MA S TER NEGATIVE NO 92-80596-18 MICROFILMED 1992 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the "Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project" Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States - Title 17, United States Code — concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material... Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: HAMILTON, HOLLISTER TITLE: NEGATIVE COMPOUNDS IN GREEK... PLACE: BALTIMORE DA TE : 1899 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT Master Negative # BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET Restrictions on Use: Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record ■ HI— imm »■ 887.5 Z8 V.16 Hnmilton, Hollistcr Adclbcrt, 1S70-. 'II1C nc^rativc compounds in Greek ... Murphy c()ni])any, [)riincrsj 1S99. Tli.'-if4 (1,1. ii.)_.|nliiir- II..i.Uing univcrHitv. lAiv., Vol. of pamphlets. t I X i t , • ' i . Baltimore J. 4-21625 TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE:___J?>Svv>%>N REDUCTION RATIO: IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA Ql^ IB IIB _ DATE FILMED:__Of2_2l/_2i!.^3_ INITIALS__t:3MJ; __ RLMEDBY; RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. INC WOODBRIDGE. cf \l»c c Association for information and Image IManagement 1 1 00 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1 1 00 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 301/587-8202 Centimeter 12 3 4 mi ITT mjImjJmmM^^ Inches I I I I 5 6 7 8 iiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliii TTT jrTTl m 12 13 14 15 mm liiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiili 1.0 LI 1.25 10 11 J I I I TTT m 2.8 2.5 IIIM ||56 3.2 il '3 It i^ 2.2 ■ 80 Iir iiiii£ 2.0 l£. li .. tiHili 1.8 1.4 1.6 iiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiii I I MPNUFflCTURED TO fillM STRNDfiRDS BY APPLIED IMRGEp INC. Miri' .viiMi|l"P I J i •^-ItT." Mm K f- Columbia ^niberfiitp \^ mtf)eCitpofiSetD|9orfe LIBRARY -.-ar 7; W * A>^ < I -> i i "wtA THE NEGATIVE COMPOUNDS IN GREEK. A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE BOARD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY HOLLISTER ADELBERT HAMILTON, PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN ELMIRA COLLEGE. < BALTIMORE 1899 1 I CONTENTS. Jfe JOHN MURPHY COMPANY, PRINTERS, BALTIMORE. V I. Introductory, Page. 5 6 II. The Form of the Prefix, The term alpha-privative. — Suggestion as to its possible origin. — The Indo-European negatives. — Accent. — The form of the prefix in Greek, lengthening of it, a- before vowels, the forms V77- and ava-. --------- III. The Form and Classification of the Compounds, - - 15 IV. The Limitations on the Use of the Prefix in Composition, 17 The original sphere of the prefix.— Its use with the partici- ple, — with the infinitive,— with the finite verb, — with nouns in immutata, — with adjectives. V. The Favorite Types of Negative Compounds, - - - 27 The compounds with the verbals in -ros. — The mutata of a- privative -\- noun. VI. Expressions which may replace the Negative Compounds, 29 Use of the sentence-negative, — of Sue- and KaKo-, — of preposi- tions in composition, — of certain verb-stems, — of certain adjective-stems. — Substitutes for the derivatives. VII. The Semasiology of the Negative Compounds, - - 35 Development from original free negative to the negative in composition. — Negative and contrary significations, thence a positive content. — Prefix with the force of a sentence- negative. — Privation and negation. — Hyperbole. VIII. The Negative Compounds as an Element of Style, - 41 Stylistic character of compounds in general. — The artistic and technical spheres.— Stylistic effects of the negative com- pounds. — Massing of them together, alliteration, anaphora, — feeling in privation,— triplets.— Figura etymologica.— Oxy- moron. — The proportional metaphor. — Antithesis. — Litotes. — Extension in form for phonetic impressiveness. IX. History of the Formation of the Negative Compounds IN Greek, 53 Compounds possibly inherited from the proethnic speech. — Tables showing emergence of the compounds in the litera- ture. — Contributions of different portions of the literature to the number of negative compounds. — The various classes of negative words, — d-privative -f- adjective,— growth of com- pounds with verbals in -tos at the expense of the mutata, — derivatives, especially the abstract nouns. — The vn- com- pounds. ;» i THE NEGATIVE COMPOUNDS IN GREEK. % i 1} I. INTRODUCTORY. The study of the negative compounds in Greek may afford a The stuay oi g noun-composition in that language, single chapter m the h^oryot no ? j^^ ^.^.tment, a subject which has not yet receiyea J ^j^^^ nor one which is --ensurate wuh .s^ n^^^^^^^^^^^^^ one department op .^^^^^^ the simp'lest types of as we may approach o"Y'fJ/'°Thus we may consider first the use in composition, and the yi^f^ "* '° J ^f t^ese compounds u w Ao-ain the semasiological character ui lu i by It. Again, tne b ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^„^^.p. S"*S' P»»»» ° „„p<,„„d, has a .tjlislic imporlance, e.pe- 'IvTbt t eyTp,r ma.s«l .og«h.r, wh„. th.y Wong .0 :il*". t'echlic, .pber.s, o, wh.re .hey .. «»^ .. .^ "Hh': rirc::^:!!! t rvL„. 6ep.«»»,. .r .he Klrura^"Ib,o»gh .he difaen. period, of .he ..ng...ie. ( The Negative Compounds in Greek, II. THE FORM OF THE PREFIX. The regular and productive form of the negative prefix in Greek is the so-called a-privative {aXc^a arepyriKov). The negative prefix vr)' is archaic and poetic and can hardly be said to be pro- ductive in any period of the language. Philologians now-a-days are wont to speak of the so-called alpha-privative, and this is because that designation is misleading in both its parts. For in the first place the ante-vocalic form dv- undoubtedly represents more nearly the original form of the prefix than does the ante-consonantal a-, and it is the nasal which is its characteristic element and which is still common to most of its forms in the various languages cognate with Greek ; cf Lat. in-, Germ, un-, etc. The origin of the term a//)/ia-privative is doubt- less due partly to the fact that in the great majority of cases the prefix stands before a consonant, and so appears as d- rather than ai/-, and partly to the accepted view of the ancients and of earlier modern scholars that the v was inserted after the d for the avoid- ance of hiatus. Secondly, the meaning of the prefix is by no means merely privative, i. e. denoting the removal of that which was before possessed or the absence of that which is aimed at or expected, but it is rather negative in the widest sense, running the whole gamut of possible shades of negation. A more proper des- ignation, therefore, would be ai^-negative, which, however, in defer- ence to established usage we shall not venture to employ. A comparison of the forms in the extant languages of the Indo- European family points unmistakably towards the use of a nasal element as a negative sign in the pro-ethnic speech. We are able to discern also that the early language differentiated the negative of the sentence from the negative which formed a close compound with a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. We can tell too the classes of compounds into which in this early period the latter form of the negative entered. If we attempt to go further back than this, we can no longer speak of scientific knowledge, but must be content to ascribe to our surmises merely the character of a priori probability or possibility. Perhaps without claiming for the fancy any more than it is { i I • 1' The Negative Compounds in Greek, ^ 7 worth we may be permitted to indulge in a conjecture as to one of the possible ways in which the use of a nasal element as a negative «ign may have originated. We must assume that the growth of language has always been, as we see it now, a process of adaptation of means to end. The end was and is the practical one of com- municating thought to one's fellows; the means anything which by association can effect the desired communication, whether it be some spoken symbol originating in onomatopoeia, or interjection, or gesture, or what not. The earliest definite oral expression of negation by the child would naturally often occur with reference to its chief object of interest, its food. Now the refusal of food by one who has not yet mastered articulate speech requires a closed mouth ; so, if this be accompanied, as it is apt to be, by vocal utterance, a nasal is pro- duced, generally the labial or dental nasal. The child's negative is thus a ^ vocal gesture,' or an interjection. A similar explanation might account for the origin of shaking the head or throwing out the hands sidewise as signs of negation. Languages widely sepa- rated and outside of the Indo-European family also have what we may call a nasal negative, e. g. in the American languages, Poko- raan, Quichl, Maya, Haytian, Gvajiro, ma; Paez, me; Kechua, mana ; Hidatsa, desa (d being interchangeable with n)\ cf. Douay, Etudes Etymologiques sur FAntiquite Americaine, Paris, 1891, p. 24. Note too the use of m in the negative verb in Turkish. At any rate, whatever knowledge or theory we can hope to have about the form of the negative in the glottogonic period of speech must be reached by some such method, i. e. by studying the modern phenomena which are observed either in the infancy of the indi- vidual or in incipient stages in the development of linguistic pro- cesses. In some such way as we have indicated, or indeed in any one of various other ways, a negative sign might arise, as the act expressing the negation became less and less instinctive and more and more conventional ; and only by degrees would the accom- panying sound become an articulate word with a definite place in the sentence. Cf. Paul, Principles of Language (Eng. trans.), p. 122, "One might very well imagine that negative sentences might be formed in a primitive stage of development of language t* _3!titffti<3P-i^*i**i- ■yra^::' 8 The Negative Compounds in Greek in which the negative sense might be indicated by nothing else than the stress and the accompanying gestures." But in these matters the only safe attitude is that of an agnostic. Such an attitude we must bear also toward the theory of the origin of the negatives from a demonstrative root. This theory would identify the original form of the negative with the pronominal ana, meaning at first ^yonder/ then 'other/ and gradually acquiring a purely negative force; cf Pott, E. F.^, i, p. 382. ne nL no, no, n- ('n), n- have been assumed as the forms in- which the negative appeared in the primitive Indo-European lan- guage. Cf. Fowler, The Negatives of the Indo-European Lan- guages, Chicago, 1896, p. 1. There is wide difference in the character and weight of the evidence for the existence of each of these various forms, but it is at least clear, as has been stated, that even in the pro-ethnic speech there was a differentiation between the negative of the verb or of the sentence and that of the noun. Of these forms, if all were in existence, I-E. ne, ne, 7io, no belonged to the verb or to the sentence, and oi- ('n\ n- to the noun (including the adjective). The difference between n-, nn- and n- is purely one of form, not of meaning ; cf. Kruzewski, Techmer's Zeitschrift, iii^ p. 185, who says that "prefixes have so definite a meaning that phonetic variations could not be used for any internal distinction in signification.*' So too, as there is only one kind of negation known to logic, the different forms of the I-E. negative must be thought of as having originated through different accentual rela- tions due to their position in the sentence and not as expressing degrees or varieties of negative force. That the heavier forma should have been used for the negative of the sentence is probably due to the enclisis of the verb. The natural and common view is to regard the negative prefix as a weak ablaut form of the stronger particle. Bopp's identification (Vgl. Gram., § 537) of the a- privative with the verbal augment is now nothing more than one of the curiosities of the history of philology ; cf. Pott, E. F.^, ii, p. 398. This weaker form of the negative which appears in the privative prefix must go back to conditions in which the negative was with- out accent. Yet secondary causes operating in pro-ethnic times The Negative Compounds in Greek 9 I i h •seemed to have caused the prefix to be accented in primary compo- sition, i. e. in immutata (descriptives, karmadharaya). In secon- dary composition the muiata (possessives, hahuvrihi) seem to have largely lost this accent (on the prefix) of the immutata from which they were derived and to have become oxytone. See Knauer, Ueber die Betonung der Composita mit a-privatum in Sanskrit, K. Z. XXVI, pp. 65 ff. In the case of mutata with stems ending in -es this loss would seem to go back to the pro-ethnic speech ; in the case of the other mutata the loss, where it has occurred, belongs only to the individual languages. Thus it has become a general rule for mutata of all types in Sanskrit, while in Greek it has not gone beyond the stems in -e?. See Streitberg, I-G. Forschungen, I, pp. 87 f., 94. For Greek it may be stated as a general rule that, with the exception of the stems in -e? and a few minor groups, the accent is generally recessive in compounds with the negative prefix, both immutata and mutata, though we can hardly tell whether this is due to the general recessive law or to the tendency to accent the first members of these compounds. Mutata in -e? (nom. -t;?) are with few exceptions oxytone. This theory, that the oxytonesis of the Greek mutata in -779 is a remnant of an old bahuvrihi (mutatum) accent the tendency toward which started before the separation of the languages, is that of Knauer, who holds that this tendency was limited by other tenden- cies in Greek to the mutata in -r?9, while in Sanskrit it became a rule for mutata in general. But the view has also been held that the peculiar accent of the compounds is due to a tendency to take an accent like that of the simple adjectives in -t;? ; cf. Schroeder, K. Z., XXIV, p. 110, and Wheeler, Der Griechische Nominal- accent, p. 46, n. 1. While the other languages of the I-E. family have preserved the nasal in their representatives of the I-E. negative prefix n- ('n) as in Lat. m-, Germ, wn-, Old Ir. an-, the Greek agrees with the Sanskrit and Avestan in having the privative prefix in the form of av- {an-) before vowels and of a- (a-) before consonants. In Greek there are a few apparent exceptions to this rule. So for ii/e(^eXo9, Od. 6, 45, some codices read avve(^e\o^ ; cf. a\'ko(^o^, II. A 1 10 The Negative Compounds in Greek, 10,258 (v. 1. d\o(f>os;). There are a number of other phenomena in the Homeric poems which seem to favor the view that these forms may be due largely to metrical necessity in the hexameter. We have a- regularly through the language in dOdvaro^, which is doubtless a very old word and by far the most common of the pri- vative compounds in early Greek poetry, constituting more than one- seventh of all the occurrences in Homer and just one-fourth of those in Hesiod. So we have d- in dKaiiaro^ in dactylic poetry and later dirdXa/jLo^ (Hes.) and dirapdfjLvOo^ (Aesch.). The otherwise constant habit of the language rather forbids us to call these cases of compensatory lengthening for the loss of the v of the prefix, but it is more likely that we have here to do with a phenomenon par- allel with yve/xoeis from ave/no^;, dvcopv/io<; from ovofia, the result of a tendency toward the lengthening of short vowels of which the epic poet availed himself under stress of metrical necessity, just as he used always aTrroXefio^ for the unmetrical diroXefio';. For the rare lengthening of a-privative in Sanskrit, see Whitney, Sanskrit Grammar, 1121 c. The word y]K€(Tro^ [= 'untouched by the goad' (?)] is found only in the Homeric line, i^pc^ i^/ceara^ lepevaefxev, at k e\er)ar){^), II. 6, 94, 275, 309. If we have really to do with the negative prefix here, it may be said that the phrase, r)VL<; 7]Kkaairj, while Brugmann, Vgl. Gram.^ I, p. 419, refers this form of the The Negative Compounds in Greek, 11 \ t '* < f 1- »>' prefix to I-E. n. I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Hermann Collitz for o the suggestion that the proper division of the word may be d/jL(l)-aaL7] and that we may here have to do with the root as, asd, to parch or wither, and so the word may be cognate with Gk. d^a, d^co, dtalvco, d^a\eo<;, Lat. arere, ardere, ardor (for asdor), Eng. ashes. Cf. Fick, Vergleichendes Worterbuch der I-G. Sprachen,^ ii, p. 28. With regard to the appearance of the form d- before vowels it may be remarked that words like dvirvo^ (Hom.) and docKo<; (Hes.) were formed in a period when initial a and F still existed in the simple words ; in some cases the same compounds took dv- later when the traces of the original initial consonant had entirely dis- appeared, e. g. dvoLKo^ (Hdt.), dwirvo^ (^y^O ? ^^ut dovro^ and dvovTaTo<^ are both Homeric, dveano^ and dvec/jicov are found in Homer, but perhaps only in the later parts ; the latter word is found only in the Odyssey. ddaTo r f 'vif The Negative Compounds in Gr^eek, 15 thus Froehde, Bezz. Beitr. xx, p. 213, assumes dvdeSvo^ to be for az/ + * «e8z/09. Now we have in Homer the simple word in two forms, eSva, eehva, and Hesychius glosses aehvov by d<^€pvov rj 7ro\v(j)€pmv. If the ancient lexicographer really understood the word, the second d in dvdeSuoi; was either negative or intensive. The suggestion of Wharton, Trans. Philol. Soc, 1891-4, p. 331, that dv- in these words = ?i- and is intensive, so that dvdeSvof^ o means ^ quite dowerless/ would presuppose a double prefix here n-n-, of which the first part would be intensive and the other negative. The view of Pott, E. F.^ i, p. 389, that we have in dvd6Bvo<^ a doubling of the negative prefix seems more probable. Cf. Sv(rdfifMopo<;, II. XXII, 428, where the scholiast remarks, Svcrdfi- ^opo^, SeScTrXaaia/ce irpof; ri-jv iiriTaaLV • to yap Svcr Kal a ravTov h7]\ovaiv ; also Et. Mag. sub voc, hvadpLfxapo^, w? 7^\iK€<;, ofir]Xi/c€(;, Kal avvofjLi]\LK€<;. Cf. Skr. dur-a-dahhna, anavipra- yukta (explained by na viprayukta), and the more doubtful ana- vadya, and see Whitney, Gram. § 1121, b. We may add that a confusion of dveehvo<^ and d€Svo<^ (* dFeSvoi;) both negative com- pounds, may have led to a sort of blend in dvdeSvo^, Froehde, 1. c, would connect dvdTrvevaro^ with dpairveo), being shortened by Miaplology' from * dv-avdirvevaro^, as diroLva from * diTo-TToiva ; then again dvdyvcoaroi; by analogy. But it is in favor of the assumption of a doubling of the negative prefix that ayvoxTTOf; and a7rvevaT0<^ are words in good standing in the literature. III. FOEM AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPOUNDS. The great productiveness of these negative formations and the inseparable character of the first part might raise the question whether these words are really to be considered as true compounds and whether the first element is not to be looked upon as a mere prefix, one of the few which the I-E. language possessed. Pre- fixes have, however, in general a very definite meaning and func- tion. They are not, like the suffixes, so liable to be reduced to 4 mJiMmmmimmJmii fm j m ^W tA i 'imtmiSm Vi 16 The Negative Compounds in Greek the level of mere formative elements. Hence, there is no great inappropriateness in the common designation of words, other than derivatives, which contain these prefixes as compounds. It has been found convenient for our purpose to classify as fol- lows the Greek words containing the negative prefix : I. Immutata (determinatives). a. tt-priv. + ordinary adj., as dl3dp0apo<;. h, a-priv. + vbl. in -to^, as dlSaTo^, dPia(TTO<^. G. a-priv. + other pples., as deKcov, dvdpfievo^. d, a-priv. + noun, as dhdiT7]<;, dveLKacorr]^. II. So-called synthetica. e. a-priv. + verbal root, as drptylr, dc^avr]^, III. Mutata (so-called possessives). /. ^-priv. + noun, with or without new adjectivising suffix, as ddvao^y dvaificov, dde^iaTLO<;, lY. Derivatives. g. Negative compound + adjective, noun, or verbal root, as dBafiavToireSiXo';, dBiK07rpayri<;. h. Nouns, as depyla, mostly abstract. i. Adjectives, as d€pyr]X6<^. k. Adverbs (except those regularly formed in -0)9), as d€KT]TL L Verbs, as dBvvaTeco, For the basis of this classification see L. Schroeder, Ueber die Formelle Unterscheidung der Redetheile, pp. x, 203, 287. All the true negative compounds belong to class II in the classification of Greek compounds given by Brugraann, Gr. Gram.^ §§ 153, 159. In practice it is often impossible to discriminate between the compounds of groups e and/, and occasionally of group a. Take for example d^Xa^/]^ ; one may doubt whether we have here a mutation from a noun /BXd^r] or /9Xa/3o9, or a syntheticon from the verbal root appearing in ^Xdirrw. In many cases neither the meaning nor the presence or absence of a suitable noun which may have entered into composition is decisive. In many of the early examples the formation is quite obscure. Often in late Greek, as in other phenomena of the period, the formations seem to be made on the analogy of established types, so that it is no I K h I I 4 .« P If «•'•■ .? The Negative Compounds in Greek, 17 longer possible to define precisely the separate elements of the compound. The ancients were more inclined than later and modern grammarians to look upon the second members of com- pounds as verbal ; see Zacher, Breslauer Philologische Abhand- lungen, I, pp. 10 ff., 48-61. So the Homeric lexicon of ApoUonius explains dher)<; by ov BeSicof;, while the Et. Mag. gives : aSee? d(t)o/3ov diro rod Beo^. Cf. too the frequent pairs of doublets like d(t>Oovo> S < k'. If 18 The Negative Compounds in Greek The Negative Compounds in Greek. 19 form indefinites, as ovri^, MTi<^, oinrore, ovM^ and the rest^. oi5t^9 probably took the place of an I-E. * ne-qi-s when o^ had taken the place of I-E. ne (Briigmann, op. cit. Eng. trans. II, pt. I, § 31). In a negative sentence containing an indefinite pronoun or adverb it is immaterial, so far as the sense is concerned, whether the negative is taken with the indefinite or the verb. Thus the negative adverb, i. e. the sentence negative, and not the negative prefix, came to be used in this combination, which got to be felt and used as a compound, favored no doubt by the fact that the accentless indefinite was attracted by the strongly accented negative. Cf Delbrlick, Vgl. Synt. ii, p. 524. Rare and decidedly irregular are the instances in Sanskrit of the use of the negative prefix with demonstratives, as in a-sas and an-esas. The infinitives and participles being nominal in their origin must at first have taken the negative prefix and not the negative adverb ; cf. in Greek forms like deKcov, aeKa^ofievo^, ae\iTTeovTe<;y a(j)poveovT6^, avdp^evo'^, ciTi^cov, dvofioXoyovfievo^, ciBdfia^. Knauer, K. Z. xxYii, p. 19, cites numerous examples of the composi- tion of the Sanskrit participles belonging to the tense systems with a{n). In the Rigveda na is not found with participles and perhaps not in Sanskrit prose (Delbriick, Vgl. Synt. ii, p. 529). There are a goodly number of examples of combinations of the present participle in Gothic with un- and in Latin with in-. But in general the composition with the negative prefix declines when the participle, as in Greek, becomes more closely attached to the verb and assumes more of verbal and less of adjectival character. The participles ordinarily included in the verbal paradigm are rarely, indeed only exceptionally, thus combined ; the forms mentioned above, deKcov, etc., have all more or less of the adjectival character which seems to have belonged of old to the participle and is especially seen where the participle enters into composition ; cf proper names like Evpv/jieScov, YjvekOwv, YioXvairepx'^y ' ^7 their side are found ovk iOiXcov et al.; dvv/re- a-ToXfjLevm is late. It is not surprising then to observe that even as early as Homer the use of the negative adverb ov with the participle is already well established (Monro, H. G., § 360), although it is certainly not so freely combined with the participle .■M X 4 'I f* w ii m in Homer as in later Greek. The second parts of the compounds uBdfia^, dKdfia^, though no longer independently existing, have lost their participial character and are practically adjectives ; so dtarcop, dKpdrcop. Only with the participle in -T09 is the com- bmation with the negative prefix at all productive, but the verbals m -T09 are not generally formed on a special tense-stem, are not reckoned as a part of the verbal paradigm and are often merely adjectives expressing fitness or capacity. They seem even in Indo-European times to have been combined freely with the negative prefix, as they are in all the separate languages. Sanskrit, Latin, German and particularly English offer many more examples than Latin or Greek of the combination of the negative prefix with the present participle, but in Latin the examples are far less rare than in Greek and it is in Greek that the participle has come most to be used as a substitute for a subordinate finite verb. Cf. Sk. avidvcm, Lat. insciens, Germ. unwissend, Eng. unknowing, but Gr. o{jk elSco^. The infinitive in Greek has become too distinctly verbal in its nature to take the negative prefix ; even in Sanskrit it seems to take it very rarely except when used with the verb gak, Speijer Sanskrit Synt. § 404. On the other hand at an earlier period,' when the infinitive was more distinctly nominal in its nature^ the aversion of the language to combining the negative prefix directly with a noun would render d-Bvvacreac quite as awkward as d-Svva/jic<;. The negation of the finite verb in Greek by an a-privative is to be looked upon as an anomaly. Professor Bloomfield, J. H. U. Circ, 1882, p. 175, in objecting to the etymology of dfifiXaKelv given by Curtius (Grundziige, 5, p. 463) and adopted by Vaniyek, says, " The composition of a-privative with a simple aorist stem' would be an anomaly as great as a compound "^ d-ireirovda, ' I have not suffered.' " When we have drUt in Theogn. 621, Tra? T^9 ifkovaiov dvBpa rUcy drUc Be irevixpov, the compound is evidently an artistic product formed for the sake of antithesis to rUc preceding. Brugmann, Griech. Gram.^ § 590 treats drUc as an extension of paradigm from drLTo^i (Horn.)! Parallel with this is a passage in Plut. Mor. 885 A, cSo-re rd flh ■•i X ■ •"^^1p 20 The Negative Compounds in Greek The Negative Compounds in Greek, 21 eladpeac rh 3' avec^^dpea^, where Usener with MS. D reads m .h el^apra ra S' dvecf^aprL So the Sanskrit dpacasi is a purely artificial form. The Homeric drl^cov, II. 20, 166, occurring as it does in the participle, if it is really a negative compound, does not count here on account of the original nominal character of the participle, and dri^cov is probably to be classed with deKa^ofievo^. diKcov and dvofioXoyovfievo, (not a participle from a verb dvofMO- Xoyovfiat). Later such a form might be expanded into a verbal paradigm, and that the Homeric drl^cov was so expanded by the poets, as the tragedians and Apollonius Rhodius, does not excite surprise. It is not found in prose until Galen, who uses dn^ofievo^, and Greg. Naz., who uses the finite verb. Cf. Lat. indecet and m- juro, probably extensions from indecens and injuratus, and ignosco considered by V. Henry a re-formation from ignotus. So the inseparable hva- in SvaOvrjaKcov, Eur. El. 843, Rhes. 791, Bvadavovra, schol. to Luc. Icarom. 29, is somewhat legitimized by being combined only with the participle. It may be, how- ever, that drl^co is a denominative verb, see Froehde, Bezz. Beitr. xx, p. 22L On drtfidco, see Brugmann, Griech. Gram.^ p. 529. Before vowels there is the possibility that the verb is a com- pound of the preposition dvd, which sometimes denotes a reversal of the action of the verb and gives a negative sense. Thus dvapdofiai means ' to recall a curse ' and duevxof^ao ' to unsay a prayer.' Cf Lat. resecrare, Germ, imdersprechen. On the derivation of dvalvofiac from dva + * alvofiai (cf. aho^, a saying) see OsthofP, Bezz. Beitr. 24, 199 if., esp. p. 205. dvevxofJ^at, so far as we know, occurs only in the participle. Plat. Alcib. ii, 142 D, 148 B, and the articular infinitive. Poll. V, 130. The poet in Plat. Alcib. II, 143 A, uses dvevKToc^ as the negative of eyxoH^evoc^;, while the author of the dialogue himself says, 142 D, ev^acvro dv oXiyov 8e eTTLaxovre^ eviore iraXcvqiSovo-LV, dv€vxofM€VOL drr dv to irpcorov ev^covrat, dv^hofxai in Hermippus, frag, 81 M, 77 K, was thought by Shillfeto, Jour, of Philol. vii, 159, to be a compound of dvd, but it seems not unlikely that it is an artificial compound made with the privative prefix for the sake of antithesis to the preceding 7/0-^771/, and so parallel to the examples already cited from Theognis and '* 'ii I Plutarch. The fragment is : a toO' ijaOrjv, ravra vvv avrj^ofiac, CJomedy is just the place for such a formation, but it is not impos- sible here that we may have a blending of both the preposition uvd and the negative in these formations. dvofioiod) is probably a derivative from dv6ixoLo<;, and dvav- hpoo^au from dvavSpo^;. It may be found that some English verbs like ^ undo,' ^ unfasten,' and the like, may have been first formed for the sake of opposition to the single verbs, as in the Greek examples cited above. An adherescent negative adverb might have been felt not to make a close enough compound and again not to give sufficient opposition, but only the negation of the positive idea. It is interesting to note, however, that the use of un- with verbs in English seems to have come in through confusion with the Anglo-Saxon inseparable prefix ond, and, on, which is often = re-, denoting the reversal of an action and quite indistinguishable from the negative in meaning. Cf. Maetzner, Englische Grammatik, i, p. 540. In the case of verbal adjectives with initial dv- followed by a vowel, as dvd\(DTo<^, dve^evpero^, some ambiguity might arise as to whether the verbal was derived from a simple verb and then compounded with the negative prefix, or whether it was formed on a verb already combined with the preposition dvd, Funck in Curt. Stud., X, 41, has treated this subject and shown that in Greek the external ambiguity of the words was hardly felt, for the language never employed the same word at the same period in both the different senses. For the ambiguity in Latin between the ])refix in- and the preposition in-, as in invisus inauratus, see F. Vogel, Archiv. f. Lat. Lex. u. Gram., iv, p. 321. Cf. inclinatus, bent, Juv. 15, 63, but indedinatus, unswerving, Ov. Epp. ex Ponto, 4, 10, 83. Yet when Wolfflin, ibid., p. 400, says that in-privatum does not appear before verbs on account of liability to confusion with the preposi- tion in, he hardly gives the fundamental reason, for the absence of <}omposition of verb with the privative syllable was most certainly Indo-European. The negative adverb may sometimes form a quasi compound with the verb making the combination so close that the negative is rarely displaced from its position immediately before the verb 2 ^ A 22 The Negative Compounds in Greek The Negative Compounds in Greek, 23 and that the negative ov is retained even in cases where fxr/ would be required by ordinary usage. In these cases the particle usually does something more than merely negative the meaning of the simple verb, and the combination expresses an opposite rather than a negative solely. Examples are: ov c^^/x^, 'I deny/ ovK eSy, ' I forbid/ ovk eOeXw, ' I am unwilling/ ovk eiraivM, ' I disapprove.' Cf. Lat. nescio—hom which probably nesdus— nequeo, nedego. In ovk aXeyco we probably see more nearly a merely negative combination. In most of these cases the verb is one of saying or thinking and often one which would naturally be followed by the infinitive, so that the adherescence of the negative to the verb seems in part at least due to the reluctance of the early language to combine the negative adverb with the infinitive. The necessity for forming such quasi compounds of the verb, which might at first thought seem to be far-reaching, was largely relieved by the capacity of the language for forming denomina- tive verbs from negative adjective compounds, as dylrevBelv from d^frevBr|<;, and to some extent also by the fact that several of the prepositions practically reversed the meaning of the verb with which they were combined. Cf for such a use of dvd, dvapdofiac, etc., already cited. This reversing force of dvd is very natural with a verb which denotes downward motion, e. g., epeiirw, throw down, dvr]p€iylrdp,7]v, snatched up ; fivco, close (lower) the eyelids, dva/ivo), open the eyes ; see Lobeck, Rhematikon, p. 43. For diro cf. aTTeaeieiv = fir] iaOieiv, Theopomp. Com. Mein., il, p. 813, fr. 62 K. Somewhat similar are diroaiTelv, aTTOKr^helv, diroTrapde- veveaOac which Meineke cites ; also diroKaXvirrw, uncover,. diravhdw, forbid, and cf. especially dc^avhdvw, Soph. Ant. 50L With hid we have hca^evyvvfiai, to be disjoined, cf. Halsey, Proc. Am. Philol. Assn., 1888, p. xxiv. The statement already made, that the sphere of direct combina- tion of the privative syllable in Greek is its union with noun^ adjective and verbal stem to form a(/;>di?;es, contains the important limitation th^t the prefix is only irregularly and exceptionally com- bined with nouns to form nouns. This limitation holds also in general for Latin of the best period, but not for Sanskrit, English or German. The privative syllable will, as a rule, be found before I i >'jy nouns in Greek only in mutata ; in immutata it can, generally speaking, be combined only with the adjective. We find in Lid- dell and Scott only 16 probable immutata with nouns. Such immutata of a-privative + noun as do occur are plainly exceptional and irregular artificial formations, mostly poetic or late. Hesiod has dhwTr]<^, Op. 355, and a/Sourt;?, ibid., 451 ; vv. 354-5 are : KOI Bofiev 09 K€v Soj, Kal fjLTj hojjbev o? icev firj Sm. ScoTT) jjiev Tt<; eScoKeUy dh^ry 8' ovn^; eBcoKe. Here Scorrjf; and dS(oT7]<; are both evidently formed for the antithesis and so are hardly amenable to the ordinary laws of formation. In Op. 451, KpaBit^v K eSaK dvSpo<; d^ovreco, d^ovTTj^ is plainly the negative of ^ovrrj^, ^ herdsman ; ' the latter, however, does not occur in Hesiod, but is found in Aeschylus and later. To one who had already just said dSd)T7]<; in antithesis to Bcot7]<;, it would not seem so bold to say djBovrr)^ even if no form ^ovrrj^ was actually present, though ^ovTrj<; was probably then in use. But d^ovrrj^; here may have been felt as an adjective; cf. Eur. Hipp. 537 (lyric), ^ovrav c^ovov. Lobeck, Path. Gr. Serm., i, p. 213, makes it = "^d^ov^ lengthened by addi- tion of suffix -T7]-. In Arist. Phys., i, 8, 3, and perhaps in Hippocrates is found dviaTpo<; = a non-physician, quack, in opposition to larpo^;,^ and in Plut. Lye, X, dirXovro^, poverty, in opposition to 7rXovro<;. Pollux, III, 58, censure three words used by Theopompus : 7ra/jL7roi'7]poi Be ol ©eoTro/jLTrov tov avyy paopla Byz, aTrpoaSoKia Def. Plat, appoca and dypeta Hippocr, and probably the Attic darpareia. In Hippocrates, 379, 17 (Foes.), nr, 496 (Erm.), the authority of the MSS. is for rf dvapLar^creL {dv-apiCTTV(Ti^), but Ermerins now reads rrj dvapiarirj, ^ n a i. There is another group of compounds, sometimes referred to this class, which are artificial formations and are distinctly poetic and figurative in their use. This group comprises the compounds which^'appear in the not infrequent poetic expressions of the type, 'Ipo9"A.po9, Od. 18, 73, 7raZS69 airathe,, Aesch. Eum. 1034 et al These formations seem undoubtedly to belong to the mutata and will be best discussed under the head of style. Woefflin, Archiv, iv, 400 ff, has taken up the subject of ^Substantiva mit in-privatum' in Latin. He finds that such formations are almost entirely absent from Latin of the Golden and Silver Ages. From archaic Latin are cited only intemperies, insaiietas, ingratlis, iniussu and irreligio. The later more pro- ductive employment of such compounds, e. g., involuntas et al, is confined almost exclusively to ecclesiastical and late Latin, is characteristic of the Africitas beginning with Tertullian, and arises in part from the license of vulgar speech and in part from the exigencies of translation from the Greek. In English a few words of the type, unbelief, undress, unrest, are in use, but they are not to be coined at will, while in German the type is quite productive, nouns like Unmuthy Ungeduld, being rather numerous. Even in Sanskrit, where compounds like adeva, non-god, akirti, non-fame, disgrace, are very common, the mutata of a-privative + noun seem relatively more frequent. In the immutata of this type most often the second member seems to be an abstract noun. Cf. Delbriick, Vgl. Synt., ii, p. 530. Outside of the strictly bi-membral divisions which characterize philosophical thought and which give rise to expressions like the Aristotelian to ovk avOpcoiro^, Interp., X, 1, the need of a definite compound to express the conception of negation of a concrete noun is not very great and the requirements of expression are more easily satisfied by the less permanent combinations of rela- tive and participial periphrases. Often there is an opposing positive term, as feVo9, opposed to TroXtrr/?, or as ISiojTrjf; is opposed to any professional designation, such as larpo^;, dp^oyv, etc. With abstract terms, however, the case is different and one naturally stops to inquire how the Greek expressed the negative of terms like Slkt], ■> The Negative Compounds in Greek, 27 V. FAVORITE TYPES OF NEGATIVE COMPOUNDS. The favorite Greek types of compound with the negative prefix are those with the verbals in -to(; and the mutata made up of prefix + noun. Both of these types were Indo-European and were apparently the most common types in the pro-ethnic speech also. The compound with the verbal in -roi; is the most productive of all the types in Greek as in the other languages of the family. This is doubtless partly due to the fact that it is susceptible of so many variations in meaning. Thus the words which compose this group are not simply past participles but they are also very often modal verbal adjectives negativing the idea of fitness or possi- bility, and hence are no longer past in signification. This modal use is Indo-European and it is in combination with the negative that the verbal seems first to have acquired a modal sense ; whence the usage became extended, particularly in Greek, to the simple fi3rras. Again these verbal compounds may be active, passive, or neuter. Indeed the fundamental signification of the verbal itself seems to have been only the predication of a verbal action as in some way a quality or characteristic of the subject. Cf. Bishop, A. J. P., XIII, 191 ; Brugmann, I. G. Forsch., v, 93. It is not surprising that such a convenient type of formation should have become so largely productive. A Greek negative compound with the verbal may often be rendered variously into Latin, especially by a compound of in- with a participle in -nSy -tus, or -ndus, or by an adjective in -bills, e. g., aTrpaKTo^ by inficiens or infedus, d7rc(TTo^ by incredibiliSy incredulus, and (late) incredundus, incredi- tus. Noteworthy is the large number of Latin negative compounds ending in -bills. Often the negative compound with the verbal is equivalent in meaning to a mutatum of a-privative + noun. Thus, d'Trvp(OTo<^ (TTvpoco) II. 23, 270 = aTTupo?, ibid., 267 ; d(f)d6vr]T0(; {(f)0ove(o) = d(f>6ovo Negative Compounds in GreeL The Negative Compounds in G^^eek, 31 ; I parenthetical exclamations. Nefastus, nefandus, nefarius are of course derivatives. Again such confusion or displacement of the negative might occur in other relations within the sentence, as in the case of an object, or an adjective, or an adverbial modifier. Note expressions like ovk airoc^diXia elhm, Od. 5, 182, oo ou% oKiov ffeXo^ ri/c€v, II. 15, 575, (tv S' ov fcara fiolpav eecire^, Od. 2, 251, ov Koo-fiw irapa vav(t)tv ekevaofxed'^ avrd iceXevOa, II. 12, 225; so ov Kara Koaixov, II. 2, 214, and frequently. Note the Sanskrit adverbs naciram and mddram, and cf Whitney, Gram. 1122 E. Such an extension of the use of the negative originally belong- ing to the sentence or to the verb to combinations with parts of speech other than the verb is probably inevitable in any language and, as we have seen (p. 17) is regular in the case of the indefinite pronouns. But some of these uses of the negative adverb with parts of speech other than the verb may date back to the period when the negative adverb and the negative prefix were as yet undifferentiated. Various conditions, however, must have oper- ated to make this use of the negative adverbs a part of the language's ordinary means of expression. Such a combination was less permanent and more readily produced than a compound w^ith the negative prefix and would often be used where no corre- sponding compound with the prefix was in familiar use or, if it was, could not be used in certain metres, e. g., avwvojjLaaro^, which appears first in Euripides and which was barred from the hexameter, is represented in Homer and Hesiod by ovk 6vofiaaTo<^. So doubtless metri causa, ov OejiLarov, Aesch. Sept. 694, is used = dOefjLto-Tov. Then for various reasons most adjectives never formed compounds with the negative prefix ; e. g., *dv-d7rapvo<^j ^dp-avdyKaco^, "^d-zcdOapo^ seem not to have existed. Hence we must have in Antiphon, 1, 9, ovk ovaav dirapvov ; 5, 11, tol(; firj KaOapol^ ; Xen. Rep. Lac. 5, 4, rd^ ovk dvajKala^ 7roa€L^. In general the compounds combining directly the negative prefix and the adjective, being not at all numerous in Greek, must be to some extent replaced by the combination of negative adverb and adjective, especially where no positive of precisely opposite signifi- cation was in use. Sometimes the combination {irapdOeai^;) of negative adverb and adjective is so close as to be almost equal to composition {avv6e(TL<;), In such cases ov may be retained where the generic fir) would be expected, and thus we may explain some, though of course not all, of the cases like rov^ ovx oXov^ re hvra^iy Lys. 20, 19 = rov^; dhvvaTov^ ovra^ ; tov<; ov^ 6fio(f)v\ov<:, Just. Mar. Apol. 1, 14; rbv ovk opOm XP^H'^vov, Plat. Gorg. 457 c. The participle, showing its close connection with the verbal system, regularly takes the negative of the verb even when the participle has almost a purely adjectival sense, e. g., ov irpocrrjKfoVy as in Antiphon, tetral. T, a, 3; Or. v, 2. The readiness with which occasional complexes of negative adverb and participle could be formed may account in part at least for the reluctance of the language to form compounds of negative prefix + adjective, cf. p. 25. Cf. Prof. Gildersleeve, A. J. P., ix, 139, n. 3, end. The rarity of the compounding of the negative prefix with parti- ciples belonging to the tense systems is noticed elsewhere (p. 18), and the use of the sentence negative with the participle is a matter of course where the participle is consciously used as a substitute for the verb of a subordinate sentence. Yet an approximation to a strictly verbal use of the participle compounded with the nega- tive prefix is seen in Latin me indlcente, me insciente (abl. abs.), and a few others, see Delbriick, Vgl. Synt., ii, 529. The reluctance of tlie Greek language to form immutata of a-privative + noun left it often with pressing needs of expression which the use of the negative articular infinitive, the formation of new abstract derivatives, or the employment of periphrases with the relative or participle could not relieve. So we have : Be direipocrvvriv kovk aTToSec^cp, Eur. Hipp. 195 f.; eV ov Kacpw, id. Bacch. 1287; rj firj 'inreipia, Ar. Eccl. 115; rr^v fir) iiriT poir-qv , Plat. Legg., xn, 966 c. A number of examples are found in Thucydides : Tr)v tmv y€(l)vpMv . . , . ov ScaXvacv, I, 37, 4 ; Tr)v ov 7r6pLT€iX0(TCV, III, 95, 2; rhv tmv x^P^^^ d\\r)\oc(; ovk aTToSoatv, V, 35, 2 ; Tr)v ovk e^ovcrlav Trjvy6fiaxo<;y Simon. 106; compounds of Xltto- are found in tragedy and abound in late Greek, especially in Nonnus, as Xltto jXcoacro<;, Xc7roa6ev7]<;, Xlttog-klo^, So Xva-L/jiipLiJLvo^ = dfi€ptfivo<; in its sense of ^ driving away care.' I ( The Negative Compounds in Ghreek, 35 For certain adjective first members equivalent to the nega- tive prefix compare iprjfjiOTroXiQ Eur., iprjfjLOKo/jLrjf; Anth. Pal., KevavBpo^ Aesch., Soph., k€voBovtl<: Anth. Pal., KevoaapKo^; Et. Mag., fiovofjidTcop Eur. With reference to the derivatives it may be observed that in some few cases the range of usage of a negative verb might over- lap that of a denominative verb derived from a negative compound. Thus under some circumstances dTriaTeco might = ov TreiOo/jLao and dyvoeco might = ov ycyvcoaKO) ; on the other hand the common ovfc eOeXoyv and ovk eOeXw quite take the place of a negative adjective and its derived verb. A similar partial coincidence in function is true also in the case of the negative abstract noun and the articular infinitive ; but the coincidence is only partial. The articular infinitive is much the more readily productive; it does not, as does often the abstract noun, acquire transferred significations different from that of its verb ; the variation in form according to voice and tense makes the meaning of the infinitive more explicit; finally, the infinitive may carry with it a subject and all the verbal modifiers. Cf. Prof. Gildersleeve in Trans. Am. Philological Assn., 1878, p. 18. On the other hand the abstract noun is more implicit and terse ; it has more of aefivoTT]^ ; and, where it is in common use, it is less clumsy than the articular infinitive. VII. SEMASIOLOGY OF THE NEGATIVE COMPOUNDS. The simplest and readiest theory for the entrance of the nega- tive into language is the assumption that the negative was originally free and formed a sentence by itself, a phenomenon still not un- common in Classical Greek ; cf. Plat. Phaedr. 236 D. Later by the most primitive sort of parataxis it might come to be used just before or after a positive sentence, thereby negativing the whole. For the effect cf. oXocto fjuev fjurj, Eur. Med. 83 ; also Ar. Aves 1219-20, IP. TTola yap dXXrj ^^p^' Trereo-^a^ tov<; Oeov^ ; IIEI. OVK olha jjbd AC eycoye- TJjSe /xev yap ov. Cf. too Prof. Gilder- sleeve's explanation of the origin of ov fir) in independent sentences from the free negative, A. J. P., iii, pp. 203-5. A sentence thus "iP"ii«i-s-a-B^ 36 The Negative Compounds in Greek, The Negative Compounds in Greek, 37 negatived as a whole is simply "the expression of the fact that the attempt to establish a relation between the two ideas has failed," Paul, Prin. of Lang. (Eng. trans.), p. 122. This attach- ment of the negative to the sentence, by which the latter is annulled as a whole, would naturally be followed by the attachment of the negative to some part of the sentence to which the negative particu- larly applies. Thus the subject may be felt to be the same, while it is the predicate which is altered by the negative, so that the negative finds its way into the predicate. Now if the predicate denotes only an act or state which is somewhat temporary in its nature and which is generally expressed by the verb, the combi- nation of negative and verb is naturally loose and not more permanent than the act or state which is expressed by the verb. The adjective, however, — and this includes the participle in its earlier use, — has more of a characterizing function and expresses a more or less permanent quality or property of the subject. So when the subject is characterized by the absence of a certain quality, an habitual combination of negative and adjective which is used to ex])ress this will necessarily become a close compound. Cf. Hartung, Gr. Partik. ii, p. 74, "So wie diese Negation den Begriff selbst, und Nicht seine Beziehung bestimmt, so kann sie auch korperlich nicht als ein besonderes Wort existiren sondern wird mit dem zu negirenden AYorte eine Zusammensetzung bilden miissen." Delbriick, Vgl. Synt. ii, p. 533, seems to suggest that the negative may have been first used as a ))refix with the parti- ciple, from whence the usage was extended to adjectives and nouns, but it is hard to see any basis of probability for this. A predicate adjective or noun in a negative sentence without a copula might casilv furnish the conditions for starting a compound. The necessary and sufficient condition for a compound is that the individuality of the component element be lost to the conscious- ness and the combination itself become the conventional sign for a single notion. When this state of affairs has been reached the compound adjective may become used as an attribute or as a mere epithet. That wdiich denotes the absence of a quality may easily come to denote its contrary and may finally through usage acquire a positive content of its own. Whether a negative compound shall pass through the inter- f '{t .< i> V i M mediate stages between mere negation and a positive content naturally depends very much on the needs and resources of the language. Thus the contrary of KaKo^; is pretty well expressed by dya66^, so that dicaKo^ is used as a merely negative word = ' guileless/ and if it suggests more than this, we have an instance of litotes ; ctKaKOf; never = the simple ^ good.^ dStKo<^, however, is regularly opposed to SLKato<;, for there is no other word which expresses the contrary of SLKaio<^ so precisely. Again cl\7j67]<^ has gone along w^ay from its original negative signification' and has acquired a very distinct positive notion of its own. In a stage of thought and language where there ^'s little occasion to distinguish tlie negative from the contrary, there would be but little impulse toward the formation of negative compounds and the needs of expression would be satisfied by the primitive pairs of positive adjectives of opposite meaning, as /xe^a? fMifcpo^, y^rvxpfx^ Oepfio^. This is a further exemplification of the general principle emphasized by Osthoff in his recent academic address, Vom Suppletivwesen der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen, that there is a stage in man's use of language when his capacity for classification is weak and when differences of tense, gender, degree of comparison, etc., are expressed rather by means of words formed on different roots than by words formed by sufKixal or other modifications of the same root. So the use of words radically different to express the two genders of the same species seems to be older than the use of the so-called substaniiva mobilia; e. g. pairs like brother and sister ^ son and daughter ^ horse and mare, are undoubtedly older than formations like a8e\(f>6^, dSe\(j)r} ; films, filia ; lie-goat, she-goat. Words of this class which are material (stoffiich) rather than formal opposites seem to occur mostly to express the closest of family relationships and the sex of the most familiar of domestic animals. In English we say bull and cow, but in the case of animals which are not native to British soil or which are less familiar we are apt to resort to mere formal variation of suffix, prefix, or compound to express gender, so lioiij lioness, bull-buffalo, cow-buffalo, buck- rabbit The same principle holds true of diminutives; thus we say baby, colt, puppy, but baby -elephant, lion-cub, etc. >- . ' i ft- ■ ft«-*p;-#r#'-'^*-v 38 The Negative Compounds in Greek To Osthoff's examples of the working of the principle m the defective verbs (so-called), irregularly compared adjectives, sex- words, numerals and pronouns, might be added the expression of qualitative opposites by words from diiferent roots rather than by a word and its formal negative. While a language is still growin- and productive in the formation of new worp6vr]/jLa Kal ypa)fjL7]p, irplv dv dpxcil^ re fcal vofioiaiv evTpL^r]<; (f)av7J, Cf. Eur. I. A. 489-90 and see A. J. P. ii, 469 ; G. M. T. 633. -■^ « i I--II "" "-^'kVUnnhiMtm 40 The Negative Compounds in Greek. The Greek name for 'the common negative prefix was &Ma arepvrcKov = alpha-privative. Yet cf. Chrysippus ap. S.mphc. ad Arist. Cat. ed. Basil, f. 100 A. to yhp Mvarov ^rrepvr^Kov e'yo. TO VK6ro, a^oOvv^Kecv, elra M i^odvr,aKovTO, xpco^e^a to, ovoaaru . • • «al to KaKhv Se B^Xoyrac ^oXXuk., co, a,^o>vov iXhoi^ev rpaycaK6acS>v a>vS,v, o,opa jca. XvaneXf,. dXvaac,) as in aB.a4>opo, dXvacreXn,, and so, in a sense, in the mutatum a^a.aTO,. Ot. pp. 6, 33. But the distinction between privation and mere nega- tion is generally outside of language. Again we have a sort of hyperbole when cicjxovo, is used of a bad actor, a.dpB.o, of a coward, cinXevpo, of a .nan with weak Lines, daaeyj, of a man of little learning. Cf. Lobeck, Path, to Serm i, p. 29, where Choeroboscus and Theodosius are quoted as follows : TO aX4>a k^rh avfiaiver , TO a^vXo, iiXv, o^oO m dXoxo, Kal dSeXcj^i^, KaKov m to Wovo, 6 KaK6<}>a>vo,, 6xlyov w,.d,xaeh^ o dX.'yof.ae,^^, a0pocaiv Z TO Hira,, ^Xeovaa,.hv 6>, to a^Tac^o,. It is evident that what the grammarians call aripvTi^, icaKov and hXl-/ov belong to our alpha-privative, though the latter two do not at all express the true force of the prefix, but show simply that tiie negative com- pounds mav be used in hyperbole. On the use of a negative compound to denote what is disagreeable or monstrous, ct. boph. El. 492, where the scholiast explains aXe/cTpo? by Bv&XeKrpo^, and Soph. Trach. 1060, aiXwaffof, schol. KaKoiXaxraot ; so ^uopAo. in Cic. ad Att. 7, 8 fin., which Tyrrell translates ' bad form ' ; cf the German Ungewitte,: This use of the negative prefix 'has been thought by some to form the connecting link between it and the so-called alpha-intensive, the eViVao-t? of the grammarians quoted above. Pott, E. F.\ i, p. 387, cites ciyovo,, which is glossed by Hesychius with TroXvyovoi\o^, id. Iph. T. 220 ; dOeov, avofiov, ahiKOVy id. Bacch. 995. So Ar. Ran. 204 is doubtless paratragedy : Kara 7rw9 Svvrjo-ofjiaL \ d-neipo^ dOaXdrrwro^, daaXap^ivto^ \ MVy €LT i\avv€Lv, cf. Vesp. 729-30, and Phrynichus, fragg. 18, 19 k (n, pp. 587, 592 m). For the orators cf. Antiphon, I, 22, dOefiiara Kal dvoata Kal dreXeara Kal dv^Kovara ; in the Palamedes ascribed to Gorgias, 36, Seovov dOeov dScKov avofiov epyov, recalling Eur. Bacch. 995, quoted above ; Demos. 25, 52, dXX' daireicTTo^, dvi- SpvTO^, dfiLKTO^;, ov %apti^, ov (l>iXiav, ovk dXX" ovSh mv dv6pco7ro^ lj.€TpLo^ ycyvcocTKwv ; cf Lys. 12, 82. So Plat. Phaedr. 240a, dyafjLov diraiha aoLKov. The frequency of the phenomenon in the English poets has long been a subject of remark. Two stock ex- amples are, "unwept, unhonored and unsung,'' Scott, Lay of the Last Minstrel, 6, 1, 16, and "unhousel'd, disappointed, unaneled," Shak. Hamlet, 1, 5, 77. The large use of negative words is thus often a mark of an elevated style ; cf remarks hereafter on their use in Antiphon. As in some of the examples given above, the compounds are frequently massed in threes. Whether we are to see in this fact any connection with three as a sacred number and hence with the threefold repetition common in old religious poetry and formulae is doubtful. The compounds occur very often in pairs and occa- sionally in a series of four or more. Yet cf. Karl Frey, Homer, progr.^Bern, 1881, p. 31, ''Die Dreizahl ist in der Kunst eine feierliche Form. Und ihre Verwendung ist unendlich. Und im Grossen und im Kleinen wird sie angewendet ; drei Epitheta sind ein beliebter Redeschmuck, und der griechische Tragiker theilte sein grosses Festspiel ein in drei Acte; est ist eine Trilogie. Auch die greichische Komodie beruht auf der Dreizahl, insofern zwei Parabasen die Handlung trennen ; auch sie ist eine Trilogie.'' ^ mm 46 The Negative Compounds in Greek, The Negative Compounds in Greek, 47 1 i I I I! This whole subject belongs to the great chapter of reduplication in language. A different phenomenon is the Greek fondness for reinforcing one negative by another one or more as in Plat. Phaedo, 78 D, ovheirore ovha^y ovBafim aWoicoatv ovhe^iav evhex^raL ; for a reinforcement of the privative prefix by another negative see p. 39. Another form of reduplication is the figura etymologica, a figure which doubtless had its beginnings in the oldest popular poetry and which survived in tragedy, and was used occasionally by most of the orators. With some negative compounds where the negative or privative force is still very strong we have what we may call a cognate genitive, but cognate only with the second member of the compound, e. g., d(l)LXo<; (f)i\o)Vy Eur. Hel. 524 ; T€K€a irarpo^i aTrdropa, id. Her. Fur. 114; tov rjSicrTOV aKovafMa- TO^ dvrj/coo<; el koi tov rj^Larov 6edp.aro^ ddearo^, Xen. Mem. 2, 1, 31 ; TLfir)^ dn/JLO^ 7rdar]<;, Plat. Legg. 6, 774 B ; aTrat? dppevcov nraihwv, Andoc. 1, 117; cf. Xen. Cyr. 4, 6, 2. The genitive is generally limited by an adjective. So in the rhetorical use of the cognate accusative in the orators we have a host of examples of dSiKTj/jLa dSt/c€Lv, but here the negative force is perhaps hardly present to the consciousness. A combination of figura etymologica and antithesis is often possible with the negative compounds, e. g., Aristarch. Trag. frag. 2 N, Kal tov daOevrj aOeveiv \ TiOrjai Koi TOV dlTOpOV €VpL(TK€tV TTOpOV. There was developed in Greek a form of the Jigura etymologica, a peculiar type of oxymoron, which created for itself a special set of negative compounds. The earliest example of the use of this form of expression is in Od. 18, 73,''Ipo9 'Atpo?, where the com- pound seems obviously formed for the purpose of the word-play. We may compare Avairapt^;, II. 3, 39, and KafcotXiov, Od. 19, 260. The Homeric 'Ipo? 'Aipos- is followed by more than a score of similar expressions in later authors, chiefly the tragedians, as Aesch. Pers. 680, vde'^ dvae^;, et al. '^Ipo? 'Atpo9 has usually been intrepreted to mean 'Irus, who is no longer Irus/ and so i/ae? dvae^ = vd€<^ ov vde<; ovcrat. Yet Froehde, Bezz. Beitr. 20, 216, would read dFtpo<; = Sanskrit avlraSy ' unmanly.' Curious indeed it would be if a chance pun of the epic poet had furnished the model and authorization for the > X'i rather numerous brood of later imitations, which, however, are not puns but examples of the jigura etymologica. Some, as Curtius, Gr. Gram., § 360, and Wheeler, Der Gr. Nominalaccent, p. 46, have inclined to look upon these negative formations as imrautata and they were perhaps influenced by the analogy of the Sanskrit negative noun immutata. The accent in the Greek words does not seem decisive in one way or the other. Brugmann, Vgl. Gram., ii, 1, p. 89, considers them to be on the border line between adjective and noun and takes refuge in the statement that the distinction between adjective and noun is not a thoroughgoing one in the Indo-European languages. Lobeck, Paralipomena, 229 ff., argues stoutly in favor of taking them as adjectives. A case like vvficpyv dvvfjL(t)ov (v. 1. -rj), Eur. Hec. 612, if the common reading is correct, favors this view, otherwise one might expect *d-vvfM(l)rj, So yfrvxh d-yjrvxo^;, Ar. Ran. 1334, and firjTtjp dfjL7]T(Dp, Soph. El. 1154, where otherwise "^dyfryxv and *d/jLr]Tr]p might have been expected. The change in ending undoubtedly helped the feeling of change in part of speech. As has been shown already (p. 22), all Greek analogy is against the combination of the negative i)re- fix with nouns to form nouns, and when this occurs in Sanskrit, the ending generally suffers no change, so from vagd, cow, is made avaga, non-cow. The true parallel to this last in Greek is found in expressions like yvvacKa ov yvvalKa, Soph. O. T. 1256 ; cf. the popular riddle in Bergk-Hiller-Crusius, Anthol. Lyr., p. 131 : AZi^o? Tt? iaTiV, 0)9 dvijp re kovk dvrjp opviOa KOVK opviO' Ihdtv re kovk IScov iwl ^vXov re kov ^v\ov /cadrjfjLevrjv \[6(p T6 KOV XlOw iSdXoi T€ KOV /BdXot. So in Latin, imitations of the Greek figure are not precisely similar formations, but employ either negative adverb + noun, or else a clearly adjectival formation, a^funera necfunera, CatuU. 64, 83, insepulta sepultura, Cic. Phil. 1, 2, 5 = Td(f)oi uTacfiOL. So these formations must, I think, be looked upon as adjectives and hence rautata. The mutatum dirat^, meaning ^ one who is no child,' must of course be distinguished from the more common mutatum, aTrat?, meaning ^childless.' 48 The Negative Compounds in Greek. J^he Negative Compounds in Greek, 49 111 11 These compounds, as is shown alike by the range of literature in which they appear and by the striking figure in which they are employed, are quite artificial and artistic formations, perhaps, as suggested above, modelled on a misunderstood Homeric pun, and the examples are numerous enough to show that they were a part of the regular stock of figurative expression belonging to Greek tragedy. The figure in its unmodified form is rare in classical prose ; a few examples have been noted in the prose of the later period. The following examples of the figure have been collected : 'Ipo?"At>09, Od. 18, 73; vd€<; ava€<;, Aesch. Pers. 680; a^ap^? Xapt9, id. Prom. 544, Ag. 1545 (cf. x^P^^ axapirov, Cho. 42) aTToXe/jLO^; iroXefMO^, Prom. 904; vo/jlov avofiov, id, Ag. 1142 airoXLv ttoXlv, id. Eum. 457; iralhe^ airaihe^, id. Eum. 1034 ahwpa BcOypa, Soph. Aj. 665; /jltjtvp ap.r)Twp, id. El. 1154; a-fa^iov ydfiov, id. O. T. 1214: virvo^ av7rvo<;, id. Phil. 848 (cf. docKov elaoLKWiv, Phil. 534) ; Trorp^ov diroTp.ov, Eur. Phoen. 1306, Hipp. 1144; vvp,(f)T]v dvvp.(f)Ov, irapOevov dirdpOevov, id. Hec. 612; diroXep^ov iroXep.ov, id. H. F. 1133; heap^ov dheap^ov, id. Suppl. 32; %a/Ofz^ dxapiv, id. Iph. T. 566 (cf Phoeu. 1757); SaKpv dhaKpv, id. Iph. T. 832 (dub. lect) ; b^ov^ dvohov^, id. Iph. T. 888 ; -/dp.ov dyap^ov, id. Hel. 690 (cf Phoen. 1047); cf. a Be p.eyaXoTroXt^ aVoXt? oXwXev .... Tpota, id. Tro. 1291; ^|rvxv dyjrvxo^, Ar. Ran. 1334 (Aesch. loq.) ; a^ee? Seo?, Plat. Symp. 198 a; ttoX^? diroXt^ (pi*ed.), id. Legg. 766 D ; ^to? d/Sto^, Leon. Tar. Anth. Pal. 7, 715, 3; x^P'^^ «X«P^?» ^^- i^^^^- ^^ ^^2, 2 ; Koap^o^ dKoap^o^, Jul. Aeg. ibid. 7, 561, Antip. Sid. ibid. 9, 323, Epigr. Gr. 365; KrjTTo^ dKr)'7T0<^, Greg. Naz. (v. Thesaur.) ; helirvo^ dBenrvo^, Nonn. 17, 51 ; KOdpuo^ dKoopio^y id. 6, 371 ; ol/co? doLKo^, id. 17, 42. It will be noted how a number of the expressions are repeated and seem to have become a part of the literary tradition of the language. The effect of this bold figure is to show that the object to which the epithet is applied contradicts its own true nature and so belies its name. The force of these expressions may be highly pathetic and their use is out of place except in the most im- passioned speech, -v/ru^r) dy^rvxo';, Ar. Ran. 1334, is put into the mouth of Aeschylus, and the fact that the figure is thus used i < I in travesty shows that it was a recognized element of tragic diction. There are a number of examples of equivalent oxymora which are not however precisely parallel in form ; e. g., p.rjT€p ipLr) Sv(TpL7]T€p, Od. 23, 97; diropa iropLp^o^, Aesch. Prom. 904; OeXyoi^ dv dOeXKTOv, id. Suppl. 1056; drXyra rXdaa, id. Ag. 407; rjKovd dvrjKOvara, Soph. El. 1407 ; (^w? d(^eyyh, id. O. C. 1549 ; ydpiov<^ BvaydpLOV^, Eur. Phoen. 1047; dvri(\)ai(rT(p irvpi, id. Or. 621 ; iricTTiv rcbv iv dv6pco7roc^ dTrLXTTOTdrrjv, Andoc. 1, 67; pLTjSe Td<; x^P^'^^'^ dxapiCTTO)^ ^a/otfo/x€z^o9 [Isoc], 1,31: d^lcoro^ lBio<;, Philemon, frag. 90, 7 ; 93, 7 K. (87, 90 M.), and freq. ; cf Antiphon, tetral. B, /3, 10. Aristotle in the chapter of his Rhetoric on 6yKo<;, in, 6, 7, 1408 a, teaches that it is advantageous to describe a thing by the qualities which it does not possess, — ef o)v p,r] e^^et Xeyecv. ^ For thus,^ he says, * the amplification may be carried to infinity,' — av^erai yap ouro)? et? direipov. He continues : ecrTi he tovto Kol iirl dya6a)P teal Ka/CMV, otto)? ovk e%e6, 07roTep€o<; dv y XPW^M'^^' oOev Kol rd ovopbara ol Troirjral (jyepovat, to dxopSov Kal to dXvpov p^eXo^' €K TMV (TTep7]0'ea)v yap i7rL(})epovacv evSoKtp.e2 yap TOVTO iv Tal^ pLeTa(^opalL\o- particularly affected by Cyrill of Alexandria, e. g. d^iX^deo^ and d(f)t\6KOfj.7ro<;, hardly different in force from d6€o6iTov, II. 9, 413, with the Sanskrit gravas aksitam gives strong proof of the higii antiquity of d(f>6iTop. 198 ff. A collection of the Latin compounds and derivatives containing m-privative has been made by F. L. Vicol, Programm des Gr.-Or. Obergymnasiums in Suczawa, 1890 and 1891. f > I- • 2^he Negative Compounds in Greek. 55 TABLE I. Showing the emergence of new negative words in the literature by classes and by authors, periods, or departments. See classification on p. 16. The column headed m includes anomalous forms which could not be otherwise classified. CJ I ^ • TO PI + ac 1^ o + a. Indo-European (?), v. Fick..| 1 Homer Hesiod Early elegiac and iambic po- etry Homeri'^ hymns and later ei>ic Ej^rly melic poetry before 500 B. c Frags, earlv hist., phil., com. before 500 B.c Aeschylus Aeschvlus and Pindar 18 6 5 2 2 13 1 Total before 500 b. c. Attic philos. and tech. lit. exc. Plat. Aristot. and Hippocr Sophocle> Euripides Tragic fragg , Herodotus Hippocrates Historians, lesser and lost.... Old Com. fragg Aristophanes Antiphon Andocides Thucydides • Lvsias ' Pindar and Bacchylides j 3 3 10 8 6 10 2 3 1 OS + (h Q* o C + I 8 O C . O o +1 .> = o V o 55 V o OS u *^ a. -D IK O > o2 •'-' ef s bc V A 71' (5) 15 (1) 11 11 11 11 56 8 15 45 210 (6) 84 11 17 10 17 3 46 9 12 20 43 35 1 13 34 2 14 15 10 1 28 5i 209 2 52 36 2 14 42 2 18 6 2 1 6 3 > > > s > X o 2u 3 0) ' > ^ X u> > O) > s O' I o3 > ^ > g h \ i k 01 I m Tot. 10 6 1 1 ] 6 11 17 3 4 10 1 1 4 13 2 6 26 2 3 5 5 3 7 4 12 13 40 2 7 7 19 3 1 1 3 2 6 53 6 18 226 39 41 28 37 20 143 21 48 31 3 603 1 2 1 1 2 4 2 5 17 2 1 38 123 100 3 53 150 7 53 39 22 3 48 11 X i li 56 The Negative Compounds in Greek. TABLE I (Continued). ! ae 2 8 3 1 15 1 78 1 15; 17 66 15 57 13 3 2 3 3 14 34 141 2 352 6 5 2 51' 30 1 6 11 2 69 5 402 29 84 113 214 50 250 62 19 3 12 7 64 216 683 9 1631 c (1) (1) (2) (1) (3) (10) d 1 7 1 1 3 1 1 2 15 ef 27 11 2 2 2 30 4 264 31 39 70 83 27 51 17 24 6 3 3 15 107 253 4 883 9 1 1 1 2 3 27 4 3 7 20 10 34 16 3 3 1 3 3 22 95 2 177 h 3 1 37 6 1 3 2 34 5 193 4 37 41 81 14 73 26 3 2 5 2 10 55 190 3 561 i 1 3 4 1 15 7 7 8 2 2 1 8 13 49 k \ 1 4 2 2 23 2 2 13 5 5 1 1 1 25 38 94 / 7 4 1 11 70 25 25 28 3 35 9 1 3 1 6 43 101 2 257 m 2 2 1 1 1 3 10 Tot. Tar»r»rji tpsi ..,........,,..,. ...«••• 9 Tanf^im . .......•••••••••••••• 5 Plato 1S7 Y (^r\ n n n on .** ...••• .••••«••• 57 Aocr>Kiinp*5 -. ••••• ••« 10 T)pnirmt hpnes • • 20 FTv*i»prpi(ips • ..••• V A ristotlp 167 Middle and New Comedy.... 19 Total Attic period 1081 A IpY^nrlrij^n noptrv •• 79 A IpTatulriiin iirose • 204 Total Alexandrian period.... 283 Roman [)eriod, exc. eccl. and tppliniral • 518 Early Byzantine period (330- 622 a'. I).), secular lit Roman and Early Byz. peri- niln P(*f*l lit •••••• 128 508 T,atpr Bvzantine lit 146 Anth Pal 53 Oniclf*s ••••• 16 Trmrrintions .«••.•••• •... 28 \fHtli and \stron 20 IVffdipal lit • 112 Rhetores, grammarians, scho- lia lexica etc 511 Total Byzantine, eccl., tech- nical lit., etc 1522 r^not^rta.in . .-. ••••••« 22 Grand total 4029 > r i (• i f k • The Negative Compounds in Greek, TABLE II (Summary of Table I). 57 Literature before 500 b. c....| 45 210 (6) Attic literature after 500 B.C.; 78 402 (1) Alexandrian literature I 17 Literature of Roman period,! exc. eccl. and technical.... | 66 Byzantine, eccl. and technical! , lit 144 I 683 (3) Uncertain 2 113 214 Grand total. 2 / 1 3 2 209 264 70 83 253 4 35211631 (10)151 883 26! 53! 6 27 193 15 20 41 81 95 190 2 3 177 1561 49 8 13 18 23 2 311 3 70 25 13 28 38 ilOl 2 94 1257 10 603 1081 283 518 1522 22 4029 TABLE IIL Showing percentage of new negative words by classes in various groups of authors. Indo-European (?), Fick,... Early Epic and Lyric Frags, early hist., philos. and com Aesch,, Find, and Bacchyli- des Before 500 b. c Attic philos. and technical lit.,exc. Plat, and Aristot. Soph., Eur. and tragic frags. Herodotus Hippocrates Historians, lesser and lost... Comedy, Old, Middle and New Thucydides Orators Plato Xenophon Aristotle Attic lit. after 500 b. c Alexandrian lit Lit. of Roman period, exc. eccl. and technical Byzantine and ecclesiasti- cal Anth. Pal ac .100 075 .400 .321 .550 .373 .348 .526 .350 .080 .075 .079 .080 .113.245 .067 1.227 .286 .054 .306 .104.583 .0461.483 .0581.372 .053 526 .090413 .072.372 .060 399 005 ,003 ,020 .143 ^/ ,024 .500 .375 .150 .316 .080 .347 .043 063 .398 .264 .280 .286 ,078 ,200 .099 088 .053.184 .035 071 .245 .0071.267 ,286 ,013 .005 .010 .019 .013 .038 m .062 .100 .019.028 .030.051 .026'.079 .009.058 .019.094 .013 = 1.000 .008! .005 )•«•«••• ••••••••••••••• Oracles Inscriptions ...•• Mathematical and medical lit : Rhetores, grammarians, scholia, lexica, etc All the literature 108 .009 252.099.171 .027 125 1.063 Oil .138.011 .184.034 .007.1971.007.270.007 1.193. 018. 105| L18OLOI2.204 024 .006.244.020.179.014 .004.247.025.145.025 .018 .007 .054 .009 .083 .042 .057 .034 .0291.051 .035i.070 .0121.066 .021 .065 .002 459 ,131 414 ,057 858 ,125.188 .004 135.047 151 Oil 004 .140 ,107 ,429i 129 538 ,0671.423 ,0871.405 0871.146 453|. 0571.057 375i. 1881. 125 1071.036!. 179 .008 .136.045 .209.043 .004.2191.044 091 .1081.016 .1391.012 007 021 .015 .088 .062 .051 019 036.107 .008 .053 .049 .084 .002 .004 .002 023 .064t.002i , ( 58 The Negative Compounds in Greek. The Negative Compounds in Greek, 59 ■ i :'l The total number of compounds, not including derivatives, for all the literature is 3058, while for the Sanskrit, Knauer gives only 1475, and for Latin, Vicol counts only 846 true compounds (including the mutata). As far then as the mere number of words is concerned, it is not true, as Froehde says, 1. c. p. 214, that the use of the negative prefix is in Greek more limited than in the other languages which possess it. 15 j)er cent, of all the compounds given in tlie lexicon appear in the literature before 500 B. c. The Attic literature adds 26.8 per cent, and the Alexandrian 7 per cent., making a total of 48.8 per cent, before the Roman period. The Roman period, excluding ecclesiastical and technical literature, adds 12.9 per cent, and the Byzantine, ecclesiastical and technical literature 37.8 per cent. Un- certain are .5 per cent. It will be seen that, as in Latin, a very large proportion of the negative words belong to the post-classical period. Thus it would seem that the negative prefix was one of those elements of language, both in Greek and in Latin, which became much more productive as the making of the literature passed more and more into the hands of those who were not born to the traditions of the classical speech. Negative terms, for ex- ample, are quite prominent in the list of Greek words used by Cicero. From Table I it may be seen that the only authors or groups of authors of the classical period in whose writings 100 or more of these negative words appear for the first time are : Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle. In the later language the new words appear very largely in the departments of medicine and philology. On the other hand the conservative vocabulary of the orators, with all the bulk of this department of the literature, furnishes only 87 new words altogether, and no one orator as many as 20 except Antiphon (22) and Demos- thenes (20). The number in the latter case is to be explained as due largely to the great bulk of the extant orations. It is signifi- cant, however, that Antiphon furnishes the largest number of new negative words of any of the orators. The fact that he is the first of the orators may be off-set by the small bulk of his extant ora- tions. But Antiphon^s elevated style, the sternness of his subject, homicide, his religious, almost Aeschylean tone, his fondness for r K « f ' antithesis and parallelism, the fullness of significance, which he is wont to compress into single words, all contribute to explain his proneness to employ the negative compounds and their derivatives, a proneness still more apparent after a glance at a few^ pages of his text. Cf. A. J. P., XVI, 525. In the search for new words a proportionately larger number are of course to be expected in an earlier than in a later j^ortion of the literature. It is clear, however, that the classical literature after Homer gained a very large proportion of its negative com- pounds from the poetic sphere of trairedy and the more or less technical works of Hippocrates, Plato and Aristotle. Very few new compounds are to be cited from the fourth century. In later Greek important accessions to the number of new words come from the Anthology, Cicero, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Diodorus, Lucian, and Cyrill of Alexandria. Many are very late and are to be found only in Ilesychius, Eustathius, Tzetzes and the Etymo- logicum Magnum ; many are cited sim])ly as ec<'lesiastical or Byzantine. Table III gives the percentage of the whole number a|>})earing in any author or group of authors which is formed by any one class. A glance at the first column in Table III shows that only a small proportion of the total nund)er of negative words is formed by the compounds of prefix + adjective, especially in the classical lantruao-e. Herodotus, Thucvdides and Aristotle show a slii^ht advance on the rest, while the proportion is lowest of all iii the orators. It becomes larets. This may have some relation to the use of the neuter of adjectives as abstract nouns, which is more characteristic of the older language (Wil.-Moell. on Eur. H. F. 75). On the relation between the use of negative abstract nouns and the negative articular infinitive no trustworthy conclusion can be drawn from this table. For the orators the numbers of new negative abstracts are too small to afford any reliable basis for inference. Better results would doubt- less be gained by studying the use of all the negative abstracts in the indices and texts of the Attic writers. The derivative adverbs with the negative prefix, outside of those regularly formed in -co?, are mostly those in -[ (-el) and are shown by the tables not to have been at all numerous, only 94 in all. Yet a few new ones appear in every period of the literature (see Tables I and IJ), notably 23 in good Attic, and 25 in the late grammarians and lexicographers. The vr)- compounds. Leaving out of account vqino^ and its derivatives as being doubtful in etymology, the compounds in vr}- make their appearance in the literature as follows : Hom. 13, Hes. 5, lyric poets 2 + 2 doubtful, Pind. 2, Emped. 1, Soph. 1, Old Comedy 1, Com. Anon. 1, Hdt. 1, Hippocr. 1+1 doubtful, Andoe. 1, Alexandrian poetry 7, late Greek 13. 62 The Negative Compounds in Greek. Of the 52 compounds and derivative words in vrj- only 13 ap- pear first in prose, and only one, prjirotvei (Andoc, after Homeric vrjTTOivo^), first in Attic prose. Considering the poetic and archaic sphere of these vr]- compounds, the predominance of the mutata (ef) was to be expected. This is very marked in the Early and Attic literature but does not hold true for the later period. - a ] 1 b 3 7 10 ef 14 4 18 9 2 1 3 h / 4 11 i 1 1 k 1 1 5 2 7 Tot. Early and Attic literature Alexandrian and later literature... 32 20 Total 52 |!1 15 ■■ I'i \*- LIFE. t f Hollister Adelbert Hamilton was born in Wayne Co., New York, Jan. 14, 1870. His preliminary education was received in the public schools of Rochester, New York. In the autumn of 1888 he entered the University of Rochester from which he was graduated with the degree of A. B. in June, 1892. He takes this opportunity of expressing his sense of indebtedness to the instruction in the classics and to personal influence of Professors Geo. M. Forbes and H. F. Burton. During the years 1892-94 he was vice-principal of the high school at AYaterloo, New York, and during the years 1894-96 he was instructor in Latin and Greek at the University of Rochester. During the years 1896-99 he was a graduate student at the Johns Hopkins Uni- versity, making Greek his principal and Latin and Sanskrit his subordinate subjects. Here he was successively appointed university scholar and fellow in Greek, and in 1899 he received the degree of doctor of philosophy. He attended the lectures of Professors Gildersleeve, Warren, Bloomfield, K. F. Smith and Miller, to all of whom he desires to make grateful acknowledg- ment, and especially to Professor Gildersleeve, who by his kindly interest, by the inspiration of his teaching and by the influence of his own personality has imposed a debt of lasting gratitude. 63 it / I