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 http://www.archive.org/details/compendiumofanatOOheis 
 
Dr. H E I S T E R's 
 
 COM PEN DIU M 
 
 O F 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
COMPENDIUM 
 
 OF 
 
 A N ATO M Y. 
 
 In vvhieh all the 
 
 PARTS of the HUMAN BODY 
 
 Are fuccirxciily and clearly defcribed ; 
 
 AND 
 
 Their USES explained. 
 
 By L A U R E N C E H E I S T E R, M. D. 
 
 ProfeiTor of Physick and Surgery in the Unlverfity of 
 Helmstadt, and Fellow of the Royal Societies of 
 London and Paris. 
 
 Trandated from the laft Edition of the original L::tin : 
 Greatly augmented and improved by the Author. 
 
 To which are Added, 
 
 NOTES by M. Renault, and the Editor. 
 Iliuftrated with Eight large Copper Plates. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 Printed for W. Tinny s and J. Richardson, in Faternofter- 
 Pvow J C, Davis, in Holborn ; J. Clarke, under the 
 Royal Exchange ; R. Manby, on Ludgate-hill; J. Whis- 
 TON and B. White, in Fleet-iheet ; j. and J. Rivingt:n, 
 in St. Paul's C hurch-yard ; and H.S, Cox, inPatcrnofter- 
 Row. 
 
 MDCCLIL 
 
>^/ 
 
 ^-^t- W>f/ 
 
 4^ A/7 
 
 %^V^ 
 
THE 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 O F T H E 
 
 TRANSLATOR. 
 
 TH E great utility of an accurate and 
 perfedt Compendium of Anatomy, 
 cannot but be allowed by every 
 €)ne who has at all thought upon that fub- 
 jecS ; and the reception which this in particu- 
 lar has met with, for fo many years, feems 
 to evince, that it has been regarded as 
 approaching very nearly to that cha- 
 
 rafter. 
 
ti r^^ PREFACE 
 
 radler. The author, who has lived to 
 fee feveral editions of it, has liberally 
 added the fruits of his fucceeding obferva- 
 tions to each of them ; and, wherever there 
 has feemed a deficiency, the tranflatcr has 
 attempted, on the fame plan on which him- 
 felf had proceeded, to fupply it. The 
 author profefTes to have fearched into the 
 anatomical books publiihed in the interme- 
 diate time between his feveral editions, and 
 to have collected from each of them their 
 principal difcoveries, with which he has im- 
 proved the laft edition of this work : what 
 books of credit have appeared in this fcience 
 fince his laft edition, have been examined with 
 this intent, the very late one of Verdier ruot 
 excepted ; and fome things, of no little con- 
 fequence, added from it. Senac's animad- 
 verfions have been carefully examined alfo, 
 and feveral additions made from them ; 
 which Dr. Heifter, though he had met 
 with that work, without knowing its au- 
 thor, had omitted : nor has his other 
 and more valuable method of addition to 
 his own obfervations been negledted, where 
 difficulties, undetermined by him, have been 
 hitherto left as defiderata. In this cafe, in- 
 fpedlion into the parts themfelves, with the 
 help of microfcopes, and the affiftance of 
 the preparations of fome of our moft emi- 
 nent anatomifts, fuperior to thofe of any 
 former ones, have been the means of at- 
 
 2 tempting 
 
of ^& Tr'AN $L AT OR. Vii 
 
 tempting farther certainty. Where, with 
 thefe helps, the difcovery has been clearly 
 made out, it is added \ where ever but the 
 leaft doubt remained, every thing is left 
 as it was. 
 
 Whatever is done of this kind is added in 
 the notes. The author's text is every where 
 preferved facred : and his notes, which are 
 printed feparately at the end of this work, 
 make a great part of the comment on the 
 whole. 
 
 The pains this Compendium has coft its 
 author, may be feen in the accuracy Avith 
 which he has iiniihed it, efpecially in the 
 latter impteffions ; and the difficulties that 
 attended the executing it, are obvious. It was 
 of confequence to the extenfive charadler of 
 Dr. Heifter to convince the world, that it was 
 not a trivial thing he was publifhing : he is, 
 therefore, to be excufed for having taken 
 fome pains to prove it. The neceffity of fuch 
 a Vv'ork could only be lliewn, by pointing out 
 the deficiencies of authors, highly efleemed 
 at the time when he wrote it ; and it is in 
 this fenfe that we are to underftand his 
 remarking fo many inftances of it. 
 
 The many editions this work has gone 
 through in the original, fufficiently fhew its 
 demand to have arofe from its general ufe- 
 fulnefs to all who profefs this fcience j and 
 
 we 
 
viii The ? KEF AC E, &c. 
 
 we doubt not but it will be as acceptable and 
 ufeful to all gentlemen of the profeffion, as 
 his General Syftem of Surgery has appeared 
 to be, fince its tranflation into the Englifh 
 language. 
 
 A C O M- 
 
A 
 
 COM PE N DI U 
 
 OF 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 BOOK! 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Of Anatomy in general, 
 
 I. j4 NATO my is aii arc which teaches Anatomy 
 ZjL the fituation, figure, connedions, fa- <^efined. 
 
 JL ^ brick, anions, and ufes of the feveral 
 parts of the body. 
 
 2. The primary obje(St of anatomy is the Its cb-^ 
 human body : the fecondary ones are, the bodiesi^*^^- 
 of other animal^. Thefe ferve for the more ac- 
 curate diftindions of feveral parts, and fupply the 
 defe6l of human fubjeds : this pare of it is called 
 comparative anatomy, or the anatomy of beafls ; 
 fometimes zootomy*. 
 
 3* The perfon who is fkilled in the art of dif- 
 fedting human and other bodies, and of clearly 
 
 * See on this fubjeft Severinus's Zootomia, BIafius*s Ana- 
 tome Animali'im, Collinses Anatomy, the difledions of vari- 
 ous animals by the academy of Paris, and Valentini's Amphi- 
 theatrum Zootomicum. 
 
 B demon- 
 
2 !/f C M P E N D I U M 
 
 demonftrating their nature, fo that, from his m- 
 ftrudlions, the hearers may learn the pofition, 
 communication, ftrudure, adlions, and ufes of 
 the feveral parts, is called an anatomiil. 
 Its means. 4. The means by which the anatomift performs 
 this, are principally fedtion, or the opening the 
 body, and feparating its parts ; and the affiftance 
 of microicopes, and of injedions; with fome others 
 to be treated of hereafter, in their places. The 
 means by which the young fludent is to qiiahfy 
 himfelf, in the fcience, are, i. Diligent at- 
 tention while the anatomift is diffediing. 2. Imi- 
 tation of what he has been doing, as well in 
 human fubjedls as in brutes. 3. A careful perufal 
 of the auihors, who have written well on the 
 fubjefl. 
 The bell 5. The principal and moft neceflary to be con- 
 writers on fulted, among the earlier writers, are Galen, Ve- 
 ^^' falius, C. Stephanus, Euftachius, Ingralfias, Co- 
 
 lumbus, Faliopius, Coiterus, Vidius, Varolius, 
 Valverda, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Bauhine, 
 Spigelius, CafTerius, Laurentius, Afellius, Lau- 
 rembergius, Pavius, Cafp. Bartholine the elder^ 
 M. A. Severinus, and C. Hoffman. 
 
 6. Among the after- writers, the moft necefTary 
 to be con fulted are Harvey, Veflingius, Riolanus 
 the fon, Wharton, Gliftbn, Pecquet,Willis, Lower, 
 Highmore, Needham, Marchett, Moliner, Die- 
 nierbrock, Kerkringius, Blafius, Steno, Malpighi, 
 Bellini, Rolfinch, Schneider, Hornius, De Graaf, 
 Swammerdam, T. Bartholine, Liferus, Gagliar- 
 dus, Peyerus, Bourdonus, Drehncurt, Nuck, and 
 Havers. 
 
 7. And finally, among the moderns, Ruyfch, 
 Bid loo, Du Verney, Bohn, Bruner, VieufTens, 
 Ortlobius, Verheyen, Schelhamer, J. Maurice 
 Hoffman, Dionis, Cowper, Ridley^ C. Bartholine 
 
 th« 
 
eTANATOMY. ^ 
 
 the younger, Keil, How, Morgagni, Valfalva, 
 Fanton, Pacchionus, Bianchus, Drake, Vercello 
 nius, Chefelden, Arent. Cant, Noguez, and San- 
 torini. To thefe might be added a number of 
 others •, but it is not necelTary to make this lift 
 too Jong : Magnet's Bibliotheca and Theatrum 
 Anatomicum, will give an accountof many of them ; 
 and we are to add, that the difcoveries and new ob* 
 fervations in anatomy, recorded in the wcrks of the 
 royal fccieties of France, England, Italy, Germany, 
 and other parts of the world, are by no means to be 
 pafled over. The ftudent, who wifhes to be ac- 
 quainted with more of the aoatomical writers, 
 may turn to Goelickius's Hidory of Anatomy^ 
 Dr. James Douglas's Specimen of a Bibliographia 
 Anatomica, and to our author's oration de Incre- 
 mentis Anatomes, publifhed at Helmftadt in the 
 year 1720. 
 
 8. The intent and ends of anatomy are various : Its end 
 the primary one is an acquaintance with, and an ^"^ '"^ 
 admiration of, the work of the Greater in the^^^'^"' 
 human frame : a ferious contemplation of the 
 ftrudure of this amazing fabrick, of the appro- 
 priated figure of the feveral parts of it, their con- 
 jiedlions, communications, adions and ufes, is one 
 of the ftrongeft of all arguments againft atheifm : 
 it carries a proof not only of the exiftence of a 
 Deity, but at the fame time of his amazing great- 
 nefs and wifdom •, and leads the obferver imme- 
 diately to the adoration, as well as the acknowledg- 
 ment, of a God. The glory of the Creator may, 
 therefore, be very juftly declared to be the great and 
 primary end of anatomy. The fcience, treated m 
 this light, may therefore be called philofophical, 
 phyfical, or theological anatomy, and is highly ufe- 
 ful to everyone who ftudies true wifdom and 
 theology. 
 
 B 2 9^ 
 
A Compendium 
 
 9. The fecondary ends of anatomy are many. 
 Oi thefe, the firft is health : this is the greateft 
 good we can know in this life -, and nothing cart 
 lead us more immediately to the knowledge of 
 the means of preferving it, or of reftoring ic 
 when impaired by difeafes, or even preventing 
 the accefs of them, than a true knowledge of the 
 ftru6lure of that frame which is injured by them. 
 Anatomy, in this fenfe, is (tiled medical ; 
 and many eftablifh this as the firft ipecies 
 of it, and the preferving and reftoring health as 
 its primary objed:. 
 
 10. Another of the fecondary ends of this 
 fcicnce, is the determining the caufe of fufpicious 
 deaths. If the bodies of perfons newly dead be 
 expofed for enquiry into the caufe of their dying, 
 and are ordered to be opened, that, from the in- 
 fpedlion of the parts, a true relation of. the occa- 
 fion of the violent or fufpedled death may be deli- 
 vered, and a proper judgment formed on that, 
 whether a blow, a wound, or poifon, or any other 
 violence, have occafioned the death of the perfon, 
 or whether it were owing to fome other more- 
 common or natural caufe, whether internal or ex- 
 ternal ; nothing can enable a perfon to execute 
 this with juftice and truth, but a knowledge of 
 anatomy. The fcience, in this light, is called 
 juridical anatomy. There are, befide thefe, alfo 
 a number of other cafes, which concern a court 
 of judicature, in which a knowledge of anatomy 
 is equally neceflfary. Impotency, barrennefs, and 
 caufcs of divorce, can only be properly adjudged 
 by means of a fkill in this fcience : nor can difputes 
 about the true times of pregnancy and delivery, 
 abortions, pretended parturition, the vitality of 
 the child, the caufes of its death, the mortality 
 of wounds, and a multitude of other medico- 
 legal 
 
&/ ANATOMY. 5 
 
 legal cafes, of as great importance as thefe, be 
 any way rationally adjuiled or determined, but by 
 means of a knowledge of this fcience *. 
 
 1 1. A third and very great end of anatomy, is 
 the determining the caufe and manner of the' 
 death of difeafed perfons, from a fubfequent dif- 
 fedlion of the body. This is called pradical 
 anatomy, as of the utmoft ufe in the pradice of 
 phyfick. The latent caiifes of multitudes of dif- 
 cafes, have been long fince difcovered by means 
 of thefe difTe^lions; and, to this time, the fame 
 means continue to furnifh us with dill other difco- 
 veries of a like kind, of what the anatomifts 
 themfelves, of all ages before, had been ignoranc 
 of-f. The knowledge of the real caufes of a 
 difeafe, is the firll rational flep towards its cure ; 
 and, without the afTiftance of difTedlions, how was 
 the world to have been truly informed of the 
 nature of the done in the bladder, of an em- 
 pyema, an afcites, hernias, catarafls, glaucomas, 
 and a number of others. 
 
 12. Anatomy, therefore, from its various in- Anatomy 
 tents and ends, may be faid to be of four kinds : of ^onr 
 
 1. The philofophick, phyfiologick, or theological. ^^^^• 
 
 2. The juridical, or medico-legal. 3. The medi* 
 cal, or that leading immediately to the cure of dif- 
 eafes ; and, 4. The fpeculative or theoretick. 
 
 The fpeculative or theoretick anatomift is one, 
 who, without ever having difledted himfelf, has 
 acquired fuch a degree of knowledge in the flruc- 
 ture of the body, as concents him, from reading 
 the befl aiithors on the fubjedt, and attending to 
 the difTedlions made by others. Many people are 
 
 * The author has treated this fubjeft much more largely 
 in an academical oration, de Medicinae & cumprimis Ana- 
 tomes utilitate in Jurifprudentia. 
 
 f See Bonet's Sepulchretum Anatomicum» 
 
 B 3 faid 
 
6 -^Compendium 
 
 faid to underffand anatomy in this fenfe, who have 
 never been at the pains of going thro' the laborious 
 part of [ he means neceflary to the acquiring a know- 
 ledge of it. In contradifl:in6lion from thefe fpecula- 
 tive anatomids, he who employs himfelf in difledling 
 bodies, in leparating, making preparations of, and 
 enquiiing nicely into the {tru6lure of the parts, is 
 called the pradical anatomift ; and the fcience it- 
 felf is, in this light, called practical anatomy. 
 Its utility. 1 3 . Upon the whole it appears, that the ufe of 
 anatomy is very great, nor is confined to the 
 bounds of medicine alone. The theologift, and the 
 philofopher, ought to know it; and the magif- 
 trate, or the feveral members of a court of judi- 
 cature, are under a necefTicy of having informa- 
 tion from it : the phyfician and the furgeon, 
 however, are the people to whom it is moil im- 
 mediately necefTary, and who cannot do juflice to 
 the world in their profefTions without a know- 
 ledge of it. What the needle is to the mariner, 
 that is anatomy to both thefe. Whatever the ig- 
 norant or malevolent may fay againft it, there is 
 no doubt but both thefe mod ufeful fciences would 
 be rather detrimental than beneficial to mankind, 
 without the afTiftance of anatomy to diredl them. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Of Anatomical Inftruments, 
 
 Indra- 14.^"!^ HE anatomift mud necelTarily be fur- 
 inents. J^ nifFied with his apparatus and inftru- 
 
 ments : without thefe, difiedlions, feparation of 
 the parts, and inveftigations of their fabrick and 
 ufes, cannot be performed. The anatomifts of 
 feveral ages have invented a multitude of them 5 
 
 but 
 
of ANATOMY. 
 
 but a much fmaller number than they defcribe, 
 will do all that is necefTary. 
 
 15. The firft article of the anatomift's appa- 
 ratus muft be a table, for the laying the body to 
 be diffedled upon. He muft alfo have a fecond 
 table, appropriated to the difre6tions of living 
 animals, with cords for the fixing them down. He 
 muit have a number of difleding knives, which 
 are to be ftrait, and to have an edge only on one 
 fide. Knives with two edges, crooked ones, and 
 a multitude of others, devifed for this purpofe, 
 are fuperfluous, and of lefs convenient ufe than 
 thefe plain and fimple ones. Of thcfe, however, 
 fome muft be larger, fome fmaller; feme more 
 delicate, and others more robuft. Befide thefe, 
 he muft have forceps, forfex's, volfclla's, hooks, 
 and ftyles of different fizes, with briftles and hairs 
 of different ftrength and finenefs, for the invefti- 
 gation of the duds in fome parts ; ftrait and 
 crooked needles, of various fizes, muft alfo be in 
 readinefs for various purpofes ; and thread, finer 
 and coarfer, and pins, large and robuft, as well as 
 fmaller. He muft alfo have faws, fcalpra, clavse, 
 and mallei, and an elevatory for opening the 
 fkull : and, finally, tubes of various apertures and 
 dimenfions for the inflating the duds and vefTels, 
 and alfo the inteftines, ftomach, and urinary blad- 
 der : the lungs are moft commodioufly inflated 
 by means of bellows, with proper nozels. 
 
 16. Finally, microfcopes are necefTary for the 
 examination of the fmaller and finer parts. And 
 fyringes of brafs, or other materials, are as necef- 
 fary as any thing already mentioned. There mufl: 
 be, at leaft, two of thefe for injedions : the one 
 for throwing in waxy, or other vifcous, thick, or 
 folid matter-, the other, for only injeding fluids. 
 Thefe muft have tubes of different diameters 
 
 B 4 fitted 
 
$ ^Compendium 
 
 fitted to them, according to the different pur* 
 pofes they are to ferve for. Befide thefe alio, a 
 tube of iron is necefiary for the introducing crude 
 iTjercury into the veffels. Spunges muft always 
 be in resdinefs for the abforbing extravafatcd hu» 
 mcurs, and the cleaning the parts ; a hone and 
 ilrap, for giving of an edge to the knives ; and 
 borers of various fizes, for perforating the bones. 
 Brafs wire muft not be wanting, for the connect- 
 ing the bones of a f]<eleton ; and the air-pump 
 may be of great ufe in the filling the veffels, and 
 for many other purpofes. The anatomift ought 
 alfo to have his diffedting- frock and lleeves, to 
 keep the blood, &c. from his cloaths and linnen ; 
 and a number of difhes, pots, and other veffels, 
 with utenfils of that kind, may be added at the 
 diffeder's pk^fure. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Of the names and divifton of the external parts &f 
 the human body. 
 
 External 17. yt FTER the enumeration of the inftru* 
 ^u^^u ^A lf\. nients neceffary for the anatomift, be- 
 
 '^ ° ^' fore we proceed to the examination of the feveral 
 parts of the human body, it is neceffary to fay 
 fomething of the appellations of them, and firft 
 of thofe of the external ones. It is not, under 
 this head, our bufinefs to lay down thofe common 
 and generally ufed appellations which are in the 
 mouths of every body ; nor, on the other hand, 
 to treat of thofe more particular ones, which oc- 
 cur in the inveftigation of the parts themfelves ; 
 as of the eye, the ear, the nofe, and the like. 
 The firft are unneceffary to be mentioned at all ; 
 fhe others are to be hereafter explained in their 
 
 place. 
 
^/ANATOMY. 9 
 
 place. The more general terms among thofe 
 not univerfally known, are the bufinefs of this 
 chapter. 
 
 1 8. The human body is divided by anatomiftsTh di- 
 into two parts: the trunks and the //w^j, or tht"^^^^ • 
 extremities. The trunk confifls of the head, neck, 
 thorajf, and abdomen. The hmbs are divided 
 
 into the upper and the lower : the upper are the 
 arms and hands ; the lower, the legs and feet. 
 
 19. In the head, the firft parts to be diftin- 
 guifhed are the hairy part, or fcalp, and the naked 
 part, or the face. After this, we are to attend to the 
 divifion into the fincipur, and occiput, or the fore 
 ^nd hinder part of the head\ iht temples ^ the crown 
 or vertex^ t\\thucca^ the cheeks, znd i\\q philtrum 
 or lacuna. The reft is obvious, and fufficiendy 
 known. 
 
 In the neck, the jugulum or throat, and the 
 pomum adami, are to be regarded. In the thorax, 
 the pr^cordia*, and the back. In the abdomen, 
 the fcrobiculus cordi.% the epigaftrick region, the 
 hypocondria, the rcgio iliaca, the loins, the in- 
 guina, the pubes, the perinasum, and the regio 
 ifchiatica. 
 
 20. In the upper extremities, or limbs, we are 
 to obferve the fhoulder or humerus, the axilla or 
 ala the arm-pit, the arm, the cubitus, the carpus 
 or wrift, the metacarpus, the palm and the back 
 of the hand, and the fingers. 
 
 In the lower extremities, we are to diftinguifh 
 the femur or thigh, the knee, the leg, the fhin, 
 
 * Authors are not well agreed about what is to be under- 
 (lood by the term Prascordia* Faber, and moft of the lexi- 
 cographers, underftand by it the anterior part of the breafl, 
 or all that part of it which is placed before the heart. But 
 Celfus ufes it to exprefs the whole breaft ; and that the antient 
 Romans did fo, is evident from Virgil : redit in praecordia 
 virtue. 
 
3arts. 
 
 lO yfCoMPENDIUM 
 
 the malleoli, the tarfus, the metatarfus, the foal 
 of the foot, and the toes. 
 
 2 1. It might feem not improper, from this 
 enumeration of the principal and obvious parts 
 of the body, to proceed to the common integu- 
 ments of it ; and from thofe, to the internal parts : 
 but as beginners will better underfland the de- 
 fcriptions of the compound parts, after they have 
 conceived proper ideas of the more fimple ones, 
 it will be belt to difcourfe of thofe firft. 
 The fim- 22. The parts of the human body are either 
 pie folid ^QJj^ .^^^ continent, or fluid and contained. The 
 folid parts are to be divided into fuch as are fimi- 
 lar or fimple in their ftruclure, and fuch as are 
 didimilar or compound. Thefe lafl: are called by 
 the generality of authors, organical parts. 
 
 The fmiilar or fimple parts of the human body, 
 if we would fpcak with exa6l propriety, are only 
 the flares ; for of thefe are all the other parts con- 
 flrudled in an amazing manner. But anatomifts 
 underfland the term in z laxer fenfe, and refer 
 to this head of fimple parts a number of others, 
 which feem fimple or fimilar to the fenfes •, or, 
 in more exprefs words, which are more fimple 
 than the more evidently organized ones ; fuch as 
 the lungs, the heart, the hand, &c. Thefe fim- 
 ple parts, as they call them, are thofe which 
 are employed in the formation of the others 
 which they call organical ; tho' not all of thefe to 
 each of thofe. 
 
 Of the number of fimple parts, in this accuf- 
 tomed fenfe of the term, are arteries, veins, 
 nerves, membranes, ligaments, mufcles and ten- 
 dons; with fat, lymphatick and ladeal vefTels, 
 excretory duds, bones, cartilages, glandules, the 
 nails, and the hair. The other fohd parts of the 
 human body are referred to the difTimilar or the 
 
 orga- 
 
of ANATOMY. %% 
 
 organical ones ; and thefe are ufually divided 
 again into the more nob]e and the lefs noble ones, 
 according to the greater or lefTer ufes they are of 
 in the oeconomy, or their being more or lefs im- 
 mediately neceilary to life. 
 
 23. A fibre is a perfedlly fimple body, or at Fibres, 
 leaft as fimple as any thing vinble in the human 
 ftrudure. It is fine and flender like a thread, and 
 ferves to the conftrudlion and formation of all the 
 other parts. Hence fome fibres are hard as the 
 honey ones, and others foft as thofe deftined for 
 
 the formation of all the other parts. They are 
 divided alfo, according to their fituation, into fnch 
 as are ftrait, oblique, tranfverfe, annular and fpiral. 
 They are found arranged in all thefe diredlions, in 
 different parts, according to the necelTity of their 
 manner of conformation, and of their ufe. 
 
 24. An artery is an elaftick canal or velTcl, Arteries; 
 endued, while the fubje61: is living, with a pulfa- 
 
 tory motion. It is of a conic figure -, and its of- 
 fice is to carry the blood from the heart to the 
 feveral other parts of the body. The veins, on Veins; 
 the contrary, are vefiels of the figure of an in- 
 verted cone; not endued with pulfation ; and whofe 
 office it is to carry back, from all parts of the 
 body, the blood, which the arteries had conveyed 
 thither, to the heart again. 
 
 25. The nerves are white, cylindrick bodies, Nerves; 
 proceeding, like threads, from the brain and fpinal 
 marrow, to all parts of the body *, and ferving to 
 
 the purpofes of fenfation, motion, and nutrition, 
 
 26. Membranes are parts which refembie, in Mem- 
 fome degree, pieces of linnen or paper, and are branes, 
 defl:ined to various ufes in the human ftru6ture. 
 What are called tunics, fcarce in any thing differ 
 from membranes. The words are often ufed in- 
 differently, as names of either. The ligaments Lfga- 
 
 alfo nientSa 
 
tZ u^ C O M P E N D I U M 
 
 alfo are nearly allied to thefe. Their different ufe 
 is the principal thing which diflinguifhes them. 
 Where llibfbances of this kind are dellined to the 
 joining two bones togedier, in a very firm manner, 
 they affume the name of ligaments : where their 
 office is the furrounding or inclofing things, they 
 are called tunics and membranes. 
 
 There are, however, fome ligaments which are 
 very like nerves or tendons, and are very different 
 from membranes in their rounded or cylindrick 
 figure : fuch are thofe in the junctures of the thigh 
 and the patella. 
 
 Mufcles. 27. The mufcles are thofe flefhy red parts of 
 the body, which conftitute the inft rumen ts of 
 motion •, and are what we call, in the whole, flefh. 
 
 Tendons, The tendons are white, firm, and tenacious parts, 
 
 ^'^^ ^^Ff' continuous to thefe, and ufually forming their ex- 
 tremities. Thefe, if they are broad, and ex- 
 panded in the manner of m.embranes, are not 
 called tendons, but aponeurofes. 
 
 Fat. 28. The fat is a thick, oily matter, lecreted 
 
 from the blood, and contained in membranaceous 
 cells. It is deftined for various purpofes. What 
 is lodged within the cavities of the bones, and 
 
 Marrow, called marrow, fcarce differs at all from this, un- 
 lefs in its fubtility, and the place where it is 
 lodged *. 
 
 Lympha- 29. The lymphatic veffels are fubtile canals, 
 
 ticks. of a fine texture, pellucid, and dtftined for the 
 carrying a thin, fine, and almofl: aqueous liquor, 
 from feveral parts of the body toward the heart. 
 
 * The fat might be naturally enough referred to the num- 
 ber of the fluid parts ; and indeed is, by many authors, 
 treated of among them : but as, in diffedion, it always offers 
 itfelf in a folid form, and its cellules are always evidently 
 folid, it feems more natural, in a work of this kind, to give it 
 (L place- among the folids. 
 
 The 
 
0/ A N A T O M Y: 13 
 
 The la6leal vcfTels are tubes of a like kind, but Laaeals. 
 they are placed only in the mefcntery and intef- 
 tines. Their office is to receive the chyle, which 
 is a liquor of a milky colour, produced by the 
 concodion of our food, from the inteftines, and 
 to carry it thro' the mefentery into an appropriated 
 du6l, formed for the reception of it. 
 
 30. The excretory dudls, are canals defiined Excretor" 
 for the reception of a fluid fecreced in certain dads. 
 glandules, and other vifcera, and for the excretion 
 
 of it in the appropriated places. 
 
 31. The bones are hard, white bodies, deilined Bones. 
 for the fupport and defence of the fofter and 
 weaker parts. 
 
 What we call cartilages, are bodies much ap- Cartilages 
 proaching to the nature of bones -, but lubricous, 
 flexible, and elaftick. They contain either none 
 at all, or, at the utmofl:, but a very little of the 
 medullary matter, and ferve for various ufes. 
 
 32. The nails are parts, which, in many re- Nails". 
 fpe6ts, approach greatly to the nature of cartilages. 
 They are thin lamins, of a horny fubftance, af- 
 fixed to the extremities of the fingers and of the 
 toes. The hairs are filaments placed on various 
 parts of the body, efpecially on the head, and 
 growing out a great way from the fur face. 
 
 33. Glands are parts of a peculiar firuc- Glands, 
 ture : the antients fuppofed them formed of a dif- 
 ferent kind of fiefh from that of the reft of the 
 body. They are, in reality, compofed of a conge- 
 ries of extremely fmall arteries, veins and nerves, 
 
 and ufually have alfo an excretory du6l. They are 
 furrounded by a peculiar membrane, and are of 
 various figures, colours, and confiftencies, as they 
 are deftined to different offices. Their feveral bufi- 
 nefs is the fecreting from the blood fome fluid : 
 but of this, more in its proper place. 
 
 34. 
 
14 !i^C0MPENDlUM, t^C, 
 
 Fluids of 34. The fluids of the body, or the parts con- 
 thehumantained in the fcveral folids already enniimerated, 
 ^^* are the foI!ovv^ing : chyle, milk, blood, ferum, 
 lymph, animal fpirits, laliva, gall, the liquor of 
 the pancreas, that of the ftomach, of the intef- 
 tines, of the cefophagus, of the brain, of the 
 eyes, of the thorax, of the pericardium, of the 
 abdomen, of the tunica vaginalis of the tefles, 
 the (emen, and the liquor of the proftat^ j the 
 mucus of the nofe, of the tonfils, of the articu- 
 Jations, of the urethra, of the uterus, of the va- 
 gina, of the tubes of the uterus ; the hum.or of 
 the ova, and that in which the foetus fvvims ; 
 the ear-wax, the urine, and fweat. 
 General q^^. The bufinefs of anatomy is ufually divided 
 divifioRofjj^|.Q f^Q parts, under the names of olleology and 
 anatomy. j-^j-^Qiogy • the firfl comprehending the do6trine 
 of the bones, or harder parts y the latter, of the 
 fiefli, and fofter. It is mod convenient to enter 
 on the o{l"eo]ogical part firft, as on the bones de- 
 pends the bafis and foundation of all the refl, 
 and as the other parts will be the more eafily un- 
 derflood after the defcriptions of thefe. 
 
 A COM- 
 
15 
 
 A 
 
 COM PEN DIU M 
 
 O F 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 B O O K IL 
 
 Of Osteology, 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Of the Bones in general, 
 
 HO EVER is defirous of attaining toofleology 
 a perfedl knowledge of the ftru6ture 
 and parts of the human body, mull firft inform 
 himfelf perfedlly of the bones. 
 
 37. The objedls of ofteology are the bones, its ob- 
 whether they be recent or dry*d, whether theyje^i. 
 have belonged to an infant or an adult ; and wich 
 
 the bones are to be confidered their perioileum, 
 medulla or marrow, the ligaments, and the car- 
 tilages. 
 
 38. An artificial conjundion of the bones, inAfkele- 
 the fame order and fituation in which they are^^n. 
 placed in the body, is called a fkeleton. 
 
 39. The ftudy of the bones is to be confidered 
 in two lights, as theoretical, or as prafiical. In 
 the firft fenfe, ofteology only extends to the ex- 
 
 I ternal 
 
t6 A Compendium 
 
 tcrnal conformation, and ufe of the bones : in the 
 latter, or pradical f^nfe, it comprehends the more 
 intirPiace knowledge of their interior ftrudture 
 and connections, i. If their internal parts are to 
 be examined, they are to be cut or broken. 2. If 
 their articulations are the fubjed of enquiry, the 
 ligaments about their jundlures are to be examined 
 in dilldded bodies. 3. If the making a fkeleton 
 be the intent, their preparation and prefervation 
 come into this branch. 
 Bones, 40. The fubftance of the bones may be confi* 
 
 their fub- dered either chemically or anatomically. The 
 ^"^^* chemical examination fucceeds beft with the bones 
 of infants and embryo's; the anatomical enquiry 
 into their nature, with thofe of adults. 
 Examined 4 1. In the chemical analyfis by the retort^ 
 chemi- bones afford, with the different degrees of fire 
 ^* carefully managed, a water, a fait, a fpirit, and 
 an oil. After this, there remains in the retort a 
 merely earthy fubftance, retaining the exadt figure 
 of the bones employed, but brittle : and the fpi- 
 rit produced from them, may, by a redification,, 
 be feparated into water, fait, and oil. Hence it 
 appears, that bones are compofcd of four princi- 
 ples or elements, which are connected fo together, 
 as to form a very ftrong and durable com pages. 
 rA-amined 42. The bones, anatomically examined, are 
 ^ofr!?"^^' fo^^r^'d, firft of ailj in the time of their formation 
 and origin, to be like fo many foft membranes, 
 compofed of a number of fibres and vefTels of an 
 extreme fubtility and minutenefs, from which 
 they receive their nutrition, and are increafed in 
 fize, and hardened. Thefe fibres and membranes 
 grow by degrees harder, and more cartilaginous ; 
 and, in fine, are arranged into a fort of tables, or 
 lamelte. Over the lamellae firft formed, there are 
 expanded, by degrees, new ftrata of fibres and 
 
 veffels : 
 
 cally. 
 
^/ANATOMY. 17 
 
 veffels : each ftratum, thus added, forms a new 
 lamella upon the old ones 5 and all thefe, by de- 
 grees, growing harder, and being conneded to 
 one another, by means of oblique and tranverfe 
 fibrillse, the compages becomes gradually more 
 clofe^ and the matter more dry j and thus, at 
 length, a bone is formed *. The bone is 
 thicker or thinner, the more or the fewer of thefe 
 lamelloe and fibres are laid over one another for 
 the formation of it; and thefe leave between them 
 a multitude of cavities, fome flrait, others oblique, 
 fome longitudinal, others tranverfe, all which are 
 filled up with a fat, medullary juice. 
 
 43. The bones of the feveral parts of the body Thefir dif- 
 differ from one another in their fizes, their cavi- ^<^^^^c^s. 
 ties, their qualities, their figures, and their ufes, 
 
 as will appear, when we come to a particular con- 
 fideration of them : but, before we enter on that, 
 fome general obfervations on them are not to 
 be omitted. 
 
 44. In every bone we examine, there come into 
 confideration, i. The bone itfelf. 2. Its cavities. 
 3. Its conjundions with the other bones, 4. Ics 
 ufes. 
 
 45. In regard to the bone itfelf, three things 
 are to be conlidered, i. The body of it, 
 which, according to Galen, is called the diaphyfis. 
 2. The apophyfes; and, 3. The epiphyfes. 
 
 46. The diaphyfis, or body of the bone, is its 
 larger and principal portion, which, in youi:g fub- 
 jeds, is the firft part that indurates ; and is, as it 
 were, in the place of a bafis or foundation to the 
 reft. 
 
 * See Harvey on the generation of animals, Kerkring's 
 Ofteogenia foetus, Ruyfch's Thefaur. Anar. Malpighi's Ana- 
 tome plantarum, Gagliard's Anat. olSum, and Havers's- 
 Oftcologia. 
 
 c 47* 
 
 fe- 
 
tS ^CoMPENDlUlVt 
 
 Apophy- 47. An apophyfis is a protuberance or excref- 
 iiS' , cence from the body of the bone, of which it is 
 a true continuous part, as a branch is of a tree. 
 
 48. This part of a bone has feveral other names 
 befides apophyfis. The terms procefs, promi- 
 nence, protuberance, eminence, tubercle, and tu- 
 berofity, fo frequent in the works of the anato- 
 mical authors, all fignify nearly the fame thing. 
 
 49. The apophyfes alfo receive feveral addi- 
 tions to thefe names, by way of epithet, ex- 
 prefTing their peculiar fituation, ufe, or figure : 
 fuch are coracoides, mammillaris, maftoides, gle- 
 noides, coronoides, flyloidcs, condyloides, ptery- 
 goides, odontoides or dentiformis, anchoroides, 
 Ipinofa, re6la, obliqua, tranfverfa, fuperficialis, 
 and the like. 
 
 The head of the apophyfis has alfo its peculiar 
 names ; fuch as condylus, corone, fpina, fuperci- 
 lium, labrum, and the like, as will be feen more 
 at large, when we come to treat of the bones 
 fingly. 
 
 50. The principal ufes of the apophyfes of the 
 bones, are, i. For the making the better articu- 
 lations, whether thefe be intended to have motion 
 or to be fixed. 2. To afford a proper and firm 
 place of origination and infertion for the mufcles : 
 and, 3. To defend the other parts. The more 
 fpecifick and peculiar ufes, will be delivered under 
 the heads of the feveral different bones. 
 
 Eplphyfis. 51. An epiphyfis is a bony fubftance, or, as it 
 were, a leffer bone, affixed to a larger or principal 
 bone by the intervention of a cartilage. In young 
 fubjedls, thefe epiphyfes are not continuous to the 
 principal bone ; but are only connedted by the in- 
 termediate cartilage, and hence they arc called 
 appendages to the bones. 
 
 52. 
 
^/Anatomy. 19 
 
 52. The principal things to be obferved of thefe 
 cpiphyfes are, i. That they are all cartilaginous 
 in infants, and tho' they afterwards grow by de^ 
 grees more hard ; yet they never arrive at the 
 true denfity of a bone, but are always lax and 
 fpongy. 2. That mod of them degenerate into 
 apophyfes in adults. 3. That they do not grow 
 along the plane furface of the bone, but unequal- 
 ly, or by a mutual ingrefs with the body of 
 it. 4. That their nature and conjundlions are 
 much more obvious in younger than in older 
 fubjedls. 5. That the body of the principal bone 
 itfeif is fpongy, and tender about the place of the 
 conjundlion, 
 
 53. The ufe of the epiphyfes is very different 
 in infants and in adults. 
 
 .54. In adults they feem to ferve the bones^ 
 which contain large quantities of marrow, by 
 way of operculm, that this foft matter may not 
 run out. 2. They are of fervice to the articula- 
 tions, rendering the motions more eafy as well as 
 more determinate. 3. They make the whole 
 bone lighter than it would be, if their place were 
 fupplied by abfolute boney matter, as they are 
 much more fpongy. 4. They greatly increafe 
 the power of the mufcles about the tendons, by 
 means of their prominences. 5. They add greatly 
 to the fize of the places deftined for receiving the 
 infections of the mufcles. 6. They give a firmer 
 cohefioh to the ligaments which ferve in the arti- 
 culations, and allow an entrance to the blood- 
 vefTels. 
 
 55, The ufes of the epiphyfes in infants, are, 
 I. That, by means of their yielding foftnefs, they 
 may give way to the compreflion in the uterus, ^nd 
 fufFer the whole bulk to be more folded together 
 than otherwife it could, fo that it may lie in a 
 
 C 2 fmaller 
 
^0 ^Compendium 
 
 fmaller compa fs. 2 . That they may give way to the 
 elongation and growth of the bones, that, as the 
 body grows, they may be proportionably extended, 
 as neceflary. 3. That chey may prevent the fre- 
 quent fradlures, which would otherwife unquef- 
 tionably happen to children from their falls, and 
 the other accidents they are liable to. 
 Cavities. ^6, Of the cavities of the feveral bones, fome 
 are made for the fake of the articulations, fome 
 for other reafons, Thofe of the former kind are 
 called by the various names of cotyle, acetabu- 
 lum, and glene : they are deeper in frefh bones 
 than in fuch as have been dried, becaufe of the 
 cartilaginous eminences, intended by nature for 
 the afliftance of the articulation, being taken 
 away in thefe. Thefe cavities contain a fatty, 
 mucous liquor, fecreted by a peculiar fet of glands, 
 called the mucous or mucilaginous glands, and 
 by the ligaments * of the articulations, and pro- 
 bably alfo from the marrow itfelf ; this is deftined 
 for the lubricating the bones, and facilitating their 
 moving on one another. 
 
 ^y. The cavities in the bones, not ferving for 
 the purpofe of articulation, are of two kinds, 
 internal and external. The internal ones, if 
 large, contain marrow ; if fmaller, a red medul- 
 lary juice, or oily matter. Thefe latter are called 
 the cellules of the bones. 
 
 5S, The external cavities of this kind have 
 various names, according to their various figure : 
 they are called fovese, fofise, foramina, canals and 
 dufts, finus's, fulcus's, and incifurse. 
 
 * It appears extremely probable, that a part of this fluid 
 is fecreted from the ligaments themfelves ; fmce the glands, 
 which are in general laid to fecrete it, are not to be found 
 m fome of the articulations ; and the membranaceous parts, 
 of wliich nature the ligaments evidently are, in other places 
 do fecrete fuch a fluid. 
 
 59^ 
 
cf ANATOMY. Si 
 
 59, The conjundions or articulations of the 
 bones, are generally treated of before the feveral 
 bones of the fkeleton are explained ; but this is 
 certainly erroneous. The young ftudent will 
 fcarce find it poflible to underftand thefe parts and 
 the ufes of the bones, unlefs he firft underfland the 
 figure, ftru6ture, and offices of the feveral bones 
 themfelves ; wherefore we fliall referve this for 
 the laft part of our ofteology, and begin what we 
 have farther to fay in this place, with the expli- 
 cation of the feveral bones which conftitute a 
 fkeleton. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Of the hones of the head, 
 
 60. fnr\ H E fkeleton is divided, like the whole DiviHon 
 X body, into two parts ; the trunk, and °^ ^ ^^' 
 the extremities, or limbs. The trunk of the flee- ^^°"* 
 leton confifts of the head, the fpine, the bones of 
 the bread, and the ofTa innominata. 
 
 6i. The head exprelTes that part of the flcele- 
 ton which is placed upon the top vertebra of the 
 neck : it is divided into the cranium and maxillae. 
 
 62. The cranium, called alfo the calvaria, is Skull. 
 that part of the head which forms its great boney 
 cavity, which contains the brain in the living 
 fubjedt : the feveral bones, therefore, which go to 
 
 the formation of this cavity, are called ofTa cranii. 
 
 63. In the cranium, we are to confider its 
 (hapc, which is oval •, its exterior furface, which 
 is convex •, and its interior, which is concave ; its 
 fize; its thicknefs, which is unequal in the feveral 
 parts •, its fubftance, which is formed of two la- 
 mellae or tables, an exterior, and an interior, be- 
 tween which there is a diploe or meditullium ; its 
 
 C 3 compo- 
 
'22 - ^GOMPENDIITM 
 
 compofitlon, which is of feveral bones ; and the 
 connedions of thefe feveral bones, which is by 
 futures -, and its ufes. 
 
 64. The bones of the cranium are eight, viz. 
 I'he OS frontis, the two parietal bones, the two 
 bones of the temples, the occipital, the fphe- 
 noides, and the ethmoidcs *. 
 Os frontis. 6^. The OS frontis, which is called alfo the 
 coronal bone, is the firft of the bones of the cra- 
 nium to be examined : it is double in infants, buc 
 in adults it is ufually fingle ; fometimes, how- 
 ever, it is divided in thefe into two parts, down to 
 the nofe. In this we are to obferve its fituation, 
 its irregular figure, its conneclion, its internal 
 furface, in which there are a fovea or furrow, and 
 an eminence, to be noted, to which the longitu- 
 - dinal finus of the dura mater adheres : we are alfo 
 to regard its external fuperficics, on which we are 
 to obferve the place where the frontal and tempo- 
 ral mufcles, and the cartilaginous annule of the 
 iiuifciilus trochlears of the eye, are fituated : 
 there are feven apophyfes alfo on it, fix of which 
 concur together to form the orbit, and the feventh 
 fuftains the bones of the nofe. We are then to 
 obferve the frontal finufes f^ their ufe and va- 
 rious conftitution in adults, and their furprifing 
 origin in children j. 
 pffa pa- 66. The parietal bones, called alfo the ofTa 
 rietaha. bregmatis and olTa fincipitis, make the fecond and 
 third bones of the cranium. In thefe we are to 
 
 * Many of the anatomical writers give other names, beiide 
 thefe, to the bones of the ikull ; but thefe are the moft ufed 
 and received. The ennumeration of the others, would only 
 confufe the young lludent. 
 
 f See Schneider de Catarrh, fig. i. p. 484. Palfin's 
 Olleolog. T. I. and 2. 
 
 :j: The ufes of thefe, and the other foramina of the bones 
 of the ikull, will be delivered together hereafter. 
 
 obferve 
 
c/ ANATOMY. 23 
 
 obferve the fituation, the figure, which is nearly a 
 fquare, their fize, their conneclions, and their 
 thicknefs. Their external furface is to be exa- 
 mined ; and in it, the place of part of the 
 temporal mufcle, or crotaphites. Then their inter- 
 nal furface, in which there are furrows reprefent- 
 ing little ihrubs : thefe are formed by the arteries 
 of the dura mater ; and befide thefe, there are 
 other foveas *, and finally, we are to obferve the 
 place called the bregma, and in infants the fon- 
 tanels, or fons pulfatilis, and the manner in which 
 it is found in them. 
 
 6"], The temporal bones, called alfo the offa OfTa tem- 
 fquammofa and petrofa, make the fourth and fifth po^um, 
 bones of the cranium. In thefe we are to regard 
 the fituation, the figure, which is very irregular ; 
 the connexion, the fubftance, which is, as their 
 other names exprefs, fquammofe and very hard: 
 their four apophyfes, which are, the jugal or zy- 
 gomatick, the mammillar or maftoide, the fly^ 
 ioide, and the petrofe : the place where the lower 
 jaw is articulated : the meatus auditorius, or au- 
 ditory paffage : the place where the ligament of 
 the ear is inferted, near the maftoide procefs : the 
 figmoidal foffs, where the lateral fmus's of the 
 dura mater are placed : the incifure under the 
 maftoide procefs, where the biventer mufcle has 
 its origination : the fovea, in which is buried the 
 finus of the jugular vein : the finufes in the maf- 
 toide procefTes, opening into the cavity of the 
 tympanum : and, finally, we are to inform our- 
 felves of the ftate of thefe bones in foetus's, in 
 which they are formed of the petrofe and fquam- 
 mofe parts, on a boney circle or annulus ; on the 
 fifTure of which the membrane of the tympanum 
 grows, which afterwards, in procefs of time, be- . 
 
 C 4 coriies 
 
,24 vfCoMPENDIUM 
 
 comes wonderfully expanded into the boncy mea-' 
 tus anditorius. 
 Ofla au- 5s. In the temporal bone, and particularly in 
 ^'^^^' its petrofe part, are to be obferved the cavity of 
 the tympanum ; and, in it, the ofiicula auditoria, 
 or bones ferving to the fenle of Iiearing- Thefe 
 bones are commonly faid to be four, and there 
 ^re as many foramiina. The firfl: of them is called 
 the malleus : in this we are to obferve the head, 
 the neck, and the handle, which is joined to the 
 membrane of the tympanum. Two apophyfes 
 are alfo to be remarked in this : the one very long, 
 called, from its fuppofed difcoverer, Raviana, but 
 erroneoufly •, for it had been before defcribed by 
 Folius *. This ferves for the infertion of the ex- 
 ternal mufcle of the malleus. The fecond is the 
 incus, in which we are to obferve the body of the 
 bone, and its fovea, or hollow, ferving for its ar- 
 ticulation with the malleus, and its two crura or 
 Jegs -, to the longer of which there is joined an- 
 other bone, called the (tapes. In this we are to 
 obferve the head, which is joined to the longer 
 leg of the incus ; its bafis, which flands on the 
 feneftra ovalis of the labyrinth of the ear; and its 
 two lateral parts, which have their internal furface 
 furrowed. 
 
 What is generally called the fourth bone of the 
 ear, is placed between the incus and the ftapes, 
 and is named the os orbiculare ; but this is not 
 truly a diftindl or feparate bone, but is merely an 
 epiphyfis of the longer leg of the incus. 
 Foramina Of the foramina, the firft is the feneftra ovali?, 
 of thenar, q^^ which the bafe of the ftapes ftands. Near this 
 
 * See Boerhaave's Inflit. Med. cap. de Audita ; and Folii 
 nova auris internae defcriptio ; as alfo BarthoL Anat. Reform, 
 p. 715. but this laft author's figure is not fo expreflive as it 
 might be. 
 
 is 
 
<?/ AN ATOMY. 25 
 
 is the fecond, which is called the feneftra rotunda : 
 this leads to the cochlea, the other to the vefti- 
 bule of the ear. The third foramen, by means 
 of a canal, is carried to the mouth : this is called 
 the euflachian dudl, or tube : 'tis through this 
 that fome people have a way of difcharging, at the 
 ears, the fmoak of tobacco taken in at the mouth ; 
 and 'tis by means of this alfo, that people, fubjedb 
 to deafnefs, hear beft when their mouths are open. 
 The fourth foramen opens into the cellules of the 
 rnaftoide procefs. All thefe are of ufe in hearing. 
 
 69. The inner part of the ear has obtained, Labyrinth 
 from its various and wonderful meanders, the of ^l^e ear, 
 name of the labyrinth. In this we are to remark, 
 the cavity, conftituting the middle of the laby- 
 rinth, and called its veftibule : on one part of this 
 are three canals, known by the name of the femi- 
 circular ones, and diftinguifhed by the epithets 
 of the largeft, the middle one, and the leaft: 
 thefe open by five orifices into the veftibule. In 
 the other part is the cochlea, which forms two 
 fpiral windings and a half : in this we are to ob- 
 ferve the nucleus, and the canal, which is divided 
 into two by a fpiral lamina. The upper of thefe 
 opens into the veftibule, and is called the fcala 
 veftibuli : the lower, tending toward the hollow 
 of the tympanum, by the feneftra rotunda, is 
 called the fcala tympani by Valfalva *. Finally, 
 we are to remark the canals of the auditory nerve : 
 I. The common and larger, in which there are 
 little apertures into the labyrinth : and, 2. The 
 proper, narrower, and longer, terminating part- 
 ly by a little aperture in the cavity of the cra- 
 nium^ and partly in the aquedud of Fallopius f* 
 
 ^ Traft. de Aura humana. 
 f Ibid. Tab. 7. fig. 
 
26 yf Compendium 
 
 Os occi- 70. The OS occipitis is the fixth bone of the 
 pins. cranium. In this we are toobferve the fituation, 
 the figure, which is irregular, and the ftate of it 
 in infants, in whom it ufuaJly is compofed of four 
 pieces or fragments. After this* we are to regard 
 ics connexions, its fubftance, which is very thick; 
 its three apophyfes, two of which are condyloide, 
 and ferve for the articulation of it with the upper 
 vertebra of the neck, and fupport the whole head ; 
 the third is extended to the fella equina. In the 
 internal furface of this bone, in aduhs, there is a 
 figure of a crofs, and to this adhere the finufes 
 and procefTes of the dura mater ; and within this 
 there are alfo four hollows, in which the poflerior 
 lobes of the brain and the cerebellum lie. In 
 the external fuperficies, there are feveral fuperficial 
 eminences and deprefTions to be obferved after the 
 great foramen : thefe ferve for the infertions of 
 feveral of the mufcles of the head, 
 Os fphe- 71. The feventh bone of the cranium is the 
 noides. qs fphenoides, called alfo the os cuneiforme and 
 bafilare : this is fixed, in the manner of a wedge, 
 among the other bones of the cranium ; and ferves 
 as a bafis, as it were, to fupport feveral of them, 
 and fome of thofe of the upper jaw. The figure 
 of this bone is very irregular : in its upper part is 
 feen the fella equina, or turcica, under which there 
 is a finus, called the fphenoidal finus : this is fome- 
 times double, and opens into the noflrils : fome- 
 times it is totally wanting. 
 
 The fphenoides has thirteen apophyfes ; fix of 
 *them are internal, and are placed near the fella 
 equina ; and the other feven are external : four 
 of thefe are of a pterygoide form, and thence 
 named ; two, of the other three, are very fmall 
 and ftyloide -, and the feventh is placed under the 
 vomer. There are alfo three folfe or cavities in 
 a this 
 
^/ANATOMY. 2;^ 
 
 this bone ; one in the fella equina, and the other 
 two between the pterygoide apophyfes. 
 
 72. The eighth and lad bone of ihe cranium O£cribro- 
 is the OS ethmoides, or os cribrofum, or cribri- ^'J^* 
 forme. In this we are to obferve, after the firua- 
 tion, its extenfion thro' the noftriJs and orbits, its 
 figure, its connedlion, and its fiate in infants ; its 
 four apophyfes j the crilta galli, which is the up- 
 per part of the feptum narium ; the two offa 
 fpongiofa fuperlora, which are called alfo by fome 
 turbinara * : to which Morgagni has added two 
 other fmaller onesf ; the cribrofe, cavernofe, pa- 
 pyraceous or plane parts ; and under this the va- 
 rious little finufes. And, finally, we are to en- 
 quire into the ufes of thefe feveral parts. 
 
 73,. All the bones of the cranium are found to 
 be imperfe6t in new-born infants. The finus and 
 its meditullium are almofl wholly wanting : the 
 boney fibres, in the formation of almoft all of 
 them, are carried, in form of rays, from a centre, 
 toward the circumference ; and moft of them are 
 not fingle, as in adults •, but are compofed each 
 of feveral fruftules, or little pieces : nor are the 
 futures at that time formed : And, finally, there 
 are frequently triquetrous little bones between 
 them. 
 
 74. In adults, the feveral bones of the Ikull The fu- 
 are, in general, joined by futures. Thefe futures are ^^^res. 
 either common or proper: the proper futures are 
 diftinguifhed into the true and the falfe, or fpurious : 
 they are called true futures, when the bones are 
 jointed together in an amazing manner, by means 
 of a multitude of unequal denticulated eminences, 
 forming an appearance fome what like the edge of a 
 
 * Some take thefe fyongy parts of the ethmoides for pe- 
 puliar bones ; but they are always continous in adults. 
 -(• Adverfar, Anatom. 6, T. 2. fig. 3. qq. 
 
 faws 
 
z3 -^Compendium 
 
 fiw : thefe denticulations enter mutually into each 
 other's finufes, and are moft plainly vifible ex- 
 ternally : of this kind are thofe called the coronal, 
 fagittal, and lambdoidal futares. The falfe or 
 fpurious futures, are thofe fquammofe ones of the 
 temporal and parietal bones, and of the os frontis 
 and fphenoides in the angle, where they unite with 
 the parietal ones. 
 
 The common futures are, the tranfverfal one, 
 which joins the os frontis with the bones below it ; 
 the fphenoidal, the ethmoidal, and the zygoma- 
 tick * : but thefe are of little moment. Anato- 
 mical authors mention the having met with fkulls, 
 in which there were no futures at all"f. 
 
 y^. Between the futures, particularly the lamb- 
 doidal and the fagittal, there are found, in many 
 fkulls, certain fmall bones. Thefe are called by 
 feme ofTa triquetra, from their figure ; by others, 
 ofla Wormiana, tho' they were known to Galen : 
 they are uncertain in their figure and fituation, 
 and are joined to the others by futures. Thefe 
 bones are, by fome, efteemed a great medicine 
 in epilepfies §. 
 
 76. The ufe of the futures, is, i. That the 
 dura mater may, in thofe places, be very firmly 
 joined to the cranium and pericranium. 2. That, 
 in infants, the head may the more eafily be ex- 
 tended in its growth, from the feveral bones being 
 at that period difunited at thefe places. 3. That 
 
 * Some authors mention alfo a number of other common 
 futures ; fuch as the nafal, the palatine, the lachrymal, and 
 the like ; but thefe more properly belong to the jundlures 
 per harmoniam. 
 
 4- See Fallopius de offibus, and Meibomius de futuris cranii. 
 
 § Our author preferved a Ikull in which the lambdoidal 
 fyture was two fingers broad, and there were more than 
 twenty pf thefe dillindl bones, 
 
 the 
 
vf ANATOMY; 29 
 
 the tranfpiration from the brain may be the more 
 free and eafy, at that time of life in which they 
 are open, and at which alfo the habit is more 
 humid. 4. That very large fra6lures of the fkuU 
 might be, in fome meafure, prevented. And, 
 finally, there is another advantage in their open- 
 nefs in children, namely, that medicinal applica- 
 tions to the external part of the head may pene- 
 , trate, and do fervice. 
 
 77. After the examination of the cranium, we The 
 are to defcend to the maxillae : by this term we maxillae. 
 underftand, the bones of the head not hitherto 
 mentioned, and placed under the anterior part of 
 
 the cranium, but forming no part of its cavity : 
 the one of thefe is called the maxilla fuperior, or 
 upper jaw, and is immoveable, adhering firmly 
 to the other bones of the head : the other is called 
 the maxilla inferior, or lower jaw, which is move- 
 able, and contrived for various purpofes. 
 
 78. The jaws are fhorter in the human frame 
 than in that of any other animal, in proportion 
 to the fize of the body ; and this is a circumllance 
 that adds greatly to the beauty of the face. 
 
 79. The upper jaw is compofed of thirteen 
 bones, and has, when the number is complete, 
 fixteen teeth in it. 
 
 80. Of the thirteen bones of the upper jaw, 
 there are twelve in pairs : thefe are, i . The la- 
 chrymal. 2. The nafal. 3. The jugal. 4. The 
 maxillar. 5. The fpongiofum inferius. And, 
 6. The palatine. The thirteenth is an odd bone, 
 and is called the vomer. 
 
 Many of the anatomical authors do not diftin- 
 guifli thefe fix pair of the bones of the upper 
 maxilla by name, but only by number; calling 
 them the firft, fecond, third, fourth, fifth, and 
 lixth pairs : but this may eafily lead the young 
 
 ftudenc 
 
JO !/f Compendium 
 
 ftudent into confufion and error. Such appro- 
 priated names, for the feveral pairs of them, as 
 are here given, are more eafily retained than num- 
 bers : and we are to add, that numbers conveying 
 no idea of the bones themfelves, the name of firft 
 pair may as well belong to the lachrymal as to the 
 nafal, to one pair as to another ; whereas, in this 
 way, they are kept diftind, and the name of one 
 cannot be applied to another. 
 
 8i. Thefe feveral bones of the upper maxilla 
 are united to one another by a kind of junfture, 
 which appears equal and even, and is called, by 
 anatomilb, jundtura per harmoniam, 
 
 82. The firft pair are the ofla lachrymalia, or, 
 as they are called by fome, ofla unguis. In thefe, 
 after underftanding the origin and reafon of their 
 name, we are to obferve the fituation, fize, and 
 circumference, their connections, their fubftance, 
 which is very tender ; the furrow in them, made 
 for the nafal canal j their ufe : and, finally, the 
 operation performed by furgeons on this part in 
 the fiflula lachrymalis. 
 
 83. The fecond pair are the ofTa nafi : in which 
 we are to obferve the fituation, circumference, 
 figure, and fubftance, their two furfaces, their 
 connedions, and their ufes. 
 
 84. The third pair are the jugale or zygoma- 
 tick, called alfo by many the offa malse. In thefe 
 we are to enquire into the reafon of their name^ 
 their fituation, and circumference ; their fub- 
 ftance, which is hard ; their connedion, their four 
 apophyfes, the places where the maffeter and the 
 zygomatick mufcle have their origin, and the 
 foramina in them, with their ufes. 
 
 85. The fourth pair are the maxillary ones : in 
 thefe we are to regard the fituation, the circumfe-* 
 rence, the fize, and the four apophyfes, i . The 
 
 jugale. 
 
(p/ ANATOMY. 31 
 
 jugale. 2. The upper nafal. 3. The lower nafal, 
 to which the feptum of the nofe is joined. And, 
 4, The palatine *, In thefe we are alfo to ob- 
 ferve the palatine and nafal excavations, the 
 fockets or alveoli of the teeth, and the finus com- 
 monly called antrum Highmorianum -f, tho' not 
 very properly named from that anatomifl:, fmce it 
 was evidently known, beforeiiis time, to Vefalius 
 and others. The fize of this is to be regarded, 
 and the conftrudlion of the orifice or aperture in 
 living fubjedls ; alfo its ufe, which is double, ift, 
 for the affiftance of the voice ; 2d, for the fecre- 
 tion of a mucous matter. We are alfo to obferve 
 the nafal canal ; and to inform ourfelves of the 
 operation in one of the fpecies of the ozena, in 
 which this part is concerned. 
 
 26, The fifth pair are the ofla fpongiofa, or 
 the turbinata inferiora, as others call them : thefe 
 are fmall, oblong, and friable bones : they adhere 
 to the interior part of the maxillaria in the cavity 
 of the noftrils. Thefe ferve to take off the (harp- 
 nefs of the cold air, rulhing this way into the 
 lungs: they alfo prevent the getting of little in- 
 fedls, &c. into the fauces ; and they increafe alfo 
 the expanfion of the pituitary membrane, for va- 
 rious purpofes J. 
 
 * Thefe palatine apophyfes have improperly been called, 
 by fome, peculiar bones, and defcribed under the name of 
 offa palatina antica ; but they never are dillind and feparate 
 from the bones of which they are here made a part. 
 
 t See Palfin. Ofteolog, T. 2. fig. 2. Alfo Drake's Ana- 
 tomy, T. 18. fig. I, and 2. Morgagni, however, obferves 
 that thefe finufes are fometimes wanting, though this is very 
 rarely. Adv. Anat. 6. 
 
 :|: Santorini, Obf. Anat. p. 88. does not allow thefe to be 
 diftind bones 1 but makes them apophyfes only of the bones 
 of the palate : difTeclion, however, ftiews that they are really 
 and truly diftind, 
 
 87. 
 
32 -«^ C O M P E N D 1 IT M 
 
 Sy. The fixth pair make the ofla palati, or 
 bones of the palate. In thefe we are to obferve 
 the figure, which is very irregular, and their ex- 
 tenfion thro' the noftrils to the orbits ; their body, 
 and their various apophyfes •, the pterygoide, the 
 nafal, and the orbital * ; the furrow in their up- 
 per furface, where the vomer is joined to them : 
 and, finally, their ufes, which are, ift, to form 
 the palate, the orbit, and the maxillary finus ; 
 2d, to fuftain the membrane of the palate and 
 uvula ; 3d, to aflift in the modulation of the 
 voice. 
 
 88. The laft or thirteenth bone of the upper 
 jaw, which is fingle, not pair'd as the others, is 
 called vomer, from fome refemblance that it 
 bears, or is fuppofed to bear, to the fhare of a 
 plow. In this we are to obferve the fituation, the 
 fubftance, which is thick in the upper part, and 
 thin in the lower -, the circumference, the double 
 lamella that compofes it, with the intermediate 
 Ipace ; the connexions, the ftru6lure, and ufe of 
 the feptum narium f. 
 The or- Sg. Before we have gone thro' the examina- 
 *^^^^* tion of the maxilla fuperior, there are yet to be 
 obferved the great cavities, in which are placed 
 the eyes. Thefe are called the orbits, orbitse ; 
 and they are compofed of a concourfe of feven 
 bones : thefe are, ift, the coronal ; 2d, the Iphe- 
 jioidal; 3d, the plane part of the ethmoide; 4th, 
 the jugale ; 5th, the maxillar ; 6th, the lachry- 
 mal J and, 7th, the palatine. 
 
 * See, in regard to this bone, Winflow in Hifl. Acad. Reg. 
 Paris, anno 1720. 
 
 f Santorini will have this bone to be a part of the eth- 
 moides ; but tho' we cannot but allow that it concretes into 
 one body with that bone in adults, yet in young lubjeds it is 
 always perfectly diftinct. 
 
i)f ANATOMY. z^ 
 
 90. In thefe we are to remark ihe figure, the 
 iarge opening, and narrower bafe ; the places 
 where the mufclcs of the eyes and eyelids haVe 
 their origination, and where the lachrymal facCu- 
 Jus, gland and caruncle are placed. 
 
 91. The maxilla infe-rior, or lower jaw^ is that The lower 
 large moveable bone of the head which contains J^^^- 
 
 the lower feries of teeth : on the mobility of this 
 depends, in a great meafure, the power we have 
 of chewing our food. 
 
 92. In this we are to regard, ifl, the bone it- 
 felf; and, 2d, the teeth in it. 
 
 93. In the bone or maxilla itfelf, we are to ob- 
 ferve its number and flate in infants, in whom it is 
 compofed of two bones ; its fize, figure, and fub- 
 ftance, which is externally firm, and internally fpun- 
 gy. We are alfo to obferve its external and inter- 
 nal appearance, and its external and internal margin 
 or edge ; its connexion, and the place where the 
 two bones, of which it is compofed in children^ 
 unite ; its pofterior eminence at the roots of the 
 dentes incifores, for the infertion of feveral m-if- 
 cles 5 the chin, the condyloide apophyfes, cover'd 
 with a moveable cartilage * ; as alfo the coro- 
 noides, and their ufe ; the two angles, with the 
 alveoli, or fockets of the teeth ; and the four 
 foramina, which form two openings, affording a 
 paflage to the blood^veflels and nerves. The great 
 ufe of both the jaws is for fpeaking, and chewing 
 our food. 
 
 94. The teeth come next to be confidered : Theteeth; 
 they are the furniture of both the jaws; and are 
 
 very hard, bony fubftances^ fixed in their proper 
 cavities in them, in the manner of nails. This 
 kind of articulation is called gomphofis. 
 
 * See this very accurately delineated by Morgagni, Adverf. 
 2. fig. 1,2, 3. 
 
 D 95* 
 
g4 yf C O M P E N D I U M 
 
 95. In regard to the teeth, we are to confider their 
 fuuation in deep fockets ; and their connedlions, 
 by means of the periofteum and gums. Their na- 
 tural colour is white ; their number from twenty- 
 eight to thirty-two, fourteen, fifteen, or fixteen, 
 being placed in each jaw, if the number be perfedl. 
 They are divided into, ifl, four incifores ; 2d, 
 two canini, or eye-teeth ; 3d, eight molares, or 
 grinders, in each ; and two dentes fapientise. 
 
 We are to obfcrve their bafe, which is com- 
 pofed of a double fubftance, a floney or porcelain- 
 like matter, and a medullary one. Their roots 
 are fometimes fimple, as in the incifores, canini, 
 and the foremoft of the molares; fometimes 
 double, triple, or quadruple, as in the hinder 
 molares : finally, we are to obferve their cavities, 
 >vhich are covered with a vafculo-nervous mem- 
 brane *, and the foraminula, or little holes in the 
 roots of them, ferving for the ingrefs of the vef- 
 fels, which afford them nutrition and fenfation. 
 
 We are to enquire into the origin and accretion 
 of the teeth in infants, the change and regenera- 
 tion of them at about feven years old, and fome- 
 times over again in very old people -, and, finally, 
 the collapfing and coalefcence of the alveoli in 
 old people, after the teeth are fallen out f, 
 
 ^6. There are alfo fome Angularities, in regard 
 to the teeth, by no means to be overlooked : fuch 
 are their Handing too diftant, or their coalefcing 
 with one another, or with their alveoli in their 
 growth :|: •, and, finally, their appearing fometimes 
 from the palate, or out of their natural place. 
 
 * Defcribed by Ruyfch in his Thef. Anat. i. p. 4S. 
 
 f See Ruyfch's Obferv. p. 17. Our author had alfa the 
 fkull of an old perfon of the fame kind : in both jaws of it all 
 the teeth were wanting ;. and the whole alveoli, fo far as they 
 had touched the teeth, were con fumed and deftroyed. 
 
 4^ Columbus de re Anatomica. 
 
 I 57. 
 
^/ANATOMY. 25 
 
 97. The ufes of the teeth are, id, to break 
 our food ; 2d, to be of aflfi (lance to us in fpeak- 
 ing ; 3d, to add to the beauty of the face. 
 
 ^8, The foramina in the cranium are numerous^ Foramina 
 and their ufes important : they will be the better °' ^^^ 
 retained in the memory of the young ftudentj ^'^^^^^^' 
 from our treating of them together. 
 
 They are to be divided into external and inter- 
 nal : by the external, we mean thofe which are 
 cafieft difcovered on the external furface of the 
 fkull : by the internal, thofe which are mod ob- 
 vious in the internal furface. 
 
 gg. Of the larger internal foramina, we count 
 eleven pair affording paflage to the arteries, veins, 
 and nerves of the brain : and befide thefe, we are 
 to remark one which is fingle, namely, the great 
 foramen of the occipital bone, v^hich gives paf- 
 fage to the medulla fpinalis, and with it to the 
 acceffory fpinal nerves, and to the vertebral ar*^ 
 tcries. 
 
 100. We are to pay a particular regard to the 
 firft pair of thefe foramina, (which may, indeed, 
 be more properly called a congeries of the fora- 
 mina of the OS cribrofum :) thefe give paffage to 
 the filaments of the firfl pair of nerves, called the 
 olfadlory nerves. The fecond pair are in the 
 fphenoidal bones, and give paffage to the optic 
 nerves. The third pair are called the unequal 
 and lacerated foramina, and give paflage to the 
 third and fourth pair of nerves, to the firft branch 
 of the fifth pair, and to the fixth pair -, as alfo 
 to the emiffary of the receptacles of the dura 
 mater *. The fourth pair are in the fphenoidal 
 bone, and give pafTage to the fecond branch of 
 the fifth pair of nerves, which is diftributed to the 
 feveral parts of the upper jaw. The fifth or oval 
 * Santorini Obf. Anat. p. 75. 
 
 D 2 fora* 
 
36 
 
 5 -^Compendium 
 
 foramina, give paffage to the third branch of the 
 fifth pair, and to the cmiflfary of the dura mater *, 
 The fixth is a very fmall foramen, and admits an 
 artery, which is diftributed over the dura mater, 
 and is that which forms the impreffions of little 
 fhrubs or trees on the parietal bones. The feventh 
 is placed between the fclJa equina and petrofe apo- 
 phyfis, and it tranfmits no velTds, but is Ihut Up 
 by the dura mater. The eighth pair of foramina 
 give pafiage to the carotid arteries, whence it is 
 called the carotic foramen ; and the intercoftal 
 nerve has its egrefs alfo at this opening. Thro' 
 the ninth, which is in the os petrofum, pafTes the 
 auditory nerve : thro' the tenth, which is between 
 the OS petrofum and the occipital bone, pafs the 
 par vagum, and the lateral finufes of the dura 
 mater, together with the fpinal nerve. The 
 eleventh is in the os occipitis, near the edge of 
 the foramen magnum -, and thro' this pafs the 
 ninth pair of nerves, called the linguale. 
 
 loi. Befide thefe foramina, there alfo are a 
 number of little ones in the os petrofum, often 
 very fairly vifible. One of thefe carries back a 
 branch of the auditory nerve to the dura mater ; 
 and the other principal one tranfmits the fangui- 
 ferous velTels to the labyrinth, or internal organ 
 of hearing. 
 
 102. Of the external foramina of the cranium, 
 there arc two proper ones of the os frontis, a little 
 above the orbits. Thefe arc, from their fitua- 
 tion, called fupraorbitalia : they give paflage to 
 the opthalmick nerve of Willis ; but, in their 
 place, we often meet with only a fuperficial in- 
 cifure. Befide thefe, there are four other fora- 
 mina, common to the os frontis, and to the plane 
 
 * Santorini Obf. Anat. p. 75. 
 
 or 
 
^/ANATOMY, 37 
 
 or papyraceous bones of the orbit : two of thefe 
 are placed on each fide, and they tranfmit little 
 nerves and veffels to the finus of the ethmoidal 
 bone. 
 
 In the parietal bone, there is one which ferves 
 for the pafTage of a vein from the cutis of the 
 cranium into the fagittal finus of the dura mater, 
 or from the fagittal finus to the external veins of 
 the head : this, however, is often wanting ; and 
 many anatomifts, therefore, do not mention it. 
 
 In each of the ofla temporum there are three 
 common foramina : the firft of thefe is the fora- 
 men jugale, which ferves for the pafiage of the 
 Cfotaphite mufcle : a fecond is large, in which is 
 the finus of the jugular vein ; and the third is the 
 dudlus euftachii, already mentioned, fituated be* 
 tween the petrofum and fphenoides, and leading 
 from the mouth into the internal ear. Befide 
 thefe common foramina of the ofla temporum, 
 there are alfo three proper ones: i. The meatus 
 auditorius, or auditory paflage. 2. The aquse- 
 du6i: of Fallopius, fituate between the mafloide 
 and ftyloide procefs, and tranfmiting the hard 
 portion of the auditory nerve. 3. A foramen 
 behind the maftoide procefs, ferving for the in- 
 grefs of a vein into the lateral finus ; or for the 
 egrefs of one from the lateral finus ro the veins of 
 the occiput *. 
 
 In the occipital bone there are two foramina, 
 fituate behind the condyloide apophyfes, and 
 ferving to give paflfage to the vertebral veins into 
 the lateral finufes of the dura mater : thefe fora- 
 mina, however, are wanting in many fkulls. 
 
 * Bartholine obferves, that Lyferus was the firft who ob- 
 ferved the communication between this finus and the external 
 veinsv 
 
 V3 In 
 
^8 ^Compendium 
 
 In the fphenoides, befide the internal ones al- 
 ready defcribed, and the apertures of the finufes 
 into the noftiils common to them, with the bones 
 of the palate, and which are the apertures of the 
 nares and fauces •, there is another canal in the 
 upper part of the pterygoide procefles, ferving 
 for the paiTage of the novum emiflarium of the 
 dura mater*. 
 
 In the OS ethmoides there are, i. Thofe com- 
 mon to this bone with the os frontis, fituated in 
 the interior fide of the orbir, and already de- 
 fcribed -, and, 2. The apertures of the ethmoidal 
 finufes into the noflrils. 
 Foramina 103. The foramina in the os maxillaris of the 
 [^p upper jaw, are, i. One called the foramen pala- 
 tinum anticum, fituate behind the foremofl dentes 
 incifores, and opening into the noflrils ; but this 
 is ufually fo clofed up in living, and even in dead 
 fubjeds, by the membrane of the palate, that no- 
 thing of its aperture is diftinguiihable within the 
 mouth ; nor is it certainly known that any thing 
 is tranfmitted thro' it f. It is alfo to be obferved, 
 that as the membrane of the mouth is evidently 
 joined to that of the noftrils, by means of this 
 canal, a very fufficient ufe of it may be the 
 making the union between that membrane and 
 that of the palate, the more ftrong. 
 
 The fecond foramen of the maxillaris of the 
 upper jaw, is the infraorbital. The name of this 
 
 * Santorini Obf. Anat. p. 75. 
 
 -f- Moil of the anatomical writers alledge, that a liquid is 
 tranfmitted from the nofe into the mouth thro' this opening ; 
 and hence they ufually call it Steno's pafTage from the nofe 
 to the palate. This, indeed, in a dried Ikull, is obvious and 
 open enough ; but, otherwife, it is fo fmall, that our au- 
 thor alledges, he never could find that it opened into the 
 inouth at all ; or ever could pafs a briflle, or any other the 
 fqi^lleft thing, thro' it. 
 
 declares 
 
of ANATOMY. 39 
 
 declares its fituation. Its ufe is to give paflage 
 to the fifth pair of nerves. 
 
 Thirdly, there are other foramina behind the 
 pofterior molares, thro' which the veffels and 
 nerves pafs to the maxillary fmufes. 
 
 Fourthly, there is an incifure in the exterior 
 fide of the bottom of the orbit, common to this 
 and to the fphenoidal bone, and ferving to give 
 pafTage to the vefTels going to the eyes and nofe. 
 
 The ^{t\i is the nafal canal, common to this 
 bone and the os unguis. 
 
 The fixth are the apertures of the finufes into 
 the noftrils. 
 
 And the feventh is the pofterior palatine fora- 
 men, common to this bone, with that of the 
 palate, and ferving to convey the nerves to the 
 palate. 
 
 In the OS jugale there are, i. The jugale, or 
 common foramen. 2. The proper foramen of 
 the jugale, which is fometimes fingle, fometimes 
 double, and ferves for the paflage of a nerve. • 
 
 In the OS palati, bcfide the foramen common 
 to that, with the adjoining bone, there is a proper 
 one, fituate near where it is joined to the pcery- 
 goide procefTes, and ferving for the paflage of 
 nerves to the palate. . 
 
 104. In the maxilla inferior, there are two 
 foramina in the internal furface, ferving for the 
 paflage of an artery, a vein, and a nerve, into the 
 very fubftance of the maxilla, for its nutrition, 
 and that of the teeth ; and there are alfo two in 
 its external furface, which ferve to give egrefs to 
 the fame veflels, which are thence diftributed to 
 the gums and the chin. 
 
 105. In the examination of different fkulls. 
 Other foramina, befide thefe, will occafionally be 
 found in different places. Thefe are either extra- 
 
 D4 ordinary. 
 
oides. 
 
 d^o ^Compendium 
 
 ordinary, and lufus natura^ as is often the cafe } 
 or they are otherwife fuch as ferve only to give 
 paflage to velTels, ferving for the nutrition of the 
 bones in v^hich they Hand. 
 
 106. There is yet another bone to be men- 
 tioned in this place, as it is ufually referred to 
 thofe of the head : this adheres to the bafe of the 
 tongue, and has hence been called by fome os lin- 
 guale ; and by others, from its refemblance to 
 the Greek letter (t;), os hyoides and hypfiloides : 
 others alfo have called it from its fhape, os bicorne. 
 In young fubje6ls the os hyoides is compofed of 
 three bones, or fruft^, a bafe, occupying its mid- 
 dle part, and two lateral ones, called its horns : 
 it is to thefe that the tongue is conneded. In 
 adults there are often, at the jundlures of thefe 
 with the bafe, two other fruftae, very fmall, and 
 thence overlooked by moil writers. Thefe are 
 rearly of the fhape of a wheat-corn, and may 
 thence be called ofia triticea : there are ligaments 
 sffixed ro thefe, by means of which they adhere 
 to the ftyloide procefTes.' And, finally, in thefe 
 ligaments thenifeives fometimes, tho' very rarely, 
 there are found fome other little bones. Vefalius 
 alfo, occafionally, had met with fix of thefe ; and 
 fome others, after him, have reckoned eleven 
 bones to the formation of the os hyoides. The 
 ufe of the os hyoides is to give a firm bafis to the 
 tongue ; and feveral mufcles of the tongue, and 
 of the larynx, ferving to the neeeflary motions of 
 both, are inferted into it. 
 
 107. As four o^ the cartilages of the larynx 
 ^? larynx, ^j-e fubjed to olfify in old people, many have 
 
 reckoned them among the number of the bones ; 
 they are called the thyroide, the cricode, and the 
 two arytasnoides. The nature and ufe of thefe 
 parts, however^ are mych better underftood wheo 
 
 they 
 
 Eor.es of 
 
^/ANATOMY. 41 
 
 they are examined recent, than when in the fkele- 
 ton J of which, at bed, they make but an impro- 
 per part. We fhail fay nothing more of them 
 here ; but referve our account of them to the 
 chapter in which we treat of the lungs : from 
 the bones of the head, we fhall now proceed to 
 mention thofe of the trunk. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Of the Bones of the ^runk, 
 
 108. ^T^ HE trunk, which makes the fecond 
 X P^^^ of ^^^ fkeleton, confifts of the 
 fpine of the back, the bones of the breaft, and 
 the ofla innominata. 
 
 109. The fpina dorfi, 'called by the Greeks Spina 
 rachis, is the boney column reaching from the^°^^^- 
 head down to the anus, and containing the me- 
 dulla fpinalis, or fpinal marrow. 
 
 no. We (hall confider the fpine firfl: in a ge- 
 neral view, and afterwards in regard to its feveral 
 parts. 
 
 111. In the general view of the fpine, we are 
 firfl: to obferve its name; its figure, which is 
 nearly pyramidal *, and bent fomewhac like the 
 letter S ; and to enquire into the reafon and ufe 
 of this figure. 
 
 112. When we confider the fpine, according Vertebras^ 
 to its parts, there occurs, firft, its divifion into 
 
 the neckj the back, the loins, and the os facrum 
 and coccigis. 
 
 113. The neck, the back, and the loins, con- 
 fifl: of vertebrae and fpondyli ; and, in regard to 
 thefe, we fhall have occafion to obferve fome 
 
 * See, on this fubjeft, Winflow in Ad. Reg. Par. 1720. 
 
 things 
 
42' ^Compendium 
 
 things in the general, fome more particularly of 
 the feveral parts. 
 
 114. In the- general confideration of the ver- 
 tebrae, we are to obferve their number, which is 
 twenty-four : and in the examination of them 
 fingly, there will readily occur in each the body 
 or bafis *, feven apophyfes, one of them fpinofe, 
 two tranfverfe, two fuperior, two inferior: and 
 af er thefe, we are to obferve the cartilaginous 
 epiphyfes. 
 
 The articulation, by which every one receives 
 another of them, and is again received itfelf by 
 another, in the fame manner : the foramina, of 
 which there is ooe proper and large one, for the 
 paflage of the fpinal marrow 5 and four common 
 or half foramina, two on each fide; which, toge- 
 ther, form twenty-four apertures on each fide of 
 the column, thro' which the nerves of the medulla 
 pafs out of the fpine. Befide thefe, there are 
 alfo feveral fmaller foramina vifible in the verte- 
 brae, which ferve for the entrance of vefTels de- 
 ftined to the nutrition of the bone. 
 
 115. In adults the vertebrae confift each of a 
 fingle bone ; but, in infants, each is compofed of 
 three fruftas : the body, and the two fides of the 
 bone in thefe, are three diftind bones ; and the 
 fpinofe apophyfes are not found at that time. 
 
 116. The neck confifts of feven vertebrae; 
 and in thefe, as in the others, we are to obferve 
 fome things in general ; and afterwards, others of 
 the vertebrse in particular. 
 
 Vertebra 1 1 7. The Vertebras of the neck are fmaller 
 
 neck.^ than thofe of the back ; but they are of a firmer 
 
 confidence, and harder: their body is more com- 
 
 prefi^d than in the others, and is finuated on the 
 
 upper part, and convex below. 
 
 Moft 
 
<?/ A N A T O M Y. 43 
 
 Moft of thefe vertebrae have nine apophyfes ; 
 the tranverfe and pofterior ones, called the fpinofe 
 apophyfes, are ufually bifurcated : the tranlverfe 
 ones are perforated alfo, for the paiTage of the 
 vertebral vefTels to the head. 
 
 The common foramina are fcven pair, for the 
 paffage of the nerves of the neck from the me- 
 dulla. 
 
 1 1 8. In the confideration of the vertebrae 
 fingly, we are to obferve, that the upper one has 
 a peculiar name : it is called atlas. This wants 
 the body and the fpinofe apophyfes, and ap- 
 proaches to the figure of a ring: its fubftance is 
 more folid than that of any other, and it receives 
 both above and below ; but it is not received it- 
 felf. The head is articulated at its anterior part, 
 and it is by means of this articulation that the head 
 is bent, and is extended. The proper foramen is 
 greater in this than in any other vertebra, which 
 arifes from its wanting the body: the tranverfe 
 proceffes are alfo longer than in the others. It 
 has alfo a peculiar femi-circular ligament, by which 
 it embraces the dentiform procefs of the fucceed- 
 ing vertebrae *. 
 
 119. The fecond vertebra is called epiftro- 
 phaeus and axis. In this, after underftanding the 
 name, we are to obferve the dentiform or odon« 
 toide procefs, juft mentioned ; its articulation in 
 the manner of a hinge, with the firft vertebra ; 
 and the rotatory motion of the head, dependent 
 on it. 
 
 120. The third vertebra is alfo called by fome 
 axis ; but it has nothing to warrant fuch a name : 
 there is nothing of particular obfervation in this, 
 or in any of the fucceeding vertebrse of the neck, 
 more than has been obferved of them in ffeneral, 
 
 ♦ Vefalius Hum. Corp. fab. 1, i. cap. 15. 
 
 I2f, 
 
44 ^Compendium 
 
 121. The part of the fkeieton diftinguifhed 
 by the names of ciorfum and thorax, has twelve 
 vertebrae. Of thefe we are to remark, in general, 
 the fize, which is of a middle kind, between that 
 of the verrebr^e of the neck and of thofe of the 
 Joins ; the fpinofe apophyfes, which are very 
 long, and (except in the two laft) very much incli- 
 naccd : the cartilages between the bodies of thefe, 
 are fmaller than thofe in the neck, which is in- 
 tended by nature, to prevent too lax a motion in 
 this part, which would be inconvenient to the 
 breaft. The tranfverfe apophyfes are thick, and 
 have a deprefiion in them for the articulation 
 with the ribs ; for which purpofe alfo, in the fides 
 of the two conjoined bodies, there is a fmall ex- 
 cavated eminence obfervable : there are alfo twelve 
 common foramina on each fide, ferving for the 
 egrefs of the twelve pair of nerves of the fpine, 
 
 12 2. In our confideration of the feveral verte* 
 bra? particularly, we are to obferve, that the firft 
 is called the axillary, or eminent vertebra *, and to 
 this is joined the upper rib. Authors have given 
 peculiar names alfo to the others ; but this is with- 
 out any neceflary foundation, as they are very 
 well diftinguifhed only by numbering them. 
 Vertebrae 12^, The Vertebrae of the loins are five: we 
 k)ins^ are to obferve, in general, of thefe, that their 
 bodies, and alfo the intervening cartilages, are 
 very thick; the tranfverfe apophyfes very long, 
 but fmaller than in thofe of the back •, the fpinofe 
 apophyfes are thick, ftrait, and fet farther afunder 
 than in the others, to give way to a laxer motion 
 in this part ; and that there are, on each lide, 
 five common foramina, ferving to give egrefs^ to 
 the lumbal nerves. 
 
 Some authors have given particular names alfo 
 to each of th^fe vertebrae j but it is not at all ne- 
 
 cefl&ry; 
 
of A N A T O M Y: 45 
 
 ceiiary : they are fufficiently diftinguifhed by num- 
 bering them. 
 
 124. In the examination of the os facrum, weOs fa- 
 are to obferve its name, fituation, and connedionicrum, 
 its figure, which is triangular; its external fur- 
 face, which is rough •, and its internal one, which 
 
 is fmooth and hollow ; its fubftance, which is 
 fpongeous ; its bafis ; its apex •, its two large late- 
 ral apophyfes, which ferve for its articulation wi h 
 the ofla innominata * ; its two fmaller upper apo- 
 phyfes, with the glenoide cavities for the articula- 
 tion into the lower vertebra; its inferior apo- 
 phyfis, for its articulation with the os coccygis ; 
 its canal, for the end of the fpinal marrow ; its 
 anterior and pofterior foramina, which are fome- 
 times four, fometimes five pair : and finally, we 
 are to obferve the difference of this bone in male 
 and in female fubje6ls. 
 
 125. The ufes of this bone are, id, to ferve 
 as a bafis to the fpine ; 2d, to form the pelvis 
 with the ofTa innominata, and to defend the parts 
 contained in it, 3d, to contain in its finus the 
 lower part of the fpinal marrow, or cauda equina ; 
 4th, to give paffage, at its foramina, to the nerves 
 of the inteftinum redum, the bladder, and of the 
 parts of generation, and to the large crural and 
 ifchiadick ones : thefe all pafs thro' its anterior 
 foramina : the pofterior ones have either abfolutely 
 nothing, or, at the utmoft, only nerves fo minute, 
 as fcarceto be vifible, paffing thro' them. 5thly, it 
 ferves for the place of origin to many of the 
 iTiUfcles. 
 
 * Schelhammer tells us, that himfelf was the fir ft who ob- 
 ferved, that the connexion of the os facrum with the ofTa in- 
 nominata was moveable. Analeft. diff. 6. S. 57. 
 
 See more of this articulation, and of the ligaments by , 
 
 which thefe bones are conneded, under the head of the Oifa 
 Innominata, 
 
 126. 
 
126. In adults the os facriim is one continued 
 bone; but in infants it is almofl: entirely cartila- 
 ginous; and in children more grownup, it always 
 confifts of fcveral frullas, or pieces : in adults, it 
 Ihews always the marks of the joinings of four or 
 five of rhefe. 
 Oscoccy- 127, The OS coccygis, in adults, is ufually a 
 S^^- fingle bone -, but in younger fubjeds, it confifts 
 
 of three or four fruftse ; and in infants it is mere- 
 ly cartilaginous. In the examination of this bone, 
 we are to remark its name, fituation, connection, 
 figure, and fubftance -, its bafe, and its apex -, its 
 fmall tranfverfe apophyfes ; its glenoide cavity, 
 where it is joined to the os facrum ; its motion ; 
 its flate in female fubjecls •, and its ufe in fupport- 
 ing the inteftinum red:um. 
 
 128. In quadrupeds of many kinds this bone 
 is long, and compofed of a number of fruftar, 
 and is bent outward, and conftitutes the tail : in 
 this cafe it is called the os caudse. In man it is 
 fliort ; and is, to anfwer many purpofes, bent 
 inward. 
 
 C H A P. IV. 
 
 Of the Bones of the *Thorax. 
 
 Thorax. 1 29. fT^Vi E fecond part of the trunk in the 
 
 J[ fkeleton is called the thorax, pedus, 
 
 or bread. This is compofed of thofe bones which 
 
 form the great cavity, in which are contained the 
 
 heart and the lungs. 
 
 130. In the confideration of this part, we are 
 to oblerve, that its flruflure is partly ofTeous or 
 boney, partly mufcular ; and to enquire into the 
 reafons of it. We are then to attend to its figure, 
 its circumfcription, its fize \ and the three parts 
 
 into 
 
of ANATOMY. 47 
 
 into which U is naturally divided, namely, the 
 vertebrae, the ribs, and the fternum. The ver- 
 tebras we have already fpoken of in their place. 
 \x. remains here to mention the ribs and the 
 Iternum. 
 
 131. In our examinauon of the ribs, we are to Ribs, 
 obferve their fituation; their fize, which is very 
 different in the different ones, the middle ones 
 being the largeft, and the upper and lower much 
 fmaller ; their fingular bending downwards ; their 
 connexions -, their number, which is twelve on 
 each fide ; their divifion into the true and fpuri- 
 ous ribs ; and- finally, their ufe. 
 
 132. The fubftance of the ribs is partly boney, 
 partly cartilaginous : the latter ftrudure takes place 
 in their anterior part, the former in their poilerior. 
 Their figure is crooked, concave within, and con- 
 vex without: they are thus formed for the better 
 conformation of the bread. 
 
 133. The parts of the ribs are, their body and 
 their extremities. In the examination of the body, 
 we are to obferve the external and internal furface 
 of it \ the interior and exterior labrum, and the 
 inferior and fuperior ; as alfo the furrow in the 
 inferior labrum ; the fuperior ones having nine or 
 ten hollows in them, for the recepdon of the 
 veffels of the ribs. The feverai ribs have been 
 diftinguifhed by many authors, each under its 
 peculiar name ; but this is not neceffary : they are 
 as eafily diflinguifhed by the names of firft, fe- 
 cond, &c. 
 
 134. In the anterior extremities, the cartilages 
 of the feven true ribs are all joined to the fler- 
 num : the eighth, ninth, and fomedmes alfo the 
 tenth, cohere either with the fternum, or €i{^ 
 mutually adhere to one another, by means of their 
 tranfverfe cardlages. The anterior extremities 
 
 of 
 
48 -^COMPENDII/M 
 
 of all the others are loofe and free, between the 
 mufcles of the abdomen and the diaphragm. In 
 the pofterior extremities there are, in moft of 
 them, two capitulae, or heads, which are firmly 
 joined to the vertebrae of the back ; yet fo as to 
 form moveable articulations *. 
 "Sternum. 135. In tlie examination of the fternum, we 
 are to regard its fituation ; its figure, which is 
 like that of a dagger ; and inform ourfelves of 
 its (late in infants -f . We are to obferve alfo the 
 number of portions, or fruftas, of which it is 
 compofed in adults ; in whom it is, indeed, fome- 
 times iingle ; but has alfo fometimes two, fome- 
 times three pieces concuring to form it. Its fub- 
 ftance is fungous and fpungy : its upper part is 
 called the manubrium, or handle; and in this 
 there is, on each fide, a cavity for the articulation 
 of the clavicles. Its middle is narrow, and its 
 lower part is again broad : to this alfo there adheres 
 a cartilage, called, from its figure, carulago en(i- 
 formis, or xiphoides. This is ufually Iingle; 
 fometimes it is bifurcated, and not unfrequently 
 it is boney throughout ; and on each fide of the 
 flernum there are feven cavities, for the articula^ 
 tions of the feven true ribs. 
 
 The ufes of the fternum are, firft, to form the 
 anterior part of the breaft; 2d, to fupport the 
 ribs and the clavicles ; 3d, to defend the parts 
 contained in the cavity of the breaft ; 4th, to ferve 
 for the infertion of the mediaftinum, and for the 
 fuftaining the heart itfelf, and of feveral mufcles. 
 
 * Of the ufe of thefe articulations in refpiration, fee Win- 
 flow Aft. Reg. Par. 1720. 
 
 l In what manner the fternum is compofed of feveral 
 bones in infants, and furnilhed with abundance o[ blood- 
 vefTels, fee Ruyfch Adverf. Anat. Dec. 2. 
 
 136. 
 
i?/ A N A T O M Y, 49 
 
 136. The extreme part of the trunk is com- ofla inno- 
 pofed of two bones, commonly called by the odd minata, 
 name of ofla innomihata. Thefe, tho' Tingle in!]5"f"» 
 adults, are, in infants and youths, each compofed ^^^j p^bis, 
 of three perfedlly diftin6t bones, each of which 
 
 has its peculiar name: the upper one is called the 
 ileum ; the anterior one, the os pubis, or os pedi- 
 nis 5 and the pofterior one, the os ifchium. Thtfe 
 are joined by the intervention of a cartilage, as it 
 were, in the middle * of that fingular cavity called 
 the acetabulum, and continue vifibly diftindt there 
 to the age of puberty. After this they coalefce, 
 and form one intire andcondnuous bone ; and that 
 fo completely and perfedly, that there is not thfe 
 lead veftige remaining that they ever were fe- 
 parate. 
 
 137. The ofla innominata are joined, on each 
 fide, in the hinder part, to the os factum, by liga- 
 ments and cartilages, and form a very firm and 
 ftrong, tho' fomewhat moveable articulation with 
 it ; and, with this bone, they form alfo that cavity 
 which is called the pelvis. In the anterior part, 
 the ofla pubis cohere with one another, by means 
 of a cartilage "f* ; and in this place they fometimes, 
 in the time of delivery, efpecially in young wo- 
 men, recede a little from one another, to give 
 way to the egrefs of the foetus : this feldom hap- 
 pens, however, but when the labour is a very dif- 
 ficult and violent one §, 
 
 * It appears hence, how improperly they exprefs theiti- 
 felves, who fay that the acetabulum is formed in the ifchium 
 only ; for it is evidently a cavity common to three bones, 
 
 -f Santorini is of opinion, that the conjunftion of thefe 
 bones is not by fynchondrofis, 1. c. cap. i i. but this is yet to 
 be determined. 
 
 ' § Morgagni has quoted pafiages from feveral authors, who 
 have obferved this. Adv. Anat. 3, p. 28. 
 
 E Befide 
 
50 -^COMPENI^IUM 
 
 Befide the connedlions of thefe bones, they 
 cohere alfb with the os facrum on each fide, by 
 means of two peculiar and very robuft ligaments, 
 a finger's breadth broad, and two or three fingers 
 breadth long each *. The upper one of thefe 
 goes off from the pofterior acute apc^yfis of the 
 ifchium, to the os iacrum ; the other, or lower 
 one, joins the tubercle of the ifchium to the os 
 facrum : but noiwithftanding this ftrong connec- 
 tion, the OS lacrum^ and olTa ilei, certainly do 
 frequently recede from one another in the time of 
 delivery, efpecially in difficult labours f, 
 
 138. In the oflfa innominata, we are to ob- 
 fcrve the figure, the external and internal fuper- 
 ficies, where many mufcles have their origin ; the 
 two anterior apophyfes, an upper and a lower ; 
 and the two pofterior ones, which are large and 
 acute : between the two latter, there is a large in- 
 cifurc. The crifta ilei alfo is to be obferved ; 
 and the tubercle, or tuberofity of the ifchium, 
 which gives origin to a ligameiit, and to feveral 
 mufcles. The foramen in the offa pubis is alfo 
 to be remarked : it is the largeft of all the fora- 
 mina of the bones. We are alfo to regard the 
 acetabulum, formed for the articulation of the 
 thigh-bone § •, in which there is alfo a fmaller 
 cavity, for the lodgment of a mucilaginous 
 gland V and an incifure, to facilitate the ingre^ 
 of the veffels into this gland, and into the liga- 
 mentum teres of the thigh (|. The place of the 
 
 infertion 
 
 * As to thefe ligaments, fee Cowper's Myotamia nova, 
 and Santorini. 
 
 f See Parey. lib. 23, c. 1 3 ; and Guillemeau Oeuvr. chir. 
 p. 298. 
 
 ^ Of the veffels of this part, fee Ruyfeh's Adverf. Anat. 
 Dec. 2. Obf. I. 
 
 *)j Andree and Petit had great cont^tions at Paris, as to the 
 
 denomi- 
 
i?/ ANATOMY. 51 
 
 infertion of this ligament, is alfo to be obferved ; 
 »nd the fupercilia are to be examined, and their 
 ufes enquired into. 
 
 139. Finally, we are not to pafs over unob-Diffe- 
 ferved, the fingular difference which nature has^^"^"°^ 
 cftablifhed in thefe parts, between the males and |^^j^^^^[ ^ 
 females. In w^en, all thefe bones, but parti- and fe- 
 .cularly the offa pubis, are fmaller, and are placed males. 
 
 at a greater diilance, than in men. By this means 
 the cavity of the pelvis is rendered larger in fe- 
 males ; and the angle between the offa pubis and 
 ifchii, is alfo larger : a flrudlure very favourable, 
 iiot only to the geftation of the foetus, but to its 
 cxclufion alfo. 
 
 140. The ufes of thefe bones, befjde what 
 have already been mentioned, are, i. Tofupport 
 and fuftain the fpina dorfi, and indeed all the 
 parts above themfelves. 2. To make a firm and 
 proper jundure of the other parts of the body 
 with the thighs. 3. To ferve for the place of 
 origin to feveral mufcles. 4. To form the cavity 
 of the pelvis, and to defend its contents from 
 external injuries. 
 
 C H A P. V. 
 
 Of the upper Extremities, 
 
 141. rirAHE extremities of the human body 
 JL are four 5 two fuperior, and two infe- 
 rior : the two fuperior are the arms and hands ; 
 .tl>e two inferior, the legs and feet. 
 
 denomination of this ligament, whether it fliould be called 
 teres or planum. It is certain, that difle6tion always Ihews 
 it plane, not rounded; b^it cuftom has eflablilhed the other 
 same for it- 
 
 E 2 I42» 
 
52 -/^Compendium 
 
 Thearms. 142. Under the term fupcrior extremities, in 
 the fkeleton, we comprehend the fcapula, the cla- 
 vicles, the OS humeri, the cubit, and the hand. 
 The fca- 143. In the examination of ihe fcapula, called 
 pula. by i\i^ Greeks homoplata, we are to confider the 
 figure, connexion, and fuua:iog : we are to ob- 
 ferve the head of the bone, with its glenoide 
 cavity, tho' fome call it the acetabulum of the 
 fcapula •, its neck -, its bafe ; its two angles, the 
 fuperior and inferior; its fuperior and inferior 
 coftce ; its anterior furface, which lies upon the 
 ribs, and is fmooth and concave ; and its pode- 
 rior, which is uneven. After thefe we are to ob- 
 ferve its fpine, its creft, and its acromion j its 
 fupra and infra fpinate cavity •, its coracoide pro- 
 eels, and its two incifures, the one between the 
 neck and the acromion, the other behind the co- 
 racoide procefs ; and the robuft ligament which 
 joins the acromion and coracoide procefs, and 
 prevents the laxation of the os humeri upwards; 
 
 The ufes of the fcapula are, id, to fuftain 
 the arms, and join them to the body ; 2d, to 
 ferve for the infertion of feveral mufcles ; 3d, t6 
 add fomewhat to the necefiary defence of the parts 
 contained v/ithin the thorax. 
 
 The acromion and the coracoide procefles, arc 
 but carriages in infants : afterwards they become 
 epiphyfes ; and after this, about the age of fix- 
 teen, they are to be perceived feparate bones, and 
 fo to the twentieth year. This is more particu- 
 larly the cafe of the acromion. 
 
 144. In the confideration of the clavicles, we 
 are to obferve the number, the tranfverfe fitua- 
 tion, and the conne(5lions with the fternum and 
 acromium ; their figure, which is fomewhat like 
 that of the letter S -, their fubflance, which is 
 fpongy and brittle j their body, which is a fixed 
 
 point 
 
Bf ANATOMY. 53 
 
 point for the deltoide, maftoide, perioral, and 
 iomt oiher mufcles ; and their protuberance for 
 the fubclavian miifcle ; their two extremities, the 
 rounder of which is articulated with the flernum, 
 and with the firfl: rib •, and the fiaiter, which is 
 articulated with the acromion. The ufes of the 
 clavicles are, i . To keep the arms, that they do 
 not fall too forward upon the breaft : feveral of 
 the motions of the arm are alib facilitated by thi?. 
 2. To ferve for the place of origin for feveral 
 mufcles. 3. For the defence of the great fubcla- 
 vian veflels, which run under them. 
 
 145. In the e>iamination of the os humeri, orOs ha- 
 OS brachii, as ic is otherwife called, we are to ob-^'^^ii- 
 ferve its fituation, its articulation, and its fize : 
 
 its body, into which a great number of mufcles 
 are inferted, and which is, in its upper part, thicker 
 and rounder -, in its under part, thinner, and fome- 
 what comprefTed. After this, we are to obferve 
 its rough protuberance about the middle, ferving 
 for the infertion of the deltoide and perioral ffiuf-^ 
 cles; its external and internal fpine, which termi- 
 nate in two condyles ; its remarkably large cavity, 
 containing the marrow ; and, finally, irs motion, 
 which is evidendy the moft free and extenfive of 
 that, of any bone in the human body. 
 
 146. In its upper extremity, we are to obferve 
 its head and its neck, into which a ligament, and 
 feveral mufcles, are inferted ; and its fulcus, re- 
 ceiving one of the heads of the biceps mufcle. 
 
 147. In its inferior extremity, we are to ob- 
 ferve the figure, and the articulation with the bones 
 of the cubit, by means of three heads and two 
 cavities ; its two condyles or tubercles, of which 
 the external affords a fixed point for the extenfors 
 of the carpus, and the internal for the flexors ; 
 its two cavities, the anterior and pollerior, which, 
 
 E3 ia 
 
54 y^CoMi^ENbi^M 
 
 in the extenfion and flexion of the cubitus, alter- 
 nately receive two procefles of the ulna. 
 Cubitus. 148. In the cubitus we are to obferve, in ge- 
 neral, Its fituation, the binary number of the 
 bones it is compofed of, for the fake of the more 
 eafy and varied motion : thcle are the ulna, or 
 cubitus, properly fo called, and the radius. 
 
 We are to obferve their fize, their difFtirent 
 thicknefs, and their jundlures, as well with one 
 another at their extremities, as with the os humeri 
 and the carpus. 
 
 And, finally, the robuft ligament, by which 
 the bodies of both are conneded : this ferves, 
 firft, for their more firm union ; and, fecondly, 
 for the commodious infertiorl of a number of muf- 
 cles there. 
 
 149. In the ulna, while the hand is difpofed in 
 a fupme pofture, we are to obferve its interior 
 fituation, and its length, which is greater thait 
 that of the radius ; its three angles or fpines, to 
 the exterior of which the ligament juft mentioned 
 is fixed ; and to the two internal ones, there ar^ 
 a^xed feveral mufcles. This bone has a motion 
 of flexion and extenfion. 
 Ulna. 150. In the fuperior extremity we are to re^ 
 
 mark, ifl:, a remarkable depreflion, called thefigr 
 rnoidal or femi- lunar cavity, with an emihence 
 in its n^iddle, correfponding to the ertiinences 
 and cavities of the os humeri 5 and, idly, a fmall 
 cavity in the external fide, ferving for the at-ticu- 
 lation with the crifta of the radius. We are then 
 10 obferve its two proceflTts, the anterior or coro- 
 noide, and the pofteriot* or anconeus, or olecra-? 
 num, and their ufes ; and, finally, the tubercle, 
 which ferves for the infertion of the brathialis in* 
 ternus mufcle, and of the flexor cubiti. 
 
 3 
 
of ANATOMY. 55 
 
 151. In the inferior extremity we are to obferve 
 the head, which forms a kind of malleolus, in 
 which there is, ift, a cavity of little depth, 
 fcrving for its articulation with the carpus ; and, 
 2dly, a fmall flyloide apophyfis, ferving to 
 ftrengthen the articulation juft mentioned •, and, 
 3dly, a creft, ferving for its articulation with the 
 radius. 
 
 152. In the radius, we are to obferve its fitua- Radius, 
 tion, which is exterior ; and its length, which is 
 
 lefs than that of the ulna ; its fpine, to which the 
 ligament already mentioned (148) is affixed; and 
 its motions of pronation and fupination *. 
 
 153. In its upper extremity, we fee a head with 
 a glenoide cavity, ferving for its articulation with 
 the head of the humerus ; a creft, by means of 
 which it is articulated with the ulna ; its neck ; 
 and, finally, its tubercle, ferving for the infertion 
 of the biceps mufcle. 
 
 154. In the lower extremity, we find ahead 
 thicker, and more angular in its figure, than that 
 of the other, with a very large hollow at the ex- 
 tremity for its articulation with the wrift : in the 
 interior fide, there is a cavity formed to give way 
 to the rotation of the creft of the ulna •, and on 
 the exterior fide is a fhort apophyfis, but confi- 
 derably thick, which ferves to ftrengthen the 
 beforementioned articulation of the carpus : in the 
 poftcrior face there are fomc flight incifures, and 
 in thefe are placed tendons of the extenfor muf- 
 cles of the fingers, but particularly of that ferving 
 to the cxtenfion of the thumb. 
 
 * In quadrupeds, the radius is firmly united with the ulna-; 
 as is alfo the fibula with the tibia : they have no occafion for 
 a powCT of pronation and fupination in thefe parts ; therefore 
 the mechanifm of the human arm was unnecefTary to them. 
 Sci\clham Ap^lea. diff. 78. 
 
 E4 "i^SS^ 
 
5? yfCOMPENDIUM 
 
 Thehand. 155. After our examination of the bones of 
 the arm, thofe of the hand offer themfelves to 
 our confideration. Thefe are divided, by anato- 
 mills, into thofe of the carpus, metacarpus, fin- 
 ' gers, and the ofla fefamoidea \ of e^ch of which 
 in their order, 
 
 parpus. 156. In the carpus we are to confider fituatioii 
 and name, the eight bones of which it is com- 
 pofed, their irregular figure, their connexion one 
 with another; their back, which is convex, and 
 the oppofite fide, which is hollowed for the more 
 commodious palfage of the tendons and blood- 
 vefie Is to the fingers : then the double order in 
 which they are arranged -, the firft, or fuperior, 
 forms a kind of head for the articulation with the 
 radius ; and the inferior forms a cavity for the 
 furnifhing a moveable articuladon with the infer 
 rior ftries, which is joined to the bones of the 
 metacarpus *. 
 
 The articulation of the bones of the carpus, 
 therefore, is triple : ifl:, with one another ; 2dly, 
 with the bones of the metacarpus -[ ; S^ly, with 
 the cubitus. 
 
 Kfetacar- 1 57- In the metacarpus there are four bones to 
 
 ^^^ be examined ; and thefe alfo have a triple articur 
 lation, I ft, with one another*, 2dly, with the 
 carpus ; and, 3dly, with the fingers. In each of 
 thefe bones, we are to examine the body, and the 
 extremities. In the bodies of thefe bones, we are 
 to obferve the figure, which is nearly cylindrick ; 
 the cavities for the lodgment of the mar^row; and 
 
 * The fame Schelhammer obferves, that himfelf was the 
 firfl who obferved this manifeft articulation in the carpus. 
 
 f Many authors have given peculiar names to all the bones 
 of the carpus ; bat it is unnecefTary : the names of firft, fe- 
 (cond, and third, &c. ferve the fame purpofe, without burthen- 
 jng the memory. 
 
<?/ AN ATOMY. 57 
 
 their fize, which is larger than that of the bones 
 of the fingers. 
 
 The gibbous or convex part of thefe bones, 
 conftitutes the back of the hand ; the ho'low parr, 
 the pahn. Their bodies are placed diftant from 
 one another ; and the interfticcs between them are 
 filled up with mufcles, called mufculi interoffei, 
 and ferving to move the fingers : but tho' their 
 bodies fland at a diftance, their heads are con- 
 tiauous. 
 
 They differ greatly in fize : that which fupports 
 the little finger is fmailer than the reft -, the fub- 
 fequent ones, toward the thumb, become fenfibly 
 longer all the way? otherwife than as in the bones 
 of the fingers. The extremity, joined to the car- 
 pus, is of an irregular figure ; but that which 
 comes to the bones of the fingers, has round and 
 l^rge heads, which are articulated v/ith the gle- 
 noide cavity of the bones of the fingers. 
 
 158. In our obfervations of the bones of the Bones of 
 fingers, we are to remark their number, firuation, ^^^ ^^^ 
 and the peculiar names the feveral fingers they^^^* 
 belong to are called by, are alfo to be remembered, 
 that we may be able to fpeak properly of the 
 bones of each. Their names are, reckoning from 
 the thumb, ift, pollex; 2d, index; 3d, medius; 
 4th, annularis ; 5th, auricularis. There are in 
 each three bones, which make three phalanges ; 
 the upper of which are much larger than the 
 lower. Their exterior furface is gibbous, or con- 
 vex ; and their interior is plane, but fomewhat 
 hpllowed, for the convenience of feizingand lay- 
 ing hold of things. The firft phalanx, in the 
 part where they are articulated with the bones of 
 the metacarpus at their heads, have a glenoide 
 cavity, by means of which articulation they have 
 g frep motion every way. In the other extremity 
 
 there 
 
5^ -^Compendium 
 
 there are two heads, with two cavities, joined 19 
 the fecond phalanx, where the motions of flexion 
 and extenfion are all that are pcflible ; and the 
 fame is the cafe between the fecond phalanx and 
 the third. In the upper extremities of the bones 
 of the fecond and third phalanx, there is to be 
 obferved an eminence, placed between two cavi- 
 ties : this has the fame ufe with the olecranum. 
 The fartheft extremity of the laft phalanx, has a 
 point or apex fomewhat broader than the body. 
 The 159. The thumb, confidered feparately, has 
 
 thumb. |.|^e bones thicker than thofe of the fingers : the 
 firft of thefe agrees, in all refpeds, with the bones 
 of the metacarpus in figure, fituation, and arti- 
 culation ; but in its motion it is widely different. 
 The articulation of the firfl: with the fecond, and 
 of the fecond with the third, are like the articu- 
 lation and motions of the fecond and third pha- 
 langes of the other fingers. 
 
 In the bones of the other fingers, nothing 
 worthy particular obfervation occurs, more than 
 has been remarked here. The fefamoide bones 
 of the fingers remain to be fpoken of-, but v^c 
 fhall treat of thefe more properly hereafter (S. 1 8o.> 
 We are now to proceed to the bones of the legs 
 and feet. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 0/ the Bones of the lower Extremities. 
 
 160. 1 1 ^HE lower extremities of the human 
 X body, called by the Latins pedes, 
 confift of fcveral bones -, the femur, tibia, patella, 
 pes extremus, and ofTa fefamoidea. They fervc 
 to fupport the weight of the whole body. 
 
 i6ic 
 
D/ A N A T O M Y. 59 
 
 i6r. The femur is the largcft and ftrongeft Femur. 
 boileof the whole human frame. In the examination 
 of it, we are to remark its fituation and figure, its 
 body, and its extremities, and to enquire into the 
 ufes of each part of it. 
 
 162. In its upper extremity we fee, ift, a very 
 large head, and in this a cavity, deftined for the 
 ligament, commonly called the ligamentum ro- 
 tundum, and ligamentum teres ; tho*, in reality, 
 it is not round, but flat *. It is by means of this 
 ligament that it is fixed in the acetabulum, and its 
 laxation upwards is prevented. We are to obferve 
 alfo the place where it adheres to the acetabulum, 
 its oblique fituation, and its articulation with the 
 Acetabulum, 2. Its neck, to which is affixed a 
 robuft annular ligament f, which contains the 
 head and neck of the bone, as it were, in a cap^ 
 fiilaj or cafe : we are alfo to remark the progrefs 
 of this neck, which is not ftrait, but oblique, 
 llearly horizontal, but turning fomewhat outward : 
 this is the contrivance of nature, for the keeping 
 the thighs afurider, by means of which we tread 
 the firmer ; and by this fituation of the neck of 
 this bone alfo, feveral mufcles have a much more 
 commodious infertlon than could otherwife have 
 been pofllble. We are next to remark the fpon- 
 gy cavernous ftfu^lure of this extremity of the 
 bone, by reafon of Which it is liable to fra6lures, 
 pilt-ticularly in this part : the apertures for the in- 
 grefs of fe\^ral venels, are alfo obfervable ; and 
 there are two apophyffes, called trochanters, a 
 grfeattt artd a lelTerj which ferve for the infertion 
 
 * The difputes about this ligament, are given at large by 
 Atvip^, in his Exameh, p. 77. 
 
 f See dfelihfeations ©f thefe in Bourdon, T. 5. fig. 51. 
 Their veffels are 'elegantly figured by Ruyfch> Adverf, Anat. 
 Deced. 2. T. 3, 
 
 of 
 
6o yfCOMPENDIUM 
 
 of the mufcles of the thigh, and which, together 
 with the head, become, before puberty, diftinct 
 epiphyles *. 
 
 163. In the lower extremity of the femur, we 
 obferve, ift, two head% with a cavity between 
 them, for the articulation with the tibia ; 2dly, a 
 pofterior cavity, intended to give fafe paflage to 
 the veflcis of the tibia •, 3dly, an anterior cavity, 
 for the placing of the patella •, 4thly, two con- 
 dyles, or tubercles, placed near the heads, and 
 feiving for a fixed point to the origin of the muf- 
 cles which are 10 move the foot. In the exterior 
 part of thefe we obferve a pecuUar depreffion, and 
 often a fingle fefamoide bone ; and fometimes 
 there is alfo found another of thefe, in the other 
 tubercle : this ufually happens, however, only in 
 very old fubjedls -f. This whole extremity of the 
 femur is feen, quite to the age of puberty, a per- 
 fedlly diftindt epiphyfis. 
 
 164. In the body of the thigh-bone, we are 
 to obferve the anterior furface, which is convex, 
 and the pofterior, which is fomewhat concave: 
 The obliquity of this part of the bone is alfo fin- 
 gular: its flrength and firmnefs are furprifingly 
 great ; and we are to remark its fpine, or, as fome 
 call it, the linea afpera, which ferves for the infer- 
 tion of the triceps mufcle ; as alfo its great cavity 
 for the containing the marrow. 
 
 The ufe of the thigh-bone is to fupport and 
 fuftain the weight of the whole body 5 and its 
 moveable articuladon at the head, gives way to 
 the eafy motion of the body, while the feet are 
 unmoved. 
 
 * Chefelden fpeaks of a very robuft ligament, difcovered 
 by Dr. James Douglafs, in the upper part of the articulation 
 of this bone ; but our author does not allow it. 
 
 f See thefe delineated, T. i. fig. i, 2, 3, 4. 
 
 16^, 
 
«?/ ANATOMY. 6i 
 
 165. The patella, called alfo by fome rotula. Patella, 
 comes nexc to be examined. In this bone we are 
 
 to obferve the fnuation, number, figure, and fize ; 
 its different thicknefs ; its anterior furface, which 
 is convex ; and its pofterior one, which is un- 
 equal, having an eminence and two depreffions. 
 Its fubflance is fpungeous, and confequently it is 
 brittle : it is connected by tendons and ligaments 
 to the tibia and os femoris * : it has a motion of 
 afcent and defcent in the flexion of the tibia. In 
 infants, and even in children, for feveral years af- 
 terwards, it is merely cartilaginous. 
 
 166. In the tibia, we are to remark the fitua- Tibia, 
 tion, and the two bones v/hich are underftood to 
 form it, viz. that properly and ftridlly called the 
 tibia, and the fibula : we are to obferve the diflfe- 
 rent fize and thicknefs of thefe two bones ; and 
 
 the articulations of each, as well with one another 
 as with the femur and the foot. 
 
 167. In the tibia, properly and diftindively fo 
 called, we are to remark its fituation, its body, 
 and its two extremities : in its upper extremity we 
 are to obferve the thicknefs, the two glenoide ca- 
 vities for its articulation with the femur, on which 
 there are lodged two moveable femi-lunar carti- 
 lages -f J the eminence that is between thefe, 
 and is, as it were, bifid, ferving for the infertion 
 of the nervous and cruciform ligaments, by which 
 it is joined to the femur-, and the cavity behind 
 that eminence, in which the mucofe glandule is 
 lodged. In its anterior face, we are to obferve 
 the tubercle, to which the extenfores tibiae, on 
 
 * The ligament by which it is conneded to the thigh, fee 
 in Ruyfch, Thef. Anat. 7. T. 3. fig. i. 
 
 f See Morgagni, Adverf. 2. fig. 4, and 5. Winflow, in 
 Aft. Paris, anno 1719, who has fpoke very juftly of their 
 mechanical difpofition and ufe, &c, Cant. T. 5. fig. 4- 
 
 I which 
 
6z !/fC0MPENDIUM 
 
 which the patella ftands, are inferred ^ and at its 
 fides two tubercles, affording fixed points to fome 
 of the niufcles of the foot, and to the exterior of 
 which the fibula is firmly connedbed 5 but that iri 
 fuch a manner, as to have nothing to do with the 
 articulation with the femur, as it does not touch 
 that bone. 
 
 168. In the lower extremity of the tibia, we 
 are to remark an excavation, formed for its arti- 
 culation with the tarfus ; and, in its exterior fide, 
 another for its articulation with the fibula; and alfo 
 on its internal fide, a thick and robuft apophyfis, 
 called the internal malleojus, and ferving for the 
 firmer articulation of the foot. 
 
 169. In its body we are to obferve three axJgles 
 or fpines, to the exterior of which the ligamen- 
 turn interoffeum is conne6ted, which joins the 
 fibula to it : the anterior angle is the mod acute, 
 and is indeed covered only by the fkin and periof- 
 teum, whence there is often extremely violent 
 pain attending its contufions. Thefe angles fcarcc 
 appear at all in infants. Finally, we are to ob- 
 ferve that this bone has a large cavity for the 
 marrow. 
 
 Fibi^la. lyo. In the fibula, which is called ailfo perone, 
 we are to remark the fituation, the jun(flure, the. 
 length, and the fmallnefs of it : its upper extre- 
 mity, which does not reach to the os femoris, but 
 J3 only joined to the external fide of the tibia j and 
 its lower extremity, called the malleolus externus» 
 which concurs to the articulation with the tarfus : 
 its eminence gives a ftrength to that articulation, 
 and renders a luxation of it lefs eafy. 
 
 Its body is nearly of a triangular figure, and 
 {lands diftant from the tibia : the ligamentum in- 
 teroffeum is annexed to its acute fpine j and this, 
 as well as the whole body of the fibula, ferves for 
 
 the 
 
^/ANATOMY. 63 
 
 the commodious infertion of feveral of the muf- 
 clcs of the foot. The fibula folely follows the 
 motion of the tibia : it has no peculiar motion of 
 its own. 
 
 171. In our examination of the foot, we are The foot. 
 to confider its length, which is greater in man 
 
 than in any other animal, and ferves for his firmer 
 treading; and its fituation: its upper part, or 
 back, and its under part, or foal, called the planta, 
 which is contrived hollow, left the veflels fhould 
 be prcficd upon in walking, as we prefs with our 
 whole weight there, while in this poflure : final- 
 ly, wfi are to obferve its divifion into the tarfus, 
 metatarfus, toes, and ofla fefamoidea. 
 
 172. In the tarfus, we are to obferve thefitua-The tar- 
 tion smd the number of the bones, which are feven, ^^s- 
 namely, the aftragalus, the calcaneum, the os 
 naviculare, the os cuboides, and the three oflk 
 cuneiformia ; their irregular figure, their articu- 
 lations with the tibia, with one another, and with 
 
 the bones of the metatarfus, and their conne6lions 
 by very ftrong ligaments. 
 
 173. In the aftragalus, called alfo the talu?, 
 we are particularly to obferve its fituation, its 
 figure, articulation with the tibia and fibula, and 
 with the calcaneum, and its head, formed for the 
 articulation with the os naviculare. 
 
 174. In the calcaneum, or os calcis, we are to 
 obferve the fituation and fize 5 the articulation with 
 the aftragalus and os cuboides ; its apophyfis be- 
 jrind., which ferves to prevent our falling back- 
 ward, and on the pofterior furface of which is 
 infertcd the tendo Achillis, which is the ftrongeft 
 tendon of the whole body: in its interior Tide 
 there is an excavation, intended to give fafe paf- 
 «fage £0 the vefiels running to the metatarfus and 
 toes. 
 
64- ' ^COMPENDIl^M 
 
 175. In the OS naviculare, oros fcaphoides, v^e 
 are to obferve the fituation, the articulation, the 
 glenoide cavity for its articulation with the head 
 of the aflragalus, and its three anterior faces, 
 which receive the ofTa cuneiformia. 
 
 J 76. In the OS cuboide?, we are to remark the 
 fituation, which is in the external fide of the tar- 
 fus, where it receives the outer bone of the meta- 
 tarfus, which is articulated with the little toe •, and 
 the bone of the metatarfus, which is next to it : af- 
 ter this, we are to obferve its articulations with the 
 neighbouring bones *, and the incifure in the lower 
 part, in which there is often a fefamoide bone in 
 the tendon of the mufculus peronasus pofticus. 
 
 177. In the three ofia cuneiformia, the fitua- 
 tion, their different fize, and their articulations 
 with the OS navifculare, and with three of the 
 bones of the metatarfus, viz. thofe which fupport 
 the great toe, the fecond, and the third. 
 Metatar- 178. In the examination of the metatarfus, we 
 *^2' are to remark the fituation, and the five bones, 
 
 the bodies of which are nearly cylindrick, but 
 convex above, and concave below ; their inter- 
 ffices, which ferve for the placing of the mufcles ; 
 their pofterior heads, which are joined with the 
 tarfus, and are unequal -, and their anterior ones, 
 which are round, and ferve for the articulations 
 with the toes : thefe (land out a confiderable way, 
 and by this means give great power to the muf- 
 cles, ferving to move the toes. We are to re- 
 mark alfo the different Xize of thefe bones 5 the 
 large apophyfis in the pofterior head of the fifth 
 or outer bone, on which the foot, and in confe- 
 quence a great part of the weight of the body, 
 refts. 
 Bones of 179. In the bones of the toes there is a great 
 ihe toes, refemblance to thofe of the fingers. They are 
 
 gene- 
 
^/ANATOMY. 65 
 
 generally but thirteen in adults, tho' fometimes 
 they are fourteen -, much fmaller and flenderer, 
 except that of the great toe, than thofe of the 
 fingers. They have not nearly fo free a motion 
 as thofe of the fingers. The bone of the great 
 toe is the largell, tho' it have only two joints : 
 the others are gradually fma'ler, all the way to the 
 little toe ; which is not the cafe in the bones of 
 the fingers. The bone of the little toe ufually, 
 and often that of the toe which is next it, have, 
 in old fubje6ls, only two bones ; the two extreme 
 phalanges cfren growing together in old age, and 
 forming only one continued bone : whence we 
 find, in this cafe, a (till fmaller number than the 
 thirteen before mentioned. 
 
 180. There remain now tobe confidered, theOiTafefa- 
 ofifa fefamoidea. Thefe are fmail bones, and are i^oidea, 
 mofl confpicuous in old fubjedls : they fomewhat 
 refemble the feeds of the fefamum, whence 
 they have their name. Their mod ufual 
 fituation is, ifl, in the thumb, and great toe : 
 in each of v/hich we often find two of them, 
 though not unfrequently only one. 2. One 
 in the jundure of the metacarpus v/ith the little 
 finger : this is frequently lodged in the abdudl or 
 mufcle of this finger*, 3. One frequently in 
 each external condyle of the os femoris-f. 4. One 
 under the os cuboides of the tarfus, in the tendon 
 of the peronasus poftius. 
 
 Thefe are ufjally found in adults, or in 
 elderly people : fometimes, tho' more rarely, 
 there is one alfo in the internal condyle of the 
 OS femoris : and fometimes there is one in the ex- 
 ternal furface of the os metacarpi, which fuflains 
 the fore-finger, lodged in the tendon of the ad- 
 
 * See its figure and fituation, tab. i. figv 5. 
 t Tab. I. %. 2, 3,4. ^ 
 
 F ductor 
 
SS yfCOMPENDIUM 
 
 duflor mufcle of the index j and often, in the 
 thumbs, there is one wanting. Upon the whole, 
 there are very rarely found more than fixteen of 
 them, often fewer. Thofe anatomifts, therefore, 
 err greatly, who reckon more than forty of them, 
 placing two at the articulation of each finger and 
 toe: too many, however, have given into this 
 error. 
 
 All thefe bones, except thofe that are found in 
 the condyles of the femur, adhere to the tendons 
 of the mufcles : thofe excepted, are conneded to 
 the origin of the mufcles. Their fize and fhape 
 are various and irregular : they are cartilaginous 
 in young fubjeds, but they grow hard and boney 
 by age ; and 'tis therefore that they are fo much 
 the more eafily found in old people. They ferve 
 as a kind of trochlea to the mufcles, and increafe 
 their power. 
 
 CHAP. vir. 
 
 Of the number of the Bones. 
 
 The num- 1 8 1 . TT AV I N G thus gone thro* the enumera- 
 ber of the jTx ^^^^ ^^ ^^' ^^^ bones of the human body, 
 
 °""' it will be no great difficulty to inform ourfelves 
 of their true number, tho' authors have not a lit- 
 tle varied upon this fubje<5b. In old people, we 
 find, at the utmofl, two hundred and fixty. In 
 young fubjeds we find a greater number, but a 
 very uncertain one •, becaufe feveral of thofe, which 
 are at firft diitind and feparate, by degrees grow 
 into one. 
 
 The 
 
^/ANATOMY. 67 
 
 The bones of the head are in number fixty- 
 nine : of thefe, there are in the cranium, includ- 
 ing the fix ofTiculaauditus, 14, 
 In the maxilla fuperior, or upper jaw, 13 
 In the maxilla inferior, or lower jaw, i 
 The teeth in the two jaws, are 32 
 In the OS hyoides there are properly 5 
 In the larynx 4 
 In the trunk there are fifty-three bones, viz. 
 The vertebrse, 24 
 The ribs, 24 
 Thefternum, when not compofed of twofrufta, i 
 The OS factum, i 
 The OS coccygis, i 
 The ofTa innominata, 2 
 In the extremities there are, in the whole, thirty- 
 eight bones, viz. 
 The feapulae, 2 
 The clavicles, z 
 The ofTa humeri, 2 
 TheoITauln^, 2 
 The ofTa radii, 2 
 The bones of the carpus, of which there are 
 
 eight in each hand, 16 
 
 The bones of the metacarpus, four in each 
 
 hand, 8 
 
 The bones of the fingers, fifteen to each hand, 30 
 
 The ofla femoris, 2 
 
 The ofTa tibia?, 2 
 
 The ofla fibulse, • 2 
 
 The rotulse, or patellse^ 2 
 
 The bones in the tarfus of both feet, 14 
 
 The bones of the metatarfus, 10 
 
 The bones of the toes, 26 
 
 The ofla fefamoidea, which are rarely more than 1 6 
 
 Therefore the whole number of the bones in 
 
 a human body is ufually 260 
 
 F 2 182. 
 
68 yfCoMPENDlUM 
 
 182. The epiphyfes, (S. 5 1 .) in fubjefts arrived 
 at the age of puberty, are about one hundred and 
 twenty-four : if ihefe be added to the two hun- 
 dred and fixty bones already enumerated, we in- 
 creafe the nutliber to diree hundred and eighty- 
 four, which is the true number, as nearly as can 
 be determined, of the bones and epiphyfes s both 
 which are often reckoned* up, under the general 
 name of bones in the human body. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Of the Jun5lures^ or Articulations of the Bones, 
 
 Junaures 183. Tk TO T H ING can be more neceffary 
 of the J^^ J.Q j.|^g furgeon, than a perfedt ac- 
 
 quaintance with the janftures of the bones. Ana- 
 tomical writers have generally given this, there- 
 fore, the firft place in their ofteological part : but 
 it appears much more rational to make ic the laft 
 arucle on this fubjedj fince, when the bones 
 themfelves are firft known, their articulations are 
 much the more eafily underilood. 
 
 184. TheGretk writers have given names, in 
 that language, to the feveral articulations, expreff- 
 ing their nature or elTendal chara6ler ^ but the 
 later anatomical writers have varied greatly in 
 their explication of them, and too many of them 
 have written very confufedly on the fubjedl. On 
 confulting Hippocrates and Galen carefully, it 
 will appear, that the following explication is not 
 repugnant to what they have eftablifhed on this 
 head. 
 
 185. Synthefis, or fyntaxis ofTium, called by 
 the Latins conjundio, exprefles, according to 
 thefe authors, the jundlures of bones of all kinds, 
 whether with or without motion. This large 
 
 term 
 
of ANATOMY; ^9 
 
 term comprehends two diftin6l genera of junc- 
 tures, the arthron, and the fymphyfis. 
 
 Arthron tx^xt^ts 2i,x\ articulation, orjun6lure: 
 under this come into confideration the conta6l of 
 two bones, or the figure of their conjun6lion, 
 without refpedl to their conneftipn : of this there 
 are two kinds. 
 
 I. The diarthrofis, in which there is a ma- 
 nifeft motion, and which comprehends, 
 
 1. The enarthrofis, in which the head of 
 one of the bones is received into a deep 
 cavity in the other^ as in the articulation 
 of the femur. 
 
 2. The arthrodia, in which the head of one 
 of the bones is received into a llighcer ca- 
 vity in the other, as in the jundure of the 
 OS humeri with the fcapula. 
 
 3. The ginglymus, in which the bones 
 mutually receive and are received by one 
 another, as is the cafe in the articulation 
 of the humerus and cubitus. 
 
 To thefe Fallopius adds the trochoides, in 
 which the motion is like that of a wheel 
 about its axis, as is the cafe of the articu- 
 lation of the firft vertebra of the neck 
 with thefecond. 
 
 ' And to all thefe, fome of the modern anato- 
 mifts have added alfo the amphiarthrofis, 
 a term under which they comprehend all 
 thofe jundlures of bones which have a 
 manifeft motion, and which differ from 
 the feveral articulations now defcribed, 
 either in regard to their figure, or the mo- 
 tion they allow of. 
 
 The fecond kind of the articulations exprelTed 
 by the general term arthron, is i\iQ fjnarihra- 
 
 fis : in this there is either, 
 
 F3 I. 
 
70 ifCOMPENDIUM 
 
 1, An obfcure motion, as in the bones of 
 the carpus and metacarpus, tarfus and me- 
 tatarfus. Or, 
 
 2. No motion at all, as in the futures, 
 gomphofes, and junctures per harmoniam. 
 
 The fecond general divifion of the jundures 
 of the bones, ufed in contradiflindion to the 
 arthron, is the 
 Symphyfa^ or, as the Latins exprefs it, unio. 
 
 This indicates a connexion of the bones, and 
 
 is effedted either, 
 
 1. Without a medium, or the addition of 
 any intermediate fubftance different from the 
 bones, at leaft in adults ; as is the cafe in 
 the jundlures of the os frontis, the maxilla 
 fuperior, the ofla innominata, the vertebra?, 
 &c. 
 
 2. By the intervention of a medium, or by 
 the addition of a fubftance different from 
 the bones themfelves. Of this divlfion 
 there are three fpecies, and each with or 
 without motion. 
 
 1. The fynchondrofis, which is feen in the 
 offa pubis, vertebrae, &c. 
 
 2. The fynnearofis, which is feen in all the 
 jundlures of the limbs, in the futures of 
 the cranium, &c. 
 
 3. The fyfarchofis, as in the fcapula, os 
 lingualis, the gums, &c. 
 
 C H A Po 
 
If ANATOMY. 71 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Of parts appertaining to the hones ; the periojleum^ 
 marrow^ ligaments^ and cartilages, 
 
 186. rr^HE periofLCum is a nervous, vafcu-Perlof- 
 X, lous membrane *, endued with a very ^^""^' 
 quick fenfe ; immediately furrounding, in every 
 part, both the internal and external furfaces of all 
 the bones in the body ^ excepting only fo much of 
 the teeth as iland above the gums, and the pecu- 
 liar places on the bones in which the mufcles are 
 inferted. It is hence divided into the external 
 and the internal periofteum *, and where it exter- 
 nally furrounds the bones of the flaill, ic is gene- 
 rally called the pericranium. 
 
 187. This membrane ferves to conftitute the 
 lirft rudiments of the bones in a foetus in utero : 
 it is the organ of fecretion for the boney matter, 
 as the membrana adipofa is for the fat , all the 
 bones, during the time of their growth, receiving 
 from it their matter of accretion, and afterwards 
 their nutriment. The blood-velTels of the periof- 
 teum penetrate, in innumerable places, into the 
 bones themfelves ; as is evidently feen in the frefh 
 bones of children. 
 
 The fenfibility in the bones is wholly owing 
 to this membrane ; for, when diverted of this, 
 they may be fawed, cut, or burnt without pain. 
 It gives alfo the determination and figure to the 
 bones ; as is evident from this, that, when it is 
 wounded, exoftofes, tophi, and caries arife in the 
 part, 
 
 * Ruyfch has very elegantly figured rhefe numerous' 
 vefiels. 
 
 F 4 Th^ 
 
7* !/fCOMPENDrUM 
 
 The periofteum is of different thickneffes in 
 different parts; but, in general, the internal is 
 vaftly thinner than the external, and ferves to 
 nounfh that part of the bones. It receives alfo 
 nerves and blood-veflels from the outfide, thro' 
 certain canals in the fubftance of the bones, which 
 it communicates to the marrow, in fuch as 
 have any. 
 
 It is generally faid to arife from the dura mater 
 of the brain ; but this is fcarce right, as it is evi- 
 dently formed at the fame time with it in the 
 foetus. , 
 The mar- i88. The medulla, or marrow of the bones, 
 row. which anatomifts of many ages fuppofed to be a 
 mere fhapelefs and irregular mafs of matter, is 
 found, in reality, to confift of a fine fubtile, fat, 
 oleaginous iubftance ; and of a number of minute 
 veficles, of a membranaceous ftruflure, in which 
 it is fecreted from the arterial blood, in the fame 
 manner as the fat of the reft of the body. It is 
 contained, in a greater or lefTer quantity, in the 
 cavities of mofl of the cylindrick bones : in the 
 cavernous ones there is not properly any marrovy, 
 but a kind of red, fatty, medullary juice. The me- 
 dullary veffels, found running here and there thro' 
 their appropriated canals, penetrate into the inner 
 cavity of the bones, and fecrete the medullary 
 matter from the blood there : the blood being 
 afterwards returned again by the veins. The nerves 
 are diftributed to the fame places, for the fake of 
 fenfe and motion *. It has been a common opi- 
 nion, that the marrow increafed and decreafed in 
 quantity, according to the increafe and decreafe 
 of the moon ; but this is idle and erroneous. It 
 
 * See the experiments of Du Verney, in the memoirs of 
 
 theFrench academy, 1 7co. 
 
 does. 
 
c/ ANATOMY. 73 
 
 does, indeed, increafe or decreafe in Its feveral 
 cavities, according to the exercife or reft of the 
 animal, or to its eating more or lefs, or better or 
 worfe food. This fubtile oleaginous fubftance 
 penetrates in between the fibres of the bones, and 
 preferves them from drynefs, and from that brit- 
 tlenefs which would be the confequence of it ; 
 but it does not nourilh them, as was originally 
 believed. 
 
 189. The ligaments are robuft and ftrongLiga- 
 cords, as it were, of a membranaceous fubftance ments. 
 in general : they furround the moveable articula- 
 tions in form of a ring, and conned them toge- 
 ther : they are very firmly fixed to the necks of 
 
 the bones. Some of them alfo are cartilaginous, 
 nervous, or tendinous, and ferve to faften the 
 bones together in the articulation : thefe are ufual- 
 ly round. 
 
 There are, however, fome ligaments alfo which 
 do not connedt the bones : thefe are always under- 
 ftood to be membranaceous parts, conne6ling cer- 
 tain other parts together: fuch are the ligaments of 
 the tongue, of the uterus, of the penis, and of 
 the mufcles. Of all thefe we fhall fpeak in their 
 place. 
 
 190. Finally, to the bones belong alfo the car- Cartl- 
 tilages : thefe, as already obferved, are pares of the lages. 
 body very much emulating the appearance of 
 bones, and are elaftick -, but they ufually have .. 
 either nothing or very little of any medullary fub- 
 ftance in them. 
 
 191. The cartilages are furrounded with their peri- 
 chondrium, as the bones are with their periofteum. 
 They ferve to feveral purpofes, i. For the join- 
 ing the bones, as in the vertebrae. 2. For the 
 forming the cavities of the articulations. And, 
 
74 ^Compendium, tSc, 
 
 3. For the covering of the extremities of the 
 bones, and rendering them fmooth and even, 
 where there is required the means of motion. 
 
 4. They alfo ferve for the formation of feveral of 
 the other parts ; as the afpera arteria, larynx, 
 bronchia, noftiijs, ears, and edges of the eyelids: 
 of all which in their places. 
 
 A COM- 
 
75 
 
 A 
 
 COMPENDIUM 
 
 O F 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 "^ BOOK III. 
 
 Of Sarcology. 
 
 C H A P, I. 
 
 Of the common teguments of the human body, 
 
 I92.TTTE have hitherto been treating of 
 V/y the bones, which we have under- 
 ftood as the fupports of the human 
 frame ; and have gone thro' the examination of 
 the parts belonging to them. We are now to 
 proceed to the confideration of the fofter parts of 
 the body, and enter on that branch of anatomy 
 called Sarcology. 
 
 193. Sarcology may be divided into fix parts. 
 
 1. The do6trine of the teguments, or common 
 coverings of the feveral parts of the body. 
 
 2. Splanchnology. 3. Angiology. 4. Neuro- 
 ^ogy» 5- Myology. And, 6. Adenology. 
 
 194. In fplanchnology we are to confider, ifi:, 
 the vifcera of the abdomen or chylopoea : thefe 
 
 arq 
 
jS -^Compendium 
 
 are deftined to the offices of digefting our food, 
 &c. and are the flomach, the inteftines, the liver, 
 the (pleen, and the pancreas. 2. The uropoea, or 
 fuch as ferve for the fecretion of the urine : thefe 
 are the kidneys, the ureters, the urinary bladder, 
 and the urethra. 3. The parts deftined to gene- 
 ration. 4. The organs of refpiraiion, and of the 
 circulation of the blood, which are diftributed in 
 the neck and bread, and are the lungs, the heart, 
 the diaphragm, and the parts belonging to them. 
 And finally, the brain and organs of fenfe, de- 
 pofited in the head. 
 
 195. Before we proceed to the examination of 
 the interior fofc parts, we are to confider the com- 
 mon teguments furrounding the whole body. In 
 the brutes thefe are more numerous ; but in man 
 they are only three : they are, ift, the cuticle ; 
 2d, the fkin; and, 3d, the fat -, the cuticula, the 
 cutis, and the pinguedo, or the membrana adipofa. 
 Thefej and the reft of the parts of this divifion, 
 we fhall lay down our obfervations on in form of 
 tables, that the young difledler may have, as it 
 were, at one view, before him, every thing that 
 he is to remark in every part of the body. 
 
 196. The cuticle is a thin membrane, clofely 
 lying upon the whole fkin, or cutis, of which it 
 feems a part : it is called alfo by a Greek name. 
 Epidermis. In this we are to obferve. 
 
 Its adhefion to the cutis, which is very firm, 
 and is affifted by the intervention of the corpus 
 reticulare of Malpighi ; infomuch that, in diffec- 
 tions, it cannot be feparated from the fkin by the 
 knife •, but this is to be done by means of warm 
 water. In living fubjedls we alfo fee it feparate 
 from the cutis in burns, and by means of blifters. 
 
 The colour is white in the Europeans, black in 
 many other nations. 
 
 We 
 
(?/ ANATOMY. 77 
 
 We are next to remark its flru6lure and fub- 
 ftance : it is compofed of a multitude of very 
 minute Jamellse, or fquammulse, which adhere 
 firmly together, and are eafily diftinguifhed by 
 the microfcope. In thefe there are very nume- 
 rous foraminula, or apertures, which give pafTage 
 to the hairs, to tranfpiration, and to the fweat : 
 thefe lad are generally called pores of the fldn. 
 Some authors fay there are valves to thefe, for the 
 preventing the too copious effufion of the fweat ; 
 but it is more probable, that this is done by the 
 elaflick power of thefe vefTels. 
 
 The thicknefs of the cuticle is very different 
 in the different parts of the body : it is greateft in 
 the foals of the feet, and in the palms of the 
 hands : in other places, in general, it is very thin. 
 
 Befide the pores and foraminula of the cuticle, 
 there are a number of fulci, or linese, furrows or 
 lines, called by Pliny incifurae. Thefe are fome 
 deeper, fome (lighter, and are vifible in every 
 part ; but no where. fo plainly as in the palms of 
 the hands : on the tops of the fingers they are 
 fpiral ; and they feem to be intended for the de- 
 fence of the excretory dudls of the cutis, which 
 are arranged in this part in a regular order. The 
 regeneration of the cuticle, in a living fubjeifl, is 
 eafy : but its origin is not, as was fuppofed by the 
 earlier writers, from a condenfation of the exhala- 
 tions of the body by the external air -, but rather, 
 according to Lewenhoeck, from an expanfion of 
 the nervous papillse of it, which form a multi- 
 tude of fmall fquammulse, or lamells, cohering 
 one with another j or, pofllbly, from both thefe 
 caufes together. 
 
 Even Ruyfch failed in his attempt to find 
 blood-veffels in the cuticle ; neither has any body, 
 fince his time, been able to diftinguifh any there. 
 
 5 From 
 
yS !/^C0MPENDlUM 
 
 From the abfence of thefe it is, that it is without 
 fenfation, and that no blood flows from it, when 
 cut ; but it is certain, that it is nourifhed and re- 
 generated by a fubtile fluid of fome kind. 
 
 The ufe of the cuticle is to defend the cutis 
 from injuries, from coming into contact with 
 every thing, from drynefs, and from pain ,; and, 
 2dly, to afllft, and, at the fame time, to mode- 
 rate the fenfe of feeling. 
 
 197. The corpus reticulare'of Malpighi, or 
 the reticulum cutaneum, is a very fine membrane, 
 perforated, in the manner of a net, with a multi- 
 tude of foramina. It is placed immediately un- 
 der the cuticle -, and where that is feparated from 
 the cutis, whether by art or by accident, this ad- 
 heres very firmly to it, and is fcarce poflible to be 
 parted from it, feeming rather to be its inner fu- 
 perficies than a diftind: fubftance. In regard to 
 this, we are to obferve, firft, the places in which 
 it is found, which are all thofe in which the fenfe 
 of feeling is the moft acute ; as in the palms of 
 the hands, at the extremities of the fingers, and 
 on the foals of the feet. The tongue, however, 
 is the part where it is moft accurately to be ob- 
 ferved : it is more eafily diftinguifhable there than 
 in any other part *, and its nature and ftrufture are 
 moft evidently feen there. 
 
 Its colour, in the Europeans, is white ; but in 
 the negroes, and other black nations, it is black : 
 in the tawny, it is yellowifh. The Ikin itfelf, in 
 both, is white ; and the blacknefs and yellownefs 
 depend altogether on the colour of this mem- 
 brane *. 
 
 The 
 
 * See Ruyfch's obfervations on this fubjeft, Adverfar. Anat. 
 Dec. 3. p. 26. This accurate anatomift feparated the cuticle 
 from the cutis in a piece of the Ikin of a negroe, and found 
 
 the 
 
(?/ A N A T O M Y. 79 
 
 The ufes of the corpus reticulare, are to pre- 
 ferve the ftrudure of the other parts of the inte- 
 guments, and keep them in their determinate 
 form and fituation. Its apertures give paffage to 
 the hairs, and let thro' the papillae, and excretory 
 duds of the fkin : it retains thefe in a certain and 
 determinate order, that they cannot be removed 
 out of their places ; and has fome fhare in pre- 
 ferving the foftnefs of the papillae, which renders 
 them fit for the fenfe of feeling. 
 
 198. The cutis is a robuft membrane, as thick The cutis. 
 as a piece of ftrong leather, and is extended over 
 the furface of the whole body. In this we are to 
 confider the connexion, which is double ; its up- 
 per furface, adhering to the corpus reticulare, and 
 the cuticula, and its under furface to the fat. In 
 fome places this connexion is but lax, in others it 
 is very firm. 
 
 The thicknefs of the cutis is very different in 
 the feveral parts of the body ; and as different in 
 the Ikins of different animals, as appears from the 
 leather made from it for common purpofes. It 
 has a multitude of fulci, or Unes, which are com- 
 mon to it with the cuticle. It has foramina of 
 two kinds in it : the larger, fuch as thofe of the 
 
 the cutis itfelf to be white, as in the Europeans ; but the ex- 
 terior fuperlicies of the feparated part of the cuticle was 
 blackifh ; and its interior furface, where the corpus reticulare 
 came in view, of a deep black. It is evident, from this, that 
 the feat of the blackneis in the Ikins of thefe people, is neither 
 in the cuticle nor cutis, but in the corpus reticulare. Santo- 
 rini obferves the fame thing in his Obf. Anat. p. 3 . He fays, 
 that the colour of the fkins of the Europeans, is owing to that 
 of the bile ; that it is yellow in the jaundice, black in its lalt 
 ftages, and of a dead whitiih in the chlorofis, becaufe the bile 
 itfelf is of thefe feveral colours in thefe difeafes. Malpighi 
 de Taftus Organo, and Ruyfch, who has greatly impro'/ed 
 upon his obfervations, are to be looked carefully into on 
 this head. See Ruyfch's Epift, prim. iig. 4, 5i 6, 7. 
 
 mouth. 
 
go yfCOMPENDIUM 
 
 mouth, nofe, ears, and the like ; tho', in pro- 
 priety, the cutis may rather be faid to be refle&ed 
 than perforated in thefe parts ; and the fmalier, 
 called pores : thefc again are of different fizes, 
 fome larger, fome fmaller, and ferve to give paf- 
 fage to the hairs, to the tranfpiration, and to the 
 , fweat. The pores are very large in the nofe, 
 where the naked eye may evidently perceive them : 
 the fmaller ones are diftinguifhable by the help of 
 microfcopes ; and the paffage of quickfilver thro' 
 leather, fliews them alio. 
 
 We are to examine the fubdance and ftrudlure 
 alfo of the cutis, and fhall find it compofed of a 
 multitude of tendinous fibres, fingle, tenacious, 
 and interwoven in a furprifing manner together ; 
 of a vaft number of blood- veiTels, firft fhewn by 
 Ruyfch in his preparations, and defcribed at large 
 in his works : and, laftly, of a great number of 
 nerves, which conftitute the pyramidal papiilas, 
 and raife themfelves thro' the pores of the corpus 
 reticuiare. Thefe, when the cuticle is taken off, 
 are very eafily diftinguifhable in the palms of the 
 hands, and under the foals of the feet ; as alfo at 
 the ends of the fingers, where they conftitute the 
 primary organ of feehng *. 
 
 After thefe we are to obferve the cutaneous 
 miliary glands : thefe are faid to be very nume- 
 rous ; and are allowed, fince the days of Steno 
 and Malpighi, by all the anatomical writers, to be 
 found in every part of the cutis, and to ferve for 
 the excretion of the matter of perfpiration. We 
 are to obferve that thefe, however, are not fo eafi- 
 ly demonftrated as fpoken of: few of thofe, who 
 have treated moft largely of thtm, have been able 
 to (hew many of them ; and the office afligned to 
 
 * See Ruyfch, Epift. T. ! 7; fig. 2. and his Adverfaro Anato 
 Dec. 2. T. I. fig. 3o 
 
 them 
 
^/ANATOMY. 8i 
 
 them may as well be performed by the little arte- 
 ries of the cutis, without any farther affiftance *. 
 
 Finally, we are to remark the folliculi, or re- 
 ceptacula cutanea ♦, which are probably what have 
 been defcribed by others, under the name of feba- 
 ceous glands f. 
 
 The ufes of the fkin are numerous: ift, to 
 furround, cover, and defend the parts that lie un- 
 derneath it. 2d, To be the organ of feeling. 
 3d, To be an univerfal emundtory to the body, 
 cleanfing the blood of its redundancies, by the 
 means of fweat and perfpiration ; while thefe, at 
 the fame time, ferve to prevent the aridity of the 
 cutis itfelf. 
 
 199. After the examination of the fkin, weTliekfr. 
 are to fpeak of the hair, which isufually reckoned 
 among the parts of it. When they grow on the 
 body, they are called pili 5 when on the head, 
 capilli : the laft are mod proper for examination. 
 That part of them which is without the fkin, ap- 
 pears cylindrick to the naked eye , but, when exa- 
 mined by the help of glaffes, it is found to be un- 
 equal and irregular, and often knotty. It is pel- 
 lucid, but is not hollow; but the extremi- 
 ties of them are often fplit into feveral parts^ 
 fo as to refemble a pencil. 
 
 The part of the hair, that is within the fkin, 
 is called the root of it ; and, from its roundifh 
 figure, the bulb. This part is hollow and vafcu- 
 lous, in the manner of the bafes of the young 
 feathers on birds : this vafculous part is inclofed in 
 a follicle or cafe, and is mofl conveniently to be 
 examined in the large hairs of a cat's whifkers, or 
 of the beards of other animals. 
 
 * Ruyfch, Dec. i. p. 9. 
 
 ^f- Ruyfch, ibid. 
 
 I See Lewenhoek, Adt. Erudit. 16 J3, p. ^11. 
 
 G The 
 
82 ^Compendium 
 
 The origin of the hairs is in the cutis, and in 
 the fat that lies underneath it * ; and probably 
 from nerves, as there is a very acute pain felt in 
 pulling them ofFf. 
 
 The nutritious matter of the hairs is probably 
 the fame with that of the other parts of the 
 body; not merely excrementitious, as the old 
 authors have fuppofed. It is a common affertion, 
 that the hairs grow after the perfon is dead •, but 
 unqueftionable experiments prove this to be of the 
 number of vulgar errors, not at all the more true 
 for being univerfally received as truth J. 
 
 The colour of the hair is very different in the 
 different people of the fame country y but there 
 are alfo general differences of it, peculiar, in a 
 manner, to the climates. In the hottefl countries 
 it is very black ; in the more temperate ones, it is 
 brown, or of a lefs deep black ; in the colder, it 
 is yellowifh, redifh, or brown : but, in all places, 
 it grows grey or white with age ; and in the la- 
 bourers in copper mines, and others, who are 
 continually receiving the effluvia of that metal, 
 ic becomes greeniili. 
 
 The length of the hair is, in the individual, 
 very different. It is always much longer on the 
 head than elfewhere. In general, it is fhort and 
 curled under the torrid zone, arid gradually longer 
 in the more temperate climates. 
 
 Its confidence, to the touch, alfo varies greatly, 
 I. In regard to the different climates and fubjedts. 
 In general, it is harflier in the Ethiopian than in 
 the European ; and harder and dryer in adults 
 than in infants, whofe habit abounds more with 
 
 * Chirac. Suppl. 2. Aft. Erudit. T, 8. 
 
 f See Ruyfch, iLpift. i. 
 
 j See Ruyfch, Thefaur. Anat. 10. p. 5, 
 
 X See Ruyfch, A'dverfar. Anat. Decad, 2. p. 46. 
 
 humidities. 
 
^/ANATOMY. 85 
 
 humidities. 2. In regard to the parts of the body 
 on which it grows : it is very harfh and hard un- 
 der the arm-pits, and about the pudenda : on the 
 head it is much fofter ; and on all other parts of 
 the body it is greatly fofter than there, and very 
 Ihort. 
 
 As to the time of the origination of the hair^ 
 that of fome parts of the body is of the fame date 
 with the part3 it grows on ; fuch is that of the 
 head, the eye-lafhes, and eye-brows. That of 
 others begins to grow only at a certain time j fuch 
 is that of the beard, of the arm-pits, and of the 
 pudenda : and in the fame manner fome of the 
 hair continues always increafing in length, while . 
 other parts of it never grow after the birth of 
 the infant. 
 
 The ufe of the hair of the head is to keep that 
 part warm, as well as to be an ornament to it : 
 that of the reft of the hair, except only that of 
 the eye-brows and eye-la(hes, is not fo eafily de- 
 termined. 
 
 200. After the hair, we are to obferve the 
 nails. The number, fituation, figure, fize, and 
 colour of thefe, need no explanation : but we are 
 to obferve, that the feveral parts of the nail have 
 their feveral names, i. The extremity is called 
 the apex ; the oppofite part to this is the root or 
 bafe : the firft of thefe is thin and tender ; the lat- 
 ter more thick and firm. And, finally, near the 
 bafe there is a white part, called the lunula, from 
 its figure, fomewhat refembling a fegmerft of a 
 circle. 
 
 As to the fubftance of the nails, they are com- 
 pofed of the cutaneous papillae, elongated and in* 
 durated, and firmly conneded to one another in 
 a longitudinal direction ; for this reafon, they are 
 very fenfible at the roots, where thefe papillae are 
 
 G 2 yet 
 
A Compendium 
 
 yet tender : but at the apex, where they are per- 
 fedly indurated, they may be cut without pain. 
 
 The papillae, of which the nails are formed, 
 arife out of the fkin, not only at the root of the 
 nail, but all over the greater part of its under fur- 
 face. It is by this means that the nails are fo 
 firmly connedled to the fkin ; and it is owing to 
 the continual accefiion of more and more papillae, 
 as they approach toward the apex, that they be- 
 come harder and firmer in that part. They may 
 be eafily feparated intire, from dead fubjeds, by 
 hot water. 
 
 We are next to enquire into the manner of 
 their nutrition. As the refl of the papillas of the 
 cutis have their veflels, by which they are nou- 
 rifhed ; fo alfo thefe papilla, which form the nails, 
 have their veflels for the conveying nouriihment 
 to them at the bafe : but as thefe papillae do not, 
 in their own form, conftitute the body of the nail, 
 but become indurated as they are elongated, and 
 feem only the roots or bafes of hard and rigid 
 fibres, as is alfo the cafe in the hairs ; fo thefe in- 
 durated parts of them have fewer than the more 
 tender, but yet enough for their nutrition are con- 
 tinued along them. Their growth is by means of 
 thefe, and it continues as long as the perfon lives. 
 It has been faid of the nails, as well as of the hair, 
 that they grow after the perfon is dead j but this 
 is evidently an error, as much as the other *. 
 
 The ufes of the nails are, ill. To ftrengthen 
 and defend the extremities of the fingers and toes, 
 that they may not be fo eafily hurt by external ac- 
 cidents, as they otherwife would have been; 
 2. To affifl: the fingers, in the laying hold of lit- 
 tle things, the more readily, and in the holding 
 
 * Sec Riiyfch. Adverfar. Anat. Dec. 2. p. 46. 
 
 them 
 
<?/ ANATOMY. 85 
 
 them the more firmly. 3. To be convenient to 
 us in cleanfing the fkin from any accidental foul- 
 nefles on its furface. 4. On the toes, they ferve 
 to make us tread the firmer, and to prevent the 
 painful collifion their ends would otherwife be al- 
 moft continually fubjed to. 
 
 Among the various animals, the claws, which 
 are perfedly analogous to our nails, ferve them for 
 feizing and tearing their prey, and for climbing 
 trees : the fquirrel, &c. make the latter ufe of 
 them ; the bealls of prey, in general, the former. 
 Among the other animals, in fome they ferve as 
 flioes to walk on; in others, they anfwcr both this 
 purpofe and that of ofFenfive weapons, as in the 
 horfe, to ftrike with *. 
 
 201. We next come to the confideration of The fat, 
 the pinguedo, or fat, and of the membrana adi- ^"^ ^^em- 
 pofa. In thefe we are to obferve, ift, the fitua-^^^^^^^^' 
 tion, which is almoft univerfally over the body, 
 immediately under the cutis ; and, befide this, in 
 many parts in the interftices between the mufcles, 
 in the orbit of the eye, in the omentum and me- 
 fcntery, about the kidneys, and elfewhere. 
 
 It is compofed of a thin, tranfparent mem- 
 brane, furnirfied with a multitude of cells, com- 
 municating in various manners with one another ; 
 and of a fat, oleaginous, or butyraceous matter, 
 fecreted from the blood, and filling up the cavity 
 of thefe cells. This oleaginous matter, which is 
 properly and diflindlly called far, is not fecreted 
 from glandules, but from the little arteries of the 
 membrane themfelves. In bodies greatly ema- 
 ciated, we find only this cellular membrane with 
 the cells empty. 
 
 Authors diftinguilh the fat of animals into two 
 kinds, which they exprefs by the words fevum or 
 
 J See Schrader's Differtatio de Armatura Brutorum; 
 
 G 3 edeps^ 
 
jBS * ;^ Compendium 
 
 ^depSy and pingucdo. According to this diftinc^ 
 tion, there is no inch thing as fevum or adeps ia 
 the human body : its fat is all of the kind ex- 
 preiTed by pinguedo. 
 
 The blood-veffels of the membrana adipofa are 
 very numerous : they are propagated from the 
 circumjacent piirts, and enter, and, as it were, fur- 
 round the "Cells of the membranaceous cellules. 
 The nerves are few, and very fmall ; whence it 
 has little fenfation. Authors mention, befide the 
 arteries, veins, and nerves of thefe parts, certa'n 
 veffels, which they call vafa adipofa ; but it does 
 not appear certainly, that there are any veflels dif- 
 tin6l from thofe already mentioned, and from the 
 cells of the membrane. 
 
 That the oleaginous matter of the fat has a 
 circulatory motion, or an egrefs into the veins, is 
 very evident from the confumption of it in many 
 difeafes, which is extremely fudden ; and from its 
 vaft and almoft immediate diminution, only from 
 the efFeft of violent exercife, or labour. 
 
 The ufes of the fat are, i . To ferve as a kind 
 of covering to the body, defending it from cold. 
 
 2. To defend the more tender and fenfible parts 
 from being too flrongly vellicated by the falts, 
 
 3. To prefer ve in good order the flexion of the 
 mufcles, of the cutis, and of the other parts be- 
 tween and about which it is placed. 4: To faci- 
 litate the motions of fome parts, as of the eyes, 
 the jaw, &c. 5. To fill up a number of empty 
 interftical fpaces, and by that means to add greatly 
 to the fymmetry and beauty of the parts j as is 
 evidently the cafe in the face, the neck, &c. and 
 to facilitate the diftenfion of the parts, the fpaces 
 between which it thus fills up: this is evidently a 
 great ufe of the fat about the vagina, the ^nus, 
 ^he olTa ifchii, and pudenda ; which fills up a great 
 
 many 
 
^/ANATOMY. 8; 
 
 many large inter dices there, and gives way greatly 
 in thediftention of thofe parts in the cxclufion of 
 the foetus, and even of the harder excrements. 
 6. To prevent the painful preflure and attrition 
 of the parrs, particularly in the foles of the feet, 
 the nates, and other the like parts, on which we 
 Hand or fit. Sec, in all which the fat is copioufly 
 difpofed, and ferves in the place of a culhion for 
 the mufcular flefh to reft upon. And, finally, 
 there is great reafon to fuppofe, that, when the 
 body does not receive nutrition in the ufual way, 
 the regrefs of this into the veins fupplies it, 
 
 202. The panniculus carnofus is defcribed, byPannlcu- 
 moft of the anatomical writ6rs, as a fourth com- J?^ carno- 
 mon integument of the human body : it is a ro- "^' 
 bufl, mufculous, and flefhy tunic, fituated, in 
 beafls, between the cutis and the fat ; and it is by 
 means of this, that thofe creatures are able to 
 
 move their fkin, either totally or in part, as we 
 fee them frequently do, to diflodge flies, &c. It 
 is not allowable, however, to defcribe this as a part 
 of the human fabrick, analogous to what we fee 
 of it in brutes : there is no fuch integument in 
 man, except pofTibly about the face •, and it is evi- 
 dent, that man cannot want it, as his body is de- 
 fended by cloaths, from the occafion of the beafl's 
 exerting its motion. 
 
 203. The common membrane of the mufcles Membra- 
 xs alfo, by fome, reckoned among the number of J^^"^"^*^^^ 
 the integuments of the human body : this has its commu- 
 place immediately under the fat, and is faid to nis. 
 furround intirely all the mufcles. This, however, 
 
 is alfo improperly called a common or univerfal 
 integument ; fince it is not expanded over the 
 whole body, but is only found in fome particular 
 parts of it, and is wholly wanting in many; 
 Magnetus and Verheyen very improperly divide 
 
 G4 the 
 
SB u^COMPENDIUM 
 
 the tunica adipofa into three membranes, for the 
 fake of making out the old number of integu- 
 ments * ; fmce thofe which are wanting in the 
 human frame, are by no means to be fupplied by 
 ^n imaginary partition of this. 
 
 204. Having thus gone thro' the enumeration 
 of the common integuments of the body, we are 
 to proceed, in the order of difiedlion, to the tegu- 
 ments of the abdomen in particular, or its conti- 
 nent parts : which are, befide the offa innomi- 
 nata, the os factum and its appendage, and five 
 vertebras of the loins, the diaphragm, the mufcles 
 of the abdomen, and the peritonaeum. The dif- 
 fecfhcr always begins with this part, becaufe the 
 Ijcces, contained in it, render it, before all the 
 other parts of the body, obnoxious to putrefac- 
 tion ', and all the others are kept longer fweet, 
 and fit for examination, after the feparating the 
 contents of this. 
 Mufcles 205. In regard to the mufcles of the abdomen, 
 domen^ '^'^ are to obferve their fituation : they occupy, 
 and indeed compofe, the greater part of the cir- 
 cumference of the abdomen. We are to remark 
 alfo the linea alba, which extends itfelf from the 
 fternum to the jun(5lure of the ofla pubis, in form 
 of a broad and ftrong white ftreak : this is com- 
 pofed of the tendons of the mufcles of the abdo- 
 men, implicated together in an amazing manner 5 
 and in the middle of this is fituated the umbilicus, 
 or navel. 
 
 The number of thefe mufcles is properly five 
 pair f . The fir ft pair are the re6ti : thefe have 
 their origin in the ofTa pubis, and terminate at the 
 flernum and four of the ribs. In thefe there are 
 various tendinous divlfions. 
 
 * See Morgagni, Adverf. Anat. 2. p. 17. 
 
 f See excellent figures of thefe in Cowper's Myotomia. 
 
 The 
 
^/ANATOMY. 89 
 
 The fecond pair are the oblique defcendentes : 
 thefe arife from the feven ribs, from the fifth to 
 the eleventh; and terminate by their aponeurofes, 
 in the fpine of the ileum, the 03 pubis, and the 
 linea alba, which feveral fibres however pafs 
 through. 
 
 The third pair are the oblique afcendentes : 
 thefe arife from the olTa ilei, the os facrum, and 
 the fpines of the loins ; and are inferted partly in 
 the lower fide of the fpurious ribs, and partly in 
 the llnea alba. 
 
 The fourth pair are the tranfverfi : thefe arife 
 from the tranfverfe proceffes of the loins, and arc 
 connedled to the diaphragm 5 and they terminate 
 in the linea alba. 
 
 The fifth and laft pair are the pyramidales : 
 thefe are very fmall. They have their origin at 
 the junftures of the offa pubis : they thence rife 
 ftrait to about four fingers breadth, and there ter- 
 minate in the linea alba. Sometimes this pair is 
 found wholly wanting, fometimes there is only 
 one of them inftead of the pair, and fometimes 
 there are both. 
 
 Thefe mufcles are furnifhed with arteries and 
 veins from the intercoflal, lumbar, mammary, 
 and epigaftrick velTels ; and with nerves, which 
 are confiderably large, from the dorfal and lum- 
 bar ones. 
 
 There is an annulus, or ring, in the lower part 
 of the oblique defcendens ; and a perforation in 
 the oblique afcendens, ferving for the giving paf- 
 fage to proceffes of the peritonaeum, and the fper- 
 matick veffels in men, and to the ligamenta ro- 
 tunda of the uterus in women. In ruptures the 
 inteftine and omentum make their way alfo thro' 
 this opening. The tranfverfi are not penetrated, 
 but their pafTage is under their linib* 
 
 Finally, 
 
^O yfCoMPENDIUM 
 
 Finally, we are to obferve the Jigamentum 
 pouparcii, which is placed between the fpina ilei 
 and OS pubis. 
 
 The ufes of the mufcles of the abdomen are, 
 I. To contain and defend the vifcera lodged in 
 the abdomen. 2. By their continual motion to 
 afTift in digeftion, and in the progrefs of the chyle. 
 3. To promote the excretion of faeces and urine con- 
 tinually, and of the foetus and fecundines in time of 
 delivery. 4. To be of ufe in refpiration. 5. To 
 afiift in the facilitating the various flexures of the 
 body. 6. To afTift in the motion which occa- 
 fions the ftomach to throw up its contents in vo- 
 miting. And, 7. In various other motions. 
 The peri- 206. The peritonaeum lies immediately under 
 tonaeum. ^^^ tranfverfe mufcles of the abdomen, and ad- 
 heres to them. It is a thin, fmooth, and lubri- 
 cous membrane, invefting the whole internal fur- 
 face of the abdomen ; and containing mod of the 
 vifcera of that part, as it were, in a bag : it 
 coheres alfo with the diaphragm, and with all the 
 vifcera lodged in this part. It intirely enclofes 
 the ftomach, the mteftines, the mefentery, the 
 omentum, the liver, the fpleen, and the pancreas : 
 thefe are, therefore, faid to be lodged in the du- 
 plicature of the peritonaeum. The kidneys, ure- 
 ters, and fmaller velTels of the abdomen, it covers 
 only on their anterior part; and the urinary blad- 
 der only on the pofterior. This is the cafe in 
 the human body, and this is very different from 
 what comparative anatomy fhews us among the 
 brutes *. 
 
 The peritonaeum is compofed of a double mem- 
 brane, or lamella : the exterior one has longitu- 
 dinal and (lender fibres ; the interior has tranf- 
 
 * In what manner the peritonaeum covers the bladder, 
 Chefelden has elegantly Ihewn in his treatife on. Lithotomy. 
 
 verfe 
 
cf ANATOMY. 91 
 
 verfe and more robufl ones *. There are alfo 
 Jigaments formed from it: i. That which fufpends 
 the LVer. 2. The two ligamenta lata of the ute- 
 rus in women. 
 
 Its procefles, which it fends out of the abdo- 
 men, are two : they ferveto furround and encJofe 
 the fpermatick veiTels and the tefticles. In regard 
 to thefe, we are to obferve, i. Their furprifing 
 pafifage between the mufcles of the abdomen. 
 2. Their hiatus, fo vifible in the abdomen of a 
 dog, but wandng in the human body. 3. The 
 feptum, ferving to feparate the tefticles, are the 
 upper part. 
 
 We are alfo to obferve the involucra of the 
 ligamenta rotunda in women, and their diverti- 
 cula : N uck has finely delineated thefe in his Ade- 
 nographia, p. 39, 40. 
 
 The arteries and veins of the peritonseum are 
 fupplied from the epigaftrick, mammary, lumbar, 
 and diaphragmatick vefTels , and to thefe fome 
 add lymphaticks. 
 
 The nerves are propagated from thofe of the 
 diaphragm, back, loins, and os factum. Many 
 of the anatomical writers have alfo mentioned 
 glands in the peritonaeum ; but, in the natural 
 flate of the part, no fuch are obfervable. 
 
 The ufes of the peritonasum are, i. To inclofe 
 the contents of the abdomen ; for when this part 
 is dilated, wounded, or broken, they fall out of 
 their due places, and ruptures are formed. 2. To 
 give an external covering to almofl all the parts 
 contained in the abdomen, which are therefore 
 generally faid to have their external membrane 
 from the peritonaeum. 3. To form the procefTes 
 of the peritoneum, and the tunica vaginalis of 
 fhe teftes. 
 
 f See Santorini, p. 164..' 
 
 ■ CHAP. 
 
92 ^Compendium 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Of the O^itents of tht Abdomen, 
 
 207. TT THEN the peritonaeum is carefully 
 y Y Jaid open, there appear the vafa 
 umbihcaha, which, in adults, are found degene- 
 rated into ligaments : thefe are two arteries, a 
 vein, and the urachus, lodged within the double 
 lamella of the peritonaeum *. Thefe almoft en- 
 tirely difappear in adult brutes ; or, at the utmoO^ 
 are much lefs diftinguilhable in them than in men. 
 Du Verney obferves, however, that the umbilical 
 arteries always retain their cavity down to the fun- 
 dus of the urinary bladder, and that the bladder 
 always receives branches from them •\. 
 
 After thefe comes in fight the omentum, or 
 epiploon, lying upon the inteftines; and under 
 this the inteftines themfelves, which fill up the 
 greater part of the abdominal cavity ; the fmaller 
 inteftines lying in the middle, the larger toward 
 the circumference. 
 
 We are then to obferve the mefentery, or mem- 
 brane, which connefe the inteftines; the ftomach, 
 which occupies the upper part of the cavity toward 
 the left fide; the liver, with the gall-bladder, 
 fituated on the right fide, or in the right hypo- 
 condrium ; the fpleen, on the left fide, behind the 
 ftomach, and adhering to the diaphragm and the 
 ipurious ribs : the fituatfon of this part prevents 
 its coming in fight, till the ftomach is removed. 
 The two kidneys, which are hid, as it were, be- 
 hind the inteftines, and lie upon the loins ; the 
 
 * See Santorini, Obf. Anat. p. 1 64; 
 t See Garengot's Chiriirg. T. i. p. 222. See alfo more 
 of thefe velTels in our chapter of the Fqptus* 
 
 urinary 
 
cf ANATOMY. ^^ 
 
 urinary bladder, placed in the lowefl: part of the 
 abdominal cavity, called the pelvis, and connedled 
 with the ofla pubis, by means of the peritonaeum. 
 The bladder in the human body, when empty, is 
 fo fmall, that it is fcarce obfervable, unlefs dif- 
 tended. 
 
 After this we are to obferve the pancreas, which 
 is a large gland placed under the ftomach ; and 
 then the parts ferving to generation, as, in men, 
 the veficute feminales, &c. and, in women, the 
 uterus, its ligaments, the ovaries, the Fallopian 
 tubes, and the other parts belonging to the 
 uterus. 
 
 We are to obferve, in this cavity alfo, the 
 aorta, or great artery ; and the vena cava, and 
 vena portae; and the emulgent iliac, mefenterick, 
 and other arteries and veins, which are confpicu- 
 ous and numerous. 
 
 208. The omentum is a membranaceous part, Omen- 
 ufually furnifhed with a large quantity of fat, and ^'^"^* 
 is placed under the peritonaeum, and immediately 
 over the inteftines. It is called, by fome authors, 
 rete and reticulum, from the number of holes ap- 
 pearing in it when raifed, and giving it the re- 
 femblance of a net ; but thefe are not natural. 
 The Greeks called it epiploon. 
 
 As to its fituation, it ufually occupies only the 
 upper part of the abdomen ; but fometimes we 
 find it extended to the lower part alfo. Its weight 
 in an adult human fubjedt, not remarkably fat, or 
 remarkably lean, is about half a pound ; in brutes 
 it varies extremely, in proportion to their being 
 more or lefs fat. As to its conne6lions, its lower 
 part is evidently loofe and free : in its upper part 
 it is joined, in its anterior part, to the bottom of 
 the ftomach, the duodenum, and the fpleen -, and 
 in its pofterior part^ to the colon and pancreas. 
 
 It 
 
94 -^Compendium 
 
 It is compofed of a very tender double mem- 
 brane, forming a kind of pouch, with a cavity, 
 called by authors its burfa. It has a quantity of 
 fat in certain cellules, deftined for that purpofe, 
 and forming a kind of dudts : thefe furround the 
 blood- velTel?, and have between them certain are- 
 olae, or membranaceous fpaces. 
 
 Its arteries are called arteriae epiploicge * : they 
 come from the coeliaca, and are very numerous. 
 Its veins are derived from the vena ponae, and 
 principally from the fplenic branch : its nerves are 
 from the intercoftals, and the par vagum ; and 
 befide thefe, it has fome lymphaticks. 
 
 It has a very remarkable natural aperture, dif- 
 covered by Winllow, by which it may be con- 
 veniently and elegantly diftended by inflation ; 
 and there are generally fome fmall natural fora- 
 mina in it •, tho' the larger ones, from which it 
 had its name rete^ are adventitious. Malpighi 
 has been at great pains to defcribe what he calls 
 dudus adipofi, in the omentum; but what he 
 gives this name to, are no other than the lateral 
 diverticulations of the blood-veffels, which running 
 to the cells, there fecrete and depofit the oleagin- 
 ous or fat matter. Thefe cellules, as well as the 
 others f^ where fat is lodged in other parts of the 
 body, communicate alfo with one another, and 
 with the veins of the part. 
 
 The ufes of the omentum are, i. By its lubri- 
 city, to render the neceflary and natural motions 
 of the intedines eafy. 2. To cherifh and defend 
 the inteftines from cold. 3. To afTift in the for- 
 mation of the bile, the fatty part of which is 
 wholly owing to the veflels of the omentum, 
 
 *"See an accurate delineation of thefe arteries in Ruyfch's 
 Thefaur. Anat. 2. T. 5. fig. i. 
 
 f See Maur. HoiFman, idea, p. 23* 
 
 I every 
 
<?/ ANATOMY. 95 
 
 every thing that returns from this part, going into 
 the liver. 4. To temperate the acrimony of the 
 humors. And, probably, 5. To ferve, as all the 
 other fat parts of the body, to give it nourifh- 
 ment, when it is incapable of being nourifhed 
 any other way. 
 
 209. The ftomach, or ventricle, is a hollow The ftQ« 
 membranaceous part ; placed, for the moft part, "^^^^* 
 in the left hypocondrium, immediately under the 
 diaphragm, and, in an oblique fituation, between 
 the liver and the ipleen. In this wc are to ob- 
 ferve, i . Its figure, which is like that of the bag 
 of a pair of bag' pipes. 2. Its divifion into three 
 parts, that is, into two orifices and a bottom. 
 
 Its left orifice, called cardia, is placed much 
 higher than its right, and is continuous with the 
 gula, and furniflied with a great number of nerves. 
 
 Its right orifice is called the pylorus, and is 
 connedled with or opens into the inteftines : in this 
 part there is a fmgular valve, the ofHce of which 
 is to clofe the flomach *. We are alfo to obferve 
 the ligament, by which the pylorus is connedled to 
 the upper part of the (lomach. 
 
 The fize of the ftomach, in human fubje6ls, is 
 very various : in people addicted to gluttony, it 
 is ufually very large ; and in men it is, in general, 
 larger than in women. In the human body it is 
 always fingle j but many of the beafls have feveral 
 llbmachs. 
 
 Its vefTels are arteries, veins, nerves, and lym- 
 phaticks. Its arteries, cajled gaftricas, it receives 
 from the coeliac : the gaftrick veins all run to the 
 vena portsc. Among thefe we are to obferve the 
 vafa brevia, which go off to the fplenic branch, 
 and the vena coronaria, which furrounds the 
 ftomach. 
 
 * See its figure, Tab, 6. 
 
 Its 
 
g6 ^i C O M P E N D I U M 
 
 Its nerves principally enter at the left orifice: 
 they come from the par vagum, and are very 
 large; and hence it is, that the ftomach is fo 
 fenfible. 
 
 The lymphaticks go to the receptaculum chyli. 
 
 The fubftance of the ftomach is membra- 
 naceous : it is compofed of four coats. 
 
 The firft coat is membranaceous, in the ftri6t 
 fenfe of the term : the fibres of this run tranf^ 
 verfely. The fecond is mufculous ; and in this 
 the courfe of the fibres is various, and, as it were, 
 inextricable : fome of them run circularly, as it 
 were, from the upper part to the lower ; and others 
 only on the upper part of the ftomach, between 
 the two orifices : others run obliquely from the 
 left fide to ths right, and fome furround the 
 orifice. 
 
 The third coat of the ftomach is nervous : this 
 forms a multitude of wrinkles, and is furniftied 
 with a number of fanguiferous veflels and fmall 
 glands, which fecrete the liquor gaftricus, or liquor 
 of the ftomach. This is more readily obferved 
 in hogs than in the human body. 
 
 The fourth is villofe, thin, and porous*: it 
 adheres very firmly to the former. 
 
 The ufe of the ftomach is for the digeftion of 
 our food, that is, to receive, contain, difTolve, 
 and change what is fwallowed by the mouth ; and 
 after a fufficient concoclion, to expel it thro' the 
 pylorus into the inteftines : polTibly alfo, it abforbs 
 and retains the more fubtile parts of what it has 
 thus prepared for nutrition. It alfo is the organ 
 in which the fenfation of hunger refides. 
 
 * See Ruyfch's Thefaur. Anatom. 2. T.5. fig. 2. and of 
 the papillae of the ftomach, fee the fame author, Adverf. 3. 
 
 210J 
 
of ANATOMY. 97 
 
 ^10. The inteftines are long and large, cylin-Thein- 
 drick, hollow, membranaceous bodies ; or rather ^^^^'^^^^ 
 one fuch continued body, reaching from the llo- 
 mach to the anus. In thefe we are to obferve, 
 
 1. Their length, which is ufually fix times as 
 much as the height of the man they belong to. 
 
 2. Their wonderful circumvolutions, and the ufes 
 of them. 3. Their connexion, by means of the 
 mefentery, with the vertebra of the loins. 4. Their 
 number, which tho' properly and exaflly, as be* 
 fore obferved, it be but one, yet is ufually made 
 fix. Of the fix inteftines of this divifion, three 
 are called the fmaller inteftines, inteftina tenuia ; 
 and the other three the larger, or inteftina crafTa. 
 
 Of the firft three, called the fmall guts, orDuode^ 
 inteftina tenuia, the firft is the duodenum, fo"^"V^ 
 named from its length, which is about that of 
 twelve fingers. This has its origin at the pylorus, 
 and at its beginning afcends a litde; but after this 
 it defcends -, and toward its end, finally afcending 
 again, it runs tranfverfely toward the left kidney : 
 it receives, at the diftance of three or four fingers 
 from the pylorus, at one prominent hiatus or 
 mouth, the ofcula, or apertures of the cholidick 
 and pancreatick du6ls, for the fufceptioa of the 
 bile and the pancreatick juice. The thicknefs of 
 the coats of the duodenum is greater than that of 
 any other of the fmall guts ; and its cavity is alfo 
 greater than that of any of them : in its begin*- 
 ning it has no valves, nor rugae ; but in its con- 
 tinuation it has very numerous and remarkable 
 ones, called by authors juga*. It has alfo the 
 glands called glandulse brunneri, in great number, 
 ferving for the fecretion of a thin aqueous fluid 'f'i 
 
 * See San tori ni, p. 167. 
 
 f See Santorini, Trad, de Valv. Duodenio 
 
 H an4 
 
98 -<^C0MP£NDIUM 
 
 and it has an artery from the coeliac, and a vein, 
 as the reft of the inteftines have, from the porta. 
 
 Jejunum. The fecond of the fmall guts is the jejunum, 
 fo called becaufe it is ufually found empty. This 
 is owing to the fluidity of the chyle, the greater 
 flimulus of the bile in it, and the abundance of 
 the la6leal vefTels which it is furnifned with. Its 
 fituation is in the region above the navel : it has 
 a great many connivent valves. Its beginning is 
 where the duodenum ends; and its termination in 
 the place where the valves, juft mentioned, are 
 obhterated. Its length is different in various fub- 
 jeds : it is ufually, however, between that of thir- 
 teen and fixteen fpans. It is generally fhorcer than 
 the ileum. 
 
 Ileum. The third and laft of the fmall guts is the 
 
 ileum. Its fituation is principally below the navel, 
 near the ofla ilei, whence it has its name. Its 
 length is various : fometimes not more than fif- 
 teen, fometimes twenty fpans, or more. Its begin- 
 ning is where the valves of the jejunum ceafe to 
 be confpicuous, and its end is where the larger 
 inteftines begin •, in which place it is, in a very 
 fingular manner, inferted into the left fide of the 
 colon *. Valves it has none, unlefs that great 
 one at the end, which is called, by many, valvula 
 coli Bauhini : its glands are, in general, more nu- 
 merous toward the end than in any other part. 
 
 Ccecum. Of the three large inteftines, called, from their 
 fize, inteftina craflTa, the firft is the coecum : 
 this is fituated at the right os ileum, and refembles 
 a bag, and has a vermiform or worm-like appen- 
 dage fixed to it. It begins at the termination of 
 the ileum, and terminates in the bottom of the 
 bag or facculus which it forms: its length is not 
 
 * See the author's diflertation de Valvula Coli. See alfo 
 here fig. 7. and Morgagn. Adverf. T. 3. fig. 2. 
 
 ' . . more 
 
^/ANATOMY. 99 
 
 more than three or four fingers breadth. In the 
 appendage, opening into the fide of the coecum, 
 there are fome glands •, which, together with its 
 eredl fituarion, as that is ufually the cafe, feems 
 to fliew that fome fluid is fecreted there. In 
 hens this is double ; as alfo in many others fowls. 
 In fifhes there are frequently a vail number of 
 them ; in fome fpecies, not lefs than four hun- 
 dred*. In man it is, at the utmoft, fingle, and 
 is often wanting -f. 
 
 The fecond of the inteftina craflTa is the colon. Colon, 
 The fituation of this is at the circumference of 
 the fmaller inteftines -, and it is ufually, ftrangely, 
 and varioufly convolecled and flexuous. Its be- 
 ginning is above the termination of the ileum, 
 and its end is at the os factum. It is conne6ted 
 v/iththe OS ilei, the right kidney, the gall-bladder, 
 the liver, the ftomach, the fpleen ; and, finally, 
 with the left kidney. Its length is from five to 
 feven fpans : its diameter is the greateft of that of 
 any of the guts. It has three ligaments running 
 longitudinally in it, and terminating in the vermi- 
 form procefs §, It has alfo certain external adi- 
 pofe appendiculse, which ferve to lubricate it |, 
 The connivent valves are larger in this than in 
 any other of the guts ; and the coats it is com- 
 pofed of, are ftronger than in the fmall guts. 
 
 The third and laft of the inteftina cralfa is the Reaum. 
 reilum. It is thus called from its fituation^ which 
 is flrait or perpendicular upon the os facrum. Its 
 length is about three hands breadth ; and its dia- 
 meter about three fingers. It has iis beginning at 
 the loweil vertebras of the loins : its extremity is 
 
 * 3ee Grew's Comparitive Anatomy of Gats. 
 f Sec Morgagnj, AdvevL 3. p. 27. 
 § See "l^^Iorgagni, Obf. Anat. 3. p. 27. fig. 3, 
 J Ruyich, Muf. Anat. p. 75, and 76. 
 
 H 2 what 
 
100 J Compendium 
 
 what is called the anus. This is furnifhid with 
 three mufcles ; one called the fphindler, whofe 
 office it is to clofe the anus ; and two others, called 
 elevatores, whofe office is to draw it up. Of 
 thefe we (hall fpeak in their proper place, among 
 the mufcles. It is conne6led to the os facrum, 
 the OS coccygis, and the urinary bladder, in men ; 
 but in women to the vagina uteri. The coats of 
 the redum are more thick and flefhy, than thofe 
 of any other of the inteftincs : it has, in general, 
 no valves •, but it has feveral rugne. The abfence 
 of valves here, is to prevent the expulfion of the 
 f^ces from being retarded. The anus is fur- 
 rounded with a large quantity of fat, to the end 
 that it may be cafily dilated, in the evacuation of 
 its contents. 
 Struftdre 2 1 1. The ftruflure and fubflance of the intel^ 
 o the in- J.- j^gg -g membranaceous : they are formed, in every 
 part, of five coats or tunics. 
 
 The firit is the common coat, from the peri- 
 tonseum, and is membranaceous. 
 
 The fccond is cellular -, and is called, by the late 
 writers, tunica cellulofa Ruyfchii. This is con- 
 tinuous with the mefentery, and is tobedifcovered 
 by inflating it *. This coat, in fat animals, alfo 
 frequently contains abundance of fat. 
 
 The third is mufcular: this is compofed of a 
 double feries of fibres, in part longitudinal, and 
 in part annular ; and thefe affift the motion of the 
 guts. 
 
 The fourth coat is nervous : it is furnifhed wi'th 
 abundance of cellules, vafcules and glands, and 
 is thicker than the others. From this arife the 
 rugs, and the valves of the inteftines. 
 
 The fifth is the villofe coat : this fuftains the 
 terminations of the excretory vefTels, and the 
 
 * Ruyfch, Thef. Anat. 6. T. 5. f.g. 2. 
 
 begin- 
 
^/ANATOMY. loi 
 
 beginnings of the ladeals. Hence, when nicely 
 examined, it has the appearance of a fieve *, Ic 
 is the organ of percolation of the chyle. 
 
 The inteftines have veflels, in great abundance, 
 running over every part of their fubftance. Their 
 arteries are from the meferiac ones ; the upper me- 
 feriac ferving for the fmaller inteftines ; the lower 
 for the larger : thefe make a multitude of very 
 fingular and furprifing anaftomofes. The veins 
 are the meferiacks, and go off to the vena portas 
 and the iiver. The nerves are fent from the in- 
 tercoftals, and the par vagum. And befide thefe, 
 we are to obferve the la6leal veflels ; of which we 
 (hall treat more at large hereafter. 
 
 The recfbum, it is to be obferved, receives blood- 
 veflels alfo from the hypogaftricks. 
 
 There are alfo, befide the brunnerian glands of 
 the duodenum, other glands in the inteftines, 
 called, from the name of the perfon who difco* 
 vered them, glandulas Peyeri. Thefe, in the 
 fmall guts, are ufually little, congregate, and mi- 
 liary : fometimes they are fingle. They are larger 
 as they are nearer the duodenum, and fmaller as 
 they approach toward the great guts. Their of- 
 fice is to difcharge into the inteftines a liquor, 
 which ferves for the attenuation of the chyle, and 
 for the lubricating of the inteftines. In the larger 
 guf^, and in the vermiform appendage, they are 
 fingle and large, of a lenticular figure ; and they 
 are largeft of all in the redum. They have 
 mouths, out of which there is fecreted a fluid, 
 ferving to lubricate the fides of the inteftines, and 
 to foften the f^ces, that they may be evacuated 
 without pain. 
 
 The ufe of the fmaller guts is to promote the 
 formation of the chyle, to perf€6t its fecretions, 
 
 * Ruyfch's Epift. ii. T, 12. 
 
 H 3 and 
 
102 yf C O M P E N D I L M 
 
 and to propel the remaining fseces to the larger. 
 The office of the larger guts is to receive and 
 colledl the matter of the faeces, and at a proper 
 time to expel it. 
 Theme- 2 12. The mefentery is a thick fat membrane, 
 ^ntery. pjjj^g^ jj^ |.|^g midft of the inteftines, particularly 
 of the fmaller ones, whence ir has its name. In 
 obferving this we are to regard, i. Its fubftance, 
 which is com poled of membranes, fat, vefTels of 
 all kinds; and, in the human body, of a number 
 of glands. 2. Its conneclions, which are, in the 
 upper part, with the three luperior vertebras of 
 the loins •, in the lower, with the inteftines, and 
 particularly with the jejunum and ileum ; to which 
 it alfo gives their outer coat. 3. Its divifion, ac- 
 cording to the anatomical writers, who call that 
 part of it, which joins the colon, the mefocolon •, 
 that part which joins the other inteftines, &c. the 
 mefenterium, or meferfEum. 4. Its circumfe- 
 rence, in which, when feparated from the intef- 
 tines, there are feveral folds or plicae., giving it 
 the refemblance of gloves. lis length, in the 
 whole, is about three ells ; but the inteftines, 
 which are joined to it, are at leaft of four times 
 that length. 
 
 I-ts coats or membranes are two, afuperior, and 
 an inferior; and between them there is a cellular 
 fubftance, containing the fat ; and the meferiack 
 veffels and glands are alfo placed there. Many 
 reckon this a third coat of the mefentery, and 
 that not improperly : they call it the tunica cel- 
 lulofa *. 
 
 The veffels of the mefentery are blood -veffels, 
 nerves, ladfeals, and lymphaticks. The blood- 
 vefTels are the fame with thofe of the inteftines, 
 
 * See Wharton's Adenographia, cap. S. and Rnyfch's 
 Thefaur. 6. p. 76. 
 
 and 
 
of ANATOMY. i6i 
 
 and they make a multitude of ftrange meanders, 
 and have very frequent anaftomofes *. The 
 nerves alfo come from the par vagum, and the 
 intercoftals. The ladeals and lymphaticks we 
 fhall treat of, in their place, hereafter. 
 
 There are a multitude of glands difperfed 
 throughout the whole mefentery -f . Thefe vary 
 greatly, in different fubjefts, in their fize, figure, 
 and fituation : in old fubjc<5ts, they often almoft 
 difappear. In comparative anatomy we find, 
 that in dogs there is only one, but that very large, 
 and called pancreas iVfellii. The ladleal vefTels 
 pafs thro' thefe glands \ and their office is to fe- 
 Crete a fluid, which is to ferve for the diluting of 
 the chyle. 
 
 The ufes of the mefentery are, i. To fufpend, 
 conned together, and retain, in their due place, 
 all the inteftines. 2. To fullain the fanguiferous 
 and ladeal vefTels of the inteftines. And, 3. To 
 make the way, for the la6teals to the receptacle, 
 fhorter. 
 
 213. The vefiels called vafa chylifera, compre-Vafa chy- 
 hend the la6leals and the thoracic dudt. They libera. 
 are fine fubtile canals, ficuated in the inteftines and 
 the mefentery, and whofe office it is to convey 
 the chyle to its deftined places. 
 
 AfelUus has the honour of paffing for the firft- 
 difcoverer of them. He demonftrated them in 
 the year 1622; but they were long before ob- 
 ferved by Erafiftratus and Galen, who took them 
 for arteries containing milk. 
 
 The moft convenient method of demonftrating 
 them is, in comparative anatomy, by feeding . 
 fome animal plentifully \ and, in about three 
 
 * See thefe delineated in Eufiachius, Drake and Chefclden. 
 f See tliefe elegantly figured in P^uylch's Opufc. de Gland, 
 fabric. 
 
 H 4 hours 
 
104 A Compendium 
 
 hours afterwards, Wrangling it. In this cafe they 
 are all rurgid wirh chyle : at other times they are 
 filled with a lympnatick juice, not with chyle ; 
 and are accordingly called not chyliferous vcfTds, 
 but lymphaticks. 
 
 When the creature is opened, the ductus tho- 
 racicus, hereafter to be defcribed, is to be tied 
 with a thread : this makes the feeing them the 
 more certain and eafy \ but often they may be 
 diftinguilhed wichout this afififtance very plainly. 
 
 The difficulty of demonftrating them, in hu- 
 rnan fubjeds, arifes from our not making our 
 diflfedlions of them immediately after death, or 
 while the flefh is yet warm ; for, foon after death, 
 they wholly difappear. Sometimes, however, 
 they are obvious enough to be clearly diftin- 
 guifhed, even in human fubjedls ; efpecially in 
 fuch as have been fufFocated or ftrangulated : fome^ 
 times in fuch as have died of particular difeafes. 
 
 The origin of the chyliferous vefTels is from the 
 inteftines, and principally from the fmall ones : 
 in all ihefe their roots are extremely numerous, 
 and eafily diftinguifhable •, much more fo, indeed, 
 in the human body than in dogs *, which are the 
 animals ufually experimented upon. In the larger 
 guts they are very few, and often none at all can 
 be feen there -f. 
 
 Anatomifls diftinguifh the ladeals into two 
 kinds, which they call ladleals of the firft and of 
 the fecond order. Thofe of the firfl: order, are 
 fuch as run from the inteftines to the glands of 
 
 * See a delineation of them, fig. 8. from a human fubjeft. 
 What draughts others have given of them, feem to have been 
 taken from other animals. 
 
 •\ See our author's obfervations in the Ephemerides, N. C. 
 Cent. 5. p. 234. and Philofophical Tranfadions of England, 
 N^. 307. 
 
 the 
 
^/ANATOMY. 105 
 
 the mefentery : thofc of the fecond order, are fuch 
 as run from the glands to the receptacles, where 
 they terminate. Thefe Jafl are larger than the 
 former ; but they are alfo fewer in number. 
 
 •In the chyhferous vefTels there are alfo femi- 
 lunar valves : thefe are double, and are placed op- 
 pofitely, and they prevent the reflux of the con* 
 tents ; but they are much lefs frequent in thefe 
 vefTels than in the other lymphaticks *. 
 
 The ufe of the chyliferous vefTels is to carry 
 the chyle from the inteftines, thro' the mefentery, 
 to the common refervoir, or reccptaculum chyli. 
 
 It is obfervable, that, in birds, there is a defe(^ 
 of the chyliferous vefTels *, the chyle, in thefe, en- 
 tering the meferiac veins. 
 
 The du6i:us thoracicus, or chyliferous dud, is Duaus 
 a very tender canal, receiving the chyle from the ^^^^aci^ 
 chyliferous vefTels, and the lymph from the lym- ^"^* 
 phaticks, and carrying them to the thorax, and 
 ufually thro' it to the fubclavian vein. 
 
 Pecquet has the honour of being accounted the 
 firflobferver of it "t" : hedemonllrated it in the year 
 165 1 ; but Euflacius had difcovered it long before 
 him, tho' he has exprefTed himfelf too obfcurely §. 
 
 The beginning of this duel is in the refervoir, 
 or receptaculum chyli, which is fituated in the kh 
 fide of the upper vertebra of the loins, under the 
 aorta, and the vefTels of the left kidney : the reft 
 of the duft has fome refemblance of a fack or 
 bag, and is larger, and irregular in its figure. Its 
 end is ufually in the left fubclavian vein, fome- 
 times in the jugular. 
 
 In dogs, and many other animals, its progrefs 
 is under the aorta ; but, in the human body, it 
 
 * See Ruyfch's Dilucidatio Valvuiarum. 
 
 -j- See Pecqaec's Exp. Anatom. 
 
 § See Euilachius, Lib. de Vena azygos. 
 
 afcends 
 
106 ^COMPBNDIUM 
 
 afcends along the right fide of the vertebra of the 
 back, and pafTes between the aorta and the vena 
 azygos ; fometimes with a fimple trunk, fome- 
 times divided into two. Its breadth, where un- 
 divided, is about that of a wheat-ftraw. 
 
 The bed method of demonftrating it in ani- 
 mals, is to feed a dog well, then ftrangle him -, 
 and, as foon as the body is opened, to tie it up 
 with a thread in the bread, juft by the fubcla- 
 vian : by this means the ciftern, or receptacle of 
 the chyle, and the chyliferous veiTels and lym^. 
 phaticks, all are expofed evidently to the view at 
 once. 
 
 In a human body they may alfo be obferved, 
 any time after death, by injeding, according to 
 Salzman *, wax, or any fluid, or indeed only 
 by inflating the great lymphatick veffel, which, 
 runs by the left emulgent vein : or other- 
 wife, if, according to Henningerf, an injeftion, 
 or barely an inflation, be made into a ladeal of 
 the fecond order, to be traced out in the midft of 
 the mefentcry : or, finally, if the pleura be care- 
 fully cut between the aorta and the vena azygos,, 
 the dudt will ufually be eafily found there. 
 
 It is compofed of a fine, thin, and pel- 
 lucid membrane ; and within it there are valves, 
 as in the ladeals and lymphaticks, which prevent 
 the reflux of the chyle : there are more of thefe 
 in the human body than in beafts. And, finally, 
 there is a femi- lunar valve, clofing its extremity, 
 xinder the fubclavian. 
 
 The ufe of the du6lus thoracicus is to carry 
 the chyle to the blood, thro' the thorax, as it re- 
 ceives it from the receptacle, and with it the 
 lymph from the lymphaticks. 
 
 * See Pccquet's DiflTertation, printed at Strafburg 1711. 
 f See Ephcmerides Nat. Cur. Cent. 4. App. p. 120. 
 
 21^, 
 
<?/ ANATOMY. 107 
 
 i*- 215. Next to the chyllferous vefTcJs, we are to Lympha- 
 mention the lymphaticks, which are of a very ticks. 
 fingular flrudure, and are to be demon ft rated at 
 the fame time in diiTecLions. They are thin, fub- 
 tile, and pellucid veflels -, and nfualiy convey thro' 
 them an aqueous fluid, called lymph : but in the 
 inteftines, particularly in the time of digeftion, 
 they are found filled with chyle ; and at that time, 
 as before pbferved, they are called ladleal veffels. 
 
 The firft difcovery of the lymphaticks is by 
 fome given to Bartholine, by others to Rudbeck, 
 by fome to GlifTon, and by others to Charl- 
 ton, Their fituation is in the fuperficies of feveral 
 parts, particularly of the concave fide of the liver, 
 the neck of the gall-bladder, and the trunk of 
 the vena portse. They are compofed, like the 
 ladteals, of a fine and delicate membrane. They 
 have, very frequently, double femi-lunar valves : 
 Ruyfch has excellently defcribed thefe in his book 
 on the valves of the lymphaticks. They have 
 their beginning in moft of the parts of the body : 
 they have not been difcovered every where in it; 
 but it is probable that they are there, tho' noi yet 
 found. Their terminations or inl'ertions are, ift, 
 in feveral of the larger veins, particularly in the 
 cava and porta. 2. In the ciftern, or receptacle 
 of the chyle. 3. In the thoracick dud itfelf. 
 
 The method of fhewing them, in difTeclion, is 
 by tying up either the thoracick dudl or the vena 
 cava, vena porta, the fplenic, the renal vein, or 
 any other of the large ones, either in an animal 
 yet living, or but juft dead ; or by powerfully in- 
 flating the veins, arteries, or excretory duds of 
 the vifcera, in an animal not yet cold. 
 
 The ufe of the lymphaticks is to carry off, 
 from the feveral parts, the quantity of lymph 
 that was redundant, in regard to their nutridbn; 
 
 and 
 
lo8 A Compendium 
 
 and to convey it cither into the mafs of blood, or 
 into the chyliferous du6ls. The refluent lymph, 
 thus conveyed thither by them, ferves again for a 
 new dilution of the chyle and of the blood. 
 Pancreas. 216. The pancreas is a large gland, of a flatifli 
 Ihape and fiefhy colour, extended behind the fto- 
 mach, and reaching from the duodenum tranf- 
 verfely toward the fpleen. In this we are to ob- 
 ferve the connexions it has with the duodenum, 
 the mefentery, with thefplenic veflels, and with the 
 fpleen itfelf. In the human body it is fimple; but 
 in dogs, cats, and many other animals, it is di- 
 vided, as it were, into two parts. Its length is 
 eight or nine inches: its breadth is about two 
 fingers, or two and a half : its thicknefs about one 
 finger v its weight about three ounces. In man 
 the pancreas much refembles the tongue of a dog 
 in fhape : it is broadeft towards the duodenum, 
 • and gradually narrower toward the fpleen. It is 
 furrounded with a membrane, which is continuous 
 with the peritonaeum : its fubflance is glandulous, 
 and it f^ems formed by conglomeration of many 
 others. It has arteries from the cceliac and ramus 
 fplenicus -, and veins alfo from the fplenic vein : 
 its nerves are from the par vagum and the inter- 
 coflals ; its lymphaticks are uncertain : and, final- 
 ly, it has an excretory du6t, compofed of a num- 
 ber of others. Maurice Hoffman firft difcovered 
 it in 1641, in a turkey; and afterwards it was 
 difcovered by Wirtfungius in the human body, as 
 Bartholine, who was prefenr, informs us *. 
 
 Ic is commonly fingle in the human body; 
 fometimes, however, it is double. In many of 
 the common birds it is double, and in fome 
 triple. 
 
 * vSee T. Banholine, Anat. Reformat. 1. i. c. 13. Alfo 
 Maur. KoiFman, in Hornii Microcofm, p. 1 64. 
 
 Its 
 
of ANATOMY. 109 
 
 Its fituation is in the middle of the pancreas, 
 where it refembles an empty vein, and is of about 
 the thicknefs of a fmall ft raw. Its termination is 
 in the duodenum : it enters it obHqueiy, four or 
 five fingers breadth below the pylorus, ufually at 
 the fame orifice with the du6lus choHdocus : but 
 fometimes it has a double aperture. In many 
 beails it is inferred into the duodenum by a parti- 
 cular orifice, at a confiderable difl:ance below the 
 pylorus. 
 
 The ufe of the pancreas is to fecrete a peculiar 
 liquor, called the fuccus pancreaticus : this is of a 
 falivofe nature, and ferves to attenuate the chyle. 
 
 217. The liver is a very large vilcus, of a red The liver, 
 colour, fituated in the right hypocondrium, and 
 fcrving for the fccretion of the gall. 
 
 In this we are to obferve its fize, which is very 
 large, that the bile may be fecreted in large abun- 
 dance ; its figure, which is irregular ; the upper 
 furface convex, fmooth, and equal ; the lower, 
 hollow and unequal, and containing the gall- 
 bladder. There is a remarkable eminence in the 
 liver, where the vena portse enters it, called the 
 porta. 
 
 In dogs the liver is divided into lobes ; but in 
 human fubjedls there is no fuch divifion. Its 
 weight is about four pounds. It is connefted, 
 I ft, by the ligamenta lata with the diaphragm, 
 and by the ligamentum rotundum with the navel : 
 this laft ligament has been in the foetus, the vena 
 umbilicahs. It is connected with the diaphragm alfo 
 by the proper membrane of that part, and by the 
 blood-veftelsj principally the vena cava and vena 
 portse. 
 
 The membrane which furrounds the liver is 
 thin, and is continuous with the peritonaeum. 
 
 In 
 
no -/f C O M P E N D I U Ivl 
 
 In the liver we are alfo to obferve the capfula 
 GiifTonii, fo called from its difcoverer : this is a 
 tunic, continuous with the peritonJEum, and in- 
 cludes the branches of the vena portie, and the 
 biliafy duds, as they approach the liver, as well 
 as within it. 
 
 The velTels of the liver are very numerous : it 
 has arteries for its nutrition from, ift, the coeliac ; 
 2d5 the cyfticks ; 3d, the diaphragmaticks ; and 
 fometimes, 4th, from the fuperior mefenterick. 
 
 Its veins are, firfl:, from the vena portse, enter- 
 ing the concave furface of the )iver: this vein 
 fupplies the place both of a vein and an artery io 
 this part, bringing in the blood for the fccretion 
 of the bile ; but of this, more in its place. 
 2d, from the vena cava : and, 3d, from the dia- 
 phragmatick vein, for the reflux of the abundant 
 blood to the heart. The nerves of the liver rrife 
 from the plexus hepaticus of the intercoltals. 
 
 The biliary vefTels, near which there are often 
 glands iituated, are thefe, i. The dudlus choli- 
 docus communis: this opens obliquely into the 
 duodenum. 2. The dudus cvfticus: this runs 
 from the gall-bladder to the dudl already men- 
 tioned. In man it is often tortuous, and has fre- 
 quently valves of various kinds in it. 3. The 
 dudlus hepaticus : this runs from the liver to the 
 du6tus cholidocus ; and the branches of this, dif- 
 tributed thro' the whole hver, make whaf are 
 called the pori bilia^ii. 
 
 The lymphati' k vtfTels of the liver are ro be 
 demonftrated, either by a ligaiure of the vena 
 portas in living animals, or by inflation into the 
 artery, or the hepati^k i'u^i. To rh fe vefTels we 
 are to add, the canalis vcviofu^ in the foctijSj. and 
 the great fin us of the vena port^. 
 
 The 
 
of ANATOMY. Ill 
 
 The fubftance of the liver has been varioufly 
 defcribed by authors of different times. The an* 
 tients fuppofed it to be formed merely of blood, 
 concreted into a firm mafs, about the ianguiferous 
 vefTcls. Malpighi, and many of the later writers, 
 have determined it to be glandulous-, and Ruyfch 
 makes it vafculous, declaring ic to be formed of 
 a congeries of very minute veffels. 
 
 The gall-bladder, called veficula and cyftis feU The gall- 
 lea, is a bladder ufually of the fhape of a pear, ^^* 
 and is fituated in the concave fide of the liver. 
 In this we are to obferve the fize, which is nearly 
 that of a fmall hen's egg ; its neck, which is ca- 
 pable of fhuting, as it were, by a fphin6ler ; and 
 its fundus or bottom : this, in a man who Hands 
 eredl, is its lower part 5 and its neck its upper. It 
 lies upon the colon, and tinges that part of it with 
 its own colour. 
 
 We are to obferve alfo its cohefion, which is 
 by means of the common membrane, and of the 
 veffels •, its du61:, called dudlus cyflicus, and men- 
 tioned already •, and its fraenulum, by which the 
 cy flick dudl is joined to it. 
 
 It is compofed of four membranes, or coats : 
 I. The common coat. 2. A vafculous one. 
 3. A mufcular one, confining of flrait, oblique, 
 and tranfverfe fibres. And, 4. A nervous one, of 
 a wrinkled or reticulated furface within, and fur- 
 nifhed with an undluous liquor. In this there are 
 fometimes certain minute glands difcoverable. 
 
 This fabrick feems alfo to be common to the 
 biliary duds. We are alfo to (>bferve the veffels, 
 which it has in common with the liver, and which 
 in it are called vafa cyflica, or cyflick veffels * ; 
 and the radices fellese of authors, which are eafily 
 
 * Thefe are excellently delineated by Ruyfch, Ep. 5. 
 
 difcO^ 
 
112 A COMPEMDiUM 
 
 dlfcoverable in oxen, and other large animals % 
 but not fo in man. 
 
 We are then to enquire into the manner in 
 which the bile is carried into the cyftis, or gall- 
 bladder : in human fubje6ts, the greater part of ic 
 feems evidently to enter into it thro' the dudus 
 cyfticus, from the duflus hepaticus, and dudus 
 cholidocus 5 and part of it feems as evidently to 
 be fecreted within the bladder itfelf. In oxen, be- 
 fide both thefe ways, there is a great part carried 
 in by the hepatico-cyftick dud, and th.e radices 
 felleae *. 
 
 The ufe of the liver is to fecrete the bile from 
 the blood, brought thither by the vena porta. 
 The antiencs fuppofed its ufe to be fanguification. 
 
 The ufe of the gall-bladder is to colled the 
 bile, firft fecreted in the liver, and mixing it with 
 its own peculiar produce, to perfed it farther ; to 
 retain it together a certain time, and then to ex- 
 pel it. 
 
 The ufe of the bile is to attenuate the chyle, 
 to mix the oleaginous parts of the blood with the 
 aqueous, to ftimulate the inteftines, and, in part, 
 to change the acid of the chyle. 
 
 The bile is properly of two kinds, and is dif* 
 tinguifiied under them by the names of cyftick 
 and hepatick. The hepatick bile is thin, almod 
 jnlipid, and fcarce coloured. The cyflick bile is 
 thicker, more coloured, and very bitter. 
 The 218. The fpleen : lien, or fpleen, is a vifcus of 
 
 fpleen. ^ ^^^p blackilh-red colour, fituated on the left 
 fide of the ftomach, under the diaphragm, and 
 near the ribs. It is ufually fingle, tho' fometimes 
 there have been found feveral in the place of one f. 
 
 * See Bohn, in the A6ta Erudit, 16S2, p.20. 1683, p. 126. 
 and Verheyen, T. 11. fig. 6. 
 
 f See Schelham. Analetfl. DifT. io> and ii. and Chefel- 
 den'sAnat. p. lii. 
 
 4 lis 
 
of ANATOMY. ^ ^H 
 
 Its figure is fomewhat uncertain ; but it i» ufualiy 
 that of a tongue, it is hollow toward the llomach, 
 and convex toward the diaphragm and ribs : often 
 however it is irregular, and has in many parts 
 filTures. It is connected with the flomach by the 
 vafa brevia ; and with the pancreas omentum, 
 the diaphragm, and the left kidney, by mem- 
 branes. Its fize is various. Its length is ufually 
 five or fix inches in the human body. In dogs, 
 hogs, and many other animals, it is much longer 
 and thinner. Its breadth is about three inches : 
 its thicknefs about an inch j and its weight about 
 twelve ounces. 
 
 In human fubjedls the fpleen has but one mem- 
 brane ; but in calves, and fome other animals, it 
 has two : in this cafe the external one is robuft, 
 common, and adheres but laxly, by means of the 
 fanguiferous veflfels, to the inner, which is proper 
 and very thin, and, when the outer one is taken 
 off, tranfmits the breath. 
 
 The vcfifels of the fpleen, confidering its fize, 
 are remarkably large. Its artery is from the 
 coeliac, and is called the fplenic artery : this, 
 in human fubjedls, readily tranfmits water, air or 
 mercury, thrown into it, into the veins. 
 
 The fplenic vein, in calves, &c. is, foon 
 after its ingrefs into the fpleen, tranformed into 
 cells : but, in human fubjedts, it is, as in the other 
 vifcera, very much ramified ; and its branches are 
 carried throughout the whole fpleen *. 
 
 In calves both veffels enter at one extremity; 
 but in the human body they are divided into vari- 
 ous branches, and run over the whole concave or 
 
 * Ruyfch has demonftrated this, againll the opinion of 
 moft of the modern writers, Epift. 4. T. 4., Moft other ana- 
 tomifts have given their draughts of the fpleen from that of a 
 calf, not from a human one. 
 
 \ internal 
 
|!4 ^Compendium 
 
 internal furface. The nerves of the fpleen are 
 from the plexus fplenicus. The fpleen has no ex- 
 cretory dud; but there are in it lymphacick vef- 
 fels, running to the receptacle. 
 
 The fubltance of the fpleen has been faid to be 
 cellulofe and glandulofe. In calves, indeed, it is 
 cellulofe ; but in man it is vafculous and fibrous. 
 What authors have defcribed as glands in the 
 fpleen, Ruyfch has proved to be only vefTels. 
 There is, indeed, often found a lymphatick gland 
 or two, of about the bignefs of a bean, without 
 the fpleen, near where the veffels enter into it ; 
 but the fubllance of the vifcus itfelf is not to be 
 fuppofed glandulous for that reafon. 
 
 The ufe of the fpleen has been much contro- 
 verted by authors. The mod probable opinion 
 feems, that it is to render more fluid the blood, 
 out of which the bile is afterwards to be fecreted, 
 which is naturally thick •, and that by this means 
 obftrudions, which muft otherwife be frequent, 
 are prevented, and the fecretion of the bile is 
 promoted. 
 The kid- 2 1 9. The kidneys, ref^es, are two red vifcera, 
 ^^y^' of an oblong figure, refembling, in fome degree, 
 that of a kidney-bean. They are fituated at the 
 Joins, one on each fide •, and their hollowed fide 
 is turned inward, their convex fide outward. 
 
 They are fituated near the two loweft fpurious 
 ribs : but this is not exadly regular •, for they are 
 in fome fubjeds a little higher, and in others a 
 little lower : and one of them is not unfrequendy 
 placed a little above the other. Sometimes they 
 are perfedly even : it is not always the fame kid- 
 ney that is placed higheft ; but fometimes the 
 right, fometimes the left is fo. The kidneys are 
 conneded with the loins, the lower ribs, the 
 colon, the fuccenturiaci, the renal vefTels, and the 
 
 ureters. 
 
of ANATOMY. ii^ 
 
 ureters. They have two membranes, the one 
 robuft and common, called the adipofe mem- 
 brane : this furrounds them but loofely, and is 
 furnifhed with its own proper veliels. The other 
 membrane is proper, and is very thin, and every 
 where applied clofely to the fubftancc of the 
 kidneys. 
 
 The length of the kidneys is five or ^v^ fingers, 
 the breadth three, and the thicknefs about a finger 
 and a half. The fiirface is, in adults, fmooth and 
 equal ; but in the foetus in human fubjedls, and 
 in the grown animals of many other kinds, it is 
 irregularly divided, as it were, into a number of 
 lobes. 
 
 The vefTels of the kidneys are included, as thofe 
 of the liver, in a membrane, from the perito- 
 naeum, or a kind of capfule. The arteries and 
 veins are large, and are called emulgents and 
 renal vefiels \ they are produced from the aorta 
 and the vena cava. The nerves are from the 
 plexus renalis ; and there is a large excretory duft 
 called the ureter. There are alfo a number of 
 lymphaticks, pafling to the receptaculum chyli. 
 The fubftance of the kidneys is firm and hard, 
 and is of two kinds, i . The exterior, or corti* 
 , cal, which, according to Malpighi, is glandulousj 
 but, according to the difcoveries of Rliyfch, is 
 throughout elegantly vafculous *. 2. The interior, 
 which is tubulous, and exprefied by the name of 
 tubuli urinarii Bellini : this terminates in ten or 
 twelve papillas, which open by a multitude of 
 apertures into the pelvis "f* *, but thefe papillae arc 
 not found in all fubjeds §. 
 
 * See Ruyfch's Thefaur. Anat. 3. T. 4. fig. 2, and 3 -, 
 and his Thef. 4. T. i . fig. i . 
 
 t See Ruyfch's Thef. 3. fig. 3. and Thef. 3. T. t. fig. i* 
 § See Schelham, Anal. Diff. 11. 
 
 1 2 The 
 
:ilj6 yfCOMPENDIUM 
 
 The pelvis is a membranaceous cavity, fending 
 out feveral procefTes, called the tubuli of the pel- 
 vis, and furrounding the renal papillae. 
 
 The ufe of the kidneys is to fecrete the urine 
 from the blood into the pelvis, and fend it thence 
 by the ureters into the bladder. 
 Succentu- 220. The renes fuccenturiati, called alfo 'glan- 
 riati. dulas renales, and by feme capfute atrabiliarise, 
 were firft defcribed by Euftachius *. They are 
 two yellowifh glands, of a compreflfed figure, 
 lying on each fide of the upper part of the kid- 
 neys. They have a very narrow cavity, imbued 
 with a brownilh liquor of a fweetifh tafte. 
 
 Their figure is irregular, between fquare, trian- 
 gular, and oval : fometimes it is nearly one of thefe, 
 fometimes very different from them all. Their 
 fize alfo is various ; but in adults they are, in ge- 
 neral, about the bignefs of large nux vomica. In 
 the foetus they are larger, and often exceed the 
 kidneys themfelves in fize. The membrane that 
 furrounds them is very thin : it clofely involves 
 ♦ their whole fubftance, and conneds them with the 
 kidneys. 
 
 Their blood- velfels are fometimes fent from the 
 aorta and vena cava ; but more frequently they 
 are from the cmulgents : their nerves are from 
 the plexus renalis, and their lymphatick veffels 
 are numerous. There is no excretory du6l difco- 
 vered in them, and their ufe is therefore not cer- 
 tainly known. By their great fize in the foetus^ 
 they feem deftined rather to the fervice of that 
 Hate than of any other. 
 Theure- 221. The, ureters are two membranaceous 
 tubes, or pipes, nearly cylindrick in figure, and 
 of about the thicknefs of a quill ; but their dia- 
 meter is very uncertain. They arife from the kid- 
 
 * See EuHachJus, iib. de Renibus. 
 
 neys. 
 
 ters. 
 
<?/ ANATOMY. 117 
 
 neys, one from each ; and terminate in the uri- 
 nary bladder. At their origin in the kidneys, 
 they are expanded into the form of a funnel -, and 
 this expanfion makes the pelvis of the kidneys, 
 already mentioned. At their termination, which 
 is in the hinder and lower part of the bladder, 
 they pafs obliquely in between its membranes, and 
 open into the bladder by very narrow orifices, and 
 can admit nothing into them from the bladder. 
 They are not ftrait, but fomewhat bent, fo as to 
 refembie the letter S. Their fubftance is mem- 
 branaceous, and they are compofed of three coats : 
 the firff, a common one from the peritonaeum ; 
 the fecond, a thin mufcular one ; and the third, 
 a nervous one, covered with a lubricous humour, 
 and in this there are fometimes difcovered 
 glands *. The blood- vefTds and nerves come 
 from the adjacent parts. The ufe of the ureters" 
 is to receive the urine, fecreted in the kidneys, 
 from the pelvis, and to carry it to the urinary 
 bladder. When thefe are obftrudted, a fuppref- 
 fion of urine is the confequence -, for there is no 
 other way for the urine to get into the bladder, 
 but thro' them. 
 
 They are often found of an unnatural fize^ 
 owing to ftones concreted from among the 
 urine -f, 
 
 222. The urinary bladder is a membranaceous The blad« 
 hollov7 body, of the figure of a pear, fituated in <^er. 
 the pelvis, and defined to colledt, and, at a pro- 
 per time, to expel the urine. Its fize is fuch, that 
 it will conveniently hold about a pint in adults ; 
 but it is capable of diflenfion, fo as to hold much 
 more. It is, in the human body, conne<5led in a 
 
 * See Ruyfch's Obferv. 1 5. and Morgagni*s Adverf. 3.71. 
 f See Ruyfch's Obferv. 15. and Cockfwith's DilTertat. de 
 Valv. Uret. 
 
 I 3 fingular 
 
Jii8 [^Compendium 
 
 fmgular manner by the peritonaeum to the os 
 pubis, otherwife than in other animals. It is alfo 
 connedled with the parts of generation by the 
 urethra, with the navel by the urachus and umbi- 
 lical arteries; and finally, in men, with the intef- 
 tinum redum ; and in women, with the vagina. 
 
 It is divided into three parts, the body, the 
 neck, and the fundus or bottom : the coars of the 
 bladder are much thinner in the body, and the 
 fundus, than they are at its neck. Its blood- 
 veffels come from the hypogaftrick, the umbili- 
 cal, and the hsemorrhoidal vcffels in men ; and in 
 women, from the fpermaticks alfo. Its nerves 
 are from the intercoftals, and principally from 
 thofe of the os facrum. Itslymphaticks were dii- 
 covered by Zeller *. 
 
 Its ftru^ture is membranaceous, and confifts of 
 three coats or membranes. The firfl: is called the 
 common membrane : this is continuous with the 
 peritonaeum, and furrounds only the bottom of 
 the bladder -f; and there is ufaally fume fat found 
 under it. The fecond coat is mufcular, and is 
 compofed of feveral feries of fibres, running in 
 various dire6lions, but principally longitudinal and 
 tranfverfe. The third or inner coat is nervous, 
 and is covered with a peculiar fluid of a mucous 
 nature, which is fecreted in glands fituated in this 
 coat, and principally in that part of it which is 
 near the neck of the bladder §. 
 
 The fphinder of the bladder is compofed of a 
 feries of tranfverfe fibres, running crofs- wife under 
 the (trait fibres of the neck of the bladder, in 
 form of a circle, and fcrving to clofe it, to pre* 
 
 * See Zeller's Difput. de Adminiftr. vaf. lymph, p. 3. 
 ■f See Chefelden's Lithotomy. 
 
 § See De Graaf de Organ. Generat. T. 5. and. Drake's 
 . Anthropolog. T. 3. fig. i. 
 
 vcnc 
 
of ANATOMY. rij 
 
 vent the involuntary difcharge of the urine. In 
 man this is conneded to the fibres of the intefti- 
 num redliim 5 and in women, to thofe of the 
 vagina. 
 
 The foramina of the urinary bladder are three; 
 two where the ureters enter in, at which the urine 
 is thrown into the bladder ; and one, much larger 
 than thefe, in the neck of the bladder, for the 
 difcharge of the urine out into the urethra. The 
 ufes of thefe apertures are too obvious to need 
 explanation. 
 
 223. The urethra is a tube, or canal, of a The 
 membranaceous ftru6ture, and nearly of a cylin- urethra, 
 drick figure. It is continuous with the neck of 
 the bladder : it feems to give paflage to the urine 
 out of the bladder. In women it is fcarce two 
 fingers breadth long: in men it is much longer. 
 But of this, more in the defcription of the parts 
 of generation. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Of the farts of generation in men, 
 
 224. TN our examination of the parts of gene- Tefticles. 
 
 X ration in men, we are to obferve, firft, 
 the tefticles : thefe are two, and are contained in 
 a peculiar bag, called the fcrotum. Their figure 
 and fize are fufficiently known. Their coverings., 
 are of two kinds, common and proper : in regard 
 to thefe, we are firft to obferve the fcrotum. This 
 hangs down below the penis ; and, in adults, is in 
 part covered with hair. It has a longitudinal 
 future, by which it is divided into two fides, a 
 right and a left. It is compofed of the cuticula 
 cutis, and a mufculous membrane, called the 
 dartus, by means of which it is contraded. Ic 
 
 I 4 has 
 
tZO yf Compendium 
 
 has in the midft a feptum, formed of the dartiis, 
 by a duplicature'-bf it, and dividing the fcrotum 
 into two cells. Ruyfch and Ravius have treated 
 largely and accurately of this feptum. It has its 
 velTels from the pudenda and hypogaftricks ; its 
 nerves from the os factum. Its ufe is lo contain 
 and cherifh the tefticles. 
 
 Befide this external covering, the tcfticles them- 
 fclvcs have three coats, or tunics: the firft com- 
 , pofcs the cremafter mufcle, the office of which is 
 to raife the tefticle. The fecond is the vaginalis 
 tunica, formed of a procefs of the peiitonseum, 
 and laxly furrounding the tefticle. And the third 
 is the tunica aibuginea : this is robuft and ftrong, 
 and adheres clofely to the fubftance of the tefticle. 
 This receives the fpermatick veftels, and conveys 
 them to the tefticle. 
 
 The veflels of the te ft ides, befide thofe already 
 nanled,' as common to them and to the fcrotum, 
 are, i. The fpermatick arteries, which arife from 
 the aorta by a very narrow origin. 2. The veins, 
 the right one from the cava, the left ufually from 
 the left emulgent : thefe have no valves ; and 
 they make many anaftomofes in their courfe, and 
 fprm what are called the corpus pampiniforme, 
 and corpus pyramidale. Their nerves arife from 
 the plexus of the nerves of the pelvis, and of the 
 loins. There may alfo be difcovered in them a 
 great number of lymphaticks, if they be examined 
 in an animal yet living j otherwife it is not fo eafy 
 to fee them. 
 
 The fubftance of the tefticles is vafculous. 
 They are compofed of a great number of ex- 
 tremely minute veflels, called vafcula feminalia, 
 which are convoluted about one another, in the 
 manner of the inteftines*. Thefe appear very 
 
 * See Qhefeldcn's Anatomy, T. 28. nnd Ruyfch- s Thefaur, 
 4. T, 1. ;^; 2; and Thefaur. 8. T. 3. fig, 3. 
 
 - beauii- 
 
(?/ A N A T O M Y. 121 
 
 beautifully, after macerating the tefticles in vine- 
 gar. There are no glands in them. 
 
 There is alfo a body, called, from the difco- 
 verer, corpus Highmori, in which there is a ca- 
 vity formed for the reception of the femen. This 
 in human bodies, is placed on the back of the 
 tefbicle ; but in dogs, and many other animals, ic 
 is in the middle of them *. 
 
 The ufe of the tefticles is to produce the femen 
 mafculinum for generation. In this liquid there 
 have been difcovered, by the microfcope, multi- 
 tudes of minute living animals f. 
 
 225. The epididymides, or paraftatse, are two 
 in number ; one to each tefticle. They are ob- 
 long, nearly of a cylindrick figure, refembling, 
 in fome meafure, the body of a caterpillar or fiik- 
 worm, and laid on the upper circumference of 
 the tefticle. They are connected with the tefli- 
 cles, by means of the tunica albuginea, and alfb 
 with the vas deferens. De Graaf has treated 
 largely and accurately of thefe, as well as of the 
 other parts of generation. Their origin is in the 
 tefticles, by five or fix very fmall fcminal veftfels ; 
 and their termination is in the other extremity of 
 the tefticle, where the vas deferens begin. They 
 are furrounded by a robuil membrane, which is 
 continuous with the albuginea of the tefticle. 
 They are compofed of vefTels, in the fame man- 
 ner as the tefticles *, but the veftels they are com- 
 pofed of, are much more confpicuous than thofe 
 which form the fubftance of the tefticles ; and they 
 are capable of being elegantly filled by injedtions. 
 All thefe veftfels terminate in one dud at lafl, and 
 
 • * See Highmore's Anat. T. 10, and 11. 
 f See Lewenhoek inthe Philofophical Tranfa^ions, Boer- 
 haave's Inft. Med. and Vallifnieri de General. T. i. and 
 Chefelden, T. 28. 
 
 . this 
 
 ■M 
 
rens 
 
 122 A Compendium 
 
 this du6t is what is called the vas deferens. Their 
 vefTels are the fame with thofe of the teflicles, 
 and are called fpermaticks. Their nerves proceed 
 from the fame branches with thofe of the tefticles. 
 Their ufe is to receive the femen from the tefticles, 
 to farther elaborate and perfe6t it, and, finally, to 
 convey it into the vas deferens. 
 Vas defe- 226. The vas deferens, called alfo by fome, 
 from its office, vas ejaculatorium, is a robuft: 
 tube, of a whitifh colour, refembling a nerve. 
 It is of the thicknefs of a moderate ftraw. One 
 of thefe velTels is carried from each of the epididy- 
 mides to the veficute feminales, and the urethra. 
 
 The progrefs of the vas deferens is thro' the 
 procefs of the peritonaeum up to the abdomen ♦, 
 and after this, down again to the urethra, bend- 
 ing back about the neck of the bladder. It ter- 
 minates in the anterior part of the veficul^e femi- 
 nalis, partly running ftrait into the urethra, and 
 partly obliquely into the veficulse feminales : by 
 this means it difcharges its contents, as the occa- 
 fion requires, either into the veficute feminales, 
 or immediately into the urethra. 
 
 Its fubftance is robuft, ftrong and tough, and 
 much like that of the nerves. Its cavity, at the 
 origin, is fcarce large enough to admit a hog's 
 briftle ; nor does it much increafe in the progrefs 
 of the veftcl, till it comes near the bladder ; but 
 it then grows much larger : and after this, toward 
 the extremity, it is very narrow again ; fo that it 
 never emits any thing into the urethra, except 
 under the circumftances for which ic was deftined, 
 that is, in coition. 
 
 The ufe of the vafa deferentia is to carry the 
 femen mafculinum from the epididymes conti^ 
 nually to the veficulae feminales, and in the coitus 
 todifcharge it into the urethra : probably alfo, it has 
 
 fome 
 
of ANATOMY. 123 
 
 fome fhare in the elaborating and perfeding that 
 important fluid. 
 
 227. The veficulac feminales are two mem- Veficulze 
 branaceous cellular receptacles, joined to the pof- feminales, 
 terior part of the neck of the bladder, and de- 
 fined for the reception of the femen from the 
 vafa deferentia, for the farther elaborating and 
 perfecting that fluid, and for the difcharging it at 
 a proper time into the urethra, in order to its 
 being thrown out to do its deftined office in im- 
 pregnation. 
 
 The veficulae feminales are in length about 
 three fingers breadth, and in breadth about one. 
 They are compofed of a ftrong, vafculous, and, 
 as it were, mufculous membrane, which forms a 
 number of cells, communicating with one another^ 
 and furrounded with a robufl: part of the perito- 
 riaeum. Thefe cellules may, however, all be re- 
 folved into one, as it were *. 
 
 The excretory du£l of the veficulae feminales 
 is double. There is one from each veficle, and 
 it ordinarily terminates by a double orifice into the 
 urethra. ,Lea] is very erroneous, when he de- 
 fcribes only one dud, and one aperture -f*. 
 
 The veficul^ feminales have arteries and veins 
 in great plenty, from the vefTels of the bladder, 
 and of the reftum. The nerves they have are 
 . from the plexus of the pelvis: their internal fur- 
 face is wrinkled, and, as it were, reticulated like 
 ■that of the vefica fellea, or gall-bladder §. There 
 are not wanting authors who affirm, that there 
 are glands in this part j but they are not eafily 
 feen. 
 
 V* See Leal de Part. Sem. Conf. fig. 2. 
 -j- See the fame, p. 27. 
 § See Santorini, p. 201. 
 
 6 
 
124 ^ Co MPENDIUM 
 
 The pro- 228. The proflatae, or, as it might be more 
 Itatse. properly written, the proftata •, for the two bodies, 
 as they are called, of this name, form really but 
 a fingle one ; is of a roundifh, or fomewhac 
 heart- fafhioned fhape; and is fituated juR before 
 the neck of the bladder, and furrounds the whole 
 beginning of the urethra *. In fize it is about 
 equal to a wall-nut -, and it has two prominences 
 of a round figure in its hinder part, called pro- 
 minentiag natiformes. Its eminence, called the 
 caput gallinaginis, is in the urethra, and has two 
 orifices, which are common to the veficulse femi- 
 nales, and the ejaculatory du6ls ; and not unfre- 
 quently, there is a little finus alfo between thefef . 
 The fubftance of the proftatse is glandulous 
 and cavernous : it is very robuft, and is furrounded 
 by a flrong membrane. The foraminula, or ex- 
 cretory duds of this gland, difcharge from the 
 little cells, that are in it, a thin white fluid. In 
 the human body there are ten or twelve of them : 
 ih dogs they are greatly more numerous. The 
 veilels of the proftata are common wi:h the vefi- 
 culse feminaks. 
 
 The ufe of the proftata is to ft-crete a whitifh 
 fluid, which, becaufe it is ejeded in coition, fome 
 have fuppofed to be of ufe in generation : but 
 this is evidently not the cafe ; for eunuchs have 
 it, and difcharge it as others do. It feems def- 
 tined by nature to lubricate the urethra, and to be 
 a kind of vehicle to the femen, whicJi is too thick 
 otherwife to pafs with the necelTary eafe. 
 The pe- 229. The penis comes next under cohfidera- 
 ^^5- tion. This is, in man, the primary organ of 
 
 generation. It is called alfo mentula, virga, pria- 
 pus, and by a multitude of other names. Ana- 
 
 * See Chefelden's Lithotomy, T. 6. 
 
 f See Morgagni's Adverfar. 4. p. 6. fig. i, and 2. 
 
 tomifls 
 
of ANATOMY. '125 
 
 tomifts divide the penis into three parts, the body, 
 the glans, and the urethra. 
 
 In the body of the penis we are to obferve the 
 cuticle, and cutis, as the common teguments. 
 After thefe we are to examine the prepuce, which 
 is a duplicature or replication of the cutis, cover- 
 ing the glans : in the lower part of this is fixed 
 the frasnulum, and both thefe are thickly befet 
 with nervous papillae, and little veficles or folliculi, 
 commonly fuppofed to be glands, but not truly ' 
 fuch. Thefe follicules are what Du Tyfon cal!^ 
 glanduliE odoriferas *. 
 
 After this we are to obferve the proper tegu- 
 ment, or coat of the penis. This is a robuft coat, 
 of a membranous nature, lurrounding every part 
 of the penis. It is fometimes double ; and has, 
 in the interftitial fpace, a cellulofe coat, which is 
 difcoverable by inflation, and drying in that 
 ftate +. 
 
 Under this are the two bodies which confti- 
 tute the penis : thefe are called corpora fpongiola, 
 and corpora cavernofa. They arife diftind, and 
 feparate on each fide from the ofla pubis, as it 
 were, from peculiar thalami §. After this they 
 join, and in that original ftate are carried on to 
 the glans. If any liquid be impelled into thefe, 
 or if they be inflated, the penis becomes rigid. 
 Between thefe two bodies is a feptum, which rifes 
 from the conjunction of the parietes of thefe bo- 
 dies. It is thicker in the hinder than in the ante- 
 rior part, and is perforated in the manner of a 
 Heve. 
 
 * See Cowper's Myotom. reform, p. 228. 
 t See Ruyfch, Epift. 15. T, 19. but he owns thi> ccllu- 
 lofe tunic is rot always to be found. 
 i See Santorini, p. 188. 
 
 The 
 
126 A CoMPENDtUM 
 
 The penis is joined by fynchondrofis to the ofla 
 pubis by means of a ligament, called ligamentum 
 vefalii *, as alfo by its lateral ligaments. 
 
 The mufcles of the penis are numerous : they 
 ferve principally for the erecting it ; but thefe are 
 to be treated of hereafter in the myologia. 
 
 The vefTels of the penis are very numerous, and 
 are diftributed thro' it in a very furprifmg and 
 beautiful manner. See them delineated Tab. 5. 
 
 The glans, called alfo the head, and the bala- 
 nus of the penis, is its anterior extremity. Its 
 furface is very fmooth and polite ; and it is very 
 fenfible to the touch, which is owing to a multi- 
 tude of nervous papillae diftributed all over it, and 
 moft obvious when the penis is eredled. In the 
 front of this is the aperture, or excremity of the 
 urethra : this is fmaller than the reft of the cavity 
 of the urethra *, and immediately under this is 
 inferred the fraenum, or fraenulum of the penis. 
 
 The pofterior extremity of the glans, with its 
 neck behind, is diftinguifhed by the name of the 
 corona. In this part fome authors fay they ha\?e 
 difcovered a number of minute glands f \ but 
 Santorini does not allow what they call fo to be 
 glands : he fays, they are only the mouths of ex- 
 cretory du6ls. 
 
 The glans is compofed of the epidermis and 
 the corpus cavernofum, which is continuous with 
 the urethra ; and in this part is expanded, as it 
 were, into a kind of bulb or globe §. The coat 
 of the penis is alfo added to thefe j. 
 
 * See Morgagni, Adverf. Anat. i. T. 4. fig. 4. 
 f See Littrius Hift. Acad. Reg. Par. 1700. and Morgagni 
 Adverf. i. T. 4. fig. 4. 
 
 § See Ruyfch Obf. Anat. ico. 
 X See Santorini, p. 191, 
 
 The 
 
of ANATOMY. iQ,j 
 
 The urethra is a membranaceous tube or cana., 
 nearly of a cylindrick figure, continuous to the 
 neck of the bladder, and extended to the extre- 
 mity of the glans. Its office is to give paiTage to 
 the femen and urine. 
 
 The urethra is fituated in a kind of furrow, 
 formed between the two corpora cavernofa, in the 
 bottom or lower part of the penis. It does not 
 run perfedlly flrait ; but is bent in a very lingular 
 manner *, Its length is twelve or thirteen inches, 
 from the neck of the bladder to the extremity of 
 the glans. Its cavity is as large as that of a goofe- 
 quill. It is compofed of two robufl membranes, 
 an exterior and an interior : their fubftance is firm 
 and tough ; and between them there is a fponge- 
 ous or cavernous matter, in which fome authors 
 pretend to have difcovered glands : but this is un- 
 certain -j-. 
 
 The bulb of the urethra is next to be exa- 
 mined. This is that part of it which is next to 
 the proftatas : it is much thicker than the refl of 
 the tube, and is about an inch long, and in fome 
 meafure refembles a wall- nut. It is of a thick 
 and fpongy texture. 
 
 The interior furface of the urethra is full of 
 roundifh and oblong foraminiila and furrows, out 
 of which there may often be prefled a thick, vif- 
 cous fluid : the ufe of this is to lubricate the 
 urethra, and to defend it from the acrimony of 
 the urine f . 
 
 230. To the confideration of the penis, there 
 yet alfo belong the glands, called, from their dif- 
 
 * See Alghifius's Lithotom. andMorgagni Adv. 3. p. 2)2* 
 where they are better e\'preired. 
 
 f SeeTerran. lib. de Gland, p. 32. 
 
 J See Mprgag. Adverf. i. T.4. fig. 4. c. See alfoLittr. 
 nov. Urethra Defcriptio, 
 
 coverer, 
 
128 !/? Compendium 
 
 Glandulae coverer.- glandulae Cowperi mucofe. He defcribes 
 Cowperi. th^ee of thcQi * : two of them are fituated rcgu- 
 gularly one on each fide the urethra, between the 
 niufculi acceleratores and the bulb. They are 
 faid to be of an oval figure, but fomewhat com- 
 prefiTed, and are of the iize of a horfe-bean. They 
 fecrlste a rnucous pellucid liquor, which each dif- 
 charges at its own dudl into the urethra. Thefe 
 duds are feparate and diflind:, and are about two 
 fingers breadth long, and perforate at thdir extre- 
 mities the coats of the urethra. The ufe of the 
 fluid, which they fecrete, feems to be to lubricate 
 the urethra, and to defend it from being hurt by 
 the acrimony of the urine. Cowper is too accu- 
 rate and faithful a writer, to have defcribed parts 
 which he did not find : but anatomifts, fmce his 
 time, have often failed of them ; fo that either 
 there is fome error in the account, or they are 
 not univerfa! in all fubjedls. 
 
 The third of them, which is fingle, is in the an- 
 gle of the curvature of the urethra, under the os 
 pubis, and within the corpus fpongiofum, or ca- 
 vernofum of the urethra. Such is the account of 
 its fituation given by Cowper ; and he has figured 
 it of the fize of a fmall pea : but this alfo is want- 
 ing in bodies diffecled by our beft anatomifts. 
 Glandula 23 1. Finally, we are to obferve the glandula 
 Littrii. Littrii f . This is a gland fituated juft below the 
 proftata, and lodged between the two membranes 
 or coats of the urethra. It is of a dufky redifh 
 colour, and is an inch broad, and about a fixth 
 of an inch thick. It furrounds the interior mem- 
 brane of the urethra, in the manner of a zone ; 
 and, perforating it with feveral fmall foraminulas, 
 it pours into it a mucous liquor ; the office of 
 
 * See Cowper's Defer. Gland, nuper dete<^. 4(0, London. 
 f See Tcrran. ^e Gland, p. 65. 
 
 which 
 
of ANATOMY; 129 
 
 which is, like that of the other liquors of the fame 
 kind already mentioned, to lubricate and defend 
 the urethra. 
 
 232. The veflels of the penis, urethra, and 
 thefe glands, are in common. Their arteries are 
 from the hypogaftricks, and thofe of the pu- 
 denda. The veins, which all have valves, carry 
 back the blood to the veins of the fame parts ; 
 bur, before they join them, they make various 
 anaftomofes, and form a wonderful kind of re- 
 ticulation in the body of the penis, and under the 
 ofTa pubis. Santorini has well defcribed this won- 
 derful implexity of them, and calls it the laby- 
 rinth. The nerves come from the lafl of thofe 
 of the OS facrum ; and the lymphatick vefTels are 
 numerous, and are beautifully delineated by Cow- 
 per and Drake f. 
 
 233. The ufes of the penis are two, a primary 
 and fecondary. The primary ufe of it is to ferve 
 in the office of generation : the fecondary, for the 
 excretion of the urine. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Of the 'parts '^of generation in women, 
 
 234. yj^ ROM the examination of the parts of 
 Jj generation in men, we are to pafs to 
 thofe of women. Thefe are divided into the ex- 
 ternal and internal. The external parts, or thofe 
 which may be leen without difieclion, are thefe : 
 
 The pudendum, or vulva-, in the midft o^?^rtsoi 
 which is an openino;, and the orifice of the vao;ina ;g-^'^r^- 
 
 at the lower pare is the train uum, and the pen- ^^o^-P^en, 
 naeum. 
 
 * See Memoirs of the Paris Academy, 1700. 
 -f See Cowper's Myotom. reform, fig. 10. and' Drake's 
 Anthropolog. T. 6. 
 
 K The 
 
tons. 
 
 130 yf Compendium 
 
 The labia are two-, and over them is the mons 
 veneris, which is tumid, from fome fat that is 
 within it, and is covered with hair. 
 The cli- The clitoris, or, as fome call it, mentula mulie- 
 bris, is fituated in the upper part of the aperture, 
 and, in its common (late, is almoft entirely buried 
 under the fkin or prepuce. Its general fize is 
 about that of the uvula, or fcarce lo much : its 
 Ihape alfo much refembles that of that part *, but 
 it fometimes is found of an extraordinary bignefs, 
 as large as the penis * : but in this cafe it has no 
 urethra. It has a glans, or apex, as the penis 
 has ; but this is not perforated : it is ufually 
 covered with a fcetid matter, like that of the 
 glans of the penis f. The prepuce, cover- 
 ing the glans of the clitoris, is formed of 
 the cutis of the pudendum, and furnifhed with 
 nervous papillas: hence it is of exquifite fen- 
 fibility to the touch. It has alfo a ligament, by 
 which it is conne6led to the ofTa pubis, in ihe 
 fame manner as the penis is in men §. It has two 
 crura, or legs, which run from the ofTa pubis, 
 and are three times as long as the clitoris, in its 
 natural ftate. It has alfo its two cavernous or 
 fpongious bodies, with a feptum between them, 
 which conititute its body, very much as in the 
 penis, and thefe are furrounded with a nervous 
 membrane. 
 
 There are two eredlor mufcles alfo belonging 
 to the clitoris, like thofe of the penis : thefe arile 
 from the ofla ifchii, and are infcrted into the cor- 
 pora cavernofa. The vefTcls are common to this, 
 
 * See examples of this in Panarollus, Platerus, De Graaf, 
 Tulpius, and others. 
 
 -|- See Santorini, p. 191. 
 
 § Sec De Graaf de Mulierum organis, cap, 3. and alfo 
 Morgagni Adverf. p. 20. 
 
 and 
 
of ANATOMY. 131 
 
 and to the other external pans. The arteries and 
 veins come from the hypogaftricks, and thofe of 
 the pudenda; and the nerves from the os facrum. 
 Several very large ramifications of thefe run along 
 the back of the clitoris; and hence it is, that it 
 is all over of fuch exquifite fenfe. 
 
 Its Life is to produce a titillation in the coitus, 
 and to increafe the pleafure. 
 
 The nymphs come next under confideration. The 
 Thefe are two membranaceous parts, fituated on"^'"^?^^' 
 each fide the rima. They are of a red colour, 
 and cavernous ftruclure, and fomewhat refemble 
 the wattles under a cock's throat. They are 
 fomctimes fmaller, fometimes larger, and are con- 
 tinuous to the prseputium of the clitoris, and 
 joined to the interior fide of the labia. In thefe 
 we are to obferve the nervous papillse, which are 
 very copious, whence their quick fenfe ; and 
 their fmall glands, which fecrete a fatty mat- 
 ter *. The ufe of the nymphs is to increafe the 
 pleafure in coition, and to direct the courfe of the 
 urine. 
 
 We are next to obferve the orifice cf the vagi- 
 na, or the OS uteri externum. This is furrounded 
 with a cavernous fubftance, which fwells in the. 
 time of coition : It is very fmall in virgins, 
 larger in thofe who have had commerce with man, 
 and much larger ftill in fuch as have borne chil- 
 dren. It is always, however, much fmaller than 
 the reft of the vagina. 
 
 The hymen is a membrane, fometimes of a 
 circular, fometimes of a femi-lunar figure, and 
 fometimes of a form different from both f. It is 
 
 * See Morgagni Adverf. i. T. 3. let. ee. 
 
 f See Morgagni Adverf, i. T. 3. in ggj and Santorki, 
 T. 2. fig. I. e. Our author found it in a girl of fourteen, 
 jull as there defcribad. 
 
 K 2 always 
 
^32 ^ Compendium 
 
 always found in young fubjefts, and ftops a part 
 of the pafTage of the vagina. It has a fmall 
 aperture in girls, and a larger in adults, who have 
 not converfed with men : After the firft coitus it 
 is not to be found : it is always deflroyed by it ; 
 and, if it have not been injured before, always 
 fome blood follows the rupture of it. 
 
 The caruncute myrdformes owe their origin to 
 the breaking of the hymen : they are, therefore, 
 not to be found in fubjedls in which that mem- 
 brane exifts intire. They are two, three, or four 
 in number, and are placed where the hymen was. 
 
 The urethra, or urinary pafTage, is fituated 
 flrait under the clitoris, and (hews itfelf by a lit- 
 tle eminence. Its length is about two fingers 
 breadth: its diameter is greater than in man; but 
 fomewhat narrower at the end than elfewhcre : it 
 IS capable of great dilatation. There are in it 
 certain little du6ls, which convey to its inner fur- 
 face a mucous humor, for lubricating and defend- 
 ing it from the acrimony of the urine ; but their 
 origin is uncertain *. 
 
 Finally, we are to obferve the lacunae of De 
 Graaf : thefe are certain little ofcula, vifible about 
 the urethra ; and are du6h which ferve to excrete 
 a mucous humour, to lubricate the vagina. Thefe 
 arife from the corpus glandofum of the urethra f. 
 
 Theva- 235. The internal parts of generation in wo- 
 
 S^"^* men, are thefe : 
 
 The vagina, which is a large canal, not unlike 
 the inteftinum redum •, but more robuft and 
 ftrong. It is extended from the orifice, already 
 mentioned, to the uterus. It runs between the 
 redtum and the urinary bladder, and adheres to 
 
 * See Morgagni Adverf. i. S. 10. and 4. p. 44. Seealfo 
 Terran. de Gland, p. 44. 
 
 f See Morgagni Adverf. T. i. fig. 3. 
 
 both 
 
I?/ A N A T O M Y, 133 
 
 both of them. Its natural length is about fix or 
 fcven fingers breadth % but it is very diftenfible. 
 Its diameter is naturally about equal to that of one 
 of the fmall guts •, but it is capable of great dilar 
 tation, efpecially in the time of delivery. Its ori- 
 fice is narrower than any other part of it, and is 
 clofed with a fphindler. Its fubftance is mem- 
 branaceous ; and it is within rugofe, and furnifhed 
 with abundance of nervous papillae : and to this 
 is owing its quick fenfation. Externally it is 
 mufcular, and by that is enabled to embrace the 
 penis more clofcly in coitu. 
 
 Its upper part is conne6led with the bladder, 
 its lower with the redlum, and its hinder extre- 
 mity with the uterus. The wrinkles of the vagina 
 are not circular, but rather as in the gut jejunum. 
 They are largeft and deepeft in maids, and efpe- 
 dally in the anterior part of the vagina. In peo- 
 ple who have been much addided to venery they 
 are fainter, and feem as if worn down. In women 
 who have borne children, they are alrnoft.intirely 
 obliterated. 
 
 Their ufe is to increafe the pleafure in coitu, 
 both to the man and the woman, and to render 
 the part capable of the necefTary dilatation in parr 
 turition. 
 
 There are found certain lacuna, or ofcula, 
 about the orifice of the vagina ; fuch as there alfo 
 are about that of the urethra. Thefe often arc 
 fo Targe as to admit a briftle \ and they have their 
 origin from the glandulae fubftratae, the proftatae 
 of Bartholine. Their ufe is to fecrete a fluid for 
 the lubricating the vagina, and for ftimulating ta 
 venery ^. 
 
 The fphindler, or contrading mufcle of the 
 vagina, is compofed of a feries of mufcula? fibres, 
 
 ? See Morgagni Adverf. prim. S. 31. T. 3,, 
 
 K3 arifing 
 
134 ^ Compendium 
 
 arifing from the fphindler of the anus, and fur- 
 rounding the orifice of the vagina ; after which 
 it is inferted under the crura of the clitoris. The 
 corpus cavernofum alfo furrounds the orifice in 
 the fame place •, and this being liable to diftcn- 
 tion, with the blood, at the time of the coitus, 
 aflifts in preffing upon the penis. 
 . The ufe of the vagina is to receive the penis 
 and the femen, and to emit from the womb the 
 menftrual difcharges, the foetus, the fecundines, 
 and the lochia. 
 
 236. The uterus, called alfo the matrix, is a 
 hollow body, of a form approaching to that of a 
 pear, fituated between the bladder and the rec- 
 tum, and deftined to the office of generation, for 
 the containing the foetus. In this we are to ob- 
 ferve, 
 
 Irs connexions in the anterior part with the 
 vagina •, and in its lateral part by the ligaments, 
 which are of two kinds : its hinder part is loofe. 
 
 Its two kinds of ligaments are the lata and ro- 
 tunda. The ligamenta lata, or broad ligaments, 
 are of a membranaceous ftru6lure : they are con- 
 tinuous with the peritonasum ; and they join on 
 each fide the uterus, and the vagina, to the pa- 
 rietes of the pelvis. They confift of a double 
 membrane, between which is lodged a cellular 
 fubltance, as in the mefentery. This is eafily 
 ihewn on inflation. 
 
 The ligamenta rotunda have their origin from 
 the upper part of the uterus : they pafs thro' the 
 annules of the mufcles of the abdomen, and are 
 terminated in the fat, near the groins. They are 
 compofed of a double membrane, with a plexus 
 of vefTeis *, and a multitude of irregular fibres, 
 
 * See Morgagni Adverf. 4. p. 49, 50. 
 
 Thefe • 
 
^/ANATOMY. 135 
 
 Thefe are moft diftindly feen in women with 
 child *. 
 
 In women not with child, the length of the 
 womb is about three inches : its breadth, in the 
 upper part, is about two ; and in the lower, it is 
 about one. Its thicknefs is about an inch and a 
 half: in virgins it is often much fmaller than this; 
 but in women with child, it is of a different fize, 
 according to the different time. Anatomifts di- 
 vide it into two parts: the upper and broader 
 part they call the fundus uteri ; the lower, they 
 call the cervix. In this it is the vagina opens. 
 
 The orifice, or, as it is otherwife called, the 
 internal mouth of the womb, opens into the va- 
 gina, in form of the glans penis in man. It is 
 very fmall in virgins ♦, but in women who have 
 had children, or who are but with child, it is 
 larger : and in the lafl, it is always clofed up with 
 a gludnous humor. In the time of delivery it 
 in a wonderful manner expands itfelf, foas to give 
 paflage to the child. 
 
 The fubflance of the womb is mufculous : it is 
 compofed of a various plexus of flefhy fibres, 
 with a great number of vefTels between. In wo- 
 men not with child, it is compa6t and firm : in 
 thofe who are with child, it is fpongy and finuous, 
 and is capable of wonderful dilatation, without 
 any diminution of its thicknefs. It is covered ex- 
 ternally with a membrane from the peritonaeum : 
 internally its cavity is lined with a porous and 
 nervous membrane. This cavity is very fmall in 
 virgins "f •, and in women with child, the inner 
 membrane almoft intirely difappears §. 
 
 * See Santorini, Obf. p. 200. 
 
 f See Morgagni, Adverf. i. T. 3. 
 
 § See the fame Adverf. 4. p. 47, 
 
 K 4 Th§ 
 
l^S yfCoMPENDTUM 
 
 The blood-vefiels of the uterus are tortuoas^ 
 and make a thoufand anaftomofes with one ano- 
 other : in women with child, they are dilated into 
 a kind of finus's *. They open by a number of 
 little mouths into the uterus and vagina, and are 
 the fourcesof tlie menftrual difcharges in women. 
 
 The arteries are of three kinds : i . Sperma- 
 ticks from the aorta. 2. Very large ones from 
 the hypogaflricks. And, 3. Others from the 
 hemorrhoidal. Thefe all communicate, in a fur- 
 prifing manner, with one another ; fothat, if they 
 be but inflated, or mercury or wax beinjeded inta 
 any one of them, they arc all filled in an inftant ; 
 even thofe on the oppofite fide, as well as thofe of 
 that on which the injedion is thrown in. The 
 veins of the uterus are alfo of three kinds, and 
 of the fame denominations : they have no valves, 
 and are greatly larger than the arteries^ cfpecially 
 in women with child. Air may often be thrown 
 into the cavities of the uterus and vagina, by in^ 
 flating thefe : and, on the contrary, thefe veflels 
 may often be inflated alfo, by means of air thrown 
 into the vagina and uterus f. The nerves of the 
 womb are from the intercoftab, and thofe of the 
 OS facrum. The vafa lympbatica have long fince 
 been difcovered in brutes •, bur, of later years, 
 Morgagni has found ihem alfo in human fubjedts, 
 in the ftate of pregnancy %. The lymphaiicks, 
 commonly figured in the womb by authors, are 
 not from nature. 
 
 In the cervix, or neck of the womb, there are 
 a number of little openings, with folds or valves 
 between them §. Thefe feem to be dudts, ferving 
 
 * See Morgagni, Adverf. 4. p. 48. and Vater. deUtero. 
 f See Fanton. Anat. corp. hum. p. 186, See alfo Vater. 
 ^ See his Adverfar. 4. p. 76. 
 § See his Adverfar. 1. T. 3. 
 
 for 
 
 \ 
 
^/ANATOMY. 137 
 
 For the fecrction of a mucous fluid. There are 
 alfo fometimes obferved in the orifice, and neck 
 of the womb, certain veficles, or corpora glo- 
 bofa*: thefe contain a mucous fluid, and have 
 been taken by many for hydatidcs f. Some have 
 fuppofed them glands J, and that they fecrete that 
 mucous fluid, which, in women with child, clofes 
 up the mouth of the womb. Others have given 
 them a much nobkr office, calling them the new 
 ■ difcovered and true ovaries, and fuppofing the 
 foetus formed in them §. And fome will have 
 them to be the veficute feminales of the female 
 iex II ; and that a prolifick femen is difcharged 
 from them in the time of coition. Thefe lafl: 
 opinions are evidently farthefl: of all from truth ; 
 but what their real ufe is, is yet doubtful. They 
 are much more obvious in women with child, in 
 whom they fl:and very clofe f . 
 
 237. The ovaria, called, by the earlier writers, Ovaria^ 
 tefl:es muliebres, are two bodies of a fomewhat 
 globofe figure, of a fmooth furface, and in colour 
 whitifli : they are annexed, one on each fide, to 
 the fundus of the womb. 
 
 They are connedled, i. To the fundus uteri, 
 by means of the ligamentum teres; a ligament of 
 a cylindrick figure, which the earlier writers ufed 
 
 * See them delineated in the fame place, 
 
 -^ See the authors cited by Morgagni, Adverf. i. p. 32, 
 And Ruyfch, Adverf. Anat. decad. p. 5. 
 
 % See Morgagn in the fame place j and Verheyen, 1. c. 
 cap. 32. 
 
 4 See Naboth's DifTertat. de Sterilitate ; and Fred. Hoff- 
 man in Medic, rational. T. i. Againft the opinion, fee 
 Goelick's Hift. Anat. p. 183 ; EtmuUer's Epift. de Ovar. and 
 Hilfcher's de Generat. p. 2. 
 
 II See Letters of Defnoves, p. 70 ; and Blegny's Zodiac, 
 T. 1. p. 20. 
 
 4- SeeHeinrici's Differt. de Vefic. feminal, muiierum. 
 
 ^ See Santorini, p. 213. 
 
 to 
 
138 A Compendium 
 
 to fuppofe the vas deferens in women : but there 
 is no palTage from it to the womb, ^o that this 
 opinion is evidently groundlefs. 2. To the Fal- 
 lopian tubes, and to the fides of the pelvis, by 
 the ligamenta lata of the uterus, and the alse vef- 
 perfilionum. And, 3. To many other parts, by 
 means of the fpermatick vcflcls. 
 
 Their fhape is nearly oval ; but gibbous on the 
 upper furface, and flat below. 
 
 Their fize differs, according to the age and tem- 
 perament of the fubjcd:. They are largeft in 
 perfons in the vigour of their age, and in fuch as 
 are addicted to lufl : in fuch fubjedls they are 
 found of two drams weight, and furnifhed vvith 
 a number of prominent veficles. In old people 
 they fcarce weigh fo much as half a dram -, and 
 are dry, corrugated, and deformed with cicatrices. 
 
 The alae vefpertilionum are membranes, placed 
 between the tubas Faliopiance and the ovaries. 
 
 The ovaries are furrounded by a ftrong white 
 membrane from the peritonaeum ; and are of a 
 membranaceous fubftance, fibrous, reticulated, and 
 full of veifels varioufly interwoven. Among thefe 
 there are a number of round veficles, with a yel- 
 low fubftance difpofed under them : thefe are 
 more or fewer in number, according to the age 
 and temperament of the perfon ; and are filled 
 with a fubftance, much refembling the white of an 
 egg : and this humor acquires alfo, on boiling, the 
 hardnefs and confiflence of the white of an egg 
 boiled. From this analogy with the eggs of 
 birds, thefe veficles were called by Hornius ova *, 
 or ovuia. The largeft of them hardly equal a 
 pea in bignefs. There are fometimes ten, fifteen, 
 or twenty, or more than that, in one ovary: 
 
 * Epill. de Genltalibus. 
 
 fome 
 6 
 
^/ANATOMY. 139 
 
 fometimes there are only one or two of them. 
 They are fuppofed to contain the firft rudiments 
 of the fcetus *. 
 
 There are often hydatides formed alfo in the 
 ovaries ; but thefe are morbid, and are often the 
 caufe of dropfies in women. 
 
 The bodies called corpora lutea, are a kind of 
 glandulous fubftances-f, of a yellow colour, con- 
 torted in the manner of the fmall guts J, and dif- 
 pofed under the ovula, which are contained, as it 
 were, in their cavities. Thefe bodies may ufually 
 be difcerned in virgins ; but in women with child 
 they are much more obvious. Their ufe is un- 
 certain §. 
 
 238. The Fallopian tubes are two canals, tor-TheFal- 
 tuous in their figure, but approaching to a conic |°P^^" 
 form. They are joined to the fundus of the 
 uterus, one on each fide. They were difcovered 
 by Fallopius, and named tubse, from their refem- 
 blance to fome mufical wind-inftrument of the 
 trumpet kind. 
 
 They are conne6ted clofely and continuoufly to 
 the uterus, and more laxly to the ovaries, by the 
 ai^e vefpertilionum ; and, finally, to the ofTa ilei 
 by the ligamenta lata. Their length is different : 
 it is fix, feven, or eight fingers breadth ; fome- 
 times more. Their thickoefs, about the middle, 
 is equal to that of one's litde finger : their extre- 
 mities are fmaller: that next the uterus is very 
 fmall : it opens into its cavity, and may be in- 
 flated by blowing into the uterus ; or a fmall flyle 
 may be thruft up into ic. This fmall extremity 
 
 * See Brendell de Embryone ; and Vallifneri de Generat. 
 -f- According to De Graaf, Malpighi, Brendell, Berger, &c. 
 + See Vallifneri, and Santorini, p. 121. 
 § Morgagn. Adverf. Anat. 4. p. 51, and yS ; and alfo 
 Vallifneri and Santorini. 
 
 is 
 
140 
 
 A Compendium 
 
 is connedled to the uterus : the other is free, and 
 fluduates about in the abdotnen. This is larger, 
 and is ffimbriated or fringed round the edges \ 
 and, when there is occafion, this excremity applies 
 itfelf to the ovary, embracing it with thefe muf- 
 cular fegments or fringes. See their figure T* j. 
 Fig. 10, and 11, 
 
 Their fubftance is membranaceous and cavera- 
 ous. They are compofed of a double membrane : 
 the exterior one feems to be continuous with the 
 peritonaeum ; the interior, with the interior menr^- 
 brane of the uterus. They are wrinkled on the 
 inner furface, and are imbued with a lubricous 
 humor \ but they are not cellulous in the human 
 body, as in beads. 
 
 They are furnifhed with a great number of vef- 
 fels, and have a cavernous fubftance between their 
 membranes, by means of which they are rendered 
 rigid, on their applying their mouths to the 
 ovary. They are alfo moiffcened, on their inner 
 furface, by thefe veffels *. 
 
 Their ufe in generation is very great. They 
 become ereft in the time of the coitus, from the 
 influx of blood and fpirits \ and at that time, by 
 a natural motion, they apply their loofe fringed 
 extremities to the ovaries, which arc furrounded 
 and embraced by them : in this ftate they convey 
 to them the prolifick matter of the male femen, 
 injedled into the womb-f; and after one of the 
 ovula is thus impregnated, they receive it, and 
 convey it to the womb %. This is the regular 
 courfe of nature in the firft effects of the coitus 5 
 
 *■ See Drake's Anthropolog. T. 10. fig. 2. 
 
 t See Ruyfch's Thef. Anat. 5. T. 5. fig. i. and his Adv. 
 Anat. dec. i. p. 3. 
 
 X Fcerus's are often found in this tube, and elfewhere out 
 of the uterus. See Note 35. 
 
 bul 
 
of ANATOMY. 141 
 
 but accidents of a thoufand kinds may impede 
 this. The Fallopian tubes are eafily difcovered 
 in hens, and other birds, and are called oviduds. 
 
 239. The ufe of the uterus is to admit the 
 male femen ; and afterwards to receive from the 
 ovary, by means of the Fallopian tube, the ovu- 
 lum impregnated by it. After this it retains the 
 foetus nine months, affording it nourilhment ; and, 
 at the end of that time, it, by means of its own 
 mufcular force, expels it thro' the os uteri and 
 vagina. 
 
 240. After the impregnation there is a new 
 produ6tion of parts in the female, which con- 
 tinues as long as the time of going with child. 
 The principal of thefe is the foetus *. The others 
 are the membranes it is enveloped in -, the pla- 
 centa, the navel-ftring, the umbilical veflels, and 
 the pellucid fluid contained in the membranes, in 
 which the fcetus fwims. All thefe are fecondary 
 to the great caufe, and are produced merely for 
 the fake of the foetus. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Of a Fcetus^ and the parts appertaining to it, 
 
 241: TN the examination of the fcetus intire, 
 X we are to obferve the membranes fur- 
 rounding it in the uterus, as in an egg f. The 
 exterior of thefe is the chorion: this is thick, 
 fpongy, villofe, and furnifhed with a vaft appa* 
 ratus of blood-veffels. It is contiguous to the 
 uterus, and is feparable into two parts, or mem- 
 branes. 
 
 * See fmall embryo's delineated in Ruyfch's Thef. Anat. 
 6. T. 2. fig. 3. 
 
 f See Ruyfch's Thef. 10. fig. 3. and T. 6. in this work. 
 
 The 
 
142 A CoMF^ENDIUM 
 
 The interior or fecond membrane is called the 
 amnios, and is very thin and pellucid. It is con- 
 tiguous to the former \ and has either abfolutcly no 
 veflels, or at the utmoft a very few, and thofe 
 very fmall ones, are diffinguifhable in it. A pel- 
 lucid and fomewhat glutinous liquor is contained 
 in this, and in that ihe foetus. Both thefe mem- 
 branes break at the time of delivery, and the 
 liquor ihey contain flows out. 
 
 A third membrane is the allantois, called alfo 
 by fome membrana farciminalis. This is found in 
 fome animals, particularly in cows, very perfed:, 
 and continuous with the urachus, which is per- 
 vious ; but it is not found in human fubjedls. It 
 ferves in thofe animals for colledting the urine*. 
 
 Its length in a cow is near twelve foot, and its 
 diameter, when diflended by inflation, is more 
 than a foot ; fo that it is an amazingly large and 
 ftupendous part. Many authors affirm, that it is 
 equally neceflary in the human frame as in that of 
 the beafl:s in which we find it ; and hence they 
 would conclude, that it alfo exifl:s in women, 
 tho' we do not difcover it. Some of thefd authors 
 fay it is fituated between the chorion and amnios ; 
 and others will have it to be within the amnios -f-. 
 But as the mofl: accurate of the modern anato- 
 mifts have not been able to find it, and, added to 
 this, as the urachus is not pervious in the humaa 
 foetus, at leafl: is ufually clofed, and many orher 
 fubftantial reafons might be alleged why provi- 
 dence fliould relieve the human female from fo 
 vafl: an additional burthen in child-bearing, there 
 is great reafon to fuppofe, that there is no fuch 
 membrane, except in quadrupeds. 
 
 * See our author's obfervatlons on the allantois, in the 
 Ephemerid. N. C. cent. 6. obf. 24. 
 t See Phil. Tranf. N. 271. p. 835. 
 
 Authors 
 
<?/ ANATOMY. 143 
 
 Authors in general have declared, that there 
 are no blood-vellels in the allantois of a cow; but 
 our author has dilcovered an amazing multitude 
 of them *. 
 
 242. After the membranes including the foetus. The pla- 
 we are to examine the placenta. This was called centa. 
 by the antients, from its refemblance to the hver, 
 hepar uterinum, the uterine liver. 
 
 The number of placentae in human fubje6ls 
 anfwers to that of the foetus's ; as thefe are ufual- 
 Jy (ingle, the placenta is ufually fo alfo : when 
 there are two or more foetus's, there are always as 
 many placenta ; but in this cafe they often co- 
 here one to another, fo as to feem but one fub- 
 ftance ; bur, even in this cafe, their vefTels do 
 not communicate from one to the other. 
 
 In quadrupeds, and particularly cows, there 
 are often a great number of placentas, fometimes 
 not lefs than a hundred to one foetus. In this 
 cafe they are called cotyledones. Fabricius ab 
 Aquapendente has treated largely and accurately 
 of them, in his book de Foetu formato. 
 
 The figure of the placenta is orbicular ; its 
 diameter is eight or nine inches, and its thicknefs 
 is about an inch. Its convex and fpongy part is 
 conne6led to the uterus, by means of a very thin 
 and fine membrane, which is reticulated, villofe, 
 and continuous with the chorion. Its concave 
 part is turned toward the foetus, and fhews a mul- 
 titude of very large vellels: it is joined to the 
 funiculus, or navel-Oiring, and furrounded with a 
 fmooth membrane from the chorion and amnios. 
 It has no fixed or certain part of the uterus to 
 adhere to-, but it ufually is affixed to its fundus 
 or bottom, in which part Ruyfch difcovered a 
 
 ^ * See them delineated in the Ephem. N. C. juft men- 
 tioned. 
 
 new 
 
144 ^ Compendium 
 
 new mufcle in pregnant females, compofed of a 
 feries of fpiral fibres *. 
 
 The fubftance of the placenta, according to 
 moft of the later anatomifts, is glandulous : they 
 affirm, that ic is compofed of a multitude of 
 minute glands ; but they have not been able to 
 demonftrate them to the fight. It feems more 
 rational therefore to conclude with Ruyfch, and 
 with thofe who follow him, that it is truly valcu- 
 lar, or compofed folely and intirely of the umbi- 
 lical veins and arteries, interwoven with one an- 
 other in a curious manner -f. What ufe, indeed, 
 could there be for glands in this part ? The fecre- 
 tion of all that enters the placenta from the ute- 
 rus has been already performed. 
 
 The ufe of the placenta is, i. Together with 
 the chorion, to abforb the nutritious juices from 
 the mother's uterus, as the intefiiines do the 
 chyle § 5 and, finally, to tranfmit it to the foetu?, 
 by means of the umbilical vein. And, 2. It pro- 
 bably ferves to refund again to the parent the 
 blood and urine of the foetus, by the umbilical 
 arteries. 
 
 243. After the placenta, we are to obferve the 
 umbilical veffels of the foetus, which, after the 
 birth, degenerate into ligaments, as already men- 
 tioned. Chap. 207. 
 
 They are two arteries, a vein, and the urachus. 
 The arteries are much fmaller than the vein : they 
 ufually arife from the iliac arteries on each fide, 
 fometimes from the lower part of the aorta. 
 They pafs on each fide of the bladder to the navelj 
 
 * See Ruyfch's Adverf. Anat. T. 3. Decad. 3. 
 t See Ruyfch's Thef. Anat. 5. T. i. 
 § See Ruyfch's Adv. p, 16. and alfo Memoirs of the Paris 
 Academy 1714. 
 
 5 and 
 
of ANATOMY. 145 
 
 and hence thro' the navel- firing, with fevcral fpi- 
 ral contortions, they run to the placenta, where 
 they are divided and fubdivided into a multitude 
 of ramifications ; and, finallyj terminate and bring 
 the blood from the foetus back to the placenta ; 
 and thence, probably, it paffes back to the mother 
 again *. 
 
 It may be afked, however^ why the arteries are 
 twoj and why not one only, as the vein : perhaps 
 this is the care of nature, to prevent a mortal 
 haemorrhagej if the navel- firing fhould be hurt 
 in the delivery, or elfe not fufficiently fecured by 
 the tying afterwards. 
 
 The vein of the funiculus, tho* but fingle, is 
 twice as large as the arteries. It has its origin in 
 the placenta, from almofl innumerable ramifica- 
 tions, uniting into one common trunk : from 
 thence it continues to pafs between the arteries, 
 and with the fame contortions that they have thro* 
 the funiculus umbilicalis ; and thence thro* the 
 navel to the liver of the foetus, where it termi- 
 nates in a finus of the vena portae, into which ic 
 difcharges the blood and the nutritious juices 
 which it had taken up in the placenta ; from 
 hence, thro' a fingular canals called canalis veno- 
 fus -f , which is of a cylindrick figure, and almofl: 
 oppofite to the navel, the greateft part of the 
 blood paffes from this finus of the porta imme- 
 diately to the vena cava, and fo to the heart : the 
 remainder is diflributed, by the branches of the 
 porta, thro' the liver. 
 
 The urachus in quadrupeds, in general, is a 
 canal of a pyramidal figure, extended imme- 
 diately from the fundus of the bladder to the 
 navel ; and, after pafling thro' this, it is by de- 
 
 * See note 35. 
 
 f See tab. 3, fig. 2. 
 
 grees 
 
T46 ^ Co M P EN D'ttj'iit 
 
 grees enlarged, and makes its way into the allan- 
 tois at right angles each way, or nearly fo *, and 
 conveys the urine from the bladder into the cavity 
 of this membrane -f . 
 
 In the human foetus the whole urachus is not 
 pervious, or, at the utmoft, it is very rarely fo : 
 it is ufually found folid, and in form of a liga- 
 ment. It fcarce appears probable, therefore, that 
 it ferves the office of difcharging the urine from 
 the bladder, in this as in the former cafe ; and 
 efpecially as there is no fuch membrane as the al- 
 lantois in the human body, nor any cavity formed 
 for the reception of fo great a quantity of a fluid. 
 
 244. What is generally called the funiculus 
 nmbilicalis, is a part belonging to the foetus, 
 long and contorted, or twilled in the manner of 
 a cord. It is of the thicknefs of a man's finger, 
 or more ♦, and is, as before obferved, compofed of 
 two arteries, and a vein called the umbilical veflfel, 
 and furrounded with a common membrane, which 
 is thick, but foft and fpongeous ; and is full of 
 cells, filled with a glutinous humour, and is con- 
 tinuous with the amnios. 
 
 The origin of the navel-ftring is in the pla- 
 centa, from a multitude of ramifications of veins 
 and arteries.- Its termination is in the navel of 
 the foetus. Its length is two, three, or four fpans, 
 whence the feetus has room to turn itfelf freely 
 about in the womb, without danger of forcing 
 the placenta from it : and a fecond good efi^edt of 
 it is, that on the delivery, if the ftring be not 
 immediately tied up, a mortal haemorrhage is not 
 a neceffary confequence. 
 
 * See Fabrlclus ab Aquapendente de fcetu formato. 
 -f- See Ephemerldes, N. C. Cent. 6. Obf. 24. 
 X See the fame Ephemerldes, Cent. 3, and 4. Obf. 194. 
 § See RohauU's Difiertation in the Paris Memoirs 17 14. 
 
 The 
 
cf ANATOMY: 147 
 
 The ufe of the navel-ftring has been already 
 explained in that of the umbilical vefTels ^ but 
 its ufe, as a compound body, is for fecurity, that 
 the velTels, fo eflential to the life of a foetus, may 
 not be liable to being broken by its motions, as 
 they would have been, if they had made their 
 way out fingly ; and its flrength, in this conjundl 
 (late, makes it aifo of great ufe in the drawing 
 out the placenta, after the delivery of the foetus. 
 
 245, After this confideration of the parts, we 
 are to enquire, as far as we are able, into the 
 manner of nutrition of the foetus, while in the 
 uterus. 
 
 This is probably efFeded during the firft 
 months, while the organs of concodlion are not 
 yet formed, folely by means of the navel-firing. 
 But in the more advanced (late of the foetus, in Of the 
 the latter months, there are many reafons for fup- nutrition 
 pofing that it is alfo nourifhed by th^ mouth, by S ^^^ 
 means of a foft and fomewhat glutinous fluid 
 which furrounds it, and which is probably fecreted 
 from the amnios. In fupport of this opinion, we 
 are to obferve, ift. That a fluid, fimilar to that 
 of the amnios, is found in the mouth, the cefo- 
 phagus, and the fl:omach, not only of the human 
 foetus, but in that of quadrupeds. 2. That this 
 fluid is found alfo in the fmall guts of the fcetm. 
 but altered and digefl:ed. 3. That there are found 
 alfo in the larger inteflines real fsces, called me- 
 conium : fom.edmes the whole ileum is full of 
 thefe, 4. That in the firft months there is a 
 great quantity of this fluid furrounding the foetu% 
 but in the latter months there is but very iittle of 
 it ; and the confumption of it is not eafily ac- 
 counted for, any oiher way than by its being 
 fwallowed by the fcetus. 5. That the liquid it- 
 felf is fo extremely proper for the nutridon of the 
 
 L 2 foetus, 
 
148 yf Compendium 
 
 fcetus, that a more fit one could not have been 
 formed or defined. 6. That it feems to be con- 
 tinually preffed into the mouth, cefophagus, and 
 ftomach of the foetus, by the perpetual renitency 
 of the uterus itfelf, and by the preffure of the 
 mufcles of the abdomen, and of the ambient air. 
 See ncte 37. 
 
 Finally, another ufe of it feems to be, that the 
 cefophagus, the inteftines, the lafleals, and the 
 thoracic du6l, may be the better dilated and kept 
 open by it, and by degrees accuftom themfelves 
 to the offices they are afterwards to ferve to. 
 
 246. We are next to enquire into the fituation 
 of the foetus in the womb. This in the firft 
 months, and even in the middle ones, is perfectly 
 uncertain -, but in the latter months it is more re- 
 gular : in thefe it is ufually in a poflure like that 
 of fitting, and its head and neck are bent down- 
 wards ; its knees are raifed up toward its cheeks, 
 and its heels drawn back to its buttocks. Its 
 hands are ufually hanging down, and embrace the 
 feet *, A little time before the delivery it ufually 
 changes its pofition, in fuch a manner, that its 
 head falls toward the mouth of the womb, and 
 its buttocks and feet are turned upwards. Fre- 
 quently, however, it varies during the whole time 
 of the pregnancy from the common rule ; and at 
 the very inftant of the delivery, its head does not 
 prefent itfelf; but is turned to one fide, or to 
 fome other part of the womb. 
 Delivery. 247. Delivery, partus, is the natural exclufion 
 of the perfecl fcetus from the uterus, thro' the 
 
 * In the year 1722, a body was opened in the feventh 
 month of pregnancy. The woman had been (hot : the head 
 of the fatus was in this fubje<ft turned to the os uteri, and 
 the nates and feet upward. 
 
 vagina. 
 
(?/ A N A T O M Y. 149 
 
 vagina, after the rupture of the membranes it 
 was involved in. 
 
 The caufes afcribed to the bringing on this ex- 
 clufion of the foetus, are, i. That the uterus, 
 being fo far diftended, can fuffer no more dilata- 
 tion. 2. That the meconium and urine of the 
 foetus ftimulate fo as to excite it. 3. That there 
 is at that time a neceffity of air and refpiration : 
 but this is all dubious and uncertain. 
 
 The ordinary and regular time of partuition is 
 after nine folar months ; that is, ten lunar months, 
 or forty weeks. The premature times of delivery 
 are at the end of the feventh or eighth month : 
 the child may live, however, that is born at either 
 ' of thefe periods. The earlier exclufion of the 
 foetus is called abortion : this may happen at any 
 time before the feventh month -, and at whatever 
 time it happens, the foetus cannot live. 
 
 The ordinary or natural manner of delivery is, 
 when the foetus afTifts its own exclufion, with its 
 head preffing full againft the mouth of the womb. 
 When the mouth of the womb naturally opens, 
 the membranes burft, which had before wrapped 
 up the foetus, and the liquor they contained is ex^ 
 eluded ; and the foetus is finally expelled by the 
 joint contradtions of the uterus itfelf, of the 
 ' mufcles of the abdomen, and of the diaphragm. 
 
 All other fituations of the foetus, at the time 
 of delivery, are termed unnatural *, and they al- 
 ways caufe difRcuky in the delivery, fometimes 
 an utter impoffibility of it, unlefs the alTiftance of 
 art be called in. 
 
 Thofe deliveries in which the child prefents its 
 buttocks, or its feet, are the neareft to the natu- 
 ral and proper one *, and confequently the child 
 may be thus born either entirely without the help 
 gf art, or with but a very little afTiftance from it. 
 
 L 3 24S, 
 
150 A Compendium 
 
 248. We are, finally, in our examinations 
 into the nature of the human foetus, to enquire 
 into the more eflfential differences between that 
 and an adulr \ confidering the foetus not only as 
 yet inclofcd within the womb, but as newly come 
 from it. 
 
 In the abdomen, the umbilical vein, and arte- 
 ries of the navel, and the canalis venofus in the 
 liver, are, in the foetus, open and pervious \ ia 
 adults, they are contradted and folid. 
 
 The liver is very large -, the ftomach is filled 
 with a gl .tinous fluid i and the larger inteftines, 
 and often the ileum alfo, with the faeces called 
 meconium. 
 
 The vermiform procefs of the inteflinum coe- 
 cum, is larger than in adults 5 and is alfo full of 
 the meconium. 
 
 The renes fuccenturiati are larger in the foetus 
 than in adults. 
 
 The kidneys themfelves are not fmooth and 
 even on the furface, as in adults ; but unequal, 
 and in fome meafure refemble thofe of a calf. 
 
 The urinary bladder is of a longer lliape, and 
 extends almoft to the navel. 
 
 The hymen in a female foetus is very plain and 
 obvious. 
 
 In the thorax, befide a peculiar fluid, found as 
 well in this cavity as in the abdomen, 
 
 The gland thymus is larger than it is in adults. 
 
 The lungs, as they have never yet been inflated 
 by breathing, are collapftd, and of a blackifh 
 colour : and if thrown into water, they fink in it, 
 contrary to what is the cafe in thofe of adults. 
 
 In the heart, the foramen ovale between the 
 left and right auricle, and the canalis arteriofus, 
 between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, are 
 open, to ferve for a peculiar circulation in the 
 
 foetus. 
 
of ANATOMY. 151 
 
 fisetus, which has not yet breathed 5 and there is 
 in the inferior trunk of the vena cava, near the 
 heart, a remarkable valve *. 
 
 In the head, befide its great fjze, in proportion 
 to the body, we are to obferve, that the ofTa 
 cranii are in feveral places diftant from one an- 
 other, efpecially at the fontanella, and that the 
 iiitures are wanting. The brain alfo is fofter than 
 in adults. 
 
 The teeth are alfo imperfed, and not rooted 
 in the gums: they lie hid or buried under the 
 gums, to appear at a more advanced period. 
 
 The meatus auditorius is not yet perfedt in 
 them ; and in the foetus, whilft it is in the womb, 
 is entirely clofed up by a peculiar membrane, 
 which is continuous with the epidermis, and which 
 naturally difappears after delivery -f. 
 
 The bones of the whole body, excepting only 
 a very few, are either foft, or yet abfolutely im- 
 perfedl : fome of them are merely cartilagin- 
 ous; and the articulations are not at that time 
 perfedled. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 The contents of the Thorax^ the other part, of the 
 trunk of the human body. 
 
 249. 'TT^ H E thorax is that large part of the 
 X body ficuated between the abdomen 
 and the neck : it is alfo called pectus. 
 
 * "Winflow has defcribed this in the memoirs of the French 
 Academy lyi-j -, and Cheielden in his Anatomy, Ed. i. T. g. 
 fig. I. calls it valvula nobihs ; but in the third edition he has 
 omitted the plate and the defcription of it. 
 
 f See Kerkring's Oileogenia, p. 25,22. See alfo Ruyfch. 
 
 L 4 Its 
 
'152 A Compendium 
 
 Its parts are of two kinds, the continent or 
 containing, and the contained. 
 
 The continent parts, or thofe which form the 
 cavity, are either common or proper. The com- 
 mon continent parts of the thorax are, the cuti- 
 cula, the cutis, and pinguedo. Thefe have been 
 Gonfidered already in fedions 197, 198, and 201. 
 
 The continent parts, proper or peculiar to the 
 thorax, are thefe : the breaiis, the perioral muf- 
 cles, the intercoflals, the diaphragm, the pleura, 
 and, finally, the bones. Of thefe there are 
 twenty-four rihs, the fternum, and twelve vertcr 
 bras : thefe have alfo all been defcribed already in 
 their place in the Olleology. 
 
 The contents of the cavity formed by thefe, or 
 the parts contained in the thorax, are the media- 
 llinuin, the lungs, the heart and its pericardium, 
 with the large vefTels arifing from it, particularly 
 the trunks of the aorta and pulmonary artery, of 
 the vena cava and pulmonary vein, the thoracic 
 du(5t, and, finally, the greater part of the oefo- 
 phagus. 
 
 The ufl^s of the parts of the thorax in general, 
 are their ferving to refpiration, and the circulation 
 of the blood in both fcxes j and in women to t|ie 
 producing milk. 
 The 250. The breads, mammie, occur firft in our 
 
 JDrealls. examination of this part of the trunk. In men 
 they are fmaller, and ferve to no purpofe but or- 
 nament. In women they are of the utmoft im- 
 portance; and ?tis, therefore, in the female only 
 the anatomift is to employ his refearches. 
 
 In the human fpecies they are, for many great 
 and obvious reafons, feated on the breaft -, in 
 animals of all other kinds, they are ficuated ori 
 fhe abdomen. 
 
 1^ 
 
^/ANATOMY. ,5g 
 
 In the human fpecies they are only two in 
 number ; in quadrupeds of different kinds, they 
 are very various in number and Itruclure. 
 
 In order to their being ornamental, it is requi- 
 fite that they be of a moderate fize, and (land at 
 aconfiderablediftancej that their fkin be white and 
 fofr, their fubilance firm, not flaccid or pendulous, 
 and the nipple red. 
 
 Their fize is very various and uncertain. In 
 virgins they are ufually fmall : in women who are 
 with child, or who have given fuck, they arc 
 larger, often very enormous. In very young and 
 very old perfons, they are always fmall ; and they 
 differ in- bignefs alfo in the feverai different 
 countries. 
 
 The time of the breafts growing full in women, 
 is about the age of fourteen. The time of their 
 decreafing again is various : about the fiftieth 
 year is the moft frequent and moil natural time ^ 
 but it happens fometimes later, fometimes fooner. 
 
 The nipple of the human breafl is a little emi- 
 nence, nearly of a cylindrick figure, red in colour, 
 and placed in the middle of the breafl, and fur- 
 rounded with a circle. 
 
 Its fubftance is cavernous, almofl like that of 
 the human penis; and hence it is capable of being 
 rendered eredl and tumid on titillation, and in 
 fuckling. It is compofed of a multitude of fine 
 nervous fibres, difpofed in a reticulated manner, 
 and is therefore of an extretnely quick fenfe ; and 
 is furnifhed with a great number of blood- veffels 
 from the mammary ones. The extremities of the 
 Jla6leals alfo are abundant in it, and the epidermis 
 furrounds every part of it. The foraminula, or 
 orifices of the ladleal tubes, are very confpicuous 
 ill women who give fuck, on their preffing their 
 
154 ^ Compendium 
 
 breads, and forcing out the milk : they are in 
 number from feven to ten. 
 
 The circle which furrounds the nipple is befet 
 with fmall glands *. In virgins it is ufually of a 
 fine bright red colour : in women a little more 
 advanced it is of a dufkyer red, or fometimes 
 brownifh \ and in old women it is livid and dull. 
 
 The ufe of the nipple is for the giving fuck to 
 the infant, who, without it, could fcarce pofTibly 
 get at it. 
 
 The breafts, befide the common integuments 
 of the body, that is, the epidermis, the cutis, aad 
 fat, are compofed of a fmgular glandulous mat- 
 ter, of a whitiili colour, not unlike that of the 
 fubflance of the udder in quadrupeds. Thisj 
 forms the inner or central part, to the midlt of 
 which the nipple anfwers ; and is furrounded by ^ 
 larger or fmalier quantity of fat, which makes by 
 much the greater part of the bread f. Nuck j, 
 Verheyen [|, and their followers, have defcribed 
 what they call globofe bodies, corpora globofa, 
 as diftindt glands ; but there are by no means 
 glands, but merely fat, as Morg^gni h^s fmce 
 abundantly proved §. 
 
 Among the glandulous fubflance, however, of 
 which the breafls are compofed, there are ar- 
 ranged, befide the blood-veflels, a multitude of 
 ladliferous tubucles or dudls, which unite by fre- 
 quent anaflomofes : thefe are large in women who 
 give fuck, and are dilated into finus's in many 
 places, forming a kind of cells, which hold the 
 
 * As to the nature of thefe, fee Morgag. Adverf. i. S. 12. 
 and 4. p. 8. 
 
 -f- See Morgag, Adverf 4. fig. 3, 
 
 X Adenographia, fig. 2. 
 
 II Anat. Corp. human. T. 18. fig. 2, and 4. 
 
 § Adverfar. 2. 92. 
 
 fecreted 
 
^/ANATOMY. is5 
 
 fecreted milk, and communicate with the veins 
 and arteries. All ihefe parts are to be ktn much 
 more diftindtly in breads that are large, and full 
 of milk, than in others: they are, indeed, 
 fcarce to be diftinguifhed at all in young v/omen, 
 in fuch as have little breads, in fuch as are ema- 
 ciated, or in thofe of very old people. 
 
 The arteries and veins of the breads are called 
 mammary vefTels, and are fent from the fubcla- 
 vian and axillary veflfels. The former of thefe 
 are called the internal, and the other the external 
 ones. The nerves are from the dorfal ones of the 
 fpinal marrow -, and to thefe Wharton * adds 
 lymphaticks. 
 
 The ufe of the breads are, i . To fecrete in 
 their glandulous fubdance the milk from the arte- 
 rial blood, to colled it in the finus's and tubuli 
 ladtiferi, there to preferve and retain it, and, at 
 a proper time, to afford it to the infant thro' the 
 nipple. 2. To add to the peculiar beauty of the 
 female, g. To add a dimulus ro venery, on both 
 parts, while they are handled and prefled. 
 
 251. When the breads are removed, there oc- 
 cur certain mufcles and the pleura. The mufdes 
 are, i. Two called the peroral mufcles : thefe 
 ate large : there is one of them on each fide, 
 extending from under the bread to the arm. 
 2. The intercodal mufcles, no fewer in number 
 than twenty-two external ones, and as many in- 
 ternal : thefe are placed between the ribs, and 
 ferve to elevate them, and to adid in refpiration ; 
 but of thefe we diall fpeak more largely in the 
 Myology, 3. The membrane called pleura, is 
 alfo to be hereafter treated of fingiy, and at large : 
 this membrane furrounds the whole cavity of the 
 thorax. 
 
 * Adenograph, cap, 36. 
 
 252. 
 
156 A Compendium 
 
 252. When we have obfcrved thefe, the breaft 
 is to be opened ; and in this are to be obfcrved 
 the cartilaginous parts of the ribs : thro' thefe, 
 near the bony part, the incifion is to be made on 
 each fide, and the fternum is to be elevated. As 
 foon as this is done, there occurs firft the me- 
 diafiinum. 
 
 253. The mediaftinum is a double membrane, 
 continuous to the fternum, fituated under it, 
 and adhering firmly to it. It divides the 
 cavity of the thorax longitudinally into two 
 pares. In this we are to obferve the cellulous in- 
 terilice, which is between the two membranes, 
 and is fufficicntly obfervable in that part of the 
 mediaftinum which is neareft the diaphragm : in 
 this there are fomttimes abfcefles and inflam- 
 mations. 
 
 The mediaftinum is conneded with the fter- 
 num pleura, pericardium, and other adjoining 
 parts. Its fituation is not exadtly under the mid- 
 dle of the fternum, but fomewhat to the left fide : 
 by this means the right part of the thorax is ren- 
 dered larger than the left *. 
 
 It receives veins and arteries from the mam- 
 mary and diaphragmatick veftfels, and fometimes 
 has proper and peculiar ones of its own from the 
 aorta and cava: thefe are then called ;he media- 
 flinal veflels. Its nerves are fmail, and are from 
 the diaphragmaticks and the par vagum. It has 
 alfo a number of lymphaticks, which run to the 
 dudus thoracicus. 
 
 The ufes of the mediaftinum are two, i. To 
 divide the breaft longitudinally into two parts, for 
 feveral very great purpofes ; as, firft, that on one 
 of the lobes of the lungs being ulcerated, the 
 
 * See Winflpw in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy 1 7 1 5, 
 P 309- 
 
 Other 
 
cf ANATOMY. 15; 
 
 other might not be immediately affc^led. 2. That 
 water, matter, or any thing tlfe contained in one 
 part of the thorax, might not, at the fame time, 
 affed both parts of the lungs. 3. That in cafe 
 of a wound in one fide of the thorax, refpirarion 
 might be continued in the other, and the pcrfon 
 not immediately fuffocated. The fecond general 
 ufe of the mediaftinum is to fupport the heart in 
 its pendulous flate, for the benefit of its tree mo- 
 tion, efpecially when we lie on our backs, 
 
 254. When the mediaftinum is dififeded, and 
 the flernum removed, we are to obferve the fitua- 
 tion of the feveral parts in the cavity of the tho- 
 rax. The diaphragm is placed tranfverfeiy in ihe 
 lower part of the cavicy. 
 
 The giandulse thy mi in the upper and middle 
 part. 
 
 The lungs on each fide. 
 
 The heart in the middle, or nearly fo, fur- 
 rounded with its pericardium \ but fo placed, that 
 its greater part is on che left fide. 
 
 The oefophagus, or guls, in the hinder part, 
 on the left fide. 
 
 The great veflels, as the vena cava and azygos, 
 in the hinder part, on the right. 
 
 And, finally, the thoracick du6l in man, be- 
 tween the aorta and the vena azygos. 
 
 255. Before we proceed to examine thefe Pleura, 
 Cngly and particularly, we are to obferve the 
 pieura. This is a fmooth, robufl, and tenfe 
 membrane, adhering to the ribs and to the inter- 
 coft:al mufcles, and furrounding the whole cavity 
 
 of the thorax. In this membrane we are to re- 
 mark the ftrudure, which is as if it were com- 
 pofed of two facks, one of which furroiinds one 
 fide of the thorax \ the other, the other fide ; and 
 each of them contains one of the two lobes of the 
 
 lungs : 
 
158 !/f Compendium 
 
 lungs: from the conjiindlion of thefe two fuc- 
 culi of the pleura, in the middle of the thorax, is 
 formed the mediaftinum. 
 
 The pleura is compofed of a double membrane, 
 of a very mufailous ftrufture. Its veffels are ar- 
 teries, veins, nerves, and lymphaticks. The ar- 
 teries arife from the intercoftals, the diaphragma- 
 tick and the mammary ones, and are very nume- 
 rous -, the veins, from the veins of the fame 
 names with thofe arteries ; but all of them dif- 
 charge themfelves into the trunk of the vena azy- 
 gos, and the upper trunk of the cava. The 
 nerves are from the vertebrae of the thorax, and 
 the diaphragmatick ones. The lymphaticks all 
 run to the du6lus thoracicus. 
 
 Many cf the later anatomical writers have at- 
 tributed glands alfo to the pleura; but this is 
 without foundation. 
 
 The ufe of the pleura is to lubricate, and to 
 ftrengthcn the whole cavity of the thorax. 
 Thymus. 256. The thymus is a gland, which, in infants, 
 is very remarkable: it is fituated in the upper 
 part of the thorax, immediately under the ller- 
 num, and lies upon the pericardium, and on the 
 trunk of the aorta, and of the vena cava. 
 
 It extends itfelf from the pericardium, along 
 the trunk of the aorta, to the beginning of the 
 carotids; fometimes as far as to the thyroide 
 gland, its figure is irregular and uncertain *. Its 
 colour in infants is a pale red ; in adults it is of a 
 dufkyer hue. It is much larger in infants newly 
 born, than in fubjeds at any more advanced pe- 
 riod. Its length is there not lefs than three fin- 
 gers breadth, and its diameter two : its thickncfs 
 is about half a finger. It gradually decreafes from 
 
 * See tab. 4. fig. 14, and 15. 
 
 5 this 
 
of ANATOMY. 159 
 
 this fize as the child grows up *. In adults it is 
 very fmall, and in old people it almoft entirely 
 difappears. 
 
 Its fubftance is gland ulous and conglomerate, 
 and it is furrounded by a membrane. It has its 
 blood-veffels fometimes from the fubclavians, 
 fometimes from the mammary, and fometimes 
 from the mediaftine ones ; and, in fome fubjedls, 
 from the carotids and jugulars. Its lymphaticks 
 fometimes run to the thoracic duel, fometimes to- 
 the fubclavian veins, and they have in general no 
 valves. The nerves of the thymus are from the 
 par vagum, or from the intercoftals. There is 
 fometimes a milky juice found in this gland in 
 new-born fubjeds. It has no excretory dudt hi- 
 therto difcovered, and its ufe is therefore not cer- 
 tainly known. 
 
 Polfibly, it ferves to fecrete lymph, which it 
 difcharges jnto the thoracick dud, for the dilution 
 of the blood and of the chyle ; as the glands of 
 the mefentery and pancreas do, in regard to the 
 chyle. On this fuppofition, its ufe is much greater 
 in the foetus than at any time after the birth, be- 
 caufe the want of refpiration in that ftate may 
 well be fuppofed to fubjedt the blood to be 
 thicker, and to need more dilution than after- 
 wards, nothing tending to attenuate the blood fo 
 much as refpiration. Bellinger is of opinion, that 
 it prepares a nutritious fluid for the foetus, while 
 in the uterus, and conveys it by particular d.udls 
 to its mouth f; but we are to obferve, that 
 iieither himfelf, nor- any body fince, have ever 
 been able to find out thefe dadts. 
 
 * Ithas been found indurated by a fchirrus, and very 
 large, in a boy of thirteen, ^vho died of a hetlick. 
 f See his Trad, de foetu nutritio, London 1717. 
 
1^0 A Compendium 
 
 Thedia- 257. The diaphragm is a large, robuft, muf* 
 phragm. culous fkin, placed tranfverfely in the trunk, and 
 , , dividing the thorax from the abdomen. The 
 Latin writers hence call it feptum tranfverfum. 
 Its fituation is not exactly even, but fomewhat 
 oblique, between the abdomen and thorax 5 fb 
 that the anterior part is higher, the pofterior 
 lower; and its upper fuperficies is convex, it^ 
 lower concave. It is conneded with the fternum, 
 the fpurious ribs, the pericardium, the mediafti- 
 num, and the vertebras of the loins. Its figure, 
 taken tranfverfely, is fomewhat oblong and ellip- 
 tick.. See Fig. 13. 
 
 There are in the diaphragm two large fora- 
 mina. The firfl is in the left fide of it, and gives 
 paflage to the gula and the par vagum. The fe- 
 cond is in the right fide of it, and the lower 
 trunk of the vena cava pafles thro* it. There is 
 alfo an interftice between the two heads of the 
 lower parr, thro' which pafs the aorta, the vena 
 azygos, and the dudus thoracicus. 
 
 The vellels of the diaphragm are called vafa 
 phrenica, from fpv^v, the Greek name for the dia- 
 phragm : they are arteries, veins, nerves, and 
 lymphaticks. 
 
 The arteries are, ill, from the aorta, or from 
 the cceliac : 2dly, from the fubclavian, or mam- 
 mary : and, 3diy, from the intercoftal and lum- 
 bar ones*. 
 
 The veins are from the cava, the azygos, and 
 the fubclavian. 
 
 The nerves are, ift, two great ones, called 
 diaphragmaticks, arifing from the vertebral ones 
 of the neck on each fide, and almoft totally in- 
 
 • See Ruyfch, Epift, 9. p. 15. 
 
 ferted 
 
c/ ANATOMY. i6i 
 
 ierted in ic * : 2dly, fome branches from the in- 
 tercoftals and par vagum. The lymphaticks go 
 to the jugular vein f. 
 
 The diaphragm is covered with a membrane, 
 on the upper part from the pleura, on the lower 
 from the peritonaeum. Its fubftance is mufcular. 
 Its upper parr, which is large and eliiptick, arifes 
 from the fpurious ribs, the tranfverlc mufcles of 
 the abdomen, and the carcilago xiphoides j and, 
 with its tendon, renders the nervous centre of the 
 diaphragm almofl: triangular. The lower arifes 
 from a double bafe, from the vcrtebrse of the 
 loins on each fide, and is inferted nearly into the 
 centre of the fuperior j. 
 
 The ufes of the diaphragm are, ifl, to aOift 
 in refpiration ; for, in taking in the breath, it is 
 prelTed downwards, and, in expiration, it rifes 
 upward into the cavity of the thorax. 2. To 
 alTiil the neceflary motions of the contents of the 
 abdomen^ viz. of the flomach, inteftines, liver, 
 and fpleen ; and in the promoting the fecretions 
 of chyle, bile. Sec. And, laftiy, for affifting in 
 the expuJfion of the fseces, the urine, the foecus 
 in parturition, and the fecundines. 
 
 258. The lungs are the largefl vifcus of the The 
 thorax. They are fituated in the two fides of the lyings, 
 thorax, having the heart, as it were, in the midft 
 of them. They are conneded, by means of the 
 mediaftinum, with the fternum and vertebras ; 
 with rhe heart, by means of the pulmonary vef- 
 fels, and immediately with the afpera arteria. 
 The colour of die lungs, in infants, is a fine florid 
 
 * The left of thefe is longer than the right. See Win- 
 flow in the Paris Memoirs, 1715. 
 
 f See Nuck's Adenographia, p. 142. 
 
 :|: Cowper has given elegant figures of the diaphragm, 
 T. 14 and 25, of his Myot. no v. 
 
 M red ; 
 
iSi ^Compendium 
 
 red 5 in adults, it is darker ; and, in old people, 
 livid, or variegated with black and white. In 
 figure, when inflated, they fomewhat refcmble 
 the hoof of an ox -, and are convex on the upper 
 fide, and concave underneath. 
 
 They are divided into two large lobes, the right 
 and left ; the left lobe, which is the fmaller, 
 is divided again into two -, and the right, 
 which is larger, into three fmaller onesj and 
 thefe into innunnerable other ftill lefier. The 
 membrane, with which the lungs are fur- 
 rounded, is continuous with the pleura. Their 
 fubftance is fpongeous, or veficulous. They feem, 
 indeed, intirely compoftd of a number of fmall 
 veficles, of a fiefhy texture, and of a variety 
 of velTels, 
 
 The bronchia are, in their origin, formed 
 of imperfed annuli, or rings ; and, in their 
 progrefs, of cartilaginous and membranous fru- 
 flae, very varioufly connefled and joined toge- 
 ther. Thefe have their origin from the trachea, 
 and are fir ft divided into branches, afterwards 
 fubdivided again, and into almoft innumerable 
 ramifications : they finally terminate in thofe fmall 
 veficles, which form the greater part of the fub- 
 ftance of the lungs. Thefe vf^ficles have inter- 
 ftices all the way between them, and adhere, as it 
 were, to the branches of the bronchia, in the man- 
 ner of clufters of grapes. 
 
 The pulmonary artery and vein are divided in 
 the fame manner as the bronchia, and accompany 
 them all their length, tho' in a various manner in 
 the various parts *, and, finally, extending their uU 
 timate ramifications about the veficles, they form 
 what is called the retc vafculofum of Maipighi : 
 they do not ferve, however, as fome have fup- 
 
 pofedj 
 
(?/ A N A T O M Y. ,63 
 
 pofed, merely for the nutrition of the parts ; but 
 for the circulation of the blood thro' the lungs. 
 
 The vefTel called the bronchial artery of 
 Ruyfch, is allotted to the nutrition of the lungs: 
 it rifes fometimes fingle, fometimes double, fome- 
 times triple frona the aorra and intercoftals, and 
 adheres every where firmly to the bronchia *. 
 
 The bronchial vein is either from the intercof- 
 tals, or from the vena azygos. 
 
 The nerves arife from the thoracick plexus of 
 the par vagum and the intercoftals. 
 
 The lymphaticks run to the thoracick du6l. 
 The ufes of the lungs are, ift, for the office of 
 refpiration, by which the blood is attenuated in 
 the plexus of arteries, called the rete vafculofum. 
 2. To be afliftant to the voice in fpeaking, and 
 to the fenfe of fmelling. They are alfo emunc- 
 tories of the blood, and are of many other im- 
 portant fervices. 
 
 259. The afpera arteria, called alfo the trachea, Afpera 
 and fiftula fpiralis, and in Englifh the windpipe, ^^^^"** 
 is a tube or canal, extended from the mouth down 
 to the lungs. Its fituation is in the middle and 
 anterior part of the neck ; and it is connedled 
 with the fauces, the lungs, and the oefophagus. 
 Anatomifts divide it into two parts; ift, the 
 larynx ; and, adly, the afpera arteria, ftridtiy and 
 properly fo called; 
 
 The larynx is the thick upper part, or head of 
 the tube juft mentioned. In this there is an aper- 
 ture to the lungs, called the glottis : this is of an 
 elliptick figure, and is furnifhed with cartilages 
 and mufcles f •, by means of which it is occa- 
 fionally dilated or ftraitened, fo as to give the 
 
 * See Ruyfch valvular, lymphat. dilucid. p. 61. Epift. 6. 
 f Concerning thefe, fee the Myology, S. 324. 
 
 M 2 wonder- 
 
164 A Compendium 
 
 wonderful variety of notes the voice is capable of, 
 in fpeaking and Tinging *. 
 
 The larynx is principally compofdd of five car- 
 tilages. The firft is the thyroide, or fcLitiform 
 cartilage : it is of a kind of quadrangular figure, 
 and (lands in the anterior parr, where the pomum 
 adami, as it is ufually called, makes its promi- 
 nence, and is the largeft of the five. The fecond 
 is the cricoide, or annular one : this occupies the 
 lowefl parr, by way of bafe to the reft : to the 
 lower part of this, what is properly called the 
 afpera arteria adheres. The third and fourth are 
 the two arytsenoide ones -f : thefe form, as it were, 
 a kind of bafon of a fingular figure, which is 
 joined to the pofterior and fuperior parts of the 
 cricoides, by peculiar articulations on each fide, 
 that the glottis may be the more readily opened 
 and conrradled §. The fifth is the epiglottis: 
 this is often of the fhape of a leaf of ivy, and is 
 joined to the fuperior and anterior part of the 
 thyroides, over which it appears eredV, imme- 
 diately behind the root of the tongue ; to which 
 it is alfo connefted by its middle ligament, 
 by two lateral ones to the cornua of \.\\t. os 
 hyoides, and by two pofterior ones to the aryta?- 
 noide cartilages : this, in the acl of deglutition, 
 covers the glottis, in the manner of a moveable 
 bridge, to prevent any thing falling on it. 
 
 The membrane which invefts the larynx is very 
 fenfible, and is furnifhed with a number of ofcula 
 or openings, which difcharge a lubricating fiuid. 
 There are alfo glands, called glandular arytasnoi- 
 
 * See Dodart in the Memoirs of the French Acad. 1700. 
 
 •f- Santorini will have each to confift of a double one ; fo 
 number feven, p. 97. 
 
 § Thefe four firft cartilages often oiTify, as has been al- 
 ready obferved. 
 
 desB, 
 
vf ANATOMY. 165 
 
 dcas, and glandulas cpiglottidis, extended over 
 each furface of it, which ferve for fccreting a 
 mucous fluid, for lubricating the whole afpera 
 arteria. 
 
 The ventricles, or finus's of the larynx, are 
 certain hollows, fome of them fmaller, fome 
 larger, on the infide of it, under the glottis, 
 ferving for the modulations of the voice*. 
 
 The afpera arteria, or trachea, properly fo 
 called, is the remaining part of that cartilaginous 
 canal before defcribed, which is extended from the 
 larynx to the bronchia •, and is, in fome meafure, 
 of a conic figure. 
 
 . The beginning of this is round, and is fo large, 
 that it eafiiy admits of a finger: its end is fome- 
 what narrower. It enters the cavity of the tho- 
 rax, under the flernum -, and there, before it joins 
 the lungs, is divided into two branches, a right 
 and a left, called bronchia ; which are afterwards 
 fubdivided and diftributed thro' the lungs in very 
 minute portions, 'till by degrees they terminate in 
 the veficles which compofe their fubftance. 
 
 It is compofed of eighteen or nineteen, fome- 
 times but fixteen, fometimes twenty cartilaginous 
 rings or annuli, and four coats. 
 
 The annuli, or rings, are imperfcft ; for the 
 whole trachea on its hinder part, as alfo the be* 
 ginning of the bronchia, are membranaceous: 
 this is contrived by nature, partly, that they may 
 not be troublefome to us in fwallowing ; partly, 
 that they may be fubjed: to dilatation and con- 
 tra6lion, to afiift in the modulations of the voice, 
 and in the expulfion of the excrementitious mat- 
 ter, which nature has deftined the body to be 
 ridded of that way. 
 
 * Of the whole ftrudlure of the afpera arteria, fee Mor- 
 gagni Adv. i . T. i, and 2. 
 
 M 3 Of 
 
1 66 ^Compendium 
 
 Of the four tunics, or coats, the exterior is 
 membranaceous •, the fecond is gland ulous *, the 
 third is mufcular, and the feveral rings are joined 
 together by this, which is formed of tranfverfe 
 fibres, running from the feveral extremities of one 
 to the other, fo as to have a power of contrafting 
 them f. The fourth or internal covering is ten- 
 dinous and robuft : this alfo, by means of its lon- 
 gitudinal fibres, has a power of rendering the 
 trachea and bronchia fhorter, and there are feveral 
 ofcula of glands and fecondary tunics feen in it §. 
 
 The arteries of the afpera arteria are from the 
 external carotids ; the veins from the jugulars : 
 the nerves are from the recurrent ones of the 
 plexus cervicalis. 
 
 The ufes of the trachea are, to aflift in deglu- 
 tition, and to be afTiftant to the lungs. 
 
 On the exterior part of the afpera arteria, there 
 are certain glands very obfervable : they ferve for 
 the moiflening it. They are the thyroide and 
 bronchial. 
 
 The thyroide gland is of a very lingular figure, 
 refembling that of a new moon. It adheres by 
 its middle part to the upper ring of the trachea, 
 and its points or horns are turned upwards. It 
 adheres on each part to the larynx and oefopha- 
 gus. But of this we (hall have occafion to treat 
 more largely S. 383. 
 
 The bronchial glands are of various fizes, fome 
 larger, fome fmaller. They are of a black ifh co- 
 lour, and are connedled to the lower part of the 
 trachea, to the divifions of the bronchia, and to 
 the oefophagus. Their ufe is uncertain ; but we 
 (hall have occafion to fpeak more of them S. 388. 
 
 * See Morgagn. Adv. i. T. 2. fig, i. oo. 
 •f See the fame, letter P. 
 § See the fame, table i . 
 
 260. 
 
^/ANATOMY. 167 
 
 260. After the lungs we are to examine the The 
 heart. ^eart. 
 
 The pericardium is a membranaceous bag, 
 Joofely including the heart, and fituated in the 
 middle and lower part of the thorax, between the 
 two lobes of the lungs. The figure of the peri- 
 cardium is conic, like that of the heart itfelf. Its 
 fize is fuch as can conveniently contain the heart, 
 without prefling upon it. It is conne6led with 
 the mediaftinum, with a great part of the dia- 
 phragm, and with the large veflels of the heart, 
 which, together with this covering, fuftain alfo 
 the heart itfelf in its place. In beads of moil 
 kinds, the heart is not at all connected with the 
 diaphragm by its pericardium. 
 
 The pericardium is compofed of a double mem- 
 brane : the exterior one is common with the pleura 
 and mediaftinum : the interior one is proper, lu- 
 bricous, and is continuous with the coats of the 
 larg'^r veflels. This membrane, when expanded 
 upon the finger, frequently difcovers a great num- 
 ber of foraminula, or httle apertures. The arte- 
 ries and veins of the pericardium are from thofe 
 of the mediaftinum and diaphragm ; and its 
 nerves alfo are from the diaphragmaticks. Its 
 lymphaticks all run to the thoracic duel. 
 
 The ufes of the pericardium are, ift, to fupport 
 the heart in a pendulous ftate, efpecially when we 
 lie down. 2. To defend the hearc from the cold 
 air taken into the lungs. 3. To preferve it from 
 being injured by water, by matter, or any other 
 extraneous fluid in the cavity of the thorax. And, 
 4. To contain the liquor of the pericardium, as 
 it is called, which ferves to facilitate the motions 
 of the heart. 
 
 The liquor of the pericardium is a fluid, refem- 
 bling, in appearance, water in which raw flefh had 
 
 M 4 been 
 
i68 A Compendium 
 
 been waflied. This is found in a fmall quantity 
 in the pericardium, and feems deftined for the 
 keeping the furface of the heart moiftened, for 
 the rendering its motions, which mud neceflarily 
 be connnual and eafy, the more free : much of a 
 fluid is not required to this purpofe, but that there 
 fhould be fome is neceffary ; and this bag is def- 
 tined by nature, among other of its ufes, for the 
 retaining of it. The anatomical writers in gene- 
 ral, deduce this fluid from certain glands, fituated 
 cither in the pericardium, or in the heart itfelf: 
 but as thefe glands are not to be found, it ap- 
 pears more rational to fuppofe, that it is ex- 
 prefTed out from the auricles of the heart in its 
 fyflole, whence there is neceflarily a confl:atit fup- 
 ply, tho' no redundance of it. The obfervations 
 made by BarthoUne on the cafe of a wound in the 
 pericardium *, and the experiments of Thebe- 
 flus f, tend to confirm this : and, in fine, it feems 
 probable, that it is, when redundant, abforbed 
 by the pores of the pericardium, rather than ex- 
 creted ; tho' many are againfl: this J. 
 
 The pericardium is found fometimes, in long 
 hedlicks, to cohere with the fubfl:ance of the heart; 
 and there are accounts of its having been wholly 
 wanting ||. 
 
 261. The heart itfelf is a mufcular part, in- 
 cluded in the pericardium, and fituated nearly ia 
 the middle of the breafl:, between the lobes of the 
 kings. It is the primary organ of the circulation 
 of the blood, and confequently of life. 
 
 Its figure is nearly conic: its larger part is 
 called its bafe ; its fmaller, the apex : its lower 
 
 * See his Anat. Reformat, cap. de Pericardio. 
 
 •\ DifTertat. de Circulat. Sang, in Corde. 
 
 X See Littre's Experiments in the Paris Memoirs 171 1, 
 
 jj See the fame, 171 2. 
 
 part 
 
^/ANATOMY. 1^9 
 
 part is plane ; its upper, convex. Its fituatlon is 
 nearly tranfverfe, or horizontal ; fo that its bafe 
 is in the right, and irs apex, with the greateft part 
 of irs bulk, is in the left fide of the thorax ; and, 
 confequently, it is there that the pulfation of it is 
 felt *. 
 
 The plane furface of the heart lies on the dia- 
 phragm •, the convex one is turned upwards. The 
 heart is connedled, lil, by the intervention of the 
 pericardium with the mediaftinum, and with a 
 large part of the middle of the diaphragm : this 
 is contrived by nature, to prevent its being dif- 
 placed, inverted, or turned too rudely about, in 
 confequence of the various motions of the body. 
 2. Its bafe is connedted to its common veiTels ; 
 but its apex is free, and is received into a kind of 
 cavity in the left lobe of the lungs. 
 
 The length of the human heart is about fix 
 fingers breadth : its breadth, at ihe bafe, is about 
 five fingers ; and its circumference about thirteen. 
 Its fubflance is mufcular, and it has two large 
 cavities called ventricles ; and is furrounded, both 
 externally and internally, with a fmooth mem- 
 brane. There is a quantity of fat about the heart, 
 which covers its bafe and its apex, and ferves for 
 lubricating ir, and for facilitating its motions. Its 
 blood -vejGTels are of two kinds, common and pro- 
 per. The proper or peculiar vefiels of the heart, 
 are the coronary arteries and veins, which are 
 beautifully and elegantly diftributed through the 
 heart, and are finely delineated by Ruyfch -f-. 
 
 The common vefiels of the heart are two veins, 
 called the vena cava, and the vena pulmonalis •, 
 and two arteries, the arteria pulmonalis, and the 
 aorta. 
 
 * See its fituation finely exprefled in Euftachius, T.9. 
 t See Epift. Prob. 3, and Tlief- Anat. 4. T. 3. 
 
 The 
 
lyO -^COMPENDIITM 
 
 The nerves of the heart are not large ; the/ 
 arife from the parvagum and the intercoftals. 
 
 The auricles of the heart are two : they are a 
 kind of appendages of the heart at its bafe, and 
 are diftinguifhed by the names of the right and 
 left. The right auricle is much larger than the 
 left \ and this is placed in the hinder, that in the 
 anterior part. They are intended as diverticula 
 for the blood, during the time of the fyftole. 
 Their fubllance is mufcular, and compofed of 
 flrong fibres, running into a kind of columns, as 
 it were^ with furrows between them for their con- 
 ilridtion, and the expulfion of the blood out of 
 them into the heart, when it is in its diaftole: 
 their motion therefore isnotfynchronous with that 
 of the heart, but achronous. 
 
 There are alfo two cavities in the heart, called 
 its ventricles : of thefe the right is thinner and 
 weaker in its circumference, but ufually much 
 more capacious than the left. They receive the 
 blood from the vena cava, and from the right 
 auricle, and deliver it into the pulmonary artery, 
 to be carried to the lungs. The left ventricle is 
 much thicker and (Ironger in its fides •, but it is 
 narrower and fmaller than the right: it receives 
 the blood from the pulmonary vein and the left 
 auricle, and extrudes it very forcibly into the 
 aorta. The right ventricle is in the anterior part 
 of the thorax ; the left in the hinder part : fo 
 that they might be called the anterior and pofl:e- 
 rior ventricles, much more properly than as they 
 are the right and left. 
 
 Between the two ventricles of the heart there 
 is a very robuft and flrong feptum, which is not 
 perforated. In the right auricle there is alfo a 
 large tubercle in the hearts of quadrupeds, fi(uated 
 between the meeting of the upper and lower 
 
 cava. 
 
(?/ ANATOMY. 171 
 
 cava. Lower, and his followers, give great ufes 
 to this in the human fabrick ; but they (hould 
 have known, that it is not found in the human 
 heart at aiJ. 
 
 There are, in the fides of both the ventricles 
 of the heart, and of both its auricles, fcveral 
 columnar carnese, or lacertuli, with furrows be- 
 tween them, feeming fo many fmall and diftind: 
 mufcles ; and from the concourfe of the tendinous 
 fibres of thefe in the heart, there are formed pecu- 
 liar membranes, or valvular, which are fituated 
 at the orifices of the auricles of the heart : and 
 there are alfo other columns of this kind, which 
 run from one fide of the ventricles, tranfverfely, 
 to the other : thefe ferve partly to afiift the con- 
 traction of the heart in its fyftole, and partly to 
 prevent its too great dilatation in the diaftole*. 
 
 The valvulse of the heart are of three kinds, 
 I. The tricufpidales : thefe are three in number, 
 and are fituated at the ingrefs of the vena cava in 
 the right ventricle. 2. The mitrales : thefe are 
 two, and are fituated in the left ventricle at the 
 ingrefs of the pulmonary vein : thefe ferve to 
 hinder the ingrefs of the blood from the heart 
 into the veios again, while they are conftridled. 
 3. The femilunar ones: thefe are three, and are 
 fituated at the origin of the aorta and pulmonary 
 artery, and ferve to prevent the reflux of the 
 blood from them into the heart : thefe, for the 
 fake of itrength, are furnifhed with a number of 
 flefhy fibres and fpheroide corpufcles f . 
 
 The orifices of the veins of Thebefius J and 
 Verheyen §, in the hollows of the heart, have 
 
 * See Cowper's Myotom. nov. T. 36. ad 40. 
 f See Morgagni Adverf. i. T. 4. fig. 3. 
 X DilTert. de Circul. Sang, in Corde. 
 § Anatom, cap. de CordSo 
 
 beea 
 
172 
 
 A Compendium 
 
 been very improperly taken, by Vieuflens * and 
 others, for arceries, excreting the ferment, as 
 they have expreffed it, of the heart. Their of- 
 fice is truly to carry back the blood from the fub- 
 ftance of the heart to its cavities. 
 
 The fibres of the heart are of a mufcular fub- 
 ftance, and of a moft amazing fabrick. They 
 were firfl explained by Lower -f, in a very elegant 
 manner. They are of two kinds : i . Strait ones 
 in the left ventricle : and, 2d, fpiral ones, com- 
 mon to both ventricles, and of two orders. The 
 exterior ones run to the left, from the bafe 
 of the heart : the interior ones run to the 
 right, and interfe(5t the others-, and, when they 
 aft, they clofely conftringe the cavities of the 
 heart, and drive out the blood from them. 
 
 According to this fabrick, the heart may be re- 
 folved into two mufcles, each of which confti- 
 tutes one of its ventricles §. 
 
 The ufe of the heart, in the oeconomy, is for 
 the circulation of the blood. It receives the 
 blood from the veins, running from all parts of 
 the body ; and propels it again, by its own mo- 
 tion, to all thofe parts, thro' the arteries. On this 
 depend life itfelf, the prefervation of the frame, 
 and the motions and adlions of all its parts. 
 
 This motion of the heart is wonderful : it con- 
 tinues to the utmoft period of life, day and night, 
 without a Tingle moment's interruption or inter- 
 miffion ; and is performed more than an hundred 
 thoufand times every day. Here is, indeed, fome- 
 thing hke what the mechanics want under the 
 name of a perpetual motion ; and the ftupendous 
 
 * Nouvelles decouvert de la Coeur. 
 
 \ Tra6l. de Corde. 
 
 § Winflow in the Paris Memoirs, 171 1. 
 
 wifdom 
 
of ANATOMY. 17^ 
 
 wlfdom of the Creator is in nothing exprcITcd 
 more glorioufly *. 
 
 The circulation of the blood in the fcetus, 
 while yet inclofed in the womb, as there is a de- 
 fedt of refpiration, and the lungs are intirely at 
 reft, is performed neceffarily in a very different 
 manner from that in adult% in whom refpi- 
 ration has fo great a fhare in it. The 
 blood in the fcetus is not (except a very fmall 
 quantity) propelled thro' the Jungs; but is partly 
 fent thro' the foramen ovale, which is betweea 
 the right and left auricle, and partly thro' the 
 canalis arrcriofus, which is between the aorta and 
 the pulmonary artery, to the left ventricle of the 
 heart and the aorta. 
 
 262. The oefophagus, or gula, called by fome 
 of the antients the ftomachus, is a membrana- 
 ceous canal, reaching from the fauces to the fto- 
 mach, and conveying into it the food and drink 
 taken in at the mouth. Its figure is fomewhat 
 like that of a funnel ; and its upper part is called 
 by anatomifts the pharynx. Its fituation is almoft 
 exadlly behind the afpera arteria, and longitudi- 
 nally with the vertebra of the neck and back ; 
 but when it enters the cavity of the thorax, it 
 turns a little to the right, on account of the aorta. 
 
 Its fubftance is membranaceous ; and it is com- 
 pofed of five coats : the firft or exterior coat is 
 membranaceous, and is continuous with the pleura 
 in the thorax. The fecond is robuft and mufcu- 
 lar ; and, in the human body, it is compofed of a 
 double ftratum of fibres : thofe of one feries, lon- 
 gitudinal; thofe of the other, annular or cir- 
 
 * See Hamberger's DifTertat. de Deo in Demonftratione 
 Cordis, 
 
 " 6 culan; 
 
174 yfCoMPENDIUM 
 
 cular *. In oxen it is compofed of two fpiral 
 lamellse, decuflating with one another, and ferving 
 very advantageoufly for the conftridion of the 
 part. The third coat is cellular, much like that 
 of the inteftines. The fourth is nervous, and is 
 divifible into a number of other lamellas, and fur- 
 nifhed with a multitude of glands andvelTcls: 
 this is hence divided by Verheyen -f into two, un- 
 der the names of a vafculous and a glandulous 
 coat. This is continuous with the interior mem- 
 brane of the mouth and ftomach. The fifth coat 
 is villofe, and is called by authors crufta villofa : 
 this is always covered with a mucous liquor. 
 
 The mufcles of the pharynx ferve to open or 
 fhut the oefophagus : but of thefe we ihall treat 
 more at large in the Myology. 
 
 There are a number of glands fituated in the 
 Vpper part of the pharynx *, and excretory ofcula, 
 or openings, are frequently difcovered with them. 
 
 The arteries of the oefophagus are from the 
 carotids, the aorta, the intercoftals, and the 
 cosliac. 
 
 The veins are from the jugulars, the azygos, 
 and the coronary vein of the ftomach. 
 
 The nerves are from the par vagum. That 
 there are alfo lymphaticks, is probable; but they 
 are, at leaft, not eafily difcovered. 
 
 There are alfo certain excretory du6ts, called 
 dudlus excretorii novae Vercelloni §, which arife 
 from the glands, and convey a faltifh liquor into 
 the oefophagus and ftomach. The glands, from 
 which thefe have their origin, are of three kinds : 
 
 • See Cowper's Myotom. in fol. T. 29. fig. 3 ; Schel- 
 hammer's Analedl. difT. 8. 54; and Santorini, p. 138. who 
 contended for their being fquare. 
 
 f See Anatom. de Oefophagus. 
 
 ^ See Diifed. Aoat. de Gland. Oefophag, 
 
of ANATOMY. 175 
 
 1. The gaftrick glands, which are conglomerate, 
 and are fituated near the left orifice of the ftomach. 
 
 2. The dorfal ones, which are fituated near the 
 fifrh vertebra of the thorax. And, 3. The bron- 
 chial^ tracheal, and thyroide, already defcribed. 
 
 T\it lue of the oefophagus is for deglutition, 
 and a com mixtion of the liquid, ferving for 
 digeftion. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Of the Neck^ which is the third part of the trunk, 
 
 263. ^"X^ HE neck, collum^ is that (lender part 
 j[ of the trunk fituated between the tho- 
 rax and the head, and extending from the fter- 
 num and clavicles to the head. 
 
 It confifts of, I ft. The common teguments. 
 2. The vertebrae, ufually feven in number. 3. A ' 
 number of mufcles, ferving to move the head, 
 the neck, the larynx, the pharynx, and the os 
 hyoides. 4. A number of very large arteries, as 
 the carotids, internal and external, and the verte- 
 bral ones. 5. Of large veins, as the jugular, in- 
 ternal and external, and the vertebral ones. 6. Of 
 large nerves of the par vagum, the intercoftals, 
 the recurrent, the diaphragmaticks, and the ver- 
 tebral. 7. Pare of the fpinal marrow. 8. The 
 afpera artcria, or trachea, particularly the larynx, 
 in which is an eminence called the pomum Adami. 
 9. The pharynx, with a part of the oefophagus. 
 And, 10. The thyroide, with fome other fmaller 
 glands. 
 
 264. We have already treated of the vertebrse, 
 the afpera arteria, and the oefophagus ; and we 
 fhall hereafter treat of the fpinal marrow, the ar- 
 teries, the veins, and the nerves, in their places. 
 
 2 All 
 
176 ^ Compendium 
 
 All that it was necefifary to do here was to enu- 
 merate them, not to pafs over the neck unre- 
 garded, as many of the anatomical writers have 
 done. Tho* its feveral parts are, according to 
 our own plan, to be treated of feverally in other 
 places, yet it is neceflary to know them in their 
 fituation. The neck contains parts as neceflary 
 to life as any divifion of the body ; and hence 
 Ariflotle, Ruffus, Oribafius, Coiterus, Riolanus, 
 Ruyfch, Morgagni, and others, have agreed in 
 making it a diftindt part in the divifion of the 
 body, as not only a part of the utmoft importance, 
 but which could not properly be referred either to 
 the head, or to the thorax. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Of the Head^ the fourth part of the trunk » 
 
 265. T5 Y the term head^ caput, the anatomifts 
 JL^ underfland what they call the fourth 
 part of the trunk, comprehending that portion of 
 the human frame which is placed above the upper 
 vertebra of the neck. 
 
 The figure of the head is roundifh, but 
 oblong, fomewhat approaching to an oval, 
 prominent both before and behind, but flat- 
 ted at the fides, and that in fuch a manner, 
 that the anterior part, efpecially about the fore- 
 head, is narrower than the pofterior. When the 
 head is of a contrary fliape from this, or even 
 when it but recedes confiderably from it, it is a 
 deformity, and generally is the occafion as well as 
 indication of a diftemperature of the fenfes. 
 
 The fize of the head is to be proportioned to 
 that of the body : when eirker too fmall or too 
 large for it, the confequence is not only a great 
 
 impair*- 
 
^?/ AN ATOMY. 177 
 
 impairing of the fymmetry and beauty of the 
 whole, but of the reafon. 
 
 The head is fituated at the top of the body, 
 for the fake of the more commodious lodging of 
 the organs of fenfation in it : thefe ferve as a kind 
 of centinels to the foul, and are therefore mod 
 conveniently placed in the higheft pofition. 
 
 Anatomids divide the fuperficies of the head 
 into two parts ; that which is covered with hair, 
 and that which is not. That part of the head not 
 covered with hair, is called the face ; and in it 
 are the organs of the feveral fenfes, the eyes, 
 nofe, &c. That part which is covered with hair, 
 is called by feveral names in its feveral parts : the 
 anterior portion of it is called fmciput •, the pofte- 
 rior, occiput -, the upper part, the bregma and 
 vertex ; and the fides, the temples. 
 
 The parts of which the head is compofed are 
 of two kinds : the continentes, or containing ; 
 and the contents, or contained. 
 
 266. The continent or containing parts of the 
 hairy portion of the head, are in part common, 
 in part proper. The common are the cuticle, or 
 epidermis ; the cutis, which is very thick ; and 
 the fat. There is but little of this about the 
 fkuli ; but about the cheeks there is confiderably 
 more. 
 
 The proper or peculiar continent parts are, 
 
 1. The hairs, of which we have treated already. 
 
 2. The four mufcles of the cranium, which are 
 very thin : two in the fore part, and called fron- 
 tales, or frontal mufcles ; and two in the hinder, 
 called occipitales, or occipital mufcles. Thefe 
 cover the upper part of the fkull with their ten- 
 dons, as with a kind of helmet. But of thefe we 
 are to fpeak more at large hereafter, in our 
 Myology. 
 
 N 3, 
 
lyS A Compendium 
 
 3; The pericranium is a membrane im- 
 mediately invefting the cranium, and is thin, 
 but confiderably firm and ftrong. This coheres 
 wirh the cranium, with the adjoining mufcles, 
 and with the dura mater. The pericranium may 
 be divided into two parts, an exterior and an in- 
 terior membrane ; and hence fome hare divided 
 . it into two feparate portions, under two diftindt 
 names of the pericranium and the periofteum j 
 but this divifion is not eflential or neceffary. 
 
 It has a very great number of blood-veflels in 
 common with the other parts of the head ♦, and 
 its nerves are from the vertebrce of the neck, and 
 the feventh pair of the brain. 
 
 Its ufes are, i. To fupport the veffels, for the 
 nutrition of the cranium. 2. To occafion fenfa- 
 tion in the cranium, which,- as a mere bone, 
 would, without this membrane, have been wholly 
 infenfible. 
 
 The fourth of the proper continent parts of the 
 head is the cranium itfelf, which is intended for 
 the defence of the brain, and is merely and in- 
 tirely boney. It is compofed of eight robuft 
 bones, joined by futures. Of thefe we have already 
 treated in our Ofteology. In this place we are 
 only to obferve, that, in order to the examination 
 of the internal parts of the head, the difledor is 
 to cut the fkull tranfverfely, in half, with a faw ; 
 and the upper half being then carefully lifted off, 
 there will be obferved a number of redifh dots, 
 which fhew where it has adhered by velTels to the 
 dura mater internally, by which it is nourifhed. 
 
 The parts contained in the head are the brain, 
 &c. 
 
 267. In our examination of the brain, which 
 is the primary feat of the foul, we are firft to 
 obferve its three membranes, which are called , 
 
 menynges 
 
of ANATOMY. ijg 
 
 menynges and matres. Thefe are, i ft, The dura 
 mater. This is a robuft and thick membrane, 
 compofed of tendinous fibres, and fituated imme- 
 diately under the cranium *. In this we are 
 to obferve the red Ipots, made by the feparating 
 the cranium from it, and fhewing the places of 
 their adhefion. Its figure and magnitude cor- 
 refpond exa<5l]y with thofe of the brain. It i% 
 joined in every part to the fkull ; only that, in 
 the upper part, it adheres more laxly than elfe- 
 where : in the low^r part it is moft firmly con- 
 nedled, and it adheres, tho' not very firmly, to 
 tht parts placed under it. It has its arteries from 
 the carotids, and they are beautifully ramified in 
 it, in the manner of little fhrubs*]-. Its veins are 
 of two kinds; fome, as in the other parts of the 
 body ; and others peculiar, of a triangular figure, 
 and robuft, and called finus's. 
 
 Many anatomifts fpeak of a great number of 
 thefe X 'y others make them only four, or at leaft 
 allow only four principal ones, Thefe are, ift, 
 the fagittal, or longitudinal. This running from 
 the forehead to the occiput, thro' the middle 
 of the brain, terminates, in fine, in two lateral 
 ones, which reprefent the figure of the Greek cir- 
 cumflex, and empty themfelves on each fide into 
 the jugular veins : thefe are to be feen when the 
 brain is taken out. The fourth comes from the 
 part where the pineal gland is fituated, and is in- 
 serted nearly in the part where the three juft de- 
 fcribed meet §. That part is called the torcular 
 herophili ||. The fmaller ones are numerous, and 
 
 * See Pacchion, de dura mater, 
 f SeeRuyfch's Thef. 5. T. 2. fig. 4. 
 X See Oitlob. Oecon. Animal, fig. i. and VieulTens in 
 Neurolog. 
 
 § See Ridley's Anat. Cereb. fig. 4. 
 8 See the fame. 
 
 N 2 are 
 
iSo A Compendium 
 
 are placed within the brain : of thefe we (hall fpeak 
 hereafter in their place. The infertion of the 
 veins of the brain into thefe finus's, is very fin- 
 gular and remarkable. 
 
 In our examination of the dura mater, we are 
 alfo to obferve the glandujas conglobate Pac- 
 chioni *, which are fmall ; and the chordae tranf- 
 verfse of Willis, which ferve to prevent the too 
 great extenfion of the finus's. 
 
 The ufe of the finus's of the dura mater is to 
 carry the blood from the brain, by a very peculiar 
 mechanifm. 
 
 The dura mater has nerves, for fenfation, from 
 the fifth and feventh pair of the brain. It has 
 been afiferted by many alfo, that it has lympha- 
 ticks in confiderable number ♦, but they have not 
 yet been abfolutely demonflrated. 
 
 The dura mater has alio three procefTes, i. The 
 falciform, fo called from its figure, refembling 
 that of a reaper's fickle : this is placed between 
 the two hemifpheres of the brain. 2. The pro- 
 cefs between the cerebrum and cerebellum. And, 
 3. That in the ^ivifion of the cerebellum, of very 
 important ufe. 
 
 The dura mater has a motion, which Baglivi 
 and Pacchion. will have to be peculiar to itfelf, and 
 of the mufcular kind •, but it appears much more 
 naturally to depend upon the pulfations of the ar- 
 teries of the brain f. 
 
 The ufes of the dura mater are, i. To ferve in 
 the place of a periofteum to the internal parts of 
 the fkull. 2. To defend the brain. 3. By its 
 procefTes to prevent the comprefTion, which both 
 the cerebrum and cerebellum would otherwife be 
 
 * See Ridley's Trcatife de dura mater. 
 
 f See his Account in the Philof. Tranf. 1703. 
 
 liable 
 
&f ANATOMY. i%i 
 
 liable to. And, 4. By means of its finus's, to 
 give warmth to the brain, 
 
 268. The arachnoides is the fecond coat or 
 membrane of the brain. It is extremely thin 
 and delicate, and has its name from ihe re fern- 
 blance it has to a fpider's web. It is fituated im- 
 mediately under the dura mater, and occupies the 
 fpace between that and the pia mater. It is con- 
 neded fo clofely with the pia mater, in the upper 
 part of the brain, that it cannot be feparated 
 without tearing : but in the lower part, and efpe- 
 cially about the cerebellum, the medulla oblon- 
 gata, and finus's, it is conneded fo loofely, that 
 it is eafily diftinguifhable without cutting \ not- 
 withftanding that fome, to this time, doubt, or 
 totally deny, its exiftence ; or agree with Ridley ^, 
 calling it only the exterior lamella of the pia 
 mater. It is extended as far as the dura mater, 
 covering the whole brain, and the fpinal tnarrow 
 intire : it covers the latter, however, only in a 
 very loofe manner; and is beautifully and dif- 
 tindly feen on it, when fufpended in .a clear glafs 
 wi|h fpirit of wine. 
 
 There are blood-veflels delineated by fome au- 
 thors t, as belonging to the tunica arachnoides ; 
 but it is not eafy to find them in the membrane 
 itfelf : it rather looks of the nature of the epider- 
 mis, which has no blood-veflels at all. 
 
 Santorini has, however, difcovered certain 
 glands between this membrane and the dura ma- 
 ter, about the trunks of the veiTels, which ferve 
 for the fecretion of a certain fluid within the cavi- 
 ty, between thefe membranes 1|. 
 
 * Anatom. cerebri. 
 
 f See Bidloo's Anat. corp. hum. T. 8. fig. 5. 
 
 K Obferv. Anat. p. 52. 
 
 N 3 T¥ 
 
^^2 A Compendium 
 
 The ufe of tunica arachnoides is to (ervfe as 
 a covering to the brain ; for it does not appear, 
 that fo thin a membrane, and that dellitute of 
 vefitils, can be of any other ufe to fuch important 
 parts as the brain and the fpinal marrow. Santo- 
 rini * well obferves, however, that as the pia ma- 
 ter defcends deeply into the cavities between the 
 anfrad:ofities, or windings of the brain, this mem- 
 brane is always, in that cafe, fo regularly ftretched 
 over it, that the veffels, which pafs under it, are 
 ilrengthened by it ; and that it connefts the fides 
 of thefe frequent furrows, or fulci, and abfolutely 
 prevents the poflibility of any thing getting into 
 them, that might pcflibly be noxious to the brain. 
 This is a very important ufe of this membrane, 
 tho' merely as a covering of the brain •, and the 
 accurate author has made it out very plainly and 
 perfedlly. 
 
 269. The third tunic, or membrane of the 
 brain, is the pia mater. This is placed imme- 
 diately under the tunica arachnoides, and isclofely 
 and firmly connedled to the brain, which it im- 
 mediately furrounds. The pia mater is not only 
 extended over the whole furface of the brain, but 
 it infinuates itfelf into all its cavities, and is car- 
 ried down to the bottom of all its furrows in its 
 anfraduofities. It covers alfo the fpinal marrow, 
 and all the nerves : hence its fuperficies is much 
 greater than that of any other of the membranes 
 of the brain. 
 
 It adheres very firmly to the brain itfelf, in a 
 healthful Hate ; bur, in hydropical cafes, it is ren- 
 dered much loofer. It adheres alfo to the tunica 
 arachnoides very clofely and firmly, in the upper 
 
 * Obferv. Anat. p. 53. 
 
 part 
 
tf ANATOMY. 
 
 part of the head ; but much lefs fo below with 
 the dura mater. It has no other connection, ex- 
 cept by the veins running to the finiis's. 
 
 Its blood-veffels are common to the reft of the 
 brain, and are very numerous ; fo that it feems 
 in a manner wholly compofed of them, as Ruyfch 
 firft fhewed by his injedions. The arteries are 
 from the internal carotids and vertebrals. The 
 veins, fome of them, difcharge themfelves into 
 the finus's of the dura mater ; others immediately 
 into the jugular and vertebral veins. There are 
 no nerves, yet difcovered, entering the fubftance 
 of this membrane, nor any lymphaticks. Willis 
 and others have attributed glands to the pia ma- 
 ter, and given them the office of fecreting a pecu- 
 liar liquid, deftined for the lubricating of the 
 menynges ; but thefe are, in general, found only 
 about the longitudinal finus ; or feem to be the 
 fame with thofe mentioned before, S, 26S. and 
 which Santorini has afcribed to the tunica arach- 
 noidcs. 
 
 The ufe of the pia mater is to fupport the 
 biood-veflels of the brain, which it alfo ferves as 
 a covering to, that they may be the more conve- 
 niently diftributed, by this means, thro' all the 
 furrows and anfracluolities, for the fecreting the 
 proper fluids in the brain, and forming the ani- 
 mal fpirits. 
 
 270. After the examination of the membranes 
 inverting the brain, we come to the couflderation 
 of the brain itfeif. Its figure is roundifh ; but 
 with fome inequalities and furrows, called anfrac- 
 tus and gyri, which give it fome what of the ap- 
 pearance of the inteftines, as they lie together in 
 their place. It is divided into two hemifpheres, 
 
 N4 by 
 
184. ]/^ Compendium 
 
 by means of the procefibs falciformis of the dura 
 mater, already defcribed •, and thefe are again di- 
 vided into the anterior and pofterior lobes. 
 
 The human brain is, in general, fo large as to 
 weigh about four pounds. It is nearly three times 
 as much in quantity as the brain of an ox. 
 
 Its fubftance, on cutting ofFa part of it, is found 
 to be of two kinds ; an exterior one, called the 
 cineritious or cortical part 5 and an interior, called 
 the medullary. 
 
 The cortical part of the brain is about a fixth 
 of an inch in thicknefs, and it penetrates in the 
 Terpentine mazes and furrows, deep into the brain. 
 Its ftru6lure, according to Malpighi, Bidloo, and 
 mod of their followers, is declared to be glan- 
 dulous 'y but Ruyfch, Berger, and VieulTens, have 
 proved, by their injedions, that it is almoil in- 
 tirely vafcular * ; at leafl:, ic does not appear 
 that the glands the former authors fpeak of, are, 
 or ever have been, fairly demonflrated. 
 
 The ftru6lureof the interior or medullary part 
 of the brain is fibrous and tubular. It has its ori- 
 gin from the extremely fmall arteries of the ex- 
 terior or cortical part, and its termination is the 
 beginning of the nerves. It is fomewhat harder 
 than the cortical part. 
 
 When the two hemifpheres of the brain are 
 drawn back, the corpus callofum comes in view : 
 this is whitifh, hard, and joins the two hemi- 
 fpheres. In this part Lancifi and feveral others 
 have fuppofed the foul particularly to refide f. 
 
 * See his Epift. 12. and his Thefaur. Anat. in feveral 
 places. Alfo Berger in his Phyiiologia ; and Vieuffens in his 
 Nov. Syftem. vaforum. 
 
 t See DifTertat. de Sede animce cogitantis. Camerar. in 
 Elect. Med. p. 18. 
 
 The 
 
^/ANATOMY. 185 
 
 The ventricles of the brain are certain remark- 
 able cavities. There are ufually reckoned four of 
 them : two anterior ones, which are very large, 
 and which fhew themfelves, when the brain is 
 taken off, down to the corpus callofum, by an 
 horizontal fedion. In the examination of thefe 
 we are to obferve, i. The feptum lucidum, or 
 pellucid partition, which offers itfelf to view be- 
 tween thefe two cavities, as foon as the corpus 
 callofum is raifed. This feptum is compofed of 
 a fine medullary fubflance, and is formed into 
 two fides, or parietes, with a longitudinal cavity 
 between them. It is covered with the pia mater; 
 and it divides the two ventricles, as the mediafti- 
 num does the cavity of the thorax. Galen, and 
 other of the old authors, have called it diaphrag- 
 ma cerebri. 
 
 2. The fornix : this is feen under the feptum 
 jucidum ; and is compofed, like it, of a medullary 
 fubflance. Its anterior part rifes with a double 
 bafe ; but the two parts foon unite i the hinder 
 part is, however, again bifid. The bifid part is 
 called, by fome, crura fornicis ; by others, pedes 
 hippocampi. 
 
 3. The plexus choroideus, which is very full of 
 veflels ; but has no glands. This is beautifully 
 delineated by Ruyfch f* 
 
 4. The corpora ftriata, which are of a greyifli 
 colour on the outfide, and ftriated within. 
 
 5. The thalami nervorum opticorum. Thefe 
 are white on the outfide, and greyifh within -, and 
 between thefe and the crura of the medulla oblon- 
 gata, is fituated the third ventricle of the brain j. 
 In this, after we have examined part of the plexus 
 
 f See his Epift. T. 15. 
 J See T, 4. in this work. 
 
 choroides. 
 
i86 A Compendium 
 
 choroides, we are to obfcrve the glandula pinealis, 
 or pineal gland. This is of a greyifh colour, and 
 its proceffes and bafe are often medullary. This 
 gland has alfo, by many, been fuppofed the pe- 
 culiar feat of the foul. 
 
 After this we are to obferve the nutes and tefles ; 
 and under thefe the valvula magna, cerebri, and 
 the aquaedudt of Sylvius, the poftcrior orifice of 
 which is called its anus, and its anterior vulva and 
 rima. This makes a communication between 
 the two anterior ventricles, and the fourth, which 
 is continuous to this : but all thefe are moft con- 
 veniently feen when the brain is taken out of the 
 fkull. The fourth ventricle is a cavity between 
 the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata. It is 
 conveniently feen when the brain is taken out, 
 and the cerebellum diffeded. 
 
 271. After examining the cavities or ventri* 
 cles of the brain, we are to look into the cerebel- 
 lum. This is fituated under the pofterior lobes 
 of the brain, and the hinder proceffes of the dura 
 mater, in the lower part of the cavity of the 
 fkull. Its figure approaches to a globular one. 
 Its fuperficies is lefs anfrafluous, or gyrated, than 
 that of the brain; but it is furrowed : the furrows 
 are deepeft and largeft in the middle ; and from 
 thence they gradually grow fmaller every way, in 
 form of fo many fegments of circles, till by de- 
 grees they terminate in what is called the vermi- 
 form procefs. 
 
 The fubftance of the cerebellum, if cut into 
 the right and left parts, appears much the fame 
 with that of the brain ; but the cortical part is 
 here much more in quantity than the medullary : 
 this, in a very elegant manner, refembles a kind 
 of Ihrubs, or httle trees ; the trunks of which 
 form what are called the peduncles of the cere- 
 bellum. 
 
c/ ANATOMY. 187 
 
 bellum. Tho' the brain has its feveral cavities, 
 the cerebellum has none. 
 
 The lobuli of the cerebellum adhere in clufters, 
 in the manner of leaves on trees, to the arbufculi 
 meduliares, already mentioned : they are very 
 beautifully feen, on dividing the cerebellum 5 and 
 are furrounded with the pia mater, and compofe 
 the far greater part of the fubftance of the cere- 
 bellum *. 
 
 The peduncles of the cerebellum confift: of 
 three medullary procefTes. The firft afcends from 
 the cerebellum cowards the teftes, and forms 
 what is called the valvula magna of the brain. 
 The fecond forms the annular prominence of Wil-^ 
 lis ; and the third defcends to the fpinal marrow. 
 
 272. The medulla oblongata is the lower and 
 medullary part of the cerebrum and cerebellum, 
 formed into a kind of tail, and extended to the 
 great foramen or hole in the occipital bone of the 
 cranium, where it gives origin to the fpinal mar* 
 row, and to the nerves of the brain -f. 
 
 In taking the brain carefully out of the fkull, 
 there are diflinguifhed, in the lower part of this, 
 the nerves of the brain, which are ufually called 
 ten pair, but are properly only nine ; and are, for 
 the fake of memory, reduced into the form of 
 two Latin verfes : 
 
 Olfaciens, cernens^ oculofque movens, patienfquej 
 Gujians^ ahducensy audienfque^ vaganfjue, loquenfquey 
 
 At the fame time alfo we are to obferve the 
 ingrefs of the internal carotids into the Ikull ; 
 the infundibulum, and its infertion into the pitui- 
 
 * See T. 4. in this work. 
 
 •\ Schelhammcr, and many others, fuppofe this to be the 
 common fenfory. See Anal. DilT. 13, 
 
 tary 
 
i88 !^^ Compendium 
 
 tary gland ; and, finally, the acceflbry fpinal nerve 
 of Willis *. 
 
 After the brain is taken out, we are to obferve, 
 in its lower part, the anaftomofes of the carotid 
 and vertebral arteries f, and their diftribution 
 thro' the brain J, the crura of the medulla oblon- 
 gata of the brain, and the crura or peduncles of 
 the cerebellum, from which arife the medulla 
 oblongata, and the fpinal marrow •, the origin of 
 the feveral pairs of nerves of the brain ; the two 
 orbicular protuberances, behind the infundibulum ; 
 the auricular protuberance of Willis, called alfo 
 the pons varoli, very ill defcribed and delineated 
 by Willis and others, but very well by Ruyfch § ; 
 the end of the medulla oblongata, and, in this, 
 the pyramidal and olivary eminences, defcribed by 
 Vieuflens || and Ruyfch ^ : and, finally, the tunica 
 arachnoides, which is very finely diftinguifhable 
 in this part. 
 
 In the upper part of the brain, when turned 
 vip, we are to obferve the fourth ventricle, and 
 the calamus feriptorius, with its crena ; all the 
 other parts, which have been already defcribed as 
 belonging to the third ventricle, and the fubftance 
 of the medulla oblongata, which is, in its exter- 
 nal part, medullary j and, within, contains fome- 
 what of the cortical or cineritious fubftance. 
 
 The veflels of this part, and of the whole 
 brain, are arteries and veins, very difiinguifhable 
 and obvious ; and authors have added nerves and 
 lymphatickss but thefe are not fo eafily djftin- 
 
 * See his de Cerebro, fig. i . M. M. 
 
 -f- See Ridley, 1. c. fig. i. 
 
 j See Ruyfch's Epift. probl. T. 13, and l^, 
 
 § See Ruyfch's Epift, probl. 15, 
 
 II See T. 4. R. S. 
 
 ^ See Epift. T. 14. 
 
 guifliable. 
 
^/ANATOMY. 189 
 
 guifhable. The arteries are from the carotids 
 and vertebrals: the carotids fcnt branches into the 
 cranium, thro' the fingular canals of the os pe- 
 trofum ; the vertebrals thro' the great foramen of 
 the occipital bone : they make feveral lurprifing 
 inflexions. The veins fcarce penetrate into the 
 internal fubftance of the brain -, but, arifing from 
 the cortical part, they are inferted into the finus's 
 of the dura mater. 
 
 The ufes of the brain, in general, are, ift. 
 To be of the utmoft importance and affiftance to 
 the animal fundcions. 2. To fecrete the animal 
 fpirits, and to tranfmit them to the nerves, for 
 the necellities of fenfation and motion. 
 
 The cerebrum is fuppofed to be particularly 
 conftrudled for the fecretion of the animal, the 
 cerebellum for the vital and natural fpirits. The 
 peculiar ufes, to which the feveral particular parts 
 of the brain are deftined, are wholly unknown. 
 
 273. The medulla fpinalis, or fpinal marrow, 
 is a continuation of the medulla oblongata of 
 the brain, and forms, as ic were, a kind of tail to 
 that part. It is included in a kind of boney canal, 
 formed by the vertebra, and in this is continued, 
 from the head to the extremity of the os factum. 
 
 Its length is therefore the fame with that of 
 the fpina dorfi, which is different in perfons of 
 different ftature. Its thicknefs, in general, is 
 about equal to that of a finger •, but it is not uni- 
 formly of the fame diameter throughout. Its 
 proper integuments are no lefs than fix : thefe are, 
 
 1. The boney canal, formed by the cavities of 
 twenty-four vertebrae, and the os facrum. 
 
 2. The tunica, which is very ftrong, and con- 
 nedls the vertebne within. 3. The cellular or 
 adipofe coat, which, in fat perfons, always con- 
 tains more or lefs fat, and feems deftined by na« 
 
 5 ft^rc 
 
I^O yfCoMPENDIUM 
 
 cure to ferve for thefoftening the former. 4. The 
 dura macer, which is ftronger in the upper parr, 
 and finer and weaker in the Jower : this loofely 
 enclofes the medulla in the fpine, and, in its an- 
 terior part, is firmly connected with the ver- 
 tebrae. 5. The tunica arachnoidcs, which, in 
 its anterior part, adheres very firmly to the pia 
 mater; but in its pofterior part is Joofe and 
 fiuduating. The fixth and laft covering of the 
 fpinal marrow is the pia mater : this furrounds 
 every part of the fpinal marrow, and all the nerves 
 that arife from it, and enters alfo its longitudinal 
 divifion. 
 
 The divifion of the fpinal marrow is formed 
 by means of a fifTure : it is by this feparated, ac- 
 cording to authors, into a right and left part, or 
 into two columns ; but this feparation is not con- 
 tinued to the centre. 
 
 The arteries and veins of the fpinal marrow 
 enter at the apertures of the vertebras, which give 
 pafiage out to the nerves : they make a multitude 
 of anaftomofes, and are derived from the verte- 
 brais of the neck, the intercoftals, and the 
 lumbar. 
 
 The nerves of the fpine are thirty- one, or, as 
 others count them, thirty- two pair. Thefe are 
 compofed each of a multitude of fibres, arifing 
 from the anterior and pofterior parts of the me- 
 dulla : thefe fibres afterwards unite, and are con- 
 nedled by and covered with membranes, and in 
 that ftate they conftiiute what we call nerves. 
 
 The fubftance of the medulla fpinalis, in the 
 upper part, as far as to the laft vertebra of the 
 thorax, is the fame with that of the medulla ob- 
 longata of the brain ; but fomewhat tougher and 
 more firm : they are externally pf a medullary 
 fubftance, that the nerves may cafiJy make their 
 
 way 
 
^/ANATOMY. 191 
 
 way out; internally cineritious, and of the fame 
 nature with the cineritious or cortical part of the 
 brain : but the lower part of them, from the laft 
 vertebra of the thorax to the extremity of the os 
 facrum, is fibrous and very tenacious, and is called 
 by authors cauda equina. 
 
 The ufes of the fpinal marrow are, i. To 
 give origin to the before mentioned pairs of 
 nerves, which are principally diftributed to the 
 limbs and external parts. And, 2. To fecrete and 
 prepare a nervous fluid for their purpofes. 
 
 274. After the taking the brain intirely out of 
 the fkull, there yet remain, for our obfervation, 
 the egrefs of the nine pair of nerves of the brain, 
 and the ingrefs of the arteries of the brain, and 
 thofe of the dura mater ; as alfo the larger finus's 
 of the dura mater, the fecond, third, and 4th 
 already mentioned, S. 267. 
 
 The inferior finus of the falx, and the circular 
 one * ; what are called the receptacula plana, the 
 pituitary gland by the antients -f , and feveral 
 other fmaller ones in the bafis of the cranium t, 
 together with their various ways out of the cra- 
 nium §, and their ingrefs, which is partly into the 
 occipital and vertebral veins, but more ufually 
 into the jugulars. 
 
 We are alfo to obferve the rete mirabile, 
 which is a plexus of veffels and membranaceous 
 fibres, in manner of a net, fituated on each fide, 
 near the pituitary gland, and under the dura ma- 
 ter, where the circular finus is. This is found to 
 
 * See Ridley, fig. 2. 
 
 -f- See Morgagni, Adv. 6. p. 7. 
 
 % See Vieuifen's Neurograph. T. 17. Ortlobf. HiH. Part.. 
 and Morgagni Adverf. 6. 
 
 § See Santorini, who defcribes thefe under the names of 
 the various emiiTarii. 
 
 be 
 
192 A Compendium 
 
 be much larger in fome quadrupeds than in the 
 human frame ; but its ufe is hitherto unknown. 
 
 After this we are to obferve the pituitary gland : 
 this is a fmalj gland, fituated in the fella equina, 
 between the duplicature of the dura mater, and 
 has a cavity in it *. 
 
 It has its name from its ufe, which is the ab- 
 forbing the pituitary matter of the brain. 
 
 It has two membranes, i. It is furrounded and 
 fupported by the dura mater f. 2. By a thin 
 membrane, analagous to the pia mater, and per- 
 forated for the infundibulum. Its fize and fhape 
 are nearly thofe of a common kidney-bean ; but 
 it has an appendage in its pofterior part. It is 
 ufually larger in quadrupeds than in the human 
 frame. Its fubftance is glandulous ; its colour, a 
 pale whitifh red : it is ufually confiderably hard 
 and firm ; but fomewhat fofter, and of a greyifh 
 colour, in the appendage X, 
 
 It has arteries from the carotids : its veins run 
 to the neighbouring fmus's. Its nerves are from 
 the fifth pair. Its excretory dudl is probably the 
 infundibulum already mentioned j for there does 
 not appear to be any other. 
 
 The ufe generally attributed to this gland is 
 the abforbing the pituita of the ventricles of the 
 brain, and afterwards difcharging it §. But there 
 does not feem a fufficient foundation for this fup- 
 pofition ; fince, i. The proper office of a gland is 
 to fecrete a fluid, not to receive one already fe- 
 creted : 2. Becaufe a fimple canal would have 
 aufwered fufficiently to fuch a purpofe, and the 
 
 * See Littre's Account in the Memoirs of the Paris Aca- 
 demy, 1700. 
 
 -f- See the fame in the fame paper. 
 
 X See Morgagni, 1. c. p. 31. 
 
 % See Brunner de Gland, pituit. &c. 
 
 apparatus 
 
of ANATOMY. 193 
 
 apparatus of a gland had been therefore unnecef- 
 fary. And, 3. Becaufe its fubltance is fo hard and 
 firm, as to render it very improper for fuch a 
 ufe *. 
 
 275. After having gone thro' the examination 
 of thus much of the head, we now are to pro- 
 ceed to the face, or that part of it which is 
 not covered with the common long hair. The 
 parts of the face, that are ro come under our con- 
 fideration, are of two kinds ; the continent, or 
 containing, and the contained. 
 
 Of the continent parts of the face, fome are 
 common, others proper, or peculiar. Of the 
 number of the common ones, are, ifl. The epi- 
 dermis. 2. The cutis. From the colour and 
 finenefs of thefe two parts arifes the principal 
 beauty of the face. 3. The fat, which is in con- 
 iiderable quantity, and in this part is frequently 
 alfo covered with a panniculus carnofus, adding 
 ^nuch to the beauty uf the face. 
 
 The proper continent parts of the face, are, 
 
 1. The mufcles, as the frontals, thofe of the nofe, 
 of the iips, of the lower jaw, and the reft ; of 
 which we (hail treat in the Myology. And, 
 
 2. The bones, which we have already defcribed 
 in the Otleology. 
 
 The ccnrained parts are, the organs of the five 
 fenfes: of feeing, tafting, fmelling, hearing, and 
 feeling. The laft of thefe, however, more accu- 
 rately fpeaking, belongs to the whole furfacc of 
 the fldn. 
 
 The organs of fight are the eyes. In thefe 
 we are to obferve their fituation,in the upper pare 
 of the face, by means of which we are able to fee 
 to a greater diftance than we otherwife could 5 
 their figure, which, excepting for the external 
 
 * See Drake's Amhropol. p. 4.90. 
 
 O' parts. 
 
154 -^Compendium 
 
 parts, is globular-, and their colour, which, in 
 the human fpecies, is variable •, in Tome black, in 
 others brown or hazel, in fome greyifh, in fome 
 blueifh. The parts which are deftined for the 
 afliftance of feeing, but do not enter into the 
 compofition of the eye, are the eyebrows, the 
 eyelids, and the mufcles of the eyes. 
 
 The eyebrowSj fupercilia, are two hairy arches, 
 extended over the orbit of the eyes: they are 
 compofed of hairs of a peculiar kind, and of a 
 determinate length, all turned toward the tem- 
 ples ; and under thefe, of a thick fkin and fome 
 far, by means of which they are raifcd, and be- 
 come more eminent. That part of the eyebrows 
 where they approach one another, about the root 
 of the nofe, is called their head ; the oppofite 
 extremity is. the tail. Their ufe is to prevent the 
 fweat, trickling from the forehead, from getting 
 into the eyes, and for moderating the force of the 
 l42;ht from overhead. 
 
 The eyeliiiS, palpebrje, are the integuments or 
 the eyes : there are two of them to each, an upper 
 and an under; and, at their joining, there are 
 formed two corners, called ca- thi, an interior and 
 larger, and an exterior and fmaller : they are ca- 
 pable of clofing and opening at pleafure, by means 
 of mufcles. 
 
 They are compofed of the epidermis, the cutis, 
 which is there very thin, and an arched cartilage, 
 called the tarfus of the eyelid ; and are lined, on 
 their inner furface, with a fine and delicate fofc 
 membrane, very fenfible, and conauuous to the 
 perioileum, and to the albuginea of the eye *. 
 
 The eyelafhes, cilia, are certain rigid hairs, 
 fituated on the arch or tarfi.is of the eyelids, and 
 bent in a very fingular manner. They are deftined 
 
 * See Ruyfch's Thef. Anat. i d. p. 2. 
 
 for 
 
of ANATOMY. ip5 
 
 for the keeping external bodies out of the eye, 
 and for moderating the influx of light. 
 
 The mufcles we lliali fpeak of, in their proper 
 place, in the Myology. 
 
 The glandulas febacese of Meibom, are fituated 
 in the interior furface of the eyelids *. They 
 ferve for the fccretion of an oleaginous fluid, 
 which is of great ufe in preventing the attrition of 
 the eyelids, from their continual motion. After 
 thefe we are to obferve the caruncula lachrymalis, 
 which is fituated in the larger angle or canthus ; 
 where there are alfo fometimes fome hairs t, and 
 certain little glands ; and the femi-lunar mem- 
 brane §, ferving to diredl the tears to the pund:a 
 Jachrymalia, 
 
 The glandula lachrymalis is fituated in the or* 
 bit, above the fmaller angle, with its excretory 
 duds under the upper eyelid {. Thefe are much 
 more eafily demonftrated in the eye of an ox than 
 in a human one. 
 
 The pundta lachrymalia are two: they are 
 fituated in the larger canthus or angle, at the ex- 
 tremities of the tarfi or cartilages. They termi- 
 nate in the faccus lachrymalis, the nafal canal, 
 and in the nofe itfelf|J. They were known as 
 early as in the days of Galen. 
 
 The ufe of the eyelids is to cover and defend 
 the eyes, to wipe off fouIneflTes from the cornea, 
 to moderate the influx of light at pleafune, and, 
 by their frequent motion, to occafion a fecretion 
 of a neceflfary fluid from the glands. 
 
 * See Epift, de valis palpebr. nov. 
 "^ See Morgagni's Adveri'. i, S. tz, 
 4 See the fame in the fame place. 
 :|; See Steno de gland, ocul. 
 
 \ See Morgagni, T. 4. fig. i. and Verheyen, T. 28. iig. 9. 
 Alfo Bianchi's Dud. lachrymse. 
 
 O 2 ' The 
 
1^6 A Compendium 
 
 The mufcles of the eyes, ferving to their mo- 
 tions, are, in the human frame, fix in number, 
 four ftrait, viz. The attollcns, deprimens, ad- 
 dudlor, and abdudlor ; and two oblique, the fu- 
 perior and inferior : but of all thefe in the 
 Myology. 
 
 Between and among thefe there is aconfiderable 
 quantity of fat, ferving for various very impor- 
 tant purpofes. 
 
 The proper parts of the eye, which form ics 
 globe or bulb, are the coats or tunics, the humors, 
 and the veffels. 
 
 The coats of the eye are feveral : i. The al- 
 buginea, adnata, or conjundiva, which adheres 
 only to the anterior part of the eye : this joins 
 the eye to the orbit, and is extremely full of vef- 
 fels. 2. The cornea, which is convex, pellucid, 
 and divifible into various lamellas. 3. The fcle- 
 rotick, which is hard, opake, and is extended 
 from the cornea to the optick nerve, in which 
 what are called the aquseduds of Nuck are to be 
 obferved •, but thefe are not truly aqusedudls, but 
 bloodrveflels of the eyes *. 4. The choroides, 
 placed immediately under the fclerorica, the inte- 
 rior lamella of which is called tunica Ruyfchiana: 
 both this and the other are very full of vefTels, 
 and coloured black f. 5. The uvea, which is 
 the interior part of the choroides, and is feen 
 thro' the cornea : this is convex, and we are to 
 obferve in it, 
 
 I. Ics anterior coloured furface, called the iris, 
 which is entirely vafcular J, and from which arifcs 
 the variety of colours in the human eyes. 2. The 
 
 * See the author's Diflertat. de tunic choroid. 
 + SeeRuyfch'sEpift. 13.T. 16. andThefaur. Anat. T. 2. 
 iig. I. and Hovius de circ. ocul. 
 X See th€ fame in the fame place. 
 
 pupil 
 
of ANATOMY. 197 
 
 pupil or foramen, which is round in the human 
 eye, and is nearly in the middle of the iris*, and 
 is capable of dilatation and contradlion. 3. Its 
 pofterior furfice, which is black ; and in which, 
 when this blacknefs is cleared away, there appear 
 the fphinder of the pupil, formed of circular 
 fibres for conrradlion; the ciliary fibres or procefles 
 for the dilatation of the pupil; the ciliar ligament 
 for the motion of the vitreous and cryftalline hu-, 
 mors; the arterial and venal circles, from which 
 the vefTels are, in a wonderful manner, diflributed 
 over the uvea, the choroides, the ligamentum 
 ciliare, and the vitreous and cryftalline humors -f ; 
 the dudlus nigri, fo called from their black colour, 
 and placed between the procelTes and the liga* 
 mentum ciliare ; the fpace between the uvea and 
 the cornea, called the anterior camera of the eye; 
 and that between the uvea and the cryftalline, 
 called its pofterior camera, which is either much 
 fmaller j, or entirely wanting §. 
 
 Many authors have alfo attributed glands to 
 the uvea ; but this is lefs certain, whether properly 
 or not, they are fo difficult to be diftinguifhed, if 
 there be any. 
 
 Finally, we are to mention the retina : this is 
 a very delicate, tender, and, as it were, mucous 
 coat of the eye ; or, more properly, it is only an 
 expanfion of the opick nerve at the bottom of 
 the eye : it is a primary part of the eye, and the 
 great organ of vifion, for the fake of which all 
 the reft were formed. 
 
 * See Winflow in the Memoirs of the Paris' Acad. 1721. 
 
 f See Ruyfch and Hovius, before quoted. 
 
 X See the author's Diferration on the Catarad, 
 
 § See Window, where quoted above, 
 
 O 3 The 
 
ijS yfCOMPENDIUM 
 
 The humors of the eye are generally eftablifhed 
 to be three : their office is to ferve for the expan- 
 fion of the coats, and for the refradion of the 
 rays of light. They are diftinguifhed by the 
 names of the aqueous, vitreous, and cryftalline. 
 
 The aqueous or albugineous humor fills up both 
 the camera of the eye, tho' the antients diftin- 
 guifhed thefe cameras by the name of the empty 
 place, or locus vacuus of the eye *. In this the 
 uvea fluduates, as it wefe, and moves at liberty : 
 this humor, when lolt by accident, will be re- 
 paired by nature. 
 
 The vitreous humor, fo called from its refem- 
 blance to glafs in fulion, is much like a fine clear 
 jelly in its appearance. It confiQs probably of ex- 
 tremely fine veficles, containing a limpid and per- 
 fedlly pellucid humor -f. This fills the pofterior 
 part of the eye, and is every where contiguous 
 to the hinder part of the retina, which it ferves 
 alfo to expand. 
 
 The cryftalline humor is nearly of a lentiform 
 figure: it is more firm and folid than the reft, and 
 might be more properly called the cryftalline body, 
 or cryftalline lens, than the cryftalline humor. 
 This is included, by the affiftance of an extremely 
 fine tunic or coat, in the fovea of the vitreous 
 humor ; and is fufpended, by means of the ciiiar 
 ligament, between the aqueous and vitreous hu- 
 mour, immediately behind the pupil : in this place 
 it hangs free, and is moveable, by means of the 
 ligament juft mentioned. It is compofed of a 
 multitude of lamellae, like the coats of an onion ; 
 
 * See Celfus, 1. 7. c. 7. 
 
 •f- Morgagni, Adverf. 6. rightly obferves, that we only 
 fpeak of this fabrick from conjedure : Riolanus was the iirll: 
 who fpoke of it j and, after him, Hovius treated of it as a 
 certainty, 
 
 and 
 
of ANATOMY. 199 
 
 and thefe are alfo pellucid and vafculons *. Often 
 alfo there is a fmalJ quantity of the aqueous hu- 
 mor contained within or under its coat -f. 
 
 After thefe three humors of the eye, we are to Tunica 
 obferve the tunica arachnoidc s : this is an ex- ^^^^h- 
 tremely thin and fine vafcuJous membrane, which "^^ ^^' 
 furrounds the cryftalline and the vitreous humor \^ 
 and by the alTiRance of which the cryftalline lens 
 is lodged in the fovea of the vitreous humor. On 
 the cutting or breaking of this membrane, the 
 cryilalline falls out. 
 
 The blood-veffels are next to be confidered : 
 thefe are diftributed, in an amazing manner, thro' 
 the internal parts of the eye §. Arteries from the 
 external and internal carotids go to the eye in 
 many different parts II. There are alfo a number 
 of extremely minute ones, which convey only a 
 fine and fubtle lymph thither, by which the tunics 
 and humors of the eye are nourifhed. The veins 
 partly carry the blood back to the finus's of the 
 dura mater, and partly to the jugulars. 
 
 Befide thefe vefTels, Valfah^a afTures us, that 
 he difcovered a number of true and proper lym- 
 phaticks in the eye of an ox. 
 
 The nerves of the eyes are very numerous. 
 They are, i. The optick nerve, which, by its ex- 
 panfion, forms the retina of the eye, which is 
 the primary organ of vifion : this enters the eye 
 from the fide of the nofe, Befide this, there are 
 the third and fourth pair of the brain, and a fifth 
 and fixth branch diftribuied about the mufcles, 
 
 * SeeHovius, 1. c. 
 ■f See Morgagni's Adverf. 6. p. 90. 
 X See Ruylch^s Thefaur. 2. T. i. % 8. 
 § Some anatomical writers have denied the exigence o£ 
 this tunic ; but it is eafily demonilrated in dilTeftion, &c. 
 11 Ruyfch and Hovius have den-.onftrated this, 
 il See our author's Difiertation de tunica choroidea. 
 
 O4 menv- 
 
aoo ^Compendium 
 
 membranes, eyelids, and the lachrymal fucculus 
 and gland. But of thefe we fhall have occafion 
 to fpeak more at large in our Neurology. See 
 S. 299. 
 The 277. The primai^y organ of tafte and of fpeech' 
 
 tongue, is the tongue, lingua. In our confideration of this 
 organ, we are alfo to take cognizance of the other 
 parts of the mouth piaced about it, and afilfting in 
 the fame offices : thefe are the falival glands, the 
 OS hyoides, the gums, the palate, the lips, the 
 uvula, and tonfils. 
 
 278. The glands ferving for the fecretion of 
 the faliva, are the paroiids, the maxillares, the 
 (ubliiiguales, &c. 
 
 The parotids are two very remarkable glands, 
 fituated, one on each fide, between the ear and 
 the angle of the lower jaw, and they often extend 
 themifelves over a great part of the maflecer : from 
 each ol thefe there runs a very large du6t, about 
 three fingers long, and of the thicknefs of a 
 wheat-flraw : it has a great number of roots. 
 Steno has the honour of being the firfl difcoverer 
 of this : he found it, in diffedion, in the year 
 1660*. It is called by feme, from his n.ime, 
 dudlus falivahs Stenonius ; by others, duftus fali- 
 valis fuperior. It pafTes over the malfeter mufcle, 
 thro' the middle of the cheek, and there [Perfo- 
 rates the buccinator mufcle, and the membrane of 
 the mourh, near the fccond or third of the dudlus 
 molares ; and at this perforation it difchaiges a 
 very large quantity of its proper fluid into the 
 mouth. 
 
 The maxillary glands are alfo confidcrably large 
 ones : they are placed, one on each fide, in the 
 interior fide of the angle of the lower jaw. Thefe 
 have alfo each a fingle du6t, formed from the 
 
 • See Steno's Obferv. Anat. 
 
 con- 
 
«/ ANATOMY. 201 
 
 conjun(5lion of a great number of roots, which is 
 fomething fiend, rer than the du6ls of the former, 
 but is ufually longer. Thefe are called by fome, 
 from their inventer, or fuppofed inventer, Whar- 
 ton, dudlus Whartonianse * ; by others, dudtus 
 falivales inferiores. Thefe open into the mouth 
 fometimes by a fingle, fometimes by a double, 
 and fometimes by a triple orifice under the tongue, 
 near the root of the fr^enulumi-. 
 
 The fublinguals afe alfo two glands of an ob- 
 long form, fituated, one on each fide, under the 
 tongue; from whence their name. It has been 
 hitherto generally believed, that, in human fub- 
 jcdls, thefe difcharge their faliva into the Whar- 
 tonian du6ls, jufl: defcribed. 
 
 Rivinus §, however, in the year 1679, firft 
 difcovered a duel running from each of them, in 
 a calf J ; and afterwards Bartholine made the fame 
 difcovery in the mouth of a lion || : hence thefe 
 du6ls are indifferently called the Rivinian or the 
 Bartholinian du6ls. In human fubjecls it is other- 
 wife : in thefe Morgagni firft difcovered, that 
 they open into the mouth, between the fides of 
 the tongue and the gums, by very fmall and 
 fcarce perceptable apertures ^. Our author, after 
 the information he received of this from Mor- 
 gagni, found them alfo, in dilTedion, opening in 
 this manner ; and has given a drawing of them in 
 the feventh Tab. Fig. 33. 
 
 After thefe we are to obferve the foramen lin- 
 guas, called coecum by authors, and figured by 
 
 * See Adenograph. cap. 21. 
 
 -f- See Ruyfch's .1 her. Anat. i. p. 25. 
 
 § Differtat. de Dyfpenasa. 
 
 II De duftu falivaii novo. 
 
 f[ Adverf. 6. p. 131. 
 
 Col- 
 
202 ^Compendium 
 
 Collins *, and Morgagni f ; as alfo in our fourth 
 plate, fig. 20. Vater t was the firfl: who fuppofed 
 this to be a falival du6l ; and proved, by a num- 
 ber of experiments, that it communicates with the 
 glandulous fubflance about the root of the tongue: 
 but he did not explain, very clearly, how this 
 communication was effedled, Cofchwitz §, how- 
 ever, afterwards took confiderable pains to fhew 
 this, and to explain in what manner it is that 
 feveral of the dudls run thro' the maxillary and 
 fublinguale glands, and have their various places 
 of excretion in the tongue. The author has taken 
 tfonfiderable pains in this attempt ; but whether 
 nature varies in this, as in many other circum- 
 ftances of fuch kinds, or from whatever other 
 caufe it may be, we cannot fay that every thing 
 this author has defcribed, appears juft as he lays it 
 down in difledtions. In human fubje6bs there are 
 fometimes found two remarkable dudls, indeed, 
 terminating in ic : thefe are figured in Tab. 8^. 
 Fig. 34 and 35. 
 
 After this we are to obferve two glands, one 
 on each fide, which open into the mouth by feveral 
 ofcjl^e, near the pofterior dentes molares of the 
 upper jaw. Thefe are very obvious m fome fub- 
 jeds, but not fo in others : thefe, as found in the 
 fame fubjedl, from which the figure of the former 
 was taken, are figured in our Tab. 8. Fig. 36 
 and 37. 
 
 In the fame fubjedl there was alfo difcovered a 
 du(5l, under the anterior apophyfis of the os occi- 
 pitis : it was confiderably large, and, on being 
 prefs'd, it difcharged a quantity of a mucous hu- 
 
 ♦ See his Anat. T. 2. 
 
 •f Adverf. i, T. i. 
 
 ^ Peculiar DiiTert. de novo duftu fallv. 
 
 ^ DilT. de dudtu lulivali novo. 
 
 mour 
 
cf ANATOMY. ^03 
 
 mour into the fauces. This is alfo figured T. 8. 
 Fig. 38. It is not fo obvious in other fubjedls ; 
 but it is worth fearching after with attention, to 
 know whether it be general, or were a particular 
 part there. 
 
 Befide the glands already defcribed, there are 
 alfo certain miliary and lenticular ones, placed 
 in confiderable numbers about the membrane of 
 the rHOUth, particularly about the lips, the palate, 
 the cheeks, and the tongue : thefe, according to 
 their different fituation, may be called linguales, 
 labiales, buccales, palatinas, and uvulares -, or by 
 other names, from the parts they are formed in. 
 
 Thefe are the glands ferving to fecrete the faliva 
 in the human frame. In dogs there are two other 
 very remarkable ones, cal'ed, from their difco- 
 vefer, glandule Nuckianse * : they are fituated, 
 on each fide, near the eyes ; and they fend down 
 their dufts into the mouth, near the lad but one 
 of the dentes molares of the upper jaw. Nothing 
 analogous to thefe is found in man. 
 
 279. The 03 hyoides, called alfo by fome os 
 linguale, and os bicorne, has been already fpoken 
 of in the ofteological part of this work, S. jo6. 
 Its defcription will be found there -, but it is necef- 
 fary, in regard to its connexion with the tongue, 
 and the ufe it is of to it, to fay fomething of it 
 here. It coheres with the bafe of the tongue ; 
 fo that it is fituated between the tongue and la- 
 rynx, and moves with the tongue. It is con- 
 nected with the tongue, the larynx, and the fty- 
 loide procefTcS of the head, by ligaments, and by 
 the intervention of mufcles, not only with the 
 parts already mentioned, but alfo v/icii the jaw, 
 the clavicles, the fcapula, and the flernum. It 
 has five pair of mufcles, by means of which it is" 
 
 * Nuck's Sialograph, p. 15. T. 3. fig. i and 2. 
 
 * I varioufly 
 
204 -^ Compendium 
 
 varioudy moved, together with the tongue : thele 
 mufcles will be hereafter dt-fcnbed in our myolo- 
 gical part. 
 
 The ufes of the os hyoides are, i. To afford a 
 firm and ilrong bafe to the tongue, and to be in- 
 ftrumental to its various motions, and to degkiti- 
 tion. And, 2. To give a fixed puint to a number 
 of the iTiufcle.'?. 
 
 280. The hps next come under confideration : 
 they are two, an upper and an under. They are 
 compofed principally of mufcles, and are covered 
 externally wich the general integuments ; and, in- 
 ternally, with the membrane of the mouth. Un- 
 der this membrane there are, in both the lips^*, 
 a great t number of miliary and lenticular glands. 
 The prolabia, when the epidermis is taken off, 
 after macerating a fufficient time in water, are 
 found to have alio a multitude of nervous papil- 
 lae ; and hence it is, that they are fo extremely 
 fenfible %. Each of the lips has its peculiar frse- 
 nulum : the upper one, under the nofe§-, the 
 under one, near the roots of the dentes incifores j| ; 
 and they are of the utmofi: fervice to us in fpeak- 
 ing, and eating and drinking. 
 
 281. The gums come next to be examined: 
 they conuft of the common membrane of the 
 moiich, and thep'rriofteum, of the jaws, to which 
 they adhere very clolely and firmly. They are 
 furnifhed with a vail number of blood-veffels, 
 whence their florid red colour ; and they ferve for 
 the covering of the jaws, and the keeping the 
 teeth faff in their fockeis. 
 
 * See Cowper's Myotom. reformat, fig. 4. 
 •f- See our eighth plate, fig. 36. dd. 
 
 ;{: See Ruyfch's Thefaur. z. p. 26. 
 
 § See Bidloo, T.. 12. 
 
 jl See Morgagni, Advcrf. 5. fig. i. 
 
 28a. 
 
of ANATOMY. 20. 
 
 282. The palar.e has much the fame flruflurc 
 with the gums , but it has aifo a very great num* 
 ber of glands, difcovered fo early as in the time 
 of Fallopius : thefe are principally Rtuated in its 
 hinder part, near the uvula, where it is pendulous 
 in the manner of a curtain. This part is called 
 the velum or clauftrum of the palate. The glands 
 fituated panicularly in this part, fccrete a mucous 
 fluid, ferving to lubricate the mouth and throat, 
 and to facilitate deglutition* : they have a great 
 number of apertures there, for the difcharging of 
 this humor into the mouth. The great ufes of 
 this membrane are, to defend the bones of the 
 palate from corrupting ; and for preventing, by 
 its clauftrum or velum, the things to be fwal- 
 lowed, from getting up into the noftrils. 
 
 283. The uvula, called by Celfus the uva, 
 and by others columella, is a part of a cylindrick, 
 or rather a fomewhat conic figure, hanging pen- 
 dulous from the velum or clauftrum of the palate, 
 above the root of the tongue, between the two 
 arches of the palate, as it were, and the tonfils -f. 
 It is, in figure, much like the laft joint of a child's 
 finger. Its fubffance is mufculous ; its covering 
 is of the glandulous membrane of the mouth. It 
 has mufcles, by which ic is variodfly moved, which 
 are defcribed in the Myology. And, finally, it 
 has two membranaceous ligaments, by which it 
 is conned:?d with the bones of the palate. 
 
 The ufe of the uvula is not yet perfedlly 
 known: 'tis highly probable, however, that it is 
 of afliftance in modulating the voice. It has alfo 
 a fhare in preventing the drink, taken in at the 
 
 * See T. 8. fig. 36. b b. 
 
 •\ See Ephem. Nat. Curiof. Cent. 3. Alfo the Memoirs 
 of the Paris Academy, 17 18. 
 
 mouth. 
 
2o6 A Compendium 
 
 mouth, from rufhing up into the noftrils. It is 
 wanting in all quadrupeds *. 
 
 284. The tonfils, commonly called the al- 
 monds of the cars, are two remarkable glands, 
 in fome degree rejembling almonds in figure, and 
 a.e fuuated one on each fide of the moiTth, near 
 the uvula. They fecrete a mucous humor for 
 the lubricating the pafiages, and difcharge it by 
 feveral irregular but confpicuous foraminae into 
 the mouth \. 
 
 The arteries of all thefe parts, namely, of the 
 tonfils, uvula, gunrjs, lips, palate, and falival 
 glands, all are derived from the external carotids. 
 The veins are from the jugulars, and the nerves 
 principally from the fifth pair. 
 
 285. The tongue itfelf, the great organ of 
 fpeech, comes next after thefe parts to be exa- 
 mined. Its figure approaches, in fome degree, 
 to pyramidal. Its anterior part, which is fmaller 
 and moveable, is called its apex*, and its pofte- 
 rior, which is thicker and more fixed, is called its 
 bafe or root. It is connedled with the os hyoides, 
 the lower jaw, the flyloide procefs, the pharynx, 
 the larynx, and the other adjoining parts, by 
 means of a number of mufcles and membranes. 
 
 Its ligaments are, 1. The fra^nulum, placed 
 near its apex on the under part, at the root of 
 which the ialival duds of Wharton empty them- 
 felves into the mouth. And, 2. A membrana- 
 ceous ligament, by which it is conneded with 
 the lower jaw, the os hyoides, the larynx, and 
 the epiglottis In the middle of the tongue there 
 is a longitudinal line, called linea mediana, which 
 
 * When the uvula has been eaten ofF by the lues venerea, 
 the voice has fometimes fuiiered greatly, Ibmetimes very lit- 
 ( tie from it. 
 
 -[• See Widman's Diflertation, Eph. Nat. Cur. 3. 
 
 divides 
 
^/ANATOMY. 207 
 
 divides the tongue, as it were, equally into two 
 parts. 
 
 The tongue is principally compofed of mufcles, 
 and of nervous invoJucra or membranes, and of 
 fat, and feme glands, and a number of vefTels. 
 
 Befide the fublingual glands already mentioned^ 
 there are frequently a great number met with on 
 the fuperior and pofterior part of the tongue : 
 thefe are, in fome fubjeds, as large as a fmall pea, 
 and fhew an evident perforation in their centre *. 
 The foramen ccecum, as it is called, of the tongue, 
 is fituare in the upper and hinder part of the 
 tongue among thefe glands, and is often very 
 confpicuous, fometimes not io much fo. Its ufe 
 was long unknown ; but it is, at this time, found 
 to be a true du6lus falivalis i". 
 
 The arteries of the tongue are numerous and 
 large: they come from the external carotids §. 
 The veins of the tongue are ramifications of the 
 external jugulars: of thefe fome, which are 
 (ituated under the apex of the tongue, are called 
 venns ranin^ : thefe are fometimes opened by fur- 
 geons for bleeding, particularly in difbrdersof the 
 fauces. 
 
 The nerves of the tongue are very remarkable 
 ones. There are two branches from the fifth 
 pair, which are ufualjy faid to ferve for tailing; 
 and two others from the ninth pair, which are 
 ilippofed to affiit its motions : but Boerhaave dif- 
 agrees with the common opinion in this refpedb, 
 and fuppofes that the firft pair ferve to afiift the 
 motions of the tongue, and that the others are 
 
 * See Morgagni's Adverf. i. T. i. 
 
 f See Collins's Anatomy, T. 2. andMorgagni, Adverf. I. 
 T. I. As alfo our figure, T. 4. fig. 20. 
 § SeeRuyfch's Thef, T. 3. fi. 4. p. 45, 
 
 for 
 
2o8 A Compendium 
 
 for the office of tafting*. PoITibly both pair 
 lerve mutually for both purpofes. 
 
 Cofchwitz t and Du Verney X figure lympha- 
 tkks in the tongue alfo. 
 
 There are three involucra, tunics or mem- 
 branes of the tongue, furrounding its mufcular 
 fubftance. The external one is continuous with the 
 common membrane of the mouth : this forms a 
 number of vaginulas, or cafes, of a pyramidal or 
 of a globofe figure : thefe are porous, and ferve 
 for receiving the nervous papillae of the third 
 membrane §. 
 
 The fecond or middle membrane of the tongue, 
 called the reticular membrane of Malpighi, is 
 compofed of a very beautiful reticulation, and lets 
 the nervous papillae pafs thro' its apertures : this 
 is confpicuous only on the upper part ; and, even 
 there, is much more difficult to be feen in human 
 fubjecls than in beails. 
 
 The third tunic is papillary and nervous : it is 
 placed immediately under the reticular one, and 
 IS eafiiy feen in the fame parts of the tongue in the 
 fame fubjeds. This contains a number of ner- 
 vous papillse, which are of two kinds ; the firft, 
 fungous or capitated, refembling the horns of 
 fnails, or the young fhoors of mufhrooms: thefe 
 are full of httle foramina, and may be thrown 
 out or drawn back at pleafure. The other pa- 
 pill^ are pyramidal in their figure : fome of them 
 are larger, fome fmaller, and molt of them 
 crooked Ij. Both thefe kinds of papillae arife from 
 this inner or third membrane of the tongue, and 
 
 • See Ruyfch's Inftitutes, cap. deGuflu. 
 
 \ Dificrt. de Du«5l. Saliv. iiov. 
 
 \ See the fame treatife. 
 
 § Ruyfch, Thef. i. T. 4. and Morgagni, T. i. Adv. i. 
 
 |( See Ruyfch, 1. c. 
 
 from 
 
^/ANATOMY. 209 
 
 from its nerves : they pafs thro' the foramina of 
 the reticular or middle tunic, and terminate in 
 the vaginul^, or cafes, formed by the external 
 membrane. Thefe papilla; are the primary organ 
 of talte. 
 
 The mufcles of th." tongue, befide thofe be- 
 longing to the OS hyoides, are four pair. Of thefe 
 we fliall fpeak at large in our Myological part. 
 Over the lurfaces of thefe mufcles, however, there 
 alfo run a muituude of im-gular and inextricable 
 fibres * j and it is by mtans of thefe that the 
 tongue is occafionuliy conradir-d and expanded, 
 thruft forward, and drawn back again, and per- 
 forms all its o'her remarkable motions and 
 changes of figure. 
 
 The ufes of the tongue are, the being the great 
 organ of taltmg and of fpeech, and the ferving 
 to the comminuting, fucking, and fwallowing of 
 our food •, as alio to fpiting: but it is not fo 
 immediately neceffary to aii thefe, as has been 
 fuppofed -f-. 
 
 286. As the tongue is the primary organ of 
 tafling, that of fmeliing is the nofe. This part 
 varies greatly in fize and figure in different fub- 
 jecls : it is high in fome, low in others, narrow 
 in fome, broad in others, and has a number of 
 other lefTer vari.;tions. Anatomiiis divide its 
 parts into the external and internal : its more ob- 
 vious external paits are, the dorfum or back, the 
 root, the fpine, the orbiculus, and the alse or 
 pinnae : thefe need no explication. The feptum 
 
 * See Malpighi, de lingua. 
 
 •f- We have a remarkable inftance in the Memoirs of the 
 French Academy, 1718, of a girl born without a tongue, 
 yet performing all the fumilions it is fnppofed to fcrve to ; 
 and in our own Philofophical Tranfadions, we have an ac- 
 count of one Margaret Caring, who fpoke without a tongue, 
 well explained by Dr. Parfons. 
 
 P ' is 
 
210 A Compendium 
 
 is alfo of the number of the external parts : thii 
 divides the nofe into two parts, which are called 
 nares or noftrils. The hairs alfo are of this num- 
 ber : they are called by feme vibriflfae : they fervc 
 to hinder the mucus of the noftrils from conti- 
 nually running out ; and to prevent infeds, and 
 extraneous fubftances of many kinds, from getting 
 in. We are alfo to add to thefe the common tegu- 
 ments, namely, the epidermis, the fat, and the cutis. 
 The upper part of the nofe is rigid, and com- 
 pofed of bones : the lower part is foft and flexible, 
 and is compofed of a number of cartilages, muf- 
 cles, and membranes. 
 
 The internal parts of the nofe are, i. The 
 bones : there are feveral of thefe go to the ftruc- 
 ture of the nofe, as the offa nafi, the maxillaria, 
 the OS cribriforme, the ofla fpongiofa, the os fron- 
 tale, the lachrymal ia, the os palati, the vomer, 
 and the os fphenoides. 
 
 The cartilages, which form the lower part of 
 the nofe, are conneded by membranes, that the 
 nofe may be flexible in that part : the firft of thefe 
 forms the anterior part of the feptum narium : 
 there are two very large and confpicuous ones in 
 each of the alae ; and between thefe there are . 
 placed fometimes two, fometimes three, and 
 fometimes more, fmaller ones *. 
 
 The feptum narium is cartilaginous in its ante- 
 rior and lower part : in its pofterior and upper 
 it is boney ; and thefe parts are furrounded by 
 robuft and ftrong membranes, which join them 
 firmly together. 
 
 There are two paflTages from the noftrils into 
 the mouth, deftined for the paflTage of air, and 
 
 of the mucous matter. There are alfo finus's in 
 
 ♦. 
 
 • See Ruyfch's Epift. 8. fig. 4. and Drake's Anthropol 
 
 T. 17. 
 
 the 
 
tf ANATOMY; 211 
 
 the mixillary, frontal, and fphenoidal bones ; and 
 cellulae in the os ethmoides, which increafe the 
 hollow of the nofe ; and thus alfo give way to the 
 greater expanfion of the pituitary membrane *. 
 
 There are alfo certain inequalrties and emi- 
 nences of the ofTa turbinata, or ofia fpongiola of 
 the noftrils, which ferve partly to the fame pur- 
 pofcs, and partly to prevent infeds, and other 
 extraneous matters, and even i\\t cold air, from 
 getting immediately that way into the mouth. 
 
 There is alfo a foft and vafcular membrane to 
 be obferved, which invefts the noftrils, and all 
 their finus's and irregularities : this is called the 
 membrana mucofa, and pituitaria of Schneider -f ; 
 and is the primary organ of fmelling, and the 
 place of fecretion of the mucus of the noftrils. 
 
 We are to remark alfo the ofcula, or openings 
 of the excretory dudls, in this membrane : they 
 are extremely confpicuous in the head of an ox, 
 in this part t. 
 
 There are alfo a number of little glands under 
 this membrane §, efpecially about the middle of 
 the feptum ||. Thefe are deftined to the fecretion 
 of a mucous humor, like that of the reft of the 
 glands of this part. \ 
 
 The arteries, which are difperfed in prodigious 
 numbers thro* this membrane, arife from the ca- 
 rotids ^ : thefe ferve alfo for the fecretion of this 
 mucus. 
 
 The veins are from the jugulars ; by thefe the 
 abundant blood, not employed for thefe purpofe$, 
 
 • Delineated in Paliin's Ofteolog. T. i, and z. and by 
 Brake, T. i8. 
 
 •f- See Schneider de Catarrhis. 
 
 J See Ruyfch, Epift. 8. T. 9. fig. 7. 
 
 5 See Ruyfch, where before quoted. 
 
 II See Morgagiii, Adverf. 6. Santorini, p. 91. 
 
 11 S«e Ruyfch, 1. c. fig. 6. 
 
 ?2 IS 
 
212 A Compendium 
 
 is returned. The nerves difperfed thro' the mem- 
 brana pituitaria, are, i. The olfadorii, or olfac- 
 tory nerves : thefe are fufficiently obfervable ; but 
 they are lefs in human fubjeds than in quadru- 
 peds *. They are fuppofed to be of ufe in fmelling. 
 
 2. Some branches of the fifth pair, which termi- 
 nate in the hairs : thefe conflitute the true organ 
 of fmelling i". 
 
 Under the membrana pituitaria there is alfo 
 another membrane, very thin, and ferving to in- 
 veft the bones and cartilages % -, and called, where 
 it furrounds the former, periofteum ; where the 
 latter, perichondrium. 
 
 The foramina to be obferved in the noftrils, 
 are, i. Thofe at the frontal, the maxillary, and 
 the fphenoidal finus's, and the cellular of the os 
 ethmoides, ferving for the communication of thefe 
 finus's with the noftrils. 2. The orifices of the 
 lachrymal dudls, which open into the noftrils : 
 thefe are excellently figured by Morgagni §. And, 
 
 3. Thedu6ls from the nofe into the mouth : thefe 
 in a Ikeleton are open, and are obvious juft behind 
 the dentes incifores of the upper jaw ; but in dif- 
 fedlion of recent bodies, they are not found abfb- 
 lutely to open into the mouth at all ; nor, indeed, 
 do they fo in living fubjeds ; for they are clofed 
 up by the membrane of the palate : the ufe gene- 
 rally attributed to them, therefore, of tranfmit- 
 ting a mucous matter out of the noftrils into the 
 mouth, is very erroneous. 
 
 The ufes of the nofe are, to be of primary ufe 
 in the fenfe of fmelling \ to ferve in the great 
 
 * Schlevogtius denies this, and fays they are only emif- 
 faries of the brain. 
 
 •f See Santorini, p. 92. 
 X See Ruyfch, I. c. fig. 8. 
 ^ See Ruyfch's Adveriar. 6. 
 
 office 
 
^/ANATOMY. 213 
 
 office of refpiration, and in the modelling the 
 voice ; to receive the abundant humors from the 
 eyes, and to add to the beauty of the face. It is 
 certain, that there is no pafiage for the air, much 
 Jefs for (he powders fnuffcd up the noftrils, to the 
 brain. Whether there be any paflages for the tranf- 
 mitting a mucous humor from the brain, to be 
 difcharged at the noftrils, as the antients, and as 
 Schelvogtius, and fome other of the moderns, 
 have fuppofed, is not yet afcertained. 
 
 287. The organs of hearing are the ears, 
 Anatomifts, in defcribing thefe, ufually divide 
 them into three parts ; an exterior, a middle, and 
 an interior. The exterior part is called fimply 
 auricula ; but more properly by others, auris ex- 
 terna. In this there are a great many emineaces 
 and cavities to be obferved j as the pinna and lo- 
 bucle, the helix and anthelix, and the tragus and 
 antitragus 5 the fcapha, which is a cavity between 
 the helix and the anthelix behind ^ and the con- 
 cha, which is a larger cavity, fituate before the 
 meatus auditorius, or paflage into the internal ear : 
 in this we are to obferve the glandulae fcbacese of 
 Valfalva *, which are mere cutaneous follicles ; , 
 their fubfiance is compofed of the common in- 
 teguments, and a cartihge. 
 
 The mufcles of the external ear are alfo to be 
 carefully examined : they are in human fubjcdls 
 very fmall, often fcarce confpicuous -, fometimes 
 however two, fometimes three, and fometimes 
 more of them, may be diftinguifhed. Thefe may 
 be called, from theia* (ituation, the fuperior, the 
 pollerior, and the anterior. Their ufe in moving 
 the ear, is evidently either none at all, or very 
 inconfiderable : the moft probable ronjedure, as 
 to their real ufe, isj^ that they fcrve to render the 
 
 * Tradl. de Hum. Aur^. 
 
 P 3 car 
 
214 ^Compendium 
 
 car tcnfe, when we would hear more dif- 
 tindly. We are alfo to obferve the ligament, by 
 which the poftcrior part of the ear is connedled 
 to the OS petrofum *. 
 
 After thefe we are to examine the meatus au- 
 ditorius, or auditory paffage. The courfe of this 
 is tortuous and oblique, turning principally toward 
 the anterior parts -f. Irs fubftance is partly boney, 
 partly cartilaginous ; and it is formed, as it were, 
 of broken cartilages, covered with an elaftick 
 membrane : the membrane invefting its internal 
 part, is continuous with the cutis. 
 
 We are alfo to obferve certain fmall glands, of 
 a yellow colour, called by Du Verney glandulae 
 ceruminofaet. Thefe are fituated in the convex 
 part of this membrane, about the middle of the 
 paflage. They ferve to fecrete the cerumen^ 
 which they depofit, for various purpofes, in the 
 paffage. 
 
 We are to obferve alfo the corpus rcticulare of 
 Valfalva, in the areolae or finus's, of which thefe 
 ceruminofe glands are contained §. 
 
 We are alfo, finally, to obferve the hairs in the 
 auditory paflage, and their ufe. 
 
 The ufe of the external ear is to receive and 
 convey iounds, in the manner of an acouftick 
 tube, in order to our hearing them the more 
 diftindly ||. 
 
 The middle part of the ear, which comes next 
 to be examined, is called the tympanum. In 
 this we are to obferve, i. The membrana tyrq- 
 
 • See Du Verney de Org. Auditus, T. 3. fig. 11. 
 
 •f- See Valfalva, T. 3. fig. i, and 3. 
 
 X See Valfalva, 1. c. T. 3. fig 3. 
 
 ] L. c. T. 3. fig. I, and 3. 
 
 y Schelhammer aflerts, that he was the firft who demon- 
 ftrated, that hearing is performed by mean* of fonorous rsLys, 
 as feeing is by means of vifual ones. 1. c. n. 5^. 
 
 pani5. 
 
^/ANATOMY. 215 
 
 panis, which is fituated at the extremity of the 
 auditory pafTage. Its fituation is not perpendi- 
 cular, but very oblique inwards. Its figure is el- 
 liptick ; and its furface not plane* but concave. 
 It is connefted, in its circumference, with an an- 
 nulus or ring, of a boney fubflance in infants, 
 which becomes afterward transformed into the 
 auditory pafTage; and in the middle it is con- 
 ne6led with the litde bone, called the malleus. 
 Its fubflance is membranaceous : it is compofed, 
 indeed, of two or three lamellae ; and is fqrnifhed 
 with a vafl number of blood-vefTels, which were 
 firft difcovered by Ruyfch *. 
 
 A great number of authors have followed 
 Rivinusf in mentioning a natural foramen, or 
 hole, very fmall, and placed in an oblique direc- 
 tion, penetrating this membrane, and t letting 
 the fmoak of tobacco, taken in at the mouth, 
 find a pafTage thro* it out at the ears. 
 
 The boney cavity of the tympanum is to be 
 obfcrved as to its fize, which is much fmaller in 
 human fubjeds than in quadrupeds. In this 
 cavity we are to obferve, the periofleum, which is 
 very thin, and is furniflied with a great number of 
 blood-vefTels 5 the chorda tympani, which is a 
 little nerve, compofed, by a combination of ra- 
 muli or little branches, of the fifth and feventh 
 pairs: this is extended, in the manner of a cord,^ 
 under the membrane of the tympanum. 
 
 We are alfo to obferve here the three ofUcula 
 auditus, covered with the periofleum (| : thefe arc 
 called the malleus, the incus, and the ftapes, We 
 
 • See Ruyfch, Epift. 8, p. 1,2. fig. 9. 
 
 t See Welfch. T. Anat. 49. 
 
 J See Valfalva, 1. c, cap. 2, and alfo Drake's Anthropo* 
 
 log- P- 567- 
 K See Ruyfch, T. 8. fig. i. 
 
 f 4 havQ^ 
 
Zl6 yfCOMPENDIUM 
 
 have already defcribed them in our Ofteology, 
 (S. 68.) But we are to add fomevvhat in this 
 place, as to their connedions, &c. The manu- 
 brium, or handle of the malleus, adheres to the 
 membrane of die tympanum 5 and its head is ar- 
 ticulated by ginglymus, with the body of the 
 incus ; and, finally, the longer leg of this is arti- 
 culated by arthrodia, with the head of the Rapes : 
 the ftapes alfo, at its bafe, adheres to the fenelha 
 oval is, by means of a membrane. 
 
 The mufcles of the malleus are two, an exter- 
 nal, and an internal : the ftapes has but one *. 
 
 We are after thefe to obfcrve the two feneftras, 
 or openings, diftinguifhed by the names of the 
 oval and the round feneftni. The feneftra ovalis 
 leads to the veftibule, on which ftands the ftapes. 
 The feneftra rotunda leads to the cochlea, and is 
 clofed by a membrane. 
 
 Befide thefe feneftras, we are alfo to obferve 
 two other foramina. The one of thefe opens into 
 the tube or du6i; of Euftachius, and terminates in 
 the mouth, almoft immediately behind the tonfils: 
 this du(5l is partly boney, partly cartilaginous, and 
 partly membranous, and affords a communication 
 between the mouth and the cars-f-. The other 
 of thefe foramina goes to the cellulae of the maf- 
 toide procefics. 
 
 The third divifion, or, as it is ufually called, 
 the inner part of the ear, has, among anatomical 
 writers, the name of the labyrinth. 
 
 In this we are to obferve the veftibulum, which 
 is a cavity forming the middle part of the laby- 
 rinth : the paflage into this is the feneftra ovalis. 
 
 After this we ars to obferve the three femi- 
 circular canals, diftinguifhed by the names of the 
 
 * See more of thefe in our Myology. 
 t SeeT. 8. fig. 38. c,d,e. 
 
 largeft. 
 
of ANATOMY. 217 
 
 largeft, the middle one, and the lead, which open 
 by five orifices into the veftibnlum. Thefe are 
 well figured by Du Verney and Valfalva. 
 
 After this we are to examine the cochlea of the 
 ear. This is a part placed oppofite to theft canals, 
 and formed in the manner of a fnail-lhell, form- 
 ing in its progrefs two turns and a half, in a fpiral 
 form. In this we are to remark the nucleus, and 
 the canal, which is divided into two by a fpiral 
 lamina. The upper of thefe opens into the vefti- 
 bulum, and is called fcala veftibuli ; and the lower, 
 which terminates in the hollow of the tympanum, 
 through the feneftra rotunda, is called fcala tym- 
 pani *. 
 
 We are alfo carefully to obferve the very deli- 
 cate and fine membrane, which is carried thro' all 
 the cavities of the labyrinth : this is formed of an 
 expanfion of the auditory nerve, and is the pri- 
 mary part of the organ of hearing; juft as the 
 retina is formed of the expanfion of the optick 
 nerve, and is the primary organ of feeing. Thefe 
 expanfions of the auditory nerve are called, by 
 Valfalva, zonce fonor^ -f. They are much more 
 eafily diftinguifhed in the ear of a fheep than in 
 the human e^r : anrl in that of an eagle they have 
 been found to be particularly plain and obvious. 
 
 We are next to obftrve the canal of the audi- 
 tory canal, which is diftingiifhed into the com- 
 mon and the proper. The common canal is large, 
 and there are foraminula in it, pafiing into the 
 labyrinth. The proper one is narrower and longer, 
 and is called the aqueduct of Faliopius : this ter- 
 minates partly in the cavity of the cranium, and 
 pardy between fhe flyloide and maftoideprocefiTes ij, 
 
 * See Valfalva de Aure hum. 
 
 f Valfalva de Aur. T. 8. fig, 8 and 9. 
 
 II Valfalva, T. 7. fig. 4. 
 
 The 
 
Zii A Compendium 
 
 The nerves of the inner ear, are, i . From, the 
 auditory pair: this confifts of two parts or 
 branches, a foft, and a harder : the foft branch 
 or part is diftributed through the labyrinth* 5 the 
 harder part fends off branches to the dura mater, 
 the tympanum, and the external ear. 2. From 
 the third pair of the vertebrals of the neck ; but 
 thefe are principally fent to the external ear. 
 
 The arteries are from the carotids, both the 
 external and internal. 
 
 The veins run partly to the jugulars, and partly 
 to the finus's of the dura mater, 
 
 288. The organ of feeling is compofed of the 
 cutaneous papillas : thefe are the villofe extremi- 
 ties of the nerves of the (kin, and are fituated 
 every where on its fuperficies, but particularly in 
 the palms of the hands, the foles of the feet, and 
 the extremities of the fingers ; in the laft of which 
 places they are more numerous than in any other 
 part of the body : they are elevated a little, and 
 arc covered with the cuticle. Where they are 
 ^oft numerous, the fenfation of feeling is mod 
 delicate ; as has been already obferved, where wc 
 treated of the integuments. 
 
 It is by means of thefe papillae that we are en-, 
 dued with the fenfe of feeling, from the texture, 
 furfaces, and motions of objedls 5 and the quali- 
 ties fenfible to the touch, fuch as rough and 
 fmooth, dry and moid, hot and cold, hard and 
 foft, are conveyed to us by no other means. 
 
 289. The fenfe of tafte agrees extremely well, 
 almoft in every particular, with this of feeling. 
 In this the nervous papillas of the tongue, as the/ 
 
 * See Valfalva, T. 8. fig. 8, and 9. There is a very An- 
 gular account of the courfe of this nerve given by Simoncel- 
 lius ; but we are yet to. enquire whether U be conformable to 
 truth. 
 
 are 
 
(?/ ANATOMY. /219 
 
 are differently affected by fapid objects, excite in 
 us the various fenfations of fweet and four, au- 
 (lere and mild, and the like. 
 
 It is much in the fame manner alfo, that the 
 nerves diftributed in the manner of papillae thro* 
 the membrana pituitaria, affedls us with the fen- 
 fations we have of various fmells : fo that, upon 
 the whole, the fenfe of feeling feems almoft a 
 general and univerfal one ; and the ochers may, 
 perhaps, without impropriety, be called only fq 
 many different fpecies of this. 
 
 A CQM- 
 
220 
 
 COMPENDIUM 
 
 O F 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 B O O K IV. 
 
 Of Angiology, 
 
 C H A P. I. 
 
 QJ the Arteries, 
 
 290. A Ngiology is the dodrine of the blood- 
 /^ vefleis ; that is, of arteries and veins. 
 JL jk. The term might be undcrftood in ^ 
 more comprehenfive fenfe -, but as cullom has efta- 
 blifhed this more limited one for it in anatomical 
 writings, in this only we fhail underftand it in 
 this place. 
 
 291. An artery is a tube or canal, endued with 
 pulfation, elaftick, and branched, and ferving to 
 carry the blood from the heart to the fcveral parts 
 of the body. 
 
 The arteries of the human body are, properly 
 and ftridly fpeaking, only two, i. The pulmo- 
 nary artery -, and, 2. The aorta, or arteria magna. 
 All the other arteries of the body, tho' diftin- 
 
 guifhed 
 
c/<ANATOMY. 221 
 
 guifhed by particular names, are only branches of 
 thefe. 
 
 The figure of the arteries is conoide : they 
 begin from a larger bafe, and end in a fmall point. 
 Toward the extremities, however, they become 
 merely cylindrick tubes of an extreme finenefs; 
 and thefe end in reticular plexus's, in pencils, fpi- 
 rules, and other figures •, and, finally, go off into 
 veins, lymphaticks, or excretory du6ls. The ar- 
 teries are of a membranaceous ftrudlure : they are 
 compofed of five coats •, the fir ft is vafcular, the 
 fecond cellular, the third tendinous, the fourth 
 mufculous, compofed of annular, and, as it were, 
 tendinous fibres •, and the fifth is nervous. 
 
 292. The pulmonary artery arifes from the 
 right ventricle of the heart, and is diftributed 
 only thro' the lungs, but that with a vaft number 
 of ramifications. 
 
 293. The aorta, called alfo the arteria magna^ 
 or great artery, arifes, with a fingle trunk, from 
 the left ventricle of the heart, above its valves, 
 called the femi-lunar ones : it prefently gives two 
 arteries, called coronary ones, to the heart itfelf, 
 and its auricles ; and after this its trunk is bent, 
 in the manner of an arch : and from this part it 
 fends, in human fubjeds, ufually three afcending 
 branches ; from which are formed the two caro- 
 tids, called, from their fituation, the right and 
 Jeft, each of which, about the larynx, is won- 
 derfully turned and bent in moft fubjeds, and is 
 divided into what are termed the external and the 
 internal carotid. 
 
 The external carotid fends branches to the 
 larynx, the pharynx, and the mufcles of the os 
 hyoidts •, the jaws, the tongue, the lips, the mouth, 
 the nofe, the eyes, the ears, the temples, and, in 
 fine, to all the external parts of. the head. 
 
 The 
 
22 A COMPE ND Iir M 
 
 The internal carotid enters into the cavity of 
 the flcull, and, after many inflexions, fends 
 branches to the feveral parts of the brain, the 
 membranes of the brain, the eyes, the noftrils, 
 and the internal cars. 
 
 The fubclavians are two ; and from thefe arifes, 
 on each fide, an artery, which is called the ver- 
 tebral : thefe run up to the brain, between the 
 foramina of the tranfverfe apophyfes of the ver- 
 tebrae; and, after making many windings, enter 
 the cranium, and are joined to the carotids, form- 
 ing the ccrvicalis*, with the fpinal-f, and with 
 thefe are diflributed over the whole brain. 
 
 From the fubclavians alfo arife the mufculares 
 colli, which are uncertain both in their number 
 and fituation, and are diftributed thro* the mufclcs 
 of the neck. 
 
 The externa] fcapulary artery, which is fent to 
 the external parts of the fcapula. 
 
 The fuperiof intercoftals, which are diftributed 
 about the two or three firft ribs, and the circum- 
 jacent parts. 
 
 The mediaftinal artery, diftributed thro* the 
 fnediaftinum, thymus, and pericardium. 
 
 The fuperior diaphragmatick artery, which 
 defcends to the diaphragm, and frequently gives 
 branches to the parts laft mentioned ; particularly 
 if the mediaftinal artery, as is fometimes the cafe, 
 is wanting. 
 
 The mammary artery, which, running under 
 the fternum, defcends quite to the abdomen, and 
 fends branches to the breafts, the mufcles of the 
 thorax, and thofe of the abdomen. 
 
 And, finally, the axillary arteries, from which 
 are derived the internal fcapular, which goes to 
 
 • Sec Ridley's Anat. Cerebr. fig. i, g. 
 t See the fame in the fame place* 
 
 die 
 
^/ANATOMY. i^2j 
 
 the parts that lie under the fcapula : the thoracick 
 artery, or external mammary artery, which is 
 diilributed thro' the external parts of the thorax : 
 and the brachial, which ufually defcends undi- 
 vided as far as to the bending of the elbow, only 
 fending off little branches to the arm ; but, from 
 this place downward^ it is divided into two 
 branches, the radiseus, and the cubitasus 5 and 
 thefe are divided into a number of branches^ 
 which run to the hand, and to the feveral fingers. 
 Sometimes, however, the brachial artery is in the 
 upper part of the arm, and fometimcs in the 
 middle, divided into branches y and many other 
 variations of nature, from her ordinary courfe^ 
 are met with in different fubjedts, in regard to 
 this divifion. 
 
 After we have thus traced the afcendent 
 branches of the aorta, we are to examine its 
 trunk, which defcends, after an arch-like inflexion, 
 thro' the thorax and the abdomen, down to the 
 OS facrum. This is ufually larger in women than 
 in men : and from this arife, in their order. 
 
 The bronchial artery of Ruyfch ; tho* this 
 Ibmetimes alfo rifes from the intercoftals *. 
 
 The inferior intercoftals, which are diftributed 
 about all the ribs, except the two or three firfl j 
 and fend ramifications to the marrow in the fpine^ 
 and to the mufcles of the abdomen. 
 
 The oefophagaean arteries, which run to the 
 oefophagus, and have been obferved but by few 
 of the anatomical writers. 
 
 The inferior diaphragmaticks, which fometimes 
 alio rife from the cceliac. 
 
 The coeliac, which iflfues from the aorta, jufl 
 below the diaphragm. 
 
 • See Ruyfch's Dilucidat. Valval, Lymphat- p, 61. and 
 Epift. 6. 
 
 The 
 
224 ^CoMPEJtfDIUM 
 
 The right branch of this lends out the right 
 gaftrick and epiploick, the pancreatick, and the 
 duodenick, the hepatick and the double cyftick 
 arteries. 
 
 The left branch of it fends off the left gaftrick 
 and epiploick arteries, the gaftro- epiploick, the 
 great fplenickj and alfo many of the pancreatick 
 arteries. 
 
 The fuperior mefenterick next runs off from 
 the defcendent trunk of the aorta : this is diftri- 
 buted to the mefentery, and to the fmall intef- 
 tines. After this 
 
 The renal or emulgent arteries, which are 
 fometimes fingle, fometimes double, on each fide j 
 with thefe arife the 
 
 Atrabiliarias, which go to the capfulne atrabi- 
 liariae ; and the adipofae, which run to the adipofe 
 membrane of the kidneys ; but thefe alfo often 
 arlfe from the renals. 
 
 The fpermaticks, which in men run to the 
 teflicles, and in women principally to the uterus. 
 
 The inferior mefenterick, which goes to the 
 larger inteftines ; and one branch of which, in 
 particular, going to the inteftinum redtum, is 
 called the internal haemorrhoidal. 
 
 The lumbar ones, which are various, and go 
 to the mufcles of the loins, and to thofe of the 
 abdomen, and other of the circumjacent parts. 
 
 The ficra, which fometimes defcends thro' the 
 middle of the os facrum to the pelvis ; fometimes 
 arifes one from each iliac, and fometimes is 
 wanting. 
 
 And, finally, the two iliacs, each of which is 
 again divided into two parts, the internal, and the 
 external. 
 
 The internal branch of the iliac is commonly 
 called the hypogadrick : this runs to the bladder, 
 
 the 
 
of ANATOMY. 2^5 
 
 the inteftlnum reftum, where it is called the ex- 
 ternal hemorrhoidal artery \ to the parts of gene- 
 ration, the buttocks, and the adjacent parts. 
 
 The external branch of the iliac fends out the 
 umbilical artery * \ the epigaflrick, which runs 
 thro' the mufculus rectus of the abdomen, up to 
 the mammary one 5 the pudendal, which goes to 
 the cutis of the pudenda ; and, finally, the crural, 
 which lies upon the vein -f, and is divided into two 
 parts; the external, which is fmaller, and is dis- 
 tributed throughout the exterior part of the thigh ; 
 and the internal, which is larger, and forms the ' 
 poplitese, the furales, and the tibial arteries ; and 
 which is afterwards, from the extremities of thefe, 
 divided into a multitude of branches, to which 
 anatomifts have given no names, in the foot. 
 
 C H A P. IL 
 
 Of the Veins. 
 
 294. /% Vein is a vefTel which carries the blood 
 /j^ from the feveral parts of the body to 
 the heart. The primary veins of the human 
 body are three : i. The pulmonary vein. 2. The 
 vena cava. And, 3. The vena portas. 
 
 295. The pulmonary vein arifes from the left 
 auricle of the heart, where it firft forms a finus ; 
 and is, foon after that, divided into four branches, 
 and afterwards into innumerable ones, which are 
 ramified, and diftributed thro' the whole fubftance 
 of the lungs %, 
 
 296. The vena cava arifes, with a larger finus, 
 from the right auricle of the heart : it there fends 
 
 * The origin of this, hov/ever, varies greatly. ■ 
 \ See Morgagni's Adverfar. 2. p. 8-., 
 X See Drake's Anthropolog. T. 13. 
 
 O out 
 
as A CoMPlNrillTM 
 
 out a vein to the heart itfelf, called the coronary 
 vein ; and is divided into two trunks, a fupe- 
 rior, and an inferior. 
 
 From the fuperior trunk of the vena cava there 
 arifc the following veins : 
 
 The vena azygos*, from Which arife after- 
 wards the intercoftai veins, and the oefophagesfe. 
 
 The bronchial vein, which, in feme fubjedls^ 
 indeed, does not rife feparate; but comes from 
 the azygos, and fometimes from the intercoftals, 
 and is in fome fubjedts wholly wanting. 
 
 The mediaftinal vein, which accompanies the 
 mediaftinal artery. 
 
 The fuperior diaphragmatick, which accom- 
 panies, in the fame manner, the artery of that 
 name •, as the mediaftinal does the mediaftinal 
 artery. And, finally. 
 
 The fubclavians ; from which arife, on each fide. 
 
 The external jugular, diftributed thro' the ex- 
 ternal parts of the head j and which, in its feveral 
 parts, receives different denominations from them; 
 fuch as the frontal, the temporal, and the occi- 
 pital, &c. 
 
 The internal jugular, which gives ramifications 
 to the larynx, the pharynx, the mufcles of the 
 OS hyoides, and to the tongue : thofe which are 
 under its apex, are called raninae. Befide thefe 
 branches, fent oflf from different parts of the in- 
 ternal jugular, its trunk terminates in a diverti- 
 culum, called the jugular fack, and brings back 
 the blood from the finub's of the dura mater, and 
 from the brain. 
 
 The vertebral vein, which afcends to the cra- 
 nium, thro' the tranfverfe apophyfes of the verte- 
 bra; of the neck, and runs to the lateral finus, 
 
 * See Lancifi ; as alfo Morgagni, Adverf. $.73. 
 
 The 
 
^/ANATOMY, 227 
 
 The fuperior intercoflals, diftributed about the 
 two or three upper ribs. 
 
 The mammary veins, which accompany the 
 mammary arteries. 
 
 The mufculares, which are of two kinds, the 
 fuperior, and the inferior. 
 
 The fcapulares, which are alfo of two kinds, 
 external and internal, and the external thoracick. 
 
 And, finally, the axillary ; the exterior branch 
 of which is called the cephalick, and is extended 
 along the exterior part of the arm, toward the 
 thumb: and its interior branch, called the bafi- 
 lick; and in the right arm the hepatick; in the 
 left, the fplenick. The vena mediana is formed 
 of the concourfe of thefe, in the flexure of the 
 cubit. And, finally, that which runs over the 
 back of the hand, towards the little finger, is 
 called the falvatella. 
 
 The inferior trunk of the vena cava is remark- 
 able for the valves, and from this arife the fol- 
 lowing veins : 
 
 The diaphragmatick, or inferior phrenick veins, 
 running to the diaphragm. 
 
 The hepatick, which are large, and have many 
 branches, and are fent to the liver. 
 
 The renal veins, from the left of which rifcs the 
 left fpermacick vein. 
 
 The atrabiliarias and adipofe-, but thefe are 
 often only branches from the renal ones. 
 
 The right fpermatick vein, and near it feveral 
 lumbary veins. 
 
 The facra, which fometimes is found double. 
 
 And, finally, the iliacs. From thefe, on each 
 fide, arife 
 
 The hypoga ft ricks, from which branches run 
 to the intcfl:inum redlum, and to' the anus: thefe 
 are called the external haemorrhoidal veins : and 
 
 Qji others 
 
228 A Compendium 
 
 others to the bladder, the parts of generation, the 
 buttocks, and the adjoining mufcles. 
 
 The epigaftricks, the pudendal, and the muf- 
 culares, all which accompany the arteries of the 
 fame denomination. 
 
 The crural, which run to the feet ; and the 
 internal branch of which, toward the internal 
 malleolus, is called thefaphaena -, and its exicrnal, 
 about the knee, the poplitsea : in the interme- 
 diate part of the leg it is called furalis ; and about 
 the great toe of each foot, the cephalick vein of 
 the foot. 
 
 297. The vena portas has fome kind of refem- 
 blance to a tree, in its ftructure *. Its roots, or 
 inferior branches, are divided into the righc 
 and left. 
 
 From the right arife all the meferiac veins of 
 the inteftines, the internal hasmorrhoidal, and 
 the right epiploicks. 
 
 The left is called the fplenic vein ; and from 
 this arife 
 
 The gaftrick veins, which are various, and 
 form the coronary vein of the ftomach. 
 . The vafa brevia, the cpiploick, and the gaflro- 
 epiploick veins. 
 
 The pancreatick, and fometimes alfo the In- 
 ternal haemorrhoidal vein. 
 
 The trunk of the vena port^, which goes to 
 the liver, affords the cyftick veins, the right gaf- 
 trick, the duodenal, and this often the pan- 
 creatick. 
 
 Laftly, we are to obferve its branches : where 
 the trunk begins to explicate, it conliitutes the 
 finus portas in the liver j and from this it is di- 
 
 * This Is elegantly and juflly figured in Chefelden's Ana- 
 tomy, T. x6. 
 
 vided 
 
^/ANATOMY. 229 
 
 vided into innumerable branches, which are dif- 
 perfed thro' the whole fubftance of the hver. 
 
 298. The veins are compofed principally of a 
 membranaceous, a valculous, and a mufculous 
 tunick ; but thefe are vaftly thinner than in the 
 arteries. There are, in fome of the branches of 
 the vena cava, valves deftined to be of fervice in 
 the circulation of the blood ; but there are none 
 in the vena portse, nor in the pulmonary vein, 
 
 CHAP. Ill, 
 
 Of the Nerves, 
 
 299. r I A H E nerves are cylindrick, whitifh Neuro- 
 
 X parts, ufually fibrofe in their ftructure, ^^ZY' 
 or compofed of clufters of filaments, arifing from 
 the brain, or rather from its medulla oblongata 
 within thefkull, and from the fpinal marrow, and 
 running from thence to every part of the body. 
 
 The nerves are ufually divided into two kinds : 
 thofe of the brain, and thofe of the fpinal mar- 
 row. The nerves of the brain are nine pair : 
 
 1. The olfa6lory, which pafs thro* the os cri- 
 brofum to the rnembrane of the noftrils; fome 
 account of which has already been given, (S. 287.) 
 
 2. The optick, which, by their expanfion, 
 form the retina of the eye. 
 
 3. The motory pair of the eyes, which are 
 divided, each near the orbit, into fix parts or. 
 branches : of which, in human lubjeds, the firft 
 branch goes to the elevator palpebrse ; the fecond, 
 to the elevator of the eye •, the third, to the de- 
 prefTor; the fourth, to the adducent; the iifth, 
 to the inferior oblique ; and the fixth, into the 
 tunics of the eyes ; but in beafts they are dividt4 
 iiiuch other wife. 
 
 <^3 ^ i' 
 
2 JO A Compendium 
 
 4. The paihetick of Willis : this pair were 
 known to Euftachius. They are very fmall, and 
 run to the trochlear mufcle of the eye. 
 
 5. The guftatory pair : thefe are very large, 
 and are divided, within the cranium, into three 
 branches, immediately under the dura mater. Of 
 thefe, the firft branch, called the ophthalmick, 
 runs to various parts of and about the eye, the 
 eyelids, the mufcles of the forehead and nofe, 
 and the teguments of the face. 
 
 The fecond branch may be called the fuperior 
 maxillary one, fince, after it has made its paiTage 
 out of the cranium by the foramen rotundum, it 
 is diftributed thro' all parts of the upper jaw, the 
 lips, nofe, palate, uvula, gums, and teeth : a 
 branch of it alfo runs to the ear, and this, joining 
 with a branch of the feventh pair, forms the 
 chorda tympani, already defcribed in its place. 
 Befide thefe, it fends off alfo one or two furculi, 
 or little ramifications, in the cranium •, and thefe, 
 together with a little branch of the fixth pair, 
 fometimes give origin to the intercoftal nerve. 
 
 The third may be called the maxillaris inferior, 
 fince, after pafling out at the foramen ovale of 
 the cranium, it is diflributed over the fevtral parts 
 of the lower jaw, the tongue, and teeth particu- 
 larly. Ic is from the diftribution of this part that 
 the whole pair of nerves have obtained the name 
 of par guftatorium, tho' a great part of them 
 ferves to very different purpoles, and is carried to 
 parts that have nothing to do with tafling. 
 
 6. The abducent : this fends out a branch for 
 the formation of the intercoflal nerve ; but almoft 
 the whole of the nerve, except this, is carried to 
 the mufculus abducens of the eye, whence the 
 pair are named. 
 
 The 
 
^/ANATOMY. 23f 
 
 The intercoftal nerve is formed either of rami- 
 fications of the two preceding nerves, or only of 
 thofe of the fixth pair. It makes its way out of 
 the cranium by the pafTage of the internal carotid, 
 and defcends, near the eighth pair, thro* the neck 5 
 and thence thro' the bread and abdomen, even to 
 the pelvis; and, in its way, makes various plexus'*s 
 and ganglia f, and fends branches to almoll all the 
 parts contained in the breafl: and abdomen. 
 
 7. The auditory pair : thefe arife wi(h two 
 trunks, the one of which is called the portio dura, 
 or h^rd portio.n ; the other the portio mollis, ot 
 fpft one. This lad enters the foramen of the os 
 petrofum, and thence, thro' various little aper- 
 tures, gets into the labyrinth : it is there expanded 
 over all its parts, and conftitute§ the primary or- 
 gan of hearing. 
 
 The portio dura, or fiarder portion, pafling 
 the aqusedudl of Fallopius, turns back one or more 
 branches from the anterior furface of the procefs 
 of the petrofum into the cavity of the cranium •, 
 and thefe run to the receptacles, &c. under the 
 du.ra menynx f-. It fends off alfo another branch 
 internally, which, with the branch from the fifth 
 pair, ferves for the conftrudlion of the chorda 
 lympani: and it alfo fends off a number of other 
 fmailer ramifications, which run to the mufcles, 
 and other parts of the tympanum. 
 
 The rell of this pair goes off to the external 
 ear, the pericranium, the mufcles of the os 
 hyoides, the lips, the eyelids, and the parotids, 
 
 8. The par vagum, (with the fpinalis acceffo- 
 rius of Willis :) thefe pafs out near the lateral 
 finus's of the dura mater, and, defcending thro'- 
 
 * Of the fabrick and reremblance of thefbj^ fee Morgn^nij^ 
 Adverfar. 2. 
 
 f See the fame, Adverf. 6. p. 34. 
 
 0.4 ^^ 
 
i^^ A Compendium 
 
 the neck and thorax to the abdomen, fend out 
 branches by the way to the Jarynx, the pharynx, 
 the heart, the lungs, and more than all to the 
 ftomach. It alfo fends away, from the upper 
 pare of the thorax, large branches to the larynx, 
 which, from this odd paiTage, are called recur- 
 rents -, and, finally, thefe are variouQy implicated 
 and entangled in the neck, the thorax, and the 
 abdomen, with the linguals, the cervicals, and 
 the intercoftals. 
 
 9. The: lingual pair go immediately to the 
 to«igue, and are called, by fome, the motory 
 nerves of the tongue \ but by others, with more 
 juftice and propriety, guftatoria. 
 
 Finally, we are to obferve, that the pair of 
 nerves, which the generality of anatomical writers, 
 after Willis, have called the tenth pair of the 
 head, are, for many unanfwerable reafons, 
 to be properly called the firft pair of nerves of 
 the neck. 
 
 300. The nerves of the fpinal marrow arc 
 thofe which arife from the m.edulhi, or marrow 
 contained in the fpine •, not from the brain. Of 
 thefe there are properly thirty-two pair. 
 
 Thofe of the neck are no lefs than eight pair, 
 and from thefe there are innumerable branches 
 diftribured thro' the mufcles of the head, the 
 neck, the fcapula, and the humerus. From the 
 third pair, in particular, there is a branch which 
 runs up to the ear : from the third, fourth, and 
 fifth pair are formed the nerves of the diaphragm, 
 which, pafTing thro' the neck and the breaft, de- 
 fcend to the diaphragm : the fixth, feventh, and 
 eighth pair of thefe, together with the fir fl: pair 
 of thole of the back, after they have been joined 
 by various anaftomofes, form the fix robufl: nerves 
 
 of 
 
^/ANATOMY. 235 
 
 of the arm, which are difperfed throughout the 
 Icapulre, the arms, the hands, and the fingers. 
 
 To this divilion a!/o is the ipinal accefTory 
 nerve of Willis to be referred, as a fort of ninth 
 pair of nerves of the neci^ : this arifes f.-om the 
 ipinal marrow, about the origin of the third or 
 fourth pair, and paffes thro' the great foramen in 
 the OS occipitis up into the cranium : it is then 
 joined to the par vagum, and, coming out of the 
 cranium again by the fame aperture, it recedes 
 again from the par vagum, and is bent back to 
 the mufculus fcapulas cucullaris, or trapezius -f-. 
 
 The nerves of the back are twelve pairs : thefe, 
 befide the branch which they give to the brachial 
 nerves, run intirely in the fame furrow along the 
 courfe of the ribs, and are difperfed over the 
 pleura, the intercoftal, peroral, and abdominal 
 mufcles, the breads, and other parts of the 
 thorax. 
 
 The nerves of the loins are five pair : they are, 
 in general, difperfed over the loins, the periro- 
 naeum, and the integuments and mufcles of the 
 abdomen : and, befide this, their firft pair often 
 gives, on each fide, a branch to the diaphragm. 
 The fecond pair, after inoiculating with the 
 branches of the firft, third, and fourth pair, forms 
 the crural nerve, which is diftributed over the 
 anterior part of the thigh ; and in the fame man- 
 ner a branch is formed of the conjunction? of che 
 fecond, third, and fourth pair, which palTes thro' 
 the great foramen of the os pubis to the fcrotum, 
 the tefticles, and the adjoining parts. 
 
 * Santorini obferves, in oppofition to Ridley, that "this 
 pair do not arife from the prior but from the pollerior ones, 
 and not below the fifth. 
 
 f This is finely dehneated by Du Verney in his Trad, de 
 Aure humana, T. 11. fig. i. 
 
 The 
 
i34 -^ Compendium 
 
 The fourth and fifth pair of the nerves of the 
 loins, joining with the firfl, fecond, third, and 
 fourth pairs of the os facrum, compofe the nerve 
 called the ifchiatick, or the pofterior crural nerve, 
 which is the largefl in the human body : 
 from hence it pafTes out between the mufculi 
 glutasi of the pelvis, and defcending along the 
 hinder part of the thigh, between the two lower 
 heads of the os femoris, it is divided into branches, 
 which are diflributed over the whole kg, the foot, 
 and the toes. Before it goes out of the pelvis, 
 however, it fends off a number of branches to the 
 bladder, the inteflinum,red1um, the genitals, and 
 many of the adjacent parts. 
 
 The nerves of the os facrum, finally, are five 
 pair, tho' not always determinately and regularly 
 fo : they pafs thro* the anterior foramina of this 
 bone •, and the fuperior ones of them, as already 
 obferved, compofe the ifchiatick nerve ; and what 
 remains is difperfed, in a multitude of ramifica- 
 tions, over the parts contained in the pelvis, the 
 inteftinum redlum, the bladder, the parts of ge- 
 neration, and the other adjacent ones. 
 
 The pofterior foramina of this bone are very 
 large •, but thro' thefe there pafs no nerves, tho' 
 many of the anatomical writers have unluckily 
 afTerted that there do. The reader, who would 
 enter more deeply into the dodrine and diftribu- 
 tion of the nerves, fhould ftudy Willis's Treatifc 
 of the Brain and Nerves, and Vieuflen's Neuro- 
 lo^ia, where they are exprefTed by large, elegant, 
 and accurate figures. 
 
 301. The ftruciure and fabrick of the nerves 
 is pretty eafily diftinguifhable in moft of the larger 
 and in fome of the fmaller ones. Befide the blood- 
 vefTcls they receive^ and the membranes they are 
 furroundcd with, they are fetn to be co^ipofed 
 
 of 
 
cf AN AT ONLY. 235 
 
 oF a fibrous matter •, or, as it were, of bundles or 
 clufters of white, cylindrick, and very (lender fila- 
 ments : thefe filaments, on the flri(5left examina- 
 tion we are able to make into their nature, appear 
 to be folid, and without any cavity*. Much lefs 
 are we to fuppofe, that any one ever faw a cjid 
 contained in them, as too many authors, and thofe 
 of reputation, have attempted 10 perfuade the 
 world they had. 
 
 Tho' we cannot difcover, by our moH: nice 
 enquiries, that there is any fuch fluid as the ani- 
 mal fpirits contained in the filaments of the nerves, 
 or indeed that they have any cavity for the recep- 
 tion of it ', yet it is very pofTible, that ihi;re may 
 be fuch cavities, tho' too fmall for our difcovery, 
 and a fluid of a proportionable finenefs and fub- 
 tlety in them : and the following arguments have 
 been urged, with great fhew of reafon, in fupport 
 of the opinion that it is fo, and that thefe fila- 
 ments are all vefTels. 
 
 1. Becaufe they arife from the brain and the 
 fpinal marrow, in exadlly the fame manner as the 
 other dud:s do from the other vifcera and glands ; 
 that is, they rife from the extremities ot^ the arte- 
 riolse of the cortical fubftance of the brain. 
 
 2. Becaufe the vaft abundance of blood, which 
 is carried up into the head by four very large ar- 
 teries, when we confider that the liver is nourifhed 
 by a lingle one, and that but a fmail one, can- 
 not be fuppofed deftined to the nutrition of the 
 brain alone^ or at all necefTary to it •, nor indeed 
 to be dired^d thither with any vifible intent, un- 
 lefs for the fecretion of another fluid, and that in 
 very large abundance, to be there made from it. 
 
 * Lewenhoeck indeed affirms, thai he had often found a 
 cavity in them ; but he is not free from errors in many of his 
 jnicrofcopial obfervations. 
 
 J- 
 
2^6 ^Compendium 
 
 3. Becaufe the nerves continue to grow to be 
 elongated, and to be nourifned, fiom the firft pe- 
 riod of the formarion of the foetus in the uterus 
 to the full growth, and to extremeft old age ; 
 which feems hardly pofTiblc to be explained any 
 way, unlefs by fuppofing that there is a fubtie 
 fiuid contained in them, which diflends them, and 
 preferves them vigorous, after they have done 
 
 growing. 
 
 4. Becaufe, on cutting a nerve afunder, the 
 fenfation, motion, and nutrition of the part, into 
 which it was inferted, ceafes. This feems to fee 
 the importance of the nerves much higher than 
 that of any other of the vefTcls, and to give proof 
 that the influx of fome fluid, of the utmofl con- 
 feqaence to the part, is prevented by the deftroy- 
 ing the communication. 
 
 5. It is not only on the cutting a nerve afunder 
 that this happens, but alfo on the only tying one 
 up ; particularly on tying up the nerves of the 
 diaphragm, in a living fubjeft, its motion is al- 
 ways found to ceafe ; and on prefljng thefe nerves 
 below the ligature, towards the diaphragm, there 
 returns fome motion in that part : and this 
 feems to plead very (Irongly in favour of th:?re 
 being fome fluid in the cavities of thefe filaments, 
 and for the motion of the diaphragm depending 
 on it. 
 
 6. The bufinefs of fleeping and waking feems 
 not to be accountable fcr on any other plan, than 
 that of allowing a fluid of this kind to'the nerves. 
 Certainly nobody yet has fo much as tolerably ac- 
 counted for it otherwife. 
 
 7. It is as impoflible alfo to explain why it is, 
 that fo furprifing a debihty, efpecially in people 
 of not very robufl: confl:itutions, fucceeds too free 
 
 a 
 
c/ ANATOMY. 237 
 
 fe ufe of venery, unlefs by having recourfe to 
 thele animal (pints. 
 
 8. Nor, indeed, has any body yet been able 
 to explain, without having recourfe to the fame 
 fluid in the nerves, that amazing debiUty that is 
 the confequence of too intenfe fludy; or that 
 which accompanies many difeafes, and particularly 
 that furprifing lofs of (Irength that is one of the 
 conftant fymptoms in malignant fevers. 
 
 9. The po/Iibility of a cavity in the nerves, 
 and of a fluid being contained in that cavity, tho* 
 we are able to diftinguifh neither the one nor the 
 other, may alfo be cafily evinced from the obfer- 
 vation of the growth and nuturation of fruits. 
 In the ftalks of a cherry, for inftance, we are only 
 able to difcover a fet of fibres, which, like the 
 white filaments of which the nerves are comoofed, 
 appear to be perfedily folid : no cavity, nor any 
 juice, ever was diftinguiflied in any of thefe fila- 
 ments ; yet it is very evident, that they muH have 
 cavities, and thofe much larger than there is a 
 necefTiiy of fuppofmg thofe in the nervous fila- 
 ments ; fince, unlefs a juice, and that of a much 
 coarfer and thicker nature than we need fuppofe 
 that of the nerves to be, pafTed thro' them, ic 
 would be impoffible for the fruit to increafe in 
 fize. The very (lone, in this cafe, is formed of 
 particles that have pafTed thro' cavities, thus im- 
 perceptible to us. And after v/e have been obliged 
 to acknowledge this, furely it can be no^ great 
 concefTion to allow a poffibility of cavities and a 
 fluid in the nerves; the apparent necelTity of 
 which our reafon plainly fl^iews, tho' our bodily 
 organs cannot fhew its exiftence. 
 
 10. Finally, thofe who abfolutely deny the 
 exiftence of animal fpirits, or of a fluid conveyed 
 thro' the cavities of the nervous filaments, allow 
 
 no 
 
238 A Compendium 
 
 no purpofc, or at leaft but a very inconfiderabfc 
 one, for which the nerves themfelves can have 
 been formed : if they fay, that the foul works on 
 the body by a contradion of the nerves, and thus 
 produces motion, it may be anfwered, that no 
 powers of contradlion can be fhewn to be in the 
 nerves. And, befide this, the phasnomena al- 
 ready mentioned, from the tying up of a nerve, 
 cannot be explicated any other way than by allow- 
 ing the exiilence of a fluid, whofe courfe is thus 
 Itopt \ for the ligature would not be of any force 
 towards the preventing its powers of contra6lion, 
 as is evident from the confequence of tying a rope 
 round, ever fo firmly, in one part, with a thread : 
 the power of contracting will not be prevented by 
 that. 
 
 go 2. The great ufe of the nerves, therefore, 
 feems to be, tho' we are not able perfe6tly to de-^ 
 monftrate it, to convey to all parts of the body, 
 nay, by their minute fibrils of the laft divifion, to 
 every point of every part of the body, a fluid of 
 an extremely fubtle kind, fecrered in the brain 
 and in the fpinal marrow, and deftined for no lefs 
 noble a purpofe than the fenfation, motion, and 
 nutrition of the feveral parts of the whole human 
 fabrick. 
 
 The reader, who would enter farther into this 
 nice and important difquifition, would do well to 
 read Boerhaave's chapter on the brain, in his In- 
 flitutes ; and Morgagni's Adverfar. 2. p. 70. and 
 ihe two fucceeding ones *, and the 29th and 30th 
 of his fixth Adverf. where he treats judicioufly 
 and deeply on this fubjeCt \ and, after thefe, 
 Burggrave on the Exiftence of the Animal Spirits. 
 
 There are many at this time who abfolutely 
 
 deny the exiflence both of thefe fpirits, and of the 
 
 cavities fuppofed to contain them, becaufe they 
 
 5 can 
 
of ANATOMY. 239 
 
 tan fee neither ; and fome of them have gone fo 
 far as to cenfure, very fevercly, thofe who have 
 afferted the exiftence of them ; tho' with no bet- 
 ter proof againft their exiilence than this of their 
 not having been able to make them the objects of 
 their fenfes. But it may be obferved, that they 
 reafon very erroneoufly on the fubjedb of this fluid, 
 who fuppofe, from its offices, that there is any 
 necefiity of its being grofs enough to be obvious 
 to ou!" fenfes : on the contrary, its efFedls feem 
 rather, as Schelhammer has juftly obferved, to 
 fhew that it ought to be as fubtile as penetrating, 
 and as fwift in its motions as light, and to diffufe 
 itfelf as univerfally and inftantaneoufly thro* the 
 places of its defti nation. Some inftances we have 
 given, feem to fhew a necefTity of all this fubtility 
 in it ; and if we will allow it, that it follows evi- 
 dently enough, that it is more proper to be an 
 objedt of our reafon than of our fenfes, and to be 
 feen by its efFcds rather than by its furface. We 
 cannot fee, nor ever can expedl to fee, the vefTels 
 thro' which the fluids circulate in the legs of a 
 mite •, yet we are very certain, that there are fuch 
 veffels and fuch fluids there. The air, and many 
 other exiflences, might alfo be mentioned, as 
 things which we never do nor ever can feej yet 
 whofe effeds very plainly prove to us, that there 
 arc fuch things. 
 
 A COM' 
 
240 
 
 COM PE N DIUM 
 
 O F 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 BOOK V. 
 
 Of Myology* 
 
 C H A P. I. 
 
 0/ Myology in generaU 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 Yology is the dodlrine of the muf- 
 cles, explaining their fabrick, their 
 origin, infertion^ fituation and ufe, 
 
 304. A mufcle is an inllrument of motion : it 
 is a part of the human body deftined for the 
 moving fome other part, and that in general by a 
 voluntary motion, or fuch as is dictated by the 
 will. It is compofed principally of flefhy and of 
 tendinous fibres, which have alfo veflels of all 
 kinds, arteries, veins, nerves, and lymphaticks •, 
 all which parts are furrounded by or inclofed in 
 one common membrane, 
 
 305. A mufcle is divided, by anatomifts, into 
 the body and the two extremities: the body is 
 called, alfo the belly of the mufcle, venter j and 
 
 the 
 
^/ANATOMY. 241 
 
 the two extremities, if they are white, are called 
 tendons. 
 
 That extremity where the mufcle arifes is called 
 its head, caputs or its beginning, its origin, or its 
 fixed point. Its other extremity, or end, is called 
 its tail, its moveable point, and often its tendon ; 
 and, finally, this, if it be broad and membra- 
 naceous, is called an aponeurofis. 
 
 306. The adion of a mufcle confifls properl/ 
 in the contradion of its belly, after whatever 
 manner that is done : by this means its extremities 
 approach toward one another j and by this means 
 alfo the part, into which the end of the mufcle 
 is inferted, moves as if it were drawn by a cord, 
 Schelhammer* is of opinion, that this contradlion 
 of the belly of a mufcle is performed by means of 
 a corrugation of the fibres, in the fame manner 
 as we fee an earth-worm Ihorcen and contract itfelf 
 by corrugating its fkin, &c. Morgagni -f , on the 
 other hand, alledges, that, in order to underftand 
 the power of modon in ,a mufcle, we ought to 
 attend to Wallis's experiment ; by which it is 
 evidently proved, that the fmalleft force imagin- 
 able of the air, driven thro' a cylindrick tube into 
 a bladder, will, by diftending its width, and 
 fhortening its length, caufe it to raife up, and 
 fuftain a weight ot fixry or feventy pounds. 
 
 Others have demonftrated, by hydroftatical 
 principles that a very fmall quantity of a fluid, 
 direded thro' a fmall cylindrick tube, placed on 
 a veiTel of a larger bafe^ and already filled, will 
 be able, in the fame manner, to move and raife 
 up a large weight : from which they fhew that it 
 follows, that the belly of a mufcle fwells in the 
 time of its contradbion or adlion ; and that this 
 
 * See his Analedl. Anatom. Difiert. 7, 
 *|- See his Adverfaria 5. p. 112, 
 
 R intu- 
 
242 A Compendium 
 
 intumcfcence may, nay and mud, have very great 
 cfFedls. 
 
 On the other hand, there are, among the lateft 
 and mod celebrated writers, fome who affirm, 
 that the belly of a mufele does not fwell, or be- 
 come diftended at all, in the rime of its contrac- 
 tion : but it would be well, if the afllirters of this 
 opinion would, while they forcibly draw up the 
 under-jaw to the upper, lay two or three of their 
 fingers upon either the temporal or maflfeter muf- 
 ele ; for, in this cafe, they will have the mod evi- 
 dent of all convidion, that, while thefe mufcles 
 ad:, their bellies are in reality diftended, and ren- 
 dered firmer. Or let them only, when the hand 
 is placed in a proper fituation, forcibly draw the 
 thumb toward the firft finger, and they may both 
 fee and feel, in the mod evident manner in the 
 world, that the mufele between the thumb and 
 the index fwells, or is didended in its middle, as 
 the adlion of drawing the thumb toward the 
 finger is performed. A number of other indances 
 of the certainty of this fa6l might be brought ; 
 but this lad alone is fo obvious and indifputable, 
 that more are not necefTary *. 
 
 In many of the mulcles both the extremities 
 are moveable : thefe properly have no fixed point 
 at all ; but in thefe, that part which, of the two, 
 is lead moveable, is always called the head, or the 
 fixed point, by the anatomical writers •, and the 
 more moveable part, or end, is called the tail, or 
 the puncflum mobile. This, however, cai)not be 
 done univcrfally, fincc there are cafes in which 
 
 * The reader, wIk) would enter more deeply into this dif- 
 quifition, may coniult Borelli de Motu Animallam ; Ber- 
 nouilli de Mntu Mufcul. Berger^s Phyfiolog. cap. 22. Boer- 
 haavc's Inftitutcs. in his chapter of Mufcidar Motion ; and 
 JVIead's Introduction to Cowper's Myographia. 
 
 that 
 
cf ANATOMY. 343 
 
 ^hat extremity of a mufcle, which was a little be- 
 ^Qvt the moveable point, becomes the fixed point ; 
 and that which was the fixed, becomes the move- 
 able one. Examples of this we have in the fca- 
 lein, the ferraci antici, and fome of the mufcles 
 of the abdomen, not to mention any others. 
 
 307. Among the mufcles there are certain dif- 
 ferent ones, which confpire in the fame adlion, 
 and fo perform the fame motions as aflbciates. 
 Such are the flexors or extenfors of the arm, and 
 the like : hence thefe, and fuch others as confpire 
 in the fame manner to the fame adlion, are called 
 by authors focii and congeneres. 
 
 When, on the other hand, we regard the con- 
 trary adions of certain mufcles, as the extenfors 
 of any part which acl quite contrarily to the 
 flexors, thefe are called anragonift mufcles: in 
 this cafe, both the kinds adling together, render 
 the limb rigid or immoveable : this adion of the 
 mufcles is called motus tonicus. We are alfo to 
 obferve, on this occafion, that feveral of the muf- 
 cles, confidered fingly and feparately, perform 
 other kind of motions than thofe afcribed to them 
 in regard to the whole part : thus the maftoide 
 mufcle, the redus major capitis, &c. when they 
 a6l on both fides, bend the head forwards 5 but 
 when only on one fide, they dravv the head 
 obliquely downvvards, and to one fide. Hence, 
 from the diverfity of the mufcles, which ad 
 either alone or conjundtly with their afiTociares, or 
 with others, there arife feveral intermediate mo* 
 tions, quite different from the primary ones, and 
 fuch as have not hitherto been fufficiently ob- 
 ferved. 
 
 This does not only happen in regard to the 
 mufcles of the head, the flexors and extenfoi-s, 
 and t\iQ like, but to feveral others j and particu- 
 
 K 2 iarly 
 
244 . ^'^ Compendium 
 
 larly to thofe of the eyes, the lips, the jaws, the 
 tongue, the neck, the abdomen, the arm, the 
 carpus, &c. Thefe v/e are carefully to attend to, 
 and explain to onrfelves, by what particular muf- 
 clcs, acting diflindlively, they are performed ; 
 otherwife we fliall never be able to underftand 
 the various and wonderful motions of the parts. 
 
 Window's excellent obfervations on the actions 
 of the mufcles, pubiillied in the Memoirs of the 
 Paris Academy for the year 1720, deferve to be 
 carefully read, on this occafion. Among other 
 curious things, this author fliews, that a great 
 many of the motions of the mufcular parts are 
 not owing to the fuppofcd contra6lion, but to the 
 relaxation of the mulcies of the oppofite fide, 
 
 308. The mufcular fibres are, according to the 
 adlion they are intended for, of various diredions; 
 fome are flrait, others oblique, others tranfverfe, 
 others annular, and others fpiral. 
 
 309. Some of the mufcles confift of one fimple 
 or uniform feries of fibres : thefe are from this 
 diftinguifhed by the name of fimplice»# Others 
 are compofed of various and often contrary courfes 
 of fibres ; and thefe are fometimes fo clofely and 
 regularly arranged together, that they feem to 
 form feveral feparate lelTer mufcles, and the large 
 one Gonfequently appears to be compofed of a 
 number of others : thefe are therefore called com- 
 pofit mufcles. Steno, Borelli, and Lower, have 
 excellently explained the nature of thefe kind of 
 mufcles. The more of thefe clufters of fibres, 
 or fmaller mufcles, there enter into the compofi- 
 tion of a larger, the thicker and (Wronger it is, 
 
 310. The motions of the far greater part of 
 the mufcles are voluntary, or dependent on our 
 will : thofe of fome others are wholly invplun- 
 tary. The former are called animal, the other 
 
 natural 
 
of ANATOMY. 245 
 
 natural motions. Finally, the motions of feme 
 of the mufcles are of a mixed kind, partly ani- 
 mal, and partly natural. Thofe mufcles which 
 perform the voluntary motions, receive nerves 
 from the brain or fpinal marrow : thofe v;hich 
 perform their motions involuntarily, have their's 
 from the cerebellum : thofe whofe motion is part- 
 ly voluntary, partly involuntary, have their nerves 
 in part from the brain, and in part from the cere- 
 bellum. As we End, that a mufcle can no longer 
 adl, when its nerve is either cut afunder, or tied 
 up ; fo the fame abfolute dependance it has on its 
 artery. The experiments of Steno, and others, 
 on living quadrupeds, fhew that, on the cutting 
 or tying up the artery, the mufcle in the fame 
 manner lofes its whole power of motion. 
 
 311. The mufcles generally receive their names 
 from their fixed and their moveable points con- 
 jointly ; fometimes from the fixed point only, and 
 fometimes only from the moveable one: fome of 
 them alfo are denominated from their ufes, and 
 fome from their figure, or refemblance to other 
 things : and, finally, fome from their place, their fize, 
 tuation, or their other qualities 5 as will appear more 
 at large in our confideration of the mufcles fepa- 
 rately. The figures of the mufcles mofl to be 
 depended upon are thofe of Vefalius, Drake, and 
 Cowper in his Myotomia. 
 
 312. We fhall begin to enumerate them from 
 the head, thence defcending regularly to the foot. 
 After this, we fhall enquire into their number ; a 
 thing mofl writers are flrangely difagreed about, 
 and that with very fufHcient caufe, as nothing ab- 
 folutely certain can be eflablifhed about it : they 
 are certainly more than five hundred in the whole 
 body. 
 
 R 3 C H A P. 
 
24^ A COMPENDIU 
 
 M 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Of the feveral mufdes of the cutis of the head. 
 
 S^3' ' I ^H E mufcles of the cutis of the cra- 
 X riium are four: two called frontal, and 
 two occipital. 
 
 The frontal mufcles are very thin : they are 
 fituated under thefkin of the foiehead, and have 
 both their extremities moveable, excepting only 
 for a few fibres, which arife from the inferior 
 edge of the os frontis. They are extended on 
 each fide, under the eyelids, from ihe orbicularis 
 of the eyelids, near the larger canthus of the 
 eye, beyond the middle of the orbit, toward the 
 lefler canthus, and extend feme what obliquely 
 outwards over the os frontis : after this they ex- 
 pand their tendons over the upper part of the 
 cranium, and feem to be joined with the aponeu- 
 rofes of the occipirales, which are fixed. By this 
 means they are able to move the flvin of the fore- 
 head, and the eyebrows. The antagonifts to 
 thele are the orbicukres palpebrarum, on which 
 they are affixed. 
 
 The occipital mufcles are alfo ufually very thin : 
 they arife, on each fide, from the os occipitis, 
 where it adheres to the temporal bones: they 
 afcend upwards over the offa bregmatis, and join 
 their aponeurofcs with the' frontal ones, to which 
 they fcem to afford their fixed point. I'hey, to- 
 gether with the frontal ones, cover the liead, as 
 it were, with a helmet or cap, and they afTifl 
 their adlions*. Morgagni has obferved, that 
 
 * Cowper is of opinion, that thefe two frontal mufcles 
 may more properly be eileemed one digaftrick one. See his 
 Myctom. fol. p. i6, 
 
 thefe 
 
^/ANATOMY. 247 
 
 thefe occipital mufcles are fomttimes intirely want- 
 ing j and at others, when not abiblutely deficient, 
 that they are io thin that it is fcarce pofllbie to fee 
 them : fometimes alfo they are larger than ufual, 
 and are divided, as it were, each into two. It has 
 been from an examination of them in fome fub- 
 jedl, in which they v/ere of this kind, that San- 
 torini* makes two occipital mufcles of each fide. 
 
 314. The eyebrow has only one mufcle : this 
 is called its corrugator, or depreflljr. It riles on 
 each fide from the root of the nofe, and is 
 obliquely inferted into the eyebrow. It moves the 
 eyebrow downward ; and when the two belong- 
 ing to the two eyebrows a61; together, they draw 
 them toward one another. The frontal mufcles, 
 on the other hand, elevate the eyebrows. There 
 feems fome reafon on the fide of thofe, who fup- 
 pofe this a part of the frontalis. Santorini judges 
 it part of the orbicularis -f-. 
 
 315. The mufcles of the eyelids are three: 
 the orbicularis^ the elevator, and the deprefibr. 
 The orbicularis, or conftridor of the eyelid, is 
 fingle: it rifes from the upper apophyfis of the 
 maxillary bone, near the larger canthus of the 
 eye, and furrounds the eyelid with a feries of or- 
 bicular fibres, ferving to fhut it : in this adlion 
 alfo it deprelTes and draws forward the eyebrow j, 
 and elevates the lower eyelid §. 
 
 The elevator proprius palpebrse. fuperioris, or 
 proper elevator of the upper eyelid, has its origin 
 in the bottom of the orbit, and its infertion in 
 the edge of the upper eyelid, near the cartilage 
 of the tarfus. 
 
 * Pag. 8 and 9. f Pag. 8 and 9, 
 
 X SeeMorgagni, Adverf. 2. p 28. 
 
 i See the fame author, Adverf. 6. p. 44, 
 
 R 4 The 
 
24S -^Compendium 
 
 The depreffor palpebrae infcTioris, or depreflbr 
 of the lower eyelid, is a feries of flefhy fibres, 
 fometimes thinner, fometimes thicker, arifing 
 from the cutis of the cheeks, and ibmetimes from 
 the OS jugalis, and is inferted into the lower edge 
 of the orbicularis : by thefe fibres it is, if we 
 ftridtly attend to it, that the lower eyelid is drawn 
 downward, when we open the eye. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the eyes, 
 
 316. rTT^HE mufcles of the eye are {tvtn in 
 J[ quadrupeds •, but in man they are only 
 fix*, and are diftinguillied into two lets, under 
 the names of refti and obliqui. 
 
 The redi are four : they arife near the ambit 
 of the foramen of the optick nerve, in the fun- 
 dus of the orbit ; and are inferted into the fcle- 
 rotica, not far from the ambit of the cornea -f*. 
 They are, the fuperior attollens, called alfo the 
 fuperbus, which raifes the eye. 
 
 The inferior deprimens, called alfo the humilis, 
 which draws it downward. 
 
 The exterior abducens, called alfo indignato- 
 rius, which draws it fideways and outwardly. 
 
 The interior adducens, called alfo bibitorius, 
 which draws it inwardly. 
 
 If two of thefe mufcles a6t conjunftly, the eye 
 has an intermediate or oblique diredion. 
 
 The oblique of the eye, called alfo rotatores, 
 are two; a larger, and a fmaller. 
 
 * Thefe are finely figured in Euftachius, T. 39. 
 
 -f- Morgagni, Adverfar. 6, 98. obferves, that they are ex- 
 tended alfo to tl^e eyelids, efpecially the lower, and aflifl in 
 their motions. 
 
 The 
 
^/ANATOMY. 249 
 
 The cbliqiius major, called alfo obliquus fupe- 
 rior, and trochlearis, che greater, upper, or troch- 
 lear oblique mufcle of the eye, has its origin near 
 the precedent ; but it pafTes thro' a lingular troch- 
 lea*, of an almolt cartilaginous ftru6lure, near 
 the large canthusof the eye : from thence it again 
 turns back, and is inferted into the upper part of 
 the eye, near its middle : hence it obliquely de- 
 prelTes the pupil, and, in fome degree, draws it 
 outward. 
 
 The obliquus minor, or inferior, the lefTer or 
 lower oblique mufcle of the eye, arifes from the 
 anterior and inner part of the orbit, not far from 
 the nafal canal : it furrounds obliquely the lower 
 part of the bulb, and is inferted into its exterior 
 part, near the middle. Hence it moves the pupil 
 of the eye obliquely upwards, which is very dif- 
 ferent from what has generally been fuppofed to 
 be its effe6l. Both thefe obliqui acling together, 
 draw the eye forwards 5 and thus they are the an- 
 tagonifts of the redli v/hich draw it backwards. 
 
 The feventh mufcle of the eye, which is pecu- 
 liar to quadrupeds, arifes from the bottom of the 
 orbit, from the whole circumference of the optick 
 nerve : it furrounds the whole pofterior part of 
 the fclerotica, and feems deftined to ferve for the 
 protufion of the bulb of the eye. . 
 
 * See Morgagni, Adverfar. 6. 98. See alfo Winflow's 
 Memoir on this fubjedt, in the Memoirs of the Paris Aca- 
 demy 1721, 
 
 CHAP. 
 
250 A Compendium 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the ear.. 
 
 317. 'TT^HE mufcles of the exrernal ear are 
 Jl^ frequently fo very fmall as Icarce to be 
 vifible; and fometimes, indeed, they are abfo- 
 lutely wanting: from this, and from their action 
 being fcarccly perceptible, Schelhammer has re- 
 jedled them from among the number of eiTcntial 
 or ordinary parts of the human body *. The an- 
 tients feein alfo to have ntgleded them for the 
 fame reafon -, and Galen, in particular i", efleems 
 them rather the lineaments of mufcles than real 
 and perfe6t ones. Columbus J and Fallopius § 
 were the firft who delcribed them with any de- 
 gree of propriety -, and they both agree in faying, 
 that they are not found in all fiibjeds. Fullopius 
 in particular fays, that he had fometimes found 
 three : the firft of thefe, he fays, was fituated in 
 the anterior part of the ear, arifing from the ex- 
 tremity of the frontal mufcle, and thence defcend- 
 ing very thin toward the ear, into the fuperior 
 and anterior part of which it is infcrted. The 
 fecond arifes, with a thin and fine beginning, 
 above the mamillary procefs ; and thence defcend- 
 ing tranfverfely, it grows a little wider -, and after 
 it has divided into diree fingers, as it were, it is 
 implanted into the pofterior part of the ear. The 
 third is a part of what is called the platyfma 
 myoides ; from which fometimes there afcends 
 a part, which is inferted into the lower part of the 
 ear. 
 
 * Tracl. deAuditu, p. i. c. i, n. 7. 
 
 f De Ufu Partium, 1. 16. c. 6. 
 X De re Anatomica. 
 ^ Obfervar. Anatom. 
 
 Caflfe^ 
 
^/ANATOMY. 251 
 
 Caflerius * and Bidloo -f, inftead of three, 
 reckon five \ but Du Verney t acknowledges only 
 two, a fuperior, and a pofterior : and Cowper § 
 agrees, that this alfo has been thedertrmination he 
 has fallen into often, on analmofl: infinite number 
 of exanninations. Valfalva [] figures them, adding 
 to thefe two another, under the name of an ante- 
 rior one. After him, VieulTens defcribes four, 
 and countenances his determination, by exprefly 
 faying, that he had examined the ear a thouland 
 times before he would venture to defcribe them ; 
 ^nd that his figures are fo accurate, that nothing 
 farther could be neceffary on the occafion ^. 
 
 Santorini, who feems not to have met v^ith this 
 piece of VieufTens's, accufes almoft all the authors, 
 who had gone before him, of great errors on this 
 head, and gives a new delineation ** of the who'e. 
 It is probable enough, that all thefe authors, tho* 
 they differ fo extremely from one another, yet 
 defcribe what they faw ; for the mufcles under 
 confideration vary fo extremely, that they may 
 have appeared as they all, except Bidloo indeed, 
 defcribe them, in different fubjedls : they are fcarce 
 alike, in all refpe^ts, in any two bodies : ufually 
 there are only two of them, the fuperior and 
 pofterior, already defcribed ; but thefe often dif- 
 fer extremely in their figure. Their ufe feems to 
 be, to give a tcnfion or relaxation to the external 
 ear, according as is neceflary for the different de- 
 grees of founds. 
 
 * Traflat. de Auditu. 
 -f- Anat. T. 12. fig. i. 
 X Traclat. de Auditu. 
 § Myotomia nova, p. 29. 
 II De Aure human. 
 
 <iT Traitte de 1' Oreille ; In which alfo the Paris Cenfor 
 greatly commends VieufTens's figures. 
 ** Obfervat. Anatom. 
 
 The 
 
2j2 A Compendium 
 
 The mufcles which Valfalva gives to the tra- 
 gus and antitragus, and thofe which Santorini 
 and Doiiglafs* give to the helix, the concha, and 
 the meatus auditorius, appear alfo, on a flri6l exa- 
 mination, to be rather lineaments 5nly of muf- 
 cles, as Galen calls them, or miifcular membranes, 
 than real or true mufcles ; for there are very rare- 
 ly any flefliy fibres obferved in thofe parts, nor 
 are there any motions there that fhould render 
 mufcles neceflary. 
 
 318. The mufcles of the internal ear are of 
 two kinds ; thofe of the malleus, and thofe of 
 the ftapes : they are all extremely minute. 
 
 The mufcles of the malleus, according to Cow- 
 per, Douglafs, and Valiklva, are three -f. They 
 are alfo found pretty conftaruly fo, on careful dif- 
 fedlions. They are diftinguilhed by the names 
 of the externus, obliquus, and internus. 
 
 The externus mallei, or external mufcle of the 
 malleus, rifcs with a fhort belly from the upper 
 edge of the meatus auditorius ; and is continued, 
 by a flender tendon, over the fuperior part of the 
 membrana tympani into the tympanum. : and is, 
 finally, inferted into the thicker procefs of the 
 malleus : it lerves to draw the manubrium of the 
 
 * Myograph, p. 29. 
 
 -f Myotom. nov. foi. p. 33. and T. 23. Du Verney 
 inakes them only two ; but he defcribes them under different 
 names. But Vieuflens, in his Traite de V Oreille, makes 
 only one mufcle of the malleus, which he calls the mono- 
 gaflrick; tho' he fays it has a double origin, and a double 
 extremity. He figures it T. 2. fig. 3. Valfalva, in his 
 Treatife on the Ear, not only gives other names to thefe 
 mufcles, but he defcribes them otherwife; nor does he agree 
 with Cowper as to their ufes. Boerhaave, in his Inftitutes, 
 differs alfo from them both. And from thefe difhculties it is 
 not eafy to extricate one-s felf, as the parts are fo minute and 
 variable perhaps in themfelves. 
 
 nialleus 
 
<?/ AN ATOM Y. 253 
 
 malleus outward, and by that means relaxes the 
 membrane of the tympanum. 
 
 The obliquus, called alfo by fome the femi- 
 circularis, is fituated in the external and boney 
 pare of the ductus Euftachii ; from whence pafT- 
 ing a little upwards, and backwards thro' the 
 canal, it is inferred into the longeft procefs of the 
 malleus, and ferves to relax or Uraiten, in various 
 degrees, the membrane of the tympanum. 
 
 The internus mallei arifes from the cartilagin- 
 ous part, where the boney part of the dudus 
 Euilachii terminates -, and it goes on in the boney 
 part of this canal, in its upper part, almoft to 
 the feneftra ovalis in the tympanum ; where its 
 tendon, as if it ran over a pulley, is refiefled to 
 the malleus, and is inferted into the pofterior part 
 of its handle, near its head. It ferves to extend 
 the tympanum. 
 
 The flapes has but one mufcle : this rifes in 
 the canal of the os petrofum, almoft at the bot- 
 tom of the tympanum, with a tolerably thick 
 body, which foon fends out a tendon that is 
 flender, and is inferted into the head of the ftapes 
 and the bone called os orbicularis. It ferves to 
 elevate the flapes. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the lips and nofe, 
 
 319. rr^HE mufcles of the lips appear, on 
 X a careful examination, to be four- 
 teen*. They ferve to form the various motions 
 of the lips, and anfwer the purpofes of the foul 
 there. 
 
 * Santorini makes them more numerous. 
 
 The 
 
254 y^ C M P E N D 1 t^ M 
 
 The conftridtor is fingle: it is alfo called the 
 crbicularis. It conftitutes th>j very fubitance of 
 the lips. Its fibres arc frequently of an arched 
 figure *. 
 
 The abdu6lores are two pair -, the zygomatick 
 and buccinators. The zygomatick has its origin 
 from the os zygomatis, whence its name : its ter- 
 mination is at the angle of the lips. This, tho* 
 ufually fingle, is fometimes double throughout; 
 at other times it has a double head : fometimes its 
 tail only is bifid, and it is varioufly interwovea 
 with the adjoining ones. 
 
 The origin of the buccinator is partly from the 
 anterior and lower part of the coronoide procefs 
 of the lower jaw *, and partly about the roots of 
 the pofierior dentes molares of both jaws. Its 
 progrefs, as the head is held ere6l, is nearly hori- 
 zontal ; its termination, as that of the former. Its 
 ufes are to bring the food into the way of the 
 teeth, and the falival du6t of Steno perforates it 
 about the middle. 
 
 The elevatores are fome of them common toboth 
 lips, fome peculiar to each. The common ones are 
 only one pair, called the par caninum : thefe arife 
 from the hollow on each fide, under the os jugalis, 
 in the os maxillare, and are inferted into the angle 
 of the lips. 
 
 Thofe peculiar to the feparate lips are two pair, 
 the inciforii and elevatores. The inciforius is 
 peculiar to the upper lip : its origin is from the 
 maxillary bone, jufl under the orbit : it pafTcs the 
 ala of the nofe next it, and gives fome fibres to 
 if ; and is inferted into the orbicularis, near the 
 dentes incifores. 
 
 * See Cant. T. i. and Santorini, T. i. 
 
 f Santorini denies this ; but experience confirms it. 
 
 The 
 
^/ANATOMY. 255 
 
 The elevator is proper to the lower lip. Cow- 
 per calls it elevator labii inferioris. It riles bdow 
 the dentes incifores of the lower jaw, under the 
 gums, and delcends into the cutis of the chin : 
 hence it may be properly enough called the inci- 
 forius interior, as the other is the inciforius fu- 
 perior. 
 
 The deprefifors of the lips are three : they are 
 often wonderfully interwoven with fome of the 
 beforementioned mufcles. They are the trian- 
 gulares and quadratus. 
 
 The triangulares are two : they arife each from 
 the lateral and under-part of the lower jaw, about 
 the middle ; from whence they afcend obliquely 
 to the angle of the orbicularis. 
 
 The quadratus is fingle : it is compofed of re- 
 ticulated fibres ; and arifes, with a broad begin- 
 ning, from the anterior part of the fame jaw, and 
 terminates on the whole lower part of the orbi- 
 cularis. 
 
 320. The mufcles of the nofe are three pair* 5 
 two of them dilatatores, and one conftridlor. 
 
 The 
 
 ' * Santorini gives a great many more mufcles than are 
 here delcribed, to the nofe, the lips, and other parts of the 
 face, many of which he has the honour of being the £rtt ob- 
 ferver of; particularly he has given eight pair to the nofe, 
 •all which he has figured in his iirft plate : but, in directions, 
 very few of thefe new mufcles are to be difcovered. What 
 ■are here defcribed are, in a great meafure, certain : fuch of 
 his as ar£ additional, are often all wanting : fomecimesone or 
 two of them, indeed, are found ; but they feem rather the 
 fportings of nature than real and determinate conformations : 
 they often hav^ neither the appearance of the fibres or mem- 
 branes of mufcles. We are to add to this, that Cowper, 
 • Morgagni, and Cant affirm, with great juftice, that the muf- 
 cles of the face are- fo various, in different fubjefts, that, 
 after difiedling a hundred faces, no two of them will be found 
 perfe6lly ahke in this refpe^l ; and to this only is it to be at- 
 tributed, that fo great and accurate men a. Cowper, Eafta- 
 
 ch:u3. 
 
256 -?fC0MPENDIUM 
 
 The dilatatores, which lerve alfo to elevate the 
 nofc) are very various in different fubjeds ; but, 
 in general, they are however two on each fide ; 
 tho', even in thi?, they vary extremely, and fome- 
 times are fo thin and fine as fcarce to be percept 
 tible. They are called the pyramidahs and myr- 
 liformis. 
 
 The pyramidalis arifes from the root of tke 
 ^ nofe, and is ufually continuous with the frontalis: 
 it defcends along the fide of the nofe, where it is 
 by degrees a little expanded. It is inferred into 
 the alae of the nofe, and often fends down its 
 fibres as far as to the upper lip *. 
 
 The myrtiformis, or dilatator, ftridlly fo called^ 
 arifes near the inciforius of the upper lip, of which 
 it frequently is but a part : it is inferted partly in 
 the ate of the nofe, and partly in the upper lip. 
 
 ' The conftridtor is but one : it is not orbiculaf 
 in human fubjedls, as it is in many of the quadru- 
 peds ; but is only a fmall mufcle, firfl: defcribed 
 by Cowper -f. Properly there is, in the human 
 frame, no fuch mufcle as the conftridor orbicula- 
 ris of beads j but this ferves in fome degree in ics 
 
 chius, Chefelden, and Santorini, differ fo greatly in their de- 
 fcriptions of the parts. This difference is evidently owing to the 
 variety of the real ftrufture in the feveral faces they had exa- 
 mined ; and upon the whole it is very fairly to be concluded^ 
 that little is to be faid with certainty, except of thofe men- 
 tioned in our enumeration. What we call /u/us, or fportingg 
 of nature, tho' they are the fource of confufion in thefe exa- 
 minations, are not without their ufe, and that of the moll 
 important kind : it is to them that the variety of human faces 
 is in a great meafure owing. Santorini acknowledges, that 
 feveral of his new ones were only to be fouTid in robuft fub- 
 jccls. Our author acknowledges that tho* he had fought for 
 them in fuch, there were many of j;hem which he could nevei* 
 find as real mufcles. 
 
 * See Drake's 17th Table; and Cowper, in fol. T. 25. 
 
 f Scf Myotom, in 8vo. 
 
 office. 
 
^/ANATOMY. 257 
 
 office. It is alfo figured by Euftachiusj. It 
 arifes above the denies incifores of the upper jaw, 
 and terminates in the alae of the nofe. Santorini 
 will have it, that it is double§,, which has been 
 alio fometimes feen. The orbicularis of the lips 
 affifts this very greatly in its adion. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Of the mufcks of the lower jaw, 
 
 321. riTAHE mufcles of the lower jaw are fix 
 J_ pair, two of depreffors, and four of 
 elevators. The depreffors of the lower jaw are, 
 iirft, the platyfma myoides •, 2dly, the biventer. 
 
 The platyfma myoides arifes near the clavicle, 
 from the pedoral and deltoide mufcles ; and alfo, 
 as Galen, and after him Cowper, have obferved, 
 from the vertebrae of the neck, and is infer ted 
 into the lower jaw -, but that in fuch a manner, 
 that it ufually fends out, in its courfe, fibres to the 
 cheeks and lips, and ufually alfo to the ears j to 
 the motions of ali which parts it is alfo affiftant. 
 
 The biventer, called alio, from the Greek, the 
 digaftrick, or two-bellied mufcle, has its origin in 
 the incifure that is under the maftoide procefs. 
 The tendon of it often paffes alfo the ftylo- 
 hyoidaeus mufcle, and the membranaceous;) ring 
 affixed to the os hyoides, in the manner of a pul- 
 ley ; and is then inferted, by fynchondrofis, into 
 the internal part of the chin. The mouth is 
 opened, by means of this trochlea, in a mod won- 
 derful and elegant manner !|. 4ip > 
 
 :|: Tab. 41. fig. I. 
 
 § Obf. Anatom. p. 2t. 
 
 jl Sec our author's Diflertatio de Mafticatione. 
 
 S The 
 
25S A Compendium 
 
 The foCir pair of elcvatores are, the crotaphitcs, 
 the Qiafifeters, and the internal and external pte- 
 rygoidsei. 
 
 The crotaphites, called alfo the temporal muf- 
 cle, has its origin in the whole region of the tem- 
 ples, but more particularly in the ofla frontis, fin- 
 cipiris, temporum, and fphenoides. It pafles under 
 thejugum, and is inferted into the acute procefs 
 of the jaw. 
 
 The malTeter has its origin from the lower and 
 interior part of thejugum, and its end at the ex- 
 ternal fuperficies of the angle of the jaw. The 
 du6tus Stenonianus, or falival dudl of Steno, paffes 
 over this mufcle. 
 
 The pterygoidasus internus, or internal ptery- 
 goide mgfcle, has its origin in the cavity of the 
 pterygoide procefs, and its termination in the in- 
 terior and lower fuperficies of the angle of the 
 jaw. 
 
 The pterygoidasus externus has its origin from 
 the exterior lamina of the juft mentioned procefs, 
 and the neighbouring part of the fpheroidal bone; 
 and its termination is a little above the infertion 
 of the other *. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the os hyoides and tongue^ 
 
 322. KTr\ H E mufcles of the os hyoides are five 
 JL pain ; the mylo-hyoides, the coraco- 
 hyoides, the genio-hyoides, the fterno-hyoides, 
 and the ftylo-hyoides. 
 
 The mylo-hyoides arifes, with a large bafe, 
 from the bottom of the lower jaw, near the chin j 
 and its termination is at the bafeof the os hyoides. 
 
 * See Cowper's Myotom. nov. fol. T; 3 1 . 
 
 The 
 
^/ANATOMY. 259 
 
 The coraco-hyoidcs has its origin behind the 
 coracoide procefs, from the upper coda of the 
 fcapula. Cowper and Morgagni have accurately 
 figured it ', and it is inferted into the bafis, and 
 the horn of the os hyoides. 
 
 The genio-hyoides arifes in the middle of the 
 chin, above the mylo-hyoides, and near the fyn- 
 chondrofis of the jaw : its termination is in the 
 bafe of the os hyoides. 
 
 The (lerno- hyoides arifes from the fternum and 
 clavicle ufually ; fometimes only from the fler- 
 num, and lometimes only from the clavicle : it is 
 inferted into the bafe of the os hyoides, and is 
 the antagonifl to the former. 
 
 The ftylo-hyoides has its origin in the ftyloide 
 procefs, and its termination in the horn and the 
 bafe : this is often perforated by the digaftrick 
 mufcle of the jaw. 
 
 The ufes of thefe feveral mufcles will be eafily 
 underftood from their fituation. Cowper has ex- 
 cellent figures of them in his 27th Place. 
 
 323. The mufcles of the tongue are four pair, 
 the genio-glolfi, ftylo-gloffi, cerato-gloiTi, and 
 the bafio-gloffi. 
 
 The genio-gloflus has its origin in the chin, 
 above the genio-hyoidaeus : it enters the middle 
 of the tongue, and moves ic forward. 
 
 The Itylo-glofTus arifes from the apex of the 
 flyloide proccls : it defcends obliquely to the fide 
 and root of the tongue, and moves it fideways 
 backwards and upwards. 
 
 The cerato-glofllis arifes from the horn of the 
 OS hyoides, and is inferted into the root of the 
 
 tongue. 
 
 The balio-gloiTus arifes from the bafe of the 
 OS hyoides, and runs along the middle of the 
 tongue toward its apex : it, with the afliftance of 
 
 S 2 the 
 
26o yf Compendium 
 
 the precedent, draws the tongue backward, and 
 makes it fliorter. 
 
 Some authors add to thefe the name of a muf- 
 cle called mylo-gloflus ; but what they call by this 
 name is only a part of the mylo-hyoida^us, and 
 there is therefore no neceffiry to increafe the num- 
 ber of the mufcles by making one of it. 
 
 CHAP. vin. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the larynXy epiglottis^ and 
 
 pharynx, 
 
 324. ^ I AHE mufcles of the larynx are gene- 
 X rally accounted fevcn pair. They 
 have their names from the places of their origin 
 and infcrtion ; and the principal ufe of all of 
 them is to afllft in modulating the voice *. 
 
 Of thefe feven pair two are common, and 
 have their origin out of the larynx : the other hvt 
 are proper, and have both their origin and ter- 
 mination in the larynx. The common ones arc 
 the fterno-thyroides, and the hyo-thyroides. 
 
 The fterno-thyroides draws the larynx down- 
 ward, and at the fame time dilates the glottis f . 
 
 The hyo-thyroides elevates the larynx, and 
 conftringes the glottis j. 
 
 The five proper mufcles of the larynx, arifing 
 and terminating in it, are, 
 
 I. The crico-thyroides, which ferves occa- 
 fionally either to dilate or conftringe it §. 
 
 * Santorinj dcfcribes feveral other?, and has figured them 
 in his third Plate : he acknowledges, hov/ever, that they are 
 only to be found in fome particular ftibjefts ; and our author 
 acknowledges he never was able to find them at all. 
 
 -j- See Cowper's Myol. nov. p. 45. 
 
 j See Santorini, p, 103. 
 
 ^ See the farae, p. 102. 
 
 2. 
 
of ANATOMY, 261 
 
 2. The crico-arytsnoides pollicum ; andj 9. 
 The lateral crico-arytaenoides, which fervc to di~ 
 late the glottis, 
 
 4. Ti\Q thyro arytsenoides, which, togethci: 
 with the following, lerves to conftringe it. 
 
 5. The ary aryt^noides: this lad arifes fre- 
 quently from one arytsenoide ' cartilage, and is 
 inferted into the other ; this and the former mu- 
 tually interkdlone another, and ftraiten the glot- 
 tis*. Of(en there is only one mufcle f , and 
 often it is different from what is here defcribed; 
 for nature varies greatly in it if. 
 
 Anatomifts, for a long time, alloved the muf- 
 cles of the epiglottis only to brutes §, tho' Sylvius 
 had defcribed very punctually two attollents, and 
 as many depriments, in human fubjeds || ; but of 
 late they have been reltored to the human frame 
 again. One of the firft who has allowed them 
 there is J. G. Paul ^, who declares that himfelf 
 had found them ; and, after him, they wer? de- 
 fcribed by feveral others. 
 
 The attolents are two : they are confiderably 
 long, and are extended frorn the bafe of the os 
 hyoides to the hinder root of the epiglottis : thefe 
 the author calls hyo-epiglottei. 
 
 The depriments are two, and fmaller: they ex- 
 tend, from the apices of the arytcenoide cartilages, 
 obliquely forwards to the fides of the epiglottis : 
 they are called ary-epiglottei **. 
 
 325- 
 
 * See Morgagm*s Adverfar. T. \. fig. 2. 
 
 -f See Cowper, p 46. 
 
 X See Morgagni's Adverf. i. and Santorini, p. 104. 
 
 % See Fabricius ab Aquapendente, and Caflerius de vod/S. 
 organ. 
 
 |( See his Ifagoge Anat. cap. 7. de Mufculis. 
 
 €[ In his Preface to the Opuicula of Horn. 
 
 ** Monf. Littre, in the Memoirs of the French Academy 
 for the year 1718, defcnbes three mufcles of the epiglottis, 
 
 S3 tWQ. 
 
^^2 A Compendium 
 
 325. The mufcles of the pharynx * ^tx^t partly 
 to dilate, and parrly to contract it. Of thofe 
 which dilate it, there are fix pair: there is only 
 one to contraci it. 
 
 The fix which ferve to dilate it are, 
 
 1. The ftylo-pharyngaeus. This arifes from 
 the beginning of the ftyloide procefs, and is in- 
 
 ^ fcrted on bo.h fides into this and into the thyroide 
 procefs. This and rhe following pair ferve as 
 well to elevate as to dilate the pharynx. 
 
 2. The cephalo-pharyngaeus. This rifes from 
 the anterior apophyfis of the occipital bone, and 
 terminates in its poflerior part-f. 
 
 3. The ptery-pharyngasus, which arifes from 
 the pterygoide procefles %, 
 
 4. The falpingo-pharyngaeiis, which arifes 
 from the Euftachian tube §, 
 
 two of them depriments, and one attollent ; but he is not 
 punctual as to their origin, infertion, and other particulars. 
 Santorini alfo defcribes not only one attollent, (fomething of 
 which our author difcovered afterwards, and which is figured 
 according to that obfervation in the eighth plate of this work, 
 fig. 34, letter k ) but alfo four depreflbrs, two ary-epiglotti- 
 daii, arid two larger thyro-epiglottidasi ; and even, befide 
 thefe, he mentions two fmaller thyroepiglottidaei in the mid- 
 dle part of the epiglottis : but thcfe himfelf confefTes are To 
 extremely thin and delicate, efpecially the lafl: pair, that they 
 are fcarce perceptible, unlefs in fubjefts of the moft robufl 
 make. Our author alfo declares, that he never in any dif- 
 feclion met with any thing more than membranes in the place 
 of them : it does not, however, follow from this, that in 
 fome they may not be larger and more diftindl. See Santo- 
 rini, cap. 6. and Morgagni's Adverf. i. N. 28. 
 
 * See Cant's figures, T. 3. andCowper's Myotom. T. 28 
 and 29. 
 
 f See the fame ; as alfo Douglafs's Myograph. 41. San- 
 torini calls this pair azygos, p. 121. Valfalva denies this 
 origination of them; but all thefe authors join in affcrting it, 
 and our author's experience confirmed it. 
 
 X Morgagni's Adverfar. i . p. 4. 
 
 4 See Douglafb, Cant, and Santorini. 
 
(7/ A N A T O M Y. '263 
 
 5. The mylo pharyng^us, which arifes from 
 the lower jaw, behind the laft of the dentes mo- 
 Jares, and furrounds in great part the tonfils *. 
 
 6. The glofTo-pharyng^Eus, which arifes from 
 the tongue. This, as well as all the others, ter- 
 minates in the pofterior parts of the tongue, 
 where a tendinous line is often very confpicuous f . 
 
 The fingle mufcle, which ferves for the con- 
 ftridlion of the pharynx, is the oefophagaeus, or, 
 as it is otherwife called, the fphindler gula. This 
 rifes on each fide from the os hyoides and the 
 thyroide, and the cricoide of the larynx, and fur- 
 rounds the hinder part of the guise. Valfalva, 
 on occafion of the multiple origin of thefe muf- 
 cles, has divided them into three pair ; and 
 Douglafs, Canr, and Santorini have made yet 
 more of them, and have given names to their 
 divifions of them, from their origin and termi- 
 nation ; as hyo pharyngjEus, thyro-pharyngseus, 
 and crico-pharyngseus : but as the fibres of all 
 thefe are, in reality, very intirnately connected 
 and interwoven together, fo that they very rarely 
 can be explicated, and fcarce ever in any thing 
 like the regularicy and order Valfalva and others 
 have defcribed, it feems beft to agree with Cow- 
 per not to multiply parts without reafon, and to 
 account all thefe as fo many parts only of one 
 whole, which is the mufcle, called by the other 
 writers the oefophagasus, or the fphin6ter gulae. 
 
 The mufcle called by Cowper vaginalis gulne, 
 has been already defcribed in what appears to be 
 its proper place, under the name of tunica muf- 
 culofa cefophagi. See Section 260. 
 
 * Santorini thought this had not been defcribed ; bu^^Qow*'''^. 
 per has a fine figure of it. - -*!^. J^^^^-L 
 
 f Some deny the exillence of this line ;. arid 'it {bmeMmes*t\Xj%; _ 
 indeed is wantins;. - - ' - - ' ' t'^- >* -- '> 
 
 S Afri'^'---^ ' C H A V£siS:- 
 
 • V, ■:■' -.«» ,•••'''■ • • .- •^•»», ♦■ • 
 
 ^•"V »•-» oTii^:.^ . . • _ ^.^. . 
 
264 A Compendium 
 
 ■■'M C H A P.UlC. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the Uvula. 
 
 326. rr^HE mufcles of the uvula, which, 
 \^ together with the velum palatinum 
 already defchbed, is a part of the pharynx, are 
 fix pairs, and one fingle one. Thefe are, 
 
 1. The glofTo-ftaphylinus *, or gloflb-palatinus, 
 arifing on each fide from the root of the tongue, 
 and terminating in the vekjm palatinum. 
 
 2. The pharyngo-flaphylinus, which rifes on 
 each fide from the fides of the pharynx, and ter- 
 minates alfo in the velum ~f. 
 
 3. The thyro-ftaphylinus, which arifes from 
 the lateral part of the thyroide cartilage, and, 
 
 4i%endi^g toj^ijrds^^^^ becomes larger 5 and 
 
 is infertefl,' inliiianner of an arch, in the fide of 
 the velum palatinum. . 
 
 4. The fpheno-ftaphylinus of Gowper, Cant, 
 and others, tho' it might be more properly called 
 the falpingq -ftaphylinus J, as the mod accurate 
 cxaminatibns^prove that it has not its origin, or, 
 at the utmaft, but in a very fmall part, from the 
 OS fph^noides -, but principally from the pofterior 
 part of the tube, and indeed partly from its mem- 
 branaceous part§ : itdefcends from hence oblique- 
 ly to the uva, and is inferted into its hinder and 
 upper part; and hence, if both thefe ad together, 
 they retradt or draw if back tl. 
 
 * Valfalva de Ate hum. C. 2. 
 •[ Ibid. '".' ;|: Valfalva, c. 2. 
 
 ^ Poffibly however' this origin fometimes varies, as it 
 does in many others. 
 
 d See Cowper, T. 28. fig. 4. and our T. 8. fig. 38. 
 
 5- 
 
<?/ ANATOMY. 265 
 
 5. The pterygo-ftaphylinus * : this arifes from 
 the upper part oi the pterygoide procefs, and the 
 anterior part of the tube, which is near it : it 
 defcends between its two lamella, and turns back 
 its tendon over the thin apophyfis of the interior 
 lamella, as if over a trochlea, to the anterior part; .■::|:; 
 of the membrane of the palate, into which it is ' 
 inferred -f : the uvula is therefore moved down- 
 wards and forwards by this pair. Valfalva calls 
 this mufculus novus tubce, tho' it had been de- 
 fcribed long before his time : he fuppofes that its 
 office is to dilate the tube ; but of this more here- 
 after J. 
 
 6. The palato-ftaphylinus arifes on each fide 
 from the jun6tion of the bones of the palate : it 
 is broad at its beginning, but it afterwards joins 
 its aflbciate, and becomes then narrower, fo as to 
 refemble a triangle, which defcends from the 
 place of its origin to the uvula, and is inferted 
 into its upper part: it draws it upward and 
 forward §, 
 
 7. The mufculus" azygos of Morgagni || : this 
 rifes tendinous from the jundlure of the bones of 
 the palate, and is extended flefhy, thin, and cy- 
 lindrick along the middle of the uvula #[. It is 
 placed at the back of the former mufcle, and, 
 with the glandules and the membrane of the 
 mouth, conftitutes the uvula **. 
 
 * See Cowper, T. 28. 
 
 f See Cant, T. 3. fig. 2. and T. 8. fig. 38. of this work. 
 X See his Traft de Aure. 
 
 ^ Doug'lafs, in his Myographia, claims the honour of dif- 
 covering this before : the names, indeed, are Douglafs's. 
 !| See Mbrgagni's Adverf. 1. n. 8. 
 'i[ See Cant, I. c. and our T. 3. fig. 38. 
 ** See Santoririi, c. 7. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
266 A COMPENDIU 
 
 M 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the head and neck, 
 
 327. AT^H E mufcles of the head are ten pair. 
 j[ Three pair of them are called flexors *, 
 and are, 
 
 1. The maRoidaeus : this rifes from the fter- 
 num and clavicle, and terminates in the external 
 furface of the maftoide procefs. 
 
 2. The redtus major amicus: this arifes from 
 the tranfverfe apophyfes of the five lower verte- 
 brae of the neck ; and is inferted into the os oc- 
 cipitis, before the condyioide procefs. 
 
 3. The redus minor anticus, called by Cow- 
 per mafculus annuens -f : this arifes from the in- 
 terior furface of the adas, or firft vertebra of the 
 neck; and lies concealed, as it were, under the 
 foriBcr, 'till it is at length inferted, a little behind 
 it, into the os occipitis. 
 
 The exrenfors of the head, befide thofe com- 
 mon to the neck, are five pair : 
 
 1. The fplenius : this riles from the lower ver- 
 tebra of the neck and the five upper ones of the 
 back, arid is inferted a little above the maftoide 
 procefs. 
 
 2. The com plexus : this has its origin from the 
 three upper vertebra of the back, and the fix 
 lower ones of the neck : it runs under the former, 
 and is inferted near it into the os occipitis. 
 
 3. The redlus major pofticus: this has its ori 
 gin from the fpinofe apophyfis of the epiftro 
 phasus, and is inferted into the os occipitis. 
 
 * Winflow obferves, in the Paris Memoirs for the yeai 
 1720, that thefe not only greatly aflilt the bending of th( 
 head ; but fometimes, when we are ere6l, and the reft of th< 
 jnufcles quiet, the firft will do it alone^ 
 
 -f- See Cowper's Myol. T. 24. 
 
 4 
 
(?/ ANATOMY. 267 
 
 4. The rectus minor pofticus : this has its rife 
 from the pofterior part of the adas, and its end 
 under the former. 
 
 5. The obliquns minor : this has its origin from 
 the tranfverfe apophyfis of the atlas, and its ter- 
 mination a little above that of the re6lus major. 
 
 The rotatory mufcles of the head are only one 
 pair: this is the obliquus major: its origin is in 
 the fpinofe apophyfis of the epiftroph^us, or fe- 
 cond vertebra ; and, afcending obliquely from 
 thence, it is inferted into the tranfverfe apophyfis 
 of the atlas *. 
 
 The mufcles bending the head fideways, are 
 only one pair. This is the redus lateralis -f : this 
 has its origin from the upper furface of the tranf- 
 verfe apophyfis of the atlas : from this it afcends 
 ftrait, with a fhort body, but confiderably thick ; 
 and is inferted partly into the os occipitis, and 
 partly into the temporal bone, near the incifure of 
 the mafloide procefs. 
 
 328. The mufcles of the neck are fix pair: 
 two pair are flexors, tv/o are extenfors, and two 
 ferve to draw die part fideways. The flexors are, ' 
 
 I. Thefcalenus: this has its origin from the 
 firfl, the fecond, and fometimes the third rib ; 
 and is inferted into the tranverfe apophyfes of the 
 vertebra of the neck. This mufcle is referred 
 by Fallopius, and fome others, to the number of 
 the elevators of the thorax, and that not without 
 fame reafon -, for it ferves both to that purpofe, 
 and to that for which it has its place here. This 
 mufcle is frequently divided into three parts, 
 
 * This is not properly a mufcle of the head; for it does 
 not touch any part of it. It is truly a mufcle of the 
 atlas : it has its origin from the fecond vertebra, and is in- 
 ferted into the firft. 
 
 •f See Cowper, 1. c. k. 
 
 fome- 
 
26S A Compendium 
 
 fomedmes more, fometimes lefs diflindly : from 
 hence fome of the anatomical writers have made 
 three mufcles of it, under the name of the firll, 
 the fecond, and the third fcalenus. 
 
 2. The longus : this arifes from the bodies of 
 the five upper vertebras of the back, and is in- 
 ferred into all the vertcbrjE of the neck. 
 
 The extenfors of the n^ck are the tranfverfaks 
 and interfpinales : 
 
 1. The tranfverfal, called alfo the fpinal muf- 
 cle*: it isowing to Cowptr*[" that this pair of 
 murdes is added to the extenfors of the neckv 
 nor mull we omit the mentioning and enume- 
 rating them among thefe \ but they are very im- 
 properly feparated from the common cxtenlbr of 
 the back and loins, called Iqngiffimus" dorfi, of 
 which they are truly no more than a part : but of 
 this more hereafter. 
 
 2. The interfpinales colli : thefe are truly five 
 pair, and are fituated between the fpinofe apo- 
 phyfes : they arife from the upper part of the 
 ipinofc apophyfes of the five lower vertebra of 
 the neck, and each of them is inferted into the 
 lower part of the fpinofe apophyfis of the verte- 
 bra nevt above. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the neck, fervingto bend it 
 to one fide, are the intertranfverfales and inter- 
 vertebrnles : 
 
 1. The intertranfverfales are fituated among 
 the tranfverfe apophyfes of the vertebra : they 
 arife from the lower vertebra, and are inferted 
 into that next above %, 
 
 * See Cowper's Myotom. fig. 8. i. and k. 
 f Sec Cowper's Myotom. no v. T. 44. 
 % See Philof. Trandict. vol, 21. p. 132. 
 
of ANAT#!i'^- 269 
 
 2. The intervertebrales DouglaiTi *, fo called 
 from their difcoverer Dr. Douglafs, are very 
 fmall, and their namber uncertain : ihey arife 
 from the lateral part of the body of the verte- 
 bra, and afcend obliquely to the poilerior part of - 
 the vertebra next above. 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 Of the mufcles of the fcapula, 
 
 329. f I AHE mufcles of the fcapula are pro- 
 X. - perly five pair : 
 I. The elevator, or, as it is called by fome, 
 mufculus/patiendae : this arifes from the tranfverfe 
 apophyfes of the tirft, fecond, third, and fourth 
 vertebra of the neck, and terminates at the fupe- 
 
 . ^ior- angle of the fcapula. 
 
 i-"^;.'2. The trapezius, or cucullaris: its origin is 
 From the os occipitis, the fpinofe apophyfes of the 
 neck, and of the feventh and eighth of the back f . 
 Its termination is at the fpine of the fcapula, the 
 acromion, and clavicle. This has the power of 
 feveral very different motions : the different courfe 
 of its feveral fibres enabling it, as they a6l dif- 
 ferently, to move the fcapula upwards, down- 
 wards, or backwards {. 
 
 3. The rhomboides: this has its origin from 
 the five lower fpinofe apophyfes of the neck, and 
 the three upper ones of the back, under the 
 precedent mufcle : it runs obliquely under it, and 
 
 * See his Myograph, p. 85. 
 
 -j- Douglafe extends the originations of thefe even to the 
 tenth vertebra. Myogr. p. 69. 
 
 X Chefelden denies thefe diverfity of aftions, and fays this 
 mufcle only ferves to draw the fcapulae backward, or toward 
 one another. Winflow is againft this, and fays their princi- 
 pal afe is to elevate the fcapula, Mem. Paris 1719. 
 
 is 
 
270 
 
 A Compendium 
 
 is inferted into the whole bafe of the fcapula. It 
 fcrves to move it upwards and backwards. 
 
 4. The ferratus, or dentatus minor anticus, 
 called alfo the pcdoralis minor: this arifes, by 
 dentated origins, from the fecond, third, and 
 fourth true ribs : it continues its courfe under the 
 pedloralis magnus, and is inferted into the cora* 
 coide procefs of the fcapula. 
 
 5. The ferratus, or dentatus major anticus: 
 this arifes alfo by dentated origins from the fix 
 lower true ribs, and from one, or fometimes two 
 of the upper fpurious ones* ; ajid it terminates in 
 the bafe of the fcapula. Thefe two ferve to 
 move the fcapula forward and downard : many of 
 the anatomical writers have referred thefe to the 
 number of the elevators of the ribs. Thefe call 
 that the beginning of the mufcle which we here 
 call its end f. It is to be allowed, that they may 
 alfo ferve to the purpofe which thofe authors fup- 
 pofe them intended for, when the fcapula is held 
 firm and immoveable by the elevator, trapezius, 
 and rhomboides. 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 Of the mufcles ferving to respiration. 
 
 330. y^F the mufcles ferving to relpiration, 
 \^ fome of them dilate the thorax, and 
 others con trad it. The dilators ad conjundly : 
 they are, 
 
 I. The diaphragm, which has been already 
 treated of in its place, (S. 257.; 
 
 * The two or three lower dentated beginnings of thefe 
 mufcles join thofe of the external obliqui of the abdomen. 
 f See Douglafs's Myograph, p. 73, and 74. 
 
 2. 
 
<?/ ANATOMY. 271 
 
 2. The intercoftals, which are generally al- 
 lowed to be forty- four in number : in every in- 
 teriUceof the ribs there aie two, an interna:, and 
 an external. Their origin is from the lower edge 
 of the fuperior rib, and their termination at the 
 upper edge of the fucceeding rib : the fibres of 
 the external ones run forward, and thofe of the 
 internal ones obliquely backward. They ferve to 
 elevate the ribs for the fervice of the lungs. 
 
 3. The levatores coftarum ofSteno, and fupra- 
 coftales of Verheyen*, are of two kinds, diftin- 
 guifhed, from their figure, into Ihort and long. 
 
 The fliort ones, breves, are twelve on each 
 fide : they have their origin from the traniverfc 
 procefTes of eleven vertebrae of the back, and of 
 one that is the lower one of the neck ; and they 
 are inferted obliquely into the hinder part of the 
 ribs. 
 
 The long ones, longi, are three or four : their 
 origin is the lame, from the feventh, eighth, 
 ninth, and tenth verbr^ ; and their end in the 
 ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth ribs ■}-. 
 
 4. The fubclavian : this riles from the lower 
 part of the clavicle, near the acromion ; and ter- 
 minates in the anterior part of the upper rib, and 
 of the fternum. 
 
 5. The ferratus pofticus fuperior : this arifes, 
 with a thin and broad tendon, from the two lower 
 vertebras of the neck, and the two upper ones of 
 the back; and terminates injthefecond, the third, 
 and the fourth ribs j. 
 
 * See Anatom. T. 35. fig. i. e e, f f. Morgagni, in his 
 Adverf. 2. 36. (hews that thefe mufcles were well known to 
 Cafferius and Steno. 
 
 f See Verheyen, ibid. fig. i, f f. 
 
 :j: Poflibly this mufcle ferves alfo to extend the neck, and 
 ferves the mufcles of the neck and back in place of a liga- 
 ment. 
 
 6. 
 
272 -^Compendium 
 
 6. The ferratus major anticus, mentioned un- 
 der our lad divifion among the mufcles of the 
 fcapula, is alfo by mod authors referred /o this 
 place ; but as the fcapula is evidently a pare fuf- 
 cepiibJe of more and eafier motions than the ribs, 
 it is evidently more properly to be numbered 
 among its mufcles. It is to be allowed, indeed, 
 that this mufcle fometimes may alTifl: in raifing the 
 ribs, efpecially in cafes of difficult refpiration. 
 
 7. The fcalenus colli, of which we have al- 
 ready treated among the mufcles of the neck, 
 which is certainly its more proper place. 
 
 The conftridors or depreflfors, befide the muf- 
 cles, more properly belonging to the abdomen, 
 tho' aflliling in this effedl, are thefe : 
 
 1. The fcrrratus pofticus inferior: this rlfes with 
 a broad tendon from the three lower vertebrse of 
 the back, and the two upper ones of the loins i 
 it terminates in the four inferior fpurious ribs, and 
 furrounds the excenfors of the back, in manner of 
 a vagina, to prevent their fibres from feparating 
 one from another, as they might otherwife do in 
 violent motions. 
 
 2. The triangularis {lertii : this rifes from the 
 lower and interior part of the Iternum, and is 
 inferted on each fide into the cartilages of the 
 fourth, fifth, fixch, and feventh true ribs. Ver- 
 heyen divides this into feveral mufcles, and calls 
 them flerno-coftales *. Some authors alfo deny 
 its exiftence i but this is a very rafh determina- 
 tion, and has no foundation in obfervation. 
 
 3. The ihtercoftales of Verheycn. Of thefe 
 there are found, on drawing away the pleura, 
 
 .fix, feven, eight or nine on each fide: they have 
 their origin not far from the heads of the ribs, 
 and, afcending obliquely, terminate in a rib above, 
 
 ♦ L. c. fig. 2, abed e. 
 
 fome 
 
0/ ANATOMY. 273 
 
 forne in that immediately over the other, feme in 
 the next but one above *. Morgagni obfcrves -f , 
 that thefe mufcles were known to Euflachius. 
 
 4. The extenfor lumborum & dorfi communis, 
 to be defcribed more at large in the next fedtion, 
 concurs alio to the deprefling the ribs on this oc- 
 cafion. It has its origin from the os facrum, and 
 is inferted by a multiple tendon into the hinder 
 part of the ribs j. Morgagni alfo goes fo far as 
 to afcribe tendons to this mufcle, by means of 
 which it ads, he fays, as an elevator of the ribs. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the hack and loins, 
 
 33^-'T^^E mufcles of the back and loin^ 
 \_ are for the mod part common : there 
 are of the extenfors ufually reckone4 three on 
 each fide. 
 
 1. The facro-Iumbaris : this has its origin at 
 the OS facrum and pofterior fpine of the ileum, 
 and its termination in the upper part of the ribs. 
 
 2. The longilliiTius dorfi, which has its origin 
 in the fame place, and its termination partly in 
 all the vertebra of the fpina dorfi, particularly 
 in their tranfverfe apophyfes, and partly in the 
 ribs II. 
 
 3. The femi-fpinofus: this has its origin from 
 the OS facrum and vertebrae of the loins, and its 
 termination at the upper vertebrse of the thorax, 
 efpecially at their fpinofe apophyfes. 
 
 * Ibid. fig. 3. d d, e e. 
 
 t Adverf. Anat. 2. p. 36. and Tab. Euftach. 16. 
 
 X See Verheyen, fig. i . b b. 
 
 § SeeAdverfar. Anat. 2. p. 38. 
 
 11 See Morgagni's Adverf. 2. p. 38. 
 
 T Thefe 
 
274 ^ Compendium 
 
 Thefe are the three mufcles ufually allowed as 
 extenfors in this part •, but as they cohere in fo 
 firm a manner together, that they are fcarce to 
 be feparated by any ad without laceration, and as 
 they all confplre in the performing the fame ac- 
 tion, perhaps it is more juft to call them all toge- 
 ther only one common mufcle, under the name 
 of the common extenfor of the back and Joins *. 
 If thefe act only on one fide, they draw the back 
 obliquely Tideways. 
 
 The flexors, befide the mufcks of the abdo- 
 men, which ferve to the drawing the parts as 
 well forwards as fideways, are, 
 
 1. The quadratus lumborum : this has its ori- 
 gin in the anterior and fuperior part of the pofte- 
 rior procefs of the os ilei, and its end at the tranf- 
 vcrfe apophyfes of the vertebrae of the loins, the 
 laft vertebra of the thorax, and the laft rib. 
 
 2. The pfoas parvus: this arifes by a flender 
 tendon from the os pubis, where it is joined to 
 the ileum ; and is inferted into the fide of the up- 
 per vertebra of the loins -f*. 
 
 3. The intertranfverfaies lumborum : thefe are 
 very fmalJ mufcles, defcribed by Douglafs : they 
 are fituated between the tranfverfe apophyfes of 
 the loins, arifing from the rim or edge of one; 
 and, being inferted into the fucceeding one, they 
 alTift in the moving the part fideways J. 
 
 * Chefelden in his Anatomy obferves, that thefe mufcles 
 act alfo alternately when we are walking, elevating the offa 
 innominata ; and that this may be perceived, on laying a hand 
 upon the loins as we walk. 
 
 f This mufcle is ofcen wanting : when it is found, its of- 
 fice is to aflill the quadratus in elevating the ofTa innominata, 
 efpecially when we lie down. Douglafs faysRiolan was the 
 
 iirft who defcribed it, p, 90. 
 ;|: Sec Douglafs's Myogr. p. 90. 
 
 CHAP 
 
cf ANATOMY. 275 
 
 CHAP. XiV. 
 
 Of the mufcks of the arm and hand. 
 
 332. rirMIE mufeles of the arm, the brachius 
 J[ or humerus, arc nine. The elevatores 
 are three *. 
 
 1. The deltoides : this arifes from the clavicle, 
 and the acromion and fpine of the fcapula ; and 
 terminates at four fingers breadth below the neck 
 of the humerus. 
 
 2. The fuprafpinatus : this has its origin from 
 a cavity above the Ipine of the fcapula, and its 
 infertion in the neck of the humerus. 
 
 3. The coraco-brachialis : this has its origin at 
 the coracoide procefs of the fcapula, and its ter- 
 mination about the middle part of the arm. 
 
 The depreflbrs of the arm are three : thefe are 
 afliifed in their adlion by the weight of the arm 
 itfelf. They are, 
 
 1. The infra-fcapularis : this has its origin from 
 the whole internal furface of the fcapula, and its 
 termination in the interior part of the head of the 
 humerus. 
 
 2. The rotundus,, or teres major : this has its 
 origin at the lower angle of the fcapula, and its 
 termination three fingers below the head of the ' 
 humerus. 
 
 3. The latiffimus dorfi, called alfo by fome 
 anilcalptor : this has its origin at the pofterior pai^ 
 of the fpina ilei, the upper fpine of the os facrum,'^ 
 and all the fpinofe apophyfes of the loins, and the 
 feven inferior ones of the back : it unites its ten- 
 
 * WInflow, in the Paris Memoirs, fhews that the ad- 
 duAores and abdudlores affift thefe. 
 
 T 2 don 
 
276 -^ Compendium 
 
 don with the former mufcle, and is Infertcd m 
 the fame place. 
 
 The addudlores are only one pair, the pe6i:o- 
 ralis major : this has its origin in the clavicle, the 
 fternum, and all the true ribs, and its termina- 
 tion at four fingers breadth below ihe head of the 
 humerus. The ad:ion of this mufcle is probably 
 greatly afiifted by the a6lion of the coraco- 
 brachialis, and that of the dtltoides by that of the 
 upper part of this peroral mufcle, which is 
 iifually a kind of diflind: mufcle. 
 
 The abdudtores of the arm are two, the infra- 
 fpinatus, and the rotundus, or teres minor : 
 
 1. The infra-fpinatus has its origin in the 
 cavity below the fpine of the fcapula. 
 
 2. The rotundus, or teres minor, has its ori- 
 gin at the inferior cofta of the fcapula -, and this, 
 with the former, indeed, properly form only one 
 conjunft mufcle, forming at the extremity only a 
 fingle tendon, which is inferted into the pofledor 
 part of the neck of the humerus. 
 
 ^'^0^, The mufcles of the cubitus are fix, two 
 flexors, and three extenfors. The flexors are, 
 
 I. The brachialis externus : this rifcs tendinous 
 with two heads: one of them, which is the broader, 
 has its origin from the coracoide procefs -, the other, 
 which is flender and longer, from the acetabulum 
 of the fcapula. This defcends in the channel of the 
 humerus, under the ligament of the joint; becomes 
 fiefhy, andjoins with the former: and after this runs 
 near the infertion of the deltoides, in the anterior 
 part of the arm, and ends partly by a round ten- 
 don in the tubercle of the radius, a little belo^^• its 
 upper head ; and partly by a broad tendon in the 
 common membrane, which furrounds all the 
 mufcles of the cubitus. . This tendon is fometimes 
 
 cut 
 
^/ANATOMY. 277 
 
 cut in bleeding, and very bad confequences at- 
 tend the accident *. 
 
 2. The brachialis internus arifes jiill below the 
 end of the deltoide, and is inferted into the tu- 
 bercle of the ulna, a little below its upper head. 
 
 The extenfors of the cubitus are four, the 
 longus, brevis, brachialis externus, and anconseus. 
 
 1. The longus arifes from the inferior cofta of 
 the fcapula. 
 
 2. The brevis arifes from the external fpine of 
 the humerus. 
 
 3. The brachialis externus arifes near the for- 
 mer, from the interior fpine of the humerus. 
 Thefe three unite their feveral tendons, an.d make, 
 as it werf, only one triply divided mufclc, which 
 is inferted into the hinder part of the olecranon, 
 and may very properly be called the mufculus 
 triceps brachialis. 
 
 4. The anconeus has its origin in the exterior 
 condyle of the humerus, and its termination a 
 little below the terminations of the others. 
 
 334. The mufcles of the radius are four; two 
 of them are pronators, two fupinators. The pro- 
 nators are, 
 
 1. The rotundus : this rifes from the internal 
 condyle of the humerus, and terminates near the 
 middle of the radius. 
 
 2. The quadratus, which has its origin in the 
 lower part of the ulna, and its termination oppo- 
 fite in the lower part of the radius. 
 
 The fupinators are, 
 
 * Thefe are elegantly iigured by Cowper, Myotorn. nov- 
 T. 50. and defcribed p. 74. Winflow alio, in the Paris 
 Memoirs 1720, has treated judicioufly of the fubjeft : he 
 fhe\v5, that rhis mufcle is properly a fupin<\tQr of the radius, 
 aiid an elevator of the arm. 
 
 T3 I. 
 
278 A Compendium 
 
 1. The longus, which has its origin from the 
 exterior fpine of the humerus, and its termi- 
 nation at the lower head of the radius *. 
 
 2. The brevis, which rifes from the upper part 
 of the ulna, and is infcrted into the upper part of 
 the radins, which it totally furrounds and inclofes. 
 
 335. The mufcles of the carpus, or hand, are 
 fix : three of them are flexors, three extenfors. 
 The three flexors all arife from the internal con- 
 dyle of the humerus : they are, 
 
 1. Th^ radiseus internus : this is inferted into 
 the bone of the carpus next the thumb". 
 
 2. The ulnaris internus, which terminates in 
 the internal officle of the carpus. 
 
 3. -The palmaris, which is inferted into the 
 palm of the hand by a broad expanded tendon, 
 and the office of which feems to be the conftridion 
 of the pahii. 
 
 The three extenfors all arife from the external 
 condyle of the humerus : they are, 
 
 I. The radiasus externus. 2. The longus & 
 brevis, called by others the bicornis. One of 
 thefe is inferted into the firlt metacarpal bone, and 
 the other into the fecond. 
 
 3. The ulnaris externus, which terminates in 
 the metacarpal bone that fupports the little 
 finger. 
 
 If the mufculi radlaei a6l all together, and at 
 the fame time the ulnares are all quiet, the hand 
 is moved outwards : and, on the other hand, 
 when the two ulnares ad together, and the ra- 
 diaei are quiet, the hand is drawn inwards. The 
 mufcles are alfo kept together, and in their places, 
 by a ligament, called, from its fiiape, the liga- 
 ■ mentum annulare : but we are to obferve, that 
 
 * This mufcle may alfo be of ufc in the bending tlie 
 cubit, 
 
 this 
 
c/ ANATOMY. ^79 
 
 this ligament does not appsar annular in diflec- 
 tions, as it is iifually figured -, but is rather a 
 common membrane, furrounding and including 
 all the mufcles which are placed about the cubitus 
 and carpus, and facilitating their motions. In 
 preparations of the parts, this membrane aiTumes 
 an annular figure, fuch as it is ufually reprefented 
 of*. 
 
 336. The mufcles of the palm of the hand 
 are two, according to the generality of anatomi- 
 cal writers ; the palmaris, fimply fb called, and 
 the palmaris brevis. 
 
 The palmaris has been defcribed in the lad 
 fcdlion, among the flexors of the hand ; to which 
 it more properly belongs than immediately to the 
 palm. 
 
 The palmaris brevis, called alfo by fome caro 
 quadrata, adheres, in form of a fmall mafs of 
 fieih, to the aponeurofis of the palmaris longus, 
 above the abduclor mufcle of the little finger : 
 this is faid to afTift in drawing together the hand : 
 both this and the former, however, are often 
 found to be wanting in difTedlions. 
 
 C H A P. XV. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the fingers and toes. 
 
 337. 'TT^HE mufcles of the fingers are in 
 JL piit^ common, and in part proper. 
 The common are the flexors of the firft, kcond, 
 and third phalanx, the extenfor and interolTei. 
 
 I. The flexors of the firft phalanx are the four 
 lumbricales: thefe arife deep and tendinous,^^^ 
 are inferted into the firfl: phalanges on *lk^^5er?i"- 
 next the thumb. - •^ •» ^'lv^'-^;.■■: 
 
 * Sec Velalius's M^iicul. T. i, and 2.. . , , . ;/;y, i^,;r^'l 'iT"^\ 
 
aSo ^COM'PENDIUM 
 
 2. The flexors of the fecond phalanx are the 
 fubhmis, called alfo perforatus : this arifes from 
 the internal condyle of the humerus and the 
 radius, and is divided into four tendons, which 
 are inferted into the fccond phalanges of the four 
 fingers. 
 
 3. The flexors of the third phalanx are the 
 perforans, or profundus : this has its origin at the 
 upper part of the middle of the ulna, and, d'w 
 viding into four tendons as the former, it per- 
 forates the tendons of that, and is inferted into 
 the beginning of the third phalanx of the four 
 fingers*. 
 
 The extenfor of all the three phalanges is 
 called the extenfor communis: it has its origin at 
 the external condyle of the humerus, and the 
 pofl:erior part of the radius and ulna: it then 
 - divides into four tendons, which pafs under the 
 ligament of the carpus, and terminate in the pof- 
 terior furface of all the phalanges of the fingers, 
 which are gibbous on that furface. 
 
 The interolTei are divided by anatomifts into 
 the internal and external. The external interolfei 
 are three : they occupy the interfl:ices between the 
 bones of the metacarpus in the back of the hand. 
 The internal ones are alfo three, according to the 
 generality of writers -, but Stockhufius makes them 
 fix : they are fituated in the palm of the hand, 
 and are more properly placed under the bones of 
 the metacarpus than between them ; fo that inter- 
 ofTei is a bad name for thefe. They all of them 
 arife from that part of the metacarpal bones which 
 is neareft the carpus, and arc inferted in various 
 
 V -.-.\ ,v * Thefe two mufcles pafs under the tranfverfe ligament of 
 :-:'.^: the carpus; and their tendons, included in a fuong mem- 
 branaceous vagina, are joined to the bones of the fingers, to 
 prevent their receding in the time of flexion. 
 
 'v manners 
 
 \-y* ,f_ - 
 
 
of ANATOMY. 281 
 
 manners into rhe fides of the fingers. Their of- 
 fices are various : they fomeiimes ad: fingly, 
 fonaetimes in concert with the other mufcles of 
 thefe parts: they accordingly ferve either to draw 
 the fingers together, or to feparate them from 
 one another ; to divaricate or to contracl them, 
 and to extend or bend them. 
 
 338. Of the proper mufcles of the finger?, 
 thofe belonginof to the thumb are five : 
 
 1. Its flexor, which has its origin in the mid- 
 dle part of the radius, and its end in the third 
 phalanx. 
 
 2. Its extenfor, which is called alfo bicornis 
 and tricornis : this arifes in the pofterior and mid- 
 dle part of the ulna and radius, and terminates 
 in two or three tendons in the firft, fecond, and 
 third phalanx. 
 
 3. The thenar, or abdu6lor : the origin of this 
 is in the tranfverfe ligament that joins the bones 
 of the carpus, and irs termination in the firft and 
 fecond phalanx. The two fefamoide bones of the 
 thumb are ufually found lodged in the tendon of 
 this mufcle. 
 
 4. The hypothenar : this rifes, near the prece- 
 dent, from the fame ligament, but fomewhat 
 more towards the palm of the hand -, and it ter- 
 minates in the lower head of the firft phalanx. 
 This mufcle is not mentioned by many authors, 
 and, indeed, there is fome reafon on the fide of 
 efteeming it but a part of the former, 
 
 5. The antithenar, or abdu6tor : this rifes from 
 the metacarpal bone of the middle finger, and is 
 inferted into the firft and fecond phalanx *. 
 
 339- 
 
 * We are to obferve on this head, that there are frequently 
 great variations in the muicles of the thumb, as well as in 
 thofe of the fingers, in diiferent fubjcds j fo that no dcfcrip- 
 
 tion 
 
282 A Compendium 
 
 339. The proper mufcles of the index or fore- 
 finger are tv/o, an extenfor, and an abdui5lor': 
 
 1. The extenfor has its origin with the com- 
 mon extenfor of the fingers; and, indeed, there 
 is fome reafon to acknowledge it but a part or 
 portion of that mufcle. 
 
 2. The abdu6lor has its origin in the interior 
 bone of the metacarpus, and terminates on the 
 infide of the firft phalanx*. 
 
 340. The proper mufcles of the auricularis 
 are two : 
 
 1. The proper extenfor, which feems to be a 
 part of the common extenfor, and has its origin 
 with it. 
 
 2. The abdudor, the origin of which is at 
 the interior bone of the metacarpus, and its in- 
 fcrtion at the internal fide of the firft phalanx. 
 
 Many add to thcfe two mufcles an adduc- 
 tor; but this properly draws the internal meta- 
 carpal bone towards the thumb X. 
 
 341. We are now to return from the arms to 
 the trunk again, to examine the mufcles belong- 
 ing to the abdomen ; and from thefe we are to 
 proceed to ihofe of the legs. 
 
 342. The mufcles of the abdomen, and thofe 
 of the clitoris, have been already defcribed in 
 their pl'oper places, under S. 205, and S. 234. 
 
 tion can be given that will fuit all fubjefts. The extenfor 
 of the thumb is fometimes bicornate, fometimes tricornate, 
 and in fome fubjefts there are two flexors, as Cowper ob- 
 ferves, Myot. p. 216. Variations of the like kind are alfo 
 found in the mufcles of the other fingers. See Morgagni's 
 Adverf. 2. 40. 
 
 * A fefamoide bone is fometimes found alfo in the tendon 
 of this mafcle. 
 
 •f- In this alfo is fometimes found a fefamoide bone. See 
 our plate i . hg. 5. 1. c. 
 
 X Sec WiRiiow's Obfcrv. Memoirs of Paris 1720. 
 
 But 
 
of ANATOMY. 283 
 
 But we have flill, for the bufineis of this place, 
 the mufcles of the teiticles, ihe penis, the urethra, 
 the anus, the urinary bladder, and the vagina, 
 to defcribe. 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 Of the mufdes of the parts of generation, 
 
 343. rir^H E mufcleof the tefticles is called the 
 X cremafter or elevator : it is a thin fcries 
 of mufcular fibres, arifing fornetimes from the 
 oblique afcendens of the abdomen, near the place 
 where that mufcle is perforated to give paffage to 
 the Ipermatick veffels. Sometimes it rifes from 
 the tranfverfus * ; and, finally, fometimes from 
 the fpine of the ileum ■]-. From either of thefe 
 origins it proceeds, together with the procefs of 
 the peritonaeum,^ to which it is firmly joined, 
 defcending into the fcrotum, and there expands 
 itfelf over the tunica vaginalis, which includes 
 the body of the tefticle. When this mufcle is 
 contracted, it elevates the tefticle : it is frequently 
 fo very thin in emaciated fubjects, as fcarce to be 
 at all difcernable. 
 
 344.. The mufcles of the penis are properly 
 only two, called eredlors. Thefe arife on each 
 fide from the ofTa ifchii, between the tubercle of 
 this bone and the beginning of the corpus caver- 
 nofum ; and each of them is inferted into the 
 corpus cavernofum of its own fide X- 
 
 Thefe mufcles, when they a6t together, prefs 
 the veins of the back of the penis againft: the oflTa 
 pubis, by which they prevent the reflux of blood 
 
 * See Santorini's Obfervat. cap. g. i. 
 
 'f- See it delineated in Cowper's Myotom. nov. T. 17. 
 
 l See Covvper, T. 17 and 19. 
 
 from 
 
284 -^ Compendium 
 
 from the penis •, and confequently when, at the 
 fame time, the blood flows impetuoufly into the 
 part by the arteries, and cannot get back this 
 way, the penis becomes crefled *. The mnfcles 
 of the penis, ddcribed by many authors under 
 the names of acceleratores and tranfverfi, do not 
 fo properly belong to the penis in general as to 
 the urethra in particular : we fliali, therefore, 
 defcribe them under the head of the mufcjes of 
 that part. 
 
 345. The mufcles of the urethra in men are 
 of two kinds, dilators and conftridors. The 
 dilators are, 
 
 1, The tranverfif : thefe arife from the tuber* 
 cle of the os ifchinm on each fide, and are in- 
 ferted into the pofterior part of the bulb of the 
 urethra : they are not quite determinate and cer- 
 tain, however, either in their origin or infertion ; 
 and fometimes they are wholly wanting. When 
 they ad, they dilate the urethra in its pofterior 
 part J. 
 
 2. The poflerior or triangular dilatator, dila- 
 tator pofticus : this is often extremely fmall, and 
 fometimes it is double §. It rifes from the ante- 
 rior part of the fphinder of the anus, and is in- 
 fcrted into the pofterior and lower part of the 
 acceleratores, or elfe into the lower part of the 
 bulb of the urethra, This mufcle has been 
 
 * Schellmmmer will not allow the ere(^ion of the penis to 
 be thus performed, Diff. 12. Chefelden doubts it alio j but 
 there feems much reafon in it. 
 
 f See Bartholin. Anat. L. i.e. 24. Bidloo, T. 47. Cow- 
 per's Myot. Reformat, fig. 10 and 12. 
 
 % Thefe mufcles, Morgagni obferves, are often wanting ; 
 and when they arc not fo, they vary greatly in their fituation : 
 experience confirms the truth of this. 
 
 § See Morgagni's Adverfar. 4. 
 
 taken 
 
of ANATOMY. 285 
 
 taken for a part of the fphinfter ani by RIoIan *, 
 He acknowledges that it is extended to the ure- 
 thra ; but he will have it a part of that mufcle. 
 Littre-f is the firfl: who acknowledged it for a 
 diflindl mufcle, and defcribed it as fuch. This 
 jmufcle feems to be an antagonift as well to the 
 acceleratores as to the eredores penis ; for it 
 draws down the penis from the oiTa pubis imme- 
 diately after the ejedion of the femen, and thus 
 gives the blood a free paflfage out of the penis. 
 
 The conIlri6lors of the urethra are the mufcles 
 commonly called acceleratores urinas : they arife 
 partly from the precedent mufcle, and partly, and 
 indeed principally, from the corpora nervofa of 
 the penis : from hence, proceeding obliquely, they 
 furround the whole bulb, and the inferior fpongy 
 part of the urethra ; and are, finally, inferted into 
 the line which is formed by the concourfe of thefe^ 
 and adheres to the bulb. Hence, when they ad:, 
 they conftringe the hinder part of the urethra, 
 and by that means ferve to expel the urine out of 
 the urethra, but more efpecially the femen in co- 
 pulation. 
 
 Santorini, befide thefe, has defcribed cer- 
 tain new mufcles of the urethra, called pro* 
 jedores and elevatores ; as alfo fome mufcles of 
 the proftata % : but the moft careful diffeclion will 
 only fhew thin membranes in the place of them. 
 
 * Cap. de Mufcul. Ani. 
 
 -j- See Memoirs of the Paris Academy i/bo. Santorini 
 alfo agrees with Vefalius in calling this mufeje a part of the 
 fphinfter arai. 
 
 t See the fame, p, i8i. 
 
 CHAP. 
 
285 A Compendium 
 
 CHAP. XVII.. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the anus and bladder, 
 
 346. ^nr^ H E mufcles of the anus are generally 
 JL faid to be three, one fphindtcr, and 
 two levators*. 
 
 The fpbincler of the anus cfofes the extremity 
 of the inteftinum redlum. It has its origin from 
 the bottom of the os coccygis, and the Ikin that 
 is under this bone ; and its fibres, from hence 
 feparating every way from one another, and fur- 
 rounding the anus in every part, afcend afterwards 
 in men into the Jower part of the bulb of the 
 urethra, or into the acceleratores mufcles which 
 furround this bulb, and are there terminated. In 
 women they are inferted into the lower part of 
 the vagina of the uterus. 
 
 Many fibres alfo defcend from the interior and 
 lower part of the os pubis, near the fynchondro- 
 fis ; and forming a body of an oval figure, and of 
 the breadth of a man*s thumb, they furround the 
 extremity of the red:um j and, when they adl, 
 
 * There are no mufcles of the human body in the defcripc 
 tions of which authors differ fo much as thofe of the anus : 
 this may be feen very evidently, on examining Riolan's An- 
 thropolog. L. 5. c. 40. Cowper's Myotom. nov. p. 13. 
 Douglafs's Myograph, p. 66. Morgagni's Adverfar, Anat. 3. 
 p. 59. and Santorini's Obfervations, p. 164. Thefe authors, 
 tho' all accurate and excellent ones, diifer widely, not 
 only in regard to the number, but alfo the origin, 
 progrefs, figure, and infertion of the feveral mufcles they 
 jointly allow of. Whether this be owing to the real diffe- 
 rence of thefe mufcles in different fubjede, or to fome other 
 caufe, is not eafy to determine. The expert anatomift, 
 however, will ufually find them very regularly in moft fub- 
 jefts, as our author here proceeds to lay them down, which 
 he has done, not from the works of any, but from his own 
 obfervation. 
 
 have 
 
(?/ AN ATO M Y. 287 
 
 have the fame efFed of drawing it together and 
 clofing it : there are, indeed, but few merely cir- 
 cular or annular fibres, fuch as are ufually faid to 
 compofe the fphindler obferved in difledlion. 
 
 The levatores ani arife on each fide, with a 
 broad bafe, from the internal pare of the os pubis, 
 the tunic of the obturator internus, and the inter- 
 nal part of the os ileum, and the acufe procefs of 
 the ifchium : from thefe parts fibres, in the man- 
 ner of rays, running from a circumference toward 
 a centre, direding their courfe toward the fphinc- 
 ter ; and, finally, theyunite in the hinder part of 
 the inteftine which they furround, including at the 
 fame time the neck of the urinary bladder, the 
 proftata, and the veliculas fem.inales in men ; and 
 in women the vagina. They are, after this, in- 
 i^rted partly in tiie upper and hinder part of the 
 fphindec, and partly confound and blend their 
 fibres with thofe of the oval and annular kind, 
 which form the fphinder -, and from this courfe 
 of their fibres it is very evident, that they may 
 ferve not only for the fuflaining and elevating the 
 anus, but to prefs the veficulse feminales an;l 
 proftatge in the coitus. 
 
 Befide thefe levatores, which Douglafs calls, 
 by way of diftindion, majores *, he defcribes, in 
 much the fame manner asRiolan had before done, 
 a pair of fmaller levatores: thefe arife partly ten- 
 dinous, partly flefhy, from the protuberance of 
 the ifchium -, and are thence carried tranfverfely 
 toward the anus, and are inferted into its fphinc- 
 ter, not far from the bulb of the urethra f. 
 
 The 
 
 * Sec his Myograph, p, 68. 
 
 -f- Douglafs does not tell us in what manner they are in- 
 ferted in the female fubjeds •,' but in diifeflion fuch mufcles 
 are foraetimes, tho' not always, met with in women ; in this 
 
 cafe 
 
288 ^ Compendium 
 
 The mufcles of the os coccygis are alfo two *j 
 one on each fide, called coccygseus, and feeming 
 deftined to be of fcrvice to the anus in its necef- 
 fary motions. They have their origin from the 
 acute poderior apophyfis of the ifchium, and are 
 implanted on each fide into the fides of the os 
 Goccygis. Thefe, by pulling againft the os coc- 
 cygis, aflift the levatores of the anus •, and^ when 
 it has been forced too far outward, they reduce it 
 in again into its natural (late •, and prevent alfo 
 its too eafily changing its natural fituation. 
 
 347. Authors allow the urinary bladder two 
 mufcles, a fphinder and detrufor. 
 
 The fphindter we have already had occafion to 
 defcribe, S. 222-, and the detrufor, which is alfo 
 mentioned in the fame place -f, is indeed no other 
 than the mufcular coat of the bladder, which is 
 an antagonift to the fphin6i:er, and ferves to pro- 
 trude the urine out of the bladder J. 
 
 cafe they ufually arife from the upper part of the protubef' 
 ranee of the ifchium, near the origin of the erectors of the 
 clitoris ; and are inferted into the upper part of the fphinfter, 
 "^ where they are joined to the vagina. Santon'ni, p. 206, tells 
 us, that in women there are tranfverfe mufcles, which he 
 compares to the tranfverfales of the penis in men, and figures 
 them in tab. 2. letter g g. What are' found in difledion by 
 an expert anatomift, will be found to b^ very like what he 
 there defcribes- It does not appear that they are always to 
 be met with; and it is alfo difficult to determine whether we are 
 to agree with Douglafs, that they belong to the iinus ; or 
 with Santorini, that they belong to the vagina. 
 
 * See Douglafs's Myograph, p. 143. As alfo Chefelden's 
 Anatomy, and Morgagni's Adverfar. 3. p. 94. 
 
 -|- See figures of thefe in Chefelden's Lithotomy, and in 
 Cowper's Myograph, nov. 
 
 X Bianchi, in Magnet's Theatr. Anatom. p. 414. defcribes 
 certain new mufcles of the bladder, which he calls elevators 
 and depreffors, and has figured in two plates i but Morgagni 
 and Santorini agree in determining, that there are in reality 
 no fuch mufcles. 
 
 6 348. 
 
of ANATOMY: 289 
 
 348. The fphindlcr, or conflridtor of the va- 
 gina, is a feries of mufcular fibres, which arife 
 from the fphinder of the anus, and furround the 
 orifice of the vagina from each fide, and are af- 
 terwards inferted into the crura of the clitoris. 
 The opening of the vagina is drawn together, in 
 the time of copulation, round the penis, by the 
 help of this mufcle. 
 
 Santorini has defcribed feveral other mufcles of 
 the vagina and the urethra in women ; but the 
 mod accurate diflfedlions do not fhcw any others 
 that ought to be called by that name, nor is this 
 the only cafe in which that author has done this*, 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 OJ the mufcles of the thigh ^ leg^ and foot. 
 
 349. rirMIE mufcles of the femur are four- 
 JL teen : they are of various kinds, and 
 ferve to different purpofes. 
 
 The proper flexors or elevators are three f : 
 the great pfoas, the iliacus, and the pedtina^us. 
 
 The pfoas magnus arifes from the firfl, fecond, 
 third and fourth vertebra of the loins. 
 
 The iliacus arifes from the internal Cavity of 
 the ileum, and the extremity of each is at the lit- 
 tle trochanter. 
 
 The pedlin^us, called aifo lividus, has its ori- 
 gin at the upper part of the os pubis, and termi- 
 nates four fingers breadth below the former. 
 
 * L. c. p.. 207. and the following. 
 
 \ Tiiere are many of the mufcles, however, afiiftant ta 
 thefe ; as the abduftor, the triceps, the glutsei, the fafcia 
 feta i and, as Winflow jullly obferves, ihe re^us tibia aifo., 
 
 U The 
 
290 
 
 A Compendium 
 
 The extenfors of the femur are the three 
 glnt^ei, diftinguifhed by names from their fize, 
 and called maximus, medius, and minimus. They 
 all arife in the external furface of the ileum, 
 ifchium, and os facrum. The termination of the 
 firft or greatefl is about four fingers breadth from 
 the great trochanter, and the terminations of the 
 two others are in this trochanter. 
 
 The abdu6lors are five ; the fafcia lata, qua- 
 dratus, pyriformis, and the two geminu 
 
 The fafcia lata, called alfo mufcuiusmembranofas, 
 more properly belongs to the tibia; tho% in com- 
 pliance to the common cuftom of authors, we name 
 it here : it will be defcribed at large in our next 
 iedlion, among the rnufcles of that part. 
 
 The quadratus has its origin from the tubercle 
 of the ifchium, and its termination at an eminence 
 between the two trochanters. 
 
 The pyriformis rifes thick from the lower part 
 of the OS facrum, where it is joined to the ileum. 
 
 The gemini are two, and are diftinguilhed 
 into the fuperior and inferior. 
 
 The fuperior has its origin from the pofterior 
 and inferior fpine of the ileum. 
 
 The inferior has its origin from the tubercle of 
 the ifchium *. 
 
 Thefe two, and the pyriformis, are all inferted 
 into the finus of the great trochanter. 
 
 The abdu6lor of the femur is the triceps. The 
 firft and fccond heads of this mufcle arife from the 
 OS pubis, near the fynchondrofis ; the third from 
 the tubercle of the ifchium : ic is inferted into the 
 whole fpine of the os femoris. 
 
 * The two gemini are ufually found firmly concreted with, 
 the obturator internus ; and hence feme have defcribed them, 
 liOt as ieparate rnufcles, but as a part of that. 
 
 The 
 
^/ANATOMY. 291 
 
 The rota tores, called alfo obturatores, are two, 
 an internal and an external. 
 
 The internal arifes from the internal circum- 
 ference of the great foramen of the os pubis, 
 pafTes the channel in the ifchium, and is infcrted 
 into the hollow by the great trochanter. 
 
 The external arifes from the external circum- 
 ference of the foramen jufb mentioned^ and is in- 
 ferted in the fame place with the former. Thefe 
 two mufcles alTift alfo the abduclors. 
 
 350. The mufcles of the tibia, or leg, are 
 eleven. 
 
 I. The abdu6lor, called the fafcia lata, and 
 mufculus membranofus, arifes flefliy from the an- 
 terior part of the anterior and fuperior fpine of 
 the ileum : foon after its origin it becomes intire- 
 ]y membranaceous, and clofely furrounds the 
 mufcles of the thigh ; after which it is inferred 
 in the upper part of the tibia, near the head of 
 the fibula ; and from thence fends out an apo- 
 neurofis almoft over the whole tibia *. 
 
 The fartorius is an abdudlor and elevator : it 
 rifes from the internal part of the anterior and 
 fuperior fpine of the ileum, and, defcending 
 obliquely, is inferred into the upper and inner 
 part of the tibia : it moves the legs upwards and 
 forwards, determining them towards croffing over 
 one another, as taylors fit with them. 
 
 The extenfors of the tibia are four : they are 
 fituated in the anterior part of the femur. They are, 
 I. The rectus: this has its origin from the an^ 
 terior and inferior fpine of the ileumj* . 
 
 * It ferves alfo to draw back the thigh, and to elevate 
 both this and the leg : this and fome other of the adjacent 
 mufcles are therefore common to both parts. 
 
 -|- This alfo afiifts the elevatores of the femur And the far- 
 torius in their motions ; and, together with the pecdnsus, 
 pfoas, iliacus and glutaei, afhils in the motion of feating oar- 
 fels'es. See Winflow's paper in the Paiis Memoirs 1720, 
 
 u 2 2. 
 
292 
 
 ji Compendium 
 
 2. The cruralis, which is fituated under the 
 former, and rifes from the whole anterior part of 
 the femur. 
 
 3. The vaftus intcrnus, which rifes from the 
 whole internal fide of the femur. 
 
 4. The vaftus externus, which rifes from the 
 whole external fide of the femur. 
 
 Thefe four mufcles together form a very robuft 
 and ftrong tendon jufl: above the knee, to which 
 the patella adheres behind, and which is inferted 
 below the knee at a tubercle of the tibia *. 
 
 The flexors of the tibia are five : 
 
 J . The gracilis, which arifes near the fynchon- 
 drofis of the os pubis. 
 
 2. The femi-membranofus, which arifes above 
 from the tubercle of the ifchium. 
 
 3. The femi-nervofus, which arifes from the 
 fame tubercle in its hinder part. 
 
 Thefe three are all inferted into the interior 
 and upper part of the tibia. 
 
 4. The biceps : the origin of the firfl head of 
 this is from the tubercle of the ifchium : the fe- 
 cond rifes from the middle part of the femur s 
 and its inferdon is in the fuperior part of the 
 fibula. 
 
 5. The poplitseus. This is a fmall mufcle : it 
 arifes with a flender rounded tendon from the ex- 
 terior condyle of the femur ; and from hence it 
 pafles tendinous under the ham inwards: after 
 this ic becomes flelhy, and terminates in the fupe- 
 rior and interior part of the tibia. 
 
 * Almoil all the mufcles of the leg mutually aflift one 
 ajiother, as alfo thofe of the thigh. 'J here is fcarce any 
 one of them, that, befide its primary ufe, does not alfo con* 
 cur in the forming other adions and motions with the 
 oihers. 
 
 ^5»- 
 
<?/ A N A T O M Y. 293 
 
 351. The mufcles of the tarfus, or foot, are 
 feven *. The flexors are two : 
 
 1. The tibialis anticus : this has its origin from 
 the fuperior and exterior furface of the tibia, and 
 is terminated at the internal os cuneiforme, and 
 the interior part of the internal metatarfal bone. 
 
 2. The peronaeus anticus: this has its origin 
 from the anterior part of the middle of the fibula, 
 and is terminated at the exterior metatarfal bone. 
 
 The extenfors of the foot are three : 
 
 1. The gaftrocnemius : this has its origin from 
 the two condyles of the femur f. 
 
 2. The plantaris : this has its origin from the 
 interior part of the external condyle J. 
 
 3. The folaris, which rifes from the upper and 
 hinder part of the tibia and fibula. 
 
 The bodies of thefe three mufcles join toge- 
 ther, and form the fura ; and their tendons join- 
 ing, form an extremely flrong one, called the 
 tendo Achillis, or chorda Achillis, which is in- 
 ferted into the hinder part of the calcaneum. 
 
 The addudor is the tibialis pofticus : it has its 
 origin in the upper part of the interoflfeseous 
 
 * Thefe mufcles of the tarfus, and fome of thofe of the 
 toes, are in robuft fubjeds kept down by ligaments, efpecial- 
 ly about the malleoli, to prevent their rifing out of their 
 places in the time of their aclion : thefe ligaments ferve alfo 
 to dire<5t, in fome degree, their motions. See Vefalius, Fig, 
 Mufc. I, and 2. and what he adds in his chapter on liga- 
 ments. 
 
 + There frequently occur, in diffeclion, two fefamoide 
 bones in this part. Vefalius, Riolan, and Drake have figured 
 them : they are alfo figured in this work, T. i. fig. 2. D. E. 
 Sometimes there is only found one, as Cowper and Fallopiug^ 
 obferve. 
 
 % Chefelden tells U5, that he found a fefamoide bone in 
 the origin of this mufcle. Morgagni alfo mentions it ; but 
 Jif fays it is fometimes wanting, 
 
 U s liga- 
 
2p4 !^ Compendium 
 
 ligament, and its 'termination in the os navicu- 
 , lare *. 
 
 The abduSlor is the peronasus poflicus : it has 
 its origin from the upper part of the fibula ; but 
 its tendon is turned back under the tarfus, and is 
 inferted into that bone of the metatarfiis which 
 fupports the great toe. There is ufually, in old 
 fubjc6ts, a fefamoide bone in the tendon of this 
 ifiufcle, where it pafTes under the os cuboides. 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 Of the mufcles of the toes, 
 
 352.rTr^HE mufcles of the toes are of two 
 J^ kinds, common and proper. The 
 common are fixteen. The extenfors are two, a 
 Jong and a fhort one. 
 
 1. The extenfor longus has its orgin in the 
 upper part of the tibia, and in the anterior part 
 of the ligament, between the tibia and fibula. 
 It divides into five tendons, four of which are in- 
 ferted into the four phalanges of the toes, and the 
 fifth into the outer metatarfal bone -f-. 
 
 2. The extenfor brevis has its origin from the 
 fuperior and anterior parr, of the calcaneum : it is 
 divided fometimes into four tendons, fometimes 
 only into three, which are inferted into the three 
 toss next the great one, or into all the four. 
 
 The flexors of the phalanges of the toes are 
 of three kinds : 
 
 * This mufcle often has a double tendon, and is hence 
 bicornate; and fometimes it is almoft entirely divided into 
 two murdes. Some authors have hence made two mufculi 
 tibiales poftici, a longer and a (horter. 
 
 •f- This fifth part makes the flexor of the tarfus, often 
 forming a feparate complete mufcle j and fometimes alfo it 
 runs even to the little tpe. 
 
I?/ ANATOMY. 295 
 
 r. The flexors of the firfl: phalanx are the four 
 lumbricales : their origin is from the tendon of 
 the mufculus perforans, and from the interior 
 pare cf the calcaneum : their termination is at 
 the firft phalanx of the feveral toes. 
 
 2. The flexor of the fecond phalanx is the per- 
 foratus : this rifes from the lower and inner fur- 
 face of the calcaneum. It is divided into four 
 tendons, which are perforated ; and it is termi- 
 nated in the bones of the fecond phalanx. 
 
 3. The flexor of the third phalanx is the per- 
 forans : its origin is from the hinder furface of the 
 upper part of the tibia, towards the middle : it 
 is divided alfo into four tendons, and thefe per- 
 forate the tendons of the former, and are after- 
 wards terminated in the third phalanx. 
 
 The addudlores of the toes are the four inter- 
 ral interoflei. 
 
 The abdu6lores are the four external interoffei; 
 and both theie are fo nearly allied in ilrudure and 
 properties to thofe of the hand, that there needs 
 no farther delcription here *. ^^;^ 
 
 The proper mufcles of the toes, are thofe of -■^^■■■''■ 
 the great and of the little toe. 
 
 353. The proper mufcles of the great toe are 
 no fewer than feven : 
 
 1. The extenfor longus, which has its origin 
 forward from the middle part of the fibula, and 
 of the interoflesus ligament; and its termination 
 in the firfl: and fecond phalanx. 
 
 2. The extenfor bre vis : its origin is in the 
 upper and anterior part of the calcaneum, and its 
 termination with the former in the firfl: and fecond 
 phalanx -f-. 
 
 * Govey will have all thefe interoffei to be properly only 
 one mufcle. Verit. Chir. p. 21 1. 
 
 -f-' Thefe two often make but one mufcle, which terminates 
 in two tendons, 
 
 . U4 3- 
 
25$ A Compendium 
 
 3. The flexor longus, whofe origin is in the 
 pofterior part of the fibula, and its termination 
 in the lower part of the laft phalanx. 
 
 4. The flexor brevis : the origin of this is from 
 the middle os cuneiforme \ its termination is at 
 the two fcfamoide bones of the great toe, which 
 are joined by ligaments to its firfl phalanx. 
 
 5. The abdudor, or thenar : its origin is from 
 the internal fide of the calcaneum, and the os 
 naviculare; and its termination at the internal 
 fide of the great toe, at the internal fefamoide 
 bone *. 
 
 The addu6lors, or thofe which draw the great 
 toe toward the orhers, are two. 
 
 £, The anti-thenar ; the origin of which is 
 from the third os cuneiforme, and its termination 
 at the external fefamoide bone. 
 
 7. The tranfverfalis : the origin of this is from 
 the fourth bone of the metatarfus, and its termi- 
 nation near that of the former. This mufcle 
 feems al(o to aflift in the drawing the feverai other 
 toes toward one another. 
 
 354. The little toe has only one proper mufcle, 
 called i:s abdudlor proprius. This has its origin 
 from the exterior part of the calcaneum, and the 
 fifth metatarfal bone, which fupports the little toe : 
 its termination is in the exterior part of the firft 
 phalanx. This riiufcle, however, is very ill named: 
 the little toe cannot be drawn from the others by 
 it. It indeed performs the office of a flexor, and 
 ought to be called flexor proprius digiti minimi, 
 
 * The internal fide is that where the great toe 15 fituated i; 
 ^he external, that which regards the other toes. 
 
 i, A c o M" 
 
»9t 
 
 A 
 
 COMPENDIUM 
 
 OF 
 
 ANATOMY. 
 
 -r 1 1. ■ -* r ■ ■ 
 
 BOOK VI. 
 
 Of Adenology. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 0/ the glands in general, 
 
 355*' /^ Denology is the doflrine of the 
 Zjk glands, called by the Greeks dlenq, 
 JL Jm. The Latins feem to have given them 
 their name gland ulae, from a relemblance which 
 ibme of them have to the acorn, or glans of the 
 oak. 
 
 ^^6. The parts to which the antients have 
 given the name of glapds, tho' they are as dif- 
 ferent from one another as poffible in figure, fizc, 
 and colour, yet arc eafily known and diftinguifhed 
 as glands by all the world ; tho* it is fo difficult a 
 thing to give a definition of what a gland is, or 
 even a general charadber of them only, which 
 fhall include all the true glands, and take in no 
 
 Other 
 
^ng -^ Compendium 
 
 other parts of the body with them, which the an- 
 tients have di^Vmguifhed by other names from the. 
 glands, that the very beft anatomifts have chofen 
 to evade the attempting to do it. 
 
 357. Many of the anatomical authors of the 
 very firfl clais, and among thefe fome who have 
 written prokfTedly of the glands, and have made 
 it their peculiar bufmefs to examine nicely into 
 their nature, and explain their flru6lure \ have 
 yet, from the mere difficulty of afcertaining ade- 
 quate ideas to the term, evaded giving a defini- 
 tion or general defcription of the glands : and, 
 in confequence of this, numberiefs errors, and an 
 almoft inextricable confufion, has crept into the 
 lludy of this important part of the human 
 ftrudure. 
 
 358. Other authors, who have. had more bold- 
 nefs, if not greater abilities, than tho'e who had 
 avoided meddling with definitions of thefe parts, 
 have ventured to eflabhfh what they call fo *, but 
 thefe differ fo much from one another, in what 
 they would eftablifh as general certainty, and 
 have produced fuch imperfe6b and erroneous defi- 
 nitions, that they have all either included parts 
 which themfelves will own not to be glands in the 
 definition, or they have limited the term to fome 
 particular ones, and excluded v/hat themfelves and 
 every body elfe allow to be glands out of the 
 number. Our author has treated largely on this 
 fubjeft, in a dilTertation entituled De vera Glan- 
 dulae Appellatione. 
 
 359. Some ftit out, in their definitions, with 
 declaring a gland to be a globofe part, &c. but 
 thefe, in iheir fctting our, exclude the pancreas, 
 which tho' not of a globofe figure any way ap- 
 proaching to fuch, yet is truly a gland j and is, 
 indeed, the largeft and principal gland of the; 
 I whole 
 
(?/ ANATOMY. jjgj 
 
 whole body, and has always been acknowledged 
 a gland by authors of all kinds, from the firfl 
 eftablifhment of anatomical diftindions to this 
 day. In the fame manner alfo the capful^ atra- 
 biliariae, the parotids, and feme other glands, 
 truly and unqueftionably fuch, would be excluded 
 from the number of the glands, becaufe they are 
 not rou/id ^ cho' they reary are, and at all times 
 have been acknowledged to be glands. 
 
 ^60, Others have given their definitions of 
 glands, that they are foft, lax, and fpongeous 
 pait'^ j but lbs 15 liable to rhe fame kind of ex- 
 ception wUu he former. Nothing is more cer- 
 tain, than dia- we hav^ glands \'^hich are neither 
 Jax,. foft, nor fpongy • out;, on i;he contrary, art. 
 very hard, firm, and compad : and, on the other 
 hand alfo, we have many foft, lax, and fpongy 
 parts which are not glands, as the lungs, the fat, 
 and the like ^ which even the authors, who make 
 thtfe characters of giands, will allow to have no 
 title .o that name : tho' they m'lft allow, that they 
 are confounded with the glands under fuch a de- 
 finition. 
 
 361. Some have defined a gland to be a paren* 
 chyma, or lott, lax, and fungous kind of flefli; 
 but it is plain enough, from what has been ob- 
 ferved above, that this definition is as falfe and 
 defective as any of the former. 
 
 362. Among the later writers we have had 
 fome who have thought they had given a true, 
 accurate, and perfedl definition of a gland, when 
 they tell us, that it is a congeries of veflels of all 
 kinds, or a part compofed of fuch a congeries of. 
 vefTels. But when we come to enquire llridlly 
 into the (frudure of the feveral other parts of the 
 human body, do we not find almoft all of them 
 included alfo in this definition ? The membranes, 
 
 |he 
 
300 
 
 A Compendium 
 
 the mufcles, &c. when nicely examined, are found 
 to be congeries of veflels of all kinds, as well as 
 the glands; and, in confequence, this definition 
 does not in reality diftinguifh the glands from the 
 feveral other parts of the body. 
 
 ^^'7^, Others have improved on this lad defini- 
 tion, and declared the glands to be formed of 
 congeries of fuch different veflels, all included in 
 one proper membrane ; but this alfo confounds a 
 number of other parts with the glands. The 
 lungs, the heart, the ftomach, the mufcles, and 
 other parts of the body, as diflind from the 
 glands as from one another, yet are as well cha- 
 radered by this definition as the glands them- 
 felves4 What are all thefe but congeries of vef- 
 fcls, included in their proper membrane? This 
 definition, therefore, is as defedlive as any of the 
 former. 
 
 364. Many writers on thefe fubjedls have af- 
 ferted, that where ever there is fecretion of any 
 kind performed, there is a gland •, and hence they 
 have attempted to give a definition of a gland, 
 not a priori, or from itsfabrick; bin a pofterioriy 
 from the ufe to which that fabrick or ftrudure 
 ferves. 
 
 But this is as defective as any of the others : 
 the principle on which it is eftablifhed is not true; 
 fpr there are many ffcretions performed in the 
 body, and thofe even of the iargeft and mod 
 important kind, where yet there are no glands to 
 perform them. The chyle is fecreted in the in- 
 teftines without the afiiftance of glands : the ofcu- 
 lae of the la6leals, in the tunica villofa of the in- 
 tcftines, abfbrbing it without any farther affiftance, 
 from the matter protruded into them. In the 
 fame manner the femen is fecreted in the tefticles ; 
 and the pituita in the pituitary finus's of the 
 
 brain. 
 
of ANATOMY. 301 
 
 brain, where yet there are no glands at alL And 
 in the fame manner the fat is fecreted in the cel- 
 lules of the membrana adipofa, which are ex- 
 tremely fine and thin follicles, where there never 
 have been, nor probably ever will be any glands 
 difcovered *. 
 
 On the other hand alfo it is to be obferved, 
 that there are glands, received and allowed by 
 all writers as fuch, which do not appear to per- 
 form any fecretions at all. Who is it that ever 
 has, or ever will prove, with any degree of cer- 
 tainty, that the glandula pinealis, the pituitaria, 
 the capfulae atrabiliariae, the thymus, the thy- 
 roides, the bronchiales, and feveral others that 
 might be inftanced, do in reality fecrete any thing 
 at all ; and yet there never was an author of any 
 age, who did not allow all thefe to be true and 
 genuine glands. 
 
 It is not only that we of the more informed ages 
 in anatomy have found that many of the bodies, 
 allowed to be glands, do not perform any kind 
 of fecretion 5 but the antients themfelves agreed 
 in giving the name of glands to feveral parts, tho* 
 they were not afTured that they fecreted any thing 
 at all, nor even in fome cafes believed that they 
 did. It is evident, therefore, that the antients 
 did not give the name of glands to bodies which 
 they knew to perform fecretions, or even believed 
 to do fos but evidently diftinguilhed them by 
 
 * Schdhammer has very abundantly proved, that all the 
 fecretions are not performed by means of glands. Analeft. 
 Anat. DiiT. 3. N®. 37. Mery alfo, in feveral papers in the 
 Memoirs of the Paris Academy, proves the fame truth. 
 Littre and others were for making even the menflrual dif- 
 charges the effefts of glandular fecretions ; but Mery proved 
 that there were no glands in the part to perform this ; and 
 that many of the fecretions, of moH importance to the body, 
 were performed without glands. 
 
 Other 
 
302 A Compendium 
 
 other charaders, and named them from other 
 qualities. We are to add alfo, that every begin- 
 ner in anatomy, at this time, knows a gland to 
 be fuch, when he fees it, only from its external 
 appearance, and without knowing any thing of 
 its ufe. There are, therefore, other charaders 
 by which a gland may be known, tho' by its of- 
 fice and ufe it cannot. 
 
 365. Some other writers, of the number of 
 whom is the great Malpighi, have been led, by a 
 miftaken obfervation of morbid vifcera, ftill far- 
 ther from the truth in this matter than any of 
 thefe: they have found, on differing morbid 
 bodies, fuch in particular as had died dropfical, 
 or in hedicks, confumptions, and other chronicle 
 diforders, certain bodies of a fpheroidal form in 
 the liver, the fpleen, the peritonaeum, the peri- 
 cardium, &c. and have hence concluded, that 
 thefe tubercles, becaufe they were of a roundifli 
 figure, were true glands ; and confequently that 
 thefe feveral vifcera, in their natural ftate, were 
 compofed wholly of fuch corpufcles, and of con- 
 geries of minute and innumerable glands. But 
 this is fallacious in the highefl degree: thefe tu- 
 bercles are fo far from being real glands, that 
 they are morbid tumors of the atheromatous or 
 fteatomatous kind, or congeftions of terrcftrial 
 and tartareous matter, grandines, and the like 
 things; which are fo far from conftituting thefe 
 vifcera in a healthful (late, that t4iey are not even 
 found in them in fuch ilate, but are merely dif- 
 eafes. 
 
 366. To the obfervation that thefe bodies are 
 not found at all, or, at the utmoft, are not com- 
 mon or neceflary parts of the vifcera in a health- 
 ful flate, it is to be added, that their formation 
 is eafily accounted for, on the principle of fup- 
 
 pofing 
 
(?/ A N A T O M Y. 303 
 
 pofing them the effeds of a difcafed habit ; fince 
 (lagnations of thick, vifcid, or terreftrial matter, 
 in the minute veflels of thefe parts, may eafily, 
 nay and mufi: neceffarily, form connedions of this ■ 
 kind with this roiindifh figure, and with all the 
 charaders of thefe morbid tumors, tho' with not 
 one of the true or genuine charaders of glands. 
 
 Whatever is natural, and an efftdt of the com- 
 mon courfe of things, is to be fought after in 
 found bodies, not in morbid ones : when we de- 
 part from this natural and neceflary rule, we fall 
 into numberlefs errors. How frequently, in dif- 
 eafed ftates, do we find the arteries, and feveral 
 of the membranes, grown cartilaginous, or al- 
 mod boney ? But are we to infer from this, that 
 the natural ftate of thefe arteries and membranes 
 is cartilaginous and boney ? Certainly no body 
 will pretend to afTert it. Befide thefe fpheroidal 
 bodies or tubercles are found, not only in the 
 liver and fpleen of a hog, for inflance, but fre- 
 quently alfo in the lungs of the fame animal, and 
 thefe not only on the furface of the lungs, but 
 throughout the whole inner part : and it is not 
 only in quadrupeds, but in human bodies, where 
 there has been a long continued hectic, the lungs 
 are found full of the very fame kind of roundiOi 
 bodies or tubercles. Malpighi, and others alfo, 
 who have contended for thefe tubercles being 
 glands, have obferved the fame ; but furely no 
 one, who underftands but a liitle of the human 
 frame, will declare the lungs, for this reafon, to 
 be a glandular part. The fame fort of tubercles, 
 or round bodies, are alfo found in the fubftance 
 of the uterus ; yet furely no body from this will 
 pretend, that the uterus is naturally of a glandu- 
 lar flrudure. If it appear certain then, as it muft 
 do in the eye of reafon, that thefe vifcera are not 
 
 of 
 
304 
 
 A Compendium 
 
 of a glandulous flrudure^ tho' thcfe kind of tu- 
 bercles are found in them, when in a morbid ftate, 
 why are we to fuppofe, that the other vifcera are 
 of that ftrudlure, becaufe thefe tubercles are found 
 in them in iht fame morbid dates? Why, in par- 
 ticular, are we to fuppofe the fpleen a part, in 
 which we know of no fecretion being performed, 
 nor any of the adlions of a gland executed, to be 
 of a glandulous ftrudure, merely becaufe, in a 
 morbid ftate, morbid tumors, which have fome- 
 what of the figure of glands, are found in it ? All 
 Malpighi*s* experiments and obfervations have 
 not proved, that thefe bodies are true glands ; 
 or, indeed, that they have any of the properties 
 of glands. They are ufually found in the fuper- 
 ficial parts of the vifcera erpecially, if not only 
 there-, and this is not the place where they might 
 be expedted, if deftined for the ufes of glands : 
 and furely, tho' they are found in the pericar- 
 dium, no body would fuppofe that that mem- 
 brane is glandular. 
 
 367. Others, in diffedlions of particular bodies, 
 have found veficles in the brain, the liver, the 
 kidneys, and other parts -, and hence have declared 
 them alfo to be glandulous in their ftrudure f : 
 but in this cafe, as in the others, the bodies dif- 
 fered were all morbid ones ; and as the fame vefi- 
 cles are not found in healthful ones, nor indeed 
 any thing analogous to them, it is a fuificient 
 proof that they are not natural parts of the ftruc* 
 ture of them. 
 
 Malpighi, who is one of the ftrongeft afiertors 
 of this dodrine, yet allows that the parts do not 
 appear at all like what they ufually do, when they 
 
 * See Mm where laft cited. 
 f See Malpighi, lO. 
 
 have 
 
of ANATOMY. 305 
 
 Kave thefe veficlcs. Pie teJls us of one large 
 veficle *, often taking up the place of the whole 
 brain : he gives the caufe alfo of the accident ; 
 but if he- had even omitted that, a (late like this 
 could never have been fuppofed ihe natural condi- 
 tion of the part. 
 
 We are to obferve, that the antients never 
 called vcficles by the name of glands, nor ever 
 undcrftood any thing of that kind to be of the 
 nature of glands. Here alone we fhall have in- 
 numerable errors and confuilon about the mean- 
 ing of words, if, while we pretend to mean by 
 the term gland what the antients meant by it, 
 we exprefs, under the fame name alfo, things fo 
 different from every thing they intended by it. 
 If we could, indeed, allow thefe difeafed parts to 
 be in a ftate of nature, we full ought not to call 
 them glandulous : why not rather veficulous kid- 
 neys, veficulous livers, and veficulous brains? 
 The lungs are, indeed, of a veficulous texture, 
 even in their natural ilate : they are compofed 
 merely of veficle?, yet no body, not even Mal- 
 pighi himfelf, ever confounded the ideas of a ve- 
 ficle and a gland, {o far as to call them glandu- 
 lar ; but all the writers, of any fort of credit, 
 have continued to call glands glands^ aiid veficles 
 'vejicles^ and to call thofe parts vafcular which are 
 compofed of veffels. There are manifeft and 
 evident veficles in the ovaries, in their natural 
 fbate \ yet no body has ever, for this reafon, de- 
 clared the ovaries to be 2,landular bodies. It is 
 wonderful, therefore, that authors fhould have 
 made lo ready conckifions cf this kind, from the 
 merely morbid ftatc of particular parts, when 
 they neither do it themfvlvcs, nor find others 
 
 * Epift. de Gland, p. 6. 
 
 X doing 
 
 \ 
 
3o6 A Compendium 
 
 doing it, in the fame condition of healthy ones, 
 Littre, from finding veficles in the kidneys * of 
 a diftempered fubjedt, declares the kidneys, in 
 their natural ftate, in all bodies, to be glandular; 
 buc Ruyfch has proved them to be entirely vaf- 
 culous, and experimen:s da ly confirm the truih 
 of it. Certainly there being veficles found acci- 
 dentdlly in a pair of kidneys, is of no force to 
 prove ail kidneys to be glandular, even if this 
 proof of the contrary had been wancing, 
 
 368. It will be anfwered to our eftablifhing a 
 vafculons ftruflure of thefe parts, againft the fup- 
 pofed glandular one, that vafculous and glandu- 
 lous parts may be the fame ; that the terms ex- 
 prefs no contradidtion ; for that all gland ulous 
 parts are naturally vafculous; and that a vafculous 
 part may, without impropriety, be called glan- 
 dulous-f: but it is to be obferved, that this is 
 confounding things which are in themfelves fuffi- 
 ciently diftind, even tho', in flridnefs, the afier- 
 tion be true. Authors, of any degree of accu- 
 racy, have expreffed very different things by the 
 terms vafculous and glandulous ; and tho' glands 
 are compofed of veilcls, yet thofe veffels, in or- 
 der to form glands, mud be of a particular kind 
 and ftru(flure, and particularly arranged : a part 
 may have thefe veffels, without their being ar- 
 ranged into glands •, and is then properly enough 
 diflinguifhed, as to its ftrudure, by the term vaf- 
 culous, as having no right to that of glandulous. 
 
 All the parts of the body are unquefiionably 
 vafculous, and if, for this reafon, they were in- 
 tided to the name of glandulous, the whole body 
 is to be declared at once to be compofed of glands. 
 
 * See Memoirs of tlie Paris Academy 1705. 
 -j- Michelotti, ia his Book de Separatlone fluid, argues 
 thus. 
 
 2 Every 
 
of ANATOMY. 307 
 
 Everyone mud fee the abfurdity of this; and 
 every one muft alfo fee, that, in fpite of the quib- 
 ble, as to the definitions, two very different kinds 
 of ftrufture are underftood by the terms vafcu- 
 lous and glandulous ; and that it would bring 
 great confufion into the anatomical writings to 
 confound them, or ufe them fynonimoufly. 
 
 ■^6g, Malpighi, to whom much of this confu- 
 fion is ov/ing, afferts, that in every gland, how- 
 ever minute and fimple, as well as in all thofe 
 which he pleads for in the vifcera, there mud ne- 
 cefTarily be a veficle or follicle placed between the 
 extremities of the arteries, veins, and excretory 
 duds, by which the fecretion of the part is per- 
 formed ; and thefc natural veficles of the glands, 
 when dilated and expanded by fome diftempera- 
 ture of the part, he fays, form what we call veficles 
 in thefe vifcera. He is not without his followers in 
 this fyftem •, but the moft accurate anatomical 
 writers declare againft it, as a new hypo- 
 thcfis formed in the imagination, and not fup- 
 ported by any fads : they do not allow either, 
 that there are any glands at all in thefe vifcera in 
 their natural date ; or that there ever were any 
 fuch feen, much lefs that thefe folliculi in them 
 ever could be feen. But to this we are to add, 
 from frequent obfervation, that it is not necef- 
 fary there fnould be either any glands, or any 
 follicles in glands, from which to form thefe mor- 
 bid veficles •, for that the fmall vefTels of thefe 
 parts may as eaGly, perhaps more eafily, be dif- 
 tended into thefe kind of little bladders, than 
 even thofe follicles, if there were any fuch parts. 
 Ruyfch * and Rauholt have obferved fuch veficles 
 in the placenta urerina, which all the world muft 
 
 * See Memoirs of the Paris Academy 1714, 171 5, 171 8. 
 
 X 2 allow 
 
goS -^ C M P E 1^ D I U Ivl 
 
 allow to be a part merely vafculous ; as alfo in the 
 lungs, in the fuperficks of the cutis, in the eyes, 
 and in other parts, where there never were any 
 glands found, nor indeed any glands ever fup- 
 pofed 10 exift. What happens in thefe parts 
 without the afiiflance of glands, may alfo happen 
 in the liver, the kidneys, and the brain, without 
 glands ; and 'till we have better authority for de- 
 claring that there are glands naturally in thofe 
 parts than we have at prefcnt, we can have no 
 right to fuppofs thtfe veficles to be the effed 
 ot glands diftempered, according to Malpighi's 
 fyftem. It is not the bufinefs of an anatomift to 
 aifcrt, or to fuppofe, but to demon (Irate : he is, 
 therefore, not to take any thing for natural, that 
 does not appear in a natural and healthful (late of 
 the body •, for in ftates out cf nature, and the 
 effeds of diflemperatures, tht^re are fo many 
 monftrofuies, fo many variations of nature from 
 her ordinary courfe, that nothing but error can 
 be the efted of eftablifhing what is the natural 
 flrufture of the parts, from what appears in them 
 in thefe ftates. 
 
 It is to be obferved alfo, that the true and ge- 
 nuine glands, as the falival ones, thofe of the 
 mefentery, the pancreas, the thymus, &c. are 
 leldom, if ever, found thus transformed into 
 veficles ; which yet, if it happened fo eafily as 
 Malpighi makes out, ought to happen very often. 
 From this alfo it appears, that the parts truly 
 glandulous fcarce ever become veficular ; yet vaf- 
 culous parrs very frequen tly do do : it is a change 
 that very eiifily happens in thefe, tho' very diffi- 
 cultly, or fcarce at all, in the others; and that, 
 tho' thefe veficks deceive many with an opinion 
 of their being of glandulous origin, they are truly 
 no more than diftendcd little vefTels. It has been 
 
 objededj 
 
of ANATOMY. 309 
 
 objefled, that nam re Hi 11 pleads for the eafe of 
 the follicles of gUnds being converted into ve- 
 fj'.les, as well as for tht difficulty of the ramifi- 
 caiionj, of vcfiT^ls being To dillended ; but this is 
 afierting without proof, and taking up our own ideas 
 as certainties : if it were true, the confcquence 
 mufc be, that veficles mufi: be very frequent in 
 the parts which are truly glandular^ and very rare, 
 or fcarce ever fcen at all, m thofe which are vaf- 
 cular only : but we fee exadly the contrary of 
 this happen, and therefore have great re*afon to 
 fuppofe, that the contrary ^o the aiTerticn is true. 
 It appears, therefore, that there are none of thefe 
 follicles, of Malpighi in the glands ot thefe parts ; 
 or t\k^ that the ramifications of vnTels are much 
 more eafily diftended into thefe veficles than fuch 
 follicles are, altho' the reafon may not appear to 
 us why it is fo. Bur let us ailovv the followers of 
 Malpighi, that there are fuch follicles in fome of 
 the glands at leaft : it does not follow from this, 
 that there are iuch and fo numerous ones, in all 
 the parts which thty afTert to be glandulous. The 
 Creator of our bodies has not, in any of the 
 other pares, tied himfelf down to any fuch fixed , 
 laws ♦, but has vaiied in the feveral par.s, as they 
 were deflined fcr feveral different purpofes. 
 Many of the afferters of Malpighi's doctrine, 
 that they may have the more room for defending 
 the fyftcm of glands eflabliihed by him, under- 
 ftand the itrm follicle in a very l-^x fenfe : they af- 
 firm, that the long feminal veffeis of the tefticles, 
 nay and even the whole tra6t of the inteftines, to 
 be each a mere glandulous follicle; but, with the 
 fame reafon, they might edablifh the ftomach, 
 the pericardium, the tunica vaginalis of the rd- 
 tides, the peritoniasum, the pleura, and whatever 
 parts they pleafe to be follicles 5 and they may re- 
 
 X 3 folve 
 
310 'A Compendium 
 
 folve all the parts of the body into mere glands. 
 This, however, we are to put them in mind, is 
 running away from an argument, not fupporting 
 it : every one, who is unprejudiced, will fee how 
 wild a notion this is entertaining of a follicle of 
 a gland. 
 
 ^70. There is nothing that we nre more cer- 
 tain cT, in regard to he animal oeconomy, than 
 that fccretions may be and ad'ially are performed 
 in ma])y parts of the body, without the afiiilance 
 of any of thefe follicles, though Malpighi has 
 eftablifhed them as fo necefiary and effential a part 
 of a gland *. Not to mention the fimple fecre- 
 tions of the chyle, and of the fat, which we have 
 already taken notice of on a former occafion, 
 fuppofe ue would allow fuch a part as this fol- 
 licle of Milpighi in a fimple gland a veficle, 
 about which the ultimate ramifications of the vein 
 and arterv of the part were dilTeminated ; and in 
 which, as thefe authors affert, the excretory dudt 
 of the gland has its origin! Still allowing even 
 all rhis, the follicle has nothing to do with the 
 bufmefs of fecretion performed in the part ; but 
 is a mere receptacle to the liquor fecreted by the 
 other vefiels. The liquor contained in the excre- 
 tory dudl of a gland, or in this follicle, if it 
 communicate with it, as thefe writers afTert, is 
 evidently already ftcreted ; nothing is to be fe- 
 creted there. Secretions, we very well know, 
 are not made even from the veins, excepting only 
 in the fingular inftance of the liver, where the 
 vena portse ads as an artery, and performs the 
 
 * Michelotti, in other parts of his works, departs from 
 this opinion ; but he is moil in the right, when he maintains 
 it molt warmly. 
 
 f Malpighi allows the lymph to be a fecretion from the 
 arteries. See his Epiil, de Gland. 
 
 ofKces 
 
of ANATOMY. jn 
 
 offices of one ; for the veins ferve only to carry 
 back the blood,, after the fecretions have been 
 made from it. It is certain, that fecretions are 
 performed in the arteries, and particularly in their 
 lateral canals ; which, it is probable, are produced 
 from the fides of the minute ramifications of the 
 arteries, in the very fame manner as the chylife- 
 rous veffels are propagated from the fides of the 
 inteftines ; tho', in the former cafe, they are too 
 minute to become the objefe of our fenfes *. 
 
 It is in this manner that, we fuppofe, fecretions 
 are performed in the brain, the kidneys, the liver, 
 the tefticks, the cutis, the other membranes, and 
 even in the glands themfelves. But as nature is 
 ufually fimilar to herfclf, in the feveral parts 
 deftined to the fame purpofes ; and as thefe foU 
 licles, fo warmly contended for by Malpighi and 
 his followers, either do not exift at all, or, if they 
 do, perform the office of receptacles, not of fe- 
 cretory organs ; it feems much more eligible to 
 take our ideas of the other more abilrufe and hid- 
 den fecretions, from that open and obvious one of 
 the chyle, than to fall into fo doubtful and dark 
 a fyflcm as this, in which we fee no analogy to ,^,, 
 the other aflions of the leveral parts of our (true- # ' 
 ture, and for which we have no evidence of the 
 very cxiftence of the fuppofed parts. 
 
 371. If therefore we would avoid the equivo* 
 cations between the words glandulous and vaf- 
 culous, and confequently avoid the error and con- 
 fufion that have got into rhs world from them, 
 we are firft to diflinguifh, that the fame th:ng is 
 not exprelTed by both thefe terms •, hut that they 
 exprefs parts, which as they differ from one 
 another in external appearance, in fhape, and in 
 
 • Michelotti agrees in this opinion, 1. c. 
 
 X 4 their.- .'*^j 
 
 . . ». «---^ ■ -^ -' V 
 
 • „- ,•.,■>• "-••'• -"^'c 
 r,?..„ ^ ;..^". _-■■ 
 
 »•> . , ■ A 
 
3 12 ^Compendium 
 
 their very nature, fo they ought to be expreflld 
 by words never confounded with one another. 
 The vifcera, therefore, which are found, by in- 
 fpedtion with the naked eye, by the more minute 
 examitiaiion with the microfcope, and by injec- 
 tiors, to be truly and merely vafcular ; and in 
 which, in their natural and healthful ftate, there 
 are no fpherical corpufcles found ; and which are 
 inclofcd in a peculiar and appropriated membrane, 
 are all to be called vafcular parts. There is no- 
 thing of the appearance or ftrufture of glands in 
 thefe, and they therefore are not to be called 
 glandular ; but that term is to be appropriated to 
 parts truly glands, or in which true and proper 
 glands are found : by this means alone, a multi- 
 tude of confufion, apparent in t!ie writings of the 
 late writers on thefe fubje^ls, will h^ avoided *. 
 
 372. H\ after this, it be aflc.d what is truly 
 glanduious, nr what is really a gland, it is to be 
 anf.vered, thai as the lateft and btrft writers are 
 not agreed in the definition of a gland, we are 
 to enquire what ii truly and properly was that the 
 aniients underftood by this term ; and, after this, 
 what was their reafon for calling thefe parts by 
 this name : by this means v/e fhali, at lead, keep 
 up to that excellent rule of Morgagni's on this 
 fui je6l, not td cuangc the names by which the 
 old writers have called things, without reafon. We 
 find, that they called by this name the pineal and 
 pituitary glands, the paroiids, the maxiilariss, 
 thejjgubrs, the thyroide, the thymus, the pan- 
 creas, the mefenterick, the axillary, the inquinaJ, 
 and fome other glands -f. We are therefore, in 
 
 * Michelotti here departs from his coniipon opinioli, and 
 declares vafculous and glanduious to be the fame thing. 
 
 f See Hippocrates, Lib, de Glandulis ; and the other ^n- 
 tients on the fame fubjccls. 
 
 con- 
 
 
 .-^^-r- 
 
€f ANATOMY. 313 
 
 conformity to their methods, \o call thefe, and 
 luch other parts as have a like ftrudlure, figure, 
 and appearance wirh thefe, by the name of glands, 
 even tho' many of them were nor known to thefe 
 writers. This is the way of naming new difco- 
 vered things after old and known ones. 
 
 373. As to the lat:er part of the queftion, 
 namely, why it was that they called thefe parts by 
 the name of glands, we are certain, firil, that it 
 was not from their being of a globofe or fpherical 
 figure i becaufe, if it had been for this reafon, 
 they would no: have called the pancreas and the 
 thymus by ihis name : nor was it from their being 
 of a foff, lax, and fpongy texture ; for then ihey 
 would have excluded all the more firm, compad, 
 and hard ones from the number, and would have 
 taken into it the lungs, the far, and all the other 
 parts of the human fabrick which are of that lax 
 and fpongy flrudure : neither, thirdly, did they 
 give the name of glands to thefe parts, becaufe 
 of their ufe m the ftcretion of certain fluids ; for 
 it is evidenc from tlieir writings, that they did not 
 know that any fecretion at all was performiCd in 
 the far greater part of what they called by this 
 name, the difcovery of the offices of moft of the 
 allowed glands of the antients not havi'^g been 
 known Mil within the laft century. On the other 
 hand we are alfo to obferve, that tho' they knew 
 very well that fecretions, and thofe very large and 
 important ones, were performed in feveral of the 
 vifcera, as in the liver, the kidneys, and the td- 
 ticles ; yet they never fjppofcd or called thefe 
 glands :. they fuppofed that the fpleen alfo fecreted 
 a black bile from the blood ; but tho' this was an 
 etfablifned doctrine in their writings, they never 
 called the fpleen a gland. 
 
 Thofe 
 
314 ^ Compendium 
 
 Thofe writers, therefore, who are for calling 
 all parts in which fecretions are performed, and 
 only fuch parts, by the name of glands, diflent 
 greatly from the opinion of the antients, who did 
 nor limit the te^m to fuch parts. On this plan a 
 number of pares mud be called glands, which the 
 antients not only have not caljed by that name, 
 but ^vhich they have h^^d ohir determinate names 
 for; as th' t.rerus, the lungs, the cutis, and the 
 inteftines: and, on the other hand, a great many 
 pjrts, which th;ry cail-d gland,, mud no longer 
 be receiv. d as lurh -, becaufe we do not know that 
 they fccrcte any thing, or that they were not 
 detlined by ihc Creator to a.ifwer fom^ other pur- 
 pofts unknown to us, and very diffescut from 
 thefe •, fuch are th. thyroide, the bronchial, rhe 
 pituitary and ihe pineai gland, with feveral 
 oth.r^. 
 
 374, It is evident, therefore, that the antients 
 called certain parts of the human body glands, 
 and ihat for no other reason, but becaufe they 
 found them compofed of a peculiar kind of flelhy 
 fubftance, of a peculiar habit, or of a peculiar 
 external appearance, wiiiiout paying any the leaft 
 regard cither to their internal rtnidure, their 
 fpherical figure, or their ufe. Since, therefore, 
 we cannot change the fenfe and fignification of 
 the terms ufed by the antients, without confound- 
 ing the things defcribed under them, we are not 
 to do it without a fui^cicnt reafon ; which reafon 
 we can never have, as to the glands, till we are 
 much better acquainted with their true charaders, 
 nature, and ufes than we can pretend to be at 
 prefent. We are not to give the antient name 
 gland to parts as different as pofTible from thofe 
 to which the antients themfelves gave it ; nor 
 ought any part, at this time, to be called a gland, 
 
 unlefs 
 
c/ AN AT O MY. 315 
 
 unlefs it has that general external appearance, or 
 peculiar habir, which the other glands, fo called 
 by ihe antients, have -, and from which it was that 
 they came to be fo called, notwichftanding that 
 they fhould have a rm:iilar internal ftriidlure, or 
 even, as appears to us, a fimilar ufe with lome of 
 the genuine glands. Michelotti is againft this 
 fyftem^ but his objeflions to it will be anfwered 
 hereafter in their place. 
 
 '^IS* ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ therefore, repeat in this 
 place what a gland properly is, or how it is to be 
 defined : wc have already afcenained, on thcfe 
 principles, v/hat parts they are that are truly and 
 properly called by this name (S. 33) •, and that 
 in fuch a manner, that tho' there (liU v/ants a fuf- 
 ficicntly accurate definition of a gland, yet an un- 
 prejudiced perfon will not fail to know, at fight, 
 what he ought to call by that name. 
 
 '^^o. It will be afked, perhaps, why, in order 
 to the diftinguifhing the glands, we have recourfe 
 to this peculiar habit and general appearance in 
 them. But we are to anfwer, that the necefTity is 
 evident : there is, in the peculiar appearance of 
 the gland, a diftinguifhing fingularity eafily per- 
 ceived, tho' not eafily defcribed ; and that as no 
 author has given, or has been able to give, tho' 
 he attempted it, a proper, exprefijve, and punc- 
 tual definition of a gland, we are to ufe this as it 
 is, tho* lefs determinate than moft other charac- 
 teriftick-s yet lefs apt to deceive than many. ' 
 Tournefort and Ray, when they are defcribing 
 the different genera of plants, often have recourfe 
 to the habit, or peculiar external face of the plant, 
 and find it necefTary to make this a diftindion •, 
 where tho' the plants, they are defcribing, are evi- 
 dently of different genera, yet the difference is 
 npt eafily explained wiih accuracy. Every body 
 
 will 
 
^i6 A Compendium 
 
 will allow thefe plants to be difFerenr, though no 
 one fhoLild be able to fay in what the diOTerence 
 confided, and tho' only the facies externa of ihe 
 plant could be called in as ihe charaderiftickof 
 it *. As this has been allowed to the botanical 
 writers, why fhould it not be allowed to the ana- 
 tomical ones, in a like cafe, where a perfect defi- 
 nition or defcription has nor, nor can be given : we 
 do nor, however, wifh to force this determination 
 upon any body ; nor fhall we be againil retracing 
 it, as foon as fome authors fhall find the v/ay to 
 do what has not been done yet, that is, to give 
 fuch a definition of a gland, without having re- 
 courfe to its external habit, as fhall include ail the 
 glands of the body, nothing but the glands, and 
 Hiall fufHciendy diftinguifh them from the other 
 parts. 
 
 377. If it be afl-ied what this particular habit 
 in the glands is, or how we are to know it, when 
 we meet with it ; we are to anf^er, that the pe- 
 culiar complication and arrangement of the vef- 
 fels, from which there arifes a form obvioufly 
 dilTinguilhable at fight from the mufcles, the fat, 
 the bones, the membranes, the vefTels, and, in 
 fine, from every other part of the human fabrick, 
 which gives a fufnciently certiin, determinate, 
 
 * Tho' Ray and Tournefort were reduced to have re- 
 courfe to this vague method of diftindion in fome cafes, we 
 have fince found, that it was not necefihry. Nature has im- 
 prelfed charafters fufnciently diftinftive and certain in the 
 itamina, piftill, and other parts of the frudihcation of plants, 
 to diUJr.guira all the really diilinft genera. Jt was only 
 during the ignorance of the world, as to the nature of thefe 
 parts, tij.-it fuch uncertain marks of diftinftion, as the habit 
 of a plant, were called in. Linnseus has not found it ne- 
 cefiary ; nor has any author in botany, fmce his excellent 
 citablifnmeiit of generical diltindions, ever had recourfe to 
 it. 
 
 and 
 
c/ AN ATOM Y. 317 
 
 and {liiklng notice of it. This habit, arifing 
 from the complication juft; mentioned, will alv/ays 
 be known at fight -, and the' it is fuch as can 
 never be deicribed by any determinate v/ords, yet 
 it will never be mirtaken. Ray obferves, that it 
 would be very difficult to give fuch a characler or 
 definicicn of common mols, as fhould diftinguifh 
 it fiom all Of her plants ; and ytt that its habit, or 
 facies externa, will aKvays fufiiciently and inva- 
 riably diPvinguifh it to the eye. Neither the (kil- 
 ful nor the unflcilful will find it difiicuh to diflin- 
 guifn it from other plants, tho' they can neither 
 of them exprefs how it differs -, and jufl fo every 
 body will, at fight, be able to diftinguifn the 
 glands from the other parts of the body, tho' they 
 cannot fay, in determ.inatc words, what it is that 
 the difference, they fo obvioufly fee, confifts in *. 
 
 378. Whatever part, therefore, has been called 
 by the antients a gland, or has the external habit 
 and appearance of thofe parts which the antients 
 have called glands, we are to acknowledge to be 
 fuch : and whatever part wants or differs from 
 this habii, or general external appearance, ought, 
 to avoid confufion, t j be excluded from the num- 
 ber of what we call glands. The antients, we 
 are to obferve, not only acknowledged the large 
 glands, which we have occafionally mentioned, 
 
 * If our author's comparifon in this cafe be j aft, we may- 
 hope to have fometime this great anatomical defideratam, a 
 definition of a gland, fupplied.' That Ray could not dif- 
 tinguifh common mofs by a fufiiciently accurate defcription, 
 was owing to his not underftanding perfeilly the charac- 
 ters and iruciilications of that plant. Dillenius has iince 
 found ihe way to convey, in fufficiently diilinftive and accu- 
 rate terms, a defcription of that plant ; by which its difre- 
 rtnce not only from otner genera of plants, but from the 
 other fpecics of the fame gen^s, is obvious ; tho' even Dille- 
 nius was far from knowing all that he might have difcovered 
 on this fubjedl, 
 
 and 
 
3i8 ^Compendium 
 
 and others of confiderable magnitude for fuch, 
 but they readily allowed the fame name to many 
 very fmall ones, particularly to thofe of the me- 
 fentery ; in which part there are a multitude of 
 minute bodies, which every body who fees them, 
 and who has before feen only a few of the other 
 acknowledged glands, will immediately declare to 
 be glands alfo. Where ever, therefore, there are 
 found parts, whether larger or fmaller, that have 
 this peculiar habit, v;hich is fecn in all thofe parts 
 which the antients called glands, this part is alfo, 
 without any regard to its fize or other quaUties, 
 to be called a giand. 
 
 379. On this principle we are to exclude from 
 the number of the glands, properly {o called, the 
 cor.ical fubftance of the brain •, fince neither the 
 naked eye, nor even the alTutance of a niicrofcope, 
 can difli-.iguifli in it any thing that has that pecu- 
 liar habit or appearance, which is the charadle- 
 riftick of the bodies called^ glands by the antients ; 
 and fince injedions have, on the contrary, fnewn 
 us that it is truly vafculous, or a mere congeries 
 of fine and elegant vefTcls. 
 
 Hippocrates, in his book on the glands, fays, 
 indeed, that the brain is like a gland -, but he does 
 by no means afHrm in this, that the brain is a 
 gland ; for, furely, what is like another thing, is 
 not therefore to be eflabliflied as the fame. 
 
 The fame has been faid of the liver, the fpleen, 
 and the tefticles, namely, that they are like 
 glands : but Ruyfch, Lewenhoeck, VieufTens, 
 and Beiger, have all joined in a^iirming 
 what experiments have abundantly coniirmed 
 (ince ; namely, that thefe feveral parts have, in 
 their natural ffate, nothing fhat at all rekmbles 
 the figure or habit of a gland in them : but, on 
 the contrary, that vellels in their ufual and natural 
 
 dircdions, 
 
<?/ ANATOMY. 319 
 
 dire(51:ions, are found in vaft abundance in every 
 part of them. It is with great rcaion, therefore, 
 that thefe parts are eftabhfhed as vafcular, inltead 
 ol- being called, as they ufed to be, glandular; 
 for they are truly vafculous, and the name ex- 
 prefles very properly what we confbantly meet 
 with in their Itrudure. 
 
 Nothing, however, ought to ftrike the judi- ' 
 cious anatomift with more furprize, on this occa- 
 fion, than the finding authors declare the fpleen 
 to be glandulous-, becaufr, in morbid bodies, 
 there have been fome times found a number of 
 tubercles in it. The fpleen, (o far as is yet known, 
 fecretes no fluid at all, nor is deftined to any fuch 
 ufes as thefe authors themfelves are for making a 
 part of the charaderifticks of glands -, but, in all 
 probability, has an office of an extremely different 
 kind, in the execution of which it can have 
 no necefTity for any gland at all, nor for any 
 thing of the peculiar ftrudlure of the glands. If 
 the antients had run into the error of calling the 
 fpleen a gland, their eflablifhcd opinion, tho' a 
 fal'e one, of the atrabilis being fecreted in it, 
 would have excufed them ; but if they who 
 really fuppofed a fecretion performed in it, yet 
 did not allow it for a glandular part, furely thole 
 who do no: allow it fo much as the office of a 
 gland, are unpardonable in fuppofing it of the 
 nature of thofe parts. The mofl accurate of the 
 modern anatomids agree, that no fecretion is per- 
 formed in the fpleen •, nay, that it has no excre- 
 tory dud : to what end, therefore, are they to 
 make it of a glandular ftrudure ? Every thing 
 that the fpleen has been fuppofed, by any modern 
 writer, to perform, may be much better per- 
 formed by means of a vafcular (Irudure than by 
 a glandular. 
 
 If 
 
320 A Compendium 
 
 If the kidneys of a human fubje6t, a hog, a 
 dog, a calf, or ahnoll any other quadruped, be 
 examined, whether raw or boiled, or macerated 
 in water, their whole outer as well as inner fub- 
 fcance is found to be vafcular, or compofcd mere- 
 ly of tubes of different diameters ; but as to the 
 round bodies of which thofe, who plead for their 
 being glandular, pretend that they are compofed, 
 the moil: accurate examination will never Ihew 
 any thing at all like them in a kidney that is 
 found, or in irs natural ftate. 
 
 Ruyfch is of opinion, indeed, that fomething 
 like round tubercles had occafionally occurred to 
 him, in the diffedlions and examinations he had 
 made of thefe parts -, but, mod probably, they 
 were merely morbid tubercles, fince^ if natural, a 
 man of his accuracy would not have found them 
 only in fome few fubjedts, but in all. But even 
 allowing what this author hints at to be natural, 
 fo few and fo minute glands, even if they were 
 fuch, could by no means bs fufficient to anf^ver 
 the purpofes of fecreting a fluid, fo abundant in 
 quantity as the urine. The tefticles, in the fame 
 manner, are agreed, by all the accurate writers of 
 this time, to be vafcular *. And in the pleura, 
 the pericardium, the pcritoniEum, and the tunica 
 vaginalis, there are naturally no bodies that have 
 any thing of the appearance of glands. There 
 are, indeed, of a certainty, no glands there ; and 
 as to the tubercles, which have at times been met 
 with inthemondiffcdion, they have been all mor- 
 bid ones. 
 
 380. The differences of the glands among 
 themfelves are eilablifhed by many authors as 
 very numerous. It will not be neceflary to run 
 into the whole difquifition : we (hall feled a few 
 
 < * See our figure, T, 6. 
 
 which 
 
of ANATOMY: 3251 
 
 V^hlch are more generally eftablifhed than the refl-, 
 and of more immediate and real ufe. We fhall 
 firft divide them into two general kinds, the 
 fimpje, and the conglomerate. 
 
 The fimple glands, called alfb conglobate 
 glands, confift of a fingle diftin(5l body, of a figure 
 approaching to round, and are inciofed in their 
 proper membrane. 
 
 The conglomerate, of, as they are otherwife 
 called, compofite glands, confift each of a num- 
 ber of fmaller glands, arranged together, as it 
 were, into one maf>, and contained in one com- 
 mon (unick. 
 
 The glarlds differ alfo greatly in regard to their 
 confidence. Some of them are confiderably 
 hard and firm, and others of them are extremely 
 foft and tender : of the latter kind, in pajrdcular, 
 are the glands fituated in the articulations of the 
 bones of the feveral parrs of the body. 
 
 They differ alfo very confiderably in colour.' 
 Some of them are of a pale whitifh red, or flefhy 
 Colour ; others of a flrong, deep red 5 others yel- 
 lowifh, or brownilh *, and fome evidently blackilh. 
 
 Their differences in figure are as confiderable 
 alfo as thofe in colour. Some of them are round, 
 others oval, oihers oblong, and many others of 
 figures as different as well can be from any one of 
 thefe regular ones: the pancreas, the thyroide, 
 and the thymus, are inftances of this. Some of 
 them have obtained their names from their pecu- 
 liar figure: of this number are the glandula 
 pinealis, the milliares, and othc s. 
 
 Their ufes are alfo as different as either their 
 colours or figures. Some of them are falival, 
 mucofe, and lymphatick : others are mucilaoinous, 
 febaceous, and waxy ; others lachrymal, pituitary, 
 
 y &c. 
 
32L2 y^ C O M P 'E N D I U M 
 
 &c, and from thefe, their feveral contents or fe- 
 cretfons, they are named lachrymal, &c. 
 
 Their fituation is alfo another article in which 
 they differ, and from which many of them have 
 their feveral names j fuch are the parotides, 
 maxillares, linguales, thyroide, palatine, labial, 
 jugular, cervical, axillary, inquinal, lumbary, 
 inteftinal, mefenteric, renal, &c. 
 
 And, finally, their fize is a thing in which 
 they differ moll obviouQy and effeniially. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Of the glands in particular^ 
 
 381.^ yl FTER we have thus been at the 
 £\^ pains of diflinguifhing what parts of 
 the human body properly are, and what, though 
 called fo by fome, properly are not glands, we 
 are to proceed to defcribe fuch as are truly and 
 properly of this denomination. 
 
 In the firft place, we are to examine what are 
 the glands of ihe head. If any one is for affirm- 
 ing, on fhe dodrine already examined, that the 
 whole cerebrum is one gland, becaufe Hippo- 
 crates, from fome fimilitude which he thought he 
 faw between the brain and the glands, called it, 
 as before obferved, a body refembling a gland * ; 
 we fhall not be at any trouble in confuting the 
 opinion, tho' the reft of the antients are all of 
 them againft it : but that the cortical part of the 
 brain is, as Bidloo f has figured it, a mere con- 
 1^ geries of fmall glands \ or is, in its natural Hate, 
 compofed of innumerable minute globular bodies, 
 we can never agree. Hippocrates himfelf, tho', 
 
 * Lib. de Glandulis. 
 
 •j" Anatom. T. 10. fig. 2; 
 
 he 
 
of ANAtOMY. 323 
 
 he compares the reft of the brain to a gland, is 
 againft this ; and nothing is more evident, from 
 experimenr, than that it is wholly falfe. 
 
 In ihe finus's of the dura mater, and out of 
 them at the fides, there are indeed found a num- 
 ber of the fmall glands defcribed by Pacchonius * ; 
 and there are fometimes others vifible in the foveas 
 of the OS frontis, and about the divifions of the 
 ^yefleis, between the dura mater and the arach- 
 noides, as defcribed by Santorini. Something, 
 however, there is in his account of thelJb laft, 
 that is perplexing : he fays exprefly, that they 
 are fiaiated about the trunks of the vefifels, be- 
 tween the dura mater and the arachnoides ; but 
 ^s there are no confpicuous vefTcls in the tunica 
 jarachnoides, it is not eafy to underftand what he 
 means by the place of their fituarion. We fome- 
 (times find fome of them about the divifions of 
 the larger vefifels of the pia mater ; but whether 
 
 thefe are the fame with thofe of Santorini, is ^ 
 
 *■•>,. ^ 'I 
 
 ,point not eafily decided : it rather appears, that 
 they are not. 
 
 Sometimes alfo we meet with clufters, as it were, 
 .of the lame fort of glands, in the hollows of the 
 OS fincipitis, which are frequent, not far from the 
 longitudinal finus ; and thefe, in the fame manner 
 as thofe of Santorini, in the hollows of the os 
 frontis, were not covered ; but the dura mater 
 was deficient, and, as it were, perforated in that 
 part. 
 
 Thefe glands feem defined for the fecreting of 
 a fluid, to moiften the dura mater. 
 
 The glanduia pinealis already defcribed in its 
 place, is alio to be eftcemed a gland of the brain; 
 and the glanduia pituitaria is alfo to be mentioned : 
 
 * De Gland. Conglob- Dur. Matr. 
 
 Y 2 this 
 
324 A Compendium 
 
 fills IS placed under the brain in the fella equina, 
 and has alfo been defcribed in its place. 
 
 The ufes of thefe glands are very little known : we 
 have but conjcdure for it ; and that, in general, 
 but very inditFerently agreeing with reafon. Not 
 only difiedion, with the afliftance of microfcopes, 
 but even careful and very fuccef^ful injedlionSj join 
 to (hew us that there are no glands 5 nor, in a 
 natural ilate, any round bodies in the pltxus 
 choroides. 
 
 382. In the exterior part of the head, that is, 
 out of the cavity of the fkull, we have the paro- 
 tids, the maxillary glands, the fublinguals, the 
 linguals, the labials, the palatine, and the buc- 
 cal es, which are diftributed here and there about 
 the membrane of the mouth, and have been al- 
 ready defcribed in their place. 1 n the orbit alio 
 there is the glandula lachrymalis, long called 
 glandula innominata, which we have alfo already 
 defcribed in the enumeration of thofe parts. Un- 
 der the eyelids alfo there are the glandulse cera- 
 ceae, or fcbaceie of Meibom •, but in the uvea of 
 the eye, where many authors have eftabliOied 
 them, upon the erroneous principle that there can 
 be no fecretion without glands, experience fhews 
 that there are none •, and that thofe who have pre- 
 tended that there were, have only faid fo, becaufe 
 they thought there muft be fuch •, not becaufe 
 they had ever feen any there. The tonfiis in the 
 fauces, the mucofe glands in the pituitary mem- 
 brane of the noftrils, and the ceruminofe glands 
 of the ears, arc alfo to be mentioned here, tho' 
 all defcribed already in their places. 
 
 383. The principal gland of the neck is the 
 thyroides : this is very large, and has been very 
 indifferently figured, and as ill defcribed, by Ver- 
 heyen. In the feventh century of the German 
 Ephemerides it is defcribed at large, and figured, 
 
 togethec 
 
of ANATOMY. J25 
 
 togeiher with. the bronchial glands, in its natural 
 fize. As much as we could have room for, in a 
 compendium of this kind, has alfo been faid of 
 it in its place, in the courfe of this work. We 
 may add, in this place, that this gland in human 
 fubjedls is fmgle, not double : it refembles the 
 figure of a new moon, or crefcent, the horns 
 running on each fide upwards, not downwards, 
 as Verheyen has figured them, and adhering to the 
 thyroide and cricoide cartilages, as well as to the 
 celbphagus: its middle part, which is called by 
 authors its ifthmus, is joined to the upper carti- 
 lages of the afpera arteria*. 
 
 384. In the memoir referred to, on the fubjedt 
 of this gland, in the Ephemerides, the new ufe 
 which Vercellonius -f has afcribed to it is confi- 
 dered : he makes it a kind of nidus for what he 
 calls ovula verminofa; and fuppofes that thefe 
 ovula, which are generated in this gland, are dif- 
 charged chro' pafTages, which howeyer neither 
 himfelf nor any body elfe have ever been able to 
 find, into the oefophagus, and thence into the 
 ftomach; where their Uufinefs is, as he.exprefTts 
 it, to imprefs a vital character on the chyle, and 
 to promote digeftion. Thefe ovula, he fays, 
 alfo often, by accident, hatch into a kind of little 
 worms in the fubftance of the gland itfelf s but 
 that this is not the natural courfe. 
 
 385. Frequent examinations of this part in 
 human .fubjefts, have not been able to c.oniirni 
 the anatomift in the truth of the alTertions ori 
 which this ftrarge dodtrine of yercellonius is 
 founded : there are found, indeed, fibres manifefl 
 enough, by which it adheres to the osfophagus, 
 
 * See Morgagni's Adverf. T. i. and Cant's Fijura Cordis, 
 T. 4. but difie<Sion does not always fhevv us the figures. 
 + See his Diflert. de Glandul. Conglomeratis oefophagi. 
 
 Y 3 an4 
 
326 A Compendium 
 
 and the gland is always found hard and firm 5 
 but the ovula, that this author defcribes, were 
 never found by any body elfe in it, any more than 
 the palfages by which thty fhould be conveyed 
 into the oefophagus. 
 
 In a difledion of a female fubjed at Altorff, 
 this gland was once found turgid, and full of a 
 fluid : fn m this there was a piomiie of fome dif- 
 covery that might be made, as to its ufe. The 
 trachea and oefophagus were carefully opened 
 with this intent from behind, that a proper exa- 
 mination might be made of their cavities in tiie 
 parts concerned : after this the gland was prefTcd 
 with the hands, at firft gendy, and afterwards 
 more forcibly, in hope of occafioning fome of its 
 contents to be evacuated into the trachea or oefo- 
 phagus, or both ; but all the prefllire that could 
 be employed, however varied, was not of power 
 to force one drop of it into either. It is flilJj 
 therefore, a doubt what the purpofe for which 
 this gland is deftined is, and into what part it is 
 that it naturally difcharges its fecretions. On 
 opening the gland, it was found to be full of a 
 clear limpid fluid, in which there fwam a great 
 number of yellowifli veficles, or fpherules, in 
 manner of drops of oil, on the furface. Whether 
 thefe were the bodies which Vercelloni had fome- 
 time found in the gland in this fl:ate, is not eafy 
 to determine: they have not the appearance of 
 what he defcribes under that name, nor indeed 
 are they found once in a thoufand difTedions. 
 
 386. Befide this gland, there are alfo found in 
 the neck a great number of other leflTer ones, dif- 
 tributed here and there among the mufcles and 
 fat. Their figure, their number, and their fitua- 
 tion, vary in different fubjedts-, but, in general, 
 thofe in the anterior pare of the neck are called 
 
4 ANATOMY. 3^7 
 
 jugulares, and thofe in the hinder part occipi tales 
 and cervioiles. The ufe of thefe is hitherto as 
 uncertain as that of the gland lad defcribed : it 
 is generally fuppofed, tliat they are of fervice to 
 the lymphatick veflels ; but what fort of ufe they 
 can be of to them, does not fo eafily appear. 
 
 Ruyfch and Morgagni have alfo defcribed and: 
 figured glands in the epiglottis; and Morgagni 
 has defcribed others in the other parts of tha 
 larynx, particularly about the arytasnoide carti- 
 lages, as alfo in the trachea;. but thefe are often 
 fo fmali, that they are fcarce difcoverable on dif- 
 fedtion. From the figures of Morgagni * it ap- 
 pears, that he had feen them in fubjeds where 
 they were much larger than they are in the gene- 
 rality of mankind : a curious anatomift, however, 
 will always find the traces at lead of them in all 
 fubjcdls. 
 
 The oefophagu.9, efpecially toward its upper 
 part, has a great number of glands : they have 
 been well figured by Valfalva 7*. They are in 
 fome fubjeds, however, found much larger than 
 he has figured them ; and, in this cafe, it is fre-* 
 quent to find a little aperture or ofculum rnrthe 
 centre of each, which has much the appearance 
 of an excretory du(5t, 
 
 387. In the thorax we firft meet with the gland 
 thymus : this has been already defcribed in its- 
 place, where we treated of the thorax; ^nd in 
 our fourth plate there are two figures of it, at 
 number 14 and 15. Bidloo and Verheyen have 
 had long controverfies on thefubjedlof this gland. 
 Bidloo, in a differtation exprefly on the fubjedV,^ 
 publiihed at Ley den, very feverely attacks the 
 
 * See De Aure human. T. 5. fig. 2. 
 \ See Ephemerides Germ. Cent. 7 and 8, T. 6; but the 
 figures are not well done. 
 
 Y 4 deft^ipr 
 
5^8 y^COMPENDIUM 
 
 defcrlption and figure that Verb eye n had given 
 of it. Verheyen has anfwered him wich the fame 
 fpirit and warmth •, and Bidloo replied in another 
 diffcrtation ♦, which Verheyen attacked, foon after 
 it was publifhed, in the fame manner again. 
 Bidloo, at length, fairly quitted the fubje(5t of 
 the difpute, and bent the force of his cenfures 
 againft fome inaccuracies in Ve'rheyen's Latin •, fo 
 that very little publick uiility was the confequence 
 of this violent paper-war, 
 
 388. In the thorax we alfo meet with the glan- 
 dulse bronchiales, defcribed alfo before in (heir 
 place. Thefe are very obferveable glands, fituated 
 externally in the larger divifions of the trachea 
 and bronchia *. They are of a blackifh colour ; 
 and their ufe, like that of many other of the 
 glands of this part of the body, is yet very litde 
 known. It had been long fuppored that they 
 ferved to fecrete a liquid, which they difcharged 
 into the bronchia, for the lubricating and moiften- 
 ing thofe parts : but Vercellonius will have it, 
 that they fecrete a fluid, whofe ufe is to be afllftant 
 in the digeftion of our food ; and that they dif- 
 charge it into the cefophagqs, thro' certain ex- 
 tremely minute ducts. He obferves, that the 
 glands are fixed to the oefophagus in a very firm 
 manner, which is true : dilTedion never fails tq 
 fhew the fibres by which they adhere ; but the 
 dudls, thro' which he fuppofes the fluid fecreted 
 by them to pafs into the oefophagus, and fo into 
 the ftomach, have not yet been dilcovered : the 
 fibres, tho' not very minute, are however ncvt 
 thick enough to be fuppofcd du6ls *, nor has any 
 body been able to find cavities in them, or to in- 
 trpduce but the fincfl: hair into them. 
 
 ? See Fphem, Germ Cent. S. 
 
 Stoncr, 
 
of ANATOMY. 32^ 
 
 Stones, equal in fize to the laft joint of the 
 little finger, have fonietinaes been found in the 
 Jargeft of thefe glands; but this is an accident 
 that very rarely happens. Sometioies black glands 
 of this kind are found adherinoj to the whole 
 pofterior furface of the trachea, near the oefo- 
 phagus, and fome of them about its anterior part. 
 They are in fize from that of a grain of whean 
 to that of a kidney-bean, and they ufually are 
 affixed loofely to the trachea. 
 
 389. About the fifth vertebra of the back 
 there is fometimes found in the thorax a remark- 
 able gland, adhering to the pofterior part of the 
 oefophagus. It has been defcribed and figured 
 by Vefalius and others, and is ufually called glan- 
 dula dorfalis. It is, in different fubje6ls, of very 
 various fizes : it is often of the fize of a kidney- 
 bean, fometimes of that of an almond, and fome- 
 times it confiderably exceeds the largeft of thefe 
 ftandards 5 at others it is much lefs than the 
 finaller, and fometimes it is v^holly wantitig, or 
 at lead is fo extremely minute and inconfiderable, 
 that the beft diffeders arc not able to find it. 
 Sometimes alfo two glands are found in this part, 
 in the place of one : there are not wanting authors 
 who affirm, that it is more frequent to meer with 
 two than with only one; but experience does not 
 warrant this. In the dilTedlion of a man who 
 died, from an inability to fwallow any thing, 
 either folid or liquid, this gland was found f^velled 
 to the bignefs of a hen's egi;-. The man had com- 
 plained that the obftru6lion was in his breal, not 
 in his throat; and it proved, that this fv/^IIed 
 gland had prelTed one fide of the cefoph gus fo 
 j:lofe to the other, that nothing could pals, arid 
 in this manner had abfolutely itarved him. Other 
 mftances have been of obftruclions of the fame 
 ^* *' kind, 
 
§30 A Compendium 
 
 kind, under which people have died; but the 
 Want of leave to open the bodit s, has prevented 
 the informing the world whether this was or was 
 not the caufe ; but moft probably, in moft fuch 
 obftr*uctions, where the caufe is perceived to be 
 deep in the bread, it is, Verheyen gives us an 
 Hiftance of the fides of the cefophagus intirely 
 coalefcing, or growing together, from the fame 
 caufe *. 
 
 390. Vercellonius -f is of opinion, that this 
 gland is alfo placed there for the fecretion of a 
 fluid, ferving to aflift the digeflion of our food 
 in the flomach. He fays, that there are duds 
 ' carrying this fluid from it into the cefophagus \ 
 but thefe dudls do not appear upon dilTedion, 
 tho' ever fo carefully fought after. Fantonus;]:, 
 and fome others alfo before Vercellonius, have 
 fuppofed that thefe glands difcharged a fluid of a 
 mucous nature into the cavity of the cefophagus ; 
 and Fantonus goes fo far as to fay, that he had 
 difcovered the du6ts thro' which it was difcharged, 
 in the diflTedion of a dog \ and even alledges, 
 that he had found the worms, mentioned by 
 fome other authors, living within them. Mor-r 
 gagni § alfo fays, that in dogs thefe glands 
 are fometimes found tumid, and inhabited by 
 numbers of oblong and flender red worms. 
 Redi II alfo, and Clerk ^, afBrm the fame ; and 
 Morgagni adds, that in this cafe there are alfo 
 found pafTages from the glands into the cavity of 
 the cefophagus 5 but he acknowledges, that while 
 
 * Anat. Cap. de cefophag. 
 
 ■\ See the fame differtation. 
 
 \ Anat. Corp. hum. djfiert. 3. p. 55. 
 
 ^ Adv^erfar. Anatem. 3. p. 5. 
 
 II See his De Animal, vivent. in viventib. rep.ertis. 
 
 ^ See De lumbrico lato, cap. 1 3^. 
 
 thd 
 
c/ ANATOMY. 331 
 
 the glands themfelves are in their natural date, 
 there are no fuch pafTages to be difcovered in 
 dogs any more than there are in men. Why ic 
 is ihat worms Ihould breed in thefe glands fo fre» 
 quently, as by the teftimonies of thefe authors 
 they appear to do, is very difficult to account for. 
 What Vercellonius fays of a nidus of ovula ver-. 
 minofa in the thyroide gland, feems, at lead, as 
 applicable to thefe. 
 
 391. In the abdomen there are very confi- 
 derable nuntbers of glands : the largefi of them 
 is the pancreas, already defcribed: afcer this, in 
 fize, come the glandulas renales, or capfulas atra- 
 bilarise : after thefe the meferiacs, and the intef- 
 tinals of Brunner and of Peyer in the inteftines. 
 All thefe alfo have been already defcribed. 
 
 The glands of the (lomach are very eafily dif- 
 tinguifhable in dogs, and in hogs j but in human 
 fubjedls it is difficult to find them : many anato- 
 jnifts have doubted them. Morgagni, however, 
 difcovered them fo fairly in human fubjeds, and 
 communicated his difcoveries fo candidly to the 
 pther anatomifts, that there was no doubt left 
 ^bout them ; and frequent obfervations afterwards 
 jponfirnfied the truth of what he afiferted : they are* 
 indeed ufually fmall ; but fome fubjeds (Tiew theni 
 fo large and fair, that it is impoffible for an ex- 
 perienced anatomift to mifs them. 
 
 About the vertebra of the loins, near where 
 the receptaculum chyli is fituated, and about the 
 OS facrum and the divifions of the iliac velTeis^ 
 ^here are many glands of various fizes and figures : 
 they are commonly called lumbares, facr^, and 
 iliacas; and they have numerous lymphaticks en- 
 tering into thenn, and difcharging their contents 
 into the receptaculum chyh. 
 
 The 
 
332 
 
 A Compendium 
 
 The lumbar glands have been fometlmes found 
 fwelled to the bigneis of a man's fifl:. Women 
 who have been in an apparent ftate of health, 
 and young men who have died in atrophies, 
 have furniflied inftances of this extraordinary- 
 growth of thefe glands. 
 
 In the concave part of the liver, about the 
 ingrefs of the vena portce^ and the neck of the 
 gall-bladder, as alfo about the fpleen, near the 
 ingrefs of the vefTels, there are frequently found 
 conglobate glands, of about the bignefs of a 
 kidney-bean : thefe are called by authors hepatick 
 glands, cyftick glands, and by other names formed 
 from the names of the parts they are near, and 
 they feem to ferve the lymphatick vefTels. 
 
 In the Uver of an ox there are ufually a much 
 greater number of thefe glands than in that of a 
 human fubjedt: fome of them are of the bignefs 
 of a nut, fome larger, and fomc of them fome- 
 times are not fmaller than a hen's egg. 
 
 About the left orifice of the ilomach there 
 fbmetimes alfo is found, according to Vercellonius, 
 a gland : he has defcribed it as equal to a kidney- 
 bean in fize, and fays it has duv5ls opening into 
 the cavity of the ftomach *. In hogs this gland 
 is very confpicuous ; but a number of human fub- 
 jeds may be examined before it is found. 
 
 Many authors have told us, that in the omen- 
 tum, in every part where the fat lies, there are 
 a number of glands, whofe office it is to fecrete 
 it, DifTeclion fhews us a few about that parr, 
 where it is joined to the pylorus; and as to the 
 reff, it is not necefTary that there Ihould be arte- 
 
 * See the place lafl quoted. 
 
 -f- Hippocrates fays a great deal of the glands of the epi- 
 ploon in his book of the glands ; but he feems to have meant 
 tftt mefentery by the epiploon. 
 
of ANATOMY. jjj 
 
 ries, becaufe there is fat ; for that miy be, and is 
 indeed, in great abundance, fecrcted immediately 
 from the arteries. 
 
 In the gall-bladders of oxen there are often 
 found a number of finall glands, of a yellow co- 
 lour, and not unlike ths cerumlnous glands in 
 the auditory palTage. In human fubjeds the fame 
 kind of glands alio f ^metimes are found, but not 
 Univerfally *. The b'adder and the ureters have 
 alfo fometimes a number of fmall glands ; but 
 they are very indeterminate in number and fize, 
 and are not always found indeed in the fam.e 
 place, efpecially about the ureters. Thofe about 
 the bladder are ufually fituated towards the neck 
 of it, and are fometimes tolerably confpicuous j 
 tajt more ufually it is much otherwife. 
 
 3^2. In the parts of generation of man theie 
 occur, firfl, tht glandute Cowperi, already de- 
 fcribed. i. The glandulas Littri. And, 3. The 
 odoriferous glands of Tyfon, all defcribed alfo in 
 their place, with the part they belong to. As to 
 the latter ones, thofe of them which are fituated 
 in the interior part of the prepuce, are much more 
 obvious than thofe about the corona penis, where 
 it is very difficult to diftinguilb them from the 
 nervous papilte of the fame part. 4. We meet 
 with the proftatse. 5. The glands of the veG- 
 culae feminales \ but thefe rarely are feen diftincl: 
 and fair: fometimes however they are met with, 
 of the fize of a grain of muflard- feed, and much 
 of the fame fhape. Harder -f fays, that he has 
 fometimes met with them fo large, and with an 
 excretory foraminulum fo confpicuous in each, 
 that he could introduce a hair into them. He 
 fays they are equal, in this ftate, to the largeil 
 
 * See Ephemerid. Germ. Cent. 5 and 6. 
 f See his Prodromus Ph) uologicus. 
 
^^ A Compendium 
 
 gland oF the inteflina crafTa, or large guts* 
 Terraneiis alfo dcfcribes fix fmall glands in 
 the urethra virilis * : he fays they adhere to 
 different parts of the cavernous part of the urethra, 
 and that they perforate the furface of the urethra, 
 and difcharge into it a fofc mucous fluid : it is 
 not eafy, however, to find any of thefe in difTec- 
 tion. We may fometimes indeed fee, according 
 to the accurate defcription of Morgagni, certain 
 foraminula in this part, which, from the retention 
 of a fluid in them, will become turgid, and re- 
 femble whitifh round glands "f. 
 
 The teflicles, with the epididymides, have been 
 by many accounted glands ; but, according to the 
 diftindions eilablifhed in the firft part of this 
 Adenology, they are to be wholly excluded from 
 the number of the glands, fince they are naani- 
 feftly vafculous, and want the peculiar habit and 
 external appearance of glands ; and the aptients 
 have all agreed in excluding them from the num- 
 ber of thofe parts. 
 
 393. In the parts of generation in women we 
 are to refer to the number of the glands : i . Thofe 
 which Morgagni difcovered in the nymphje, which 
 he has very accurately defcribed %, Thefe have a 
 very near alliance with the glandulns odorifers3 of 
 the penis in men. We are to obferve, however, 
 that thefe glands are not fo large and confpicuous 
 as he has figured them, in all fubjeds ; but this 
 is the lefs wonderful, as even the nymphse them- 
 felv©s are very different in their fize in different 
 fubjedls : where the nymphas are themfelves very 
 fmall, thefe glands are fcarce large enough to be 
 vifible; bur, on the other hand, in fubjefts ia 
 
 * See his Tra«Sl. de GlanduHs, p. 32. 
 -f Adverf. Anat. prim. §. 10. 
 X Adverfar, Anat. i. T. 3. 
 
 which 
 
ef A N A T O M Y; 335 
 
 which the nymphae are large, thefe glands are 
 very large alio : in thele they are often met with 
 fully as large as Morgagni has figured them in 
 the others : they are fo minute, that none but a 
 very good anatomift would be able to difcover 
 them. 2. Authors tell us of glands in the femal© 
 as well as in the male urethra ; but the difledtcr 
 will find only little foramina and dudls in the place 
 of thern. 3! About the extremity of the urethra, 
 however, in the vagina, where there are manifeft 
 lacunse, or openings, fome of them admitting a 
 hog's briftle, there are fometimes found eyident 
 glands, fituate beneath them : Morgagni defcribes 
 and figures one of thefe very large and fair i". 
 Thefe, as well as the glands of the aymphse, are 
 often very turgid in the time of parturition, and 
 are eafily diftinguifhed by the operator, who is 
 -employed in turning thefcetus, or otherwife affiil- 
 ing in crols-deliveries. At this time the copious 
 afflux of blood to thefe parts diftends them, and 
 they arevaftly more obvious than in a dead body; 
 fo that, in diflTedions, fometimes not only the 
 glands but the very duds themfelves, are not to^ 
 be found. 4. The veficles, fometimes met with 
 near the internal orifice of the uterus, and taken 
 by fome for a new ovary, appear alfo much more 
 plainly in the time of labour than under any other 
 circumftances : they are not however properly 
 glands, tho' fome people have been very politive 
 that they were fuch. They have nothing of the 
 habit and peculiar appearance of glands ; and, as 
 they are truly veficles, the allowing them to be 
 glands would not only be improper in iifelf, bui 
 
 * See Bidloo's Anat. T. 51. iig. 3. and Terraneusde 
 gland, p. 44. 
 
 f See Morgagiii's Adverf. i . 
 
 would 
 
^3^ ^ Compendium 
 
 would be the occafion of confounding two fo very 
 different things as veficles and glands. Thefe dif- 
 ferent parts were always diftinguifhed under dif- 
 ferent names by the antients, and they are not at 
 this time to be confounded together \ otherwife 
 the ovaries, and other veficalofe parts, will have 
 the fame right to be transformed into glands, in 
 our accounts of them. 5. Some have eftablifhed 
 it alfo, that there are glands in the uterus, by 
 which the menftrual difcharges are fecreted. 
 Littri has taken great pains to prove this^ in the 
 Memoirs of the Paris Academy : but this has not 
 arifen from his feeing any fuch glands 5 for there 
 are none fuch ; neither has he attempted to de- 
 fcribe their fhape, llrudlure, or appearance : he 
 only argues from the falfe hypothefis, that where 
 there are no glands there can be no fecretion ; and 
 therefore declares, that there are glands in the 
 uterus, becaufe it apjiears neceflary to him that 
 there Ihould be fuch. 
 
 394. Many authors have alfo afferted, that 
 there are glands in the placenta : it feems to have 
 been from the fame fource of falfe reafoning with 
 the former, that this was firft afferted ; and many 
 at prefenr, not knowing why it was firft afferted, 
 conunue, tho' the error in the argument is ex- 
 ploded, to believe that the glands are there. No 
 author whatever has ever fo much as attempted 
 to demonftrate thefe glands, or even to defcribe 
 their fize, figure, or fituation. On the contrary, 
 Ruyfch, who has treated of the placenta in many 
 of his writings, and Rauholt *, who has pubhlhed 
 largely upon it in the Memoirs of the Paris Aca- 
 demy, mention nothing of glands in it \ nor have 
 the moft accurate examinations of the part been 
 
 * See the Memoirs of the Paris Academy 1714, 1715, 
 and 1718. 
 
 able 
 
»/ ANATOMY; 337 
 
 able to fliew any -, but the concurrent teftimony of 
 all the anatomifts of note in this preftrnt ag.. as 
 Well as in the la(t, prove that this pare is com- 
 pofed merely of blood vefiels. 
 
 395, Among the glands which belong to the 
 articulations, and the exrremitits, we are to men- 
 tion, I. The axillary ones: thefe are fituated 
 under the alae, and are enveloped in fat, and lie 
 clofe by the axillary vefTels. 2. The inquinal 
 glands : thefe are fituated on each fide in the 
 groin, near the crural velTels : thefe, in various 
 difeafes, are apt to become tumid and inflamed. 
 Abfceifes are often formed in them, and fometimes 
 they become fchirrous and incurable. Their ufe 
 in the body is not eafily underilood. 3. The 
 glands, called, from their difcoverer, glandulse 
 Haverianas *, in the articulations : thefe are aifo 
 called, from the matter they fecrete, glandulse 
 mucofse. Thefe are obferved in the articulations 
 of the bones; but no where fo diltindly as in 
 thofe of the femur^ as well where it is joined to 
 the acetabulum of the offa innominata, as where 
 it is articulated with the tibia. The fame kind of 
 glands are, indeed, found in the other articula- 
 tions; but they are greatly fmaller in them all 
 than in thofe. 
 
 Thefe are the fofteft of all the glands in the 
 body : they ftcrete a mucous foft fluid, which 
 ferves to lubricate the joints, and render their mo- 
 lions eafy, and to prevent their growing dry and 
 cohering together. Thefe glands greatly ap- 
 proach to the nature of a certain fofc kind of fat, 
 fijch as is found in the interftices of fome of the 
 inufcles, and in the cavities of the fpine about the 
 marrow % fo that there, in many caftSj appears 
 reafon to doubt whether what v^e call glands, in 
 
 * Thefe are defcribed in Havers"'s Cileologyi 
 
 Z " this 
 
338 ^Compendium 
 
 this cafe, are truly fuch*, or whether what we take 
 for fuch is not a more lax and fubtile pinguedo^ 
 or fatty matter, than is met with in many other 
 parts. 
 
 About the fcapula, the flexure of the elbow, 
 the hand, the kntre, and the foot, there are alfo 
 found here and there fonie fmall glands, as alfo 
 in fome places between and among the mufcles : 
 but as their number and fituation, as well as their 
 fize and figure, are very uncertain and variable, 
 it is not neceflary to recount them in a v/ork of 
 this kind. 
 
 396. We are, however, yet to fpeak of the 
 cutaneous glands. Verheyen tells us, that Stena 
 had difc-)vcred that there was a gland fituated 
 under every diftindl: pore of the fkin ; from 
 whence there arofe a velTel for the conveyance of 
 the matter of fwear, which terminated at the fur- 
 face of the cutis: and hence Verheyen, tho' he 
 does not fay that he had ever feen any of thefe 
 glands himlclf, ventures to give them a place 
 among the parts he defcribes, and calls them fub- 
 cutincous glands. The pores of the fkin are fa 
 ex remcly numerous, that if, according to thefe 
 authors, there were a gland belonging to every 
 one of them, they muft be almoft infinite alfo 
 in number. But in diffeclion, when the cutis has 
 been carefully cleared from the. fat that is under ir, 
 if is certain, that no glands are feen either in the 
 ftparated fat, or on the lower furface of the cutis : 
 there are, indeed, always found litde portions of 
 the fat here and there, infinuating themfelves into 
 the little foveolre, or holes in the cutis : thefe have 
 impoled upon many young anatomifts, and been 
 taken for glands ; and, indeed, feme profefTors 
 have fhewn them in their lediures under the name 
 of glands : but pieces of fat will always be dif-* 
 
 tinguifhed 
 
of ANATOMY. 339 
 
 tlnguifticd from glandr, with very little difficulty, 
 by an experienced anatomiit. From this and 
 from innumerable fearches after thefe glands, 
 made without any fuccefs, it appears, that there 
 are indeed no fuch glands ?.s thofe called fub- 
 cntaneous by thele authors, ihat is, glands, one 
 of which is fituated under every pore ot che fkin; 
 and, in all protabrity, the fufpofed cxiftencc of 
 them arife merely from the erroneous opinion 
 belore exploded, that where there is a fecretion, 
 there mult be a gland. Thus, while Sieno and 
 oihers were very fenfible that there was a lecrecion 
 made at every pore of the ikin, it was eafy for 
 them, while they believed the principle jift cited 
 to be a true one, to take it for granted that there 
 inuft alfo be a gland under every pore. 
 
 In the cutis itfelf, and fomctimes in its exterior 
 fuperficics, under the epic-ermis, there are, in 
 feveral parts of the body, foLjnd a kind of fphe- 
 roidal corpufcles, each with its excretory du61:.: 
 thefe are particularly frequent in the nofe, the 
 eyebrows, the ears, the nipples, under the arm- 
 pits, and in the cutis of the penis, the Icrotum, 
 the pudenda of women, and about the anus. 
 Thefe are bodies of a peculiar kind ; but, if they 
 are to be eftablifhed on the footing of glands, 
 they are by no means what thefe authors mean by 
 their defcripcions •, neither are they to be called 
 fubcutaneous glands, as theirs are named, fince it 
 is evident that they are not fituated under the 
 cutis, but in it. 
 
 397. It may be proper, however, to confider 
 thefe bodies a little more nicely. We are to ob- 
 ferve, that they are very indecermJnace in their 
 number and fize, being in fon^e fubjeds much 
 larger, in others m.uch fmaller, in fome very 
 numerous, in others few. The nofe and the eye- 
 
 Z 2 ii'Js 
 
340 !/f Compendium 
 
 lids in fome perfons are full of them, and have 
 them ot the iize of millet-feeds: in this cafe the 
 parts are rendered quite rough and feabrous with 
 them, and they occafion a very great deformity in 
 the face : in others they are very few, and fo 
 minue as to be fcarce vifible. The cutis of the penis, 
 and Icrotum, in the fame manner in fome abounds 
 with vart numibers of them : in fome other per- 
 fons the fame parts have fcarce one, or not one of 
 any fize on them. We feldom alfo find them of 
 any confiderable bignefs in the areolas of the 
 breafts * : but Morgagni has figured them large 
 there, and an author of his accuracy is not to be 
 fufpedled of having given them otherwife than 
 as he found them. From this it appears, that 
 they vary extremely in different fubjeds, in the 
 fame parts of the body. 
 
 There appears alfo great reafon to doubt whe- 
 ther thefe bodies are really and truly glands, or 
 whether they are not more properly no other than 
 certain excretory du6ls from the arteries of the 
 fkin, which, either from the denfity of the cuticle 
 in thofe parts, or from the thicknefs of the maiter 
 contained in them, become obftruded, and are fo 
 formed into thefe large tubercles. Ruyfch and 
 Boerhaave f are clearly of this opinion in regard 
 to them, and therefore call them not glands, but 
 crypta, folliculi, and receptacula cutanea. Ver- 
 cellonius is alfo of the fame opinion, as appears 
 from his faying t that the febaceous glands, for 
 that is the name given by the modern anatomifts 
 to thefe tubercles, are no other than the mere ex- 
 tremities of the arteriolse of the cutis, expanded 
 into a kind of follicles, or htde bags. Bianchus 
 
 * Adverfar. Anat. prim. T. 4. fig. 2. 
 
 -j- Ruyfch's Adverf. Anat. Dec. I . p. 9. 
 
 i Difiert. de Gland, conglomerat. afophag. p, 150. 
 
e?/ ANATOMY. 241 
 
 is clearly of the fame opinion alfo, and aflcrts, 
 that the cutaneous glands of many authors are 
 parts which do not exift, nor are at all necelTary 
 to the fecretions performed in that part *. 
 
 Reafon joins with (hefe authurides in declaring, 
 that thefe globofe particles are not truly glands, 
 becaufe, firil, they are wholly wanting, in many 
 fubjedls, in the places where in others they ar^^ fo 
 extremely numerous. 2. Becaufe, when the ftag- 
 nant, vifcid, or febaceous matter contained in 
 them is prefled out, as is eafily done between the 
 fingers, the whole tubercle difappears, and the 
 pait is loft to the fenfes; v/hich could not happen, 
 if the tubercle were a real gland, or congeries of 
 -vefTels arranged in their determinate manner, and 
 inclofed in their proper membrane : tho', if all the 
 contents of the gland were to be fqueezed our, in 
 this cafe the veffcls and the membrane would cer- 
 tainly remain, and the part would continue vifible. 
 Upon the whole, the dodlrine of the glands feems 
 hitherto eftablifhed upon the leaft firm and certain 
 footing of that of any of the parts of the body *, 
 and it is much to be wifhed, that the prefent fet 
 of anatomiifts, than whom there perhaps never 
 was a better, would fet themfelves heartily to 
 work to eftablifli a better fyftem, and better dif- 
 tindlions of thefe parts, than are to be found at 
 prefent. 
 
 398. The doclrine of the glands eflablifhed in 
 this work, as it is clear and perfpicuous, and is 
 Gonfonant to the opinions of the antienrs, and not 
 difagreeingwith the common received opinion, as 
 to the nature and fcru6lure of the glands, has been 
 very well received by many of the modern ana- 
 tomifts in the former editions of this work ; and 
 a French phyfician, in particular, has thought fo 
 * In Hepatis Hifloria. 
 
 Z 3 well 
 
34^ [/^Compendium 
 
 well of it as to tanflate it verbatim into his own 
 language, and maki^ it a pare of his fyftem of 
 anacomv * : nor incieed has any body flood up 
 agamft it, except M chv^'ot i in his treatife of 
 the iVparadon of the fiuifis in animal bodies. This, 
 author i lys, hv docs not know what is meant by 
 tha- peculdF habit aiid appeara.ice of a gland, 
 which is laid down in this p^ace as one of the 
 great charadlcrifticks of thof. bodies. BjC not. 
 only people, who have not ftudicd anatomy cer- 
 tainty, do know a gland, when rhey fee it, by its 
 external peculia' appearance and habit, without 
 hav ng been obliged to book.^, definition^, and 
 dekriptions for their knowledge-, butevei; M.'rhe- 
 lotti himfejf plainly enough declares, that he was 
 not blind to this peculiar habit of the glands, 
 when he tells us, that he fhall readily agree in re- 
 gard to the larger glands, and lo fome indeed of 
 the fmallcr alfo, that they may be known by their 
 prcu iar appearance, or external habit. This, 
 furely, does not accufc the defcription given of a 
 gland, in this work, of quite fo rriuch obfcurity, 
 as hi> n';t under!! anding what was meant by our 
 term peculiar habit Gid b' fore. 
 
 He agrers alfo witn the do61:rines eHablifhed 
 here in this, that h.. cdiows all the fecreiions or 
 reparations of fluids in an animal body, are^not 
 perfoimed by mtans of glands, with vcficles or 
 follicles in them, as the more rigid fo'lowers of 
 Malpighi pretend: he exorefly fays ; '* i agree 
 with Hcifter, tha' the. feparations of fluids ia 
 animal bodies may be and are, in many of the 
 *' parts, acloally made without the intervention 
 *' of foHicies or veficles ;'' but he proceeds to 
 affirm, that the eflfential and peculiar fecret ftruc- 
 ture of the glands, and particularly of the more 
 
 * Noguez Anatom. de Corps humaine^ Paris 1723- 
 
 {Binute 
 
 
of ANATOMY. 343 
 
 minute ones, is not to be diftinguifhed by any 
 peculiar external appearance or habic, but by their 
 peculiar vafcular ftrudure and compages, which 
 is contrived in a (ingular manner, a[)prc'pnated to 
 their neceflary offices : and from hence he con- 
 cludes, that the cortical fubltance of the brain, 
 and the ultimate vafculous parrs of the liver, the 
 fpleen, and the tcfticjes, ought to be referred to 
 the number of what are propt-rly called glands. 
 
 This, however fpecious it may appear, we can- 
 not but obferve has been alieady fairly ai fwered 
 in the courfe of this part of this compendium, 
 where it has been fhewn, that an inexplicable con- 
 fufion of the different parts of the body would be 
 the confequence of the taking away that long 
 eftabHfhed diftindion between the vafculous and 
 the glmdul ais parts, which has exifted. fo many 
 ages, ferved to fomany diilinclions with fufficienc 
 accuracy, and is obvious to the very {^^i^^^ in the 
 infpedion of the parts. Every part of the body 
 may be called a gland, if fo large and vague a 
 charaderifticii of glands be eftabiifhed : while we 
 wnuld fpeak intelligibly and diftindly, we muft 
 call every thing by its difi:in6live name. 
 
 Micheloiti, from his idea of a gland, which he 
 makes to confifl in the being merely a vafcular 
 parr, does not blame thofe who afferr, that where- 
 ever th^.-re is a fecretion performed, there muft be 
 a gland : but this, befide bebg in itfelf a perfectly 
 erroneous affertion, le^ds, and has at all timicsled, 
 the afferrers of it in o fuch a feries of errors, that 
 it is not caiy to fay what could be a more unlucky 
 maxim in anatomy. The chyle is evidently fe- 
 creted in the intellines, without the afTiftance of 
 glands. The fat is alfo fecreted without them ; 
 and fo is as evidently the mucus in the pkuitary 
 finus's, the femen in the vafculous compages of 
 -J ■ Z4 the 
 
344 ^ Compendium 
 
 the teflicles, and the menftrual blood in the ut^^ 
 rus. Al: the membianes, nay, in fhort, every 
 part almuft A the body, would be intitled to the 
 name oi a gland upon this plan \ which can 
 neither agree wuh the fenfe of the antients, with 
 the flrudlure of the parts, or with the opinion 
 that the generality of the world, as well thofe 
 who have ftudicd ai atomy as thofc who have not, 
 have edablifhed wiihin themfelves of what a gland 
 really iv All the world agrees in certain general 
 ideas of what a gland, what a mufcle, what a 
 membrane, what a vcffcl, what fat, or what an 
 intrfline is, and by thefe ideas they can diflin- 
 guifh thefe parts when they fee them ; but all this 
 means of diftindion would be taken away, by 
 thus confounding vafcular and glandular parts. 
 The ten Latin lines made occafionally in honour 
 of a yoL-ng phyfician fuftaining a thefis on this 
 fubj(6V, fome time ago, are yet too juftly appli- 
 cable to the fubjed : 
 
 Dicer e difficile eft medicis, qua glanduh pars Jit ; 
 
 Nondum do5lores baud docuere fat is. 
 Corporis bine omm^ mire con/under e partes 
 
 Cceperunt^ ^ pars glandula qua^vis erat, 
 J^imc quivisp'exus vaforum glandula di^us ; 
 
 Nunc membrana o?nms glandula faBafuit, 
 Mox cerebrum^ fplen^ pulmo^ jecur^ renejq^ vocatl 
 
 Glandula ; nunc quavis bullula talis erat, 
 ^ft qui diftinguit partes^ quas vifus & ufus 
 
 Piftin^uunt prifcus, reiiius iUe docet. 
 
 Wherefore, tho' it is eftablilhed in the dodrine 
 of a gland here delivered, that its inmoft ftruc- 
 tpre is truly vafcular ; yet as there are a multitude 
 of parrs that are truly vafcular, which cannot be 
 called glandsj without making too free with the 
 
ef AN AT MO Y. 345 
 
 diftinflions nature has hcrlelf eftablifhed, and 
 mankind in general, 'till the time of Malpig^ii, 
 had acquiefced i i ; it has been a principal point 
 eftablifhtd here, that for a part to be veficulofe 
 and vafcular does not conftitute it a gland : and 
 as neither the office of fecretio'-, nor any other 
 chara61:er hitherto difo'vered, is fufficient to dif- 
 ■ tinguifh accusatrly, and wi h certainty, thofe parts 
 I which the antients called glands, and which the 
 generality of writers fince their time have a.fo 
 agreed in calling lb, it appears necejGTary, as well 
 jas proper, 'till fjffjcicnt diltindlions of a more ac- 
 curate kind can be eftabliihed, o call in, as is 
 he e done, that pecular external appearance and 
 habic of" a g'and, which has always hitherto ferved 
 to ti ftinguifh them ffom other parts. And upcn 
 thefe principle- it probably is that Nicolai, in his 
 differtation De Dir.dione Vaforum, has ventured 
 to afferr, that Miche.o^.ti's hypothefis of the 
 glands is precarious. 
 
 V 959. Boerhaave, in a long eplftle to Ruyfch, 
 \§s aid a great deal in favour of the Maliighian 
 fyftfm ot the glands, and which confcquently 
 ni-^kc-s againft what is advanced on the fubjed: in 
 this work -, but even the name of Boerhaave can- 
 not, injjftice, be fuppofed to overthrow reafons, 
 *till better reafons are eftablilhed in the place of 
 them. Ruyfch and Boerhaave had many argu- 
 ments on the fubje6l of the glands, managed with 
 a friendly moderation, and yet carried to the ex- 
 adeft fcrutiny : Ruyfch was pnfitive in his own 
 opinions, Boerhaave favoured thofe of Maipighi; 
 and it was, in fine, agreed between them, that 
 this epiflle of Boerhaave's fbould contain all that 
 its author had to urge in favour of the Mal- 
 pighian fyftem ; and that, after this, Ruyfch was 
 to publifh his reafons againft it, to urge all that he 
 
34^ A Compendium 
 
 could to overthrow the fyftem, and to fiipport 
 his own. Both thefe treacifes were afterwards 
 publifhed under the tide of an Opufculum Ana- 
 tomicum de fabrica glandularum in Corpore hu- 
 mano*. In the firtl, Boerhaave, with all that 
 Hrength of reafoning he was mafter of, produced 
 all the arguments that could be alledged in favour 
 of the Malpighian fyftern ; tho', as himfclf can- 
 didly confelTes, he, in many things, differs much 
 lefs in his real fentiments from Ruyfch than the 
 neceflary form of argument makes his words fee rn 
 to import. Ruyfch has anfwered all thefe argu- 
 ments in a nervous and (Irong manner \ but as it 
 appears, that, befide all that Ruyfch ha^ ad- 
 vanced, the;e are ilill many arguments behiisd, 
 that greatly make againft the Malpighian fyftem, 
 it is not proper they fbouid be pafifcd over in 
 filence. What Ruyfch, therefore, irom his great 
 age, his many avocations, and a thuufand other 
 reafons, omitted, we (liall, with all due deference 
 to fo honoured and lo truly honourable a name as 
 that of Boerhaave, (not for the fake of diipute or 
 cavil, but in the honeft puriuit of truth) venture 
 to give here. 
 
 Malpighi and his followers, not excepting even 
 Michelotti, have eftabliflied it as a ftanding 
 maxim, that every gland has a follicle or veficlc 
 within it : but Boerhaave, who has att. mpted, 
 with more labour and fbrength of genius than any 
 other author ever did, or probably ever will do, 
 to fupport the Malpighian hypothefis, if fuppjrt- 
 able, feems in this eifential point todifagtee with 
 the author of the fyftem, and with all his fol- 
 lowers ; for he defines a gland to be a very fimple 
 part, which properly forms an involucrum, or 
 cafe, with the fimple apparatus of a pnembrane, 
 
 * Publifiied at Lcyden in 1722, iii 4to. 
 
 within 
 
if ANATOMY. 347 
 
 within which a peculiar liquor is fecreted. An in- 
 voluc rum or caie is, a-; all the world muft agree, 
 noihing more rhan a covering-, and it n^.uft be as 
 rea<;.i!y allowed, that the integument of a part is 
 not the part itfdf, as the integument or involu- 
 crum ot the ivcr is nc-t the liver itlelf-, and, in 
 the flimr iYianner, the invoiucrum of a gland is 
 not tha gknd itfelh nor cm this invoiucrum or 
 inte-,umi:nt, t rming the cafe or a gland, be fup- 
 pof.d (.r underfto'd as the thing itfclf, without 
 maniiefT onfufion. 
 
 U it ne al'edgcd, that Boerhaave in this place 
 ufes the 'Aord ir.volucrum in a new and appro- 
 pri.rcd fenlV, and means by it to expreis the 
 vcfic e or f Hide of the Ma pighians, we are only 
 to oou ive, ha. he < fm^ the wor.i n v .iuuum as 
 fynonym-.;us -^ith veficula or foUicuius; and as the 
 term p txpufs a gland is giving a (c^nfe to ir, 
 different from that under wmch it nas been 
 received at all times by the antienrs, and by the 
 rno.^ern>, and indeed giving i( a w-olly u known 
 fig ifi.aii n, by means of whl h g^eat cnfufion 
 mu be bro.ght into al! writings in which it is 
 neceiTary to ule the terms. 
 
 We would be glad to know, what anti^^nt 
 Greek or Latin writers^ or indeed what author of 
 any age or nation before Malpighi, ever took a 
 veficl" or a follicle for a gland, or ever cailed fuch 
 a pan by fuch a name ? It is evident, that no 
 one ever did ; nor is it lefs evident, that this fort 
 of innovation, in regard to the fenfe of words, 
 cannot be brought into ufe without the utmolt 
 confufion among the things before underftood by 
 thofe words. This is evidently a new way of 
 underftanding the two words veficiila and glan- 
 dula, which is not only incongruous to thef 
 ideas before affixed to them, but alfp quite unne- 
 ' ' ■ ccffary. 
 
'348 A Compendium 
 
 ceflary. We arc ready to agree with thefe great 
 authors, that there are veficulas or folhculi in 
 fevera) parts of the human body, within the ca- 
 vities of which fluids of various kinds are lecreted, 
 contained, retained, changed, and, in fine, from 
 out of the cavity, of which they are difcharged 
 by a proper pafTage ; but there is no reafon for 
 calling thefe parts glands. The urinary bladder, 
 the gall-bladder, the veficulas feminaies, and the 
 veficul^ in the finus's of the bones of the fkul), 
 are indifputably hollow parts, within which pecu- 
 liar liquors are fecreted, contained, retained, and 
 changed, and from which they are afterwards 
 excreted ; and they have, therefore, all the requi- 
 fites for the efxablifhing them glands, according 
 to even Boerhaave's deiinition ; but no author of 
 any time, new or old, antient or modern, ever 
 fuppofed thrfe feveral parts to be glands, or ever 
 called or defircd others to call tht:m fo; but at all 
 times they have been c.dled by their proper, ex- 
 preffive, and diflincl names of veficse, or veficulse. 
 From this therefore it is evident, that tho' ve- 
 ficuls be clearly demonftrated to exifl: in certairk 
 parts of the body, whether they are neceflarily and 
 naturally there, as in the cutis ; or whether they 
 are found only under certain circumftances, and 
 appear rather to be the efl^edt of diflemperatures 
 of the part, not of its natural (late : and tho' in 
 thefe feveral veficuiss a peculiar appropriated i^uid 
 be proved to be fecreted there, retained, changed, 
 and finally excreted ; yet furely it is not proved from 
 all thi-s that thefe veficulas are glands, or that 
 there are any glands in the part where they are 
 found •, and therefore the parts where they are 
 found fhould not be called, as they ulually are, 
 glandulous parts, but veficulous parts. Thefe 
 v^sficul^ are Bot, nor dp they indeed at all tct 
 
 femblii 
 
0/ ANATOMY. 349 
 
 femble glands ; but they are perfeclly like the 
 veficul^, or vefic^, already mentioned, as always 
 called by that name ; and therefore they ought 
 always to be called by the fame name, unlefs we 
 are defirous of introducing into medical writings 
 endlefs confufion and difputes about words, which 
 will always lead into errors about things, accord- 
 ing to the Latin adage, 
 
 Errorum genitrix eft aquivccatio fem'per. 
 
 Where therefore only veficls are found, let 
 thofe parts be called vafcular ; where only veficas 
 or veficulse are found, let thofe parts be called ve- 
 ficular : but where glands are found, let thofe be 
 called glandular, or glands. Thus, in various 
 parts of the fkin, there are found foiliculi or ^t^i- 
 culs, in which an unduous liquid is formed, which 
 is always either vifcous or febaceous, particularly 
 in the nofe, the ears, &c. as before obferved : 
 thefe veficulse or foiliculi are truly veficul^, and 
 have no appearance of the nature, ftruclure, or 
 peculiar habit of a gland \ they are therefore very 
 improperly called by the name of glands : they 
 may be much more properly called foiliculi re- 
 Ceptacula, or crypta, as fome have called them, 
 and moil properly of all veficul^ cutancs. They 
 have all the requifites of the vefic^ before men- 
 tioned, and indeed fcarce differ at all from them, 
 except in bignefs. 
 
 Why, therefore, Malpighi and his followers 
 fnould deny the name of veGcles to thefe, and 
 fhould impofe on them another new, improper, 
 and foreign one, nor expreffing their nature, but 
 cccafioning endlefs confufion, by joining them to 
 another fet of bodies of a different flrudure, does 
 not appear. 
 
 W^ 
 
t50 
 
 A C O M P £ KT b I U M 
 
 We have already obferved, that if there were; 
 in reality, veficles found in the brain, liver, kid- 
 neys, &c. in their natural and healthful ftate^ 
 which yet is a thing much to be difputed, ic 
 would not foJlov/, that thefc vifcera were to be 
 called glandulous in their ftrudure, but veficulous 
 or vcficular. 
 
 Where, indeed, fuch veficles a^e flirrdunded by 
 or inclofed in a quantity of a glandulous fiefh, or 
 of fuch a fubftance as ihe bodies allowed by all 
 people of all ages to be glands are c mpofed of^ 
 and which, at firfl: fight, fhews thar peculiar face 
 and habit which charaderifes a gland ; in that 
 cafe, as this is ^he cafe in regard to the glands of 
 the lips*, thofe ot the afpera arteria-f, and thofe 
 of the palate, the pharynx, the in:eftines, and 
 particularly ot the duodenum and redum, then 
 thefe bodies, tho' veficular, are to be acknow- 
 ledged to be true and proper glands. Bat they 
 are not charadered as glands by the veficas within, 
 as the Malpighians affert, much lefs by the invd- 
 lucrum, but by their peculiar fleOiy matter fur- 
 rounding the veficles ; for it was from this pecu- 
 liar flefhy matter alone, not for any other caufes^ 
 as has been evinced in the preceding parts of this 
 work, that iheantients called certain par's of the 
 body glands, or glandular parts. Th ir names of 
 parts ought by no means to be changed by iiSj 
 iinlefs with very fufficient reaf^n ; and confe- 
 quently 'till abfolute and difhindive charaders of. 
 what a gland is fliall be eftablifhcd, and fhall be 
 found to exclude fome of th^ fe bodies univerfaliy 
 received as glands, or to take in lome others not 
 fo received. Thefe parts, and no other parts but 
 ihefe, ought to have the name of glands with 
 
 * See T. 8. fig. 36. d d. 
 
 'j- Morgagni, Adverf. i. T. 2. 00. 
 
of ANATOMY, 35 j 
 
 us* otherwife, as has been abundantly proved al- 
 ready, equivocations, and from them confufions 
 of the feveral parts, will be let in upon us, and 
 nunnberlefs errors are the nectflary confequence ; 
 all which will be avoided in this cafe, if we will 
 only agree with the antients in caUing the bodies 
 which they called glands, and thofe only, by that 
 name. 
 
 400. Finally, we are to add, that thofe tumors 
 which Boerhaave and Malpighi have declared to 
 be fituat::d in the follicles or veficles of the cutis, 
 as the athcromata, fteatomata, talps, and the 
 like, do not, in our opinion, arife in the cutis, 
 but under the cutis : for, in the extirpation of 
 thele tumors, they do not only appear very evi- 
 dently, before the operation, to lie under the cutis 5 
 but, in the operation itlelf, the cutis muft always 
 be cut quite thru' before the tumor or its follicle 
 can be got at. Nay, the fame appears evidently 
 even from the very accounts thefe authors them- 
 felves give of thefe tumors, which had fallen un- 
 der their own obfcrvation. 
 
 It will appear to every one, from this, how 
 very litde all that has been alledged, in regard to 
 thefe encyfted tumors, proves in favour of the 
 dodlrine of the cutaneous glands ; and how equal- 
 ly little all the other morbid cafes they have re- 
 cited on this occafion, tend to prove that there 
 are, in the parts where they have been produced, 
 any fuch glands as the authors hav?- brought them 
 to fhew that there were there. In all rhefe cafes, 
 the parrs have receded too much from their natural 
 llruclure, to give any grounds for forming a 
 judgment of what is that flrudure from 
 them : and this argument is alfo of infinite- 
 ly the lefs weight, toward the proving what 
 thele authors intended to prove by it> as the true 
 2 and 
 
35^ A CoMPENDtUM, ^C, 
 
 and genuine glands are fcarce ever changed inrd 
 hydatides or veficulse \ but, on the other hand^ 
 the vafculous parts are extremely fubjed: to Rich 
 changes. 
 
 Nothing can be a flronger inftance of the trnth 
 of this obfervation than that fingular cafe, recited 
 in another part of this work, of the whole liver 
 being transformed into a multitude of hydatides^ 
 in fuch a manner, that there remained not the 
 leafb vefbige of the vena portje, or vena cava; 
 A very ftriking inftance of how great changes 
 may be made in the parts by diflemperatures \ 
 
 S C H O L I O N. 
 
 It feems very evident, that Hippocrates * prin- 
 cipaliy hid regard to the general habit of the 
 glands, fo flrongly infifted upon in this treatife as 
 their great and obvious charadleriftick, in his de- 
 fcriptions of them ; fince he fays, their ftrudlure 
 is fpongy ^ that they are lax in their texture and 
 fatty ; that they are not compofed of a flelh, like 
 that of the reft of the body ; nor have, indeed, 
 in them any thing like any other part of the body^ 
 but a friable matter, full of a multitude of veffels* 
 
 * See his Liber de Glandulis. 
 
 N O t E S, 
 
2S^ 
 
 ADDITIONAL 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 NOTE 76. 
 
 THE epidermis, or cuticula, Is formed merely 
 by the produdlioii of the integuments which 
 are under it. The cutis has a number of 
 wrinkles and furrows, furni(hed with their fecretory and 
 excretory vefTels, and with clufters of nerves. Thefe 
 three produ6tions, as they dry, form a kind of fcales 
 or fquammse, and are lodged one upon another. The 
 fluid matter, which exhales by rrieans of the heat from 
 them, then leaves them harder, dryer, and more rigid 
 than they were before 5 and, under this transformatioil, 
 they make what we call the epidermis. 
 
 This fyftem of the origin of the cuticle Is perfecSlly 
 analogous to what the microfcope fhews us in it; for 
 whatever part of it we examine, with the affiftance of 
 that inftrument, we find it compofed of thefe fquammae 
 or fcales ', or whatever part of the furface of the body 
 be examined, in its healthful ftate, it is always found 
 thus covered. When any violent attack is made upon 
 *the furface of the body, thefe fquamiiiae are the firfl: 
 thing that feel it ; and, if not too fevere, often they 
 are the only part affected by it. Their fofter part, 
 which remains yet attached to the under intieguments, 
 ioofes its connection, and the whole feries of fqudmmae 
 come off together, in form of a thin fkin, which is 
 properly the epidermis. As foon as this outer integument 
 is off, the furrows and excretory veflels of the cutis 
 appear : they immediately protrude themfelves again at 
 their extremities, and form a new feries of thefe fquam- 
 mae ; that is, they conftitute a new coverir^ for them- 
 (elves, a frefti epidermis, like the firft. If this neW- 
 iformed epidermis be feparated again from the under 
 
 A a iiitcgu* 
 
154 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 integuments, a third will be formed in its place, and fa 
 on, almoft without end. 
 
 From this account of the formation of the cuticle, 
 we may underftand the nature and origin of callofities ; 
 which are, in reality, no more than a number of feries 
 of thefe fcales, or feveral diftin6t epidermis's, laid one 
 upon another. In order to the formation of thefe cal- 
 lofities it is not neceflary, however, that the epidermij 
 feparatc itfelf entirely from the fkin ; for, in this cafe, 
 the effect would be different, and the matter of tranfpi- 
 lation or fweat would raife it into blifters, as we fee 
 in burns : in which cafe the adtion of the fire hardens 
 the epidermis, and feparates it entirely from the fkin, 
 after which the matter of perfpiration not being able ta 
 make its way thro' its altered fubftance, and at the fame 
 time nothing fixing it down to the fkin, the fluid, which 
 (hould have been exhaled, is collected in drops, and 
 raifes the cuticle, lodging itfelf between it and the cutis, 
 and forms the blifters, which are the confequences of 
 fuch accidents. 
 
 ■ Theveficles which are formed in exanthemata, with- 
 out the afliftance of external agents, may alfo be ac- 
 counted for on the fame principle. That part of the 
 epidermis, which is naturally immerfed in the larger 
 cavities of the cutis, feparates itfelf from the internal 
 fides of thefe cavities which it before covered, and raifes 
 itfelf outward, as the fluids from within prefs it that 
 way. As it does not give pafTage fo readily to thefe 
 fluids as their excretion requires, they cannot but be 
 retained under it, or between it and the cutis, and they 
 muft there form a kind of blifters or elevations, which 
 muft rife above the level of the furface of the fkin ; 
 and when the blood is urged, by the nature of the dif- 
 order, into thefe cavities of the cutis, thefe elevations 
 muft appear red. 
 
 Immediately under this membrane, called the cuticula 
 and epidermis, hes the corpus reticulare. To form ta 
 ourfelves an idea of the nature and origin of this, we 
 are to remember, that under the fkin, and on the furface 
 of the membrana adipofa, there are certain feries of 
 jaerves which form a kind of membrane, accompanied- 
 with arteries, veins, and lymphaticks. Thefe nerves- 
 2 elevate' 
 
NOTES. 
 
 blevate themfelves in form of pyramids, and with their 
 heads pierce thro' the cutis ; and, when they are arrived 
 at the epidermis, they put off the membrane with which 
 they were before covered : this membr;:ne, or covering 
 of the extremities of the nervous pyramids, when fepa- 
 rated from them, divides into a number of lobes, which 
 apply themfelves to the cutis ; and there uniting with 
 thofe others, which are thrown off from the other cluf- 
 ters of nerves, by this union of the lobes, formed by 
 thefe different feparations, there is formed this membrane, 
 called the corpus reticulare. "The clatters of nerves 
 pafs thro' the apertures of this membrane, and run to 
 the two fides of every one of the furrows of the cutis, 
 where they are arr4nged into parallel feries, in a longi- 
 tudinal direiSiion, and are the organs of fenfation ; 
 which is more or lefs ftrong, according to the more or 
 lefs flfong m^otion that is excited in thefe clufters of 
 nerves. The foul, which is prefent in every part, feels 
 '/the flighteft fignal from them ; and her fenfations are 
 imore or lefs fl-rohg and lively, as the motion given to 
 thefe nerves is more or \e{s violent ; and in confequence', 
 if anv part of this ftru^lure is hardened by external 
 accidents, or otherwife, fhe has no more communica- 
 tion or connection with that part, becaufe there cannot 
 any longer be any fenfations excited in thofe clufters of 
 nerves. 
 
 Befide this reticular fubffance there is another, which 
 may be called properly enough the rete cutaneum, or 
 rete of the cutis. This is formed by the vefTels which 
 are difperfed all over the fkin : thefe veffeis receive, irl 
 ■ general, no other fluid but lymph ; and to this it is 
 owing, that the whole furface of the body with us is 
 white. It has been fuppofed, that in negroes this reti- 
 cular fubftance was formed of larger tubes t, and from 
 hence authors have argued, that in confequence of their 
 larger fize, thefe veffeis may have received blood into 
 them in thofe fubjefts , and that this bipod, divefted of 
 its lymph and other aqueous matter by tranfpiration, 
 became black in them, and was the occafion of their 
 black colour. Tnis has a fhevv of reafon ; but v^e are 
 at prefent very well affured, that the black colour of 
 shefe people is foldy and entirely owing to a black a:at- 
 
 A a 2 tjer. 
 
 '356 
 
356 NOTES. 
 
 ttr, of a peculiar kind, lodged in the corpus reticulare^ 
 tho* we are not acquainted with its origin. 
 
 There are people always of a florid red colour, frorii 
 the blood in the veflels of the fkin not being divefted of 
 its lymph ; and in general, according to the nature of 
 the blood and other liquors which eriter thefe vefTels, 
 the fkin is diiierently col lured. We are not to fuppofe 
 it wonderful, that the veflels of the fkin are not exactly 
 of the fame fize in all people ; for we find that they 
 vary extremely, in this particular, in the different parts 
 of the body in the fame perfon. In the cheeks they are 
 naturally very large, whence there is in general a florid 
 colour there ; and the blood being capable of rufhing 
 more forcibly into them on any occafion, it is in them 
 that flufhings of red are firfl feen from exercife, or a 
 thoufand other occafions. In many of our paffions the 
 nervous fluid being forced violently along its pafTages, 
 they prefs upon the arteries, and force the blood into 
 the lateral tubercles which form this reticular fubflance : 
 hence it is, that We grow red with thefe paflions. If 
 the paflion be more violent flill, and the nervous fluid 
 urged on with greater force, the arteries may be fo 
 prefixed upon as to prevent the blood's pafling at all 
 along its own little channels ; and to this it is owing 
 that we turn pale with extreme anger, and with many 
 other very violent paflions. 
 
 The fame confequence will happen alfo, tho* on 
 another principle, if, on the Contrary, the nervous fluid 
 is not propelled at all, for want of force in the nerves ; 
 in this cafe the heart will not fend the blood at all 
 into thefe minute vefTels, and confec^uently We become 
 pale, as in the other cafe. This is the origin of that 
 palenefs which feizes us in terror. 
 
 Under the fquammae, or fcales ©f the epidermis, we 
 difcover, by means of the microfcope, a vafl number of 
 holes or apertures : Lewenhoek tells us, that he 
 reckoned not lefs than a hundred and twenty-five thou- 
 fand of thefe, within the fpace that a grain of fand 
 Would have covered. He fuppofed thefe to be the ex- 
 cretory apertures deflined for perfpiration ; but, on the 
 nicefl view, it is hard to determine whether what he 
 called holes and apertures were all truly fuch, and 
 
 whether 
 
NOTES, o,si 
 
 vvhether many of them were not extremities of vefTels. 
 We fee clearly and diftin£tly enough, however, a num- 
 ber of tubercles on the furface, which are of confider- 
 able fize, and which we can diftinguifli to come from 
 certain glandulous bodies, fituated on the internal fur- 
 face of the cutis. When we examine thefe tubercles 
 on the extremities of the fingers, with the affiftance of 
 good glafles, we difcover that their inner furface is 
 pundlulated all over with little dots, which are the aper^ 
 tures of other fmall tubercles. All thefe little aper- 
 tures, doubtlefs, difcharge their contents into the gene- 
 ral tubercle : thefe contents are the matter of perfpi- 
 ration and fweatj and what we had been ufed to efteem 
 the excretory du6ls for it, and think very fmall ones 
 too, appear truly to be only the refervoirs of it, run- 
 ning from millions of others ftill more minute. 
 N O T £ 77„ 
 
 Gagllardi obferves that the bones, befide their 
 hard matter, have a fpongy, and, as he expreffes 
 it, a reticular fubftance : there is a membrane alfo, 
 which forms the veficles in their interfllces, as we {halj 
 fee more at large below. 
 
 The hard matter of the bones is compofed of a mul- 
 titude of lamellae, or flakes, laid in feveral feries ever 
 one another ; and, in the long bones^ the external feries 
 of thefe lamellae feparates iifelf from the others at their 
 extremities : the next feries alfo feparates itfelf in the 
 Jame manner ; but it is fhorter than the former ; and 
 the fame is to be obferved in fuccefiion of all the reft. 
 
 The heads of thefe bones, when cut longitudinally, 
 refemble a battledore. We fee by this ftrudiure eafily 
 and naturally, what it is that occafions the protuberance 
 of the heads of the bones. 
 
 The fpongy fubftance of the bones is only an aflem^ 
 blage of a multitude of boney lamellae, which are not 
 difpofed evenly over one another, as thofe of the hard 
 parts, but crofs and interfeii one another at various 
 angles, and have fpaces or cellules between them. It is 
 evidently no other than the hard lamellae, which, by 
 iheir different pofition and diftance, form the fpongy 
 matter ; and hence it is, that we find it in the heads of 
 ihe lojig bones. 
 
 A a 3 The 
 
B5^ NOTE S 
 
 The reticulation, or reticular part, is compofed of 
 fibres, which crofs and i'nterfeft one another : thefe 
 fibres or filaments proceed from the fpongy fubftance 
 among which they are intermingled : they are placed in 
 the cavities of many of the bones, to fupport the me- 
 dullary matter in its place. 
 
 The interftices, which are found between the fibres 
 of thefe reticulations, are lined with a membrane which 
 forms veficles -, and it is within thefe veficles, which in 
 many of the bones refemble cluflers of grapes in form, 
 that the blood -vcilels depofite that fatty or oleaginous 
 fubftance, which we call marrow. 
 
 In the long bones we meet with the three fubflances 
 jufl mentioned, the hard, the fpongy, and the reticu- 
 jar ; but in the flat ones we meet with only the t'.vo. 
 firfl, a hard external matter, and a fpongy one be- 
 tween : this fpongy fubflance, in the crar^ium, is what 
 we call the diploe. 
 
 There is not, in reality, any of that great difference 
 that there appears at fight to be, between the hard and 
 the fpongy fubfl:ance of the bones; for, on calcining 
 the very "firmeft bones, we find that their hardeft and 
 mbfl folid parts are, in reality, no more than an arrange- 
 ment of cellules : the whole difference between them 
 therefore is, that in the hard parts an indurated or folid 
 matter fills up the cellules ; and in the fpongy parts a 
 fofter matter is depofited, which leaves the cavities dif- 
 tiniSIy vifible. The fame fatty fubftance, which oc- 
 cupies the interftices of the reticidar part of the bones, 
 is alfo lodged in the cells of the fpongy part. 
 NOTE 78. 
 
 Malpighi has very accurately explained the flruc- 
 ture of the teeth in thofe of oxen ; but we are 
 not fo well informed of the flradure of thofe of 
 the human body. They have externally a white 
 matter, harder than the reit, which is compofed of per- 
 pendicular fibres, raifed from the furface of the internal 
 fubftance. This is only a fl-ries of little vefl'els, in 
 which there is lodged a firm white matter : thefe har- 
 dened velTels are fometimes continued into the internal 
 fubftance of the tooth, which feems to be an arrange- 
 ment of cells, in which the bleod, which is fent from 
 
 'the 
 
NOTES. 
 
 tli€ root of the tooth, circulates : it is eafy to fee from 
 this, that the teeth muft become black, when robbed 
 of this white matter ; and they may be. divefted of this 
 either by external accidents or force, or by the ftagna- 
 tion of the blood which ought to circulate within, 
 which, after this iiagnation, grows corrupt, and cor- 
 rodes the enamel of the teeth. The part of the tooth, 
 which forms what we call the root, is truly honey, ac- 
 cording to the obfervations of Dr. Havers : it is com- 
 pofed of lamellae of a boney matter, in the manner of 
 the other bones ; and it was a]fo neceflary, for the ufe 
 of the teeth in the comminuting our food, that the 
 enamel or external covering of them fhould be harder 
 than the reft. 
 
 The teeth have a membrane covering their roots : 
 this is produced from the membrane which covers the 
 gum.s, and lines the infide of the mouth. We alfo 
 fometimes find at the root of a tooth a fleftiy matter, 
 like that of the gums, which ferves to keep it firmly 
 in its place. 
 
 The periofteum, which covers the maxillary bones, 
 runs down into the alveoli, or fockets of the teeth ; 
 and on one fide it adheres to the bone of the alveolus, 
 on the other to the root of the tooth : when there is no 
 fleftiy matter in the way, it joins itfelf in fo firm and 
 perfect a manner to the membrane that covers the roots 
 of the teeth, that it concretes, as it were, into one fub^ 
 jftance with it. 
 
 The nerves which enter the jaws fend ramifications 
 alfo to the teeth, in the fame manner as the blood- 
 veflels of the fame bones do. The aperture in which 
 thefe enter is often vifible in the tooth, Vv'Ithout the 
 help of the microfcope ; but it is not always in the fame 
 part of it. Sometimes it is at the very point of 
 the root, fometimes on one fide of it. It is evident 
 from this, that the teeth are capable of pain; and that 
 odd fenfation, exprefTed by us by the iphr^(Q fetthig the 
 teeth on edge^ by biting certain fubftances, is alfo eafily 
 explained by underftanding the communication we have 
 mentioned, between the membrane of the gums, the 
 perjofteum of the maxillae, and the roots of the teeth. 
 
 A ^ 4 The 
 
 559 
 
s6o NOTES. 
 
 The microfcope difcovers pores of two kinds in th® 
 bones, lonc^itudinal and tranfverfe ones. Thefe are not 
 intended u give palFage to blood- veflels ; but, i^ccordirg^ 
 to Dr. Havers, the tranfverfe ones are deflined for the 
 primary reception of the medullary juice, and for the 
 diftributing it to the longitudinal ones. 
 
 NOTE I. 
 
 Dr. Trew of Nuremberg, who had attended 
 the author's courfes of anatomy, and difle£ted with 
 him for four or five years, defired him to commu- 
 nicate to the authors of the German Ephemerides fome 
 anatomical obfervations, which fland in the publications 
 pf that body for the year 17 17, on the fubjedt of fome 
 fefatnoide bones, which he had difcovered by his own 
 indefatigable obfervations in bodies dille^ted by the 
 author, in the anatomy- fchool at Altoilf. Thefe bones 
 are defcribed arjd delineated as new difcovered ones in 
 the account, and the author had communicated them as 
 the difcQvery of Dr. T^ew, and fent them in his name. 
 The publifhqrs of thofp v^orks, however, without his 
 knowle^'ge, printed the paper, with fome few altera- 
 tions, in his name, not in Dr. Trew's : the author of 
 this treatife thinks it incumbent on him to take this pub- 
 lick opportunity of fetiing this matter right, that neither 
 Dr. Trew nor his friends may fuppofe him guilty of any 
 attempt to take any thing from the merit of fo inge- 
 nious a man, or of intending to do himfelf honour from 
 the difcoveries of another : and to give the praife where 
 it is due, he here declares, that every thing contained 
 in that account does of light belong to Dr, Trew. 
 
 He confcfTes alfo, that he did not I^now of thefe 
 bones 'till they were fhewn him by Trew, efpecially 
 thofe of the ofTa femorum, and then confidered them as 
 new-difcovered ones. Ravius, who had been long pre- 
 ceptor to our author in anatomy? and efpecially in the 
 pfteologlcal part, had never, as he obfcrves, mentioned 
 them in his le<Slures ; but abfolutely declared, in bis 
 manufcript-ofleology, which his pupils had the advan- 
 tage of looking into, that there were no fuch bones : 
 he exprefly fays in that treatife, we are to take care 
 net to add improperly to the number of the bones, by 
 ' ' counting 
 
NOTES. 361 
 
 counting more than ten of the fefamolde ones. There 
 are two of them at the fecnnd joint of the thumbs and 
 great toes, and one in each tendon of the mufculus 
 tibialis pofticus *. The articulations of the fingers 
 never have any of them, and it is but very rarely that 
 the tendon jult mentioned has. It is evident, from this 
 pafiage, that Ravius not only fays nothing of the fefa- 
 inoide bones of the thigh, and of the little finger j but 
 abfolutely denies the exiftence of all the other fefamoide 
 bones, as they are called, except the ten he parti- 
 cularifes. 
 
 Hornius alfo, in his Microcofmus, and his Commen- 
 tators, vv^hohave, in general, been men of great know- 
 ledge, and many others of the more eminent writers 
 on thefe fubje^ls, have omitted the mention of them ; 
 Verheyen f , who does mention thofe in the thigh, 
 yet dees not fpeak upon his own knowledge, but quotes 
 the authority of Bartholine for them.. And, finally, 
 Marchettus J, a very accurate and diligent diflec+er, 
 declares, that he never could find thefe fefamoidae of 
 the femur, the' he had, from finding them defcribed by 
 fome writers, frequently looked carefully after them. 
 From all this, and from the vain attempts that had be^n 
 often made by the author himfelf to find them, he 
 wholly gave into the opinion of Ravius, that there 
 were none fuch : but he was af.erwards perfectly con- 
 vinced by Trew, that there did fuch bones exift; and 
 that feveral other ofia fefamoidea alfo v^ere to be found, 
 which were not defcribed, nay, were excepted ag-iinit 
 by Ravius. 
 
 After this, however, looking into a great number 
 of the anatomical writers of molt credit, on occahon 
 of thefe bones ; and finding, in confequence of th;s, 
 that not only one but two fefamoide bones hc^d been 
 fometimes met with, in old fubjecSiS, in thJfcart of the 
 femur where the gaftrocnemii have their orig n, parti- 
 
 ♦ Probably Ravius intended in this place not the tibialis pofticus, 
 |)ut the reconaeus poflicus ; for the author, as well as Vefaiius and 
 ©thers, have found this bone in that, not in the other. 
 
 •f See his Anatomy, cap. de Ofl*. Sefamoid. 
 
 i Se.e jiis Anatomy, cap. j^, de Mufc, Gafirocnemiis, 
 
 cularly 
 
j62 NOTES: 
 
 cularly by Vefalius §, Riolanus ||» who afcribes the 
 honour of the firft dHcovery of them to Vefahus, and 
 alfo by Bartholine*, Munnick f, Drake J, and others ; 
 and that Fallopius <f[ and Cowper mention only one to 
 be found there, which probably was the one which Dr. 
 Trew afterwards found. It is with the aflent of Dr. 
 Trew that he here declares, that thefe fefamoide bones, 
 of which Trew writes, are not new and undefcribed 
 ones, as they had appeared to himfelf as well as to that 
 writer ; but that, as they were known long before, 
 yet funk into oblivion at that time, as they had not of 
 a great while been written of by any anatomift, nor 
 fliewn in any courfe of leisures : it cannot but be judged 
 much to the honour of Dr. Trew, that he firft at this 
 time difcovered one, and to our author that he after- 
 wards ibewed another in the femur, and they defcribed 
 and delineated them in their natural fize, and with accu- 
 racy, that will leave no room for farther doubt about 
 them. See T. i. Fig. 2, 3, 4. It is a very great 
 fervice that the figures of parts, not before perfecStly 
 known, are of to anatomy. 
 
 NOTE 1, 
 Morgagni, when he fpeaks of the generation 
 and regeneration of the epidermis, fays that he is 
 of opinion, that the epidermis is nothing elfe but the 
 upper fuperficies of the cutis itfelf, which grows hard, 
 and, 2S it were, in fome degree callous, by the external 
 compreilion ; and thence grows to be infenfible, and, 
 as it v/ere, dead. But it is to be anfwered to this, that 
 the epidermis is perfectly formed in the foetus, while in 
 the uterus, when there have not been thefe caufes of 
 induration : where the whole furface of the body has 
 been furrounded by the liquor amnii, which is foft and 
 mucilaginous, and by no means capable of making 
 fuch a c^apreflion as is necefTary, according to this 
 author's i^em, for the formation of this parts nor 
 
 § Anatom. Corp. hum. I. 1. c, 28, 
 
 {] Anthropolog. 1. 5. c. 43, 
 
 * See his Anat. c. 14. 
 
 '\ De Re Anatomica, S. 65. 
 
 \ Anthropolog. p. 729. 
 
 ij Oofervat, Anatom. p. 444, 
 
 couM 
 
NOTES. 363 
 
 could give It that hardnefs, drynefs, and callofity which 
 this author allows in it. 
 
 Befide Ruyfch teaches us, In his Adverfaria, a way 
 fo prepare, in a beautiful manner, the cuticle and cor- 
 pus reticulare of Malpighi j and in that place very 
 feverely cenfures St. Andre, who had not only afcribed 
 vefTels to the cuticle, but afTerted, that he was able to 
 aw thefe veilels with a red injeiSlion, in fuch a manner, 
 that they fhould become turgid, and very beautifully 
 vifible to the naked eye, in great numbers. 
 . N O T E 3. 
 
 Many of the modern anatomifts defcribe glands, 
 which they call glandulae febacese j and tell us are 
 fUuated here and there in the cutis, efpecially in 
 the ears, the eyelids, the nofe, the areolae or circles 
 round the nipples, the fcrotum, the fkin of the penis, 
 the prepuce, the nymphs and labia pudendorum, the 
 anus, the axilis, and feveral other parrs : from thefe 
 they tell us, that a febaceous matter, thick and fatty, 
 may frequently be exprefTed ; but Berger and Verccllo- 
 nius contend, that thefe imaginary glands are in reality 
 no other than the extremities of the arteries, dilated 
 into a kind of veficles. 
 
 Finally, Boerhaave informs us, that thofe cor- 
 pufcles which are called febaceous glands, and which 
 have a fma!l aperture v/hich is their emifTory, and 
 which perforates the epidermis, are rather to be efleemed 
 receptacles of an oleaginous or fatty humour, than 
 glands formed for the fecreting of it. To which this 
 author adds, that this humour, fuppofsd by others to 
 be fo fecreted in thefe parts, is more rationally to be 
 fuppofed depofited in them from the mouths of the 
 minute arteries of the cutis ; and that, v/hile in the a6t 
 of fecretion, it was not thus thick, but fine, fubtile, 
 and thin ; that, during its fiay in thofe receptacles. 
 Its thinner part has been exhaled ; and the remainder, 
 by that exhalation, reduced to the thick and febaceous 
 c^nfiftence in which we fee it ; and that this matter, 
 thus become thick, may very eafily be fuppofed to dif- 
 tend, fill up, and render its receptacles vifible, and give 
 ^hem much the appearance of glands. Thefe tubercles 
 are frecjuent in the face, efpecially about the nofe ', and 
 
 this^ 
 
364 NOTE S. 
 
 this feems a much more rational account of them than 
 the fuppofmg them glands. 
 
 It is thefe tubercles which have been miftaken for 
 living animals by many, and called worms of the Ikin : 
 their extremities often appear in form of black fpecks 
 on the furface of the fkin ; and, on prefling them for- 
 cibly, a white, thick, fatty or febaceous matter may be 
 iqueezed out of them. It is natural for a tough matter, 
 thus forced out at a narrow orifice, to reprefent the 
 figure of a worm, and hence has arifen the error, 
 
 Boerhaave carries this do6trine much farther, and 
 with great reafon ; and propriety deduces the origin of 
 the other puftules, called atheromata and melicerides, 
 from the fame caufe ; and our author always gave into 
 the fame opinion, and publickly taught this doctrine, 
 of what had been by fo many called febaceous glands: 
 of this more will be faid in its place, in the Adenolo- 
 gia : from the whole, however, it muft needs be al- 
 lowed, that cutaneous glands, properly fo called, are 
 not fo numerous as many have fuppofed them ; nor that 
 there is one of them under every pore of the fkin, 
 deftined for infenfibie perfpiration, as Steno and many 
 others, fmce his time, have imagined, and have indeed 
 publickly taught. 
 
 Boerhaave himfelf, however, in his epiftle to Ruyfch, 
 feemed inclined to take thefe folliculi for glands ; but 
 Ruyfch, in his anfwer, convinced him perfedily of the 
 error. Our author's farther opinion on this fubje<5tj 
 fee S. 399. 
 
 NOTE 4. 
 
 The ligament, called ligamentum Poupartii *, 
 is faid to be a robuft iig-ament, extended from the 
 anterior fpine of the os ilei to the upper part of the 
 OS pubis ; and it is aflerted, that, by means of it, the 
 connivance of the mufcles of the abdomen, where tlie 
 procefs of the peritonaeum and the fpermatick veflels in 
 men pafs out, is greatly affiifed ; and that the inteftines 
 are by this prevented from falling thro' fo eafily, and 
 forming: htrnias. But Morgigni j| more judicioufly denies 
 the exiftence of this li^^ament, as a diftin^t and feparate 
 
 * See Memoirs of the Paris Academy 170 ij. 
 ff ^§p Adyeyf. Anat. 3, p, 2. 
 
 thing J 
 
 1 
 
Notes. 3^5 
 
 tiling ; and aflerts, that it is no more than the lower 
 rim or verge of the tendon of the mufculus oblique 
 defcendens. Our author was always of the lame opi- 
 nion ; and therefore, not to multiply parts tinnecefla- 
 rily, had wholly left out the very mention of this no- 
 minal ligament in the firft edition of this w'ork. 
 
 Cowper is alfo evidently of this opinion. It is not 
 to be denied, indeed, that this part of the tendon of 
 this mufcle does perform the office of a ligament, and 
 even does the fervice that is attributed to it by thefe 
 authors, in preventing the occafions of ruptures ; but 
 this is no new difcovery. Vefalius plainly fhews, that 
 he was acquainted with it in his account of the parts. 
 N O T E 5. 
 
 The celebrated Tournefort was very firm in the 
 opinion, at one time, that the cffeS: of vomiting 
 was folely owing to the a£l:ion of the mufcles of the 
 abdomen, and he taught this publickly ; but Schelham- 
 mer rejected the opinion a great while fmce. After 
 this Chirac, and after him Du Verney, aflerted that 
 vomiting was the effect of the joint force of the dia- 
 phragm and of the mufcles of the abdomen. And, 
 finally, after all thefe, Littre proved, by very cogent 
 reafons, that the flomach alfo concurred in the pro- 
 ducing this motion ; tho' the authors before mentioned 
 had wholly excluded it from any part or (hare in it *. 
 NOTE 6. 
 
 Many of the anatomical writers have averred, 
 that they have obferved certain fpheroide little 
 bodies, which they will have to be glands, in the peri- 
 tonaeum, the pleura, and the pericardium. But we 
 are to remark, that all the obfervations of this kind 
 have been made upon morbid bodies ; and that no fuch 
 fpheroidal fubftances are to be feen in the diffecfliion of 
 perfons who have been taken off in a flate of health : 
 it is hence very obvious, that thefe bodies^ fuppofed to 
 be glands by the authors who obferved them, are, in 
 iteality, tubercles of a morbid kind, and the mere effe6l 
 of thedifeafeof which the fubje(5t they were found in died ; 
 and, probably, have owed their origin to a flagnation 
 of humors in the fmall arteries of thefe parts. This 
 
 * See Memoirs of the Paris Academy ijooo 
 
 kind 
 
366 NOTES. 
 
 kind of error of miftaking morbid tubercles for natu- 
 ral glands, has gone very far among our anatomifts ; 
 and has given occafion to the defcriptions of a great 
 many glands, which are not to be found in found bodies, 
 and which thence alone are fufficiently proved not to 
 be glands at all. 
 
 Chcfelden * tells us, that he found in a woman, who 
 had died dropfical, the peritonaeum three inches thick, 
 and glands in it vifible to the naked eye. But it is very 
 rational to fuppofe, from the ftate of this morbid and 
 monftrous peritonaeum, that thefe bodies, fuppofed by 
 this author to be glands, were not truly fuch ; but were, 
 in reality, morbid tumors of the part. As, from the 
 fame caufe, we fometimes meet with calculous concre- 
 tions, nay, honey and cartilaginous ones ; ather9mata 
 and fteatomata, and other unufual and unnatural pro- 
 ductions, in different difeafed parts of the body. 
 
 Nay, we meet with accounts of the parts themfelves 
 frequently concreted into a boney, fometimes alfo into 
 a kind of ftoney fubftance, from the fame caufe f ; yet 
 we imagine no body would refer to fuch accidental and 
 unnatural changes, for the explication of a fyftem of 
 the natural parts. 
 
 In the fame manner the judicious anatomift will 
 avoid referring to things which appear in morbid fub- 
 jefts for the explanation of the parts ; nor is it eafy to 
 conceive that it ever can be proved, that bodies of this 
 kind, found only in a preternatural ftate of the parts, 
 do really exift at all in them in a natural one, much 
 lefs that they are glands. 
 
 Many of the moft pompous difcoveries of the later 
 anatomifts are to be referred, we are afraid, to the 
 fame caufe. The author has fpoken with an honeft 
 freedom in the Adenologia \ but thofe who have written 
 fmce have not paid fo much refpe6t, as it would have 
 been to their credit to have done, to what he has faid. 
 NOTE 7. 
 
 Winflow, a very juftly celebrated anatomifl of 
 Paris, firft obferved and defcribed a peculiar natu- 
 ral aperture or foramen into the cavity of the omen- 
 
 * See Chefelden^s Anatomy, Ed. i. p. 96. 
 •)- See Memoirs of the Paris Academy ijQQi 
 
 tum^ 
 
NOTES. 367 
 
 turn, by means of which that part might be conve- 
 niently diftended by inflation, for the obfervation of its 
 UruiSture and parts. 
 
 This aperture is to be fought under the great lobe 
 of the liver, near a certain membranaceous hgament, 
 which joins the beginning of the duodenum and the 
 neck of the gall-bladder to the liver, on the fide of the 
 eminence, which is the root of the little lobe of Spi- 
 gelius, and between that and another ligament, which 
 connects the colon to the pancreas. 
 
 Thefe two ligaments, where they unite, leave be- 
 tween them a certain interftice or aperture, as this 
 author fays, of four or five lines in diameter, in a child 
 of four years old, thro' which aperture the eminence 
 juft mentioned pafs. If a large tube is let in at this 
 aperture, and the reft of it clofed by the fingers, all the 
 cavity of the omentum may be inflated by a moderate 
 blaft ; and in this ftate the part reprefents a kind of fack 
 or bag, but of an unequal and irregular figure. The 
 fame author obferves, however, that this cavity, into 
 which the air is by this means introduced, is not formed 
 folely by the omentum ; but by the upper fuperficies of 
 the mefo-colon, with part of the fuperficies of the 
 colon itfelf, and of the ftomach : and, finally, that 
 membrane, which the fpace between the two orifices of 
 the ftomach, and which he calls the lefter omentum, 
 all concur to the making up the bag thus formed by in- 
 flation at this aperture. 
 
 The ufe of this aperture he fuppofes to be, that, if 
 any humors chance to be collected in the cavity of the 
 omentum, they may have a way cut by means of it, 
 efpecially when the perfon lies on his back. 
 NOTE 8. 
 
 Malpighi himfelf, in his pofthumous work?, ac- 
 knowledges that he doubts whether thefe ductus adi- 
 pofi are truly diftinft veifels. And Morgagni, in his 
 Adverfaria, has very juftly hinted, that they are not 
 neceflTary as fuch ; fince it appears, that the fecretion 
 of the fat may as well be performed in this part as in 
 any other, immediately from the arteries into the adi- 
 pofe cells ; and that it may alfo be again occanonally 
 abforbed by the veins, without the neccffity of im^gin^ 
 
^68 NOTES, 
 
 ing 3- third fort of VefTels, vwMch Malpighl found it 
 neceflary, according to his fyftem, to fuppofe there 
 fhould be. Rivinus alfo, in his difTertation on the 
 omentum, abfolutely denies the exiftence of fuch du(St?. 
 N O -f E 9 . 
 
 As to the flefhy fibres of the florhach, Mor- 
 gagni, fpeaking of them, very juftly obferves, that 
 Fallopius delivered a great deal as to the ftrufture of 
 the ftomach, and particularly as to what related to its 
 orders of flelhy fibres, which Willis afterwards claimed 
 as his own. Helvetius defcribes a very different fitua- 
 tion of its mufcular fibres, with their courfes and divi- 
 fions, and that in a very elegant manner : his figures 
 are alfo greatly fuperior to thofe of any other ; but 
 "whether what he has laid down as their courfe be cer- 
 tainly, uniformly, and regularly fo, is matter of doubt. 
 Our author obferves, that in dilTe^lions he had frequent- 
 ly found them otherwife ; and that in prepared and in- 
 flated flomachs, which he preferved by hint, this was 
 evidently not the direction of them. 
 
 It fhould feem moft probable, from this, that the 
 fibres of the flomach run varloufly in different people. 
 Santorini alledges, that the flefhy fibres of the ftomach 
 are not annular, but fpiral -, and that they are moft 
 conveniently feen, in robufl: bodies, about the pylorus. 
 Our author, tho' he fearched carefully for them in fuch 
 fubje(3:s, acknowledges that he did not find what San- 
 torini had faid, perfectly anfwered. It fiiould feem pret- 
 ty evident, upon the whole, that anatomifls are often 
 to be underftood as fpeaking only of fome one or two 
 particular fubje6ts of their dilfedtions, when they feeiii 
 to be fpeaking of the human ftru^ure in general. This 
 is not the only infl:ance in which two authors differ 
 greatly in their defcriptions of the fame part, tho'. both 
 of them have written from their own abfolute obferva- 
 tlons. In the minuci?e of the human frame there are va- 
 riations, in the particular fubjecS^s ; nor are we to fuppofe 
 them as invariable as the more eflential particulars. 
 NOTE 9. 
 Malplghi will not allow, that there is any fuch 
 diflindl coat of the fl:omach as that defcribed by 
 authors under the name of the villofe one ; his reafon 
 
NOTES, 
 
 for this is, that It cannot be feparated from the nervous 
 one 5 and, in Gonfequence, he allows of only three coats 
 of the ftomach, inliead of four. He does not deny, 
 however, that there are villi and papillse in the ftomach ; 
 but tho' he allows thefe, there are others who either ab- 
 foluteij' deny or at leaft greatly doubt their exiftence : 
 but this is a doubt founded only on want of due obfer- 
 vation, Ruyfch and Santorini have inftrudted us how 
 to make them apoear in the human ftomach, by mace- 
 rating it in warm water ; and they are ftili infinitely 
 more obvious in the ftomachs of fheep, oxen, and 
 many other quadrupeds, Morgagni adds, that he has 
 obferved in fome human ftomachs evident excretory 
 pafTages, or ofcula opening into the ftomach, which 
 plainly alfo belonged to its glands : thefe, he tells us, 
 he principally fav/ near the antrum pylori. Santorini 
 alfo obferves, that he had found in the fame part of the 
 ftomach certain ofcula, or apertures, which he has 
 given under the name of fiphuncles. 
 
 NOTE 10. 
 , The glandular Brunneri are very large and 
 Confpicuous in the duodenum, in infants that have 
 died with a diarrhsea or dyfentery upon them : but 
 when thefe are to be fought in other fubje6ls, this in- 
 teftine is to be boiled fo long in water as till it finks to 
 the bottom. After this the internal coat is to be fepa- 
 rated from the inner furface of the gut with proper 
 care, and they are then to be fouoht for : they will ge- 
 nerally be feen very plainly in this manner, and efpe- 
 tially in that part of the inteftine which is nearelt the 
 ftomach. 
 
 NOTE II, 
 AlbinuS, in an inaugural diflcrtation publiflied iri 
 ' the year 1722 at Leyden, in which he exhibits 
 i, new defcription of the fmall guts, teaches a way, 
 in which, by turning one of the fmall inieftines infid^ 
 out, and afterwards immediately inflating it, and then 
 drying it, the nervous coat may be converted into an 
 elegant and nevv cellulous one, different f om that of 
 Ruyfch J and his experiment will alwa; s fucceed, if fet 
 about with the neceffary cautions. The fame author 
 has given, in his differtation, man^ othsr oblervations 
 
 g k and 
 
 363 
 
2)0 'NOTE S. 
 
 an<! remarks, on other parts of the inteftines, w6rthy 
 obfervation : he aJledges, that the tunica cellulofa of 
 Ruyfch is fituated between the external membranaceous 
 common and mufcular coat 5 and that it does not fur* 
 round the whole inteftinal canal, but is wanting in that 
 part which is againft the mediaftinum, and is in reality 
 propagated from the mediaftinum : but his new cellu- 
 lou? coat is fituated between the villofe and mufculbus 
 ones, and forms what is called the nervous coat, fur* 
 jrounding the whole cavity of the inteftines *. 
 
 Finally, that the flefhy longitudinal fibres are only 
 placed in the part which is oppofite to the mefentery, 
 and are not like fo many threads extended along the 
 whole inteftines ; but are interrupted, as it were, in the 
 manner of the mufculi redli of the abdomen. 
 
 He obferves alfo, that the annular fibres are not in- 
 ferted inco the mefentery, as Willis declares ; but that 
 their contra£lions are toward the mefentery ; that, by 
 inflation, all the rugae or wrinkles of the nervous coat, 
 or of his new celluious coat, and the valvulae of thefe 
 inteftines, difappear immediately ; and that, by this 
 method, the villous coat is eafily feparated from the 
 nervous, which other wife is not fo eafy. 
 
 He adds, that the villi on the tunica villofa, by means 
 of a flight maceration in warm water, and frequent 
 changing and wafliing with it, may be rendered dif- 
 tindly and elegantly vifible, when a piece of the gut, 
 inver ed and cleared from its lubricous mucus, is 
 fufpended in a clear fluid ; and that thefe villi will be 
 rendered yet thicker, and more obvious, efpecially fuch 
 of thetn as comnnunicate with the veins, if they are 
 firft diftended by a wax injection. Finally, he adds, 
 that the veins of the inteftines may be conveniently and 
 elegantly filled with fuch an inje£lion, by means of th'e 
 arteries, and the arteries thro' the veins ; and that the 
 
 *.-Helvetius, in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy 1721, telfs u?, 
 that he had found two new celluious coats in the inteftines : the one 
 of thefe he places between the mufeular and nervous coat ; the other 
 between the nervous and villofe, which undoubtedly is the fame a* 
 Albinus's. But he obferves, that he had not fuUiciently examined 
 thefe. 
 
 ■f Helvetius maintains the contrary, and fays the longitudinal 
 fibres are Itrongell near the mefentery, p. 307, 
 
 matter 
 
NOTES. 
 
 tnatter of the inje<3:Ion may, from either, be forced into 
 the cavity of the inteftine j and that, in this cafe, when 
 the gut is carefully laid open and examined, the inje6led 
 matter will be fo«nd adhering to the villi of the inner 
 coat, in the form of httle worms. 
 NOTE 12. 
 
 The inner coat of the inteftines is commonly 
 called the villofe one, by anatomifls, from there 
 being a multitude of fine and thin villi, refembling the 
 nap of velvet, upon it *. This villofe matter is moft 
 obvioufly feen in the inteftines of a dog, a hog, or 
 fome other quadruped, after macerating a part of them 
 for two or three days in warm water, often changing 
 the water, and finally ftirring the inteftine well about 
 in it. 
 
 Ruyfch has obferved, that there are not only thefe 
 villi, but a number of papillae alfo, obfervable in this 
 coat of the inteflines, which he therefore calls the 
 villo-papillofe one § : but, on the ether hand, Helve- 
 tius abfolutely denies the exift^ence of thofe villi, which 
 are faid to be like fo many hairs, in this coat : he siTerts, 
 that it confifts folely and entirely of mere papillae, which 
 are fpongy, fat, of an irregular figure, and have their 
 extremities pierced with innumerable little holes. He 
 lias figured thefe as they appear before the microfcope ; 
 and for this reafon he calls this coat by a new name, 
 mcmbrana papillaris ; and he afTerts, that the foramina 
 trf thefe papilte abforb the chyle, and carry it to the 
 la6\eals : this is diflinguifhing very nicely, however, and 
 perhaps not with fo abfolute a certainty as the author 
 fuppofes. Thefe papillse are only difcoverable by the 
 afHltance of very powerful microfcopes : they appear 
 like villi to the naked eye ; and indeed, by the fame 
 microfcopes, villi are perceived in difierent places among 
 them: fo that, upon the whole, it feems more advife- 
 able to keep the old name, tunica villofa, than to 
 change it. 
 
 * See Bartholin. Anat. 9. renovat. -p. 297. :fig. 1. PvTagnet. 
 Theatr. T. 69 ; and Pechlin. de Purg. T. 2. fig. 3. 
 § See Adverf. Anat. i. p. 25. 
 X See Memoirs of the Paris Academy 1721, p. 35^ Memoir 392. 
 
 B b 2 The 
 
 371 
 
372 NOTES. 
 
 The ufes of this coat of the inteflines are elegantl) 
 explained by Alblnus and Helvetius ; and what has been 
 before obferved, added to the matter of this note, tends 
 not a little to elucidate their dodrine on this fubje£l. 
 
 Helvetius, in the fame place, fpeaking of thefe fibres 
 of the inteftines, which authors in general declare to be 
 fpiral or annular, does not allow that they are either ; 
 but figures and defcribes them as perfe(5tly irregular, and 
 as a kind of rude fegments of circles, colleded into 
 fafciculi. 
 
 N O T E 13. 
 
 Befide the authors commemorated in this place, 
 as the obfervers of the laiSteals, Rolfinch, in his 
 Diflert. Anat. 1. 5. c. 22. p. 906. produces fome other 
 authors, who, he fays, he is of opinion had feen thefe 
 vefiels J and even goes fo far as to put Hippocrates and 
 the Arabians into his Lift. Among the more modern 
 ones he mentions Vefalius, Fallopius, and Varolius, 
 whofe words he fev^rally brings to prove it. See alfo, 
 on this fabjecl, the Inventa Nov-antiqua of Almelo- 
 ven, S. 23. 
 
 N O T E 14. 
 
 In the year 17 17, a youth of a robuft conftl- 
 tution, who had been feafting and drinking plenti- 
 fully at a neighbouring fair, was fufFocated in a ditch, 
 into which he fell by accident, on his attempting to 
 return home. The day afterwards the body was com- 
 mitted to this author for difleilion, by the curators of 
 the AltorfF academy : he was at that time engaged in 
 the courfe of his reading, in the demonftration of the 
 common teguments and mufcles of the abdomen. On 
 the day following, when he came to examine the in- 
 teftines before his numerous auditory, tho* this was the 
 third day after the death of the perfon, there appeared 
 fuch a vaft number of the lacSteals under the membrane 
 of the mefentery, and upon its fat, that the inteftines 
 and mefentery feemed covered, as it were, with them ; 
 and they were, at this time, full of a white milky fluid. 
 The quantity and plainnefs of thefe vcfTcls, in this acci- 
 dental fubjecl, were vaftly greater than they ever are 
 in dogs or other quadrupeds, fed and prepared on pur- 
 pofc fof this examination. In thefe laft fubje(5^s they 
 
 ufually 
 
NOTES. 373 
 
 ufually only follow the courfe of the veflels of the me- 
 fentery ; but in this man they extended themfelves pro- 
 mifcuoufly over the whole mefentery, and had a multi- 
 tude of inofculations : fome of them alfo evidently 
 entered the glands about the inteftines, and others were 
 in part buried in the fat of the mefentery, fo that their 
 progrefs could not be diftinguifhed ; and, finally, a part 
 of them went away to the more remote glands, as 
 thofe figured at the end of this work, Tab. 2. Fig. 8. 
 which were in the fubjecl itfelf fo elegant and fine, that 
 neither the drawer nor the engraver have been able to 
 come up to nature. 
 
 After this, in the year 171 8, the author, before a 
 numerous audience alfo, on the 18th of April, demon- 
 llrating on the body of a young: perfon, who had died 
 in a confumption, obferved the ladieals very numerous, 
 and difpofed in the fame manner as in the former fub- 
 je6t, and this twenty-four hours after the perfon's death. 
 In this fubje6l alfo, and in another foon after, the au- 
 thor and his pupils evidently diftinguifhed them coming 
 out of the duodenum itfelf. 
 
 In the year 17 19, he alfo obferved a very large 
 la(f\ecil in the duodenum, near the pylorus ; and from 
 that time he occafionally obferved, and (hewed to his 
 auditors, lacteals in different number and condition in 
 feveral of the bodies he demonftrated on, tho* it has 
 feldom happened to him to find them fo obvious and (o 
 turgid as in the cafes jufl mentioned. As they are, 
 however, very rarely feen In human fubjecls at all, and 
 fcarce ever in fuch abundance and fullnefs ; and as the 
 figures given of them by the anatomifts in general, 
 are from quadrupeds, it appeared very proper, when 
 fuch an opportunity offered, to have them delineated 
 from a human fubjedl, and to exprefs the difference 
 between their courfe and figure in the human frame and 
 in quadrupeds. Nuck, in his Adenographia, Fig. 9. 
 has given a delineation of the lafteals, as he fays, from 
 a human fubje£l ; but he gives fo few of them in the 
 quantity of the inteftine he exhibits, that they appear 
 much more probably to have been the veiTels of a dog ; 
 for in both the human fubjc<fl"S, in which they appeared 
 fo beautiiuUy to our author, they weie, aX kaif, trn 
 
 B b 3 timf? 
 
S74 notes; 
 
 times as numerous as in this figure of Nuck's. The*^ 
 "valves, which he has delineated fo large and fair 
 in them, do not appear in thofe of human fubjeds as 
 they occur to us in diffe^lions : their figure is truly 
 fuch as reprefented in our figures ; but when their dif- 
 fedlion is made in a quadruped, prepared for it, and juft 
 killed, and the vefl^els are tied, there the valves and 
 tubercles appear, and not otherwife. 
 
 In the firft fubjedl difieiled by our author, in which 
 they appeared fo fair and numerous, the perfon was 
 young : he had been eating heartily, and he was in- 
 flantaneoufly fufFocated. and confequently the motion of 
 the chyle in the vefiels was flopped juft at a time when 
 they were filled to the utmoft : hence it was, that thefe 
 vellels were fo elegantly feen in this fubjeft. But in the 
 other body, the perfon having been confumptive, jel- 
 lies, broaths, emulficns, and other ftrengthening things, 
 had been given him, almoft to the time of his laft 
 breath ; and to this it was ov/ing, that they were fo 
 well filled, and fo beautifully confpicuous in him. 
 
 Thefe were opportunities in which it was natural to 
 expeil to find the la6teals filled and vifible ; but as they 
 are occafions which occur but very feldom, it is not a 
 wonder that anatomifts fo rarely meet with a view of 
 the lacteals, in human bodies, in any great degree of 
 perfedlion. 
 
 Morgagni, however, has been fo fortunate as to meet 
 with much fuch another view of them, as he informs 
 us in his Adverf. Anat. 2. p. 92. and in his Adverf. 3. 
 p. 31. he defcribes them alfo as he faw them in the 
 duodenum, a little below the pylorus. Mufgrave gives 
 ti very elegant method of filling the la61eals in a dog, 
 with a fluid tinged with ftone-blue, in the Philofophical 
 Tranfactions, N^. 275. 
 
 NOTE 15. 
 
 There have been, among the anatomical writers, 
 many who have denied the exigence of the receptacu- 
 lum chyli in human fubjedts : fome have aflerted, that 
 the lumbar glands performed the office of fiich a recep- 
 tacle ; but experience is againft this. Not only our 
 author has fomctimes filled this receptacle, along with 
 the thoracic du6t, with quickfiiver, and that in a very 
 
 ele- 
 
NOTES. 
 
 ^leganfc manner, in human fubje£^s ; in which cafe it 
 appears a fine thin membranaceous fack, fometimes 
 Single, fometimes double ; but many other anatomical 
 writers, whofe own credit is fufficient to fupport the 
 aflertion, and whofe atteftations are confirmed by this 
 experiment, h.ive elegantly and juftly figured this with 
 the thoracic du6t in the human frame. Cowper in his 
 Anatomy, Bidloo in his Differtation de Organ. Chylif. 
 Drake in his Anthropologia, Salzman and Wius in par- 
 ticular dififertations, and Henninger in the German 
 Ephemerides, Cent. 3. as well as Cant, T» 6. have all 
 juftly delineated and de-fcribed it, 
 
 NOTE 16. 
 The ufe of the femilunar valve in the fubclavian 
 vein, at the infer tion of the thoracic du(5^, is to this 
 time generally underftood to be for the clofing that du6t, 
 that the blood from the fubclavian may not rufh into it. 
 But Jo. Adolph. Wedelius diffents from this : he will by 
 no means allow, that it was formed with this intent 5 
 Stnd demonftrates, that no blood from the fubclavian 
 could ever enter the thoracic du(^, if no fuch valve as 
 this exifted. The valves in the thoracic du6^ alone, 
 aind efpecially with the affiftance of the fluid contained 
 in that duiSl:, would always be able to refift the impulfe 
 of the blood attempting to force its way into it, as he 
 ajjundantly proves. He adds alfo, that the pofition of 
 this valve is fuch, that it is by no means calculated for 
 the preventing the ingrefs of the blood into this ducSl, 
 if the nature and conftitution of that du(Sl permitted it. 
 He goes on to (hew, that this valve, together with a 
 fimiiar one on the oppofite fide, does the fame office iri 
 this as the other valves do in the other veins ; that is to 
 l3,y. they ferve to prevent the blood going this way 
 back again from the vena cava in the contraction of 
 the heart. 
 
 N O T E 17. 
 We have very few of the lymphatlcfes truly deli- 
 neated from human fubjeCts ; and even Nucks in his 
 Adenographia, which have been generally allowed to ' 
 be taken from human fubjeCls, on a ftricter enquiry, as 
 obferved in another place, prove to be either from qua- 
 drupeds, or^ what is worfe ftill, from imagination. His 
 
 B b 4 fi.gurei, 
 
 375 
 
37^ 1^ O T E S. 
 
 figures of the heart, the kidneys, and fome other parts, 
 give fufiicient ground for this conclufion, as the expe- 
 rienced dilTecSter will eafdy difcover. Thofe which he 
 adds to the human uterus were certainly never feen by 
 him, but contrived by his own fancy, in confequence 
 of that analogy he obferves between the lymphaticks of 
 brures and thofe of the human fpecies. For fince thefe 
 veflels can fcarce poflibly be feen, except in living fub- 
 je6ts, and fmce women are not tobe difledted alive, for 
 the looking after them, it appears fufficiently that there 
 is no room to fuppofe them real. But tho' we can by 
 no means allow thefc to be juft figures of the la(fteals of 
 the human u.terus, we are far from declaring that there 
 are none there. On fome very fortunate dilTe^lions 
 they have been found ; but they are ufually few ift 
 number, and what there are, are very fmall. 
 NOTE i8. 
 
 Our author has, in two papers publiftied in the Ger- 
 man Ephemerides, Cent. 5 and 6. defcribed two hu- 
 man gall-bladders, in the cyftick du(St of each of which 
 he difcovered certain beautiful and furprifmg valves of 
 a fpiral figure ; and, as they have not been mentioned 
 by any other author, they are figured again in this 
 work, Tab. 3. Fig. 9. where there is alfo added a third 
 and new delineation of the cyftick du£t of a woman, 
 diffeded by the author, after the puWication of the 
 others ; in which alfo he obferved a number of mem- 
 branes, fome in a tranfverfe, fome in an oblique fitua- 
 tion, which divided the du£l:, as it were, into a number 
 of cells. Thefe, however, djd not entirely clofe the 
 du^ in any part, but were difpofed much as the val- 
 vulse conniventes in the jejunum and colon. 
 
 Gliffbrt fays, indeed *, that certain anatomies bad 
 framed, from their own imagination, valves in the 
 du6lus cyfticus ; but that he is of opinion, that what 
 led them into the error was the fibrous annulus of the 
 cvftis ; for that he never was able to find a real valve 
 there, 
 
 Ijianchus § alfo, in the fame manner, roundly afierts, 
 that the valves, fpoken of in the neck and the cyilis 
 
 * See Trad^. de Hepate, c. 14, 
 § See Hifl, Hep, Ed. prim, 
 
 fellca. 
 
NOTES. 37;^ 
 
 fellea, are Imaginary ; but the author of thefe obfer- 
 vations, who has found the parts already mentioned not 
 only once, or in one fubjedt, but many times, and in 
 many, is not afraid to appeal to the publick, whether 
 they are or are not valves. Their ufe alfo, is afubject 
 very worthy to be inquired into. We are not to omit 
 to take notice, however, that Bianchus, in a fucceed- 
 ing edition of his work, has recalled his words, and 
 even acknowledged, that demonftration had taught him 
 to own that they were net imaginary, but real. 
 
 Bauhine*, Bidloo f , and Veftus ;{:, however, have 
 mentioned in their time certain valves in this part: 
 and Schelhammer § has gone fo far toward it as to al- 
 low, that the cyftick du6t will not admit a ft)le either 
 from the part next the duodenum, or from that next 
 the cyftis ; but that it very readily admits of infiatioa 
 either way. It is probable, that this author, in the 
 fubjed which he is defcribing, really met with a cyftick 
 du6t with fome of thefe valves in it; tho' he refers to . 
 another caufe, what was evidently an effe£l of their 
 being there. Finally, it is to be remembered that 
 Plancus found, as himfelf fays, valves in this place ; 
 and thofe, as it appears, fuch asthofe defcribed from one 
 of our author's fubje6ts : his defcription of them is, 
 that they perfectly refembled the turn of a fnaii-fnell Ij. 
 NOTE i8. 
 
 It has been to this time muchdifputed, whether there 
 are or are not ducSts, which immediately, or without 
 the intervention of any other duiSt, do convey the bile 
 from the liver into the gall-bladder. 
 
 Bohnius gives fome very remarkable experiments ^, 
 by which it appears that there are evidently fuch du£l$ 
 in men : and adds, that GlifTon and Blafius had men- 
 tioned them before him : from this he concludes, that 
 fuch duels are necefiary alfo in the human frame, and 
 confequently that there are fuch there. But, on the 
 
 * See Theat. Anat. p. 156, 
 
 f See Anat. T. 38. fig. 3. 
 
 "l See Obf. in Cramer. Colleg. Chym, 
 
 ^ See Analeft. Anat. DifTert. 11. N. 23, 
 
 Ij See Epift. ad Jof. Pozzum, p. 20, 
 
 '^ See AftaEruditor, Leipf. ijzz, 
 
 gihzs 
 
375 NOTE S; 
 
 other hand, the anatomical writers of moft reputation, 
 tho' they allow that in many quadrupeds there are fqcH 
 du£ts, yet abfolutely deny that there are any fuch in the 
 human frame -, and our author joins his teftimony to 
 theirs, that there have not been any fuch found. 
 
 Chefelden, in the firft edition of his Anatomy, men- 
 tions a cafe, in which he fays, he found thefe du<S^| 
 in a human fubjedl ; but he adds, that they were ex- 
 tremely minute : the fubje£l was a perfon who had died 
 in a jaundice. He gives a figure of the gall-bladder in, 
 his 1 8th Plate. But, in his third edition of the fame 
 work, he recalls his aflertion, and allows that he had 
 advanced it like a young anatomift ; and acknowledges, 
 that he never afterwards could find thefe dudts, tho* he 
 had fearched after them with the utmoft attention and 
 care. 
 
 After all this, Bianchus, in his hiftory of the liYer,^ 
 takes infinite pains to eftablifla the doctrine of thefe 
 du(5ls again : he alledges many reafons why they (hould 
 be found, and brings many experiments and obferva^ 
 tions to prove the truth of what he afferts. He ever\ 
 diftinguifhes the du6ls he found into two kinds> the 
 hepatico-cyflick, and the cyftico-hepatigk ; and has 
 given very pompous figures of them : h )W the fucceed* 
 ing anatomifts will find them, time will (hew us. Added 
 to the weight of his own obfervations, he brings the 
 teftimony of Cajetanus Taconis, a phyfician and philo- 
 fopher of Bononia, who, in a letter to hin), accom-^ 
 panied with fome figures, takes a great deal of pains to 
 prove the exiftence of fuch dudis, running from the 
 liver to the gall-bladder; and gives the conformation 
 of the parts, and courfe of thefe dudls, as he fays he 
 obferved them in a morbid fubjeft. Soon after the pub- 
 lication of this, however, there appeared a letter pC 
 J. Pozzus, profeflbr of anatomy at Bononia, to Plan- 
 cus : this was publifhed in 1726; and in this letter, and 
 Plancus's anfwer, the matter is fet in a new light. All 
 Taconis's obfervations are faid to be erroneous and falfe ; 
 and it is afierted, that he was deceived by taking the 
 arteriolie of the cyftis for fuch dudls as all this pains 
 had been taken to eftablifh. 
 
NOTES. 
 
 Our author,, who never omitted the utmoft pains in 
 his difle<SiQns, to enquire into the truth of a fubj-6l fo 
 much in difpute> tells us, that, after all thefe alterca- 
 tions about it, he at length thought he had found it to 
 be a truth, that there were fuch du<3s. He difcovered, 
 before a numerous affemhly, what appeared to be a dudl 
 of this kind, or a true hepatico-cyftick du(ft. Its fize was 
 fuch as might countenance the opinion ; its colour ycl- 
 low, and its fituation was near the hinder part of the 
 peck of the cyftis, or gall-bladder : but others fhould 
 be informed, from his conduft, how to treat what apr 
 pear to them in the light of new difcoverles. He exa- 
 mined this vefTel along it§ progrefs 5 and, finally, making 
 a fmall aperture in it, and inflating it, he found it was 
 diftributed over the cyftis in the manner of the ramifi- 
 cations of a (hrub, or little tree ; and, in fine, that its 
 trunk was a blood-vefiel of the cyftis, and thefe its 
 ramifications ; tho' its colour and fituation, which wa5 
 much the fame with that of fome of the hepatico- 
 cyftick du61s in oxen, would have led many people to 
 have aflerted, with great boldnefs, that it v^as truly 
 fuch a du6t as we know there is in that animal, and ss 
 had been fo long fought in man in vain. 
 
 Upon the whole it appears, that it is eafy to be de- 
 ceived unto an opinion of thefe du£ts bsing found where 
 they are not ; and that, from the ill fuccefs of the gene- 
 |*ality of anatomifts in their fearches after them, it ap- 
 pears, that if there are fuch in human fubjeirs, as fomt' 
 anatomies who feem to be worthy credit, affirm ^ that 
 they axe not univerfal, but are very rare. 
 -NOTE 19. 
 
 Thofe authors, who have faid that the fubftance of 
 the liver is glandulous, have been led to it principally 
 from the obfervation, that in morbid fubjedts, particu- 
 larly in fuch as have died in dropfies and atrophies, there 
 have been a multitude of fpheroidal bodies found in it : 
 but, as it appears by repeated and continual obfervation 
 that no fuch things are found in the livers of perfons 
 who die without thefe difeafes, it is to be inferred that 
 they are, when found, not glands, but morbid tumors 
 and tubercles. 
 
 If 
 
 379 
 
3So NOTES. 
 
 If the liver of a horfc or ox arc examined, tho* 
 they are very large, and all the parts arc very vifible 
 and diftind in them ; yet the niceft enquiry will not be 
 able to difcover in them any peculiar and diftin6l bodies 
 wrapped up in their membranes : and, on the contrary, 
 if the tubercles that are found in the livers of morbid 
 perfons be ftridly examined, they v^^ill not be difficultly 
 found to be morbid, and quite out of the courfe of 
 nature. Our author mentions an inftance of what 
 would have deceived manv people, of fanguine imagina- 
 tions, ipto an opinion of their having found thefe 
 glands, tho' without any real foundation. This was in 
 a body he opened, in company with Boyer : in this the 
 furface of the liver fhewed a prodigious number of 
 round white bodies of various fizzes, which appeared 
 perfectly like what many have defcribed as glands : the 
 fubjedl was a woman, who had died dropfical ; and 
 when thefe tubercles were opened, and their contents 
 examined, it was found that they were filled with a 
 matter as different as well could be from that of the 
 liver, and much like that contained fometimes in 
 the harder encyfled tumors, like fuet or fat. 
 
 The liver, in this fubje£l, was grown to twice Its 
 natural dirnenfions; and, on opening it, a multitude of 
 the fame tubercles were found in its fubftance : fome of 
 thefe were as big as an egg, others fmaller ; many of 
 the fize of a nutmeg. The colour and whole appear- 
 ance of all thefe was like that of thofe on the furface, 
 very cJifFerent from th/it of the liver ; and it eafily ap- 
 peared that thefe tubercles, tho' they were of a roundifh 
 iigure, wer- not glands, but morbid tumors, which 
 acidentally refembled the figure of glatids. 
 
 After this he proceeded to examine carefully the like 
 bodies, which he found emulating the appearance of 
 pjands in the livers of diftempcred human fubje<5ts, as 
 well as quadrupeds, and he a'.v/ays found them of the 
 rature of encyfted tumors ; which kind of tumors will 
 rife in the internal as well as on the external parts, and 
 in both have fo much of the appearance of glands, that 
 it is eafv for the un«.vary to be deceived by them. 
 
 There have not been wanting others, who, having 
 found OiOf bid veficles in the iiver, have fuppofed them 
 
NOTES. 38^ 
 
 to be glandsJ ; but we fhall have occafion to fpeajc aft 
 large on a fubjeil of this kind hereafter, fee Ncte 75, 
 and need therefore only obferve here, that this opinion 
 is equally erroneous with the other. 
 NOTE 19. 
 
 Palfinus, in his Anatomy, p. 184, blsmcs our author 
 for having aflerted the ingrefs and egrefs of the bile, 
 contrary to the opinion of Verheyen : its ingrefs, thro* 
 the cyftick du6l into the cyftis ; and its egrefs, thro' tke 
 fame dui£i into the ductus cholidocus. He calls in, to 
 the fupport of his cenfure, the names of a great many 
 very eminent anatomifls who utterly reject this fuppo- 
 fuion, and agree with Verheyen ; who declares it as 
 his opinion, that it is impofTible that the bile ihould, by 
 the fame ducSt, run into the cyftis, and run out of it 
 again. But Bohn * and Ortlobius f have advanced 
 this opinion, and that on the teftimony of infallible 
 experiments, which experiments our author has re- 
 peated, and found to be juft. and the concluTion cer- 
 tain. Cole J alfo, and Maur. Hoffman §, i^nd a multi- 
 tude of others, join in our author's opinion j and 
 Bianchus 1| has abundantly confirmed the truth and cer- 
 tainty of it. It is to be added alfo, that whatever may 
 be faid by fome, as to the improbabiliry of it, we Ixave all 
 the reafon in ihe world to bel/eve it may bej fince we 
 fee the very fame thing evidently happen in the veficul^e 
 feminales. 
 
 NOTE 20. 
 
 As many have found round bodies in the liver, which 
 they have fuppofed to be glands -, fo fome alfo have met 
 with fuch in the fpleen, and have in the fame manner 
 fuppofed thofe to be glands alfo : but as, in regard to 
 thofe imaginary glands of the liver, it appears that they 
 have alwnys been found in morbid bodies ; fo a'fo, 
 thefe of the fpleen have been found in fuch only. What- 
 ever has been faid againft the opinion of thefe tubercles 
 in the liver being real glands, is of equal force here : 
 
 * See Aft. Erudit. Leipf. 1682 and i6?3, 
 
 "f- See Hift. Part. p. 135. 
 
 X See De Secret. Animal, p. 133, 
 
 4 See Idea Machin. Corp. hum, p. 5^. 
 
 }l Sc« Hill. Hepat. c. 13, 
 
 nav. 
 
3S2 NOTES. 
 
 ftay, th^efe round bodies in this part have ftill hfs title 
 to be fuppofed glands, than they might appear to have 
 in the liver, fince there is no fecretion performed in the 
 liver, nor has it any excretory du6t ; fo that there can» 
 not appear fo much as a reafon why nature {hould have 
 placed glands there. There can, indeed, be no ufe of 
 glands where there h no fecretioft ; and nothing is a 
 more certain truth, than that nature never made any 
 thing in vain. To this it may be added, that Ruyfch, 
 in feveral of his works, has proved, to demonftration, 
 that thefe vifcera are of a vafcular ftru£)ure, and that 
 there are no true glands in them : and Schelbammer * 
 has proved, that what Malpighi has figured and defcribed 
 as the glands of the fpleen, hanging together like cluf- 
 ters of grapes, is a mere fidliOn. See the Adenologia, 
 S. 365. 
 
 NOTE 21, 
 There is no one of the vifcera tire ufe of which is 
 fo obfcure as that of the fpleen, and, confequently, there 
 i? none which has given rife to fo many different opi- 
 tii>t\s of authors on the occafion. Many, who have 
 fou^xd that it may b^e taken out from a living aniinal, 
 without its receiving any hurt by the lofs of it, have 
 joined with Erafiftratus f in fuppofing it a perfeiftly 
 uftlefs and fuperfluous part of the frame, and have 
 even accufed nature of an error in putting it there. 
 >> Others fuppofe that it is placed, as we fee it, to keep up 
 
 the equilibrium of the body, and with no other intent 
 or purpofe. Some have joined in the old opinion of 
 Hippocrates and Ariftotle, that it ferved to draw off the 
 watery matter from the ftomach J : but the greater 
 part of the antients have been of the opinion of Galen, 
 that it was deflined as the receptacle of the humour 
 they called atra bilis, or melancholy. Some hav€ fup- 
 pofed that a kind of ferment or menftruum, neceffary 
 for the operations of the ftomach in digeftion, was 
 fccreted in the fpleen, and thence conveyed into the 
 
 * See Ana!cif>. Anat. DlfTert. 10. No. 22, 
 f See Galen, de Ufu Part. 1. 4. c. 15. 
 X Ice Calp. Hoffman dc Ufu Lionis, 
 
 ftomach* 
 
N © T E S. 3 
 
 {lomadt. Some have fappofed it the origin of laughter, 
 accord iftjg to the old Latin adage : 
 
 Spttn ridere faclat y cogit amare he-par^ 
 
 Othferi hate advanced that its ufe is ^o ihTpifTate the 
 blood : Havers ^ was Of opinion, that its office was the 
 preparation of that mucus which is fecreted in the mii- 
 cous glands of the articulationis. S'chelhamm'er -j-, anel 
 ^*ith him Lilier +, and fome of the kte lEngiifti anato- 
 mifts befide, as Purcell §, 5cc. fuppofe it to be a kind 
 of diverticulum for the blood in the more violent com- 
 fnotions : and to this Purceil adds, that it inTpHFates the 
 blood ; and, by means of an acid of fonie kind or otlier, 
 |)rodu'ces a precipitation, which ferves for the better 
 fetretibn of the bile. Others have found out othet 
 imaginary ufes for it ; ah enumeration of which would 
 take up more room than the reader would think it 
 worth. The opinion of our author is, that its oilice is 
 to fupply a particularly thin and fluid blood to the liver; 
 by means of which the other thicker blood conveyed 
 to it from the other parts, and from which a fecretion 
 of fo much importance as that of the bile, is to bfe 
 formed in this denfe vifcus, is rendered more fluid ; 
 and by this means the fecretion of the bile is greatly 
 promoted, and at the fame time the obftrudions in the 
 liver, which would otherwife probably be very frequent, 
 and muft be of bad confequence, are prevented. 
 
 In confirmation of this opinion, if the fplenic vein 
 be opened in a dog, or other living animal, a thin and 
 florid blood always runs out of it ; not a thicker than 
 that of the other vfeins, as the aflerters of the opinions 
 inoft received, as to the ufe of this vifcus, Would infer. 
 NOTE 22. 
 
 As the liver and fpleen have been declared by many 
 to be glandular in th'6ir ftrufture, fo the kidneys alfo 
 have been judged to be fo, and ±at from the fame erro- 
 neous obfarvations. Tubercles, Which have the ap- 
 |/earance of glands, are fometirijes foUrid in the kid- 
 
 * Sfefe bis Gfteologia, 
 
 f- "Artaleft. Diflert. Anat. lo, S.-4.C. 
 
 X Traft. dc Humoribus. 
 
 § Traa, de ChoIic«, 
 
 neys^ 
 
;e4 NOTE S. 
 
 neys ; and thence, as in regard to the two other vifceraiji 
 the whole fubftance of the kidneys has been judged to 
 be glandulous. The bodies fuppofed to be glands in 
 the kidneys, are not univerfal, or found in all; and 
 where they arc found, they are always mere morbid 
 tumors. Sometimes veficles alfo are found in the kid- 
 neys, and from thefe alfo they have been fuppofed to 
 be of a glandular ftru<5lure : but what is truly the ftate, 
 in regard to thefe, will be explained hereafter in note 
 
 75- 
 
 NOTE 23. 
 
 Scarce any thing has been more obfcure and uncer- 
 tain than the ufe of thefe glands. The academy of 
 Bourdeaux very laudably propofed their prize to the 
 perfon who (houM difcover what was their true ufe 5 
 hut, unfortunately, there appeared no body to claim the 
 rev/ard. Some time after this, however, Valfalva*, a 
 very eminent anatomift of Bononia, wrote to many 
 people, that he had found their real ufe, and had difco- 
 vered certain duds paffing from them, in men, to the 
 epididymides; and, in women, to the ovaria. He took 
 care to have the notice of this difcovery printed, and 
 promifed a diftin6l treatife on the fubjedt ; but, tho' the 
 author lived fome years after this promife, the treatife 
 never appeared : and we are to add to this, that no 
 man fince has ever been able to find the du6ls he fpeaks 
 of. There appears fufficient reafon, from this, to doubt 
 the reality of thefe duds ; and adding to this, that thefe 
 glands are very large in the foetus, and gradually be- 
 come fmaller, as the child grows towards maturity, 
 there appears very little reafon to fuppofe them of ufe 
 in generation. Malpighi has given an accurate and 
 elegant account of their ftrudure. 
 NOTE 24. 
 
 Author?, in general, fay there arc only three tunics or 
 coats to the urinary bladder ; but as Wharton mentions 
 a tunica cellulofa in the mefentery, and Ruyfch and 
 others defcribe a cellulous one alfo in the inteftines, we 
 art to allow t'le fame reafons of force, and even greater, 
 ^re to be urged for the eftablifliing the dodrine of a 
 cellulous coat in the bladder. It is evident, that be- 
 • See Vallifnerrs Hiftor. Generat, p. 353. 
 
 twcen 
 
NOTES. 
 
 tween the outer and mufcular coat there is ufually, if 
 not unlverfally, a quantity of fat, and that often pretty 
 confiderabie ; and that this is fecreted in peculiar adi- 
 pofe cells, and properly colle(?ted and preferved in them, 
 as in the other allowed membranes of this kind ; fo 
 that, properly, we are to allow four membranes to the 
 bladder. 
 
 In dogs, and fome other quadrupeds, indeed, this 
 cellular membrane fcarce comes in fight at all ; but in 
 the human bladder it is often confiderabie enough to 
 be very obvious. Its ufe feems to be to defend the 
 bladder itfelf from the acrimony of the fluid contained 
 in it. 
 
 NOTE 25. 
 
 Many things more there are to be pointed out, in 
 regard to the tefticles : tho' they would fvvell the enu- 
 meration of their parts too much to be inferted in the 
 text, we may have permiflion to mention them here. 
 
 Morgagni obferves, that the firft among the earlier 
 writers, who difcovered the fubftance of the tefticles to 
 be truly vafcular, were Arantiu?, Cabrolius, and the 
 accurate and difcerning Riolanus ; but that De Graaf 
 firft demonftrated the connections and ufes of thefe 
 veffels. The vafcular fubftance is extreme clearly dif- 
 tinguiftiable in the tefticles of the tortoife *, the boar f , 
 the ram J, and the dormoufe §. 
 
 We are to obferve alfo, that the fpermatick arteries 
 do not always arife from the aorta ; but the left fome- 
 times from the emulgent, and not unfrequently both 
 from the hypogaft ricks 1|. This feems not to have been 
 difcovered by thofe who tell us, that the fpermatick 
 arteries have been found wholly wanting in fome fub- 
 jeS:s. De Graaf juftly calls thefe triflers on fuch fub- 
 je6ts ^. Lealis and Schrader** alfo are of opinion, 
 that the fpermatick arteries, before they reach the tef- 
 
 * See Ruyfch's Adverf. Anat. 4. 
 
 f See Schelhammer's Analedt. Difl*. ij. 
 
 X See Lealis de Part. Generat. 
 
 § See De Graaf and Chefelden, 
 
 P See Nicolaus's Diredt. Vafor. 
 
 ^ See De Viror. Org. Generat, 
 
 «* See Obferv. Anat. 
 
 C c tides, 
 
 385 
 
385 NOTE S. 
 
 tides, communicate by anaftomofes j but no botJy, bc- 
 iide themfelves, have been able to make this out *. 
 
 The firft defcription of thefe arteries we feem ta 
 owe to Andromachus f . Morgagni obferves, that the 
 tunica albuginea of the tefticles may be eafily feparated 
 into two ; and Teichmeir declares, that it truly confifts 
 of three, namely, a tendinous one, a vafcular one, and 
 a nervous one t. 
 
 NOTE 26. 
 
 The difpofition of the tefticles and epididymides is 
 not always regular or certain. Our author obferved a 
 very peculiar manner of it, in a fuhjedt publickly dif- 
 fered at Helmftadt: in this fubjecl the left tefticle was 
 not in the fcrotum, but in the abdomen ; but that not 
 in the pelvis at the fide of the bladder, where other 
 anatomifts have ufually found it on this occafion, but 
 in that part where, in other fubjed^s, the fpermatlck 
 veflels pafs out of the abdomen. It was alfo much 
 fmaller than the other, and had no epididymis. See 
 its figure in Tab. 6. Fig. 25. m. The epididymis made 
 its way thro' the mufcles of the abdomen, where the 
 fpermatick veflels ufually pafs out toward the fcrotum, 
 and extended itfelf thro' the left groin, as far as to the 
 upper part of the fcrotum. From the end of the epi- 
 didymis the vas deferens was again turned upwards, and 
 entered the belly near the epididymis, palling thro' th& 
 groin, and then thro' the mufcles of the abdomen, 
 whence it pafTed in the ufual way to the left veficulae 
 feminales. This difpofition of the parts, and the Angu- 
 lar divifion of the veflTcls, are carefully exprefled in the 
 iigure. 
 
 NOTE 27. 
 
 Lealis has figured the veficulas feminales as termi- 
 nating in the urethra, by one common duel ; and Boer- 
 haave takes this upon credit from him § : and fome of 
 the French anatomifts have done the fame, obferving 
 in their writings, that the veficulae have more frequent- 
 ly only one fuch paifage th^n two. But our author, on 
 
 * See Heucher's Diflertat. 
 
 •j- See Inflitut. Anitom. p. 37, 
 
 j See Anthropology, p. 171. 
 
 § See Inflitut, ivied, Ed, alter, S, 148, 
 
 the 
 
 J 
 
NOTES. -^g; 
 
 the contrary, afierts, that in all the bodies he difle£led, 
 he always found them two. He kept by hun feveral 
 preparations alfo, fome inje<Red and dried, and others 
 preferved in fpirirs, of the parts in their utmolf perlec- 
 tion ; in all which the du6ts into the urethra were two : 
 and his auditors, to whom he always demonftrated 
 thefe du6is as two, found it ever fo, and faw the two 
 orifices which he poij"!ted out to them. 
 
 The anatomifls, in general, alfo are of this opinion ; 
 fo that all that can he properly afierted from Lealis's 
 account is, that tho' thefe duds are naturally and gene- 
 rally two, yet it is pofHhle fuch a variation from the 
 ordinary courfe of nature may happen, as that there 
 may be but one ; and that the particular fubjedt, from 
 which he made his obfervations, had it fo. Thofe who 
 have adopted his opinion, {hould however have exa- 
 mined a variety of fubjetSts themfelves, which would 
 have prevented their delivering it fo freely in his words. 
 It is very eafy to fuppofe that people, not much ufed to 
 difre<flion, might be able to find but one ; but an ac- 
 cuftomed eye will almoft always fee more. 
 NOTE 28. 
 
 Our author, in the preface to the fecond edition of 
 this work, obferves, that in the very laft fuhjedl that 
 had at that time fallen under his "examination, he had 
 Found*, on difle^ting the parts of generation, befide the 
 ligamentum fufpenforium of the penis, two other lateral 
 ligaments, very like the fufpenforium in all rtfpeOis : 
 thefe arofe, on each fide, from the olTa pubis, a little 
 above the origin of the mufcuii ereciores penis ; and 
 were inferted into the fides of the corpora cavernofa of 
 the penis, above the place of the infertion of the fame 
 mufcles. A multitude of fabfequent diire6i:ions, how- 
 ever, in which the author carefully fearched after thefe 
 ligaments, gave him no more than two farther oppor- 
 tunities of feeing them ; and in both thefe they were 
 much fmaller and weaker, than in the fubje6l in which 
 they were firft obferved. From this, therefore, it ap- 
 pears, that they are not general or univerfal parts ; but 
 rather accidental ones, appearing but nov/ and then, as 
 is the cafe in many of the minutiae of anatomy, efla- 
 biifl-icd too freely as general by authors. 
 
 C c 2 NOTE 
 
388 NOTES. 
 
 NOTE 29. 
 
 Chefelden, in the firft edition of his Anatomy, p. 
 160. much doubts the exiftence of the glandulac Cow- 
 peri, affirming, very frankly, that, in all his diflecStions, 
 he had never been able to find them. He adds, that 
 unlefs thefe glands were a mere invention of Cowper's, 
 it appears probable, that what Cowper faw was only 
 fome little glandular, diftended by the morbid ftate of 
 the fubje6l ; or that they were a mere lufus natural in 
 fome one body which Cowper happened to examine; 
 as fuch lufus^ he obferves, are more common in 
 regard to the glands than to any other part of the 
 body. 
 
 Such is the cenfure on Cowper in his pupil's firft edi- 
 tion ; but in his third edition of the fame work we find 
 all this omitted. One might have expe£led from this 
 to have been informed, that he had fince found thefe 
 glands, which he at that time fo much doubted the 
 exiftence of in fome other bodies ; but this does not 
 appear. He does not fay he had feen any thing more 
 of them then, than when he wrote fo freely againft 
 them : he only fays, in this edition, that Cowper de- 
 fcribes three fuch glands, p. 294. It is reafonable, 
 therefore, to fuppofe, that tho' he does not chufe fo 
 flatly to deny their exiftence any longer, he had not, 
 however, at that time feen them. Morgagni, how- 
 ever, affirms, that he had found them in a number of 
 bodies ; and that they were fometimes of the fize of a 
 kidney-bean, or larger, fometimes fmUler : but he ac- 
 knowledges alfo, that he very frequently could not find 
 them in his diftec^ions, tho' he took the utmoft pains in 
 fearching for them *. 
 
 NOTE 30. 
 
 The exiftence of the membrane called hymen in 
 women, has been greatly difputed by the medical 
 writers of aimoft all times, fince the firft mention of it. 
 There were many who, very early in the difcovery, 
 denied that there was any fuch part ; and there are 
 many who continue to do fo at this time ; and many 
 Others who, tho' they WjU not deny but that the authors 
 
 * See his Adverf. Anat. 4. p. 45, 
 
 3 of 
 
 i 
 
NOTES. 389 
 
 of reputation, who declare they have found it, have 
 really feen a membrane in this part, afTert that it is not 
 univerfal, but was a mere accidental thing in thofe par- 
 ticular fubjetls. It fhould appear, however, to every 
 pracf^ifed anatomiflr, that all thefe, as well the doubters 
 of the exiftence of the hymen, as the abfolute denyers 
 of it, have only been prefent at the difTeflions of fe- 
 males who had had commerce with men ; for had they 
 examined the parts in young girls, and fuch as had not 
 been lain with, they could not have mifTed finding it. 
 Our author, whofe fidelity is no more to be queftioned 
 than his accuracy, declares, that in the courfe of his 
 difl'e£lions he had opened many young female fubje6ls; 
 and that in all thefe, whether juft born, a few weeks 
 old, a hw months, or even as far as to thofe of fix 
 years, always, and ufually as far as to fourteen, he 
 found it. He has given defcriptions and figures of the 
 part in the German Ephemerides, 7 and 8 ; and the 
 world has received what he has delivered on the fubject 
 as it ought. In females of thefe ages he alledges, that 
 he always has found a membranous body, ferving tQ 
 render the orifice of the vagina narrower ; and that it 
 was fometimes annular, and fometimes femi circular or 
 femi-lunar : fo that it is by no means to be fuppofed a 
 iufus natures^ or an accident from a morbid ftate in the 
 bodies it is found in. 
 
 It is to be acknowledged, that it is rarely met with 
 in women at the age of maturity ; and there are feveral 
 very obvious reafons why it is not. Among the authors 
 who have always pofitively alTerted the exiftence of this 
 membrane, we are to reckon Wier*, Riplan, De Graaf, 
 Swammerdam, Morgagni, and Santorini ; and to thefe, 
 and a long lift that might be added, v/e are to join Ve- 
 falius, as rnore than a common evidence : this author 
 had a long time denied its exiftence ; but after he had 
 examined fome younger fubje6ts, and women who were 
 truly virgins, he acknowledged it. 
 
 * See his Obf. Med. p. 95, and 99; and his book De Praeftig;. 
 Paem. 1. 3. c. jg. 
 
 Cc3 NOTE 
 
S9Q NOTES. 
 
 N O T E 31. 
 
 The thicknefs of the womb, in women big with 
 child, has been a fubje£t of much difpute. Many of 
 the medical writers., in particular Mauriceau * and 
 Dionis t, have aiFerted, that the fubftance of the uterus 
 is thinner in women who are big. than in fuch as are 
 not fo ; declaring it imooiiible that the uterus fhould be 
 fo amazinoly diftended as it is, toward the end of the 
 time, without a diminution of its thicknefs. But, on 
 the other hand, Davcnter has beftowed a whole chap- 
 ter to prove the falfity of that opinion ^ : and our au- 
 thor, after a careful diire<£^ion and ftri6l examination of 
 feveral women, v.'ho had died in different ftages of 
 pregnancy, and after opening the uterus in women who 
 had died in partuition, and others who had died foon 
 after, does aflert alfo, that in thefe feveral obfervations 
 he never had found the uterus at all thinner than in its 
 common ftate, but very often confiderably thicker. 
 Our author was particularlv ftrong in this opinion, after 
 the publickly opening three bodies at Helmftadt, in the 
 comp^^s of one year, all in a fituation to determine it ; 
 two of them having died in labour, and the third frcm 
 a wound in the head, near the time §. 
 
 It was obje6i:ed to him, however, by a perfon of 
 erudition, that^ in regard to thefe cafes, pofTibly there 
 might have been an uncommon quantity of blood 
 dire6led toward the uterus about the time of parturi- 
 tion, by which it might be at that time fwelled to the 
 thicknefs, which he found equal to its natural one, out 
 of a ftate of pregnancy ; but that, at other times of the 
 period, this might not be the cafe, but the uterus might 
 be thinner than ufual, as others had afTerted. This 
 doubt was, however, foon after cleared up by the dif- 
 fe(5tion of a woman, who had died by a fhot in the 
 eighth month ; fo that the time of her labour was not 
 ne^r. She had been in perfect health before, and had 
 died inflantly of the wound : in this fubjecft, therefore, 
 there could have been nothing of this particular deriva- 
 
 • Traite des Maladies desFemmes grofles. 
 
 •f See his Surgery, and his book De Arte Obftetric, 
 
 % See hisOperat. Chirurg. c. 8, 
 
 § See Aft, Nat. Curiof. vol. i. p. 406. 
 
 tion 
 
NOTES. 
 
 tion of blood to the uterus ; yet in her the fubftance 
 of the womb was as thick as in others in the different 
 periods of pregnancy, or at the time of delivery. 
 
 Befide the authors cited by Daventer, in countenance 
 of this opinion, and thofe mentioned by our author in 
 the A(fla Curioforum, where he treats of this fubjeft, 
 Morgagni, Littre, Voghus, Santorini, Vaterus, and a 
 number of others, join in it. 
 
 We are to add alfo on this occafion, thatRuyfch has 
 difcovered and figured certain feries of fpiral or orbi- 
 cular flelhy fibres in the fundus of the uterus of child- 
 bearing women, to which he has given the name of a 
 new orbicular mufcle of the uterus *. He declares the 
 life of this mufcle to be for the expulfion of the pla- 
 centa, after the child is born. He adds, on this occa- 
 fion, that the placenta fhould never be torn away by- 
 force ; but that, if it does not follow on a flight pull, 
 it is to be left 'til! it is protruded in a great meafure by 
 the force of this new mufcle. In this, however, our 
 author is of opinion, that it is greatly affifted by the 
 general flru6ture and aftion of the whole uterus, 
 N O T E 32. 
 The medical writers are by no means agreed as to 
 the origin and fource of the menflrual difcharges, fome 
 afTerting that they are from the womb, others that they 
 are only from the vagina. Morgagni f recites a long 
 catalogue of authors of each of the two opinions : he 
 -adds, from his own obfervations, that ail the blood 
 thus evacuated is often immediately from the fundus of 
 the uterus, but that it never is from the vagina. Our 
 author joins alfo in his opinion, and obferves, that, in 
 two fubje6ts he had difre6led at a proper time for 
 this obfervation, he faw that the blood came only 
 from the bottom of the uterus ; and, by a gentle 
 prefTure, could force out a few drops of it from the 
 fame foraminula, which were ftill unclofed, and fufH- 
 ciently confpicuous. Littre alfo, by very circumfl:antial 
 obfervations, proves the flowing of this blood from the 
 uterus ; as do alfo GrafTius and Santorini. Of the 
 
 * See Adverf. Anat. Dec. 3 ; as alfo his peculiar treatife on this 
 fubjedl, publiOied in Holland ; and Vater's epiftle to Ruyfch. 
 f Si^e Adverf. Anat. i. p. 45. 
 
 C c 4 modern 
 
 39 ^ 
 
392 NOTES. 
 
 modern writers of reputation, there is only * one who 
 advances th t this blood is difcharged from the vagina 
 alone, not from the uterus. He adds, that he has evi- 
 dently feen this to be the cafe in feveral difledions. 
 From the obfervations of this author, however, which 
 feem fuch as may be depended upon, and f^r fome other 
 pretty obvious reafons, it appears to our author, that 
 nature does not limit herftlf to either of thefe fources 
 fmgly and invariably ; but that, in fome cafes, the dif- 
 charee is from the vagina alone, in moft from the ute- 
 rus alone, and in fome from both jointly. In this opi- 
 nion alfo are Friend, Morgagni, and Vater. 
 N O T E 33. 
 The greater number of anatomical and medical 
 writers have joined with Hornius, De Graaf, Steno, 
 Kerkring, and others, in the opinion that the little 
 veficles, obferved in the ovaries of women, are real and 
 proper ova, or eggs, in which the firft rudiments of 
 the foetus are delineated : but a great many of the more 
 eminent ones, as Morgagni, Vallifneri, Santorini, Pai- 
 ton, and Malpighi, not only make a doubt whether 
 thefe veficles are real eggs, but attempt to prove that 
 the true i.nd real ovula are extremely minute, and are 
 contained in the fubftance of thofe yellow glandiform 
 bodies, and grow fo as to become by degrees vifible, 
 after impregnation : whereas thefe veficulae, tho' ufually 
 efteemed eggs, in reality decreafe, not increafe, after 
 impregnation ; ferving for the nutrition of the real 
 foetus, or real ovulum, and promo'ing its expanfion, 
 its accretion, and its feparation. 7'his is a fubje(5t 
 worthy r-f the moft careful enquiry. Notwithftanding, 
 however, that moft of the modern anatomilfs and phy- 
 fiolao;ifts have fubfcribed to the dodrine of the genera- 
 tion of man from an egg, there are not wanting, 
 befide Diemerbioek, Lamy, and Du Vcrney, feveral 
 who are abfolutely againft the fyftem. Viduftiusf and 
 Voglius +, of the Itali^ins, and La Motte § among the 
 French, declare againft it ; but they have been elaborate- 
 
 ♦ Govey's Veritable Chirurg. p. 39S. 
 
 •f- See his Motiv. de Dub. Veneze. 
 
 "i See his Anthropogenia, 
 
 § See Dirtertation fur la Generat. Paris, 
 
 J7 
 
NOTES. 
 
 ly anfwered by Morgagni ^, Santorini f , and Nigrifol |, 
 who has wrote profefledly and largely on generation ; as 
 ^Ifo by Vallifneri §, Paiton ||, and others, who are equal- 
 ly againft the fyltem cftablifhed by Lewenhoek, in con- 
 fequence of his microfcopical difcoverles of the gene- 
 ration of the human frame being from the animalcules, 
 which are found living in the femen mafculinum of 
 animals. To this we are to add alfo, that a very late 
 writer, Mr. Needham, defervedly famous for his mi- 
 crofcopical difcoveries, by feveral experim>ents made in 
 concert with Mr. De Buffon of Paris, as well as feveral 
 others of his own attempts, has endeavoured to prove the 
 impoflibility of the generation of the human frame from 
 thefe animalcules, by proving that they do not exift as ani-- 
 malcules in the femen, while in the veffels of the male, 
 or in the due courfe of impregnation ; but that they are 
 produced in that fluid, in confequence of its being e>;- 
 pofed to the air, lofing its texture, and undergoing the 
 iame fort of alteration that happens in the infufions of 
 feeds and plants, in which animalcules of the fame kind 
 with thofe in the femen mafculinum of animals are af- 
 terwards found. He obferves, that the produdion of 
 thefe animalcules in the male femen is very fudden, and 
 in thefe infufions is longer about ; but that the anima's 
 exift in neither before the expofure to the air, and the 
 alteration of their texture. This account is publiflied 
 in a late number of the Philofophical Tranfadiions : its 
 author eftablifhes a very extenhve fyftem, a point which 
 does not at all fall under our confideration here ; but if 
 there be certainty in the facSi which he afTerts, it evi- 
 dently ferves the purpofe of this quotation, that is, to 
 prove that the animalculae in the femen do not become 
 the foetus afterwards. 
 
 NOTE 34. 
 Drake's figure of the Fallopian rube is taken into 
 our Plate 3. Fig. 10. But as our author in the year 
 17 19, in a pubiick difledion of a female fubjcct, afcer 
 
 * See Adverf. Anat. variis in locis. 
 
 •j- See Obferv. Anatom. 
 
 X See his Confider. intorn. della Generat. 
 
 ^ See THiftor. dc Generat. 
 
 1| Sec Difcor. della Generat, 
 
 ^ having 
 
 393 
 
'394- NOTES. 
 
 having thrown Tome crude mercury into the right fper- 
 matick vein, the lower part of the Fallopian tube, with 
 the ligamentum latum, being tied, to prevent the mer- 
 cury making its way into the other velTels of the ute» 
 rus, found, and demonftrated to his audience, a multi- 
 tude of velTels, elegantly and diftincStly purfuing very 
 different courfes from thofe laid down by authors ; a 
 figure of the whole part, as feen on this occafionj'is 
 alfo given in the fame Plate, Fig. ii. It was obferve* 
 ^ble, that after the mercury had, in this beautiful man- 
 ner, filled the veflels which thus beautifully and copi^ 
 oufly furrounded the Fallopian tube, it made its way 
 into the cavity of the tube itfelf 3 whence it is evident, 
 that thefe vefTels communicate with the cavity of the 
 tube, and are deftined to fecrete a liquor for the lubri- 
 cating its inner furface. 
 
 NOTE 35. 
 The uterus is the part deftined by nature for the re^ 
 caption of the fcetjs, and in which it is to take its 
 growth and nourifnment, 'till the time of its birth j but 
 there have been many inftances of foetus's receiving 
 Fiourifhrnent and growth out of the uterus : thefe are 
 unqueftionable; and one firfl thing that is evinced by 
 them is the abfurdity of the old doctrine, that the 
 child was formed in the womb of a mixture of the male 
 and female feminal fluids made there. This was an 
 opinion originally of the antients ; but too many of the 
 moderns had given into it, till obfervations like thefe, 
 and other fuch reafons convinced them. Voglius, in 
 his Anthropogenia, is of opinion, that the foetus is 
 formed of the very fubl^ance of the womb, by a kin^» 
 of elongation : this is alfo equally refuted by the fame 
 pbfervation^ and it is fufHcicntly and plainly proved that 
 the true beginning of the formation of the foetus is in 
 the ovary; that it is there impregnated by the more 
 fine or volatile part of the femen mafculinum ; and 
 that, after this, its natural courfe is down into the ute^ 
 rus, which is the place allotted for its reception and 
 nutrition ; hut that, from different caufes, it may hap^ 
 pen, and fometimes cioes, fo that the impregnated em- 
 bryo flays in its place, or flops in its pafiage to the 
 llterus ; in this cafe the fcetu^ femetifiies cannot extri- 
 cate 
 
NOTES. 
 
 cate itfelf out of the ovary j but fometimes, and that 
 more frequently, it flops in the Fallopian tube, where 
 it receives nutrition, and grows to its due period, or 
 nearly fo : but, in this cafe it is impoflible it fhould be 
 born in the natural way. Magnetus * has given hifto- 
 ries of cafes of both thefe kinds ; and as to the foetus's 
 found in the Fallopian tube, Dionis f and Anellus J 
 give feveral cafes of them: and experience is continually 
 furniihing us with more cafes, in which the foetus has 
 been retained in the ovary. We have the fame alfo, 
 in VieufTens §, Littri ||, and others; and StraufKus^, 
 Bayle **, Saviard ff , Courtial J;]:, Bianchus §§, and 
 Calvus III, give inftances of the foetus's in the cavity of 
 the abdomen, as well from themfelves as from the 
 writings of others; but, in moft of thefe. there 
 is fome miftalce t<) be fufpe^ted. The French alfo have 
 publiCbed fome cafes of this kind in the year 1722. To 
 the lift of thofe who mention foetus's receiving their 
 growth in the Fallopian tubes, we are to add Riola- 
 rus^^, Elfho]tzius*f, Buiriere*J, Littre*§, Du V'er- 
 ney *||, and Cyprianus ^ff ; and a famous example of it 
 alfo from Santorini ,^*, and another from Paiton. Moft 
 of the extra-uterine foetus's are, indeed, lodged in the 
 Fallopian tube ; and it is highly probable, that Came- 
 rarius's ftory of a foetus retained forty-fix years in the 
 mother, and a multitude of others of a like kind, all 
 have this accident for their origin. The fa£l: is indif- 
 putable, that the foetus may, and frequently does, receive 
 its growth and nourifhment out of the womb. Vailifneri 
 has written a treatife on generation in the Italian, that 
 is very worthy the careful perufal of every body who 
 would enquire into this fubje6t. 
 
 * Tbeatr. Anat. T. 2. p. 140. and Bibl. Chirurg. T. 2. p. 131. where 
 the whole is repeated, 
 
 ■f- DifTertation fur Ja Generation de 4'Homme. 
 
 X Suite de Ja nouvelle Method de guerir fiftules lachrymal. 
 
 § DifTert. de Strucl. & ufu uteri. 
 
 II Memoirs, Paris 1701. fl Hiftor. Foetus Mu/T. 
 
 ** Hift. Anat. Gravid. ft Obferv. Chirurg. 
 
 Jt Obf.Anat. §§ Theatr. Angt. 
 
 nil Antl. loco citato. %^ Anthropcgraph. 
 
 *t De Conceptu tubario. *| See Philof. Tranf. 1694. 
 
 *§ Paris Memoirs, igoz, *ll Epift. de Foetu. 
 
 *f Obferv. Anat, "' ^* Difc. della Gener. 
 
 NOTE 
 
 39: 
 
396 NOTES. 
 
 N O T E 3^. 
 
 It is a queftion much difputed among the anatomical 
 writers, whether there be a reciprocal circulation of the 
 blood between the mother and the foetus. Moft of 
 them either deny, or at leaft doubt it : but it is to be 
 obferved, that Cowper, after inje6ting crude mercury* 
 into the umbilical arteries of the foetus, faw it enter 
 into the veins of the uterus of the mother. And Vie- 
 ufTens, on the other hand, found the mercury, which 
 he had thrown into the carotid arteries of a bitch big 
 with puppies, not only made its way into all the limbs, 
 and all the vifcera of the creature, but reached to the 
 puppies in her uterus ; and that all their internal as well 
 as external parts, and even the very cutis itfelf, fhewed, 
 in a very beautiful manner, the mercury thrown into 
 the veffels of the parent animal -j-. Mery alfo confirms 
 this reciprocal circulation, by a very fmgular inftance in 
 the human frame : it is of a woman who was inftanta- 
 neoufly killed by a fall, in the laft month of her time. 
 In the difle6lion of the body, the cavity of the abdo- 
 men was found full of blood ; and the blood- vefleis, as 
 well thofe belonging to the woman as thofe of the 
 foetus, which was dead alfo, were all empty. The 
 placenta, all this while, was whole and unhurt, and 
 adhered to the uterus ; and there was not the leaft ef- 
 fufion of blood in the^ cavity of the uterus ;{:. It were 
 much to be wiilied, that the author of this fmgular 
 hiftory had told us what vefTels they were in the abdo- 
 men that were broken, and made the efFufion of tha 
 blood. 
 
 To all this we are to add an obfervatlon of our 
 author's own, which tends not a little to the fetting 
 this in a proper light. In a difTedion of a body in pub- 
 lick, before Dr. Wagner and the reft of the college at 
 Helmftadt, which was of a woman, who had been bis: 
 with two children : one of thefe had been brought forth 
 
 D* 
 
 • Anatomy of the Human Body, T. 54. See alfo Aft. Erudit. 
 Lipf. 1699. 
 
 f Manget's Theatr. Anat. T. 2. p. 139. The author gives no 
 reafon for his chufmg to throw in the mercury at the carotids. 
 
 X See Memoirs of the Paris Acad. 1708. See alfo Mery's ac- 
 touni of a fcetus without a heart, 1720, 
 
 alive j 
 
NOTES. 
 
 alive ; but a violent haemorrhage of the uterus coming 
 on, the woman had died in a quarter of an hour, not 
 delivered of the other. On the opening the body, at 
 the diftance of a few hours from the death, the blood- 
 vefTels were found empty ; and, on opening the womb, 
 the placenta, which had belonged to the child that was 
 born, was found in great part loofened from the uterus ; 
 but that of the other foetus, yet in the womb, faft and 
 uninjured : from the feparation of the former had doubt- 
 lefs proceeded the haemorrhage, which had killed the 
 woman. After examination of the tunics, or mem- 
 branes of the foetus left in the womb, which were yet 
 whole and unhurt, our author proceeded to open the 
 foetus, to fhew to his audience the parts different in 
 that ftate from what they are in an adult ; and on open- 
 ing it, he found no blood in it, either in the heart, or 
 in the larger vefTels : whence he urges, that the blood 
 of this foetus had pafTed thro' the umbilical velTels to 
 the placenta and uterus of the parent, and had been 
 evacuated, together with the mother's blood, from the 
 uterus. Rauholt* and Morgagni :|: are alfo on the fide 
 of this reciprocal circulation of the blood, between the 
 mother and the foetus. It appears highly probable, 
 that, in cafes of twins, the vefTels of the placenta do 
 not communicate with one another ; tho' the placenta 
 are grown into one, as is often the cafe. Our author 
 prepared two of thefe placenta, thus growing together, 
 into the vefTels of one of which he had thrown a wax 
 injection : thefe were perfectly filled by it ; but no part 
 of it had made its way into the vefTels of the other 
 placenta. 
 
 NOTE 37. 
 That the foetus, while in the womb, does really re- 
 ceive nutrition by the mouth, is evident from an obfer- 
 vation made twice fuccefT:vely in the publ ck fchools at 
 AltoffF. The author had received a perfe61: foetus, taken 
 from a cow in the winter- feafon : the-membranes were 
 unhurt, and the uterus of the cow was brought with it. 
 The liquor amnii all about the fcetus was frozen ; and the 
 fame liquor, in the fame congealed or frozen flate, was 
 
 * See Memoirs of the Paris Academy, 1714. 
 I See Adverf. Anat. 4. p. 82. 
 
 fuund 
 
 397 
 
J98 NOTES. 
 
 found alfo in the mouth, the oefophagus, and the iflo- 
 mach of the calf, forming one continued quantity of 
 ice with that formed of the circumambient fluid, and 
 was about the thicknefs of a finger in the oefophagus. 
 The fame obfervation he alfo made publick another 
 winter on another fcetus, brought to him at the fame 
 period, with its membranes and the uterus about it. In 
 this alfo the congealed fluid made one continued bodyj 
 from the external mafs to the ftomach of the creature ; 
 fo that there remains no doubt of the liquor, found in 
 the {fomach of a foetus about its full period, being the 
 fame with the liquor amnii ; but it is evident that there 
 is communication between them. Nor is it, indeed, 
 probable, that fo large a quantity of this liquor, as is 
 ufually found in the ftomach of a fcetus at its full timcj 
 (hould be fecreted in that part, as moli authors for a 
 long time fuppofed. It appears much more probable^ 
 (even to reafon alone, that it muft have been brought 
 from elfe where ; and it is evident from this fmgular ob- 
 fervation, from whence it is brought ; as indeed mightj 
 withowt this circumftance, have been guefled from the 
 fimilarity of that found in the ftomach with the reftj 
 Which furrounds the fcetus^ all the qualities of which 
 it evidently has. 
 
 P>ed. Hoffman^ in his Difl'ertation de Pinguedine, 
 has alfo an obfervation that joins flrongly with this of 
 our author's, in evincing this truth. He telis us of a 
 child born at its full time, and in perfect health, the 
 funiculus umbilicalis of which was wholly corrupted and 
 putrid : it is very evident from this, that the foetus 
 could not have continued alive, if, as is by the gene- 
 rality of writers fuppofed, it had received or could re- 
 ceive no nourifliment, except by the funiculus or navel- 
 firing. 
 
 Petit alfo has an obfervation of a child born perfedl, 
 and in health, tho' there was a knot in the navel-firing, 
 very clofe, and v;bich had evidently been there long 
 before the delivery. This would have prevented nou- 
 riOiment, as ufually, to flow to the child thro' this part ; 
 and it is plain, that unlefs it had received, as well as 
 the foetus in the former inflance, nutrition by the 
 mouth, it could not have been kept alive. The method 
 2 Bel- 
 
NOTES. 
 
 Bellinger has laid down for the nutrition of the foetus 
 this way, by the afliflance of the gland thymus, we 
 have already mentioned ; and there are feme obferva- 
 tions on the fubjeft worthy notice, in the A6la Erudi- 
 tor of the year 171 8, 
 
 NOTE 38. 
 
 The ufe of the foramen ovale in the foetus has been 
 a fubjeft of very great and very warm debate among 
 the anatomical writers, panicu'ariy between Mcry, who, 
 againft the common opinion, afierts that the blood 
 pafles thro' it from the left auricle of the heart to the 
 right, and Du Verney, Tauvrius, Buffiere, Sylvefler^ 
 Lifter, and Verheyen, who all eftablilh the contrary,- 
 and adhere to the received opinion. The Memoirs of 
 the French Academy for the year 1699, give the argu- 
 ments on both fides much at large, and tend moftly in 
 favour of the received opinion ; but in the fame works, 
 in the year 17 17, we find Window bearing ftrongly 
 toward the opinion of Mery. 
 
 NOTE 39, 
 
 Many anabomical writers of great credit abfolutely 
 deny that there is any fuch interftice of the mediafti- 
 num as this : they declare it imaginary, and afTert, that, 
 if any fuch is feen, it can only arife from a violent ele- 
 vation of the fternum. But our author does not give 
 up the fubje^l : he aflerts, that he always finds this in- 
 terftice, in his diftedtions, in the part near the dia- 
 phragm ; and that tho' the fternum be elevated as gen- 
 tly, and as little as pofiible only, fo as to feparate the 
 diaphragm from it, by fuch a gentle elevation as will' 
 anfwer this purpofe, he is cleat that no change is or cark 
 be made in the parts, nor any thing new, or that was 
 not in the parts before, can be produced in them. It i& 
 to be added, that a great many authors of the fir^i cre- 
 dit give us inftances oi matter and abfceftes formM there j 
 and Maier affirms, that he has frequently found a ferourf 
 humor in it *. 
 
 NOTE 40. 
 
 Maier, an author quoted in the laft note, produces, 
 from Mura1tus*s experiments, an obfervation, that he 
 had found in the thymus a great number of cryftalhner 
 
 * Ses his Colieg. Anat, Vc^Ct. ^to, p. 99, 
 
 vafcula. 
 
 399 
 
40® NOTES. 
 
 vafcula, running to the mediaftinum, and to the peri- 
 cardium ; and alfo a du6l running from it to the tonfiJs, 
 of a membranaceous ftrudure, and naturally hard *. 
 But it does not appear that there is any fuch obferva- 
 tion as this in Muraltus : whether Maier midook his 
 quotation, or purpofely deceives his readers, is not fo 
 eafy to determine. There is an appearance of candour 
 in his manner, which would induce one to give it on 
 the more fivourable lide. 
 
 N O T E 41. 
 
 It has been a matter of much enquiry why the pul- 
 monary artery (hould be larger than the pulmonary 
 vein, whereas, in all the other parts, the veins are 
 larger than the arteries. Some have fuppofed that this 
 is on occafion of the blood's being more diflblved in the 
 artery ; and that, as it is condenfated again by the 
 efFe6t of refpiration, it requires a lefs fpace, in propor- 
 tion, to return by, than the blood of any other veflel 
 of the body : but this is but a loofc and vague way of 
 reafonir^g. It feems rather, that the artery is larger 
 than might be expe6led here, becaufe the blood, 
 brought back to the heart, finds it difficult, from its 
 thicknefs, to make its way thro' the fine reticulations 
 of the vefTels of the lungs ; and the retardation or re- 
 fiftance in this part, may naturally occafion the trunk 
 of the artery to become dirtended. On the other hand, 
 the blood in the pulmonary vein has no obflacle, in a 
 manner, to refifl or impede its motion, but flows freely 
 and eafily to the heart ; whence a narrower vefTel may 
 fcrve for the paflage of it, and that veflel will be in 
 fcarce any danger of being dillended beyond its natural 
 dimenfions f . 
 
 NOTE 42. 
 
 Our author acknowledges, that he had very often 
 fought in vain for the bronchial veins in human fubjedts; 
 but that he, at length, faw them clearly and diftin£lly 
 in a female fubjed: : in this he found feveral branches 
 running from the intercoilals to the bronchia, three of 
 
 * See Colleg. Anat. Praft. p. 109. 
 
 •f- See Memoirs of the French Academy, 1718. See alfo Miche- 
 lottus and Santorini, 
 
 which 
 
NOTES. 
 
 wliich were particularly obfervable, and were of the 
 thicknefs of a ftraw. In many other fubjedls, in which 
 he afterwards fought carefully after them, he did not 
 find them ; and obferves upon the whole, that thev do 
 not occur in all, nor are at all dettrminate in their (itua- 
 tion when they do. Covvper obferves, that he had fre- 
 quently met with one or more of them, running to the 
 fubclavians *. 
 
 NOTE 43. 
 The auricles and ventricles of the heart have not 
 always the fame fize and capacity; the different acres, 
 ftatures, and other circumftances in the perfon, making 
 a very confiderable ditverencco The right auricle and 
 right ventricle are however, in genera!, larger than the 
 left ; as is confirmed by numerous obfervations of Hel- 
 vetius, Salzman, Michelotti, and Morgagni. Nicolaus 
 has carefully collected the facl:s from thefe authors ; and 
 Santormi has fmce added feveral obfervations on this 
 fubject, all which join with the others in eftablifhing 
 this as a general truth. 
 
 NOTE 44. 
 Lower is the firft author who has defcribed this 
 tubercle: it is eafily feen in the hearts of oxen and 
 calves, in form of a ileihy mafs or eminence; but in 
 the human heart it is not found. Ojr author, at the 
 fame time that he acknowledges, however, that he never 
 could find it there, gives a very good account of its 
 having been pretended to be found by otiiers, who would 
 not be fuppofed to mifs any thing, whether it exifted 
 or not. He tells us of a demonftrator, to whom, in. 
 his younger davs, he had been pupil ; who, having 
 fearched the proper part of the heart of his fubjecSl for 
 it, and opened the vena cava, when he found no pro- 
 tuberance where he expected it, took hold of the part 
 wht;re it (hould have flood, and, pulling it up with his 
 forceps, called out to his audience, " Behold, here is 
 the tuberculum cordis of Lower." Our author de- 
 clares, that, tho' he f{:ri61:ly examined the heart, he was 
 not able to find any tubercle, or the leaft eminence, 
 either before his pulling up the part, or afterwards; 
 and that afterwards, having fought carefully after it in 
 * See Anat, of Human Bodies. 
 
 D d a great 
 
 401 
 
402 NOTE S* 
 
 a great number of hearts, it was never his fortune to 
 find it. PofTibly, like to this may be the hiftory o£ 
 many parts difcovered by particular anatomifts, which, 
 tho* demonflrated to their audiences, no body was ever 
 able to find afterwards. Nicolaus, indeed, very boldly 
 afTerts, that this eminence or tubercle is larger in man 
 than in the quadrupeds ; but there appears nothing to 
 countenance thig, on examination. Our author kept 
 many human hearts preferved in fpirits purpofely, to 
 Ihew the place allotted to this tubercle ; in all which it 
 was evident, that there never was any fiich part. To 
 which we are to add, that there is no figure of it in 
 Cowper's elegant and accurate tables of the heart ; but, 
 on the contrary, the concourfe of the afcendant and 
 defcendent vein is made plain there, as it is indeed al- 
 ways found on diflecStion in human fubjefts. The 
 author, with fufficient reafon, from all this, omitted 
 the mention of this part, as of one that had no exift- 
 ence, in the firft editions of this work : he feems to 
 have added it in this, by way of fliewing that it was 
 not thro' inaccuracy that he omitted it before ; but he 
 very juftly does not let it pafs as a reality, notwith- 
 Handing all the great names which appear in fupport of 
 its exiftence. 
 
 NOTE 45. 
 Lower, in his account of the iiru£l:ure of the heart, 
 defcribes a feries of ffrait mufcular fibres, which in- 
 volve the others under them. Nothing is fo evident as 
 that there . are fuch in quadrupeds ; but there are not 
 wanting anatomifts, of the very firft rank, who deny 
 their exiftence in the human heart. Our author takes 
 a middle courfe : he acknowledges, in confequence of 
 a multitude of experiments, that they are not nearly fo 
 numerous in the human heart as in that of many of 
 the quadruped kind ; but he declares, that he has always 
 found fome, and was always ready to fhew them in his 
 lectures, and that particularly on the furface of the left 
 ventricle. To this purpofe, he had a way of macerating 
 a hvjman heart in water, fo long as till the external 
 mc-mbrane was eafily feparated ; after which the fibres, 
 fo much in difpute, appear very obvioufly and evi- 
 dently. A heart thus prepared, he always kept alfo in 
 
 fpirit?.. 
 
NOTE S. 
 
 fplrits, to fhew them at all times to fuch as doubted 
 their exiftence. 
 
 NOTE 46. 
 
 Anatomifts are by no means agreed about the fitua- 
 tion of the osfophagus, in refpe^l to the afpera arteria, 
 Moft of the writers on the fubject have faid that it 
 runs ftrait behind it, between it and the vertebrae of the 
 neck. Morgagni has figured it as inchning a little to 
 the right of the trachea ; and, on the other hand. Win- 
 flow will have it fituated to the left of it. Cant ac- 
 cufes Vefalius of an error, in having placed the gula 
 behind the trachea ; and, at the fame time, falls upon, 
 Morgagni, for having made the cefophagus incline to 
 the right of the afpera arteria, and refers to the plates 
 of Euftachius. Our author finds an eafy way of re- 
 conciling thefe jarring authors, by obferving, that every 
 one of them may have fairly defcribed what himfelf 
 faw, in fome particular difTecStion made for that purpofe; 
 but that nature varies in the fituation of this part, in 
 regard to the afpera arteria, and that it is by no means 
 the fame in all fubjefls. He afferts, that in fome bodies, 
 publickly difle^led in the fchools, he has Ihewn it im- 
 mediately under the other ; in others inclining to the 
 right, as Morgagni has figured it ; and in others in- 
 clining to the left, inftead of the right. Cant, tho' he 
 refers to the tables of Euftachius, has not mentioned 
 either the number or figure -, but whoever will examine 
 them, will find that Euftachius has placed the cefo- 
 phagus behind the trachea : for in T 41. Fig. 8 and 9.* 
 where he has given the trachea, with the gula lying on 
 the right fide. The gula can fcarce any otherwife ap- 
 pear than as if it inclined to the left, tho' placed behind 
 the trachea. But in his 42d Tab. Fig. 4 and 6. the 
 gula and trachea are figured lying, as plainly as poffible, 
 on one another. 
 
 NOTE 47. 
 
 Vercellonius, in his book intitled A Medico-anatomi- 
 cal DiiTertation on the Conglomerate Glands of the 
 Oefophagus, defcribes fome new excretory du(5fs, ter- 
 minating in the cefophagus : they are numerous, and, 
 according to his account of them, not verv difficult to 
 be difcovered, on a proper examination* He afierts, in 
 
 D d 2 this 
 
 403 
 
404*> 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 this treatlfe, that the bufinefs of digeftlon had never yet 
 been truly explained or underftood by the medical 
 writers ; and that, becaufe they never had found out 
 the true digefting fluid ; and this, he aflerts, is poured 
 into the ftomach and the cefophagus by a multitude of 
 very fine dudts : ift, from conglomerate glands, 
 fituated on the left of the ftomach ; 2d, from the dor- 
 fal ; and, 3d, from the bronchial and tracheal. But 
 from the thyroide gland, vv'hich is to be fuppofed a 
 nidus of the ova verminofa, he alleges thefe ovula ver- 
 minofa are tranfmitted to the ftomach and cefophagus, 
 and give a vital power and character to the chyle. Of 
 all this the author of this v^^ork treats at large in the 
 Adenologia. It may be fufficient to mention it here. 
 NOTE 48. 
 The author has already obferved, that nature varies 
 greatly in the finus's of the dura mater, and that the 
 fourth is often vi^anting. It is to be obferved alfo, that 
 the left lateral fmus, according to the obfervations of 
 Morgagni, frequently begins from the right, not from 
 the longitudinal one, as is ufually fuppofed *. The 
 fmus falcis, which is by many called the inferior finus, 
 appears to have the leaft of all the title to the name of 
 a linus : its coats are thin as thofe of the other veins, 
 and its figure is not angular as that of the other is. 
 Morgagni has obferved alfo, that he had found the late- 
 ral fmus's communicating with one another by means 
 of a tranfverfe canal f. Our author joins in the afler- 
 tion, and obferves, that himfelf had found fuch a canal 
 of communication ; and it is figured here in Tab. 7, 
 
 Fig. 3?- 
 
 Rivinus alfo, in his treatife on the defe£ls of hearing, 
 
 mentions a tranfverfe finus, which is evidently the fame 
 with this of Morgagni and our author. 
 NOTE 49. 
 There are not wanting authors who deny the exift- 
 ence of the rete mirabile in the human frame : Nicolaus 
 has collected their fentiments :|:. But nothing of this 
 kind is more wonderful than that Ruyfch, who had 
 
 * Adverfar. Anar. 6. p, 2, 
 •f Advcrf. Anat, 6. p. 3. 
 i Diircriat. dc Dire^. Vaf. 
 
 JL before 
 
NOTES. 
 
 before found defcribed, and even figured this *, 
 (hould, in his later writings, treat it as an imaginary 
 part f . Our author is confident, from repeated expe- 
 riments, that if the dura mater be carefully opened with 
 a fcaipel each way, near the pituitary gland, the 
 rete mirabile, however much its exiitence mny be 
 doubted by very great men, will appear obvioufly and 
 evidently enough to every body. 
 
 NOTE 50. 
 
 The old writers have given i? as their opinion, that 
 the cryftalline humor of the eye was the primary or- 
 gan of vifion ; but of later times the nervous tunic, 
 called the retina, has been univerfally allowed to be fo. 
 This opinion agrees perfectly with all the optical ex- 
 periments, advanced as the teft of truth in this difqui- 
 fition ; and moft of the med cal as well as mathemati- 
 cal writers, after the days of Des Cartes, have agreed 
 to it. Marriot, however, a very celebrated mathema- 
 tician, difients from this univerfally received opinion ; 
 and will have the choroides to be the primary and prin- 
 cipal organ of this fenfe % : he brings a multitude of ex- 
 periments in fupport of his opinion, and argues with 
 great regularity and exadlnefs Irom them. Mery falls 
 into this opinion alfo, and has brought a number of 
 additional experiments to the fupport of it § : and with 
 him alfo De Mayranll, and Mr. de St. Yves ^, a ce- 
 lebrated occulift, add their tef^imonies of fads, and 
 their reafons in fupport of the new dc6i;rine. 
 
 But, in oppofition to all this, it is to oe urged, that 
 In all the other fenfes the primary organ of perception 
 is a nerve ; nor does there appear any reafon why na- 
 ture fhould depart from her couife in this, which is the 
 moft delicate of all the fenfes. Now the retina is 
 merely an expanfion of the optick nerve in the eye ; 
 and it fecms fomething rail) to thruft this part, fo well 
 calculated for the purpofe, out of its office j and to ^ive 
 
 * Epift. Problem, la. T. 15, 
 
 -}• Adverfar. Anatom. 2. p. 45. 
 
 ^ Nouvelle Decouvertes touchant la V-uc, 
 
 § Memoirs of :he Paris Academy, 1704. 
 
 {I Diflertat. de Caufa lucis Phofphor. 
 
 ^ Traite des Ma,ladies des Yeux. 
 
 405 
 
4o6 NOTES 
 
 (o great a power to membranes^ much lefs likely to be 
 endued with the exquihte fenfe neceffary on fuch an 
 occalion. 
 
 NOTE 51. 
 Our author has been attacked on, account of his 
 doftrine of the eye, and particularly on his opinions as 
 to the glaucoma and catara(5l by feveral of hs cotem- 
 poraries. The grand puint to be determined was, 
 whether there is more of the aqueous humor in the an- 
 terior or in the pofteril)r part of the camera ; that is, 
 whether there be a greater quantity of the aqueous hu- 
 mour between the cornea and uvea, or between the 
 uvea and cryftalline lens. The people who were 
 againft our author's fyftem, advanced that there was 
 more of it in the hinder part j but the author, that 
 there is more in the anterior camera. It appears, on a 
 candid and impartial enquiry into the cafe, that the 
 principal of our author's adverfaries had taken up his 
 notions of the eye, not from ciffettion and obfervation, 
 but from the figures in books ; and, indeed, to the fup- 
 port of fuch an hypothefis, fuch a condudl was necef- 
 fary enough : but it is to be obferved, in regard to this, 
 that moft of the anatomical as well as of the optical 
 v/rlters, have made the fpace between the uvea and 
 cryftalline much larger than it is in nature. They 
 have often figured it larger than that which is between 
 the uvea and cornea ; and very fev/ of them, indeed, 
 have made it lefs * than equ^l to it in magnitude. But 
 our author, whofe great character it is to have been 
 determined by his own obfervations, not by the writings 
 of any body, tho' he had long before aflured himfelf 
 by a great number of experiments and obfervations, 
 that there was a larger quantity of the aqueous humour 
 in the anterior than in the poft:erior camera ; yet, on 
 the occafion of this difpute, determined to enter a-new 
 on the difquifition, and to make difleclions with the 
 utmoft precifion ; and to have draughts taken from 
 them, which fhould bi more to be depended on than 
 
 * See Stephanus'sDifTeft. Part. Corp. Hum, p, 303. Des Cartes 
 in hisDioptricks j Scheiner in his Fund. Optic. Newton's Opticks j 
 Hartfeker's Dioptrickii j ^nd Verhtyen, T. 27. fig. 5. See alfo 
 Kohaulfs Phyficks. 
 
 fuch 
 
NOTES. 407 
 
 {uch as were already extant, and had evidently led 
 people into errors ; and this he judged the more necef- 
 fary, as not only tending to put a final end to the con- 
 troverfy he was engaged in, but to eftabliih the truth 
 in a point where it was much wanted, as few authors 
 had come near the giving the true fituation, proportion, 
 &c. of the humors of the eye *. 
 
 But as in recent, and not conglaciated eyes, the 
 efflux of the aqueous humor in the difleding, and the 
 confequent collapfion of the coats or tunics, render the 
 fituation of the humors impoflible to be accurately feen, 
 and make it impoflible therefore to form an accurate 
 judgment of them, he thought it a neceffary precaution 
 to expofe the eyes, to be difTedted, firfl: to the cold air 
 of winter's nights, that they might be frozen. In eyes 
 thus prepared for opening, on going carefully and regu- 
 larly thro' the diffedion, the parts will all be found in 
 their juft and natural fituation, and dimenfions. 
 
 The author began his own experiments, which were 
 very numerous on this cccafion, on the eyes of qua- 
 drupeds ; and engaged correfpondents at Nuremberg, 
 AltorfF, and other places, to difledt the fame parts with 
 the fame cautions, in concert with him. In all the 
 eyes they experimented upon, after cutting them thro' 
 the axis, the crjftalline was found to come very nesr 
 the uvea, and a very fmall and fcarce perceptible quan- 
 tity of the aqueous humor was found between the cry- 
 flalline and uvea : but, on the other hand, there v/as 
 always found, between the uvea and cornea, a much 
 larger quantity of the aqueous humor ; in general, at 
 lead four times as much as in the other cavity, l^his 
 was generally the cafe in all the experiments made on 
 this occafion. The figure in T. 4. Fig. 18. is from 
 the eye of a hog : it fhews the real fituation of the 
 parts, and evidently enough proves the truth of this 
 doctrine. 
 
 Our author was very intent upon examining the 
 human eye, under the fame circumflances ; but not 
 having the opportunity of a fubjeft, during the fhort 
 time of the frofl of the winter, when he had intended 
 
 * See Fabricius ab Aquapendente de Vifus Organo, c. 8. See 
 a!fo Mariot's de Vifu, fig. 3 j and Bidloo de Oculis & Vifu, p. 3. 
 
 D 4 .Cj 
 
4o8 NOTES. 
 
 it, be wrote to Morgagni, who had always bodies at 
 command, and requefted him to experiment, and to 
 give him the refult of his obfervations, and a figure of 
 the parts a.s he found them. Moigagni's anfwer was, 
 that he always, without one exception, had found a 
 much greater quantity of the aqueous humor between 
 the cornea and the iris, than betwetn that and the cry- 
 ftalline. The draught he made of the parts, as he 
 found them in a frozen human eye, is given in our 4th 
 Plate, Fig. 19. 
 
 After this our author had himfelf an opportunity of 
 cxpofmg to the frofty air an eye of a human fubjedl, 
 who had died a violent death. OndiiTe^ling this after- 
 wards in the publick fchools, he dcmonOrated^ to a 
 large audience, that there was fcarce any of the aqueous 
 humor between the iris and cryftalline, tho' there was 
 a confiderable quantity of it between the iris and the 
 cornea. The difTedlion of this eye agreed in all refpci^s 
 with the account and the figure fent by Morgagni ; and 
 after this, both the author and others taking the oppor- 
 tunity of frofly weather, when they had human fubjeds 
 before them, demonftrated the fame thing many times 
 to diiterent audiences. Figures were taken from the-^ 
 author's difiections of thefe eyes; but he prudently 
 chufes to preferve, in this work, thofe he was favoured 
 with by Morgagni, as a perfon, at once, o^'" unquef- 
 tioned judgment, and not engaged in any difpute on the 
 fubjefl:. What our author has faid farther on tlie fub- 
 jt6k^ is to be feen in the Ephemerides, Cent. 7 & 8. 
 
 Evident as what has been delivered on this fubjecS: 
 appeared, however, to the candid world, Wolhufius, 
 in a very fevcre and harfh manner, has raifed objedions 
 againft it in feveral of his v^ritings ; and has not even 
 fpared ill language, when his reafonings are not of force 
 enough. Our author has not omitted t(» anfwer his 
 objrdions, and, in that znrvver, occa(:onally to charge 
 him with errors and phgiarifms, in fuch a manner as he 
 was nota-le to acquit himfelf of : nor, indeed, were the 
 world i.iclined to think well of him, from the coaife and 
 abufive manner in v^hich he attacked both t\m author, 
 and many others of errabliilied reputation *. Our 
 * Sec Memoir. Trevolt. 1725. 
 
 authpr's 
 
NOTES. 
 
 author's apology is a fuiFicient anfwer to every objedlon 
 fuch a writing as this could be able to ftart ; nor, in- 
 deed, was it worth his while farther to attack an adver- 
 fary of this ftamp, while Winflow, Morgagni, Petit, 
 Renaunie, St. Yves, Morand, and Senac, who tranf- 
 lated tliis author's work into French, and commented 
 la/i^ely upon it, all join in his opinion. It may not 
 be improper, however, to give a fpecimen or two of 
 the (nanner of reafoning of this wild author. His firft 
 and great argument is. That the globe of the eye in- 
 creafes in bulk, all the way from the convex part of the 
 cornea to the centre of the eye ; and that, therefore, 
 the pofterior camera oi' the eye muft be larger than the 
 anterior. But all that zhz judicious reader will be able 
 to make out by this is, that the perfon v/ho fays it is 
 but very ill informed of the llrucSture of the eye. The 
 argument v.^ould indeed be true, if the eye were a hol- 
 low fphere, filled only with a fluid ; or, if the ciliary 
 ligament were longer, or more remote from the cornea : 
 but as, in reality, this, with the cryR-al'me, is placed 
 as a wall or inclofure, and allows but a very li-tle room 
 to the poilerior camera, as is evident from Morgagni's 
 figure given here, T. 4. Fig. 19. it is clear enough, 
 that this argument does not prove all that its author 
 would have it ; but, on the contrary, it appears from 
 the knowledge of this true fituation of the uvea, the 
 ciliary ligament, the cryftalline, and the vitrous humor, 
 that the polkrior camera is not augmented in fize, nor 
 does become larger than the anterior, altho' the eye do 
 increafe in its dimenfions toward the centre. 
 
 He attempts to ftrengthen his argument by the ob- 
 fervation of the quantity of matter, which is fometimes 
 found behind the uvea in a hypopion ; but this is of all 
 arguments the mod fallacious and uncertain. Every 
 body knows how much a part, in a d; tempered ftate, 
 may differ from the fame part in its natural one; and 
 add to this, that there is no diilempered ftate which 
 will alter and diftend the parts it afFe6ls fo much 2s a 
 lodgment of matter in them. This, indeed, the ob- 
 j^6lor is» in another place, obliged to acknowledge hlm- 
 i'i^K) and from this, and fome other fuch initances, 
 which ii:)!ghtbe quoted, it appears plainly enough, what 
 
 credit . 
 
 409 
 
^lo NOTE S. 
 
 credit ought to be given to the obfervations on the 
 itructure of the eye made in morbid cafes, and in con- 
 fequence of chirurgical operations. It would be as 
 eafy to anfwer all the other arguments of this author, 
 and moft of them in the very manner of this, but it is 
 not our bufmefs here to enter into the difpute. Thus 
 much it was not improper to fay, in regard to fo heavy 
 and at the fame time fo unreafonable an attack upon the 
 author's reputation. After this the decifion may be left 
 to the reader's judgment ; or, if he want farther argu- 
 ment in favour of our fide of the queftion, he may 
 turn to a paper of Winllow's on the fubje6t, in the 
 Memoirs of the Paris Academy for the Year 1721. 
 NOTE 52. 
 How, in his treatife on the circular motion of the 
 fliiids of the eye, has defcribed, under the new name of 
 nervo-lymphatica, certain very fmall blood-veflels in 
 the eye, which do not carry a red but a lymphatick 
 blood, and which Ruyfch has long fmce alfo defcribed 
 and delineated. But where is the neceflity of a new 
 name for thefe veiTels was, is not eafy to difcover, any 
 more than, if it had been judged necefTary, why the 
 term nerve iliould be ufed in the formation of it ; fmce 
 nothing is more evident, than that thefe vefiels are all 
 produced from veins and arteries, and have been called 
 accordingly by others lymphatick arteries and lympha- 
 tick veins, or arteriofo-lymphatick vefiels. Our author, 
 very judicioiifly, excepts ag<iinfl: the name, as one that 
 would be apt to give very v/rong ideas, particularly to 
 people juft entering on their ftudies : nor is it proper, 
 after having mentioned this author, to leave his work 
 without fome more animadverfions. He fays, ift. That 
 the tunica clioroides is divifible into five diflinft tunics 
 or coats ; but we are very apt to queftion whether this 
 be a fa£f, in regard to the human eye, efpecially as it is 
 evident, from his own words, that, on account of the 
 difficulty of obtaining human fubje6ls, the greater part 
 of his experiments were made on the eyes of brutes, 
 2. He denies that there are any mu'cular fibres in the 
 ciliary pri>ceircs and ciliary ligament : he thinks what 
 are ufually cilcemed fuch, are vefiels; but to this we 
 are to anfwer, that the greateft anatomills of this tiir.e 
 
 are 
 
NOTES. 4n 
 
 are all agreed, that all mufcular fibres are hollow or 
 vafcular ; (o that, by the fame argument, he may prove 
 that there are no mufcular fibres in the whole body, 
 which, we are apt to believe even himfelf will allow, 
 would be fomewhat abfurd. The natural ftrudure of 
 a mufcle does not argue at all againfl this vafcular ftruc- 
 ture : the great ufe is in contraction and dilatation. 
 The adions of contraftion and dilatation are evident 
 in the pupil ; and nothing is more certain, than that wc 
 fee in the ciliary procefTes fibres, in all refpedls agreeing 
 with mufcular ones, which have loft the office of vef- 
 fels as well as the habit and appearance of them ; and 
 there can be no doubt, therefore, that thefc truly and 
 properly are and ought to be efteemed mufcular fibres. 
 In another place the author calls the fubftance of the 
 uvea mufculofo-membranaceous ; and afterwards he af- 
 ferts, that the vafa adducentia of the eyes come from 
 one and the fame origin, namely, from a branch of the 
 internal carotid ; but that not admitted into the cra- 
 nium, as Nuck afierts, but beftowed on the orbit of 
 the eye. To this we are to anfwer, that in human 
 fubje^ls thefe veflcls do really and truly run out of the 
 cranium to the eye. He afterwards afferts, that the 
 dudus arteriofus of Nuck, coming out of the cranium, 
 is not the fource of the aqueous dudts ; for that it is too 
 fmall. To which we are to anfwer, that it is not, in- 
 deed, the only fource of them ', for that it communi- 
 cates by anaftomofis with other of the branches that 
 run to the eye. 
 
 He agrees with Mariott and others, that the tunica 
 choroides is produced from the pia mater ; but he does 
 not prove this : and, on the contrary fide, it may be 
 alledged, that this tunic is of a colour, figure, con- 
 fiftence, and nature wholly different from that mem- 
 brane; and that nothing is more evident, than that the 
 pther membranes of the body were formed at the fame 
 time with the pia mater, but do not owe their origin to 
 it. 
 
 He afterwards fays, that the cryftalline confiRs of 
 pellucid nerves ; but, in regard to this affertion, one 
 would afk, why he may not as well join with other 
 writers in faying that it is compofed of pellucid veiTels ? 
 
 in 
 
4iz ^ NOTES. 
 
 In another place he tells us, that the gluten in the blood 
 cannot be reitored without the affiftance of a new acid, 
 ^rid that this necefiary acid is only fecreted in the 
 glands ; but this is a bare aiTertion : he has done nothing 
 towards proving it ; nor probably had he attempted to 
 prove it, would he have founJ it in his power. He 
 afterwards obferves, that the conglomerate glands have 
 no inferent veiTels : but this is an aflertion that flies in 
 the face of all reafon, and all experience ; for nothing is 
 more certain than that there are inferent vefTels to 
 them ; and it is equally certain, that, if there were not, 
 nothing could be fecreted in them. In another plac« 
 he tells us, that the circulus venofus is fix or feven lines 
 diftant from the ciliary ligament : but, unluckily for 
 this afiertion, the whole body of the eye is but about 
 feven lines in diameter ; and this circulus is as near as is 
 well poffible to the ligamentum ciliare. He has ex- 
 preiTed bimfelf, as he thinks, very circumflantially, by 
 adding the epithet mathematical to his term line. If he 
 means bv the word that part of an inch which mathe- 
 maticians mean^ when they ufe the term line as a deno- 
 tative of meafure, which is as we have underltood it, it 
 is certain that he knew nothing of the fituation of the 
 parts : if he means by it the mathematiral (]?finition of 
 a line) which has neither breadth nor thicknefs, it is 
 not eafy to underfland what he could intend by exprelT- 
 ing the diilance of two bodies by meafures which are of 
 no diaoicter, nor exprefs any meafure at all. It is rnoft 
 probable, that he did not underftand what a line was. 
 
 He, in many places, afFe6tS to call the arteries 
 fontes oculi ; but what neceility could there appear to 
 him for a new name on this occafion ? Or, to what 
 purpofe is it to multiply things, when there is not a dif- 
 tintlion to be preferved by it ? He, in another place, 
 calls the internal angle of the eye the canthus minor, 
 or lefTer canthus ; which is at once contrary to fa6l and 
 reafon, and to the joint confent of all the authors that 
 ever v/rote upon the fubjsdl. 
 
 So much notice would not have been taken here of 
 the errors of an author of this flamp, were it not a kind 
 of debt to fu eminent a writer as Ruyfch. This author 
 has written very feverely againft Ruyfch, at the fame 
 
 timq 
 
NOTES. 
 
 time that he has borrowed, or, to fpeak morcjuftly, 
 flolen what is of value in his book principally from him ; 
 and, according to the cuftom of the authors of this 
 ilanip, he very modeftly teils us, that he had never 
 read his works. How much probability there is in 
 this, when the author himfelf is a Dutchman, and his 
 work evidently founded on that of Ruyfch, every rea- 
 der will determine for himfcL. 
 
 NOTE 53, 
 
 In regard to the infertion of the optick nerve. It may 
 be proper to obfcrve, thar tho', to a perfon who cur- 
 forily views the eye taken out of its 01 bit, and cleared 
 from the mufcles and far, it appears as if inferred di- 
 redlly into the middle or centre of the pofttrior part of 
 the eye ; yet it does not enter the eye, as Brigs aflerts 
 in his Opbthalmographia, dire£tly oppofite to the pupil, 
 but on each fide, nearer the nofe : and this is a very 
 obvious precaution of nature, or otherv/ife the rays of 
 light would, in their pafTage from the ohje6ts5 fall im- 
 mediately upon the nerves, with which the arteries are 
 joined. The pupils of the two eyes are, in general, 
 nearly three inches diftant from one another; but the 
 for^^mina of the cranium, thrvj' which the nerves pafs 
 to the orbits, are fcarce fo much as one inch difiant*. 
 The part of the eye where the optick neive enters is 
 perfedt'y dark and blind, as Mariott has very evidently 
 proved by experiment f : anJ it is an evident confe- 
 quence of this, that if the nerve entered the eye direct- 
 ly oppofite to the pupil, at which the rays from illumi-, 
 nated objects enter, many of thofe objects would fall 
 immediately on it, and confequently would not be feen ; 
 but the precaution of inferting the nerve rather laterally 
 toward the nofe, wholly prevents that dc-fedl. 
 N O T E 54. 
 
 There are fufficiently numerous proofs, from chl''ur- 
 gical obfervations, that a very large quantity of faliva 
 
 * See Boerhaave's Inftitut. cap. deVifu. Alfo Winflow, in ths 
 Memoirs of the French Academy, 1721. 
 
 f See Nouv. Decouvert. touchant la Vue. See alfo De la Hire, 
 Boerhaave, and Stancarius, who all confirm what this author ad- 
 vances. Our author alfo tried the experiment, he tells us, in the 
 night with a candlC; and found the place, when the candle itfclf dif- 
 appeared, 
 
 is 
 
 413 
 
414 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 is difcharged from this duct, and that particularly during 
 the time of chewing. Fabricius ab Aquapendente ob- 
 ferved, firft, that in wounds of the cheek, toward the 
 ear, there appeared a little aperture, fcarce diftinguifli- 
 able to the naked eye ; out at which, efpecially while 
 the patient was eating, there iflued a great quantity of 
 a limpid fluid, in the manner of tears : but he acknow- 
 ledges, that what it is, or how or whence it flows, he 
 is ignorant ;. nor is this wonderful, as the falival dudis 
 were not difcovered in his time. 
 
 Helvetius afterwards affirms, that the quantity of 
 this fluid fecreted in this gland is fo great, that a foldier 
 having received a wound in his cheek, in which the 
 falival du6t was cut, he for a long time wetted feveral 
 cloaths, at every meal, with the quantity that was 
 difcharged from it while he was eating f . 
 
 Our author tells us, that himfelf had alfo met with 
 feveral of the like cafes, as have alfo many others; in 
 all which, if this duft have been cut thro', the confe- 
 quence has been the fame. It appears from this, how 
 erroneouny they talk who deny that the motion of the 
 jaw, in chewing:, has any efFe£l in the fecretion and 
 difcharge of the faliva ; and would give all the merit of 
 that neceflary fupply to what they defcribe under the 
 name of the anima. It is furely much more philofo- 
 phical, as well as anatomical, to find out the material 
 caufes of the efFccSts we fee produced, where that may 
 be done. 
 
 NOTE 55. 
 
 Steno:|: was the firft author who difcovered that the 
 glandulce fublinguales had, on each fide of the tongue, 
 excretory veflels, very fhort and very flender, placed 
 parallel to one another, and fcarce diftinguifiiable, un- 
 lefs they were prefled or fqueezed : he obferved them in 
 quadrupeds. After him Verheyen§ took the liberty of 
 ufing the very words of Steno on the fame occafion, 
 defcribing the fame vefil^ls, but without mentioning 
 Steno's name. Our author, who had followed fome of 
 
 • See his Chirurg. de Genarum Vulncr. 
 -j- See Memoirs of the Paris Academy, ijig* 
 j See his Obf. Anat. de Gland, oiis, 
 ^ Anat. Tra<5l. 4. c. 20, 
 
 the 
 
NOTES, 4,5 
 
 *he greateft men in this way in his ftudies, and had feen 
 them fearch after thefe excretory vefiels in vain, and who 
 had afterwards fought after them in vain alfo in human 
 fubjects, had at one time perfuaded himfelf that they 
 were pecuHar to quadrupeds, and were indeed not to be 
 met with in the human frame at all ; but he was after- 
 wards convinced, that they are really to be found in the 
 human tongue, by Morgagni, who not only wrote to 
 him on the fubjeil, but afterwards printed his difcovery 
 of them, afTerting, that there are, in reality, a great 
 number of thefe vefieis on each fide, which arife from 
 the exterior fides of the fublingual glands, and do not 
 bend their courfe forward, but tranfverfely toward the 
 gums ; and that, at a fmall diftance from the glands, 
 they have little ofcula or openings of a peculiar form, 
 fome of them large enough to admit a fine briftle into 
 them. Our author, who is never above owning that 
 he has been miftaken, and has amended of it, adds, 
 that, after this clear and accurate defcription, he fought 
 for them again in human fubje6fs, and, after feme dif- 
 ficulty, found them. 
 
 In the mean time alfo Walther, phyfician to his 
 Polifh majefty, and a profelFor of anatomy at Leipfick *, 
 wrote a treatife exprefly on the fubje6i: of thefe dudls, 
 in which he defcribes them at large, and figures them 
 from a human fubje6l : he is the firft author that has 
 done fo. He mentions eight of them. 
 
 It is not in all fubje(fts that thefe minute obje(fls of 
 the anatomifts refearches are equally to be found : in 
 fome they are fcarce poiTible to be difcovered, in others 
 it is hardly poflible to mifs them. Our author, who 
 had fo long been fearching in vain for them, when he 
 found them, examined many fubjedts afterwards, in 
 which it was difficult to trace them 5 but, at length, 
 he met with a fubje(St, in which they were much larger 
 and more numerous than he had ever before feen them. 
 He made a careful preparation of the part, and caufed 
 a figure to be engraved of them, exhibiting thofe of one 
 fide perfect, with the tongue yet cohering with the 
 lower jaw. See Tab. 7. Fig. 33. 
 
 * fixercitat, de lingua, Lipf. 1724, 
 
 NOTE 
 
4i6 NOTES. 
 
 N O T E 56. 
 The foramen coecum of the tongue, which is ufually 
 fmall, is fubje6t to great variation in its fize. Our au- 
 thor, in the fame fubje61: in which he found the duds 
 mentioned in the former note fo very obvious, found 
 alfo this foramen fo large and deep, that he, without 
 difficulty, introduced into it a tube fo large, that he had 
 been ufed to prefs it into the ureters, for the inflation 
 of them, and even for the inflation of the bladder. On 
 blowing into the tube, when introduced into the fora- 
 men, in order to difcover the du6l mentioned by Vater, 
 he found that the pofterior part of the tongue was very 
 remarkably diftended by it. Not Succeeding fo well in 
 this, however, as he had expedled, he threw in an in- 
 jedtion of a waxy matter, coloured red, in order to fee 
 its true fituation, form, and courfe. This fucceeded fo 
 well, that afterwards, on opening the foramen ccecum 
 in the tongue, fee Tab. 8. Fig. 34. he immediately dif- 
 covered the begmnings of two very remarkable du6ts, 
 not defcribed by any writer : thefe continued their 
 courfe about a line depth, under the teguments of the 
 tongue. After carefully removing thefe teguments, he 
 found thefe dudls continued, one on the right fide, and 
 the other on the left, running on, as exprefled in the 
 figure. The left duel, marked by the letter b in that 
 figure, continued its courfe to the tubercle c c, which 
 was a pellucid veficle full of a clear liquor, looking like 
 the faliva. Our author judges, with great probability^^ 
 that this liquor was protruded into the veficle by the 
 force of the matter of the injection ; and that the veficle 
 is not a natural appearance in the part, but was merely 
 the end of the du£t, forcibly diftended by the liquor 
 thus protruded, which, having no way out, and being 
 thus pufhed into it with a force it could not refift, 
 dilated its fides, and formed the pofterior part into the 
 appearance of a diftended bladder. In the other du6l 
 there was only a little of the injedion found, in the be- 
 ginning ; but on taking this out, and introducing a pipe, 
 and blowing into it, the inflation reached as far as the 
 part marked with the letter e in the figure : fo that, from 
 the letter d to e, the du6l fhewed irfelf to be ©f the 
 fame nature and fubftance with the dudlus falivalis 
 
 Whar- 
 
NOTES. 
 
 Whartonianus; and at the end of this there was n.o 
 Veficle, like that of the other fide; which tends alfo 
 greatly to corroborate the opinion, that the veficle there 
 was not natural, but formed as already fuggef<ed. 
 Thefe du£i:s therefore in this tongue, in which thev 
 Were fo particularly diftincl and obvious, appeared evi- 
 dently to be falival du6ls. But as, befide thefe du(Rs, 
 there were very evidently diftinguifhable three little 
 apertures or ofcula in this foramen, expreflcd by the 
 letters ^^, whofe cavity ran downwards, and did not 
 admit the fmall ftyle introduced into them much more 
 than a line deep, he alfo readily agrees with Morgagni, 
 Vater, and others, that this foramen is either an excre- 
 tory duft of the lingual glands, or a place of concourfe 
 of a great number of glands, which difcharge the faliva 
 into the mouth from the glanduous fubftance of the 
 tongue. But thefe dud:s, if the large foramen happens 
 to be wanting, as is indeed very frequently the cafe, 
 open themfelves a palTage into the mouth, by a num- 
 ber of lefTer diflinifl apertures ; and it appears, from 
 repeated examination, that nature varies extremely in 
 this circumftance. What is farther obfervable in the 
 figure mentioned in this note, will be pointed out in 
 the annexed Explication, Oui: author is of opinion, 
 from repeated experiments, that the ducts defcribed by 
 Cofchwitz, under the name of new falival ones, and 
 figured as fuch by this author, and by Kulm *, Du Ver- 
 fiey f , and others, are in reality no other than veins. 
 NOTE S7' 
 The fame fubje^)"^ which gave the author an oppor- 
 tunity of exprefling the parts treated of irt the two pre- 
 ceding notes in fo happy a light, furnifhed him alfo 
 with another obfervation : he founds near the hinder 
 dentes molares of the upper jaw, between the mufculus 
 buccinator and the mafieter, two remarkable conglo- 
 merate glands, one on each fide, of the fize and figure 
 reprefented at the letters ffff in fig. 36. Thefe, 
 from their fituation, he calls the glandulae molares. In 
 each of thefe he difcovered two large ofcula or aper- 
 tures, of twice the fize of the pun^lula lachrymalia, 
 
 * Tab. Anat. Germanice Edit. Gedani 1725, T. 12. b. 
 ■f See lusDifquifit. Anatom. de Dudl. Saliv. Tubing. 1725. 
 
 E e and 
 
 417 
 
4i8 NOT E S. 
 
 and eafily admitting the thick briftles figured at gggg, 
 and even the ftyles ufed in the fiftula lachrymalis : they 
 admitted thefe to about two lines. 
 
 Befide thefe larger ofcula, there were alfo, on the left 
 fide of each gland, two or three other fmaller foraminula; 
 tho' thefe were not fo minute as the apertures of many 
 other of the parts of this kind : all thefe pierced the mem- 
 brane of the mouth, and the buccinator mufcle ; and, on 
 preffing the gland gently, each of them difcharged at its 
 orifice a drop of clear faliva. The 37th figure gives a 
 view of the external part of the gland of the left fide, 
 which is feen by it to be compofed of a number of 
 fmaller ones ; and hence, in fome degree, to refemble 
 the fhape of a mulberry : from this it is evident, that it 
 is of the number of the conglomerate glands. It ad- 
 hered to the fubftance of the palate, where the laft of 
 the dentes molares terminated. 
 
 Such is our author's defcription of thefe two remark- 
 able glands, as he found them in this fubjed:. Whether 
 they are univerfal, or are found in the fame figure and 
 fituation, and with their apertures or foramina in the 
 fame fize, number, and fituation in other fubje6ls, he 
 does not determine. 
 
 NOTE 58. 
 As the author was employed about the fame fortu- 
 nate fubjecl, in examining the tubae Euftachii, and muf- 
 culi Columella', he chanced to prefs with his finger on the 
 upper part of the pharynx, and on the part of the thick 
 membrane marked with the letter b in our 38th figure, 
 which, in that part, inverts the lower extremity of the 
 great apophyfis of the os occipitis ; where, from the 
 part marked with the letter <?, near the upper part of 
 the vomer, he obferved a mucous but not pellucid 
 liquor ouze out. As he afterwards purpofely prefixed 
 that and the neighbouring parts, he always found the 
 fame humor flow out. Determined to examine what 
 ' aperture of a duft into the mouth this was, he firft at- 
 
 tempted to introduce a fmall ftyle anteriorly and fide- 
 ways ; but in both attempts he failed of fuccefs : but 
 afterwards making the fame attempt toward the hinder 
 part, in a dire61ion to the great foramen of the occupur, 
 he fucc-ceded fo far as to introduce it with great eafe to 
 
 the 
 
NOTES. 
 
 the depth of a finger's breadth ; that is, as far as to the 
 part marked in our figure k. Finding afterwards that 
 the paflage was wide enough to admit a larger ftyle, he 
 introduced fuch a one as is figured at the letter/^, and 
 this penetrated as eafily as the other to the fame depth ; 
 after this he inflated it by means of a tube ; but its fub- 
 ftance was fo (ienfe and firm, that he was able to dilate 
 it but very little by this means. But, from time to 
 time, he found himfelf able to exprefs a very confider- 
 able quantity of the mucous liquor beforementioned 
 thro' 't. After tbefe obfervations he opened the paf- 
 fage, and found that it ran from its aperture ex- 
 prefl^d dt a^ to the depth at by amidft a denfe glandu- 
 lar fubttance.. every way furrounding it toward the 
 great foranitrn of the os occlpitis, under the apophyfis. 
 
 He ac nrit: fufpe£led that it might be a morbid open- 
 ing in this fubjeft, or an ulcer in the part, and wholly 
 preternatural ; and he was the more inclined to this 
 fufpicion, from the circumftances under wh-ch the pa- 
 tient died : for, beGde the other rymptoms of the dif- 
 eafe that carried him ofF, he had, toward the end, an 
 inflammation of the fauces. This circumdance pleaded 
 much againfl: the author's fuppofing what he had difco- 
 vered a real and natural aperture, efpecially as he can- 
 didly acknowledges, that at that time he had not met 
 with an account of any fuch part, in any writer on the 
 fubjecl. Afterwards, however, turning over Santo- 
 rini *, he found a paflage where that author is fpeaking 
 of the fornix of the pharynx, under which term he in- 
 cludes the part which is reprefented in our figure, be- 
 tween the pofterior extremities of the noftrils, the 
 Euftachian tubes, and the great foramen of the os occi- 
 pitis ; concerning which be fays, that it is covered with 
 a denfe a^d thick memorane, full of a number of 
 glands, from which a thick mucous matter is difchar^ed. 
 Thefe, he fays, he fometimes found opening themfelves 
 into Ihallow cavities, which were, in fome fubje6ls, ar- 
 ranged in a kind of regular order ; in others they were 
 diftindl and feparate : fometimes he found inordinate 
 and quite irregular locuU ; fometimes the whole caver- 
 nous, as it were, full of confpicuous apertures and 
 
 * Obfervat, Anatom, p. 137. 
 
 E e 2 ' deep 
 
 419 
 
420 NOTE S: 
 
 deep finus's, fo as to emulate in fome degree the tofi- 
 fils ; and that it was eafy to prefs out a mucous liquor 
 from thefe. From this account of Santorini it is evi- 
 dent, that what our author obferved in this fubje£l was 
 not a morbid ftate of the parts ; but that fuch a mucous 
 matter is always naturally thus fecreted and difcharged 
 in this part. Whether it is protruded out at feveral 
 apertures, or only at one, as in the fubject in which 
 our author obferved it, which feemed a common canal, 
 into which the glandulous circumjacent fabftance pour'd 
 the matter of its fecretion : its office is evidently to lu- 
 bricate the fauces, to make the food pafs down the gula 
 with more eafe, and to aflift in forming the fweetnefs 
 of the voice. It is alfo highly probable, that Santorini 
 is in the right in judging that in a morbid ftate, when 
 this mucous matter is fecreted in too great abundance, 
 the great quantity of fuch matter that the patient thinks 
 diftils from his head, and which he fo freely voids in 
 fpitting, is really the produce of thefe glands. 
 NOTE 59. 
 Our author in his laft difleiSlions, before the publi- 
 cation of his laft edition of this Compendium, took 
 very confiderable pains to fearch after the du6t named 
 from Steno, and running from the noftrils into the 
 palate, behind the dentes incifores ; but tho' this muft 
 be acknowledged to be very manifeft in the head of a 
 ikeleton, it is certainly very obfcure in difledlion of the 
 frefii body. There are always found, indeed, behind 
 the dentes incifores, a number of rugae and foveolae, or 
 depreffions j but the author aflerts, that, in all his at- 
 tempts, he never was able to make out any dudt or 
 canal running thence to the nofe, either by means of 
 a briftl. , or of the fineft ftyles, tho' he ufed fuch of 
 the latter in the attempt as eafily pafled into the punc- 
 tula lachrymalia. After cutting thro' the rugofc mem- 
 brane of the palate, indeed, in this place, he found he 
 could introduce the ftyle into a boney canal, near the 
 membrane which runs thro' this canal j but that this 
 only penetrated a little way, and could by no means be 
 continued to the nofe. And, on the other hand, on 
 trying to find a paffage thro' from the nofe into the 
 mouth, the attempt was as fruitlefs j not even the fineft 
 5 ftyle, 
 
NOTES. 421 
 
 ftyle, or the fmalleft briftle, being able to make its 
 way. From all this our author fufpediis, that this 
 membrane, which is a very ftrong one, is in reality a 
 ligament, ferving to connect and ftrengthen the mem- 
 brane of the palate, that it may not be fuhjciSt to be 
 feparated from the bones of the palate by any hard parts 
 of our food, or by other accidents ; fince, in that cafe, 
 it would be an inconvenience from which many bad 
 fymptoms would rife, and which, tho' it might eafily 
 have happened without this defence or prevention, is 
 very well fecured from it by fuch a conned:ion. 
 N O T E 60. 
 Rivinus has defcribed this foramen, which has been 
 fmce called after his name. The hiatus Rivini is 
 fituated in that part of the tympanum, where the cord is, 
 and where the handle of the malleolus is joined to its 
 head. Thus it is that Rivinus has defcribed and figured 
 the place where it is fituated ; and Teichmeyer, who 
 formerly had been a pupil of Riyinus's, agrees in this : 
 but others defcribe it in a different manner, and its 
 fituation different. Among the latefi; of the writers of 
 note, who are for the latter fide of the queftion, we 
 are to mention Mr, Chefelden, who affirms, that the 
 membrana tympani, in that place where the boney, cir- 
 cle, to which this membrane of the tympanum grows 
 m infants, is not intire ; but that it is open, in propor- 
 tion as this circle is deficient. This is his account in 
 his firfl edition of his Anatomy ; but in the third he 
 fays, there is only a little aperture in this place, and 
 that it is covered with a valve. He acknowledges, 
 however, in the firft, that this aperture is different in 
 different people ; and that in fome it is fo large, that 
 it will let air enough thro' to put out a candle, on preff- 
 ing the air from the mouth, when fhut, thro' theEufta- 
 chian tube and external ear. And adds, that he had 
 met with a man who would fmoak a whole pipe of to- 
 bacco, without difcharging any of the fmoak out at his- 
 mouth, throwing it all out thro' his ears ; and that this 
 man had his fenfe of hearing very quick. He tells us 
 alfo, that he once, in a diffe(Sl:ion, found this membrane 
 open in half is diameter, and yet that the perfon was 
 ^^t deaf. He finally tells us, from the authority oJ> 
 
 E e 3 St, 
 
422 notes; 
 
 St. Andre, of a man in whom the whole membrane 
 tympari wasdeftroyed by an ulcer, and the ollicula au- 
 ditus ihrovi/n out -, and yet, that the man did not lofe 
 his hearing by it. 
 
 It is eaiy to conceive, that, if this accident had hap- 
 pened to one of the petfon's ears only, he might con- 
 tinue to hear with the other ; and, by the account, we 
 are not informed whether it was to one or to both ears 
 that it had happened. Our author aflerts exadiy the 
 contrary of what this inftance is cited by Mr. Che- 
 felden to prove ; and declares, from his own know- 
 ledge, a Cbfe, in which a perfon having loft thefe bones 
 or oflicles abfolutely and entirely, loft his hearing with 
 them. We are to add, that Munnicks, in his Liber de 
 re Anatomica, and Valfaiva in his Account of the hu- 
 man Ear, aflcrt, that they have fometimes met with 
 the foramen Rivini; but the latter of them afligns it a 
 different place from that given it by Rivinus. 
 
 Our author, whofe rare and accuracy are not to be 
 queftioned, is not afnamed to confefs, that tho' he had 
 often, fought for this foramen, he never could certainly 
 fay that he had fout d Ir, either in the human ear, or 
 in that of any quadruped^ tho' he had fearched aftef it 
 in both with the utmoft diligence and care. He kept 
 among his preparations feveral of thefe membranes, 
 taken intire from the human ear. and in their natural 
 fituation j but all thefe, he aflbres us, were perfectly 
 intire; nor was there the leaft appearance of an aper- 
 ture in an] of them, either in the place affigned to this 
 foramen by JRavinus, or that by Chefelden. He alfo 
 adds, that he was well aflured that Ruyfch, and f )me 
 others of the moft eminent anatomifls of his time, had 
 fought for this foramen with no better fucccTs than he 
 had done, nor had at all a better opinion of its 
 exiftence. 
 
 Our author, as well as Mr. Chefelden, had met with 
 a man who could difcharge, out at his ears, the fmoak. 
 of tobacco taken in at his mouth ; but the man was 
 deaf, and had received that injury by blows given hun 
 when young : and it was very reafonable to fuppofe, 
 that both thedeafnefs, and the povi^er of difcharging the 
 tobacco-fmoak this v»ay, vyeie owing to the membranes 
 
 having 
 
NOTES. 423 
 
 having been abfolutely broken by thefe violences. He 
 fays, that he never had met v/ith, or fairly heard of a 
 perfon who could do this, and who enjoyed his hearing 
 in any degree of perfedlion ; and that he had many 
 among his pupils who fmoaked much, and who had at- 
 tempted to do this often, but without the lead appear- 
 ance of fucceeding in it. From all this it is to be con- 
 cluded, that this foramen, if it be found fometimes, as 
 Rivinus and others defcribe it, yet is not natural or uni- 
 verfal, but that the generality of men and of quadru- 
 peds have it not. The effeds related in confequence 
 of there being fuch a meatus or aperture, can indeed 
 only be accounted for, by allowing that there is fuch a 
 one ; fo that our author recommends it to all future 
 anatomifts to fearch carefully after it, and by their joint 
 obfervations to convince the world whether, and whe- 
 ther more or lefs frequently, it be found in human and 
 in quadruped fubje6i:s. 
 
 Rivinus's pupils, with feveral of whom our author 
 had been acquainted, all joined in telling him, that 
 Rivinus ufed to demonftrate this foramen in his diflec- 
 tions, by placing a briflle on the part of the membrane 
 where he fays it is fituated, and, in their prefence, 
 letting it thro' ; but that he did not pretend to be able 
 always to expofe it to the eye. Our author tells u^, 
 that he tried this method, and that he could make the 
 briftlepafs; but he always has had a fufpicion that the 
 briflle makes its own way by forcing a hole in this ten- 
 der membrane, rather than finds a natural aperture to 
 pafs thro' at. The experiment never fucceeded with 
 him, unU'fs he thruft the brittle forward with fome 
 force 5 and he obferves. that the fame degree of force 
 would make it pierce this tender and fine membrane in 
 ariy other place as well as in this. 
 
 Waltherus, in his Difiertation on the Membrana 
 Tympani *, after a multitude of experiments made for 
 this purpofe, declares himfelf of our author's opinion, 
 that there is naturally no fuch aperture as this defcribed 
 by Rivinus, Chefelden, and others. On the contrary, 
 Teichmeyer not only aflerts that this aperture is con- 
 ftant and univerfal in the membrane in the ears of aU 
 
 * Publifhed at^-eipfick in 1725, 410, . -^\* 
 
 E e 4 ^^■^^r' V 
 
424 N O T E S. 
 
 creatures, but he gives a method of finding it with greaj^ 
 eafe and certainty in the ear of a calf. He has defcribed 
 his method at large, and has not omitted the aiTiftance 
 of figures to exprei;? it *. Our author, after carefully 
 perufmg him, declares that he never could be To happy, 
 in repeating his experiments, as to pafs the Ityle thro' 
 this aperture with that eafe and readinefs that he did, 
 or afTerts that he did : and he obferves, fomewhat un- 
 luckily for Teichmyer too, that the place he has afligned 
 this aperture is not the fame that Rivinus has defcribed 
 it in. The figi^re which he has given of it in his An- 
 thropologia, agrees very well with Rivinus's, as the 
 opening is reprcfented in what is called the greater area 
 of the tympanum ; but in his feventh figure, given in 
 the works jufl alluded to, it is placed in the fmaller area 
 of the tympanum. Now if there were fuch an aper- 
 ture always, or but frequently in this part in men, it is 
 impoilible to fay why we do not meet with numerous in' 
 ftances of men, who can difcharge the fmoak of tobac- 
 co at their ears : or how it happens that the inflances 
 of people who can do this are fo few, as the thing muft 
 be eafy on this principle. There are many other ob- 
 vious arguments againft the exiilence, or at leaft the 
 univerfal exiltence, of this aperture in this membrane \ 
 but thefe are fuiiicient. 
 
 NOTE 6i. 
 In regard to the number of the ofTicula auditus, it 
 may be proper to obferve here, that Teichmyer, in his 
 Anthropologia, enumerates fix of them in each ear ; 
 and, befide thofe four ufualiy reckoned, defcribes and 
 figures two new ones, which he had difcovered in the 
 ear of a calf. The iirft of thefe, which he calls os 
 lenticulare, he tells us is placed between the malleus 
 and incus, in the manner of a fefamoide bonej and 
 that it is joined to them both by ligaments, and ferves 
 to ftrengtheh the articulation, in the manner of a pa- 
 tella. The other, or hxth bone of the ear, he tells 
 us, adheres to the extremity of the tendon of the muf- 
 culus ftapedis ; and he adds, that this mufcle is not in- 
 ferted into the head of the Ihpes, as has been ufualiy 
 ; /uppofed; but is inferted into this bone, vi^hich is of an 
 
 i!^ Vjndiclae quorundam inventorum fuoium, Lenae 1727. 
 
 oval 
 
NOTES. 
 
 pval figure, and is conne6^ed laterally to the ftapes. 
 And, finally, he adds, that this bone had been obferved 
 before by Veflingius ; but that the other had never been 
 difcovered by any body. 
 
 That which adheres to the fide of the ftapes is very 
 eafily fo'^nd in the ears of calves, and Cowper has 
 figured t ; and our author never omitted, in his courfes, 
 to ftiev it to his auditors : but in this work he omitted 
 the ff'.ention of it, becaufe, thd' fo general in the calf, 
 he Vad never met with it in an human fubje6t. Schel- 
 Ji^'nmer tells us, that he had found fuch bones in the 
 firs of quadrupeds ; but he adds alfo, that he never had 
 /met with any of them in the human ear. As to the 
 other bone, called by this author the fourth, we have 
 already declared our opinion of it ; for if the epiphyfes 
 of the bones are to be enumerated as fo many diftindl 
 bones, it will be eafy to add to the number in other 
 parts as well as this. The os femoris, at this rate, is 
 not to be called one bone, but five. 
 
 The author who had added this, is not however con- 
 tent with what he did at firft, but has of late added a 
 feventh to the number of the oflicula auditus, which, 
 from its figure, he calls os triangulare. This alfo, he 
 tells us, he met with in the ears of calves ; and adds, 
 that it ftands on the paries of the finuofity of the os 
 maftoidseus, on which the thicker and fhorter leg of the 
 incus is placed, as on a bafe. He adds, that this bone 
 is very difficult to be found, and indeed fcarce at ail fo, 
 unlefs after the organs of hearing have been boiled. 
 Finally, Dr. Douglafs mentions yet another ofliculum 
 auditus t, which has been obferved in the tendon of 
 the mufcle of the malleus, called the intei'nal one of 
 Euftachius : but himfclf fuppofes this not a natural and 
 pniverfally feparate part, but to be found by a breaking 
 of another part, and therefore not to be univerfally 
 found. 
 
 NOTE 62. 
 
 The work In which this very fingular courfe of tlie 
 auditory nerve is defcribed, is not frequent in this part 
 of the world ; nor indeed any where, except in Italy : 
 
 * See his Vindiciae before quoted, p. 22. 
 I -f See his Myograph, p. 27, 
 
 ' Magnet 
 
 42, 
 
426 NOTE S; 
 
 Magnet has even omitted to mention it in his Thea* 
 truni Anatomicum. Our author has, therefore, been 
 at the pains of tranflating the pafTage, in which it is 
 defcribed at length, from the author; and of giving a 
 copy of his figure in a vacant corner of one of the plates 
 of this work. See Tab. 2. Fig. 2r. 
 
 The title of the book is Letters of Defnoves, pro- 
 feflbr of anatomy and furgery at the academy at Bo- 
 logna, and of Mr. Gulielmini, profefTor of medicine 
 and mathematicks at Padua, and of other eminent per- 
 fons, on the fubje(£t of certain new difcoveries. In 
 this work we have a defcription of the auditory nerve, 
 in the following manner, giveri by Maftichelli, a phy- 
 fician at Rome. 
 
 The pair of auditory nerves coming from the me- 
 dulla oblongata, enter the foramen of the os petrofum ; 
 9nd after the harder portion is feparated from the fofter, 
 this laft pafTes thro' a fmall foramen, which forms the 
 central line of the cochlea, and thence goes out at a 
 little aperture, which, from a ftrait bafe, runs dire61:ly 
 upwards. Afterwards, in the upper part, there are 
 difcovered not only thofe little and fcarce vifible fora- 
 mina, which Valfalva has defcribed, but befide thefe 
 another meatus, into which a briftle may be intro- 
 duced : thro' this there is a free paflage to the fofter 
 portion of the nerve, which has now the form of a 
 fnnple filament, and which is increafed in its beginning 
 as its centre, and is elongated in its progrefs, and bends 
 itfelf about, fo as to run thro' the cavities which form 
 fpirales in the cochlea. After it has defcended by the 
 end of the bafe, it pafTes thro' a fmall foramen into the 
 veftibulum. In this place, this foft and nervous part is 
 covered, as it were, with a kind of mucous humour ; 
 and hence it is carried gradually, by divers inflexions, to 
 the very arcus of the labyrinth ; when, afl'uming again 
 the form of a foft and nervous filament, it enters again 
 the narrow cavity of a very fmall canal ; and palling 
 thro' its cavity, returns again thro' the proper orifice of 
 the fmall canal ; and after it has pafTed thro' this cavity, 
 comes out at the large orifice of the arch : hence it en- 
 ters the proper orifice of the fmall canal, and pafies out 
 again at the common orifice of this arch, thro' which 
 
 it 
 
NOTES. 
 
 1 1 finally enters into the great canal, and thence again 
 pafles out at its proper oritice ; and, finally, pafTes out 
 of the OS petrofum by one of thofe foramina, which 
 open tranfverfely into the veftibulum ; and returning 
 into the inner cavity of the fkuU again, infinuates itfelf 
 into the fubftance of the brain, where, as it makes its 
 way in, it becomes divided into a number of branches, 
 and joins itfelf to feveral of the little branches, in the 
 manner that the little ramifications of the veins and ar- 
 teries do in other places in the dura mater, in the fupe- 
 rior furface of the brain, and about the pineal gland. 
 
 That the intricate circuit of this nerve may be the 
 better underftood. we are to refer to the figure, which 
 exhibits it feparated from the bones, that it may be feen 
 in what manner it is that it makes its way thro' thefe 
 feveral pafTages. 
 
 This is the wonderful courfe of this nerve, which 
 Maftichelli, who relates it, tells us was difcovered by 
 Simoncellus, a furgeon and anatomift at Rome. What 
 he would principally attempt to demonflrate from it is, 
 thct the foft portion of the auditory nerve does not 
 make its way thro' the cavities of the cochlea and la- 
 byrinth in form of a membrane, as has been the com- 
 mon opinion ; nor in form of zones, as Valfalva would 
 have it, but in the form of a foft and delicate nervous 
 filament, which, after all this circuit, makes its way 
 tack to the brain again. He tells us alfo, that the dif- 
 coverer Simoncellius intended, in a fhort time, to pub- 
 li(h this and a number of other curious obfervations in 
 a treatife, with the advantage of a number of very ac- 
 curate figures. Our author has taken, as himfelf pro- 
 feffes, a great deal of pains to render the defcription of 
 the courfe of this nerve intelligible, in his tranflation 
 from the original ; nor have we been carelefs in the ren- 
 dering it into Englilh ; yet we join with him in opi- 
 nion, that it will appear obfcure to the generality, at 
 leaft, of readers. Our author pleads for himfelf, that 
 it is fo obfcure in the original, that fcarce any body 
 could be expected perfedly to underftand the author's 
 meaning. It was not proper to omit what has the ap- 
 pearance, at leafl, of fo very remarkable a difcovery in 
 anatomy 3 but v/e are to obferve, that Camerarius, in 
 
 4 - -his 
 
 42^ 
 
428 NOTES. 
 
 his tenth dlflertatfon, has taken fome pains to refuter 
 this (yilem of Simonceliius's ; nor do we find that any 
 body has been fince able to follow the nerve thro' all the 
 meanders, thro' which he has traced it in this de- 
 icriptijn. 
 
 NOTE 63. 
 : In the firfl editions of this book the author mentions 
 only three coats of the arteries, as it had been the 
 cuftom to allow no more ; but be afterwards found, by 
 more ftri61: examination, that the coats of the arteries 
 are in reality five in number 5 and that, in the larger 
 arteries, they are evident enough, and may eafily be 
 diftino-uifhed in the order in which he has mentioned 
 them here. In the outer membrane there are a great 
 number of blood-veffels. The fecond is formed of re- 
 ticular plexus's, and may be divided into lamelias or 
 flakes. The third is a membrane, firm, tough, and 
 approaching to the nature of the tendons in its fubftance : 
 when this is taken ofF, there appears a thick denfe coat, 
 formed of a great number of evident mufcular fibres, 
 which furround the artery in manner of circles or 
 rings ; and this tunic alfo is eafily divifible into feveral 
 lamellae. Finally, the fifth or inner tunic, which is 
 placed within the ilefhy annular fibre, is called the 
 nervous one. 
 
 In regard to the mufcular tunic, there have not been 
 wanting authors who have denied that there properly 
 was any fuch. In a work publifhed at Hall in Saxony, 
 under the name of Bibliotheca Mifcellanea, in the Ger- 
 man language, our author's Compendium being men- 
 tioned, the author denies the exiftence of a mufcular 
 coat of the arteries, partly on the authority of Pcchlin 
 and Schelhammer, and partly from obfervation that 
 there were not what could properly be called mufcles 
 there, and that the arteries fometimes offified, which 
 they declare to be quite contrarv to the nature of any 
 thing mufcular. The author adds alfo, that Schelham- 
 mer has aiTerted that the arteries were not conftringed 
 by any external force, or by means of any mufcular 
 ftruclure ; but' that this change happened in them by 
 mere fubfidence. 
 
 But 
 
NOTES. 
 
 But as It Is evident, that in the inteftines, and feveral 
 other parts, fibres much fmaller and finer than thefe 
 do compofe a mufcular tunic; and the motion and con- 
 ftriiSlion of the inteftines is univerfally agreed, by the 
 anatomifts of all times fince its difcovery, to be owing 
 to this tunic, it is fomewhat unreafonable that it fhould 
 be denied that this coat of the arteries is mufcular, or 
 that it ferves for their conftri(Stion ; fince the fibres of 
 it are much larger, and more confpicuous, and, in their 
 annular or circular courfe round the veflels, form a mul- 
 titude of evidently flefliy pale red lamellae, v^hich are 
 fo obvious and diftin(51:, that there is no miffing them 
 on difle£lion : and as to the ufe of them, the conftric- 
 tion and motion in propelling the blood is vaftly greater 
 than in the other cafes in vi^hich they are allowed. The 
 requifites of a mufcle are a manifeft fibrous fubftance, 
 and a povv^er of conftriclioji and motion : thefe arc pro- 
 perties of this coat of the arteries ; and it is hard, that 
 with thefe, and every other chara6ler of what diilin- 
 guiflies mufcles in other parts of the body, they Ihould 
 be denied to be mufcles here. 
 
 As to the objection ralfed agalnft the opinion of this 
 coat being truly mufcular, from the arteries fometimes 
 offifying, we are to anfv^er, that the afl'ertion that muf- 
 cles are not capable of offification, is not true. The 
 ofTa fefamoidea, which are found here and there in the 
 extremities of feveral of the mufcles, are a proof that 
 it is poflible ; and the dura mater, which, by the com- 
 mon ccnfent of anatomifts, is mufcular ; nay^ and the 
 inteftines themfelves, in the fubfiance of which there 
 are fometimes found oflifications, abundantly evince, 
 that an offification, where there Is true and proper muf- 
 cular matter, is not Impoffible, tho' uncommon. 
 
 As to the authority 'of Pechlin and Schelhammer, v/e 
 may oppofe to it that of Morgagni : many others might 
 be brought in on the occafion, but this name alone is 
 fufficient. This author, in his Adverf. 2. Animadv. 38. 
 not only declares that the arteries have a mufcular coat 
 or tunic, but enters fo far into the difquifition as to 
 eftablifti the doi^irine of the fibres of it being annular, 
 ggainft Magnet's opinion of their being fpiral. 
 
 429 
 
^30 NOTE S. 
 
 A multitude of other authorities might be produced 
 to fupport this fyftem ; but the greateft fupport it can 
 have is obfervation, and an examination of the parts 
 themfelves. Whoever will enquire into the merits of 
 the difpute in this way, will allow, that the arteries 
 have certainly a mufcular coat. 
 
 NOTE 64. 
 
 The greater number of the anatomical and phyfiolo- 
 gical writers divide the great artery, into what they call 
 its afccndent and defcendent trunk, in the fame man- 
 ner as the vena cava is divided. But this artery, in 
 human fubjedls, runs in a manner that might have 
 given origin to a better divifion * ; for after it has arifen 
 with a fmgle trunk about three fingers breadth, it be- 
 comes inflected or bent in the manner of an arch, and 
 takes its courfe thro' the thorax into the abdomen. 
 This arch, as it defcends from the bafis of the heart, 
 according to the obfervations of Morgagni f , is about 
 feven fingers breadth long ; and is called, from the 
 place of its inflexion tov/ard the lower parts of the 
 body, the truncus aortas defcendens, or the defcendent 
 trunk of the aorta ; and from this part of it are derived 
 all the arteries of the lower parts of the body. 
 
 From the upper part of the arch there are ufually, 
 in human fubje(fls, three remarkable branches running 
 upwards : of thefe the right branch, fometimes nearer 
 the trunk, fometimes more remote from it, becomes 
 divided into two parts, which are called the right fub- 
 clavian and the right carotid arteries. The middle 
 branch is the left carotid, and the other or left branch 
 :s the left fubclavian : there are afterwards diftributed 
 throughout the head and the arms. 
 
 Our author obferves, that he has fometimes, tho' 
 rarely, found in female fubjeds four afcendent branches. 
 Of thefe the two outer ones have furnifhed the two 
 fubclavians, and the two middle ones the two carotids ;{:. 
 A heart of this kind, with the arteries injected, the 
 author always kept in his mufaeum, among his nume- 
 
 ♦ See an excellent figure of it in Drake's Anthropolog. T. zo, 
 •f- SeeMichelotti de Separat. Fluid, p. 104. 
 
 t Berger has figured and defcribed four branches. Aft. Erudit, 
 16S9 j but they differ from thofe of ow author, 
 
 rous 
 
NOTES. 43t 
 
 Tous preparations. It is but very rarely, if ever, tliat 
 in hunnan fubjeds there are only two afcendent branches; 
 much lefs are we to exped: ever to find but one : whence 
 it is very evident, that the aorta ought by no means to 
 be divided, as it ufually is, into the afcendent and de- 
 fcendent trunk ; terms that may cafily give very wrong 
 ideas of this veffel to thofe who have only read ana- 
 tomy, without feeing difle6tions. Comparative anatomy 
 feems to have given origin to this error. When human 
 fubje(Sls were lefs frequently differed than at prefent, 
 and moft of the figures and defcriptions of the parts 
 were taken from thofe of quadrupeds, it is not fo won- 
 derful that the terms of afcendent and defcendent trunk 
 of the aorta were int'oduced ; fince, in quadrupeds in 
 general, there is ufually only one large afcendent branch, 
 dividing afterwards into the vefleis of the head, fore- 
 legs, &c. But in mofi quadrupeds this afcendent 
 branch, tho' it appears fingle, is not truly fo 5 but there 
 ufually is another fmaller one very near it. 
 
 The new delineations of thefe veilcls by Cant *, do 
 
 not at all agree with the ufual and ordinary ftate of 
 
 them. He gives, as it were, only two afcendent 
 
 branches : the one larger than ordinary ; from whick 
 
 afterwards proceed the right fubclaviac, and the two 
 
 carotids ; and the other at a great diftance from it, 
 
 from which rifes the left fubclavian. Our author af- 
 
 ferts, that among the great numbers of bodies he had 
 
 publickly and privately diire6i:ed, and examined with 
 
 due care, as to the formation of thefe parts, he never 
 
 met with one in which the vefiTels anfwered to this de- 
 
 fcription. or to the figures given by this author. The 
 
 branch which forms the left carotid, ufually begins from 
 
 a very diftinct part from the other two, nearly in the 
 
 middle, between them ; fo that it is but juftice to allow 
 
 the figures of Ruyfch, Verheyen, and Drake, to be 
 
 more accurate than thefe new ones. Drake, indeed, 
 
 has figured the divifion of the fubclavian and right 
 
 carotid feme what too near the trunk ; but otherwife 
 
 his figures are excellent. Nicolai fays, that he has 
 
 given four branches ; but this is not juft : he has really 
 
 given only three; for it is evident, both from Drake's 
 
 * See Impet, Anatora. T, 4, 
 
43^ NOTES. 
 
 figure and explication, that he makes the right carotid 
 arife from the fubcUvian. 
 
 N O T E 65. 
 
 The author juft mentioned, Cant, in his firft plate 
 and fecond figure, has given new draughts of the divi- 
 fions of the carotids ; and, in his explanation of it, he 
 falls foul upon all the writers who had gone before him, 
 as to this matter. He declares all their accounts of thefe 
 divifions of thefe vefTels to be imperfe6i, and gives his 
 new fvrtem, which he feems to have fuppofed perfeft, 
 in their place : but perfons, who have been accuftomed 
 to examine thefe veiTels, after injedlion with a coloured 
 •waxy matter, will very eafily difcover that this gentle- 
 man's plan of them is not quite perfe(5l neither. He 
 has given them terminations which they have not ; and 
 every one, who has but feen the experiment of injecting 
 them, muft recolledt that their branches run much 
 farther in the face, and about the temples, than thefe 
 imaginary terminations allow. The temporal ramifi- 
 cations in particular, infliead of terminating where he 
 would make them, run all over the upper part of the 
 head in various ramifications, which form a kind of re- 
 ticular plexus, and are conne6^ed on each part by anaf- 
 tomofes with the arteries of the other fide. In the fame 
 manner the artery which runs up to the cheek, and is 
 figured by this author as if terminating about its middle 
 in fmall ramifications, does in reality not terminate 
 there, or in that manner ; but its principal branch runs 
 over the cheek obliquely toward the larger canthus of 
 the eye : it partly enters the orbit, where it divides into 
 a multitude of ramifications, and partly runs up to the 
 forehead in numerous others. 
 
 Another confiderably large branch of this Artery alfo, 
 after a fub-divifion near the lips, runs into each of them, 
 and has many anaftomofes alfo with the artery of the 
 other fide ; and thefe are the vefiels which bleed fo 
 largely under the operation for the hare-lip, or other 
 occalions, in which it is necefi^ary to make an incifion 
 there. It is to be remarked, that this author, with all 
 his pompous pretences to perfe£tion and accuracy, has 
 allowed no arteries to the lips at all, in his figure. 
 
 it 
 
NOTES, 
 
 It would be eafy to point out, to the judicious ob- 
 lervcr, a great many other defe£ls of this kind in his 
 figure, particularly in leeard to the variations of the 
 Tirft dix'ifion of the carotids i but it is not neceflary : 
 the obferver will find them, on comparifon, very obvi- 
 oufly. The author, in 'eed, feems to havt- been but 
 very little a mafter of the art of filling th^ vcllcls by 
 folid iiijedlions : if he had, he would have been able to 
 have thrown his injedlion much farther, and filled the 
 velTels of the face much rriore perfectly 3 and if he had 
 examined the carotids in a variety of fubjedts, he would 
 not fo pofitively have alTerted that their flexions and 
 fituation were always exactly as he has given them, 
 perhaps from only a fingie fubjedl:. We find them, on 
 difTedtion, fometimes indeed nearly as this author has 
 figured them ; fometimes alfo nearly as Drake has given 
 them, and fometimes their flexions are quite different 
 from what are laid down by either. All this will ap- 
 pear, very familiarly and cbvioufly, to any one who 
 will take the pains to injedl them often, with good 
 inatter and good fyringes. 
 
 N O T £ 66. 
 The anatomical writers, almoft without one excep- 
 tion, tell us, that the vertebral arteries, arifing from 
 the fubclavians, afcend up to the cranium, thro' the 
 foramina formed by nature for that purpofe, in the apo- 
 phyies of the vertebrae of the neck ; and by this feem 
 to lay it down as a fa6l, that thefe arteries pafs thro' 
 thefe foramina in all the vertebrae of the neck. Our 
 author obferves, that in a number of obfervations which 
 he had made on them, In difFerent fubje6ls, by injec- 
 tion, he has conftantly found that thefe arteries do not 
 enter thefe foramina in the feventh or loweft vertebra, 
 but in the lovveft except one, that is, the fixth. This 
 is an obfervation not made by any body before him ; 
 tho' it might have been made out by the obferving that 
 the vertebral veins, in reality, pafs thro' the foramina 
 of the feventh and loweft vertebra. The intent of 
 nature in not faffering the arteries which pafs thro" 
 thefe narrow paflages in the others, to go thro' thofe 
 ill particular v/here the veins rhuft pafs, feems to be to 
 prevent the arteries, in their dilatation, from compreflins; 
 
 F f thofe 
 
 433 
 
434 NOTES. 
 
 tbofe veins, and thus preventing the free paflage of the 
 blood. It feems to be for the fame reafon alfo, that in 
 the cranium the veins and arteries do not pafs thro' the 
 fame, but thro' different foramina. 
 N O T E 67. 
 
 Our author has obferved before, that the arteries of 
 the oefophagus have been defcribed but by few writers. 
 Nicolai * quotes only Drake and Ruyfch, on the occa- 
 fion of them ; and the latter cf thefe only knew of a 
 few paffing to the gula from the aorta : but in many 
 diiiedlions he has obferved, he tells us, two or three 
 fuch arteries, arifmg by diftindl beginnings from the 
 aorta. He ufed to fhew thefe to his pupils, and has 
 been fo lucky as to fucceed to admiration in his injec- 
 tions of them, with a waxy matter coloured. 
 NOTE 68. 
 
 Nicolai, mentioned in the laft and fome of our pre- 
 ceding notes, fuftains it, with Willis and Fallopius, 
 againll Vefalius, Ridley, and our author, that the ver- 
 tebral veins do not go up int© the cranium, nor reach 
 the lateral fmus's f. It is to be allowed, that this is 
 always the cafe in thofe peculiar fubje£ls, in which thofe 
 foramina or canals behind the condyloide apophyfes of 
 the OS occipitis are obliterated or clofed, as is frequently 
 the cafe : but as in many bodies we find thefe foramina 
 open, and manifeflly terminating in the lateral finus's, 
 in thefe nature is to be fuppofed to perform her more 
 regular courfe, and thefe are therefore to be looked on 
 as the ftandards of truth. In thefe, if the other finus's 
 of the dura mater be injected with a waxy matter, thro' 
 the longitudinal one, and the veins arifmg from them 
 filled at the fame time, it will be very obvious, that 
 the vertebral veins enter the cranium by thefe foramina, 
 and infert themfelves into the lateral finus's, near their 
 exit out of the -cranium. Our author often found it 
 very fairly made out by this method of injection, and 
 makes no doubt but whoever (liall • find a fubje£l fo 
 formed, and go to work upon it in that manner, will 
 fucceed in the difcovery. It may not be improper alfo 
 to afk of thofe authors, who deny the communication 
 
 * See his DifTertat. de Direft. Vafor. p. 64, 
 •f See the fame work, p. 4. 
 
NOTES. 4J5 
 
 of the vertebral veins with the lateral iinus^s, by means 
 of thcfe foramina in the cranium, to whatpurpofe they 
 fuppofe thefe foramina to have been formed ? 
 NOTE 69. 
 Mr.Chefelden, in the firft edition of his Anatomy, pub- 
 lifhed in the year 17 13, iirft mentioned the remarkable 
 valve in the inferior trunk of the vena cava, near the 
 heart, called the valvula Euftachii ; and in his ninth 
 plate in that edition gave a figure of it, tho' not fo 
 perfect a one as might have been willied : he afcribes 
 the difcovery of it to Dr. Douglafs, and calls it the 
 valvula nobilis cavse afcendentis, by which name he 
 means the inferior trunk of the cava ; but in the third 
 edition of his book, he has left out the plate in which 
 this figure Hands. It is probable, that the fixth figure 
 in the eighth plate of Euftachius, in his Opufcula Ana- 
 tomica, firft publifhed at Venice in 1564, and after- 
 wards at Leyden, under the care of Boerhaave, in 1707, 
 gave Douglafs the hint for this. But Euftachius does 
 not call it a valve, but a membrane of a wonderful 
 flrucSlure, which is placed before the foramen of the 
 vena cava, afcending from the liver, as foon as it dege- 
 nerates into the right auricle ; occupying its anterior 
 half, and then forming a kind of reticulation *. Such 
 are the exprefs words of Euftachius ; and, as to its ufe, 
 he does not fo much as give his opinion f , But Lan- - 
 cifi, in the late publifhed plates of Euftachius, which 
 were fuppofed to have been lofl, particularly in his ex- 
 plication of the third figure of the fixteenth plate, calls 
 this a valve ; and telis us, that he is of opinion that it 
 prevents the blood, defcending from the jugulars thro* 
 the upper trunk of the cava, from meeting with too 
 much violence, with the blood afcending by the lower 
 trunk of that vein. ButWinllov/ is the author who 
 has beft of all defcribed this valve, and explained its 
 nature : he calls it the reticulated valve of Euftachius %^ 
 
 * In his book on the "Vena fine pari, he has given a fuller defcrip- 
 tion of this valve. 
 
 ■f Bauhine, in his Appendix to theTheatrum Anatomicum, T. 8. 
 fig. £. gives the fame figure from Euftachius j but he fays nothing 
 of the ufe of the membrane, nor indeed does he call it a valve. 
 
 % See Memoirs of the Paris Academy, 1717, 
 
 F f 2 He 
 
43G NOTES. 
 
 He has given an elegant figure of it, lunated and reti- 
 culated ; and has defcribed its fituation and conne6lions 
 much more accurately than any body who had gone 
 before him. He obferves, that its hollow part is turned 
 upward, and its ■ccRyex:.(iart downward ; and has ob- 
 ferved, that, in looking for if, in :di(re(Stions, the poile- 
 rior part of the cava, not the anterior, is to be opened, 
 other wife that it will hardly be found. He obferves 
 alfo, that m adults, in whom the foramen ovale of the 
 heart is clofed, this valve is often wholly wanting ; but 
 that in new-born infants, or in any fubje6t in which 
 the foramen ovale is open, it may be eafily found, 
 efpecially on firft plunging the vein under water for 
 fome time. After many other judicious remarks he 
 adds, that, befide the ufe which Lancifi afcribes to it, 
 it is evidently of great fervice in thofe young fubje6ts 
 in which it is moft obvious and remarkable, in prevent- 
 ing the blood from making its way from the right 
 auricle, or from the upper trunk of the cava, into the 
 lower. Winflow's v/hole dilTertation on this fubje6t is 
 worthy the author, and efpecially worthy a careful read- 
 ing : he fpeaks very judicioufly in it of the nature and 
 .ufe of the foramen ovale ; and maintains, againft the 
 common opinion, with Meyer, that the membrane 
 placed oppofite to it is not a valve. 
 NOTE 70. 
 
 Anatomifls agree, that the nerves arife from the 
 medulla oblongata of the brain, or from the fpinal mar- 
 row ; but they do not at all agree about v/hat particular 
 parts of the medulla they arife from. Whoever examines 
 Willis and V^ieufTens on the fubje6l of the nerves, Du 
 Verney on the organ of hearing, T. 11. Ridley on the 
 brain, and after thefe Morgagni and Santorini in various 
 peaces, v/ill fee this. Others alfo, who have abfolutely 
 written from their own obfervation, differ as greatly 
 from thefe, as they from one another. 
 
 It is eafy to fee where an author's candour and accu- 
 racy are to be depended upon, and where not. We 
 find thefe differences in the defcription of the places of 
 the origin of the nerves in authors, all of whom are to 
 be fo depended upon ; and we are to determine, in con- 
 /cquence, that it is not only one of them, but perhaps 
 
 every 
 
NOTES. 437 
 
 every one that Is in the right ; and that nature herfelf 
 varies, in this particular, as much as their def^Tiptions 
 do. Morgagni has obferved, that in the origin, and 
 even in the dif^.ribution and plexus's of the nerves, the 
 anatomift will find great differences, in regard to the 
 fame pair, in different fubje<^s ; and he argues very 
 juflly from it, that nature does not tie herfelf dov^^n to 
 thofe ftri£t laws, in this particular, that fhe does in 
 many other cafes, but is very uncertain and various *. 
 Santorini alfo, who had beftowed more time and pains 
 than any man ever did, or probably ever will, in tracing 
 the nerves from their origin ; yet confeffes, after all 
 his attempts, that it is impofiible to arrive at any degree 
 of certainty in laying down the places of them ; for 
 that the origin of the nerves of the brain are not con- 
 fiant, but vary greatly f. 
 
 To defcend more to particulars, there is fcarce any 
 thing about which the accurate anatomifls of late have 
 fo much differed as about the true origin of the inter- 
 coflal nerve. Moft of the late writers agree with 
 Willis, that it arifes from both the fifth and fixth pair ; 
 and fome afcribe fome certain branches, others different 
 ones to it. Euflachius, as appears evidently from his 
 tables, deduces it wholly from the fixth pair] and Mor- 
 gagni in general agrees with him : he fays, that he has 
 o''ten found it taking its origin from one, fometimes 
 from two, fometimes from three branches of the fixth ; 
 but that he never v/as able to find it fairly and clearly 
 arifmg in any part from the fifth p 
 
 Lancifi differs from all thefe : he will not have it 
 deduced either from the fifth or fixth pair ; but gives it 
 a peculiar and diftin61: origin from the protuberances of 
 the brain, where thev are conne6led with the peduncles 
 of the glanduls pineaiis §. Cowper will affirm nothing 
 as to the certain and conflant origin of this nerve, but 
 leaves it variable and uncertain 1|. And, finally, Santo- 
 
 * Adverfar. Anat. 2. p. 75 and 76. and Adverf, 6. in various 
 places. 
 
 ■f Obfervat. Anatom. p. 63 to 67, 
 
 % Adverf. Anat. 6. p. 30. 
 
 § Morgagni, Adverf. 5. p. 105. 
 
 i| As Morgagni obferves^ p. 30. Adverf. 6». 
 
 F f 3 rini 
 
4*S^ _ NOTE S; 
 
 jtni agrees with Vieuflens and Ridley, and gives its 
 origin conjuncStly from the fifth and fixth pairs, declaring 
 that he has feen it fo *. Our author, whofe accuracy 
 is by no means to be queftioned, reconciles all this va- 
 riety of opinions, by obferving, that, in different fub- 
 je6ls, he has feen it fometimes riling conjun6lly from 
 the fiith and fixth pair, fometimes from the fixth pair 
 only. From this our firft aflertion is very evidently 
 proved, that nature is herfelf various and uncertain in 
 this matter ; and nothing is more certain, than that not 
 only thefe but other of the nerves vary extremely in. 
 the places of their origin. And we are to add to this, 
 that accurate obfervations are very difficultly made on 
 this fubje^t ; for that the extreme fmallnefs and foftnefs 
 of the nervcF, about their origin, renders them liable to 
 fo many injuries, on taking out the brain, and making 
 other neceflary preparations for their obfervation, that 
 it is cdfy they fhouid be difplaced^ injured, or even de- 
 ftroyed in this part, in the very attempt to examine 
 them. 
 
 N O T E 71. 
 
 All the medical and anatomical writers, almoft with- 
 out exception, have followed Willis in allowing ten 
 pair of nerves to the brain ; but our author is of opi- 
 nion, that the tenth or laft pair of thefe is very impro- 
 perly added to the number of the nerves of the brain. 
 It has not its origin from the brain, or the medulla 
 oblongata, but from the fpinal marrow ; which reafon 
 alone, if there were no other, one would think, might 
 determine in favour of his opinion, that this pair is not 
 to be called a pair of nerves of the brain ; but that they 
 ought to be referred for the future to the nerves of the 
 fpiiial marrow, of which they are the genuine and pro- 
 per offspring : but this is not all that pleads againft it. 
 We are to obferye, that this pair of nerves does not 
 pafs thro' any foramen in the cranium, as all the pairs 
 of nerves of the brain do ; nor, indeed, does it come 
 fo near this as to pafs between the cranium and firft 
 vertebra of the neck, tho' Willis has affirmed this, and 
 people have followed him in it : but, in reality, it pafles 
 between the firft and fecond vertebrx of the neck. 
 
 t Sec Ad vetf. Anat. 6. p. 39 and 4.0, 
 
 This 
 
NOTES. 
 
 This is an obfervation which our author has the honour 
 of being the firft perfon who made j but it has been 
 confirmed by the moft accurate anatomifts fmce. This 
 author very pofitively afTerts, that he never, in any one 
 diflecSion, found any nerve palling between the cra- 
 nium and the firft vertebra of the neck : and it is plain, 
 from the words of Wilhs himfelf, on whom all the reft 
 who affirm it depend, as their authority, that he was in 
 doubt about it. He does not fpeak with that air of cer- 
 tainty, on this fubject, that is ufual v»/ith him on many 
 occafions ; but leaves us room to fufpedt, from his very 
 manner of delivering it, that he rather conjedlured than 
 ever fairly or clearly faw what he defcribes. According 
 to our author's more certain obfervations, this pair of 
 nerves are by no means to be faid to belong to the brain- 
 They have their origin and egrefs both quite out of 
 the limits of the cranium, and are evidently to be re- 
 ferred to the nerves of the fpinal marrow, and are pro- 
 perly the firft pair of thofe. Morgagni readily agrees 
 with our author's fentiments, as to this pair of nerves 
 not arifing from the brain or medulla oblongata, nor 
 pafling thro' any foramen of the cranium* : but he 
 obferves, with Ridley, that they difFer from all the 
 other nerves of the fpinal marrow, in that they do not, 
 like them, arife from an anterior and pofterior origin; 
 and therefore he is not for allowing them to be properly 
 one pair of that ferles, al' of which befide agree in a 
 chara6ter in which they differ from thefe. But in an- 
 fwer to this, we are to obferve, that Santorini agrees 
 wholly with our author in opinion f ; and has fhewn, 
 by an uncommon accuracy in refearches to this purpofe, 
 that this pair, as well as the others of the fpinal mar- 
 row, do actually take their origin both from the an- 
 ' terior and the pofterior furface of the fpinal marrow. 
 No one will call in queftion the au-hority of fo judicious 
 and accurate a writer as Santorini, on this fubjeCt; and 
 it follows, therefore, that as this pair of nerves have 
 all the properties, and all the charaders, of the nerves 
 of the fpinal marrow, and not of thofe of the brain, 
 they are, from the time of thefe difcoveries, to be 
 added to the number of the fpinal nerves, of which 
 
 439 
 
44P NOTES. 
 
 tbey are the firft pair ; and that, agreeing with Willis's 
 account in other rerpe6ls, we are to allow only nine 
 pair of nerves to the brain. 
 
 NOTE 72. 
 
 While our author was employed in obfervlng, under 
 feveral fubfequent djliectlons, the uvula and its mufcles, 
 he often obferved, from the root of the fmall apophyfis 
 of the pterygoide procefTes, which Santorini, not im- 
 properly, calls the horn of thefe procefTes, a feries of 
 flefhy fibres, very confpicuous in their origin there ; 
 which, afterwards joining, form a very minute mufcle, 
 "whofe tendinous expanfion terminates in the velum pa- 
 latinum, tc'ward the upper part of the uvula, which 
 part, by the aff fiance of other mufcles alfo, it draws 
 upward. Thi.s little mufcle our author has given the 
 name o^" cerato-ftaphylinus to ; and tl;e reader will find 
 a figure of it in our eighih plate, figure 38, Letters //. 
 That It is a mufcular part is evident, beyond a doubt ; 
 as alfo, that it ferves in the ofiice cf a mufcle, with 
 others. It is fmall, indeed 5 but it is feparate from the 
 others, a:id has a:~ good a title to be allowed a diltindt 
 mufcle as many of the others of the fame part. 
 NOTE 73. 
 
 Schelhammer accufes the generality of writers 01^ 
 anatomic?.' fubje6ts, of his time, for allowing, with 
 Drelincourt, foity four intercoftal mufcles. He adds, 
 that the intercoftal fibres are not fo difpofed as that they 
 can feparately form mufcles ; but that they are mixed 
 together, that they may decuilate with one another in 
 their courfe. He fays, that one order of them runs 
 obliquely from the inferior external part of the upper 
 rib to the fuperior and internal part of the lower; and 
 another feries or order, on the contrary, runs from the 
 inferior internal part of the upper rib to the fuperior 
 and external part of the. inferior rib, and that in the 
 lame oblique direiS^fdftV;,-"T}ie,r.eafon of this fabrick, he 
 fays, is, that the ribs may'be liaisle.to be moved, not 
 only upwards, but outwards ; by which ^ the cavity of 
 the thorax might be 'the more enlarged-; .and, on this 
 plan, he fays, the thorax forms a kind of fellows, fuch 
 as never have been, or probably ever will -be,' rii'adt by i*, 
 any artificer. ^ •;;,•. '!^,^*;r 
 
NOTES. 44, 
 
 In Gonfequence of this fyftem, Scheihammer allov.'s 
 ^he intercoltal mufcles to be only twenty- two, or ha'f 
 ^he number received by authors ; and to thefe twenty- 
 two alone, with the alTiftance of the fubclavians, he 
 attributes the elevation of the thorax. Govey goea 
 much farther in the reduction of the number of thcfe 
 mufcles than ti)is author : he f;.iys, that all the inter- 
 coftals together form only one mufcle, which is divided 
 into feveral bellies *. He ufes a very fingular experi- 
 ment to prove this ; which is, he takes one whole f\dQ 
 of the thorax of a human fuhjecf, or of a quadruped, 
 and boils it in water 'till the flefh be ready to fcparate 
 from the bones : after this, on carefully fepj rating and 
 extending the flefhy matter, it is all found to be con- 
 tinuous, and not formed of a number of different parts. 
 This is an experiment that will not fail to pleafe thofe 
 who are not fond of multiplying the number of the 
 mufcles. 
 
 N O T E 74. 
 
 It is not withput fufEcient reafon that Winflow ob- 
 ferves, that even the moft careful of the anatomical 
 writers had not, v/ith a proper accuracy,' given accounts 
 of the interofleous rnufcles : he gives a very natural 
 reafon for the neglect, by obferving, that they are the 
 jaft that are demonftrated iri the courfe of Myology ; 
 and the anatomift, by that time he comes to them, is 
 tired and fatigued, and longs to get to an end of his 
 bufmefs.' It is hence, he obferyes, that thefe mufcles 
 have feldom been fo thoroughly examined as thev oudit, 
 but are generally mentioned in a tranfitorv manner. 
 Even Cowper, he obferves juflly enough, tho' a very 
 diligent enquirer into the nature of the other mufcles, 
 has defcribed thefe but very imperfe6lly. Winilow, for 
 this reafon, determined to give a better and more accu- 
 rate defer! ption of them : he continues the old divifioa 
 of them into the Internal and the external ; and he 
 agrees, that their number is, as authors havf. laid it 
 down, fix 3 but he does not at all agree with the others 
 as to their infertions, or their ufes. Some of the writers 
 before him, he obferves, have determined all the exter- 
 
 * See his Veritable Chirur^erie, p. 1S9. 
 
 1 S?? Memoirs of the Paris Acad. 1702. p. 114. 
 
 nal 
 
442 NOTE S. 
 
 nal ones to perfe£l: the office of abductors, and all the 
 internal ones of addudlors ; and that others of them 
 have eftablifhed exadly the contrary. Winflow agrees 
 with neither ; but eftablifties it, that the two prior of 
 the external ones, that is, the two which are neareft to 
 the index, are inferted only into the middle finger, on 
 each fide 5 and that they ferve as addu6lors and abduc- 
 tors to that finger only : the third, he fays, belongs to 
 the digitus annularis, and is anabduftor; and by nume- 
 rous obfervations he thus proves, that the external in- 
 terofiei, tho' appropriated by others to fuch different 
 purpofes, do really belong only to two of the fingers, 
 the middle and the annular. 
 
 The firft of the internal ones, he (hews, belongs to 
 the index; the fecond, to the annular ; and the third, 
 to the little finger, acting as an abducent mufcle to 
 that finger : and thus he proves that the internal inter- 
 ofiei have nothing to do with the middle finger, but 
 belong to the other three. But, with all due deference 
 to the character of fo excellent a writer, we may ob- 
 ferve, that it is not eafy to conceive how the internal 
 interofieus, which he fays is an abducent to the little 
 finger, if we confider its fituation, what anatomifts 
 mean by abducents of the fingers, are fuch mufcles as 
 feparate them farther from the thumb ; but how a 
 mufcle thus fituated can perform this, is a thing not fo 
 eafily underftood as Mr. Winflow would have it. 
 
 Dr. James Douglafs, in his Myographia, defcribes 
 thefe fix mufcles in much the fame manner as Winflow 
 has done in this Memoir ; but he is more prolix. It is 
 but juflice to this excellent anatomift to acknowledge, 
 that no man appears to have underftood the mufcles 
 better ; and to add, that his Myographia was publilhed 
 in 17C7, Mr. Winflow's Paper not till 1720. 
 
 Winflow, who is a very candid writer, and has too 
 much merit of his own to be in any necefilty of bor- 
 rowing pralfe at the cxpence of another, feems not to 
 b'^ve met with this excellent work of Douglafs*s. 
 This author agrees to the divifion of thefe mufcles into 
 internal and external : the external ones, he obferves, 
 fill the whole fpace between the bones of the metacar- 
 pus, on the back of the hand ; thefe he therefore al- 
 
 Jqws 
 
NOTES, 44J 
 
 lows are very properly called interoflei : but the internal 
 ones, he obferves, have lefs title to that name, as they 
 arife from the anterior part of the bones of the meta- 
 carpus, toward the palm of the hand, and are vifible 
 ©nly in the palm of the hand, not at all on the back of 
 it ; whereas the external ones appear on both fides. 
 
 The firft of the internal interoffei, he fays, arifcs 
 partly tendinous, partly flefhy, from the whole anterior 
 part of the metacarpus bone of the index, between the 
 head and the condyle ; as alfo from the fuperior part of 
 the metacarpal bone of the middle linger, and is in- 
 ferted into that fide of the fore finger which is next to 
 the middle finger. 
 
 The fecond of the interoflei, which is the firfl of 
 the external ones, arifes from the greateft part of the 
 external fide of the metacarpal bone, which fupports 
 the middle finger ; and, in fome degree, tendinous from 
 its inner part, nearly under its head ; and thence extends 
 itfelf along the fide of the middle finger which is near- 
 eft the index *. 
 
 The third of the interofl^ei, which is the fecond of 
 the external ones, according to the general divifion, is 
 extended along the other fide of the middle finger, and 
 fills all that fpace which is between the metacarpal bones 
 of this and of the annular finger, from which it has its 
 origin. 
 
 The fourth interofiTcus, which is the fecond of the 
 internal ones, runs along that fide of the annular finger 
 which is next to the middle one : it arifes from the 
 whole anterior face of that bone of the metacarpus, tp 
 which the annular finger is afiixed. 
 
 The fifth, which is the third of the external ones, 
 runs along the other fide of this finger, and fills up the 
 whole interftice between the metacarpal bones of the 
 annular and little finger, from which it has its origin. 
 
 The fixth of the interoflei, which is the third of the 
 internal ones, is extended along that fide of the little 
 finger which is next to the annular one ; and has its 
 
 * The author's method would have been lefs obfcure, if he had 
 firft defcribed alJ the external, and afterwards all the internal ones ; 
 feut we have no right to change it, 
 
 origin. 
 
444 NOTES. 
 
 origin, partly tendinous, and partly flefhy, from the 
 whole anterior face of that metacarpal bone. 
 
 All thefe mufcles, both the internal and external, 
 pafs under a certain tranfverfe cartilaginous ligament ; 
 and, after this, each forms tv/o tendons ; the one of 
 which is prefcntly inferted into the upper and lateral 
 part of the firft internodium ; and the other expands it- 
 felf fo much as to coyer the greater part of the firft 
 juncture, to which the tendon of the extenfor adheres : 
 after this it becomes fomewhat narrower again, as it 
 approaches t'ne fecond internodium, where the laft 
 named mufcle is terminated ; and runs obliquely along 
 this bone, and there is terminated itfelf in the upper 
 part of the laft joint, after it has joined the fellow of it 
 on the other fide. 
 
 As to the ufe of thefe mufcles, Dr.Douglafs gives it as 
 his opinion, that when the long tendons at?!:, the laft 
 joint of the finger is extended ; and that they thus fup- 
 ply the place of an extenfor m^gnus, which is wanting 
 in this part; but that, when the fhort ones a6f, the 
 fingers are moved fideways : that is, they either are 
 (drawn towards the thumb, or are feparated farther from 
 it. Such is the opinion of Douglafs, as to the nature 
 and ufe of thefe mufcles. Winflow, who certainly had 
 not met with his work, agrees in every material point 
 with him ; and our author, who took no common pains 
 in following them in their obfervations, in a number of 
 difTc^tions, agrees alio perfectly with thein in all the 
 e/Tential matters. 
 
 As perfedly eftabliflied, however, a^ thcdotTlrine of 
 thefe mufcles might feem from fuch concurrent tcfti- 
 monies. Dr. Stockhuhus, a phyfician of Magdeburg, 
 who had formerly been a pupil of our author's, arid 
 who had acquitted himfelf fo well in his fludies 2s to 
 Jeave no common reputation behind him when he left 
 the fchools ; after all thefe difcoveries and obfervations, 
 undertook to examine thefe mufcles himfelf, in a mpre 
 than ordinarily accurate manner ; and, in confequence 
 of his obfervations, fini filed urawins's of them with his 
 own hand; which? with a new defcription of them, 
 formed on the fame fubjeds, he communicated firft to 
 hh okl mafter, ancj afterwards to the Academy of Ber- 
 lin i 
 
NOTES. 
 
 lin ; and explained the whole by a human hand, pre- 
 pared for the purpofe, and exliibited with his paper 
 before the Academy of Berhn. 
 
 This author fets out with declaring, that the inter- 
 ofTei, tho' generally faid to be only fix, are in reality nine^ 
 fix of which are internal ones : and he adds, that they 
 are to bediftinguifiied, without difficulty, in all fubje6ls, 
 as he has figured them. Every one of the three inter- 
 offei of authors, he fays, is diftingulfhed into two, in 
 a very evident manner, by a divifion in its middle, by 
 a quantity of fat, and a Vv'hite line; and even has tv/o 
 feparate bellies, which may be very eafily parted from 
 one another ; and, which fets the matter beyond all dif- 
 pute, each of thefe bellies has its feparate and proper 
 tendon, and each of thefe is inferted in a peculiar part^ 
 nay, in a peculiar finger. This he alJedges as the 
 flrongeft of all proofs of their being each really two 
 diftin6l and perfect mufcles ; and, in confequence, that, 
 inftead of three, the ufual number allowed, the internal 
 interofTei are truly and properly fix. The originations 
 of thefe mufcles the author has not thought it neceflary 
 to enter into the defcription of: his figure fhevvs, that 
 he agrees with Dr. Douglafs in this, and his defcriptions 
 therefore need not to be added to or altered ; but, in 
 regard to their extremities, he differs extremely both 
 from Douslafs and all the other writers ; and has very 
 elegantly figured, and very punctually defcribed them. 
 The firfl of them, he fays, which is nearefl the index 
 or fore finger, applies its tendon to the internal fide of 
 that linger. The third is afSxed by it to the external 
 fide of the middle finger, that is, to that fide of it 
 which is neareft the index. The third is fixed to the 
 internal fide of the fame middle finger ; the fourthj to 
 the external fide of the annular finger; the fifth, to the 
 internal fide of the fame finger ; and, finally, the fixth 
 and Igft, to the internal fide of the little finger. He is 
 of opinion, that thofe, the tendons of which are in- 
 ferted into the infides of the fingers, ferve to draw the 
 fingers back from the thumb ; and that thofe, v/hofe 
 tendons are affixed to the external fides of the finger?, 
 ferve to draw thofe fingers toward the thumb ; and con-* 
 fequently that, as only the one, or only the others aft, 
 
 the 
 
 44S 
 
446 NOTES. 
 
 the fingers are drawn towards the thumb, or are fepa- 
 rated from it ; but that, when they all a£l together, 
 they ferve to draw the fingers clofe to one another ; and 
 that, additionally to all this, they are of ufe in the 
 bending of the fingers. 
 
 This author agrees with the reft of the world, in- 
 deed, that the external interoflei are three in number ; 
 but he obferves, that they aie of a different ftructure 
 from what liad ufually been fuppofed. He fays, that 
 they are all bicipitous, or double, at their origin ; and 
 that one of their heads arifes from one bone of the me- 
 tacarpus, the other from another ; and that thefe two 
 bones are always thofe, between which the mufcle hes : 
 from this part, on each fide, he fays, there run mufcu- 
 lar fibres, arifing from the bones, which defcend 
 obliquely toward the fingers ; and that they join, and 
 form, as it were, a body like a feather, (whence he de- 
 clares them to belong to the penniform mufcles) about 
 the middle of the interfiice between the two bones, and 
 afterwards form a fingle tendon each ; the firft of which, 
 that which lies between the metacarpal bones of the fore 
 and middle finder, is inferted into the internal fide of 
 the index * ; that which lies between the bones of the 
 middle and annular finger, to the internal fide of the 
 middle one; and that which lies between the middle 
 and annular finger, to the internal fide of the annular 
 finger. 
 
 From this it appears, that, according to Stockhu- 
 fius^s opinion, the little finger has no aflirtance from 
 the external interofiei ; and that thefe interoff-i ferve 
 for the drawing av/ay the three other fingers, viz. the 
 fore finger, the middle, and the annular finger, from 
 the thumb ; and confequently that all the external in- 
 terofiei arc abductors. The author concludes with 
 great modefiy, not defiring this fyftem of his to be re- 
 ceived as certain fronn his own obfervations, but fub- 
 mi.ting it to the examination of other anatomifts. We 
 are apt to believe there is great truth and accuracy in 
 his figures and dcfcriptions ; but we are to obferve, with 
 
 * In this particular the author differs both from WinHow and 
 Douglafs, who both fay that this tendon is inferted intQ the exterior 
 fide of tlie middle finger. 
 
 Mor- 
 
NOTES. 
 
 Morgagni *, that there is fo much variation in nature, 
 in the conftru(Stion of the mufcles of the fingers, that 
 it is impoffible to give any certain and conftant defcrip- 
 tion of them, v^^hich fhall fuit what is met with in every 
 fubje(Si:. 
 
 NOTE 75. 
 
 Littre, in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy for the 
 year 1705, has given an account of a difle^tion of si 
 foetus, in which the kidneys appeared to be of a vefi- 
 culous ftru(Sture : from this fingle inftance many have 
 inferred, that the natural ftate of the kidneys is ve- 
 ficulous j but this is arguing much too haftily. 
 
 We are to obferve, in the iirfl place, that thefe kid- 
 neys were, according to the author's own account, in 
 a kind of monftrous ftate, very different from their na- 
 tural one in a healthful and properly formed fubje<5l. 
 This is evident from the ftate of the ureters, which he 
 defcribes to us : thefe were, for near an inch from the 
 kidneys, not only folid, or ciofed up, but the very fides 
 of the pelvis were found alfo concreted, or grown toge- 
 ther : nothing can be more evident than that they were, 
 therefore, in a diftempered or unnatural ftate; and 
 therefore no general conclufion, as to the ftrudure of 
 the parts, could properly be made from them. 
 
 We are to obferve alfo, that tho' the author deduces, 
 from this ftrudlure of the kidneys of this particular 
 foetus, no lefs than eight conclufive arguments, as he 
 efteems them, for proving the fubftance of the kidneys, 
 in general, to be glandulous ; he has omitted one ob- 
 fervation, and that the very capital one of all that 
 might have fallen in his way ; and which, however 
 fairly the reft are deducible from the cafe, very cer- 
 tainly and obvioufly is f o ; which is, that the human 
 foetus is not in abfolute necellity of having a fecretion 
 of urine, while in the uterus ; and confequently is not 
 under a neceflity of having the tunica ailantoides, which 
 quadrupeds have, and which many have fuppofed of ab- 
 folute neceflity to the human foetus alfo, tho' they have 
 not been fo lucky to find it. 
 
 This foetus of Mr, Littre's was at its full period of 
 nine months, and was killed in the birth > fo that it is 
 
 • See his Adverf, An at. 2» p. 40, 
 
 plain 
 
 447 
 
44S NOTE S. 
 
 plain it hav^ lived to that period without any fecr^tion of 
 urine ; and, as the foetus had lived fo, it is evident that 
 others may, as well as rational to fuppofe that ail others 
 do. The author e;cprefly tells us, that the ureters and 
 pelvis were fo perfectly coalefced, that not a drop of the 
 (ubtleft fluid could be infinuated between them j nor 
 even air be forced in by inflation ; much lefs was it 
 poffible, that fo thick a fluid as the urine ever had 
 made its way between them. It is evident, therefore, 
 that no urine in this fubjed: could have been conveyed 
 from thefe ureters and kidneys to the bladder, to be 
 thence fent to the u'^achus and al'antois. 
 
 Littre is (j far from having fallen upon this impor- 
 tant obfervation, however, that he concludes, from the 
 veficles of thefe kidneys being fiUed with a liquor rc- 
 fjinbling urine, that therefore there is always a fecretioa 
 of urine in the fttrtus, during the time of its being retained 
 in the womb ; and confequently that the fostus mufl either 
 difcharge this urine by the common pallages, or by the 
 urachus into an allantois. It does not appear, however, 
 that either of thefe propofitions are fairly deducible 
 /rem the hS.s. It is very necelTary to be allowed, that 
 there is fome fccretion performed in the kidneys of the 
 foetus ; but it has never yet been proved, that the urine 
 thus fecreted is Co confiderable in quantity that it can- 
 iiot be contained in the bladder, kidneys, and ureters, 
 without a necelTity of a difcharge of any of it, till after 
 the birth. 
 
 If we examine the condition of the kidneys in this 
 foetus of Littre's, it will appear, that all the liquor con- 
 tained in the whole feries of the veficles, was not fo 
 much as an ounce, tho* the foetus was at its full period 
 for exclufion. And it is evident, that no larger a quan- 
 tity of this ^iuid could have been, during the whole 
 time of geftation, fecreted in this fcetus ; becaufe the 
 ureters and kidneys were clofed up, and no urine could 
 have been fent from theni into the bladder for exclufion. 
 As it appears very evident, that a human fcetus, in the 
 ordinary courfe of nature, has the bladder confiderably 
 large, in proportion to its bulk ; and may have, in th.st 
 and in th^ ureters, and in the pelvis of the kidneys, a 
 vaftly largei* quantity of fluid than that found in this 
 2 foetui'i 
 
NOTES. 
 
 fetus's Veficulous kidneys, without any neceffity of ex- 
 clufion : and as this foetus, otherwife well formed and 
 healthy to all appearance, had only (o fmall a quantity 
 as about an ounce of it fecreted, it appears that theie 
 could have been no more neceffity of emptying this 
 little quantity into an allintois, than there was poflibi- 
 lity of doing it; and hence, if the impoffibili y of thus 
 difcharging urine in this fbetus wa^ attended with no ill 
 confequcnce to its healih, it was not neceflary to it j 
 and if not neceflary to it, it is not necefrdry in any. 
 
 Upon the whole, therefore, 'tdl the urachus in the 
 human foetus fhall be found to be mach more frequently 
 pervious than it is, and 'till the allantois has been much 
 plainer demonftra(ed to exift than has been done at pre- 
 sent, we are not rationally to fuppofe it a necefTary or 
 ordinary part. 
 
 If it be necefTary to fuppofe that a much greater 
 quantity of urine than can be conveniently contained in 
 the blaJiJer, ki'^neys, and ureters, mufl be fecreted in the 
 foetus; it follows therefore, that there muR have been alfo 
 fuch a qi 'amity fecreted in this cf iVIr. Littre's. It evi- 
 dently appears, 'hat but a fmall qu^-'tity was found in 
 this foetus; and therefore, if *^ ,ic had been a larger, 
 fome of it muil have been, uiicharged. This difcharge 
 could not have oeen made in the ordinary way, as 
 eftaolifhed by autiiors, thro' the urethra, or the urachus, 
 into the all-ntois, fmce the paiTdges to thefe parts were 
 wholly ftopt up; and if it be allowed that there muft 
 have been other pafTages for the difchargin^g it in this 
 foetus, it follows that there are fuch other paflages alfo 
 in other f(]ecub's ; and, confequently, that an allantois, 
 and the apparatus for the difcharge of the urine into it, 
 is not neceffary in a human fcetus. 
 
 The quantity of urine voided by the foetus's of 
 many quadrupeds, during geftation, particularly in cows, 
 is vaftly great. A woman, who f^^ands only on two 
 legs, could not walk with fuch a load, without conti- 
 nually falling, tho' a quadruped may : nature feems, 
 therefore, to have provided againft it, by conveying out 
 the urine of the fcetus, together with the blood, thro' 
 the umbilical arteries, to the blood of the parent, to be 
 voided with her urine in the ordinary way ; and this 
 
 G g feem$ 
 
 449 
 
450 NOTE S. 
 
 feems evinced, not only by the foregoing reafons, but 
 by the very coalition of the ureters, &c. in this 
 foetus *. 
 
 Finally, we are to obferve, that the peculiar ftate of 
 the kidneys in this foetus did not appear, in all the par- 
 ticulars, fo plain as the author's defcription vv^ould lead 
 us to believe. Fontenelle, the fecretary of the Aca- 
 demy, tells us t, that tho* the kidneys, which he de- 
 fcribed, were indeed very tumid, yet he was not able to 
 difcover, without the afliftance of a microfcope, the 
 greater part of the fingular circumftances which he men- 
 tions of them. He quotes, however, in confirmation of 
 this ftru£ture in the foetus's kidneys, an obfervation from 
 Mayer, of the whole fubftance of the kidneys being 
 found veficulous in an adult. 
 
 * See MoUnett's Diflert. Anatom. Patholog. lib. 6. c. 7. p. 304.' 
 •f- See Hift. Acad. Reg. Sclent, Anno 1705, p, 58. Ed, Amftelod. 
 % Colleg. Anat. 173. 
 
 NOTE 
 
451 
 
 vX 
 
 NOTE 79. 
 
 AFTER the moft perfect acquaintance with the 
 bones, as preferved and exhibited in the fkeleton, 
 there is ftill fomething wanting to a perFe6l knowledge 
 of the ofteology of the human frame. 
 
 The bones, in order to their being arranged into a fke- 
 leton, in a firm manner, clean and dry, lofe many parts 
 "which they had, while in the body, efpecially at their ex- 
 tremities; which parts it is of the utmofi: importance to us 
 to know that they have, while in the body. Thefe are 
 only to be feen by laying bare and examining the bones 
 in a dead fubje6l, while quite frefli ; for, in the natural 
 drying of them only, many would be loft and obhte- 
 rated in the boiling, in order to the forming into that 
 artificial compages which we call a fkeleton. Moft of 
 thefe parts are diflblved, and leave no veftige of them- 
 felves on the parts of the bones where they were fituated. 
 In the dried fkeleton, the utmoft we can fee of the 
 bones is their figure, their fituation in the body, and the 
 parts at which they are connected to one another : but 
 how, or by what means, that conne6lion is performed 
 in the body, we can only learn by examining them in 
 their connedled ftate, while the body is yet in the con^ 
 xiltion (life alone excepted) in which it was while they 
 were ufed. In this ftate only it is, that we can per- 
 fef^ly underftand the nature of their articulations * their 
 connedlions at thefe parts, by means of cartilages and 
 ligaments, ftiew us what is truly their ftate in nature ; 
 and we find that, in the dried fkeleton, thefe very arti- 
 culations often wear a verv different face from what they 
 do in this ftate, which is the only ftate in which we 
 have any real concern with them, or with accidents 
 happening to them in the body. 
 
 Several of the cotyloide cavities, which are demon- . 
 ftrated to us in the dried bones, are not hollowed in this 
 manner in the natural ftate in the bodv, but are ale- 
 noide : their cavities naturally are filled up with fi.rm 
 cartilages ; but thefe are difTolved and difappear in boil- 
 
 Gg2 ing. 
 
452 NOTES. 
 
 ing. Other of the cavities, on the contrary, appear 
 much deeper in the natural ftate of the bones than in 
 the flcelcton. Thefe are only glenoide in the dried 
 bones ; and iheir cavity, in the boney matter, has never 
 been any deeper : bur, while in their natural ftate, they 
 have been furrounded with cartilages, forming a kind of 
 riling rim about their edges, and making the cavity in 
 the whole much greater. 
 
 The boiling neceffary to the reducing the bones to 
 the ftate in which they are preferved in the fkeleton, 
 divefts them alfo of many other of their eflential parts. 
 Their psriofteum. for inftance, the mucilaginous fub- 
 ftance of the joints, and the marrow, all which have 
 their feveral qualities and properties neceflary to be 
 known, in order to the making anatomy of its due ufe, 
 and bringing it to the fervice of the parts when diftem- 
 pered. I he bufinefs of the furgeon, in reducing frac- 
 tures, and luxations alfo, is eminently aflifted by this 
 knowle ;ge of the bones in the ftate of nature, or in 
 that in which only they become the fubje6ls of his pro- 
 fcfiion. EvQiy anatomift, in his courfes, ought there- 
 fore to demonftrate, befide the bones of the fkeleton, 
 thofe of the recent body, cleaned from the mufcles and 
 other parts that furround them. Riolan has the honour 
 to be the firft anatomift who faw the utility, not to fay 
 the nccelFity, of this double courfe of OHeology. He 
 alw.iys ufed it in his courfcs ; but the trouble and diffi- 
 culty of obtaining bodies rendered it neglected after his 
 time ; nobo !y, after him, having been at the pains of 
 doing ir, 'till the accurate and indefatigable Winflow. 
 Riolan, who recounts the advantages of it, before re- 
 marked, alwavs went carefully thro' it at the end of 
 his courfe : Window, ftill more judicious, ufed to make 
 the demonftration of the recent bones the article that 
 immediately followed his common odeology, by the 
 fkeleton : by this means his pupils, immediately after 
 they had obtained a general knowledge of the names, 
 terms, and fituations of the bones out of the body, 
 were acquainted with their true ftate and fituation in it ; 
 and the remembrance of what they had heard before, 
 was by this rooted in them, and ferved as the bafis of 
 
 the 
 
NOTES. -453 
 
 the whole fuperftru£^ure, the mufcles being afterwards 
 vaftly better underitood in their fituations. 
 NOTE 80. 
 What it is that determines the efforts of the foetus, 
 toward its delivery, from the prifon of the womb, which 
 it had before fo long patiently fuffered, at the period of 
 nine months, is a queftion that has perplexed people in 
 all ages. One of the firft affertions, in regard to it, 
 was, that the foetus found a want of food : this, as wild 
 and extravagant as it is, has no kfs a name than that 
 of Hippocrates as its eftablifher and d<.fender. It is not 
 eafy to fee, however, how the foetus (hould either 
 want nourifliment at this particular period, or fhould 
 be actuated by fuch a fcnfe, if it were true that it had 
 it to attempt making its way out. The mother, we 
 find, is ver,y well able to afford nourifhment to two 
 foetus's : how then are we to fuppofe VnQ can, juft at 
 this period, become wanting in regard to one ? We 
 find moft women of robuft habits, after delivery, 
 having milk enough for the nourifhment of two chil- 
 dren : why then fhould the fame vi^ofnan be fuppofed, 
 jufl at the period of nine ijionths, to want nourifhment 
 for one ? 
 
 Others have advanced, that the foetus feparates itfelf 
 from the womb, at its due period, in the fame manner 
 that fruits do from the tree, when ripe : this might 
 found prettily enough from a poet ; but, from the mouth 
 of an anatomifl, it is not quite fo creditable. Fruits, 
 when ripe, are arrived at their perfection and utmoft 
 period of growth ; but this is not the cafe in the foetus. 
 Befide, to make out any analogy in the circumftances, 
 thefe authors fhould find a parity of reafon for the 
 dropping off of both. The reafon why fruits, when 
 thoroughly ripe, fall from the tree, is, that their flalk, 
 hav^ing now done its full office, dries up and withers, 
 and confequently no more juices are conveyed to the 
 fruit thro' it : but, on the contrary, the placenta con- 
 tinues to be fully and perfectly fupplied with blood and 
 juices to the lafl ; and is indeed affixed as firmly, and in 
 a llate to perform all its offices as perfeC^ly, at the very 
 period of delivery as at any other time. ' 
 
 G g 3 Others 
 
454 NOTE S: 
 
 Others have faid, that the great incrcafe of the liquor 
 amnii makes the foetus uneafy, and is the occafion of its 
 moving about, and endeavouring to efcape : but, before 
 people build reafonings on things, they fnould be aflured 
 that they are facSls. Now the truth is, that there is not any 
 fuch peculiar increafe of tbefe waters at this time ; and 
 that, if there were, there could be no reafonforfuppofing 
 that the foetus would be intommoded in this manner by 
 them. The foetus, having not yet breathed, would be 
 no more difturbed by an irxcreafe of thefe fluids, than a 
 iifh, by being put out of a fmall quantity of water info 
 a larger : and as to their quality, there is no change in 
 that to occafion any uneafmefs in it j for, to the laft, 
 they are infipid to the tafle. 
 
 The apparent infufficiency of all thefe reafons has 
 put many people, fince the time when they were ad- 
 vanced, upon finding a better. An author of very con- 
 fiderable fame, lays the whole force upon the urine and 
 excrements : thefe, he fays, incrcafe by degrees, 'till, 
 toward the time of the delivery, they form a quantity 
 that is troublefome to the foetus, both in regard to its 
 bulk and its weight : this makes it reftlefs, and it begins 
 to move about, its ftrength at this time enabling it. In 
 its motions its head naturally gets downward, and falls 
 againft the orifice of the uterus, with its face towards 
 the coccygis : in this fituation of the foetus, its urine 
 and excrements become more troublefome to it than 
 they were before. This occafions more and more mo- 
 tions in it ; and, in ccnfequence of thefe, it gets lower 
 and lower. In this fituation it brings on a tenefmus iq 
 the mother: the mufcles of the abdomen are put in 
 motion by this, and the efFedt of their motion is the 
 forcing the foetus ftill lower down : this increafes the 
 tenefmus in the mother, and confequently the mufcles 
 ,of the abdomen are flill more and more forcibly put in 
 a61i()n. The confequence of this additional preflure 
 upon the foetus, and of it againft the orifice of the 
 womb, is, that it opens, and the membranes are prefl'ed 
 upon 'till they break ; the liquid contained in them is 
 let out, and it ferves to lubricate the parts, and difpofe 
 them to diftend and give way the more readily.^ In 
 fine, the head of the f(Etus prefents itfelf at the orifice 
 
 4 : ^ 'of 
 
NOTES. 
 
 of the uterus : the a£lion of the mother's mufcles, and 
 her efForts, prefs it downward into the vagina, which 
 has not only been moiftened by the Hquors from the 
 membranes of the foetus, but its own lacunae and fe- 
 baceous glands continually, on this occafion, difcharge 
 their lubricating contents ; and it is by this means ren- 
 dered capable of diftention, and the foetus comes forth I 
 After it the navel-ftring, the membranes, and the pla- 
 centa follow, and the whole is fucceeded by a greater 
 or lefTer haemorrhage. 
 
 Courvee, among the French, was the author of this 
 fyftem ; and Drelincourt and fome others have been at 
 great pains to fupport it. Drelincourt, in particular, 
 obferves, that, at the period of nine months, the in- 
 teftines are naturally full of the meconium ; and that, 
 in confequence of this, the ftomach begins to retain 
 fome of it, and would fill with it alfo, but that the firft 
 attempts toward this bring on a kind of cholicky or 
 griping pains in the foetus ; and that thefe pains are 
 what difturb it, and give rife to the motions that are 
 the means of its being difcharged out of the uterus. 
 
 Pechlin and Bohn declared themfelvcs difldtisfied, 
 however, with this account. They have attempted to 
 prove, that it is not in confequence of the foetus's feel- 
 ing pain that it is thrown into efforts, the confequence 
 of which is delivery ; but that it is an attempt to re- 
 fpire that directs its head, at length, to vard the orifice 
 of the uterus. But it remains upon the favourers of 
 this opinion to prove, that the foetus is in this iroubls 
 and diftrefs about breathing; which is not fo eafy to 
 conceive, when we conf;der that it has no occafion for 
 it. 
 
 Berger advances yet another opinion, which is, that 
 the pofture the foetus is placed in, during the v/hole 
 time of geftation, is a very une2i(y one ; that, as it 
 grows larger and more vigorous, it is more fenfible of 
 this ; and that, in fine, "when ftrong enough to move 
 freely, it makes efforts to put itfelf out of (o confined 
 a fituation ; and that, at length, it fucceeds in thefe j 
 the confequence of this is its gettins: into that pof- 
 ture, by means of which it afiifts itfelf in the ex- 
 dufion. 
 
 G g4 The 
 
 455 
 
'45S NOTES. 
 
 The foetus, while acquiring its growth in the uterus, 
 is placed in fuch a fituation as to take up the leaft 
 pofliblc room. It is contracted into a clofe form : its 
 head is placed upwards, and its back againft the lumbar 
 vertebrae of the mother : its knees touch its face, and 
 the hands are placed upon them, with the nofe between 
 them. This curled ftate tho' it fufFers, while very 
 fmall, yet, as it grows larger and ftronger, it tiies tq 
 alter it ; and, in its attempts of this kind, its head gets 
 downward, and prefents itfelf at the orifice of the 
 womb for delivery. 1 h .= has a face of reafon : but if 
 the author were to be aflied, why it is that the foetus 
 grows fo particularly uneafy at its cur'ed fruation, juft 
 ac the end of nine months, ann fucceeds juft at that 
 time fo happ Iv in the freeing itfelf from it, he would 
 £nd it very difficult to give any folid anfv/er to it. 
 
 Another fyftem, which gained great ground at one 
 time in France, was, that the menftrual difcharge?, 
 and the changes in the courfe of nature, in regard to 
 them in pregnancy, did the whole. The mcnfes, he 
 fays, floA' monthly at their period, merely from pleni- 
 tude : as foon as a woman is with child, thefe ceafe ; 
 becaufe the matter of this plenitude is taken oft in af- 
 fording nourilhment to the fcetus. There is, however, 
 ftill a little of the blood, that would otherwife have 
 been thos difcharged, diredled toward thofe vefiels at 
 which it ufed to be difcharged : this becomes accumu- 
 lated there, and diftends them, tho' it is not able to 
 force its way out. 
 
 The roots of the placenta flop up the orifices at 
 which it ihould be difcharged, and its fmall quantity is 
 not able to overcome the refiftance : this quantity is, 
 however, always increafing ; and by degrees it becomes 
 fo confiderablf, that, at the period of nine months, 
 there is enough of it to force its way out by the vefFels 
 of the uterus ; but this can only be done by diflodging 
 the roots of the placenta. The efforts toward this, he 
 fays, give many motions to the uterus, and thefe arc 
 communicated to the fcetus: it begins to move itfelf 
 forcibly, and, in confcquence of it, changes fituation, 
 and its head falls againft the orifice of the uterus : the 
 confequencc of this fituation of the head of the fcetus 
 
 is 
 
N>@ T E S. 457. 
 
 Is a tenefmus in the rftother ; and tbe'confequence oF 
 that is a motion of the abdominal mufcles, greatly: 
 aflifling the exclufion; of the foetus, as. already .obferved.' 
 At the fame time alfo the mother feels pains in; her 
 loins, about the rectum, and about the bladdci*^. occa- 
 fioned by the compreffion of the parts ^by the uterus ;• 
 and the itools and urine are not eva^cu-ated but witH^ciif- 
 iiculty. The motions of the foetus, which are at this perrtk^^" 
 very ftrong,v ferye to burft the membranes^ it i&.inbloYcd- 
 in, and the.waters are then difcharged out of them': th^ 
 orifice of t^^jyomb opens; a glutinous huinory which 
 had clofed itSis the firft thing difcharged ; .and'sjter tliis" .r.-V, 
 the liquors ofr the men^branes, and the patts^ are lubri-*.- va- 
 cated by this ; and t^ruterus, being at ,the fame tin^u :, 
 irritated by it, prefle^ ^forward its contents. .■.T.h'&.mb^ ■. ..:■' 
 tions of the foetus, which finds, itfelf imuch lefs-atr'^ar^ ft** 
 after the difcharge of the -waters than before, 'occaffon*' / 
 motions in tjbe uterus alfo, and thefe more and more 
 enlarge the.,-orifice of the uterus ; and the head of the 
 foetus pi effing all this time againft it, by degrees it opens 
 to a due di?gree for the giving pafl*ao;e, on a ftrong pref- 
 fure, to the head of the infant.. This prefTure is given 
 by the diaphragm and. mufcles of the abdomen of the 
 mother, and by the contra(5iing power < f the uterus it- 
 felf; and,~ in confequence, the foetus aiTiiting by its own 
 motion?, it is excluded. 
 
 There is an appearance of great fagaclty and fubtility 
 in this ; but, when examined ferioufly, it will be found 
 to want weight. The accumulation of the menftrual 
 blood is not to be allowed in the fenfe this author men- 
 tions it in ; and, as this is the bafis of the whole, the 
 fuperftruclure muft needs fall with it. 
 
 Such have been the various judgments of philofopbical 
 and anatomical genius's, as to the occafion of our firft 
 being thrown into this breathing world. They have 
 been puzzled to find the caufe that, at the end of nine 
 months, delivers us out of the prifon nature had inclofed 
 us in at our firft exiflencc ; but it ftiOuld firft have hem 
 proved, that this exact period of nine months is the 
 time allotted for it. This has been eftablilhed by every 
 body as a principle to reafon from ; but this is not true, 
 in fad. It is often impolTible to determine, with any 
 
 degree 
 
45S NOTE S: 
 
 degree of certainty, the real time of impregnation; 
 and inftances, in fufficient number, prove to us, that 
 this is fo far from being the punctual and exa£l period, 
 that delivery happens at all the intermediate times be- 
 tv/een feven months and eleven. It is evident, from a 
 great number of inflances, that vv'omen do fall in labour 
 at different periods between thefe ; and at the end of 
 the tenth month, in parcicular, feems to be a critical 
 period, as well as the end of the ninth, tho* notfo fre- 
 quently. 
 
 We are therefore, in the eye of reafon, to fee many 
 caufes operating at once toward this important end ; not 
 one principal only, as thefe feveral authors have fet out 
 with fuppofmg, the reft feeming to t! em but as collateral 
 and accidental afTiilances to it. The growth or increafe 
 of bulk in the infant, ihe fcecal matter, or meconium 
 contained in the inteftines, the fize of the body, grown 
 over- proportioned to the cavity it is lodged in, and the 
 more than ufually violent and continued motions ; all 
 thefe may confp:re toward the great end, the exclufion ; 
 all may tend to determine the uterus to open its orifice: 
 and to all thefe we are to add, the effe6l of the new 
 mufcle of Ruyfch, and of the other mufcular fibres of 
 the uterus, or perhaps of the whole uterus itfelf, con- 
 fiJered as a Angle mufcle ; and we fhall have a great 
 number of co-efficient caufes, all powerful, all dire«Sted 
 to the fame end. 
 
 The mufcuiar fibres are flretched and forced out of 
 their natural fituation by the dilatation of the fundus of 
 the uterus ; for it is the fundus that almoft alone dilates 
 above the ligaments: when this dilatation of the uterus 
 is pufiied to a certain point, we may confider the muf- 
 cles and mufcular fibres as now at a period, beyond 
 which they cannot be dilated, and as hurt by it In fuch 
 a manner, that they naturally are to contra6l. The 
 period of the contra£lIng of. thefe mufcles is, that when 
 they can bear n j farther dilatation, and when that which 
 they have borne has become painful and Irritating to 
 them : but this Is a time not fo exactly regulated as 
 Ihould feem from what thefe authors have advanced ; 
 hut it varies in regard to the ft-ate of the fibres them- 
 iclvcs, whicl) differ in different fubjeCts j and in regard 
 
 to 
 
NOTES. 459 
 
 to the bulk of the child, which alfo is different in dif» 
 ferent women, and in the fame at different geftations. 
 Thus, in fome, thefe mufcles are dilated to their ut- 
 moft pitch ii; the eighth month ; and in feme, this does 
 not happen 'till the tenth : whenever it does happen, 
 labour comes on, and the fcetus is protruded. The in- 
 termediate period between the two extremes is that of 
 nine months : it is not wonderful, therefore, that this 
 is the moft ufual time. On this then depends dehvery, 
 and this is the true fyflem of it, and cccalion that 
 brin2:s it on. The Creator has made the mufcular 
 fibres of the uterus of fuch a kind, that they can bear 
 diftention up to a certain point, but no farther : when 
 they are thus far diftended, they will have a re-adion ; 
 and the confequence will be an expulfive power, tend- 
 ing to difcharge the thing that diftends them. In this 
 fyftem there is no occafion for fuppofing fuch great 
 effeds to be produced by the infants changing its pof- 
 ture : nothing is more certain than that, during the 
 time of geftation, it is changing its poffure continually 
 at times, without any fymptoms of labour being brought 
 on by it ; and, even in the time of labour, it is not al- 
 ways found in this particular fituation, with its head at 
 the orifice of the uterus : but labours are too com.mon, 
 in which its being in other very different poftures is of 
 great difficulty to the hand employed, and pain and 
 danger to the patient. 
 
 Harvey is of opinion, that the membranes ought not 
 jto burft in a kindly labour ; nor does he allow any to be 
 natural, unlefs the membranes come forth whole and 
 intire with the foetus, and with their liquors in them. 
 When the membranes have been broken, and their con- 
 tents difcharged, it appears to him that things have gone 
 contrary to the intent of nature -, but we are to obferve, 
 th^t, if this be the cafe, there are but very few deli- 
 veries that arc in this courfe of nature ; the burfting 
 of the membranes, and the difcharge of the fluids con- 
 tained in them, almoft always preceding the birth of 
 the child. On the contrary, nature feems never to 
 have meant any other than what we ufually fee ; and v/e 
 are to admire her contrivance, in that (lie makes the 
 iarae thing ferve at different periods to different pur- 
 
 pofes. 
 
46o NOTES. 
 
 pofes. The liquor amnii, which at one time fervcd 
 for the nutrition of the fcaetus, jvhen that intent is over, 
 and the foetus is to be excluded, ferves to relax and 
 lubricate the parts which are to be fo wonderfully dif- 
 tended, in order to give way for its birth. 
 NOTE 8i. 
 This aflertion is not fuigular in our author : * he is 
 fupported in it by feyeral of the moft eminent anato- 
 mifts, both before his writing, and by the opinions of 
 others at this time 5 yet it feems ftill very queftionable, 
 whether it really is the cafe. Paree is the firft author 
 we meet with affirming it ; but he fpeaks it rather of 
 his opinion than his knowledge. The great thing urged 
 in favour of it by others is, that there is in fome wo- 
 men fo large a cavity in the place, that a finger will 
 fmk into it ; but this may be a mere depreffion of that 
 part of the bone, not a feparation. That it is poflibie 
 fuch an accident as an a£lual feparation may happen, we 
 do not deny ; but that it very rarely does happen, feems 
 alfo certain. 
 
 E X P L A- 
 
4^1 
 
 ' M i m . — <»»»t<w— — — 
 
 EXPLANATION 
 
 O F T H E 
 
 FIGURES. 
 
 IT has been judged proper to add to this Compen- 
 dium of Anatomy fomc figures, exhibiting a num- 
 ber of new difcoveries in this branch of know- 
 ledge. 
 Two of them onlv are borrowed from the works of 
 other writers on ihefe fubjefts, as has been obferved in 
 their proper places : the reft are from obfervations made 
 in publick difle^tions, and had not appeared in any 
 other work at the time of their being firfl: publifhed in 
 this ; tho' they have fmce been confirmed by the ob- 
 fervations of many of the greateft anatomifts of the 
 prefent age. 
 
 Explanation of the Figures in the Firfl Plate. 
 
 Fig. I. The malleus, ^one of the officula auditus, 
 drawn, for the fake of perfpicuity, a little larger thar^ 
 it is in nature. It is from a human fubjecl, and 
 fhews the apophyfis or procefs^ commonly called the 
 procefTus Ravianus. 
 
 Hy The head of the malleus. 
 
 by The manubrium. 
 
 Cy The f.iialler apophyfis. 
 
 dy The long apophyfis, or procefTus Ravianus. 
 
 The figure annexed is of the fame malleus, drawn 
 from a microfcopick view of it, for the fake of exhi-, 
 biting its parts the more diftindly. In this figure the 
 
 4 capitals 
 
^62 Explanation of the Figursf, 
 
 capitals //, S, C, £>, indicate the fame parts as th6 
 fmaller letters of the fame denomination in the other 
 figure. 
 
 It may not be improper to remark in this place, that 
 this apophyfis, or procefTus Ravianus, has often been 
 found, in diflecSlion, in fuch a condition as to render it 
 fufpedted of not being a real bone. It is often flexile 
 and elaftick, in the manner of the lefTer bones of fifhes; 
 and, if prefled any way upon the head, it will bend or 
 give way a little ; and, on the removing the prefTure, 
 or leaving it to itfelf, it will recover its true form 
 again. 
 
 This flexile and elaflick quality is not found, how- 
 ever, in any of the other genuine bones, if we except the 
 ribs. It may alfo in its recent fiate, or even after it is 
 a little indurated, be divided by means of a needle, or 
 any other pointed inftrument, at its top, into a multi- 
 tude of fibrillse, or capillary parts, as if it were indeed 
 no more than an indurated tendon. Ruyfch was the 
 firfl anatomift in whofe le6lures this Angular texture of 
 this part was demonftrated. It appears from the expe- 
 riment to be rather of the nature of the fpines of filhes, 
 or to be the indurated tendon of the mufcle, which is 
 inferted in that part, than a real and genuine bone. 
 
 Some other procefl^es of the fame nature, examined 
 by the microfcope, and fituated about the angle marked 
 by the letter £", are perfectly cartilaginous ; but the reff, 
 from this angle E to the part marked Z), is found, on a 
 nice examination, to be much more boney in its nature, 
 and indeed to be a kind of peculiar bone, or epiphyfis ; 
 and from thence it probably is, that this part is fo eafily 
 broken, in the taking out the malleus : which is, in- 
 deed, fo general a cafe, that the very accurateft anato- 
 mifls of fome years ago, and particularly thofe who had 
 profeiTcdly treated of the human ear, as Du Verney, 
 Schelh'immer, Valfalva, Vieuflfens, and even Mange- 
 tus in his Theatrum Anatpmicum, have omitted this 
 apophyfis, or epiphyfis, by which ever of thofe names 
 it may be mofi: proper to call it, in their figures. This, 
 however, is the more obfervable; fince not only Cceci- 
 lius Folius, in his Schedifma, entitled, Nova Auris in- 
 ternee dclineatio, publifhed at Venice in 1645, (a work 
 
 that 
 
Explanation of the Figures. j^n 
 
 that fell into our hands fince the firft edition of this 
 Compendium) defcribes and jfigures it, tho* not with 
 the moft perfect accuracy ; but even Bartholine gives it 
 in his Anatomia Reformata, p. 713. 
 
 As the firft figures of this bone arc, however, given 
 at Tab. i . Fig. i . larger than the life, it has been 
 judged not improper to add another figure of a malleus, 
 with this procefs, taken from the ear of an infant newly 
 horn, in its natural fize, as at that period of life. This is 
 figured in two views, and fhews feme variation in this 
 procefTus Folianus. 
 
 Fig. 2. Reprefents the lower part of the os femorls, 
 with two fefamoide bones, not defcribed by other 
 authors. 
 
 jfy The OS femoris. 
 
 By The internal condyle. 
 
 Cy The external condvle. 
 
 D, The larger of the two new fefamoide bones, 
 fituated in a confiderable cavity in the external condyle. 
 This, however, in fome fubjeds, is much larger than 
 it is reprefented here. 
 
 E, The lefTer of the two new fefamoide bones, 
 fituated in the internal condyle. This is but very fel- 
 dom met with in difre<f^ion, moft fubje6ts wanting it ; 
 but the other is feldom wanting. 
 
 Fig. 3. Reprefents the larger of thefe two fefamoide 
 bones, feparated from the cavity in the external' 
 condyle, in which it is naturally lodged. 
 
 Fig. 4. Shews the lefler fefamoide bone, of the internal 
 condyle, feparate. 
 
 Fig. 5. Shews the bones of the little finger. 
 
 Jy The metacarpal bone, to which the little finger 
 is annexed. 
 
 By The firft phalanx of the finger. 
 
 Cy A fefamoide bone, which is frequently met with 
 between the jundure of the metacarpal bone and the 
 end of this finger, which is annexed to it. This bone 
 is not unfrequently found larger than it is here repre- 
 fented. 
 
j^S-4. Explanation of the Figures', 
 
 fented, and affixed to the tendon of the abdu£^or muf- 
 cle of this finger. 
 
 Fio^. 6. Reprefents the right fide of a human flomach, 
 extended by inflation, and dried, with its valve, 
 or the large circular membrane, which is found 
 in its right orifice, called the pylorus. 
 
 ^, y/, A^ The right fide of the ventricle* inflated 
 and dried. 
 
 B^ B, B, Part of the duodenum, opened and rc- 
 clinate. 
 
 C, D, The valy^ of the pylorus, or the circular 
 membrane, which internally furrounds the pylorus in its 
 natural fituation, as found in the fubjedt from which 
 this drawing was taken, in whom it was larger than it 
 is in many others, 
 
 £, The aperture into the flomach. 
 
 From tliis figure it appears, firfl:, that the pylorus is 
 not fituated horixontally, as Willis in his Pharmac. Ratio- 
 nalis, Verheyen in his Anatomy, and others, have re- 
 prefented it, but obliquely : it is indeed fo fituated, that 
 it defcends or declines from the right fide C, obliquely 
 all the way toward the left fide D, And, befide this, 
 we fee by it that the pylorus does not confift merely of 
 a feries of circular fibres, furrounding this orifice of 
 the flomach, as has been generally afl^erted ; but ufually 
 of a confiderably large membrane, which is fometimes 
 two or throe lines broad ; (o that this orifice is well 
 filled by it, and the egrefs of coarfer matter out of the 
 jftomach is retarded. 
 
 We are to obferve, that this membrane of the pylo- 
 rus, however, is not fo large in all fubje6ts : fometimes 
 it is fcarce more than one line broad ; but in fome it is 
 alfo much larger than here reprefented. The letters F^nd 
 G (hew this membrane in its natural fize, in another hu- 
 man ftomach : in this the part G is narrower than the 
 reft ; but the part F, which is the upper part, is very 
 broad. A figure of this part, communicated to the Ger- 
 man Ephemerides, and publifhed in the fifth century, is 
 unluckily inverted by the error of the engraver. 
 
 • Expla- 
 
J* yuN^f jc 
 
Plate \./j.'46 ^), I 
 
 /, Vj/},^/ Jc ■ 
 
^'"/; Explanation of the Figures, i^n 
 
 Explanation of the Second Plate, 
 
 Fig. 7. Reprefents a part of the ileum, coecum, and colon, 
 
 with the valve called valvula coli Bauhini. In a dif- 
 
 fertation of our author's, exprefly on the fubjedt of 
 
 this valve, there are feveral different figures of it; 
 
 particularly two fingular varieties oi it are exhibited 
 
 in the fecond Tab. Fig. i and 2 ; the one, in 
 
 which all thefe parts are very large ; the other, in 
 
 "which they are very narrow. In this plate there 
 
 is given a figure, exprefling it in a middle ftate, 
 
 and as it is moft frequently met with : by this and 
 
 the others it will appear, that notwithftanding all 
 
 thefe, and a number of other variations, there ftill 
 
 is, in reality, a valve, fuch as is called by Bauhine 
 
 valvula coli, fituated at the end of the ileum ; and 
 
 that it is not a feigned or imaginary part, as Bian- 
 
 chus would perfuade the world to believe, in Man- 
 
 getus's Theatrum Anatomicum. 
 
 Ay Ay The ileum, afcending obliquely, as is its ufual 
 
 and natural courfe, to the larger inteftine, and infi- 
 
 jiuating itfelf into jit-s^ left fide. 
 
 B^ The inteftinum coecum. 
 
 C, The vermiform, or worm-like procefs of the 
 goecum, turned upwards. 
 
 '^. D D D D, Part of the coecum, and of the colon, 
 laid open, that the interior furface may be feen. 
 
 Ey The aperture of the valve, or of the ileum, into 
 the larger inteftines. 
 ^ Fy The upper part of the valve. 
 G, The lower part of the valve. 
 H H, Membranes fupporting this valve; or, more 
 properly fpeaking, thefe valves on each fide, which may 
 be called the ligaments or fraenula belonging to it. 
 ///, Several connivent valves of the colon. 
 
 Fig. 8. Shews the la£leals, as found In two diflecflions of 
 human fubjects, mentioned in the note on that 
 fubjeiSl. 
 A A A^ Part of the jejunum, wiih its rugas or plicae, 
 which are flightly tranfparent." 
 
 Hh BBBB^ 
 
j^66 Explanation of the Figuresl 
 
 BB B B^ A vaft number of roots of the la^leals. 
 Thefe were greatly more numerous in the fubjett than 
 the perfon employed to engrave them could exprefs, 
 and made a multitude of anaftomofes with one another : 
 they are much more numerous in human fubjeds than 
 in dogs, from which they have ufually been figured. 
 
 CCCC, Their various ramifications, and fpreading 
 on the mefentery ; which was alfo, in nature, vaftly 
 more than the niceft hand could exprefs in a figure : 
 they communicated here alfo with one another, by fre- 
 quent anaftomofes ; and partly infinuated themfelves 
 into the glands of the mefentery, partly pafled over 
 fhem. 
 
 D D D, Some of the larger glands of the mefen- 
 tery : befide thefe, there appeared in the fubjedl itfelf a 
 multitude of other fmaller. 
 
 Fig* 21. Tho' not properly belonging to this plate, is 
 added, becaufe there was room for it. It exhibits 
 the diftribution of tl:ie auditory nerve thro' the 
 labyrinth of the ear, as it is defcribed in Novefius*s 
 Epiftles. 
 J^ The auditory nerve. 
 
 B, Its diftribution thro* the cochlea, in form of a 
 filament. 
 
 C, Its progrefs thro' the veftibulum. 
 
 Dy Its windings thro' the three femicircular canals. 
 F, Its extremity returning to the brain, anddifperfed 
 thro* it in a multitude of branches. 
 
 Explanation of the Third Plate. 
 
 Fig. 9. Exhibits three views of the tortuous courfe, 
 
 and the valves of the du(5lus biliaris cyfticus, with 
 
 part of the gall-bladder, as thefe parts appear in 
 
 moft fubjedts. 
 
 yf y/. Part of the veficula fellis, or gall-bladder, 
 
 opened. 
 
 5, Its exit into the cyftick duft, which is very 
 tortuous. 
 
 C, The cyftick du£t, which is twifted in the manner 
 of a rope, and has within it a number of fpiral valves. 
 
 Fig. 
 
PI.J.A /^^.I 
 
PiJE/'/<^fl' 
 
Explanation of the Figures^ A^y 
 
 Fig. 9. D^ Exhibits another gall-bladder of this kind. 
 
 E, Is its exit, and inflexion, as it were, in the form 
 of the Greek Sigmn. 
 
 FF, The cyilick du6l opened, and (hewing the 
 fpiral valvesj formed in a different manner from thofe 
 exprefied in the former figure. 
 
 Fig, g. G, Exhibits another gall-bladder^ which has 
 within it various cellules and membranes, fome 
 tranfveJ-fe, fome ftrait, and Ibme oblique ; but all 
 of them perforated, for the paffage of the bile and 
 patent : thefe would not admit a ftyle, indeed, 
 into the cavity ; but they eafily and readily fuf- 
 fered the wind to pafs, in inflation. 
 Thefe valves have been difregarded by moft of the 
 anatomical writers to this time ; but, on a careful 
 fearch, they are ufually to be found. Something 
 of valves is to be met with, in almolt every fubjedt; 
 but the difpofition is very different: every anato- 
 mift, who will feek after them, will find this. 
 Bianchi, at one time, denied the exiftence of any 
 fuch parts ; but he afterwards ow^ned, that they 
 were almoft always to be found, tho' in very dif- 
 ferent forms. 
 
 Fig. 10. Exhibits one of the tubas Fallopianae of the 
 uterus, from Drake's Anthropologia, with its vef- 
 fels filled with crude mercury, and by inflation, 
 in order to fhew their courfe in one of the alae 
 vefpertilionum ; together with the reticular diftri- 
 bution of the veins on the fides of the tubs, and 
 its expanfions or fimbriae : by means of thefe, 
 thefe parts in the orgafmus of the cavity are dif- 
 tended, eredted, and rendered fit for the em- 
 bracing the ovary of that fide ; as well for the con- 
 veying the femen from the uterus to the ovary, as 
 for the receiving the ovum impregnated by it, and 
 conveying it into the uterus. 
 -/, The part of the tube that is next to the uterus. 
 B^ Its other extremity, which is fomewhat narrower 
 again than the middle, before it expands into the fim- 
 briae at its mouth. 
 
 Hh2 CC, 
 
'j^68 Explanation of the Figures, 
 
 C C, The fimbriae, or membranaceous expanfiona 
 of the tube, diftended. 
 
 £), The orifice of this end of the tube diftended. 
 
 Ey The vefpertilionis ala of that fide. 
 
 F, Its veins and arteries coming from the hypo- 
 gaftricks. 
 
 Gy The vefi'els, forming a wonderful reticular or 
 cavernous body in the fides of the tubae. 
 
 Frg. 1 1. Another \iew of aFallopian tube, with its veflel* 
 filled with mercury, as exhibited in a publick diflec- 
 tion, by the author. In this the^diftribution of the 
 vefl^els appear very different from Drake's rcprefen- 
 tation, copied in the former figure, and much more 
 beautiful. 
 
 Jj The part of the tube which is neareft the uterus, 
 tied with a thread : otherwife the mercury, thrown into 
 the vefTels, will make its way into the uterus and the 
 hypogaftrick veflels, and the veffels of the tube will not 
 be thoroughly filled. 
 
 B, The other extremity of the tube in this. 
 
 C Cy Are the fimbria?, or membranaceous expan- 
 fions, which are extremely full of veflels, tho' very 
 minute ones, to their very utmoft verge. No hand is 
 fine enough to exprefs, in engraving, the multitude of 
 thefc vifible in the fubjeft. 
 
 D, The opening of this extremity. 
 
 Ey The ala vefpertilionis, or the ligament between 
 the tube and the ovary. This, when the mercury was 
 firfi: thrown in, was very full of it 3 but the mercury 
 made its way foon out at an aperture fcarce perceptible, 
 and in a great meafure emptied it again. 
 
 Fy The vein, at which the mercury was inje£^ed, 
 ariling from the fpermatick of the uterus. 
 
 6", Its larger divifions. 
 
 H H, A remarkable branch of it, running parallel, 
 as it were, with the tube, nearly as the veins of the 
 iiiteftines do in the mefentery. From this parallel 
 branch there proceed 
 
 //, A multitude of lefl'cr branches, which fpread 
 
 themfelves upon the tube, nearly as the veflels in the 
 
 inteflincs ; and fill it afterwards with fuch innumerable 
 
 I ramifi- 
 
Explanation of the Figures. ' 469 
 
 ramifications, that the whole fubiiance of th€ tube ap- 
 pears nothing but a congeries of them. The vefTels of 
 the Fallopian tubes are, indeed, to the full as numerous 
 as thofe of the pia mater, the heart, or any of the other 
 parts, according to Ruyfch's figures ; and yet it has 
 happened, that authors in general have defcribed and 
 figured them as if they had no veflels at all. It is not 
 a wonder, therefore, that thefe parts are capable of 
 erection in the coitus, fmce the copious flow of blood 
 into thefe numerous vefTels at that time cannot but oc- 
 cafion it : we fee that it may indeed be done, in foni5 
 degree, by inflation. 
 
 Fig. 1 2. Exhibits the liver of a new-born foetus, 
 
 A A A^ The circumference of the liver. 
 
 B B B^ The lower part of the liver, in which there 
 are feveral inequalities. 
 
 C^ The gall-bladder. 
 
 D, The umbilical vein, running with a fmgle trunk 
 from the navel to the liver. 
 
 EE, The finus's of the vena portae, into which 
 alone the umbilical vein inferts itfelf, with a fingle 
 trunk, tho' Verheyen has defcribed it much otherwife. 
 
 F^ The trunk of the vena portae cut off. 
 
 G, The principal branches of the finus of the vena 
 portae diftributed thro* the liver. Thefe become con^ 
 fpicuous when a fmall part of the fuperficies of the liver 
 is abraded off. 
 
 Hi The trunk of the vena cava. 
 
 //, The canalis venofus, or du6ius venofus, arifing 
 from the finus of the vena portae, over againfl the in- 
 grefs of the umbilical vein, and inferting itfelf into the 
 vena cava : this in the uterus carries a great part, pro- 
 bably indeed the greater part of the blood carried, thro' 
 the umbilical vein to the liver of the foetus, by a large 
 pafTage to the vena cava and the heart ; but this, after 
 the birth of the foetus, gradually grows narrower, and 
 clofes, 
 
 A'", The place of the entrance of the umbilical vein 
 into the finus of the vena portae alone, with one fingle 
 extjremity, not two, as Verheyen and feveral other 
 Waiters have improperly defcribed it. 
 
 W h 3 Fig. 
 
470 Explanation of the Figures, 
 
 Fig. 13. The diaphragm, viewed from the lower part, 
 or in the natural polition in which it is placed in 
 the body. In the former ediiions of this Com- 
 pendium the figure was lefs correal ; and it is to 
 be obferved, that the figures .of Verheyen ar.d 
 Mangetus reprcfent it inverted ah'b, or feen from 
 the upper part. The young ftudent in anatomy 
 may eafily be perplexed with fuch a view ; this 
 figure is therefore done from the part in fitu, in a 
 human fubjecr. 
 A A A A^ The upper mufcle of the diaphragm, 
 arifing by flefhy fibres, confiderably robuft and thick, 
 from the flernum and the cartilages of the ribs. Thefe 
 fibres all run toward the tendinous part, like rays from 
 a centre. 
 
 B 5, The lower mufcle, which is, as it were, double. 
 C, Its right tendon, which is the longer. 
 X>, Its left tendon, which is the fhorter. 
 E jS", The tendinous part, or centrum tendineum, 
 to the upper part of which the pericardium adheres, in 
 which there are tendinous fibres, which, as Santorini 
 obferves, are wonderfully interwoven with one another, 
 for the fake of flrength. 
 
 F^ A tranfverfe foramen, or hole in the tendinous 
 part, of an elliptick figure, thro* which the vena cava 
 pafies. 
 
 G, A foramen of an oblong fhape in the flefhy part, 
 thro' which the cefophagus makes its way to the 
 flomach. 
 
 //, The interflice, a place between the two heads 
 of the lower mufcle, where the aorta defcends from the 
 thorax into the abdomen ; and thro' this pafTage alfo 
 the du61:us thoracicus, and the vena azygos, often afcend 
 out of the abdomen up into the thorax. 
 
 /, A flefhy part of the diaphragm, which, in fome 
 fubjecSis, is tendinous. 
 
 K, Two mufcular appendages, which arc of very 
 various fhape in different fubjeits ; and in fome are ab- 
 folutely wanting, in others very confpicuous, 
 
 Explana- 
 
pi.m 
 
 .p.4-'j0. 
 
 Z.»Ml//tt/^ jc 
 
Ti.nr 
 
 ■p.4- '70. 
 
 /.,Mi/t^^^ JC. 
 
Explanation of the Figures. 471 
 
 Explanation of the Fourth Plate, 
 
 Fig. 14. Reprefents the gland thymus, taken from a 
 foetus juft born. . 
 
 A Af The heart, wrapped in its pericardium, to 
 which the thymus in great part adheres. 
 
 B B^ The thymus, as it appeared in this foetus, 
 bifid, as it were, in its lower, and trifid in its upper 
 part : the lower parts, marked a a^ adhere to the upper 
 part of the pericardium 5 the middle part, marked b h, 
 to the trunk of the aorta ; and the upper parts, c c Cy 
 lie upon the beginnings of the afcending branches of the 
 aorta. 
 
 C C C, The three afcending branches of the aorta. 
 
 Fig. 15. Exhibits the fame gland taken from another 
 foetus, and differing from the former in many par- 
 ticulars. This gland is, indeed, extremely fubjedt 
 to vary ; and is fcarce found of the fame fize, or 
 any thing exactly of the fame {hape, in any two 
 foetus's. 
 
 A A, The upper part of the heart, furrounded with 
 its pericardium. 
 
 B By The gland thymus, divided in the upper part 
 into two portions, a a ; and in the lewer part only 
 lightly finuated, not divided to any depth, b» 
 
 CCCy The three afcendent branches of the aorta, 
 as ki the preceding figure. 
 
 Fig. 16. Reprefents the human cerebellum, exhibiting 
 its divifion into lobes ; a circumftance which the 
 anatomifts have been ufed to overlook. 
 
 aaaOy The human cerebellum, divided perpendi- 
 cularly, and into equal parts, in the middle. 
 
 B B By The interior cortical and medullary part. 
 
 c c Cy The medullary tr^ds, not fo thick or fhort as 
 they are ufually reprefented by authors. 
 
 d d dy The divifions of the cortical fubfiance, firfl, 
 into larger lobes ; and from ihefe, into others much 
 fmaller ; and, finally, into a gre.it number of very 
 minuts lobuli, beautifully difpofed in fuch a manner, 
 
 H h 4 that 
 
;^72 Explanation of the Figures i' 
 
 that every larger lobe has its own proper medullary 
 branch ; and every fmaller, nay, every minute lobulaeof 
 the laft divifion, has its own little branch of the medul- 
 laiy iubilance, every one diltincSt and feparate from all 
 the reft ; but all of them at length uniting near the 
 medulla oblongata, and forming one trunk. It would 
 not be eafy to mark all thefe Icbes and divifions by let- 
 ters in the figure ; but the drawing is fo diftindt, that 
 they will De eafily underftocd by it. 
 
 e e^ The medulia oblongata. 
 
 yy, The beginning of the fpinal marrow. 
 
 In the fifth century of the German Ephemerides 
 there is a method laid down of preparing this part, and 
 keeping it in fpirits, fo that all the ftrudure and fabrick 
 of it may be plainly feen. 
 
 Fig. 17. Reprefents the cerebellum of a calf. This Is 
 alfo vertically divided in the middle, with fome of 
 the parts annexed, that a comparative view may 
 be given of the lobuli of the cerebellum in this 
 animal. 
 
 aaaaaaa. Shew the larger or principal lobules of 
 the cerebellum of this animal. 
 
 bbbbbb^i Exhibit the principal divifions of the lo- 
 bules of the cerebellum, which have been generally 
 fuppofed to form only one continued fubftance. 
 
 c r, The principal medullary trafts ; from which the 
 fmaller ones are propagated, and divaricated in the man- 
 ner of the branches from the trunk of a tree. 
 
 d d. The crura of the cerebrum cut off. 
 
 ^, A fifTure or chink at the infundibulum. 
 
 f-i The gland ula pinealis, 
 
 gg^ The nates. 
 
 hh^ The teftes. 
 
 i iy The fourth ventricle of the brain, or calamu^ 
 fcriptorius, in the middle of which there is a de^Sor 
 deprefiion in the upper part. \-W / 
 
 ky The anus, of the prifice at the aquaeduct of 
 Sylvius. 
 
 fig. 1 8. Exhibits a recent eye of a hog, which has been 
 expofcd to the winter's air, and frozeii, in order 
 
 to 
 
Explamlion of the Figuresl 473 
 
 to keep the humors in their proper fituation. It is 
 vertically cut thro*, to ihew the fituation of what 
 are called the three humors of the eye, and of the 
 uvea. 
 a <7, The cornea. 
 
 bbb^ The circumference of the fclerotica, and of 
 the choroides and retina underneath it. 
 
 Cy The uvea, in the centre of which is the pupil. 
 ddy The ciliary ligament, inferted near the cryftal- 
 line humor. 
 
 e e e^ The vitreous humor, occupying the hinder part 
 of the eye. ^^^" 
 
 /, The cryftalllne humor lodged in the fmus of the 
 vitreous one, included in a mcmbrai^e, and, as it Virere, 
 fufpended by the ciliary ligament. 
 
 g^ The aqueous humor, fituated between the Cornea 
 
 and the cryftalline ; where it is evident that thequan- 
 
 'tity of the aqueous humor between the cornea a^nd the 
 
 uvea, that ii, in the anterior camera, is much greatet 
 
 than that in the pofterior camera, or between the uvea 
 
 'ancljcryftallinej where indeed there is but a very fmall 
 
 ^•^^rtidn,^ and^'as it were, at their flake only vifible. 
 
 tfig. 19. Exhibits a like view of a^ human eye," frozen, 
 and laid open in the fam'e* manner : in this the 
 quantity of the aqueous humor, lodged behind the 
 uvea,-is ftill lefs,^ in proportion to the large portioa 
 of it that is* before the uvea, than in the. former 
 fubje£l. There is, befide this, no other difference 
 'very obfervable, except that the cryftalline /is 
 much fmaller in'huma^fifcibjeifts than in hogs, dogs, 
 calves, fheep, and other quadrupeds in general, as 
 appears from a difleftion of a great number of eyes 
 of different fpecies of them. 
 
 jFig. 20. Exhibits the human tongue, with i(s three 
 
 "^ teguments, which the anatomifts in general have 
 
 omitted to remark. Bourdon, indeed, has figured 
 
 them, but thicker than the life. 
 
 A A A^ The upper fuperficies of the tongue, on 
 
 ^Which there are vifible, in every part, a multitude of 
 
 papillary and pyramidal eminences. 
 
474 Explanation of the Figures: 
 
 B, A piece of the exterior tunic, or coat of the 
 tongue, feparated from the reft, and reclined. In this 
 an innumerable multitude of nervous papillae come in 
 view, adhering to its interior furface. 
 
 C C, The fecond tunic, or coat of the tongue, called 
 the corpus reticulare of Malpighi : thro' the foramina 
 of this coat the nervous papillae, rifing from the third 
 or inner one, make their way to the firii or outer one. 
 
 jD, The corpus reticulare, feparated from the third 
 involucrum, which is under it, and reclinate. 
 
 E Ey The membrane, or « orpus paplllare nervofum ; 
 in which there ftand numerous eminences, which pafs 
 from this body thro' the corpus ret'cuiare to the outer 
 membrane. 
 
 F F, The glands of the tongue, glandulae linguales : 
 thefe, as well as the papillae, are much larger and more 
 dillinguifliable in the hinder than in the anterior part of 
 the tongue. They are in fome fubje6ls much more 
 numerous than in others. 
 
 G, The foramen, ufually found in the hinder part of 
 the tongue. Its figure is uncertain ; fometimes round, 
 fometimes oval, fometimes nearly triangular. 
 
 Fig. 21. Has already been explained in the account of' 
 the fecond plate, in which it ftands. 
 
 Explanation of the Fifth Plate, 
 
 Fig. 22. Shews the human penis, on its upper part ; 
 with its veins, and the cavernous fubftance, in- 
 jected with crude quickfilver. 
 
 Ay The trunk of the vena penis ; into which, after 
 piercing its valve, the mercury is eafily thrown, in fuffi- 
 cient quantity. 
 
 B j8. The divifion of this vein, about the middle of J 
 the penis, into two confiderable branches. ^ 
 
 CC, The fub-divifions and diftributions of the fmaller 
 Tamifications from thefe, over the corona, and adjacent 
 parts of the penis. 
 
 D /), The furprifmg and inextricable courfe of a 
 multitude of extremely minute ramifications from the 
 former vefTels, thro' the whole furface of the glans : 
 
 they 
 
 J 
 
ifC. 
 
-^i.w:a^7 4 
 
f 
 
 Explanation of the Figures. 475 
 
 they run here in tortuous and flexuous meanders, in the 
 manner of the intcftines, or of feminal veflds in the 
 tefticles ; and are fo extremely numerous, that the 
 whole fuperficies of the glans feems intirely compofed 
 of them. 
 
 e e e e^ Veflels of various fizes ; fome very minute, 
 others larger, fome very large, vi'hich creep along dif- • 
 ferent parts of the penis, furrounding and running ovex 
 and under ene another, 
 
 jp. The termination or extremity of the urethra, 
 where the urine is voided. 
 
 G, A cord, with which, after the injedion, the 
 hinder part of the penis is tied, that the mercury may 
 not run out again, as it otherwife would eafily do. 
 
 //, The hinder part of the penis cut off. 
 
 Fig. 23. Reprefents the lower furface of the fame penis, 
 in which the veins, thus filled with mercury, are 
 ittn running in a ftrangely irregular and devari- 
 cated manner, and making frequent anaftomofes 
 one with another over this whole furface, and 
 particularly over the urethra. They are 
 extremely numerous in every part of this fur- 
 face of the penis, but particularly about the frae- 
 num \ where they are, indeed, too elegantly rami- 
 fied to leave it in the power of an engraver to do 
 them juftice ; but are beautifully {^tn. in the pre- 
 ferved preparations of the part. 
 A^ The fraenulum of the penis, fumifhed with a 
 multitude of veflels finer than hairs. 
 
 B B^ The corona and neck of the penis, furnifhed 
 with a yet greater number of veflels of the fame ex- 
 treme minutenefs. 
 
 C C, The whole inferior fuperficies of the glans, 
 iiill of extremely minute veflels like the other furface, 
 and thefe fpreading and devaricating in the fame won- 
 derful manner. 
 
 D Z), The urethra, protuberating. The corpus 
 cavernofum of this part, being filled with the quick- 
 filver, extends it in this manner, and occafions a beau- 
 tiful view of the minute and innumerable veflels which 
 run over it, 
 
 6 EE, 
 
^^^^ .Explanation of the Figures. 
 
 E Ey The two corpora cavernofa of the penis, con- 
 taining the urethra between them, filled alfo with the 
 quicicfilver. Thefe, as' well as the urethra, are covered 
 with a multitude of veiTels, fome of them confiderably 
 large, which run with a number of flexuofities and 
 anallornofes all over them, and are filled, as the reft, 
 with quickfilver. 
 
 jp. The end of the urethra. 
 
 G, The cord with which the penis Is tied. 
 
 i/, The hinder part of the penis cut off. 
 
 It is not always that a penis can be thus completely 
 and beautifully injected, tho* the fame caution be ufed 
 in the operation. It frequently happens, that the mat- 
 ter of the inje61:ion, thrown in at the vein of the back 
 of the penis, makes its way out by the urinary paflage : 
 but even mifcarriages of this kind are not without their 
 ufe : we difcover by this the communication that there 
 15 between the urinary paflage and the veins of the penis, 
 and may make a more natural guefs at the progreis of 
 the venereal taint from it than any way elfe. 
 
 Explanation of the Sixth Plate. 
 
 Fig. 24. Exhibits a drawing of a human tefticlc, the 
 feminal vefTeJs of which have been unfolded in the 
 manner firft taught by Ruyfch. 
 7^5 The tunica albuginea of the teflicle, feparated 
 from the feminal vefTels, and turned back. 
 
 B B, The feminal vefTels of the teflicle unfolded : 
 in thefe the matter of the femen is elaborated : they 
 Jjang in the manner of hairs ; and the whole interior 
 fubftance of the telticle may be feen to be compofed of 
 them. 
 
 Fig. 25. Reprefents a human teflicle of a very peculiar 
 flru^ture, demonflrated in the publick fchools at 
 Helmftadt. 
 
 ^, The defccndent aort^. 
 J^,. The vena cava inferior. 
 C Cy The emuigents. 
 
 Z), The origin of the fpermatick arteries from the 
 tfunk of the aorta. 
 
 I 
 
rx.y p..fy o. 
 
 T.<.WYm/£. <^t 
 
t 
 
 Pl.V/ft.m 
 
 -2%- ^J. 
 
 D \ 
 
 T.-.lft/n^i •'<-. 
 
E^phnation of the Figures, ji^'j'j 
 
 /, The right fpermatick vein, from the trunk of the 
 vena cava. 
 
 y, The left fpermatick vein, arifing from the left 
 cmulgent. 
 
 g. The right fpermatick vein and artery, folded to- 
 gether in the ufual way, and running to the tefllcle. 
 hy The right tefticle. 
 
 iiy The epididymis, taken out of thefcrotum. 
 k I, The vas deferens, or ejaculatory vefTel. All 
 thefe three were in their natural condition and fituation 
 on this fide. 
 
 m^ The left tefticle, which had never defcended into 
 thefcrotum; but remained in the abdomen, in that 
 part where the fpermatick veflels ufually make their way 
 out of the abdomen. This v/as much fmaller than the 
 other, and had no epididymis. 
 
 n Oy Reprefents the epididymis, which, in this fub- 
 je(3:, was almoft intirely feparate from the tefticle : it 
 only adhered to it at n. The reft of it, after palling thro* 
 the place ufually deftined for the road of the fpermatick 
 veflels among the mufcles of the abdomen, went out of 
 the abdomen, and extended itfelf quite down to the 
 fcrotum ; fo that the part marked <7, which is irs lower 
 extremity, was fttuate in the upper part of thefcrotum, 
 
 p. The dudlj.^oi: vas deferens,;' as if it had come from 
 the tefticle/ih^ the fcrotum, afcending again into the 
 abdomen,':'under the tefticle 7« ; whence going on to 
 
 q. It emerged again ; and, in the ufual way, from 
 the letter 
 
 r, Pafled to the veficula feminalis of its own fide. 
 
 i?, The place where the fpermatick veflels divided ; 
 and part 
 
 J, Went to the tefticle ; but part 
 
 /, Alfo went to the epididymis. 
 
 We have opportunity of obferving, in this lufus na-- 
 iura^ in what an exad and regular manner a part, a 
 little diff*erent from the ordinary ftate, may be formed. 
 In this nothing was wanting ; but the parts which are 
 ufually joined, namely, the tefticle and the epididymis, 
 were feparated from one another ; yet all was provided 
 for. 
 
 As 
 
473 Explanation of the Figures. 
 
 As the teflicle, in the ufual courfe of nature, fhould 
 have been in the fcrotum, but was accidentally lodged^ 
 in this cafe, in the abdomen ; nature yet took care, that 
 a part of the apparatus of it, namely, the epididymis^ 
 with part of the ejaculatory vefiel, fnould pafs out of 
 the abdomen toward its ufual place : and thus, tho' the 
 fabrick of this teilicle was not of the ufual kind, yet, 
 by this contrivance, it was rendered capable of perform- 
 ing ail the necelTary offices of a teflicle, as much as if 
 it had been conftruded exadly in the ufual manner. 
 There is no qucftion but that, according to this fabrick^ 
 the femen might pafs from the tefticle thro' the epidi- 
 dymis to the vafa deferentia. 
 
 Fig. 26. a a a^ Exhibits the right veflcula femlnalis 
 opened, recent, but wafhed ; fo that not only its 
 various cellules, but its internal reticulated furface, 
 defcribed by Santorini, come in view. 
 hbb^ The internal reticulated furface, appearing like 
 a corpus reticulare ; and much refembling the interior 
 furface of the gall-bladder, as Ruyfch has drawn it. In 
 the cells of this reticulation, probably, the femen re- 
 ceives a yet farther elaboration than it had had before* 
 ^ The objed: itfelf, properly cleanfed, exhibits a view of 
 
 this ftrudure, hovv'ever, much better than a figure can 
 reprefent it. 
 
 Fig. 27. Reprefents a human foetus of three months: 
 
 an abortion included, in a beautiful manner, in its 
 
 membranes, as it were, in an egg, and fwiming in 
 
 its own liquor. Every thing is reprefentcd, in this 
 
 figure, of the natural fize. 
 
 -/^, The foetus, with its large head ; the eyes large^ 
 
 protuberant and black, as they ufurllv are in this ftate, 
 
 appearing thro' the liquor and membranes. 
 
 B B By The exterior tunic of the chorion, which 
 is very full of vefTels, which hang every where in great 
 numbers, in the manner of fibrous roots. This is a 
 circumftance moft of the anatomical writers had not hit 
 upon, 'till this fubjeft occurred. 
 
 C C C, Part of the pellucid tunics of the foetusj 
 from the others of which this vafcular part is feparated, 
 
 and 
 
a 
 
 il 
 
 cT^i 
 
7>-47^. Tl.YI 
 
 -?^^^ 
 
 /■<^Mync/A 
 
Explanation of the Figures. 470 
 
 and drawn back, that it might be in view, together with 
 the fcEtus in its liquor. The greater part of ihis ovum 
 humanum, if we may be allowed the expreffion, is fur- 
 nifhed with the fame kind of fine flender fluduating 
 vefTels. 
 
 D D, The funiculus umbillcalls, appearing but in 
 an imperfect manner at this period. 
 
 Fig. 27. a a a, Exhibits an ovulum from a woman, 
 who was, as herfelf imagined, about a month gone 
 with child : it was evacuated with great pain, and 
 a large haemorrhage, from the uterus. It is al- 
 moft pellucid, and exhibits in its circumference a 
 great number of veflels, or radiculae of the cho- 
 rion, like hairs. 
 h, A little corpufcle vifibie in it, and feeming the 
 
 imperfect fketch of the embryo. 
 
 Fig. 28, aa a a^ Exhibits part of the anus and intefti- 
 num re(ftum opened. 
 
 hh^ Certain unequal and irregular eminences and 
 rugae in the outer circumference of the anus ; where 
 alfo there appeared, in this fubjed, a number of tumid 
 livid veins. 
 
 ccc^ The margin or verge of the anus, where, 
 from the letters c c to a a on the under part, there ap- 
 pear a kind of fimbriae ; when the fphin6ler and the 
 reiSlum ufually differ in colour. 
 
 d ddd, Exprefs a multitude of very minute apertures 
 or ofcula, about the extremity ©f the inteftinum rec- 
 tum, together v/ith a number of roundifti glands. 
 
 e e e. Certain larger ofcula, or apertures, large enough 
 indeed to admit a hair : thefe are fituate below the 
 fimbriae of the re6tum, where the fphindler is placed. 
 
 Explanation of the Seventh Plate, 
 
 Fig. 29. Exhibits the ileum, colon, coecum, and its 
 vermiform appendage, as they were found in a 
 new-born infant ; diftended by inflation, and dried. 
 jf A^ Part of the ileum, in which is Ihewn its in- 
 
 grefs into the left fide of the colon. 
 
;§0: Explanatioit of the Figtires, 
 
 B B, Part of the colon. 
 
 C, The coecum ; with its chai^ge into the procefliis 
 vermiformis, which is peculiar and different in this 
 ftate from what it is in adults. In infants of this period 
 the coecum becomes gradually fmaller and fmaller, 'till 
 it forms this procefs, fo as in the whole > to be of a fort 
 of conic figure 5 v/hereas, in adults, it is much other- 
 wife. 
 
 D E^ The vermiform procefs of the coecum, which, 
 in this fubje<3, was infle^^ed in a very firigular and ex- 
 traordinary manner. It firfl pafTed under the ileum 
 from (7, and afcended to D : after this it was again 
 refleded above the ileum, and defcended to E, 
 
 Fig. 30. The fame inteflines prefented in a back vitw., 
 in order te the fhewing more diflindly in what 
 manner it is that the coecum is transformed into 
 the procefTus vermiformis, ufually in infants. 
 
 jf J J The ileum, with its ingrefs into the colon, 
 B B, The colon. 
 
 C, The coecum. 
 
 D, The beginning of the vermiform procefs. ' 
 
 E E, The Angular inflexion of it, in this fubje<Sl:j. 
 about the ileum. 
 
 Fig. 31. Exhibits a procefTus vermiformis of the cae- 
 cum of an adult feparated, with i'ts peculiar^^exions. 
 and gyrations. This is longer than the 'procefs 
 ufually is. ^ 
 
 ^, Its beginning, cut off from the coecum, '' 
 By Its extremity, turning upwards. ' ; * 
 
 Cy Its fmgular flexions. 
 
 Fig. 3 2. Reprefents the longitudinal finus of the dura 
 mater ; into the fides of which, in this fubje6l, a 
 peculiar tranfverfe fmus was inferted. 
 
 >^y/. The open part of the longitudinal finus. 
 
 By The place where in this'fubjeJdl: it "divided, accu- 
 rately and exactly, into two equal 'lateral ones i which 
 is not the cafe indifctiminately in all rubjecSs. 
 
 C Cy The beginnings of' the twolateral fmus's. 
 
 D Dy The lateral finus's, cut off in their progrcfs. 
 
n.vn:/j..f<, 
 
 ^. '^i^?t^/' jr . 
 
pi.va, 
 
 J.My,,//^ 
 
lLy,pknation of the Figures, 48 j 
 
 ^, The tranfverre finus, which made a communica- 
 tion between the two lateral ones. 
 
 FF, A thick ftyle, which pafTcd eafily thro' this 
 tranfverfe fin us. 
 
 The opening of this tranfverfe fmus was fmaller on 
 the left fide than on the ri^ht. 
 
 •&* 
 
 Fig. 33. Exhibits a view of the tongue, with the 
 lower jaw, to which it adheres. We fee in this 
 the ofcula of the falival du6ls of the fublingual 
 gland, as they appeared in the fubject, mentioned 
 S. 278, of this Compendium. 
 jf J^ The tongue, turned to the left fide. 
 ^^^, The ofcula of the duels of the fublingual 
 gland, feven of which appeared on this fide. 
 
 c c c^ Brifes introduced into the ofcula of thefe 
 parts. 
 
 D D, The two elevator mufcles of the lower lip. 
 The flrft or anterior of thefe ofcula in the left fide 
 of the tongue in this fubje6l was fo large, that not only 
 a bridle, but a fmall tube, was introduced into it, and 
 an inflation might be made by it. The other ofcula in 
 general were fmailer, efpecially two or three of them. 
 
 Explanation of the Eighth Plate. 
 
 Fig. 34. Exhibits a human tongue, in v/hich two re- 
 itiarkable falival ducfts were difcovered in the fora^ 
 men, commonly called coecum, from its fuppofcd 
 clofing at the end. 
 
 y^y The foramen coecum, which, in the fubje6t ex- 
 amined on this cccafion, was remarkably large, 
 opened. 
 
 hy A falival du£l, running towards the root of the 
 tongue, filled with a red injeftion. 
 
 c c, A vehcle at the extremity of this duel, diftended 
 with faliva. 
 
 d^ The beginninf! of another duct in the left fide. 
 
 This was not filled by the inje^lion ; but it was ealUv 
 
 diftinguijfhed, as a diiii, from the reil: of the fubftance 
 
 of the tongue by its v^'hitiili colour i and it was^pable 
 
 ' ll 4^f 
 
.g2 E'^plmiation of the Figures , 
 
 of being diftended by inflation, by means of a fine tube 
 introduced into its orifice. 
 
 ^, The place where this du£l difappeared. 
 ff^ The fituation and courfe of thefe du6!s : it is 
 obfervable that they do not run along the furface of the 
 tongue, but at the depth of a line under the involucra of 
 it, which are removed in this figure. 
 
 The fabrick and flruclure of the ofcula, exprefled at 
 b and d^ was fingular: they had the appearance of 
 valves, or caruncles, which had collapfed ; and did not 
 appear as reprefented in the figure, unlefs forced open 
 by inflation. 
 
 gg. Shew three other ofcula, or foraminula, which 
 were fituated in the larger ; one in the anterior part, 
 and one on the right ; the other on the left fide. Thefe 
 admitted a brittle to a little depth, in an oblique direc- 
 tion ; but it was impoffible to find whether their cavity 
 penetrated any farther. From this it appears, that this 
 foramen, in fubjc6ls that have it, (for it is not univerfal) 
 ferves as a kind of common duel to various other fmaller 
 falival du61:s of that part of the tongue : but, in all this, 
 nature is by no means conftant, but varies greatly. 
 
 /;, The epiglottis. 
 
 7, Its anterior ligament. 
 
 ky Mufcular fibres arifing from the fubftance of the 
 tongue, and inferted into this ligament, as if into a 
 tendon. Thefe, when they are found, (for all fubjeds 
 have them not) ferve for the raifing the epiglottis, ancj 
 may be underftood to be properly a mufcle of the epi- 
 glottis, and called glofib-epiglottideus. 
 
 //, Two little officles of the os hyoides. 
 
 m ;;/, The extremities of the horns of the os hyoides. 
 
 n w. Glands and papillae of vaiious fhape, vifible on 
 the furface of the tongue about its middle. 
 
 <7, The apex of the tongue, bent downwards. 
 
 Fig. 35. Exhibits the duels beforemehtioned, as taken 
 
 out of the tongue, with the foramen coecum, 
 
 which, in this figure, is not difle6led, but appears 
 
 as a common dudt to fcveral fmaller ones. 
 
 y/, The foramen coecum, very large, as it appeared 
 
 in this fubject, with the canal formed by it, which v;as 
 
 near 
 
Explanation of the Figures, 48 j 
 
 hear three lines long, and eafily admitted a tolerably 
 large tube. 
 
 B B, The two new falival du6ls terminating in it, 
 of the (hape and fize they appieared in this fubje^i. 
 
 C C, The termination of thefe du6ls, or, at leaftj 
 the place beyond which they did not appear to run. 
 
 /), The place where the left diidt became expanded 
 into a pellucid veficle, which was filled with a dear and 
 colourlefs, but fomewhat vifcid fluid, having the appear^ 
 ance of faliva, and which feemed to have been forced 
 thither by the throwing in the matter of the injedtion, 
 which was of coloured wax. 
 
 Fig. 36. Exhibits feveral things that are obfervable in 
 the palate, about the palate, and in the upper lip. 
 
 a a^ The upper part of the palate, in which there 
 appeared in this part no ofcula or openings. 
 
 b h<y The pofierior pajt of the palate, very glandulous : 
 in this part there appeared, in this fubjecl^ a great num- 
 ber of excretory ofcula, or ajiertures, very manifeft 
 and obvious. Some of thefe readily admitted a fine 
 ftyle, many of them a briftle, to the depth of three or 
 four lines ; but this not iri a ftrait direction, but fome- 
 what obliquely toward the hinder part. Thefe feldoni 
 appear fo large as they did in the fubjefl from which 
 thefe drawings were made. 
 
 c^ The place which correfponds to the canals, that 
 Steno fays are confpiciious in the offeous part, behind 
 the dentes incifores, and run to the nofe : but in this 
 fubjeit, tho' all the other parts in queftion were fo re- 
 markably large and fair^ there was here no aperture, 
 iior the veftige of any pafiage into the noflrils. 
 
 D D D, The upper lip bent back, that the interior 
 parts may appear, 
 
 dddd^ Its lenticular or miliary glands, as they ap- 
 peared in this fubjed, on removing the internal mem- 
 brane of the mouth, extending themfelves on each fide 
 as far as to the fecond of the dentes molares. 
 
 e. The ligament of the upper lip. 
 
 ff^ Two conglomerate glands, obferved in fhis fub- 
 je6l, with certain excretory ducts, not defcribed by any 
 oi the former anatomical Vv'riters. 
 
 I i 2 S^-y 
 
4S4. Explanation of the Flguus. 
 
 ggy Briftles and ftyles let into thefe ofcula, or aper- 
 tures, to the depth of about two lines. 
 
 /, A part of this gland, where there appeared two 
 large ofcula, or apertures, which, on preflure, dif- 
 charged fome drops of faliva, in the manner of dew- 
 drops. 
 
 Fig. 37. Exhibits the left of thefe two glands : its exte- 
 rior furface is reprefented here, by which it is evi- 
 dently feen to be of the conglomerate kind. 
 
 Fig. 38. Reprefents feveral things about the fauces and 
 uvula, vifible in the head and the upper jaw, 
 viewed from below. 
 
 a, The du6l in the fornix, or upper part of the 
 fauces, fituated under the anterior procefs of the os 
 occipitis ; and defcribed in its place, in this work, as a 
 mucous duel. 
 
 Z*, Its extent under the apophyfis of the os occipitis, 
 toward the creat foramen, which is at leaft five lines in 
 length. 
 
 c^ The left Euftachlan tube, with its oblique longi- 
 tudinal aperture, and the cartilaginous limb firrounding 
 it, as they appear, if viewed a little obliquely from the 
 oppofite fide. 
 
 ^, The right Euftachian tube, as it appears on the 
 fame view, in which we cannot look into its orifice, 
 but can only fee the pofterior or exterior verge or 
 limb. 
 
 c ^j The oblique progrefs of both thefe tubes, as they 
 run toward the ears. 
 
 f, A little hook, drawing off the mufcle which lies 
 upon the tube fideways ; by which means the Euftachian 
 tuba of that fide is brought much better into fight than 
 it would be. 
 
 ggy The mufculi falpinf^o-flaphylini, inferted into 
 the hinder part of uvula, and fcrving to draw it back. 
 
 /j hy The mufculi pterygo-ftaphylini, which arc 
 turned back over the Qorniculus, or ftyloide apophyfis 
 of the interior laaiina of the ptcrygoide procefsj as if 
 over a pulley, and inferted into the anterior part of the 
 velum palatinum. Morgagni denies that thefe are 
 
 properly 
 
Explanation of th^ Figures,, 4S5 
 
 properly mufcles of the uvula, becaufe, he fays, their 
 tendons are affixed to the extreme verge of the bone of 
 the palate : but a clofe infpe£tion fhews, that they are 
 indeed partly affixed to this bonej but in part alfo to 
 the velum of the palate. 
 
 / /, The fine and {lender apophyfes in the pterygodei, 
 which Santorini has very properly diftinguifhed by the 
 name of cornicula, or little horns. 
 
 k^ The uvula, bent back to the palate : in its middle., 
 the glandulous membrane of the palate being feparated, 
 there appears the mufcle called by Morgagni. azygos 
 uvulae, as it appeared in this fubjedl. 
 
 //, The mufcle of the uvula, called the cerato- 
 ilaphylinus, lightly touched, 
 
 m m-, The two pofterior apertures of the noflrils, 
 with the manner in which they open into the fauces. 
 
 n^ The pofterior part of the feptum nafi, made by 
 the vomer. 
 
 0^ The two heads of the occipital bone, which are 
 articulated with the upper vertebra. 
 
 ^3 The foramen magnum, or great apertur^ of the 
 occiput. 
 
 qq^ The ears, appearing in fome degree in this 
 view. 
 
 The other parts, not immediately the fubjed of this, 
 difquiiition, it is unneceiTary to mark out. 
 
 Fig. 39. Exhibits the os vomeris, or vomer, which 
 Santorini does not allow to be a diftinct bone, but 
 only a part of the os ethmoides : it is exhibited 
 fmgly and diftindt here, as it was taken from a 
 fubjcd: of about thirteen years old. In this fubr. 
 je6t it wa^ perfecflly diftinct and feparate from the 
 ethmoides \ but it is to be obferved, that in adults 
 it concretes, and grows one bone with it. 
 a a^ The vomer, confifting of two diilin6t lamells, 
 or honey parietes. 
 
 h^ The hollow, which receives the apophvfis of the. 
 fphenoidal bone by gomphofis, with its edges rtclined. 
 This receives the apophyfis juft mentioned, as the al- 
 veoli of the jaws do the teeth ; whence thefe tv/o bonea. 
 ^re very properly laid to be joined bygomphofis. 
 
4?^ Explanation of the Figures. 
 
 e f., An interftice in its whole upper furface, between 
 the two lamellae ; into which is inferted part of th^ 
 feptum nafi, which arifes from the os ethmoides, 
 
 d d. The lower part, which is made with an edge, 
 in the manner of a plough-fhare : this adheres to the 
 bones of the palate, where they join one another. 
 
 ^^, The right lamella, or paries of the vomer; to 
 which the left lamella is placed oppofite, in the pther 
 {ide. '- " 
 
 1 N D E Xj 
 
'il7VJKA4So. 
 
 ■n^Xe. tA" ' 
 
'£17VlK/^.4 Sd 
 
 /..Wyr.^. 
 
( 487 ) 
 
 INDEX 
 
 A* 
 
 A 
 
 Bdomen, its external 
 
 10 
 
 88 
 92 
 20 
 
 63 
 
 _ parts 
 — Its mufcles 
 —-Its contents 
 Acetabulum 
 Achllles's tendon 
 Adlion of the mufcles 241 
 Adami pomum i o 
 
 Adenology 297 
 
 Adeps, noiie of it in man 
 
 —What it truly is 85 
 Adipofe du6ls 93 
 
 Adipofe membrane 85 
 Adnata tunica 199 
 
 Ethiopians, their colour, 
 
 whence 86 
 
 Alae vefpertilionum 138 
 Albuginea tunica 199 
 
 Allantoide membrane J42 
 Alveoli of the teeth 34 
 Amnios 199 
 
 Amphiarthrofis 69 
 
 Amygdalae, or almonds of 
 
 the ears 206 
 
 Anatomy, what it is i 
 •—Its end 3 
 
 ?— Its inftrumenta 6 
 
 I 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 note 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 220 
 
 196 
 184 
 
 Anatomy, its divifion 
 
 ■ — Its utility 
 
 —Comparative 
 
 — Pra£^iclj: 
 
 — Judiciary 
 
 — Phyfical 
 
 — Theological 
 
 — Writers of mod 
 
 in it 
 Anconaeus proceflus 
 Angiology 
 Angles of the eyes 
 Anima, the feat of 
 Annulus of the abdomen 
 
 88 
 Anthelix 213 
 
 Antitragus 214 
 
 Antrum Highmorlanum 
 
 Anus 100 
 
 —Its elevators 100, 286 
 — Its fphinder 100,286 
 -—Its mufcles differently 
 
 defcribed 286 
 
 — -Of the brain 1 84 
 
 Anifcalptor mufcle 275 
 Aorta 220 
 
 — Its three afcendant 
 
 branches 220 
 
 —Its arch 220 
 
 I i 4 Ape}^ 
 
4.B8 
 
 1 N I) E X. 
 
 Apex of the heart 169 
 Aponeurofis iz 
 
 Apophyfis, what 18 
 
 — Jugal s 23 
 
 — Mamillaris ibid, 
 
 — Maftoidcs ibid. 
 — Pterygoides 26 
 — Raviana mallei 24 
 — Stilordes 23 
 — Zygomatica ibid. 
 
 — Ufes of ibid. 
 Appendiculae adipofae of 
 
 the colon 99 
 
 Appendix vermiformis 98 
 Aqu2ed;j6tus Fallopii 25 
 — Nuckii 196 
 
 — Sylvii 184 
 Aqueous humour of the 
 
 eye 198 
 
 — Its true fituation ibid. 
 Arachnoide tunic of the 
 
 brain 182 
 
 — Of the fpinal marrow 
 
 1S6 
 —Of the eye 196 
 
 Arch of the aorta 220 
 Areolae of the breafts 153 
 Arm, fee Braechium. 
 Artery, what 220 
 
 — Its ftru^Iure ibid. 
 
 Arterias adipofs 223 
 
 Arteria aorta 226 
 
 — Afpera 163 
 
 — Atrabiliariae 224 
 
 — Axillaris 222 
 
 -— Rrachialis ibid. 
 
 — Bronchialis 223 
 — Carotids internal ani 
 
 external 221 
 
 — Ingrefs of the inti rna' 
 
 laid. 
 
 — Anaftomofes with the 
 vertebrae ibid. 
 
 •— Divifion of 221 
 
 Arteria cervicalis 222 
 
 — Celiaca 223 
 
 — Its branches ibid, 
 — Coronaria of the heart 
 
 ibid. 
 — :Cruralis pxt^fria 
 
 terna 
 — Cubitaea 
 — Cyftica gemella 
 — Diaphragmatick 
 
 & in- 
 222 
 ibid, ' 
 224 
 222, 
 223 
 224 
 222 
 224 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 
 — Duodenae 
 
 — -Durae matris 
 
 — Epigaftrick 
 
 — Epiploick 
 
 — Gaftrick ' 
 
 —•Gaftro- epiploick 
 
 — Haemorrhoidalis 
 
 — Hcpatica 
 
 •— Hypogaftrica 
 
 — Iliaca 
 
 — Intercoftai 222, 223 
 
 — Inteftinal, communicates 
 
 with the veins 224 
 
 — Lumbar ibid', 
 
 — Magna five aorta 
 — Mam m aria 
 — Mediaftina 
 — Mefenterica 
 — Mufcularis colli 
 — Oefophageae 
 — Pancreatica 
 — Poplitasa" 
 — Pudendalis 
 —- Pulmonalis 
 
 — Why larger than the 
 vein 
 — Radiaea 
 — Renalis 
 —Sacra 
 — Scapularis 
 
 221 
 222 
 
 ibidt 
 224 
 
 ibidl 
 224 
 223 
 ibid', 
 222 
 
 ibid^ 
 ibid, 
 
 224 
 ibid, 
 
 222 
 Arteria 
 
;i: N D E X. 
 
 489 
 
 tcries fpermaticks 224 
 — Their rife ibid, 
 
 '—Spinal 223 
 
 — Splenick 2 24 
 
 —-Subclavian 222 
 
 •*— Sural ibid, 
 
 •rrTJioracick: 223 
 
 •'--Tibial 222 
 
 -r-'Tracheal 224 
 
 •^Vertebritl ibid, 
 
 ■s— Umbilical 225 
 
 —-How long hollow 
 
 ibid. 
 150 
 
 ibid, 
 
 foetus 
 
 150 
 
 Articulus 69 
 
 Artus fuperiores & infe- 
 
 riores ibid. 
 
 Arytaenoide cartilages 40 
 
 Arteriofus canalis 
 Arthrodia 
 Arthron 
 Articulations in a 
 
 102 
 163 
 
 63 
 64 
 
 liga- 
 
 64 
 116 
 
 Afellii pancreas 
 
 Afpera arteria 
 
 Aftragalus 
 
 Atlas 
 
 —Its femicircular 
 
 ment 
 Atrabiliary capfules 
 -—Large in a foetus 
 Auditc»rius meatus 
 Auditory nerve 
 — Its canal 
 Auditus organurn 
 -^-Os orbiculare 
 Auditus officula 
 Auricula 
 Auricles of the hearf^ 169 
 Auricular finger . 282 
 Axilla 
 
 Axillary vertebra 
 Axis ' 
 
 214,^' 
 
 25 
 213 
 
 214 
 ibid. 
 
 9 
 
 44 
 43 
 
 Azygos mufclq oi the 
 
 uvula 265 
 
 — Vein 227 
 
 B. 
 
 ACK, fee Dorfum. 
 
 Balanus 126 
 
 Bartholine's proftatas 133 
 
 Bafilare os 
 
 Bicorne os 
 
 Bile 
 
 Brachium or arm 
 
 Body, fee Corpus. 
 
 — Bones of 
 
 — Artery of 
 
 — Mufcles of 
 
 Brain, fee Cerebrum. 
 
 Bregma 
 
 — Its bones 
 
 Brevia vafa 
 
 Bronchia 
 
 — Their arteries 
 
 < — Veins 
 
 — Glands 
 
 Bucca 
 
 —Their glands 
 
 Bulb of the eye 
 
 —Of a hair 
 
 — Of the urethra 
 
 26 
 
 40 
 
 112 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 223 
 
 275 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 95 
 
 161 
 
 162 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 
 9 
 
 200 
 
 195 
 81 
 
 127 
 
 GAlamus fcriptorlus 188 
 — Its crena ibid^ 
 Calcaneum 63 
 
 Callofum corpus 185 
 
 Calvarium 2i 
 
 Camerrc of the eye 197 
 Canalis arteriofus 150 
 
 — J%^alis 39 
 
 — rNervis auditor;! ibid, 
 Canalis 
 
490 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Canalls remilunaris 38 
 — -Venofus, fee Hepar. 
 Canthi of the eye, fee Eye. 
 Capilli 8 1 
 
 CapfulaGliflbnii, feeHepar. 
 Caput, or head 21 
 
 —Its continet parts ibid, 
 —Its contents 22 
 
 —Its mufcles 246 
 
 — Gallinaginis 127 
 
 Cardia 95 
 
 Caro quadrata 279 
 
 Carotide arteries 188 
 
 Carpus 278 
 
 —Its mufcles 279 
 
 Cartilages 13 
 
 — Arytaenoide 1 64 
 
 — Cricoid e ibid. 
 
 ■— Enfiform 48 
 
 — Thyroide 164 
 
 — Xiphoide 48 
 
 —Of the larynx 1 64 
 
 — Sometimes oflify ibid. 
 —Of the nofe 210 
 
 Caruncle lachrymal 195 
 Caruncles myrtiform 1 3 1 
 Cauda of mufcle, what 
 
 242 
 Cauda? os 46 
 
 Cavernulas of the bones 2 1 
 —Of the OS ethmoides 
 
 180 
 Cavernofum corpus, tubae 
 Fallop. 131 
 
 Cavity of the tympanum 
 
 176 
 Cavities of the bones 17 
 Cerebellum 186 
 
 —Its crura 187 
 
 —Peduncles ibid. 
 
 — Vermiform proceflesi86 
 —Orbicular protuberances 
 
 187 
 
 Cerebrum, properly (o 
 called 183 
 
 —The whole a great 
 gland 184 
 
 ■ — ^Its anus 185 
 
 — Its cortical fubftance /^/V. 
 — Its diaphragm ibid, 
 
 — Its hemifphere 186 
 
 — Its membranes 184 
 ' — Its nates 185 
 
 — Its nerves ibid^ 
 
 — Its fubftance ibid, 
 
 — Its teftes 184 
 
 *— Its great valve ibid^ 
 
 — Its ventricles 185 
 
 — Its vulva ibid, 
 
 — Its ufe 186 
 
 Cerumen, or ear-wax 214 
 Ceruminofe glands ibid. 
 Cervix, or neck 9 
 
 Cervix uteri, itsoftiola 13Z 
 Chorda Achillis 293 
 
 Chorda tympani 215 
 
 Chords WiUifii 186 
 
 Choroide tunic 196 
 
 — Whether the primary 
 organ of fight 197 
 Choroide plexus 196 
 
 Chorion 142 
 
 Chyli receptaculum 104 
 Chyliferous vefTels ibid^ 
 Chylopceoiis vefTels ibid. 
 Cilia 194 
 
 Ciliary ligament 195 
 
 — Procefs ibid. 
 
 Circulation in the foetus 
 
 142 
 Circulus arteriofus & ve- 
 nofus 197 
 Cifterna chyli 104 
 Clavicles 53 
 Clauftrum of the palate 
 
 203 
 Clitoris 
 
INDEX. 
 
 49 » 
 
 Clitoris 
 
 130 
 
 Coccygis OS 
 
 46 
 
 — Mufculi 
 
 286 
 
 Cochlea 
 
 214 
 
 Colis 
 
 
 Colkim, or neck 
 
 ns 
 
 —Vertebrae of 
 
 
 — Mufcles of 
 
 266 
 
 Colon 
 
 99 
 
 • — Its valve 
 
 ibid. 
 
 —Its connivent valvulae 
 
 
 ibid. 
 
 —Its three ligaments 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Its adipofe appendages/^. 
 
 Columella 
 
 214 
 
 Concha 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Conjunctive tunic 
 
 196 
 
 Cor, the heart 
 
 168 
 
 —Its motion 
 
 169 
 
 —In the foetus 
 
 150 
 
 —Its coronary arteries 169 
 
 — veins 
 
 170 
 
 — Their orifices 
 
 ibid. 
 
 *— Its auricles 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Its columnae carneae 171 
 
 ' — Its ftrait fibres 
 
 ibid. 
 
 • — Its^lacertuli 
 
 172 
 
 —Its motion 
 
 ibid. 
 
 —Its feptum 
 
 171 
 
 i— Its tubercle of Lower, 
 
 
 ibid. 
 
 ^-Its valves 
 
 ibid. 
 
 —Its ventricles 
 
 170 
 
 —The right larger 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Cornea tunica 
 
 196 
 
 Coronale os 
 
 22 
 
 Coronoide procefs 
 
 33 
 
 Corpus humanum. 
 
 ► or 
 
 body 
 
 8 
 
 — Its divifion 
 
 ibid. 
 
 '^-Its teguments 
 
 10 
 
 Corpora cavernofa of the 
 
 penis 125 
 
 Corpufcula globofa of the 
 
 neck of the womb 132 
 Corpus callofum 184 
 
 — -Cavernofum furround- 
 
 ing the vagina 131 
 
 — Kighmori ibid, 
 
 — Luteum ovarii 133 
 — Pampiniforme 125 
 
 — Pyramidale ibid, 
 
 — Reticulare Malpighii78 
 — Valfaivae ibid. 
 Cortical fubftances of the 
 
 brain, not glandulous 
 
 185 
 
 Coftae, or ribs 47 
 
 Cctylae 20 
 
 Cotyledons 143 
 
 Cranium or fkull 21 
 
 —Its futures 22 
 
 —Its mufcles 246 
 
 — Its condition in the 
 foetus 150 
 
 Cre mailer mufcle 285 
 Crena of the calamus 
 fcriptorius 184 
 
 Cribriforme os 27 
 
 Cricoid e cartilage 163 
 Crifta galli 126 
 
 Crifta ulnse 55 
 
 Crus 60 
 
 Crura of the cerebellum 
 
 184 
 — Of the medulla oblon- 
 gata 185 
 Cryftalline humor 195 
 Cubit 54 
 -—Its mufcles 270 
 Cuboid e bone 64. 
 Cuneiform bone 26 
 Cunei- 
 
49^ 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cuneiform bones of the 
 
 tarfis 64 
 
 Cutaneous follicles 80 
 
 .—Miliary glands ibid. 
 — Papillie ibid. 
 
 Cutaneum reticulum ibid. 
 Cuticle 76 
 
 —Of the Negroes, why 
 black 77 
 
 —It has no veiTels virible76 
 . — Its fulci, or lines 77 
 — Its generation and rege- 
 neration 78 
 Cutis, or (kin 79 
 — Its lines or fulci ibid, 
 Cyitis feilea, or gall- 
 })ladder j 1 1 
 
 D, 
 
 Artus 126 
 
 Dentes, the teeth 33 
 •—In a fcrtus 15Q 
 
 Diaphragm 160 
 
 —Its arteries 161 
 
 Diaphyfis of a bone 17 
 Diarthrofis 69 
 
 Didymi 120 
 
 Differences between a foe- 
 tus and adult 150 
 —Of the ofla innominata 
 in the two fexcs 5 1 
 — Of the bones 
 Digiti manus, the fingers 
 
 157 
 —Their mufcles 279 
 
 — Mufcles of the little 
 finger 280 
 
 Digiti pedis, or the toes 64 
 ' — Their mufcles 294 
 
 r-Mufcles of the little to? 
 
 296 
 
 Divifion of a fkeleton 2: 
 Dorfum, the back> 9 
 
 —-Its fpine 1 09 
 
 - — The divifion of its fpine 
 
 ibid. 
 — Th§ vertebrae of no 
 — The mufcles of 273 
 Du6ts adipofe 94 
 
 Duftus Bartholinianus 200 
 — Cholydocus communis 
 
 III 
 — Cyfiicus 1 1 2 
 
 — Hepaticus ibid. 
 
 — Hepatico-cyfticus ibid. 
 —Cy ft- hepaticus ibid. 
 -'-Euftachii 24 
 
 Duds excretory, what 12 
 -—From the nofe into the 
 mouth 212 
 
 —Lactiferous 154 
 
 — --Rivinian 278 
 
 -— Saliv^l of Cochfwitz, a 
 vein ibid. 
 
 — Stenonian 279 
 
 -—Mucus of the pharynx 
 
 ibid* 
 —-Thoracick 105 
 
 —Method of {hewing 
 it 106 
 
 ---Ufe of its valve /Zi/V* 
 — Whartonian 278 
 
 -—Lachrymal, their ori- 
 fices 209 
 Duodenym 96 
 —Its arterieq 97 
 Dura mater 180 
 —-Its procefles ibid. 
 -—Its arteries ibid, 
 --Its fmus's ibid. 
 
 j^« 
 
I N D 
 
 E. 
 
 EAR, fee Auricula 213 
 Ear-wax, fee Ceru- 
 men 214 
 Elevators of the anus 287 
 Embryo 15^ 
 Enarthrofis 69 
 Enfiform cartilage 4^ 
 Epidermis 76 
 Epididymes 124 
 Epigaitrick region 10 
 Epiglottis 165 
 Epiphyfis of a bone 68 
 Epiploon 92 
 EpiUrophnsirs 43 
 Ethm.oides cs 27 
 -—Its cavernulse ibid, 
 Eaftachian tube 28 
 Excretory duels 13 
 Extremities of the body 9 
 
 F 
 
 F. 
 
 ACE 9, 193 
 
 Falciform procefs 1 9 1 
 Fallopian tubes 134 
 
 FarciiTiinal membrane T42 
 Fafcia lata 290 
 
 Felleae radices 1 1 I 
 
 Femur, or thigh lO, 59 
 -* -Its mufcles 2S'9 
 
 Feneftra ovalis 214 
 
 — Rotunda ibid. 
 
 Fibre n 
 
 •—Differences of ibid. 
 Fibres mufcuiar, their di- 
 verfity 244 
 
 Fibula 62 
 
 Fingers, fee Digitl manus 
 
 57 
 
 Fiftula fpiralis 163 
 
 Foetus 141 
 
 — Its membranes 1 42 
 
 — Its fituation in the 
 uterus ibid. 
 
 — Found out of the uterus 
 
 143 
 —Its articulations 156 
 — Bones of its fkull 1 50 
 — Its heart ibid. 
 
 — Its teeth ibid. 
 
 — Its canalis venofus ibid. 
 — Its differences from an 
 
 adult ibid. 
 
 — Its nutrition 144 
 
 —Its nutrition by the 
 
 mouth 147 
 
 — The circulation in it ib. 
 Follicles cutaneous 80 
 Fons pulfatilis 23 
 
 Fontanella ibid. 
 
 Foramen caecum of the 
 
 tongue 20 t 
 
 Foramen ovale . 150 
 — Its ufe ibid. 
 
 Foramina 
 
 ,—0^ the bones of the 
 flmll 35 
 
 — Of the jaws 3S 
 
 Fornix Vi^ 
 
 Foff« figmoidales 2^ 
 
 Fovea of the jugular veia 
 
 ibid. 
 Frenulum of the upper lip 
 
 204 
 — Of the tongue 205 
 — Of the prepuce 126 
 Frontis OS 22 
 
 Frontal fmus ibid. 
 
 Funiculus umbjlicalis 146 
 
 G. 
 
494 
 
 I N D 
 
 G. 
 
 G 
 
 ALL-bladder, fee Cy- 
 ftis feilea. 
 Gallinaginis caput 126 
 Ganglia of the nerves 232 
 Generation, parts of, in 
 
 men 119 
 
 ■^In women 129 
 
 Genu 10 
 
 Gingivje, or gums 204 
 Ginglymus 69 
 
 Glands 297 
 
 —Definition of them diffi- 
 cult 298 
 ' — Boerhaave's definition 
 
 examined 299 
 
 i— Moft definitions proved 
 
 imperfect 300 
 
 *— A peculiar habit of them 
 
 afierted 302 
 
 i — Hippocrates's opinion of 
 
 them 314 
 
 i— What the antients called 
 
 fo ii'id. 
 
 —Many of them perform 
 
 no fecretions ibid. 
 
 —Their differences 315 
 — Not proved byfpheroide 
 
 tubercles 317 
 
 — Arytasnoide 328 
 
 •^-Axillary ibid, 
 
 —•Bronchial ibid. 
 
 — -Brunners 99 
 
 — How beft feen ibid. 
 • — Buccal 324 
 
 •^— Ceraceous of Melbom 
 
 ibid. 
 •~Cetvical 327 
 
 — Ceruminofe 324 
 
 — Compofite 298 
 
 E X. 
 
 Glands conglobate 298 
 ■ — Conglomerate ibid, 
 — Congregate ibid, 
 
 — Cowper's 325 
 
 — Cutaneous 338 
 
 — Cyftick 328 
 
 — Dorfal 329 
 
 — Its morbid ftate ibid, 
 — Of the epiglottis 325 
 — -Haverian 324 
 
 — Hepatick 329 
 
 — Iliac ibid. 
 
 -^Of the ileum about its 
 
 end ibid, 
 
 —Inguinal 331 
 
 — Innominate 324 
 
 — Inteftinal of Brunner 
 
 and Peyer 99 
 
 — Jugular 327 
 
 — Labial 324 
 
 ^Lachrymal ibid, 
 
 ' — Of the larynx 327 
 — Of the tongue 324 
 — Littre's 330 
 
 — Lumbary 329 
 
 — Of the areolae of the 
 
 breafts 328 
 
 • — Between the dura mater 
 
 and arachnoides 323 
 — Maxillary 324 
 
 — Mefaraick 331 
 
 — Molare 321 
 
 — Mucilaginous 323 
 
 — Mucous ibid, 
 
 — Of Cowper ibid* 
 — Nuckiari 99 
 
 — Of the nymphae 335 
 —Occipital 324 
 
 — Odoriferous 333 
 
 —Of the oefophagus 330 
 
 — Vcrcellonius's duds 
 
 from them ibid. 
 
 Glands 
 
INDEX, 
 
 495 
 
 Glands of the omentum 
 
 332 
 • — Of the left orifice of the 
 ftomach ibid. 
 
 -—Of the foveae of the os 
 frontis 324 
 
 - — Pacconius*s 323 
 
 — Palatine 324 
 
 — Parotides ibid. 
 
 — Peyers 99 
 
 ^-Pineal 323 
 
 — Pituitary 324 
 
 — Of the placenta, whe- 
 ther any 337 
 — -Proftatss 333 
 —-Renal ibid. 
 — Sacrae ibid. 
 — -Salival 326 
 •—Sebaceous 339 
 ' — Of the cutis ibid, 
 —Rather receptacles 3 40 
 —Sebaceous of Meibom 
 
 339 
 — OfValfalva ibid. 
 —Simple 296 
 
 —Of the finus's of the 
 dura mater 323 
 
 —Solitary 297 
 
 —Subcutaneous 339 
 
 —Sublingual 324 
 
 — Their du£ls 325 
 
 — Thyroide 1 64 
 
 — Single in human fub- 
 jedts 'ibid. 
 
 ' — Its ifthmus ibid. 
 
 ' — Wlvether a nidus of 
 ovula 325 
 
 —Its real ufe doubtful 
 326 
 — Tonfils, fee Tonfils. 
 — Of the trachea 163 
 * — Of the pituitary mem- 
 brane 323 
 
 Glands of the ftomach 330 
 — Of the ureters 334 
 
 —Of the urethra ibid. 
 — Of the bladder 332 
 
 — Of the gall-bladder ibid, 
 — Of the veficulae femi- 
 
 nales 331 
 
 —When known to the 
 
 antients 334 
 
 — Of the uterus, whether 
 
 any 335 
 
 — Of the uvula, fee Uvula. 
 Glans of the penis 126 
 Glene 
 Glottis 
 Gula 
 
 Gums, fee Gingivae 
 Guftus, or tafte 
 
 20 
 163 
 
 173 
 204 
 200 
 
 —Its immediate organ ib, 
 
 H. 
 
 HArmonia, jun61ures 
 by 69 
 
 Head, fee Caput 21 
 
 Heart, fee Cor 168 
 
 Hehx 213 
 
 Hemifphere of the brain 
 
 183 
 
 Hepar, the liver 109 
 
 ' — Large in a foetus 150 
 — Not a gland 1 09 
 
 — Porta of 1 10 
 
 — -Uterinum 144 
 
 Herophili torcular 179 
 Humerus 53 
 
 — Its bones ibid. 
 
 —Its mufcles 286 
 
 Humours of the eye 198 
 Hydatidcs of the ovary 137 
 Hymen 12^ 
 
 — Really exifls in young 
 fubjedls 129 
 
 —In a feet us ibid, 
 
 Hyoide* 
 
49^ 
 
 I N D E X. 
 
 Hyoides os 
 — Mufcles of 
 Hypocondria 
 
 I. 
 
 40 
 258 
 
 9 
 
 98 
 
 ibid. 
 
 54 
 
 9 
 29 
 
 290 
 
 158 
 
 ibid. 
 96 
 98 
 
 99 
 97 
 98 
 
 JEjunum 
 ileum 
 ■ — Bone 
 Iliac region 
 Incus 
 
 Index, mufcles of 
 Infundibulum. 
 — FifTure at it 
 Inguina 
 Inteftines fmall 
 — Larger 
 
 Inteftinum duodenum 
 — Coecum 
 
 —Colon 99 
 
 ■ — Re£lum ibid, 
 
 Inteftines, flruciure of ib. 
 — Their annular fibres 97 
 —Their longitudinal fibres 
 
 ibid. 
 — Rugae of the finall ones 
 
 ibid» 
 — Albinus's new cellulous 
 coat of them ibid. 
 
 —Different from Ruyfch's 
 -—Villous coat of ibid. 
 — Is villo-papillofe ibid. 
 Iris, fee Eye. 
 Ifchiatica regio 
 Ifchium OS 
 Jugulum 
 Jugalis apophyfis 
 Jugalia ofla 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 24. 
 
 V- 
 
 Junctures of the bones 'j^ 
 
 K. 
 Knee, fee Genu 
 
 L. 
 
 LAbra, or lips 204 
 --Upper one, its 
 fraenulum ibid. 
 — Of the pudenda 129 
 Labyrinth of the ear 25 
 ---Its veftibule ibid. 
 
 Lacerti cordis, fee Heart. 
 Lachrymalis caruncula 1 95 
 ---Saccus ibid. 
 
 Lachrymalia puncSla ibid. 
 — OiHx ibid. 
 
 Lachrymalium dudum ori- 
 ficia tbld. 
 
 La6leal vefTels 103 
 
 La^lilerous du6ls 104 
 
 Lacuna i 29 
 
 —-Of De Graaf 130 
 
 Larynx 164 
 
 —-Its cartilages ibid. 
 
 — Its mufcles 286 
 
 -—Its ilnus's 164 
 
 -—Its bones 40 
 
 Lens cryftallina 196 
 
 Lien, the fpleen 92, 112 
 —Its ufe 93 
 
 Ligament 1 1 
 
 —-Annular of the thigh- 
 bone, fee P'emur. 
 
 — -Annular of the hand, 
 fee Carpus. 
 
 —-Ciliary, fee Eye. 
 
 ---Interofleous, fee Carpus. 
 
 -—Of the tongue, fee 
 Tongue. 
 
 — -Pouparti's 89 
 
 —Semicircular of the at- 
 las, fee Atlas. 
 
 — Round, whether fo 59 
 ---Of the ofla Innominata, 
 
 fee OiTa incr. 
 
 Liga- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ligament of the uterus, 
 fee uterus 59 
 
 — Involucra of them, fee 
 uterus ibid, 
 
 Linca alba, fee abdomen 
 
 201 
 
 Mediana Linguae ibid. 
 Lingua, the tongue zco 
 *— Its foramen caecum 202 
 — Its fraenulum 201 
 
 — Its ligaments ibid, 
 
 —Its median line ibid. 
 — Its mufcles 259 
 
 —Its nerves 201 
 
 —Its nervous papillae ibid» 
 Liquor of the pericardium, 
 fee heart, in which the 
 fcctus fwims, fee foetus 
 Loins, fee lumbi 9 
 
 Lumbi, the loins 9 
 
 ■—Their mufcles 266 
 
 —Their vertebras 49 
 Lunula 84 
 
 L} mphatick veflels 1 05 
 •—The firft difcoveries of 
 them 107 
 
 M. 
 
 Ala 9 
 
 Malleus ofhe ear 
 
 . ?3 
 
 — Its apophyfes tbid, 
 
 — Its mufcles 25 1 
 
 Malleoli 23 
 
 Miilpighi's corpus reticu- 
 latura 127 
 
 Mammae, the breafls 152 
 — Their corpora globofa 
 
 153 
 —Glands of their areola 
 
 »54 
 
 Mammillary apophyfis 23 
 Manus extrema 
 Manus, the hand 
 — Its back 
 — Its palm 
 — Its mufcles 
 Mafloide apophyfes 
 Mater dura 
 
 '^n 
 
 Matrix 
 
 56 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 
 55 
 
 284 
 
 23 
 180 
 
 ibid» 
 
 136 
 
 Maxilla, 'the jaw,upper 29 
 
 — The lower 
 
 Maxillary bones 
 
 — Sinus's 
 
 Meatus auditorius 
 
 — In a foetus 
 
 Meconium 
 
 Mediaftinum 
 
 — Its cellulous 
 
 33 
 
 29 
 
 3^ 
 23 
 
 125? 
 
 128 
 126 
 
 interftice 
 156 
 
 Medulla, the marrow 80 
 
 Oblongata 
 — Its crura 
 
 Spinalis 
 — Its coat, 
 
 187 
 188 
 jgt 
 
 ligamentous 
 
 7^ 
 
 124. 
 
 muf- 
 
 95 
 
 Membrane 
 
 — Adipofe 
 
 — Allantoide 
 
 — Common of the 
 
 cles 
 — Mucofe of the nofe i So 
 — Semilunar of the eyei76 
 — Papillary of Helvetius 
 
 180 
 — Pituitary of Sehneidert 
 
 i8z 
 — Subpituitary 183 
 
 — Of the tympanum 184 
 — Its foramen 185 
 
 Membranes of the foetus 
 
 Kk 
 
 142 
 'Cb- 
 
498 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 MembrancSjclofing the au- 
 
 ditorypafragesinthemi43 
 
 Menftrua, their fource i8o 
 
 Mentula virilis 125 
 
 — Muliebris 130 
 
 Mefaraeuni 102 
 
 Mefentery 102 
 
 Mefocolon 103 
 
 Metacarpus 56 
 
 Metatarfus 59 
 
 Mons veneris 130 
 
 Mufcles, what 241 
 
 —Their parts ibid. 
 
 ' — Antagonifts ibid. 
 
 — Aflbciates 242 
 
 — Their a6lion 241 
 
 —Different opinions as to 
 
 it , ibid. 
 
 —Of the abdomen 2 
 
 — Abdudors of the little 
 
 finger 276 
 
 — of the thumb 279 
 
 —of the great toe 280 
 
 • — of the little toe ibid, 
 
 —Accelerators 274 
 
 — of the urine 272 
 
 — Abdudors of the little 
 
 finger 280 
 
 — of the femur 274 
 
 ' — of the fore-finger 280 
 
 — of the great toe ibid, 
 
 — Anconaeus 276 
 
 — Of the anus 286 
 
 — Anifcalptor 275 
 
 — Annuens of Cowper 249 
 
 — Ary-arytasnoides 262 
 
 ■ — Antithcnar of the thumb 
 
 280 
 —Of the great toe ibid. 
 — Of the external ear 
 
 — Of the ear 
 
 251 
 
 256 
 
 Mufcles of the little finger 
 
 281 i 
 — Azygosof Morgagni 722 1 
 — BafiogloiTus 26 1 
 
 — Bibitorius 276 J 
 
 — Biceps ibid, " 
 — Biceps tibiae 290 
 — Bicornis 289 
 
 ' — Biventer 290 
 
 — Brachialis, internal and 
 external 275 
 
 — Brevis cubiti ibid. 
 
 — Brevis radii ibid. 
 
 — Buccinator 276 
 
 — Caninus 275 
 
 — Of the head 246 
 
 — Of the carpus 274 
 
 — Cerataglofii 261 
 
 — Cerato-ftaphylini ibid, 
 — Ciphalopharyngaei ibid. 
 — Coccygaeus 286 
 
 — Of the neck 263 
 
 — Complexus 262 
 
 — Conftridlor labiorum 
 
 261 
 — orbicular of the nofe 
 ibid, 
 — Coracobrachialis 252 
 — Coracohyoid.Tus ibid, 
 — Of the cranium 246 
 • — Cremafter 285 
 
 — Crico-arytaenoides, late- 
 ral 264 
 — Poflerior ibid, 
 — Crico-pharyngaeus 265 
 — Crotaphites 264 
 — Cruralis 291 
 — Of the cubit 276 
 — CucuIIaris 274 
 — Deltoide 276 
 — Dentatus major anticus 
 
 275 
 
INDEX. 
 
 499 
 
 Mufcles, dcntatus minor. 
 
 -—DeprefTor of the '. 
 
 eyelid 
 — Detrufor of the 
 
 lower 
 
 247 
 
 urine 
 
 — Digaftrick 
 
 "287 
 
 275 
 
 —Its trochlea 
 
 276 
 
 < — Of the fingers 
 ■^Of the toes 
 
 279 
 ibid. 
 
 — Of the little toe 
 
 280 
 
 —Dilatator of the 
 
 nofe 
 
 253 
 — Pofterior of the ure- 
 
 thra 
 — Dorfi 
 
 264 
 286 
 
 — Longiflimus 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Latiffimus 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Elevator fcapulae 
 — Labri inferiorls 
 
 275 
 249 
 
 — Palpebrae fuperioris 
 
 247 
 
 — UrethrseSantorini285 
 
 —Of the epiglottis 264 
 
 — Erectors of the penis 
 
 284 
 
 little 
 
 279 
 
 the 
 
 — -Extenfor of 
 
 finger 
 
 —Extenfor communis 279 
 
 -— Of the loins, &:c. 
 
 264 
 
 -—Long one of the toes 
 
 280 
 
 —Short of the toes 282 
 
 — Of thefore-finger28i 
 
 — -Common of the loins 
 
 264 
 
 —Long of the great toe 
 
 282 
 
 — Short of the great 
 
 toe ibid. 
 
 -—Fafcia lata 3164 
 
 Mufcles of the femor 
 -—Flexor longus of 
 great toe 
 
 — Frontals 
 
 — Gaftrocnemius 
 
 — Gemini 
 
 ' — Genioglofli 
 
 — -Genio-hyoides 
 
 — -Glut3si 
 
 -— Glollb- pharyngaei 
 
 — Gioflb-ftaphylini 
 — Graciies 
 
 — Helicis 
 
 — Of the humerus 
 — -Humilis 
 
 -— Hyo-thyroides 
 — Of the OS hyoides 
 
 — — hy ophary ngaeus 
 — -hypothenar 
 — -Iliacus 
 — Inciforius fuperior 
 
 — Inferior 
 —Indicator 
 —Of the index 
 — Indignatorius 
 — Infrafcapularis 
 — Infrafpinatus 
 -— Intexoftales 
 — -InterofTei 
 
 -—Of the toes 
 — Interfpinales of the 
 
 290 
 the 
 282 
 246 
 249 
 265 
 264 
 26)^ 
 290 
 265 
 ibid, 
 274 
 251 
 278 
 248 
 264 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 
 -— Intertranfverfales 
 — Intervertebrals 
 
 278 
 ibid, 
 
 277 
 
 ibid. 
 281 
 ibid, 
 249 
 277 
 ibid. 
 274 
 273 
 281 
 neck 
 272 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 
 -— Intercoftals of Verhey. 
 
 274 
 
 —Of the lips 254 
 
 —Of the larynx 285 
 
 — Levatorcs ani 286 
 
 —-Small ones of Dou- 
 
 glafs 28 
 
 — Levatorescoftarum 274 
 
 K k 2 Muf- 
 
soo 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Mufclcs, linguae 258 
 
 — Lividus 257 
 
 — Longus et brevis five 
 bicornis 275 
 
 — Longus colli 274 
 
 "—Longus cubiti 275 
 
 — Radii ihid. 
 
 -. -Of the loins 274 
 
 — Lumbrical, of the toes 
 
 281 
 — Of the malleus 25 1 
 — Of the hand 276 
 
 — Maffeter 257 
 
 — Maftoide ihid. 
 
 — Of the lower jaw ii^id. 
 — Membranofe 251 
 
 — Mylogloflus 264 
 
 — Mylo-hyoides ibid, 
 
 — Mylo-pharyngaeus ibid, 
 — Myrtiform of the nofe 
 
 254 
 
 •—Of the nofe ibid. 
 
 —Oblique of the eye 249 
 
 — Larger of the head 
 
 246 
 —Smaller of the head 
 
 247 
 
 —Obturators, internal and 
 
 external ibid. 
 
 — Occipital 246 
 
 — Of the eye 248 
 
 — Septimus brutorum 
 
 ibid. 
 — Of the aefophagus 261 
 — Orbicular of the lips 
 
 254 
 — Of the eyelids 247 
 
 —Of the OS coccygis 287 
 
 — Palato-ftaphylinus 281 
 
 — Palmaris 280 
 
 • — Paticntiae 276 
 
 — Pe6tinaeus 274 
 
 — Pe£toralis, larger 374 
 
 Mufcles, pe£loralis, fmall- 
 er 274 
 
 — Of the foot 281 
 
 — Of the penis 284 
 
 — Per forans of the toes294 
 
 — Perforatus of the toes ib, 
 — Perforans of the fingers 
 
 280 
 —Perforatus of the fin- 
 gers 281 
 — Peronaeus anterior 274 
 — pofterior 274 
 — Of the pharynx 265 
 
 — Pharyngo - flaphylinus 
 
 ibid. 
 — Plantaris 282 
 
 — Of the great toe exten- 
 
 for ibid, 
 
 — Flexor ibid, 
 
 — Poplitaeus ibid, 
 
 —Profundus 276 
 
 — Proje<^or urinae 286 
 — Oftheproftata 285 
 — Pfoas, larger 274 
 
 — fmaller ibid. 
 
 — Pterygoide,external 276 
 
 — internal ibid, 
 
 — Pterygo - pharyngaeus 
 
 265 
 — Pterygo- ftaphylinus ib. 
 
 — Pyramidal of the nofe 
 
 254 
 
 — Pyriformis ibid. 
 
 — Quadratus 278 
 
 — Of the thigh 277 
 
 —Of the loins 274 
 
 — Of the radius 282 
 
 — Radiaeus, external 275 
 
 —internal ibid. 
 
 — Of the radius ibid. 
 
 — Redtus lateralis ibid, 
 
 — Redus major anticus 
 
 276 
 Mufcles, 
 
I N 
 
 Mufclcs, rc£lus major po- 
 
 fticus 
 
 276 
 
 —Minor anticus 
 
 275 
 
 — Pofticus 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Rcdus tibiae 
 
 290 
 
 — Of refpiration 
 
 273 
 
 — Rhomboidal 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Rotatores 
 
 264 
 
 — Rotundus major and mi- 
 
 nor 
 
 262 
 
 — Rotundus of the radius 
 
 
 275 
 
 ' — Sacro lumbus 
 
 274 
 
 — Salpingo - pharyngaeus 
 
 
 265 
 
 •— Salplngo-flaphylinus ib. 
 
 — Sartorius 
 
 290 
 
 ■ — Scalenus 
 
 287 
 
 —Scapulae 
 
 276 
 
 — Semimembranofus 
 
 264 
 
 — Seminervofus 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Semifpinofus 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Serratus major anticus 272 
 
 ' — minor 
 
 27s 
 
 — Pofticus inferior 
 
 ibid. 
 
 —Superior 
 
 ibid. 
 
 —Solaris 
 
 295 
 
 — Sphaeno ftaphylinus 265 
 
 — Sphincter ani 
 
 286 
 
 — vcficae 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Splenius 
 
 1-jz 
 
 Of the ftapes 
 
 252 
 
 — Sterno-hyoidaeus 
 
 266 
 
 — Stylo-glofTus 
 
 261 
 
 — Stylo-hyoidaeus 
 
 ibid. 
 
 -— Stylo-pharyngsus 
 
 ibid. 
 
 —Subclavian 
 
 275 
 
 — Sublimis 
 
 248 
 
 — Superbus 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Superciliorum corruga- 
 
 tor 
 
 248 
 
 — Supercoflales of Ver- 
 
 heyen 
 
 268 
 
 — Supra-fpinatus 
 
 268 
 
 D E ' X. 
 
 Mufcles, Tarfi 295 
 
 — Temporalis 246 
 
 — Teres, major and minor 
 
 264 
 —Thenar 274 
 
 — Of the great toe 298 
 — Thyro-arytaenoides 261 
 — Thyro-pharyngaeus ib, 
 — Thyro- ftaphylinus ibid, 
 — Tibiae 293 
 
 — Tibialis anticus ibid, 
 — pofticus ibid, 
 
 — Tragi et antitragi 248 
 —Tranfverfalis colli 264 
 — Tranfverfe of the ure- 
 thra 284 
 — Trapezius 282 
 — Triangularis of the lips 
 
 254 
 
 — Of the fternum 268 
 
 — Of the urethra 284 
 — Triceps brachialis 270 
 — Trochlearis 268 
 
 — Tubae novus valsalvae 
 — Vaginalis gulae 259 \ 
 — Vaftus internus and ex- 
 ternus 2 
 
 — Ulnaris, external and in- 
 ternal 261 
 — Urethrae virilis 284 
 — Uteri novus orbicularis 
 
 ibid, 
 
 — Uvula 264 
 
 — Zygomaticus 282 
 
 — Their denomination248 
 
 — Number 244 
 
 —Common membrane 
 
 246 
 
 Mufcular fibres, divwlity 
 
 of 242 
 
 Myology 240 
 
 — Order of it 241 
 
 Myrtiform caruncles 281 
 
 'K k 5 N. Naies 
 
 $»t 
 
502 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 N. 
 
 NAres,thenoftrils 210 
 Nafus, the nofe 209 
 ^-Its bones 210 
 
 —Its feptum ibid. 
 
 — Its finus's ibid. 
 
 — Its cartilages ibid. 
 
 Narium foramina ibid. 
 —Their mucous tunic 2 1 1 
 — Their fmus's ibid, 
 
 — Whether they have a 
 duct to the mouth ibid. 
 Nates, of the brain 198 
 Naviculare os 64 
 
 Neck, fee collum 
 Nervus, a nerve 229 
 
 t-^tivt^t their number 231 
 — Their origin uncer- 
 tain 234 
 —Whether they are vef- 
 fels 235 
 —Of the brain, nine pair 
 
 22g 
 
 • — ^Of the neck 230 
 
 — Of the back 233 
 
 -—Of the loins ibid. 
 
 —■Of the OS facrum 234 
 — Spinal 234 
 
 — Ganglia, of 232 
 
 — Plexus, of ibid. 
 
 — Ufes 235 
 
 Nerve abducent 229 
 
 — AccefTory of Willis ibid. 
 —Auditory 231 
 
 —Auditory, its canal 231 
 —Its hard and foft por- 
 tions 231 
 — Its diftribution ibid. 
 Nerves brachial 234 
 —Of the brain, Willis's 
 tenth pair 230 
 •^Crural 231 
 
 ^-Diaphragmatick 234 
 — Guftatory 230 
 
 ^Its remarlcablc branches 
 
 ibid, 
 — Intercoftal 234 
 
 — Its ©rigin uncertain ibid, 
 — Lingual 230 
 
 — Motory of the eyes ibid, 
 — Divifion of ibid. 
 
 — Olfadory 231 
 
 — Optick ibid^ 
 
 — Its infer tion ibid. 
 
 — Thalamus of ibid. 
 
 — Pathetick 230 
 
 — Recurrent ibid. 
 
 — Spinal accefTory 234 
 — Vagus, or par vagum 
 
 231 
 Nevrology 229 
 
 Nymphae i 3 i 
 
 O. 
 
 OCciput 26 
 
 — ^Its mufcles 246 
 Occulus, the eye 193 
 — Its angles, or canthi 194 
 — Its bulb 196 
 
 ■ — Its double camera ibid. 
 — Its humors 198 
 
 — Its tunicks 196 
 
 — Its mufcles 248 
 
 — Its femilunar membrane 
 
 196 
 — Its arterial circle iq8 
 — Its nerves 199 
 
 Odoratus organum 209 
 GE>Tophagus 173 
 
 CEfophagus, its fituation 
 
 Omentum 92 
 
 ■ — Its natural aperture 92 
 Orbit of t lie eye 32 
 
 Os, bone, what 15 
 
 CEfo- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 5^3 
 
 Os, Bafilare 26 
 
 • — Bicorne 40 
 
 — Brachii 5 2 
 
 — -Coccygis, or caudae 46 
 — Cribriforme 27 
 
 ■ — cuboides 5 2 
 
 — Cuneiforme 7 1 
 
 — Ethmoides ibid, 
 
 — Its cavernulae ibid. 
 — -Frontis 22 
 
 —Humeri 52 
 
 — Hyoides 40 
 
 — Ifchium 49 
 
 — Occipitis 26 
 
 — -Orbiculare auditus 25 
 —Pubis 49 
 
 Sacrum 45 
 
 ' — Scaphoides 71 
 
 — Sphenoides 26 
 
 —Vomer 29--3 2 
 
 • — Ypfiloides 40 
 
 Offa bregmatis 32 
 
 — Of a foetus 150 
 
 — Innominata 49 
 
 —Their ligaments 51 
 — Their difference in 
 the two fex'es ^bid. 
 
 r— Jugalia 
 = — Lachrymalia 
 — Malae 
 — Maxillaria 
 — Nafi 
 — Palati 
 — Petrofa 
 *— Sefamoidea 
 — Where to 
 
 29-30 
 
 ibid. 
 
 ibid, 
 
 29 
 
 29-30 
 
 29-32 
 
 23 
 
 ■ 65 
 
 be found 
 
 66 
 
 Offa fincipitis 32 
 
 — Spongiofa fuperiora 29 
 
 -32 
 -— Squammofa 23 
 
 — Temporum ibid. 
 
 •-•-Thoracis 46 
 
 OflaTrunci 41 
 
 — Turbinata 3 i 
 
 — Their inequalities ibid. 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 ibid. 
 
 67 
 68 
 
 131 
 
 132 
 
 25 
 15 
 
 —Unguis 
 
 — Cavitates 
 
 — Differentiae 
 
 — Number 
 
 . — Junctures 
 
 Os uteri externum 
 
 — Internum 
 Officula auditus 
 Ofteology 
 
 Oftiola of the cervix uteri 
 
 132 
 Ovarium 137 
 
 Ovaries, yellow bodies in 
 
 — Their veiicleSi whether 
 
 true ova 131 
 
 — Hydatides of 139 
 
 Ovula of women 139 
 
 P. 
 
 Alate 205 
 Its clauftrum, or ve- 
 lum ibid, 
 Palpebrae, the eyelids 194 
 — Their tarii ibid. 
 Pancreas loS 
 ---Its du£l; ibid. 
 Pancreas Afellii 102 
 Panniculus carnofus 87 
 Papillae 153 
 Papillae of the skin, fee cu- 
 tis ibid, 
 Paraftatae 124 
 Parotides 200 
 Patella 61 
 — To what it adheres ibid. 
 Pes, the foot 63 
 — -Extremus ibid. 
 —-Back of ibid. 
 —Toes 46 
 Kk4 
 
5^4 
 
 I N D 
 
 Pedunculi cerebri 178 
 Pelvis 49 
 
 — Of the kidneys, fee 
 
 kidneys 
 Penis 125 
 
 —Its lateral ligaments 125 
 Pericranium 7 1 
 
 Pericardium 167 
 
 —Its liquor z^/t/. 
 
 —Its connexion with the 
 
 heart 167 
 
 — Whether it have glands 
 ibid. 
 Perichondrium 7 3 
 
 Periofteum 7 1 
 
 Peritonaeum 90 
 
 —Whether it have glands 
 
 91 
 
 Perone 62 
 
 Phalanges 6 3 
 
 Pharynx 173 
 
 Pia mater 182 
 
 Pilus, or hair 81 
 
 — Bulbs of ibid. 
 
 Pingucdo 85 
 
 Pinna auriculae, fee ear 
 Placenta 143 
 
 Planta pedis, fee foot 
 Platyfma myoides 350 
 Pleura 1 57 
 
 —-Whether it have any 
 glands 158 
 
 Plexus choroideus i 8 3 
 Plexus neivorum ibid, 
 Pollex ' 57 
 
 — Itsmufcles 280 
 
 Pomum Adami 10 
 
 Pons Varolii 184 
 
 Porta of the liver no 
 PrjECordia 16 
 
 Praepuce 126 
 
 —Its frsenulum ibid. 
 
 E X. 
 
 ProcefTes of bones 1 8 
 
 —Synonyms and ufes 16 
 ProcefTus anconeus 55 
 — Ciliaris 196 
 
 '— Condyloide and coro- 
 noide 33 
 
 — Coracoide 33 
 ---Of the dura mater 184 
 —-falciform 185 
 —-Mamillary 23 
 -— Of the peritonscum 90 
 
 —The annulus for its 
 
 paflage 90 
 
 --Vermiform of the brain 
 
 J 49 
 
 — Of the caecum 150 
 Prominentia annularis of 
 
 Willis 184 
 
 Proftata 1 24 
 
 Proftatae muliebres 1 30 
 
 Pterygoide apoph)'fis 26 
 
 Pubes 10 
 
 Pudendum muliebre 129 
 
 Pulmones, the lungs 161 
 
 — In a fcetus 150 
 Puncla lachrymalia 197 
 Pupilla 196 
 
 — Its fpbiucter 197 
 Pylorus 95 
 
 R. 
 
 Adiccs felleae 1 1 1 
 Radius 54 
 
 Receptacle of the chyle 
 
 105 
 —If any, of what nature 
 in human fubje6ls ibid, 
 Renes, the kidneys 114 
 —Their pelvis 115 
 
 — Whether glandular ib, 
 -—In a foetus's 150 
 
 — Succenturiati 1 1 6 
 
 6 Renes 
 
1 N 
 
 Renes in foetus's 150 
 
 —.Of what ufe ibid. 
 Rete 93 
 
 Rete mirablle 186 
 
 —In human fubje£ts ibid. 
 Rete vafculofum of the 
 
 lungs, feepulmo 
 Reticulum cutaneum^ 78 
 Retina tunica 196 
 
 — Whether the primary 
 
 organ of fight 197 
 
 Rima of the infundibulum 
 
 189 
 Rugae of the fmall guts, 
 
 fee inteftine 
 —Of the vagina 131 
 
 S. 
 
 SAccus fmgularis 226 
 Sacrum OS 194 
 
 Salival glands 200 
 
 —-Their d\i&s ibid, 
 
 — Cofchwitz's duel, a 
 
 vein ' 201 
 
 Sanguis, blood ibid. 
 
 — Its circulation in the 
 
 foetus 150 
 
 Sarcology 75 
 
 Scala tympani 214 
 
 Scapula ' 52 
 
 Sceleton 21 
 
 — Its divifion - 22 
 
 Sclerotica tunica, fee eye 
 Scrobiculus cordis, fee 
 
 heart 
 Scrotum 1 20 
 
 — Its future and feptum 
 
 ibid. 
 Septum of the heart, fee 
 
 cor 
 -—lucidum, fee brain 178 
 —-Of the noftrils . ■ Z^Sil 
 
 ^ E X. 50s. 
 
 Septum tranfverfum, fee 
 diaphragm * 
 
 — Of the fcrotum 120 
 
 Sinciput ' ' ' 22 
 
 Sinus's of the bones of the 
 head 26 
 
 -- Of the dura mater 
 
 180 
 
 — Of the bones of the 
 head 26 
 
 —Of the dura mater 1 80 
 
 ---Of the larynx, fee la- 
 rynx . ^ .. 
 
 — Of the vena portae, fee 
 vena portse 
 
 Sphindler of the anus, fee - 
 anus 
 
 —Of the gula, fee gula 
 
 —Of the pupil, fee eye 
 
 —Of the vagina 133 ^ 
 
 —Of the bladder, fee 
 bladder -' 
 
 Spina dorfi /^,:^-)C^(: 
 
 — Its divifion ibidi^ T?; ' 
 
 Splanchnology 75;- 
 
 Spleen 112. 
 
 Stapes, fee ear 
 
 Stenonian du6l 200 
 
 Sternun> r 48^ 
 
 Styloide apophyfis 26 
 
 Stomach 95"'i73 
 
 Sulci of the cutis, fee cu- 
 tis 
 
 Supercilia, eyebrows 196 
 
 Sutures of the fkull . 27 
 
 Suture of the fcrotum 120 
 
 Symphyfis 6q 
 
 Synatthrofis 70 
 
 Syjiiiervofis . ib^d, 
 
 Syfl^RCofis , • ' ibid, 
 
 ' S jiit^xis of of the bones ib, 
 
 : Syjitnefis 70 
 
 T. Tadusj 
 
5^6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 T. 
 
 TA(9;us, touch, organ 
 of 218 
 
 Talus 63 
 
 Tarfus ibid, 
 
 Tarfus of the eyelids 197 
 Teeth 33 
 
 Teguments, common of 
 the body 75 
 
 Tendon 1 2 
 
 — Achillis 63 
 Tefticles » 2 1 
 —Are not glands ibid, 
 —-Women's 131 
 Teftes of the brain, fee 
 
 brain 
 Tefticles, their fubftance, 
 what 121 
 
 — Their albugineous tu- 
 nic 132 
 Thalami of the optick 
 nerves, fee brain 178 
 Thoracick du6i: 103 
 Thorax 151 
 —Its vertebrae 46 
 —Its feveral parts 152 
 Thymus 158 
 
 — -Of what kind in the 
 
 foetus 150 
 
 -—Its cryflalline"' vefiels 
 
 158 
 
 Thyroide cartilage 164 
 Tibia 61 
 
 Tonfils 206 
 
 'lorcular of Herophilus 
 
 179 
 Tragus 214 
 
 Trochanter 51 
 
 Tubes Euftachian 214 
 --- Fallopian 139 
 
 —Their new corpus ca- 
 vernofum 139 
 
 Tubercle of Lower 172 
 -—Denied to exift ibid. 
 Tunica adnata, or albugi- 
 
 nea 196 
 
 — Arachnoides 178 
 
 -—Of the eye 196 
 
 -— Choroides 196 
 
 —Whether the organ of 
 
 fight^ ^ 197 
 
 — -Conjunctiva 196 
 
 — Cornea ibid, 
 
 — Of the inteftines 100 
 -—Ligamentous and cellu- 
 
 lous of the fpinal mar- 
 row 192 
 —Retina 196 
 —The primary organ of 
 vifion 126 
 
 — -Reticularis of the tongue 
 
 20/ 
 
 --Papillaris nervofa of the 
 
 tongue ibid. 
 
 — Villofa of the inteftines 
 
 100 
 —Uvea 196 
 
 Tympanum 215 
 
 —Its cavity ibid. 
 
 —-Its chord 216 
 
 —Its membrane ibid. 
 —-Foramen of 215 
 —Its fcala 216 
 
 V. 
 
 VAgina uteri 1 3 1 
 
 -—Its fphin£ter ibid. 
 Valve, large one of the 
 br?in 186 
 
 —-Of the colon 97 
 
 —Of the pyloris 95 
 
 --Semilunar of the tho- 
 racick duft, fee tho- 
 racick dudt 
 — Oi the lower trunk of 
 the cava, fee cava 
 
 Valve 
 
I N D 
 
 Vena, Retricularis of Eu- 
 
 ftachius, fee cava 
 — Remarkable in a foetus 
 
 150 
 
 — Conniventones of the 
 colon 97 
 — Jejunum ibid. 
 
 Valve, mitral and tricuf- 
 pidated of the heart, fee 
 heart 
 
 — Of the cyftick du<£l, 
 what, fee cyftick du6t 
 
 — Semilunar of the aorta, 
 
 fee aorta 
 — Of the lacleals and tho- 
 
 racick duct, feeth. du£t 
 —Of the veins 229 
 
 -—wanting in which ibid. 
 
 Vas deferens 
 
 126 
 
 —Of women 
 
 131 
 
 Vafa ladea 
 
 103 
 
 — Lymphatica 
 
 104 
 
 '— Adipofa 
 
 85 
 
 — Chylifera 
 
 1^3 
 
 — La6tea 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Phrenia 
 
 160 
 
 -— Umbilicalla 
 
 150 
 
 Velum palati 
 
 205 
 
 Veins 
 
 295 
 
 —Three primary ones ib. 
 
 —Their flrud^ure 
 
 ibid. 
 
 Vena axillaris 
 
 226 
 
 — Azygos 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — -Bafilica 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — -Bronchialis 
 
 ibid. 
 
 — Cava 
 
 225 
 
 — Cephalica 
 
 226 
 
 — Coronaria of th( 
 
 I fto-. 
 
 mach 
 
 227 
 
 — Cruralis 
 
 228 
 
 -— Diaphragmatica 
 
 227 
 
 -—Duodena 
 
 ibid. 
 
 -»'Epigaftrlca 
 
 ibid. 
 
 E X. 
 
 — -Epiploica 
 
 — -Gaftrica 
 
 — Gaftrico-epiploica 
 
 — Hsemorrhoidalis 
 
 rior 
 ---Interior 
 -— Hepatica 
 Vena Hypogaftrica 
 — Jt-igularis 
 — iVlammiria 
 — Mediaftina 
 — Mediana 
 ---Mufcularis 
 ---Pancreatica 
 — -Poplitaea 
 ---Portae 
 —-Its branches 
 -—Has no valves 
 — Pudenda 
 — -Pulmonalis 
 — Has no valves 
 — Sacra 
 — Salvatclla 
 — Saphaena 
 
 — -Spermatica 
 
 — Splenica 
 
 — Subclavia 
 
 — Suralis 
 
 — Vertebral is 
 
 Vens adipofae 
 
 — Atrabilariae 
 
 — Cerebri 
 
 — Coronariae cordis 
 
 — Cyfticae 
 
 — Diaphragmaticae 
 ores 
 
 ■ — Hcpaticae 
 
 — Iliacse 
 
 — Intercoflales 
 
 — Jugularis interna 
 
 • — Its faccus 
 
 — Lumbares 
 
 — Mefaraicae 
 
 5^7 
 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 exte- 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 226 
 
 7.2J 
 226 
 
 ibid. 
 
 227 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 
 228 
 ibid, 
 
 zz^ 
 
 ibid, 
 ibid, 
 
 227 
 
 226 
 
 ibid. 
 
 228 
 
 226 
 
 227 
 
 ibid. 
 
 ibid. 
 
 227 
 
 228 
 226 
 
 ibid. 
 
 ibid, 
 
 227 
 
 226 
 
 228 
 
 inferi- 
 
 ibid. 
 
 ibid. 
 227 
 
 ibid. 
 
 ibid. 
 
 ibid. 
 228 
 
 ibid. 
 Veins 
 
5o8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 -^Mufcularcs 
 — CEfophagae 
 -— Pancreaticae 
 — Raninae 
 — Renales 
 
 227 
 ibid, 
 ibid. 
 228 
 226 
 
 Vena fcapularis 228 
 
 —Triangulares, or fi nus*s 
 
 226 
 — ^Vertebrales ibid. 
 
 Veins of the heart, their 
 orifices ibid. 
 
 Ventricles of the brain 179 
 — Of the heart, fee heart 
 —Of the larynx, fee la- 
 rynx 
 Ventriculus of the ftomach 
 
 95 
 — Its fle(hy fibres 96 
 
 —Its villofe coat ibid. 
 Vermiform appendix 97 
 Vertebrae 4 c 
 
 —Of the back 43 
 
 —Of the neck 42 
 
 —Of the loins 44 
 
 Vefica, the bladder 1 1 7 
 • — Its mufcles 118 
 
 — Its cellulofe coat 1 1 8 
 —Its ftate in the fcetus 
 
 150 
 Veficula fellea 1 1 1 
 
 Veficulae of the neck of 
 the uterus .'31 
 
 Seminales 130 
 
 —Of women 131 
 
 —Their duds into the 
 urethra ibid. 
 
 Veftibulum of the laby- 
 rinth 214 
 VibrifTa 211 
 Vifus, fight, its primary 
 organ 198 
 
 Vitreous humor of the eye 
 
 199 
 Ulna 5 4 
 
 Umbilicus 89 
 
 Umbilical vefTels 146 
 
 — Arteries, how long hol- 
 low ibid. 
 
 Umbilical! s funiculus ibid. 
 
 Unguis 84 
 
 Vola of the hand 56 
 Vomer 29—32 
 
 Urachus 14b 
 
 Ureters 1 1 5 
 
 Urethra 127 
 
 ---Its bulb in men ibid, 
 
 —Its extremity ibid, 
 
 —Of women 131 
 
 Uterus 134 
 
 —-Its OS externum 134 
 
 —-Its OS internum ibid. 
 
 —-Its ligaments ibid, 
 
 — The corpufcula glo- 
 bofa of its neck 1 35 
 
 -—Its thicknefs in preg- 
 tiancy 135 
 
 —Its new orbicular mufcle 
 ibid. 
 Uva, or uvula 205 
 
 Vulva cerebri, fee brain 
 
 X. 
 
 Xiphoide cartilage 48 
 
 Y. 
 
 Ypriloide,or upfiloide bone 
 
 40 
 Z. 
 
 ZOnae fonorae of Val- 
 falva 217 
 
 Zootamy i 
 
 Zygomatick procefs 23. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
BOOKS printed for John Whiston and 
 Benjamin White, at Mn Boyle s Head 
 in Fleet'ftreet, 
 
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