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This institution reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: COLERIDGE, EDWARD PHILIP TITLE: RES ROMANAE , BEING BRIEF AIDS TO THE HISTORY . . . PLACE: LONDON DATE: 1896 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT Master Negative # ?4rfe22/r^ BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record [874 C670 Coleridre, Edward Thilip, 1863- Res ilomanae; beinr: brief aids to the history, peopraphy, literature and antiquities of ancient Rome, for advanced students. London, Bell, 1896, 1G6 p. fold, maps. 19cm. ■'List of useful books": p. c?^ [ ■'List of various technical terms": p. 147-166. ' Restrictions on Use: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE:____SS>^^_ IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA (^ IB IIB DATE FILMED: ^S.i/_-_iil__ INITIALS__/)j^il HLMEDBY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. 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INC. ir:f}i ^ <^^:>yt; >v'»-.>.>> 'i.'»„»r* .>; ifi^'W^mmmf. mm^ '-'-'^-^^^m.^^s:^ \\o^ 7^ LIBRARY Gift of President Nicholas Murray Butler teb^ar^gF^iE^^^ I J!^ \. \ \ V V » ( fl t: ■• ! .,'' r F:' ^s^mn '4 i t IM 7iri7ftrra'iir> \ RES ROMANAE BEING BRIEF AIDS TO THE HISTCRY, GEOGRAPHY, LITERATURE, AND ANTIQUITIES OF ANCIENT ROME, FOR LESS ADVANCED iJTUDENTS J 4 4, > ' > «• ► » BY GEORGE BELL & SONS, LONDON : YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN, BOMBAY : 53 ESPLANADE ROAD, AND NEW YORK : 66, FIFTH AVENUE, CAMBRIDGE; DEIGHTON, BELL & CO. EDWARD P. COLERIDGE, B.A. TRANSLATOR OF EURIPIDES AND SOPHOCLES, ETC. LONDON GEORGE BELL & SONS 1896 1 1 n4- COH^TE]S"TS. page List of useful Books of Refekence, . . i • 7 Chronological Table, ...» 9 (-List of Emperors to a.d. 180, . 20 Geographical Index, .... 21 Biographical Index, .... 31 /^HE Three Comitia, .... 64 ^ Chief Roman Magistrates, 65 u-The Senate, ..... 68 The Army, ..... 70 List of Military Terms, . . . • 73 The Navy, ..... 75 List of Naval Terms, .... 76 Colonies, ...... 1 < 77 Roads, ...... 78 *^ECESSIONS OF THE PlEBS, > 79 ^The Tribunate, .... 80 ^he Decemvirate, » 81 >^ Roman Law, .... » 82 /iisT OF Important Laws, 85 Chief Battles and SieGes in Roman History, . 89 The Provinces, .... • 92 Provincial Government, • 94 Revenue and Expenditure, . - • 95 The Punic Wars, • 96 iAgrarian Legislation, . t 98 t€lVITAS, . . . . • . 99 The Social War, • . 100 ^HE Triumvirates, • . 101 Pompey's Campaigns in the East, t . 102 CiESAR IN Gaul, .... • . 104 The Romans in Britain, • . 104 6 CONTENTS. ^Causes which led to the change from Republic to Empire, Augustus, ...... Causes of the Decline of the Roman Empire, Historical Allusions in Roman Poetry, Roman System of Personal Names, Abbreviations commonly employed by Roman "Writers, The Roman Calendar, ..... Description of a Day at Rome by Horace, Description of a Day at Rome by Martial, . Education, ...... Slaves, ....... A Roman House, ...... Some Terms connected with Dress, Amusements, ...... Athletics, ...... Carriages, ...... Principal Places of Interest in and near Ancient Rome, The Principal Classical Roman Authors and their Chief Works, ...... Horace's Autobiography, .... Ovid's Autobiography, ..... Some Terms connected with Ancient Books and Writing, tLisT OF Various Technical Terms, Maps — Italy, showing the Roads, etc., . The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, The Hills and Walls of Rome, , pp. )} 11 page • 105 106 109 110 124 125 125 126 127 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 139 144 145 146 147 80-81 96-97 137 LIST OF USEFUL BOOKS. The following are among the most useful and easily obtainable hajidbooks and works of reference for such subjects as are dealt with in this little compilation, which is an attempt to bring together in a short and convenient form for examination purposes some of the more important facts contained in these and similar works. An asterisk is prefixed to those specially recommended for their conciseness. !*Horton's History of the Romans (Rivington). ♦Outlines of Roman History by Pelham (Rivington). ♦Matheson's Skeleton Outline of Roman His- Biography and Geography Antiquities and ARCHiEOLOGY Literature tory (Rivington). / Smith's Smaller Classical Dictionary (Murray). pTozer's Primer of Classical Geography (Mac- < millan). I Butler's Public Schools' Atlas of Ancient \ Geography (Longman). I*Wilkins' Primer of Roman Antiquities (Mac- millan). *Gow's Handbook to School Classics (Mac- millan). Ramsay's Manual of Roman Antiquities (Griffin). Smith's Smaller Dictionary of Antiquities (Murray). I*Wilkiiis' Primer of Roman Literature (Mac- millan). Cruttwell's History of Roman Literature (Griffin). RES ROMANAE. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C. 753. Commonly accepted date for foundation of Rome. 753-509. Rome under kings. — (1) During this period Rome establishes her power firmly in Latium, and, after the de- struction of Alba, becomes the head of the Latin League ; in alliance with the Latins, she founds "Latin colonies." (2) Wars with the Sabines, ending in a league between them and Rome ; with the Latins, leading to a league with them ~and their settlement on the Aventine ; with Veil ; with the Volscians, and with Gabii. (3) Etruscan immigration. (4) Rise of the plebs, i.e. strangers, who had flocked to Rome,, and who, as they did not belong to the old families, had no 'share in the government ; also freed slaves. (5) Constitu- tion of Servius Tullius. First step towards helping the unprivileged plebs by a new organisation of the army, based on landed property instead of citizen birth. (6) Abolition of monarchy owing to the tyranny of the Tarquinii. 509. Expulsion of king, whose place is filled by two consuls. 508. The Etruscans, in alliance with Carthage, command the Tyrrhenian Sea, and take Rome ; humiliating terms. 501. First Dictator appointed. 496. Roman victory over the thirty Latin cities at Lsike Regillus. 494. First secession of the Plebeians, to the "Mons sacer." Ap- pointment of two tribuni plebis. 493. League of Rome with the Latins. 489-431. Wars with .ffiquians and Volscians ; Rome often hard pressed ; the Hernicans in alliance with Rome ; war with lO RES ROMANAE, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. II Veil ; destruction of the Fabian clan at the Cremera by the Veientines ; foundation of Latin colonies, e.ij. Antium, Ardea ; great victory over Yolscians and iEquians at Mount Algidus ; power of Etruscans declining ; Sabines moving south. 471. Lex Publilia, carried by Volero Piiblilius, a tribune, that the tribunes be elected at the Comitia Tributa. 451, 450. The Decemvirate. Appius Claudius. The XII. Tables, a codification and publishing of the law. 449. Second secession of the plebs, to the Aventine, resulting in the Valerio-Horatian laws ; resolutions of the plebs in their tribe- assembly (plebiscita) have the force of law. 445. Lex Canuleia legalises marriage between patricians and plebeians. Military tribunes with consular power instead of consuls. 443. Censors appointed. 396. Capture of Veii by Camillus, after ten years' siege, during which payment of Roman soldiers was first introduced. Etruscans no longer formidable. 390. Romans defeated by the Gauls at the Allia ; Rome, except the Capitol, captured and burnt ; Gauls bribed to depart ; Camillus dictator 367. LiciNiAN LAW^s PASSED, after a ten years' struggle by the tri- bunes, C. Licinius Stolo and L. Sex tins. Consulship re- stored. One consul must be a plebeian. 348. Treaty of Rome with Carthage. 343-341. 1st Sanmite war. Roman victory at Mt. Gaurus. 340-338. Great Latin war, owing to Latin demand that one consul should Ije Latin. Roman victory at Veseris ; complete sub- jugation of the Latins, and dissolution of the Latin League ; Roman policy of " divide et inipera " rigidly carried out in the settlement of Latium. 339. Leges Publiliae of Q. Publilius Philo, increasing and confirming the powers of the plebs. 327-304. 2nd Sanmite war. Early Roman successes more than counterbalanced Ijy the disaster at the Caudine Forks, where Gains Pontius, the Sanmite general, entraps both consuls and their armies ; the Roman Senate repudiates the peace then extorted, and renews the war ; Luceria is captured by the Romans ; war continued with varying success ; Etruscans join Samnites ; Roman victories at Lake Vadimo and Perusia; f\ Rome detaches or conquers the Samnite allies one by one ; Bovianum, the Samnite capital, is captured ; peace and alliance with the Samnites and Sabellian tribes in b.c. 304. 298-290. 3rd Sanmite war. Samnites invade Lucania ; decisive defeats of Samnites, Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, first at Clusium and then at Sentinum ; Bovianimi sacked ; C. Pontius taken and executed by Romans ; Latin colony planted at Venusia ; peace concluded, and league with Rome renewed. 287. 3rd and last secession of the plebs, to the Janiculum. Lex Hortensia finally establishes the legislative power of the plebs in its own assembly. 280-275. War with Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and with S. Italy. Pyrrhus defeats the Romans near Heraclea ; great part of S. Italy at once joins him ; his terms rejected at Rome by Appius Claudius Csecus ; Latin towns remain loyal ; second Roman defeat at Asculum ; Pyrrhus crosses to Sicily at request of Sjrracuse against Carthage ; Rome and Carthage conclude offensive and defensive alliance against the common foe ; after rapid successes in Sicily for two years, Pyrrhus returns to Italy, but, being irretrievably defeated at Beneventum by M'. Curius Dentatus, finally quits Italy. 273. Egypt forms an alliance with Rome. 272. Tarentum and all southern Italy submits to Rome. 266. Conquest of Italy now completed. Numerous colonies planted. 264-241. 1st Punic war. Quarrel about Messana ; Hiero makes alliance with Rome ; consuls capture Agrigentum ; Punic fleet ravages Italian coasts ; Rome builds a fleet ; Roman naval victory at Mylae, C. Duilius in command ; great victory of Regulus at Ecnomus ; he lands in Africa, achieves many successes till defeated by Xantliipj)us ; another Roman victory off the Hermsean Cape, but Roman fleet mostly lost in a storm on return voyage ; capture of Panormus by Romans ; a second fleet built, but lost by bad seamanship. Romans for a while abandon the seix ; a great Roman victory at Panormus ; a third fleet built and Lilybaeum blockaded ; Cartliaginian victory at Drepanum, followed by loss of Roman transport fleet ; Romans again abandon the sea ; Hamilcar Barca occupies Mt. Ercte near Panormus, and subsequently the town of Eryx, and harasses the Romans ; a volunteer fleet 12 RES ROMANAE, under C. Lutatius Catulus succeeds in occupying tlie har- bours of Lilybseum and Drepanum, and then decisively defeats Hanno oflf the iEgates Insula, thus ending the war. (Sicily becomes first Roman province.) 238. Sardinia and CJorsica seized by Rome. (Become one province in 231.) 236. Hamilcar takes command in Spain, and founds a Punic empire ; is succeeded by Hasdrubal, who founds Nova Carthago ; the Iberus is fixed as the Rinic boundary. 226-222. Great Gallic rising in Italy ; Italians defeated at F»sulffl, but Regnlus wins a great victory near Telamon. Boii and Lingones submit, and the Insubres yield to M. Claudius Mar- cellus, after the capture of their chief towns Acerrse, Medio- lanum, and Commn. (End of Gallic rising, and subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul.) 221. Hannibal succeeds to the command in Spain. 219. Saguntum besieged by Hannibal. 218-201. 2nd Punic, or Hannibalian, war. Fall of Saguntum. War declared by Rome. Hamiibal crosses the Alps. Romans are defeated at the Ticinus and at the Trebia in 218 ; attheTrasi- mene lake in 217 ; at Canna in 216 ; policy of Q. Fabius Maxi- mus Cunctator and M. Claudius Marcellus prevents further crushing disasters ; P. and Cn. Scipio in Spain conduct the war with varying success, and stop reinforcements being sent into Italy. Philip of Macedon makes alliance with Hannibal ; siege and capture of Syracuse by Marcellus in 212 ; siege and capture of Capua ; Nova Carthago surprised by P. Scipio ; siege and capture of Tarentum by Q. Fabius ; Hasdrubal eludes P. Scipio and enters Italy with reinforcements, but is intercepted and killed at the Metaurus in 207 by C. Claudius Nero and M. Livius Salinator, the consuls ; Hamiibal retires into Bruttium ; Mago tries to raise the Gauls and Ligurians ; P. Scipio carries the Avar into Africa, and, being joined by Massinissa, surprises Syphax ; Mago and Hannibal are recalled ; Scipio gains a decisive victory over Hannibal near Zama in 202, and so ends the war. (Carthage sinks from being a great power to the level of a trading town ; Spain becomes two Roman provinces.) 214-205. 1st Macedonian war. Philip besieges ApoUonia, but is checked in his designs by M. Lsevinus ; Rome forms a coali- CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, n tion of iEtolians, Athens, Sparta, and Pergamus against Philip ; no decisive action ; ^Etolians make peace with Philip, and Philip with Rome. 200-194. 2nd Macedonian war. Philip, having adopted an aggressive policy, attacks Attica ; Athens is relieved by a Roman fleet, but nothing very decisive occurs tni third campaign, when Flamininus, aided by the iEtolians, overruns Epirus and Thes- saly, and a year later, after strengthening the Roman coali- tion, marches once more into Thessaly and wins the battle of Cynoscephalse in 197 ; Philip is obliged to accept peace on humiliating terms ; Nabis, the tyrant of Sparta, is crushed, and the independence of Greece is declared by Flamininus, alter which Roman troops are withdrawn from Greek fort- resses in 194. 192-190. War with Antiochus of Syria, who lands in Greece on the invitation of the jEtolians ; he takes Chalcis and some towns in Thessaly, but is checked by M'. Acilius Glabrio and M. Porcius Cato and defeated at Thermopyla ; he then withdrew to Asia, whither he was followed by L. Scipio and his brother Africanus, and crushed at Magnesia in 190. 184. Censorship of Cato, remarkable for its severity. 179. Tib. Gracchus conquers the Celtiberi ; general pacification of Spain. 171-168. 3rd Macedonian war. Perseus starts with several successes, but from parsimony and cowardice lets his chances slip, and is beaten at Pydna in 168 by L. iEmilius Paulus. (Macedonia is divided into four confederacies ; in 148 these are dissolved and it becomes a province.) 153-133. War in Spain with the Celtiberi, marked by treachery and cruelty on the part of Roman generals ; Viriathus rouses the Lusitanians and defies the Romans ; a succession of Roman defeats ; rising of the Celtiberi ; the northern province, ex- cept Numantia, reduced in 142 ; murder of Viriathus in 140 ; siege of Numantia continues ; Rome twice makes peace and twice repudiates it ; Scipio .ffimilianus takes command in Spain inl34,and after a blockade of fifteen montlis destroys Numantia. (Roman supremacy acknowledged throughout Spain.) 149-146. 3rd Punic war. Carthage, after a stubborn siege, is cap- tured and destroyed by P. Scipio .ffimilianus Africanus minor. (Formation of Roman province of Africa.) 14 RES ROMANAE. 146. This year also witnessed tlie destruction of Corintli by Mum- mius. 135-132. Servile war in Sicily, ended by P. Rupilius. 133. (1) Destruction of Numantia. (2) Attalus III. bequeathes his kingdom Pergamus to the Romans. (The Province of Asia.) (3) Tib. Gracchus, tribune, attempts reforms; Leges Sem- pronise ; is killed in a riot. 123, 122. C. Gracchus, twice tribune ; popular champion ; Leges Semproniic ; establishes the "equester ordo" ; numerous re- forms ; colonisation ; proposes extension of full franchise to the Latins, etc. ; Livius Drusus outbids Gracchus for the popular favour ; Gracchus is killed in a riot. 121. Great defeat of the Allobroges and Arverni ; foundation of the province of Narbonensis. (Colony of Narbo planted in 118.) 113. The Cimbri defeat Papirius Carbo near Noreia in Istria. 112-106. War against Jugurtha. Incompetence and corruption of Roman generals ; arrival of Metellus in Nimiidia ; victory on the Muthul ; is superseded by Marius in spite of his successes ; Jugurtha is betrayed by Bocchus to Sulla, and Marius ends this shameful war with a triumph. 107. Marius throws open the army to all citizens. 105. The Cimbri slaughter 80,000 Romans at Arausio on Rhone ; they then move westward ; are driven from Spain by the Celtiberi ; turning eastward are joined by the Helvetii and Teutones. 102. Marius defeats the Teutones at Aquae Sextise (Aix in Provence), while Catulus defends north Italy. 101. Marius annihilates the Cimbri at Vercellae on the Raudine Plain. 103-99. 2nd Servile war in Sicily ; leaders, Trypho and Athenio. 100. Leges Appuleiae of the tribune Satuminus, carried by the army of Marius ; the Senate and Equites appeal to Marius, who deserts the Democrats, and Saturninus is slam. 92. Iniquitous condemnation of P. Rutilius Rufus by the Equites. 91. M. Livius Drusus, tribune, proposes to reform the equestrian law- courts and to enfranchise the Italians ; he is murdered, and his laws, the Leges Liviae, are repealed. 91-88. The Social or Marsic war. The Italians force Rome to make them Roman citizens ; Lex Julia grants "civitas" to those not in relxjUion ; Lex Plautia Papiria admits to the franchise all Italians applying to the praetor within sixty days. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 15 88-82. 1st Civil war, caused by the appointment of Sulla to the command agamst Mithradates ; the people transfer it to Marius ; Sulla marches on Rome and expels the Marians ; but, on his departure to act agamst Mithradates in Greece, Cinna and Marius, supported l)y Sertorius, effect a revolu- tion ; proscriptions and reign of terror ; Marius, consul for seventh time, dies in 86 ; Cinna continues liis revolutionary govermnent; nominates himself consul for four years in succession ; is killed by his soldiers ; Sulla makes moderate proposals to the govermnent, but, on their being rejected,, lands mth five legions at Brundisium ; is joined by M. Crassus, Cn. Pompeius, and others; besieges the younger Marius in Prseneste, occupies Rome, secures Etruria after the flight of Carbo, and, having annihilated the Samnites at the Colline Gate, receives the title of Dictator ; proscription of Marians and confiscation of property. 88-84. 1st Mithradatic war. Mithradates occupies most of Asia and massacres 80,000 Romans ; the Pontic fleet in the iEgean ; Siilla captures Athens, which had admitted Archelaus, the admiral of Mithradates; also defeats the united Pontic armies at Chseronea, and again at Orchomenus ; concludes peace with Mithradates. Meantime the government had continued to send out its own generals ; against one of these. Fimbria, SuUa now advanced into Asia, but Fimbria killed himself, and his army surrendered. Sulla returns to Italy. 83. 2nd (so-called) Mithradatic war. Sulla left L. Murena behind with two legions to govern Asia; against orders Mureiia renewed the war and was defeated ; evacuation of Cappadocia by the Romans. 81-79. Sulla's dictatorship. Leges Comelise of Sulla. 83-72. Sertorius maintains the Marian cause in Spain ; heads a Lusitanian rising ; l^ecomes master of most of Spain ; Latin- ises the province to some extent ; is joined by Perpenna ; Pompey is sent against them, and suffers defeat ; the two Roman generals, Pompey and Metellus, then combine, but with no marked success; alliance between Sertorius and Mithradates; Sertorius is murdered, whereupon Pompey succeeds in ending the war in 72. 78. Death of Sulla. M. iEmilius Lepidus, the consul, vainly tries to repeal the Leges Cornelia'. i6 I^ES ROMANAE. 74-63. 3rd Mithradatic war. L. LucuUus commands by land, M. Cotta by sea ; the Roman fleet is destroyed, and Cotta be- sieged in Cyzicus ; Luculliis relieves Cyzicus, and defeats Mitliradates by land and sea ; invades Pontus, and forces the king to take refuge in Armenia with Tigranes ; follows him thither, and captures Tigranocerta and Nisibis ; further suc- cess prevented by a mutiny of his troops ; is compelled to retire into Asia Minor. Meantime Mithradates recovers his kingdom, and ravages Bithynia and Cappadocia. Pompey supersedes LucuUus in 66 ; invades Pontus ; victory of Nicopolis ; makes peace with Tigranes, forcing Mithradates to fly into Colchis (the Crimea); finding the king now beyond his reach, he continued his career of conquest else- where in the East ; while Mithradates, abandoned by his o^\^l son Pharnaces, and foiled in his endeavour to unite all the barbarous tribes of Eastern Europe against Rome, put an end to his life in 63. 73-71. The Gladiatorial or Slave war. Spartacus, at the head of gladiators and slaves, intrenches himself on Mt. Vesuvius ; gains victories over several Roman armies, but is finally blockaded in Bruttium by M. Crassus, defeated, and slain, while Pompey intercepts the fugitives from liis army. 74-67. War with the pirates. M. Antonius receives a commission in 74 to clear the seas of piracy ; fails signally ; pirates de- stroy Delos and plunder the provinces and Italy ; danger of famine in Rome ; Pompey is given an extraordinary command against the pirates in 67 ; price of corn falls immediately ; and the work of crushing piracy is most speedily and thoroughly performed. 66-63. Pompe/s campaigns in the East and his settlement of it. 63. CJonsulship of Cicero. Conspiracy of Catiline baffled by him. 62. Pompey lands in Italy. 60. Pompey, Caesar, and M. Crassus form a private compact to carry out their own designs (usually called the 1st Triumvirate). 69. Caesar's first consulship ; feeble opposition of his colleague Bibulus to his measures. Lex Vatinia gives Caesar a com- mand in Cisalpine Gaul for five years. 58. P. Clodius, tribune ; Cicero banished ; Clodius employs his oflice to carry out Ciesar's schemes. 67. Cicero recalled by Pompey's influence. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 17 56. Conference at Luca. Measures of the triumvirs to continue their joint power. 55. Lex Trebonia prolongs Cesar's command for a further five years, while Pompey receives Spain, and Crassus Syria, for the same period. 54. Death of Julia, Pompe^s wife ; departure of Crassus for Syria. 53. Defeat and death of Crassus by Parthians at Carrse. 52. Riots at the elections ; Clodius killed by Milo ; Pompey elected sole consul ; his measures to outwit Coesar, especially " lex Pompeia de jure magistratuum." 51. Proposal of MarcelliLs, the consul, to deprive Caesar of his com- mand ; threat of Cato to prosecute Caesar. 50. Proposals as to Caesar's resignation of liis province ; all futile ; Pompey prepares for war. 58-51. Caesar's conquest of Gaul. Two invasions of Britain. 49-45. 2nd Civil war. Pompey and his adherents against Caesar. Pomi3ey embarks for Greece. 48. Caisar crosses to Greece, is defeated at Dyrrachium, and retreiits to Thessaly. Battle of Pharsalia ; defeat of Pompey, who flies to Egypt, where he is murdered. 47. Alexandrine war. Defeat of Pharnaces at Zela by Caesar. (" Veni, vidi, vici.") 46. African war ; defeat of Pompeians at Thapsus ; Cato commits suicide at Utica. Reform of the Calendar by Caesar. 45. Spanish war ; defeat of Pomi3eiaiLS at Munda. 44. Assassination of Cassar by the republican leaders. M. Antonius secures Caesar's paj)ers and treasure. Octavius, Caesar's great- nephew and heir, arrives in Rome, and assumes the name of C. Julius Caesar Octaviamis. The Senate recognises Octavian. M. Antonius besieges Decimus Brutus in Mutina. Cicero's Philippics, i.-iv., exposing and denouncing Antonius. 43-31. 3rd period of Civil war. (a) Antonius and Octavian against the republicans ; (6) Octa\aan against Antonius. 43. Antonius is declared a public enemy. Defeat of Antonius at Mutina; death of the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. Recon- ciliation of Octavian and Antonius ; a triumvirate formed for five years (Antonius, Octavian, Lepidus). Proscription of 2000 equites and 300 senators, M. Cicero and Q. Cicero among them. Philippics v.-xiv. delivered. 42. Campaign of Philippi ; defeat of republicans ; death of Brutus B i6 liES ROMANAE. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, \7 74-63. 3rd Mithradatic war. L. Lucullus commands by land, M. Cotta by sea ; the Koman fleet is destroyed, and Cotta be- sieged in Cyzicus ; Lucullus relieves Cyzicus, and defeats Mithradates by land and sea ; invades Pontus, and forces the king to take refuge in Armenia with Tigranes ; follows him thither, and captures Tigranocerta and Nisibis ; further suc- cess prevented by a mutiny of his troops ; is compelled to retire into Asia Minor. Meantime Mithradates recovers his kingdom, and ravages Bithynia and Cappadocia. Pompey supersedes Lucullus in 66 ; invades Pontus ; victory of Nicopolis ; makes peace with Tigranes, forcing Mithradates to fly into Colchis (the Crimea) ; finding the king now beyond his reach, he continued his career of conquest else- where in the East ; while Mithradates, abandoned by his owna. son Pharnaces, and foiled in his endeavour to unite all the barbarous tribes of Eastern Europe against Rome, put an end to his life in 63. 73-71. The Gladiatorial or Slave war. Spartacus, at the head of gladiators and slaves, intrenches himself on Mt. Vesuvius ; gains victories over several Roman armies, but is finally blockaded in Bruttium by M. Crassus, defeated, and slain, while Pompey intercepts the fugitives from his army. 74-67. War with the pirates. M. Antonius receives a commission in 74 to clear the seas of piracy ; fails signally ; pirates de- stroy Delos and plunder the provinces and Italy ; danger of famine in Rome ; Pompey is given an extraordinary command against the pirates in 67 ; price of corn falls immediately ; and the work of crushing piracy is most speedily and thoroughly performed. 66-63. Pompey's campaigns in the East and his settlement of it. 63. Consulship of Cicero. Conspiracy of Catiline baffled by him. 62. Pompey lands in Italy. 60. Pompey, Caesar, and M. Crassus form a private compact to carry out their own designs (usually called the 1st Triumvirate). 69. Caesar's first consulship ; feeble opposition of his colleague Bibulus to liis measures. Lex Vatinia gives Caesar a com- mand in Cisalpine Gaul for five years. 58. P. Clodius, tribune ; Cicero banished ; Clodius employs his office to carry out Caesar's schemes. 67. Cicero recalled by Pompey's influence. 56. Conference at Luca. Measures of the triumvirs to continue their joint power. 55. Lex Trebonia prolongs Caesar's command for a further five years, while Pompey receives Spain, and Crassus Syria, for the same period. 54. Death of Julia, Pompey's wife ; departure of Crassus for Syria. 53. Defeat and death of Crassus by Parthians at Carrse. 52. Riots at the elections ; Clodius killed by Milo ; Pompey elected sole consul ; his measures to outwit Ci^sar, especially " lex Pompeia de jure magistratuum." 51. Proposal of Marcellus, the consul, to deprive Ctesar of his com- mand ; threat of Cato to prosecute Caesar. 50. Proposals as to Caesar's resignation of his province ; all futile ; Pompey prepares for war. 58-51. Caesar's conquest of Gaul. Two invasions of Britain. 49-45. 2nd Civil war. Pompey and his adherents against Caesar. Pompey embarks for Greece. 48. Caesar crosses to Greece, is defeated at Dyrrachium, and retreats to Thessaly. Battle of Pharsalia ; defeat of Pompey, who flies to Egypt, where he is murdered. 47. Alexandrine war. Defeat of Pharnaces at Zela by Caesar. (" Veni, vidi, vici.") 46. African war ; defeat of Pompeians at Thapsus ; Cato commits suicide at Utica. Reform of the Calendar by Caesar. 45. Spanish war ; defeat of Pompeians at Munda. 44. Assassination of Caesar by the republican leaders. M. Antonius secures Caesar's pai)ers and treasure. Octavius, Caesar's great- nephew and heir, arrives in Rome, and assumes the name of C. Julius Caesar Octavianus. The Senate recognises Octavian. M. Antonius besieges Decimus Brutus in Mutina. Cicero's Philippics, i.-iv., exposing and denouncing Antonius. 43-31. 3rd period of Civil war. (a) Antonius and Octavian against the republicans ; (h) Octavian against Antonius. 43. Antonius is declared a public enemy. Defeat of Antonius at Mutina; death of the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. Recon- ciliation of Octavian and Antonius ; a triumvirate formed for five years (Antonius, Octavian, Lepidus). Proscription of 2000 equites and 300 senators, M. Cicero and Q. Cicero among them. Philippics v.-xiv. delivered. 42. Campaign of Philippi ; defeat of republicans ; death of Brutus B i8 RES ROMANAE. and Cassius ; Sextus Pompeius in Sicily rallies a remnant of the republicans. 41. Rupture between Octavian and Antonius, brought about by Fulvia, the wife of M. Antonius, and his brother L. Antonius, who revolt and are besieged in Perusia. M. Antonius in Egypt. 40. Perusia captured. Open breach between Antonius and Octavian. Siege and treaty of Brundisium ; temporary reconciliation between the rivals, confirmed by marriage of Antonius with Octavia, the sister of Octavian, on Fulvia's death. Sextus Pompeius occupies Sardinia and Corsica : famine in Rome. The Parthians invade Syria. 39. Conference at Misenum ; terms arranged with Sextus Pompeius. The Parthians twice defeated by Ventidius. 38-35. War with Sextus Pompeius ('the Sicilian war'); Octavian meets w4th reverses ; recalls Vipsanius Agrippa from Gaul, who raises a new fleet, and gains a great victory at Naulochus in 36 ; flight of Sextus Pompeius to the East, where he is put to death by the oflicers of Antonius in 35. 37. Conference at Tarentum. Renewal of triumvirate for five years. 36. Lepidus revolts ; is at once crushed by Octavian ; henceforth of no accoimt. Antonius sufl*ers severe losses in Parthia ; retires to Egypt. 35-33. Octavian in Pannonia and Dalmatia ; Antonius in the East. 32. Antonius divorces Octavia. Open rupture between Octavian and Antonius ; declaration of war against Cleopatra. 31. Battle of Actium ; total defeat of Antonius and Cleopatra. 30. Octavian lands in Egypt; troops and fleet desert Antonius; suicide of Antonius and Cleopatra ; regulation of Egypt. 29. Triple triumph of Octavian. Temple of Janus closed. 27. Octavian receives * proconsulare imperium' for ten years, and the title Augustus. (Beginning of the Empire.) Provinces divided into (1) Senatorial, under proconsuls. (2) Imperial, under * legati ' of Emperor. 20. Restoration of the standards and prisoners by the Parthians. 19. Final subjection of the Cantabri by Vipsanius Agrippa. (27-19.) 15. Campaigns of Tiberius and Drusus. Rketi, Vindelici, Norici. 12. Death of Vipsanius Agrippa. Question of the succession. 8, 7. Campaigns of Til^erius in Germany, a continuation of the work of Drusus. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 19 A.D. 4. Adoption of Tiberius by Augustus. 4-6. Campaigns of Tiberius in Germany. 7, 8. Pannonian war. 9. Loss of three Roman legions in N.W. Germany ; disaster in the Teutoberg Forest ; Arminius annihilates army of Varus. 14. Death of Augustus ; accession of Tiberius. '=1'^. Retirement of Tiberius from Rome to Capreae; Sej anus supreme. 64. Accession of Nero. 58-63. Campaigns of Corbulo in the East ; Parthia and Armenia. 61. Massacre of Romans in Britain ; Boadicea at head of the Iceni ; decisive victory of Suetonius Paulinus over Britons at Camalodunum. 69. Year of three Emperors, Galba, Otho, Vitellius. Battle of Bed- riacum ; defeat of Otho by the army of Vitellius. Accession of Vespasian. Battle of Cremona ; victory of Vespasian over Vitellius. Revolt of the Batavi under Civilis. (The Flavian dynasty begins.) 70. Siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, son of Vespasian. 79. Eruption of Vesuvius and destruction of Pompeii. 78-84. Successes of Agricola in Britain ; subdues Galgacus, and the Caledonians. 101-117. Reign of Trajan ; reduces Dacia to a Roman province ; conquest of Parthia. (N.B. — Roman Empire at greatest extent.) 161-180. Reign of Marcus Aurelius, called the Philosopher; triumph over the Parthians ; great persecutions of the Christians ; wars with the Marcomanni, Quadi, etc. 303. Diocletian persecutes the Christians. 307. Six Emperors at once ; Constantine, Galerius, Severus, Maxi- mian, Maxentius, Licinius. 313. Edict of Milan. Constantine allows the Christians a free exer- cise of their religion. 330. Foundation of Constantinople on the site of Byzantium. 361-3. Julian 'the Apostate' proclaimed Emperor by the army; endeavoured to suppress Christianity and revive Paganism ; attempts to rebuild Jerusalem ; killed fighting against the Persians. 364. Division of the Roman Empire into the Eastern and Western ; Valentinian retained the Western Empire, assigning the Eastern to his brother 'Valens. 378. Battle of Hadrianople. Defeat of Valens by the Goths. ao RES ROMANAE. 402, 3 Invasion of Italy by Alarf c ; is defeated by Stilicho 410. Kome sacked by Alaric. 418. Eoman troops withdrawn from Britain, being needed to fight against the invading barbarians. 476. Fall of the Western Empire before the repeated assaults of the barbarians. (End of ancient history.) (i\r.^.-The Eastern Empire lasts on till 1453, i.e., capture of Con- stantinople by the Turks.) THE TWELVE C^SARS. Julius Caesar (Dictator), (Period of Civil war.) A.D. Augustus (Emperor), Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, . Galba,. 27-14 14-37 37-41 41-54 54-68 68-69 Otho, . Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian. B.C. 48-44 A.D. • • 69 • . 69 Tlie 1 r 69-79 Flavian -j 79-81 dynasty, ' ^ 81-96 THE AGE OF THE ANTONINES. Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, . A.D. 96- 98 97-117 117-138 A.D. Antoninus Pius, . . 138-161 M. Aurelius Antoninus, 147-180 GEOGKAPHICAL INDEX. Actium, a promontory in Acarnania, at the entrance of the Ambracian gulf, off which Vipsanius Agrippa, Octavian's great general and admiral, defeated Antony and Cleopatra in b.c. 31. iEgates Insula, three small islands off the west coast of Sicily, between Drepammi and Lilybseum, near which C. Lutatius Catulus defeated Hanno, and ended the 1st Punic war in B.C. 242. Alesia, the caj)ital of the Mandubii, in Gallia Lugdunensis ; here Vercingetorix was blockaded and forced to surrender by Caesar in B.C. 52. Allia, a small river about 11 miles from Rome, near Crustu- merium, falling into the Tiber ; on its banks the Gauls defeated the Romans in B.C. 390, afterwards burning Rome. Allobroges, a powerful people of Gaul, dwelling between the Rhone and the Isara ; chief town was Vienna (Vienne) on the Rhone ; made subject to Rome in B.C. 120 ; their ambassadors were mainly instrumental in exposing Catiline's conspiracy in B.C. 53. AqusB Sexti» (Aix in Provence), a Roman colony in Gallia Nar- iDonensis, founded in B.C. 122 ; near this place Marius defeated the Teutones in B.C. 102. Aquileia, a town in Gallia Transpadana at the very top of the Adriatic, founded as a colony by the Romans in B.C. 182 as a bul- wark against the northern barbarians ; a very strong fortress, being the key to North-East Italy ; the Via Emilia was carried on to it, and from it various roads l3ranched off ; destroyed utterly by Attila in A.D. 452, when its inhabitants escaped to the lagoons, where Venice was afterwards built. Ariminum (Rimini), a town in Umbria on the coast, colonised by Romans in B.C. 268 as an outpost against the Gauls ; originally the end of the Via Flaminia, the great northern road. if 22 /^ES ROMANAE. GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 23 Avaricum (Bourges), capital of the Bituriges, in Gallia Aquitanica ; Vercingetorix was besieged here by Caesar in b.c. 52, defeated, and obliged to withdraw to Gergovia. Baia, a towai in Campania, on a small bay W. of Naples, and opposite Puteoli ; abounding in warm springs ; a favourite resort for health and pleasure ; it was here that M. Marcellus, the younger, the destined heir of Augustus, died in b.c. 23. Bedriacum, in Cisalpine Gaul between Cremona and Verona, cele- brated for the defeat both of Otho and of the Vitellian troops in a.d. 69. Beneventiun, a town in Samnium, on the Via Appia, the great southern road ; colonised by the Romans in b.c. 268 after the Sam- nite wai*s. Bibracte (Autun), the ancient capital of the ^Edui, between the Arar (Saone) and Liger (Loire), in Gallia Lugdunensis ; scene of a murderous battle between Coesar and the Helvetii in B.C. 58. Brundisium (Brindisi), a town and harbour in Calabria ; the Via Appia ended here, and it was the usual place of embarkation for Greece and the East ; colonised by Rome in B.C. 244 ; in B.C. 40 it was besieged by M. Antonius, but a peace was arranged and a fresh division of the provinces made by the triumvirs. Byzantium (Constantinople), on the Bosphorus, always of great commercial imjDortance owing to its position, which commanded the entrance to the Euxine ; stood a siege of three years before it was taken by Severus in a.d. 196 ; a new city was built on its site in A.D. 330 by Constantine, who clianged its name and made it the capital of the empire. Camalodunum (Colchester), the capital of the Trinobantes in Britam, and the first Roman colony, founded by Claudius in a d 43 • Suetonius Paulinus gained a great victory here over Boadicea and the Iceni in a.d. 61. Canna, a village in Apulia, near Canusium ; memorable for Han- nibal's crushing defeat of the Romans in b.c. 216. Cantabri, a liighland people in the N. of Spain ; very fierce and warlike ; Augustus made frequent efforts to subdue them (27-19) but It wa^ not till B.C. 19 that Vipsanius Agrippa settled them in the plains and ended their aggressions. Caprea, a small island, off Campanian coast ; here Tiberius spent the last ten years of his reign. Capua, the chief city of Campania ; its wealth in early tunes attracted the Samnites, and, to guard against their encroachments, Capua put itself under Roman protection in B.C. 343 ; in spite of this, Capua revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannse, but, being retaken by the Romans in B.C. 211, was so fearfully punished that it never recovered its old prosperity. Carra (Haran or Charran), a city of Osroene in Mesopotamia, not far from Edessa ; M. Crassus and a Roman army were annihilated here by the Parthians, with the loss of standards and prisoners. Carthago Nova (Carthagena), a town with very fine harbour on the E. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, founded by Hasdrubal in B.C. 243 as the capital of the Punic Empire in Spain ; w^as surprised and captured with a vast amount of stores and war material by P. Scipio in B.C. 210. Casilinum, a fortified town in Campania, commanding the Vul- turnus, celebrated for its heroic defence against Hannibal in B.C. 216. Caudine Forks or Caudina Furcula, a narrow pass near Caudium in Samnium, on the road from Capua to Beneventum ; here two consular armies surrendered, and were sent under the yoke by Gains Pontius, the Samnite, in B.C. 321. Charonea, in Bceotia, near the frontier of Phocis, memorable for Sulla's victory in B.C. 86 over Mithradates. Cirta (Constantine), a city of the Massylii, in Nuinidia, 50 miles from the sea ; the capital of Syphax, Massinissa, and his successors. Here Jugurtha massacred a large number of Italian traders in B.C. 112, and so provoked Rome to declare war. Clusium, one of the most powerful of the twelve Etruscan cities, situated on a slight hill above the river Clanis ; the capital of Porsena ; besieged by the Gauls in B.C. 391 ; probably became a colony afterwards. Corfinium, chief to\vn of the Peligni in Samnium, strongly forti- fied ; the Italians in the Social war intended it to be the new capital of Italy under the title * Italica.' Corinth, situated on the isthmus between the Corinthian and Saronic gulfs ; its favourable position between two seas raised it to great commercial prosperity, which it retained until its sack by L. Mummius in B.C. 146 ; it was rebuilt and colonised with veterans by J. C?esar in B.C. 46. Cynoscephala, two hills near Scotussa in Thessaly, where Flami- ninus, the Roman general, broke the power of Philip of Macedon in B.C. 197, and declared the independence of Greece. 24 I^ES ROMANAE. wtA Laisar, and the scene of Pompey's most successful manceuvres. EcnomuB, at mouth of river Himora in « iir a- -i of Eegulus over Pmuc fleetl b c Ssl ' ^'"'^ = ^"^^ ^"''y Flfr^/^n- "f •"'P''*' °^ *^ A"'«™i. O" a high hill S W of th. S brct;: *e neighWhood of the miern cLtL 1' wsiegea by Ltesar without success, bc 52 abo"vfthi^"''"i* *""■" " ^'■^P""^ Tanaconensis, on a height above the river Sicoris • in r p 4q t n i r. , . ^leignc Idlybaeum (Marsala), a town in W nf Qin^'i, vt, harbour ODnosite f.. /L tt r/ '''^^' ''''^^ ^^ excellent GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 2S Lugdunum (Lyons), chief to\\Ti of Gallia Lugdimensis, at the con- fluence of the Arar (Saone) and Rhodanus (Rhone) ; was made a colony in B.C. 43 ; the " ara Augusti " (c/., Juvenal, i. 44), dedicated by Gauls to Augustus, stood here ; famous for its vast public works, especially its great aqueduct. iST.B.— Lugdunum Batavorum, i.e, Leyden. Magnesia, a city in N.AV. Lydia, at the foot of Mount Sipylus, famous as the scene of the victory gained by L. Scipio and his brother Africanus in B.C. 190 over Antiochus the Great of Syria, which secured to the Romans the Empire of the East. Mantua, on the river Mincius, in Gallia Transpadana, in the neighbourhood of which Vergil was born in B.C. 70. Massilia (Marseilles), a Greek colony in Gallia Narbonensis, dating from 7th century B.C. on the coast of the Mediterranean, with a splendid harbour easily protected ; a great naval and commercial city from the earliest times ; cultivated Roman friendship, and so retained its independence ; in the civil war in B.C. 49 it sided with Pompey, but after a stubborn siege had to submit to Ciesar ; under the Em- pire became one of the chief seats of learning. Messana (Messina) on the N.E. coast of Sicily on the straits ; with excellent harbour and situation for trade ; seized in B.C. 282 by some mercenaries, called Mamertini, it became involved in war with Hiero ; the Mamertini invoked aid from Carthage and from Rome ; both powers were glad to interfere, and Messana thus became the immediate cause of the 1st Pmiic war, B.C. 264. Metaurus, a small river in Umbria, flowing into the Adriatic, rendered memorable by the defeat and death of Hasdrubal on its banks in B.C. 207 ; this was the death-blow to Hannibal's hopes of help from Spain. Mintumse, a tovm in Latium, on the frontiers of Campania ; Via Appia passed through it ; became a colony in B.C. 296 ; near it, in the swamps of the Liris, Marius was caught hiding, in B.C. 88. Misenum, a promontory in Campania, S. of Cumoe ; Augustus formed a harbour here and made it the chief naval station in the Tyrrhene sea ; here in B.C. 39 a conference was held and peace was made by Octavian and Antony with Sextus Pompeius. Munda, a Roman colony in Hispania Baetica, apparently in the neighbourhood of Cordova ; J. Csesar gained a great victory over the sons of Pompey here in B.C. 45. 36 X£S ROMANAE. Via ^mUm ; became a colony in B.C. 183 ; celebrated in the ci^l Narbo(Narbonne),on the river Atax in S.Gaul, capital of GalliaNar nZI "■"' ' f °°^ " "•'^- ' '« ("'« fi^^' «°«- colony's and PeW *r''^ ''''"'^''" ^•^- '=°^' °f Sicily, wL Myte s:i't.iiiSinTc.r' ^'^'°^^ "^ ^^p~ ^^^ -- Sound bvitfr' T" '^''' ''''''' °^ ^^""''^ = ™^ "^"^t to the ground by its &,mnite garrison in the Social war ; afterwards rebuilt and made a colony by Vespasian. aiwrwards rebuilt Numantia, most important to^vn in Celtiberia, near the sources of the Duruis (Douro) ; strongly fortified by art and nature • the l^d techomenu8, a town in Bocotia N.W. of lake Copais, on the river Pergamum or -us, a celebrated town in Asia Minor the catiital nf wL at ?t^ v\ rT f ^•'- ^^ ' ^' ^'^ *^^^' t^^» that the town Z Ik ^.f "\^P^^f -r' its library a rival to that of Alexandria^ and Itself the centre of a great school of literature. Attains III "^^z:t^t^T^^^ "^ ^^^^- - --> -^ it be™: TiL?oLVoW '? '\ ^'f ^'?? ^'"^^^ ^^^ T^^i--« --d the liber one of the twelve cities of the Etruscan Confederacv • subse quent^y becme a colony of Rome ; in the civil wars itl^ £t GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 27 Phaxsalia or -us, a town in Thessaly near the frontiers of Phthiotis, W. of the river Enipeus ; near Pharsalus was fought the decisive battle between Pompey and Caesar in B.C. 48. Philippi, a city in Macedonia, on Mount Pangseus ; two battles here in b c 42, in the first of which Brutus was victorious, but Cassius kiued himself ; in the second (twenty days later), Brutus was defeated and committed suicide ; Ajitony and Octavian were commanding against the republicans ; Horace, the poet, was a tribune in the army of Brutus. Pistoria, a small place in Etruria, between Luca and Elorentiaj Catiline made his last stand here, and was defeated and killed m BC 62 * Placentia (Piacenza), a colony in Cisalpine Gaul, on right bank of the Po, founded at the same time as Cremona, on the left bank ot the Po, B.C. 218, to secure that district against the Bon and Insu- bres ; a source of annoyance to the Gauls, who took and destroyed it in B.C. 200, but it was soon rebuilt and became an important place. . . - Porta Collina, most northerly of the gates of Rome, at junction ot Via Salaria and Via Nomentana ; in B.C. 82 Sulla and M. Crassus annihilated 40,000 Samnites here, who had sided with the Marians and marched on Rome. Portus Itius (?Witsand), a harbour of the Morini on N. coast of Gaul, from which J. Ctesar sailed for Britain in B.C. 55. Pr»neste, an ancient town of Latium, about 20 miles S.E. of Rome ; strongly fortified by art and nature ; the younger Marius took refuge here, and was besieged by Sulla in B.C. 82 ; on its sur- render most of its citizens were butchered. Pydna, a tovvn of Macedonia, W. of the Thermaic gulf ; under its walls iEmilius Paulus utterly defeated Perseus, the last king of Macedon, in B.C. 168. RhsBti (the Grisons in Switzerland, and greater part of the Tyrol), a brave and warlike people, who caused the Romans much trouble by their marauding expeditions into Gaul and the N. of Italy ; not finally subdued till the reign of Augustus by his stepsons, Drusus and Tiberius, B.c. 15. Rhsetia then became a province, to which Vindelicia was afterwards added ; Tridentum (Trent) was the capital. Rubicon, a small river in Italy, falling into the Adriatic a little N. of Ariminum ; the boundary in republican times between Gallia 28 ^ES ROMAIVAE. CMpina and Italy proper ; hence a^sar, in crossing it at the head ZtZl W' "I'r"^ '"^^"^ ^'^ - the Republ c Rutupia (Richborough), a port of the Cantii (Kent) in S F jJUiro; about 3 nules from the coast ; althoiwh south of the Iberus m B.C. 219 was the immediate cause of the 2nd Punic war • it fell Zr ^^l f ^^' '"' '^'"* *« P<*t Catullus had an estate Sj^cuse, the wealthiest and met populous town in Sicityfon S ^rt of E coast near the mouth of the river Anapiis ■ famous in Roman history for the great siege, lasting two year^ by M Mar TuTc ?2 tom^iv f*^ t *^ «Mful%p»itfon of Z^X m ac. 212 , from this time Syracuse became part of the province of Taxentmn, an important Greek city in S. Italy, on W coast nf many centuries, it came into conflict ^vith Rome in b r 9«i . fi^o nerea severely till Pyrrhus was defeated at Beneventum bv renaZVi:^^^^^ ^"^^"^ '^'^ '^ Tarentursur' thr2i^rCr t"""^ ^"^ "^ ^''' ^P "^^^' «^"P«' ^^d walls. In re£ in B c loQ ^^^5^ -^^^^ to Hannibal, b.c. 212, but was iwT ^ ^^ ^- ^^^'^ Maximus, and so severely treated that It never recovered its former importance ^ a JrelHilr^^^^^ ''^ i'^''^' '' ^^^^^^^ ^ '^ ''' neighbourhood B.C. 225^ ^ ^"^ ^^^'^ "^^^ '^^ ^^^^1^ V C. Atilius Regulus in ofSThetVV'^' "'""' ""'' ^' ^'^ ^^^ Roman province oi Alrica, where J. CcTsar, m b.c. 46, defeated the Pompeia^ • Cato Uticensis committed suicide after the battle. ' GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 29 Tibur (Tivoli), an ancient town of Latium, 16 miles N.E. of Rome, on left bank of the Anio ; one of the chief towns of the Latm League ; famous for its beautiful natural scenery and magnificent waterfall ; extensive remains of the Emperor Hadrian's splendid villa still exist. Tigranocerta, the cajDital of Armenia, strongly fortified on a height in the valley between Mts. Masius and Niphates ; under its walls Lucullus defeated Mithradates the Great and Tigranes, and captured the city, B.C. 69. Tolosa (Toulouse), a town of Gallia Narbonensis on the Garumna ; famous for its temple ; town and temple were plundered by Ciepio in B.C. 106 ; his utter defeat by the Cimbri in the next year was regarded as a judgment on his impiety ; hence a proverb for ill- gotten gains, " Aurum Tolosanum habet." Tomi, a town of Thrace, on W. shore of the Euxine, a little south of the mouths of the Danube ; Ovid's place of exile, a.d. 8 to 18. Trasimene Lake (Lago di Perugia), a lake in Etruria, l3etween Clusium and Perusia, memorable for Hannibars great victory over the Consul C. Flaminius in b.c. 217. Tusculum (near Frascati), an ancient town of Latium, about 10 miles S.E. of Rome, high on the hills, one of the strongest positions in Italy ; a favourite summer residence of the Roman nobles ; Cicero had a villa here in which he composed the Tusculance Disputationes ; became a municipmm in B.C. 381. Utica, greatest city of ancient Africa, after Carthage, 27 Roman miles N.W. of Carthage, a little W. of the mouth of the Bagradas ; in 3rd Punic war Utica sided with Rome against Carthage and received much of the Carthaginian territory; the younger Cato (Uticensis) held it for the Pompeians in the Civil war, but after their rout at Thapsus in B.C. 46, he committed suicide here. Uxellodunum (near Cahors), in Gallia Aquitanica ; here the Gallic patriots made their last hopeless stand against J. Caesar, B.C. 51. Vadimo Lacus (Lago di Bassano), a small circular lake in Etruria, minutely described by the younger Pliny ; celebrated for two gi-eat defeats of the Etruscans by the Romans, first in B.C. 310, and again, when united with the Boii, in B.C. 283. Veil (Isola Farnese), one of the most ancient and powerful cities of Etruria, on the river Cremera, about 12 miles from Rome; 30 RES ROMANAE. Rome's most dangerous rival in early times ; unceasing hostiUties between them for more than three and a half centuries ; Veii was at last captured by the Dictator Camillus, after a siege of ten years, m B.C. 396 ; its land was apportioned among the plebs., and its site' abandoned. Venusia (Venosa), a to^vn of Apulia, S. of the river Aufidus, the birthplace of the poet Horace, b.c. 65 ; the remnants of the Roman army took refuge here after l)attle of Cannre in B.C. 216. Vercellae, in Gallia Transpadana, on the Raudine plain, between the Padus (Po) and Eporedia ; it was here that Marius, with the aid of Catulus, destroyed the Cimbri in B.C. 101. Vesuvius, the celebrated volcanic moimtain in Campania, S.E. of Neapolis. In its crater Spartacus intrenched himself, and made it the headquarters of the Gladiatorial or Servile war, 73-70. The great eruption occurred in a.d. 79, burying Herculaneum and Pompeii. Zama Regia (Djama), a strongly fortified city in the interior of Numidia, on the borders of the Carthaginian territory, about 80 miles S.W. of Carthage ; the great battle, in which Scipio Africanus major m B.C. 202 defeated Hannibal and ended the 2nd Punic war, takes Its name from this place, though it was actually fought on the river Bagradas (Mejerdeh), from which Zama is distant some days' march to the east. Zela or Ziela, a city in S. Pontus ; tvvdce memorable in Roman lustory, first m b.c. 67, when Triarius, a lieutenant of LucuUus, and 7000 Romans were defeated by Mithradates ; secondly, when J. Cc^sar defeated Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates, in b.c. 47, with such ease that he is said to have sent home merely this despatch, Veni, vidi, vici," intended perhaps as a covert criticism on Pom- peys vaunted exploits against Mithradates. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. Agricola, Cn. Julius, born a.d. 37, served first in Britain A.D. 60 under Suetonius Paulinus ; father-in-law of Tacitus, the historian ; consul in 77 ; governor of Britain in 78, for seven years, during which he subdued the whole country except the highlands of Cale- donia ; recalled by Domitian from jealousy in 85 ; died, perhaps from poison, in 93. Tacitus' Life of Agricola is still extant. Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, born in B.C. 63, was with Octavius (after- wards the Emperor Augustus) at Apollonia when J. Caesar was murdered ; induced Octavius to proceed at once to Rome and enter on his heritage ; his great military abilities contributed largely to the success of Augustus ; his chief military exploits were his naval victory over Sextus Pompeius at Naulochus in 36 ; com- manded the fleet at Actium in 31 ; finally subdued the Cantabri in 19 ; besides various commands in Gaul, Germany, Syria, and Pannonia ; executed several great public works, e.g., the Portus Julius (a harbour formed out of the Avernus and Lucrine lake), the Pantheon, the Aqueduct at Nemausus (Nismes). In 21 he married Julia, daughter of Augustus, by the Emperor's order, and it was generally supposed Agrippa would succeed his master. He died, however, before him in B.C. 12, a disappointed man, having ceased to be in favour before his death. A daughter of his, Vipsania, was married to Tiberius, afterwards Emperor ; another daughter, Agrip- pina, was married to Germanicus, among her children l^eing the Emperor Caligula, and Agrippina the mother of the Emperor Nero ; his three sons, C. Caesar, Lucius Ctesar, and Agrippa Postumus all died young, the last being put to death by Tiberius, on his accession in A.D. 14. Antiochus the Great (B.C. 223-187), King of Syria, was engaged in constant wars with his neighbours, and with marked success, until 32 A*ES ROMANAE. he crossed into Eurojje in 196, and seized the Thracian Chersonese. This brought him into contact with the Romans, who commanded him to restore it to the Macedonian king ; he refused, in which resohition he was strengthened by Hamiibal, who had come to his court in 195. Hannibal's advice was to invade Italy at once, but Antiochus, instead, crossed into Greece in 192, and was defeated at Thermopylae in 191, and again at Magnesia in 190 ; severe condi- tions were imjDOsed on him, and in robbing a temple to raise some of the war indemnity, he was killed by the people of Elymais, 187. Antonius, M., the triumvir, was brought up by Lentulus, his step- father, who was afterwards put to death by Cicero in 63 as one of Catiline's conspirators ; hence Antony's antipathy to Cicero ; served with some distinction in Syria in 58 ; joined Csesar in Gaul in 54, and from this time onwards, l^ecame an active partisan of Ciesar ; tribune of the people in 49, he vetoed the decree of the Senate ordering Ciesar to dismiss his army and give up his province ; then fled to Caesar's camp ; commanded the left wing at the battle of PharsaliLs ; consul in 44, he offered Caesar the royal diadem at the Lupercalia ; after Caesar's murder, Antony secured his papers and treasure, and proceeded to make political capital out of his will and documents, and also to falsify his notes and forge others. Cicero unmasked his designs in the Philippic orations, and Octavian set to work, with the aid of the Senate, to crush Antony. Meantime Antony set out for Cisalpine Gaul, which had been decreed him by the people in direct opposition to the Senate ; but Decimus Brutus refused to surrender the province. This led to the siege of Mutina by Antony, and to his being declared a public enemy by the Senate. The consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, and Octavian marched against him in 43 and raised the siege ; both consuls, however, had fallen, and the Senate had foolishly shown its jealousy of Octavian. The latter had already marched against Antony, who had entered Italy mth seventeen legions, when a conference took place at Bononia ; a coali- tion was arranged, and Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus received a commission as " triumviri reipublicaj constituendie," known as the 2nd Triumvirate, for the next five years. The mutual enemies of each were proscribed, Cicero falling a victim to Antony's hatred. In 42 Antony and Octavian crushed the republicans at Philippi, but a rivalry was already growing up between the two, and, though the treaty of Brundisium for a while averted a collision, by giving Antony command in the East, and Octavian in the West, it was clear BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 33 that sooner or later the two would resort to force. In 37 the Trium- virate was renewed for five years ; but Antony on returning to the East, severed the last link between Octavian and himself by aban- doning his wife, Octavia, the sister of Octavian, and surrendering himself entirely to the fascinations of Cleopatra. In 36 he invaded Parthia, but was defeated with heavy loss. Both rivals meantime had been prei)aring for the inevitable struggle, and in 32 Octavian obtained the abrogation of Antony's command in the East, and the declaration of war against Cleopatra. The contest was decided by the sea-fight off Actium, 31, in which Antony, deserted by Cleopatra, was completely defeated. He fled to Alexandria, but, on Octavian's appearance before that city in 30, put an end to his life. iV^.i^.— The triumvir must not be confused with (1) M. Antonius, the famous orator, born B.C. 143, died 87 ; who held a command against the pirates in 104 ; and as a member of Sulla's party, was put to death by Marius. (2) C. Antonius Hybrida, younger son of the orator, and uncle of the triumvir, who was Cicero's colleague in the consulship, B.C. 63. Appius Claudius Caecus, the Censor, was elected censor in 312 without having been consul previously ; whilst censor he built the famous Appian aqueduct, and began the Via Appia ; held this office for four years ; was twice consul, 307 and 296 ; in his old age induced the senate to reject the terms of peace offered by Pyrrhus ; was the earliest Roman writer in prose and verse whose name we know. Arminius, chief of the Cherusci, a tribe inhabiting the country to the N. of the Hartz mountains. Born in B.C. 18 he had served in Roman armies, and had even been enrolled among the *equites.' In A.D. 9 he persuaded his countrymen to rise against Rome. The result was that Quintilius Amarus, the Roman governor, with three legions, was destroyed, and the Romans had to relinquish their possessions beyond the Rhine. Subsequent attempts of Arminius against Germanicus were not so successful. He was put to death by his own relations in a.d. 19, on a charge of aiming at absolute power. Aurelius, M. Antoninus, 'the philosopher,' Roman emperor, a.d. 161-180 ; was adopted by Antoninus Pius ; on his accession he shared the empire with L. Aurelius Verus, who carried on war successfully against the Parthians. Both emperors then had to defend the northern frontier. M. Aurelius, with his headquarters in Pannonia, prosecuted the war against the Marcomaimi with C 34 I^ES ROMANAE. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 35 great success. In 174 he gained a decisive victory over the Quadi, (the miracle of *the Thundering Legion'). Still the Marcomanni gave him no rest, and he died in the middle of the war, in 180, at Vindobona (Vienna). He was devoted to philosophy and litera- ture ; a Stoic throughout his life ; his Meditatiotis in twelve books, still extant, are the noblest exposition of heathen philosophy we possess ; and yet his philosophy did not prevent two persecutions of the Christians in his reign. Brutus, L. Junius, the nephew of Tarquinius Superbus ; his elder brother having been murdered by this tp'ant, he escaped a like fate by feigning idiocy ; famous in Roman legend as having ex- pelled the Tarquins and abolished monarchy, B.C. 510 ; j)ut his own two sons to death for trying to restore the Tarquins ; was the first consul with Tarquinius Collatinus. Brutus, M., the tyrannicide, nephew of Cato of Utica, by whom he was trained in strict aristocratical principles ; hence on the outbreak of the civil war he joined Pomjiey ; was pardoned by Caesar after Pharsalus, 48, and received from him numerous marks of confidence and favour, being made by him governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 46 and praetor in 44. Still he persuaded himself into the belief that, by murdering Caisar, the old republic might be restored. (Ides of March, b.c. 44.) After Caesar's death he proceeded to Macedonia, the province Csesar had promised him ; here he was joined by Cassius and others of the conspirators, and their imited forces were opposed by Antony and Octavian. Two battles were fought near Philippi in 42, and the republican cause was finally lost. Brutus put an end to Ms life after the defeat. An ardent student, given to indulging in philosophic dreams, Brutus lacked judgment and a true appreciation of facts. Camillus, M. Furius, one of the gi*eat heroes of the early republic ; after holding numerous offices he was made dictator in B.C. 396, when he utterly defeated the Faliscans and Fidenates and took Veii ; accused of having unfairly distributed the booty at Veii, he went into voluntary exile in 391. Next year the Gauls took Rome ; Camillus was recalled just in time to save his countrymen from utter ruin ; henceforth, to the end of his life in 365, he was engaged in constant wars on Rome's liehalf. A resolute champion of the patricians against the pleljeians, he was also the great general of his age ; hence certain reforms in the army, such as the introduction of pay, the formation in three lines, etc., have been attributed, without much authority, to him ; in fact, his whole history is so overlaid with legend and tradition that it is difficult to extract the truth. Caractacus, king of the Silures (South Wales) in Britain, bravely defended his country against the Romans, in the reign of Claudius ; •defeated at length and captured, a.d. 51, he was taken to Rome ; but Claudius, delighted with his nobility of character, pardoned him. Cassivellaunus, a British chief, north of the Thames, to whom the supreme command was entrusted by the Britons on J. Caesar's second invasion in B.C. 54 ; was defeated, and oliliged to sue for peace. Catilina, L. Sergius, the descendant of an ancient patrician family wliich had sunk into poverty ; his youth and early manhood were stained by every sort oT profligacy and crime ; prietor, B.C. 68, in Africa ; impeaclied by P. Clodius for oppression in his province, he was disqualified for the consulship in 65 ; exasperated at this, he formed a plot to murder the coilsuIs. This scheme just miscarried, owing to the signal being given prematurely. A second conspiracy on a much more extensive scale, in which all the large discontented classes were to take part, was only discovered and crushed by the vigilance of the consul Cicero. Murder, firing of the city, confisca- tion of property, were all to be resorted to ; but Cicero having accurate information, through the envoys of the Allobroges and also through Fulvia, of every step in the conspiracy, was aljle at the right moment to denounce Catiline, having first thoroughly secured the city. Catiline fled from Rome to Etruria, and made a desperate stand with his army of outlaws and malcontents at Pistoria. Here he fell, fighiing to the last, and most of liis followers with him. Meantime the other chief conspirators had been arrested by Cicero^s orders and smmnarily executed. Cato, M. Porcius, the Censor ; born B.C. 234 ; early distinguished himself as a soldier ; quiiestor in 204 under the Proconsul Scipio Africanus major in Sicily and Africa ; a Roman of the old school, he entirely disapproved of the luxury and extravagance of Scipio and his friends. As governor of Sardinia in 198, he oljtained a great reputation for pure morality and strict virtue, as a type of which he is always represented in Latin >vriters. His greatest 36 J^ES ROMANAE, BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 37 military success was in 191, when he served under Glabrio against Antiochus in Greece, and, by turning the king's position at the pas» of Thermopylae, practically won the battle. Henceforth he seems to have devoted himself to civil life, waging war with the bitterest animosity against the new luxury and refinement imported from Greece ; especially l)itter was he against the Scipios ; censor in 184,. he carried out his duties so sternly tliat his censorship became a by-word for old-fashioned strictness. Narrow-minded and bigoted to an almost ridiculon^ degree, he was one of the chief instigators of the third Punic war, with his incessant "Delenda est Carthago." He died in b.c. 149, aged 85. Of his numerous works one only> the Be Re Rustica^ has come down to us. Cato Uticensis, great-grandson of the above, was born in B.C. 95 ; he inherited the same stern, unyielding cliaracter, and was con- spicuous for his rigid morality among the profligate nobles of his age ; served fii-st against Sjiartacus in 72 ; as tribune of the plel3S in 63 supported Cicero in proposing the death of the Catilinarian con- spirators ; as a leader of the aristocratiail party violently opposed PomjDey, Caesar, and Crassus ; on the outbreak of civil war he joined Pompey in Greece ; crossed to Africa after Pliarsalus ; was present at Thapsus in 46 ; committed suicide at Utica when all wa& lost. He is personified by Lucan as a type of godlike virtue, and there are frequent allusions in Roman poetry to his " nobile letum." Cicero, M. Tullias Cicero, born B.C. 106 at Arpinum ; carefully educated under the best teachers, he came forward as a pleader^ delivering his first extant speech in 81 ; next year he defended Roscius of Ameria ("pro Roscio Amerino"), but having oflended Sulla by opposing one Chrysogonus, a favourite freedman of his, he left for Athens ; here he studied hard, and formed the friendship of Pomponius Atticus ; returning to Rome in 77, he met with extra- ordinary success as a pleader, and his fame in the forum paved the way for him to the offices of state. In 75 he was quaestor in Sicily ; in 70 he impeached Verres for extortion and general maladminis- tration in the same province ; prajtor in 66 ; consul in 63, though a ' novus homo ' ; to this post he was raised by a union of the optimates with the equites. His consulship was memorable for the second conspiracy of Catiline, and its suppression by Cicero's energy and prudence. As soon as he laid dowTi his consulship, his political enemies and the friends of the conspirators attacked him, and Cicero, deserted by the party which had used him as long as it suited their turn, found himself .almost alone, — a cruel blow to his personal vanity •and self-importance. Clodius led the agitation against him, and eventually, as tribune, in 58 brought forward a measure inflicting banishment on anyone who had executed a citizen without trial. Cicero, seeing that this was aimed directly at him, withdrew as an exile to Greece. A year later he was enabled to return by the influence of Pompey. Disposed at first to oppose the triumvirs, and lead the senate against them, he was outmanoeuvred by the recon- ciliation between them effected at the "Conference of Luca" in 56, and was compelled to submit and recant. For the next few years Cicero played no very prominent part in politics. In 52, very much against his will, he was sent as proconsul to Cilicia, returning to Rome in 49, on the eve of the outbreak of civil war between Pompey and C.iesar. After hesitating for some time, he decided to throw in his lot with Pompey ; Csesar, however, pardoned him after Phar- salus, and treated him with much consideration. During the next four years he busied himself with numerous j)hilosophical and rhetorical works, and it was not till Caesar's murder in 44 that he again emerged into public life. In the confusion consequent on this €vent, the senate, with Cicero at its head, turned to C. Octavius {Octavian). Seeing through Antony's designs, Cicero attacked him with unsparing vehemence in the Philippic orations. Hence, when the second triumvirate was formed, Cicero again found himself left to his fate, and Antony was not slow in exacting vengeance for " the Philippics," sending soldiers to execute Cicero, 43. As a statesman, Cicero cannot be defended from the charge of weakness and vacilla- tion, while his vanity was excessive to an almost ridiculous degree ; on the other hand, he was honest in an age when political honesty was almost unknown, true to his friends who deserted him shame- fully in the hour of need, and the embodiment of constitutional government. In less troubled times, Cicero would doubtless have fared better ; indeed, he might liave succeeded in impressing on posterity the same high estimate of himself which he honestly believed to be his due, but to which his public career scarcely entitles him. But it is as an orator and master of the Latin lan- guage that Cicero's name will always be remembered. In him Latin reached its higliest perfection, whether as a written or spoken tongue. Of his orations fifty-six are extant ; also numerous philo- eophical and rhetorical works, and a vast mass of correspondence, fiome 800 letters, to and from friends and political connections. l> 38 ^£■5 ROMANAE. i Civilis, Claudius, leader of tlie Batavi and Frisii in their revolt from Rome, a.d. 69, 70 ; his brother had been put to death on a false charge of treason, and he himself with difficulty escaped ; he took up arms on pretence of supporting the cause of Vespasian,, and defeated in succession the generals of Vitellius in Gaul and Grermany, but continued in open revolt even after the death of Vitellius ; was at length defeated by Petilius Cerealis, when peace was granted to the Batavi on favourable terms. What became of Civilis is not knowTi. Clodius, P. Claudius Pulcer, generally known as Clodius, the notorious enemy of Cicero, and one of the most profligate characters of the age. Brought to trial in b.c. 61 for profaning the mysteries of " the Bona Dea," he was only acquitted by bribing the judges. Cicero upset his attempt to prove an alibi ; hence Clodius conceived his liatred of him. He had himself adopted into a plebeian family, and was made a tribune of the people in 58, when he supported the coalition of Pompey, Ctesar, and Crassus. Amongst several mea- sures he then introduced, was a bill to punish with banishment any one who had executed a citizen without trial. This was, of course, aimed at Cicero for his execution of the Catilinarian conspirators, and Cicero liad to go into banishment for one year. He was recalled, however, next year, owing to the influence of Pompey and the efforts of Milo, another tribune. This led to a fierce quarrel between Clodius and Milo ; both kept gladiators in their pay, and fights in the streets were frequent. In 53 Milo stood for the consulship and Clodius for the prsetorship ; i)arty spirit was running very high, Milo supporting the government, Clodius the popular jmrty and Caesar's interests ; at length a collision took place on the Via Appia near Bovillne, in which Clodius was killed, B.C. 52. Riots ensued, and Pompey was chosen by the Senate as sole consul to restore order ; Milo was tried, and, though defended by Cicero, was con- demned and exiled to Massilia (Marseilles). Corbulo, Cn. Domitius, a distinguished general under the Emperors Claudius and Nero ; carried on war successfully in Germany against the Chauci in a.d. 47 ; but is chiefly famous for his campaigns, begun in a.d. 54, against the Parthians, whom he repeatedly defeated and inspired \ri\\\ a wholesome respect for the Roman name ; his successes, however, provoked Nero's jealousy, and this able, unam- bitious soldier, whose only fault was his loyalty and strict adherence to duty, was ordered to put an end to his o^\^l life, a.d. 67, I BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 39 Crassus, P. Licinius (orator), the greatest orator of his time {cf. Cicero's work De Oratore^ where Crassus probably expresses Cicero's own sentiments) ; first attracted notice at age of twenty- one by prosecuting C. Carbo (b.c. 119) ; Carbo committed suicide. Consul in 95 he proposed a law to compel all non-citizens to quit Rome ; the rigour of this law was one of the causes of the Social War ; when censor in 92 he caused the schools of the Latin rhetoricians to be closed ; his exertions in support of the proposals of M. Livius Drusus, the tribune, for reform are said to have hastened his death, which followed a week later, B.C. 91. Crassus, M. Licinius, kno\ni either as "dives" or as the Tri- umvir, jninPfl Snlla. aphist tliP. Marian partv. and was rewarded with donations of confiscated property ; prietor in B.C. 71 he defeated Spartacus, and ended the Gladiatorial or Servile war ; consul in 70 with Pompey, when the Sullan constitution was over- thrown by "tlieir legislation ; ^' oins C;esar in 66 in heading the democratic opposition to Pompey ; censor in 65, proposes to admit the TranspaJaiies'to citizenship, and to make Egypt tributary; member of the coalition, known as the lst Triumvi rate (Pompey, Ciesar, Crassus) ; consul a second llliie iiTSs, receives a command for fi\^e^ears in Syria ; defgated by the Parthians at Carrae in the plains of Mesopotamia, and treacherously murdered. M. C rassus was undoubtedly the greatest finan cier of his ti me ; and to ma ke mon ey he e mp loyed e very ilibU nS-^ w orking: m ines^ iajsiuag, loans, limisp-hnildinpr^ the instruction of numerous slaves in lucrative arts, financing of companies, — a ll were tried successfully by Crassus. In his first consulship he entertained the populace at 10,000 tables ; and no doubt ii_^^-as largely his enormous wealth which induced Coesar and Pomp ey to associ ^^^ him with tlirnijnj2l,"il""'^"'^''''"° designs. Curius, M'. Dentatus, a hero of the Roman republic, celebrated in later times as a type of frugality and virtue. Consul first in B.C. 290 he successfully opposed the Samnites, while in his second consulship in 275 he so thoroughly defeated PjTrhus at Beneventuni that that king was obliged to quit Italy. Censor in 272 he carried out several important public works, e.g. the "Anio Vetus," an aqueduct built from the spoils of Pyrrhus. Drusus, Claudius Nero, the elder, the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia, and younger brother of the Emperor Tiberius ; born B.C. 38 ; popular with the people, and trusted by Augustus ; carried on 40 J^ES ROMANAE, BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX: 41 M war against the Germans, B.C. 12-9, advancing as far as the Albis (Elbe) ; died in B.C. 9, owing to a fall from his horse. Drusus Cfflsar, or Drusus the Younger, was the son of Tiberius by Vipsania ; married Livia, the sister of Germaniciis ; was poisoned by Sejanus to get him out of his way in the line of succession a.d. 23. Duilius, C, consul B.C. 260, famous as the first Roman admiral who won a gi'eat naval victory ; in this year he defeated the Cartha- ginians with heavy loss at Mylse, off N.E. Sicily in the 1st Punic war, grappling their ships by means of gi-appling-irons (corvi) and boarding-bridges ; he then raised the siege of Segesta, and on his return to Rome, commemorated the victory by a column in the Forum, adorned with the l^eaks of the conquered ships (" Columna Rostrata"). Fabius, Q. Maximus (Cunctator), one of the most prominent characters in Roman history during the earlier half of the Hanni- balian war ; after the disaster at lake Trasimene in B.C. 217, Fabius, who had already held all the highest offices with distinction, was appointed dictator. His policy, from which came the name " Cunc- tator" or "Delayer," was to avoid all direct encounter with Han- nibal, Ijut to keep a close watch on him, and harass him by cutting off supplies and making liis position untenable. This policy was sound and for a while successful ; but when his detractors, misinter- preting his caution, clamoured for war and raised his "magister e«|uitum " to the same level as himself in the field, the inevitable result followed. After more disasters, his countrymen once more made use of his services, electing him consul both in 215 and 214. It was by his advice that a reconciliation was effected between senate and people, and the rule of skilled generals initiated ; to his policy it is due that no further crushing disaster has to be recorded after Cannae ; it was his influence which made the senate persist in the siege of Capua in 211 ; in 209 he recaptured Tarentum ; while in 208 he rendered, perhaps, his most sterling service of all by recon- ciling the consuls elect, M. Livius Salinator and C. Claudius Nero, on the very eve of Hasdrubal's arrival in Italy. In the later phases of the war, he appears to less advantage ; perhaps he was jealous of a younger rival ; at any rate, he opposed the policy of invading Africa, and apparently failed to grasp the significance of the new era in the war inaugurated by Scipio. He died in 203, opposed to Scipio to the last. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, the son of Cornelia and brother- in-law of Scipio ^milianus Africanus minor ; the distress of tke poorer classes deeply excited his compassion. Accordingly, when made tribime in B.C. 133, he proposed an agrarian law with a view to creating an industrious class of agriculturists, and checkmg the avarice of the nobles and the use of slave labour. The public land was to be portioned out in small lots at moderate rents, and the wealth of Attains, King of Pergamus, unexpectedly bequeathed m this year to the Roman people, was to be used in stocking the farms, etc. A commission was appointed to carry out the scheme, but when Tiberius tried to secure re-election as tribune, a riot was set on foot by the aristocrats, whom P. Scipio Nasica headed, and Tiberius was killed, at the age of 35. Gracchus, Gaius Sempronius, brother of the above, and, like him, an ardent reformer of the people's wrongs— though he went much further. Tribime in B.C. 123 and 122 he at once renewed his brother's agrarian law, set on foot a scheme of colonisation, and dis- tributed cheap com ; he bettered the lot of the soldier, by giving him the right of ' provocatio,' by shortening the term of service, and by supplying his clothing from the State fimds. Also, he enacted that the * judices ' should be chosen from the ' equites,' not as before from the Senate, and that the Senate should decide the provinces which the consuls should liave, hejore their election. The Senate, imable to resist Gaius, determined to outbid him, and so midermme his influence with the people. Accordingly Livius Drusus, another tribune, came forward with the most extravagant proposals in the people's interests— proposals never intended to be carried into effect. The plot succeeded ; Gracchus failed to secure re-election for 121 ; his enemies impeached his acts ; a riot ensued in the Formn, and Gaius, with 3000 of his friends, was slain. Hadrianus, P. -ffilius, usually called Hadrian, the Roman Emperor, A.D. 117-138 ; a soldier from his earliest years ; married into the Emperor Trajan's family, and rapidly rose in favour at Court ; ac- companied Trajan on most of his expeditions, e.^r., against the Dacians,in Pannonia, and against the Parthians. When Trajan died at Cilicia in 117, Hadrian was proclaimed Emperor by the legions in Syria. After making peace with the Parthians, he returned to Rome in 118 ; next he went to Mcesia and made peace with the Sarmata3 ; and, henceforth, his reign proceeded undisturbed ' t\ 42 RES ROMANAE. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 45 I \ save by a formidaljle conspiracy of the nobles, wliich he suppressed with ruthless severity, and later by a revolt of the Jews, lasting five- years, 131-136. A great traveller, he visited nearly all parts of his Empire, and, wherever he went, left wonderful buildings behind him, especially in Athens, where he spent three years. In Britain, he drew a wall across the country from the Solway to the mouth of the Tyne. The reign of Hadrian may be regarded as one of the happiest periods in Koman history. His policy was to preserve peace with foreign nations, and promote the welfare of his subjects^ by the administration of justice, both at home and in the provinces, the execution of great works of public utility, and the encourage- ment of science, art, and literature. Towards the end of his reign his health failed, his character deteriorated, and he became cruel and suspicious. He was succeeded by Antoninus Pius, whom he had adopted. Hamilcar Barca, founder of the " factio Barcina," commanded the Rmic forces in Sicily in 247 ; at this time the Romans were masters of all Sicily save Drepanum and Lilybseum. In spite of this, Hamilcar established himself on Mt. Ercte for nearly three years in the midst of the enemy's country, defying all efforts to dis- lodge him, and from this stronghold ravaging the south Italian coast ; next he seized the town of Eryx, and held it against the Romans till peace was made in 241. His next feat was to crush the revolt of the Punic mercenaries, which he succeeded in doing after all the other Carthaginian generals had failed and when the position of Carthage was alnmst desperate (241-238 "the Inexpiable war"). But his greatest achievement of all was the foundation, partly by force and partly l)y negotiation, of a new Punic Empire in Spain, which should be the starting point of fresh hostilities against Rome. This he actually accomplished in eight years (236-228) ; and, when he fell fighting against the Vettones in 228, and his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, took up the task and founded New Carthage, this new empire was already firmly established. Hamilcar Barca left three sons, the three most famous Carthaginian generals in the 2nd Punic war, Hannibal, Hasdrul^al, and Mago. Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Rirca, the greatest general of antiquity, born about B.C. 247 ; served under his father in Spain ; succeeding him in 221 as commander-in-chief, he at once proceeded to put into execution the great scheme for which his father had lived and toiled,, viz., the invasion of Italy at the head of a veteran army, recruited and trained in Spain. Accordingly, in B.C. 219 he provoked Rome to declare war by sacking Saguntum,— a city which, though south of the Ebro, had a separate alliance with Rome. Crossing the Pyrenees and Alps with 25,000 men, almost before the Romans realised that he had started, Hannibal won a succession of victories which almost l^aralysed Roman resistance ; the Ticinus and the Trebia in 218 ; the Trasimene Lake in 217 ; Cannce in 216 ; but in spite of his brilliant victories, Hannibal had miscalculated the strength of Italy and the hold of Rome upon her allies and subjects ; added to this he was fighting in the enemy's country ; supplies were difficult to procure ; reinforcements failed to reach him ; promised alliances came to nothing ; the home government became lukewarm in its support, just when help was most needed ; so that after an heroic contest of sixteen years, carried on almost single-handed, Hamiibal was forced to confess himself beaten and yield to Scipio at Zama, B.C. 202. Tlie dream of his life was over ; but still he lived for revenge, offering his services to Antiochus the Great of Syria in 193, who, however, was too vain to make use of the great general's un- rivalled experience. Next he went to Prusias, king of Bithpiia, always in hopes of being able to deal Rome a blow ; hence it is not to be wondered that the Romans demanded his surrender, and at length took steps to enforce the demand. Aware of their intentions,, Hannibal, to avoid falling into their hands, took poison, which he carried for that purpose, about B.C. 183. Roman ^vriters, never remarkable for their impartiality, have been led by their terror of the great Cartliaginian's name, to attribute all sorts of vices to Han- nibal ; these are certainly not substantiated by them, for even by their owti admissions he showed a generosity and magnaiiimity towards the dead and prisoners which have no counterpart in the annals of their own generals. Hasdrubal, the son of Hamilcar Barca and brother of the great Hannibal ; left in command in S^jain by Hannibal on starting for Italy in B.C. 218 to collect and train new armies, which he was eventually to lead to his brother's support. In this design Has- drubal foimd himself considerably thwarted by Publius and Gmeus Scipio, who had been sent to Spain for this express purpose ; hence it was not until 207 that he managed to elude the Roman armies, and make his way to Italy. Once again, however, the luck was against him ; his despatches were intercepted ; the Roman generals combined and encountered him in superior force at the Metaurus^ 44 /^£S ROMANAE, BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 45. i'l 207, annihilated his army and killed him before Haimibal so much as knew that he had started. As a soldier and administrator Has- dnibal was perhaps little inferior to his more famous brother, and the Romans showed their appreciation of his merit by the desperate efforts they made to prevent his effecting a jimction with Hannibal. Hiero, king of Syracuse B.C. 270-216; was voluntarily elected king by his fellow citizens after his defeat of the Mamertines in 270. Though at first opposed to Rome, Hiero found it more to his interest to break with Carthage in the 1st Rmic war ; so, though he had b^m to besiege Messana with the Rmic general Hanno, on its being seized by Appius Claudius, he concluded a peace and alliance with Rome in the next year, b.c. 263 ; from which date till his death, nearly lialf a century, he remained loyal to Rome, and frequently assisted with men, food, and money in times of need. Jugurtha, king of Xumidia, was a grandson of Masinissa ; was brought up by his uncle Micipsa with his own two sons ; his ability and skill, however, roused the jealousy and apprehension of Micipsa, and to get rid of him on a plausible plea, he sent Jugurtha to Xumantia with a contingent of troops to serve in the siege under Scipio Africanus minor. Here Jugurtha gained great distinction and learned the Roman art of war, and, what perhaps served liim still better afterwards, the corrupt state of Roman political life. On Micipsa's death, Jugurtha was left with his two foster-brothers to share the kingdom, but his ambition led him to murder both of them in spite of remonstrances from Rome. In carrying out his schemes, however, he had murdered a number of Italian traders in the town of Cirta ; this led to a tardy declaration of war by Rome in B.C. 112, but Jugurtha, l)y employing lavish bribery, induced one general to do nothing ; the next, who was thorouglily incompetent and, as such, completely representative of the party that sent him out, he utterly defeated ; Metellus, who succeeded to the command in 109, did effect something, forcing Jugurtha to fly to the Gtetuli, but political jealousy occasioned his recall in 107, and the substitution of Marius in his stead. Thus for six years the war dragged on, and Jugurtha could fairly baast that the balance of success had been on his side, till the Romans stooped to treachery and induced his father-in-law, Bocchus, to betray him to Sulla, 106. Taken to Rome, he figured in the triimiph of Marius, and was then thrown into a dimgeon and either starved or strangled. Lepidus, M. JEmilius, the triumvir, pn^tor in B.C. 49, supported J. Cffisar in the civil war ; in 46 shared the consulship with CiX3sar> and in 44 acted as his 'magister equitum,' receiving from him the government of Gallia Narbonensis and Hither Spain ; being in the neighbourhood of Rome at the time of Ciiesar's murder, in com- mand of a legion, he supported Antony, and then retired to hi& province. Aftel^-being defeated at Mutina in 43, Antony fled to Lepidus, who espoused his cause against the Senate and crossed the Alps at the head of a powerful army ; in N. Italy he was joined by Octavian, and now was farmed the famous triumvirate (Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus). Ljn 42 Lepidus, now consul for second time,, remained in Italy, while Antony and Octavian went to Greece to conduct the campaign of Philippi. After the republican defeat^ Lepidus found himself ignored in the division of provinces and legions, and a quarrel seemed imminent between the triumvirs, when matters were once more arranged, in 40, at the treaty of Brundisium. L^dus now received Africa as his province, and here he remained till 36. In this year he was summoned to Sicily by Octavian to assist in the war against Sextus Pompeius, but, irritated at being treated as a- subordinate, he made an attempt to seize Sicily for himself. 9etaviaft-^«sh£d-Jiim aUfflce,J^ though he deprived him of ^1 real power, contemptuously allowed him to retain his ofEctL. of Pontifex Maximus ; henceforth he lived in retirement,, dying in b.c. 13, an absoliitrf^ nnnpntiityiii-thfijiQHtical world. Licinius, C. Stolo, tribune of the people from B.C. 377-367 ; with his colleague, L. Sextius Sextinus, he brought the long struggle be- tween patricians and plebeians to an end by a series of bills, gener- ally known as " the Licinian Rogations." These became law, after ten years of incessant opposition, in B.c. 367. Their main provisions were : («) consuls, and not military tribunes with consular power^ were to be elected in future, and one consul must be a plebeian ; (6) relief of debtors by deduction of interest already paid from original debt, and by payment in instalments ; (c) not more tlian 500 jugera of public land to be occupied by any one citizen, or more than 100 oxen and 500 sheep to be grazed on the common pasture ; {d) a fair proportion of free labourers to be employed by landlords. Livius, M. Salinator, consul in B.C. 219 with L. ^Emilius Paulus in the Illyrian war ; imi^eached and condemned for embezzlement on his return, prol^ably unjustly ; at any rate, Livius took his sentence 60 much to heart that he withdrew from active life, till the consuls 46 RES ROMANAE. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 47 J I compelled hiui in 210 to return to Rome"; in 207 he was elected consul a second time, and in conjunction with C. Claudius Nero, once an enemy but now reconciled by the mediation of Fabius Maximus, defeated Hasdrubal at the Metaurus, and so relieved Rome of fm-ther anxiety about the ultimate fate of Italy. The next two years Livius acted as proconsul with an army in Etruria ; in 204 he was censor with his old colleague Nero, and their old ani- mosity once more broke out, occasioning grave scandal. It was in his censorship that he imposed a most unpopular tax on salt ; hence his nickname " Salinator." Lucullus, L. Licinius, pr t>tnr in B.C. 77, and consul in 74, fought on thesjilfi of Sulla in the civil war against Marius ; received the mmmflTifl a^Ainst Mithradates in 74, and carried on this war with great success fgi; eight years, relieving Cyzicus and invading Pontus ; then carrying the war into Armenia, he crossed the Euphrates and won tlie great battle of Tigranocerta in 69, but, when preparing to push his conquest still furthur, his army mntirij^f|^ and, his lieu- tenants urgently demanding reinforcements, he was forced to retreat, before his work was done. In 67 Lucullus was superseded, and it fell ta Pompey to reap the chief fruits of his previous victories, and the credit of eliding the struggle. On his return to Rome, Lucullus, gave himself up entirely to luxury and indolence, and his name became provtiL'liiaJ^aftgrwacd&--iQt-magnificent extravagance. Of literary tastes himself, he posed as a j)atron of literary men in general. He died in 57 or 56. Maecenas, C. Cilnius, a Roman of equestrian rank, descended from the old Etruscan nobility ; one of the chief friends and advisers of Augustus, he enjoyed his confidence to such a degree that, in Augustus' absence, Miecenas governed Rome and Italy entirely, e.g., in B.C. 36, and again in 31 ; but towards the end of his life a cool- ness sprang up between the two, and Maecenas retired entirely from public life, and gave himself up to literary pursuits ; his patronage of Vergil, Horace, and other literary men of the time has doubtless done more to perpetuate his fame than the very real services he rendered to Augustus as a statesman. Between him and Horace a warm friendship existed throughout their lives, and there are mmierous allusions to it in the poet's works. He died in B.C. 8, and Horace's death followed in the same year. Marcellus, M. Claudius, five times consul j the conqueror of Syra- cuse ; in his first consulship he conquered the Insubrian Gauls, captured Mediolanum (Milan), and won the s]^ol'ki opima. After the battle of CarnicT, 216, Marcellus, as prietor, consul, and proconsul, did good service in the south of Italy in checking Hannibal's designs and restoring Roman confidence and prestige. Consul for 3rd time in 214, he was sent to take command of the war in Sicily ; here he captured Syracuse in 212 after a long and memorable siege-; returning to Italy, he once more took charge of the war against Hannibal in the South, but was defeated and slain with his colleague in 208 near Venusia. He seems to have been a rude, stern soldier ; brave, no doubt, but foolhardy at times, and certainly unscrupulous and cruel ; in combination, however, with the cautious Fabius Cunctator he was of the greatest value to Rome in the troubled times after Cannae. Marcellus, M., son of Octavia, and nephew of Augustus, born B.C. 43, adopted by the emperor in 25, and married to his daughter Julia ; curule ledile in 23 ; died after a short illness at Baiie in the same year. His death was mourned as a public calamity. Augustus himself pronounced the funeral oration, and Vergil wrote the famous passage in ^n.vi., U. 862-884, to commemorate him. Marius, C, born at Arpinum, B.c. 157, of an obscure plebeian family; entered the ranks of the army at an early age ; served mider Scipio iEmilianus, at Numantia ; tribune of the people in 119 ; married Julia, J. Caisar's aunt, and became one of the chief popular leaders at Rome. In 109 he was ' legatus ' to the Consul Metellus in the war against Jugurtha ; and in 107 was elected consul, and given the command in Africa by a special decree of the people, in direct opposition to the senate. Marius inaugurated his command by throwing open the army to all citizens, even the cainte censi ; hence the rise of a professional class of soldier whose interest it was to provoke and prolong wars. The Numidian war was brought to a close by the treacherous surrender of Jugurtha to the Romans, but the real credit of this result rested with Sulla, the ' legatus,' rather than with Marius, the general, in spite of the gi-eat preparations he had made for the campaign. From this time begins that jealousy between the two which ended in the first civil war at Rome, B.C. 106. Meantime Italy had been threatened by a vast horde of barbarians, the Teutones and Cimbri ; they had already defeated several Roman armies, when Marius was called to the rescue. Taking up a fortified 48 /^ES ROMANAE. BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 49 position on the Rhone he awaited the attack of the Teutones, and utterly defeated them at Aqiue SextijB in 102 ; the Cinibri meanwhile had forced their way into Gallia Transpadana, when Mariiis, ably assisted by the proconsul Catidus, destroyed them in like manner at Vercellffi on the Raudine Plain in 101 . The most extravagant honours were paid to Marius after his victories, and this may have helped to bring out the worst features in his character. Possessing none of the qualities of a great statesman, depending entirely for his popidarity on his military exploits, and withal of a brutal and arrogant dis- position, imtrue to friends and cruel to enemies, there was no place for his activity except in the field. After carrying the " Leges Appuleise" by the aid of the tribunes Glaucia and Saturninus, backed by his army, he suddenly deserted the democrats to whom he owed everything. But his popularity was already on the wane even with the mob, when the outbreak of the Social war in 90 once more gave him employment ; he gained some successes over the Marsi, but these were totally eclipsed by the victories obtained by Sulla, and it became abundantly clear that the star of Marius was setting. Still he had set his heart on obtaining the command against Mithradates, which the senate had given to Sulla at the end of the Social war, 88. In order to gain his ol)ject, Marius allied himself with the tribune P. Sulpicius Rufus, who brought forward various measures, the "Leges Sulpicite," to weaken Sulla's position and advance Marius, and finally, by decree of the people, conferred on Marius the supreme command against Mithradates. The result was the investment of Rome by Sulla, the death of Sulpicius, and the flight of Marius, 88 ; but no sooner had Sulla left Italy to assume the com- mand against Mithradates than the consul, Cinna, broke his oath to observe the constitution, made common cause with Marius, seized Rome, and secured the election of Marius as consiU (for the 7th time) for the year 86. Now l^egan a reign of terror ; Marius butchered all against whom he had the least grudge, and confiscated their ])vo- j)erty ; his fearful excesses were l^eginning to alienate even the most extreme of his supporters, when he suddenly fell ill, and died in 86 at the age of 71. His son, the younger Marius by adoption, followefl in his father's footsteps, displaying the same ferocious and merciless disposition ; but his career was short, for after being defeated at Sacriportus in Latium by Sulla, he took refuge in Pr?e- neste and stood a siege, but, on the news of Sulla's great victory at the Colline Gate in 82, put an end to his life. Masinissa, a king of Numidia, who, in the 2nd Punic war, fought first on the Carthaginian and then on the Roman side ; on the arrival of Scipio (Africanus major) in Africa, Masinissa, who had suffered considerably for his desertion of the Pimic cause, at once loined him and rendered valuable service owing to his mtmiate knowledge of the country and Numidian warfare. He first assisted to burn the camp of his rival Syphax, who was now leagued with Carthage, and subsequently commanded a large force of cavalry at the battle of Zama in 202, which contributed greatly to the vic- tory of the Romans. As a reward for his services, he received a very large accession of territory, and by his constant aggressions on his crippled neighbour, Carthage, was mainly instrumental m pro- voking the 3rd Punic war,-a result which Rome had doubtless fore- seen ''Roman writers have extolled him as a pattern of loyalty ; perhaps it would be more correct to regard him as a far-sighted monarch with a nice calculation of his own interest ; brave and energetic undeniably, but loyal only where there was something to be gained. Mithradates VI, the Great, king of Pontus, B.C. 120-63, a man of extraordinary ability and versatility ; having extended his empire by the conquest of his neighbours one after another, he at length came into contact with Rome ; the first Mithradatic war from 88-84, brought on by his repeated aggressions m Asia, opened favourably for the king ; he occupied the province of Asia,^d ordered a general massacre of Roman and Italian citizens (80,000), his fleet meantime operating in the ^gean; but, on the arrival ot Sulla in Greece, Archelaus, the general of Mithradates, was twice defeated in Boeotia, at Chaeronea in 86, and again at Orchomenus in 85, and the king was obliged to sue for peace and accept SuUas terms. Meantime Sulla returned to Italy, leaving Murena with two legions to govern Asia, but ordering him to abstain from aggression. Murena, however, renewed the war, entered Pontus and was defeated The Romans had to evacuate Cappadocia. This is sometimes called the 2nd Mithradatic war, 83-82. > 75 Mithradates formed an aUiance witlx^ertorius, who in return sent him Roman ofiicers, but Mithra- dates refused to invade Italy. -The third and most important war lasted from 74-63. It broke out in consequence of the king seizmg Bithynia. Lucullus led the Roman armies with great skill and drove the king out of Pontus, forcing him to take refuge with hiB son-m-law, Tigranes, in Armenia. Next, Lucullus crossed the Euphrates m 69, I 50 /^£S ROMANAE, fought a great battle under the walls of Tigi-anocerta, took Nisibis, and was preparing to advance again when a serious mutiny in his army compelled him to retreat into Pontus, where he learned of the defeat of Triarius and 7000 Romans at Ziela. In 66 Pompey superseded Lucullus, who had become unpopular with the equites, or party of commercial interests, by his rearrangement of Asia. Pompey reaped the fruit of his predecessor's labours, and, finding the work well in train, defeated Mithradates and drove him into Colchis. The king next formed a daring Init futile scheme for invading Italy from the north by the aid of the Geta3 and Sarmata}, but, finding himself now deserted even by his own son, Pharnaces, he killed himself, B.C. 63. Mummius, L., sometimes called " Achaicus " from his conquest of the Achceans ; praetor in Further Spain in 153, he gained some successes against the Lusitanians. Consul in 146, he defeated the army of the Achrean league at the Isthmus of Corinth, entered that town without opposition, and rased it to the ground. Vast quantities of works of art were carried oif to Rome, and this example set by Mummius became the custom henceforth amongst Roman generals. Nero, C. Claudius, consul in B.C. 207 with M. Livius Salinator, his old political rival ; Nero was in the south of Italy watching Hamiibal's movements, when the news that Hasdrubal had entered the north reached him; with a small force of picked men he at once started to join his colleague in Etruria, marching with such secresy and rapidity that neither Hannibal nor Hasdrubal even guessed his departure. Nero's daring march and junction with Salinator led to the great victory at the Metaurus, 207, and the defeat and death of Hasdrubal. N.B. Nero, the Roman Emperor, a.d. 54-68, was only a Nero by adoption; liis original name being L. Domitius Ahenobarbus; he became a Nero when adopted by the Emperor Claudius who married Agrippina, his mother. Ovidius, P. Naso, the ix)et, born at Sulmo, in the Pelignian hills, in B.C. 43; of equestrian rank; was destined to be an advocate, and carefully educated to that end, but finding his poetical bias too strong he deserted the law and gave himself up entirely to a literary life; his talents soon secured him a favourable reception in Rome, BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 5-1 and he had already won the favour of Augustus and become a recognised leader in literary circles, w^hen suddenly in a.d. 8 he received a peremptory order to proceed at once to Tomi on the Euxine, near the mouth of the Danube, as an exile. The reason for this is not clearly known, but it is conceivable that Ovid had in some way become mixed up in one of the many Court scandals which saddened the close of Augustus' reign, and that the poet, as a prominent leader of fashion, and as one whose poetry might have had a demoralising influence, was selected as a scape-goat. It is significant that he never was able to secure his recall, but died at Tomi in a.d. 18. Ovid's chief poems— (a) amatory, * Amores,' * Ars Amatoria,' * Remedium Amoris,' the ' Heroides,' imaginary letters from unhappy w^omen ; (6) the ' Metamorphoses,' a hexa- meter poem in fifteen books; (c) the * Fasti,' a poetical Roman calendar; {di) the poems of his exile, the ' Tristia,' in five books, the < Letters from Pontus,' in four books ; (e) a tragedy, the ' Medea,' not extant, though once famous. Paulus, L. iEmilius, consul for second time in B.C. 216 w^ith C. Terentius Varro; lost his life in the battle of Cannoe, which was brought on against his advice by his colleague's rashness. Paulus was a staunch adherent of the aristocracy and was made consul by that party's influence to counterbalance the plebeian Varro. Paulus, L. iEmilius Macedonicus, son of the consul killed at Cannie ; consul himself first in B.C. 181, and again in 168 when he finished the war with Perseus of Macedon at the battle of Pydna. Before leaving Greece on this occasion, Paulus sacked 70 towns in Epirus, because they had been in alliance with Perseus ; a son of this Paulus was adopted by a son of Scipio Africanus major, and became afterwards famous as Scipio JEmilianus Africanus minor. Perseus, the last king of Macedon, 178-168 ; waged war with Rome four years, 171-168; but was defeated owing to his timidity and miserable parsimony, and his kingdom brought to an end by L. ^milius Paulus at the battle of Pydna, B.C. 168; after adorn- ing his conqueror's triumiDh, Perseus A\as allowed to end his days in captivity at Alba. Polybius, the historian, born about B.C. 204, the son of Lycortas, one of the most distinguished members of the Achaean league; was taken as a hostage to Rome after the conquest of Macedonia in 168; here his talents brought him into contact with Scipio ^Emilianus, 4 I II 52 y?ii5 ROMANAE, and the two, from similarity of tastes, became close friends ; wa» allowed to return to Peloponnese in 151 ; joined Scipio in his- campaign against Carthage, and was present at the sack in 146; visited Corinth the same year just after its sack by Mummius; a gieat traveller and a shrewd observer; died about B.C. 122. His history in forty books began with the year 220 and ended at 146; his main object in writing it being to show how the Romans in this brief period of 53 years had conquered the greater part of the world; it contains frequent digressions and much supplementary matter^ and is immensely valuable for its calm unbiassed account of Roman affairs. Unfortimately only the first five books are extant entire; of the rest there are only fragments and extracts. Pompeius, Cn. Magnus, the triumvir, born B.C. 106 ; joined Sulla in the 1st Civil war, and did good service by raising three legions^ for him in Picenum, b.c. 84 ; distinguished himself throughout the war as one of Sulla's most successful generals ; was sent by Sulla ta Sicily, where he put Carbo, the Marian general, to death, 82 ; next defeated Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and the Numidian king larbas in 81. For these successes he obtained the title " Magnus," and a triumph, though only an eques and not yet in his twenty-fifth year. After Sulla's death he resisted Lepidus in his attempt to repeal Sulla's laws, and drove him out of Italy. He was subse- quently sent to Spain to operate against Sertorius ; here he remained from 76-71, but gained no decisive advantage till Sertorius was treacherously murdered in 72, when Pompey soon brought the war to a close. On returning to Italy he helped Crassus to complete the conquest of Spartacus and his followers. Consul in 70, he deserted the aristocracy, already jealous of him, and becoming the great popular hero, proposed several measures in the people's interest. In 67 the tribune Gabinius brought forward a bill, conferring on Pompey supreme command against the pirates. In spite of the opposition of the aristocracy, this was carried, and so successful was Pompey that in forty days he had cleared the western sea of pirates and restored communication between Spain, Africa, and Italy, and within the next fifty days had entirely reduced them. His next command, conferred by the Lex Manilia, was against Mithradates. Thanks to the energy of Lucullus, victory was practically assured ; Mithradates evacuated Pontus and retreated towards Armenia and then to Colchis ; meantime Pompey reduced Pontus to the form of a Roman province ; and then, in 64, marched into Syria, which he BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 55 also made into a province ; in 63 he established Roman supremacy in Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, and Palestine, and stormed and took Jerusalem. On the death of Mithradates he settled Asia, and returned to Italy. Landing at Brundisium in 62, he disbanded his army, but on his return to Rome he found that the Senate would not ratify his acts in Asia. This unexpected opposition of the Senate threw Pompey into Cesar's arms. A private compact was arranged, known as the first Triumvirate, consisting of Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus, to crush the aristocracy and carry out their several views. To cement this union, Pompey married Julia, the daughter of Caesar. Next year Ciesar left for his province Gaul, while Pompey remained in Rome. Pompey was now gradually losing ground with all parties ; the Senate feared and hated him ; the people had deserted him for Clodius ; and he found himself obliged to draw closer to ■Caesar. Hence he became only second in the State. As Caesar's influence increased, so Pompey's declined ; and the death of Julia in 54 severed the last link between them, the breach being further widened by the loss of Crassus in 53. In order to reassert himself, Pompey now made overtures to the Senate and the aristocracy, and they were glad enough to call in his assistance to quell the frightful scenes of disorder which followed the death of Clodius. Pompey was made sole Consul, and henceforth may be regarded as the acknowledged head of the aristocratic party. It was now merely a question which was the stronger of the two, Ci^esar or Pompey, and civil war was inevitable. Pompey, starting with a great advantage, sacrificed it by leaving Italy, and, though he outmanoeuvred Caesar on more than •one occasion in the subsequent campaign, aU was lost at Pharsalus in 48. After this decisive defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, but was murdered on landing, and his cause, though supported by his sons and followers for some years, was practically lost by his untunely death. • j v Pompeius, Sextus, a younger son of the triumvir, accompanied his father in his flight to Egypt ; after the battle of Munda hid himself for some time in Spain, but on Cii3sar's departure, emerged from his hiding-place. Obtaining a large following and fleet, he made him- self master of the sea and seized Sicily. His fleet enabled him to stop the corn supply to Rome, and the consequent discontent forced the triumvirs to come to terms with him. Peace was concluded at Misenum in 39, but war broke out again in the next year. Octavian suffered defeat, but Vipsanius Agrippa was more successful, and -4 54 RES ROMANAE, i \ destroyed the fleet of Sextiis off Naulochus in 36 ; Sextus was cap- tured in the following year, and put to death by the officers of M. Antonius at Miletus. Pontius, Gaius, the general of the Samnites, who in b.c. 321 entrapped the two Roman consuls with their armies in the Caudine Forks (CaudinK Furcidse), a mountain pass near Caudium in Sam- nium, on the Via Appia between Capua and Beneventimi, and sent them imder the yoke. The Romans, to save their lives, consented to a i^eace, which the senate at once repudiated, and war was renewed. Some thirty years later, Pontius was defeated and taken prisoner by the Romans, who showed their appreciation of his former mercy by executing him. Pyrrhus, king of 'Epirus, B.C. 295-272, the greatest soldier and most able and ambitious king of his time ; after a youth spent in constant fighting, he was called in to their aid by the Tarentines in B.C. 280, to protect them against Rome. For five years he remamed master of Southern Italy, winning two great battles, the first at Heraclea in 280, the second at Asculmn in 279 ; but in 278 he accepted an invitation from Syracuse to help them against the Carthaginians ; in Sicily he met with remarkable success, but his long absence at a time so critical led to his idtimate defeat. After seizing nearly the whole of Sicily, he returned to Tarentum in 276. Immediately liis kingdom in Sicily crumbled away, and when next he met the Romans, who had had time to recruit and modify their tactics, he was utterly defeated at Beneventum by M'.Curius Dentatus in 275, with heavy loss of men and elephants. After this he was forced to quit Italy and leave Tarentum to its fate. Had he been content to pursue one object steadily, he might, in combination with the Greek cities of S. Italy, have accomplished what Hannibal attempted some fifty years later. As it was, hLs brilliant achieve- ments led to no permanent result, save that of strengthening Rome's position and weakening his o\vn. He was killed in 272 at the siege of Argos, by the blow of a tile flung by a woman from a roof. Scipio, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus major, Ijorn in B.C. 234, is first mentioned at the battle of the Ticinus, 218, when he saved his^ father's life ; trihunus militum at Canute, 216 ; helped to rally the remnant of the army afterwards, and sternly rebuked those Roman nobles who were for leaving Italy in despair ; such an impression had his youtliful heroism and self-reliance made on his countrymen BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 55 tliat, on the death of his father and uncle, P. and Cn Scipio m Spain after their defeat by Hasdrubal, he was appomted to this important command in 211 by the enthusiasm of the people when he offered himself as a candidate. His success in Spam was strikmg and rapid ; crossing the Ebro, he surprised Nova Carthago with an immense amount of war-material in 210, and Spam north of the Ebro submitted. In the next year, however, he would seem to have l>een guilty of some strange negligence, for Hasdrubal, agamst whom he was directly operating, contrived to elude him f^^^ march into Gaul ; fortunately for Scipio's reputation, the consuls checked Has- drubal's career at the Metaurus, and averted a danger which Scipio ought to have prevented ; except for this blunder, his command m Spain, lasting from 211-206, was singularly successful and useful, and on his return to Rome he was, by the popular voice, appomted to t^ke command in Sicily, after being elected consul be ore the proper age. Scipio wa^ anxious to cross at once to Amca, but met with strong opposition from the old school of generals, headed by the veteran Quintus Fabius Maximus, partly perhaps from jealousy, mrtly from a not unnatural distrust of so bold a policy ; all Scipio could obtain was the province of Sicily, with permis. sion to cross into Africa, but as no army was given l^^m this seemed impossible ; volunteers, however, flocked to his standard, and after spending some time in Sicily to complete his prepara- tions, he crossed with M. Cato, hL^ qm^estor, and landed near Utica in 204 ; here he was joined by Masinissa, and in the follow- ing year he surprised and burnt the camp of Hasdrubal and Syphax defeating them with great slaughter; these ^^Pf ^^/^^^^^^^ ."^^ Scipio brought about the recall of Hannibal and Mago from Italy m 203, and the decisive battle took place on the river Bagradas, near Zama in 202. Carthage was irretrievably beaten ; and Scipio, at tlie age of thirty-two, had beaten the greatest general ever opposed to the Roman arms. A magnificent triumph awaited liim on hia return, and the title "Africanus" was conferred upon him In spite of his victory, Scipio had many enemies in the Senate, and this may have deterred him from taking any very prominent part m public affairs for the next few years. In 190 he served as legatus under his brother Lucius Scipio Asiaticus against Antiodius, and hel^^^^ te defeat that king at the battle of Magnesia. Both brothers ^v ere imi^eached in 187 for peculation in Asia M. Cato prosecuting; L Scipio was fined, but Africanus escaped on the strength ot ins Il I 56 RES ROMANAE, past services. Owing to this indignity he retired from Rome, and died not long afterwards. Great as Scipio's success was, it cannot be denied that he was extremely lucky more tlian once, and to imagine that he beat Hannibal entirely on his own merits would be a grave mistake. Scipio, P. Cornelius Scipio iEmilianus Africanus minor, was a son of L. -^milius Paulus, the conqueror of Perseus king of Macedon, and was adopted by the son of the great Scipio Africanus. Born about 185, he served under his father at Pydna in 168, but gained his first distinction in 151 as a military tribune in Spain ; on the outbreak of the 3rd Punic war he went to Africa, and by his military skill and bravery, repaired to a great extent the blunders of the Con- sul ; in 147, after standing for the cedileship, he was elected Consul, though only thirty-seven, and received Africa as his province ; im- mediately on his arrival he began a vigorous siege of Cartliage, which fell after a long and desperate resistance ; for the capture and destruc- tion of this city he received the title " Africanus." After reducing the Punic possessions to the form of a Roman province (the province of Africa), he returned to Rome and celebrated a splendid triumph. In 143 he was sent on a mission to Syria and Egypt to forward Roman interests. Tlie long continuance of the war in Spain, with its many phases of mismanagement, dishonesty, and cruelty on the Roman side, called Scipio once more to the consulship in 134, with the command against Numantia ; after restoring discipline in the demoralised army, he inclosed Nimiantia with dou1)le lines, and took it after a blockade of fifteen months ; the city was utterly destroyed and the people sold as slaves ; for this exploit Scipio received the title " Numantinus." Under Scipio were then serving Jugurtha and C. Marius. On his return to Rome, Scipio, though brother-in-law to Tiberius Gracchus, took the lead in opposing the popular party and thwarting the reforms of Gracchus ; the people bitterly resented his course of action, and when he was foimd dead one morning in bed after a speech the night before, in which he spoke approvingly of the murder of Gracchus, it was generally be- lieved that he had been assassinated, B.C. 129. That this Scipio was an able general admits of no reasonable doubt, but at the same time it may be well to remember that his contemporaries were men of very little mark, and therefore his merits appear the greater. As the friend of Polybius the historian, of the poets Terence and Luci- lius, and many other literary men who were members of the famous \ BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 57 * Scipionic circle,' and owed much to his intelligent patronage, Scipio Africanus minor deserves to be remembered as much as by his military exploits. In him the sterner virtues of the old Roman had been mellowed and refined by the influence of Greek civilisa- tion. , ^ , J Sejanus, ^Uus, son of the commander of the praetorian guards towards the close of Augustus' reign ; succeeded his father m this responsible post ; became the confidant of the Emperor Tiberius, and ultimately obtained such an influence over him that, on the Emperor's retirement to CapreiTi, it was Sejanus practically who governed. Guilty of every kind of enormity, Sejanus neglected no means to secure his position, intriguing with the army, and procur- ing the death or removal of every possible rival, even the Em- peror's own son Drusus being poisoned by his instrumentality. Already his way to the accession seemed clear, when suddenly Tiberius had his eyes opened to the real designs of this miscrupulous villain In a long obscure letter to the Senate he removed him from his command of the prcT^torians, and left it to the Senate to take further steps. Never was a favourite's fall more rapid ; no sooner was the letter read than his death was decreed and at once carried out with every mark of ignominy and contempt, many of his friends and relatives sharing the same fate, a.d. 31. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, the philosopher, son of M. Anuieus, the rhetorician, born at Corduba (Cordova) a few years B.C. ; came to Rome to study rhetoric and philosophy ; gained distinction as a pleader • became involved in a Court scandal, and was bamshed to Corsica by the Emperor Claudius in a.d. 41, but was recaUed when Acrrippma married the Emperor, and made tutor to her son Domi- tiSs, afterwards the Emperor Nero. On the accession of Nero m 54, Seneca, now one of his chief advisers, endeavoured to check the Emperor's cruel and vicious propensities ; but at the same time he supported him in his opposition to his mother Agrippma, and was no doubt a mrty to her murder. In spit^ of his services, Seneca m turn fell a victim to the Emperor's cruelty ; the philosopher s pres- ence had become irksome, and his enormous wealth excited Nero s greed No sacrifice that Seneca could make would satisfy his master, not even the offer of all his wealth and his o^vn withdrawal from public life ; in 65 came the order for his death, and Seneca with stoical fortitude, though possibly a certain theatrical affectation, put an end to his o^vn life, his wife dying with him. Never perhaps 58 I^ES ROMAN Ah, was a philosopher placed in a more difficult position tlian Seneca^ and in estimating his character considerable allowance should be made for the very exceptional circumstances in which he found himself. He left numerous philosophical works, e.gr., Be Ira ; De Consolatione ; De dementia ; De Beneficiis, etc. ; a satire on the Emperor Claudius, the " Apocolocyntosis" ; ten tragedies, intended rather for recitation than the stage. His style is clear and forcible,, and he has alw^ays something worth saying, and says it well ; a true man of the world, his judgment of men is sound and to the point ^ as a moral writer, few perhaps have treated their subject more attractively and with a truer regard for facts. Sertorius, Q,, a Sabine, served under Marius at Aquse Sextue (Aix in Provence) in B.C. 102 ; also in Spain as a * tribunus mili- tum ' in 97 ; qupestor in 91 ; on the outbreak of the Civil war he opposed the party of the nobles, though not from any admiration of Marius, whose diameter he had ere this sounded. He commanded one of the four armies which besieged Rome under Marius and Cinna in 87, but was strongly opposed to their bloodthirsty methods. In 83 he went to Spain as pra3tor, and gained some suc- cesses against Sulla's supporters here and in Africa. At the imita- tion of the Lusitanians, he put himself at their head to resist Roman oppression, and became so powerful that he maintained a successful guerilla warfare for several years against Rome's best generals. In 79 he was master of most of Spain, and, having formed a league with the pirates, had command also of the sea. In 77 he was joined by Perpenna with the remnant of the army of Lepidus. He now posed as Roman governor of Spain, establishing a Senate of 300 members, to which no provincial was admitted, and opening schools for the education of Spanish children on Roman methods. In 76 Pompey was sent against Sertorius with an independent command, but in spite of a large army he failed signally to reduce him to subjection. Indeed, for the next five years both Pompey and Metellus were kept completely at bay, and things had assumed a very serious aspect for Rome owing to an alliance between Ser- torius and Mithradates the Great, and the possibility of an invasion of Italy, when dissensions broke out in Spain, and Sertorius was murdered at a banquet by Perpenna and other Roman officers who had long been jealous of his authority, B.C. 72. On his death, Pompey found little difficulty in bringing the war to a close. Spartacus, a Thracian gladiator, who in B.C. 73 broke out of a BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 59 school of gladiators at Capua with about 70 others, and took refuge in the crater of Vesuvius. Spartacus was chosen leader, and was soon joined by a large number of runaway slaves. They were blockaded by a Roman prtetor, but put him to flight, and, as then* numbers kept on increasing, were successful over one Roman army after another, laying the whole of Southern Italy waste. In 72 both consuls were defeated by Spartacus, but in 71 a vigorous cam- paign by M. Crassus, the prsetor, led to the blockade of the rebels m Bruttium, and a decisive battle Anth them in which Spartacus was slain. Crassus, aided by Pompey, then finished the war. Roman writers have done scant justice to the character of Spartacus ; acci- dent made a gladiator of one whom nature intended for a hero. He had to use the tools at his disposal, and it is scarcely fair to blame him for the excesses of his motley followmg. Sulla, L. Cornelius (Felix), the dictator, was born B.C. 138, of a patrician family ; well educated, he displayed at an early age those great talents which were afterwards to lead to such great results ; began his public career as quaestor to Marius in B.C. 107 in the war against Jugurtha, and it was mainly his tact and resolution which secured Jugurtha's capture, and an end of this tedious and dis- creditable struggle. He continued to serve for a while under Marius against the Teutoiies and Cimbri, but a jealousy was already begin- ning between them, and Sulla withdrew from his army. In 92 he was prajtor in Cilicia, and was successful in checking the aggres- sions of Mithradates, restoring Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappa- docia from which he had been removed. Sulla's increasing reputation led the aristocrats to regard him as their champion ; hence grew up a political animosity between Marius and Sulla, in addition ta private hatred. Both were anxious to obtain the command against Mithradates ; there was little doubt it would fall to Sulla owing to his previous exploits in the East ; matters pointed to an open rup- ture when the outbreak of the Social war in 91 for a while gave both of them other employment. Even in this war Sulla was gaining fresh glory, e.£^., by the capture of Bovianum, the Samnite capital, while Marius now growing old, foimd himself proportionately sinking m populai estimation. In 88 Sulla was consul, and the Mithradatic command was intrusted to him ; whereupon Marius, by means of a tribune of the people, P. Sulpicius Rufus, obtained a decree of the people investing him with supreme command against Mithradates. Civil war was now inevitable. Sulla returned and occupied Rome ; 6o RES ROMANAE, annulled the ' Leges Sulpiciai,' and expelled Mariiis. Having restored order, Sulla left again for Greece in 87 ; no sooner was he gone than Marius and Cinna seized Rome and began a reign of terror. Sulla meantime had taken Athens, the headquarters of the Mithradatic cause in Greece, and defeated the united Pontic armies first at Choeronea in 86 and again at Orchomenus in 85 ; after driving the generals of Mithradates out of Greece he crossed the Hellespont, and concluded the war by a peace with Mithradates in 84 ; then after driving Fimbria, the Marian general sent out to supersede him, to despair and suicide, he returned to Italy, landing at Brundisium in 83 with five legions. The Marians were superior at first in point of numl>ers, but Sulla was joined l^y many of the nobility, notably by the young On. Pompeius, who raised three legions for him in Picenum. Marius had died in 86, but his son, consul in 82, held out in Pra?neste. Sulla, leaving the siege of this town to his lieutenants, hastily occupied Rome, and fought a great battle at the Colline Gate, almost annihilating the Samnites who had marched on Rome. Tliis victory was followed by the surrender of Pra^neste and the suicide of the younger Marius, B.C. 82. Sulla now received supreme power as Dictator, and at once began a fearful proscription of his enemies and confiscation of their property. His dictatorship lasted from 81 to 79, and is memorable for the * Leges Oorneliie,' or Sidlan Constitution, — an attempt to restore, as far as possible, the ancient Roman Constitution, and to give Imck to the Senate and the aristocracy their lost powers ; at the same time to deprive the tribunes of the i)eople of all real power, and paralyse the action of the ' comitia tributa.' To establish his own power more securely he planted a large number of * coloniae militares ' through- out Italy, — especially in Etruria, which had been a Marian strong- hold ; these colonies, consisting of his old soldiers, had, of course, the strongest interest in upholding his institutions, as any attempt to subvert these would invalidate their claim. Also he gave citizenship to some 10,000 slaves who were called ' Comelii' after him, and in a sense served him as a body-guard. Having completed his reforms, he resigned the dictatorship and retired into private life, passing the short remainder of his days in literary and sensual enjoyment dying in B.C. 78 at the age of 60. Tiberius, Tiberius Claudius Nero Casar, Emperor A.D. 14-37, the son of Livia, and stepson of Augustus, by whom he was adopted in BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 6i in A.D. 4 ; was employed by Augustus in various military com- mands together with his brother Drusus ; thus in B.C. 20 he replaced Tigi-anes on the throne of Armenia ; subdued the Rhseti, Vindelici^ and Norici in 15 ; suppressed a revolt in Pannonia in 12, and con- ducted four campaigns there, 12-9 ; next fought in Germany, and received the submission of all the tribes between the Rhine and Elbe. In B.C. 6 he withdrew to Rhodes, remaining here in seclusion till A.D. 2* owing partly to the impossibility of living with his wifi> Julia, the Emperor's daughter, whom he had been forced by Augus- tus to marry, and partly to jealousy of the Emperor's grandsons L. CiEsar and C. Ca?sar. On the death of the latter, and after the banishment of Julia, Tiberius returned, was adopted by Augustus in A.D. 4, and took command of the Roman armies, carrying on war successfully in Germany, Pannonia, and Dalmatia. On the death of Augustus in a.d. 14 Tiberius succeeded. His subsequent career is frequently described by those who rely too implicitly on the black picture drawn by Tacitus, as one systematic course of hypocrisy, cruelty, and bestial sensuality ; but there is ample proof that this picture is grossly overdrawn, and that at the beginning of his reign, at any rate, Tiberius set himself to rule honestly and well, e.g., his provincial government was excellent ; nor are there wanting instances where he displayed sound ideas of finance, and an impartial attitude in the administration of justice, worthy of the best rulers. There were many reasons for the deplorable change in his character later on. For example, his early education and imperious treatment by Augustus, who had roughly crushed his natural inclinations, making him divorce his own wife for Julia, and pass over his own son in favour of Germanicus ; the uncertainty about the succession ; then, again, the ceaseless quarrels and scandals in the palace after the return of Germanicus and Agrippina ; the various rebellions in his reign ; and, lastly, the horrible awakening when he found that he had been deceived throughout by the man he trusted, and that his son Drusus had been murdered by his favourite Sejanus. No wonder if the Emperor grew moody and suspicious, surrounded as he was with sycophants and informers (' delatores '), who were perpetuaUy dis- covering treason (' Itesa majestas') amongst his nearest friends. Disappointed and disgusted, he withdrew at last altogether to Capreai A.D. 27, and made no further attempt to guide the reins of govern- ment, but left everything to Sejanus. To Sejanus were due, directly or indirectly, most of the horrors which followed ; and it is a Ill 62 /i£S ROMANAE, charitable and by no means improbable view to advance that the Emperor was mad during the latter part of his reign, — at least after discovering the real truth about the death of his son Drusus. Trajan, M. Ulpius Trajanus, Roman Emperor, a.d. 98-117 ; a dis- tinguished soldier, consul in 91 ; was adopted by the Emperor Nerva in 97 ; began his reign by a war against the Dacians, whom he defeated and compelled to sue for peace in 103. A second war against the Dacians ended in their defeat once more, and the death of their king Decebalus, 106. Dacia was then reduced to a Roman province. In 114 Trajan began his famous campaigns against the Armenians and Parthians ; in the course of the years 115 and 116 he conquered the greater part of Parthia, and took the capital, Ctesiphon ; in 116 he descended the Tigris and entered the Ery- thraean Sea (Persian Gulf). Meantime the Parthians again rose, but the generals of Trajan reduced them. In 117 Trajan fell ill, and died in Cilicia on the way home. A great soldier, and of simple habits, Trajan had the welfare of his people at heart ; he constructed several great roads, built libraries and other public works, e.^., the Forum Trajanum in Rome, in the centre of which was placed the famous column of Trajan, a monument of liis victories over the Dacians and Parthians. Varro, M., the most voluminous and learned of Roman writers, was born B.C. 116 ; held a high naval command in the wars against the pirates and against Mithradates ; was legatus to Pompey in the Civil war ; present at Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus ; pardoned by J. Cifisar, who employed him in superintending and arranging his great library ; died in B.C. 28 ; is said to have comjDOsed 490 books on every variety of subject ; of these only two are now extant, his treatises Be Re Rustica and De Lingua Latina. Vercingetorix, the chief of the Arv^erni, one of the greatest patriots of Gaul, carried on war ably against J. Cx'sar in B.C. 52, at the head of a general revolt, but after the storming of Avaricum and Alesia he was obliged to surrender ; was taken to Rome where, after figuring in Cicsar's triumph in 45, he was put to death. Verres, C, the accepted type of all that was worst in the Roman provincial governor, became notorious through all time by his mis- government of Sicily as proprietor, B.C. 73-71. It is said that his exactions, extortions, and enormities during these three years deso- lated the island more effectually than the two recent Servile wars, BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 63 or the old struggle between Rome and Cartilage for possession of the island. On his retirement, the Sicilians appealed to Cicero to impeach Verres. This he did so ably that, though Verres was defended by the eloquent advocate Hortensius and all the corrupt aristocracy, the condemnation of the accused seemed so certain that Hortensius threw up the case and Verres fled from Rome. He was heavily fined, and withdrew in exile to Marseilles, being put to death by M. Antonius in the proscription of 43 for the sake of some of the numerous stolen art treasures which Verres still possessed. Vespasian, T. Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, rose from a humble position to be Roman Emperor, a.d. 70-79 ; after holding several posts he was sent in 43 to Britain, when he reduced Vectis (Isle of Wight) ; consul in 51, and proconsul in Africa under Nero ; acquired a great military reputation ; conducted the war against the Jews, 66-69, with great ability ; was proclaimed Emperor by the armies of the East in 69 ; came to Rome in 70, leaving his son Titus to reduce Jerusalem ; at once set to work to restore order ; and by the simplicity of his life and purity of his example did much to improve the moral atmosphere of Rome ; is accused of avarice and low tastes ; still it is admitted, even by his detractors, that he was liberal in all his expenditure for purposes of public utility ; the striking events of his reign are not numerous ; Titus, his son, com- pleted the conquest of the Jews by the capture of Jerusalem ; Agi-icola, his general, subdued North AVales and the island of Anglesey. He left two sons, Titus and Domitian, both of wliom succeeded to the throne. Viriathus, a Lusitanian, who led his countrymen against the Romans, after the sliameful and treacherous massacre perpetrated by the proconsul Galba in B.C. 150. Collecting a formidable force, he defeated several Roman armies, and so successful was his guerilla warfare that peace was concluded with him in 140 by another proconsul, but Roman treachery repudiated this peace shortly afterwards and procured the assassination of Viriathus by bribing some of his friends. 64 RES ROMANAE. THE THREE COMITIA. I CoMiTiA CuRiATA consisted of the members of the thirty ' curiae ' or parishes, that is, the patricians, who formed exclusively the *populus' in early times. The votes were given by 'cunse,' each * curia ' having one collective vote. It was called together by the king in the ' comitium,' when he chose, and could only deter- mine such matters as he chose to submit to them, esj., the conferrmg of * imperium ' on the king, the passing of laws, the declaration of peace and war, the capital punishment of Roman citizens. Most of these duties passed afterwards to the * comitia centuriata,' and in Republican times the ' comitia curiata ' was only held to confer * imperium ' on consuls and pr?etors, and to carry out certain for- malities, e.{/., in cases of adoption. II. Comitia Centuriata was an assembly held m the Campua Martins,' to which the people were summoned, bjf * classes' and * centuriffi,' based on property qualifications. ^^W^filfcli here had the preponderance of votes. Each century counted as one vote, so that a class had as many votes as it contained centuries ; but the richest class had as many centuries as all the rest put together, and so could always outvote them. The ' comitia centuriata ' elected the consuls, pnetors, and censors, and for a long time decided on peace and war, a function afterwards assumed by the Senate. It liad also rights of legislation, subject to the approval of the Senate. Further, a right of appeal to the 'comitia centuriata' from the sentence of the consul was established by several laws. - Lastly, this assembly tried all cases of *perduellio' and 'majestas,' i.e., all offences against the State ; and no case involving the life of a Roman citizen could be decided by any other court. ^ III Comitia tributa gtew-xail-of-^ informal ' concilia plebis held at fii:at by the 'tribuni plebis.' By them the *plebs' was inA^ted to show its opinion by voting ijL. tribes ; later, after the Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 the ' comitia tributa' was summoned by consuls and praetors a^ well as by tribunes, and was openly recog- nised as a constitutional assembly for electing the tribunes, qucestors, aedUes, and minor officers, as well as for initiating certain legislation. In 287 the 'Lex Hortensia' made the 'plebicita' independent of the sanction of the Senate ; they became laws binding on the whole CHIEF ROMAN MAGJSTRA TES. 6S community. (^.J5.— Most of the laws known to us are 'plebi- cita.') The judicial power of this assembly was far more limited than that of the * comitia centuriata,' inasmuch as they could take cogni- sance only of offences against the majesty of the people, while all crimes committed against the State were brought before the cen- turies. The * comitia tributa ' might assemble either within or without the city, but not farther from it than 1000 paces, because the power of the tribunes did not extend further. .The presidents were usually the tribunes, but as the ' comitia tributa ' assumed more and more the character of a national assembly, the higher magistrates some- times presided. It was determined by lot which of the thirty-five tribes should vote first, and this one was known as * pra?rogativa tribus.' The announcing of the result of votes was ' renuntiatio.' iV.5.— Under Augustus the * comitia ' went through the form of sanctioning new laws and electing magistrates, but their proceedings were a farce, and no real power was left them. CHIEF ROMAN MAGISTRATES. Consul. After the expulsion of the kings, B.C. 509, two consuls were annually appointed, with full military and civil authority ; their financial functions, however, passed in 435 to the censors, and their civil jurisdiction in 367 to the praetor, while their criminal jurisdiction was limited by the right of appeal (' provocatio '). They were elected, before their year of office began, by the comitia centuriata, and invested with their imperium by the comitia curiata some time after taking office. Their chief duties, after the insti- tution of quaestors, censors, praetors, and aediles, were (1) leading the armies, (2) conducting the chief elections, (3) presiding in the Senate and transmitting its orders. ^^B.—{i.) From B.C. 445-367 militum tribuni consulari potestate frequently were appointed instead; (ii.) oj^ened to the 'plebs' in 367. pRiETOR. First appointed in 366; elected annually in the comitia II i I 66 JiES ROMANAE. oenturiata and invested with impmum by the comitia cunaU . re- gnlated legal procedure and expounded the law generally appointing f iury Cjudi^s') t« try the facts of a case. At first only one; m 243 a second was appointed; 'pra>t«r urbanus,' to try cases between Roman citizens; ' praetor peregrinus,' to superintend actions in which a foreigner was concerned. As the provinces were constituted, more praetors were appointed to govern them ; e.g, two more in 227 for Sicily and Sardinia (with Corsica); two for the Spains, eight appointed by Sulla in 81 ; ten, fourteen, sixteen appointed by J. Ccesar. ThrowTi open to the plebs in 337. ^ Censor. Instituted in 443; first plebeian censor m 351; two elected by the comitia centuriata every five years; held ofoce tor eighteen months. Chief duties were (1) to ^^^^^ the lustrum, assess, and arrange the citizens, (2) to prepare the list of the Senate, (3) to manage the finances of the republic, and give out public con- tracts for farming the taxes and executing great public worfes They also had the power of inquiring into the conduct, private and public, of every citizen, and the right of affixing their *note or stigma to his name ; they could degrade a citizen rom his tribe and deprive a knight of his horse,-for one * lustrum only. iV^^— The reforms of Sulla in 81 provided for the appointment of senators without the aid of censors; the right of ^censure was taken away from them by Clodius in 58 ; and the office was finally absorbed by the Emperors. ^DiLE (i.) The plebeian adiles were two annual officers appointed in 494, originally to assist the tribmifis ; they kept the ' plebiscita in the temple of Ceres ; assisted in the judicial work, and had special charge of all buildings; were elected by the com^^ia tributa ' (ii.) The curule £ediles, two annual magistrates, trst appointed in 366, patricians; in 304 thrown open alternately to patri- cians or plebeians; kept the ' senatus-consulta' m the Temple ot Saturn; superintended the public^mes ; and, in conjunction with the plebeian c^diles, looked after thej;jfllifi^of the city, roads, streets, public buildmgs, markets, ete. Two more were added m 44 by J CiEsar to superintend the corn doles ('annona'). It was not necessary \jo hold this office in order to rise to the others, but it gave men an excellent chance of courting popularity by a lavish display of the public games. . Qu^sTOR. At first, 509, two annual magistrates to assist the CHIEF ROMAN MAGISTRATES. 67 i' consuls ; two main functions originally, viz., the preparation of the evidence in public prosecutions, and the management of the State accounts ; opened to plebeians in 421 ; elected in the ' comitia tributa'; a qu?estor accompanied the general to manage all finance, while others were attached to the governors of provinces; as the provinces increased in number, so did the qupestors ; thus Sulla raised the number to twenty, while Coesar had forty. Thoj^uaestors in Rome had charge of the Treasury (' aerarium '), and received or paid out all public money. N.B. — Four 'qusestores classici' were appointed in 267 to look after the fleet. Tribune of the plebs. — Two annual officers first appointed in 494 ; not at first recognised as magistrates, but only protected by a religious sanction (' sacrosanctus '). phey had not the * imperium ' ; their powers were confined to the city limits ; elected, after 471, by the ' comitia tributa ' ; all necessarily plebeians ; their function to protect plebeians against patricians. Their chief powers and rights were — (1) ' auxilium,' power of protecting a citizen from the action of a magistrate ; (2) ' intercessio,' right of putting a veto on the intended acts of all other magistrates, and even of one another ; (3) presidency of the assembled * plebs,' and right to put * rogationes * to them, which, if accepted, become *plebiscita' ( = laws after 287) ; (4) the right to coerce and pimish plebeians, subject to an appeal. Their number eventually reached ten. They could summon the Senate, like other magistrates ; and by 216 they had won the right to speak in it. By the * Lex Hortensia ' of 287 their * plebiscita ' were made binding on all citizens. In subsequent times they con- stituted themselves practically State prosecutors, and most of the laws bear their names. N.B. — Sulla, in 81, degraded the Tribunate by taking from it its free initiative in legislation, and also by making it a bar to higher office ; Pompey reinstated them ; but they now so often caused a dead- lock in public business that Augustus gathered up in his own person all their powers and privileges under the title * tribuniria pQt4?sf.as.' Dictator. — In times of great emergency an exceptional magistrate, called * dictator,' was named by the Consul ; he superseded aU existing authorities ; from him there was no appeal to the people ; appointed for six months only, and for some definite object, and, as soon as this was achieved, he resigned ; he could not leave Italy ; he Jiad no power over the Treasury. i'\ I ''^.i 1: I i ==F I I I I I /J lo/i^/'iue/e fasi THE PUNIC WARS. 97 had laboured incessantly in Spain ; Rome's action in Sardinia and Corsica. (2) Immediate cause. Siege and sack of Saguntum by Hamiibal, 219. (3) Final Roman victory at Zama, 202. (4) Results— (a) two new Roman provinces in Spain, lield by four legions (necessitating permanent military service) ; Syracusan kingdom merged in province of Sicily; Numidia made into a dependent kingdom as a menace and annoyance to Carthage ; Carthage degraded into a helpless mercantile city without army, navy, or freedom of action ; Rome's suprem- acy in the Mediterranean reasserted ; (6) in Italy itself the war is marked by the destruction of the Gauls, and the harsh treatment of revolting towns and districts, e.g., Capua, Taren- tum, Bruttium, Lucania, Apulia, Samnium, Picenum ; an ever-widening barrier set up between sovereign Rome and the other Italian peoples ; a narrow policy of exclusiveness ; very little recognition of loyal services ; (c) increase of the Senate's power at the expense of the magistrates and * comitia,' owing to the necessary prolongation of military commands which were arranged by the Senate, and by its control of finance and foreign policy ; {d) depopulation of Italy ; dis- appearance of the old yeoman class ; growth of capitalist owners with huge estates (' latifundia ') and employment of slave labour ; Italy going out of cultivation ; necessity for largely increased imports of foreign corn ; influx of paupers into the towns, whom it is imperative to feed and amuse (* panem et circenses ') for fear of riots ; growth of the power of the army and the successful general. (iV.^.— All the dangers that subsequently threatened and finally ruined the Republic were already beginning to show themselves.) Third Punic War, b.c. 149-146. (1) Real cause. Commercial jealousy of the * equites.' (2) Immediate cause. Aggressions of Masinissa met by armed re- sistance on part of Carthage, after remonstrance to Rome had proved fruitless. (3) Destruction of Carthage, B.C. 146. (4) Results— the Punic possessions are formed into province of Africa; growing influence of the mercantile class, the G 98 RES ROMANAE. * eqiiites ' or party of material interests, in Koman politics ; a distinct change for the worse in Roman political morality. iV.J5.— All the evils, which had begun to show themselves during 2nd Punic war, have gone on steadily increasing; Rome's Empire has grown vastly, but the mass of .the people are worse off, and Government by the Senate has become effete. AGRARIAN LEGISLATION. With the extension of the conquests of Rome, the * ager publicus ' or land confiscated from conquered peoples, constantly increased ; for the patricians, as long as they monopolised the government, refused to make assignments of such lands to the plebeians. They preferred to keep the new territory as * ager publicus,' ostensibly as State land paying dues to the Treasury, but really with the intention of con- verting it to their own use. Theirs were the cattle that grazed upon it, frequently too wnthout paying the dues. In addition to this they employed slave-labour as being cheaper, and also because freemen were liable to be called off for military service. The struggle between patricians and plebeians over the * ager publicus' dates from an early period, and led to the bitterest animosity. The numerous laws relating to the subject are known as * Leges Agrarise,' and of these the following are some of the more important : — B.C. 486. Spurius Cassius, the Consul, proposed that (1) part of the land should be leased for the Treasury ; the proceeds to go towards paying the army ; (2) part should be allotted to needy plebeians. 393. The territory of Veii is allotted to the plebs in lots of 7 jugera. 367. The Licinian Rogations deal the first severe blow to patrician privileges by limiting each individual's * possessio' or occupa- tion of public land to 500 jugera, and the grazing of not more than 500 sheep and 100 oxen on the public pastures. Each occupant of * ager publicus ' to employ a fair proportion of free labour. 232. Lex Flaminia assigned the lands of the conquered Senones in small lots. CIVITAS. ^ 133. Tiberius Gracchus, finding that all previous legislation had been evaded, and that the small estates had become absorbed by rich capitalists, revived the Licinian provisions with cer- tain ^ditions, e.g., 250 jugera extra for each son ; inalienable iots ot 30 jugera at a moderate rent to be distributed ; a board f I^! 't W°'"^ted to carry out the necessary confiscation and distribution ; the treasures of Attains to be employed in providing tools and stock for the new settlers " 123. Gams Gracchus renews his brother's agrarian law, but without practical effect owing to the difficulties to be surmounted, ana the obstinate opposition encountered from interested parties. ^^' ^In"!^' "l^- ^*'*'' '''^'"'^"ted the ' ager Campanus ' amongst 20,000 citizens. N.B. - During the civil wars, ordinary methods were no longer in vogue ; large portions of public land wei^ made over by SuUa, Pompey, J. fesar, and the Iriumvirs, to their soldiers for the establishment of ' colonia; mihtares.' CIVITAS. The rights of a Roman possessing full ' civitas,' i.e., ' civis optiiuo jure were : I. (pubUc rights) («) ' jus suffragii,> the right of voting m the popular ^emblies ; (J) ' jus honorum,' the right of eligibility to all public offices; (e) 'jus provocationis,' the right of appeal to the people in a capiul case. II. (private rights) (a) 'j„s conubii,' the right of contracting a legal marriage ; (J) 'jus commercii,' the right of acquiring, transferring, and holding property of all kinds according to the Roman laws. ^ f f } J-mas _ Only patricians at first had these rights; by various laws the plebs also. B.C. 509. Lex Valeria gives the 'plebs' * jus provocationis' (vmht of appeal). ^ ^ 445. Lex Canuleia gives them * jus conubii.' 367. Lex Licinia opens consulship to them, and thereby * ius honorum.' "^ ■ ^ *■ — lOO RES ROMANAE. THE TRIUMVIRATES. lOI 339. Lex Publilia admits them to the censorship. 300. Lex Ogulnia throws open the priesthood also. Full citizens, besides those in Rome itself, were the occupants of the allotted public land, some few incorporated communities, e.g., Tusculum, and the ' colonic^ civium Romanorum,' i.e., the earlier colonies, e.g., Velitne, and the ' colonice maritiuKB,' e.g., Ostia, Antium, Minturnae. , , j ..i i Communities possessing ' Civitas sine suffragio had the above private, but not the public rights, e.g., Ciere in Etruria ; members of » Latince colonic^ ' were in this position, e.g. Bononia. These were called » municipia' and enjoyed local self-government, apparently m varying degrees. Oric^inally, Romans and Latins had been on an equal footing, and a" Latin could become a fuU Roman citizen by removing his residence to Rome, but after the Latin war, B.C. 338, the members of the old Latm League had their rights much reduced. These, as distinct from the rest of the ' socii,' are known as * nomen Latinum.' Tlie position of the * socii ' varied according to their respective treaties with Rome. , ^ i • NB—{1) After the Social War and the general enfranchisement of B c 88, all became full * cives.' (2) The term ' municipium ' and no other applied in Cicero's time to such old Latin and other allied communities in Italy as had received the full Roman franchise in B.C. 90, or later. THE SOCIAL WAR. The Social or Marsian War was the struggle carried on by the allies (socii) in Italy, B.C. 91-88, against Rome, in consequence of her refusal to grant their just demands. The main grievances ot the allies were (1) excessive military burdens ; (2) complete neglect of their interests in the land laws ; (3) their absolute exclusion from the fuU franchise (civitas). Matters came to a head m b.c 91, when M. Livius Drusus, a tribune, who had proposed to extend the franchise to the Italians, was accused of conspiracy with the Italians and murdered. The people of Asculum rose first and killed a pro- consul ; hereupon a general league of Picenians, Marsians, Pelignians, Marrucinians, Vestinians, Samnites, Apulians, Lucanians was formed ; Corfinium was chosen as the capital of this new Italian league under the title of 'Italica'; consuls, a senate, and comitia were established, and Rome's authority was openly set at defiance. The Senate, taken by surprise and unprepared, met at first witli serious reverses ; a consul was defeated and killed by the Marsians ; and it was not till C. Marius took the command that the tide of ill success was stemmed. The results of the first campaign were wholly favourable to the insurgents, and, as a result, Etruria and Umbria, hitherto loyal to Rome, joined in the revolt. A compromise seemed inevitable, and accordingly at the close of b.c. 90, the Consul carried the ' Lex Julia,' conferring the franchise on every Italian community which had not yet revolted ; this was soon followed by another bill, carried by the tribunes, the * Lex Plautia Papiria,' to the effect that any resident of an Italian township wlio presented himself before a Roman magistrate within sixty days should be enfranchised. In this way distrust was spread among the allies, and their concen- tration, never very firm, was further loosened. The year 89 opened with a vigorous campaign on the Roman side ; Pompeius Strabo the Consul in the north carried Asculum by storm and forced the submission of the surrounding peoples ; while Sulla in the south overran Campania and Samnium ; in 88 Bovianum, the Samnite stronghold, fell ; and though Nola in Campania and the Samnites still held out, the war was practically over. The result of the war, which had cost 300,000 lives, was that the Latins and the bulk of the Italians received the full franchise ; but as they were enrolled in only eight of the thirty-five tribes, and few could travel to Rome to take part in the elections, their political power was not very great. N.B. — The name * socii' disappears henceforth. THE TRIUMVIRATES. I. The coalition between J. Csesar, Pompey the Great, and M. Crassus in B.C. 60 is usually known as the first triumvirate, but it should be borne in mind that these three never bore the title of I02 /^ES ROM ANA E. i f * triumviri/ nor were invested with any office under tliat name. It was purely a private compact formed by the three most powerful men of the time to forward their private ends, whereas the name * triumviri' implied a commission granted by constituted authority for carrying out some public work. Tliis bargain was arranged in order to secure (1) for Caesar the consulship in 59, to be followed by a governorship, (2) for Pompey the ratification of his acts in the East. (iV.^.— Crassus was admitted only on account of his enormous wealth.) A renewal of the bargain took place in 56, after the conference at Luca, whereby Pompey received a command in Spain for five years, Crassus in Syria for five years, and Ciesar a prolongation of his connnand in Gaul for a further five. II. The second triumvirate (a triumvirate in the real sense of the term) was a commission intrusted in 43 to Octavianus, M. Antonius, and Lepidus for five years, under the title of * triumviri reipublioB constituenda?,' to administer the affairs of the State. On the expira- tion of this term in 38, it was ag-ain conferred for five years more. This second triumvirate was recognised by the people, and the title was given by means of a law. POMPEY'S CAMPAIGNS IN THE EAST. In B.C. 66 the Lex Manilia conferred on Pompey supreme com- mand for an indefinite period against Mithradates. Pompey at once concluded a treaty with Phraates, king of Parthia, who was thus deterred from joining Tigranes, king of Armenia. He next collected the remnants of the army of LucuUus, and, adding this to his own, crossed the frontier of Pontus early in 66 at the head of a very powerful army; Mithradates, retreating before him, was finally brought to bay at Nicopolis, and his forces utterly destroyed. The defeated king fled to Tigranes, but, finding himself abandoned, turned northward, closely pursued by Pompey, who only desisted from the chase when Mithradates crossed the Phasis. Pompey next turned his attention to Armenia, but Tigranes voluntarily submitted and peace was concluded with him. Tlius in a single campaign these two great kings had been successfully dealt with. POMPEY'S CAMPAIGNS IN THE EAST. 103 Still Mithradates was at large, and Pompey found the pursuit of him through the Caucasus so difficult and the resistance of the Iberians and Albanians so stubborn that he returned to Pontus, and finally quelled disturbance there. Thence he proceeded to Syria, and by his energetic and politic measures restored order in tliat district. Syria was definitely annexed to Rome as a province, in 64 ; the various petty kings were put down, Jerusalem was taken and the Maccabees crushed, the robber chiefs chastised, and the affairs of the various disorderly communities reduced to some order. But this settlement of Syria brought Rome once more into close proximity with Parthia. Pompey's injudicious peace with Phraates when he assigned the Euphrates as the frontier, was now in danger of being rudely broken owing to his having handed over a part of the Parthian Empire to Armenia. Parthia, indeed, made war on Armenia, but gave way to Roman arbitration. It only remained now to organise these new conquests. Several new provinces were formed, viz., Bithynia and Pontus, Cilicia including Pamphylia and Isauria, Syria, and Crete. Care was also taken in arranging the kingdoms of Cappadocia and Galatia that the command of the Euphrates should be left in the hands of friendly cliieftains (e.gf., Deiotarus of Galatia), entirely dependent on Rome. In every case Pompey used as much as possible the existing machinery. Numerous new cities were likewise founded (e.^., thirty-nine in Pontus) in order to spread civilisation, while many old towns were strengthened by new privileges ; and it was this elevation of urban life, begun by Lucullus and completed by Pompey, that remained as the best memorial of their work in the East. Most of these new towns were peopled, not by bringing colonists from a distance, but by collecting the inhabitants of the district within the walls and by the suppres- sion of villages. The value of Pompey's settlement was recognised by Augustus so clearly that when he regulated the East after the battle of Actium, he made but little change in Pompey's arrange- ments. i I 104 RES ROMANAE. CESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. B c 58. Defeat of the invading Helvetii at Bibracte. Defeat of the Germans under Ariovistus. (Caesar acts as defender of the Gauls ; the Rhine becomes the boundary of the Roman empire.) B.C. 57. Defeat of the Belgae ; submission of the Nervu after severe fighting on the Sabis (Sambre). B.C. 56. Conquest of the Veneti, a naval people m the N.W. comer of Gaul, accompanied by savage vengeance. B.C. 55. Treacherous detention of the chiefs of the Usipetes and Tenctheri, followed by a ruthless slaughter of these people. Caesar crosses the Rhine to punish the Sigambri, and makes his 1st Expedi- tion to Britain (only eighteen days ; a failure). iNT.^.-Rhme and the Channel thus proclaimed as frontiers. B c 54 2nd expedition to Britain ; a merely nominal subjection of the S.E. of the island. iV.5.-Henceforth Ca3sar is occupied m checking revolts and organising his conquests. Revolt of tlie Ebur- ones under Ambiorix ; a Roman camp near Aduatuca suddenly attacked and the troops cut to pieces ; fresh movements of the Nervii, just checked in time by C?esar. B.C. 53. Subjection of the Menapii and Treviri ; extermination of the Eburones who had revolted ; danger of a general revolt immi- nent. , . . J V n B.C. 52. Revolt of the Arverni under Vercingetonx, joined by all the Gauls. Capture of Avaricum (Bourges) ; slaughter of inhabi- tants Defeat of C«sar at Gergovia leads to fresh defections, e.g. the iEdui, hitherto loyal. Siege and capture of Alesia ; surrender of Vercingetorix (who was afterwards executed by Caesar) ; end of the insurrection. B.C. 51. Subdual of remaining rebels. Capture of Uxellodunum. Organisation of Gaul. THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN. The Romans first became personally acquainted with Britain in the time of J. Casar, who twice invaded it B.C. 55, 54 ; on the first / CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE. 105 occasion he remained only eighteen days and effected nothing; on the second he subdued the S.E. of the island, conquering Cassivellaunus the native chieftain ; but no permanent possession resulted, and Britain still remained practically independent. No further attempt was made to subdue the island till the reign of the Emperor Claudius, when his officer, Aulus Plautius, permanently subdued the country S. of the Thames, and this constituted the province of Britain a.d. 44. Caractacus, king of the Silures, after a brave resistance, was overpowered and captured. Roman conquest now extended itself, and the great victory of Suetonius Paulinus, at Camalodunum (Col- chester), over Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, who had headed a revolt, consolidated Roman dominion. Vespasian made several successful expeditions against the Silures and Brigantes, but the conquest of S. Britain was finally completed by Agricola, who, in seven cam- paigns (78-84), subdued the whole island as far north as the Forth and the Clyde, erecting a chain of forts to keep out the Caledonians. Hadrian (117-138) gave up the north, and drew a rampart of turf from the Solway Firth to the German Ocean. Antoninus Pius (138-161) reverted to Agricola's frontier, connecting the Forth and Clyde by a rampart, now called * Grime's Dyke.' Repeated inroads of the barbarians from the north compelled the abandonment of this frontier. Accordingly the Emperor Severus, who divided Britain into two provinces, the upper and the lower, erected a solid stone wall from the Solway Firth to the mouth of the T>Tie ; he died at Eboracum (York) a.d. 211. No subsequent advance beyond this wall was attempted by the Romans, and, long before the withdrawal of Roman troops in A.D. 407 by Constantine, the Caledonians (Picts and Scots) and the Saxons had broken through and devastated the country, as the Roman resistance became less and less effectual. CAUSES WHICH LED TO THE CHANGE FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE. I. The universal longing for rest and peace at any price, owing to the general exhaustion and feeling of insecurity, coupled with the fact that the long years of civil war had brought nothing but misery io6 RES ROMANAE. to the people as a whole ; one rival claimant for power was to the mass much the same as another. II. The rule of one man was by the time of Augustus no new thing; people had become used to it and almost reconciled to it from the example of Sulla and Julius Ccesar ; it only needed the thin disguise adopted by Augustus to make them shut their eyes to the reality of absolutism, and bow their necks submissively to any master who was strong enough to coerce all rivals and give the world peace ; this was what Augustus did, and it was this that justified his autocracy, and even won him at first deep gratitude. III. The proved incapacity of the Senate and the people to carry on the government of a world-empire, and the obvious necessity for substituting one strong will for the petty jealousies and bickerings, which, for more than a century, had endangered the stability of Roman rule at home and abroad. IV. The extent of the Empire had made centralisation necessary ; while provincial misgovernment cried for reform which could never come from the corrupt body of oligarchs who had hitherto claimed to control the provinces. i\r.j5.— What J. Ccesar had schemed, Augustus carried out. The system in most of its details was devised by Julius, but he failed by being too frank and open ; Augustus, by dissembling its reality under republican forms, was able to impose a despotism, pure and simple, on his subjects. AUGUSTUS. I. His Powers.— The defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in B.C. 31, and their suicide the next year, left Octavian with- out a rival. The great struggle between the East and West had been decided in his favour. Returning victorious to Rome in 29, honours of all kinds were lavished upon him by the Senate, and all liis acts were confirmed ; he was made imperator permanently, and was invested with the powers (not the name) of censor. In B.C. 27 he laid do\m the extraordinary quasi-dictatorial power which he had held from 33 till now, and received instead pro- consulare imperium, with the title of princeps senatus. In this year also he assumed the title Augustus, and it is usual to date the AUGUSTUS. 107 beginning of the Empire from this year. In 23 he resigned the consulship, held since 33, and received tribunicia potestas for life. In B.C. 19 he accepted consularis potestas for life ; and in B.C. 12, on the death of Lepidus, he was made pontifex maximus for life. The policy of Augustus was to retain the outward form of the republic, but to gather up all real power in his ovm hands ; and this he thoroughly achieved, for {a) as imperator, he commanded the armies of Rome and appointed all military officers, (h) his consularis potestas and tribunicia potestas enabled him to summon the Senate and Comitia, to veto laws, control magistrates, and issue his own edicts, (c) proconsulare imperium gave him unlimited sway over all the provinces, {d) censoria potestas enabled him to revise the Senate, classify the citizens, and regulate finance, (e) as pontifex maximus, he was head of the State religion, (/) as princeps senatus, he spoke first in the Senate and so could influence its decisions. II. Provincial Governmext. — In b.c. 27 Augustus divided the provinces into two classes. Senatorial and Imperial. The Sena- torial were governed by proconsuls and propraetors sent out by the Senate ; the Imperial by the Emperor's own legati ; these latter were the frontier provinces where armies were needed. Henceforth provincial governors received a fixed salary, and a procurator fisci, or financial agent, was sent out with them to render strict account of their stewardship to the Emperor. His own legati in the imperial pro\dnces were, of course, responsible directly to him. N.B. — Egypt was specially governed by an equestrian praifectus ; no senator was allowed to set foot in it without special leave, owing to fear of a rival Empire. III. Wars. — These were mainly to protect frontier, and were chiefly carried on by his personal friends, e.g., Vipsanius Agrippa, or relatives, e.g., his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus. 26-19 Campaigns against the Cantabri, not finally suMued till Agrippa transplanted them bodily in 19 from their highland fastnesses into the plains, and prevented their return. 24 Unsuccessful expedition by the prefect of Egypt to Arabia Felix (Yemen). 22 Defeat of invading Ethiopians by prefect of Egypt ; qualified sub- mission. 20 Disturbances in Parthia; Augustus assists the dethroned king Phraates, and so recovers the lost standards. N.B. — No fighting. Tiberius places Tigranes on Armenian throne. io8 RES ROMANAE. If i 16-A.D. 10 Incessant wars in Pannonia and Dalmatia ; campaigns of Tiberius and Dnisus ; Pannonia becomes a province in a.d. 10. 15 Tiberius and Drusus subdue Rhaeti, Vindelici, and Norici. 12 to end of reign, a succession of campaigns by Drusus, and, after his death in B.C. 9, by Tiberius, and, later, by Germanicus against the restless German tribes; attempts to secure a strong frontier. A.D. 9 Rising in N.W. Germany ; Arminius annihilates Roman army under Varus. IV. Military Forces.— 25 legions of 6,100 foot and 726 horse apiece : viz., 8 on the Rhine ; 2 on the Danube ; 4 on the Euphrates ; 3 in Spain ; 5 in Pannonia and Dalmatia ; 2 in Egypt ; 1 in Africa. Also 3 fleets : one at Ravenna to guard the Adriatic ; another at Misenum to guard the western coast of Italy ; a third at Forum Julii to guard the Narbonese coast ; likewise minor flotillas to watch the Rhine, Danube, and Euphrates, the great frontier rivers. To these Augustus added, for special service in or near Rome, 9 or 10 prsetorian cohorts ; 3 cohortes urbance ; 7 cohortes vigilum (each cohort of 1000 men). V. Sources of Revenue : (1) tributum soli, land-tax ; (2) tributum capitis, poll-tax, where there w^as no landed property to be assessed ; (3) vectigalia, duties on imports and exports, royalties on mines and salt works, rents of public pastures. The revenues of senatorial provinces were paid into the serarium, which had to provide for the pay of the Senate's officials, the cost of public works, and the corn-doles. The revenues of the rest went into the fiscus, the imperial purse, from which was provided the keeping up of the entire armament of the Empire, the pay of im- perial officials and household, and heavy voluntary outlays as well. VI. Great Men of his Reign. — Vipsanius Agrippa, general and statesman; Maecenas, statesman and patron of letters and art; Tiberius (his successor), general and organiser ; Drusus, general ; Livy, historian; Vergil, Horace, Ovid, Tibullus, Propertius, poets; Asinius PoUio, poet, historian, and soldier. VII. The " MoNUMENTUM Ancyranum." — A copy of the chronicle of his life prepared by Augustus. The original on brass set up before his mausoleum is lost ; but, at the town of Ancyra in Galatia, the priests of the temple of Augustus had had a complete copy carved upon one of the walls. In it is recorded a summary of all the acts Vi DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 109 of his life which Augustus cared to record : a list of his battles and victories ; of the nations under liis rule and the princes under his protection ; of the colonies he had founded and of the sums he had expended on his people, together with a description of the numerous public buildings with which he had beautified Rome and added to its convenience. CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. " I. The depopulation of Italy, owing (1) to the long wars, especially the Punic and Social, (2) to the growing distaste for marriage, (3) infanticide. II. Decay of the small farmers, owing (1) to the mortality in the centuries of war, and the heavy losses which the yeoman class had suff'ered from Hannibal's occupation of Italy and the planting of military colonies ; (2) to the growth of 'latifundia'; (3) to the uni- versal employment of slave-labour ; (4) to the importation of cheap foreign corn. III. The influence of slavery: (1) wasteful of human life; no precautions were taken to preserve lives which could (at first) be so easily and cheaply replaced ; hence Italy became unhealthy in some parts, uncultivated in others, and dangerous throughout ; (2) demoralising to those who employ slave labour ; brought out the worst side of the Roman character. IV. The attractions of town-life and discouragement to industry : the corn-doles, largesses, shows, and games carried the rural popula- tion bodily into Rome and the provincial towns which copied Rome ; pauperism on a gigantic scale followed as a matter of course. V. The influence of foreign customs and conquest on the national character : (1) a belief grew up that Italy need do nothing to sup- port herself ; hence no productive industries ; the provinces to feed and amuse the capital ; (2) an alarming increase of vice, crime, and the most unbridled luxury ; as Rome grew richer and more populous, Italy became poorer, less productive, and more thinly populated,— and this in spite of the most desperate efforts on the part of Augus- tus to stave off the ruin which he already saw to be only too clearly impending. no RES ROMANAE. HISTORICAL ALL USIONS IN ROMAN POETR V. 1 1 1 HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS IN ROMAN POETRY. Horace (h. b.c. 65 ; d. B.C. 8). " Sedilibusque magnus in primis eques Othone contempto sedet." — Epodes, iv. 15. The law of L. Roscius Otho, tribune in B.C. 67, gave the fourteen tows next to the senators' seats in the theatre to the Equites ; a very unpopular measure. Cf. also Juvenaly iii. 159 : " Sic libitum vano, qui nos distinxit, Othoni." " Ibis Liburnis inter alta navium, Amice, propugnacula." — Epodes, i. 1. An allusion either to the war in B.C. 36 with Sextus Pompeius, or, more probably, to the year B.C. 31 when Octavian assembled all his partisans at Brundisium for the final effort against Antony and Cleopatra. Maecenas, who is here addressed, did not go to Actium, as a matter of fact, but was sent to Rome to take charge of affairs. * Libumte ' or * Liburnicse ' were light galleys used by the Liburni, the lUyrian pirates ; very useful to Octavian at Actium against the unwieldy galleons of Antony and Cleopatra. " Quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi,^ Minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae '^ manus, Aemula nee virtus Capuae,^ nee Spartacus * acer, (1) The Marsic or Social war, B.c. 90-88, in which the Marsi took the lead among the allies against Rome. — Cf. Odes, III. xiv. 18 ; " Cadum Marsi memorem duelli." (2) In B.C. 508 Lars Porsena of Clusium captured and humiliated Rome. (3) Capua, a rival of Rome in early times, placed itself under Rome's protection in 4th century, when hard pressed by the Sam- nites, but revolted to Hannibal after Cannae in 216, was compelled to surrender in 211, and mercilessly punished. (*) Spartacus, the great leader in the Gladiatorial or Servile War, Novisque rebus infidelis AUobrox,^ Nee fera caerulea domuit Germania ^ pube, Parentibusque abominatus Haimibal.^ " — Epodes, xvi. 3-8. i. " Attalicis condicionibus." — Odes, I. i. 12. ii. " " neque Attali Ignotus heres regiam occupavi." — Odes, II. xviii. 6. The wealth of Attains was proverbial. He died in B.C. 133, and, according to the Roman interpretation of his will, bequeathed his kingdom of Pergamus (the Roman province of Asia afterwards) to Rome. i. " Catonis nobile letum." — Odes, I. xii. 35. ii. " Et cuncta terrarum subacta Praeter atrocem animum Catonis." — II. i. 23. iii. " Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni." — Lucan, i. 128. Cato, the younger, or Uticensis, committed suicide after the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus in b.c. 46, rather than suiTender to Ctesar. « ammaeque magnae Prodigum Paulum superante Poeno." — Odes, I. xii. 37. ^milius Paulus refused to leave the field after the defeat at Cannae, B.C. 216 ; he was killed, but his rash colleague, Terentius Varro, who had provoked the battle, escaped. 73-71, finally defeated by M. Crassus, the triumvir. — Cf. Odes, III. xiv. 19 : " Spartacum si qua potuit vagantem Fallere testa." Q) The envoys of the Allobroges in B.C. 63 first encouraged the advances of the Catilinarian conspirators, and then betrayed the plot to Cicero. (2) Irruption of Teutones and Cimbri, checked by Marius at Aquae Sextiae in 102, and at Vercellae in 101. (3) 2nd Punic war, 218-202. II 1 1 112 RES ROMANAE. " Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo Fama Marcelli."— Of^cies, III. viii. 19. In B.C. 38 Phraates IV. succeeded Orodes as king of Parthia ; he was expelled for tyranny, and Tiridates was placed on the throne ; in the subsequent struggles, Tiridates fled to Augustus, probably in B.C. 30. cT^ ^ nr J- ^,^._Horace and other Augustan writers use *Partlu, Medi, Persae ' indifferently to represent their Parthia7i enemies. " Motum ex Metello consule civicum." — Odes, II. i. 1. Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer was consul in B.C. 60, the year of the compact between Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus (1st Triumvirate, so called). *uterque Poenus.' — Odes, II. ii. 11. i.e., Carthage in Africa (Tunis), and Nova Carthago (Carthagena) in Spain, the latter founded by Hasdrubal, 228-220. *Palatinus Apollo.'— ^j^is^, I. iii. 17. In B.C. 28 Augustus, in memory of Actium (where also stood a temple of Apollo), dedicated the famous temple and library on the HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS IN ROMAN POETRY. 113 Palatine. Allusions to it abound in the Latin classics. Cf. EpisL, II. i. 217 ; II. ii. 94 ; Odes, I. xxxi. 1 ; Propertius, iii. 23 ; Suet. Aug., 29. Cf. also " Musa, Palatini referemus Apollinis aedem."— Pro^^., V. vi. 11, i. " Cantabrum indoctum juga ferre nostra." — Odes, II. vi. 2. ii " Quid bellicosus Cantaber . . . cogitet, remittas quaerere." — Odes, II. xi. i. iii. " Servit Hispanae vetus hostis orae Cantaber sera domitus catena." — Odes, III. viii. 21. The Cantabri, inhabiting the mountains on N. coast of Spain, had always been troublesome to Rome, and were still in arms in B.C. 29, at the time of the general pacification. Augustus in B.C. 24, and his generals afterwards, made frequent efforts to suppress them, but it was not till B.C. 19 that they were finally subdued by Vipsanius Agrippa, and the survivors transferred to the lowlands. Cf. also Odes, IV. xiv. 41. "Te Cantaber non ante domabilis Miratur." Epist., I. xii. 26. "Cantaber Agrippae . . . virtute cecidit." Odes, III. xiv. 3. "Caesar Hispana repetit penates Victor ah ora." " Tecum Philippos et celerem fugara Sensi." — Odes, II. vii. 9. The defeat of the republicans under Brutus and Cassius by Antony and Octavian at Philippi, on Mount Pangaeus in Macedonia, B.C. 42. Horace was a tribune in the army of Brutus ; was pardoned by Octavian afterwards. Cf. Epist., II. ii. 49. " me dimisere Pliilippi, Decisis liumilem pennis inopemque paterni ' also Sat., I. vi. 48 ; and Verg. Georgic i. 489. .; " " Siculum mare Pceno purpnreum sanguine." — Odes, II. xii. 2. The coasts of Sicily were tlie scene of the most important sea- fights in 1st Punic war (264-241), e.g., battle of Myla?, 260 ; and .Egates Insula?, 242. H 114 RES ROMANAE, " Longa ferae bella NumantuB."— OtZea, II. xii. 1. Numantia, the capital of Celtiberia in Spain ; long the head- quarters of the Celtiberi in their brave resistance to Roman oppres- sion and cruelty ; the struggle known as the Celtiberian or Numan- tine war ended in 133 with the destruction of Numantia by Scipio ^milianus Africanus minor after a protracted siege. " Jam bis Monaeses et Pacori manus Non auspicatos contudit impetus Nostros."— OtZes, III. vi. 9. Possibly MoniBses was the name of the Parthian conqueror at Carrae in 53 ; he is elsewhere called Surenas, but some regard this as a title. The other defeat was that of Antony's lieutenant, Decidius Saxa, in 40, by Pacorus, son of Orodes. At Carrae many standards were lost, and many Romans captured ; these were eventually recovered by Augustus in B.C. 20. " Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen.— Odes, III. viii. 18. Victory of M. Crassus, a general of Octavian, over the Dacians under King Cotiso, and the Bastarnaj and Moesi in B.c. 30. 1. 11. " Cantaber Agrippae, Claudi virtute Neronis Armenius cecidit ; jus imperiumque Phraates Ctesaris accepit genibus minor." — Epist, I. xii. 26. " potius nova Cantemus Augusti troprea Caesaris et rigidum Niphatem Medumque flumen gentibus additum Victis minores volvere vertices." — Odes, II. ix. 18. " Tua, Csesar, setas signa nostro restituit Jovi Derepta Parthorum superbis Postibus."— 0(^s, IV. XV. 6. iv. " Sub duce, qui templis Parthorum signa Te^iJ'—Epist., I. xviii. 56. V. " Juvenis Parthis horrendus, et alto Demissum genus ^Enea." — Sat.^ II. v. 62. 111. HISTORICAL ALL USIONS IN ROMAN POETR V, 115 vi. " Et formidatam Parthis te principe Roniam." — Epiaf., II. i. 256. The Cantabrians were finally reduced by Vipsanius Agripjm in B.C. 19. In B.C. 20 Tiberius Nero, stepson of AugustUH, placed Tigranes on tlie throne of Armenia. In the same year Phraates restored the standards and prisoners taken from Crassus at Carrae in 53 and also from M. Antonius later on. N.B. — Roman writers of the Augustan age are never weary of celebrating this recovery of the standards by Augustus, which was not the result of successful fighting, but of negotiation. The tone of gross exaggeration is only intelligible in court poets. As a matter of history, the Parthians had received little check save in 39 and 38 when Ventidius gained some successes over them ; all other generals had signally failed to wipe out the disgrace of Carrae, and it was very keenly felt by Romans. For further allusions to the Parthians cf. Verg. Georg. iii. 30. ^En. vii. 606. Ovid Fast. v. 526. Propert. V. vi. 79. i. " Videre Rhsetis bella sub Alpibus Drusum gerentem Vindelici." — Odes, IV. iv. 17. ii. " Major Neronum mox grave proelium Commisit immanesque Rhcetos Auspiciis pepulit secundis." — Odes, IV. xiv. 1 4. In B.C. 15 Drusus, the younger stepson of Augustus, entered Rhaetia {i.e. the Tyrol and the Grisons) by the Brenner pass, and overthrew the native tribes, the Vindelici, Genauni, and Breuni near Tridentum (Trent). Meantime Tiberius his brother, the 'Major Neronum,' ascended the Rhine Valley to Lake Constance and thence penetrated the gorges of the upper Rhine and Inn in every direc- tion. At the end of the campaign the whole country was subdued, and the Rhine frontier secured by a cliain of forts. In the same year Rhaetia and Noricum became imperial provinces. " Custos gentis, abes jam nimium diu ; Lucem redde tuae, dux bone, patriae." — Odes, IV. v. 2, 5. After the serious defeat of Lollius in b,c. 16 by the Sygambri, iu the neighbourhood of Bonn, Augustus himself started to cliastise i ii6 RES ROMANAE. them, and was absent three years from Rome ; his protracted al)sence was felt, as he had designed. " qui domita nomen ab Africa Lucratus rediit."— Oc?gs, IV. viii. 18. The title ' Africanus' won by Scipio the elder at Zama in 202, and again by Scipio iEmilianus by the conquest and destruction of Carthage in 146. " vacuum duellis Janum Quirini clausit." — OdeB^ IV. xv. 8. During Augustus' reign the temple of Janus was closed thrice a»s a sign of universal peace : in b.c. 29, on his return from the East ; in 25, after the temporary suppression of the Cantabri ; and perhaps in 9, but the third occasion is not certainly known. " quo die Portus Alexandrea supplex Et vacuam patefecit aulam." — Odc8^ IV. xiv. 34. After defeating Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in b.c. 31, Octavian passed on to the East, making his victorious entry into Alexandria in August B.c. 30 ; Antony and Cleopatra had meantime taken their lives. " Quid debeas, Roma, Neronibu^ Testis Metaurum flumen et Hasdrubai Devictus."— Ofies, iv. IV. 37. At the river Metaurus in Umbria, the consuls C. Claudius Nero and M. Livius Salinator defeated and killed Hasdrubai in b.c. 207, and so endetl all danger of a junction between him and Hannibal. This victory was the turning point in the 2nd Punic war. CJ. IV. iv. 69 : " Occidit, occidit Spes omnis et fortuna nostri Nominis, Hasdrubale interempto." Hannibal's supposed lament on hearing the news. ^.B.— It should l)e remembered that Tiberius and Drusus, the stejwons of Augustus, were ' Nerones ' ; this is why Claudius Nero HIS TORICAL ALL US IONS IN ROMAN POE TRY. 117 gets all the credit. Of. IV. iv. 73 : " Nil Claudia? non perficient manus." " tabulas peccare vetantes Quas bis quinque viri sanxerunt."— ^^^'5^., II. i. 23. The XII. Tables, codification of the law by the Decemvirs in b.c. 450. Vergil (ft. b.c. 70, d. b.c. 19). " An memorem portus, Lucrinoque addita claustra, Atque indignatum magnis stridoribus £equor, Julia qua ponto longe sonat unda refuso, Tyrrhenusque fretis immittitur cnestus Avernis ?"— (?eo?'(/. ii. 161. The lakes Avernus and Lucrinus were two small land-locked pools on the Campanian coast between Misenum and Puteoli. Vipsanius Agrippa united them by a canal, faced the mound which separated the Lucrine lake from the sea with masonry, and pierced it with a chaimel for the admission of large ships, B.C. 37 : this splendid achievement went by the name of the ' Portus Julius.' Cy. Horace^ Ars Poet. 63. "receptus Terra Neptimus classes Aquilonibus arcet." " Deus nobis haec otia fecit." — Eel. i. 6. The feeling of relief at the close of the Civil wars, and of security under the strong government of Augustus, led to his deification in many parts of the Empire ; divine honours were publicly decreed him by Italian towns in B.C. 36. " Ergo inter sese paribus concurrere telis Romanas acies iterum videre Philippi ; Nee fuit indignum superis, bis sanguine nostro Emathiam et latos Haemi pinguescere campos." —Georg. i. 489. Two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in b.c. 42 within 20 days ; Brutus winning the first, but losing the second irretrievably. The other allusion is to the battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly, B.C. 48, defeat of Pompey by J. Caesar. I ii8 RES ROMANAE, "Fidentemque fuga Parthum versisque sagittis."— GtJorgf. iii. 31. The usual Parthian tactics, so successful at Carrae in B.C. 53, were to pretend flight, and pour in volleys of arrows whilst riding off. " Hinc movet Euphrates, illinc Germania bellum."— Geory. i. 509. In B.C. 36 M. Antonius had been driven with heavy loss out of Parthia, and Phraates had at once overrun Armenia and Media. In B.C. 38 Gaul and Germany liad risen in most formidable rebellion, and Agrippa had to be sent against them. 1. " Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor, Qui face Dardanios ferroque sequare colonos."— ^n. iv. 625. ii. " Adveniet justum pugme, ne arcessite, tempas Cum fera Carthago Romanis arcibus olim Exitium magnum atque Alpes immittet apertas."— ^7i. x. 11. The curse of Dido on iEneas may })e said to liave been realised in Hannibal's march over the Alps and invasion of Italy ; the 2nd Punic war, 218-202. " At Caesar, triplici invectus Romana triumpho Mcenia, dis Italis votum immortale sacrabat. Maxima tercentum totam delubra per Urbem."— ^?i. viii. 716. Octavian on his return to Rome in B.C. 29 from the East had a triple triumph for his campaigns in Dalmatia and Pannonia, Actium, and Egypt. It was part of his policy to restore the old temples and build new ones. " Aggeribus socer Alpinis atque arce Monoeci Descendens ; gener adversis instructus Eois." Ctesar's daughter, Julia, was married to Pompey ; this mar- riage delayed civil war for a time, but she died in B.C. 54 and the crisis could no longer be averted. Ciesar's troops were his Gallic veterans ; Pompey^s were largely composed of his Eastern levies. " geminos, duo f ulmina belli, Scipiadas, cladem Libyae."— ^n. vi. 843. The elder and younger Scipio Af ricanus ; one the victor at Zama, HISTORICAL ALL USIONS IN ROMAN POETR Y. 1 19 202, which defeat of the Carthaginians ended their empire ; the other the destroyer of Carthage at end of 3rd Punic war, 146. i " tu Maximus ille es Unus qui nobis cunctando restituis rem." — JEn. vi. 845. ii " Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem." — Enniui. iii " Victricesque moras Fabii." — Propert. IV. ii. 9. Q. Fabius Maximus Cunctator, whose policy of avoiding pitched battles and wearing Hannibal down by harassing tactics did much to retrieve Rome's fortunes after the early disasters of the 2nd Punic war. " Heu, miserande puer ! si qua fata aspera rumpas, Tu Marcellus eT\s"—JSn. vi. 882. M. Marcellus, the younger, son of Octavia, Augustus' sister, was adopted by the Emperor in B.C. 25 and married to his daughter Julia ; his death at the age of twenty was a cause of very real regret at Rome. (Cf. the whole passage, ^?i. vi. 861-883 ; an eloquent tribute to his memory). " In medio classes ajratas, Actia bella, Cemere erat ; totumque instructo Marte videres Fervere Leucaten, auroque effulgere fluctus. Hinc Augustus agens Italos in prcelia Caesar Cum patribus, populoque, penatibus et magnis dis, Stans celsa in puppi : geminas cui tempora flammas Laeta voniunt, patriumque aperitur vertice sidus. Parte alia ventis et dis Agrippa secundis Arduus agmen agens : cui, belli insigne superbum, Tempora navali fulgent rostrata corona. Hinc ope barbarica variisque Antonius armis Victor ab Auroras populis et litore rubro iEgyptum viresque Orientis et ultima secum Bactra vehit ; sequiturque, nefgis ! J^gyptia conjux." ^JEJn. viu. 675-688. A description of the battle of Actium B.C. 31. Vipsanius Agrippa was in command of Octavian's fleet ; Octavian led the land forces ; Antony and Cleopatra were both present with a motley following I 1 20 RES ROMANAE, of Eastern levies. Antony is presumably called "Victor ab Aurora," etc. in virtue not of his own successes but of those of Ventidius his lieutenant over the Parthians in 38. For the Roman feeling about Anton/s relations with Cleopatra, and the sense of relief at Octavian's victory, cf, Horace, Odes, I. xxxvii. Propertius, b. circ. B.C. 51, d. circ. 16. " Crassos clademque piate," IV. iii. 9. Defeat of M. Crassus at Carrae by the Parthians, B.C. 53 ; father and son were killed after the battle at a conference. Augustus projected an expedition against them in B.C. 22, which he carried out, tmthout any fighting, in B.C. 20, and recovered the lost standards by negotiation. Cf. Prop. V. vi. 79 : " sero confessum foedere Parthum." " Aut quibus in campis Mariano proelia signo Stent et Teutonicas Roma refringat opes," IV. iii. 43, 44. Marius utterly defeated the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae (Aix in Provence), B.C. 102 ; and subsequently with the aid of Catulus annihilated the Cimbri at Vercellae on the Raudine i)lain, 101. Ovid, h. B.C. 43, d. a.d. 18. " Parthe, dabis pcenas : Crassi gaudete sepulti, Signaque barbaricas non bene passa manus." — Ars Amat. i. 179. " Parthe refers aquilas." " Ecce fugax Parthus magni nova causa triumphi." — Remed. Amoris, 155. Recovery of the standards lost at Carrae in B.C. 53 by means of negotiations between Augustus and the Parthian King Phraates in B.C. 20. There is the same exaggerated flattery of Augustus here as in other Augustan writers in dealing with this incident. 11. • ■ ■ lU. " Cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari." The year B.C. 43 when the consuls Hirtius and Pansa both lost their lives in raising the siege of Mutina, in which town Decimus HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS IN ROMAN POETR Y. 121 Brutus was besieged by M. Antonius. {N.B. — The year of Ovid's birth.) Of. also Metam., xv. 822 : " Obsessae moenia pacem Victa petent Mutinae." JuvEXAL, b. A.D. 67, d. circ. a.d. 147. " Hie novus Arpinas, ignobilis, et modo Roraae, Municipalis eques," viii. 237. Cicero was a native of Arpinum in Latium ; a * novus homo,' being the first of the ' gens TuUia ' who bore curule honours ; was Consul in 63 when he suppressed Catiline's conspiracy. Cicero was of equestrian rank ; Arpinum was a ' municipium.' " Arpinas alius Volscorum in monte solebat Poscere mercedes alieno lassus aratro," viii. 245. C. Marius also born at Arpinum ; of humble origin ; entered the army, and rose to be consul seven times ; also a * novus homo.' " Hie tamen et Cimbros et summa pericula rerum Excipit, et solus trepidantem protegit urbem," viii. 249. In 102 Marius defeated the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae ; in 101 annihilated the Cimbri at Vercellae on the Raudine plain with the aid of Catulus. Several Roman generals had previously been de- feated, and a feeling of panic was spreading through Italy. " fortunatam natani me consule Romam ! Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic Omnia dixisset," x. 122. If Cicero's oratory had been as bad as his poetry, from which the first line here is a quotation, he would not have incurred Antony's hatred; as it was, his eloquence (cf. the Philippic orations, especially the 2nd) was his undoing; was killed in Antony's proscription, B.C. 43. 31. "A Capreis . . . verbosa et grand is epistola," x. 67, 71. . The letter sent by Tiberius to the Senate, disgracing Sejanus a.d. 1 4 122 I^ES ROMANAE, HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS IN ROMAN POETRY. 123 £» ,*'' i " qualis facies et quali digna tabella, Cum Gaetula ducem portaret bellua luscum," x. 157. Hannibal, riding on the sole remaining elephant, through the marshes south of the Po, lost an eye from ophthalmia. " Cannarum vindex et tanti sanguinis ultor Annulus," x. 165. Hannibal, when unable to elude Roman hostility any longer, took poison which he carried in a ring, about B.c. 183. " Exsilium, et career, Minturnarumque paludes, Et mendicatus victa Carthagine panis," x. 277. In B.C. 88 C. Marius had to fly from Sulla ; in his flight he tried to hide in a marsh near Minturnae ; was caught and imprisoned, but allowed to escape ; he fled to the ruins of Carthage, utterly destitute. " Provida Pompeio dederat Campania febres Optandas," x. 283. In B.C. 50 Pompey, then at the height of his power, fell seriously ill at Naples ; better if he had died than recovered, only to be murdered two years later on landing in Egypt after his defeat at Pharsalus. " Unus Pellseo juveni non sufficit orbis," x. 167. Alexander the Great, " the youth of Pella," is said to have ex- pressed regret that there were no more worlds to conquer. LUCAN, 6. A.D. 39, d. A.D. 65. " Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni," i. 128. Suicide of Cato at Utica after defeat at Thapsus B.C. 46. " Et victis cedat piratica laurea Gallis," i. 122. The fame of Pompey the Great for his speedy suppression of the pirates in 67 must give way to Csesar's reputation made by the conquest of Gaul, 58-51. " Perusina fames Mutinaeque labores," 1. 41. Outbreak of Perusine war in 41 ; Perusia was starved mto sur- render by Octavian, 40. Siege of Mutina by Antony, raised by the consuls Hirtius and Pansa who lost their lives however, 43. Both sieges were attended with fearful sufferings. " Exul limosa Marius caput abdidit ulva," ii. 70. Marius hiding in the marshes of river Liris near Minturna3. " Jam quot apud Sacri cecidere cadavera portum Aut Collina tulit stratas quot porta catervas/' ii. 134. Sacriportus was a small town in Latium, at which Sulla defeated the younger Marius in b.c. 82 ; in the same year Sulla and M. Crassus annihilated the Samnites, 40,000 strong, who had marched on Rome, at the Colline Gate, after very severe fighting. " Magno proles indigna parente PoUuit aequoreos Siculus pirata triumphos," vi. 420. Sextus Pompeius, the son of Pompey the Great, held the sea long after resistance on land had ceased ; reduced Rome to a state of famine, and so forced the triumvirs to come to terms with him ; but broke his part of the bargain arranged at Conference of Misenum in 39, and henceforth became little better than a pirate or buccaneer; the scene of his operations was chiefly Sicily and the adjoining coasts ; finally defeated by Agrippa at Naulochus in 36. " Major Carthaginis hostis Non servituri mseret Cato fata nepotis," vi. 789. Cato Major, the censor, had been mainly instrumental in procuring the destruction of Carthage by his incessant warning, " Delenda est Carthago " ; Cato the younger, his grandson, ' Uticensis,' could not bring himself to surrender to J. Caesar after the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus in 46, and committed suicide in preference. 124 RES ROMANAE. ABBREVIATIONS USED BY THE ROMANS. 125 I ROMAN SYSTEM OF PERSONAL NAMES. Originally every Roman citizen belonged to a * gens' or clan, from which he took a name (*nomen gentilicium'), generally ending in -ius,e.gr.,Fabius. Besides this, every Roman had a 'prcenomen,' preced- ing this, peculiar to him as an individual, e.^., Marcus, Sextus. These two names were sufificient, and many Romans, especially plebeians, had no more, e.^., C. Marius ; but as the clans often contained a large number of ' familuB ' or separate households, it was found more con- venient in such cases for a man to have a third name, ' cognomen ' or family name. These * cognomina ' were either in the nature of nicknames from some bodily or mental peculiarity, e.g.^ Verrucosus, Cicero, Ovicula, Brutus ; or honorary titles from some remarkable event or exploit in the life of the founder of the ' familia,' e.fjr., Magnus, Torquatus, Africanus. Many Romans had more than one cognomen; these additional names are all kno\\Ti as * agnomina.' £.(/., Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Ovicula Cunctator. Here Quintus is prsenomen ; Fabius, nomen ; Maximus, cognomen ; while Verrucosus, i.e., ' warty,' Ovicula, i.e., of lamb-like disposition, Cunctator, i.e., ' the loiterer ' (from his tactics against Hannibal), are further * agnomina.' ' Cognomina ' were often hereditary, though sometimes they died with the individual. JV.^. — (1) In cases of adoption, the adopted person assumed the names and titles of his adoptive father, and, to show his adoption, added the name of his former ' gens,' with the adjectival termination -anus, e.^., the son of ^milius Paullus when adopted by P. Corne- lius Scipio became Publius Cornelius Scipio iEmilianus ; to this was added the family title ' Africanus ' -}- minor to distinguish him from the victor of Zama, -f * Numantinus ' after his own victory at Numantia. (2) Slaves had only one name ; if set free, they received the pKenomen ' and * nomen ' of their master as well, e.^., Marcus TuUius Tiro— (Tiro had been a slave of M. Tullius Cicero). (3) Women, as a rule, had no * prsenomen,' but were called by the feminine of the gentile nomen, e.^/., Cornelia, Sempronia. ABBREVIATIONS USED BY THE ROMANS. I. Pranomina.— A. = Aulus; C. = Gaius; Cn. = Gnasus ; D. = Deci- mus; L. = Lucius; M. = Marcus; M'. = Manius; P. = Publius; Q. = Quintus ; S. = Sextus ; Sp. = Spurius ; T. = Titus ; Ti. = Tiberius! iST.^.— Women's names are expressed by inverted characters, e a , 0. = Gaia. '^'' II. Titles, etc.— Cos. = Consul ; Coss. = Consules ; F. = Filius • Imp = Imperator; P.C. = Patres conscripti; S.P.Q.R. = Senatus popu- lusque Romanus. in. Sepulchral.— D.M.S. = dismanibus sacrum; F.C. = faciendum curavit. IV. Miscellaneous.— N.L. = non liquet (in voting on trials); VR =uti rogas (in voting on laws) ; S.D.=salutem dicit; S.P.D =salu- tem plurimam dicit; S.V.B.E.E.V.=si vales, bene est: ego valeo (these three last at beginning of correspondence); S.C. = senatu3 consultum ; I.N.=intercessit nemo ; P.P. -pater patriae ; A U C = anno urbis conditae ; D.D.D. = dat, dicat, dedicat ; D.D. = dono dedit • F.F.F. = felix, faustum, f ortunatum ; H.S. (for I.I.S., i.e., duo + semis) = sestertius. THE ROMAN CALENDAR. I. The Roman year originally began with March, but after b c 153 the Consuls, by whose names the year was designated, entered office m January ; henceforth January becomes the first month. II. Reform of the Calendar by J. Caesar. In B.C. 46 he'introduced two mtercalary months, containing 67 days, in order to bring it into accord with the solar year ; a mistake was made at first by taking a leap-year in every three years, but remedied by Augustus in a.d. 4. iSr.5.— The Julian year, being 11 min. 12 sec. too long, had in 1582 amounted to an error of 10 days, which was rectified by Pope Gregory XIII. ^ ^ III. The foundation of Rome, as calculated by Varro, took place \ 126 J^ES ROMANAE, MARTIAUS DESCRIPTIOJSf OF A DA Y, 127 in B.C. 753, but owing to an error the Christian Era is four years wrong, the birth of Christ being really B.C. 4. IV. Dies nefasti, days on which the praetor did not admmister justice, e.g., the anniversary of the Allia disaster. NundinsB, market days, occurring every eight days. Feriae, holidays and festivals, e.g., ferise Latinoe, the date of which was annually announced by the Consuls ; the Saturnalia, always on Dec. 17th, etc. , x . 1. ^ • Dies bissextus, the 24th February (vi Kal. Mart.) was taken twice in a leap-year. , , .. xt V The month had three divisions, viz., Kalendae the 1st, :Nones 5th, Ides 13th, except in March, May, July, October, when the Nones were on the 7th and the Ides on 15th. VI July and August, so called after Julius Ciesar and Augustus, were previously Quintilis and Sextilis, i.e., 5th and 6th months in the old calendar. HORACE'S DESCRIPTION OF A DAY OF HIS LIFE IN ROME (B.C. 65-8). « Fallacem circum vespertinumque pererro Saipe forum ; adsisto divinis ; inde domum me Ad porri et ciceris refero laganique catinum. Deinde eo dormitum, non soUicitus, mihi quod eras Surgendum sit mane. Ad quartam jaceo ; post banc vagor ; aut ego lecto Aut scripto, quod me tacitum juvet, ungor olivo. Ast ubi me fessum sol acrior ire lavatum Admonuit, fugio campum lusumque trigonem. Pransus non avide, . . . domesticus otior." — Sflrf.jl.vi. 113. MARTIAL'S DESCRIPTION OF A DAY IN ROME (A.D. 43-102). " Prima salutantes atque altera conteret hora, Exercet raucos tertia causidicos : In quintam varios extendit Roma labores, Sexta quies lassis, septima finis erit : Sufl&cit in nonam nitidis octava palsestris, Imperat exstructos frangere nona toros : Hora libeUorum decima est." EDUCATION. Elementary schools, 'ludi litteranim,' for both boys and girls, existed at Rome from very early times. Reading, writing, and arithmetic were at first the only subjects taught, though, before the close of the republic, a familiar knowledge of Greek was considered indispensable to every one in the upper ranks. In the age of Cicero and for some centuries later a complete course of study consisted of, at least, three parts, in the following order: — (1) Reading, writing, and arithmetic, taught by the * ludi magister '; (2) a critical know- ledge of Greek and Latin, taught by a * grammaticus ' ; (3) composi- tion and oratory, taught by a * rhetor Latinus.' To this was some- times added a course of moral and metaphysical philosophy, to acquire which it was usual to resort to Athens or some other famous foreign seat of learning, as to a University. Wealthy Romans had educated slaves as tutors to their children, *p?edagogi,' who first taught the rudiments, and then accompanied the children to and from school ; while others procured the ser\dces of * grammatistte,' * rhetores,' and * philosophi ' to superintend the training of their soils at home. 128 RES ROMANAE. SLAVES. Persons might become slaves in three ways, (1) by birth, i.e., if the child of a female slave ; (2) by captivity, i.e., prisoners of war, who were sold *sub corona'; (3) by judicial sentence, as a punish- ment for heinous offences. . , A slave had no personal nor political rights ; lus master could punish, torture, and kill him at his pleasure ; and it was not until the rei^ of Hadrian that putting a slave to death was prohibited A slave could not contract a regular marriage ; any alliance he might form was termed ' contuberninm,' and the offsprmg of it, verme. Injuries to a slave were regarded merely as injuries to his master a pro- perty. No slave could acquire property independent of Ins mastei, Lughhe was, in practice, generally allowed to have a small private hoard {' peculium '). Slave-deaUng, towards the close of the Republic, assumed gigantic proportions, e.g., 10,000 slaves were sold on one ^y in thf market at Delos; it was a very lucrative trade carried on by persons called ' mangones,' who sold the r more valuable stock in pri^^te shops ('taberna.'), often for very large sums, ..<,, X800 and^£900 for a single slave, but the commoner class by auction m 1 opTmarket. A seller had to describe his goods and give a warranty. Slaves newly imported had their feet chalked (' gypsati or * cretati'), when exposed naked for sale. In ^rly times, whragricultural labourers were stil free men, and ordimry trades were plied by citizens, the number of slaves was not very great ; but as slave-labour ousted free, and the supply of slaves kex^pace ^nth Rome's increasing foreign conquest, an enor- io^s influx^k place, till at last it came to be t^ought^^n and discreditable to keep only a scanty establishment of them. "Ihe houLhold C familia') of any rich Roman at the close of the Republic «Xned several himdred, and there are cases cited where as many as 4000 were owned by one master. -, , ^^ .i,^^ Rations C demensum ') of a meagre kind were served out to them either daily or montldy ('diarium' or ^menstruum ) ; yet some contrived to save a portion even of this and so accumulate a pecu- Uum,' with which tTpurchase freedom. The lot of a country slave wZas a rule, even harder than that of one in Rome, his rations being less and the conditions of Ids life more intolerable. A ROMAN HOUSE. 129 As to their punishments, these depended entirely on their master's caprice : the commonest was the lash, most brutally inflicted and often for the most trivial offences ; branding in the case of runaways ; 4he heavy collar of wood ('furca') ; crucifixion. No evidence was accepted as valid from slaves except under tor- ture, and in case of a master being murdered, the whole body of his slaves were liable to be put to death. Nowhere perhaps is the inherent brutality of the Roman character more terribly sho\vn than m their treatment of those who mmistered to their comfort and amusement ; no wonder, then, that the vast hordes of * servi ' were a constant menace to the State, e.g., the Slave wars in SicHy, 135 and 103, and the rising of SiDartacus in Italy, 73. A ROMAN HOUSE. The following remarks apply strictly to a house of ordinary size m the first century a.d.; our chief source of information being the excavated city of Pompeii, which was overwhelmed by the great eruption of Vesuvius in a.d. 79. I. The * atrium,' the chief room, and originally perhaps the only room of the house, a large chamber open in the centre to the sky; through this opening in the roof (' compluvium ') light was admitted, and rain also, which was caught in a tank beneath ('impluvium'); round the 'atrium 'were subsequently built smaU rooms for sleeping ('cubi- cula'), store-chambers ('cellae '), and the like. A passage led from . the 'atrium' through a door ('ostium' or 'janua') into the 'vesti- bulum' or entrance -court, and so into the street. II. The ' tablinum' opened out of the 'atrium,' from which it was not separated by any door; this was the private room of the master of the house, in which he kept his papers (' tabulie ') and his money and from which he could command a view of the whole house. * III. The 'peristylium,' a walled court or garden, surrounded by piUars, lay behind the ' tablinum,' with which it was connected by two narrow passages ('fauces'). In the larger houses, further small chambers were built round this court, and in some cases a second 'peristylium' opened out of the first. ,30 JiES ROMANAE. IV The 'tricliBiim' or dining-room was a later ^-iitio^' *!^^ lay as arule to one side of the ' tablinum,' but in lat^ l-v^s there wL often distinct 'triclinia' for dif -°t ^^ 'f^^'Z ' oeci,' NB-(l) Other terms connected with large houses are , laif 'salions of various styles of architecture -d »-~ - ■trilinia- ' pinacotheca.' V^'-^^'^''^ \ Z^J^lZL.nU .pistnn^- the l^ke-hou- an^^ ; .-— ^ of a M- 'a^a.a.> curtains for door^'ays ; 'fenestra,' w^'id'?^^ ^^ r2ViertIr°orrfaRoman house must have been somewhat hare might be taken in at a glance from the ostium, supposmg several doors and curtains to be thrown back. SOME TERMS COxXNECTED WITH DRESS. T Of Men -i ^ cucuUus. a cap, hood, or cowl, fastened to a cloak^ lacema. a large cloak worn on journeys, or m damp and cold weather. i«Tia a lined upper garment, cloak, mantle. paTull rirgrwo^Uen cloak, or mantle for travellmg or paSt^t oLk cloak or mantle, only worn by Romans "^ wC residing amongst Greeks, or by act<,rs when depctmg Greek characters, paludamentum, general's military cloak, sagum, the soldier's cloak. aublij?acula, short drawers. 4.i„ v.,r lubucula, a close-fitting vest or shirt ; worn apparently by both sexes. AMUSEMENTS, m I il synthesis, a loose easy garment, often of bright colours, worn over the tunic at diimer ; a kind of dressing-gown. syrma, a robe with a train, worn by tragic actors. toga, the outer garment of a Roman citizen in time of peace, a long flowing gown, consisting of one piece of stuff. trabea, a robe of state worn by augurs, kings, knights, etc. tunica, a close-fitting under garment ; shirt ; worn by both sexes. II. Of Womex. fascia = a close-fitting vest. mstita=a flounce or hem at the bottom of the tunic. palla=a long and wide upper garment, fastened with brooches, the usual out-of-doors wrap. 8tola=a long upper garment or gown reaching from the neck to the ankles. N.B.. — (1) Boots : calcei, shoes or boots for walking ; caliga, hob- nailed soldier's boot ; cothurnus, a high laced bopt, worn by Imnters, horsemen, tragic actors ; mulleus, red or purple shoe worn by highest magistrates ; pero, a boot of raw hide, worn l)y rustics ; solese, sandals, slippers. (2) Hats : causia, a white hat with broad brim ; petasus, a travel- ling hat or cap with broad brim ; pileus or pilleus, a felt cap, close-fitting, like the half of an egg. AMUSEMENTS. Amongst games of chance, we find that dice always took a pro- minent place. These were of two kinds — (1) 'tesserae,' cubes like modern dice; (2) 'tali,' oblong and marked on four sides only Both were thrown from a cylindrical box, called ' fritillus ' or ' phimus,' on to a board called ' abacus ' or ' alveus.' The best throw was ' Venus ' ; the worst, ' canis.' Playing for money (' alea ') was forbidden by law, except at the Saturnalia; but evidently much indulged in, and for very large amoimts. Other games of a more innocent nature were 'latrunculi' and ,^2 I^£S ROMANAE. nudus duodecim scriptorum/ wliicli have been aptly compared to chess and draughts or backgammon respectively. _ ^ Lastly, the games of *odd and even' ('ludere parimpar),ie guessing whether objects concealed in an adversar/s hand were odd or even; of * pitch and toss' ('capita aut navim'), t.e., 'heads or tails' ; and of ' micare digitis,' i.e., guessing how many fingers were momentarily held up, were in vogue amongst all classes. iSrj5-To these may be added the public games, which engrossed so much of a Roman's time in the days of Rome's decline 'ludi circenses'; games of the circus, e.^., horse and chariot races ; (2) ludi scenici,' theatrical entertainments ; (3) gladiatorial shows in the amphitheatre, and afterwards in the Colosseum. ROMAN ATHLETICS. Gvmnastic exercises were not confined among the Romans to the period of youth ; in fact, daily ' exercitatio ' of some kind was re- ^rded as necessary even for old men More the bath. Perhaps the favourite game for young and old alike was that of ball, of which there were numerous varieties, e.g., 'pila,' 'foUis,' ' trigon," pagamea, etc according to the size of the baU used ; thro^nng, catching, striking with the hand or arm seem to have been the methods employed; it is clear that none of the balls were very hard. The game of Hrigon' was played by three players standing in a triangle; experts used only the left hand in catching and throwing. A more bolster* ous game, also played with a ball, was ' harpastum ' ; here apparently there was a general scrimmage for the possession of one ball thrown amongst a number of players. Other varieties were played with several balls at once and by numerous players. Another exercise was the swinging of the ' halteres,' weights which were held in the hands in leaping ; a kind of dimib-bells, and similarly used. A third amusement was the sham fight with the 'palus, a post fixed in the ground, against which athletes fought with wooden sword and shield, in order to learn the use of their weapons. Besides these, wrestUng, boxing, hurling the hea^7 'discus,' a kind CARRIAGES. 133 of very large quoit, were freely engaged in, especially in the pul)lic baths. The game of ' trochus,' a hoop to trundle, ^v'as also borrowed from the Greeks, but was regarded as rather effeminate. Running and leaping were common exercises, but were not regarded as severe enough by themselves, save for the elderly and weakly, who sometimes restricted themselves to riding or carriage- exercise and walking. To practise these gymnastics, many rich men had a gymnasium, ' sphaeristerium,' fitted up in their own houses ; while there were similar appliances at the public baths. Many of the above exercises also took place on the Campus Martius, to be followed, in the case of younger men at any rate, by a swim in the Tiber, in preference to visiting the bathing establishments. CARRIAGES. biga, a two-horsed chariot. carpentum, a two-wheeled covered carriage, especially used in town and by women. caxruca, a sort of four-wheeled travelling and state coach (not before the Empire). carrus, a kind of two-wheeled waggon for transportmg burdens. cisium, a light two-wheeled vehicle, a cabriolet. covinus, (1) a war chariot of the Britons and Belg?e. (2) a travel- ling chariot, a kind of tilbury. currus, chariot, car, wain. essedum, a two- wheeled war chariot of the Gauls and Britons. lectica, a litter, sedan. petorritum, an open four-w^heeled carriage of Gallic origin. pilentum, an easy chariot or carriage, used by Roman ladies and also in sacred processions. quadriga, a four-horsed chariot, four-in-hand. rseda or reda, a travelling carriage or waggon with four wheels. triga, a chariot drawn liy three horses. vehiculum, waggon, cart, carriage. 134 RES ROMANAE. PRINCIPAL PLACES OF INTEREST. 135 I PRINCIPAL PLACES OF INTEREST IN AND NEAR ANCIENT ROME. iEdes Vest*, on the south side of the Comitium, opposite to the Curia; the most holy of all Roman shrines ; here was kept the < Palladium; and here the Vestel Virgins, who lived mthm its pre- cincts, kept alight the eternal fire of Vesta ('Vesta ceterna ) Aqua Appia, an aqueduct built by Appius Claudius m B.C. 312 to supply Rome with wat^r, by means of an artificial underground channel nearly U miles long, terminating between the Porta Capena ' and the * clivus Publicius.' • „ ^ i n Aqua Virgo, an aqueduct built by Vipsamus Agrippa m B.C. 19 ; 14 miles in length ; entered Rome near the Pincian hill and ..^s conveyed upon arches into the Campus Martins. N.B.-ln the time of Frontinus, an engineer who describes these works and who died A.D. 103, there were nine such * ductus' ; one or two more were subsequently added. . -, , , . +i Argiletum (i.e. ' the clay-field '), in the * vicus Tuscus,' between the * circus maximus' and *mons Aventinus,' where handicraftsmen and booksellers traded. . .- x- ^^ Aventinus, one of the seven hills of Rome, extending from the Palatine to the C^lian mount ; almost touching the Tiber ; chiefly inhabited by plebeians ; approached by the * clivus Publicius. Basilica, covered porticos in which people assembled to transact business, especially the business of the law-courts ; built to secure additional accommodation, as the space in the Forum grew too limited ; the l^est kno^v^l are the ' basilica Porcia,' built by Cato the Censor in 184, burnt down in 52 ; and the * basilica Julia,' built by J Citsar in 46, also burnt dowTi, but rebuUt by Augustus. Campus Martius, an alluvial meadow of some 300 acres in an ancrle of the Tiber; here the 'comitia centuriata' met, and here mit of the sports and pastimes of the Romans were carried on ; a m-eat portion of the modem city of Rome is built upon it. Capitolinus, a small hill at the southern extremity of the '-Campus Martins,' close to the Tiber. The Capitolinus had two summits, on one of which stood the citadel ('arx'); on the other, the great national temple (* Capitolium '), dedicated to Jupiter Optimus Maximus conjointly with Juno and Minerva; approached by the * clivus Capitolinus.' Carinae, the most fashionable quarter in Rome towards the close of the Republic, between the Caelian and Esquiline hills ; the temple of * Tellus ' was situated here ; here was Pompey's house ; and here, too, the baths of Titus ('thermae Titi'). Circus Maximus, an oval circus built by Tarquinius Priscus be- tween the Palatine and Aventine, capable of holding more than 100,000 spectators ; it was surrounded by galleries three stories high and a canal called Euripus. Through its whole length, in the middle, a wall 4 feet high and about 12 broad was built, called * spina,' at the ends of which there were three columns on one base (* meta '), around which competitors had to pass seven times. Round about the ' circus ' was a favourite haunt of jugglers, soothsayers, and the like. Besides the ' circus maximus,' there were others at Rome, e.g.^ * circus Flaminius,' ' circus Vaticanus,' ete. Cloaca Maxima, a huge vaulted drain in Rome, constructed by Tarquinius Priscus, by which the filth from the streets was carried away into the Tiber, and the low swampy ground also was drained ; much of it still survives. Colosseum, the most stupendous and imposing of all ancient ruins ; erected in the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian ; capable of holding 90,000 spectators; used for every sort of public show, especially gladiatorial combats and wild-beast shows, even sham naval battles ; stood in the hollow between the Caelian and Esqui- line on the site of Nero's ' aurea domus.' Comitium, the place of assembly ; situated in or near the Forum, from which it was only separated by the ancient * Rostra ' ; some- times regarded as part of the Forum, of which it formed about one-fourth. Curia, Senate-house ; (1) the Curia Hostilia, facing the Comitium on the north side, opposite the ' Rostra ' ; built by Tullus Hostilius ; this is what is usually meant by the word ; (2) the Curia Julia, used by the Senate after the burning of the Curia Hostilia ; (3) the Curia Pompeia, built by Pompey, but finally closed after the assassination of J. Caesar in it. EsquilisB, the largest in extent of the seven hills of Rome, though reaUy only one of the four main irregular projections in the table- land of the Campagna, with several separate heights ; in earlier times the poor were buried here, and there were no public buildings 136 RES ROMANAE, of importance upon it till the time of Augustus, when Maecenas erected a splendid palace here and laid out the hill in gardens. Fonim, i.e. *Komanum' or * magnum,' a low, open artificial level, about 630 feet long, and rather more than 100 wide, between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, surrounded by *basilicae' and the shops of the ' argentarii' ; in later times, too, with many fine build- ings and countless statues ; this was the principal place of meetmg, where public affairs were discussed, courts of justice held, money transactions carried on, etc. i\r.5.— There were numerous other * f ora ' for special purposes, e.g., * forum olitorium,' the vegetable market ; * forum boarium,' the cattle market, etc. etc. Insula Tiberina, an island formed by two branches of the river, nearly opposite the base of the Capitoline ; regarded as holy, and crowded with temples, e.g. of iEsculapius, Faunus, etc. Janiculum, a long ridge about 300 feet above the sea, on the western bank of the Tiber ; it was fortified with a wall, and con- nected with the city by the * pons Sublicius,' though not origmally included in the city limits. Janus, four arched passages in the Roman Forum, w^here mer- chants and money-changers congregated, were called ' Jani.' N.B. — The temple of Janus stood in the Forum ; a small building with two doors opposite to each other, which in time of war stood open but in time of peace were closed. Lautumiffi {i.e. stone-quarries), in the neighbourhood of the Argi- letum ; one of the State prisons was situated here. Meta sudans, close to the Colosseum ; a conical stone pillar from which water, rising out of a copious spring, overflowed into a basin below. Milliarium aurenm, a gilded pillar set up in the Forum by Augustus as the termination of all military roads; on it w^ere inscribed the distances to the most important points from the several gates; it stood at the foot of the slope leading up to the Capitoline. Palatinus, at the southern extremity of the Campus Martins, to the south of the Capitoline ; the first of the seven hills of Rome that was built upon ; here were many objects connected with the earliest traditions, e.g., the Lupercal, or cave of Lupercus ; the * ficus Ruminalis'; the *casa Romuli'; the temple of * Jupiter Stator,' etc. In later times, many of the noblest buildings of Rome stood here, e.g., the temple of Apollo, erected by Augustus after Actium ; M 138 RES ROMANAE, here, too, tlie Emperors fixed their residence, and * Palatium ' came to denote the imperial abode. Pomcerium, an open space, left free from buildings, on both sides of the city wall ; this was increased on several occasions, as the population grew. -i t. -n- i Pons SubUcius, a wooden bridge supported on piles, built by Ancus Martins, when he fortified the Janiculum and connected it by this bridge with the city. J^.^.-There seem to have been only three bridges erected before the end of the Republic, though subse- quently there were at least eight. Porta Capena, in the hollow between the Cselian and the Aven- tine ; here the Via Appia began. . Porta CoUina, at the N.W. of the agger, the most northern point of the fortifications. i^.B.-The number of gates is not accurately known ; no doubt it varied at different times ; Pliny asserts that there were thirty-seven in Vespasian's reign. Puteal, a spot in the Comitium, close to the tribunal ; surrounded with a stone coping like a well ; a famous rendezvous for business men, especially money-changers ; known often as ' puteal Libonis, after one Libo who restored it. r^ • • Rostra, a stage or platform for speakers between the Comitium and lower Forum, adorned with the beaks of ships taken from the people of Antium, B.C. 338. i\r.J5.-The * rostra' was moved either in time of J. Ctesar or Augustus to the south side of the lower Forum. Rostrata colunma, a column erected in the Forum, to commemo- rate the naval victory of Duilius in 1st Punic war at Myl^, B.C. 260 ; it was adorned with the beaks (' rostra ') of the conquered vessels. Sacer mons, a hill about 3 miles from Rome, beyond the Anio, andontherightofthe^ViaNomentana.' Seals Gemonis, steps on the Aventine, leading to the Tiber, to which the bodies of executed criminals were dragged by hooks to be thrown into the Tiber. , i. j i • Subura, the low quarter of Rome, very thickly populated, lying between the Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal ; a haunt of the worst Titi arcus, at the top of the Velia and highest point of the ^Via sacra' stood, and still stands the triumphal arch of Titus, erected to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem. Trajani forum, to the N.E. of the Forum Romanum, immediately I PRINCIPAL CLASSICAL LA TIN A UTHORS. 139 under the Quirinal, vast masses of this hill having been cut away to enlarge the area ; by far the most magnificent of all the * fora' ; the famous * colunma Trajani' with bas reliefs commemorating the Emperor's victories over the Dacians and Parthians is still standing. Tribunal, on the Comitium, at the extremity most remote from the Capitoline ; a raised platform, where the * praetor urbanus' sat to administer justice ; towards the close of the Republic, other *tribunalia' were established to meet the increase of legal business. Tullianum, the dungeon added to the state-prison in Rome by Servius Tullius ; at the foot of the Capitoline. Velabrum, a low-lying district, frequently flooded ; l^etween the * Vicus Tuscus ' and the * Forum Boarium.' Velia, a ridge of the Palatine extending to the ' Carinje.' Via Appia, from the * porta Capena' to Capua, Beneventum, and Brundisium ; the great south road. Via Saera, leading from the Forum to the Capitol by the * clivus Capitolinus ' ; along it passed all triumphal processions ; apparently it began where the arch of Constantine now stands. Vieus Tuscus, so called from a Tuscan settlement ; a street running between the Capitoline and Palatine, connecting the Forum with tli^ Circus Maximus. PRINCIPAL CLASSICAL LATIN AUTHORS. I. Pre-Ciceronian Period. Previous to B.c. 240 Roman literature is represented merely by inscriptions, laws, crude annals, with fragments of ritual songs and coarse farces. Livius Andronicus (died 204), who wrote dramas for the stage, may be regarded as the first author. He was succeeded by a numerous band, e.g.^ Cn. Naevius flourished about B.C. 235 ; of his dramatic and epic poems only fragments remain ; Q. Ennius, B.C. 239-169, the father of Roman epic poetry ; his great work was the Annates^ a national epic in eighteen books on Rome's history, from its earliest beginning to the year 172 ; of this only a few hundred lines are extant ; JM. Porcius Cato, the censor, 234-149, a very I40 J^ES ROMANAE. \ voluminous writer, who may be regarded as tlie earliest Roman prose author ; history, speeches, and a treatise De Re Rustica, which latter alone is extant in full ; some fragments of his Origmes, the earliest history of Rome ; C. LuciUus, 148-103 ; writer of satires ; only fragments; imitated by Horace ; T. Maccius Plantus, 254-184 ; twenty comedies extant, e.g., * Amphitruo,' ^Asinaria Captivi, « MencTchmi,' ' Miles Gloriosus,' * Mostellaria,' ^ Rudens, Trmum- mus,' etc., entirely derived from Greek sources (' fabulie palliatse ), as regards the form, though the spirit is essentially Roman ; rough and vigorous ; P. Terentius Afer, 185-159 ; six comedies, also « fabulc^ palliafce,' viz., ^ Adelplii,' ' Andria,' * Eunuchus,' * Heauton- timorumenos,' ' Hecyra,' *Phormio' ; marked by grace and purity of diction ; more artistic and refined, but far less lively than Plautus ; never popular except with men of education and taste. II. The Ciceronian period. (' The Golden Age' begins.) M. Terentius Varro, 116-27 B.C., the most voluminous and varied of Roman writers ; (1) Satura Menippea, a medley of prose and verse on every sort of subject, 150 books ; (2) works on antiquities ; (3) on grammar, e.g., 25 books, De Lingua Lafna, of which v.-x. are extant ; (4) Imagines or Hehdomades, a gallery of Greek and Roman cele- brities ; (5) De Re Rustica, in three books, extant ; style most uncouth ; a master of facts, not of words. M. Tullius Cicero, 106-43 ; speeches, treatises on rhetoric and philosophy, and private letters ; of these, 57 speeches are still extant, e ^ , the Actio in Verrem ; four against Catiline ; the 14 Philippic ora- tions against Antony; the Pro Murena, Pro Milone, etc.; most of his treatises still remain, e.g. (rhetorical), De Oratore, De Repuhhca, etc. (philosophical), Academica, De Finibm, Tusculance Disputationes, De Natura Deorum^De OfficUs, De Amicitia, De Senectute, etc.; also a very large number of letters, 16 books. Ad Atticum, Ad Qmntum Fratrem, and 16 books more of mixed correspondence. C JuUus Caesar, 100-44 ; speeches and history ; his Commentarii De Bella Gallico, in eight books (the eighth being by Aulus Hirtius,who also compiled the Bellum AUxandriimm), and De Bella Civili, m three books, are extant. _. NB—The works Bellum Africanum and Bellum Hispamense may have been compiled from Coesar's memoranda, but are certainly not by his hand. . ., ^ e Cornelius Nepos flourished about 44 B.C. ; history m the form ot PRINCIPAL CLASSICAL LATIN AUTHORS. 141 biographies ; possibly the extant remains are only an abridgment of his once famous work. T. Lucretius Cams, 90-55 ; a philosophical poem, De Rerum Natura, in six books, extant ; an exposition of Epicurean doctrines • the greatest poem of its kind in any language, evidently deeply studied by Vergil. ^ '' .x.^'I^^'T^ Catullus, 87-54 ; poems, lyrical, epic, and occasional ; the first Roman lyric poet ; easy, graceful, and finished ; shows a marked advance over his predecessors in his mastery of the resources of the Latin language ; great artistic and dramatic power, e.q., in his wonderful poem Attis. C. Sallustius Crispus, 86-35 ; the first important Roman historian • his extant works are his historical essays, Gatalvna and Bellum Jugurthmum, with some fragments from other simUar histories • the first Roman writer who wrote history as opposed to mere' chromcles, and the first with any real pretensions to literarv style. -^ III. The Augustan Age. (* Tlie Golden Age ' continued.) P. Vergilius Maro, 70-19 B.C. ; (1) Bucolics or Eclogues, pastoral poems m which the idylls of Theocritus served him for a model • (2) four books of the Geargics, didactic poems on all matters relatincr to agriculture and country pursuits ; perhaps suggested by his patron Maecenas, as an attempt, by means of poetry, to put an end to the general neglect of agriculture throughout Italy ; (3) the ^7ieid an unfinished work in 12 books, in which the growth of Rome's gr'eat- ness is traced till it culminates in the glorious world-empire of Augustus ; the great national epic of Rome ; incomparable in diction and metre ; musical and majestic. -ZST.^.— Certain minor poems are attributed to Vergil, partly satirical, e.g., the Gulex, Giris, Gapa, Moretum, etc. Q. Horatius naccus, 65-8 B.C. ; (1) four books of Odes, lyrical • (2) a book of Epod^s, satirical ; (3) two books of Satires, many of which are rather humorous than satirical ; (4) two books of Epistles and the^?-^ Poetica ; these latter deal with a variety of topics, and contain, i7iter aha (especially the Ars Poetica), rules for poetical composition and criticisms on previous writers ; nothing so perfect as the first three books of Odes, or so delightful as the first book of Epistles, in the whole range of Latin literature. T. Livius Patavinus, b.c. 59-a.d. 16 ; a history of Rome from , ,2 RMS ROMANAE. its foundation to the death of Drustos in B.C. 9, in 142 books, of IS are extant, vi., 1-10 and 20-45' with a ew fr^ments; TnimitaWe as regards style, but careless and unscientific as history ^Tr iraiTi4 B.C. ; ^ms, chiefly amatory, in the elegiac metre ; delicate and refined in thought and langimg«- lextus Propertius. about 49-16 B.C. ; elegiac poems, *.efly ama tory ; a genius spoilt by excess of erudition, though without a Roman rival in this particular field, when at his best. P OvidiuB^aso. B.C. 4a-A.D. 17, (1) earlier amatory poems ^9-, AnAm^-, ..,., Agamemnon, H.cuUs ^J^.^^^^ etc (3) 20 books of letters to his friend LucU.iis, (4) the ^pocolocf'' t^ a satire on the Emperor Claudius, a medley m pro^ and verse A PeTsius Flaccua, a.d. 34-62 ; six satires ; a close verbal imitatoi of Horace ; very obscure ; a student without any real experience of '' M Ann»us Lucanus, a.d. 39-65; epic i»em, Th. Pharsalia on thrCivU war between G-esar and Pompey, in 10 books, incomplete ; sime ninificent passages, but, as a whole, tedious, prolix, and over- 'TSus Secundus (the elder), a.d. 23-79 ; history, grammar, and natural history ; liis Historia Naturalis in 37 books is extant. C siis^ic-, A.D. 25-101 ; an epic in 17 books on 2nd Punu= Wa;, I'umca ; a slavish imitator of Vergil's metre and diction ; dull aiid uninspired. PRINCIPAL CLASSICAL LATIN AUTHORS, 143 Papinius Statius, about a.d. 45-96 ; (1) Epics, Thehah in 12 books ; an unfinished AcUlUu ; (2) miscellaneous poems in five books; Mv(z, obscure, but far more gifted than most of his niimerous contemporaries in the same field; his poems more suited to recitation, for which they were intended, than for being M. Valerius Martialis, about a.d. 42-about 102 ; 14 books of epigrams ; a true reflex of the taste of his age ; very ingenious but wholly wanting in self-respect ; a master in his art ; a perfect mirror of the life of his own day. ^ ^^ M Fabius Quintilianus, about a.d. 35-about 95 ; rhetorical work Ii^^htuUo Oratona, t..., Hhe traming of an orator,' in 12 book., attempts to uphold the standard of a purer taste, and to arrest the £ order ' ^^^' ^''^^'' '''''''^ '"^^ ""^ judgment ; a critic of the Cornelius Tacitus, about a.d. 64-119 ; (1) rhetorical, De Oratonbus a discussion of the difi'erences between the oratory of Cicero's ^im!! and his o^yn; (2) the Agricola, a biographical study, the lifeTf his father-m-law Julius Agricola; (3) Historice, in 14 bo^ks dealmg with the 27 years from Nero's death to Domitian's • onlv four books and a part of the fifth are extant; (4) Annales'in 16 books, from the death of Augustus to that of Nero ;' of this a lark mrt IS lost ; (5; the Germania, a short treatise on the geographv custom, and tribes of Germany ; undoubtedly the greatest of R^an ^ rians; sometimes partial and biassed, e.g., in his hostility to the Emperors, but for vividness, terseness, and dmmatic power he remams for ever unrivalled. ^ ' C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (the younger), a.d. 62-113 • a col- lection of letters published by himself, and an elaborate PaMc m honour of Trajan ; his letters throw a flood of light on the best side of Roman society of the time, and prove the writer to have been both a gentleman and a wit ; their language is extremely pure and almost entirely free from that poetical colouring which dis figures so much of the prose of that age. D. Junius Juvenalis, about a.d. 67-about 147 ; 16 satires • full of moral earnestness ; he sees nothing but the bad side of\he life around him, and is sometimes so carried away by his indication that he overstates the case ; satire in his hands becomes a tremendous ^\;eapon for lashing vice ; there is no room with him for Horace's playful humour ; his style, like that of aU his contemporaries is in I 144 RES ROMANAE. fluenced by the habit of declamation ; aU his verses, splendid as they are in technique, are intended for recitation. C Suetonius Tranquillus, about a.d. 75-about 160 ; the Uv^ oj the ' Caesars ; full of biographical details, but often uncritical ; the only remains of his encyclopedic wTitmgs. HORACE'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY. Birth, 65 B.C. " nata mecum, consule Manlio, . . . pia testa."- Ocies, III. xxi. At Venusia. " Lucanus an Apulus anceps, Nam Venusinusarat finem sub utrumque colonus."— Sa«., II. 1. 34. Parentage. « Me libertino natum patre et in tenui Te.^^Epist., I. xx. 20. " Libertino patre natum."— Sa«., I. vi. 6. « Aut, ut fuit ipse (sc. pater), coactor."— I.e. 86. Education— (1) At Rome ; (2) At Athens. « Puerum est ausus Romam portare docendum."— Sa«., I. vi. 71. « Rome nutriri mihi contigit atque doceri ^; Adjecere bonse paullo plus artis Athenie." Tribune in Brutus' army at PhiUppi. B.C. 42. « Dura sed emovere loco me tempora grato Civilisque rudem belli tulit sestus in arma ^ CcTsaris August! non responsura lacertis."— ^i?ts«., II. n. 41. " Mihi pareret legio Romana tribuno."- S^a«., I. vi. 48. "Tecum Philippos et celerem fugam, Sensi, relicta non bene parmula."— Oc^es, II. vii. 9. Suffered severely from the subsequent proscriptions ; on his return to Rome, supported himself by writing poetry. B.C. 41. " Unde simul primum me dimisere PhiUppi, Decisis humilem pennis inopemqiie paterni Et laris et fundi paupertas impulit audax Ut versus facerem."— i^i^ts^., II. ^ //GRACE'S AUTOB/OGRAPHY. 145 His friends ; introduction to Maecenas (probably about B.C. 38) ; friendship established. " Optimus olim Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem. Revocas nono post mense, jubesque Esse in amicorum numero." — ^at.^ I. vi. 65, 61. " Septimus octavo proprior iam fugerit annus, Ex quo Maecenas me coepit habere suorum In numero." — ^at,^ II. vi. 40. "Maecenas . . . praesidium et dulce decus meum." — Odjes^ I. i. 1 ; c/. also II. xvii. 3. Journey to Brundisium with Maecenas and other famous men, B.C. 38. Sat. I. V. (whole of it). " Plotius et Varius . . . Vergiliusque." " Maecenas advenit atque Cocceius Capitoque simul Fonteius." Comfortable circumstances owing to friendship of Maecenas, who gave him a small estate in the Sabine hills. "Satis superque me benignitas tua Ditavit." — EpodeSj i. 31. " Satis beatus unicis Sabinis." — II. xviii. 14. Personal appearance and disposition. " Corporis exigui, praecanum, solibus aptum, Irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem." — Eimt.^ I. xx. 24. " Ego . . . lippus."— 5fa«., I. v. 30. iV.^.— Horace died Nov. 27, B.C. 8, a few days after Maecenas (c/. Odes, II. xvii., strikingly prophetic). Ill OVID'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY. " Sulmo mihi patria est ; . . . nee non, ut tempora noris. Cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari : Si quid id est, usque a proavis vetus ordinis heres ; Non modo Fortuna3 munere factus eques : K 146 RES ROMANAE. Nee stirps prima fui ; genito sum fratre creatus ; Qui tribus ante quater mensibus ortus erat. Protimis excolimur teneri, curaque parentis Imus ad insignes urbis ab arte viros. At mihi jam puero aelestia sacra placebant ; Inque suum furtim Musa trahebat opus : Sponte sua carmen nimieros veniebat ad aptos ; Et, quod tentabam dicere, versus erat. Temporis illius colui fovique poetas ; Quotque aderant vates, rebar adesse Deos. Multa quidem scripsi : sed quie vitiosa putavi, Emendaturis ignibus ipse dedi. Jam mihi canities, pulsis melioribus annis, Venerat ; antiquas miscueratque comas ; Cum maris Euxini positos ad Iseva Tomitas Quserere me laesi Priucipis ira jubet. Scite, precor, causam— nee vos mihi fallere fas est— Errorem jussae, non scelus, esse fugae." — Tristiaj iv. 10. TERMS CONNECTED WITH BOOKS AND WRITING. I. Charta, paper, made from the* papyrus reed of the Nile, in- vented in Eg)'pt ; imported to Rome towards the end of the Re- public ; books written on this (on one side only) were called ' libri ' ; strips of various sizes were made ; when covered with writing, these strips (' paginae ') were glued together in proper order at the sides. iV'.S. A book e.g. of Vergil's ^neid probably formed one volume (' volumen ') ; when this was all glued together, it was roUed up on a stick (' umbilicus ') ; the two ends were coloured black, and knobs (' comua ' or ' umbilici ') at each extremity of the stick kept the roll symmetrical and neat. Often the rolls were steeped in cedar oil to preserve them, and inclosed in cases (* capsae ') with the title in vermilion outside. II. Pergamena (sc. membrana), parchment or vellum, so called from the city of Pergamum, where it was invented. This, though more durable, was more expensive; on the other hand, it could be used 1 A LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. 147 on both sides ; books of it, made up in modern form, were called * codices.' N.B. — Second-hand parchment, which had been cleaned, was ' palimpsestum.' III. Codicilli, wooden tablets covered with wax for brief notes ; the ' stilus,' a pointed metal pen, was used in writing on these ; the v,rriting in this case could be easily erased, and the wax used several times. IV. Atramentum, ink (also sepia). Calamus, pen, i.e., reed-pen for -svriting on vellum or papyrus (also ' arundo ' and * fistula '). V. Librarii, slaves who copied books ; bibliopolse, booksellers. N.B. — Numerous public libraries in Rome after the time of Augustus ; books numerous, and not, as a rule, very expensive. LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. accensi, (1) public officers in attendance on some of the Roman magistrates and provincial governors, (2) supernumeraries in the Roman army, posted behind the triarii. actio, legal process ; the claim of the plaintiff against the de- fendant ; the setting of the law in motion (* actio legis '). advocatus, a person who in any w^ay gave his advice and aid to another in the management of a case in the courts. serarium, the public treasury at Rome ; this was the temple of Saturn. Besides the public money and accounts, there were kept there, (1) the standards of the legions, (2) the laws engraved on brass, (3) copies of ' senatusconsulta,' (4) various public documents. / ager publicus, land belonging to the Roman State ; it being a recognised principle among the Italian nations that the territory of a conquered people belonged to the conquerors, the Romans acquired fresh territory on each conquest ; such as was not assigned became * ager publicus.' ambitus, (1) canvassing, (2) all the arts employed to catch votes, and so often with a sinister meaning of undue influence, bribery, etc. ^ amici Augusti, a kind of cabinet, first formed by Augustus to assist him with advice, and maintained by subsequent emperors. i\ 148 RES ROMANAE. X annona, (1) the produce of the year, (2) provisions in general, especially corn, (3) the price of provisions, (4) a soldier's rations for a certain time. apparitor, the general name for a public servant of Roman magis- trates, e.g., the * accensus, lictor, praeco, viator.' argentarii, private bankers or money-changers at Rome, not in the service of the State like the ' mensarii '; their shops (* taberuc^ ') were round the forum. basilica, a building which served as a court of law and an exchange, or place of meeting for merchants and men of business ; the first was built in Rome in b.c. 182 in the forum near the Curia by M. Porcius Cato ; twenty others afterwards were built in Rome ; many of these were subsequently used as Christian churches. bidental, any place where a man had been struck by lightning ; the priests consecrated the spot by sacrificing a two-year old sheep ('bidens'). bissextus annus, leap year ; the 24th February (vi. Kal. Mart.) was t^vice reckoned in such a year, being known as the *dies bissextus.' bulla, a boss or circular plate of gold, worn hanging from the neck by the sons of the noble and free-born ; the sons of * lil)ertini ' wore one of leather. calones, the servants of Roman soldiers. cancelli, lattice-work before the tribunal of a judge ; the bar of tribunals. candidatus, a candidate for office, so called from his specially whitened tc^. y capite censi, the lowest class of citizens in the rating of Servius Tullius ; i.e., those who, having no property, were rated as so many head of citizens. / capitis diminutio, a change in a person's status or civil condition ; either total or partial loss of freedom, citizenship, and rights as a * pater-familias.' / carcerea, the stalls for horses and chariots at the extremity of the circus ; the starting-place, opposed to calx or meta, the goal. cataphracti, heavy-armed cavalry, the horses being also covered \vith mail ; not in use amongst Romans till late on in the Empire. caupona, (1) an inn, also called diversorium, (2) a shop where wine and ready -dressed meat were sold. causam dicere, to defend one's self in a trial. LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. 149 -^ centesima, a tax of 1 p.c. levied at Rome and in Italy on all goods exposed for public sale at auctions, collected by coactores. -" centuria, (1) one of the 193 bodies into which Servius Tullius divided the Roman people, (2) a division in the army (60 centuria? in a Roman legion). clavus latus, a broad purple band, from the neck to the waist, worn by senators. clavus angustus, two narrow purple bands worn by those of eques- trian rank. clientes, persons in some waj^ dependent on or under the protection of a patronus, in return for whose services, whether in the law courts or in their private relations, they owed certain duties, e.y., ransom in war, canvassing at elections, etc. coactores, collectors of various sorts, e.(j., servants of the * pul)- licani ' or farmers of the taxes ; also the servants of an auctioneer. collegium, the union of several persons for any common purpose ; a corporation or guild ; a body of persons united by the same office or calling. . comftium, a place near the forum where the ' comitia,' the legal meetings or assemblies of the people took place for the election of magistrates ; so ' comitia ' often signifies the elections. comperendinatio, adjournment of a trial till the next day but one, when it was not finished on the first day. confarreatio, an ancient solemn manner of marrying among the Romans, in which an offering of oaten cake ('far') was made in presence of the Pontifex Maximus or Flamen Dialis, and ten witnesses. N.B. — An ancient form of divorce was * diftarreatio.' congiarium, a donative to the people of corn, wine, oil, etc. conquisitores, officers sent about the country to impress soldiers when there was any difficulty in completing a levy. conscripti, in phrase ' patres conscripti,' i.e. senators, possibly so called to distinguish them from the ' patres,' who were not enrolled as senators. Probably abbreviated for ' patres et conscripti,' i.e., the original senators and those enrolled in 509. contio, an assembly of the people at Rome convened by a magis- trate for the purpose of making them acquainted with measures to be brought before the next * comitia ' ; there was, however, no voting, and so no question could be decided at a ' contio.' The word is also used for the speech then delivered. conventuB, the districts or circuits into which a province was bl ISO J^ES ROMANAE. divided for the better administration of justice ; the governor himself presided, assisted by assessors (* consilium '). crimen, (1) charge, (2) an act which is legally punishable. cuneus, (1) a military formation, wedge-shaped, for breaking an enem/s line, (2) the rows of seats in theatres, converging on the centre, cuniculi, mines or galleries in military sense. ^ curia, (1) one of ten divisions of the three ancient tribes, (2) the j)lace in which the Senate held its meetings. decumaB, a tithe of the produce of the soil, forming a portion of the Roman * vectigalia ' paid by subjects ; also paid by ' possessores ' of the * ager publicus.' -^ decuinana porta, the main gate in a Roman camp, furthest from the enemy, opposite the * porta pi-^toria ' ; so called because the tenth cohort of each legion was quartered there. ^ decurio, (1) the officer in charge of 10 troopers, (2) the members of the senate, in * municipia ' and ' coloniae.' ^ dediticii, conquered people who had surrendered unconditionally to Rome ; as a community they lost all political existence. delatores, a class of people who, under the Emperors, gained a livelihood by informing against their fellow-citizens. delectus, military levy (also written dilectus). >^ diem dicere, to impeach ; a magistrate intending to impeach a citizen gave public notice in a * contio ' and named the day on which he would summon the ' comitia ' for the purpose of instituting pro- ceedings. discessio, a * division ' in the senate for voting purposes. divinatio, the decision, when two or more accusers came forward against the same individual, who should conduct the prosecution ; when this was decided, the others supported the man chosen, and were known as ' subscriptores.' edicendi jus, the right of issuing edicts belonging to the higher magistrates, but principally exercised by the two pi-setors ; ' edicta ' were among the sources of Roman law ; as the magistrates were annual, the edicts of his predecessor were not binding on a magis- trate, but many of them were adopted, and the whole body of such was known as the * edictum tralaticium.' Each magistrate on entering office issued a manifesto of the main lines on which he meant to proceed ; this was known as * perpetuum edictum.' emancipatio, the releasing of a son, by means of a thrice-repeated LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. 151 * mancipatio ' and * manumissio,' from the * patria potestas,' so as to render him independent during liis father's life-time ; it was a form of sale. emeriti, Roman soldiers who had served out their time, and had exemption ('vacatio'). equester ordo, the *equites' were not merely the citizens who served in the cavalry with a horse provided by the State ('equo publico '), but all persons who possessed the census entitling them to belong to the cavalry ('equester census,' fixed by Augustus at 400,000 sesterces) ; they were the richest body in the State, and were erected into an 'ordo' with definite privileges by C. Gracchus, in B.C. 122, who gave them the exclusive right to sit on juries (' judices '). Their insignia were the * clavus angustus ' and a ring of gold. As the senators were not allowed to engage in trade, all commerce, banking, speculation, etc., had passed into their hands. Sulla curtailed their privileges, but Pompey restored them. By the * Lex Roscia Othonis ' they had fourteen rows of seats assigned them in the theatre immediately behind the senators, — a recognition of their position — B.C. 67. ergastula, prisons or barracoons on Roman estates, in which slaves, who had worked all day in chains on the fields, were confined at night, often underground. ^ evocati, soldiers who had served their time, but who volunteered to go on serving with higher pay and various privileges. -/ ezauctorati, (1) soldiers who, for good service, received a partial discharge ('missio') after 16 years' service instead of 20; they remained as a separate corps under a ' vexillum ' of their own, with special privileges ; (2) soldiers who had been discharged dishonour- ably, ' drummed out ' ; (in this latter sense especially during the later Empire). extraordinarii, a select body of troops, consisting of J the infantry and J the cavalry of the allies, always in close attendance on the general. familia, (1) the slaves belonging to a man's household ; his estab- lishment; (2) a branch of the 'gens' or clan; all 'familioe' of a 'gens' referred their origin to a common ancestor. fasces, rods bound up in a bundle, with an axe (' securis ') in the middle; 12 lictors preceded the consuls carrying 'fasces'; 6 pre- ceded the praetors outside Rome (only 2, if in Rome) ; 24 preceded a dictator. II 152 /^£S ROMANAE. fasti, (1) the registers of consuls, dictators, censors, and other magistrates, forming part of the public archives ; (2) the register of the legal court-days ('dies fasti'), kept by the *pontifices'; (3) almanac, calendar. ' ferise, holidays, on which all business, public and private, was suspended ; some were held on regular days, e.g. the Lupercalia (15th Feb.), Saturnalia (17th Dec.) ; others had the days annually fixed by the magistrates or priests, e.g. Ferise Latinss ; political use was often made of the latter to prevent or delay public business ; the consuls could not take the field until they had held the 'feriae Latinge ' ; these lasted 6 days, were held by the whole people on the Alban mount, and were intended to symlDolise and cement the early alliance between Latins and Romans. N.B. — There were always 45 days every year of fixed holidays. fetiales, a college of priests whose duty it was to superintend all the ceremonial connected with making war and peace ; the guardians of the public faith. fiscus, the imperial as opposed to the senatorial treasury (' aera- rium ') ; out of it, the Emperor supported himself, the army, navy, his establishment, etc. ; though properly distinct from the Emperor's private proj^erty (' patrimonium ' or 'ratio Csesaris'), there is no doubt that it had to supply many of his private expenses. Ulti- mately the word came to signify generally the property of the State, the Emperor having concentrated in himself all the sovereign power. -^flamen, the name of any Roman priest who was devoted to the service of one particular god, e.g. flamen Dialis, Martialis, Quirinalis. - formula, carefully worded instructions given by the praetor to the 'judex' or 'arbiter' or ' recuperatores ' to whom he sent cases for trial ; by degi'ees ' formulae,' rules for the conduct of judicial business, had been introduced to meet nearly every possible con- tingency. The pnetor granted the ' formula ' to a plaintiff with the words 'do' (' I grant a trial'), 'dico' (' I declare the law'), 'addico' (' I assign the matter in dispute ') ; these are the ' tria verba ' which could not be pronounced on * dies nefasti.' forum, (1) any outside space with set bounds ; hence place of gathering, market-place ; (2) especially the 'forum magnum' at Rome, which was a low, open artificial level, about 630 feet long by 100 broad, between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, surrounded by porticos (' basilica3 ') and the shops of money-changers ('argen- LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. 153 tariae '), and in later times by many splendid buildings, and adorned with numberless statues. fugitivus, a runaway slave ; could not lawfully be harboured or sold. gallicinium, cockcrow, i.e. the last watch of the night. gladiatores, fighters in the public games ; first exhibited in Rome in B.C. 264 and originally confined to public funerals ; consisted of captives, slaves, and condemned malefactors, sometimes of free-born citizens who fought voluntarily ; freemen who fought for hire were called 'auctorati.' Gladiators were kept in schools ('ludi') and trained by ' lanistse,' the whole body being known as a ' familia ' ; usually exhibited for hire in the amphitheatre ; bills or programmes (' libeili ') were published before such shows ; every sort of variety was introduced, e.g. ' retiarii,' ' mirmillones,' ' essedarii,' etc. ; a gladi- ator, who won his discharge by pleasing the people, was presented with a wooden sword ('rudis'), hence he was said to be 'rude donatus.' The passion for this brutal amusement increased to such an extent that, after Trajan's triumph over the Dacians, more than 10,000 gladiators were exhibited. hasta, (1) a spear without head ('hasta pura') was presented by generals to soldiers for saving the life of a fellow-citizen ; (2) a spear was erected at auctions; hence 'sub hasta vendere' = to sell by auction. ^ heres ex asse, heir to the whole property ; the shares of ' heredes ' being expressed by reference to the divisions of the ' as ' ; so ' heres ex semisse' = heir to \ ; 'heres ex dodrante'=heir to j, etc. histrio, an actor ; in the year B.C. 364, Rome being visited by a plague, it was determined to try and avert the anger of the gods by scenic plays; actors, hitherto unknown in Rome, were im- ported from Etruria, and the Etruscan name for them survived in ' histrio.' honores, the high offices of State at Rome ; holding these conferred * dignitas ' or rank. X ignominia, the stigma of the censors ('nota censoria'), involving temporary dishonour and degradation; this lasted for 5 years (* lustrum ') ; whereas infamia, which was inflicted for certain crimes and vile practices, lasted for life and rendered a man incapable of holding any honourable office. imagines, waxen busts of ancestors kept in their hall (' atrium ') by those whose ancestors had held any curule office; these were «■ 154 RES ROMANAE. carried in funeral processions ; the * jus lionorum ' was hereditary, and carried with it * nobilitas.' immunitas, (1) freedom from taxes ; (2) freedom from services which other citizens had to discharge, e.g. exemption from military service. - imperiain, (1) the complete sovereignty of the king *domi et militia) ' ; (2) under the early republic it was limited ' domi ' by the right of 'provocatio' and by ' intercessio ' of a colleague or the tribune, but ' militice ' it remains as before ; the latter can now only be held by the direct successors of the king, i.e. consuls or pra?tors ; (3) in the later republic, the * imperium militiee ' still remains the same with the exception of limitation in space, but the * imperium domi ' loses its distinctness, so that in Cicero's time * imj^erium ' and ' potestas ' are convertible terms as regards Rome and Italy ; (4) in Cesar's hands, the * imperium militise ' is freed from its only restraint, i.e. the local one, and seems to absorb the * imperium domi ' in one general * imperium ' which is equivalent to universal sovereignty ; it can now be exercised everywhere, and is as comprehensive as it was in the regal period. ingenui, free-born men ; freedmen (' libertini ') were not * ingenui,' though their children were. intercessio, the interference of any magistrate, to whom an appeal was made, with another of equal or lower rank ; it was the chief power of the * tribuni plebis,' i.e., the right of putting their veto on the intended acts of all other magistrates, of the Senate, and even of one another ; thus they could stop all public business. interrex, (1) on the death of a king, an ' interrex ' was chosen by casting lots among the * patres ' ; his duty was to choose a new can- didate, whose election the * comitia curiatia ' and Senate should con- firm ; an * interrex ' held office for five days only, then appointing a successor. (2) under the Republic, * interreges ' were occasionally appointed by the Senate, when, from any cause, the office of consul became vacant ; the * interrex ' held office for five days only, when a successor was chosen ; as soon as the * interrex ' for the time being had held the * comitia ' for the election of consuls, the latter immediately entered on their duties, and the * interregnum ' was at an end. judex, (1) a Roman magistrate did not, as a rule, investigate the facta in dispute in such matters as were brought before him, but appointed a * judex ' or * arbiter ' for that purpose, and gave him instructions (' formula).' Hence the whole civil procedure was ex- ^ LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. 155 pressed by the two phrases * jus ' and * judicium,' of which the former embraced all that took place before the magistrate (' in jure '), and the latter all that took place before the * judex ' (in judicio '). Often more than one * judex ' was appointed ; these were known as ' recu- peratores.' (2) after the establishment of 'quaestiones perpetuae' for the trial of criminal cases, ' judices ' implies jurors acting under the directions of a presiding judge. There was no payment of * judices.' N.B. — Down to B.C. 122 'judices' were always senators ; in that year C. Gracchus transferred the privilege to the * equites.' Sulla in 82 restored it to the Senate. The Lex Aurelia of 70 shared it between the senate, equites, and a new class, the tribuni sBrarii ; the last class was suppressed by J. Cjesar. jurisdictio, usually applied to the authority of the praetor in civil cases, such as the giving of the ' formula ' in an ' actio ' and the appointment of a 'judex.' jus Latii (also known as 'Latinitas' and 'Latium'), a certain status intermediate between that of * cives ' and ' peregrini ' ; the limited privileges, (not very clearly defined,) of the Latins before the Social war ; it was frequently given to peoples and cities outside Italy. N.B. — Full * civitas ' was given to the whole Roman Empire by Caracalla (a.d. 211-217). r justitium, a cessation of public business of every kind, proclaimed by the Senate and magistrates in times of public alarm and danger. / lectistemium, on occasions of extraordinary solemnity, the images of the gods were placed on couches with feasts spread before them ; the couch was known as ' pulvinar.' legati, (1) ambassadors passing between Rome and foreign powers, or vice versa ; (2) officers who accompanied Roman generals into the field, or the proconsuls and praetors into the provinces ; these were nominated by the general, the sanction of the Senate being however required ; always men of military talents, who could fill the general's place in case of need ; their number varied, sometimes only three, but Pompey in Asia had fifteen ; (3) the imperial provinces were governed by vicegerents of the Emperor, known also as * legati.' ^ legatio libera, a much abused privilege often granted to senators during the latter period of the Republic, viz., to travel through or stay in any of the provinces, at the expense of the provincials, on purely private business. Those who availed themselves of it 156 /^ES ROMANAE. enjoyed all the privileges without having to perform any of the duties of ambassadors. libellus, (1) a small book ; (2) a ^v^itten accusation, sent in some cases by the plaintiff to the judicial authorities ; (3) a memorandum, programme, bill of the public shows ; (4) libels or pasquinades, very severely punished by the XII. Tables. libertini, those who had been released from legal servitude ; a manumitted slave was *libertus' {i.e. lil^eratus) with reference to his master ; * libertinus ' ^vith reference to the class to which he l)e- longed ; opposed to ' ingenui.' lictor, a public officer in attendance on the chief Roman magis- trates, I.e., those who had * imperium ' ; inflicted punishment on Roman citizens (foreigners and slaves were dealt with by the * carni- fex,' * public executioner ') ; generally freedmen ; (c/. note on fasces). ^ littera salutaris, i.e.., A=absolvo, opposed to 'littera tristis,' i.e.^ C = condemno, on voting tablets. litterati, grammarians, especially the learned expounders of the poets. N.B. — litteratus, *a branded slave.' ludi, the various public games and contests at Rome, (1) * ludi circenses ' those held in the circus ; (2) ' ludi scenici,' in the theatre ; tlie first, mainly gladiatorial ; the second, chiefly theatrical ; under the superintendence of the sediles. N.B.—' Indus ' has (1) the mean- ing * school ' for elementary instruction and discipline ; (2) * pastime' generally. " lustrum, (1) purification of the whole Roman people by the Censors in the Campus Martins after the census was completed ; (2) the time between two lustra, i.e., period of five years. majestas, or ' Isesa majestas,' ' crimen majestatis,' technically any offence against the greatness or dignity of the Roman people ; wider in its range- than our word 'treason'; especially applied totreacher}^ of a general at the head of an army, sedition, and mal -administration. Under the Empire the term was also applied to the person of the reigning Ccesar. mancipatio, (1) the formal transfer, in the presence of witnesses, of the ownership of a thing, so called because the person receiving the thing took hold of it ("quia manu res capitur") ; *mancipium' was equivalent to complete ownership, as opposed to ' usus ' and * fnic- tus ' ; (2) a slave is also called ' mancipium,' as being one of the ' res mancipi.' !l LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. 157 manumissio, the form of releasing slaves ; (1) ' testamento ' (by will) ; (2) ' censu' (when the slave was registered as a citizen by the censor with the master's consent); (3) 'vindicta' (by a mock trial before the praetor). mediastini, slaves used for the merest drudgery, usually in the country. medix tuticus, the supreme magistrate among the Oscan people. mensarii, public bankers at Rome, appointed by the State ; lent money from the * airarium ' on good security ; opposed to * argentarii ' or private bankers, doing business on their own account. metallum, (1) a mine ; (2) metal. mille passus, the Roman mile, consisting of 1,000 ' passus ' of about 5 feet each ; 1,618 English yards. (iST.B.— The ' passus' was a step with each foot.) Milestones were * milliaria ' or * lapides.' V- missio, military discharge ; (1) ' honesta ' ior length of ser\ace ; (2) 'causaria' in consequence of bad health; (^ *ignominiosa' forbad conduct. municipia, free towns managing their owti private affairs, possessing * ci vitas sine suffragio'; their citizens were liable to military service and taxation if they removed to Rome. It seems that some * muni- cipia ' possessed more local self-government than others ; to some * praefecti ' were sent from Rome to administer justice ; such are also known as * prsefecturie.' N.B.—Ait^v the Social war, these towns in Italy were still known as * municipia,' though they now possessed full franchise. In some of the provinces also there were towns which had been raised to the status of < municipia ' in the limited sense, until Caracalla gi-anted universal franchise to the Empire. murus, the wall of a city (also * moenia ' = fortified walls), as opposed to * paries ' = the wall of a house, and *maceria'=a boundary wall. navales socii, crews of the fleet, obtained almost entirely from Italian ' socii.' navalia, docks. < negotiatores, Roman citizens settled in the provinces for purposes of trade ; they lent money on interest, bought up corn on speculi- tion, etc. nobilitas, those who had filled a curule office, and so possessed the jus imaginum ' {cf. note on * imagines') ; the Senate, being mainly composed of ex-magistrates, consisted largely of ' nobiles,' and in time every senator was accounted ' nobilis,' whatever magistracy he ( : 158 /^ES ROMANAE. had held. 'N.B. — Originally the patricians had been the * nobiles ' as opposed to the plebeians, but as the plebeians rose to the same political level, there grew up a new order of nobility as above. nomen Latinum, the members of the old Latin league, soon after the Great Latin War b.c. 338, when their rights were reduced, were thus called ; other Italians were called ' socii Italici.' nomenclator, a servant in attendance on a * candidatus ' when can- vassing, to tell him the names of all the people he met. nota, the stigma attached by the censors to the names of such citizens as they intended to disgrace (c/. note on 'ignominia' «infamia'). noviis homo, a plel^eian who first attained a curule office, and so founded the ' nobilitas ' of his family ; such a person had no ' imagines,' for these were not made till after his death ; he was not therefore fully ' nobilis ' ; ' novi homines ' were much looked down upon by the old patricians. Notable examples were C. Marius and M. Tiillius Cicero. nudius tertius, i.e. nunc dies (sc. est) tertius, 'three days ago'; so also nudius quartus, ' four days ago.' nundinse, market days for the country folk, occurring every 8th day; seven days between two nundime. obuuntiatio, the annomicing of unfavourable omens by a magis- trate in order to stop public business ; one of the commonest forms of obstruction. N.B. — Watching for these was called *spectio' or * servare de caelo.' optimates, the aristocratic as opposed to the popular or democratic party (' populares '), composed of the ' nobilitas ' and the ' equites ' or rich middle class. optio, an assistant chosen by a * centurio ' or ' decurio.' ovatio, an inferior kind of triumph, e.g.^ for successes such as Perperna and Crassus gained over the revolted slaves under Athenion and Spartacus respectively. paludamentum, the clojxk of a Roman general, assumed when he left the city, and put off before he re-entered it. NJB. — * Sagum ' or * sagulum,' the ordinary military cloak. parento, (1) to offer a solemn sacrifice in honour of deceased parents or relatives; (2) to revenge the death of the same by killing another as an offering to the ' manes'; (3) to revenge generally. parochi, persons paid by the State to supply Roman magistrates and others travelling on State business with such things as hay, salt. "i LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. 159 fire- wood, and beds; such purveyors were to be found at all the principal stations on Roman roads, both in Italy and the provinces. parricida, (1) murderer of a parent or any near relation, (2) a mur- derer generally, (3) a traitor to one's country. — patria potestas, the almost absolute power which a Roman had over his children and family. Originally the father had the power of life and death over his son ; he could sell liim ; also he could give his daughter in marriage, or give a wife to his son, could divorce his child, give him in adoption, and emancipate liim at pleasure. Some of these rights were subsequently curtailed, peculatus, the misappropriation of public property. ^ peculium, such acquisitions as a slave was allowed by his master to retain for himself ; in strict law, this hoard still belonged to the master, but, by usage, the slave was permitted to hold it and so pur- chase his freedom. pedaxii, senators who were only entitled to vote (* pedibus ire '), not to speak. perduellio, treason by making war on the State ; the penalty was death. persona, a mask worn by a€tors. pileus, a cap of felt given to a manmnitted slave as an emblem of liberty ; hence * pileati,' i.e. freed slaves. plebiscitum, a resolution of the * plebs ' in the ' comitia tributa' on tlie 'rogatio' of a tribune; originally requiring confirmation from the Senate ; but obtained the force of law binding on the whole community by the Lex Hortensia of b.c. 287. -^ pomcerium (post mceros or muros), a belt of open ground follow- ing the course of the city wall, probably on either side ; frequently extended as the city increased. ^ pontifices, the most illustrious among the Roman colleges of priests ; cliief among them was the ' pontifex maximus,' the head of the State religion ; these ' pontifices ' were not priests of any particular divin- ity, but a college which stood above all other priests, and super- intended the whole external worship of the gods ; the whole * cultus Romanus ' was in their hands ; also the regulation of the Calendar ; and aU important family ceremonies, e.g., adoption, marriage,' etc. In imperial times, the Emperor was always 'pontifex maximus.' ' portorium, a branch of the regular revenues of the Roman State, consisting of the duties paid on imported and exported goods ; farmed,' i6o RES ROMANAE, like otlier * vectigalia ' by the * publicani/ who collected it through the * portitores.' possessio, the use or enjoyment of the *ager publicus,' twi the ownership, as the land was still State property. People thus occupy- ing it were ' possessores,' paying rent to the State. postliminium, a return to one's former rights and privileges ; a term used of a man who had been taken prisoner by the enemy, and thereby suffered a * diminutio capitis.' potestas, the authority of such magistrates as had not ' imperium.' prseco, (1) a crier at an auction, (2) at public assemblies to order silence, (3) at trials to summon the parties, etc., etc. pr»fectus urbi, a permanent magistrate instituted by Augustus, and invested with all the powers necessary to maintain peace and order in the city ; most of the functions formerly belonging to the sediles were in his hands, with many others ; there was no appeal from his decision except to the Emperor himself. prsejudicium, (1) a preliminary inquiry and determination about something connected with the matter in dispute, (2) a precedent formerly the decision of some competent court. - prserogativa (sc. centuria or tribus), the century or tribe which obtained by lot the right of voting first. prsetexta toga, bordered with a broad band of purple, worn by curule magistrates ; also worn by children. N,B. — Actors in a tragedy, the plot of which was taken from Roman history (' fabula prsetextata ') wore it. prsetorium, (1) the general's quarters in a Roman camp, (2) council of war, (3) residence of a provincial governor. prsevaricatio, the making of a sham accusation or defence ; collu- sion ; especially of an advocate who lias a secret understanding with the opposite party. primipilus, the senior centurion in a Roman legion \ had a seat at the council of war. princeps senatus, originally the oldest senator who had filled the office of censor, — a rule not subsequently observed ; he spoke first at the invitation of the president, but had no privileges beyond this. - privilegium, (1) an enactment that had for its object a single i)er- son ; it might be beneficial or the reverse to the party to whom it referred ; (2) under the Empire it came to mean a special grant proceeding from the imperial favour. fH LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. i6i procurator, (1) an attorney, (2) a steward in a family, (3) a finan- cial agent of the Emperor in the provinces, (4) an officer engaged in the administration of the * fiscus.' proletarii, the lowest class of citizens ; also known as ' capite censi.' prorogatio, an extension of a magistrate's powers beyond his year of office by a decree of the Senate. proscriptio, (1) exhibiting a thing for sale by means of an adver- tisement, (2) from Sulla's time, B.C. 82, the sale of the property of those who were put to death at his command, and who were called * proscripti.' provincia, (1) sphere of duty, e.g., the praetor's work in Rome, (2) a part of the Roman dominion beyond Italy under Roman adminis- tration,- e.g., Sicily after 1st Punic war. provocatio, the right of appeal to the people from the sentence of a magistrate in a capital case ; granted to the plebs by the Lex Valeria of B.C. 509. ^ publicaai, farmers of the public revenues (* vectigalia ') of the Roman State ; these were sold by the censors to the highest bidder ; these men were usually ^equites' formed into comimnies ('socie- tates'); only Roman citizens could become members of such com - Ijanies ; their agents were known as * portitores.' pugillares, sc. cerae, writing-tablets (t.g., that can be grasped in the fist). puteal, (1) the inclosure round the mouth of a well (' puteus '), (2) sacred spots similarly surrounded ; two in the Roman forum, of which the best known was the * puteal Libonis ' ; here a chapel had been struck by lightning ; this ' puteal ' became the common meeting places for usurers. quaestiones perpetua, standing commissions for the trial of criminal ofteiices, originally presided over by a pnetor ; the first of these was established in B.C. 149 by the Lex Calpurnia «de pecuniis re- petundis ' ; a second was added in 123 by C. Gracchus for the trial of judicial corruption; and several more by Sulla in 81, from which time they become the cliief and most efficient means of cruninal jurisdiction. The presiding judge, who was either a praetor or an officer known as 'judex quaestionis,' was boimd to see that the pro- visions of the law imder which the trial took place were strictly complied with, but he exercised no direct influence on the final result of the trial, the decision resting entirely with the * judices' or jurors. 1 62 RES ROMANAE, quincunx, (1) -^^ of an *as,' i.e. 5 imcise ; (2) the arrangement of the maniples, like the five opots on a die ; (3) trees were planted in similar oblique avenues to insure the greatest amount of air and light. Quirites, said by some to be derived from a Sabine word * quiris,' i.e. spear ; hence ' warriors ' would seem to be its equivalent, but, as C?esar is said to have quelled a mutiny among liis soldiers by ad- dressing them as * Quirites' instead of 'milites,' i.e. as citizens instead of soldiers, this theory seems indefensible. Others connect it with ' Cures,' the name of a Sabine town, asserting that, after the Romans and Sabines had united in one community under Romulus, the name * Quirites ' was taken in addition to that of ' Romani ' ; the Romans calling themselves in a civil capacity ' Quirites,' while in a political and military capacity they retained the name of ' Romani.' Thus 'populus Romanus Quiritium'=the Roman commonwealth of Quirite citizens. N.B. — ' jus Quiritium ' = full Roman citizenship. redemptor, a contractor for any kind of work, public or private ; the * publicani ' being those who took up State contracts were some- times so called. relatio, bringing a matter before the Senate for discussion (* rem referre ad senatum '). relegatio, a less severe form of * exsilium ' ; it confined a person to a certain place, to which he found his own way, or excluded him from particular places ; it did not deprive a person of citizenship, whereas * exsilium ' did ; e.g. Ovid was * relegatus ' to Tomi from Italy. renuntiatio, (1) the announcing of the result of the votes by the magistrate at the 'comitia' ; (2) divorce ('repudium,' ' divortium '). repetundse (sc. res or pecuniae), extortion and general malad- ministration in the provinces ; numerous laws on the subject, e.(j. Lex Calpumia of 149, which established the first ' quiestio perpetua ' on purpose to deal with such cases. retiarii, a species of gladiators who fought with a net and trident ; usually pitted against * mirmillones ' or ' secutores.' reus, (1) originally either party in an action ; (2) generally, the defendant in opposition to the plaintiff (' petitor '). rex sacrificulus, a priest to whom were transferred the priestly functions of the king, when the latter's civil and military powers were vested in pnetors and consuls ; the religious representative of the king in republican times. UST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS, i6-, rogatio, any measure or bill proposed to the legislative body • if passed, it became 'lex' or ' plebiscitum ' ; occasionally laws 'are known as ' rogationes,' but improperly, e.y. the famous Licinian Rogations. N.B.-^\^ people, having the supreme legislative power, are asked if it is their will that such and such a proposal become law ("ita vos Quirites rogo"). rostra, the stage (' suggestus ') in the forum from which orators spoke ; adorned with the beaks of ships (* rostra ') taken from the people of Antium in 338. rostrata colunina, a colunm in the forum erected in honour of C. Duilius on occasion of his naval victory at Mylai in 260, adorned with the beaks ('rostra') of the Carthaginian ships. -- sacramentum, the military oath to obey the general. sagum, the soldier's cloak as opposed to ' toga,' the garb of peace. salutatio, a ceremonial visit paid by 'clientes' to their 'patronus-' early in the morning ; on which occasion the dole ('sportula') was delivered. satura, (1) a mixture of all sorts of tilings, e.g. *lanx satura,' an offering of various kinds of fruits ; (2) a species of poetry, afterwards called 'satira.' iNT.Z?.— qex per saturam lata,' a law which con- tained several distinct regulations at once. Saturnalia, the festival of Saturnus towards the end of December ; a period of unrestrained merriment and the wildest licence ; even slaves had special indulgences at this season, being granted full freedom of speech and the right to make merry at their masters' expense. Scorpio, one of the smaller kinds of military engines ('tormenta') or artillery. scriba, public notaries in the pay of the Roman State, chiefly employed in making up the public accounts of the Treasury, •r scriptura, that part of the revenue which was derived from letting out in pasture such of the *ager publicus' as was un- cultivated. sectio, the sale of a man's property by the State ('publice') ; the property was sold 'sub hasta,' i.e. by auction; the buyers were 'sectores,' so called from the 'cutting up' into lots ('secare'). sestertius, a Roman silver coin, 2| asses ; abbreviation, HS. ; a sum of 1000 sestertii was called ' sestertium,' also denoted by HS. (sometimes a line was drawn across the top of the numeral to mark the distinction, but by no means always). 164 J^ES ROMANAE. societas, (1) alliance; (2) a company of * publican! ' for farming taxes. sordidati, said of accused persons who purposely neglected their dress and assumed an air of wretchedness to excite pity. N.B. — People in mourning were * pullati,' from the colour of their toga. spectio, watching the heavens for the auspices (' servare de cselo '). . spolia opima, spoils stripped by the commander himself from the body of the hostile general ; thrice only in Roman chronicles. ^ sportula, originally the hospitality extended by the ' patronus ' at his' house to such of his 'clientes' as came to pay their respects (' salutare ') ; in later times, a regular dole was provided for each client who came for it ; this was carried off in a * sportula ' or little basket ; lastly, money was given instead. stipendium, (1) pay of the soldiers ; (2) tribute. N.B. — * stipend iarii ' were those who paid tribute in money as opposed to * vectigales,' who paid a certain portion of the produce of their lands. suggestus, any stage or artificial elevation from which an orator or general spoke. supplicatio, (1) a solemn thanksgiving after a victory ; (2) a solemn supplication and humiliation in times of danger and distress. tabellarius, a courier, letter-carrier. tessera, (1) a die, numbered on six sides ; (2) a tally of any kind, especially the ' tessera militaris,' on which the watchword or order for the day was written and passed along the ranks. testudo, (1) a military machine moving on wheels and roofed over, used in besieging cities, usually covered with raw hides ; (2) the covering formed by a close body of soldiers with their shields locked over their heads. toga, the principal outer garment of Romans in time of peace, worn on all important occasions ; various kinds, (1) * toga virilis,' the garb of manhood, the natural colour of the wool ; (2) ' Candida,' when chalked for electioneering ; (3) * sordida,' as worn by accused persons ; (4) * pulla,' black, for mourning ; (5) * jDicta,' embroidered, worn by triumphing generals ; (6) * prsetexta,' with broad purple border, worn by children and magistrates ; (7) the * trabea,' a toga ornamented with purple, worn on solemn occasions by certain high dignitaries. N.B. — ' togatus,' civilian as opposed to * miles.' tormentum, (1) torture ; (2) general term for military engines, e.g. * ballista,' very large, specially used for shooting huge masses of , LIST OF VARIOUS TECHNICAL TERMS. 165 stone ; ' catapulta,' for projecting darts, arrows, and other missiles ; * Scorpio,' a smaller engine. N.B.^li is said the 'ballista' had a range of J mile. These were used to clear the walls, wliile the * aries ' made a breach. ^ triarii, the third line in a Roman army in early times ; this being composed of veterans, the word is used sometimes in that sense. tribuni, (1) military, the six chief officers of the legion; (2) plebeian tribunes, the special magistrates of the ' plebs,' appointed after the secession in B.C. 494; (3) * tribuni a^rarii,' officials who collected the 'tributum' in the different tribes for the pay of the troops; this latter class, a substantial body no doubt, were given judicial functions along with Senators and ' Equites ' in 70 by the Lex Aurelia, though subsequently deprived of them by J. Csesar. triclinium, the dining-room of a Roman house, usually containing three couches, which afforded comfortable accommodation for nine persons only. triumphus, a solemn procession, in which a victorious general entered the city in a four-horse chariot, preceded by his captives and spoils, and followed by his troops; after passing along the Via Sacra he ascended the Capitol to sacrifice in the temple of Jupiter. Such an honour was granted by the Senate only after a rigid scrutiny of a general's claims, e.g., at least 5000 of the enemy must have been killed in one battle ; no one of lower rank than a praetor could triumph. iV^.^.— Pompey's case in 81 was unprecedented. Tullianum, a dungeon added by Servius Tullius to the State prison under the rock of the Capitol, close to the 'scalse Gemonite.' tumultus, a sudden rising, especially in Italy or Cisalpine Gaul ; on such occasions there was a * justitium' and a general enlistment; troops then enlisted were ' tumultuarii ' or 'subitarii.' turris, in military language, was a huge movable tower on wheels used in storming cities; very strongly built, protected against fire with raw hides, metal, etr.; divided into storioj3,('tabnlata'); filled with engines of war of (^very k^nd and armed man; furnished with bridges and ladders for mounting tile enemy's \<^alls^fter che engines had cleared them of defenders fpropugna tores'-). umbilici, ornamented kiiobs' &r'bps&e3 at the end-of -the stick on which a * papyrus ' or ancient 'book w^^ rdled. *' -- ususfructus, (1) the use and, enjoyment of proj^erty belonging to another; (2) use that creates ownsi^h^," acquisition by prescription. ^ vadimonium, a promise,'secuied by bail, lov dppearauce on a given li 1 66 RES ROMANAE, day before a tribunal; bail, security, i^.5.— * Sistere vadimonium/ to keep one's recognisance, present one's self in court — opposed to * deserere.' vectigalia, the general term for all the regular revenues of the Roman State. ^ ver sacrum, in times of great danger and distress it was customary to vow to sacrifice to the deity everything born in the next spring. , vema, a slave born on the estate, better treated than those bought. versura, changing one's creditor by borrowing fresh money to pay an old debt. viaticum, money for travelling expenses, paid l)y the State on behalf of magistrates going to their provinces. villicus, a bailiff, who superintended the * villa rustica ' and all the farm business. vindicta, (1) the rod with which a slave was touched in the cere- mony of manumission; (2) protection; (3) vengeance. vinea, penthouse under which besiegers protected themselves ; generally a wooden frame formed of planks, and covered with raw hides as a protection against fire ; either carried or moved forward on wheels by men inside it. ^ volones, slaves who volunteered for military service in times of great need ; esj.^ 8000 after the battle of Cannae did such good service t]iat they were set free. t * J. • ■► ' ^ t t t . * . 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