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AUTHOR: 
 
 KNAPP, CHARLES 
 
 TITLE: 
 
 ROMAN THEATER 
 
 PLACE: 
 
 [NEW YORK] 
 
 DA TE : 
 
 [1915?] 
 
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 k<l 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 VOLIME I 
 
 JAXTAliY 1915 
 
 NUMBER \ 
 
 Design of I^-veil based on Baltanl. 
 
 FIG. 1. HECONSTRUCTrOX OF THEATElt OF POMPEV IX R(JME. 
 
 THE ROMAX THEATER 
 
 CHARLKS KXAPP 
 
 TX ANCIENT Rome, under normal 
 ^ circumstances, it was possible to 
 witness plays only at certain periods of 
 the year, as an element in annually 
 recurring f(>stivals of the peo])le. These 
 festivals, known as ludi, came in April, 
 •^uly, September, and Noveml^er. There 
 were, however, extraordinary occasions 
 <m which inlays mijzht be seen. These 
 were furnished by the dedication of some 
 splendid building, by a triumph in cele- 
 hration of some victory, or, mayhap, l)y 
 the funeral of a distinguished citizen. 
 For each set of ludi a certain sum of 
 money was granted from the public 
 
 treasury; the remainder of the expenses, 
 invariably large and ever tc^nding to grow 
 larger, was met by the magistrate in 
 charge of the ludi. From the statement 
 that part of the expenses of the ludi was 
 met from the state treasury it might be 
 inferred that the state subsidized the 
 theater. Such an inference would, how- 
 ever, ])e wide of the mark, since for cen- 
 turies the attitude of the government 
 toward the theater was an attitude of 
 opposition. To orthodox Roman senti- 
 ment the witnessing of plays long seemed 
 a waste of time, and consequently w^ell- 
 nigh immoral. To strike the truth, then, 
 
 137 
 
y 
 
 y. 
 
 r. 
 
 y. 
 
 y 
 
 •■? 
 
 .k 
 
 s 
 
 V 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 \()U\Ari: I 
 
 JAXCAin" 191.-) 
 
 XUMBKR t 
 
 IVaigii «.l l.r\t.il i.;iMM| on H:ilt;iri|. 
 
 IK.. I. RKCOXSTinCTrON or lllIiAriJi ol- I-oMI-KV in ijo.m 
 
 TIIK liOAIAX T]11':ATI:K 
 
 en aimj:s k.\ ai'p 
 
 jX A\('II]N'r Honu'. under normal 
 
 circunistanccs, it Avns ])()ssil)l(' to 
 
 witness plays only at certain periods of 
 
 ^}|<' year, as an element in anmially 
 
 '<'<''irrino- festivals of the pe()])Ie. These 
 
 '<'>tivals, known as Itn/i, came in A])ril. 
 
 inly. Septeml)(>r. and Xovemher. There 
 
 were, however, extraordinary occasions 
 
 'Ji which plays mi<zht l)e s(>en. 11iese 
 
 vere furnished hy the dedication of some 
 
 ^ilcndid l)uildin«r, hy a trium])h in cele- 
 
 hratioii of some victory, or. mayhaj). Ia- 
 
 'Ik' funeral of a distin<ruished citizen. 
 
 I'or each set oi' hidl a certain sum of 
 
 nioiiey was «»ranted from the i)ul)lic 
 
 treasury: the remainder of the ex])enses. 
 invai'iahly lar<>-e and ever tendinjr to jiTow 
 lar^-er. was met hy the magistrate in 
 char<:e of Wwhull. From the statement 
 that part of the expenses of the ///r// was 
 met from the state treasury it mijiht he 
 inferred that the state subsidized tlie 
 theater. Such an inference would, how- 
 ever, he wide of the mark, since for cen- 
 turies the attitude of the jiovernment 
 toward the theater was an attitu(h' of 
 4)p])ositi()n. '1\) oithodox ]^)man senti- 
 ment th(^ witnessing: of plays lon<i; seemed 
 a waste of time, and conseciuently well- 
 m'<rh immoral. To strike the truth, then, 
 
 1:^7 
 
138 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 in this connoction we must say that the 
 government subsidized the ladi and, more 
 or less against its will, suffered dramatic 
 performances to be given at the ludi. 
 This attitude of the government may be 
 well illustrated by the recital of certain 
 facts. 
 
 According to Roman tradition, it was 
 194 B. C. before any space was set 
 aside at theatrical performances for tlu^ 
 
 FIG. 2. TiFE TUEATKR OF MARCELLUS IX HOME. 
 
 senators, the highest i)art, socially and 
 politically, of the Roman community. In 
 that year the space nearest the stage was 
 reserv(Hl for the senators. Since no men- 
 tion of seats is made by Livy, our author- 
 ity here, we must suppose that the j^rivi- 
 lege under discussion was merely the right 
 to stand or to sit on the ground nearer to 
 the stage than the rest of the spectators. 
 Simj^le as this innovation was, none the 
 less, according to Livy, praehuit nonores. 
 
 In the next forty years attempts were 
 made to construct a permanent stage of 
 stone, but they were as often frustrated 
 by the censors. Indeed, as late as 151 
 B. C\, the senate, on motion of P. Scii)io 
 Xasica, adopted reactionary measures 
 and ordained that henceforth no one 
 should wish to set seats for si)ectators or 
 to sit doAvn himself at a theatrical ])er- 
 formance, either at Rome or within a mile 
 of the city gates! Not till oo B. C. did 
 Rome possess a stone theater. Long 
 before this there had been stone theaters 
 in i^rovincial towns of Italy, though we 
 ought i^erhaps to admit that in nearly all 
 cases, if not in all cases, these toAvns were 
 (Jreek rather than Roman in origin and 
 character. The theater erected in 55 B. C. 
 was Iniilt by Pomi>ey, then at the height 
 of his reputation and popularity (fig. 1). 
 A curious story, given l)y one pagan and 
 one Christian Roman writer, testifies to 
 the strength of the prejudice against a 
 permanent theater-structure. Pom]x\v, 
 say Aulus Gellius and Tertullian, built a 
 temple of ^^(^nus in such a way that the 
 rows of seats of the tlu^ater (the (jradus) 
 formed the only way of ap.])roacli to the 
 temj)le. The populace was invited to the 
 dedication not of a theater but of a temple 
 of Venus, to which, added Pomixw slyly, 
 I have ai)i:)ended seats for a theater. Of 
 course, since the seats were there, fully 
 constructed, so i)ractical a people as the 
 Romans did not allow them to remain 
 unused. Forty-two years more i)assed 
 l)efore Rome possessed a second theater of 
 stone. Then, in 13 B. (\, the Theater of 
 Balbus and the Theater of Alarcellus (figs. 
 2, 3) Avere dedicated. No other perma- 
 nent theater-structure was erected in 
 Rome. Frequently, under the emi)ire, 
 temporary wooden theater-structures 
 seem to have been erected for special 
 occasions. 
 
 THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 139 
 
 y 
 
 Theatrical performances l)egan early in 
 the morning, so early, in fact, that some of 
 the spectators came l)reakfastless to the 
 play; others actually sought their places 
 during the niglit before the i)erformance. 
 Several i)lays were given in succession. 
 On such occasions a halt was made at 
 noontime for refreshments. Refresh- 
 ments were su])])li(Hl at times without 
 charge, as in tlie am])hitheater and the 
 circus, l)y the editor, the magistrate in 
 
 One preliminary observation must be 
 made. It is not possible to sj^eak of the 
 Roman theater without speaking also of 
 the Greek theater. The Roman theater- 
 structure was the Greek theater-structure, 
 modified; Roman ])lays, at least those 
 that count for us, the C omedi(\s of Plautus 
 and Ten^nce,! were all'laid on Greek soil; 
 the costumes worn by the actors were in 
 all respects Greek. The plays of Plautus 
 and Terence were adaptations of Greek 
 
 FIG. 3. RESTOR.VTIOX OF THEATER OF MARCELLUS AXD NEIGHBORIXG 
 
 BUILDINGS IX ROME. 
 
 '•harge of the ludi of which the plays 
 tormed a part. In imperial times plays 
 >eem to have been given occasionally, as a 
 ^ort of theatrical coup, at night. 
 
 Into the history of theater-structures 
 among the Romans it is not possible to go 
 in this article, further than has already 
 been done in the foregoing pages. There 
 is space only to deal with the developed 
 structure of the latter part of the first 
 century B. C. and later. 
 
 plays. In a word, the history of the 
 Roman theater is a chapter or series of 
 chapters in the later history of the Greek 
 theater. 
 
 With only a few exceptions the Greeks 
 laid their theaters against a hill-side, 
 to take advantage of the natural slope 
 of the ground. FamiHar examples are 
 the Dionysiac theater at Athens (fig. 
 
 ^ No tragedy of the earlier and better days of 
 the Roman drama has come down to us intact. 
 
13S 
 
 ART AND AH('IIAK()L(X;Y 
 
 in this coinicctioii we imi>t say that the In the next forty years att('ini)ts wore 
 
 ji;<)\('i-nnicnt subsidized the ///'// aiiil, moi'c made to eonstniet a ])ennai)ent staue of 
 
 or less airaiust its wilL suffered dramatic stone, hut they were as (»ften frustrated 
 
 performances to l)e liiven at the ludi. hy the cei 
 
 This attitude of the li'overnment may he H. ( '., tl 
 
 well iUusti'ated h\' the recital of certain X 
 
 isor 
 
 Indeed, 
 
 a." 
 
 lat 
 
 e as 1')! 
 
 le senate, on mot ion o 
 
 f r 
 
 'CIplO 
 
 fact: 
 
 isiea. ado], ted reactionar^• measu 
 
 res 
 
 :uid oi-(laine(l that hencefortl 
 
 1 no one 
 
 Acconhnii- to Roman ti'adition. it was should wish to set seats f 
 
 or s))eetatois or 
 
 V.)\ P). ('. hefore any space was set to sit down hims(>jf at a theatrical 
 aside at theatrical jxa-formances foi- the formance. eit her at R 
 
 ome or withm a 
 
 ]iei-- 
 mil(^ 
 
 of the citv ,oa.t(>s! Not till .V) \\. ('. did 
 Rome ])ossess a stone theater. Loni;- 
 (.('tore this there had been stone theaters 
 in |:.ro\incial towns of Italy, thou.iih we 
 oa.iiht perhaps to admit that in"nearl.\- all 
 cases, if not iti all cases, these towns were 
 
 ( 
 
 ii-eciv rather than Roman m oriiiin and 
 character. The t heater (M'ected in o.') R. ( \ 
 wa.s huilt hy R(.m],ey, then at the height 
 of his reputation and i:o])ularity (fiL'. 1). 
 •ui-ious stor>-, «iiven hy one ])a,uan and 
 
 A 
 
 one ('hristian Roman writer, testifi<'> to 
 the sti-enuth of the p/rejud:ce aizainst a 
 1 ermanent theater-st ructur(>. Romp.ey, 
 say Aulus (lellius and Tertullian. huilt a 
 temi;le of Wnus in such a way that the 
 rows of seats of the theater (the (jnn/ns) 
 
 h)i'med the only way of ai)])roach to the 
 temple. The p.ojailace Avas inA'ite<l to the 
 licati(Ui not of a theater hut of a temple 
 enus, to Avliich, added Rom])ey sl\ly 
 
 ( [(M 
 
 FI< 
 
 sen 
 
 riii: rni: \ ri:i; (»|- m \i:(i:i.ias i\ ko.mk 
 
 :itors, the hi,uhest pai't, sociallv and 1^ 
 
 of \ 
 
 1 have ai)p,ended seats for a theater. Of 
 course, since the seats were there, fully 
 constructed, so jiractical a ])e()])l(' as tl 
 
 le 
 
 ]^»olitically. of the I^^man connnunitw I 
 
 omans did not allow them to remain 
 
 n umiscd. I-'ortv-t 
 
 A\ 
 
 that year the s|)ace nearest the staiic was hefore Rome j>ossessed 
 
 reser\-e([ for the senators. Sin 
 
 o years more passed 
 a second theater of 
 
 tion ol s(»ats is made hv Livv, our auti 
 itv 1 
 
 (viiomen- stone. Then, in hS P>. (".. the Theater of 
 
 lor- l');dhusand the Theat(>r of Marcellus i tios. 
 
 ity iiere. we nuist sup,p,ose that the ])rivi- 2, :]) were dedicated. Xo otl 
 le.U'c under discussion was merely the ri«iht nent theater-struct 
 to stand or to sit on the uround nearer to R( 
 
 lei- ])erma- 
 
 tl 
 
 ure was erected in 
 »me. Freciuently. tinder the em])ire, 
 
 le stao-e than the rest of the s])ectators. temj)orary wooden theat 
 
 1< 
 
 'imple as tins nmoAation Avas, none the s(>em to haA'c 1 
 
 ess. accor(hn,ii' to Li\-\', /trnrhuif 
 
 er-structtu'cs 
 )een er'ecteil tor s})ecial 
 
 ni mores, occasion.- 
 
 U 
 
 1^ 
 
 M 
 
 W . 
 
 tl 
 
 tl 
 
 TIIK ROAIAX TIIKATKR 
 
 riieatrical p*erh)rinances heiian early in One ])reli 
 
 VM) 
 
 ])reiiminary observation must I 
 
 )e 
 
 >1: 
 
 Hwnornmir.soearly.m tact, that some of made. It is not possibh^o sp<>ak of the 
 
 )man theater wit hout speakin«i- also of 
 
 le sjx'ctators came breakfastless to the R 
 >tl 
 
 play: others actually sou-ht their places the Creek thc-iter. Th(> I 
 
 • hirinir the niuht before the perh)n 
 
 voman theater- 
 
 >e\"eral p;lays were <ii\- 
 < >n such occasions a halt 
 
 nance, structure was the ( Ireek theater-struct 
 
 noontime lor refreshments. Refresh- and T 
 
 ments were sujipJied at times without tl 
 
 ure, 
 
 lose 
 or us. the ( 'oinediesof Rlautus 
 erence.' were all'laid on ( Ireek soil; 
 
 n 111 succession, modified: Roman ])lays. at least tl 
 was made at that count f 
 
 'i^triic as in the amphitheater and tl 
 
 le costumes worn b\- the actor 
 
 s Were m 
 
 • •ircu<. bv the (<IHni\ the iiiaiiistrat 
 
 K' all resix'cts ( d-eck. Th(> pJays of l>laut 
 
 u- 
 
 e ill and. Tej'em 
 
 'e were a< 
 
 lapdat 
 
 ions ot ( ,!•('< 
 
 f ( 
 
 'k 
 
 I [( 
 
 KKSTOKATIOX OF TllKATKK (»r MAK( -KLLlS AX1> XFK ;iIHol{rX( 
 
 liiiLDrxcs IX Ko.Mi; 
 
 •har«i-e of the liidl of which the ])Iays ])lays. I 
 '•nned a ])art. In im])erial times ])lays Roman theat 
 <'('ni to have been <riven occasionall 
 •'•ft of theatrical coup, at ni^dit. 
 
 n a word, the historv of tl 
 
 er IS a ( 
 
 ■hai)t 
 
 pter or series ( 
 
 i(* 
 )f 
 
 y, as a chapters in the later historv of the (ireek 
 
 theat 
 
 er 
 
 Into the histo 
 *aion<r the Romans it is not ])ossil)le to <»,o laid their theat 
 h this articl(\ further than has already to take advantage of the natural sli 
 
 ry of theater-structures With only a few exce])tions the (Ireeb 
 
 ers a«iainst a hill-side 
 
 xH'ii done in the fore^oin<; pa<;-es. There of tl 
 
 )])e 
 
 ic ground. I-'amiliar examj)les are 
 
 IS 
 
 sj)ace only to deal with the develojx'd the J)ionysiac th(\ater at Atlnais (fi 
 
 ()• 
 
 ^tructure of the latter ])art of ihv first 
 •<'nturv M. ('. and later. 
 
 ' No tra«i('<ly of t lie earlier aiHllx'tter (lays of 
 the Hoiiiaii (llama has coiuc down to us intact. 
 
THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 141 
 
 '_1 
 
 
 S\ 
 
 - s 
 
 4), the theater at Ar^os, and tlie beau- 
 tiful theater at Epidaurus ffig. 5). At 
 Rome all three stone theaters stood 
 on the ('anipus Martins, which was 
 perfectly fiat; hence massive and costly 
 substructures of concrete faced with 
 stone or bricks were needed to carry 
 the tiers of seats. A portion of the sul)- 
 structures of the theater of Marcellus is 
 still visible. A series of twelve arches, in 
 two tiers, may be seen, the lower adorned 
 with engajred columns or pilasters of the 
 Tusco-Doric order, the upj:)er with Ionic 
 colunms; above is the modern wall (figs. 
 2, 3). The effect is thus similar to that 
 of the exterior of the Coliseum. In the 
 Villa of Hadrian, near Tivoli,one mavsee, 
 stanchng free in its entire compass, the 
 semicircular structure carrying the seats. 
 A feature of this theater, unique, so far as 
 I know, is seen in the three j^assageways 
 which, at i^oints distant from the front of 
 the stage, lead from the open space be- 
 hind the auditorium beneath the tiers 
 of seats to the interior of the theater (the 
 orchestra). - 
 
 It was noted above that the surviving 
 portion of the Theater of Marcellus 
 reminds onc^ of tlu^ Coliseum. If we add 
 that the orthodox Roman theater, both 
 within and without, was exactly semicir- 
 cular in fonn, we shall be able to visualize, 
 without difficulty, the fully developed 
 Homan theater (cf. fig. 1). 
 
 Betwecni the Greek theater-structure 
 and the Roman theater-structure there 
 were, besides the points of contrast 
 already noted, two particularlv charao- 
 
 f eristic difilerences. One is concerned with 
 the orchestra, its shape and the uses to 
 which it Avas put, the other with the 
 
 -Those passages resemble the pnnxioi of 
 the Roman theater, described below (page 1 U) ; 
 they are distinct from them, liowever, in their 
 distance from the stage. 
 
 relation of the stage^ and the auditorium 
 to each other. 
 
 In the Greek theater the orchestra 
 (etymologically the Vlancing-place': cf. 
 opxeladaL, 'to dance'), the place where 
 the chorus sang and danced and ])er- 
 formed its evolutions, was of i)rime 
 importance in the actual presentation of 
 plays. In fact, historically the orchestra 
 preceded the ])lace for the spectators. 
 For the moment we may smn uj) the 
 history of the Graeco-Roman drama as a 
 history of the diminishing importance of 
 the chorus, and the increasing importance 
 of the actors, or, to put the same facts in 
 another way, the history of the transfor- 
 mation of a i:>erformance consisting wholly 
 of singing and dancing into a performance 
 largely dramatic. We say largely dra- 
 matic, not wholly dramatic, because pas- 
 sages delivered as song, with elaborate 
 musical accom])animent, and })assages 
 deliv(^red in recitative^ formed always a 
 large i^art of Greek and Roman plays, 
 both tragic and comic, so that ancient 
 plays resembled an oj)era or oj^eretta 
 more closely than they did the some- 
 thing we call a j)lay. Xow, originally, in 
 the Greek theater the orchestra was an 
 exact circle. Such a circular orchestra, 
 64 feet in diameter, was traced })y Dr. 
 Dorpfeld beneath the visible remains of 
 the Dionysiac theater at Athens; we see 
 oiK^ ])lainly still at Epidaurus (fig. 5). 
 As the im])ortance of the chorus dimir.- 
 ished, the ])lace allotted to it became 
 smaller. In its final form, however, the 
 orchestra of the Greek theater always 
 exceeded a semicircle; this is the case 
 with the visible orchestra in the theater of 
 Dionysus at Athejis (fig. 4). In Roman 
 l)lays the chorus was a rarity; it never oc- 
 
 M use the tenn "stage" of the Greek 
 theater, here and elsewhere, merely for con- 
 venience. 
 
THK noMAX TiiKATEH 
 
 141 
 
 ) 
 
 ■f. 
 
 r. 
 
 — A 
 
 
 i 
 
 4), the theater at Ar^os. and the heau- 
 tiful theater at I-lpidaiinis (fio-. 5). At 
 Koine all three stone theaters stood 
 on the Campus Martins, which was 
 perfectly tlat : hence massive and costly 
 substructures of concrete fac(>([ with 
 stone or hricks were needed to carrv 
 the tiers of seats. A ])orti()n of the sub- 
 structures of the theater of Alarcellus is 
 still visible. A series of twelve arches, in 
 two tiers, may be seen, the lower adorned 
 with en^aji-ed columns or pilasters of the 
 4^isc()-l)oric order, the upper with Ionic 
 eolunms: above is the modern wall (fi<»s. 
 2, 3). The effect is thus similar to that 
 of the ext(M-ior of the Coliseum. In the 
 \ ilia of Hadrian, near Tivoli.cme may see. 
 standino- fi-(>(> jn its entire com])ass, the 
 semicircular structure carryin<»- th(^ seats. 
 A feature of this th(>ater, uni(iue, so far as 
 I know, is seen in the three passa<>-eways 
 which, at points distant from the front of 
 the sta<>-e, lead from the open space be- 
 liind the auditorium beneath thc^ tiers 
 of seats to the interior of the theater fthe 
 oi-chestra).- 
 
 rt was noted above that the surAivin<' 
 portion of the Hieater of Alarcellus 
 reminds one of the ( 'oliseum. If we add 
 that the orthodox Roman theater, both 
 within and without, was exactly semicir- 
 f'ular in fo.-m. we shall be able to visualize, 
 without difficulty, the fully develo])ed 
 i^)man theater (cf. fi"-. 1 ). 
 
 Between the (Ireek theater-structure 
 >nid the Roman theater-structure there 
 were, besides the points of contrast 
 ■'Iready noted, two particularly charao 
 '''Hstic differences. ( )nc is concerned with 
 Hie orchestra, its shaj)e and the uses to 
 \vhich it was put. the other with tlu^ 
 
 -' I licso passaj^os ivsciuhic llic i„n\»l<n of 
 die Horiiaii tlicatcr, (Icscrihcdlx'low (pa-ic \\\)\ 
 'tiey arc distinct from tliciii. liowcvcc, in tlidf 
 "tistanco from the stajic 
 
 relation of the sta^re'^ and the auditorium 
 to each other. 
 
 h\ the (u-eek theater the orchestra 
 (etymoloo-ically the '(lanchi<i-place': cf. 
 opxeladaL, 'to dance'j, the ])lace wlu^re 
 the chorus san*-' and <la]ic(Ml and ])er- 
 lormecl its evolutions, was of ])rime 
 importance in the actual i)resentation of 
 plays. lu fact, historically th(^ orchestra 
 preceded the place for the sp(M'tators. 
 For the moment we may sum uj) the 
 history of the (Iraeeo-Ronian drama as a 
 history of the diminishing; importanec* of 
 the chorus, and th(> incr(»asin<!: importance 
 of the actors, or, to put the same faets in 
 another way, the history of the transfor- 
 mation of a performance consisting- wholU' 
 of sincrin<i and dancin*!; into a performance 
 lar<zely dramatic. We say lar<>;e]y dra- 
 matic, not wholly dramatic, because pas- 
 sa^zes delivered as sonji, with elaborate 
 nnisical acconi])animent, and passa«i;es 
 delivered in recitative forme(l always a. 
 lar«i-e part of Creek and Roman j)lays, 
 both tra«»ic and comic, so that ancient 
 ])lays resembled an o])era or o])eretta 
 more closely than they did the some- 
 thino- we call a i)lay. \ow, originally, in 
 the (Jreek theater the orchestra was an 
 exact circle. Such a circular orchestra, 
 t)4 feet in diameter, was traced j>y Dr. 
 Dorpfeld beneath the visible ren)ains of 
 the Dionysiac theater at Athens; we see 
 one ])lainly still at l.pidaurus (fi^-. .5j. 
 As tlu' importance of the chorus d'mii:- 
 ished, the place allotted to it became 
 smaller. In its final form. howevcM', the 
 orchestra of the (Ireek theater always 
 exceeded a semicircle: this is the case 
 with the visible orchestra in the theater of 
 Dionysus at Athens (fi»-. 4). In Roman 
 plays the chorus was a rarit^•: it never oc- 
 
 •M iKc llic term "staKc" of fh.. Ciock 
 llicatcr. here and cIscwIkmv, merely for con- 
 venience. 
 
#A 
 
 THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 143 
 
 *¥ 
 
 
 1— t 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 •d 
 
 V,r- 
 
 ,> 
 
 (•ii])i(Ml the orcliostra. Hence the orchestra 
 of the Roman theater was smaller even 
 than that of the Greek theater; it was an 
 exact semicircle. (See also helow, ])aj!;e 
 144). Such a semicircular orchestra we 
 see in the Odeum of Herodes Atticus at 
 Athens (a structure ])artly Greek, how- 
 ever), in the beautiful Roman theater at 
 Timgad, in Africa, — the Pom]:;eii, as it has 
 heen called, of the Sahara, — and in the in- 
 teresting theaters at Fiesole (the ancient 
 Faesulae), three miles northeast of Flor- 
 ence, and at Tusculum (fig. 10). 
 
 Let us consider now^ the other s}:)ecial 
 point of difference between the Greek and 
 the Roman theater-structure. In the 
 (J reek theater, stage and auditorium were 
 sej^arated from each other l)y an open 
 space, ten feet or more in width, which 
 could be closed at the outer en(ll)y gates 
 (fig. 5) . There was thus, at either side, an 
 uncovered passageway from the outside 
 world into the theater (the orchestra), 
 bounded on the one side by the front of 
 the stage, on the other by the end of the 
 nuditorium. Viewed either from the 
 stage or from the auditorium, these pas- 
 sageways were side-ways, and so were 
 called by the Greeks parodoi, 'side-roads', 
 'hv-roads.' Through the parodoi the 
 chorus entered the orchestra near the 
 h' ginning of the play; through them the 
 chorus withdrew from the orchestra when 
 th" play was done. If there was no stage 
 in the Greek theater, and if all the per- 
 foiniers, actors and chorus both, played 
 th« ir roles only in the orchestra, as 
 ni'iiiy scholars, following Dr. Dorpfeld, 
 '>f'iieve, then actors too entered and with- 
 al' w by the parodoi. Spectators also 
 f'ould enter (or leave) the orchestra b}- the 
 ]p(i'odoi; from the orchestra thev could 
 f'liiab upward, if need be, to the higher 
 l^^'ats. Indeed, some Greek theaters lie in 
 ^'ich fashion against the supporting hill- 
 
 side that the paror/o/ form the only means 
 of ingress and egress for the sj^ectators. 
 It may be noted that the ends of the audi- 
 torium, right and left, did not lie in 
 a straight line, i)arallel to the stage, but 
 were so l)uilt that, if i)rolonged, they 
 would intersect within the orchestra. 
 
 In turning to consider in detail the 
 form of the Roman theater-structure, we 
 have occasion to mention, for the first 
 time, Mtruvius, the Roman engineer and 
 architect of the time of Augustus, who, 
 in his work On Architecture,^ Book Y, 
 gives us important information concern- 
 ing the (Jreek and the Roman theater, 
 especially the latter. Mtruvius believed 
 that in the Greek theater there was a 
 stage, narrow and shallow (10 to 12 feet 
 high, 8 feet deep), on which the actors 
 played their parts; below them, in the 
 orchestra, was the chorus. In the Roman 
 theater, said Vitruvius, the stage must l)e 
 deeper than the stage of the Greek the- 
 ater, })ecause in the Roman theater all the 
 l^erformers— actors, chorus when there 
 was one, and supernumeraries (the Ro- 
 mans were fond of elal)orate stage-specta- 
 cles: see the quotation from Horace, below, 
 page 145) — played their parts. Further, 
 says Vitruvius, the stage of the Roman 
 theater must be lower than that of the 
 Greek theater, for the following reason. 
 As already made ):)lain, the orchestra in 
 the Roman theater was not used for the 
 chorus. There seldom was a chorus in a 
 Roman play; when there was one, its 
 members took places on the stage. The 
 orchestra was set apart for the seats of the 
 senators. ''Therefore," says Vitruvius, 
 "the stage must not exceed five feet in 
 
 ♦This work may now bo convcnifntiy con- 
 sulted in the admirable translation by the late 
 Prof. Morris Hickcy Morgan, published this 
 year by the Harvard University Press. Cf. 
 Art and Archaeology, I, p. 87. 
 
I I 
 
 THK ROMAN THlvVTKH 
 
 14:] 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 I-. 
 
 Y. 
 
 ..J 
 
 ipicd tli(M)rcli('stni. irciicc t lie orchestra side tliat the />^//''k/o/ form the only means 
 
 the Roman theater was smallei" ev(Mi ot" in<;ress and egress tor the spectators, 
 
 iiian that of the (Ireek theater: it was an It may l)e noted that the ends of the au(h- 
 
 (•\act semicircle. (See also helow, ])a^-e torinm. ri«'ht and left, did not lie in 
 
 ! 14). Snch a semicircnlar orchestra we a strai<rht line. ],arallel to the stai»-e, hut 
 
 -c in the Odeum of Iferodes At t icus at were so huilt that, if ])rolon,ii('d. they 
 
 Athens (a structure ];artly (ireek, how- would intersect within the orchestra. 
 
 . ver). in the beautiful I^oman theater at In turning- to consider in detail the 
 
 Tini<i;ad, in Africa, the Ponij-eii, as it has form of the Roman theater-structure, we 
 
 l.cen ealled, of th(> Sahara, — and in the in- have occasion to mention, foi- the first 
 
 i(restin<i theaters at Fiesoie (the ancient time, \'itruvius, the Roman engineer and 
 
 I'aesulae), three miles northeast of Flor- architect of the time of Auuust ns. who, 
 
 .lice, and ai 4^isculum (fi,i>-. 10). in his work On Architvclnn,^ Ho(»k \\ 
 
 Let us consider now the other s])(>cial j^ives us im])ortant information concern- 
 point of difference hetween the ( Ireek and in^- the (Ireek and the Roman theater. 
 the Roman t lu^atcM'-structure. In the especially the latter. \'itruvius l.eli(>ve(l 
 < iivek theater, sta<i-e and auditoi-ium were that in the (Ireek theatei* there was a 
 xparatcMl from each othcM- hy an open sta,u-e, narrow and shallow (10 to 12 feet 
 <pace, ten feet or more in width, which hi<»h, S feet deep), on which the actors 
 • oiild !)(> closed at the outer end by ^iates i)layed their ])arts: helow them, in th(» 
 fii:..")). There was thus, at either side, an orchestra, was the chorus. In the Roman 
 uncovered ])assa«£eway from the outside theater, said Mtruvius, the sta,LM' must he 
 world into the th(\'iter (the orchestra). dee])er than the sta^v of the (Ireek the- 
 I'oiuKh'd on the on(> side hy the front of ater, because in the Roman tln^aterall the 
 tlie sta<;-e, on the otluM* by the end of the performers — actors, chorus when there 
 
 ;'uditorium. A'iewed either from the 
 >'i^'e or from the auditorium, these y,[\<- 
 >.i.ii<'ways were sidc-tnn/s, and so were 
 •"tlle(l by the ( Ireeks />r/re(^/o/, 'si<le-roads', 
 'hy-roads.' 44n'ou<>.h the /xtnx/oi the 
 '•liorus entered the orchestra near the 
 '•• ^■iimin<!; of the ])Iay: t}u-ou.<>:h them the 
 
 was one, and su])ermnneraries (the Ro- 
 mans were fond of elaborate sta<!;e-s])ecta- 
 cles: s(H' the(juotation from Horace, below, 
 ])a<>;e llo) ])layed their ])arts. Further, 
 says Mtruvius, the sta<i(> of the Roman 
 thc^ater nnist be lower than that of tlie 
 rireek theater, for the following reason. 
 
 <' 'rus withdrew from the orchestra when As already made ])lain, the orchestra in 
 
 t' play was done. If there was no sta<»;e the Roman theater was not used for the 
 
 i" 'he (InH'k theater, and if all the ])er- chorus. 41iere seldom was a chorus in a 
 
 J' :ners, actors and chorus both. ])layed Roman ])lay: when there was one, its 
 
 ll ir roles onl\' in tlu^ orchestra, as members took ])laces on the stajic 44ie 
 
 Hi uy scholars, followin.u' Dr. Dcirjjfeld, orchestra was set apart for the seats of the 
 
 •'' "ve, then aetors too (Altered and with- senators. ''Therefore," says \'itruvius, 
 
 'I' u- by the />r//7>r/o/. S])ectators also ''the staji'e must not exceed five feet in 
 '■•'id enter (or leave) the orchestra by the 
 
 /" "lot; from th(^ orchestra thev could *44iis work may now ]y.> ronvciiicTitly con- 
 Hi ab u])ward, ifm^edbe. to the higher ^yl^-l •;' »»^^' ^»;['7-^''>!^ tnn.sh.tinn hv the lato 
 o. , . Til /I 1 ^i ^ 1- • ' '■**'^- ■^'••'■'■'^ Ilickcy Mor^r.an, puhlishcd this 
 <M>. Ind(..I, some Creek theaters hem ,,...,, ,,,. ,,^,. Unrvanl Tnivcrsitv Pro^s. Cf. 
 
 "'1' ii fasliion ajiainst the su])i)()rtin^- hill- Arl <in<1 An J>a,<,hHj!/, I. j). S7. 
 
144 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 THE RO:\IAN THEATER 
 
 145 
 
 height, that those who sit in the orchestra 
 [the highest class, socially and i)oliti- 
 callv, be it remem])ered, of the Roman 
 people] may be al)le to see the perform- 
 ances of all those who participate in the 
 
 play.'' 
 
 The stage of the larger theater at Pom- 
 peii is about tliree feet high (fig. 6). The 
 height of the stage in other Roman the- 
 aters varies between three feet and five. 
 To gain the greater depth of stage neces- 
 sary in the Roman theater, the fnmt of the 
 CI reek stage (so Mtruvius se(^ms to imply) 
 was brought forward till it met the ends 
 of the auditorium, which in this case 
 ran straight, and so formed parts of one 
 straight line. As a result, in the Roman 
 theater stage and auihtorium are tied 
 together in a s"ngle organic whole. The 
 open parodoi, so conspicuous a feature of 
 the Greek theater, have disappeared. In 
 their place the Romans constructed 
 vaulted passages running from points be- 
 yond the backof the auditorium, under the 
 tiers of seats, along the front of the stage, 
 into the orchestra (fig. 6). These pas- 
 sages, though so different from the pa rod m 
 of the Greek theat(^r, were still known as 
 parodoi or parodi. This innovation in the 
 Roman theater 1(mI to another. At the 
 inner end of the auditorium, at each side, 
 at the point where the seats reached the 
 front line of the stage, the Romans laid 
 level platforms, of some size, accessible 
 only by special staircases lying along the 
 front of the stage. These ]:>latforms were 
 called tribunalia, and may be descril)ed 
 as the private boxes of the Roman 
 theater. Here, on si)ecial seats, the 
 edi or, or magistrate super'ntending the 
 ludi at which the theatrical ])erformance 
 was being given, and such guests as con- 
 vention or his own desires required him to 
 honor, had private places, reached, as 
 hinted above, by staircases quite distinct 
 
 from those used by the thousands in th-- 
 ordinary gradus of the auditorium. In tlic 
 smaller theater at Pom]K'ii (fig. 7) thciv 
 are several additional long seats, in tiers, 
 above the tribunal on each side; these can 
 be reached only from the tribiinalia and 
 so were manifestly reserved places. 
 
 We may now examine in detail some 
 existing Roman theaters, beginning with 
 those at Pompeii. Ponii)eii, though ;i 
 provincial town of no great size, possessed 
 two theaters, which are commonly called 
 the Large Theater and the Small Tlu^ater 
 or Odeum. 
 
 The Large Theater (fig. 6) was built 
 originally in the Oscan or i)re-Roman 
 period of the city, at a time, however, 
 when the influence of Greek culture^ had 
 made itself felt. Shortly before the 
 Christian era the theater was relmilt: 
 the new parts corresi)onded to Roman 
 methods of theater-building. The Greek- 
 character of this theater is seen in the fact 
 that the orchestra embraces much more 
 than a semicirchs in the further fact 
 that the walls of the parodoi, if prolonged, 
 would intersect (the convergence is, how- 
 ever, slight), and, finally, in the far more 
 significant fact that nuicli of the carea, or 
 auditorium, lies against a hillside. This 
 theater is close to the southern limits of 
 Pompcni, at a point where the ground fall> 
 away so abrui:)tly that, although elsewhere 
 the Pomi)eians defended their city with 
 heavv walls, they saw no need of su<'li 
 defences here. Counting from the orch( s- 
 tra u])ward, we have twenty-four rows <^t 
 seats ((p-adus) in this theater lying against 
 the hill-side. The Roman character of 
 the theater is seen with equal distinct- 
 ness in the tribunalm , over the inn^r 
 ends of the vaulted parodoi, in the lo^v. 
 dee]:) stage, in the crijpta, or covered pas- 
 sageway running all round the theater 
 beneath the uppermost block of seat^. 
 
 ihose of the gallery (for the use of the 
 crypta see below), and, lastly, in the elab- 
 orate arched construction, in two tiers 
 of arches, built, at the time of the Roman 
 i-econstruction, to carry the four rows of 
 seats in the gallery. 
 
 We are ready now for further details. 
 The stage, as already noted, is about three 
 feet in height. At the auditorium end 
 
 this there are to be plays. What joy it 
 will l)e, he cries, to mark how the embroid- 
 ered Britons lift that grand crimson cur- 
 tain from the ground! In Epistle.'^ 2,1, 
 189 fi'., Horace, writing disgustedly of the 
 perverted taste of contemporary Roman 
 audiences, says :'' 
 
 For four hours or more the curtain is 
 kept down while squadrons of horse and 
 
 FIG. 6. THE LARGE THEATER AT POMPEII. 
 
 we see two walls, three feet or more apart. 
 ^Vithin this space, no doubt covered in 
 ncient times, worked once the roller 
 ■ith the aid of which the curtain was 
 'irawn down at the beginning of the play, 
 : m\ uj) at its close. The curtain was 
 < laborately embroidered. These points 
 iM-e compactly put for us by Wrgil, Geor- 
 gics 3,25. \>rgil will hold, he declares, a 
 great festival in honor of Augustus; at 
 
 bodies of foot are seen flying: presently 
 there passes the spectacle of unfortunate 
 kings dragged with hands behind their 
 backs: chariots of every kind and sha])e 
 huriy along, and ships; spoil of ivory is 
 borne by, spoil of Corinthian brass. If 
 he were on earth, Democritus would 
 lajAgh at the sight, whether it be a half- 
 panther-half-camel, or a white elephant, 
 that made all faces tuni one way. He 
 
 * I use Wiekham's translation. 
 
144 
 
 AHT AXI) AIU HAKOLOC.V 
 
 liei^iit, that those who sit in the orchestra from tliose used hy the thousands in th 
 Ithc highest cl-iss. soc'aily and ])oliti- ()nhnar\' f//v/^///xof the auditorium. Inil 
 (•ally, he it rememhered. of the Roman small(M' theater at Ponijieii i fe. 7 ) thei 
 ])eo])le] may he ahle to see the ])erh)rm- are several additional lonji' seats, in ti. r^ 
 anees of all those who i)articii)ate in the ahove the (rihiUHil on each side: these rim 
 p\ix\\" !)(' reached only from the In'hnnnlin aiii 
 
 The sta<i-e of the laro-er theater at Pom- so were manifestly reserved ])laces. 
 jH'ii is about three feet hi^h (fi^. ()). 44ie WV may now examine in detail som- 
 height of the sta*-!' in other Roman the- existin,u- Roman theaters. l)e«i:iimin«i' with 
 aters varies between three feet and five, those at Pompeii. Pom])eii, thoULrli 
 To gain the <!;reater depth, of sta<;(> neces- ])rovincial town of no •ireat size, ])osse»( <1 
 saryinthe I^oman theater, the front of the two theaters, which are commonly calle.l 
 (;reeksta<!;e (so X'itruvius seems to ini])ly) the Lar<!e 41ieater and the Small Theatci 
 was brought forward till it met the ends or ( )d(Mnn. 
 
 of the auditorium, which in this case The Lar^c Theater ( H«'-. (i) was built 
 ran straijilit. and so h)rmed ])arts of one ori.uinally in the Oscan or i)re-Romaii 
 straight line. Asa result, in the Roman ])eri()d of the city, at a time. howev<T. 
 theater stage and auchtorium are tied when the influence of ( Jreek culture had 
 together in a sngle organic whole. The nuuW itself f(4t. Shortly before the 
 open /)(fn>(hn\ so conspi(aious a featiu-e of Christian era the theater was rebuilt: 
 the (d-eek theater, have disa])])eared. In the new parts corres])onded to Roman 
 their i)lace the Romans constructed methods of theater-building. Tiie ( livek 
 vaulted passag(>s rinnhng from points be- character of this theater is seen in the ta( t 
 yondthebackof theaudit()rium,imd(M-the that the orchestra (Unbraces much moiv 
 tiers of seats, along the front of the stage, than a s(>niicircle, in the further la.t 
 into the orchestra (tig. (i). 41iese ])as- that the walls of the />^//vk//^/. if ])rolonge<l. 
 sages, though so different from the pdrotUri would intersect (the convergence is, how- 
 of the (d-eek theater, were still known as ever, slight), and, hnally. in the far mciv 
 pdnxloiov /Hirndi. This innovation in the significant fact that nnich of the az/vr/. -r 
 Roman theater led to another. At the auditoritun, lies against a hillside. Tlii^ 
 inner end of the auditorium, at eacli side, theater is close to the southern limits ..i ^ 
 at the ])()int where the seats reached the Pompeii, at a |)oint where the ground fa!h ij 
 front line of the stage, the Romans laid away so abi ui)tly that, although elsewhnv , 
 level ])latforms, of some size, accessible the I'ompeians defended their city wi h 
 (mly bv special staircases lying along the heavy Avails, they saw no need of su i 
 fnmt of the stage. These i)lath)rnis were defenc(>s here. ( 'otmting from the orch' - 
 called (n'huNdlid. and may be described tra upward, we have twenty-four row< •: 
 as the i)r;vate boxes of the Roman seats (f/rm/z/.v) in this theater lying agaii>T 
 theater. Here, ou sjvecial seats, the the hill-side. 41i(» Roman character •! 
 ('<h' o,\ or magistrate super'ntending the the theater is seen with ('(jual (li>tin<r. 
 ///^// at which the theatrical performance ness in the (ril)ini(ilia. over the inn -r 
 was being given, and such guests as con- ends of the vaulted /Hirodm. in the lo' •. 
 vention or his own desires reciuired him to (h>ep stage, in the crii/ffd, or covered pa- 
 honor, had ])rivate j)laces. reached, as sageway rumiing all round the theat' r 
 hinted above, by staircases (luite distinct beneath the U])])ermost block of seat-. 
 
 THK ROMAN TllKAldlR 
 
 145 
 
 :i(>so of the gallery (for the us(» of the this there are to be i)lays. What joy it 
 
 lipid see below), and, lastly, in the elab- will be, he cries, to mark how theembroid- 
 
 ■ rate arched construction, in two tiers ered P>riton< lift that grand crim-on cur- 
 
 ,.f arches, built, at the time of tlie Roman tain from the groimd! In A>/>7/(.< 2,1, 
 
 reconstruction, to carry the fotn- i-ows of 189 tf.. Horace, writing (hsgustedly of the 
 
 -cats in the gallery. ])(M'verte(l taste of c()ntem])orai-y Roman 
 
 We are ready now h)r fiulher details, audiences, says:' 
 
 The stage, as already noted, is about three ].\„. j[^^y^y hours oi- more the curtain is 
 
 leet in height. At the auditorium end kept down while scpiadrons of lioi'<e and 
 
 ric. ti. TUi: i.Ai{(;i: iiii: ati:i{ at pompkii. 
 
 /e see two walls, three feet or more ai)art. l>odies of foot are seen flying: proently 
 
 .-. , ... 114^ 1 ;.. thei-e ])asses the spectacle oi unfortunate 
 
 \ It nn t us s])ace. no doubt covered m ,. ', , \i x i i i • i ♦! : 
 
 ' kmgs dragged with hands behmd their 
 
 i.cient times, worked once the roller i,.^^.)-^. ,.|,.,,i(,ts of every kind and shape 
 
 ith the aid of A\hich the curtain was |mi-iy -ilong. and ships: spoil of ivory is 
 
 rawn down at the beginning of the ])lay, borne by. spoil of Corinthian brass. If 
 
 44ie curtain was he were on earth. nem()critu> would 
 
 • id Uj) at its close. 
 ' aborately embroidered. These points 
 
 • "e compact 1>' ])Ut h)r us by X'ergil. Gcor- 
 : rs 3,2'). \'ergil will hold, he declares, a 
 u'eat festival in honor of Augustus; at 
 
 laugh at the sight, whether it be a half- 
 panther-half-camel, or a white elephant, 
 that made all faces turn one wa\-. He 
 
 •"• I use A\'i(kli;iiii's t i':nis!:it ion. 
 
THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 147 
 
 would think the people a show to be stud- 
 i(*d more carefully even than the games, 
 :is giving him very much the more to 
 look at. But for the poets — he would 
 think them to he telling their tales to a 
 (leaf ass. P'or what voices have been of 
 force enough to overcome the din with 
 which our theatres ring? You would 
 suppose it was the Garganian forest 
 roaring or the Tuscan sea : such the shouts 
 with which the games are viewed, and the 
 works of art and knick-knacks of foreign 
 wealth with which the actor })edizens 
 himself. As soon as he steps on the 
 stage right hands clash with left. '^Has 
 he said anything?" Xot one word. 
 ''What then pleases them so?" That 
 woollen stuff whose Tarentine dye is 
 such a good imitation of the violet. 
 
 Turning now to the seats Ave mark first 
 the orchestra, the ])art of the auditorium 
 nearest the stage, with its four low steps 
 or seri(\s of seats ((/radus) covchmI Avith 
 iiiarl)le. Since these steps are entirely 
 too low for anyone to sit on them with 
 comfort, we may conclud(^ that the local 
 dignitaries who had reserved ])laces here 
 (see below, ])age 14^) sat on bisellia or 
 chairs brought to the theater by their 
 slaves. At the toi) of tlu^ orchestra there 
 ^^■as, no doubt, a stone balustrade, like 
 that st'U to be seen at the top of the 
 orchestra in the Small Theater (fig. 7), 
 ^< jiarating the steps or gradus of the or- 
 < 'lestra from a praecinctio ('girdle,' 'belt') 
 ' landing (lobby) above. This landing is 
 r ached from the orchestra ])y flights of 
 >^'''])s wliich break the line of the balus- 
 t' ule at three points. 
 
 Xext comes the media cavea, or central 
 ]);irt of the auditoriimi. Here the gradus 
 't ' divid(Hl by six stairways (scalae) 
 iiiio seven wedges (citnei). At the top of 
 ti •' media cavea is a second praecinctio, 
 h "unded on the far side by a high wall. 
 ^he latter is pierced by six doors, desig- 
 ^i:>ted by the Romans by the striking 
 term vomitoria, corresponding to the six 
 
 scalae: these lead out into the corridor 
 (crypfa) that runs round beneath the 
 sum ma cavea or gallery. The sum ma 
 cavea was about ten or twelve feet wide 
 and sloped downw^ard at an angle of forty 
 degrees. It conta'ned probably not more 
 than four rows of seats (gradus); there 
 were probab'.y here too six scalae and as 
 many vomitoria, leading out in jxart to the 
 Forum Triangulare, to the west, in part to 
 a corridor which in its turn gave access to 
 the neighboring streets, na a great open 
 S})ac(^ l)eliind (north of) the rounded, 
 arched exterior of the theater. 
 
 Some of the marble seats of the media 
 cavea are still in situ. On a i)art of these, 
 individual ])laces, a little less than sixteen 
 inches wide, are marked off by vertical 
 lines in front. The jJaces are also num- 
 bered. Thev mav have belonged to some 
 corporation or guild (collegium: there 
 Avere many such at Ponii>eii) which found 
 it necessary, in ord(4* to avoid confusion, 
 to assign seats to its members by numbers. 
 We may note that at Atlu^ns similar lines 
 are to be seen in the Dionysiac theater: 
 the space granted there to each spectator 
 is somewhat less. London theater man- 
 agers allow but twelve inclies to each 
 spectator in the gallery. In the i)leach- 
 ers' at American ball games sixteen 
 inches per spectator is a liberal allowance. 
 Frequently, the rear i)art of each gradus 
 was somewhat depressed, and the lower 
 }:)art of the front face of the next higher 
 gradus was cut back somewhat, to make 
 convenient resting ])laces for the feet of 
 the spectators. In this w^ay, too, protec- 
 tion was afforded to the holiday (white) 
 garments of the spectators. This device 
 is to be seen, for inskmce, in the Small 
 Theater at Pompeii and in the Dionysiac 
 Theater at Athens (figs. 7 and 4). 
 
 The crypta or corridor was about ten 
 feet wide and from twelve to fifteen feet in 
 
TlIK HOMAX T1IJ:ATKI{ 
 
 14' 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 .uld think the jX'oplc a show to Ix'sliul- satlac: these Ivnd out into tl 
 
 1 more carcfullv even than the «»:an 
 
 ic corridoi 
 
 l( 
 
 w 
 
 liiviiijj; him vcrv nine 
 
 ■h tl 
 
 \v more to 
 
 i'rii[)t(i) that runs round honcnith the 
 
 siuNfHd atrcd or uallcrv 
 
 Tl 
 
 ic sunnna 
 
 c(ir((t was about ten oi- twc^lve feet wide 
 
 :< ok at. Hut for the poets — \w wouhl 
 liiink thcni to Ix' telhii:; their tales to a 
 (leaf ass. Foi- what voices have been of and slo])ed downward at an an«»,ie of forty 
 rce enou<»h to overcome the din with deforces. It contaned ])rol)al)ly not more 
 
 w 
 
 hicl 
 
 1 OUI" 
 
 theat 
 
 res rin 
 
 <>■ 
 
 ou wou 
 
 id 
 
 tl 
 
 lan foui' rows of seat 
 
 (jrdihfs 
 
 tl 
 
 lere 
 
 Hini)()se It was the ( iar<»;anian torest i .• . . • / i 
 
 ' '• ,1 rp . ,, , ^ wei'e ])rol)at) \' here too six sctildv and as 
 
 inarmuor t p.e 1 uscan sea : such theshouts ' 
 
 uith which the o-ames are viewed, and the ^^^'^'^y rnmiloria. leadiuiiout in ])art to the 
 
 rks of ait and knick-knacks of foreign Forum 'rrian<iulare. to the west , iii ],art to 
 
 wo 
 
 we; 
 
 idth with which tlu^ actor bedizen; 
 
 iiinse 
 
 A 
 
 S S( 
 
 oon as lie steps on the jj 
 
 !i corridor which in its turn uave access to 
 
 -laii'c ri^ht hands clash with left, 'ila 
 
 le neiuhborinu streets, ini a ureat ojX'U 
 
 ;ii( 
 
 I 
 
 in\'thinii' 
 
 Not 
 
 one wor( 
 
 1 sp,ace behind (north of) the rouiK 
 
 led, 
 archeci extei'ior of the theater 
 
 Some of the marble seats of the iihiI'ki 
 (■(in (I are still /'// sHu. ( )n a ])art of these, 
 rurninii now to the seats we mark first individual places, a little less than sixteen 
 
 "What then pleases them so?" That 
 woollen stuff whose Tarentine dye is 
 -iicli a iiood imitation of the violet. 
 
 the orchestra, the]>artof the auditorium 
 
 inches wide, ai'e marked off b^- vertical 
 
 iie.'irest thesta<i'e, with its tour low steps hues m tront 
 
 T\w \,h 
 
 ices ai'e also num- 
 
 nr series oi seats ((//'(kius) a 
 
 )\'ered with bered. ^'luy may liax'e belonged to some 
 
 ///. 
 
 tl 
 
 lere 
 
 iiiatble. Since thes!' stei)s are entirely cori^oration or ,uuild (colhf/in 
 to.) low for anyone to sit on them with were many such at Pom];eii ) which found 
 (omfort, we may conclude that the local it necessary, in order to avoid confusion, 
 ''iiiiiitaries who had reserved ])laces here to assion se -ts lo it s members by numbers. 
 
 We ma\' note that at Athens similar lines 
 
 I •( ' 
 
 bel 
 
 ow, ])a<»;e 
 
 it 
 
 at on 
 
 hisdl 
 
 Id or 
 
 ;iirs broimiit to the theater bv their are to be seen in the I )ionysia( 
 
 theat 
 
 ca- 
 
 ves. 
 
 At the to]) of the orchestra there the sp,ace <»ranted there to each s])ectator 
 
 no doubt, a stone balustrade, like i' 
 
 nnew 
 
 htit le-^s. London theater man- 
 
 I stdl to be seen at the to]) of the a.iiers allow but twelve inches to each 
 
 s])ectator in the .uallery. In the 'bleach- 
 
 •liestra in the Small 1'heater (fii»:. 7 
 
 :u-atin^- the ste])s or (jrathis of the or- crs at American ball .uan 
 
 11 
 
 DC 
 
 sixteen 
 
 <tra from a pntccinclio (■<'irdle.' 'belt') indues ])er sjx'ctator is a liberal allowance 
 :indino( lobby) above. This landinji" is Freciuently. the rear ])art of each f//v/J 
 <'hed from the orchestra bv Hijihts of was somewhat depressed, and the lower 
 
 IIS 
 
 \\ 
 
 hich break the line of the balus- ])art of the front face of the next hiiiiier 
 
 le at three ])oint; 
 
 f/ 
 
 radiis was cait back somewhat, to make 
 
 Next come 
 
 th 
 
 r/ 
 
 le died Id cdrcd, or ceil 
 
 tral convenient I'estinji ])laces for the t"e<'t of 
 
 •t of the auditorium. Here the (jnuhis the s])ectators. In this way. too, ],rotec- 
 
 divided by six stairways (scalac) tion was afforded to the holiday (white) 
 
 l<i;es icinici). At the to]) of ,uarm(>nts of the sp,ectators. This device 
 
 > seven we( 
 r/ 
 
 iiicdid cdi'di IS a seconc 
 
 I /,/ 
 
 dccnic 
 
 tin, is to be seen, for instance, in the Smal 
 
 h mded on the far side bv a hi<ih wall. Theater at Pompeii and in the Dionysiac 
 
 <' 'after is ])ierced by six doors, desi«;- 
 
 l( 
 
 l( 
 
 Theater at Athens (fii'<. 7 ar.d 4) 
 
 ''-('(I by the Romans by the strikin<i- The rrij/ild or corridor was about ten 
 h ! in ridditdi'ld, (M)rresp,()ndin<i- to the six feet wide and from tw(^lve to fiftecai feet in 
 
14S 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 149 
 
 height. It had a vaulted roof and was 
 cool, airy, sweet, a comfortable loungins- 
 place. It is apparent that the spectators 
 could find their way to their seats with 
 the utmost ease and could scatter again 
 quickly, in case of need, as for instance 
 if rain fell unexpectedly. Those in the 
 sum ma carca could enter or depart without 
 coming into contact at all with the specta- 
 tors in the media cavea or the orchestra 
 The occupants of the media cavea had their 
 choice of entrances and exits; they nrght 
 enter, from above, via the cnjp'a. or from 
 below by way of the parodoi and the or- 
 chestra. The orchestra could l)e entered 
 from above by way of the cry pta, or by the 
 parodai. The parodoi, it will be seen by a 
 
 glance at figure 6, 
 were divided into 
 two passageways. 
 Of these, the one 
 nearer the stage, 
 level throughout its 
 length, led directly 
 into the bottom of 
 the orchestra. The 
 other passageway 
 
 FlCi. b». IHEATER 
 TICKET 
 
 was an inclined plane which led up on the 
 praecinctio behind (above) the orchestra. 
 It mav be added that tickets, of metal or 
 
 ft. 
 
 ])one, called tesserae theatrales, showing 
 clearly the seat to which the bearer was 
 entitled, have come down to us. One (fig. 
 8) shows that the bearer was entitled to a 
 seat in the cavea secunda (or media) /m the 
 third cuneus, and the eighth ijradu.s, at a 
 performance of the (Hasina of Plautus. 
 This play, by the way, is extant, though in 
 mutilated form. This great convenience 
 of entrance and exit was accomplished 
 mainlv bv means of the praecinctiones, 
 wliich cut the theater into strongly mark- 
 ed divisions. 
 
 Yet anotlier purpose was served by 
 the divisions effected by the praecinc- 
 
 tiones. In the Dionysiac theater at Ath- 
 ens the row of seats nearest the stage 
 consisted of roomy marble seats or thrones 
 (25 inches wide by 23 deep) . Since, as has 
 been well said, the spectator at Athens 
 who sat watching a tragedy or a comedy 
 was taking part in a religious ceremony, so 
 close was the relat'.on between the drama 
 and rehgion, we are not surprised to 
 learn that these thrones were reserved 
 jM-imarily for tlu^ priests, then for other 
 dignitaries of the city, or for foreign am- 
 l)assadors, or, as a si)ecial mark of honor, 
 for other persons. At Rome distinctions 
 between spectators long remained un- 
 known. When distinctions were made, 
 the best seats were not assigned to the 
 priests, for the drama had no such relig- 
 ious significance for the Romans as it had 
 had for the Greeks, but were set apart for 
 the more aristocratic portion of the com- 
 munity. The orchestra was by law set 
 apart for the senators; later, perhaps after 
 67 B.C., the first fourteen rows back of 
 the orchestra were, by the law of Roscius 
 Otho, reserved, at Rome, for the knights. 
 Similar arrangements obtained in Roman 
 theaters outside of Rome, though in a pro- 
 vincial town like Pompeii as many as 
 fourteen rows of seats can hardly have 
 been necessary for the knights. 
 
 Augustus regulated the whole matter 
 afresh. He confirmed the special privi- 
 leges already granted to senators and t(» 
 knights; he relegated the lowest classes 
 to the highest seats, and made the women 
 sit apart, likewise in the uppermost places. 
 It is ]:)ossible that he was the sponsor als< • 
 for the more exact regulations laid dowi 
 concerning i)laces of honor for magis- 
 trates, priests, etc. The seats of highes. 
 honor were those on the tribunalia. Her ' 
 the editor and the emperor sat, on th^ 
 riglit side; on the other tribunal the Vesttl 
 Virgins had their places, and with theiii 
 
 the em])ress. Augustus's regulations 
 ?peni to have remained unaltered, at 
 least in essentials. Domitian reenacted 
 them or at least enforced them more 
 strictly. 
 
 The Small Tiieater, or Odeum (fig. 7), 
 •At Pompeii is noteworthy in that it had a 
 permanent roof; tliis is proved by an 
 
 at Athens had a roof of cedar," with prob- 
 ably an open space for light in the mid- 
 die." There is no sum ma cavea. Over 
 the parodoi are tribunalia, with special 
 seats al)ove them. The seats of the 
 auditorium are not carried, as usuab to 
 the front of the stage, but are terminated 
 bv a wall some distance j'rom the stage. 
 
 FIG. 9. PART OF CORK MODEL OF POMl^EII SFIOWIXG THE TWO THEATERS, 
 
 NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAPLES. 
 
 iii-'-ription found within the theater. 
 1 'iis roof was no doubt of wood; the side 
 ^v,i!l.s were not strong enough to carry a 
 V; ilted stone ceiling or roof. The roof, 
 fuither, is thought to have been pyramidal 
 ill >liape; there were windows, perhaps, in 
 tlic walls ])etween tlu^ highest seats and 
 tin roof. The Odeum of Herodes Atticus 
 
 This theater, which Avas used i)erhaps 
 rather as a music-hall (the roof would 
 improve the acoustic properties of the 
 structure), could accommodate no more 
 than 1,500 persons; the Large Theater at 
 l\)mpeii could give seats to 5,000. 
 
 The great size of the theater proi)er 
 (as distinet from the odeum or music- 
 
\\s 
 
 ART AM) A1U'HAK()L(K;Y 
 
 THK 1^)MAX THKATKIi 
 
 149 
 
 lu'iiiht. It IkuI a vaulted roof and was 
 cool. airy, sweet, a coinfortal)!!' loun^inji- 
 ])lac('. It is a])i)areiit tliat tlie spertators 
 eouM find their way to their seats with 
 the utmost case and couhl scatter a<!;ain 
 (luickly, in case of nee<l. as for instance 
 if rain fell unexpectedly. Those in the 
 .s-////////^/(7//v7/ could enter or depjii-t without 
 coniinu into contact at all with the s])ccta- 
 tor- in the /n((h'(i nirra or the orchestra 
 The occu])ants of the mcdid ntrai had their 
 choice of entrances and exits: they nr^ht 
 enter, from ahove. via the cnjp'iL or trom 
 heli.w l.y way of the paro'loi and the or- 
 chestra. The orchestra could he entered 
 from above hy way of the r/7//>/^/.or hy the 
 p„rn<h,;. The piiruihu, it will he seen hy a 
 
 oiancc' at fi,t!;in'e (i, 
 were di\ide<l into 
 two passa«i:eways. 
 Of these, the one 
 nearer the st a iic. 
 level throughout its 
 len<ith. le(l directly 
 into the bottom of 
 the orchestra. The 
 ot her pass:i<ieway 
 
 IK,. V. rniiA'iT.ij 
 
 TICKKT 
 
 wa> an inclined plane which led U]) on the 
 prihvinvtio helnnd (above) the orchestra. 
 It may be added that tickets, of metal or 
 bone, called Ussvnu thcfttralrs. showin<>; 
 clearly the seat to which the bearer was 
 entitled, have come down to us. ()ne(fi^. 
 S) shows that the bearer was entitled to a 
 seat in the cdrcd secnnda (or incdhDAW the 
 third c////r//.s-, and the ei^;hth (jntdus, at a 
 ])erformaiice of the ( ^asina of IHautus. 
 This ])lay, by the way. is extant, though in 
 nuitilated form. This o;reat convenience 
 of entrance and exit was accomi)lished 
 mainly by means of the prdirinctiifncs, 
 which cut the theater into stron<rly mark- 
 ed divisions. 
 
 Yet another i)urpose was served by 
 the divisions effected by the pmccinc- 
 
 t/(fnrs. In the Dionysiac theater at Ath- 
 ens the row of seats nearest the sta<tv 
 c()nsist(Ml of roomy marl )le seats or throne> 
 (2.") inches wide by 2:^ dee])). Since, as has 
 been well said, the spectator at Athens 
 who sat watching: a trajicdy or a comedy 
 wastakin<'])art in a reli*j;ious ceremony, so 
 close was the relafon betwcH^n tlu^ drama 
 and religion, we are not sm-prised to 
 learn that these thrones were reserved 
 primarily for the ])riests. then for other 
 dio-nitaries of the citv. or for forei^in am- 
 bassadors, or. as a s])ecial mark of honor, 
 for other persons. At Home distinctions 
 between s])ectators lon«»- remained un- 
 known. When (Ustinctions were made, 
 the best seats were not assi«»;ned to the 
 priests, for the drama had no such reli*-- 
 ioussio-nificancefor the Romans as it had 
 had for the (Ireeks.but were set a])art for 
 th(> more aristocratic i)ortion of the com- 
 numity. The orchestra was by law set 
 apart for the senators; later. perha])s after 
 ()7 B.C.. the first fourteen rows back of 
 tiie orchestra were, by the law of Roscius 
 Ot ho. reserved, at Rome, for the knights. 
 Similar arranji-ements obtaincMl in Roman 
 theaters outsi(h' of Rome, thou<!:h in a ])ro- 
 vincial town like Pomiieii as many a> 
 fourteen rows of seats can hardly have 
 been necessary for the kni^rhts. 
 
 Auj2;ustus rejiulated the whole matter 
 afresh. He confirmed the s])ecial ])rivi 
 leo;(>s already <i-ranted to senators and t- 
 kni<ihts: he relejiated the lowest classe 
 to the hi^iiiest seats, and made the wonie? 
 sit a])art. likewise in the ui)])ermost i)lace- 
 It is possible that he was the sixHisor ab • 
 for the more exact rc'iiilations laid (low 
 con('ernin«»; ])laces of honor for ma^i^ 
 trates. priests, etc. The seats of hi.t»;h<'- 
 honor were those on the trihundlfd. lici 
 the (difdr and the emperor sat, on tl 
 ri^ht side; on the othcM- tribunal the Vest: 1 
 Viro-his had their places, and with theii 
 
 le emi)ress. Au<2;ustus*s re^iulations at Athens had a roof of cedar.*' with ])rol)- 
 
 eni to have remained unaltered, at ably an open space l"or li^ht in the mid- 
 
 a<t in es.^entials. Domitian refMiactecl die." There is no sunitnd cdrai. ()v(n' 
 
 iieni or at least enforced them more the pdrodoi are Irihundlid. with s])ecial 
 
 ^nictly. seats above them. The seats of the 
 
 The Small Theater, or ( )deum (fi^. 7). auditorium are not carrie(l, as usual, to 
 
 ;tt Pom]:)eii is noteworthy in that it had a the front of the sta<i'e, but are terminated 
 
 jH'i-manent I'oof: this is pi-o\-ed by an by a wall some distance from the stajje. 
 
 i 
 
 irc. 't. I'AHT oi' ("oitK .\[oi:)i:f. or i'o\rci;ii snowixc; mi: I'Wo rmi.vrEiis, 
 
 XATIoXAL Mrsi:i M, XAPl.KS. 
 
 liption found within the tlnvder. This theater, which was used perlia])s 
 
 •< roof was no doubt of wood; the side rather as a music-hall (the roof would 
 
 !< were not st ron<'- enou<ih to carry a improve the acoustic ])ro])erties of the 
 
 ited stone ceilinji; or roof. The roof, structure). couM acconunoihite no .more 
 
 her, is thou<ilit to have been i)yramidal than I ..")()() persons; the Larj-c Theater at 
 
 (ia])e; there were windows, ))erhaps. in Pompeii could .tiive seats to ."),()()(). 
 
 walls between the hi<ihest seats and The "reat size of the theater proper 
 
 roof. The Odeum of Ilenxh's Atticus (as distinct from the odeum or music- 
 
150 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 151 
 
 hall), especially in Greece, made a 
 permanent roof out of the (luestion. 
 Among the Romans a curtain {velum or 
 velarium) Avas frequently drawn over the 
 theater. This curtain was supported ])y 
 rcpes stretched from masts set along the 
 bounchng wall of tlu^ theater. \'alerius 
 :\Iaximus declares that such awnings were 
 introchiced in 78 B. C. Lucretius, arguing 
 that all bodies are constantly throwing off 
 thin, filmy i^articles, e.g., particles of color, 
 goes on to say: 
 
 This is done In' the yellow and red and 
 blue awnings, when they are spread over 
 large tiieaters and flutter as they stretch 
 across their poles and crossl^eams, for 
 tlien they dye the seated assemblage 
 with their color and all the show of tlie 
 stage and the richly attired company of 
 the fathers and compel them to (lance in 
 their color. 
 
 In another place the same poet declares 
 that the clouds 
 
 give forth a sound over the levels of the 
 wide-stretching up])er world, as at times a 
 canvas awning stretched over large thea- 
 ters makes a crackling noise, as it flaps 
 among the masts and beams; sometimes, 
 rent by the boistc^'ous gales, it madly 
 howls and closely imitates the rasping 
 noise of j^ieces of paper. 
 
 At Pompeii advertisements of gladiatorial 
 combats sometimes contained a promise 
 that there would l)e an awning. 
 
 AVe get from the Large Theater at 
 Pom]>eii some light on the devices used in 
 connection with the velum. On the inner 
 side of the ])oun(ling wall which runs aloi g 
 the west side of the theater are projecting 
 blocks or corbels of basalt, standing out a 
 foot or more; in these are holes, about 
 eight inches square. At least eight of 
 these corbels can be plainly traced, by 
 means of the shadows they cast, in figure 
 6. In the blocks which form the coping 
 of the wall are incisions over the holes 
 
 in the corbels. Below the corbels in the 
 praecinctio at the top of the summa 
 cavea are holes which go down three 
 feet or more. Masts passed through the 
 incisions in the coping and the holes in 
 the corbels and sank into the holes 
 in the praecinctio. From these masts 
 were stretched the roi)es which su])- 
 ported the awning. In the C\)liseuin 
 and the great theater at Orange the N 
 devices for carrying the masts are on 
 the outside. At Pompeii, where the 
 theaters face the south and so received 
 the sun the major i)art of the day, an ] 
 awning in the Large Theater was a desid- 
 eratum (the Small Theater had a roof: 
 see above). Indeed, Roman tradition 
 declared that the velum was a Cam])anian 
 invention. \'itruvius specifically directs 
 that the theater shall not have a southern 
 ex]X)sure; but at Pompeii, manifestly, 
 convenience of building, through the 
 possibility of laying so much of the Large 
 Theater against the 1. ill-side, outweigluMJ 
 considerations of health. 
 
 Next we corsider exits. Mtruvius de- 
 clares that the builders of theaters should 
 provide many si^acious entrances (exits). 
 so arranged that the ui)per shall be wholly 
 disccmnected from the lower, and tliat 
 all shall run in straight lines, without 
 turns, that tlierc^ may be nothing to check 
 the egress of the spectators in case of 
 sudden emergc^ncy. We have at Pomi:)eii 
 exceptionally favorable opportunities for 
 learning how, in the matter of exits, facts 
 com])are(l with theory in Roman th(^at( r- 
 builthng. 
 
 Citizens of Pompeii itself would find 
 their way from the city to the Lariic 
 Theater most readily via the Forum 
 Triangulare. This they would enter from 
 the north. In the high wall bound- 
 ing the Large Theater on its we-^t f 
 side there Avere three doors of service 
 
 rn theater-goers. The northernmost leads 
 into an open space behind the rounded 
 arched exterior at the back (or north side) 
 of the theater (see fig. 9). Close at 
 hand, in this open space, is an entrance 
 TO the cri/pla or corridor l)eneath the seats 
 of the gallery. Passing within this en- 
 trance and crossing the crypta, one issues 
 l)y a vomitorium directly opposite the en- 
 trance upon the praecinctio at the top of 
 
 or, if he will, by at least two staircases to 
 the summa cavea or gallery. By the 
 middle doorway in the west boundary 
 wall one may step down a foot or so direct- 
 ly into the crypta, cross that, and by the 
 vomitorium nearest the stage on the right- 
 hand side reach the praex^inctio at the top 
 of the media cavea. Doorwa3^s and vomi- 
 toria are six feet high. From this middle 
 doorway, again, a staircase leads to the 
 
 iiotograph by Ralph Van Deman Magoffin. 
 
 FIG. 10. THE ROMAX THEATER AT TUSCULUM. 
 
 ti.'.' media cavea, twenty-four rows of seats 
 a' ovethe orchestra. This vomitorium is 
 tie second from the right-hand side of the 
 "^^ige. Instead of entering the crypta, 
 lio\vever, one may keep to his left around 
 tfic open space behind the arched exterior 
 ^^ the theater, to gain access to the 
 ' I'pta l)y at least three other doorways 
 '^^id across the crypta to the praecinctio, 
 
 summa cavea. The staircase comes out 
 on a corridor which ran around behind the 
 summa cavea. Three arches of this corri- 
 dor 3^et remain; the foundations of twenty- 
 fiv^ or thirty others are visible, swinging 
 far round to the left side of the theater. By 
 the third or southernmost doorway in the 
 west boundary wall one ma>' mount by a 
 staircase to the suvima cavea. One may, 
 
150 
 
 Airr AND AK('IIAK()L()C;V 
 
 THK ROMAN THKATKK 
 
 151 
 
 hall), csixM-ially in (ircccc, luadc a 
 ])('nnaii(Mit root" out of the (lucstion. 
 Ainoiii2; the Pioinans a curtain (rclinti or 
 rcldriiitn) was fn^iucntly drawn over the 
 theater. This curtain was su|)]>ortc(l hy 
 ro]-(>s strctclKMl tVom masts set alonii; the 
 houndinii- wall of the theatei'. \'al(M-ius 
 Maxinnis declares that such awnin.ns were 
 introduced in7SP>.(\ Lucretius.ari»iiin<'- 
 that all bodies are constantly thr()win«»- off 
 thin, tilniy ])articles.e.<»-.. jiart ides of color, 
 iioes on to sa\' : 
 
 Thi- is done hy the yellow and red and 
 l)lue awnin«is. wlien the>' are si)read over 
 lar«»;e theatei's ami flutter as they sti'etch 
 across their poles and ci-ossheanis, toi- 
 then they dye the seated a.ssenihlaii'e 
 with their color and all th.e show of the 
 sta^e and the richly attired coniptniy of 
 the fathers and conii)el them to dance in 
 tlieir color. 
 
 In another i)lace the same poet declares 
 that the clouds 
 
 «>ive forth a sotmd oyrv the levels of the 
 wide-stretchinii ui)per world, as at tunes a 
 canvas iiwnini!; stretched over larti'e tliea- 
 ters makes a cracklin^i' noise, as it flaps 
 anions tin* masts and beams; sometimes, 
 rent by the boisterous iiales, it madly 
 howls and closely imitates the rasping; 
 noise of pieces of paper. 
 
 At Pom])eii adv<'rtisements of uiadiatorial 
 combats sometimes contained a ])romise 
 that there would be an awniuii'. 
 
 ^\'e uct from the Lar^c 'Hieater at 
 l*om])eii some liiiht on the devices used in 
 connection with the nliun. On the inner 
 side of the boundin**; wall which runsaloi <2; 
 the Avest side of the theater are i)rojectin<;- 
 blocks or corbels of basalt, standin<»; out a 
 foot or more; in these are holes, about 
 ei<2;ht inches scjuare. At least ei^ht of 
 these* corbels can be ])lainly traced, by 
 means of the shadows th(\v cast, in figure 
 (). In the blocks Avhich form the c()])in<i: 
 of the wall are incisions ov(>r the holes 
 
 in the corbels, l^elow the corbels in th.' 
 pnnclndio at the to]) of the sunnni 
 (■(fi'cd are holes which ^o down thr(<' 
 feet or more. Masts ])assed through tl.' 
 incisions in the co])in<i: and the holes in 
 the corbels and saidv into the hob- 
 in the j>riuci ndio. From these masN 
 were stretche(l the ro])es which sup- 
 l)()rted the awnin.ii'. In the Coliseum 
 and the .ureat theater at Oran.ue tli. 
 devices for carryin<i the masts are on 
 the outside. At Pom])eii. where tlir 
 theaters face the sotith and so received 
 the stm the major ])art of the day, an 
 aAvnin.u in the Lai'^'e Theater was a desid- 
 eratum (the Small Theatei' had a rooi : 
 see above). Indee<L Homan tradition 
 declared that the rdmn was a ( 'am]>ani;ni 
 invention. X'itruvius sj.ecifically direct- 
 that the theater sh.all not ha\'e a southeni 
 ex],ostn'e; but at Pomp»eii. manihstly. 
 con\-enience of buildinu'. throu.Lih tli<' 
 p,ossibility of layin,ii- so much of the baii:< 
 Theater a,i»ainst the 1 ill-side, outAvei'-hc'l 
 considerations of health. 
 
 N( \1 we col s'der exits. X'itriivius d-- 
 clares that the builders of theaters shou d 
 ])rovide many sj;acious entrances (exit- . 
 so arran«»;ed that the ui)])ei' shall be wholv 
 discoimected from the lower, and tl: •' 
 all shall run in strai^h.t lines, witiio'it 
 turns, that there may be nothinii' to clie< k 
 the ejiress of the sp,ectators in case n 
 sudden emer<;('ncv. We have at Pom]i' ii 
 exce])tionally favorable o])])ortunities I •! 
 learning- how, in the matter of exits, fat - 
 com];ared with theorv in Homan theati t- 
 buildin«i. 
 
 Citizens of Pomj-eii itself would led 
 their way from the city to the Lai:' 
 Theater most reatlily via the I'^nh n 
 Trianiiulare. This they would enter fr<»'ii 
 the north. In the hi.uh wall boun 1- 
 inu' the Lar<»;e Theater on its w< -i 
 side there Avere three doors of >er\i ' 
 
 i 
 
 M. theater-^oers. 'Phe northernmost leads 
 iiito an 0])en space behind the rounded 
 .iichod exterior at the back (Or north side) 
 (.f the theater (see fi^-. \)). Close at 
 iiaiid. in this ojx'n s])ace, is an entrance 
 In the cr}/pl(i or corridor beneath the .seats 
 of the <j:allery. Passinfr AA'ithin this en- 
 trance and erossinp: the rr/y/y/r/, one issues 
 i»y a vomitorhitti directly o])])osite the en- 
 trance upon the praecimiio at the to]) of 
 
 or, if he Avill, In' at least tAvo staircases to 
 the sununn cared or ffalh^w. Bv the 
 middle doorAvay in the Avest boundary 
 Avail one may ste]) doAvn a foot or so direct- 
 ly into the crf/pfo, cross that, and by the 
 Tomitoninn neai'est thestaji'e on the rijz;ht- 
 liand side reach tlu^ pr(te(;indi() at the top 
 of tlie NNflid caved. DoorAA'ays and vomi- 
 toria are six feet hi<!:h. From this nn<ldle 
 doorAvay, a^ain. a stairca.se leads to the 
 
 nc. 10. Tin: KoMVN Tm:Ari;i{ at tisci ijm. 
 
 media carea, twent A'-four roAvs of seats 
 •' »ve the orchestra. This ratNitonufn is 
 ' second from the ri<j:ht-hand side of the 
 "■ lie. Instead of enterinji' the cri/pla. 
 'i «vever, one may keej) to his left aroimd 
 ' o])en space behind the arched exterior 
 " the theater, Xu ^ain access to the 
 ' '/>((' by at least three other doorAvays 
 "■'• d across the cri/jftd to the i>i'deci nctid. 
 
 ,sunnnd carea. The staircase comes out 
 on a corridor Avhich ran around behind the 
 sutfuna carea. Three arches of this corri- 
 doryet remain; the foundations of tAventy- 
 fiA'e or thirty others are visible, sAvin^inp; 
 farroundto tladeft sideof the theater, Hy 
 the third or southernmost doorway in the 
 Avest boundary Avail one may mount by a 
 staircase to the smtnna carea. One may, 
 
152 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 however, pass all three doorways in this 
 west boundary wall, to find, some steps 
 further south, a staircase leading down 
 into a great open space, called the Theater 
 Area, behind (south of) the stage of the 
 Large Theater (see fig. 9). From this 
 open space he may gain access readily to 
 the parodoi of the Large Theater, and 
 may make his way through them into the 
 orchestra of the Large Theater, or he may 
 enter the Small Theater by its right par- 
 odos, or, finally, he may reach Stabian 
 Street and from it gain ready access to the 
 Small Theater (see the next paragraph). 
 Suppose one wished to come from the 
 country to witness a play at Pompeii. 
 He would find it best to enter the city by 
 Stabian Street, which ran along the east 
 side of the Small Theater. In a minute 
 or two after passing through the city 
 gate he would come to a passage which 
 turned left (west), at right angles, into 
 the Theater Area, the large open space 
 already mentioned as lying south of 
 (behind) the Large Theater. From the 
 Theater Area he could reach the parodoi 
 of the Large Theater, and through them 
 its orchestra, or he could mount to the 
 Forum Triangulare, there to use the prop- 
 er one of the three doorw^ays in the west 
 boundary wall of the Large Theater. 
 He might, however, pass by this entrance 
 from Stabian Street to the Theater Area, 
 to find, a few feet further on (north), 
 an entrance leading directly, by a step or 
 two, from Stabian Street into the left 
 parodoH of the Small Theater. Beyond 
 this, back (north) of the auditorium of 
 the Small Theater, is a broad passage- 
 way, which leads straight from Stabian 
 Street into the left parodos of the Large 
 Theater. From this passageway, again, 
 
 one may reach, by a very broad doorway 
 in the middle of the back (north) wall of 
 the auditorium of the Small Theater, 
 staircases springing right and left (west 
 and east) to the top of the auditorium of 
 the Small Theater; from these points he 
 could make his way readily doAvn to any 
 seat. From Stabian Street, again, at a 
 point some distance north of the back 
 wall of the auditorium of tue Small 
 Theater, a steep path leads upw^ards 
 (west) to the east side of the larger theater 
 at a point near that vomitorium which 
 was nearest the stage on the left hand 
 side. Finally, from Stabian Street, from 
 a point still further north, a street runs 
 w^est, from which, in turn, an alley runs 
 south on the east side of the Temple of 
 Isis, till it enters the open space behind 
 (north of) the rounded arched exterior 
 of the Large Theater. 
 
 We see, then, that at Pompeii, at any 
 rate, the exits correspond closely to the 
 prescriptions of Vitruvius. With extra- 
 ordinary ingenuity the builders of the *j 
 tw^o theaters utilized the opportunities 
 afforded by the peculiar falling away of 
 the ground in this quarter, by grouping 
 the two theaters so closely together, and 
 by binding them, as it were, into a single 
 whole by an array of entrances and exits 
 so well calculated to serve the needs of 
 the theater-going public. When we add 
 that the stairways were of stone, in walls 
 themselves of concrete with facings of 
 brick or stone, we see how immensely 
 superior, in the matter of exits, these thea- 
 ters were to the best-equipped theater in 
 our o^vn countrv. 
 
 Columbia University. 
 
 (to be continued) 
 
 FIG. 11. THE THE.\TER AT ASPEXDUS. 
 
 THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 {Concluded) 
 CHARLES KXAPP 
 
 One more point must be noticed before 
 V leave the theaters at Pompeii dc- 
 > li^ed at the end of the first article in 
 t last number of Art and Archaeology, 
 i vi back wall of the stage (scaena) in the 
 1 man theater was regularly pierced by 
 t' ;ee doorways. The stage-setting of a 
 C' ledy (the Romans cared far more for 
 <•' iiedy than for tragedy) called for a 
 s^ • et, on which one, two, or three houses 
 ^^ ' uld be visible. The scener}- was so ar- 
 ^'' Ked that the doorways of the houses 
 ''■''led for by the play came opposite the 
 ' l< 'orwavs in the scaena. In each side-wall 
 
 of the stage there w^as, as one would suj)- 
 pose a priori, a wide entrance to the stage. 
 A peculiar convention obtained Avith 
 respect to the significance of these side- 
 entrances to the stage — a convention 
 useful indeed, since there were no pro- 
 grammes. If an actor entered by the 
 side-entrance to the right of the spectators 
 it was understood at once that he came 
 from the city, probably from its Forum, 
 within which the scene of the play was 
 laid. If he entered by the side-entrance 
 to the left of the spectators it was under- 
 stood that he was coming from foreign 
 
 187 
 
152 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 however, pass all three doorways in this 
 west boundary wall, to find, some steps 
 further south, a staircase leading dowTi 
 into a great open space, called the Theater 
 Area, l)ehind (south of) tlie stage of the 
 Large Theater (see fig. 9). From this 
 oi^en space he may gain access readily to 
 the parofhi of the Large Theater, and 
 may make his Avay through them into the 
 orchestra of the Large Theater, or he may 
 enter the Small Theater ])y its right par- 
 ados, or, finally, he may reach Stabian 
 Street and from it gain ready access to the 
 Small Theater (see the next paragraph). 
 Sui)pose one wished to come from the 
 country to witness a play at Pompeii. 
 He would find it best to enter the city by 
 Stabian Street, which ran along the east 
 side of the Small Theater. In a minute 
 or two after passing through the city 
 gate he would come to a passage which 
 turned left (west), at right angles, into 
 the Theater Area, the large open space 
 alread\' mentioned as lying south of 
 (behind) the Large Theater. From the 
 Theater Area he could reach the parodoi 
 of the Large Theater, and through them 
 its orchestra, or he could mount to the 
 Forum Triangulare, there to use the prop- 
 er one of the three doorways in the west 
 boundary wall of the Large Theater. 
 He might, however, pass by this entrance 
 from Stabian Street to the Theater Area, 
 to find, a few feet further on (north), 
 an entrance leading directly, by a step or 
 two, from Stabian Street into the left 
 parados of the Small Theater. Beyond 
 this, back (north) of the auditorium of 
 the Small Theater, is a broad passage- 
 wav, which leads straight from Stabian 
 Street into the left parodas of the Large 
 Theater. From this ])assageway, again. 
 
 one mav reach, bv a very broad doorway 
 in the middle of the back (north) wall of 
 the aucUtorium of the Small Theater, 
 staircases springing right and left (west 
 and east) to the top of the auditorhmi of 
 the Small Theater; from these i^ints he 
 could make his way readily dowai to any 
 seat. From Stabian Street, again, at a 
 point some distance north of the back 
 wall of the auditorium of tn.e Small 
 Theater, a steep ])ath leads upwards 
 (west) to the east side of the larger theater 
 at a point near that vomitorium which 
 was nearest the stage on the left hand 
 side. Finally, from Stabian Street, from 
 a point still further north, a street runs 
 west, from which, in turn, an alley runs 
 south on the east side of the Temple of 
 Isis, till it enters the open spacebehind 
 (north of) the rounded arched exterior 
 of the Large Thcniter. 
 
 We see, then, that at Pompeii, at an> 
 rate, the exits correspond closely to thr 
 prescriptions of Vitruvius. With extra- 
 ordinary ingenuity the builders of the 
 two theaters utilized the ()])portunitie< 
 afforded by the peculiar falling away i>f 
 the ground in this (iuarter. by grouping 
 the two theaters so closely together, an-l 
 by binding them, as it were, into a singl-' 
 whole by an array of entrances and exi1> 
 so well calculatcMl to serve the needs ( t 
 the theater-going ])ublic. When we adl 
 that the stairways were of stcme, inwali- 
 themselves of concrete with facings ff 
 brick or stone, we see how innnensel ' 
 su])erior. in the matter of exits, these ther- 
 ters were to the best-e(iui])])ed theater ii 
 our own count rv. 
 
 Cohnnhia Utilversity. 
 
 (to lie continued) 
 
 4 
 
 
 i 
 
 nc;. II. Tin: rin;\i'i;ii at asphndis. 
 
 TH1-: RO.MAX THEATER 
 
 (Concludttl) 
 
 CHARLES KXAPP 
 
 Mie mon* point must be noticed before 
 leave the theaters at P()nii)eii de- 
 'v(\ at the end of the first article in 
 last number (jf Art and Archaealog!/. 
 back wall of the stage (scacfia) in the 
 ;ian theater was regularly ])icrced by 
 c doorways. The stage-setting of a 
 ('(ly (t\w liomans cared far more for 
 ledy than for tragedy) called for a 
 ''t, on which on(N two, or three houses 
 ild be visible. The scenery was so ar- 
 -i('d that the doorways of the houses 
 1(1 for by the ])la\' came o])posite the 
 rwavs in the scacna. Tn eacji side-wall 
 
 of the stage there was, as one would su])- 
 ])ose a priori, a wide entrance to the stage. 
 A ])eculiar convention obtained with 
 res])ect to the significance of these side- 
 entrances to the stage— a convention 
 useful indeed, since there were no ])ro- 
 iirammes. If an actor entered by the 
 side-entrance to the right of the spectators 
 it was understood at once that he came 
 from the city, probably from its Forum, 
 within which the scene of the i)lay was 
 laid. If he entered by thc^ side-entrance 
 to the left of the s])ectators it was under- 
 stood that he was cominj. from foreign 
 
 1S7 
 
THE ro:man theater 
 
 189 
 
 z\ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 - ~ t^j^,-;^;-?Tip^^f:';-;i^.:i 
 
 From Lanckoronski. Stadte Pamphijliens und Pisidiens, 1, pi. XXVll. 
 
 FIG. 13. RESTORATION OF THE STAGE OF THE THEATER AT ASPENDUS. 
 
 parts, via the harbor of the to\\Ti in which 
 the play was laid (ancient Greek travel, 
 and hence the travel mentioned so fre- 
 quently in the Roman plays, based all on 
 Greek originals, was by sea rather than 
 
 by land). 
 
 The theater at Aspendus, in Pamphy lia, 
 Asia Minor, is the best preserved of Roman 
 theaters (fig. 1 1 ) • There are, in the main 
 part of the auditorium, thirty-nine rows 
 of seats, divided into two parts by a 
 praednctio. Upon this praecinctio several 
 vomitoria give from a crypta running round 
 beneath the seats of the media cavea. 
 The parodoi and the tribunalia are plainly 
 visible; the tribunal is reached, in each 
 case, by a special vomitorium from a 
 covered corridor. Above the thirty- 
 
 nine rows of seats is a covered gal- 
 lery, divided into fifty-three box-like 
 compartments. Vitruvius directs that 
 the top of such a colonnade shall lie in 
 the same plane as the top of the scaena, 
 the wall behind the stage, for the reason 
 that the voice will then rise with equal 
 power till it reaches the highest rows of 
 seats and the roof. If the roof is not so 
 high, in proportion as it is lower it will 
 check the voice at the point which the 
 sound first reaches. 
 
 The scaena, or wall at the back of the 
 stage, was divided into three stories (the 
 "komans were prone to divide high wall 
 surfaces thus into three stories). The 
 scaena was here, as always, richly deco- 
 rated with columns and statues. The 
 
THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 189 
 
 / 
 
 II 
 
 
 'J 
 
 F-om Lanckoroii^ki. SUidb Pamphyliens und Pisiduns, 1, pi. XX\ II. 
 
 FIC. U. HK.^TOKATIOX OF Tilt: .STAGE OF THE THEATER AT A.SPEXDU.^. 
 
 parts, via the liarhor of the tcnni in wliicli 
 the play was laid (ancient Greek travel, 
 and hence the travel mentioned so fre- 
 quently in the Roman ])lays, based all on 
 Greek originals, Avas hy sea rather than 
 
 by land). 
 
 The theater at A.spendus, in Pami)ii\'Iia, 
 Asia Minor, is the best preserved of Roman 
 theaters (fig. 1 1). There are, in the main 
 part of the aucUtorium, tliirty-nine rows 
 of seats, divided into two parts by a 
 praednctio. I'pon this pmecinctio several 
 romitorid J2;ive from a crijpta running; round 
 l)eneath the seats of the niedid caviit. 
 The parodiri and the trihunalia are i)laiiil>' 
 visii)le; the tribunal is reached, in each 
 case, l)v a s]M^cial vanrHorinni from a 
 covered corridor. Abovc^ the thirty- 
 
 nine rows of s(»ats is a covered gal- 
 lery, divided into fifty-three box-like 
 comi)artinents. Vitruvius (hrects that 
 the top of such a colonnade shall lie in 
 the same plane as the top of the scae'ta, 
 the wall b(4iind the stage, for the reason 
 that the voice will then rise with ecjual 
 ]iower till it reaches the highest rows of 
 seats and the roof. If the roof is not so 
 high, in ])roi)ortion as it is lower it will 
 check the voice at the point which the 
 s(nmd first reaches. 
 
 The scacfid, or wall at the back of the 
 stage, was divided into three stories (the 
 l^)mans were i^rone to divide high wall 
 surfaces thus into tln*ee stories). The 
 scacfta was here, as always, richly deco- 
 rated with columns and statues. The 
 
190 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 FIG. U. RESTORATIUX OF THE STAGE OF THE THEATER AT ORANGE, SOUTHERN* FRANCE. 
 
 theater, it must be remembered, served 
 many purposes quite apart from the 
 production of plays. In tlie theater 
 large gatherings, for example, might be 
 held for divers reasons. At such times 
 the richly decorated scaena formed an 
 attractive background. 
 
 In the theater at Aspendus we can 
 still trace, high above the stage, the slop- 
 ing line which marks where once the roof 
 of the stage ran (fig. 11). Beginning at 
 the top of the rectangular construction 
 which forms the side of the stage (fig. 13) 
 at the end nearer the auditorium, the roof 
 sloped sharply do%\Tiward to the scaena. 
 Such a roof over the stage w^as prescribed 
 for acoustic reasons. So too, for acoustic 
 reasons, it w^as ordained that the floor of 
 the stage should be of wood. This floor 
 was called pidpitiim or pulpita, a word 
 whence 'pulpit' is derived, so that we have, 
 etymologically at least, the connection 
 between church and stage desiderated 
 by so manj' worthy persons. 
 
 The great theater at Orange (Roman 
 Arausio) in the southern part of France 
 (fig. 14) w^as so well preserved that, 
 twenty years or so ago, large portions of 
 
 the seats were reconstructed, the stage 
 was remodeled, and performances hy 
 French actors, of ancient and modern 
 plays both, have jjeen given in this thea- 
 ter.^ The wall behind the stage (scaena) 
 is w^ell preserved. Behind that are the 
 greenrooms, and the like, still in excellent 
 condition. The Avail (fig. 15) behind the 
 greenrooms is 335 feet long, and 120 feet 
 high (three-quarters of the height of the 
 exterior wall of the Coliseum) . The ruins 
 of this splendid Roman theater dominate 
 the town today as completely as the Ro- 
 man power once dominated the territory 
 in which the theater stands. Also in 
 northern Africa at Dougga and Timgad 
 there are well-preserved Roman tlieaters 
 (figs. 16, 17), 
 
 The student of the Graeco-Roman the- 
 ater, however, need not journey abroad to 
 find tangible illustrations of the ancient 
 theater. At Berkeley, California, on the 
 grounds of the University of California, 
 stands a beautiful Graeco-Roman theater, 
 
 ^ For an account of such performances in 
 1894, see an article entitled "The Comedie 
 Fran^aise at Orange," in The Century Magazine 
 for June, 1895. 
 
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 ART AX I) ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 IK;, u. i{i:srni{ATi«>.\ oi iin: si.\(;i: or Tin-: THKAri:i{ a r <)Han(;i:, sihthioijx ihan'CI-: 
 
 tlicatcr. it must Ix' ronionihorcHl, served 
 many i)ur])()S(\s ([uite a])art from the 
 production of ])lays. In the theater 
 hir^'e ^■atherin<is, for exam])le, mijiht he 
 lield for (hvers reasons. At sueh times 
 the richly decorated scacfid formed an 
 attractive l)ack<2;round. 
 
 In the theater at As])en(his we can 
 still trace, hij;h above the sta*>;e, tlie sloj)- 
 in^ line which marks where once the roof 
 of the sta<i;e ran (fi<i. 11). I^e<iinnin<2; at 
 the top of the rectan<>;ular construction 
 which forms the side of the sta<»;e (fi<i;. V.i) 
 at the end nearer the auditorium, the loof 
 slojK'd shar])ly downward to the xaicnd. 
 Such a roof over the sta<2;e Avas ])rescril)ed 
 for acoustic reasons. So too, for acoustic 
 reasons, it was ordained that the tloor of 
 \\\v sta^e should he of wood. This floor 
 was called pulpitufn or pidpita, a word 
 whence 'pul])it' is derived, so that we have, 
 etymolojiically at least, the connection 
 hetwe(*n church and staj»;e desiderated 
 hy so many worthy ])ersons. 
 
 The ^reat theater at Orange (Roman 
 Arausio) in tlie southern jiart of France 
 (fi^". 14) was so well pn^served that, 
 twenty years or so a^o, larj>e ])ortions of 
 
 the seats were reconstructed, the stajio 
 was remodeled, and ])erformances hy 
 French actors, of ancient and modern 
 ])layshoth, have l)een given in this thea- 
 ter.'' The wall heliind the stage (safcna) 
 is well ])reserved. I^ehind that are the 
 greenrooms, and the like, still in excellent 
 condition. The wall (fig. lo) hehind the 
 greenrooms is 335 feet long, and 120 feet 
 high (three-ciuarters of the height of the 
 exterior wall of the rolisevnn ) . The ruins 
 of this spl(Mulid Roman theater dominate 
 the town todav as comi)letelv as the Ro- 
 man j)ower once dominated the territory 
 in Avhich the theater stands. Also in 
 northern Afi'ica at Oougga and Timgad 
 th(M-(^ are well-])reserve(l Roman tiieatei-s 
 (figs. 10, 17), 
 
 The student of the (iraeco-Roman the- 
 ater, however, need not joiu'ney ahroad to 
 find tangible illustrations of the ancient 
 theater. At Herkeley, California, on the 
 grounds of the Cniversity of California, 
 stands a beautiful Oraeco-Roman theater, 
 
 '^ For an account of sucli pcrforinanccs in 
 1S04. M'c an article entitled "riie ( 'oniedie 
 I'raiH.-aise at (^)ranjie," in llu ('< nhiri^ M(t(jnziiit 
 for.Iune. 1S<).'). 
 
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192 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 193 
 
 the gift of Mr. William R. Hearst (fig. 18). 
 It is built against a hillside, in Greek 
 fashion. The parodoi too are Greek; the 
 orchestra is circular. The extreme diam- 
 eter of the stone theater proper is 250 feet, 
 but two tiers of wooden seats have been 
 constructed beyond (above) the stone 
 portion. There are two praecinctiones: 
 of these the lower is 8 feet wide, the upper, 
 between the top of the stone seats and the 
 
 portion of the seat and the remainder of 
 the seat. The ordinary seating capacity 
 is about 7,000; by crowding and calling the 
 aisles into use this may be increased to 
 8,500. The stage (fig. 19) is 150 feet by 
 28. In the center its height is 7 feet; 
 hence this stage, at this point, is too high 
 for the Roman theater, too low for the 
 Greek theater, as that is described by 
 Vitruvius. The parodoi are not level, but 
 
 production of plays. Our study must 
 include the stage, the scenery, costumes, 
 music, the actors, and the audience. 
 
 The stage-buildings may be divided 
 into three parts: (1) the stage proper, the 
 'boards,' called pidpitum or pidpita; 
 (2) the scaena proper, or permanent wall 
 at the back of the pulpitum; (3) the post- 
 scaenium, or portion behind the scaena, 
 containing the dressing-rooms of the 
 
 of the stage. Such colonnades were at- 
 tached to the Theater of Pompey at Rome. 
 We mav remind the reader of Vitruvius's 
 two statements concerning the pulpitum: 
 first, that it should be deeper than that of 
 the Greek theater, because in the Roman 
 theater all the performers play their parts 
 on the stage; secondly, that it should not 
 exceed five feet in height, else the senators 
 and other distinguished personages who 
 
 FIG. 16. ROMAN THEATER AT DOUGGA. NORTH AFRICA. 
 
 FIG. 17. ROMAN THEATER AT TIMGAD. NORTH AFRICA. 
 
 wooden addition, 7i feet. There are 11 
 gradus between the orchestra and the 
 lower praednctio: these are very low, so 
 that chairs must be set hero for spectators. 
 Above, between the tAvo praecinctiones, 
 are 19 gradus, cut by 11 aisles into 10 
 cunei or sections. The seats are prod- 
 igally constructed, that is, there is no 
 undercutting of the front of the seat, and 
 no difference in level between the footrest 
 
 in the form of inclined planes or ram]:)s 
 leading down into the orchestra. To sum 
 up, this theater is for the most part 
 Greek; in its seating arrangements (in the 
 orchestra) it is in part Roman; in the 
 stage, it is neither Greek nor Roman. 
 
 Thus far we have dealt with the Roman 
 theater-structure mainly as a receptacle, 
 so to say, for spectators. We turn 
 now to consider it with reference to the 
 
 actors, space for marshalling the pro- 
 cessions for which the Romans had such 
 f mdness (compare the citation from Hor- 
 ace, pages 145-147, above), and the like. 
 V itruvius recommends that colonnades be 
 ^constructed behind the theater, so that, 
 ^\hen sudden showers interrupt plays, 
 the people may have somewhere to retire 
 from the theater, and that there may be 
 loom for the preparation of all the outfit 
 
 had seats in the orchestra would be unable 
 to see what was being presented on the 
 stage. The stage of the Large Theater at 
 Pompeii is a little more than three feet in 
 height, that of the Odeum of Herodes 
 Athens at Athens about four and a half 
 feet. When the Dionysiac Theater at 
 Athens was reconstructed by Phaedrus in 
 the third century A.D., the stage was 
 made four feet, seven inches high. The 
 
1<)2 
 
 Airi' AND archaeoloc;y 
 
 the sift of Mr. William H. Hearst ( tiji". \S). 
 It is Iniilt against a hillside, in Greek 
 fasliion. The purodoi too are (Ireek: the 
 orchestra is circular. The extreme diam- 
 eter of the stone th(niter ])r()])er is250feet, 
 but two tiers of wooden sc^ats have been 
 constructed beyond fabove) the stone 
 portion. There are two pmvciudioncs: 
 of these the lower is 8 feet wide, the upper, 
 between the top of the stone seats and the 
 
 ]iortion of the seat and tlie remainder of 
 the seat. The ordhiary seating ca]xicity 
 is a])Out 7,000; ])y crowding ami calling the 
 aisles into use this may ])e increased to 
 8,500. The stage (fig. 19) is 150 feet by 
 28. In the center its height is 7 feet; 
 hence this stage, at this ])oint, is too high 
 for the Roman theater, too low for the 
 Greek theater, as that is described by 
 Mtruvius. The parodni an^ not level, but 
 
 1 
 
 THE HOMAX THEATER 
 
 193 
 
 I)roduction of plays. Our study must 
 include the stage, the scenery, costumes, 
 music, the actors, and the audience. 
 
 The stage-l)uildings may be divided 
 into three parts: (1) the stage pro]ier, the 
 M)oards,' called pulpituni or j)idpit(i; 
 (2) the scaena proper, or ])ermanent wall 
 at the l>ack of the pulpitum; (3) the pos^t- 
 scaeminn, or ])ortion l)ehin(l the scaefid, 
 containing the dressing-rooms of the 
 
 of the stage. Such colonnades were at- 
 tached tothe Theaterof Pompey at Rome. 
 Wq may remind the reader of X'itruvius's 
 two statements concerning thv pulpltum: 
 first, that it should be dee})er than that of 
 the Greek theater, l)ecause in the Roman 
 theater all the performers play thcMr i)arts 
 on the stage; secondly, that it should not 
 exceed five feet in height, (*lse the senators 
 and other distinguished personages who 
 
 li 
 
 ri(i. 111. HOMAN THKATKH AT DOldCA. XOKTir ATHICA. 
 
 FIG. 17. ROMAN Tiri-ATKU AT ITMCAD. XORTH AFRICA. 
 
 wooden addition, 1\ feet. There are 11 
 (irafhis ])etween the orchestra and the 
 lower praecindio: these ar(^ very low, so 
 that chairs must be set here for s])ectators. 
 Abov(\ betwe(Mi the two pniecinctiones, 
 are 19 gnidus, cut by 11 aisles into 10 
 cunci or sections. The seats are ])rod- 
 igally constructed, that is. ther(^ is no 
 undercutting of the front of the scat, and 
 no difference in level between the footrest 
 
 in the form of inclined planes or iam])S 
 lea(Ung down into the orchestra. To sum 
 up, this theater is for the most ])art 
 Greek; in its seating arrangements (in the 
 orchestra) it is in ])art Roman; in the 
 stage, it is neither Greek nor Roman. 
 
 Thus far we have dealt with the Roman 
 theater-structure mainly as a receptacle, 
 so to say, for spectators. We turn 
 now to consider it with ref(M'ence to the 
 
 •'tors, space for marshalling the pro- 
 
 ''ssions for wliich the Romans had such 
 
 »n(hiess (compare the citation from Hor- 
 
 •e, pages 145 147, above), and the like. 
 
 • itruviusreconunends that colonriades be 
 
 ')ustructed behind the theater, so that, 
 
 V hen sudden showers interru])t ])lays, 
 
 he ])eo])le may have somewhere to retire 
 
 li'oiii the theater, and that there may be 
 
 '"oin for the i)rcparation of all the outfit 
 
 had seats in the (orchestra would i)e unable 
 to see what was ])eing ]>resent<Ml on the 
 stage. The stage of the Large Theater at 
 Pompeii is a little more than three feet in 
 height, that of the Odeum of Herodes 
 Atticus at Athens about four and a half 
 feet. When the Dionysiac Theater at 
 Athens was reconstructed by Phae<lrus in 
 the third century A.D., the stage was 
 made four iiK't, seven inches high. The 
 
194 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 stage was usuallv of great size. That of Pliny the Elder expresses his astonish- 
 
 the Large Theater at Pompeii measured ment that such splendor, especially the 
 
 105 feet by 20, that of the Odeum of Hero- blocks of marble, should have been 
 
 desAtticus 120 by 24, that of the Theater tolerated in a city which took it amiss 
 
 at Orange 203 bv 50. It is interesting to that one of its richest citizens, the orator 
 
 note that the French, for the perform- Crassus, adorned the atrium of his house 
 
 ances in the Theater at Orange, found it with six columns of Hj-mettan marble, 
 
 advisable to construct a stage much small- only 12 feet high. . , ,. 
 
 er than that of the ancient theater. Some ^•itruvius divides scenery into three 
 
 scholars have seen in the great breadth of classes: tragic, comic, and satyric. Ac- 
 
 the Roman stage an explanation, at least cording to his description, the prominent 
 
 in part, of the running scenes, so common features in a tragic setting were columns 
 
 in Plautus, that is, scenes in which slaves pediments, statues, and other signs of 
 
 are described as running in hot haste regal magnificence-in a word a palace 
 
 across the stage, and vet consuming a and its accessories (or a temple). In 
 
 long time to cover that space. comedy the setting represented one or 
 
 Of the height of the scaena and its more private houses with projecting 
 
 decoration something has been said above balconies and windows overiooking the 
 
 (page 189), in the account of the Theater street. The setting of a satyric drama, 
 
 at \spendus. The Theater at Orange or play in which satyrs and the like 
 
 and the Small Theater at Pompeii carry appeared, comprised trees, grottoes, moun- 
 
 out the spirit of this injunction. At tains, and "other rustic objects dehneated 
 
 first the scaena was made of rough, in landscape style, says ^ itruvms. 
 
 unpainted boards. However, the cus- Inl7of the25extanttragediesof Sopho- 
 
 tom of adorning the scaena became fixed cles and Euripides the scene is laid ,n 
 
 lom oi ciaui luug pa ace or a temple. In these 
 
 atanearlydateforinatemporarywooden -nt^o^^ p^ ^J^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ 
 
 theater erected by Aemihus Scaurus in J^^^^ ^^ ^^.^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^,^ ^^ ^..^^^_ 
 
 58 B.C. the scaena was divided into three ^.^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ suchscenery 
 
 stories, the lowest of which u-as adorned ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ 
 
 with slabs of marble; the middle story ,j,^, theLe«a of the Theater at Berkeley 
 
 was lined with mosaics in glass, and the ^^^ .^ .^^^^ ^^^^^ admirably as proper 
 
 topmost story was built f glided wood ^^^ performances of the Birds of 
 
 360 marble columns and 3,000 bronze ^^j^^ j^^„^^ (^ jg^^ ^he Eumenides of 
 
 statues graced this ^a Lanc.an ^^3^h^.i^3 ^^^ the Antigone of Sophocle. 
 
 (Anaent Rome m the Ught of Recent j ^^ ^^^ ^ background 
 
 Discoveries, 242) says the columns were of J^-^^^^^ .^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ g^^^,.^ .^ j90, 
 
 Lucullan marble. He continues: ^^^ ^^^^ performance of the Agamemnon 
 
 No wonder that the contractor for the of Aeschylus (fig. 20) met all the require- 
 
 maintenance of public drains should have ments of the play. This background 
 
 required from M. Scaurus a security consisted in the main of a straight wall, 
 
 against any possible danger of the sinking g^Q^ned with simple pilasters. In front 
 of the streets in the transportation of his porch-like struc- 
 
 columns and b bcks of marble, so heavy oi ^"f -'"s'f """' " i^ 
 
 were they t^^e formed by four columns set a fe^\ 
 
 z 
 o 
 
 -3 
 < 
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 o 
 
 -n 
 
 — H 
 
 > 
 
 >^ 
 
 z 
 
 p . 
 
 w 1 
 
 ■Jl ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CG 
 
 < 
 
 2; 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 O 
 
 73 
 
 Q 
 
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 73 
 
 Q 
 
 03 
 
 W 
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 O 
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 a 
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 73 
 
 d 
 t— t 
 
hU 
 
 ART AND ARC HAKOT.OOV 
 
 stag;e was usually of great siz(\ That ol 
 the Large Theater at Poni])eii measured 
 105 feet l)y 20, that of tlie ( )(leuni of Hero- 
 des Atticus 120 by 24. that of the Theater 
 at Orange 203 hy 50. It is interestmg to 
 note that tlu^ French, for the perform- 
 ances in the Tlieater at Orange, found it 
 advisable to ronstruet a stag(» much small- 
 er than that of the aneient theater. Some 
 scholars have seen in the great breadth of 
 the Roman stage an ex])lanati(m, at least 
 in part, of the running scenes, so connncm 
 in Plautus, that is, scenes in which slaves 
 are described as running in hot haste 
 across the stage, and yet consuming a 
 long time to cover that space. 
 
 Of the height of the scaena and its 
 decoration something has been said above 
 (page 189), in the account of the Theater 
 at Aspendus. The Theater at Orange 
 and the Small Theater at Pompeii carry 
 out the spirit of this injunction. At 
 first the .'^caena was made of rough, 
 unpainted boards. However, the cus- 
 tom of adorning the ,^caena became fixed 
 at an early date, for in a temporary wooden 
 theater erected l)y Aemilius Scaurus in 
 58 B.C. the scaena was divided into three 
 stories, the lowest of which was adorned 
 with slabs of marble; the middle story 
 was lined with mosaics in glass, and the 
 topmost story was built of gilded wood. 
 360 marble columns and 3,000 lironze 
 statues graced this scaena. Lanciani 
 (Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent 
 Discover ie.^, 242) says the columns were of 
 Lucullan marble. He continues: 
 
 Xo wonder that the contractor for tlie 
 maintenance of public drains should have 
 required from M. Scaurus a security 
 against any possible danger of the sinking 
 of the streets in the transportation of his 
 columns and blocks of marble, so heavy 
 were thev. 
 
 Pliny the l^lder expresses his astonish- 
 ment that such splendor, especially the 
 blocks of marble, should have been 
 tolerated in a city which took it amiss 
 that one of its richest citizens, the orator 
 Crassus, adorned the atrium of his house 
 with six columns of Hymettan marble, 
 only 12 feet high. 
 
 Vitruvius divides scenery into three 
 classes: tragic, comic, and satyric. Ac- 
 cording to his description, the prominent 
 features in a tragic setting were columns, 
 pediments, statues, and other signs of 
 regal magnificence— in a word a palace 
 and its accessories (or a temple). In 
 comedy the setting re])resented one or 
 more private houses with projecting 
 balconies and windows overlooking the 
 street. The setting of a satyric drama, 
 or play in which satyrs and the like 
 ai)peared, comprised trees, grottoes, moun- 
 tains, and ''other rustic objects delineated 
 in landscape style," says Vitruvius. 
 
 In 1 7 of the 25 extant tragedies of So])ho- 
 cles and Euripides the scene is laid \v 
 front of a palace or a temple. In these 
 tragxnUes the general character of thr 
 scenery recjuired woidd be such as Vitru- 
 vius describes. How easily suchscener} 
 was su])])lied may be seen from the fac^ 
 that the scaena of the Theater at Berkele> 
 has in itself served a(bniral)ly as proi)e ' 
 setting for ])erformances of the Birds o 
 Aristophanes (fig. 18), the lumienides o' 
 Aeschylus, and the Antigone of Sophode - 
 (fig. 19). So the simi)le backgroum' 
 erected in the Harvard Stadium in 190'» 
 for the performance of the Agamemnoi; 
 of Aeschylus (fig. 20) met all the reciuire 
 ments of the play. This backgrouui 
 consisted in the main of a straight wall 
 adorned with sim])le pilasters. In fron 
 of the single door was a porch-like struc 
 ture formed bv four columns set a fev 
 
 5 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 >• 
 
 ri 
 
 > 
 
 D . 
 
 o 
 
 '.- o 
 
 OH 
 ^ < 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 
 U4 
 
 1 
 
196 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 feet from the door and carr^dng a pedi- 
 mental or gable-like structure. So also 
 the theater at Bradfield College in Eng- 
 land (figs. 21, 22) was well adapted to a 
 recent performance of the Alcestis. At 
 Rome, it must be remembered, the de- 
 tails of scenery, costume, and the like 
 were wholly Greek. It will be convenient 
 to note here that in the one satyric 
 drama which has come down to us the 
 scene consists of a country region, with 
 the cave of Polyphemus in the center. 
 
 In Graeco-Roman comedy the action, in 
 the great majority of the plays, took place 
 on the pubUc street, before one or more 
 private houses.^ The Captivi of Plautus 
 requires but one house; the Phormio of 
 Terence calls for three. In the Me- 
 naechmi of Plautus, which was acted some 
 years ago, in the original, by the students 
 of Barnard College, two houses are needed. 
 In the Graeco-Roman theater all the events 
 of the play went on in the open; interior 
 scenes were never represented. In the 
 Antigone of Sophocles, Antigone calls her 
 sister Ismene out of the palace, that 
 alone Ismene may hear the decree of 
 Creon with respect to the burial of their 
 brothers. The real reason for Anti- 
 gone's act is that the poet cannot picture 
 the sisters as talking w^ithin the palace. 
 In the Mostellaria of Plautus Philema- 
 tium completes her toilet on the street; 
 later in the same play there is a drinking- 
 bout on the street. In the Miles Glori- 
 osusof Plautus (597, 609-610) Palaestrio, 
 Pleusicles, and Periplecomenus hold an 
 important secret conference on the 
 street. At right angles to the main 
 street a lane, known as an angiportum, 
 
 ^ Throughout the remaining pages of this 
 paper the illustrations will be taken mainly 
 from Roman comedy, partly because of limita- 
 tions of space, partly because the Romans so 
 strongly preferred comedy to tragedy. 
 
 sometimes, if not always, ran back be- 
 tween the houses. By this angiportum 
 access was had to the back or garden part 
 of the houses, or to the country (the nis 
 that figures so largely in the Roman 
 comedies); by the angiportum, again, an 
 actor might leave the stage and return 
 to it by a roundabout route, as Davus 
 does so cleverly in Terence, Andria, 
 732-746. The angiportum, finally, was 
 a favorite place for eavesdroppers. One 
 and the same scene served for all towns 
 ahke. In the Menaechmi of Plautus, 
 72-73, the prologist says, ''This city is 
 for the present E])idamnus, while this 
 play is on: when another play shall be 
 acted, it will become another town." In 
 the prologue of the Truculentus of Plau- 
 tus the text is sadly corrupt : yet it is clear 
 that the speaker of the prologue is saving 
 that the stage represents Athens "so long 
 as ^ye are acting this pla}-." This implies, 
 it would seem, that the scenic resources 
 of the Roman theater were after all not 
 verv' elaborate or at least that the scenic 
 artists were not very precise in delinea- 
 tion of landscapes. Compare, too, what 
 is said in the next paragraph about change 
 of scenery. 
 
 The scenery consisted of painted boards. 
 If there were three houses in the scene, 
 the house-door was set in each case 
 opposite the door in the scaena (see above, 
 page 187). If only one or two houses 
 were required, we may suppose that one 
 or two doors in the scaena were kept 
 closed. Changes of scenery were infre- 
 quent. No extant Roman play requires 
 such change. In only one extant Greek 
 tragedy, the Ajax of Sophocles, is a change 
 of scenery necessar>^, from a modern 
 point of view. Part of the action is laid 
 before the tent of Ajax in the midst of the 
 Greek host before Troy, part (the suicide 
 of Ajax) on a lonely stretch of shore. 
 
 
 o 
 
 02 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 < 
 
 -/: 
 
 y. 
 
 
 H 
 Z 
 
 
 
 y. 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 S 
 H 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 a 
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 CO 
 
 O 
 
 i-H 
 
196 
 
 AKT AND ARCHAK()L()(;Y 
 
 feet from the door and carrying;- a pedi- 
 mental or t2;al)le-like structure. So also 
 the theat(n- at I^radfield Colle^:e in En*i;- 
 hmd (fes. 21. 22) was well adapt (m1 to a 
 recent ])(M"forniance of the Alcestis. At 
 Rome, it must be renienibered, the de- 
 tails of scenery, costume, and the like 
 were wholly Creek. It will be convenient 
 to note here that in the one satyric 
 drama which has come down to us the 
 scene consists of a country rejiion, with 
 tlie cave of Poly])hemus in the center. 
 
 Indraeco-Koman comedy the action, in 
 tlie j>;reat majority oF the plays, took ]:)lace 
 on the jniblic street, before one or more 
 private houses." The (\i])tivi ofPlautus 
 re(iuires but one house; the l^hormio of 
 Terence calls for three. In the Me- 
 naechmi of Plautus, which was acted some 
 years n^o, in the original, by the students 
 of I^arnard College, two houses are needed. 
 In the Graeco-Roman theater all the events 
 of the ])lay went on in the open; interior 
 scenes were never re])resent(Ml. In the 
 Antigone of So]:)hocles, Antigone calls her 
 sister Ismene out of the palace, that 
 alotie Ismene may hear the decree of 
 Creon with respect to the ])urial of their 
 brothers. The real reason for Anti- 
 gone's act is that the ])oet cannot ])icture 
 the sisters as talking Avithin the ])alace. 
 In the Mostellaria of Plautus Philema- 
 tium c()m])letes her toilet on the street; 
 later in the same ])lay there is a drinking- 
 bout on the street. In the Miles Clori- 
 osusof Plautus (597, t)09-610) Palaestrio, 
 Pleusicles. and Peri])lecomenus hold an 
 im])ortant secret conference on the 
 street. At right angles to the main 
 street a lane, known as an angiportum, 
 
 ^ Througliout the remaining pa^es of this 
 paper the ilhistrations will be taken mainly 
 from Koman comedy, partly because of limita- 
 tions of space, partly because the Romans so 
 stronf!;ly preferred comedy to tragedy. 
 
 sometimes, if not always, ran ]:>ack l)e- 
 tween the houses, l^y this amii portion 
 access was had to the back or garden part 
 of the houses, or to the country (the r?/x 
 that figures so largely in the Roman 
 comedies); by the (nigiportutN, again, an 
 actor might leave the stage and return 
 to it bv a roundal^out route, as Davus 
 does so cleverly in Terence, Andria, 
 732-740. The anqiportutn, finally, was 
 a favorite jilace for eavesdro])]x^rs. Cne 
 and the same scene served for all towns 
 ahke. In the ]\Ienaeclinii of Plautus, 
 72-73, the prologist sa^'s, ''This city is 
 for the present E])idamnus, while this 
 play is on; when another i)lay shall be 
 acted, it will beconn^ another town.'' In 
 the prologue of the Truculentus of Plau- 
 tus the text is sadly corru])t ; yet it is clear 
 that the sjx^akcr of the ])rologuc is saying 
 that the stage represents Athens "so long 
 as Ave are acting this ])lay." This im])lies. 
 it would s(H'm, that the scenic resources 
 of the Koman theater were afttn* all not 
 verv elaborate or at least that tlu* scenic 
 artists were not very precise in delinea- 
 tion of landscapes. Compare, too, what 
 is said in the next i)aragra])h about changt^ 
 of scenerv\ 
 
 The scenery consisted of painted boards. 
 If there were three houses in the scene, 
 the house-door was set in each case 
 opposite the door in the satcna (see above, 
 page 1S7). If only one or two houses 
 were reciuired, wi> may suppose that one 
 or two doors in the scactta were kept 
 closed. Changes of scenery were infre- 
 (pient. No extant Homan ])lay requires 
 such change. In only one extant Creek 
 tragedy, the Ajax of So])hocles, is a change 
 of scenerv necessary, from a modern 
 l^oint of view. Part of the action is laid 
 before the tent of Ajax in the midst of the 
 Creek host before Troy, ])art (tlie suicide 
 of Ajax) on a lonely stretch of shore. 
 
 A 
 
 X 
 
 'J 
 x; 
 
 '^ 
 
 a 
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 r ^ 
 
 r" t— I 
 
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 /. o 
 
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 V. 2 
 
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 -^ y. 
 
 ^ o 
 
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 '- y 
 
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 m 
 
 O 
 
 
198 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 199 
 
 Yet, when this play was produced in New 
 York City some years ago by resident 
 Greeks, no attempt was made to change 
 the scene. Ajax slew himself in one 
 corner of the extremely small stage, a 
 short distance only from the place where 
 all the preceding action of the play had 
 gone on. The audience, however, felt 
 no difficulty. The unfamiliarity of a 
 modern audience with Greek and Latin of 
 course forces the audience to strain its 
 attention on what is actually happening 
 on the stage, and leaves it little or no 
 time for criticism of such matters as the 
 failure to change the setting in the Ajax. 
 So far as I know, there were no com- 
 plaints when, at the performance of the 
 Phormio at Harvard in 1894 there was 
 no real angiporturn, though one is de- 
 manded by the play; the painter, by a 
 skilful use of perspective, had created 
 the illusion of such an angiportum, a copy 
 of the Street of the Hanging Balcony at 
 Pompeii. The eavesdropper merely stood 
 before this painted street : yet no one, so 
 far as I know, complained. The ancient 
 audience, on the other hand, demanded 
 far less in the way of illusion than we 
 moderns have learned to expect; a true 
 comparison, in this regard, lies between 
 such an audience and the audience of 
 Shakespeare's time, not between us and 
 the ancient Greek or Roman audience. 
 
 That changes of scenery did occur, 
 however, is shown by the fact that Vi- 
 truvius describes the devices used to 
 effect such change. The painted boards 
 in front of the scaena were so arranged 
 that they might be drawn asunder and 
 shoved out of the way. Such scenery was 
 called scaena dudilis, "sl drawable scene," 
 ''movable scenery." When several plays, 
 laid in different places, were to be given 
 in succession on one day, it would be a 
 simple matter to set them all before the 
 
 performances of the day began, and then, 
 at the proper moment, to withdraw the 
 front scene and display the scene behind, 
 previously all set up. On the sides of the 
 stage, connected in some way with the 
 scenery at the back, were arrangements 
 called by the Greeks TveplaKjoi, by the 
 Romans scaenae versiles, ''revolvers." 
 These were large triangular prisms re- 
 volving on a socket or base, after the 
 fashion of a modern revolving })Ookcase. 
 Upon the three faces of the prism were 
 painted different pictures, arranged, how- 
 ever, so that the particular face which 
 for the moment was turned toward the 
 spectators matched the back scene. 
 To both kinds of scaenae or scenery 
 Vergil alludes, in Georgics 3.24, the pas- 
 sage referred to above (page 145). If a 
 partial change of scene was desired, it 
 might be effected by turning the prisms; 
 a complete change could be made by 
 simultaneously turning the prisms and 
 removing the back scene. Before the 
 play began the scenery was hidden by a 
 curtain; as set forth above (page 145), this 
 was lowered when the play began, raised 
 when the play was over. 
 
 There were arrangements also by which 
 personages— e.g., gods— might appear in 
 mid-air, or might come up from the nether 
 world. The arrival of gods was accom- 
 panied by stage-thunder; a striking in- 
 stance is to be found in the Amphitruo of 
 Plautus, 1053 ff. 
 
 From various passages in the plays 
 of Plautus and Terence and from an- 
 cient vases we get hints of the costume 
 and make-up of actors. Professional cos- 
 tumers, known as choregi or choragi, 
 supplied everything needed for the equip- 
 ment of actors. The senex or old man 
 is regularly white-haired; one is described 
 as knock-kneed, large -paunched, fat- 
 cheeked, short, with black eyes, and 
 
 long jaws, and rather flat-footed; another 
 is white-haired and white-bearded; most, 
 if not all, old men in the plays carried a 
 staff or cane, with a crook handle. Philoc- 
 rates, a young man in the Captivi of 
 Plautus, is thin-faced, sharp-nosed, pale, 
 black-eyed, with hair in curls and ringlets. 
 The young men regularly had dark hair, 
 
 setting forth from home to meet a slave 
 from another household, and fearing that 
 this other may pass him on the way, 
 calls to those within his house, "If 
 anv red-head comes lookihg for me 
 . . . ." The other, who has just 
 arrived, overhears him and cries, "There, 
 there, that will do : he's here!" Red hair, 
 
 FIG. 20. PERFORMAXCEOF AESCHYLUS' AGAMEMNON IN THE HARVARD STADIUM 
 
 AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 
 
 and plenty of it. In the Pseudolus of 
 Plautus the slave Pseudolus is red-headed, 
 with a paunch, thick-ankled, swarthy, 
 large-headed, sharp-eyed, red-faced, and 
 with huge feet. The huge feet are, how- 
 ever, an abnormal feature, for by them, 
 rather than by the rest of the description, 
 Pseudolus is instantly identified. In the 
 Phormio of Terence the slave Geta, 
 
 then, belonged regularly to the slave. 
 In the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus arrange- 
 ments are making whereby someone is 
 presently to masquerade as a sailor or 
 skipper. Here are the orders covering 
 the plan: 
 
 Come to us garbed as a skipper. Wear 
 a sea-hued broadbrim, and a sea-hued 
 cloak. Have this cloak fastened on your 
 
198 
 
 ART AND ARC'HAKOLOOY 
 
 Yet, wlion this play Avas ])r()(luc('(l in New 
 York City some years ago l)y resident 
 Greeks, no att(^ni])t was made to change 
 the scene. Ajax slew himseU' in one 
 corner of the extremely small stage, a 
 short distance only from the ])lace where 
 all the preceding action of the play had 
 o-one on. The andience, however, felt 
 no (Ufhculty. The unfamiliarity of a 
 modern au(Uence with ( Ireek and Latin of 
 conrse forces the audience to strain its 
 attention on what is actually happening 
 on the stage, and leaves it little or no 
 time for criticism of such matters as the 
 failure to change the setting in the Ajax. 
 80 far as I know, there werc^ no com- 
 plaints when, at the ])erformance of the 
 Phormio at Harvard in 1894 there was 
 no real angiporhun, though one is de- 
 manded l)v the plav; the ]minter, by a 
 tskilful use of pers])ective, had created 
 the illusion of such an (nujiportiifn, a copy 
 of the Street of the Hanging Balcony at 
 Poni])eii. The eavesdropper merely stood 
 before this ])ainted stnM^t : yet no one, so 
 far as I know, complained. The ancient 
 audience, on the other hand, demanded 
 far less in the way of illusion than we 
 moderns have learned to ex]M'ct ; a true 
 comparison, in this regard, lies between 
 such an audience and the aucUence of 
 Shakespeare's time, not between us and 
 the ancient Ghm^v or Roman audience. 
 
 That changes of scenery did occur, 
 however, is shown by the fact that \'\- 
 truvius describes the devices used to 
 effect such change. The i)ainted boards 
 in front of the scacna were so arranged 
 that they might be dra\ni asunder and 
 shoved out of the way. Suc*h scenery was 
 called scaena ductilis, ''a drawable scene/' 
 ''movable scenery." When several plays, 
 laid in different places, were to be given 
 in succession on one day, it would be a 
 simple matter to set tln^ni all before the 
 
 ])erformances of the day began, and then, 
 at the ])ro]K'r moment, to withdraw the 
 frcmt scene and display the scene behind, 
 previously all set up. On the sides of the 
 stag(\ ccmnected in some way with the 
 scenery at the back, were arrangements 
 called bv the (InH'ks TreptaK-rot. by the 
 Romans saienae versilc.^, ''revolvers.'' 
 These were large triangular ])risms re- 
 volving on a socket or base, after the 
 fashion of a modern revolving bookcase. 
 Tpon the three faces of the prism were 
 painted different ])ictures, arranged, how- 
 ever, so that the ])articular face which 
 for the moment was turned toward the 
 spectators matched the back scene. 
 To both kinds of scaenae or scenery 
 Vergil alludes, in Georgics 3.24, the ])as- 
 sag(^ r(^f(M-red to above (page 14o). If a 
 ])artial change of scene was desired, it 
 might be effected by turning the prisms; 
 a c()mi)lete change could be made by 
 snnultaneously tm-ning tlu^ prisms and 
 removing the back scene. Before the 
 ])lay began the scenery was hidden by a 
 curtain ; as set forth above (page 145), this 
 was lowennl Avhen the play began, raised 
 when the play was over. 
 
 There were arrangements also by which 
 jiersonages— e.g., gods— might appear in 
 mid-air, or might come u]) from the nether 
 world. The arrival of gods was accom- 
 panied l)y stage-thvmder; a striking in- 
 stance is to be found in the Amphitruo of 
 Plautus, 1053 ff. 
 
 From various passages in the ])lays 
 of Plautus and Terence and from an- 
 ci(nit vases we get hints of the costume 
 and make-up of actors. Professional cos- 
 tumers, known as choregi or choragi, 
 sup])lied everything needed for the equip- 
 ment of actors. The >ienex or old man 
 is regularly white-haired; one is described 
 as knock-kneed, large -paunched, fat- 
 cheeked, short, with black eyes, and 
 
 THE RO^IAX THEATER 
 
 199 
 
 long jaws, and rather flat-footed: another 
 i< white-haired and white-beardcMl: most, 
 if not all, old men in the ])lays carried a 
 staff or cane, with a crook handle. Philoc- 
 rates, a young man in the Captivi of 
 Plautus, is thin-faciul, sharp-nosed. ])ale, 
 black-eved,with hair in curls and ringlets. 
 The young men regularly had dark hair. 
 
 setting forth from home to meet a slave 
 from another household, and fearing that 
 this other may pass him on the way, 
 calls to those within his house, "If 
 any red-head comes looking for me 
 . . . ." The other, who has just 
 arrived, overhears him and cries, ''There, 
 there, that will do: he's Iktc!" Red hair. 
 
 1-1(1. 20. PERFORMANCHOF AHSCHYLUS' AGAMEMN'OX IX TUH HARVARD STADIUM 
 
 AT CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 
 
 and i)lenty of it. In the Pseudolus of 
 Plautus the slave Pseudolus is red-headed, 
 with a paunch, thick-ankled, swarthy, 
 large-headed, shar])-eyed, red-faced, and 
 with huge feet. The huge feet are, how- 
 ever, an abnormal feature, for by them, 
 rather than by the rest of the description, 
 Pseudolus is instantly identified. In the 
 Phormio of Terence the slave Geta, 
 
 then, l)elonged regularly to the slave. 
 In the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus arrange- 
 ments are making whereby someone is 
 presently to masquerade as a sailor or 
 ski])p(T. Here are the orders covering 
 the i)lan: 
 
 Gome to us garbed as a skipper. Wear 
 a sea-hued broadbrim, and a sea-hued 
 cloak. Have this cloak fastened on your 
 
200 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 THE RO^^IAX THEATER 
 
 201 
 
 shoulder, so as to leave the arm bare. 
 Pretend to be a sailor. You can get your 
 make-up at the iiouse of our old friend 
 here: he has fishermen slaves. 
 
 The traveller coming from foreign parts 
 wore a petasus, or broadbrimmed hat; 
 sometimes this hung dowTi his back. In 
 the Trinummus of Plautus the trickster 
 wears an extraordinarily wide petasus. 
 Charmides, who is watching him, cries, 
 ^'By Jove, yon fellow is of the mushroom 
 brood : he hides everv inch of him with 
 his head." A character common in the 
 plays is the iniles or miles gloriosus, the 
 braggart captain who boasts forever of 
 his (imaginar^O exploits as soldier. He 
 wears a chlamys (a kind of Greek cloak), 
 a petasus, and a sword. 
 
 Most of the plays are laid in Athens. 
 A non-Athenian costume is recognizable 
 at sight. In the Poenulus of Plautus, 
 Hanno, a Carthaginian, appears (this 
 play is not laid at Athens, but at Cah^don 
 in Aetolia). His costume is recognized 
 at once as Punic by Alilphio, the slave, 
 and his master Agorastocles. Hanno 
 evidently wears no palliurn, or cloak; his 
 long tunic has long hanging sleeves. One 
 of the characters says Hanno is garbed as 
 a woman. In a word, the comments on 
 Hanno's costume are such as, in a certain 
 type of modern comedy or farce, we should 
 hear on the costume of a Chinaman. 
 
 In the later davs of the Roman theater 
 the most characteristic feature of the 
 actor's make-up was the persona, or mask, 
 fashioned of terra-cotta. In the best 
 days of the Roman drama, however, the 
 days of Plautus and Terence, masks were 
 not used. Grease paints, wigs, etc., then 
 sufficed. The masks, when adopted, 
 about 115 B.C., were the conventional 
 masks of the Greek stage. For each 
 important personage in tragedy a mask 
 was evolved; it is said that actors studied 
 
 the lines of the traditional mask as closely 
 as they did the Hues of the play itself. 
 For comedy, 44 tyjies of mask were 
 developed, 9 for old men, 11 for young 
 men, 7 for slaves, 3 for old women, and 
 14 for young women. As an actor came 
 on the stage the audience could tell at 
 once, by costume and mask, especially the 
 latter, what role he was to play. All 
 this, grotesque as it may seem at first to 
 us, was, in the absence of programmes, 
 helpful to the ancient spectator. 
 
 Some details concerning masks may be 
 given. Miserly old men had close-clipped 
 hair; soldiers wore huge manes. A dark, 
 sunburned complexion was sign of rugged 
 health, and so was given to soldiers and 
 countrv vouth. A white complexion 
 showed effeminacy; a pallid (i.e. sallow 
 or yellow) complexion gave evidence of 
 ill health or showed that the wearer was 
 suffering from the ravages of love. The 
 eyebrows were strongly marked and char- 
 acteristic. When (lraA\n up they denoted 
 pride, impudence, or wrath. The old 
 father, at one time ablaze with wrath, at 
 another brimful of affection, had one 
 eyebrow drawn u]), to denote wrath, the 
 other in its natural position; and he kept 
 that side of his face to the spectators 
 which had the eyebrow in keeping with 
 his temper of the moment. Old men and 
 parasites had hook noses; country youths 
 had snul) noses. 
 
 In the days of Plautus and Terence 
 plays were not divided into acts; they 
 were acted through without ])ause. Once 
 only in our extant plays is there reference 
 to a break in the acting made by music. 
 In Pseudolus 573-573 A, at the close of 
 what we shall call an act, Pseudolus savs: 
 'T will go forth; meanwhile the flute- 
 player will l)e here and will minister to 
 your pleasure." Pseudolus appears pres- 
 ently at 574, to open the very next scene. 
 
 For music in Roman plays we have, 
 however, quite apart from this single 
 reference in the extant plays, plenty of 
 evidence. The evidence finds its most 
 interesting form in the representations 
 which have come do^vn to us, from Roman 
 davs, of actual scenes in comedies. These 
 show the musician (regularly there is but 
 one musician, a woman) playing the double 
 tibiae, an instrument resembling the flute. 
 The flute-player appeared on the stage 
 Anth the actors. When the Phormio of 
 Terence was produced at Harvard in 
 1894, sometimes one, sometimes two 
 flute-players appeared on the stage with 
 the actors. At the performance of the 
 Agamemnon of Aeschylus at Harvard in 
 1906 (fig. 20) one flute-player appeared 
 with the chorus, in the orchestra. In 
 neither case, however, did the visible 
 musicians play a note: the music was 
 sui)i^lied by hidden performers. The 
 musical accompaniment for Roman plays 
 was the work of slaves; the making of 
 music, as author or player, was beneath 
 the dignity of a true Roman. 
 
 A few words nmst be said about the 
 actors. Among the Romans the actor or 
 participant in any spectacle on the stage, 
 especially if he appeared for money, lost 
 all civil rights. Actors, then, were ineli- 
 f^ible to hold office. We may recall the in- 
 structive storv told of Decimus Laberius, 
 the writer of mimes, compelled by Julius 
 Caesar to act in one of his ovm productions. 
 When Laberius came doA\Ti from the 
 stage, Caesar gave to him a gold ring and 
 100,000 sesterces. The 400,000 sesterces 
 A'ere the property qualification necessary 
 to the status of eques; the gold ring was 
 worn by the eques as outward evidence of 
 his status. By these gifts, then, Caesar 
 was restoring to Laberius the equestrian 
 status he had lost by appearing as actor. 
 With the son of an actor or actress not 
 
 even the great-granddaughter of a sena- 
 tor, in the male line, could contract a 
 lawful marriage. Originally magistrates 
 had the right to scourge actors whenever 
 and wherever they saw fit, but Augustus 
 limited this right to the time of the ludi 
 and to the theater itself. Yet Augustus 
 exercised a strict supervision over actors; 
 he caused one actor to be beaten \\ith rods 
 through the three theaters, and another, 
 on complaint of a praetor, to be scourged 
 in the atrimn of his own house, the general 
 l)ublic being admitted to the spectacle. 
 Naturally, in view of what has been said, 
 actors were in general men of inferior 
 station, slaves, or freedmen. Such free- 
 born ]:)ersons as ap])eared on the stage 
 were not Romans, but foreigners — Greeks, 
 Asiatics, or Egyptians. Still, distin- 
 guished actors sometimes attained a 
 high place in pul)lic esteem, even though 
 their political disabilities were not re- 
 moved. In corned}' Q. Roscius Gallus, 
 and in tragedy Claudius Aesopus, con- 
 temj^oraries of Cicero, achieved enviable 
 reputations and amassed great fortunes. 
 In his speech Pro Archia Cicero says: 
 
 Who was not deeply moved lately 
 when he heard of the death of Roscius? 
 So perfect was his art, so charming his 
 grace, that one felt he should never have 
 ciied. By the mere movements of his 
 body he had won from us strong affection. 
 
 In Terence's time L. Ambivius Turpio 
 had been famous. 
 
 The famous "rule of three actors," 
 which scholr.rs long insisted had governed 
 the distribution of roles in Greek i)lays, 
 so that all the roles of a Greek i)lay, how- 
 ever numerous, were divided, the}' held, 
 among three actors and only three, had no 
 meaning for the Roman theater.^ It has 
 
 8 Its applicability to the Greek theater, 
 at least that of the best days, has recently been 
 vijtorously challenged by an American scholar. 
 
202 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 THE ROMAN THEATER 
 
 203 
 
 been held that four i)lays of Phuitus re- 
 quire at least four actors; ten plays require 
 five actors; two require six actors. So 
 three plays of Terence require six actors. 
 One last ]:)oint may be noted here. 
 In all kinds of Roman dramatic perform- 
 ances, except the mime and the pan- 
 tomime, all the roles were taken by men. 
 The Romans themselves vio;orously assail 
 
 temporary evidence in the second pro- 
 logue to Terence's Hecyra; 
 
 And now for my sake give ear to what I 
 am about to ask. I am bringing before 
 you again the Hecyra, which I have never 
 been suffered to act in peace and quiet. 
 When first I tried to act this play, I had 
 no chance, for the excitement al)out some 
 prize-fighters, the noise of parties forming 
 for that show, the confusion and the shrieks 
 
 FIG. 21. THE GREEK THEATER OF BRADFIELD COLLEGE, BERKSHIRE, ENGLAND. 
 
 the immorality of the mime and the 
 pantomime. 
 
 It remains to consider the audience. 
 Admission to theatrical performances was 
 free to all classes of the community, 
 except at first to slaves and foreigners. 
 Later, slaves, too were admitted, and of 
 course foreigners; slaves in attendance on 
 their masters cannot long have been 
 excluded. For the presence of women in 
 the theater as early as the time of Terence 
 (that is, before 160 B.C.), we have con- 
 
 of the women drove me off before I had 
 half finished. I tried it again. You 
 liked the first part, when suddenly a report 
 ran through the theater that a gladiatorial 
 exhibition was to be given that day. 
 Off flew the spectators, shouting, hust- 
 ling, fighting to get places at the gladia- 
 torial combat. I had a second time to 
 give way. Now there is no crowd ; now 
 there is silence and quiet, no counter- 
 attraction; a chance has been given to 
 me at last to act my part, and to you to 
 honor the author whose play I am seeking 
 to produce. For my sake be silent and 
 
 listen, that he may have the heart to 
 write other plays, and that it may pay me 
 to learn new plays and produce them, at 
 my expense, for your amusement. 
 
 The speaker was the famous actor and 
 stage-manager, L. Ambivius Turpio. 
 
 The prologue to the Poenulus of Plau- 
 tus is exceptionally good: 
 
 Be silent and hearken unto me, and sit 
 ye quietly on the benches — such are the 
 orders of General, General— General what 
 you do think? General Stagemanager— 
 orders meant both for those who came 
 hungry and for those who breakfasted 
 before they came. Those who ate first 
 were- by far the wiser; those who came 
 hungry must fill themselves with the 
 plays.'^ If a man has anything to eat, it's 
 the height of folly to come here on an 
 emptv stomach, to listen to us. Arise, 
 Sir Herald, and proclaim silence. I've 
 been waiting to see if you knew your duty. 
 Lift up your voice, exert it well : it is your 
 voice whereby you get your living. If you 
 don't shout out now you'll have a chance 
 to die by and by of silent starvation. Let 
 not the ushers move about before my face 
 or conduct anyone to a seat while an 
 actor is on the^ stage. Those who slept 
 too long, and so came late, ought either to 
 stand up or to shorten their sleep. Let 
 not slaves block up the way and so cheat 
 freemen out of their places. Women that 
 have nursing babies should look after 
 them at home, and not bring them to the 
 play, lest the nurses themselves get thirsty 
 and the babies die of hunger, or else, 
 through hunger, bleat like kids. Let the 
 women look on in silence, let them laugh 
 quietly, let them keep from droning away 
 in their sing-song voices, let them put off 
 their conversation till they get home, lest 
 they be a plague to men here as well as in 
 their own homes. 
 
 Since the whole population was at lib- 
 erty to come, free of charge, the theaters 
 were constructed to accommodate large 
 throngs. Yet the statements made in 
 ancient writers (and frequently repeated 
 
 9 Note the plural here. 
 
 in modern books) of the vast numbers of 
 seats in ancient structures, theatrical, 
 amphitheatrical, circensian, are much 
 exaggerated. Pliny the Elder declares 
 that the Theatrum Pompeii seated 40,000 
 persons. This Ch. Huelsen, the distin- 
 guished German archaeologist, refuses 
 to believe. He calculates that this 
 theater could seat at most 17,500, the 
 Theatrum ^larcelli 9,000 to 10,000^^ 
 The Large Theater at Pompeii could 
 seat 5,000. Though these figures come 
 far short of Pliny's, they nevertheless 
 prove the enormous size of the ancient 
 Roman theaters. 
 
 That the audience was anything but 
 quiet and orderly appears from the pro- 
 logues to the Hecyra and the Poenulus, 
 already translated in part (pages 202-203). 
 We find similar appeals in the prologues 
 to many other plays. For a much later 
 date we have Horace's testimony (page 
 145). The audience was not slow to ex- 
 press its approval or disapproval. Actors 
 and actresses were at times hissed off the 
 stage. ^luch noise was due, no doubt, to 
 the hired claque; the prologue to the 
 Amphitruo of Plautus gives ample evi- 
 dence of the existence of such a claque. 
 One source of disorder remains to be 
 noted, the interchange of remarks be- 
 tween actors and spectators. Of this 
 there is space to mention but two exam- 
 ples. In the prologue to the Captivi of 
 Plautus, the prologist, after outlining 
 
 10 The basis of his calculations of the seating 
 capacity of the theaters, and of the Coliseum is 
 the number of linear feet of seating-space avail- 
 able. If this number could be calculated 
 exactly (the condition of the ruins unfortunate- 
 ly makes this impossible), it would be easy to 
 get the total of seats by allotting 16 inches 
 to each spectator (see above, page 147). Any- 
 one who has ever been at pains to check up 
 popular or newspaper conceptions of the 
 seating-capacity of modern buildings, ball- 
 grounds, etc., will put no faith in ancient 
 estimates of seating capacity. 
 
202 
 
 ART AM) AHCHAEOIJXIY 
 
 THE ROMAN FHEATER 
 
 203 
 
 been held that four plays of Plautiis re- temporary evidence in the seeond pro- 
 
 (luire at hnist four actors: tenphiysre(iuire lo^iuc to Terence's Hecyra: 
 
 five act(>r<; two recpiire six actors. So And now for my sake <»:ive ear to what I 
 
 three ])lav< of T(M'ence reciuire six actors, am al)out to ask. I am hrin<2:ing; before 
 
 One h'lst point mav ],e noted here. yc,u a^ain the Hcuyni, which 1 have never 
 
 , , . , '. ,, ", ,. c _, been sutiered to act m peace and (lUiet. 
 
 In all kmd> ot Roman dramatic pertoim- ^^.^^^^^ ^.^.^^ ^ ^^.^^^^ ^^^ ^^^.^ ^j^.^ ^^j^^^^,^ j j^.^^^ 
 
 ances, except the mime and the pan- ^^^^ (.j,.^i^(.(.j\)i. the excitement ai)out some 
 
 tominie, all the roles were taken by men. |)riz(>-fit>;hters, the noise of parties fornnng 
 
 The Romans themselves vigorously assail forthat show.theconfusionandtheshrieks 
 
 FIG. 21. THE CUKKK THKATEK OF liHAUFlELU f'oEI.EdK. liEKKSHUM., ENCEAM). 
 
 the immorality of the mime and the 
 pantomime. 
 
 It remains to consi<ler the audience. 
 Admission to theatrical performances was 
 free to all classes of the conununity, 
 except at first to slaves and for(np;ners. 
 Later, slaves, too were admitted, and of 
 course foreigners; slaves in attendance on 
 their masters cannot long have been 
 excluded. For the presence of women in 
 the theater as early as the time of Terence 
 (that is, before 160 B.C.), we have con- 
 
 of the womcni drove me off before 1 had 
 half finished. 1 tried it again. You 
 liked the first ])art, when suddenly a report 
 ran through the theater that a gladiatorial 
 (exhibition was to be given that day. 
 i)\'i flew the spectators, shouting, hust- 
 ling, figlithig to get places at the gladia- 
 torial combat. I had a second time to 
 give way. Now there is no crowd; now 
 there is silence and quiet, no counter- 
 attraction; a chance has been given to 
 me at last to act my i)art, and to you to 
 honor the author whose play I am seeking 
 to produce. For my sake be silent and 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 listen, that he may have the heart to 
 write other i:)lays, and that it may pay me 
 to learn new plays and i)r()duce them, at 
 mv expense, for your amusement. 
 
 The s]X'ak(n- was the famous actor and 
 stage-manag<M', L. Ambivius Turpio. 
 
 The i)rologue to the Poenulus of Plau- 
 tns is exce]itif)nally good: 
 
 He silent and hearken unto me, and sit 
 
 ye quietly on the benches — such are the 
 
 orders of '( leneral, ( U'neral— ( Umeral what 
 
 vou do think'.' (lencM'al Stagemanager — 
 
 orders meant ))oth for those who came 
 
 hungry and for those who breakfasted 
 
 before they came. Those who ate first 
 
 were* by far the wiser; those who came 
 
 lumgry must fill themselves with the 
 
 plavs.'' If a man hasanything to eat, it's 
 
 the height of folly to come here on an 
 
 emi^y stomach, to listtni to us. Arise, 
 
 Sir Herald, and proclaim silence. I've 
 
 been waitingtosee if you knew your duty. 
 
 Lift up your voice, exert it well: it is your 
 
 voice wliereby you get your living. If you 
 
 don't shout oiit now you'll have a chance 
 
 to die by and by of silent starvation. Let 
 
 not the ushers move about before my face 
 
 or conduct anyone to a seat while an 
 
 actor is on the stage. Those who slept 
 
 too hmg, and so came late, ought either to 
 
 stand up or to shorten their sleep. Let 
 
 not slaves block up the way and so cheat 
 
 freemen out of their places. Women that 
 
 have nursing ])abies should look after 
 
 them at home, and not })ring them to the 
 
 plav, lest the nurses themselves get thirsty 
 
 and the bal)ies die of hunger, or else, 
 
 through hunger, bleat like kids. Let the 
 
 women look on in silence, let them laugh 
 
 (piietly, let them keep from droning away 
 
 in their sing-song voices, let them put oft 
 
 their conversation till they get hcmie, lest 
 
 they be a plague to men lu^'c^as well as in 
 
 their own homes. 
 
 Since the whole ])0]Milation was at lil)- 
 erty to come, free of charge, the theaters 
 were constructed to acconnnodate large 
 throngs. Yet the statements made in 
 ancient writers (and freciuently repeated 
 
 9 Note the plural here. 
 
 in modern books) of the vast numbers of 
 seats in ancient structures, theatrical, 
 amphitheatrical, circensian, are much 
 exaggerated. Pliny the Elder declares 
 that the Theatrimi Pompeii seated 40,000 
 persons. This Ch. Huelsen, the distin- 
 guished German archaeologist, refuses 
 to believe. He calculates that this 
 theater could seat at most 17,500, the 
 Theatrum :^Iarcelli 9,000 to 10,000^^ 
 The Large Theater at Pompeii could 
 seat 5,000. Though these figures come 
 far short of Pliny's, they nevertheless 
 ])rove the enormous size of the ancient 
 Roman theaters. 
 
 That the audience was anything but 
 (luiet and orderly a])pears from the i^ro- 
 logues to the Hecyra and the Poenulus, 
 already translated in part (pages 202-203). 
 AVe find similar appeals in the prologues 
 to many other plays. For a much later 
 date we have Horace's testimony (page 
 145). The audience was not slow to ex- 
 l^ress its approval or disapproval. Actors 
 and actresses were at times hissed off the 
 stage. Much noise was due, no doul)t, to 
 the hired claque; the ])rologue to the 
 Amphitruo of Plautus gives ample evi- 
 dence of the existence of such a claque. 
 One source of disorder remains to l^e 
 noted, the interchange of remarks be- 
 tween actors and spectators. Of this 
 there is space to mention but two exam- 
 ples. In the ])rologue to the Captivi of 
 Plautus, the prologist, after outlining 
 
 10 The basis of his calcinations of the seating 
 capacity of the theaters, and of the Coliseum is 
 the number of linear feet of seating-space avail- 
 able. If this number could V:>e calculated 
 exactly (the ccmdition of the ruins unfortunate- 
 ly makes this imi)ossible), it would be easy to 
 get the total of seats by allotting 16 inches 
 to each spectator (see above, page U7). Any- 
 one who has ever been at pains to check up 
 popular or newspaper conceptions of the 
 seating-capacity of modern buildings, ball- 
 grounds, etc., will put no faith in ancient 
 estimates of seating capacity. 
 
204 
 
 ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 the somewhat intricate plot of the play, 
 says to the spectators, ''Plave I said 
 enough? Do you understand the plot?" 
 Thev answer in the affirmative, all save 
 one, for the prologist exclaims, ''By 
 Jove, there's a man in the back who says 
 No. M}' good sir, come nearer. If 
 vou can't find room to sit down, vou can 
 
 Wliat? I know nothing, I see nothing, I 
 go blindly, I cannot tell whither to go or 
 where I am or who I am. I pray you, 
 spectators kind, help me, help me, and 
 show me the man who stole it. (Follows 
 a voice from the audience:) What's that 
 you say, sir? I'm resolved to trust you; I 
 know by ?/o?^r face that you are an honest 
 man. What's that you say? (Then to 
 the other spectators.) What's the matter? 
 
 FIG. 22. SCENE FROM THE ALCESTIS OF EURIPIDES, AS GIVEN IN THE GREEK THEATER OF 
 
 BRADFIELD COLLEGE, BERKSHIRE. 
 
 find room to icalk'' (there is a play on 
 words here: loalk is meant to suggest 
 " walk out of the theater") . In the Aulu- 
 laria of Plant us the miser, who has just 
 lost the pot of gold he had been jealously 
 guarding, rushing on the stage in wild 
 excitement, cries: 
 
 I'm dead, I'm killed, I'm slain! Whither 
 shall I run? Hold! Hold' Whom? Columbia University. 
 
 What are you laughing at? I know you: 
 I know there's many a thief here, many 
 a wolf in sheep's clothing. (Then to 
 the one honest man:) What, what? None 
 of these spectators has it? You've 
 killed me. Tell me, who has it, who has 
 it? You don't know? Ah me, poor 
 luckless wight, I'm slain, I'm killed, I'm 
 dead ! 
 
204 
 
 ART AM) ARC HAKOLOGY 
 
 the somcwliat intricate ]^lot of the ])lay, 
 says to the s])eetat(^r.s, ''Have I said 
 enoujih? Do you understand the i)lot?" 
 They answer in the affirmative, all save 
 one, for the prolofiist exclaims. '^B}^ 
 Jov(\ there's a man in tlie hack who sa3'S 
 A'o. M}' good sir. come nearer. If 
 vou can't find room to sit down, you can 
 
 AVhat? I know nothin*:;. I see nothhiti;. I 
 go i)Hndly, I cannot tell whitlier to go or 
 where I am or who 1 am. I i)ray you, 
 spectators khid, help me, iielp me. and 
 sliow me the man who stole it. ( FoHows 
 a voice from the audience:) Wliat's that 
 vou sav, sir? I'm resolved to trust i/oic I 
 know by //o//r face tliat j/ou are an iionest 
 man. Wliat's that you say? (Then to 
 the other spectators. I What's the matter? 
 
 I 
 
 Ffd. ■2-2. SCKAK FROM THE Al/JESTIS OF F:L'IHFII)ES. AS (IIVEX IN THE GKEEK THEATEll OF 
 
 BllADFIELD COLEECJE. BEKKSHIHE. 
 
 find room to ?rr///.'' (there is a play on 
 words here: icalL- is meant to suggest 
 'Svalk out of the theater'') . In the Aulu- 
 laria of Plautus the miser, who has just 
 lost the pot of gold he had l)een jealously 
 guarding, rushing on the stage in wild 
 excitement, cries: 
 
 I'm dead, I'm killed. I'm slain! Whither 
 shall 1 rmi^ HoUl! HoUl' Whom".' 
 
 AVhat are you laughhig at? I \u\o\y ij on: 
 I know there's manv a thief here, manv 
 a wolf in sheep's clot lung. (Then to 
 the one honest man:) What, what '.^ None 
 of these spectators has it? You've 
 killed me. Tell me, who has it, who has 
 it? You don't know? Ah me, ]ioor 
 luckless wight, I'm slain, I'm killed, I'm 
 dead ! 
 
 Coin tn hid r'///"/V7'.vv7'/.