MASTER NEGA TIVE NO. 92-80602 MICROFILMED 1992 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project" Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT pe copyright law of the United States - Title 17, United States Code - concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material... Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfilhnent of the order would mvolve violation of the copyright law AUTHOR: ALLEN, JOSEPH HE '""X "V *"#"* ft Jrl ALLEN AND \i- OUGH'S p CE: BOSTON DA TE : 1896 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT BIBLIOGRAPHTrMICROFnRMTAPr^pT Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic ^^^ .<«».»■■ '*.' ittfm^m^^^^^m^^mmm^Hm^^ mm^ir^im^t^m 877.6 rAl5 Allen, Joseph Henry, 1820-1898. All^n.and Greenough's shorter Latin grammar for schools and academies, condensed and rev. by James Bradstreet Greenough, assisted by Albert A. Howard. Boston and London, Ginn &l company, 1896. xi, 371 p. 19"-. 1. Latin language — Grammar — l^JTO- , i. Greenough, James Brad- street, 1833-\c\i\ joint author, ii. jrlpward, Albert Andrew. Restrictions on Use: Library of Congress ©1896: 53077 /"^i 10-23826t ' PA2087.A526 1896 Master Negative # TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM REDUCTION RATIO: /Jy SIZE: l>.£crf>:rrr^__ IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA (llS ;IB m DATE FILMED:, (^Ls-Az. tmtttatc f^T FILMED BY: RESEARCHPUBUBXfe. IMP wnnnfipr.^";;!^ IONS. INJC wnnnr-ipmr^p rj BIBLIOGIIAPHIC UUIEGULARITIES MAIN r\ j t ENTRY: H 11^/^ lOba aJ f Vi Plblioeraphic IrreguIari Hes in thi. nrjff inal Pnrumpnl List volumes and pages affected; include name of institution if filming borrowed text. Page(s) missing/ not available: .Volumes(s) missing/not available: Illegible and/or damaged page(s):. .^_Page(s) or volumes(s) misnumbered; Bound out of sequence:. .Page(s) or illustration(s) filmed from copy borrowed from: S , o n ol Codecie Lo^ciiov\\/clU K)j. other: D IN PART M A COPY ROWED FROM STRNA COLLEGE- LONDONVILLE, N.Y. la Association for information and Image Rflanagement 1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1100 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 301/587-8202 Centimeter 12 3 4 iiiiliiii iiiilii iilii[iiii|ilii|iiiii iL^ Inches 5 6 7 liiiiliiiiliiiiliii TTT^ LO LI 1.25 8 9 10 iiiiliiiiliiiili 11 TTT 12 13 14 15 mm km ||2.8 12.5 |:.o lll= 11111=^ tii r-' 2.2 ■ 6.3 ■u 2.0 ■^ u Kuu 1.8 1.4 1.6 MflNUFfiCTURED TO nilM STflNDflRDS BY APPLIED IMRGEp INC. "r M ' X . . . •. - M-. . M'-r- "i. 1 : lV-'> "'•"*>!M!f[.;... . . . "i ■ • " 1 ii; ; i ' . * • 1, t • i-iUl r • ^ ; . • ' - i • H:;.'^- -1 f!iP»!"MMf!|f|llf!l!l|l|p!fffHmifyf^ t. * -jr- -I • • • ; |:» mMi li' • • •"• • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • « a;.len and G^EeH9UGK'S.--« t • • • •'..• *• .• • • • '. V • (►•-••« •••••• ••« ,, • t • • •• •«• •• • • «• • SHORTER Latin Grammar FOR SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES Contended anO 'KevieeD BY JAMES BRADSTREET GREENOUGH ASSISTED BY ALBERT A. HOWARD Boston, U.S.A., and London GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS Cie 2[t!)en8ettm |)te00 1896 P R E !■ A C E - ♦•IXI'^- COPYRIGHT, 1896 By GINN & COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED The present editors hold as the result of their experience, that a book designed to instruct in the principles of Latin construction, intended for the use of pupils and young teach- ers, ought to contain practically the whole grammar of the language. This is especially true of the teachers, because the book from which one teaches is very likely to limit one's own acquisitions. They are, however, aware that a more compendious book may be sufficient with some teachers, and under certain conditions even superior. They have, therefore, endeavored to abbreviate their complete work by omitting from it such portions as could not give appreciable informa- tion to the students in preparatory schools. This has been done by noting all the references in the books used in such schools, and saving these along with all the general principles under which they came. It is hoped that by this method nothing has been omitted which was essential, and nothing retained which might not at some time answer a question raised even among preparatory pupils. In order to facilitate the use of the two books side by side, and the later substitu- tion of the larger work, the original notation of sections and subsections has been carefully retained. In the treatment of the subject, with the exception of all general linguistic lore, the lines of the other work have been pursued. For such lore the student and teacher are referred to the larger grammar. PAZD61 4614 IV PREFACE. if li ;! But in regard to hidden quantities, a subject which has only lately begun to be studied, and whose uncertainties ought not to be allowed to trouble the beginner, the editors have pur- sued an even more conservative course than before, marking only such vowels long as could, in their opinion, be reason- ably proved to be so, and leaving as presumably siiort all others, even those which many persons, and even the editors themselves, were inclined to think long. Camijridc.k, September i, 1896. CONTENTS. INTKODUCTION : Elementary Definitions PART I. — ETYMOLOGY. /. Letters and Sounds . ALPHABET : Classification ; Phonetic Variations Pronunciation; Quantity and Accent 2. Words and their Forms iNKLECrioN : Root and Stem The Parts of Speech Gender, Number, and Case 3. Dec/ens/on of Nouns General Rules of Declension . First Declension •Second Declension Third Declension Fourth Declension Fifth Declension . Defective and Variable Nouns Proper Names Mute Stems . Liquid Stems Vowel Stems Irregular Nouns Greek Forms Rules of (Jender PAGBS '~3 4-1 1 4-8 9-1 i 11-14 II 12 12-14 '4-34 M I5» '6 17-19 20 21 22-26 26 27 28 29 33.34 VI COX7'EX7'S. COA'JEATS. VII "1 ill % 'it lii J lij , PACKS 4. Adjectives .... 34-49 First and Second Declension.s 34-3^ Third Declei.sion 36-42 Comparison ........... 42-45 Numerals 46-49 5. Pronouns rcrsonal, Reflexive, Possessivi;, Demonstrative Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite . Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 50-58 50-51 5J-57 58 6. Verbs ..... 59- 95 Inflection 59, 60 Signification : Voice, Mood, Tense 60- 64 Personal Endings 64 Forms: Verb-Endings 64- 06 The Verb Sum 06-68 The Three Stems 6S Regular Verb: The Four Conjugations . . . . OS, 69 Formation of the Three Stems . . . . 69, 70 Synopsis of the Verb 70, 71 Special Forms ....... 71 First Conjugation 72-75 Periphrastic Conjugations 74 Second Conjugation 76, 77 Third Conjugation 78- 81 Fourth Conjugation 81, 82 Deponent Verbs ^^- 85 Irregular Verbs 85- 90 Defective Verbs ^o_ 03 Impersonal Verbs yj_ cj- 7. Particles 96-104 Adverbs cyG- 99 Prepositions on Conjunctions 100-104 Interjections ........... 104 \ Genitive 8. Formation of Words Roots and Stems Suffixes: Primary; Significant Endings . Derivation of Nouns and Adjectives Derivation of Verbs Compound Words . . PART II. -^SYNTAX. Introductory Note Pronouns: 1. The Sentence Definitions: Subject and Predicate; Modification Agreement : the Four Concords Nouns: Appo.sition; I'redicate Agreement Adjectives: Rules of Agreement Special Uses * • . . Personal and Demonstrative Reflexive • • • . . I'ossessive . • • • • . Relative ... Indefinite . ■ Alius and Alter Verhs: Subject, Incomplete Sentences PARTiCLi.:s: Adverbs. Conjunctions. Negatives . ' Questions . . o . 2. Construction of Cases With Nouns Possessive * • Material, Quality . Partitive Objective . With Adjectives With Verbs PAGES 104-123 104 105, 106 . I 06-1 17 II8-I2I . 121-123 124 125-161 I25-I3I '31-133 '33-135 '35-138 138-140 '41-143 '43. 144 145-149 '49, 150 «5o» »5' 151-154 '54-157 i58-'6i 161-217 161-166 162-163 164 164-166 166 166, 167 168-171 Vlll CONTENTS. Genitive: With Verbs: Remembering and Forgetting . Accusing, etc. Feeling Interest and Refert ; other Verbs Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc. Dative : Indirect Object with Transitives . Indirect Object with Intransitives With Compounds Of Possession ; of Agency .... Purpose or End ; Dative ^vith Adjectives Reference ; Ethical Accusative : Direct Object Cognate Accusative; Two Accusatives Idiomatic and Special Uses . Vocative Ablative its Several Uses Of Separation and Privation . . . Source, Material, Cause .... Agent, of Comparison .... Manner, Means, Instrument, Accompaniment Difference, Quality, Price, Specification . Locative: Special Uses Absolute Time and Place .... Use of Prepositions 5. Syntax of the Verb Moods: Indicative ... Subjunctive : General Use " Hortatory " Optative " Deliberative Imperative Infinitive Tenses : Of Incomplete Action Present . Imperfect . Future . Of Completed Action Perfect . Pluperfect . PAGES i68 169 170 . 170, 171 171.172 • 172-174 174-177 . 178,179 180, 181 . 181-183 183-185 . 185-187 187-191 191, 192 193 193.194 194, 195 195-198 198-200 200-202 202-205 205, 206 206-208 208-214 214-217 218-255 218 219 220 221 222 222-224 225-230 230 230-232 232-234 234 234 234-236 236 CONTENTS. k\ / Future Perfect Epistolary Tenses Of the Subjunctive Sequence of Tenses Of the Infinitive . Participles : . . . Distinctions of Tense Adjective Use Predicate Use . Future Participle . Gerundive Gerund and Gerundive Supines . . . _ 4. Conditional Sentences » Protasis and Apodosis Classification of Forms * Simple Conditions . >J^uture Conditions -Conditions Contrary to Fact General Conditions . "<^ondition Disguised 'Condition Omitted Potential Subjuncrive Subjunctive of Modesty Verbs of Necessity Complex Conditions . Particles of Comparison Concessive Clauses Proviso . . . , Use of Si and its Compounds 5. Dependent Constructions Relative Clauses: Conditional Relative Clauses Clauses of Purpose . Clauses of Result . Clauses of Characteristic . Causal Clauses IX PAGES • 236,237 237 237 237-242 • 242,243 244-250 . 244, 245 246 ■ 247-249 249 251-254 254 256-271 256 257-259 259 260, 261 262 263 264 265 265 266 266 267 267 268 269 270 271-304 271-284 271 272-275 275-277 277-279 279 »• .' X CONTENTS. Relative Clauses : Relations of Time Postquam, etc. Cum Temporal Cum Causal . Antequam, Priusquam Dum, Donee, and Quoad Substantive Clauses: ' " • • Infinitive Clauses . Clauses of Purpose Clauses of Result . Clauses with Quod Indirect Questions . Indirect Discourse : Formal Indirect Discourse Subordinate Clauses ^^Tenses in Indirect Discourse . ^ ^Conditions, Questions, Commands Informal Indirect Discourse Integral Clauses . Important Rules of Syntax .... (General Rule . Special Rules . Structure of the Period S. Arrangement PART III. -PROSODY. /. General Rules of Quantity Quantity of Final Syllables Quantity of Penultimates Measures of Rhythm : Feet' The Musical Accent . Quantity Rhythm PAGES 280 284 281 281 282 284 285-295 . 285-287 287-290 • -9«>-293 293 294, 295 295-304 296 297 298, 299 299-303 303 304 305-311 312-316 312 314 315 318,319 320 322-324 322 323 # J I I, /' \. v CONTENTS. 3. Versification The Verse Dactylic Verse : Hexameter Elegiac Stanza . Miscellaneous : Reckoning of Time . Measures of Value Glossary of Terms . Abbreviations Index of Words and Subjects XI PAGBS 324-326 • 324 325 • 326 327, 328 • 329 332-335 • 336 337 1^ , -* r fc, fc, i LATIN GRAMMAR. rt*- INTRODUCTION. ELEMENTARY DEFINITIONS. 1. The study of Grammar includes : (i) the Forms of Words (Etymology); (2) the Uses of Words, or the ways of connectmg them in sentences (Syntax); (3) the Forms of Verse (Prosody). PARTS OF SPEECH. 2. Words ^x^C Norms, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs Partieiples, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, or Inter- jections. These are called Parts of Speech. Note.- There is no word in Latin for the Articles a, an, the. 3. A Noun is the name of a person, place, or thing : as, C'' 'i^'^liratorv ,„, Command; I *'.■.»« »i „"; ;t'4 *• "'"• « 2- Consonants. — . are called Mutes (Explosive, itr!' *' *' "' ^' ''''° *=" ^"^^ JHese are produced , .""Z' ^ '"'' '°'""''>- Thef ° ^''^' "' '' "' "■"" '""^^ Surds (..«,,^,) ■ These are without vocal tone. ^'^'^''^^h Thes are accompanied by a slight vocai tone. In th ' K "" "■' '^^"^'^ ^^P'^ates. ^7 ''' "-:'• p-i'a^ was"e::r^u?de:t^j'r ^'^ *'°"°-^ f; » and n are called Nasals ""'^ '" ^^«"- J hese are pronounced with the « - .^;^ except that the nas p t'Ts T "^ °^ '"^ °'^-^ - " A th,rd nasal, n «y«fe,,„„„ ^f^ff '^ ."Pened instead of closed. --e way to 8. existed in the lanX buT'h d"""''""'""^ '" *^ g"age, but had no separate sign. 3-S-] CLASSIFICATION OF THE LETTERS. 5 3. From the organs of speech chiefly used in the utterance of the mutes and nasals they are divided into Labials (pronounced with the lips), Palatals (with the palate), and Linguals (with the tongue). Their relations are seen in the following table : — SURD. SONANT. ASPIRATE. NASAL. Labial: p b wanting m Palatal: c (k), q g ch n (as in ink) Lingual: t d th n (as in rent). a. Other useful special classes of sounds are distinguished, as, Liquids: 1, m, n, r. Fricatives (Spirants): f. ph, th (not aspirate, the same as in thin), h, s, z. Sibilants: s, z. Double Consonants : x (cs), z (ds). Semi-vowels : i, v (see § 4). b, h is merely a breathing. 4. Semi- Vowels. — i and v (u) before a vowel in the same syllable are consonants and have the sound of Eng- lish consonant y and w respectively. (Cf. i and u in piniouy unguent.) They are sometimes called Sejui-Vowels . Note. — The Latin alphabet had no separate signs for the semi- vowels ; but used i for both vowel and consonant i, and v or u (without distinction) for both vowel and consonant v (u). The character j was unknown in classical times, and u was but a graphic variation of v. In medieval Latin j and V came to be used to indicate the consonant sounds of i and v (u), and this usage is often followed by modern editors in writing small letters. In writing capitals, however, the forms J and U are avoided. Thus, iuuenis, iuvenis, or juvenis, — but ivvenis. In this book vowel and consonant i are both represented by the same character, i ; but v is used for the consonant, u for the vowel sound of v (u). Thus, iustus, vir, iuvenis. 5. The Romans distinguished Long vowels from Short in sound, but had no regular means to express the differ- ence. This difference is called Quantity, and such vowels are said to be long or short by nature. I .\ it 6 LETTEI^s AND SOUNDS. fjg ^,,. short. But final o and i .r/ , . ^'^ supposed to be paL^e)' """'" '^ ^"^' ''^'^"^'^ °"^'"^">- ^'-^ ^- '"e sonant this tendency it would ha^.h! ^ P^serving o, when but for servos (but \.Ztl ?„ ^Z "' "k" "°''"" (""' ^'^*-)' (for equos, later equus) ^""' '^ """"« ou, as in ecus and^plltrcu :f;r '"" "°"" '''^^'^ '' ^'^-■^ "^ -'"en f u cea cu, as, ecus, equi, sequitur, secuntur. Phonetic Variations. 8. Variations of sound are of two classes- — a. Inherited differences nf f^,-«, • .u /, TTn.^ • , ^^'^"^ '" ^he same root rsee S 22^ o. Unconscious chanp-es of «rM,r.^o ^ , , ^ ^ ^' the language itself ''' ^'''^'"P^'^ '» ^"""^^ of time in «• Vowels vary between long and short of fh , i. Vowels vary in aua itv ^1 ll'^^'' " ^'"'"■ - Vowels vary betweel i^H'^ "l ' "'"^''' P°"^"»' -"^^^■ vowe, or diphthong of I:., errZ "' "" ""^'"^ ^"-^ ^ '^^ ''• Liquids are^ransDoseH Vr ^' '""">'"'' "•^estus, sad '"e vowel : as. ^^^.:::;::t; :;::^ -- -ange Of con?o„a';!r""" ^'^"^^^ °^™^ - "-h vowels and ^^"^Zt :;^ t^T:' are weakened: as, faotus. „,ade, co„- . *. TWO vow^eiri; X r?"' n"^ "'^^^^• §§ 11.12] PHONETIC VARIATIONS. V c. Vowels are often lost between two consonants {syncope) : as, audacter for audaciter. ^. Vowels are inserted between two consonants in the effort to pronounce a difficult combination of sounds (cf. sailors' helhwi for hehn) : as, Hercules for Hercles, drachuma for drachma. \\, a. Consonants are substituted one for another. Thus : r for 8 between two vowels or before m or n : as, eram (root es), generis (for tsenesis, from genus), maereo (cf. maestus). b. Consonants are omitted : as, examen (exagmen), caementum (caed-mentum), autumnus (auctumnus, root AUG),pergo (per-rego). Especially h : as, debeo (de-habeo). And consonant i and v : as, conicio (con-iacio), prorsus (pro-vorsus). c. Consonants are unconsciously inserted in passing from one sound to another : as, sumo, / take, sumpsi, / took. d. Consonants and vowels are unconsciously changed {dtsswitla- tion) to avoid a repetition of the same sound in two successive syllables : parilia (for palilia, from Pales), meridies (for medidies). e. A consonant is changed by the influence of a neighbormg sound,— . ., ^- \ 1. Into the same sound as the neighbor {complete asstmtlattony. as, cessi (ced-si), summus (sup-mus), sella (sed-la). 2. Into a sound of the same organ or the same quality (or both) as the neighbor {partial assimilation) (see table of mutes, § 3) : as, contero (com-tero, labial to lingual), scriptus (scrib-tus, sonant to surd), segmentum (tsecmentum, surd to sonant), impero (in-pero, lingual to labial). 12. Variations of Spelling occur in manuscripts and inscriptions, and especially in modern editions. Most are provided for in Vocabularies. a. The letters and sounds of ci and ti are interchanged before a vowel : nuntio (nuncio), contio (concio), condicio (conditio). b. Several words are written sometimes with and sometimes without an initial h : as, harena (arena), ems (hems), umerus (humerus), umor (humor). c. In later Latin, e, ae, and oe became alike in sound (like a in fate), and are often confounded in writing : as, faenus (fenus,foenus). d. Other words variously spelled are : adulescens, adolescens ; aheneus, aeneus ; anulus, annulus. 8 LETTERS AND SOUNDS. [§§ 13-15- §§16,17.] SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. \ Combinations. 13. Two words are often united in writing, and some- times m sound. Thus, — connected . as in etemm, unusquisque, lamdudum, iamdiS siouls penc^vunst, quallst (qualis est) (,ike M.^V^t) ' ' : INFLECTION. II Quantity and Accent. 18. The Accent in Latin depends on the Quantity (or length) of the last syllable but one. A long vowel makes a long syllable. A short vowel may make a long syllable if obstructed by consonants. The following are simple rules for quantity. a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in via nihil d. A diphthong is long: as in aedes, foedus. So, also,' a vowel derived from a diphthong : as, exclude (ex-claudo). c. A vowel formed by contraction is long : as, nil (nihil) ^. A sj^l/a^/e in which a .vowel is followed by two consonants (except a mute with 1 or r), or a doubk consonant (x, z) is long by Position ; as in pingo, saxum, Mezentius. Before nf and ns gn and gm, and i consonant the vowel itself becomes long by nature • as m infero, praesens, magnus, agmen, huiua. e. A syllable in which a s/ior^ vowel is followed by a mute with 1 or r IS common ; /... it may belong in verse : as in alacris, multiplex / A vowel before nd, nt is regularly short by nature : as, amant* amandus from amare. 19. The accent in words of more than one syllable IS on the last syllable but one (Penult), or the last but two (Antepenult). «. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first syllable : Ho ma, ve'ho, i'pse. if tLTT''' °^ ""' """^ '^'° '^""'"^^ ^^^ ^^""'^d ^ the Penult, ^ that ,s long: as, amrc„s, praesen'tls; if it is short or common praet-f"'"^';"""^ "' ^°'"^'"' ^'^'^^^ '-''^>'-«. conU^fis' praete ritum, dissocia'bilis ' T -^py V^ d. Exception : Certain apparent compounds of facio retain the accent of the simple verb: as, benefa'cit, calefa'cit (see §169. a). (These are not true compounds, but phrases.) 2. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS. INFLECTION. 20. Latin is an inflected language: i.e. changes are made in the forms of words to show their grammatical relations. Such changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in the termination : as, vox, a voice; vocis, of a voice; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched. Root and Stem. 21. The Stem is the body of a word, of which the terminations are changed. 22. A Root is the shortest and simplest form that can express the main idea of a word. It is common also to other words either in the same or kindred languages.^ Thus the root of the stem reg- (in rex) is reg, which does not mean to rule, or / rule, or rulifig, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of directing, and cannot be used as a part of speech without added terminations. 23. The Stem is sometimes the same as the root : as in due-is, of a leader; fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root, — 1. By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-s, sawdust {^QK^, shavey, res-is, of a king (reg, direct)', voc-is, of a voice (voc, call). 2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root): as in tas-2i, flight (FUG + a); fugi-B,/^«yfK(FUG + yo); pango, I fasten (PAG + no). 1 For example, the root STA is found in the Greek Urtifu, Latin eistere and stare, German Jte^en, and English stand. I '0} I f2 fVOjez?S AND THEIR FORMS. [f§§ ^8.,8. 3. By two or more of these methods : as in duc-it h. I. ^ (DVC + o) ; toUo, / ra/s, (tul + yo) ' ' ^'''^' J. S":t cr-'S S'Sir '■"■ "' "'*^ The Parts of Speech. 26. Words are divided into nine Parts of Speech • ^ZJitfonfc:"' '7°""^' ^^^•'^' ^^^'-P'"' ^Ss,- ..ons of .„>,..., , 3H0W voice, ™o'od. tenL^ir^X^T made by derivation (cfS sj "''' ""'"'"^ »'«">-forn.a,ions OS, ^repositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. Gender. M^i" 7''" i™^^'' distinguished in Latin are three • Mascuhne, Feminine, and Neuter. ' a- The gender of Latin nouns is either natural «r Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of thT 1 grammatical. aci s^s in tKi^ rshin-^r ^^ '° ^- ""- - the adjective Joined with fh^^on r^ J /'^ ""^ °' - a'^s -as" 'z:^ r:: ;r:itr ""^^'^ -'^^ - "'-^-^ (F. pi.), /«e^,. ^ *"•'• '"^'"■^' "I*'*' ("• Pl). workmen; copUe V n\7 \ 29-3^0 NUMBER AND CASE. 13 29. a. Names of Male beings, Rivers, Winds, Months, and Mountains, are masculine. b. Names of Female beings. Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract Qualities, 2,x^ feminine . To each of these there are some exceptions. c. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, words, terms or phrases used as nouns, or quoted merely for their form, are neuter : as, — las, right J nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to know). 30. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender : as, exsul, exile ; bos, ox or cow. • a. If a noun signifying a thing without life may be either masculine or feminine, — as, dies, day; finis, end, — it is sometimes said to be of Doubtful Gender. b. Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, in- dependent of sex. These are called Epicene. Thus lepus, hare^ is always masculine, and vulpes,/^?^, is always feminine. Number and Case. 81. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles have two Numbers, singular dind plural ; and six Cases, nomina- tivey genitive, dativey accusativey vocative, ablative. a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence. b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of. c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 177). It may usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to ox for; but sometimes by the Objective without a preposition. d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (Intr. § 15, § 177). It is used also with many Prepositions. e. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address. /. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from, by, with, in, or at. It is also often used with prepositions. Id 14 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. i [§5 32, ZZ- g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, may be used as object-cases; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases. h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the Locative), denoting X\i^ place where. 3. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 32. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distin- guished by the case-ending of the Genitive Singular, and by the final letter {characteristic) of the Stem. Decl. I . Gen. Sing, ae Characteristic a (anciently a) " 2. " i « 5 3* " ^ " i or a Consonant 4- " us (uis) " fi 5. " ei « e {( (t It a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by omitting the case-ending ; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel. b. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns (except m the first declension) is formed from the stem by adding b. But many end in o, or in the liquids, 1, n, r. 33. The following are general Rules of Declension : — a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns ih us of the second declension. b In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike and m the plural end in a. c. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends m m ; the Accusative plural in s. d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) tnc Dative singular ends in i. e. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike. / The Genitive plural always ends in mn. ^. Final i, o, u of inflection are always long; final a is short in tH" . ftVl ""^"^" ^' ''^ '"^ ^^^^^-•-^ ' fi-^ e is long m the first and fifth declensions, short in the second and third T.J ** J 4I '^M\ M: / §§ 34-30-J FIRST DECLENSION. IS 34. The Case-endings of the several declensions are the follow- ing, rare forms being given in parenthesis^ Greek forms in italics: — Decl. i. ii. hi. ly. Sing. N. a, ^, as, es, us, um, er, os, on, ens s (or modified stem) us, u G. ae (ai) es I (ius) o, U, ei D. ae (ai) o (i) ei, eo A. am, an, e7i lun, on, ea -v>- S, ^ 1 ^ — A. a, e o, eo Plur. N.v. ae i, a G. arum (um) orum (um, om) on o.A. is(abus) is (obus A. as 0% IS, jfos, OS us (uis) i (/, rare) ui (u) em (im) in,yn, a um, u ^^O B nonii) i, y e(i), "^ye is, a, ia, is um, ium, eon ibus u us, ua uiun es ei(e) ei(e) em e es erumi ibus (iibus) ebus es (is), a, ia, as us, ua is FIRST DECLENSION. 35. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a (originally a), and except in Greek nouns the nominative is like the stem. t. Nouns of the First Declension are thus declined: — SINGULAR. NoM. Stella, a (or the) star. Gen. stellae, of a star. Dat. stellae, to (ox for) a star. Ace. stellam, a star. AA tl. sl e llft, fhuii star J " ■ > • PLURAL. stellae, stars. stellarum, of stars. stellis, to (ox for) stars. Stellas, stars. ste llae, y^ *9 M t ^ f* Abl. Stella, 'with,frofn, etc., a star, stellis, with, from, etc., stars. Gender. — Nouns of the first declension are Feminine. Exceptions : Nouns masculine from their meaning : as, nauta, sailor. So a few family or personal names : as, Miirena, Scaevola. 36. Case-Forms. — a. The Genitive singular anciently ended in -ai, which is occasionally found : as, aulai. b. An old genitive in -as is preserved in the word familias, used in the combinations pater (mate.r, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family (plur. patres familias or familiarum). i6 DRCLENSION OF NOUNS. f^r K 37- Jhe pfural .„ „ : as, Romae, «. Ro„.e; Athenls. .. ^,W ^ d. The Gemfve plural is sometimes found in -iim instead of V on ft' ^°*"^^"^' of'"^ -- "/ Troys Aeneadiln., ./' M« WK^ of^neas; so amphora and drachma end\?n^orf:r.rr ^ ^'"^" °^ '^^ ^^'^'""' «"- '^--^-. Greek Nouns. 37 Many nouns of the first declension borrowed from the Greek are entirely Latinized, but many retain traces of their Greek forms in various degrees. acourti^.y EUctrai,^. a synopsis (..). ,Heartof„usici,.). NoM. aula Gen. aulae Dat. aulae Ace. aulam Voc. aula Abl. aula Electra (a) Electrae Electrae Electram (an) Electra Electra epitome epitomes epitomae epitomen epitome epitome musica (e) m"- :. ac (es) liiusicae musicam (en) musica (e) miisica (e) NoM. Andromache (a) IZt^' '■""-"fj^-'^- " ^^^"""O^-)- GEK. AndromachesU) Aen6a" f f "'''"'' ^'> DAT. Andromachae ^ ^ Ae„"ae \ ^ """^ Ace. Andromachen (am) Aeng^ ram. YT ^"'^^ Voc. Andromache (a) Ae„eTrsr\ •'.-""- ^^^^n (am) ^ ^ ^enea (a) Leonida (a) Persa Abl. Andromache (a) Aenea Anchises (m.). NoM. Anchises Gen. Anchisae Dat. Anchisae Ace. Anchisen (am) Voc. Anchlse (a, a) Abl. Anchise (a) Leonida Perse (a) son of j£neas (m.). Aeneades (a) Aeneadae Aeneadae Aeneaden Aeneade (a) Aeneade (a) comet (m.). cometes (a) cometae cometae cometen (am) cometa com eta (e) a. Many Greek nouns vary betwPPn tl,„ « . .u third declensions : as, Boo^e J o Bot" T""'' ^"^ '"^ (ace. plur. of Thu'CdidSs, -is), t"/;.?^^ t '"""'''"'"' §§ 38. 39.] SECOND DECLENSION 17 b. Greek forms are found only in the singular ; the plural is regular : as, cometae, -armn, etc. SECOND DECLENSION. 38. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in o (as of vir, vir5- ; servos (-us), servo- ; dominus, domino-). The nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines and feminines, m in neuters, the 6 being weakened to ii. But the ending -quo makes -cus (not quus). In most nouns whose stem ends in ro- the s is not added, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r, if not already present (cf. chamber from Fr. chambre) : as, ager, stem agro-, Greek ayp6.^ ■ viri v-^^*- ^H?ct!g ' agris viris bellis Note. — Stems in -quo, like equo- have ecus (equos), equi, equo, ecum (equom), eque. The rest is regular. 39. Gender. — Nouns ending in us (os), er, ir, are Mas- culine ; those ending in um (on) are Neuter. a. Names of towns in us (os) are Feminine : as, Connthus. Also many names of plants and gems, and some others. 18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. I I [§§ 40,41. i. The following in us are Neuter ; their accusative is the same as the nommahve : pelaguB (nom. ace. plur. pelage), seay viru., /«..«, vulgus (rarely m.), .^. ..W, so cete, s.aJons^ers (nom plur. without singular). ^ c"tS • for hT " ;"•' - "' """'" "" '"' ^''"""'^- ^o™""^ "' i. The genitive of nouns in ius or imn ends in a single i • as fiU ./...«. but the accent of the nominative is retained^ asiTgsS' the dat,ve and ablafve plural of nouns in -aius and -eius : fs GrSis for the Greeks; Pompei, of Pompey. ' ' .. Proper names in -ius lose e in the vocative, retaining the accent of the nommat,ve : as, VersMi ; also, fillus, ..„, gels dMne guardian J as, audi, mi ffli, Aear, my son. d. Greek names in -ius have the vocative -ie. Adjectives in -ius :ztT^::, '" "'^^"'.^°■"^ °^ "-^^^ -^ occasi!,n:iru::d'^ nouns . as, Lacedaemonle, O ^/ar/a»/ _ '■ The genitive plural often has iim or (after v) Sm (cf S n\ for ormn, espec a ly in the ooets • as n^r,^ - ^. ^ '' r.j. ■ - ; ^ ■ ' "''""•> superum, divom, of the Gods, varum, o/n,en. Also in compounds of vlr, and in man; words 0/ coins, lugenim, of acres. ' dei'^or^-"rl^',''-^' ™""'' "'"* ' P'"^"' = "o-^inative and vocative or dU afr Is? ' T"": '^™"' ^'^ ■' ''^''^ -<^ ablative deis aiC£LTifofte?:s:5^ ^^"'"^^ ^'-- '"^^ - -^- c^- re.ai^thIt^;l7ir ^ '" "°-' '- ^'"■^" ^ •^^'-^^ *° ^"^ --. adulter, adulterer; ggner c/,« /„ /^ 8ocer,/aM^r-,«./«^y vesper, ^^^«/«^. "^^ Also, compounds in fer and ger (stem fero-, gero-) • as luclfer morning star; armiger, squire. » S^ o ; . as, luclfer, a. Some of these have an old nominative in -ems • as 8ocen,« 00 vocative Duf»r*» /» h^,. ^ c '='"0 . ab, socenis. auve puere, « ^^^, as from puenis (regularly puer). The genitive in ii occurs twir** in v;..^i j was unknown to Cicero Th. fi^ ^ ' ^""^ ^^"^^^"^ly in Ovid, but C^icero. The first 1 was probably retained in sound as^. §§ 42, 43-1 THIRD DECLENSION. 19 h w ) b. Vlr, man, has gen. viri ; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi ; vesper, evening, has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi, in the evening). c. Liber (a name of Bacchus) has gen. Liberi ; so, too, the adjective liber, /r^^, of which liberi, children, is the plural (§ ^2.b). 42. The following not having e in the stem insert it in the nomi- native and vocative singular. (Cf. § 10. d.) ager,/^/^/, St. agro-; colMhex, snake; m^&Atex, master; aper, boar; conger, j-^^-^^/y^iipister^ servant arbiter, y«^^/ culter, >6«//^y ^ ole2iBt&[,~wild-onve; auBter, south wind; faber, smith; onager (-grus), wild-ass; cancer, crab; fiber, beaver; scomber (-brus), mackerel. caper, goat ; liber, book ; [N.B. — For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see § 82.] 43. Greek nouns retain many original forms and are de- clined as follows in the Singular, the Plural being regular : — fable (m.). ?nock-sun{'ii.). Delos (f.) NoM. mythos parelion Delos Gen. mythi parelii DAT. mytho parelio Ace. mython parelion Voc. mythe parelion Abl. mytho parelio Deli Delo Delon (um) Dele Delo Athos{u.). Orpheus(u.). Athos (o) Orpheus Atho (i) Orphei (eos) Atho Orphei Athon (um) Orphea Athos Orpheu Atho Orpheo a. Many names in -es belonging to the third declension have also a genitive in -i : as, Thucydides, Thucydidi (see §§ 37. b and 52). b. Several names in -er have also a nom. in :us : as, Teucer or Teucrus. The name Panthus has the vocative Panthii (§ 63. i). c. The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek termination -on : as, CSteorgicon, of the Georgics. THIRD DECLENSION. Nouns of the Third Declension are best classed accord- ing to their stems, as ending (i) in a Mute, (2) in a Liquid (1, n, r), (3) in a Vowel (i). A few whose stems end in u, formerly long (grus, sus), are treated as consonant-stems. 20 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§§ 44-46. I. Mute-Stems. 44. Masculine and Feminine nouns, whose stem ends in a Mute, form the nominative by adding -s. If the mute is a lingual (t, d), it is suppressed before -s; if :t is ^palatal (c, g), it unites with -s, forming -x : as, I op-ia, Ops, heip; custod-is, cnstoB, guardian; reg-is, rex, king.^ Neuters have for the nominative the simple stem (for some modifications, see § 45) : capit-is, caput, head; poemat-is, poema, poem. 45. The vowel before the final consonant of the stem is often modified : as, — adip-is, adeps; particip-is, particeps; aucup-is, auceps • hospit-is, hospes; capit-is, caput; cord-is, cor; poemat-is poema; apic-is, apex; indic-is, index; but, comic-is, comix! 46. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — Sing, help (F.). Stem op- NoM. [ops] opis opi opem ops ope wealth opes opum opibus opes opes opibus Gen. DAT. Ace. Voc. Abl. Plur. NOM. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. ktng{M.). guide {c). dnc- dux ducis ree- rex regis regi regem rex rege reges regum regibus reges reges regibus duci ducem dux duce duces ducum ducibus duces duces ducibus soldier (m.). mflit- mjQes militis militi militem miles milite mllites militum mllitibus niTlites milites mllitibus 1 In these the genitive is given first to show the stem as it vocabulanes. head (n.). capit- caput capitis capiti caput caput capite capita capitum capitibus capita capita capitibus is shown in §§ 47-49] LIQUID-STEMS. 21 47. In like manner are declined — princeps, -ipis (c), chief; lapis, -idis (m.), stone; custop, -odis (c), guard; comes, -itis (c), companion; aries, -etis (m.), ram; iudex, -icis (u.), Judge; cornix, -icis (f.), raven; poema, -atis (i>i.)^poem (§ 47. b). a. Many apparent mute-stems, ^ having the genitive plural in -ium, are for convenience classed with i-stems (§ 54). b. Greek neuters (as poema), with nominative singular in -a, frequently end in the dative and ablative plural in -is, and in the genitive plural rarely in -orum. c. A few apparent i-stems belong here : canis, or canes, gen. canis (stem orig. can-), dog (cf. § 54). 2. Liquid-Stems. 48. In nouns whose stem ends in a Liquid (i, n, r), the \ nominative is the same as the (modified) stem, as follows : — I As leon-is, leo, lion; legion-is, legio, legion; virgin-is virgo, maiden; homin-is, homo, man; turbin-is, turbo, whirlpool; Apollin-is, Apollo; cam-is, caro, flesh (see §61); Anien-is, Anio ; c6micin-is, comicen (m.), horn-blower ; carmin-is, carmen (n.) song; patr-is, pater, father; oper-is (originally opesis), opus, work; ciner-is, cinis, ashes. Note. — A few Masculine and Feminine stems have a nom. in -s as well as -r : as, hondr-is, bonds (or honor) ; arbdr-is, arbos (or arbor), tree. Stems in 11-, rr- (n.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative : as, farr-is, far, grain; fell-is, ie\, gall. 49. Nouns of this class ^re declined as follows : — Sing. consul (m.). lion (m.). maiden (f.). name (i Stem consul- leon- virgin- nomin- NOM. consul leo virgo nomen Gen. consuUs lednis virginis nominis DAT. consul! ledni virgin! ndmini Ace. consulem leonem virginem ndmen Voc. • consul led virgo nomen Abl. consule leone virgine n5mine 1 That is, as appears from the nominative. No fast line can be drawn between mute-stems and i-stems, as they were confused in both ways. i 22 Plur. NOM. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§§ 50. 5' • §§ 52-54-] VOWEL-STEMS. 23 consules consulum consulibus consules consules consulibus Sing. Stem NOM. Gen. DAT. Ace. Voc. Abl. Plur. NOM. Gen. DAT. Ace. Voc. Abl. dody (n.). coriwr-, orig. -OS- corpus corporis corpori corpus corpus corpore corpora corporum corporibus corpora corpora corporibus leones leonum leonibus leones leones leonibus race (n.). gener-, orig. -es- genus generis generi genus genus genere genera generum generibus genera genera generibus virgines virginum virginibus virgines virgines virginibus ivory (n.). • ebor- ebur eboris ebori ebur ebur ebore ebora ebonun eboribus ebora ebora eboribus 60. In like manner are declined — nomina ndminiun nominibus nomina nomina nominibus plain (n.). aequor- aequor aequoris aequori aequor aequor aequore aequora aequorum aequoribus aequora aequora aequoribus pater, patris {y,i.), father j furfur, -uris (m.), bran; opus, -ens (n.), work; arbor (-os), -oris (f.), tree; honor (-os), -oris (m.), honor; pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge. pluS'i„'°"l'"! h'" °V''''""' """'''"'^"^ "='- '"« genitive plural m -imn, and are for convenience classed with the ifstems ■ tober hnter. Ster, venter ; ffir, gUs, lar, mas, mna rtrSm Tso vires (pi. from vis : see § 61). ^^ ^ ' 3' Vowel-Stemi. 61. Vowel-stems of the Third Declension end in i- (as turns, stem turn- ; mare stem man \ ^u . ^ exrenf in m. . • r ^^' ^^^ nommative, except m neuters, is formed by adding -s to the stem. i a Thirty-five nouns change i and e in the nominative, and many others vary between i and e : as, cives, or civis, citizen : canes or canis (treated as i-stem), dog. b The nominative of a few stems in bri- and tri- does not add -s, but loses i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter (§54, and cf. ager). . , The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the change of i to e (as in mare). But when i is preceded by al or ar, the e is lost, as in animal (§53. c). 52. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — Sing. thirst{¥.). Stem sitl- NoM. sitis Gen. sitia DAT. siti Ace. sitim Voc. sitis Abl. siti Plur. NOM. Gen. DAT. Ace. Voc. Abl. 53. tower (f.). turri- turris turns turri turrem (im) turns turre (i) turres turrium turribus turris (is) turres turribus cloud (p.). nibi- nubes nubis nQbi nubem nubes nube nubes nubium nubibus nubis (es) niibeB nubibus seat (n.). sediU- sedile sedllis sedili sedile sedlle sedili sedllia sedilium sedilibus sedllia sedllia sedilibus animal(ii.)' animaU- animal animalis animali animal animal animali animaUa animalium animalibus animalia animalia animalibus „«. Nouns of this class include — a. Nouns in -is or -is (mostly feminine) or e (neuter) having the j J> same number of syllables in the nominative and gemiWe iparjfyllabtc). | b. Those in -er, except pater, mater, frater, accipiter^ v .. Neuters in -al, -ar (originally neuters of adjectives m alis, -ans) which have lost a final -e. 64. Many nouns with apparently consonant-stems were originally i-stems or confused with them.' These are- 1 The i-dedension was confused even to the Romans nor «»' ''J'^bk a. all periods of the language, early Latin havmg ';^--j'" >> i^^^' disappeared. Nouns tended to lose the i-forms, Adjectives, to ga.n them. 24 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. .^ Monos_ylIables with stem apparently ending in two consonants : as urbs mona (gen. mentis), no:, (gen. nootls), anc ; togetlaer with imber, linter, uter, venter (§51. b). 2. Stems in tit- (as civiUs, -Itis),- or in d or t preceded bv a consonant (mCuding participles used as nouns) ; also t'he monosyL l^oTi^'tS' "' "^^ °"^' '^' " ''"^' ""^ -"'- 3. Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in at-, it-, origi- They are thus declined : nzg/t^ (f.). Sing. ^//K (F.) Stbm urM- NoM. urbs Gen. urbis Dat. urbi Ace. urbem Voc. urba Abl. urbe Plur. NoM. urbes Gen. urbium Dat. urbibus noctl- nox noctis nocti noctem nox node noctes noctium noctibus a^e (F.). aetiti- aetas aetatis aetati aetatem aetas aetate aetates mouse(M.). skower{u.). muri- mus muris muri murem mus mure mures aetatmn (ium) murium aetatibus muribus imbri- imber imbris imbri imbrem imber imbre (i) mbres mbrium mbribus imbris (es) mbres mbribus Ace. u b« (e») nocti, (es) aetatis (es) „,aris (es) Voc. urbes noctes aetates rt^mz Abl. urbibus noctibus aetaUbns morfbus Note.— The declension of these nonn« in t\.^ ■ ^ ■ that Of consonant-stems,.and in the;i:;arrtha^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ''' 56. Vowel-stems (real or confused) show the i of the stem m the following forms : — a. They almost all have the genitive plural in inm u . monosyllables lark it ^nnv i t ^ ^"^' ^"* ^^me yuaoies lack it entirely. Exceptions are canis and iuvenis originally consonant-stems), patrials i. -as. Itis and is. lu^ZT^ Jw _othe,3 occasionally for metrical reasons, or from confu^Ton as Arpma. Arpinatum; Sanmi. Sanmitum ; o^^,^ eladl ' ' ^ These, however, more commonly have the genitive plural in -um. §§ 56. 57.] VOWEL-STEMS. 25 b. All neuters have the nominative and accusals vf pluial in -ia. c. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is regularly -is. d. The accusative singular (m. or f.) of a few ends in -im (§ 56). e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and feminines, ends in -i (see § 57). 56. The regular case-ending of the accusative singular of i-stems (m. or f.) would be -im : as, Bitis, sitim (cf . steUa, -am ; servos, -cm) ; but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the consonant declension). a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively — 1. In Greek nouns and names of rivers. 2. In burls, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis. 3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusatives of nouns in -tis), as partim ; and in amussim. b. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis, turns, securis, sementis, and rarely in many other words. 57. The regular ablative singular of i-stems would end in -i: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed to -e. a. The ablative in -i is found exclusively — 1 . In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 56) ; also, securis. 2. In aequalis, amiaUs, aquaUs, consularis, gentiUs, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis used as nouns. 3. In neuters (whose nominative ends in -e, -al, -ar): except baccar, iubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, rete. b. The ablative in -i is found sometimes — 1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, igms,i imber, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigiUs, turris. 2. In affinis, bipennis, canaUs, familiaris, natalis, rivaUs, sapiens, tridens, triremis, vocaUs used as nouns. c. The ablative of fames is always fame. The defective mane has sometimes locative mani used as ablative. d. Most names of towns in -e, — as Praeneste, Tergeste, — and Soracte, a mountain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caerete. e. For canis, see § 47- '^• 1 Always in the formula aqua at igni interdici (§ 243. a). 26 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§§58-61. _ a vcr> rarely lound in nouns. The re^nlpr a^^ .• -" .s common, but not exclusively used in any 3 "*""" '" 59. The following have -nm Cnot -luml ■„ tK caniB, iavenis (originally consonant stS- LI- ?'"""^ P'"-"^' ■ only, otherwise wanting), volucris ■ alo.^; T^''' ""* ^°"^^ elides, naensis, sedes stnaes subolSs vitr ^ "^"' *=^^^'''' -atia; -is, -iHg. a, .,,,?„- ! ^''"'es, vates, and patrials in -as . lbs , as, Arpmas, Arponatmn ; Samnis. Samnitum. 4- Irregular Nouns «. The vowel-stems crii- m -^.aa • ', inflected like mute-stems^r^s h"as ', Ja'" ' "°'"'"""^' ^""^ ^"^^ both 3U.. and SU.US in L L^ td l^reXr ^ ^ '=' "^ '^^ In the stem bov- rbou-^ thp a\ u.u ^ nominative(bo-.b6v,s)/ °:i^; (tai 7,°" '1^ °" '" *^ In lov- (=ZeA) the diphthong rlu^h -''''''' ^"^^^' ■^>- -pater), ^en. Kvls, etc ^ ^ ^ '"""'^ '^ '" ^^'P^' (for -3^^").":' '"n:"t£i'rme?r" 'V' --"- "— sems from a longer • so hatTh / "'°'''''' ^'^"'' '" ««"«• distinct forms. The shorter fl' T'^ '''°" ^ ""'«-- <>' two ''• Of the many origin 3 !t " T" " *^ «^"'"'- '«=-- --). .tains its^oTerfLrS/^:^ -;f- C.) (P.. ..a, 61. Some peculiar forms are thus declined •_ 4 §§62-64.] CASE-FORMS AN% GREEK FORMS. 27 N., V Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. Plur. bos bo vis bovi bovem bove cattle N.,A.,V. boves Gen. bourn D., Abl. bobus (bubus) senez senis seni senem sene senes senum caro carnis carni earn em came carnes carnium OS ossis ossi OS osse ossa ossiuin sembus carnibus osslbus virtbus Vis vis (rare) suis vi (rare) sui vim VI strength vires virimn BUS suem sue sues sumn subus (suibus) 5, Case-Forms. 62. The Locative form ends in the singular in -i or -e : as, ruri, in the country ; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage; in the plural in -ibus: as, TraUibus, at Tralles. 6. Greek Forms. 63. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names — retain Greek forms of inflection. a. Stems in in- (i long) : delphinus, -i (m.), has also the form delphin, -inis ; Salamis, -inis (p.), has ace. Salamina. b. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems : as, tigris, -idis (-idos) or -is ; ace. -idem (-ida) or -im (-in) ; abl. -Xde or -i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have ace. -idem (-ida), abl. -ide, —not -im or -i. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.) c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative : as, Aga- memnon (or Agamemno), -onis, accusative -ona. d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in -on : as, horizon, Xenophon^; but a few are occasionally Latinized into on- (nom. -o) : as, Draco, -onis. . _ ^ e. Stems in ant-, ent- have the nom. in -as, -is: as adamas, -an^s ; SimoiB, -entis. So a few in unt- (contracted from oent-) have -us: as, Trapezus, -untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nominative is. also found : as, Atlans, elephans, as well as Atlas, elephas. /. Many Greek nouns have gen. -os, ace. -a; plur. nom. -es, ace. -as : as, air, aether, crater, heros (-ois), lampas (-adis or -Sdos), lynx (-cis or -cos), nais (-idos), Orpheus (-eos : see § 43)- g A few in -ys have ace. -yn, voc. -y, abl. -ye : as, chelys, -yn. -y ; Capys, -yos, -yi, -jn, -y, -ye. A. Several feminine names in -o have gen. sing, -us, all the other cases ending in -5 ; they may also have regular forms : as, Dido, gen. Didonis or Didus ; dat. Didoni or Dido, etc. t. Several Greek forms are irregularly retained in the vocative : as, Panthus, voc. Panthu ; Orpheus, Orpheu ; Atlas, Atla ; Daphnis, Daphni ; Pericles, Pericle (cf. § 43)- 64. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : — 28 Sing. /tero(M.), Stem hero- N., V. heros Gen. heroia Dat. heroi Ace. heroa Abl. heroe Plur. N., V. heroes Gen. heroum D.,A.iheroibus Ace. heroas DECLENSION OF NOUNS. ^ase(F,). naiadij.). lampad- lampas lampados lampadi lampada lampade lampades lampadum lampadibus lampadas basi- basis baseos basi basin basi naid- nais naidos naidi naida naide bases naides basium(eon) naidum basibus naidibus basis (eis) naidas PROPER NAMES. ^'"^5 simois Drdonis(u8) Simoentis Didoni (5) Simoenti voc. Adas (a) Dido simo" Abl. Atlante Didone (o) simoelte [§§65,66. tifiTld-(ti«Tl-) tigrls tigris (idos) tigri tigrin (ida) tigri (ide) tigres tigrium tigribus tigris (idas) §§ 67-70.] FOURTH DECLENSION. 29 NoM. Atlas Gen. Atlantis Dat. Atlanti Ace. Atlanta Capys Capyos Capyi Capyn Capy Capye ^aphnis Daphnidis Daphnidi Daphnim (in) Daphnr Daphni Note tk , — ^^^ iJaphni 7. Rules of Gender. a- Masculine endino-s an* s *• Feminine endingf are -2 2'°-nT T ^^^"- '''^ -'«»)• - (Mowing a consonant) ; "s? do ^V"' <««°- 'H -i«. -ye! -^ -d coUecive), and -ils feL ^^^ '^^ ^«-' ■'^). -^5 (abstract <^- Neuter endings are -a -e L , ""■ -'^' -S» (gen. -eris, -oris) ' ^ "^' "°' "'• ■*'• -ae" (gen. -miniB) ; ''o--- AH these have exceptions. 66. For general Rules fnr tu^ n , third declension, classed III ''^"' "^ "^'""^ "^ ^he Allen and Greece gh's, a rer'"' '' '""''^ ^^^-«' -e "t," s larger grammar. ' Native, heroisin (once only). 67. For the Forms of Inflection of nouns of the third declension, classed according to their stems, see Allen and Greenough's larger grammar. FOURTH DECLENSION. 68. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u- weakened to i, before -bus. Masculine and femi- nine nouns form the nominative by adding -s; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with u (long). Nouns of the Fourth Declension are thus declined : — Sing. ^and (f.). Stem manii- NoM. manus Gen. manus DAT. manm (u) Ace. manum Voc. .QianiiB., Abl. manu Plur. NoM. manuB Gen. manuum DAT. manibus Ace. manus Voc. -j»a«tts Abl. manibus /ake (M.). Uca- lacus lacus lacui (u) lacum ^ lacus lacu lacus lacuum lacubuB lacus lacus lacubus knee (n.). genu- genu genu (us) genu genu ' genw genu genua genuum genibus genua __ genua — genibus 69. Gender. — «. Most nouns in"-us are Masculine. The fol- lowing are Feminine : acus, anus, colus. domus, idus (pi.), manus, nunis, porticus, quinquatrus (pi.), socrus, tribus, with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, sp^cus. d. The only neuters are comu, genu, pecu, verii. 70. Case-Forms. — a. The uncontracted form -uis (sometimes -uos) is sometimes found in the genitive, as senatuos; and an old (irregular) genitive in -i is used by some writers : as, ornati, senati. d. The nominative plural has rarely the form -uus. c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into -urn. 30 . DECLENSION OF NOUNS. [§§71,72. d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural in N.,V. Gen. DAT. Ace. Abl. SINGULAR. domus domus (domi, loc.) domui (domo) domum domo (domu) PLURAL. domus domuum (/^ (f.) PLUR Sthm re- NoM. res res Gen. rei renim DAT. rei rebus Ace. rem res Voe. reg== — "****&_ ^^L. re rebus die- dies diei (die) diei (die) diem -UI88 ~ ~ " "^ die dies dierum diebus dies fide^ fides fidei fidei fidem fidgs fide diebus ..^^ ^ The forms in parenthesis, except domi (cf s ^^ x ^ aomi (ct. ^ 70.^), are less common. §§73-75-] DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 31 Note — The e has been shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides, spes, res, but in these it is found long in early Latin. 73 Gender — All nouns of this declension are feminine, except dies (usually m.), day. and meridies (m.), noon. Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, regularly so when used of time in general : as, longa dies, a long time; constituta die. on a set day; also m the poets : as, pulchra dies, a fine day. 74 Case-Forms. -«. The Genitive singular anciently ended in ^B (cf. -as of first declension, § 36. ^). The genitive ending -ei was sometimes contracted into -ex. -i. or -e : as, dii (^n. i. 636), and the phrases plebi-scitum, tribunus plebei. b. The fifth declension is only a variety of the first, and several nouns have forms of both : as, materia, -ies; saevitia -ies. c The Locative of this declension ends in -e. It is found m certain adverbs and expressions of time: as, hodie (for hoi-die, cf. huic), to-day; perendie. day after to-morrow; die quarto (old, o,v^xt\\ the fourth day ; ipxldie, the day before. ^ ,. a d Of nouns of the fifth declension, dies and res only are dechned throughout. Most want the plural, which is found, however m the no^minative and accusative in thejollowing : a^cies, effigies, eluvies. facies, glacies, series, species, spes . DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 76. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number only {slnguldria iantnni). These are — 1 Most proper names ; as Caesar, Ci^sar, GalUa, Gaul. ^ 2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass: as,aurum, eold; aor, air; tritlcum, wheat. 3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitio, ambition; io^t^^Ao. courage; calor. heat. But many of these are used in the plural in some other sense. Thus, — a. A proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, or even things, and so become strictly common : a., duodeom. CaeBares, the twelve Casars ; GalUae, the two Gauls C^'^-;"/ Tra"s- alpine) ; CastoreB, Castor and Pollux ; loveB, images of Jup.ter. 32 DECLEI^SION OF NOUNS. [§§ 76-79. b. Particular objects may be denoted • as ap« h nive^ sno^Jlakes; or different kinds of ' a Ihin/: Z^^' '''""'^' (good and bad). '"^ " ^' ^^res, airs or th7l '/'"'' '' '^'''''' """"^ ^^"^^^^ --^— of the Qualitv or the hke : as, guaedam &^c^tA\^r>^^^ quaiity, S-^^^ limes 0/ heat znd cold. (See also § 79. ^.) 76 Some nouns are commonly found only in the Plural ipluralta tantum [cf. § 79. ,]). Such are - v^ ^a^^ rr:: —• irr:; tz. ir ^'""'^ e, r/ry4«, Bcalae, jtorxy valvae, folding-doors. or Ifh? °^''" """-^^ ' corresponding singular in some form or other, as noun or adjective. «• As noun, to denote a single obiect • as B,^„h- . sacred to BaccHus ; optunaa, «„ L,X "^ '' ^^"^ *. As adjective : as, Cato Maior, Cato the Elder c. in another sense : as acala n /..w ^ as, scala, a ladder; artns, a joint. 77. Many nouns are defective in case forme t7 i- see Allen and Greenough's larger grammar ' VARIABLE NOUNS. §80.] VARIABLE NOUNS. 33 a. Many nouns vary in meaning in the Singular and Plural : as,- aediB, -is (f.), temple; aqiia (F.), water; auxilium (n.), help; bomam (N.), a good; career (N.), dungeon; caatnim {y^-^.fort; aedes, -ium, house. aquae, a watering-place. auxilia, auxiliaries. bona, property. carceriB, barriers (of race-course). ^ /XT \ fnrt • caBtra, camp. Z^J^i'p'^ce ofasseniHy; con.Ua. an election.o^n ,neetin,, ' • f^\ ^hntv ■ copiae, troops. copia (F.), plenty , • - / lide. (K ). ^«^/ strin,; ^^ 'y^ds, territories. ^tl^(.0.7i-(rare.v.M.«..);S^«ae. M.«.. (also, M. .;.-«). Cientum(x.),toenoting an individual is^^^^^^ times used collectively to denote a group : as Poenus. ^nians ■ mfles, the soldiery ; eques, the cavalry. ^ O many nouns the plural is usually, but not exclusively, used : as cervice.. the neck; Quirites. Romans; vxscera, flesh ".The poets often use the plural --- .ngfMor ^^ reasons or from a mere fashion : as, ora (for os), the face , (ir^ptrum). sceptre; sUentia (for silentium), silence. ^PROPER NAMES. 80. A Roman had regularly three names, denoting the person, It^t gens, and i\^e family. ■ u ,™„ MSrcus TuUius Cicero, we have Marco* a. Thus, m the °=""\f "^"^ .^^ ,he nomen (properly an the praenKmen. or Persona! name , Tmuus, 34 ADJECTIVES. [§8i. adjective), i.e. the name of the gens, or house, whose supposed orig- inal head was a Tulhis ; Cicero, the cdgndmcn, or family name. NOTK. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cognomen is usually in the plural : as Publius et Servius Sullae. b. A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given. Thus the com- plete name of Scipio tiie Younger was PiSblius ComeUus Scipio Airicaiius Aemiliaiui3 : AiricaiiuB. from his exploits in Africa; Aemiliaiius, as adopted from the yl'jDilian gens. c. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the nomen of their gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Torontin, and his daughter Tullia. A youngrr dauglitrr would have been called TuUia secuiida or minor, and so on. d. The commonest prasnomcns are thus abbreviated : A. Aulas. L. Lucius. Q. Quiiitus. App. Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius, C. (G.) Gaius {Caius) (cf. § 6). M'. Manius. Sex. Sextu's. Cn. (Gn ) Gnaeus {Cneins). Mam. Mamercus, Sp. Spurius. D. Decimus. n. Numerius. T. Titus. K. Kaeso {Caeso). r PubUua Ti Tiberius. 4. ADJECTIVES. INFLECTION. Adjectives and Participles are formed and declined like Nouns, differing only in their use. They distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, numhcr, and ease. They are (i) of the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the Third Declension. I. First and Second Declensions. 81. Adjectives of the first and second declensions (a- and o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus. in the Feminine like steUa. and in the Neuter like beiium; as, — §S2.] M. Stfm bono- No.M. bonus CiE.v. boni Dat. bono Ace. bonum Voc. bono Ahl. bono FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. bonus, good. M. 35 SINGULAR. V. bona- boiia bonae bonae i)onam bona bona N. bono- boiium boni bono bonum l)onuni bono PLURAL. F. boni N. bona bonae bonorum bonarum bononim bonis bonis bonis bo)ios bonis bona i)oni bonae bona bonis bonis bonis Note. -Stems in quo- have non.inative -cus, -qua, -cum, accusative -cum, -qunm, -cum, to avoid -quu, (sc^-o § 7). rh„s, ^ No.M. rellcus (-quos) ,eliqua relicum (-quom) Gen. rehqui reliquae reliqui, etc. a. The masculine genitive .sin^^ular of Adjectives in -ius ends in -ii, and the vocative in -ie ; not in -i. as in Nouns (cf. § 40. b, c) • as Lacedaemonius, -ii. -ie. » 4 ^, ^; . as, 82 Stems ending in 10- preceded by e or a consonant (also satur) form the masculine nominative like noun-stems in ro- of the second declension (cf. puer, ager, § 38). They are thus declined • - Sing. N. (]. D. Ac. miser, wretched. Sthm mlsero-, a-, 0- miser miscri misero mi serum miser Ab. misero Plur. N. miscri misera miscrae miserae miscram misera misera miserae niiseium miseri misero miscrum miserum misero niger nigri nigro nigrum niger nigrS niger, black. niero-, a-, o- nigra nigrae nigrae nigram nigra nigra nigrum nigri nigro nigrum nigrum nigro nigri nigrae nigra misera '. m,serorum mi.serarum miserorum nigrorum nigrarum nigrorum i>. "nscns miseris miseris nigris nigris ni^ris Ac. miseros miscras misera nigros nigras V. miscri Ab. miseris Note. nigra nigri nigrae nigra miserae misera miseris miseris nigris nigris nigris Which type is followed is shown by the dictionary. a. Stems in ero- (as procerus), with morigerus, properus, have the regular nominative masculine in -ua 34 ADJECTIVES. [§8i. adjective), i.e. the name of the gens, or house, whose supposed orig- inal head was a TuUus ; Cicero, tlic coquofnen, or family name. NoTi:. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cognomen is usually in the plural : as Publius et Servius SuUae. b. A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given. 1 hus the com- plete name of Scipio tiie Younger was Publius Comeliua Scipio Alricaiius Aemilianus : Airicaima, from his exploits in Africa: Aemiliaims, as adopted from the /ICmilian gens. c. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were known only by the twmen of their gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Toiontin, and his daughter Tullln. A youngrr daughter would have been called Tullia secuuda or minor, and so on. d. The commonest prxnomens are thus abbreviated : — A. Aulus. App. Appiua C. (G.) Gains {Cants) (cf. § 6). Cn. (Gn ) Gnaeus {Cneiiis). D. Decimus. K. Kaeso {Caeso). I*. Lucius. Q. QuiiituB. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. M'. Manius. Sex. Sextus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. N. Numerius. T. Titus. P. Publius. Ti Tiberius. 4. ADJECTIVES. INFLECTION. Adjectives and Participles are formed and declined like Nouns, differing only in their use. They distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and ease. They arc (i) of the First and Second Declensions, or (2) of the Third Declension. I. First and Second Declensions. 81. Adjectives of the first and second declensions (a- and o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus. in the Feminine like steUa, and in the Neuter like beUum; as, § S2.] FIRST AXD SECOND DECLENSIONS. 35 M. Stfm bono- No.M. bonus Gen. boni Dat. bono Ace. bonum Voc. bono Ahl. bono SINGULAR. K. bona- bona bonae bonae bonam bona - bona bonus, good. N. bono- bonum boni bono bonum bonum bono M. PLURAL. P. N. boiii bonae bona bonorum bonarum bononim bonis bonis bonis bojios boiias bona boni bonae bona bonis bonis lx>ni8 Note. — Stems in quo- have nominative -cus, -qua, -cum, accusative -cum, -quam, -cum, to avoid -quii, (see § 7). I hus, NoM. relicus (-quos) Gen. rcliqui reliqua relicum (-quom) reliquae rcliqui, etc. a. The masculine ^'cnitivc singular of y\djectives in -ius ends in -ii, and the vocative in -ie ; not in -i, as in Nouns (cf. § 40. b, c) : as, Lacedaemouius, -ii, -ie. 82. Stems ending in ro- preceded by e or a consonant (also satur) form the masculine nominative like noun-stems in ro- of the second declension (cf. puer, ager. § 38). They are thus declined : — Sing. miser, wretched. Stkm miscro-, a-, 0- N. miser (i. miscri D. misero Ac. miserum V. miser Ab. miserS Plur. N. miscri mi sera miscrae miserae miscram mi sera miscra miserae miseiiim miscri mi.scro miserum miserum miscro niger nigri nigro nigrum niger nigro nigri niger, black. niero-, a-, o- iiigra nigrae nigrae nigram nigra nigra nigrum nigri nigro nigrum nigrum nigro nigrae nigra niisera yf , i ^ an i-stem, and is regularly declined like the plural of levis (^ § 84V The other cardinal numbers, up to cen- tum (100), are inuechflSmle. The forms octodecim, novendecim are rare, duode viginti, un- devigintl being used instead. Similar forms for higher numbers are occasionally found : as, duodequadraginta, thirty-eight ; iindecen- tum, ninety-nine. j 48 ADJECTIVES. [§95- d. The hundreds, up to- looo, are o-stems, and are regularly de- clined like the plural of bonu& e. Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective. In the plural (milia or millia, thousands), it is a neuter noun, followed by a genitive plural. Thus, cum miUe homlnibus, with a thousand men; but cum duobus milibus hominum, with two thousand men. Note. — The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nomi- native and accusadve : as mille hominum misit ; rarely in the other cases. /. The ordinals are o-stems, and are declined like bonus. 2. Distributives. 95. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of bonus. Note. — These answer the question quoteni ? how many of each, or at a time? as, — 1 . sTngulT, one by one 2. bini, two-and-two. 3. temi, trim 4. quatemi 5. quini 6. sen! 7. septeni 8. octonT 9. noveni 10. deni 1 1 . undeni 12. duodeni 13. term deni, etc. 18. octonT deni or duodeviceni 19. noveni deni or undeviceni 20. vTcenI 100. centeni 200. duceni 300. treceni 400. quadringeni 500. quingeni 21. viceni singuh, ^/^. 600. sesceni 30. triceni 700. septingeni 40. quadrageni 50. quinquageni 60. sexageni 70. septuageni 80. octogenl 800. octingeni 900. nongeni 1000. millenl 2000. bina milia 10,000. dena milia 100,000. centena milia 90. nonageni Distributives are used as follows : — a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side : as, singula singulis, one apiece (one each to each one) : agri septena iugera plebi divisa sunt, i.e. seven jugera to each citizen, etc. b. Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, with a noun plural in form but singular in meaning : as, bina castra. two camps (duo castra would mean two forts). But the plural uni is used (instead of singuli) to signify one (see § 94. a), and trini (not temi) for three. §§ 96, 97] NUMERAL ADVERBS. Ar9 c. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice twoj ter septeuis dlebus, in thrice seven days. d. By the poets freely instead of cardinals, particularly where pairs or sets are meant : as, bina hastilia two shafts (two in a set). 3. Numeral Adverbs. 96 . The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiens (quoties), how many times, how often. 1 . semel, once. 1 2. duodeciens 2. bis, twice. 13. terdeciens 3. ter, thrice. 14- quaterdeciSns 4. quater 15. quindeciens 5. quinquiens (-es) 16. sedeciens 6. sexiens (-es) 1 7- septiesdeciens 18. duodevlciens 19. undeviciens 20. viciens 7. septiens (-es) 8. octiens 9. noviens 10. deciens 11. undeciens 40. quadragiens 50. quinquagiens 60. sexagiens 70. septuagiens 80. octdgiens 90. ndnagiens 100. centiens 200. ducentiens 300. trecentiens 21. semel et viciens, etc. 1000. mlliens 30. trlciens 10,000. deciens mlliens Note. — They are used, in combination with mille, to express the higher numbers : as, ter et triciens (centena milia) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces. Forms in -ns are often written without the n : as, quinquies. 4. Other Numerals. 97. The adjectives simplex, single, duplex, double, two-fold, triplex, quadru-, quincu-, septem-, decem-, centu-, sesqui- (i^), multi-plex, manifold, are called Multiplicatives. a. Proportionals are : duplus, triplus, etc., twice as great, etc. b. Temporals : bimus, trimus, of two or three years'* age; biennis, triennis, lasting two or three years ; bimestris, of two months ; biduum, biennium, a period of two days or years. c. Partitives : binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts. d. Fractions : dimidia pars, a half; tertia pars, a third. Note. — But fractions are regularly expressed by special words denoting the parts of the as ( pound or unit) : as, triens, a third ; bes, two-thirds. e. Other derivatives are : unio, unity ; binio, the two (of dice) ; primanus, of the first legion ; primarius, of the first rank; denarius, a sum of 10 asses ; binus (distributive), double, etc. 50 PHONO UA'S. 5. PRONOUNS. [§9S. 98. Pronouns have special forms of declension. I. Personal Pronouns. The Personal pronouns of \\\\z first person arc ego, /, uob, we; of the second person^ tu, thou^ vos, ye or you. FIRST I'EKSON. NOM. Gen. DAT. Acc. Voc. Abl. ego, /. 1108, we. mei, of me. noatrum (-tri), of us. mihi (mi), to vie. uobia, to us. me, inc. noa, us. me, by me. nobis, by us. SKCOND riiRSON. NOM. tu, thou or you. vo^ ye or you. Gen. tui. vostriim, vostri ; veatrum (-tri) DAT. tibi vobia Acc. te voa Voc. tu voa Abl. te vobia a. The personal pronouns of the third person — he^ she^ it^ they — are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being used for them when required. //. The plural noa is often used for the singular ego; the plural vos never for the singular tu. 2. Reflexive Pronouns. Reflexive pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer to the Subject of the sentence or clause (see § 196). a. In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pronouns are used as Reflexives : as, te laudaa, you praise yourself ; nobia perauademua, we persuade ourselves. §99] POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 51 b. The reflexive pronoun of the Third Person has a special form the same for both singular and plural. It is thus declined : — (Jkn. Bui, of himself herself themselves. DAT. sibi. to himself herself themselves. Acc. ae (aeae), himself herself themselves. Abl. ae (aeae), by (etc.) himself herself themselves. 3- Possessive Pronouns. The Possessive pronouns are, for the first person : meua. my noater, our; for the second person : tuua. thy, your, voater, veater' your; for the third person : auua. his, her, their. These are de- clined like adjectives of the first and second declensions (see §§ 81 82). But meua has regularly mi (rarely meua) in the vocative singular masculine. NoTK. — Suus is always reflexive, referring to the subject. For a pos- sessive pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit. //. killed his (ow•n)//M^.r; but patrem eius occidit, be killed his (somel>ody else's) ////;^r. 99. In the meaning and use of the Personal, Reflexive, and Possessive pronouns it is to be observed that — - a. To express Possession and similar ideas the po.sscssive pro- nouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns. Thu.s, my father is pater meua, never pater mei b. The forms noatrum, voatrum, etc., are used partitively : as, — unuaquiaque noatrum, each one of us ; but also voatriim omnium, of all of you. c. The genitives mei. tui, sui, noatri. veatri are chiefly used ob- jectively (see {j 213. N.) : as,— memor aia nostri, be mindful of us (me). me tui pudet, / am ashamed of vou. d The reci])rocals one another and each other are expressed by inter ae or alter . . . alterum : a.s, — alter alteriua ova frangit, they break each other's e^^s (one of the other), inter ae amant, they love one another. A 52 PRONOUNS. [§§ lOO, lOI. e. The preposition cum, with, is joined with the ablative of the personal and reflexive pronouns : as, tecum loquitur, he talks with you. f. To the personal and reflexive (and sometimes to the possessive) pronoupy. certain enclitics are joined for emphasis : -met to all except tu (nom.) ; -te to tu (tute, also tutimet) ; -pte to the ablative singular of the adjectives, and in early Latin to the others, as, — vosmetipsos proditia, you betray your own 7tcry selves. Buopte pondere, by its own lueii^^/it. 4. Oenionstrntive Pronouns. 100. The Demonstrative pronouns are hie, this; is, llle, iate, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same. a. llle is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used in poetry ; a genitive singular in -i, -ae, -i occurs in ille and iste. b. Hie is compounded of the stem ho- with the demonstrative -ce. In most of the forms final e is dropped, in some the whole termina- tion. But in these latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis ; as, huiua-ce. hia-ce. Idem is the demonstrative la with the afllx -dem. 101. The demonstratives are used cither 7vit/i noutts as Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns. From their siirnifi- cation they cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. They are thur declined : — Sing. No.M. Gkn. DAT. Acc. AllL. Plur. Nom. Gen. DAT. Acc. Abl. hic huiua huic huiic hoc hi hcnim his hos his hic. this. F. haec huiua huic hanc hac hae harum hia haa hia hoc hiiius huic hoc hoc haec horum hia haec hia M. is eiua ei eum eo is, that. F. ea eiua ei eam ea N. Id eiua ei id eo i (ei) eae ea eonun eanmi eormn eis (ia) eia (ia) eia (is) eos eaa ea eia (ia) eia (ia) eia (is) Sing. Nom. (iKN. DAT. Acc. Voc. Abl. Plur. Nom. Gkn. DAT. Acc. Voc. Abl. DEMONSTRATiyE PRONOUNS. S3 ille illiua iUi ilium iUo illi illorum illia illoa ille, that. ilia illiua illi iUam ilia illae ill arum illis illaa illud illiua illi illud illo ilia illorum mia iUa ipse, self. ipse ipsa ipaiua ipsius ipai ipsi ipaum ipaam ipse ipsa ipao ipsa ipsum ipsius ipsi ipsum ipaum ipso illis illis mis ipsi ipsae ipsa ipsonim ipaarum ipaorum ipaia ipais ipsis ipaoa ipaaa ipsa ipai ipaae ipaa ipais ipsis ipsis idem, the same SINGULAR. N. idem eadem idem G. eiuadem eiuadera eiuadem D. eidem eidem eidem Ac. eimdom eaiidem idem Ab. eodem eadem eodem PLURAL. dem (ei-) eaedem eadem ieoruiidem eanmdem eorundem ei8dcm(ia-) ei8dem(is-) ei8dem(i8-) eosdem easdem eadem eisdem(is-) eiadem(ia-) eiadem(i8-) iste, ista, iatud, that (yonder), is declined like ille. nie and iate are combined with the demonstrative -ce. Thus, — Sing. m. f. n. Nom. illic illaec illoc (illuc) Acc. illunc illanc illoc (illuc) Abl. illoc iliac iUoc Plur. N.,Acc. iUaec M. F. iatic iataec iatuiic iataiic iatoc iatac N. iatoc (iatuc) iatoc (istiic) istoc iataec Note. — This appended -ce is also found with pronouns in numerous comhmations: as, huiusce, hunce, horunce, harunce, hosce, hisce (cf. § 100. b), ilhusce, isce; also with the interrogative -ne, in hocine, hoscine, istucine, ilhcine, etc. The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nom.), eumpse eampse, copse, eapse (abl.). * a. The combinations huiuamodi (hiiiuacemodi), eiusmodi, etc., are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to taUs, such : as, res emsmodi. such a thing (a thing of th.at .sort ; cf. § 215). !if FE 'T— * «— 54 PRONOUNS. [§§ 102, 103. 102. In the use of these demonstratives it is to be observed that — a. Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, thought, or on the written page). It is sometimes used of the speaker him- self ; sometimes for "the latter" of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing ; more rarely for "the former," when that, though more remote on the written paj^e, is nearer the speaker in t/n/e, p/al:e, or thought. b. lUe is used of what is remote (in time, etc.). It is sometimes used to mean "the former" (see under hie, «) ; also (usually fol- lowing its noun) of what \s famous or wellkmnvn. c. late is used of what is between the two others in remoteness : often in allusion to the person addressed, — l>cncc called the demon- strative of the second person. It especially refers to an opponent, and frequently implies a kind of antagonism or contempt. d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the, others as a personal pronoun ; and is often merely a correlative to the relative qui: as, euni quern, one whom; eum coiisulem qui non dubitet (Cic), a consul who will not hesitate. e. Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person, or a noun : as 110a ipsi (nosmetipsi), ive ourselves; ipsi fontes, the very fountains; also independently (the verb or the context implying the pronoun), as ipsi ade8tia,jf>// are written. a. Tenses of the Indicative. a. The tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same mean- ing as the corresponding tenses in English ; but are in some cases distinguished differently in their use. Thus, — 1. The Future or Future Perfect is often used in subordinate clauses, where the English uses the Present : as, — SI quid habebo dabo, if I have (shall have) anything^ I wiil give. cum venero scribam, when I come (shall have come), / will write. 2. The Present and Imperfect are often used to express continued action where the English uses tenses of completed action : as, — iam diii aegroto, / have long been (and still am) sick. lam diu acgrotabam, / had long been (and still was) sick. Note. — Here the Perfect, aegrotavi, would imply that I am now well ; the Pluperfect, that I was well at the past time designated. b. The Imperfect is used to describe in past time a continued action or a condition of things : as, scribebat, he was writing ; aidebat, /'/ was on fire. c. The Perfect, having two separate u.scs, is divided into the Per- fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite). 1. The I'erfect Definite represents the action of the verb as com- pleted in present time, and corresponds to the English (present- or compound-) perfect : as, scripsi / have written. 2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time without representing it as in progress. It corresponds to the English past or preterite : as, scripait, he wrote ; arsit, // blazed up. 64 VERBS. 116-118. b. Tenses of the Subjunctive. d. The tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are c' iefly used in depen- dent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (see § 286) ; but have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax). III. PERSONAL ENDINGS. 116. Verbs have regular terminations for each of the three Persons, both singular and plural, active and pas- sive. These are called Personal endings. IV. FORMS OF THE VERB. 117. Every Latin verb-form (except the adjective and noun forms) is made up of two parts, viz.: 1. The Stem. This is either the root or a modification of it 2. The Ending, consisting of — a. the signs of mood and tense. b. the personal ending (see § 116). 118. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for mood and tense combined with personal endings, are exhibited in the following table : ACTITE. SUBJ Indic. Sing. I. -o 2. -8 3. -t Plur. I. -mas 2. -tds 3. -nt |o2 Sing. I. 2. 3- Plur. I. 2. 3- -ba-m -ba-s -ba-t -ba-mos -ba-tia -ba-nt Present. -m -a -t -mus -tds -nt Imperfeet. -re-m -re-8 -re-t -re-mus -re-tia -re-nt Indic -or -ria or -re -tur -mur -mini jj -ntor -ba-r -ba-ria (-re) -ba-tur -ba-mur -ba-mini -ba-ntur PASSITE. '» a SUBJ. -r -ria or -re -tm- -mm: -mini -ntur -re-r -re-ria(-re) -re-tiu- -re-mur -re-mini -re-ntm^ ^ These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 122) §118.] FORMS OF THE VERB. 65 Sing^ I. 2. 3- Plur. I. 2. ACTIVE. Indicative 1. ii.» -b-o -bl-a -bi-t Future. « s s U s <= Ji « .bi-mu8^|~6 l.y • J; III. IV. r-a-m -bi-tia -bu-nt L -^-muB -/-tia I. II. -bo-r PASSIVE. Indicative. III. IV. -a-x -be-ria(-re) |,^ -bi-tm^ " "* -bi-mvir -bi-mini -bu-ntm: Sing. 2. 3- Plur. I. 2. Sing. Indic. I. -i -i-8ti -i-t -i-mns -i-atia SUBJ. -eri-m -eri-s -eri-t Perfect. -tii8(-ta, -torn) 1. -era-m 2. -era-8 3. -era-t Plur. I. -era-mua 2. -era-tia 3. -era-nt -en-mua -exi-tia -eni-nt ^r-ere -eri-nt Pluperfect -isae-m -iaae-a -iaae-t -iflse-mua -iase-tia -iase-nt Indic. raom ea est somas ti (-tae, I ^ ^ ^ estia '' [sant -^-ris (re) -^-tar -23-] REGULAR VERBS. 69 c. The regular forms of the conjugations are seen in the following : — First : Active, amo, amare, amavi, amatum, love. Passive, amor, amari, amatua Present stem ama-, Perfect stem amav-, Supine stem amat-. Second : Active, deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, blot out. Passive, deleor, deleri, deletua Present stem dele- Perfect stem delev-, Supine stem delet-. Third : Active, tego, tegere, texi, tectum, cover. Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus. Root teg, Present stem tege-, Perfect stem tSx-, Supine stem tect-. Fourth : Active, audio, audire, audivi auditimi, hear. Passive, audior, audiri, auditu& Present stem audi-, Perfect stem audiv-, Supine stem audit-. In the Second conjugation, the characteristic i- rarely appears in the perfect and supine : the type of this conjugation is, therefore — Second : Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum, warn. Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus. d. In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or more different conjugations : as, — 1, 2, domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue. 2, 3, meuieo, manere, mansi, mansum, remain. 3, 4, peto, petere, petivi, petitum, seek. 4, 3, vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind. Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present stem conforms. I. Present Stem. 123. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in regular verbs in several ways, as appears in ioN treated as a root), cas-um (for cad-t-um). 126. Omitted in this edition. 4. Synopsis of the Verb. 127. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verbs arranged according to the several stems. Amo, a regular verb of the first conjugation, is taken as a type. \ \ § 128.] SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB. 71 Prese.nt stem, ama-; Perfect stem, amav-; Supine stem, amat-. > < PRES. IMTERF. PUT. PERF. iNn. amo ama-bam ama-bo : amav-i Sub. ame-m ama-rem Imp. 2. ama ama-to amav-enin PLUPERF. FUT. PERF. amav-eram amav-ero amav-isaem Ink. ama-re . Part, ama-na : amat-iuiiB: amav-isse esBo : amat-uniB ' I.ND. am-or ami-bar ama-bor .Sun. amo-r ama-ior c] Imp. 2. ama-re I/) aS Inf. ama-ri , Part. amat-UB Bum amat-u8 sim eram eBBom — ero ama-tor ama-tum iri amat-us esse Ger. ama-ndus amat-U8 128. Special Forms. — a. In tenses formed upon the perfect stem, V between two vowels is often lost. Thus, — 1 . Perfects in -avi, -evi, -ovi often contract the two vowels into a, e, o respectively : as, amasse for amavisse ; amarim for amavextm ; consuerat for conaueverat ; fiestia for fleviatis. So where the v is a part of the present stem : as, commorat for commoverat:. 2. Perfects in -ivi regularly omit v, hut rarely contract the vowels except before st and ss : as, audieram for audiveram ; audlsse for audivisse ; audiati for audivisti ; abiit for abivit. ^. In many forms from the perfect stem, is, isa, sis are lost in like manner when s would be repeated : as, dixti for dizisti (x = ca). c. Four verbs, — dico. duco, facio, fero, — with their compounds, drop the vowel-termination in the imperative, making die, due, fac, fer ; but compounds in -ficio retain it : as, confice (con-flclo). d. For tlie imj)(ralivc of Bcio, the future form Bcito is always used in the singular, and acitote usually in the plural. e. The following ancient forms are chiefly found in poetr)' : — 1. In the fourth conjugation -ibain,-ibo for -iebam, -iam (future). 2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in dnim (for dem). 3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect -aim, -so: as, fa Trim, faxo (= ficeio. etc.) ; ausim (=ausu8 sun). 4. In the passive infinitive -ier : as, irier for iri ; agier for agL 72 VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION. — ACTIVE VOICE. [§128. § 1 29.] FIRS T COXJUGA TION, — ACTIVE VOICE. Principal Parts : Pres. amo, Infin. amaie, Perf. amavi, Supine amatum. Indicative. Subjunctive. V resent. amo, / love. amem amas, thou loves t (j'ou love). ames aniat, Ae (s/ie, it) loves. a met amamua, we love. amemiia amatis,/<;.v love. ametia amaut, they love. anient Impevfect, amabam, / loved. aniarem amabas, you loved. amarea aniabat, he loved. a mare t amabamus, we loved. amaremuB amabatis. you loved. amaretls amabant, they loved. amarent Future. amabo, / shall love. amabis, you will love. amabit, hi: will love. amabimus, we shall love. amabitia, you will love. amabunt, they will love. Perfect. amavi, / loved. amavisti, j(;« loved. amavit, he loved. amavimus, we loved. amavistis, jf7w loved. amavenmt (-ere), they loved. amaverlm amaveris amaverit amaverimua amaveritia amaverint 7Z Indicative. amaveram, / had loved. amaveraa, you had loved. amaverat, he had loved. amaveramuB, we had loved. amaveratia, you had loved. amaveraut, they had loved. t'luperfect. Subjunctive. amaviaaem amaviaaea amavisaet amaviasemuB amaviaaetia amaviaaent Future Perfect. SINGULAR. PLURAL. amavero, / shall have loved. amaverimua, we shall have loved. amaveria. _y(7;/ will have loved. 1 amfweritia, ^'^m will have loved. amaverit, he will have loved. \ amaverint. they will have loved. iMrKKATIVK. I*re». 2. ama, love thou. amate, love ye. -Fwf. 2. amato, thou shall love. amatote, jr shall love. 3. amato, he shall love. amanto, they shall love. Infinitive. Present, amare, to love. Perfect, amaviase or amaase, to have loved. Future, amaturua eaae, to be about to love. PaKTICII'LKS. Presettt. aman8,-antia, loving. Future. amaturuB, -a, -um, about to love. Gerund. Gen. amandi. ^/^zz/V/jTr, Ace. amaudum. ^7^/;/^. DAT. ^mando, /or loviug. Ahl. amando, by loving. SUI'INE. Former, amatum Latter, amatu, to love. 129. The so-called Periphrastic conjugations are formed by combining the tenses of eaae with the Future Active Participle and with the Gerundive : as, 74 VEKIiS. First Periphrastic Conjugation. Indicativk. amaturuB sum, / am about to love. amatui-ua eram, / was about to love. amatunia ero, / shall be about to love. amaturua hii, / was abouty etc. [§129. §129.] FIRST CONJUGATION. — PASSIVE VOICE. 75 SunjUN'CTIVE. aim eaaem Present. Imperf. Future. Perfect. Pluperf. amatui-ua fueram, / had been abouty etc. Fut. Per/, amatunia fueio, / shall have been abouty etc. Infinitive : Pres. amaturua eaae Per/, amatunia fuieae fuerim fuiaaeni Present. Imper/ Future. Per/ect. Second Penphrastic Conjug^ation. Indicativk. amandua aum, / am to be loved. amandua eram, / was to be loved. SunjUNCTIVE. aim eaaem amandua ero, / shall be [wortliy] to be loved. amandua fui, / was to be loved. fuerim Pluper/. amandua fueram, / had been^ etc. fuiaaem Fut. Per/, amandua fuero, / shall have been, etc. Infinitive : Pres. amandua ease Per/, amandua fuisae FIHST CONJUGATION. -passive VOICE. Principal Parts : Pres. amor, Infin. amari, Perf. amatua aum. Indicative. amor, I am loved. amaris (-re), jf?;/ are loved. amattir, he is loved. amamur, we art loved. amamini, ^t>// are loved. amautur. they are loved. Present. Ftttpft'/'ect. amabar, / was loved. amabaiia (-re), you were loved. amabatur, he was loved. amabamur, we were loved. amabamini, ^^/^ were lai'ed. amabantxir, they were loved. Subjunctive. amer ameria (-re) ametur amemur amemini amentur amarer amareria (-re) amaretur amaremur amaremini amarentur Indicative. Future. Subjunctive. amabor, / shall be loved. amaberia (-re), you will be loved. amabitur, he will be loved. amabimur, we shall be loved. amabimiui, j'f?// will be loved. ainabuntiir. they will be loved. Perfect. amatus aum, / was loved. amatus es,you were loved. amatus eat, he was loved. amati aumua, we were loved. amatl eatia, you were loved. amati aunt, they were loved. Pliiperfcet. amatus eram, / had been loved. amatus eraa, you had been loved. amatus erat, he had been loved. amati eramua, we had been loved. amati eratia, you had been loved. amati eraiit, they had been loved. amatus aim amatus aia amatus ait amati aimua amati aitia amati aint amatus eaaem amatus eaaea amatus eaaet amati easemua amati eaaetia amati easent Future Perfect. SINGULAR. amatus ero, / shall have been loved. amatus ex\A, you will have, etc. amruus erit, he will have. etc. PLURAL. amati erimua, we shall have, etc. amati eritia, you will have, etc. amati enmt, they will have, etc. LMI'ERATIVE Pre*. 2. amare, be thou loved. Fut. 2. :\n\ator, thou sha It beloved. 3. amator, //^ shall be loved. amamiui, be ye loved. amautor, they shall be loved. Infinitive. Present, amaxi, to be loved. Perfect. amStus esse, to have been loved. Future, amatum iri (amatua fore), to be about to be loved. 76 VERBS. Participles. [§ »3o- rei'fcct. amatus, loved {beloved, or having been loved). Futuve. (Gerundive.) amandus, -a, -um, to-bcloved {lovely). 130. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem : as, anno, arm (arma, arms); caeco, to blind (caecus, blind); exaulo. be an exile (exaul, an exile) (§ \GG. a). Tlieir conjugation is usually regular, like amo ; though of many only a few forms are found in use. SECOND CONJUGATION. Principal Parts : Active, monoo, monoio, moiiui, moiiltum ; Passive, moneoi, moneri, moiiitua sum. ACTIVE. Indic. Subj. moneo, / warn, moneam mones, yoic warn, moneas monet, he warns, moneat monemua monetia monent PASSIVE. monebam monebaa monebat monebamua monebatia monebant monebo monebis monebit monebimua monebitis monebunt moneamua moneatia moneant Indic. J*reaent. I moneor monerifl (-re) monetur monemur monemini monentur Subj. monear monearis(-re) moneatiir moneam ur moneamini moneaiitur Imppt'frct. monerem monebar monerea moneret moneremua moneretis monerent monerer monebaria (-re) monereria (-xe) monebatur moneretur monebamur moneremur monebamini monoremlni monebantur monerentur Futtirr, monebor moneberia (-re) monebitur monebimur monebimini monebuntur i ■A § U0-] SECOXD COXJUGA TION. 77 il ACTIVE. Indic. PASSIVE. monui monuisti monuit monuimuB monuiatia monuenint (-re) monueram monueras monuerat monueramus monueratis monuerant monuero monueria monuerlt monuerimus monueritiB monuertiit SING. Vrm. 2. mone Fitt. 2. moneto 3. moneto Subj. Indic. I'rrjt'ct. monitus aum monitus es monitus eat nioniti BumuB moniti eatia moniti sunt monuenm monueria monuerit monuorimuB monucritia monuerint Plupeffcct. monuiaaem monuiaaos monuiaaet monuiaaemua monuiaaetia monulaaent monitus eram monitus eras monitus erat moniti eramus moniti eratia moniti erant Future Perfect. monitus ero monitus eria monitus erit moniti erimuB moniti eritls moniti erunt Imperative. PLUR. sing. monete monetote monento monere monetor monitor Infinitive. Subj. monitus aim monitus aia monitus ait nioniti BimuB moniti sitia moniti aint monitus essem monitus esses monitus easet moniti eaaemuB moniti essetia moniti essent PLUR. monemini monentor I'reK. monere Perf. monuiaae Fut. moniturua eaae. Pres. mo nine j-'Mf. monitiSnia moneri monitus ease monitum iri (monitus fore) Participles. Perf. monitus Qer. monendus r •■\ I A' ^ J •A i*1 Gerund : monendi -do, -dum, -do Supine : monitum, monitu i*?i 78 VERBS. [§'3'- W 131. There are nearly 1 20 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having -^ corresponding noun and adjective Jrom the same root, and an inceptive in^.8c5 (^ 167^ rt): as, caleo, be warm ; calor, loannth ; calidus, luarm ■ calesco, ^ro7i' warm; timeo, fear; timor. fear; timidus, timid. ' Most verbs of this conjugation form their perfect and supine hke moneo. The following have -evi and -ituni : deleo. destroy ■ fleo 'Jveep; neo, s/, in ; vieb, plat; and compounds of -pleo. ////• -olco' grow. ^ ' THIRD CONJUGATION. PRiNcirAL Parts : Active, tego. tegere, t^xi. tectum ; Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus sum. ACTIVE. Indic. tego, / cover. tegis, you cover. tegit, he covers. tegimus tegitia tegunt tegebam tegebas tegebat tcgebamus tegebatis tegebajit tegam teges teget tegemus tegetis tegent SUBJ. tegam tegas tegat tegamua tegatia tegant Indic. Vrvsent. tegor tegeria(-re) tegitiu- tcgimur tegimini ' teguutur PASSIVE. SUBJ. tegar tegaris (-re) tegatur tegam ur tcgamini tegantur tcgerem tegeres tegeret tegeremus tcgerotis tegereut tcgebar tegebaria (-re) tegebatiu tcgebamur IcgebaminI tegebantur Fittufc. tegar tegeris (-re) tegetur tegemur tcgemiiii tegentur tegerer tegereria (-re) tegeretur tcgeremur tcgeremini tegerentur V ^ If ACTIVE. SUBJ. -re) §i3i-] Indic. texi texiati texit teximuB texiatis texerunt ( texeram texeras texerat texeramus texeratis texerant tcxero texeris texerlt texerimua texeritia texerint SING. PLUR. rrta. 2. tege, cover, tegite FHt, 2. tegito tcgltote 3. tcglto tegunto i*rfn. tegere Verf. tcxiaae fiit. tecturua eaae THIRD CONfUGATJON. tcxerlm texeria texerlt texerimua texeritia texerint tcxiaaem texiasea texiaaet texissemua texiasetia texisaent Indic. Verfect. tectus sum tectus ea tectus eat tectl BumuB tccti eatia tecti aunt t*lH}wrfrrt. tectus eram tectus eras tectus erat tectl eramua tectl eratia tectl erant FutHvo I'vft'crt. tectus ero tectus eria tectus erit tectl erimua tecti eritia tectl erunt Imperativk. SING. tegere tegi tor tegi tor 79 PASSIVE. SUBJ. tectus aim tectus aia tectus ait tectl aimua tcct? aitia tecti aint tectus eaaem tectus eaaea tectus eaaet tecti eaaemua tectl eaaetia tecti eaaent PLUR. tegimini tcgimtor Infinitive. tegi tectua eaae tectum iri (tectus fore) Participles. rerf. tectua Ger. tegeudua (-undua) Gerund : tegendi. -do. -dum, -do Supine : tectum, tectu Prea, tegena Fut. tecturua 9 fe 8o VERBS. VERBS IN -id. [§UI Verbs of the third conjugation in -io have certain forms of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They retain the i of the stem before a, 5, ii, and e, but lose it elsewhere except in the future and in the participle and gerund. They are conjugated as follows : — Principal Parts: capio, capere, cepi, captuni ; capior, capi, captua aum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Indic. Subj. Indic. Subj. capio, / take. capifl, you take. capit, /le takes. capimuB capitis capiuiit capiebam capiam capies capiet, etc. capiam capias capiat capiamus capiatia capiant capior caperls (-re) capitur capimur capimini capiuntur Imperfect. caperem | capiebar J-'Htttrr. cepi ceperam cepenin capiar capieria (-re) capietur, etc. rerfeet. I captus sum I'lufH-r/'ret. ccpissem | captus eram JFuture Perfect. cepero j captus ero Imperative. SING. PLUR. SISG. Pres. 2. cape capite capere rut. 2. capito capitote capitor 3. capito capiunto capitor capiar capiaria (-re) capiatur capiamur capiamini capiantur caperer captus aim captus esscm PLUR. capimini capiuntor § U2.] FOURTH DE^LES^IONr 81 SING. Prea, capere -Per/, cepiaae JPut. capturua esse Infinitive. PLUR. capi captua ease captum iri Participles. Pren. capiena 1 /v,.,. captua rut. capturua | ^cr. caplendua Gerund ; capiendi. -do. -dum, -do Supine : captum, -tu 132. List of verbs omitted in this edition, see larger grammar. fourth conjugation. Principal Parts : Active, audio, audire. audivi. auditum; Passive, audior, audiri, auditus aum. PASSIVE. Subj. Indic. ACTIVE. Subj. audio, / hear. audiam audia,_yf7« hear, audiaa audit, he hears, audiat audimua auditia audiunt audiebam audiebaa audiebat audiebamua audiebatia audiebant audiam audiea audiet audiemus audietia audient audiamua audiatia audiant audlrem audirea audiret audiremua audiretia audirent Indic. Preaent. audior audiria (-re) auditiu- audimur audimini audiuntur Imperfect. audiebar audiar audiarla (-re) audiatur audiamur audiamini audiautur audirer audiebarla (-re) audireria (-re) audiebatur audiebam ur audiebamini audiebantur I'utttre. audiar audieria (-re) audietur audiemur audieminl audientur audiretiu- audiremur audiremlni audirentur *r I i 82 VERBS. L§ »32- AC ;tive. PASSIVE. Indic. audlvi SuBj. Indic. Perfect. audlverlm audllus aiuu Sunj. auditus aim audi vis ti audlveria auditus ea auditus aia audivit audlverit auditus eat auditus ait audlvimus audlverimua audit! aumua audltl simua audlvistis audiveritia audltl eatia audltl sitia audlvenmt (-re ) audlveriiit audit! aunt audltl aint audiveram I'luiterfect. audlvissem auditus eram auditus essem audlveraa audlnssea auditus eraa auditus easea audlverat audlviaset auditus erat auditus eaaet audlveramus audlviaaemua audit! eramua audltl easemua audiveratia audivlBsetia audltl eratia audltl essetia audlverant audlvisaeut audltl erant audltl eaaent audlvero Futur'' retf'ect. auditus ero • audlveria auditus eria audlverit auditus erit audlverimus audltl erimua audiveritia audltl eritia audiverint audltl eruiit Imimck ATIVi:. SIXG. I'LUR. SING. FLUR. Prvs. 2. audi audite audire audimini JFiit. 2. audits auditote auditor 3. audits audiuiito auditor audiuutor Prcs. audire Verf. audiviase /•'««. auditurua ease Pres. audiena rut. auditiirua Infinitive. audiri auditua caao auditxira iri (auditua fore) Participles. Peif. auditua Ger. audieudua Gerund : audiendi, -do, -dum, -do Supine : auditum, auditu t ; §§U3-'35-] DEPONENT VERBS. S3 133. There are — besides a few deponents and some regular derivatives in -urio, as eaurio, be hungry (cf. § 167. 'y= aliquotiens), sometimes. necnon, also (nor not). b. Two negatives of which the second is non (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative : as, — nemo non, ndllus non, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does] (cf. nonnemo, above, not nobody, i.e. somebody). nihil non, everything. numquam non, never not, re. always (cf. nonnumquam, above, not never, i.e. sometimes). 151. The following adverbs require special notice : — a. Etiam (et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : as, — non verbis s51um sed etiam vi (Verr. II. ii, 64), 7iot only by words, but also by force. hoc qaoque maleficium (Rose. Am. 118), this crime too. 98 PARTICLES, [§151- b. Nunc (for tnmn-ce) means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is not used as in English of past time. lam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With negatives it means {tio) longer. Turn, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum ftimi-ce, cf. nunc). Thus, — nt iam antea dixi, as I have already said before. si iam satis aetatis atque roboris haberet (Rose. Am. 149), // he had attained a suitable age and strength (lit. // he now had, as he will by and by), non est iam lenitatl locus, there is no longer room for mercy. quod iam erat Institutum, which had come to be a practice (had now been established), nunc quidem deleta est, tunc fldrebat (Lael. 13), now ('tis true) she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory. tum cum regnabat, at the time when he reigned. c. Certo means certainly; certe (usually), at any rate : as, certo scio, / know for a certainty ; ego certe, / at any rate. d. Primum means first, ''firstly " {first in order or for the first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Prime means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time : as, — hoc primum sentio, this I hold in the first place. '^^^ aedes primo ruere rebamur, at first we thought the house was falling. In enumerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place, or by tum, theti, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times repeated {secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by denique or postremo, lastly, finally. Thus, — primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum de imperatore . deligendo (Manil.), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander. e. Quidem, to be sure, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc. : as, — hoc quidem videre licet (Lael. 54), this surely one may see. [Emphatic] (securitas) specie quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locTs repudianda (id. 47), {tranquility) in appearance, 'tis true, attractive, btU in reality to be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.] §152] PREPOSITIONS. 99 Ne . . . quidem means not even or not . . . either. The emphatic word or words must stand between ne and quidem senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 68), a« old man has not any- thing to hope for EVEN, sed ne lugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), butfugurtha was not quiet EITHER. II. PREPOSITIONS. 152. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative. a. The following are used with the Accusative : ^^ ^^' extra, outside, adversus, against. in, into. adversum, towards, infra, below. ante, before. inter, among. apud, at, near. intra, inside. circa, around. iuxta, near. circum, around. circiter, about. cis, citra, this side. contra, against. erga, towards. b. The following are used with the Ablative : a, ab, aba, away from, by. absque, without, but for. coram, in presence of. cum, with. de, from. e, ex, out of. post, after. praeter, beyond. prope, near. propter, on account of. secundum, next to. sub, under. ob, on account of. supra, above. penes, in the power, trans, across. per, through. ultra, on the further side. pone, behind. versus, towards. m, tn. prae, in comparison with. pro, in front of, for. sine, without. sub, under. tenus, 7ip to, as far as. c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Ablative, but with a difference in meaning : in, into, in. sub, under. subter, beneath, super, above. In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by the ablative, rest in. a place : as, — venit in aedes, he came into the house ; erat in aedibus, he was in the house. sub nice consederat, he had seated himself under an ilex. sub leges mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under laws). lOO PARTICLES. [§§153-156. 153. The uses of the Prepositions are various, and are explained in the dictionaries. III. CONJUNCTIONS. 164. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sen- tences. They are of two classes : — a. Co-ordinate, connecting co-ordinate or similar constructions (see § 180. a). These are — 1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or opposition .of thought as well as of words : as, et, and. 2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast m thought : as, sed, but. 3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason : as, Ti3oa\.,for. 4. Illative, denoting an inference : as, igitur, therefore. b. Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or dependent clause with that on which it depends (see § 180. b). These are — 1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis : as, si, ifj nisi, unless. 2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition : as, ac si, as if. 3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission : as, quam- quam, although (lit. however much it may be true that, etc.). 4. Temporal : as, postquam, after. 5. Consecutive, expressing result : as, ut, so that. 6. Final, expressing purpose : as, ut, in order that ; ne, that not. 166. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accu- rately distinguished in Latin than in English. For clas- sified lists, see larger grammar. 166. The following are the principal conjunctions whose meaning requires to be noticed : — a. Et, and., simply connects words or clauses ; -que combines more closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected. Thus, — §156.] CONJUNCTIONS. lOI cum coniugibus et liberis, xvith [their] wives and children. ferro Ignlque, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.] aqua et igni \n.tQ,xd:\z\.\x% forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.] Atque (ac) adds with some emphasis or with some implied re- flection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable : as,— omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too, without the slightest distinction), usus atque discipllna, practice and theory beside (the more important or less expected), atque ego credo, and yet I believe (for my part). In the second of two connected ideas, and not is expressed by neque (nee): as, — neque vero hoc solum dixit, and he not only said this. Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of comparison and likeness : as, — non secus (aliter) ac si, not otherwise than if. pro eo ac debul, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought). b. Sed and the more emphadc verum or vero, but, introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negadves {not this . . . but something else). At introduces with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others. At enim almost always introduces a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense. Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atqui, however, now, somedmes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now if, is used to continue an argument. Ast is old or poetic and is equivalent to at. Note. — A concessive is often followed by an adversative either in a co- ordinate or a subordinate clause : as, etiamsi quod scribas non habebis, scribito tamen (Cic), though you have nothing to write, still write all the same. c. Aut, or, excludes one alternative ; vel and -ve give a choice between two. But this distinction is sometimes neglected. Thus, — I02 PARTICLES. [§ 156. sed quis ego sum aut quae est in me facultas, but who am /, or what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.] quam tenui aut nulla potius valetudine, what feeble health [he had], or rather none at all. [Here vel might be used, but would refer only to the expression, not to the fact.] vita talis fuit vel fortuna vel gloria, his life was such either in respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it). si proplnquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna, // they have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, for example). cum cogniti sunt et aut deorum aut regum fllii invent!, sons either of gods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.] Sive (aeu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions {if either or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing : as, — sive arridens sive quod ita putaret (De Or. i. 91), either laughingly or because he really thought so. Vel is often used with no alternative force : as, — vel minimus, the very least. d. Nam and namque,>r, usually introduce a real reason, formaUy expressed, for a previous statement ; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way ; etenim {for, you see; for, you know, and its negative neque enim intro- duce something self-evident or needing no proof. (ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda. nam dum sumus in his inclusi compagibus corporis munere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere per- fungimur. est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. Maj. 77). harum trium sententiarum null! prorsus assentior. nee enim ilia prima vera est, for of course that first one is n't true. e. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur. then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo and IS used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque. therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcirco. for this reason, on this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative 'as §156.] CONfUNCTIONS, 103 quia, quod, si ut, ne, and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative. ne aegri quidem quia non omnes convalescunt, idcirco ars nulla me- dicinae est. malum mihi videtur mors, est miserum igitur, quoniam malum, certe. ergd et ei quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus eventurum est miseri. mihi ita videtur. nemo ergo non miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) meministis enim cum illius nefarii gladiatoris voces percrebuissent quas, etc. — tum igitur (Mur. 50). /. Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact ; quod, either a fact or a statement. Quoniam (for quom iam), inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has reference to motives, excuses, or justifica- tions, and the like. Quando, since, is mostly archaic or late, possunt quia posse videntur, they can because they think they can. locus est a me quoniam ita Murena volult retractandus (Mur. 54), / must review the point, since Murena has so wished. me reprehendis quod idem defendam (as he had not) quod lege punierim (Mur. 67), you blame me because [as you say] / defend the same charge which I have punished by law. In the denial of a reason, non quo is used as well as non quod, non quia, and non quin, but not non quoniam. Thus, non quia multis debeo ... sed quia saepe concurrunt aliquorum bene de me meritorum inter ipsos contentiones (Plane. 78), not because I am indebted to many, but because, etc. non quin pari virtute et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam causam non habuerunt (Phil. vii. 6), not that there were not others of equal courage and good-will, but they had not so much reason. g. Cum (quom), when, is always a relative, and is often correla- tive with tum, (see h. i, below); quando, when (rarely since), is used as interrogative, relative, and indefinite : as, quando ? hodie, when f to-day J si quando, if ever. h. I. Conjunctions, especially those of relative origin, frequently have a correlative in another clause, to which they correspond : as, ut sementem feceris, ita metes, as you so7v, so shall you reap. 2. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two co-ordinate clauses. Examples are — et . . . et, both . . . and. miodo . . . mode, now . . . now. nunc . . . nunc, now . . . now. I04 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 157. /. The concessives (etsi, quamvis, etc., although) may introduce either a fact or a mere supposition, and are often followed by the cor- relative tamen, yet, nevertheless j quamquam regularly introduces an admitted fact and not a mere supposition. Quamquam (and rarely etai, tametsi) in the sense of though {and yet, but, however) may also introduce an independent state- ment made to limit or correct the preceding : as, ille volt diu vivere, hie diu vixit, quamquam, 6 di boni, quid est in hominis vita diu ? (Cat. M. 68), the one wishes to live long, the other has lived long, though (after all) Good Heavens! what is there that is long in the life of man ? k. Autem, enim, and vero are postpositive, i.e. they always follow one or more words of their clause ; so, generally, igitur and often tamen. INTERJECTIONS. O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment). io, evae, evoe, euhoe (oijoy). heu, eheu, vae, alas (of sorrow). heus, eho, ehodmn, ho (of calling) ; at, hist. eia, euge {oi praise). pro (of attestation) : as, pro pudor, shame/ FORMATION OF WORDS. Note. — All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. I. ROOTS AND STEMS. 157. Roots 1 are of two kinds : — 1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensi- ble phenomena). 2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direc- tion. 1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see §§ 21, 22. §§158-160.] • SUFFIXES. 105 Stems are divided into (i) Noun- (including Adjec- tive-) stems, and (2) Verb-stems. 158. Words are formed by inflection : — I. From roots inflected as stems, a. Without change : as, duo-is (dux), dug ; nec-is (nex) ; is, id. So in verbs : as, est, fert, est b. With change of the root-vowel : as, luc-is (libc), luc ; pac-is (pax). So in verbs : i-s for feis, from eo, ire ; fatur, from for, firL Note. — It is impossible to say whether the form of root in a or in ^ is the onginal one. But for convenience the above order is adopted. c. With reduplication: as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs : as, si-sto (root sta). 2. From derived stems ; see § 1 59. II. SUFFIXES. 159. Stems are derived from roots or from other stems by means of suffixes. These are — I. Primary: added to the root, or (later by analogy) to verb- stems. 2.. Secondary : added to a noun- or adjective-stem. Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronom- mal roots (§ 157. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin. Thus a word regularly consists of a verbal root and one or more pronominal roots and inflectional terminations. I. Primary Suffixes. 160. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by means of Primary suffixes are few. a. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly- some-tsh, meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome. b. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation : thus, — io6 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§§ i6i, 162. A word like mens, mentia, by the suffix on- (nom. -o) gave mentio, and this being divided into men -f- tio, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -tio (phonetically -sio) : as, legatio, embassy. A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like auditorius, of which the neuter is used to denote the place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence -torium, n., becomes a regular suffix (§ 164. /. 5). So in English such a word as mechanically gives a suffix -ally^ making telegraphically., though there is no such word as telegraph- ic al. c. Examples of primary suffixes are — 1 . Vowel suffixes : as, — a, found in nouns and adjectives of a- and o-stems : as, sonus, ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (root teg). 2. Suffixes with a consonant : as, — ta (in the form to-) in the regular perfect passive participle, as tectus, tectum ; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus ; and found in a few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf . purus), altus (alo). va (commonly uo-) with an active or passive meaning, as in ecus, arvum, conspicuus, eziguus, vacivus (vacuus). 2. Significant Endings. 161. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called Significant Endings. They form : i. Nouns of Agency ; 2. Names of Ac- tion ; 3. Adjectives (active or passive). III. DERIVATION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. I. Nouns of Agency. 162. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an action. But they include many words in which, the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives. Their significant endings are — § 163.] NOUNS OF AGENCY. 107 a. -tx)r (-sor), m., -trix, p., added to roots or verb-stems to denote the agent or doer of an action. cano, sing (can, supine fcantmn) ; cantor, singer; cantrix, song- stress. tondeo, shear (tond as root, sup. tonsum) ; tonsor, tonstrix, hair-cutter. By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems as if stems of lost verbs : as, viator, traveller, from via, way (but cf. invio). b. t- (originally ta-, cf. § 160. c), c, added to verb-stems making nouns in -es (-itia, -etis, stem -it-, -et-) descriptive of a character : as, — teges (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover), a cover er, a ?nat. c. -o (gen. -onis, stem on-), m., added to stems conceived as verb-stems (but perhaps originally noun-stems) to indicate a person employed in some specific art or trade : as, — gero (ges in gero, gerere, carry, but compare -ger in aimiger, squire), a carrier. com-bibo (bib as root in bibo, bibere, drink), a pot-companion. 2. Names of Actions. 163. Names of Actions are derived (i) really or appar- ently from roots and verb-stems {primary) or (2) from noun-stems {secondary). Note. — These easily pass into pure Concrete nouns denoting the result, means, or instrument of the action. Compare an apparition, a congregation, a rainfall, a large following, a drive of logs. I . Real or Apparent Primary Formations. a. -or (St. or-, earlier os-), m., -is (gen. -is, st. i-, earlier es-), f., -us (St. es-, or os-), n., added to roots make names of actions : as, — timeo,/^<2r (verb); tim-or./^^r (noun). sedeo, sit; sed-es, seat. decet, it is becoming; dec-us, grace, beauty. Note. — Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots : as, facinus (from a supposed root facin). b. -io (St. ion-), -tio (st. tion-), -tura (st. tura-), f., -tus (st. tu-), M., (phonetically -sio, -sura, -sus), apparently added to roots or verb- stems, make verbal abstracts. io8 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ »63. lego, enroll; leg-io {an enrolling., the thing enrolled)., a legion. rego, direct J reg-io, a direction., a region. Insero (sa), implant; msi-^o, grafting. voco, call; voca-tio, a calling. molior, toil; moU-tio, a toiling. pingo {?\g), paint; pic-tura, the art of paintings a painting. senXio, feel ; s^n-sMB, feeling, perception, a feeling. fruor, enjoy (for ffruguor) ; fruc-tus, enjoyfnent, fruit, a fruit. c. -men, -mentum, -monium, n., -monia, f., apparently added to roots or verb-stems denote acts, or means and results of acts. ago, root AG, lead; ag-men, litte of inarch, a company. . , ^ - r „. ( regi-men, rule. regi- (stem seen m rego, direct) ] \ ( regi-mentum, rule. So colu-men, pillar; mo-men, movement ; no-men, name. tmox, enjoy; fru-mentmn, ^r«/«. testor, witness; testi-monium, testimony. queror, complain; qiieri-monia, complaint. Also fla-men (m.), a priest (flo, blow, of the sacrificial fire). Remark. monium and -monia are also used as secondary, form- ing nouns from other nouns and from adjectives : as, sancti-monia, sanctity (sanctus, holy) ; matri-monium, marriage (mater, mother). d. -bulum, -culum, -brmn, -crum, -trum, n., added to verb-stems or roots (rarely to noun-stems), denote means, instrument, or PLACE : as, — pasco, feed; pa-buliun, fodder. sto, stand ; sta-bulmn, stall {standing-place). tus (gen. turis), incense ; turi-bulum, a censer. veho, carry ; vehi-culum, wagon. ^io, purify ; pia-culum, an expiation. flo, blow; fla-bra (pi.), blasts. candela, a candle; candela-bnmi, a candlestick. sepelio, bury ; sepul-crum, tomb {place for burying). claudo, shut; claus-tnun, a bar. A few Masculines and Feminines of the same formation occur as nouns and adjectives : as, — for, speak; fi-bula, tale. rideo, laugh; ridi-culus, laughable. § 163.] NAMES OF ACTIONS. 109 facio, make ; fa-ber, smith. lateo, hide; late-bra, hiding-place, tero, bore ; tere-bra, auger. mulgeo, milk; mulc-tra, milk-pail. iiro, burn; Aus-ter, South wind. 2. Secondary Formations. e. -ia, -tia (-ies, -ties), -tas, -tus, -tudo, f., are added to adjective stems and a few to nouns to make abstracts. So -do and -go, f., but associated with verbs, and apparently added to verb-stems Thus, — audax, bold; audac-ia, boldness. So, fiduc-ia, confidence (f fidlLs). prndens, wise; prudent-ia, wisdom. superbus, proud; superb-ia, pride. tristis, sad; tristi-tia, sadness. pauper, poor; pauper-ies, poverty. segnis, lazy; segni-ties, laziness. bonus, good; boni-tas, goodness. civis, citizen; civi-tas, citizenship, senex, old; senec-tus, age. solus, alone; soli-tudo, solitude. dulcis, sweet; dulce-do, sweetness (probably from a lost stem dulce-, cf. dulce-sco). cupio, / desire; cupi-do (as if from stem cupi-, cf. cupi-vi). lumbus, the loin; lumba-g5, lumbago (as if from f lumbo, are). rubus, bramble (red bush) ; rubi-go, rust (redness). prurio, itch; priiri-go, itching. Stems ending in o- or a- lose these vowels before -ia (as superb-ia), and change them to i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as boni-tas, above). Consonant-stems often insert -i before -tas: as, loquaz (stem loquac-), loquaci-tas; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old ad- jectives in -es), uber-tas, volup-tas. o after i is changed to e: as, plus (stem pio-), pie-tas; socius, socie-tas (see § w.d). f. -ium, -tium, added to noun- and perhaps verb-stems, form neuter abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices and GROUPS : as, — hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest; hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn. servus, a slave; servi-tium, slavery, the slai'e class. no FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 164. collega, a colleague; coUeg-ium, colleagueship^ a college. auspez, a soothsayer ; auspic-ium, soothsaying^ an omen. gaudeo, rejoice; gaud-iuin, y^^. benefacio, benefit; benetic-ium, a kindness (but cf. beneficiis). de-sidero, miss (from f de-sides, out of place, of missing soldiers) ; desider-ium, longing. effugio, escape; effug-ium, an escape (cf. profugus). ad verbum, [added] to a verb; adverb-ium, an adverb. inter-lunas, between tnoons ; interlun-ium, time of 7iew moon. regis ta^3^ flight of a king; le^in^-iam, fight of kings. Vowel-stems lose their vowel before -ium, as colleg-ium, from collega. Less commonly -nia, f., -nium, -lium, -cinium, n., are added to noun-stems, but confused with verb-stems : as, — pecu, cattle; pecu-nia, property cottsisting of cattle, money (cf. chattels). contdcesco, hush; contici-nium, the hush of night. augeo, increase; auxi-linm, help. pecu, cattle; pecu-lium, private property (cf. peculor, implying a noun f peculum). latro, robber; latro-cinium, robbery (cf. latrocinor, rob, implying an adj. flatrocinus). 3. Adjectives. 164. Derivative adjectives are Nominal ^^from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems). I. Nominal. a. -ulus (-a, -um) (after a vowel -olus), -cuius, -ellus, -illus, make an important class of adjectives, usually appropriated to one gender, that of the Primitive, and used as Diminutive Nouns : as, — ~ rivus, a brook ; riv-ulus, a streamlet. gladius, a sword; gladi-olus, a small sword. £DUu8, a son ; fili-olus, a little son. " filia, a daughter; fili-ola, a little daughter. atrium, a hall; atri-olum, a little hall. homo, a man ; homun-culus, a dwarf. § 164.] ADfECTIVES. II I "^ aurls, an ear ; auri-cula, a little ear. munus, N., a gift; munus-culvun, a little gift. fpuera (cf . puer, a boy) ; puella (for fpuer-ula), a girl. codex, a block; codic-illi, writing-tablets. miser, wretched; mis-ellus, rather wretched. liber, a book; lib-ellus, a little book. aureus (-a, -woo), golden ; aure-olus (-a, -\xm), golden. parvus (-a, -um), little; parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small. maior (old maios), greater; maius-culus, somewhat larger. Remark. cio, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is added to masculines only : as, homuu-cio, a dwarj (from homo, a man). b. -ades, m., -as, p., -ides, -ides, m., -is, -eis, p., -eus, -eus, m., ■"are added to proper names, forming Patronymics, to indicate descent or relationship. These, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns in Latin : as, — Tyndareus: Tyndar-ides, Castor or Pollux; Tyndar-is (gen. -idis), Helen, daughter of Tyndarus. Atlas: Atlanti-ades, Mercury; AUant-ides (Gr. pi.), the Pleiads. Scipio : Scipi-ades, son of Scipio. Anchises : Anchisi-ades, jEneas. Theseus : Thes-ides, son of Theseus. Tydeus : Tyd-ides, Diojnedes, son of Tydeus. Oileus : Aiax Oil-eus, son of Oileus. Thaumas: Thaimianti-as (gen. -adis). Iris, daughter of Thaumas. Hesperus : Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, idis), p. pi., the daughters of Hesperus, the Hesperides. c. anus, -enus, -inus; -as, -ensis, -acus (-acus), -icus; -eus (generally shortened to -eus), -eius, -icius, form adjectives with the sense of belonging to. -,i>--i> 'm^aX^-^ ^" I . So from common nouns : as, — mons (st. monti-), mountain ; mont-anus, of the mountains. ante lucem, before light ; anteluc-anus, before daylight. egeo, lack; eg-enus, needy. terra, earth; terr-enus, earthly. 112 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 164. coUia, hill ; coll-inus, of a hill. — ' libertus, one" s freedman ; libert-inns, of the class offreedmen. vitulus, a calf J vitul-iua (sc. caro), veal. quia, who f cui-as, of what country ? infiirmB, lowest j Tnfim-aa, of the lowest rank. — — forum, a 7fiarket-place ; for-ensis, of a market-place^ or the Forum. memm, pure wine; mer-acus, pure. civis, a citizen ; civ-icna, civic^ of a citizen. femina, a woman; femin-eus, of a woman^ feminine. lac, milk (st. lacti-) ; lact-eus, milky. plebes, the commons; pleb-eiua, of the commons, plebeian. ipaXj&t, father ; patr-icma, patrician. 2. But especially from proper nouns (names of places, peoples, and persons) denoting belonging to or coming from : as, — "^^ Roma : Rom-anna, Roman. Sulla : Sull-anl, Sulla's veterans. Cyzicua : Cyzic-eni, Cyzicenes., people of Cyzicus. Idguria: lA^ija -mus, of Ligidria. Arpinum : Arpin-aa, of Arpinum (cf. Samnium : Samnia, gen. -itis, a Samnite). ""^ SicUia : Sicili-enaia, Sicilian. Than, Troy ; Bi-acua, Trojan (a Greek form). Plato : Platon-icTia, Platonic. Aquila : Aquil-iiua» a Roman name; Aquileia, a town in Italy. 3. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become nouns. Thus, — "^^^ ailva, woods; Silv-anoa, m., a god of the woods. *•*- membrum, limb ; membr-ana, f., skin. Aemilia (gena) : Aemili-anua, m., name of Scipio Africanus. laniua, butcher ; lani-ena, f., a butchery's stall. fAufidma (Aufidua), m. ; Aufidi-entia, a Roman name. incola, an inhabitant ; inquil-inua, u., a lodger. caecua, blind; Caec-ina, used as m., a Roman name. gallua, a cock ; gall-ina, f., a hen. TVLO,fall (no noun existing); ru-ina, f.. a fall. doctor, teacher; doctr-ina, f., learning. §164.] ADJECTIVES. 113 d. -alia, -aria, -ilia, -flia, ulia, -nua, pertaining to, of various modes of relation or possession, but not used as Gentile adjectives : as,— Datura, nature; natiir-alia, natural. populua, a people; vov^-axis, fellow-countryman. patruua, uncle; patru-ilia, cousin. hoatia, an enemy ; hoat-ilia, hostile. cmnia, chariot; aella cur-ulia, curule chair. ver, spring; ver-nua, vernal. e. -ter (-trla), -eater (-eatria), -timua, -emua, -ornua, -temua (-tumua), belonging to, oi places, times, and the like (but some are general adjectives). palua, a marsh; palua-ter, of the marshes. pedea, a footman ; pedea-ter, of the foot. aex menaea, six months; aemea-tria, semi-annual. silva, a wood; ailv-eater, ailv-eatria, woody. finia, an end; flm-timua, neighboring, on the borders. heri (old hesl), yesterday ; hea-temua, of yesterday. diS, long (in time); diu-tumua, lasting. hodie, to-day; hodi-emua, of to-day. diea, day ; di-umua, daily. f. -atua, -itua, -utua, provided with, make adjectives with parti- cipial ending, formed from nouns, but in reference to an imaginary verb-stem (cf. the English horned, crested, hooked). barba, a beard; barb-atua, bearded. amia, an ear; aur-itua, long-eared. veraua, a turning; vera-utua, crafty, adroit (full of turns). So -tua, added directly to nouns without reference to any verb : as,— fonna, death; funea-tua, deadly. honor, honor; honea-toa, honorable. iBvoT, favor; faua-tua (for ^tarves-tos), favorable. g' -«w. -ioB, -Iceua, -icioa, -aneua (-neus), -ticua, made of or t-^BELONGiNG TO, form adjectives of various meanings : as, — 9X0X00., gold ; dLUi-euB, golden. V^t^^, a father; paXx-ins, paternal. uxor, a wife; oxor-iua, uxorious. 114 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 164. ro£», a rose ; ros-aceus, of roses. later, a brick ; later-icius, of brick. praesens, presents praesent-aneus, operating instantly. extra, without; extr-aneus, external. sub terra, underground; subterr-aneus, subterranean. saliz, willow : salig-neus, of willow. volo, fly ; vola-ticus, winged (volatus, a flight). domus, a house; domes-ticus, of the house., domestic. silva, a wood; silva-ticus, sylvan. h. -alius, -torius (-sorius), belonging to, make many adjectives often fixed as nouns (see /). ordo, rank^ order ; ordin-arius, regular. aigentum, silver; argent-arius, of silver or money. extra, outside; extr-arius, stranger. meritus, earned; meri-torius, profitable. devorsus, turned aside; devor-sorius, of an inn (cf. i. 5). i. Many fixed forms of the above adjective suffixes make nouns, »more or less regularly used in particular senses : as, — 1. -axixxa (jtgvXdir), person employed about a?iy thing : as, — argent-arius, silversmith^ broker (from argentum). 2. -Bxi?i, thing connected with something : as, — aren-ariae, f. pi., saftdpits (from arena, sand). Asin-aria, f., name of a play (from asinus, ass). 3. -arium (regular), place of a thing (with a few of more general ^^ meaning) : as, — aer-arium, n., treasury (from aes, copper). tepid-arium, n., warm bath (from tepidus, warm). sud-arium, n., a towel (cf. sudo, -are, sweat). , sal-arium, n., salt money, salary (from sal, salt). calend-arium, n., a note-book (from calendae, calends). 4. -toria (-soria) : as, — Agita-toria, f., a play of Plautus, The Carter (from agitator). vor-Boria, f., a tack (from versus, a turn). 5. -torium (-sorium) (regular), place of action (with a few of more general meaning) : as, — § 164.] ADfECTIVES. 115 devor-sorium, n., an inn (as from devorto, turn aside). audi-torium, n., a lecture-room (as from audio, hear). ten-torium, n., a tent (as from tendo, stretch). tec-torium, n., plaster (as from tego, tectus, cover). por-torium, n., toll (cf. porto, carry, and portus, harbor). 6. -He, animal-stall : as, — bov-fle, N., cattle-stall (bos, bovis, ox, cow). ov-fle, sheep-fold (ovis, st. ovi-, sheep). 7. -al for -ale, thing connected with the primitive : as, capit-al, N., head-dress, capital crime (caput, head). penetr-ale (esp. in pi.), n., ijiner apartment (cf. penetro). Saturn-aUa, n. pi. (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Saturn (from Saturnus). 8. -etum, N. (cf. -atus, -utus, st^f), place of a thing; as, — querc-etum, n., oak grove (from quercus, oak). Argn-etum, n., The Clay-pit (from argilla, clay). 9. -cus (sometimes with inserted i. -icus), -icus, in any one of the genders, with various meanings : as, — vfli-cus, M., vili-ca, f., a steward {stewardess) (from viUsi, farm- house). fabr-ica, f., a workshop (from faber, workman). bubul-cus, M., ox-tender (from bub-ulus, dim., cf. bos, ox). cant-icum. n., song (from cantus, act of singing). rubr-ica, f., red paint (from ruber, red). 10. -eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings : as, alv-eus, M., a trough (from alvus, the belly). capr-ea, f., a roe (from caper, he-goat). - flamm-eum, n., a bridal veil (from flamma,yf«w^, from its color). 11. -ium, confounded with the primary suffix (see § 163./). 12. -ter (stem tro-) and -ter (stem tri-), -aster -ester: as,— Aus-ter, m., South ivind (from uro, burn). eques-ter, m., knight (for fequet-ter). sequ-ester, m., a stake-holder (from derivative of seciuox, follow). ole-aster, m., wild olive (from olea) (cf. surd-aster, from surdus). lie FORMATION OF WORDS. [§164 [^ k. -osus, -(o)leii8, -(o)lentus, full of, prone to : as, — flnctus, wave; fluctu-osus, billowy. ~~ forma, beauty; form-osus, beautiful. peiiculum, peril; pericul-osus, full of danger. ipesXiB, pest ; pesti-lens, -pesM-lentaa, pestilent. vinum, wine; vino-lentus, vin-osus, given to drink. II. Verbal. /. -ax, -idus, -ulus, -vus- (-uus, -ivus, -tivus), prone to, fitted TO, apparently^ added to verb-stems, form adjectives, to express the action of a verb as a quality or tendency, -aa:, denotes a faulty or aggressive tendency ; -tivus is oitener passive. Thus, — pugno,fg/it; pugn-ax, pugnacious. audeo, dare; aud-ax, bold. cupio, desire; cup-idus, eager. bibo, drink; bib-ulus, thirsty Cas dry earth, etc.). protero, trample; pxo\«t^TG^violent, wanton. noceo, do harm; noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious. capio, take ; cap-tivus, captive, M., a prisoner of war. lecidio, fall back; recid-ivus, restored. m. -ilia, -bills, -ius, -tills (-sills), express passive qualities, but occasionally active : as, — frango (frag), break; frag-ilis, frail, breakable. nosco (gno), know; no-bills, well known, famous. eximo, take out, select; exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. e-greg-ius). ago, drive; ag-ilis, active. habeo, hold; hab-ills, handy. alo, nourish; al-tills, fattened. n. -minus, -mnus, are properly participial (cf. Greek -tuvm, and ami-mini). They form a few nouns in which the participial force is discernible : as, — fe, produce ; fe-mina, woman (the producer). alo, nourish; alu-mnus, a foster child, nursling. o. -ndus (the same as the gerund-ending) forms a few active or reflexive adjectives : as, — 1 The forms felt as verbal are, like the nominal forms, derived from noun-stems, and the two are constantly confounded. § 164.] ADfECTIVES. 117 i- sequor, follow; secu-ndus, second {iki^ following), favorable. roto, whirl (from rota, wheel) ; rotu-ndus, round (whirling).i /. -bundus, -cundus, with a participial meaning, but denoting continuance of the act or quality. locus, a jest; iu-cimdus, pleasant (cf. iuvo, -are). vito, shun; vita-bundus, dodging about. tremo, tremble; treme-bundus, trembling. morior, die; mori-bundus, at the point of death. for, speak; fi-cundus, eloquent. fe, produce; fe-c\m.A\i&, fruitful. So, ira, anger; ira-cundus, irascible (cf. ira-scor). III. Irregular Derivatives. q. The primary suffix on, (nom. -o) is used as secondary to form nouns (originally adjectives), denoting possessed of and so express- ing a character, often used as proper names ^ : as, — epulae, a feast; epul-o, a feaster. nasus, a nose; nas-o, with a large nose (also as a proper name). -volus (in bene-volus), wishing; vol-ones (pi.), volunteers. houa, forehead ; front-o, big-head (also as a proper name). So, curia, a curia; cuii-o, head of a curia (also as proper name). restis, a rope ; resti-o, a rope-maker. t vespertilis, of the evening; vespertili-o, a bat. r. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used in their compound form : as, — ad-verb-iim:i, adverb; ad, to, and verbum, verb, but without the intervening fadverbus. liti-fond-imn, large estate ; latus, wide, fundus, estate. su-ove-taur-ilia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull; sus, swine, ovis, sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin. ' Compare volvendis mensibas, in the revolving months (Virg.). *This sufiix is the same as in § 162. c, but not connected with a verb. \ ii8 FORMATION OF WORDS. IV. DERIVATION OF VERBS. [§§ 165. 166. 165. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative. 1. Primitive verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech. 2. Derivative verbs are those formed in the develop- ment of the Latin as a separate language. They are of two main classes : — a. Denominative verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives. b. Verbs apparently derived from other verbs (see § 167). X. Denominative Verbs. 166. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun- and adjective-stem. a. I. Verbs of the first conjugation are formed directly from a-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning : as, fuga, flight; fugo, put to flight; belliger, belligero (not bellum and gero, which would be impossible). Note. — Originally particular forms of stem formed particular conjuga- tions of verbs, but from changes of stem and from various cross-analogies the relation between conjugations and stem-forms became entirely confused. Thus poena should make t punare, but it really makes punire, as if an i-stem (as in impuni-s) ; servus makes servare in one sense, servire in another. 2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation (commonly transitive) are formed from o-stems, changing the o- into a-. Thus, — stimulus, a goad (stem stiinulo-); stiinulo (-axe), incite. aecus, even (stem aequo-); aequo (-are), make even. hibemus, of the winter (stem hibemo-) ; hibemo, pass the winter. albus, white (stem albo-); albo (-are), whiten. plus, pure (stem pic-) ; pio (-are), expiate. 3. A few verbs, generally neuter, are formed by analogy from con- sonant- and u- stems, adding a to the stem : as, — vigil, awake ; vigilo (-are), watch. exsul, an exile; ezsulo (-are), be in exile. § 167.] DERIVATION OF VERBS. 119 hlemps (stem hiem-), winter; hiemo (-are), pass the winter. aestus, tide^ seething; aestuo (-are), surge., boil. levis (stem levi-), light; levo (-are), lighten. b. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems, but most are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost : as, — albus, white ; albeo, be white (cf. albo, -are, whiten^ under a. 2). canuB (stem cano-), hoary ; caneo, be hoary. tumulus, hill (implying f tiunus, swelling) ; tumeo, swell. pro-vidus, foreseeing ; pro-video, foresee. But moneo, remind; cf. memini, remember. algeo, be cold; cf. algidus, cold. c. Some verbs in -uo, -uere are formed from noun-stems in u- where probably an i has been lost : as, — Bt^Xxis, position ; ^taiXxxo, set up. metus, fear; metuo, fear. d. Many verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are formed from real or imagined i-stems : as, — moles (-is), mass; molior, -iri, toil. finis, end; finio, -ire, bound. sitis, thirst; sitio, -ire, thirst. stabilis, stable; stabilio, -re, establish. Some wrongly from other stems treated as if i-stems : as, — bulla, bubble; bullio, -iie, boil. condus, storekeeper ; condio, -ire, preserve. insanus, mad; insanio, -ire, rave. ^estas, gesture ; gestio, -ire, show wild longing. custos, guardian; custodio, -ire, guard. a. Verbs from other Verbs. 167. The following classes of verbs regularly derived from other verbs have special meanings connected with their terminations. I20 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 167. / a. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -sco to the present stem of verbs. They denote the beginning of an action. Of some there is no simple verb in existence. Thus, — caleo, be warm j csile-sco, grow warm. labo, totter ; laba-sco, begin to totter. sclo, know ; sci-sco, determine. cupio, desire J con-cupi-sco, conceive a desire for. alo, feed J ale-sco, grow. So, ira-scor, ^a), he (the Master) said it. k. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive. (Cf . § 1 96. /.) /. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis is in English on a reflexive in the predicate : as, — me ipse consolor, I console myself. [Not me ipsom.) § 196.] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 141 3. Reflexive Pronouns. 196. (Rule 7.). The Reflexive pronoun (se),! and usu- ally its corresponding possessive (suus), are used in some part of the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause : as, — virtus se novit, virtue knows itself. pr5misit se venturum [esse], he promised that he would come. Brutus amicum suum occidit, Brutus killed his friend. a. In a subordinate clause of a compound sentence there is a double use of reflexives. 1. The Reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its own clause {Direct Reflexive) : as, — ex quo iudicari potest quantum habeat in se boni constantia (B. G. i. 40), frcmi which it can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself). [Caesar] noluit eum locum vacare, ne GermanI e suis finibus transirent (B. G. i. 28), CcBsar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories. 2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that subject {Indirect Reflexive) : as, — petierunt ut sibi liceret (B. G. i. 30), they begged that it might be allowed them (the petitioners). Iccius nuntium ad eum mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur, etc (B. G. ii. 6), sends him a message that unless relief be furnished him (Iccius), etc. si obsides ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Caesar, who is the speaker) dentur, se (Caesar) cum eis pacem esse facturum (B. G. i. 14), [Caesar said] that if hostages were given him by them, he would make peace with them. Note. — Sometimes is or ipse is used as an Indirect Reflexive either from careless writing or to avoid ambiguity (cf . /) : as, — qui se ex his minus timidos existimari vellent, non se hostem vereri, sed angustias itineris et magnitiidinem silvarum quae intercederent inter 1 This seems to have been originally the personal pronoun of the third person, but it came by use to be purely reflexive. 142 THE SENTENCE. [§ 196. I ipsos (the persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum timere dicebant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the nar- rows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus. audlstis nuper dicere legates Tyndaritanos Mercurium qui sacris anniver- sarils apud eos coleretur Verris imperio esse sublatum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away, etc. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eos colebatur, a remark of his own, and apud se coleretur, the words of the legdti. COS does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the people — the Tyndaritani.] 3. If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found. Thus, sunt ita multl ut eos career capere non possit (Cat. ii. 22), they are so many that the prison cannot hold them. [Here se could not be used.] ibi in proximis villls ita bipartlto fuerunt, ut Tiberis inter eos et pons interesset (Cat. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge were between them (the divisions). [Here inter se might be used, but it would refer to a purpose of the soldiers.] b. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause : as, — Paetus, omnes libros quos frater suus rellquisset mihi d5navit (Att. ii. i, 12), PcBtusgave me all the books which (as he said in the act of dona- tion) his brother had left {him). c. The reflexive may refer to any noun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become in a manner the subject of discourse (ci the note) : as, — Socratem cives sui interfecerunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellow-ctttzens. qui poterat salus sua cuiquam non V^oh-^r\ {Wx\.%i), how can any one fail to approve his own safety ? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change to the passive ] hunc si secuti erunt sui comites (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his com- panions follow him. Note. - Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed : as, — §197] REFLEXIVE AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 143 studeo sanare sibi ipsos (Cat. ii. 17), / am anxious to cure these men for thetr own benefit {i.e. ut sani sibi sint). su6 sibi gladio (Plautus), with his own sword. [Here the clause is too indefinite to be supplied.] d. The reflexive may follow a verbal noun or adjective : as, — sui laus, self-praise. impotens sui (Q. C), without self control. e The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely : as, — bellum est sua vitia nosse (Cic), // /. a fine thing to know one^s own faults. cui proposita sit conservatio sui (Fin. v. ^7), one whose aim is self preservation. f. Inter se. among themselves, is regularly used to express recipro- cal action : as, — cohaerentia inter se, things consistent with each other. g. Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in it : as, — suis flammls delete Fidenas (Liv. iv. 2>^), destroy FidencB with its own fires (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. i. 32.] h. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns (mei. tui, etc.) are used (see § 98. 2, a) : as, — morti me obtuli (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death. hinc te reginae ad llmina perfer (^n. i. 389), do you go (bear yourselO hence to the queen's threshold. i. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an iftdirect reflexive, to avoid ambiguity ; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive (cf. a. 2 and 3): as, — cur de sua virtiite aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent (B. G. i. 40), why (he asked) shotdd they despair of their own courage or his diligence ? 4. Possessive Pronouns. 197. The Possessive pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of \.\i^ possessor : as, •— Caesar uxorem suam repudiavit, CcBsar put away his wife. haec sunt mea omamenta, these are my jewels, [mea is neut. pi., though the speaker is a woman.] 144 THE SENTENCE. [§ 197- a. (Rule 8.) The possessive pronouns are used instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun. 1. Always instead of the Possessive Genitive : as, — domus mea, my house. [Never domus mei.] pater noster, our father. [Never pater nostri.] Note i . — In different languages the ideas associated with possessives are not always the same, and hence idiomatic uses differ. Thus my eulogist may, in Latin, be laudator nostri .(Att. i. 14, 6), or, like the English, laudator noster (see Att. i. 16, 5), with a different conception of the relation. Note 2. — The possessive cuius, -a, -um, is rare : as, cuium pecus ? whose flock ? The genitive cuius is generally used instead. 2. Rarely instead of the Objective Genitive. Thus, regularly, — sui despiciens, disdainful of himself . non solum sui deprecatorem, sed etiam accusatorem mei, not only a mediator for himself but an accuser of me (Att. xi. 8). But occasionally, — ea quae faciebat, tua se fiducia facere dicebat (Verr. v. 176), what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance). b. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, or favorable or propitious towards the person or thing spoken of : as, — [petere] ut sua dementia ac mansuetudine utatur, they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity. ignorant! quem portum petat nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71. 3), /ar, the meaning is suited to an indirect object (see « and e, and § 237. d). Note 2. — Some of these verbs being originally transitive lake aKo a direct object : as, ne offeramus nos periculis ((.)ff. i. Sj), ///,// liv may not expose ourselves to perils. a. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired .1 transitive meaning, and lake the accusative : as, — nos oppugnat (Fam. i. i), he opposes us. munus o.-AXM. (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty. b. The idjcctivc obvius and tbe adverb obviam with a verb take the dative is, — si illc obvius ei futurus non crat (.Mil. .17), // he was not intending;; to ^qet in his way. mihi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16, 3), jw/ came to meet me. c. Wlien place or motion is distinctly lhou;^bt of, the verb's of § 22S regularly take a noun with a preposition, not the dative : as, — in visceribus inhaerere (Tusc. iv. 24), // remains fixed in the vitals. hominl coniuncto mecum ('full. 4), to a man united to me. cum hoc concurrit ipse Kumenes (N'ep. Kum. 4, i), ruith him Kumenes himsc'.f engages in combat (runs together). §§229.230.] DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS. ,70 quae a ccterarum gentium more disscntiunt (Font. 30), whuh di/Ter from the custom of all other nations. olmitur contra istr.run, impetus Ma. evN;;/ me of ,iiy gains. a. The distinct idea of motio,,, - and, in general, names of Ihin.s, — require the ablative with a preposition (§ i^^.a): as,— illum.x porlculo f rip„i. (!!.<;. iv. .--),/,.,/,.„„,„//„„,„„/' ' ^. The dative is often used hy the poets in constructions whieh would ,n prose re,,uire a noun with a ,,reposition. bo, espeeiallv. with verbsof rcHAv/,//;/,. (5 24,S./<): as,— placit.-,„e clian, pugnShis amod (.ICn. iv, 3.S), „,/// y„,. ,, ^^ ai;ainsl a love thai pleases you > tibi certal (Kcl. v. 8). rvX. j,.///, yon. [tecum ] SnlMhium pecori ,ICfe,»Ii,e (ICd. vii. .,;,. irep Ihe snnnner he., I /.on, Ihe JfocA-. (a pccorc] "^ latcri al,>ii,li. c„sen. (.tin. ii. 553,, /.,„.,,/ „„ ,,,,„„,, ^„ ,^.^ latere, § ;6o.,;.] ■■ [For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 2-5. /,. 3.] 230. (Rl'i.ic 25.) Thcpas.siveof intransitive verbs that Kovern the dative can be used only impersonally (§ ,46 d). 1 he dative is retained (cf. § 225. c). cui p.irci |.oluit (liv. .vxi. 14), :,•,/,„ conl.l he sfaycH no,, modo „,-„, invidetur illi aetati veruin e.iam favetur (Off. ii. 45), ,Hal V O-outh) ,s nol only not envied, tut is ex-en favored. }*! \ tlSdS^SitJBj i8o CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§§231. 232. d 5. Dative of Possession. 231. (Rule 26.) The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession : as, — homini cum deo similitude est, vian has a likeness to God (there is, etc.). est mihi domi pater (I*2cl. iii. '},-^, I have a father at home. Remark. — The Genitive or a Possessive with esse en f)hasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact oi possession : as, liber est mcus, the book is mine (and no one's else); est mihi liber, I have a book (among other things). The latter is the usual form to denote simple possession, since habeo, have, generally signifies holtf, often with some secondary meaning : as, — legioncm quam sccum habebat (1>. Cr. i. 8), the lef;ion which he kept with him. domitas habere libldincs, to keep the passions tinder control. as, a. Compounds of esse take the dative (except abesse and posse): deest mihi pecunia, I lack money. quid mihi proderit .' /;/ what will it help vie (what will it profit me) .^ ^ b. After nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is usually in the dative by a kind of apposition with \\\q. person : as, — cui Africano fuit cognomen (Liv. ,\xv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was Afrir.anus. c. Tlic name may also be in apposition with nomen ; or in later Latin in the genitive (cf. § 21 4./*): as, — cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa (to which is the name Arethusa). puero nomen est Marcus (Marci), the boy's name is Marcus (to the boy, etc.). 6. Dative of the Agent. 232. (Rule 27.) The IJative of the A.i;cnt is used with the gerundive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests : as, — haec vobis provincia est dcfendenda (Man. 14), this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you), mihi est pugnandum, / ha7'e to fight {i.e. the need of fighting is to me; compare mihi est liber, /have a book, § 231. Rem.). § ^-33] DATIVE OF THE AGENT. 181 Note. - This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 1,3. d. i). But when a dative is . expressed governed by the verb itself, and rarely at other times, the agent IS denoted by the Ablative with ab (§ 246) to avoid ambiguity: a.s. - - quibus est a vobis consulenclum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult (for whom it must be consulted by you). (Cf. isti principCs et sibi et ceteris popull RGmanl universi auctOritatl parendum esse fateantur (id. 64). let these leading men admit that both by them and by everybody else the authority of the Roman people as a whole must be obeyed [Here there could be no ambiguity.]) a. The dative of the agent is common :^iK^x perfect parikipics (especially when u.sed in an adjective sense), but rare after other parts of the verb : as, mihi dcllber-itum et constitutum est (Rull. i. 2^), I have deltberated and resolved (it has been deliberated by me). mihi res tola provisa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been fully pro- vided for by me. b The dative of the agent is used by the poets and later writers with almost any passive verb : as, neque cernitur ulli (/Kn. i. 440), nor is seen by any. fClix est dicta sorori (Ov. Fast. iii. 597). she was called happy by her sister. c. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used with videor, seem : as, — videtur mihi, /■/ seems (or seems good) to me. dis aliter visum [est] (,lin. ii. 42S), tt seemed otherwise to the gods. Note. -The verb probare, appro^'e (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative of Reference (§ 235), which has become so firmly attached that it IS retained uith the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent : as. - haec sententia et illi el nobis prolub.ltur (Kam. 5. 7. 5), tlis view met both his app,i>val and mine (was made acccjjtable lo, etc ) mihi Cgregic. probata est oratiO tua (Tusc. iv. 8). your discourse was very satisfactory to me. 7. Dative of the Purpose or End. 233. (Rule 28.) The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End. This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only a few constructions. Thus, J!fi;| ;• l82 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 234- i a. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show thsit /or which a thing serwes or which it accomplishes (Dative of Service), often with another dative of the person or thing affected : as, — magn5 usul nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), // was of great service to our men (for great use), tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id. i. 52), he sent the third line as a relief to our men. omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. iv. 29), all things were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships. Note. — The word frugi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind : as, — cogis me dicere inimlcum frugi, you compel me to call my enemy honest. (Cf, ero frugi bonae (Plaut." Pseud. 468), I will be good for something.) b. The Dative of concrete nouns is used to express purpose in prose in a few military expressions, and freely in poetry : as, — receptui canere, to sound a retreat, locum castris capere, to select a site for a camp. optavit locum regnd (^En. iii. 109), he chose a place for a kingdom. Note. — The construction of purpose or end is also found in the dative of the Gerundive (§ 2 ^9. b) and after Adjectives (§ 234). 8. Dative with Adjectives. 234. (Rule 29.) The dative is used with adjectives, to denote that to which the given quality is directed^ for which it existSf or towards which it tends. a. The dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) oi fit- ness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites: as, — nihil est tam naturae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature. nihil dif&cile amanti puto (Or. '>^'^, I think nothing hard to a lover. rebus ipsis par et aequalis oratio (id. 1 23), a speech equal and level with the subject. castris id5neum locum deligit (B. G. i. 49), a suitable place for a camp. congruenter naturae (Fin. iii. 26), in harmony with nature. b. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end ; but regularly the Dative oi per- sons : as, — apt us ad rem TS\\\\\.z.\QXf\, fit for a soldier's duty. locus ad Insidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait. ndbis utile est ad banc rem, it is of use to us for this thing. § 235] DATIVE OF REFERENCE. 183 I c. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or erga : as, — comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2, 133), kind to his wife. dlvlna bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men. d. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive. Thus, — fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Romani (Manil. 32), this was once the peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. 1 . The Genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns. Thus, — amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amicus, a friend of Cicero; and even Ciceronis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero. hi erant affines istius (Verr. iv. 14), these were this man^s fellows. 2. After Bimilis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero uses the genitive of living objects, and either the genitive or dative of things : as, — domini similis es (Ter.) you're like your master (your master's like). Simla quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (N. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.), ho^ like us is that wretched beast the ape! si enim h5c illi simile sit, est illud huic (N. D. i. ^),for if this is like that, that is like this. e. The adjectives propior, proximus sometimes, and the adverbs propius, proxime more commonly, take the accusative, as if preposi- tions, like prope (see § 261. a). propius periculum (Liv. xxi. i), nearer to danger. proxime deos accessit Clodius (Mil. 59), Clodius has come very near the gods. proximus mare 5ceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean. 9. Dative of Reference. 235. (Rule 30.) The Dative is often required not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the sentence (dative of reference) : as, — laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; laa- da-nt fratrem meum would imply no such motive), meritos mactavit honores, taurum Neptuno, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo (^n. iii. 1 18), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to thee, beautiful Apollo. 1 84 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 236. § 237] ACCUSATIVE. 185 Note. — The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage {dativus commodi aut incommodi), as denoting the person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action b performed. a. The dative of reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word : as, iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. Maj. 75), to Nock the march 0/ the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the disadvantage of, etc.). b. The dative is used of the person from whose point of view a situation or direction is defined. This construction answers to the English as you go in, and the like. The person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the plural : as, — oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Eplr5 (B. C. ui. 80), the first t07vn of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.). est urbe egressis tumulus (^n. u. 713), there is, as you come out of the city, a mound (to those having come out), c. The dative is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by nolens, volens, participles of nolo, volo, or by some similar word : as, — ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly. d. The dative is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations : as, — quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? unde mihi lapidem (Hor. Sat. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone? e. The dative is -sometimes used after Interjections : as,— vae victis, woe to the conquered. em tibi, there, take that (there, for you) ! [Cf. § 236.] hei mihi, ah, me ! zo. Ethical Dative. 236. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated } as, 1 Compare " I '11 rhyme you so eight years together."— /^j You Like It. / 2. Two Accusatives:-! quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), what is my friend Celsus doing? su6 sibi servit patri (Plaut. Capt. Pro!.), he serves his mvn father. This construction is called the Ethical Dative {dativus ethicus). It is really only a special case of the dative of reference. Remark. — To express for, meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of the ablative with pro must be used : as, — pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one's country. III. ACCUSATIVE. The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows : fi. Directly affected by the Action (§ 237). '• """^^^ "^^^-"^ i. Effect of .he Action P"^"^ P™'^'-'^ <§ ^37)- ( Cognate Accusative (§ 238). 1. Predicate Accusative (of Naming, etc.) (§ 239. a). 2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 239. c). L3. Of Concealing (§ 239. d). 'i. Adverbial (§ 240. a, b). 2. Of Specification (Greek, Accusative) (§ 240. c). 3. Idiomatic Uses : ^ 3. Of Extent and Duration (§ 240. e). 4. Of Exclamation (§ 240. d). 5. Subject of Infinitive (§ 240./). X. Direct Object. 237. (Rule 31.) The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (§ 177). The accusative of the Direct Object denotes («) that which is* directly affected, or {b) that which is caused or produced by the action of the verb : as, — {a) Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Ccesar. (3) aedem facere, to make a temple. [Compare proelium pugnare, to fight a battle, § 238.] Note. — There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely. Thus timed, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimicum timed, I fear my enemy, but intransitive {absolute) in noli timere, don''t be afraid. 1 86 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ ^yi' \ a. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 177. rt): as, — Brutus Caesaiem interfecit, Brutus killed Ccesar. Caesar a Bruto interfectus est, Ccesar was killed by Brutus. domum aedificat, he builds a house. domus aedificatur, the house is building (being built). b. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feelings take an accusative, and may be used in the passive : as, — meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest. 145), they grieved [at] my calamity and sorrow. si non Acrisium risissent luppiter et Venus (Hor. O. iii. 16. 5), if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed [at] Acrisius. c. Verbs of taste., smell., and the like take an accusative of the quality : as, — vTnum reddens (Cic), smelling [of] wine. herbam mella sapiunt (Flin.), the honey tastes [of] grass. Note. — These are properly Cognate Accusatives (§ 238). d. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum and trans, and a few others, often become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. § 228. a): as, — consulatum ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), they enter upon the consulship. si Insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island. translre flumen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. § 239. b). Gives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens who stand about the senate. e. The accusative is used with the impersonals decet, delectat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit : as, — te non praeterit (Fam. i. 8), // does not escape your notice. me pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. Sat. ii. i. 28), my delight is (it pleases me) to arrange words in measure. nisi me fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me). So after latet in poetry and post-classical prose : as, — latet plerosque (Plin. ii. 82), // is unknown to most persons. Note 3. — Many verbs usually intransitive are sometimes used tran- sitively from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that regularly take the accusative : as, — multa gemens Ignominiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning much at the dis- grace. [Cf. doled, § 237. 3.] festinare fugam (iEn. iv. 575), to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelero.] § 238.] COGNATE ACCUSATIVE. 187 /".In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative : as, — quid tibi banc tactio est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her? [Cf. tango.] mirabundl bestiam (App. Met. iv. 16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. miror.] g. In early usage the impersonal gerundive with esse governs the accusative (§ 294. ^) : as, — quam n5bls ingrediendum sit (Cat. Maj. 6), which (road) we must enter upon. [Here Cicero purposely uses an archaic construction.] h. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely (§ 237. note), having their natural object in the ablative with de : as, — priusquam Pomponius de eius adventu cognosceret (B. C. iii. loi), before Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. eius adventu cdgnito, his arrival being discovered^ i. For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 221. b. 2. Cognate Accusative. 238. (Rule 32.) A neuter verb often takes the accusa- tive of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner.^ This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Signification. Thus, — tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat (Cat. Maj. 31), he was now living the third generation of 7nen. coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance. a. The Cognate Accusative is often loosely used by the poets : as, — saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing). Amaryllida resonare (Eel. i. 5), to reecho [the name of] Amaryllis. intonuit laevum (^n. ii. 693), // thundered on the left. b. A neuter pronoun or colorless noun or adjective is very common as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 148. ^and 240. «). Thus, — Empedocles multa alia peccat (N. D. i. 29), Empedocles commits many other slips. i88 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 239- quid me ista laedunt (Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things do me? hoc te moneo, J give you this warning (cf. note, below), id laetor, / rejoice at this (cf. note, below). So in many common phrases : as, si quid ille se velit (B. G. i. 34). if he should want anything of him (if he should want him in anything), numquid me vis, can I do anything more for you ? (there is nothing you want of me, is there ?) [A common form of leave-taking.] id valet, // amounts to this. . Note. - In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be m some other construction : as, bonis rebus laetari, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also : in, de, or ex 1 de testaments monere, to remind one of the will. [Later: genitive. §219.^.] r. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcmg of their meaning. Such expressions are — ferire foedus, to strike a treaty {i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim), vmcere ludicium (sponsionem, rem, hoc), to prevail on a trial, etc [As If the case were a difficulty to overcome ; cf. vincere iter, J^n. vi. 688 1 termm navigare (Fin. ii. 112). /i. sail crver the land [Perhaps quoted from a poet.] ^ aequor navigare, to sail the sea. [As if it were transire, § 237 d^ mana aspera iur5 (^n. vi. 351), i swear hy the rough seas. [The accusa- tive with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic] 3. Two Accusatives. 239. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addition to their Direct Object. This second accusative is either (i) a Predicate Accusa- tive or (2) a Secondary Object. a. Predicate Accusative. I. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposi- tion with it, is called a Predicate Accusative (cf S i8c head-note). \ • 8 oj- f 4 i I 1 § 239] SECONDARY OBfECT. 189 a. (Rule 33.) Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative : as, — Cicer5nem consulem creare, to elect Cicero consul. me augurem nominaverunt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur. hominem prae se neminem putavit (Cic), he thought nobody a man in comparison with himself. Note i. — The predicate accusative may be an adjective : as, homines ex ferls et immanibus mites reddidit et mansuetos (Inv. i. 2), has made men from wild and barbarous [creatures] gentle and mild. Note 2. — In changing from the active voice to the passive, the pred- icate accusative becomes predicate nominative (§ 185) : as, — rex ab suis appellatur (B. G. vii. 4), he is called king by his [subjects]. b. Secondary Object. 2. (Rule 34.) The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb. b. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition : as, — Caesar Germanos flumen traicit (B. C. i. 83), Ccesar throws the Germans across the river. Note i. — But with these verbs the preposition is more commonly repeated, or sometimes the ablative is used : as, — donee res suas trans Haljm flumen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), till they should get their possessions across the river Halys. (exercitus) Pado traiectus Cremonam (Liv. xxi. 56), the army was con- veyed across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, § 258. g). Note 2. — The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb : as,— Belgae Rhenum traducti sunt (B. G. ii. 4), the Belgians were led crver the Rhine. Note 3. — Sometimes the Secondary Object appears to become the subject of a passive verb; but this comes from a change of meaning, and the object is really Direct. See the Remark. Remark. — The double construction indicated in b is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the Direct, and the preposition the Secondary object. 190 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 239- § 240.] IDIOMATIC USES. 191 But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive verb of simple meaning. So traicio comes to mean either (i) to pierce (anybody) \by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river, etc.) : as,— (i) gladio hominem traiecit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iacio has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the meaning of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.] (2) Rhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iacio has become simply a verb of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from transeo] In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if traiecit were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the sub- jects and are put in the nominative. Thus, homo traiectus est gladio, the man was pierced with a sword. Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed. The poetical traiectus lora (^n. ii. ^^z), pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of two constructions : — (i) eum traiecit lora, he rove thongs through him,^ and (2) eum traiech loris, he pierced htm -with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former (lora) IS irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter (eum) is made the subject. c. (Rule 35.) Verbs of asking and teaching may take two accu- satives, one of the Person {direct object), and the other of the Thing {secondary object) : as, — me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion. docere pueros elementa, to teach children their A B Cs. Note i. — Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So," always, peto (ab), quaero (ex, ab, de) often postulo (ab), and occasionally others : as,— pacem ab Romanis petierunt (B. G. ii. 13), they sought peace from the Romans. Note. 2. — With the passive of verbs of asking or teaching, the person or the thing may be used as subject : as, — Caesar sententiam rogatus est, C(tsar was^^sked his opinion. Remark. — The accusative of the t/iing may be retained with the passive of rogo, and of verbs of teaching and occasionally with a few other verbs : as, — X 1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. traiecto *-.ue (^n. v. 488). fuerant hoc rogati (Gael. 64), they had been asked this. Cicero per legatos cuncta edoctus (Sail. Cat. 45), Cicero being informed of everything through the ambassadors. But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject-nominative, and the person is expressed by the ablative with a preposition: as, — ne postulantur quidem vires a senectute (Cat. M. 34), strength is not even expected of an old man (asked from old age). d. The verb cglo, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive lateo, lie hid, an accusative of the person (ci § 237.^): as,— ^ * non te celavi sermonem T. AmpI (Fam. ii. 16), / did not conceal from you the talk of T Ampins. nee latuere doll fratrem lunonis (^n. i. 130), nor did the wiles of funo escape the notice of her brother. 4. Idiomatic Uses. 240. The Accusative has the following special uses: — a. A neuter pronoun or adjective is used ^s cognate accusative with an adverbial force {Adverbial Accusative, cf. § 238. b) : as, — quid moror, why do I delay ? dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 24), sweetly speaking. acerba tuens {JEn. ix. 794), looking cruelly. torvum clamat (id. vii. 399), he cries harshly. Note. — This use does not diff ef from the cognate accusative except that in some cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has faded out so that the words are real adverbs. But no fixed line can be drawn be- tween these two constructions. b. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases : as,— « id temporis, at that time. > id (istuc) aetatis, at that age. id (quod) genus, of that {what) sort (perhaps originally nominative). ■> meam vicem, on my part. ^maximam partem,/^r the most part. virile secus, of the male sex (probably originally in apposition). ^ cetera, in other respects. quod si, but (a- to which) //. quid est quod, why is it that? 192 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 240. c. The so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative is used by the poets to denote the part affected : as, — caput nectentur (^n. v. 309), their head shall be bound (they shall be bound about the head), ardentis oculos suffectf sanguine at !gnl (id. u. 2,0), their glarin. eyes bloodshot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes etc ) nuda genu (id. i. 320), bare to the knee. Note. - In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 1 1 1. a) : as, - ^ inutile ferrum cingitur (^n. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel. nodo sinus collecta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flying folds gathered tn a knot. * mneios insternor pelle leonis (id. ii. 722), / c• ""' ''^P^rtcdfron, the sL. [But cf fln.bus su there is need of strength. Note— With these words the ablative of X\i^ perfect participle, with or without a noun, is often found (§ 292. b) -. as, — opus est tua exprompta memoria atque astutia (Ter. And. 723), I must have your good memory and clez'erness set to work. properato opus erat (Mil. 49), there was need of haste. facto usus est, it is desirable to do (there is need of it's being done). Remark. - Frequently opus is in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nommative as subject : as, dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6, 4), we need a chief and responsible adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us), si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), ;/ he himself wanted anything (if anythmg should be necessary for him). / Egeo and indigeo often take the genitive (§ 223) : as, — ne quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 1 1), lest any require aid quae ad consolandum maioris ingeni et ad ferendum slngularis virtutis mdigent (Fam. vi. 4, 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage. 2. Ablative of Source and Material. 244. (Rule 40.) The ablative (with or without a prepo- sition) is used to denote the Source from which anything IS derived, or the Material of which it consists. These ablatives commonly take a preposition : as,— I. Source : — Rhenus oritur ex Lepontiis (B. G. iv. lo), the Rhine rises in (from) the country of the Lepontii. ig6 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 244- 2. Material : — valvas magnificentiores, ex auro atque ebore perfectiores (Verr. iv 124) more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory. templum demannore ponam (Georg. iii. 13), / v/^//^« temple of marble. Note i. — In poetry the preposition is often omitted. a. Participles denoting birth or .r.^,« are followed by the Abla- tive of Source, generally without a preposition : i as, — love natus et Maia (N. D. iii. j6), son of Jupiter aj Maia. quo sanguine cretus (^n. ii. 74), bor„ of .what blood. Remark. -A preposition (ab, de, eit) is usually expressed with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors • as - Tros est generatus ab iUo (Ov. Fast. iv. ^i), Tros ^as sprung from him. Belus et omnes a Belo (^n. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants. 6. Rarely the place of birth is expressed by the ablative ; as, _ deslderavit C. Felglnatem Placentia, A. Cranium Puteolis (B. C.'iU 7,) he lost C. Felginas of Placentia, A. Granius of Puteoli Note. -The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative : as, - Q. Verrem Romilia (Verr. i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Komilian tribe c. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a prepo- sition. Such are constare, consistere, and contlneri. But with oon- stare, ex is more common. Thus, domus amoenitas non aediflcio sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13) the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods. ex animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. ,9), a,, consist of soul and body. vita corpore et spiritu continetur (Marc. 28), life consists of My and spirit d. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, fien, and like words, in the sense of do with, become of- as _ quid hoc homino faciads (Verr. II. i, 4.), ^Hat are you going to do lith this man ? o o quid TuUiola mea flet (Fam. xiv. 4), what willbecome of my dear Tullia ? quid te f uturum est (Verr. ii. 1 55), ^hat will become of yoi, ? e. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a prepo- sition, sometimes depends directly on a noun : as,— non pauca pocula ex auro (Verr. iv. 62), not a few \ups of gold. scopulis pendentibus antrum (^n. i. ,66), a cave of hanging rocks. J^r^r "'*"'/"*°^' ^^^*"«' g-^tus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, cretus, creatus, oriuodus. § 24S-] ABLATIVE OF CAUSE. 3. Ablative of Cause. 197 I 246. (Rule 41.) The ablative (with or without a prepo- sition) is used to express Cause. nimio gaudio paene desipiebam (Fam. ii. 9), I was almost wild from too great joy. neglegentia plectimur (Lael. 85), we are chastised for negligence. certis de causis, for certain^ reasons. mare a sole lucet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun). a. (Rule 42.) Certain verbs and adjectives regularly take the ablative of cause without a preposition. These are 1. The adjectives dignus, indignus: as, — vir patre avo maioribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), a man most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. te omni honore indlgnissimum iudicat (Vatin. 39), he judges you entirely unworthy of every honor. 2. The verbs dignor, laboro (also with ex), exsilio, exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo : as, — haud equidem tali me dignor honore (^n. i. 335), I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor. doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), lam sorry that you suffer with other ills. ex aere alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt (lit., from another's money), exsilui gaudio (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy. delicto dolere (Lael. 90), to grieve for the fault. Note i. — For gaudeo and glorior, see § 254. b. Note 2. — Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in collo- quial usage and in poetry : as, — dignus salutis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety. magnorum haud umquam indignus avorum (^n. xii. 649), never unworthy my great ancestors. Note 3. — For the construction of dignus and indignus with verbs, see § 320./ b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause ; the object exciting the emotion often by ob or propter with the accusative : as, 198 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 246. non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty or through lust of plunder. amicitia ex se et propter se expetenda (Fin. iL ^-^^ friendship must be sought of and for itself Note. — But these constructions are often confused : as, — parere legibus propter metum (Parad. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equal to " the terrors of the law," and propter is used where the ablative would be more natural.] c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement : as, — ea causa, on account of this ; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. ^),for what purpose ? mea causa, /r example. Note. — But gratia with possessives in this use is rare. 4. Ablative of Agent. 246. (Rule 43.) The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the ablative with a or ab : as, — laudaturab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2. 11), he is praised by these, blamed by those. ne virtus ab audacia vinceretur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be over- borne by audacity. Remark. — The ablative of the agent (which requires a or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no prepo- sition (§ 248. c. i). Thus, — occlsus gladio, slain by a sword; but, occlsus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after neuter verbs that have a passive sense : as, — perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy. b. The agent, if conceived as instrument or means, is expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or possessive : as, — Caesar certior factus est a legatis, Casar was informed by the ambassa- dors (in person). But — Caesar certior factus est per legatos, Casar was informed by ambassadors {i.e. by means of ambassadors). non mea opera evenit (Ter. Hec. 228), // has n't happened through me (by my exertions). § 247-] ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON. 199 Note i. — An animal is usually regarded not as the agent, but as the means or instrument. Hence the simple ablative is used. But ab some- times occurs. Thus, — equo vehi, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equo.] But — Lucano cum sic lacereris ab uiso (Mart. Ep. 8), since you are thus mangled by a Lucanian bear. Note 2. — For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 232. 5. Ablative of Comparison. 247. (Rule 44.) The Comparative degree is followed by the ablative (signifying than) : as, — Cato est Cicerone eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero. quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil than we two ? villus argentum est aur5, virtutibas aurum (Hor. Ep. i. i. 52), silver is less precious than gold, gold than virtue. a. (Rule 45.) The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case (cf. § 208. a). The construction with quam is required when the first of the things compared is in any other case than the nominative or accusative. With those cases its use is optional. Thus, — contionibus accommodatior est quam iudiciis (Clu. 2), fitter for popular assemblies than for courts. misericordia dignior quam contumelia (Piso 32), more worthy of pity than of disgrace. Remark. — Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this construction, but always the ablative : as, — rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iustior alter, etc. (iEn. i. 544), ^neas was our king, than whom no other was more righteous, etc. Note. — The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam : as, — pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. I 10. 11), I want bread better than honey-cakes. b. The idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, BoUto, dicto, aequo, credibili. and iusto are used after comparatives instead of a clause : as, — 200 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 248. i gravius aequo (Sail.), more seriously than was right. celerius opinione (Fam. xiv. 2^, faster than one would think. amnis solito citatior (Liv. xxiii. 19), a stream swifter than its wont. serius spe omnium (id. ii. 3), later than all hoped (than the hope of all). c. After the comparatives plus, minus, ampliua, longius without quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in its case : as, — i plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than 700 were taken. St**^^ plus tertia parte interfecta (Caes.), more than a third part being slain. spatium non amplius sexcentorum pedum (id.), a space of not more than 600 feet. d. Alius is sometimes used with the ablative in poetic and collo- quial use ; in formal prose it takes ac (atque), nisi, quam. Thus, — alius Lysippo (Hor.), another than Lysippus. alio ingenio ac tu (Plaut.), of a different disposition from you. erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio (De Or. ii. 52), history was nothing else but a compiling of records. e. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely by the ablative except in poetry. Thus, tempus te citius quam oratio deficeret (Rose. Am. 89), time would fail you sooner than words. But — ciir Sybaris olivum sanguine viperino cautius vltat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why does Sybaris shun oil more carefully than viper's blood? 6. Ablative of Manner. 248. (Rule 46.) The manner of an action is denoted by the' ablative ; usually with cum, unless a limiting adjec- tive is used with the noun. Thus, — cum celeritate venit, he came with speed. But — summa celeritate venit, he came with the greatest speed. quid refert qua me ratione cogatis (Lael. 26), what difference does it make in what way you compel me ? Note. — But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting adjective : as, — quanto cum periculo id fecerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this. Remark. — In poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum : as, ^ ^ mons aquae sequitur cumulo {Mn. I 105), a mountain of water follows in a mass. [Cf. murmure (id. 124) ; rimis (id. 123).] §248.] ABLATIVES OF ACCOMPANIMENT AND MEANS. 20I 7. Ablative of Accompaniment. a. (Rule 47.) Accompaniment is denoted by the abla- tive, regularly with cum : as, — cum coniugibus ac liberis vestrls, with your wives and children. cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgress! (B. G. ii. 19), having crossed the river with the archers and slingers. Note. — The ablative is used without cum in military phrases, and here and there by early writers : as, — subsequebatur omnibus copiis (B. G. ii. 19), he followed close with all his forces. hoc praesidio profectus est (Verr. II. i, 86), with this force he set out. Remark. — Misceo and iungo, with their compounds, and confundo may take either (i) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative : as, — mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain. fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. Met. iv. ids^), and mingled tears with blood. Caesar eas cohortes cum su6 exercitu coniunxit (B. C. i. 18), Ccesar united those cohorts with his own army. b. Words of Contention and the like require cum : as, — armls cum hoste certare, to fight with the enemy in arms. libenter haec cum Q. Catulo disputarem (Manil. 66), / should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus. Note. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 229. c). 8. Ablative of Means. c. I. (Rule 48.) The ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action : as, — certantTs pugnis, calcibus, unguibus, morsu denique (Tusc. v. jy), fight- ing with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth. cum pugnis et calcibus conclsus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had been pummelled with their fists and heels. 2. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of filling, abounding, and the like : as, — aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. vii. ^6), they fill up the ditches with earth and fascines. totum montem hominibus complevit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole moun- tain with men. opimus praeda (Verr. II. i, 132), rich with spoils. 202 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§§ 249. 250. Remark. — In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words by a Greek idiom. But compleo, impleo, plenus, and refertus often take the geni- tive in prose (cf. § 223). Thus, — omnia plena luctus et maeroris fuerunt (Sest. \2^)y everything was full of grief and mourning. 249. (Rule 49.) The deponents utor, fnior, fungor, potior, vescor, with several of their compounds, govern the abla- tive : as, — utar vestra benignitate (Arch. 18), / will avail myself of your kindness. ita mihi salva republica voblscum perfrui liceat (Cat. iv. \\), so may 1 enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous. auro heros potitur (Ov. Met. vii. 155), the hero takes the gold. fungi inani munere (iEn. vi. 885), to perform an idle service. a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potiri renim, to get control or be master of affairs (§ 223. «) : as, — totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G. i. 3), they hope they can get possession of the whole of Gaul. 9. Ablative of Degree of Difference. 250. (Rule 50.) With comparatives and words imply- ing comparison the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference : as, — quinque mllibus passuum distat, // is five miles distant (by five miles), aliquot ante annis (Tusc. i. 4), several years before. multa me vigilare acrius (Cat. i. 8), that I watch much more sharply (more sharply by much). Remark. — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives quo . . . eo (hoc); quanta . . . tanto (cf. § 106. c): as,— quo minus cupiditatis, eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the more weight (by what the less, by that the more). quantd erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebriores litterae mittebantur (B. G. V. 45), the severer the siege was, the oftener letters were sent. Note. — To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quo and eo with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause : as, — eoque me minus paenitet (N. D. i. 8), and for that reason I regret less^ etc. (by so much the less I regret). §§251,252.] ABLATIVES OF QUALITY AND PRICE. 203 a. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 247) and the Ablative of De- gree of Difference may be used together with the same adjective: as, — multo divitior Crasso, much richer than Crassus. zo. Ablative of Quality. 251. (Rule 51.) Quality is denoted by the Ablative with a Modifier (either an adjective or limiting genitive). This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality. anim5 melidre sunt gladiatdres (Cat. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a better mind. quae cum esset civitas aequissimo iure ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a city with perfectly equal constitutional rights. mulierem eximia pulchritudine (Verr. II. i, 64), a woman of extraordi- nary beauty. Note. — The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality) modifies a substantive hy describing ii. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs. Compare — mulier pulchra, a beautiful woman. mulier magna pulchritudine, a woman of great beauty, with — mulier pulchritudine Troiam delevit, by her beauty a woman destroyed Troy. mulier excellens pulchritudine (§ 253), a woman preeminent in beauty. a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently ; but physical qualities are oftener denoted by the Ablative : as, — capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hair. XI. Ablative of Price. 252. (Rule 52.) Price is expressed by the ablative : as, — agrum vendidit sestertium sex milibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces. Antonius regna addlxit pecunia (Phil. vii. 15), Antony sold thrones for money. a. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to de- note iftdefinite value. Such are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris : as, '■ — 204 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§ 253. I est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 15), it is worth the price (it is of much). I mea magni interest, it is of great consequence to me. illud parvi refert (Manil. 18), this is of small account. Note. — These are really genitives of quality (§215. c). b. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used in the same way. Such are nihiU, nothing; assis, a farthing; flocci (a lock of wool) a straw. Thus, — non flocci facio (Att. xiii. 50), / care not a straw. utinam ego istuc abs te factum nihili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), oh! that / cared nothing for this being done by you ! c. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are : mutare, commutare, permutare, vertere. Thus, fidem suam et religionem pecOnia commutare (Cluent. 129), to barter his faith and conscience for money. vertere funeribus triumphos (Hor. Od. i. 35. 4), to change the triumph to the funeral train (exchange triumphs for funerals), exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q. C. iii. 7), he exchanged his native land for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land). Note. — With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different conception of the action : as, aries ... cum croceo mutabit vellera luto (Eel. iv. 44), the ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow saffron. d. With verbs of buying and selling the simple ablative of price must be used, except in the case of tanti. quanti. pluris. minoris : as, — quanti eam emit.? vili . . . quot minis? quadraginta mim's (PI. Epid. li). what did he buy her for ? Cheap. For hcrw many mines ? Forty. la. Ablative of Specification. 253. (Rule 53.) The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done : as, — * virtute praecedunt (B. G. i. i), they excel in courage. - claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages 8), lame of one foot. sunt enim homines non re sed nomine (Off. i. ios),for they are men not tn fact, but in name. maior natu, older ; minor naXu, younger (cf. § 91. c). § 254.] ABLATIVE OF PLACE. 205 infirmus mollisque natura (Lael. 75), weak and yielding by nature. homo mea sententia prudentissimus (Caecin. 22), a man,in my opinion, very wise. equitatii pulsi erant (B. G. vii. 68), they had been beaten in the cavalry fight. Note. — To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative denotes that in accordance with which anything is or is done. But as the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the ablative. Hence the ablative of specification is closely akin to that of manner, and to many ablatives developed from other fundamental ideas. Thus, — meo iure, ivith perfect right ; but, meo modo, in my fashion. mea sententia, in my opinion ; but also more formally, ex mea sententia. [Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification ; the second, source^ qui vincit viribus (Lael. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is im- possible to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect to which one is superior.] a. The Supine in -u, used chiefly wdth adjectives, is equivalent to an ablative of specification (cf. §§ 114. b, 303) : as, — mirabile dictii, marvellous to tell. 13. Ablative of Place. 254. (Rule 57.) The ablative is used to denote the place where (usually with the preposition in, § 258. c). a. The ablative of the place where is retained in many idiomatic expressions (cf. § 259. a^ which have lost the idea of place : as, — pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds), socius periculis v5biscum adero (Jug. 85, 47), / will be present with you, a companion in dangers. premit altum corde dolorem (^En. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart. b. I . Several verbs are regularly followed by the ablative, origi- nally of place. These are : acquiesco, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glo- rior, nitor, sto, maneo, iSdo (confido), consists, contineor. ndminibus veterum gloriantur (Orat. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients. [Also, de divitils, in virtute, circa rem, aliquid, gloriari.] spe niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope. prudentia fidens (Off. i. 8), trusting in prudence. 206 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [§255- 2. (Rule 42.) The verbals fretus, contentus, and laetus take the ablative either of place or means /as, — fretus gratia Bruti (Att. v. 21, 12), relying on the favor of Brutus. laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty. contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly abl. of cause.] Remark. — The ablative mth the above verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (and the ablative with them is probably locative): as, — in quibus causa nititur (Gael. 25), on whotn the case depends. With several of these verbs the neuter accusative of pronouns is often found. 14. Ablative Absolute. 265. (Rule 54.) A noun or pronoun, with a participle, may be put in the ablative to define the time or circum- stances of an action : as, — nondum hieme confecta (B. G. vi. 3), the winter not yet *^ J/a/z^w /5/j zw^« nearer proxime Pompeium sedebam fAtt i xa\ / ..* ^ . r, proximus Pompeium sedebam.] ^^^F^y- \yt. pars Insulae quae est propius solis occasum (B G iv .S^ /A. ^ . ^.. island ^huh . nearer the ^est (sunse" ^' ^' '-^'"^ termmos usque Libyae (Just.), /^ the bounds of Libya. NoTE.-Pridie and postridie take also the Genitive i% 22. . nn.. ^ live with ab. Usque IS commonly followed by ad. Thus,- propius Tiber! (Nep.), nearer the Tiber propius ab urbe (Plin.), nearer the city. usque ad mare, to the sea. use , and palam as a preposition is comparatively late. Thus, - procul a m^ri, far from the sea. nobiscum simul, at the same time with ourselves. clam patris (id.), without his father's knowledge. clam vobis (B. C. ii. 32), without your inowledge. So'esS^T °"^" ""■■" ^-^^'^ °"^-' "--g - adverb. I. Ante and post in relations of time : as, — prtribuf H-K ^":"^'' '^'^""^ ^^^^•>' '^ ^^^^^ -^"-^^ ''^^^ etc. post tnbus diebus, three days after (cf. § 259. d). §§ 262, 263.] USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 217 2. Adversus, contra, circiter, prope : as, — adversus resistere, to hold out in opposition. Aeolus haec contrS, thus AloIus in reply. 3. In general those ending in -a: as, — forte f uit iuxta tumulus, there happened to be a mound close by. 262. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply Com- parison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, either attached to them or separated by several words, or even clauses. neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge. post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it. Note i. — Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridie; also magis and prae in compounds : as, — Cat5 ipse iam servire quam pugnare mavult (Att. vii. 15), Cato himself by this time would rather be a slave than fight. Note 2. — The ablative of time (§ 256) is sometimes followed by quam in the same way : as, — octavo mense quam (Liv. xxi. 15), within eight months after, etc. 263. For a or ab with the Ablative of Agent, see § 246. Note. — The following prepositions sometimes follow their nouns : ad, citra, circa, contra, de, e (ex), inter, iuxta, penes, propter, ultra, tenus (regularly), and occasionally others : as, — [usus] quem penes arbitrium est et ius et n5rma loquendT (Hor. A. P. 72), custom y under whose control is the choice , right, and rule of speech. cuius a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum (C. M. 84), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary (lit. contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him. 2l8 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 264. 2. Subjunctive : < 3. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. /. MOODS AND TENSES. The proper verbal constructions may be thus classified : — I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (§ 264). a. Independent : / ^^^^' Exhortation, Command, \ Question (§ 265. a). 1. Purpose (with ut, ne) (§ 317). 2. Result (with ut, ut non) (§319). 3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (§ 320). 4. Time (with cum) (§ 325). r Future (less vivid) (§ 5. Condi- I 307. by c). tions : 1 Contrary to Fact (§ I 308). 6. Intermediate (Indirect Dis- course) (§ 341). 7. Indirect Questions or Com- mands (§§ 334, 339). 1. Direct Commands (often subjunctive) (§ 269). 2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (§ 269. d). 3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 269. note). a. Subject of esse and Impersonal verbs (§ 270). b. Dependent : < 3. Imperative 4. Infinitive Objective Constructions Idiomatic Uses : 1 . Complementary Infinitive(§27 1 ). 2. Indirect Discourse (with subject- accusative) (§ 272). 1^1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) I (§ 273)- J 2. Exclamation (with subject-ac- cusative) (§ 274). ^3. Historical Infinitive (§ 275). MOODS. I. The Indicative. 264. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or questions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that of time. § 265.] MOODS. 219 a. The Tenses of the Indicative generally denote time, zs presenty pasty or future y with reference to the speaker (§§ 276 ff.). b. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest the Subjunctive : as, — longum est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]. satius erat, it would have been better [if, etc.]. persequi possum, I might follow up [in detail]. c. The Future is sometimes used for the Imperative (§ 269./"). d. The Indicative is used in some kinds of conditions (§§ 306, 308). II. The Subjunctive. 265. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modification ^ such as is expressed in Eng- lish by auxiliaries, by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunc- tive (§ 112. b). The uses of the subjunctive are independeyit or dependent. a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express — (i) An Exhortatipn, Concession, or Command {Hortatory ^ § 266). (2) A Wish {Optative, § 267). (3) A Question of Doubt or Deliberation {Deliberative^ § 268). b. The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express — (i) Purpose (/^2««/, § 317). (2) Result (C^«j^a///W, § 319). (3) Characteristic (§ 320). (4) Time {Temporal, § 325). (5) Indirect Question (§ 334). (6) Condition : future or contrary to fact (§§ 307. b, c, 308). c. The subjunctive is also used with Particles of Comparison (§ 312), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse (§ 336). 1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which had its own special development. The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (see clauses of Result and Time), where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all, but expresses it directly ; but in these cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action, and has developed its construction differently from the English. 220 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 266. tt § 267.] OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 221 I. Hortatory Subjunctive. 266. (Rule 6%.) The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express an exhortation^ a comrnandy a concession, or a condition. hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these robbers. caveaut intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them shun excess and cherish modesty. Note I; — The simple subjunctive of exhortation and command takes the present tense, less commonly the perfect. The Perfect represents an action as completed in future time, but in most cases is equivalent to the Present. Other tenses are used in some varieties of this construction (see Cy note, and e). Remark. — The negative particle with the hortatory subjunctive is ne. a. The Second Person is used only of an indejinite subject, except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry (cf. § 269. b). Thus, — iniurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, def ugiendo relinquas (Tusc. v. 118), the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight. ezoriare aliquis ultor (yEn. iv. 625), rise, some avenger. ne conferas culpam in me (Ter. Eun. 388), don't lay the blame on me. b. In Prohibitions addressed to a definite person, the perfect is more common than the present (cf. § 269. a) : as, — hoc facito : hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 127), thou shall do this; thou shall not do that. tu ne quaesieris (Hon), do not inquire. nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say that to me. c. The hortatory subjunctive may express a Concession, some- times with ut, ne, quamvis, quamlibet, or similar words (cf. § 313. '^« should not have asked. 2. Optative Subjunctive. 267. (Rule 69.) The Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The present tense denotes the wish as possiblcy the imperfect as unaccomplished in present time, the plu- perfect as unaccomplished in past time. Thus, — ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may I live (as true as I live). ne vivam si scio (id. iv. i(5, 8), / wish I may not live if I know. di te perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee ! valeant, valeant, cives mei ; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 93), /ar^^// [he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be secure from harm. di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. Met. viu. 72), would that the gods allowed me to be without a father (but they do not)! Remark. — The negative particle with the optative subjunctive is ne. a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as, — male di tibi faxint (Plant. Cure. 131), may the gods do thee a mischief quod 5men di averterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the gods avert this omen. b. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the particles uti (ut), utinam, si : as, — ut pereat positum robigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. i, 43). '««>' ^^^ weapon unused perish with rust. falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi. 10), I wish I may be a false prophet. utinam P. Clodius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive. 5 si angulus iUe accedat (Hor. Sat. U. 6. 8), oh ! if that corner might only be added. 222 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§§ 268, 269. Note I. -The subjunctive with uti, etc., was originally deliberative, meaning how may /, etc. (§ 268). The subjunctive with 6 si {poetical) is a protasis (§312. note) ; si alone is sometimes used to express a wish in the same way : as, — si nunc se nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat (^n. vi. 187). // now that golden branch would only show itself to us ! c, Velim and veUem. and their compounds, with a subjunctive or infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive : as, — de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit (Att. xv 4, 4), about Menedemus I wish it had been true ; about the queen I hot>e tt may be. nSlto.accidisset tempus (Fam. iU. 10, 2), /wish the time never had come. 3- Deliberative Subjunctive. 268. (Rule 70.) The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (i) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing being done : as, — quid hoc homine facias ? quod supplicium dignum libldinl eius invenias ( Verr. 11. 40), what are you to do with this man ? what fit penalty can you devise for his wantonness ? an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 3), ^hat, should / not have come ? mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 94), could Ithtnk that the defence of good men would ever fail me ^ quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame ? Remark. -This use is apparently derived from the Hortatory Subiunc- rKv^u'V^"^"""'' = ^^"^°^"' ^^"^"^*^^' ^"^^? i^iusdo-what? Once estabhshed, it was readily tran.sferred to the past : quid faciam ? what am / todo? quidfacerem? what v^ ks I to do ? Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis. Note. -The Deliberative Subjunctive is sometimes called Dubitative. III. The Imperative. 269. The Imperative is used in Commands and En- treaties : as, — consulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 3), have a care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves die Marce TullT sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion § 269.] DELIBERA TIVE SUBfUNCTIVE. 223 Note. — In Negative Commands {prohibitions) the Present Imperative with ne is used by early writers and the poets : as, — ne time (Plant. Cure. 520), don't be afraid. nimium ne crede colori (Eel. ii. 17), trust not too much to complexion. equo ne credite {N.vi. ii. 48), trust not the horse. a. (Rule 71.) Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose : — 1. By ne with the second person of the Perfect Subjunctive ; as, — ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), douH be alarmed. 2. By noli with the infinitive : as, — noli putare (Fam. xiv. 2), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose). Note. — The poets frequently use instead of noli other words of similar meaning (cf. § 273. c) : as, — parcepias scelerare maniis (^n. iii. ^^2), forbear to defile your pious hands. 3. By cave with or without ne (colloquially fac ne) with the Pres- ent or Perfect Subjunctive 1 (§ 266. b) : as, — cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don't think. cave dixeris, don't say so. , fac ne quid aliud ciires (Fam. xvi. w), see that you attend to nothing else. Note. — Other negatives sometimes take the place of ne : as, — non dubitaveris (Sen. Q. N. i. 3, 3),jf'^« must not doubt. nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing). b. General Prohibitions addressed to no definite person are regu- larly expressed by the Present Subjunctive with ne (cf. c, below) : as, — denique isto bono utare dum adsit : cum absit ne requiras (C. M. 33), in short, use this good while present ; when wanting, do not regret it. Note. — The poets and early writers sometimes use the Present Sub- junctive with ne in prohibitions not general : as, — molestus ne sis (Plant. Most. 771), don't be troublesome. ne sis patruus mihi (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 88), don't be a [harsh] uncle to me. c. The third person of the Imperative is antiquated or poetic: — iusta imperia sunto, eisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 6), let there be lawful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them. 1 In prohibitions the Subjunctive with ne is hortatory ; that with cave is an object clause (originally hortatory, cf. § 33i-/- Rem.). 224 SYNTAX OF THE VERB, [§269. Note. — In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (§ 266) : as, — haec igitur lex in amicitia sanciatur (Lael. 40), let this law be laid down in case of friendship. d. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where there is a distinct reference to future time : viz., I. In connection with a condition precedent (as 2. future, a future perfect, or an imperative). Thus, — Phyllida mitte mihl, meus est natalis, loJla ; cum faciam vitula pro frugibus ipse venito (Eel. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birth- day, lollas ; when I sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself die quibus in terrls, etc., et Phyllida solus habetd (id. iii. 107), tell in what lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself 2. With adverbs or other expressions of Time : as, — eras petito, dabitur (PI. Merc. 770), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given, 3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills : as,— cum valetudini consulueris, turn consulito navigation! (Fam xvi. 4), when you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing. Borea flante, ne arato, semen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. xviii. tj), when the north wind blows, plough not, nor sow your seed. e. The verbs scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense gf consider), regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present : as,— filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), learn that lam blessed with a little boy. sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro. de palla memento, amabo (PI. Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown. /. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the Imperative ; and quin {why not?) with the Present Indicative may have the force of a command : as, — 8i quid accident novT, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. ?>), you will let me know if anything new happens. quin accipis (Ter. Heaut. 832) .? here, take it (why not take it .?). g. Instead of the simple Imperative, cura, fac, or velim, followed by the Subjunctive with or without ut is often used, especially in col- loquial language : as, — cura ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome. fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. xiv. i-j), see that you take care of your health. [Cf. rus e5. fac, amabo (Ter. Eun. 533), / ^m going into the country. Do, please.'] domi adsitis facite (id. 506), be at home, do. § 270.] INFINITIVE AS SUBfECT. 225 IV. The Infinitive. I. Infinitive as Subject, etc. 270. (Rule 58.) The Infinitive, with or without a* subject-accusative, may be used with est and similar verbs (i) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative. Thus, — 1. Subject : as, — dolere malum est (Fin. v. 84), to suffer pain is an evil. pulchrum est benefacere rei publicae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a noble thing to benefit the state. motos praestat componere fluctus (^En. i. 135), it is better to calm the troubled waves. 2. In Apposition with the Subject : as, — proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperio uti (Sail. Cat. 12), Just as if this, — to commit injustice, — were to use power. [Here facere is in apposition with id.] 3. Predicate Nominative : as, — id est convenienter naturaie vivere (Fin. iv. 41), that is to live in con- formity with nature. [Cf. uti in the last example.] Note i. — An infinitive may also be used as Direct Object in connec- tion with a Predicate Accusative, or as Appositive with such Direct Object : as, — istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 12), for I think this very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. Note 2. — An Appositive or Predicate noun used with an infinitive in any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a subject expressed or not. Thus, — non esse cupidum pecunia (Parad. 51), to be free from desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand, a. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and similar verbs, but is occasionally used with verbs apparently more active in meaning : as, — quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere in iinum coegit (Jug. 31, 10), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same things has united into one. ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emoUit mores (Ov. ex P. ii. 9. 48), faithfully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners. posse loqui eripitur (Ov. M. ii. 483), the power of speech is taken away. 226 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§271. b. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and expres- sions, partly as subject and partly as complementary infinitive (§ 271). Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, vigum est, pudet, piget, necesse est, opus est, etc. id primum in poetis cemi licet (Da Or. iii. 27), this may be seen first in poets. reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut. 215), he found what needed to be said. neque me vixisse paenitet (C. M. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived. Note i. — These are generally not real cases of the infinitive used as subject, but they approach that construction. c. Rarely the infinitive is used exactly like the accusative of a noun : as, — beate vivere alii in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Fin. ii. 86), a happy life different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure. 2. Complementary Infinitive. 271. (Rule 59.) Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the in- finitive without a subject-accusative : as, — hoc queo dicere (Cat. Maj. 32), this I can say. mitto quaerere (Rose. Am. 53), / omit to ask. vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear to praise a man to his face (one who is present). Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease^ hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like. Note. — The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these in- finitives is in general admissible or conceivable. a. Many verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary infinitive, without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, eff^ort, and the like (cf. §331): as, — student excellere (Off. i. 116), they aim to excel. cum statuissem scribere ad te aliquid (Off. i. 4), when / had resolved to '^ address something to you. istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rose. Am. 52), he had it in mind to deprive him of the inheritance. §272.] INFINITIVE WITH SUBfECT-ACCUSATIVE. 227 Note i. — With some of these verbs an infinitive with subject-accusa- tive may be used as object, taking the place of a complementary infinitive. In this use the subject of the infinitive and that of the main verb are of course the same. Thus, — * cupio me esse clementem (Cat. i. 4) = cupio esse clemens, I desire to be merciful (cf. § 331. b. note). Note 2. — Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identical in meaning with others which do : as, — quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 28), they forsake those whom they should protect. non lubet fugere aveo pugnare (Att. ii. 18, 3), / have no desire to run away, I ^m anxious to fight. b. Some verbs of these classes — iubeo and veto regularly — may take (as object) the infinitive with a subject different from that of the main verb (see § 331. ^) : as, — signa inferri iubet (Liv. xlii. 59), he orders the standards to be advanced. Pompeius . . . rem ad arma deduci studebat (B. C. i. 4), Pompey was anxious to have matters come to open war. c. A Predicate Noun ot Adjective after a complementary infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb : as, — fierlque studebam eius prudentia doctior (Lael. i), I was eager to become more wise through his wisdom. scio quam soleas esse occupatus (Fam. xvi. 21, 7), I know how busy you usually are (are wont to be). Note. — If the construction of the main verb is impersonal, a predicate noun or adjective is in the accusative (but for licet, etc., see § 272. a. 2). Thus, — peregrin! officium est minime in aliena esse re publica curiosum (Off. i. 125), it is a stranger* s duty to be by no means curious in a foreign state. 3. Infinitive with Subject-Accusative. 272. (Rule 60.) The Infinitive, with Subject- Accusa- tive, is used with verbs and other expressions of knowings thinkings tellings and perceiving {Indirect Discoursey § 336) : as,— dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held by the enemy. [Direct : mons ab hostibus tenetur.j 228 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 273- Remark. — The Infinitive Clause may be— i. the Direct Object of the verb; as, Caesarem adesse nuntiavit, he reported that Casar was present; 2. the Subject of the same verb in the passive : as, Caesarem adesse nun- tiatum est, // was reported that Casar was present ; 3. the Predicate Nom- inative after some such phrase as rumor est : as, rumor erat Caesarem adesse, there was a report that Casar was present. a. I. With certain impersonal verbs and expressions that take the infinitive as an apparent subject (§ 270. b), the personal subject of the action may be expressed — (i) By a dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase : or (2) By an accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive. Thus, — rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allowed them to do this. exstingui homini su5 tempore optabUe est (Cat. Maj. 85), // is desirable for a man to die at the appointed time. 2. With Ucet regularly, and other verbs occasionally, a predicate noun or adjective following the infinitive may be in the dative : as, — licuit esse otioso Themistocli (Tusc. i. 2^\ Themistodes might have been inactive (it was allowed to T. to be inactive), cur his esse llberos non licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to be free ? non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33), it is not necessary for all to speak standing. Note. — When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite {one, anybody), a predicate noun or adjective must be in the accusative (cf. § 271. £. note) : as, — vel pace vel bello clarum fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3), one can become illus- trious either in peace or in war. b. In poetr>% by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb : as, — sensit medios delapsus in hostes (^n. u. yj-j\ he found himself fallen among the foe. [In prose : se esse delapsum.] 4- Infinitive of Purpose. 273. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning of Purpose. a. The infinitive is used after habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages instead of a subjunctive clause : as, — § 273] INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE. 229 tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i. 5), so much I have to promise. [Here the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.] meridie bibere dato (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday. b. Paratus, suetus and their compounds (used as adjectives) take the infinitive, like the verbs from which they come : as, — currii succedere sueti (.^n. iii. 541), accustomed to being harnessed to the chariot. adsuefacti superaii (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered. Note. — These words more commonly in prose take the gerund or gerundive construction (§§ 296 ff.) either in the Dative, the Genitive, or the Accusative with ad. Thus, — alendis liberis sueti (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children. insuetus navigandl (B. G. v. 6), unused to making voyages. corpora Insueta ad onera portanda (B. C. i. 78), bodies uncucustomed to carry burdens. c. In poetry and" later writers almost any verb may have the infini- tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take it in prose : as, — parce scelerare (^tn. iii. 42), forbear to pollute. d. Many adjectives take the infinitive in poetry following a Greek idiom : as, — cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose : qui cantetui.] cantare peritT (Eel. x. 32), skilled in song. nescia vinci pectora (.'En. xii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yield. e. The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction : as, — loricam donat habere \ir5 (itn. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear. [In prose : habendam.] non ferro Libycos populare Penates venimus (yEn. i. 527), we have not come to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes. Note. — So rarely in prose writers of the classic period. f. For the infinitive used instead of a substantive clause of purpose, see § 331. a-g. Note. — For tempus est abire, see § 298. note. g. Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result: as, — fingit ecum tenera docilem cervfce magister ire viam, etc. (Hor. Ep. i 2. 64), makes the horse gentle so as to go, etc. hic levare . . . pauperem laboribus vocatus audit (Hor. Od. iL 18. 38), h^ when called, hears, so as to relieve, etc 230 SYJVTAX OF THE VERB. [§§ 274-276. 5. Exclamatory Infinitive. 274. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, may be used m Exclamations (cf. § 240. d) : as, — te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. i). a/as f that you should have fallen into such grief for me. . mene incepto desistere victam (^n. i. yj), ^hat ! I beaten desist from my purpose ? -^ -^ Note. - The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this con- struction with their ordinary distinction of time. 6. Historical Infinitive. 275. (Rule 61.) The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the nominative : as, — turn CatUIna polUceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 2.), M« Catiline prom- ised abohtun of debts (clean ledgers). ego instiie ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. ,88), / kept urging him to answer me. ^ e> 6 *^ pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque sTgna neque ordines servare ; ubi quemque penculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare, arma, tela, equi, virl hostes atque cives permlxtT, nihil c5nsili5 neque imperio agi • fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), a part g^ve way, others press on; they hold neither to standards nor ranks ; where danger overtook, there each would stand and fight; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and fHend, mingled in confuston ; nothing went by counsel or command; chance ruled all. .Jr^' ~ ^^'! ^^^^'^^^^-^on is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and IS never used to state a mere historical fact. TENSES. I. Tenses of Incomplete Action. I. Present (General Use). 276. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (i) as nozv taking place or existing; and so (2) as ifuomplete m present time, or (3) as indefinite, referring to no par- ticular time, but denoting a general truth. Thus, — §276.] PRESENT AND HISTORICAL PRESENT. 23 1 senatus haec inteUegit, cdnsul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. 2), the Senate knows this, the consul sees it, yet this man lives.. tibi concedo meas sedes (Div. i. 104), / give you my seat (an offer which may or may not be accepted), obsequium amlc5s, Veritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains friends, truth hatred. [General truth.] a. The Present, with expressions of duration of time, especially iam diu, iam audum, denotes an action continuing in the present, but begun in the past (cf. § 277. b) : as,— te iam dudum hortor (Cat. i. 12), I have long urged you. patimur iam mult5s ann5s (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years. [The perfect would imply, we no longer suffer.'] Note i. — In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect in English. Note 2. — SimUarly the Present Imperative with iam dudum indicates that the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Perfect Imperative in Greek) : as,— iam dudum sumite poenas (.En. ii. lo^), exact the penalty long delayed. b. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or begun in present time, but never compkted {Conative Present, cf. § 277. c) : as, — iam iamque manu tenet (^n. ii. 530), and now, even now, he attempts to grasp him. densos fertur in hostis (id. 51 1), he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe. decerns qulnquaginta dierum supplicationes (PhU. xiv. 29), I move for fifty days" thanksgiving [Cf. senatus decrevit, the senate ordained.] c. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetr>', is often used for the Future : as, — imusne sessum (De Or. iu. 17), shall we take a seat (are we going to sit) >. haud muto factum (Ter. And. 40). / do not wish to change it (I am not trying to change), hodie ux5rem duels (id. 321). are you to be married to-day ? si pereo hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (^n. iii. 606), if I perish, it will be pleasant to perish at the hands of men (cf. § 307. a. note). ». Historical Present. d. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the Historical Perfect {^Historical Present) : as, — 232 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 277- f § 277.] IMPERFECT. 233 affertur nuntius Syracusas ; curritur ad praetorium ; Cleomenes, quam- quam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet ; includit se domi (Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syracuse; they run to head- quarters; Cleomenes, though it was night, does not venture to be abroad ; he shuts himself up at home. Note. - This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events as going on before our eyes {repraesentdtio). 3- Present with dum. e. Dum, while, regularly takes the Present Indicative in reference to past events. In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used Thus, — hoc dum narrat, forte audlvi (Ter. Heaut. 272), / happened to hear this while she was telling it. Note. - A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time em- phatic by contrast. But a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense occur where no contrast is intended. Thus,— nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. Mai 79) whtle I was with you, you could n^t see my soul. [Here the time when he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.] coorta est pugna, par dum constabant ordines (Liv. xxii. 47), a conflict began, well matched as long as the ranks stood firm. But-dum unum adscendere gradum conatus est, venit in perlculum (Mur. 55), while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger. /. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works are extant : as, — Epiciirus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 17), but Epicurus says such things. 4. Imperfect. 277. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued or repeated in past time : as, Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so (habitually), and so he spoke (then). iamque rubescebat Aurora (^n. iii. 521), and nowthedawn was blushing c.Z7^'~^^^ Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action con- ceived ^ in progress or a state of things as actually observed Hence in many verbs it does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rex erat and rex fuit may often be used indifferently ; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it. The English is less exact in dis- tinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite. Thus, — AeduT graviter ferebant, neque legatos ad Caesarem mittere audebant (B. G. V. 6), the yEdui were displeased and did not dare, etc. [Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But — id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus was dis- pleased, etc. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.] aedificia vicosque habebant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages. Remark. — The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to past time. Hence all the meanings which the present has derived from the continuance of the action belong also to the imperfect in reference to past time (see details below). a. The Imperfect is used in descriptions : as, — erant omnino itinera duo . . . mons altissimus impendebat (B. G. i. 6), there were in all two ways . . . a very high mountain overhung. b. With iam diu, iam dudum, and other expressions of duration of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but begun at some previous time (cf. § 1 15. ^z. 2): as, — iam dudum flebam (Ov. M. iii. 656), / had been weeping for a long time. copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. xi. 13. 5), the forces which they had long been getting ready. Note. — In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Pluperfect. Compare the Present in similar phrases (§ 276. a). c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (^Inceptive Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended {Conative Imperfect) (cf. § 276. b): as, — in exsilium eiciebam quern iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam (Cat. ii. 14), was I sending {i.e. trying to send) into exile one who I saw had already gone into war ? hunc igitur diem sibi proponens Milo, cruentis manibus ad ilia augusta centuriarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming {i.e. was it likely that he would come), etc. ? iamque arva tenebant ultima (^En. vi. 477), and now they were just getting to the farthest fields. d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the present discovery of a fact already existing : as, — O tu quoque aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), oh I you are here too. 234 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§§ 278, 279. i e. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue where we should expect the Perfect : as, — ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hie suam (Plaut. Trin. 956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property. Note. — So also, in conversation, the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf . as I was a-saying) : as, — at medici quoque, ita enim dicebas, saepe falluntur (N. D. iii. 15), >r that was what you were saying Just now. f. For the Imperfect in apodosis contrary to fact, see § 308. b. g. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the English auxiliary could ox would: as, — itaque (Damocles) nee pulchros illos ministratores adspiciebat (Tusc. v. 62), therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did not would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by the overhanging sword.] nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. Maj. 79) for, you know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Perfect would refer only to one moment.'] 5. Future. 278. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur hereafter. a. The Future sometimes has the force of an Imperative (see § 269./). b. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin where in English futurity is sufficiently shown by the main clause : as, — cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see (cf. § 325. c). sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish. II. The Tenses of Completed Action. X. Perfect. 279. The Perfect denotes an action either as now com- pleted {Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point of past time (Historical or Aoristic Per- fect), Thus, — § 279-] PERFECT. 235 (i) ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. Maj. 26), as I have done, who have learned Greek in my old age. (2) tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit (Man. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer. Note. — The distinction between these two uses of the perfect, though almost if not wholly lost to the minds of the Romans, must be noticed, on account of the marked distinction in English (see also § 115. <:). a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists : as, — fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i. 3), there was once such virtue in this commonwealth. habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 87), he had, he has no longer. fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (iEn. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is no more. b. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general truth (§ 276), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring to time antecedent to that of the main clause : as, — qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have ahvays been in the fetters of the body, even when released move more slowly. c. The perfect is sometimes used of 2. general truth, especially with negatives {Gnomic Perfect ) : as, — non aeris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febres (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 47), the pile of brass and gold removes not fever from, the frame. Note. — The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time ; but its use implies that something which never did happen in any known case, never does happen, and never will (cf. the English '•'•Faint heart never won fair lady'''')', or without a negative that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances. d. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred : as, — dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison.] e. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning. 236 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§§ 280, 281. §§ 282-285.] SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 237 Such are the preterit! ve verbs odi, / hate; memini, / remember; novi / know; consuevi, / am accustomed} with others sometimes used preteritively, as venerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.) (see § 143. note). Thus, — qui dies aestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day generally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make). cuius splendor obsoievit (Quinc. 68), whose splendor is now all faded (has become old). Remark. — Many other verbs are occasionally so used : as, — dum oculos certamen averterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned). [Here averterat = tenebat.] 2. Pluperfect. 280. The Pluperfect is used (i) to denote an action or state completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to : as, — (i) loci natura erat haec, quem locum nostrl castris delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), this was the nature of the ground our men had chosen for a camp. Viridovbc summam imperi tenebat earum omnium civitatum quae defe- cerant (id. iii. 17), Viridoz'ix held the chief command of all those tribes which had revolted. (2) neque vero cum aHquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), bttt when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done. quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum fert alacri- tatem (Tusc. iv. 35), //// (desire) ever has gained what it had [previ- ously] desired, then it produces Joy. 3 Future Perfect. 281. The Future Perfect denotes an action as com pleted in the future : as, — • ut sementem feceris, ita metes (De Or. ii. 261), as you sow (shall have sown), so shall you reap. carmina tum melius cum venerit ipse canemus (Eel. ix. 67), then shall we sing our songs better, when he himself has come. ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. iv. 25), / at least shall have done my duty {i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall be found to have done it, whatever the event). ^ Cf. detestor, reminiscor, scio, soleo. ^ Remark —The Future Perfect is used with much greater exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for representing an action as completed : as,- quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 76). what has been found out I will see presently. IIL Epistolary Tenses. 282. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imper- fect may be used for the present, and the PUiperfect for any past tense, as if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received: as, — neque tamen, cum haec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus pre- merere (Fam. v. 12. 2),. nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens you are weighed down. IV. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 283. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker. The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, the Imperfect to either past or present, the Perfect to either /7///^r^ ox past, the Pluperfect always \.o past. 284. In Dependent Clauses the tenses of the Subjunc- tive were habitually used in certain fixed connections de- termined by the time of the main verb and the time of the dependent verb together. Sequence of Tenses. 285. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent clauses follow special rules for the sequence of tenses. With reference to these rules all tenses when used in Independent clauses are divided into two classes. -/nw/^ry and secondary. 238 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 2?>(>. I. Primary. The /r/V/mry tenses include all forms that express present or fixture time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present and Future Imperative. Note. -The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary, but see § 257. a. "' 2. Secondary. The secondary tenses include all forms that refer Xo past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the His- torical Infinitive. Note -To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in Independent Clauses. Such are (i) Primary: Present Infinitiv-e in Ex- clamations ; (2) Secondary: Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see S 287 a. note). j» "z- 286. (Rule 62.) In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect : as, scribit ut nos moneat, he writes to warn us. scribet ut nos moneat, he will write to warn us. scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us. scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us. scribit quasi oblTtus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten. scripsit quasi oblltus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten. rogo quid facturus sis /ask what you are going to do. NpTE.-This rule affects only the tenses of the Subjunctive in de- pendent clauses. The tenses of the other moods and those of the Sub- junctive in independent constructions (as in apodosis contrary to fact, S .08) are not affected by the sequence of tenses. (But cf. §§ ^^S. note 2, 339. Rkmark.- In applying the rule for the sequence of tenses, observe (,) whether the mam verb is (a) primary or (t.) secondary, (.) whether the de- pendent «rb .s to denote completed action (,>. past with reference to the mam verb), or mcomplete (,.. present or future with reference to the main veroj. 1 nen — {a) If the leading verb is primary the dependent verb must be in the Present rf it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes completed § 287.] SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 239 {b) If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action. Thus, — he writes (primary) to warn (incomplete) us, scribit ut nos moneat. I ask (primary) what you were doing (now past), rogo quid feceris. Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect. Thus, — I ask what you will have accomplished, rogo quid perfeceris. he asked what he would have accomplished, rogavit quid perfecisset. 287. In the Sequence of Tenses some special points are to be noted : — a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the writer's mind. Thus, — ut satis esset praesidi prSvisum est (Cat. u. 26), provision has been made that there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.] adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. i. 2), / have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign nations. [Secondary sequence.] ea adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitiosissimam naturam excolere possit (Q. Fr. i. I, 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the faultiest nature. [Primary sequence.] Note. — The Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations follows the same rule : j^ adeon rem redisse patrem ut extimescam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father. b. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action, and may represent — 1. A Perfect Definite : as, — non dubito quin omnes tui scripserint (Fam. v. 8), / do not doubt that all your friends have written. [Direct statement : scripserunt.] quare non ignoro quid accidat in ultimis terris, cum audierim in Italia querelas civium (Q. Fr. i. i, 33)' therefore I know well what happens at the ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens. [In a direct statement, audivi.] 2. A Perfect Historical : as, — me autem hie laudat quod retulerim, non quod patefecerim (Att. xii. 21), me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I brought it to light [Direct sUtement : retulit] 240 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 287. 3. An Imperfect: as, — SI forte ceciderint turn intellegitur quam fuerint inopes amicorum (Lsel. 53)' '/ h chance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were in friends. [Direct question : quam inopes erant?] qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedl scire poteris ex C. Tidio Strabone (Fam. xii. 6), what the state of affairs was when I wrote this letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question : qui erat?] Note. — Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Per- fect Definite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well. This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive to express continued action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fecerit may mean (i) I wonder what he has done, (2) / wonder ivhat he did (hist, perf.), or (3) / wonder what he was doing. c. In clauses of Result, the Perfect Subjunctive is very often (the Present rarely) used after secondary tenses : as, — Hortensius ardebat dicendl cupiditate sTc ut nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speaking that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man. Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in antlcum statum nulla modo possit (Verr. i. 12), for three years Verres so racked and ruined Sicily, that she can in no way be restored to her former state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing.] Remark. — This construction emphasizes the result ; the regular con- struction subordinates it. Note. — There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a Perfect Indicative. Thus, — Thorius erat ita non superstiti5sus ut ilia plurima in sua patria et sacri- ficia et fana contemneret ; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. ii. 63), Thorius was so little super- stitious that he despised [contemnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timorous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of the State. Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis incideret (cf. § 279. d) ; sed contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i. 35), Zeno was by no means one to cut the sinews of virtue ; bttt one, on the contrary, who made everything depend on virtue alone, [incidit . . . ponebat.] d. A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses : as, — § 287.] SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 241 ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis asset reputabat (Q. C. ill. 8, 20), from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how incon- stant she is. [Direct : mutabilis est.] ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos Ira haberet apparuit (Liv. xxxiii. 37), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct : habet.] Note. — In English the original tense is more commonly kept. e. The Historical Present (§ 276. d) is sometimes felt as 2. primary, sometimes as a secondary tense. Accordingly it is followed by either the primary or the secondary sequence, more commonly by the sec- ondary. Thus, — rogat ut curat quod dixisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he had spoken of. castella communit quofacilius prohibere posset (B. G. i. 8), he strengthens the forts that he might more easily keep them off. Note.— After the historical present, cum temporal with the subjunctive must follow the secondary sequence. /. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact (§ 308) are not affected by the sequence of tenses : as, — quia tale sit, ut vel si ignSrarent homines, etc. (Fin. ii. 49), because it is such that even if men were ignorant, etc. g. The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to fact (§ 308) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence : as,— si alii consules essent, ad te potissimum, Paulle, mittaram, ut eos mihi quam amicissimos radderes (Fam. xv. 13), if there were other consuls, I should send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as friendly to me as possible. si eos dicares miser5s quibus moriendum asset, neminem exciperes (Tusc. i. 9), if you called those wretched who must die, you would except no ont. h. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time {Synesis) : as, — sed tamen ut scires haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47). ^^^ y^* ^^^^ y^"* ""^^ kncnv, I write thus. [As if he had used the common epistolary im- perfect scribebam (§ 282).] cuius praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo tribueretur (Leg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, that it was ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an old one.] 242 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 288. § 288.] NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS. 243 i Note. — The rules for the sequence of tenses must not be regarded as inflexible. They were often disregarded by the Romans themselves, either from carelessness or purposely for one reason or another. /. When a clause depends upon one already dependent, the sequence becomes secondary as soon as the time is thrown back into the past by any form that represents past time : as, tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vince- remur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in fulness of words 7ve ARE not surpassed by the Greeks. But— beate vixisse videor quia cum ScTpione yixerim (Lael. 15), / seem to have lived happily in that I have lived with Scipio (who had just died). Note. — For the application of this rule to Indirect Discourse, see § 336. B. note. V. Tenses of the Infinitive. 288. (Rule 63.) The Tenses of the Infinitive denote present, past, or future time, relatively to the time of the verb on which they depend : as, — nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. 8), he ascertained that our men were not inferior. [Direct : sunt.] quam luno fertur terrls magis omnibus coluisse (^n. i. 15), which Juno is said to have cherished above all lands. [Direct : colebat.] sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lael. 79), they hope they shall receive the greatest advantage. [Direct : capiemus.] a. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, 2ind possibility (as potui, debui, and oportuit) the Present infinitive must be ren- dered by the Perfect infinitive in English : as, — scire potuit (Milo, 46), he might have known. quividebatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 17), who seemed [one that] ought not to have died at all. b. For the tenses of the infinitive in Indirect Discourse see § 336. A. c. Except in indirect discourse, the Present is the only tense of the infinitive in common use. It has no distinct reference to time. Thus,— est adulescentis maiores natu veren" (Off. i. 122), // is [the duty] of a youth to reverence his elders. d. With verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like,^ the Perfect Passive infinitive is often used instead of the Present : as, — quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), which ought to have been done long ago (cf. a, above). Remark. — In early and late Latin, and in poetry, rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active infinitive is also used instead of the Present, and even with other verbs than those of wishing and the like : as, — conunisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing. e. With verbs of feeling the Perfect infinitive is used, especially by the poets, to denote a completed action. So also w^ith satis est, satis habeo, melius est, contentus sum, and in a itvt other cases where the distinction of time is important. Thus, — pudet me non praestitisse (Fam. xiv. 3), /am ashamed not to have shown. sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. I. 3), there are those who delight, etc. quiesse erit melius (Li v. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet. f. The Future infinitive is often expressed by fore (or futurum esse) ut with the subjunctive ; so necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem (cf. §§ 302. Rem., 332. ^). Thus, — spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i. 82), / hope that will be our happy lot. II. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated wath the verb are employed as follows : — ' I. Attributive (§ 291 and a). 2. Simple Predicate (§ 291. b). 3. Periphrastic Perfect (pass.) (§ 291. R). 4. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 292). 5. Descriptive (Ind. Discourse) (§292. e). 1. Periphrastic with esse (§ 293. a). 2. Periphrastic with fui (= Pluperfect Subjunctive) (§ 293. c). 1. As Descriptive Adjective (§ 294. a). 2. Periphrastic with esse (§ 294. b). 3. Of Purpose with verbs (§294. d). I. Participles a. Present and Perfect : r b. Future: c. Gerundive: * Chiefly void, nolo, malo, oportet, decet. 244 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§§ 289, 290. §290.] DISTINCTIONS OF TENSE. 245 Gerund or Gerundive 3. Supine {:: 1. Genitive as Objective Genitive (§ 298). 2. Dative, with Adjectives, Nouns, Verbs (§ 299). 3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§ 300). 4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (§301.) Former Supine (in -um),with Verbs of Motion (§ 302). Latter Supine (in -u), chiefly with Adjectives (§ 303). PARTICIPLES. 289. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective ; but has a partial distinction of tense, and may govern a case. Note. — Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. As an adjective, it limits substan- tives, and agrees with them in gender, number, and case (§ 186). As a verb, it has distinctions of time (§ 290), and often takes an object. I. Distinctions of Tense. 290. (Rule 64.) Participles denote time 2is present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb in their clause. Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as com- pleted, and the Future as still to take place. a. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote — 1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (§ 276. a^ : as, — quaerenti mihi iamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13), though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind. 2. Attempted action (§ 276. h) : as, — C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. Maj. w), he resisted Flaminius 7vhen attempting to divide the Picene territory. 3. Futurity (§ 276. c) : as, — lens in Pompeianum bene mane haec scrlpsi (Att. iv. 9), / write this when about going very early to my place at Pompeii. b. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly in the sense of a Present. So, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, ausua, Becutus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers. Thus, — cohortatus mllites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed. iratus dlxisti (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion. oblitus auspiciorum (Phil. i. -^^i), forgetting the auspices. insidias veritus (B. G. ii. w), fearing ambuscade. c. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive. The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dmn or cum, rarely by the participle in -dus : as, — nuUls evidentibus causis obiere dum calceantur matutino duo Caesares (Plin. N. H. vii. iSi), from no obvious cause two Ccesars died while having their shoes put on in the morning. meque ista delectant cum Latine dicuntur (Acad. i. 13), those things please me when they are spoken in Latin. crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire (in flames). Note. — The constructions with dum and cum are often used when a participle might be employed : as, — die, hospes, Spartae, nos te hic vidisse iacentes, dum Sanctis patriae legi- bus obsequimur, tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here obedient to our country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a translation of the Greek present participle iriidbtuvoL.'] d. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice. The deficiency is supplied — 1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active meaning : as, — nam sTngulas [naves] nostri consectati expugnaverunt (B. G. iii. \^,for our men having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding. 2. In other verbs, by the ablative absolute with a change of voice (§ 255. d. note) or by a clause (especially with cum or dum) : as, — itaque convocatis centurionibus milites certi5res facit (B. G. iii. 5), and so, having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the cen- turions having been called together). cum venisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had come), he noticed a hill. Note. — The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or passive in meaning (§ 135. b). 246 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 291. § 292.] PREDICATE USE. 247 2. Adjective Use. 291. The Present and Perfect participles are used sometimes as attributive, nearly like adjectives : as, — cum antlquissimam sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. i. 11), a view at once most ancient and well approved. signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 15), signs hardly ever deceitful. auspicils utuntur coactis (id. 27), they use forced auspices. a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be com- pared or used as nouns. Thus, — quo mulieri esset res cautior (Caecin. ii), that the matter might be more secure for the woman. in illis artibus praestantissimus (De Or. i. zx-j), preeminent in those arts. sibi indulgentes at corporl deservientes (Leg. i. 39), M^ self indulgent, and slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body). male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 65), ill-got, ill-spent (things ill- acquired, etc.). consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 186), the habit of a man in health. b. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see §§ 186. b, 176. a) : as, — Gallia est divisa (B. G. i. i), Gaul is divided. locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed. Remark. — From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive,— the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea of past time : as interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-been-killed {i.e. already slain). In the best writers (as Cicero), the perfect participle, when used with fui, etc., retains its proper force; but in later writers the two sets of tenses (as amatus sum or fui), are often used indiscriminately to form the tenses of the perfect system in the passive : as, — arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, hum! inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground [Cf. occupati sunt et fuerunt (Off. i. 57), are and have been engaged The difference between this and arma quae, etc., is, that occupatus in this sense is used only as an adjective.] 3. Predicate U«e. 292. The Present and Perfect participles are often used as a predicate, where in English a phrase or clause would be usual. In this use the participles express timey cause, occasion, condition, concession, characteristic (or description), manner, means, attendant circumstances. Thus, — volventes hostllia cadavera amicum reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), luhile rolling over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.] paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet (Sail. Cat. 59, i), after delaying a little while, he orders to give the signal. [Time.] longius prosequi veritus, ad Ciceronem pervenit (B. G. v. 52), because he feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.] qui sciret laxas dare iussus habenas (.En. i. 63), who might know how to give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.] damnatum poenam sequi oportebat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment must overtake him. [Condition.] salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 21); you have restored a safety which we did not hope. [Concession.] Dardanius caput ecce puer detectus (^n. x. 133), the Trojan boy with his head uncovered. [Description.] nee trepides in usum poscentis aevi pauca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. s)^ be not anxious for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic] incitati fuga montes altissimos petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong fight they made for the highest mountains. [Manner.] milites sublevati alii ab aliis magnam partem itineris conficerent (B. C. i. 68), the soldiers helped up by each other, etc. [Means.] hoc laudans, Pompeius idem iuravit (B. C. iii. 87), approving this. Pom- pey took the same oath. [Attendant circumstance.] aut sedens aut ambulans disputabam (Tusc. i. 7), / conducted the dis- cussion either sitting or walking. [Circumstance.] Remark. — These uses are especially frequent in the ablative absolute (§ 255. d). A co-ordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle : as, — instructos ordines in locum aecum deducit (Sail. Cat. 59), he draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground. ut hos transductSs necaret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them over and put them to death. 248 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 292. § 293] FUTURE PARTICIPLE. 249 Note, i. — A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in English is given by without and a verbal noun : as, — miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 14), // is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything. Note 2. — Acceptum and expensum as predicates with ferre and referre are book-keeping terms : as, — quas pecunias ferebat eis expensas (Verr. ii. 170), what sums he charged to them. a. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that the participle and not the noun contains the main idea : ^ as, ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or building. illl llbertatem civium R6man5rum imminutam non tulerunt ; vos vitam ereptam neglegetis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement of the citizens' liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their life ? post homines natos (Brut. 224), since the creation of man. iam a condita urbe (Phil. iii. 9), even from the founding of the city. b. The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (cf. § 243. e) : as, — opus facto est viatico (PI. Trin. 887), there is need of laying in provision. maturato opus est (Liv. viii. 13), there is need of haste. c. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) has almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the con- tinued effect of the action of the verb : 2 as, fidem quam habent spectatam iam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 1 1), my fidelity, which they have proved and long known. cohortes in acie Ixxx. constitutas habebat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty co- horts stationed in line of battle. nefarios duces captos iam et comprehensos tenetis (Cat. iii. 16), you have captured and hold in custody the infamous leaders, etc. d. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that verb more forcibly : as, — 1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar, § 1588) ; and the English, " 'T was at the Royal feast for Persia won " (Dryden), i.e. for the conquest of Persia. '^ The perfect with have, in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown out of this use of habeo. praefectos suos multi nussos fecerunt (Verr. iii. 134), many discharged their officers (made dismissed), hie transactum reddet omne (Plant. Capt. 345), he will get tt all done (restore it finished). Note. — Similarly void (with its compounds) and cupio, with a perfect participle without esse (cf. § 288. d. note) : as,— me excusatum vol5 (Verr. IL i. 103), / wish to be excused (I want myself excused, cf. I pray thee have me excused), e. With verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of indirect discourse (§ 336), but expresses the action more vividly : as, — ut eum nemo unquam in equo sedentem viderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no one ever saw him sitting on a horse. 4. Future Participle. 293. The Future Participle (except futuras and ventums) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by later writers. a. The future participle is chiefly used with the verb esse (which is often omitted) in the active periphrastic conjugation (§ 129): as,— morere, Diagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. iii), die, for you are not likely to rise to heaven. sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. Maj. 68), the young man hopes to liw long (that he shall live long). b. By later writers and the poets the future participle is also used in simple agreement with a substantive to express : — 1 . Likelihood or certainty : as, — ausus est rem plus famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), he dared a thing which would have more repute. 2. Purpose, intention, or readiness : as, — cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q. C. viii. i, 14), when a lion rushed on to attcuk the king. 81 periturus abis (iEn. ii. 675), if you are going away to perish. 3. Apodosis : as, — dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, daturas amplius si potuisset (Plin. Ep. iii. 21), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he had been able. so SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 294. c With past tenses of esae. the future participle is often equiva- lent to the pluperfect subjunctive (see § 308. d). 5. Gerundive (Future Passive Participle). Note.- The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct uses : — » « (!) Its predicate and attribute use as participle or adjective (8 ^q.) (2) ts use with the meaning of the gerund (§ .96). This may be called Its gerundive use. ^ 294. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective is always passive, denoting necessity or propriety. In this use the following points are to be observed {a-d). a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect participles, in simple agreement with a noun : as, — fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 104), a brave man, and worthy to be preserved. b. The most frequent use of this form is with esse in the second (passive) periphrastic conjugation (see § 129) : as,— non agitanda res erit (Verr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be agitated? c. The neuter of the gerundive is occasionally used impersonally with an object. The object is in the case regularly governed by the verb. Thus, — ^ via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. Maj. 6), the way we have to enter. Note. -This use is regular with verbs which take their object in the dative or ablative : as, — legibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed. d With verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive undertake, demand, a gerundive in agreement with the object is used to express purpose : as, — redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. IL 47) the contractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The reJular construction with this class of verbs.] aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. II. i, ,32), he had the temple of Castor to take care of. naves atque onera dnigenter adservanda ciirabat (id. v. 146). he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept. §§ 295' 296.] GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 251 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 295. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form of a verbal noun. As a noimJ^t gerund is itself governed by other words ; as a verb it may take an object in the proper case. Thus/ — / ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi (De Or. ii. i^y),the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and false. Remark. — A nominative of the gerund is supplied by the infinitive. Thus in the example above, the verbal nouns discoursing zxi^di distinguishing if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiudicare. 296. When the Gerund would have an object in the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead. The gerundive agrees with its noun, and takes the case which the gerund would have had : as, — parati5res ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself gov- erned by ad. The construction with the gerund would be, ad sub- eundom pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative pericula.] ezercendae memoriae gratia (Cat. Maj. 38),/ a design of taking the ctty. \ urbis capiendae ) e> j b .^ f agros colendo 1 Dat. dat operam < . 1 j- \ he attends to tilling the fields. ^ \ agns colendis | * -^ ( mihi parendum 1 r to \ pacem petendam ) -^ 1 to Ace, veniunt ad to obey me. seek pecue. I scribendo epistulas ) Abl. terit tern pus < -j^ j- . .. \he spends time in writing letters. 252 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§§ 297, 298. §§ 299, 300.] DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 253 ,1. Remark. -In the gerundive construction the verbs utor, fnior, etc., are treated hke transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 25), riches are sought for the enjoyment of pleasures (for enjoying pleasures). 297. (Rule 65.) The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in many of the constructions of nouns. 1. Genitive. 298. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used with nouns or adjectives either as subjective or ob- jective genitive : as, — neque consilil habendl neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G iv 14) tzme betng g^-ven neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. [Objective.] ne conservandae quidem patriae causa (Off. i. 159), not even for the sake of saving the country. [Originally subjective genitive.] Vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. Maj. 72), // is the best end of living. [Sub- jective.] ^ ^ Note. - In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordmanly have the genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive. Thus tempus est aoire, // ts time to depart. Remark. - The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially m early and late Latin) as a predicate genitive. When so used ,t often expresses purpose : as,— »<=" it oiien quae res eyertendae reipublicae solent esse (Verr. iii. ,3,), things v^hich generally tend to the overthrow of the common-wealth s. arborum trunci deiciendi operis essent missae (B. G. iv. .7) i„ case trunks of trees should be sent do^n [,vith the object] of overthrowing the work. [Pred. gen. like quas sui commodi fecerat (v. 8).] a. The genitive of the Gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or pronoun (especially sui) in the objective genitive instead of taking a direct object : as, — * eius videndl cupidus (Ter. Hec. 372), eager to seeker (for a seeing of her) re.c.e„d, txium iadicum po.estas (Verr. ii. 77), tie power of ckallenging /.4r«y«r<.r.r (of the rejecting of three jurors) .ni colligendl facultas (B. G. iii. 6). the opportunity to recover themselves. b. In genitive constructions the Gerund and Gerundive are about equally common. c. The genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is used with causa or gratia to denote purpose (see § 318). Note. — This is merely a special use under the main head of § 298. 2. Dative. 299. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after adjectives^ which take the dative and rarely after nouns (§ 234. a) : as, — genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Li v. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor suited to the defence of the body. te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse (Lucr. i. 25), I desire that thou be my partner in writing verses. a. The dative is used in a few expressions after verbs : ^ as, — diem praestitit operi faciendo (Verr. II. i, 1 48), ^^ set a day for doing the work. praeesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 50), to take charge of cultivating the land. esse solvendo, to be able to pay (to be for paying). Note. — This construction is a remnant of a more general use of the dative of the gerund and gerundive. b. The dative is also used in certain legal phrases after nouns meaning officers., offices., elections., etc., to indicate the function or scope of the office, etc. : as, — comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls. triumvir coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies. triumviri reipublicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a commission of three) for settling the government. 3. Accusative. 300. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after the prepositions, ad, inter, circa, ob (and rarely in and ante) ; most frequently after ad, denoting Purpose (cf. § 318. b)' as,— 1 The dative of the gerund and gerundive occurs most commonly after the adjectives accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, utilis, inutilis. But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf. § 234. b). 2 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere. 254 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [§ 301. §§ 302, 303-] SUPINE. 255 me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34), j^« summon me to write. vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), you live, not to put off, but to confirm your daring. nactus aditus ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to under- take these things. inter agendum (Ed. ix. 24), while driving. Note. — The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition rarely takes a direct object, the Ablative of the gerund very rarely. The Gerundive is used instead (§ 296). 4- Ablative. 301. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (I) to express Manner, Means, Cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives ; (3) after the prepositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum : as, — (1) multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large promises. Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 128), equal to any man in speaking Latin. nullls virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 5), without delivering any precepts of virtue (by delivering no precepts). his ipsis legendis (Cat. Maj. 21), by reading these very things. obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. i. 8), call- ing to them a mean and obscure multitude. (2) nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), no duty is more important than repaying favors. (3) in re gerenda versarl (Cat. Maj. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs. Note. — The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used depending on verbs and adjectives : as,— Appius non abstitit continuando magistratum (Liv. ix. 34), Appius did not desist from continuing his magistracy. Remark. — The Gerund is often found co-ordinated with nominal con- structions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun : as, — (i) in foro, in curia, in amicorum periculis pulsandis (Phil. vii. 7), in the . ' forum, in the Senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy. (2) ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 3), for the most widely different things, obeying and commanding. III. SUPINE. Note. — The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (§ 71. a), having no distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. 302. (Rule 66) The Former Supine (in -um) is used after verbs of motion to express purpose. It may take an object in the proper case. Thus, — quid est, imusne sessum .'' etsi monitum venimus te, non fiagitatum (De Or. iii. 17), how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to re- mind, not to entreat you. venerunt questum iniurias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs. Remark. — The supine in -um is especially common with eo ; and with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive. Thus, — fuere cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sail. Cat. 36), there were citizens who went about to ruin the republic (cf. § 258. b. Rem.), non Grais servitum matribus Ibo (iEn. ii. 786), I shall not go to be a slave to the Grecian dames. si scisset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 22), if he (Pompey) had known that he was going to be murdered, [cf. § 288./".] 303. (Rule 6^) The Latter Supine (in -u) i is used only with a few adjectives, with the nouns fas, nefas, and opua, and rarely with verbs, to denote an action iji refer- ence to which the quality is asserted ; as, — rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 63), a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of. quaerunt quid optimum factii sit (Verr. IL i, 68), they ask what is best to do. pudet dictu (Agric. 32), // is shame to tell. Note. — The latter supine is thus in appearance an ablative of specifi- cation (§ 253), but see § 71. a. Remark. — The supine in -u is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, dif&cilis, iacundus, ad with the gerund is more common. Thus, — nee visii facilis nee dictu adfabilis ulli (^n. iii. 621), he is not pleasant for any man to look at or address. difficilis ad distinguendum similitude (De Or. ii. 212), a likeness difficult to distinguish. With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same sense : as, — faciles aurem praebere (Prop.), indulgent to lend an ear. 1 The only latter supines in common use are auditu, dictu, factu, inventu, mcmoratu, natu, visu. In classic use this supine is found, in all, in twenty- four verbs. It is never followed by an object-case. in I 1 . 256 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 304. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. ..n!!''''^v'^\'^''"u'^'''''"'^^""'""'" differs from other compound sen- n somrd "' ^'h' T ''^" °' ^'^ "^^" ^^^"^^ ^^— ^^) - determined nsom degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (protasis), upon the truth of which the whole statement depends. Conditional Sentences may be classified as follows • _ r a. More vivid (§ 307). \ ^ Less vivid (§ 307). r a. Present (§ 308). 1 b. Past (§ 308). r a. Indefinite Subject (§ 309. a). \ b. Repeated Action (§ 309. b, c). I I. in clause of Fact, Wish, 2. Future Conditions : 3. Conditions Contrary TO Fact : 4- General Conditions : "^ a. Protasis Disguised: 5. Implied Conditions : . Command (§ 310. b, c). 2. in Participial Expression (§ 310- a). j I. Potential Subjunctive (§ b. Protasis I 311. a). Omitted: 1 2. Subjunctive of Modesty (§311-^). ( 1. Protasis and Apodosis. 304. A complete conditional sentence consists of two clauses, the Protasis and the Apodosis. The clause containing the conditiofi is called the Prota- sis ; the clause containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : as, — si qui exirevolunt [PROTASIS], conlve-re possum [apodosis] (Cat ii 27) - V any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut ' ' n> si est in exsilio [protasis], quid amplius postulatis [apodosis] (Lig n) tj he IS tn exile, what more do you ask ? J v &• j;, cl^T'~^' '^"""^"^ ^'' ''''^""^' "^^'^ '^^' '^' P^^^^'« i« the dependent _ a. The Protasis is regiUarly introduced by the conditional particle Bi (if) or one of its compounds : sin, niai, etiamai. etsi. tametai. § 305-] CLASSIFICA TION. pnrase . as, sic, ita, turn, ea condicione, etc. Thus, — ita enim senectus honesta est, sJ se ipsa defendit (Cat.' Mai ,8) .« Ms _ W,/,.„ ,s M a^, konoraiU, .fit defines itsdf. '' ^ '' "" siquidemmeamarettumistucprodessetrrer Fun ...fii rt , j then this would be profitable '•'**' ^ "" ^'^"' "'' c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sentence but may at the same time be subordinate to some other clause and so be ,n the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase as - sepultura quoque prohlbituri „i rex human- iussisset (Q. C. viu - ,2) ,„ t^nd.ngalso to deprire hi,n of burial, unless the king ha'J "deZ htm to be interred. ^ ^raerea quod SI praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione TZh r :^ "l?-'- '"]' "" -^ "" '"' "" -'■"" f'"^' "' -«^ go with the tenth legton alone. SI quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id.), if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc. Note. _ When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect.Discourse, or in anv de tive (as m the first two of the above examples, see § -^^yj). d. Conditions are either (i) Particular or (2) General 1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts occurring at some definite time. 2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time. 2. Classification. 306. The principal or typical Forms of conditional sentences may be exhibited as follows : _ a. Simple Co.nditions, with nothing implied as to fuWlmem. I. Present, nothing implied. Present Indicative in both clauses. Modest,! bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well. Cf. the (Seek forms: a. i. ri Tpd^„, „i^„, ,^Xwt tx^u 2- « .V^.r« roDro, ™X& eTxe... «' r,rpaf. roSro, «a\& ?„™ b. . . ci, xpd.r„, roDr», ««X& ?{«. ,. „• ,^„„. „5^„_ ,^^ ., ^^ d. I. ii, r„ «X^xr J, .r„X4{-„„. 2. rf r« kUitto,, iKoXi^ero. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES, [§ 305- 2. Past, nothing implied. Some past tense of the Indicative in both clauses. si aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well. si adfuit, bene fuit, if he has been here, it has been well. b. Future Conditions (necessarily as yet unfulfilled). 1 . More vivid. (a) Future Indicative in both clauses, si aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well. {§) Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodosis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins). sj adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it w;///[then] be well. 2. Less vivid. (a) Present Subjunctive in both clauses. si adsit, bene sit, if he should be here it would be well. (p) Perfect Subjunctive in protasis. Present Subjunctive in apod- osis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins). si adfuerit, bene sit, tf he should be (should have been) here, it would [then] be well. c. Conditions Contrary to Fact. 1 . Present, contrary to fact. Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses. si adesset, bene esset, ;/ he were [now] here, it would be well (but he is NOT here). 2. Past, contrary to fact. Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses. si adfuisset, bene fuisset, // he had [then] been here, it would have been well (but he was not here). d. General Conditions. Usually not differing in form from Particular Conditions {a, b, c) ; but sometimes distinguished in the cases following : — 1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time). (a) Present Subjunctive second person singular in protasis. Present Indicative in apodosis. si hoc dicas, creditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed. {f) Perfect Indicative in protasis. Present in apodosis. si quid dixit, creditur, if he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed. 2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time). § 306.] PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS. 259 (a) Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis. Imperfect Indicative in apodosis. si quid diceret, credebatur, // ke [ever] said anything it was [always] believed (= whatever he said was always believed). (/3) Pluperfect Indicative in protasis. Imperfect in apodosis. si quid dixerat, credebatur, // he [ever] said anything, it was believed Remark. — The use of tenses in Pj-otasis is very loose in English. Thus, if he is alive now is a present condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative ; // he is alive next year is a future condition, ex- pressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here «^'is a present condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by the Imper- fect Subjunctive ; // he were to see me thus is a future condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive ; and so, too, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid. 3. Present and Past Conditions. — Nothing Implied. 306. (Rule 73.) In the statement of present and past conditions whose falsity is not implied, the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis. Thus, — si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are well, it is well. [Present Condition.] si qui magnis ingeniis in eo genere exstiterunt, non satis Graecdrum gloriae responderunt (Tusc. i. 3), ,/ any men have appeared of great genius in that branch, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks. [Past Condition.] accepi Roma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in quo si modo valuisti et Romae fuisti Philotimi duco esse culpam non tuam (Att. v. 17), I have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, if you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed : Past condition and Present conclu- sion.] quas litteras, si Romae es, videbis putesne reddendas (Att. v. 18), as to this letUr, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought to be delivered. [Mixed : Present and Future.] si nemo impetravit adroganter rog6(Ligar. 30), if no one has succeeded in obtaining it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.] a. In these conditions, the apodosis need not always be in the In- dicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense. Thus, — 26o CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 307. fuerit hoc censoris, si iudicabat (Div. i. 29), suppose it was the censor's duty, if he judged it false. [Hortatory S ubj unctive.] si nondum satis cemitis, recordamini (Milo, 61), if you do not yet see clearly, recollect. [Imperative.] si quid habes certius, velim scire (Att. iv. 10), if you have any trustworthy information, I should like to know it. [Subj. of Modesty, § 31 1. b.1 Note. — Although th^form of these conditions does not imply anything as to their truth, the sense or context may have some such implication : as, — nollte, si in nostro omnium fletu nullam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc minus ei parcere (Milo, 92), do not, tf amid the weeping of us all you have seen no tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for that. In this passage a cause is put by the speaker in the form of a non- committal condition. His hearers are to draw the inference for themselves. 4. Future Conditions. 307. Future Conditions may be more or less vivid. 1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis ex- pressing what will be the result. 2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct, the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed. a. In the ifiore vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used in both protasis and apodosis : as, — sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iu. 13), we shall be healed if we 7vish. Note. --In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, rarely by the future with shall. Sometimes in Latin a con- dition of this kind has the Present Indicative in the protasis: as,— si pereo hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (^n. iii. 606), if I perish, it ' will be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men. b. In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is used in both protasis and apodosis : as, — haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 19), if your country should thus speak with thee, ought she not to prevail ? Remark. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the future in apodosis from a change in the point of view of the speaker. § 307-] FUTURE CONDITIONS. 261 c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunctive : as, — si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), if you do not do it, I will excuse you. Remark. — The Future Perfect is very often used in the apodosis of a future condition : as, — vehementer mihi gratum feceris, si hunc adolescentem humanitate tua comprehenderis (Fam. xiii. i^), you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy. d. Any form implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like : as, — si me praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento, if fate cuts me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this (Q. C. ix. 6, 26). nisi oculis videritis insidias Miloni a Clodio factas, nee deprecaturi sumus nee postulaturi (Milo, 6), ujtless you see with your mvn eyes the plots laid against Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc. non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. iv. ?>^), I cannot accuse him if I should desire to. e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present or even a Future in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished : as, — si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.'\ si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall have kept the same spirit, we have conquered. f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, without implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 308). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : as,— non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii, 44), was notable unless he wished. tumulus apparuit ... si luce palam iretur hostis praeventurus erat (Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go openly by light, the enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like ind. disc, but are not. An observer describing the situations as present ones would say potest si velit (etc., see d), and no ind. disc, would be thought of. 262 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 308. 5- Conditions Contrary to Fact. 308. (Rule 73.3.) In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunc- tive are used in both Protasis and Apodosis. The imper- fect refers to Present Time, the pluperfect to Past : as, — quas si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus (Cat. Mai Z^\ if I could not [now] follow this (an active life), yet my couch would afford me pleasure. [ Present.] nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. ii), unless you had lost it, I should not have recovered it. [Past.] a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to/^.f/ time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist: as, — hic si mentis, asset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 50), // he were of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army ? [Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present.] b In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the Past tenses of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely or already begun : as, — • -^* SI licitum esset matres veniebant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming tj tt had been allowed (see § 305, c. 2). iam tiita tenebam, ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset (^n. vi. 358) I was just reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me. Remark. - In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in time to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect indicative to the pluperfect subjunctive. c '^f^^^^^^^V^^^s,or.sA^^o\:mg necessity, propriety, Possibility, duty,y^^^^n used in the Apodosis of a condition contrary to fact are regularly put in the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative in- stead of the Subjunctive : as, — si ita putasset cerfe optabilius Milonl fuit (Mil. 31), if he had thought so, surely tt would have been preferable for Milo. Si Roniae privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil SO), if he (Pompey) were at this time a private citizen at Rome, yet he ought to be appointed. ^ 309-] GENERAL CONDITIONS. 263 Note i. — In this construction it is only the thing necessary (etc.) that is conditioned, and not the necessity itself. If the necessity itself is con- ditioned, the Subjunctive is used as with other verbs. The difference is often imperceptible, but may be seen in the following example : — quid facere potuissem nisi tum cdnsul fuissem ? consul autem esse qui potui nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem a pueritia (Rep. i. 10), what could I have done if I had not then been consul ; and how could I have been consul if I had not followed that course of life from boyhood? Note 2. — This construction is sometimes carried further in poetry : as, — si non alium iactaret oddrem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), // were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor. d. The participle in -urus with eram or fui may take the place of an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the Apodosis of a condition contrary to fact : as, — quid enim futurum fuit [== fuisset], si . . . (Liv. ii. i), what would have happened if, etc. neqiie ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si . . . (id.), nor is there any question he would have done it if etc. [Direct : fecisset.] Note. — This construction is regularly used when the apodosis is itself a dependent clause requiring the subjunctive, and also in Indirect Discourse. In Indirect Discourse fuisse replaces eram or fui (see § 337). e. The Present and Perfect subjunctive are sometimes used in poetry in the protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary te fact : as, — nl comes admoneat, inruat (^n. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him, he would have rushed on. nl faciat maria ac terras ferant (id. i. 58), unless he did this, they would bear away sea and land. Note. — This is a remnant of an old construction. Its use puts the condition in a vivid form, — as if possible at any moment in the future though not noiv true. 6. General Conditions. 309. General Conditions (§ 304. d) have usually the same forms as Particular Conditions. But they are some- times distinguished in the following three cases : — a. The Subjunctive is sometimes used in the second person singular, to denote the act of an Indefinite Subject {you = any one). Here the Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis : as, — 264 COA^D/T/OJVAL SENTENCES. [§ 310- §3"0 CONDITION OMITTED. mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exerceas, rubl- gmem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), tAe mind is very like ^ron : if you use It, tt wears away ; if you donU use it, it gathers rust, d. In later writers (not in Cicero), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past time : as, _ accusatore-s, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Tac. A. vi 30) the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment. ..In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect IS used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apod- osis. Thus, — ^ si quos aliqua membrorum parte inutiles notaverunt, necarl iubent (Q C IX. I, 25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of thetr limbs, they [always] order them to be put to death. [Present ] SI a persequendo hostes deterrere nequlverant ab tergo circumveniebant (J"g- 50). tf [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pur- suing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.] ^ In all other cases, general suppositions - including those intro- duced by Indefinite Relatives _ are not distinguished in form from Particular Conditions. 7- Condition Disguised. 310. In many sentences properly conditional, the Prot- asis IS not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature of the thought. Thus, — a. The condition may be implied in a Clause or in a Participle, Noun, Adverb, or some otlier word or phrase. Thus — '""rRr,tT"^'Tf.*''' iMicequaere„te-pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose Am. is), I should readily allcw n,yself u speak for Rosdus / that very judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact : SI quaereret, etc.] ' nulla alia gens tan.I mole cladis non obruta esset (IJv. xxii. 54), there is no other people that ^ould not have been crushed by such a Light of disaster. [Past contrary to fact : si alia fuisset.l """mo"rZTT°"""T'"^ immortalitatis, se pro patria offerret ad mortem (Tusc. ,. 32), „o one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to tact : nisi magnam spem haberet.] 265 b. The condition may be contained in a Wish {optative subjunc- tive), or expressed as an Exhortation or Command {hortatory sub- junctive, or imperative) : as, — utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), / wish I had been [chief] : he would not now be troubling us {i.e. if I had been). [Optative Subjunctive.] Note. — The so-called concessive subjunctive with ut and ne often has the force of a protasis (§ 313. a) : as, — ut enim rationem Plato nullam afferret, ipsa auctoritate me frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reason, [still] he would, etc. c. Rarely the condition is in an independent clause, as, rides: maiore cachinno concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh ; he shakes with louder laughter (= if you laugh, he shakes). d. The condition is often contained in a Relative Clause (§ 316). Remark. — For the use of a participle as Apodosis, see § 304. c. \ 8. Condition Omitted. 311. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument. Thus, — poterat Sextilius impune negare : quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 55), Sex- tilius might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if he had). Remark. — Under this head apparently belongs the Potential Sub- junctive. I. potential subjunctive. / • a. (Rule 72.) The Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an ' action not as actually performed, but ^lS possible. In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to the immed'isite future y the Imperfect to past time. The second person is common, indicating an Indefinite Subject (cf. § 309. a). Thus, — hie quaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 133), here some one may ask. ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii. 97), as one may perhaps say. tum in lect5 quoque videres susurros (Hor. Sat. ii. 8. 77), then on each couch you might hear whisperings. Note i . — The Present is sometimes used for the Imperfect : as, — migrantis cemas (iEn. iv. 401), you might have seen them moving. 266 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§3"- Note 2. -The Pluperfect is rare. Its place is supplied by the Im- putasses eius luctus aliquem finem esse debere (Sen. Dial. 6, n) you would have thought there ought to be some end to his grief. Note 3. -The subjunctive with forsitan does not differ in meaning from the Potential Subjunctive, but is an Indirect Question (§ 334 ^) • as - forsitan haec illl mirentur (Verr. iv. 124), they may perchance marvel at these things. Remark. - The potential subjunctive is strictly an apodosis with omitted protasis, sometimes easily supplied, but often not present to the mmd of the speaker. So also the Subjunctive of Modesty (^, below). II. SUBJUxNCTIVE OF MODESTY. b. The Subjunctive is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical statements {coniunctlvus modestiae). This use is especially common in a polite wish, with velim or vellem. Thus — pace tua dixerim (Mil. 103), I would say bv your leave tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), I should like you to think so VDc ausim credere (Ov. M. vi. 561), I should hardly dare believe. vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 16), I couldw^sh Antony ^ere here [Here vellem implies an unfulfilled wish in present time ; volo or nolo would express a peremptory wish.] III. VERBS OF NECESSITY. c. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future or contrary to fact : as, — ^'"^Fut'ureT ^'''''' '^^ " ' ^^'^'' ''^' " '"'''^'^ ^' '''^'"' '' ''^^' '''• illud erat aptius aecum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 2). it would be more . Jittmg to yield each one his rights. quanta meliua fuerat (Oil. iii. 94), Ho^ much better it would have keen. Remark. -Notice that, in this construction, the Imperfect indicative ^Z:JZr:"'"" "^ """^^^^ '° simp.y^«,ti„e'.ike the Perfect (»^ght to have been, but was not. Note. -In many cases it is impossible to say whether a pro.asis was present to the mind of the speaker or not. P^oiasis was §312-] PARTICLES OF COMPARISON. 267 g. Complex Conditions. d. Either the protasis or the apodosis may be a complex idea in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied qualifi- cations. In such cases the true logical relation of the parts is some- times disguised : as, — slquis horum dixisset ... si verbum de republica fecisset . . . multaplura dixisse quam dixisset putaretur (Rose. Am. 2), if any of these had spoken, in case he had said a word about politics, he would be thought to have said much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dixisset is the whole of the following statement (si . . . putaretur), which is itself conditioned by a protasis of its own : si verbum, etc.]. quod si in hoc mundd fieri sine deo non potuit ne in sphaera quidem eosdem motiis sine divind ingenid potuisset imitari (Tusc. i. 63) fiow if that cannot be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archimedes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine genius. [Here si potuit (a protasis with nothing im- plied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but po- tuisset has a contrary-to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine . . . ingenio.] 10. Particles of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted). 312. The particles of Comparison — tamquam, tamquam si, quasi, acsi, utsi, velutsi, veluti, and poetic ceu (all meaning as if), and quam si {than if) — take the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, unless these are changed by the sequence of tenses. Thus, — tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed. ita hos [honores] petunt, quasi honeste vixerint (Jug. 85), they seek them (offices) y«j/ as if they had lived honorably. velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), c^s if he were present in person. ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (vEn. ii. 438), as if there were no fighting elsewhere. magis quam si domi esses (Att. vii. 4), more than if you were at home. Remark. — The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive with these particles ; but the point of view is different in the two languages. 268 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. II. Concessive Clauses. Vlz^y 313. The particles of Concession (meaning although, granting that) are : quamaBam. quamlibet, quamvis, quantum- vis, ut, ne, cum, Ucet,^si, tamfitsi, etiamsi. a. Quamvis, quatumvis, quamlibet, ut, and ne take the Sub- junctive (§ 266. c) : as, — quamvis ipsi Infantes sint, tamen . . . {Ox.'j^),hmvever incapable of speak- ing they themselves may be, yet, etc. Ut neminem alium rogasset (MU. 46), ez'en if he had asked no other, b. Licet (properly a verb) takes a Substantive clause in the Sub- junctive (§ 331. ^) : as,— licet omnes in me terrores periculaque impendeant (Rose. Am. 31), though all terrors and perils should menace me. Note. -The subjunctive with licet is by the sequence of tenses neces- sarily hmit»d to the Present and Perfect tenses. _ c. Etsi. etiamsi. tametsi, even if take the same constructions as M(§305): as,— etsI abest maturitas (Fam. vi. 184), though ripeness of age is wanting. etsi mhd aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 90). even if you had taken away nothing etiamsi quod scrlbas non habebis, scribito tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if you [shall] have nothing to write, still write. d. Cum concessive takes the Subjunctive (see § 326) : as,— cum mihi non omnlno excidisset (Fam. v. 13,2), though it had not entirely vanished [from my mindj. e. Quamquam introduces an admitted fact and takes the Indica- tive : as, — omnibus -quamquam ruit ipse suTs cladibus - pestem denuntiat (Phil XIV. 8), though he is breaking d(ra;n under his disasters, still he threat- ens all with destruction. / Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a cor- rection in the indicative : as, quamquam haec quidem tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc. (Mil. 76). and yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc. § 314] PROVISO. 269 g. The poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quam- quam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunc- tive, according to the nature of the condition. Thus, — quamquam moveretar (Liv. xxxvi. 34), although he was moved. Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, musam (Eel. iii. 84), Pollio loves my muse, though she is rustic. Note. — Even Cicero occasionally uses quamquam with the Subjunctive : as. quamquam ne id quidem suspicionem coitionis habuerit (Plane. 53), though not even that raised any suspicion of a coalition. h. The Relative pronoun qui is often used with the Subjunctive to express concession (see § 320. e). i. Concession is often expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle (§ 266) : as, — sit clarus Scipio, ometur eximia laude Africanus, habeatur vir egregius PauUus . . . erit profecto inter horum laudes aliquid loci nostrae gloriae (Cat. iv. 21), let Scipio be renowned, let Africanus be honored with especial praise, let Paulus be regarded as a remarkable man, [still] there will surely be some room for my glory amid the praises of these men. la. Proviso. 314. (Rule 74.) Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantiun, intro- ducing a Proviso, take the Subjunctive : as, — oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear. valetudo modo bona sit (Brut, d^), provided the health is good. dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. lo), provided only the wall (of the city) is between us. tf. In a negative proviso ne is used, with or without modo, etc. : as,— modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 10$), provided [m pleasure] he be not of the herd of cattle. id faeiat saepe, dum ne lassus fiat (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him do this often, provided he does not get tired. dummodo ea (se Veritas) ne varietur (Q. Fr. L i, 26), provided only it (strict- ness) be not allowed to swerve. tantum ne noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm. 270 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§315- b. The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex- presses a proviso (see § 266. d) : as, — sint Maecenates, non deerunt, Flacce, Marones (Mart. viii. 56, 5), so ther, be Macenases, Virgils will not be lacking. 13. Use of Si and its Compounds. 315. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Particles may be stated as follows : — a. I. Si is used for affir?native, nisi (ni) and si non for negative conditions. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true except in the single case supposed, in which case it IS (impliedly) not triie. Thus, — nisi Conon adest maereo, unless Canon is here, I mourn {i.e. I am always m a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which case I am not). With si non (// not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative) case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made. Thus, — si Conon non adest maereo, // Conon is not here I mourn {i.e. I mourn in the single case of Conon's absence, nothing being said as to other cases in which I may or may not mourn). 2. Ni is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases, and reappearing in poets and later writers. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs : as, — noli putare me ad quemquam longiores epistulas scribere, nisi si quis ad me plura scripsit (Fam. xiv. 2), except in case one writes more to me. b. Nisi vero and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or exception ironically, and take the Indicative : as, — nisi vero L. Caesar criidelior visus est (Cat. iv. 13), unless, indeed, L. CcBsar seemed too cruel. Note. - This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum m Latin. Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense : as, — nisi unum hoc faciam ut in puteo cenam coquant (Plaut. Aul. 365), unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in the well. c. Sive (seu) . . . sive (sen), whether . . . or, introduce a con- dition in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also they are used without a verb. Thus, — §316.] RELATIVE CLAUSES. 2yi nam illo loco libentissime soleo utT, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, sive quid aut scribo aut^ lego (De Leg ii. i), /.. / ,„joy ,nyself most in that place, whether lam thinking by myself or am either writing or reading. " Note. — Sive ... seu and seu . . . sive are late or poetic. DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. I. RELATIVE CLAUSES. Dependent Relative Clauses may be thus classified : — 1. Conditional Relative Clauses (§ 316). 2. Clauses of Purpose {Einal Clauses) (§ 317). 3. Clauses of Characteristic, including — \jfa. Simple Result {Consecutive Clauses) (§319). b. Clauses of Characteristic (including cause and hindrance) (§§ 320, e. Clauses of Time (§§ 322 ff.). I. Conditional Relative Clauses. 316. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb may be treated as a conditional clause and take the constructions of Protasis (§ 305) : as,— qui enim vitiTs modum apponit, is partem suscipit vitiorum (Tusc. iv. 42), he who [only] sets a limit to faults, takes up the side of the faults. [= si quis apponit] quod qui faciet, non aegritiidine solum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv 38) and he who does [shall do] this, will be free not only, etc. r=si quis' faciet.] phUosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere (Cat. Maj. 2), philosophy, which if any one should obey, he could spend his whole life without vexation. [= si quis pareat.] ' quaecumque causa vos hue attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. \^), I should be glad, whatever cause had brought you here {i.e. if any other, as well as the one which did). [= si . . . attulisset.] Note. — The relative in this construction is always Indefinite in mean- ing, and more commonly inform. a. The special constructions of General Conditions are sometimes found in Conditional Relative Clauses : viz., — 272 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. \.%Z^1- 1. The Second Person Singular Subjunctive in the protasis with the Indicative of 2. general truth in the appdosis (§309. a) : as,— bonus segnior fit, ubi neglegas (Jug. 31, 28), a good man becomes less dili- gent when you don't watch him. 2. In later writers the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis : as,— quocumque se intulisset, victoriam secum trahebat (Liv. vi. 8), wherever he advanced y he carried victory with him. 3. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 309. c) : as,— cum ad villam veni, hoc ipsum nihU agere me delectat (De Or. ii. 24), whenever I come to the villa, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come, etc.). [Present General Condition.] cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning [Past General Condition.] 2. Clauses of Purpose. 317. (Rule 75.) A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (utd), negative ne (ut ne), or by a Relative pronoun or adverb. They may be divided into Pure, Relative, and Sub- stantive. 1. Pure Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti) or ne. They express the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modify- ing clause. 2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the Relative pro- noun qui, or by the Relative adverbs ubi. unde. quo. etc. The ante- cedent is expressed or implied in the main clause. 3. Substantive Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti) negative ne. They differ from Pure Final Clauses in having the construction of a substantive. (For Substantive Clauses of Purpose see § 331.) ^ ' Examples of Pure and Relative clauses of purpose are — %Z^1'^ CL.AUSES OF PURPOSE. 273 ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. vi. \z), they brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator. ne qua eius adventus procul sTgnificatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that no sign of his arrival may be made at a distance. ut ne sit impune (Mil. 31), that it be not with impunity. scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 206), he wrote speeches for other men to deliver. eo exstincto fore unde discerem neminem (Cat. Maj. 1 2), that when he was dead there would be nobody from whom (whence) I could learn. Note. — The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corresponding demonstrative. Thus qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on (cf. § 319. note). a. Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correlative in the main clause : as, — legibus idcirco omnes servimus, ut liberi esse possimus (Clu. \^%for this reason we are all subject to the laws, that we may be free. eo consilia . . . ut (regularly), with this design, that, etc. ea causa . . . x\^,for this reason, lest, etc. b. The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final clauses which contain a coinparative : as, libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 11), he took advantage of liberty, to bluster with more impunity (by which the more). Note i.-So quominus ( = ut eo minus) introduces a subjunctive clause after verbs of hindering (see § 331. e). Note 2. - Occasionally quo introduces final clauses which do not con- tain a comparative : as, — quo sibi (exercitum) fidum faceret (Sail. Cat. ii), in order to make the army devoted to himself. c. The Principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is often to be supplied from the context. Thus, ac ne longum sit . . . iussimus (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to be tedtous, we ordered, etc. [Strictly, in order not to be tedious, I say, we ordered ] sed ut eodem revertar, causa haec f uit timoris (Fam. vi. 7, 3), but, to return to the same point, this was the cause of fear. Remark. - By a similar ellipsis the subjunctive is used with nedum (sometimes ne), still less, not to mention that: as,— nedum . . . salvi esse possimus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe. nedum isti . . . non statim conqulsituri sint aliquid scelerii et flagiti (Leg Ag. ii. 91), far more will they huttt up at once some sort of crime and scandal. 274 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§318. quippe secundae res sapientium animos fatlgant ; ne ill! corruptls mori- bus victoriae temperarent (Sail. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters the souls, even of the wise ; much less did they with their corrupt morals put any check on victory. Note. — With nedum the verb itself is often omitted : as, — aptius hQmanitatl tuae quam tota Peloponnesus nedum Patrae (Fam. vii. 28, I), fitter for your refinement than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patra. Remark. — Clauses of Purpose are sometimes rendered in English by that or in order that, with may or might ; but more frequently by the In- finitive with TO : as, — veni ut viderem, / came to see (that I might see). 318. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English (§ 273). The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be ren- dered — (i) venerunt ut pacem peterent. [Final clause with ut (§ 317).] (2) venerunt qui pacem peterent. (Final clause with Relative (§ 317).] (3) [venerunt ad petendum pacem.] (Not found with transitive verbs (§ 300. note), but cf. ad parendum senatui.) [Gerund with ad (§ 300).] (4) venerunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad (§ 300).] (5) venerunt pacem petendl causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerund with causa or gratia (§ 298. c).'] (6) venerunt pacis petendae causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerundive with causa (§ 298. »oiwn, and in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 302) struttiL' (,'Sn;^"'^'''^ -'' '° -^-- P-^- '^ ^ -e con. 3- Clauses of Result. NoTE.-The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use m Clauses of Characteristic. 319. (Rule y6.) A clause that expresses Result is called a Consecutive Clause. Consecutive Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that (negative, ut non), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb). They may be divided into Pure, Relative, and Substanl tive (cf. § 317). 1. Pure Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut non Thev express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause 2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the Relative pro- noun qui. or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, quo, etc The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause. 3. Substantive Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut non. They differ from Pure consecutive clauses in having the construction of a substantive. (For Substantive Clauses of Result, see § 332 ) Examples of Pure and Relative Clauses of Result are — tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste dlligamus (L^l. 29), so great is the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy. nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quae noceat nemini (Tusc. iii. 16) for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one. nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere (Tusc. i. 43), there is no swiftness which can compare, etc. Note. — The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut witli the corresponding demonstrative. Thus, qm = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on (cf. § 317. note). Remark. - Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tarn, talis, tantus, ita, sic, adeo, usque eo, which belong to the mam clause. ^ 276 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS, [§ 319- a, K negative result is regularly expressed by ut or qui with non, nemo, and similar negatives (not ne). Thus, — multls gravibusque vulneribus confectus ut iam se sustinere non posset (B. G. ii. 25), tised up with many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand. nemo est tarn senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. Maj. 24), nobody is so old as not to think that he can live a year. Note. — When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple pur- pose), ut ne or ne is sometimes used as being less positive than ut non : as, — [librum] ita corrigas ne mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7, 6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me. b. Frequently a clause of result is used in a restrictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (cf. § 314) : as,— hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose. Am. 55), this is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers {i.e. useful only on this condition, that, etc.). c. The subjunctive with the Relative quominus (= ut eo minus) may be used, to express a result, after words of hindering or refusing (cf. § 317. ^. note I): as,— nee aetas impedit quominus agri colend! studia teneamus (Cat. Maj. 60), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the ground. d. A clause of result is introduced by quin after general negatives, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) non ; so also after negative clauses of hindrance, resistance, doubt, hesitation, and the like. Thus, — nihU est illorum quin [=quod non] ego illi dixerim (Plant. Bac. 1012), . there is nothing of this that I have not told him. non dubito quin, / do not doubt that (cf. the Eng., / do not doubt but that). aegre (vix) abstinui quin . . ., I hardly refrained from, etc. nihil impedit quin . . ., there is nothing to prevent, etc. Remark. — The constructions of Purpose and Result in Latin are precisely alike in the affirmative (but see sequence, § 287. c\ but in the negative. Purpose takes ne. Result ut non, etc. Thus, custoditus est ne effugeret, he was guarded in order that he might not escape. custoditus est ut non effugeret, he was guarded so that he did not. § 320.] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC. 277 So in Purpose clauses ne quis, ne quid, ne ullus, ne quo, nequando, necubi, etc., are used ; in Result clauses, ut nemo, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc. Thus, — cernere ne quis eos neu quis contingere posset (^n. i. 413), that no one might see them, no one touch them. ita multi sunt imbecilli senes ut nullum offici munus exsequi possint (Cat. Maj. 35), many old men are .w feeble that they cannot perform their duties to society. ne quando liberis proscrlptorum bona patria reddantur (Rose. Am. 145), lest ever the patrimony of the proscribed should he restored to their chil dren. The clause of Result is sometimes expressed in English by the Infini- tive with TO or so-AS-TO or an equivalent : as,— tam longe aberam ut non viderem, I was too far away to see (so far that I did not see ; cf. § 320. c). 4. Clauses of Characteristic. 320. (Rule 77.) A relative clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, where there is no idea of Result. This construction is especially common where the antecedent is otherwise undefined. Thus, — neque enim tu is es, qui nescias (Fam. v. 12, (>),foryou are not such a one, as not to knoxv. multa dicunt quae vix intellegant (Fin. iv. 2), they say many things which (such as) they hardly understand. a. A relative clause of characteristic is used after general expres- sions of existence or non-existence, including questions implying a negative, especially with sunt qui, there are [some] who; quia est qui, who is there who ? Thus, — sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Tusc. i. 18), there are some who think that the departure of soul from body consti- tutes death. erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), there were some who pitied Helvidius. [Cf. est cum (§ 322. Rem.).] Note.— These are called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be distinguished from the Indefinite Relative \n protasis (see § 316)! 2/8 DEPENDEiVT COXSTRUCTIONS. [§ 320. §3i»-] CAUSAL CLAUSES. 279 b. A relative clause of characteristic may follow uuus and solue: as, — 36IUS es cuius in Victoria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus (neiot. 34),^^« are the only man at ivhose victory no one has fallen unless armed. c. A clause of result or characteristic, with quara ut, quam qui, may be used after comparatives : as, — maiores arborCs caedCbant quam quas fcrrc miles posset (I.iv. xxxiii. 5), they (ut larger trees than what a soldier could carry (too large for a uoldier to carry). CanachI signa rigidiSra sunt quam ut imitentur vcritatem (Hrut. 70), the statues 0/ Canachus arc too stij- to represent nature (sliffcr than that they should). Note. — This construction corresponds to the English too . . . to, d. A relative clause of characteristic is used in expressions of Restriction or Proviso (cf. § 319. ^): as,— (juod sciam, so/dr as I know. servus est nGmo, qui modo tolerabill condicione sit servitutis (Cat. iv. 16), there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery. A A relative clause cxi)ressing cause or concession takes the sub- jimciive (§§ 313. //, 321. ^): a.s, — vi. uni simplicein qui nf.s nihil celet (Or. 230), oh ! guileless man, who hides nothing from us! [Causal.] peccasse mihi videor qui a te disccsserim (Fam. xvi. i), I seem to myselj to have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal. J NOTK. — In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is, etc. It is often preceded by ut, utpote, or quippe : as, — ncc consul, ut qui id ipsum quacsisset, moram certamini fecit (Uv. xlii. 7), nor did the consul delay the fght, inasmuch as he had sought that very thing (as [being one] who had sought, etc.). convivia cum patre nOn inibat. quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perraro veniret (Rose. Am. 52), since he did not ezen come, etc. / (RuLi- 7^.) Dignua, indignus, aptus, Idoneua take a clause probably of result with a relative (or rarely with ut) : as,— dl-na in quibus elaborarent (Tusc. i. i), (things) worth spending their toil on (worthy on which they should, etc.). indignus eras qui faceres iniuriam, it was beneath you to do a wroiig (you were unworthy who should, etc.). idoneus qui impetret (Manil. n),ftto obtain. i/ Nqjp — 'With these words the poets often use the Infinitive : as, — fons rivo dare nomen idoneus (Hor. Kp. i. 16, 12), a source fit to give a name to a stream. aetas mollis et apta regi (Ov.), a time of life soft and easy to be guided. 5. Causal Clauses. '^ 321. (Ruij-: 79.) The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative, when the reason is given on the authority of the ivritcr or speaker ; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the authority of another: as, — 1. Indicative : — cum tibi agam griitifis quod mc vivere coSgisti (Alt. iii. 3), when I may thank you that you have forced me to live. quia postrcma aedificata est (V'err. iv. 1 19), because it was built last. quoniam dc utilitate diximus, dc eiriciendi ratione (Or. Part. 94), since we have spoken of its advantage, let us speak of the method of effecting it. 2. Subjunctive : — mihi gratulabare quod audisses mc mcam pristinam dignitatem obtincre (Kam. iv. 14, \,) you congratulated me because [as you said] you had heard, etc. mea m.iter Irata est quia non rcdierim (I'lau*. Cist. 103), my mother is angry because J did nU return. Note i. — The Subjunctive in this use depends on the principle of In- termediate Clauses (§ 341. d). Rkmark. — Non quod, non quia, non quoniam, introducing a reason ex- pressly to deny it, take the Subjunctive. Non quo and non quin introduce a Result clause, but with nearly the same meaning (§ 341. d. Rem.). Thus, — pugilcs ingcmiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia omne corj)us intenditur (I'usc. ii. 56), boxers groan not because they are in pain, but because, etc. non quia philosophia pcrcipi non posset (id. i. l), not that philosophy can- not be acquired. non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. II. i. 24), not that this is necessary. non quin tnitendum sit (De Or. ii. 295), not that pains must not be taken. a. Causal Clauses introduced by quod, etc., take the Subjunctive . in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent clause (see § 336). b. A Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Subjunctive (sec § 320. e). c. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 326). Note. — In early Latin cum causal takes the Indicative (§ 326. note 3). m il' l> \% HI ii' ^■ijaiM!! :ff.>-^ >'.*.*• iiA j-» ".' ' 28o DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§§ 322, 323. 6. Relations of Time. 322. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando. alone or with -cumqno, may i)c used as IiidiMinitc Relatives, and have the constructions of protasis (cf. § 316). Thus, cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 29), -ujhen you (the individual dispu- tant) deny it fo be on n-il. [Present, nothing implied (cf. § 306).] (juod profectO cum mC- nulla vis cogeret, facerc nf.n audOrem (Phil. v. 51), ivhich J 7voiiui surely uol ituiun to do, ns lontr as no force eompdUd me. [Present, contrary to fact : cf. § 3aS.J cum videas eos . . . dolore ndn frangl ( Tu-sc. ii. 66), when you see that those are not hoken by fain, etc. [(k'neral contlition : cf. § 309. a.\ id ubi dixisset, haslam in fines eorum emittchat (Liv. i. 32, 13), when he had said this, he used to cast the sforal clause, but is regarded as sufficiently definite in itself (or from the context). The temporal clause is added to describe that time by the circumstances of the people's grief. These two sorts of temporal clauses the Romans distinguished by means of the fnood, invariably using the Indicative in the first and the Subjunctive in the second. They commonly also used the particles and the tenses in accordance with this division. §S 324, 325-] RELATIONS OE TIME. 281 1 1 I. POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC. 824. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut pri- mum, ut Bomol), Bimul atquo (niniul ac, or simul) take the Intlic- ative (usually in the perfect or the histoncal present) : as, — milites postquam victoriam adept! sunt, nihil reliqui victis fecere (Sail. Cat. II), when the armies had won the victory, they left nothing to the faiKjuishcd. ubi omnes idem sentire intcllexit (H. (i. iii. 23), when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing), simul ac perscnsit (.l-.n. iv. 90), as soon as he perceived. a. These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect indicative. The Imperfect in this case denotes a state of things ; the Pluperfect, an action completed in past time. Thus, — P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in Cacc. 69), when Africanus had been (/>. had the dignity of having been) twice consul and censor. haec iuventutem, ubi familiares opes defecerant, ad facinora incendcbant (Sail. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out. b. Rarely .some of these particles take the subjunctive : as, — posteaquam maximas aedificasset omassetque classes (Manil. 9), having built and equipped mighty flats (after he had, etc.). [lUit the more approved editions have postea cum.] II. CU.\T TKMI'ORAL. 325. (Rule 8o.) Cum (quom) TEMi'OKAL, meaning T£///r;/, takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Subjunctive, other tenses in the Indicative. 'Thus, — cum servIlT bello premeretur (.Manil. 30), when she (Italy) was under the load of the Senile War. cum id nuntiiltum esuct, maturat (P. (i. i. -j), when this had been reported he made (makes) haste. cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fueruntservi (Rose. Am. 120), when Koscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. [For examples with the Future, see c, below.] Note. — The Present takes the Indicative, because present time is gen- erally, from its very nature, defined in the mind ; and it is only when the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see below, § 326), MA f I 282 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 326. § 2>^1'\ RELATIONS OF TIME. that the Subjunctive is used. The Perfect takes the Indicative as the tense of narration, as with postquam, etc. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, better fitted to describe than to define the time. a. Cum temporal sometimes takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect Indicative to indicate a definite past time : as, — quem quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo (Cat. iii. 16), when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, I tooked forward to this. tum cumin Asia res magnas permultl amiserant (Manil. 19), z^- his ut conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search. persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet (B. G. i. 3), he persuades Casticus to usurp royal power. a. lubeo, order ^ and veXJo, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject Accusative (§ 330. B. 2) : as, — liberds ad se adduci iussit (B. G. ii. 5), he ordered the children to be brought to him. ab opera legates discedere vetuerat (id. 20), he had forbidden the lieuten- ants to leave the work. Note i. — Other verbs of commanding, etc., may take the Infinitive: as, — haec facere imperatum est, orders were given to do this. res monet cavere (Sail. Cat. 52), the occasion warns us to be on our guard. b. Verbs of wishing take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. The Infinitive is more common when the subject remains the same ; the Subjunctive, when it changes. Thus, — 1 . Subject of dependent verb same as that of main verb : — quos non tam ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 17), whom I do not care so much to punish as to cure. 2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of main verb : — cupio ut impetret (Plaut. Capt, 102), I wish he may get it. mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 12), / would rather you feared Cerberus. Note. — V0I6 and cupio, however, tend to take the Accusative and In- finitive rather than the Subjunctive, even when the subject changes. When it remains the same, the subject accusative is rarely found. Thus, — iudicem me esse, non doctorem volo (Or. 117), / wish to be a judge, not a teacher. cupi5 me esse clementem (Cat. i. 4), / desire to be merciful. [But regu- larly, cupio esse clemens (see § 271. a).'] c. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infini- tive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; so often sino. Thus, — permlsit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. -^66), permitted him to make divisions. vinum importari n5n sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be imported. d. Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive : as, — §331] CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 289 cottstkuerant ut L. Bestia quereretur (Sail. Cat. 43), they had determined that Lucius Bestia should complain. proelio supersedere statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle. Note i. — Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their construction. For verbs of bargaining with the Gerundive, see § 294. d. Note 2. — Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second Periphrastic conjugation : as, — Regulus captivos reddendos [esse] n5n censuit (Off. i. 39), Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his formal opinion : captivi non reddendi sunt.] e. I. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But Conor, try, usually takes the Complementary Infinitive as, — cura ut quam primum intellegam (Fam. xiii. 10), let me know as soon as possible (take care that I may understand), dant operam ut habeant (Sail. Cat. 41), they take pains to have (give their attention that, etc.). si transire conarentur (B. G. i. 8), if they should try to cross. Note. — C5nor si also occurs (cf. miror si, etc., § Tf^fT^. b. Rem.). 2. Verbs denoting an effort to hinder take either (i) a Subjunctive clause with quominus or ne, or (2) the Infinitive : as, — non deterret sapientem mors qudminus . . . (Tusc. i. 91), death does not prevent the wise man from, etc. ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i), prevented tne from doing. prohibet accedere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching (to ap- proach). Note. — For verbs of hindering negatived {not to hinder), see § 332. g. f. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirmative and ne non or ut negative. Thus, — timeo ne Verres fecerit (Verr. v. 3), I fear that Verres has done, etc. vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. Z^-, L far [that] I cannot grant you. Note. — In this use ne is commonly to be translated by that or lest, ut and ne non by that not. Remark. — With some verbs of the above classes ut is often omitted. So generally after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission, after die, fac, and often in Indirect Discourse after verbs of commanding, etc.: as, — 290 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. \.%ZZ' V0I6 ames (Att. ii. 10), I wish you to love, etc. me ipsum ames oportet (Fin. ii. 85), you ought to love me. Mnesthea vocat, classem aptent socii (/En. iv. 289), he calls Mnestheus [and orders that] his comrades should make ready the fleet (cf. § 339). Note. — Similarly ne is omitted after cave in Prohibitions (cf. § 269. a). g. With any verbs of the above classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of an object clause : as, — hortamur fari (^n. ii. 74), we urge [him] to speak. ne quaere doceri (id. vi. 614); seek not to be told. h. A substantive clause of Purpose used as the object of a verb becomes the subject when that verb is put in the passive. Thus, — imperatum est ut iter facerent, it was ordered that they should march. permlssum est ut irent, permission was given that they should go. i. The impersonals licet and oportet take as subject either a Substantive clause of Purpose or an Infinitive with or without subject- accusative. Thus, — licet me ire, it is allowed me to go. queramur licet (Caec. 41), we are allotved to complain. Note i. — The Subjunctive with oportet omit s ut, except in later writers • (see § 331./. Rem.). ^4rAs^^^>»ir-^ ^ ^' ^ifa ^ Ultfa v^^^ ^ ^ ^^'^^A Note 2. — Licet may take the Subjunctive, usually without ut, to denote ^ 1 concession (see § 313. b). _^^^jP^m/^^^ • Note 3. — Licet may take (i) the Subjunctive ; (2) the Simple Infini- tive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; or (4) the Dative and the Infinitive. Thus, I may go is licet earn, licet ire, licet me ire, or licet mihi ire. 3. Clauses of Result. Note. — Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (i) as the object of facio, etc. (§ 332) ; (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs and verbal phrases (§ 332. a, d) ; (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate nominative, etc. (see § 332./). 332. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut non) are used as the object of verbs denoting the accom- plishment of an effort. Such are especially facio and its compounds (efficio, coniicio, etc.). Thus, — § zvA CLAUSES OF RESULT. 291 efficiam ut intellegatis (Cluent. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect that you, etc.). [So faciam ut intellegatis (id. 4).] commeatus ut portarl posset efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that supplies could be brought. a. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the Subject — 1 . Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort : as, — impetratum est ut in senatu recitarentur (litterae) (B. C. i. i), they suc- ceeded in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about that, etc.). 2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it is necessary, it is added, and the like : as, — accidit ut esset luna plena (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to be full moon (it happened that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit] reliqua est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa- f rugalitas (Tusc. iii. 17), it remains that the fourth virtue is thrift. [So also restat.] b. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam, after a comparative (but see § 336. c. note 2) : as, — perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. ii. 52), he endured ali rather than betray, etc. c. A result clause, with or without ut, is often used elliptically, in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced by the inter- rogative -ne. Thus, — quamquam quid loquor ? te ut uUa res frangat (Cat. i. 22),^^/ why do I speak ? [the idea] that anything should bend you! egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, I interrupt you? ego te videre noluerim (Q. Fr. i. 3, i), I unwilling to see you ? Remark. — The Infinitive, in exclamations (§ 274), usually refers to something actually occurring ; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated. d. The phrase tantum abest, // is so far [from being the case], regularly takes two clauses of result with ut ; one is substantive, the subject of abest; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum. Thus, — tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac mordsi simus, ut n5bis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 104), so far from admiring my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree, that not Demosthenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the subject of abest (§ 332. a) ; the second, a result clause, after tantum (§ 319) ; and the third, after usque eo.] 292 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ ZV'- e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb : as, — in Vitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eicerem (Cat. Maj. 42), it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminins from the senate. f. Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infinitive. (§ 336. i). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes : as, — praeclarum illud est, ut eos . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. 73), this is a noble thing, that we should love, etc. verisimile n5n est ut ille anteponeret (Verr. iv. 11), it is not likely that he preferred. g. A Relative clause of Result with quin is used with verbs or other expressions of hindering and the like when these are negatived. Thus, — facere non possum quin . . . (Att. xii. 27), I cannot avoid, etc. ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2, 6), that I might be hindered by nothing from, etc. Note i. — The negative may be expressed (as in the examples above) or merely implied (as in quia impedit quin earn, who {i.e. nobody) hinders me from going ? ) . Remark. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non dubitd, / do not doubt, and similar expressions : as, — non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2, 3), he did not doubt that we beliez'ed him. Note 2. — Non dubito, in the sense of / do not hesitate, commonly takes the Infinitive, but sometimes quin with the subjunctive. Thus, — nee dubitare ilium appellate sapientem (Lael. i), and not to hesitate to call him a sage. dubitandum non existimavit quin proficisceretnr (B. G. ii. 2), he did not think he ought to hesitate to set out. h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying or as verbs of commanding or effecting. Hence they are vari- ously construed. Thus, — res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself warned that it was time. [Cf. monere ut, warn to do something.] § 333'] INDICATIVE WITH ''QUODr 293 hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animas (B. G. vi. 14), they wish to con- vince that souls do not perish. huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. ui. 18), persuades him to pass over to the enemy. Note. — The infinitive with subject-accusative in this construction is Indirect Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple h.finitive sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause. 4. Indicative with Quod. 333. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consisting of quod causal with the Indicative is used when the state- ment is regarded as a fact : as, — alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. L 19), /■/ is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut conferant could be used, meaning that some should bestow ; or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly) ; quod makes it a fact that men do bestow, etc.] quod rediit nobis mirabile videtdr (Off. iii. 1 1 1), that he (Regulus) returned seems wonderful to us. Note. — The clause with quod may be used as subject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposition with the subject. a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod sometimes ap- pears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English WHEREAS (cf. § 326. <2) : as, — quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2, 3), as to what you write of the house. b. Verbs oi feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod, quia (Causal), or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as,— quod scribis . . . gaudeo (Q. Y.m.\,^), lam glad that you write. quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 136), I greatly rejoice that this is finished. Remark. — Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with si.i apparently substantive, but really a protasis (cf. § 331. e. i. note). Thus, — miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael. 54), / wonder if he could ever have a friend. [Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.] ^ Cf . the Greek 6avfid^4a//Jdicit fore ut ceciderit [rare], he says he shall have fallen, have fallen \dIxitfore utcecidisset \xzx€\, he said he should have fallen. Note i. — All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct. But sometimes con- tinued or repeated action in past time is expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Present Indicative of the Direct Dis- course, and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive (so regularly after memini) : thus, — te memini dicere, / remember that you said. [Direct : dicebas.] Note 2. — For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see § 147- c. 4. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 336. B. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 286). They depend for their sequence on the verb of sayingy etc., by which the Indirect Discourse is introduced. Thus in the sentence, dixit se Romam itunim ut consulem videret, he said he should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, videret follows the sequence of dixit without regard to the Future Infinitive, itunim [esse], on which it directly depends. Note i. — This rule applies not only to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses in indirect discourse, but also to that which stands for the impera- tive, etc. (see examples m § 339), and to that in questions (§ 338). Note 2. — A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is commonly in the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying, etc., is in a primary tense (cf. § 287. /). Thus, — tantum prdfecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vince- remur (N. D. i. 8), we seim to have advanced so far that even in fullness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks. a. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in depend- ent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying, etc., is in a secondary tense : as, — dicebant . . . totidem Nervios (pollicerT) qui longissime absint (B. G. ii. 4), they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many. Note. — This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time in narration to the time of the speaker {Repraesentdtio). In the course of a long passage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes following the Sequence, and sometimes affected by Repraesentdtio. For examples see B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc. ^ 5. Conditions in Indirect Discourse. 337. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed as follows: — 1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clausey is always in the Sub- junctive. 2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is always in some form of the Infinitive. 300 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 337- § IZ^'^ QUESTIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future conditions (§ 307. b) becomes the Future Infinitive. Thus there is no distinction between more or less vivid future conditions in the Indirect Discourse. Examples of conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are 1. Simple Present Condition (§ 306). (dixit) si ipse populo Romano n5n praescriberet quemadmodum suo iure uteretur, non oportere sese a populo Romano in suo iure impediri (B. G. i. 36), he said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people hmv they should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct : si non prae- scribo . . . non oportet.] praedicavit ... si pace uti velint, inicum esse, etc. (B. G. i. 44), he as- serted that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct : si volunt . . . est. Present tense kept by Repraesentdtio (§ 336. B. a. note).] 2. Simple Past Condition (§ 306.) * non dlcam ne illud quidem si maxime in culpa fuerit_Apoll6nius, tamen in hominem honestissimae civitatis honestissimum tarn graviter ani- madvert! causa indicta n5n oportuisse (Verr. v. 20), / will not say this either, that, even if Apollonius was greatly in fault, still an honor- able man ought not to have been punished so severely, etc. [Direct: si fuit . . . non oportuit.] 3. Future Condition's (§ 307). Aeduis se obsides redditurum non esse, neque eis .^. . bellum Ulaturum, si in e5 manerent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotanniTpenHe- rent : si id non feciw^nt, longe eis fraternum nomen populi Romani abfuturum (B. G^^ i. 36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to tke y^dui, bui would not make war upon them if they observed the agreement, etc., and paid tribute yearly ; but if they should not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from aiding them. [Direct : reddam . . . inferam ... si manebunt . . . pendent : si non fecerint . . . al^ri^ J id Datames ut audivit, sensit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tam neces- sario se relictum, futarum [esse] ut ceteri consilium sequantur (Nep. Dat. 6), // // should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody else would follow his example. [Direct : si exierit . . . sequentur.] b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 308) into the Indi- rect Discourse, the following points require notice : — 301 1 . The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense. 2. If the verb of the Apodosis sTactive it takes a peculiar infini- tive form, made by combining the Participle in -uruswith fuisse. 3. If it is passive or has no supine stem, the periphrasis futurum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used. 4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes Perfect Infinitive. Examples are — nee se superstitem filiae futurum fuisse, nisi spem ulciscendae mortis eius in auxiUo commnitonum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50), and that he should not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct : non superstes essem, nisi habuissem.] quorum si aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futiirum fuisse ut omnibus perfectis artibus hominum vita erudiretur (Tusc. iii. 69), // life could have been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in its perfection. [Direct : erudita esset.] si Cn. Pompeius privatus esset, tamen erat deligendus (Manil. 50), if P. were a private citizen, still he ought to be chosen, would become deli- gendum fuisse. Note i. — In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not distinguished in the apodosis from Past, but \\i^ protasis may keep them distinct. Note 2. — The periphrasis futurum fuisse ut is sometimes used from choice when there is no necessity for resorting to it. Note 3. — Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Dis- course to express the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples of this use occur in classic authors : as, — Titurms clamabat si Caesar adesset neque Camiites, etc., neque Eburo- nes tanta cum contemptione nostri ad castra venturos esse (B. G. v. 29), Titurius cried out that if Casar were present, neither would the Carnutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt. [Direct : si adesset . . . venirent.] 6. Questions in Indirect Discourse. 888. (Rule 84.) In the Indirect Discourse a real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the Subjunctive: a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying its own answer, in the Infinitive. Thus, — quid sibi vellet ? cur m suas possessiones veniret (B. G. i. 44), what did he want ? why did he come into his territories ? [Real question. Direct : quid vis ? cur venis ? ] 302 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 339- num recentium iniuriarum memoriam [se] deponere posse (id. i. 14), could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs ? [Rhetorical Ques- tion. Direct : num possum ?] Note i.— No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the ques- tion is to be regarded as rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view. Thus, — utrum partem regnl petiturum esse, an totum erepturum (Li v. xlv. 19), will you ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole? Note 2. — Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see § 334). This is true even when the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question may be either real or rhetorical. Note 3. — For the use of tenses, see § 336. B, note i. a, A Deliberative Subjunctive in the Direct Discourse is always retained in the Indirect : as, — cor aliquos ex suls amitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) should he lose some of his men ? [Direct : cur amittam ?] V 7. Commands in Indirect Discourse. 339. (Rule 85.) All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse : as, reminisceretur veteris incommodi (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) the ancient disaster. [Direct : reminiscere.] Untm i&.ciaX (id. 20), let him make an end. [Direct : fac] Remark. — Thb rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct discourse, but to the hortatory and the optative subjunctive as well. Note i. — Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on the verb of saying, etc. (cf. §§ 286, 336. B, note i). Note 2. —A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by ne with the Subjunctive, even when noli with the Infinitive would be used in the Direct : as, — ne perturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) be troubled. [Direct : nolite perturbari. But sometimes nollet is found in Ind. Disc] The following example illustrates some of the foregoing principles in a connected address : — - §§ 340, 341] INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 303 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Si pacem populus Roman us cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem ituros atque ibi futures Helvetios, ubi eos Caesar constituisset atque esse voluisset: sin bell5 persequi perseveraret, reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Roman!, et pristi- nae virtOtis Helvetiorum. Quod im- provise unum pagum adortus esset, cum el qui flumen transissent suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob eam rem aut suae magno opere vir- tutl tribueret, aut ipsos despiceret : se ita a patribus maioribusque suis didicisse, ut magis virtute quam dolo contenderent, aut Insidiis niterentur. Quare ne committeret, ut is locus ubi constitissent ex calamitate populi RomanI et intemecione exer- citus nomen caperet, aut memoriam proderet. — B. G. i. 13. DIRECT DISCOURSE. Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faciet, in eam partem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi eos tu constitueris atque esse volu- eris : sin bello persequi perseverabis, reminiscere [inquit] et veteris incom- modi populi RomanI et pristinae vir- tutis Helvetiorum. Quod improvlso unum pagum adortus es, cum el qui flumen transierant suis auxUium ferre non possent, ne ob eam rem aut tuae magno opere virtuti tribu- eris, aut nos despexeris : nos ita a patribus maioribusque nostris didi- cimus, ut magis virtute quam dolo contendamus, aut insidiis nitamur. Quare noli committere, ut hie locus ubi constitimus ex calamitate populi RomanI et intemecione exercitus nomen capiat, aut memoriam prodat. II. Intermediate Clauses. 340. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive, (i) when it expresses the thought of some other person than the speaker or writer {Informal hidirect Discourse), or (2) when it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive {Attraction). I. Informal Indirect Discourse. 341. (Rule %6.) A subordinate clause takes the sub- junctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker. Thus, a. In Subordinate clauses in formal indirect discourse (§ 336). So also in Informal Indirect Discourse in the following cases : — b. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not strictly'in the form of Indirect Discourse : as, — kv- ^^pa 304 DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS. [§ 342. animal sen tit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 14), an animal feels what it is that is fit. hunc sibi ex animd scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet ac pungat, ut evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. c. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of sayings or some modifier of it : as, — si quid de his rebus dicere vellet, feci potestatem (Cat. iii. 11), if he wished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance. tulit de caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Milo 15), he passed a law concerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the Appian Way. d. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a rela- tive or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 321). Thus, — Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. 1,12), Patus presented me all the books which (he said) his father had left. Remark. — Under this head even what the speaker himself thought elsewhere may have the Subjunctive. So with quod the verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive. (Especially non quia, etc. See § 321. Rem.) 2. Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction). 342. (Rule Zj.) A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Sub- junctive if regarded as an integral part of that clause : as, — imperat, dum res adiudicetur, hominem ut adservent : cum iudicatum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iii. 55), he orders them, till the affair should be decided, to keep the man ; when he is judged, to bring him to him. mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proelils interfecti (Or. 151), // is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle. [Here laudari = ut laudentur.] a. But a dependent clause, closely connected grammatically with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, may still take the Indicative, if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause : as, — ne hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, suos circumvenire possent (B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should be able to surround his men. Note. — The use of the Indicative serves to emphasize theyb^/, as true. But often no distinction between the two moods is perceptible. IMPORTANT RULES OR SYNTAX. 305 IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX. 1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case (§ 183) 2. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles agree with their nouns m gender, number, and case (§ 1S6). 3. A Relative pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in gender and number, but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands (§ 198). 4. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in number ^v,A person ^ (^ 204). 5. Superlatives (more rarely comparatives) denoting order and succession — also medius, cetenis. relicus — usually designate not what object, but what fart of it, is meant (§ 193)- 6. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plu- ral, that in -urn being used partitively, and that in -i oftenest objectively (§ 194.^). 7. The Reflexive pronoun (se), and usually the corresponding possessive (suus), are used in some part of the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause (§ 196) 8. The Possessive Pronouns are used instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun : (i) always instead of the pos- sessive genitive, (2) rarely instead of an objective genitive (§ 197-^). 9. A Possessive representing a genitive may have a genitive m apposition (§ 197. s^ 322 RHYTHM, [§§ 352-355- r. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short ; the following syllable is, also, usually short : as, cecidi (cado), didici (disco), pupiigi (pungo), cucurri (curro), tStendi (tendo), momordi (mordeo). But, cecidi from caedo, pepedi from pedo. 352. The following terminations are generally pre- ceded by a long vowel : — 1 . -brum, -crum, -tram : as, lavacrum, deliibnun, veratmm. 2. -na« -ne, -nis : as, Ccurina, mane, inanis. 3. -re, -lis, -ta, -tis : as, altare, saintaris, moneta, ImmitJH. 353. The following terminations are preceded by a short vowel : — 1. -cus, -dus (with some exceptions), -lus : as, riisticus, calidus, gladiolus. 2. -tas (in nouns), -ter and -tus (in adverbs) : as, civitas, fortater, penitus. 3. -cuius, -cellus, -lentus, -tudo : as, fasciculus, ocellus, luculen- tus, magnitudo. 354. Rules for the quantity of Derivatives are — a. Forms from the same Stem regularly have the same quantity : as, amo, amavisti ; genus, geneii& b. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them : as, oc-cido (cado), oc-cido (caedo), in-icus (aecus). 2. RHYTHM. I. Measures. 355. Rhythm consists in the recurrence in musical sound of accent at regular intervals. These intervals are called MEASURES or feet. The most natural measures of musical time consist of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also distinguished measures of five parts. Remark. — In poetry these intervals are taken up by enunciated syllables which in Latin have a definite length or quantity. §§ 356-358.] THE MUSICAL ACCENT. 323 a. The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called a Mora. It is represented by the sign v., or may be repre- sented m musical notation by the quaver f). b. A long syllable is regularly equal to two mor^, and is represented by the sign _, or may be represented by the croUkel (f). 356. The measures most frequently employed in Latin verse, together with their musical notation, are the follow- ing:— a. Triple or Unequal Measures (f). 1. Trochee (^ ^ = ^j). ^s, re^rs. 2. Iambus (v.. ^ ^ tP'' "^^ '^^'"' 3. Tribrach (,:; ^ ^ = t±f">'' ^^^ ^omints. b. Double or Equal Measures (|). 1. Dactyl (^ ^ w = j^ rj*) : as, cdnsulis. 2. Anap^st ( w w ^ = •j^ P : as, monms. 3. Spondee (^ _ ^fP'' ^^' ''^^^^^ For the more complex measures, see larger grammar. 857. In most cases measures of the same time may be substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short ones, or two short ones the place of one long one. Thus, a Spondee ( ) may take the place of a Dactyl {— ^ ^). 2. The Musical Accent. 358. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice (the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the unaccented part is called the Arsis. a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis U called the Ictus {beat). It is marked thus : _^ v^ ^. ■lilffiiii'ifilt't r -"T 324 VERS I FTC A TION. [§ 359- § 360-362.] b. The ending of a word within a measure is called CiESURA. When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Caesura of the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm 3. VERSIFICATION. THE VERSE. 359. A single line of poetry — that is, a series of meas- ures (feet) set in a known order — is called a Verse. a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, having a pause to till the measure ; when the end syllable is not lacking, the verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause. b. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion (scansio, from scando, a climbing or advance by steps). Remark. — In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to pre- serve the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done in scanning. c. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called Elision. In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, however, they should be sounded lightly. d. A final -m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like man- ner when the next word begins with a vowel or h : this is called EcTHLiPSis : as, — monstr""* horrend«w, Inform^, ingens, cui lumen ademptum. — yEn. iii. 658. e. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus. In such cases the final vowel is sometimes shortened. / A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a pause : it is then said to be long by Diastole : as, — nostrorww obruimur, — oriturque miserrima caedes. > g. The last syllable of a verse may be either long or short. DACTYLIC HEXAMETER. Forms of Verse. 325 360. A verse receives its name from its dominant or fundamental measure ; as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Ana- pcBstic; and from the number of measures (single or double) which it contains : as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter. Remark.— Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not by single feet, but by pairs {dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter 361. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite num- ber of verses ranged in a fixed order. I. Dactylic Hexameter. 362. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus :— — \j \j \ J- \j \j \^ -^ \ -L ^^ KJ \ J. KJ ^^ \ J^'^ or in musical notation as follows : ircj'irt;iriCj^:'c;irc;irpi| rt. For any one of the feet, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted. The last foot is a trochee standing for a dactyl, but the final syUable is not measured, and the foot is called a spondee. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth place ; the verse is then called spondaic. Thus in Eel. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrementum. b. The hexameter has always one principal ccssura — somtXimts two — almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (masculine), less commonly in the arsis (feminine) of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot. In this case there is often another c^sura in the second foot, so that the verse is divided into three parts instead of two : as, — parte fe | rox || ar | densqu^ ocu | lis || et | sibfla | colla. —jEn. v. 277. Remark. — Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is the break in the sense. v^ 326 VERSIFICA TION. [§ Z^Z- c. The introductory verses of the i^neid, divided according to the foregoing rules, will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each verse is marked by double lines : — Arma vi | rumque ca J no || Tro i iae qui | primus ab | oris Itali I am fa I to prof u | gus || La | vln/aque | venit iTtora, j mult«w ilk | et ter | ris || iae | tatiis et | alto vl siipe j rum sae | vae 1| memo | rem lu | nonis 6b | Tram ; multa quo | qu^ et bel , 16 pas | sus || dum | conderet | urbem, infer j retque de i 6s Lati j 6, || genus | unde La | tinum, Alba i nique pa j tres, 1| at | qu^ altae | moenia | R6mae. Tht feminine casura is seen in the following : — Dis geni \ ti potu ; ere : jj te | nent medi a omnia j silvae. — Ain. vi. 131. 2. Elegiac Stanza. 363. The Elegiac Stanza consists cf two lines, — an hexameter followed by a pentameter. ^ The Pentameter verse is the same as the hexameter, except that it omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot. Thus, — rdrlrdrlr A^u\^u\r a. The Pentameter verse is thus to be scanned as two half-verses, the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable. b. The Pentameter has no Caesura ; but the first half-verse must always end with a word, followed by a pause to complete the measure.^ c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza : — 1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows : — ^ \j w \j \j ro Caecina. Cdd.y pro M. Caelio. Cat., in Catilinam. Clu.f pro Cluentio. C. M., Cato Major. Deiot., pro Deiotaro. De Or., de Oratore. Div., de Divinatione. Caecil., Divinatio in Caecilium. Fam., ad Familiares. Fat., de Fato. Fin., de Finibus. Flzc.f pro Flacco. Font., pro AT. Fonteio. Ad Her. \ad Heren- nium\ Inv., de Inventione. Lael., Laelius. Legg., de Legibus. Agr., de Lege Agraria. Lig., pro Ligario. Manil., pro Lege Ma- nilia. Marc, pro Marcello. Mil., pro Milone. Mur., pro Murerta. N. D., de Natura Deo- rum. Off., de OJiciis. Or., Orator. Par., Paradoxa. Part. Or., de Parti- tione. Phil., Philippicae. Plane, pro Plancio. Pis., in Pisonem. Quinct., /r^ Quinctio. Q. Fr., ad Q. Fratrem. Rabir., pro Rabirio. Rep., de Republica. Rose Am., pro Roscio Amerino. Rose Cora.,pro Roscio Comoedo. Sest., pro Sestio. Sulla, pro Sulla. Top., Topica. Tusc, TusculanaeDis- putationes. Univ., de Universo. Vatin., in Vatinium. Verr., in Verrem. Hor., Horace : A. P., de Arte Poetica. Ep., Epistulae. Epod., Epodes. Od., Odes. Sat., Satires. Juv., Juvenal. Liv., Livy. Lucr., Lucretius. I Mart., Martial. Nep., Nepos. Ov., Ovid : F., Fasti. M., Metamorphoses. ex P., Epistulae ex Ponto. Trist., Tristia. Pers., Persius. Plaut., Plautus. Plin., Pliny, senior : H. N., Historia Natu- ralis. Plin., Pliny, junior : ! Ep., Epistulae. Prop., Propertius. Q. C, Q. Curtius. Quint., Quintilian. Sail., Sallust : Cat., Catilina. ]ng.,/ugurtha. Sen., Seneca : Ep., Epistulae. Q. N., Quaestiones Naturales. Sil. It., Silius Italicus. Suet., Suetonius. Tac, Tacitus : Agr., Agricola. A., Ann., Annales. H., Historiae. Ter., Terence. Virg., Virgil : i^n., yEneid. E., Eclogae. G., Georgica. -►«H^ Note. -The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which the page (p.) IS re erred to. The letters refer to subsections. The letter n. signifies Note ; r Remark. Abl. = ablative ; ace. = accusative ; adj. = adjective ; adv. = adverb ; apod = apodosis; app. = appositive ; comp. = comparison or compound; compar. = comparative • constr. = construction ; conj. = conjugation or conjunction ; dat. = dative ; gen. = genitive • gend = gender ; ind. disc. = indirect discourse ; loc. = locative ; prep. = preposition ; subj.' = subject or subjunctive ; vb. = verb : w. = with. (Other abbreviations present no difficulty ) A, quantity in increment, 350, 351 ; quantity of a final, 348. 4. a or 0, primary suffix, 160. r. i. a, characteristic of decl. I., 32 ; ace. of Gr. nouns in, di^. /; as nom. ending, decl. III., gend., 65. c. a, in decl. I., 32 ; stem-vowel o'f conj. I., 122, 166. a ; preps, in -a, adv. use of, 261. d. a (ab, abs), use, 152. b, 260. b, 263 ; compounded with vbs., 170. a\ with abl. of agent, 246 ; with place from which, 258 ; with names of towns, id. a. N. I ; expressing po- sition, 260. b ; in comp., with dat., 229 ; with abl., 243. b ; with abl. of gerund, 301. Ability, verbs of, constr., 271 ; in apod., 308. c. Abbreviations of praenomens, 80. d ; other abbreviations, 384. Ablative, Etymology ; meaning, 31. /; in -abus, 36. e; of i-stems, decl. III., 55. e ; rules of form, 57; nouns having abl. in -i, 57. a,b\ of decl. IV., in -ubus, 70. d% abl. used as supine, 71. a; of adjs., decl. III., 87. a, b ; prepo- sitions followed by, 152. b. Ablative, Syntax (§§ 242-255) ; meaning and classification, 242 ; Separation, 243 ; w. vbs. of free- dom, etc., id. a ; w. compounds, id. b ; w. adjs. of freedom, etc., id. d', w. opus and usus, id. e. Source and material, 244; w. participles, id, a ; w. constare, etc., id. c ; w. facere, id. d ; w. nouns, id. e. Cause, 245 ; w. dignus, etc., id. a ; causa, gratia, id. c. Agent, 246. Comparison, 247 ; opinione, spe, etc., id. b ; w. alius, id. d ; w. advs., id. e. Manner, 248 ; accom- paniment, id. a ; means, id. c ; w. dono, etc., 225. d\ w. utor, fruor, etc., 249. Degree of difference, 250; quo . . . 60, 106. c, 250. R. Quality, 2y ; price, 252; charge or penalty, 220. b. Specification, 253. Place, 254; w. verbs and fretus, id. b. Ablative absolute, 255 ; adverbial use, id. c ; replac- ing subord. clauses, id. d ; supply- ing place of perf. act. part., 290. d. Abl. of time, 256 ; of time w. quam, 262, N. 2 ; of place from which, 258 ; names of towns, domus, rus, id. a ; ex urbe Roma, id. b. N. 3 ; Locative abl., id. e, /; way by which, id. ^; with transitive com- pounds, 239. 3. N. I ; time within which, 259. c, distance of time, id. d. Abl. with prepositions, 1 52. b, c, 260-63 ; with ex for part, gen., 216. c ; with pro (in defence of)y 236. R.; with palam, etc., 261. b\ abl. of gerund, 301. Abounding, words of, w. abl., 248. r. 2 ; w. gen., 223. Absence, vbs. of, w. abl, 243. a. 338 INDEX OF WORDS AXD SUBJECTS. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 339 Absolute use of vb., 175. h. n. 2, 237. N. ; absolute case, see abl. abso- lute. Abstract nouns, gend., 29. b, in pi,, 75. c \ endings, 163. b, a /; w. adj., 187. c \ abstract quality de- noted by neut. adj., 1S9. a. absum, constr., 231. a. -abas, in dat. and abl. pL, decl. I., 36.^. ac, see atque ; ac si, see acsi. Acatalectic verse, 359. a. accedit ut, 332, Accent, rules of, k^ in decl. II., 40. b\ in comps. of facio, 142. b\ musical, 358. acceptum, 292. n. 2. accidit, synopsis, 145 ; constr., 332. a. accingo, constr., 225. d. accommodatus, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. foot-n. Accompaniment, abl. of, 24S. a. Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. sub- junC, T,^2. Accusative, Use^ 31. ^; in -m and -s, T^T,. c ; in -im, decl. III., 56. a, b ; in -is (pi.), 58 ; in -a, 63./; ace. of decl. IV., used as supine, 71. a ; neut. ace. used as adv., 148. d. Accusative, Syntax, 237-40 ; w. verbs of remembering, 219 and rz, b ; and gen. w. vbs. «f reminding, id. c ; w. impersonals, 221. b, 237. e\ w. dat. 225 ; w. compounds of ad, ante, ob, 228. a\ verbs varying between ace. of end of motion and dat., 225. b ; w. ad, for dat. 234. b ; after propior, etc., id. e ; after nouns, 237./; direct object, 237; w. invo, etc., 227. a; ace. or dat. w. vbs., 227. b, c ; ace. w. verbs of fefling and taste, 237. b, c ; with comps. of circum and trans, id. d'. cognate ace., 238 ; two accusa- tives, 239 ; ace. w. pass, of verbs oi asking, etc., 239. c. R.; adverbial use of, 240. a, b ; synecdoehieal ace, id. c ; in exclamations, id. d\ duration and extent, id. e, 256, 257 ; end of motion. 258 ; names of towns, domus, rus, id. b-, Ro- mam ad urbem, id. n. 3 ; ace. w. ante diem, 259. ^ ; subject of mf., 173. 2, 240./ 272, 330; w. prepositions, 152. a, c; w. prep, to denote penalty, 220. b \ w. ad w. refert, etc., 222. b ; w. pridie, propius, etc., 261. a; ace. of gerund, 300; of anticipation, 334. r ; sub- ject in indirect discourse, 336. and a. Accusing and acquitting, vbs. of, constr., 220. acer, decl., 84. a ; comp., 89. a, -aceus, adj., ending, 164.^. acies, decl., 74. d. acquiesco, with abl., 254. b. acsi, with subjunc, 312. Actions, names of, 163 ; nouns of, w. gen., 217. Active voice, loS.a, in ; change to pass., 177. a. Acts, nouns denoting, 163. c. acus, gender, 69. a. -acus (-acus), adj. ending, 164. c. ad, use. 152. a; in comp., 170. a; in comp., w. dat., 228, 229 ; in comp., w. ace, 228. a ; w. ace. w. adjs., 234. b ; end of motion, 258, cf. 225. ^; w. names of towns, 258. b. N. 2 ; w. names of coun- tries, 258. 2 ; meaning mar, 258. r. N. I ; in expressions of time, 259. ^ ; following its noun, 263. N. ; w. gerund, 300. adamas, decl., 63. e. additur, constr., 332. adeo (verb), constr., 228. a. adeo ut, 319. r. -ades, patronymic ending, 164. b. adim5, constr., 229. Adjective phrase, 179. Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns. Adjectives, Etymology ; definition, introd. 4 ; formed like nouns, p. 34. Declension, 8 1-87 ; decl. Land II., 8 1-83 ; decl. III., 84-87 ; decl. III., three terminations, 84. a ; one ter- mination, 85. Comparison, 89-91 ; decl. of comparative, 86 ; advs. derived from adjs., 148; numeral adjs., 94, 95 ; derivative adjs., 164. Adjectives, Syntax and use; as advs., 88. d (cf. 92), 148. d, 191 ; as nouns, 88. a, 18S, 189 ; masc. adjs., 88. b ; adjs. of com. gend., 88. b ; nouns used as adjs., 88. c, 188. d!'; advs. used as adjs., 188. AA'f' anceps, decl., 87. a. AncMses, decl., 37. Andromache, decl., 37. -aneus, adj. ending, 164.^. animal, decl., 52. Animals, gend. of names of, 29. b, 30. b ; regarded as means, 246. b. N. animi (loc), w. adjs., 218. r. R. ; w. verbs, 223. c. annalis, decl., 57. a. Answers, forms of, 212. ant-, ent-, stem endings, 63. e. ante, 152, ^ ; compounded w. vbs., 170. a ; in compounds, w. dat., 228 ; w. ace, id. a ; adverbial use of, 261. ^; followed by quam, 262. ante diem, 259. e. Antecedent, its use with relative, 198, 200 ; undefined, constr., 320 ; see indefinite antecedent. antecedo, constr., 228. a. anteeo, constr., 228. a. antegredior, constr., 228. a. Antepenult, 19. def. antequam, 327 ; in ind. disc, 336. B. a. N. 2. Anticipation, ace. of, 334. c\ be- comes nom., id. R. Antithesis, 344 f. anus, gend., 69. a. -anus, adjs. in, 164. c. Aorist (-hist, perf.), 279. apage, 144./ a parte, 260. b. apertus, comp. of, 89. -r. apis, decl., 59. Apodosis, defined, 304 ; introduced by correl., id. b ; may be subord., id. c ; forms of, 305, 306 ff. ; po- tential subj., 311. a and R. ; subj. of modesty, id. b ; verbs of neces- sity, etc., id. c ; complex apod., id. d\ apodosis omitted, 312 ; apod, in ind. disc, 337. Appointing, verbs of, constr., 239. a. Apposition, see appositive. Appositive, defined, 184 ; agree- ment of, 183, 184. b ; w. locative, id. c ; gen. as appositive to pos- sessive, id. d, 197 ^ ; gen. used for app., 214. /, so dat., 231, b\ rel. clause equivalent to appositive, 201. b \ ace as app. to a clause, 240. g ; appositive instead of voc, 241. a\ app. in connection with inf., 270. N. 2. aptus ad, 234. b ; aptus, w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299, foot-n. ; aptus qui, 320. / apud, 152. a; in quoting, 258. c. 2. N. 2. aqualis, decl., 57. a. -ar, nom. ending, decl. III., 51. r, 53. ^, 57. a ; gend., 65. c. -ar, -iris, nouns in, 57 a. arbor (-os), decl., 48. N. arceo, constr., 225. d. N. 2. arctus, gend., 39. a. arcus, gend., 69. a. ardeo, w. abl., 245. a. 2. -aria, suffix, 164. /'. 2. -aris, adj. ending, 164. d. -arium, noun ending, 164. /. 3. -arius, adj. ending, 164. h\ noun, id. /'. I- Arrangement of words, 343-346- Arsis and thesis, 358. Article, none in Latin, introd. 2. N. artus, decl., 70. d. -as, in ace. pi. of Gr. nouns, 63./. -as, old gen. ending 36. b ; Gr. nom. ending, 63. e\ patronymic, 164.^. j gend. of nouns in, 65. b ; adjs. in ' -as, 164. c. -as, value of, 377 ; gen. of, 252. b. \ Asking, vbs. of, w. two ace, 239. c \ INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 341 w. abl., 239. ^. N. I ; w. subjune clause, 331. J Aspirates, 2. a, 3. Assertions, direct, in Indie, 112. a. Assimilation of consonants, 11. 37- b. convenio, w. ace, 228. a. Co-ordinate conjunctions, 154. a\ co-ord. clauses, 180. a\ co-ord. words without conj., 208. b \ w. conj., id. Copula, 172. N., 176. a ; position of, 344- / Copulative conjunctions, 154. a. i ; constr. after, 208 ; use of, 208. b. Copulative verbs, 172. N., 176. a. corpus, decl., 49. Correlatives, 106, 107 ; rendered by as, 106. b ; by l/ie . . . M^, id. c; advs. of place, 149. a; conjs., 156. ^, 208. d; correlative in main clause, w. final clause, 317. a. Countries, names of, gend., 29. 2 and b ; as end of motion, and place from which, 258. Crdsis, 347. c. crater, decl., 63./. credibili, w. comparative, 247. b. credo, position of, 345. c. Crime or charge, gen. of, 220. -crum, noun-ending, 163. d. cucumis, decl., 56. a. cuias, cuius, 105./. cuiusmodi, 215. a. -culum, noun suffix, 163. d. -cuius, dim. ending, 164. a. cum, quom (conj.), form, 104. /; meaning, 156.^; cum . . . tum, 107, 156. Ay 208. d; with clause for part., 290. c, d, 326. b ; causal, " 321 ; concess., 313. d] causal or concess., 326 ; temporal, 322, 325; sequence, 287. e. n.; in ind. disc, 336. B. a. N. 2. cum (prep.), 152. b; joined as en- clitic with pronouns, 99. e, 104. c, e ; in comp., see com ; with abl. of manner, 248; with abl. of accompaniment, 248. a ; with words of contention, 248. b\ with weds of exchange, 252. c. N. ; w. abl. of gerund, 301. -camque, added to relatives, 105. a and N. ; temporal particles with, 322. -cundus, verbal adj. ending, 164./. cup-, stem-ending, 45. cupio, constr., 331. ^ and n. euro, constr., 331 ; cura (imv.), use, 269.^. -cus, nouns in, decl. IV., 70. d \ -cus, suffix, 164. /. 9. Customary action, 277, 309. b. Dactyl, 356. b. Dactylic verse, 360; hexameter, 363 ; elegiac stanza, 363. damnas, indecl. adj., 87./ Daphne, decl., yi- Daphnis, decl., 63. /, 64. daps, increment of, 350. Daring, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 271. Dates, how expressed, 259. e, 376. Dative, defined, 31. ith verbs of, 243. a. Derivation of Words, 157-170. Derivative forms of nouns, 162, 163; of adjs., 164 ; of verbs, 166, 167. Derivative verbs, defined, 165. Derivatives, quantity of, 354. -des, nouns in, 164. d. Description, imperf. used in, 115. d; description implied in part., 292. Descriptive abl., see abl. of quality, deses, decl., 87. fi. Desiderative verbs (in -urio), 167. V- N. 3- Future Participle, use, 113. by 290, 293* 308. d ; fut. pass, part., 294. Future Perfect Subjunc. wanting, no. a. Future Subjunctive wanting, no. a. futurum esse ut, see fore ut ; ifutiiram fuisse ut, ZZ7. n. 3. G (the character), 6. Games, plural names of, 76. r. gaudeo, conj., 136 ; with abl., 254. b ; w. quod or ind. disc, 333. b. Gems, gender of, names of, 29. b, Zg.a. Gender, kinds of, 28 ; general rules for, 29 ; common, doubtful, epi- cene, 30 ; nouns, decl. I., gend., 35; decl., II., 39; nouns, decl. III., gend. according to endings, 65 ; of nouns, decl. IV., 69 ; decl. v., 73 ; Syntax, agreement in gend., 181 ; of appositives, 184. b ; of adjs., 186 ; adjs. with nouns of different genders, 187, cf. 189. c ; of rel., 199. b. General conditions, defined, 304. d ; constr. of, 309 ; relatives in, 316. a. General truths after past tense (in sequence of tenses), 287. d ; in pres., 276 ; in general condition; 309. a. Genitive, Etymology. Meaning, 31. b ; terminations of, 32 ; plural in -um, 33 ; gen. in -ai and -as, decl. I., 36. a, b ; in-i for ii, decl. II., 40. b \ in-i of prop, nouns of decl. 350 INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. \ ( INDEX TO WORDS AND SUBJECTS. * \ III., 43. a ; gen. plur. in -um (-6m), for -dram, 40. e ; -um for -ium, decl. III., 59 ; -6s for -is, 63. /; gen. plur. in -um, 70. c\ in -i or -e for ei, decl. V., 74. a \ of adjs. in -ius, 83; gen. plur. in -ium or -um, 87. c, d. Genitive, Syntax, 213-223; gen- eral use, 213. Subjective gen., 214. Possessive gen., id. a-d ; in appos. w. poss. pron., 197. e -, compared w. dat., 231. R. ; gen. in predicate, 214. c, d\ gen. of adj. for neut. nom., 214. R. ; gen. of substance or material, 214. e\ for appositive, 214. J\ gen. of quality, 215. Partitive, 216. Ob- jective gen., 217 ; w. adjs., 218, 234. d ; vr. verbs of memory, 219; charge and penalty, 220; of feeling, 221 ; vv. impers., mis- eret, etc., 221. b ; w. refert and interest, 222 ; of plenty and want, 223; of exclamation, 223; w. potior, id. a ; w. other vbs., id. b ; w. ege6 and indige6, 223, 243. J\ gen. replaced by dat., 226. b ', of value, 252. a,b\ gen. of gerundive, 298. genius, voc. of, 40. c. gens, or family, names, 80. a. Gentile adjectives, 164. r. gentilis, 57. ^. genu, decl., 68 ; gend., 69. b. genus, decl., 49. -ger, compounds of, 41. Gerund, form, 109./^; use, 114. a; gerundive used instead, 296. Syntax, 295-301 ; gen. of, 298 ; pred. use, purpose, id. r. ; vv. obj. gen., id. a ; dat. of, 299; in law phrases, etc., id. b ; ace. of, 300 ; abl. of, 301 ; gerund in apposition, 301. r. Gerundive, meaniug-a«^ form, 113. d', of dep. verb, 135. d\ use as part, or adj., 294 ; of utor, id. c ; to denote purp. after certain vbs., id. d', used for gerund, 296. Ger- undive constructions in cases, gen., 298 ; dat., 299 ; ace, 300 ; abl., 301. Impersonal w. esse, w. ace, 237. g. Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d. glacies, decl., 74. d. glis, decl., 54. 2. gl6rior, w. abl., 254. b. Gnomic perfect, 279. c. -g6, nouns in, gfend., 65. b. gracilis, decl., 87./; comp., 89. b. Grammar, how developed, p. 124. Grammatical gender, 28. a. gratia, w. gen., 223. e, 245. c\ w. gen. of gerund, 318. Greek accusative {synecdochical), 240. c. Greek nouns, decl. I., 37 ; decl. II., 43 ; decl. III., 63, 64. Greek proper names, quantity of, 347- ^' 5- Groups of words., conjuncs. w., 208. b. 2. grus, decl., 60. a. Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 218. a. H (breathing), 3. b; omitted in sound, II. ecial uses of, 189. Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs. Neuter gender, general rule for, 29. c ; cases alike in, t^t^. b ; endings of decl. III., 65. c. Neuter pron. as cognate ace, 238. b. Neuter passives, 136. Neuter verbs, 175, 176; with cog- nate ace, 238 ; having passive sense, with ab, 246. a. Neuter passives, 136. , ni, nisi, use of, 315. a. -nia, -nium, noun-endings, 16^. f. niger, decl., 82. nihil, contr. to nil, 347. c. nihil!, gen. of value, 252. b. nimirum quam, used as indefinite without subjunc, 334. e. ningit, 146. a. nisi and si non, 31 5. a ; nisi 8I, id. .2 ; nisi vero (forte), id. b. nitor, with abl., 254. b. nix, plur., 75. b. No, in answers, how expressed, 212. noli, in prohibitions, 269. a. nolo, conj., 138 ; part., as dat. of reference, 235. c. n5men, decl., 49 ; ndmen, denoting gens., 80. a. nomen est, with pred. dat., 231. b, c. Nominal adjectives, 164. a-k. Nominative defined, 31. «; how formed from stem, 32. b ; nom. suffix, 160. r; neut. pi. nom. and ace alike, 33. ^; in decl. II., 38 ; in decl. III., 44, 45, 48, 51; of neuters, i-stems, 51. ^ ; in u-stems, decl. IV., 68 ; in e-stems, decl. V., 72. Nominative, Syntax-, as subject, 173. I ; in predicate, 176, b, 185 ; verb-agreement with, 204 ; used for vocative, 241, « ; in exclama- tions, id. c (cf. 240. d) ; with opus in predicate, 243. e. R. ; nom. of gerund supplied by inf., 295. r. non, compounds of, 150. a, b\ in answers, 212. a. non dubito quin, 319. d\ 332.^. r. non modo, after a negative, 209, a. ndnne, in questions, 210. c. non nem5, non nOUus, etc., 150. a. non quia, n5n quod, non quo, n5n quin, etc., 156./, 321. r. non satis, 93. e. Nones (ndnae), 376. c. nos, decl., 98. i ; for ego, 98. r. b. noster, for poss. gen., 99. a, 197. a. nostri, as objective gen., 99. c^ 194. b. nostrum, as partitive gen., 99. ^, 194. b. novendecim, 94. c. Noun and adj., forms of verb, 109. Nouns defined, 25. a ; indecl., gend., 29. c ; declension of, 32-78 ; deri- vative forms of, 1 61-163; used as adjectives, 88. c, 188. d\ rule of agreement, 183 ; w. part, gen., 216. a ; w. obj. gen., 217 ; governing ace, zyj.f', noun as protasis, 310. a. Nouns of agency, i6r ; formation, 162. nox, decl., 54. -ns, as adjective ending, 85. a ; par- ticiples in, decl., 85, 87. d; w. gen., 218. ^ ; w. ace, id. n. i and 2. -nt, stems in, decl., ^"j. b. nubes, decl., 52. nubo, with dat., 227. e. ntillus, decl., 83. num, force of, 210. c\ in indirect questions, id. f. Number, 31 ; nouns, defect, in, 75, 76; variable in, 79. a; peculiar uses, id. b, c ; number in verbs, 108. d; agreement in, 181; with appositives, 184. a\ with adjs., 186, 187, d\ with verbs, 204, 205. c. Numeral advs., 96. Numerals, 94-97 ; cardinals and ■Miii^MUia 358 NDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS. 359 ordinals, 94 ; distributives, 95 ; advs.,96; others, 97. Position of numerals adjs., 344. b. numquis, decl., 105. i^; meaning and form, id. /. nunc, compared ^^^th iam, 151. b. nunc . , . nunc, 208. d. nurus, gend., 69. a. -nus, adj. ending, 164. l VT-J » ••"* ••*?•!? "•*!^:tHi4 »HI .■rV.: J I'iM :;:fl%:!ii- ■pii^-WhJt * • • • 4 • ^rt-iMIV- I'l i:j iiiN ■}|j:ij;?.. ^'^*1U; ^- . < • 1 • ''^ff1tffT^'TTM?^"l'~MH'*Ml * . i Mm