Institute of International Education International Relations Clubs Syllabus No. X #| ?;■ ^T> ;v ■'■' ’ .’■ V" : The Baltic States By Mary E. Townsend, Ph.D. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City September, 1921 The Institute of International Education 419 West 117th Street, New York Stephen P. Duggan, Ph.D. DIRECTOR Mary L. Waite EXECUTIVE SECRETARY Telephone: Morningside 8491 Cable Address: “Intered ADMINISTRATIVE BOARD Herman V. Ames L. H. Baekeland Marion LeRoy Burton Nicholas Murray Butler Stephen Pierce Duggan Dr. Walter B. James Alice DuenMiller Europe Far East Latin America Scholarships and Fellowships International Relations Clubs Paul Monroe . John Bassett Moore Henry Morgenthau Dwight W. Morrow E. H. Outerbridge Henry S. Pritchett Mary E. Woolley Stephen P. Duggan Paul Monroe Peter H. Goldsmith Virginia Newcomb Margaret C. Alexander BUREAU DIVISIONS Institute of International Education International Relations Clubs Syllabus No. X The Baltic States By Mary E. Townsend, Ph.D. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City September, 1921 PREFACE The following syllabus will doubtless appear to be more detailed than general, to contain more facts than suggestions, thus, perhaps, failing to fulfil the purpose of a study outline. The defect, however, is largely due to the great scarcity of material in English about the Baltic States as well as to the inaccessibility of whatever there is. The author has therefore been forced to incorporate much in the outline to which it is impossible to refer the students. The nature of the Baltic States as subject provinces until the twentieth century naturally explains the dearth of books about them. Their history, with the possible exception of Finland and Lithuania, must be disentangled from that of their powerful neigh¬ bors. Moreover, the recent rapid nationalist movements in the Baltic States have allowed no time for the writing of adequate and substantial accounts. For the most part, whatever exists about them consists of propaganda, speculative and ephemeral magazine articles. An attempt has been made to select the more stable of the latter as well as to base the tracing of recent events upon the documents, some of which are easily accessible. Besides the periodicals already mentioned, the student may find useful the files of The Nation (New York) and The Living Age. New York , March 15, 1921 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2019 with funding from Columbia University Libraries https://archive.org/details/balticstatesOOtown BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexinsky, Greg., Russia and the Great War, New York, 1915 Bigelow, P., The Borderland of Tsar and Kaiser, New York, 1894 Butler, R., The New Eastern Europe, London, 1919 Caro, J., Esthonia, Her claims to Independence, published by the Anglo-Esthonian Bureau, London, September, 1918 Contempory Review Drage, Geof., Russian Affairs, London, 1904 Eastlake, E., Letters from The Baltic, London, 1842, (old, but useful for descrip¬ tion) Fisher, J. R., Finland and the Tsars, London, 1900 Fredericksen, N. C., Finland: Its Public and Private Economy, London, 1902 Gabrys, J., Lithuania and the Autonomy of Poland, published by the Lithuanian Information Bureau, Paris, 1915 Hale, Robert, Report of the Mission to the Baltic Provinces, Finland, Esthonia Handbooks, published by the British Foreign Office, Historical Section, nos. 44, 47, 48, 50, Lithuania, Finland, Aland Islands, Esthonia, Courland, Livonia, London, 1920 Hayes, C. H. J., A Political and Social History of Modern Europe, New York, 1916 -, A Brief History of The Great War, New York, 1920 Hill, N., Poland and the Polish Question, London, 1915 Howe, Sonia, A Thousand Years of Russian History, London, 1915 Jusaitis, K. A., The History of the Lithuanian Nation, published by the Lithuanian Catholic Truth Society, 1919 Kennard, H. P., The Russian Year Book, 1914 Larson, L., Territorial Problems of the Baltic Basin, University of Illinois, Bulletin, vol. 16, no. 18, December, 1918 Memorandum on Latvia, Addressed to the Peace Conference by the Lettish Delegation, 1919 Milner, Thos., The Baltic, Its Gates, Shores and Cities, London, 1854, (old, but useful for description) Norman, H., All the Russias, New York, 1902 Norus and Zilius, Lithuania's Case for Independence, Washington, 1918, issued by the Lithuanian National Council in the United States New Europe, The Orvis, Julia, A Brief History of Poland, Boston, 1916 Phillips, A., Poland, New York. Rambeau, Alfred, A History of Russia, London, 1879, second edition Republic of Finland, An Economic and Financial Survey, Helsingfors, 1920, published by the Central Statistical Bureau Reade, A., Finland and The Fins, New York, 1917 Renwick, G., Finland Today, London, 1911 Russian Baedeker, 1914 Socialist Library, The Revolution in the Baltic States , extra vol. no. i, edited by Ramsay MacDonald, London, 1907 Stoddard and Frank, The Stakes of the War, New York, 1918 Szlupas, John, Lithuania in Prospect and Retrospect, published by the Lithuanian Press Association of America Times Current History Magazine Wolf, Baron von Osten-Lacken, The Legal Position of Finland in the Russian Empire, London, 1912 Young, E., Finland, The Land of 1000 Lakes, London, 1912 Pamphlets on Lithuania may be obtained from The Lithuanian National Council, Washington, D. C. I INTERNATIONAL ASPECT A. Geography 1. Position of Baltic Sea in relation to its economic and political importance to world 2. Position of Baltic States in regard to control of Baltic Sea by Russia Germany Scandinavia 3. Position of Baltic States in regard to their political, strategic and economic importance to neighboring Great Powers a. To Russia Finland and Aland Islands vital to safety and westward expansion Esthonia, Latvia (Livonia and Courland) necessary as “Windows on Baltic,” essential for sea-power and for transit area Lithuania indispensable for defense and existence as Great Power, valuable for agriculture b. To Germany Finland, Latvia (Courland, Livonia) advantageous to powerful hold upon Russia, desirable for emigration and economic exploitation Lithuania, as independent or annexed, helpful to eastward expansion, to agricultural and industrial dominance c. To Sweden and Norway Finland and Aland Islands a menace if Russified d. To Poland Lithuania desirable for strength and economic exploitation Readings: Encyclopedia Britannica (nth edition, article on Baltic Sea by W. C. B.) Hernshaw, F., Nineteenth Century Magazine , vol. 79, 793 Larson, L., Territorial Problems of the Baltic Basin , Univ. of Illinois, Bulletin, vol. 16, no. 18 Stoddard and Frank, The Stakes of the War , 55-58, 70-72, 114-115, See maps in Shepherd’s Atlas and Muir’s Atlas B. History The international struggle for control of Baltic Provinces and Baltic Sea, which have never passed under the exclusive control of any one state 1. Danish conquest in the nth century: at height in 12th century 2. Germanic invasions, 1227-1348 Knights of the Sword, the Hansards, Teutonic Knights; their motives; degree of colonization and settlement [ 7 ] 3. The hegemony of Poland, 1410-1621. Poland a Baltic power 4. The Baltic a Swedish lake in the 17th century Finland conquered in 12th century Work of Gustavus Adolphus. Conquest of Karelia, Ingria, Esthonia, Livonia The imperialism of Charles XII 5. The great Northern War; the crucial conflict, 1699-1721 Coalition against Charles XII, of Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony Plans of distribution for the Baltic provinces Battles of Narva, Poltava, and final defeat of Charles XII Treaty of Nystadt and collapse of Swedish hegemony in the Baltic, 1721 6. The growth of Russia as a Baltic power, 1721-1815 Russia supplants Sweden in the Baltic Incorporation of Esthonia, Livonia and southern strip of Finland with Fortress of Viborg into Russia, 1721 Annexation of Finland, 1809 7. The Baltic “balance of power” since 1815 The two old powers, Denmark, Sweden The two new powers, Russia, Germany 8. The Baltic question in the Great War The control of the Baltic a stake of the war The “balance of power” disturbed The new interests involved, Great Britain and France The effect of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk; the “balance of power” in favor of Germany 9. The effect of the armistice and peace settlement The rise of the independent republics The menace of Bolshevist control The uncertainty of Russia’s position The question of supremacy in the Baltic still undecided Readings: Bigelow, P., The Borderland of Tsar and Kaiser Drage, J., Russian Affairs , 355-363 Hayes, C. H. J., A Political and Social History of Modern Europe , vol. 1, 361, 374, 376, 378, 381-82, 387-88, 540 Hill, N., Poland and the Polish Question, (Lithuania) 23, 29, 87, 125, 163, 318 Howe, Sonia, A Thousand Years of Russian History, chs. 21, 24, 26 Orvis, J., A Brief History of Poland Phillips, A., Poland, 30, 32, 38, 44, 62, 114, 117 Rambeau, A., History of Russia, vol. 1, 146, et seq., 192, 240; vol. 2, ch. 1 Note: This section is intended to give the student merely a general survey of the relation of the Baltic States to neighboring powers. Histories of Russia, Sweden, Poland may be employed, using index in each case [ 8 ] II NATIONAL ASPECT A. Nationalist and anti-nationalist elements I. Finland a. Geography Area, approximately 125,689 sq. miles Topography, a plateau recently emerged from glacial period Climate, like Arctic Russia O o Islands, numerous, Aland group, extent, position, Abo Archipelago Lakes, many and important Rivers, small and few Ports, numerous. Helsingfors, Hango, Abo, Vasa, etc., icebound b. Economic conditions Industries Agriculture, difficult Products, cereals, dairy products, livestock, flax, hemp Methods, advanced Land tenure, movement to break up large estates; many small holdings Forestry; abundant resources Fisheries; abundant resources but undeveloped Manufactures; recent growth Centers, few; Helsingfors, Abo, Tammerfors Products; wood, paper, textiles, metals Power; electric from lakes and waterfalls Railroads; 2,553 sc b miles, almost all owned by state Commerce; rapidly increasing Natural outlet from Russia Foreign interests; British, German Readings: / Central Statistical Bureau, The Republic of Finland, containing maps, charts, pictures, statistics Fisher, J. R., Finland and the Tsars, ch. 1 Fredericksen, N. C., Finland: Its Public and Private Economy, chs. 3-9 Handbooks, published by Historical Section of British Foreign Office, no. 47, 1-7, 65-116, no. 48, (Aland Islands.) Kennard, H. P., Russian Year Book, 1912-1915 Norman, H., All the Russias, chs. 4, 5 Reade, A., Finland and the Finns, chs. 5, 10, 13 Renwick, G., Finland Today, chs. 1-7 Russian Baedeker, 1914, 198 c. Political history until end of 19th century Tradition of independence No historical records before 1157 [ 9 ] Swedish conquest, 1157-1809 Finland a Swedish province, no subjugation Grand Duchy under Sweden 1581 A Swedish territory with no constitutional individuality, represented in Swedish Diet Rapid development under Charles XI, 1660-1697 Great Northern War, loss of Karelia and Viborg to Russia by Treaty of Nystadt, 1721 Swedish Charters of Liberty, 1770, 1789 The Fundamental Laws, basis of Finland’s Constitution Russian conquest, 1809 Finland and Aland Islands to Russia Constitution assured by Alexander I. Alexander’s Manifesto of 1810 at Diet of Borgo The “legal dilemma” of Finland—a constitutional unit in a mon- archial state Character of Finnish autonomy Unrestricted in local affairs Subject to Russia in foreign affairs Rules of Alexander I; Nicholas I Finland peaceful and contented under rule of Governor General and Constitution Rule of Alexander II First meeting of Diet since 1809 in 1863 The Constitution of 1863 Form of govern nent established; Estates, Senate, Governor General, Secretary of State < Finland under its own Constitution until 1899 Readings: Fischer, chs. 2-10 Fredericksen, ch. 11 Handbook , no. 47, 10-30 Reade, chs. 1, 16 Renwick, ch. 14 to p. 316 Russian Baedeker , 1914, 200-207 Wolf, Baron von Osten Lacken, The Legal Position of the Grand Duchy of Fin¬ land in the Russian Empire Young, E., Finland the Land of 1000 Lakes , chs. 8, 10 d. Races and classes; races cut lengthwise and classes cut crosswise Finns , ethnic origin, Mongolian; Tavastians in West, Karelians in East, 90 per cent of population; form peasantry in country, work¬ men in towns Aliens , Swedes in West, Southwest, on coast and in Aland Islands; form old landed aristocracy, merchants in towns and sailors Lapps Russians Readings: Handbook , no. 47, 7, no. 48 (Aland Islands) Fredericksen, ch. 1, 2, 3 Reade, ch. 3 Renwick, ch. 10 Young, ch. 9 e. Culture and Religion Language Swedish, official language until 1863 Finnish, spoken by majority of Finns, the most highly developed Finno-Ungrian tongue Literature Literary language established in 16th century. National revival in 1835, edition of Kalevala by Lonnrot called the “fifth national epic of the world” Education Free, compulsory, admirably organized, 96 per cent literate. University of Helsingfors Readings: Fischer, ch. 1 Handbook , no. 47, 62-63 Reade, chs. 8-10 Renwick, chs. 11-13 Russian Baedeker , 1914, 199 Young, chs. 13-16 2. Esthonia a. Geography Area; includes Esthonia and North Livonia, approximately 23,160 sq. miles Topography; low marshes and sandy plains Climate; severe though temperate on coast, moist, cloudy Islands; Dago, Wormso, in Moon Sound Rivers; Dwina Coasts; on Gulf of Finland and Baltic Sea Ports; Reval, Kunda, on Gulf of Finland, icebound b. Economic conditions Industries Agriculture predominant though difficult Products; cereals, livestock Methods; scientific Land tenure; many great estates Peasant proprietorship not gained until 1863. Some peasant proprietors Forestry; slight, resources abundant Manufactures; recent growth, only slightly developed Centers; Reval, Narva, Dorpat In] Products; wood-pulp, vegetable oils, leather, textiles, flour Railways; inadequate Commerce; small Imports; manufactured goods Exports; timber, corn, flax, etc. Transit area to German hinterland Foreign interests; British Readings: Handbook, no. 50, 1-12, 31-77 Eastlake, Letters from the Baltic (old) ch. 6 Milner, T., The Baltic, Its Gates, Shores and Cities Russian Baedeker, 1914, 32 Stoddard and Frank, 67 Scandinavian Review, December 1920 c. Political history until close of 19th century Historical tradition; subjugation and a continual struggle against oppression German invasion in 12th century German and Danish conquest complete in 1228 Teutonic Order Supreme, 1346 Reformation, 1552 Russian invasion under Ivan the Terrible, 1558-1562 Swedish conquest, 1660 Prosperity Russian conquest, Great Northern War and Treaty of Nystadt, 1721 Esthonia a Russian province throughout 19th century Government; Governor appointed by Tsar Diet composed of landed proprietors Old code of civil law preserved Readings: Handbook, no. 50, 14-25 Milner, ch. 6 Russian Baedeker, 1914, 31-32 Stoddard and Frank, 65-67 d. Races and classes Races cut Esthonia lengthwise and classes cut crosswise Esths, ethnic origin, Finno-Ungrian family, Ural-Altaic branch Peasants in country; serfdom abolished 1803 but many remained bound to soil and service until 1845 Workmen in towns 95 per cent of population Aliens, Germans or Balts, the ruling class in town and country; lost feudal privileges in 1803 but dominant until 1881; possessed exten¬ sive rights of self-government in local Landtags; 2 per cent of popu- . lation Russians, officials, few Jews, small merchants, few Swedes, few e. Culture and Religion Language and Literature Rich folk-lore Literature the product of last two generations Newspapers and journals Education “Golden Age” under Sweden Popular schools and colleges University of Dorpat founded 1662 High intelligence amoiig peasantry Religion; Lutheran Toleration granted by Russia, renewed 1874 Russification of press, language, education, religion after 1881 Survival of native culture by means of art, music, drama, clubs Persistence of Lutheranism Readings: Handbook, no. 50, 8-12, 28-30 Eastlake, Letters from the Baltic Milner, The Baltic, etc. • Russian Baedeker, 1914, 32 Stoddard and Frank, 68 3. Livonia and Courland (Latvia or Lettland since November 13, 1918) a. Geography Area; includes South Livonia, Courland, Latgale Topography; plateau and undulating plain, sandy and fertile Climate; temperate, moist, cloudy Coasts; on Baltic Sea Islands; Osel, Moon, Runo Rivers; Dwina, Windau, Courland, Aa. Ports; Riga, icebound. Libau, Windau, ice-free b. Economic conditions Industries Agriculture predominant Products; cereals, livestock Land tenure; many large estates, peasant ownership not gained until 1863. Few peasant holdings Forestry; extensive resources Fisheries; numerous Mining; neither extensive nor valuable: lignite, chalk, amber Manufactures; recent growth Centers; Riga, Pernau, Mitau Products; vegetable oils, wood-pulp, paper, flour, textiles, leather Railways; inadequate Commerce; recent expansion Foreign interests; British, German A transit area, opportunity for exploitation Readings: Eastlake, Letters from the Baltic Handbook , no. 50, 31-79 Milner, The Baltic , etc. Stoddard and Frank, 67 c. Political history Historical tradition, subjugation, constant struggle against oppression German invasion in 12th century Teutonic Order supreme in Riga, 1330 Teutonic Order at height, 1494-1535 Reformation, 1552 Russian invasion under Ivan the Terrible, 1558-1561 Livonia ceded to Poland, 1561 Courland ceded as a co-vassal duchy of Lithuania to Kettler Great prosperity and industry Livonia conquered by Sweden, 1621 Time of prosperity Great Northern War; Livonia ceded to Russia byTreaty of Nystadt, 1721 Courland annexed to Russia, 1795 Livonia and Courland as Russian provinces throughout 19th century Government, same as Esthonia Readings: Handbook , no. 50, 13-25 Memorandum of Latvia to Peace Conference, 7-8 Russian Baedeker, 1914, 33 d. Races and classes Races cut lengthwise and classes cut crosswise Ancient Cours and Livs, present survivals Letts, ethnic origin, Indo-European, Baltic group; related to Letts in Lithuania; form peasants in country (serfdom abolished 1819), and workmen in towns; form 75 per cent of population Aliens, Germans or Balts, upper class in town and country, owners of big estates; rights of self-government in local Landtags until 1881; form 10 per cent of population Russians, officials, 7 per cent of population Jews, small merchants e. Culture and Religion Language and Literature Rich, original literature Periodicals, journals, 59 before war Books, 827 published 1912 Education No illiterates 98 Secondary schools before war 670 Societies working for education before war Dramatic art, fine arts, music Readings: Eastlake, Letters from the Baltic Handbook , no. 50, 8-12, 28-30 Milner, The Baltic Memorandum to Peace Conference, 5-6 Stoddard, Frank, 68-69 Contemporary Review, Lees F., Aug. 1918, vol. 112, 178 4. Lithuania a. Geography Area; frontiers not yet defined, contain districts of Vilna, Kovno, Suwalki, approximately 36,000 sq. miles. Present Lithuanian gov¬ ernment claims East Prussia, Grodno, part of Courland Topography; a plateau in west; a plain, the Pripet marshes, in east Climate; temperate Towns; Vilna, Grodno, Bialystock, Minsk Rivers; Dwina and Niemen, draining to Baltic Sea, Dnieper to Black Sea Port; Memel b. Economic conditions Industries Agriculture, predominant Products; cereals, livestock Methods; antiquated before war Land tenure; Ukase 1861, Land law 1906. Large estates and many peasant holdings Forestry; resources abundant; undeveloped Mining; no resources Fisheries; abundant resources, undeveloped Manufactures; very few Breweries, flour mills, tanneries, paper mills. Little use made of national products Centers; Vilna, Grodno, Bialystock Commerce; no trading centers before war Exports, considerable Timber; cereals, horses, dairy products Imports: few, manufactured articles Foreign interest; German Readings: Handbook, 44, 12-19, 104-140 Norus and Zilius, Lithuania’s Case for Independence (Issued by Lithuanian Council in United States) 47-53 c. Political history Tradition of independence No political organization before 10th century Invasion of Teutonic Knights and Knights of the Sword [15] Result: formation of a monarchic state Lithuania at height of greatness, I3th-I4th centuries Vast extent of territory, Baltic to Black Sea Services claimed to have rendered civilization Deliverance of Russia from Mongols Stemming advance of Teutonic Knights into east Union with Poland, 1366 Separatist tendencies Necessity for many Acts of Union Union of Lublin, 1569 Attempt of Poland to absorb Lithuania Annexation by Russia, 1772, 1793, 1795 Period of Russian oppression, 1815-1905 Promise of constitutional government in Treaty of Vienna Tsar’s title, Grand Duke of Lithuania Rule of Alexander I, liberal Rule of Nicholas I Rising of 1830 Lithuania destroyed politically Rule of Alexander II Revolt of 1863 Exclusion of Lithuania from Zemstvo system of 1864 Rule of Alexander III Extreme Russification Readings: Gabrys, Z., Lithuania and the Autonomy of Poland, published by the Lithuanian Information Bureau, Paris, 1915 Handbook, no. 44, 41-47 Norus and Zilius, 9-20 Phillips, A., Poland, 28-42 et seq. Szlupas, Z., Lithuania in Restrospect and Prospect, published by Lith. Press Assoc, of America Jusaitis, K., History of the Lithuanian Nation, published by Lith. Cath. Truth Society, chs. 1-5 Times Current History Magazine, vol. 7, pt. 2, 501 (maps of early greatness) d. Races and classes Races cut lengthwise and classes crosswise Letts, ethnic origin, an Indo-European race, majority of population, oppressed peasantry in country and workmen in towns Aliens, Poles, dominant economically Land owners and upper class in towns Germans, in towns, prominent in industry Russians, officials, few Jews, small merchants, numerous Readings: Handbook, no. 44, 19-24 Norus and Zilius, 7 Szlupas, 12-15 [16] e. Culture and religion Language and literature A distinct language belonging to Indo-European division, resembling the ancient Sanscrit, oldest Indo-European tongue Current literature rich in song and story, folk-lore Rise of Lithuanian literature in 16th century Dauksha, translator of Bible Donelaitis, poet Shirvydas, the lexicographer Polonization of literature Russification of literature Prohibition of Lithuanian press, 1864 Prohibition of Latin script, 1864 The new national movement, 1883 Work of the Lithuanian Catholic clergy Publication of Auszra or Dawn in Prussia Press ban lifted by Russia in 1904 Period of unusual activity Education, predominately Polish No Lithuanian intelligensia until very recently Work of Catholic clergy to preserve Lithuanian learning Religion, Roman Catholic Conflict with orthodox Church Readings: Handbook, no. 44, 19-24 Jusaitis, ch. 6 Lees, G., Contemporary Review, vol. 114, 151 Norus and Zilius, 7, 55-62 B. Recent nationalist and democratic movements 1. Finland, the leader of revolt a. Against Sweden Causes The assertion of Finnish nationalism The waning of Swedish culture, political and economic power The influence of the industrial revolution Beginnings Rise of Fennoman movement, the cultural, political and economic Finnish renascence in middle of nineteenth century Formation of parties Svecoman, conservative, anti-Russian and pro-Swede Old Finn, liberal, bourgeois, anti-Swede and pro-Russian Young Finn, bourgeois, liberal and radical, the intelligensia, anti- Russian and anti-Swede, “Finland for the Finns” Result The triumph of the Finns and growth in power of middle and in¬ tellectual class, 1869-1898 Rapid social and national development [17] b. Against Russia Cause Russia’s infringement of Finland’s constitutional rights Beginnings Russification under Nicholas II Conscription imposed 1898 Dictator, Bobrikoff, appointed, 1898 Abrogation of Constitution, 1899 General Pan-Slavist policy against language, press, education, religion Results Passive resistance, 1899-1904 Assassination Bobrikoff, 1904 Rise of cooperative movement Formation of Fennoman Socialist Party at Congress of Abo, 1899 Nucleus, group of trade unions formed 1890 Marxist basis Political organization complete, 1903 Membership, 45,000 in 1905 Effect of Russian revolution, 1905 Socialists in charge, general strike Capitulation of Russian government Manifesto of 1908 Reform of Diet Growth of socialism and consequent alarm of Svecoman bourgeoisie Rising of “Reds” at Sveaborg, 1906 Renewal of Russification, 1908 Finland under Russian Council Ministers Destruction of constitution, 1910 Law of Rights of Russians in Finland, 1910 Effect of the Great War, 1914 Political Extension of program of Russification, 1914 No promise of autonomy Growth of Socialist Party Opposition to capitalist War Social and economic Great industrial prosperity Agriculture neglected for industry Increase of proletariat in towns Growth of Socialist Party Readings: Butler, R., The New Eastern Europe , 7-17 Fisher, chs. 9-16 Fredericksen, ch. 11 Handbook , no. 47, 20-41 Reade, chs. 2, 17, (pp. 289-305), 18 Ren wick, 316-332* Young, chs. 8 (pp. 147-152), 10, 18 [18] Effect of Russian Revolution, March, 1917 Political Restoration of Finland’s constitution by Russian Provisional Govern¬ ment, March 20, 1917 The new Diet, April, 1917 The constitution Democratic legislation Growth of Socialist Party Forms 80 per cent, of Diet in April “Red” risings at Viborg and Helsingfors Split in party, “Reds,” Moderates Disinclination for autonomy Alarm of bourgeois parties Intrigues with Russians and Germans Desire for autonomy to cut connections with Bolshevist Russia Coalition outnumbers Socialist majority in Diet, autumn of 1917 Social and economic Intensification of internal difficulties Shortage of food supply Growth of socialism Effect of Bolshevist coup d’etat, November 1917 Declaration of Finland’s independence by Moderates, November 15, 1917 Adopted by Diet, December 7 Recognized by Russian Bolsheviki, January 4, 1918, by Scandinavian countries, France, Germany Outbreak of civil war and war for independence, January 29, 1918 Immediate cause Pro-German leaning of bourgeois parties Intrigues with Russians and Germans Moderate Socialists thrown into sympathy with Bolshevik “Reds,” strengthened by Russian “Reds” Lack of food and social disorders The horrors of the war The “White Terror” The “Red Terror” The Finnish Social Republic of Workmen Treaty of amity with Russian Federated Soviet Republic, March 1,1919 Treaty of Peace with Germany, March 7, 1918. Germany recognized Finland’s independence Effect of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk German influence strengthened Complete victory of “Whites” under Mannerheim, aided by Germans and Russians The non-intervention of Sweden Germans depose Mannerheim and assume charge of the Finnish armies, June, 1918 Crown offered to German prince [ 19] Effect of Armistice and peace settlement Decline of German influence Election of Mannerheim as Regent, conservative candidate Election of Stalberg, moderate liberal, Swedish-Finn, elected by Liberals and Socialists Recognition of Finland as an independent Republic by Great Britain and the United States, May 6, 7, 1919 Treaty with Soviet Government, December 26, 1920 Boundaries settled and independence recognized with no conditions Readings: Alexinsky, Greg., Russia and The Great War , 216-220 Butler, 17-20 Contemporary Review , Wright, H., vol. 113, 447, Reuter, J., vol. 115, 511 Handbook , no. 47, 47-61 Hayes, C. H. J., A Brief History of the Great War, 230, 237, 251, 255, 259, 290, 300, 334, 335, 359, 392, 397, 402 Times Current History Magazine , Text Treaty, Germany and Finland, vol. 8, pt. 1, 438 Text Treaty, Finland and Russian Government, vol. 13, pt. 2, 472 Saas, A., vol. 11, pt. 2, 104 2. Esthonia Beginnings Causes Centuries of German rule until middle of 19th century Political, diets in control of Balt barons Economic, agrarian dominance of Balts in spite of emancipation and land laws. Social and cultural, complete dominance of Germans Rise of Esthonian national spirit Influence of industrial revolution Russification after 1881 Political, Russian bureaucracy instead of Balt barons Social and cultural, displacement of German language, religion, edu¬ cation by Russian Results Precipitation of national and social movements Rise of Young Balt party to preserve German Kultur Rise of Young Esthonian party Aims The overthrow of Balt land monopoly and oligarchy Autonomy in Russian state, under democratic institutions Methods Formation of cooperative societies Intellectual development Effect of Russian Revolution of 1905 Rise of Socialist Party Formed from industrial and agricultural workers [20] Suppression of nationalist and socialist movement by Russia with assistance of German Balts Effect of the Great War Nationalist Socialists side with Russia against Germany Russia encourages nationalism against Germans Effect of Russian Revolution March, 1917 Right to elect Esthonian National Council, on basis of universal suffrage, granted by Provisional Russian Government, April 13, 1917 First National Esthonian Assembly, July 14, 1917 Provisional government established Declaration for a national democratic organization, local autonomy, federation with Russia Effect of Bolshevik coup d’etat, November, 1917 Declaration of Provisional Government, November 28, 1917 Bolshevik invasion of Esthonia Appeal of German Balts to Germany for aid Strong opposition of Esthonians Establishment of German military rule Protest of Esthonians, February 4, 1918 Counter-establishment of Esthonian Democratic Government under C. Paets, February 24 Effect of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk German military occupation until November, 1918: Esthonia a “second Belgium” Continuance of Esthonian government Protests against German rule, March 21, April 13 Recognition of the de facto Esthonian government by France, May, 1918 Encouragement from Great Britain Effect of armistice and peace settlement Emergence of Esthonian Provisional Government at Reval under C. Paets Terms providing for German troops remaining as guard against Bolshe- viki Retreat of “Teutonism by back door and invasion of Bolshevism by front door” Renewed struggle with Bolshevism Brave fight of Esthonians Aid from Great Britain and Finland Bolshevism expelled, February 1, 1919 Esthonian Constituent Assembly elected April, 1919 Formation of democratic government with Strandman, Prime Minister Esthonian government presents case to Peace Conference Attitude of Allies, caution Final negotiations with Bolsheviki August—December 1919 Peace of Dorpat, 1920 Russia grants complete independence Esthonia grants free economic access to sea (21 ] Recognition of Esthonia by Allied Governments, except United States, January 27, 1921 Attitude of United States Readings: Alexinsky, Greg., 208-211 Butler, 21-23 Caro, Z., Esthonia, Her Claims to Independence , published by Anglo-Esthonian Bureau, September, 1918 Hale, Robert, The Baltic Provinces Report of the Mission to Finland, Esthonia, Latvia, Lithuania (Presented by Mr. Lodge), 1919 Handbook, no. 50, 23-27 Hayes, Brief History of the War, 238, 255, 334, 341, 359, 397, 402 Laaman, E., Contemporary Review, vol. 117, 696 Morrison, S., The New Europe, vol. 12, 200 Piip, A., Contemporary Review, vol. 114, 242 * -, The New Europe, vol. 15, 6 3. Latvia or Lettland Character of movement, similar to one in Esthonia but more violent and intense because of closer proximity to Germany and closer relation¬ ship with Russian Socialists The beginnings Causes German domination for centuries Political, control of local diets by Balt barons Economic, agrarian supremacy of Balts Social and cultural, complete German domination Influence of industrial revolution at close of nineteenth century Russification after 1881 Political, Russian bureaucracy instead of German Balts Social and cultural, Russian language, religion, education instead of German Kultur Results Precipitation of national and social movements National renascence 1840 Rise of land holding peasantry 1863-1870 Rise of Lettish nationalist bourgeoisie in town and country Rise of Lettish Social Democratic proletariat, 1893-1894 Formation of Lettish Social Democratic Party, 1904 Aims The establishment of a Russian Democratic Republic allowing home rule to all nationalists Methods Education of class consciousness Preparation for armed uprising and the general strike Church demonstrations Organization of “circles” [22 ] Effect of Russian Revolution of 1905 The revolution in Riga, 1905 Socialist congresses Revolution in the country Church demonstrations Attack on Balt barons The October general strike The trade union movement The Tsar’s penal expedition, the counter revolution, its horrors German Balts as Russian agents Balt unions for defense of German Kultur Lettish bourgeoisie on side of “law and order” Lett unions for education, culture, credit banks Effect of the Great War, 1914 Letts loyal to Russia; hatred of Balts intensified The Lett Battalion German invasion of Latvia, 1915 Effect of Russian Revolution, March 1917 Inability of Russian Provisional Government to grant a National Council, as in Esthonia, because of German occupation Meeting of Courland National Assembly, July 1917; declaration of independence instead of home rule Effect of Bolshevist coup d’etat, 1917 Lett Battalion joins Bolshevists and supports Lenin Formation of Landesrats or Councils by Germans at Riga and Mitau, used as tools of Berlin government. German Balt landlords form two thirds of Councils Formation of secret Lettish National Council, September, 1917, and “Riga bloc”; opposed German and Russian annexation Effect of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk German influence strengthened; establishment of the Grand Duchy of Courland by vote of National Council under German influence, May 18, 1917; crown offered to a Hohenzollern Effect of armistice and peace settlement Collapse of German influence and Councils Formation of the Latvian State Council as a result of secret work ol Lettish National Council and “Riga bloc.” Latvia declared a free and independent republic, November 18, 1918 Invasion of Bolsheviki Return of Germans under von der Goltz Overthrow of Latvian Provisional Government Struggle of political factions, Balt, German, Lett; the Needra Govern¬ ment Interference and advice of Allied and American representatives Formation of coalition cabinet of 6 Letts, 2 Balts, 1 Jew, July, 1919 Presentation of Latvia’s case at Peace Conference Attitude of Allies; caution Final conclusion of treaty with Russian Soviet Government, August n, 1920 Russia grants Latvia complete freedom and exemption from war debts Latvia grants Russia free economic transit to sea Recognition of Latvia by Allied Powers, except United States, January 27, 1921 Attitude of United States Readings: Alexinsky, 211-216 Butler, 21-25 Contemporary Review,\ ol. 118,581,737. Text ofTreaty between Latvia and Russia Hale, Report of Mission to Finland, Esthonia, Latvia and Lithuania Hayes, Brief History of Great War, 121, 234, 238, 254, 256, 300, 334, 359, 397, 402 Memorandum to the Peace Conference, 8-12 Morrison, The New Europe, vol. 12, 77, 107, 155 Socialist Library, Extra vol. 1, The Revolution in the Baltic Provinces (edited by Ramsay MacDonald) Wright, C., Contemporary Review, vol. 116, 162 4. Lithuania ' Character of movement, a triple struggle against Poland, Germany, Russia Beginnings Causes Polish oppression Early period, from Lithuanian—Polish Union, 1386, to Russian annexation, 1795 \ Renewal of Polonization in nineteenth century Political, the Polish National Democratic movement and attempt to revive a Poli$h-Lithuanian Union Power of Polish nobility and polonized Lithuanian nobility Economic, agrarian supremacy of Polish nobility and Polonized Lithuanian nobility Social and cultural, complete Polonization of education (Uni¬ versity of Vilna and schools), religion, language. Absence of a Lithuanian intelligensia German oppression In Prussian or Minor Lithuania, complete German political, eco¬ nomic and cultural dominance Russian oppression Early period beginning 1795 Partition, appropriation of territory, attempted de-national¬ ization Period of extreme Pan-slavism; a double Russification directed against Poles and Lithuanians in Lithuania Political Abolition of Lithuanian statute and substitution of Russian law [24] Russian bureaucracy Lithuanians debarred from public life Economic Colonization of land with Russians Land-holding by Lithuanians limited Practical exclusion of Lithuanians from business and commerce Social and cultural Russification of education, language, religion Suppression of Lithuanian press and of Latin script Results National revival under Bishop of Samogitia, 1840-1850 Social, intellectual, religious Work of Catholic clergy in keeping alive Lithuanian language and literature Rise of a Lithuanian intclligensia from peasantry Rise of young Lithuanian parties Social Democrats, unlike violent Lettish Socialists Appeared 1902-1903 Composed of city workmen, small Peoples Socialists, like Russian Social Revolutionists, led by Kerensky Democrat, composed mostly of intellectuals Rise of a secret Lithuanian press Effect of Russian Revolution, 1905 Meeting of National Assembly at Vilna, November, 1905 Declaration for autonomy in a federated Russia Nationalist demands for education Reply of Russia, cessation of Russification and granting of Nationalist demands Convention of Lithuanians in America at Philadelphia, 1906 Effect of the Great War, 1914 Proclamation of Russian government promising national autonomy at close of war German invasion and occupation, 1915 Attitude and sufferings of Lithuanians Organization of National Council, 1916 Demands for national independence outside Lithuania Stockholm Conference, October, 1916 Berne Conference, March, 1916 Lithuanian Conference in America, 1917 Conference in Moscow, 1917 Effect of Russian Revolution, March, 1917 No grant of autonomy from Russian Provisional Government Proclamation of national independence by National Council; unpub¬ lished under Germany’s orders Germany’s promise to support national independence after war Acceptance of German rule from fear of Poland Effect of Bolshevist coup d’etat, 1917 [25] Declaration of independence from Russia, December n, 1917 Proclamation of Lithuania as a free, independent republic, February 16, 1918 Recognition (de facto) by Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark, Italy Effect of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Complete German domination until November, 1918 “Recognition” of Lithuanian independence by Germany, March 23, 1918 German Prince “elected” as King: accepted by Lithuanians from fear of Polish invasion Effect of armistice and peace settlement Partial collapse of German rule Reorganization of National Council, January 14, 1919 Formation of provisional government Invasion of Bolsheviki Strong resistance of Lithuanians Polish invasion on pretext of fighting Bolsheviki Occupation of Vilna Fomentation of Bolshevik risings Lithuanian protests to Peace Conference; attitude of Allies Peace with Bolshevik Government, July 12, 1920 Effect of Polish imperialism Second invasion of Vilna under General Zeligowski in spite of agree¬ ment of October 7, 1920 Lithuanians forced to agree to plebiscite under League of Nations Status of Lithuania rendered uncertain Non-recognition of Lithuania by Allied Powers (March, 1921) Readings: Butler, ch. 3 Gabrys, 8-9 Hale, Report of Mission to Baltic Provinces Handbook , no. 44, 47-49 Jusaitis, 130-202 Lees, G. Contemporary Review, vol. 114, 151 -, Contemporary Review , vol. 118, 57 Martus, A., Times Current History Magazine, vol. 8, pt. 1, 458 Norus and Zilius, 60-95 III TPIE PRESENT STATUS OF THE BALTIC STATES: THEIR NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS AND PROPOSED SOLUTIONS A. Finland 1. Status, a free, independent republic, recognized by Allied Powers, the United States and Russian Soviet Government Readings: The Statesman 1 s Yearbook, 1920, 816-820 Whitakers Almanac, 1921, 756 [26] 2. Problems The Aland Islands question Causes Sweden’s claims and interests Historic; Swedish domination from 12th century until 1809 Economic; bulk of trade with Sweden Geographic; close relationship; an open sea between; Abo nearer Sweden than Finland Racial; Swedish element 96 per cent, of population Cultural; Swedish language, schools Strategic; danger of a naval base belonging to a hostile power: Islands key to Gulf of Bothnia Russia’s claims and interests Historic; conquest in 1809 Economic; ports Geographic; a part of Finland before its loss Racial; none Cultural; none Strategic; a base for fortifications 1835, Fortress of Bomarsund begun, destroyed by British fleet, 1854 1856, Treaty of Paris, Convention forbidding fortification of Islands 1906, Russian garrison established 1907, Russia’s request to Great Britain and France to cancel Convention of 1856 1907, secret treaty between Russia and Germany, giving Russia a free hand in Islands 1908, Baltic Treaty, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Denmark: no ban on fortification implied 1908, Declaration of Earl Grey against fortification of Islands Finland’s claims and interests Historic; Islands always a part of Finland and under her adminis¬ tration except for brief periods Economic; slight Geographic; close; linked under water, only a shallow sea and islands between Racial; too small for consideration , Cultural; none Strategic; a naval base Effect of Great War Fortification of Islands by Russia Alarm aroused in Sweden Effect of Russian Revolution, March, 1917 Formation of Communal Assembly Wish expressed for reunion with Sweden, August, 1917 Effect of Bolshevist coup d’etat, September, 1917 Alarm in Sweden increased by publication of secret treaty of 1907 [27] Demand of Islanders by plebiscite for reunion with Sweden, Decem¬ ber, 1917 Independence of Finland recognized by Sweden and Germany, 1918 Bolshevist force landed in Islands Swedish military expedition into Islands, February, 1918 Appeal of Islanders for reunion with Sweden, March, 1918 Effect of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Agreement between Sweden, Germany, Finland not to fortify Islands Effect of armistice and peace settlement Appeals of Islanders for reunion with Sweden to Great Britain and the United States, November, 1918 Deputation of Islanders to Paris, February, 1919 Question submitted to the Council of the League of Nations and still unsettled (March 15, 1921) Finland’s objection Readings: Handbook , no. 50 Valentin, H., The New Europe , vol. 6, 184 and vol. 15, 226 Westermarck, E., Contemporary Review , vol. 118, 790 3. Future Status: Proposals An independent state Difficulties in maintaining political and economic power Union with Esthonia Advantages urged, racial similarity, strength Disadvantages urged, nationalist differences, disparity of economic development Leader of a Baltic League or Entente Conference of five Baltic States, including Poland, August, 1920 Aim, to lay the foundations for a political and economic entente in the north, similar to the “Little Entente” Outlook, favorable (March, 1921) (See below under Esthonia and Latvia) Readings: Contemporary Review , vol. 118, 579 B. Esthonia and Latvia 1. Status Esthonia, a free independent Republic, recognized by Allied Powers and Soviet Russia Government Latvia, a free independent Republic, recognized by Allied Powers and Soviet Russia Government 2. Problems Present economic prostration [28] The London “Banking Group” and its plan for “practical reconstruction” 3. Future Status: Proposals Autonomous states in a federated Russia Advantages urged: Political, protection and strength Economic, Russia’s need of Baltic ports and Baltic ports' need of Russia Disadvantages urged: Too many nationalities to consider Present deep distrust of Russia Independent states with economic guarantees to Russia (present status) Advantages urged: Freedom of Baltic dependent on freedom of Esthonia and Latvia Gateway for world’s commerce into eastern Europe assured Menace of a German Baltic League and Baltic lake weakened Disadvantages urged: Lack of adequate political and economic power to maintain inde¬ pendence A prey for future German and Russian aggression An opportunity for future war Federation in a Baltic League or Entente Arguments for: Small nations in same region and with contiguous frontiers Creation of a buffer state between Germany and Russia Reduction of Russian and German aggression Establishment of northeastern European stability and equilibrium A guarantee of permanent peace Arguments against: Difficulty of nationalist elements, five distinct languages, interests, traditions Rivalry for leadership between Poland and Finland Readings: Conlempory Review , vol. 118, 579 Larson, L., Territorial Problems of the Baltic Basin , 13-15 Memorandum of Latvia to Peace Conference, 15-22 Morrison, The New Europe, vol. 12, 77 Statesman's Year Book, 1920, 1122, 1123 Whitakers Almanac , 1921, 791, 792 C. Lithuania 1. Status, a Republic, free and independent from Russian Government 2. Problems Complete economic prostration and devastation Lack of political power International non-recognition Territorial boundaries unsettled Relations to Poland unsettled \ [29] Relations to White Russia unsettled 3. Future Status: Proposals An autonomous state in a federated Russia Advantages and disadvantages urged (see under Esthonia and Latvia) An independent state Arguments for: Recovery of old nationality A buffer state between Russia and Poland Arguments against: Impossibility of political or economic maintenance Lack of Lithuanian upper and middle class Prey to Russian and Polish aggression Field for German exploitation Union with Latvia Advantages: Strength, similarity of race and language Gain of economic power now entirely lacking Disadvantages: Diversity of nationalist elements Burden to Latvia Insufficient strength to resist Polish imperialism or Russian and German aggression Union with Poland Arguments for: Historic claims Political and economic strength Nobility and intelligentsia already Polish Strong buffer state between Germany and Russia Arguments against: Violation of nationalism An impossible settlement for future peace Independent state in a Baltic League Advantages: Everything to gain; little to give Bulwark against Polish imperialism (see under Esthonia and Latvia) Difficulties: Present unsettled status of Lithuania, both national and international (March, 1921) Readings: Butler, 66-67 Jusaitis, ch. 8 Statesman's Yearbook , 1920, 1229-1230 Whitakers Almanac, 1921, 792 V [ 30 ] PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS 1919 Announcement of Founding of Institute. 1920 Bulletin No. 1. First Annual Report of the Director. Bulletin No. 2. For Administrative Authorities of Universities and Colleges. Bulletin No. 3. Observations on Higher Education in Europe. Opportunities for Higher Education in France. Opportunities for Graduate Study in the British Isles. 1921 Bulletin No. 1. Bulletin No. 2. Bulletin No. 3. Bulletin No. 4. Second Annual Report of the Director. Opportunities for Higher Education in Italy. Serials of an International Character (Tentative List for Libraries) Educational Facilities in the United States for South African Students. Bulletin No. 5. Guide Book for Foreign Students in the United States. Bulletin No. 6. See Syllabus No. VII. For the International Relations Clubs Syllabus No. I. Outline of the Covenant of the League of Nations. Syllabus No. II. The Past, Present and Future of the Monroe Doctrine. Syllabus No. III. The History of Russia from Earliest Times. Syllabus No. IV. The Russian Revolution. Syllabus No. V. The Question of the Balkans. Syllabus No. VI. Modern Mexican History. Syllabus No. VII. Hispanic-American History. Syllabus No. VIII. The Question of the Near East. Syllabus No. IX. China Under the Republic. Syllabus No. X. The Baltic States . , . . - ■ - > . ' . '• > . ADVISORY COUNCIL Addams, Jane Alderman, President Edwin Ames, Dean Herman V. Andrews, Fanny Fern Biggs, Dr. Herman Blakeslee, Professor G. H. Brookings, Robert S. Bruere, Henry Bull, Dr. Carroll G. Burton, President M. L. Byrne, James Coolidge, Professor Archibald Cravath, Paul D. Cunliffe, Professor J. W. Davis* Katherine B. Downer, Professor Charles A. Ely, Professor Richard T. Filene, A. Lincoln Finley, Dr. John H. Fosdick, Dr. Harry E. Gilbert, Cass Gildersleeve, Dean V. C. Goodnow, President F. J. Hadley, Dr. A. T. Hale, Dr. George E. Harrington, Governor E. C. Hazen, Professor Charles D. Hibben, President J. G. Howe, Professor Henry M. Hughes, Hon. Charles E. Jenks, Professor Jeremiah Judson, President H. P. Keppel, Frederick P. Keyser, Professor C. J. Lovett, President Edgar Lowell, President A. L. M^cCracken, President H. N. Woolley, Pres Mali, Pierre Main, President J. H. T. Mannes, David Marling, Alfred E. Meiklejohn, President A. Milliken, Professor R. A. Moore, Professor E. H. Morgan, William Fellowes Neilson, President W. A. Noyes, Professor Arthur A. Payne, President Bruce R. Pendleton, President Ellen T. Pupin, Professor Michael I. Putnam, Herbert Richardson, Dr. E. C. Robinson, Dr. Edward Sachs, Professor Julius Salmon, Dr. Thomas W. Schwedtman, Ferdinand C. Severance, Mrs. C. A. Shanklin, President W. A. Shorey, Professor Paul Shotwell, Professor J. T. Showerman, Professor Grant Stimson, Henry L. Stokes, Dr. Anson Phelps Storey, Professor Thomas A. Suzzallo, President Henry Thomas, President M. Carey Todd, Professor Henry A. Townsend, Hon. John G. Vincent, Dr. George E. Wald, Lillian D. White, Professor Henry C. Wilkins, Professor Ernest H. Wilson, Professor George G. Woodbridge, Dean F. J. E. dent Mary E. t m f /