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-7 
 
 Internation al Health Exhibition, 
 
 LONDON, 1884. 
 
 THE 
 
 HEALTH EXHIBITION 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 VOLUME VI. 
 HEALTH IN DIET. 
 
 LECTURES. 
 
 DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 
 
 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 PURE MILK. THE ENGLISH DAIRY. THE DANISH DAIRY. 
 
 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ^STHETICAL USE of WINE AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON HEALTH. 
 
 PRINTED AND PUBLISHED FOR THE 
 
 (gnruiib^ Crrmicil of \\t |ntcrnalion:il fjcaltb (!;vlnbition, 
 anb for \\t dTounnl flf i\t ^ocutn of ^rts, 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, Limited, 
 
 INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION, 
 
 AND 13, CHARING CROSS, S.W. 
 
 1884. 
 
V. b 
 
 LONDON : 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 
 STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 
 
LECTURES. 
 
 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND THE CHEMICAL PRO-' 
 CESSES OF DIGESTION. By Professor Arthur Gamgee, 
 M.D., F.R.S I 
 
 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. By Edmund 
 Owen, M,B., F.R.C.S. With an Introduction by Charles 
 West, M.D., F.R.C.P. . 37 
 
 PRACTICAL DIETETICS, ESPECIALLY IN RELATION TO 
 PRESERVED AND CONDENSED FOODS. By Professor 
 F. DE Chaumont, M.D., F.R.S 59 
 
 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. By Professor 
 Charles Graham, D.Sc, F.I.C 83 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. By W. Mattieu Williams hi 
 
 PURE MILK. By G. W. Wigner, F.LC, F.C.S 135 
 
 THE ENGLISH DAIRY. By Professor J. P. Sheldon . .157 
 
 THE DANISH DAIRY. By Alexander Mariboe . . .177 
 
 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. By Miss Smithard .... 195 
 
 THE /ESTHETICAL USE OF WINE AND ITS INFLUENCE 
 
 UPON HEALTH. By J. L. W. Thudichum, M.D., F.R.C.P. 209 
 
THE 
 
 DIGESTIVE FERMENTS 
 
 CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 
 
 BY 
 
 Professor ARTHUR GAMGEE, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 VOL. VI. — II. r* 
 
LECTURES ON THE DIGESTIVE FER- 
 ments and the chemical pro- 
 jcesses of digestion. 
 
 By Professor ARTHUR Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 July ist. 
 
 Professor Huxley, F.R.S., in the Chair. 
 
 The Chairman said the lecture about to be given was 
 upon one of the most important topics, by a gentleman of 
 high reputation as a physiologist, competent to give the 
 best information in the most accessible shape, and in the 
 shortest possible time. He need not dilate on the import- 
 ance of digestion to every one, because probably there were 
 very few who had not had considerable practical experi- 
 mental evidence upon that point. Without going so far as 
 to say, as a well-known cynic once did, that the two 
 things desired in this life for happiness were to have a good 
 digestion and no conscience, there was no question whatever 
 of the great desirability of having a good digestion. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 The Saliva and tJie Gastric Juice, and their Action on Food. 
 
 In the lecture I am about to deliver before you I desire, 
 in as elementary a manner as possible, to direct your atten- 
 tion to the earlier of the chemical processes of digestion, 
 reserving- for a second lecture certain other parts of the 
 
 subject. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 In thanking you, Mr. Chairman, for the honour you have 
 done me in presiding on this occasion, permit me to say that 
 your presence makes me wish that I could allow myself to 
 enter on some of the higher developments of the subject : 
 but at the same time it reminds me that you have conspicu- 
 ously shown that it is one of the functions of the scientific 
 man to take his share in popularising scientific knowledge. 
 
 In the short time at my disposal I wish to direct the 
 attention of my audience to the chemical, as distinguished 
 from the mechanical processes of digestion, and particularly 
 to speak of those remarkable bodies, the so-called " unformed 
 ferments" of the alimentary canal, and to point out in how 
 many respects they difier from the other class of organised 
 ferments. Want of time prevents my speaking, in how- 
 ever elementary a manner, of the food of animals, but 
 I trust that at the present time every one looks upon food 
 as matter which has to be taken, not only to make up 
 for the loss of matter which is continually going on in the 
 case of the animal body, but that which has to supply the 
 animal with the Energy which it requires to perform all 
 those numerous acts which together constitute life. 
 
 Let us take man as a type of the animal ; the food of the 
 animal body comprises solid alimentary substances and 
 liquid alimentary substances ; the latter consist almost 
 entirely of water, and the former also contain no small 
 quantity of water ; indeed as a rule very much more water 
 than solid matter. These solid alimentary substances 
 may be divided into organic, and inorganic or mineral 
 substances. It is the organic alimentary substances which 
 may be looked upon as the fuel of the animal body as 
 furnishing it not only with the matter which is needed to 
 make up the loss which the tissues and organs of the 
 body are always undergoing, but the matter which supplies 
 the energy required by the animal body. The or<.anic 
 ahmentary constituents are built up for the animal by the 
 
 IS t "." '^' ^'^^ "^^^^ °"^ ^"'--1 feeds upon 
 
 another the organic matter obtained from the animal is pri- 
 -anly built up by the vegetable organism. The orgai^ 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 5 
 
 constituents of the body may be conveniently subdivided 
 into certain groups. We have, in the first place, the group 
 of proteids, or albuminous substances ; secondly, the group 
 of carbo-hydrates, which includes the starches and sugars ; 
 and, thirdly, the group of fatty matters, or fats. Any diet, 
 in order to support the life of man, and I take man as the 
 type of an animal, must contain, in addition to water and 
 other mineral matters, the proper proportion of proteids, 
 carbo-hydrates, and fats. 
 
 The process of digestion is the process by which the 
 solid constituents of food, and to a certain extent, also the 
 constituents capable of being dissolved by water, are by 
 chemical and mechanical means so changed as to be 
 capable of being absorbed into and forming part and 
 parcel of the animal body. In considering the chemical 
 processes of digestion, we shall have to inquire how these 
 various organic food constituents are acted upon in diffe- 
 rent parts of the alimentary canal. When the solid food 
 is introduced into the mouth it is in the first place, as you 
 are aware, subjected to the mechanical process of Masti- 
 cation, a process in which the teeth take the chief part and 
 by which the food is broken down into small particles. 
 This mechanical process is in most cases the almost neces- 
 sary precursor to the chemical processes, which take place 
 at the same time, and which have to follow. We are aware 
 how much the process of solution of soluble bodies is 
 hastened by the mechanical subdivision of the substances 
 to be dissolved, and how very much the action of chemical 
 agents is influenced by their being able to act upon a body 
 in a state of minute subdivision ; we are not surprised there- 
 fore that the substance of our food has, in the first instance, 
 as a preliminary to the chemical process of digestion, to be 
 subjected to the mechanical process of mastication. With 
 this mechanical process, which I have treated at some len.^lli 
 in the Handbook of Digestion, which will in a short time 
 be published in connection with this Exhibition, I have 
 nothing to do to-day, except to say thai 't C(nilcl not go on 
 but for the presence in the mouth of a liijuid, to which 
 
6 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 we give the name of Saliva, the first of the digestive juices. 
 This h'quid is the product of the living activity of certain 
 glands which open by ducts into the cavity of the mouth, to 
 which we give the name of the Salivary Glands. The largest 
 of these glands are known as the Parotid Glands ; they are 
 situated behind the jaw, in front of the ear, and have a 
 tube or duct passing from them opening into the cavity of 
 the mouth. Next come the Submaxillary Glands, which 
 are beneath the lower jaw, and a third pair of smaller glands, 
 Sublingual Glands, which are found beneath the mucous 
 membrane of the floor of the mouth, and which open by a 
 number of small ducts. These three pairs of glands are the 
 chief secretors of the liquid which we call saliva. The 
 saliva which moistens our mouth has several functions. 
 In the first place it is essential for proper articulation. 
 Were the mouth perfectly dry, the complex movements of 
 the tongue against the inner side of the mouth would be 
 impossible ; then again, the saliva helps mastication by 
 moistening the food. It aids the process of breaking down 
 the food ; by its viscosity it also tends to knit together 
 the broken down particles of the food, and to mould 
 them ultimately into a so-called bolus or mass. In certain 
 animals, however, and in man particularly, the saliva is 
 a liquid which possesses distinct chemical properties. It 
 is the first of the digestive juices proper. Let me point 
 to a table of the digestive juices and their ferments, and 
 you will find that saliva stands at the head of the first 
 column. In the second column there is a ferment contained 
 in the saliva, to which the name of salivary diastase is 
 given. This has an action on one of the groups of food 
 
 constituents which I have brought before you, on the 
 
 Starches, which belong to the group of Carbohydrates. 
 The saliva in man, in the pig, and in a few animals exerts 
 a chemical action, but in the majority of animals it does 
 not exert any chemical action whatever. From this we 
 gather that the functions of the saliva are in the first 
 instance physical and mechanical, and that its chemical 
 functions arc to a certain extent subordinate ; yet we must 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 7 
 
 not lose sight of them. The saliva is a liquid containing a 
 large quantity of water. From the analyses of the saliva of 
 man by Carl Schmidt, it appears that out of looo parts it 
 contains 989 of water, and a small quantity of solid matter. 
 Of that solid matter much is accidentally present, and is 
 held in suspension, as arc, for instance, epithelial cells, which 
 have been rubbed off the surface of the mucous membrane 
 of the mouth ; of the really soluble matters there are but 
 small quantities in the saliva, only i\ parts in looo. 
 
 What is the nature of the ferment which is present in 
 the saliva, the so-called Salivary Diastase, though it is also 
 known by other terms, as for example by the term of 
 Diastatic Ferment of the saliva, or sometimes by the term 
 Ptyalin ? This salivary diastase is the first illustration 
 which I have to bring before you of a so-called tinforvicd 
 ferment — of the typical kind of ferment found in the 
 alimentary canal. The bodies which we call ferments, and 
 which include both organised ox so-called formed ferments 
 and unformed ferments, are bodies which, looking at them 
 now merely by their chemical effects, possess a power of 
 bringing about changes of very great magnitude in bodies 
 existing in the medium around them : changes incommcn- 
 surably large when contrasted with the mass of the body 
 which induces them. Take the case of the most widely 
 known of these ferments, of the ferment which brings about 
 the alcoholic fermentation in sugar. A few yeast cells fall 
 into a saccharine liquid, and in the course of a certain time 
 very remarkable changes occur! The temperature of the 
 liquid increases, the liquid becomes turbid, bubbles of gas 
 are given off, the smell of alcohol gradually becomes ob- 
 servable, and long before these more obvious phenomena, 
 the microscopist has noticed the abundant development of 
 the minute organism which is the cause of the whole of 
 these changes. This ferment. Yeast, which brings about 
 these remarkable changes in sugar, is a minute vegetable 
 organism, and the changes which it brings about in the 
 saccharine liquid are the results of its nutritive acts. If 
 
« THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 by the action of heat, or of any poison, you kill the minute 
 vegetable organism, it is quite impossible to make it bring 
 about a change in the sugar. You could not, I may add, 
 from the yeast-plant extract by means of any solvent 
 or chemical agent whatever, anything which, added to 
 sugar, would bring about the alcoholic fermentation, 
 although one might from the yeast-plant extract an un- 
 formed ferment ; for the yeast-plant does, in development, 
 give rise to one of the unformed ferments (an " inverting " 
 ferment) to which I am about to direct your attention. 
 
 A formed ferment, then, is a ferment which is absolutely 
 connected with the life of an organism, and whose ferment 
 action goes on only so long as a particular organism lives. 
 What about the unformed ferments } Are they ordinary 
 proximate principles which have nothing to do with life ? 
 Not so. The unformed ferments, which possess so much 
 interest to us in connection with digestion, are invariably 
 the products of the activity of living cells, but once formed, 
 the cells which have given rise to them may die, and the 
 ferment does not necessarily cease to exist. They are 
 not absolutely linked with the life of the cell, and they 
 may be extracted from the cell by the action of various 
 solvents. We may, for example, by treating the tissues of 
 a gland which contains a formed ferment, — a salivary gland 
 (for example), with a solvent of its ferment, such as glycerin, 
 obtain a glycerin solution which shall possess all the activity 
 of the original gland cell, and this is a result which could 
 not be obtained in the case of the formed ferments to which 
 I first directed your attention. 
 
 There are a great many differences between formed and 
 unformed ferments, but I shall only direct your attention 
 to the most important. The most important, which I have 
 not yet spoken of, is this : the formed ferment, as it 
 exerts its ferment action, seems of necessity to multiply. 
 As the yeast-plant goes on feeding upon sugar, and pro- 
 ducing carbonic acid and alcohol, it multiplies. On the 
 other hand, the unformed ferments, as instanced by the 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 9 
 
 ferments of the alimentary canal, in exerting their action, 
 do not multiply. They possess, it is true, an extraordinary 
 power ; present in minute quantities, they may bring about 
 changes of very great magnitude, but yet we find that the 
 ferment does not increase as it goes en acting. In fact, the 
 mass of evidence which we have, seems to show that in 
 exerting their activity, even under most favourable cir- 
 cumstances, these ferments do gradually, but slowly and 
 certainly, undergo deterioration and become destroyed. 
 There are other differences, one of which is that pointed 
 out by Paul Bert, as to the effect of compressed air 
 or compressed oxygen upon formed and unformed fer- 
 ments. He showed that whilst the organised terments are 
 destroyed in their activity, and annihilated, by exposure 
 to the action of oxygen at a high pressure, the unorganised 
 ferments undergo no such change. Let us now examine 
 pretty closely the action of this Salivary Diastase or 
 Diastatic Ferment. A great part of our food contains 
 starch, generally boiled or acted upon in some way by 
 heat — as, for example, in the case of the bread which 
 we eat, which has been baked — but under certain cir- 
 cumstances unboiled. The saliva, in virtue of this fer- 
 ment, possesses the power of dissolving and digesting 
 (and we shall see in what the process of digestion con- 
 sists) starch which has been subjected to the action of 
 heat— cooked starch, we may call it. I have not time to 
 touch upon the almost necessary details which I ought to 
 enter upon with regard to the microscopic constitution of 
 starch ; but I may say that solid starch is obtained from 
 vegetable bodies, and is found in the form of granules 
 of a very complex constitution, formed in the interior of 
 vegetable cells. It is simply a compound of the elements 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Its chemical formula is 
 not yet perfectly known to us. The chemist tells us that 
 starch is a compound having the composition, C,.j IIj, Oio, 
 or a multiple of that. There arc many facts which tell 
 chemists that its constitution is not so simple as that, 
 and that it should be represented thus: (Cu 1 1*- <-'>iu)iu 
 
lo THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 the value of n not being perfectly known. Some be- 
 lieve that the formula of starch, after it has been acted 
 upon by water, is best represented by the formula 
 (Ci2 H20 Om)io. You all know what the action of water 
 on starch is. If I take solid starch and mix it up with 
 water, I obtain a milky-like liquid ; and if I pour, as is 
 usually done in the laundry, boiling-water on this milky 
 mixture, I obtain a gelatinous solid ; if I add more boiling- 
 water, I obtain a more and more diffluent starch-paste, but 
 it is doubtful if I ever obtain, by simply mixing with 
 boiling-water, a true solution. Now when saliva acts upon 
 starch-paste, it exerts an action which will be evident to 
 you all. The first action of the salivary ferment is to 
 render the gelatinous starch perfectly liquid. I shall try 
 this experiment, which would succeed very much better 
 if I had taken the precaution of heating the starch-paste. 
 You observe the difficulty with which I succeed in trans- 
 ferring some of this starch-paste from the bottle to this 
 beaker ; but on adding to it a solution which contains some 
 ferment, such as is present in the salivary gland, there is 
 almost immediately a remarkable difference in the fluidity 
 of the mass. It does not at once become fluid, and the 
 time which elapses is affected very much by temperature, 
 but still the difference in fluidity is very remarkable indeed. 
 There are, it is true, still some solid lumps, but the great 
 part of the mixture has become perfectly liquid. If, 
 instead of taking quite so coherent a starch mass as I have 
 employed, I take some starch-paste which flows with difli- 
 culty, but which is still diffluent, the change produced by 
 this ferment is almost instantaneous. The liquid was viscid, 
 but it is now absolutely diffluent. This action of salivary 
 ferment is only the first of a series of actions. The salivary 
 ferments, like the other ferments of the alimentary canal, 
 act most efficiently at the temperature of the mammalian 
 body — at a temperature varying between 98° or 100° Fahr., 
 or loi" Fahr. At this temperature the conversion of gela- 
 tinous into soluble starch is almost instantaneous ; and if 
 the quantity of ferment in the saliva be considerable, at 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. ii 
 
 once there are certain chemical changes which I must 
 direct your attention to. The starch, under the influence 
 of the ferment, combines with the elements of water, and is 
 converted into a series of bodies called Dextrins, whilst at 
 the same time there is formed a variety of sugar, long 
 supposed to be identical with grape-sugar, but now known 
 to be identical with the sugar formed in the process of 
 malting barley, to which we give the name of Maltose. 
 Let me demonstrate these changes induced by salivary 
 ferment. I have a weak solution which contains about 
 I per cent, of starch. First of all, I shall show you that 
 this solution possesses properties which allow us to detect 
 starch veiy readily in it. If to a solution of starch we add 
 a solution of iodine, there is at once produced a very 
 beautiful blue coloration, depending on the formation of 
 an iodide of starch. Now, if we act on starch for a very 
 short time at the temperature of the body by means of 
 the ferment of saliva, we find, on adding iodine to the 
 starch paste, that no blue colour is produced. The starch 
 has ceased to exist as starch ; it has given place to bodies 
 to which the name of Dextrins has been given, and to 
 Maltose. Apparently under the influence of the diastatic 
 ferment, the very complex molecule of starch breaks down. 
 The belief at the present time is, as I have said, that 
 soluble starch is an aggregate of ten times CjaHoyOio. The 
 first action of ferment is to cause a combination of a mole- 
 cule of water with the complex molecule of starch, and 
 to give rise to a body called Erythrodextrin a (which is the 
 first of the series of Dextrins) as well as to maltose. This 
 body, being further acted upon by more ferment, i.s broken 
 down into simpler Erythrodextrin /3 and maltose. The 
 starch molecule further undergoes the process of degrada- 
 tion, until we have produced, as the ultimate product of the 
 action of diastases on starch, certain very simple so-called 
 Achroodextrins and sugar. But what is the object of 
 these changes > The essence of the digestive processes 
 is this : they do not merely dissolve bodies which are 
 insoluble, but make them diffusible. I have prepared 
 
12 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 several experiments, which I must pass over for lack of 
 time, but I may just point to them without going into 
 detail. This morning I poured into a loop of the intes- 
 tines of one of the lower animals a solution of starch, and 
 plunged this bag with intestinal walls in water ; shortly 
 before the lecture I took some of the water surrounding 
 the intestine, tested it with iodine, and found that no 
 starch had been able to make its way from the inside 
 of the intestine to the water outside of it — that is to 
 say, I ascertained that starch is indiffusible ; that it does 
 not make its way, at any rate with any ease, through 
 animal and vegetable membranes. But, at the same time 
 in another similar loop of intestine, I placed a similar 
 solution of starch, adding to it a certain quantity of fer- 
 ment identical to that of the saliva, and, as in the first 
 instance, placed the intestine in a jar of water. On testing 
 the water a short time since, by means of a test which 
 enables us to determine the presence of veiy small quan- 
 tities of grape sugar or of maltose, I found that there 
 was a considerable quantity of maltose in the liquid sur- 
 rounding the intestine. By the action of the ferment of the 
 saliva, we have starch not merely converted into dextrins 
 and sugars, but into bodies, for such are dextrins and sugar, 
 which possess the power of making their way through 
 membranes, of passing through the walls of lymphatics 
 and blood vessels, and thus making their way into the 
 blood of the animal fed upon starch. 
 
 The changes which take place under the influence of 
 diastatic ferments may be very readily shown, although 
 I hesitate to dwell upon them just now. Almost as soon 
 as you have added the diastatic ferment to starch, you 
 find that the iodine reaction becomes modified, and that 
 sugar is present. If the quantity of ferment added be 
 sufficient, you have a body which merely gives you a 
 yellow tint with iodine, or no tint at all. 
 
 The food having in the mouth been subjected to the 
 process of mastication, and a certain portion of the starch 
 having been converted into dextrins and sugar, is then sub- 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 13 
 
 jected to the process of Deglutition, with which I have 
 nothing to do, a process which has for its object the con- 
 veying of the bolus or mass of food from the mouth into the 
 stomach, which we look upon as a bag, as a saccular dila- 
 tation of the alimentary canal, adapted in a remarkable 
 manner both for the performance of chemical and mechani- 
 cal functions. I have several diagrams which illustrate 
 crudely one or two of the salient points to which I wish to 
 direct your attention with reference to the stomach. The 
 arrangement of fibres indicated shows the different layers 
 of muscular fibres which constitute one of the coats of the 
 stomach, fibres which have for their function the bringing 
 about of movements of great complexity within the chief 
 organ of digestion. The food, having made its way from 
 the Oesophagus into the stomach, is subjected to very 
 complex mechanical movements, which are almost as 
 essential as the chemical changes which have to take 
 place in that organ. The mechanical arrangements of 
 the stomach are in some animals so powerful and so 
 obvious that, before attention was directed in a proper 
 way to the chemical action going on, many believed that 
 the action of digestion was purely physical, — that it de- 
 pended merely on the movements of the stomach. Now 
 this saccular stomach is lined, like all parts of the ali- 
 mentary canal, by a so-called Mucous Membrane — a lining 
 membrane, within which are embedded certain glands, 
 which we call the Gastric Glands. In most animals these 
 gastric glands belong to two chief types ; indeed, in most 
 animals we can subdivide the stomach into at least two 
 regions according to the classes of glands which are found 
 in its mucous membrane. These glands are in some cases 
 very simple. At first they were described as having the 
 appearance of test tubes, being mere involutions of the 
 mucous membrane of the stomach, but careful examina- 
 tion has shown that the simplest of the gastric glands have 
 in most animals a complex structure. In the stomach of 
 the dog, which perhaps affords the most typical instance 
 of a stomach in which you have two well defined regions, 
 
14 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 you have at the Pyloric B?id,ihdLt is, the end which approaches 
 the small intestine, certain glands in the mucous membrane 
 which used to be spoken of by the older anatomists as 
 Mucous Glands ; at the upper end of these glands is a 
 single tube, lined by so-called cylindrical epithelium, but 
 this leads to secondary tubes, and these secondary tubes 
 are lined by cells, no longer cylindrical, but which may be 
 described as cells of cubical epithelium. These cells were 
 formerly supposed to merely secrete viscid stringy mucous, 
 but we now know them to co-operate, though in a sub- 
 ordinate degree, with the glands of the fundus in secreting 
 one of the most important constituents of the juice to 
 which I have to direct your attention, viz.. Pepsin. Then 
 at the other end, the so-called Fundus of the stomach, in 
 most animals, and in all parts except the pyloric end, we 
 have in the mucous membrane glands of more complex 
 character. In the deeper portions of these glands we have 
 two forms of cells ; we have certain ovoid cells, which are 
 situated for the most part peripherally, that is, near the 
 margins of the tubes, and which we may term Border 
 Cells ; then we have between them and most internally 
 certain cells which we call the Central Cells. 
 
 What is the object of this bag having a lining membrane 
 possessing a large number of glands. These glands have 
 for their function the secretion of the digestive juice called 
 the Gastric Juice, which is the most important of all the 
 digestive juices. When the stomach is at rest, that is to 
 say, when it is empty, the lining membrane possesses a pale 
 colour, and when blue litmus paper is drawn over its sur- 
 face it is found that in many parts the reaction is neutral 
 or alkaline. You may ask me how these facts have been 
 discovered. They have been discovered, in great measure, 
 in cases where, as the result of injury or disease, the interior 
 of the human stomach was, as it were, laid bare to the gaze 
 of the investigator. When food enters the stomach, how- 
 ever, the pale mucous membrane begins to flush, little 
 droplets of a liquid having a very acid reaction are observed 
 to exude from all parts of its surface. These little droplets, 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 15 
 
 at first seen here and there, become more and more nume- 
 rous, and run together, and at last we have pools of the 
 acid gastric juice accumulating in the stomach. It is this 
 gastric juice, acting in conjunction with the mechanical 
 movements of the stomach, and at the temperature of the 
 body, which possesses the power of acting upon one of the 
 chief groups of food constituents, though not upon the 
 group to which I have as yet directed your attention. For 
 a moment let us look at the composition of the gastric juice. 
 On the wall, there is a table showing the analysis of the 
 gastric juice of the dog made by Schmidt ; in 1000 parts of 
 fluid there are 973 of water. Of organic matters there are 
 present about I7"I3 parts, and you further see that the 
 organic matters contain Pepsin, to which body I shall have 
 to direct your attention very particularly. Upon what does 
 the acidity of gastric juice depend. It depends upon 
 hydrochloric acid. This fact has been surmised for a long 
 time ; it was found by some of the earlier chemists 
 between 1820 or 1830 that when the gastric juice was 
 subjected to distillation hydrochloric acid was obtained 
 in the distillate, but it was pointed out that this afforded 
 no sufficient proof that the gastric juice contained hydro- 
 chloric acid, because if the gastric juice contained such salts 
 as common salt, and such an acid as lactic acid, by the 
 reaction of the lactic acid on the common salt under the 
 influence of heat, hydrochloric acid would be produced ; 
 further, it was doubted whether this strong mineral acid 
 could be produced by the cells of the gastric glands. The 
 matter was well-nigh settled many years ago by Carl 
 Schmidt, who pointed out that the chlorine which exists in 
 the gastric juice is greater in amount than could exist in 
 combination with the whole of the mineral bases of the 
 gastric juice, and his obser\^ations in that respect have been 
 confirmed by a more recent investigator, Charles Richet, 
 who has, however, advanced new ideas as to the nature of 
 the acid of the gastric juice. There are several experiments 
 which indicate in a remarkable way that the acid of the 
 gastric juice is a mineral acid. Not only does it contain 
 
i6 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 more chlorine than would be present except as hydrochloric 
 acid, but it is evident that the acid is a mineral acid because 
 of the action exerted by it on certain colouring matters. I 
 have here an exceedingly weak solution of hydrochloric 
 acid, of about the same strength as the gastric juice, the 
 normal acidity of the gastric juice being equal to about 
 0'2 per cent, of hydrochloric acid. I have also an alcoholic 
 solution of a very complex organic dye, known in trade as 
 oo-Tropaeoline. When this colouring matter is added to a 
 very weak solution of a mineral acid you observe an ex- 
 ceedingly beautiful pink colour, whilst when the solution 
 contains only a small quantity of an organic acid, like lactic 
 or acetic acid, no such colour is produced. It can be shown 
 that in the normal stomach, and generally even in cases of 
 disease, the acid is one which reacts with this colouring 
 matter as a mineral, but not like an organic, acid. We 
 may, therefore, I think, at present dogmatically state, and I 
 do not believe that our doctrine will be controverted suc- 
 cessfully, that the acid of the gastric juice in a healthy 
 stomach in the earlier stages of digestion is hydrochloric 
 acid. It has, I may point out, been stated by Richet that 
 probably hydrochloric acid does not exist in a free con- 
 dition, but combined with Leucine. 
 
 Passing from the acid of the gastric juice to the chief 
 ferment, what is Pepsin ? Pepsin is the chief unorganised 
 ferment of the gastric juice, and it is the ferment which 
 possesses the power in the presence of free acid, especially 
 of free hydrochloric acid, at the temperature of the body, 
 of acting not upon starch, not upon fats, but upon the so- 
 called proteid or albuminous constituents of food, that is, 
 those constituents represented to us by the albumen of 
 white of ^%%, by the casein of milk, and by the gluten of 
 bread. The majority of the proteids which we take in our 
 food — for instance, those contained in meat — exist in an 
 insoluble condition. The meat is broken up by the action 
 of mastication in our mouth, it passes into our stomach in 
 an insoluble condition, and is there acted upon by this 
 gastric juice ; it is to a great extent brought into solution, 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 17 
 
 and the agents engaged are pepsin and hydrochloric acid. 
 The hydrochloric acid is there because it is an essential 
 condition that there should be a free acid in order that the 
 pepsin should exert any influence. 
 
 I wish to show you the action of pepsin and hydro- 
 chloric acid in bringing about the solution of proteids, by an 
 experiment which I trust may be obvious to you. In the 
 first place, yesterday I obtained some fibrin. You know 
 when the blood which has issued from the blood vessels of 
 animals is stirred, there separates round the stirring imple- 
 ment, of whatever kind it may be, a stringy substance belong- 
 ing to the class of proteids and to which we give the name of 
 fibrin. We may wash this until it is quite free from colouring 
 matter, then dry it and it presents the appearance of the 
 solid contained in this bottle. Now this fibrin is a typical 
 proteid with which we may make experiments on digestion. 
 I placed some in dilute hydrochloric acid of the strength of 
 that in the gastric juice ; and the fibrin has swollen very 
 much, but not dissolved. That is one of the facts to which 
 I direct your attention in reference to digestion in the 
 stomach. The proteids have a great tendency, particularly 
 fibrin, to swell, when placed in dilute hydrochloric acid. 
 There is no solution, none whatever. I placed some of the 
 fibrin at the time I dried the portion I showed you, in an 
 ammoniacal solution of carmine ; this colouring matter was 
 taken up by the fibrin, and we obtained a red solid, which 
 has been partially but not completely dried. This morning 
 I placed some of this stained fibrin in dilute hydrochloric 
 acid, when it began to swell, and the two funnels before us 
 are nearly filled with a jelly of swollen coloured fibrin. If 
 I pour water upon this red jelly it will not dissolve ; if I 
 pour hydrochloric acid upon it, it will not dissolve, and we 
 can tell that it does not dissolve because, if it dissolved, 
 there would pass into solution not merely the fibrin but its 
 colouring matter. Let us try this experiment. Over the 
 contents of one of the funnels I pour dilute hydrochloric 
 acid at the temperature of the body, and pour over the 
 contents of the second funnel a mixture of dilute hydro- 
 
 VOL. VI.— H. L. C 
 
1 8 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 chloric acid, and pepsin. Before doing so, let me say that 
 this solution does not contain pepsin in a state of purity. 
 We spoke of the diastatic ferment of the saliva as if we 
 had separated it and analysed it, but we have not. We 
 judge of its existence merely from numerous facts as to 
 the influence which it exerts ; and the same is true of 
 pepsin. We speak of there being a ferment in the gastric 
 juice called pepsin, not because we have ever obtained 
 pepsin in a state of purity, but because there are a great 
 many facts which show us that such a ferment must exist. 
 Indeed, we could not account for all the facts of gastric 
 digestion without the hypothesis of this ferment. More 
 than that, by acting with solvents on the mucous membrane 
 of a dead stomach, we obtain solutions containing this 
 ferment — solutions of pepsin — which we may employ in 
 experiments on digestion. The researches which have been 
 made on this subject, like nearly all physiological researches, 
 are proving of infinite value to suffering humanity. If 
 there is any knowledge which very soon finds an applica- 
 tion, it is physiological knowledge, and for that reason, if 
 for no other, we ought to be slow in throwing hindrances in 
 the way of physiological research. As the result of the re- 
 searches of which I am giving you an account, solutions of 
 pepsin have been made in different ways by acting by 
 means of solvents upon the stomach, and they have come 
 to be much used in medicine. At the present time, for 
 example, in England, where I believe we have much the 
 best of these preparations, there are at the disposal of the 
 physician such admirable preparations as Bullock's Gly- 
 cerine Extract of pepsin, a solution obtained by treating 
 the mucous membrane of the stomach with acid and gly- 
 cerine ; we have an admirable solution made and sold 
 under the name of Pepsine Essence, by Messrs. Savory and 
 Moore, and likewise an excellent Liquor Pepticus, preparea 
 and sold by Messrs. Mottershead ; all these solutions, which 
 arc found in commerce, are the result of scientific work, and 
 are very much used in medicine. I shall employ one of 
 these solutions in this experiment. I take first of all some 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 19 
 
 warm dilute hydrochloric acid, and pour it over the contents 
 of one funnel, then I add a solution of pepsin to the rest of 
 the hydrochloric acid, and cause it to act on the fibrin in the 
 other funnel, and I shall have in a short time considerable 
 quantities of red liquid accumulating in the beaker placed 
 below the second funnel showing that the fibrin is almost 
 instantaneously being dissolved before us, and in large 
 quantities. I may show you this experiment in another 
 way. Two or three hours before the lecture I placed some 
 masses of the stained fibrin in dilute hydrochloric acid. 
 You will observe that the fibrin has swollen up, but that 
 it remains undissolved ; some traces have passed into solu- 
 tion, that being due to the fact that my stained fibrin had 
 not been thoroughly washed. Here however is a tube in 
 which I have placed an equal quantity of fibrin with hy- 
 drochloric acid and with pepsin, and you will observe that 
 the whole solid mass has passed into solution, giving us a 
 red liquid ; the proteid matter of the fibrin has been dis- 
 solved under the influence of pepsin and acid. If I had 
 taken pepsin alone, and added it to the swollen jelly, there 
 would have been no solution, as when I took acid alone, 
 there was no solution ; but having taken pepsin and acid I 
 obtain a solution of the fibrin. 
 
 Now, what are the substances which are produced under 
 the influence of pepsin and hydrochloric acid ? The bodies 
 ultimately produced under the influence of these agents 
 are termed Peptones; like the body from which they 
 are derived, they belong to the group of proteids, repre- 
 sented by albumen, casein and fibrin. The peptones have 
 these characteristics : they are exceedingly soluble bodies, 
 much more soluble than the most soluble proteids and 
 they are also more difl'usible than the most diffusible pro- 
 teids. When albuminous food, then, enters our stomach, 
 under the influence of the gastric juice, aided by the 
 mechanical movements of the stomach, the proteid con- 
 stituents are brought into solution, and are converted, at 
 any rate in great part, into soluble matters, which have 
 the power of passing through animal membranes, and 
 
 C 2 
 
20 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS, ETC. 
 
 thus make their way into the lymphatic channels and 
 into the blood vessels. 
 
 Now, let me for a moment touch on this question, Is 
 there any other ferment present to the stomach ? and the 
 answer is, Yes. Especially in the stomach of young animals 
 there is present another ferment to which the name of 
 Curdling Ferment or Rennet Ferment is given. In virtue 
 of the presence of this ferment, the Casein, which exists 
 in solution in milk, is curdled or coagulated. This ferment 
 was long ago recognised by the great chemist Berzelius, 
 as not identical with the ferment to which I have referred, 
 namely, pepsin, for the conditions of its activity are different. 
 If you take the gastric juice and neutralise it, it will no 
 longer dissolve proteids ; its pepsin no longer exerts its 
 action, but it will yet continue to curdle milk. There are 
 now a great number of reasons for saying that the curdling 
 ferment is quite a special ferment, and it possesses a 
 remarkable power on the casein of milk, not merely 
 coagulating and precipitating it as it would be precipitated 
 by mineral acid, but altering it in a material manner ; the 
 action of the rennet ferment is indeed to convert Casern into 
 Cheese, cheese being perfectly different from the body we 
 throw down from milk when we add an acid to it. 
 
 The Chairman proposed a vote of thanks to the lec- 
 turer, which was carried unanimously. 
 
July 8, 1884. 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 Gastric Digestion further considered : Pancreatic Digestion. 
 
 In my first lecture, when speaking of the glands which are 
 found in the cardiac portion or fundus of the stomach, 
 I omitted to mention one or two very interesting points 
 with regard to their cells and the function of these. You 
 will remember my saying that when the stomach is at rest 
 and empty, on food entering the stomach, there commences 
 to be secreted from the tiny little glands, whose mouths 
 open upon the surface of the mucous membrane, a juice 
 called the gastric Juice, of very acid reaction, the acidity 
 depending upon hydrochloric acid, and you will remember 
 my bringing before you some of the evidence upon which 
 this opinion is based. You will remember that this juice, 
 besides hydrochloric acid, contains one of the unformed 
 ferments of the alimentary canal, to which we give the 
 name of Pepsin; and that in virtue of pepsin on the 
 one hand, and hydrochloric acid on the other, at the tem- 
 perature of the body, aided by the mechanical action of 
 the stomach, the most important of the operations of 
 digestion is effected — that whereby the greater part of the 
 albuminous or protcid constituents are brought into solu- 
 tion and converted into bodies called Peptones. I omitted, 
 however, to mention in my last lecture that the hydro- 
 chloric acid of the gastric juice is unquestionably secreted 
 in tlic glands of the fundus of the stomach, and m the 
 
22 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 cells of those glands possessed of both central and border 
 cells. These glands have come to be called " oxyntic" or 
 acid-producing glands, and the acid-producing function 
 is resident in the ovoid ^^ border'' cells ; on the other hand, 
 the powerful ferment Pepsin is produced both in the 
 glands of the fundus and in the glands of the pylorus by- 
 other cells than the ovoid cells. Between these border 
 cells are many others in the glands of the fundus, and 
 these form pepsin. Again, the deeper parts of the glands 
 of the pylorus contain cubical cells, which form some 
 pepsin. It is impossible to give the grounds for making 
 these assertions which rest on conclusive evidence derived 
 from many different sources. 
 
 In the stomach the starchy constituents of the food 
 undergo but very little change. Do they undergo any 
 change whatever ? It has been a question whether the 
 saliva which has commenced to act upon the starchy con- 
 stituents of the food in the mouth continues its action in 
 the stomach, and the discussion on this question still goes 
 on. There are some who say that the moment the food 
 enters the stomach the saliva ceases to exert any action 
 upon it, whilst there are others who maintain the opposite 
 opinion, I shall dogmatically tell you what I think the 
 truth of the matter. There can be no doubt that the dias- 
 tatic ferment of the saliva can only convert starch into 
 dextrins and sugar when the reaction is alkaline or neutral, 
 or at most but faintly acid. When the saliva enters the 
 stomach in full digestion, i.e., when the gastric juice has 
 been secreted in large quantities, and when the acidity of 
 the juice is great, then it loses its power of acting on starch ; 
 but in the very first stages of digestion there can be little 
 doubt that the digestion of starch goes on. For some little 
 time, the saliva, mixed as it is with the crushed up food, 
 continues its action upon the starchy constituents, so that, 
 although there is no conversion of starch into dextrins and 
 sugar at the expense of anything secreted by the stomach, 
 there is a certain degree of conversion due to the continued 
 action of the saliva, favoured by the warmth of the 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 23 
 
 stomach. In the main, however, the starchy constituents 
 of food are not acted upon in the stomach. But what 
 about the fats? The fat which we consume in our food 
 is to a considerable extent contained within the interior 
 of cells ; the fatty tissue, the so-called adipose tissue which 
 we eat, is found microscopically to consist of little vesicles 
 or sacs, which contain fat liquid at the temperature of 
 the body. A liquid fat itself is not acted upon by the 
 gastric juice, but unquestionably the walls of the fat cells 
 are dissolved by the juices of the stomach, so that indirectly 
 the gastric juice tends to the digestion of fats. The fatty 
 matter of our food under the influence of gastric digestion 
 is in great part set free, so that when it is afterwards sub- 
 jected to the action of the pancreatic juice, a true chemical 
 action may be exerted upon it. It is thus the proteids or 
 albuminous constituents which are acted upon chiefly in 
 the stomach. 
 
 I want to tell you that these proteids are more im- 
 portant than any other constituents of our diet. A man 
 may live without starch and without fat, although he 
 cannot conveniently live either without fat or without 
 starch. But an animal deprived of the proteids must die. 
 We may say that the substratum of our body is proteid, 
 that the framework of our body is composed of matters 
 which in the main are proteid or albuminous in character, 
 that is, akin to the white of ^g^, to the casein of milk, to 
 the fibrin of blood, or to the matter which makes up 
 the chief part of the fibres of flesh. Now our bodies are 
 always wasting ; do what we may, every part of the animal 
 machine is continually wasting. Although we cut off all 
 food from without, and abstain from all external work, still 
 the losses of the body continue, and amongst these are 
 losses always attributable to this proteid part of the organic 
 framework of the body. We are continually losing from 
 our bodies matters rich in nitrogen, and there is only one 
 way in which the body can make up for that loss, and that 
 is by taking into itself stores of nitrogen in the form of 
 the proteid bodies which I am speaking of; for the only 
 
24 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 source of the nitrogen which the animal body can avail 
 itself of is found in proteids. These proteids, for the 
 most part taken into the body in the insoluble form, are 
 acted upon, as we have seen, by the gastric juice, in virtue 
 of pepsin acting in an acid medium at the temperature 
 of the body, aided by mechanical movements, and are con- 
 verted into Peptones. A word with regard to these pep- 
 tones, in addition to what I said in my first lecture. These 
 peptones are very soluble proteid bodies, and more than 
 that, they are proteid bodies which, like the dextrins and 
 sugars, are diffusible ; they can make their way out of the 
 alimentary canal, which in one way may be looked upon 
 as outside of the body, into lymph-spaces, and into the 
 blood-vessels, and so come to enrich the body and supply 
 it with that which it is continually losing. 
 
 After the food has sojourned in the stomach for some 
 time, and has been acted upon by the gastric juice, it is 
 broken down and reduced to a pappy condition ; the 
 watery parts of the food are absorbed by the blood-vessels 
 of the stomach to a certain extent, and by other absorbent 
 vessels, the lymphatics. The substances which have been 
 formed by the action of the digestive juices — the dextrins, 
 the sugars, the peptones — are in great measure absorbed 
 from the stomach ; but there yet remains a pulpy mass, 
 which, when examined under the microscope, is found to 
 be composed of half-digested and broken-down proteid 
 substances and undigested vegetable matter. If the diet 
 has been a mixed animal and vegetable diet, the residual 
 undissolved mass consists of broken-down particles of 
 meat, mixed with yet undigested starch, and indigestible 
 cellulose, and with fat set free from adipose tissue. In 
 the early stages of digestion, the pyloric orifice is closed 
 against the passage out of any constituent of the food, 
 which, by the complex movements of the stomach, is 
 kept in continual motion. For a certain time, every 
 particle of the food is given a chance of being acted 
 upon by the solvent gastric juice. But as the food 
 is broken down under the influence of the gastric juice, 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 25 
 
 and becomes more and more pulpy, the pyloric orifice 
 begins to gape, and gradually the pulpified mass of so- 
 called Chyme makes its way through the half-opened 
 orifice into the upper portion of the small intestine, into the 
 so-called Diwdeimni. When the pulpified chyme comes 
 into the duodenum, it is acted upon by two fresh juices, 
 which are poured into this portion of the small intestine 
 from two important glands. One of these juices is called 
 the Bile, and is the product of the secretive activity of the 
 liver ; the other juice is called the Pancreatic Jtiice, and it 
 is the product of the gland called the Pancreas, which in the 
 lower animals is popularly known by the name of the sweet- 
 bread. This pancreas also has a duct or tube running from 
 it, which opens into the intestine at the same point at which 
 the bile-duct opens. The bile used to be looked upon as 
 a very important juice at one time. I have not time to 
 speak at any great length of this liquid, except to say that 
 we now look upon the bile very much as we should upon a 
 by-product, or refuse, of a great chemical factory. The 
 great gland, the liver — the largest gland in the body — per- 
 forms some most important functions in connexion with the 
 nutrition of the body — it is the seat of some great chemical 
 operations upon which I cannot enter just now ; and in 
 the course of these there are formed certain refuse matters 
 which pass out of the liver dissolved in water, and these 
 constitute the bile. The bile exerts no direct action upon 
 food constituents ; it contains in most animals no ferments 
 whatever. It contains Colouring Matters, derived originally 
 from the blood-colouring matter. It contains certain Salts 
 of the Bile Acids, these bile acids being, as I have already 
 said, by-products of the great chemical operations which 
 take place in the liver ; but there is no direct chemical 
 action exerted by the bile on any of the organic food con- 
 stituents. The bile is, however, an alkaline liquid, and it 
 helps digestion a little in this way. Mixing with the 
 chyme which has passed out of the stomach, and which has 
 yet a very acid reaction, it helps to neutralise it, and, as wc 
 shall sec, in this way it helps to bring about the conditions 
 
26 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 so necessary for the action of that marvellous gland the 
 Pancreas. 
 
 The Pancreas resembles very closely in appearance one of 
 the salivary glands which I spoke to you about in my first 
 lecture ; in microscopical structure, also, the pancreas re- 
 sembles the salivary glands, and it secretes a liquid possessed 
 of an alkaline action, and at first sight presenting a resem- 
 blance to Saliva. Indeed, by the Germans, the pancreatic 
 juice has been spoken of as abdominal saliva. Its action 
 on the constituents of food is however infinitely more im- 
 portant than that of the saliva, and in the rest of this 
 lecture I wish mainly to direct your attention to this juice,' 
 whose functions have only been properly appreciated 
 during the last few years, and whose action upon the con- 
 stituents of food we have not yet entirely unravelled. So 
 far as we have unravelled them, we have obtained, however, 
 information of the greatest possible value. 
 
 The pancreatic juice is a decidedly alkaline juice. You 
 know that the gastric juice, which is the most important 
 digestive juice, has a strong acid reaction, due to the 
 presence of free hydrochloric acid, and I want you to note 
 that the alkalinity of the pancreatic juice actually depends 
 on the presence of sodium carbonate in that liquid. It is 
 a remarkable thing that in the alimentary canal we should 
 have poured out by the glands of one organ a fluid 
 containing large quantities of a mineral acid, and in an 
 adjacent organ a liquid containing considerable quantities 
 of an alkaline salt ; that in one case the mineral acid, 
 and in the other the alkaline salt should be of the greatest 
 possible utility, indeed almost essential, to the digestive 
 processes which have to go on. Now, the pancreatic juice 
 differs from the two juices which I have yet spoken of, to 
 wit, the saliva and the gastric juice, in its power of acting 
 on all three groups of organic food constituents. In all 
 animals the pancreatic juice can digest starches and can 
 convert them into dextrins and sugars. Our great her- 
 bivores upon whose tissues we feed, which have to rely so 
 much under certain circumstances on the starch contained 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 27 
 
 in the vegetable food which they consume, have a saliva 
 which exerts no action on starch, but they all have a pan- 
 creatic juice, which can with the greatest readiness convert 
 starch into dextrins and sugar. I shall repeat the experi- 
 ment I showed you last week. We have here a thin starch 
 mucilage, a viscous liquid which does not pour like water, 
 but if I add to this viscous liquid a solution which con- 
 tains the active principles of the pancreas, the viscidity 
 disappears almost instantly. You observe the liquid now 
 flows like water, and if we had had time we could easily 
 show that it already contains large quantities of sugar, 
 the product of the action of one of the ferments of the 
 pancreas ; for this marvellous gland, the pancreas, secretes 
 a juice containing three ferments. 
 
 The first ferment is a diastatic or amylolytic ferment, 
 and it is contained in large amounts. The second ferment 
 possesses an action upon fats. What action ? In the first 
 place it was found long ago that when you shake the pan- 
 creatic juice of an animal with fatty matter, with oil for 
 example, you very readily emulsify the oil. Permit me to 
 comment on this for one moment ; if I take some olive oil and 
 mix it with water and shake it up I produce for a moment 
 a somewhat milky-looking liquid, but in a very little time 
 the oil floats to the top, and you have the water remaining 
 clear below. When you shake up olive oil with water you 
 do not produce an eimdsion. But if I take mucilage and 
 shake it up with a little oil, I produce a milky liquid con- 
 taining fat reduced to a minute state of division. Here, for 
 example, is an emulsion which was made by mixing up 
 almond oil with solution of gum acacia. It is a liquid which 
 closely resembles milk. If we examine it under the micro- 
 scope we find that it contains little globules of fat. Sooner 
 or later, however, with ever so perfectly made an emulsion 
 there will be a separation of fat in droplets which will float 
 to the surface : but the separation will be slow and incom- 
 plete. I have said that it was discovered long ago that the 
 pancreas secretes a juice which possesses in a high degree 
 
28 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 the power of emulsifying fats. It was discovered at the 
 same time that the tissues of the gland likewise possess 
 the power of aiding the emulsionising of fats. This fact 
 has been made use of for the purposes of medicine in 
 certain preparations for which one of our pharmaceutical 
 firms has acquired great renown. The so-called Pancreatic 
 Emulsion of Messrs. Savory and Moore, which for many 
 years has been used in medicine, is a preparation in which 
 this power of the pancreas of bringing about the emul- 
 sionising of fats has been taken advantage of, so as to 
 obtain fats in an extremely fine state of division, in which 
 condition they appear to be most readily absorbed from 
 the alimentary canal. We do not know exactly how it is 
 that the pancreas, and the pancreatic juice lead to this 
 emulsionising of fats, but we do know something of another 
 action exerted by pancreatic juice on fats. We know that 
 the pancreatic juice, and the gland which yields it, contains 
 in addition to a diastatic ferment, a second ferment, which we 
 may call 2. fat-decomposing ferment, and this fat-decomposing 
 ferment, at the temperature of the body, readily decomposes 
 fats to a certain extent. I have not time, and this would 
 not be the place, to enter into a discussion the chemistry of 
 the fats ; those of you who are acquainted with organic 
 chemistry know the so-called fats contained in adipose 
 tissues of animals, as ethers of the triatomic alcohol, called 
 glycerin. I am quite aware that that is perfectly unin- 
 telligible to the ladies, and perhaps to some of the gentle- 
 men present, but let me add some simpler and more 
 explicit statements. The fats are all, in the first place, 
 composed of three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
 Further, all the true fats of the animal tissues may by a 
 certain treatment be broken up into glycerin, and a fatty 
 acid ; for example, by the action of an alkali, like potash 
 or soda on neutral fats, aided by heat, they can all be 
 broken up into glycerin, and into compounds, of a fatty 
 acid and an alkali ; to the latter compound we always 
 give the name of a Soap. Now, the chief fats contained 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 29 
 
 in the animal tissues are three, called Palmitin, Stearin, 
 and Olein, or to be a little more accurate, tri-palmitin, 
 tri-stearin, and tri-olein. Whenever fresh pancreatic juice 
 or fresh tissue of pancreas, comes in contact with a neutral 
 fat at the temperature of the body, these neutral fats are 
 to some extent split up into the particular fatty acids and 
 glycerin. I have here an emulsion which has been made 
 by shaking up almond-oil and gum. I shall add to this 
 emulsion some litmus, and from the blue colour which 
 develops, we see that the reaction of the emulsion is alkaline.. 
 The emulsion is at the temperature of the mammalian body, 
 that is 40° Cent. I now add to this preparation a preparation 
 made from pancreas, the so-called Pancreatinine of Messrs. 
 Savory and Moore. In shaking up the liquid we at once see 
 that the blue colour has made way for a red colour — that is 
 to say, a decomposition of the neutral fats into fatty acids 
 and glycerin has occurred. This decomposition is brought 
 about by the second ferment of the pancreas, and there is 
 good, reason to believe that the setting free of the small 
 quantity of fatty acid plays an important part in the 
 formation of emulsions. There can be no doubt at all 
 that, but for the pancreatic juice which enters the small 
 intestine, the fatty matter would not be emulsified, and 
 would escape absorption by the absorbent vessels of the 
 alimentary canal. 
 
 The third and most important ferment of the alimen- 
 tary canal is a Proteolytic ferment, that is to say, one 
 which exerts an action on the same constituents which 
 are acted upon by the gastric juice. This proteolytic ferment 
 of the pancreatic juice is called Trypsin. Though it exerts 
 its action on the same constituents as those which are 
 acted upon by the gastric juice, it is quite different from 
 Pepsin, and the conditions for its activity are very different 
 also. You may say to me, what is the need of there 
 being another ferment to act upon the proteids ? what need 
 is there for a gland to pour a liquid into the small intestine 
 which shall act on the very food constituents which 
 already have had the chance of being acted upon in the 
 stomach ? The answer is this. However long the process 
 
30 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 of digestion in the stomach, certain proteids always escape 
 solution in the stomach, and have to be subjected to the 
 further action of the ferment trypsin, so that if possible 
 they shall be made available for the purpose of the 
 economy. Trypsin, unlike pepsin, acts best in an alkaline 
 medium, and that is the reason why the pancreatic juice 
 is alkaline : its alkalinity being indeed equal to the 
 alkalinity of a solution which contains- about one per 
 cent, of sodium carbonate. It used to be supposed at 
 one time that the proteolytic ferment of the pancreatic 
 juice acted only in alkaline solutions. That is false. 
 Unquestionably, trypsin does not act efficiently in the 
 presence of a strong acid ; it does not act efficiently, for 
 example, in the presence of the acid of the gastric juice, 
 but it can, though feebly, exert its action in the presence 
 of a mere trace of acid, or in a neutral solution. It only 
 acts to the best advantage, however, when the liquid in 
 which it is present is decidedly alkaline. 
 
 Now what are the products of the action of trypsin on 
 the proteids ? You remember that peptones are ultimately 
 formed by the action of pepsin and hydrochloric acid. 
 Now we have to consider what are the bodies which are 
 formed by the action of trypsin and soda ; are they 
 peptones 1 The answer is, in the first place, that the 
 bodies produced under the influence of the trypsin of 
 the pancreatic juice are peptones, but certain of these 
 peptones are further acted upon and broken up into bodies 
 of simpler constitution than the peptones, to which the 
 chemist gives the name of Leucine and Tyrosine. 
 
 Had I time, it would be, I think, interesting to enter 
 in an elementary manner into the points of difference 
 between the action of pepsin and hydrochloric acid and 
 trypsin and soda, but I must pass over all these minute 
 details, and speak of those which I know must possess a 
 greater interest to you. This question is one which is 
 of interest — is pancreatic digestion of great importance ? 
 Does the pancreatic juice during life possess the chance 
 of exerting great influence, and so play an important 
 part in the digestive process ? Unquestionably it does. 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 31 
 
 I mentioned the other day that the studies which had 
 been made upon pepsin, and at iirst with purely scientific 
 objects, have proved of the greatest possible value, and 
 I now have to point out to you the immense value of the 
 studies, at first made for purely scientific objects, con- 
 cerning the action of the pancreas, and especially the 
 proteolytic action of the pancreas, exerted by means of 
 its ferment trypsin. We have seen that of all the con- 
 stituents of food the proteids are the most important. We 
 may be deprived of starches and yet live : we may be 
 deprived of sugar and yet live : we may go without fats : 
 but unless we have proteids we must die. 
 
 There are conditions induced by disease in which proteids 
 cannot be digested. There are, for instance, affections of 
 the stomach in which the glands of the stomach no longer 
 possess the power of secreting its digestive juice ade- 
 quately, and then the unfortunate human being is in the 
 position of undergoing a more or less slow starvation. 
 Now I am not going to enter on any painful or un- 
 pleasant details : I am rather going to tell you how science 
 has come to the aid of suffering humanity, and afforded us 
 the means of relieving and of nourishing those who under 
 these circumstances otherwise must starve. The ferments 
 of the alimentary canal, as you have been able to gather 
 from the remarks I have yet made, not only reside in their 
 juices, but are to be extracted from the very tissues of the 
 glands which form them. We may, for example, from the 
 salivary glands of an animal which secretes active saliva, 
 obtain a solution which possesses the power of acting on 
 starch ; similarly, we can, from the dead stomach of 
 animals, which secrete gastric juice, obtain pepsin ; and so 
 medicinal preparations of pepsin are made principally from 
 the stomachs of pigs. From the sweetbread or pancreas 
 of dead animals we may similarly obtain preparations 
 containing the ferments which, during life, pass into the 
 pancreatic juice, and effect the remarkable changes in 
 the alimentary canal to which I have drawn your attention. 
 Scientific men pointed out these facts, and manufacturers, 
 
32 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 readily followed in the wake, and have succeeded in 
 preparing extracts of pancreas, or solutions of pancreas, 
 with which we can artificially digest. We have only 
 to take certain alimentary constituents, add to them 
 pancreatic preparations, and place them at the tem- 
 perature of the human body, and digestion will go on 
 as it would in the alimentary canal, and we may obtain 
 those products which are the results of the action of the 
 digestive juices ; these products, it is found, can be taken 
 by human beings when all others would be rejected. 
 
 I shall illustrate these remarks by speaking to you of 
 the digestion of milk. You are all aware that milk is the 
 most wonderful of all natural dietaries ; it contains water, 
 mineral matter and all the various organic constituents — 
 proteids, carbo-hydrates, and fats — which the body requires; 
 and we know that, during an important, although not a 
 long period of life — a period, however, during which the 
 growth of the body proceeds with infinitely greater rapidity 
 than at any other — there is no diet which performs the 
 function of supporting life so perfectly as milk ; but then 
 milk, which is supported by most infants and by many 
 delicate invalids, cannot be digested by others. Milk 
 can, however, be subjected to the action of pancreatic fer- 
 ments, and its proteid matter, which is called Casein, can 
 be altered by trypsin, and can be converted more or less 
 perfectly into peptones, and it is found that Peptoniscd 
 Milk can almost invariably be supported by the stomach, 
 though it reject all other aliment. Again, from meat we 
 may by similar processes obtain extracts containing all the' 
 original proteids in the condition of peptones, which the 
 great majority of invalids can support perfectly well. 
 There are certain cases where meat cannot be partaken 
 of, and in those cases it can be subjected to the process 
 of artificial digestion, so that we may supply to the invalid 
 an already digested meat which the stomach no longer 
 rejects. I bring these facts before you because, in the first 
 place, they are illustrated by a series of preparations in 
 the Exhibition, particularly by those exhibited by Messrs. 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 33 
 
 Mottershead, of Manchester, and Messrs. Savory and Moore, 
 of London, but chiefly however, because of their immense 
 practical importance, and because they illustrate so ad- 
 mirably the fact which I want to impress upon you, that 
 scientific knowledge is almost immediately applicable 
 to the relief of suffering humanity. Let me perform 
 an experiment to illustrate this peptonising of milk, and 
 the points of greatest difference between it and ordinary 
 milk. Here is some milk which I have heated to the 
 temperature of the animal body by placing it in a bath 
 at about 40° Cent., that is a little over loo"^ Fahr. Here is 
 a similar milk which I placed at the same time in the bath, 
 and added to it a little bicarbonate of soda, and a certain 
 quantity of pancreatic solution. A great change has come 
 over this milk. In the first place you will see that the 
 peptonised milk has lost some of its opacity, and has become 
 yellow and more translucent ; but the chemical change is 
 very marked indeed. I take first of all some of this 
 unaltered milk, and show you by a rough experiment 
 that it contains the proteid matters called Casein. I add 
 acetic acid to it, that is the acid of vinegar, and we 
 find that the milk is curdled. That is one of the proper- 
 ties which milk possesses, that if you add to it an acid 
 the acid curdles it. We know that the milk is also curdled 
 under other influences, as, for example, by the Rennet- 
 ferment, of which I spoke the other day, which we find 
 in such large quantities in the true stomach of the calf. 
 I am experimenting with cows' milk ; and the acetic acid 
 throws down the casein in large flocculent masses. Now, 
 I take the peptonised milk, and treat it in the same way, 
 and when you come round to look at it after the lecture 
 you will find that no curd has separated ; the casein has 
 been converted into other bodies, and a great part of it 
 has passed into Casein-peptone, that is to say, into a body 
 which is not merely soluble in water, but is diffusible, which 
 will be able without any further digestion to make its way 
 out of the alimentary canal of an animal into its blood 
 vessels. 
 
 VOL. VI.— II. L. • D 
 
34 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND 
 
 In this process of peptonising there are certain by- 
 products formed. We find, for example, that if the process 
 of peptonising is carried far a very bitter substance is 
 produced. If you tasted the peptonised milk which I have 
 made, you would find it intensely bitter. That is one in- 
 convenience which attaches to the feeding of invalids in- 
 capable of digesting milk, or other proteid substances, with 
 peptonised milk, that the process so very readily goes too 
 far, and that there is produced, in addition to peptones, 
 an excess of unpleasant bitter substance. With proper 
 precautions, however, the peptonising may be stopped at 
 a proper point, and then you obtain a milk no longer pre- 
 cipitable by acid, no longer precipitable by rennet, which 
 is found to be almost, if not quite, perfectly digested. 
 
 Amongst the products relating to pancreatic digestion, 
 which you will afterwards see on the table, there is one of 
 Condensed Peptonised Milk ; this new and valuable product 
 furnishes us with a preparation by means of which pep- 
 tonised milk may be at our hand at any time without 
 having to obtain solutions of pancreatic ferment, and with- 
 out having to go through the careful operation of watching 
 that the process does not go too far. Here is some of this 
 peptonised sweetened milk. When I mix it with water I 
 obtain a liquid almost identical with the liquid obtained by 
 taking any ordinary sweetened milk and mixing with water, 
 only the casein no longer exists as normal casein ; it 
 has passed into the condition of an absorbable peptone. 
 Although this milk has been peptonised to an extent which 
 would render it disgusting if prepared by the ordinary pro- 
 cess, because of its extremely repulsive bitterness, it has, 
 by the process of condensation, been rendered perfectly 
 palatable. 
 
 I wish to point out to you the importance of these 
 researches on pancreatic digestion in permitting the 
 physician to treat cases of dyspepsia, and of organic 
 disease of the stomach in a way which was formerly 
 impossible ; setting an organ at rest which requires to 
 be at rest, by giving it pre-digcsted food. The principle, 
 
CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF DIGESTION. 35 
 
 which is illustrated by this peptonised milk, has been 
 carried out in other cases too. You will find in the 
 Exhibition preparations of Malted Foods of various kinds ; 
 in these malted foods the starchy constituents have been 
 pre-digested by the action of vegetable Diastase, so that 
 when given to invalids no digestive efforts are required in 
 order to digest the particular constituents which are present 
 in large quantities. 
 
 I must now bring these already too lengthy lectures 
 to a close ; but before doing so I must say a few words to 
 give you an idea of the relations of the functions of which 
 I have spoken to the process of digestion as a whole. By 
 the influence, then, chiefly of the gastric juice and of the 
 pancreatic juice, aided by the temperature of the body and 
 by the mechanical movements of the stomach, all the groups 
 of food constituents are brought into solution, or nearly so ; 
 and, more than that, they are converted into bodies which 
 possess the power of making their way through animal 
 membranes. As the food passes along the very lengthy 
 intestine, the dissolved constituents of the food are brought 
 into contact with microscopic processes of the mucous 
 membrane, which contain minute blood vessels and minute 
 lymphatics. The soluble contents are absorbed ; the pro- 
 teids as peptones, and the starches as sugars, mainly into 
 the blood-vessels ; while the fats, which have been reduced 
 to a fine state of division through the influence of the 
 pancreatic juice, make their way into the commencements 
 of the lymphatics, which are contained in the villi of the 
 alimentary canal. 
 
 D 2 
 
THE REARING OF 
 
 HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 BY 
 
 EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., 
 
 SURGEON TO THE HOSPITAL FOR SICK CHILDREN, GREAT ORMOND STREET. 
 
 H^iih an Introduction by CHARLES WEST, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Foun.itr of the Hospital Jot 
 
 Sick Children.) 
 
 VOL. VI.— H. L. 
 
August ist, 1884. 
 
 A LECTURE ON THE REARING OF 
 HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 By Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., 
 
 Surgeon to the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street. 
 
 Charles West, M.D., F.R.C.P., Founder of the Hospital 
 for Sick Children, in the chair. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The Chairman, in introducing the lecturer, said the lecture 
 was intended to serve as a help to those mothers who, from 
 accident, illness, or the claims of some great duty, were 
 unable themselves to nurse their infants, or were compelled 
 to wean them prematurely. It was not intended for any 
 who, from motives no higher than those which vanity, 
 indolence, or frivolity could suggest, abstained from doing 
 that which was a mother's paramount duty. Still, though 
 he had used those hard words he was sure many who 
 neglected that duty did so from having but a very 
 imperfect sense of the importance of its fulfilment. 
 
 With whatever care an infant might be surrounded it was 
 a fact never to be forgotten, that the chances of a hand-fed 
 child reaching the age of one year, were one-third less than 
 those of a child nursed by a healthy mother. It was im- 
 possible to give proofs of this from experience derived in 
 
40 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 ordinary life, and evidence of it had to be sought from the 
 results obtained at large institutions such as the Foundling 
 Hospitals in France. He would not wish the figures he was 
 giving to be taken as representing anything else than the 
 comparative results of the two methods of attempting to 
 bring up children. The average mortality of children in this 
 country under one year was 14 per cent, while that of 
 the children admitted into the Foundling Hospital at Lyons, 
 in which institution they were not detained even for a day, 
 but were sent immediately into the country for wet-nursing, 
 was 33 per cent, under one year. But the mortality of 
 children admitted into the Foundling Hospital at Rheims, 
 where they were attended with equal care, and were quite 
 as speedily sent into the country, but where they were 
 brought up by hand and were not wet-nursed was 6^^ per 
 cent, a difference which it imported all to lay well to 
 heart Not only so, but it must be remembered that when 
 hand-fed children fell sick and died, they died not of any of 
 the ordinary diseases which befell babyhood, but of a purely 
 artificial disease, presenting special symptoms, leaving 
 special appearances after death. A distinguished French 
 physician who was, unfortunately, recently dead, the late 
 physician to the Foundling Hospital in Paris, investigated 
 this subject with the minutest care, and he gave to the 
 condition, which he ascertained was produced by artificial 
 feeding when carried out unsuccessfully, a name derived 
 from two Greek words signifying non-nutrition, unnourished, 
 or, in other words, starvation. 
 
 It had been his painful lot, and not very rarely, to hear 
 from broken-hearted mothers who had lost their hand-fed 
 children a confession, not precisely perhaps in the words, 
 but to the effect, that God had given them children 
 which they had starved because they would not break 
 through their habits of indolence, or because they would 
 not for a few months give up that society in which they 
 were admired. That was a grievous confession to be 
 made to one's heart, even if it were not made aloud ; 
 and perhaps the mother whose child was thus taken from 
 
THE REARING OF HAND- FED INFANTS. 41 
 
 her never had another, and lived on to a childless old age 
 when she would want the comforter that child would have 
 been to her if, in its infancy, she had done a mother's duty. 
 It might be said by some " That may be all very true, but 
 why should we live anxious days and spend laborious nights, 
 for the sake of nursing our infants, when we can get wet- 
 nurses for them, and when with a good one a child would 
 thrive just as well as if they nursed it themselves ? " But 
 even if that were the case, and he very much doubted it, 
 what was their duty to their neighbour where the wet- 
 nurse herself had a child ? Were they not bound to think 
 of the poor woman whose child might be her only pleasure, 
 and who came to them often with an anxious heart and 
 many misgivings to nurse their children ? Were they 
 doing right, unless they were compelled by some over- 
 powering necessity in doing this ; and if they were com- 
 pelled to do it, were they not bound (which he was afraid 
 many ladies did not do) to look after that poor woman and 
 that poor woman's child which, perhaps, was being sacrificed, 
 or at any rate endangered, for the sake of theirs ? 
 
 He supposed most of them knew the story, and it was a 
 true one, of one of the great ladies of the Court of Louis XV,, 
 Madame de Tanson, who, when her son, for whom she had 
 never cared in childhood, had risen to fame as the great 
 mathematician and philosopher, D'Alembert, sought to claim 
 him, but he refused to recognise her as his mother, telling 
 her, " Nay, you are not my mother, my real mother is this 
 poor carpenter's wife who nursed me at her breast and 
 tended and cared for me in my infancy." And was not 
 that indeed the case ? Were they not, in giving up the 
 nursing of their infants, renouncingjnot only their mothers' 
 duties but a great part of what should make a mother's joys ? 
 
 There was one point of remarkable difference between 
 the lower animals and man, and that was that with the 
 greater number of the lower animals dentition takes place 
 early, and the young creature is soon able to dispense 
 with its mother's care, as though it were the object of an 
 all-wise Providence that it should, as soon as possible, 
 
42 THE REARING OF HAND- FED INFANTS. 
 
 be able to gain its own subsistence and live for its only- 
 object, that of perpetuating its species. But in the case of 
 the human being it was far different ; the infant had to 
 be trained with care into a man, whose future was not 
 bounded by this world's horizon ; his moral as well as his 
 physical qualities had to be developed, and it was for that 
 purpose, no doubt, that an all-wise Providence had decreed 
 that the infant should be dependent for a considerable 
 period upon its mother, in order that the child might learn 
 to cling to her through life with an affection which sur- 
 passes all others ; she, on her part, caring for her child with 
 an affection which made her, during all its early years, the 
 child's best guide, companion, guardian, and friend. A high 
 duty that ! A great privilege ! A source of purest joys ! 
 And would they abandon those duties and renounce those 
 golden joys for any meaner thing which this world could 
 give them ? 
 
 Poets had described, painters had depicted, and the 
 very ballad singers in olden times were wont to sing 
 the joys which Mary felt when the blessed Babe was 
 lying in her bosom ; and he was sure the ladies present 
 would not prove her degenerate daughters. They would 
 not renounce those great privileges ; they would not give 
 up those joys in manner like to hers, for they all must love 
 the highest. 
 
 THE LECTURE. 
 
 A SHORT lecture on such an important subject as that of 
 the Rearing of Hand-fed Infants will of necessity run the 
 risk of being considered tedious, if only from the amount 
 of dry detail which its consideration must involve ; but, 
 what is of greater moment, it will be found unsatisfactory 
 because it must needs be left incomplete. 
 
 Boyle remarked that the dim and bounded intellect of 
 man seldom prosperously adventures to be dogmatical 
 about things that approach to infinite, whether in vastness 
 
THE REARING OF HAND- FED INFANTS. 43 
 
 or littleness. The importance of this my adventure must be 
 characterised by vastness, though it consists of littlenesses 
 which have been too generally deemed unworthy of de- 
 liberate consideration or of practical instruction. Whether 
 this my adventure shall completely fail, or, as I will dare 
 to hope, be partially prosperous, will not be absolutely 
 known. This much only is certain, that the lecturer 
 will not feel aggrieved if, on its conclusion, the adjectives 
 " dim " and " bounded " be used to qualify his intellect. 
 With this admission on the threshold, it will be clearly 
 understood, I trust, that I am not prepared to maintain 
 that he who holds views which happen to be in antagonism 
 to those which experience has compelled me to adopt, 
 is of necessity in error. Indeed, I should not be sur- 
 prised if, at the end of my discourse, several provokingly 
 healthy children were gleefully exhibited who had been 
 reared by hand on plans directly opposed to those on the 
 importance of which I am about to insist. At any rate, 
 my plans shall be found unusually simple and they will be 
 calculated, if carried out with ordinary intelligence, to 
 insure the extension of the greatest good to the greatest 
 numbers of these unlucky infants. 
 
 Lastly, by way of preface, I would like to submit this 
 assurance, that my opinions have not found origin and 
 maturity, like certain [histories of personal adventure and 
 foreign travel, in the Reading-Room of the British Museum ; 
 they are the results of years of interesting work in the 
 Out-patient rooms of a neighbouring institution, in Great 
 Ormond Street, where ill-taught mothers and sickly chil- 
 dren much do congregate. 
 
 The rearing of hand-fed infants unfortunately is not a 
 matter that can be altogether regulated by definite rules 
 or conducted with mathematical precision ; it is an art 
 requiring more sense and science, skill and delicacy than 
 even that of orchid-growing ; nevertheless, almost every 
 woman, utterly regardless of antecedents and general 
 qualification, considers herself specially adapted for its 
 successful prosecution, and to the manner born. 
 
44 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 Possibly as time rolls on, and women are fully occupied 
 with the cares of office and the affairs of state, men may 
 find this, a new field, opened to them ; but in the mean- 
 while women must be left in undisputed charge of the 
 business which hitherto has not been carried on in a 
 thoroughly successful manner. May I delicately hint, 
 without risk of giving needless pain, that amongst those 
 least suited for the work may often be found the ex- 
 perienced monthly nurse (so called), and the infant's grand- 
 mother ? 
 
 Though my object to-day will specially be an endeavour 
 to improve the surroundings of our vast army of hand-fed 
 babes who are being yearly sacrificed upon the altar of 
 ignorance and incapacity, still, much of my remarks will be 
 found to apply with equal force to those infants who are 
 brought up partially or entirely on the breast. 
 
 To show the importance of the subject in question, and 
 its unsatisfactory condition, I may remark that it has been 
 computed that more than two-thirds of those who are 
 brought up by hand perish in infancy or childhood ; and, 
 from what I have seen, I am almost prepared to accept the 
 figures. Quaintly, but truly, has it been remarked, that 
 very many little children who should be playing amongst 
 the daisies are sleeping beneath them on account of errors 
 committed in their bringing up. 
 
 Probably every one here will admit the truth of this 
 general proposition : — that for the first half year of infancy 
 the mother's milk should be the only food. But when this 
 natural supply falls short of the demand, or entirely fails to 
 makes its appearance ; or in those cases where the poor 
 woman is compelled to leave her home and her infant, for 
 more than half the day, in order that she may earn money 
 for the support of her husband ; or when a lady of fashion 
 discovers that the demands of a Society, in which she is, 
 perhaps, a bright luminary, take up so much of her time 
 and attention as to overshadow and efface the sweet duties 
 of mother-hood, this question must be ajiswered — " Hozv 
 should the babe be fed ? " 
 
THE REARING OF HAND- FED INFANTS. 45 
 
 To this the analytical chemist and physiological theorist 
 promptly hands in a solution : — Having taken a specimen 
 of human milk into his laboratory, and found to a decimal 
 the proportions in which its constituents are arranged, he 
 sets to work to build up a food upon the lines of this 
 analysis, which, in its power of supporting infant life, he 
 deems must be at least equal to, if not better than the 
 original article. Then his scheme is accepted by a trading- 
 firm ; the food is boldly and attractively advertised ; 
 manufactured by the ton, and kept in stock " by every 
 respectable chemist." 
 
 As I pass by the street-hoardings, or travel by rail, I 
 cannot but wonder if in those dark days when fresh cow's 
 milk, properly prepared, formed the basis of artificial food, 
 infantile scurvy, rickets, and wasting diseases generally 
 were not less widely spread than they are at the present 
 time. 
 
 Specially on this matter would I like to hear an opinion 
 expressed by such an authority as he who has done me the 
 honour of occupying this chair to-day. Than he, no 
 physician can speak from more extensive observation, or 
 greater knowledge ; whilst his presence here, may be taken 
 as evidence that his personal interest in the welfare of those 
 little ones for whom he has already accomplished so much 
 continues in undiminished activity. 
 
 It is not my desire to tax your indulgent attention by 
 reference to any table of percentage composition of human 
 milk, or of any of its ordinary substitutes ; but I must 
 pointedly remark that in human milk there is found no 
 trace whatever of the starchy element of foods, there is 
 nothing like bread, rice, corn-flour, oatmeal or biscuit 
 powder. And surely a recognition of this fact ought to 
 suggest that the young infant has neither the need for such 
 aliment, nor the power of digesting it : such inference 
 would be correct. But the chemist, who is not at the same 
 time a common-sense physiologist, pays no heed to this 
 matter, and even works on as if there must be some error ; 
 for in the preparation of his patent food for infants, he often 
 
46 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 uses plenty of starch in one form or other. He might 
 almost as well put in so much fine saw-dust. 
 
 The proper infant's-diet is animal, not vegetable. Let 
 me briefly call to mind the ingredients which invariably, 
 and alone, are found in human milk, which, for want, at 
 present of a better standard, I find it convenient to take as 
 the model food for babes. These, then, are the elements : — 
 butter, represented by the cream ; cheese, which is repre- 
 sented by the curds, which appear in the ordinary course of 
 digestion, or at other times when milk turns sour ; sugar, 
 salts, and nearly 90 per cent, of water. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL MILK. 
 
 The best substitute for human milk is obtained by mixing 
 perfectly fresh cow's milk, with an equal quantity of quite 
 warm water, in which a lump of white sugar, and a small 
 pinch of salt have been dissolved. The water is added 
 because cow's milk is, compared with human milk, too rich 
 both in cream and curds, whilst a little sugar and salt are 
 wanted to bring it up to the standard. But even after this 
 dilution there may be trouble with the massive curds which 
 form in the stomach. In such cases the proportion of the 
 water may be still further increased ; and at times, when I 
 have been assured that cow's milk and water will not 
 " agree," I have proved to the contrary by having in the 
 mixture tivice as mucJi zuater as milk. Some nurses, when 
 using either cow's milk or condensed milk, appear imbued 
 with the belief that the stronger the mixture given to the 
 babe the more he must necessarily flourish ; and carrying 
 the theory to apparently its ultimate limit, I have known a 
 woman give her tender babe meat and beer. The fact of 
 this particular woman's husband being employed in a 
 public-house can hardly excuse her unphysiological conduct. 
 When, in further addition to their routine studies, all 
 school-board children shall be taught chemistry and phy- 
 siology, such a display of ignorance will be quite exceptional. 
 At least it should be so. 
 
 As the infant grows, less and less water will be wanted, 
 
THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 47 
 
 but until the sixth month no other food should be given. 
 Baked flour and oatmeal cannot be digested, so they cause 
 sickness and diarrhoea. 
 
 From two to three pints of the prepared food will be 
 required in the course of the twenty-four hours, and it 
 should be given in small quantities, and at the temperature 
 of the body. To secure this last point the nurse should 
 always put a spoonful of it to her own lips to see that it is 
 "about right;" she need not be armed with a thermometer. 
 
 The idea of getting the milk always from the same cow, 
 I have abandoned as impracticable, at least in towns ; 
 indeed, if the supply of one dairy do not seem to agree 
 with the infant, it is a good plan to change to a fresh 
 establishment, as there may have been something in the 
 feeding of the cows which rendered that particular sample 
 unassimilable. 
 
 At six months the babe may be allowed, in addition to 
 the milk, boiled bread-and-milk, beef-tea, oat-meal, baker's 
 rusks, or Chapman's wheat flour. 
 
 Hitherto I have but once spoken of condensed milk in 
 the feeding of infants, but holding strong views upon the 
 inadvisability of its usurping the place of fresh cow's milk 
 in the nursery, I must now speak plainly on the matter. 
 Theoretically, as well as in practice, I am quite unable to 
 see how it is that cow's milk, which has been evaporated 
 almost to dryness, mixed with much sugar to prevent its 
 going bad, soldered down in tin pots, sent on a long 
 journey, and then stored for an indefinite time in the shop- 
 window of an oil and colour-man, can form a better basis 
 for the nourishment of hand-fed infants than fresh cow's 
 milk just prepared as I have directed. It appears to me 
 to be a fallacy — a manifest fallacy — that this preserved 
 article can ever afford more genuinely healthy nourishment 
 than the fresh milk. I could as soon believe it as that an 
 intelligent man will thrive better on tinned American beef 
 than on fresh sirloin ; and surely the analogy is not over- 
 strained. 
 
 Certainly my experience of hand-fed infants is that the 
 
48 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS, 
 
 worst-nourished are almost invariably those which have 
 been brought up on the patent foods and preserved milk ; 
 even though they may be big, they are generally flabby ; 
 the wrist-bones are swollen, and the legs apt to bend ; they 
 are often backward too, and are apt to yield themselves a 
 ready prey to the sequels of those illnesses to which the 
 goddess Hygeia is only just beginning to teach us, that we 
 should no longer consider them necessarily heir. 
 
 The sailor in the Arctic circle, who subsists on a diet 
 which is perfectly physiological, except for its want of 
 fresh animal juices and fresh vegetables, sickens and dies 
 of scurvy. And so it is exactly, though in rare instances, 
 with certain children in our midst who are being reared 
 without due regard to the need of fresh milk — they may 
 fail and perish of typical arctic scurvy. Fortunately the 
 distress usually stops short of this, for every physiologist 
 has learnt that new milk is a princely anti-scorbutic. 
 
 I dare say that all kinds of preserved milk are not 
 equally unsatisfactory as accessories in diet, for some have 
 not had any of the cream removed before condensation. Un- 
 fortunate, indeed, are the infants whose lot it is to languish 
 on the condensed skim-milk ! How they must long for the 
 fat cream ; how grateful to them must be the little dose of 
 cod-liver oil which the mother often prescribes on her own 
 responsibility ! 
 
 Not many years ago a traveller brought into England a 
 water-weed from foreign parts, as a curiosity ; and it has 
 since flourished in our rivers to such an extent as almost to 
 completely choke them in places. So it is with condensed 
 milk ; we have got it into our households and are now 
 being overwhelmed with it. Still it must, I suppose, be 
 used ; and I see from an article in a journal * of last week 
 that there may yet be a great and profitable future for it. 
 I read the paragraph as it stands : — 
 " Condensed milk has been lately extensively employed 
 in connection with what may be called a new industry, that 
 of ' milk-blending,' or, in other words, letting down rich 
 * Health; a weekly journal, July 25, 1884. 
 
THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 49 
 
 dairy milk, so that the analytical results agree with the 
 figures for solids not fat prescribed by the Society of Public 
 Analysts. Large quantities are daily consumed in this 
 way by milkmen, and to such an extent has the trade in- 
 creased, that condensed milk is imported in churns, espe- 
 cially manufactured for the convenience of dairymen ; 
 these churns being returned to the factory for a further 
 supply." 
 
 My only hope is that children will not get too much of 
 this ingeniously prepared mixture ; far better was the old 
 one of watered milk. 
 
 FEEDING BOTTLES. 
 
 A most important matter in the hand-feeding of infants 
 is the kind of feeding bottle used. I hold in my hand 
 the old-fashioned and excellent slipper-shaped bottle. 
 And what a good thing it would be, if, in their search 
 for the antique, mothers would revert to the use of this 
 ancient feeder. I feel sure of this, that if a Hogarth 
 of to-day were to paint the idle and the industrious 
 dry-nurse, he would place this bottle in the hand of the 
 industrious one. Whilst the infant of the idle one would 
 be represented as asleep, with one end of a slender india- 
 rubber tube in its mouth, the other end losing itself in an 
 empty feeder, such as this. 
 
 The advantages of the old bottle are that the infant can 
 be fed only when the nurse is holding the bottle, when, if 
 the food seems to be coming too quickly, the supply can be 
 remitted for a few seconds. Thus, throughout the feeding, 
 the infant is certain to be receiving the undivided attention 
 of the nurse, so that the supply is always likely to be given 
 at regular intervals and in proper quantity. 
 
 There should be two feeding bottles in constant work, 
 one for day and one for night ; and after use the bottle 
 and nipple should be thoroughly washed in a little warm 
 water and soda, and then well rinsed in cold water. Till 
 next wanted they should be kept in a basin of clean, cold 
 water. 
 
 VOL. VI. — II. L. E 
 
50 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 With this old-fashioned bottle there is nothing to get 
 out of order ; no tube to get twisted, or to be tied in a 
 knot, and nothing that cannot be easily kept perfectly clean. 
 
 Regularity in the use of the feeder is a most important 
 matter ; in the first month it will be wanted every two 
 hours, and then, by gradually increasing the interval, every 
 three, and eventually every four hours. 
 
 If the infant is sick after his bottle he should be fed at 
 shorter intervals, and with much less food at a time. Need 
 I say that he should not be fed every time he cries ? True 
 it is that the infant has " no language but a cry ; " but often 
 the cry means, " I feel already uncomfortably distended," 
 or " I am damp, or cold." Again, we are told that "an 
 infant crying in the night" may merely want "a light." 
 Some mothers have no other way of attempting to allay a 
 cry than by thrusting the nozzle between the lips. 
 Fortunately this measure will often succeed, for all that 
 the infant has been wanting was the necessary stimulus 
 for freeing its stomach of an indigestible load. If he is a 
 good sleeper he may be woke up two or three times in the 
 night, but never then allowed to over-feed. 
 
 But to return for a moment to the question of feeding- 
 bottles : — The nurse having filled this long tubed bottle, is 
 apt to put it into the cot by the infant's side, and to go 
 about her business while the meal is being consumed. 
 Often she deposits it in the perambulator, and allows the 
 infant to help himself as he is being wheeled along ; and, 
 then, "just to keep him quiet," he is allowed to suck away 
 at the empty bottle, and to take in wind. Indeed, he 
 becomes " a slave to the bottle," and refuses to go to sleep 
 without it. This is in every way demoralizing. Weaning 
 from this bottle is apt to be long delayed, and perhaps not 
 accomplished by the time that the apparatus is wanted to 
 serve for a fresh addition to the family. I have known the 
 weaning delayed until the child has been able politely to 
 ask the mother for his solace. Certainly, well before the 
 expiration of the first year the infant should be entirely 
 weaned, and should be receiving, in addition to the foods 
 
THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 51 
 
 recommended a short while ago, a Httle under-cooked meat, 
 pounded up and mixed with gravy and salt, or potato 
 similarly treated ; and this diet may be varied with an &g^, 
 or a milk-pudding. But on no account should he be 
 allowed any wine, beer, tea or coffee, though he may have 
 cocoa-and-milk. Nor should he be allowed to " pick " at 
 bread-and-butter, cakes and sweet-stuff in the short in- 
 tervals of his regular meals. 
 
 WARMTH 
 
 One of the chief uses of food is for keeping up the animal 
 heat ; and a weak digestion may be spared considerable 
 unnecessary work if the infant be kept always warm ; truly 
 it may be starved with cold. He should be clothed all over 
 in soft flannels, and if of a chilly or feeble nature, his cot 
 should be placed near the fire, or at least in a warm room ; 
 and, if possible, where the sun can shine about it. Without 
 fresh air and sun-light children, like flowers, pine and 
 droop. The nursery, therefore, should be near the top of 
 the house, at any rate so in towns, for this will be the 
 lightest and most airy situation. And, if practicable, it 
 should have a South aspect, so as to entrap as many as 
 possible of Apollo's life-giving beams. His glorious beams 
 love children's faces ; they search them out like peaches on 
 a sunny wall, penetrate the tender skin, and store both in 
 and beneath it a boundless wealth of health and happiness. 
 Whenever I am tending a sick child I make it one of my 
 first cares to get his cot into a sunny corner of the room, for 
 a change in this way often appears to be almost as bene- 
 ficial as the breath of sea-side air. 
 
 I trust that in this I am clearly understood. I do not 
 mean that it is good for an infant to be tied down in a 
 perambulator and wheeled along with its face turned up to 
 a blazing mid-day sun. What I mean is that in England 
 we do not seem to understand the true value and charm of 
 sun-shine (possibly because we have so little personal 
 acquaintance with it). In Italy it is different, and the 
 common saying runs to the effect that where the sun does 
 
 E 2 
 
52 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 not go the doctor does. The sun's rays rob suspicious gases 
 of their evil power ; but from all such vapours infants 
 should be jealously guarded ; they quickly fade beneath 
 them. Therefore the utmost care should be taken that no 
 sink or closet is breathing near the nursery. Harrowing 
 stones without number may be told of how little innocents 
 have fallen victims to the neglect of these first laws of sani- 
 tation. Every thing near babies should be sweet and fresh, 
 and there should be no carpets, bed or window-hangings to 
 interfere with the free circulation of air. 
 
 The bed should be warm before the infant is put in it, 
 and a warm bottle wrapped in flannel may, in the cold 
 weather, be tucked beneath the clothes. But by no means 
 should the infant be taken for the sake of warmth to sleep 
 in the mother's bed ; it is a highly dangerous practice. 
 The coroner for Central Middlesex informs me that, in his 
 district alone, 120 inquests are held annually on children 
 who, sliding under their mother's body, or creeping thither 
 for warmth, have been fatally overlaid. He also tells me 
 that in Germany, it is criminal to allow the young child to 
 sleep with the adult. 
 
 In the American edition of .^sop's Fables one reads of a 
 kind-hearted she-elephant, who heedlessly set foot on a 
 partridge, which she crushed to death within a few inches 
 of the nest containing its callow brood. " Poor little 
 things," said the generous Mammoth. " I have been a 
 mother myself, and my affection shall atone for the fatal 
 consequences of my neglect." So saying she sat down 
 upon the orphaned birds. 
 
 The moral which Mr. George Washington .^Esop draws 
 from this affecting anecdote is, that it is not every person 
 who should be intrusted with the care of an orphan asylum ; 
 but personally I venture to think that all the moral has 
 not thus by any means been exhausted. 
 
 DRESS. 
 
 Taste in the dress of infants, as in all things else, should 
 be in subservience to utility. Surely in this case the first 
 
THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 53 
 
 use of dress should be warmth ; but unfortunately 
 the converse of this proposition seems generally to hold 
 good. 
 
 Look at the infant who has just emerged from long 
 clothes ; on the most treacherous day in March or 
 November, you will probably find him in a cold-looking 
 white cotton frock, which is cut low in the shoulders and 
 high in the arms ; whilst the little strip of sleeve is made 
 narrower yet by being tied up with ribbon ; so the arms, 
 neck, and much of the delicate chest are left bare and 
 chilled. His thin cotton socks fall down from his ankles, 
 and his legs and thighs are left exposed to every change of 
 temperature. The effects of this wicked — I had almost 
 said — foolish fashion, must be baneful enough in the upper 
 classes, whence probably, it took origin ; but with the poor, 
 whose children are constantly in the way of draughts and 
 exposure to cold, the results must be much more disastrous. 
 A child's clothes should be warm and loose, and should 
 not, after the first few weeks at any rate, include that 
 strange vestment which is wound round and round the 
 trunk. Warm woollen stockings should reach well up the 
 thighs, and drawers should over-lap them ; and if the latter 
 be of linen or calico, flannel may, in cold weather at any 
 rate, be worn beneath them. The cinglet of merino or 
 flannel should reach right up to the neck, and should have 
 long sleeves, as should also the frock. 
 
 The more delicate an infant the more the need for all 
 this tender care ; in Canada and America generally this 
 important matter of clothing is far better understood than 
 it is with us. Thus to dress a child is not to coddle it ; it 
 is but to carry out a scheme which is practically illustrated 
 in the case of the bird, who lines her nest with down, and 
 spreads her feathers over her young, until Nature has had 
 time to fledge them, and so to enable them to generate 
 warmth for themselves, and exercise their growing limbs in 
 flight. 
 
 It would be interesting to know how this present style 
 of infants' dress was evolved ; and I would venture to 
 
54 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 commend the subject to the attention of the Hon. Lewis 
 Wingfield. 
 
 If a surgeon wishes to inspect a Httle arm or leg he finds 
 the part all too readily exposed ; but if he would examine 
 the base of the infant's chest, hooks and eyes, tapes, buttons 
 and safety-pins have to be undone, one after another. 
 Garments are thus loosened layer on layer, endless bands 
 of girth are unwound, and at last the skin is reached. 
 
 The middle part of the body has been converted, as Mr. 
 Treves remarks, into a torrid zone, whilst its poles have 
 been left frigid. The amount of clothes which have been 
 thus heaped upon the infant should, in bulk, be amply 
 sufficient ; no scheme of extension of investment is de- 
 manded, but rather one of redistribution. 
 
 Fashion has been likened, I dare say, to Juggernaut's 
 car : and surely in the matter of the feeding and clothing of 
 infants many thousands of victims are yearly cast beneath 
 its heavy wheels ! But the huge sacrifice attracts no remark ; 
 the great black image is dragged onwards. 
 
 WASHING. 
 
 A necessary health measure is the washing of the babe 
 in warm water at a regular hour in the morning and 
 evening. He should be washed all over with soap, except, 
 I should perhaps add, his eyes. Thus the pores of the skin 
 are kept free and sweet. It should be clearly understood 
 that an infant cannot be hardened by being bathed in cold- 
 ish water. From a carrying out of this harmful idea the 
 weakly ones are cut off, whilst only the fittest for existence 
 can survive. The mother, who happens to have reared one 
 of these survivals, shows it as an example of what cold baths 
 can do, whilst envious neighbours miserably fail in their ill- 
 advised attempts at rivalry. 
 
 For insuring appetite, digestion, and sleep, the infant 
 should be taken out of doors each day that the weather is 
 fine ; and every day, unless a bitter wind is blowing, or it is 
 foggy, the window should be thrown wide open for a while, 
 as fresh air in the house is absolutely needful. 
 
THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 55 
 
 SLEEP. 
 
 And now it is time, I think, to get this healthy, happy 
 hand-fed infant to sleep. And for this purpose, let me beg 
 that he is not swayed about in the nurse's arms, rocked in 
 a cradle, or patted on the back. Though a resort to one of 
 these popular nursery measures may not, after he has grown 
 accustomed to it, make him actually sea-sick, still the habit 
 has nothing more than custom to recommend it. It is, or 
 should be, quite superfluous ; sleep should come naturally, 
 and, like the meals, at regular intervals. A well-brought- 
 up infant should close its eyes like a mechanical wax doll 
 as soon as it is laid down for sleep. 
 
 Cradle-songs and lullabys may be left entirely for poets 
 and musicians, to whom, indeed, they seem indispensable. 
 Never more should the small hours of the night (nor the 
 wearied father) be disturbed by them. 
 
 It was, I believe, only a home-sick sugar-planter who 
 cried " Rock me to sleep, mother." And I do not imagine 
 that if a babe could speak he would ever be heard repeating 
 that request. 
 
 And here, in ending my discourse, let me compare it to 
 an ill-made net, in which the irregularly-sized meshes are 
 represented by the many faults of omission and commission. 
 Some threads will be found unduly loose, whilst others are, 
 perhaps, drawn too tight ; still I have little fear of the net 
 breaking under the test of practical experience. Indeed, 
 the greater the strain that it may be thus called upon to 
 bear, the more productive shall be reckoned this my cast. 
 
 And I will further add, that if this grand Health Exhibi- 
 tion accomplished no other work than that of directing 
 some measure of public attention to the unsatisfactory en- 
 vironment of our thousands of hand-fed infants, history 
 would still have ample justification in regarding it as one of 
 the most important national successes of the 19th century. 
 
 Dr. Daniel said they had not only to acknowledge their 
 indebtedness for an extremely interesting paper, but to 
 
56 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 congratulate themselves on the presence of so distinguished 
 a children's physician as their chairman, to whose observa- 
 tions they must all have listened with the greatest interest. 
 Mr. Owen had alluded to the fallacy, so prevalent in 
 London, of getting milk from one cow. It fell to his lot 
 some years ago to visit the cowsheds of Kensington, and he 
 went with a committee to one of them which was most 
 beautifully fitted up, and where there were 8 or lO cows. 
 The man was asking for a license for another shed on the 
 other side of the road, where he had a single cow ; and on 
 being asked what on earth he wanted with it when he already 
 had so many in the other establishment, he replied that 
 he " wanted to shew the ladies that all the milk came from 
 one cow." No greater fallacy could exist than that all 
 the milk sent out in London in sealed cans, as it was, could 
 by any possibility come from one cow. Many of the 
 London parishes unfortunately did not possess analysts, 
 because the Act only said that the Local Boards " might," 
 not that they must, appoint them, and consequently much 
 of the milk that was supplied to the poorer classes was not 
 analysed at all ; and even in Kensington, which was 
 supposed to be one of the best managed parishes in the 
 world, samples of milk were constantly being brought in 
 which were distinctly adulterated with water. Unfortu- 
 nately a sufficiently high standard for milk was not fixed 
 by the authorities at Somerset House ; they admitted too 
 high a percentage of water, though the adulteration of milk 
 by the addition of water was not so objectionable as other 
 forms of adulteration. He was an ardent advocate for the 
 use of the mother's milk in the first place ; secondly, of good 
 cow's milk, fresh, pure and unadulterated ; and thirdly, if 
 neither could be got, he must say he had seen very good 
 results from the use of condensed milk. The lecturer had 
 most happily pointed out the evils of the patent feeding 
 bottles which could be bought for \s. or ij-. 6d., and if ever 
 there was a curse of civilisation it was that form of bottle. 
 The old-fashioned bottle was much the best, and he believed 
 more children died from the use of those patent bottles 
 
THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. $7 
 
 than from anything else, because, no matter how careful a 
 nurse might be, it was physically impossible for her to keep 
 them clean and sweet. Of course too great care could not 
 be taken in the general sanitation of houses from this and 
 every other point of view. He did not quite agree in what 
 the lecturer had said about clothing children ; he was not 
 in favour of coddling them, and he must say he liked to see 
 their arms and legs bare. With regard to mothers sleeping 
 with their babies, that was a very difficult question to deal 
 with. As to the question of sleep, children should be 
 trained up in the way they should go, and then there 
 would be no difficulty in getting them to bed and at once 
 to sleep. 
 
 Mr. Owen thanked the audience for their attention, and 
 Dr. Daniel for his kindly criticisms. 
 
 The Chairman commended Mr. Owen's remarks to the 
 consideration of every one who had to do with infants, and 
 one great lesson to be learned from them was the great 
 importance of attention to small things. They all 
 remembered what Solomon said, " He that despiseth small 
 things shall perish little by little ; " and in nothing was a 
 disregard for small things more speedily or more severely 
 punished than in the rearing of children. Mr. Owen had 
 been good enough to ask him to say from his experience 
 whether within recent years rickets and other forms of 
 children's diseases had not increased greatly ; but he must 
 be pardoned for suggesting that he was not Methuselah, 
 and before one could say anything on that point, one would 
 require an experience, not merely of 20 or 30, but of some 
 hundreds of years, and he could hardly, therefore, give a 
 positive answer to the question. They knew, however, that 
 on the whole the life-rate had increased, and that infant 
 mortality had diminished, but it would be a wide question 
 to go into, to discuss all the causes which had brought 
 about that happy result. He was quite certain that it 
 was a matter of great importance that in dealing with 
 
53 THE REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. 
 
 young children they should, as far as possible, be brought 
 up on milk food in their earlier months, and that great care 
 should be used in the addition, even after six months, of any 
 kind of farinaceous food, which should be given carefully and 
 experimentally. Sometimes one form of such food suited 
 children and sometimes another, and a positive rule could 
 not be laid down as to which kinds of food were the best 
 or least mischievous ; but his advice would be to eschew 
 them all until the baby was six months old. 
 
 As regarded the use of condensed milk no doubt one of 
 the reasons why it was so much used was the dearness of 
 cow's milk, and they must bear in mind, not merely 
 the condition of those who were fairly-ofif in the world, but 
 that of the very poor. He agreed most heartily with what 
 Mr. Owen had said with reference to the old-fashioned and 
 the new-fangled feeding bottles, and if anything that had 
 passed should tend to throw the latter into disuse the 
 meeting would certainly have done good. Much depended 
 in bringing up young children upon the degree in which 
 poorer mothers were taught, and in that direction he had 
 much faith in the efforts of those ladies who in recent years, 
 and quite within his own recollection, had carried out the 
 system of mother's meetings which were a blessing wherever 
 they were instituted. Let their object be, as he believed it 
 was, not simply teaching their poorer sisters the highest 
 rules of conduct, but also their more domestic duties, and 
 the proper methods of managing their infants which had so 
 much to do with the increase of morality and happiness, 
 and the propagation of true religion. 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS, 
 
 ESPECIALLY IN RELATION TO 
 
 PRESERVED AND CONDENSED FOODS. 
 
 Professor F. de CHAUMONT, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 VOL. VI.— li. L. 
 
June 13TH, 1884. 
 
 A LECTURE ON PRACTICAL DIETETICS, 
 ESPECIALLY IN RELATION TO PRE- 
 SERVED AND CONDENSED FOODS. 
 
 By Professor F. de Chaumont, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 The Rt. Honble. Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S., in 
 the chair. 
 
 The subject I have been asked to address you upon to- 
 day is entitled Practical Dietetics, especially with regard 
 to the use of preserved and concentrated food. The some- 
 what pompous expression Practical Dietetics simply means 
 what we are to eat and drink. This is a point that to 
 many appears a simple enough matter, and a great many 
 persons have simply to eat and drink what they can get. 
 But on this matter (as in all other points with regard to life) 
 we require for the proper arrangement of diet the know- 
 ledge of certain principles to guide us, and it has been for a 
 number of years past the object of inquiry by a great 
 many scientific men to determine the proper constituents 
 and proper distribution of articles of food. Amongst these 
 gentlemen none has been more indefatigable or rendered 
 more valuable service than our distinguished Chairman to- 
 day. In earlier times the medical and physiological inquiry 
 into the subject of food was very little understood, but it 
 still is a very curious fact that in every case where people 
 of all nations and classes have had an opportunity of 
 getting proper food they have almost invariably, I will not 
 
62 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 say by instinct, but probably by practical experience, 
 selected that form of diet and that arrangement of food 
 which appears best to suit the position in which they are 
 and enable them to make the best use of it. By analysing 
 all the different diets of nations of the earth this remark- 
 able fact comes out that where the articles can be procured 
 the diet has generally formed a good diet for the position 
 in which the individual is placed. 
 
 Now, the objects for which we take food are various. In 
 the first place we require food of a certain character, which 
 is known as nitrogenous food or albuminates, for the 
 purpose of building up the tissues of the body in the time 
 of growth and repairing them in the time of adult life and 
 old age. And, secondly, we require other food which is 
 generally called non-nitrogenous or carboniferous, including 
 fat, starch, sugar and the like, for the purpose of consuming 
 these in the body by means of the oxygen in the atmo- 
 sphere, and so getting that amount of energy which is neces- 
 sary both to support the animal heat of the body and also 
 to produce actual visible practical work. Besides that we 
 require other substances, such as mineral salts, which are 
 absolutely necessary for the carrying on of the functions of 
 the body ; we require them for the purposes of digestion, 
 and also for the purpose of regulating the way in which 
 the different constituents of the food are taken up and 
 assimilated. And in addition to all these we may say 
 there is still another class which has been generally included 
 among the carboniferous, and that is the class of vegetable 
 acids, such as citric acid, tartaric acid, and the like, which are 
 present in all fruits and in most vegetables combined with 
 certain bases. They perform a most important function in 
 the system, and the absence of them produces a disease 
 which used to be well-known in former days, the disease 
 called scurvy, which has by no means disappeared from the 
 community at the present time. Now, in order to deter- 
 mine what constituents of food are absolutely necessary it 
 was shown by the late Dr. Prout, one of our first English 
 organic chemists, that milk represented most accurately 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 63 
 
 the only form of food which was able to support animal 
 life without any addition ; and the composition of milk con- 
 sists, out of 100 parts, of a great deal of water — S67 ; 4 per 
 cent, of albuminates in the form of cheese ; 3 ■ 7 of fat in the 
 form of butter ; about 5 per cent, of what we call carbo- 
 hydrates which include starch and sugar, represented by 
 milk sugar; and, lastly, a small proportion, about "6 of 
 salts or mineral matter. Now we are all perfectly familiar 
 with the fact that the young of every animal, including 
 man, ought to be nourished solely from milk derived from 
 the parent ; and on that milk they can grow and flourish 
 and ultimately become healthy and strong. Therefore 
 it has been concluded, and justly so, that milk represents 
 in this way the main constituents of diet which are 
 necessary for life. 
 
 But when we consider the relative proportion in which 
 these constituents are present in milk we find the propor- 
 tion is not such as would be suitable for the life of adult 
 people. On the contrary, in cases where we are obliged for 
 medical reasons to restrict people to a diet of milk alone, 
 it is undergone with very considerable difficulty, because 
 to get a sufficient amount to support a man we require to 
 give a very large quantity — something like 9 or 10 pints of 
 milk a day, which is an immense amount of liquid for the 
 human stomach to deal with. Therefore, although we 
 admit that milk gives the best form of diet ; that it gives 
 all the necessary elements of diet in the main ; yet the 
 proportions are not such as would be proper to give to 
 adult people for the ordinary purposes of nutrition. We 
 have a disproportion chiefly in this way that there is much 
 too large an amount of nitrogenous matter and fats, com- 
 pared with the carbo-hydrates. In fact we ought to give 
 more carbo-hydrates, such as are generally given in ordinary 
 diet in the form of starch, to get a diet which will suit most 
 individuals. I am sorry to say that a diagram I intended 
 to have here to show the constituents of a standard diet 
 has not arrived ; but I can illustrate it by this diagram, 
 giving the diets of different armies, which was put 
 
64 
 
 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 up to show what ought not to be the arrangement of 
 
 diet. 
 
 Diets of European Armies in Water-free Food, 
 in ozs. avds. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 French. Russian. 
 
 Austrian. 
 
 Albuminates 
 
 Fat 
 
 Carbo-hydrates . 
 Salts 
 
 3-86 
 1-30 
 
 i7'43 
 0-81 
 
 4-33 
 
 1-27 
 
 18-04 
 
 i-oo 
 
 4-02 
 
 I -09 
 
 19-62 
 
 1-50 
 
 3-73 
 
 I -64 
 
 17-00 
 
 I-OO 
 
 1 23-40 
 
 1 
 
 24-64 
 
 26-23 
 
 23-37 
 
 The average of these diets, which differ but little among 
 each other, shows the following constituents : The nitro- 
 genous or albuminates 4 ; fat i '3 ; carbo-hydrates 18 ; and 
 salts I. In a proper diet there ought to be more albumi- 
 nates, two if not three times as much fat ; but there is too 
 large an amount of carbo-hydrates in this dietary for the 
 rest of the constituents, and a very much larger amount 
 than we find in milk. But this is the direction in which the 
 chief change takes place in arranging diets of adult people 
 for the ordinary business of life, in a proper standard diet 
 for men to go through ordinary daily work, viz., a larger 
 proportion of starchy matter. We generally require 44- 
 to 5 ounces of what is called albuminate food, about 3 
 of fat, and about 14 or 15 of starch and sugar, and a small 
 quantity, about i oz. of mineral matter or salts, the whole 
 making up about 23 ozs. of solid food. 
 
 One point I must refer to here which bears strongly 
 upon the question of concentrated or dried food. We 
 must bear in mind that all so-called solid food that we have 
 to deal with contains a very large amount of water. Even 
 the very driest substance we have to deal with, such as a 
 dry ship's biscuit, which does not appear very watery, 
 still contains a certain amount of water, about 8 per cent. 
 Even flour, which seems a dry substance, contains something 
 like 15 per cent, and so on. There is another table on the 
 wall which will show the large amount of water contained 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 65 
 
 in the great many ordinary articles of diet which are used 
 for usual dietary purposes. For instance, every pound of 
 butcher's meat, a beefsteak for instance, which when we 
 buy we think is solid food, contains about 75 per cent, of 
 water, so that there are only four ounces of actual solid 
 food in it. Take again a potato — a pound of potatoes is 
 exactly in the same position — there are only four ounces of 
 actual solid matter in it ; and if we go to other substances 
 such as succulent fruits and vegetables, we find even a 
 greater amount. In fact in the average composition of 
 cabbage, for instance, there is more water than in milk ; 
 although cabbage is apparently a solid article it contains 
 about 91 per cent of water ; and fresh onions even more — as 
 high as 94 per cent — whereas good milk contains only 86 to 
 87 per cent. Now this is a matter of very great importance, 
 and as the different articles of diet vary so much in the 
 quantity of water they contain, it is obviously impossible to 
 give anything like a scientific statement of the amount of 
 food that is necessary, unless we make that statement 
 disregarding the water which is swallowed with the food. 
 Consequently, we make all our statements of this kind in 
 what are called terms of water-free food ; that is taking 
 the amount of albuminates, carbo-hydrates, fats, and so 
 on, we know to be present in an article of food, exclud- 
 ing the water from it. Therefore when we say a diet 
 consists of 23 ozs. of food we mean food theoretically 
 water-free, that is actual solid matter which cannot be 
 reduced any further by the action of drying or any means 
 whatever. 
 
 Now let me refer again for a moment or two to the 
 functions of different articles of diet. I have already 
 pointed out to you that albuminate food which contains 
 nitrogen is necessary for building up and repairing the 
 tissues. We have a body which is exceedingly remarkable 
 in this point, that while we can consider it with great truth 
 as equivalent to an ordinary mechanical engine, it has 
 this great peculiarity about it, that while we stoke the 
 engine with fuel we also carry on its repairs without 
 
 VOL. VL — H. L. F 
 
66 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 stopping the machine, and the repairs are carried on by 
 means of this nitrogenous food. Nitrogen, which forms 
 four-fifths of the atmosphere, forms a very large constituent 
 of all our tissues whatsoever. There is not a single tissue, 
 fluid or solid, which does not contain nitrogen. But there 
 is another very remarkable function that this nitrogenous 
 food seems to exercise. This has been proved experi- 
 mentally ; it acts not only by repairing the tissues, but 
 also in a remarkable way in determining and controlling 
 the absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere through 
 which all the chemical changes go on in the body which 
 are necessary for existence. Now, this has been shown by 
 feeding animals upon food deprived to a considerable 
 extent of nitrogen, and under these circumstances the 
 functions have not gone on ; the proper amount of oxida- 
 tion of the non-nitrogenous food has not taken place. I 
 may give a very curious instance to this effect by referring 
 to the case of the well-known Mr. Banting, whose cor- 
 pulent condition was a matter of common talk some years 
 ago. This gentleman was an undertaker in St. James' 
 Street, who had the misfortune to grow so fat that he 
 weighed 300 lbs., and could only go downstairs backwards. 
 He tried a great many things to reduce his corpulence, and 
 at last he took the advice of his medical man. Dr. Harvey, 
 who suggested that he should live in a certain way, for 
 instance, that he should give up to a large extent fats ; to 
 a still greater extent sugar and starch, and increase the 
 amount of nitrogenous food. The result was, that within a 
 reasonable time he reduced himself to the size of a stout 
 but still a moderately stout man. Now the action in this 
 case was two-fold. In the first place he cut off the sources 
 of fat, and in the second place he took more of the particular 
 parts of diet which determine the assimilation of oxygen, 
 and its union by combustion with the non-nitrogenous food. 
 The functions of the other parts of our diet, viz. : the fat and 
 the starch and sugar, are also more or less complex, but the 
 chief action is that they should undergo oxidation, and by 
 that means produces a certain quantity of heat which is 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 67 
 
 either retained as animal heat in the body, or turned into 
 external physical work in the ordinary work of life. But 
 there is also another function which starch and sugar per- 
 form, that is the production of fat in the body, because the 
 fat we take in our food by no means accounts for all the 
 fat that we have, but a great deal of it is produced by the 
 conversion of sugar into that material. 
 
 I have referred already to the function of the vegetable 
 acids in maintaining a certain condition of the blood. Now, 
 if the blood is in a proper healthy condition it is alkaline, 
 that is to say that it will unite with an acid, that it will turn 
 some vegetable colours green, and other vegetable colours 
 brown, and so on, but if it gets into an unhealthy condition, 
 and chiefly in consequence of being deprived of vegetable 
 food in that particular form, then it becomes less alkaline, 
 and in consequence gets into a fluid condition, does not 
 coagulate as it naturally would when it is set free, and the 
 result is, the disease we know in its extreme form as 
 scurvy. Now, this disease in former years was the scourge 
 of our navy, and it is on record that the channel fleet in 
 the middle of the last century had sometimes come into 
 Spithead with no less than 10,000 men disabled by scurvy 
 alone ; and one of the reasons why the enormous hospital 
 at Haslar was built to hold 2,000 patients was on account 
 of the tremendous stress put upon all hospital accommoda- 
 tion by the enormous number of scurvy patients. This con- 
 dition of things was remonstrated against by the medical 
 officers of the Navy, who pointed out the remedy at 
 hand by the use of vegetable acids a long time before 
 it was adopted, but as soon as it was adopted the 
 result was magical. Scurvy disappeared from the navy 
 altogether, and that immense hospital at Haslar was left 
 with only a few cases compared with what it was intended 
 to accommodate. But I should mention that scurvy has 
 by no means disappeared entirely, and so far is it from 
 disappearing, that if cases are carefully investigated in 
 ordinary life, even among the better classes, we shall find 
 symptoms of scurvy from time to time. A great many 
 
 F 2 
 
68 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 people dislike vegetables, and even dislike fruits, and 
 neglect the use of them. Others from sheer ignorance do 
 not use them, and the result is that again and again 
 diseases that are apparently caused by quite other means 
 are aggravated and complicated by a certain amount of 
 this scorbutic taint. I have seen cases of this sort myself, 
 and I know other physicians who have told me that cases 
 have come under their notice. 
 
 The remedy is very simple, the use of fresh vegetable 
 food or its equivalent in lime juice or other forms of vege- 
 table acid. 
 
 Now, it is a very remarkable thing that, although we 
 have certain knowledge of the principles of diet, and know 
 that a certain amount is required in certain proportions in 
 order to get proper results, that we should find, in every 
 case where a corporate or official diet is arranged, dietetic 
 errors occur, and always in the same direction, and I 
 cannot point to a better instance than those four columns 
 of diets in the principal armies of Europe, which show very 
 clearly how this is the case. 
 
 Take the English army's diet ; in the first place the 
 amount of albuminate food, as given in the usual diet, 
 in something under 4 ounces. Now, in the proper diet for 
 a man of the ordinary size and weight of the British 
 soldier, he ought to get at least one ounce more than this. 
 In the case of fat, on the other hand, instead of getting 3 ozs., 
 which he ought to get, he only gets a little under i-i- oz. 
 He gets rather more starch than he requires — 17^ ozs., 
 whereas 14 ozs., or 15 ozs., would be quite sufficient if he 
 got other articles. The salts are practically pretty near 
 the amount required. If we look along these columns of diet 
 we find that with very small differences in dietary, the results 
 are exactly the same in the different armies. In the French 
 army we have the same deficiency in fat ; a little more 
 albuminates, but this is due not so much to the increase of 
 meat, but to the greater use made in France of leguminous 
 foods — that is, beans and peas, which are very nutritious. 
 The same excess of carbo-hydrates exists. In the Prussian 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 69 
 
 army we have almost identically the same condition of 
 things, but the Prussian soldier gets only i oz. of fat : and 
 the same is the case in the Austrian army. If we were to 
 examine the dietaries of prisons and other places, we should 
 find the same mistake runs through them all. Now the 
 cause of this is in the first place ignorance ; and in the 
 second place, the fact that these particular articles of diet 
 are rather dearer than the others, and consequently a very 
 considerable increase of expense would be incurred if they 
 were to be ordered. Some years ago there was a consider- 
 able movement for getting a larger meat ration for the 
 English soldier, which I certainly think he required, but on 
 calculating the amount of the increased expense which 
 would be incurred, taking the whole of the army, it was 
 found that it would come to pretty nearly half a million 
 per annum ; and this was so considerable an addition to 
 the estimates that it would have been a very bold Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer who would have proposed to 
 introduce it, at least without considerable preparation of 
 his audience. The English soldier is in oneway somewhat 
 better placed than his brother in other armies ; he has a 
 little more pay, and consequently he can spend a little on 
 additions to his food, which he generally does ; but in 
 foreign armies the soldiers get very little pay, and conse- 
 quently they can have very little addition to the actual 
 diet which Ts provided for them, and therefore they no 
 doubt suffer in consequence. 
 
 Now in reference to the question of preserved and con- 
 centrated food, this is a point which is very important to 
 all the community, but especially important for public 
 institutions, for troops, and the like, and if the use of this 
 form of food can be carried into effect, the result will be 
 highly beneficial in many ways. In the first place, we can 
 save to a large extent food which otherwise must be wasted 
 for want of a market near the spot. Secondly, we can 
 provide in case of deficiency of ordinary food, wholesome 
 forms of food which can be easily used and properly 
 assimilated. In addition to that wc can get ready under 
 
70 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 certain conditions particular articles of diet which are not 
 immediately obtainable, but which are necessary for the 
 preservation of health. There is, however, a certain amount 
 of difficulty connected with food of this description, and a 
 good deal of confusion arises with regard to its nutritive 
 value. It is necessary to draw a very distinct line between 
 food that is merely preserved and food that is concentrated 
 or dried. In food that is merely preserved what is done is 
 to take the food generally cooked to a certain extent, and 
 seal it up so as to retain it in that condition. Under those 
 circumstances there is no concentration ; it is simply 
 preserving the food from change in its cooked form. On 
 the other hand, when we come to deal with food which is 
 concentrated, we do this by driving out a large quantity of 
 water ; and therefore a ration of this food is very much 
 more nutritive, weight for weight, than a ration of ordinary 
 food. But it is necessary we should bear in mind that 
 there are these two different conditions, because I have 
 known the mistake made of looking on merely preserved 
 food as equivalent to concentrated or dried food weight for 
 weight. On one occasion I remember where certain vege- 
 tables ran short and preserved provisions had to be resorted 
 to, it was proposed to divide the rations as if those referred 
 to dried food instead of merely preserved, and the conse- 
 quence would have been that much too small a ration 
 would have been given, but fortunately the mistake was 
 discovered in time. 
 
 Now there are various ways of preserving and preparing 
 foods. In the first place if we take food that is simply 
 dried, which has been a very common method of preserva- 
 tion in all ages, we find this can be done with tolerable 
 ease, and will keep to a certain extent the nutritive proper- 
 ties of food intact. As regards meat, for instance, a familiar 
 form of this is the dried meat used so largely in South 
 America under the name of Charqui or Tasajos. It is simply 
 dried in the sun, and remains sweet, and does not undergo 
 change for a very long time. Making use of this Dr. 
 Meinert of Berlin, a very scientific enquirer and manu- 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 71 
 
 facturer of preserved food, has instituted a manufactory 
 for a particular meat powder (Fleisch Pulver), derived to 
 a large extent partly from this dried meat of South 
 America and partly from fresh meat obtained from dif- 
 ferent parts of Europe where it is cheap, and the result 
 has been to produce a form of meat which has undergone ■ 
 apparently very little change in the process of drying and 
 preparation, which can easily be applied in various ways 
 for dietetic purposes. I am sorry there is no specimen 
 here to show you, but it is really a very valuable form of 
 food. 
 
 Then as regards the drying of other materials, such as 
 vegetables ; that is familiar to everybody in the form of 
 Julienne, so commonly used for making soup, where we 
 have the vegetables dried up, but they take up water, and 
 swell out again to their natural form, and make a very 
 useful article of diet. There is, however, one point that we 
 must bear in mind, that the drying can only be carried 
 to a certain extent. 
 
 We sometimes hear people talk of concentrated food 
 that can be carried in the waistcoat pocket, or even in the 
 form of a small lozenge, to last for twenty-four hours. 
 This is all mere romance. A man must have a certain 
 amount of food, or he cannot go on working, or even exist. 
 The smallest amount of food necessary for existence is repre- 
 sented by about fifteen ounces of water-free food — nearly a 
 pound, and that is the lowest weight it can be reduced to; and 
 if you take the amount required for a labouring man's food, 
 you cannot reduce it below one-and-a-half pound theoreti- 
 cally. There is another point, however ; this is merely 
 the theoretical quantity ; but if we were to drive off all the 
 water in this way by a process of drying, we should leave 
 the food in such a state that it could not be taken up 
 and assimilated by the system. On one occasion I had 
 sent to me for examination some samples of what was 
 called meat biscuit, which was proposed to be given to 
 troops on a campaign. It was said to contain in a single 
 biscuit, or perhaps two, food sufficient for a whole day. 
 
72 
 
 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 considering it contained a large proportion of meat. On 
 examining this biscuit, I found it did contain some meat, as 
 was stated ; but the meat had been dried to such an extent 
 that it was almost in a vitreous form, like glass ; it broke 
 with a conchoidal fracture like glass or flint, and even after 
 many days' soaking in hydrochloric acid, I was quite unable 
 to effect much change upon it. This was naturally not an 
 article of diet to be supplied to our unfortunate troops on a 
 campaign. That is a danger which must always be guarded 
 against in the case of reducing food to a small bulk by 
 means of drying. 
 
 Then comes the question of the concentration of articles 
 of food by removing the water to a certain extent. This 
 really forms the method of drying most kinds of food ; 
 but when it is spoken of in the form of concentration, 
 it generally refers to those liquid foods which are in 
 common use, such as milk, beef-tea, essence of meat, 
 and so on. Under those circumstances concentration can 
 be carried to a considerable extent, and mi can be 
 reduced to a small bulk and kept properly sealed for a 
 considerable time without undergoing very much change. 
 The only change it does seem to undergo is occasionally 
 the separation of the butter from the rest of the milk, but 
 this is immaterial so long as the milk remains sound. 
 
 As regards the other substances, concentrated beef-tea 
 and essence of meat, it Is desirable to say a word. You 
 will see in the market tins and boxes of essence of meat 
 which purport to be the entire strength of a certain number 
 of pounds of meat. In fact it is stated that one ounce of 
 essence of meat, for instance, is the entire strength of no 
 less than two pounds or thirty-two ounces of meat itself. 
 Now stated in this way this is entirely misleading. What 
 this essence of meat really is, is the juice of the flesh, not 
 the meat itself at all. Many years ago, an eminent French 
 physiologist, Majendie, made an experiment which clearly 
 shows that this essence of meat is not a nutritious substance 
 in the proper sense at all ; because by making a strong rich 
 soup from meat, and feeding a number of dogs with this 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 73 
 
 soup alone, and a number of other dogs with the rejected 
 fibrine, the result was that the dogs fed on the rejected 
 fibrine lived and flourished, whereas the others all ultimately 
 died. I had experience of this myself many years ago. 
 I tried with a friend, to see how long we could live on this 
 essence of meat, taken instead of ordinary albuminate 
 food, on the supposition that it was equally nutritious ; and 
 after a very few days we were reduced to a state of 
 considerable inanition, and exceedingly bad temper, which 
 was immediately improved by the addition of a little more 
 proper food, especially a little butter. The substances 
 called essence of meat and beef-tea have, however, a con- 
 siderable value ; but it is more as stimulants and aids 
 to digestion — food regulators, in fact — than as actually 
 providing nitrogen or nitrogenous matter itself. There- 
 fore we should look upon them in this light ; they form 
 very excellent bases for soup, and for different other 
 articles of diet, but alone they cannot be considered 
 as really nutritive. At the same time the use of these 
 substances is exceedingly valuable in cases of extreme 
 fatigue, and the administration of meat extract to troops 
 on a long march has proved to be of great value, mixed 
 with a proper amount of water, and sometimes added 
 to a little wine, it has raised the flagging energies in a 
 way that I do not think any other substance would pro- 
 bably have done. There are forms, however, of fluid meat 
 which are somewhat different to these. There is here a 
 bottle of so called fluid meat, which professes to contain not 
 only the juices of the flesh, but also the fibrine dissolved. 
 If this is the case then it is a form of material which 
 certainly provides actual nutriment as well as the 
 stimulating effect due to the juices of the flesh alone. 
 
 The usual method of preserving food, however, to at 
 least a very large extent, is the method of preserving it in 
 its own natural condition without concentration, by keeping 
 it from the action of the atmosphere ; when we say from 
 the action of the atmosphere we mean simply this, that the 
 atmosphere contains a large quantity of minute moving 
 
74 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 bodies called bacteria, bacilli, and so on, which all be- 
 long to a certain low class of vegetation, which have the 
 power of exciting fermentation and putrefaction in organic 
 matter ; and it has been proved by experience that if 
 these bodies can be kept out of an article of food it 
 can be kept for almost an indefinite time without under- 
 going change. This principle has been applied with great 
 results by Sir Joseph Lister in the treatment of wounds and 
 other surgical complaints, and by carefully excluding all 
 these minute bodies of the atmosphere he has been able 
 to put an end to a large extent to the various surgical 
 diseases such as hospital gangrene which were formerly 
 the scourge and opprobrium of hospitals. This has been 
 done even in some of the continental hospitals, where 
 general cleanliness has been but little attended to. By 
 this method an immense improvement has been made, 
 and diseases have been prevented which otherwise would 
 have carried off a large number of patients. Now this 
 action of the minute bodies which takes place in our own 
 system, also takes place in various forms in all sorts 
 of organic matter, and if, as you know, you leave meat 
 or any other substance exposed to the air, in a very short 
 time putrefaction begins, and the substance becomes very 
 rapidly unfit for use. There are several ways of preventing 
 this : in the first place, the mere act of cooking alone is 
 sufficient at the time to destroy all the putrefactive 
 particles in the meat ; and if after that we can prevent the 
 attack of further particles from the atmosphere, then we 
 can preserve our food for almost an indefinite period. 
 That is at the base of all the different forms of preserved 
 food, some of which I have on the table here. The food is 
 first thoroughly cooked, then, while it is hot, and the steam 
 is issuing out of a small aperture in the corner, the whole is 
 sealed up and preserved for further use. In that way we 
 can have all sorts of articles of diet preserved, and they 
 form very valuable resources in many cases. There are, 
 however, in some cases, dangers connected with these 
 articles of diet. In the first place, if the food itself is not 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 75 
 
 in good order when put up, it will continue to putrefy even 
 after it is sealed. Then, in the second place, the food, 
 although not actually bad in the sense of putrefying, may 
 be unwholesome in the sense that it is from animals 
 diseased in various ways. Lastly, some dangers may arise 
 from the materials used in the packing and putting up of 
 the article. With regard to the first point, if the food is 
 not thoroughly cooked, or if after being thoroughly cooked 
 it is exposed to causes of putrefaction, it will continue to 
 • putrefy, even when shut up and enclosed in the tin, or in 
 any other way. A very good way of testing this with 
 regard to tinned food is to see whether the top of the tin, 
 for instance, a tin of condensed milk, is flat or depressed. 
 If the top is flat or depressed, it shows that no air has got 
 in, because the expansion caused by boiling has expanded 
 the air at the time of sealing up, and then, as it cools down 
 again, if the whole is air-tight, the top of the tin, the most 
 yielding part, will sink down to a certain extent. If, on 
 the other hand, you find the top bulging out, you may be 
 pretty certain decomposition has gone on, and when you 
 open it you will probably have a gush of extremely foul 
 air, which will at once warn you of the condition of things. 
 Then again, if food is put up which comes from a diseased 
 animal, or in any other way tainted, disease may arise in 
 consequence of eating it. This is especially the case in 
 meat which is suffering from measle, that is, the larva of a 
 form of tape-worm ; or meat which contains the flesh worm, 
 which is unfortunately found from time to time, especially 
 in the flesh of pigs. Under those cases, if the cooking has 
 not been very thorough, these creatures will develop in the 
 human body, and produce painful, if not fatal diseases. 
 But besides that, a danger may arise from the material 
 which is used in sealing up the tins. Now where proper 
 metal is used, and it is properly soldered, there is not very 
 much danger. In the old method of putting up tins with 
 rosin solder the material was tolerably free from any 
 danger in that way, but in some cases lead has been found in 
 articles of preserved food, and latterly I believe, particularly 
 
76 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 in America, the soldering has been done by another method, 
 which involves the use of chloride of zinc, which is an 
 exceedingly poisonous substance, and if any of that gets 
 into the meat, there will certainly be a bad result. Zinc 
 poisoning is not so well known as lead poisoning, but we 
 have had reason in recent times to recognise its presence 
 from the action of difierent acids from articles of food on 
 zinc vessels, especially on so-called galvanised iron vessels, 
 which are simply iron vessels dipped in molten zinc, which 
 take a thin coating of that metal. Under some circum- 
 stances this is attacked by articles of food kept in them, 
 and the result is zinc poisoning is produced, which can now 
 be easily recognised. 
 
 There is another method, however, of preserving food 
 which has come into use of late years, and that is by the 
 addition of certain substances to the article of food, to 
 prevent the development or action of putrefactive particles 
 or so called Bacteria. Various substances have been 
 recommended for this purpose, and amongst others, 
 Glycerine, Borax, Boracic Acid, Salicylic Acid, that is acid 
 got from Willow bark, and some other substances, and 
 they have been tried in various ways. It has been found 
 with regard to the last. Salicylic Acid, that this is not by 
 any means a desirable thing to take into the system as a 
 habit ; and impressed with this view the French Government 
 have lately passed a very strong enactment against the use 
 of this substance, which it had become the custom to 
 introduce into wine to prevent it undergoing the change 
 which some of the lighter wines are very apt to do in times 
 of change of temperature and on carriage. The other 
 substances I have mentioned. Glycerine, Boracic Acid, and 
 Borax, or Biborate of Soda, are less harmful ; Glycerine 
 in fact itself is not the least harmful. It is a substance 
 which may be taken into the system in considerable 
 quantities. It is easily digested and oxidised ; and even 
 persons who are unable in certain conditions of health to 
 take sugar at all, may take glycerine with freedom. We 
 know that if we immerse substances in glycerine, they can 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 77 
 
 be kept an almost indefinite time without undergoing any 
 change. Again, Boracic Acid and Borax are very deadly 
 to all low forms of life. None of these can exist at all in 
 a solution of either substance, and in consequence this has 
 been made use of by adding these substances to the articles 
 of food, such as milk and various other foods which have to 
 be preserved, in order to prevent the development of these 
 minute organisms. Now although this is certainly success- 
 ful to some extent, it is a question whether it is advisa- 
 ble to continue to take into the system substances which 
 are certainly deadly to one form of life, and may, so far as 
 we know, have some very undesirable effect on the human 
 system. This point still requires investigation. These 
 two I have referred to have been joined in a substance 
 called Boro-glyceride, which has been made the subject of a 
 patent, by Professor Barfif, and he has succeeded to a 
 considerable extent in preserving articles of food. A small 
 quantity of it may be added to soup, for instance, or to 
 beef-tea, or milk, and will preserve it for some time without 
 its undergoing change, which would be of great value in 
 hot weather ; but on making enquiry in one of the London 
 Hospitals where I know this plan was in operation for 
 some time, I find they have given it up. I do not know 
 exactly for what reason, but it appears that they did not 
 find it answer so well as they expected. 
 
 There is one form of prepared food I may refer 
 to which is very important, namely, what is known 
 as Pemmican, a substance greatly used amongst all Arctic 
 voyagers for many years. It consists simply of well 
 selected meat carefully cooked and dried, pounded up 
 and mixed with a large quantity of fat and a small amount 
 of spice. This substance, from the way in which it is 
 prepared, will remain for a long time without undergoing 
 any change whatever, and it is extremely nutritive. It 
 contains no less than 35 per cent, of albuminates, and 
 over 50 per cent, of fat. This substance is pleasant to 
 taste, it is easily made into soup or otherwise used ; but 
 its prolonged use, unless with the addition of vegetable 
 
78 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 food or lime juice, is certainly productive of bad results. 
 We had that shown in the last Arctic Expedition, where the 
 boat expeditions went away with a supply of this article 
 but without any anti-scorbutic food, and the necessary 
 result was that in a very short time the men suffered from 
 scorbutic diarrhoea and were totally unable to swallow the 
 proper amount of food. 
 
 But amongst the Hudson's Bay hunters and others who 
 have been engaged in the Arctic regions a considerable 
 time, this substance has been very largely used, either 
 alone, or, as is sometimes the case, mixed with raisins and 
 currants, which would give it a certain amount of anti- 
 scorbutic property. But in all cases where this limited 
 form of diet is in use, the persons using it take every 
 opportunity of obtaining vegetable food in some form or 
 another to assist the proper digestion of it ; all sorts of 
 Arctic berries, and even sometimes plants of different kinds ; 
 the partially masticated contents of the stomach of the 
 reindeer also are greedily eaten by the Esquimaux, just as 
 the contents of the stomach of the cow or bullock are eaten 
 by the Caffres in South Africa, under conditions where 
 vegetable food cannot be obtained. 
 
 Other forms of preserved food consist of the familiar forms 
 of jam and other modes of preserving vegetable food, which 
 all have their special use. I may mention one method of 
 preservation which is being lately tried, and that is a way 
 of preserving butter, when it is plentiful in summer and 
 does not find an immediate market, for use in winter when 
 it is expensive and difficult to get. We all know that 
 there is a considerable difficulty in getting a sufficient 
 amount of fat in our diet, and in consequence of the high 
 price of butter there have been introduced a great many 
 substances known as butterine, oleo-margarine, and the like, 
 which rumour says are often derived from very unsavoury 
 sources. People have even gone so far as to say that the 
 scum from the surface of the Thames, at the Barking and 
 Crossness outfalls, is skimmed and the fat melted out, which 
 is converted into butterine. I do not think that is practi- 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 79 
 
 cally the case ; there are other uses for fat of this descrip- 
 tion, but certainly we had before the Royal Commission 
 on Metropolitan Sewage Discharge one or two individuals 
 whose sole occupation in life consisted in skimming this 
 greasy like substance from the surface of the Thames, 
 rendering it, and selling it ; but they would not commit 
 themselves to where it went, or what use was made of it. 
 Of course there is no reason why such substances as 
 butterine and imitation butter should not be perfectly 
 wholesome if made of fat obtained from proper sources. 
 But the method of preserving butter I was referring to is a 
 plan which has been but lately introduced, by keeping the 
 butter in a cool dry chamber, hermetically sealed from the 
 external air. And at Berkeley Castle, Lord Fitzhardinge, 
 who takes a great interest in dairy farming, has constructed 
 an arrangement of this sort, and the experiment is going to 
 be tried this summer, I hope with success, because it will 
 perhaps to some extent cheapen the price of butter, which 
 has become so high, especially in the winter. The impor- 
 tance of having a considerable amount of fat is very great 
 for the community generally. It was even said, forty or 
 fifty years ago, by a very wise and eminent physician, that 
 one of the causes of the great prevalence of consumption in 
 this country was the high price of butter ; and I believe 
 that although this was a very sweeping statement, it certainly 
 was not untrue. If we could get a larger amount of fat 
 introduced into the diet of the people it would be highly 
 beneficial, and we know that in the case of consumptive 
 patients great benefits are derived from the taking of cod 
 liver oil or other similar fats. 
 
 I am afraid I have now reached the end of my time, 
 and I have only to thank you for your kind attention. 
 
 The Chairman : Ladies and gentlemen, I am sure you 
 will join with me in returning a vote of thanks to Professor 
 de Chaumont for his excellent lecture. He has shown 
 you that the body is a machine, and that there are two 
 functions in the body with regard to nutrition. There is 
 the continual waste of the parts of the machine, and that 
 
8o PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 has to be made up with materials fit for its structural 
 parts, that are called the albuminates. They are exactly 
 of the same composition as the flesh and blood of an 
 animal. If you take the cheese out of milk, or if you take 
 the cheese out of beans and peas, for beans and peas 
 contain about 20 per cent, of cheese, and the Chinese make 
 cheese out of them ; or if you take it by stirring the blood of 
 an animal, or if you take it by stirring the juice of a cauli- 
 flower or cabbage, and you put these dried substances 
 into a chemist's hands, with the dried flesh or dried blood 
 of any animal, the chemist is unable with all his refine- 
 ments and all the delicacy of his balance, to find the 
 slightest difference between them. These substances have 
 to be built into the body ; they are already the composition 
 of the body. It is the duty of plants out of the aerial food 
 around them, to mould them into the forms of flesh and 
 blood. The animals have only to give them a position 
 in their organisms. They are not troubled with making 
 the materials, and therefore the building up of the machine 
 from these albuminates is simply the placing them in 
 position to replace the wasted parts of the machine. I am 
 quite sure that if I were to ask nine tenths of you how 
 long a body takes to waste — how long the machine that we 
 have to build up, which is continually going on, some parts 
 of it, such as the heart, from our birth to our death without 
 the slightest cessation of work, will take to waste — you 
 would answer me according to the old statement, which 
 you believe as firmly as any creed of any church, that the 
 body changes in seven years. Now the soft parts of the 
 body, the muscles and so on, change every six weeks, or 
 nearly that time. The waste, as indicated by the waste 
 matter that goes away from the body, represents an amount 
 that in about six or seven weeks amounts to the whole 
 weight, so that in that time we must restore it entirely. 
 Therefore it is of extreme importance, as Dr. de Chaumont 
 has shown you, that we should put in as much as is wasted. 
 About four ounces a day of flesh-formers must be used to 
 keep a man in health, in ordinary active work ; it is not 
 
PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 8i 
 
 enough for a labourer. If a man is doing very hard work he 
 requires about an ounce more, or five ounces. But sometimes, 
 from ignorance of this, the most miserable effects on nutrition 
 have been produced. There is an incessant change of 
 particles in our body. I cannot raise my hand without the 
 muscles which I use being wasted, and it is the duty of 
 nutrition to restore those wasted parts. There is incessant 
 death and incessant life going on in every part of the body. 
 Every particle of the body is dying according as it is used, 
 and every particle is born again by being built in and 
 becoming a new part of life. Therefore you see the 
 importance of knowing the constituents of food, and 
 showing how different materials should be used under 
 different circumstances ; some years ago, for instance, I had 
 the melancholy duty of being a commissioner on the Irish 
 famine ; and where there was very little money it was very 
 desirable to feed the largest number of persons with a 
 small amount of money ; and a knowledge of food became 
 of infinite importance on such an occasion. 
 
 For instance, supposing I have the duty to put a pound 
 of flesh on a man in a day, or series of days ; for he only 
 requires four ounces a day, and he would require four days to 
 get a pound ; and if it was my duty to put a pound of 
 flesh on a man, it would cost me \s. d>d. to 2s. to do that 
 out of flesh ; \s. ^d. to do it out of potatoes : but in the shape 
 of peas I could do it for "^d. Now I will come to my 
 practical conclusion. When you go through the Exhibi- 
 tion you will find in the Central Hall, half way down, 
 all the foods analysed or split into their constituent parts, 
 according to pound weights of each. It comes to no 
 more information than is on this table on the wall, but it 
 is in a convenient form. You will see of each food one 
 pound contains so much water ; so much flesh-formers, or 
 albuminates ; so much heat-givers, because you have to 
 give fuel to the machine to keep up the heat ; so much 
 mineral matter to form bone ; and you will find every food 
 there split up into its constituent parts of a pound ; and it 
 is a very instructive set of cases but I am afraid it is passed 
 
 VOL. VI. — H. L. <^' 
 
82 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. 
 
 over without being looked at so much as the more 
 attractive things. However, I find I am giving a lecture 
 instead of moving a vote of thanks, which is what I rose 
 for the purpose of doing, and which I now do. 
 
 The vote of thanks was carried unanimously. 
 
 Mr. A. J. R. Trendell then moved a vote of thanks to 
 Sir Lyon Playfair for his kindness in coming to act as 
 Chairman in the midst of absorbing parliamentary and 
 professional duties. He felt sure that the meeting would 
 appreciate the very practical remarks the Chairman had 
 made, and begged to thank him on behalf of the Executive 
 Council for presiding. The resolution was carried unani- 
 mously. 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 BY 
 
 Professor CHARLES GRAHAM, D.Sc, F.I.C. 
 
 (university college, w.c.) 
 
 VOL. VI.— T I. L. G 2 
 
July 3RD, 1884. 
 
 A LECTURE ON THE CHEMISTRY OF 
 BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 By Prof. Charles Graham, D.Sc, F.I.C. 
 
 The chair was taken by Prof, Odling, F.R.S., who, in 
 introducing the lecturer, said he hoped it would not be 
 considered presumptuous in him to suggest that the Exe- 
 cutive Council of the Exhibition had done well both in 
 their selection of the subject and the lecturer. When 
 primitive man ceased to be exclusively a hunter he became 
 next a shepherd and a herdsman, and the next stage in the 
 advancement of civilisation he became a husbandman ; how 
 soon after becoming a husbandman he became a bread- 
 maker and a baker, he did not think the earliest prehistoric 
 records would exactly tell, but, at any rate, he thought they 
 might fairly look back upon bread-making as probably the 
 earliest, or at least one of the earliest, chemical arts ; one 
 which had existed for a great many thousand years. Per- 
 haps, he could not say, that during all those thousand years 
 it had made such a rapid rate of progress as some of the 
 more modern chemical arts ; nevertheless, the art of bread- 
 making still retained a very large amount of interest, and 
 bread might still be regarded as the staff of life. He would 
 only add that Prof Charles Graham was one of the leading 
 authorities in the particular department of chemistry which 
 related to the study of those changes called fermentative, 
 one of the most important of which was the process which 
 was called panification, or the chemical art of transforming 
 flour into bread. 
 
86 THE CHEMISTRY OF DREAD-MAKING. 
 
 LECTURE. 
 
 Our distinguished Chairman, Prof. Odling, the President 
 of the Institute of Chemistry, in introducing me to you 
 has been so good as to refer to my position in regard to 
 fermentation chemistry, and I presume that it was in refer- 
 ence to this that the Council of the International Health 
 Exhibition requested that I should give a lecture on a 
 subject of vast importance to us all. I consented to do 
 what I could in this matter ; other men of science are also 
 engaged aiding the Council of this Exhibition, not onl)-- in 
 the awarding of prizes among the various exhibitors, but in 
 aiding in the selection of the materials to be sent here, and 
 also in assisting at conferences and lectures on various 
 matters pertaining to the great object of this Exhibition, 
 namely. Health. 
 
 The cereals are undoubtedly the most valuable of all the 
 fruits of the earth, and it is, therefore, needful that we 
 should rightly study their mode of preparation for the use 
 of man. The question may have occurred to some of you, 
 how can science aid art ? Surely a good baker requires no 
 assistance from science. Let us see what is the answer to 
 it. Without going through a number of instances in which 
 undoubtedly science has advantaged art, I will refer only 
 to one or two. In the first place, there is no doubt that 
 agriculture has benefited largely by the investigations of 
 Liebig, and, following him, of others, into the composition 
 of the mineral matter of plant life. It is perfectly true 
 that in metallurgy, steel was obtained ages ago of the very 
 highest excellence. Yet surely the study of chemistry has 
 enabled us to manufacture iron and steel at such a price 
 and in such quantities as would have been utterly im- 
 possible in the olden time. Again, take another illustra- 
 tion, that of dyeing ; there are two methods of dyeing of 
 great historic interest — that of Turkey red dyeing and that 
 of indigo dyeing — because these are the only two really 
 permanent colours, and secondly because science has in- 
 vestigated the nature of Turkey red dyeing, and has found 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 87 
 
 out that the important principle in the madder root was 
 alizarine. Science has not stopped at merely finding out 
 the nature of the dye ; science has succeeded in creating 
 the dye out of gas-tar products. Lately, indigo has in a 
 similar way been created, it is already a success, and will 
 soon become a great commercial success. I give those 
 merely as illustrations of the way in which science can 
 benefit art, and though we need not look for any such 
 startling, such epoch-making discoveries as that of the 
 making and building up alizarine and indigo, still I feel 
 sure that science little by little will greatly improve the art 
 of bread-making. 
 
 I have the honour of addressing some London bakers, 
 and there are London bakers who are exhibitors in this 
 Exhibition, and it is perfectly true that we now get in 
 London bread of the highest excellence, but still the Council 
 of this Exhibition are not thinking only of the best West- 
 end bakers, they are not limiting their views solely to 
 London bakers, — they are considering the interests of the 
 United Kingdom, and, indeed, of other countries, and one of 
 the arrangements I understand in regard to these lectures 
 is that they shall be published in a very cheap form, so 
 that in this way one's audience may be larger than that 
 in this room. I had proposed to make a few remarks in 
 regard to the history of bread-making, but after the intro- 
 ductory remarks of our Chairman I think I need do no 
 more than briefly enumerate the three distinct stages. 
 First ; flour was mixed with water, baked, and then eaten ; 
 the next great improvement was the discovery of leaven ; 
 both of these are very old methods for the treatment of 
 flour and known to the ancients ; and at the present day 
 we have examples of both systems ; we have bread 
 without any ferment at all, as in parts of Spain, and we 
 have also leaven bread in the North of Europe, but the 
 next great and important improvement was the use of 
 yeast. This has occurred in more modern times, how 
 many hundred years ago I know not, but still compara- 
 tively modern as compared with the older methods. 
 
88 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 Before studying the phenomena of bread-making, it 
 will be necessary to study the composition of the cereals 
 employed in bread-making. In the corner of the room 
 there is a Table taken from papers published by Messrs. 
 Lawes and Gilbert, giving us the composition of wheat, 
 barley, oats, rye, maize, and rice. 
 
 Average Composition of the Grain of Cereals. 
 
 
 Old 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Water . . . 
 Starch . 
 Fat. . . . 
 Cellulose . 
 Gum and Sugar 
 Albuminoids . 
 Ash . . . 
 Loss, &c. . 
 
 
 II-I 
 
 62-3 
 
 1-2 
 
 8-3 
 3-8 
 10-9 
 1-6 
 0-8 
 
 I2'0 
 
 52-7 
 2-6 
 
 "•5 
 
 4-2 
 
 13-2 
 
 2-8 
 i-o 
 
 14-2 
 
 56-1 
 
 4.6 
 
 I-o 
 
 5-7 
 i6-o 
 
 2-2 
 0-2 
 
 14-3 
 
 54'9 
 
 2-0 
 
 6-4 
 II-3 
 8-8 
 1-8 
 0-5 
 
 "•5 
 
 54-8 
 4*7 
 
 14-9 
 2-9 
 8-9 
 1-6 
 0.7 
 
 IO-8 
 
 78-8 
 o-i 
 
 0-2 
 
 1-6 
 
 7-2 
 
 0-9 
 04 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 lOQ-O 
 
 1000 
 
 loo-o 
 
 loo-o 
 
 1000 
 
 lOO-O 
 
 Composition of Wheat Grain Ash. 
 
 Phosphoric acid . 
 Phosphate of iron 
 Potash . . 
 Soda . 
 Magnesia 
 Lime . 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 Carbonic acid 
 Chlorine . 
 Silica, &c. 
 
 Total , 
 
 Lawes and 
 Gilbert. 
 
 49-68 
 2-36 
 
 29-35 
 
 I- 12 
 
 10*70 
 
 3 "40 
 
 0-13 
 2-47 
 
 99-21 
 
 Way and 
 Ogston. 
 
 45-01 
 0-82 
 
 3i'44 
 2-71 
 
 12-36 
 3-52 
 o'34 
 0-02 
 o" 13 
 3'67 
 
 100-02 
 
 I wish to draw your attention to some important points 
 connected with those analyses. We may divide the con- 
 stituents of the cereals of wheat, for example, into the 
 mineral matter and the matter which is not mineral, and 
 to which we give the term organic matter. The mineral 
 matter consists of phosphate of potash, and of magnesia, 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 89 
 
 about one-half being phosphoric acid, one-third potash, and 
 one-tenth magnesia. The organic constituents consist of 
 what are termed carbo-hydrates, together with a small 
 quantity of fat. I say carbo-hydrates, an expression 
 used to indicate that in these kind of bodies the carbon, 
 the hydrogen, and the oxygen are united together to form 
 the substance, starch for example, and that the hydrogen 
 and oxygen are in the same proportion as in water, 
 though they are not combined together as in water, and 
 therefore, the expression carbo-hydrates is given to such 
 bodies. These carbo-hydrates are the substances that 
 yield heat to the body, and by so doing yield force, power. 
 In addition to these we have the substances termed 
 albuminoids. These are also spoken of as flesh-formers. 
 Now, it is perfectly true that this expression correctly de- 
 scribes the function they perform, namely, to repair the 
 waste of the muscular tissue, but at the same time it is 
 somewhat misleading in that these flesh-formers are really 
 mainly used up in giving heat and force by their burning or 
 oxidation in the body, only a comparatively small quantity 
 being necessary for the waste of the muscular tissues, which 
 is by no means so great as physiologists formerly assumed. 
 Starch occurs stored up in vegetable structures for much 
 the same reason as fat occurs stored up in animal struc- 
 tures, namely, for future use, thus we find starch in bulbs, and 
 in tubers. It is the starch-yielding property of the potato 
 which renders it chiefly valuable. We find it also in roots, 
 such as turnips, and the beet-root ; we find it of course in 
 seeds, and lastly we find it in the thick leaves termed by 
 botanists cotyledons, the two thick leaves which in le- 
 guminous plants such as the bean and the pea form the 
 larger part of the seeds. The whole of the matter inside 
 the testa or skin of the bean really consists of the two 
 thick young cotyledon-leaves, thus we have various sources 
 of starch. Starch, however obtained, will be found, when 
 examined under a microscope, with a proper measuring 
 arrangement, to have different characteristic appearances, 
 and also sizes. For example, the starch of wheat varies 
 
90 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 much from that of barley, and very much from rice. It is 
 by the size, which can be accurately measured, and by the 
 form or shape which we can note under the microscope, 
 that we are enabled to identify various kinds of starches. 
 Starch, as you know, does not dissolve in cold water, and 
 indeed water is used in the extraction of the starch after 
 grinding the grain, or rasping the potato from which we are 
 deriving the starch. But when to a mixture of cold water 
 and wheat-starch a laundress pours boiling water, she raises 
 the temperature, and the result is that the starch-cell bursts. 
 The outside of the cell is composed of woody fibre, and at 
 this higher temperature it bursts, the internal contents of 
 the starch-cell then come out. To those contents we give 
 the term granulose, which makes a paste with the hot 
 water. This is an important point in regard to the diges- 
 tion of starch. At a temperature of about 300° F. starch 
 is converted into dextrine or British gum. If, however, 
 instead of employing that plan you add, to a thick starch 
 paste a little ground malt, the ground malt will convert 
 the starch paste into dextrine together with another pro- 
 duct which I will refer to presently. But the dextrine 
 formed in that way is not pure. A still better plan is to 
 make a mixture of 1000 parts of starch with 300 of water, 
 to which previously two parts of nitric acid have been 
 added ; you mix the two together, and this is afterwards 
 air-dried, and when it is revolved in a cylinder at the 
 temperature of not higher than 220° to 230°, it is con- 
 verted into dextrine, and it is in that way that the dextrine 
 of commerce is now manufactured. You are all acquainted 
 with the appearance of it, because you have all of you seen 
 the \d. or 2d. bottles of British gum, and it is on the back 
 of every postage stamp, and it is used very largely in 
 the arts, in calico-printing for example. Closely allied to 
 starch and dextrine comes cane-sugar and maltose-sugar. 
 Cane-sugar, you know, is derived from the cane-plant, 
 from the beet, or from the maple, its properties you are 
 sufficiently well acquainted with, namely, that it is sweet, 
 and dissolves in water and crystallizes easily. Maltose 
 sugar is what I was referring to just now when I said that 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 91 
 
 on the addition of a little malt to starch paste there was 
 another product formed besides dextrine, and that other 
 product is maltose, having the same centessimal com- 
 position as cane-sugar. Maltose sugar was discovered 
 by Debrunfaut, and was afterwards the subject of experi- 
 ment and study by Musculus, but it was not until compara- 
 tively recently, owing to the researches of Mr. O'Sullivan, 
 of Burton-upon-Trent, that we really understood the nature 
 of the change that took place by the action of these albu- 
 minoid bodies, such as we find in malt upon starch paste. 
 He showed us that a starch solution is acted upon by the 
 diastase, as it is called, of the malt, and that it takes up 
 water and forms maltose sugar and dextrine, the maltose 
 sugar having the same formula as cane-sugar. This process 
 continues, and more maltose is formed by the action of 
 the diastase upon the more complex dextrines which 
 are formed at first. Ultimately, however, a large portion 
 of maltose is formed, and a very small quantity of dextrine, 
 and under the most favourable conditions it is possible to 
 convert the whole of the starch into maltose sugar. The 
 maltose sugar thus made, dissolves in water, it is slightly 
 sweet to the taste, and it does not crystallise in the way 
 that cane-sugar does, and it is much more difficult to 
 obtain in a crystalline form. Maltose sugar is readily 
 acted on by the yeast ferment. 
 
 The next matter of interest in the study of these bodies 
 are the albuminoids ; the albuminoids contain carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen just in the same way, but not in the 
 same proportion as the carbo-hydrates, but they have in 
 addition nitrogen, and sometimes a little sulphur. Their 
 general composition is given in this table : — 
 
 Average Composition 0/ Albuminoids. 
 
 Carbon . . . . . . . -53*3 
 
 Hydrogen » 7*1 
 
 Nitrogen . . . , . . . . lyy 
 
 Oxygen . . . . . . . . 22'i 
 
 Sulphur . . . . . . . . i"8 
 
 100 
 
 Hypothetical formula, C" H"^ j^is 50". 
 
92 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 If we take the formula of starch as being C72, H120, Ogo, 
 you may not see any relationship between that and the 
 albuminoids, but yet the probabilities are that the starch 
 is only an altered form of the albuminoid, and that it has 
 previously gone through such an albuminous stage. In 
 the Table, by Lawes and Gilbert, you will find that the 
 albuminoids are given there for different cereals. At the 
 same time, as we shall see presently, cereals differ very 
 much in the percentage of albuminoids they contain, and 
 in the Table the placing of 10*9 of albuminoids to old 
 wheat was perfectly correct for the sample of wheat ana- 
 lysed, but it leads one to assume that wheat is less rich in 
 albuminoids than barley and oats, but it is distinctly on 
 the average not less rich, but rather more so than barley. 
 If we take ordinary flour, and then elutriate it with water 
 so as to get rid of the starch, we shall ultimately obtain 
 crude gluten. The crude gluten, of which we have some 
 samples on the table, is a tough elastic mass, and it is on 
 account of this great resisting tendency that we are 
 enabled to keep in the carbonic acid that is subsequently 
 formed in fermentation, and thus to make a well-piled 
 loaf Now crude gluten contains fibrine and gluten ; 
 about four-fifths of fibrine and one-fifth of gluten ; the 
 gluten is slightly soluble in water, but not the fibrine. Of 
 course, if fibrine be moistened and left for a, time it will 
 gradually break down in the complexity of its structure, 
 and will form simpler kinds of albuminoids, and this is the 
 kind of deleterious action that takes place when we have a 
 long-continued period of wet weather at harvest time. But 
 while washing the flour in order to obtain this crude gluten, 
 we have already dissolved out some soluble albuminoids. 
 
 Now these soluble albuminoids occur to a small extent 
 in wheat, even the best elaborated ; but they occur to a 
 much larger extent in other kinds of cereals, as barley for 
 example. Of these, albumin and legumin, so called from 
 the legumenosoe in which it is abundantly found, differ 
 mainly in this respect, that the albumin can be coagulated 
 by boiling, whereas the legumin cannot. In addition to 
 the albumin and legumin, we have also another albuminoid 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 93 
 
 substance called cerealine. Now it is the cerealine which is 
 found so largely in the bran of wheat, and not to the same 
 extent in barley. If we take what is termed, botanically, 
 the caryopsis, or the seed, of barley, and moisten it and 
 keep it at a proper temperature in a warm room it will 
 gradually grow, and, as it grows, rootlets will come out 
 from the bottom, while the plumule pushes up inside 
 the testa or skin ; as it does so, this plumule, which is 
 growing up inside the testa, gradually by an osmotic action 
 from cell to cell sets up a diastasic change throughout 
 the whole of the berry, so at last, as it grows up and ulti- 
 mately gives off a stem and leaf, it has greatly affected the 
 starch granules inside the seed. Now, in the case of wheat, 
 the little embryo at the bottom pushes out its root, but at 
 the same time the plumule comes out also, thus the plumule 
 has no diastasic action, except by osmotic action through 
 the cells at the base. Nature, however, partly gets over 
 this difficulty by the diastasic action set up by the 
 albuminoid cells in the cerealine acting throughout the 
 whole mass, so that sugars are formed for the nourishment 
 of the young growing plant. This is the important function 
 of the cerealine in the bran of wheat. Now, barley has 
 got but little gluten, the albuminoids are not of that 
 character, they are not dense and coherent, and rye-flour, 
 maize and rice are all equally deficient, and the consequence 
 is that for the preparation of fermented bread there is 
 no cereal that can compare with wheat. 
 
 I will ask you now to look at some results obtained by 
 the chemist Peligot. In this Table you will find the com- 
 position of different typical wheats — Flemish, Odessa, 
 Herisson, Provence, Midi, Polish, Hungarian, Egyptian, 
 Spanish, and Russian. In this Table we have the albu- 
 minoids divided into those which are insoluble and those 
 which are soluble. This method of stating the results is 
 of very great importance to the baker. If you look at 
 this Table you will find, by dividing the insoluble albu- 
 minoids by the soluble, that we have in the Flemish a 
 ratio of 3^ of the insoluble to i of soluble ; in the Odessa, 
 
94 
 
 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 8 of insoluble to one of soluble ; in the Midi, 9 to i ; 
 in the Egyptian, 13 to i ; and in the Spanish, 5 to i. 
 
 Analyses of Wheat (Peligot). 
 
 
 E 
 
 6 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 
 lA 
 •0 
 
 "3 
 
 
 3 
 
 T3 
 
 .2 
 "3 
 
 
 <^3 
 
 M 
 
 •a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 bJO 
 
 X. 
 
 '2 
 n 
 0. 
 in 
 
 hi 
 M 
 2 
 c 
 n 
 b« 
 (U 
 
 H 
 
 Water 
 
 Fat . . . . . . . • 
 
 Insoluble Albuminoids 
 Soluble Albuminoids . 
 Dextrine .... 
 
 Starch 
 
 Cellubse .... 
 Saline Matter . . . 
 
 14-6 
 
 1*0 
 
 8-3 
 2-4 
 9-2 
 62-7 
 1-8 
 
 I4*6 
 
 1-3 
 8-1 
 1-8 
 8-1 
 66-1 
 
 15-2 
 
 1-5 
 
 12-7 
 
 1-6 
 
 6-3 
 
 61-3 
 
 1-4 
 
 13-2 
 
 1*2 
 
 lO'O 
 
 i'7 
 
 6-8 
 
 67-1 
 
 i3"9 
 
 I'O 
 
 8-7 
 
 1-9 
 
 7-8 
 
 66-7 
 
 14-4 
 i*o 
 
 13-8 
 1-8 
 
 7-2 
 
 599 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-9 
 
 13-2 
 
 1-2 
 
 i6-7 
 
 i'4 
 
 5-9 
 
 59-7 
 
 1-9 
 
 13-6 
 I'l 
 
 14 4 
 1-6 
 
 6-4 
 59-8 
 
 i'4 
 1-7 
 
 13-2 
 
 1-5 
 
 19-8 
 
 17 
 6-8 
 
 55-1 
 1-9 
 
 14-5 
 i-i 
 
 II-8 
 1-6 
 
 5-4 
 65-6 
 
 13-5 
 I-I 
 
 19-1 
 
 6-0 
 59-8 
 
 1-8 
 8-9 
 1-8 
 
 7-3 
 63-6 
 
 i"4 
 
 14-8 
 1-9 
 
 12-2 
 1*4 
 
 7-9 
 
 57-9 
 
 2-3 
 
 1-6 
 
 I only give those as being illustrative of the very great 
 variety that occurs in different cereals. A very interesting 
 point to notice in the Table of determinations made long 
 ago by Peligot is this, you will find that if you divide the 
 dextrine, as he termed it, by the soluble albuminoids, you 
 will, with the exception of one or two, that it is nearly 
 four times as much as the soluble albuminoids ; in many 
 cases it is exactly. In the Midi it is i'6 soluble albu- 
 minoids to 6*4 dextrine, which is exactly i to 4. I can 
 see in the next one, the Polish, it is i'/ of soluble albu- 
 minoids to 6*8 dextrine, showing that there must be 
 some very distinct relation between the amount of dextrine 
 formed and the albuminoid body that has gone to form 
 it. That is an interesting point for chemists. 
 
 It is of the highest importance for the milling interest, and 
 also for the baking interest, that a very large and numerous 
 series of analyses, made even with further determinations 
 than were possible at the time of Peligot, should be made 
 in order to guide the miller in his selection of wheats for 
 the different kinds of flour. I have now to call your atten- 
 tion to a diagram headed " The Influence of Seasons on 
 Wheats," and have marked certain years +, and have 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 95 
 
 marked some other years — , and there are one or two 
 years marked with a slanting mark. Now, if we take 
 those years against which I have attached +, 1846, 1849, 
 and 1 85 1, we learn that those years were dry years of fine 
 hai^vest weather, and the result was that the total produce 
 for those years was high. The amount of dressed corn in 
 the total produce was also very high, and, in addition to 
 that, the weight of corn per bushel, which is the farmer's 
 
 Influence of Seasons on the Character of Wheat Crops. 
 (Lawes and Gilbert.) 
 
 
 Particulars of the 
 
 Composition of 
 
 Com 
 
 ■OSITION OF 
 
 
 
 Produce 
 
 
 Grain. 
 
 
 Straw 
 
 
 Harvests. 
 
 C0£ 
 
 
 H 
 c . 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 U . 
 
 
 fa 
 0.^ 
 
 Q 
 
 1 
 
 0^ 
 
 Q 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 C.S 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 0.1 
 
 o.S 
 
 5'-' 
 
 P 
 c 
 
 ■5 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 
 c 
 
 >> 
 Q 
 
 c 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 
 
 - 1845 . . 
 
 5,545 
 
 33" I 
 
 90-1 
 
 56-7 
 
 8o-8 
 
 1-91 
 
 2*25 
 
 
 7-96 
 
 0*92 
 
 + 1846 . . 
 
 4,114 
 
 43' I 
 
 93-2 
 
 63-1 
 
 84-3 
 
 1-96 
 
 2-IS 
 
 
 6 -02 
 
 0-67 
 
 1847 . . 
 
 5.221 
 
 3&'4 
 
 93-6 
 
 62 'O 
 
 
 
 2-30 
 
 
 5-56 
 
 0-73 
 
 — 1848 . . 
 
 4,517 
 
 3b-7 
 
 89-0 
 
 58-5 
 
 80-3 
 
 2 "02 
 
 2-39 
 
 
 7-24 
 
 078 
 
 + 1849 . . 
 
 5,320 
 
 40-9 
 
 9S-S 
 
 63-5 
 
 83-1 
 
 1-84 
 
 1-94 
 
 82-6 
 
 6-I7 
 
 0-82 
 
 / 1850 . . 
 
 5,496 
 
 33-6 
 
 94-3 
 
 60 9 
 
 84-4 
 
 1-99 
 
 2-15 
 
 84-4 
 
 S-88 
 
 0-87 
 
 + 1851 . . 
 
 5,279 
 
 38-2 
 
 92-1 
 
 62-6 
 
 84-2 
 
 1-89 
 
 1-98 
 
 84-7 
 
 S-88 
 
 078 
 
 — 1852 . , 
 
 4,299 
 
 31-6 
 
 92-1 
 
 56-7 
 
 83-2 
 
 2 "00 
 
 2-38 
 
 82-6 
 
 0-53 
 
 079 
 
 - 1853 . . 
 
 3,932 
 
 25-1 
 
 85-9 
 
 50-2 
 
 8o-8 
 
 2-24 
 
 2-35 
 
 8i-o 
 
 6-27 
 
 0"20 
 
 / 1854 . . 
 
 6,803 
 
 35-8 
 
 95-6 
 
 61-4 
 
 84-9 
 
 1-93 
 
 2-14 
 
 83-7 
 
 5-08 
 
 0-69 
 
 Means 
 
 5,053 
 
 35-4 
 
 92.1 
 
 59-6 
 
 82-9! 1-98 
 
 2 '20 
 
 83-2 
 
 6-17 
 
 0-82 
 
 way of determining the specific gravity of corn, was also 
 very high. In 1846 it was 6^, and that is a high weight 
 for English wheat ; on the other hand, if we take 1845, 
 1848, and 1852, against which I have placed — , we had 
 wet summers, cold harvest weather, and the result un- 
 satisfactory ; such years as, indeed, we have experienced 
 much more recently, and in these cold wet summers and 
 autumns we obtained wheats with a low total amount of 
 produce. The total dressed corn was low in 1848, being 
 
96 
 
 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 only 89, whereas in 1846 it was 93, and in addition to that 
 the specific gravity of the corn was also low ; 56 in 1845, 
 and 58 in 1848, instead of being, as I have said before, 6"^ in 
 a good year. Then we have a high nitrogen ; the amount 
 of albuminoids was high, but the amount of resisting gluten 
 was very low — in other words, those flours were ill-adapted 
 for baking purposes. On this other Table, I have some 
 experiments I made for the purpose of this lecture, in 
 order to point out to you by experimental numbers the 
 character of the changes which take place when flour and 
 water are kept together at about a temperature of 85° F., 
 which is the temperature that the baker employs. Vienna 
 whites, allowed to stand only 10 minutes, give us "]6 of 
 
 
 Infusion 
 
 Produ 
 
 CTS OF 
 
 Flour. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cold. 
 15 Mins. 
 
 2Hrs. 
 
 4 Hrs. 
 
 8 Hrs. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 2 Hrs. 
 
 4 Hrs. 
 
 8 Hrs. 
 
 Vienna Whites. 
 Maltose .... 
 Dextrine .... 
 Soluble albuminoids . 
 
 trace, 
 trace. 
 0*76 
 
 2-41' 
 
 2-17 
 0-58 
 
 3-65 
 2-79 
 0*76 
 
 4-09 
 
 4 35 
 1*29 
 
 1-36 
 . 0*89 
 
 « "<o76 
 
 ^ 6 
 
 X. 3-01 
 
 
 
 S r'"57 
 
 c fi I *04 
 V3-66 
 
 /trace. 
 (2^- 2 70 
 
 % S 0-62 
 
 « « 
 
 ^3 '32 
 
 2*83 4-09 
 2-34 2-40 
 0*65 1-29 
 
 5-39 
 3-80 
 
 2'12 
 
 
 0-76 
 
 5-16 
 
 7-20 
 
 9*73 
 
 5-82 1 7-78 
 
 11-31 
 
 Best WJiites. 
 Maltose .... 
 Dextrine .... 
 Soluble albuminoids . 
 
 none. 
 
 1*21 
 0-71 
 
 i'57 
 1-48 
 0-58 
 
 2*04 
 2-74 
 o-8r 
 
 3-41 
 
 2-85 
 1-54 
 
 6*oi 
 0-84 
 I "45 
 
 6'OI 
 1*21 
 1-31 
 
 7'59 
 67 
 1-89 
 
 
 I 92 
 
 3-63 5"59 
 
 7-80 
 
 8-30 1 8-53 
 
 1015 
 
 Best ffouseJiolds. 
 Maltose . ■. » . 
 Dextrine 
 Soluble albummoids . 
 
 i"oo 
 I-I3 
 
 0-93 
 
 1-36 
 2 46 
 0-79 
 
 4-09 
 2-09 
 
 1-23 
 
 3-93 
 3-79 
 1-42 
 
 3'4i 
 0-95 
 o'7o 
 
 3-93 
 2*09 
 
 I '39 
 
 4'99 
 2-89 
 
 1-33 
 
 
 3-06 
 
 4 61 
 
 7-41 
 
 9-14 
 
 5'o6 
 
 7-41 
 
 9*21 
 
 
 ur. 
 
 4 Hr3. 
 
 8 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 With Lime. 
 
 High Dried. 
 
 Inferior Flo 
 
 4 Hrs. 
 
 8 Hrs. 
 
 4 Hrs. 
 
 3 Hrs. 
 
 Maltose . . 
 Dextrine . 
 Soluble albumino 
 
 ds '. ! 
 
 6-82 
 
 0-43 
 3-19 
 
 II 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 ■14 
 
 •28 
 
 •74 
 
 6-82 
 0"II 
 
 3-34 
 
 8-20 
 2-15 
 3-34 
 
 4"44 
 1-78 
 2-48 
 
 4-44 
 2-91 
 3-29 
 
 
 lo- 
 
 44 
 
 16 
 
 •II 
 
 I 
 
 0-27 
 
 13-69 
 
 8-7< 
 
 3 
 
 ID- 
 
 54 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 97 
 
 soluble products. In 2 hours, however, it is as high as 
 5 '16, in 4 hours 7*2, and in 8 hours 9*73. In second 
 households, we have in the cold 3" 01; 2 hours, 5*82; 
 4 hours, 7 '7^; in 8 hours, 11 '31. Now, in No. 2 
 we have also in 8 hours io*i5 — the brown meal being 
 very much of the same general character as that of 
 No. 2. A small Table shows the results of a distinctly- 
 soft flour, in which in 4 hours the amount of soluble 
 matter was 10*49, '^^ ^ hours i6'ii. When, however, that 
 flour was treated by a method investigated by our dis- 
 tinguished Chairman in 1858, with lime (only in this 
 particular instance I simply used a little chalk instead of 
 quicklime), we had a considerable reduction at the end of 
 eight hours ; and that is the important point, because the 
 process of the London baking requires a great many hours, 
 and therefore it is desirable to see what influence hard 
 water, such as one would get in Kent, or made so artificially, 
 would be. You will see that we are enabled to lower 
 somewhat the amount of soluble albuminoids. That same 
 flour, when heated to a temperature of 100° for several 
 hours, as in the kiln-drying process, gave still better results, 
 and at the end of eight hours the amount of soluble pro- 
 ducts was reduced from 16 down to 10 "6, showing there- 
 fore that the heat-stiffening action of the kiln is of the very 
 greatest importance indeed in improving the character of 
 our inferior wheats, due, perhaps, to inferior harvest con- 
 ditions. 
 
 I proceed now to the subject of milling. I am not 
 a miller, and I have not sufficient time, even if I had 
 sufficient knowledge, to entertain you with a discussion as 
 to the respective merits of high and low reduction, of 
 rollers versus stones. The City and Guilds Institute of 
 London a few years ago established examinations in the 
 chemistry of bread-making, and, due chiefly to the active 
 aid of Mr. Dunham, the proprietor of the Miller news- 
 paper, and also aided by active millers taking a keen 
 interest in their trade, they have recently added milling to 
 their curriculum of examination. You are probably most 
 
 VOL. VI. — II. L. I£ 
 
98 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 of you aware that the City and Guilds Institute carry 
 on in technology much the same kind of examinations, 
 although I hope better in character, as the Science and 
 Art Department do throughout England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland in their May Science Examinations. Milling has 
 been given to those interested in milling, and in looking 
 over the character of the questions set I am bound to say 
 that in a very short time it must stimulate the young 
 millers to study, not merely the chemistry of their art, but 
 to study the engineering part of their profession in a way 
 that has not been hitherto done in our country, and there- 
 fore I think that the City and Guilds Institute will do 
 considerable good in this direction. 
 
 As a chemist, however, and as I am lecturing upon the 
 best means of preparing wheat bread fit to compare with 
 the beautiful bread of Moscow or Paris, I think the 
 following conditions are essential to be aimed at in good 
 milling. In the first place, the corn must be degerminated, 
 because the germ is an active hydrating and diastasic 
 body ; secondly, the bran must be thoroughly eliminated, 
 because the cerealine of the bran has this injurious action 
 on the fermentation, that it produces too great a quantity 
 of maltose sugar and dextrine, and introduces also too large 
 a quantity of soluble albuminoids into the bread, which 
 soluble albuminoid, not the starch, as some people imagine, 
 give high colour in the oven, Degermination and elimina- 
 tion of the bran are, I hold, tests of the highest milling, 
 whether it be by rollers or by stones. For brown bread 
 and for whole-meal bread there is a difference, and I will 
 later on point out how we may to some extent eliminate 
 or obviate the difficulties when we employ brown flour 
 or whole-meal flour. A very important point is the ad- 
 mixture of wheats ; formerly millers were obliged to use 
 the wheats as they could find them in their own country, 
 but now we have excellent wheats from the United States, 
 from Canada, from the Black Sea, from Australia, and 
 lastly, and not of the least interest, from India and Persia. 
 I read a statement in a newspaper yesterday that the 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 99 
 
 Indian Government had been making an investigation into 
 the question of the expense of growing wheat in India, and 
 they find the natives can grow wheat for \2s. a quarter — \6s. 
 will leave a profit. Some objection has been made to the 
 employment of too large a quantity of Indian wheats when 
 mixed with our own, owing, it is said, although I have not 
 noticed it myself, to the aromatic flavour of bread that has 
 had too large a proportion of Indian wheat ground with 
 our English or other wheats. This is, however, a matter 
 that the miller can readily obviate by a little attention to 
 the admixture, and by not using perhaps quite so much of 
 the Indian wheats. At the present moment we are able to 
 get excellent wheats as low as 32^. per quarter. Now 
 I remember at a dinner, I think it was in 1872, the motto 
 of the Royal Agricultural Society of England was given 
 as a toast after dinner, that motto being " Practice with 
 Science ;" and I was associated, being a scientific man, 
 with a practical farmer in replying to that toast. In my 
 reply I referred to some of the advantages of science ; but 
 then, speaking to British farmers, I pointed out some of 
 the disadvantages of science ; I pointed out how by using 
 both high and low pressure steam on board ship, as Elder 
 was beginning to do, with the development of the railway 
 carrying powers of America, the United States farmer 
 would in a very few years be able to sell wheat at a profit 
 at 40J. per quarter at Liverpool, not only were they very 
 incredulous, but they laughed at me ; but to-day you can 
 get it at 32J-. per quarter, and this is not entirely due to 
 the great activity of the Americans in growing wheat ; the 
 fact is, that the great wheat speculators in America were 
 not aware of the enormous amount of wheat that India can 
 send to us. This great speculation in wheat, what they 
 call the " wheat ring," has broken down completely, and 
 we are now able, thanks chiefly to India, to have wheat 
 at this very low price. It is an additional satisfaction to 
 an Englishman that South Australia, New Zealand, and 
 also India, have a large wheat-growing capacity, because in 
 India free trade is the rule, whereas the Americans are 
 
 II 2 
 
loo THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 protectionists, and by our purchasing large quantities of 
 wheat from India, we may expect, of course, that they will 
 take large quantities of our manufactured products, hard- 
 ware and cotton, from us in exchange, so that in that way 
 from our colonies and from India we shall not only have 
 cheap wheat, cheap flour for some time to come, but also 
 have the prospect of a better condition of our manufacturing 
 industries. 
 
 The miller's method of testing wheats consists in judging 
 by their appearance, by the weight per bushel, by the country 
 in which it is grown, and lastly by grinding, by baking 
 some. A distinguished baker in Paris, M. Bolland, adopted 
 a method by which he separated the gluten from the flour, 
 and this gluten was put into a tube, and the tube put into 
 the oven, and according to the amount of expansion of the 
 gluten, so did he decide upon the quantity of the gluten 
 there, and its resisting action to steam — in other words, he 
 judged in that way of the goodness of the flour for the 
 fermenting process of making bread. 
 
 The plan which I suggested some time ago was this, that 
 I oz. of flour should be mixed with 4 ozs. of water, and 
 allowed to stand at the temperature of about 80° or 85° for 
 two hours ; that it should then be filtered, the first portion 
 of the filtrate will be a little thick, but the latter portion 
 will not be so thick. You put this into a test tube, 
 which you have previously marked at i oz. and 2 ozs. ; it is 
 filled up to I oz., and then is mixed with i oz. of strong 
 methylated alcohol, which we can get for about 5^. a gallon ; 
 the result is this, that you obtain a precipitation of most of 
 the soluble matters, of maltose, of dextrine, and the soluble 
 albuminoids ; and according to the amount of precipita- 
 tion, so you would decide as to the amount of soluble 
 matter that would be produced during the sponge stage of 
 bread-making. 
 
 I proceed now to consider the question of bread-making. 
 The ways of making bread are very numerous in different 
 parts of the country. I will therefore limit myself solely 
 to the London system of bread-making, which is one of the 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. loi 
 
 best The London system consists of three parts — the 
 preparation of the ferment, the preparation of the sponge, 
 and the preparation of the dough. A sack of flour is 
 280 lbs. in weight, and it should yield from 94 to 96 
 quartern loaves. In the preparation of the ferment, 6 lbs. 
 to 8 lbs., sometimes as much as 12 lbs., of the very best 
 potatoes are employed ; inferior potatoes will not do. 
 These are thoroughly cleaned, washed, cut up and boiled, 
 and then when made into a thin paste they are poured into 
 a tub, and cold water added until the temperature is 
 lowered to 85°. When this is done, about 2 lbs. of flour are 
 added, and then one quart of good brewers' yeast stirred 
 in ; this is the preparation of the " ferment ; " fermentation 
 begins, the yeast acts upon the albuminoids of the wheat, 
 and the albuminoids of the wheat so acted upon act then 
 upon the starch of the boiled potato, and the result is we 
 have maltose sugar, and dextrine, and peptone bodies 
 formed. After five hours, the time depending on the 
 temperature, the head falls and then the ferment is allowed 
 to rest for about two hours. The baker then proceeds to 
 the next stage, which is the preparation of the sponge or 
 " stirring the sponge." In making the sponge one-fourth, or 
 according to some bakers one-third, of the flour is taken, 
 placed in the trough, the ferment added through a sieve 
 which retains the potato-skins, the water in the ferment 
 and sponge being about thirty quarts ; bear in mind I am 
 always speaking of the sack of 280 lbs. of flour. The 
 quantity of water, however, varies slightly with the kind of 
 flour and slightly with the baker's own particular practice. 
 The other ingredient is salt. Now many London bakers 
 do not use salt in the sponge stage, nor is it needful in the 
 very highest classes of flour ; others, however, prefer to 
 use some of the salt, and the quantity of salt therefore 
 used in this stage varies. The amount altogether used 
 for a sack of flour is 3 lbs., or 48 ozs., that is nV oz. for 
 each quartern loaf. Now, salt acts as a check upon 
 fermentation. The more salt you add to the sponge 
 stage the more you check the degradation or break- 
 
I02 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 ing up of the albuminoids. The sponge being made 
 ferments, and in about five hours it breaks, carbonic acid 
 being given off, and in an hour it rises again and again 
 breaks. This last will depend on the temperature. After 
 the second break, the remainder of the flour, be it three- 
 fourths or two-thirds, according to the practice of the baker, 
 and the remaining portion of the water, is added ; the 
 total quantity of water for the whole sack is 60 quarts. 
 These are thoroughly mixed together, and in the dough 
 stage many bakers, as I said, add the whole of the salt. 
 Those, of course, who have used part of the salt in the 
 sponge stage simply add the remainder. Of late years 
 machinery has been invented to do away with the manual 
 labour and other objections to the mixing of the dough ; 
 it is very hard work, and I should be glad for those of 
 you who have time to look not only at the very useful 
 mixing machine of Mr. Pfleiderer, but also to look at the 
 mixing machine of Melvin, of Glasgow, in Mr. Marshall's 
 model bakery, which consists of a number of revolving 
 cutters which mix up the dough. The dough well mixed 
 is then left for an hour, it rises, it is then scaled, that is to 
 say, weighed and put in the oven, where it remains for 
 one hour and a half, the atmosphere of the oven being 
 about 400° to 450°. The temperature of the bread, I need 
 hardly say, is not 400°, but much less, appreciably not 
 more than 2 1 2°, but it may be a little over, owing to the 
 resisting action of the. crust, but at that temperature you 
 know water boils, and therefore the temperature could 
 not be higher. Before I pass on to a description of the 
 scientific phenomena underlying these processes, I will 
 briefly refer to the manufacture of fancy bread. Bakers, of 
 course, differ in their manufacture of fancy bread in the 
 same way as they do with ordinary household bread, but 
 the following will give you an idea of the general method. 
 In the first place a "ferment" is prepared as before, that is to 
 say boiled potato with a small quantity of flour, and with 
 brewer's yeast. Having prepared the ferment ; in the 
 sponge state, the baker uses a large quantity of German 
 
THE CHE MIS TR V OF BREAD- MA KING. 1 03 
 
 yeast, and in this way he gets a very rapid fermentation 
 and a large, light, porous bread. In regard to the chemistry 
 of these operations, the fruit, that is to say, the boiled 
 potato, yields ferment food, and thereby, by the action of 
 the yeast on the soluble albuminoids of the flour, gives 
 a rapid formation of maltose and dextrine. In 8 lbs. of 
 potatoes there are only 2 lbs. of starch, so manifestly the 
 baker does not use this small quantity for the sake of 
 cheapness. It is because it is one of the largest of all 
 starches, and therefore it is one of the best means of 
 preparing albuminoid and sugar food for the active 
 stimulus of yeast growth. The ferment stage increases 
 the production of these albuminoids and sugars, and the 
 yeast is in this way greatly stimulated ; but another 
 object that I ought to mention that the London baker 
 has in making this preparation of the ferment is that he 
 largely increases the amount of yeast. This method of 
 feeding yeast during this number of hours, is a method of 
 making a considerable amount of yeast out of the one quart 
 that he takes. In the sponge state we have a very active 
 fermentation going on ; the sugar there is broken up into 
 carbonic acid and alcohol, and there is a rapid action ; and 
 it is in this particular stage which lasts so many hours that 
 inferior flours turn out so badly, because they produce 
 more and more soluble albuminoids, and these give a high 
 colour to the final product. In the dough state, which is 
 practically the inert stage, because in the dough stage we 
 have added all the flour, and only thirty more quarts of 
 water ; we have also a less period of time allowed, only one 
 hour, and the result is that very little further change goes 
 on. If the flour has withstood the sponge stage without 
 injurious result, it will perfectly well stand the dough stage. 
 The objects aimed at by the baker being to obtain good 
 aeration, numerous small cavities of gas, in other words to 
 give a well-piled loaf, also to avoid colour, because colour 
 always gives rise to a suspicion of inferiority of the flour ; 
 and lastly, the baker's aim is to obtain a nice aroma, a fine 
 
I04 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 nutty taste, such as indeed cannot be got by any other 
 method than that which I have been describing. 
 
 Fermentation is a subject that has been a source of con- 
 siderable interest and speculation. I need not, however, do 
 more than simply call your attention to our present know- 
 edge on the subject, for which we are mainly indebted to 
 Pasteur, in that it was he who first of all pointed out most 
 clearly that it was due to minute organisms that fermenta- 
 tion was brought about. M. Pasteur proved that by with- 
 drawing the internal contents of the grape that those 
 contents would not spontaneously ferment, but that if 
 you took a little cotton wool, and rubbed the outside of 
 the skin and added that to that which was withdrawn, the 
 fermentation was set up. We are all now of the same 
 mind that fermentation is brought about by the action of 
 living organisms, saccharomyces. The fermentation of the 
 must of grape, which is the term for the expressed juice of 
 the grape, which is brought about spontaneously, is not the 
 only instance of spontaneous fermentation. Leaven bread, 
 which I have spoken of, originally arises in this way, and is 
 to some extent the result of spontaneous fermentation. 
 The production of the old sour beers of Dorsetshire, the 
 production of Lambick, or Faro, is of the same nature. Only 
 the other day I had occasion in this Exhibition to taste 
 a sample of Lambick beer, which is made by taking the wort 
 of malt and leaving it to receive whatever dust falls into the 
 large vat, and in the course of one year or two years the 
 product, which they call Lambick or Faro, is obtained, which 
 is excessively sour, because all kinds of ferments have 
 brought about the change, not merely the alcoholic ferment. 
 The yeast organism is one of considerable interest, and 
 I have a diagram of the indications of the English country 
 yeast, and Burton yeast, and there is also a drawing to 
 represent the acetic acid organism, the lactic organism, and 
 the organism which produces butyric acid, and also the 
 organism which produces the ropy fermentation, the man- 
 nite and gum, instead of alcohol and carbonic acid. The 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 105 
 
 yeast organism under a good microscope will be found to 
 have a cell wall. You will find inside a space, such as I 
 have indicated, which is termed the vacuole, it is not really 
 a vacuous space, but is filled up with a very thin proto- 
 plasm, or, as Professor Huxley calls it, the physical basis 
 of life. The other portion is also filled up with protoplasm. 
 Yeast contains a little granulated protoplasm. When it has 
 been kept a long time it gets exhausted, and part of the 
 albuminoid compounds or protoplasmic matter gets con- 
 verted into other bodies, and they ooze out, and the result 
 is that in looking through a microscope at the organism, 
 instead of having to look at a well-filled cell, we have a 
 thinner cell to look through, and the result is that the 
 granulated protoplasm is seen much more distinctly. I 
 have, therefore, given a rough representation of old yeast, 
 or yeast that is exhausted. The conditions necessary for 
 active yeast growth are that we should supply broken- 
 down albuminoids and peptones for its nourishment, a 
 certain quantity of phosphate of potash, lime, magnesia, 
 together with a little air. 
 
 The microscope not only is of value in examining dif- 
 ferent kinds of flour for the purpose of seeing what mixture 
 of other cereals have been added besides wheat, but it is 
 also of the highest importance to the baker in judging of 
 his yeast, because he will be able to see whether he has the 
 organism which will produce acetic acid which would make 
 vinegar or lactic acid, which would produce sourness, or 
 even a worse organism still. 
 
 The particular process I have been describing, for making 
 bread then, depends on making carbonic acid gas from the 
 decomposition of the sugar which has formed in the previous 
 stages yielding carbonic acid gas and alcohol. I have said 
 very little about the alcohol ; it is with the carbonic acid 
 that we are chiefly concerned. There are other methods, 
 however, of aerating bread without the carbonic acid of fer- 
 mentation ; bicarbonate of soda, and hydrochloric acid, when 
 added in proper quantities, so that one exactly neutralises 
 the other, or at least so that the bicarbonate is slightly in 
 
lo6 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 excess, is another method of making carbonic acid ; or 
 there is Dr. Dauglish's plan for making aerated bread, 
 which depends upon aerating the bread with carbonic 
 acid made in chemical ways, not by making use of 
 the yeast organism. The hydrochloric acid and bicar- 
 bonate of soda method has very grave objections, be- 
 cause it requires very great care in mixing them, so that 
 you should not have too much bicarbonate on the one 
 hand, or too much hydrochloric acid, or spirits of salts as it 
 is called, on the other. Dr. Dauglish's method has its 
 merits, because you do not introduce anything into the 
 bread like hydrochloric acid or bicarbonate of soda ; it is 
 merely carbonic acid that is introduced, and it has for some 
 years been used in London, and one or two other towns. 
 For a long time apparently it had no very great measure 
 of success. It is very interesting, because this method is 
 an entirely mechanical one, and it gets rid of many of the 
 objections which have been brought to the fermentation 
 plan and to the hand method of kneading. I understand 
 that during the last two or three years a greater sale 
 has been found for aerated bread, which shows that the 
 objections which I have for it have not been entertained by 
 those who like it. I find that aerated bread is very nice 
 the first few times of eating it, but after a time I long again 
 for the nutty flavour of the well-fermented bread. 
 
 High-class flours and a skilful baker will make good bread. 
 The real difficulty is to make good bread with flours that 
 are not derived from highly elaborated wheats, and this is a 
 point that I wish to say one or two words about before 
 concluding. The Council, of course, desire the greatest 
 extension of knowledge throughout the country, and inas- 
 much as we only grow one-third of the wheat we eat, and 
 we are always obliged to import two-thirds, it seems to me 
 that even in seasons that are not very favourable we have a 
 remedy in our hands. In other words, as I have pointed 
 out to you, where it is that so much injury takes place is in 
 the sponge stage. It seems that we should divide our 
 flours. Every miller should send out two distinct flours. 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 107 
 
 A few years ago I recom-mended that, and there are many- 
 millers who do that now, and many bakers who use two 
 distinct flours ; but I wish the recommendation I made at 
 the Society of Arts should by means of the cheap publica- 
 tions of this Exhibition be more generally known. In 
 order to show you that this is a very feasible plan, I have 
 asked Messrs. Hill of Bishopsgate Street, to make me an 
 experiment to illustrate it. I preferred not to have any- 
 thing to do with it myself, in order that it should not be a 
 lecture experiment in which one is liable to exaggerate. 
 I asked Messrs. Hill through Mr. Dunham to get some 
 good American flour and some soft Norfolk flour — not bad 
 flour, only rather weak. Then I asked them to have them 
 in the proportion of one-quarter American to three-quarters 
 Norfolk. One set of loaves has been made in which the 
 American flour has been kept separate, and only used for 
 the sponge state, whilst in the other experiment the Ameri- 
 can and Norfolk flours were mixed, and used both for the 
 sponge and for the dough. Loaves were made at precisely 
 the same time, the same flours, the same quantity, the same 
 salt, and baked at the same temperature, and here is the 
 result. Those who are interested in the matter will see 
 that in the case where they were mixed the loaf has not 
 risen well, and in addition to that it is not so good in 
 colour. 
 
 With reference to the use of brown meal, or whole meal, 
 I would suggest either that you should make your sponge 
 of very fine sponge flour, as a baker would term it, good 
 hard whites, and then in the dough stage mix up the whole 
 meal into it, or if there is an objection to this, that it is 
 diluting your whole meal ; then I would suggest another 
 matter of getting over the difficulty. Make first of all a 
 ferment, and in the ferment take care you use potato and 
 flour as I have indicated ; then add in the second stage a 
 small quantity of glucose, using however in the sponge 
 nearly all the salt and using a large quantity of yeast, push- 
 ing on therefore the sponge stage rapidly ; then mixing up 
 
lo8 THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 the remainder of the whole meal, and rapidly making your 
 bread and baking it. 
 
 I did intend to call your attention to some drawings of 
 the Vienna oven, to show how foreign rolls are glazed, but 
 I will not detain you any longer. I will only ask you when 
 you have the opportunity at the Exhibition to go round to 
 the east corridor to Mr. Hill's exhibit, and there are one 
 or two others, who are also making these foreign breads, and 
 you will there see the process of glazing these rolls. It 
 is done by steam, which is what we term super-heated. It 
 is forced into the oven which is at a temperature of at 
 least 500 degrees, and the steam coming against the hot 
 walls of the oven becomes super-heated, it then passes over 
 the surface of the roll, and glazes it or covers it with 
 dextrine. I will only detain you with two or three 
 other remarks. In the baking the cells of the starch 
 are burst, which renders the bread easily digestible, the 
 carbonic acid gas bubbles are enlarged, and that together 
 with the expansion due to the steam enables the bread to 
 be well piled. The crust keeps the moisture in, and from 
 the elaborate experiments made by Lawes and Gilbert, 
 Dr. McLagen, and our distinguished chairman many years 
 ago, we now know the exact percentage of moisture that 
 may be found in ordinary quartern loaves. To put it in 
 another way, 100 lbs. of flour will give about 135 or 136 lbs. 
 of bread ; in other words, a sack of flour will give 96 loaves. 
 I dare say one or two practical bakers would say that fine 
 flour would give even more. 
 
 I have called attention to the chemical phenomena under- 
 lying a very important industry ; I have asked your atten- 
 tion to this experiment, made for me by Messrs. Hills, and 
 I will also ask you to notice the exhibit of Mr. Bonthron, 
 No. 179, in the main corridor, to see the character of his 
 crude gluten. I have some on the table, some dry, and 
 some mixed with water, and I would ask you to notice the 
 excessive tenacity of this gluten. If I have contributed 
 anything to show how wheats that have not been well 
 
THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 109 
 
 elaborated may yet be used with our foreign importations ; 
 if I have in any way, not merely to this audience but to the 
 still larger audience, I hope to address by means of the 
 Exhibition publications ; if I have called your attention 
 and that of others to interesting exhibits which you will 
 find all through the building connected with bread and 
 corn ; and if I have shown you the importance of science 
 to the advancement of this technical art, and caused you to 
 take an interest in the scientific phenomena on which it is 
 based, I shall not have failed in the object with which I 
 came here to-day. 
 
 The Chairman, in moving a vote of thanks to Professor 
 Graham for his exceedingly interesting, scientific and 
 practical lecture, remarked that if none but the best 
 qualities of wholesome food were used, the prices would 
 evidently rise to such an extent as to seriously interfere 
 with the supply ; but science was able to teach how to 
 employ inferior qualities of that which was nevertheless 
 essentially wholesome so as to succeed in producing the 
 result which, if not quite the best, was at any rate of a 
 highly satisfactory character, and all must feel that 
 Professor Graham's efforts towards the elucidation of that 
 problem in the case of the conversion of flour into bread 
 were worthy of the most hearty vote of thanks which could 
 be accorded to him. 
 
 Mr. BoNTHRON, as a practical baker of forty years' ex- 
 perience, begged to second the vote of thanks. He was 
 very pleased to find science following so closely on the 
 heels of observation and experience. He saw several 
 practical bakers present, and he would call their attention 
 to the very important consideration arising out of what 
 they had heard, viz. the importance of the time to be given 
 in London sponge to first-class flour, in order that the 
 proper change might take place. This was a matter he 
 had a great deal of difficulty in impressing on his work- 
 men, but there was no doubt that the fine flour required 
 longer time to undergo the necessary changes, and it must 
 not be supposed lor a moment that it could be done 
 
no THE CHEMISTRY OF BREAD-MAKING. 
 
 hurriedly. You could not ripen a grape properly except 
 by the natural sun and by the natural time, and the same 
 thing applied to bread-making. He had been much struck 
 with the diagram of the ferments, It was well known that 
 heat accelerated and cold retarded fermentation. In this 
 particular season of the year yeast must be in a condition 
 in which it was necessary that every care should be taken 
 to nourish it. There was a serious danger of putting 
 yeast which was weakened by warm weather into too 
 cold a ferment. It should be tenderly nourished, always 
 put in with a good body of food for it to work upon, 
 never into the water, but always after the flour and other 
 matters were put in. 
 
 (The vote of thanks was carried unanimously, and the 
 proceedings terminated.) 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 BY 
 
 W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS. 
 
 VOL. VI.— II. L. 
 
June qth, 1884. 
 
 A LECTURE ON THE SCIENCE OF 
 COOKERY. 
 
 By W. Mattieu Williams. 
 
 Ladies and Gentlemen, the subject which I have to 
 speak about is the Science of Cookery, and I wish to dwell 
 particularly on this word science, seeing that there are 
 many ladies here, some of whom may be very critical, and 
 therefore if I were to attempt an exposition of the art 
 of cookery I should probably be tripped up rather igno- 
 miniously. But the science of cookery and the art of 
 cookery are distinct, although necessarily connected. 
 There can be no true art without science, and in a 
 practical subject of this kind the scientific part includes a 
 generalisation of the facts which have been brought forth 
 by the artist ; therefore, I shall have to assume that you 
 know all about the results of cookery, and what I have to 
 talk about will be the rationale, the nature of the action 
 that occurs in cookery. Suppose, for instance, I take the 
 very simple cases of a roast leg of mutton and a raw leg 
 of mutton. These are very familiar objects, but I venture 
 to say that if lOO or looo persons who pass the Griffin, 
 where Temple Bar used to stand, were asked " What is the 
 difference between a cooked and a raw leg of mutton ? " it 
 would be found by the large majority to be a very curious 
 conundrum. They would know there is a difference in 
 the flavour, but not what are the changes that are 
 effected in the act of cookery. This is a chemical ques- 
 VOL. VI. — H. L. I 
 
114 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 tion ; this is a scientific question, and I must say that since 
 I have taken up this subject somewhat recently (I went 
 into it some years ago when I was at Birmingham — but 
 lately have studied it more fully) I have been much 
 surprised at finding how little I am able to learn from 
 books compared with the number of the questions that 
 suggested themselves in the course of writing the series of 
 articles which I have contributed to ' Knowledge ' during 
 the last twelve months. A number of new questions have 
 cropped up which demand a considerable amount of special 
 investigation for their solution. 
 
 Perhaps I may add, in the way of introduction, that 
 nearly one hundred years ago the subject of cookery was 
 scientifically investigated, by one man, a most wonderful 
 man — a man who began life as a poor schoolmaster, who 
 became a great general, a great statesman, a great scientific 
 inan who was Dictator and Governor, taking the place of 
 the reigning Duke of Bavaria for a while, and keeping his 
 enemies at bay ; I speak of Benjamin Thompson, better 
 known as Count Rumford. He did investigate cookery, 
 and applied the science of cookery to the art ; for great as 
 he was in war, great as he was in statesmanship, that which 
 he evidently regarded as his greatest triumph was his 
 economical cookery, the fact that he fed the poor of 
 Munich, the beggars, thieves and vagabonds, which 
 abounded there to a fearful extent, for less than \d. a day 
 with good nutritious and appetising hot food. The daily 
 dinner provided by him at the House of Industry for 1200 
 persons, each receiving a portion weighing 20 ounces, cost 
 altogether ^i 15^-. 2\d., about -g- of a penny each, |Vo% of a 
 penny exactly. He studied the subject scientifically, and 
 brought to bear upon it all the science of his time ; but 
 we must r^imember that chemical science scarcely had any 
 existence then, it was but in its infancy. The doctrine of 
 phlogiston had only just passed away, and oxygen had 
 but just been discovered. 
 
 The science of cookery is still a comparatively new 
 subject, but the work that is done in practical cookery in 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. \ i 5 
 
 South Kensington, and the attention we are now giving to it, 
 will I hope lead to a considerable further extension of our 
 knowledge. But I must not spend any more time on 
 preliminary remarks, but go directly to the subject, 
 apologising again for the fact that I have only one lecture. 
 The subject is very extensive, and I can only touch on 
 some salient parts of it, for it would be impossible to go 
 through the whole in anything like the time permitted me. 
 In ordinary cookery the chief agent is heat, and the 
 changes that occur are those changes which can be brought 
 about by the application of heat ; the art of cookery 
 is to a large extent the skilful application of heat. I am 
 speaking now of the simple forms of cookery. I will take 
 some of these first. As you are aware, a body may be 
 heated either by radiation or by direct contact. We may 
 stand in front of the fire at a little distance from it and be 
 warmed, or we may touch the bars and be warmed in doing 
 that, or we may dip our fingers in hot water and be Avarmed 
 thereby. In the two last cases there is contact with the 
 heated body. In the first there is not contact with the 
 heated body, but we take advantage of the fact that heat 
 radiates, is thrown off in all directions, and thus we get 
 it applied without contact. Now you will at once be able 
 to generalise this, and see in which of the processes of 
 cookery radiant heat is applied, and in which we have the 
 heat of contact. Roasting, grilling, braising, toasting, and 
 baking, all these are done by radiant heat. Boiling and 
 frying — that is frying as it ought to be done — and stewing, 
 are examples of cookery by contact. In what we call 
 boiling anything — though it is a misnomer, for when we say 
 we boil a leg of mutton we do not boil the mutton any more 
 than we boil the kettle ; when we say the kettle boils, it is 
 not the copper or the iron, it is the water that boils, and 
 when we say we boil a leg of mutton, or a potato, or an 
 egg, we make a mistake, and rather a dangerous one, 
 because a cook may be misled by words. What we call 
 boiling is nothing more than using hot water as a means of 
 communicating heat ; it is heating by means of a water 
 
 I 2 
 
ii6 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 bath. Wc want to warm the food, and we use hot water 
 merely to convey the heat to the thing to be cooked, what- 
 ever it may be. The same with frying ; but here we use a 
 bath of another kind, or ought to do so, a bath of fat. 
 
 Before I go into other details, let us take this little 
 instance standing before us at once, and ask what is the 
 difference between boiling and frying. In both cases we 
 have a bath ; what object do we gain by using a fat or oil 
 bath rather than a water bath ? I say a bath, because 
 in this country we have an old, hideous, and absurd 
 apparatus of this kind (an ordinary frying-pan), which, 
 except for pancakes and omelettes, is a barbarous abomina- 
 tion. I am sure if there are any ladies here from the 
 South Kensington School of Cookery, they will agree with 
 me in denouncing this thing. We have also another 
 apparatus of this kind (a frying kettle), which I borrowed 
 from one of the stalls here, which is the correct thing. If 
 you have to fry a sole, you may have a piece of iron like 
 this frying-pan, and grease it well, and that will keep the 
 sole from sticking to the iron, which was my idea of the 
 use of the fat when I was a boy ; I thought they greased 
 the pan simply to keep the food from sticking to it ; and 
 even at the present day, there are many grown people 
 and even some cooks who think that such is the whole 
 function of the grease in the frying-pan ; but according to 
 the definition I have given you of frying it must be some- 
 thing quite different. You want a bath of fat, and when 
 this frying kettle is used — there are many forms of it — you 
 have a bath two or three inches deep in fat, and a wire 
 tray by which you can easily lower the article to be fried 
 into the bath, and take it out. Now at first sight this fat 
 bath may appear to be wasteful, but those who have tried 
 it know that it is more economical than the greased sheet 
 of iron. They know perfectly well that when they use a 
 bath of fat like this, in which the thing to be fried, the 
 sole or whitebait, or whatever it may be, is completely 
 immersed, if it is skilfully managed and taken out in a 
 proper manner and allowed to drain for a short time, that 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 117 
 
 there is less fat wasted and less fat used than when only 
 a smear of fat is put on the iron, that has to be wiped 
 off afterwards and got rid of, whereas this fat bath may be 
 used over and over again, with proper precautions to purify 
 it, and the minimum quantity of grease goes into the thing 
 to be cooked. 
 
 I show this because it is necessary to understand that 
 when I speak of the rationale of frying, I assume this kind 
 of frying ; I assume that the sole or cutlet, or whatever it 
 is, is cooked in a bath of fat kept at a temperature far 
 above that of boiling water. Why it is that less fat enters 
 it I shall explain presently. The difference then" between 
 boiling and frying depends on the fact that liquid water 
 cannot be heated above the temperature of 212°, unless you 
 put on pressure ; you can in a high pressure boiler, but that 
 is out of the question altogether. Water exposed to the 
 air can only be heated to 212°, because of the evaporation 
 which takes place and carries off the heat ; nearly 1000° heat 
 are carried off for every unit of water evaporated, and this 
 keeps down the temperature. Therefore when the water 
 bath is used the cooking is effected at that limited tem- 
 perature. When the fat bath is used a higher temperature 
 is applied outside the food, but not within it. This perhaps 
 will require a little explanation. Ordinary animal fat, such 
 as lard or dripping fat, or oil, cotton sejd oil (which is now 
 used largely for frying, and does very well), have boiling 
 points as high as 400° or 500° ; in fact you cannot boil 
 them at all without the help of a vacuum, because at the 
 boiling-point they begin to decompose ; as they reach the 
 boiling point they are carbonised. The temperature at 
 which they just begin to boil is sufficient to brown or 
 carbonise food, to convert sugar into caramel, or if you 
 put a piece of paper into it you brown that paper. 
 
 Suppose you take the ordinary bath of fat ; you re- 
 member that when it is first put on the fire it makes a con- 
 siderable noise, and appears to boil. But it is not the fat 
 that is boiling at all, it is the water that happens to be in 
 the fat ; and if you go on long enough — keeping it up to 
 
!i8 -THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 about 300° — you will have driven out all the water 
 boiled it away, and then the frizzling ceases. But, now, 
 suppose you have this bath of fat raised considerably above 
 the boiling point of water, and then you put a sole or 
 a cutlet into it. You know what happens, — a great noise 
 begins, a great frizzling and crackling. What is it ? It is 
 a series of little explosions that occurs. The sole or the 
 cutlet, or whatever it is — any kind of animal food — that 
 you put in contains water, and the water that is in it is 
 made to boil ; and, as it boils very violently and very 
 suddenly, the bubbles of steam burst explosively on the 
 surface 6f the fat, and this multitude of minute explosions 
 constitute that hissing noise that occurs the moment you 
 put the wet substance into the heated fat. You will un- 
 derstand something else from this in the rationale of frying, 
 that, although you immerse the fish or flesh in fat that shall 
 be heated to between 300° and 400°, you cannot get the 
 interior of the food to such a temperature so long as any 
 water remains within it. You are only heating the interior 
 of its substance to 212° or a little above ; just that little 
 which is due to the pressure that is put upon the steam 
 in getting out. When you are frying a sole in a bath of 
 fat, the inner part of the sole is really being steamed ; it is 
 being cooked in its own steam, which steam is generated 
 by the heat surrounding it. 
 
 So much for the interior ; but, as you know, there is some- 
 thing else that happens outside, it gets brown. The chemistry 
 of browning is one of the problems that I encountered very 
 early in studying this subject. I have looked up all the 
 works on chemistry and cookery, but have not discovered 
 any deliberately wrought-out explanation of the philosophy 
 of browning. There is a great flavour due to this browning, 
 as was pointed out by Count Rumford. He used as a 
 roaster a chamber in which he raised the heat to a certain 
 extent, and then blew very hot air into it to brown the 
 surface. That browning unquestionably gives a flavour 
 that most of us like, and if a sole were fried without 
 being brown on the surface, or without having the material 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 119 
 
 laid over it browned, we should consider it insufficiently 
 done. 
 
 The rationale of browning, so far as I am able to make 
 out is that the action is analogous, if not identical, with that 
 which is well known in the kitchen as caramel making. 
 You know that if sugar is heated it fuses at about the 
 boiling-point, and it gives off vapour. If you go on raising 
 the heat, it gives off more vapour of water, although it be 
 dry sugar. First of all it becomes barley sugar, or amor- 
 phous sugar, not crystallized ; then it gets darker, and with 
 skill the French get a beautiful pink or crimson sugar ; 
 then you get to the brown toffy, still soluble ; then the 
 caramel, which is used as browning ; you may go on until 
 it becomes black, a mere charcoal, and tasteless, but up to 
 the caramel stage there is very decided flavour. The same 
 thing may be done by treating sugar with something that 
 takes away the water, sulphuric acid, for instance ; you 
 may have seen that experiment. The composition of 
 sugar being carbon and the elements of water, the removal 
 of water carbonises it, and it is this carbonising, or caramel- 
 ising, which occurs on the surface of roasted meat. You 
 have there carbo-hydrates, which, like sugar, can be cara- 
 melised or carbonised in varying degrees. This theory, 
 I think, has an important practical bearing, because if this 
 caramel flavour is desirable, it suggests to the cook the 
 more extensive use of caramel itself. I do not pretend to 
 be a practical cook, but this brings us to a general practical 
 conclusion. I think that in our English cookery we 
 should do well to make much larger use than we do of 
 the various forms of caramel. We do use a little burnt 
 sugar for browning gravies, but there is a multitude of 
 other caramels, such as the burnt onion, for example, that 
 is used in France very much. 
 
 I had a 6d. three course dinner here to-day in the vege- 
 tarian dining-rooms, and I confess I was disappointed. I 
 strongly sympathise with those enthusiastic ladies and 
 gentlemen who are working in this direction ; I believe 
 they have some very strong arguments, but I do not 
 
I20 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 think they will succeed until they are better cooks than 
 they are at present. I knew one vegetarian, Arthur Tre- 
 velyan, in Edinburgh (a brother of Sir Walter Trevelyan, 
 who gave his wine to Dr. Richardson), who was a vege- 
 tarian, and when he bought the Pencaitland estate, he was 
 called the " cabbage Laird " by his tenants, and others. I 
 have often spent the day there and dined with him, he had 
 a very skilful cook, and his vegetarian dishes were delicious. 
 There were trout in the river close by, and he was always 
 ready to offer me trout or game or anything of that kind, 
 but I preferred to join him in his vegetarian dinner. I 
 noticed that most of his dishes were brown ; they had 
 brown gravies ; there was caramel, there was burnt onion, 
 there were mushrooms, and a variety of other things. The 
 dish he called a vegetarian rump steak was far superior to 
 any made from beef I have ever tasted. It was a kind 
 of omelette with mushrooms intermingled in such a manner 
 that it had the appearance and very much the taste of 
 animal food. I mention this in passing, because I think 
 the possibility of vegetarian diet depends very greatly on 
 cookery ; in fact I may as well confess my faith in this 
 matter. I am a vegetarian to this extent ; I believe the 
 food of the future will be vegetable food, and that future 
 will approach just in the proportion as the science and 
 art of cookery advances. At present we get our vegetables 
 prepared by means of the digestive organs of sheep and 
 oxen. The chemistry of animal and vegetable food shows 
 us that everything contained in animal food exists in vege- 
 table food, but it requires preparation and selection. Our 
 present mode of eating grass in the shape of beef and 
 mutton, for that is what we do, is rather a barbarous 
 practice, and I am convinced that if scientific cookery were 
 understood and carried out, we should be able to obtain 
 directly from the vegetable world all the food we require, 
 and get it in as digestible and as easily assimilable 
 form as any animal food by preparing it scientifically 
 and chemically in the kitchen, but at present we have 
 not learnt to do this, and therefore a considerable amount 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 121 
 
 of progress is necessary before the vegetarian millennium 
 comes about. 
 
 Before going further, I should like to say a word about 
 the cookery of water. If you put water in a glass vessel 
 and watch what occurs when heat is applied, the first thing 
 that happens is that some bubbles of air rise ; then you 
 will see larger bubbles adhering to the bottom, these are 
 bubbles of steam, and presently boiling occurs when the 
 steam passes right through. The first thing that hap- 
 pens is the driving away of air that is dissolved in the water, 
 and after that the boiling begins. Then is there any such 
 thing as the cookery of water? I say yes, and a very 
 important matter is this cookery of water, because, unfortu- 
 nately, a great deal of water, perhaps most of the water we 
 get, is liable to organic impurities which may be dangerous. 
 How can we get rid of this danger? One way is simply to 
 boil the water, but then you say it is insipid ; so it is, and 
 the reason of such insipidity is the absence of air that is 
 dissolved in ordinary water. One remedy for this is to 
 agitate the water in the air, and let it take up a new 
 supply ; another is to pump into it a little carbonic acid, 
 for that is the main requirement. Passing down the Exhi- 
 bition I saw this Salutaris water, which I use myself ; 
 here we have a very good example of the cookery of 
 water. I am glad to see this company working in this 
 direction ; they distil the water so that you get only the 
 condensed vapour, and then by forcing into that some 
 carbonic acid you get cooked water, perfectly free from 
 impurities, without that faintness or insipidity which is so 
 objectionable. I am willing to puff their aerated distilled 
 water on every possible occasion, on one condition, viz., that 
 they sell it in the streets at one penny per glass, and 
 thereby become efficient promoters of practical temperance. 
 
 Now, I must pass on to consider the changes that 
 take place in the cooking of meat, say a leg of mutton. 
 We know there are two parts, the fat and the lean. The 
 fat is simply fused to some extent, and I bch'cve from ex- 
 periments I have made, that it is a little altered in composi- 
 
122 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 tion. There is a slight separation or partial dissociation of 
 the fatty acids from the glycerine of the fat, but as that 
 is a question which may be open to some controversy, 
 I will not go into it now. Let us take the lean of the 
 meat ; what is that composed of? There are the muscular 
 fibres, the fibres that by their contraction produce all the 
 mechanical movements of the body. These fibres them- 
 selves are extremely minute, and require a microscope 
 to define them when they are separated ; they are of 
 two kinds, the striped and unstriped. Each of these 
 minute fibres, finer than a hair, is enveloped in a sheath, 
 these sheathed fibres form bundles, and these bundles 
 are enveloped again and form larger bundles ; and thus the 
 muscle is made up, and the muscles terminate in a tendon. 
 The enveloping sheaths of the fibre, and the enveloping 
 sheaths of the bundles, and the material of the tendon, all 
 consist of gelatine, with some modification ; and gelatine is 
 also the basis of the bone, which is a complex structure of 
 gelatine and phosphate of lime. So that if you take the 
 body of an animal, like an ox or a sheep, looking at it gene- 
 rally, about half of the whole animal is gelatine ; half of our- 
 selves is gelatine. The cookery of this gelatine is therefore 
 rather important. There has been a great controversy, which 
 I must not enter upon, as to whether gelatine is nutritious. 
 I may mention in passing, without going into the argument, 
 that it was supposed not to have any nutritive value, but 
 that has been refuted. It has a nutritive value, provided 
 it is not taken alone. By the way, there was a case of the 
 study of cookery which I ought to have mentioned before ; 
 a commission was appointed many years ago by the 
 French Academy ; it sat for ten or twelve years, and the 
 problem was whether nutritious soup could be made of 
 bones ; it was called the " bone soup " commission. One ex-> 
 periment led to another, and another to another, and yet after 
 all, they finished with a blunder, by concluding that gelatine 
 was not nutritious, which has been disproved. The error arose 
 from feeding dogs on gelatine alone, and finding the dogs 
 died ; this was because something else was necessary besides 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 123 
 
 gelatine. As far as I know the cookery of the gelatine 
 consists simply in a certain degree of hydration and soften- 
 ing. The gelatine as it exists in the animal is not soluble 
 in cold water, but if you take the gelatine, and boil it in 
 water, or keep it heated for a time in water, it becomes 
 altered. It still has the same appearance if you evaporate 
 the water away ; you get the insoluble gelatine converted 
 into a soluble form. Some authorities describe the one 
 kind by spelling it with an " e " and the other without an 
 " e." I do not think that is of much importance ; you may 
 call one soluble and the other insoluble gelatine. In isinglass 
 you have natural gelatine, the swim bladder of the sturgeon, 
 or sometimes other fishes, cut into shreds. Now you know 
 if you want to make a jelly from this form of gelatine, that 
 it takes a considerable time to get it dissolved ; it is all 
 soluble ultimately, but only by a long process ; and conse- 
 quently there are many preparations of gelatine in the 
 market which generally have a yellowish colour. I have 
 examined the composition of these chemically, and I find 
 the change is due to what a chemist would call hydra- 
 tion. The difference between the original membrane, 
 which is the raw gelatine, and the gelatine which is thus 
 cooked, is due, if I am right, to the chemical combination 
 with a small quantity of water ; this hydration occurs in 
 many operations of cookery, and is something that ought 
 to be understood. We have a whole class of chemical 
 substances which are called hydrates, or compounds with 
 water. The difference between anhydrous bodies and 
 hydrates is considerable, and this is one instance of it. 
 My explanation, then, of the cookery of gelatine is, that 
 it is a process of hydration. 
 
 Now, in effecting this hydration it is necessary to attend 
 to a few points, one of them is very well brought out by 
 the carpenter with his glue pot ; carpenter's glue is merely 
 dirty gelatine ; it is the same as the calipash and calipee of 
 the Alderman but impure. The carpenter knows that if 
 he subjects his glue to a dry heat above 212° he spoils it, he 
 carbonises it, and therefore he always cooks it in a water 
 
124 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 bath ; his glue pot is a vessel placed in water. That is a safe 
 way to keep down the temperature below the boiling point ; 
 to heat it with water at such a temperature that it shall 
 combine with water instead of losing water. 
 
 There is another change that is better understood, 
 and which you find explained in most books. Take our 
 typical leg of mutton which has to be cooked. The change 
 I refer to, and a very important change it is, is that which 
 is due to the solidification of one of the juices of the meat. 
 In between the fibres, as you are aware, there is a quantity 
 of liquid, and that liquid is rather viscous. The liquid is 
 composed partly of albumen and partly of certain soluble 
 salts, kreatine and kreatinine, salts of potash, phosphates, 
 and so on. Albumen, which is typically seen in the white 
 of &%^, is a highly nutritious material, and one upon the 
 cookery of which the difference between cooked meat and 
 spoiled meat mainly depends ; and in order to understand 
 the art of cookery, this part of the science should be very 
 clearly made out ; the properties of albumen should be 
 studied and carefully understood. Now, the change which 
 heat effects in albumen is that of coagulation. It is a 
 viscous liquid, and its function in the animal economy 
 appears to be partly that of a lubricant. In the joints 
 it is poured out as synovia, "joint-oil," as some people 
 call it ; it also exists between the fibres of the muscle, 
 and you all know by just rubbing in your fingers a little 
 white of Q^^ what a beautiful lubricant it is. However, 
 our business with it is as an element of nutrition. Sup- 
 pose you take some white of ^^^ and carefully warm it 
 in a glass vessel so that you can watch it. You will 
 find that at about the temperature of 134° it begins to 
 change ; little threads or films of opaque material are 
 formed within it ; at 160° it ceases to be liquid, and 
 becomes so jellied that if you had it in a glass you 
 might invert it, without pouring it out, but still it is a jelly 
 which trembles, and is very tender. Going on heating it 
 to boiling point, to 212°, it becomes more and more opaque, 
 loses the transparency it had as a jelly, and becomes a 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 125 
 
 hard substance ; and if you go on and keep it at 212° long 
 enough, or heat it beyond that, you get a substance so 
 hard that it makes an admirable cement. An old-fashioned 
 and very good cement for broken china is simply to smear 
 it with white of &g^, put it together and heat it in an 
 oven. That shows what you get by over-cooking your 
 albumen ; instead of a tender digestible substance you get 
 a hard indigestible cement — you ruin it as food. 
 
 You can easily try this experiment in another way ; take 
 a mutton chop or thin beafsteak and stew it, as it is too often 
 •stewed in boiling or "simmering" water. It curls up, and 
 when you try to eat it it requires teeth of wonderful power 
 to get through it. It is something midway between what 
 meat should be and what gutta-percha is. That is the 
 result of having hardened your albumen. Not only does 
 it harden, but it shrinks a little, and that causes the 
 curling up. Now try another piece of the same beef, but 
 instead of putting it in boiling water, or simmering water 
 — I have a dreadful animosity against that word " simmer- 
 ing " — put it in water that shall not rise above 160° ; 
 never allow it to boil at all. Boiling is an abomination in 
 the cooking of meat, and ought to be scrupulously avoided 
 except in the one instance I shall presently give you. In 
 order to make sure of this use a carpenter's glue-pot, if 
 you have not got a Bain Marie. You thus have the boiling 
 water in one vessel and the meat in another vessel of water 
 inside this. Then the evaporation from the inner vessel 
 will prevent the possibility of its reaching the temperature 
 of the outer; the outer one cannot get above 212°, and the 
 inner will be considerably below it. A piece of beef stewed 
 in this water at about 160° will be tender, and in every 
 respect superior in digestibility to that which was curled 
 and hardened by boiling or " simmering." 
 
 This is the way it ought to be stewed, and this is the way 
 the French, Italians and Spaniards cook their meat. They 
 have very little of it, and they make it go a long way. I 
 have seen a great deal of the Continental peasantry — I am 
 not speaking of the Parisian restaurants and their luxurious 
 
126 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 cookery, they are of very little consequence, but about 
 food for the million. The poor peasant with her 2 or 
 3 ounces of meat for a large family puts it in a pot 
 ail feu, along with what vegetables she happens to have, 
 puts it in after breakfast and leaves it there ; it never 
 gets up to boiling-point ; the meat and vegetables are 
 intermingled, and a nice dinner is obtained for about one- 
 third of what it costs our people of the same class for a 
 lump of salt bacon. I have often shared the meal of a 
 French and Italian peasant, and I prefer it considerably to 
 the ill-cooked food which costs our artisans so much more. 
 I believe that bad cookery is one of the sources of the 
 drinking that prevails ; it causes the craving for drink. I 
 once had an experience of this when, having starved for 
 four or five days, I came to a good hotel were there was 
 some good claret ; I shall never forget the propensity I had 
 to go on drinking it, and if I had not put a strong restraint 
 on myself, I should have called for brandy after my 
 St. Julien. It was a craving resulting from the want of 
 food. I had been starving on bilberries in the mountains 
 of Norway. 
 
 Another point in the cooking of meat is the retention 
 of the juices. The juices of the meat are as essential 
 to nourishment as the solid part of the meat itself; this 
 is proved by the consequences of eating meat from which 
 the juices have been taken out. The salt junk which the 
 sailors have is meat which has been kept in pickle, and by 
 that process which the chemist knows as exosmosis the 
 juices of the meat come out into the pickle ; the potass 
 salts which are necessary for food are there instead of in 
 the meat. The men eat the fibrine, the gelatine, and the 
 albumen, but they lack the salts, and the result is some 
 of the most dreadful and painful diseases from which 
 humanity can suffer ; — gout, rheumatism, and a number of 
 other diseases, besides scurvy itself, are among the conse- 
 quences. It is well known to Arctic voyagers and others 
 that when men are thus suffering there are two ways of 
 restoring them. One is to give them fresh meat in which 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 127 
 
 they get the salts, and another is to give them vege- 
 tables like scurvy-grass, lime-juice, or anything of that 
 kind, containing potass. The juice should be retained 
 in all cases where you do not drink the water in which the 
 meat is cooked. Of course, we do that sometimes, and hence 
 the difference between boiling and stewing. Boiled meat 
 is meat in which we retain the juice of the meat in itself ; 
 stewed meat is that in which we take the juice out of the 
 meat but serve it up with it. 
 
 To illustrate what I mean, I will take the small problem 
 of boiling a leg of mutton. How should it be done } We 
 want to retain the juices. Can we put a varnish over that 
 leg of mutton — can we coat it with something } What I 
 told you about albumen shows how we can do so. If you 
 put the joint in boiling water, and leave it there for five 
 minutes, or it may be perhaps ten minutes, there will be a 
 shell of coagulated albumen outside. After that it should 
 be boiled no more. What I should call the model way 
 would be to use a Norwegian cooking apparatus, which is 
 simply a box stuffed all round with non-conductive material, 
 with tin case inside. Suppose you have started your leg 
 of mutton, and have got that coating around it, if you put 
 it in this tin with the hot water, shut it up in this box, and 
 leave it here till next morning, you will have a beautifully 
 cooked leg of mutton. This is one way, but it is an ex- 
 treme case, although yachtsmen do sometimes adopt it. 
 If they are going to have a boiled fowl for breakfast, they 
 put it in boiling water over night, then shut it up and leave 
 it ; no more fuel is wanted, the heat is retained in the 
 water, which is cooled below boiling point by the fowl, and 
 thus they escape the danger of over-coagulating the albu- 
 men inside. Another way, and of course the practical way 
 in ordinary cooking, would be, after having once given it 
 that five or ten minutes' boiling, having formed that rind of 
 hard albumen outside to keep in the juices, to take care 
 that it shall not boil any more. And always remember 
 that simmering and boiling are the same. If you put a 
 thermometer into simmering water, and then make it boil 
 
128 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 as fast as you can over a fierce fire you will find the tem- 
 perature is just the same ; it is boiling in either case. If 
 bubbles of steam rise to the surface the water boils, and if 
 water boils it is at 212°, and however hard you may boil 
 it you cannot get it to more than 212°, unless you shut 
 it up in a close boiler and put pressure upon it ; therefore 
 in every case of " boiling " or stewing any kind of meat 
 the water must neither boil nor simmer. About 180° is 
 the correct cooking temperature ; that allows for the inner 
 part to reach 160^, which is $2° below the boiling 
 point, a very considerable difference. If you once cook a 
 leg of mutton thus, watching it with a thermometer by way 
 of testing it — ultimately, of course, you would have to do it 
 without the thermometer — you will never wilfully commit 
 the barbarism of boiling or simmering another. Of course 
 it will take more time, because the heat has to pass 
 through, and the heat passing through from 180°, takes 
 longer than from 212°. In this way you soften the 
 gelatine, and when that is done the cooking is completed. 
 The same thing may be shown on a small scale with an &^^. 
 You know what boiling an egg is ; another method is to 
 put the Qg^ in boiling water, take the vessel from the fire, 
 and leave it about ten minutes, and then you get the white 
 of the &^^ very soft, I tried an experiment, by putting an 
 ^g^ in boiling water and leaving it for twelve hours in an 
 apparatus like this Norwegian Cooker, and obtained a very 
 curious result not known before, namely, that when an Q.g^ 
 is warmed equally throughout, the yelk of the &^^ coagu- 
 lates before the white. In the ordinary mode of cooking 
 an ^%g we have the white of the Q.g^ hard while the 
 yelk is soft, but this is because the outside, when you 
 only allow three or four minutes, is heated, and the heat 
 has not got through to the middle ; but if you gradually 
 maintain the temperature as I did, keeping the heat in 
 so that it gets right through, you have the yelk hard and 
 the white as it should be, a semi-transparent jelly. You 
 may get it right, with the white a soft jelly and the yelk 
 the same, by allowing it a quarter of an hour in water of 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 129 
 
 about 180°, The same thing apph'es to cooking meat 
 of any kind, or fish of any kind, or animal food, in fact, 
 of any kind, by immersion in water. 
 
 The same principle applies in cooking a steak ; you can 
 have grilled steaks, or you can have desiccated steaks ; you 
 all know what these are. You know what excellent steaks 
 bachelors and City men get in the City when they go to 
 the grills. I made a number of experiments on that subject 
 many years ago when I was a bachelor, and used to cook 
 my own steaks, on scientific principles. My plan was this, 
 — I do not say it is just the one which would do in an 
 ordinary kitchen, but it illustrates the principle. Suppose 
 I had only a small fire and wanted to cook a steak for my 
 supper. I cut a piece off the fat, threw it into the fire, and 
 made a great blaze, then plunged the steak into the middle 
 of the flame and cooked it in that way. You will say 
 this is dreadful, it will be all black and nasty. No, it is not 
 so ; if I plunged it into a coal flame it would be, I should 
 get a deposit of coal tar, and that is not a good sauce by 
 any means, although we do make many things, and very 
 savoury things, out of coal-tar by complex processes. But 
 the flame produced by the fat leaves no flavour whatever. 
 And when the steak was immersed in its own flame, the 
 result was that the outside became hardened, so as to make 
 a crust in the manner I have told you ; the fluids inside 
 were trying to get out, expanding and loosening the tex- 
 ture of the meat, and thus making it tender ; they were 
 heated and expanded, and in about three or four minutes 
 the whole thing was cooked beautifully tender inside with 
 a sort of crust outside. It is not necessary to have the 
 flame, but if you have a clear topped fire, flame will not 
 do any harm. If you have seen chops and steaks cooked 
 where there is a proper grill, you will have observed that 
 they are done in a very short time. There is not that lifting 
 away from the fire, that fear that a little flame should 
 splutter up, which troubles the domestic cook. The whole 
 success depends on the rapidity of the cooking. That is 
 to say, you should get a crust outside and just warm the 
 
 VOL. VI. — H. L. K 
 
I30 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 inside through, to a temperature of about i8o°, then it is 
 done. 
 
 I come now to a subject on which I have been making 
 a good many investigations, the subject of cheese. You 
 know that cheese is a constituent of milk, and the basis 
 of cheese is one of those proximate elements which the 
 chemist calls casein. It is very similar in composition 
 to albumen and gelatine ; it is an albumenoid nitrogenous 
 food, and highly nutritious. It exists in milk in a soluble 
 state, and it forms, with the cream and a very little albumen, 
 the chief nutriment of the milk. There is a small quantity 
 of albumen, the amount of which you can always ascer- 
 tain very easily. When you boil milk there is a skin 
 formed on the top, and that skin is coagulated albumen. 
 Taking that away, what remains is water, fat, and the 
 salts of the milk plus the casein. Now you know that 
 casein is separated together with its associated fat by the 
 action of rennet in making cheese. The rennet acts as a 
 kind of ferment ; it decomposes the sugar of the milk, forms 
 lactic acid, and that lactic acid precipitates this casein 
 or curd, a substance which is insoluble in acids. A great 
 deal of cheese is now made without any rennet at all. It 
 is made by using hydrochloric acid. Oil of vitriol, or 
 any acid will precipitate the curd. This curd or casein 
 is insoluble in acids but soluble in alkalies. Now we 
 get in cheese one of the most useful kinds of food in 
 existence. There is only 30 per cent, of water in it 
 while there is above 70 per cent, in lean meat, or taking 
 it altogether a cheese weighing 20 lbs. contains as much, 
 nutriment as a sheep weighing 60 or 70 lbs. ; and you have 
 the advantage that your cheese is portable, that it can be 
 stored and carried from one end of the world to the other as 
 easily as you carry coal ; all the difficulties of freezing, and 
 all the rest of it, are superseded, so that you have here a most 
 valuable food, and yet it is not appreciated. And why ? 
 This is a question of cookery altogether. We commonly 
 eat our cheese raw, or if we cook it we make it worse. We 
 cook it until it is brown ; this increases the difficulty of diges- 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 131 
 
 tion. Cheese made brown is abominable. If you like to 
 experiment on yourselves you can do so ; I have done it ; 
 I have taken toasted cheese well browned for supper, and I 
 have taken raw cheese for supper when hungry, and have 
 had very eventful nights ; a great many sensational adven- 
 tures. On the other hand, I have had cheese carefully 
 cooked, not brown — cooked with a little liquid so as to pour 
 it over the bread, and I find I can digest this, and so can 
 most people, but even then the cheese lacks something ; it 
 lacks those salts that I have described as so essential. I 
 had a curious experience of this once. For five days I lived 
 on bread and cheese on board a little schooner, where I had 
 nothing else, and at the end of the journey I was in a state 
 of semi-scurvy, craving for turnips, carrots, or anything I 
 could get in the shape of vegetables, and a friend who 
 was with me was just the same. This showed the want 
 of salts. 
 
 I have lately been making a number of experiments on 
 cheese with a view of rendering it soluble as it is in milk, 
 in which state infants can digest it, and live upon it. I have 
 tried to restore the casein to its original form by simply 
 neutralising the acid which precipitated it, and I have suc- 
 ceeded in doing so variously. My first experiments were 
 quite successful, but some of the after experiments were 
 not so, when I used a different kind of cheese. I first 
 operated on some mild Gloucester cheese very successfully 
 indeed, and afterwards on some AmiCrican cheese with 
 mixed results. With the Gloucester cheese, by adding 
 a little bicarbonate of potass to water or milk, about 
 one-sixth or one-fourth of an ounce to a pound of 
 cheese, grating the cheese or cutting it in thin slices, and 
 slowly heating it, I completely dissolved the cheese. You 
 may partially dissolve it without the aid of potass, but 
 with the aid of potass I get a complete solution, and the 
 potash combining with the lactic acid supplies the necessary 
 salts that are otherwise wanting. The quantity I name, 
 -\ to \ of an ounce to the pound of cheese is about equal to 
 the potash left behind in whc}- in the course of the cheese 
 
 K 2 
 
132 THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 
 
 making. This soluble cheese is, I believe, a most valuable 
 nutriment, and may be used in a variety of ways. It may 
 be mixed with porridge, for example, or with rice or pota- 
 toes, or with a multitude of things ; it may be mixed with 
 vegetables of all kinds ; worked up with maccaroni or with 
 eggs and flour, making a most nutritious dish, and very 
 economical. 
 
 I had intended to have told you of some experiments I 
 have made with vegetable casein, or legumine as some call 
 it, which is the nutritive element of peas, beans, almonds, 
 and such like. This also is difficult to digest, and by treat- 
 ing it with potass in the manner described, I have succeeded 
 to a considerable extent in rendering it soluble, and, I 
 think, more nutritious. This is a matter of considerable 
 importance. You might say that having to go to carbonate 
 of potass is rather too much like bringing the laboratory 
 into the kitchen, but the addition of the carbonate of 
 potass is merely restoring to the milk that which was 
 taken out of it in the whey, and the quantity of potass I 
 have named will not only render the cheese more digestible, 
 but it supplies that kind of food in which the cheese is 
 deficient. Cheese contains nitrogenous food, it contains 
 fat, and when eaten along with bread, or with anything 
 containing starch or sugar, you get a perfect food, only you 
 are short of the saline constituents which I supply by 
 means of the potash. The same with peas ; peas are de- 
 ficient, especially grey peas, in the saline constituents ; they 
 are not easily digestible although they contain so much 
 nutriment. This is one of the struggles which vegetarians 
 have. Peas and beans are their main stock, but they do 
 lack those saline constituents, which I think may thus be 
 artificially supplied. 
 
 There is another subject I may just mention in con- 
 cluding, and that is what I call the ensilage of human food. 
 You have heard a great deal about the ensilage of grass 
 • for cattle, but I hope we may do a great deal in ensilage 
 of our own food. Here is a simple experiment you may 
 try. Make some porridge, keep it in a cool place for a 
 
THE SCIENCE OF COOKERY. 133 
 
 few days and warm it up again, and you will find it will be 
 more digestible. You know the old doggrel, " Pease-pud- 
 ding hot, pease-pudding cold, pease-pudding in the pot 
 nine days old ;" I believe that it has a hidden meaning, that 
 if you keep pease-pudding for a while it becomes partly 
 dissolved and more digestible. Experiments I am making 
 in this way are only commencing, and I hope to be able to 
 obtain some further results in this direction. There is a 
 great deal to be done, because one experiment leads to 
 another. For instance, when I dissolve the casein of peas, 
 I find something left behind — fibrous matter. I find that 
 an alkali dissolves casein, but I want an acid to dissolve 
 the fibre ; and so one goes on. There are a number of 
 subjects continually cropping up, and I should require a 
 laboratory and two or three assistants to investigate them 
 satisfactorily. I am therefore compelled to throw out 
 many crude suggestions in lecturing and writing, hoping 
 that what I cannot do somebody else will take up and 
 carry out. If I have just been able to suggest to your 
 minds that there is a science of cookery, and that the 
 subject is worthy of further study, it is all that is to be 
 expected from so short a talk on so large a subject. 
 
PURE MILK 
 
 G. W. WIGNER, F.I.C., F.C.S. 
 
 VOL. VI.— II. L. 
 
July 30TH, 1884. 
 
 A LECTURE ON PURE MILK. 
 By G. W. WiGNER, F.I.C, F.C.S. 
 
 Pure milk is the natural food of infants, and in many cases 
 the most appropriate food for invalids, and it may fairly be 
 said to be essential to the growth of a healthy race of men 
 and women. But it is even more than this : milk may be 
 regarded as a model food, and as a complete food. It is a 
 model food because it is nature's own food, designed for 
 the sustenance of the young of animals, and, as such, it 
 contains and furnishes all the nutritive properties in due 
 proportion required by a growing animal. 
 
 It is a complete food, because it contains every element 
 which is necessary for the support of the body and the 
 activity of its functions. 
 
 Adults, who are living an active life, do not always 
 require the constituents of food in the exact proportion in 
 which they are present in pure milk, and yet there are few 
 circumstances under which life cannot be sustained on 
 milk, when properly taken, and with due care to ensure 
 its digestion. 
 
 The food of man, in fact, of children also, most commonly 
 consists of a compound of at least two or more animal or 
 vegetable substances, the combination of which affords the 
 various elements necessary to. meet all the demands of 
 animal life, and there is no other food in use which contains 
 in one article all the essential constituents of food except- 
 incr milk. 
 
138 PURE MILK. 
 
 Milk of course differs slightly, according to the animal 
 from which it is derived ; and this point we shall have again 
 to consider at greater length, but at present we must simply 
 view it as a typically perfect food. 
 
 It would be hard to give any food a higher recommenda- 
 tion than this, and yet it is not too much to say that two-thirds 
 of the inhabitants of London, or indeed of England, have any 
 practical knowledge of what pure milk is, and that at least 
 one-half of the remainder only consume it occasionally rather 
 as a luxury than as an article of food. 
 
 Now milk is not only a perfect food, but it is the most 
 extensively used food. Some might think, that this post of 
 honour belongs to bread, but really I think it would be the 
 food that, including children with the population, is used 
 more extensively than even bread. 
 
 From pretty careful enquiry, it appears that the con- 
 sumption of milk among the middle classes of London is 
 something like lo gallons per head per year ; but there are a 
 large proportion of the poor to whom thecostof milkisserious, 
 and there are a large proportion of the rich to whom, I am 
 afraid, milk is less palatable than it should be ; and there- 
 fore it would be a very moderate estimate to say that, on 
 the average, 3I gallons per head per year is consumed by 
 the entire population, or say, i^ ounces per head per day. 
 
 Now London has been rendered somewhat notorious by 
 the outcry about the amount of the Water Rates ; it will 
 perhaps surprise some to hear that the amount of the Milk 
 Bill of London is within about 10 per cent, of the amount 
 of the Water Bill of London, and while the water rates 
 amount to about ;^i, 562,000, the milk rates, if so I may 
 call them, amount to ^1,400,000 per year, or about 5s. lod. 
 per head per annum. 
 
 There is a good deal of difference, however, in the actual 
 incidence of the milk rate as distinct from the water rate ; 
 because the poor, who have but little money to spare, are 
 practically untouched by the water rate, their proportion 
 of the landlord's tax being almost too small for considera- 
 tion, while, on the other hand, they arc among the largest 
 
PURE MILK. 139 
 
 consumers of milk, and, unfortunately, from the very neces- 
 sity of their purchases being small, say \d. worths, or \d. 
 worths, they buy from the worst vendors, and, without doubt, 
 succeed in procuring the most heavily adulterated milk. 
 
 There are milkmen of various kinds in London, some of 
 them of the highest integrity, from whom unquestionably 
 pure milk can be procured at any time, and at a fair 
 price ; but it would be absurd to shut our eyes to the fact, 
 that there are in London hundreds and even thousands of 
 men, whose sole qualification for the trade consists in their 
 ability to undersell their neighbours by watering their 
 milk. 
 
 Milk consumers have, however, become so habituated to 
 use the poor watered and skimmed milk which is supplied 
 by these tradesmen, that the loss which they incur from 
 day to day is not appreciated ; and although their infants 
 are deprived of the food which they require, the result 
 shows rather an increase in the bills of mortality than an 
 improvement in the character of the milk supply. 
 
 There is probably no more curious illustration in the 
 whole of our English commerce of the way in which a 
 trade may go on increasing with the increase of the popu- 
 lation, or even at a greater rate than the increase, than the 
 milk trade ; and yet, despite of this increase, it bears a bad 
 name, so much so, that the finger of scorn is pointed at it. 
 From our earliest boyhood " vSimpson " has been a common 
 by-word, and comparatively few children of ten years old 
 fail to understand what are commonly called the milkman's 
 tricks. And yet, though the chalk-and-water talk of some 
 twenty-five years ago, and the sheep's brains even longer 
 since, are exploded fallacies, the bald fact remains, that milk 
 is more adulterated than any other article that is sold in 
 England ; and the number of samples of adulterated milk, 
 purchased by the inspectors under the Adulteration Act, 
 are almost or quite as numerous as the adulterated samples 
 of every other kind of food put together. 
 
 Of course milk has been a source of an immense number 
 of cases of prosecution and litigation — persecution the milk 
 
I40 PURE MILK. 
 
 dealers call it ; — but anyhow, whether it is persecution or 
 prosecution, for close upon twenty-four years — that is, ever 
 since the passing of the Act of 1 860 for the suppression of 
 adulteration — milk dealers have appeared in police courts, 
 quarter sessions, and every other court having power to 
 deal with such matters, not only from week to week and 
 day by day, but many times a day, and yet milk adultera- 
 tion goes on as fast as ever. 
 
 I shall have to refer to this subject in detail, with 
 statistics, later on in the course of my lecture, so that for 
 the present I want to point out simply, that there is a 
 bright side to the dark picture I have drawn. I am not 
 quite sure that it is possible to procure genuine milk 
 regularly at the lowest price at which milk is retailed, say at 
 fourpence per quart — exceptional cases may occur, say, for 
 instance, when a public analyst is supplied, — but it is 
 evident from practical experience that those milkmen who 
 are not afraid to charge a price which leaves them a proper 
 margin of profit can and do supply a genuine article ; and I 
 venture to say that by doing so, they satisfy their customers 
 far better than if the price were reduced and the quality let 
 down likewise. And considering the subject of pure milk, 
 it is essential that I should first of all look at its con- 
 stituents, and to some extent consider their food value 
 separately and collectively. 
 
 Pure milk ought to be such a simple and straightforward 
 term that it should not need definition, but legal sophistry 
 has been exerted to such an extent upon the milk subject, 
 and discussions of every sort have taken place in reference 
 to milk, that even these two words differ in meaning ac- 
 cording to the views of the persons by whom they are 
 used. I define pure milk to be the milk produced by a 
 properly fed cow in a state of health. I do not by this 
 mean to imply for a moment that a cow should be fed to 
 the highest pitch which modern science can devise, or that 
 a veterinary surgeon should be kept in constant attendance 
 upon it ; but I do imply, that a man who puts forward his 
 herd of cows as milk-producing machines, and sells the 
 
PURE MILK. \\\ 
 
 milk which these cows produce to the public as genuine 
 milk, is bound to take reasonable precautions to keep them 
 in health, and such proper precautions as any man who 
 values his stock would take, to see that they are sufficiently 
 fed with proper food to prevent their deterioration in health 
 and milk-giving power. 
 
 There are certain persons in the milk trade who distinctly 
 challenge this view, and I shall not be putting the matter 
 fairly before you if I do not state their arguments from their 
 point of view, even though I state them merely to show 
 their fallacy. The view which these representatives of a 
 certain section of the milk trade take is, that any liquid which 
 comes from the udder of a cow — no matter how much that 
 cow may have been wrongly fed — is pure milk, and has a 
 right to be classed as such, and to be exempt of the penalties 
 of the adulteration Act. The leading argument which they 
 put forward in favour of this view is, that the prize beasts 
 of the agricultural shows have frequently given milk 
 below the usually accepted standard of quality both as 
 regards cream and solids not fat. I admit this fact without 
 hesitation; it is well known, but the reason is not far to 
 seek : animals at these shows are fed in such a way as 
 to force the quantity of milk which they yield to the 
 maximum, while at the same time the animals themselves 
 are kept as far as possible in the highest external condition 
 and calculated to attract the eyes of those who judge of 
 animals by external appearance. 
 
 When these very same cows are taken back to their 
 homesteads, regularly and properly fed, kept from the 
 impure air of the show-shed or show-yard, and milked in a 
 proper way, no such abnormal results are obtained, but the 
 milk assumes the ordinary typical character, even when the 
 quantity yielded is somewhat less. 
 
 This argument is what I may fairly call the legitimate 
 one, although I have shown its fallacy ; but in addition to 
 this, there is used what I call the illegitimate argument, 
 namely, that certain cows, improperly and imperfectly fed, 
 in fact half-starved, have at certain times given milk below 
 
142 Pure milk. 
 
 the standard. The most notorious case of this kind is the 
 old case of the cows at the Royal Agricultural College, 
 Cirencester, which Dr. Voelcker admits were half starved, 
 and I certainly cannot admit that milk produced by such 
 animals as this has any right whatever to be classed in the 
 category of pure milk. 
 
 Setting aside these two leading arguments against the 
 standard set up, there is very little indeed to say against 
 my argument, that pure milk should not merely be the 
 produce of the cow, but should be the produce of the cow in 
 a healthy condition and reasonably well fed. Granting, 
 then, that this definition be accepted, in the first instance, 
 we have to consider whether it is capable of being formu- 
 lated in a more distinct way, so that, for instance, it would 
 be possible for the milkman or analyst, by examining the 
 milk, to say whether the liquid fulfils the conditions I have 
 laid down ; and here I am compelled at once to say No, it 
 would not be possible ; but the utmost that could be done 
 by science and practical knowledge combined is that a 
 certain limit may be laid down below Vv^hich pure milk will 
 not fall unless under circumstances of a most exceptional 
 character. This limit is in practical use, and is adopted by 
 a very large number of public analysts throughout the 
 kingdom. 
 
 I pass now to consider the different constituents of milk, 
 that is the various different parts into which it can be 
 approximately divided, and into some of which, as a matter 
 of fact, it is divided in the various processes of cream, butter, 
 curd, and cheese making. These different constituents are 
 Water, Fat, Caseine, Albumen, Sugar, and Salts, &c. ; and 
 for convenience of demonstrating the fact clearly, I have 
 arranged on the table before me a series of bottles (which 
 Messrs. Welford and Sons, who have the large Dairy in the 
 Southern Gallery, have kindly placed at my disposal), that 
 you may see the proportions of each of these ingredients 
 contained in one gallon of milk. Here, for instance, we 
 have the Water contained in one gallon of milk, which 
 amounts to 81bs. 70Z., and each of the other constituents in 
 
PURE MILK. 143 
 
 its proper relative proportion. I ought at once to disabuse 
 your minds of the idea that milk is absolutely constant in 
 composition ; it varies to some considerable extent, but in 
 talking of it to-day, for popular purposes, I shall assume a 
 fair average composition, and explain the extent to which 
 the variations occur afterwards. 
 
 Fat is the most variable and probably the most important 
 of the ingredients of milk. It certainly is the most 
 important from a dairy farmer's point of view, because if 
 the milk contains but little fat, he can procure but a small 
 proportion of cream and make but little butter from it. 
 From a dietetic point of view also, it is, I say, the most 
 important, or most important but one, of milk constituents. 
 The butter fat is a peculiar one, differing in many re- 
 spects from all the vegetable fats with which we arc 
 acquainted, and differing also to a considerable extent from 
 other animal fats. The most marked point of difference is 
 in the fact that butter contains three volatile fatty acids, 
 the principal one of which is Butyric, which, as far as we 
 know, is not met with in any other fat, either animal or 
 vegetable. 
 
 It by no means follows, however, that because butter fat 
 possesses these peculiarities it is easy to identify it ; on 
 the contrary, it is only by a tedious and somewhat difficult 
 process of chemical analysis, that the butyric acid can be 
 so far separated as to enable a definite statement to be 
 made as to the purity, or otherwise, of the sample of so- 
 called butter fat. 
 
 Commercially we get this fat in a state of what may be 
 called ^'semi-purity" as Cream. Good cream contains from 
 50 to 60 or 65 per cent, of butter fat, the remainder consisting 
 of water and a small proportion of the other constituents of 
 milk. When cream is churned into butter the envelopes 
 of the fat globules are broken, and a large number of these 
 tiny little spheres of fat, originally of microscopic size, adhere 
 together, while a large proportion of the water and the 
 soluble constituents are washed away with the butter milk. 
 Wc thus get butter fat in a still higher state of purity. 
 
144 PURE MILK. 
 
 Good butter, well made and well worked, should contain 
 somewhere about 88 per cent, of pure butter fat, and the 
 highest class of butters will contain rather more than this. 
 To get the butter fat, however, in a state of purity, the 
 butter must be melted with the water, soluble matters and 
 curd separated ; the clear limpid oil of beautiful amber- 
 colour floats on the top. This, when poured off and allowed 
 to chill, forms pure butter fat. 
 
 Fat in some form or other is an absolute essential to the 
 dietary. If children are brought up without the use of 
 butter, or a butter substitute, they rapidly lose health and 
 condition, and even in many savage races, we find that the 
 fat of animals is consumed in large quantities, taking the 
 place of the butter of more civilised countries. Following 
 out this argument, I see no reason why, with proper 
 precautions in its manufacture, butterine should not be 
 used to a considerable extent, to replace the deficiency of 
 butter from which we at the present time suffer. Butterine, 
 when properly made, is nothing but the best and purest 
 dripping, flavoured with milk, so as to make it resemble 
 butter as much as possible. 
 
 Yet, despite the value of the fat, skim milk, from which 
 the fat has been removed, is a valuable diet, and when 
 properly used, under medical advice, there is no doubt that 
 in many cases of illness it would be more serviceable than 
 even new milk. Unfortunately, however, the ease with 
 which the fat can be removed, offers a considerable 
 temptation to skimming. 
 
 The next constituent of milk that we have to notice is 
 Caseine. This is the flesh-forming constituent of milk, and 
 is called curd. It is classed as one of the most valuable 
 constituents, and is a highly nitrogenous matter. Indeed, 
 with the exception of a small amount of albumen and 
 Lacto Protein, all the nitrogen of milk exists in the form of 
 caseine. Caseine forms the basis of our cheeses of every 
 kind, except the real cream cheese. It will therefore 
 scarcely surprise you to hear that it is highly nutritious. 
 We all know how hardworking men live, to a very great 
 
PURE MILK. 145 
 
 extent, upon cheese with a quantity of bread, and not 
 only do they thrive on the food, but perform an amount of 
 physical work which most of us in this room would be 
 quite incapable of undertaking. It is therefore fair to look 
 upon caseine as being the work-sustaining portion of 
 milk, and to say that if a sample of milk is deficient in 
 caseine, it is deficient in a constituent most necessary for 
 securing health. 
 
 Albumen constitutes nearly the whole of the remainder 
 of the nitrogenous matter in milk. It is difficult to define 
 the exact position which this albumen holds in the dietetic 
 value of milk. It forms a small proportion, only about one 
 quarter, of the nitrogenous matter present, but owing to its 
 more soluble form, and the greater difficulty with which 
 it is coagulated, it appears to me extremely probable that 
 its real food value may be higher than the other nitro- 
 genous constituents. There is some amount of evidence, 
 although not yet a certainty, that this form of albumen is 
 peculiar to milk, and that it differs from the albumen 
 present in eggs, but it seems probable, that like the volatile 
 acids present in the fat of milk, this substance has a special 
 nutritive value of its own, and that without this albumen 
 milk would not be a perfect or complete food. 
 
 Of course in the case of whey, which is not unfrequently 
 used as a diet, the albumen forms a very important part, 
 because the caseine, containing some three-fourths of the 
 nitrogenous matter, has already been separated, and the 
 albumen, with a trace of Lacto-Protein, form the only 
 nitrogenous matter available. 
 
 Sugar of milk is a very peculiar sugar, differing from 
 most other sugars. Nearly all its properties, both 
 chemical and physical, differ from cane sugar, in not being 
 so sweetening in its properties, and yet it has a pleasant 
 taste, perhaps more agreeable in flavour than most of the 
 glucoses and other uncrystallizable sugars. Sugar of milk 
 itself, however, is crystallizable, but with a different form 
 of crystallization to cane sugar or beet sugar, and its 
 solution in water behaves differently during concentration, 
 
 VOL. VI. — H. L. L 
 
146 PURE MILK. 
 
 a large proportion of the milk sugar present being de- 
 posited at a certain stage of the boiling, in an imperfect 
 crystalline form, while the other part remains in solution. 
 The polarization differs considerably from the polarization 
 of any other known sugar. All these different points mark 
 it out as a peculiar sugar. There is a good deal yet to be 
 done in investigating the chemistry of sugar of milk, and 
 it appears very probable that at some future time, further 
 investigation may show that in reality what we look upon 
 as a simple sugar, consists of different substances mixed 
 together in proportions which are at present unknown. 
 Sugar of milk is important in another way, as it forms the 
 great point of difference between human milk and cow's 
 milk. 
 
 Human milk contains a larger proportion of sugar than 
 cow's milk, and less fat, caseine, albumen, and ash. It is 
 from this that the formula generally adopted in the manu- 
 facture of artificial human milk is obtained ; cow's milk is 
 diluted with water, and then milk sugar added ; by this means 
 we obtain a liquid which assimilates somewhat closely in 
 chemical composition to true human milk. 
 
 Mineral Matter. 
 
 This term includes a variety of salts which, physio- 
 logically considered, are of very great importance in the 
 composition of milk. It is absolutely essential for the 
 formation of bone and muscle that a growing child, or for 
 the matter of that an adult, should be supplied with certain 
 phosphatic substances, lime salts, etc. Milk contains these 
 ingredients in the right proportions to form the bone and 
 muscle of a child. 
 
 We now come to the water, the last and largest con- 
 stituent. 
 
 Water, of course, strictly speaking has no real dietetic . 
 value, and yet without water milk itself would be useless 
 as food, because it is essential that the valuable food 
 ingredients of which we have already been speaking should 
 be dissolved or emulsified, so as to be in a suitable form 
 
PURE MILK. _ 147 
 
 capable of easy digestion, in fact so that the stomach can 
 easily assimilate them. This water is the bone of con- 
 tention between public analysts and milkmen, and nothing 
 was more common three or four years ago than to hear a 
 long cross-examination directed solely to the elucidation of 
 the very knotty point — as to whether there was any 
 difference between the water natural to milk, which in fact 
 the cow put into it, and the water which the milkman 
 added. 
 
 I should like to consider next, by the aid of a set of 
 samples which have been lent me by the Aylesbury Dairy 
 Company, the mode in which the milk is divided by the 
 dairymen into the different articles of commerce which are 
 most frequently made from it. The samples to some 
 extent speak for themselves, and certainly as regards the 
 first series, that of whole milk, I need not detain you any 
 longer, except to say that here we have fat, caseine, and 
 sugar, all shown in the same form as in the larger bottles 
 on the table. Our next two series of samples here show us 
 the division of the whole milk into cream and skim milk. 
 Cream, as I took occasion to tell you some time ago, does 
 not consist entirely of butter fat, but contains fifty to sixty- 
 five per cent, more or less, according to its quality. And in 
 this series of samples we have the cream divided into the 
 constituents present in a good ordinary commercial sample, 
 and you will see that some thirty per cent, of water is still 
 present, and that this water carries with it caseine, albumen, 
 and salts. We may in fact put it another way, and say 
 that, separate any particular constituent of the milk as 
 carefully as possible by mechanical means, and we always 
 find that some small proportion of the other constituents are 
 present ; thus, referring to skim milk : in the first separation 
 wc find that it still contains some fat ; the amount in skim 
 milk is extremely variable, according to the mode of manu- 
 facture. The Centrifugal machine, which you can see at 
 work in the south gallery, is by far the most efficient and 
 most successful for separating the cream from the milk. 
 . The principle of the centrifugal separator is practitally 
 
 L 2 
 
148 PURE MILK. 
 
 identical with the principle of skimming, although the two 
 processes appear so dissimilar. The milk revolving in the 
 separator at great speed acquires immensely increased 
 centrifugal force, which corresponds to the force of gravity. 
 This centrifugal force acts more strongly on the heavy 
 non-fatty portion of the milk and less strongly on the 
 cream, and consequently the non-fatty part of the skim 
 milk gravitates by the centrifugal force to the outside of 
 the revolving circle, leaving the cream to flow away in the 
 inside in an almost pure condition. 
 
 A few weeks ago I tried experiments with each of the 
 separators at work in these dairies, and in some cases 
 found the proportion of fat present in the skim milk 
 reduced to even less than 'i per cent. 
 
 These separators at the same time produced cream of 
 high quality, and the skim that they produced is more 
 palatable than skim milk obtained by the old process. I 
 have known this statement to raise a smile on the faces of 
 those who thought they knew all about milk, and have 
 wondered how it was possible that one skim milk could be 
 more palatable than another ; but the reason is not far to 
 seek : mechanical action in the separator thoroughly aerates 
 the skim milk while it is fresh and has lost none of the 
 aroma peculiar to new milk. Milk exposed to the action 
 of air for twelve or eighteen hours in open vessels loses its 
 aroma, and is apt to become contaminated by an impure 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Here we have the other constituents of skim milk 
 separated, by which you will see that we have a very small 
 increase in the proportions of sugar, caseine, and salts, due 
 to the proportion of fat that has been removed. 
 
 Our next array of samples shows us a further sub- 
 division. Here we have the cream divided into its two 
 constituents of butter and butter milk. Still the same rule 
 holds good of the constituents of the original milk passing 
 through, though in diminished proportions, into the finished 
 product. Thus butter always contains milk, sugar, and 
 caseine or curd, and even soluble albumen is not entirely 
 
PURE MILK. 149 
 
 washed away with the butter milk. Still the butter milk, 
 as we see by the central bottle, retains fat, true butter 
 fat, which of course represents so much waste in the process 
 of butter-making. 
 
 Taking the other side of our case, where the skim milk 
 heads the column, we have skim milk divided up into 
 cheese and whey. The cheese is represented here by the 
 proportions shown. One of these types is skim milk 
 cheese, with its very small proportion of fat. These cheeses 
 are common enough, and are usually consumed in this 
 country, but there are many cases in which the use of 
 whole milk cheese containing a large proportion of fat is 
 desirable rather than cheeses containing so little fat. 
 
 The proportion of fat contained in these cheeses vary, 
 from skim milk cheeses occasionally to be met with con- 
 taining as little as three per cent, of fat, up to cream cheeses 
 in which the proportion of fat is largely in excess of the 
 proportion of caseine. 
 
 Now every one of these constituents we derive from pure 
 milk is capable of being adulterated. There are one or two 
 of these adulterations to which it is necessary I should refer. 
 The most serious portion of adulteration unquestionably is 
 the admixture of butter with foreign fats, and the substitu- 
 tion of inferior fats for the true butter present in cheese. 
 
 We will take the latter first. A large number of cheese 
 consumers desire a cheese containing a considerable pro- 
 portion of fatty matter. This fatty matter of course ought 
 to be the butter natural to milk, but butter is far more 
 valuable than oleomargarine, and therefore extensive 
 manufactories have been established for the production of 
 oleomargarine cheese. This cheese is made of skim milk, 
 skimmed by separators, so that the butter is practically all 
 abstracted, the deficiency of fat being replaced by the 
 addition of oleomargarine or lard, in sufficient quantity 
 to make the cheese a tolerably fat one. I look upon this 
 as an exceedingly flagrant adulteration ; the more so because 
 it is one which is hardly likely to be detected bythe consumer. 
 There is no difficulty in detecting the fraud by an analytical 
 
ISO PURE MILK. 
 
 process. The very worst adulteration in the products is of 
 course the use of oleomargarine to mix with or substitute 
 for pure butter. I have nothing to say personally against 
 the use of good carefully made oleomargarine as a substi- 
 tute for butter, if only it is sold under its own name and at 
 a fair price, but I have the greatest objection to its sub- 
 stitution for butter, which is more valuable and a more 
 digestible diet, and unquestionably more suitable for 
 domestic use. Good oleomargarine is nothing but the 
 very best of beef fat carefully refined and carefully churned 
 with milk, and as such no one can dispute its suitability for 
 use as food ; bad oleomargarine, on the other hand, is a 
 compound of vile refuse fats, clarified and refined in any 
 way that will chemically fulfil the object in view ; but, to 
 say the least, such a mode of preparing refuse materials for 
 food use is objectionable, and the sale of the inferior sample 
 should be in every way discountenanced. 
 
 I want to point out next the means which are available 
 for ascertaining whether any given sample of milk is pure 
 or not. In some respects this problem is comparatively a 
 simple one, but in other respects it presents great difficulty. 
 At the outset we meet with this difficult feature, that milk 
 is a perishable article, and must be consumed within, at the 
 most, a few hours of the time it was obtained from the cow. 
 It follows from this, that it is not practicable for each sample 
 of milk, or, for the matter of that, not one out of one hundred, 
 to be subjected to chemical analysis before its distribution 
 to the consumer ; it is obvious, therefore, that some readier 
 and more rapid test must be used or the milk must be sold 
 without any test at all. 
 
 A good many different kinds of tests have been proposed 
 for this purpose, and various instruments, under the name of 
 galactoscope and other similar names, have been suggested, 
 by which the degree of opacity of the milk could be read 
 off according to scale, the idea of the inventors being, that 
 the poorer the milk, the fewer would be the number of fat 
 globules contained in it, and therefore the less the opacity 
 of the milk. In practice these instruments signally failed, 
 
PURE MILK. 151 
 
 in consequence of the fat being the most variable constituent 
 in milk, and also from the fact that the opacity of the fat 
 globules vary considerably. 
 
 The microscope has also been suggested as a ready 
 means of detecting adulteration, but except in highly 
 skilled hands this is even less useful, and may now be 
 considered as obsolete as the other. For one thing, 
 however, the microscope still retains and must retain its 
 position : it is practically the only means by which diseased 
 milk, that is milk obtained from diseased cows, can be 
 detected. 
 
 One instrument however has survived, and is in constant 
 use by many milkmen : this is the Hydrometer, or as it 
 is more familiarly called in the trade, the Lactometer. This 
 is a valuable instrument in its way, but the results obtained 
 by its use are apt to be misleading, as it simply gives the 
 relative weight of milk compared with water. One gallon 
 of water weighs 10 pounds ; one gallon of milk about 
 10 • 3 pounds ; it follows from this that if the milk be 
 admixed with water, the weight of one gallon would be 
 reduced, so that supposing the mixture consisted of half 
 milk and half water, the weight would be iO"i5 pounds. 
 Unfortunately, however, the weight of pure milk is not 
 uniform ; it ranges between the rather wide limits of 10 "28 
 and 10 "35. We therefore get a possible error introduced 
 at the starting point, and this starting point or zero being 
 erroneous, it follows that all calculations based upon it 
 must be likewise liable to error. If, however, this were all, 
 the instrument would still be a very useful one in the 
 hands of a careful man, but experiments will soon show 
 that there is another great drawback. If a sample of milk 
 with a specific gravity of 10*30 be taken, and the cream 
 carefully skimmed off, the specific gravity of the skimmed 
 milk would be increased by the removal of the butter fat, 
 which is lighter than water, so that the weight of the 
 skimmed milk itself may be as much as iO"34 or iO"36 
 pounds. It will be seen from this that wc have two 
 different ways in which the milk can be tampered with 
 
152 PURE MILK. 
 
 viz. : watering, which will reduce the weight of a gallon ; 
 skimming, which will increase the weight of a gallon. 
 Both of these processes are profitable to the milk seller, 
 and a moment's consideration will show that if the milk is 
 carefully skimmed and afterwards watered, the original 
 gravity of the milk will be reproduced so exactly as to 
 deceive any person using the lactometer as a test. It is 
 in this way that a good deal of the watered and skimmed 
 milk is passed off by country dealers to the London 
 vendors and by London vendors to their customers. In 
 one case, however, the lactometer is serviceable, and that is 
 to show that the milk coming from any farm keeps day by 
 day a fairly uniform regularity in quality, and that the 
 milk returned by the milk carriers at the conclusion of 
 their rounds comes back in the same condition as when 
 it went out. 
 
 The only reliable and trustworthy method of ascertain- 
 ing the quality of milk, is by means of a full chemical 
 analysis. To carry this out the water contained in the 
 milk is evaporated ; the whole of the solid matters of 
 which I have shown you specimens are left behind in a 
 state in which they can be weighed ; the fat contained in 
 these solid matters is then extracted by means of either 
 petroleum or some other suitable liquid, and the solids not 
 fat which are left behind are dried again and weighed. 
 These solids not fat form the real standard by which the 
 question of watering is determined ; while the fat which 
 has been extracted when weighed forms the real guide as 
 to whether the milk has been skimmed. If cither of these 
 two figures were perfectly constant, one problem of milk 
 analysis would be solved, but unfortunately there is a 
 considerable variation in different samples of milk. 
 
 To get over this difficulty a low or minimum figure has 
 been adopted as the standard, so as to allow an ample 
 margin for the natural irregularity of composition. Milk 
 dealers are aware of this difficulty in fixing a standard, 
 and are constantly endeavouring to prove that adulter- 
 ated milk is really pure milk. There is practically no 
 
PURE MILK. 153 
 
 milk adulteration case ever brought into court in which 
 any other defence is raised. The allowance is always said 
 to be insufficient, and the unfortunate milkman has cows 
 worse in quality than those which have been tested by 
 the analysts, and consequently he obtains milk poorer in 
 quality and worse in character than any which they have 
 seen. This argument, however, has pretty nearly spent 
 itself ; it is only occasionally that there is any magistrate 
 who is found to listen to it. 
 
 In conclusion, it will be interesting to notice the extent 
 to which pure milk is sold in London. The returns which 
 are made under the Adulteration Acts specify the percentage 
 of adulteration found in each sample, while the tabulated 
 reports issued in the blue books state only the number of 
 adulterated samples, and taking the case of milk do not 
 give the percentage of skimming or watering. This of 
 course seriously diminishes the value of the returns. It is 
 therefore surprising to find that only on one occasion 
 during the last seven years has the percentage of adul- 
 terated samples of milk fallen below 20. Out of every 
 100 samples of milk purchased by the inspectors 20* 35 
 were adulterated, even on the lenient limit of calculation 
 used. But by looking to London alone you will get a better 
 illustration still. At some considerable trouble I have en- 
 deavoured to find out what the quality of the average 
 milk supply of London really is. Londoners within the 
 area of the London water companies, supplies number 
 nearly, or quite, four-and-three-quarter millions, say 4,760,000, 
 and the cost of the milk supply is therefore a tolerably 
 large figure. 
 
 The limit of pure milk has by almost (but not quite) 
 universal consent been fixed at 9*00 per cent, solids (not 
 fat) and 250 per cent. fat. My opinion is that this is if 
 anything too low, especially in fat ; so I procured 55 
 samples during the month of October from entire dairies of 
 milk as the milk arrived in London. The farmers' men 
 may have added a little water, but, unless in one case, I 
 have no reason to think that this has been done. No 
 
154 PURE MILK. 
 
 precautions whatever were taken to procure special 
 samples, so I am fairly justified in saying that this milk is 
 a fair sample of what dairy farmers can supply in London 
 during the month of October. These deliveries are from 
 the milk of about 2000 cows. 
 
 Out of this series of 55 samples, the solids (not fat) fell 
 in one case to 8*93 per cent., with 3" 14 per cent, of fat, and 
 in the next lowest case to 9* 10 solids (not fat) ; that is 54 
 out of 55 samples are above the limit, and the one re- 
 maining sample has a high proportion of fat ; but the 
 average is more important, and this comes to solids (not fat) 
 9-60, fat 3*46, total solids, i3"o6 ; so that the average of 
 these 2000 cows is at the very least six per cent, above the 
 limits used by the Society, and nearly 40 per cent, higher 
 in fat. 
 
 So much for what comes to London : now let us see 
 what is sold in London. 
 
 It is proper to expect that some of the best milk should 
 be delivered, for however leniently a milk seller may 
 generally look upon watering, we cannot expect that all of 
 them do so. 
 
 I purchased 300 samples in London, and three out of 
 the 300 corresponded with the average of the milks sent to 
 London, and one of the 300 was richer than the average ; 
 296 remain to be accounted for, 93 of these pass the limit ; 
 they may have been watered, and, in fact, many pro- 
 bably have, but they are just above the limit ; 203, or 67'9 
 per cent, are below the limit, and this represents the 
 amount of sophistication I have actually found. The 
 percentage of added water in these samples varies from 
 3 per cent., to 61 per cent. Out of the 300 samples no 
 less than 63, or 20 per cent, of the total, are just on the 
 limit line of solids (not fat) and fat in genuine milk. 
 But as soon as this limit line is passed, watering goes on 
 rapidly ; 15 per cent, of the samples contain more than 20 
 and less than 30 per cent, of added water, and 15 per cent 
 contain more than 30 per cent. ; in all 68 per cent, were 
 watered. 
 
PURE MILK. 155 
 
 The percentage of skimming is almost equally formid- 
 able ; here again I have passed all samples above the limit, 
 though it is too low ; but even on this low calculation 19 
 per cent, were skimmed as well as watered, and more than 
 7 per cent, were skimmed but not watered. 
 
 This tale of sophistication is really serious to the public. 
 Averaging the 300 samples, the result is that 13 per 
 cent, of the fat has been skimmed off, and that the milk 
 has, in addition, been watered nearly 13 per cent. ; while 
 if the figures I actually found in the dairies are taken as 
 the standard, as I consider they ought to be, 20 per cent, 
 of the fat has been skimmed off, and the watering is 19 per 
 cent. 
 
 Ten years' working of the anti-Adulteration Acts has 
 brought us really to this point, that as regards milk our 
 position is hopeless until the law is amended ; no one can 
 hope to get pure milk in London, unless under other 
 guarantees than this Act affords, and we ought to tell the 
 public so, that they may take action in the matter. 
 
 Trivial fines of a few shillings do not bear on the question 
 at all. The average consumption of milk in the middle 
 class districts of London may be taken at something like 
 ten gallons per head per year, but to put it at the least I 
 will take 3^^ gallons per head per year as the average, or 
 say i-i- oz. per day each person. The milk bill of this 
 population of four-and-three-quarter millions must there- 
 fore be, at fivepenceper quart, somewhat about iJ" 1,400,000, 
 or seven-eighths of the water rates, which are i^i, 562,000. 
 
 This milk appears to be watered on the average nearly 
 19 per cent. The value of this milk replaced by water is 
 i;266,ooo per year. It is not easy to say absolutely what 
 value shall be given to the fat, but certainly it is putting 
 the most lenient view possible on the matter if we consider 
 that the abstraction of this fat is equal to a value of 
 ;!^90,ooo more. 
 
 Adding this figure to the other, I find that we in London 
 pay i^3 56,000 a year for fraudulent dealing with milk — ^just 
 about one-fifth part of our water rates. How long this will 
 
156 PURE MILK. 
 
 be tolerated I cannot say, but it needs no calculation to 
 show that the amount is enough to pay a profit to all the 
 vendors concerned, if only it were fairly divided. 
 
 After this statement of what is actually being done at 
 the present time in reference to the sale of impure milk, it 
 will surprise no one if I say that I think further legislation 
 is imperatively needed, not only to enforce the adoption 
 of a somewhat more rigid standard, but to increase the 
 efficiency of the supervision at present exercised over the 
 milk supply ; a very much larger number of samples should 
 be examined, so that purchasers may procure something 
 like a genuine article instead of an adulterated one. 
 
 I am not at all prepared to say that this will not be at- 
 tended with an increased price in milk ; but that I look upon 
 as a matter of trifling moment only, if the steps that are 
 taken are such as to ensure an uniform and genuine article. 
 
THE ENGLISH DAIRY 
 
 Professor J. P. SHELDON. 
 
 VOL. VII. — H. L. 
 
June i6th, 1884. 
 
 A LECTURE ON THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 
 
 By Professor J. P. SHELDON. 
 
 Mr. H. M. Jenkins, Secretary to the Royal Agricultural 
 Society, in the chair (in the unavoidable absence of the 
 Earl of Aberdeen). 
 
 The subject which I have to bring under your notice 
 to-day does not require any introduction or apology on my 
 part, because I find, in the Exhibition, the question of 
 dairying has been very prettily, conveniently, and effectively 
 displayed. Interested as I am in dairy farming, I have 
 taken very great pleasure indeed in inspecting the model 
 dairies to be seen on the left hand going down the main 
 hall, which, no doubt, many of you have seen and admired 
 the same as I have. The question, then, of dairying, 
 important as it is to the nation at large, finds a proper 
 place in an Exhibition of this description. Surely any- 
 thing which has to do with health ought to find a very 
 appropriate expression in matters relating to the dairy, 
 from which we derive so much that contributes in the way 
 of food to our health. We owe a great deal to the cow, a 
 great deal more than we are in the habit of acknowledging, 
 or even of thinking. Those of us who are familiar with the 
 cow, who live in the country, and see her constantly, do 
 
i6o 777^ ENGLISH DAIRY. 
 
 not think half enough of the benefits that she renders to 
 us, and those of you who live in London and see cows very 
 seldom, and when you do see them, see them only for a 
 very short time, can scarcely be expected to think as highly 
 of the cow as she really deserves. You must bear in mind 
 that the cow is not only a benefactor to the human race, 
 but she has also been a slave, and for these reasons I claim 
 that cows ought to be treated by those who keep them with 
 the greatest kindness and tenderness. The cow is rather a 
 prosaic animal, and that is, perhaps, the reason why her 
 praises have seldom been sung by poets, novelists and others, 
 but we do find mention ot ner in some of our fine works, in 
 George Eliot, for instance, and those who have read Adam 
 Bede will remember the beautiful picture there drawn of 
 Mrs. Poyser's dairy ; and Charles Dickens, sometime ago, 
 said that if mankind were to return to the worship of 
 animals, the cow would become the chief divinity, which 
 was certainly very high praise for the cow. 
 
 Now the present aspect of dairy farming in England is, 
 I am glad to say, better than it was a year ago. Dairy 
 farming in England, in common with other kinds of 
 farming, has suffered a good deal during the wet seasons 
 which have been so general now for something like eight 
 years. Of course it has suffered less than corn growing, 
 and even less than sheep husbandry. If we compare the 
 present position of dairy farmers with corn-growing farmers, 
 and a great many sheep farmers also, I think we shall find 
 the comparison is decidedly in favour of dairy farmers. 
 The outlook, indeed, for corn growers in the British Islands 
 is very gloomy. It has been impossible for them to pay 
 their way of late years, simply because the seasons have 
 not only prevented them from growing the crops they were 
 aiming at, but prevented them from growing certain cropi 
 they might otherwise have done, and on the heavy wet 
 soils of England we find the greatest depression has for 
 some time past prevailed. This is owing almost entirely 
 to wet and sunless seasons, but there are other things against 
 which the agriculture of the British Islands has had to 
 
THE ENGLISH DAIRY. i6i 
 
 contend of late years, viz., the low state of commerce and 
 increased foreign competition. These things have come 
 against farmers all at once, and it is not wonderful that 
 there has been a time of depression in the agricultural 
 world. One of the results of this series of wet seasons has 
 been to diminish the number of cattle in the British 
 Islands. The land has been unable to sustain the quantity 
 of cattle that it did in years gone by. I know this from 
 repeated observation, and from my own personal experience, 
 that the land, however well it may have been kept in 
 condition, has been unable to sustain, as it did some years 
 ago, a given number of cattle that might be placed upon it. 
 The cows, for instance, on pastures have given less milk, 
 and the milk itself has been less rich in quality. The 
 yield of cheese and butter derived by dairy farmers from 
 their farms has been smaller, and in some respects inferior 
 in quality, owing to these wet seasons. I find from the 
 official Blue Books of the agricultural returns, that the 
 number of cattle in the British Islands in 1874 was 
 10,281,036 ; last year the number was 10,097,943, showing 
 a deficiency still of 184,093. The lowest point was reached 
 in the year 1878, when the number had gone to 9,761,288. 
 The increase in the number of cattle from the year 1878, 
 when the lowest point was reached, to the number in 1883, 
 that is in five years, was 336,655, which is very satisfactory, 
 and it is more encouraging still to find that from the year 
 1882 to the year 1883 there was an increase of no less than 
 265,526 in the twelve months. I look forward, when the 
 returns made a few weeks ago are published, to find that we 
 have almost, if not quite, got back to the numbers that we 
 had in 1874. What we want now is of course fine weather, 
 for we have had a plethora of bad seasons. The land has 
 been sodden and saturated with wet, and our fine old 
 pastures, like unto which there axe none anywhere else in 
 the world that I have seen, of the best description, have 
 languished from the superabundance of wet and the absence 
 of sun, and the consequence has been that they consist to a 
 large extent of inferior grasses whose nutritive properties 
 VOL. VI.— H. L. M 
 
1 62 THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 
 
 are smaller — grasses which are less attractive to cattle and 
 less valuable in all respects. 
 
 Dairy farming as an industry is a most important one. 
 The capital involved in dairy farming in the British Islands, 
 speaking first of that of the tenant farmers, or at all events 
 of the actual dairy farmers, whether they farm their own 
 land or are tenant farmers — tenants' capital you may call it 
 — is no less than from 175 to 200 millions sterling ; and the 
 capital belonging to the landlords is much larger than this, 
 and would reach from 1300 to 1400 millions. So that 
 taking them altogether there is a landlords' and tenants' 
 farming capital in dairy farming alone pretty well equal to 
 1600 millions, or twice the amount of our National Debt. 
 I think these figures will satisfy you that dairy farming, as 
 an industry, is one of the most important we can possibly 
 possess in a country like this. 
 
 Now " milk " is a word familiar to everyone. It is not 
 an euphonious word, but the fluid which the word represents 
 is a most valuable one. As an article of food milk is a 
 necessity of life from youth up. There is no other article of 
 food which will sustain life alone, without the assistance of 
 any other kind of food, and for an indefinite period, but milk 
 will do this. Milk possesses the various elements required 
 for the nutrition of our systems in just the proper chemical 
 and mechanical combinations which are necessary. There 
 is the proper amount of moisture to start with, something 
 like ?)'j°, the proper amount of casein, of albuminoids and 
 carbonaceous matters. Three pints of milk are equal to 
 I lb. of beef, so that at that rate milk at 4^. a quart would 
 be about the exact equivalent of beef at 6^<^. a lb., or if we 
 take beef at \s. o^d. a lb., milk ought really to fetch 8d. a 
 quart, if each was sold according to its intrinsic value. 
 Then take cheese, — i lb, of cheese and i lb. of bread together 
 are equal to 2 lbs. of either beef or mutton without bone. 
 One lb. of cheese will cost you about yd., and 4- lb. of bread 
 less than id, whereas 2 lbs. of beef or mutton without 
 bone will cost you something like is. 6d. to 2s. So that 
 you see the immense difference there is in favour of milk 
 
THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 163 
 
 at present prices, and in favour of cheese also as an article 
 of food. 
 
 The consumption of milk in the British Islands is very- 
 small, much smaller than we should suppose it would be. 
 It is very small even in country places. The average con- 
 sumption of milk by the people inhabiting these islands is 
 a little over 3 pints per person per week. The consump- 
 tion of cheese is something like 4 oz. per person per week, 
 and that of butter something like 3^ oz. These, of course, 
 are only approximate figures, for it is impossible to arrive 
 at any definite data with respect to the consumption of these 
 articles, but we can do so approximately by knowing the 
 number of cows we have, by estimating the quantity of 
 milk they produce and also the quantity of butter, and by 
 knowing, as we do, by the Government returns, the quan- 
 tities of cheese and butter that are imported from foreign 
 countries. I have been at considerable pains in ascer- 
 taining these matters, and the conclusion that I have arrived 
 at is what I have just told you. The quantity of dairy 
 products required to supply London is something pro- 
 digious. We will suppose that Londoners drink or other- 
 wise consume half-a-pint of milk per day, and we will take 
 it, which I believe is approximately true at all events, and 
 very likely the figures are already realised, that the popu- 
 lation within a radius of 15 miles of Charing Cross is about 
 5 millions. If these people consume half-a-pint each of 
 milk per day, that would come to about 1,250,000 quarts, and 
 if you value those at ^d. a quart, it comes to 26,000/. ; so 
 that, assuming the figures I have given are tolerably accu- 
 rate, it takes 26,000/. a day to supply Londoners with milk, 
 that is, people including those living in the parishes within 
 1 5 miles of Charing Cross. At the rate I have suggested 
 the people eat cheese and butter also, the mean value of 
 dairy products in those forms amounts to something like 
 45,000/. worth a day, or 16 millions a year. After all, this 
 is no great amount, for if there are 5 millions of people it 
 is only about 65^. each per annum, or about \^d. each per 
 week. The sum in the aggregate looks enormous, but 
 
 iM 2 
 
i64 THE ENGLISH DA IR V. 
 
 when you come down to details it is easily made up with- 
 out going to any great extravagance in the consumption 
 of dairy products. To supply London with these dairy 
 products, reckoning the cows give something like 440 or 
 450 gallons of milk per annum, it would take 800,000 
 cows. 
 
 I have maintained for a long time past that the best 
 purpose to which you can put a cow is to get all the milk 
 you can from her. We are not all vegetarians, and we are 
 not all blue ribboners, but both these classes are very good 
 friends to dairy farmers, because they aid very materially 
 in the consumption of milk. Personally, I am not much 
 inclined to be either a vegetarian or a blue ribboner, but 
 still I hope their numbers will increase. Suppose you fatten 
 a cow, intending to make beef of her, an ordinary cow will 
 give you about 6 cwt. of beef, and then the cow is gone ; but 
 a good cow will give you 5 cwt. of cheese in a year, or 3 
 cwt. of butter, more or less, or she will give you from 40 
 to 60 cwts. of milk, and you have the cow left ; whereas, 
 if you fatten the cow for beef, the cow is gone. This looks 
 to me very much like killing the goose that lays the golden 
 eggs. 
 
 We inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland have 
 every reason to be proud of our different breeds of cattle, 
 which are the envy and admiration of the world, and they 
 are acquired now very extensively at very long prices to 
 keep up the quality of cattle of other countries. America 
 depends to a very great extent on English cattle of various 
 breeds to keep up the quality of those which she has 
 imported before. It appears to me, further, although on 
 this point I should not like to express any definite or final 
 opinion, that the climate and soil of America are not equal 
 to keeping up the quality of these breeds of cattle as it 
 can be kept up in the British Islands. In the British Islands, 
 being surrounded by the sea, we have a most humid air ; 
 we have the best pastures, better than are to be found any- 
 where, we have a fairly genial climate, and all these things 
 combine to make up the highest expression which nature and 
 
THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 165 
 
 art together have yet produced as to what a cow ought to 
 be. Our shorthorns are as ubiquitous as the EngHshman is ; 
 the shorthorn, in fact, seems to be the shadow of the English- 
 man, and to follow him wherever he goes. Then we have 
 the Jerseys, those sweet, deer-like little creatures, elegant 
 in form, gentle in disposition, owing to the kindly treatment 
 to which they have been subjected for generations past, in 
 whose nature kindness has already become inherent owing 
 to this gentle treatment ; and these Jerseys give the richest 
 milk. Then we have the Ayrshires, Scotch cattle, also 
 excellent as dairy cattle, doing well in cold climates, and on 
 inferior soil, where most other breeds of cattle would do 
 badly. Then we have the Herefords, capital beef-makers 
 as they are, and the Devons, which give excellent milk. 
 All of you are acquainted with Devonshire cream, and you 
 cannot disassociate the idea of Devonshire cream from that 
 of the Devonshire cattle that give it. Then we have the 
 ancient Longhorns, that old quaint race which seems to have 
 been useful in its day. I have a great affection for cows ; 
 I am very fond of animals of all kinds, but particularly 
 cows, they are so useful ; they are, if properly treated, so 
 sympathetic, so responsive to kindness, that I feel a sort of 
 respect for that mythical personage who is said to have 
 kissed his cow. I do not know whether it was the same 
 person who kissed the maid that milked the cow with the 
 crumpled horn or not ; it may be, but at all events if it 
 was one and the same person, I think it was only polite 
 that he should have kissed the maiden first. 
 
 With regard to the treatment of cattle, I place first and 
 foremost the word kindness. It does not matter how well 
 you feed cattle if you do not treat them with kindness in 
 the way of handling — if you do not familiarise yourself with 
 them. It is a very ungrateful sort of thing to feed these 
 cattle well and then to thrash them, as I have seen some 
 people do, in a fit of passion, when a cow would not stand 
 quite still when she was to be milked. Cattle want treat- 
 ing with kindness and gentleness. I scarcely know to 
 which the benefit chiefly falls, the giver or receiver of kind' 
 
1 66 THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 
 
 ness : it seems to react from the one who receives it to the 
 one who gives it, so that, even from a selfish point of view. 
 \ would advocate those who have to do with cattle to treat 
 them with kindness, because it will surely come back to 
 themselves. 
 
 With regard to the feeding of cattle, one great principle 
 to be kept in view is this, that when they ai'e artificially fed 
 in winter time, it should be with food that is in a state 
 easily digestible. With regard to the question of ensilage, 
 about which we have heard so much of late, I am not able 
 to express a very definite opinion. My excellent friend, 
 Mr. Jenkins, who has kindly taken the chair to-day, has 
 been at great pains in collecting evidence upon it, but I 
 think has not himself arrived at any definite or final con- 
 clusion. We have also the well-considered opinions of Dr. 
 Voelcker and Sir John Bennett Lawes, men who are an 
 ornament and credit to this country, who have done 
 immense service, not only to the agriculture of Great Britain, 
 but to all the world. These gentlemen are not much in 
 favour of it, but consider we ought to act with caution. 
 Ensilage will be chiefly valuable as a food for dairy 
 stock, if it becomes generally adopted in this country, 
 because of its easily digestible condition. Now this is the 
 state food ought to be in when it is fed to dairy cattle ; not 
 only does it relieve the cattle of a great deal of work in the 
 digesting process, but the result in milk, in cheese, and in 
 butter, will be much more satisfactory. There are various 
 ways of preparing food in winter time — the hay, straw, and 
 the like, together with the roots you grow, and the purchased 
 foods of various kinds — in order to adapt them to the many 
 wants of the animals, to make them more easily digestible, 
 to make them the more assimilable by the animal system. 
 Some years ago a Mr. Jonas, a large farmer in England, con- 
 ceived the idea of irnproving the quality of his straw, or at 
 least of placing it in a better shape as food for cattle, by 
 the simple expedient of chaffing along with the straw 
 something like 5 per cent, of green food, tares, or anything 
 else that was green and succulent, then putting the 
 
THE ENGLISH DAIRY. ■ 167 
 
 chaff, straw and green-stuff down together, along with 
 a little salt. This was found, according to Dr. Voelcker's 
 analysis, to have resulted in a great improvement in the 
 nutritive value of the straw and also in its digestibility, 
 and the smaller proportion there was of undigestible fibre. 
 This all goes to illustrate what I just now said, that the 
 principle of giving to cattle food easily digestible is a 
 most important one in the management of stock. Of 
 course there is nothing superior to good grass, but we can- 
 not have good grass all the year round. In winter time 
 in this climate we have to provide an artificial supply of 
 food for our cattle, and we must do so in the best way we 
 possibly can with reference to our climate. If practice of 
 ensilage should become common, that of course will relieve 
 us of a great deal of difficulty and disappointment in 
 respect to wet seasons, because we can then store our grass 
 in a green succulent condition, containing all its moisture, 
 and use it just when we like in that condition, but some- 
 what altered chemically in other respects. I knew a farmer 
 of Derbyshire, some years ago, who was considered ahead of 
 his day, and he, although the thing was not generally under- 
 stood then, came to the conclusion that it was much better 
 that his cattle should have food given them easily digestible, 
 and instead of giving straw in the ordinary dry condition as 
 it comes from the threshing-machine, he had it put into the 
 open air, and let the rain fall upon it for a few days, or, if 
 there was no rain, he would have water poured upon it, 
 and let it stand and soak. This was found to soften the 
 fibre of the straw, and to make it more assimilable and 
 digestible. The result was his cattle throve upon it much 
 better, and a smaller quantity was required to keep them 
 in a fair condition ; this was given along with other 
 kinds of food which were necessary to supply the qualities 
 in which the straw was deficient. In chafiing various kinds 
 of food along with the straw, pulping roots and mixing 
 these together along with purchased food, corn meal, and so 
 on, let them lie for a time in a moist condition, during which 
 a gentle fermentation sets up. This is a system which 
 
1 68 THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 
 
 increases the digestibility of the food, improves it and 
 makes it more profitable to use. In summer time we 
 cannot improve upon grass ; we may add to it, but we 
 cannot improve upon it. There is nothing equal to grass 
 of good quality, to the fine pasturage which we have in most 
 valleys of England, and on some of the table lands also. But 
 you may add to it by giving the cattle some corn ; and I 
 have found for some time past that linseed cake and also 
 cotton cake given to cattle with grass was a paying thing to 
 do. A certain amount of food of that kind gives vigour to 
 the cows, gives a stimulus to the frame of the animal, 
 supports her under the arduous process of giving milk, and 
 also enables your land to carry a greater stock, and improves 
 the quality of your land. In fact, there is nothing better 
 for good grass land than to consume upon it, with the 
 stock you keep there, various kinds of purchased food, 
 particularly cakes. Land naturally will decrease in quality 
 if you constantly keep feeding cattle upon it, and do not 
 return anything to it beyond the excreta' of the animals. 
 The bulk of the land in this kingdom will do so. There 
 are some fine old pastures, of course, that have been pastures 
 for generations, and have never required any additional 
 help ; but these are few and far between, the bulk of 
 pastures requiring some assistance over and above all that ; 
 and if you wish to improve your grass land, and make it 
 equal to carrying more stock, and to yield you a larger 
 profit, there is no better way of doing it than consuming 
 with your grass linseed and cotton cakes in equal 
 quantities. Decorticated cotton cake I have found to be 
 the best. There are also various kinds of meal, if you 
 think proper, but the cake is perhaps the handiest thing 
 you can use. 
 
 I should be very sorry to see these fine pastures of the 
 British Isles broken up by the plough. I have a great 
 respect for the old pastures we find in parts of England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, for some of the finest grass land in 
 the world is to be found in some parts of Ireland. I have 
 travelled myself over various countries, and over a good 
 
THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 169 
 
 deal of America and Canada, but I have never on the other 
 side of the Atlantic seen a natural pasture or an artificial 
 one which an English farmer would call first class, so that 
 not only we have to be proud of the cattle we have in the 
 British Islands, but also the land which sustains these 
 cattle, of the herbage which grows upon it, and of the 
 general excellence of everything with regard to dairy 
 farming. 
 
 Now in France dairy farming is disconnected a great 
 deal from grass land. My friend, Mr, Jenkins, in his reports 
 in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, has given 
 very graphic descriptions of French dairying which are 
 valuable to us, and he has told us that in some Departments 
 of France the dairy cows scarcely ever go out to the pastures 
 at all. All the lands, or nearly all, are kept under the 
 plough, and various kinds of green crops are regularly 
 grown and carried in to the cattle, and eaten in a yard or 
 croft of some description, but the cattle themselves never 
 go out grazing on the pastures as we so love to see them 
 do in England. Now this question of arable versus grass 
 land dairy farming is a very important one. It is evident 
 that arable farming in England with respect to corn grow- 
 ing is destined to decrease even more than it has already 
 done. The price at which we get wheat from America, 
 from Russia, from India, and other countries too, is such 
 that it is clear that no English farmers can grow corn and 
 pay their way except on the best soils. Indeed, our great 
 dependency in the East a few years ago sent us no appre- 
 ciable quantity of wheat at all, now she is sending us an 
 enormous quantity, and I think it very likely indeed that 
 the effect of India on the wheat-growing farmers of the 
 world will be quite as severely felt in America as it is likely 
 to be in England. On a great many of the soils of 
 America, those almost limitless prairies, any other mode of 
 farming, except growing corn of one kind or another, is out 
 of the question. In England, on the great bulk of our soils, 
 we can turn our attention to something else. Wc have dairy 
 farming, wc have an unfailing demand for milk, for fresh 
 
1 70 THE ENGL ISH DA IR V. 
 
 butter and the like, and the result must be in the future that 
 a great many of our soils which have erstwhile been used 
 for the growth of corn, of oats, wheat, and barley, must be 
 devoted to a greater extent, if not entirely so, to the growth 
 of green crops, roots, and so on, for the maintenance of 
 herds of dairy cattle. This is a thing for which we ought 
 to feel thankful, that a good deal of the soil is capable of 
 being diverted to these other purposes, and I feel sure that 
 in the future we shall find that it will be more and more 
 turned into that channel. I am no advocate, and never 
 have been, of what is known as high farming. It is only fit 
 for men with very long purses, and cannot be held out as 
 an example for the tenant farmers of England ; but if you 
 keep your land stirred about with the plough, and farm it 
 just nicely, that is the thing to do, not to go to extremes 
 either way — there is a happy mean which farmers ought to 
 aim at, which will be productive of more profit by far than 
 either extreme. Farming in this fashion, growing green 
 crops either to be consumed as they are, or to be put into 
 pits to make silage, seems to me to be one of the coming 
 features of English farming on those soils which have 
 been used almost entirely for the growth of corn with an 
 occasional crop of roots. There is no doubt that land kept 
 moving under the plough in this way will produce a much 
 larger weight of food. If you let your land lie in grass, 
 unless it is the very best of land, it will not produce the 
 maximum quantity of food for stock, but if you stir it and 
 keep it moving then it will. But then in the comparison 
 of these two systems of grass land and arable land the 
 question of profit arises ; there is a good deal of expense 
 always attaching to arable cultivation ; you want horses, 
 men, and so on, and the question arises — will the additional 
 yield from the land under those circumstances pay for the 
 additional expense? It seems to pay in France; dairying 
 there in the arable districts is a very profitable and popular 
 business, and if it is suitable to France, I scarcely see any 
 very powerful reason why it should not be equally suitable 
 to England. The chief difficulty to my mind is this, that 
 
THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 171 
 
 the French, I do not say that they are more industrious 
 than the Enghsh, but they seem to me to attend more 
 closely to the small details of their every-day practice, than 
 is the custom with English farmers. We English, and I 
 speak as an Englishman, and probably the same faults 
 exist in me as in my fellow countrymen, are too much in 
 the habit of lumping it together, roughing it so to speak ; 
 we do not seem to take such pride in minute details, in 
 watching the little points connected with our practice. We 
 seem in our farming to prefer getting over a good deal of 
 country in a rather rough-and-ready sort of way, instead of 
 getting over a smaller quantity of it, and doing it very 
 neatly and very nicely. These remarks, of course, do not 
 apply universally, but they apply generally, I believe, so 
 far as my observation is concerned, to English customs as 
 compared with customs in France. 
 
 Another matter in connection with dairy farming, apart 
 from the treatment of the land, is the selection of the 
 breed of cattle. I have a great respect for what is known 
 as pedigree. I like a long ancestry. I think it is a very 
 useful thing in itself, but I do not value it very much 
 unless it is accompanied by achievements. What has been 
 happily termed a " pedigree of achievements " is after all the 
 • most valuable pedigree we can possibly possess. That is 
 what we want in dairy cattle : we want a race of dairy 
 cattle descended from individuals which were famous as 
 milkers. Our shorthorns one hundred years ago, when they 
 first began to be famous under the hands of the brothers 
 Collings, Bates, Booth and all those men, were known to be 
 excellent milkers ; but during the last fifty years they have 
 fallen away a good deal from this reputation, that is, some 
 families of our pedigree shorthorns have. Milking properties 
 in a cow, as you will easily understand, are natural pro- 
 perties artificially developed. In a state of nature a cow 
 would only give sufficient milk to rear her own offspring, 
 but in a state of domestication, where cows are hand milked, 
 and have been for generations, the production of milk in 
 much larger quantities than is required for the rearing of 
 
1 7 2 THE ENGLISH DA IR V. 
 
 their own offspring is attainable, and becomes hereditary. 
 Now in the finest pedigree cattle we have in these islands 
 the most delightful to look upon, which are worth thousands 
 of guineas perhaps, the question of the quantity of milk 
 has been considered of very second-rate importance, and 
 has been left out in the cold a good deal, and the result 
 has been that these animals have fallen off in the quantity 
 of milk they give until it has become quite hereditary with 
 them to be unable to support their own offspring. That is 
 what I should call pedigree apart from achievements. On 
 the other hand, we have pedigree shorthorns which are still 
 excellent milkers, and I say we ought to attend to this 
 point, particularly in our dairy cattle. 
 
 Again, having considered the question of land and of cattle, 
 we come to the question of the treatment of milk. Milk 
 is a very delicate susceptible fluid, and requires to be treated 
 in an intelligent sort of way. I have often noticed people 
 milking cows in various parts of England with dirty hands, 
 which is a most abominable practice. I consider that the 
 udders of cows ought to be cleaned, if necessary, before 
 they are milked, and it is the duty of the master to see 
 that the people who milk his cows have clean hands before 
 they go to work. It is no use attempting to make cheese 
 or butter from milk that is dirty to begin with, and a great 
 deal of milk is unfortunately dirty from the causes I have 
 mentioned. Then as to the question of the grooming of 
 cows, I should say that cleanliness is a capital thing. I am 
 glad to find that the consumption of milk is increasing very 
 rapidly in England. For many years past it has been the 
 sheet anchor of English dairy farmers, and is likely in the 
 future to be even more so. I hope it will continue going 
 on, because, as I said before, milk is an extremely valuable 
 article of food, and British dairy farmers would be very 
 much obliged to you if you required an additional supply 
 of it at their hands. From some foreign countries we can 
 get cheese much cheaper than we can afford to make it in 
 England. America can send us vast quantities of cheese, 
 and also butter, and we can get cheese from various 
 
THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 173 
 
 countries on the continent of Europe, and from Canada, 
 cheaper than we can afford to make it here, and therefore 
 the milk trade is the thing that ought to be cultivated. In 
 order to do this it is necessary that the Adulteration Act 
 should be very strictly enforced, and people found adul- 
 terating milk with water, or anything which is less innocent 
 than water, ought to be very severely proceeded against by 
 the authorities. I am sure that if the public can depend 
 on getting a genuine article in milk, they would consume 
 more and more of it. Milk is so delicious, so generally 
 excellent a thing in itself, that people only require to be 
 able to get it pure to take an almost unlimited quantity 
 of it. 
 
 With regard to cheese making, a question has been 
 mooted, first of all I believe by my friend Mr. Jenkins, 
 whether English farmers might not profitably go in more 
 than they have yet attempted to do for making what are 
 known as soft cheeses, which are so common on the conti- 
 nent. English cheese is known under the distinctive term 
 of hard cheese, that is, cheese which is hard on the outside 
 and which will keep for a considerable period. English 
 cheeses as made on the old-fashioned principles, when 
 made properly, are seldom fit to eat until they are twelve 
 months old. I have a cheese in my house at present, made 
 in June last year, and I do not intend to cut it for some 
 time to come, because it is not yet ripe. That is hard 
 cheese, but soft cheese, which is so common on the con- 
 tinent, is made for early consumption. It sells as a rule at 
 higher prices than ours, and there is a larger product of it 
 from a given quantity of milk, so that if our farmers should 
 go in for making it, and there is a sufficient demand, no doubt 
 greater profit would be the result. But after all the taste 
 of the English cheese consumer is not at present sufficiently 
 educated to require a very large quantity of this cheese. 
 The question then of going on making hard cheese in 
 England, or making soft cheese, is one which well merits 
 attentive consideration at the hands of our dairy farmers, 
 and I think to some extent we may with advantage go in 
 
174 THE mA*uLISH DAIRY. 
 
 for it, I am able to say here that already, in fact for some 
 years past, that famous cheese known as Gorgonzola, which 
 is an Italian cheese, and which, in my opinion, stands next 
 to our own Stilton — which is the finest cheese in the world 
 — has been made with considerable success in Leicester- 
 shire. I have tasted it, and it is equal to the best 
 Gorgonzola I ever tasted made in Italy, and if this can be 
 made in England, surely French and Swiss cheeses are 
 capable of being made, and they will, no doubt, if the public 
 demand these cheeses, but until the demand is greater than 
 it is at present I think it is, perhaps, not advisable that we 
 should go in extensively for them. 
 
 There are two things to which I wish to allude for a 
 moment or two, and then I have done — things against 
 which dairy farmers have to contend. In the first place 
 there are adulterated or imitation dairy goods, such as 
 butterine, a great deal of which, I am sorry to say, is sold 
 by dealers, who possess a very easy sort of virtue, for 
 genuine butter. This sort of thing ought not to be allowed ; 
 I do not say for a moment that butterine ought not to be 
 manufactured and sold as extensively as the public require, 
 but I do mean to say that whenever a spurious article 
 representing the genuine article, representing also an article 
 so famous and excellent, which is in such demand, is 
 made it ought to be sold under the name which properly 
 designates it. There is no dairy farmer ready to find fault 
 with people who make butterine, but he is ready to find 
 fault with people who sell butterine for butter. It seems 
 somewhat curious that these spurious articles should have 
 had their origin in America, a country so remarkable for 
 its magnificent natural capabilities that one would think 
 they need not make anything by way of imitation ; but this 
 butterine, I believe, had its origin — certainly oleo-margarine 
 cheese had its origin — in America. The Americans are 
 not content with having the superabundance Nature has 
 given to them, but seem to delight in deceiving their fellow 
 creatures. We have heard of wooden nutmegs and also 
 artificial eggs. It seems a strange thing to make artificial 
 
THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 175 
 
 eggs, but they do that in America. Surely one would have 
 thought they could grow corn enough and rear hens enough 
 to produce natural eggs, without making artificial ones ; but 
 in America those spurious dairy goods are made, and I am 
 sorry to say that in England they are sold to a very great 
 extent In Holland there is a great deal of butterine made 
 by those people, who are so wonderfully clean, and so famous 
 for neatness and order. If making butterine extensively 
 and sending it over as butter is the result of systematic 
 cleanliness, I should rather prefer a little honest dirt. 
 
 Another thing the dairy farmer has to contend against 
 is disease from foreign countries. This is a very serious 
 drawback to dairy farmers, and I question whether it is 
 sufficiently realised ; at all events, where it happens it is 
 more serious than are the wet seasons we have been going 
 through of late years. There has been a great deal of con- 
 troversy between the town and the country with respect to 
 this disease question. In some places it is said the country 
 want to go in for protection, and want to stop cattle coming 
 in from the diseased countries in order to keep up the price. 
 They do not wish to stop cattle coming over to England ; 
 what they wish to stop is the disease coming with these 
 cattle. Mr, James Howard, Member of Parliament for Bed- 
 fordshire, a man who has been of great service indeed to 
 British farmers in various ways, stated some time ago, as 
 the result of a very careful investigation, that the diseases 
 which we had imported from abroad had destroyed of our 
 own flocks and herds a larger amount of flesh than we 
 imported. This seems to me a very suicidal practice to 
 follow, that we should allow cattle to come from foreign 
 countries where they will not take the pains to stamp out 
 these diseases, and bring with them the disease to invade 
 our own flocks and herds. Keep out the disease ; let the 
 cattle come in if they will, but keep out the disease. Wc 
 farmers are not anxious at all that foreign cattle should be 
 kept out of the country, but what wc want is to get the 
 cattle unaccompanied by disease. 
 
176 THE ENGLISH DAIRY. 
 
 The Chairman, in proposing a vote of thanks to Pro- 
 fessor Sheldon for his lecture, said he believed there was 
 a very wide field opening in the future to English dairy 
 farmers, not by way of substituting for their present prac- 
 tice that of foreign countries, but of engrafting some of 
 those foreign practices on their own, as they found there was 
 a market for those foreign products. He quite agreed with 
 what Professor Sheldon said, and he would only add that 
 to enable English farmers to make the best of their pastures 
 and our wonderful breeds of cows, it was necessary that 
 foreign diseases should be kept out, and agreed with him 
 that, perhaps with some very small exceptions, British 
 pastures could not be matched in the world, and certainly 
 our breeds of cattle could not be found anywhere else ; but 
 to make the most of the advantages given us by Nature 
 and improved by art, farmers must be better instructed 
 themselves, and must instruct those they employed better 
 in the future than they had done in the past. Such an 
 Exhibition, in which education was engrafted upon the 
 subject of health, ought to convey a lesson to all that 
 education must be looked to by Englishmen to enable 
 them to do better than they had hitherto been enabled to 
 do, especially in the face of growing foreign competition. 
 
 Mr. A. J. R. Trendell then proposed a vote of thanks 
 to the Chairman, thanking him in the name of the 
 Executive Council for so readily taking the chair at a 
 moment's notice, in the unavoidable absence of Lord 
 Aberdeen, and for the eminently practical remiarks with 
 which he had favoured the audience. This was carried 
 unanimously, and the proceedings terminated. 
 
THE DANISH DAIRY 
 
 BY 
 
 ALEXANDER MARIBOE 
 
 VOL. VI.— IL L. N 
 
July 26th, 1884. 
 
 A LECTURE ON THE DANISH DAIRY. 
 By Alexander Mariboe. 
 
 His Excellency M. de Falbe (Danish Minister) in the 
 
 chair. 
 
 The Chairman said he had much pleasure in introducing 
 Mr. Mariboe, who proposed to give a lecture on the Dairy of 
 Denmark, and he thought this subject had some claim to 
 attention, partly because of the efforts which had been 
 made for improving dairy management, which were 
 supported by the Government, a great deal of money having 
 been devoted to experiments of various kinds, so as to 
 determine the best mode of producing dairy products, and 
 it was thought that good results had been produced which 
 must have been of value, not only there, but wherever 
 similar manufactures were carried on. 
 
 LECTURE. 
 
 Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, — It is at the 
 suggestion of an eminent authority on dairy matters, and 
 a partner in the London and Provincial Dairy Company, 
 (Mr. J. I. Watts), that I have the honour of addressing 
 you on the subject of the Danish Dairy. But before com- 
 mencing, I must crave your indulgence, not only for having 
 
 n 2 
 
i8o THE DANISH DAIRY. 
 
 to read my paper, but for what errors in your language I may 
 
 be guilty of making. 
 
 I propose to give you a short summary of the principles 
 
 and methods adopted in our country in the management 
 
 of milk and butter. 
 
 Our first attention is directed to the cow, the source and 
 
 fountain to which we look for a rich and bountiful supply 
 
 of milk, and one which is not likely to fail or disappoint 
 
 us under judicious care and treatment. 
 
 In selecting cows for dairy purposes, it is not so much a 
 
 matter of importance to fix on any particular breed, as to 
 
 be careful that the individual animals chosen are in a 
 
 vigorous, sound and thriving condition. There is often the 
 greatest difference in the yield of milk given by different 
 cows of the same breed. Although subjected to the same 
 treatment and diet, some of the animals will yield as much 
 as 600 gallons per annum, whilst others will not give more 
 than 300 gallons. A dairy farmer should therefore under- 
 stand first of all, how to choose animals best suited for his 
 purposes, and this done, the rest remains in his own hands. 
 The exact result of each cow's yield is easily ascertained, 
 by " trial-milking," on a certain day once a week the whole 
 year round, and every dairyfarm in Denmark is provided 
 with a book in which not only the yield is marked down 
 but each cow is allotted a separate column, and its age, 
 breed and pedigree entered, and the daily yield from the 
 whole of the stock is also marked down, but by itself in a 
 separate book. 
 
 Now, let it be remembered, the actual quantity of milk 
 yielded by a cow is no absolute criterion of its value as a 
 butter-yielder. The experiment of churning each cow's 
 milk in a separate churn, has shown that cows which give 
 a small yield in quantity of milk, often produce a larger 
 proportion of butter than the copious milkers. 
 
 In Denmark there are three principal breeds. First, the 
 Angel cow. She derives her name from Angeln — a part 
 of Schleswig, and is considered the best Tnilck cow. Her 
 colour is red, without markings, and when pure bred, she 
 
THE DANISH DAIRY. i8i 
 
 is conspicuously well formed for milking purposes. By- 
 intelligent care and better selected food, these animals have, 
 through a series of generations, been brought to yield the 
 maximum quantity of milk, whilst their physical develop- 
 ment has likewise been improved. 
 
 Second, the Funen cow, so called after one of our islands. 
 She is also red, sometimes marked, and appears to be a 
 descendant of the Angel breed. She also is considered an 
 excellent milker. 
 
 Third, the Jutland cow takes her name from the 
 northern part of our peninsula. In colour she is black and 
 white or dun and white. In shape and size she resembles 
 the Angel cow, but is not so good a milker as the latter. 
 She is to be found principally in the north-west part of 
 Jutland, the climate and fodder of which she is better 
 adapted to stand than the Angel cow. 
 
 It is often difficult to find a stock of perfectly vigorous 
 and good milking animals, and as a rule it takes as much as 
 four or five years (and sometimes even longer) to bring 
 a stock of well selected Angel cows into good working order. 
 
 Now if we want our cows to treat us well, we must 
 begin by doing the same to them. We all know how much 
 a clean and comfortable and airy house, together with plenty 
 of good and palatable victuals, contribute to our well- 
 being and happiness, and in this respect we are in no way 
 different from our friends the cows. In order that our 
 cows may prosper, it is not only absolutely necessary that 
 they should be kept clean in themselves, and well fed with 
 a fodder specially selected with a view to producing the 
 richest and best milk, but due regard must be paid to the 
 warmth, and light, and ventilation of the buildings in which 
 the cows are kept, and the importance of those cannot be 
 too strongly emphasized. Moreover, everything should be 
 so arranged in the byre, as to enable the herdsmen to do 
 the necessary feeding, watering and cleansing with the 
 minimum of labour, and the maximum of good result. All 
 the new byres in Denmark arc built on these prin- 
 ciples, and many of them on a thorough and costly scale. 
 
1 82 THE DANISH DAIRY. 
 
 Particular attention is paid to temperature and ventilation, 
 and every byre is provided with several thermometers, and 
 the temperature regulated within certain unvarying degrees, 
 by means of ventilators arranged overhead as a precaution 
 against draughts. A special care and knowledge in the 
 management of the ventilation and the regulation of the 
 temperature is necessary if we wish to preserve a good coat 
 on the animals, and this is of great importance in the 
 spring when they are first put out to grass and exposed 
 to chills. Against these, we also use the precaution of pro- 
 viding the cows with blankets, similar to horsecloths, which 
 are strapped over them during the first weeks in spring 
 when they are sent out to pastures during the day. 
 
 In order to produce milk and butter of the finest quality, 
 the following are the most important matters to be considered. 
 
 Firstly^ care as to the purity of the drinking water, and 
 in the selection of fodder according to our experience and 
 knowledge of its influence on the quantity and quality of 
 the milk and butter. 
 
 Secondly, scrupulous cleanliness throughout in the 
 management of the byre and of the dairy products. 
 
 TJiirdly, skill and care in the manipulation of the milk 
 and butter. 
 
 Too much attention cannot be paid to the purity of the 
 drinking water. It is unnecessary for me to enlarge on the 
 danger — and alas ! the frequency — of wells from which cows 
 are allowed to drink being poisoned by contact with drains, 
 by stagnation and otherwise — a danger not affecting the cows 
 only, but one most likely to spread epidemics amongst the 
 consumers of their milk. I must also remind you of a minor 
 danger connected with impure drinking water ; namely, that 
 it is apt to affect the flavour of the milk. I myself know 
 an instance of a farmer who, in spite of every care and 
 precaution lavished on his dairy, never could succeed in 
 producing butter up to the standard at which every dairy- 
 man ought to aim. He searched in vain for the cause of 
 this failure until by chance, the drains on his farm happen- 
 ing to want repair, the source of the evil was discovered. 
 
THE DANISH DAIRY. 183 
 
 A decomposed rabbit was found in the pipe through which 
 the water flowed that the cows were in the habit of drinking. 
 This had communicated the pecuHar flavour to the milk, 
 which had damaged the butter, although it did not visibly 
 affect the health of the cows. Therefore, before passing on 
 to the next point, let me again insist on the great importance 
 of strict attention to the freshness and purity of the drinking 
 water used on dairy farms. 
 
 With regard to the selection of fodder, a scientific 
 knowledge of the proper proportions of fatty and fari- 
 naceous qualities of the food should be and on our large 
 Danish estates is brought to bear on the matter. Too 
 large a percentage of fatty matter yields a butter of so 
 greasy a nature that it is impossible to handle it properly ; 
 on the other hand, too large a percentage of farinaceous 
 food yields a butter too dry and brittle. In our dairies a 
 strict diet is apportioned on these principles and admin- 
 istered in such a way that the animals' appetite is stimulated, 
 whilst their ruminating and digestive organs are given the 
 exact and necessary time for work and rest, which is so 
 very important to a proper assimilation of their food, and 
 which varies according to the different nature and quality 
 of the particular fodder used in different parts. 
 
 I refrain from entering here into a detailed account of 
 these points and of the special mixtures of fodder used ; it 
 would carry this paper beyond its prescribed limits. Suffice 
 it to say that on our large farms the herdsman commences 
 operations somewhere about five in the morning. The 
 cows are milked, the fodder weighed out in its various 
 proportions and carried in bags to the byre, the watering 
 attended to, the cows and the stalls cleaned and the animals 
 left in quiet and peace for the requisite time until the hour 
 comes round again when operations have to be recommenced 
 and wound up for the day, generally at about six or seven 
 o'clock. 
 
 With regard to the feeding of the cattle in summer, 
 opinions differ. A great deal has been said and written in 
 favour of keeping the cows in the byre all the year round. 
 
1 84 THE DANISH DAIRY. 
 
 Many farmers adopt this plan on account of the saving of 
 manure, but they forget that whilst they are gaining in tJiat 
 way, they are, by keeping the cows close — getting an 
 inferior product of milk and butter ; for even in the most 
 perfectly organised byres the air and smell during the 
 summer season is certain to exercise an injurious influence 
 on the milk. After close observation and varied experience, 
 my opinion is, that it is of infinite advantage to the cows 
 that they should be sent out to the pastures in summer. 
 The fresh air and the living grass are necessary for them 
 and cannot be supplied with the same results in the byre, 
 even when fed with green fodder. 
 
 We have two ways of treating cows on pasture in the 
 summer, either by letting them free in the field, or by 
 having them tethered. There are also differences of 
 opinion on this subject, and after many discussions, in which 
 much has been said for and against both methods, I believe 
 it is a point which must be judged of and decided accord- 
 ing to circumstances, and in our country, especially in 
 regard to large stocks, the former method, in spite of many 
 advantages, is not usually adopted. 
 
 With a small herd (say from eight to ten cows) together 
 in a fenced field, where they have plenty to eat and drink, 
 it will be only necessary to keep an eye on them now and 
 then, because when the cows know each other (and they 
 quickly make friends) they will be very quiet, and will not 
 want even to overstep the boundary of their field, but 
 content themselves within its limits for their grass. But in 
 the case of a large drove of perhaps 80 or 100 or more 
 head, it is a different matter. They must then be watched 
 by a herdsman, who generally requires the assistance of a 
 dog besides. The presence of this latter often has a dis- 
 turbing influence on the cows, which is bad for them ; 
 moreover, in these large herds some of the members are 
 almost sure to be ringleaders of mischief, and to tempt 
 their companions astray ; and just as one naughty school- 
 boy in a class is sometimes enough to disturb and distract 
 the other would-be obedient and industrious scholars, so 
 
THE DANISH DAIRY. 185 
 
 even one refractory cow in a herd is liable to cause so much 
 disturbance amongst the others, as to prevent their getting 
 or taking their food and rest, as they ought to do, and when 
 the milk-maids come to milk them at morning and 
 evening, they have often great difficulty in driving them to 
 a corner, and in keeping them quiet for the time. Besides 
 that, these influences render the milk-maid's work more 
 difficult ; the cows being driven to milking necessitates the 
 trampling down of a great deal of good grass, which is an 
 important point to be remembered, and our principal 
 reason why we prefer to tether the cows ; for it is a well 
 known fact that unless the grass is quite fresh and un- 
 trodden the cows will not eat it with the same relish. 
 
 We have two ways of tethering the cows. Either a 
 tether of ten yards long may be used, in which case a cow 
 gets more quickly over the field to be brought back again 
 to where she first commenced ; or a tether of five or six 
 yards long may be used, and each time the cow is moved she 
 is given the radius of fresh grass which is necessary for her 
 until the next time of moving. By this latter plan, it takes 
 a longer time before the cow has to be brought back to the 
 same part of the field at which she commenced, and the 
 grass has thus a better chance of being fresh and nice. Old 
 and tall grass is not good for the animals. With either of 
 the foregoing systems the cows have to be moved six or 
 seven times a day. 
 
 Our mode of watering the cows is to carry the water to 
 the field in a water cart with two wheels, and the cows are 
 given to drink either out of a pail or from a small trough 
 on wheels, which is drawn behind the cart. By driving 
 between the rows two or three cows can drink at once. A 
 good man with one horse should be able to water 100 cows 
 twice in a day. 
 
 I have now tried to give you an outline of the treatment 
 of our cows on dairy farms in Denmark. I shall now 
 proceed to describe the milking system. As I have already 
 urged, the utmost care must be had with regard to clean- 
 ness in all the milking arrangements, without which all 
 
1 86 THE DANISH DAIRY. 
 
 our other work in connection with butter making is more 
 or less in vain. 
 
 In the first place the cows' udders are carefully and 
 gently washed — in winter with tepid water — and the milk- 
 maid's hands carefully washed and dried, after every second 
 cow she milks. When the milk is poured from the milk- 
 maid's pail into the large milk cans, used for transporting 
 it to the dairy, it is passed through a special kind of fine 
 sieve or strainer, which prevents the finest hair or grit from 
 getting into the milk. As soon as one of these cans is full 
 it is carried away to the dairy, where, after it has been 
 weighed or measured, it is put into milk pans or coolers, 
 according to the different systems used for creaming. We 
 make it a point to carry away the large milk cans from the 
 byre or field as soon as they are full, for in the byre the 
 milk is apt to become tasted from the smell of the air, and 
 in the field we wish to protect it from the heat of the sun, 
 for which purpose our waggons used for conveying it to 
 the dairy are during the summer covered with canvas 
 awnings. 
 
 As a rule, on our large farms we have an overseer to 
 superintend the milking and the maids. His duty is to see 
 that the latter pay the necessary attention to the washing 
 of the cows' udders and their own hands during the whole 
 process, and to be careful that the very last drop of milk is 
 drained from each cow's udder, for not only is that the 
 richest of the milk, but otherwise the udder is likely to get 
 into an unhealthy condition. If it should happen, from 
 such neglect, that a cow's udder should become affected, 
 great care must be taken not to mix its milk with the milk 
 from sound udders. Care should also be taken not to mix 
 or use for any dairy purpose the biestings (or first milk 
 from the cows after calving) which, in my opinion, is good 
 and necessary for, and should always be given to the calves 
 themselves. 
 
 Before bidding good-bye to our milk-maids, let me 
 remind you of one of the special duties which we call upon 
 her to perform in a most thorough manner, namely, the 
 
THE DANISH DAIRY. 187 
 
 daily scouring of her pails and milk cans. This must be 
 done with boiling water and soda and with plenty of cold, 
 clean water to rinse them before setting to dry for the 
 morrow's use, so that her pails, as sJie herself, may be a 
 type of all that is wholesome and fresh. 
 
 Now it is well known that Denmark takes the lead as 
 an authority on dairy matters. They are the principal 
 resource of our country, and with the help of our largely 
 increased grants from Government, for purposes of scientific 
 experiments, and investigations of the various systems, 
 carried out by different practical men on the largest estates 
 in the different parts of the country, our dairies have 
 attained to a wonderful degree of perfection. 
 
 You will gain some idea of our advance and increase in 
 these matters when I tell you that our first grant from 
 Government, which was given in 1876, amounted to ^100. 
 Since then it has been continued annually, and in 1880 
 amounted to no less than iJ'iaoo. This amount, for our 
 little country a large sum, has been used for scientific 
 investigations and experiments on dairy systems. The 
 first impulse given to these came from one of our most 
 energetic landed proprietors, who, at that time, was president 
 of the Royal Agricultural Society, and took a great and 
 intelligent interest in dairy matters. 
 
 The first experiments were commenced about the year 
 1875, and were directed to ascertaining the best methods of 
 getting and using ice or snow for dairy purposes, and of 
 erecting ice-houses on the best principles for its preservation 
 during the warmest season. Later on, these experiments 
 led to a series of valuable results, not only as to the best 
 methods of setting up the milk, but also as to the varying 
 qualities of the milk at different seasons of the year. 
 Formerly, the usual mode of setting up the milk had been 
 after the Holstein system, in wooden bowls about eight 
 inches high. These were set on the brick or cemented 
 floors of the milk cellars and allowed to stand from 
 24 to 36 hours before being skimmed. It was by that 
 time more or less sour, according to the weather, and this 
 
1 88 THE DANISH DAIRY. 
 
 condition was detrimental to the keeping quality of the 
 butter to be made from it. 
 
 The important points to be discovered therefore, were 
 how to keep the milk fresh and also to enable the cream to 
 rise in the shortest time. For this purpose the next 
 system tried was that of coolers ; and this plan was adopted 
 from Sweden and called the Schwartz method, after the 
 inventor. It consisted in having the floors of the milk 
 cellars arranged with a series of trenches. These were 
 about three feet in breadth by two and a-half feet in depth, 
 and ran from one end of the cellar to the other at distances 
 of about three feet from each other, and with a margin at 
 the ends and sides (of course) for walking round. They 
 were made (like the cellar floor) of brick and cemented, and 
 a flow of fresh cold water was led into them, which escaped 
 at the other side and was kept at a certain level by means 
 of waste holes along the sides. Into this running water 
 the tin milk coolers were placed. This plan was a decided 
 improvement on the old system of wooden bowls, but yet 
 a further improvement was soon to be applied, and it was 
 found that the use of ice round the coolers gave not only a 
 larger quantity of butter but likewise improved it in quality. 
 Wooden boxes, lined with tin, are now recommended in 
 preference to the brick trenches as causing less melting of 
 the ice. 
 
 I have only now to mention the latest and best invention 
 of all : namely the separators, by means of which almost 
 every particle of cream is separated from the milk imme- 
 diately it comes from the cow. 
 
 With all these different systems to choose from it becomes 
 a matter for the dairyman to know which is the best and 
 most profitable from every point of view. It is a well- 
 known fact that milk is a fluid which varies in quality and 
 behaviour under varying seasons and circumstances, and 
 this being so, experiments have shown that it is often 
 advisable to adopt different systems of setting and cooling 
 the milk according to the season of the year. 
 
 As I have already mentioned, it is of great importance to 
 
THE DANISH DAIRY. 189 
 
 have the milk set in the dairies as quickly as possible ; for, 
 besides that it ought to be removed at once from the smell 
 of the byre, or from exposure to the sun in the iield, it is 
 necessary, in order to get the best rise of cream, that the 
 milk should be set to cool whilst it is as nearly as possible 
 the temperature at which it is taken from the cow ; namely, 
 104° Fahrenheit. 
 
 Care must also be used in setting the milk in the cellars, 
 to have the windows always open during the first two 
 hours, so that the vapour rising from the milk may be 
 carried off. 
 
 When the system is used, of setting the milk in coolers 
 plunged in fine crushed ice, the most profitable size of 
 coolers to use are those which contain about 30 lbs. of milk. 
 These are provided at the bottom with a rim of iron, three 
 or four inches deep, so that the ice gets at the whole of the 
 under-surface of the coolers as well as round the sides, and 
 the milk is thus cooled very rapidly. Indeed, this system 
 is called " rapid ice cooling''^ for within two hours the milk 
 is cooled down from 90° to 50°. Now after the milk has 
 been set in this way for from 8 to 10 hours, our plan is to 
 skim the top of the cream, which by that time has risen, and 
 which may be literally described as " the creain of cream" 
 This is churned by itself, not only because it takes a shorter 
 time to churn than when mixed with the thinner cream, 
 but because it gives the very finest "extra quality" of 
 keeping butter. 
 
 After this first skimming, the milk is allowed to stand 
 
 for 10 or 12 hours longer, when it is skimmed a second 
 
 . time and the cream used for a separate churning. What 
 
 cream still remains on the milk is used with advantage for 
 
 the cheese. 
 
 Now, before entering into the subject of separators, I 
 must say a word about the milk itself, and try to explain, 
 as shortly as possible, something of the differing qualities 
 and conditions of milk under varying circumstances and at 
 various seasons. 
 
 First, then, we have the " normal milk','' by which I mean 
 
igo THE DANISH DAIRY. 
 
 milk in its best or ordinary condition, in which state the 
 cream will rise freely and completely in from lo to 34 
 hours, according to the system used. 
 
 Next, we have milk we call " heavy" because the cream 
 in this case rises very sluggishly and imperfectly, so im- 
 perfectly indeed, that when it is in this state it is advisable 
 always to use separators for extracting the cream, or where 
 that may not be possible, the old system of wooden bowls 
 will be found the best. Milk may become " heavy " from 
 two causes : first, from the condition of the cow, after it has 
 been in milk for from five to six months : secondly, from 
 too long a time having been allowed to elapse between the 
 milking and the setting to cool. The cream seems then to 
 become fixed in the milk and refuses to rise freely, unless 
 it be again warmed up to its normal temperature (104°) 
 before being set to cool in ice or otherwise. It is easy to 
 know when the milk is heavy from either of these causes, 
 by the absence of any sharply defined limit between the 
 milk and the cream after it had stood. Moreover, the 
 cream will be poor and the skimmed milk richer-looking 
 than usual. 
 
 The difference between the yield of butter from " norma/ 
 milk " set in ice from 10 to 34 hours, and " heavy milk " 
 treated in the same way, will be from 10 to 15 per cent., 
 and sometimes even more. 
 
 Well, to return to our separators ! A centrifugal 
 skimming machine or separator, consists of a cylindrical 
 pan (revolving on its own axis), driven at a high speed. 
 This pan, which is enclosed in a cast-iron cylinder as a 
 protector, is partially covered on the top, and has one large 
 central hole, or several small ones, through which the milk 
 is poured, and the skim milk and cream drawn off at a 
 different part. When filled with milk this pan is driven at 
 a rate of from i,coo to 2,000, and in the case of De Laval's 
 machine, 6,000 revolutions per minute. By the centrifugal 
 force the milk is thrown from the centre against the sides, 
 so that it stands like a perpendicular wall of milk inside 
 the pan. The skim milk, as being the heavier fluid, is 
 
THE DANISH DAIRY. 191 
 
 thrown to the farthest side ; the cream keeps to the inner 
 side. The best separators, and those most universally 
 adopted in Denmark, are those invented by Nielsen and 
 Petersen, De Lavals and Lefeldts, and all working on the 
 same principle. By keeping a constant supply of milk 
 flowing into the separator, and at the same time drawing 
 off the skimmed milk and cream in their due proportions, 
 the machine is kept continuously working. 
 
 In Denmark, ice is now acknowledged as a sine qua 
 11071 for cooling milk, and even with our separators the 
 use of ice for cooling off the cream is found necessary. 
 
 And now, finally, we come to the actual making of the 
 butter. There are two different kinds of butter produced 
 in Denmark ; the ^^ sweet cream butter'''' and the ^^ sour cream 
 butter." The former is specially made and packed in tins 
 for export to the tropics. The latter is generally packed 
 in wooden casks, and is principally exported to this 
 country ; though within the last six or seven years it has also 
 been packed in tins and exported on a large scale to all 
 parts of the world. The nature of the "sweet cream butter" 
 explains itself from its name ; the cream from which it is 
 made being preserved in its original sweetness by the 
 different methods which I have been trying to describe to 
 you. 
 
 The " sour cream butter " is either made from cream which 
 has been soured naturally by standing for a lengthened 
 time on the milk, or artificially by being first cooled off 
 and then warmed up to a certain degree, when it is poured 
 into a barrel lined with tin, and covered outside with matting 
 stuffed with seaweed for the purpose of maintaining an 
 equal temperature. It takes from 12 to 15 hours to sour 
 cream in this way, and the butter made from it is the very 
 best that can be produced for keeping. 
 
 The churns generally used in Denmark are made of oak, 
 shaped round and broadening towards the bottom. The 
 cover is provided with a hole for the thermometer, and the 
 speed is regulated according to the size. The smaller the 
 churn, the greater the speed required. Great regularity of 
 
192 THE DANISH DAIRY. 
 
 speed is also requisite, and on all our largest estates steam 
 is now more generally used than horse-power. 
 
 The temperature of the cream for churning must also 
 be strictly regulated within certain degrees. The cream 
 therefore, according to the different kind of butter to be 
 made, must be either heated up or cooled off and the churn 
 well rinsed with water, cold or tepid, according to the 
 season and the temperature of the air. With due attention 
 to these points, the butter should be formed in the churn 
 in from 25 to 35 minutes. 
 
 Sometimes it will be found necessary to colour the 
 butter, especially during winter, when the cows are fed 
 with artificial fodder. The quantity of colouring matter to 
 be used depends of course on the richness of the cream : 
 but, as a rule, about \ an ounce of butter-colouring to 
 40 lbs., of cream, will be found a good proportion during 
 the winter season when the cream is pale. The colouring 
 must be put into the churn along with the cream, so that 
 it may become thoroughly worked into it. 
 
 It is also a point of importance to know exactly the 
 right moment at which the butter is ready, and the churn 
 to be stopped, and this we do when we find the butter-milk 
 to be clear and the butter formed into small globules about 
 the size of a pin's head. If the working of the churn should 
 be continued after this stage, the result will be that the best 
 particles of the butter will get mixed with the butter-milk 
 and become more or less impossible to handle. 
 
 The butter, then, being properly ready, is caught in a 
 fine haircloth sieve, and when the surplus butter-milk is 
 drained off, the butter is taken up and carefully kneeded 
 with the hand in order to squeeze out the remainder of the 
 butter-milk. These pieces are then placed in the bottom 
 of a trough and salt worked into them, after which they 
 are taken from the trough and placed on spars fitted into a 
 wooden box, which is covered with a tin cover, on the top 
 of which ice is put in the summer, for the purpose of 
 firming the butter. After remaining here for from one to 
 two hours, it is put into the butter worker or kneading 
 
THE DANISH DAIRY. 193 
 
 machine, and subjected to the final process before being 
 packed into the casks ready for the market. 
 
 And now Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, having 
 finished our tour round the farm, and through the dairy, 
 and having made a somewhat minute inspection of all the 
 working details thereof, from the chewing of the cud 
 onward to the branding of the butter casks, I have now 
 only to thank you for the patience with which you have 
 accompanied me thus far, and to recommend you to test 
 for yourselves the efficiency of our dairy systems by the 
 excellence of their produce. 
 
 The Chairman in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. 
 Mariboe, said he was not sufficiently learned in these' 
 matters to enter very much into details, but he had not 
 seen several of the things mentioned by Mr. Mariboe in 
 use in this country, and probably they might be introduced 
 with advantage ; at any rate it was perfectly clear that if 
 the people of Denmark had attained a considerable degree 
 of excellence in their dairy products, it was to a great 
 extent because they worked on principle, and were ready 
 to adopt the results of science as bearing on their particular 
 industry. 
 
 Mr. Watts moved a vote of thanks to the Chairman 
 which concluded the proceedings. 
 
 VOL. VI. — H. L. 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT 
 
 BY 
 
 Miss SMITHARD. 
 
 VOL. VI. — II. L. 02 
 
June i2th, 1884. 
 
 A LECTURE ON DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 By Miss Smithard. 
 
 Lord Reay took the chair, and briefly introduced Miss 
 Smithard. 
 
 My Lord, Ladies and Gentlemen, I have been requested 
 by the Committee of this Exhibition to give you a demon- 
 stration of making butter, with a few hints on the manage- 
 ment of a dairy. I shall not commence with the feeding of 
 cows and attending to them in the cow-house, though I 
 once heard a very clever lecture given on cookery by Mr. 
 Buckmaster, who said that cookery did not commence in 
 the kitchen with the food, but that it commenced in the 
 scullery with the pots and pans ; and so I might say dairy 
 work does not exactly commence in the dairy with the 
 pans of milk and cream, it commences in the cow-house, 
 with the cows, and the way in which they are fed. We 
 will assume that the cows have been properly attended to, 
 good food given them, and proper and clean water above 
 all things ; which a great many of you know better how 
 to enter into than I can tell you. I shall commence with 
 the dairy. Now I have found, very much to my surprise, 
 that many dairies in England, and especially in the North 
 where they profess to be such good dairy people instead 
 of being built in the best part of the farm, have been 
 built in the very worst. I could relate to you instances of 
 
198 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 farms where they are built with a simple brick wall 
 between the dairy and the piggeries. Now you all know 
 that nothing taints so soon as milk or cream, and that bad 
 drains should be kept away from a dairy or milk house. 
 A dairy should be thoroughly well ventilated ; and many 
 farmers' wives have an idea that it should always be kept 
 wet ; but it should always be perfectly dry. 
 
 I will tell you why it should not be wet. You know 
 that all water, however pure it may be, becomes stagnant 
 in time, and if the dairy floor is wet, and the wet or moisture 
 gets into the chinks it becomes in a very little time con- 
 taminated, and that contaminates the milk and cream. You 
 cannot possibly keep a dairy too clean, too dry, too well 
 ventilated, or too far away from very bad drains. Many 
 old-fashioned dairies have what they call settles or shelves 
 built always on brick work. I once saw one of those old 
 settles taken down, and I can assure you they have only to 
 be known to be avoided. That old settle was next to a 
 wall where the pig-stye was. The farmer's wife said she 
 thought no one could have a cleaner dairy than hers, but 
 she never could have good butter, what was the reason ^ 
 That was one of the reasons. There are many reasons for 
 bad butter ; one is that, in skimming the milk, the dairy- 
 maid is too careful, I may say she wants to make as much of 
 the cream as she possibly can, and the consequence is that 
 she takes off a deal of the milk with it, and the milk 
 goes quite tainted in a little time and spoils the cream. 
 Suppose you churn only once a week, any milk that is 
 taken off with the cream in skimming must become tainted 
 before the week is out. Again, dairy-maids, especially 
 when they have to market the butter, are very fond of 
 leaving the cream on the milk too long, that is as bad 
 a fault as the former one. When milk is set in the pan 
 it ought to remain only a certain time. There are many 
 systems of setting milk, there is the flat system, the Swartz 
 system, of setting the pan in a tub of ice at a temperature 
 of under 30°, and milk separators. I must say I like 
 separators, for a large farm that will pay for a separator, 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 199 
 
 if not then I should adopt the flat system of setting milk, 
 which is like you see here. I should also adopt these white 
 porcelain vessels, they are so beautifully clean, you can see 
 a speck of dirt on them ; they will bear scalding, although 
 some persons would not think so. Then instead of having 
 these settles I have spoken of, the best thing is to have a 
 rotatory or cast-iron milk-stand. They are well ventilated, 
 they are very portable, you can place them in any part 
 of the dairy you like, so that you can make the most 
 of your room. You can place them quite in a corner, and 
 they are so constructed that you need not walk round 
 to skim the milk ; you simply turn it round gently and 
 bring the pan to you. 
 
 Now, I will show you what I mean by skimming milk. 
 Of course a dairy in a room like this is not like my own 
 little Warwick farm dairy in the Exhibition. If I could 
 have brought that in here I should have been better able to 
 demonstrate the proper way, but I will do what I can 
 under the circumstances. When milk is drawn from the 
 cow it is much too hot to be set, even in the pan. It 
 should go through a refrigerator and be lowered 6° or 8° 
 On such a day as this milk from the cow would be 70°, 
 and it ought to be about 64° or 65° to be set in pans. 
 Then that milk is settled in the pan for 12 hours. For 
 skimming you should then take the skimmer, and I advise 
 the use of these porcelain skimmers for small dairies or 
 private families. Everything is so clean, you cannot hide 
 any dirt even if you be an untidy dairymaid. In tin pans, 
 you know, there are joints, and however particular a dairy- 
 maid may be there may be something where the tin is 
 joined which you do not know anything of, or do not see, 
 and it may be, that it would taint the milk, and you 
 would never know what was the cause of your bad butter. 
 The milk when set ought to stand twelve hours, and at 
 the end of that time you skim it, and put it in a cream- 
 pot, No. I. When you are going to skim, run your finger 
 outside the vessel, this prevents a good deal of waste. 
 If you do not do it, a thick cream sticks to the vessel. 
 
200 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 and then you lose it ; take your skimmer and skim 
 it very carefully. This milk has not been set up many 
 hours, and it ought not to be skimmed at all, but I will 
 just show you how it is done. Do not be too greedy ; 
 it is much better to leave a little cream on the milk 
 than to take one drop of milk off with the cream. 
 
 Then I should let this milk stand twelve hours longer 
 and skim again, and should have a cream pot, No. 2, 
 and skim it into it. Do not put the two creams together. 
 To-morrow you might skim again. For private use I 
 should take the cream of the cream, as I call it, of 
 No. I, and chum that for the use of the table. The second 
 skimmings I should churn for house use ; but if you 
 are going to market your butter, the best way is to put 
 the two creams together at churning time, but not before. 
 Now, I cannot explain to you the system of skimming by 
 centrifugal action with a de Laval separator, but it is 
 very simple. The milk brought from the cow is put 
 through a refrigerator and cooled a little, and then it is 
 lifted into a cistern, and from the cistern we draw it from a 
 tap into a strainer, from the strainer the milk falls into a 
 machine, which has a cup in the centre ; this cup rotates 
 at the rate of 6000 or 7000 times per minute with the 
 Laval system. It rotates so quickly that the cream being 
 the lightest comes to the top ; it is sent up the sides of 
 the vessel into a tap or tube prepared for it. The milk 
 being the heaviest falls to the bottom of the vessel, and 
 comes out through another tube prepared for it. 
 
 Now we have come to the creams, I must tell you that 
 by this time all requisites for dairy use should be thoroughly 
 well cleansed. Cleanliness being one of the great essentials 
 for good butter making. 
 
 It is not the only essential, for I consider honesty is 
 required very much in butter making. You often find 
 when people make butter for market they mix a lot of 
 water with it, to make it weigh heavier, but it is not right, 
 and not only that, it is not good for the butter. If milk or 
 water is left in the butter it becomes tainted immediately. 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 201 
 
 Now, supposing we have prepared churns for churning ; 
 we take the churns, butter-workers and everything, and 
 scald from 5 to 7 minutes, then rinse them out with cold 
 water, and drain the cold water thoroughly away, because 
 that water becomes very warm in time. Then wash them 
 again in 2 or 3 cold waters until they are quite cold. Then 
 we put the cream into the churn, and test it with a thermo- 
 meter. Many dairymaids make a great mistake about test- 
 ing the cream. I have been in several dairies lately and 
 cannot make them test their cream, yet they come to me 
 and complain, " What is the reason I cannot get my butter .'' 
 I have been churning all day, and the butter will not come." 
 The reason is because they will not take the trouble to 
 test it, and bring it to the proper temperature, or they 
 would have no difficulty whatever in making their butter. 
 The cream should not be under 58 or over 60°. On such a 
 day as this I should have it 58° or not much above it, 
 because cream always rises in temperature a little in 
 churning, perhaps 2^, and therefore it is better to have it at 
 a lower temperature than a high one. When you have 
 tested your cream, if not hot enough or cold enough we 
 have these small cylindrical boxes ; they are used because 
 there should be no sudden temperature brought near the 
 cream, either hot or cold, that would spoil the butter. If 
 your cream is too hot fill one of these cylinders with ice, 
 and just dip it in the churn for a few minutes, and it will 
 bring the cream to the proper temperature. Do not leave 
 it until it is so. If the cream is too cold fill the cylinder 
 with boiling water, and then act in the same way 
 the right temperature. Then we commence churning. 
 Many people have an idea that the quicker the butter 
 comes the better it is. But that is another mistaken idea. 
 Butter is never good that comes quickly. I do not like 
 butter to come much under 25 or 30 minutes. If it comes 
 quicker you lose a percentage of butter, and you also spoil 
 the nature of the butter. You cannot be too careful over 
 these details. The first 5 or 7 minutes you are churning 
 ventilate the churn well, that is take out the peg to let out 
 
202 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 all the air. If you do not do that the air mixes with the 
 cream, and it becomes simply a whipped cream, the churn 
 fills with gas, and the dasher has no chance whatever 
 to act, if there is a dasher in the churn ; in fact the cream 
 goes to sleep. We churn until the butter begins to break. 
 After it begins to break we then churn slowly until it 
 comes. Now, here is another great mistake dairymaids 
 make, and that is, they go on churning as soon as they find 
 the butter comes ; they churn and keep on with it until they 
 get the butter all in a lump in the churn ; they will not 
 adopt new systems as long as they can get rid of the 
 butter. It is a well-known fact that foreign markets are 
 beating us all out of our market, because dairymaids will 
 not take a little more trouble. Butter-making of all things 
 should never be hurried, and if you hurry it you will never 
 have good butter to send to market. When the butter 
 begins to break you should churn very slowly until it is 
 formed in small globules. As soon as the butter is 
 formed the churn should be stopped, and the butter- 
 milk drawn off. That is the most difficult part of churn- 
 ing. I may as well say now that this is the Continental 
 system, the system that is mostly adopted in Normandy. 
 (You all know that the Normandy butter at this time 
 fetches the best price in both the English and Paris 
 markets, but there is no reason whatever why we should 
 not have as good butter as they have in Normandy.) 
 During this process of butter making, I shall not at all 
 touch it with the hand, though I am not against touching 
 it with the hand ; but in summer time, on such a day as this, 
 the greatest difficulty is to keep your butter cool enough to 
 make up, whereas in winter time, the greatest difficulty is 
 to keep it soft enough to make up, so that I should advise 
 in winter time adopting the Danish system ; that is, they 
 use the hand. All cream is better ripened before it 
 is used. By using ripened cream you get four or five 
 per cent, more butter than with sweet cream, although, 
 of course, sweet cream produces the most delicate kind 
 of butter. The Danish system is this : They churn 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 203 
 
 generally in what is called a Holstein churn, an upright 
 churn with a dasher which rotates at the rate of 120 
 times a minute ; that is very different to our English 
 churns, which are only supposed to rotate fifty or sixty 
 times a minute. In Denmark, as soon as the butter 
 has come, they immediately stop churning and do not 
 throw away the butter milk ; they take a hair-sieve, 
 and put it in the churn and take up about two pounds 
 of butter at a time. They shake the butter milk from it, 
 and then place it on a wooden tub, or anything they can 
 work it upon, and go on with that until they have the whole 
 of the butter taken out of the churn away from the butter 
 milk. The dairymaid then prepares her hands for touch- 
 ing the butter, because they work mostly with the hand, 
 and a little with the butter-worker. We will suppose 
 her hands are quite clean ; in the first place she takes a 
 damp cloth, and well wipes them. Then she dips them 
 in boiling water, after that she plunges them in ice, and 
 again vv^ashes them with a little butter milk that has 
 been taken out of the churn for the purpose. Her hands 
 arc then prepared for butter, and no butter will stick to 
 them. Then she takes up these rolls of butter, about two 
 pounds at a time, and laying one hand over the other 
 carefully presses out all the butter milk. She rolls that 
 butter again endways, and presses it out again, and then she 
 lays that piece of butter aside, and leaves all the rest in the 
 same way, and each piece of butter will be rolled at least 
 seven times. So that, you see, is rather a slow process. I 
 am afraid many of our English dairymaids would not be 
 troubled to do it, but it repays them in the end. She then 
 takes up the butter and lays it on the butter worker, 
 sprinkles it with dry salt, about four per cent., then she takes 
 a butter knife to cut it, lays one piece over another, and 
 works it three or four times through the worker. It is then 
 put in pots ready for export, for most of it is exported to 
 India. (That is the way good keeping butter is made.) 
 Going back to the Normandy system, as soon as the butter 
 milk has been drawn away from the churn, we then wash the 
 
2C4 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 butter thoroughly well in at least four waters or until nothing 
 but clean pure water runs from the butter. We then carefully 
 take it out of the churn, and put it in the butter worker 
 which has been already prepared for it, and work it through 
 the worker, taking care not to work it too roughly, because 
 we should spoil the grain, and when once the grain of the 
 butter is spoilt, nothing will restore it. We cannot be 
 too careful in handling butter, the more carefully it is 
 handled the better the butter will be, and although this 
 butter I am making to night has no salt in it, I will 
 guarantee it will be very good keeping butter, although it 
 is what we call sweet butter. A great many dairymaids 
 cannot make sweet butter. Theirs will be sweet on the 
 day it is made, but it goes quite rancid the day afterwards ; 
 that is because, as I have told you, of these bad smells, bad 
 drains, bad skimming and bad management in the dairy. 
 After the dairy requisites have been used they should be 
 thoroughly well washed with cold water. (A dairymaid 
 asked me the other day what was the reason I washed the 
 churn in cold water first, she had never heard such a thing 
 before, she always put warm water into her churns to begin 
 with.) My reasons for washing the churns and other 
 requisites with cold water is this. You must know that 
 however sweet butter-milk is, there always is an amount of 
 acidity in it ; and if you wash your dairy requisites well with 
 this cold water first, it washes away most of this acidity, 
 but if you put boiling water into them it makes the acidity 
 permeate the whole of the wood-work, and the consequence 
 is they are never what you may call sweet. After having 
 thoroughly well washed them with cold water we then 
 scald them and use a very soft brush (because a hard 
 brush spoils the grain of the wood-work). Everything that 
 appertains to the churn and to the dairy ought to be very 
 hard wood, and if we use a small soft brush you will not 
 hurt them. They should be well brushed in boiling water 
 and then rinsed in two or three cold waters. Then they 
 should be placed in a nice cold place to dry, taking care 
 not to put them in the hot sun, because if they are the heat 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 205 
 
 of the sun warps them very much. No soap or soda should 
 be used anywhere, nor with anything that appertains to 
 a dairy. If the dairymaid has an idea that there is a 
 Httle grease or butter on the churn the best thing she can 
 use is a httle rough salt. She may dip her soft brush in 
 it and brush the churn with that, and that is far better 
 than using soda or soap, or anything of that kind. I can 
 only tell you again that one of the greatest secrets of good 
 butter is cleanliness, and I am sure if the dairymaid is not 
 thoroughly clean she will never succeed. 
 
 After the butter has been worked we place it in the 
 Danish hardening-box ; these have not been much adopted 
 in England yet, but one or two large dairies have adopted 
 them, and they are very useful. They stand a little distance 
 from the ground and are very simple in construction. It 
 is a simple box with a few holes bored in the bottom to 
 insure thorough ventilation. Round the bottom of the 
 box there is a ridge of wood about two inches thick, 
 and on the ridge slats are placed across-wise a little 
 distance from each other so that plenty of air can get 
 up between them. At the top there is a tray which holds 
 ice which cools the butter naturally. If you put a lump 
 of ice on to butter it will become hard, but the moment 
 it comes into a warm room it becomes oil, and nothing 
 will remove the oily substance afterwards ; the butter 
 is completely spoilt. It should neither lie in ice nor water ; 
 but ice at the top of the hardening-box keeps the butter 
 cool naturally. Many people have asked me what they 
 must do in the country where they could not get ice. My 
 answer is, have a tray so constructed that you may place 
 it under a stream of water with a tap at each end so that the 
 water may be made to run gently into the tray, the tap 
 at the other end being for waste. Of course the water can 
 be utilised afterwards if it is required. These are the most 
 useful articles in a dairy, because in the hottest weather 
 you can insure nice solid butter. After it has been in the 
 hardening-box from one to four hours we bring it again 
 and work it through the worker, and it is then ready for 
 
2o6 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the market, or if it is found too soft we put it again in the 
 hardening-box for a longer time. If you have not a 
 hardening-box the next best thing to do with it is to wrap 
 it in a nice piece of clean muslin and set in some cold 
 place, but do not set it in water or let ice touch it. One 
 of the greatest secrets of good butter making is to take 
 care of it when it is butter, and to be careful not to spoil 
 the grain of it. I object very much to salted butter, 
 because I often find that salt makes butter very streaky 
 and discolors it. Good fresh butter always commands the 
 best price, especially in London, Then again, in making 
 it up always take care that everything you use is quite 
 wet, never attempt to make it up with anything, that is 
 dairy knives, or beaters, or boards, or anything of that kind 
 unless it is so. Of course it should be made pleasing 
 to the sight. I once heard a great man say that every- 
 thing in the way of food should first please the eye, then 
 the nose, and then the mouth ! 
 
 The best thing to wrap it in is paper prepared for the 
 purpose, so that the grease will not go through it, but if 
 you are going to pack butter for sending it away, the best 
 thing is to make it up in small pats, roll it in paper, and 
 have ready the box, which should be thoroughly lined with 
 paper first, then some nice pieces of prepared buttered 
 muslin ; they should be well scalded and afterwards rinsed 
 in several cold waters. The box should be well lined with 
 this butter muslin, and then the pats placed in the box 
 carefully, so that they shall not rub each other. In 
 winter time there is great difficulty in getting the butter 
 soft enough to work. It would not do to use these hard 
 beaters, because it would work all the goodness out of the 
 butter and spoil the grain of it. The hand, being more 
 elastic, brings the butter to a proper consistency without 
 using so much of this hard work, that is why I would 
 use the hand in winter. If there is an objection to the 
 hand, and of course it is porous, there is nothing so nice as 
 to use wood for making up butter. A great many dairy- 
 maids say they have always managed to make their butter 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT, 207 
 
 it has always gone to market, and it has sold, and they did 
 not see why it should alter it at all. Certainly their butter 
 would not keep, but they do not mind that. But it is a 
 fact that they do not sell such good butter in the English 
 markets as we get from abroad, which is rather a disgrace 
 with English dairy farmers. We have the finest pastures 
 in the world, and the finest breeds of cows, and yet we get 
 butter better from abroad than we have in England, and 
 it fetches a better price. I went to visit a dairy lately, and 
 the farmer's wife said that she had the best butter in the 
 market. I went into the dairy, and it smelt rather strong, 
 I looked up and down but could see nothing ; I said, " The 
 dairy does not smell sweet, are you sure you have very 
 good butter } " " Well," she said, " I get a very ready sale 
 for my butter." I said, " Will it keep } " she said, " Oh, it 
 will keep a week, well," but when I came to look into it 
 there was a large cupboard at the end of the dairy, or safe ; 
 in that safe was a piece of cheese which they kept locked 
 up, a piece of bacon, and several other matters. She said, 
 we always keep our best things in the dairy, the dairy is 
 the place for them because it is cool ; and so I found that 
 when they baked bread, the bread was always taken to the 
 dairy to get cool, because it was a cool place, and if they 
 boiled a ham or anything of that kind, it was taken into 
 the dairy to cool, and thus her bad butter was easily ac- 
 counted for. I must advise all those interested in dairy work 
 to have nothing in the dairy but what appertains to it — 
 milk, cream or butter. A gentleman asked me one day if 
 I thought it would hurt to hang a joint of meat in the 
 dairy ; I say decidedly yes, because a joint very soon be- 
 comes tainted, especially this weather, and of course it 
 would taint the cream. You cannot be too careful to have 
 everything that belongs to it perfectly sweet. Another 
 hint with regard to dairymaids, always see that they have 
 short finger nails. If you keep the finger nails short they 
 are easily brushed, and there is no excuse for having 
 dirty finger nails. I have said nothing about colouring 
 butter, because I do not like coloured butter. It ought 
 
2o8 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 not to be coloured with annatto. Water will not blend with 
 grease, and, therefore, if you colour butter with annatto, 
 which has a great deal of water in it, the butter will be 
 quite streaky. There is a preparation of annatto with some 
 fatty substance which I have heard of, but I have not seen 
 it, which may be better. But of course to suit the public 
 taste the butter has to be coloured by some dealers ; and if 
 you must colour butter I think the best way is to pulp 
 some carrots, and strain this pulp through a fine piece of 
 muslin into the cream before you begin to churn. 
 
 [The churning process having been completed by this 
 time. Miss Smithard showed the manner in which it was 
 taken from the churn and passed through the butter 
 worker.] 
 
 In conclusion, I have only to say that if every detail is 
 followed out that I have given this afternoon in the manage- 
 ment of a dairy and in butter making, there is no reason 
 whatever why English dairy farmers should not produce 
 the best butter in the world. Last year, when at York, I 
 had some butter which was kept six weeks and was per- 
 fectly sweet. 
 
 The Chairman, in proposing a vote of thanks to Miss 
 Smithard, said they had had a most interesting lecture, and 
 he entirely endorsed the observation, that there was no 
 earthly reason why foreign butter should be imported into 
 England, and why we should not make our own butter as 
 good and better than Normandy and Danish butter. In 
 the present distressed state of English agriculture he be- 
 lieved the English farmer had no better friend than Miss 
 Smithard, and he could only hope that her lectures there 
 and elsewhere, especially in the rural districts in the north 
 and in Scotland, would tend to diminish the imports of 
 foreign butter and to increase the home consumption of 
 English butter, and if possible to increase its manufacture 
 to such an extent that instead of importing foreign butter 
 the English might be exported. 
 
THE ^STHETICAL USE OF WINE 
 
 AND ITS 
 
 INFLUENCE UPON HEALTH. 
 
 EY 
 
 J. L. W. THUDICHUM, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond. 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THK WEST LONDON MEDICO-CHIRURGICAL SOCIETY, ETC. 
 
 VOL. VI.— H. U 
 
June iith, 1884. 
 
 A LECTURE ON THE ^STHETICAL USE 
 OF WINE AND ITS INFLUENCE 
 UPON HEALTH. 
 
 By J. L. W. Thudichum, M.D., F.R.C.P. LoND., 
 
 President of the West Lotidon Medico-Chirurgical Society, etc. 
 
 " Pour forth, Muses, to me, the cheerfully sonorous voices, 
 From Hehkonian hps of song the melodious showers, 
 For to whom-ever spends drink the source effervescent with music, 
 Joyfully listens to words of happiness sung to the lyre." 
 
 In adopting this hexametric invocation of the epic poet 
 Nestor, of Laranda in Lykia, of the time of the emperor 
 Severus, I desire at once to define the standpoint from 
 which I intend to treat the subject of the aesthetical use of 
 wine and its influence upon health. To my mind 
 aesthesia is correct feeling, such as enables us to have the 
 natural desires, the true physiological senses of pleasure and 
 displeasure, and also the power of their correct gratification, 
 by which the whole of organic life exists and is per- 
 petuated. In many minds this feeling exists in its most 
 perfect form as a natural gift apparently, but is no doubt the 
 result of atavistic education, or of the collective influence of 
 the good and happy lives of their forefathers through many 
 ages. In other minds, however, who have not had similar 
 advantages, this feeling is subdued, clouded, or even over- 
 come by coarser motives, and of their possessors it may be 
 said that they are victims of two contending desires, of 
 which one only is aesthetic, while the other arises from 
 ignorance of true pleasure, or from a delusion of the mind 
 
 P 2 
 
212 JESTHETICAL USE OF WINE. 
 
 regarding the sources and nature of true pleasure. This 
 condition has a complete remedy in education, the applica- 
 tion of the mind to the study of things and ideas. Such 
 study leads to science in its widest sense, as a corrector and 
 regulator of feeling. In this connection science includes 
 poetry ; for poetry is really the manifestation by highly 
 gifted individuals of the fullest knowledge of that store of 
 thought and feeling which we call the human heart, and 
 the expression of that thought and feeling in forms so 
 beautiful and true that they excite permanent pleasure and 
 settled assent. Aesthesia is therefore, practically, a com- 
 pound faculty, of natural organisation, of inherited structure, 
 aided by science as a substance and refined by poetry as a 
 form. 
 
 In order to understand aesthesia thoroughly, we may 
 consider its negation or exaggeration. The term 
 anaesthesia is no longer available for purposes of general 
 definition, as it is exclusively applied to a state of physical 
 insensibility, produced by medical art for special purposes, 
 namely, for enabling sufferers from mechanical injuries or 
 painful diseases to undergo operations necessary for their 
 recovery, without that suffering of pain and shock, which, 
 in times gone by was so great an addition to the original 
 calamity. We must therefore be satisfied with describing 
 the absence of the true aesthetical feeling by a longer 
 negative than the convenient alpha privativum of the Greek 
 language. But its opposite, namely an exaggerated sensi- 
 bility to impressions, we may still describe as hyper- 
 aesthesia, and with the aid of these definitions we may 
 now come closer to our subject than we could have done 
 without them. 
 
 Alcohol is essentially an anaesthetic. It is taken in 
 many forms for counteracting mere bodily pain, and does 
 so counteract it. But it has collateral effects which make 
 it undesirable for the production of higher degrees of 
 anaesthesia. Physicians, therefore, take derivates of alcohol, 
 more or less closely related to it, in a chemical sense, but 
 all directly derived from it, such as ether, and chloroform, 
 
jESTHETICAL use of wine. 213 
 
 to produce a quick and perfect insensibility. But these 
 pharmaceutical preparations are not adjuvants of that 
 euphoria which is valued in common life. Ether is 
 dangerously inflammable, chloroform sickening ; neither 
 are agreeable in any form to a natural taste. They have 
 in no case the effect of natural alcohol, such as is present in 
 wine, of influencing the physical heart, and the imagination, 
 so as to remove the actual sense of pain, the algesia, arising 
 from physical fatigue, or from mental depression. 
 
 We have indeed a very powerful antidote to the 
 hyperaesthesia produced by the friction of life in that 
 remarkable compound termed beer. This drink contains 
 relatively little alcohol, less indeed than other forms of 
 alcoholic drinks, of which it is, therefore, generally the 
 weakest, so called. But it contains a powerful anaesthetic 
 in the form of the extract of hops, or lupulin, a principle 
 which in Europe takes the same place as that which opium 
 takes among eastern nations. Hops, like the poppy, 
 stimulate at first the nervous energies of various depart- 
 ments of the system, but in larger doses they act as a 
 sedative, and dull anomalous as well as normal sensibilities. 
 Beer is, therefore, by no means an alcoholic beverage 
 merely, and on that account admits of no direct comparison 
 with wine or diluted spirits. 
 
 Alcoholic drinks, amongst them foremost wine, have 
 effects which have caused them to be used and praised by 
 all nations and generations of which we have any know- 
 ledge. They can be used with results which are the 
 reverse of aesthctical; and it is to discountenance such 
 abuse, injurious to health, and detrimental to pleasure, that 
 all sanitarians should raise their voice. Of all alcoholic 
 drinks, however, true wine, such as we shall define it, offers 
 the least opportunity or inducement to abuse. Natural 
 wine may make drunk, but it never produces delirium 
 tremens, it never produces those permanent lesions of the 
 tissues which are the consequences of excess in the use of 
 spirits and of beer. Whenever such effects are added as 
 the results of wine, they will be found to be due to wine 
 
214 ^STHETICAL USE OF WINE. 
 
 plus spirit added thereto, particularly to those fiery 
 mixtures which under the names of sherry and port have 
 done so much to obscure the real and beneficial qualities 
 of wine. 
 
 Happily, after many centuries of fiscal misgovernment, 
 which has perverted the natural taste and habits of the 
 people of these islands, we have been allowed to return to 
 a state of liberty as regards the choice of our wines, and 
 the effect of this liberty has been most marvellous. The 
 brandied wines, which were formerly almost the only ones 
 which could be obtained or were drunk in Society, have 
 been recognised to be incompatible with the more refined 
 manners of our social gatherings, and, are so much neglected 
 by the wealthy classes that the customs revenue from 
 them has decreased by ;^300,0CXD a year. The natural 
 wines have increased in favour, though, owing to unfavour- 
 able years, not to the same amount as the others have 
 diminished. There are, however, indications to show that 
 the intention of the legislature as manifested in 1858 is 
 being realised, and it is my intention to aid now and in the 
 future in this realisation, as I have done in the past. 
 
 But let us look for a moment at the origin of wine in 
 nature, its history and preparation. This will enable us 
 better to appreciate its importance to Society, and the 
 danger of its counterfeits. I quote some passages from the 
 Handbook on Alcoholic Drinks, which I was honoured 
 with the commission to write for this Health Exhibition, 
 and which I hope will soon be available to the public. 
 
 The vine grows naturally in the temperate parts of 
 Western Asia, the south of Europe, Algeria and Morocco. 
 In Armenia, and to the south of the Caucasus and the 
 Caspian Sea, it exhibits its quality as a creeper, and rises 
 up high trees, bearing fruit without being either cut or 
 otherwise tended. It grows vigorously in ancient Bactriana, 
 in Affghanistan and Badackshan, and in Cashmir. I have 
 studied it in the Algaida, a forest situated on the south 
 bank of the Guadalquivir, to the east of San Lucar de 
 13arrameda. This forest consists mainly of sea-pines {Pinus 
 
^STHETICAL USE OF WINE. 215 
 
 maritimd), but contains also groups of the silvery elm. 
 Almost its entire border, and many small and large open 
 spaces in its interior, are lined with the wild vines first 
 described by Clemente. I found vines covering the whole 
 of large fir-trees, silver elms, oleander bushes, fig-trees, and, 
 together with sarsaparilla in blossom and brambles, creep- 
 ing up and covering shrubs of lentiscus. These garaiionas, 
 as the Spaniards term the wild vines, are really indigenous 
 wild plants, and not stray children of the vineyard ; for all 
 the flowers which I observed had the stamina recurvata, 
 which are the characteristic feature of the female type of 
 the dicecic wild vine, and no erect stamina. I observed 
 myself, in 1871, the place described by Clemente, where 
 "the vines form impenetrable thickets, magnificent banquet- 
 ing halls, most graceful pavilions, grottoes, covered walks, 
 winding foot-paths, labyrinths, walls, arches, pillars, and a 
 thousand original and indescribable caprices." The wild 
 grapes here are black, acidulous, but good to eat. The 
 growth of the plant is so vigorous that a one-year's shoot, 
 which I pulled from a tree, measured fifty feet in length. 
 
 That the vine lived in Europe in the tertiary period is 
 proved by the evidence of fossils. That it was present in 
 pre-historic times is shown by the occurrence of preserved 
 parts of the plant in various situations. Thus vine seeds 
 have been found in the remains of the lake dwellings of 
 Castione, near Parma, under conditions which show that 
 they belong to the bronze age, at least 9000 years before 
 our time ; other lake dwellings, such as those at Varese, in 
 the province of Como, and at Wangen in Switzerland, 
 exhibit similar proofs. Near Montpellier, vine leaves were 
 found in tufas, which, like those of Meyrargue, in the 
 Provence, are pre-historic, but post-tertiary. 
 
 A. dc Candolle is of opinion that the idea of producing 
 grape-juice and allowing it to ferment might have originated 
 with different nations, particularly in Western Asia, where 
 the vine abounded, and grew well. It is unquestionable 
 that the Semites, as well as the Aryans, knew wine long 
 before historic periods, and were in a position to introduce 
 
2i6 ^STHETICAL USE OF WINE. 
 
 it into all the countries to which they migrated, including 
 Egypt, India, and Europe. They could do this the easier 
 as they found the vine wild in several of the countries in 
 which they arrived. As regards Egypt, we have documen- 
 tary evidence that the cultivation of the vine and the 
 making of wine were practised nearly six thousand years 
 ago, namely under Phtah-Hotep, who lived at Memphis 
 four thousand years before our era. The progress of the 
 cultivation of the vine by Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans, 
 is well known. A. de Candolle says that towards the east 
 of Asia it seems to have advanced so slowly, that the 
 Chinese do not seem to have cultivated the vine before 
 A.D. 122, although several varieties of wild vines are known 
 to occur in their northern provinces. This is, however, at 
 variance with the statement of Welles Williams, according 
 to whom the first cultivation of the vine in China is ascribed 
 to Foh-hi, a ruler estimated to have lived about three 
 thousand years before the Christian era. It is further 
 recorded that about 1120 B.C. wine was considered in the 
 celestial empire to be dangerous to the state. 
 
 The Accadian or Chaldaean epic poem, which describes 
 the adventures of Nimrod, brings him to Hasisatra — 
 the Noah of the Israelites. The latter in the course of 
 the account which he gives to Nimrod of his salvation 
 from the flood, also gives details of the manner in 
 which he provisioned his ship, the ark. Six thousand 
 men carried provisions in six thousand baskets ; he took 
 on board also wine, much wine, aye rivers of wine. This 
 emphasis, which I quote by memory from the translation 
 of George Smith of the cuneiform inscribed tablets from 
 the library of Assurbanipal at Nimrod, now in the British 
 Museum, shows us that wine was known and highly 
 valued under such depressing circumstances as the prospect 
 of an aquatic voyage for which Hasisatra prepared, and 
 which he endured. 
 
 It is not necessary for our present purpose to investigate 
 the particular steps in the progress of the human intelli- 
 gence, by which wine, such as we know it now, was discovered 
 
yESTHETICAL USE OF WINE. 217 
 
 The shepherds of the Algaida gather the wild grapes in 
 earthenware pots, and bury them in the ground under 
 leaves and brushwood, and later on drink the fermented 
 juice at their leisure. From such an original proceeding to 
 the confection of Burgundy or of Champagne there are 
 many stages, to describe which would lead us too far. We 
 will therefore pass at once to a description of wine such as 
 can be given by abbreviated science. 
 
 Wine is the fermented, purified, and ripened juice of the 
 grape ; as such it contains alcohol, acids, salts, extractives, 
 and those principles which give to it its particular colour 
 on the one hand, and its particular flavour, smell, or bouquet 
 on the other. While some of the ingredients can be accu- 
 rately described and isolated, others are accessible to a 
 definition by the sense of smell only. The conventional 
 value of wine is determined less by its principal ingredients 
 than by the prominence of the specific character termed 
 bouquet, and the absence of certain faults. Dietetically, 
 most wines are of equal value, provided they are the 
 products of a favourable season, are pure, and free from 
 the faults produced by parasitic fungi. 
 
 The principal alcohol in wine is alcohol strictly so called, 
 or spirit of wine, the chemical composition of which is 
 expressed by the formula CjHyO. In rare cases there is 
 some butylic alcohol, C4H10O, and in others some amylic 
 alcohol, C5H12O, so-called fusel oil, present. The quantity 
 of alcohol present in wine can be estimated by distillation, 
 and ascertaining the amount of spirit in the distillate by 
 the determination of its specific gravity, or by ascertaining 
 the specific gravity of the wine, then driving away all spirit 
 from it, and having again brought it to its original bulk 
 by the addition of water, ascertaining its specific gravity 
 without the spirit. Other methods are less accurate. The 
 quantity of alcohol present in natural wines from the grape 
 varies between 6 and 12 per cent. Unsound wines may 
 contain some aldehyde, C2H4O, produced from alcohol by 
 the loss of hydrogen. 
 
 The acids present in wine arc those naturally present 
 
2i8 yESTHETICAL USE OF WINE. 
 
 in the grape, namely tartaric, malic and tannic ; and those 
 produced during fermentation, namely acetic, formic, suc- 
 cinic, and carbonic. In addition to these there are nearly 
 always traces of the more complicated fatty acids, such as 
 propionic, butyric, and oenanthic acid present. Tartaric 
 acid, C4H6O6, occurs in must as acid potassium salt, or 
 so-called tartar, and is in part precipitated during fer- 
 mentation, as it is less soluble in spirit than in water. 
 During the ripening of wine, tartaric acid forms with 
 alcohol tartaric ether. The tartaric acid most commonly 
 found in wine turns the plane of polarised light to the 
 right, and is therefore called dextro-tartaric acid. Some 
 wines, however, e.g., Italian, contain also tartaric acid, 
 which polarises to the left, levo-tartaric acid, always, how- 
 ever, combined with the dextro-tartaric acid, forming what 
 is known in science as racemic acid. All three acids have 
 one and the same chemical composition expressed by the 
 formula C4H6O6. Sherries contain no tartaric acid, as it 
 is removed from the must of Jerez grapes by gypsum or 
 plaster of Paris. 
 
 Malic acid, CiH^Os, is not only present in grape-must, 
 but in the juices of many varieties of fruit, which we shall 
 have to consider — apples, cherries, plums, currants, and the 
 red berries of the mountain ash. 
 
 Tannic acid is present in most varieties of wine, and is 
 derived from the husks and kernels mainly ; more rarely 
 contained in the juice of the grape. Red wines contain 
 more of it than white wines, because they are always 
 fermented with the husks and seeds. 
 
 Succinic acid, C4H6O4, in wine is one of the results of 
 the fermentation of grape-sugar, which, in that process 
 yields about half a per cent, of its weight of that acid. When 
 the formulae of succinic, malic, and tartaric acid are com- 
 pared, it will be perceived that they all contain the same 
 number of atoms of carbon and hydrogen, but not of 
 oxygen, of which latter element succinic acid contains four, 
 malic acid five, tartaric acid six atoms. 
 
 Acetic acid, C2H4O2, occurs in wine and other fermented 
 
ALSTHETICAL USE OF WINE. 219 
 
 liquids, principally as the result of the oxydation under 
 the influence of the air, of some alcohol. When the entire 
 amount of alcohol in a fermented liquid is transformed 
 into acetic acid, vinegar results. Vinegar from wine pre- 
 serves some of the flavour of wine, and those accustomed 
 to its use are therefore not inclined to exchange it for the 
 more common vinegar made from fermented malt, or from 
 acetic acid obtained by the fiery decomposition of wood. 
 In good natural mne the amount of acetic acid does not 
 exceed 1*78 per thousand, but is ordinarily only about 
 half a pro mille ; in spoiled wine it^s amount may rise to 
 3*63 per thousand. 
 
 The cenanthic acid, to the ethylic ether of which most 
 wines are supposed to be indebted for their characteristic 
 smell, has the formula Ci^HaeOg, and does, therefore, pro- 
 bably not belong to the same series of acids as acetic, 
 propionic, and butyric acid. 
 
 In good, sound wines the total amount of free acid varies 
 between 0*3 and 0*7 per cent; wines with more than the 
 latter amount of free acid taste excessively sour, and are 
 not easily digested. 
 
 The ethers in wine are aceto-cthylic, which contributes 
 much to the general flavour of the wine ; aceto-propylic, 
 butylic, amylic, caproylic ; further butyro-ethylic, caprylo- 
 ethylic, capro-ethylic, and pelargo-ethylic, and the tartaric 
 ethers. The characteristic smell of the oenanthic ether 
 distinguishes all kinds of wine from every other fermented 
 liquid. The flavour or bouquet, however, by which wines 
 from different vines and vineyards are distinguishable from 
 each other, is produced by substances which are already 
 present in the grapes, and the effect of which is only 
 heightened by fermentation. The volatile ethers in wine 
 mostly surmount the fixed ethers in quantity. The alcohol 
 obtained by the decomposition of all the ethers is rarely 
 more than 0"06 per cent of the wine. 
 
 Wines may contain more or less of sugar of one kind 
 or another. Must contains a mixture of sugars, of which 
 one polarises to the right, and is therefore termed dextrose, 
 
220 JESTHETICAL USE OF WINE. 
 
 while the other polarises to the left, and is in consequence 
 termed levulose. If wine contains cane-sugar, it has been 
 added, e.g., to champagne. Even added cane-sugar is, under 
 the influence of the natural acidity of the wine, gradually 
 transformed into the mixture of dextrose and levulose, this 
 mixture also goes by the name of invert-sugar. Some wines, 
 e.g., Sauternes and old sweet Rhine wines, contain also 
 a peculiar sugar, occurring in flesh and brain, namely, 
 inosite. All sugars in must and wine have the chemical 
 composition expressed by the formula CeHigOg, but differ 
 in properties. They are, therefore, not identical, but, as 
 it is termed, isomeric with each other. 
 
 Another sweet-tasting substance occurring in wine and 
 all other fermented liquids is glycerine, CaHgOg, originally 
 known as one of the constituents of animal and vegetable 
 fats. During fermentation it is formed from sugar ; lOO 
 parts of cane-sugar, or 105*26 parts of grape-sugar, yield 
 on an average 3 * 69 parts of glycerine, or one-fourteenth 
 part of the alcohol produced by the same fermentation. 
 
 The colouring matters of wines are either natural con- 
 stituents of the grape, or produced in must and wine during 
 and after fermentation. Of the latter kind are most yellow 
 and amber colours of natural so-called white wine. They 
 are not rarely the result of the oxydation of astringent or 
 tannic acids. But the red colouring matters are mostly 
 contained in the husks, and dissolved only by the con- 
 currence of the alcohol formed during fermentation and 
 the acid naturally contained in it. The grapes from which 
 some of the best red wines, e.g., Burgundy or Medoc wines 
 are made, yield an almost perfectly colourless juice if 
 pressed before fermentation. But some rarer vines, and 
 those yielding inferior wine, have, like the black currant, 
 a coloured juice. Some of the red colouring matters 
 contain iron as an essential chemical ingredient, and are 
 therefore supposed to make the wines in which they are 
 contained particularly wholesome. 
 
 Wine contains traces of ammonia, present in all vege- 
 table juices ; also albuminous matters, which are supposed 
 
^STHETICAL USE OF WINE. 221 
 
 to make the wine liable to undergo decomposition more 
 readily. Wine also contains some substances, which 
 remain when it is evaporated to dryness, and are termed 
 extractives. They have an agreeable smell and taste, and 
 contribute to the smell and taste of wine in the same 
 manner as the extractives of meat contribute to the smell 
 and taste of meat and broth. Wine further contains a 
 certain amount of inorganic or mineral ingredients, pot- 
 ash soda, lime, magnesia, and phosphoric, sulphuric and 
 hydrochloric acid in combination with the former. Sherries 
 contain a large excess of sulphate of potassium, due to the 
 treatment of the must with plaster of Paris. 
 
 Wine may be aesthetical wherever grown or made, 
 provided only that it be free from faults of manufacture 
 and the destructive fermentations called diseases. These 
 latter fermentations are the main cause, while better methods 
 remain unpractised, of the addition of spirit to the wines of 
 southern climates. All former ages have abhorred strong 
 wines, and the ancients mixed some of theirs with water. 
 In the last century yet natural wine was esteemed, spirited 
 wine denounced in this country. 
 
 I quote, after the late Dr. Druitt, some passages from 
 Armstrong's ' Art of Health,' written about a hundred and 
 fifty years ago, which are supposed to show how much 
 Burgundy and other natural wines were esteemed at that 
 time. When speaking of wholesome wine, he praises 
 
 "The gay, serene, good-natured Burgundy, 
 Or the fresh fragrant vintage of the Rhine." 
 
 He further describes Burgundy as the drink for gentle- 
 men, and Port as an abomination : — 
 
 " The man to well-bred Burgundy brought up, 
 Will start the smack of Methuen in the cup." 
 
 The last line refers to the Port wine imported into England 
 under the Methuen treaty made with Portugal in 1703 
 whereby the wines of the latter country were favoured by a 
 low import duty, whereas the trade in French wines was 
 
222 ^STHETICAL USE OF WINE. 
 
 impeded by an import tax amounting to more than double 
 of that imposed upon Peninsular wines. 
 
 Armstrong already reprobates the mixing of wine with 
 brandy, which seems to have been at his time, if not a new, 
 at least a newly-revived practice. In describing a man's 
 sensations on awakening after having drunk Port wine the 
 evening before, he says : — 
 
 "You curse the sluggish Port, you curse the wretch, 
 The felon, with unnatural mixture first 
 Who dared to violate the virgin wine." 
 
 We can easily learn the aesthetical uses of wine from the 
 poets of all ages, beginning with him, however, who has most 
 endeared himself to thinking men. 
 
 In his ode to Septimius (Od. II. 6). Horace alludes to 
 Tarcntine wine, growing on the hill Aulon, near Tarentum. 
 
 "There Jove accords a lengthened spring, 
 And winter's wanting winter's sting, 
 And sunny Anion's broad incline, 
 Such mettle put into the wine, 
 Its clusters need not envy those, 
 Which fiery Falernum grows." 
 
 The Romans affected handsome or important slaves to 
 pour out their wine for them. Horace asks Iccius (Od I. 29) 
 if it be true that he grudges the Arabs their wealth, 
 and is actually forging fetters for the hitherto invincible 
 Sabacan monarchs, and those terrible Medians } To which 
 of the royal damsels does he intend to throw the handker- 
 chief, having first cut down her princely betrothed in single 
 combat ? Or what young " oiled and curled " Oriental 
 prince is for the future to pour out his wine for him ? 
 Iccius (says Theodore Martin) like many another Raleigh, 
 went out to gather wool and came back shorn. 
 
 In his Ode to Pompejus Varus (Od, II. 7), who had been 
 a fellow-student with Horace at Athens, and had fought 
 with him at Philippi under Pompey, the poet describes 
 more fully the use which he and his friends made of wine 
 on joyous occasions, such as was the return of Varus 
 (Martin, 136). 
 
ALSTHETICAL USE OF WINE. 223 
 
 "Then pay to Jove the feasts that are his fee, 
 And stretch at ease these war-worn limbs of thine, 
 Beneath my laurels' shade ; nor spare the wine, 
 Which I have treasured through long years for thcc. 
 
 " Pour till it touch the shining goblet's rim, 
 Care-drowning Massic ; let rich ointments flow, 
 From amplest conchs ! No measure we shall know. 
 What ! shall we wreaths of oozy parsley trim, 
 
 " Or simple myrtle ? Whom will Venus send 
 To rule our revel? Wild my draughts shall be. 
 As Thracian Bacchanals! For 'tis sweet to me 
 To lose my wits, when I regain my friend." 
 
 P'ven when praising measured enjoyment of the fortunes 
 of Hfe, he does not forget wine, as in his Ode to Dellius 
 (Od. II. 3). 
 
 "Where the tall spreading pine 
 And white-leaved poplar grows," 
 
 splendid description of a southern forest ! the mixture of 
 the sea-pine, and the alamo of the Spaniards, — 
 
 " And, mingling their broad boughs in leafy twine, 
 A grateful shadow throw. 
 
 Where down its broken bed the wimpling stream. 
 Writhes on its sinuous way with many a quivering gleam. 
 
 " There wine, there perfumes bring, 
 Bring garlands of the rose. 
 Fair and too short-lived daughter of the spring, 
 While youth's bright current flows 
 Within thy veins, ere yet has come the hour, 
 When the dread Sisters Three shall clutch thee in their power." 
 
 The poet also depicts a state of melancholy, when 
 
 "neither marbles from the Phrygian mine, 
 Nor star-bright robes of purple and of pall, 
 Nor the Falernian vine. 
 
 Nor costliest balsams, fetched from farthest Ind, 
 Can soothe the restless mind." 
 
 In his Ode against false prognostications (Od. I. 11) he 
 warns the reader not "to wrest a false assurance from 
 Chaldaean horoscope," but gives the positive advice : 
 (Martin, 151): 
 
224 .-ESTHETICAL USE OF WINE. 
 
 " Be wise, your spirit firing 
 With cups of tempered wine, 
 And hopes afar aspiring, 
 In compass brief confine. 
 Use all life's powers ; 
 The envious hours 
 Fly as we talk ; then live to-day : 
 Nor fondly to to-morrow trust more than you must or may." 
 
 In the Ode to Sestius (Od. I. 4), the gloom of Orcus 
 is made the back ground, on which to depict life, all fresh, 
 joyous, luxuriant and lovely ! Be happy " drink in at every 
 pore the spirit of the season," while the roses are fresh 
 within your hair, and the wine-cup flashes ruby in your 
 hand (Martin) for — 
 
 " Thee soon shall night enshroud, and the Manes' phantom crowd, 
 And the starveling hours unbeautiful of Pluto shut thee in ; 
 And thou shalt not banish care by the ruddy wine-cup there, 
 Nor woo the gentle Lycidas, whom all are mad to win." 
 
 The statesman fatigued with the cares of his office, 
 Maecenas, he addresses thus (Od. IV. 9) : 
 
 " Thou dost devise with sleepless zeal, 
 What course may best the state beseem, 
 And fearful for the city's weal, 
 Weighst anxiously each hostile scheme, 
 That may be hatching far away, 
 In Scythia, India, or Cathay." 
 
 (Martin, 158.) 
 
 • But he urges him to escape from town for a few days : 
 
 " Scion of Tuscan Kings, in store 
 I've laid a cask of mellow wine. 
 That never has been broached before. 
 I've roses too, for wreaths to twine, 
 And Nubian nut, that for thy hair 
 An oil shall yield, of fragrance rare.'' 
 
 Martin relates that Maecenas was of a melancholy 
 temperament, and liable to great depression of spirits. On 
 his first appearance in the theatre after one of those 
 dangerous attacks of fever to which he was liable, he was 
 received with vehement cheers, and to mark the event the 
 
^STHETICAL USE OF WINE. 225 
 
 Poet laid up in his cellar a jar of Sabine wine, and some 
 years afterwards he invites Maecenas to come and partake 
 of it (Od. I. 20). From this we learn incidentally that it 
 was not all ^ grand vin ' (as the French term the best 
 quality), what Poets did drink at Rome (Martin, 161). 
 
 " Our common Sabine wine shall be 
 The only drink I'll give to thee, 
 In modest goblets, too ; 
 'Twas stored in crock of Grecian delf, 
 Dear Knight Maecenas, by myself. 
 That very day when through 
 The theatre thy plaudits rang. 
 Old Caecuban, the very best. 
 And juice in vats Calenian pressed, 
 You drink at home, I know : 
 My cup no choice Falernian fills. 
 Nor unto them do Formiae's hills 
 Impart a tempered glow." 
 
 Julianus of Egypt had, some short time before the 
 Emperor Theodosius the Great, composed many graceful 
 poems, of which only fragments have been preserved. 
 One, entitled * The Swallowed Eros,' I translate from the 
 Greek Anthology of my father. Dr. George Thudichum. 
 Vol. viii. p. 1066. 
 
 ** When lately twining garlands, 
 
 From freshly gathered roses, 
 
 I found a lovely Eros ; 
 
 I took him by his winglets. 
 
 And dipped him in my wine-cup, 
 
 And drank him down entire. 
 
 Now ever since that moment, 
 
 He scrabbles in my inside." 
 
 The fragment thus leaves the poet in a not uncommon 
 dilemma, and suggests caution in similar emergencies. At 
 all events poetic souls should think of an antidote to such 
 intoxication, before they expose their hearts to the risks of 
 similar unhappiness. Perhaps Zerlina could help them, 
 who in her aria ' Batti ! Batti ! ' also avows the scrabbling 
 of Eros, but says that she can cure it : 
 
 " I know a remedy, 
 Tender and sure." 
 VOL. VI. — H. L. Q 
 
226 jEsjhetical use of wine. 
 
 This aria, with Mozartian music, seems to me a pisrfect 
 cure in itself. However, Egypt no less than Spain prizes 
 wine, and even the Moslems, to whom wine is forbidden by 
 the book of Mahomet, drink Champagne, as not subject to 
 the interdict. The Shah of Persia, however, when in this 
 country was a complete abstainer, or at least entirely dis- 
 dained brandy and soda-water. The proper use of wine 
 suggests ideas ; some admit that the ideas are only more 
 rapidly evolved with the aid of wine, and not increased in 
 number or scope; as it is practically expressed, a wine 
 drinker thinks quicker, but not better, with the aid of wine. 
 The quicker flow of ideas facilitates their communication, 
 and thus wine aids in animating conversation. It is also 
 believed by authors of many ages, that the effect of wine 
 is antagonistic to hypocrisy and untruthfulness, and that 
 under its influence men lay aside their mental masks, and 
 show their actual features, an effect which the Latins 
 described in the saying, " In vino Veritas ! " 
 
 As we are internationally assembled — although the 
 representatives of foreign nations may be conspicuous by 
 their absence — it is perhaps not inappropriate for me to 
 allude to some other praises of the aesthetic uses of wine, 
 which have been propounded in different tongues. 
 
 There are those beautiful verses, breathing Horatian 
 inspiration, Latin, statuesque, humorous : 
 
 " Mihi est propositum in taberna mori, 
 Vinum sit appositum morientis ori, 
 Ut dicant cum vcnerint angclorum chori, 
 Deus sit propitius huic potatori." 
 
 Here the very angels are to intercede for the deceased 
 oenophilist. 
 
 Another breathes the tender melancholy of a solitary 
 man — a poet, forsooth — who has got, as Artemus Ward 
 would term it, " into the sere and yeller leaf," and does 
 not like it. He feels with the Chorus in Sophocles' Oedipus 
 in Kolonos : 
 
 "When manhood has left him, alone he stands and powerless, 
 Every disgrace he must suffer." 
 
JESTHETICAL USE OF WINE. 227 
 
 This is his monologue, appropriate to be sung on a 
 moonht evening, with flauto obbligato. 
 
 " Lauriger Horatius, quam dixisti verum, 
 Fugit Euro citius tempus edax rerum. 
 Ubi sunt nunc pocula, dulciora melle, 
 Rixae pax et oscula rubentis puellae. 
 Crescit uva molliter et puella crescit, 
 Sed poeta turpiter sitiens canescit. 
 Quid juvat eternitas nominis, amare 
 Nisi terrae filias licet et potare." 
 
 The Greek poets, epic and lyric, are the great examples 
 of enthusiasm for good wine. Thus sang Homer nearly 
 3,000 years ago, in the ninth book of the Odyssey, de- 
 scribing the beneficence of Maron, the minister of Apollo : 
 remember of Apollo, our special patron, the healing God. 
 
 " He fetched me gifts of various excellence, 
 Seven talents of fine gold ; a book all framed 
 Of massy silver ; but his gift most famed 
 Was twelve great vessels, filled with such rich wine, 
 As was incorruptible and divine. 
 He kept it as his jewel, which none knew 
 But he himself, his wife, and he that drew. 
 It was so strong, that never any filled 
 A cup, when that was but by drops instilled, 
 And drunk it off, but 'twas before allayed 
 With twenty parts in water ; yet so swayed 
 The spirit of that little, that the whole 
 A sacred odour breathed about the bowl; 
 Had you the odour smelled and scent it cast, 
 It would have vexed you to forbear the taste ; 
 But then, the taste gained, the spirit it brought. 
 To dare things high, set up on end my thought." 
 
 This is quoted by Mr. T. G. Shaw, in his beautiful work 
 on wine, from the translation of the Odyssey by George 
 Chapman, 1609. It was this wine which prepared Poly- 
 phemos for the loss of his eye, and thus helped to liberate 
 Odysseus from the grasp of the fabulous cannibal. 
 
 The lyric poetry of Anacreon is to Greek literature 
 what that of Horace is to Roman. Thus in the nineteenth 
 Ode he sings : 
 
 'H yri fieXatva ntixi, 
 ntcei Se devdpt' avrrju. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 ALSTHETICAL USE OF WINE. 
 
 IljVfi BaXaara' uvavjiovSy 
 'O 5' tJXlos ddXaaaaVj 
 Tou (5' rjXiov aeXTjVT]. 
 Tt /ioi iia)(((T6\ iraipoi 
 KavT^ deXovri niveiv ; 
 
 The ancients knew no temperance or total abstinence 
 societies, and practised no rivalry as to the wines of 
 different countries. But the modern, or so-called cultured 
 nations, have altered that. Thus our French neighbours, 
 of whom Julian the Apostate said yet that they were poor 
 in vines, and that their beer smelt of the he-goat and not 
 of Bacchus, now are quite convinced that their wines are 
 superior to any other in the world. Champagne comes 
 in for the highest praise from the pen of Amaury de 
 Cazanove, who however exhibits his limited taste by 
 denouncing Bordeaux as a wine for old and decrepit 
 people. 
 
 " Que le vieillard cherche un reste de vie, 
 Dans le Bordeaux qui rechauffe les sens. 
 Pour charmer les banquets la jeunesse n'envie 
 Que le Champagne aux flots resplendissants." 
 
 This was, no doubt, before champagne became dry, and 
 extra dry, and brut, harsh, sour, and dosed with cognac 
 brandy ; before it assumed that quality which a diplomatist 
 disliked, and of which he believed that others disliked it 
 also, no matter what they professed : he believed that the 
 man who said that he liked dry champagne would say 
 anything. However, the champagne of good years, with 
 its natural sweetness and gentle mousse, is one of the finest 
 inventions of the French genius. A wit said that there 
 were only three human inventions worthy of the ingenuity 
 of man : foil-fencing, the Jesuits, and champagne. How- 
 ever M. de Cazanove cannot conclude his canzonette 
 without a hit at the English : 
 
 "Vcus, froids Anglais, qui vantez notre France, 
 Et ses enfants au rire toujours prets, 
 Avez-vous soif d'amour, de gaitd, d'espdrance? 
 Buvcz, buvez ! et vous rirez apr^s ! " 
 
 We omit the refrain, as the circumstances are no longer 
 
jESTHETICAL use of wine. 229 
 
 fitting it. But we accept the advice, for we know it to be 
 correct from experience. 
 
 *' Et vous verrez les brouillards de votre onde, 
 Fuir dans les cieux en nuage vermeil ! " 
 
 The Italians of our days have also their national pets. 
 Thus Redi, in his poem " Bacco in Toscana," proclaims 
 Montepulciano to be king of all wines ! 
 
 " Bella Arianna con bianca mano, 
 Versa la Manna di Montepulciano ; 
 Col mane il tonfano e porgilo a me. 
 Questo liquore, che sdrucciola al core, 
 O come 1' ugola e baciami, e mordemi ! 
 O come in lacrime gli occhi disciogliemi ! . , , , 
 Montepulciano d' ogni vino ^ il re ! " 
 
 We hope the Italians will not allow themselves to deviate 
 from the path of progress which they have entered upon, 
 and revert to liqueur wines We have in this Exhibition 
 a number of samples of Italian wines which may go far to 
 counteract the results of former Exhibitions. 
 
 The Americans also have a pet wine, which in their 
 opinion beats Champagne, namely Catawba wine. Of this 
 Longfellow sings : 
 
 " Very good in its way. 
 
 Is the Verzenay, 
 Or the Sillery soft and creamy ; 
 
 But Catawba wine 
 
 Has a taste divine, 
 More dulcet, delicious, and dreamy. 
 
 " There grows no wine, 
 
 By the haunted Rhine, 
 By Danube or Guadalquivir, 
 
 Nor an island or cape, 
 
 That bears such a grape. 
 As grows by the beautiful river. 
 
 " Drugged is their juice, 
 
 For foreign use, 
 When shipped over the reeling Atlantic, 
 
 To rack our brains, 
 
 With the fever pains, 
 That have driven the old world frantic." 
 
33© ^STHETICAL USE OF WINE. 
 
 Here is one for M. de Cazanove, and for the rest of 
 European wine-bards. 
 
 However, in my humble opinion, good Catawba is an 
 excellent, marvellously-flavoured beverage. I can enjoy it 
 without thinking all other wines Borgia tinctures or Devil's 
 elixirs. 
 
 English literature is rich in allusion to the virtues of 
 wine, and the English people have always been excellent 
 customers of wine-growing lands. Indeed it may be said 
 that the vineyards of Jerez, the Alto Douro, and of Madeira 
 are mainly Britannia's vineyards ; while the French vine- 
 yards furnish a considerable share of English consumption. 
 
 The Germans have perhaps the most varied lyric poetry 
 in praise of wine, probably because their poems are mostly 
 set to music, and are sung by young and old on joyous 
 occasions. 
 
 Thus there is the celebrated song, 
 
 " Bekriinzt mit Laub den lieben vollcn Becher, 
 Und trinkt in frohlich leer ! " etc. etc. 
 
 The song is full of humour, but a little old-fashioned in 
 cadence and melody. It denounces not indeed foreign 
 wines, but other German Hills, which do not, like those of 
 the Rhine, produce wine, or produce bad wine. 
 
 There is the Thuringian three-men wine, so called 
 because, if any one wants to drink it he must be held by a 
 second man, and a third must force it down his throat. 
 
 There is Silesian, to which the Devil was treated, but he 
 said that to go on with it was only possible to a born Silesian. 
 
 But the end of the Rheimveiiilied concerns us here, as 
 it expresses the proposition we are here to discuss : 
 
 ** So trinkt ihn denn, und lasst uns allc Wege 
 Uns frcun und frohlich sein ! 
 Und wiisstcn wir wo jemand traurig lage, 
 Wir giiben ihm den Wein." 
 
 Ay ! Wine is a cure for melancholy ! and if there were 
 more good wine in the world there would be less melancholy 
 in it. 
 
^STHETICAL USE OF WINE. 231 
 
 Among German songs may yet be mentioned : 
 " Im kiihle Keller sitz' ich hier," 
 
 for a bass voice solo. 
 
 Lessing's poem of the bibber who cheated Death by 
 
 telling him he intended to become a doctor and go halves 
 
 with him as regards his patients, ending in this joyous 
 
 strophe : 
 
 " Ewig soil ich also leben, 
 Ewig ! denn beim Saft der Reben, 
 Ewig soli mich Lieb und Wein, 
 Ewig Wein und Lieb erfreun." 
 
 Who does not think of Luther's : 
 
 " Wer nicht liebt Wein, Weib, Gesang, 
 Der bleibt ein Narr sein Leben lang?" 
 
 and lastly of Gothe's Chorus : 
 
 " Sollst uns nicht nach Weine lechzen. 
 Frisch das voile Glas heran ; 
 Denn das Aechzen und das Krachzen, 
 Hast du liingst schon abgethan." 
 
 All factors which promote happiness, promote health. 
 And as wine promotes happiness it promotes health. But 
 it does so on the condition that it be aesthetically used, i.e.^ 
 in accordance with the dictates of feeling, reason, and 
 science. 
 
 Mr. A. J. R. Trendell moved a vote of thanks to 
 Dr. Thudichum for his able and interesting lecture, which 
 was carried unanimously. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Aberdeen, the Earl of, 159, 176 
 
 Agricultural Returns, l6l, 163 
 
 Adulteration Acts, 141, 153, 155, 173 
 
 Adulteration of milk, 139-140; oleomargarine, 149; percentage of milk 
 
 adulteration, 153 ; analyses of milk as it reaches London, and as it is 
 
 sold, 153-155 ; average watering of London milk nearly 19 per cent., 155 ; 
 
 necessity for further legislation, 155, 156 
 Albuminoids, their composition and function, 80, 89, 91 ; wheat richer in 
 
 albuminoids than barley, 92 ; soluble and insoluble albuminoids, 93-94 ; 
 
 the break-up of albuminoids in bakers' " sponge " checked by salt, 
 
 101-102 
 Armstrong's " Art of Health," 221 ; reprobates the mixing of wine with 
 
 brandy, 222 
 Artificial food for infants, its constituents and defects, 45, 46, 48 
 Aylesbury Dairy Company, 147 
 
 Bacteria, their power of exciting fermentation and putrefaction, 73-74 
 
 Banting, Mr., his reduction of corpulence, 66 
 
 Barff, Professor, his boro-glyceride, 77 ; its use discontinued in a London 
 hospital, 77 
 
 Bert, Paul, 9 
 
 Berzelius, 20 
 
 Blood, alkaline when in a healthy condition, 67 
 
 Bolland, M., (Paris), his method of testing wheats, 100 
 
 Bonthron, Mr., 109-110; his crude gluten, 108 
 
 Boyle, quotation from, 42 
 
 Bread-making, one of the earliest chemical arts, 85 ; three stages in its history, 
 87 ; unfermented bread in parts of Spain, 87 ; no cereal comparable with 
 wheat for the preparation of fermented bread, 93 ; chemistry of bread- 
 making included in the examinations of the City and Guilds Institute, 97 ; 
 the excellent bread of Moscow and Paris, 98 ; London system of bread- 
 making, 100-106 ; use and action of salt, 101-102 ; dough-mixing 
 machinery, 102 ; manufacture of fancy bread, 102-104; the sponge stage 
 most subject to injury, 103-106 ; modes of aerating bread without the 
 carbonic acid of fermentation, 105-106 ; Dr. Dauglish's plan, 106 ; 
 increased demand for aerated bread, 106 ; experiment with separated flour 
 and mi.Ncd flour, 107 ; use of brown meal or whole meal, 107-10S r 
 
234 INDEX. 
 
 glazing by super-heated steam, io8 ; sponge from first-class flour not to 
 
 be hurried, 109-110 
 British cattle, their superiority, 164-165, 176; special suitability of our soil 
 
 and climate to their maintenance in a state of excellence, 164, 168-169 
 British pastures unequalled, 164, 168-169, 176 
 Bullock's glycerine extract of pepsin, 18 
 Butter, substitutes for, 78, 79 ; method of preserving butter for winter use, 79 ; 
 
 its high price a cause of the prevalence of consumption, 79 ; its three 
 
 volatile fatty acids, 143 ; proportion of butter-fat in pure butter, 144 ; 
 
 composition of butterine, 144; constituents of butter, 148; butteiine sold 
 
 as butter, 174 
 Butterine, oleomargarine, etc., 78-79 ; the greasy scum of the Thames an 
 
 article of commerce, 79 ; composition of good butterine, 144 ; butterine 
 
 dishonestly sold as butter, 174 
 
 Caramel-making, 119; a larger use of caramels in cookery recommended, 
 
 119 
 Cereals, tabulated statement of their composition, 88, 92 ; their constituents, 
 
 88-89 J wheat more rich in albuminoids than barley, 92 
 Cheese, its composition, 130 ; use of hydrochloric acid, etc., in place of 
 rennet, 130 ; cheese a most valuable form of food, 130 ; its want of salts 
 and mode of supplying them, 131, 132 : experiments with a view to 
 render it soluble as it is in milk, 131-132 ; caseine or curd its basis, 144 ; 
 its sustaining power, 144-145 ; varying proportion of fat in cheeses, 149 ; 
 oleomargarine cheese, 149 ; cheese obtained from abroad cheaper than 
 we can make it, 172-173; suggestion that English farmers should give 
 more attention to the making of soft cheeses, 173 ; excellent Gorgonzola 
 made in Leicestershire, 174; American origin of oleomargarine cheese, 
 174 
 City and Guilds Institute, its examinations, 97, 98 
 
 Cookery, as a science distinguished from an art, 113 ; scientific investigations 
 of Jknjamin Thompson (Count Rumford), 114 ; his cheap cookery, 114; 
 heat the chief agent in cookery, 115 ; heat by radiation and by contact, 
 115; boiling and frying, 115-116; their differences, 116, 117; the 
 ordinary frying-pan a barbarous abomination, except for pancakes and 
 omelettes, 116; the frying-kettle the correct thing, 116; economy of a 
 bath of fat, 116-117 ; comparisons of the temperatures of a bath of water 
 and a bath of fat, 117 ; the rationale of frying in a bath of fat, 117-118 ; 
 the chemistry of browning, 118-119 ; analogous to that of caramel 
 making, 119 ; more extensive use of caramels in cookery suggested, 119 ; 
 the Vegetarian dinner at the Health Exhibition disappointing, 119; 
 delicious vegetarian dishes of Mr. Arthur Trcvelyan, 120 ; the possibility 
 of vegetarian diet greatly dependent on its cookery, 120; cooked water, 
 12! ; changes effected in meat by cookery, 121-133; large proportion of 
 gelatine (about one-half) in animals, 122 ; its cookery therefore important, 
 122; its nutritive value, 122; "bone soup " Commission of the French 
 Academy, 122; the cookery of gelatine, 123; solidification of one of the 
 juices of the meat by cookery, 124 ; coagulation of albumen by heat, 124 ; 
 its conversion into cement by over-cooking, 125 ; proper mode of slewing 
 beef-steaks, 125; boiling and " simmering " water identical, 125, 127- 
 
INDEX. 235 
 
 128 ; boiling to be avoided in the cooking of meat, 125 ; use of a bain- 
 marie, 125 ; cookery of the Continental peasantry, 125-126 ; bad cookery 
 a cause of craving for drink, 126 ; the juices of meat essential to nourish- 
 ment, 126 ; absence of the juices from salt junk, its evils and their 
 remedies, 126-127 ; mode of retaining the juices, 127 ; the Norwegian 
 cooking apparatus, 127 ; about 180° the correct cooking temperature, 
 128; modes of cooking an egg, 128; mode of cooking a steak, 129; 
 rapidity the secret of success, 129 ; cheese and its cookery, 130-132 ; its 
 want of salts, 131 
 
 Condensed milk undesirable for infants, 47 ; condensed skim milk, 48 ; use of 
 condensed milk in " milk-blending," 48-49 ; good results from condensed 
 milk, 56 ; used by the poor for the sake of economy, 58 
 
 Corn-growing unpromising, 160; low price of foreign wheat, 98-99, 169; the 
 future of English farming, 169-170 
 
 Dairy-farmin"G, illustrated by the model dairies at the Health Exhibition, 
 159 ; Mrs. Poyser's dairy, 160 ; improved aspect of dairy farming, 160 ; 
 diminished number of cattle a consequence of the recent series of wet 
 seasons, 161 ; reduced capacity of the land to sustain cattle, 161 ; cow's 
 milk reduced both in quantity and in quality, 161 ; pastures injured by 
 superabundance of wet and absence of sun, 161 ; capital employed in 
 dairy farming in the British Islands, 162 ; comparison of the intrinsic 
 values of milk and meat, and of bread-and-cheese and meat, 162-163 ; 
 estimated consumption of milk in London and the countiy generally, 138, 
 163 ; cost of the London milk supply, and of cheese and butter, 163 ; 
 number of cows required to supply these products, 164 ; milking cows 
 more profitable than fattening them, 164 ; our soil and climate better 
 suited than those of America for maintaining the excellence of our breeds 
 of cattle, 164, 168-169 ; cows sympathetic and responsive to kindness, 
 165 ; the treatment of cattle, 165-166 ; the feeding of cattle, 166-168 ; 
 ensilage as a food for dairy stock, 166, 167 ; food to be easily digestible, 
 166, 167 ; gentle fermentation an assistance to digestion, 168 ; the im- 
 provement of grass land, 168 ; dairy farming in France greatly disconnected 
 from grass land, 169 ; the question of arable versus grass land dairy farming, 
 
 169 ; dairying very profitable and popular in the arable districts of France, 
 
 170 ; selection of Ijreeds by " pedigrees of achievements," 171 ; diminished 
 reputation of shorthorns as milkers, 171 ; artificial development of milk- 
 ing properties, 171-172 ; clean hands of great importance in milking, 
 172 ; increasing consumption of milk, 172 ; cheese obtained from abroad 
 cheaper than we can make it, 173 ; checsc-making in England, 173-174; 
 oleomargarine cheese and its origin, 174 ; foreign disease a serious draw- 
 back to dairy farmers, 175 ; necessity that it should be kept out, 175, 176 
 
 Dairy management, commences in the cow-house, 197 ; importance of site for 
 a dairy, 197-198 ; thorough cleanliness a necessity, 198, 200, 205 ; 
 importance of good ventilation, 198 ; dairy floor to be kept perfectly dry, 
 198 ; reasons for bad butter, 198, 204 ; systems of setting milk, 198-199 ; 
 rotatory milk-stand, 199 ; skimming milk, 199-200 ; cleanliness of 
 porcelain vessels and porcelain skimmers, 199 ; dishonesty in butter 
 making, 200 ; churning, 201-205 '> Itsling the cream, 201 ; adjustment of 
 temperature, 201 j ventilation of the churn, 201-202 ; butter-making not 
 
236 INDEX. 
 
 to be hurried, 201, 202 ; drawing oft" the butter-milk the most difficult 
 part of churning, 202 ; the best price obtained for Normandy butter, 
 202 ; the Danish system of churning, 203 ; the Normandy system, 203- 
 204 ; importance of careful handling, 204 ; reasons for washing the 
 churns with cold water, 204 ; no soap or soda to be used, 205 ; the 
 Danish hardening-box, 205-206 ; water as a substitute for ice, 205 ; 
 dairy knives, &c., used in making-up to be quite wet, 206 ; packing 
 butter for the market, 206 ; English butter surpassed by foreign, 207 ; 
 nothing to be kept in the dairy but what appertains to it, 207 ; dairy- 
 maids' finger-nails, 207 ; colouring butter, 207-208 ; no reason why 
 England should not produce the best butter in the world, 208 
 
 D'Alembert, story of, 41 
 
 Daniel, Dr., 55-57 
 
 Danish dairy, aided by experiments at the Government expense, 179, 187 ; 
 difference in yield of milk by cows of the same breed, 180; "trial- 
 milking," 180 ; the three principal breeds of Denmark, 180-181 ; treat- 
 ment of cows, 181-185 ; temperature and ventilation of the byre, 182 ; 
 care as to the purity of the drinking water, 182-183 5 selection of fodder, 
 183-184; the herdsman's daily routine, 183; cows to be sent to the 
 pastures in summer, 183-184 ; two ways of treating cows on pasture, 184, 
 185 ; their supervision, 184-185 ; two modes of tethering cows, 185 ; 
 watering cows^ 185 ; the milking system, 185-187; necessity for strict 
 cleanliness, 185-186, 187; cows to be milked out, 186; the " biestings," 
 or first milk after calving, not to be used for dairy purposes, 186 ; modes 
 of setting up the milk, 187-189 ; promptitude in this of great importance, 
 186, 188-189 ; rapid ice cooling, 189-191 ; "the cream of cream," 189 ; 
 normal milk, 189-190; heavy milk, 190; separators and their action, 
 188, 190-191 ; butter-making, 191-193 ; sweet cream butler and sour 
 cream butter, 191 ; churns and churning, 191-192, 202-203 5 colouring 
 for butter, 192 ; preparation for the market, 192-203 ; the Danish 
 hardening-box, 205 
 
 Dauglish, Dr., his plan of making aerated bread, 106 
 
 Debrunfaut, 91 
 
 De Chaumont, Professor F., M.D., F.R.S., lectures on " Practical Dietetics, 
 especially in relation to preserved and condensed foods," 61-79, 8° 
 
 De P'albe, His Excellency M., Danish Minister, 179, 193 
 
 Dentition, early in the lower animals, 41 
 
 Dextrine, or British gum, how derived from starch, 90 
 
 Dextrins, 11 ; their ability to pass through membranes, &c., 12 
 
 Dickens, Charles, 160 
 
 Diet, its medical and physiological aspects little understood in earlier times, 
 61 ; natural selection of proper diet by the nations of the earth, 62 ; 
 functions of different articles of diet, 62, 65-67 ; milk representative of 
 the main constituents of diet necessary for life, 62-63 > i'^ constituents 
 not always suitable for adults in their exact proportion, 63, 137 ; diets of 
 European armies in water-free food, 64, 68 ; excessive proportion of 
 carbo-hydrates in this dietary, 64 ; large amount of water in solid food, 
 64^65 ; greater percentage of water in cabbage than in milk, 65 ; 
 definition of water-free food, 65 ; value of nitrogenous food in repairing 
 the tissues, and in controlling the absorption of oxygen, 66 ; Mr. 
 
INDEX. iy] 
 
 Banting's case, 66 ; effect of vegetable acids in preventing scurvy, 67 ; 
 mischievous dislike of vegetables and fruits, 68 ; mistakes in corporate 
 and official diets, 68-69 > preserved and concentrated foods, 69-79 » 
 composition and function of the albuminates, 80 ; analysis of foods at the 
 Health Exhibition, 81 ; exclusive cheese diet productive of scurvy, 131 
 
 Digestive processes partly chemical and partly mechanical, 5-6 ; mastication 
 and the action of the saliva, 5-12 ; effect of the digestive processes in 
 making insoluble bodies diffusible, 11 ; deglutition, 13 ; functions of the 
 stomach, 13 ; the gastric glands, 13 ; their complex structure, 13-14 ; 
 gastric juice the most important of the digestive juices, 14; its composi- 
 tion and analysis, 15-16 ; proteids of more importance than any other 
 constituents of diet, 23-24, 31 ; operation of the pyloric orifice, 24-25 ; 
 passage of chyme into the duodenum, 25 ; action of the bile, 25 ; 
 action of the pancreatic juice, 26-35 5 niedicinal preparations of pepsin, 
 &c., for purposes of artificial digestion, 31-35; digestion of milk, 32; 
 peptonised milk, 33-34 ; fat essential to the dietary, 144 ; skim milk a 
 valuable diet, 144 
 
 Druitt, Dr., 221 
 
 Dry summers, their advantageous effect on the wheat crop, 95-96 
 
 Dunham, Mr., proprietor of the Miller, 97, 107 
 
 Dyspepsia, its treament with pre-digested food, 34-35 
 
 Eliot, George, 160 
 
 English soldier, proposal to increase his meat rations, 69 
 
 Ensilage for dairy stock, 166 
 
 European armies, table showing their diets in water-free food, 64 ; mistakes 
 
 therein, 68-69 ; proposal to increase the meat rations of the English 
 
 soldier, 69 
 
 Fable, an American one, 52 
 
 Feeding-bottles and their evils, 49-51, 56-57, 58 ; advantages of the old- 
 fashioned slipper-shaped bottle, 49, 56 ; two feeding bottles to be kept in 
 use, one for day and one for night, 49 ; mode of cleansing them, 49 ; to 
 be used at regular intervals, 50 ; demoralizing use of the feeding- 
 bottle, 50 
 
 Ferments, formed (or organized) and unformed, 4, 7 ; diastatic ferment of the 
 saliva, or salivary diastase, 7 ; alcoholic fermentation in sugar, 7 ; oper- 
 ation of yeast as a formed ferment, 7-8 ; unformed ferments the products 
 of the activity of living cells, 8 ; differences between formed and un- 
 formed ferments, 8-9 ; effect of compressed air or oxygen upon them, 9 ; 
 action of salivary diastase or diastatic ferment, 9 ; temperature necessary 
 to the action of salivary ferments, 10 ; changes under the influence of 
 diastatic ferments, 12 ; pepsin the chief unorganised ferment of the 
 gastric juice, 16 ; action of pepsin and hydrochloric acid in the solution of 
 proteids, 17-19 ; curdling ferment or rennet ferment, 20, 33 ; its action in 
 converting casein into cheese, 20 ; production of the powerful ferment 
 pepsin, 22 ; maltose sugar readily acted upon by yeast ferment, 91 ; salt a 
 check upon fermentation, 101 ; M. Pasteur's discovery that fermentation 
 is due to minute organisms, 104 ; spontaneous fermentation of the must of 
 grape, &c., 104 ; theyeast organism, 104-105 ; fermentation accelerated by 
 
238 INDEX. 
 
 heat and retarded liy cold, no; digestion of cattle food assisted by gentle 
 
 fermentation, 167-16S 
 Fibrin, a typical proteid, 17 
 Food, its functions, 4 ; its composition, 4, 5 ; organic alimentary constituents 
 
 built up by vegetable organism, 4 ; their division into groups, 5 ; 
 
 abundance of starch in food, 9 
 French Academy, its "bone soup" Commission, 122 
 
 Gamgee, Professor Arthur, M.D., F.R,S., lecture on "the Digestion Fer- 
 ments and the Chemical Processes of Digestion," 3-20; second lecture, 
 
 21-35 
 Gastric juice, the most important of the digestive juices, 14 ; its composition 
 
 and analysis, 15 ; its secretion, 14, 21 ; its hydrochloric acid secreted in 
 
 the glands of the fundus, 21-22 ; effect of gastric juice on the digestion of 
 
 fats, 23 
 Gelatine, its abundance in animal structure, 122 ; its nutritive value, 122 ; its 
 
 investigation by a Commission of the French Academy, 122 ; its cookery, 
 
 123 ; change effected by hydration, 123 ; the carpenter's glue-pot, 123-124 
 Graham, Professor Charles, D.Sc, F.I.C., lecture on "the Chemistry of 
 
 Bread -making," 86-109 
 
 Hand-fed Infants, their reduced chances of life, 39-40, 44 ; abstinence from a 
 mother's duty through vanity, indolence, or frivolity, 39-41, 44 ; story of 
 D'Alembert, 41 ; difference between man and the loM'er animals as to 
 dependence on maternal care, 41-42 ; affection generated by such depen- 
 dence, 42 ; the rearing of hand-fed infants a matter requiring skill and 
 delicacy, 43; the "experienced" monthly nurse and the grandmother 
 frequently amongst those least suited for the work, 44 ; mothers' milk 
 the only food for the first half-year, 44, 58, 63 ; the artificial food of the 
 analytical chemist and physiological theorist, 45 ; no trace of the starchy 
 element of foods in human milk, 45 ; disregard of this fact in the prepar- 
 ation of patent food for infants, 45-46 ; infants' diet animal, not vegetable, 
 46 ; elements of human milk, 46 ; the best substitute for it, 46-47 ; baked 
 flour and oatmeal indigestible for infants, 47 ; temperature of prepared 
 food, 47 ; milk " from one cow," 47, 56 ; additional diet at the end of 
 six months, 47 ; condensed milk inadvisable, 47 ; the worst nourished 
 children brought up on patent foods and preserved milk, 48 ; feeding 
 bottles, 49-51 ; infants not to be fed every time they cry, 50; to be 
 entirely weaned before the expiration of the first year, 50 ; their subse- 
 quent diet, 51 ; prohibition of wine, beer, tea, and coffee, 51 ; fresh air 
 and sun-light necessary to children, 51, 54 ; position of the nursery, 51 ; 
 maintenance of the warmth of infants, 51-52 ; infants taken into their 
 mothers' beds, 52, 57 ; the young child not allowed to sleep with the adult in 
 Germany, 52 ; infants' clothing, 52-54, 57 ; their washing, 54 ; their sleep, 
 55) 57 '■> large proportion of sugar in human milk, 146 
 
 ** Hardening " infants by the use of cold baths, its folly, 54 
 
 Harvey, Dr., 66 
 
 Hill, Messrs. (Bishopsgate Street), 107; their exhibit at the Health Exhibi- 
 tion, 108 
 
 Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street, 43 
 
INDEX. 
 
 239 
 
 Howard, Mr. Jame?;, M.P., his testimony as to the destruction caused by 
 
 foreign cattle diseases, 175 
 Human milk, contains no trace of the starchy element of foods, 45 ; its 
 
 elements, 46 ; large proportion of sugar in it, 146 
 Huxley, Professor, F.R.S., 3, 20, 105 
 
 Infants' clothing, its folly, 53 ; a strange vestment, 53, 54 ; redistribution 
 
 of clothing required, 54 
 Infants' sleep, independent of rocking and other popular nursery measures, 55 
 
 Jenkins, Mr. H. M., Secretarj' to the Royal Agricultural Society, 159, 166, 
 
 169, 173, 176 
 Jonas, Mr., his food for cattle, 166, 167 
 
 Lawes, Sir John Bennett, his services to agriculture, 166 
 
 Lawes and Gilbert, table showing the average composition of cereals, 88, 92 ; 
 table showing the influence of seasons on the character of wheat crops, 
 95 ; 108 
 
 Lectures, "On the Digestive Ferments, and the Chemical Processes of 
 Digestion," by Professor Arthur Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S., 1-35; "On 
 the Rearing of Hand-fed Infants," by Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S. 
 42-55, with Introduction by Charles West, M.D., F.R.C.P., 39-42; 
 " On Practical Dietetics, especially in relation to Preserved and Con- 
 densed Foods," by Professor F. de Chaumont, M.D., F.R.S., 61-79; 
 "On the Chemistry of Bread-making," by Professor Charles Graham 
 D.Sc, F.I.C., 86-109 ; "On the Science of Cookerj'," by W. Mattieu 
 ■Williams, F.C.S., I13-133; "On Pure Milk," by G. W. Wigner, 
 F.I.C., F.C.S., 137-156; "On the English Dairy," by Professor J. P. 
 Sheldon, 159-175; "On the Danish Dairj'," by Alexander Mariboe, 
 179-193; "On Dairy Management," by Miss Smithard, 197-208; "On 
 the ^sthetical use of Wine, and its influence upon Health," by J. L. W. 
 Thudichum, M.D., F.R.C.P., 211-231 
 
 Liebig, 86 
 
 Lister, Sir Joseph, his prevention of hospital gangrene, &c., by the exclusion 
 of bacteria, &c., 74 
 
 London and Provincial Dairy Company, 179 
 
 McLagen, Dr., his experiments, loS 
 
 Majendie, the French physiologist, his experiment on "essence of meat," 
 
 72, 73 
 Maltose, 11, 12; its discovery by Debrunfaut, 91 ; experimented on by 
 
 Musculus, 91 ; researches of Mr. O'SuUivan, 91 ; maltose sugar readily 
 
 acted on by yeast ferment, 91 
 Mariboe, Mr. Alexander, Lecture on the " Danish Dairy," 179-193 
 Marshall's model bakery at the Health Exhibition, 102 
 Mastication, 5 ; its dependence on the presence of saliva, 5-6 
 Meinert's (Dr.) fleisch pulver, 71 
 
 Melvin, Mr. (Glasgow), his dough-mixing machine, 102 
 Microscope, its importance to the baker, 105 
 Milk, "from cne cow," 47, 56; representative of the main constituents of 
 
 diet necessary for life, 62, 63, 137 ; its constituents not always suited to 
 
240 INDEX. 
 
 adults in their exact proportion, 63, 137 ; capable of being reduced to a 
 small bulk and kept properly sealed without undergoing much change, 
 72 ; nature's own food, 137 ; the only thing which contains all the 
 essential constituents of food, 137, 138, 162 ; the most extensively used 
 food, 138 ; its consumption among the middle classes of London, 138, 
 163 ; average consumption throughout the kingdom, 138, 163 ; the milk 
 bill and the water bill, 138, 155; the poor the largest consumers of 
 milk, 138-139 ; watered and skimmed milk, 139 ; more adulterated than 
 any other article, 139 ; failure of numerous prosecutions to stop adul- 
 teration, 139-140 ; genuine milk to be had at 4d. a quart, 140 ; definition 
 of " pure milk," 140-142; milk from half-starved cows, 141-142 ; limit 
 below which pure milk will not fall except under most exceptional 
 circumstances, 142, 153-154; constituents of milk, 142; variation in its 
 composition, 143 ; fat the most variable and probably the most important 
 ingredient, 143 ; butyric acid, 143 ; proportion of butter-fat in cream, 
 143, 147 ; change effected in cream by churning, 143 ; skim milk a 
 valuable diet, 144 ; caseine, or curd, highly nitrogenous, 144 ; the 
 basis of our cheeses, 144 ; albumen in milk, 145 ; sugar of milk, and its 
 properties, 145-146 ; large proportion of sugar in human milk, 146 ; 
 mineral salts in milk, 146 ; water its largest constituent, I46-147 ; mode 
 of dividing milk into different articles of commerce, 147 ; the centrifugal 
 separator, 147 ; principle of its operation, 147-148 ; palatable character 
 of skim milk obtained by the use of separators, 148 ; butter and butter- 
 milk, 148-149 ; cheese and whey, 149 ; all the constituents of pure 
 milk capable of adulteration, 149 ; milk tests, 150-152; the microscope 
 the only means of detecting diseased milk, 151 ; use of the hydrometer or 
 lactometer, 151, 152; weight of milk and of water compared, 151; 
 analysis of fifty-five samples of milk as it arrives in London, 153-154; 
 analysis of thirty samples of milk as sold in London, 154-155 ; the law in 
 its present state powerless to prevent adulteration, 155 ; average watering 
 of London milk nearly nineteen per cent., 155 ; necessity for further 
 legislation relative to milk adulteration, 155, 156 ; milk reduced both in 
 quantity and in quality by the recent series of wet seasons, x6i ; com- 
 parison of the intrinsic values of milk and meat, and of bread-and-cheese, 
 and meat, 162-163 5 cost of the London milk supply, and of cheese and 
 butter, 163; increasing consumption of milk, 172 
 
 Milkmen and their tricks, 139; their idea of "pure milk," 141, 152-153; 
 analyses of milk as brought to London and as sold in London, 153-155 
 
 Milling, included in the examinations of the City and Guilds Institute, 97 ; 
 conditions to be aimed at in good milling, 98-100 ; methods of testing 
 wheats, 100 ; recommendation that every miller should send out two 
 distinct flours, 106, 107 ; experiment illustrating this point, 107 
 
 Mothers' meetings a blessing to the poor, 58 
 
 Mottershead's (Messrs.) Liquor Pepticus, 18 ; their preparations in the Health 
 Exhibition, 33 
 
 Musculus, 91 
 
 Norwegian cooking apparatus, 127 
 
 Odling, Professor, F.R.S., 85, 109; his investigation of the treatment of 
 flour with lime, 97 ; his experiments, 108 
 
INDEX. 241 
 
 Oo-tropaeoline, i6 
 
 O'Sullivan, Mr. (Burton-on-Trent), 91 
 Overlaid children, inquests on, 52 
 
 Owen, Mr. Edmund, M.B., F.R.C.S., lecture on " the Rearing of Hand-Fed 
 Infants," 42-55, 56, 57 • 
 
 Pancreas, great importance of its action on the constituents of food, 26 ; 
 alkaline nature of the pancreatic juice, 26 ; its difference from the saliva 
 and the gastric juice, 26, 27 ; its three ferments, 28-30 
 
 Panification, the chemical art of transforming flour into bread, 85 
 
 Pasteur, M., his investigation of fermentation, 104 
 
 Peligot, table showing analyses of wheat, 93, 94 
 
 Pepsin, 14 ; its acidity dependent on hydrochloric acid, 15 ; its properties, 
 16-19 ; solutions of, 18 ; peptones, 19, 21, 24, 30 ; pepsin produced both 
 in the glands of the fundus and in the glands of the pylorus, 22 ; medici- 
 nal preparations of pepsin made principally from the stomachs of pigs, 31 
 
 Pfleiderer's dough-mixing machine, 102 
 
 Playfair, Right Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., F.R.S., 61 ; on the functions of the 
 body with regard to nutrition, 79-82 
 
 Poor of Munich fed by Count Rumford for less than a penny per day per head, 
 114 
 
 Port wine, its importation into England under the Methuen Treaty, 221-222 
 
 Preserved and concentrated foods, 69-79 ; their importance, 69-70; their 
 differences, weight for weight, 70 ; the charqui or tasajos of South 
 America, 70; Dr. Meinert's fleisch pulver, 71 ; julienne, 71 ; limits of 
 concentration, 71 ; a lozenge to last 24 hours an absurdity, 71 ; weight 
 of water-free food necessary for existence, 71; "meat biscuit" for 
 troops, 71-72 ; danger of reducing food to too small a bulk by drying, 
 72 ; misleading statements respecting concentrated beef-tea and essence 
 of meat, 72 ; so-called " essence of meat " the juice of the flesh, not the 
 meat itself, 72 ; experiments on essence of meat by Majendie, the French 
 physiologist, 72-73 ; personal experiment by the lecturer, 73 ; value of 
 essence of meat as a stimulant and aid to digestion, and in cases of 
 extreme fatigue, 73 ; food preserved in its natural condition without 
 concentration, 73 ; fermentation and putrefaction in organic matter 
 excited by bacteria, bacilli, etc., 74 ; destruction of putrefactive particles 
 by cookery and preservation of food, 74 ; dangers to be guarded against, 
 75-76 ; mode of testing tinned food by the state of the top of the tin, 
 
 75 ; danger from diseased or tainted meat, 75 ; danger from improper 
 modes of sealing up the tins, 75-76 ; lead-poisoning and zinc-poisoning, 
 
 76 ; mode of preserv-ing food by the addition of substances to prevent the 
 development or action of putrefactive particles, 76 ; these substances more 
 or less harmful, 76-77 ; enactment of the French Government against the 
 use of salicylic acid, 76 ; Professor BarfPs boro-glyceride, 77 ; its use 
 discontinued in a London Hospital, 77 ; pemmican, its extensive use by 
 Arctic voyagers, 77, 78 ; its composition, 77 ; productive of bad results 
 in the absence of vegetable food or lime-juice, 78 ; jam and other 
 preserved vegetable food, 78; butterine, oleomargarine, &c., 78-79; 
 method of preserving butter for winter use, 79 ; ensilage of human food, 
 132-133 
 
 VOL. VL — H. L. R 
 
242 INDEX. 
 
 Proteids, of more importance than any other constituents of diet, 23-24, 31 ; 
 
 fibrin a typical proteid, 17 
 Prout, Dr., 62 
 
 Ptyalin, a term for salivary diastase, 7 
 Public Analysts, their definition of i^ure ^nilk, 142 
 
 Reay, Lord, 197, 208 
 
 Rlchet, Charles, 15 
 
 Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, half-starved cows at, 142 
 
 Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, 169 
 
 Rumford Count (Benjamin Thompson), his economical cookery, 114, 118 
 
 Saliva, the first of the digestive juices, 6-7 ; the salivary glands, 6 ; functions 
 of saliva, 6 ; salivary diastase, 6, 7 ; its action, 6, 9 ; analysis of saliva, 
 7 ; action of the saliva on cooked starch, 9 ; temperature necessary to 
 the action of salivary ferments, 10; action of saliva in the stomach, 22 
 
 Salutaris water, 121 
 
 Savory and Moore's Pepsine Essence, 18 ; their pancreatic emulsion, 28 ; 
 their pancreatinine, 29 ; their preparations in the Health Exhibition, 33 
 
 Schmidt, Carl, 7, 15 
 
 Science and Art Department, its examinations, 98 
 
 Scurvy, its prevention by the use of vegetable acids, 62, 67, 126-127; 
 formerly the scourge of the Navy, 67 ; still far from disappearing, even 
 among the better classes, 67; caused by salt junk, 126; produced by 
 exclusive cheese diet, 131 
 
 Separators, 188, 190-191, 198, 200 
 
 Shah of Persia (the), an abstainer when in England, 226 
 
 Shaw, Mr. T. G., 227 
 
 Sheldon, Professor J. P., Lecture on "the English Dairy," 159-175, 176 
 
 Shorthorns, their diminished reputation as milkers, 171- 172 
 
 Smithard, Miss, Lecture on " Dairy management," 197-208 
 
 Society of Public Analysts, 49 
 
 South Kensington School of Cookery, 115, 116 
 
 Starch, its prominence in food, 9 ; action of the saliva on cooked starch, 9, 
 lo-li ; chemical formula of starch, 9, lo-ii ; action of water upon it, 
 10 ; its conversion into dextrins, 11 ; formation of maltose, 11 ; experi- 
 ments with starch, 12 ; its storage in vegetable structures for future use, 
 89 ; its different characteristics, 89-90 ; indissoluble in cold water, 90 ; 
 action of boiling water upon it, 90 ; its conversion into dextrine at about 
 300° F., 90 ; other modes of conversion into dextrine, 90 ; allied 
 products, 90-91 ; action of malt on starch paste, 91 ; formula of starch, 
 92 ; starch an altered form of the albuminoid, 92 
 
 Stomach, its parts and functions, 13-15 ; the mucous membrane and gastric 
 glands, 13 ; secretion of gastric juice, 14, 21 ; the fundus and its glands, 
 14 ; secretion by them of the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, 21 j 
 small effect of the stomach on the starchy constituents of food, 22 
 
 Tests for milk, 150-152 
 
 Thompson Benjamin (Count Rumford), his economical cookery, 114 
 
INDEX. 243 
 
 Thudichum, Dr. George, 225 
 
 Thudichum, J. L.W., M.D., F.R.C.P., Lecture on " the ^sthetical use of 
 
 wine and its influence upon health," 211-231 ; his handbook on 
 
 Alcoholic Drinks, 214 
 Trendell, Mr. A. J. R., 82, 176, 231 
 
 Trevelyan, Sir Walter, gift of his wine to Dr. Richardson, 120 
 Trevelyan, Mr. Arthur (Edinburgh), called the "cabbage Laird," 120; his 
 
 delicious vegetarian dishes, 1 20 
 Treves, Mr., 54 
 
 Vegetarian dinner at the Health Exhibition, 1 19-120 ; vegetarian dinners 
 of Mr. Arthur Trevelyan, 120 ; the possibility of vegetarian diet greatly 
 dependent on its cookery, 120 ; much progress necessary before the 
 vegetarian millennium, 121 
 
 Voelcker, Dr., 142, 166, 167 
 
 Warwick farm dairy at the Health Exhibition, 199 
 
 Waste of the body made up with the albuminates, 79-81 ; composition of 
 the albuminates, 80 ; the old statement that the body changes once in 
 seven years a fallacy, 80 ; change of the muscles and other soft parts 
 every six weeks, 80 ; daily weight of flesh-formers necessary to keep a 
 man in health, 80-81 ; comparative cost of flesh-formers, 81 
 
 Water-free food, definition of, 65 ; weight necessary for existence, 71 
 
 Watts, Mr. J. I., 179, 193 
 
 Welford & Sons, Messrs., 142 
 
 West, Mr. Charles, M.D., F.R.C.P., introduction to lecture on "the Rearing 
 of Hand-Fed Infants," 39-42 ; his personal interest in the welfare of 
 children, 45 ; 57-58 
 
 Wheat, composition of its ash, 88 ; richer in albuminoids than barley, 92 ; its 
 crude gluten, 92 ; its soluble albuminoids, 92 ; cerealine largely present 
 in the bran of wheat, 93 ; its function, 93 ; Peligot's table showing 
 analyses of wheat, 93-94 ; proportion of dextrine fourfold that of the 
 soluble albuminoids, 94 ; table showing the influence of seasons on wheat 
 crops, 95 ; advantageous effect of dry summers, 95-96 ; table showing 
 the changes in infusions of various kinds of flour at a temperature of 
 about 85° F., 96 ; treatment of flour with chalk or lime, 97 ; improvement 
 of inferior wheat by kiln-drying, 97 ; excellent foreign wheats, 98 ; wheat 
 grown in India for 12^-. a quarter, 99 ; aromatic flavour of Indian wheat, 
 99; the American " wheat ring" broken down by Indian competition, 
 99 ; American protection contributory to reciprocal commerce with 
 India, TOO; methods of testing wheats, 100 
 
 Wigner, G. W., F.I.C., F.C.S., Lecture on "Pure Milk," 137-156 
 
 Wine, its resthetical use and its influence on health, 211-231; definition of 
 jesthesia, 211-212 ; its negation hyperesthesia, 212; anaesthesia, 212; 
 alcohol an anaesthetic, 212 ; beer not an alcoholic beverage merely, 
 213 ; true wine, of all alcoholic drinks, offers the least opportunity or 
 inducement to abuse, 213 ; reduced revenue from brandied wines, 214 ; 
 habitats and cultivation of the vine, 214-216 ; alcohol in wine and its 
 formulae, 217 ; acids, ethers, and sugars in wine, 217-220; its colouring 
 matter, &c., 220-221 ; passages from the poets relating to wholesome 
 
244 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 vine and its aesthetical use, 221-231 ; chamiiagne, 22S ; Italian wines at 
 the Health Exhibition, 229 ; Catawba wine, 229-230 ; the English 
 people good customers of wine-growing lands, 230 
 Williams, W. Mattieu, Lecture on "the Science of Cookery," 1 13-133 
 
 Yeast, a minute vegetable organism, 7 ; its operation as a formed ferment, 
 7-8 ; may be killed by the action of heat or of poison, 8 
 
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Health Exhibition Handbooks. 
 
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Health Exhibition Handbooks. 
 
 Laboratoiy Guide to Public Health Lives- 
 
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Health Exhibition Handbooks. 7:' 
 
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The folloAA^ing is the arrangement of the Hand- 
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 AA^ill be published in Volumes : — 
 
 Price 7s. 6d. per Volume. 
 
 c/5 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 < 
 
 HEALTH IN THE DWELLING. 
 
 Volume I. {Published.) 
 
 HEALTH IN THE VILLAGE. By Sir Henry W. Dyke-Acland, K.C.B,, 
 D.C.L., M.D., F.R.S., &c. &c. Llustrated. 
 
 HEALTHY NURSERIES AND BEDROOMS, INCLUDING THE LYING- 
 IN-ROOM. By Mrs. Gladstone. 
 
 HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY HOUSES IN TOWN AND COUNTRY. 
 By \Villiam Eassie, C.E., with an Appendix by Rogers Field, C.E. Ilhistrated. 
 
 HEALTHY FURNITURE AND DECORATIOxN. By Robeit W. Edis, 
 F.S.A. Illustrated. 
 
 HEALTHY SCHOOLS. By Charles E. Paget, M.R.C.S. 
 
 HEALTH IN THE WORKSHOP. By James B. Lakeman, one of Her 
 Majesty's Inspectors of Factories. 
 
 VENTILATION, WARMING, AND LIGHTING FOR DOMESTIC USE. 
 By Captain Douglas Gallon, C.B., F.R.S., &c. &c. Ilhistrated. 
 
 JNDEX TO VOLUME. 
 
 ] VOLUME II. (/;/ the Press.) 
 
 MANSION HOUSE COUNCIL ON THE DWELLINGS OF THE 
 POOR. — The Lord Mayor, President ; John Hamer, Secretary. 3, Queen 
 Mctoria Street, E.C. 
 
 "The Population of London and its Migr.tions " — "The Treatment of the London Poor" — 
 " Overcrowding " — " Suburban Dwellings and Cheap Railway Fares " — " On the Creation 
 of a Building Fund" — " Some Difficulties of Sanitary Legislation in the Metropolii" — 
 "Suggestions to the Royal Commissioners." 
 
 ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. 
 
 Ewan Christian, President ; William H. White, Secretary. 9, Conduit 
 Street, W. 
 
 "The General Subject of the Construction of Houses with regard to Sanitary Arrangements" 
 
 — " The Sanitary Arrangement of Houses in London during the last 120 years " — 
 
 "Drainage under Dwellings" — "The Impermeable Construction of Roofs, Walls, and 
 
 liasemcnt Floors, with a reference to Ventilation and Warming incidental thereto" — 
 
 "The Construction of Chimneys" — "A Suggestion with regard to the Construction of 
 
 Doors so ai to afford opportunity of Escape from Fire ; and another on an economical 
 
 mode of Fireproof Construction, adapted in s-everal instances in Public and Private 
 
 Huildings" — " Sanitary Aspect of Internal Fittings and Decoration" — "The Hygienic 
 
 Value of Colour" — " Collection, Storage, Management, and Distribution of Water for 
 
 Domestic Purposes." 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.— Sir Richard Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L, 
 
 CLE., President ; J. L, Cliflbrd-Smith, Secretary. i, Adam Street, 
 
 Adelphi, W.C. 
 
 " What conditions are essential for a Healthy Dwelling, whether in an urban or in a rural 
 locahty, and how far is it desirable that they should be rendered compulsory by legisla- 
 tion?" — "What, if any, 'restrictions in the interests of health should be enforced in 
 coimeclion with the employment of girls and women in Workshops and Factories?" — 
 "Is it desirable that notification of Infectious Disease should be obligatory?" — "Is it 
 desirable to legislate further respecting the dutiei^ of Medical Officers of Health?" 
 INDEX TO VOLUME. 
 
 VOLUME III. {In the Press.) 
 'HEALTHY HOUSES. By T. Pridgin Teale, F.R.C.S. 
 FOUL AIR IN HOUSES. By Professor W. II. Corfield, M.D. 
 HEALTHY FURNITURE. By Robert W. Edis, F.S.A. 
 DOMESTIC USE OF GAS. By Harold B. Dixon, M.A. 
 VENl ILATION IN CONNECTION WITH WARMING AND LIGHTING. 
 
 iiy Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R.S. 
 SMOKE ABATEMENT. By Ernest Hart, M.R.C.S. 
 
 HEALTHY TOWN AND COUNTRY HOUSES. By W. Eassie, C.E. 
 HEALTH IN THE WORKSHOP. By James B. Lakeman, one of Her 
 
 Majesty's Inspectors of Factories. 
 ANGLO-SAXON HOUSES. By Professor J. Frederick Hodgetts. 
 .INDEX TO VOLUME. 
 
Health Exhibition Literature. 
 
 Price 7s. 6d. per Volume. 
 
 HEALTH IN DIET. 
 
 Volume IV. (/// the Press.) 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION AND THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 By Professor Arthur Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S. Illus/rated. 
 
 DIET IN RELATION TO HEALTH AND WORK. By Alfred Wj-nter 
 Blyth, M.R.C.S, F.C.S. Illustrated. 
 
 ON THE PRINCIPLES OF COOKING. By Septimus Berdmore. 
 
 FOOD AND COOKERY FOR INFANTS AND INVALIDS. By Miss 
 Wood : with a Preface by Robert B. Cheadle, M.D., F.R.C.P. 
 
 WATER AND WATER SUPPLIES; AND UNFERMENTED BEVERAGES. 
 By Professor Attfiekl, Ph.D., F.R.S. 
 
 SALT AND OTHER CONDIMENTS. By John J. Manley, M.A. 
 
 ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. By John L. W. Thudichum, M.D,, F.R.C.P. 
 
 VINDEX TO VOLUME. 
 
 in 
 W 
 o 
 
 W 
 
 Ik 
 O 
 
 u 
 
 Volume v. (/;/ the Press.) 
 
 CENTRAL CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.— Henry Chaplin, M.P., 
 President ; Major P. G. Craigie, Secretary. 7, Arundel Street, Strand, 
 W.C. 
 
 "The Sources of our Meat Supply." — " The Causes which have Checked the Development 
 of our Home Production of Meat." — "Hom^-giown Meat Supply and the Increased 
 Production of Home-grown Meat." — "The Means of Securing the Supply of Meat to 
 largely-populated Centres." 
 
 INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY.— Professor William Odling, M.A., F.R.S., 
 President ; Charles E. Groves, F.C.S., Secretary. Somerset House 
 Terrace, W.C. 
 
 " Food Adulteration and Analysis," with Appendix. 
 BRITISH BEE-KEEPERS' ASSOCIATION.— The Baroness Burdett-Coutts, 
 President ; Rev. H. R. Peile, M.A., Secretary. Royal Horticultural Gardens, 
 S.W. 
 
 " Foul Brood and its Prevention."— "Adulteration of Honey." 
 
 INDEX TO VOLUME. 
 
 Volume VI. (/// the Press.) 
 
 THE DIGESTIVE FERMENTS AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF 
 ' DIGESTION. By Professor Arthur Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
 PRACTICAL DIETETICS. By Professor F, de Chaumont, M.D. 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF BREAD MAKING, By Professor Cliarles Graham, D.Sc. 
 
 SCIENCE OF COOKERY. By Mattieu W. Williams, F.C.S. 
 y^ .PURE MILK. By G. W. Wigner, F.I.C., F.C.S. 
 H (the ENGLISH DAIRY. By Professor J. P. Sheldon, F.C.S. 
 
 THE DANISH DAIRY. By Alexander Mariboe. 
 
 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. By Miss Marian Smithard. 
 
 REARING OF HAND-FED INFANTS. By Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S 
 
 AESTHETIC USE OF WINE. By John L. W. Thudichum, M.D„ F.R.C.P. 
 
 ViNDEX TO VOLUME. 
 
lo Health Exhibition Literature. 
 
 Price 7s. 6d. per Volume. 
 
 HEALTH IN RELATION TO CIVIC LIFE. 
 
 Volume VII. {In the Press.) 
 "OUR DUTY" IN RELATION TO HEALTH. By George Vivian Poore, 
 
 M.D.,F.R.C.P. 
 INFECTIOUS DISEASE AND ITS PREVENTION. By Shirley F. Murphy, 
 
 M.R.C.P. 
 ACCIDENTAL INJURIES : THEIR RELIEF AND IMMEDIATE TREAT- 
 MENT. HOW TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS BECOMING MORE 
 SERIOUS. By James Cantlie, M.A., M.B., F.R.C.S. Illustrated. 
 AMBULANCE: ORGANISATION, EQUIPMENT, AND TRANSPORT. 
 By Surgeon-Major G. J. H. Evatt, M.D., A.M.D. Illustrate/. 
 m( CLEANSING STREETS AND WAYS IN THE METROPOLIS AND 
 LARGE CITIES. By William Bocth Scott, M. Inst. C.E. 
 FIRES AND FIRE BRIGADES. By Captain Eyre M. Shaw, C.B. Illustrated. 
 LEGAL OBLIGATIONS IN RESPECT TO DWELLINGS OF THE POOR. 
 By Harry Duff, M.A., Barrister-at-Law ; with a Preface by Arthur Cohen, 
 Q.C., M.P. 
 SCHOOLS OF ART. THEIR ORIGIN, HISTORY, WORK, AND IN- 
 , FLUENCE. By [ohn Sparkcs. 
 \ INDEX TO VOLUl\iE 
 
 VOLUME VIII. {In the Press.) 
 
 ^SOCIETY OF MEDICAL OFFICERS OF HEALTH. 
 
 ' Subject (combined) : Domestic Sanitation in Metropolitan and Rural Districts. Industrial 
 
 Diseases: Spread of Infectious Diseases. Notification of Infectious Diseases : Disposal of 
 
 the Dead : Cremation. 
 
 SANITARY INSTITUTE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 PARKES MUSEUM OF HYGIENE. 
 
 I. Domestic Sanitary Arrangements of the Metropolitan Poor — la. The Improvement of the 
 Sanitary Arrangements of I\Ietropolitan Houses. — 2. Domestic Sanitation in Rural Districts, 
 aa. Sanitary Houses for the Working Classes in Urban Districts. — 3. Industrial Diseases.— 
 4. Spread of Infectious Diseases. — [a) Through the Agency of Milk. — (b) Through other 
 agencies. — 5. Notification of Infectious Diseases. — («) Its Importance and its Dilificiilties. — 
 Sa. (/') The Right and the Duty of the State to enforce it. — 5. Disposal of the Dead. — 
 6a. Cremation. 
 
 ST. JOHN'S AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION. 
 
 W / On the Carriage and Removal of the Sick and Injured. — On the Ambulance Organisation of 
 
 the Metropolis during Epidemics. 
 SOCIETY OF ARTS— Water Supply and Distribution. 
 
 Sources of Supply. — "On the Area of Chalk as a Source of Water Supply." — "Water Supply 
 in its Influence on the Distribution of the Population." — "On a possible Increase of Under- 
 ground Water Supply." — "Water from the Chalk." — "The Origin of Water Supplies." — 
 " Water Supply to Villages and Rural Districts." — " Water Supply."—" Sources of Water 
 Supply." 
 
 QuALiTV OF Water. FiLTR.\TroN and Softening. — "Water for Domestic Use." — "The 
 Softening of Water." — " The Detection of Sewage Contamination by the Use of the Micro- 
 scope, and the Purifying Action of Minute Animals and Plants." — " The Chemistry of Potable 
 Water." — " On the Purification of Water on a large Scale." 
 
 Mf.tiiods OF DisTRiiiurioN ; Modes of Giving Pressure; House Fittincs ; Discovery 
 AND Prevention of Waste, &c., &c. — " Water Distribution and Dual Supply."— " Modes 
 of Distribution, with some remarks on Dual Supply."— ■" Water Supply for Fire Extinction." 
 , — " Mode of Distribution of Water." 
 
 \lNDEX TO VOLUME. 
 
 Volume IX. (/;; the Press.) 
 '^ETHICS OF THE SKIN. By Malcolm Morris, M.R.C.S. 
 AMBULANCE ORGANISATION IN WAR AND PEACE. By Dr. Evatt. 
 ANGLO-SAXON DRESS AND FOOD. By J. Fred. Hodgetts. 
 OUR DOMESTIC POISONS. By Henry Carr, M. Inst. C.E. 
 HISTORY AND RESULTS OF A DISPENSARY FOR SICK CHILDREN 
 
 THREATENED WITH CHRONIC DISEASE. By Dr. Gilbert of Havre. 
 HEALTH WORK AND PLAY IN VILLAGE LIFE, By Sir Henry W. 
 \ Dyke Acland, K.C.B. 
 
 STREET ACCIDENTS AND THEIR AMELIORATION. By James Cantlie, 
 
 M.A., M.B., F.R CS. 
 THRIFT IN ITS RELATION TO HEALTH ; OR, THE RIGHT USE OF 
 REFUSE. By George Vivian Poore, M.D., F.R.C.P. 
 , THE PREVENTION OF CHOLERA. By Professor F. de Chaumont, M.D. 
 VRECREATION. By G. D. Darbishire, M.D. 
 
Health Exhibition Literature. 
 
 Price 7s. 6d. per Volume. 
 
 GENERAL HYGIENE, 
 
 Volume X. {In the Press.) 
 
 j ATHLETICS, OR PPIYSICAL EXERCISE AND RECREATION. Part I. 
 By Rev. Edmund Warre, M.A. Illustrated. 
 
 ATHLETICS. Part II. By Hon. Edward Lyttelton, M.A., and Gerard ¥. 
 Cobb, M.A. 
 
 DRESS AND ITS RELATION TO HEALTH AND CLIMATE. By E. W 
 Godwin, F.S.A. Illustrated. 
 
 FERMENTATION. By Dr. Duclaux, Professor of Biological Chemistry at the 
 Sorbonne. Illustrated. 
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH LABORATORY WORK. PART I. WITH CATA- 
 LOGUE AS APPENDIX. By W. Watson Cheyne, F.R.C.S. 
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH LABORATORY WORK. PART II. By W. H. Corfieldj 
 M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., and C. E. Cassal, F.I.C., F.C.S. 
 \ LONDON WATER SUPPLY. By Colonel Sir Francis Bolton, C.E. 
 
 VOLUME XI. (/;/ the Press.) 
 
 MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON AND NATIONAL HEALTH 
 SOCIETY. 
 
 Dietaries — Duties of School Managers in relation to Epidemics — Preventive Treatment of 
 Epidemics in Public and High Schools— Grammar and High Schools, their Construction and 
 Arrangement — School Dormitories — Effects of^'Posture in Schools — Gymnastics in Schools — 
 Gymnastics Ferieticolo?n'en—T\\e. Health and Physical Development of Idiots as compared 
 with mentally sound children. 
 
 ROYAL METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY. 
 
 Some relations of Meteorological Phenomena to Health. — English Climatological Stations.— 
 Cumulative Temperatures, &c., as shown on the Diagrams exhibited by the Meteorological 
 Office in the International Health Exhibition. — Some occasional Winds and their Influence 
 on Health. — The Equinoctial Gales — Do they occur in the Hritish Isles? 
 
 ASSOCIATION FOR THE ORAL INSTRUCTION OF THE DEAF AND 
 
 W| DUMB.— The Earl Granville, K.G., President; A. H. Moses, Esq., Hon. 
 
 Secretary. Address: II, Fitzroy Square, W. Subject: Oral Instruction of 
 
 the Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 On the Oral Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb. On the Education of Incurably Deaf Children. 
 
 SOCIETY OF TELEGRAPH ENGINEERS AND ELECTRICIANS.— 
 ELECTRIC LIGHTING— MUNICIPAL AND DOMESTIC. 
 Electric Lighting in relation to Health. — Physiological bearing of Electricity in relation to 
 Health. 
 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 
 
 Health in India — Change of Type in Epidemic Disease— Leprosy in India, and the best means 
 ^ of preventing its increase. 
 
 w 
 o 
 
 ^1 
 
 Volume XII. {Li the Press.) 
 
 PARASITES OF MEAT AND FOOD (TWO LECTURES). By T. Spencer 
 
 Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S. 
 CANDLES. By Leopold Field. 
 
 W 
 
 p/ HISTORY OF ENGLISH DRESS. By Hon. Lewis Wingfield 
 h \ 'textiles generally. By William Morris, 
 
 CHILDREN'S DRESS. By Miss Ada S. Ballin. 
 
 OLD AND MODERN POISON LORE. By A. Wynter Blyth, M.R.C.S. 
 
 SOAP. By Charles F. Cross. 
 
OFFICIAL CATALOGUE, GUIDE, Etc. 
 
 The Official Catalogue. Price is. 
 
 Contains a full list of the Vice-Presidents, Executive Council, General Com- 
 mittee, Jury Commissions, etc., etc., with all the necessary Memoranda for the 
 Guidance of Exhibitors, A detailed List of Exhibitors and their Exhibits, elabo- 
 rately classified, indexed, and arrantjed with a view to easy reference. 
 
 The Official Giiide. Price jd. 
 
 With Coloured Plan and Illustrations. 
 
 This Guide gives an accurate and concise account of the arrangement of the 
 Buildings, and of the most noteworthy objects contained in them ; pointing out 
 the best and most expeditious way of making a complete tour through the Exhibi- 
 tion. It includes an excellent Colouied Plan, Coloured Pictures of the Old London 
 Street and of the Grounds, an exhaustive Index and copious Marginal Notes to 
 facilitate ready reference, and an Introduction setting forth the purport and general 
 scheme of the Exhibition. 
 
 Daily Prograimne of Mttsic, &c. Price id. 
 
 Contains all the arrangements for the day, including Meetings of the Con- 
 ferences ; Lectures, Lessons on Cookery, etc., in the Lecture Hall; Practices in 
 the Gymnasium ; Organ Recitals, Vocal and Instrumental Concerts in the Albert 
 Hall ; Programme of the Musical Selections performed in the grounds by the 
 various Military Bands, &c., &c. 
 
 Recipes for Cheap Dinners. Price jd. 
 
 These handy and very practical Recipes are prepared by Mrs. Charles Clarke, 
 the Lady Superintendent of the National Training School for Cookery, and are 
 in daily use for the Cheap Dinners served in the Dining Rooms in connection with 
 the School at the Health Exhibition. The work is prefaced by a chapter showing 
 the object and work of the National Training School for Cookery, Summary of 
 Rules, &c. 
 
 Handbook to the Aqiiaritun. Price 6d. 
 
 Second Edition. Profusely Illustrated. 
 
 Contents :^Introduction. — History of the National Fish Culture Association. — Ohjccls 
 of the Association. — List of Officers. — CompHmcntary Lists. — Description of the A(iuarium. 
 —Description of the Fish Culture Department.— The Cultivation of Salmonidre.— The 
 Cultivation of Coarse Fishes. — The Acclimatisation of Foreign Food Fishes. — Hints on 
 the Construction and Management of Fish Ponds.— Natural History of the Fishes 
 exhibited in the Tanks.— List of Loan Exhibitors. 
 
 WILLIAM CLOWES & SONS, Limited, 
 
 OFFICIAL PRINTERS & PUBLISHERS TO THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 
 
 13, CHARING CROSS, LONDON, S.W. 
 
A 
 
 CATALOGUE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS 
 
 ISSUED BY THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION. 
 
 The exhaustive range comprised by the Handbooks and Prize Essays, 
 which are by writers of great eminence and authority, and the comprehensive 
 nature of the Papers which emanated from the various Conferences, combine 
 to render this Series an exceptionally instructive and condensed Library of 
 Reference on all questions appertaining to Fish, Fishing Appliances, and the 
 Fishing Industries of all Countries, brought down to the date of the Inter- 
 national Fisheries Exhibition of 1883. 
 
 LONDON : 
 WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, Limited, 
 
 OFFICIAL PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS TO THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, 
 
 13 CHARING CROSS, S.W. 
 
 1884. 
 
A 
 
 CATALOGUE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FISHERIES EXHIBITION LITERATURE 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 WM. CLOWES & SONS, LIMITED, 13, Charing Cross, S.W. 
 
 THE INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION 
 
 LITERATURE. Complete in 14 Vols., each fully indexed. 
 Demy 8vo. cloth. Price £^6 6s. 
 
 The Fourteen Volumes, as above, comprise the whole of the Important 
 Literary Outcome of the Fisheries Exhibition, which is issued in a collected 
 form with copious Indexes, &c., by desire of the Executive Committee. 
 
 Any of the various divisions of this work may be obtained separately, at 
 the following prices : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 THE HANDBOOKS. Forming Vols. L to IIL .. i 11 6 
 
 THE CONFERENCE PAPERS. Forming Vols. IV. to VII. 2 2 o 
 
 THE PRIZE ESSAYS. Forming Vols. VIII. to XL ..2 2 o 
 
 THE OFFICIAL CATALOGUE I ^^ . ,, ^.. 
 
 AND JURY AWARDS. [ Fornung Vol. XIL .. o 10 6 
 
 THE OFFICIAL REPORT. Forming Vol. XII L .. o 10 6 
 
 THE ANALYTICAL INDEX. Forming Vol. XIV. ..010 6 
 
 A Complete List, showing the contents of each of these volumes, will be 
 found in the following pages, and single copies of any of the Handbooks, 
 Conference Papers, or Prize Essays, may still be obtained of the Publishers at 
 the prices affixed, although the volumes of each division catmot be sold 
 separately. 
 
Published by William Clowes & Sons, Limited. 3 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. I. 
 
 Handbooks — Part I. 
 CONTENTS : - 
 
 THE BRITISH FISH TRADE. By His Excellency Spencer Walpole, 
 Lieut. -Governor of the Isle of Man. \s. 
 
 MARINE AND FRESHWATER FISHES OF THE BRITISH 
 
 ISLANDS. By W. Saville Kent, F.L.S., F.ZS. \s. 
 THE FISHERY LAWS. By Frederick Pollock, Barrister-at-Law, 
 
 M.A., (ic. ij-. 
 APPARATUS FOR FISHING. By E. W. H. Holdsworth, F.L.S., 
 
 F.Z.S. \s. 
 THE PLACE OF FISH IN A HARD-WORKING DIET, WITH 
 
 NOTES ON THE USE OF FISH IN FORMER TIMES. By W. Stephen 
 
 Mitchell, M.A. \s. 
 
 A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE FISHERIES AND FISHERMEN 
 OF ALL COUNTRIES FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES. By W. M. 
 Adams, B.A. \s. 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. II. 
 
 Handbooks — Part H. 
 
 CONTENTS ,— 
 
 FISH CULTURE. By Francis Day, F.L.S., F.Z.S. i.r. 
 
 ZOOLOGY AND FOOD FISHES. By George Bond Howes. \s. 
 
 THE UNAPPRECIATED FISHER FOLK: THEIR ROUND OF 
 LIFE AND LABOUR. By James G. Bertram. 
 
 THE SALMON FISHERIES. By Charles E. Fryer. i.f. 
 
 ANGLING IN GREAT BRITAIN. By William Senior, is. 
 
 INDIAN FISH AND FISHING. By Francis Day, F.L.S., F.Z.S. is. 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. IIL 
 
 Handbooks — Part HI. 
 
 CONTENTS .— 
 FISHES OF FANCY: THEIR PLACE IN MYTH, FABLE, 
 FAIRY-TALE, AND FOLK-LORE. With Notices of the Fishes of Legendary 
 Art, Astronomy, and Heraldry. By Phil Robinson. \s. 
 
 ANGLING CLUBS AND PRESERVATION SOCIETIES OF 
 LONDON AND THE PROVINCES. By J. P. Wheeldon. \s. 
 
 SEA FABLES EXPLAINED. By Henry Lee, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. ys. 
 
 SEA MONSTERS UNMASKED. By Henry Lee, F.L.S., F.G.S., 
 F.Z.S. IS. 
 
 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN THE GENTLE CRAFT. By J. P. 
 
 Wheeldon. is. 
 
 LITERATURE OF SEA AND RIVER FISHING. By J. J. Manley, 
 M.A. \s. 
 
Published by 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. IV. 
 
 Conference Papers — Part I. 
 CONTENTS .— 
 INAUGURAL ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR HUXLEY, P.R.S. 6^. 
 
 NOTES ON THE SEA FISHERIES AND FISHING POPULATION 
 OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. By Vice-Admiral H.R.H. the Duke of 
 Edinburgh, K.G. \s. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FISHERY LEGISLATION. By Right Hon. G. 
 Shaw-Lefevre, M.P. dd. 
 
 FISH TRANSPORT AND FISH MARKETS. By His Excellency 
 
 Spencer Walpole, Lieut. -Governor of the Isle of Man. dd. 
 
 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF FISHERMEN. By Professor 
 
 Leone Levi, F.S.A., F.S.S., F.R.G.S., &c. 60'. 
 A NATIONAL FISHERIES SOCIETY. By C. E. Fryer. U. 
 
 RIVER POLLUTION BY REFUSE FROM MANUFACTORIES 
 AND MINES ; TOGETHER WITH SOME REMEDIES PROPOSED. By 
 V. B. Barrington-Kennett, M.A., LL.M. bd. 
 
 PRACTICAL FISHERMEN'S CONGRESS. Under the Presidency of 
 
 Mr. Edward Birkbeck, M.P. 6^/. 
 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS OF THE EXHIBITION. By E. Ray- 
 Lankester, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., &c. U. 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. V. 
 
 Conference Papers — Part II. 
 
 CONTENTS .— 
 
 FISHERY INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. By Professor 
 
 G. Brown Goode, M.A., &c. 6^/. 
 OYSTER CULTURE AND OYSTER FISHERIES IN THE 
 
 NETHERLANDS. By Professor Hubrecht. U. 
 THE FISHERIES OF CANADA. By Louis Z. Joncas. bd. 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF CHINA. By J. D. Duncan Campbell, Com- 
 
 missioner for China, dd. 
 A SKETCH OF THE FISHERIES OF JAPAN. By Narinori Okoshi, 
 
 Member of the Japanese Consulate in London, bd. 
 NEWFOUNDLAND : ITS FISHERIES AND GENERAL RE- 
 SOURCES. By the Hon. Sir Ambrose Shea, K.C.M.G., Commissioner for 
 
 Newfoundland, dd. 
 THE SWEDISH FISHERIES. By Professor F. A. Smitt, Royal 
 
 Commissioner for Sweden to the International Fisheries Exhibition. 6^. 
 NOTES ON THE FISH SUPPLY OF NORWAY. By Frederik M. 
 
 Wallem, Executive Commissioner for Norway to the International Fisheries 
 
 Exhibition. 6a'. 
 NOTES ON THE FOOD FISHES AND EDIBLE MOLLUSCA 
 
 OF NEW SOUTH WALES, Etc. By E. P. Ramsay, Commissioner for New 
 
 South Wales, (yd. 
 THE FISHERIES OF SPAIN. By Lieut.-Col. F. G. SoM, Executive 
 
 Commissioner for Spain to the International Fisheries Exhibition, dd. 
 THE FISHERIES OF THE BAHAMAS. By Augustus J. Adderley, 
 
 Commissioner for the Bahamas to the International Fisheries Exhibition, bd. 
 WEST AFRICAN FISHERIES, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE 
 
 TO THE GOLD COAST COLONY. By Captain C. A. Moloney, C.M.G. bd. 
 
William Clo"WEs & Sons, Limited. 5 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. VI. 
 
 Conference Papers — Part III. 
 
 CONTENTS;— 
 
 FISH DISEASES. By Professor Huxley, P.R.S. 6^/. 
 
 THE CULTURE OF SALMONID^ AND THE ACCLIMATIZA- 
 TION OF FISH. By Sir James Ramsay Gibson Maitland, Bart. dd. 
 
 THE HERRING FISHERIES OF SCOTLAND. By R. W. Dufif, 
 M.P. 6</. 
 
 MACKEREL AND PILCHARD FISHERIES. By Thomas Cornish. U. 
 
 SALMON AND SALMON FISHERIES. By D. M. Home,F.R.S.E. dd. 
 
 COARSE FISH CULTURE. By R. B. Marston. U. 
 
 THE DESTRUCTION OF FISH AND OTHER AQUATIC 
 
 ANIMALS BY INTERNAL PARASITES. By T. Spencer Cobbold, M.D., 
 F.R.S., F.L.S. bd. 
 
 THE FOOD OF FISHES. By Francis Day, F.L.S., F.Z.S. U. 
 
 MOLLUSCS, MUSSELS, WHELKS, Etc., USED FOR FOOD OR 
 BAIT. By C. W. Harding, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. dd. 
 
 THE ARTIFICIAL CULTURE OF LOBSTERS. By W. Saville Kent, 
 F.L.S., F.Z.S. U. 
 
 CRUSTACEANS. By Thomas Cornish, dd. 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. VIL 
 
 Conference Papers — Part IV. 
 
 CONTENTS .•— 
 
 FISH AS FOOD. By Sir Henry Thompson, M.B., F.R.C.S., d-c. bd. 
 
 THE PRESERVATION OF FISH LIFE IN RIVERS BY THE 
 EXCLUSION OF TOWN SEWAGE. By the Hon. W. F. B. Masscy 
 Mainwaring. 6(/. 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF IRELAND. By J. C. Bloomfiekl. 6^/. 
 
 IMPROVED FACILITIES FOR THE CAPTURE, ECONOMIC 
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF SEA FISHES, &c. By R. F. 
 Walsh, dd. 
 
 SEAL FISHERIES. By Captain Temple, dd. 
 
 STORM WARNINGS. By R. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S. U. 
 
 SAVING LIFE AT SEA. By Richard Roper, dd 
 
 FISH PRESERVATION AND REFRIGERATION. By J. K. 
 
 Kilbourn. dd. 
 
 THE BASIS FOR LEGISLATION ON FISHERY QUESTIONS. 
 By Lieut.-Col. F. G. Sola. ^d. 
 
 FOREST PROTECTION AND TREE CULTURE ON WATER 
 FRONTAGES, Etc. By D. Howitz, Esq. U. 
 
 LINE FISHING. By C. M. Mundahl. dd. 
 
 TRAWLING. By Alfred W. Ansell. dd 
 
Published by 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. VIII. 
 
 Prize Essays — Part I. 
 
 CONTENTS:— 
 
 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF GREAT BRITAIN. By 
 F. Day, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 51. 
 
 THE EFFECT OF THE EXISTING NATIONAL AND INTER- 
 NATIONAL LAWS FOR THE KEGULATION AND PROTECTION OF 
 DEEP SEA FISHERIES, Etc. By C. W. Morris. 3^. 
 
 SALMON LEGISLATION IN SCOTLAND, Etc. By J. M. Leith. 
 \s. 6d. 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. IX. 
 
 Prize Essays — Part II. 
 CONTENTS .— 
 
 IMPROVED FISHERY HARBOUR ACCOMMODATION FOR 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. By J. C. Wilcocks. 2s. 
 
 THE BEST SYSTEM OF LIFE INSURANCE FOR FISHERMEN, 
 Etc. By J. W. de Caux. \s. 
 
 THE RELATIONS OF THE STATE WITH FISHERMEN AND 
 FISHERIES, Etc. By C. E. Fryer. i.f. ed. 
 
 THE RELATIONS OF THE STATE WITH FISHERMEN AND 
 
 FISHERIES, Etc. By F. J. Talfourd Chater. is. 6d. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF DUTCH SEA FISHERIES, Etc. By A. Beaujon. 
 
 ifS. 6d. 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. X, 
 
 Prize Essays — Part III. 
 CONTENTS:— 
 
 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Etc. By Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., 
 F.L. S. ^s. 
 
 IMPROVED FACILITIES FOR THE CAPTURE, ECONOMIC 
 TRANSMISSION, AND DISTRIBUTION OF SEA FISHES. By H. P. 
 Blake, is. 6d. 
 
 A CENTRAL WHOLESALE FISH MARKET FOR LONDON. 
 By J. J. Cayley and H. H. Bridgman, F.R.I.B.A. 5^. 
 
 THE BEST APPLIANCES AND METHODS OF BREAKING THE 
 FORCE OF THE SEA AT THE ENTRANCE TO HARBOURS AND 
 ELSEWHERE. By W. A. Smith, is. 
 
William Clo^wes & Sons, Limited. 7 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. XI. 
 
 Prize Essays — Part IV. 
 
 CONTENTS:— 
 
 THE PROPAGATION OF THE SALMONID.^. By J. Stirling. \s. 
 
 THE PROPAGATION OF THE SALMONID^. By T. Andrews, is. 
 
 THE PROPAGATION OF THE SALMONID.E. By W. Oldham 
 Chambers. \s. 
 
 THE SALMON DISEASE. By J. Clark, is. 
 
 THE SALMON DISEASE: ITS CAUSE AND PREVENTION 
 By W. A. Smith, is. 
 
 THE CULTIVATION OF FRESHWATER FISH OTHER THAN 
 SALMONID^. By R. B. Marston. \s. 
 
 THE PROPAGATION OF FRESHWATER FISH, EXCLUDING 
 SALMONID^. By W. Oldham Chambers. \s. 
 
 THE HERRING FISHERY. By R. Hogarth. is. 
 
 THE HERRING FISHERIES. By R. J. Munro. i^. 
 
 THE HERRING FISHERIES. By H. J. Green, is. 
 
 THE SCOTCH EAST COAST, ORKNEY AND SHETLAND, LEWIS 
 AND BARRA HERRING FISHING. By W. S. Miln. u. 6d. 
 
 THE NATURAL HISTORY AND CULTIVATION OF THE SOLE. 
 By Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. is. 
 
 OYSTER CULTURE. By Commander C. V. Anson, RN and 
 E. H. Willett, F.D.A. 2s. 6d. 
 
 OYSTER CULTURE. By Dr. P. P. Hoek. is. 
 
 THE BEST MEANS OF INCREASING THE SUPPLY OF 
 MUSSELS AND OTHER MOLLUSCS, Etc. By T. F. R. Carr. is. 
 
 THE BEST MEANS OF INCREASING THE SUPPLY OF 
 MUSSELS AND OTHER MOLLUSCS, Etc. By J. C. Wilcocks. is. ed . 
 
 THE INTRODUCTION AND ACCLIMATIZATION OF FOREIGN 
 FISH. By W. Oldham Chambers, is. 
 
 THE FOOD OF FISHES, Etc. By G. Sim. i.r. 6d. 
 
 THE CURRENTS, TEMPERATURES, AND OTHER PHYSICAL 
 CONDITIONS OF THE SEA IN RELATION TO FISH. By W. Watt. is. 
 
 ANGLING CLUBS. By J. Skinner, is. 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. XII. 
 
 CONTENTS.— 
 OFFICIAL CATALOGUE. 
 THE AWARDS OF THE INTERNATIONAL JURIES. 
 
8 Published by William Clo^ves & Sons, Limited. 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. XIII. 
 
 CONTENTS .— 
 
 OFFICIAL REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES 
 
 EXHIBITION. By Spencer Walpole. 
 
 REPORT ON THE ELECTRIC LIGHTING. By William D. Gooch. 
 
 APPENDIX A. — CEREMONIAL AT OPENING OF INTER- 
 NATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION AND ADDRESSES AT CLOSING. 
 
 APPENDIX B.— STATISTICAL TABLES. RETURN OF NUMBER 
 OF VISITORS DURING THE TERM OF THE INTERNATIONAL 
 FISHERIES EXHIBITION. 
 
 APPENDIX C— DIGESTS PREPARED BY INVITATION OF 
 THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL AS TO THE CONDITION OF THE 
 FISHING INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND ABROAD. 
 
 THE FISHERIES LITERATURE-VOL. XIV. 
 
 CONTENTS:— 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX TO THE WHOLE LITERATURE. 
 
 A Complete and Detailed List of the Literature published in 
 connexion with THE INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHI- 
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