A lL 
 
 PORTABLE BEAM ENGINE Ano SUGAR WL 
 
 HIGH PRESSURE GOTHIC 
 
 
 
fa TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR 
 
 FROM THE |. 
 
 SBUGAR CANE. 
 
 By PETER SOAMES, 
 
 ASSOC. KING'S COLL. LOND.; ASSOC. INST. C.E.; MEMB. INST. M.E.; 
 EDITOR OF ‘THE ARTIZAN.” 
 
 LONDON: 
 E. & F. N. SPON, 48, CHARING CROSS. 
 NEW YORK: 446, BROOME STREET. 
 
 1872. 
 

 
 LONDON! 
 PRINTED BY C. SPENCE, 
 92, 8T. JOHN STREET ROAD, CLERKENWELL. ; 
 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 EXPRESSING THE JUICE FROM THE CANE. 
 
 CLARIFICATION 
 FILTRATION . 
 
 EVAPORATION 
 
 Mopern Metuops oF EVAPoRATION 
 
 TiVAPORATION IN VACUOs.. . °. . 
 
 CONCRETION . 
 
 CURING o 3 
 
 VARIETIES OF CENTRIFUGAL MacitInEs 
 
 DISTILLATION. 
 Sti_u- Houses 
 CULTIVATION . 
 IRRIGATION . 
 
 Sucar-Hovsks 
 
 e e . e ° ° e ° 
 
 97 
 102 
 110 
 124 
 131 
 

 
PREFACH. 
 
 In issuing this treatise upon the Practical Manu- 
 facture of Sugar in the Colonies, we beg to mention 
 that it is almost entirely the result of experience 
 gained both in the West and East Indies during 
 the last twenty years, together with a considerable - 
 portion of that time spent in the practical manu- 
 facture of sugar machinery at home. 
 
 That the subject herein treated upon is not with- 
 out interest we have abundant evidence, from the 
 fact that numerous applications for the various 
 papers, as they first appeared in the columns of 
 “THE ARTIzZAN,” have been made. 
 
 It is for this reason that we venture to offer, in a 
 complete form and with considerable additions, our 
 advice upon the important, and, at the present time, 
 lucrative subject of making sugar direct from the 
 sugar-cane, of sufficiently good quality to command 
 a ready sale for direct consumption. 
 
 It will be seen that our object has been, not so 
 much to give an exhaustive treatise upon the 
 
 various processes of making sugar, as to place 
 
vi _ PREFACE. 
 
 before our readers a simple method, easy of appli- 
 cation, and economical both as regards setting up 
 and working. 
 
 For this reason many methods of manufacture 
 are omitted, such, for instance, as the diffusion pro- 
 cess; also the still more elaborate process of evapo- 
 ration by means of three vacuum-pans, usually 
 termed the ¢riple effet principle, which has for its 
 object the manufacture of refined sugar. This latter 
 system, we understand, is about being tried on an 
 enormous scale in Egypt, and we look forward with 
 - much interest to the result. From the fact that 
 it is only suitable for very large works, everything 
 is here in favour of the system; but in:spite of this 
 circumstance, we doubt whether it will be found 
 profitable to manufacture refined sugar in a country 
 where fuel is very expensive. 
 
 It has been our object, in describing the various 
 processes of crushing, evaporating, &c., to select 
 one or two methods which have been found to be, 
 on the whole, the best, in order that our readers 
 may not be confused in their choice. We wish, 
 however, to guard ourselves against recommending ° 
 any particular maker, as we are quite aware that 
 there are many other Firms equally as good as those 
 
 we have mentioned. It was due, however, to those 
 
PREFACE. Vil 
 
 Firms who kindly allowed us the use of their | 
 designs, to acknowledge the source from whence 
 they came. Moreover, we have been careful, in 
 every instance, to illustrate machinery only of 
 makers of well-known eminence. We may, per- 
 haps, be here permitted to tender our grateful 
 thanks for the readiness with which they have 
 responded to our requests. 
 
 That the cane is infinitely superior to the beet for 
 the economical production of sugar, does not, we 
 think, admit of a doubt; yet it is a fact that the 
 production of sugar from beet has increased much 
 more rapidly than that from the sugar-cane. The 
 only way in which this result can be accounted for 
 is, that superior skill and greater capital has been 
 employed in developing that branch of industry. 
 It may also have been somewhat influenced by the 
 restricted amount of land, in British possession, 
 Inown to be suitable for growing canes. Now, 
 however, when it has been proved that the coast of 
 Queensland and other parts of Australia are 
 eminently adapted for such a purpose, it may fairly 
 be expected that the production of cane sugar will 
 rapidly increase. 
 
 There are two great obstacles in the way of the 
 cheap production of sugar—viz., the high price of 
 
Vill PREFACE. 
 
 labour and fuel. It has, therefore, been our object, 
 in submitting this treatise, to describe and illustrate 
 a simple method of manufacture by means of which 
 fuel, excepting what is supplied by the canes them- 
 selves, may be almost if not entirely unnecessary. 
 We have also endeavoured to reduce as far as 
 possible the necessary amount of labour both in the 
 works and in the field. Thus by the use of cane 
 and trash carriers at the mill, the number of 
 ‘‘hands” required is greatly reduced. Again, by 
 setting the clarifiers a sufficient height to allow the 
 liquor to descend through the various processes by 
 its own gravity, and by the employment of sluices 
 in the batteries, the amount of labour is greatly 
 reduced in the boiling-house. In the field also, by 
 the use of steam for ploughing, &c., and also for 
 carrying the cut canes to the mill, manual labour is 
 greatly economized. 
 
 We trust, therefore, that the designs we venture 
 to place before our readers, even though they may 
 not be implicitly followed out, may be of sufficient 
 use to enable them to produce a-first-class sugar, at 
 a price which shall not only be a profit to them- 
 selves but a benefit to the world. 
 
ERRATUM. 
 Page 10, line 20, for “ Frame” read “ Edmonstone.” 
 
 
 
|Y 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 1 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 EXPRESSING THE JUICH FROM THE CANE. 
 
 As has been already observed in the Preface, the 
 long period which has elapsed—about twenty 
 years—since any treatise upon this and kindred 
 subjects suitable for Planters has appeared, makes 
 it necessary to mention the various schemes pro- 
 posed for extracting the juice from the cane, 
 either to point out their merits or their defects. 
 Moreover, the reduction in the sugar duties 
 effected by Mr. Lowe, the Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer, has considerably improved the conditions 
 under which the Planter laboured at that time. 
 Since the abolition of slavery in the British 
 Colonies the legislation upon this subject has 
 been so disastrous to their welfare that not only 
 the twenty millions sterling of compensation, but 
 the entire capital of the planters, representing a 
 sum largely in excess of that amount, have both 
 been sunk in the vain endeavour to continue in a 
 race where they were so unmercifully handi- 
 capped. Had such legislation the excuse that it 
 was enacted in the sacred cause of the abolition of 
 slavery it could not be objected to, however 
 
 - ruinous to our colonies, but when it is considered 
 
 that the slave-grown sugar from foreign countries 
 | B 
 
2 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 was admitted upon precisely the same terms as 
 the sugar grown in the emancipated British West 
 India Islands, it is evident that a desire for the 
 total abolition of slavery was the last thing that 
 could have been considered. Nothing, in fact, 
 has tended to foster slavery during the last five 
 and thirty years more than the encouragement of 
 slave-grown sugar by the British Government. 
 The extorting a promise from Spain that she 
 would at some future time abolish slavery, and at 
 the same time showing her how, by the con- 
 tinuance of slavery, enormous profits could be 
 made, was, when we consider the character of the 
 people, the height of absurdity; while to crown 
 all it was gravely stated that such admission of 
 slave-grown sugar was in the interests of free- 
 trade. It can scarcely be doubted that had slavery 
 in foreign countries been discountenanced in the 
 only way in which it could be felt, viz,, by taxing 
 its produce, it would long since have ceased to 
 exist, and in all probability the late American 
 war and present Cuban insurrection would have 
 been averted. 
 
 The foregoing remarks would be sufficient to 
 account, to a large extent, for the want of energy 
 exhibited generally throughout the West Indies, 
 but in order to account for the chronic depression 
 of sugar growing throughout the entire British 
 possessions another cause must be discovered. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 3 
 
 This is easily done in the so-called differential. 
 duties, whereby the concentrated cane-juice, 
 naturally pure, and quite as easily made into good 
 as into bad sugar, was until lately practically 
 prohibited from appearing in any other form but 
 _ the latter. Sugar had absolutely to be manufac- 
 tured down to a certain quality of badness to pay ; 
 it, therefore, cannot be a matter of surprise if the 
 manufacturers were careless about effecting im- 
 _ provements. Now, however, the case is altered, 
 for although the taxation is upon the same per- 
 nicious principle, the amount of wrong is so far 
 reduced as to encourage sugar growers to manu- 
 facture sugar of a high quality, and it is with a 
 view to their assistance that the following re« 
 marks are submitted. 
 
 It is an old saying amongst planters, that 
 Sugar is made in the field, but, though we may 
 at a future period have something to say with 
 . respect to the machinery which might in certain 
 circumstances be advantageously employed for 
 the purposes of cultivation, we will at present 
 confine ourselves to the processes of sugar making 
 after the cane has arrived at maturity, beginning, 
 as a natural consequence, with the extraction of 
 the juice from the cane. 
 
 There have been a variety of schemes for effect- 
 ing this purpose, such, for instance, as extraction 
 by diffusion, or the extraction of the saccharine 
 
 Ba 
 
(4 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 matter from the cane by dissolving it out by 
 means of hot water; but as this process 
 necessarily entails the subsequent evaporation of 
 an enormous quantity of water and consequent 
 expenditure of a proportionate amount of fuel, it 
 is inapplicable where fuel is dear, which is the. 
 case with almost every cane-growing district in 
 the world. Another scheme, invented by the 
 fertile genius of Mr. Bessemer, consisted of a 
 long rectangular box in which a plunger, or 
 piston, worked backwards and forwards for a 
 portion of its length. The canes were fed in 
 through holes at the top of the box, and dropping 
 down to the bottom during the absence of the 
 plunger, were cut off in lengths equal to the 
 depth of the case by its return stroke. The canes 
 after being cut in lengths were forced along to 
 that part of the box beyond the travel of the 
 plunger, and as the process continued fresh lengths 
 of cane were carried forward until that portion of 
 the box was full. This box was open at the end, 
 but slightly tapered, and it was expected that 
 the natural stiffness of the canes, combined with 
 the taper of the box, would jam them up suffi- 
 ciently close as to squeeze out the juice through 
 holes provided along the bottom. When experi- 
 mented upon in England with old, woody canes, 
 brought, we believe, from Madeira, it appeared 
 to fulfil the idea of its inventor, as the toughness 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 5 
 
 and hardness of such canes formed sufficient 
 
 resistance to obtain the desired pressure. When, 
 however, we tried it in the West Indies, with 
 large fresh canes, it was found impossible to ob- 
 tain the required resistance, although several 
 modifications in the form of the end of the box 
 were made; and, consequently its use was dis- 
 continued. 
 
 The origin of the system of expressing the 
 juice from canes by passing them between rollers 
 must be attributed to the Chinese, and, as is 
 generally the case with the Celestials, it appears, 
 so far as we can judge, that they have not altered 
 their first pattern up to the present date. The — 
 Chinese mill is entirely constructed of hard wood, 
 and consists of two vertical rollers, each about 
 Aft. diameter and 3ft. high, geared together by 
 means of wooden cogs and worked by cattle, 
 without the intervention of any multiplying gear. 
 By means of amillof this description, a sufficient 
 quantity of canes to make about two tons of 
 sugar per week can be ground, while, in con- 
 sequence of the roller gudgeons and bearings 
 being made of wood, they can be heard when at 
 work for a distance of more thanamile. The 
 mills first erected in our colonies were similar to — 
 these Chinese mills, though scarcely so effective, 
 as the rollers were considerably less in diameter. 
 These, however, soon gave place to mills with 
 
6 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 horizontal rollers driven with multiplying gear, 
 _ which not only gave a better surface speed to the 
 rollers, but obviated the unequal wear of their 
 surface; many of these mills are still in use on 
 very small estates. 
 
 Passing over the sugar-cane mills driven by 
 wind or water, as being suitable only to peculiar 
 situations, we come at once to the steam cane 
 mill, which in one form or another has become 
 almost universal, As, however, it is utterly 
 impossible to give a description of the different 
 forms of steam cane mills that have at various 
 times been designed, or even of suchas are still 
 in existence, we will begin with one which appears 
 to us to combine a greater number of improve- 
 ments than any other with which we are 
 acquainted. ‘This mill is illustrated in Plate T., 
 where an elevation and a plan are shown of the 
 engine and mill complete, an arrangement which 
 was patented a few years ago by Mr. G. Buchanan, 
 of 25, Bucklersbury, London. Upon reference 
 to the Plate (I.) it will be seen that the engine 
 and mill stand upon the same bed-plate, and 
 although for convenience of carriage this _bed- 
 plate is not usually cast in one piece, there is of 
 course no difficulty in making it as strong as if it 
 had been cast whole. The obj ect of this arrange- 
 ment is twofold, viz., to obviate the expense of 
 an elaborate foundation and to prevent the 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. | ¢ 
 
 machinery being set up, or afterwards becoming, 
 “out of truth.’ The importance of these con- 
 _ siderations will be obvious when it is remembered 
 that in nearly all the places where sugar mills 
 are required, skilled labour is enormously expen- 
 sive. But in order to line out and construct 
 separate massive foundations for the engine, the - 
 intermediate gearing and the mill, not only a | 
 large amount of material but a considerable 
 amount of skill is required; while the erection 
 of the machinery upon these foundations can 
 only be performed with the assistance of an 
 engineer. Again, unless very great care has been » 
 bestowed, and unless the ground is favourable for, 
 the purpose—a circumstance that is very unusual 
 in cane-growing districts—a very few days’ work 
 will suffice to throw the whole of the shafting 
 and gearing out of truth, as the multiplying 
 - power brings an enormous strain upon the inter- 
 mediate gearing. The additional friction, and 
 consequent loss of power, produced by a com- 
 paratively trifling settlement of the foundations 
 is enormous; besides which, the unequal strain 
 upon the teeth of the wheels is very apt to break 
 them. In combined cane mills, or in other words, 
 in mills where engine, intermediate shafting, and 
 the mill are all upon one bed plate, no expensive 
 foundation is needed. The bed-plate itself forms 
 the foundation, and all that is requisite isto place 
 
8 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 it level upon the ground. When thisis done the 
 various parts of the machinery have simply to be 
 fixed in their proper places. It ismost important 
 that every mill when erected in this country 
 should have the position of every separate part 
 most distinctly marked, in order to facilitate 
 erection; when this is properly done, its erection 
 abroad is perfectly simple, and as no adjustment 
 is required, a very few days will suffice to put it 
 together ready for working. Another advantage 
 possessed by mills of this description may be 
 mentioned, viz., that being independent of any 
 foundation they can be removed and erected in 
 any other position at a comparatively small 
 outlay. 3 
 
 The advantages of having the mill and engine 
 upon the same bed-plate have for many years 
 been so fully recognised, that numerous designs 
 for effecting this purpose have from time to time 
 appeared. The principal objections made to the 
 combined system were, that the entire mill was 
 liable to vibrate or oscillate when at work, in 
 consequence of the excessive height of the 
 machinery above the bed-plate, which character- 
 ised most of these arrangements; and also that 
 the bearings and other working parts were 
 difficult of access, resulting from the limited space 
 afforded by the bed-plate. A few years ago, how- 
 ever, these difficulties were overcome by Mr. G. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. . 9 
 
 Buchanan, who invented the arrangement shown 
 in Plate I. Here it will be seen that by the 
 adoption of an oscillating engine and by placing 
 the fiy-wheel outside the bed-plate, the entire 
 machinery is kept low down; while at the same 
 time this position of the fly-wheel, together with 
 the arrangement of the gearing, afford easy access 
 to all the working parts. It will be seen that the 
 top roller of the mill is driven by internal spur 
 gearing; this plan we consider to be very good, 
 as if gives enormous strength just where it is 
 needed. 
 
 Various plans have been attempted for making 
 the cast-iron side frames of the mill to safely 
 withstand the sudden violent strains to which 
 they are constantly subjected, without incon- 
 veniently increasing their weight; as it must be 
 remembered that in most sugar-growing countries 
 the difficulty and expense of the carriage of 
 heavy pieces of machinery is very considerable. 
 In some instances attempts have been made to 
 reduce these strains by the substitution of com- 
 pound levers or springs in the place of bolts, for 
 the purpose of keeping down the top roller, but 
 it has been found that although these contrivances 
 do, to a certain amount, effect their object, the 
 canes are liable to pass through the mill without 
 being sufficiently pressed. The substitution of 
 
 wrought for cast-iron is evidently the only way 
 
10 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 in which this difficulty can be overcome, but as. 
 asolid wrought-iron framing would be enormously. | 
 expensive, Mr. Buchanan designed, about ten — 
 years ago, a side frame composed partly of cast 
 and partly of wrought-iron. The method by 
 which he effected this object was by making a 
 species of skeleton framing of cast-iron, with 
 cores through it for the reception of the requisite 
 bolts, and fitting a strong wrought-iron cheek to 
 each side of the exact outline of the framing, 
 and then firmly riveting the whole together. By 
 this means a much lighter frame was obtained, 
 with a considerable increase of strength; so 
 much so, indeed, that we never heard of a side 
 frame upon this construction being broken. 
 
 As, however, some of our readers may prefer 
 the mill and engine to be on independent bed_ 
 plates, we also give in the frontispiece a hand- 
 some, and at the same time a very substantial 
 design, for a sugar mill, by Mr. Frame, and 
 lately made by Messrs. Walker and Henderson 
 for a firm in Cuba. 
 
 One of the chief difficulties pe in 
 ordering a sugar mill is to calculate the size 
 necessary for a particular estate. Thus in 
 some countries the making season is much 
 shorter than in others, and consequently a 
 proportionately larger mill will be necessary 
 for an equal quantity of canes. Again, in 
 
 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR, LE. 
 
 some places the men work in “double shifts,” 
 by which means nearly double the work can 
 be got out of the machinery, as, if well made, 
 it never tires. It is, therefore, impossible to lay 
 down a general rule of proportion between the ° 
 size of the mill and the magnitude of the estate, 
 but in order to enable our readers to judge for 
 themselves we will give the approximate yield 
 of the juice per hour for several different sizes of 
 mills, provided they are well served. 
 
 Beginning with the smallest size, we reckon 
 that a sugar mill having rollers two feet long and 
 eighteen inches in diameter ought to yield a 
 sufficient quantity of juice to make one ton of 
 sugar per day of twelve hours, provided the 
 quality of juice is of a fair average, or about 10° 
 Beaumé. For a mill to yield double this quan- 
 _ tity, or two tons per diem, the rollers should be 
 about two feet eight inches long, by about twenty 
 inches in diameter. If double this quantity—or 
 four tons— be required, the rollers should be 
 about three feet six inehes in length by about 
 two feet in diameter. A very usual size for the 
 rollers of a sugar mill is a length of four feet, 
 with a diameter of two feet. This mill ought to 
 express juice for the daily manufacture of about 
 five tons, and is consequently well suited for an 
 estate of three or four hundred acres, By in- 
 creasing the length of the rollers another foot, 
 
12 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 making in all five feet, with a diameter of about 
 twenty-eight inches, the mill would be capable of 
 expressing a sufficient quantity of juice for 
 making about seven tons of sugar per diem. 
 
 Some manufacturers produce sugar mills of 
 very much larger dimensions than the last men- 
 ~ tioned, but this we consider to be injudicious. 
 Thus, in very large mills the rollers, side frames, 
 and bed-plates are of such an enormous weight 
 that the expense of carriage and erection abroad 
 is not only excessive, but sometimes almost im- 
 possible. Again, in addition to the superior con- 
 venience of carriage and erection abroad of 
 moderate-sized mills, the first cost of two small 
 mills would be no more, but probably less, than 
 one large one capable of performing the same 
 amount of work. Besides these advantages, it 
 is obvious that in the event of a “breakdown,” 
 where only one large mill is employed, the entire 
 work is stopped; whereas in the event of one out 
 of two mills giving way the one may be run day 
 and night to clear off the cut canes, and after- 
 wards, by working a few hours extra, enable the 
 planter to save his entire crop. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 13 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CLARIFICATION. 
 
 In giving a description of Sugar Mills in 
 Chapter I. we pointed out that, although many 
 other processes had been invented for the purpose 
 of expressing the Juice from sugar canes, they 
 were all practically useless from their inability 
 
 to devour, in anything approaching to a reason- 
 
 able time, the enormous quantity of canes that 
 are required for supplying sufficient juice to the 
 boiling house. The process of forcibly express- 
 ing the juice from the canes, by the aid of roller 
 mills has, however, one serious drawback, viz.: 
 that besides obtaining what is wanted, a consider- 
 able quantity of what is not wanted comes with 
 at. 
 
 The canes, as they issue from a good mill, have 
 somewhat the appearance of a sheet of paste- 
 board, the quantity of which amounts to about 
 20 per cent. of the quantity that entered the mill. 
 It is comparatively dry tothe touch, but is found 
 to consist of about one half juice, the remainder 
 being woody fibre, and a small proportion of 
 silica. This cane trash, or megass ought, we 
 consider, to supply sufficient fuel for working the | 
 
14 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 whole plant for the manufacture of sugar, and 
 _ thus entirely supersede the employment of coal 
 or wood, but we must leave this subject for future 
 consideration. © , | 
 
 The remaining 80 per cent. consists of what is 
 commonly called cane juice, with a small amount 
 of woody fibre held in suspension. ‘The term 
 cane juice can, however, scarcely be applied 
 correctly to the liquid under consideration, as it 
 contains, in addition to sugar and water, small 
 quantities of various deleterious substances, 
 forced out of the canes by the intense pressure 
 to which they have been subjected. These im- 
 purities consist of. green feculae, green wax, gum, 
 gluten, and various salts of lime, potash, soda, 
 &c., and a peculiar substance, the composition of 
 which is unknown. ‘The respective amount of 
 their impurities varies considerably in different 
 species of canes, and also from various other 
 causes, but they appear to exist in greater or less 
 proportion in all cane juice; besides this, there is 
 usually a certain amount of acid, caused by the 
 exposure of the ends of the canes since the time 
 they were cut in the field: It will be readily 
 perceived that a mixture of this description in a 
 climate where the normal temperature may always 
 be taken at somewhat above 80° is excessively 
 liable to ferment, and it is, therefore, very impor- 
 tant that it should be left in that state as short a 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. ies 
 
 time as possible. For this purpose it is advanta- 
 geous to have the mill as near to the: clarifiers 
 as possible, so that time may not be lost, by the 
 juice having to travel long distances through 
 gutters. It was the practice in the West Indies, 
 when steam mills were first adopted, to erect 
 them at a considerable distance from the boiling 
 houses, the planters being under the impression 
 that such a precaution was necessary to save the 
 shingles of which the roofs are composed from 
 being ignited by the sparks from the chimneys. 
 It is consequently not at all unusual to find that 
 there is a distance of 150ft. to 200ft. between the 
 mill and the clarifiers, the communication between 
 them being effected by means of an open gutter 
 along which the cane juice leisurely travels. This 
 system is much to be deprecated, as the juice 
 must be treated with an extra quantity of lime 
 to neutralise the acidity thus acquired, which is 
 well known to darken the colour of the sugar. 
 The danger of fire from the boiler chimney 
 appears to be very small; at all events, a 
 galvanised iron roof would insure the buildings 
 much more efficiently. 
 
 In Plate II. the arrangement of a portion of a 
 sugar house is shown including the steam boilers, 
 mills, monte-jus, {and clarifiers, where it will be 
 observed, the distance between the mills and 
 clarifiers is as much shortened as possible. In 
 
16 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 this case the juice first passes from the mill 
 through a set of graduated copper strainers, 
 which are simply trays with perforated bottoms, 
 and usually consisting of a set of three placed 
 one above the other, the holes in the top tray 
 being larger than those in the middle one, while 
 those in the lowest tray are still smaller. These 
 trays arrest nearly all the woody particles of the 
 cane on their course to the monte-jus, the large 
 pieces being collected in the top tray, the two 
 others performing the same duty towards the 
 various other sized particles. The juice thus freed 
 from mechanical impurities flows into the monte- 
 jus shown at Plate II., and upon a larger scale in 
 the accompanying engraving, Fig.1. In the older 
 mills, and, in fact, in most mills existing at the 
 present time, pumps are used for the purpose of 
 elevating the canejuice, these pumps being usually 
 worked by an excentric fitted to an extension of the 
 spindle of the top roller, This plan, however, 
 we consider is objectionable insomuch that the 
 juice is kept too long before being heated, and, 
 therefore, as has been already observed, at the 
 precise temperature at which fermentation is most 
 active, and also that the mixture of grease and 
 metal from the working parts of the machinery 
 is liable to be pumped up with the juice. With 
 the monte-jus these objections disappear as the 
 heat of the steam used in forcing up a “charge » 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. V7 
 
 of juice into the clarifiers leaves it sufficiently 
 warm to impart a considerable amount of heat to 
 
 
 
 Fie. 1. 
 the next charge, thereby at once retarding, if not 
 arresting, fermentation; also, as there are no 
 
 C 
 
18 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 working parts in its construction, no grease is 
 required for its proper action. , 
 The construction and method of working a 
 monte-jus is very simple, as will be seen from 
 the following description of the engraving, 
 Fig. 1:—The body of the monte-jus consists 
 of two parts, A and B, separated by a steam-tight _ 
 diaphragm; the upper part, A, is for the recep-. 
 tion of the juice from the mill, while the charge | 
 in the lower portion is being elevated, and is 
 made of sufficient capacity for that purpose. 
 When the lower portion, B, of thé monte-jus is 
 empty, the valve, C, is raised by turning the 
 handle, c, while at the same time the cock of the 
 air-pipe, D, is opened. The juice contained in 
 the upper portion or receiver, A, immediately 
 descends through the valve, C, any air that may 
 be contained in the chamber, B, escaping through 
 the air-pipe, D. It will be noticed that this air- | 
 pipe extends about 6in. into the lower chamber, 
 B. This is for the purpose of ascertaining when 
 the chamber is sufficiently full; the escape of air 
 through the pipe, D, being, of course, stopped im- 
 mediately the juice reaches its lower end. The 
 cessation of the whistling noise made by the air 
 rushing through the end of this air-pipe, consti- 
 tutes the signal for screwing down the valve, C, 
 to prevent any further flow of juice into the 
 lower part of the monte-jus. The air cock is 
 
 - 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 19 
 
 then closed, and the steam cock, e, of the steam- 
 pipe, H, communicating with the boilers, is opened, 
 when the empty space between the surface of the 
 Juice and the top of the lower chamber, B, is im- 
 mediately filled with steam, which at once com- 
 mences to drive the juice out through the 
 discharge pipe, F. As this pipe is carried down 
 to within a short distance of the bottem of the 
 monte-jus, nearly the whole of the contained 
 liquor is forced out of the lower chamber. As 
 soon as any indications of steam appear at the 
 mouth of the discharge pipe, the steam cock, e, is 
 shut, and the valve, C, and air cock, D, are opened 
 to let in a fresh charge. It will thus be seen 
 that the action of the monte-jus is exceedingly 
 simple, only one precaution being necessary, viz., 
 to shut the valve, C, through which the juice is 
 running, in time. If the juice be allowed to 
 reach the top plate of the chamber, B, the steam 
 when let on through the pipe, H, will mix with, 
 and boil the juice, but will not elevate it; and 
 we have known considerable difficulty and delay 
 arising from this circumstance. As a precaution 
 against carelessness, we should recommend an 
 overflow cock, g, to be fitted to the shell, B, a few 
 inches below the top, so that the superabundant 
 juice might be drawn off. The cane-juice, as it 
 eomes from the monte-jus, is, as has been before 
 remarked, sufficiently warm to retard fermenta- 
 C 2 
 
20 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 tion on its way to the clarifiers, and also, while 
 waiting in the clarifiers, until a sufficient depth 
 has accumulated to admit of their being heated. 
 
 Although clarifiers of various descriptions — 
 have been adopted and recommended, they may 
 be simply divided into two classes, viz., those 
 worked by heat from the evaporating pans (or in 
 some cases by a separate fire), which is regulated 
 by a damper, and those worked by steam either 
 from the boiler or the exhaust steam from the 
 engine. The arrangement shown in Plate 2 
 consists of a set of nine steam clarifiers, as we 
 consider that where fuel is expensive—as is the 
 case in nearly all sugar-growing countries—the 
 economy of heating by steam more than compen- 
 sates for the considerable excess of first cost. 
 This method also possesses the advantage of 
 enabling the heat being regulated with greater 
 nicety, and of being shut off, or let on, more 
 speedily than is possible with an open fire. 
 
 The clarification, or, as it is termed, the defeca- 
 tion of the cane-juice, is perhaps the most impor- 
 tant part in the process of manufacturing sugar. 
 It has been already remarked that besides sugar 
 and water the cane-juice consists of various other 
 substances, such as green feculse, green wax, gum, 
 gluten, and various salts of lime, potash, soda, 
 &c., and also a peculiar substance the composi- | 
 tion of which is unknown. All these substances 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 21 
 
 are more or less injurious, while some of them, 
 such as the organic compounds just mentioned, 
 actively induce fermentation, and it is believed re-. 
 tard crystallisation, whilethe inorganic compounds 
 act chemically and more or less injuriously upon 
 the sugar itself. It is, therefore, of the greatest 
 consequence that all these foreign matters should 
 be eliminated as completely and speedily as 
 possible. To effect this object an almost innume- 
 rable variety of processes have been proposed from 
 the dangerous materials, such as corrosive-subli- 
 mate, and subacetate of lead, down to the harm- 
 less compounds of alumina and calcium. It is 
 not, however, our purpose to describe these various 
 processes, which have been all more or less 
 failures, but simply to illustrate the nearly 
 ~ universal practice of defication by lime. 
 
 _ In working with a steam clarifier such as that 
 shown in the accompanying engravings, Figs 2 
 and 3, the following process is usually adopted :— 
 As soon as the coil of steam-pipes, shown near the 
 bottom of the clarifier, is covered by the juice, the 
 steam from the exhaust pipe of the mill engines is 
 allowed to circulate through them, and also 
 through the double bottom of the pan, so that by 
 the time the clarifier is full the juice is already 
 hot. When the liquor has attained a temperature 
 of about 140°, a small quantity of the finest 
 ground lime, previously made into a milk by 
 
29 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 being mixed with a little cane-juice, is thrown in, 
 and thoroughly stirred into it. It is then left 
 alone, and the temperature allowed to rise until 
 the thick scum which forms at the top begins to 
 harden and crack, when the steam is at once shut © 
 off. This generally takes place at a temperature 
 of about 180° to 200°, but on no account should 
 the temperature be raised to boiling point. The 
 amount of lime necessary to neutralise the acidity 
 of the liquor, and effect the coagulation of the 
 albumen, or, in other words, to properly clarify 
 the liquor, is somewhat variable, and it requires 
 considerable experience to judge correctly. The 
 usual allowance is about one pound of temper 
 lime to every 600 gallons of juice when the canes _ 
 from which it has been produced are in good 
 condition, and have not been kept too long after 
 having been cut; although perhaps the taste and 
 smell is the best guide. In some cases, especially 
 when the operator is afraid that there is a large 
 amount of acid, the use of litmus paper is advan- 
 tageous, but care should be taken that the fatal 
 mistake of putting in an overdose of lime be 
 avoided. After allowing the liquor time to settle, 
 which is usually said to be about a quarter of an 
 hour, although we prefer about double that time, 
 and for that purpose would recommend an. ample 
 supply of clarifiers, it ought when examined in a 
 glass to have somewhat the appearance of sherry 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. De 
 
 which has not been properly fined. Small fecule 
 will be observed floating about in it, showing 
 that although apparently clear and bright, the 
 process of defecation is by no means perfect. It 
 is a curious fact that the system of defecation by 
 means of lime has been practised by the Chinese 
 from time immemorial, and although, as we have 
 seen, it is far from perfect, no other process has 
 as yet been discovered which is open to fewer 
 objections. ? | 
 
 The accompanying illustrations of a steam cla- 
 rifier will be so readily understood, that but little 
 explanation is necessary. Fig. 2 is a sectional 
 elevation, and Fig. 3 aplan. It will be seen 
 that it consists of a rectangular cast-iron cistern 
 fitted with a double bottom. The space thus’ 
 formed is connected with one end of the coil of 
 pipes situated at the lower part of the pan, as 
 shown in Figs. 2 and 3; a small condense water- 
 - cockbeing fittedin any position inthe bottom lining 
 of this space, and an air cock, aS shown in Fig. 8, 
 at oneend. The coilof pipes are made of copper, 
 and are clamped together for the convenience of 
 lifting when required. The two ends of the coil 
 are fitted into stuffing boxes, the upper end (Fig. 
 3) beingin connection with the steam pipe, and 
 the other communicating with the space formed 
 by the double bottom of the clarifier. By means 
 of a steam-cock attached to the upper stuffing 
 
24 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 box, the steam may be admitted into the coil, and 
 
 thence to the bottom of theclarifier; the amount 
 
 of steam, and consequently the amount of heat 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 ee 
 (oe 
 
 me 
 
 EE OTA 
 
 ott a | i 
 eee ME ssa! Cc. a = 
 
 
 
 | OM i qe TNA TATA TNA oS : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 atti TT mT 
 
 Pomme Corny fh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fia. 3. 
 
 being regulated with the greatest nicety. The 
 stuffing boxes just alluded to are for the purpose 
 of allowing the coil to be raised up for the pur- 
 pose of cleaning out the clarifier, an eye bolt 
 being fitted to the clamp shown at the other end 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 25 
 
 of the coil (Fig. 2), which when raised causes the 
 extremities of the pipes to rotate in the stuffing 
 boxes. A plug is placed in the orifice to which 
 the draw-off cock is fitted, and perforated with 
 holes placed at a suitable distance above the . 
 bottom of the clarifier, in order that the sediment 
 formed during the process of defecation, may be 
 prevented from being carried off with the clear 
 liquor. 
 
 In drawing off the juice a small quantity 
 of dirty coloured liquor comes off first, which is 
 usually returned into another clarifier in the 
 process of being filled. The clear liquor is then 
 run into the filters or evaporating pans, as the 
 case may be, and, as soon as the whole has been 
 drawn off,—-shown by a change in colour, which 
 can be at once detected by the eye—the cock is 
 shut, the plug is then raised, and upon the cock 
 being again opened, the rest of the contents of 
 the pan is usually run off into the still-house. 
 
26 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FILTRATION. 
 
 Having by means of defecation in the clarifiers, 
 obtained a comparatively clear and neutral liquor, 
 it now becomes the question whether the water, 
 shall be at once evaporated without endeavouring, 
 except by the mechanical process of boiling, to 
 increase the purity of the juice, or whether it is 
 worth while to carry the process of clarification 
 still further. As regards this question, a great 
 deal must be left to the judgment of the manager 
 or proprietor of the sugar-house. In some cases, 
 the canes may be so good, and the clarification 
 performed so thoroughly, that by means of some 
 one of the evaporating apparatus to be hereafter 
 described, a first class grocery sugar may be 
 obtained. In other cases, although equal care 
 may have been exercised, the juice when 
 evaporated will yield but a small proportion of 
 _ sugaf of an inferior colour, and a large quantity 
 of molasses. This latter result is probably 
 owing to the large quantity of albumen and 
 mineral salts held in solution, as it is usually 
 found that the juice of “plant” canes, which 
 from their vigorous growth naturaily absorb a 
 larger proportion of mineral salts, is more 
 
“MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. = 27 
 
 difficult to manipulate than the juice from 
 “ratoons.” 
 
 _ There have been various methods proposed for 
 the further clarification of the liquor by means 
 of filtration. The first plan was, we believe, to 
 filter it through beds of coarse sand and shingle, 
 the idea being most likely taken from the filtering 
 beds of waterworks; but as might have been 
 expected it was soon:fabandoned. Another 
 method has been extensively adopted, viz., filter- 
 ing through bag filters, but this again, though 
 useful to a certain extent, is entirely a mechanical 
 process, and is ee no means perfect even for that 
 purpose. 
 
 The bag filter, which was introduced into the 
 colonies about twenty years ago, is, no doubt, 
 very simple, but acts purely mechanically. It 
 usually consists of an upright wooden erection 
 about eight or nine feet high, five feet wide, and 
 three feet deep. The upper portion for about 
 eighteen inches in depth is made watertight, the 
 bottom of which is pierced with a series of holes, 
 and into each of these holes a gun-metal funnel — 
 is fitted. In order to readily fix the bags on 
 these funnels the lower ends are widened out 
 somewhat in the shape of a bell, and hence they 
 are usually called “bells.” The bags which are 
 tied on to these bells consist of an outer casing of 
 coarse porous canvas, about 8in. in diameter and 
 
28 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 6ft. long, and inside this casing is placed a bagof 
 very strong and fine twilled cotton, made ex- 
 pressly for the purpose, about the same length, 
 but much greater in diameter. The reason for 
 making the inner casing larger than the outer is 
 to give more filtering surface, the outer casing © 
 being useful only for keeping the inner within 
 bounds. As these bags require frequent changing 
 this portion of the filter is provided with a door 
 extending its full length. The lower part of the 
 filter consists of a cistern to receive the juice as 
 it runs through the bags, and is provided with a 
 cock for drawing it off into the evaporating pans. 
 
 The only filter that will meet the requirements 
 satisfactorily, is, undoubtedly, the well known 
 animal charcoal filter, as it not only purifies the 
 liquor mechanically, but also absorbs or decom- 
 poses nearly all the deleterious compounds held 
 in solution; but as we are now treating upon the 
 manufacture of a good saleable, but unrefined 
 sugar, we are not going to propose a complete 
 system of charcoal filtration. That, indeed, is 
 more advantageously carried on at a later stage 
 in the manufacture; but we feel convinced that 
 a somewhat rough and ready filtration through 
 animal charcoal at this stage of the manufacture 
 greatly increases both the yield and quality of 
 the sugar. 
 
 In order to explain our views more completely 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR, 49) 
 
 we illustrate, in Fig. 4, a charcoal filter suitable 
 for this purpose. It consists of a galvanised 
 wrought-iron pan, about twelve feet long by four 
 feet wide, and four feet deep, slightly tapered at . 
 the sides. A false bottom, consisting of stout 
 wire gauze, or a perforated plate, stiffened, by 
 means of cross stretchers, is placed about six 
 inches from the bottom, and covered with a coarse 
 blanket, or other suitable material. Upon this 
 is evenly distributed the animal charcoal, 
 
 SS SS ieee 
 
 (| iT in nnn nnn 
 
 
 
 
 
 previously moistened with soft water, to within 
 about seven or eight inches of the top of the pan. 
 A sheet of fine wire gauze is then placed upon 
 the top of the charcoal, and the whole covered 
 with a cloth of the same material from which 
 filter bags are usually made. As will be observed 
 on reference to the drawing, an air tube with an 
 open top, which runs up a short distance above 
 the pan, is provided, for the purpose of allowing 
 the escape of the air enclosed between the two 
 
30 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 bottoms; a cock for drawing off the filtered 
 liquor being situated at the other end of the pan. 
 
 The charcoal should not be too fine, or the liquor 
 will not run through quickly enough. The depth 
 of charcoal here recommended is not sufficient 
 to remove all the colour from the liquor, but, as 
 before remarked, is only intended to remove a 
 sufficient amount of colour to give a first-class 
 grocery sugar, and also to free the liquor from 
 most, if not all, of its impurities. As far as we 
 can judge, this process wi ll also prevent the occur- 
 rence of that disgusting insect the acarus, or sugar 
 louse, which compels many people to use refined 
 sugar instead of the far superior flavoured sugar 
 direct from the mill. Amongst other properties 
 possessed. by animal charcoal may be mentioned 
 the neutralisation of any acid that may still 
 remain in the juice through the agency of the 
 calcic carbonate contained therein. 
 
 It may, however, be desirable in some cases— 
 as, for instance, where estates are near to large 
 towns—to produce a certain proportion of white 
 sugar. For this purpose acharcoal filter, similar 
 to that shown in Fig. 5, is absolutely necessary. 
 This, it will be seen, consists of an upright cylin-— 
 drical wrought-iron casing, about 15ft. high by 
 5ft. in diameter. We may mention that in home 
 _Yefineries these filters are now made much larger, 
 but we consider this size sufficient for the purpose 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. oat 
 
 now under consideration. Like the bag filters 
 these also consist of three parts, viz., a cistern at 
 the top, the filter proper, and a receiver for the 
 filtered liquor below. The bottom of the upper 
 cistern consists of perforated galvanised iron, 
 usually made in four quarters, for the purpose of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 removal when charging the filter with animal 
 charcoal, ‘These perforations serve to prevent 
 the liquor from falling on the charcoal in one 
 spot, and thereby preserve an even distribution 
 over the upper surface. ‘The animal charcoal 
 
32 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 occupies the entire space between the bottom of 
 the upper and the top of the lower compartment, 
 - with the exception of a few inches from the 
 former. At the lower part of this compartment 
 a manhole is provided, for the purpose of dis- 
 charging the charcoal when necessary. The 
 lower receiver is provided with a cover similar to 
 the bottom of the upper one, but in order to pre- 
 vent the charcoal from falling through the perfo- 
 rations it is carefully covered with a piece of 
 canvas, or duck, before the charcoal is put in. 
 
 In addition to a cock for drawing off the filtered 
 liquor this receiver is provided with a pipe for 
 allowing the air and vapour to escape ; otherwise 
 the back pressure would oppose the passage of 
 the liquor through the charcoal. 
 
 As we have already mentioned, these filters are 
 not adapted to juice drawn direct from the clari- 
 fiers, but are employed for decolorising the liquor 
 when drawn from the battery and previous to its 
 entering the Wetzels, as hereafter described. 
 
 For the purpose of elevating the liquor to the 
 upper cistern of the charcoal filter a monte-jus, 
 similar to that already described, only propor- 
 tionately smaller, is desirable. 
 
 In the home refineries the shell of the filter is 
 frequently enclosed in a steam jacket, to keep the 
 liquor warm; but asin the present case the liquor 
 is elevated direct from the battery, where it attains 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 83) 
 
 a temperature of more than 220° Fah. this pre- 
 caution is unnecessary. | 
 
 According to M. Bodenbender :— 
 
 1. The capacity which granular animal char- 
 coal possesses of absorbing salts and their solutions 
 is for the most part a physical property. 
 
 2. One part in weight of charcoal absorbs a 
 larger proportion of salts from a concentrated 
 than from a diluted solution; on the other side 
 the proportion absorbed froma constant quantity 
 of salts is more considerable, when this quantity 
 is more diluted than when it is in a concentrated 
 solution. - | 
 
 3. The presence of sugar has only a slight in- 
 fluence on absorption. 
 
 4. The salts of potass are absorbed in smaller 
 proportion than the salts of soda. 
 
 5. The absorption of salts varies according to 
 their composition ; it increases in the order of 
 the following list of salts, being smallest in the 
 first on the list. 
 
 Chloride of Potassium Sulphate of Potash 
 
 Sodium - Soda 
 Nitrate Potash = Magnesia 
 
 Soda Carb. Potash 
 _A:etate Potash a Soda 
 
 < Soda Phosphate Soda 
 
 6. A chemical action of the charcoal bas been 
 observed with respect to some carbonates, oxalates 
 ) D 
 
34, MANUFACTURE: OF CANE SUGAR: 
 
 and alkaline nitrates; it is determined by the 
 presence of sulphate and of phosphate of lime in 
 the charcoal. ee evi 
 
 7. Charcoal saturated with a certain salt is still 
 able to absorb another salt from solution within 
 certain limits. , 
 
 8. There is less absorption from a salt when in 
 contact with the charcoal for a short time, than 
 when the contact. is prolonged within certain 
 limits, : 
 
“’MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 00 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF SUGAR CONTAINED IN 
 100 POUNDS OF CANE-JUICE, ACCORDING TO BEAUME’S 
 SACCHAROMETER; ALSO, THE AMOUNT OF WATER TO 
 BE EVAPORATED TO REDUCE THE SAME TO A SATU- 
 RATED SOLUTION, THE TEMPERATURE BEING TAKEN 
 
 _ AT 82° FAHRENHEIT. 
 
 | 
 | 
 
 WEIGHT OF WATER TO BE 
 
 - DEG e - WE] IGAR 
 ey EE ea yOr Buc EVAPORATED TO EFFECT A 
 
 
 
 _ BRAUME. | . JUICE. 
 anes BER Eogenss AOE SATURATED SOLUTION. - 
 
 LBS. ZS. DRS. | LBS. OZS. DBS. 
 1 sl a3 6 97 03.15 
 2 3: 10 12. ; = 94s. Ue 14 
 3 . 5 Saree 91 2S 
 4 i 5 . 10 88 Seen ee 
 5 Qt BZ 0. Boe 4a 
 6 TY teeO i | 82 5. 10 
 7 2 13 4 79 6: 9 
 as 14 11 4, 76 7 8 
 9 16 8 ahs: 73 8 7 
 10 18 6 1 70 9 (joe 
 11 / 20 3 8. 67: 10 5. 
 12 22 0 15 | 64 LE Gui eG 
 13 23 14 5. 61. 12 3 
 14 25 ie ke 58. 138 3 
 15 27 2 2 65. 14 1 f 
 16 eo 6 9 52 PS soc sik 
 17 31 4 0 50 OL 5.0 
 18 33 1 6 Sg 0 LS 
 19 34 14 3 2 44 1 14 
 20 36 12 3. Al 2 13 
 21 . 38 9 Si 38. (3 12 
 22 40 Uf 1 35 4 1l 
 23 42 4 arf 382 5 10 
 24 44, 1 14 29 6 9 
 25 45 15 4 26. 7 8 
 26 47 12 al 23 8 a 
 27 49. 10 i 20°. 9 6 
 28 51. 7 8 17 10 5 
 29 53 4 15 14 PEC Oe 4 
 30 55 2 5 11 12 3 
 31 56 15 12. 8 13 2 
 32 OS Vai eS 5 14 A Mp 
 33 ‘60 LOM YF ESS 2 15 0. 
 34 62 8 0 
 
 
 
 
 
 bp 2 
 
36 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 EVAPORATION. 
 
 In the last chapter, while treating upon a few of 
 the various systems of defecation or clarification 
 of the cane-juice, we mentioned that the sub- 
 sequent processes were more of a mechanical than 
 chemical nature. Although this is undoubtedly 
 the fact, yet a considerable amount of skill, or at 
 least, of practice, is required to perform success- 
 fully the apparently simple process of evaporating 
 the surplus water from the cane-juice in the state 
 in which we then left it. Although in this treatise 
 we profess to illustrate only such methods em- 
 ployed in sugar mannfacture which are in our 
 opinion the most suitable, yet for the purpose of 
 more clearly illustrating the peculiarities of this 
 portion of the manufacture we give in the accom- 
 panying illustrations a very usual, but, at the 
 same time, a very inferior method of effecting 
 this purpose. Another reason might also be 
 given for illustrating this method, viz., that it is 
 not only the most universal arrangement in 
 practical use in the colonies but also the oldest. 
 The system appears to be as old as the manufacture 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 37 
 
 of sugar, at least as old as when this manufacture 
 was first introduced into the various colonies. It 
 is apparently a slightly improved copy of the 
 Chinese method, where three, four, or five evapo- 
 rating pans are placed over one fire, this fire 
 being contained in a rectangular furnace about 
 twelve or fourteen feet square by eight feet high, 
 and composed of logs of wood three or four feet 
 long, and reminding one, when it is in “full 
 swing,” of the celebrated furnace of Nebuchad- 
 nezza. In the annexed illustrations, Figs. 6 and 
 7, of the colonial system, it will be seen that the 
 pans are placed longitudinally, and that they vary 
 in size. By this means the smallest (or asis here 
 shown the two smallest) is placed directly over 
 the furnace, and the others in line along the flue: 
 The variation in the size of the pans was con- 
 sidered necessary in order that each of them 
 should contain the same amount of saccharine 
 matter. Thus the largest pan, or, as itis usually 
 termed, the “grand copper,” is for the reception 
 of the clarified but unevaporated cane-juice, while 
 the smaller pan next adjoining it is supposed to 
 be able to hold the contents of the grand copper 
 after a portion of the water has been evaporated. 
 As a somewhat larger proportion of water is 
 evaporated in the second copper, the dimensions 
 of the third copper is proportivnately less, and 
 so on until the liquor, now ina high state of con- 
 
38. MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR- 
 
 centration, finds its way, or, rather, is ladled, into, . 
 
 the smallest of all, which is usually called the 
 ‘‘teache.” ‘The reason for proportioning the size 
 
 of these evaporating vessels so that each should — 
 
 be presumed to hold the same amount of sugar 
 is dfficult to understand, but as far as we can 
 
 () " > 
 
 ‘ ea 
 cy 
 
 i ) q 
 
 
 
 * Fie. 6. 
 
 judge it arose from a peculiar species of supersti- 
 
 tion, viz., that precisely the same embryo crystals 
 would pass regularly from one stage to another . 
 
 of concentration until they were finally “skipped” 
 into the cooler. ‘The later introduction of two 
 ‘teaches at the end of the: battery, as shown in 
 
WANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR: 39 
 
 Fig. 7, must, we think, have dispelled this illu- 
 sion, asin most cases where it has been adopted 
 each of these coppers are generally of the same 
 
 size as the original single teache. 
 ! . oe 
 
 ‘> 
 
 
 
 ‘ The process of concentration of the cane-juice 
 by means: of a.set. of coppers according’ to.this 
 system-is.very simple, but.very imperfect. When 
 a sufficient quantity of :cane-juice is. brought. 
 
AD MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 down from the clarifiers the head boiler-man 
 ealls “fire,” whereupon, as soon as possible, an 
 intense fire of burning cane trash is brought to 
 play upon the smallest pan or teache, and is led 
 by means of an undulating flue beneath the rest — 
 of the coppers. It is most essential that the 
 process of evaporation when once commenced 
 should be carried on vigorously and unceasingly, — 
 as the less time to which it is exposed to the air 
 the better will be the sample of sugar. In order 
 to effect this object the flues are usually made of 
 a considerably greater area than that allowed for 
 steam boilers, and as a natural consequence an 
 enormous per-centage of the heat from the flaming 
 ‘cane trash” or “megass”™ passes beyond the 
 range of the coppers. This waste heat is 
 generally made available for the purpose of 
 heating the clarifiers, and in the accompanying 
 engraving, Fig. 6, a system that prevails in the 
 West Indies for that purpose is illustrated. It 
 will be seen that the heated products of combus- 
 tion, after passing under the range of evaporating 
 pans Fig. 7 are, by means of a regular system of 
 flues, shown in dotted lines and dampers (marked 
 D) caused to pass under any one of the clarifiers 
 that require to be heated before reaching the 
 chimney; By this arrangement an additional 
 portion of the heat is utilised, but still the waste 
 is something enormous, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. Al 
 
 . In making sugar by means of this primitive 
 
 ’ battery there is, as we have already mentioned, 
 but little skill required; but, on the other hand, 
 constant attention and incessant labour is of the 
 utmost importance. Thus, a continuous fierce 
 boil must be kept up, which, of course, with the 
 peculiar material used for fuel, requires unre- 
 mitting attention. The scum, also, which forms 
 upon the top of the froth thus formed, has to be 
 constantly removed and deposited into the gutter 
 runniug alongside the battery, and thence to the 
 still-house. These duties are, however, merely 
 mechanical, and the only skill required is for 
 judging when the juice is sufficiently concentrated 
 for skipping into the coolers. 
 
 Before touching upon this point, however, a 
 few remarks upon the evaporating process may 
 be useful. The cane-juice, if properly clarified, 
 should, when boiling, be of a delicate straw- 
 colour, the colour being more distinct as it is 
 concentrated; but this test cannot always. be 
 depended upon, as the colour not only varies. with 
 the age of the cane—the older the cane, as a rule, 
 
 giving the paler juice—but also with the soil upon 
 which it is grown. When much lime is used in 
 the process of clarification the colour of the 
 boiling liquid is considerably darkened, and when, 
 in addition to this, a peculiar burnt smell is 
 perceptible, there has been either too much lime — 
 
AQ “MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 used, or the canes have been allowed to get sour 
 in the yard before passing through the mill: 
 Sometimes an insufficient quantity of lime has 
 been used in the clarifier, and in that case the 
 juice when boiling gives off a somewhat acid 
 scent. This fault, if fault it be, is easily remedied 
 by the addition of milk of lime in the grand. 
 copper until the litmus test is satisfied. We — 
 have hesitated to pronounce this to be a fault, as 
 we believe that a great deal more sugar is spoilt 
 by too much, than by too little lime; and, there- 
 fore, consider that insufficiency of lime is, at 
 least, an error on the right side. 
 
 ' The proper time for “skipping” the juice when. 
 boiled, under the arrangement above described, is 
 usually controlled by the judgment of the head 
 boiler-man, who has his own peculiar method of 
 judging the maturity of the liquor. We are of 
 course aware that a great deal has been written 
 and re-written about testing the state of the 
 liquor in the teache by means of the appearance 
 and behaviour of a small quantity taken out for 
 that. purpose; but as the same, or almost the 
 same, appearance will be assumed by two samples 
 varying greatly in the amount of water they con- 
 tain, if only the temperature is also varied, a 
 correct judgment by the sight cannot be properly 
 described, nor can it be learnt except by consider- 
 able. experience.. The only. scientific test by 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR, AB: 
 
 which the degree of concentration of cane-juice 
 when evaporated in an open pan can be ascer- 
 tained is by the thermometer. This not only 
 forms a very accurate test, but is a check upon 
 any excess of evaporation, and consequent over 
 colouring of the sugar. The change in the colour 
 observable in a teache full of sugar as it 
 approaches concentration is very distinct; in fact, 
 _ the process of destruction as the heat rises to the 
 point necessary for complete evaporation under 
 this barbarous process becomes sufficiently rapid, 
 one would think, to demonstrate to any planter 
 that he was spoiling the very material for which 
 he had laboured. 
 » As sugar is soluble in half its weight of cold 
 water, it:is evident that the per-centage of water 
 left unevaporated in the liquor when itis skipped, 
 will form three times that per-centage of molasses. 
 Thus supposing 10 per cent. of water is contained 
 in the liquor, that quantity when cold will dissolve 
 20 per cent. of sugar, forming molasses, and 
 leaving 70 per cent. of crystallized sugar. -The 
 heat required to concentrate the liquor even up 
 to this point, is so great, (about 242° Fahrenheit) 
 that. the’ colour of the -sugar is excessively 
 darkened. .. In practice, it is found that. it is — 
 better not to exceed a temperature of 240°, when. 
 the yield of sugar ‘ought to be about 60 per cent. 
 _ of the amount run into the coolers, | 
 
 Sse 
 
44) MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MODERN METHODS OF EVAPORATION. 
 
 In the last chapter was given a description of the 
 most common method of evaporating the water 
 from the clarified cane-juice, wherein it was 
 pointed out that although that method had the 
 sanction of age it was very imperfect. Although 
 the imperfections of this system might be shown 
 to be very numerous, only the two greatest were 
 insisted upon, viz., the enormous waste of fuel 
 and the injury done to the sugar by excessive 
 heat; as these two were amply sufficient, without 
 taking into consideration the waste of labour in 
 skimming, the incessant destruction of those pans 
 nearest the fire and consequent stoppage of the 
 entire manufacture, the choking of the flues, and 
 other minor drawbacks, to make it apparent that 
 some change was absolutely necessary. 
 
 Leaving the former of these two objections— — 
 
 the waste of fuel—for the present, we will 
 endeavour to show what has been done to evaporate 
 the water at a temperature below that at which 
 the sugar becomes materially discoloured. This 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 45 
 
 temperature has been found to be at about 224° 
 Fah., ior when the liquor has attained the density 
 of 32° Beaumé, the liquor then contains 40 per 
 cent. of water and 60 per cent. of sugar. In 
 practice, however, it is better to keep within this 
 limit, and to confine the extreme temperature to 
 about 220° Fah. when the density of the liquor 
 is equal to about 27° Beaumé, or when the liquor 
 consists of one half sugar and one half water. 
 For the purpose of evaporating the cane-juice 
 
 Ulan terse earthen ne 
 
 VEC ATAT ETO 
 f i H 
 
 
 
 Fic. 8. 
 down to this strength several methods are em- 
 ployed. In some cases the use of the old range 
 of coppers may be continued, with the exception 
 of the teaches, which are removed, and the fire 
 placed under the first copper. In order to 
 economise fuel, we remember having seen an 
 arrangement adopted in Jamaica which gave very 
 good results, which consisted in removing the 
 two largest coppers and substituting a rectangular 
 pan having a row of tubes near the bottom, as 
 illustrated in Fig. 8. By this means the 
 
‘A6 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR: 
 
 evaporation was greatly increased, the only objec 
 tion to its use being that it was somewhat diffi- 
 cult to clean, or, rather, the difficulty lay in 
 
 ) 
 Up” 
 Yi 
 yA 
 i, 
 Ys 
 hy. 
 i 
 4 
 ‘4 
 Mi, 
 4 
 G 
 4 
 < 
 / 
 / 
 G 
 
 “ty 
 OM) 4, 
 ye, 
 
 HY, 
 % 
 
 y 
 
 ascertaining whether it had been properly cleaned. 
 It has already been observed that cleanliness is 
 
 of the utmost importance in thése processes, and 
 
 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR, 47 
 
 consequently the adoption of tubes, or, in fact, 
 any unevenness in the pans cannot be recom~ 
 mended. A very ‘simple arrangement for. 
 ’ evaporating the juice is illustrated by Figs. 9 and: 
 10, and is generally termed a “battery.” It con-. 
 sists of a long and somewhat shallow vessel,: 
 usually about thirty-five to forty feet. long and 
 four feet wide, the depth varying from about 
 twenty inches at the end nearest. the fire to about. 
 twenty-six inches at the other end. ‘It is set im 
 
 
 
 Fic. 10. 
 brickwork, the furnace being placed underneath: 
 the shallow end, a series of check bridges, as 
 shown in Fig. 9, being built in the flue, to obtain 
 
 as much heat as possible. The brickwork is’ 
 earried up a considerable distance above the top 
 of the pan, and bevelled outwards, as shown in 
 Fig. 10, the slope being covered with chunam, or 
 waterproof cement. The battery is divided into 
 four or five compartments by transverse partitions, 
 having siuice valves at the bottom; these valves’ 
 being worked by a hand lever, as shown in Fig, 10. 
 
AS MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 When at work the liquor in the battery boils up — 
 nearly to the top of the sloping slides,and the 
 scum is thus easily swept along to the coolest end 
 of the battery, and then skimmed off. By this 
 means the labour of skimming off the impurities 
 is not only very much reduced, but it is also 
 performed much more perfectly, and with less 
 -waste, as it is well known to all practical boilers 
 that it is almost impossible to skim the liquor 
 properly when boiling fiercely; besides which, 
 the pure liquor necessarily taken up with the scum 
 will not run through the perforations in the 
 skimming ladle so readily when partially con- 
 centrated. By means of the sluice-valves the 
 cane-juice can be admitted at pleasure from one 
 compartment of the battery to the next, thus 
 saving the labour usually required for incessant 
 ladling from one pan into another. When the 
 cane-juice in the compartment over the furnace 
 attains a density of about 27° Beaumé it is drawn 
 off by means of the cock shown in Fig. 10 into an 
 evaporating pan, hereafter to be described, until 
 but a few inches in depth remain at the bottom, 
 when the cock is shut, and the ‘sluice-valve com- 
 municating with the next compartment is opened 
 to admit a fresh charge of juice. By leaving a 
 few inches of liquor at the bottom all danger of 
 burning and discolourisation is avoided, without 
 it being necessary to stop the fire. When there 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 49 
 
 is no more cane-juice in the clarifiers, and it is 
 desired to “ work off’ or empty the battery, 
 considerable skill, or rather, activity, is required 
 to prevent burning. The juice is allowed to 
 evaporate until the battery is about half full, 
 when the contents of the compartment furthest 
 from the fire are ladled over as quickly as possible 
 into the adjoining space, the fire meanwhile being 
 damped. Immediately this operation is completed 
 the end compartment is filled with water, and the 
 fire again urged until the same process is necessary 
 with the next compartment, and so on until the 
 whole of the juice is contained in the division 
 over the fire. As soon as this attains a moderate 
 degree of concentration (say about 24° or 25° 
 Beaumé) the fire is drawn, and: the whole of the 
 Juice run out into the evaporating pans. 
 
 In order to effect the evaporation of the surplus 
 water at a temperature not exceeding that at 
 which sugar becomes discoloured, or as has been 
 already stated, 224° Fah., various schemes have 
 been devised. One of the first, and perhaps the 
 most important, is the vacuum pan (shown in 
 Plate 3, Fig. 3), invented by Howard about 
 the year 1812, but as this pan is not only very 
 expensive, but also requires skilled labour to 
 manage it, we will first endeavour to describe 
 some of the more simple methods that have been 
 proposed. Although an enormous number of 
 
 : E 
 
50 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 plans have been invented for effecting this object, 
 they nearly all resolve themselves into the same 
 principle, viz., that of exposing thin films of the 
 heated liquor to the action of the air. In several 
 plans the liquor is caused to traverse, in very 
 shallow streams, a tortuous course over heated 
 plates of sufficient extent that the necessary 
 quantity of water will be evaporated by the time 
 it arrives at the end of its journey. It is obvious 
 that these plans involve an enormous heating 
 surface, and consequent large outlay in money, 
 combined with an equally large amount of labour 
 in keeping the surface clean. Besides, if at any 
 time the heat of these surfaces varied, the liquor 
 would be either under, or over boiled accordingly ; 
 consequently, these arrangements are thoroughly 
 impracticable, and may be dismissed from further 
 consideration.* The first really practicable scheme 
 with which we are acquainted, was invented about 
 the year 1829, by Mr. Aitchison, of Glasgow. 
 This plan consisted in the employment of a steam 
 jacketted pan for the reception of the liquor, in 
 which a cylinder closed at both ends was placed 
 ~ horizontally, and hung in bearings fixed at each 
 end of the pan. The spindles carrying the 
 cylinder were hollow, so as to admit of steam 
 
 
 
 
 
 * In a late invention (Fryer’s Concretor) hereafter described, a 
 species of sugar called “concrete” has been successfully manufactured 
 by this method, but it is not adapted for direct consumption. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 51 
 
 being passed into it. By means of a wheel and 
 pinion, and a winch handle, the cylinder was 
 eaused ty revolve slowly, and being fixed in such 
 a position that the lower surface dipped into the 
 liquor contained in the steam jacketted pan, it 
 continually carried round a thin film of this liquor, 
 the water in which was rapidly evaporated. The 
 objection to this arrangement was, that the 
 cylinder or drum could not be placed low down 
 in the steam pan without occupying too large a 
 portion of its contents, while if it were placed 
 sufficiently high to meet that objection, as the 
 concentration proceeded, and the contents of the 
 pan were diminished, it would not touch the 
 liquor, and consequently became usless. There 
 is, however, but little doubt that this invention © 
 was an important step in the right direction, as 
 all the most successful schemes since the date of 
 that invention bear a strong family likeness to it. 
 
 It does not appear that Mr. Aitchison’s in- 
 vention met with any favour at the hands of the 
 - planters, or, indeed, that they made the slightest 
 endeavour to improve upon the old system: of 
 boiling until some years atter the total abolition 
 of slavery. In about the year 1845, however, 
 Mr. Gadsden proposed an evaporating pan, in 
 which the revolving cylinder above described was 
 replaced by what might be termed a skeleton 
 
 cylinder. It consisted of two metal discs, corres- 
 | #2 
 
52 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 ponding to the two ends of the cylinder, and 
 connected together by aseries of solid metal rods 
 fixed at short distances round the periphery of 
 each disc. By this means the objection to the 
 displacement was overcome, but unless it were 
 driven at a very slow speed it had the dis- 
 advantage of frothing the liquor, and moreover, — 
 the steam jacket of the pan alone afforded scarcely 
 sufficient heating surface. The Gadsden pan was 
 afterwards improved by Mr. Wetzel, by sub- 
 stituting for the solid discs and rods two hollow 
 dises connected by pipes, through which steam is — 
 caused to circculate, as shown in Figs. 5 and 
 6, Plate 3. By this means an ample amount 
 of heating surface is obtained, and the “tilm of 
 liquor carried round by each pipe is kept hot, 
 while being exposed to the air ; the amount of 
 evaporation thus obtained being very large. This 
 description of pan has been very successful, and 
 and is now very extensively adopted in nearly all 
 sugar-growing countries, the only objection to it 
 being that it is apt to dash or churn the liquor 
 unless it is driven at a very slow speed. This 
 churning action has been somewhat moditied by 
 fitting the tubes angularly instead of horizontally, 
 _ and thereby causing them to appear somewhat 
 like a very quick threaded screw. It does not 
 appear, however, that even by this means the 
 objection is entirely overcome. 
 
Ye 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 53 
 
 In consequence of the large heating surface thus 
 obtained, a very low pressure of steam is required 
 to give sufficient heat, the exhaust steam from the 
 mill engine being sometimes used for that purpose, 
 and there is, therefore, no trouble with the steam 
 joints. 
 
 In order to’overcome the churning or frothing 
 action of the pans described above, several other 
 modifications of the same system have been pro- 
 posed, which have advantages peculiar to them- 
 selves, and are variously preferred by different 
 manufacturers. Fig. 11 illustrates a steam 
 jacketted pan, invented, we. believe, by Mr. 
 
 
 
 TEs 
 
 ES RS ce EEX 
 SSSR SSE EERRREEEGSERASDETV WE NASR 
 RSS SK.'. S88 
 
 RP : x 
 SSSEESWS SE MAAS SNES NN 
 
 Fie. 11. 
 
 Shroeder, which is fitted with a set of revolving 
 discs strung upon a shaft, and kept about Gin. 
 apart by means of washers of that length, placed 
 between them. It will be seen that this arrange- 
 ment has the important advantage of freedom 
 from churning or beating up the liquor and has 
 also the advantage of cheapness; but we have 
 
\ 
 
 54 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 found it somewhat difficult to keep up sufficient 
 heat without having a coil of steam piping run- 
 ning in a serpentine form between the discs, in 
 addition to the steam jacket of the pan. These 
 discs should be fitted on a square shaft, as the 
 tendency to slip round the shaft, when the liquor 
 gets thick, is very great. | 
 Another modification of this pan was proposed 
 by Mr. Bour, of Mauritius, about the year 1854, 
 and is illustrated in section in Fig, 12. This plan 
 consists in fitting a steam jacketted pan with a 
 series of flat spherical dises, heated by steam, 
 
 
 
 each disc being fitted with three cups, placed 
 equi-distantly upon its circumference. As the 
 dises revolve these cups dip into the liquor, and 
 taking up a certain portion discharge it over the 
 heated surface of the discs when they arrive at 
 the top. This description of pan has been found 
 to answer very well, but we think it would per- 
 
 form still better if the cups were removed, as a 
 
. MANUFACTURE OF CANE 8UGAR. do 
 
 film of the liquor would be constantly carried 
 round in the same manner as in the Shroeder pan 
 just described, without churning up the liquor. 
 By this arrangement, also, a sufficient amount of 
 
 heat is obtained without the extra coil of pipes in 
 the pan, which, as has been previously remarked, 
 is objectionable in consequence of the difficulty of 
 cleaning. | 
 
 Another later and perhaps better form of pan 
 
 @ 
 
 (e 
 
 
 
 Fia. 13. 
 
 than those above described for evaporating the 
 sugar at a low temperature has been devised by 
 Messrs. Pontifex. This, it will be seen from Fig. 
 13, consists of an outer semi-cylindrical shell, 
 similar to those before described, but with a varia- 
 tion in the method of heating. The plan here 
 adopted consists of a cylindrical copper worm, 
 heated by steam, and which is caused to rotate 
 
56 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 slowly by gearing similar to that previously de- 
 — seribed. By this means a large heated surface is 
 constantly exposed to the atmosphere, while at 
 the same time there is none of that objectionable 
 churning action before alluded to. We under- 
 stand that pans constructed upon this design have 
 been very successful. 
 
 From the foregoing remarks it will be observed 
 that there are four descriptions of apparatus, viz., 
 the Wetzel pan, the Shroeder pan, the Bour pan, 
 and that of Messrs. Pontifex, similar in principle, 
 but somewhat different in their arrangement, 
 either of which are well adapted to concentrate 
 the liquor at a moderate heat. We may here 
 mention that each of the four arrangements just 
 described are commonly called ‘‘ Wetzels’’ by the 
 planters, and as the process of evaporation is 
 similar in each of the four varieties we will adopt 
 their nomenclature. The process of concentration 
 is perfectly simple. The cane-juice, after having 
 been evaporated over a fire, in the battery, as 
 before described, up to a density of 26° or 27° 
 Baumé, is drawn down into one of a series of 
 Wetzel pans. The steam is then let on, and the 
 driving gear set in motion, when the process of 
 concentration immediately commences, and con- 
 tinues without interruption, and, until near the 
 skipping point, without attention. This point, 
 as we have already remarked when describing the 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 57 
 
 old process of boiling, can only be correctly 
 judged by practice. We are of opinion, however, 
 that in this case it is somewhat easier, as the 
 crystals of sugar are much more distinct in con- 
 sequence of the lower temperature of the liquor ; 
 besides which, there is in this case but little 
 danger of over-boiling. The Wetzel pan shown 
 in Figs. 5 and 6 (Plate 3), has lately been manu- 
 factured by Messrs. Walker, Henderson, and 
 Co. It is 9ft. Gin. long, and fitted with a re- 
 
 _ volving drum or “reel,” having 22 tubes 7ft. 6in. 
 
 in length, and 2in, in diameter, revolving at a 
 velocity of about twelve ‘revolutions per minute. 
 This pan is calculated to concentrate two tons of 
 sugar in ten hours with ease, 
 
58 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 EVAPORATION IN VACUO. 
 
 We have already described in the last chapter 
 some of the most popular methods at present in 
 use for evaporating cane-juice, and considering 
 that they are simple to manage, moderate in first 
 cost, and efficient in their work, it is not to be 
 wondered at that they have obtained a preference 
 over the more scientific method of boiling m 
 vicuo, although there is no doubt that this latter 
 . process produces the finest sugar. In this country 
 the vacuum pan, Plate 3, Fig. 3, has long been 
 almost universally employed in refineries, but 
 until the late alteration in the sugar duties its 
 use was practically excluded from all sugar plan- 
 tations which depended upon the English market 
 for the sale of their sugar. Hence, but few 
 vacuum pans are to be found in the West Indies, 
 with the exception of Cuba, where the advantages | 
 of selling in a foreign market, and (commercially 
 only) of slavelabour, enabled the planters to take ~ 
 advantage of this beautiful process. In the rich 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR, 59 
 
 but swampy sugar estates of Demerara the vacuum 
 pan is necessarily used to a considerable extent to 
 improve ‘the quality, which would otherwise be 
 very inferior, It has also been extensively adopted 
 in the district of Province Wellesley, opposite to 
 the island of Penang, but in this case the prin- 
 cipal amount of the sugar manufactured goes to 
 the Chinese market, and at the same time skilled 
 Chinese labour may be cheaply obtained for their 
 management. 
 
 The ‘principle upon which the vacuum pan is 
 founded is too well known to require any expla- 
 nation here, but we may, perhaps, for the sake of 
 some of our readers, advert to it for a moment. 
 It is found that the boiling point of all liquids 
 varies with the pressure of the atmosphere. Thus, 
 water boils in the open air, at the usual pressure 
 of the atmosphere, or 3Uin. of mercury, at 212° 
 Fah., but as this pressure is reduced a correspond- 
 ing reduction in the temperature of the boiling 
 point takes place, until it descends below 100°, 
 when that pressure is entirely, or almost entirely 
 taken off. As, however, the boiling point of a 
 concentrated solution of sugar is considerably 
 above that of water when both are exposed to the 
 pressure of the atmosphere, a similar result, of 
 course, obtains when evaporating ina vacuum. It 
 is found practically that the lowest temperature 
 at which the syrup can be boiled is about 145°, 
 
60 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 but for the sake of rapidity of evaporation this 
 temperature is usually considerably exceeded. 
 
 Since the time of Howard’s invention (1812), a 
 vast number of differently shaped pans have been 
 tried, and several important improvements in the 
 details have been made, many of these modifica- 
 tions being simply designed to suit the particular 
 situation in which the pan had to be placed. One 
 of the most important improvements in this pan 
 was the adaptation of a ‘“‘Torricellian’ tube to 
 assist the air pumps. This arrangement consists 
 in attaching to the bottom of the condenser a ver- 
 tical pipe of about 33ft, in length, into which 
 flows the condense water; and as it is well known 
 that a column of about 30ft. to 32ft. of water will 
 balance the pressure of the atmosphere, this 
 length is sufficient to allow the condenser to dis- 
 charge itself of water, thereby reducing most ma- 
 terially the work on the air pump. As, however, 
 this arrangement is not usually suitable for the 
 colonies, in consequence of a sufficient height not 
 being obtainable, we have shown in Plate 3 one 
 of the latest, and one of the best arrangements 
 there employed. 
 
 In order to make the method of working the 
 vacuum pan easily understood, we will, with the 
 assistance of the annexed illustration, Fig. 14, des- 
 eribe the various parts. The vacuum pan, A, is 
 usually made of copper, in halves, bolted together 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 61 
 
 as shown, a manhole, B, being provided for the 
 purpose of cleaning out and repairing when ne- 
 cessary. The lower half of the panis surrounded 
 by a cast-iron steam jacket for the purpose of 
 heating the liquor, this object being further 
 effected by means of a steam coil, OC, fitted inside 
 this portion of the pan. The pipe, D, is for the 
 
 purpose of carrying off the vapour, and in case 
 
 
 
 the ebulition in the pan should be so violent that 
 the liquor primes over with it, a vessel, or “ safe,’’ 
 EH, is provided to catch it, when it is returned by 
 means of the pipe and cock, e, into the pan, the 
 amount of the overflow being readily observed by 
 means of a glass gauge attached to the side. The 
 
62 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 vapour passes into the condenser, F', which is con- 
 structed similarly to that of a condensing engine, 
 a jet of cold water supplied by the pipe, G, being 
 used for condensing the steam; while the pipe, 
 H, is connected to the air-pumps in the usual 
 manner. The steam is supplied to the pan by 
 means of the pipe and stop valve, I, and the con- 
 ‘dense water passes off through the pipes 7 and 2’, 
 the one being connected to the bottom of the coil, 
 and the other to the steam jacket. A measure, J, 
 is frequently attached to the pan of sufficient 
 capacity to hold the requisite quantity of liquor 
 for charging it. This vessel is supplied with a 
 _ glass gauge, j, for the purpose of observing the | 
 height of the liquor. It is filled through the 
 pipe, K, a vacuum being formed by means of the 
 air-pipe, L, carried through the top of the pan 
 and discharged into the pan through the pipe, M, 
 as required; the small air-cock, m, being opened 
 for the purpose of destroying the vacuum when 
 that process is being performed. A glass sight- 
 hole, N, is shown in the upper part of the pan, a 
 similar sight-hole being fitted on the opposite 
 side; so that by looking through the one the other 
 affords sufficient light to enable the attendant to 
 judge the state of the liquor inside the pan. In 
 addition to this, means are adopted for extracting 
 a sample of the liquor from the inside of the pan 
 without disturbing the vacuum, by the use of a 
 
tee: 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 63 
 
 proof stick, O, and shown to an enlarged scale in 
 the annexed engraving. This consists of a gun- 
 
 metal rod, with a cavity at the lower end for re- 
 ceiving the sample of sugar, and fitting into a 
 hollow casing open at the bottom to the liquor. 
 A plug somewhat similar to an ordinary liquor 
 cock is accurately fitted to the bottom, and can be 
 turned round by means of the handle of the proof 
 stick. As the aperture of the plug corresponds 
 
 
 
 
 
 aa SS mr FE ~~ 
 
 Zea booed 
 
 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 to that in the proof stick, when it is opened to the 
 liquor a portion flows through into this cavity ; 
 when, by turning the plug half round, connection 
 with the contents of the pan is cut off, and the 
 portion that has flowed into the cavity of the 
 proof stick can be safely withdrawn for examina- 
 tion. A thermometer, P, and a barometer, Q, 
 are supplied to the upper part of the pan for the 
 purpose of ascertaining the temperature and the 
 quality of the vacuum inside. There is also a 
 steam pipe, R, provided for the purpose of cleans- 
 ing the pan when necessary. When the syrup is 
 sufficiently boiled it is discharged through a valve, 
 8, fitted to the bottom of the pan into a heater. 
 This heater is simply a vessel usually somewhat 
 
64, MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 like the bottom half of the vacuum pan, being 
 fitted with the steam jacket, but without the 
 steam coil. | 
 
 The following is a description of the method of 
 working these pans as usually followed in the 
 colonies :— 
 
 The cane-juice, after being thoroughly clarified, 
 is evaporated in the common battery of open pans 
 to the density of about 270° Beaumé. It is then 
 charged into cisterns, placed in a convenient part 
 of the works, to suit the position of the pan, as 
 few sugar plantations have facilities for keeping a 
 vacuum pan constantly at work; in many cases, 
 with an ordinary sized pan, one, or at most two 
 days per week is sufficient for finishing the week’s 
 grinding. When the cisterns are full of syrup 
 the pan is brought into operation, and the method 
 of proceeding is as follows :—-The vacuum pan, 
 Fig. 3, Plate 3, and the steam engine and three 
 vacuum pumps, Fig. 4, are connected together 
 where the pipes are shown broken. The engine 
 and pumps are started when a vacuum is formed 
 in the pan, the charging cock is then opened, the 
 pipe of which goes into the cistern containing the 
 syrup, which immediately rushes into the pan. 
 When the steam worm is sufficiently covered, 
 which is easily seen by the eye glasses, steam is 
 let into the worm, and also into the cast-iron 
 jacket which surrounds the lower half of the pan 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 65 
 
 The injection cock for supplying the condenser 
 with water 1s opened to condense the vapour from 
 the pan, which is drawn off by the three single- 
 acting air-pumps, Fig. 4, Plate 3, worked by the 
 engine, When the syrupis sufficiently concentrated. 
 to the satisfaction of the attendant, who can see 
 through the eye-glasses with the aid of a lamp at 
 the opposite glass within the ‘pan, the charging 
 cock is opened, a fresh charge put in, and so on 
 until the full charge required is obtained, which 
 the attendant knows from time to time, with the 
 aid of the eye-glass. 
 
 When the attendant is satisfied, by the aid of 
 the proof stick, that the requisite degree of con- 
 centration and granulation has taken place, the 
 boiling is considered finished; the steam and 
 other connections being shut off, the air plug is 
 withdrawn, the air rushing in with a loud noise 
 to fill up the vacuum in the pan. The concen- 
 trated syrup is then discharged from the pan 
 through the valve in the bottom into the heater 
 (not shown in the Plate), the object of which is to 
 further develop the crystals, or grains, previous 
 to its treatment in the centrifugal machines, 
 shown in Figs. 7, 8, and 9, Plate 3. 
 
66 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 CONCRETION. 
 
 Tux description of the various methods employed 
 for evaporating the water from sugar would not 
 be complete without referring to a very ingenious 
 arrangement patented in 1865 by Mr. Fryer, of 
 Manchester, which, although originally designed 
 to make a description of sugar suitable only for 
 refiners, has lately been so far modified that a 
 first-class “‘ grocery” sugar may also, if desired, 
 be manufactured by this process. In its original 
 state it was, as has been already mentioned, not 
 intended to make crystallised sugar, but only to 
 evaporate the water so that the solid residuum 
 might be treated by the refiner. Although en- 
 tirely dissenting from the opinion frequently ex- 
 pressed, that sugar-growers have nothing to do 
 with the manufacture of first-class sugar, there 
 are some cases when it may be more profitable, or 
 at least more convenient, to prepare the juice for 
 the refiners. 
 
Hie, 16. 
 
 
 
 .' a 7 ¢ 
 Be tes ae P, pie tee hee aed pita 
 he) Pr testy or Ak eh Le : Py Rae GAD 2 C0 Rae ves . 
 Pri Si Et ps al aA a Ps A iat Se Th hie 
 
 cet 
 
 oh 
 
 Ags 
 
 é 
 
 Re NS AS 
 
 SSCS SESS SSS SS SS SS NSCS s 
 
 . - ~ < . LO aS we 
 SPSL SSS. SA SS ees 
 
 Ee aak gables fia 
 
 Becca’ 
 
 J 
 
 ae 
 oak 
 
 - 
 
 ie 
 
 sib ak ogy 
 
 Pedic tee aa 
 Maas fees 
 
 1@) 
 
 N 
 SS 1 
 N; 
 \N 
 N: 
 N’ 
 Ni 
 Ni 
 N 
 N' 
 
 nox 
 teas, 
 "sie? 
 
 CII 
 Pi ae ids tach 
 
 wy t 
 gaan 
 
 PT a REO SATS Eee Ome kt 
 
 
 
 428 
 
 ar 
 
 RAS. 
 
 Via. 17. 
 
 
 
- MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 67 
 
 The following account, written a short time 
 ago by Mr. Alliott, of the firm of Messrs. Man- 
 love, Alliott and Co., of Nottingham, the well- 
 known manufacturers of sugar machinery, will, 
 with the accompanying illustrations, Figs. 16 
 and 17, explain Mr. Fryer’s system :— 
 
 _ “ This machine has been called into existence 
 by the belief that it is not the interest of the 
 planter to compete with the refiner, but to pro- 
 
 duce the largest possible quantity of a material 
 
 suitable for him to operate tpon. The end aimed 
 at by the Concretor is, then, to concentrate as 
 cheaply and efficiently as possible the juice which 
 is supplied to it, turning it at once into a solid 
 substance, which is easily packed, and is not 
 subject to loss by drainage. To accomplish this 
 
 end, the clarified juice is first run over a series of _ 
 
 shallow trays, in a stream of about half an inch 
 deep; these trays are divided by ribs running 
 from one side nearly to the other, so that each 
 tray forms a continuous narrow serpentine chan- 
 nel, in traversing which the juice passes six times 
 from side to side of the tray. 
 
 _ “Tn the largest size there are ten of these trays 
 placed end to end, and having connections so ar- 
 ranged that the juice can flow freely from end to 
 
 end of this series ; thus (the length of the series of 
 
 trays being about 48ft.) the juice has to traverse 
 
 | nearly six times this distance before it passes 
 
 Ee 
 
68 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 away to undergo a further process of concentra- 
 tion in the revolving cylinder. 
 
 ‘‘ Heat is applied to the bottom of these trays 
 by means of the furnace, the flame of which 
 passes under the whole length; the juice is con- 
 centrated by means of this process to a density 
 of from 30° to 40° Beaumé. After leaving the 
 trays the juice passes into the revolving cylinder, 
 where it is made to expose a very large surface to 
 the action of heated air drawn through the 
 cylinder by means of a fan. The air itself is 
 heated by passing amongst and around a number 
 of tubes in the air heater, through the inside of 
 which tubes the products of combustion pass to 
 the chimney. 
 
 ‘‘In this cylinder the concentration is con- 
 tinued until the material has attained such a 
 consistency that it drops in large flakes instead 
 of flowing in a continuous stream. When this 
 degree of consistency is attained, it is discharged 
 from the cylinder into casks, or any other conve- 
 nient receptacle, and in cooling becomes a solid 
 mass, which, without any further manipulation, 
 is ready for shipment. 
 
 “The whole of the operations mentioned above 
 do not occupy more than about half an hour, 
 while the supply of juice to the machine and the. 
 discharge of concrete from it are each of them 
 continuous, or nearly so, both objects being 
 
er 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 69 
 
 effected without stoppage, and without any inter- 
 ference with the working of the machine. 
 No molasses is made, but the average yield of 
 
 ‘concrete is about two pounds to the gallon of 
 
 juice, gauging 10° Beaumé. The material thus 
 produced sets into a solid mass, which contains 
 uninjured in quality or colour all the saccharine 
 matter held in the juice from which it'is made; 
 it is not subject to any perceptible drainage on 
 the voyage to England, and is precisely the 
 article required by European refiners.” | 
 
 The yield here mentioned, viz., two pounds to 
 the gallon of juice at 10$° Beaumé, appears ex- 
 traordinary ; in fact, it is the total theoretical 
 quantity that could be obtained; but we must 
 bear in mind that the material is called concrete 
 
 -—not sugar—and, of course, if nothing else is 
 
 done but to evaporate the liquid the total theo- 
 retical amount of solid must remain. 
 
 We have seen specimens of the concrete manu- 
 factured by this process, and it appears most 
 thoroughly to answer the purpose for which it is 
 intended, viz., to be re-manufactured by refiners 
 in a precisely similar manner to that at present 
 adopted for raw sugar from the Colonies. We 
 have already stated that, in our opinion, a first- 
 class grocery sugar ought to be manufactured 
 directly from the cane; consequently, we do not 
 consider that this process, excepting in peculiar 
 
70 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 bases, is to be recommended. There is, however, 
 another method of working the same apparatus 
 by means of which a good saleable sugar may be 
 made, and which, we consider, worthy the atten- 
 tion of sugar planters. The following is a short 
 description of this plan, as given by the manufac- 
 turers :— . 
 
 “The -process of contentention is conddeied 
 _ much in the same way as in No. 1 method, except 
 that. the syrup as it leaves the concretor ‘ trays’ 
 ought either to be filtered through bag filters, or 
 allowed to subside for twenty-four hours before if 
 passes to the cylinder. The object of this filtra- 
 tion is to remove any mechanical impurities left 
 in the juice, which, if not removed, would be 
 likely to impart an objectionable gray tinge to 
 the sugar. 
 
 “Charcoal filters might be employed at: this 
 stage of the process, if the whiteness of the sugar 
 ’ were thought to be more important than the cost — 
 of its production. . 
 
 ‘‘In the revolving cylinder the syrup is not 
 concentrated to quite so high a point as if ‘ con- 
 crete’ sugar were to be made. From the cylinder 
 the syrup is passed into coolers, where it is 
 allowed to stand for twenty-four hours to crystal- 
 
 lise; after this it is drained-in the centrifugal 
 machine, 
 
 ‘The molasses obtained from the ‘first sugar’ 
 
P By iz os 
 i 
 
  eylinder to produce ‘ second sugar. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. WL 
 
 may be boiled down a second time in the revolving 
 
 As it is evident that in this plan of working 
 the juice cannot be skimmed or otherwise mani- 
 pulated while in the trays, great care should be 
 taken in its treatment in the clarifiers previous 
 to its entering the concretor. 
 
 In order to regulate the flow of juice into the 
 concretor, so that it should arrive at tne proper 
 degree of concentration when arriving at the end 
 of its journey, a slide valve actuated by a screw 
 is provided, by which the flow can be regulated 
 to any required amount. There is also provided 
 a pipe, fitted with cocks, as shown in the illus- 
 trations, by means of which, should the juice be- 
 come too highly concentrated, the weak liquor. 
 can be permitted to flow into any of the lower 
 
 _ trays. In addition to this there is a pipe for the 
 - purpose of returning the liquor, should it, after 
 
 finishing its course, be found not sufficiently con-- 
 centrated to be passed into the revolving cylinder. 
 Thus, it will be seen, that by means of these two 
 arrangements perfect provision is made for any 
 variation in the strength of the cane-juice, or in 
 the temperature of the heated gases beneath the 
 trays. 
 
72 | MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 CURING. 
 
 Havine described the principal processes at pre- 
 sent in use for evaporating the water from the 
 juice of sugar canes, we will now proceed to de- 
 scribe the various methods of “ curing”’ the sugar ; 
 the term curing being applied to the processes 
 adopted for separating partially or entirely the 
 molasses or uncrystallised portion from the 
 crystals themselves. In order to make this part 
 of our subject more generally understood, it will | 
 perhaps be as well to define the general principles 
 of crystallisation. When any material, such as 
 sugar, salt, &c., is held in solution in a liquid 
 such as water, no change will occur provided the 
 amount of liquor be sufficient; but as soon as 
 that amount is diminished until it is insufficient 
 to overcome the force of cohesion. between the 
 particles of the solid, crystals are formed. These 
 crystals are, in the case of most solids, invariably 
 of the same shape, for the same substance, but 
 
wat 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. uae 
 
 differing in size; the form of a crystal of cane-sugar 
 being an oblique four-sided prism, terminated by a 
 two-sided summit. The form, of course, is of little 
 consequence ; not so, however, the size of the crys- 
 tals, as this point determines to a great extent the 
 market value of the sugar. It has been found by 
 experiment that, as a rule, the slower the evapora- 
 tion of water the larger will be the crystals; and 
 
 this fact hasbeen extensively taken advantage of in 
 
 the manufacture of sugar-candy, and also in 
 forming the beautiful crystals of sulphate of 
 
 © copper, prussiate of potash, &c., frequently exhi- 
 
 bited as ornaments in the windows of chemists. 
 In these cases the amount of water has been 
 gradually lessened by evaporation, the tempera- 
 ture of the water always remaining the same; 
 but in the case before us the amount of water 
 remains practically the same, but the temperature 
 is reduced. As, however, we have already shown 
 that hot water dissolves five times the amount of 
 sugar that cold water does, it follows that the 
 
 ‘gradual cooling of a concentrated solution of hot 
 
 sugar will behave in precisely a similar manner 
 to the gradual evaporation of a cold solution. 
 Hence, the size of the crystals formed from a 
 “skip” of sugar will be in proportion to the time 
 occupied in cooling, provided, of course, that it is 
 not too highly concentrated to admit of the 
 crystals forming properly. 
 
74 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 Having thus briefly stated the fundamental 
 laws of crystallisation, we will now proceed to 
 ‘describe some of the more useful methods at pre- 
 sent employed for obtaining marketable sugar. 
 The old method, and we are afraid we must say, 
 even at the present date, the most usual method 
 —one, in fact, that, when we first practised in 
 the West Indies, was universal—was as follows: 
 
 The cane-juice, after having been, sufficiently 
 evaporated over an open fire, as already described, 
 was run into coolers of a sufficient capacity to 
 hold two or more skips of liquor. The form of 
 
 
 
 Fie. 18. 
 
 these coolers is, represented in Fig. 18, but at that 
 time they were constructed of wood, instead of 
 wrought iron, as here shown. ‘The object of 
 making these coolers large enough to hold two 
 skips was to obtain a large-grained sugar, as it 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR, 75 
 
 had been found from experience that when a 
 fresh skip of hot liquor was run into a cooler 
 containing a semi-crystallised mass, and then 
 thoroughly stirred up, the grain was very much 
 improved. The fact is usually accounted for by 
 assuming that the already formed crystals act as 
 nuclei for the crystals of the second slip; but, as 
 has been before pointed out, the size of the crystal 
 depends, ceteris paribus, upon the slownéss of its 
 formation, we are inclined to consider that the 
 improvement in the size of the grain is princi-. 
 pally due to the retardation of the cooling con- 
 sequent upon the addition of the hot liquor. 
 When the mixture of sugar and molasses has 
 become cold, it is dug out of the coolers, the crust 
 on the top being thoroughly broken up and — 
 mixed with the rest of the contents, and trans- 
 ferred to hogsheads placed over a cistern to re- 
 ceive the molasses. These hogsheads have a 
 series of holes bored in their bottoms, into each 
 of which is fitted a reed or rush of sufficient 
 length to extend slightly above the top. After a 
 few days, when the sugar, or mixture of sugar 
 and molasses—has settled down in the hogsheads, 
 these rushes are withdrawn, and the molasses 
 _ allowed to run out through the holes. This 
 process of draining is very tedious, and at the 
 best most ineffectual; a large proportion— 
 usually as much as thirty to forty per cent.— 
 
76 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 remaining in the sugar when shipped. As a 
 natural consequence, during the voyage the hogs- 
 heads continue to drain, and the molasses mixing 
 with the bilge water is pumped overboard, The 
 small amount of molasses that remains when the 
 hogsheads arrive at the market serves only to 
 darken the sugar and depreciate its price. 
 
 The excessive loss incurred by this barbarous 
 method of curing sugar hasbeen longacknowledged, 
 and numerous plans have been devised for sepa- 
 rating the molasses from the sugar. The first prac- 
 ticable solution of this problem was, we believe, 
 proposed by Mr. John Hague, in 1816, wherein the 
 inventor proposed to withdraw the molasses by 
 atmospheric pressure. In this system the un- 
 cured sugar was placed in vessels, the bottoms of 
 which were made of perforated copper, and con- 
 nected to a pipe communicating with an air- 
 pump, by means of which the air was exhausted 
 from the bottom, and the molasses which filled 
 up the interstices between the crystals of sugar 
 was sucked into the exhaust pipe. This plan, 
 however, never found favour with the planters, 
 chiefly, we believe, in consequence of the slow- 
 ness of the process, and the cumbersomeness and 
 expense of the arrangement requisite for perform- 
 ing the work even upon a moderate-sized estate. 
 The same idea was also revived by Mr. Henry 
 Bessemer in connection with his scheme for ex- 
 
pe ae : ’ 
 noe 
 Bae 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. A 
 
 tracting the juice from canes by direct pressure, 
 but, unlike his press, we are not aware that it 
 was ever practically tried upon a sugar estate. 
 About twenty years ago the employment of the 
 centrifugal machine, or, asit was then called, the 
 hydro-extractor, which had been for some years 
 successfully employed in drying cotton and woollen 
 goods, was proposed for driving off the molasses 
 from the crystallised sugar, and after a few expe- 
 riments it was found to be so admirably adapted 
 to the purpose that it rapidly found its way into’ 
 most of the refineries at home and on the Conti- 
 
 nent. As, however, new inventions, even when 
 
 unquestionably of value, do not find favour 
 amongst planters, it was some years later before 
 centrifugal machines were tried with raw sugar. 
 Thus, the first centrifugal machine which was 
 forwarded to Jamaica, and which fell to our lot’ 
 to erect, did not arrive until the latter part of the 
 year 1853 ; and, moreover, it was about the most 
 inferior specimen, as far as regards design, with 
 which we are acquainted. ‘The machine was ar- 
 ranged to be driven from above, and was hung on — 
 vuleanised india-rubber springs, which were 
 erroneously supposed to prevent vibration. It 
 was driven by a horse gear, or rather a mule gear, 
 and, as may be easily imagined, the loss of power 
 entailed in getting up the speed from about 23 to 
 1,200 revolutions per minute, was very great. 
 
78 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 The results, however, even with this imperfect 
 machine, decisively proved the immense advan- 
 tages of curing sugar by centrifugal force. 
 During the last few years the planters, who, as 
 we have already remarked, are as a rule noto- 
 riously slow to adopt improvements, have appa- 
 rently realised the necessity of using them, and 
 a large number have been manufactured for their 
 use. As a natural consequence various designs 
 have been proposed, having for their object the 
 more effectual or economical attainment of the 
 purposes for which they are intended. The 
 various arrangements may, however, be divided 
 into two classes, viz., those driven from above, 
 and those driven from beneath the basket con- 
 taining the sugar. A representation of a very 
 simple method of driving a centifugal machine, 
 by gearing situated above the basket, is given in 
 
 Plate 8, Figs. 8 and9. In Fig. 8, the engine, — 
 
 which is attached to the outer casing of the cen- 
 trifugal, drives a flat cone wheel, which is held 
 up against a friction pinion fitted to the spindle 
 keyed to the boss carrying the basket by means 
 of a setting-up screw and hand-wheel. In Fig. 
 9 instead of an engine a strap is employed to drive 
 the machine, and where a number of centrifugals 
 are required this is perhaps the most convenient 
 
 and least expensive method. When these ma- 
 
 chines are at rest the setting-up screw is slack, 
 
 * 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 19 
 
 but as soon as it is required to start the machine 
 it is gradually tightened until the requisite num- 
 ber of revolutions are attained ; and when it is 
 desired to stop, the screw is again slackened, and 
 the brake shown below the pinion is applied 
 until the basket ceases to revolve. 
 
 In our opinion the principle of driving from 
 beneath is far superior to the overhead system, 
 chiefly from the fact that in the former plan the 
 basket may be filled and emptied very much more 
 conveniently, and partly because it is less liable 
 to become clogged with molasses. 
 
 In order to explain the methods employed for 
 driving centrifugal machines from beneath the 
 basket we illustrate in Plate 4 two methods, 
 extensively adopted, by the well-known makers, 
 Messrs. Manlove, Alliott and Co., of Nottingham. 
 In Figs. 1 and 2 are shown a system suitable for 
 a small sugar-house, where the upper shafting 
 may be driven by the mill engine, or by an engine 
 which may also be employed for driving the 
 wetzel pans, or any other machinery that may be 
 required. In this case it will be seen that astrap | 
 connects the driving shaft with a countershaft 
 carrying a fast and loose pulley. Upon this coun- 
 tershaft a bevil wheel is fitted, gearing into a 
 pinion keyed to an upright spindle. This spmdle 
 also carries a horizontal strap pulley, the band of 
 which passes round a small pulley keyed to the 
 
80 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 spindle of the centrifugal che beneath the 
 basket. 
 
 
 
 Ny 
 = 
 
 SSS all — = “Se 
 > es hi dls SE 
 S11] Hae fli THs) noes 
 CI e 
 iN fi eN 
 ih fi (= = . 
 HAF =~ i 
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 i | YX ZF : HY hea) 
 AN . — Fe) fie 
 \) WHAN\ e S& YY fitta 
 y yi \ a Y) iy) 
 ‘\S A 
 e) SS. 
 ST) 
 
 ———— 
 
 ——— 
 
 5 to > .\ 2 
 In, \"lz 
 ma \\ 
 
 Sk 
 
 ‘6L “OLA 
 
 = 
 
 2 
 ..\ = 
 a I i 
 3 J, ; 
 4 
 > ZA £=s 
 E 
 j | = == = 
 | 5 Z = 
 ye r 3 
 x | \EZ 
 baa t= "|= 
 a) ) = 
 =e NH SSH H } 
 a Mle }): 
 =) i j= 
 | Yy, ElS 
 , | i 
 | Wrars 
 \ Zp - 
 is 
 = 
 ae UT 
 Eo } Zp 
 
 sh iis 
 
 SSS HE 
 os, a uy 
 
 4 yy “a |W 
 \ PT ae WY, 
 =e aig 
 
 In order to start the machine the shifting gear 
 upon the countershaft should be provided with a 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 81 
 
 screw motion, so as to enable the operator to shift 
 the belt from the loose to the fast pulley very 
 gradually, and thereby allow the belt to slip when 
 the machine is first started. - 
 
 In Figs. 3 and 4 avery convenient arrange- 
 ment for a moderate-sized estate is illustrated, 
 and one which, although each centrifugal is 
 driven by a separate engine, the makers (Messrs. 
 ' Manlove Alliott and Co.) assure us is not more 
 expensive than the system of driving by gearing. 
 This assertion may appear at first sight somewhat 
 incredible, but it is no doubt correct. Thus, in 
 either case the same steam power is required, 
 although so far as that is concerned considerably 
 less expense would be incurred by driving a set — 
 of centrifugals from one engine; but when we 
 begin to calculate the cost of the shafting, 
 pulleys, belts, &c., together with the cost of 
 erecting in a foreign country, we are inclined to 
 believe that the system of driving by separate 
 engines would, if anything, be less expensive 
 
 than the combined system. It will be seen that 
 in the arrangements shown in Figs. 3 and 4, Plate 
 4, that the driving engines are so arranged that 
 the fly-wheels run horizontally, and that the cen- 
 trifugal machines are driven by a strap working 
 _ directly on this fly-wheel, and the pulley on the 
 spindle of the centrifugal. By this means no 
 _. gearing whatever is required, a single strap being 
 
 G 
 
82 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 all that is necessary to connect the driving power 
 with the machine; consequently, the machinery 
 works much more silently and smoothly than 
 when gearing, at a high speed, is employed. 
 
 Upon large estates, where a considerable num- 
 ber of centrifugals are necessary, we consider the 
 best plan is to drive them from a continuous 
 shafting, such as the arrangement shown in Fig. 
 19, as in that case it is unquestionably more eco- 
 nomical:and more convenient to do so. We say 
 more convenient, because the centrifugals can be 
 placed closer together, which, when six or more 
 are required, is an important item in the expense 
 of the building; they can, moreover, be attended 
 to by fewer skilled labourers. 
 
BD 
 Go 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 J 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 ow 
 
 fod 
 Kd 
 Ven 
 
 VARIETIES OF CENTRIFUGAL MACHINES. 
 
 As lias been already observed, the number of de- 
 signs that have been proposed for centrifugal 
 machinery have been very large. Most of these, 
 however, are also very faulty ; amongst which may 
 be included all those which have for their object the 
 lessening the vibration by means of springs or india- 
 rubber washers and bands. These latter systems 
 appear to have been designed to meet the require- 
 ments of bad workmanship in the other parts of the 
 machine. Thus, it is well known that when ma- 
 chinery has to be driven at a high velocity, the 
 vibration will be excessive, if the various working 
 parts are not perfectly true, or if the revolving 
 parts are not correctly balanced; and it was, we 
 believe, in consequence of the excessive vibration 
 caused by the inattention to these vital points that 
 some makers endeavoured to mitigate the evil by 
 having recourse to yielding materials. As soon, 
 
 however, as the menufacture of centritugals was 
 
S4 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 taken up by first-class engineers, it was found that 
 
 they would run at any required speed witb scarcely 
 any vibration, without any elastic eee pro- 
 
 aN 
 | 
 
 20, 
 
 Fia, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ii lil Ih 
 
 “thi mn 
 
 Ten 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 vided the parts were sufficiently strong, and that 
 
 they were firmly bolted down to a good foundation, 
 
ae 
 MaNUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 85 
 
 In the illustrations previously given in Chap. 3) 
 it will be observed that the baskets in some are 
 driven from above, and others from below. The 
 advantage of driving from above consists in obtain- 
 ing a bearing at each end of the driving spindle, 
 and thereby obviating the necessity of an overhang- 
 ing bearing; and, consequently, by this arrange- 
 ment, a lichter spindle may be used than when 
 _ the basket is driven from below. ‘There are a great 
 number of centrifugals at. present in use upon this 
 “principle, working most satisfactorily; but we do 
 not consider them as convenient as those which are 
 driven from below. The advantage, moreover, of a 
 top bearing is not so important.as would at first 
 sight appear, as the peculiar shape of the basket, 
 with a cone running up in the centre, admits of a 
 bearing being placed sufficiently high up to prevent 
 any undue strain upon the driving spindle. If this 
 driving spindle be made of steel, and fitted with 
 sufficiently long bearings of white metal, we consider 
 that it will last quite as long as in those which are 
 driven from above. ‘The system of driving from 
 beneath the basket possesses many important advan- 
 tages over the other. Thus, in filling the basket, 
 which is usually done by means of buckets, the 
 spindle of those centrifugals which are driven from 
 above is very much in the way, and, in the case of 
 small machines, it becomes almost impossible to 
 sufficiently invert the bucket of raw sugar without 
 
86 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 allowing some of its contents to run over the top 
 into the casing ; whereas, in the case of those ma- 
 chines which are driven from below, no such impe- 
 diment exists. Again, in order to carry the top 
 bearing in the overhead machines, it is usual to 
 carry up a framing, which is bolted to the outer 
 casing, as shown in Figs. 8 and 9, Plate 3, which 
 still further increases the difficulty of charging the 
 basket evenly. Similar, if not greater, inconvenience 
 is felt in the case of overhead machines when 
 emptying the baskets by the proximity of the 
 upright spindle and side frames to the head and 
 shoulders of the men engaged in scooping out the 
 cured sugar. ‘There are also several minor disad- 
 vantages inherent to the overhead-driven machines, 
 such as the liability of the top bearing to get 
 clogged with sugar, or, on the other hand, the 
 ability of the oil from that bearing running down 
 into the sugar. In those cases where the basket, 
 instead of being emptied in its place, is removed 
 for that purpose, while another basket already 
 charged is fitted on the machine, the overhead 
 motion is entirely inappheable. We remember 
 having erected an overhead-motion centrifugal in 
 which the driving spindle was made telescopic, the 
 spindle being ‘‘ shut up’ to enable the baskets to be 
 shifted; but as in order to effect this object. consi- 
 derable “ play” had to be allowed, it was not to be 
 wondered at that the machine exhibited rather 
 
| MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 87 
 
 too mueh playfulness when driven at a high 
 speed. 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing remarks that 
 the system of driving centrifugal machines from 
 beneath the basket is far superior to any other 
 method, inasmuch as it leaves the top of the basket 
 entirely open both for inspection and manipulation. 
 In Figs. 20 and 21 is illustrated Lessware’s arrange- 
 
 Ce i, 
 
 
 
 ment, which has been patented, and which is manu- 
 factured by the well-known firm of Messrs. J. and 
 H. Gwynne, of the Hammersmith Iron Works. It 
 will be seen that in this arrangement the engine is 
 bolted to the cylindrical casing of the centrifugal, 
 which is made sufficiently strong to take the strain 
 
88 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 and absorb the vibration when working at a high | 
 speed. The engine is similar to those made by 
 Messrs. Gwynne for driving their centrifugal pumps, 
 where also a large number of revolutions per minute 
 are required, the stroke of the cylinder being very 
 short in proportion to its diameter. Thus, for driving. 
 a centrifugal with a 30in. basket the cylinder is 4gin. 
 in diameter, and 44in. stroke. All the bearing sur- 
 faces are made very large, to allow for the wear and — 
 tear incidental to a high speed. The piston rod, 
 connecting rod, and crank shaft are made of steel, 
 and all the working’ parts are accurately balanced. 
 The crank shaft which runs through the casing 
 having a bearing at each side, carries a bevel friction 
 wheel as shown in Fig. 21. This wheel is held up 
 against the friction pinion upon the upright spindle, 
 carrying the basket by means of a spiral spring as 
 shown in the engravings. From the high rate at 
 which the engine is designed to be driven, this 
 friction wheel and pinion is the only multiplier re- 
 quired, and thus the driving pafts are reduced to 
 aminimum. A break is fitted to the upright spindle 
 just above the friction pinion for the purpose of 
 stopping the basket previous to its being emptied. 
 An oil box is fitted on the casing, which has a series 
 of tubes to convey the oil to the bearing of the up- 
 right spindle, which are otherwise difficult to reach. 
 As the whole of the machinery is contained in one 
 casting which both forms the bed plate of the engine 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 89 
 
 and the casing of the centrifugal, very little foun- 
 dation is required ; brickwork or concrete 18in. deep 
 being quite sufficient. For the same reason the 
 vibration in these machines when running at full 
 speed is remarkably small, although doubtless the 
 perfect smoothness of its working is partly due to 
 the excellence of the workmanship. 
 
 The baskets of this machine are different from 
 any we have hitherto seen, and constitute the chief 
 peculiarity of the invention. It is well known that. 
 in ordinary baskets, in which the wire gauze casing 
 is strengthened by vertical or horizontal ribs, the 
 sugar is very liable to stick in moist lumps opposite | 
 to those ribs, in consequence of the meshes of the 
 gauze being closed by them. For this reason the 
 ribs are usually made as narrow as possible, but 
 even then the objection to ribs cannot be entirely 
 removed. Mr. Lessware makes the basket altogether 
 without ribs by fitting three casings round the basket, 
 each of which is perforated. Thus, the inner casing 
 is formed of thin copper perforated as closely as 
 possible with very small holes; round this is placed. 
 a casing of wire gauze, and outside the whole a 
 casing of sheet copper, in which the holes are some- 
 what larger and farther apart. By this means a 
 basket of ample strength is obtained without having 
 recourse to any stays. We may mention that these 
 baskets have been thoroughly tried, and have been 
 found to answer very well. 
 
90 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 In Figs. 22 and 28 is illustrated a Belgian design 
 for a centrifugal, with the engine on the same bed- 
 plate. This machine was designed, and recently 
 patented, by Mr. Fouquemberg, and is a nice com- 
 
 Fie, 22. 
 
 Wy u Wt 
 ES Uti 
 
 
 
 Fie, 28 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 91 
 
 pact arrangement, although we consider the strap 1s 
 somewhat too short. This defect, however, could 
 easily be remedied by slightly increasing the length 
 of the bed-plate. The engravings are so self-ex- 
 planatory that little description is needed. The 
 break on the upright spindle for the purpose of 
 stopping the basket is worked by the foot, the lever 
 A being fitted to one arm of a bell crank at B 
 (Fig. 23), the other arm of which is attached to 
 the strap of the break. The engine is horizontal, | 
 the crank shaft working vertically, aad is somewhat 
 like a steeple engine laid on its side. The strap 
 pulley is made very wide, in order to compensate 
 for the shortness of the strap. The arrangement 
 is decidedly simple, and although we cannot see 
 much novelty in it, it can evidently be constructed 
 at a moderate cost. 
 
 The speed at which the basket of a centrifugal 
 should be driven is generally reckoned at about 
 10,000 circumferential feet per minute. Thus a 
 48in. centrifugal is usually driven at about 800 
 revolutions per minute, a 36in. machine having to 
 make about 1,060 revolutions in the same time. 
 
 The method usually adopted for curing sugar by 
 means of centrifugals is as follows:— 
 
 The concentrated syrup having been allowed to 
 stand in the coolers previously described for about 
 twenty-four hours, or, if boiled low, for forty-eight 
 hours, is thoroughly mixed up, the crust at the top 
 
92 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 being broken up. It is then charged into the cen- 
 trifugal, the quantity contained in each charge 
 varying considerably with the quality of the sugar. 
 Thus, if the sugar has a fine open grain, a much 
 larger charge may be employed than when the mass 
 has a very indifferent grain, or, as it is usually 
 termed, sticky or pasty. For large-grained sugar 
 we usually prefer a charge of about 24 ewt. to 3 ewt. 
 for a 48in. machine, although some persons put in 
 as much as it will conveniently hold, or about 
 41 cwt. We do not, however, consider that any- 
 thing is gained by filling the basket, as the increased 
 thickness of sugar through which the molasses 
 contained in the inner portion has to be driven, in- 
 creases the length of time at which the machine has 
 to be kept running in a much greater proportion 
 than that due to the larger quantity of sugar thus 
 obtained. For instance, with good sugar a charge 
 of 25 cwt. would be thoroughly cured in from three 
 to four minutes, whereas a charge of 4 cwt. would 
 require at least from eight to ten minutes. Another 
 objection to a heavy charge is the difficulty of 
 _ judging when the sugar nearest to the outside of 
 the basket is properly cured ; and it not unfrequently 
 happens that the first scoopful of sugar from the 
 inside of the basket reveals an imperfectly cured 
 mass underneath. When this happens it is usual 
 to start the machine afresh, but by so doing an 
 
 enormous strain is thrown upon the driving spindle 
 
 ae 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 93 
 
 as the scoopful that has been removed has destroyed 
 the correct distribution of weight, which is made 
 unpleasantly evident by the excessive vibration of 
 the machine. With low, sticky sugars, a smaller 
 charge is preferable, say, from 1 cwt. to 2 ewts. of 
 sugar, while the time occupied in freeing the grain 
 of sugar from the molasses is considerably greater. 
 Sometimes with very inferior sugar, it will take 
 from twenty minutes to half an hour to cleanse a 
 single charge. With a properly constructed sugar 
 house, however, these low sugars ought never to be 
 made, as they cannot yield a profit to the planter. 
 In charging a centrifugal, the basket should be made 
 to revolve slowly, so that the weight is evenly dis- 
 tributed over the bottom; and as the speed is 
 gradually increased, the semi-fluid mass is caused 
 to run up the perforated sides of the basket, by 
 virtue of the centrifugal force imparted to it. As 
 the speed is still further increased, the fluid portion, 
 or molasses, flies through the perforations into the 
 outer casing, and runs off through the spout pro- 
 vided at the bottom. After the centrifugal has run 
 a short time at full speed, the contained sugar 
 changes colour, turning from a dark brown to a 
 pale straw colour, while the quantity of molasses 
 running out of the spout in the outer casing 
 gradually decreases. As soon as the molasses 
 ceases running out of the spout, the sugar is con- 
 sidered to be sufficiently cured, when the machine 
 
94 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 is stopped by means of the break, and the sugar is 
 immediately removed by means of wocden scoops. 
 The appearance of the sugar, if properly made, or 
 if made by machinery similar to that previously 
 described, is precisely similar to fine grocery sugar, 
 which, in fact, it is. In some cases this sugar is 
 packed direct into hogsheads or boxes for shipment, 
 but in others it is first exposed to the heat of a 
 tropical sun, which has the effect of making it quite 
 crisp, in which state it is supposed to be better able 
 to stand a sea voyage. As we have already observed, 
 it is very difficult to specify the time which any 
 particular description of sugar requires to remain 
 in the centrifugal in order to be properly freed from 
 molasses; we may mention that we have found it 
 to be the best plan to watch the molasses spout in 
 the outer casing. At first—and especially with 
 large-grained sugar—the quantity is very large, 
 but it gradually diminishes until the stream is re- 
 duced to drops at short intervals. By leaving it 
 about half a minute longer the sugar is in all 
 probability cured. Upon removing this first basket- 
 ful, it can easily be judged whether the rest of the 
 contents of the cooler requires a little extra time, or 
 whether it will do without the last half minute. 
 Some persons consider that they can judge when 
 the sugar is sufficiently cured by observing its 
 colour in the basket, but, as we have already pointed 
 
 out, it often happens that the exposed surface is 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 95 
 
 perfectly eured whilst the sugar underneath is quite 
 wet. 
 
 When it is desired to make a very light-coloured 
 sugar, a little hot water, or, what is better, a little 
 hot clarified sugar, is carefully poured into the cen- 
 trifugal, after the molasses have been driven off the 
 contained sugar. Asa crystal of sugar is invariably 
 white, and consequently the colour of raw sugar is 
 only due to a thin film of molasses still remaining on 
 the crystals, this process has the effect of washing 
 them, and producing white, or very nearly white 
 sugar. 
 
 When the syrup is very highly concentrated, it is 
 frequently passed into the centrifugals while hot, as 
 otherwise it would set into a solid mass in the 
 coolers. This system of high concentration is only 
 suited to refineries at home, where vacuum pans are 
 employed, skilled labour abundant, and fuel cheap. 
 We have previously remarked that boiling water 
 dissolves about five times as much sugar as cold 
 water, and, consequently, when working with hot 
 syrup, it is not only the uncrystallisable portion that 
 is driven through the sides of the basket, but a large 
 quantity of sugar in solution which would otherwise 
 have crystallised. Very highly concentrated syrup 
 is also open to the objection that it does not allow 
 the crystals to properly develop, and, consequently, 
 a fine open-grained sugar cannot be obtained. 
 
 The molasses expelled by the centrifugals is gene- 
 
96 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 rally returned to a wetzel pan and reconcentrated, 
 a very fair sugar being usually obtained from it. 
 Sometimes this process is repeated, but it will gene- 
 rally be found more profitable to make it into rum. 
 In countries where ram commands a high price, as, 
 for instance, in Jamaica, it is never worth while to 
 reconcentrate the juice; in fact, during the Crimean 
 war, it was found more profitable to make all thie 
 sugar-cane juice into rum instead of sugar: but 
 
 these details can only be arrived at by practice. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 97 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 DISTILLATION. 
 
 A.tuoucH when commencing this treatise we did 
 not intend to treat upon the subject of distillation, 
 yet we feel that in many instances our readers might 
 consider that it was scarcely complete without some 
 instructions as to the best method of utilizing their 
 otherwise waste products. Our reasons for not con- 
 templating writing upon this subject were twofold : — 
 Firstly, that there was scarcely anything new to tell; 
 and, secondly, that in most new countries the less 
 rum that is made the better. The first of these 
 reasons may appear strange, when it is well known 
 that the system of distillation in this country has 
 undergone numerous and important changes during 
 the last twenty years. Nearly all these alterations, 
 however, have been made for the purpose of im- 
 proving, or, in other words, lessening the flavour of 
 the spirit as it comes from the still, in order that it 
 may be afterwards flavoured according to the taste 
 of consumers. Thus, in Coffey’s still, and, later, in ° 
 
 H 
 
98 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 that most perfect of all stills—the “differential 
 still”—these objects are practically attained. In 
 the case of rum, however, the distiller’s object is to 
 preserve instead of eliminate the flavour; and, con- 
 sequently, the common goose-neck still, provided it 
 is properly set so that the wash does not boil over, 
 is quite sufficient for all purposes. 
 
 As regards our second objection, viz., that the 
 less rum that is made the better, we consider that, 
 with the exception of the West Indies, it is more 
 profitable to sell the molasses, which usually com- 
 mandsahigh price, while the expense and trouble of 
 making it into rum is avoided. We might, perhaps, 
 also hint that, in countries where the normal tempe- 
 rature is about 80° in the shade, the less inducement 
 there is to the consumption of rum, the better for 
 the health and morale of the people ; whereas, upon 
 estates where rum is made, a large quantity is 
 generally consumed on the premises, either in 
 douceurs or rewards for extra labour, or because the 
 weather is so hot! 
 
 From the above remarks it will be seen that the 
 form of still recommended is somewhat old-fashioned; 
 but, as economy of fuel is of great importance, we 
 give, in Fig. 24, a sectional elevation of one of the 
 best methods of setting, so as to utilize as far as 
 possible the available heat. It will be seen that the 
 still is set in brickwork in such a manner that the 
 heat of the furnace, ulier having acted directly upon. 
 
MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 99 
 
 the bottom, is caused to travel round a circular flue, 
 
 imparting on its way as much heat as possible to 
 the sides of the still. As soon as the wash in the 
 
 
 
 still is “spent,” z.e., as soon as the liquor distilled 
 
 over from it is too weak for practical purposes, the 
 
 fire is drawn, and the spent wash, or “ dunder,” is 
 H 2 
 
100 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 run out into the dunder cistern. Before this takes 
 place, however, a considerable quantity of the later 
 distilled spirit, called “low wines,” is too weak to 
 
 preserve in its present state, and has to be distilled 
 
 a second ‘time. 
 
 In working a still, care should be taken not to 
 
 raise the temperature too high, especially at first, in 
 order that the rum carried over may be of full 
 streneth. The proper temperature to which the wash 
 should be submitted at first should be about 190° 
 Fahr., or about half way between the boiling points 
 of alcohol and water respectively. At this tempe- 
 rature a strong spirit passes over freely, but as the 
 wash in the still becomes weaker it is necessary to 
 gradually raise the temperature when the spirit 
 becomes proportionately weaker, until it rises to 
 212°, when the alcohol is entirely exhausted from 
 the wash. 
 
 Instead of employing one large still, it is, we con- 
 _ sider, better to have two smaller ones, which may be 
 sct side by side, as shown at A, in Fig. 25, by which 
 means no extra labour is required for stoking. Thi 
 advantage of employing two small stills, together 
 of equal capacity to one large one, is that while the 
 first is being emptied and re-filled, after having 
 worked off a charge, the second, having previously 
 been charged with wash, may during that period be 
 employed in its turn. Another advantage in having 
 two stills consists in the ability to re-distil the low 
 
 es 
 
 
 

 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 101 
 
 wines in one, while the other is being used for the ~ 
 wash. Although we have mentioned above that the 
 common goose-neck still is sufficient, on the stills 
 shown in the engravings, Figs. 24 and 25, it will be 
 seen that a retort is added for the purpose of catch- 
 ing any of the wash that may be mechanically 
 carried over in consequence of the violence of the 
 ebullition in the still. This addition, although un- 
 necessary when the fire is properly regulated, 1s 
 . almost a necessity where unskilled labour is in- 
 variably employed. 
 
 
 
102 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 STILL“HOUSES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In order to make a good still-house, it should be 
 built with thick walls of stone or brick. This is in 
 order to keep the temperature inside as equable as 
 possible. It has often been a matter of astonish- 
 ment that Jamaica rum should be so far superior to 
 any other, and that the rum made in the East is 
 comparatively worthless, considering the materials’ 
 with which to make it are precisely similar. This 
 result is, we believe, chiefly owing to the fact that 
 still-houses in Jamaica are built with very thick 
 walls and scarcely any windows, so that the changes 
 of temperature outside shall not be felt within the 
 house, besides which the fermenting vats are sunk 
 in the ground to preserve them from the changes of 
 temperature. There is, of course, the natural 
 advantage of a very equable temperature, which is 
 a very important consideration; and also the still- 
 house “ book-keepers ” are usually men of consider-_ 
 able experience, or have the advantage of knowing ie 
 

 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 103 
 
 from their predecessors what is the best treatment to 
 pursue for the particular house in which they are 
 stationed. Yet we consider that the filthy stuff 
 called rum that is commonly turned out of a still in 
 the eastern hemisphere is a disgrace to the manu- 
 facturer, and the price it usually and deservedly 
 obtains is too insignificant to admit of its production 
 being profitable. 
 
 The chief reason why the manufacture of rum in 
 the eastern hemisphere is a comparative failure is, 
 doubtless, because the still-houses are not sufficiently 
 substantial to prevent the excessive mid-day heat 
 entering, and thereby promoting excessive fermenta- 
 tion. Thus, instead of the bubbles of carbonic acid 
 rising gently yet constantly to the surface of the 
 liquor in the fermenting vat, it is no uncommon 
 thing to. see, in inferior still-houses, the liquor in a 
 violent state of agitation as if it were urged into a 
 fierce boil by means of a furnace underneath. We 
 remember endeavouring to make rum upon an 
 estate before the still-house was built, the only 
 fermenting vats consisting of large butts, about 10 ft. 
 in diameter and about the same depth, the tempe- 
 rature in the day being about 97° Fahr. The con- 
 sequence was that in a few days after the liquor was 
 set up it almost boiled over the top, while the rum 
 distilled from it was sufficiently high flavoured—or, 
 as it is technically termed, “ stinking”—to have 
 satisfied a Hamburg “manufacturer.” It was only 
 
 
 

 
 104 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 after the exhibition of a little sulphurous acid by — 
 means of burning a small piece of sulphur at the — 
 
 bottom of the vats that the fermentation could be at 
 all controlled. 
 
 The wash from which rum is made usually con- 
 sists of molasses, skimimings, and ‘“dunder;” bat 
 as the dunder—as has already been explained— 
 is simply exhausted wash, and therefore can contain 
 no spirit, the amount of rum depends entirely upon 
 the amount of sugar contained in the two former, 
 or, as it is usually called, the quantity of “sweets.” 
 
 At the commencement of fermentation, or, as some 
 assert, before fermentation, the cane sugar contained 
 in the wash is converted into grape sugar, which, as the 
 fermentation proceeds, is itself converted into 51°12 
 parts of alcohol and 48°88 parts of carbonic acid. 
 From this it is evident that the amount of rum 
 which should be obtained from a given quantity of 
 wash (the composition of which is, of course, known) 
 is a simple matter of calculation. We say should 
 be obtained, as it frequently happens that the 
 quantity of rum is very much less than the calculated 
 amount, when it is, of course, the duty of the dis- 
 tiller to discover where the fault rests. 
 
 The composition of the wash varies somewhat in 
 different countries, and even in the same country in 
 different still-houses; but, after all, the variation is 
 
 not very material, the amount of sweets being usually 
 
 about 12 or 15 per cent. of the whole. The skim- 
 
 i 
 : 
 ve 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 bo 
 
 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 105 
 
 mings, which are good for nothing except for the 
 ‘purpose of making rum, consist of the dirty juice 
 separated during the processes of clarification and 
 evaporation, as already described; and, in addition, 
 the water used for washing down the clarifiers, 
 batteries, gutters, &c., which has thereby become 
 somewhat sweetened. From this it will be seen 
 
 that these skimmings contain, in addition to a 
 
 certain amount of sugar, all the feculencies originally 
 
 contained in the cane juice, such as giuten, green 
 wax, gum, &c., and therefore possess all the ele- 
 ments necessary for fermentation, and also for 
 imparting the peculiar flavour by which rum is 
 characterized. These skimmings, upon arriving at 
 the still-house, are strained in order to separate the 
 
 woody fibre and other solid particles. In setting 
 
 up a vat of wash, it is usual to mix the skimmings, 
 dunder, and water first, and to add the molasses 
 afterwards, from one to two days intervening. 
 
 We have already mentioned the proportion of 
 sweets should be about 12 to 15 per cent.; it 
 consequently follows that the amount of molasses 
 
 _ to be used depends upon the quantity of skimmings 
 
 available. In some of the West India islands equal 
 proportions of skimmings, dunder, and water are 
 used, the quantity of molasses afterwards added de- 
 pending upon the strength of the mixture thus ob- 
 tained. These proportions, however, vary greatly 
 in different countries, and, moreover, in the same 
 
106 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 
 
 districts, according to the fancy or experience of the 
 still-house “ book-keeper” or manager. Thus in 
 many places a mixture in the proportion of 10 gal- 
 lons of molasses, 20 gallons of dunder, 30 gallons 
 of skimmings, and 40 gallons of water, is adopted, 
 partly, perhaps, on account of the receipt being 
 easily remembered. These proportions will, in most 
 cases, give about 14 to 15 per cent. of sweets. In 
 Jamaica, dunder, or spent wash, is more freely used 
 than in most other countries, and some experienced 
 distillers prefer to dilute the mixture of skimmings 
 and molasses entirely with tlis material in preference 
 to using water. A very general proportion in that 
 country is 6 parts molasses, 36 parts skimmings, 
 and 50 parts dunder, a small quantity of water being 
 added, if necessary, to keep the sweets down to 
 about 12 per cent. of the whole. The fermentation 
 in this latter case is much slower than where less 
 dunder is used, and consequently the process of 
 fermentation is more tedious, but the quality of the 
 rum is very superior. The advantage of keeping 
 the sweets as low as 12 per cent. consists principally 
 in the facility with which it is evaporated. Thus if 
 more than 15 per cent of sweets is allowed, the 
 liquor becomes viscid, and is not only difficult to 
 boil, but it is also very liable to injure the still by 
 causing a deposit at the bottom. 
 
 The time required for complete fermentation of 
 the wash varies very much, both on account of the 
 
 
 

 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 107 
 
 differences in the mixture, and also from the varia- — 
 tions of temperature. In substantially built still- 
 houses, such as those generally found in the West 
 Indies, and with a comparatively weak liquor, it 
 usually takes from three or four days to a week ; but 
 sometimes it appears as if it never would commence, 
 and even after it has commenced as if it never would 
 leave off. Various remedies, such as putting in hot 
 water or hot skimmings, are sometimes recom- 
 mended in these cases; but we think that patience 
 is by far the best receipt. The principal thing to 
 be avoided, as we have previously remarked, is 
 speedy and excessive fermentation, such as is usually 
 found in badly built still-houses, as in these cases 
 there is no doubt but that during the violent fer- 
 mentation, and consequent elevation of temperature, 
 a considerable quantity of alcohol is evaporated. It 
 cannot, therefore, be too urgently insisted upon that 
 the temperature in still-houses should never exceed 
 a temperature of about 90° Fahr. 
 
 The rum as it comes from the still is, of course, 
 colourless; but unless it is destined for mixing or 
 adulteration it is generally coloured with “ caramel” 
 or burnt sugar. For this purpose a quantity of 
 common sugar, usually containing a considerable 
 proportion of molasses, is put into an iron pan hung 
 over a wood fire, in a similar manner to a gipsy’s 
 kettle. As the sugar gets hot it becomes semi-fluid, 
 when it should be kept constantly stirred until the . 
 
108 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 
 
 mass assumes a very dark brown colour, and gives 
 off a peculiar smell of burnt sugar. The fire should 
 then be stopped, and a sufficient quantity of the 
 mass dissolved and mixed with the white rum until 
 it assumes the desired colour. 
 
 The rum, when new, possesses a very pow ota 
 and somewhat disagreeable flavour, which disap- 
 pears after being kept a few years in the wood. 
 Some still-house managers, however, profess they 
 can artificially age the spirit so that in abovt a 
 month it would pass for old rum. For this pur- 
 pose various substances are used to neutralize 
 the haut gout, such as lime, tea-leaves, raw meat, 
 &c., which no doubt to a certain extent accomplish 
 their object; but, after all, artificially aged rum is 
 by no means as pleasant as that which is allowed to 
 mature naturally. 
 
 In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 25, is 
 shown a plan of a still-house, a a being the stills, 
 B the worm tank, cc measures for receiving the dis- 
 tilled spirit, pp the dunder receivers, EE, &c., the 
 vats for holding the spirits and low wines, Fr, &c., 
 
 the fermenting vats sunk into the vround, and GG 
 the skimmings receivers. 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. ] 09 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 TELE VELL: LLL EEL ELE E_EE_ 
 
 
 
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 Fic. 25. 
 
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110 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 Ir used to be acommon saying amongst planters that 
 sugar was made in the field, and as in this depart- 
 ment innovations of the greatest importance—viz., 
 steam cultivation, steam carriage, &c., have of late 
 years been so extensively adopted, a short descrip- 
 tion of the various methods may not be out of place. 
 The original style of cultivation—and one which is 
 still extensively in use—was to prepare the ground 
 for the reception of the cane plants by means of hoes. 
 Where labour is very abundant, and consequently 
 very moderate in price, this system is yet carried on 
 profitably, but we believe even in these exceptional 
 cases it must eventually be superseded by steam 
 cultivation. The most usual plan at the present 
 time is to prepare the land by means of ploughs, as 
 the price of labour does not admit of hand hoeing, 
 the ploughs being drawn by cattle. Any one, how- 
 ever, who has watched this method must have been 
 
 
 

 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 111 
 
 struck with the laborious slowness of the process, 
 two “ spell” of cattle being generally required. to 
 draw a single plough at the rate of about one and a 
 half miles per hour. It is true that in some favoured 
 spots, where an active young elephant may be 
 obtained for a moderate price—say £40—the land 
 can be prepared both quickly and cheaply; but 
 these cases are so exceptional as to require no further 
 notice. The great success of steam ploughs—notably 
 those manufactured by Messrs. John Fowler and Co:, 
 of Leeds,—for agricultural purposes in this country, 
 attracted the attention, a few years ago, of some 
 enterprising planters in South America, who very 
 justly considered that if such a system were success- 
 ful in England, where there is an abundance of 
 labour, it must be still more advantageous for a 
 sugar estate where labour is scarce and inferior. 
 The first essays, however, were not very successful, 
 and it soon became evident that the implements in 
 use in England and on the Continent were unsuited 
 to the requirements of a cane-piece. To anybody 
 who knows anything about a cane-field this will not 
 appear at all surprising, as the difference between 
 the cultivation of corn and canes is obvious. The 
 distance between the rows of canes varies consider- 
 ably in different countries and with different species 
 of canes, but it may, we believe, be fairly set at six 
 feet, the plants being placed about three or four feet 
 apart. The ploughing is consequently required to 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fic, 26, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cll 
 
 “avons ANVO JO AUNLOVINANVNN 
 
 
 

 
 ‘MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 113 
 
 be very deep, and as the soil is usually of a very 
 stiff description, it was found necessary to enor- 
 mously increase the strength of the machinery, 
 and about double the driving power. To open 
 up the ground for this description of planting 
 a very large plough is required in order to ridge 
 the ground sufficiently. These requirements have 
 now for some time been supplied by Messrs. 
 Fowler, with, we believe, very satisfactory results, 
 the entire machinery having been remodelled for 
 that . particular description of work. The usual 
 style of working is shown in Fig. 26, where it 
 will be seen that two engines supplied with 
 winding gear beneath the boilers are worked on 
 opposite headlands, each alternately drawing the 
 plough towards itself, the engine not in work paying 
 out the rope, and at the same time moving forward 
 into position for the return of the implement. The 
 plough, which is illustrated by Fig. 27, is not required 
 to turn round at the end of the journey, as the one 
 set of shares behind which the driver sits is in opera- 
 tion during the journey in one direction, and upon 
 arriving at the end he has only to change his seat 
 to be ready for the return journey for the other set. 
 These ploughs are made very much stronger and 
 larger than those usually employed in this country, 
 in order to suit the requirements of the peculiar 
 cultivation necessary for sugar canes. 
 
 Another powerful implement, shown in Fig. 28, 
 
 I 
 

 
 Fic. 27. 
 
 & 
 , 
 4 
 4 
 
 ef ee 
 
 
 
 oe ae ie (Co pe Bie is 4 
 
 situated upon low lands. By means of these ditches, 
 run in rows every 20 or 30 feet, between the canes, 
 

 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 11 
 
 they may either be drained rapidly during wet 
 
 oo 
 N 
 cS) 
 mA 
 py 
 
 
 
 
 
 iy 
 
 weather, or irrigated in the dry season with the 
 greatest facility. 
 
 rey 
 
 Braet eee. ak 
 Te at RO rae 
 

 
 
 116 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. | 
 Another very ingenious implement may be used, 
 when the soil is not too heavy, for breaking up the — 
 
 Fic. 29. 
 
 ; 
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 hae ne 6 fe 
 
 é : 
 pn eS Oy ee, 
 
 <2 
 i. 
 
 mae 
 
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 ti 
 
 im 
 
 i 
 
 x 
 ‘ 
 
 
 
 
 land. This is called by the patentees a “ turning — 9 
 cultivator,” and is illustrated in Fie, 29. This a 
 

 
 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 117 
 
 implement is especially adapted for being worked 
 by the double-engine system illustrated in Fig. 26, 
 as it is so arranged that it can be turned round by 
 the engines after travelling to the end of its journey 
 ‘In one direction so as to be ready at once for the 
 return journey. It consists of a strong iron frame, 
 carrying, according to circumstances, from five to 
 thirteen tines, and resting on three road wheels, the 
 front wheel being the steering wheel. The axle of 
 the two hind wheels is cranked, so that, by its being 
 turned, the frame is lowered or raised, and by these 
 means the depth of the tines adjusted. The long 
 end of a draft bar, or “ turning lever,” is provided 
 with two arms to which the ropes of the two engines 
 are attached. The arms are set at an angle, for 
 keeping the tail rope clear of the implement. The 
 lever itself is held by a vertical stud fixed to the 
 frame, considerably behind the steering wheel. 
 This position of the draft stud gives the necessary 
 liberty and power to the steering wheel, and enables 
 it to lead the implement at. almost any angle out of 
 the line of the pulling rope. On the short end of 
 the turning lever is a chain communicating with a 
 quadrant on the crank axle, and as the lever is 
 pulled round, the chain acting on the quadrant turns 
 the axle, lifts the frame, and raises the tines out of 
 the ground. The plan of operation is as follows :— 
 As soon as the cultivator is brought up to the head- 
 land, the engine on the opposite headland begins to 
 
a 
 
 118 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 work, and pulling the lever round, lifts the ine op 
 of the ground, which are held up by a catch; v 
 lifted the required height, the lever strikes acainesall ) 
 stop and pulls the implement round into new ground ; 
 the man (who never leaves his seat) releases h 
 catch, the tincs drop into the ground, and the im- 
 plement is drawn across the field. 
 
 The principal advantages of this excellent ir 
 ment are as follows:—lIts size is only limited b 
 the power of the engines, which thus may be u 
 ‘to their utmost capability. It smashes up the s 
 working steadily, and always preserving a perfeetly y | 
 uniform depth. Even the largest implements ‘ 
 this description require only one man in attendane Ss : 
 In turning round, no additional work whatever is 
 required, and scarcely any time is lost, whilst ¢ 
 implement, however wide, at once moves into new 
 land, leaving small and clean headlands. On 
 average soil 30 to 50 acres per day may be e fi- 
 ciently cultivated. Ridging bodies attached 
 the frame of this cultivator will produce a 
 effective and casily-handled ridging implement. 
 
 For working up new land when stones, Toots, al 
 other natural impediments occur, a very pe 
 grubber may be used with advantage; the i 
 ment being driven with the same machinery as t 
 described above. This erubber, which is ilust: e 
 in Fie. 30, is a remarkably useful implement - for 
 
 thoroughly and speedily clearing land. Its power 
 
WS 
 SS 
 
 
 
 Fie, 30. 
 CLEARED LAND 
 Fic. 31, 
 
 
 

 

 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 119 
 
 is enormous, defying almost any obstacles that may 
 present themselves, and at the same time the depth 
 (2ft. 6in. to 3 ft.) at which it works thoroughly 
 aérates the ground. 
 
 Besides the cultivation of the soil, the: removal 
 of the crop has also been successfully performed 
 by steam power. In Fig. 31 is shown a plan 
 of Mr. Greig’s system of clearing off the ripe 
 canes after being cut. Up to the present time we 
 believe that no machine has been tried for cut- 
 ting the canes, and considering the substance to 
 be cut, and the distance between the “ stools,” but 
 little advantage over the old system of hand cutting 
 could be expected. In “clearing off,” or carrying 
 the canes, we consider the system of Mr. Greig 
 would be’ not only more economical, but, what is 
 
 perhaps of greater importance, more rapid than the 
 present system of carting in bullock waggons or 
 
 
 
 
 
120 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 mule carts. It is now proposed to construct a num- 
 ber of waggons, each able to carry three or four 
 tons of cane, on three or four wheels, of which the 
 front wheels are steerable. One of these waggons 
 (Fig. 32) was exhibited at Wolverhampton. The 
 steering gear is similar in construction to the well- 
 known front wheel of Messrs. Fowler and Co.’s 
 turning cultivator. The waggon rests on a turn- 
 table, which is carried by the front wheel, the 
 draught stud being placed behind this turn-table, so 
 as to give to the steering wheel a leverage over the 
 pull which it otherwise would not possess. Four 
 or more of these waggons are attached to each 
 other and brought to the field by small traction 
 engines, as represented in the plan, Fig. 31. 
 These never leave the roads which divide the sugar 
 fields, and form, as a rule, the headlands for the 
 ploughing engines during the time of ploughing. 
 At the two opposite ends of the field which is being 
 
 cut, two ordinary ploughing engines are placed, 
 
 their ropes being connected by a shackle, to which 
 a spare chain is fixed. The waggons are attached 
 to this chain, and hauled over the field from one 
 engine to the other, being steered along the uncut 
 edge of the sugar cane and loaded at the same time. 
 Thus the train arrives full at the other end, and is 
 taken away by the traction engine, which in the 
 meantime has run round the field. 
 
 Where large central sugar mills are used for 
 
 A 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 _MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 121 
 
 several estates, agricultural railways are generally 
 employed to connect the estate with the factory. In 
 this case the sugar waggons worked by the traction 
 engine are provided with a movable cradle into 
 which the cane is placed on the railway truck, so 
 that no further handling of the cane is required. 
 
 In many places where sugar is, or might be, 
 cultivated, the land is very level, and but a few feet 
 above the water, and in some cases frequently below 
 the surface of the water. Thus in North and South 
 America, Egypt, Siam, and India, there are vast 
 tracts of land thus situated, and which, if cultivated, 
 would be more than sufficient for the supply of 
 sugar to the whole world. In these cases steam 
 cultivation is eminently advantageous, as the proxi- 
 ‘mity of water offers many advantages in its 
 adoption. ‘Thus, the soil, which generally consists 
 -of alluvial deposit, is usually heavy and deep; re- 
 markably good for the canes, but not easily ploughed 
 by the use of cattle. The best method to adopt in 
 cultivating an estate of this description is, to cut 
 parallel canals at convenient distances apart of, say, 
 000 yards, and of sufficient width to navigate a 
 barge; the width being doubled here and there to 
 allow two barges to pass one another. The soil 
 thrown out of the canal will form a bank on each 
 side, which will serve to keep out the water from 
 the fields when necessary. These canals, which 
 would, of course, have one end running into the 
 
122 MANUPACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 
 
 river, can be joined at their other ends by a cross — 
 canal, and also at any portion of their length, if 
 deemed necessary. When once this is done, the 
 entire system of cultivating and carrying canes 1s 
 both simple and economical. 
 
 Thus, for preparing the soil a couple of barges, 
 one in each of two adjoining parallel canals, carry a 
 steam plough, which may be either portable or fitted 
 to the vessel. By this means the whole land con- 
 tained between these canals may be cultivated, no 
 headlands being required. After the land thus 
 prepared has been planted, should the cane require 
 irrigation, and the water be too low to flow over the 
 land, as must generally be the case, a centrifugal 
 pump, driven by the same engine that worked the 
 plough, may be employed for the purpose. This 
 pump may also be either temporarily or perma- 
 nently fitted in the barge. As the canes grow and 
 require banking up the same engines might be used 
 for driving a plough suitable for the purpose. 
 Again, should the canes require cleaning (weeding, 
 not trashing), the process could be easily performed 
 by the same engines working a hoe or other suitable 
 machine instead of the plough. When the canes 
 arrived at maturity and were cut, the same engine 
 in the same barge might be employed to tow lighters 
 and earry the canes to the sugar-house, by having a 
 small screw fitted so that it might be driven from 
 the engine, or possibly the centrifugal pump already 
 

 
 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 123 
 
 fixed in the barge might be utilized for the purpose 
 of hydraulic propulsion. — | | 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that a couple of engines 
 fitted in suitable barges might perform all the heavy 
 work required outside the sugar-house. Other 
 duties might be mentioned which the engines would 
 be capable of performing during their leisure, if 
 they had any; such, for instance, as sawing wood, - 
 grinding rice, &c., and possibly of shipping the 
 sugar after it was made. Although engines of this 
 description must be good, and are,. consequently, 
 expensive, the number of duties they might be made. 
 to perform, many of which could not be properly 
 done by hand labour, make them almost indispen- 
 sable. Moreover, the amount saved in manual 
 labour would speedily pay for the first cost of the 
 engines. : 
 

 
 124 — MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 In the last chapter we gave illustrations of various 
 machines for cultivating the soil by steam power, 
 and incidentally mentioned that the engines re- 
 quisite for that purpose might also be employed, 
 when not required for that object, in driving 
 pumping machinery for irrigating the canes. The 
 practice of irrigation is, however, so little under- 
 stood, that a few remarks upon this subject may be 
 found useful. It is perhaps not generally known 
 that the amount of evaporation from the earth 
 during dry weather, and at a given temperature, 
 has never been satisfactorily determined. This is 
 not so much to be wondered at when we consider 
 the peculiar difficulties standing in the way of 
 such determination. Thus, it would, of course, 
 be impossible to collect and gauge the moisture 
 given off from an acre of ground, as from the 
 very nature of the test the ground must be freely 
 exposed to the action of the sun and air—a 
 

 
 _ MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 125 
 
 condition obviously incompatible with accurate 
 _ measurements. The amount of evaporation from 
 a certain area of the surface of water has been 
 - gauged by several eminent meteorologists, such as 
 - Dalton, Howard, Daniell, &c., for a consecutive 
 number of years, and with such uniform results 
 that we may safely take those results as a basis 
 upon which to make our calculations. We say as 
 a basis, for as these experiments. were necessarily 
 performed under cover, where the air was motion- 
 less, and as it is an acknowledged fact that the 
 motion of the air exercises a very important part 
 in the evaporation of water, a large allowance must 
 be made for those countries, such as most of the 
 West India Islands, where a strong breeze is con- 
 stantly blowing. Another great and almost insu- 
 perable difficulty in calculating the amount of 
 evaporation arises from the state of the atmosphere. 
 Thus, when the air is very dry, the rate of evapo- 
 ration is.very large, and as the amount of moisture 
 increases in the air, the rate of evaporation de- 
 creases until, when the air is saturated with moisture, 
 no evaporation can take place. This circumstance 
 brings us to another difficulty, viz., the temperature 
 of the air. It is a well-known fact that air has the 
 power of retaining moisture in proportion to its 
 temperature, and consequently we not unfrequently 
 find that the air, which has been as bright and pure 
 as can only be produced in a tropical cloudless sky, 
 
126 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 converted into a cloud, or, what is the same thing, 
 a dense white fog, a few hours before sunrise ; or, 
 during the cold months, shortly after sunset. 
 Having thus stated some of the difficulties that 
 lay in the way of accurate computation of the 
 amount of evaporation, we will now endeavour 
 to give some hints that may enable the planter, 
 
 knowing his own climate, to estimate the amount of — 
 
 water that would probably be required for irri- 
 vating a certain acreage of canes during a dry 
 season. According to the authorities just men- 
 tioned, the amount of evaporation varies with the 
 
 temperature, and the following rule, simplified, but — 
 
 sufficiently accurate for our purpose, may be 
 adopted. Assuming ¢ to be the mean temperature, 
 += t—6; /f the elastic force of the temperature 
 corresponding to ¢, and 9 the elastic force corres- 
 ponding to +, and e the amount of evaporation, the 
 amount of evaporation per diem will stand thus— 
 81 
 e= (7 = 
 80 
 or sufficiently near for our purpose, e = f — 9. 
 Thus, supposing the mean temperature of the 
 alr to be 80° when the elastic force of vapour is 
 equal to 1, the amount of evaporation would be 
 e = 1 — ‘823, or somewhat less than :2 of an inch 
 per day. , 
 The above formula is for a perfectly still atmo- 
 sphere, but, as we may probably assume that the 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 MANUFACTURE Of CANE SUGAR. 127 
 
 excess of evaporation, due to the sun and wind, is 
 counterbalanced bv the dew at night, it will leave 
 the total evaporation at somewhat less than 14 in. 
 per week. This we believe to be approximately 
 correct, as the average rainfall in tropical climates 
 is about the same amount, and it is to be presumed 
 that the supply should in ordinary seasons equal 
 the demand. It will be seen that the above esti- 
 mates have been purposely made somewhat in 
 excess, in order to allow for the waste, necessarily 
 incurred in irrigating. 
 
 In addition to the amount of moisture evaporated 
 from the soil, there has, of course, to be provided a 
 sufficient quantity of water for the nourishment of 
 the canes, The amount thus required can only be 
 estimated by practice. Asa general rule, an extra 
 half inch per week or two inches altogether is a 
 sufficient weekly supply for growing canes during 
 dry weather. It is, however, a well-known fact 
 amongst all horticulturalists, that a ‘ good soaking” 
 at long intervals is better than the system of “ little | 
 and often.” 
 when the ground is but slightly irrigated, the roots 
 of the plants make their way upwards in search of 
 the water. The disadvantage of this is that the 
 plants are less able to endure a drought than those 
 
 The principal reason for this is that, 
 
 having their roots deeper, and also they are much 
 more liable to be laid during a storm. For this 
 reason it is better to thoroughly irrigate a portion of 
 
128 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 
 
 thé canes at a time, than to endeavour to give the 
 whole estate a small quantity. 
 
 - In the accompanying engravings, Fig. 33 illus- 
 trates a centrifugal pump adapted for the purposes 
 
 
 
 of irrigation, and to be driven by an independent 
 engine. Fig. 34 illustrates the centrifugal pump, 
 fitted in the barge or punt already alluded to, as 
 carrying the suitable machinery for ploughing the 
 land. It will be seen that the same engine which 
 has done duty for ploughing, is now working the 
 pump for irrigating the higher lands. The power 
 of the engine is fully equal to working a centri- 
 fugal pump capable of delivering 3000 gallons per 
 minute. 
 
 As we have already observed, the amount of 
 water required by growing canes during dry 
 

 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 129 
 
 weather, is somewhat less than two inches per week. 
 The amount of water required to irrigate an acre 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fieé.. 34. 
 
 of land to a depth of two inches is, roughly, 45,000 
 gallons. Consequently, a pump throwing 3000 
 gallons per minute, would take 15 minutes to per- 
 form the work. This. would give 40 acres per day 
 of 10 hours, or 240 acres per week; the machinery 
 irrigating 40 acres one day and then moving on to 
 the next field, and so on; returning to the first 
 field at the end of the week. As, according to 
 the arrangements for cultivating the soil already 
 described, two barges and engines are required upon 
 an estate, this amount must be doubled; and, con- 
 sequently, the irrigating power of the machinery 
 employed upon the estate is fully equal to serving 
 
 K 
 

 
 130 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 480 acres. Of course, if the engines were worked 
 more than 10 hours per day, a proportionately 
 larger area might be irrigated, and therefore by 
 employing two sets of labourers the machinery 
 would be equal to irrigating about 1000 acres of 
 canes. By the judicious use of irrigation for a few 
 months while the canes are growing, an increased 
 yield of at least a ton of sugar per acre might, we 
 feel confident, be obtained. 
 
 
 

 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR, 1a. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 SUGAR-HOUSES. 
 
 In Plate 5, we have illustrated a design in plan 
 of a sugar-house complete, with the exception of 
 the still-house. As the various apparatus here 
 shown have already been described, both as regards 
 their form, and also the processes for which they 
 are designed, but little explanation is here required. 
 
 To begin at the beginning, the cut canes already 
 delivered in the cane-yard, are usually tied up in 
 bundles by means of their own leaves, somewhat 
 similar to sheaves of corn. These are carried to - 
 the mill, where the ligature is cut and thrown on 
 one side, and the canes spread upon the table and fed 
 into the mill a. The quantity of canes that a good 
 _ mill will absorb is very great, and the canes may be 
 
 “fed in” ina body as close together as the rollers 
 will take them. It too often happens, however, that 
 _ the workmen throw in the canes, in a lump in- 
 _ Stead of distributing them across the length of the 
 rollers. This should never be allowed, as it not only 
 | K 2 
 
 
 

 
 132 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 brings an undue strain upon the mill, but smashes up 
 the “trash” or “megass” at that spot, and allows 
 the few canes traversing the comparatively unoccu- 
 pied spaces to go through without being sufficiently 
 squeezed. In order to remedy this defect, a cane 
 carrier (B) is frequently used, which, as it affords a 
 more extended surface upon which to place the 
 canes, they can be more evenly distributed before 
 arriving at the jaws of the mill. 
 
 The canes—or rather what is left of them—after 
 passing through the mill are in a state somewhat 
 like millboard. This is usually carried away either 
 into a trash-house, or, if the weather be very fine, 
 spread over the yard to dry; and when dry it is 
 ‘used as fuel for the evaporating pans. As this 
 process involves a considerable amount of labour, 
 “trash” or “megass” carriers (B) are sometimes 
 employed, by which means the crushed cane is 
 carried to the top of the trash-house. The trash- 
 house, a small portion of which is shown in Plate 
 9, 1s usually a long narrow building, composed 
 of upright columns of brick or stone, and covered 
 with a galvanized iron roof. A tramway, upon 
 which a small truck runs, is formed along the 
 middle, and as high up as the roof will admit, 
 The trash elevator being placed so as to deliver the 
 refuse canes into the truck, this may be run along 
 the tramway, and discharged at any point that may 
 be desired. 
 
 
 

 
 | MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 133 
 
 
 
 The cane-juice runs along the gutter to the 
 monte-jus, c, where it is elevated into the. clarifiers, 
 D, as already described. The liquor, when clarified, 
 passes along gutters as shown, to the shallow 
 charcoal filter, x. This filter runs upon a tramway, 
 and when the charcoal becomes saturated with the 
 impurities of the liquor, may be run out, and 
 another similar filter, already charged, run in to 
 take its place. In most sugar-houses this filter is 
 not used, but the liquor run directly into the evapo- 
 rating pans. We think, however, that it is ex- 
 ceedingly useful, and as it is also very simple, its 
 use should not be dispensed with. From the filter, 
 E, the juice runs to the evaporating pans or bat- 
 _ teries, F, where it is concentrated to a density of 
 about 27° Beaumé. From these batteries it is let 
 down to the Wetzel pans, u, or if they are full, into 
 the cistern, G, whence it is pumped up into the 
 Wetzels as required. When concentrated in the 
 Wetzels, the syrup is allowed to run into the coolers, 
 1, by means of movable gutters, not shown in the 
 plate. Here it is. allowed to stand for about 24 
 hours to crystallize, when it is dug out and dried in 
 the centrifugal machines, x. The molasses or un- 
 crystallized portion of the sugar is allowed to run 
 along the gutters, shown in Plate 5, either into the 
 cistern, G, or the tank, t. If the molasses is from 
 first quality sugar, it is frequently run into the cis- 
 tern, G, and thence pumped up into the Wetzels and 
 
134 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 re-concentrated. If, however, it be not good enough 
 
 for that purpose, it is run into the tank, 1, and 
 
 drawn off into the still-house as required. 
 
 The sugar, after being cured in the centrifugal 
 machines, is taken to the sugar table, r, and either 
 packed at once into boxes or hogsheads, or exposed 
 to the sun and still further dried. If the sugar has 
 a clean, bold grain, it requires no further drying 
 after it comes from the centrifugal; but if it is soft 
 and pasty, it is better to expose it to the sun fora 
 day or two before packing. 
 
 The boiler shown at m is heated by the waste 
 
 heat from the batteries r, the flues of which, as 
 
 shown in the dotted lines, pass through it. This 
 boiler is cylindrical, about 6 ft. 6 in. in diameter, 
 and 7 ft. in length. It is similar to a tubular boiler 
 without any furnace, the lower portion to within 
 about Gin. of the surface of the water being filled 
 with 3in. tubes. As the waste heat from the bat- 
 teries is invariably very great, in consequence of 
 the necessity of keeping up a fierce boil the whole 
 time they are in operation, it is of the utmost im- 
 portance that it should be utilized. By means of a 
 tubular boiler placed in the flue, as shown in Plate 
 5, this is done very effectually; in fact, a short 
 time after the batteries are started the fire in the 
 common boiler n may be stopped, as a sufficient 
 amount of steam can be raised for the entire work 
 of the sugar-house from the boiler m alone. The 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 135 
 
 condensed water from the clarifiers and Wetzels runs 
 
 into a small cistern, to which is attached a donkey- 
 engine for feeding the boilers, and in order to make 
 up any deficiency in the amount, this cistern may 
 also be fed as required from the cold-water tank o, 
 placed on columns above the clarifiers, and supplied 
 from the feed-pump of the mill. This cold-water 
 tank is also very useful in supplying water for 
 washing out the clarifiers, batteries, Wetzels, &c., 
 as often as necessary. 
 
 It will be seen from the above description that 
 but little pumping, and no manual labour is neces- 
 sary for raising the cane juice. Thus, when the 
 juice runs from the mill it enters the monte-jus, 
 where it is once for all raised a sufficient height to 
 run into the clarifiers, which are elevated about 
 15 ft. from the ground. From the clarifiers it runs, 
 by its own gravity, first into the charcoal filter, 
 thence into the batteries where it runs from one 
 compartment to another through valves; thence to 
 the Wetzels, and thence into the coolers. By this 
 means a considerable saving of labour is effected 
 over the old method of ladling from one pan to 
 
 e another. 
 
 There may be, of course, many other varieties of 
 design in sugar-works, and in certain conditions, 
 : such, for instance, as where the ground is sloping a 
 different arrangement may be advisable; but we 
 trust that the plan here shown may be of service to 
 
 
 
136 MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 
 
 
 
 
 may assist them in their enterprise. 
 
 As the excessive cost of coal, especially at the 
 present time, is attracting much attention, and may 
 probably tend to deter capitalists from erecting new 
 works for sugar manufacture, we would, in con- 
 cluding this treatise, venture to assert that a sugar- 
 house erected upon the principles herein given, ‘ 
 should be absolutely independent of fuel other than 3 
 the megass which is supplied by the canes them- 
 selves. ‘ 
 
 
 
MESS®$ GC, BUCHANAN & C9 
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