REPORT 
 
 ON THE 
 
 WATERS OF THE HUDSON RIVER. 
 
 TOGETIIKK WITH AN 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SAME, 
 
 MADE TO THE 
 
 WATER COMMISSIONERS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CITY OF ALBANY. 
 
 BY 
 
 C F. CHA N D LER, PH.D. - 
 JANUARY, 1885. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 TROWS PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING CO., 
 •JO 1-21 3 East Twelfth Street. 
 I iss:>. 
 
II vth the compliments of 
 
 C. F. CHAN DLER, 
 
 SCHOOL OF MINES, 
 
 Columbia College, 
 
 49th Street, cor. 4th Ayh., New York, 
 
 who will be greatly obliged for copies of Water Analyses 
 and Pamphlets on Sanitary Subjects. 
 

 c 
 
 Digitized by 
 
 the Internet Archivi 
 in 2013 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 http://archive.org/details/reportonwatersofOOchan 
 
REPORT 
 
 ON THE 
 
 WATERS OF THE HUDSON 1UVEK. 
 
 TOGETHER WITH AN 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SAME, 
 
 MADE TO THE 
 
 WATER COMMISSIONERS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CITY OF ALU ANY, 
 
 BY 
 
 C. F. CHANDLER, PH.D. 
 JANUARY, 1885. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 TROWS PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING CO., 
 801-218 East Twklftii BTBHBT, 
 1885. 
 
- ^9 
 
 ■ Aw j 
 
EE PORT. 
 
 New York, January 31, 1885. 
 To the Board of Water Commissioners of the City of Albany : 
 
 Gentlemen : In accordance with your request, I have 
 made a careful study of the water of the Hudson River a! 
 Albany, with special reference to its present condition, and 
 to the question whether it is still safe to rely upon it as a 
 source of supply for the city of Albany. 
 
 As you are aware, I had the honor to be called upon to 
 investigate this subject, by the Board of Water Commission- 
 ers in 1872, and my conclusions were embodied in the follow- 
 ing paragraph at the end of the report which I made in that 
 year : 
 
 "The most careful examination of the water has failed to 
 reveal anything to sight, taste, smell, or analysis, which can 
 be considered as throwing the slightest suspicion upon the 
 purity of the water of the Hudson, or its fitness for supply- 
 ing a perfectly wholesome beverage for the citizens of Albany. 
 I am further confirmed in this opinion by the careful compar- 
 ison of the river and its surroundings with the sources of 
 supply in other cities in this country and Europe. I have no 
 hesitation, therefore, in recommending it as a suitable and 
 proper source of supply." 
 
 I understand you to ask me now whether anything has 
 occurred during the past thirteen years to lead me to change 
 my opinion as expressed in 1872 ; whether new methods of 
 chemical analysis may not have been introduced which make 1 
 it possible to discover contaminations which could not be 
 recognized by the methods formerly employed ; whether other 
 methods of analysis, especially microscopic and culture ex- 
 periments, may not reveal the presence of dangerous organ* 
 isms which would escape every method of chemical analysis ; 
 whether the knowledge of zymotic diseases has not advanced 
 to such a degree as to compel different conclusions ; and 
 finally, whether the test of experience in the city of Albany 
 
4 
 
 lias not demonstrated the danger of making use of this source 
 of water supply. 
 
 I have carefully considered each of these questions and 
 will briefly state the results. 
 
 I. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 In 1872, 1 made an analysis of a sample of the water taken 
 from the river outside the pier opposite Quackenbusli Street, 
 on March 14th, by the methods then in use for such analyses. 
 The following were the results : 
 
 The suspended impurities which rendered the water tur- 
 bid, being temporary in character, were allowed to subside ; 
 the clear water was then found to contain the following sub- 
 stances in one United States gallon of 231 cubic inches. An 
 analysis of the Croton water was presented at the same time 
 for comparison. 
 
 I. ANALYSIS OF THE WATER. 
 
 
 Hudson 
 
 River. 
 
 Croton River. 
 
 
 0.361 grains. 
 
 0.402 grains. 
 
 
 0.157 
 
 
 
 0.076 
 
 t'i 
 
 0". 1 79 " 
 
 
 
 
 0.260 " 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 0.980 
 
 it 
 
 0.158 " 
 
 
 4.165 
 
 
 2.670 " 
 
 
 1.397 
 
 (( 
 
 1.913 " 
 
 
 0.408 
 
 (1 
 
 0.621 " 
 
 
 0.070 
 
 II 
 
 a trace. 
 
 
 0.G99 
 
 C 
 
 0.670 " 
 
 Total 
 
 8.313 grains. 
 
 6.873 grains. 
 
 
 3.35° 
 
 
 2.51° 
 
 The above figures represented the compounds as they 
 were believed to exist in solution in the water. It should be 
 noticed that the Hudson River water compares very favor- 
 ably with the Croton in purity, the total difference per gal- 
 lon being only 1.54 grains. 
 
 It was clearly recognized at that time that the mineral 
 constituents of a water, while they might be of importance 
 in determining the value of a water for manufacturing or 
 culinary purposes, are not, unless present in very unusual 
 quantities, many times the amount contained in the Hudson 
 
River water, of any Significance in discussing the fitness bt 
 water ['or drinking purposes. It was well understood that 
 the only constituents that could possibly produce disease 
 were the organic constituents, — namely, those derived from 
 sewage, — and it was we'll recognized that the method of dial in* 
 guishing wholesome Prom unwholesome organic matter wad 
 not very accurate?. I did not, therefore, at that time rely 
 upon the analysis, but carefully discussed the waters of the 
 Hudson River as compared to those of other huge rivers 
 which had been found to be entirely satisfactory for domes- 
 tic purposes in other parts of the world, the discussion being 
 based upon other considerations than chemical composition, 
 namely, the drainage area, population, flow of stream, etc. 
 
 Since that time considerable progress has been made in 
 the chemical analysis of waters, with special reference to the 
 examination for sewage contamination. It has been found 
 that where water has been contaminated with sewage it 
 will exhibit, when tested by the new methods of analysis, 
 the unchanged organic substances of the sewage, which can 
 be recognized and estimated in quantity by distilling the 
 water with permanganate of potash. This process converts 
 the albuminoids of the sewage into ammonia, the amount of 
 which can be determined with great accuracy. From this 
 the amount of albuminoids in the water can be computed. 
 It is further found that the sewage in the water is rapidly 
 destroyed, and that the products of this destruction are am- 
 monia salts, commonly spoken of as 41 free ammonia," and 
 nitrates and nitrites. When, therefore, water has been re- 
 cently contaminated by sewage, the amount of such contam- 
 ination can now be determined with great accuracy by an 
 analysis which shows the amount of free ammonia, albumi- 
 noid ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates, and as far as determin- 
 ing the extent to which the water is contaminated, this 
 method is quite satisfactory. 
 
 I have carefully applied it to samples of the Hudson River 
 water, having twice visited Albany for the purpose of observ- 
 ing the local surroundings of the river, and of procuring sam- 
 ples. 1 have been assisted in these analyses by Dr. Elwyn 
 Waller, the Instructor in Analytical Chemistry in the School 
 of Mines, who has been engaged in making similar analyses 
 of waters in other localities for the Stale Hoard of Health. L 
 
6 
 
 also procured from a friend in Troy a sample of the water of 
 the river taken above Lansingburg, and a sample of the water 
 drawn from a hydrant in Troy. 
 
 It will be noticed that samples were taken from the river 
 at the inlet to the pumping station, both at high and low 
 tide, on two different days, as well as from the Bleecker Reser- 
 voir and Tivoli Lake 
 
 The results of these analyses are presented in tabular 
 form. Table II presents them expressed in grains per United 
 States gallon of 231 cubic inches. Table III presents them 
 in parts per 100,000, this being a European method of 
 presenting such analyses. It will be noticed on inspecting 
 the tables that two analyses have been made in several 
 cases, as indicated by the numbers. Two demijohns of 
 water were taken in each of those cases. The analyses 
 marked 5c, 6c, 9c, and 10c, were made of the clear water in 
 the demijohn after allowing the sediment to subside. The 
 analyses marked 5s, 6s, 9s, and 10s, were made from the 
 water of the duplicate demijohn, care being taken to first 
 shake the demijohn in order to bring all the sediment into 
 suspension, so that the analyses include the sediment in 
 these four cases. The figures in the tables represent all the 
 analyses that were made. The important columns are those 
 which show the "chloride of sodium," the "nitrogen in ni- 
 trates and nitrites," the "free ammonia," and the "albu- 
 minoid ammonia," these being the figures which represent 
 the organic matter derived from all sources. 
 
 As chloride of sodium, or common salt, is a substance 
 which is freely used in all dwellings, it naturally finds its 
 way into the drainage, and the amount of this substance in 
 water is found to indicate, to some extent, the variations in 
 the quality, though it is of little use in comparing samples * 
 of water from different localities. • 
 
 To facilitate comparisons, Tables IV and V have been 
 prepared. They exhibit the results of these analyses shown 
 as whole numbers in ten-thousandths of a grain in one U. S. 
 gallon of 231 cubic inches, and in parts in one thousand mil- 
 lion. 
 
 For further comparison tables of analyses of American and 
 Foreign waters are presented. 
 
7 
 
 INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS. 
 
 It will be seen from a careful comparison of the analyses 
 of the Albany and Troy waters that the water at Albany ac- 
 tually contains a smaller quantity of albuminoids than the 
 water above Troy, in spite of the fact that there is undoubt- 
 edly some addition of matter to the river in its passage past 
 Troy, while the products of the destruction of organic matter, 
 that is, free ammonia and nitrates and nitrites, have increased. 
 This is entirely in keeping with the theory of spontaneous pu- 
 rification. Running streams may receive moderate quantities 
 of organic matter and lose the same by chemical changes which 
 take place in the water. In my report in 1872 I devoted con- 
 siderable space to the subject of spontaneous purification, 
 and quoted largely from the best European authorities to 
 support the opinion which I gave, that such spontaneous 
 purification takes place. This position was not satisfactory 
 to those citizens of Albany, who had made up their minds be- 
 forehand that the Hudson River water must be largely im- 
 pure, and the possibility of such purification was seriously 
 questioned in the discussions which ensued. 
 
 This process has been thoroughly investigated in the past 
 few years, and it is now admitted by all writers upon the 
 subject. It is hardly necessary, therefore, to present any fur- 
 ther evidence upon this point. The writings of Frankland, 
 Tidy, Warington, Poleck, and many others, are very explicit 
 npon the subject. Lest there may possibly exist unbelievers 
 in this process I venture to insert the following quotations : 
 
 " It must, nevertheless, be borne in mind that by the con- 
 stant exposure of fresh surfaces of polluted water to the ac- 
 tion of the atmosphere, which is accomplished in a running 
 stream, the organic matter is oxidized, and may thus be 
 eventually converted into products which are perfectly harm- 
 less ; in other words, a river is competent to effect its own 
 purification unless overtaxed with pollution" (Huxlev, 
 1878). 
 
 " The decay of organic matter is the joint work of a num- 
 ber of independent organisms of different functions, the ac- 
 tion of one class following that of another, and carrying the 
 process through a further stage. We are too Imperfectly ac- 
 
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 TV. Results of the Analyses 
 Expressed in Ten- thousandths of a Grain per U. 8. Gallon of 231 Cubic Inches. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Mohawk Paver, above Diamond "Woolleu Mills 
 
 Hudson River, above Lansingburg 
 
 Troy Hydrant , 
 
 Hudson River, at Maple Island 
 
 Hudson River, at Albanv- 
 At inlet, high tide . . . 
 At inlet, 
 
 At inlet, low tide . . . 
 
 At inlet, " 
 
 At inlet, high tide... 
 
 At inlet, low tide 
 
 Bleecker Reservoir 
 
 Average for river water used at Albany 
 
 Tivoli Lake 
 
 Average for Tivoli Lake 
 
 1 1 
 
 Sodium te^ eni 3 
 „w\ ItXaZ nitrates and 
 chloride. nitritep> 
 
 Free 1 Albumi- 
 ammonia. 
 
 j monia. 
 
 2,160 
 
 411 
 
 26 
 
 43 
 
 • 
 
 2.1C0 
 2,160 
 1,540 
 
 144 
 166 
 358 
 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 87 
 89 
 48 
 
 3,090 
 3,090 
 3,400 
 3,400 
 2,160 
 1,700 
 3,150 
 3,150 
 
 161 
 154 
 
 275 
 168 
 377 
 353 
 282 
 285 
 
 37 
 22 
 16 
 29 
 31 
 37 
 30 
 27 
 
 59 
 83 
 7S 
 72 
 66 
 52 
 40 
 59 
 
 2,892 
 
 257 
 
 28 
 
 63 
 
 7,730 
 ! 7,730 
 8,960 
 
 296 
 356 
 778 
 
 107 
 115 
 
 220 
 
 47 
 163 
 69 
 
 8,140 
 
 477 
 
 147 
 
 93 
 
 Y. Results of the Analyses 
 
 Expressed in Parts in One Thousand Million. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Sodium 
 chloride. 
 
 Nitrogen in 
 nitratesand 
 nitrites. 
 
 Free 
 ammonia. 
 
 Albumi- 
 noid am- 
 monia. 
 
 1 
 
 Mohawk River, above Diamond Woollen Mills 
 
 3,710 
 
 705 
 
 44 
 
 74 
 
 7 
 
 
 3,710 
 3,710 
 
 247 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 284 
 
 15 
 
 151 
 
 5 
 
 
 2,650 
 
 614 
 
 14 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 5c 
 5s 
 6c 
 6s 
 
 Hudson River, at Albany — 
 
 5,300 
 5,300 
 5,830 
 5,830 
 3,710 
 2,910 
 
 277 
 
 64 
 
 38 
 
 102 
 
 
 265 
 
 142 
 
 
 471 
 
 288 
 
 28 
 
 134 
 
 
 50 
 
 124 
 
 7 
 
 
 647 
 
 54 
 
 114 
 
 8 
 
 
 606 
 
 64 
 
 90 
 
 9c 
 9* 
 
 
 5,410 
 5,410 
 
 484 
 
 52 
 
 68 
 
 
 489 
 
 46 
 
 102 
 
 
 
 4,962 
 
 441 
 
 49 
 
 109 
 
 10c 
 10* 
 11 
 
 
 13,250 
 13,2f,0 
 15,370 
 
 507 
 
 184 
 
 80 
 
 
 611 
 
 198 
 
 280 
 
 ii 
 
 1,334 
 
 380 
 
 118 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13,957 
 
 817 
 
 254 
 
 159 
 
 
 
 
 
 
11 
 
 VI. American Watkbs. 
 The Results are Expressed in Ten-Thouscnutths <>f << Gram per U. 8. Gallon 
 
 of -J-'il '( \ihir Jnclo-s. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 New York City— 
 Croton River 
 
 Boston, Mass. — 
 
 Cochituate Lake. 
 
 Farm Pond 
 
 Sudbury River. 
 
 Springfield, Mass.— 
 Broad Brook. . . 
 
 Lowell. Mass. — 
 
 Meirimac Iliver * . 
 
 " t . 
 
 " x . 
 
 Worcester, Mass.— 
 Blackstone River § 
 
 M | 
 
 M ^ 
 
 Taunton, Mass. — 
 
 Taunton River 
 
 New London, Conn. — 
 
 Lake Konomac 
 
 Plymouth. Mass. — 
 
 S.mth Pond 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich. — 
 
 Grand River 
 
 Toronto, Canada — 
 
 Lake Ontario 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa.— 
 
 Schuylkill River. . . 
 
 Delaware River 
 
 Portsmouth, Va. — 
 
 Dismal Swamp 
 
 Cincinnati, O. — 
 
 Ohio River 
 
 Nashville, Tenn. — 
 
 Cumberland River . . 
 St. Louis, Mo. — 
 
 Missouri River 
 
 Mississippi River . . . 
 Jersey City, N. J. — 
 
 Passaic River 
 
 Watertown, N. Y. — 
 
 Black River 
 
 Yonkere, N. Y.— 
 
 Grassy Spring River 
 Hudson, N. Y. — 
 
 Hudson River 
 
 Poughkccpsie, N. Y. 
 Hudson River . . 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y.— 
 
 Ridgewood 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. — 
 Oneida Lake . . . 
 Tally Lake 
 
 ..m ix. 
 
 . .min. 
 
 . max. 
 . min. 
 .max. 
 . .min. 
 
 Dat 
 
 e. 
 
 Chloride 
 of 
 
 sodium. 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen in 
 nitrates 
 
 and 
 nitrites. 
 
 1 
 
 Free 
 ammonia. 
 
 Albuminoid 
 ammonia. 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 Dec, 
 
 1SS-1 
 
 3,090 
 
 379 
 
 5 
 39 
 
 52 
 113 
 
 E. Waller. 
 
 W. R. Nichols. 
 
 Nov., 
 
 1SS1 
 
 2,020 
 
 
 9 
 19 
 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 57 
 (17 
 202 
 158 
 176 
 
 „ 
 
 Ira Remsen. 
 E. S. Wood. 
 
 Jan., 
 Apr., 
 
 1876 
 1S73 
 
 2,429 
 1,M8 
 4,275 
 
 
 58 
 38 
 11 
 
 70 
 
 C. O. Thompson 
 W. R. Nichols 
 C. 0. Thompson 
 
 Sep., 
 
 1S73 
 it 
 
 1,359 
 1,912 
 1,749 
 
 .... 
 
 :::: 
 
 29 
 25 
 18 
 
 06 
 04 
 74 
 
 W. R. Nichols. 
 
 : -! 
 
 1873 
 " 
 
 15.550 
 
 o.utr 
 
 5,053 
 
 .... 
 
 2.157 
 145 
 29 
 
 239 
 128 
 87 
 
 
 Aug., 
 
 1877 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 123 
 
 
 Dec, 
 
 1S79 
 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 it ii 
 
 June, 
 
 1877 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 99 
 
 
 Nov., 
 
 1879 
 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 Hugo Thum. 
 
 Nov., 
 
 1S81 
 
 3,207 
 
 134 
 
 • ; 
 
 63 
 
 W. H. Ellis. 
 
 Jan., 
 June, 
 Nov., 
 
 1SS0 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 3.304 
 
 sv«ifl 
 
 9,135 
 18,175 
 
 886 
 356 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 145 
 104 
 15 
 110 
 
 G. F. Barker. 
 A. R. Le. ds. 
 
 H. LeiTmann. 
 
 Nov., 
 
 18S4 
 
 896 
 
 469 
 
 13 
 
 437 
 
 E. Waller. 
 
 Nov., 
 
 1SS0 
 
 12.79S 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 C. R. Stuntz. 
 
 Oct., 
 
 1S70 
 
 2,8S7 
 
 005 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 U. T. Lupton 
 
 Jan., 
 
 1>7» 
 
 
 
 7 
 15 
 
 122 
 519 
 
 G. W. Riggs. 
 
 Jan., 
 
 18M) 
 
 2. 165 
 
 997 
 
 29 
 
 219 
 
 A. R. Leeds. 
 
 June, 
 
 1S81 
 
 509 
 
 84 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 E. Waller. 
 
 Feb., 
 
 1875 
 
 3.175 
 
 
 32 
 
 54 
 
 W. R. NichoK 
 
 Nov., 
 Dec, 
 Jan., 
 
 1877 
 
 \s-- t 
 
 1878 
 
 ^880 
 3.175 
 
 
 34 
 29 
 71 
 
 88 
 88 
 77 
 
 
 Nov. 13/77 
 Nov. lit. "77 
 
 8.081 
 8,081 
 
 
 63 
 80 
 
 115 
 91 
 
 
 May. 
 
 1S«5| 
 
 11.013 
 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 E. EL Bartley. 
 
 t 
 
 1- 
 
 1884 
 
 5.759 
 5,279 
 
 
 . 13 
 18 
 
 59 
 120 
 
 F. Engelhardt. 
 
 * Above Lowell. 
 
 t Below Lowell, above Lvwrence. 
 X Below Lawrence. 
 
 § Below Worcester. 
 
 | Five miles below Worcester. 
 
 ^ Twenty miles below Worcester. 
 
12 
 
 Y1I. American Waters. 
 The Results are Expressed in Parts in One Thousand Million. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
 15 
 If, 
 17 
 
 IS 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 20 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 
 38 
 89 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 42 
 
 jNew York City— 
 
 Croton River 
 
 .Boston, Mass. — 
 
 Cochituate Lake max. 
 
 " min. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Chloride 
 
 of 
 sodium. 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen in 
 
 nitrates 
 and 
 
 'nitrites. 
 
 £ 2 ! 
 
 ,5 s 
 
 P o 
 § 3 
 
 Dec, 1SS4 ! 5,300 
 
 Nov., 1881 
 
 Farm Pond max. 
 
 " " min. 
 
 Sudbury River max. 
 
 " " min. 
 
 Springfield, Mass. — 
 
 Broad Brook 
 
 Jan., 
 
 April, 
 Lowell, Mass. — 
 
 Merrimac River* Sep., 
 
 " t I " 
 
 " t 
 Worcester, Mass. — 
 
 Blackstone River § . . . 
 
 " II ... 
 
 ' : T... 
 
 Taunton, Mass. — 
 
 Taunton River Aug., 
 
 New London, Conn. — 
 
 LakeKonomac Dec, 
 
 Plymouth, Mass. — 
 
 South Pond June, 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich. — 
 
 Grand River Nov., 
 
 Toronto, Canada- 
 Lake Ontario Nov., 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. — 
 
 Schuylkill River 
 
 
 9,900 
 3,465 
 
 1876 
 1S73 
 
 4.165 
 3,333 
 7,330 
 
 1873 
 
 2,330 
 3,330 
 3,000 
 
 1873 
 
 26.665 
 11,330 
 8.065 
 
 1S77 
 
 
 1879 
 
 
 1877 
 
 
 1879 
 
 
 18S1 
 
 ; 5,500 
 
 Delaware River 
 
 Portsmouth, Va. — 
 
 Dismal Swamp 
 
 Cincinnati, O. — ■ 
 
 Ohio River 
 
 Nashville, Tenn. — 
 
 Cumberland River. 
 St. Louis, Mo. — 
 
 Missouri River 
 
 Mississippi River. . , 
 Jersey City, N. J. — 
 
 Jan., 
 June, 
 Nov., 
 
 Nov., 
 Nov., 
 Oct., 
 Jan., 
 
 18S0 
 1880 
 lb81 
 
 1884 
 
 1876 
 1878 
 
 5.605 
 5,000 
 15,065 
 31,165 
 
 1,537 
 
 21.945 
 
 4,950 
 
 Watertown, N. Y.- 
 Black River . . 
 
 Yonkers, N. Y.— 
 Grassy Spring 
 
 Hudson, N. Y.— 
 Hudson River 
 
 Poughkeepsi' 3 , N. Y.- 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. — 
 Oneida Lake. . 
 Tully Lake ... 
 
 651 
 
 230 
 
 1.520 
 610 
 
 805 
 
 1,140 
 
 June, 1880 
 
 3,712 
 
 1,710 
 
 June, 1SS1 
 
 874 
 
 145 
 
 Feb., 1875 
 
 5,445 
 
 
 Nov., 1877 
 Dec, 18^7 
 Jan., 1878 
 
 4,950 
 5,445 
 
 
 Nov. 13. -77 
 Nov. 19, '77 
 
 5.283 
 5,283 
 
 
 May, 1SS4 
 
 19,965 
 
 
 — , 1884 
 
 5 
 
 9,S76 
 9,053 
 
 :::: 
 
 07 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 
 43 
 5 
 
 100 
 66 
 20 
 
 47 
 44 
 31 
 
 3,700 
 250 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 10 
 
 
 so 
 
 23 
 50 
 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 50 
 24 
 
 55 
 
 59 
 51 
 123 
 
 109 
 104 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 32 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 90 
 
 195 
 99 
 116 
 
 450 
 272 
 302 
 S4 
 
 130 
 128 
 120 
 
 114 
 110 
 127 
 
 410 
 220 
 150 
 
 211 
 
 160 
 
 170 
 
 178 
 
 109 
 
 250 
 180 
 20 
 200 
 
 751 
 
 156 
 
 40 
 
 210 
 890 
 
 377 
 
 66 
 
 93 
 
 152 
 152 
 133 
 
 197 
 157 
 
 102 
 216 
 
 E. Waller. 
 
 W. R. Nichols. 
 
 Ira Remsen. 
 
 E. S. Wood. 
 
 C. O. Thompson. 
 W. R. Nichols. 
 C. O. Thompson. 
 
 W. R. Nichols. 
 
 Hugo Thnm. 
 W. H. Ellis. 
 
 G. F. Barker. 
 A. R. Leeds. 
 
 H. Left'mann. 
 
 |E. Waller. 
 
 Ic R. Stuntz. 
 
 i 
 
 N. T. Lupton. 
 G. W. Riggs. 
 
 A. R. Leeds. 
 E. Waller. 
 W. R. Nichols. 
 
 E. H. Bartley. 
 
 F. Engelhardt. 
 
 * Above Lowell. 
 
 t Below Lowell, above Lawrence. 
 $ Below Lawrence. 
 
 § Below Worcester. 
 
 || Five miles below Worcester. 
 
 If Twenty miles below Worcester. 
 
VIII. Waters of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 The llesults are Expressed in Ten4hou8andths of a Grain per U. S. Gallon of 281 
 
 Cubic Inches. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Date. 
 
 
 
 Chloride 
 
 of 
 sodium. 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen in 
 nil rates 
 
 and 
 nitriies. 
 
 . 
 
 pi 
 
 9 '3 
 
 SB 
 
 Albuminoid 
 ammonia. 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 
 London, River Thames — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Chelsea Company 
 
 March, 1888 
 
 18,471 
 
 1,248 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 
 Chloride of sodium 
 
 2 
 
 West Middlesex Company. 
 
 
 13,471 
 
 1,689 
 
 23 
 
 41 
 
 
 and nitrogen in 
 
 3 
 
 Southwark and Vauxhall 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nitrates, etc., t,y 
 
 
 Oompftny 
 
 
 
 14,484 
 
 1,010 
 
 35 
 
 47 
 
 
 E. Frankland. 
 
 4 
 
 Grand Junction Company. 
 
 
 
 14.434 
 
 1,809 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 
 •Free and albumi- 
 
 5 
 
 I.ambeth Company 
 
 it 
 
 
 15,3% 
 
 2,998 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 
 noid ammonia. 
 
 
 London, River Len 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bv J. A. Wank- 
 
 6 
 
 New River Company 
 
 
 
 15,300 
 
 2.1S7 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 
 lyn and W. J. 
 
 7 
 
 Mast TiOndon Company. 
 
 
 
 1C..:;.")S 
 
 1,866 
 
 12 
 
 29 
 
 
 Cooper. 
 
 a 
 
 
 Nov., 
 
 18S1 
 
 1 1,6 17 
 
 1,826 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 F. P. Perkins. 
 
 9 
 
 Readin ,r River Ivcuurt 
 
 
 
 11,043 
 
 624 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 J. Shea. 
 
 ,0 
 
 Worcester, Rivers Severn and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .May, 
 
 
 '2,027 
 
 624 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 H. Swete. 
 
 11 
 
 Kind's Lynn, River (iaywood.. 
 
 Nov., 
 
 
 81,843 
 
 2,082 
 
 18 
 
 70 
 
 W. Johnstone. 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 11,043 
 
 3,330 
 
 8 
 
 38 
 
 R. Oxland. 
 
 13 
 
 Coatham. River Tees 
 
 Dec, 
 
 1S77 
 
 7.704 
 
 373 
 
 68 
 
 58 
 
 
 C W. Wigner. 
 
 14 
 
 Isle of Wight. River Yar 
 
 Sep., 
 
 
 72,205 
 
 583 
 
 41 
 
 59 
 
 
 15 
 
 Carnarvon, Qucllyn Lake 
 
 
 it 
 
 14.071 
 
 233 
 
 2D 
 
 39 
 
 
 16 
 
 Mnyport, river water 
 
 Aug.. 
 
 
 10,(i72 
 
 406 
 
 27 
 
 59 
 
 
 17 
 
 Whitehaven, Ennerdale Lake.. 
 
 
 
 7,814 
 
 236 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 
 18 
 
 Portmadoc, lake water 
 
 Sep., 
 
 
 18.1.9 
 
 216 
 
 98 
 
 57 
 
 
 1!) 
 
 
 Oct., 
 
 
 18,646 
 
 117 
 
 34 
 
 50 
 
 
 20 
 
 Llanfairfeohan, river water . .. 
 
 Nov.. 
 
 
 10,730 
 
 288 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 April. 
 
 1S7<; 
 
 not det. 
 
 150 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 Wm. Muir. 
 
 22 
 
 it It It 4c 
 
 March, 
 
 1SS2 
 
 0,062 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 E. J. Mills. 
 
 K 
 
 
 Dec. , 
 
 li>81 
 
 13,568 
 
 trace 
 
 17 
 
 50 
 
 C. A Cameron. 
 
 * Average for twelve months. 
 
 IX. Waters of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 The Results are Repressed in Parts in One Thousand Million. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 London, River Thames— 
 
 1 Chelsea Company 
 
 2 I West Middlesex Company . 
 
 3 Southwark and Vauxhall 
 
 Company 
 
 1 Grand Junction Company . 
 
 5 Lambeth Company 
 
 London, River Lea — 
 
 6 New River Company 
 
 7 East London < 'ompany . . . 
 
 ,s Bxeter, River Bxe 
 
 9 Beading, River Kennt t 
 
 10 Worcester. Rivers Severn and 
 ! Vyrnwy 
 
 11 King's Lynn, River Gay wood. . 
 
 12 Plymouth, peat bogs 
 
 13 Coatham, River Tees 
 
 14 Isle of Wight. Hiver Yar 
 
 15 Carnarvon. Quellyn Lake 
 
 16 Mayport. river water 
 
 17 Whitehaven. Ennerdale Lake. . 
 
 IS Portmadoc. lake water 
 
 10 Lynt >n, river water 
 
 20 Llanfairfeehan. river water 
 
 21 Glasgow, Loch Katri::e 
 
 22 " " •« * 
 
 Dublin, Loch Vartry . 
 
 Date. 
 
 Chloride 
 
 of 
 sodium. 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen in 
 nitrates 
 
 and 
 nitrites. 
 
 Free j 
 ammonia. 
 
 o i 
 
 2 § 
 
 - z. 
 
 5 £ 
 
 - S 
 < a 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 March 
 
 ,1883 
 
 23.100 
 
 2,140 
 
 00 
 
 60 
 
 
 Chloride of sodium 
 
 
 
 28,100 
 
 2.640 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 
 and nitrogen in 
 
 
 
 24750 
 
 
 
 
 
 nitrates, etc., by 
 
 
 
 3,290 
 
 00 
 
 80 
 
 
 E. Frankland. 
 
 
 
 21. Toil 
 
 3.090 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 
 ■Free and albumi- 
 
 
 
 20,400 
 
 3,940 
 
 40 
 
 CO 
 
 
 noid ammonia, 
 
 
 
 26, 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 by J. A. Wank- 
 
 tt 
 
 
 3,750 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 
 lyn and \\ . .1. 
 
 
 u 
 
 28,960 
 
 3,200 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 
 Cooper. 
 
 Nov., 
 
 1881 
 
 l'.t.M'O 
 
 3,130 
 
 26 
 
 44 
 
 F. P. Perkins. 
 
 
 
 10. 963 
 
 1,070 
 
 7 
 
 00 
 
 J. Shea. 
 
 
 
 78.096 
 
 1.070 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 H. Swete. 
 
 Nov., 
 
 
 87,456 
 
 4.600 
 
 31 
 
 120 
 
 W. Johnstone. 
 
 
 
 17.300 
 
 657 
 
 12 
 
 197 
 
 R. Oxland. 
 
 Dec, 
 
 1877 
 
 i:i.-'0:> 
 
 bin 
 
 117 
 
 100 
 
 
 G. W. Wigner. 
 
 Sep., 
 
 
 121.915 
 
 1,0(1(1 
 
 71 
 
 101 
 
 
 
 tt 
 
 84,81 
 
 100 
 
 34 
 
 67 
 
 
 Am,'., 
 
 
 18,800 
 
 800 
 
 46 
 
 101 
 
 
 
 
 13.400 
 
 404 
 
 61 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 22,600 
 
 371 
 
 169 
 
 97 
 
 
 Oct., 
 
 t. 
 
 28,4 n 
 
 200 
 
 6» 
 
 or, 
 
 
 Nov., 
 
 
 1S.IIKI 
 
 400 
 
 80 
 
 48 
 
 
 April, 
 
 1878 
 
 not det. 
 
 23S 
 
 10 
 
 S5 
 
 Wm. Muir. 
 
 March, 18B9 
 
 111,395 
 
 SO 
 
 ii 
 
 80 
 
 K. .1. Mills. 
 
 Dee., 
 
 l.\N| 
 
 28,266 
 
 trace * 
 
 29 
 
 86 
 
 C. A. Cameron. 
 
 * Avcrago for twelve months. 
 
14 
 
 quainted with the organisms effecting these changes, and 
 their particular functions have been too little studied, for 
 any accurate sketch of these processes to be given. In the 
 first rank we must probably place the fungi, whose main 
 function is apparently the rapid oxidation of carbon. Fol- 
 lowing these we have the innumerable army of bacteria, em- 
 bracing many families of very similar pl^sical structure, but 
 endowed with very different chemical powers. One class of 
 these bacteria attacks nitrogenous organic matter and liber- 
 ates the nitrogen in the form of ammonia ; while another 
 class of bacteria determines the conversion of carbonaceous 
 organic matter and ammonia into simple organic bodies — 
 carbonic and nitric acids. Lastly, we have the chlorophyll- 
 bearing plants, which consume the carbonic acid, ammonia, 
 and nitric acid produced by lower organisms, and are also 
 capable of assimilating urea and other amide bodies, and a 
 large number of inorganic ash constituents" (Warington, 
 1880). 
 
 " En resume, the little beings which we have been consid- 
 ering have an important role : they cause the return of dead 
 organic matter to the atmosphere and to water. 
 
 " Without them, organic matter, even exposed to the air, 
 would not be destroyed, or would be transformed with ex- 
 treme slowness, in consequence of a slow combustion pro- 
 duced by oxygen. With them, on the contrary, its destruc- 
 tion takes a rapid march and becomes complete. If, then, 
 the equilibrium is maintained between living nature and 
 dead nature, if the air has always the same composition, if 
 the waters are always equally fertilizing, it is thanks to the 
 infinitely minute agents of fermentation and putrefaction" 
 (Magnin from Duclaux, 1878). 
 
 Hulwa, in his investigation of the River Oder, before it 
 enters and after it has passed through the City of Breslau, 
 found that in its progress through the city the river showed 
 increased pollution, and at its exit was greatly polluted. A 
 short distance down the river the effects of dilution became 
 evident, the self-purification of the river b}^ the combined 
 action of the oxygen of the air and of the vegetable and ani- 
 mal life in the stream were very marked, and the impurities 
 diminished so rapidly that at a few miles below the city the 
 water was as pure as when it entered it. Hulwa thinks it a 
 mistake to forbid the outflow of sewage into rivers, provided 
 the outfall is below the city and the rapidity and volume of 
 the stream are sufficient to carry the sewage to such a dis- 
 
L5 
 
 tance as will allow the operation of natural causes of purifi- 
 cation (1884). 
 
 The nc lion of air in effecting, directly or indirectly, the pu* 
 rification of water has been practically tested within the last 
 year or two, in Boboken and Philadelphia, where air has been 
 systemat ically pumped into the water for the purpose of has- 
 tening the operation. 
 
 A further comparison of the Hudson River water al 
 Albany with the chief waters used in America and England 
 for city supplies, demonstrates the fact that the Hudson River 
 water does not contain any excessive quantity of organic 
 matters, and the application of these new methods of analysis 
 confirms the opinion which I originally reached with regard 
 to this water. 
 
 In a recent report of the Committee on Drainage, Sewage, 
 and Topography of the State Board of Health, the statement 
 is made that " the experience of the past ten years hascleaiiy 
 demonstrated that the chemical test cannot detect the specific 
 poisons of zymotic diseases, and therefore the results of 
 chemical analysis of the water of the Hudson River are no 
 proof as to its safety for drinking purposes." This is no 
 doubt the opinion of the Committee, but it is not the opinion 
 of those persons who have had considerable experience in the 
 examination of waters for sanitary purposes. I do not mean 
 to say that chemical tests will detect the specific poisons of 
 zymotic diseases in water. For that matter there is no 
 method of investigation yet proposed which can accomplish 
 this, except the actual production of the diseases, and no one 
 has ever found in a river-water the specific poison of any 
 zymotic disease. Dr. Koch thinks he observed the cholera 
 bacillus in a water-tank at Calcutta in which persons suffer- 
 ing from cholera bathed and washed their clothes, and this is 
 the only case in which any reliable authority has ever claimed 
 to have found disease-germs in water of any kind. 
 
 In 1880, Dr. Tidy, of London, one of the best authorities 
 on the subject of water examination, made the statement that 
 " in all well-proved cases of outbreaks of disease resulting 
 from the use of drinking-water, such water would have been 
 unhesitatingly condemned on analysis by the chemist." 
 
 The Committee of the State Board of Health attempts to 
 sustain its condemnation of chemical analysis by reference 
 
16 
 
 to the epidemic of typhoid and typho-malarial fever in Bath, 
 Steuben County, during the past year. In this case there is no 
 evidence that the disease originated with the well-water. The 
 printed analysis shows further that the water was very impure. 
 It contains 37.6 parts in 100,000 of total impurities, while the 
 quantity contained in the Hudson River water at Albany aver- 
 ages only about 10 parts in 100,000. This well-water further 
 shows the presence of 9,900 parts of nitrogen derived from 
 nitrates and nitrites in one thousand million parts of water, 
 which is an enormous quantity. It should further be remem- 
 bered that well-waters cannot be considered upon the same 
 basis as river waters. The well contains a small quantity of 
 water, which is not in motion, and which is not brought freely 
 into contact with the air. Moreover, well-waters are very vari- 
 able in composition. The}^ are liable to temporary defilement, 
 so that while at one time a well-water may fail to disclose any 
 alarming peculiarities to chemical analysis, it may at a later 
 period, owing to a change in the condition of the ground- 
 water in its neighborhood, or to some accidental pollution, 
 become charged with offensive matter. All chemists realize 
 the fact that it is never safe to decide the condition of a well 
 from a single analysis of the water, as no matter how pure 
 the water may prove to be by analysis on any particular oc- 
 casion, there is no certainty that this condition of purity will 
 be maintained for any length of time. The river, on the 
 other hand, is not subject to sudden variations in the quality 
 of its waters. The conditions that surround it are pretty 
 nearly uniform from one end of the year to the other, the 
 greatest extremes being those which result from high water 
 and low water. The opinion of the Committee as to the value 
 of chemical analysis, as far as it is based on the Bath out- 
 break, is without adequate foundation. 
 
 The slight turbidity or opalescence which is noticed at 
 times in the water drawn from the hydrants at Albany, is 
 due to the clay which is so abundant in the Hudson and 
 Mohawk vallej^s, either as soft clay or as crumbling shales. 
 It has been shown by Professor W. H. Brewer, that clay 
 settles very slowly from pure waters. 
 
 It will be noticed that the analyses of the water from 
 Tivoli Lake, show a much larger amount of sodium chloride, 
 nitrates, and of free and albuminoid ammonia. I did not visit 
 
17 
 
 the lake, but I am satisfied from the analyses that drainage- 
 water finds its way into this body of water. 
 
 EL — BIOLOGICAL AXALYSIS. 
 
 Great stress is now laid by many persons on what is called 
 the biological analysis of water, and much has been pub- 
 lished upon the subject within the last few years. It has 
 been known for more than two hundred years, that minute 
 organisms exist in wa ter. They were discovered by Leeuwen- 
 hoek. in rain-water, in 1675, and have been studied with great 
 interest ever since. Some are known to be animal in charac- 
 ter, others vegetable. They have been carefully studied and 
 classified, but while they were extremely interesting to the 
 botanist and the zoologist, they attracted very little attention 
 from the chemist and the etiologist till quite recently. They 
 first came into general notice in the study of fermenta- 
 tion, which had been supposed by many to be a purely chemi- 
 cal process, but which was finally traced to the agency of 
 these minute organisms. It was found that there are a great 
 many different kinds of fermentations, each of which is due 
 to some one specific organism. The further stud}' of these 
 organisms led to the revival of the theory of spontaneous 
 generation, and many elaborate investigations were made 
 into their origin. Finally, it was found that most kinds of 
 contagious and infectious disease, and many diseases that 
 had never before been recognized as infectious, were due to 
 peculiar micro-organisms. 
 
 These discoveries gave rise to what is known as the "germ 
 theory" of disease. I have had special occasion to study 
 this subject for various reasons in connection with my duties, 
 and ten years ago I carefully examined the publications of 
 the most active investigators of the subject in preparing an 
 article on ''Fermentation" for " Johnson's New Universal 
 Cyclopedia." When it was proposed, therefore, to determine 
 the sanitary quality of water by microscopic examination, 
 either of the water itself, or of the culture-fluids or solid me- 
 dia planted wirli water, I was not taken by surprise, bnl was 
 in a position to realize how much and how little might be ex- 
 pected from this method of examination. 
 
IS 
 
 Biological analysis lias thus far been resorted to for the 
 purpose of determining the number of germs or spores of 
 micro-organisms contained in a given sample of water, and 
 by counting them to decide on the relative value or safety of 
 the water for domestic use. If these organisms, whether 
 bacteria, algae, or mould fungi, were only contained in pol- 
 luted water, or if they were injurious to life, this method of 
 examination would undoubtedly be extremely valuable, but 
 as a matter of fact these organisms are found everywhere in 
 nature. They have been shown by Deherain, Maquenne, 
 Koch, Miguel, Warington, and many others, to exist in all 
 soils. They have been shown by everyone who has studied 
 the subject to be constantly present in the atmosphere. The 
 following quotation from the work of Cooke and Berkley on 
 the fungi, expresses the universal opinion with regard to the 
 occurrence of bacteria and other fungi in the air : 
 
 " Spores and other vegetable cells are constantly present in 
 atmospheric dust, and usually occur in considerable numbers ; 
 the majority of them are living and capable of growth and 
 development. The amount of them present in the air appears 
 to be independent of conditions of velocity and direction of 
 wind, and their number is not diminished by moisture. 
 
 ' ' No connection can be traced between the numbers of bac- 
 teria, spores, etc., present in the air, and the occurrence of 
 diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, ague, or dengue, nor between 
 the presence or abundance of any special form or forms of 
 cells and the prevalence of any of these diseases." 
 
 Bacteria are always present in water. Magnin and Stern- 
 berg say rain-water will always be found fertile in germs, and 
 when it is collected with care it represents the bacterial flora 
 of the atmosphere at the time of its fall. The following 
 quotation is additional proof on this point : 
 
 "Water contains considerable quantities of bacteria and 
 especially of germs. Their presence in atmospheric water is 
 established by the experiments of Lemaire and Gratiolet, 
 — and after them by more recent observers — by means of 
 condensers filled with ice, and placed in the fields, and for 
 comparison, in closed apartments. Rindfleisch has since ex- 
 pressed the opinion that the vapor of water does not contain 
 spores or bacteria, and that telluric waters alone contain 
 them ; but Billroth, Cohn, and others have proved that Rind- 
 fleisch was too positive in his statement. 
 
 "It is not surprising that telluric waters contain such a 
 
L9 
 
 quantity of bacteria, that their existence is admitted by all. 
 The dust gathered upon the surface of stones, of leaves, of 
 fruits, etc., shows upon microscopic examination an abun- 
 dance of germs (Marie-Davy, Tissandier) ; the washing of these 
 objects and of the soil by the ra in, transports them into the 
 rivers, and from the rivers to the sea, w hich contains con- 
 siderable quantities of them. 
 
 "Thus, a drop of water from the Seine, according to Pas- 
 teur and Joubert, is always fecund, and may give birth to 
 several species of bacteria. The distilled water of labora- 
 tories also contains germs, and these of so small a diameter 
 that they pass through all filters. Colin lias proved that 
 some are not arrested by a superposition of sixteen filters. 
 The only waters which do not contain them are those drawn 
 from the very source of a spring." (Magnin.) 
 
 It should further be noted that all kinds of food contain 
 bacteria and other micro-organisms. Nothing is richer in 
 bacilli than ordinary hay, from which they are never absent. 
 Finally, I would call attention to the fact that human beings 
 are never free from them. They occur in the body in life ; 
 they are constantly found in saliva, and the mucous mem- 
 brane of the alimentary canal exhibits myriads of them in a 
 state of activity. They are found upon the surface of the 
 skin, in the bronchial passages, and in fact wherever air, 
 water, or food are brought in contact with the body externally 
 or internally. Pasteur recently read a paper, by Duclaux, 
 before the French Academy of Sciences, in which he claimed 
 that the presence of bacteria is indispensable to the germina- 
 tion of seeds and also to the digestion of food. 
 
 Colin says : 
 
 " Bacteria belong to the most wide-spread of organisms ; 
 we may say they are omnipresent; they never fail either in 
 air or water ; they attach themselves to the surface of all 
 firm bodies." 
 
 And according to Magnin : 
 
 u The bacteria are of all beings the most widely diffused. 
 We meet them everywhere, in the air, in water, upon the 
 surface of solid bodies, in the interior of plants and animals. 
 If we expose a transparent Liquid containing traces of organic 
 substances, we find after a short time that it has become 
 clouded, and the microscope shows us that it contains myr- 
 iads of these beings." 
 
20 
 
 Under these circumstances it would appear that counting 
 the number of bacteria that will develop in gelatine, or in 
 other culture media, on the addition of a sample of water, 
 is not a very reliable method for determining the danger of 
 water for domestic purposes, although some enthusiastic mi- 
 croscopists, carried away by their skill in raising bacteria in 
 their microscopic gardens, have said that the days of chem- 
 ical analysis of water supplies are numbered. 
 
 W. R.Nichols remarks in speaking of biological analysis : 
 
 " None of these methods have reached the subject of prac- 
 tical utility, and it must be left entirely with the specialists 
 to interpret the results of their own observations." 
 
 Dr. Robert Angus Smith, who made a great many biologi- 
 cal examinations of water with gelatine, in which he noted 
 particularly the production of little spheres of transformed 
 gelatine after the addition of water, remarks as follows : 
 
 4 'We must be careful in drawing conclusions as to the 
 wholesomeness of the water tried ; the existence of spores of 
 transformed gelatine caused by organisms is no proof that the 
 water is unwholesome." 
 
 Dr. Frankland has also tested biological methods, and in 
 one of his papers he states, speaking of such methods : 
 
 u My own experiments completely conform with Mr. 
 Heidi's observations, with two important exceptions, viz. : 
 that, firstly, the fungi growths are not peculiar to water 
 contaminated with sewage ; and secondly, the germs from 
 which they originate are present in all water which has been 
 even momentarily in contact with the air." 
 
 It is claimed by some of the biological experimenters that 
 if a solid jelly, to which a little of the water has been added, 
 becomes fluid in a short time, owing to the development of 
 bacteria, it is proof positive that the water is contaminated 
 with sewage, and that it is unwholesome. 
 
 I have applied this test to the waters from Albany, in 
 comparison with Croton water, and with water from the 
 Hackensack and the Passaic. In all cases the gelatine be- 
 came fluid from the growth of organisms, which were readily 
 seen under the microscope. At the same time I simply ex- 
 posed to the air some jelly made from calves' feet, some clear 
 
21 
 
 bouillon prepared from lean beef, and slices of white and 
 Graham bread. 
 
 The calves' -loot jelly soon became fluid, the beet' bouillon 
 became turbid, and both became opaque and offensive. Under 
 the microscope both were found to contain myriads of bac- 
 teria, some quiet, some in active motion. The slices of bread, 
 which were covered with bell jars to prevent their becoming 
 dry, were soon covered with a luxuriant growth of mycilium 
 fungi or mould plants, white, green and yellow. 
 
 Now if the organisms in the gelatine, to which the samples 
 of water were added, prove the water to have been contam- 
 inated with sewage, what can be said of the air of Xew York 
 which filled the calves' -foot jelly and the bouillon with simi- 
 lar organisms, or covered the bread with the mould fungi i 
 
 Had the jelh^, bouillon, or bread been exposed to the air 
 of any other locality in the United States, the result would 
 not have been different. The truth is, the germs of micro- 
 organisms occur in all water and all air, and all that is neces- 
 sary for their development is the proper soil, that is, organic 
 matter, such as the jelly furnishes. 
 
 We have daily proof of this in the spontaneous fermen- 
 tation of the juice of the grape in wine making, the transfor- 
 mation of cider into vinegar, the souring of beer and light 
 wines, of milk, of food generally, the ripening of cheese, the 
 decay of timber, and the putrefaction of all animal and vege- 
 table matters. All these processes can be prevented by simply 
 excluding the germs which are contained in the air, as is done 
 in "canning" food, or by destroying their vitality by heat 
 or antiseptics. When the biologist learns to detect in water 
 k< the specific poisons of zymotic diseases," and to distinguish 
 them from the harmless organisms that we eat, drink, and 
 breathe with impunity all our lives, then we may set up 
 biological analysis as superior to chemical analysis, for the 
 selection of drinking water. 
 
 Up to the present time, however, biological analysis will 
 not tell us anything with regard to the Hudson Kiver water 
 that we do not already know. The river receives a small 
 amount of drainage, and thanks to the oxygen and the micro- 
 organisms, it becomes so thoroughly purified that, when it 
 reaches the Bleecker reservoir for distribution in Albany, it 
 may be drank without danger to health. 
 
22 
 
 Some stress has been laid on the fact that nematoid worms 
 were found in the mud taken from the basin near the mouth 
 of a sewer. While it is not claimed that these worms were 
 found in the water of the river, the only object in mentioning 
 them was to associate them in some way with the water- 
 supply. I would simply note that they are of no significance 
 in any case, as nematoid worms are found in all fresh water, 
 especially in ponds and lakes. They are also found in sour 
 paste, and in vinegar, and are well known to microscopists as 
 paste eels and vinegar eels. 
 
 Speaking again of the omnipresent organisms which are 
 harmless to man, the zymogenic organisms which produce 
 the fermentations — alcoholic, acid, viscous, etc. — and the sep- 
 tic organisms which produce putrefaction, it has been sug- 
 gested that under certain extraordinary influences they may 
 undergo some peculiar change by which they may develop 
 into pathogenic organisms, capable of producing some specific 
 germ and its zymotic disease. 
 
 This has actually been claimed in several cases, but it is 
 clearly settled now that in no one of these cases was there 
 any satisfactory evidence of such a change. The pathogenic 
 organisms are distinct and peculiar, and are not in any way 
 developed from the others. 
 
 III. — ADVANCES IN THE KNOWLEDGE OF ZYMOTIC 
 
 DISEASES. 
 
 Since the biologists have perfected their methods for 
 studying micro-organisms by the addition of new methods of 
 staining, culture, and inoculation, the most wonderful advance 
 has been made in the knowledge of zymotic diseases. The 
 labors of Pasteur in investigating the diseases of silkworms, 
 of Davaine, Koch, and Pasteur in investigating splenic fever, 
 of Pasteur on chicken cholera, of Obermeyer and Carter on 
 relapsing fever, of Pasteur on swine plague, of Koch on tu- 
 berculosis and cholera, and of these and other observers on 
 many other diseases, have thrown a flood of light on the eti- 
 ology of zymotic diseases. It would seem as if a few years 
 would make the biologist master of the situation ; as though 
 this class of diseases may perhaps be brought entirely under 
 
23 
 
 the control of the physician, by a kind of preventive inocula- 
 tion, as is now the case with smallpox. 
 
 But after all, this advance in knowledge 1 lias not as yet 
 thrown any light on the question we have before us. Is the 
 water of a large river, which has received a certain amount 
 of drainage, a safe beverage for a city ? Nothing in the dis- 
 coveries of these great investigators enables us to say thai 
 this water is unsafe. It is believed that typhoid fever and 
 diarrhoea! diseases have often been disseminated by polluted 
 wells, but no cases of these diseases have ever been traced to 
 the waters of a large river. 
 
 The Cholera Question. 
 
 It having been established with some considerable degree 
 of probability, that the wells in certain parts of London had 
 aided in disseminating the cholera poison during the succes- 
 sive visitations of that disease to the metropolis, an opinion 
 had gained credence that the water of the Thames had con- 
 tributed in no small measure to swell the awful list of victims 
 who died from that disease, especially the water supplied by 
 the East London water-works. Considerable testimony was 
 therefore taken upon this point by the Water Commission, 
 the most important of which I will quote. 
 
 Testimony oe Dr. Robert Axgus Smith, Government 
 
 Inspector. 
 
 u If the germs pass into the rivers we do not know how far 
 they may be carried. On the other hand, we do not know 
 that they ever can be carried in pure water, the dissolved 
 oxygen may destroy them, as it unquestionably does putres- 
 cent matters. A positive 1 proof of their transmission, in 
 otherwise pure water, is wanting. One might ask if a cholera 
 germ in the water at Oxford would produce disease 1 in Lon- 
 don, and one might answer by asking if one cholera germ 
 passing into the air at Woolwich would produce disease in 
 Pimlico. This we do not know, but it seems probable that 
 disease cannot be carried far by pore air, nor by water with 
 much oxygen in it, which is equal to pore air. We are in- 
 formed that the atmosphere is full of germs, but the evidence 
 seems to be that it requires an unusual excess to attack as 
 successfully, ir seems to be a question of quantity." 
 
24 
 
 Testimony of Dr. Letheby, Medical Officer of Health 
 to the Corporation of London. 
 
 Q. " You are aware that it has been alleged that the main 
 cause of the cholera, in the east end of London, was due to 
 he water-supply; do you entertain that opinion ? " A. 
 " No, I entertain the opposite opinion; it was a matter of 
 duty with me to investigate the whole of the circumstances 
 connected with the East London supply ; in the first place it 
 was supplied to the hospital to which I am attached, in the 
 next place it was supplied to the eastern division of the city, 
 where, as officer of health, it was my duty to look well into 
 the matter, and in the third place I had a general interest in 
 it scientifically, apart from any official connection with the 
 subject, and I was very desirous to ascertain whether or not 
 the water had been in any way concerned in the propagation 
 of the disease ; I therefore investigated it very fully." 
 
 Q. " Do you think the present supply of water to the Lon- 
 don people is wholesome water 1 " A. "I do, a thoroughly 
 wholesome water." 
 
 In his report on the sanitary condition of the city of Lon- 
 don for the years 1866-67, Dr. Letheby is much more explicit 
 in his discussion of the cholera epidemic of 1866. He says, 
 on page 26 et seq. : 
 
 "But difficult as the problem is, to determine the exact 
 value of the several circumstances which influence the severity 
 of the disease, and especially those which give to it its marked 
 local intensities, enough has been ascertained to indicate its 
 general habits, and to show that it fixes itself at low levels in 
 proximity to tidal rivers, among dense populations, that are 
 living in ill-constructed houses, that are filthy, badty venti- 
 lated, badly drained, and generally defective of sanitary pro- 
 visions ; and the inference is, that the actual agent of cholera, 
 be it what it may, can only find congenial conditions for its 
 full development in damp and impure air." 
 
 "The theoiy of Pettenkofer is, that the essential conditions 
 for the active manifestations of the disease, are a porous soil, 
 charged with excrementitious matter, and having a certain 
 degree of hydration, as happens when the subsoil water has 
 been just drawn off or is slowly retiring. All these con- 
 ditions were singularly coincident with the localization of 
 the disease in the eastern districts of London ; for the soil 
 is gravelly, and therefore very porous to air and water, and 
 it is largely charged with excrementitious matters derived 
 from the local tide-locked sewers. It is also remarkable that 
 for some months before the outbreak of the disease, the 
 subsoil water had been gradually sinking in consequence of 
 
the drainage operations that were necessary for i li< • construc- 
 tion of the main low-level sewer, and its branch to the Esle 
 of Dogs. Now, according to Pettenkofer, it is exactly under 
 these circumstances that a district is most Liable t<> choleraic 
 infect ion." 
 
 "The alleged pollution of the water rests upon a series of 
 assumptions, many of which are in the highesl degree im- 
 probable." 
 
 "Apart, however, from the improbabilities of these as- 
 sumptions, it is a fact that the water which is said to have 
 been thus polluted did not produce its effects in tlx- several 
 districts to which it was distributed in anything like uni- 
 formity of time or force. Suppose, by way of illustration, 
 that alcohol or arsenic had become mixed with the water, 
 and that on a certain day it was distributed to the public, 
 we should expect to find that the action of the poison was 
 not only manifested at the same time over the whole district 
 of supply, but that it was confined to that district. Not so, 
 however, witli the water in question, for although it is not 
 alleged to have been more than once polluted, yet the first 
 effects in the several districts occurred at long intervals ; and 
 there were many places to which it was distributed, where 
 there was no sign of the disease ; while others, which did not 
 receive the water, were seriously affected." 
 
 "More remarkable still, there were places in the very 
 heart of the cholera field, and others close adjoining it, where 
 the residents received the same suspected water, and used it 
 freely without suffering in the least degree. In the Lime- 
 house School, around which the cholera was frightfully 
 fatal, there were 400 children who drank the same water as 
 their neighbors, and yet there was not even a case of diar- 
 rhoea among them. In the London Hospital, which is also in 
 the heart of the cholera field, for it is surrounded by the 
 districts of Whitechapel, Bethnal Green, Mile End, Old 
 Town, and St. George' s-in-the-East, there was an average 
 resident population of 403 persons, and, although they drank 
 freely of the unliltered East London water, yet there was not 
 a case of illness among them/' 
 
 "Again, in the eastern division of the city of London, 
 which adjoins the cholera field, the suspected water was 
 supplied to 101 houses, with a population of about 1,732 
 persons, butexcept in oneof these nouses (20 Somerset St reel . 
 which is on the boundary of Whitechapel, there was nol a 
 single death from cholera, and to verily this. I have obtained 
 the addresses of all the persons who died in the cholera ward 
 in Bishopsgate Street. Bui, besides this, the disease was 
 singularly fatal in places where the Buspected water was aever 
 used. In Crown Court. Blue Anchor Yard, Whitechapel, 
 where the water-supply is from the New River, the mortality 
 
26 
 
 was at the rate of 284 per 10,000. In Boar's Head Yard, of 
 the same district, which is also supplied by the New River, the 
 death-rate was 193 per 10,000 ; and indeed there are eighteen 
 courts in Whitechapel, where none of the East London water 
 was used, and yet out of an aggregate population of 4,351 
 persons, there were 30 deaths from cholera, the mortality 
 being at the rate of 69 per 10,000 ; that of the whole district 
 being but 77." 
 
 "So that, on carefully examining the facts in their rela- 
 tion to the water theory, we find : 
 
 1. " That there is no proof whatever of choleraic pollution 
 of the water." 
 
 2. " That there was no coincidence of time in the appear- 
 ance of the disease in the several districts supplied with the 
 suspected water." 
 
 3. "That numerous districts receiving the same water, 
 but situated at high level, or placed beyond the cholera held, 
 were entirely exempt from the disease." 
 
 4. "That even in the very heart of the cholera field, 
 there were places receiving and using the suspected water 
 with impunity. 
 
 5. "That other places not supplied with the water, but 
 situated within the infected area, suffered equally with the 
 neighborhood." 
 
 "I am far from wishing it to be thought that choleraic 
 matter diffused through water will not produce disease. 
 There is abundant evidence to show that it is often a prolific 
 source of it ; but I am anxious, in dealing with a question of 
 so much public importance as the origin of the late epidemic, 
 that none of the facts should be perverted, and that no hasty 
 or ingenious hypothesis, without solid foundation, should 
 take possession of the public mind. In the conduct of in- 
 quiries like this, there should be a calm, a full, and a candid 
 examination of the facts ; — we should endeavor to study the 
 phenomena in a philosophical spirit, and apply to them the 
 tests of sound induction ; we should strive also to deduce 
 from them such laws as will not only expose the nature of 
 the malady, but will, at the same time, enable us to treat it 
 successfully. Rash opinions, boldly asserted and tenaciously 
 held, though they may force themselves on public attention, 
 rarely lead to useful results ; and while they have their hold 
 on the popular mind they seriously hinder the progress of 
 real knowledge." 
 
 These extracts are sufficient to indicate the opinions of the 
 most eminent medical officers who have considered the fitness 
 of the waters of the Thames for supplying the people of Lon- 
 don with wholesome water. 
 
27 
 
 The verdict of the commissioners, after can-fully and con- 
 scientiously weighing all the testimony presented, is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 " The only point raised against the Thames water on the 
 ground of organic contamination isof less positive character ; 
 it is said that water which has been once contaminated with 
 sewage, may still contain undecomposed organic matter, 
 which, though inappreciable by the most delicate chemical 
 tests, may still exercise prejudicial effects on the human 
 system." 
 
 " The strongest form of this objection has reference to 
 some opinions now prevalent, that certain forms of disease, 
 such as cholera and typhoid fever, are propagated by germs 
 contained in exereniental matter; and it is conceived possi- 
 ble that when matter of this kind once gets into streams, 
 these germs may escape destruction and long preserve their 
 dangerous character. It is said that no process is known by 
 which such noxious material can be removed from water, 
 and, therefore, it is argued, that water which has at any time 
 been contaminated by sewage is henceforth unsuitable for 
 domestic use. But we cannot admit them as sufficiently well 
 established to form any conclusive argument for abandoning 
 an otherwise unobjectionable source of water-supply ; we are 
 of opinion that there is no evidence to lead us to believe that 
 the water now supplied by the companies is not generally 
 good and wholesome." 
 
 This report was made in 1869, and has been before the 
 British public in an accessible form, in all its details, sixteen 
 years, and its conclusions have been generally accepted. 
 
 Cholera ix 1884. 
 
 A fresh opportunity was offered last year for studying the 
 propagation and dissemination of cholera. Dr. Koch had 
 succeeded in detecting peculiar comma bacilli in the intestines 
 of persons who had died of cholera in Egypt and Calcutta : 
 and he has satisfied himself that these bacilli are the true 
 originators of the cholera. As he has been the most successful 
 investigator of pathogenic bacteria, his opinion carries g] - a t 
 weight. Nevertheless, there are man}- who are not yet con- 
 vinced. 
 
 Dr. Koch noticed "that the cholera often settles in a par- 
 ticular locality, and displays its greatest virulence in certain 
 quarters. Such epidemics are frequent ly observed in thesur- 
 
2S 
 
 roundings of the so-called ' tanks,' which are small ponds 
 or wells enclosed within huts. The neighbors obtain their 
 water-supply from these tanks, and simultaneously utilize 
 them for various purposes — such as bathing, washing cloth- 
 ing, cleaning domestic utensils, etc." 
 
 In one of these tanks Dr. Koch discovered the comma 
 bacillus, and thus found an argument in favor of the trans- 
 mission of cholera by the water-supply. Not of a large river, 
 to be sure, but by a " tank." A very animated discussion has 
 arisen from these observations, and the cholera in the South 
 of Europe last summer has furnished much material. The 
 outbreaks in Toulon, Marseilles, Italy, Spain, and Paris have 
 been very carefully studied, and thus far no evidence has 
 been secured to connect the spread of the disease with the 
 water-supply. 
 
 One writer says : " The microbists' theory of cholera 
 propagation rests mainly on the hypothesis that water is the 
 agent that spreads the disease. Now, Paris is supplied with 
 water from four different sources, and the cholera broke out 
 almost simultaneously in quarters the farthest removed from 
 each other, and furnished with totally distinct water-supplies. 
 It was predicted that those who drank the Seine water would 
 be the chief sufferers, owing to the extent to which it is con- 
 taminated. The prediction has not been verified. The most 
 virulent outbreak was in the charitable institution kept by 
 the sceurs liospitalieres, where over sixty inmates died in a 
 few days. This home is supplied with the water of the Vanne 
 — beyond all comparison the purest that is brought into 
 Paris." 
 
 P. DeLuna says (in the Compt. Bend., 97, 633): " The cause 
 of cholera always exists in the air, and is transmitted by per- 
 sons and things. It generally acts through the organs of res- 
 piration, and incubation generally takes place when the in- 
 dividual is in a passive condition, and particularly during 
 sleep." 
 
 M. Gibert, in describing, in the Mevue Scientifique, the 
 outbreak of cholera at Yport, near Havre, says : " The cholera 
 was brought to Yport by insufficiently disinfected clothing, 
 soiled by cholera dejecta ; that the disease was propagated 
 from house to house ; and that the question of water has no 
 bearing in the case, for the very good reason that the Ypor- 
 tais never drink any." 
 
 In a long article on "Cholera," which runs through sev- 
 eral numbers of the London Lancet in November. 1884, Dr. 
 
29 
 
 Max von Pettenkofer, of Munich, (he leading sanitary au- 
 thority in the world, makes the following statement; : 
 
 " The further one investigates the drinking-water theory 
 the more and more Improbable does it appear. Robert 
 Koch, too, the famous bacteriologist, has hitherto failed to 
 substantiate the drinking-water theory, and I fee] convinced 
 that the time is not. Par distant when he w ill own thai he has 
 gone in the wrong direction. Koch has succeeded in finding 
 the comma bacillus in a water-tank in a region where cholera 
 was prevalent. I have the greatest respect for this impor- 
 tant discovery, not as a solution of the cholera question, but 
 only as a very promising field for pathological, not epidemi- 
 ological, inquiry. It must be remembered that cholera was 
 already prevalent in the neighborhood of the water-tank from 
 which Koch obtained the bacillus. Now, this tank was used 
 not only for drinking purposes, but also for bat hing the per- 
 son and washing clothes, as Koch himself admits. Accord- 
 ing to my view the comma bacillus must have been present in 
 the water. It had not been shown, however, that the bacillus 
 was in the water before the outbreak of cholera. Koch is of 
 the opinion that all the bacilli in the water-tank could not 
 have come from the washing of clothes of cholera patients, 
 but must have partly been derived from multiplication, yet 
 he forgets that, as he himself has shown, the meat-broth in 
 which the bacilli grow must not be too dilute. It would 
 have been interesting if Koch had estimated the strength of 
 the nutritive material in the water-tank. But what chiefly 
 contradicts the doctrines of the contagionists is the simultan- 
 eous disappearance of the cholera on land and the cholera 
 bacillus in the water-tank, if it were really true that every 
 case of cholera, the first as well as the last in an epidemic, had 
 the same infective material in its intestinal discharge, and that 
 the epidemic only ceased because the susceptibility of man 
 had passed away, then the bacillus would continue to exist in 
 the tank, always supposing that there was sufficient pabulum 
 for it. And thus it is most probable that the bacillus gets 
 into the tank from man, and not vice versa. While Koch 
 was in Calcutta the English physicians there imbued him 
 with their views on cholera and drinking-water. The English 
 had been brought up on the drinking-water theory of typhoid 
 fever and cholera, and could only lay it aside with difficulty. 
 But a few of those English physicians who had studied wide- 
 spread epidemics had renounced their original ideas. Dr. 
 Bryden (the chief of the Statistical Department), Dr. J, M. 
 Cuningham (the Sanitary Commissioner), Dr. John Mac- 
 pherson (the Inspector-General of the Bengal Army. Dr. 
 Lewis, and Dr. Douglas Cunningham, were au disbelievers in 
 the drinking-water theory.-' 
 
30 
 
 I quote these opinions not because I entertain them all 
 myself, but to show that the best authorities do not sustain 
 the theories or the fears that have been expressed by the op- 
 ponents of the river water at Albany. I believe that wells 
 and small streams may be so polluted as to disseminate dis- 
 ease. 
 
 IV. THE TEST OF EXPERIENCE. 
 
 When, in 1872, I first had occasion to consider the question 
 of employing the Hudson River water at the city of Albany, 
 I was limited in my study to the chemical examination of 
 the water by the methods then in use, and to the careful 
 comparison of the size of the water-shed of the Hudson River 
 and the populations residing thereon, with the water-sheds 
 and population of other large rivers used successfully as a 
 source of water supply. My conclusion in favor of the use 
 of the water at that time was arrived at with a full appreci- 
 ation of the great responsibilities of the decision. 
 
 In the following spring I was placed at the head of the 
 Health Department of the largest city in this country, and 
 for eleven years a large part of my thought and study was 
 directed to sanitary questions. I found myself compelled to 
 study every subject bearing upon the public health, and I 
 have never lost sight of the important issues involved in my 
 decision of the Albany water question. I have from time to 
 time made inquiries with regard to the health of the citizens 
 who were using the water of the Hudson River, and it has 
 always been a source of great satisfaction to me to learn that 
 the health of the people of Albany continued to be remark- 
 ably good, and that no evidence was presented to indicate 
 that the use of this water had resulted in any ill effects, and 
 I have never had occasion to regret the advice I gave at that 
 time. The diseases which have been attributed to polluted 
 water are especially typhoid fever and diarrhoeal diseases, 
 with which the city of Albany has been less afflicted than 
 most other . large cities in this country, many of which are 
 supplied with water of the highest degree of purity. I am 
 satisfied, therefore, that the test of experience fails to present 
 any facts which would indicate that the Hudson River water 
 is unwholesome. 
 
 The following Tables XII and XIII present the deaths 
 
from these diseases in Albany and the towns above, and also 
 for further comparison, New York ' 'it y, Brooklyn, inn! Roch- 
 ester. The figures were obtained from tlx- hist four Bulletins 
 of the New York State Board of Health -the only ones to 
 which I had access. As the city of Troy receives the Hud- 
 son River water from above Lansirigburg, it would naturally 
 be inferred that if the water becomes polluted through its 
 passage past the city of Troy there would be an increase in 
 the death-rate of the city of Albany from the diseases attrib- 
 uted to polluted water. It will be observed that this is not 
 the case, but, on the contrary, the returns from the city of 
 Troy indicate a much larger death-rate from these diseases. 
 It may be said that these returns are not complete. 'Phis is 
 no doubt true. A note at the foot of the November lhilltthi 
 of the State Board of Health remarks that, "The returns 
 from several localities, Troy especially, are notably incom- 
 plete," and a note to the December Bulletin says, " In Troy 
 the actual burials for November were found on investigation 
 to be 146, but 43 having been reported ; the December returns 
 show improvement, but are still incomplete. Returns from 
 Cohoes are utterly unreliable and are now under investiga- 
 tion by this Board." It would appear, therefore, that the 
 incompleteness is particularly in the Troy returns, and that 
 if the full death-rate were recorded the contrast between 
 Troy and Albany would be much more striking, the Albany 
 returns beins; considered the most reliable of them all. 
 
 In Table XIII the death-rates per 1,000 per annum are 
 presented, computed from the numbers contained in Table 
 XII. It will be noticed that in the fourth column the typhoid 
 fever and malarial diseases have been added together. This 
 is done because it is well known to every physician who has 
 had occasion to investigate deaths attributed to malaria, that 
 in the majority of cases the deaths were really due to typhoid 
 fever. These figures clearly show that there is nothing in 
 the vital statistics of Albany to indicate that any evil result 
 has ever followed the introduction of river water. 
 
32 
 
 XII. Deaths from Typhoid Fever, Malarial and Diarrheal 
 Diseases, for the last Four Months of 1SS4. 
 
 Extracted from the Monthly Bulletins of the State Board of Health of New York. 
 
 ALBANY — Population 97,344. 
 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 Rate 
 per 1,000. 
 
 Typhoid. 
 
 Malarial. 
 
 Diarrhceal 
 
 
 153 
 
 IS. 86 
 
 I 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 148 
 
 18.25 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 141 
 
 17.:i9 
 
 5 
 
 g 
 
 4 
 
 
 140 
 
 18.00 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 588 
 
 18.12 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 38 
 
 TROY -Population 60,000. 
 
 
 130 
 
 26.00 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 70 
 
 14.00 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 43 
 
 8.6(1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 81 
 
 16.20 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 
 324 
 
 16.45 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 WEST TROY — Population 13,000. 
 
 
 
 
 
 i? 
 
 24.00 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 15.69 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 20 
 
 18.46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 24.00 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 89 
 
 20.54 
 
 i 7 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 LANSINGBURG— Population 8,500. 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 31.00 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 38.11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 29.64 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 35.30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 33.74 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 COHOES— Population 20,000. 
 
 
 
 1 15 
 
 9.00 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.20 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 7.20 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 12.60 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 55 ! 
 
 8.25" 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 GREEN ISLAND — Population 5.000. 
 
 
 
 
 12.00 
 
 
 , v 
 
 I ~ 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 14.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 14.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 7 
 
 16.80 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 14.37" 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 NEW YOIIK CITY— Population 1,356,958. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26.45 
 
 62 
 
 34 
 
 1 540 
 
 
 
 
 22.48 
 
 (i6 
 
 57 
 
 301 
 
 
 
 ! 2.S07 
 
 24.82 
 
 54 
 
 39 
 
 ! 95 
 
 
 
 i MW 
 
 26.42 
 
 35 
 
 23 
 
 45 
 
 Four months . . 
 
 
 
 25.04 
 
 ~217~ 
 
 153 
 
 ~l 981 
 
 BROOKLYN— Population 644,526. 
 
 
 
 
 1.369 1 
 
 25.49 
 
 19 
 
 33 
 
 339 
 
 October 
 
 
 
 1.1 si 1 
 
 21.99 
 
 19 
 
 41 
 
 149 
 
 
 
 
 1,066 
 
 19. S3 
 
 13 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 1.253 1 
 
 23.33 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 4,869 l 
 
 22.66 
 
 59 
 
 135 
 
 533 
 
 
 
 ROCHESTER 
 
 — Population 
 
 101,000. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 181 | 
 
 21.50 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 146 
 
 17.35 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 135 
 
 16.04 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 16.27 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 599 1 
 
 17.79 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 64 
 
XIII. Death-rates per 1,000 per Anntm foi: the last 
 Months of 1SS4. 
 
 Computed from the Bala Contained in Table Xlf. 
 
 DUB 
 
 Albany 
 
 Troy 
 
 West Troy . . 
 Lansin-jburg, 
 
 Cohoes 
 
 Green Island 
 New York . . , 
 Brooklyn 
 Rochester 
 
 Deaths _ ... 
 from all I 
 causes. 
 
 IS. 12 
 10.45 
 20.54 
 33.74 
 8.25 
 14.37 
 25.04 
 22.0(1 
 17.79 
 
 fever. 
 
 0.525 
 0.750 
 1.620 
 
 0.300 
 1.200 
 0.480 
 0.270 
 0.861 
 
 Malarial 
 diseases. 
 
 0.090 
 0.TXM) 
 
 0.150 
 
 6.339 
 0.630 
 0.060 
 
 Typhoid fc- 
 rec and innla- 
 rial diseases. 
 
 0.f,15 
 0.849 
 1.620 
 
 0.450 
 1.200 
 0.819 
 0.900 
 ('.921 
 
 Dlai rhoM 
 discaM -. 
 
 1.173 
 1 548 
 
 2.070 
 0.788 
 0.000 
 o.oou 
 9.169 
 v. I- l 
 1.899 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 After applying every possible method of investigation to 
 the Hudson River water, I am free to say that I find no evi- 
 dence to lead me to change the opinion I expressed in 1872. 
 There is no reason why the city of Albany should not con- 
 tinue to use this water. 
 
 Except at Troy, no sewerage of any consequence is dis- 
 charged into the river; and even here, the volume of sewer- 
 age is so small in comparison with that of the river, that it 
 does not make any impression upon it. 
 
 The average volume of the Hudson at Albany was es- 
 timated by Mr. Sweet to be 618,111 cubic feet per minute, 
 equal to an average daily flow of 6,677,000,000 gallons. The 
 minimum being 1,829,000,000 in July, and the maximum 
 12,330,000,000 in March. 
 
 In 1883, the engines pumped an average of 6,064,000 gal- 
 lons daily, or yyVg- of the average flow of the stream. 
 
 I must not omit to call attention to the unusual combina- 
 tion of circumstances by which the most complete aeration 
 of the water is effected. Glens Falls, the falls of the Mohawk 
 at Cohoes, and the State Dam at Troy, are the most effective 
 means contrived by nature and art for preparing the water 
 for the use of your citizens. 
 
 1. Chemical analysis shows that the water compares 
 favorably with that of other cities in thi^ country ami Ku- 
 rope. 
 
 3 
 
34: 
 
 2. Biological analysis reveals nothing in the water that 
 has ever been known to produce sickness. 
 
 3. Culture experiments have failed to connect in any way 
 the omnipresent organisms which are found in all waters 
 with any diseases, or to make it probable that they are likely 
 to produce any evil effects. The experience gained during 
 the recent outbreaks of cholera in the East and in Europe 
 have added nothing to the knowledge of this disease that 
 makes it probable that, in case we have an invasion of it next 
 summer, the river water would be likely to aid in introdu- 
 cing it into your city. 
 
 4. Experience in using the water for the past ten years 
 has demonstrated its freedom from objectionable constitu- 
 ents. There have been no epidemics during that time, and 
 the city has been less afflicted with the diseases which are 
 generally supposed to spring from polluted water, than Troy 
 and other towns, that take the water above that city ; or 
 than New York or Brooklyn, which are supplied with unusu- 
 ally pure water. 
 
 5. With regard to the pollution of the water-supply by the 
 action of the tide on the water which flows out of the Basin, 
 I can only say that if anything is added to the water from 
 this source it must be extremely small in quantity. Several 
 of my samples were taken from the river at the inlet, half at 
 low tide and half at high tide, and several were taken from 
 Bleecker reservoir. None of these samples show the presence 
 of such contamination, and they could not have failed to do 
 so, had there been any to show. Although there is no ap- 
 preciable contamination from this source, I would nevertheless 
 stronghv urge the adoption of the recommendation of the 
 Committee on Drainage and Topography of the State Board 
 of Health with regard to cleaning out the Basin or filling it, 
 and also the construction of an intercepting sewer. 
 
 6. I would also advise that steps be taken to protect Tivoli 
 Lake from drainage waters, which now find their way into it 
 to some extent. 
 
 7. I would further say that I consider the water of the river 
 so free from any objectionable contamination, that the whole 
 question seems to me to be one of practical economy for the 
 taxpayers. If there were an equally available supply of water 
 from a source against which no one, however biased, could sug- 
 
35 
 
 gest a suspicion (I know of no city that lias a supply oi water 
 which does not at times arouse the alarmists), then I would 
 say, as a matter of sentiment, to silence if possible all com- 
 plaints and arguments, abandon the river. But it would be 
 very foolish to abandon a never-failing supply of wholesome 
 water, which can be had by simply pumping, to go to large 
 expense, simply as a matter of sentiment, to prevent a few 
 persons from saying disagreeable things about the quality oi 
 the water. Besides, if water were brought from some lak< . 
 a new class of troubles would result. Lakes are very liable 
 to be invaded, at certain seasons of the year, by abundant 
 growths of vegetable or animal matter, which communicate 
 color, taste, and odor to the water which are very offensive. 
 Almost every city in the country that is supplied by lake 
 water has experienced this difficulty. 
 
 In studying this subject (to use the language of Dr. Leth- 
 eby, already quoted), I have been " anxious, in dealing with 
 a question of so much public importance, that none of the 
 facts should be perverted, and that no hasty or ingenious 
 hypothesis, without solid foundation, should take possession 
 of the public mind. In the conduct of inquiries like fchis, 
 there should be a calm, a full, and a candid examination of 
 the facts ; — we should endeavor to study the phenomena in a 
 philosophical spirit, and apply to them the tests of sound 
 induction. Hash opinions, boldly asserted and tenaciously 
 held, though they may force themselves on public attention, 
 rarely lead to useful results ; and while they have their hold 
 on the popular mind they seriously hinder the progress of 
 real knowledge." 
 
 Very respectfully youi*6, 
 
 C. F. CHANDLER. 
 
lEx ICtbrtB 
 
 SEYMOUR DURST 
 
 When you leave, please leave this book 
 
 Because it has been said 
 "Ever'tbinQ comes t' bim who waits 
 
 Except a loaned book." 
 
 Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library 
 Gift of Seymour B. Durst Old York Library