1 ITA. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1919, No. 57 EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN JAPAN By WALTER A. IVraNTGOMERY SPECIALIST DM FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS [Advance Sheets from the Biennial Survey of Elducation. 1916-1918] WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1919 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATtON MAY BE PROCITRED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS government printing office M’AS inNGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN JAPAN. By Walteu a. Montgomeby, Specialist in Foreign Educational Systems. Contents. — General educational activities — Elementary instruction — Middle schools — High .schools for girls — Higher schools — Normal schools — Special schools — Vocational schools — Technical continuation schools — Higher education — Japanese educational work in Formosa. GENERAL EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES.' The chief educational undertakings during the year covered by the report were necessitated by the urgent economic conditions of the Japanese Empire, which were, as those of all other countries of the world, profoundly affected by the war. The immediate prob- lem, as avowed by the minister of education, was to cultivate in every line of governmental activity the powers of the Japanese people as directed toward the material development of national resources. Every opportunity, such as conferences of local school and secular authorities, of school direetors, and lecture institutes, was system- atically utilized to emphasize essential points in national education, and in turn to obtain the mature opinions of all classes and individ- uals qualified to speak. A board appointed by the Department of Education investigated the educational and social conditions of the leading countries of the world, and reports of their findings were published at regular inteiwals, being sent to all local authorities, civil and educational, to the heads of all educational institutions above the elementary grade, and to all persons connected in an administrative capacity with education. As was to be expected from the express avowal of educational pur- poses, the progress in technical education was most marked. Indeed, Japan’s unique educational fusion of traditional training in the national humanistic studies with that in modern science, precludes changes in any save the latter. Additional technical schools wore established in a number of centers under the direct control of tlie department; and vigorous measures were taken to establish close and helpful relations between them and local industries and business interests. A cardinal purpose of these schools is to train competent teachers rapidly, and to distribute them in parts of the Empire where their need is felt to be most urgent. The activity of the several groups of educational workers did not slack en during the year covered. Conferences were held of direc tors * This study is based upon the 43d annual report of the Minister of State for Education. 1916—16. Translated and published by the Department of Education, Tokyo, 1918. 133405'’— 19 3 4 BIENNIAL SUEVEY OF EDUCATION, 1 !* 16 - 1918 . of higlier schools, directors of special schools of medicine, directors of special technical schools, directors of higher normal schools for men and for women, and directors of middle schools. In accordance with the centralized Jajianese system, cei’tain questions deemed most urgent of solution were selected in advance and submitted to each group for discussion; as a result, many helpful suggestions were forwarded to the minister for his consideration. Besides, the regular lecture institutes for teachers of elementary grade were held in the duly prescribed rotation of time and place, at which systematic in- struction was imparted in the subjects deemed most needed for the particular group. Especial stress was naturally laid upon the insti- tutes for teachers of industry, agi'iculture, and commerce. Both in subject and methods, war-time needs were had in view throughout. A far-reaching innovation was the initiation of a lecture institute for school insiiectors designed “ to impart general knowledge of the system of elementary' education and of pedagogical administration to persons having direct supervision over local education, such as pre- fectural and district inspectoi-s. Applicants are admitted upon the recommendation of the governmental officials of the respective locali- ties.’’ The subjects taught are of interest for their practical nature: National morality, pedagogics, educational administration, and the examination of elementaij school books dealing with morality, the Japanese language and history, school hygiene, and practice in teaching art, science, manual arts, and gymnastics. A lecture institute on school hygiene was also initiated with the imiqiose of training intensively persons having charge of school sani- tation. Besides the stiuctly technical branches, such vital topics as hygienics, epidemiology, educational pathology, treatment of defec- tive children, theoretical gymnastics, and school sanitary^ administra- tion were emphasized. As going to show the unique solidarity’ of Japanese education and as a model of educational cooperation, it is of interest to note that the lectures for tliese institutes Avere drawn from all the higher institutions, such as the Imperial UniA’ersity of Tokyo, related higher technical schools, the higher normal schools, and the imperial colleges of medicine. In this connection may be mentioned the remarkable work, both in theory and in popular relief ivork actually done, of the institute for the study of infectious diseases. Though not essentially peila- gogical, the preeminent A alue of this institute to national education was recognized during the year covered in the report, and it ivas init definitely under the control of the minister of education, and formally’ annexed to the Imperial University of Toky’o. Examinations of pathological specimens submitted, investigation of locally prevalent diseases, treatment of patients, dissection of subjects, preparation of serums, and holding lecture institutes ivere parts of the manifold EDUCATIONAL, CONDITIONS IN JAPAN. 5 activities of this organization. Under the system of sending promis- ing students for study abroad, formally inaugurated in 1912, a total of 13 were sent during the year 1915-16 to the United States, 9 to England, and 1 each to China and Switzerland. Courses in applied sciences were almost exclusively their chosen fields. A movement to foster respect for elementary education is seen in the imperial regulations I’elating to letters of merit in elementary education, designed to honor meritorious persons connected with that branch. They are liestowed by the minister of education, on local evidence and the recommendation of a special committee, and are published in the Official Gazette. The recipients are elementary school teachers, the heads of municipalities, members of elementary school committees, and school physicians. During the year 1915-16 this honor was received by 48 persons. The committee for the investigation of school books and charts is another manifestation of the efficiency which prevails in all depart- ments of Japanese education. Appointed by and under the super- vision of the minister of education, it works in three sections, tlio first examining and recasting books, charts, and manuscripts dealing with ethics, the second with history, and the third with the Japanese language. ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. Elementary .schools are divided into ordinary elementai’y and higher elementary, the former obligatory upon cities, towns, or vil- lages, and extending over six years ; and the latter covering two years additional, or three years, as local boards may decree, and provide funds for maintenance. Supplementary courses in continuation subjects, or in the development of subjects already taught, may be established by the approval of the minister of education. A third type of elementary school is that in which, under the same roof, the ordinary and the higher elementary courses of one or more years are conjointly established. It is an interesting adaptation on oriental soil of the school consolidation movement, the progress of which has been so marked in the rural districts of certain States of the Union during the past few years. A significant feature is that as compared with the figures of the preceding year, the schools of the individual type decreased, the ordinary elementary schools by 224, the higher schools by 23. In those of composite character, the mixture of ordinary and higher elementary schools, there was an increase of 267, a step evidently recommended on the scores both of convenience of access and econ- omy of maintenance. In 1915-16 there were in attendance upon the ordinary elementary schools 5,840,268 boys and girls, a decrease of 156,000 from the preceding year. This perhaps may be explained 6 BIEXNIAL SURVEY 0I-’ EDUCATION, lill6-1918. on the assumption that even in Japan tlie well-adjninisterecl law of | compulsory elementary school attendance had to yield in face of the 1 heavy economic pressure upon the body of the people and the demand of the av erage family for the wages of the children. The total number of those who had comjDleted the ordinary elementai‘y school cour^^e, ami were in attendance upon the higher elementary course was 1,773.- 0il9, showing a decrease of 24,000 from the preceding year, perhaps to Ije explained on the same assumption as above. Somewhat fewer than 100,000 pupils were allowed to postpone school attendance, and nearly 125,000 were exempted from obligatory school attendance. The average percentage, for both sexes, of attendance upon pre- scribed course of instruction makes an even better showing than for the preceding year, being 98.47 as compared with 98.26. Teachers in elementary schools . — In 1915-16, 99,292 men and 42,830 women taught in the ordinary elementary schools of Japan, an in- crease of nearly 2,000 men and slightly more than 1,000 women. In the higher elementary schools 17,890 men and 2,980 women were teachers, the numbers being practically static. Salurles . — Eleven categories of teachers in elementally schools, ac- cording to the salary received, show salaries ranging from 5 j^en ^ ( probationaiy) to 105 yen monthly, the three categories which re- ceive from 10 to 25 yen including more than two-thirds of the total. regions . — In accordance with the law relating to pensions for re- tired teachers and to the families of deceased teachers in elementary schools, 1,741,959.367 yen was apportioned for pensions, and 1,715,- 007,397 yen was expended, a marked increase over the preceding year. In addition an educational fund was created in 1916 for the relief of public elementary teachers. Loans to municipal bodies, appro- priations for the encouragement of elementary schools, for needy children, for prizes and bonuses for regular attendance, for salaries of elementary teachers in remote districts, for the encouragement and investigation of poi)ular education, and for all purposes approved by the minister of education come within the purview of this most useful fund. A stock fund for additional salaries to teachers in elementary schools was created in 1900 by special law and by im- jierial ordinance, such relief to be recommended by local authorities, and approved by the minister of education. Under these provisions about 70,000 teachers received slightly over 2,500,000 yen in addi- tion to regidar salaries. MIDDLE SCHOOLS. Leaving the elementary school of both grades, the student is stiuck with the small numbers enrolled in the middle schools, both public and private, only 141,215, or 4 per cent of the number in the ' The yen is worth abent 46 cents. EDUCATIONAIi CONDITIONS IN JAPAN, 7 elementary, being listed for 1915-16. No cluuiges in courses or ad- ministration, and an increase of only 2,000 pupils in attendance are to be noted for this grade of instruction ; boys 12 years and over, gradu- ates of ordinary" elementary schools are admitted, and the course extends over five years. The situation is significant of the essen- tially aristocratic character of Japanese education. The clientele of the middle schools is exclusively the official, military, and wealthy merchant classes, who desire for their sons the training necessary for these, and the university and other specialized careers. Foi their purposes the instruction and methods of the middle schools are admirably thorough and efficient. The courses are closely articu- lated with the advanced lines above mentioned, and the teachers are carefully selected for their training and competence. Interest- ing features are the steady increase during the past few j^ears of the number of foreigners among them, there being 81 in 1915-16 out of a total of 6,443, and the subsequent careers of the graduates of regu- lar cotu-ses of the public middle schools. Business and the advanced special schools and special technical schools have attracted over 40 per cent of the total of nearly 20,000. HIGH SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS. Corresponding to the middle schools for boys in aim and govern- mental establishment, but falling below them in curriculum, are the high schools for girls. Provisions for their establishment are identi- cal, both public and private, with those for the boys’ middle schools. A marked feature in this division of education was, for the year cov- ered, the expansion of domestic science courses, and the further pro- vision made for girls’ high schools offering only domestic courses, and denominated officially “ Domestic high' schools for girls.” Those admitted to the course must be above the age of 12 and be graduates from ordinary elementary schools, or girls of equivalent attainments. The course of study extends over four years, when the graduates from ordinary ele- mentary schools are admitted ; over three years when the applicants for admis- sion have completed the tirst-j^ear course of higher elementary schools ; over two ('!• three years when they have completed the second-year course of higher ele- mentary schools ; and over two years when the domestic course is taken after the higher elementary school. Those who wish to study one or more subjects in the domestic course may be admitted as elective pupils. Supplementary courses of not more than two years may be provided in the regular high schools or in the domestic high schools for girls for the benefit of their graduates. A post- graduate course of two or three years may be provided only in regular high schools for the benefit of those graduates who wish to study some particular subjects as their specialty. Similarly to the two middle schools attached to the higher normals for men the Government maintains two high schools for girls at- tached to the Tokyo and the Nara Higher Normal School for Women. Together they enrolled, for the year covered, abort 900 students, a 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1I>16-1918. sliglit incTeu.se over tlie preceding v'ear. There were also 1C2 public high schools for girls, enrolling 58,009 students, and 125 pnlilic iloinestic high schools for girls, enrolling 17,370 students. Under priATxte management there were 59 high schools for girls, enrolling 16,889 students, and 18 domestic high schools for girls, enrolling 2,7-17 students. A slight increase in all enrollments over that for the preceding year is seen. HIGHER SCHOOLS. A trend visible for the past four years in the higher schools is noteworthy. Higher schools, as the tenn is used in Japan, are sec- ondary institutions for boys in which preparatory courses are of- fered for entrance into the imperial universities. There are eight such schools, located in centers of population and industiy. As originally contemplated in the ordinance relating to higher schools (1905), the higher schools were also to provide special courses in professional training, and they did so provide them until the de- velopment of these into independent institutions, which then ranked as special technical schools. With this, all such appended courses disa|3peared, during the year under consideration, from the cur- riculum of the higher schools. For admission to higher schools, graduation from middle schools, or the passing of test examinations prescribed, along with careful physical examination, is required. Following, therefore, exclusiA^ely the narrower field of preparation for the imperial universities, the Avork of the higher schools has come to be divided into three departments, devoted respectiA^ely to the preparation of students for the college of law or literature; for the college of pharmacy, engineering, science, or agriculture ; and for the college of medicine. NORMAL SCHOOLS. In Japan the normal training of teachers is given in — (1) Normal schools aiming to train teachei's for elementary schools, of which there must be at least one in each prefecture. They admit to the first section graduates of the higher elementary schools of three-year courses, graduates of their own preparatory course, and boys of 15 or girls of 11, at the discretion of the director ; and to the second section graduates of middle schools or boys of 17 and girls of 16, at the discretion of the director. The courses in each section coA^er one year. 2, {a) The tAvo higher noiTiial schools for men, Avhich train teach- ers for normal schools, middle schools, and girls’ high schools. ( h ) The two higher schools for women, ti’aining teachers for girls’ normals, girls’ departments in normals, and high schools for girls. Both admit graduates of elementary normal schools and of public and piTA'ate middle schools on competitive examinations. The EDUCATION.^L COETDITIOS'S IN’ JAPAIf. 9 courses in both are identical, except for inaniial arts and domestic arts courses, and extend over three years. As in the case of the higher normal schools, an elementary school for practice teaching must be attached to each elementaiy normal school, and, in the case of normal schools admitting 'women, a kinder- garten also. Under special circumstances, and ^yith the consent of the minister, local authorities may permit the substitution of already existent public or private elementary schools or kindergartens con- venient of access in place of the required observation and practice schools required by la'w. For rapid training of teachers for technical schools a number of institutes were founded in 1915-16 which were of the nature of schools attached to colleges of the imperial univei'sities and higher technical schools, and designed to use the already existent advan- tages of buildings, laboratories, and observation schools for the teaching of younger pupils. Special ordinances of the Department of Education allowed exemption from fees and expenses on the stu- dents contracting to serve as teachers in technical schools. Japan’s system of teacher training is the result of a careful study of European institutions. She has borrowed whatever she judged best in the educational polity of each country. Her system is there- fore of an essentially composite order. Its original features, how- ever, constitute a valuable attempt to adopt diverse elements. SPECIAL SCHOOLS. Mention has been made of the development of certain courses, originally incorporated in the curriculum of the higher schools, into special courses, and later into independent special schools. These are designed to give only advanced training in professional subjects; and only men and women are admitted who have completed the prescribed curriculum in middle schools, or in high schools for girls, with at least a four years’ course, and other men and women of maturity and approved attainments. In the case of special schools in which fine arts and music are taught admission is left to the decision of the minister of education. Under this important class of schools the Government maintains [a) five special schools of medicine at important points, enrolling 2,375 students in 1915-16; (5) the Tokyo School of Foreign Lan- guages, enrolling 604 students, offering instruction in 12 languages and extending over three j^ears or for a shorter course of two years. In response to a decided demand, a course in Portuguese was sub- stituted in place of Siamese. The eni’ollment of this school was 604 pupils, an increase oF 14 per cent over the preceding year; (c) the Tokyo Fine Arts School, enrolling 547 students, and the Tokyo Academy of Mnsic. enrolling 593 students, an increase of 12 per cent over preceding year. 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 101&-1918. In addition to these governmental schools, five public schools of medicine, pharmacy, and fine arts were maintained by communes; and 53 in literature and the sciences were maintained by private supports VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS. Vocational schools, for the distinctive training of boys intending to engage in productive labor such as manufactures, agriculture, and commerce, are of five kinds, technical, agricultural, commercial, nauti- cal, and continuation. Technical education is olfered of primary grade, embracing practical subjects in crafts, arts, and sciences, and such subjects of study as ethics, Japanese mathematics, general science, and gymnastics. Elasticity is given these courses by the addition of other subjects demanded by local circumstances, and the dropping of still others, except ethics and those bearing directly on the branch studied. A subdivision of these is the apprentices’ schools, covering not less than six months nor more than four years. In the school proper the course is not more than three yeai’S. Great flexibility also is allowed in the qualifications for admis- sion, these varying extensively in various localities. Technical edu- cation of secondary grade is of similar nature to the primary, but more formal, less flexible, and more inclusive of the sciences and the theoretical side of technical training. Schools of this grade may be attached to any middle school of two years’ duration, and special courses may be arranged for boys in business or at work. Only pu- pils may be admitted to this grade of schools who have attained the age of 14 years, graduated from a higher elementary school of two years’ course, or who possess equivalent attainments. Requirements for teachers in this grade of schools are also quite rigorous. In 1915-16 the number of technical schools was 9,001, an increase of 553 over the preceding year, and that of the private technical schools was 366, an increase of 20. Approximately 95,000 pupils were en- rolled in all schools of this kind, exclusive of continuation schools. TECHNICAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. These schools freely admit graduates of an ordinary elementary school, or boys of equal attainments, if not less than 14 years of age. In the judgment of the authorities, even this requirement may be waived, provided the applicant is under no further obligation to attend an ordinary elementary school. Ages and maturity of boys in attendance on these schools vary greatly, as do length of courses, school periods, season, and hours of the school sessions. All are left to the judgment of the individual school authorities. These very important schools in 1915-16 enrolled 407,600 male pu- ‘ Fiirurea of enrollment were not arailable. EPUCATIOXAI. ('03v"^l)ITT0XS Tl\ JAPAIv. 11 pils and 89.601 females, an inei’ease of nearly 50.000 of both sexes over the preceding year. HIGHER EDUCATION. No change in the courses or administration of higher education is to be chronicled for the year 1915-16, the last for which re- ports are available. Among educational ordinances of the ministry of public instruction, external to the miperial universities, but closely affecting them, was that which placed private and munici- pal institutions of higher instruction which comply with standards laid down by the ministry on a par with the imperial universities, in that the graduates of the former will have equal advantages in competing for civil-service positions. This is regarded as a govern- mental step entailing far-reaching consequences in Government serv- ice. Details of its provisions are as yet unavailable. Considerable material and financial extensions are planned for the future. The Government intends to devote -14,000,000 yen 934,000) to extend the agencies of higher education, this sum to be a continuing expenditure extending over six years from 1919-20 to 1924-25. Of this sum, 39,500,000 j^en ($18,690,750) is to be ex- pended on the building and extension of schoolhouses and 4,500,000 yen ($2,243,250) on the training of teachers. It is proposed that the greater part of the latter sum be appropriated to the costs of dispatching and maintaining students abroad. The proposal is to establish, in addition to the higher educational institutions already in existence, 10 high schools, 17 technical and commercial schools, 1 foreign-language school, and 1 school of phar- macy, besides extending the present colleges and organizing new ones. It is expected that the program will be completely cari-ied into execution in the course of six yeai’S, and that teaching at the new institutions will commence in 1925. As already reported, the Emperor has contributed the sum of 10,000,000 yen ($4,985,000) toward the necessary funds, and the balance is to be met by public bonds or temporary loans. It may be added that in the educational year 1917-18 about 56,000 students applied for admission to public and private higher and special schools, while the capacity of these schools was only sufficient to ac- commodate 14,000.^ JAPANESE EDUCATIONAL WORK IN FORMOSA." (A sketch of provincial educational administration.) The administration of the schools in the island of Formosa by the Japanese Department of Education has constituted throughout a remarkable record of progress in the face of serious olwtacles. ' .Japan Chroniclp of -Tan. 8, ^ This sketcii is based upon the repoi t compiled by the Department of Educational Affairs of the Government of Formosa, 1916. 12 BIENJ^riAL SURVEY OE EDUCATION, 1916-1918. Formosa passed to Japan by cession from China in April, 1895. Very similar to the troubles encountered by the United States au- thorities upon their occupation of the Philippine Islands, racial and religious problems at once asserted themselves, taking shape in uprisings and forays on the part of rebellious natives. After two months of military activities, the condition of the island was re- garded as suthciently settled to allow the initiation of a system of education. The provisional office for the Department of Education was accordingly opened in the city of Taihoku; and the active di- rector at once proceeded to establish schools in the most suitable localities, housed generally in the temple buildings, which were the only structures left intact. The question of language was at once to the fore. The native children of Chinese descent were, of course, averse to learning the language of the new rulers. The patience and skill, however, of the pioneer teachers were beginning to triumph and to show results, when the smouldering opposition again flared out in open violence. By preconcerted plot an attack was made upon all remote schools, and many teachers were killed. But the plans of the department were retarded onl}'^ for a short time. By imperial ordinance the organization of the schools was put under military protection, new schools were built, and old ones I'estored and enlarged. These latter consisted entirely of the so-called language institutes, located in the larger towns, and grouped around the nucleus of the original native private schools, called the “ reading and writing halls.” These lan- guage institutes now became the basis of the new system. Recognizing as the immediate task the teaching of the Japanese language to the native children, the department called for Japanese teachers as vol- unteers for the work' in Formosa. This picked body of men and women received intensive instruction for three months in the native Formosan language, and was then distributed among the several schools. F ollowing up the policy of preparing teachers, preferably native, a normal-school department was annexed to the language school proper, and to it fell the task of supplying the needed teachers. With the pacification of the island, the growth of the elementary schools was so rapid that the Government could not wait for the first graduates of the newly-established normal schools, and seven distinct times the policy of training Japanese volunteers for the native schools was repeated. In the very maintenance of the latter, innumerable difficulties, inlierent in the situation, had to be over- come. Chief among these were the fickleness of the native popula- tion, which, with the wearing off of the novelty of the schools, became wearied with the alien discipline enforced upon them; their superstitious and religious scruples; the dissemination of false EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN JAPAN. 13 rumors as to the subjects taught and methods used ; the deep-seated antipathy of the influential classes to Japan and all things Japa- nese, and their contempt for the Japanese teachers; the hostility on the part of the teachers and parents to the elimination of the tradi- tionally beloved “ reading and writing halls,” ivith their support from fees and their exclusive concentration upon the Chinese classics; the physical difficulties in the way of attendance even in districts reduced to order; and the teirorizing of even favorable parents by threats and the violence of predatory gangs. In the face of all these difficulties, however, steady luogress was made. The military impress left upon the schools gradually dis- appeared, as the respect of the natives for schools and teachers grew. A most important phase of the change of attitude Avas the reconcilia- tion of the natives to Formosan youths taking Avork in the S 3 ^stem. The work of these pioneer teachers covers, roughl}’, three 3 'ears, closing in 1898, when the Japanese language institutes Avere foi'ma!l 3 ' organized into regular public schools. B 3 ' successive logical ste])S, each of wider scope, the administration of educational a flairs in Formosa came finall 3 ^, in 1911, under the control of the educational department of the imperial ciAul GoA^ernment, which is its present status. It operates in two sections, a highlA’ centralized govern- mental section, and a locall 3 ^ representatiA^e bod 3 ’, composed of men of experience, A^ested with special powers in the matter of school supjAort and finances. In content and method, practical educational Avork in Fonnosa has, for compelling reasons of race diA^ersities, grouped itself under three headings, named in the order of their establishment b 3 ^ the Japanese authorities: (1) Work for the natiA'es of Chinese descent; ( 2 ) work for the aborigines, and (3) work for Japanese children. Education of children of native F orrnosans of Chinese descent . — Elementary general or public education for the children of natiA^e Formosans of Chinese descent constitutes the ke 3 'stone of the S 3 'stem, and has undergone many modifications and revisions before reach- ing its final state. Establishment of neAv schools had at first been made too eas 3 ", and had been accompanied by a corresponding laxity in providing for their maintenance. The permission of the Gover- nor General, instead of. as formerl 3 ", the local goA^ernor, effected a needed centralization, and stopped the duplication of local educa- tional plants. The age for attendance was extended to cover from 7 to 20 years, instead of 16; but only 6 years, under special circum- stances shortened to I, are required; and a latitude of 2 or even 3 years is allowed beyond the age of 7 years for beginning school. The subjects taught in the six compulsory years are identical with those in the imperial schools. In the shortened four- 3 "ear course science is omitted. Courses in agi'iculture, mechanics, and commerce are added wherever approA^ed by the authorities. In all these public 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OE EDUCATION, 1916-1918. schools only practical ends are had in view. Their beneficial results are everywhere evident.. The Japanese and Formosans are bi-ought more closely together; the importance of the Japanese language is felt more and more keenly. Many public schools have been estab- lished at the request of the natives themselves. Another interestincf formative result that has also manifested itself is the steadily in- creasing number of well-trained Japanese teachers attracted to the Formosan sc'hools. Higher instruction for natiA'e boys is represented by a few middle schools of four years, admitting boys of 13 who have completed the fourth year of the public schools, by girls’ schools attached to the language schools, and by higher Japanese language departments at- tached to the language schools for boys and girls. The unique feature of this grade of instruction, induced by difference of conditions from those in Japan proper, is the training offered in them for teachers of public elementary schools. This is done by means of an annexed normal school of two divisions, the higher for prospective Japanese teachers, with special training in the native Formosan language, and the lower for native teachers. Industrial education for native Formosans is provided in the Industrial Training Institute, the industrial department of the language school at Taihoku, and two experimental farm schools not under the Department of Education, but under the direct control of the Governor General. A further step is the provision of higher general education, combined with the industrial, in the Japanese language course of the language school at Taihoku, though, as 3 ^ct, the demand for this by native Formosans is limited. An interesting survival from pre- Japanese days, as well as a sig- nificant proof of the wisdom of the Japanese authorities, is the exist- ence of the “ reading and writing halls.” These are private schools established and conducted by native teachers. They have weathered very adverse conditions; they were long regarded by the Japanese authorities as dangerous to Japanese rule; and they were often near extinction. But they always maintained an influence too strong to be ignored. Socially and ethnologically, they are the hvst and most typical reiiresentatives of the Formosan civilization. They are allowed individual independence and great latitude in courses and methods. Each is under the nominal control of the local civil author- ity, which generally pursues the good-natured policy of encouraging their adoption of modern subjects, especially the Japanese language and arithmetic, rather than forcibly compelling it, and seeks by tactful methods to bring about a closer acquaintance and union with the public-school teachers and schools. The schoolhouse is generally the residence of tlie master, or some buildings connected with the local Chinese temple, the religious a.ssociations of the school of this EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN JAPAN, 15 type constituting one of its strongest holds upon the initives. Chil- dren are generally admitted at 7 and continue until 14 or 15. The center of work is of course the Chinese classics, with no fixed course outlined; penmanship is stressed in connection with the literaiw Avork. AdA-anced pupils learn recitation, composition, and versifi- cation, all rigorously based upon the classics. Despite the wishes of the Japanese educational administration, these schools increased in the period 1912 to 1915 from 541 to fill, and their enrollment from 16,000 to 19,000, in round numbers, an en- rollment of almost exactly one-third of the total enrollment of natiA^e Formosans in the official public schools. This constitutes Avhat is apparently the only problem that has baffled the Japanese educa- tional department in its career in Formosa. Elementm^ school, for (Aborigines. — Ea’cii greater conseiwatism had to be encountered in dealing with the partly ciAulized aborigines than has been seen in the case of the natiA’es of Chinese descent. With the sweeping reorganization of the primitiA-e language institutes into the public school system, exception had frankly to be made for the aborigines. Their primitiA e language institutes were retained, and after many years and tentative modifications. deA’eloped into a pub- lic school system quite different from that in operation for the Chinese descendants. Only four years' attendance is re(]uired: the subjects taught are only morals, Japanese, and arithmetic. Agricul- ture, manual training, and singing may be added, in the case of tribes intellectually more advanced. Supreme control is A^ested in the local civil authorities, who are alloAved Avide discretion in all matters concerning these schools. Children are admitted at 8 years of age. An encouraging growth in the popularity of these schools, and increase in numbers, has been evident. Native aboriginal youths have come forward as candidates for teachers; approximately 3,000 pupils were enrolled in 1915 in 23 schools, an increase of over 500 pupils since 1913. Education* of Jnpamese children in Formosa . — The education of Japanese cliildren whose parents are residents of Formosa is con- ducted along substantially the same lines as prevail in imperial Japan proper. For administration purposes, and by imperial ordinance, the tfovernor General of the island corresponds to the imperial })re- fectural governor, and the local civil authority to those of toAvns and cities in Japan proper. Encouragement is offered to promising pupils to proceed to the imperial schools, and this is made easy by close articulation of subjects and courses. It is interesting to note also that an increasing number of native Formosan students go each year to complete their education in the schools of Imperial Japan. The Government is alive to the importance of encouraging this tendency. 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1916-1918. and in 1907 the oflice of student superintendent in Tokyo was created, with especial charge of the proficiency and conduct of all Formosan students resident in Japan. With this official, the authorities of all institutions enrolling Formosan students must closely cooperate. As has been indicated, the Japanese Government, soon after its oc- cupation of Formosa, recognized that the training of native teachers for the native schools was a matter of vital necessity if the natives were to be won over to acceptance of the public schools, and, through them, of the Japanese rule and language. An index of the attitude of the natives in both these respects was constituted by the number of Formosan youth who came forward as teacher candidates. Prog- ress in this respect has been steady and gratifying, 619 graduates of such training having gone into school work in the 13 years of its existence. Several local institutions have been abolished. Normal instruction for natives is now organized solely in the B (or lower) division of the public-school course in the normal-school department of the Language School at Taihoku. Candidates from 14 to years of age, with certificates of graduation from the six years’ public school, are admitted after examination upon elementary Japanese and arithmetic. The four years’ course covers ethics, pedagogy, Japanese language, Chinese classics, geography, mathematics, science, drawing, music, agriculture, and gymnastics. Manual training and commercial subjects are optional. All expenses are defrayed by the Japanese Government. “ The aim of the educational work of this department is to make the graduates the embodiment of the ideal of the public-school education which is to bring about the dilfusion of the Japanese language, the cultivation of the spirit of loyalty and obedience, and the encouragement of the habit of honest labor among the people.” “The source of general education in Formosa” is the significant name bestowed upon it. For teachers already actively engaged, teachers’ training extension work during the summers is systematically forwarded by the educa- tion authorities. Under the direct control of the Government, in- structors and lecturers travel the round of assigned circuits, a system which has advantageously supplanted the old one of gathering many pupils into one place. The other side of the wmrk, that done by the local authorities, is probably more successful in reaching closely the mass of native teachers. All native and J apanese teachers of the dis- trict meet, and a point is made of inviting all teachers of the old- style “ reading and writing halls.” Perhaps no other one influence is so potent in leading the way to some realization — however embry- onic at present — of the essential unity of Japanese education in Formosa. o