreme course. Declar- ing that a re{)resentative of the peo])le ceases to be such when he acts out of harmony with the [jopular wish, he summoned the assembly and asked it to vote whetlier or not Octavius should be deposed from olfice. T\\v people voted in the affirm- ative, and Octavius was deprived of the tribunate. The action which Til)erius took in this case was even more revolu- tionary and- ifK)re at variance with Roman tratlition than his agrarian measure had been. It was subversive of stable government, and rested upon the theory tliat the permanent institutions of the state wen* at the mercy of a temj)orarv poiuilar majority— a theory which ultinuitely took practical form in the democratic empire of Julius Caesar. The agrarian law of Tiberius was ado[)te»l but he himself was killed while seek- ing reelection to tlie tribunate. 262. Results of the Movement led by Tiberius. His efforts, liowever, were not fruitless. From 13o to 124 B. r., the numl>er of citizens increased from three hundred and eighteen thousand to three hundred a?!d ninety- five thousand, and a large majority of those whose names were added to the lists must liave gained their right to be enrolled as citizens by becoming landowners under the ne^^■ law. A less desirable outcome of the measure j)rol)abIy its author had not anticipated. By its oj)eration the ])rivileges wliicli the Latins and other Italians had enjoyed in the ])ublic land were taken from them; they were made to feel more keenly than ever the drawbacks under which they suffered \\ hen compared with Roman citizens, and were soon driven, as we shall see, into open revolt against Rome, lint t!ie most important nsult of the agitation which Tiberius started was the development of a democratic opposition to the Nohi/ltas. Economic conditions for a century or more had been j)iUting wealth, social station, and political influence in the liands of the few at the ex|)ense of the many, and the ill-defined hostility wliich tlu- poor felt against the ricli in consequence of this state of affairs resulted in the struggle for agrarian rights. In this struggle the senate eham])ioned the cause of the wealthy landholder. This was only n;itural, because the senate was made u|) of ricli men, but tlie turn which affairs thus took con- verted the economic into a political struggle, and arrayed the I>oor, with the comitia as their organ, against the rich nobles who were firmly entrenched in the senate. 263. The Policy of Gains Gracchus. Gains Gracchus, who succeeded his brother in the leadership of the democracy, and was elected to the tribunate in 123, saw clearly that the senate must be his point of attack. To succeed he must lessen its power, loAver its prestige, and take from it its political and social privileges But Gains was not an idealist, as his brother 140 fvOMW HISTORY THE BEGINNING OF THE KEVOLI'TION 14? had l>een. He wns a pniclicMl politiciiui of j^'rcat fonstnictive ability, and lie know that to siMurc Iroiii a powerful, compact bofly, like the senate, the pohtical and ('(-(.noniie rights of the people, it would not sufHee to rely upon the justice of his cause he must %ht the senate with its own v\'eaj)ons. He nnist conihine, too, all the elements in the stale whose interests were opposed to those of the senate, arnl, to win the support of ditferent classes of society, lie must include in his political programme projects which would ap|)eal to each (»f them. T(» this task he applied himself. The two classes upon whose hacking he counted were tln^ proletariat, or po()r people, and the knights. 264. How He Won the Support of the Poor People. To win tile adhesion of the loiTiier he secured the recMiactment or reafllrmation (jf his brother's land law; he pro\ ided for tile estabhshment (tf colonies foi- the needy in s(»uthern' Italy and across tln' sea; h<' liuhtcned tlie hardships of military service, and he hantro] of the chief magistrate*. He also sought to give imporlaiH 1- to the comitia, and to substitute their action for the decrees of the senate. In one important matter especially he secured a restatement of the principle that the senate was subordinate to the po[)ular assemblies. After the death of v\ Tiberius, the senate established a judicial commission to in- vestigate the action of some (jf his followers. They were tried and executed. To |)rotect himself and future democratic leaders from such a fate, (laius secured the passage of a new law reallirmlng a citize.i's right to ap[)eal to the people from a capital sentence. 267. The Political Ability and Ideals of Gaius. To weld togetluT into one political |)arty two classes whose interests and sym})athies were so opposed to each other as were those of tlie Roman populace and the knights was a problem recjuir- ing a clear insight into political and social conditions, extra- ordinary tact, and remarkable executive ability. That Gaius conceived the plan and carried it out successfully shows how able a politician he was. The democratic party was inspired bv 'I'iberius, but was made an accomplished fact by Gains. The movement to which he gave meaning and direction })rought about in the cFid a complete chiuge in the form of government. The system toward which lie seemed to aim was a democracy^ ex]>ressing its will through the comitia, and carrying out its pur|K)se through the tribimate. In such a I'orm of government there was no i)lace lel't for the senate and the nol>les, and it is clear that the success ol" his cause meant a political revolution. The next century saw the natural develoj)ment of his j)olicy in the (lecline of the senate's |)ower and the establishment of the democratic empire of Julius Caesar. This is not to say that Gains aimed at a tyranny for himself or for his successors in the tribunate, but the circumstances, the forces wliich he set in motion could lead oidy to the humbhng of the senate and the ascendency of one man. 268. His Motives. The motives of Gaius were mixed. He sought to build up a democratic l)arty, to reduce the senate to its constitutional position, to relieve the distress of the com- mon peo}/le, and to ave?ige his brotlier. Some of his measures, therefore, like his land laws, his law of ap[)eal, and his coloniz- ing projects, were intended io promote the best interests (^-f the people; other reforms, like the reorganization of the juries and ^ ROMW TTlSToflV THE BEGIXXIXG OF THE REVOLUTION 149 the clinn^c iikhIc in tlit' nictluHl <»!' sclccliiij; provincial j^jovernors, (laius perhaps tiumj^ht would In- sjihilan, but thev wciv pro- posed mainly for |)oliti(al reasons, while still other hillsj like the corn hiw, were either sincere, hut unwise, attempts to relie\'e the poor, or wen' insf)iremj)lislied its main pur[)Ose of detaehinjf cHents fnmi the patrons upon whom they had relied for lar<^esses in the I)ast, and of atlachin;,^ them to the democratic party, hut its ultimate etfects were disastrous. By providing for the sail- of ^rain at prices lower than it eould be grown m Italy, tlie law neutralized the efforts which were making to build uj) tlie farming industry; bv giving the idle a chance to get food at unnaturally low piico it kept them in the city, attracted horde> of needy Italians to Rome, and so more than olfset the attempt which was liciiiii: niade lo «lraw the unemploved into the countrv by the establislunent of colonies. \Vor>t (if all, it accustomed the great mass of the Fioman peoj)le to depend u|)on the state rather than on their own eiforts for a liveliliood. 270. The Downfall and Death of Gains Gracchus in 121 B. C. It was this debased populace which deserted Gains when he prop(*sed the xcond part of his great scheUK' of reform — the bestowal of Homan citizenship ujion the Latins, and Latin riglit.^ upon the other Italian allies. Selfishly unwilling to share their privileges witli others, tlie j)eople failed to elect liim to tlie triburuite for the third tim«^; an attack was made upon his laws; an arme selfish i)olicy of governing in •^v the interests of the nohiUtas. Its venalitv, selfisliuess, and inca[)aeity were painfully ajiparent during the war with Jugur- tha, and lost it the prestige which its victory over the Gracchi liad won. Jugurtha, an African prince, had inherited the kingdom of Numidia conjointly with tw^o of his cousins in 118 B. C. He soon found means, how^ever, of murdering both his rivals and of making himself master of all Numidia. One of the claimants to the throne, before his death, appealed to Rome for helj), and the scandal wliich followed scarcely finds a parallel in Roman history. Two commissions, headed by distinguished members of the aristocracv, were sent to Africa, but Jugurtha had a long purse, the Roman envoys were amen- able to reason, and the commissions returned to Rome, leaving a free hand to the African king. But the massacres which followed the return of tlie second (Mubassy forced the senate to (>n of a lal.orer; Sulla was a. mem- > ber of a noble family. Marius pass«'d his youth in the villa<>:e j <»f Ari)iiuun. On the drudirery ..f farm labor followed the liardships of a j)riva(e soldier's hlV. His world was the camp. i Of |)olilics, sociely, e.r ihe refinenienl> of life he had no ^ knouled<»:e. Serious-miudcd lo iJic point of bein^ obstinate, or even stolid, he fnuoht his way Upward with a i^nim determina- tion over all ihe obstacles which ihc jealnu^ ami conlempiuous nol)ility alwMvs threw in the way of a "new man." Sulla, on llie otlier hand, belon<,^ed to a noM( familv. lie was brouirht up at Konie, and f»lutiiiuceess which their champion won in Africa, and later over tlie ( ^imbri, and formed a [lolitical alliance with him. In accordance with its terms they elected him to the consul- ship for the sixth time in 100 B. c, assigned lands to liis vet- erans, and, by tlie^e e(,t]cessl(»ns, secured his sup|)ort of the ■ a|?rarian measures of their tribune. Hut the violent means | which the democratic leaders used to secure tlie passage of their land l>ills obliged Marius, as consul, to take active measures to restore order. By this action he disappointed the democrats, and was forced into retirement at the end of his year of office. 276. M. Livius Drusus Proposes to Give the Italians Roman Citizenship. The measure w Inch had led to the de- feat of Gains Gracchus was his proposition to grant citizenship to the Italians. The agent whom the senate had used in encom- passing his downfall was a tribune named Livius Drusus. It is a strange illustration of the irony of fate that the son of this man, holding tlie same office of tribune, should have revived the agitation in favor of the Italians, and sliould thereby have lost his life. The political aim of the younger Drusus differed essentially, however, from that of Gains (Jraeehus. The trilnine of 123 had tried to overthrow the senate by comljining all the other forces in tlie state against it. Drusus, on the other hand, sought to strengthen the conservative position by removing the i)rincipal causes of «liscontent, not only in Rome but in all Italy. But the same selfish unwillingness to share their })rivi- leges with others, which the Uomans had shown before, and which had thwarted his j)red* .r, brought the efforts of Drusus also to naught, and he became a victim of popular pjission, as Gains Gracclius had been. 277. The Defeat of his Bill Leads to War. The bill which Drusus submitted in the year 91 was the last of manv attem[)ts to better tlie condition of the Italians by constitutional metkods. When, like its |)re(leccssors, it resulted in failure and was followed l)y severe re|)ressive measures directed ajrainst them, the discontent of the Italians broke out into an open revoh, in which all excei)t the Latins and the aristocratic states of Umbria and Etruria joined. 278. The Grounds of Italian Discontent. The grievances of the Italians were partly economic and partly political. The well-to-do citizens of one state were galled by the restriction which prevented them from trading directly with citizens of another state, and which gave Roman citizens a monot)oly of 152 ROMAN lUSToUY THE BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION 153 this lucrative Imsincss. llicy wwr \n(Vvn\n\\\ at Ikmiij^ oblii^ofl to meet a lar^^e part ol" the <\[»eii.M- oi njifi^i'ii v^ars, while they had little sliare in the (lisLj*ihiiti at a remunerative figure. Politieally the a.mhitious Italian was also at a ^n'eat disadvanta^^', because hi- w a> not elii::il)le to any of the ini[>ortanl eivil or military positions. As tln' emj)ire increased in size and wealth, tlie importance of the ^'overnin-^ city of Rome grew, and made the value of Roman citizenship greater and more ap|)annit. ronscipiently, when the Romans refused to give tliem Roman citizenship freely, the Italians demanded it as a right, and, failing to gain their demand, they set up a!i irule|»endent government with it> capital at Corlinium. 279. The Italians Win Citizenship in the Social War, 90-88 B. C. The advantage in the early part of the v.ar rested with the Italians, and nithin a year and a half (•! it> out- lireak Rome was forced In :'i;ml tlu- right of ac«jiii|-iug Roman citizenship to the cilizcii^ of alli«-tl stale- who shonld register their names with a lloiii.iii praelor williin sixty i\nys. This eonressioii satisfied a majority of the Italians, and heforc the elo^v; of the vear SS the disadecled, who still held out amom'' the Bruttii, in Sanuiium, and in Lncania, were forced to submit by Sulla. 280. But it had Little Political Value for Them. The extension of Roman citizenship to the Italians brought abont a eomjjletc transformation in tlie relation of the Italian cities to one another. They were no longer comnumities visted with the right of self-government in varying measure, carefully isolated from one another, and acting under the leadership of Rome, but they were on a plane of |>olilical erpialitv with one another and witli Rome, and their citizens were Roman citi- zens. But in practice tliis did not mean that the peo])le of the small towns throughout Italy exercised all the political rights of Roman citizens. Jnst so long a. lliev w(Te oblio-ofj to go to Rome to vote that was impossible. Had the Romans, I T' f when they granted eitizenshij) to the Italians, adopted the method of electing magistrates which we follow^ to-day, and provided that elections should be held in all the Italian towns simultaneously with the elections in Rome, and that the candi- dates receiving the majority of all the votes thus cast should be declared consuls, or praetors, or tribunes; or if they had even admitted representatives of Italian cities to the seiuite, tlien the Italians would have actually enjoyed the political rights of Roman citizens. But the old plan was adliered to, of keep- ing the senate a close corporation, and of holding the comitia in Rome only. Now only those living near Rome could come to the city to vote, and consetiucntly nuigistratcs were still elected, and laws were still enacted, as they had been in the past, by the populace of Rome. Rome was still a city-stJite, and die e(pialization of political privileges throughout Italy wliich the Social War brought about was one in form rather than in reality. 281. The War Brings Monarchy Nearer. Had some adecjuate system of representation for Italy been adopted, it is conceivable that the republic might have been given a new lease of life thereby. But under the new settlement all the wi'jiknesses and evils of the old system persisted, and the drift toward autocracy was tlie more rapid, for it was intolerable that Italy and the world should be ruled either by a selhsh Roman aristocracy or an ignorant, fickle city mob. A ques- tion of internal politics, which it seemed impossible to settle by peaceful means, had been setded by the arbitrament of arms. Why might not other domestic questions be disposed of in the same way? The war had raised up a great leader in Sulla, supi)orted by a well-trained and devoted army and enthusiastically welcomed as the champion of the conservative cause. Over against him stood Marius, late ally of the demo- crats, whose veterans, already impatient of a farmer's hum- drum life, were waiting for his call to arms. Neither of these men succeeded in substituting the will of one man for that of the many, but they prepared the way for a successor, Caesar, 154 HUMAN IIISTOKY THr: BPXJINNIXO OF THE REVOLUTION 155 who had the* tlt'ariK'ss of vision li» stc liic ircmi of athiirs, and the darinj; and ability to take .ulvantajj^c' of it. 282. Struggle of Marius and Sulla for the Command in the East in 88 B. C. Rt'lieved from tlie strain of the Social War, the Romans turned their attention to tiie intri<^ues of Mithridates in the ( )rient, and j)iit Sulla in command of an army destined to carry on the war aganist him. But Marius coveted the appointment, and to attain his object made an alhance with the democratic leader Sulpicius as he had years l)efore with the democratic lril)une. The reform measures of Suli)icius and the bill transferring from Sulla to Marius the command of the armv destined for the East were pushed through the eomitia by the use of foirc. Sulla was with his army in ('am})ania. lie laid Ijefore the soldiers the news from Koine. Fearful of losing their share of the Eastern spoils, and indignant at the treatment which their connnander had receiverem:!c\- -nwl <\\('Ci^<< lay with the licavicr battalions. I hit Sulla's trou|;.-. wuiu «ja-ii lur the Eastern cam- paign, and he left the city without firmly estiiblisliing his own party in power. 283. Marius and Cinna, Masters of Rome 87-84 B. C. Cn. Octavius, one of the two consuls for the next year, 87 B. c. was an aristocrat, but his colleague, E. < ornelius ( imia, belonged to the o[)positc party. Marius's opportunity liad c(jme. Call- 1 ) ing out his veterans, he suj)porled the cause of Cinna, drove Oitavius from the city, established the authority of the demo- cratic party, and realized his dream of holding the consulship for the seventh time He died in ofhce, having apparently tri- \nri|)hed over his enemy. 284. The Return of Sulla in 83 B. C. But the success of the democrats was short-lived. We have already followed Sulla's campaign in the East, and know that within three years lie concluded a hasty peace with Mithridates. Eariy in 83 lie landed in Italv and advanced toward Rome. The untrained forces of tlie democrats under incompetent leaders could not withstand the assaults of his veteran troops. Sertorius alone of the Marian Iciulers (^scaped with a few troops to set uf) later in Spain th(^ standard of the Marian cause. After crushing out a des|)erate uprising of the Samnites, who saw in the civil war a cluuice to avengt? the wrongs of centuries, Sulla entered Ronie as Its unquestioned master. 285. Sulla Crushes all Opposition. With grim deter- mination he set himself to work to (\stablish the conservative party, or the oligarchy, firmly in |)ower again. This involved in his mind two things: the extermination of the democracy, and the restoration of the seruite to its old position of author- ity. The first part of his plan was carried through with that cynical contemi)t for human life and liberty which was char- acteristic of him. 'V\\v horrors of the proscription which fol- lowed Sulla's return to Rome never faded from the memory of the Romans. The nuu'der of his enemies and the confis- cation of their j)roperty, though carried out without regard to law or evidence, was reduced to a careful system. The names of the proscribed were posted in lists; rewards were publicly offered for their murder and the partisans of Sulla cut down their victims wherever they could be found. Four thousand and seven hundred Romans, including forty sen- ators and sixteen hundred knights, lost their lives m this w\iy. The wrath of Sulla also fell heavily upon the peoples and towns in Italy which had opposed him, and to hold them 156 ROMAN lilSTORY in check in the future, he founded several colonies of vetenms. He did id! this, not so uuieli from ;i spirit of animosity against his personal enemies, as with the desire to rid the country of men who mij^ht a^'ain lead a revolution. 286. How He Entrenched the Senate in Power. He had already received the dictatorship for an indefinite period, instead of takin^^ it f(jr the traditional six months, and, vested with the unlimited i)owers of this office, he addressed himself to the positive side of his work and showed that his skill as a constructive statesman was as ij^reat as his ability in the field. To increase the i)ower of the senate as a law-makin'^ body he reverted to the method of procedure which prevailed before 287, by reaifirmin|]j the principle that the preliminary approval of the senate was necessary before a measure could be sul)- mjtted to the i>lel>eian tribal asseml)ly. So lon<]j as this con- servative system continued in force the tribune was prevented" from proposiao: ^my measures of which the s(Miate did not a|)[)rove, for the ronciJiant plcbls, now held in check by the ^ during their year of office. From this time on they were rarely sent to a foreign post until their term of office had expired: that is, an official was really chosen for two years, serving one year a^ a magistrate in Rome, and the following year as gov- ernor in a province. This change was made possible by in- creasing to eight the number of praetors, who, in the year follow- ing their term of office at Rome, could, with the two ex-consuls, take charge of the ten provinces. In originality, })ermanence, and practical value Sulla's reform of the judicial system was perhaps of more imf)ortance still. Hitherto the Romans had had only two standing courts, one to try magistrates charged with accepting bribes or with similar offenses (the quarstio de /v/M'/u/w/i6'),iind the otlier to hear cases of murder or attempted murder (the quaestio de sicariis et veneficis). Men charged with other crimes were tried before a po})ular assembly, or else a special judicial commission was established to hear the case, or some other irregular method of procedure was adopted. In the procedure before the comitia, all the people meeting in the assembly heard the evidence brought against a man accused of an offense, and voted upon his guilt or in- nocence. The method was cumbersome; the evidence could not be pro[)erly presented before so large a body, and a great assembly is likely to be swayed by gusts of prejudice or passion. Sulla remedied this defect by providing a number of new^ courts, each with s[)ecial jurisdiction over certain classes of crimes. One of the new courts for example, heard cases of forgcrv, another cases of bribery. Over these courts the 158 UO.MAX lllSTOliV praetors |>rt'siHI-!' ItV Id I I.nI.N Puteoli. His death in the following year e\( ited alarm amouj; his follow er.> and joy among his enemie>. His bo(ly was lirought to Koine, and a.s Appian lells us. "was borne through the streels wilh an enormous procession following il. From fear of the assembled soldiery all the pii« -I- and j>riestesses escorted the remains, each in proper costume. 'Hie entire senate and the whole body of magistrates attendc senators took up the litter and carried it to the ('ami)us Alartius, where only kings were buried, and die knights and the army passed in line around the funeral pile. Antl this was the last of Sulla." 289. The Democratic Opposition Under Lepidus. Dis- content with the new order of things had not dared to raise its head during the lifetime of Sulla, but with his death the opi)osition began to make itself felt. The knights i>rotested at their exclusion from the juries; the masses murmured at the loss of prestige wliieh their representative, the tribune, had suffered and at the curtailment of the powers of the poi)ular assembly; the towns whose pro[)erty had been confiscated for supporting the dt^nocratie cause, and the children of the i)ro- seribed clamored for the restitution of their rights and their ]iroi»erty, an troops which had just suppressed the dangerous uprising in Italy of the slaves un^er Spartacus. 158 k(iMA\ iii>I'H;\ jn-aetors [UT^iilcd. '!1ir juries in Milhi'-. !u\\ r..iirls \\( it- made llji (.f Miiall iMxlir- ill |ii(kc*i liH'li, \\li<»M- d< lllnTalioIi-. wwv (lirrctcd hy a j»n-sidiii^^ jndifc, ami liciicrri.rlli jii.^lict' wa > dis' jXiixd ill ;i ^[Mrdicr, sim])!!!', and smcr \\:i\ than lia«l Ihh'Ij |)(i.ssilil(' hcloic. 288. Sulla's Death in 78 B.C. Sulla. v,<.rk w... finisli.-d. In 7'.> lie n-sigiifd the diftalor.Nliiis and rrlirt-d I" lii> \iila al I'Oit I K i\ < •! Ill I U<' i: V HI' rillcoli. [\'\> dcalli ill the lollow iiiir vr;ii- t-xriud alarm ainonii' his l"(ill(i\\cr> and joy amoii;'" IiIn ciK'niics. Ili^ Imdy wa.s l)r<»n;j,lit lo luinic, and as Appian tells lis "waN Ix.iiir llinuij.!:li tia' sti'ct'ls willi an i-nonnous jjrnrcvsion follow iii'.'; il. ['"roiii I'cjir of tlie ;i ^^< nil>lrcs i-^corteil [\\r uniaiiis, cath in projM r coslmm . Tlic ciilirc .senate and (lie whole Imdy of nia^'I^lrates atleiided willi their iasiLniia of otiiee. A niiillitii of authority hy the senate. These classes found a temi.orary champion in M. .\emilius Lepidus, consul of the year 7S, hut the armed ui)risino; which he led was (jiiickly crushed out hy his eolleai^nie, (^. Liitalius Catulus, a firm supporter of the ()i)liiiiates, or con- servative's, with the help of Poinjiey. 290. Pompey and Crassus. It was left for two of Sulla's own lieutenants to undo his work, anrisini:' in Italv of the slaves un(l,er Spartacus. Kid IfoMW lllsT(»l;V 291. The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 B. C. At the close of [\iv yvHV 71 \\iv>v two men apiH'arcd hfforc tlic city to claim certain political lioiK.rs, ami the iiioinciit for iiiakino- an attack on the constilntion of Snlla seemed to liav<' c<»nie. Pciinpey wanted laiid> foi- liis veterans, which the senate uonld he ioalit to ;iivc him. ( rassns, the rich money- lender. e()\ow;'r, and [)erlia|»s wislied for milder treat- ment of the tax in tlie East. The kni \\.re made to themsehcs. Two victor- i«»ns armies ;it the ^'ates of tile cit\' fnrnished an arirument which the senate could not resist, an«l Pompey and Crassus were elected eonsnls for the year 70. They l.iyally earrieassa;:c of .i law whi nirii. Wy the pass;ii:<' of these two hills the repeal of Sulla's political le;risl.-ition was clete, and the senate lost the strcnii'th which his measures had ;riven if. ( )nl\ the non-political ju.|icial an«l administrative chanj^cs .(.I'tinucd in h)rce. Eater the con- servativts were still further humiliated hv s.-ein»r INinuuv iu spite of their \i<:oroUs opposition. v«"sted with the cxlraordinarv IK.wvrs wliieh the (iahinian and Manilian laws, as we ha\e already ru»tieed, i:;iv( him for the cainpai-^nis a^'ainst the pirates .nul airaiiist Mithridates. 292. The Political Sympathies of M. TuUius Cicero. These tw.. canijKiiirMs of course took I'oni|»ey aw.iy from K(.me :Iih! remove.1 him from all direct participatii.n in politics up to the close e»f the ye;ir.T,2. Ft is witliiu this perio influence which these facts had upon liun, stren}j:theik'd hy his naturally cautious temperament, made him a moderate in j)olitics, and a strong suj.pM)rter of crri:no ilie constitution and of constitutional methods. The reaction- ary pro<»Tamme of Sulla was as little to his tastt- as the rcvoln tionary methods of the democrats. In fact, lie entered puhlic Itid l;<.\!\\ iii-;rnl;V 291. The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus in 70 B. C. At till- ('l(»>c nf tlK> year 71 llicsr two men apiu-arcd iH'lorr the city to claim certain political lionois, and the iiioincnt for niakino- an attack on the constitution of Snlla seemed to liave come. Pompey wanted lands for his veliians, which tin- senate wonld he loath to ^ive him. ("ra.ssus, the rich money- lender, covete(l jiower, an democrats and kni»^lits, liy remo\ in«^ the restrictions placed t»n ihc tribunate and hy sccnrin<; tlie |>a.ssa;,'e «>f a law which stipnlat(«l that the juries should henceforth he composed of senat(»rs, knii^hts, ami rej)resciit:iti\-cs of the commons known as tnhuiu m rum. \\y the pa.^>a-r of tlu-.c luo hills the repeal t)f Sulla's political le opposition, \t >tcd with the extraordinary j)()W horn at Arjumnn in 1(M». 1)\ descent lie was a kni^dil and a "new man," or //or//,s- //0///0, since none of his ancestors had held a curule otiice. By profession he :'"l?^r'5t THE 1{E0INN1N<; of THI. i;K\ ol.l THi.N Kit was an a.lvocate. The iidhience which these facts had ni>on Inm. strengthened by his naturally cautious temperan.c.l. made Inni a moderate in politics, and a strong sui^portcr ot cirrijo ,1h. constitution and of c.mstitutional methods The react.on- arv programme of Sulla was as little to his taste as the r-vo!n ti/marv "methods of the deniocnits. In fact, he entered public 162 ROMAN HISTOUY life as a critic of our of Snll;i'> sujjportcrs and won his political re})Utati()ii hy siipiuTssin^i: tlir iij)ri'^in<^ of llic radicals under Catiline. 293. The Catilinarian Conspiracy, 66-63 B. C. At the outset this movement Mcms to have had for its ol)ject an im})rovement in tlir (oiidition of certain classes in Home and throULdiont Italv l>v <-on>liliiti(Mi;il, or ;it IcMst l)y peaceful, methods, llic repeated di>;ipjM)intm(iits which its leaders met in the veurs tUl-Ct \ letl l<» the formation of a secret con- spiracv, readv to use anv tneans whatsoever for the accomplish- ment of its purpose. \\ tliis point the timid, the judicious, and in lar^^c measure the rcspectnhlc supporters of the move- ment fell away, and its further (K-vdopment was left in the liands of moral and iinai'cial bankrupts or of lumest fanatics and adventurers. Tlieir leader was a patrician, I.. Ser^'ius Catiline, lie rr])reseiils a ty|»e u(*\ unconunon in tliis period, lie was aeeomplislied, luave, dashin«r, restlessly encr^rctic, and liad a eiiarm of manner which attraetcil others, hut he lacked the moral (ihre, the mental halauee. the lar^'eness of outlook, and the al)ility to or^auize ami direct which the true leader ne«d>. He onent Cicero. The knij^dits and the middle (i.i>>eN tlMr.uo;hout Italy also supportc>e of the nobility, Sulla had restored the supremacy of the senate, and thereby antagonized the middle classes. Now Cicero sought to unite both senators and knights in a joint defense of the cause of law and order. His eii'orts were as futile as theirs had been, l>ec;mse die Uonuin empire had outgrown the old regime, and because aml)itious leaey generously at that time it could have made him its supporter, but its failure to gratify his reasonable expectations forced him into an alliauee with C. .Julius ('aesar and Crassus. 296. Caius Julius Caesar. Caesar had not been a prom- inent figure in politics up to this time. He liad shown liis colors plainly enough, however, at tlie funeral of his aunt, who was the wife of Marius, by displaying in tlie funeral procession, the bust, of that distinguished general and demo- cratic leadwr, and by setting u[) again the Cimbrian trophies of Marius which Sulla had removed. While Pom|)ey luul been vainly trying to luring the seiiale to listen to his claims, Caesar had been j)ropraetor of Sj)ain. Fompey and Crassus were not on good terms, but it was not dilhcult for Caesar to bring them together on the basis of their connnon needs. Their com- pact, which was made in (iO n. < ., and which is commonly known as the hrst triumvirate, was mcn^ly a private under- standing. 297. The Triumvirate Controls Roman Politics. I'nder it Caesar was elected for the following year to tlie consulship; lands were given to Pompty > veterans, and his acts in tlie Hast 164 IU)M\\ HISTORY were ratifk'd. What Cnissus ^oi from tlu* hart^uiii i:s not clear — pcrliaps certain tax coiicrssions, (»r |)(»ssil>ly assurance of a future consuLslnp. Provision \va> niadi* tor ( ac^ur's future by a measure wliich made him governor of Cisalpine (laul and lUyricum for a period of five year^, roiuitin^ from March 1, 59 B. c, with an army of three legions. To this the senate, perhaps under the influence of Pompiy, added Transalj)ine Gaul and a fourth \e^nm. At the end of his year of ofHce, Caesar was unwilhng to depart from the city and leave the interests of the triumvirate in the hands of two such tactless leaders as-I*omp(y and Cra>sus, witiiout humhhng the senate in such a way that it would not rhire to u|>set his plans during his absence. lie secured his oljject by humiliating and send- ing from Home two of tht- abhst senatorial leaders, Cicero and Cato. The imthods whirli he usrd in accomplishing his purjjose had a touch of humor or cynicism in them. Cicero, the cliamj)ion of tlic constitution, was banished for having viohited the constitution during his consulshij) by executing the Catilinarian consj)irators without granting them an appeal to the people. Honest Cato was sent to Cyj)rus on the dis- honest mission of seizing that island and its treasure. Cicero's recall from exile in 57 raised tlie spirits of the senatorial I>arty, but its ho[>es were crushed again by the renewal of the triumvi- rate the following year, by tlie extension of Caesar's term of office for another period of five years, and l)y the assignment of Spain and Syria to Pompey and Crassus respectively for five years. Pompey lingered in Rome, but Cra.ssus set out for the East, wliere he fell on the field of Carrlue in a campaign against the Parthians. 298. The Estrangement of Caesar and Pompey. The personal bond which held P(»mpey and Caesar together liad been severed in ."> ^ l)y the i;Y B. C. VVf notircd 111 ilie in(\ ions period that tlic small fanners and free lahonTs in Italy were bein^^ driven into bankruptcy. Til)erius (iraeeliu> >oujLi*ht to relieve lliein by dividing up the state land ainont,^ the poor. The xMiate, whieh was made up lart^i^ly of rich men who w«r«' ocenpyini? this land, opposed and overthrew him. His brother, ( laiiis, tetok n[) the reform and i)y his lej^islation unil«'(l the poor peoj)le ;md the knii-inuent into tlieir own liand>, bnt the death of ('lassus, and tlie (piarrel between < *;i«>;n- ;nid l*onipe\ led to a struj^'^ile between them for sU[M'eme [)o\v«i-, and civil \\:\r folloU<'d. CHAinM^K X THE DKA'I'H STKlOOl.K ol" rilE I?i:!THLIC (P.I 27 u. c.) How Ca«N;ir ni;nlt' liimsrlf inastrrof the Uuniati umM, and war. us.'uissinated — Jlow ( Utav laiiiis. Antony. an«l li(i)iilii:; put liouii tlu' la;.l eirori of tlie rei)iil>lieans liou 0(ta\iamis « st aUii.lifd tlir i'^iiipire. and tluis coniijletcd the revolution 302. Caesar's Chances of Success. To cn;ss the Rubi- con iut(» Italy with a sin;',le Ic'^iou, as ('aesar did, seemed the hei«iht of rashness, lie had behind him <»nly the (Jallic prov- inces and an army of nine legions (puirtercd at dill'crenl points in the North. His enemies controlled all the rest of the civil- ized world and the Romjui treasury, ard had a force far out- numl>ci-i?ij.c his. He was a tcbcl a;i:ainst a state which had |)laced itself under the protection of the most experienced gen- eral of the time. But in Caesar's caiu|> there was one leader and one plan of campaign only. The coun.si*ls of his enemies were divided, and even Rompey's auth(U-ity was not si>^)reme. Caesar's troops were within striking dislaiice of Italy, and w(>re hardened by years of camj>aigning in (iaul. Rompey had to rely largely upon levies of new i-ecruits or of veterans long out of service. 303. The Campaigns in Italy and Spain in 49 B. C. Tlie course of c\culs proved the wisdom of Caesar's decision. Advancing (juickly from Ravenna along the coast of the Adriatic, he threw the Rom])eians at Rome int^) such a })anic that they evacuated the city within a fortnight, and withdrew lia.stily to- ward the southeast. Rompey saw that it was useless to nuike a stand in Italy, and hurrving down to Rrundisium embarked for Epirus just in time to escape being interce})ted by his oppo- nent. Caesar felt himself un|)re])ared to follow the enemy at once, antl after a few week's stay in Italy, crossed over to Spain, 168 ROMAN msTOUV wliich was held for Poiiipcy by his three hriitnumts, IVtrrius, AiViinius, and \'arn>. By a cltvcr laow on Caesar's part, Petreius and Afranius were cut oil from their suppHes and forced to surrender, and Varro's submission soon followed. Spain had been won within a month and a half of (W'sar's arrival in the |)eninsula. 304. Caesar Lands in Epirus in 49 B. C. Then lie returned for the real slru«,^^de witii Fom()ey. With six legions lie made a sueeessful landing at Orieum in Kpirus in Novem- ber, 41), and in A[)ril of the following y^ar .Mark Antony joined liim with four more, luit Cacsiir's legions were depleted by sickness and long canijniigns, while Pompey's army had grown to a total of nine legictus, supported by a large l)ody of auxil- iaries and a strong fleet. 306. The Battle of Pharsalus, August 9, 48 B. C. Caesar |)laced his army between Dyrrachium and Pompey's canij), and at one*' began olfcnsive operations in the hope of blockading him; but the I'omju'ian forces l)roke through his lines and inllicted s(. severe ;i !.,>> upon jiin, diat laler, wlicn C^icsar advanced into Hicssaly, Pompey followed him and Wiis induied In his o\erconfideni advisers to risk a battle at I*harsalus. P(jmpey's luirsemen swept down upon Caesar's cavalry, overwlielmed them, and charged Caesar's infantry on the flank, but the tenth legion, supported by cohorts of veter- ans, which were stationed at this point, stood like a rock. At this moment Caesar threw his reserves into the battle and Pom- pey's lines Ijnjke and retreated in disorder. 306. The Death of Pompey. Pompey himself, who fled for safety to Egy[)t, w;is j.iit to death by onler of King Ptolemy, as he was landing al Pelusium. "His remains were buried on the shore," as Ai)piaii tells us, "and a small monu- ment was ('(•(( ted over tliem, on which .some one wrote this inscription: 'What a pitiful tomb is here f(jr one who had temples in al)undance.' " "Snch;' says the Poman historian Velleius Paterculus, "was tlic departure from life of a nio.st excellent and illusliions ninn, after thicc (onsnlships and as THE DEATH STRUGGLE OF THE REPUBLIC 169 many triumphs, who had rule Cdinproinise with the advoeiites of autocraey. His death was rej^arded as a (ha ma tic |)ro()f of the end of the rei>ubhc, and created a j)r()l()und sensation tliroughoiit the Roman wtnld, so that even Caesar, notwith- standing the i)ressure of liis further campaii^nis a^^ainst the Pompeian forces, took time to reply in his Anfi-Cato to the biograpJiy of Cato which ('ieero wrote, and to defend in it his , own {johtical eourse. 309. Battle of Munda, 45 B. C. Hie remnants ,-f tlie Pompeian forces whicli had collected in Spain Caesar crushe(J on the field of JMuiuhi, where fell his billerest foe I.abienns, his Gallic lieutenant, the «jnly officer who had «leserted him when he crossed into Italv. 310. The Assassination of Caesar in 44 B. C. From Munda Caesar returned to Kome to carry out ihe reforms upon which he had set his heart. But while lie was busily ent^a^jed in these matters, a plot was forniin;^; a<;ainst his life The conspirators were actuated by personal and by polilical motives. Many of them wen- jealous of Caesar, or, lik( Cassius, dis- satisfied with the recognition which they had received from him. Many members of the senate (for about sixt\ senators took part in the conspiracy) were agj^rieved at the loss of power and prestige wliich thai body had sullVred at his hands. Their smouldering discontent \^ as kindled into flame by the new [)owers and honors conferred on Caesar in the early part of 44, and b\' the rumors, which were current, that he would be made king and would transfer the seat of government to Alexandria. The time and j)lace whicti they selected for the ik-vd were the Ides of March and the senate housr. Crowding about him as if presenting a petition, one of their mnnber, Casca, st:tl)bed him with a dagger, the others joined in the a.>anlt, and Caesar fell wounded to the death, at the foot of »hi' <^tatue of his great rival Pompey. 311. Caesar's Purpose Threefold. The work which Caesar had set himself to do after the battle of Pliarsalus, and THE DEATn STRI (iCLE oF THE REPUBLIC 171 which was h^ft unfinished at his death, was threefold. He wislied to suppress within the limits of Ronum territory all armed resistance to a central authority, to (\stablish in Rome a pcM-manent government strong enough to carry out a positive policy in spite of all opposition, and finally to knit together JFLIITS CAESAR all parts of the Roman empire and give the provinces a good government. We liave already seen him attain his first object. 312. How He Made Himself Master of the State. To accomplish his seconlM|;\ wanl f()rci;^ncr->. he \\;i> ^lill tin- iimi ;iii<] (•l('iit <'luiiii|iinii of tlic repuhlii-, and accrplcil no f<>iii[ir(Hiii>c with llir .MKcjcalrs of autoenu-v. His di-atli \va^ r('t;nnl« a dranialic proof of the ciul ( )f the iv[)iil)li<-, aii«l crcah-d a |>rol'oiiii(l M-iisalion tlirouj^lioiit llu' Koiiiaii wnild, n,, dial rv<'ii ("Mc-^iir, iiolwilli- .standing' tin* [H'c^^iiit ol lu> Im-difi- campaii-n^ auaiiisl da- Poiiij)fian forces, look hinc li» vv\>\y in lii> An/i-Cnhi lo da- biography of Calo which ("icjni v>ricnns, [lis (ialhe heiitenant, da- onlv odieei* \\h(t h.id doeiled him when lie crossed inlet Italy. 310. The Assassination of Caesar in 44 B. C. Imoih Muiida ('aesar ninriu-t| | < ;ir'\ onl da- i"eh)rins u|>oii wfiich lie had set hi> he.irl. linl while he \\;i> hn>ily en^^^agcd in these inalteis, a plot was h»i"inin;j,' ;i»;;iin>l hi> lih- The conspirators were ;icln.ilcd hv pergonal ;ind In |)ohli<-;il inotixcs. Man} of them \\*i. |..ilon> ol ( ar^ai-, or, hkc < ';is>iii-.^ ,h>- satished with the reeo\' the M'liale {U>r ahonl sixty >enator> to(tk part in the e«»n>pira< \ ) were ai:;:ricv cd at the Io.n> ttl' powrr and prestiL'c which th;if \^<-i\\ h;id Milhn'd ;il hi^ h;inil>. Their sinouldtiiij^ (h^fontenl \\a> Ivindled into fhimeliy the new po\\t'r.> and honors conferred (ai <";i(->ar in the e;irl\ p.irl of -11, and hv the rumors, which were enrreni, lluit he wonid l.e made kin*'* and wonld transfer the >ciil of li'oxermnen! lo Aiexar^dria. Tile time aiai place which ihey ^cl< ctcd loi' die deed w. tc da- Ides of March and tlie m ti;iic house. < Vowdiiii:' about him as if pre.sentinj^' a ju'tition, ..ne of their ninnl»ci-, Tax-.i. stubbed him witli a da<,'ger, tla- others jc/mcrl in the ass;nih. ;ind ( *ic>ar fell wounded to the death at llic foot of f\'r ^•;t«ne of hi> •'-'-eat rival Pompc y. 311. Caesar's Purpose Threefold. 'Hie work which Cae>ar had Mt hiniMdf to do after the battle of Ph;irsalus, and THK DKArii sri{r(a;ij: oi riir. hkitblic 171 which was left nnlinislied at his death, was threefold. He wished to suppress within the limits of Roman territory all armed resistanc- l.^ a cenlral autla.rily, to establish in Uomc a permancn.t o(,vcrmnent strong" enou^di to carry (»ut a positive |)oliey in spite (»f all (»pposition, and finally to knil lo^^cther T I T I 1 -^ < " \ I >A R all imrts of the Roman empire and ^ive tlie ])rovinces a o;(.od cr,,vernnienl. We have already seiMi him attain his first object. ^ 312. How He Made Himself Master of the State. 1^) aeeom|)lisli his second purpose he put himself at the head of die slate and made his posili.m si^ure, partly by incrcasin^r his own power, partly by diminishino- the influence of other 172 RO^[\^ Hi. STORY factors in the novcnHiicut. \n 4S the irihunici.in |)(>\ver was given him lor litV, and in H he was made diclator for life. lie probably held the |»rtKonsul.ship j)ernianenfl\ , and on .several occasions he was ivtjnlariy elected |o the eonsulshii). The dictat(.rshi[), consulship, and ]»r<»consnlshi[) i^.-ive liiin all the IH)sitive [)ower which he needed, and the tribunician authority enal)led liiin to hold all other nia;,'istrales in cheek. Tlie rna<.:- istrates for the ininiediate future were also brou'dit directiv under liis rnntrol l)y a measure which allowed him to name all ofheijds for 4:i, as well .i> the consuls and tribunes for 42. He raised the senate to nine hundn^l in munber, and thus robbed it of its exclusive cliaracter, and he took care that his own followers sliould constitute a maioritv in it. As for the I)eoi>le, tluy met as before in the comitia, but tlie <(4ection of candidates for office by (\-ics;ir, .ind the fart that he alone was directly or indirectly the author of all bills l.iid before file pop- ular assemblies, made the mectin-^ of tlicsc bodies lanvlv a inattiT of form. 313. How He Unified the Empire. Thr measures which he took to accomplisli his third purpose wen e\c(4lent. lie relicncd tlie con^restion of Rome l)y sending,' out colonies, and by cuttinointment of provincial i^ovcrnors. Henceforth {)rovinces ceascMl to be i)rincipalitics which were used by olHcials in fill- inf^ their pockets or in a all those power., which in their Tin: DEATH sTur(;(iLi: of the republic 173 natural development gave Augustus and his successors their exalted position. 314. Events which Followed Caesar's Death. Although Caesar was dead, l)oth parties, the consinrators and the personal and political friends of the dead leader, rested on their arms. Neither faction knew the strength of the other nor the senti- ment of the people. Tlie (^lesarian consul Mark Antony thought it best to propose a compromise, and Marcus and Decinms Brutus, Cassius, and the other conspirators accei>ted it. Caesar's arrangements for the future were ratified, but no inquiry was to be nuule into the circumstances of his death. 315. Octavius Appears in Italy. An unexpected turn was given to alTairs by the arrival in Italy of Octavius, Caesar's grand-nepliew, a young man in his Mineteenth year, whom iiie dictator had nnuwd as his heir. His fidelity in carrying out the generous provisions of Caesar's will, his tactful course, and the fact that he bore the name of their late leader drew to him so many of Caesar's veterans that Antony, for fear of los- ing all his trooi)s, hastily left Home for the North with the forces which were still loyal to him. 316. Mutina, 43 B. C. Antony had secured by law the transfer to himself of Cisalpine (iaul, which had originally been assigned to Decimus I'rutus, one of tlie cons})irators. His pur})ose now was to drive out Brutus and take possession of the province. The senate called Octavius to its assistance and sent him with Hirtius and Pansa, the two consuls of tlie year 43, to the relief of Brutus. Antony was worsted at Mutina. 317. The Second Triumvirate Formed in 43 B. C. But the victory was dearly bought. Hirtius and Pansa were killed, and Octavius was so aggrieved at the assignment of the vacant position of conunander-in-chief to Brutus that he came to an understanding with Antony and his ally Lepidus, and the three men formed a compact, commonly known as the second triumvirate, whicli was later ratified by law, and gave them even more extensive po^^cM•s than PoniDcv, Caesar, and Crassus had exercised twenty years before 174 ROMAX IIISTOHY 318. Cicero's Part in the Struggle. Their return to Rome was followed hy a reiiijii of tmor wiiieli rivaled that of Sulla. ( "ieero wa.s one of the earl\- \i(tiiii.s of their fur\'. He had been, the head and front of tlie senatorial op{)osition, and however vaint^lorious he may ha\e heen of his eoiisulship, however weak durin<^ his year (»f exile, and vaeillatini^^ when the war broke out between <';iesar antl roni}»ey, in this j)eriod he rose to the full stature of a brave jnan of action and a states- man. His seathin^ ilenuneiation of .Vntony in his IMiiiippie orations, his brave letters to the f^overiKtrs of jirovinees, en- C(juraging them to ^tand firm for ihe senatorial cause, and his bold leaderslii'j ui the senate made hi;]i the heart and soul of the lost cau>e. He wa.^ put on the list of the |)roscribed by Antony, and was murdered on his estate near Fonnia' in 43 b. ( . 319. Velleius*s Eulogy of Cicero. His bravery in this last stru«^^le of the republic a century later not undeservedly eidled forth from Velleius l*atirculus this enthusiastic euloeen more urelciied under thee as prince than was death under thee a> triumvir, but tin fame and the glory which his deeds and words brought him thou hast rather exalted than taken from him. He live> and will live \i\ memorv for all time, and so long as this worhi, ruled by chance (»r by j)rovidence, or howi'ver it be governed, .so Ion;.;' a> lin> worlii .shall last whose- significance, structure, and constitution, he wius almost the only Roman to discern, to <()m|)rchend, and to set forth in a elear light by means of his elo(pienci', it will take with it througli the ages the i)raise of Cicero, and in times to come all men will execrate tliy crime against him, and tin- hunmn raee shall disaj>pcar from the earth before the name of Cicero dies." 320. Philippi, 42 B. C. Meain\hile the two republiean leaders, M. Hrutus and Cassius, had withdrawn to the East to take possession of their |)rovinci's, and were exerting them- selves to the utmcjst to prepare for the struggle which they THE DEATH STRUGGLE OF THE REPUBLIC 175 knew to Ik' inevitable. In the autunm of 42 they had brought togetlier at Philipi)i a force of nineteen legicms of foot soldiers and twenty thousand horsemen. Here they were met by the triumvirs and defeated. Brutus and Cassius took their own lives, and the struggle to reestablisli the republic was at an end. 321. The Roman World Divided between Octavianus and Antony. In the division of territory which followed the vietory, Oetavius, or Octavianus as he was called after his A ROMAN GALLEY adoption l)y Caesar, took Italy and the West, Antony the East, with Alexandria as his capital. Lepidus had to content him- self wiUi Africa, and plays henceforth a minor role. 322. Actium, 31 B. C. Tlie compact between Octavianus and Antony, broken only by temporary misunderstandings, ran for ten"^ years, but the rivalry between tlie two men was too intense to allow thc^ arrangement to be i)ermanent. It was believed too at Rome that Antony and Cleopatra were 174 ICOM \N ll!s|(Hn 318. Cicero's Part in the Struggle. Tin n i« turn u> Rouie was f<)llt»u«''l 1>\ a rcijn of I.it!.!- wiiic'i rixaK'd that of Sulla. ( 'iccro \\a> om- nf liit- taii\ \Hiiiii-, tif llicii- fur\ . Jli- luiil ht'Lii^ till' !ica In- nia\ lia\r lici-ii of lii-. consulsliij), liu\vi'\(;r wi-ak dii?-iiin* lil- wai- of txiir, and \ acillatini:" \^\n\i llu' war ln-okc mil Im-Iwccii < 'a(->ar and INmipcy, in llii.^ jxiiml he rose Ut tlie full slalnie of a l>ra\e man (»f a' linn and a states- man. His scalliin^' ic oration^, his hrave letters to vrr!ior> of jjroviuei's, en- eoura.}j;injj; them to >tand (irm for i!i, Miialorial eaUM-, and his hold Icadershiji of Hie x-natc inadf hi:n (he heart and soul of tlie lost eau-^e. He \va> put t»n ihe li>l of the proserihed !>_v Antony, .111(1 \\a> mnrdereer\eil!y called forth from \'elleinN I'aterenhis this enlhn.>iaMie eiiioi'v of him and denunciation of Antony: "'i'liou ha-' roMx-d <'ie(.-ro, Mark Antony, of the li^dit of life, hut. of a li^hl ol»>eured \)y the elond.s of Ironhle of his deelinin; -, and of a life which would ha\c heen more \vi-etehed undei- thee a^ prince than wa^ death under thei- a> lriuni\ir, hut l!i( fame and \\h' i-lory whieh his deeds and \\oril> hrou;^lil him iho.i ha>l ral'ier exalted thai laketi from him. He h\cs an«l will live i.i niemor\ for all time, and so lonti* «»s llii> world, ruled hy eh., < a- 1)\ ju'oxidenee, or however it he^"o\erned. soh'tn- i-. t'li. world shall last whos,- si^mhcanee, st rueture. and eoiiMiiuiion, ne \\a> aliiiost the only Roman to di>eei-n, lo com[U'eliend, and to set h)rl!i in a clear lif(ht hy means of his elo(|Uenee. it will take with it throuf^di the aires llie |)rais<' of (a/eio, ami in limes to come all men will exeei-atc thy ci-imc ai-'aiiisi him, and the human race shall disaj)pi'ar from the earth hefon ihe name of < 'ieero dies." 320. Philippi, 42 B. C. Aieanwhile the Iwo repuhlican leadc-rs, M. Ihiilus and ('assiiis, li.id u illidiau n !(• l!u Masl to lake |»o->( - -.loii of iheir provinces, ami were excrtiirj; ifiem- selves to iIh- ulnuot lo prepar*- for ihe stiiim^le which tln\' ..I ^ riiK DK.vni srurcdiJ-: <»k tiii: ij'.imri.ic 175 knew to he iiievilahle. In the aulunm of iL* they had hrought too;ether at IMiilippi a fonv of ninelcen le,i:ions (.f h)ot soldiers and twenty ihoUsan.l horsemen. Here they were met hy the triumvirs and defeated, lirutus and (\issius lmpact hetween Octavianus ;,,,.! Anionv, hroken (.nly hy temporary misunderstanding's, ,.,„ f.a- len vears, hut tiu' rivalry hetween the two rjien was ,,„, intense to allow the arran.ovmcnt to he permanent. It was h.'lieve ;i rival power in \\w East. 'Vhv ^reat naval Imttle near Acliiiin w.is, tlurcfnn\ a .stru«;^le ln'twccn tlie East and the West, and thr viitorv of Octavianus over Antony and Cleopatra estahlished once for all tlu' .su})remacy of the West. 323. The State of Society. The social elianges in Italy which came about in tlic period [)recedin<: the revolution, as we have noticed in a prc\ >■»'!- chapter, l)ecain(> still more marked in the years which interv(ned hetween the (rracchi and the I'l Ul^lVl.i I', \ I'OMCiaAN VII, r, A battle of Actium. The middle class had already disappeared. Now the aristocracy upj)er classes took refuge in some form of Clreek philosophy which did little to raise them out of the slough of materialism. 324. Epic and Dramatic Literaturs. The utter absence of epic and tragic \)ov\v\ throughout llie century from Tiber- ius Gracchus to the l»attle of Actium is significant of the period. The times furnished to the writer neither inspiration nor readers for liis W7)rks. Even the better types of comedy languished. Plautus and IVrence found no successors, ;md the stage was given over to I'le farce and the mime. Indeed, even tliese lower forms of tlie drama found it hard to hold their place in popu- lar favor i:i c()m])etition with the shows in the anipliitheatre. Only two writers have the flavor of the olden time, Lucretius in verse and V;.rro in j)rose. 325. Lucretius, 96-55 B. C Li his great didactic poem. 170 ifoM.w ii!s'r ;i ri\:il |»(.U( r in ilic Kast. The ^n-at naval battle near Acliiiiii \\a^, tlicirluir, a .slni;4-,ul(> Itctwccri (lie KiiM and tlu' Wot, mihI the \i.|(.i"\ i»f ( )'-la\ iaiiiis over Aritonv and ( 'le()I)atra r>tal)li.slK'd once for all the >n|)ri'nia, had aiivaih disappc-irrd Xo'v Uir arisl(Mi;M V .caNcd to cxi^l. Vrw of the old fannlic. snrvivcd the (•i\ii u.n-^ and [)rosci-i;»lion. Society was made Uj* of the verv ri. h ;nid t!ie |Mrir. 'I'he rich men, like Cra.xsus, had made their h»rtniies hy farmiti^:: tlie taxes, hy loanini; nionev in the jtrovin<(>, and hy ira«lin;^ with them, by s|>eenlalin;^' in the laii(l> of Hie pro^erih;- ! a id die i.ankrnj)t, and by enltivalin::- their llaii.in e^l.•|l(•s with >la\e labor. A great chasm yjiwtied l)et\\een them and the da\«'> or the Tin: i:i \rii srinca;!,!. oi' riii: kkithlic 17 needy freemen :tnd freeor. This was one of the evils which slavery had l>ron};hl npon H-omc. Kven so si'nsil)le a man as Cicero says in his Diiflcs: "We are to acc(Hmt as nnbecomin^ and mean the yiuns of all hired workmen, whose sonnn- of profit is not their art bnt their labor; bir their very wattes are the consideralion of their servilnde." dlie lower classes received free corn and nsed the money paid them h>r their votes to bny the other necessaries of lif(>; U)V their unnisement they demanded dra- malic b'stiv.'ils, trinni|)iial processions, and i^ladiatorial shows. 'IMie ri*-h h»nnd their pleasnre in sp(iidin*ni»')ney. 'i'hey built ma^niificent villas at the seashore, and laid out (daborate parks. Thev spent fortunes upon fnrnitnre and jeuels, antl wines and delic.ieies for the table were imported from all l)arts of t'le world. It was inevitable th.at morality should be at ii 1;)W ebb in a peri(»d when money was the sole object of men'., desires. The restraininpic and traji:ie poetry thron.'i:honl !!ie centnry from d'iber- ius (ira'-chu> to the batlle of .\elinm i- -iniifieant of the period. The times fnrnish(>d to the wril(>r neither iiispiralion nor readers lor his work>. I'Acn the belter types of comennd it h:ird to hold their j.lace in popu- lar favor i:i comj»etition with the shows in the amphitheatre. Only two writers have the flavor of the old(-n tiaie, Lucretius in vers«' an I V.rirt in prose. 325. Lucretius, 98-55 B. C Li his o-n-.-it didactic |)oem, 178 ROM AX fITSTORV On the WorM^ LiicrctiiH not only shows tlit* rou^h llteniry vij]jor ami fire and tlie niarnit'ii^ins vxcn of an Knnius, hut the zeal and the dauntless eoura^'e of a Xaevius. His poem centres about two themes: "Fear not the ^ods; fear not death," but even in this period of unbelief, it fell upon deaf ears. 326. Varro, 116-27 B. C. Varro wrote books enough for a library, but only his works (Mi (/ounfn/ Lifr, and parts of his Latin Lanfjuafje and liis Satires are extant. Varro's Safirct Moninisen has aplly eliaiiieterized as "tlie last breath of tlu' g"od spirit of the old liurgess-tinies." 327. Catullus, 87-54 B. C. The temper of the period finds fit expression in llit> pomis of Catullus. They are not laekinj; in foree, in wit, and in sarcasm. They show a fine play of imagination and an artistic form whieli ])erh;ips no other Latin poet has attained, but their subjects are mainly drawn from the little incidents <»f ])olile society, and the verse is that of the decadent (Ireek jjcriod. 328. Oratory Before Cicero. l*n»se literature fared bet- ter in this century. Oratory in particular flourished. Both Tiberius and Gains Gracchus were elFective si)eakers. Mar- cus Antonius and I^ucius Grassus, at the begiiniing of the first century, and Gicero's contemporar}' Ilortensius were also dis- tinguislied orators, but their orations lia\c not come down to us, and their fame was eclipsed l)y that of Cicero, Iiome's foremost orator. 329. Cicero, 106-43 B. C. His fifty-seven extant orations, some of them written for delivery in courts of law and some eoinposed for pijlilical [)urj»oses, prove him to have been a great master of style, perha[)s the greatest Latin stylist. His activity extended to almost every field of prose literature, to rhetoric, i)hiloso[)hy, law, history, uml letter writing. In writ- ing his fonnal treatises he drew largely from Greek sources, but he adapted the material to his own [juriioses and gave it a Roman coloring. His Letters, eight lunivlred and more of which are extant, furnisli us with an admirable picture of his life and times. Cicero was a ^jrolific i)oet too, and, if we may THE DEATH STRUGGLE OE THE REPURLir 179 judge from the verses whicli have come down to us, he was a poet of no mean ability. 330. The Historical Works of Sallust, Caesar, and Nepos. History, whicli, it will be remembered, began with Cato the Censor, takes on a new form during the latter part of this period. Writers no longer compose narratives cover- ing several centuries of Roman history, w^eaving together legend and fact in hoi)eless confusion, but they devote themselves to particular episodes, preferal)ly of their own times. Of this sort are Sallust's War ivith Jugurtha, his Conspiracy of Cati- line, and Caesar's Commcniarics. Similar in scope also were the biographies which Cornelius Xei)os wrote. 331. Summary Account of the Last Days of the Repub- lic. The revolution against senatorial government, which began under the Gracchi, reached its last stage in the struggle for supreme power between Caesar and Pompey, supported by the senate. Pompey's cause was lost on the field of Pharsa- lus, and Caesar, by his victories at Thapsus and Munda, made himself master of the Roman world. But before he had com- pleted his reorganization of the government he was assassinated, and the republicans made a last effort to ward off the monarchy. They were defeated, however, at Philipi)i by the triumvirs Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus, who divided the world be- tween them. The retirement of Lepidus brought Octavianus and Antony face to face, just as Caesar and Pompey had been made rivals l)y tlie death of Crassus, and in the naval battle of Actium Octaviiuius made good his claim to supreme power. The revolution was complete. THE EST\lt!JSHMi:\r (>[ THE KMI'IKF, AM) THE JULIAN EMI'KKoKS (27 n.( . \. \K (ill) Ho>\ Atu'ii tu., sliiiriiii: lii.s junsir with the smatr, jdit liitnsrif at the heatl ol lii<- state li<.\v he aiwJ the otli(r Julian imiH ror.. ^(»vcnir position a> nuc^tir of the state, \v\. at the same time to keep intact tlie old forms of the constitution. He accomplislied his ol.je(t hy retaining the tribiinieian powir for life and hy takin<^ tlie proconsular hujurium for ten years, counting from 27 e c. T\\v i)roconsnlar |)ower ^^ave him command of the le^^ions, and, as he was allowed to retain the imperiitm within the city, his {xjsition id home was efjuai in rank and authority to that of tlio consul. The trihunician power nnthorized him f > summon the senate or the |)oj)ular a--v...iMit- ftir the l!;in>a'ti(tn «»f lnisines>, and to veto tlie action of almost any matristrate. His {»reeminence was ex- pressed in tile titles of Anirustus anut the l)ills submitted to them were drawn up by the emperor, and the candidates bore his approval, so that popular action amounted to nothing more than a formal ratification of the will of Augustus. By these methods Augus- tus attained the same result which Julius Caesar had reached, the centralization of power in his own hands, but the means which he employe. (i'J) H(Mv AuL'ii; I iu\ sluiriiir liis ^>o^^tT with the scnat(. put hiiiisflf at the htii'l tratc. II is preeminence w jis ex- pressed in the titles of Auuls. |)raetors, and trihuncs were still elected as in the j»ast, hut .\ugu>tu> aiie»i»ted the practice of recommending certain candidates to the citizens, ami hi.s recommendation insured an election. The |>o|mlar msseni- l)lies met as before f)Ut the bills submitted to them were drawn up by the emperor nnd the «aiifv^ ^'-^ nuf mt 4i4 not excite popular op|)osition. 335. The Senate has a Share in the Government. In one important respect his domestic policy dilfered frfiiii lliaf of Julius. H(^ ado))t( >till in great piiil rarvri! of wtMnj made a melancholy figure. A police .sujHTvi.sioii of streel.s, of river-banks, of fires, or of buildings was almost iiiih(*ani of." 341. How Augustus Improved It. .lurnis Caesar iiiade some progress in remedying this slate of nlfnirs .-nid in !»c:tiitify- ing the city, but it was left to his Mie>le of Castor and the temple of Saturn, works lieguii and far ad- vanced by my father, I ccmipleted. . . . In my sixth consulshii*. I repaired eighty-two tenii)les (»f the gods. ... On ground be- longing to myself I built a temple t(» Mars Ullor and the Forum .Vugustum, witli money arising fn»m the mic <»f the sjioils of war;" and so thc« record runs through a list which might well justify him in boasting that "he found Rome brick and left it 184 HOMW msTolCY marble." To protect the lives and property of the citizens he established a fire and poHcc dt[)urtnient, numbering seven or eight thousand men, and reorganized the system of municipal administration. 342. Improvements in Italy. Improvements similar to tliese in Rome were made throughout Italy. The via Fhuninia, the great liighway wliicli r;in from Rome to Ariminum, was repaved, guards were stationed at intervals to protect travelers, and military colonies were planted along its course. 343. Social Reforms of Augustus. It is more difficult to change social conditions than material ones. Yet Augustus bravely attacked this jirobleni too. He tried to check extrava- gance l)y enacting sumptuary laws which limited the amount to be spent for a dinner on ordinary days and on festivals. He tried to restore- the old-time integrity of family life, and to prevent the native stock from dying out, by laying restrictions upon divorce, l)y putting the childless and the unnuirried at a disadvantage in the matter of receiving legacies and otherwise, and by granting fav(jrs to men with families. His legislation upon these j>oin*s, however, did little to remedy the evils at which it was directed. He w as more successful in restoring the Ronum religion to its old position of dignity. He did this by rebuilding the temi)les, l)y celebrating religious festivals with great pomp, and by taking certain priestly oilices himself, like the position of |)ontifex maximus, or chief l)riest. One of the most interesting of the social changes which he elfected consisted in establishing a series of new sot ial classes. They were three in number: The senators, who as ex-magistrates owed their position to his recommendation; the knights, whose social and political standing he definitely fixed; and a local aristocracy, known as the Aug upstairs ^ and made uj) of rich freedmen in the little towns, who in return for contributing to })ublic purposes enjoyed certain privileges. The interests of these three classes were those of the ( inperor, and their support did much to strengthen his iK)sition. 344. The Results of his Work. If a balance-sheet of the \ i y^fi AUOrSTUS 184 KoMw ms'foin' iiuirl)le." To i)n)t(rt \hv ]\\v> aiul projx rty of [Uv citi/A'iis \iv csttihlislRMl a fill' and polite department, nnni})ering seven or ei^lit thousand inen, and reorj.^ani/ed tlie system of niunieipul administration. 342. Improvements in Italy. Improvements similar to these in Rome wen- made throuj^diout Italy. The via Flaminia, tlie great hi*^Ii\vay which ran from Rome to Arimiiium, was repaved, guards were stationed at intervals to proleet travelers, and military colonies were |)lanted along its eourse. 343. Social Reforms of Augustus. It is more diflieult to ehange social conditions than material ones. Yet Augustus bravely attacked Uiis prohli'm too. lie tried to cheek extrava- gance !)y enacting sumptuary laws which limited the amount to be spent for a dinntr on ordinary days and on festivals, lie tried to restore the tjld-tinie integrity of family life, and to prevent the native slock from dying out, by laying restrictions upon divorce, by putting the childless and the unmarried at a disadvantage in the mattt'r of recening legacies and otherwise, and by granting favors to men with families. His legislation upon these points, however, did little to remedy the evils at wliieh it was directed. He was more suci cssful in restoring the Roman religion to its old position of dignity. He did this by rebuilding the temple^, by ii lebrating religious festivals with great j)omp, and by taking certain priestly ollices himself, like the jxfsitioii of ]>ontil*e\ maximus, or chief priest. ( )ne of the most interesting of tin- social ehan^ns which he eU'ected consisted in establishing a series of new social elas.ses. They were three in number: The senators, who as ex-magistrates owed their position to his recomnK-ndatioii; tlu- knights, whose social and politieal standing he (kdinitely fixed; and a local aristocracy, known as the Auf/ii.sfulc.s, and made u]» of rich freedmen in the little towns, who in return for contributing to public puri)oses enjoyed certain privileges. The interests of these three classes were those of the emj)eror, and their support did much to strengthen his position. 344. The Results of his Work. If a balance-sheet of the 'I * .irt AUGt'STUS THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EAH'HIE 185 i public led<^cr were struck it would show ji profit and a loss. On the credit side would stand the restoration of law and order, the betterment of material, and to some extent, of social condi- tions, and in particular a great improvement in the state of the provinces. On the debit side stands the permanent loss of self- government, and of the broadening and educative influence which partici[)ation in the management of public affairs exerts upon a j)eople. 345. The Character of Augustus. The likenesses which we have of Augustus reveal clearly enough the essential traits of his character. The clearly-marked features, the strong mouth, and the compact, well-knit figure all point to firmness of i)urpose and clearness of conce|)ti()n. They indicate a man of balance and self-restraint, and such a man he proved himself to be, both in his j)ublic and [)rivate life. They suggest also a man of refined tastes, and the encouragement which he gave to art and literature would seem to bear out this interpretation of his [)hysiognomy. 346. Literature under Augustus; Vergil, 70 - 19 B. C. In fostering of art and literature he was a])ly seconded by Agri[)pa. hw commissioner of public works, who did so nmch to beautify Rome, by Maecenas his prime minister, who was the patron of Horace, and by Pollio the friend of Vergil, and the founder of the first i)ublic library in Rome. To Pollio, Vergil owed his intro- duction to Augustus, from whom he ultimately received com- pensation for the farm which he had owned near his birthplace, Mantua, but which the veterans had confiscated, and in grateful recoo-nition of his kindness Pollio is made the chief object of his praise in the Bucolics, or j)astoral poems which he composed be- tw^een 41 and 39 b. c. About ten years later Vergil's second great work, i\i^ Georgics, appeared. The first book of the Gcur- gics treats of farming, the second of the planting of trees, the third of the care of cattle, and the fourth of bees. The subject of the poem was suggested to the poet by IMaecenas, who reflected the wishes of the emperor in his desire to have the Roman people return to the country, and take up farming again. The Aeneid 186 ROMAN MI.STOI{Y was not puMished until afti-r tlir |>(.rt's death. It is the story of Aeneas and the be^riiinin^^s <.f Hofikiii liistorv, which in a ditierent form had been tohi in the epies oi" Naeviiis and Knnius. 347. Horace, 65-8 B. C. Tlie verses in Vergil's friend Horace are still more closely connected with the names of Augustus and Maecenas, because many of his i)oenis are ad- dressed to these two men, or celebrate their achievements. In his earliest compositions, the Saflrcs, he discusses the different phases of everyda\- life, lau»:liin«r at its vices and foibles. In makin*,' everyday life his tiieme lie follows Lucilius, but his work is more finished than that of his predecessor, and is free from the personalities and the bilin<: satire which characterized the compositions of Lucilius. To the earlier vears of his liter- I'' ary life belong also the Kjjodcs. His most finished ])roductions are his Odes and Epl^ths. In the last-mentioned poems he returns to his early study of the life about him. It is his four books of lyrical poems, however, which have been most read by posterity, and upon them Horace himself wished his claim to inunortality to rest. 348. Tibullus, 54-19 B. C; Propertius, 49-15 B. C; Ovid, 43 B. C-A. D. 18. Poetry in which the writer turns his thoughts in U[)on himself is characteristic (jf the period. To this class belong the elegies of Tibullus, rroi)ertius, and Ovid. Their poems are called elegies not because they were poems of lamentation, but because the \{rscs in them were alternatelv dactyhc liexanicters and dactvlic pentameters, and the term elegy was applied to composition.^ of this metrical form. Ovid was a very prolific writer, and left a great body of poetry behind him. His best known works are ilmWIcfamorphoses and the Fasti. The former deals with the stories of Greek mythology. The latter is a Roman calendar of days, into which are interw^oven legends comiected with the various holidays. 349. Livy, 59 B. C.-A. D. 17. Livy's great Instory of Rome was probably planned to contain one hundred and fifty books. Of these one hundred and forty-two were comr)leted. THE estahlisiimext of the empire 187 and brought the narrative down from the founding of the city to 9 B. c. Only thirty-five of tliese l)ooks, with very brief epitomes of most of the others, are extant. Livy was not an historical critic, and his purpose was not so much to get at the exact truth in doubtful matters as to |)resent in a graphic form the story of Rome and of the exploits of her great men. In this he has succeeded admirably. 350. The Question of the Succession. Augustus had found no more difHcult (juestion to settle thaa that of the suc- cession. His own powers had been given to him for a fixed term of years or for life. ConsiMpiently Ik^ could not transmit them to any one else at his death. He could, however, during his own lifetime inv(^'«5t the man of liis choice with powers inde- pendent of liis own and tlnis do much tow%'ird securing the suc- cession for liim. This was the j)lan w^hich he adoj)ted. After the death of liis nej)hew Marcellus and his tw^o grandsons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, he turned to liis stepson l^iberius, and by adopting him and by conferring u|)on him the tribunician and proconsular powers, invested him with an independent authority which of course did not laj)se at his own death in a. d. 1 1. 351. The Character of Tiberius. Augustus could scarcely have chosen a successor of greater promise. Tiberius was fifty- six years old when his predecessor die«l, and from his youth on he had been in the service of the state. He had been consul and had held the i)rocoM,sular and tribunician power His bravery, •ibility, and success as a military leader had won him the implicit confidence of the soldiers. It is the Tibc^rius of this period^ strong, proud, conscientious, and able, who is })ainte(I by Velleius Patcrculus, the contemporary historian who served on his staff in Pannonia. A far different picture is that which we have from the pen of Tacitus, a writer of a later date. In point of fact there were two sides to his character, and tlie l)etter phase of it showed out more clearly in his earlier life and in the early part of his reign. 352. His Mistrust and its Effects. He was naturally very res(^rvcd and the intention which Augustus cherished for many 188 llOMA.\ HISTORY years of makiuix some one else tluui iiiiiiseLf liis lu'ir and siieeessor developed this t|uality into a distrust of liiinsril' and a snspieion of others. This |>ievi nlcd him from making Inc nsc of others in administerini«; public alfairs, as Aujxustus had ilone. Conse- quently the l)urden of state fell upon him alone during the early years of his reign. 353. The Rise of Sejanus. He carried it well, !)ut the strain was too great, and when the clever and unseru|)ulous xVelius Sejanus had shown himself able to relieve him, Tiberius gave him alone tlie confidence which lie had refused to put in others, and withdrew from a direct parti( ipalion in public affairs, be- taking himself finally to the island of (Japri, where he spent the rest of his life. This was what Sejanus desired. He now had a free liand to })ut out of the way those who opposed him and those wlio stood l)et\veen liim and the object of his great ambition, the succession to tlie throne. Drusus, the ordy s(m of Tiberius, was jjoisoned. Agrippina, the widow of Tibcrius's nci)hew Ger- manieus, and h(;r son Xcro were banished, and (iains, her second son, was marked for attack. 354. Delation. Against victims of less inijxjrtancc.' Sejanus used the i)rofessional informer, d'he Romans had no j)ublie prosecutor, l)nt evidence w.is eollerivate citizens. ('icen> won his hrst brilliant sn<'cess at tlu! bar in tliis way by liis prosecution of Verres, the governor of Sicily. This [)ra(tice took on a vicious form under the empire, I'or men known as//r////r>/v.v made a prohssion of lodging informa- tion against others for the sake of sliaring in the fines which would be imposed in case of conviction. These jjrofessional informers Sejanus, and Tiberius, also, for that matter, freely used against those whom they suspected. 355. The Last Days of Tiberius. The suspicions of Tiberius were at last aroused, and, sending a trusty agent to Rome, he secured the condemnation and death of his former favorite. After the death of Sejanus tlie mistrust of Tiberius redoubled and his cruelty knew no limit. He ent liimself off still more from the outside W(»rld and died in his inland h(nne in \. d. ;>7. T51E ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE 189 356. The Empire Under Tiberius. It is pleasant to turn from this side of the life of Tiberius t(j his government of the provinces, and to his administration of financial affairs. He practiced economy himself and insisted uikju it in the case of his subordinates, and yet he was liberal when public interests de- manded it. In the provinces lie held governors strictly to their duties, and punished vigorously those who were guilty of injustice or extortion. In Italy lie helped to develoi> agriculture, and pro- moted the .security of the country districts. The most important constitutional change wliich lie made was to transfer the elections from the popular asseml)lies to tlie senate. This change was of cour.se only a formal one, because popular elections had already lost their meaning. 357. Gaius, Nicknamed Caligula, A. D. 37-41. Upon the death of Tiberius, Gaius Caesar, the son of (rermanicus, the adopted son of Tiberius, was proclaimed emperor by tlie senate. He is commonly known l)y the pet name "rali;';ula" ("litUe boot") which the .soldiers gave him when he was a boy with his father in Germany. Throughout his reign he was the victim of caprice, and represented absolutism in its (Tudest form. In an incredil)ly short time he had spent upon extravagant projects of all sorts the sum of seven hundred million .sesterces, or about $25,000,000, which his economical predecessor had saved, and proceeded to meet the resulting deficit by confiscaiion and o])pressive taxation. The wrath of the people groaning under this tyrannous govern- ment found expression in one c()ns[)iracy after another until finally Caligula was murdered by tlie officers of his own guard. 358. The Personal Appearance of Claudius. He was succeeded by his uncle Tiberius Claudius Caesar. Of the new emperor his biographer Suetonius sjiys: "Either standing or sitting, but especially when he lay aslec{), Claudius had a majestic and graceful appearance, for he was tall but not slender .... But his knees were feel)le and failed him in walking, so that his gait was ungainly on state occasions, as well as wIumi lie was taking exercise .... He stammered, too, in his speech, and had a tremu- lous motion of the head at all times, but especially when he was 190 HUM AN lilSTOKY eiiKJiij^tMl in any l)llsin(^s, how. ^rr trifliiiahiee hiding behind the han<,qn^js of the door. Half in nioekerv and half seriously they drai^wed him out, saluted liim as enipercjr, and forced the reluctant seiuite to recognize liim. 360. His Distrust of Himself and its Effects. The distrust which Claudius felt of himself and the interest which he had always sliown in anticjuariaii pursuits determine in large measure the character of his reign. His lack of .self-confidence made him lean helples.sly ofi others, and as a result he was easily managed by the members of his household, and the history of the Court during his reign is a continuous st(.ry of intrigue by the women and the freedmen about him. This state of affairs had its ad- vantages as well as its ly of corn to Rome by con- THE ESTAIiUSHxMENT OF THE EMPIRE 191 structing a commodious harbor at Ostia near the mouth of the Tiber. 363. His Provincial Policy. There was great military activity on Uie froi>tier during Jiis reign, and he carried out impor- tant administrative reforms in the provinces. The most note- Tin; cLArDi.w AQrKi)n<:T Worthy of his achievements abroad was the coiupiest of southern Britain, an enter|)rise which he conducted iii j)erson. He watched over the interests of the provinces as Tiberius had done, and return<'(l to Julius (^icsar's policy of granting citizen- shij) freely to the i)rovincials. 364. Nero and his Artistic Tastes. When Xero ascended the throne in a. d. T) 1 he was but seventeen years old. He was the .son of the empress Agripj)ina by her first husband. She was the daughter of (iermanicus, and, therefore, Xero was of the stock of the Caesars on his mother's side. He thought him.self a great artist, and gave him.self up to his acting, painting, and music, leaving the affairs of state to his two ministers, the })hi- losopher Seneca and the prefect lUirrus. For five years, while these men were in authority, the government was well managed, but the influence of Seneca was undermined by court intrigues, 19(» koM \\ h I - n .i;\ THE ESTAlfLlSJIMKXT OF TIIK K.MIMKK 191 «-nii:;ii.rr(l in any l»n.^in(>>Ju»\\(Vfr Inllinj^ . . . lli.s inollicr Au- t<»nia olUii called Inni 'an inijH'rUci man ulmrn nahnv had In-- ^'un Imt liad nol litiiNln.l.' And when she ui^licd h, iiphraid any one uidi dullness, ^ll( wonld .siy, 'He i.> a greater I'ool than iii\ .son (l-indii!>.' " 359. How He was made Emperor. It was diis man whom the sol(hcr> fonnd iti a l»alcony in the |»ala of the door. Half in nnx-kerv and half seriouslv thev (lra<:^^cd him onf, sainted him asemiu'for, antl loreed the reluctant senate to reeo^nize him. 360. His Distrust of Himself and its u:ffects. The distrust wliieh Claudius felt of himxlf and the interest whieli he had always sh(»\\n in anli(jnaiian pursuits determine in la r^'e measure the eharaeler of his reii-n. His lack of self-eon li«lenee made him lean helplessly oti (.liters, and as a ronit he was easily mana;^a.'(l \*\ the memheis of hi> Imn.s; hold, and the hi.st.trv of the Court durin<: his reiirn is a eoTilinuou> storv of intriuiu !)V the women and the freednien al)(»ut him. This stah'of affairs had its ad- vanta^'e> a^ will a.-> ils di>ad\ anta^e>, foi- some of his favorites, like the free(hiian Xareix^ns, and linrrus, the prefect of the [)retorian ;:uai(l, were men «»f alfairs. 361. His Patience with Details. The passion for details wliieh ln> study of anticpiarlan matters had develoj)ed in him, made it impo»il>le for him lo lake a lari!-e view of the alfairs of ^^oxernmeiit. hut it mad*' him patient ami conferva ti\c in perfcet- in<; the system whieh he received from his predeees.sors. It iua nearly forty, the other nearly sixty, miles in len^'th. He insiued a steady sup|)ly of corn to Home bv con- I struetin<: a (ommodious harbor at Ostia near the mouth of the Tiber. 363. His Provincial Policy. There w;is nicat military activity on the frouti(>r dnrinn; jiis rei^n, and he carried out iiupor- tant administrative reforms in tlie provinces. The most note- Til I <•[ V ri)i \ \ \{^i'i i>i-"T worthy of his acliievements abn^ad was ihe concpicst of southern Britain, an enter|»riM' which he conducled in person. He \\alch(Ml o\er the intcre>ls of the j>ro\inces as Tiberius had iloiie, and returned to dulin^ C.nsar's policy of ^lantin^M-ilizcn- shij) fi'ecjy to the provincials. 364. Nero and his Artistic Tastes. When Xero ascemled the throne in \. d. o i he was but seventeen years old. He was the son of the enij)ress A;rrij)pina by Jier first husband. She was the dau<(hter of Cermauicus, and, thercfon', Xero was of the stock of the Caesars on his mother's side. He thoU}.dil himself a irreat artist, and irave himself u[> to his actini';, paintin;^, and music, Icaviu*; the alfairs of stal<' to his two ministers, the phi- losopher Sene\1AN Ilisr(t|;\ TiiK i:staiujs[i\m:\ r or iiif i:\ii'iin 103 NKUO and in (»2 JUirnis died. \cr(» iuav dinw (.11' all scn^c (.f restraint, and ^avf frci' rein to liis tlnaliical and al•li^li^ laslc.s, apiuNirin"- in public as an actor, a sui'^cr, and excn a .liaiiolccr in the circns. The hciiriit of his artistic tnllv was reached toward the end of his rciiin when he visited d reece and danced, sanu, and coinj)cleon the jealous suspicions of Nero, P''"^"-"I'"J him to put to .hath liis mother A;,n-ippina, his wife Octavia, and I'lilannicus the son of ('hiucnus. 365. The Great Fire in Rome. In the sununer of (it a fire broke out in some du.ps near the rircns Maximus, and, farmed hy a hi;^! win.l, li-^d h.ra full week, reducing- i,i(. re than liall ol the city 1(. ;.>hes. The ,|ory \\;,s current m the streets that the emperor had had the cit\ s.l on fire, in (uder that he nii.dit rel)uild if on a m.uv mainiihcent scale, and gossip said tliat while the fire was in pro^re^s he watched the scene from the J)alacehnill l.y MaeicnaN. :Mn.i;i!io- meanwhile a jiassair^' from a pl.-iy of ins own w hi.li dccrihed the sup< rsliti.,n, thir> chetinj.'-place of all lioriiMc an' having.;' set fire to the city. I'he manner of their death is desciibed by Tacitus; *'('(»\cred with the skins of beasts, ihey were torn by doj^s anolicy of Augustus in sli-en":lheiiin;i' the IVonliei-s of the emj>ii(', but mav the [)ro\inces, lar^'cly because the allairs of stal<" were in the hands of Seneca, who was an able statesman and was familiar with the neerovinces, since he was a provincial liimself by birth. Even after the influence of Seneca waned, cojidilious abroad did not ^.i^row percej)tiblv woise until the cmpeioi- bc*i;an rcbuildiu}.': Rome. "^Fo .secure funds h)i- this purpi.sc he turne(| !o ihe j)ro\inces, and the oppressi\<' ta\<'-> wliien were laid u|)on them explain in part the insiure'ctioiis which led to his oveithr'.w. m 192 ROMAN m.ST(.KV NKRO and in G2 Burrus died. Nero nnw threw off all sense of restraint, and gave free rein to his theatrical and artistic tastes, appearing' in public as an actor, a singer, and even a charioteer in the eireus. The height of his artistic folly was reached toward the end of his reign, when he visited (irccc(> and danced, sang, and conij)ete(I in chariot races in tlie [)rincij)al cities of that conntry at }>ul)lie spectacles arranged for liiin. Everywhere he was hailed as a victor, and returned to Rome with eilaying n})on the jealous suspicions of Nero, persiwuli'.l him to j»nt to death liis mother Agrippina, his wife Oetavia, and IJritarinicus tiie son of Claudius. 365. The Great Fire in Rome. In the sunnner of 04 a fire broke out in some shops near the ( 'irens Alaximus, and, fanned l>y a high wind, raged h.r a full week, reducing more tiian half of the city to ashes. The story was current in the streets that the emperor had haerished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the (lames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, w Ikmi daylight ha avoirovinces, since lie was a provincial himself by l)irtli. Even after the influence of Seneca waned, conditions abroad did not grow perceptibly worse until the emperor began rebuilding Rome. To secure funds for this purpose he tnrne(l to the provinces, and the oppressive taxes which were laid upon them ex|)lain in part the insurrections which led to his overthrow. 194 ROM AX IIIsr«)UV 369. Representative Assemblies in the Provinces. Per- haps the most iriteRstinj^ i>{)liti(al ilcvelopinent al)roa(l during this period was the csttibhshimnt of n prTsmtatlvc assemblies. These asscnblies were closely connected witli the worship of the emperor. After his (hath Juhus < aoar \\a,> regarded as a god in tlie j>ro\inees. Tlie same honors weri' paid to Augustus and his successors even (lurin<,' tlieir lifetime, and the practice of paying divine honors to the emperor in the j)r()vinces was en- couraged and systematized in the lio})e of developing a spirit of loyalty and a sense of imperial unity. In several of the provinces representatives met amuially to anam^e tlu' details of the imperial worship, and to impose taxes for its proper maintenance. But these gatherings gradually develoj)ed the ]»ractiee of discussing other matters of general interest to their respective provinces and of sending deputations tt» tlie rmperor to lay the results of their delil)erations before him. The establishment of these provincial councils is interesting because it is one of the earliest attempts to develop on a largi' scale our modern system (»f representative government, 370. Literature under Nero. Within the vcars of Nero's reign falls the principal literary activity of scviral distinguished men of letters, l)Ut the literature of the period reflects in a striking way the spirit of the times. Discouraged or embittered, as the case might be. by tlie state of society, men sought refuge in phi- losopliy, or railed at the conditions abont them, (tr, turning their thouglits back to the better da\s of the past, tried to imitate their predecessors, or carefull}- stutlied the writings of tlie past. For these reasons the literature of \hv period takes the form of phi- losophy, of satire, of labored imitations of earlier productions, or of learned conuncntaries u[)on them. 371. Seneca, 4 B. C- A D. 65. The most distinguished writer of philosophy was Lucius Annaeus Seneca, a Spaniard by birth, who, as we have already noticed, was for several years the tutor and minister of Xcro. He wrote mainly on moral subjects, treating such themes as Anc/rr, Tniriquilh'fjj of Mind, and the Brevitij of Life. Some of tliese treatises nr: in the form of THE ESTAHI.ISIIMEXT OF THE EMPIRE 195 essays; others are letters addressed to his friend Lucilius. His philosophy was neither original nor deep, but he was a man of learning; he had an intimate knowledge of human nature, and originated a style which in large measure supplanted that of Cicero as a model for later writers. He composed a number of plays also, based on Greek subjects, but they are artificial in ttieir style and unsuitable for acting. 372. Persius, A. D. 34-62. Persius the satirist has left us but six poems. He aims to follow Horace, but shows none of his predecessor's kindly humor, delicacy of touch, or felicity of ex- pression. Still many of his fierce attacks upon hypocrisy and immorality reveal his intense sincerity, and have a vigor of style which few other Latin writers have equalled. 373. Petronius, Died A. D. 66. In somewhat the same field is the satire of Petronius. F( )r originality of conception and skill in treatment it surpasses all the other literary productions of the period. It is eonnnoiily called a satire, and does in fact hold the follies and vices of society up to ridicule, but it is in reality a romance. In fact it is the earliest known work of prose fiction. It is a story of low 'life, and tells the experiences of a number of scapegrace freemen and rich, vulgar freedmen. Only a small i)art of it has survived. 374. Lucan, A. D. 39-65. As Persius tried to imitate Horace, so Lucan followed in the footsteps of Vergil. His epic poem entitled the PharsaUa, is a story in verse of the civil war between Pompcy and Caesar. The triumph of Caesar, is set forth as a great disaster, and Pompey and Cato are the heroes. It shows many of the literary vices of the period, being full of declamation and packed with learned references to mythology. There are fine passages here and there, bnt when read in sequence it is tiresome. 375. Learned Editions of the Classics. Tlie tendency to dwell upon the great works of the past shows itself still more clearly in the works of learned men like Valerius Probus who brought out editions of Lucretius, Vergil, and Horace and dis- cussed their language and use of words. I'Jf) RDMW II'sroliY 376. Summary of Events under the Julian Emperors, 27 B. C.-A. D. 68. hioursludyor this period we have noticed that the formal c'staMislinicrit of the Em[)irc d.itcs from 27 B. c. when Octiivian received tlie tribiiiiieian and proconsular powers, upon which the author! fv of ilu. emi)eror was based, and the titles of Augustus and pnnct p.s. His pohtical policy was to retain the old repubhcan forms, and to divide the autliority between himself and the senate. In the provinces lie appointed good governors, and ;.'ave them long terms of office, and he devel- oped the territory i)Utsi(le of Italy, and fortified the frontiers. In Rome and Ilalv he constructed manv i)ublic works, souj^iit to reform society, gave imjiorlance to si nators, kni and thus assured the succession to 'rilxrius. The susj>icious character (/f I'iberius made him tyrannical at home, but Ilalv and tlie provinces llourlshed. His successor Gains, or Caligula, Vvas an unbalanced spendthrift. He was followed by Claudius, who uas easilv influenced bv otliers, but on the whole was a conscientious, careful ruler. X'-ff. his successor, governed wisely jit first, but >oom fell iiilo lArr.^.-.t -> and ultimately look his own life. In his reign oecuricil llie «',reat fire at Rome and the consequent persecution of the Christians. CIIAPTKU XI [ FKOaI VHSI' ASIAN To SKITIMITS SKYKKHS (A. !). <•/.) VXS) H.)w tho I-mpiro ovpamlfVi m its farflu'st limit uivh-r Trujan -How in- tonial evils aiHl tho pressure ..f th." nnrtl.rn, l>url»aria.f ;ni ai'istocrat, which had hampered his [)redr( rssors in tlieir rrfornis. His squarely built figure, his thick neck, his Inoad rliin, arid his coarse features revealed his |»lelK'ian ori^nn, hut siM.kc volumes for his firmness, his common scnsr, and his shrcwdiu'ss in dealing with the prac- tical affairs of life. 380. The Senatorial Order, an Imperial Aristocracy. \\ith an emperor of sudi a type it would he almost possible to foretell tlie character of his reign. He applied himself with great zeal and ut he conferred the dignity upon him directly. Heneef.»rth the senatorial order ceased to l»e an aristocracy of the i itv of Rome, but became an aristocracy of the empire, whose privileges wer • within the gift of the emperor. 381. Latin Citizenship. In tlic same sj>irit of fairness toward the [irovinces he gav- the rights of Latin citizenship, whicli carried with it some of the privileges of Roman citizenship, to the hitherto sul)ject communities in some of tiie provinces. These two practices formed a definite part of the policy of the Flavian emperors, of whom Vespasian was tlie first, and perluips nothing did more to develop throughout the emjiire a unity of interests and a spirit of loyalty to the central government. 382. Attempt to Found a Gallic Empire. Turbulence in the provinces lie rci)ressed with a stern hand. At the beginning of his reign a Batavian leader named Civilis led an uprising among the people in what is now Holland. The movement was joined by many of the auxiliaries serving witli the Roman army in Germany, and l)y some of the legions. All Germany seemed to rally to the standard of Civilis in his effort to set up a Gallic emi)ire, but dissensions sprang up among the leaders, as they FROM VESPASIAN TO SEl'TIMH S SEVKRUS 199 had among the followers of Sertoriiis a hundred and fifty years before, and the ineii)ient Gallic empire was crushed out as the independent govennuent in Spain liad been. The central government was still strong enough to hold the outlying provuiees to their allegiance. The time for disruption had not yet come. 383. Revolt in Judaea. The other important military enter- prise of the period was the capture of Jerusalem. As far back as the time of Pompev, Judiea had been brought in a measure under Roman control. Just after the beginning of our era it THE 8EVEN-BUANCHKI> C V NI>1.I> T ICK FUOM THK AHCII OF TITUS became a province, and a Roman procurator was set over it, but the people were treated willi great consideration, and the sanctity of the Temple was carefully observed. But a large party among the Jews resented the presence of the Ronums, and their ani- mosity was farmed into a flame of hatred by Caligula's attempt to have his statue l)laced in the Temi)le. (^)nsequently they were ready to rise in revolt when, in 60 a. d., a garrison was placed in the Holy City for the first time l)y Gessius Florus the procurator. Vespasian, who had not yet been called to the 1!)S I;m\I W ||!s|n|;v lie IiUil HOIK' of till- iiarn)\v iniuiicipal prejudice of a nalive Kumaii, iK.r flu- ri.-i.^ rMvjndi.r (»f an ari>t(KTat, which had haiii|)cR'd hi.-^ j'ic«lr« i>>or> in (heir ifiuini>. His scjuarelv biiih figure, his thick neck, \i\< l.road '-hin, and his coarse features I'cvraled liis plebeian i>ri,':in, hnl >;»(.k<- vohnncs \':>v his firnniess, his enm . , and his shrcuiich a typ*' it would he almost possible to foretell the cliaracler <»f his rci.ni. Wv applied himself with (jreat /^•al and determination In llie complete reorLrani/ation of the (inane. ~. II(» showed his fnM'dnni from cla-> prejudice aud from mmucipal jHrjudirc by ;reel\ ::ivini;- the .senatorial rank to provincials, and with tha! directness of fjurpose which rharae- lenzed him, he did not in all ct ie([nire a candidate for sena- torial hitnor^ t:. hold a mai:i-ti-a. y, but he confcrrcil the diLHiitv np«»n him din-rily. Ilrmvh.rth liir M-natorial «.rd'r cea^.-d to be an aii^lui racy nf ihe city of Koine bnl became an aiistocracv of tlic empire, whose [»ri V ilcircs wer.- within the ^i'iff of the cinp('rni 381. Latin Citizenship. In t!ic same spirit of fairness toward the provincs h* ■ •'•' th. ii^hl> of Latin cili/cnship. which «-arried widi it sonu oi me pii\ ilep-s of Ibmian citizenship, to the hitherto subject conimunilie. in souk of the provinces. These two l)ractiees formed a dclinilc part of the policy of the Flavian emperors, of whom Vespasian was the flr^f, ;,(id perhaps nothinir did more to (ievelop (hn»n^hoiU iIr; i-.npirc a nnitv of interests and a spirit of loyalty (o (he cetitral i;-overuinent. 382. Attempt to Found a Gallic Empire. Turbulence in tlic provinces In- rcpresMMl wilh a -l( rn hand. At tin bc^nnnin^' of his reii:n a liatavian leader named ('ivilis led an uprisin^r amono; th«! people in whal is now Holland. The movemcni was joine(l by many of the auxiliarie rvini^^ with the Roman army in Germany, and by some of the legions. All dermanv seemed to rally to the standard of Civilis in his effort to . t up a OaHie em[»ire, bnl di>sensir.ns sf>ranir up amonir th(> leaders, as they IKoM VKSPVSIAN n. Sf.niMll s si VI IM S 1*>*) had union- the followers of Sertorius a, hundred and lifty years before, aud the ineipieul (Jallic emi)ire was crushed out as the indepJndeut o;overnnienl in Spain had been. The central .^.vernulent was still strong enou-h to hohl the oullyuig provmces to tlieir allegiance. The time for disruption had not yet come. 383. Revolt in Jud«a. The other important military enter- prise of llu- IHTi'xl ^vas tlie capture of Jerusalem. As far back us the time of Pompe;. , huhea had been brou-hl in a measure under Roman eontroL Just aiter the beginning ol our era it ■rilL ShVLN-HKWCin i> rv\i.i.i>r.cK kkom iiii. aium oi rues became a province, and a Roman pnx-nrator wa^ m-I over it, but the l)eople were treale.l with great c.)nsideralion, and the sanctity nf the Temple uas carefully obscrve.l. lUit a large party among the -lews resented the presence of the Romans, and their ani- mositv was fanned into a llaine of hatred by Caligula's attempt to have liis statue placed in the Temple. Conscciuently they were ready to rise in revolt when, in CC a. i>., a garrison was placed in the Holv City for the iirst time by Cessius Florus the jHocnrator. Vespasian, who had not yet l»een called to the 200 i;oM v\ irisi(ii;v throne, was scnf to rrdii..- ihc |»rini( ol a. i». 70 l)et;an ihe sie^^e of Jerusalem. It i> said that a miihon people had ^Mlh- ini. (>I I M oi; ll.wiW AMI-IIMII I \I1C1 ered in the <-it_v lo .-elehralr the IVa I ..f llir Pav...ver. ( )nlside the walls wen- .i'ditv di..u>and leirjonaries and aiixiliari... Starvation reduced the population to tli-- (lin->t exlremity, hut the city refused to surrender. Men, women, and children t'ou^rht si.le hy side in its defeFise. At l.si il,r soldiers of 'V[\u^ f,„ved theirwayin. The Temple u as Inn in-d ; die city m/.-d lo ihe groun pavM-d over llie >i|,-. Th, u.n.rv <>f 200 Roman HlslnliV throne, was scut to ndiicc ilic coinitrv. Before lie readied Jerusalem, however, he was Miinnioiie;] lo Italy to siieeeed Vi tell ins. 384. The Capture of Jerusalem. Vespasian's son I'itns was left in eoniiiiand, ami Ifi the s|>rin<^^ of a. d. 70 began the siege of Jerusalem. It is said that a million people had galli- TIIl. CDL' M OK FLAVIAN A M IM I HH I v 1 JC h ered in tlie city to eele]>rale the FeasI of the [»;issover. Ontsi.lc tiie walls were eighty thousand legionaries aiid auxiharies. Starvation reduced the population to the direst extremity, but the city refused to surrender. Men, w omen, and children fouglit side by side in its defense. At last the .soldiers of Titus forced their way in. 'Ilie 1\-mple was burned; the city was razed to (he ground, and a I)lougli w.-.s passed o\rr the site. Tlu u. lory of FROM VESPASI W r<) SKPTIMIirs SLOVKRITS 201 tit a, o cu O < o 55 < Titus was coiniiK'nionilrd al Rome l>y a triuini)hal arch, which shows to this day carved iij)oii it the seven-branched candlestick of the Temple, the table of shewljread, and the g(jlden trumpets. 385. The Colosseum Dedicated in A. D. 80. This arch and the Colosseum, wliich was also built in the reign of Vespasian, arc two of the most imposing monuments which the Roman world hfus left us. The ('olosseum is in the shape of an ellipse, about six lumdred feet long, and five hundred wide. The outer wall, which rises to a height of one liuiidre(l and fifty feet, is pierced l)y four rows of arches, corresponding to the four stories of the building. The seals within are arranged like steps leading up from the arena, and were capable of holding al)out forty-live thousand people. The building was opened by Vespasian's son and successor Titus, and gladiatorial conlesls were held in it until A. I). 4.)4, and hunts of wild animals for a century more. 386 Public Baths. In the reign of Titus falls also the con- struction of the earliest of tlu' |)ubli(* baths of which we have any remains. At the lieginning of the fourth century there are said to have been a ihousajid such establishments larg(^ and small in the city. These structures were very elaborate. The larger ones, like that of Titus, had not only rooms for hot and cold and steam baths, but a|)artments for athletic exercises and for lounging, talking, and lecturing. 387. Titus, A. D. 79-81. Thr reign onitns was very short. His heidth was already im|)aired when h > mounted the ihrou", and within two yt'ars he died, lie was an accomjjlislied man of great tact and ability. These persoiuil (pialities, joined to the lavish way in which he furnished the peoj)le amu.sements, made him the "(hirling of the world," as Tacitus calls him. 388. The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum in A. D. 79. Th(^ most noteworthy even! which occurred in hi; reign was the destruction of I*oinpeii and Herculaneum by the ( ruption of Vesuvius. The catastrophe came so suddenly and the cities have Ixvu so well preserved by the enveloping layers of •i^lir's. mud, and lava lluit by dignn"; down to the site of Pompeii \xe .^ee how the streets were paved, how the houses and shops •I I'lUiW VKsi'xsi \v I'd si:i'ri\Fn's sioviciirs 201 lllil '' llHIIllllllMI fa o o Titus was comiiKiiioiaUMl at Uoiiu' I)y a triujiij)hal arch, v.liich shows to lliis hrotlicr Tifns (o the throni' in A. D. SI, eamioi fail to leiiiind n^ ol Tiljiiiu.s. As Wlleius PaleiTuius tlmuuiil 'I'IIm-iiiin alni(»sl more than human, so the jtoels ^larlial and Statins |K)rtiay Domi- tian a.^ godlike. To Tacitus and PHnv, on the other hand, Domi- tian is on!v a !)lood- ihi?--*^- t\ rant, as is Ti- Ijeiiu^ ill the pa^^es ol" 'i'aeitus. Domitian was stern and resii-\cd as Tioeriiis had Inrn, and .-.hill iiiui.^cU ujf in hi-. |)ida( (■ a> d'iherius had eiit hiiiiseU' nil" tVoiii the v\orld on the ishinti of r'a]»ri. Pn}\h emjH'f(»[> 1( h ihe iesj)oii^if>ilily of their position, and niar!v . ih*- diviihii'/ hue. In the reign of Domitian it i.> the ichehion •>. tiie ;:()\einor of Upper Germany. In the first period th* nine h to praise in each emperor. In the .second period both of them fell the victims of their owri jealou> suspicion^, and dehitioii ran riot. 390. His Efforts to Improve Public Morals. In his earnest etlort- to improxi- the morals of the people, Domitian sought to reform the theatre, he (-nforced the laws which wen- intended to j)'oteet the fiiiritv f)f family life, he restricted the introduetion of Oriental reh;',toii^, he watclied o\«r the eoints ol \ Ml)'^^ K . Mlin\ I \- I law, and used his aiithoi-ity a> censor to ex<-lnde unwcirthy members from tlie ^eiiat.'. 391. Domitian Rejects the Theory of the Dyarchy. He broke conn)letely with llie theory of the dyarchy that the prince and the -enate jointly I'uled the state. He was an autocrat by instinct, and consistently followed tlie j^olicy of kee[)ing the .su- preme j)OWer entirely in hi> owu hands. With this j)urpose in mind he liad himsel. made < i*nsor for life, solely for tlie purpose of controlling' the apj)ointnieni of senators. In thi.> way he was able to de,i;'radc his ene:nies and to fill th<' senate with lii.s sup- [•orters. He asserted the ri^^ht also of sittino; in jud^^ment on senators charj.^cd with ea;)i!.d ollVnse-. and with the help of his {Iddfon.s found it not dilh^-nh to jnit out of tlie way any .senator who ai'oused liis suspicions. ^^ e ha\(' had occasion to notice the similarity of Ins chaiactci- and rei>.»:n to that of Tit)erius. In one important ])arlicn!ar their ])olicies diilVrcd. Tiberius, and for that matter Xeio loo, riilccl in lap^'c measure tlirou^ii minis- ters Domitian held the i'ei!i of ijoverninent firmly in his own hands, and tolerated no fa .oriies at court. 392. His Foreign Policy Conservative. His foreiij^n policy was that of .Vu'^ustus. It !.iv in ^tren!j:lhcnin(i; the; frontier de- fenses, and in not advancin'f tlie limits of tlie empire. Ihi con- tinued the work upon a norlheiii liiK- of defensi', which, when com|)leted by Hadrian in the next ci'iitury, extended from the mouth of the Rhiiic to tliai of the Danube. It consisted of a wall of earth or of stone with a ditch in front of it, and was pro- tected bv fortresses at int(M'val- of nine or ten miles. With the Daelans to the north of the Danulx' who crosse(l the river and mvaded Roman territory he uuulv a humiliating; peace by send- ing]; presents annually to their kinfj; Decebalus. In Britain Domitian's lieuti-nant .Vc^ricola extended the frontier to the acstiiaries of the Tlvde and the Forth, and built across the island between tliese points a wall of defense. Domitian fell i!i \ I). '.)(► the vi<-tim of a cons|)iracv orixanized by his wife Domilia. 202 KdMw iiismia' FROM VKSPASIAM TO .SEPTIMITS SEVKRIS 203 were built and (Iccoruitt 1, and how tlir conitiion |H:o|)lt' lived and amused theniseives. 389. Domitian is Like Tiberius. The character and rei^ni of Domitian, who succeeded his brother Titu.s to the throne in A. D. 81, cannot fail to remind us of Tiberius. As Velleius Paterculus thouglit Tiberius almost more tlian human, so the |>oeLs Martial and Statins j>orlray Domi- tian as godlike. To Tacitus and Pliny, on the other hand, Domi- tian is only a l)lood- t hirst V tyrant, as is Ti- be r ins in the pages of 'i'acitus. Domitian was stern and reserved as '^riberius had been, and shut himself up in his ])alare as Tiberius had cut himself oil' from the world on the island of Capri. Both emperors felt the responsibility of their i)osition, and did their lust to uphoKl religion and i)ublic morality. Each reign falls into two [K-riods. In the case of Tiberius the rise of Sejanus marks the ilividing line. In the reign of Domitian it is the rel)ellion of the governor of Up[)er Germany. In the first |)eriod tliere is much to praise in each emperor. In the second period both of them fell the victims of their own jealous suspicions, ;ind delation ran riot. 390. His Efforts to Improve Public Morals. In his earnest efforts to improve the morals of the people, Domitian sought to reform tlie theatre, he enforced the laws which were intended to protect the [»nrity of family life, he restricted the introduction of Oriental reliirion>, he watched over the courts of A MOSAIC. SMO\VI\y thr works of Pliny the Elder and (^linlilian. Pliny'^ hock, die Xatnral Ilistary, is tigreat eiuycIoiH'diaot' scienliliri'act and fiction hased upon his observation and readin^^ inul reminds one a little ol Varro's treatises. It deals with ireoi^raphy, anthro|)olof]ry, zo(Jlogy, botany, and mineralogy. A |)atlielic interest attaches to his death, since it occurred in A. I). 71) while he was investi- gating; the cause and cireumstanees of the eruption of Vesuvius. 394. Quintilian,A. D.35-95. Quintillan wa. ;i Spaniard, and, like his fellow-conn trvman SencM-a, a tutor ;it court. In his work On thr Tniinnitj ,>j an Onitor, he de.eribes a complete system of education for one who wishes lo entc public life. His book is an aihnirable tnnti^e on rliet^.rie. and the literary criticism which it contains is excellent, lie tried to bring the style of Cicero into lavor a^ain, l)nt without success. 395. Silius Italicus, A. D. 25-101, and Statius, 40-96. The epic poetry of Uie ])eriod deserve s mention, rather because it shows the imitative tenden«y »)f the times, than for its own merits. Both Silius Italieus and Statins liave imitated Vergil as .slavishly as rjie;in did, hnl their epi*- poems lack the occasional fla.shes of ^-eniiis which Luean's work shows, and are inex- pressibly dull and monotonous. Statius's S/lrar, which an- brief poems on Domitian's consulship, on the birthday or the death of a friend, and similar subjects, iiw much more readal)le. 396. Martial, A. D. 40-102 or 104. The best known poet of the period is Martial, who left behind him fifteen books of Epigrams. Some of th. .<■ poems contain tw o verses only and are written as if tliey were intended to aceom})any presents- sent at the festival of the Satmiialia, but the majority of them are like our modern epiicrams, brief eomj)osilions in verse ex- pressing some delicate or in;^^'nious lhoujj;ht. Martial is a writer of considerable talent, and his poems o-ivr us a very interesting, if somewhat unpleasani, picture of the times. His poetry, Hke that of Statius and Silius l!:di] the Jewish War and treatise on .Jcir'ish Aniiqniiles give ns an account of the Rom.'in government of Judiea and of the capture of Jerusa- lem. After the fall of Jerusalem Jo.se}>hus accom[)anied Titus to Rome, and was ti-eated with great consideration by Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. 398. Plutarch, A. D. 46 - about 120. Plutarch, wliose biographies of great Tireek and Roman statesmen, known as the Pdnilld Lircs, have held a. well-deserved place in ])ublic esteem, wiis in Rome IV)r a time during the reign of Vespasian and much respected at court, but the greater part of his life was spent in his native country, Hoeotia. 399. The Revival of the Dyarchy under Nerva, A. D. 96 - 98. Tli«« senate showed its hatred of Domitian after Iiis death l)v destroying his statues, by erasing his name from public monuments, and by forbidding the peo])le to ])Ut on mourning. His sueeessor Xeivji was i)ick(Ml out by the senat(% and for a short tii.n again the state was under the joint rule of the emperor and the senate. Trials for treason were supi)ressed, exiles were recalled, and, as Tacitus puts it, Nerva "harmonized things formerly incompatible, sovereignty and freedom." 400. Relief for the Poor. The most interesting and im^por- tant institution whieli he estal)lished was tlie rum alirnentorum, or system of relief for the poor of Italy. He hoped by means of it to prevent the free population of Italy from disappearing alto- gether. His plan was to appropriate money to Italian towns, from the interest of which gratuities in the form of money or grain were given each month to a selected number of children of free birtli. The system was developed in an elaborate way by Xt^rva's successors, and many Italian children were sup- port^'d by tlie government. 206 K(*MA\ IllSlOin FROM \ EfcJFAblAN TO SEPTnilUS SEVERI'S 207 401. Trajan Made Emperor in A. D. 98. Hut Xiivn wius not d man of nnich j)}iv>l(;il slivii;!:tli or mental vij/or, and tVi'IiiiL' the cart's i)\' state to., irrcat for him, in v. d. 97 \iv adopted as his SOD and associate in the governiiient Trajan, tlic i dvn • U in (hf foil o\\ i n i'; yrar, Trajnn sncct'cdcd him. 402. He Shows Con- sideration for the Senate. T raja n was first of all a sohhrr, and spcnl a ]:\]y^i- |)art of his rfM"tt fiuhiino; tlic cnc- 111 i r > of Ho m i". A t h(»nn he lrcatc(l the scnah' wilh considrra- tion, .-Mid rai'rfulh- oL- scrx < . 1 \\\i- iidioii of tlic ihi;il c-on(r(»l of alf;tir^ hy fhr cmptioi- and llir stiiaie. In fact, dnrin;.^ his [)rolonod\'. 403. Wars with the Daciaiis, A.D. 101 - 102 and 104 - 106. In (h-alin^' with forcii^ni alfaiis he lireilvc with Auj^nislu^'s policy of maintainint: theemphe ititaet willK.nl at tlie D.icians, hi> ohject may not have hi-en to extend the hmits of iioman territory, hiit rather t(» jiroleet the norllieastern frontier. The [Jcople of Dacia, whi( h < nrrespond.-d nearly with modern Houmania and soiitlieastern Ilnnuary, had in\fn the Itomatrs troni)h- in Domit- ian's rei;j:iL Now ih« ^ . - -.rd likely to deveL.p into a stroni;, nnited people, ;,iid 'I'riij.iM ;.,;iy well haw felt tli;it lli» y threatened the seenrily of tin pn.\i.i< . |,, the >onth of the Damil.e. At all TR.\JAX ( 1 events he set out f?-om Home in 101 to i-e the I )annbe near 1 )robetae, the modern 'I'urnu Siwci'in in Honni;inia. 404. War with Parthia, A. D. 113 - 117. 'ilie second great military enterprise of Trajnn was his war with the Harlhians. Harthia was the traditional ene;;iy of Home, and the only great civilized state whi<'h maintained its independence. The bone of contention belw*' 11 l!ic two countries was the control of Ar- menia, just as tlie control of Hilhynia had been tlie principal (jueslion at issue biMwccn the Homan- and ^^ith^idates two cen- turies r'arlier. The disjuUe had been setllcil in Xero's reign by a eomj>romise under \\lii<-h I he king of Armenia was nominated by Harthia, but recei\cd his d Mesopotamia and A.ssvria, and Mflvanced almost to ihe Hersian ^lulf. 405. The Results of the War. Mesopotamia, Armenia^ and .\ssyria he made Homan |)ro\inces, and in ('t(\siphon, the ca])ital of Harthia, tlu^ Harlhian crown was placed upon the head of Harlhamas|)atcs, the sofi of the Harlhian king, and the new monarch acknowledged his dcpcndcMicc on Home. Trajan even dreamed of invading India, as Alexander had «lone, l>ut the up- 2()s ROM AM niSTORV risings in the country beliiiid him rrcallcd him from this foolish enteqjrise. He hud pusheii the ta>fi*ni hmits of Romuii territory to the Tigris, and hud secured u foothold even beyond this river, but liis new eustern empire wus u liouse of cards, and his successor within a year of Trajan's death surrendered the ter- ritory beyond the Euphrates, and adojJted again the eastern frontier which Augustus liad estabUshed. Trajan died in A. D. 117 on his way back to Ronu;. 406. Trajan's Interest in the Provinces. His accpiaint- ance with the provinces made him take a Hvely interest in their welfare. This fact comes out clearly in his corresp(»ndence with Pliny, the governor of Bilhynia. Pliny <(»nsults the em})er()r upon all sorts of local matters in his province. He asks him, for instance, if the cons! ruction of ])nblic baths at Prusa and of an aepieduct at Sinoj>,' may l»c anlliori/ed, and if a com- pjuiy of firemen may be allowed at Xicomedia. 407. The Government and the Christians. The most celebrated letters in the eorrcspomleiMM' are one which Pliny wrote to jisk how he slionld treat the aeensations ma»le atrainst the Christians and 'I'raian's answci*. To Plin\'s in(|nir\' ihe eni|>eror re[>lied: "The Cjirislians ought not to be sought out; if thev are brou-dit liefore \(ni and < (.ii\ i( lr<|, the\ ouilht \(* be punished, pntviled that he who denies that he is a < 'hrislian, and proves this by making supplicati Ihmmi under suspicion in llie past, shall secure pardon on re})eutanee." This decision expresses « learly the [>olic\ of thelloniJin govermnent in this mailer. ( 'hristiaiiitv is an ollVnse against the state if it is ort rayed. 410. Tacitus, A. D. 55-120. Tacitus paints life at Rome in the s;une dark colors. Next to Livy he is the greatest Roman historian, although in matter and manner he is as far removed from his predecessor as he well could be. His minor works are a Diahgnr on Orafnr.s-, the Agrirola, and the Gcrmamj. In the first-mentioned book he gives the reasons for the decay of oratory. In his Agriroh he sketches the life of Ins father-in-law, who was for several y^'ars connnander in Britain. The Grrmmiy gives us a brief account of the country and peoples of northern Europe. His most serious work, however, was his history of the empire from tlie death of Augustus to tlie deatli of Domitian. The first part of this work, covering the years from A. D. 14 to 68, and known as the Arnutls', contained origimdly sixteen books, and the second i)art, the UiMories, was divided into fourteen books. About half of the entire treatise has survived. The conciseness, vigor, and poetic coloring of his narrative carry such conviction to the reader's mind that the estimates which he put upon the leading men of his time have been the accej^ed judgment of the 210 R(»\1V\ HISTORY world; but thov iirv ottni lalsr ( stinuilcs, Ix^'aiisc Taritus was a man of stron*,^ jh rsonal and political prcjiidict's, whivh arc re- flected in his writing. 411. Pliny the Younger, A. D, 62 -113. Wr have had occasion already to s])eak of Pliny's letlcrs to Trajan. Besides the correspondence with Trajan there are nine other books (»f epistles, full of chatty information about peopl.^ and thin ii(»t express liiinself so unreservedly aboiit [)eople and llieir doings as CicTo i\in:'s m his corresj)ondence. 412. Hadrian Becomes Emperor in A. D. 117. Tlie right of tlie emperor to nominate his successor, was so fully recognized by Trajan's lime that, althougli lie had not formally associated anv one with liiin in die government, the lefter which he sent from his deathbed to Hadrian, the governor of Syria, informing him thai he liad ado[>ted him as liis heir, was accepted as sufficient warrant by die senate iV.r elevating Iliuirian to the throne. 413. His Character. 'I'he new emperor was .1 man of (piick and restless mind and of wide sympa lines and interests. It has been remarked that in his bnsl> 'the liead is bent a little, as if to catch everv sound; tlie eves and moiilli suggest the (juiekness ancUivelinessof an intellect delcrmincd that nolhing shall escap.- it." lie was liked hy the soldiers and the coimnon people be- cause of his simple life and his interest in their welfare, but the senators, who were conservative in their ideas, were hostile to him on account of his fondness for new things. 414. He Reforms the Civil Administration. His reign is im|)ortant for the changes wliich hv made in the administration of internal affairs. Among other tilings the civil business of the irovernmeiit was carefully divided among a number of de- partments or bureaus, and williin each bureau ofhcials were gradcloyed knights almost exclusively. This change of course cut down the number of im]K)rtant j»osilions open to senators, and limited their influence. 415. His Judicial Reforms. To lighten his duties in de- ciding cases which came ])eforeliim he estalilished a consilium, or board of advisers, made ui) of senators and knights who were experienced in the law. This naturally led him to take another HADRIAN stej) toward making the administration of justice more system- atic. I'nder the rejuiblic and early empire justice had been adimnistered largely by the praetor. Each praetor on taking ollice at the Ix^ginning of the year published the maxims of law and the forms of procedure by which he would be^governed throughout Ins year of ollice. Tliis edict was properly called, therefore, an edidnm pcrpduum, or standing edict. A praetor 210 IJoM W III M.-n\l VI.^1'\S1\N !(» SEl'TLMH S SEVEKIS 211 world; but tln^ aiv <»tU'!i lalM- isliiii;ilr - l..T;n]sr 'rjicilus u;is n mail i)f stroni,^ jHi-Miiial and |M)litiral |)rr|U(li( i>, uliih- and ihin;.i:s at Rome. Juvenal finds iiotliin.Lr to j>raisc, Tliny little to hiaiiu . His letters throw a deal of liirht upnii his lime., hnt he had an eye lo puhlicatinn. and c<.i\vr(|ncnll\' lie dues not c\pr«s> liim>cll so unresfrvcdlv al»»iil pe(.ph' and llieir Ciecn. sni-ces.M.i\ \\:\-~ so Inlly rceot:niz(Ml l.v Trajan's lime lltal. .ihlir.n«j-li hv had n«»l fnrmally ass«)cialed any (Uie witli him in the :;-»\ n nim-nt, the leller \vlii<-li he sent from his ileathl)cd to Hadrian, the i^n.vcrnor of Syria, inforniin*: him that lie lia.l adopiiMJ him as his luir, was m-cepted assudicicnt warrant hy the senate for ilevating Hadrian to the throne. 413. His Character. 'Vhr neu ( mi-eror wa . a man of (ini<-k and restles- mind and of u ide s\mpalliie> and iiil' c I .. Il lia> been n marked thai in his hn>i> "the head is hcnl a little, as if t*» catch ever\- -oimd; the eve and !ii(»ulli sni:-.Li-e.t the (juickiio^ ancl livcline>-> e»f an inlelleel deh lunned thai nolhiri;^: >hall escape it." He was liked hy ihc >t.ldier> and the c<.nmion jM-ople bc- eausc of lii> ^imj»le lih- ami liis inlere-t in llu-ir welfare, hnl the senators, who W(*re conMi \ ;it! .e in their ideas, wciv ho>liIe lo him on account of his fomliicN^ for new lhiii^>. 414. He Reforms the Civil Administration. His rei-n is inijjortant for the chani^e.^ which he made in the administration of internal aihiir>. Anioni:- other ihin.ii's the civil Ijusiness r\' tlie 'ntvermnent w ;i . arefnily «llvided amoiiii a nund)er ol de- partments or hnreaiis, and widtin cacli hnrcaii ollicials wer<' cr-raded in a (i\e«l order. Intiii- wav hii^iiM ^ ^ v\ i . carricti on svslemati<'all\ , and eacli odieial wa> held rc>poii .ihle lo his su- perior, in ihcM- civil (»(hccs Hadrian employ<'d knio:hls almost exchi..ively. Thi. chan-e .»f eonr>(« cut down the numlxM- of imi»ortanl po>ili<.ns o[)en to senators, and limited their influence. 415. His Judicial Reforms. To li<;hlen his duties in (le- ading; e;,MS whi.h came hehnvhim he c.^lahlishcd a rnusiUuin, or hoard of adviser, made n[. .-1 M-nators and kni(rhts who were exi>erienced in the law. This naturally led him to take another IIAhltlAN stei» toward makin- the administralion of justice more system- ;iti<.. fnder Ihe ivpnl.he .ind i-arly empire justice liad l)een adininislere of ornecdnre hy which he would be^governed 'ihroughoui In. uat Ml olliee. ^This edict was properly called, thereiorr, :i.i tdiviinn prrjxluinii, or standing edict. A praetor 212 |;(»M\\ lll-ioh^ lIMiM \KSI'AS1V\ TO SKI'TIMIl s SlAI.IilS :>i;{ (•(Hiiiiioiily a«l(»i»l('il iIm' |>rt»'l:imali(iii <»l' lii> j»n'li-ii(iioii^ I'roni lladi'iah an cininrnl iuri.^l naniiMl Salvius Juliaiuis hrou^lil lo^icllicr in a sinj^dc cdicl all llic [)rin- dples an»l fornix |>ll!tli^ll^(i Ia prador^ and *-nrnlc ardilcs, in so far as llicv wvw >lill in tor* < . l''roi., tlii>. linic forlli die praetor c;ould niakf no <'lian,t!:'"s in l'\ii:al nirtliod .. and new law (ould \n- inadf ♦>nly 1>\ dir cnipcroi- or the ^tiiatc 416. His Foreign Policy. Ihulrian jj:av(' tlic sanic Mstctnatif attention lo tlie nced.^ of the army. An improved form of the |>lialan.\ was ado|>ted; new kinds of armor w ( le introdueed, and hodie> of lroop> were trained for >pe a man of peaee. lie u'axc up at once the pro\inee> of Armtiiia, MeMt]M»taFnia, and A>>yria, and reeou"ni/ed die km^i,' of l*arlhia as a hiwful monarch He spent ten year> of his rci;.^n travellinu' thi-oULdi tin- p!-o\inee-^, st» thai he heeame thoroii^'hly familial- with liii-ii- needs, and no one of In^ j)redeee>.>ors l»i(»ke so diort)Ujj;hly with the repuMiean theory thai the i>rovince^ Were snhonhnale to Italy, anati>f\ thai curiosity which hi> fonlemporarle . noted as his mo-t ]>rt)nonnce the rioini in Asia .Minor where the f decks with X<'iu(- plion firM 'A\\ tin MM after thcii- lon;^" march homeward W e hear of hiTvi vwihn'/ tlic .Ifc nf Troy, and travellin;^' in Ki^-ypt to see the statue <'i .>icniuon nom which iniraculou> iiui>ic \vas heard at sunrise 418. His Interest in the Provinces. The |»ro\ inces pndl'cd greatlv l»v hi> x'- New huildintTs were i i( rtcd in maiiv cities of .Vda and ( irccce; the minc^ in ! >.i' Im v ,rr d«\eloped ; <-olonies W'ir planted in the I)anu!>ia.n piosmecs; the delunse- ol tin' northern frontiri- w»i( irthened; a -froiiir wall was huilt in Britain .-^olway Mrth to ^\ all>-end. and the collection of t.i\i \'.as taken on! of the hand* of private rontraciors and ' ' ■ t lorth manaiii d hv die i^-o\ erniiiint 419. The Pantheon and the Castle of San Angelo. Two great monumculs of his reign are still standing in Home, the Pantheon and the ("astic of San Angelo. d'hc Pantheo.i was originally built hy Agrippa in the reign of Augustus, hut was later destrovcti hv fire, and ihc huildini'' which one sees to-dav in Konu' is the work of Hadrian. Tln-CaNileof San Angelo, as 1111 l'\ \ II' I o^ th(* other slruclun' is now called, was huilt hy Hadrian as his mansolcinn, and in it his ashes were |)laced on his death in tiic vear \'.\S. 420. Antoninus Pius, A. D. 138-161. Tlic wisdom wliich Hadrian iiad shown in ahandoning outlying provinces, like .\>syria, which il rc(|uired a constant clVorl lo defend, and in strengthening the frontier, s«'cin-e(l peace ihroughoul the reign of his successor Antoninus Pius. \iiloiiiiiii> was a man of an 212 K()MA\ msi()i;v FROM VESPASIAN' TO SKl'TlMIl S SKVKKl S 213 coinnionly adojJtcd tlir inoduination of his predecessor, making sucli additions to it and cliaiijics in it as smncd to him (k-irahki. Now under iiistruelioiis irom lla(hiaii an cnuncnt jurist named Salvius Juhanus hrou<^!it togetlier in a sinj^de edict all the })rin- ciples and forms puhhshed liy j)ractors and curulc acdiles, in so far as thev were still in force. Fron. this lime forth the praetor could make no chan;j;cs in le*j;al niellmds, and new lavs could he made onlv bv the emperor or the senate. 416. His Foreign Policy. Hadrian gave the same systematic attention to tlie needs of the army. An improvrd h)rm of the phalanx was adopted; new kinds of armor were introduced, and bodies of troops were trained for .special |»urposes. Hut Hadrian was a man of peace. He gave up at once the provinces of Armenia, Mesojxitamia, and Assyria, and recognized the kmg of Parthia as a lawful monarch. lie sjient ten years of liis reign travelling througl I the provinces, so that In- became thoroughly familiar with their needs, and no «nie of iu> |'iedece.>MJi> broke so thoroughly with tlie rcjHiblican theory that the provinces were subordinate to Italy, and were to be used for the l>enefit of Italy. 417. His Curiosity. Ills rxlended travels gav<- .him an opportunity to satisfy that curiosity which his contemp(jraries noted as his mo>t pronounced charaele; i>tic. We hear of him going to the point in Asia Minor where the (Jreeks with Xcn(»- phon first saw the sea after their long march homeward. We hear of him visiting the >ite of rroy, and travelling in Egyi)t to see the statue of Mennion from which miraculous music was heard at sunrise. 418. His Interest in the Provinces. The proviiK e> profited grentlv bv his visits Xew buik lings were erected in many cities of ^Lsia and < ue- v r . the mines in I )acia were develo|)ed; colonies were })lar!ted in tlie Damibian provinces; the defenses of the northern frontier were strengthened; a strong wall was l)uilt in Britain from Solway Firth to Walls-end, and the collection of t.ixc- was taken out of the handf of pri\*aic contractors and henceforth managed bv llie L'"<'Verimient. 419. The Pantheon and the Castle of San Angelo. Two great monuments of his reign are still standing in Rome, the Pantheon and the Castle of San Angelo. The Pantheon was originally l)uilt by Agripj)a in the reign of Augustus, but was later destroved bv fire, and the buildini'; which one sees to-day in Rome is the work of Hadrian. Tlie( asdeof San Angelo, as Till-; p\\Tin.')' the other structure is now calknl, was built by Hadrian as his mausoleum, and in it liis aslies were i)laced on his death in the yi-ar b'iS. 420. Antoninus Pius, A. D. 138-161. The wisdom which Hadrian liad shown in abandoning outlying provinces, like Assyria, which it required a constant effort to defend, and in strengthening the frontier, secured ])eacc throughout the reign of his successor Antonimis Pius. Antoninus was a man of an 214 ItOMAX HISTORY ai]iial)l(' disposition juhI t»f <:<•<. d p.irl f»ni \\r hickcd iUc active teiiilH'raitiriit and tlic aliility a^ an nr^anizcr whicli liis |)ivdc- eessor had shown, (/onsciincridy he made no jjjreal chan^n-s at home or ahnnid. His hnmaiic disposiiion was relle(tet pestilence should break out that the Roman world had ever known. Strangest of all is llie fact that the ruler who wrote in all sincerity "toliMance is a part of justice" should be popularly regarderor to I'crsecute the Christians sys- tenuitieally;yelall this was true of Marcus Aurelius. \ 422. War with Parthia, A. D. 162- 166. The war which broke out in PaiMliia slioith/ aflci- his a to A((uileia. The difficulties of a campaign in so mountainous a country as modern Rohcmia, wliere the Marcomanni lived, and the loss in men and money which the em I lire had suffen-d in conscfpicnce of the plague made the war a ha id one. Xevcrtlieless, it was l)rought to a successful con- clusion, and a latei* ujirising of the Marcomanni and their neighbors was {)ut down. But before he could reduce the newly acquired territory to the form of a province Marcus died. 424. The Development of Serfdom. Before his death, however, he instituted a policy in dealing with the barbarians which had far-reaching social and economic results for many centuries. He assigned land in Roman territory to large num- 2 1 1 i;<)M w iii^ioin amiable disposilion ;iiitl «>l' v I p.ni ,, l.iit lie lacked llu' arii\( tt'ni[H'rairi«Mil and tlic al>ilil\ aN an ui-;iiii/j r w liicli his |)rc(lr- rrssor fiad ^h()\VIl. ( '(»nM-(|iuiillv 111- iii;id(' ii<> i;'i't'al chaii^o al li(nn(> or ald'oad. Ili^ hiiiii;iiir di>|M.^iti(Hi was rcllrclcij in flic adiiiiiiisiralioii i>l' jii^li'c. fur li; in-i-t.d on ;i|»j)l\ iiiir tli<' spirit ratlirr than tiic nicp* Irlirr of thr law. and held ;oi a«rii^( .1 [xison T HI \t \ ' < 1 1 H V f > I ; I V V innocMit, as MntiTi>h-s|»(a!v;ii;4 |M(i|i|f- i\*> In-dav, nntil he had hern proved ;^nhllv. as 421. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, A. D. 161-180. It wa a strange whim of lair that, when Anloninii> «li(Mh tin- ^oveni- iiU'Ot of the world should !>»■ liiiii I upon a man who would ha\r |>referrrd In -pmd his hh- in In !itd\ :i .i [»hilo-.oplnr-; ;ind tli;il iia-M vi.si'vsiAN iM si.iTiMirs si:\ Ilia s 215 a man who «lcplorrd \iolrii< < 'lonld >p(Mid fourteen Ncars of his lile in warlarr. 1 1 w ;i^ slran^e. loo, dial in lli(M'ei;Li-n of one whose niain doiic il was to >ce his [n'oi! prosperous and haj)py the Worst peslilcnce slionid hreak ont ihal the Koman world luul ever known. Slianj.:,' ^i (.fall is ihe hid dial die ruler who wrote in all sincei"ily "lolrr.incf I- a pari r»f jnslicc" should \>v poj)ularly i'e;iarded as ihr lir>l cmpi-rnr fo pcrscciile ihe ( 'hi'isdans sys- tematical ly; }('l all ihi^ v\ a^ Ii-ik- of Mai-cus Aurelius. \ 422. War with Parthia, A. D. 162-166. The war wjiich hr<»kc oul in I'arlhia shoill after his acccssitui was a le;^ac\' from die poTny of In , p!'cdc( ,'n-,(ii-. who had failed lo insist upon that res[)eel hir Koman aulli(»i-ily in the l^asl which Hadrian had enforcetl. 1 1 wa. ai^aiti ihe Armenian <|Ueslion which caused the liouhle. TIm- sI ruu'J:!'' ''nded w ilh lln* suhmission of i'arthia. hut ihe \i(loi\ wa^ dearly houji'hl, hn' the retnrnin^j; .soldiers hrout;iit with lliem a [•lai^iic wlii
  • ire, and W(>akened Italy al a m<»mcHl when slu* ncjMJed her whole stren;j;lli to repel ihe inroads of the harharians to the north. 423. Wars with the Marcomanni, A. D. 167-175 and 178-180. The hai-haiiahs who ihrealeiied Roman territory wcic the Alareonianni, ic mouiilainous a country as modern lioliemia, where the Marcomanni li\('(|, and die l had .suirerec(jiieiice of the j)la|;'ue made the war a hard one. Xexciihelcss, il was hrou^^dil to a successful con- clusion, and a later npii>in^ of the Marcomanni and their nei»^dibors was put down. Hut hefore he could reduce the newly ac(juired territory to the hjrm of a j)rovince Marcus died. 424. The Development of Serfdom. Hehjre his deatli, howcwer, he inslifuled a policy in dealin^^ with the harl)arians which had far-rcachinu >oeiai and economic result.s for nianv centuries. He assigned land in Koman territory to lar«re nura- 21*) KuMAN lllsrMl,V IxTS of (rrniKiii ;i!iil Saniialiaii <-olts. 'Hir^o m-IIKts wcie really M'li-, iH'caiiM, allh.Mi_i:!i llicv wtrc fiv»% llicv could lUMllicr own nor Ira-^c llirir fariiis. 'I'lu' huiiiIht of sucli coId/ii, lis ihcy wi'iv calltMl, v\a> lar^rly iiKTi'Msnl by ihc lirowiii^i; iiKil)ilily of trnaiit> In pay tlirir rcnl. Sufli tciiaiit- roiild in>t, of coursr, be alluweil io uiov. tnim their farm^,a!i«! K-ave lu-luml llieiii II II |)a i <1 tin- accuiiiii- !ai''(l (•liar;i;('s for reiil, and coiiseijuently wt-re lurnianeiilly Ixmiid to llic land \v li i rli duy occupied, and 1 a jts ed into a state of serfi h)ni, which descended from fa tiler t(t son. 425. The Chris- tians. 'I1i<' develop- nien f of Cliristianity \va>iii}^ the ;.^o\ern- nicnl consi(lcral)lc anx- iety. The ia[»iprc;i(hn^ is clearly shown hy the let I e r.s which provincial an- tlnn-ilics in A-ia, (ircical coutot^, and making' actors and I'ladialois hi- u.\ A < I.I I II - I \ Ml I I i ', i; Mil 'Af- P^HOM VESI'ASIAX '!'<) SKI'I'IMU'S SKVKKUS 217 pnneipal associates. The alVairs of ^ov«'rument were lurne(l over to fa\orites. (^uiet was secured, at home by su;)j)lyin<^ the po|>ulace with food and Raines a! the piihlic expense, on the frontier hy making i-ifts to daui!;erous chieftains. There was no money to repair |)ul)lie huildimrs; ii;old coins disa{)peared from circulation, and funds for the sup|)i)rl of j)oor cliildren were exhausted. The empenu' whose* rei*^n had brought on tliese conditions fell the victim of a plot laid airainsl his life h}' his eoncuhine M;ircia and carried out hy an athlete named Xarcissus. 427. Pertinax, A. D. 193. 'i'he conspirators j)la Severn Jial a larirer anny than his rivals, and without iiH'ctinti: serious i-csislaiiee, made hiaiself master of the [KMiinsula and of Koine. The fri;i:hlened senate eondemned Julianus to dealh, and Septimius Severus was [)roelaimed eni[)er()r in the summer of ID.'I. 429. The Dyarchy Given Up. From a survey of the history of the s, aihl cwn iti siicli matters opposition to the wislio of tlic tMi.|K'r(»r was iimlcrtakni unlv at the risk of hein*]: pnKccuti'J hv one of his |>li:iiil tools on the charge of hi*^li treason. 430. The Empire Prosperous in the Second Century. It was a fortunate thiiiii' f<»r thr provinces that t\v«> of tlie iihl<'sl emperors of the second century, Trajan and Hadrian, not only travelled e\tensi\-elv ihronrh the empire Itnf were of provincial descent. These two \'in-[-. nc\er >o !Mn>p«>roiis at any period of its history as in this century. 431. The Decline of Local Self-government. And vet there W(»re siu^n^ of internal \V'■aknes-^ l.olh in Italy and al)roans of llu* local mairistnites, and »it:.-e whf. held loc;d ridices wcvc oliji-^^ed to contrihnt<' such lar-e mn-. to ihe siippoil (jf tin -..urmnciit, that it was dillicnlt to fiml <-andidilr~. for thi' mniii<*ipal ma;,ns- tracies, and interest in lociil |)olili hnost dc;id. 432. The State of the Finances. Financial conditions were steadily <;rowini,' w (.••-<• •!'« 1 v.nrse. Thi^ is shown hy the fact that Hie stale had to cancel the payment (jf lar^^e sums due it in the form of t,t\r^. I(» s|»entem of taxation, hut mainlv in I lie lack of ener«^^y and in the inca}>acity <»f the people theniv Kc, and in their tendency durin '"itA- to assnrne financial res|K)nsihilities which thev con! 1 noi lu.iun.uii ^v^. n unexpected demands were made on th(Mr iv ,.iiree-. The emperor Hadrian was largely re- sponsil)le for this hi il. Under his enconra^^einent the small towns all tln-oufrh Italy and tlie provinces erected costly baths, theatres, and other pulilic hmldin'/s and works, whose MtOM VKSPASIW ro SEPTlMll S SEVERUS 219 construction exliaiisted their resources at the time, and whose maintenance hecame an intolerable burden when some public misfortune came, like the plague under Marcus Aurelius. 433. The Provinces and the Barbarians. ( )min()us, too, were the revolts of Roman o;('nerals in the i)rovinces, in which re\()lts not infre<|Uently the leader of tlie insurivction called upon the barlKirians to hel[) him. Tlie simtlnvard movement of lh«' (ierman tribes in the- wv^n of Marcus Aurelius also boded ill for the future, and the policy of recruiting; the army from the barbarians and of st'ltlinii; larda\. The worku'ivesus, in the h)rm of simple notes, the reflccllc.ns of a siner-re, kindly, upri^^ht man on duty, life, and ihe^ovcrnmenl of the world 435. The Literary Style, Artificial. Rut notwithstanding this imperial interest in literary matters, pure literature (lid not flonrisli. The literary langna-re, like the people, sec^ned to be exhausted, and the best known writers of the period, like Frouto, (Jellins, and Apuleins, tried to infuse new life into it from the early period by using in their works the words and phrases of Kmiins, Accius, and Cato; but such a .style was bound to be artiHcial. 436. Fronto, about A. D. 100-175, Aulus Gellius, born about A. D. 125. Frontr) was tlie tt-acher of Marcus Aurelius, and his j)rinci|)al work which luis come down to us is his corre- spondence with the emperor. Aulus Gellius compiled what mif^ht be callecl a scrai>book witli extensive comments of his own. The Atfir Xirjhl.s, as he called his book, deals with Ian- 220 ROMAN HISTORY j^uji^e, literature, law, and jjliilosopli;. , ami contains niiicli valu- able information in a (li>((jini«'ri -t -. and ladies of fashion. Into the main thread of the narrallv(> .>onie tw<>nty or thirty |)oj)ular tales are interwoven, one of which, the eharmiuL^ >!ory of ( 'upiil and Psyche, has })ec()nic famous. 438. The Historians Suetonius and Florus. History was ( ultivated in tlie >econd cenlurv hv Suetonius, who was for a time Hadrian's secretary, and t)y Florus. In liis Lii'cs of tJie Cucsars Suetonius ha> iJ^\\r\\ us i»i a chatty way, without much regard to ihc a?Tanu"ement of tlie material, hiograj)lues of the emperors from Julius Caesar to Domilian. Florus's history is little more than a skelcli, in \rry rlittorical language, of the wars of I'lome from the earliest times down to his own day. 439. The Institutes of Gains. Tlie writings -u Roman law are the works of most perniaiient value which '«\e owc to the second century. IIa lia-^ left n> in hi^ I ii.stifiifcs, and this book in its turn was the foundalion, three cchlurics and a half later, of one part of the great code of Justinian, in which Koman law took its final form 440. The Earliest Christian Latin Literature. To the seeond century belongs the first |)iece of Christian Latin litera- ture. It is a pami)li'et called the Odavim, written in defense of Christianity, by Marcus Minucius Felix. At about the same time there appeared in (jreek, Justin Martyr's celebrated apolo- gies for Christianity, in which he explains the my>tcri«s (J the faith, and upholds tlie truth of Christianity and the innocence of its adherents FROM VKSPASIAN I < > SKPTIMIUS SKVERUS 221 441. Revival of Greek Letters. The second century in fact witnessed a revival of Greek letters, and Greek became the literary language of the emj)ire. Lucian of Samosata, the most distinguished figure in the moyement, shows the absurdities oi the old theology in his inimitable Dlalocjucs oj the Gods, and doubtless helped to clear the way for Christianity. Aristides of Mysia, like Ai)u!eius, travelled through Greece and Asia Minor, lecturing in the i)rincipal cities. Fifty or more of his discourses, which deal mainly with incidents in ancient history, have come down to us. Arrian of Xicomedia in Bithynia is best known for his Anabasis of Alexander, which is in imitation of Xenophon's work, but is more comprehensive in its scope than Xenophon's Anauasis, since it contains a complete biography of its hero. From Appian's histories of the foreign wars and the civil wars of Rome we have already had occasion to quote. The Foreujn Wars furnishes an invaluable source of information for the con- tests with Syria, Illyria, (^irthagc, and with Mithridates. Ap- pian's book on the C'lcil Wars is an eciually important work on internal alfairs in Italy from 133 to 35 B. c\, on the war between the triumvirs and the repulilicans, and on the struggle between Antony and ( )etavian. In this period also falls Pausanias's Ithierary o/ (Ireeec, in which he aims to describe all the im- portant buildings and works of art to be seen in Greece in his day, and the great treatises on astronomy and geography of Ptolemy of Alexandria belong to the same time. 442. Summary of Events from Vespasian to Septimius Severus, A. D. 69 - 193. Vespasian was chosen emperor, as we haye noticed, after a year of confusion. He reformed the finances, constructed the Colosseum, gave Latin citizenship freely to the provinces, and with the help of his eldest son Titus, who succeeded him, cai)tured Jerusalem. His second son Domitian, who followed Titus, lessened the importance of the senate, and made himselt an absolute ruler. Abroad he added Britain to the Empire. Xerva and his successor Trajan tried to I uild up the free population of Italy by supporting children of free birth. 'I'rajan's wars widi Dacia and Parthia added the 222 I((».\l \\ lil>loi;V |)r(ivirices of Dacia, AniKiiia, McsoixitaMiia, and Assyria to the ('iii})iR', and gaw it a •inatc! cxtc nt than it fvcr liad lu'loiv or alter his time. 1 ladrian, who .sn< ( ( ( . Wd IVajan, is distinguishi'd for his legal, administrative, and nnhlarv rclornis, and for his interest in the provinces. He ;:axe np the ne\\ly acfiuired terri- tory in Asia. Tlie iKaeeful reign of Antoninus Pius was fol- lowed by tli(> V' ars villi Parthia and tlie IMarcomanni which vexed the reiirn of IMarcus Aurr^ii: \ :ind led to the establish- ment of barbarian colonies on Uuhumi .^oil, and the developnuMit of serfdom. Tiie decline of M>lf-governnient in the second centurv, the bad st:ite vS flic finan iiid tl:e prevalence of iii- siirrections are s^\;i[»t >f Uu. dechi!e. (llAPrEl! XIII IKOM SElTLMirs SKVKUrs'iO (OXSTAXTIXK (A. I). hU-:^:\7) H..\v Aurrlian and Dio.'lt'iinii sav.-d ih<' i;m])ir.« Iroiii tUssohition- How l)iu.l.-ii:m r. Mr-ani/j-d aii.l .iivi.l.d ih.- I'jiii.ir.' 1 low c.nslaiit iiic iiiovt'd the s.'at. of LTovriiiiiriit fr.tm lv«.m.'io i;> /.ant ium. and how Ix^ cam*' to rt'co^aiize <'lirisii;uiii y. 443. Three Prominent Emperors in the Third Century. In tile confusion which reigns throughout tlie enii)ire in the third centiuT three iigurcs stand out clearlv— Sej)iiniius Severus at the beoinniuL^ of tlie jX'riod, Aureliaii and Diocletian toward its close. Each of tlu\se thi(>(> (in|HTo!s checkiMJ the downfall of tlie empire, and gav<' it a new lease of life, by suppressing insurrec- tions in the provinces, by driving back the barbarians, and by reiorniintr abuses in the <''overiun(MiI. r-i 444. Military Reforms of Septimius Severus. Se])timius Severus distinguished himself esjU'cially by th<' changes which lie made in ;he civil and niililai-y adminislrafion and in the laws. He rendered service in the army more attractive^ by making the position of the min«)r oflic(>rs more hononible, and by granting new j)rivileges to private soldiers in the auxiliary troops. Fore- ujosl among the piivileges granted were Roman citizenship, after a short term of service, and recognition of the mar- riatres which soldiers had contracted with native W(mien in the provinces. Septimius Severus added three legions to the army, and brought it to a high degree of efhciency, ;is is shown by his sm-cessful war against Parthia and by the rcconciuesl of Mesopotamia, which, it will l)e remembered, Hadrian had given uj). 'lliese ;uhievements wci'c commemorated in the great arch wliich still stands in the Forum. P>ut i)erha])s his most nof( worlhv service in def(Mise of the em))ire consisted in his li'organization and improvement of the roads and in their extension along the northern fiontier. 223 '2'2 \ K(>MA\ HlST(tRV 445. His Legal Reforms. 'I'liis rm^h is most rniitful In tlir cstaltlislinuMJt of iinportniit l('<.i;;il ])riii(ij)l(*s .-111(1 in tlic reduction of Hoiiian law to a logical systtMii. Tlie knulcr in tlic inovcnicnt was the (listin<:jiiislHMl jurist Pa|>ini;i:i who was for a time prefect of tlie |)retorian guard. I iider his direction tlic great rul(\s of law governing inlieritaneo, contracts, loans, and similar matters were dev(^lo})ed into the form whicli so many modern nations have ad(»j>ted. 446. The Levelling Process. The reduction of Italy to TUL VllCU UF tsElTIMIUS SEVKKUS the level of the |)ro\ine*'^ g»»«'^ .-^leaduv oil. Troops are now for tlie first tiiiH' permanenlly slalioiied i:i Italy, and the emperor assumes the military tide of proconsul in Italy as well as in the pro\inces. I'he levelling proee>^ i^ brought to completion hy Uassianus, nisulted from them, l)ut cities wen; destroyed, the country was laid waste, and commerce in manv cases was ruined. The result W[is that the resources of the people, already scarcely sufhcient to sni)])ort tlu* burden of taxation lairt;nil lr^':;il piiiu i|>lf> iind in the rc; ^trni. Tlic Icadcf in llic nioxcnicnt was tlu' (lislinu'uislit'd JmvI-^I l*a|iinia:i w lio was fur a lime ])i'('f('ct of the prctorian »^ua!-«l. I rulci- lii> diri-ctioii the ^rrat rules of law j.';ovcriiini'" iiilu'rilanco, contracN, loans, and similar niallcrs Wi-n: drv(lo|n-d into the form wliicli s(» manv modci'ii nations liavr adoj)t(M|. 446. The Levelling Process. The re«lu(tion of Italy lo iui \i.(:u or iLi'iiMiLa bLViatua llic h-vcl of tln' |>i'ovnice^ v'"<'^ -h-adnV on. 'I ro(>|»^ arr now t(.r the (irsi lime jH-rmaiieiilly -lationed i:j Ila!\, and the empei'oi' a-^-nnu-> the mililar\' title of i»roeon>ul in llaly a^ wdl as in the j»ro\iiiees. The leNcIlini: |^r^M■(•^^ i> hrtHiu'ht to completion hy l>assiaini>, ni< Iviianu'd (araealla. t!ie >u<-eess«)r of Septimius Severn>, who liy an ediel in lM2make> all freemen of tin* em- j>ir(> Itoiiian ( ONS TA XTl N K 2^5 Severus had stated willi truth: "I re«-ei\('d the eonnnonweallli in disordci-; I leaxc it in peace." IJnt peace and order were ('f short duration, h)r they I'ested )n the fickle support of the troops. By the army ('araealla was o\'erthrown, and his successors Maerinus, l^'da^'ahalns, an! .Vlexander Se\-erus. It is unneces- sary for our pur|)ose, however, lo lra<-e the h>rlimes of all the empei'ors who followeti one another in rapid succession durinj;' this eeulury. 448. The Reign of Gallienus Typical, 'i'he rei«,ni of (;al]i- emis from 2(>l) lo '2(VS is in some i-cspcets ty])ical, and a sketch of it will ^ive one a clear, thou*;h perha|)s an e\aji,rtrii(| llir N|M'c(ly < lismciiilH'niHMil of the riiijiiic \\;i> llic rise of i>i(t\ iik i.il ;':(»\(rii lo l!ic |>(isili()ii nt iii(lc|H'n(lriil rulers, and the icco-'.nilion ol" llicif claims l>y ihc crntral tiovrrnnicnt. 'i'licsc nalionalist nmscintMits, it" we may so Icrm llicm. li'ivw very naturally onl of llic slate of alVairs in man\' of llie ]»r<»\inee>. In llicir origin and ncee>>fnl attempt wliieli SerliH'ius made in (lie litst century hefntv our era to set u|) a ;^'overnmenl of liis own in Spain. M'lie inlercNl^ of iIh* people witliiii a ;j:i\en province or li'roup of j»ro\inc(> wei'c the ^ame; tlieir toes \\{'\H- llic -:imc, \\y die !j:i i-lia riaus alonif their froiiliers, and, since the CI iilral ;^cm ci iim. ei couid nnj prolcd them clhM-t ually, tlic\ fell il I -ar\ to or;i'ani''c h»r iheir own defens(«. Both the prct\ in and llie soldiers locked to the i:'o\-ernors ol iheii* re>pecli\<' pr(»\ ince> for leadiM'ship. I ntlcr a w cak oi- niipo|>ular emper(.r, therefore, it was an c.i :\- ihinj^" for an amliiliou> i:cneral ti> i^^nore llie aulhorily of Koin. , ..iid to u>iii-p the pcjwci's and titles of an independent ruler. 451. Gaul and Palmyra Assert their Independence. The mosi iKtlalile ea><*s of ihe s«trl are tlHtsc of Poslumus in ( lani and < >daenathns in Palmyra. roslumns si't up a jj,(»vei-nmeiU of his own in < iani, eslahiished a i-ouil, ami to<»k the lilies ol consul an«l [M»ntife\ maximns. As Utv < )(knMialhus, he was j^ivcii entiii- cliarue i>{ Asia wilii the luircst i-ided ri.u'ht lo a|)poiul ;iiAciiioi-s and p-m rals. lI*- ami his \\ih' /enoitia assinued the titles of kin;:: ami iiohii--ion lo Ivoniau authoi-ity, and e\en wei^t to the exteiil of invading' and suhduin^* HiT.vpt. 452. Aurelian, 270-275, Restores Unity. It was Aure hail, the eeond of thi'i:*nal emperor^ of the ihird «-entury, who savi'd tlM'enipii'c from the dissolution w hich ihi-eat«'ned it. l''<^y pt was r«-eo\cred; Palmyra \\"as cal»lureil after an hei-oie resistance; its people wei*e ere>i FKoM si.eiiMns SI \ i.iMs To ( (;\--'!\\ 11 m: 227 (hi"( cfed ltl'^ allention to ^iauh Telrieiis, who, afle?- a hrief p( i-ittd of e< Ml f iision. hail snce« MM lc(l I'oslnmus as einj>erorof ( Jaul had ailded l>i-ilaiii and northern Spain to his dominions, hut the army vol Ijcymid his control ;iiid ••ommitleil such excesses ihat l)(»lli lie and the people of |he province receivcil .\iirelian \vilh open ai-nis. In the maj^'ui (icent triumph \v hich .\in-elian cele- hraled on his return to Uome, Zdiohia and 'relricus hoth appcarcil in the train (»f the con(|neror. I'he KasI and the \\ es| aekiiow Ic.l 'I'.l once moj*e the anthorilx' of I'ome, -ind the unity of die eiiipiic wasau'ain asscrii'd. And yvi il w a •> uiuuiuiis foi" the future thai lliis s.ieic empero!' w ho had repelled tin- harhariaiis, ami put dow n preleiid- eis I h ro 11 1' Im» u I llie l-oinan world, lli«ai:'lit il lUMcssary to prolect tin- cilv of I 'ome ilsclf ai'iiiii .1 the possihie in- cursions of harhariaiis hy huildim^ ahoiil il the ^•reat wail which slill stands to commemorate iii- rei;'"n. 453. Some Brilliant Women of the Third Century. No accouut of the I h i Vi\ centurv would he coinplele v\ illi- ollt some meiilioii of the Ijrilliant women wjio played so ••onspicuous a p;irt in tiie histoid" of the pei'iod. h'oreinost amon;'; them was Julia I )omna, her si>|ci- Jiiliii Macsa. and her niece Julia. Mamaca. 454. Julia Domna. Julia ])(» nna ihe wife of Septimius Se\erus,was a nali\<- of Syria, of low slalion, l)Ut she was a Woman of iieli iiitclleetua! jK»wer and i)olitical ahility thai slie JULI.\ DOMNA 226 Iir.\l\\ HISTORY enus and scciiHMl lo jM.rtnid [\\v s[)vvi\y (IIsiiummIkm-uhmU of the cinpirt' \\a> tlic rise i»l' j»r(t\iii<'ial «.!:()\('niors lo Hie |»osilion ot iii(lf|H'H(k'iit rulers, and the rfco;.^nition i>f their Wi-vv the same; tlieir toes wen- the same, viz., tlie l)arl)arians along their frontiers, and, since llie central g»)Vermu«-nt could not lu-ofecf them ell'eelually, thev feh it necessar\' lo organi/i' for their own defense. Uolh the provincials and the soldiers looked to tile governors of their respective provinces for leaeror, therefore, it was an easy tiling for an ambitions general to ignore the authoni; ..f Home, and to usurp the powers and titles of an indepi'iident lulcr. 451. Gaul and Palmyra Assert their Independence. The mo>l n«»tul>le cases of the sorl are those of rostunnis in (ianl and < )daenalhus in Palmyra. Postumns set up a govermnent of liis own in ( Jaul, eslal»lisliet. 462. Aurelian, 270-275, Restores Unity. It was Aure- lian, the second of the great emjicrors of the third eentury, who saved the empire from tlie (lissolulion w liich threatened it. Egy])t wa> I'ccoveretl; Palmyra w a ^ caplurcfl aflt-r an lieroie resistance; its people were given to the sword, and the city so completely ^],^.^fn»ved thai even its site was unknown for centuries. With Roman anlh*)rily iccoitiizecl once more in llie East, the emperor FROM SEPTTMH S SKVKHVS TO (OXSTAXTIXE 227 directed his attention to (Jaul. Tetricus, wlio, after a I>rief period of confusion, had succeeded l*ostunnis as emperorof (laul had added iirilain and northern Spain to his dominions, l>ut the army got bcycmd his control and eonnnitted such excesses tliat l)olh lie and the people of the province received Aurelian with oj)cn arms. In the nuigniticent triumph which Aurelian cele- hrated on hi^ return to Rome, Zenohia and Tetricus Imtli ai)j)eare(l in the train of the concpicror. The East and the \\est acknowledged once more the authority of Kome, and the unity «)f the empire was again asserted. And yet it was ominous h)r the future that this sauK- emperor w ho had I'cpelled the harharians, and put down pivtend- ers I h roughou t the l-onian world, thought I it ncccssaiT to protect the city of Pome itself against the possililc in- cursions of harharians hv huilding ahoul it the great wall which still stands to connneniorate his reign. 453. Some Brilliant Women of the Third Century. No account of the t h i ?'<1 century would he complete \\ itll- out some mention of the l)rilliant women who played so conspicuous a part in the history of tlie period. Foremost among them was Julia Domiui, her sister Julia Maesa, and her iiie<(' Julia INIamaea. 454. Julia Domna. .fulia Donna the wife of Sei)timius Severus, was a native of Syria, of low station, l)ut she was a woman of such intellectual power and political ability that she JULIA DOMNA ROMAN HISTORY ar(|uiiv.l a -ivat inllurii.r over \wv IiusIkiihI, and (»ii liis ileatli diivcti'd ill lar^^r iiiraMiiv tlir aliaii^ ..f >lat.- iindrr licrsoii, d.c enipnor Caracalla. (/aracalla was ovcrdirowii l.y his piv- loriaii pirtVct Macniiiis, and Julia l)<.niiia was Uanislird. 455. Julia Maesa. Partly to av(H.^r hn- sister, and i.artly to advance tlu' fortunt^ ..f lur ^rand^on Klat^ahains, Jnlia Miu'sa put forth all her cllurl> t-M-ncompa^.^ the d(.\vnfall of :Ma rei^rn she- was tlie ]»o\vrr I.ehind \Uv ihn.ne, ii'oin*,^ so far as to take pari even in tiie deliberatii.ns of the -nafe. When siie saw that the downfall of Klai^al.alns wa^ iniinineiil, she persnaded him to adopt lier other <«:rands(.n Alexander Severus. the son <.l JuHa Maniaea. In this way the real j>owcr in the state, which had passed from Jnlia l)omnat<» Jnlia Maesa, was hy her trans- mitted to Julia Maniaea. 456. Julia Mamaea. Mamaea was a worthy sn* «vvs(.r of her two kinswomen. Slu- dev,.lcd herself enern;elically to the eihication of lier son. Latt«r, when he assnriied the reinsof j'«»v- crnnient, slie dire<-ted his jH.lilieal i)oli<-y, and her likeness ap- pears witii his on the <-oins (»f the period. 457. Victorina. The three women of wh(.m we have just been speakin»r .listin<4uishenetrated even to the < )ri(>nt, ;md Zenobia at one time jJanned to form an alliance with her. 458. Zenobia. Zenobia lierself i> the mo.^t piclurcs.pic fij.i:ure of (he ccMtury. S!h- was as famous for her Ix-auty as she was for h( r accomplishments and lor her political and nnhlary FROM SEPTLMirs SKVKIU S To (()\!=;T.\XTINE 229 talents. She spoke readily (ircck, Latin, and the lan^^uages of all the peoples about Palmyra. She took a lively interest in literature and phiIo.soi)hy as well as in the sterner pursuits of war and the chase. She made Palmyra a great eominereial centre. At one time her empire included even Egypt, and no military enterprise which Aurelian undertook proved so diffi- cult and hazardous as her overtln-ow and the capture of her cjipital. 459. Diocletian Abandons the Theory of the Dyarchy. If we stoj) to consider the i)olitical history of the {)eriod WQ shall find that the position of the senate was what the em})eror chose to make it. Tlie senate was still nominally a })artner in the gov- ernment, but in realitv exercised onlv such ])ow'ers as he was willing to delegate to it. Diocletian, who ascended the thr()ne in 2S4, boldly discardetj even the theory that it ruled jointly with the emperor, and frankly embodied in tlu; constitution the changes wliich three centuries had wrought in the boti were to rule the UoiiKin world jointly, hut in point of hiet Diocletian made Xicoiiicdia hi> eai)ital and, with his Caesar, ruled the East; while Maxiniian, niakin^^ :Milan his seat of o-(,venuiient, with tlie assistance of liis Caoar, p.verned ill the West. 464. The Civil Administration. An essential part()f Diocletian's plan was tlie more eomplete M'paralion of the civil and mililarv administration^. At the head of the civil admin- istration were four pretorian prefects who resided respectively at Constantinople, Sirmium, Milan, and Trevc>, or d'rier. Their prefectures were divided into dio<-eses, ;ind tliesi- sul.-divided into |)rovinces. 465. The Military Administration. At the head of tlie niilitarv administration there were from hve to ten oflicials, and under them were the territoriareommanders, Myled J//rr.s' .)r co///- /7^.s•, hut tlKM///m///.s-,<)r unit()f military administration, did not m all easesc(»rrespond with the/)/-or;//r/V/,e.r unit of civil administration. 466. The Old and the New in Diocletian's Government. Diocletian did two thinj^^s. lie ^^ave up the fiction that the ^r,)vernm<>nt was anylliiniz- elsr than a pure monarchy, and he developr-d into a well-halanccd .- ^i- m methods of administration which liis predecessors had introduced. It is clear that there was very littl<* in hi^ >cli.'me which wa> essentially n<-w. The senate and the ma merely \m\v/uv^ to eom- plelion a. process which had heen o-oino; on from the time of Auo:ustus. He shared his autliority witli a eollea^^nie, but this i)lan had Ihm'U tried as early as the rei^ni of Mareus Aiirelius. It'niay even hi i v>rarded as a revival, under a different form, of the dual system of the consulshii). Tlie separation of tlie civil and military administralions was a natural out^n'owth of the earefullv graded system of ofhcfs which Hadrian introdueed, ;,ndua> i.rol)ahly not unkimwn in s<»me parts of the Roman FROM SEI'TLMItS SKVEKUS TO CONSTANTINE 231 empireal least a half eentury or more Ix^fore the time of Dioeletian. I'lie practice of eonfeiTinire or a struggle for supremaey was reasonably sure to be the outcome of the arrangement. Such a turn of aifairs came at once, for in '.'A)7, two years after Diocletian's abdication, there were si.\ rulers elaiming the title of Augustus. 467. Constantine Sole Emperor, A. D. 324-337. After sixteen years of eivil war and dissension Constantine the (ireat restored harmony by uniting the whole empire under his sway. For two other ehanges of great im})ortanee als(j his reign is note- worthy — for the reeognition of Christianity as a legal religion, and for the transfer of the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium. 468. The Growth of Christianity. Christianity spread most rapidly in tlie Orient and in Italy. In the East the Serip- turcs Were widely circulated in Creek, which was the tongue of cultivated people, and in Syriae, which the lower classes used. For the West translations had been made into L.'itin. In the early part of the third century Tertullian boasts: ''We are a p(H>ple of yesterday, and yet we have filled every j)lace belonging to you — cities, islands, castles, towns, assemblies, your very camp, your tribes, companies, j)alace, senate, forum. We leave you your tem})les only." This is undoubtedly an exag- geration, but the new rehgion made raj)i(I progress. It was introdueed into Gaul in the middle of the second centur\-, and 23: lioMAN 1 11. STORY into Spain in the followin^i; ctMitiiry. Jt had iikkIc such headway in Africa that a synod held in northern Africa about a. i>. 2">r), was attended l)y seventy-one l)ishoi>s and preshyters. It has been estimated that tliere were from fifty thousand to >ixly thousand Christians in Rome in the middle of the third century, and not much hiter we hear of missionaries along the Rhine, on the Danuhian frontier, and even in lirilain. 469. The Christians Suflfer Persecution. The govern- ment made spasmodic eiforls to check the growth of (luistianity, and eluirch historians reckon ten general persecutions, the first one Ix'ing under Nero, and the last and mot severe one under Diocletian. At first the state contented itself with the deslrue- tion of Christian books, with tlie Itanishmcnt of the Christians, the confiscation of their property, and the infliction of cor[>oral |)unishment. These measures not proving clfective, many who persisted in their refusal to oiler incense to the gods were i)Ul to death. 470. Reasons for the Government's Hostility. Some <.f the reasons for the hostility of the government we have already noticed. As lime went on, othc'- eharacleriaiii ill flit' fol lowing- tctitiiry. ll liml iiiiuir Midi licadwny ill Africa tlial a miumI livitl in iiortlii-rii Alri allriuk'd )>} M-vnity-oiR' liisliojis and |»R'sl«yliTs. It lias Ik'cii ('.stiiiialc|ia.sinndie elTorts te» iie nndei" l)i(.e!etian. At Hrst the state eonteiili d it^lf with the «h\slrne- tion of Christian hooks, widi the hanishnieiit erty, and the inlhetion of eorporal juinislnneiit, 'I1u-se measur* n..t |.n.\ in*: elV«-elive, many w htilily of llie !.':<»\ernmenl ue lia\<' alreaily noticed. As time went on, oihe'- eharacterislics of the new lailh excited distrust, nojaltly tin- nnw illintrnes- of the ("hrisiian-. to serve in the army, and the dcvi-lopmeiil of the ehui-eh into a com- pact, well-orpini/.cd institution. The communicant^ were j^raihialK" or;^ani/int: e\erywher<- iiite. >oei<>ties \\ hieh met in lia-ilicas, or lar^e halls set apart h)r mectiiijj;s. The^e elimclu •. aetiuired property which the cli-- '•\- a\\ in^ i.: spite of the elfurts which the ;^o\ei-innenl l-KOM SKI'Tl.M HS SIAI.i:! S To ( <)\S F A \ I'l .\ K 0'>0 made to hold it in clu'ck, the d in some |>arts of the empire, and il was left hu- Constantine to ser rinci\ "liy flii.s (si^ii) eon([iier." In the ni^ht which followed, ( 'hrisl appeared lo him, showed him tlie same si^ii, and direeted him to have it disj>layes may liave led him to [a\'or ( 'lni>tianity. 'Hie standard, which is sh(»wn upon liis eoin^. consisted of a sj)ear snj)j»ortin>i.' a Iransver.^e rod, from which hun;^^ a jinrplc emhroideied hamicr. T\u: spear was siu'mounted hv a golden erown encircling the nionoj^^'am of <1nist's name in dreek lellers. 474. The Council at Ni?aea, A. D. 325. M lie ih aifimdi wliieh the jj^overnment liad taken toward ( lii'islianily, llic;^?(»w lli of tlie ni'W reli;j;ion, and the develo])nie!it <>!" .i compact ornatii- zation in the eliurch are alike show n in the ;^rc.it '-onncil held at Xiciea, over whose hrst mectinji: the emperor liimself presided, seat'-d upon a ;j^olden throne. This first council of the woi'ld, or Eeumenica! Council, which was atieiided hy ahout three Imndred hi^hops and hy a thousand or fifteen hundred |)res- hyter> and others, had been ealle(l lo«i'ether to settle the doelrine of the church eonccrnin;^; the nature of ( 'hrist. Arius, an African prcsliytcr, liad Ihhmi loni»' maintaining" witli ^reat learnin;^ and eliMiuencc tiiat tlie Son wa^ ci-eated \)y the I'athei', and was inferior to Ilim. Tk iiy/antiuni, which Constantine chose as his roideiice. Among tiie many public l)uildin«2;s which he constructed, there was not a single pa;.ian temple, for, instead of the temph's and altars which were the «'iorv of Koine, IJv/antinm or ( 'oii^taiilinople, as the city was rechristened l)y ( ^)nstantine, had its cliurciu\s and its crucifixes. The location of the new caj)ital was admirably clioseii. It was the central point of the easlern half of the empiic, on the border-line between Europe and Asia Minor, and the meeting-plac<' oT all lh<' ^-real highways from Hie East Wall ol III!' <;r. ik liKVii ><{ r.y/uiitnuii I ] I , I I I I 1 «'..<.ot-.'.i it.i '-: Wall A 1>. ; .'• Wall <>{ 1 h.iKli.siiJs A.U. -lUo-^'.n and the West. The town, which was Iriangnlar in shaj)e, was bounded on two sick's by water and on tlie third side bv land. It was, therefore, ea^v lo defend, and well adaj)ted for trafhc bv sea, for it had an excellent harbor; the Straits of Bosphoriis (jpened northward into the Enxine and sontliward shi|)s could pass through the Proj)ontis and the IIelles])ont into the .Vegeaii and llie MiMliterranean. 476. The Outlook for Rome. The transfer of the em- 236 UO.MA.N' IIISTURV penjr's residence to Constaiitino[>le was a sad blow to the prestige of Rome, and at the time one i.iight ha\e pRihcU'd her speedy de( Hne. But the development of the Clmreh, and tlie ujrowin^ lutliority of tlie bishop of Kome, or the i)oi)(', ^ave her a new lease of life, and made her ai^ain tlie ea[)ital — this time the relij^ions caoilal —of the civilized world. 477. Summary of Events from Septimius Severus to Constantine, A. D. 193-337. In readinir the history of this period it is dear that the rei^n oi" Scj)timiu> Severus, who was distinj^nished I'or his military and l(".^al reforms, was preceded by a period of civil war, a:id w.n folloWi'd by a century of anarchy durinir which indc|);Mi(lent ^n)vcrnmc:iJ^ spran'j; up in Palmyra and Gaul, until Aurclian restorcil unify to the lMn|)ire toward the v\u\ of the third ccufury. Th- t!i(M)ry of thcdyarchy — that the emperor and senate ruled conjointly -cstablishe:! by Auinis- tus, was frankly *ijiven u[) l)y Diocletian, who made himself and his eollean;ue ^raxlmian autocratic rulers, on(> of them estabhshin^^ his capital in the Kast, tlie other in the We4. Their successors (juarreled, but (onstaiitine united tlie Empire a^^ain under his control. lie reco1 •— * >. 'i. "" ^ 3 -: >» 5» —; ^ (fl s - XJ :: = H - - _. *.»-'»« . — ' ' -. — - >^ ..^ -■ -^ _ — ".^ = = 3 ^ •»> 4»> ♦J •- -w y. ~ ^- u ;i u 3) e a) <*«• ^ " 3) 3) 9 a) •„ u k k. u r^. Du 04 cu a. CHAPTER XIV the baku all ian invasions and the western would ix the fifth ( entuuy (a. d. 337-500) Hew til'- OiTTiiari peoples fiitcrtM] tlie F.nipire and divided it amrinpf them- selves Hu\v( 'hrisi iaiiit y linally iriumplied over ]);i;^Mni.sni How inoiiasteries Were established, aud how tlie IJishop of Rome became the head of the church iu the West. 478. Constantine's Immediate Successors. Constanline at liis (Icatli in 337 divided the cnipire hetwccii his ilinv sons and two nrplicws. TlifV j)roinj)lly (jujirrclcd with one another, and the empire was rent l)_v eivil fends nntil 3")0 when Constantine, the seeon \M> riii; w i:sti:k\ woki.d IN tin: I -11' II I CKNTlIiV {\. I). ;;;;: r.oiij llow tip- (ifcmiiii iM'0|il(S riit'TfMl itic i:iiiiiiri' ;i ml «li vulnl it :i inniiu: th<-in- sclv--N I low ( 'lirisi i:tnit> liiKilly iriiimiiij-'ii <»v»r i . i .: lUi^iii 1 1<»\\' iin .ii:ist<-i-if>, \ .!;i hllslHil, Hiulliow the IJisliopof Uolil' ■ beca liir the In ii' I of Ihr church \\i tilr VN'cst. 478. Constantine's Immediate Successors. ConstantiiK' at \\\> (K-alli ill ''\''U o!'. Jnhan the A|»o>l;ite, a^ h;- i^ coininonly ("died, li;id heen hron;^lit ii|» as a ('hri.>tian, hiit his study of" (ireek j)hiloso|>liy led him lo prehr the old Koman reli;^ion as a system, while the hai-sli treatmeni which he had i-eeei\('d a> a youn<;- man rrom his Christian rela- tives de\c'lo|>ed in him a j)ei'sonal (hslike for (lu'istianily. Con- secjiiently, when he ascended the throne in olil, he |)roelaime(l himself a |>a.!i:an, and used every peaceful means in liis power to hrinu' the pei.ple l)a<-k to the old faith. He confiscated the re\(Miues of the cluH-ches, ivstricted the riu'lit of the Christians to teacii, and rehuill m;tny of the templo. l>ut his I'lhiiis were of little avail, and under his succes.oi-s Christianity resumed its plac<' a> the (lomii:;'nt religion of the cmpii'c. 480. Rome and the Barbarians to the North. JuUan (hed w hile on ;i canipjii"n ;iira!!i>t the Persians, and if tlie iJomans of iri> d;i\ had l)e«'n a>Ive<} w here the danger lo the em|>ire lay, they would lia\e located ii in that (|Uarl(.-r. Ihit hefore the close of ROMAN HISTORY •the centiirv tr(»ii!)lc ot a iiiiicli iiion m rioii^ iiatinv than tlic Persian wai:- hrokc (»ut on the northciii I'ronticr. 'V\\r I{(Miians had l(jn<4 (hxaJi-d the bacliaiian^ lo the north, llic invasion ot" Italy by the (iaiils in tht' fonrth cciituiy B. c, the (Icsccr.t ot" the Ciiubri and 'reiitonc> into the pcniiisuhi toward the elose of the second century fu'lore our era, and the wars wliich Marcus Aurelius liad wa^icd airainsl the Mareonianni and ^^uaih at siieli fearful cost had tau;i;ht the lioinaiis that the northerti fronti.T must l)e defended at all liazards. 481. The Northern Line of Defense. With this j)urj)ose in mind, Domitian and Hadrian, as we leive already noticed, had constructed a line of defense, which, followin^^ in part tlx' conrx- of the Rhine and the Danube, extended from the mouth of the one river t(» that ol the other. To the west and south of this frontier lived the Romans and the provincials who had aire[)tcd Roman civilizatior?. Just beyond it were the (ierniaiis. 482. Our Information Concerning the Germans. Julius Car ' 'amjjai.Lnis in the North brouj^hl him inl(t conflict with tlie (ierniaris, and in his CotnincnUiri';:; he has •i;i\'en us some infornuition about tliem. This is supplemcnicd by the aeeounis which the hi>lorian> \ flleius l*aterculus and 'I'acitus of the fiist century a. d. haxc left u>, notably b\' Tacitus's iiUereslin;,'; sketch of the country and the jJeo[)le; and finally writers of history of the fourtli centurv have told us the story of the relations of the (ierma: tli the Romans in later days. These di lie rent sources of information furnish us with a fair knowledin^,^ and of their dealings with the Romans. 483. Their Appearance and Character. Tliey were a peojJe of (Treat stature, \^ith (ieice blue eyes and l)londe hair. Their life in the opcii trained them to endure cold, Inm^'-cr, and fatigue. They were addicted to gambling and inunuderatc drinking, but tliey retained their courage and manly vigor in a much higher degree than did the more civilized peoples south of the frontier line. 484. Their Occupations and Life. They lived in villager, TUE BARB A UI AX INVASIONS 239 cultivating the land, and tending their flocks and herds. There were few roads i(» connect these liltje conununities with one another, so that commerce was almost unknown, and the small anu)unt of trade wliich flourished was carried on by means of barter. Jhit their delight was in hunting and war. They fought without much regard to discipline or military formation, but with a dash and a vigor which made it difhcult to resist their iittacks, for, as Tacitus tells us, "it was shameful for the prince to be outdone in courai-e, shameful for his followers to be unequal in courage to their prince." 485. German Confederations. As time went on, their common interests and common mode of living led the petty tribt\s within a given district to (Miter into alliance with one another. In the fourth century of our era the most important of tile confederations thus formed were those of the Franks near the mouth of tlu' Rhine, of the .Vlemaniii to the south of them, of the Visigoths, or \Vesl-(h)ths, north of the Danube and near its mouth, and, still farther east, of the Ostrogoths, or East- (loths. 486. The Germans Become more Civilized. In the tlirec centuries which hud clapstMl letwtrn the time ot Tacitus, fiom whose descri|)lion of th',' (Ien»i;ins we have (pioted above, and the jxrioii which we ;ire laee in tlie province of Dacia, which was now controlled hy the Visigotliic king. The ( Teriiians were received reachly as soldiers, and some of them were advanced to important positions in the Roman army. Two circumstances had contributed largely to bring about this slow and essentially peaceful invji- sion of the empire: the incnMsc of po|)ulation in the North, wlik-h made migration necessary, and the attraction which the fertile lands and the greater wealth of the South held out. 488. The Huns Appear in Europe. But at the moment which we liavc now reached in our story a new factor of jin entirely different sort gasc a sudden impetus to llie southward movement. A peoi)le hitherto unknown in history, called the Huns, of an Asiatic race, entered Europe just north of thc^ Caspian Sea, and dcsci-ndcd npon the Ostrogoths. "Tiicv w< re men of great size," as Aiiimianus Marcellinus, a historian of the fourth centurv, tells us. "and had such short leffs that von mi"ht fancy them two-legged beasts, or the stout figures which are hewn out in a rude manner with an ax, and stand on the posts at the ends of bridges. . . . They had no settled abode, but were homeless and lawless, perpetually wandering wilh their wagons, which tliey made their liomes; in fact, they seemed to be a people always in flight." 489. The Visigoths Flee across the Danube, lliese people overran tlie country of the Ostrogotlis, and descended upon the Visigoths like a wliirlwind. The Visigoths lied before them, and, coming to the banks of the Damibe, begged Valens, the emperor at Constantinople, to permit them t(^ cross the river into Roman territory. Their recpust was granted, ;ind, as Ammianus says, "so soon as they liad obtained permission of the emperor to cross tlie Danube and to cultivate sonu' districts in Thrace, they poured across tlie stream day and night, without ceasing, embarking in throngs on board ships and rafts and on canoes made of tlie hollow trunks of trees." 490. The Battle of Adrianople in A. D. 378. The sett le- nient of such a ho.st of barbarians in one body within the limits I of the empire was a dangerous experiment in itself. The danger was aggravated by the ill-treatment which these immigrants suffered at the hands of the Roman officials of the province of Moesia, and finally the new-comers broke out into revolt against Roman authority. Valens marched against them with a large force, and the two armies met at Adrianople. The barbarians defeated their opponents and slew- the emperor. The battle of Adrianople is, therefore, a turning-point in history, because a barbarian force has defeated a Roman army in a pitched battle on Roman soil. 491. The Visigoths Hold Roman Territory. Theodosius, the successor of Valens, came to an understanding with the Visi- goths, however, and allowed them to settle in the provinces to the south of the Danube, under their owm rulers, and as allies of the Romans. He even enrolled forty thousand of them as soldiers, and to some of the German leaders he gave com- mands in his army. 492. Stilicho Holds Them in Check. One of them, Stilicho, a Vandal by birth, was made commander-in-chief of the army, and to him the emperor on his deathbed entrusted the guardianship of his two boys, Ilonorius and Arcadius. Ilonorius took the \Ve;t, and Arcadius the East, and thereafter the tw^o parts of the empire were never reunited in any true sense of the word. The Visigoths, taking advantage of the fact that the throne in the West was occupied b}' an incai)al)le young man, not yc\ twenty years of age, left their newly-acfjuired territory and marched southward into Greece, under their brilliant young leader Alaric. The Greeks implored help from Italy; Stilicho came to their assistance, and the strange spectacle presents itself of the empire attacked by one barbarian and defended by another. The Goths, checked by the move of Stilicho, withdrew on condition that Alaric should be made governor of Illyricum. Alaric\s next move was against Italy, but again Stilicho forced him back. Stilicho's enemies, however, had poisoned the mind of Ilonorius; the great Vandal was charged with being a traitor, and put to death. 242 ROM AX HISTORV THE HARBARIAX INVASIONS 243 493 Alaric Takes Rome in A. D. 410. T\\v onv bar which li:nl stcunl hctwccn Alaric and Home was removed, and the (iolhic kiii^ ua> iiol ^l(»\v to lake advaiitat of Vandal Carthage, in fact, to take vengeance on Home for the wrongs which Punic Carthage had sulfered cc!ituries before at the hands of her Italian rival; for Gaiseric, her great ruler, crossed to Italy and ca|)tured the city, but like Alaric, he s|)ared the l)uildings, although he carried olf great quantities of spoils and lumdreds of captives. 498. The Burgundians in Southeastern Gaul. AVhile these events were liappcr.ing in Africa, the Burgundians, another tribe of (lernums, from the shores of tlie Baltic, passed over into Ciaul and occupied the valleys of the Saone and the lower llhonc. Short-lived as their kingdom was — it lasted l)Ut a century — they have left us in the Burguudiau laws and in the Nibelimgenlicd 244 ROMAN' lUsroKY » THE BAKBAIUAK I>JVASI()XS 245 two of tlie most inlcrcstliiii,- litrnirv moiuuuents of this period. 499. The Burgundian Laws and the Nibelungenlied. The Biir same fate had it not been for the vi<^orous ju'tion of Ai-tius, tlie jx<'vernor of central (raul, and the loyal support of Hieodoric, the king of the Visiars its leader, tlie Sucvian general Ricimer, made and unmade rulers, as he pleased. To his |)osition ()rest«'s, a former secre- tary of Attila, succeeded, and raised his own son, a child of six, to the throui^ with the title of Romulus Augustulus. 506. Romulus Augustulus, the Last Emperor in the West. It was a strange whim of fate that ''the little Augustus," who by chance had derived from his grandfatlier the name whicli the first king of Rome had l)orne, should have been the last em|)eror in the West, but so it proved. The soldiers, disap- pointcil at not receiving from Orestes the expected grants of land, overthrew- liim, and made ()tee^;i;-ed tlie emperor to ^^ive him *'the title of j)alrieiaii and the ^^overninent of the diocese of Italv." With this event the empire in the West came to an end. 507. Continuity of the Roman Empire. Tt is clear that "ihe fail," so-called, 'S)f the empire in tlie Wcsl" did not involve llie disajipearance of the lioman eippire. The continuity of its historv was mihrol^cn. I'he successors of Au<^ustus and Con- slantine still sat upon the tliroue. They had only transferred their capital from Itoine fn rnnstantino|)lc, and at Constanti- nople tln'V contimied lo rci;;a luitil this eity fell before the as- saults of the Turks in 1 1.13. 508. What Really Happened in A. D. 476. One other point is clear in tliis couikm tiou. 'I'lie event which happened m 17() was not an une\pcal)ly be wn.ng in supjiosing that social conditions in the western world were suddenly and radically changed by the barbarian invasions. The various (Jerman peoi)les differed greatly from one another, of course, in character and in civili- zation. The Vandals, lor instance, were fierce and intolerant; tlie Burgundians mild and ready to take up a settled life. Conse- (juently the treatment which Roman |>rovincials experienced at the hands of their coiKjuerors was different in different sections, but on tlie whole their life did not und<'rgo such a sudden or marked change as one would at first su|)pose. 515. Reasons for Their Tolerant Attitude. The reasons are not far to seek. Mimy of the German tribes had l)een for some time more or lc>s < losely associated with the Romans in the relati(»ns of i'veryday life, and in the army, where German auxiliaries arc found from the time of xVugustus. The new- comers and the natives had come to know c;ich otlier; they liatl begun to assimilate, and some of the (rcrman tribes had become partly civilized, so that, after settled conditions had \)vvn estab- lished, the two j)eoi)les seem to have lived amicably together, and the Romans were treated with reasonable fairness. That they did ai)i)reciate their eonunon interests, in some cases at least, was shown bv their united action in Cranl against Attila and his Huns. Furthermore the sentimental respect which the Germans and their leaders had ft)r the empire contributed not a little to develop in them a tolerant attitude toward Roman institutions and the Roman i)eoplc. 516. The Struggle Between Christianity and Paganism. It was a fortunate thing for the Christian church that it had sent its missionaries into Germany and converted many of the (Ger- mans to Christianity. .Vs a result ( liristianity suffered no serious check from the invasions. By this time it had nearly driven out paganism, although the struggle had been a long and hard one. The state and the old faith, with the centuries of history be- hind tliern, were indissolubly bound together in the imagination of the Roman. The old religion had struck its roots so deeply into the ceremonies, the festivals, and the amusements of })ublic life, into literature and art, into the family relations and everyday life that it could be torn out only with great diiliculty. 517. The Triumph of Christianity. As the Christians gradually became the dominant element in society and the state, thev turned against the pagans the same wea[)ons which die j)agans had used against them in their earlier days. In 392, for instance, people were forbidden by law to offer siicrifices and to visit the temples, but paganism was evidently not stamped out at once, l)ecause in the next century we find edicts issued against those who observed pagan rites. 518. Arianism and Orthodoxy. Although it was fortunate for the Christians of the Roman world that many of the barba- rians had been converted to Christianity before the invasions besran, it was unfortunate that thev had adopted Arianism. This circumstance pr()bal)ly did more than anything else to keep 250 ROMAN HISTORY till' (riiuls, Sjuniianls, ami Africaiis, wlio were orthodox, from aniai^MiiKitinii: nailily w illi the invaders. Tlu' Vandal kings even confisc-ated thi' churches of the Catholics and in some cases punished their members with imprisonment and death. This I'lement of discord was removed, however, in the sixth centurv, when Africa was regained hy the Eastern emj)ire, aud the Visi- goths became Catholics. 519. The Development of Asceticism. Two institutions of the ehurcli whicli exerted an immense influence on the weslern world (hirinjx the ATiddle Ages — monasticism and tlie papacy — come into prominence during this pi'riod. Tlie beginnings of monasticism, so far as Christianity is concerned, are to Ik> found in the East. Some men reasoned, "It is the weakness of the fl(!sh and lln^ pleasures of the world wlrch tempt us to sin. Tlierefore we will withdraw from the W(»rld, we will mortify tlie Hesh, and we will give ourselves up to prayer and medita- tion." It wjis this Ncntiincnt \vliilace in Egy|)t, atul spend there nearly eighty years of his life. It was tliis feeling which led him to \ve;ir a hair sliirt an;l a sheepskin girdecl al)out liim, to sleep lijjon the barc! ground, and to fast for days at a time. Tlie perse- cutions which the church sulfered in the third centurv lent an ft/ impetus to tlie ascetic movemimt by driving men tem|)orarily at least into the desert. 520. Monasteries Established. To others who wislied to renounce the vanities of tlu- world, the life; of the hermit did not aj>peal. Such [)eople did not think it necessary to forego altogether the so( icty of their fellow-men. Men of this way of thinking withdrew to some retired spot, and ass(K*iated them- selves together in a rcliirious com.nunity, whose menil>ers subjected tliemselves to a more or less rigorous discipline. These monastic organizations, like the hermits, first become common in Egy{)t, in the fourth century, l^'his metliod ol retiring from the world was better suited to the climate of Euro|)eaiid U) the les> fanatical temperament of the [>eoj)le of that j>art of the world. 521. The Life of the Monks. The monks gave themselves i THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 251 o M at OQ O H H < o up to their religious duties; they tauj^ht the barharicUis Christi- anity, and engao^cd in agriculture and other forms of manual labor. In course of time life in the monasteries came to be reffu- lated in accordance with a carefully (hweloped system. 522. The "Rule" of St. Benedict. The form which it finally took, and which it kept in the main through the Middle Ages was given to it by St. Benedict in the early |)art of tlie sixth century. He drew up a constitution to govern the celebrated monastery of Monte Cassino, which lie founded, and his "Rule," as it is called, was adopted by almost all the monasteries in the \5tlCINJ05HOCl\\;KV.lI5irin\IUUi^lXlWA rVjIXlMATL5!iUVI5lNllOA.-VjA\MASLriilL\MNAIlMCUU\lN\IlCll C£ANLMVjS.lDMACUi^AAl5lC0'KI^lMSaWAM- SlCKXNnKVL.Wl\SJLAllO\CeUA11T£SUtCC'S l>MlUCZAVnLAT£ClACl\a0CAS^jULM FgAiA^r Vu\U\ASLi:tUAMMri\\CuU\lNJAUCll C!ANL\U:S.lDMACU^\\\5lC0M>£MSllW\\i- SlC\\NUMuVJlASJL\tlO\Ceii\ilT{^UlCCS l>MlUCXMllL\T£Ci.^Ci\a0CASi.lU./\iruM.\Nl- ii\)< Ali! \'»| -^Li'AUATLU West. I nder it a monk wa:> i«-(jUjre(| to u-jve uj) all his property, to piomise imj)lic)t olK-dicnce to his superior, and to aurce ncNcr to marry. The time which he had \'vcr from his relioiou.s duties he W[is exjK'ctcd to d«'Vote to acts of charity, to manual labor, and to the co|)yin^' of books. 523. Services which the Monasteries Rendered. To this last provision of St. Benedict's Rule we owe the pn'servalion of the [^alin classics, for if tliey had not been preserve- into a compact institution, with a carefully <,n'adcd system of ccclesiasties, runnin<.i- fn>m the «lcriry throu^':h the bishops to the metropolitans. It was natural for the practical-nnnded Romans lo orr thou shalt bmd on eardi shall be bound in heaven; and wh.-.tsoi-vcr thou shalt loose on THE HAUBAUIAN IWVSIONS — 'Oo earth shall be loosed in lieaven." That St. Peter came to Rome is made highly probable by evidence from various .sources, and that he organized the church there, ])resided over it, and tran.s- mitted his authority to his sueces.sors, was commonly acee{)ted by the Catholic Church from an early ])eriod. As early as the second century, Irenaeus, the bishoj) of I>yons, draws froin this fact the conclusion "that it is a matter of necessity that every church should agree with this cliurch (/. (\, the church of Home), on account of its preeniineiit authority." 526. Rome the Traditional Centre of the Western World. I'he teiidcncv, wliich resulted from these facts, to recoi^nize the su|)erior iiuthority of the head of the Roman church, was materially strengthened by the position which Rome had held for centuries as the political capital of the world. Roman ciiizcns had been accustomed to refer to her all difficult (pies- lions for final scttlcmi*nt. 527. Church Questions Submitted to Rome. Now dis- |)Ules incvita!)ly arose among the churches of Euro{)eon jioints of doctrine, morality, and church government, and these (|ue.s- tions were naturally referred to Rome for adjudication. Thus on important matters the opinion of the cliurch at Rome was sought from an early period, and in the middle of the fourth century the Council of Sardika decreed that bishops deposed by a .synod should have the right to appeal to the bishop of Rome, and in the same century we hear of certain difficult (|ue.s- tions submitted l)y ;i Spanish bishop to the bishop of Rome for decision. 528. The Great Ability of Certain Popes. The great ability which certain of the |)oj)es of the period showed extended the influence of tlie pa{)a(y and gave its decisions that recognized authority which they enjoyed later, ('onspicuous among them were Leo the (rreat, who occupied the papal chair from 440 to 4GI, and (iregory the Great, po])e from 590 to 004. 529. Leo the Great, A. D. 440-461. It was Leo whose influence liel|)ed to save Rome from the hands of Attila. His authonty in church matters was accej)ted in Italy, Gaul, Spain, i 2.V1 !{(>\T\\ niSToKY THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 255 and Africa, ami it was while lu: was al (lir licati of the Church at Rome tliat Valeiitiiiian III, the ein|)er()r (if the West, decreed that the decisions of the pope should he regarded as final through- out the western world, ami that bisho{)s should l)e forced by the provincial governors to come to Rome in response to his summons. 530. Gregory the Great, A. D. 590 - 604. The life of Gregory carries us into the next century, but, while we are speak- ing of the le, and were allowed to settle in Pumian territory under tlieir own rulers. At last thev established themselves permanently in Gaul and Spain. Other German ])eoples moved southward, the Vandals oceu[)ying Africa, juid the Hurgundians, southeastern Gaul. Tlie Huns rea{)peared under Attila, and threatened the civilization of western Euro})e, l)Ut were defeated at Chrdons. The Danubian provinces were now held l)y the Ostrogoths, Britain by the Piets and Scots, the lower Rhine by the Franks, and Italy by a native prince. In other words, the West was divided uj) and occn|)ied by die Germans. As for the Empire, the final division of it into the P^ast and the West was made in IVX), and the last emi)er()r in Rome abdicated in 170. The German kingdoms nominally acknowl- edged allegianc(> to the emix-ror in the East, but really paid little heed to his authority. At tlu^ same time they treated the Romans well, and adopted much of Roman civilization. In particular, Christianity si)read raj)idly among them, and two of its institu- tions— monaslicism and the i)apaey — came into prominence in this j)eriod. CIIAlTEll XV REof:<;A\i/ A ri()\ (»i nii; kmimhe in tfie west (a. i). :>()() soo) How t ho r;erTn;ni kin^doTri^. nftcr .lust iriiaii ]i:u] tcnipornrily regained some (if tlifin for iln- Kmini" in ilir r,:i- 1 , . Nialilishrd tln'insflvcs. ileft-nded themselves against tlu- Muliainmeduiis, and wcrt" uniKil into an Empire by Charlemugu*'. king of tie' Franks. 632. Theodoric Conquers Italy in A. D. 493. In the last chapter we left ( )(l().i(('r in conlrol of Italv as its |)atrl(ian or governor. Of this position lie was deprived toward the close of the fiftli centui-y l>y a host of several hundred thonsand Ostro- goths, who moved southward from their old liomeon the Danube, entered Ital}\ ;md made tlieir kin'T Tlieodorie undisputed master of the 'whole peninsula. We have had occasion to notice in another connection the restraint which many of the (lerman kings showeiit wliere both Goths and Italians were involved. Theodoric's policy was ecjually enlightened on the side of the n.iatcrial welfare of the pcH)ple. lie made a vigorous effort to revive agriculture in the peninsula; he had the roads ('iiAini«:i{ XV kkn\ for t!f l-jri'jf'- ill t!:.- !-"-i ~ r . fst :i hlish- . i Nifiusi'lVfS. (Iffriuicd tht*lMstlV( s .! ; u. i' lillittil into ;iii I'.liiiiirc- b\ Charirijia)4iir. kiii,^ I ■; tin- i'r;i!iiv^. 532. Theodoric Conquers Italy in A. D. 493. In flic last (•li{i])trr We let! ( )(l(i.-M(T in coiih-nl dl* Il.-ily ;i> \\<. j)atrician or governor. ( )1' tliis posilioii lie was dcpriNcd lownrd llic close of the fifth ci-ntni'v hy ;i host of ' \rr;il iiniKhcd ihonsand ( )slro- goths, \\ lio moved southward from dieii-old home on the Dannhe, entered I};ily, and miidc Ma ir kinii; Theodoiic nndispnied mailer of the whole |>eninsnla. W < have had occa^ion to noti<'e in another conneclion ihc i*estr:iint which mniiy of the (Jei-man kings showed in their dealinj-'s widi lli-- Komans. In 'Flieodo- ric's [n\'itment of ihe Italians this enhghlened and henefic(>nf [>olij>i«U(»n>ly ilhKlr:i(i«l. Mxicpi ihat lhc\ wci-c not cnn)!l(Ml in die army, and that they were foree(l to idvc np a jiart of their land, the Ilidians ( iijommI die same rights ami jn-ivilegcs as the (ici-nians. i''v( ii the faej that ila'y were ( 'atliolit-s, while Thecxloric was an Arian, w.is net cdnnlcd to their di^advanl;ige. 633. His Domestic Policy. The >y.>tcin which he adopted for tlu- go\('}-!ntHMil of ihe two peoples was a singular one. Ivich peoj>ic Iiad its own <'oiirf> ;ind ;idministrative system, so that. when tw(» (Jolhs vere at variance with each other, the (jnestion at issue was lieard hy ;! ( iotliic judge; w hen two Italians fi-ll ont, they li'/un^ht the!! e.-i-- Ijifnrr ;iii Italian judge; while sin Italian and a (iotii sat in jnd ' re hoth Clolhs and Italians were involved. Theodoric's |>oiicy was e(jnally ciiliiditciied on the side of the material W(>lfare of die people. He made a vigorous effort to revive agricnllnie in die peninsnla; he had the roads ^,„.J \ . J /' V. / '^ , V :., \ ./^ = ) V V- .J 3X / p' L ^0 .'/ 'iV: \ O n RKORCANIZATION OF TIIK EMPIRE E\ THE WEST 257 and aquoducts repaired, and s|)ent large sums in restoring public monuments at Rome and elsewhere. 534. His Patronage of Letters. Although he was illiter- ate himself, he was the })atron of letters and honored with high offiee Boethius, the last Latin writer in whose works the true elassical spirit found expression. The principal work of Boethius, a treatise On ihe Consolation of Philosophy, wsls much read during tlie Middle Ages, and had an immense influence on the thought of the period. 535. His Foreign Policy. Theodoric's foreign was as wise as his (I imestie policy. Noricum and Raetia were brought under his control; he married the sister of Chlodovic, the ambi- tious king of the Franks; one of his daughters he gave in marriage to a Burgundiaii |)rince, another to Alaric, king of the Visigoths, and his sister he wedded to the king of the Vandals. By these means he secured jdliances with all the principal Teutonic states. A turn in fortune made his influence still greater. I lis son-in-law Alaric w.is slain in battle, and, during the minority of Alaric's son, he assumed the regency of the Visigothic kingdom in Spain and southern Gaul. 536. Fate of the Ostrogothic Kingdom. In fact, the western world seemed on tlie point of being united once more under a single rul(M% but the tim(\s were not yet ripe for such an outcome. Europe had still three centuries to wait for its Charle- magne, and within thirty years of Tlieodoric's death the great Ostrogothic kingdom, v;hicli had })ecn Iniilt up largely by his efforts, was overthrown 1)V Justinian, the eastern emperor, and the Ostrogoths, as a [)eople, disappear from the pages of history. "537. Why the Empire in the East Survived. In tracing the course of events in Euro])e we have lost sight of the Empire in the East. That this part of the Roman world maintained its integrity, while the Empire in the West was disrupted, was due to a varietv of causes. TIk^ citv of Byzantium was too well placed and too strongly fortified to be taken readily by undisci- plined troops with few engin(\s of war. Its access to the sea made it difficult for a ( Jcrman fj)rce to reduce* it by starvation, for none 258 ROMAN IIIHTORY of the Germanic peoples, s;i\e the Vandals, had a navy. Fur- thermore, the tide of the barbarian invasions turned rather toward the southwest, and the empire in the East suffered less from this source of danger than did Europe; and, when the East was threatened, the eastern emperors showed more diplomacy or more energy tlian the vacillating, jealous rulers of the West. The system of trovcrnnicnt and the social and economic condi- tions were better in the East than in tlie W(>st. These causes with others combined to save the eastern world from the fate which befell the otlier half of the empire. 538. Justinian, A. D. 527-565. In the century which followed tlie death of Theodosius, the last ruler of the whole Rom*an world, no one of the emperors at liyzantium is a man of much ability; but Justinian, who ascended the throne in oL*?, deservedly holds a most lished. 540. He Regains Italy in A. D. 535. In 535, just two years after the conquest of Africa, Belisarius landed in Sicily with the apparently insignificant force of severity- five hundred men, and crossed to Italy. Notwithstanding the small size of his army, however, liis advance into Italy was almost a triumphal march. The Italians, disaffected toward their Gothic rulers, REORGANIZATION OF THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST 259 opened the gates of the cities in southern Italy to him, the Goths made only a feel)lc resistance, and within a year and a half Rome fell into his hands. But the Goths were strong in northern Italy, and from this (piarter in the following spring came a force of one hundred thousand men under the Gothic king Witiges to recapture the city. Eor its defense Belisarius had but five thousand, and yet with this handful of men he held the city against the towers and rams of the enemy, against their desperate onslaught, and in spite of the terrors of hunger. For a year the siege continued. Then news reached the camp of the besiegers that an imperial army had entered northern Italy and was threatening Ravenna. These tidings called the Gothic king to the north, and Belisarius, following him, assumed command of the reinforcements from the east, and ultimately took Ravenna and captured king Witiges. The coiKjuest of Italy seemed to be elfected, and Belisarius returned to Byzantium to celebrate his trium})h. But the fortunes of the Goths at this low ebb found a champion in their young king Baduila, v,ho for his chivalry, his generosity, and his unselfish devotion to the cause of his i)eo|)le, has been styled "the first of the knights of the IVliddle Ages." He recovered northern Italy, captured Naples and Rome, held in check Belisarius, who had lieen sent back to Italy, and for twchc years upheld the Gothic cause in the peninsula. His defeat at last by the imperial general Narses and his death crushed all danger of further resistance and Italy became once more a part of the empire. 541. Southern Spain is Added to Justinian's Realm. Scarcely had the conquest of Italy been completed when civil war in Spain gave Justinian an opportunity to interfere there. Tiberius, the imperial governor of Africa, crossed to Cadiz on the invitation of the rebels, and established himself in southern S|)ain. Notwithstanding the fact that the Visigoths quickly comj)osed their difficulties, tluy could not dislodge the imperial troops, and for a half century the southern coast of Spain with its important towns was held for the eastern emperor. With the conquest of Africa, Italy, and southern Spain, Justinian's 2(iO ROMAN HISTORY (Irojun of briiigin^^ tin Mrditcrraiican nndcM- his coiilrol was realiziMl. 542. The Persian Wars, A. D. 540 - 645. The clicck which Justinian put on the ambitious (k'sij^ns of tlic Persian monarch Chosrocs was perhaps of more permanent si}i;nificance than his eoiKiuesls in Europe. I'he <;«-'ern i)oU'ntate, lakiuj; advantaif-e of tlic fact tluit .lustinian wa.^ .>. rui)ie(l in Italy, found a pretext for a (juarrel with him, deehired war, invach-d northern Syria and captured Antioeh. IJehsarius served his nuister to ».^()od purpose in tliis war also, for the eastern monarch was uUinuitely hrou^dit to si^n a treaty of peace in whicli lie agreed to retire to his own territory and to give up Iiis designs of coiKiue^t. Only once in later years did the IVrsians tlu-ealen tlie emj)ire, and then the decisive victory which tlie emperor Ileraeiius won ovei- them at Nineveli removed all danger from that (piarter. Justini;in and Heraclius, therefore, not only saved the eini)ire, but they saved Euro|>e also from the danger of Persian invasion. 543. The Significance of Justinian's Code. Yet Justinian is best known lo us, not througii his military exploits, notable a> thev were, l)Ut througii his code of laws. Hie code (»f Justinian eonstitntes j>erhaps the most enduring, the mosi characteristic, and tlie most valuable legacy which the Roman people have left to us. It l)nngs togetlier legal principles and rules covering all tlie dealings of man with his fellow-man, which the most praetical people of anticpiity had dev(>loped in its experience of more than a thousand vears. 'Phis body of lav;, which forms the basis of the legal system of a great part of Europe, would probably not liave survived Iiad it not l)een [)ut in a systematic, permanent form by Justinian. 544. The Contents of the Code. To carry out his great enterprise of codifyiui; the law, he appointed a commission of jurists under the leadership of 'Priboniiin, and after working several rears this eommi.Nsion f)ublished the n suit of its labors. The code which it drew up consists of four parts, the Pandects or Diges'f, which contains opinions on important points in law, taken from tlie treatises ol" all the great writers of legal literature riEORr..\MZ.\TIO.\ OK THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST 261 from the first century B. c. to the fourth century A. D.; the Irut'dutes, a handbook for the study of law; the Codex, which brings together the edicts, official instructions, and judicial decisions of all the emperors, and the Novellae, or new imperial laws, issued after the first three parts had been finished. 545. Justinian as a Builder. Like Trajan, Justinian spent ST. SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE nnmense .sums of money in building churches, aqueducts, and bridges, in fortifying towns and in constructing forts in all parts of tne empire. An entire volume by Procopius, an historian of the time, is denoted to the emperor's l)uildings and public works. The most noteworthy of these is the church of St, 2()(» liO.M.W iUSl'tK^ (Irrj'iii of l>rin<^iti^^ lln Mr(iil(Tr;inc;ni uihIit Ih> conlrol wa.s realized. 542. The Persian Wars, A. D. 540 - 545. ^'ln- vUvck which Justinian |)iil on ihc ainhitioii.s (le.^i^nis of ihc Persian nionanii ChoM'oes was perliaps of more |)d his master to o'ood j)urpoM' in this war al>o, for the eastern moiiaivh was ultiuuitely l)rou;^dit to si^ni a treaty of peace in wliieh he airreed to retire to his own territory and to ^'ive up his de>i;^n.^ of con(|Uest. ( )nly once in later year.> did the Persians threaten the empire, and then the decisive victorv which the (Mupi ror Ileraeiius won ovei- them at Xineveh removed all daui^cr from thai (piarter. Justinian and IIeracliu>, therefore, not only sa\ci;in inva>ion. 543. The Significance of Justinian's Code. Vet Justinian is hot known to Us, not throu'di his military exploits, notjd)le as thev wen , hut thron-di his code of laws. 'IJie code of Justinian eonstilult's perhaps Ih; inosl cndurni;.'. the most characteristic, and the most vahiahic Icj^acy which tin Roman peoj»lc have left to us. It hriniis lou'cther hual principles and rules eoverin«i- all the dealin,irs of man with liis t\'llow-nuiii, which the most [iractical pe«)p!e of anl!f|uity had dev(>!oped in its e.xpericnc-e of more than a thousan* '* r'*^'*'' !'•*''* "*" l'^>i''<>|>*'' \v<>uld prohalJy not have survived ha.d it n(»t been |)Ut in a systematic, permanenl hu'm l)y Juslmian. 544. The Contents of the Code. To carrv out his inc;,t enterprise of codifyin'/ tlie law, hi- appointed a eonnnission of iurists under the leadership of Trib(»nian, and after workinu" .sev(Tal vears this conuiiission published the result of its labors. The code wliicli it drew u|) eousisN of four parts, the Pandrris or D/'/csi, vvhi«h eontains opinions on important points in law, taken from the treatises of all the j^n-eat writ.\ OK Tin: FvMPIHK l\ ITU-: WKST 261 from the first century H. c. to the fourth century a. d.; the In.siilufcs', a handl>ook for the study of law; the Codex, which brin^^s too:clher the edicts, official instruetio?is, and judicial decisions of all the emperors, and the Norelhw, or new im|)erial laws, issued aftci' the first three parts had been finished. 545. Justinian as a Builder. Like Trajan, Justinian spent .ST. SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLK lunnense sums of money in buildinif churches, nquodiicts, and l)rid<^es, in fortifyin^r towns and in construeliiiir forts \\\ all parts of tne e?nj)ire. \n entire volume by Proccjpins, an historian of tlu' time, is devoted to the emj)eror's buildiny the Turks in 1453. 547. Constantinople and the Greek Classics. The fact tliat it did not fjdl until the date just mentioned was of immense significance for the culture of Euro[)e. The fourteenth century in Italy was the dawn of a new life. The world emerged from the intellectual darkness of the Middle Ages, and a great impetus was given to the new development by the discovery in monas- teries, wliere ihvy had long lain neglected, of the works of the great Latin writers. But the I.atin classics abound witli refer- ences to (Jreek literature. Vergil suggests Homer; Cicero points to DeiMostlicncs and Plato. Their accpiaintance with Latin literature made scholars eager to know something of Greek, but, unhappily, Greek books were not to be found in the West, and the (ireek language was unknown. It was a most fortunate thing for civilization, therefore, that (\)nstantinople was able to hold out until the western world was thus })repared to receive tlu" Greek classics. Had slie fallen even a century or two earlier, quite i)ossibly (Ireek literature would have been lost with her. As it was, Greeks came to Italy from ( 'onstantino|)le in the fifteenth century, bringing with them the Greek classics and a knowledge of the (hvvk tongue, and in this way the i)riceless treasures of Greek literature liave been preserved to us. 548. The Lombards Invade Italy in A. D. 568. We left Italy under the dominjition of the emperor in the East, but this regime was short-lived. In the army with which Xarses, the im- perial general, liac 1 completed the concpiest of Italy were five thou- sand Lombards under the command of their king. The Lorn- REORGANIZATIOX OK THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST 263 bards were at this time living in Pannonia, and at the close of the war returnetl to their own homes. But they did not forget the fertile fields of Italy and when Narses had grow n old and feeble, and no longer liad the full confidence of the emperor, their king led them down into Italy, and settled them, without meeting serious resistance, in the valley of the Po. In the course of a few years they extended the limits of their kingdom to include the greater part of northern and central Italy. 549. Political Divisions in Italy. The Lombards were less civilized than the Ostrogoths, and curiously disinclined to act together and in a systematic way, so that the Lombard chiefs estal)lishcd a luunber of essentially independent duchies, as they were called, in the i)eninsula, and the Lombard troops, without any very a])parent reason, i)assed by one district to coiKjuer another and settle there. Thus Italy was parcelled out into a number of Lombard duchies, and into half a dozen other districts, noteworthy among these being Rome and Ravenna, whicli still recognized the authority of the emperor. 550. How the Pope Acquired Temporal Authority. It was at this time that (iregory the Great ascended the papal throne, and henceforth the tcm])oral authority of the pap- acy, that is, its infiuencc in secular affairs, becomes an im- portant factor. The dcveloi)ment was very natural. Rcjuie was cut off from Constantinople by the Lombards, and the |)rincipal re})resentative of the em])eror had left Rome and taken u[) his residence at Rjivenna. The pope was, therefore, the most infiuential i)ersonage in Rome, and upon his shoulders gradually fell the responsil)ility for the maintenance of law and order, and the conduct of })olitical affairs. Then, too, large tracts of land in various [)arts of the empire had from time to time l)een given to the pope, and these he had to admin- ister through his agents. In tliis way he acquired tlie position of a political ruler. 551. Britain Conquered by the Angles and Saxons. It is to Gregory the Great that the conversion of Britain to Chris- tianity is due. The lot of the islanders for two centuries had been 264 ROMAN HISTORY a very uiiha|>j)v one. Under Roman rule the Britons had heconie so dependent upon their masters for [Jrotection that wlien the Roman troo|)s were reeaUed from tlie iskmd in 407 the natives were utterly ineapable of defeiulin<^ themselves, and the Piets and Scots to tile north of the ^reat wall overran the whole country. In their des})eratioii they appealed for hel|) to the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. In the fifth century these peoj)les, who lived hi Denmark and the country to the south, came, hut not so much to hel[) the Britons iis to seize tlieir land. The invaders were even more uncivilized than the Lombards. C'onsecpiently Roman civilization was stamped out entirely, and the new civilization wliich develoj)e, and so tluy contimied to he until the time of Gregory. His admiration was aroused one day at Rome by some fair-haired British captives in the slave-mart, and, grieving to think that llay and their countrymen were still heathen, he sent forty monks to the island under a prior named Augustine to evangelize it. ( )f llieir experiences iji Britain we hear in the Ecch's'uisticdl II i.sfon/ oj Ktif/land writti-n in the next century l)y an English monk named Baeda: ''In (his island landed tlie servant of our Lord, Augustine, Jind his compan- ions. . . . The king, having lieard tlieir message, ordered them to stay in that island wliere thev had landed and that thev should l)e furnished with all nccr^^nrii s till he should consider what to do with them." His (ucimou was a favorable one, h)r we hear that "he permitted them to reside in the city of Canter- bury, wliich was the metropolis o.f all his dominions, and pursuant of his ju'omise, besides allowing them sustenance, did not refuse them the liberty to preach." Canterbury has ever since been regarded as the religious ci;ntre of England, and from this point the Christianization of the whole island was ulti- matelv effected. 653. Few Conquests of the Germans Lasting. We liave followed the history of seven braiicln's of the (iermanic peo|)les. KEOKGANIZATION OF THE EMI'IllE IN THE WEST 265 We have seen Africa seized and occupied for a century by the Vandals, Spain and a part of Gaul concpiered by the Visigoths and the Burgundians, Britain overrun by the Angles and Saxons, and Italy held l)y llie Ostrogoths until they were dispossessed by the Lond)ards, who in their turn were ultimately overthrown by the Franks. Of all th(>se concjuests, only those of the Angles and Saxons were permanent. The Vandals were driven out of Africa, as we liave noticed, by the eastern emperor. The Ostrogoths lost Italy, and finally the followers of Mohammed took Spain from the Visigoths, and the Franks concjuered the Visigoths and Burgundians in Gaul, and later the Lombards in Italy. It is to these last tw(; events —the con(piests of the Franks and of the .Mohammedans— that we have now come in our narrative. 554. The Franks not a Roving People. Unlike the other Teutonic peoples the Franks were not of a roving disposition. We recall the raids of the Angles and Saxons, and the long wan- derings of the Vandals, the Visigoths, and the Ostrogoths, before they settled |)ermanently. But the Franks never went far from their original homes. They contented themselves witli gradually pushing forward their frontiers, until they had made themselves masters of the territory about them, and in this enlarged domain they took u]) their j)ermanent abode. 555. Their Early Conquests. The two branches of this people, the Salians and the Ripuarians, lived along the lower Rhine wluni they become known to us. In a batUe near Soissons in 486, when their career of conquest begins, they defeated the Roman go\ernor Syagrius and thus gained control of northern (laul as far as the river Loire. 556. The Franks Become Christians. Their leader in this successful war was Clovis, with whom one may say that the Frankish kingdom begins. His next campaign was against the Alemarmi who lived across the Rhine in the Black Forest. Clovis himself was a heathen, but Queen Clotilda, his wife, was a Christian; and, when Clovis found himself hard pressed by his enemies in a battle near Strassburg, he took a vow^ that he would 2(>G KDMAX IIISTOKV become a Christian if tlir (J(k1 of the riiHstiaiis would j^ivc him victory. The event turned oul a.^ he wi.^hed, and (lovi.s had himself and tliree tliou.saiid of his foUowers baptized into the Christian faith. 657. Results of Their Conversion. This event did not lead to any noteworthy ehanjre in the charaeler of Clovis and his men. He eontnmed to be a> .^ava;j:e antian. Tliis circumstance not only brou^dit him the support tA' his own Koman subjects, but also enlisted in hi.> behalf the >ccirt svmpathv of the orthodox Romans wiio lived in s(»uthcrn (iaul, for botii the Visio-othic and the Bur<^nnidian kin^s were Arians. This situation of cour^ favored <1ovis's|)lans of concpast. His acceptance of orthodoxy also made him the natural champion in the West of the papacy, and led in time to an alliance between the poj)e and the Franks which was of o-nat si^-nificance for western Europe. 658. Clovis Conquers Gaul. The lieretical l>elief of his Bur«(undian nciirhbors furnished Clovis with a ready pretext for the invasion of tlieir territory, and his desire to teach the true faith at the [joint of the swonl led him to make war upon the Visi*roths also. In both eamj)ai^ns he was successful. The Bu'-gundians were obli^^^ed to acknowledge his overlordship, and the Visigoths were forced to give up (iaul and retire into Spain. Before Ins death in 511 he had brougiil under his control almost all of Gaul from the Rhine to tlie Garonne. 559. Kingdom of the Franks under the Merovingians. His kingdom at his deatli was divided among liis four sons. They were soon at \ariance with one another, and for a [Jcriod of a hundred year, intrigue, murder, and civil war ran riot. Notwithstanding this dissension among themselves the vigor of REORGAXIZATION OF THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST 2()7 the Franks was such that their territorv steadilv inerea.sed in extent, until under Dagobert in 628, when the Merovingian dynasty, as the family of Clovis was called, reached tlie highest point of its power, the Frankish kingdom included Belgium, Holland, France, and western Germany. 660. The Mayor of the Palace. Although the entire Frankish territory was united under Dagobert, it was made up of three states which at various times in the past had been inde- pendent of one another, Austrasia the eastern kingdom, Neustria the western kingdom, and Burgundy, and each of these had its own administrative officers. Now it happened that Dagobert, when he ascended the throne, was a very young man, and he relied largely for a fonnd(>r of the new faith, was born in Mecca in .'uO. In early manhood he showed a religious bent, and witlidrew fretinently to lonely Kpots for meditation. On one of these occasions, as he sle[)t, an angel seemed to stand l)efore him holding a scroll from which he was bidden to read and on the scroll was written what Mohammed acceiUed as a revelation from above. This was the first of the revela- tions which he received from time to time tliereafter, and which were put together after his death into the Koran, or sacred book of the Moliammedaiis. 564. His Teachings are Accepted in Arabia. I\b)hammed taught that God is one, that he is all-powerful, and that the indi- vidual must surrender liims<'lf eoinpletely to his will. The KEUKIJAMZATIOX OF THE EMPIRE IX THE WEST 269 people of Mohammcirs nativ(> city, Mecca, were hostile to these teachings, bec;nise her j)rosperity was due to the pilgrimages which the faithful made to lu>r idolatrous shrines, and they obliged liini to flee from the city, Imt the Arabians elsewhere eagerly acce|)te(l his doctrines. In the end even Mecca was obliged to yield to him, and in 630, or eight years after liis flight from the city, he returned as its master. Ilis flight from INIecea in iV2'2, or the Ilegira as it is called, is the event from which the Mohammedans reckon all dates. 565. They Make the Arabs Resistless Warriors. His success over llie people of INIecea was the beginning of the relig- ious and politicjd coiKjuest of his native land, and before his death Mohammed began to cast his eyes even beyond the limits of Arabia. The religion which he taught was well adapted to make brave warriors of its adherents. It is the duty of the believer to spread the new faitli, by tlie sword if need be. x\ll things, even the length of a man's life, are ortlained of God. (^onse(piently one cannot die until the ajipointed time has come, and, therefore, is as safe on the field of battle as in his own home, and death in battle with infidels ensures the believer admission to |)ara(lise. We can get some notion of th(" sort of warriors which such teachings mniured by calling to mind the fierce courage with w Inch the .\rabs of the Soudan, in our own day, armed only with primitive wea|)ons, have rushed to certain death against the (Jatling guns and rei)eating rifles of disciplined European trooj)s. 566. Conquests of the Mohammedans. It was an army made up of men like these which went forth from Arabia to con- quer the world. Syria and Mesopotamia were wrested from the Roman empire, and Persia was subdued. Then the tide of conciuest moved westward. Egypt was taken, and the prov- ince of Africa which Justinian had regained from the Van- dals was lost forever to the empire. Arab hordes i)uslied along the northern coast of Africa, and in 711 crossed the Strait of Gibraltar into Spain, and one after another the great cities of Si>ain, Seville, Cordova, Valentiii, and Saragossa fell into their 270 ROMAN IIISTOKY l{i:oHGANJZATlON OF THE EMl'lKK IV THE WEST 271 liaiids, until the entin \'isio(»thic kin(r(l(,ii^ except tlie moun- tainoiLs region in tlie nortli, liad l)eeii ocenjMc*! by tlieni. 567. The Battle of Poictiers, or Tours, A. D. 732. In 732, under llieir great leader Alxleialinian, seventy thousand or more Saraetn> * rossed the w t ^tcrn Pyieiiers into (iaul. Charles, tlie son of Pij)]>in, felt the gravity of the danger which threatcicd Ills country, and hn.ught the whole force of the Franks into the field to drive hack the invader. TUv two forces met on the field of Poictiers All day long the l)attle raged. The Saracen cavalry charged the eneniy again and again, l)ut tliey could not break through the solid lines oT the Franks, and when darkness came on tiny withdrew from the held, and returned across the Fyrenees, never to enter France again. By this vietorv Charles ^lartel ('I'lie Hanniier'), as he was henceforth called, saved Europe for Aryan cixilization and for Christianity. Had lie l»een defeated, (ianl would |»rohrd)ly have fallen into the hands ol the ^Iohaninie«laii-, ail txniial Europe would have been threatened with a like fate, and the whole course of civilization wouitl probably have Ijcen changed. 568. Pippin, Mayor of the Palace, Becomes King. M his death Charles Martel di\ided his powi is l)etween his sons Fij»|iin and ('arioniaii. The insurre again secured Ijy the abdication of Carlonian, wild withdrew into religious seclusion. Pippin, who now ruled alone, felt himself stnnig er'"^"'!! to >ent to Koine to secure tiie poi)e's appi-oval of his course. The ])oi)e re})lied: *Tt is l)etter tliat the man who has the real [)ower should also lunc the title of king, rather tlian tlie man who has the mere title and no real power." 569. He Comes to the Assistance of the Pope. The new king soon had an opi)ortunity to show his gratitude for tliis friendly decision from Rome. We have already noticed that the Loml)ards were .\ria!i> and the least <-onsiderate toward the liomaiis of any of the (Mrmanic invaders. Tlie\- had long harassed the pope bv eucroacliing u|»on hi^ tcrrilorx. Xo help was to be had from Constantino])le, l)ecause the pope and the emj)eror had (luarreled over certain ecclesiastical matters, and the ])ope had g(>ne to the point of exconnnunicating the emperor. In tliis emcrgeiKy^ the [)o|)e api)ealed for hclj) \o his CaUiolic cham})ion in the West, the king of the Franks. Pippin re- sponded readily, lie entered Italy, forced llie king of the Lom- bards to submit to him, took from him a strip of territory about Ravenna, and Invstowed it upon the j)apacy. This addition of territory made the po|)e an im])()rtant po- litical ruler, and the sig- nificance of his tem|)ora] |>ower may be thought of as dating from this gift made l>y Pippin. 570. The Appearance and Dress of Charle- magne. It is fortunate for us that we have ;i biog- raphy of Pippin's son and succcssoi- Charlemagne, or Charles the (ireat, from the hand of a con tern porn rv. A 1 t li ough this sketch, which is often attributed to his scci-clarv faiihard, is i)robablv too fiiendlv an account of Charlemagne and his deeds, it gives us some in\aluable glimpses of the life of the times. This is the picture which Einhard gives us of tlie new king: *'He was stout and vigorous, of good stature, although his neck was short and thick. . . . His step was firm and the whole carriage of his body was manly. He won^ the dress of liis native country, that is, the Prankish; next liis })ody, a linen shirt and linen drawers; then a tunic with a silk(«n border and stockings. He bound his legs with garters and wore shoes on his feet. . . . He wore a blue cloak, and was CM AUI.KMVONK 272 ROMAX nisTcmv always girt with liis swore 1 [\iv liill and Vh'U being of gold and silver m 571. He is Crowned King of the Lombards in A. D. 774 He has won a \ lace in liistorv as a warrior, a patron of letter statesman, an( look at his career 1 a champion of the church, and we may l>riefly to ad'vantage from these four points of vie\x His long reign o f fort\-six rears, from A. T). / wa rs but liis most important campaitrns were 68 to 814, is full of in Italy, Germany, Hid Spain. He had been on the throne l)Ut five years when tl le 1>*>1 )e CM lied ui )on Inm to prcven t the Lombard king from sci/m (f the cities which Pii)i)in had given to the pajnic ■lied into Ttalv, over promptly marc had himself crowiiec Charlemagne threw the Lombard ruler, and 1 kiny: .)f the Lombards. Thus the kingdom o f the LcMiibards passed away, a had tl lose o f the ( )stro South, and wen' ju-obably in a state of culture no t much farther advancec 1 than that of tlic ( tl icrmans when the llomans W( 're first broug lit int o con tact with lem, i un like tl lose o aiK ) sooniM" th rouir md diarlcmagne's campaigns in their country were not f Caesar in Ciaul. Th(W rarely met him in open had one district been brought into siibjec- tlier. And, just as had been hen quiet seemed to prevail f a popular leader, like I IK l)atll» , tion than trouble^ broke out in aiio the case in Caesar'.^ campaigns, w liout the land tlie appearance o the Saxon lit hero Win a pla.v hi history as a ^varrior, a paln.n cf Icltrrs a statesi.uui, a.ul a chanipion of llir .hunh, and w. inay hnrfly look at his canrr to advantaov fro.n thcsr four i>onits ot vk>w His loiiK ivi^n o|- tortv-six y.nns, from A. T>. TCS to SI 1, is tull ol wars, hut his nio.t iininn-taut can.i.ai-ns wrn- in Italy, Gcnnany, and Spain. Uv ha.l hern on thr thronr hut iivr years when tl.c j^^^j,^. ,..,ll,,l „,„„ l,i,n to invvcnl ih.' Lonihard kin^- Imni MM/.n.- thr cities xvlii had thoM- of the ( )>troooihs, the Visi<.joths, anion with so nnir ,„.o|.le who dwelt upon his northeastern frontier had not Ikvu ,„„ch aih'ct.'d l.v th.' civili'/alion of the South, and W(«re prohaMy i„ n stale of culture lu.l nuich farllu-r advancc.l than that of die (h-nnans when the Honians were firs! hrouo-JU int.> c(mlacl with th.-n, and (liarlen.a-n.vs ...nipai-n.. in their country were not „„like those of ( ;..-^ar in (hinl. Thvy rarely Uict luni m ol>en h,,t,l,., an.l no s(»oner had «me distri h.-fore the laud wa> llu.rouohly pacified. 573. Annexation of Bavaria in A. D. 787. diarlemagne s other terril..rial acjuiMtinii in (lermany, liavaria, was secured with less din-cultv. liy a mere show of h)rce the r.avanan.s were induced l<. yield; their duke was ohli.u'ed to retire into a n.onaslerv, and ( 'harlema-ne took the o-overnment inl<. his own I 1 V- Cv - '-"J r?.. 5 I!i'itt;iii \ ; lviri_;.: i '~1^ ■B_ ,- V \\ KKOHCAMZA TION ol- IIIK KMPIRE IN THE WEST 273 hands. The addition of l^avaria to his n^ahn was very important hccause it sc'curcd him a (hrcct Hnc of communication through Iiis domains tVojii Saxony in the North to Italy in the South, and gave him a better t'ronti(>r defense against the Shns on liis eastern 574. Conquest of Northern Spain, A. D. 778 - 812. While ('harl(Mnagne was engaged in the war with Saxony, aml)assadors came to him from some of the Saracen chiefs in northern Spain for the whoh' peninsula was now held by the Mohannne(hins — offering to accept him as tlieir oyerlord. He acceptc^l tlie offer, crossed th<' IVr(Mie(\s, and received the submission of Barcelona and (ierona. On the way back his forces suffered a disastrous defeat in the mountains at the hands of the Has(|ues. In this battle, at Roncesvalles, fell Uoland, count of Brittany, to whose name wjindering im'nstrcls attached the story of warlike deeds and chivalrous advvMitnres which three centuries later was set down in wi-iting as the (Utansott dr (irsic dr Rohiml one of the fines! of the epic jXKMns of the Middle Ages. In s|)ite of this disaster, this campaign and those which followed it secured for the Franks, and, therefore, for ("hristendom, a stri|) in northern Spain as far south as Barcelona, and was the first step toward the exj)ulsion of the Mohammedans from Si)ain, which was finally accomj)lished in WWl. 575. Charlemagne as the Patron of Letters. It would be wrong, however, to think of (1iarl(Mnagne, as simply a warrior. He took a very lively intenvst also in letters and art. He called to his court some of tlie most distinguished scholars of his time, KinlKinl his secretjiry, Alcuin the Anglo-Saxon, and Paulus Diaconus the Lombard. Tlianks to his influence, the monas- teries took up again the practice of making coj)ies of the manu- scripts of the Latin classics which they |)ossesse(l, and in conse- quence many works of anti(|uity were preserved which otherwise would i)robal)ly have perished. Just as our New England ancestors established colleges primarily for the proper training of ministers of ihe gospel, so diarlemagne's first purpose in the 274 i;(»M\\ ill STORY encouraj^t'iiieiit whiiii lie i::i\r lo Icariiiii*^ was the ((lucatluii of 576. His Famous Letter on Education. In a famous letter written In him on this suhjeet he >avs: "In reciMit years when letters have been written to us from various monasteries to inform us that the brethren \vl»o dweh there were olicrini,^ uj) in our liehalf holy and |)ious prayers, we noted in most of tliese letters correct tiiono;lits hut uncouth e\i)ressions. . . . There- fore, we exhort vou not onlv not to ne*ilecl the studv t»f letters, luit also with most humhle min j>enetrate tlie mysteries of the divine Serij>tures. . . . Be it known, therefore, to ye'jii- Devotion pleasin^i; to ( iod, that we, toj^ether with our faithful, liave considered it to he expedient tliat the bishopries and monasteries intrusted hy the favor of (^hrist to our ^oNcrnment, in addition t<> the ruh- «)f monastic life and the intercourse of lioly religion, oujji;ht to he zeahuis ;dso in the culture of letters, leaeen handed down by word of mouth. In fact he had 'it collecled and >et down in writuij^. At the same time capitularies, or royal oiders, were issueK\ riu-ourauciiinit which hr liasr Im Icaniiiii'' was ihr r(hl<"ilit»li of {\\v rlcrj^'V. 576. His Famous Letter on Education. In a I'ainous h'ltrr writlcn hv him (»n ihis siihjcri In- n,i\>: **Iii r(«(Mil vcar.s when letters have heeii \\rilh*ii ti» us from \aiioii> moiiasleries to inform us that the hretlu-eu who dweU there wm- olh-riu^' u|) in our iM-liah" holy aud j>ious prayers, we noted in most of th.ese Idlers eoireet ihouuhls iiul uueoiilh e\|»ressions. . . . There- fore, we exhoii \ou not lno with most humhie tnind, |»leasinii' to (iod, lo jun-sur it earnesth, in order ihal \oii may he ahle nittrc easily and m(»re eorree\oli<(n picasin;:' to ^kmI, thai we, tei^'ether with our faithful, have ( teil \t\ the fa\or of ('hi'i>t lo our uoxerumenl. in addition l<» tin- rule of monastic life and the inlei'coursc (if holy rcli;^ion, y the liift of ( Jod are alilc to Icaiii, ac.tcm and in his forciuii policy. In Saxony, h»i' iustatpc, he allowed the jH'oph' l«» i-etam llieir customary law, which had heeii lianded detwii hy word (tf month. In fact In- had 'it collecleii and scl down ni wrillni!:. At the same lime capitularies, <'r ro\al orders, W( re issued, a|tplical>le to all jtarts (if the reahu, and the authority of the k'wvj: in <'aeh district was reprcscntctl \}\ a count or other odicial, who in return for this ^^raiil of aulluu-ity, and h»r the pri\ilci'<'s atid emolunicnls which lie re«-ei\t'il, ackiiow led^-cd himself to he the \ass.d of th<' kin^^ ^I'his ro\a! oliicial in liu'u choc -uhorilinates on Hie same hasis, \\\u* hecame his \assals, and in this way the h-udal system came into l)ein^^ 578. His Alliance with the Church. The most charac- teristic pari of his domestic poli^lcred lielwceii the rhur clerny and the secular odieials worked harmoniously to further their coimnon interests. 579. He is Crowned Emperor of the Romans. This side of liis policy comes out in a more slrikino; way in his direct rela- tions with the papacy. We have already noticed that in 77d he eame to the rescue of the poi)e in his slruoole with the Lomhards. br. I'KTI.U'- \i KOME A''PP<'"»'<1 '"» iliis oeeasion we learn from Kinhard's iiarrativc. "Ou the most holy day of the hird, of our Lord, the kin^' went to mass at St. INlcr's, anly have engulfed western Europe, had it not heeii for the defeat of the Mohanunedans at Roictiers by riiarles Martel. Charles Martel was Mayor of the Palace for the Franks, and thiN people, hegiiuiing its eoiKpiests under Clovis, liad siihducd all of western Eiu'ojU' e\ce})t Spain, which was lield l)y tlie Mohammedans, and Britain, wliich was occupied by the Anglo-Saxons. Pij)pi!i, the son of (diaries Martel, was made king of the Frard^s, and transmitted the sci^ptre to (liarle- inajtne, wlio con(|Uered Italy, Saxony, Bavaria, and northern Spain, and thus became master of western Europe. He pro- moted learning, supporte(l the Church, and was crowned em|>eror of the Romans by tlu' l*ope. i rilRONOLOGICAT. LIST OF IMPorrPAXT EVENTS* THE RKCAL PEIMOD 753-509 H. c. (Sec Chap. Ill) B. C. 753 753-509 509 '\P 508 /498 196 y 401 493 471 ? 462 451-449 449 447 445 445-367 The Founding of Rome.f The Kings: Itomulus, Xiiinjt, Tullus Hoslilius, Aliens M;iJt ins, 'rnr(|iiiiiius Priscus, Scrxius Tiilliiis, 'ra]-(|iiiiiiiis Sujxrbub THE PEPrBLIC 509-26 1 B. c. The cnrifiurs-f oj ff"J>/ (Chiip, IV) The s/ni(/(f/f Inhrat, //,, pal r/( idfis and plrhruifls (ClKip. V) The consulship established Ticaty witli Carthage Tlic flictaforsliip cstahlislifcl The Latins defeated at Pake Pe^ilins Tlie ])l(4)eians secede to the Sacred Monnt The tribunate of the plebs established Treaty with tlie Paljjis The concilium plebis established The trihnnes iMei-eas(>d to ten Bill proposed })y Teivntilins to ])nl>lish tlie laws The decemvirate and the twelve tables The plebeians secede tD the Sacred .Mount The X'alerio-IIoratian laws The comitia tribiita ost^ihlished The C'anuleian marriage law Stnijcrgle forth(> consulship: the eonsuh'-r tiihunate 443 '^or 435) The censorship established * The dates and evonts in bold facc^ type should ho ineinori/.ed. t The (httes of the rej^al i)enod and of the early repuhli;- are very uncertain. 277 278 421 B. C. 405-396 382 367 366 358 35G 3-18 343-1 340-338 339 338 326 326-304 312-308 312 311 Al.(.ut 300 2!»N 2U() 205 287 281-272 2S0 27! » 275 268 264-241 20: 1 260 ROMAN insroRY Military qii.-uslors chosen PI.-Im iaiis ( ligil)lc to first ciiriilc ofTicc, the qiiavstor- shi{) War with Veii Rome taken by the Gauls The Licinian laws A ph'lx i:tn in;i(lc consul Practorship cstnlilishcd Curiilc ac(Uh'slii|) ( stablislicd Rise of th<' nol'ihtns Lcaj^ucwith tlic Lai ins and Ilcrnica'ns renewed A ph'beian made (hctator Treaty with ( arthage First Saninite w;ir, ^<)-e;ilh(l Latin War, and di.^solution of tlie Latin h-a«ne Tlie Pul)liHan law^ A plelxian made jmu-tor Antinm founded, lirst maritime naony The proconsulship estabUshed Second Sanmite war ^ ll(Hnan aiiii\ ( ;iptui<(l :it the ( audine Pass liefoitii- of Appius Chiudiu- C;!. eu> The Via Appia and the Aqua Appia built First (hi<»viri navahs appointed Tlie Ovinia 11 law Third Sanmite war Batth-of Sentinum The Hortensian law War with Tarentum and Pyrrhus Battle of IIerael< .1 Battle c'f AMuhim P)anlr of Bent vhrrn uct fi Lan'ls (('\\-a\). Vl) (,)>. -n lio'iir (Chap. \MI) First Punic war Treaty witli Hiero Battle of Mvlae B. C. 256 249 247 241 211 (?) . 240 239 23S 23N-222 237 234 229-228 227 219 218-201 218 217 216 2L5 2L> 205 212 211-200 207 204 202 201 200- About 200 200- ]s ( artlia^o lioman defeat at I )rej)ana Ilamilcar Barcas commands in Sicily Treaty made Sicily acquired Cenluriate comitia reformed Livius Andronicus brings out first Latin play Birth of Knnius Liome takes Sardinia and ('(.rsica Gallic wars Ilamilcar develops Sj)ain Birthof .M. PorciusCato Illyrian war Xumher of praetors increased to four Ilannihal takes Saguntum Second Punic war Hannibal enters Italy Battles of tlie Ticirjus and the Trebia Battle of Lake Trasinieiie Battle of Cannae Alliance between Hannibal and Philip First Macedonian war Marcellus takes Syracuse P. Cornelius Scipio subdues Spain Battle of liic Mctaurus Scipio crosses to Africa Battle of Zama Ti-eaty made Literary activity of Plautus Cisalpine Gaul and Liguria Romanized S(cond Macedonian war Battle of CynoscejjlialaD Provinces of Hither and Farther Spain established Independence (.f Creece jiroclaimed ( ato's unsuccessful defence of the Appian law against extravagance War with Ant iochus III Battle of Magnesia, f(.llowed by treaty Third Macedonian war Battle of Pydna Death of Terence 280 155 B. C. 149-146 149 146 150-110 113-133 133 133 123 121 About 118 113-101 112-105 107 102 101 100 91 90-88 90-89 Ss-s I 88 87-84 A) .out 81 83-82 83-81 82-79 78 82-72 74-63 ROMAN msTORY Athrniaii nmhassatlni 1. .irliiMtr i)liilns<.p!iy s1 jxTUKiucnl court cstablislKMl Dcstructiou of Cartliaj^r MunUlliUS r;l{)1 111" ^ ;in(l (Irstroys Colilltl' Africa and Macedonia made provinces War with Viriathus War with Xuiuantla Province of Asia established TFIK IJKIM lU.lC The eotniiirsis l(1(H ('"'■■">■ 'un! Pompei/ liUrtxiil (Chap. \'1I1) It lul Jj,, , , .hilioti (it Ik, UK ',( 'liaj>. IX) Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus Tribunate of Gains Gracchus |)«;ith («f (\:\\\\s (liacflius Province of Gallia Narbonensis established Invasion l>y 1h.- Ciiiiltri and 'I'cutoip - War with Juj,nirtha Marius ]iia (h-n thi' llaUfhn.- Plain> Saturninus and (llaucia 1. ;.d t he democracy 'rril)U!iate of l.ivius l)ru.-us The Social war Citizensliip jirani" <1 I0 the Italian.- !• iist Mhliri(hitie war ("«KiUti«tn between Marius and >ul|)ieius Sulla made commander in the V.:\~\ Mariu< :iiid Cinna master.- nf i;<.me Catullus l)orn Overt lirow of t lie Marian i)arty Second Mitliridalic war Sulla dictator Insurrection of Lcpidus Scrtoriu> controls Sj.ain Third Mitliridal r LIST OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 281 H. C. 73-71 70 67 66 05 (iO 62 t)3 (10 59 58-50 5() 53 War with Spartacus Sulla's laws repealed by the consuls Pompey and Crassus Vergil horn The Gabinian law The Manilian law * Horace l)orn Pompcy's c;im))aigns in Asia Death of Mithridatcs Cicei-o suppresses the Cat ilinarian con.s|)iracy First triunivirat<' formed Caesar consul Livy horn Caesar's campaigns in Gaul Renewal of the triumvirate Cra>sus slain hy Partliians THi: KKPCBLIC -10 27 li. <'. Thr (Icdth slrN. 08 The establish mciif of Ihr Empire anfl the Julian Em jurors (Chaj). XI) 27 Octavianus receives proconsular power for ten years and the title of Augustus. 27 B. C. - A. D. 14 Reign of Augustus 17 H. V. Publication of the Aeneirl 35-13 n. ( . Literary activity of Horace 49-45 48 46 45 14 44 44-43 43 42 31 P.. r. About 27 12-9 A. I). 14-37 31 37-41 41-54 43 54-68 50-60 64 65 68-6g 69-79 70 79-81 79 81-96 78-85 96-98 97 98-117 101 102 104 10() ii3-"7 I 17-138 120-124 131 138-161 KOMW HISIOKY Livy l)t <:ins lii> liistnry Caiiii):ii«n> in Ci( rinaiiv Reign of Tiberius Death of Scjaiius Reign of Caligula Reign of Claudius The Uoiiiaiis iii\ m1 • Hrit;.iii Reign of Nero ConteinfMH-ary writers: SeiKca, P.-rsius, Petronius, I.ue;'!! Great lire in ilnin • arnl ('l.ri>t ians j).'rs<'cut"(l Death of Senrea THi: KMPIKK A. i> (IS I '.>:■; From \'isp(isiini to SciiUnnus Si r, nis (Cha}). XfT) Reigns of Galba, Otho, and VitelUus Reign of Vespasian Ji rusaleni taken Reign of Titus Desti-uetinii (tf Pompeii atid llereiil in uni Dediealinn of the ( 'olossciuu Reign of Domitian IniiM. riant writ. r.< t^uintihan, .Marii.l. Joseplms, Plutarch Agrieohi\- .successful campaigns in liritaiu Reign of Nerva Aid Kiveii to free childn 11 Reign of Trajan First war in Dacia S(>eun(l war in Dacia; Dacia made a province War with i*jirthia Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria made provinces Important writers: Juv«-nal, Tacitus, Pliny the YouriKfT Reign of Hadrian Reconstruction of the Paiitlu^on Comph lion (.f the edictum ix-rpeluum Reign of Antoninus Pius Gaius compiles his Institutes LIST OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 283 A. D. 139 i6i-i8o 102-166 167-168 167-175 177 178-180 180-192 193 Coniplction of Hadrian's Mausoleum Reign of Marcus Aurelius War witli Parthia Italy ravaged by the plague First war with the Marcomanni Repression of Christianity by M. Aun lius begins Second war with the Marcomanni Reign of Commodus Reigns of Pertinax and Julianus THE EMPIRE 193-2 1 1 211 212 217 218 222 2:i8 244 249 250 251 253 253 253 -217 21s '}>> 235 238 244 249 -251 -253 260 -268 260 268-270 270 270-275 272 273 27.5-276 276 276-282 A. I). ni:i XM From Srpfim ius Srrrrus to Constaniinc (Cliap. XIII) Reign of Septimius Severus Papinian, t lie jurist, flourishes Reign of Caracalla All freemen made Roman citizens Reign of Macrinus Reign of Elagabalus Reign of Alexander Severus Reign of Maximinus Reign of Gordian Reign of Philip Reign of Decius Severe treat ment of the Cliiistians Reign of Gallus Reign of A( niilianiis Reign of Valerian with his son Galliernis Reign of Gallienus, for 7 years as his fatlier's col league Vjilerian niiid(^ i)risoner by th(> Persians Reign of Claudius Reign of Quint illus Reign of Aurelian Aurelian takes Palmyra Aurelian receives tlie submission of Tetricus Reign of Tacitus Reign of Florianus Reign of Probus 284 A D 284-305 3()5-3(H) 311 306-321 312 324-337 325 330 337-350 351 351-361 355 361-363 363~3(>1 364-375 361-37S 375 376 378 379 383 392-394 394 395 402 406 410 ROMAN HISTORY Roign of Tarns Reign of Diocletian l)ir.ci('tiaM and Maxiiriiaii rule as AuRllsti Constant ins and ( lalcrius colleagues Galerius's edict of toleration Civil wars hetwceii aspirants for tlie throne Battle at the Muhian Hridj;e, and Constantine's ;ie(e|)tanee of ( 'hri>tianity Constantine, sole emperor The Council at Nicaea Dedication of Constantinople as the imperial residence THE KMFIIIE A. i>. •>->7 I7<") The Bnrhiinnn JiirnsiOn^^ nnd the \V(^fcrn World in (he Fij/h (', nfiiri/ H'\\n]>. \[\ ) Tlie successors of ( 'onstant ine quariel Const ant ius defeats his rivals and heconies sole • •niprror IJeij^n of Constant ius Julian associat\ian Valrntinian ernpen»r in the Wot Valens emperor in the ivi.-t Valentinian II {:'7.", :;<)2i .uk' Cratian (37.') 3S3) made rulers in lh<' \\('>t The Visigoths cross the Danube Battle of Adrianople Theodosius cmijeror in the Ea>t Maximus (383-3S.S) suceerd> ( Irnl ian Eiigenius emperor in tlie Wot Theodosius defrat.- iMigenius and becomes sole emperor (394-395) The Empire divided, never to be reunited Alaric invades Italy Vandals, Suevi, and Burgundians invade Gaul Alaric takes Rome A. D. 429 t 10-401 443 449 451 455 476 486 493-553 496 527-565 533-534 553 568 590-004 610-041 622 087 711 732 751 768-814 774 772-803 787 i 778-S12 800 LIST OF IMI'OUTANT EVENTS 285 The Visigoths settle in Gaul and Spain The Vandals invade Africa Leo the Gn^at, pope The Burgundians occupy south-eastern Gaul The Saxons invade Britain Attila defeated at Chalons Tlie Vandals sack Rome Romulus Auguslulus, the last emperor in Rome, abdicates Odoacer called patrician of Italy by Eastern emperor Tin: EMl^IliE A. I). 476 SOO Rroi'tjdJiizadon of tJic Empire in the West (Chap. XV) (>lovis d* f(^ats the liomans at Soissons The Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy, established by Theodorie Clovis accepts Catholic Christianity Justinian emperor in the East The Code compiled B( lisarius n^gains Africa Itjily restored to the I^]astern empire The Lombards invade Italy Gregory the Great, i)opo The Christianization of Britain b( gins Heraclius driv(n^ back the Persians The Hegira Pippin becomes ruler of all the Franks The Mohammedans enter Spain Battle of Poictiers The Mayor of the Palace made king Reign of Charlemagne Charlemagne made king of the Lombards Saxony conquered Annt^xation of Bavaria Conquest of northern Spain Charlemagne crowned emperor at Rome 2sr) ROMVX HISTORY Family of the Jtlt ax Emperors C. JuliuM t "lies:* pi Juli;i M Alius Italbus V. Octavius At ill Major Scrilxmia Aut;iisiiiH = IJvia (1st wif»') I |(-'i<» vvife) At,Tii)i>a Julia i TIlHTiiis AntiHiia = Drusiis I (St»*l)S(Hi of i August usi ('. ('a«'sar rii. Doniilius L. Carsar (liTiii aniens AL^rippiiia Ajin|)piiia iht-youuKfr Caligula (Slt-psiHi of August US I N't^rit L;fnii;uiii-us (taiiciius SPECIMEN OF A DKSCHIPTTVE SUMMARY OF ROMAN POIJTICAJ. INSTITUTIONS* THE MONARCHY The Chief Magistrate: the King. Tho Kovcrnmont of tlio primitive state by the elders of tli<' elans ^nve way to the rule of the rex or kiii^. He \vasclii(f ex(-eiitive, chief })riest, lawj^iver, and jiid^f^. He was assist ( d liy (jionslnn s imrricidii , oi- d( (cetive ofheers, and by tliiuntnri jh nlmUtdUt.s, or offieials who |)i-oseeiited those charg d with tr( ason. The Senate. The s( nators, or jxilrcs, were repr(\s(-ntatives of the different elans, and const it uted the advisory council of the king. The People. There were three (h in( nts in tlie i)opulation: the patricians, or nol)les, tlic phlx ians, or comTuons, and the clients who were d( pend( iits. The p( (>])1<' were divided into tliirty curiae, and wciv (ailed together liy tlie king in the coiiiitut n/rifita, which met to consider matt( rs cone, ruing tlie s( veral clans, the question of war or jx ace, etc. j'or s( r\ice in tlie army they were organized on th»' basis <»f landed pi'oj)erty in the cotitHin rcniun'dfti, made up of 193 c< nturies. THE in-:prHLi(^ The MA(iJsTiiA'rES The consuls, two in numlx r, chosen annually, took tho place of the king in 509 n. c. The consul pnvsidcd oyer th<' senate and comitid, acted as judge, and as commander-in-chief. A dictator was chosen by the consuls in times of great danger. He had supn^me jx.wer ov(-r olTicials and private citizens, and no one could veto his action. The magister equitum, his lieutenant, commanded tlie cavalry. The tribunes, first chosen in 493 n. c, were intend(^d to protect citizens, especially ph beians, from the arl)itrary action of a magis- trate. The tribune could punish a magistrate who refused to yi( Id, and his person was inviolable. The number of the tribunes probal)ly five at first, was increased to ten in b")? n. c. ♦See exi)lauatory i)ara„'raph at tho end, on p. 290. / i 288 ROMW HISTORY SUMMARY OF ROMAN POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS 289 The decemvirs (151-149 n r.) wrrc (>(]i(i;ils temporarily appointed to coil( raised from two to lour in 121 n. c, to eight in 2(;7, to twenty hy Sulla, and to foi-ty hy Caesai'. The praetors, lirsi chosen in 300 v.. c, were all judg(\s at first. After 227 n. c. some of iheni acted as judg(\s, others as j)ro\ineial govciiiors. .\fter Nl Jf. c e\"ery pi actor ser\ ed one year at IJonh- as a judge, and tlie following year as goveiiior (»f a province. At tlie outset tli( re was (»nly one i)raet e(;nn<'ied with the trilmnate. Thr eiirule aedileshii) was established in 300 n. (\ The acdih-; had tlie su[)ervision of public j)laees, the care of the eorn >upply, the sup<'rintendence of tlie games, and ceilain judicial jioweis. Kaeh of the tw(» colleges of aediles liad two member-. The proconsul, first (4iosen in 320, In hi in a |)ro\-ince tlie authority of a consul, without 1h ing und< r tin- constitutional n strictions put on tile consul in 1 Ionic. The vigintisexviri, or tW(Miy-six men, wttc minor ofhraals, and comprised the **t( ii men" who aet( d as judg< - in sp( eial cas( s, the four prebcts, or judges, for c.rtain districts of Italy, tli<" tlin-e police magistrates, tlie tliree otiicials of the mint, the four street eoniniissioiiers, and the two comnn-.-ioners for- roads outside Kouie. Ttie interrex \\as an extraordinary official who came into olIic(' wh< n the clii<'f magistracy 1 » caiiie \acant. The triumvirs w< re thn e ( xt raordinary (.flicials, Octavius, Antr sanctioned bylaw. Methods of Election. Consuls, |)rare elected in th(^ connfn, rcnluriata; curule aediles, quaestors, ilw r^gintisrxriri, the consular t-ibunes, and the trium- virs of 43 in tne ro////7m /ru/a; the j)l(4).4au tribunes and plebeian aediles in the ronnhum p/rhi.s. \n inteiT<-x served for five days only. How the first interrex was chos.-n is unknown. Each sub- secpient int(Trex was appointed l)y his i)redecessor. Consuls became proconsular g..vernor^ at the end of their year's term at Rome. They usually cast lots for tlieir i)rovinces. The magister equitum was appointed by t he dictator. The certus ordo. Tlie order in which the office's were to be held was iix(d in c<»urse of time, partly l)y hav, partly by custom, as follows: fr^hmiNs nnlituni (one of the six otheers attached to a legioiO. on,- (,f the ntjnihs^.vm-i, <|Uaestor, Inbumis /,/rhls, iwdih\ censor, magistvr reian officials, had the right to sii in a curule chair on official o<-casions. Eligibility of Plebeians. Pl(4)eians only were eligible to th(^ tri- bunate^ and acdilcship of the phdjs. 44icy were also eligible to the consular tribunate, to the quaestorsliip after 421, to the con.sulship after 300, to the dictatorship after :\r,{\, to the e(>nsorship after 339, to the pra( torship aft.r 33.S, and alxjut th(> same time to a place in the college of curule aediles. Term of Office. The dictator was expected to resign when the task for which he was appoint(>d was finished. At the most his term was limited to six months. The censor lield office for one year and a half; the interrex for five days, the triumvirs of 43 b. c. for five years. All other officialis held office for one year, except ROMAN HISTORY SUMMARY OF ROMAN POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS 291 that the consul? and prartors spfvchI for n second yvav, and in some cases for a longer time, in th«' fJi-oviiHTs. Veto Power. Any mnj^istratc could voto the action of his colleague, or of an official l)eneath him in lank. A tribune could veto the action of a colleague, or of any magistrate, hut his action could not be vetoed by any other official sa\e by one of his colleagues. Attendants. A dictator was attended by twenty-four lictors, a consul l)y twelve, the city praetor by two, and a praetoi- or proprae- tor in a {)rovine<' l>y >ix. The fori u,,iu^ descriptive summary deals witli the three elements in the st:ite, viz., the magistrates, the senate, and the {)eople for the regal period, and with the magistrates for the repul)lican j^eriod. Mak' Imilar summary for tlie senate; and people und(>k which i> i-sued .simultaneously with this Hisiofif. BiiiEF Li>r or Piooks fofj a School TanuAHV* I?ury, Uislorif of Rome to th* Dedlh o/ .U. Aurr/ius, American Rook Co., X. Y. $l.r»t). A good sketch of ini{)erial liislory from the battle of Actium to the date indicated in the title. F^merton. fn/roi/urlinn to Sfudi/ oj till M i(f. 375 to SI I. Cseful bibliographii'S. How ;ind Leigh, A 11 i.storu "I J^'>»"' to (he Death of Cuc^'Or, Long- mans, Green tl- Co., X. Y., $2.(M). Very attractive .-ly],'. Pelham, Oiitlitus of Romon History, Putnam, X. Y., $1.75. A scholarly treatise, running to 170 A. d. Abbott, R(nnibliographies. Robinson, ReoiJnojs in European Hi story, Vol. I, Ginn & Co., Boston, SI .50. Covers the later period. Appian, UniiKtn II istonj, translattd by White, 2 vols., Macmillan, X. v., S:5.()(). I'anhard, Liji oj Chorlemogne^ Aineiie;;n B(»<»k Co., X. Y., $0.30. Livy, 11 tstorij oj h'onii , 2 \«>oks of reft-r Has bt-en followed here, alth.aifzh in iimNi of t hes*- cusfssonie tfaclirrs m.iy pitf.-r the more nearly inouo- syllabic pronunf!uli(»ii, -.s/njnti. Where It seemed necessary, vowels havt- b<-eu marked as h.n^Mir short. Other devices used to Indicate the sound of a letter an- the tnlhmint;: a. like a in far: 9. lik.-. in nire: e, like r in call; eh, like ch *"'■' '• ^, lilxcviii §, like « in //(/.S-. The French uasal( somewhat like ng in f/on(/) is indicated by A. Under -cercd h-ttcis are silent. A full set of rules governing the i.r<.nuneiation of Latin proj^r names, when usetl in an Eng- lish sentence, has been fornuilated in an adndrable way by Professor Walker, an.t i!i:i\ L f..iind in liis forihcominKeditiou of Caesar's aaUic War. For top- i*":il >'n ^t'd itn ihe Index see the llundbook Jar Teachers. ( lit^ ( ' I 'net s I! ) Ac'ci-us (or At'ti-U8K writer of tra^;edy, "J^K A-chae'ans (or A-chai'ans), iPfi. H'l; Achaean leajj^iie. \'m\ Ac'ti-um, battle of. :«3 Ad-ri-a-no'ple, baiiieor, iiin Ad-ri-at'ic Coast, :>* iv Ae'dile-ship, CuTule, esiablishe.l, I'M: ojM-ii u> plel)eians. 120; see a!s Ae-mil'i-an Way, i:i7 Lu'ci-us Ae-miri ua Pau'lus, at ("annae. IT'i Ae-ne'as, 36 Ae'qui-ana. the, iccathm of. i:i; wars with ifome. 6-' Ae-ser'ni-a, h5 Ae-toli-ans, i^G A-fra'ni-us. :io:! Africa, made province, 2OJ ; occu- pied by the Vandals, -1U5. 4'.tt',; le^ conquered by Justinian. Mi^; taken by the Mohammedans, 5<;6 Agrarian Questions, control c.f state land, IS, 11)4; growth of estates, !:!:>; en)ploynient of slaves. Kii: law of Tiberius (iracchus, '•^'* ■"" A-grlc'0-la. 392. 410 Agriculture, principal early indus 292 try. 21 ; influenct- on character, 47: ownership <»f lantl. -IW. 47. 4>^; low state of a^'riculiure. 257 Ag-ri-gen'tum. ks.'.. 174 A-grip'pa. :i4i A-grip-pi'na. \^% 364 Al'a-ric, 4i'j vx\ Al'ba Fu'cens, :=., 76 Al'ba Lon'ga. 30-38 Al'cu-in. r>7.^. Al-e-man'ni, 449, 485 A-l«'al-a, 21.5 Al'li-a River, battle of the, 64 Allies, (seeSOCii) Alps, the, geographical boundary, \~ ; political boundary. 16.5 Am-mi-a'nus Mar-cel-li'nus, 488 A-mu'li-u8, 37 Amusements, 10. 236. 238, 323 Ancus Mar'ti-us, :{8 An-dris'cus, the pretender in Mace- donia. 195 Ll'vi-us An-dro-nl'cu8, "father of iiomau literature," 238 An'ge-lo. San, castle of, 419 Anglo-Saxons, their conquest of Britain, 551; their conversion to Christianity, 552 An-the'mi-us, architect of St. So phia, 538, .545 An-ti'0-ehus III, (See Syria) {Rfffrencfx to sertinns. ) An'ti-um, 62 An-to-nl'nus, Mar'cus Au-reli-us, character, 421; wars with I^arthia, 422; with Marcomanni, 42:^; devel- opment of serfdom, 424; persecu- tion of Christians, 425 ; his Medita- tions, 434 An-to-ni'nus Pi'us, 420 Antony, Mark, consul, 314; contest with Decimus Brutus, 31.5, 316; tri- umvir, 317-321 ; attacked by Cicero. 318; loses at Actium. 322 Ap'en-nlnes, Mountains, direction, 17 A-pol'lO, 26 Ap'pi-an, 121. 141 Appian Way, 75, 137 Ap'pi-us Clau'dl-UB, 75 A-pu-le'ius, writer, 4:{7 A-pu'li-a. 71 Aq'uae Sex'ti-ae, battle of, 244 Aqueducts. Appian. i:Ui; Claudian, :>•;•-'; Anio Novus, .%2; 408. .533 A-qui-le'ia, 423 Ar-ca'di-us, 41)2 Ar-chi-me'des, the mathematician of Syracuse, 174 Ar'de-a, 41 Ar'es. 237 A-rim'i-num, 85, 165 Ar-is-ti'des, writer, 441 Ar-is-tob'u-lus, 251 A'ri-ua or A-ri'us, heretic, 174 Army, as organized l)y Servius Tul- lius, 40,56; soldiers paid and more efficient, 70; leaders experienced, 141; reform of army, 142, 444; its si'/..'in264i3.C..143 Ar'nus River, 9 Ar'pi, 173 Ar'ri-an, writer, 441 Ar'te-mis, I74 Ar-ver'ni, 212 As-ca'ni-us, 36 Asceticism, 5i9 As'cu-lum, battle of, 84 Assemblies, (see Comitia) A'taulf. 493. 494 Atli-a-na'si-us, theoir.gian, 474 At'ta-lus, III (see Pergamum) Attendants, on magistrates, see ,, 290 Au'daz. 200 Au'gur, 31 Au-gus-ta'les, 343 Au-gus'tine. St., 196 Au-gus'tUS, .Julitis Cae->ars heir, 315; triumvir, 316-321; wins at Acti- um, 322; his .scheme of government, 3;i3-3:i5; prf)vincial government, 33»i- 339; improvement of Rome and Ita- ly, 340-342; social reforms, 343; diar- acter, 345; literature under him, 346349 Au-gus'tus, as title. 333, 461 Au-re'li-an, 4.52 Au-re'li-an Way. Kff Aus-tra'si-a, 560, 561 Av'en-tine Hill, 35 Ba-du-i'la, 5 to Bae'da, iOngUsh ecclesiastical histo- rian, 552 Bal-e-a'ric isles, 1 17 Barbarians (see the Germans) Baths, Public. 386 Battles, (arranged alphabetically) of, Actium, 322; Adrianople. 490; Aquae Sextiae, 244; A.sculum, 84; Cannae, 172; Carrhae, 297; Caudine Forks, 71 ; Chiilous, 502; Cyno.sceph- alae, 186; Ecnomus, 158; Heraclea, 81; Magnesia, 190; Metaurus, 176; Munda, 309: Mutina,316; Mylae, 1.58; Philippi, 320; Pydna, 194; Ramline Plains, 244; Koncesvalles, 574; Sen- tinum, 75; .Soissons, .5.55: Strass- burg, 5.56; Teutoberg I-\)rest, :^39; Thapsus, 307; Ticinus River, 170 i Tours, 567; Trasimene Lake, 170; Trebia River, 170; Zama, 180; Zela, 307 Bavaria, conquered by Charlemagne, 573 Bel'gae, 245 Bel-i-sa'ri-US, his reconquesi of Af- rica and Italy, '>:«(. .540 Benedict, St., Rule of, .522 Ben-e-ven'tum, 85 Bes'ti-a, Lu'ci-us Cal-pur'ni-us, 271 Bibliography (.see i)p. 2S»o, 291, and llandbo(tk) Bi-brac'te, 245 Bi-thyn'i-a, 192, 218 Bo-e'thi-us. 534 Britain, invaded by Caesar, 245; sub- A 294 ROMAN HISrOKY (/. du«l, 'At\-: ' ..ii((U' "I'-'i by A I ami S;i:v"iiN. fial ; (Mi|-ist i;iiii/.»:-»l, Brun-disl-um, 137 Brut'ti-ans, 7'.t Bru'tus, Dec'i-mu8, ;n »-;{ir. Bru'tus, Ju'ni-us, il Bru'tus, Mar'cus. noo Bur-gun'di-ans, tii'\ occupy iiir Rhuiie valley, 4H^; coii(|ii*Tt'(i by P'ranks, h'yH; tilt' IilU>'Uni By-zan'ti-um ( see Constantinople ) Caeli-an Hill, 35,38 Cae'pi-o, VM Cae're, 6i Cae'sar, Ga'ius. ^'raiKison <.f au^-iis tils. :i'.i) Caesar, Ga'ius Ju'li-us. taiiy «a rt't-r. 'JiM): triuiii\ ii, •.'!•!; :j''i#: nuniii* -.1 of ( r;inl i 1, --'If. -t. wii h Poinpey aiui tlir siuau', ;itio;{iiii; ilralh. :?!i»: bis statcsiiiauslnp, :ui :ii:i; his 111* r;.!-y \v..rlc, 30H, XM) Cae'sar, Lu'cl-us, Kr.ui.isoti of au- jxust us. :i'iO Cae'sar, as lirir, ifri 46r, Ca-lig u-la ( * >r Ga'ius ), :^iT Cam-a-rl'na, v^-^ v Ca minus, 70 \ Cam-pa'ni-a, <>criij,i...i by tiie Etrus- cans, 9; in Saiiiiiitt- wars, (W, 69 T>; in st'yond Punic war. 173; I'oinpcii, 388 Campus Mar'ti-us, lu Can'nae. t>atilr ^f, \-,-i Can-u-le'i-us, iiT Ca-nu'sl-um, 75 Ca-pe'na. C'» Cap'i-to-line Hill, '-'^^ Cap ri, :{:.:: Cap'u-a, 'i'^. bfsi ' :<»!iH\ I7".i Car-a-cal'la, ni.iK-'s.m ircmirnrjii- ■/.CIIS, \ It) Car'rhae. baiti. : Car-si'o-Ii, ^ Carthage, p^Mlal>t■^ i;r.t, fi aK'ii"^^ Pyrrhus, sj; coiiitii-n nl treaty with Koine, 92; location «>f city. 115: Iter (•Tn[»in', nti, ns; lu-r governmeut, H7, 14!.>, 151; her army, uon.s with Syrac!! e. 15,3; fir r with Rome, 154-Mi:^; her S{>ani-ii territory, 166; second war with Rome, 16H-IHI; third war with Home, 2oa; destruction, 201; pros- perity under the VandaLs, 1U7 Cas'ca, 310 Cas-i-li'num, I7:i Cas'si-an Way, I37 Cas'si-us Lon-gl'nus, Ga'ius. 310. 31 1, :!20 Cas'trum Nov'um, 77. 78 Cat'i-line. Lu'ci-us Ser'gi-us, 203 Ca'to, Mar'cus Por'ci-us, the cen- ,sor opposes extravagance, 227; his censorship, 228; his literary work, Cato, Marcus Porcius, of rti(a. 307. 308 Ca-tul'lus, tiie po.t, :{27 Cat'u-lu8. Quln'tus Lu-ta'ti-us. aristocratic ifad.'r, 2S'.» Cau'dine Forks, bat tic of, 71 Celts, (s.e Gauls) Censorship, esiatilislird, iiS; dunes, lis; ojH'n t(t plctiidatis, rj'>. see also |). 28K Centuries, (S( . Army and Comltia Centuriata) Ce'res, 27 Cer'tus Or'do, see j). 2Mi Chalons, ttattie of. ri02 Char-le-magn'e ( Charles the Great), appearance, 57o; liis con quests. .iTl r»74: patronage ol letters, r>75, a7'i: bis statesmanship, 577; his alliance with the chiiivh, 57s ; crou i.ed emiH-ror in tlie west, 579 Charles Mar-tel', 561; defeats Mo- hainmedans, .=)t;7 Cher-so-ne'se, H'O Chil'de-riC, last of the Mer<»vingiau klnus..^.(i2 €hlO'do-vic, kinu of the Franks, 535 Christians, persecuted l)y Nero, 36(5; ir'-aimcnt by Tra.jan, 407; by Mar- ( 11^ \un-lius, 12">; spread of Chris- tianitv". \*> . hostility of thegovern- niciii, ITn: oleration, 471; conversion oi LJonslantine, 472; council at Xicaea, 174; Christianity represse4; oi)poscs Antony, 318; eulogized by Velleius. 319 Ci-li'cl-a, 250 Cim'bri, move southward, 243; de- feated on the Raudine Plains, 244 Ci'ne-as, 84 Cin'na, Lu'ci-us Cor-ne'li-us, dem- ocratic leader. 283 Cls-al'pine Gaul, 165 Citizers, patricians and plebeians, .">3; civrs siiif suffragio, 8S; early limits of citizen territory, 89 ; nnm- her of .•iii.'.ens. 90, 262; Italians fuaile citi/.eiis, 276-280; citizenship trranted by emperors. .363, 381; -jratileii to all freemen, ttc, Gives sin'e suf-fra'gi-o, 88, 90 Ci-vi'lis, a Hatavian leader, ;^82 Clau'di-US, appearance, ;i,58; char- acter, 360,361; public w in oriKinal ;5 trilws orgiiui/.ati'Hi. .'>i: l>i-i,..r <-oiiiiti.i c'uri:il:i. '>.t; 1>.ims i >t » ;iil,\ Cur'sus Ho-no'rum. 21a Cu'rule Chair, i'7 Curule Magistrates, st^e p. 289 Cyb'e-le, 237 CS^n-os-cepli'a-lae, battle or, im Cyprus, 2o»j Da'ci-a. 392. 408 Dag'o-bert, i>j» De-cem'vi-rate (s.o Laws of Tw(»ive T;it)les) De-la'tioii.;!fii, ;«•! Democracy, the, organized iiy ilu- Grarelii, t»aT .'♦■.'. i; sn[)]ioiir(l liy Ma rill I r iiinipliaiit uiul< r ( iiiti « 2H;{: overthrow 11 \^y Snll;i VlVt', •-".»:',; siipiKirts the lirst trtuiiivir.iic .iihl iluMMiiitiif -t Julius Cat'sar. i'.i'J-:;!:! Di-a'na. 2t> Dictatorship, tin* , > > ■ >■ tj^. Sulla as dictatt 1. ar, diet a lor for life. :;i . Digest, th. leCode) Di-o-cle'tl-an, liis scht-ioe of" ♦■riUllt'Ilt. 15;» it'iti Di-o-nys'i-us, the Uist<»riari, 61 Di-tarco. 21N1 Do-mit'i-an, liiseharat his reiLjn, :iliu ;iit'3 Domitian Way, the. Ml Dru'sus. Mar'cus Li'vl-us, the trih- one. wisli itizenshii» to the Italians. 27ti Dru'sus, son o!" tlif crtMi-'r-Mr Tihi-ti- vis, 353 Du-ca'tus, 465 Du-i'li-US, Ga'lus. naval .oHirnaril- er. 15H Dy'arch-y. the. xi\ :w, i.vj Dyr-ra'chi-um, 1 57, 305 Eb'ro River. Cart hagiiu 166. 168 Ec'no-mus. battle of. ifv- Economic Conditions <-•• Agra- rian Questions. Agriculture, Commerce. Slaves) E-dic'tum Per-pet'u-um, n5 Education. 2:« Egypt, territoiy. !-i. a >>istt(i by Ivoriif, IH5: inailr a rk'l>en(leiicy, 197 Ei'nhard, bto £-la-gab'a-lus, 447 Emperors, list of. .see pp. 281-285 Empire in the East, the two aukhs ti. ICii. i<>:; Coiislaiitinopl'' iiiadi* capital, 47a; separation of the East from the West, 492; reasons for sui- vival of the empire iii the East. 537; rel^n of Justinian. 538-545; fall of ( ntiiioph'. ,^ii6; her contribu- tion to the inotleru world, 547 Empire in the West, separation from the J-List, t'.»-J;<'ondition in A. I). 4TR, 5U8. 5*m; reasons for ber "f:ill.'5io, 51 1 ; reviv'i'd hy ('liarhnKmil*', 579 En'nl-us, vi,.r\- ,,f K'.aiii" i:;: writer of epic pori vy , -!'.'6l. 568; they defeat the Mohamme- dans. 567; under Charlema^'ur con- quer the Western World, .a7l-.-,7 ' Im-per'i-um, the, .see p. 289 Industries, trades, 49; taken by freedmen, 135; development. 234. 235; .see also Agriculture Institutes, the, (.see the Code and Gaius) In-ter-am'na, 75 Interrex, the, see p. 288 Italians, the. 2 main branches, 13; W i i 298 ROMAN HISTOltV INDEX 299 dittvrent iiiod^s (if living,. H. ;"i :iir- riciiliural people, 2\ : fh;ir:tct.r. ■-':; same origin aslif-i'- :'>''-; "lij:;!!!! zation iiiuier Ron, l : siriv.' i<»i- (•iti/'*ii--liiit r:*; S.K-ial War, 27 rtTri\t'citiz<'iis!iiji. e7l»,2Hhy, It;, 17; Adriatic coast, IH; vv.-st coast, l'.t: unlfyinix intineiK •♦■--, -'": coTHiurst of iTiiTral Italy ina)!- nianviii .them Italy «.ccu- pied, 85; stale of Italy under Cae- sar, 313; uiuler Augustus. ;m-2. :!1:^: in the second centin-y, 1(m unilrr Odoacer, 'xnr. under The-nin- rir, f»;fi. 5:Si ; con« luered by Justinian, hio: by the Lombards, .lis. 5 lit: by Charleniag'ne, 571 je-ru'sa-lem. taken b\ romp. e.ipruri'd liy Til n^ '- ■ Jo-se'phus, the hisionan, -"i Ju-dae'a. i!^' Ju-gur'tha. Unm "f Nnnndia, at war with Home. -71. •37-i Ju'li-a. Dom'na, int Ju'U-a Mae'sa. ir,.' ju'li-a Ma-mae'a, if>'- Ju'li-an. 479 Julian Emperors, s. , (, ■•■<■> Ju-li-a'nus Did'i-ua. trr Ju-li-a'nus. Sal'vi-us, ii.. Ju'pi-ter, -7 Jus-ti'ni-an. his charart. i his coi HI nests in ilie W ^-'-r'll : his rer--iaii wars, r-)ri; tlif ( '< mI.-, ni:;, .'lU; his bnihlinys, 51;') Ju've-nal, 409 King. the. llis i.'.v. » Knights, Hi' i-'Equites; Ko-ran', the, 5«a Lab'a-rum, th-.chn^ti tn Ni.H^^.ir.i. 47:-'. j::^ La-cin'i-an Promontory, Hi- ^i Land-holding (s'e Agrarian Ques- tions) La'res. th.-, ^7 Lattn League, lii* torma jidned by tlie H-Tiiiei, (11; at \a- nan<*' with Roite rushed by Rome, 69 Latins, the. accept Roman rule. 73; tio.stile to Graechan land laws. 3()i; see also Latin League La-ti'nus, -•* La'ti-um, early extent, 13 La-vi'ni-a, ;w Laws, of Twelve Tables, 105-111; of V^alevi"- •nid Horatins, ir*; (d <"an- uleii. "t" r,,itdnin> and S-xtius, 1-21 rj:'.; t !i<' ( )\iniau la\\-, r>; law> f Horieusins and Pnblilins, i:'.n; Manilian law. 2bii: the Mtmicipal Law ■• ''^'•-ar, ;'d3; Burgimdian lawv Legends, connection with Troy. :W; lt't;<'nd «>f A.MH-as. 'M\: . d" Romulus and KeMiu>. A7; ot Xuma Pompil- ius, Tulln> Hostilius. Ancus Mar- tins. 3H; of Tanininins Priseti !ii^ Tidliii-, \o: i>\ Tanpun til' I'roiid. 11 ; sniiices of eafly !»•- yeiids. r.': fxntwth of tradition, i;j LeotheGreat, 501. 5j9 Lep'i-dus, Mar'cus Ae-mil'i-us, democrat ic leadi Lep'i-dus, the triumvir, H17, :'J1 Lib'yans, i5o Li-cln'i-us Stol'o. Ga'ius. i:i Lictors. see i>. :m\} Li-gur'i-ans, 61 Li'ris River, 71 Literature (Poetry): Kpic Poet- ry, Liviiis Andronicns, Naevins, Knniii- r'.S; (Urero, :?-:9: \'erL'il. 34t'.; Lih . I . Sdins Itali -aliUN, H95- Dramatic Poetry, Liviiis Andr.micns, Naevins, i'lautus. Ter- ence, Eiuiius, Pacnvius, Accins,238; Seneca, 371— L y r i c Poet r v (Ca- tullus. 337; Horace, -i. Emu lis, Lncilins, 2;-{S: Varro. liriO; H,, P.r^ins, 'M2; Juvenal, lou i.ie;:iac I'oeiry, Tibnllus. Properiins, Ovid, 3tH-Mise»' II a- neons, didactic jwtem of [^ucr'tius. :;■::>; A//' llMr:ir.', iUV: Dvid, Literature (Prose) : H i s t o r y, ( ato, 2:{9; .SalUist, Julius Caesar, Nepos. T!n rdvy.n49; Tacitus, 110; Sueto- I'Morus. i;«; Ammiaiius Mar- ccdinus, IHs; Protopiii IJaeda, 5o-i; Einhard, 570 i ) r ,i ; • . i y, A f. plus Claudius Caecus, CaLo, 23i*; I ( Rfiffrfnrpf! are to sertionft. ) Tiberius Graceh us, GaiusCiraccli us, Marcus Antonius, Lucius Grassus. Hortensius, 328 ; Gicero, 329— J u r 1 s- prudence, Cicero. 329 ; Sal vius J u- lianus, 415; Gaiu.s. 439; Paplnian, 445; Trlbonian, 544— L e 1 1 e r.s, Cic- ero, 329; Pliny the Younger, 411; Fronto, 436 -M i s c e 11 a n e o u .s, es- says of Varro, 326; of Cicero, 329: of Seneca, 371 ; of Qtiintilian, ;^94 ; of Boethius. 534 ; encyclopedic writings of Pliny the Elder, .S93; of Gellins, 43(5; novels of Petronlus, 373; of Apuleius, 437; commentaries. 375; Christian Latin literature, 410; Greek literature, 194, 397, 3lts, };u, 441 Li-ter'num, 192 Liv'y, 349 Lo'crl. 80 Lombards, the. occupy itai.\. .sis. 519; ovci-thrown l.\- ( 'harlfiiiaunc, Lu'can, 374 Lu-ca'ni-a, 13 Lu-ca'ni-ans, the 7.» Luc'e-res, the, :{7, 51 Lu-cer'i-a. 75 Lu-cl'li-us, 238 Lu-cre'ti-a, 41 Lu-cre'ti-us, 325 Lu-CUl'lUS, commaiKler against Mithridates, 248 LU-8i-ta'ni-ans, the, at war with Home, 199, 200 Macedonia, alliance with Hannibal. 175; territory, 184; i)olitical plans. ia5; second war with Rotne, IS6, 187: third war with Rome, 194 ; made a province, 195 Ma-cri'nus, 447 Mae-ce'nas, .34(5. 317 Magna Grae'ci-a (see Greek Set- tlements in Italy) Mag-ne'si-a, battle of, IJM) Mar-cel'lus, a goieral. 175 Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, :^5(» Mar-co-man'ni, wars with Ronu 423 Mar'l-us, Ga'ius, defeats Cimbri and Teutones. 244: defeats Jngurtha. 272; his character, 274; supports the democracy. 275; aids Cinna. 283; death. 383 Mas-i-nis'sa, i8o, i8i, 202 Mas-sil'i-a, 241 Max-en'ti-us. 472 Max-im'i-an, 461 Me'di-a, 184 Mediterranean Lands, in the West acquired by Konie. Ml i.sj; in the p:ast, 183-197; recoutiuered by Jus- tinian, 539-541 Mer'cu-ry, 21 Mes-sa'na, 154 Mes-si'na. Strait of, 163, 165 Met-a-pon'tum, 11 Me-tau'ru8, battle on the, 176 Mi-ner'va, 21 Min-tur'nae, 77 Mi-nu ci-us Fe'lix, Mar'cus, 440 Mi-nu'rus, 2(K) Mith-ri-da'te§ the Great, his wars with Rome, ,248, 250 Mo-ham'med, 5<);i 564 Mo-ham'me-dans, the, their con- (fuests, .5^5, ,566; defeated at Toinvs, 567 Monarchy, the, powers of the king, 50; his attendants, 51; insignia, 51; the dyarchy given up, :{9I, 159 Monasticism, appearance of, .520; life of the monks, 521-523; legacy to tlic modern world, 52:i Money, system of l>arter, 21; copi)er and .silver coins, i:i:i Mon'te Cas-si'no, 522 Mun'da, battle of, \m Mut'i-na, 165, 316 My'lae, battle of, i.5s Nae'vi-us, Gnae'us, writer of epic poetry, 43. 238 Nar-cis'sus, 426 Nar'ni-a, 75 Nar'se§, 518 Navy, Roman. onrani/,«>.i. 78; weak- ne.ss in 264 B.( :., H 1 ; naw of im B.C. 156 Nep'e-te, 66 Nep'os, ;i:it» Nero, his artistic ta>ies. :?6t; the great lire. 365; treatment of the Christians, 366; death. 367; the prov- inces under him, 368 Ner'va, 399, 400 300 ROMAN HISTORY < Rfffrene^a are to sectirtnx) Neu'8trl-a. 560. wii New Carthage. Carthaginian cupitul in Sjiain. 169 Nl-cae'a, 474 Nic-o-me'di-a, m, m Nobility, the (orNo-bil'i-taa). oHk- inatrs, l:i7; controls the M-nate. 1:8 Nor' i- cum, 42:] No-vel'lae. th.- (see the Code) Nu-man'ti-a, warwitti ifom*-, 201 Nu'ma Pom-pil'i-u8, hh Nu-mid'i-a. 180, 181.271,273 Nu'ml-tor. 37 Oc-ta'vi-a, wife of Nero, 3rt4 0c-ta'vl-U8, the colleague of Tilx-ri- II-. < ;r;urh lis. 2*il Octa'/ius, an aristocr:itie consii Octavius (or Oc-ta-vl-a'nus), • > Augustus O-dae-na'thuB, 45! Od-o-a'cer (or Od-o-va'kar). -U). .'i:k Office, term of. see p. 289 O-res'tes, 505 \ OTi-cum, 3U4 OB'can, 13 Os'ti-a, 408 Os'tro-gOths, tl>»', aiip»-.'ir;.nt r. in Italy. 532; under ThwMlon. ' iri; their disappearance. 530 O'thO, 377 OV'id, the poet, :'.4S Pa-CU'vi-U8. writer of tratredy. 238 Pae'stum (or Pos-i-do'nl-a). U Pal'a-tine Hill, -^5 Pal-my'ra,4.T 1.452, 458 Pam-phy'li-a, 193 Pan'sa, consul, 316 Pan'the-on. the, 419 Papacy, the, its growth, -n '•■': 1 = quires tt'niporal authority. Pa-pl'ni-an, 445 Par-tlia-mas-pa'tes. 405 Par'thi-a, defeats Crassus. 297; a«'- knowledees suzerainty of R'.riif 405; war with Marcus Aur.iii: war with Septimlus Severii-^ in Pat'res, 52. 53 Pa-trl'cl-ans, origin, 53 Pa-tro'nU8, relation to client, 53 Pau'lua, (See Aemilius) Pau'lus, Di-a'co-nu8, 575 Pau-sa'ni-as. 44 1 Pe-lu'si-um, 306 Pe-na'tes, 27 Per'ga-mum, 193; ceded to Rome. 205 Perr-hae-bl'ans. 1H7 Per'seus, king of Macedonia, 1H4 Persia, her wars with Rome, 543 Per'8i-U8, the poet, 372 Per'ti-nax, 427 Pes-cen'ni-uB Nig'er, 428 Peter, St., 525 Pe-tre'iu8, »>3 Pe-tro'ni-u8, 373 Phar'na-ces, sou of Mithridates, 2.50, 307 Phar-sa'lus, battle of. 305 Philip V (See Macedonia) Phi-lip'pi, l)attleof. 320 Phi-o'tis (««rPhthi-o'ti8), 187 Phoe-ni'ci-a, isi Phoe-ni'ci-ans, the, 150 Phrjfg'i-a. u»3 Pip'pin, Mayor of ih»- Palace, r>64, 198, 207 ; taxes, 207, 218, 2.54; evils of government, 214-217; beneHts, 219, reaction on Rome. 2.Vk reforms of Caesar, 313; reforms of Augustus, ;i36. ;W: under Claudiu.s, 363; un.ler Nero. 368; under Trajan,' 406. 407; reformed by Diocletian. 4.59-466 Pru'sa. 406 Ptol'e-my, the geographer. 441 Ptol'e-my Phil-op'a-tor. 185 Pub-li-ca'ni. 248. 2,54 Pub-lll'i-us Phi'lo, Quin'tus. first proconsul, 93; first jiraetor. 126 Pu'bli-us Va-le'ri-us. 4i Pyd'na, battle of, 194 Pyr'rhus, his war with Rome. M2-M Qua'di, wars with Rome, 423 Quae'stor-ship, the, under the kings, 51; open to plebeians, 119; see also p. 288 Quin-til'i-an, 394 Qui-ri'nal Hill. .35, 40 Rae'ti-a, 423 Ramnes, the, .37. .54 Raudine Plains, battle of the, 244 Ra-ven'na, 303 Re'gu-lus, 1.59, 160 Religion, sources of our knowledge, ^5: naturalized deities, 26; national deities, 27; Jupiter, 27; Juno. 27; Mars, 27; Vesta, 27; the Lares and Penates, 27, 237; great number of gods, 28; religious ceremonies, 29, 30; priests, 31 ; attitude toward re- ligion, 29; influence of religion, 32; changed by Greek influence, 237; see also Christianity and thj Mohammedans Re'mus, 37 Representative Government, not introduced in Italy, 28ti: repre.senta- tive assemblies in the provinces 369 Rhe'a Sil'vi-a, 37 Rhe'gi-um, 11 Rhodes, 185 Ric'i-mer, .505 Roads, 137 Ro'land, 574 Roman History, its significance, 7; summary, 1-5; no early records, 43, 58; story of the early republic, 58 Rome, the city, as a capital, 2; natural commercial and political centre, 20, 34 ; growth of the early city, 35; the Seven Hills, 35; date of founding, 36; mythical story of its founding, 37; plan of Servian city, 44; appearance, 45; improvements by the Tarquins, 46 ; aqueducts in- troduced, i:i6; improved by Augus- tus, 340, 341; taken by Alaric, 493; the .seat of the papacy, 526, 527, 550 Rome, the state, a city-state, 2; changes in government, 4; early religi(m, 24-32; government under the kings, 50-56; member of the \ Latin league, 61, 69; conquers her ^ neighbors, 62, 63; wins central Italy, 68-76; conquers southern Italy, 79-91 ; government under the early republic, 95-1 ;«; controls the western Mediterranean, 141-182 -con- trols the eastern Mediterranean, 183 197; territory in 133 B. C„ 206; method of governing provinces'. 807, 214-219; .social and economic re- sults of expansion, 220-237; political results of expansion, 255; reforms I /, :m)2 irOMAN HI STORY INDEX .303 ( Av/V"'^"""-" are to >' >• ) ofSulhi, ;;t)fCa 13: »r AiitJtustus. 3;«-3:ii»-i«;6; "fall" of the empire hi the W.St, 5(K)-511; reorffani/.ation by ('luirU'iiias^ne, .'>71-5T ais<' Summaries Ro'mu-lus. lep'Ti.l of. 37; analysis of storv. 12 Ro'mu-lus Au-gus'tu-lus. last em jH-rnr iri ili.- VVt-si , :••).'). ftO(i RoiKjesval'les. battle uf . 571 Ru-tul'i-ans, 41 Sa'bine. ^8 Sacred Mount, thf. b^f iris Sacred Way, H". < Via SacTa), 2r.i Sa-gun'tum, taU.-u l.y llainiibal. irif< Sa'li-i, 31 Sal'lust, 330 Sam'nites, the, location of. 13; tb'vi-l- opiiirnt. 67; liisi Siuiiiiitr war, r.H; spfoiid Sumnile war, 71 ; battle of the Caiuliiie Forks. 71; thinl Sam- uite war, 74; i-t-asons for 1 tome's siuress.72. Home s rout rol of Sum Ilium, 76; last revolt :igaiiisi Horn.', Sar'a-cen§, the. 54«) Sardinia, taken from r:.rthat"-. 162 Sat'rl-cum. 63 Saxony, .toiHiuered by Charleiiiaiiii''. 573 Scl'pl-0, Lu'ci-us Cor-ne'li-u8, u«i Sci'pi-o Ae-mi-li-a'nuB. Pu'bli-uB Cor-ne'li-us. 2m. 204 Sci'pi-o Af-ri-ca'nus, Pu'bli-us Cor-ne'li-us, lets llalinil.al <'--M^*- 111)11,176; hissnrcess in Sifain. 177; mvades x\frica, 178, 179; wins at Zama, m'; his death. 192 Se-ja'nus. minister of Tiberius. 353- Se-leu'cl-a, i«» Sena Gal'li-ca, 74 Senate, the, foundea by Romulus, :?7; powris under kiu^. 52; mem- bers of the early s.naie :.»: how chosen, 53; e<rath>n, 312; its control of magistrates, 313; sirenKtheued by Sulla, 286 ; number of seiiaiors increased l»y Caesar. 312; under Augustus, :«5; under later emp»-rors. 429; made a muuit-i- pal council. 4«j(i Sen'e-ca, minister and writer, 3r.8, 371 Sen-ti'num- battle of. 75 Ser-a'pis. 237 • Serfdom, 424 Ser-to'ri-us, Quin'tus, 2M4, 290 Ser-vi-li-a'nu8, 199 Ser'vi-UB Tul'li-us, his wall, 40. 44 ; his or^rani/.aiion of the ;irmy, 4(t, 56 Se'ti-a. \-i '^^ Se-ve'rus, Al-ex-an'der. 447, 4.55 Se-ve'rus, Lu'ci-us Seprtim'i-us, made emperor. 4-.'8; his military and let,'al ref>»rms. 444, 445 Sex'ti-us. Lu'ci-us, 121, 122 Sib'yl-line Books. 121 Sicily, taken from Carthage. I'd, _:ov«'rnmeni . l'"* I 1 -'^^ Si'li-U8lt-ari-CU8, tlie p<'et, 3il5 Sll-va'nus, iV si-no'pe, 406 Si-nu-es'sa, i:i.77 Sip'^-lus Mountain, UK) Sir'mi-um, 464 Slavery, i^i. 123,257,323 Social War, the, •)77 379 Societjy, Roman, base.l <.n the fami- ly aiKl elaii, 23; social •hanges, r,; early social classes, 53 Soc'i-i, tlie (or Allies), rights, 88; I, at ins and other allies, 91 Soissons, iswahs-soii'] battle of, 5.55 So-phi'a, St., church of, 5.38. 545 Spain, ileveloped by Carthage. 16(i; cumiuered by Sciido, 177; ceded to Rome. IHl : war under Viriathus, 1l«i, 2(M); war at Xumantia, 2()1 ; di- viiU'd into two i»rovinies, -.'(Hi; occu- pied by tlie \ isigoths, 494; by the Mohammedans, 560 Bpar'ta. 1^6 Spar'ta-cus, 290 Sta'ti-us, the poet 3',t5 Stiri-cbo, 492 Sti-pen'di-um. the 207 Stras'sburg, battle of, 5,56 Su-e-to'ni-us, the historian, 438 Sul'la, Lu'ci-us Cor-ne'li-us. com- mands against Mithridates, 248; his r [Rcfeit /<. ( „ itt r li, ,sr, I (itns. ) tax measures. 254: his el:araeter, 274 ; ends Social War, 279; nins com- mand in the Ktst. 282: overflirows the democracy, 284, 385 ; his consti- tution. 386. 387; his death. 288 Sul-pic'i-us, a democratic le;ider. 282 Sul-pic'i-us Gal'ba, Ser'vl-us, a governor of Spain. 199 Summaries, general summary, 15; description of Italy, 33; events dnr iiig the regal period, 57; conquest of Italy '.M : .vents al home, .')()9 to 264 B.C., 140; conquestof Mediterranean lands, 208 ; events at home, 264 t«» 133 H.C.. 240: political residts of expan- sion, 2.'.5; the growih of the procon- sulship, 2r)f. ;! iionie. i;',3 to 49 B. C, 301 ; last days of the repnb- lic, 331: tlie Julian emperor >, :^76; from \ l» m l(. 193, 445; from A. h li':-5 t. ivr: tlie WarlKiriaii inva- sions. W.W ; T'oi ::;nii/ I l Mn of the empire in Da- w 4, 1.5S, iri: captured by Marcellns, !71 Syria, territory, 1H4; politic:iI i)hu)s. 185; war with Rome. 189 19j; treat- ment by Rome, 198; a province, ',^50 Ta'ci-tus, the historian. 410 Tar-en'tum, conim-'i-cial impor- tance, 11; (luariel with Rome. 81; stunmons I'yrrlius, H2, H3 Tar-qui'ni-us Col-la-ti'nus, 4: Tarquin the Proud, 11 '• • •. Tar-qui'ni-us Prls'cua, an Ktrus- can king, .39 Tar-ra-ci'na, 62 " : Taxes, in the provinces, 207 ' . t - Tel'lus, 27 Ter'ence (Pu'bli-us Te-ren'ti-as A'fer.) writer of comedy, 238 Te-ren'ti-us Varro, Ga'ius, at Ca'i* - nae^ 172 Ter-tul'li-an, a theologian, 468 Tet'ri-cus, 4.52 Teu'to-berg Forest, battle of the 339 Teu'to-nes, the, move southward. 243; detcaieilat Acjnae Sextiae, 244 Thap'sus, battle of, 307 The-od'o-ric, king of the Ostrogoths, 532. 536 Tlie-6d'6-ric, king of the Visigoths, .501 The-o-do'si-us, 491 Ther-mop'y-lae, 189 Thes-sa'li-ans, the, 84 Thes-sa-lo-ni'ca, I37 Thu'ri-i, 11, 80 Ti-be'ri-us, the emperor, adoption, .35(1; Character, 3rd; his reign, 352- 35«; Ti-be'ri-us, a governor of Africa, 541 Tiber River, 34 Tl-bul'lu8, the poet, 348 Ti-Cl'nus River, battle on tlie. 170 Ti-gra'ne§, king of Armeni.i, 248, 2.50 Ti'gris River, 20 Tit'i-es, the, .37.54 Ti'tus, 3S7 Tog'a, tlie, 51 Tours (or Poictiers). battle <.f, .567 Trab'e-a, 5i Tra'jan, reign. 401-408; wars with Dacia. ((»3;with Parthia, 404; Meso- potaania. Aunenia, and A.s.syria made provinces, 405; his treatment of the ( hristians, 407 ; his public im- provements, 408 Tras-i-me'ne, Lake, battle of, 170 Treaties, with the Latins, 61 ; with theCampanians, 68; with the Sam- nifes, 71, 74; with Carthage, 92. 161, 181. 204 ; with Hiero, 1.55; with Mace- donia. 18(1; with Syria, 171: with ,Mithri^a4e.s,^248, 284; with tlie Da- *• Ci.nfs •(<♦'''•'• • - -• ' Irlb'ira Kiv^r;VAtt!e on the, 170 Tre'rus River, 61 Trib€9,»oariy (jlrii-fioc; imoj»3 tribes, • «7f hm^r 'cWDe,*itcrfitu]^dte, ^leWel^rf. established, . 'IX"), 101.*; C(ihjiiro..i/i*se A'Uu the .sen- • -.lie, K25 * limited In'power by Sulla. 286; recovers its prestige, 291; iri- buniciau power taken by Caesar, .■*12; see also p. 387 A m 304 ROMAN HISTORY ( n^ftfi-nres are to gecHons.) Tri-um'vl-rate.ihetirsi. 296-299; the stH-()Uf Spain, 494; occupy Africa, 4*t.'). I'm;; sack Konie," 197; lose Africa to Justinian, .5:19; Ariaus, 4%, 518 Varro, a writer auil general, 303. 326 Va'ruB, a general, 3:^9 Vec'ti-gal, the 2<>7 Ve'ii, wars with Kome, f^K t'.2 Ve'U-trae. 13 Vel-le'iuB Pa-ter'cu-lus, im, 3i9. 3;.l Ven'e-ti, 65 Ve-nu'sl-a, 75 Ver-Cln-get'O-riX, Gallic leader, 2«5 Ver'gil. 316 Ver're§, a governor of Sicily. ;'.n» Ves-pa'si-an, pn«ci;iiiiicf. 4H5; becoiiic '"liriitii.ui :'f<^: * 'Itiwu south v.y tl/e Hiki>; -^S.^pKaieOtiii' the Konians at Adrianople. 49«): set- tle in Rom&»«.t«^ri«itory,»4(JW;. iaU« Konie, 4t«U9:t' *^-P^'l'y/*>P:*»f ^^^*^ Gaul, 494* helpdrt;,W AuaA..fi81-5<'!i; lose southern Spain to Justinian. 541; lose ^j:iirl ton he FranK^ r">*<. and Spain to the Mohammedans, 566 Vl-tel'll-ua, 3T7. 378 Vol'acl-anB, the, location of, 13; ^^ars with Koine, »'.2 Vol-Bln'i-i. 85 Wars (arranged chronologically), with Veil, 60; with the Aetiuians and Volsciaus, 63, 63 ; tirst Samnile, 68; Latin, 69; second Samhlte,71; third Samnite, 74; with Pyrrhus, 79-84; tirst Punic, 154-161; Illyrian, 165; Gallic. 165; second Pimle, 168- 181; li.'-t Macedonian, 175; second Macedonian, 186, 187; with Antio- chus,189-l91; third Macedonian, 194; with Numantia, 201; third Punic, 2U3. 204: Jugtirthine, 272; with the Ciuibri and Teiitones. 243; Social War, 277-279; war with Mithridates, 248,250; between Mariusand Sulla, 282. 284, 2H5; with £e' torius. 21K),- with Spartacus, 290; vat theGauls. 245; beiwien Caesar and the Pom- ix^ans, 302-:i(i9; between the trium- virs and the republicans, 320; be- tween Octavlus and Antony, 322; with the clenuans. 339; between \ cNj)usiati ami V'ilellius, 378; with the Jews. :W3; with theDaciaus,403; with Parthia, 404, 422; with the Marcomanni, 423; with Palmyra. 451 ; with the "Gailie Empire, " 452; witn the (iernians, 531; between Justinian and the West, 539-541 ; with Persia, 542; of the Franks and their neighbors, 5,58; with the Moham- medans, btm, 567; of Charlemagne, 571-574 Wi(J'u-klnd. Saxon hader. .573 Wit'i-ge§.540 Xan-thip'puB. 15'.< * Zi'-mA,. bat tie of. 180 Zh'iB.'. battle <.f. :iC'7 Ze-nob'l-a, queen of Palmyra. 451, 4*8 I 1 COLUMB A UNIVERSITY 032021160 87^ I Ab^ ■4: p \./ 1— I fa' . iJBiIHtlMHB^Bii 31