^'iO ^w^^ i^oinnxbia ^lxxxxtev&iix% Hx th^ ®itu 0f %Uxxf %]0vh ANCIENT CIVILIZATION •The^^C^o THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO - DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMH.LAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO ANCIENT CIVILIZATION A TEXTBOOK FOK SECONDARY SCHOOLS ^r. » ■■'5 o , -> « ■> -> ' J 3 J 3 3 , < .) > » 3 ROSCOE LEWIS ASHLEY > ^ ® 5' U AMERICAN r o J ) > > > o„ , , > > ' THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1915 All rights reserved PTesrde-fs Office ^ • ••»•• • * < • • • • •„ ••••• • • ^ • • • .CoPTBiGifr, 1914, 1915, By TflE MACMILLAN COMPANY , •• •• » > « « * ••,«•• •,•<■*,.••••••• . • • • » .^ •••,'•• •'♦•••• • •• Bet up and electr«tyj)ed.' jP,iijDli{hecC f ^silary,* 1915! ••* *•* : ••• • ••/ •••«« •• • • • • • . . 3^0 • • • • • ^^3 6 Kortoooti }|rfS8 J. 8. Gushing Co. — Herwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE A GREAT deal more attention is being given to social his- tory and the life of the people of the past than was formerly the case. A great deal less is being given, except by classi- cal students, to the history of Greece and Rome. This book aims to meet the need of schools that desire a short ancient history text, to the time of Charlemagne, which shall not be chiefly a narrative of events. It deals primarily with human progress. It devotes especial attention to great movements, to important leaders, to the life of the people and to the civilization of different periods. Although it is not always easy to trace the records of the " dim silent masses," this social history seems to be worth more than the annals of courts or of conquerors. As far as possible, the author has tried to keep in mind three things : (1) the importance of any change as a part of the development of ancient civilization; (2) the connection between these changes and modern life ; and (3) the interest and capacity of the student in the high school. He has tried to give a correct impression of events and changes rather than to describe them with literal accuracy, as literal accuracy is impossible in so brief an account. Even if it were not im- possible, it would be undesirable, for an exact, detailed ac- count would render obscure the character and the meaning of the movement under consideration. Brief and general as is this survey of a very broad field, the author hopes that he may have made the subject interesting as well as intelligible. The author's thanks are due to the following teachers for the reading of part or all of the book in manuscript: Miss V vi PREFACE Maude Frances Stevens of the Palo Alto (California) High School, Miss Alice N. Gibbons of the East High School, Kochester, New York, and Miss Leonora Schopbach of the Pasadena (California) High School. He is indebted to Pro- fessors George AVillis Botsford, T. G. Tucker, Charles Heald Weller, F. 15. Tarbell, and AV. G. Solas for the use of illustrations from their books. His indebtedness to other authors and illustrators is indicated in the text or in the list of illustrations. The author will be glad to receive sugges- tions or criticisms from those that have occasion to use the volume. Pasadena, California, July, 1914. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION SECTION 1. Ancient and Modern Civilization 7. History and Prehistory . PART I THE DAWN OF CIVILIZATION CHAPTER I PREHISTORIC MAN 12. The Old Stone Age 11). The New Stone Age ..... 25. Prehistoric Civilization 37. Man at the Dawn of History CHAPTER II THE DAWN OF HISTORY 43. Ancient Egypt . . . . . 51. The Tigris-Euphrates Valley — Early Period 58. Assyria and Chaldea ..... 64, The East Mediterranean Coast CHAPTER HI ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 74. The Ruling Classes . 79. Life of jhe People . 86. Religion .... 96. Writing and Literature 105. Trade and Industry 113. Progress of Twenty-five Centuries vii 11 15 18 25 33 39 44 49 60 64 70 77 83 89 Vlll CONTENTS CHAPTER IV THE .KGEAN AREA 8E< TION 117. The Geography of the yEgean Area 122. Early ^Egean Civilizations 127. The Homeric Ace 132. The Unity of the Greeks 138. The Greater Greek World 145. Sparta .... 150. Athens .... 95 98 101 104 109 113 115 PART II THE EXPANSION OF THE NATIONS (550-146 H.c.) A. GREECE CHAPTER V GREECE AND PERSIA 157. The Geography of Ancient Expansion . 160. The Persian Empire 167. The Persian Wars CHAPTEPv VI HELLENIC GREE( E 178. The Golden Age of Greece .... 188. The Peloponnesian War 194. ^gospotami to Ch.eronea .... CHAPTER VII ALEXANDER : THE HELLENISTIC AGE 201. The Empire of Alexander .... 208. The Hellenistic Age 127 129 134 145 154 157 164 169 CONTENTS IX SECTION 212. Centers of Hellenistic Cultitke 218. Greece after Alexani>kr PAGE 171 174 CHAPTER VIII THE PLACE OF GREECE IN HISTORY 225. Social Life 234. Government 239. Literature 250. Greek Art 259. Intellectual Science 268. Spread op Hellenism 180 180 189 194 201 207 B. ROME CHAPTER IX EARLY ROME 275. Geography 280. The Romans before 510 h.c. . 286. The Struggle of the Classes 293. The Conquest of Italy . 299. The Roman State and Army . 218 220 224 227 231 CHAPTER X CONQUEST OF THE MEDITERRANEAN (264-146 a.d.) 304. Before and after the Punic Wars .... 238 308. Carthage 240 313. The Early Punic Wars 243 321. Completion of Mediterranean Conquests . . . 247 326. Changes in Rome 250 roXTENTS 1\\RT III THE ]JOMAN AVORLl) STATE (14() i'..c.-47r) A.D.) CIIAPTKK XI REVOLUTION AND IMPERIALISM (146 h.c.-14 a.d.) SECTION 330. The Eakly Revolt against Senatorial Rule 342. The Strcogle for Militauy Supremacy 349. The Establishment of an Empire .... CHAPTER XII THE ROMAN WORLD 300. Rome and the Empiue ...... 365. Classes in thi: Roman World .... 375. Life of the People ....... 382. romanization of the mediterranean world I'ACE 202 205 2({9 279 285 200 297 CHAPTER XIII THE ROMAN EMPIRE AFTER AUGUSTUS 388. From Augustus to Marcus Aurelius . . . . 300 395. Disorder and Reorganization ..... 311 399. The Spread of Christianity ...... 314 404. The Declink of the Empire ...... 318 TRANSITION FROM ANCIENT TBIES CHAPTER XIV THE GERMANS IN WESTERN EUROPE 412. The Germans 420. The Teutonic Kingdoms 425. Fusion of Roman and Teuton 431. The Christian Church 437. The Mohammedans 442. The Empire of the Franks 325 329 332 330 339 342 ILLUSTRATIONS The Acropolis, Athens, restored by D'Ooge Frontispiece PAGE . 11 U Fist-hatchet, after Chouquet ....... Prehistoric painting (Altaniira), after Cartailliac and Breuil Prehistoric Egyptian vases, from Petrie, Arts and Crafts in Ancient Eciypt (McCkirg) Prehistoric horse (Przevalsky) The Great Pyramids Karnak, Great Columns . Hammurabi receiving code Six-sided cylinder .... Winged bull, after Perrot and Chipiez Kuins of Babylon .... The " Moabite Stone "... Egyptian house The scribe ..... The bastinado, after INlaspero, Ancient Egypt and Assyria (Appleton) ..... Peasant's house, after Perrot and Chipiez Women grinding at the mill . Woman making bread . . Mummy and mummy case Judgment of the Soul, after Maspero Temple of Luxor, restored, after Perrot and Chipiez Babylonian temple, after Perrot and Chipiez The " Rosetta Stone " Egyptian hieroglyphics . Irrigation on the Euphrates Egyptian water-sweep Trade in market An Egyptian siiip, after Masjtcro A Cretan vase, from Antnial of the /iritis// School at The Lion Gate, Mycenae . Olympia restored 17 22 36 37 42 44 46 47 52 62 64 65 66 67 68 72 73 74 75 77 78 82 83 86 88 99 100 107 XI Xll ILLUSTRATIONS Acropolis at Athens Ancient coin ..... Cylinder of Cyrus .... ]\Iarathon, looking toward the sea . Bay of Salamis .... Harbor of Piraeus (^Nlunychia) Seats in the amphitheatre at Athens The benia, Athens .... Pericles ...... Porch of the Maidens Pallas Athena, by Phidias Plan of the Acropolis, by Robert H. Dale Demosthenes ..... Alexander Altar of Zeus, Pergamum, restored Laocoon ...... Woman's dress .... Greek chairs, after Guhl and Koner Writing materials, after Guhl and Koner Masks for tragedy, after Guhl and Konei Greek and Roman theatres, after Cockerell Orders of Greek Architecture, from Statham, General Renderfi The Parthenon, present condition . Discobolus, by Myron The Three Fates .... Hermes, by Praxiteles Sarcophagus of the King of Sidon . Apollo Belvidere .... W^inged Victory of Samothrace Venus de Milo ..... Socrates Vestal Virgin ..... Sacred chickens, after Schreiber Roman soldier, after Guhl and Koner A Triumph — that of Julius Ca'sar, 46 » Roman artillery (Dictionary of Antiqnit R(jman gladiators, after (iuhl and Kduci Pomi)ey the (ireat .... c, after A rch itecture for Weimt 116 117 131 135 189 147 148 141) 150 152 152 153 160 164 171 172 182 182 183 190 191 195 196 197 198 198 199 200 201 201 202 222 223 231 232-3 219 252 267 ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll Julius C?esar . . , . Augustus The Forum to-day . The Forum restored, after Gattesch Imperial Rome, general view, by Bigot . . . following The Colosseum, present condition The Pantheon .... Ruins of gymnasium of Hadrian Roman bridge and aqueduct . Roman theatre .... Slave in fetters Horsing a boy .... Scheme of Roman house . House furniture Peristyle in house of the Vettii Toga, after Guhl and Koner . Baths of Caracalla, exterior Colosseum, restored by C. Nippi-Landi Circus Maximus, restored Appian Way, with ruins of Claudian aqueduct Spoils from Jerusalem, Arch of Titus Vesuvius from Forum of Pompeii . Statue of Marcus Aurelius Walls of Aurelian, Rome Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople St. Peter's Church, Rome, during the early Middle Ages restoration by Costarossa . . .... PAGE 269 •272 280 280 280 281 282 283 284 284 288 290 291 292 292 293 294 295 296 298 308 309 310 312 313 344 LIST OF COLOR MAPS PAGE Egyptian empire, 145 B.C. ..... npposiff. 49 Hittite empire, 1850 Ji.c". ..... '• 49 Babylonian and Assyrian empires, 1900 b.c. and G70 b.c. "■ 49 Greece ......... " 95 Greater Hellas, showing Phoenician colonies . . " 111 Four Great Kingdoms, 555 b.c. .... " 181 Persian empire ........ " 181 Empire of Alexander the Great, showing the kingdoms of his successors ........ opposite 167 Italy . " 219 Expansion of Rome ...... foUoicing 250 Roman empire under Diocletian and Constantine . opposite 812 Teutonic kingdoms in Western Europe about 525 a.d. '' 831 Mohammedan and Christian Worlds, 800 a.d. . '^ 340 MAPS IN TEXT Ancient Egypt ...... Tigris-Euphrates basin East Mediterranean coast Greece at the time of the Persian Wars Athens and Pirseus (from Botsford) Important Roman roads . The German migrations . 34 40 50 119 147 299 830 XV SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS This book is offered as a text for a half-year course in ancient history ; or for the first half of a year's survey of European history to the Reformation or the eighteenth cen- tury ; or for a year's work in ancient history with sufficient use of the references. Studies and other suggestions for supplementary work are given for those who can devote at least a half year to the subject. Some of the more difficult topics and discussions will naturally be read rather than studied by younger students. Those who wish to give much less time to ancient history may find the following suggestions helpful : Those who wish chiefly a narrative of ancient history may devote especial attention to the narrative chapters, particularly II, IV-VII, IX-XI, XIII-XIV, simply reading the other chapters and the parts of these narrative chapters that deal with life or civilization. Those who wish to give special attention to ancient life only, may study the Introduction, chapters III, VIII, XII, the summaries of the other chapters, and many of the following sections: 42-45, 49-54, 57, 63, 72, 117-144, 156-160, 176, 183-187, 206-209, 212-216, 274-287, 299-302, 304-312, 326-335, 349, 352-358, 399-419, 425-436, 447-449. In either of these ways a course can be arranged that may be given in a half-year, with not more than three reci- tations per week. Even those who have but a short time for ancient history will probably be able to use some of the Studies. These sup- plementary readings have been selected with care, and repre- sent the most readable and most satisfactory selections that the author has been able to find in a small collection of books. Some of these accounts are necessarily from the works of xvii XX SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS Seignobos' History of the Roman People is more usable probably than Pelham's excellent Outlines of Roman His- tory, or How and Leigh's rather brilliant History of Rome, based upon Monimsen. Beesley's Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla, Capes' Early Empire, and Jones' Roman Empire (Story of the Nations) are good for reference on the periods indicated. The author has found Tucker's Life in the Ro- man World the best book on Roman life for fairly mature students. Davis' Injiiience of Wealth i)i Imperial Rome is interesting reading. For younger students perhaps Preston and Dodge's Private Life of the Romans is less unsatisfac- tory than the other accounts. The Cambridge (Sandys, ed.) Companion to Latin Studies and Dill's books on life during the empire are valuable reference books for teachers. On the period of German invasions and of the transition from the Roman Empire to the Feudal Age all of the general references given on page 348 are good. The following suggestions in regard to supplementary materials may be of value to some teachers. The author believes that the students will learn the geography of any time better if they draw the maps for themselves, using a set of outline maps, with color crayons. A "blackboard map" on spring rollers is a great convenience in explaining loca- tions and boundaries. One of Europe can be used if one of the Mediterranean and the Tigris-Euphrates basin cannot be procured. The best single wall map for this course is a large map of the Roman Empire. An unmounted map about 24 X 30 inches can be obtained for little more than $1, but the large maps on spring rollers costing from $10 to $15 are very desirable. The best supplementary maps are those of Alexander's Empire and of Europe. Plans of Rome to accompany the reconstruction of ancient Rome, can be obtained from Mcmsieur P. Bigot, Paris, at two francs each. Harison of New York and McKinley of Philadelphia publish sheets of pictures, notebook size, illustrating an- SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xxi cient life. Among the foreign books that are usable be- cause of the large number of illustrations are Muzik and Perschinka, K^mst und Lehen in Altertum (Freytag, Leipzig, $ 1.00), and Fougeres, La Vie, privee et puhlique, des Grecs et Romains (Paris, $3.50). Some of the German sets of historical wall pictures are superior to those published in this country. Among the best are the Cybulski charts illustrating Greek and Roman antiquities, published at 4 marks each, the Lehmann historical pictures of ancient and mediaeval civilization, unmounted, at 2.8 marks each.^ Natu- rally these cost more in America. Models of houses, siege guns, etc., can be obtained in the Hensell set from G. E. Steckert and Co., New York, importers, or in the Blumner and Rausch, or in the Rausch, set from the Ger- man manufacturers. These models can be purchased sepa- ately. Before purchasing books for libraries teachers should get from the American Library Association a recent list of cheap editions. The author has hesitated to make many of these specific recommendations, but he believes that the sugges- tions may help some teachers, and he has not been influ- enced in any case by any other desire than that of bringing the best material before classes that care to use this book. It has been impossible, of course, to include the titles of many valuable books that are only a little less useful than some of those that have been mentioned. 1 A full list of many sets of pictures, with prices, is given in the German catalogue of school supplies, Bihliotheca Paedagogica ($1.00), Part XI (&). Many models are listed in Part XI (a). If pictures and models cannot be obtained through Steckert or some other importer, possibly they can be obtained through Plahn'sche Buchhandlung, Eche Oberwall und Franzosischestrasse, Berlin, Centrum, Germany. Wholesale orders will, of course, be filled by Brockhaus, Leipzig, Germany. INTRODUCTION of ANCIENT CIVILIZATION Ancient and Modern Civilization 1. Modern Civilization and the Past. — We sometimes Material think of our present civihzation as chiefly a product of P^^^^f^^ ^ . recent modern times. Because the steam engine and the tele- centuries. phone, the automobile, the railroad, and the United States of America did not exist two centuries ago, we do not realize how great the world was before that time. We can travel more rapidly than our ancestors. Our machines turn out shoes and cloth and steel rails at a rate that our ancestors could not have imagined. We enjoy news- papers, personal rights and pohtical privileges that were unknown a few centuries ago. Many of these changes have been due to inventions, and are therefore forms of material progress, which is an important, but not one of the best, proofs of civihzation (§ 6) . The main question, however, is this : have these changes Are we more been chiefly in our surroundings or in ourselves? Al- ^J^'^^^^^^d . than our an- though we have more privileges and opportunities and cestors? rights than our ancestors, are we any better? We have more wealth and therefore more comforts and luxuries. Do we understand life better? Are we better educated, more honest and more humane? Are we more cultured, more interested in our fellow-man, more religious and more moral ? If we are obliged to answer most of these questions negatively, we must admit that we are not more civilized than our ancestors, in spite of the fact that material progress has been so great during the last two centuries. 3 INTRODUCTION Ignorance, narrowness and degra- dation in the ancient world. Modern ideas and methods in ancient Babylon. Arts and achieve- ments among the ancient Egj'ptians. 2. Limitations of the Ancient World. — When we com- pare the aneient world witli that of to-day, we find that ancient people lived in a smaller world than ours in almost every way. They did not know as much about this planet as we know, nor did they have the " modern im- provements " which we justly value so highly. The known world of the Greeks and the Romans extended from the Indus River to the Atlantic Ocean and was bounded on the south by the great desert of Sahara. These peoples ot long ago made almost everything they needed by hand, or more exactly these articles were made by the lower classes and slaves chiefly tor the use of the rich and noble classes of society. Education was not common except among the boys of the influential families. The individual usually had no rights that the rulers were bound to respect. In spite of these differences and limitations we are surprised to find how much we owe to the people of ancient times. 3. The Modernness of the Ancient Orient. — Many of the methods and ideas that we consider most modern are very old. If we had visited ancient Babylon about forty centuries ago, we should have found twelve months in a year, with seven days in each week, each day being divided into two sets of twelve hours each. The mer- chants would have sold us goods, using weights and meas- ures not radically different from those that we know. Business was conducted a good deal as it is to-day, even if it was done on a smaller scale, and the merchant was forced by law to keep his contracts. Had we visited ancient Thebes about the same time we should have found that the Egyptians were famous for their literature, their glassware, their pottery and other fine arts. We could have inspected a great piece of en- gineering that would have compared very favorably with the famous dam at Assuan in Egypt recently constructed ANCIENT AND MODERN CIVILIZATION 5 by English engineers. Near Memphis we should have found the pyramids, still more marvellous monuments of the skill and patience of these people, pyramids that were looked upon as ancient by the Egyptians of forty centuries ago. 4. The Modernness of the Greeks. — It is not to the Debt to Egyptians and the Babylonians that we look for the ^^^^ ^" civilization that we borrowed from the ancient world. Greeks and It is to the Hebrews, the Greeks and the Romans. We ^o^^^^^. do not need to discuss our great debt to the Hebrews. It is difficult to realize how much we owe to the Greeks. Develop- In a sense the Athenian assembly was more democratic "^^^^^ °^ ^ "^ _ politics, art, than any government that we Americans have to-day, literature, except the New England town meetings. The Greek P^^jos^phy ^ ^ ^ . . and science leagues developed the idea of federation which we used among the when the thirteen colonies first formed the United States Greeks, of America. In art the Greeks were a long way ahead of most of us to-da}^ Their philosophy and their literature are remarkably fine. Not only did they excel in their knowledge of geometry and of astronomy, but in sciences that we consider distinctively modern, such as zoology and physics, they came a great part of the distance that we have been able to travel. 5. The Modernness of the Romans. — To the Romans The Roman we owe less and yet more ; less because they invented f^^^^^j^^j®"^' very little ; more because they brought practically the legal rights, whole of the civilized world under the rule of one of the greatest governments in the history of all times, and made the whole world more civilized. Their system of law, based upon Greek philosophy, is still in use among most civilized peoples. Strange as it may seem, although the Romans did not have the political privileges in regard to voting that we have to-day, in some ways Roman citizens had more personal rights than we who boast so much of our individual liberty. INTRODUCTION Means by which we may meas- ure the degree of ci^'ilization of a people. 6. Standards of Civilization. — It is not easy to lay down rules by which we shall be able to learn whether people are civilized or not, but certain standards are usually found among all civilized people. Among these STANDARDS the foUowing may be mentioned : (1) C'iviliza- tion consists in what a man or a society is much more than in what it has. (2) No people are civilized simply because a few men are great statesmen, or writers, or artists ; because the whole people must he civilized, not a few mem- bers. (3) Civilization may be measured by the material progress of a people, that is, by the improvement of rail- ways, the construction of cities and the development of the comforts of life. (4) A still better standard of civil- ization is the general well-being of the people as a whole. If only a few enjoy all of the advantages of the wealth and material progress, the people have not become really civilized. (5) The progress of humanity can be measured by the social, political and economic institutions of a people, for institutions are to a society what organs are to animals, and no one can doubt that animals with hearts and lungs and brains are more highly developed than animals that lack those organs. (6) Another good standard is the existence of culture as shown in the literature of a people and its art, science and philosophy. (7) A still better test of civilization is shown in the moral and religious develop- ment of a people. (8) Finally, no people are really civilized who have not at least a minimum of each of these " elements of civilization " mentioned above. That is, civilization consists in a good combination of the elements of civilization rather than a considerable development of one and a total disregard for several others. The his- torical History and Prehistory 7. The Records of History. — We must keep in mind these standards as we study the story of different peoples, ANCIENT AND MODERN CIVIi^IZATION 7 but we must not expect to find a very high grade of civil- period of ization among the earher races nor must we expect to ?^^^ ^^^^^ . based on know very much about them. Nowadays we have m- written numerable newspapers, books, and more permanent records. records to give us the facts, but a few hundred years ago books were scarce and a few thousand years ago they were unknown. We can trace back the real history of mankind by the means of written records only a little way : only about two thousand years for our ancestors ; less than three thousand for the ''classical" nations, the Romans and the Greeks ; and only a little more than five thousand for the oldest historical " civilization " of the world. This record of historical changes which we get from written accounts we call history. 8. The Period before Written Records. — Back of the The long dawn of history in Egypt and Greece and Britain, lies a period*°"^ long dark period in which men lived and fought and learned. We call that the prehistoric period in the hfe of man. We do not know much about it, and yet, all things considered, we know a great deal. We can see man struggling up from the lowest savagery to barbarism, from barbarism to a life of useful toil, and from semibarbarism to a state of semicivilization. Before history " dawned " in Egypt, there were in the valley of the Nile strong gov- ernments, well-organized societies, extensive businesses, some art and fairly well-developed religions. These things show that man must have been, to some extent, civilized before he was able to leave written records by which we can follow his travels clearly. 9. Epochs of History. — When we look off toward the Ancient horizon, we see easily those large objects that make up S^^^'^^ ^^^ the foreground. Farther away objects that really are History, just as large look smaller and occupy a much less important place in our field of vision. Beyond that indefinite line which we call the horizon, stretch limitless distances. 8 INTRODUCTION The epochs of prehis- tory : the old stone age and the new stone age. The three great ages in the his- tory of the human race. The epochs of history are Uke these distances. The fore- ground, extending l)ack some five or six centuries, we call modern history. The history that precedes modern history, covering a period about six or seven times as long as modern history, we call ancient history. ^ We have now reached the line of the horizon. Beyond that all is pre- historic. 10. Epochs of Prehistory. — The prehistoric period is very much longer than the historic period. How long it is no one knows. That part which immediately precedes the period which we call ancient history is known as the new stone age or the ne-o-lith'ic period. It is com- paratively short, and all of those ages that go before are called the old stone age or the pa-le-o-lith'ic period. 11. The Ages of Stone and of Metals. — It is said sometimes that man has passed through three great ages: the old stone age, the new stone age, and the age of metals; first the age of copper, then the age of bronze and then the age of iron. The age of metals coincides rather roughly with the historic period of any people, for man made rapid progress as soon as he gained metals, and soon had written records from which his history can be traced. * Most authors prefer to have a period between the Ancient and the Modern that thoy call the Medieval period or the Middle Ages. Some place the beginning of the Middle Ages as early as 376 a.d ; others, as late as 814 a.d. Some give 1453 as the end of the Middle Ages, others give 1492, others 1520, and still others 1789. PART I THE DAWN OF CIVILIZATION CHAPTER I PREHISTORIC MAN The Old Stone Age 12. The World's Earliest ''Civilization"— That of the Early tools: First Tool-makers. — The only remaining traces of early ^^^ man on this earth are the scrapers, few human bones that are found from time to time in widely scattered places.^ A great interval in time sepa- rates these human fragments from the traces of man in the next period — the man who made tools. We do not find any of the bones of these early tool-makers, but we do find "fist-hatchets/' made of flint, rudely chipped so that the hatchet could be held in the hand and used for cutting. We find also flint " scrapers/' The Fist-hatchet, used for cutting and for pre- paring skins. Occasionally flint spear-heads have been found also, but usually these primitive men must have used weapons of wood, although they made tools of rough stone. It is possible that these men with the first " civi- lization" may, have had fire also, and it is probable that 1 Some people believe that the "eoliths" are tools made by man, hun- dreds of centuries before the days of the fist-hatchets. 11 12 PREHISTORIC MAN Iniitation as 11 means of spread- ing civili- zation. Man as a hunter used his intelU- gence and fought with weapons. they had many other tools and products of more perishable materials than the stone hatchets. 13. The Spread of the Earliest Civilization. — At the time these men lived, England was not an island, for the North Sea was a broad low valley. Italy was also con- nected with Africa across Sicily. The tools of these early men w^re carried everywhere and we find that men of later periods who lived in eastern Europe, in Asia and in America or in southern Europe and in Africa used tools very much like these '^ fist-hatchets." So the civiliza- tion developed b}^ a few men was spread over the surface of the globe, and so later civilizations and ideas were created by one set of people and imitated by those that followed, for it is much easier for man to imitate than to create something for himself. The use of fire and tools constituted the first and greatest revolution in the upward struggle of the race. 14. Early Man and his Enemies. — Most of these pre- historic men lived in the open, preferably near a river where they could get water, and where fruits were abun- dant. Here animals came along the trails for drink and men might obtain animal food by lying in wait. To protect themselves from their enemies these " river drift " people probably lived in trees. In spite of his long hairy arms with their sinewy muscles paleolithic man had no natural weapons of defence. Since he was inferior in natural strength to many of the beasts of the forest, he was obliged to defend himself by his superior intelligence and by the use of weapons that he made for that purpose. But man must do more than defend himself ; he must find food, and at least half of the year this food must be chiefly the flesh of animals. With his club and his spear he was a worthy antagonist for any other monarch of the forest, though he usually attacked the younger animals because they were killed more easily and were more tender. In THE OLD STONE AGE 13 the colder weather he used the skins of his victims for clothing 'and for blankets. As paleolithic men moved about, they might encounter fero- The wild cious beasts : "great herds of elephants of an ancient kind, the animals of mighty predecessors, perhaps ancestors, of the mighty African y^^ ^^^ . elephants, would perhaps come trampling across his path ; he the time of might witness, not without awe, the infuriated rush of the the early soft-nosed rhinoceros, which bore a horn sometimes as much tool-makers. as three feet in length ; disporting itself in the rivers was that shy behemoth, the hippopotamus, the mother animal swim- , ming with her young upon her back ; sometimes he might catch sight of the great sabre-toothed tiger, making its stealthy spring, or hanging, with its great overgrown canines, on to the flanks of a strayed elephant. If he waited by the water places, he would be able to watch herds of bison, wild horses, and various kinds of deer, the Irish elk among them, as they came to drink." 15. The Cold drives Men into Caves. — Probably some of the men of this period that we have just con- sidered lived in caves, driving forth the fierce cave bear and the cave hon. In time, apparently, cave life became the custom and the cave continued to be the abode of pre- historic man through several epochs. These cave men were contemporaries of the mammoth, the reindeer, the woolly rhinoceros, the musk ox and the chamois, which are cold-weather animals. The bison, the Avild horse and a few other animals survived from the earlier periods, but the elephants and the hippopotami had moved south. It is possible that the approach of a great sheet of ice from the north, with its accompanying cold, drove man into caves. Hovv^ever they ma}^ have come there, we find at different depths in numerous caves in western Europe remains of tools and weapons, evidences of fire, the bones of man's victims and occasionally the bones of man himself. 16. Life and Ideas of the Cave Men. — These cave men were much more intelligent than their remote an- 14 PREHISTORIC MAN Man's tools are poor but he be- gins to think about reUgion. cestors. Some of their skulls are as large as those of present-day savages and a few of the later skulls are not very different from the skulls of Europeans of to-day. The tools of the cold period are less finished than those of the warm periods that preceded and followed. Man evidently was using more energy in getting food and less in making tools. He was an untidy housekeeper in his cave, throwing the bones about when he had picked them A Prehistoric Painting. clean, but he had leisure also to think about the forces of nature and about himself. We find some skeletons in these caves that undoubtedly were buried there. Not only were they buried but they have at hand tools and implements such as the cave men had used in life. It is difficult to believe that man as low in the scale of civili- zation as the cave men believed in a life after death, and yet that is the natural conclusion to draw. Not many years ago the North American Indian placed at the side of his dead comrade the weapons and other objects that the dead man would need in the " happy hunting grounds." THE OLD STONE AGE 15 17. The Cave Artists. — It is less strange that man Remarkably should think of religion than that he should become an ^^f^-like pictures of artist. Yet the pictures that later cave men have left animals of are among the most interesting relics of the distant past, the cave A quarter of a century ago a Spanish nobleman who was interested in the cave men visited the cave of Altamira in northern Spain. He was accompanied by his little daughter. While he examined the floor of the cave, he was startled by an exclamation from the child, and, looking up, saw a wonderful ceiling painting in colors, of bison, deer and other animals. A figure from this painting is given on the opposite page. The figures are remarkably life-like. A great manj^ other drawings have been found since that time, some of them on the walls of caves, others, of a later date, on reindeer's horns or on bone. Human figures rarely occur among the paintings, but occasionally we find a bone or stone figure of a human being, usually from two to five inches in height. 18. Summary of Paleolithic Civilization. — The man The great of the old stone age had come a long journey and had ^^^leve- travelled slowly. He had probably lived on the earth old stone a long time before he discovered how to make fire and how ^^^' to make tools. Later he developed a primitive religion and he had some art. During this period he must also have been developing a language. Paleolithic man, how- ever, had very little civilization. The New Stone Age 19. The Kitchen Middens. — The Europeans of the Shell heaps new stone age lived in a Europe that was little different ^^^ ^^^ in geography, products and climate from that which we know. Some of the most interesting remains which the Europeans of the neoHthic age have left us are the " Kitchen Middens," a series of bone and shell heaps 16 PREHISTORIC MAN Higher civ- ilization of late neo- lithic period. Huge stone sepulchres and the tools they contained. near the shores of the North Sea. These are sometimes as high as ten feet, two or three hundred feet wide and a thousand feet in length. They are made up chiefly of oyster or mussel shells and the bones of fish or animals, the flesh of which was used for food. The people of the Kitchen Middens do not exhibit a high degree of civiliza- tion, yet they had some crude pottery, and the way that bones were gnawed shows that they had domesticated dogs. 20. The Lake Dwellings. — Of a somewhat later date than the Kitchen Middens, perhaps 4000 b.c, are the lake dwellings of Switzerland and other places. Some of these villages, built on piles near the lake shores, were destroyed by fire and we have the remains of bone and polished stone instruments, rude pottery, spindle stones or whorls, woven cloth, and half-baked cereals. These people were not only hunters, but the women at least had some skill in pottery making, weaving and perhaps the cultivation of grains. 21. The Megaliths. — Some of the neoHthic folk erected huge stones, sometimes as separate shafts, sometimes in the form of circles and often as rooms made of a few huge upright stones with great slabs across the top. These rooms are called dolmans, and were used for the burial of the dead. Dolmans are found in Britain, on the continent of western Europe, in northern Africa, and in Asia as far east as India.^ The dead man was provided with every- thing that he could possibly need, for prehistoric man, like some savages of recent times, dreaded nothing more than the return of the spirit of a dead person. These im- ^ Sergi, Mediterranean Race, p. 70, believes that the distribution of the dolmans proves that they were erected by the Mediterranean race (§40). One rooont writer (Mos.so) V)oIioves that the dolmans were erected by men from the Mediterranean along the trade routes from north Africa to the northern part of Europe and Asia. THE NEW STONE AGE 17 plements show that the dolmans belong to a comparatively recent date, but they do not tell us much about the .people by whom they were erected. 22. Neolithic Man in Crete. — It is easier to trace the Compara- development of neolithic man in Crete and Egypt than ^^e^^i^hii^^ in western Europe. Under one of the palaces of Crete civilization excavations have shown a succession of neohthic settle- ^^ Crete, ments, the earhest of which had crude pottery and spindle whorls, and a finer art than existed in Britain at a similar period. These Cretans were probably a sea-faring as well ^■S'^^k ».»-«.»t'«j»»*- '^•-^'-^ ;|^^.i '^ ** ■f?^ fm ^^r^g^ ^ ' ':■:! ^ Prehistoric Egyptian Vases. as an agricultural people, who later made fine grades of pottery and traded with the people of Egypt and the Orient. 23. Egypt in Neolithic Times. — In Egypt we find gold Neolithic and copper ore used for several thousand years before the [n^EKvVt^" dawn of the world's first historic civilization, and the valley of the Nile housed a progressive population that was distinguished in the neolithic period even more than were the Cretans for agriculture, weaving and art. There was undoubtedly a considerable trade carried on between the different people of the Mediterranean 18 PREHISTORIC MAN Extensive trade and migration during neolithic period. Rapid prog- ress of mankind in the neo- lithic period. The two paleolithic arts. General use of fire among paleolithic men. during the late neolithic period. We find pottery and other works of art, with the trade-mark of the maker, very far from the place where they must have been made. Burial customs and other ideas seem to have spread from one locality to distant places, for prehistoric man learned more from his fellows than he was able to develop for himself. 24. Summary of Neolithic Civilization. — Neolithic men lived in groups or villages. They had domestic animals such as the dog, the ox and the goat, and perhaps others. They cultivated grains, and some of them were great sailors. They were unacquainted yet with metals, hut they had fine hone and polished stone instruments. They were spinners and weavers. They were expert hasket Quakers and their pottery, though crude, was strong and serviceahle. It seems a little thing, pottery, yet it marks the beginning of a new era, in which man was becoming rapidly civilized. We can get some idea of the way that man was developing his ideas of art and religion and his language during his period. He could hardly have had community life, as he did, without the use of words, without some division of labor, and some development of trade. Prehistoric Civilization 25. The Making of Fire. — As we have already noticed, paleolithic men developed two practical arts that carried man rapidly upward in the scale of civilization. The first of these was the discovery of means for the making of fire. The second was the art of making tools. Any one who has struck flint with steel has noticed the succession of sparks that follow. Prehistoric man worked a great deal with flints in making his tools, but he used a stone hammer and did not get his fire in that way. Al- most all prehistoric men had fire before they made tools. Some of these probably saved a fire started by lightning PREHISTORIC CIVILIZATION 19 and kept it alive religiously. In fact, most later religions had special priestesses whose chief duty it was to keep fire burning continuously. It is generally agreed among archeologists and scientists Creation that fire was made by prehistoric man by the friction of ?^^^\^ wood against wood. A hard pointed stick was used in friction, the hand and rubbed against a strip of softer wood. It was either rubbed rapidly up and down a groove, the httle splinters from which quickly caught fire, or it was twirled rapidly in the hands. Later men used a fire drill and cord to secure a rapid and continuous whirling motion. Occasionally no doubt fire was obtained by striking flint with a kind of iron-ore called iron pyrites (fire-iron). 26. Importance of Fire in the Development of Civiliza- tion. — It is difficult to overestimate the importance of fire. By the use of fire it was possible to cook food, and, by smok- ing animal flesh, to preserve meat, as we smoke bacon, ham or beef for winter or a time of scarcity. Since man was the hunter, it placed upon woman the necessity of gathering fuel and keeping the fire alive. This tied her to her home. It helped to create a semi-permanent abiding place for man, since the fireplace drew him back in his wanderings. It made possible some of the arts which later were the means of civilizing man, for, without fire, metals could never have been used. 27. The Making of Prehistoric Tools. — Man has Eariy stone been called the only tool-making animal, and the tool *'^°^^- has been an important lever in the uplifting of the human race. As we have seen, very early men had simple stone hatchets and scrapers. These were of rough flint, fre- quently flaked on one side only. Later, lance-heads were invented, as well as knives, thin stone saws, and arrow- heads. In the making of these tools, primitive man would find a piece of flint that had been buried in the ground 20 PREHISTORIC^ MAN Process of making stone tools. Improve- ment in stone tools and instru- ments during neolithic period. Basketry and its use with clay for cooking. Making of the first pottery. and was therefore less hard and less brittle than those on the surface. With a hard stone as a hammer he would hit the first stone a succession of sharp })lows so as to dislodge flakes. He would then have an edge that could be used for cutting, skinning or scraping. Some men who were more expert than others devoted themselves to tool-making. We have found the work shops in which many of these tools were mad&, with the stones that were used for hammers, thousands of flakes, and many half- completed or discarded tools. In the later prehistoric period these tools were often of very fine workmanship. In the neolithic period, many of them were polished on grindstones. The finest orna- ments were rubbed down with pumice stone or even with wood. Some of the Egyptian workmen spent years of hard labor cutting out of stone, bracelets in the form of a thin ring. Stones were hollowed out for cooking, soap- stone being the best for this purpose because it would not crack in the heat. It is almost impossible to realize how much tools did for man. 28. Basketry. — Paleolithic man developed fire and tools, but the other arts of civilization came after his day. One of the earliest of these was the art of making pottery, for pottery is found in almost all early neolithic settlements, but never as yet in the home of paleolithic man. Long before man learned to make pottery, how- ever, he had discovered the art of weaving baskets. Some baskets were lined with clay mud so that they could be filled with hot stones and used, like the earlier stone cooking pots, for boiling flesh foods. Sometimes the baskets were lined inside and out with clay. 29. Pottery. — Perhaps the first clay pots were made acci- dentally by having the outer or inner coat of clay separate from the basketry over which it was fashioned. Primitive pottery sometimes shows the impression of basket mold. PREHISTORIC CIVILIZATION 21 Sometimes the pottery was made by coiling a rope of wet clay around and around, building up a bowl or vessel. This might be left in the sun to dry, but was usually baked in the fire. Pottery was useful for many purposes. The women drew water in their earthen jars, carrying the jars on their heads, as eastern and barbarous women do to-day. Earthen vessels were used in cooking, for they could be molded in any desired shape and they withstood heat better than any stone. Food was stored in earthenware vessels. Pottery was used for ornament, some of the earliest real art being found in the artistically shaped vases and their ornamentation. The prehistoric Egyptians and Cretans particularly excelled in the making of art-pottery. 30. Spinning and Weaving. — The art of basket making gave early man some lessons in the preparation of fibres or strands and the interweaving of the strands. We are not surprised then to find that the earliest neolithic men had bone or stone rings which they used to twirl threads in spinning,^ and sticks (spindles) upon which they wound the finished thread. Gradually they learned to weave the threads into cloth .^ These acts were not perfected at once, for the earliest thread was very rough and the early cloth was ^undoubtedly inferior to fine basketry. Before cloth was invented, skins or basketry was used for clothing, mats and covering. ^ The earliest thread was probably made of beaten bark, the loosened fibres being bound into a thread by twisting them rapidly between the two hands. Later other plant-fibres were used. The ends of the fibres were attached to the stone spinning whorl, which was rotated rapidly. When the fibres had been twisted into a thread, the thread was wound around a stick which later became a spindle. 2 In weaving, a number of these threads were held parallel, an equal number, alternating with the first, were attached at one end to a stick. By raising and lowering this stick it was possible to thrust a bone bob- bin in between these two sets of threads and draw taut the thread attached to the bobbin or shuttle. Uses of pottery. Use of stone spinning whorls and primitive spindles. Improve- ment in cloth and clothing due to weaving. 22 PREHISTORIC MAN At a comparatively early date, bone needles were u?ed to sew skins together, probably with sinews or leather strips (thongs). As man became more settled or as wild ani- mals became less numerous, he was forced to use fibre- producing plants or fleece-bearing animals, depending on his knowledge of spinning and weaving to furnish him the cloth and draperies that he wanted. In Egypt we have found some fine linen cloth of the neolithic period. 31. The Domestication of Animals. — Paleolithic man apparently had no domestic animals, unless occasional Prehistoric Horse. Domestica- tion of the dog, man's first domes- tic animal. pets or wounded game kept for future use might be con- sidered domestic. To the end of his epoch he remained a hunter and a savage. Among European neolithic men we find the first domesticated dogs.^ Some of the later neohthic peoples not only kept wounded animals, but trapped them alive. If they gave milk, as the goat or the cow, or produced fleece, as the goat ^ It has been suggested that these ancient hunters wore usually followed by packs of wild dogs who shared in tha spoils. As the dog loves companionship, some of these wild creatures may in time easily have abandoned the pack for man, who was a better hunter and provider- PREHISTORIC CIVILIZATION 23 or the sheep, they would be prized by the women, since they would lighten the labor of obtaining food and secur- ing a supply of material for spinning. Having dogs to guard these valuable creatures, they allowed the flocks to increase and 'prehistoric man became a shepherd. He also began to ride the fat ponies that formerly he had killed for food. He was still a nomad, wandering from one pasture to another, and probably still a hunter; but he had not only domesticated animals, for he was him- self becoming domesticated. And this was the work of primitive woman. 32. The Domestication of Plants. — Early man lived chiefly on flesh food, being particularly partial to fat. But in summer, and, in general, in warm chmates, he used the fruit and the nuts, the yams and the berries, the edible bulbs and roots that the women gathered. We can imagine primitive woman bringing to her fireplace a basket full of seeds at harvest time. She may have been obliged to carry the filled basket a long distance strapped upon her shoulders, for her lord and master chose an abiding-place near a good hunting ground and was indif- ferent to the distance from the meadow where seed- grasses grew. The seeds were deposited in baskets or jars for use in the winter perhaps, although primitive people are notoriously improvident, eating what is at hand and letting the morrow take care of itself. Perhaps some of these seeds were spilled on the trail or scattered accidentally near the camp. The next year they sprouted, and, if the camp had not been moved, the woman gathered part of her grain nearer home. After a time she noticed that the blades sprouted from the seed. Then she scattered seeds, and after a time, a few hundred or thousand years perhaps, some woman scratched up the ground or even dug holes for the seeds with the sharp-pointed stick that she had used for digging roots, Domestica- tion of animals that gave milk or produced fleece. Vegetable foods of early man, and the labor of gathering wild prod- ucts. How primi- tive woman may have learned to plant and to plow. 24 PREHISTORIC MAN Domesti- cation of plants and animals breaks up nomadic life and estab- lishes fixed abodes for Men must communi- cate with one another as they become civilized and settled. SO that fewer of them would die and more would sprout. Gradually the stick was used like a pick or an adze, to rip up the ground ready for planting. After another interval, during which animals were domesticated, an ox was attached to this curved stick, and humanity had its first plow. Plows like these are used now among some savage tribes and were used in early historic times among the Egyptians. 33. Importance of the Domestication of Plants and Animals. — With the domestication of plants as well as animals, primitive man was no longer obliged to roam far afield for food. As population increased and game was killed off, the. men lost their former occupation and gradually turned their attention to grazing or agriculture. Domestic duties of women also increased as homes became established. So man passed from the hunting stage to the pastoral stage and from the pastoral stage to the agricultural stage of life. 34. Language. — It would not be reasonable to expect that man would make all the progress which we have noted in the preceding sections without having learned new and better ways of communicating with his fellows. At all times he must have used cries and exclamations and probably sign language to convey his meaning. But he had other messages that he wished to deliver and other ideas that he wished to express. These were perhaps conveyed by sounds that would correspond somewhat to the idea conveyed. These sounds, or syllables, or words, may have been names of objects, as the cow or the pig, the bow or the arrow ; or they may have conveyed ideas, as fear, strength or death. Some races developed language much farther than others, and the others undoubtedly borrowed from them, but the number of dialects was very great and the number of well- developed languages was very few. PREHISTORIC CIVILIZATION 25 35. Writing. — The cave men of Spain and France Deveiop- may have been among the earUest of our picture writers, "^^^^^j.^^ but the excellence of their drawing would seem to show writing or that they had many predecessors. Picture writing was language, the earhest form in which men tried graphically to express their ideas. It was easier perhaps to draw a bird than to invent a word that would mean " bird." Picture writing is found among most primitive people at present and was an important means of telling a story in early times. In some cases, perhaps even before neolithic man dis- Word char- appeared, because men began to use metals, the picture ^f^pg^^f^ of an object would be simplified into a character, something word pic- like the object, that would represent the object. These *^^®^" characters for words are found in many early written lan- guages (§§ 52, 98) and in Chinese at present. 36. The Alphabet. — When the character was used to Transition represent a sound rather than a word, mankind reached a f^*?^ fl^^" ' . tone times still further stage in the development of that marvellous from word means of communication, the alphabet. Perhaps the characters ' , ... to sound marks of makers of pottery in prehistoric times or the characters signs or marks used by early sailors and traders may be °^ letters, found to have some connection with the transition from word-writing to sound-writing which ended in the alpha- bet, in written language, in literature and in all of the progress of mankind that has come from the written scroll or the printed page. Man at the Dawn of History 37. Prehistoric and Historic Periods. — If we look Ea^h period in the hie back over this long period of prehistoric development and of man is forward to the present, we are impressed with the fact !{jg^*re- that humanity has moved forward and upward with in- ceding and creasing speed as it has advanced. The first age, the ^^* shows , more prog- paleolithic period, was very long and the progress of man- ress. 26 ANCIENT CIVILIZATION The three great races, white, yel- low and black. The classi- cal division of the white race into Indo- European, Semitic and Ha- mitic races. kind seems infinitesimal. The second prehistoric period, the neolithic period, was much shorter, and was much more productive of results, yet at the l)eginning of history man had come only a little way. The ancient period of history was shorter than the neolithic age, but a wonderful new civilization was developed and was spread over a fair part of the eastern hemisphere. The modern period is much shorter than the ancient, but in five hundred years it has already changed the life of civilized man as much as life was changed in 50 centuries of the ancient world. 38. The Races of Men According to Color. — Men may be divided, according to color, into the white, the yellow and the black races. Europe is distinctly the continent of the white race ; Africa, of the black ; and Asia, of the yellow race. Yet northern Africa and western Asia were, and still are, inhabited by men of the white race. This book tells the story primarily of those successive civilizations of the white race which arose on the borders of the eastern Mediterranean, especially in the valleys of the Nile and the Euphrates. We shall follow the spread and the further development of this " western civiliza- tion " through Greece, and Rome, and, much later, the final development of this civilization in western Europe and in America by another branch of the white race. 39. The Old Classification of Races According to Lan- guage. — A generation ago all white men were classified as Indo-European, Se-mit'ic or Ha-mit'ic. We must re- member the classification, not only because it is important, but for the reason that most historical literature makes these distinctions, which we otherwise would not under- stand. The Hamitic race was the race to which the Egyptians belonged. The Semites included the Arabs, the Ba})ylonians, the Assyrians, the Hebrews and the Syrians from southwestern Asia. The Indo-Europeans MAN AT DAWN OF HISTORY 27 included all of the peoples from India to Ireland, all of whom speak similar languages. The westernmost branch of this race were known as the Celts. The next was called the Teu'tons and those in eastern Europe were called Slavs. In southern Europe was the Grceco- Roman branch, and in Asia the Persian and the Indian. 40. A more Recent Classification of White Men. — More Present recent investigations of the peoples of the so-called Indo- ^(^ssifi^a- ^ . . tion of European race have shown that, while their languages races. are related, the people themselves are not necessarily ^editerra- *' nean race. related. Many scholars believe that there are three great groups of men in Europe. The southernmost of these is the Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an race, which came probably from northern Africa. It includes most of the people who developed the civilizations of ancient history, for it includes the Egyptians, the Cretans and many of the Greeks and the Romans.^ These Mediterranean men are short and dark complexioned. A second race is called sometimes the AVpine. They are Alpine a hill people, devoted to grazing, as the Mediterranean ^^^' men are to the lowlands and to agriculture. They extend from western Europe along the Alpine foothills eastward into the plateaus of western Asia. The third race comprises the tall, fair-haired and fair- The Nordic skinned people who now dominate northern Europe ^^^^' from England east to the Baltic Sea and the Vistula River. They are sometimes called Nor'dic or Teu-ton'ic. It will readily be seen that we do not know very much Present about the race composition of the populations of our "^^^♦^"5® o^ ^ ^ ^ races in present countries of Europe. Italy, Greece, Asia Minor Europe, and Egypt are still inhabited chiefly by men of the Med- iterranean race. England, Germany and especially the * It included also probably the people who developed the best of the neolithic civilization. Some authorities think that the Semitic people are closely related to Mediterranean man. 28 ANCIENT CIVILIZATION Periods in the life of the human race. Paleolithic man. Xeolithic man. Scandinavian peninsulas are largely Nordic, central and southeastern Europe are largely Alpine, but no race is '' pure," for apparently, like the American people, the people of every country of Europe are a mixture of several races. 41. Summary. — Mankind has had a long and interest- ing experience on this earth. This experience may be divided into the historic period, composed of modern history, the last five or six centuries, and ancient history, the fifty centuries before that time. Before '' history " began we have the prehistoric periods, the last of which we call neolithic, the new stone age, at least ten thousand years in length, and the earlier of which, a much longer period, we call the paleolithic, or old stone age. When we study the tools of man we divide the life of the race into three periods ; the old stone age, the new stone age and the age of metals, first copper, then bronze and then iron. Almost the earliest traces of man show that he understood the making and the use of fire. Soon after this, man made rude tools, fist-hatchets and scrapers. He lived in caves, dressed in skins, ate animal flesh and fruits, carved figures on the rock and believed that man has a spirit which survives after death. He hunted the cave bear, the aurochs or bison, the sabre-toothed tiger, the rhinoceros, the little horse and the reindeer. Neolithic man Hved in huts, sometimes grouped together in villages. He made fine polished stone tools and weap- ons. He domesticated the dog, the goat, the sheep and the ox. He began to cultivate grains and to make a rude plow. He spun thread and wove cloth, made baskets and rude pottery. Neolithic man was much more civil- ized in Egypt, Crete and in th(^ neighborhood of the Caspian Sea then he was in western Europe. PaleoHthic man took two important steps upward. PREHISTORIC MAN 29 He learned to make fire and he learned to make tools. Fire and He made fire usually by friction, by rubbing or twirling J^^g^^^^^^^^^g a hard stick against soft wood. He guarded fire reli- of paieo- giously. The need of fire kept men from wandering as !j!^^J.^^^'" much as they had done. Fire tied woman to the fire- place and helped in the development of the arts. Tools were made usually from flint. They protected man from his enemies and enabled him to cut wood and stone for use in arts and for shelter. They gave man something to work with and something to work for. Man became settled, first in a general way, when he Man be- began to make pottery, to spin and to weave. When he g^J^^^^ domesticated animals he took the next step in becoming through settled, for he was not obliged to go abroad for food Jl^^f^fi^JJ^of' or for materials for clothing. With the help of the dog, animals and he became a shepherd, and, with the help of the ox, he p^^^^^- became a farmer, with a truly settled abode, as soon as he had domesticated plants. He now wanted land of his own, a hut, and his own tools ; consequently men began to live in communities, began to make laws and to have gov- ernments. Men learned to exchange their surplus prod- ucts for those of others. Most of this work was done by the women, who worked while the men hunted. They were not treated very humanely by their husbands, and j^et monogamous marriages were the rule even in prehis- toric times. With the development of a spoken language and the Language, transition from pictures to picture writing, from picture ^^d\Te writing to word or character wTiting, and from characters discovery to letters, man reached the threshold of history. About oJ^J^als^ the time that he learned to use metals, he emerged from the darkness of the prehistoric period. 30 ANCIENT CIVILIZATION General References ^ Sollas, Ancient Hunters, esp. chapters II, V, VI, VIII, X, XI, XIII, XIV. Joly, Man before Metals. Tylor, Anthropology. Starr, First Steps in Human Progress. Clodd, The Story of Primitive Man. Duckworth, Prehistoric Man. Peet, Rough Stone Monuments and their Builders. Mason, The Origins of Invention. Mason, Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. Boas, The Mind of Primitive Mau. Thomas (ed.), Source Book for Social Origins. McCurdy, Antiquity of Man in Europe. Munro, Paleolithic Man. Chapin, Social Evolution ; The Prehistoric Period. Topics The Cave Artist: MaeCurdy, Antiquity of Men in Europe (in Smithsonian Report for 1909), 547-563; Munro, Paleolithic Man, 200-240; Sollas, Ancieiit Hunters, 222-264. Origin and Development of Tools: Tylor, Anthropology, 182-205; Mason, Origins of Invention, 121-151; Thomas (ed.), Source Book for Social Origins, 335-372. Studies 1. History and civilization, Morey, Outlines of Greek His- tory, 11-14. 2. The fist-hatchet. Sollas, Ancient Hunters, 113-120. 3. The geography and the animals of Europe long ago. Sollas, Ancient Hunters, 92-98. 4. The cave man as an artist. MaeCurdy, G. G., in Century, 84 (1912), 439-448. 5. The Kitchen Middens. Clodd. Story of Primitive Man, 94-96. 6. The lake dwellings. Clodd, Primitive Man, 131-143. 7. Dolmans and other neoliths in Italy and France. Mosso, Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization, 244-250. 1 Students may be interested in Waterloo's Story of Ab and A Son of the Ages. PREHISTORIC MAN 31 8. The builders of the megahthic monuments. Peet, Rough Stone Monuments, 129-142. 9. The neolithic population of Crete, Mosso, Mediterranean Civilization, 92-102. 10. Dress of women in the Neolithic Age. Mosso, Mediter- ranean Civilization, 185-197. 11. The making of fire. Tylor, Anthropology, 260-264. 12. The ancient art of basketry. Mason, Wo?nan's Share in Primitive Culture, 41-52. 13. Basketry and pottery. Starr, First Steps in Human Progress, 50-57. 14. The domestication of plants. Thomas (ed.). Source Book for Social Origins, 98-112. 15. The domestication of animals. Tylor, Anthropology, 214-221. 16. The development of writing, Starr, First Steps in Human Progress, 192-207. 17. The races of men. Chapin, Social Evolution, 217-220. Questions (For Introduction and Chapter I) 1. Has mankind made uniform progress upward, or has he advanced more in some periods than in others ? 2. Name the most important civilizations since the beginning of history. 3. Name five standards by which we can judge the progress made by man. 4. How is the experience of mankind subdivided? Give the divisions of history ; the divisions of prehistory. ' 5. Why do the rough stone fist-hatchets and scrapers repre- sent the earliest civilization ? Was that civilization spread widely, during the old stone age ? after the old stone age ? 6. Make a little table showing in one column why the "river drift" man lived near the rivers, in a second column the tools or weapons that he had, and in a third the animals among which he lived. 7. How do we know that the early cave men were more civil- ized than the "river drift" men? that the later cave men had a better civilization than the early cave men ? 8. Was paleolithic man civilized, according to the standards 32 ANCIENT CIVILIZATION named in § 6 ? What did neolithic man add to the civilization of his predecessors ? 9. How do you account for the fact that the neolithic civili- zation of the eastern Mediterranean was more advanced than that of western Europe in the same period ? 10. Do we learn chiefly by inventing tools and methods, or by learning from others ? Should we expect man to make more or less progress within a certain time as he became more civilized ? 11. Did fire benefit men more than women ? 12. What did tools do for man? 13. Trace the evolution of the hatchet from the fist-hatchet to the stone hatchet with a handle, and to our steel hatchets of the present. 14. How was the art of pottery-making dependent on that of basket-weaving ? How was the spinning and the weaving of cloth also dependent on basketry ? 15. As man ceased to be a hunter, how did he get food, cloth- ing, and power to cultivate fields ? Show how the domestication of animals is related to these needs of man. 16. Why is the pastoral stage of civilization higher than the hunting stage, and the agricultural stage higher than the pastoral stage ? 17. Name the chief steps in the development of a spoken lan- guage ; those in the development of writing. 18. Show on a map the location of the chief races of white men to-day. 19. What is the chief interest in the prehistoric period ? the chief value ? edness of Europe to CHAPTER II THE DAWN OF HISTORY 42. The Origins of Western Civilization. — We think The indebt- of Europe as the most civihzed of the continents of the modern world. The civilization of Europeans, and of Egjpt, men of European race in the new world, we call western ^^byioma civilization, to distinguish it from the civilizations of the tine. Far East, of India, of China and of Japan. Although this western civilization was developed chiefly on the conti- nent of Europe, its beginnings we find, not in Europe at all, but in Africa and in Asia. It is to Egypt that we look for the earliest of the ancient civilizations, a civilization to which the Greeks owed much. In Babylonia and in Palestine were developed many ideas regarding business and religion which we use daily. To understand western civilization, then, we must devote some attention to these early peoples outside of Europe. Ancient Egypt 43. The Influence of the Nile. — Herodotus, " the The valley father of history," more than 2000 years ago, called Egypt the gift of the Nile. This Nile valley is long and narrow, and is bounded by limestone cliffs, beyond which lies the desert. The cultivated area is about seven hundred miles in length and from ten to thirty miles wide, except at the Delta, the triangular area formed at the mouth of the Nile by mud brought down by the river. As Egj'pt is a land of little rain and considerable sunshine, it too would have been a desert but for the fact that the Nile overflows its banks. D 33 of the Nile. 34 THE NEAR EAST How the Nile floods the land and leaves a deposit of fertile mud. The local districts and the two Egypts. The Nile rises in Africa near the equator. It has tri])utarie.s that bring down freshets from the mountains of east Africa. It flows through Egypt at a depth of about 30 feet below the level of the valley. In June the river })egins to rise on / .,,_ account of the heavy f^% rains at the sources of the river, and the flood waters continue until October. In ancient times if the river rose only about twenty-five feet, it filled but a few of the irrigation ditches that carried the water to the thirsty fields, and there were short crops in Egj^pt. If it rose more than thirty feet, it ignored the irrigation ditches altogether, and flooded the fields as it pleased, and did a great deal of damage. Prosperity in Egypt has always depended on a normal rise of the river, for then the fields have been well covered with water and a thin deposit of fertile mud has been left, insuring a good crop. 44. Egypt at the Dawn of History. — This fertile Nile valley was the scene of the earliest real civilization in the history of the world. This civilization was developed slowly. Long before the dawn of history in Egypt, numerous local governments had arisen along the river to look after the Ancient Egypt. ANCIENT EGYPT 35 irrigation of the fields and other affairs of general interest. In the Delta the draining of the swamps was one of the first and most important problems. It was in the Delta that in 4241 B.C. the year was divided into 365 days, twelve months of 30 days each, with 5 extra feast days. A high authority calls 4241 b.c. the earliest fixed date in history. About this time the Delta, or lower Egypt, was united under a single king, and, soon after, the valley of the Nile from the Delta nearly to the first cataract was united under another king. Lower Egypt, or the Delta, was called the kingdom of the Red Crown. Upper Egypt was known as the kingdom of the White Crown. About 3400 B.C. the young and enterprising king of up- Union of per Egypt, Me'nes, marched against the lower Kingdom. ^^ ^^^ Menes was victorious and united upper and lower Egypt under his vigorous sway. He placed his capital at Mem- phis, on the border line between upper and lower Egypt, and he established the first dynasty.^ All earlier events are spoken of as predynastic, and all later rulers belong to dynasties which are numbered from one to twenty-six. 45. The Pyramid Builders. — The early Pharaohs, as Interest of the kings were called, were prosperous and built fine / . " 7 i- r- ^ raohs in temples, but they cared more for massive tombs after tombs, death than for palaces while living. It is from the tombs of the early Pharaohs and the still earlier (predynastic) nobles that we have learned most of what we know about early Egypt. About five centuries after Menes the Pharaohs began to build their tombs in the form of great pyramids. These pyramids are located near Memphis. The ^ Menes and his successors opened copper mines and stone quarries at Mount Sinai, constructed great buildings, undertook great engineering works, brought northeastern Africa and southern Palestine under their sway and carried on extensive commerce up the Nile, over the Red Sea and on the Mediterranean. 36 THE NEAR EAST Pyramid- tombs near Memphis. Magnitude and ac- curacy of the work. largest, that of Che-ops', was 486 feet high, the base being square and covering thirteen acres. It is said to have taken an army of 120,000 workmen twenty years to complete the huge structure, in the base of which was to be the tomb of the ruling Pharaoh. The huge blocks of stone, many of which weighed several tons, were drawn up a mountain of earth and fitted accurately to their po- Expulsion of the Hyksos and conquests to the west, south and east. The Great PjTamids. sitions. Near these pyramids is the well-known sphinx, the face being that of the Pharaoh who constructed it. 46. The Establishment of an Empire. — For a thousand years after the days of the great pyramid builders, Egypt was dominated by her nobles, her king being probably the most important noble. ^ After this period came in- vaders from the east, who brought in horses and over- ran the countr3\ For perhaps two centuries these Hyksos kings ruled lower Egypt and tried to control upper Egypt as well. The Hyksos were driven out by the princes of ^ This was practically a feudal period and is called the Middle King- dom. The last rulers of this "feudal period" were enterprising and able Pharaohs (those of the twelfth dynasty), under whom the classical language was perfected, literature flourished and commerce was devel- oped. A canal was cut from the Red Sea to the Nile. By a wall twenty- seven miles long the great basin west of the Nile, known as the Fayum, was reclaimed for agriculture. ANCIENT EGYPT 37 Thebes who organized great armies, with horses and chariots. For the first time the Egyptian people were really united, since the Theban princes had appealed to a common patriotism. The new Pharaohs were not con- tent to be simply kings of Egypt. They looked for new lands to conquer. Under Thotmes (Tot'mes) III (1450 B.C.) the Egyptian empire extended from Libya on the west and Nubia on the south to the Euphrates river.^ 47. The Decline of the Empire. — The capital of this empire was '' hundred-gated Thebes," which had long been noted for its culture. Thotmes III and his contem- poraries beautified and improved the city. Two of the most famous of the. buildings were the Hall of Kar'nak and the temple of Lux'or. The most renowned of the Pharaohs was Ram'e-ses II, a cruel old tyrant who enslaved for- eigners that lived in Egypt, compell- ing them to work on his great build- ings or huge ca- nals. "Hundred- gated Thebes." Hall of Karnak and Temple of Luxor. Karnak, Great Columns. As the empire did not last long after Rameses II, we may say that it covered the five centuries from 1600 B.C. to 1100 B.C. In 672 the Assyrians gained control The empire after Rameses II. ^ See map, p. 50. 38 THE NEAR EAST From the Persian to the British Empire. Popular terms to be remem- bered. of lower Egypt for a few years, but they were soon driven out and a native Pharaoh once more ruled Eg^-pt. After 525 came the Persians, and from that time to our own day Egypt has not been free from foreign rule. 48. Egypt under World Empires. — Persian rule lasted for two centuries, until Alexander the Great marched into the Delta and founded Alexandria, which for cen- turies was the centre of commerce and learning in the ancient world. After three centuries of Greek rule came the Roman legions, the Romans borrowing the calendar which we use now, and copying some of the least desirable religious rites of the Eg^^^tians. In the Christian era, the Arabs (Mo-ham'me-dans) and the Turks have ruled Egypt since Roman times, and to-day Egypt is, practically, a part of the greatest empire of the late nineteenth cen- tury, the British empire. 49. Distinctive Characteristics of Egyptian Civilization. — It is not the part played by Egypt as a dependent state in later empires, but the fact that her civilization was the first in the world's history, that makes Egjq^t so important. We shall study that civilization later, but should note some distinguishing features now. We think of Egypt as the land of the Nile, as the kingdom of the Pharaohs, as the country of massive architecture, such as the pyramids, the labyrinth, the Sphinx, and the great halls at Karnak and Luxor. We think of it as the land where the living worshipped sacred animals,^ such as the bull, the ibis and the cat, and where the bodies of the dead were embalmed (as mummies), because the Egyptians believed, more than any other ancient people, in a life after death. Finally we think of Egypt as the land of picture writing, hi-er-o-glj^ph'ics, for the ancient EgjqDtians cov- ered their tombs, walls and rocks with their pictured stories. ^ The worship of sacred animals is characteristic of later Eg^'ptian religion, not of the earlier period. THE TIGRIS-EUPHRATES VALLEY 39 50. The Arts in Egypt. — Besides these characteristics, Art and which appeal to our imaginations and are semi-popular, we find that the Egyptians excelled in fine art work, as in the making of pottery, glass-ware, jewelry and in carving. They were mathematicians who used geometry to lay out their fields again after the inundations of the Nile. They studied the stars. To be sure they did not know as much about some of these things as they tried to make other people think, and yet they knew more about most of them than any one else did at that time. science in Egypt. The Tigris-Euphrates Valley — Early Period 51. The Geography of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. — Like the Nile valley the Tigris-Euphrates valley is one of the most fertile spots on the globe, as well as the seat of one of the world's first historic civihzations. The lower part, called Babylonia,^ is made up chiefly of mud de- posited by the rivers. When it was drained and properly irrigated, its fertility was so great that travellers re- ported a yield of 200 or even 300 fold from grain stalks six feet high, with heads three inches broad. Although it is impossible to believe these stories, yet they show that the soil of Babylonia must have been remarkably fertile. The upper valley is called Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a, between the rivers, and is known as Assyria on the hills northeast of the Tigris river. The soil is poorer than it is in the alluvial deposits of Babylonia, and the rainfall is greater, especially in Assyria. There is no stone or metal any- where in Babylonia, but both are abundant in the upper valley. A glance at the map shows that the Euphrates valley was the natural highway from the Persian Gulf to Babylonia and its excep- tionally fertile soil. The upper valley, with the Euphrates highway. 1 Babylonia is divided into lower Babylonia, a mud delta, and upper Babylonia, a low fertile plain. It was later called Chaldea. 40 THE NEAR EAST The culture, art and cuneiform writing of the Sume- rians. the Mediterranean Sea,^ that is between the East and the West of that day. 52. The Sumerians. — The earliest civiHzation of the Tigris-Euphrates basin, so far as we have knowledge, was not developed in its own valley, as was that of Egypt, Desert The Tigris-Euphrates Basin. but was brought in from outside. These people lived in a part of the valley called Su'mer and are known as Su- ^ UnUke Egypt, this Tigris-Euphrates valley is not isolated. It is open at the south to the Persian Gulf. Numerous passes lead down from the plateaus on the north and east (the plateau of Iran — the home of the Medes and Persians), and Arabia lies on its western border. It is not only open on all sides to commerce, but the richness of its soil and the wealth of its people attracted the nomadic tribes of the neighboring foothills. Sometimes these invaders brought in a higher civilization than they found in the valley, but, almost without exception, they were crude and barbarous people, who sought plunder. Repeatedly the prog- ress of civilization in the Tigris-Euphrates valley was set back by these barbarians, although usually the new comers adopted the ways of the valley-dwellers. THE TIGRIS-EUPHRATES VALLEY 41 me'ri-ans, but we really do not know who they were. We do know, however, that the Sumerians had a written language, some art and a high degree of culture. Their written characters were a combination of wedge-shaped impressions, called the cu'ne-i-form script. It was adopted by all later peoples of western Asia and was used in Egypt in the time of the empire (§ 46). 53. The Semites in Western Asia. — The Sumerians How they were overwhelmed by invaders from Arabia. These ^hrsume- invaders are called Sem'ites, the name given to a great rian culture, race that speaks a language similar to that of the Hebrews. The ancient history of western Asia is largely a history of Semitic peoples in Babylonia, in Assyria, in Syria, in Phoenicia and in Palestine. The Semites had little originality, that is they were not good at inventing things or developing things for themselves, but they made excellent use of the art, the writing and the culture of the Sumerians. They were interested in trade and they developed cities, so that business could be carried on better. 54. The City-States. — The earliest inhabitants of The rise the valley lived in villages of rude reed huts. These ^cttr of^the gave place in time to houses of sun-baked bricks with a city-states, dome-like roof, each village being surrounded by a wall of brick to keep off enemies. Each city had a great num- ber of gods, including at least one patron deity. Each had its own king or its own ruler, who was independent at first, and hved in a huge house of brick, called a palace. These little self-governing cities are called city-states, and the name should be remembered, for the city-state played a very important part in ancient history, until the establishment of the Roman Empire (§ 354). 55. Sargon of Agade. — Soriie of these cities were larger and wealthier than others and were ruled by abler and more ambitious men. The stronger cities gained control 42 THE NEAR EAST Sargon's empire covering the entire Tigris- Euphrates valley (about 2650 B.C.). Growth of Babylon and its commerce. Hammurabi as a con- queror, builder and statesman. of their neighbors, making the kings of these neighboring cities into dependents whom we may call governors. One of the most powerful of the cities was A'ga-de, the throne of which was held by a man who had been a gardener and afterward a cup-bearer in the king's palace. Sar'gon must have been a man of great energy and ability. He not only conquered his immediate neighbors but ex- tended his rule south to the Persian Gulf and north along the Euphrates. He carried Babylonian culture and civilization to the foothills of Ar-me'ni-a and to dis- tant Syria, and brought back the stones, metals and other products of these provinces. Sargon's empire is the first in history, being 1200 years earlier than that of Thotmes III in Egypt. 56. Hammurabi's Empire. — In fact, more than four centuries before Thotmes III, another larger, stronger and more lasting empire than that of Sargon was ■established by a great conqueror and statesman, Ham-mu-ra'bi. This em- pire lasted several centu- ries and is called the old Babylonian kingdom. The capital of Babylonia was now the important walled city of Babylon, a commercial metropo- lis which desired foreign trade and was anxious to extend its rule for the benefit of its trade. Hammurabi sent out his own officials to rule over the subject cities. He established a post-sj^stem, opened up better means of communication, constructed great Copyright by Underwood and Underwood Hammurabi receiving Code. THE TIGRIS-EUPHRATES VALLEY 43 canals, and was repaid by such an increase in agriculture and such expansion of manufacturing and commerce as had never taken place before. 57. Hammurabi's Code of Laws. — Hammurabi is best known for his code of laws, which shows that busi- ness was conducted on wise and just principles, and that buying and selling, as well as social relations, were regu- lated by law. Most of the laws in the code are much older than Hammurabi's time, and many of them are to be found in a milder form in the much later Mosaic code of the Hebrews. We can judge Hammurabi's code of laws for ourselves from the following extracts : If a man during a law case shaU utter threats against the witnesses, and has not justified the word he uttered, if that suit is one on which a hfe depends, that man shall die. If a man has stolen an ox, sheep or ass, or pig, or goat, either from a god [temple] or a palace, he shall pay thirty-fold. If he is a common man, he shall pay ten-fold. If the thief has nothing to pay with, he shall be put to death. If a man has effected a robbery, and is taken, that man shall be put to death. If a man has taken a field of cultivation, and has not caused corn to grow on the field, and has not performed the work on the field, he shall be called to account and he shall give corn [grain] like his neighbor to the owner of the field. If a man destroy the eye of a man, his eye they shall put out. If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out. If a doctor has saved the eye of a man, ten shekels of silver he shall take. If it was a freedman, five shekels of silver he takes. If it was a slave, he shall take two shekels. If a doctor has put out the eye, his hands shall be cut off. If he build a house for a man and did not set his work, and the walls topple over, that builder from his own money shall make that wall strong. If a man hire a harvester, he shall give him eight gur [64 bushels] of corn for the year. If a man hire a ship of 60 gur [480 bushels], for each day he shall pay one-sixth of a shekel. The oldest complete code of laws in existence. Some of the laws in Ham- murabi's code. 44 THE NEAR EAST Assyria and Chaldea Character 58. The Assyrians. — The As-syr'i-ans lived on the of the As- slope of the mountain east and north of the Tigris River. synans. ^ . " . Appearance They were a healthy, vigorous people, and their monu- and cruelty. ments show them with the long beards and facial characteristics of the tj'pical Hebrew pa- triarch. The Assyrians were not an industrial or agricultural people like the Babylonians, but they were inter- ested in trade and were especially fond of war,^ which they waged against their enemies with fierceness and cru- elty.2 59. The Assyrian Six-sided Cylinder. Empire. — About 750 1 The greatest of the early Assyrian conquerors was Tig'lath-Pi-le'ser I, who conquered, according to his inscription, " forty-two countries and their princes, from the left bank of the lower Zab and the border of forest-clad mountains as far as the right bank of the Euphrates, the land of the Khatti [Hittitcs] and the Upper Sea of the setting sun [Mediterranean]." "The feet of the enemy I kept from my country." "One word united I caused them to speak." 2 One of the inscriptions gives an instance of the punishment meted out to rebels. "With battle and slaughter I assaulted and took the city. Three thousand captives I slew in battle. Their booty and possessions, cattle, sheep, I carried away; many captives I burned with fire. Many of their soldiers I took alive ; of some I cut off hands and limbs ; of others the noses, ears and arms ; of many soldiers I put out the eyes. I reared a column of the living and a column of heads. I hung up on high their heads on trees in the vicinity of their city. Their boys and girl.s I burned up in the flames. I devastated the city, dug it up, in tire burned it ; I annihilated it." ASSYRIA AND CHALDEA 45 B.C. Assyria became the dominant power in western Asia. From her province in the northern part of the Tigris- Euphrates valley she reached out to Babylonia on the south, to Syria on the west, and to Palestine and Egypt on the southwest. The Assyrians looked upon Babylon with reverence, because they borrowed their culture from the Babylo- nians. Theirwriting was the cuneiform script. Although they lived in a country abounding with stone, they built their houses, palaces, temples and walls of brick, as the Babylonians did. They frequently conquered Babylon, but they treated the city better than other subject cities, just as Alexander (§ 202) and Rome (§ 328) looked up to Greece and gave her special favors, after they had con- quered her. Even with Babylon, however, the Assyrians followed their policy of deportation, sending more than one hundred thousand people from Babylonia into Syria. When Sa- maria was conquered, the people of Israel were taken to Assyria. These Is'ra-el-ites are sometimes called the '^ ten lost tribes." In this way the Assyrians tried to divide the opposition to Assyrian rule, since every subject state had some Assyrian colonists and many non-Assyrian immi- grants, who would naturally fail to work with the natives for the independence of the state where they lived. All provinces were ruled by governors sent out from Assyria. 60. Assyrian Splendor and Decline. — The greatest of the cities was Nin'e-veh on the Tigris River. The Assyr- ian entered the city through gates. On the top of the huge walls seven chariots could be driven abreast. Before all public buildings the visitor saw huge stone statues, reliefs of the royal Assyrian emblem, the colossal bull with human head. Here one king (As-shur-ban'i-pal) gathered a great library (§ 102). To withstand a siege Nineveh brought to the city at considerable expense the Extent of the empire. Relations with Baby- lonia. Deportation of subjects by tens of thousands. Nineveh. Its walls, statues and water- supply. 46 THE NEAR EAST waters of oighteen mountain streams, with reservoirs for keeping a supply in the city. This barbaric splendor and these precautions for de- fence against enemies did not help Nineveh, for her rulers oppressed all of their subjects, and, from the four quarters Nebuchad- nezzar and his conquest of the Jews. Winged Bull. of the empire, revolt followed revolt. The Medes from the Persian plateau joined with the prince of Babylonia, and, after a long siege, Nineveh fell, the last Assyrian king perishing in the flames (606 B.C.)- 61. The New Babylonian Kingdom. — Most of the Assyrian possessions fell to Ba])ylonia, whose new king, Neb-u-chad-nez'zar, showed wonderful ability in recon- quering the provinces that had revolted. He did not try to ASSYRIA AND CHALDEA 47 gain Egypt, but he conquered Jerusalem (586 B.C.), sending tens of thousands of Jews to Babylon. This experience of Jewish exiles is known in Hebrew history as the " Babylon- ian captivity." Nebuchadnezzar spent thirteen years with- out success trying to conquer the little island of Tyre in Phoenicia. This later Babylonian kingdom is known as the Copyright by Underwood and Underwood Ruins of Babylon. new Babylonian kingdom. It is sometimes called the Chal- dean kingdom, because Nebuchadnezzar was a Chal-de'an} 62. What Nebuchadnezzar did for Babylon. — Nebu- Work of chadnezzar was a man of peace rather than a warrior. Nebuchad- ^ ^ nezzar as He aided industry and commerce, reconstructing many of statesman the old irrigation canals, rebuilt Babylon, raised a great ^^^ builder, dike or wall from the Tigris to the Euphrates by which ^ The Chaldeans had been the most aggressive race of Babylonia for several centuries before this time. 48 THE NEAR EAST Fall of Babylon, 538 B.C. Spread of civilization through commerce to the Mediter- ranean. Some of the ways in which we are indebted to the Baby- lonians. he could flood the country against enemies, and he ])uilt walls vaster than those of Nineveh. His best known work was the construction of the famous hanging gardens, which he fashioned for his Median queen, who longed for her mountains.^ These gardens were considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. They were built along the Euphrates River and consisted of four terraces with arcades for merchants along the bank of the river. On the highest terrace, about one hundred feet above the Euphrates, were all kinds of wonderful plants, irrigated by water pumped up from the river. Great sheets of lead kept the water from seeping through the brick terraces and undermining the walls. After Nebuchadnezzar's death the Babylonian kingdom lasted but a short time. In a few years came the cry, '^ The Medes and the Persians are at your gates," and the city fell, 538 b.c, for the Persians became the masters of all western Asia (§ 162). 63. Importance of the Tigris-Euphrates Civilization. — Babylonia shares with Egypt the honor of having one of the first historic civilizations. Its influence was per- haps even greater than that of Egypt, for the Euphrates was the highway from the East to the West. It was a centre of commerce extending in all directions, but espe- cially to the southeast by way of the Persian Gulf, and northwest to the Mediterranean. Whatever Babylonia had was carried by her merchants or her '' governors- general " to Mesopotamia, to Assyria, to Syria, to Asia Minor and even to the West. Babylonia's cuneiform writing was at one time the official written language, not onh' of western Asia, but of Egj'pt as well. This was before the time of Rameses II (§ 47). Her religion influenced that of Assyria, Phoenicia, far-away Carthage and even Greece. Her methods of foretelling 1 Media was east of the Tigris River and Assyria. EGYPTIAN EMPIRE Time of Thotiues 15 145<» B. C. Miles imi 200 :iUO ly^^ ' / Babylon ARABIAN DESERT 30- HITTITE E3IPIKK jiphy 1350T5. C. '■"^ Miles li>J 'Joo ^J';o25- Empire I ~- I 3i) )i Depr i ulencics i 2 . WJLLiAMS Ef.5. CO.. NEW YOniC WILLIAMS EN3. CO.,N£A rO»< EAKLY BABYLONIAN30 KMPIKKS nEAUTA BAI5VI.ONIAN UKFENDENCIES 100 1>W 300 400 500 WILLIAMS CNu CO., New rOHC ASSYRIA AND CHALDEA 49 events by divination were borrowed by Greece and Rome, and the superstition of her astrology descended to still later times. We still speak of soothsayers as " Chal- deans." Her law codes reappear in the laws of the Hebrews and of many other western peoples. She divided her day into twenty-four hours with two sets of twelve hours each. Her week had seven days, named as ours are, after the gods of the sun, moon and planets. Her science, especially that of the heavens, was better developed than that of the Egyptians. Her legends have been copied in the legends of other people. We should notice for example the deluge story (§ 91), and the labors of Gil- gamesh (Hercules) (§ 100) in the next chapter. Baby- lonian systems of weight and measure were used every- where in the West. The Babylonians were the first people to teach the world construction by means of the arch and the use of drains. Without question the world's debt to Babylonia is great and Babylonia's influence on the world, unfortunately, has been even greater. The East Mediterranean Coast 64. Geography. — Where the great bend of the Eu- The three phrates occurs, the East, that is, the Tigris-Euphrates ^e^pfes^and valley, joins the Middle West, that is, the east Mediter- highways of ranean coast. This east Mediterranean coast consists Mechter- of three geographical areas that were the homes of three ranean important peoples in antiquity. This coast also furnished ^°^^^- three highways between the East and the West and was the disputed ground between the empires of the Egyptians and of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. The northern part of this east Mediterranean coast we call Syria, and in ancient times it was occupied by the Hit'lites, a people who belonged really in the eastern half of Asia Minor. Along the coast south of Syria there were several enter- 50 THE NEAR EAST Location, culture and work of the Hittites. prising commercial cities, inhiil)itc(l by the PhcE-ni'cians. Inland from Phccnicia and south of Syria is that land tlirouj^h which the river Jordan flows, hrst into the Sea of (lalilee and later into that great salt sink, 1300 feet below sea level, the Dead Sea, This country we call Pal'es-tine, and it was inhabited by the Hebrews. 65. The Hittites. — The name Hittile is usually applied to all those tribes that occupied the territory from the Black Sea south to the The Hittite empire from the Black Sea to Palestine. borders of Palestine. Little is known about them, although we have uncovered a great many ruins of their buildings and cities in Asia Minor. Some of them were allied in race to the Assyrians and Phoe- nicians and, like the Assyrians and Phoeni- cians, they borrowed most of their deities, their culture and their later writings from the Babylonians. They added nothing to the civilization of the human race and yet they helped to pass on the Babylonian culture to peoples farther west. In the days after Thotmes III, when the Egyptians began to lose their hold on Syria, a great Hittite king ^ united under his rule the eastern half of Asia Minor, * Subbiluliuma. East Mediterranean Coast. THE EAST MEDITERRANEAN COAST 51 Syria and most of Palestine.^ For two centuries this Hittite empire lasted, until the Assyrians began to grow powerful, but five centuries passed before the greatest Assyrian kings finally overthrew the Hittite power (§ 59). 66. Phoenicia and her People. — The Phoenicians oc- cupied a little strip of coast but a few miles in width. The mountains are so close to the sea that the hillsides are steep and there are few farms, but numerous harbors. The Phoenicians naturally turned to the sea for a living. They gathered about the harbors in little clusters that were city-states, like the early states of the Euphrates valley (§ 54). For trade their location was ideal. They had fine harbors. They were located at the eastern end of the trade routes along the Euphrates which connected the Mediterranean Sea with Babylonia and the Persian Gulf. They were bold and skilful sailors, who did most^of the carrying of goods from Egypt to Mediterranean ports after the decline of the Cretans (§ 124) and before the rise of the Greeks (§ 142). 67. Tyre and Carthage. — In order that they might have depots for convenience in trading at distant points, the Phoenicians made trading-settlements or colonies at different places along the shores of the Mediterranean. One of these was in Greece, at or near Thebes, others were in Sicily, still others on the northern shores of Africa. One of these, Car'thage (§ 308), located at a very fine harbor opposite Sicily, was destined to be even more fa- mous than its famous founder, the Phoenician city of Tyre. Tyre was the great commercial city of the ancient world before the rise of Alexandria (§ 216). Tyre (Tire) ^ Beyond the Euphrates east to the mountains of Assyria all the kings acknowledged the supremacy of the Hittites, although their possessions did not form part of his empire. (See map, p. 45.) How the geography and location of the Phoe- nicians made them traders. Trade routes. Extent of Phoenician trade. Some Phoe- nician colonies. Tyre, her people and her busi- ness. 52 THE NEAR EAST Civilization carried with the Phoeni- cian trade. The alpha- bet. From Abraham to Moses. was built on an island so that it could not easily be cap- tured, as Nebuchadnezzar discovered. There was found near the city a shell fish that gav(* a beautiful j:)urple dye, which was used for fine fabrics and was so expensive that it was bought chiefly by kings. This is known as the Tyrian or royal purple. Tyre had great fleets, very extensive trade and large factories in which her people manufactured the raw materials that they gathered on their trading voyages. 68. The Phoenicians as Carriers of Civilization. — The Phoenicians were not an inventive people. From the Babylonians they borrowed their deities and most of their civilization. But they did more than that ; for they carried this civilization with them w^hen they sailed along the shores of the Mediter- ranean. Usually the natives were more interested in ex- changing ivory or gold, or silver, or some of the natural products which they could not use, for glass beads or brace- lets or strips of bright-colored cloth, but the Phoenicians nevertheless spread the older cultures a good deal as the wind carries seed. In trading the Phoenicians used a set of written characters called letters. Where they found them we do not yet know, but they carried them all over the civilized world and gave to the world the first alphabet. 69. Early History of the Hebrews. — Inland from Pha'nicia lies Palestine, the home of a Semitic people called the Hebrews. To Palestine in the time of Ham- The " Moabite Stone " (an ex- ample of early Phoenician writ- ing). THE EAST MEDITERRANEAN COAST 53 murabi (§ 56) came A'bra-ham, an Arab sheik or patriarch, who had journeyed from '' Ur of the Chaldees." Abra- ham's great grandson, Joseph, was sold into captivity by his jealous brothers and was taken to Egypt, where he rose high in the esteem of the Pharaoh. Then came years of famine in Palestine which drew Joseph's brothers and many others to the store-houses of Egypt. Some centuries later we find the '' children of Israel " in bondage in Egypt, making bricks without straw and oppressed by the Egyptians. Under the leadership of Moses the Hebrews made an Exodus " exodus " from Egypt, perhaps under Rameses II. ^^^^ Egypt . „, 1 • c • • 1 1 ^^^ settle- Alter wandermg lor a generation m the desert wastes ment in south of Palestine, they settled in Palestine. For several Palestine. centuries they lived under judges, fighting against their neighbors in order that they might keep this " land of milk and honey " for themselves. 70. The United Hebrew Kingdom. — The Hebrews The He- were still like bands of wandering Arab tribes. They ^^*^^^ ^^"^" ... '^ dom under needed a national organization and a national leader, so Saul, David they chose a king, a tall, handsome man named Saul. ^^^ ^°^°" . mon. Saul was not a good leader, but his successor, David, who had gained a reputation by killing the giant champion of the PhiHstines, Goliath, was not only a general but was the leader that the Hebrews needed. He built up a king- dom which under his son Sol'o-mon extended from the Red Sea to the Euphrates. That is, it covered the whole east ■ Mediterranean coast. Under David there were collected and perfected a , large number of hymns of praise, the Psalms, and under Solomon, the wisdom of the ages was gathered in Proverbs. This Hebrew king- dom was created about 1000 b.c, about 250 years after the exodus and about the same time before the rise of the great Assyrian empire. 71. The History of Israel and Judea. — After Solo- 54 THE NEAR EAST Kingdom divided into Israel and Judah. The "lost ten tribes" and "Baby- lonian cap- tivity." Growth of the Hebrew people from poly- theism to monothe- ism. How the Hebrew people came to worship one God. mon's death the Hebrew kingdom was divided into two kingdoms. Is'ra-el in the north, with her capital *Sa- via'ri-a, was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 and many from its ten tribes were carried into exik' (§ 59). Ju-de'a in the south remained free until Nebuchadnezzar captured her capital Je-ru'sa-lem (§61) (586 b.c.) and took many of its inhabitants to Babylon, a period called the Babylonian captivity of the Jews, as we have noticed. After the return of the exiles and the rebuilding of Jerusalem, the 'prophets were the national leaders. Judea was then under the rule of Greek kings for centuries until the Romans occupied Palestine before the birth of Christ, and later made Palestine into a Roman province. 72. The Religious Experience of the Hebrews. — Until long after the kingdom of David and Solomon the Hebrew people did not have a radically different religious belief from their neighbors. The great importance of the Hebrews in the history of the world does not consist in their being at a very early date monotheists, that is, people who believe in one God. Many of their leaders were monotheists, but the Hebrews as a people at first believed in many gods. Only gradually did the people realize that Je-ho'vah ivas the only God. They did not understand that God is a universal, omnipotent spirit^ and not, as their neighbors believed, an enlarged human being with human passions and weaknesses. The prophets tried to teach the people that the one God was not a divine hero like the gods of their neighbors. Although the Hebrew people came to believe in one God who was Spirit, it cannot be said that the whole people learned to worship, as well as believe in, one true God, until after the Babylonian captivity. This then is the great contribution of the Hebrews to the world's progress: that they abandoned polytheism for a belief in one true God, and their belief grew into a national worship of that THE EAST MEDITERRANEAN COAST 55 God. Other peoples had isolated leaders who believed in monotheism and some that even lived up to their be- lief. The Hebrew nation was the only monotheistic nation of antiquity. 73. Summary. — Ancient Egypt owed her great prog- Important ress partly to her isolated position and partly to the ^" the^^^^°^^ exceptional fertility caused by the inundations of the Nile, period of Historical Egypt may be divided into two great periods : I, jndepend- that of Egyptian independence, from 3400 B.C. to 525 B.C. ; ence. II, that of dependence, 525 B.C. to the present. In 3400 B.C. Menes united upper and lower Egypt. The period of the pyramid builders is called the Old Kingdom. The feudal period when the nobles ruled is called the Middle Kingdom. After the Hyksos rule we have the Empire, with Thotmes III ruling from Nubia and Lydia to the Euphrates River, and Rameses II, the Magnificent. Then follows a period of decline. Egypt was first added (temporarily) to the Assyrian Succession empire. It then became in turn subject to the Persians, ^J^^^^ to the Greeks, the Romans, the Mohammedans, the Turks empires, and finally to the English. Egypt's civilization was not only the earhest but one of the best in the ancient Orient, and, except that of Babylonia, the most influential of the civilizations of the ancient near East. The lower Tigris-Euphrates valley, or Babylonia, is The geog- very fertile. Into Babylonia the Sumerians brought the civiiiza^tk>n rudiments of almost all of the art, writing and culture of of the this whole area. The Babylonians, Assyrians, Hittites, pifatts "' Phoenicians and Hebrews, most of whom were Semites, valley. in their turn copied this culture. For a summary of this civilization consult (§ 63). The Babylonians had two great empire builders : Sargon Empires of of Agade (about 2650 b.c.) and Hammurabi of Babylon Asl^rifnd (about 1900 B.C.). Hammurabi's empire lasted several cen- the Hit- turies. The Assyrian empire was developed by a succes- *^ ^^' 56 THE NEAR EAST Work of the PhcE- nicians. Religious importance of the Hebrews. sion of warrior kings from about 750 to 650 B.C. The new Babylonian kingdom under Nebuchadnezzar followed the downfall of Assyria. The Hittite empire preceded the first Assyrian empire but survived until the second. The Phoenicians were interested in trade, which they carried on with the Euphrates valley, with Egypt and with the whole INIediterranean area. They planted trading posts, some of which grew into colonies, and they carried the alphabet to all ancient peoples. U The Hebrews were a pastoral people who lived in Pales- tine. They were at first ruled by judges. Under David and Solomon (1015-935 b.c.) there was a united Hebrew kingdom stretching from Egj^pt to the Euphrates River. This kingdom was divided into Israel and Judea. Israel was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 b.c. and Jerusalem was captured in 586 b.c. by Nebuchadnezzar, the great ruler of the later Babylonian (Chaldean) empire. The Jews struggled up from polytheism through belief in one God to a national worship of a true God. General References Goodspeed, History of the Ancient World, 5-60. West, Ancient World, Revised, 11-81. Du Pontet, The Ancient World, 1-115. Sayce, Ancient Empires of the East. Baikie, The Story of the Pharaohs. Breasted, History of the Ancient Egyptians. Goodspeed, A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians. Winckler, History of Babylonia and Assyria. Story of the Nations : Volumes on Ancient Egypt, Chaldea, Assyria, Phrrnicia, The Jews, and Media, Babylonia and Persia. Cunningham, Western Civilization, I, 10-70. Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East, 170, 212-325. Maspero, The Dawn of Civilization. Macalister, Civilization in Palestine. Moret, In the Time of the Pharaohs. Handcock, Mesopotamian Archeology. THE DAWN OF HISTORY 57 Topics The Tel el Amarna Tablets : Breasted, A History of Egypt, 332-337, 382-389 ; Moret, In the Time of the Pharaohs, 55-98; Wilson (ed.), Egyptian Literature, 191-314. The Code of Hammurabi: Davis, Readings in Ancient His- tory, I, No. 20 ; Handcock, Mesopotamian Archeology, 375-386 ; Boscawen, The First of Empires, 195-263. Studies 1. The inundations of the Nile. Maspero, The Dawn of Civil- ization, 22-26. 2. The influence of very early Egypt in the Mediterranean and in western Europe. Smith, The Ancient Egyptians, 161-183. 3. The building of the pyramids. Wheeler, B. I., in Century, 34 (1898), 107-109. 4. The rise of Thebes. Ragozin, Early Egypt, 74-80. 5. The empire under Amenhotep III. Baikie, Story of the Pharaohs, 153-168. 6. The wars of Rameses II. Breasted, History of the Ancient Egyptians, 303-313. 7. Egyptian architecture. Baikie, J., in National Geographic Magazine, 24 (1913), 992-1020. 8. The geography of the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Goodspeed, History of the Babylonians and Assyrians, 1-13. 9. The Sumerians. King, History of Sumer and Accad, 56-83. 10. The work of Layard. Rogers, History of Bahijlonia and Assyria, I, 138-159. 11. Tiglath-Pileser I. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, No. 11. 12. Commerce, business and industry in Babylonia. Winck- ler. History of Babylonia and Assyria, 160-164. 13. The Assyrian army and methods. Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, 626-642. 14. The city of Sargon II. Maspero, Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 194-214. 15. The civilization of Assyria. Winckler, History of Babylonia and Assyria, 286-310. 16. Jonah at Nineveh. The Bible, Book of Jonah, chaps. Ill and IV. 58 THE NEAR EAST 17. The hanging gardens of Babylon. Wheeler, B. I., in Century, 34 (1898), 220-222. 18. Daniel and the fall of Babylon. The Bible, Book of Daniel, chap. V. 19. Conquests of the greatest Hittite king. Garstang, The Story of the Hittites, 32.3-339. 20. Phoenician ships and commerce. Maspero, Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 165—168. 21. The conquest of Samaria by Assyria. The Bible, Second Book of the Kings, chap. XVII, chap. XVIII, 1-12. 22. A psalm of praise. The Bible, Book of Psalms, chap. CI II. 23. The development of Hebrew monotheism. Macalister, Civilization of Palestine, chap. VII. Questions 1. Why is Egypt "the gift of the Nile"? 2. Explain these terms : dynastj', predynastic, pyramid, sphinx, Pharaoh, Middle Kingdom, the Hyksos, feudal period, mummy, hieroglyphics. 3. Why did the Pharaohs build pj-ramids ? How did they pay the laborers ? How capable were the engineers that built the pyramids ? How skilful were the stone masons ? 4. What is a kingdom ? What is an empire ? Why should we call the Egypt of Menes a kingdom and that of Thotmes III an empire ? 5. Show why the Hj^ksos rule led to the empire. Give the extent of the empire. How long did it last ? Name and de- scribe its capital. 6. What was the importance of Egypt's isolation ? 7. Give the periods in Egyptian history from Menes to the conquests by Persia in 525 b.c. Name in order the empires that have ruled Egypt from 525 b.c. to the present day. 8. Give six names that are distinctive of Egyptian civilization. 9. What do we owe to Egj^pt. 10. Compare in respect to size, location, accessibility and gen- eral resources, the Nile valley, the east Mediterranean coast and the Tigris-Euphrates basin. 11. Why should the world's earliest civilizations have been developed in the Delta of the Nile and in Babylonia ? 12. Show the importance of the Euphrates river: (1) as the seat of an early empire ; (2) as a trade route between East and West. THE DAWN OF HISTORY 59 13. Who were the Semites ? Show that all of the Semites of western Asia were more interested in trade than in anything else. 14. Show that Hammurabi was a great man. 15. What is meant by the AssjTian system of deportation ? What name is used to explain the deportation of the people of Israel ? to explain that of the Jews ? 16. Why was there great rejoicing when Nineveh fell ? 17. Why is the influence of Babylonian civilization "perhaps even greater than that of Egypt" ? 18. On a map show the extent of the Hittite empire. Did the Greeks probably owe anj^thing to the Hittites ? 19. Why were the Phoenicians traders rather than warriors ? Name two great Phoenician cities ; three Phoenician colonies. (See map opp. page 111.) 20. Outline the steps in the history of the Hebrews from the time of Joseph to that of the later Prophets. 21. Trace the chief steps in the development of Hebrew mono- theism. CHAPTER III CIVILIZATION OF THE NEAR EAST The Ruling Classes Classes in ancient society. The king, his titles and his despotic power. Home of the king and his harem. 74. The King and his Government. — In ancient times there was a very sharp distinction between the ruUng classes and the common people. There was an equally sharp distinction between those who belonged to royalty and the other privileged classes — nobles and priests, and possibly soldiers or scribes. At the head of each government was a king. In Egj'pt this king was called a Pharaoh. Whether he ruled a tiny city or a mighty empire, the king was a despot. Even if his kingdom w^as insignificant, he assumed a high-sounding title, as " King of the four quarters of the Earth," or " King of the World." Succession to the throne was hereditary, that is, one of the king's sons succeeded him as king. 75. The King's Palace. — The kings lived in palaces which were buildings of brick or stone of one or two stories. Outside of the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the island of Crete these palaces were far less pretentious than the temples built to the gods. There were separate apart- ments for the Avives of the king, for every oriental poten- tate of importance married a sister or daughter of every other king with whom he was allied. These wives were of unequal rank, their rank depending on the importance of the kingdom from which they came. Only one of these wives was called queen, and naturally one of her sons succeeded to the throne. 60 THE RULING CLASSES 61 of an Egyptian palace. "The Egyptian palaces are not built for eternity like the Maspero's temples. They are light constructions of wood, brick, or un- description dressed freestone, but rarely blended with granite except for the decoration of the great doorways. They recall the villa of Nakhtminou ^'S-' The Judgment of the Soul at the Tribunal of Osiris. words ; I have not pried into matters (to make mischief) ; I have not been a man of anger ; I have not stirred up strife; I have not judged hastily; I have not sought for distinctions ; I have not increased my wealth, except with such things as are mine own possessions. Of course, the ordinary Egyptian did not understand the meaning of this exalted rehgion. In fact, the ordinary Egyptian was not allowed in the temples, since he had no offering for the temple gods, and must worship the minor gods as best he could. 91. The Babylonian Story of the Deluge. — Other early people had stories of their gods and the great deeds that they performed, but no other very early people lonians had such noble rehgious ideas as the Egyptians. Among the multitude of stories of the Babylonians, that of the deluge may be considered, because it became part of the religious faith of western Asia. Inferior religion of the Baby- 74 THE NEAR EAST The story of the deluge. Religions. Architec- ture, tombs. The earth was filled with wicked men wlio neglected the gods. At a council of the gods it was decided to send a deluge upon the earth. One of the gods warned a faithful follower, urging him to " construct a wooden house, build a ship, abandon thy goods, seek life ; throw away thy possessions, save thy life and place in the vessel all the seed of life. ..." This Babylonian *' Noah " warned the people, who ridiculed him, but he constructed an ark, 140 cubits long and 100 cubits broad. Then came the rain-god in anger and for six days the storm raged. On the seventh, the storm abating, the waters began to subside. On the twelfth day the ark rested on a mountain, and a few days later all that were in the ark came forth to replenish the earth. 92. The Temples of the Gods in Egypt. — All of the greatest monuments of the ancient world dealt with reli- gion. In Egypt the great pyramids were only tombs of Luxor Restored. Beauty of the build- ings and wealth of the temples in Egypt. Pharaohs who preferred splendid tombs for their bodies after death rather than fine palaces while they were living. The finest religious structures were, of course, temples. The Egyptian temples of Luxor and of Karnak are famous, although they lack the simplicity and style of earlier colonnades. They were completed at a time when Amon, the great god of Thebes, was the most powerful deity of Egypt and controlled more than one tenth of the RELIGION 75 agricultural lancl.^ In those days the Pharaoh turned over most of the spoils of war to the temples, willing devotees made valuable presents, unwilling fellahs (work- men) contributed forced labor on ornate buildings, and the temples in general absorbed the wealth and prosperity of the people. 93. Temples and Temple Lands in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. — In Babylonia and Assyria the temples were not made of stone col- umns, but were huge piles of brick, ordina- rily of seven stories. Each story was some- what smaller than the one below. Each was dedicated to a planet and was in a color of its own. The seventh was sometimes cov- ered with gold plates. This upper room only the king or the high priest might enter. In the Tigris- Euphrates valley the temples owned most of the land about the cities, for all the land belonged to the gods and was divided among their representatives, the priests and the king, the former owning the land about the cities, Babylonian Temple. Temples to the sun-god in the Tigris- Euphrates basin. Temple lands in the Tigris- Euphrates valley. 1 All of the temples controlled about fifteen per cent of the land in Egypt. As recently as 1789, the Roman Catholic Church controlled about one fifth of the land in France, and a larger percentage in some other countries. 76 THE NEAR EAST Superstition and sub- servience of the people. Large num- bers of deities. Unreligious character of the worship. Monothe- ism rare even among the early- Hebrews. and the latter, in person or through nobles, controlling the rest. 94. Polytheism and the People. — To the people, ignorant and steeped in superstition, this religion of many gods, expensive temples and wealthy priests was a necessit}^ although it did nothing for them except increase their already heavy burdens. They seldom entered the temples and less often asked aid of the priests. Yet the people gave freely of their time. They did not begrudge to the temples the rents of the gods' lands. In fact, they believed much more than did the priests in the gods and in their power. The people of ancient times, except a few leaders and thinkers, believed in polytheism. In general, over western Asia the religions were much alike. The great god might be called Marduk or Bel (Baal) or As'shur, the great god- dess was usually Ish'tar (As'ta-roth), but there were other major deities and hundreds of minor gods and goddesses. The worship of these gods was coarse, brutal and revolting. Not only did it do little to uplift the people, but it fre- quently degraded them. Human sacrifice was by no means unknown. 95. Monotheism. — Although polytheism was the rule, monotheism was an exception. In almost all periods, especially among the Egyptians and the Hebrews, there were some that beheved in one God. One of the Pharaohs tried to make monotheism the state religion in Egypt, but the priests had the support of the people, and he failed. So little did the Hebrews believe in one God at the time of the Exodus that they adopted the worship of the golden calf, as soon as Moses left them. For centuries after they settled in Palestine the people ran after false gods, that is, many gods. It required a long and severe training before this " chosen people " came to beheve, as a people, in one God WRITING AND LITERATURE 77 who was an omnipotent, omnipresent Spirit. It took The He- them still longer to learn to worship Him and Him alone, brews be- come a But they learned the lesson finally and they learned it monothe- well, and they made to the world this one great contribu- ^^^^^ people tion, the greatest of the ancient world — monotheism. _irf(>n'f r-_Ti-tc;. "iMiits :gi3!Hiii(,i,5u/«w, y^'j;i!«TSfvn»f.'nj--'",u='c?4«>i'.=:i*«r«M •/>iS''T««:Tir!;3'<:-riT?.sj£nitfV-.ii:ij»i' £«nis/»s of Rameses tions. 80 THE NEAR EAST II. We learn this fact from a wonderful discovery made a little more than a quarter of a century ago. Some work- men were searching for building material at Tel el A-mar'na, about 200 miles south of Memphis in Egypt. Discovering some ta])lcts with inscriptions, they took them to Cairo for sale. The tablets were of clay, flat and about the size of a small book, or in the form of cylinders, with wedge-shaped (cuneiform) characters. Here surel}^ was a fraud. Cuneiform writing in middle Egypt ! It was impossible, said the scholars. But the more they investi- gated, the more wonderful did the " fraud" appear. Here was a perfect treasure house of letters written by or to an Egyptian king ; from Palestine, asking for troops to help against enemies ; from the Hittites, with negotia- tions for a royal marriage ; correspondence with the people of the far off Euphrates valley. Most of what we know about that century in Egypt and in Asia, we have learned from the Tel el Amarna tablets. And perhaps the most wonderful fact of all is the fact that one language and one script, the cuneiform, were used throughout most of the civilized world of that day, very much as French was used as an international language for several cen- turies. Collection 102. The Library of Asshurbanipal. — In the city of of clay Nineveh workers have found a collection of clay books tablets and i rr^ i i * cylinders even more valuable than the Tel el Amarna tablets. in Xineveh. Several kings had royal libraries, but the last important Assyrian king, As-shur-ban'i-pal, who lived in the seventh century b.c, made an unusually fine collection. More than thirty thousand books have been found in this library. Some were very old, and had been gathered from hundreds of places. Many were '' new," having been written at the order of the king. They were well arranged, classified and catalogued, so that the readers could find what they wanted. They were covered with cuneiform characters WRITING AND LITERATURE 81 impressed upon the damp clay with a pointed stylus or stick. The clay was then baked. For fear that some one might alter the writing, especially when the book recorded a contract to buy anything or to pay a sum of money in the future, many of the books had two coats, an outer and an inner. When the inner coat had been baked, the book was covered with another coat of clay and a duplicate of the enclosed inscription was written on the outside. In case of doubt or dispute, the outer coat was removed and the original writing was examined. Of course no change could have been made in that. Sometimes additional facts were added on the outer coat. Some of the books were written, not in the old cuneiform characters, but in a new form, in letters. 103. The Alphabet. — Some four or five centuries before Asshurbanipal made this collection of books, some person or people whom we do not know began to use written characters for separate sounds instead of for syl lables and words. Instead of the hundreds or thousands of characters that the Egyptians and the Babylonians used, they used twenty-two, w^hich we call letters. Who- ever may have invented these letters, which we call collectively the alphabet, their use was adopted by the Phoenicians, and the Phoenicians carried the alphabet with their commerce over the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the whole Mediterranean world. Until recent years it was thought that the alphabet was the creation of the Phoenicians, but there can now be little doubt that they borrowed it, as they did all of their other ideas, from some other people. 104. Possible Origin of the Alphabet. — It is interesting to notice in this connection that there have been found in Crete " marks on masonry, pottery, the reverse side of ivory, bone and porcelain inlays. These last are of the same character as the Egyptian trade signary, and, G The work of the PhcEni- cians. Possible origin in ancient trade symbols. 82 THE NEAR EAST although of pictorial origin, thoy were early reduced to a single script, and appear to have been alphabetic. Of twenty-one varieties on the backs of inlays which were found at Knos'sos (in Crete) ten marks are practically ■ ;/((/ L '/Kit ncoud Irrigation on the Euphrates. identical with forms of the later Greek alphabet." ^ It would certainly be one of the ironies of fate, if we should ' Hawes, Crete, the Forerunner of Greece. This idea of tlie trade-mark origin of the alphabet is endorsed by such able archeologists as Flinders Petrie and Arthur J. Evans. TRADE AND INDUSTRY 83 find that our alphabet was developed from the '' trade- marks " and symbols used in commerce by the sea-faring Cretans, whose language we have, as yet, been unable to decipher. Trade and Industry 105. Agriculture in the Ancient Orient. — All paleo- Importance lit hie men were hunters. Most neolithic men also were *^^ agnciU- t/XiFG in hunters. But the men who developed the civilization of Egypt and Babylonia. Copyright by Underwood and Underwood Egyptian Water-sweep. the historic period were devoted to agriculture, industry and commerce. Especially in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile was agriculture important, for the soil gave wonderful returns when properly drained and irrigated. 84 THE NEAR EAST Importance of irrisa- tion ditches. The water- sweep. Irrigation dam in Egypt. Extent of the arts. Use of metal tools, first copper, then bronze, last iron. Wheat, ])arley and millot woro among the common grains, while onions antl lentils furnished vegetable food. 106. Use of Irrigation in Ancient Times. — As there was httle rain in either region, the farmers depended on the construction of canals, which drained the swampy land or brought the waters of the river to the fields. Menes, Hammura])i, and Rameses II were among the great builders of these "useful ditches. If the ditch was too high for the water to flow from the river to the main canal, the peasant used a water-sweep to lift it, just as the fellah does to-day along the Nile. A clay-lined basket was attached to a long pole which rested upon a post, with a heavy clay weight at the other end. The basket was lowered into the river and then raised to the level of the ditch, into which the water that had not been spilled was then emptied. One of the greatest of the irrigation undertakings in Egypt was the construction of a wall twenty-seven miles long which kept the waters of the Nile from pouring into Lake Moe'ris (the Fay'um), except the quantity needed for irrigation. This valley and that of the main stream were so fertile that in Caesar's time a great deal of the grain used in Rome came from Egypt. 107. The Arts. The Use of Tools. — While some people were raising food, others were cutting out stones for building, making bricks, carving statues for temples or stone vessels for palace halls, making pottery, weaving fine cloth or manufacturing any of the hundreds of dif- ferent articles that the poor or rich used, or that were exported in exchange for the grains, oil or pottery that the people did not raise or make for themselves. Stone cutting and carving was one of the greatest of the arts. The massive structures of the Pharaohs and the smaller palaces of the Cretan kings would have been almost impossible but for metal tools. Copper was known TRADE AND INDUSTRY 85 from a date long before the dawn of history, but copper tools were not used until almost the time of Menes, when copper was obtained from the ore and hardened. Later, some one, perhaps in Europe, discovered that if a Uttle tin were added to copper a hard alloy would be made. This alloy of copper and tin is called bronze. A new age in the arts as well as a new period in the history of war- fare was introduced by this discovery, for bronze tools and bronze weapons were superior to copper instruments. Twenty centuries later, near the close of this period that we are studying, iron weapons and tools came into common use. Iron brought an even greater revolution in warfare and industry than bronze had caused. 108. Woodworking and other Industrial Arts. — Wood- working was an important art, and it was developed in the making of chairs, couches, chests, doors, buildings and ships. The Babylonians imported a great deal of their wood from Lebanon, and the Hebrews sent to Leb- anon for cedar and to Tyre for carpenters. A car- penter's kit, found in Crete, shows the tools used by a Cretan builder. " He used saws long and short, heavy chisels for stone and light for wood, awls, nails, files and axes much battered by use, and what is more important to note, they resembled in shape the tools of to-day so closely that they furnish one of the strongest Hnks between the first great civilization of Europe and our own." Fine cloth, dyed perhaps by the Tyrian experts with that beautiful purple which we call royal purple, necklaces and amulets, vases of stone and choice pottery, glassware, carved bone or ivory are a few of the other art products that we have time only to mention in passing. 109. Trade in a City Market. — Each city had many local markets where goods were exchanged, for money was not in use. " The customers stroll past and leisurely examine the quality of the commodities offered for sale ; Wood- working and car- penter's tools. Other fine and in- dustrial arts. Maspero's description of an Eg>'ptian market. 86 THE NEAR EAST TRADE AND INDUSTRY 87 each carries something of his own manufacture in his hand — a new tool, some shoes, a mat, or a small box full of rings of copper, silver, even of gold, of the weight of an outnou, which he proposes to barter for the objects he requires. Two customers stop at the same moment in front of a fellah, who exhibits onions and wheat in a basket. Instead of money, the first holds two necklets of glass or of many-coloured earthenware, the second a round fan with a wooden handle, and one of these trian- gular ventilators which the cooks used to quicken the fire. ' Here is a beautiful necklet which will please you, this is what you want,' cries the former ; whilst the latter urges, ' Here is a fan and a ventilator.' However, the fellah, quite unmoved by this double attack, methodically proceeds to first seize a string of the beads for closer examination. ' Let me see it, that I may fix a price.' The one asks too much, the other too little ; from con- cession to concession they finally come to terms, and settle the number of onions or the weight of corn which the necklet or fan may be worth." 110. Foreign Trade. — Considerable trading was done How the by the Cretans and later by the Phoenicians and the ^^^\^l Greeks with the natives on shores far distant from the Phoenicians eastern Mediterranean. When a vessel reached a port, ^^^^^^^^^3.^^*^ the sailor-traders '^ disembark and display on the ground, or upon rapidly erected stalls, the produce which they know the inhabitants of the country consider valuable; sometimes jewels, bracelets, collars, amulets of glass or enamelled stone, of gold or silver; sometimes weapons, axes, swords damascened and chased ; sometimes vases, or stuffs dyed purple or embroidered in brilliant colors. Most of these objects are of Egyptian manufacture, or fabricated in Phoenicia from Egyptian models more or less modified by the influence of the Chaldean types." Like these individuals and tribes, the nations wanted 88 THE NEAR EAST Demand for foreign- made goods. Transpor- tation by caravan or by river. articles that they could not produce for themselves. The Pharaoh in Egypt desired the beautiful lapis lazuli of Asia, the ivory of the upper Nile, and the spices from the shores of the Indian Ocean. The Assyrian lady must have a chest of cedar from Lebanon for her clothes, ostrich- plume fans and necklaces from the Nile. 111. Transportation of Goods in the Ancient Orient. — Different methods were used to carry these goods from the person who made them to the buyer. Caravans of An Egyptian Ship. Carry-ing of goods by sea. camels wandered up and down the Nile above the first cataract or across Syria, north of the Arabian desert. Tiny boats plied along the Nile or the Euphrates, using sails or oars, but usually propelled by poles. Slow-mov- ing oxcarts, with two or four wheels, trundled over the un- even paths, meeting messengers on horseback or drawing to one side that a noble in a chariot with his retinue of followers might not be. detained. From the ports of the Delta and from the Phoenician coast there sailed small vessels with high poops and per- haps as many as fifteen rowers on a side. The Cretans and the Phoenicians dared to sail at night, and fearlessly crossed between islands with no land in sight, but the TRADE AND INDUSTRY 89 Egyptians usually clung to the shore. In the days of one of the last Pharaohs, an expedition sailed to the west, past the Gates of Hercules (Gibraltar) and then south to the ends of the earth. Three years later these daring sailors came up on the east coast of Egypt. Herodotus, who tells us the story, says that it cannot be true, because, when they were sailing east, on the south side of Africa, the sun was on their left hand. On the contrary, this observation proves to us that these sailors did circum- navigate Africa. 112. Important Trade Routes. — A glance at the map Land and shows what the trade routes must have been. One ^^^^^ . rou-tjGs in followed the Euphrates, thence by caravan trail to Damas- the East cus, Tyre or Sidon, or through Jerusalem and across Suez fj?^ *^^ . . West. to Memphis ; another followed the Nile and a caravan trail to the Red Sea. Canals were constructed from the Delta to the Red Sea and across the isthmus of Suez, thus anticipating our present Suez ship canal by more than twenty centuries. The ^Egean basin and the Black Sea furnished a fine market for Cretan and later for Phoenician and Greek traders. Even more profit was made in trading with the distant western colonies of Phoenicia and Greece or their bar- barian neighbors. Spain, with its rich silver mines and abundant products, was worth visiting often, and Britain must be reached across Gaul if not by sea, if only for the tin which was needed for bronze. The use of these impor- tant highways, the exchange of products and the inter- change of ideas helped to raise the standard of civilization throughout the ancient world. Progress of Twenty-five Centuries 113. General Progress. — ■ We have now come more than half way from the dawn of history to the present time. 90 THE NEAR EAST Progress in culture, literature, art and the use of metals. Consoli- dation in eastern empires. Prepara- tion for Greek democracy. Let US consider a few of the great changes that mankind has made. In 3000 b.c. only one people, the Egyptians, had emerged from the mists of prehistoric barbarism, al- though the Sumerians had a fair civilization in the Tigris- Euphrates valley. In twenty-five centuries both of these civilizations had developed wonderfully and had spread over the ancient world from Persia to Italy. Where there once had been two elementary systems of picture writing, there came to be an alphabetic language for every people, and extensive literatures from Greece eastward. The crude pottery and drawings of the early Egyptian dynas- ties had given place to fine ware. Grecian architecture and sculpture already began to give promise of that perfection that it reached only a century later. In 3000 b.c. copper was just coming into use among the most civilized people, but within a few centuries bronze had replaced copper, because of its greater efficiency, and after 1200 b.c. bronze was replaced by the still more efficient iron tools and weapons. 114. Political Progress. — Social, economic and politi- cal progress had been great in these twenty-five cen- turies. In 3000 B.C. the Egj'ptians were the only people who Were living under a real government. All of the other governments were simply local governments, and these were not numerous. Soon after 3000 B.C., however, an extensive area was brought under one government by Sargon of Agade and later by Hammurabi. These early Babylonian empires and that of the Egyptians and the Hittites were loosely organized affairs, and it was not until the time of the Assyrians that the empires of the East were really consolidated under a single government. More important from the political point of view than the consolidation of vast areas under a despotic oriental ruler was the progress which had already been made in the Greek cities in central Greece and in southern Italy PROGRESS OF TWENTY-FIVE CENTURIES 91 toward allowing the people to rule these tiny city-states. Greek democracy did not develop until after the period that we are studying. Even then the people did not rule the city as the American people rule the United States. 115. Economic Progress. — There was some develop- Diversifi- ment of trade and domestic industry in 3000 B.C., each cation of . . . occupa- man m Egypt and Babylonia havmg his own occupation, tions. Use By 550 B.C. this division of occupations was to be found of money everywhere among civilized people. Markets had been opment of established, and great fleets carried goods from country trade, to country, as we have just seen in the preceding para- graphs. Early trade had been entirely in the form of barter ; but, during the seventh century before Christ the country of Lydia in Asia Minor began to use disks of precious metals that we call coins. By 550 B.C. money was in fairly general use throughout the countries of the eastern Mediterranean. With the development of great empires and more extensive businesses slavery became more profitable, and was more extensive than it had been twenty-five centuries earlier. Although business had developed wonderfully, it would be difficult to say whether the workers were better off in 550 B.C. than they were 2500 years earlier. 116. Social Progress. — In 3000 B.C. there were only Organiza- a few small organized societies on the surface of the globe. *^^^ °^ ^ ^ . '^ . large so- Twenty-five centuries later people were organized into cieties. great groups called nations or countries. It would be impossible for this great change to take place without arranging people in classes, giving to some high posi- tions and many privileges, and assigning to the rest places of inferiority. Yet the very organization of society was a necessary and important upward step in social prog- ress. Moreover, great social progress had been made because man had become civilized. The skeletons of the women of prehistoric times show 92 THE NEAR EAST LosscninK of penal- ties for offences. that tlu'ir forearms wore often broken, as though they had been obhged to defend themselves against their brutal lords and masters. The extent of the social progress cannot be described easily, but it is indicated, for example, by a comparison of three codes of laws which are directly connected, the Sumerian laws of about 2800 B.C., the Hammurabi code of about 1900 B.C. and the Mosaic code of about 1200 b.c. Although in many respects the laws are the same in these three codes, we find that the later codes show a greater respect for human life, and provide lighter penalties for ordinary offences. In his treatment of his fellows, man is becoming more humane. General References Botsford, A Source Book of Ancient History, 5-54. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, 1-44. Sayce, Ancient Empires of the East, 58-89, 145-178, 194-209, 221-233. Breasted, A History of the Ancient Egyptians, esp. chapters IV, V, IX, XIII, XVIII. Tarbell, A History of Greek Art, 15-76. Maspero, Art in Egypt. Petrie, The Arts and Crafts in Ancient Egypt. Maspero, Manual of Egyptian Archeology. Sayce, Social Life among the Assyrians and Babylonians. Sayce, Assyria, Its Princes, Priests and People. Winckler, History of Babylonia and Assyria, 127-164. Maspero, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria. Macalister, A History of Civilization in Palestine. Hawes, Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, 22-45, 114-154. Topics Egyptian Religion in the Old Kingdom : Breasted, History of the Ancient Egyptians, 55-73 ; Baikie, Story of the Pharaohs, 329-345; Moore, History of Religions, I, 144-166. Egyptian Sculpture: Tarbell, History of Greek Art, 20-24, 30-35; Petrie, Arts and Crafts in Ancient Egypt, 29-47; Mas- pero, Manual of Egyptian Archeology, 231-273. PROGRESS OF TWENTY-FIVE CENTURIES 93 Studies 1. The house and gardens of an Egyptian noble. Maspero, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 93-101. 2. Worship of an Egyptian deity. Maspero, Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 62-72. 3. How the people lived in the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Sayce, Social Life, 18-29. 4. The home of the Egyptian peasant. Maspero, Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 2-6. 5. Women of the ancient East. Reich, Woman through the Ages, 1-15, 21-34. 6. The light-hearted Egyptians. Weigall, Treasury of Ancient Egypt, 81-90. 7. Slavery in the ancient world. Sayce, Social Life, 75-85. 8. Egyptian precepts. Botsford. Source Book of Ancient History, 115-20. 9. The Chaldean story of the flood. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 33-38. 10. Cretan religion. Hawes, Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, 139-143. 11. The story of the Behistun rock. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, I, 177 et seq. 12. The training of an Egyptian scribe. Maspero, Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 8-11. 13. An Assyrian library. Maspero, Ancient Egypt and As^ Syria, 287-302. 14. Cretan Letters. Baikie, Sea Kings of Crete, 232-243. 15. Metal working among the Egyptians. Petrie, Arts and Crafts of Ancie7it Egypt, 98-106. 16. Architecture under the Egyptian empire. Tarbell, His- tory of Greek Art, 25-30. 17. Mycenean Art. Tsountas and Manatt, The Mycenean Age, 217-255. 18. An ancient strike. Maspero, Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 32-36. 19. Commerce in the Ancient Orient. Cunningham, Western Civilization, I, 62-70. Questions 1. Name the important social classes of the ancient world. What were the special privileges of each class ? 94 THE NEAR EAST 2. Who owned the land in very ancient times ? How was it irrigated ? how cultivated ? Were the peasants on the estates as well off as the day-laborers of the cities ? 3. How was the ancient laborer dressed ? What did he eat ? How was he better off than the modern laborer? How was he worse off ? 4. Were slaves numerous ? How were they treated ? Why were women cheaper than men as slaves ? 5. Compare the lot of woman in ancient Egypt, in Babylonia, in England to-day and in this country to-day. 6. Was religion more important to primitive man than it is to modern man? What was the nature of the religion of ancient man in general ? in Egypt ? in Palestine ? 7. Tell the story of Osiris ; of the deluge ; of Gilgamesh. 8. What is meant by these words or terms ? potentate, dy- nasty, representative, soothsayer, manuscripts, drudgery, dowry, separate property rights, Ra, Marduk, Horus, Amon, embalm- ing, pyramid, Pharaoh, polytheism, monotheism. 9. Show the difference between the temples of the Egyptians and the Babylonians ; between the hierogh^phie and hieratic writing ; between the hieratic and the cuneiform writing. 10. Show the importance of the Rosetta stone ; of the Tel el Amarna tablets. What materials were used for books by the Egyptians ? by the Assyrians ? 11. What were the chief steps in the development of the alphabet ? Why is it easier to have a literature with an alpha- bet than with characters for words or syllables ? 12. Compare the use of stone, copper, bronze and iron tools as instruments in the practical arts ; in the fine arts. Has the progress of mankind been much influenced by the kind of tools men have had ? 13. Compare the tools (Cretan), the furniture, and other manu- factured articles of the ancients with those of to-day. 14. Name the chief trade routes of the ancient near East. What products were used in trade? Why was international trade possible before money was invented? 15. Make a summary of the social progress from Menes to the Persian wars ; of the industrial progress ; of the political progress. 16. Tell the chief contributions to civilization of each country that we have studied. Were there any periods of exceptional progress? If so, which? Explain the changes of the period. CHAPTER IV THE ^GEAN AREA (to 550 B.C.) The Geography of the ^gean Area 117. The ^gean Area and Its Harbors. — The ^gean Irregular area includes the lands around the ^gean Sea. To the g^e^fj^^-^' east is Asia Minor, to the north the BaVkari countries^ bors and to the west Greece and on the south Crete. The ^Egean f^g^^f^^hg Sea is surrounded by irregular coasts and is dotted with ^gean thousands of islands. It is almost a salt water lake, an ^°^^*" arm of the Mediterranean, flooding a mountain country whose peaks and headlands and knolls stand up above the surface of the water, giving the ^Egean Sea a very large number of islands and the most irregular and the longest coast line of any sea of equal size on the surface of the globe. Everywhere we find an abundance of harbors, attractive hill slopes, occasional mountain peaks and narrow coastal plains or valleys. With its clear skies and warm dry summers this is an Importance attractive corner of the world, but one in which the making ?^ J{j^ ^^^ of a living on land is a difficult task. Everywhere the land ^gean lies open to the sea, and the sea calls. Even in early ^^^^' days it was easy to go from mainland to island and from island to the other mainland. Among the people of ancient times the inhabitants of the ^gean area were the first to build ships and carry products by sea. 118. The Three Geographical Divisions of Greece. — The three The most important country bordering on the ^Egean is pg^opon!' Greece. The peninsula of Greece is divided into three parts, nesus, 95 96 GREECR Central Greece. Northern Greece and Mace- donia. Peninsulas, slopes and basins of Greece. Local spirit and lack of national patriotism in Greece. The southern third is almost an island, being connected with central Greece by the very narrow isthmus of ('orinth. This square mountainous peninsula is called Pel-o-pon- 7ie'siis, and includes Spar'ta near the southern end, and, in the west, 0-lym'pi-a, where the .famous Greek games were held every four years. Central Greece is long and narrow, stretching from west to east. Almost in the centre of Greece is Del' phi, sacred to Apollo, god of th(» sun. Farther east and almost north of Corinth is the Boe-o'tian plain with Thebes and Pla- tae'a. Still farther east is the city-state of At'ti-ca, on the southern slope of which lies the Greek city, Athens. Northern Greece is separated from central Greece by mountains. Along the eastern coast there is one narrow pass that joins northern and central Greece, called Thcr- mop'y-loB (hot gates). Historically, northern Greece is not important, ])ut if we go a little farther north, out- side of Greece proper, we come to a mountainous slope called Mac'e-don, which was the home of Alexander the Great. 119. Influence of the Geography of Greece on Local Development. — This Greek peninsula is made up of mountain ridges, not ranges, running in different direc- tions. These ridges form numerous peninsulas, separated by deep gulfs, with numerous harbors. Along these shores there are a few rather steep slopes, and inland there are a few short river valleys and small basins surrounded by hills. The southern slope of Attica, on which Athens is located, gives us a good example of a slope, and the moun- tain-enclosed plain of Sparta (in Peloponnesus) and of Bceotia in central Greece are good examples of the basins. Since Greece was almost surrounded by water, she was isolated from her neighbors. The little slopes and basins were almost as much isolated from each other because of the hills and mountains that came between THE GEOGRAPHY OP THE ^GEAN AREA 97 them. Greece was divided, therefore, into a large number of local districts, each of which developed by itself. Consequently local patriotism was strong and national patriotism was almost lacking in Greece. Like most other peoples who live in a hilly country, the Greeks were intensely independent, the combination of independence and local patriotism being the most important political characteristic of the Greeks. 120. The City-states of Greece. — Because the basins The geo- and slopes of Greece were separated, each community graphical looked after its own affairs, and there was no general or ical units national government. These little groups were called °^ Greece, city-states like the city-states of Babylonia and Phoenicia. There were about twenty districts in Greece, each of which contained one or more city-states. The most important city-states were Athens, really the only city-state in the district called Attica, and Sparta, the only important city- state in the district known as Laconia. Other important city-states were Thebes in Boeotia and Corinth in Corinthia. 121. Influence of the Geography on Occupations and The poor Life of the Greeks. — As the rains easily wash off from ^^^ nieant poor crops, hillsides the soil which might originally have been there, but fruit and most of Greece is hilly, the soil was neither abun- was grown "^ ' on the dant nor fertile. Because Greece had little level land, it hillsides. had no large grain fields like those of Egypt and Baby- lonia. Its crops were poor and the farmer earned every bushel of wheat and every basket of vegetables that he grew. The gently sloping hillsides were good, however, for olive orchards and vineyards, which were found every- where in Greece. Because of the geography of Greece, the supply of food was always a serious problem to her people. Greece has a rather unusual climate. The summers are hot and rain seldom falls except during the winter months. The winters are usually cool and frequently very cold. H 98 THE NEAR EAST Hot sum- mers and cold win- ters made the Greeks hardy. In summer the Greek was able to live out of doors v.ith considerable comfort and he wore comparatively little clothing. In winter he still lived out of doors, for his house was unheated, but he could not be said to be very comfortable, since he did not wear warm clothing. This life made the Greeks hardy. From the Cretan period to the Persian Wars. Crete was the step- ping stone from Egypt to Greece. The Golden Age of Crete. Probable rule of the Cretans over the whole iEgean area after 1500 B.C. Early ^Egean Civilizations 122. Succession of Early Civilizations in the ^gean Area. — There were several civilizations which in succes- sion occupied the .'Egean area. The earliest of these was the Cre'tan civilization ; the next is called the My-ce- nce'an civilization ; the third is called Ho-mer'ic ; and the fourth the early Greek civilization. We shall study each of the first three briefly under this topic and shall examine the last more in detail in the rest of the chapter. 123. Early History of the Cretans. — The long narrow island of Crete lies across the south end of the ^gean area, like a half-way station between Egypt and Greece. In the history of mankind it was almost that, for what Crete had she passed on to Greece ; and Crete owed much of her progress to her intercourse by sea vv^ith Egypt and, to a less extent, with the east Mediterranean coast. In fact the periods of Cretan prosperity seem to reflect the periods of Egyptian splendor. The period of real Cretan glory corresponds almost exactly with the reign of Thotmes III, showing that the Cretans reflected Egyptian prosperity. 124. The Cretan ''Empire." — At this period the Cretans extended their power and influence over the whole of the ^Egean area. They not only traded with the cities of Greece and Asia Minor and the Black Sea, but they made most of these cities their dependents and subjects. The kings at Knossos were called ]\Ii-no'an kings, and, EARLY ^GEAN CIVILIZATIONS 99 according to Athenian legend, seven youths and seven maidens were each year sent by Athens to Crete as a sacrifice to the Min'o-taur.^ Through the aid of a Cretan princess, A-ri-ad'ne, a courageous Athenian youth, The'se-us, penetrated the palace at Knossos,^ the laby- rinth, killed the Minotaur, and freed the Athenians from the oppressive rule of the Cretans. This story, legend as it is, indicates that Cretan rule did extend over the yEgean area and that the Cretans probably borrowed from western Asia (Babylonian sources) some of the revolting rehgious customs of human sacrifice that were used in Assyria and Phoenicia. Later the Cretans not only lost their dependencies in the vEgean area, but they were driven out of Crete by invaders. 125. Cretan Civilization.^ — The Cretans were the foremost navigators and traders at the dawn of history. They had two written languages, which were developed first in the form of pictures, and later in charac- ters which we have not been able fully to decipher. They Cretan Vase. Trade, writing and art of the Cretans. 1 Minos-taurus ; taurus meaning bull. 2 It is this palace to which Homer refers as " Broad Knos'sos." •^ This civilization was chiefly of oriental origin, but it was essentially modified by the Cretans, who were people of intelligence. It was scat- tered by people who were traders and pirates like themselves. Knossos seems to have been destroyed in a pirate raid, and, when later great bands of Achaeans came down into Greece and later into Crete, the Cretans were driven to the four quarters of the earth. "The Isles were restless, disturbed among themselves at one and the same time" in the days of Rameses III. Some of the Cretans probably settled on the coast of Palestine, where they were known as Philistines. Others went to Asia Minor and still others to the coast of Greece. 100 THE NEAR EAST Spread of Cretan culture throughout the coasts of the iEgean Sea and west to Italy. learned to make a fine grade of pottery and to work metals. Some of their silver vases and bowls show great skill. One votive offering of '' very elegant fern-like sprays of thin gold plate and wire " is a work of real art. Their figures are unlike the Egj'ptian and the Assyrian, for they are full of life and action, and in that respect remind us of the later Greek statues (§ 254). The Lion Gate, Mycenae. 126. The Mycenaean Age. — The Cretans shared this civilization with their neighbors of the ^gean. As we first learned of this later ^gean culture from excavations at My-ce'nce, a city southwest of Athens, we usually speak of it as Mycenaean civilization, and we refer to the period from the Golden Age of Crete to the Trojan War as the My-ce-noe'an Age. We find traces of this Mycenaean culture in Thrace and in Sicily and in southern Italy. THE HOMERIC AGE 101 Like Crete, Mycense and its near neighbor Tiryns have Mycenge, huge buildings called palaces. At the entrance to the My- *^^ ^^^^ censean palace is a gate with the figures of two lions above the Vapio the entrance. This is the famous lion gate. The art of ^^^^' the Mycenaean age is less perfect than that of Crete at its best, but it is nevertheless superior to most of that found in Egypt and Babylonia, because the figures are more natural. The Vap'i-o cups, found south of Mycense, give a good idea of the skill of the artists in representing action. The Homeric Age 127. The Award of Paris. — One of the cities that was quite distinguished in the Mycenaean age was Troy, which was located in northwestern Asia Minor, close to that strait which we know as the Heries-pont. According to legend the king of this city about 1200 b.c. was Pri'am. Priam's son, Paris, was asked to decide a question of beauty between three goddesses. An apple, the " apple of dis- cord," was to be awarded the fairest, and Ju'no, queen of the goddesses, Mi-nerVa, goddess of wisdom, and Ve'nus, goddess of love, were the three contestants. Paris awarded the apple to Venus on her promise to give him, as a wife, the most beautiful woman in the world. This was Helen, wife of the king of Sparta. Paris visited Sparta as a guest, and, in the absence of his host, ran away with Helen. 128. The Trojan War. — The Greeks then gathered their armies, supported by Juno, Minerva and other deities. Ag-a-mem'non was named the leader, but crafty U-lys'ses and brave A-chil'les joined with their followers. They sailed away to Troy, where for nine years they besieged the city. In the tenth year, Achilles slew the chief Trojan champion, Hec'tor, but was himself treacherously killed by Paris. Achilles had been dipped by his mother in the river Styx and was invulnerable Paris of Troy awards the "apple of discord" to Venus, who gives him Helen as his wife. The Greeks besiege Troy and capture it by the use of Ulysses' wooden horse. 102 THE NEAR EAST Ulysses' adventures with the Cyclops, Circe, the sirens. Calypso and Penel- ope's suitors. except on the heel, the spot where his mother held him. Ulysses now suggested that they build a hollow wooden horse. This was done, and the horse, filled with sol- diers, was left outside of a gate of Troy, the Greeks pre- tending to leave Troy altogether. When the Trojans had moved the sacred horse into the city, the Greek soldiers, w^ho came out of the wooden horse, opened the gates to their comrades, and Troy w^as sacked. This story has been pre- served for us by Ho'mer in the great epic poem, the IVi-ad. 129. The Wanderings of Ulysses. — The wrath of the gods that had helped Troy was especially directed against Ulysses for his part in the capture of Troy. They drove him from place to place for ten years before he was allowed to return home. He was imprisoned in a cave by a huge giant wath one eye. This giant was known as a cyclops. Ulysses escaped after blinding the giant. Later he came to the home of Cir'ce, the enchantress, w^ho turned his companions into swine, but released them and entertained them royally for a year. Then they passed between Scyl'la and Cha-ryb'dis, which were inhabited by sirens whose appeal no man could hear and resist. Ulysses filled his followers' ears with w^ax and had them lash him to a mast. Not long afterw^ard his men ate the cattle of the sun (A-pol'lo). All of them were drow^ned by Ju'pi-ter, but Ulysses was cast upon the island of a sea-nymph, Ca-lyp'so. After eight years he managed to return to Greece, where he found his home filled with suitors of his wife, the faithful Pe-nero-pe. Penelope finally agreed to marry the one who could bend Ulysses' bow, but none could except Ulysses himself, whom Penelope had given up for lost. Homer had preserved for us this story in a second great epic poem, the Od'ys-sey. 130. The Wanderings of iEneas. — These great Greek epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, contain the story of the Greeks in the Heroic Age. When the Romans, in the THE HOMERIC AGE 103 days of the early empire (§ 358), wished to find for them- selves an ancestor who had a share in these heroic struggles, the Roman poet Vir'gil wrote his great Latin epic, the ^-ne'id. The iEneid tells of the wanderings of ^-ne'as of Troy, who carried his aged father out of the burning city, and with his son lu'lus ^ wandered about the Mediter- ranean coasts for years. At Carthage, he was detained by Di'do, the founder of that city. When ^Eneas left Dido, she destroyed herself on a great funeral pyre. iEneas crossed to Italy, where he made his home in Latium. According to the story, one of his descendants, Rom'u-lus, founded Rome in 753 B.C. These three legends tell us the chief story of the Heroic Age as represented in the epic poems of the two classical peoples, the Greeks and the Romans. 131. Life in the Homeric Age. — The Greek people of whom Homer tells us lived about 1200 B.C., soon after the time of Rameses II in Egypt. These A-chse'ans do not belong to the same race as the Cretans and Myce- nseans, for their ancestors had migrated into Greece, prob- ably from the north. The leaders were tall, with light hair and fair skins, people very different from the short, swarthy Cretans. These Achaeans, as Homer calls them, were governed by kings, but each king called to his council the nobles who were leaders of the troops. The people whom these kings governed were a pastoral and an agricultural people, with settled homes. The houses of the kings were very simple compared with the palaces at Knossos or Mycenae, and the life of the people was simple and rude. They had some orchards, but they cared chiefly for herds of cattle or swine or for flocks of sheep. The women looked after the grinding of the corn, the spinning and the weaving ^ Julius, to show that this was a family name, from the beginning, the reigning emperor being the nephew and adopted son of Julius Csesar, ^neas of Troy, who visits Dido and reaches Latium. The Achaeans. Govern- ment, oc- cupations and the simple life. 104 THE NEAR EAST and the numerous household duties. There were some servants and a few slaves, but work was not despised except among the nobles. Both Homer and a later poet, Hesiod,^ show us the more attractive side of this early Greek people, whose wants were few and whose life consisted in toil and simple pleasures. They give us glimpses, however, of the crudeness and the barbarism of this life, and the cruelty of the leaders. The Unity of the Greeks Zeus or 132. Greek Olympic Deities. — The people whom we upiter. know as Greeks were known in ancient times not as Greeks but as Hellenes. The Hel-le'nes in the Homeric Age and in the historic period had a large number of deities in their pantheon. They imagined that the gods dwelt on Mount Olympus, on the northern border of Greece. Here Jupiter (Zeus), the father of the gods, presided over the sacred council. He was the greatest among the gods, for he ruled the heavens and controlled the thunderbolt. At banquets on 0-lym'pus, food was served fit for the gods, ambrosia and nectar. The gods of the early Greeks were after all men of heroic stature and powers, who loved and fought and feasted, but who were immortal. Other major Besides Jupiter 2 (Zeus, the Greek called him), there were many major deities, Juno, the wife of Jupiter, Apollo, the god of light, Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, who was said to have sprung full-armed from the head of Jupiter. The goddess of love was Venus, whose little son, Cupid, shot arrows into the hearts of susceptible mortals. Mars was god of war, Nep'tune ruled the seas, Di-a'na was the chief huntress, and Mer'cii-ry was the mes- 1 Hesiod's Work arid Days. ^ It seems wise, in a course of this kind, to use only the Latin names of the deities, except in a few instances. deities. THE UNITY OF THE GREEKS 105 senger of the gods. These deities and many others have been preserved to us in that marvellous myth- ology of the Greeks which is one of the special con- tributions that they have made to the hterary posses- sions of the human race. This mythology should be read as extensively as possible. 133. Unity of the Greeks. — Among the Hellenes the Organiza- strongest bond was that of blood, or relationship. The Q^ge^l*^^^ family was more closely united than it is even among because of us. All famiUes that were descended from a common ^^^^^ ancestor belonged to the same clan, and all clans that were supposed to be related were united in a brotherhood. Nu- merous related brotherhoods were supposed to make up the tribe. Thus blood bonds formed the basis of social organization, government and religion. This unity of the Greeks was found not only in their Organiza- blood ties but in their organizations, institutions and g^^^^^J^jo^g CUSTOMS. These held the Greeks together in spite of the and customs many influences that kept them apart. It was difficult *|)e*Qj?ge^s for the Greeks to unite, for in the little city-states there together, was an intense spirit of jealousy, and of local patriotism, for no Greek wanted an outsider (that is, one outside of the city-state) to look after his affairs. The chief of these organizations which united all Hellas, that is. Greater Greece, and especially Greece proper, were the amphictyonies. The principal institution that all Greeks respected was the oracle, and the custom of holding games at regular intervals gave rise to a spirit of union among the states that participated in them. 134. The Religious Amphictyonies. — An am-phic'ty- The am- o-ny was a religious confederation of Greek cities. Its special ^^ reUgious purpose was to maintain common shrines for the worship confedera- of some national deity, especially Apollo, to protect these J^^Jp^f ^nd shrines and their oracles, and to keep peace as much as at Delos. possible among the members of the amphictyony, who, 106 THE NEAll EAST The Del- phian oracle gave advice on every important subject to all Hellenes. Answers framed by a college of priests and given by a Pythia. The Olym- pian games show the importance of physical develop- ment to the Greeks. like all the Greeks, were rather given to quarrelling. There were two principal amphictyonies, one with its centre at Delphi, in central Greece, and the other with its shrine at De'los, one of the central islands of the ^Egean Sea. Each of these confederations had an amphictyonic council made up of delegates from the members of the amphictyony . 135. The Oracles. — At Delphi there was a shrine of Apollo and an oracle which all Greeks, even those from northern Greece, the iEgean islands, Peloponnesus or Sic'i-ly frequently sought for advice. This religious in- stitution was devised to help men who had angered the gods. The oracles told them how they might appease the deities. The advice of the oracle was so famous that no city built a fleet or made war or changed its govern- ment or sent out a colony without consulting the oracle. The questioner brought his request to the priest of Apollo and was told when he should return for his answer. The reply was given by a priestess called a Pyth'i-a, sitting on the sacred tripod. Answers were framed by a body of priests, among whom were not only some of the wisest men of Greece but men who kept informed about everything that went on. An answer was given in such general language and was so ambiguous in meaning that it might easily be construed by an intelligent petitioner to indorse any possible course. Hence we call an expres- sion that may mean more than one thing '^ oracular." The oracle must be considered not only one of the chief bonds of unity among the Greeks, but one of the most important influences in Greek history. 136. The Greek Games. — The Greeks had many local festivals to the patron deity of each city. One of these, which was held at Olympia in western Peloponnesus, developed into a great assembly of all Greeks, held every four years. We should be careful not to confuse Olympia with Mt. Olympus, on which the gods dwelt. THE UNITY OF THE GREEKS 107 108 THE NEAR EAST The foot- race, the Pentath- lon and other contests. Other Greek games. Importance of the Olympian games in reckoning time and in stimu- lating phys- ical effort and artistic skill. The religious festival was later subordinated to athletic contests, the first and most important of which was the running race of 600 Olympic feet. As the Greeks above everj'thing else admired swiftness, they developed their bodies as no other people have done before or since, because a perfectly developed, agile bod}^ was pleasing to the gods. After a time the foot-race was followed by the Pen- tath'lon ; that is, by jumping, running, throwing the discus, hurling the javelin and wresthng. Later boxing, chariot racing and poetical contests were introduced. Only a Greek could take part, but women, foreigners and slaves were allowed to watch the games. The victor was crowned with a wreath of laurel and he was received with great honor, especially in his home city. Within re- cent years we have revived international athletic contests on the Greek model. These are held every four years and are called the Olympic games. Besides the Olympian games were those less widely attended called the Ne-me'an, the Isth'rni-an and the Pyth'i-an. 137. Importance of the National Games. — The Olym- pic games were held first in 77G B.C., the date from which the Greeks reckoned time, saying that an event happened in the third year of the 42d 0-lym'pi-ad, for instance, since the four-year interval betw^een the Olympic contests was called an Olympiad. No war between two Greek states could be waged during the period set aside for the games, as all were Greeks for the time. The games stimulated those virtues that appealed especially to the Greek : physical beauty and strength, swiftness, musical skill and poetic ability. The Greek loved to excel, and the contests on the track or between artists or poets brought out the best that Greeks could do. Greek statu- ary copied the well-developed bodies of the athletes, for Greek sculpture glorified the body in action. At THE GREATER GREEK WORLD 109 Olympia there was erected a huge temple to Zeus, in which the greatest Greek sculptor, Phicri-as, placed his masterpiece of gold and ivory, the Olympian Zeus. The Greater Greek World 138. The Greek World. — When we think of the Greece, the Greeks, we ordinarily think of the people of the peninsula f^?^ , of Greece, not those of the ^^gean area or of the wider Athens, field, the central Mediterranean, over which Greek colo- nies were dotted later. We must remember, however, that the Greeks, or Hellenes, as they called themselves, lived in three homes, in Asia Minor, in Greece and in the West (Sicily and southern Italy). Although we shall study especially the history of Greece proper, we cannot always separate the Greek of Asia Minor from the Greek of Greece or the Greek of Sicily. In reality when we study the Greeks of Greece, most of the time we are studying the Greeks of Athens, for Athens rather than the peninsula of Greece developed the art, the literature and the phi- losophy that were Greece's great contributions to the world. 139. Early Colonization Movement. — Greece was the Two great original home of the Hellenes. There were two great colonizing . . . . . . movements. periods of migration from the original homes to other lands. The first of these occurred perhaps a century after the Trojan war, and was due to the invasions from the north of a fair-skinned warlike people called the Do'ri-ans, who had almost the first iron weapons. The second colonizing movement lasted from about 800 b.c. to 600 B.C. When the Dorians came down into the Peloponnesus, they forced out many of the people who had been living there. Some of these people moved up into central Greece, some occupied the islands of the ^gean, and a large number, including some Dorians, settled on the shores 110 TIIK NKAR EAST Coloniza- tion of vEgean is- lands and Asiatic coasts after Dorian mi- grations. Extent of second col- onization movement. Causes of later col- onization. Process of forming a colony. of the JEgean in Asia Minor. These Asiatic Greek cities were })rought easily into contact with the highly developed civilizations of the Orient. They occupied fertile valleys that produced fruits and grains and were near extensive hill-sides upon which thousands of cattle and sheep were grazing. Consequently these Asiatic cities had goods to exchange, and carried on extensive trade with ports of the eastern Mediterranean. One of these cities, Mi-le'tus, was famous for its manufactures, its trade in wool, its wealth and its culture, long before Athens and Corinth became great cities. 140. Nature of Later Colonization. — The later col- onization movement peopled with Greek colonies or trading posts the north shores of the ^gean Sea, the Propontus and the Black Sea on the north and east. In the West colonies were founded chiefly in Italy, in Sicily and in Gaul. The most important causes of the colonization move- ment were undoubtedly economic. The Greeks were gradually driving the Phoenicians out of the ^gean Sea and adjacent waters, and they desired the trade of the West. Almost as important were the attractions of fertile lands, especially in Italy and Gaul, for these coun- tries were much more fertile than Greece. The over- population of the home city was an important cause of colonization. At this time also the government of the cities was changing from monarchy, as in Homer's time, to rule by the aristocracy. P>equently different factions of nobles quarrelled with one another, and the leader of one of the factions would be forced to leave the home city, or would do so voluntarily, with his followers. 141. Method of Colonization. — These great migrations occurred during the eighth and seventh centuries before Christ. When a city in Greece decided that it wished to found a colony, it looked around for a favorable site. THE GREATER GREEK WORLD 111 Then it usually consulted the oracle and finally a hand was sent out with sacred fire from the hearth of the mother city. The colonists lost their citizenship in their home citj', Relation but they acquired a new citizenship which was worth ^^ ^^^ more to them. Frequently the mother city helped them the mother in their later troubles. ^^*y- 142. Colonies in the Northeast. — Most of the colo- The trading nies north and east of Greece were trading colonies colonies of . T . , . ... r\ ^ • the north rather than miportant cities. On the most important ^gean and site near the Black sea, where Constantinople now stands, Black seas. the colony of By-zan'ti-urn was established. The hills near the shores of the north ^gean Sea Products abounded in minerals, especially copper, silver and iron, pbtamed which the Greeks desired. In all these seas there was an north abundance of fish, and the semi-civilized people of the ^s^an and T-»iici • -1 ..p. Black sea lilack feea countries raised great quantities oi gram and areas. cattle. As the Phoenicians were no longer allowed to trade in this part of the world, there was considerable profit in the commerce between the older Greek cities and the colonies of the north and east. It is interesting to note that the great legendary expedition of the Greeks, that of the Ar'go-nauts, who brought back the Golden Fleece, was supposed to have been a trip to the Black Sea. 143. Colonization in the West. — It was not to the important north and east but to the west that most of the Greeks colonies m Sicily. turned.^ Sicily contained a great many of these mixed colonies, for Sicily was in ancient times '^ the melting pot of the nations." On the fine harbor of the east coast, Syr'a-cuse had been founded by Corinthians. Farther west were Ge'la and Ag-ri-gen'tum. In the north were Mes- ^ In northern Africa there was a colony at Cyreno in modern Tripoli. In the period after the invasions of Egypt by the Assyrians (§ 47) the Greeks had a colony in the Delta of the Nile, and Greek "quarters" in most of the Egyptian commercial cities. 112 THE NP]AR EAvST Cities on the "heel" and "toe" of Italy. Cumse and Massilia. More rapid develop- ment of colonies than of Greek cities. Extent of Greek in- fluence. sa'na and Him'e-ra, where later a decisive battle was fought. At the west end of the island were Phoenician colonies. In southern Italy the Greek colonies were so important that that area was called ''Magna Grsecia," or great Greece. The only good harbor was at Ta-ren'tum, which was the last Greek city in Italy to be taken by the Romans (§ 298). Going up the wTst coast of Italy we come to Cu'mae.^ Near the mouth of the Rhone in Gaul was the important colony of Mas-siVi-a, now Marseilles. 144. Importance of Greek Colonization. — These Greek colonies not only carried Greek ideas to all parts of the Mediterranean world, but they developed many distinc- tively Greek ideas and institutions before they were to be found in the cities of Greece proper. Because they were located in more fertile valleys or plains, and had better opportunities for trade, the cities of Italy and Sicily, as well as Asia Minor, were larger and richer than those of Greece before the Persian w^ars. One of the western cities had a code of laws earlier than Athens (§ 151). Another was self-governing before Cleisthenes made Athens a real democracy. Some of the chief poets, as Homer and Sap'pho for instance, and some great philosophers, such as Tha'les and Py-thag'o-ras, lived outside of Greece. When we realize that the Greeks, or Hellenes, not only occupied Greece but were dominant in Asia Minor, in the islands of the ^gean Sea, in southern Italy, Sicily and more remote territories, we can appreciate better the importance of the work done by the Greeks. Since the Hellenes were united by bonds of blood and religion, they shared in the interests that any Greek had and in the * Cumae was founded in the early days of the Greeks. For many cen- turies a great deal of Greek civilization came to Rome through Cumae. Massilia controlled the trade of the Rhone valley and protected that and Spain. It is remarkal)le that this colony was able to hold its own against aggressive Carthage (§§ 308-311). between the races. SPARTA 113 civilization that any Greek developed. Greek coloniza- tion was one of the greatest movements in the history of the world. Sparta 145. Ionian and Dorian. — The two most important Distinction races of Greece proper were called I-o'ni-an and Do'ri-an.^ The Dorians were the last of the Greek races to invade Greece. They were tall, fair and rather stolid, more inclined to be practical than the other Greeks, and in- terested in war and farm life. The lonians were shorter and darker but no less distinguished in appearance than the Dorians. They were imaginative, fond of poetry and interested in the sea. For a few minutes let us study the leading cities of these two races : Sparta, the leading city of the Dorians, and Athens, the most prominent Ionian city. 146. Sparta and Laconia. — Sparta is located in a basin Sparta and of southern Peloponnesus and is surrounded by mountains. Lacoma. ^ Classes in The district or city-state of which Sparta was the head Laconia. was called Laconia. In Laconia there were three classes of people, first the Spartans, who did not number more than 10,000 men ; then the Per-i-oi'ci, the original in- habitants who were subdued by the Spartans and had no share in the government, and third, the He'lots, who were serfs, bound to the land, who could not be sold except with the land. 147. The Training of a Spartan Boy. — The Spartans Spartan were a military people who lived the hardy, simple life of ^^^.^ , , the soldier. When a child was born, it was examined b}^ a military the magistrates, and if it showed any physical defect, it ^^^^' was exposed so that it perished. Until the age of seven 1 Two other races were the Achceans, presumably the descendants of the people of Homer, and the ^tolians, scattered races of still older stock. 114 THE NEAR EAST The severe training of companies of youths. The free and active life of the Spartan women. Spartan character- istics — iron money and laconic speech. The laws of "Ly- curgus" established an aris- tocratic govern- ment. years the boys were cared for by their mothers. After that they were brought up by the state, being fed at pub- lic tables and at public expense. The food was not only coarse but limited in amount. In order to get enough to eat the boys were encouraged to steal, for soldiers must forage, but they must not be caught. Stealing was hon- orable to the Spartan, but being caught was a crime. As the youths became older they were enrolled in com- panies which exercised, ate, slept and fought together. Courage, endurance and hardness were the Spartan vir- tues, and no Spartan could excel who gave way under the scourging before the statue of Ar'te-mis, or who showed the white feather under any circumstances. 148. The Free and Simple Life of the Spartans. — The Spartan women were active, hardy and courageous, like the men. They did not go to war, but they sent their husbands and their sons with the warning to come back with their shields or on them ; that is, to come back con- querors or dead heroes. They lived a free and open life, something quite unusual among Greek women. Their advice was sought and given on all matters of importance. As was fitting for soldiers, the Spartans kept luxuries out of their country. They did this bj^ using only iron moneij for trade within Laconia. The Spartans despised talkers. When they had anything to say, they did it in one word or in a few words. We call a saying laconic if it is very brief and to the point. 149. Sparta : Government and Leadership.^ — The Spar- tans did not beli(;ve in popular government, and they did ^ The government of Sparta in early historical times consisted of two kings, of five ephor.s, of a council of the ciders, and of the assembly of all Spartan men. The kings were the leaders in war and the chief priests of the Spartans. The ephors supervised all Spartan affairs, and, with the help of the council, decided all important questions, but the members of the assembly could only express their wishes by voting "yes" or "no" on questions submitted to them. ATHENS 115 not adopt changes readily. It was believed that their early government was given to them by Ly-cur'gus, who made them promise not to change it without his consent, and then died in exile. Lycurgus lived before history was written, so that we must not believe very much about him. Sparta not only ruled her citizens severely but she Sparta and conquered her immediate neighbors, and she organized p^^^^^jj^n the other city-states of Peloponnesus into the Pel-op-on- League ne'sian League. Through her own military ability and the q ^ee^^^^^ support of the Peloponnesian League, Sparta trained the civHization. other Greeks, showing them how to organize their soldiers into companies, and teaching them how to fight. She aroused in some of the other city-states something of her own indomitable spirit. In this way Sparta protected and preserved Greek civilization. Athens 150. Athens, Location and Early Government. — Athens is located at the foot of a steep hill of rock, the A-crop'o-lis, that rises abruptly above the plain of Attica. It is about five miles from the sea, and from an excellent harbor, the Pi-rse'us. The city was therefore well located for defence against enemies and had an opportunity to develop commerce. The only way that Greeks ever gained any real wealth was through commerce or con- quests. In an early day Athens was ruled, like all the other Greek cities, b}^ a king. After a time, the nobles decided that they wished to have officials chosen by themselves. There were nine of these magistrates, called ar'chons. The first archonwas a judge, the second, called the king- archon, was a priest, and the third was the general. This represented the aristocratic stage of the govern- ment of Athens. Importance of the lo- cation of Athens for defence and for commerce. Monarchy and aristo- cratic rule in Athens. 116 THE NEAR EAST The harsh code of Draco modifies aristocratic rule in Athens. 151. A Written Law in Athens. — The Athenian people were not conservative hke the Spartans. They were fond of speeches and welcomed changes. As they were dis- satisfied with many things that the archons did, they obtained (621 b.c.) a written law. These laws were called the code of Dra'co, from the name of the leader who had charge of the codification. Draco's laws were very The intro- duction of money into Greece in- creases debt. The Acropolis, Athens, Present Condition, see frontispiece.) (For restoration, harsh, death being the punishment for many minor of- fences such as stealing, and enslavement being the pun- ishment of a person who got in debt and could not pay the debt when due. Although the people had made some prog- ress in obtaining a wTitten law, they found that they were not much better off, because the laws were so severe. 152. The Reforms of Solon. — About this time the people of Greece began to use money. Before this, when a man wanted to buy anything, he traded something else for it. If possible the seller asked a bar of copper, or a bit of gold or silver for it, because there was a general demand for gold, silver and copper. Now the Lydians ATHENS 117 had invented the device of stamping a certain amount of metal in the shape of a circle. These stamped circles we call coins. When coins wer^ first introduced into Greece, business was very much upset by the change. Farmers who before this time had paid their rents in prod- uce, now were forced to sell their prod- uce and pay the rents in money. As a result many of them kept getting deeper and deeper into debt. Accord- ing to the old law which had been IP !• 1 Trc ii'ii? Ancient Coin. made tor an entirely dmerent kind oi business, they could be sold into slavery, if the debt was not paid. In order to prevent a revolution, a wise Athenian, The reforms So'lon, was called upon to reform the laws, 594 b.c. Solon ° ° °°* first abolished slavery for debt. Then he reduced the debts, and, finally, he gave all citizens, even the poorest, a share in the courts of justice. 153. Rule of the Tyrants in Athens. — It was not very After a half long after Solon's reforms before Athens followed the ^^^^ury of ... tyranny, lead of other cities in Greece and in the West, by changing Athens her rule of the aristocrats for that of a single " boss " expels her ^ tyrants who called a '' tyrant." Under the chief of these tyrants, ask help Pi-sis'tra-tus, Attica^ became more prosperous and Athens °^ Persia. developed her commerce and industries. In a very true sense, Pisistratus paved the way for Athens to become a great city. After a half century under the rule of these tyrants, the last of them, Hip'pi-as, was driven out by an aUiance of the aristocrats and the Spartans (510 B.C.). Hippias afterward went to the Persians, who had conquered the Greek cities in Asia Minor (§ 167) and asked for help in order to regain his position in Athens. So the Athe- nians had to be prepared to fight the Persians in order to keep Hippias out of the city. 118 THE NEAR EAST The re- forms of Cleisthenes make Athens democratic. Cretan or -^gean civilization and its extension. 154. The Reforms of Cleisthenes. — As soon as Hippias was driven out there arose a confiict among the aristo- crats. One of them, Cleis'the-nes, gained control of the government through the aid of the people, and immedi- ately introduced changes in the laws by which Athens became the first real democracy in the history of the world. Cleisthenes allowed many foreigners and freedmen to become citizens, and he changed the government so that the officials and councils were no longer chosen by the wealthy citizens, but by all of the adult male citizens. Almost all American states have the same regulations in regard to voting. We call this '' manhood suffrage.'^ As Athens, like every other Greek city, had suffered greatly from the quarrels of the leaders, he devised a scheme by which the people might keep the leader that they wished and send his opponent into exile. In this way the ac- ceptable leader had a free hand in managing the affairs of the city. The people did this by writing the name of the rejected leader on a bit of pottery, and the process was called os'tra-cism. This popular government under aristocratic leaders was much appreciated by the Athe- nians. They became intensely interested in public affairs, and they defended Athens and their new democracy with a great deal of spirit. 155. Summary. — The ^Egean area was the seat of the third great civilization of antiquity, the other two being Egypt and Babylonia. Much of this Cretan or iEgean civilization, however, was derived from Egypt. The Golden Age of Crete came about 1500 B.C., about the time of Thotmes III in Eg37)t. Then Cretan art was at its best and Crete probal)ly ruled most of the ^Egean area. Cretan civilization was spread over the whole ^Egean basin and west into Sicily and Italy. It survived in the My- cenaean civilization of the age just before the Trojan war. The Trojan war and the wanderings of Ulysses are the ATHENS 119 chief events in what we call the Homeric Age, because we read of them in Homer's two great epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Life in the Homeric Age shows a crude people interested in agriculture and pastoral pursuits, with a great gulf between the common people and their leaders. The Greeks, or Hellenes, were bound together by blood ties that were very strong and were the basis of religion The Homeric period. Route of Xerxes Battles X Sparta X" ""^'^aOO ' ^ '3 ■ILLIAI^S ENG. CO.._NEW YOfl-' Map of Greece at the Time of the Persian War. and government. The geography of Greece and the jeal- ousy and the local patriotism of the Greeks led them to adopt the form of government known as the city-state. Extremes of weather made the Greeks hardy, their poor soil made them industrious and caused them to turn to the sea for a living. The Greeks had many interesting mj^ths and legends of their gods. Jupiter (Zeus) was the father of the gods The Greeks, bonds and races. Geog- raphy of Greece, city- states and occupations. 120 THE NEAR EAST Greek re- ligion, bond of unity, coloniza- tion. Sparta, the military Dorian city contrasted with Athens, the democratic Ionian city. and the chief of the Olympic deities. The Greeks offered sacrifices to get favors or to ward off calamities. The Greeks (Hellenes) were bound together not only by ties of blood, but by religious confederations called amphicty- onies, by national religious oracles and by national games, especially at Olympia. The victor of an Olympic contest was the great national hero who was crowned with a wreath of laurel. The larger Greek world that met at Olympia was made up of people from peninsular Greece, the islands of the ^gean, the cities of Asia Minor, which were very early colonies, and the cities of Sicily and Magna Grsecia, which were later Greek colonies. The chief Dorian city, Sparta, was a military camp ruled by the aristocracy under kings. The life was simple, the discipline severe and the Spartan virtues were courage and endurance. The chief Ionian city, Athens, on the contrary, was intellectual, versatile and commercial. Before the Persian war it passed through the four stages of pohtical development that characterized the most pro- gressive Greek cities, that is, monarchy, aristocracy, tyr- anny and democracy. The most important political reforms at Athens were those of Draco, who gave the Athenians a written law; of Solon, who abolished debt- slavery ; and of Cleisthenes, who introduced a real de- mocracy. General References Botsford, History oj the Ancient World, 59-156. Morey, Outlines of Greek History, 69-164. Fling, Source Book of Greek History, 1-97. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 62-129. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, 31-79. Cotterill, Ancient Greece, 1-181. Stobert, The Glory that was Greece, 1-131. Hawes, Crete, the Forerunner of Greece. Baikie, The Sea Kings of Crete. Holm, History of Greece, Vol. I. ATHENS 121 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE i Egypt Tigris-Euphrates East Mediter- ^gean Area Valley ranean Coast 4241 Calendar 3400 Menes 3000-2800 Great 2800 Sumerian Pyramid Code 2600 Early ^gean builders 2650 Sargon of Agade and his civilization 2000-1800 empire. Splendor of 1900 Hammu- the Middle rabi and his Kingdom empire, last- ing several 1650 Hyksos centuries. kings 1575 Hyksos driven out 1479 1400 Rise of 1500 Splendors of Thotmes III Phoenician Crete. Golden and his empire cities Age of Minoan rulers 1292 Rameses II 1300 Rise of 1380 Hittite 1350 Mycenaean Assyria empire Exodus of Hebrews from Egypt civilization 1150 Decline of 1100 Tiglath- Phoenician colo- 1183 Trojan war empire Pileser I nization Chaldeans in 1015-935 Babylonia Hebrew king- dom, David Lycurgus and Solomon 776 First 740 Assyrian 722 Destruc- Olympiad empire begins tion of 800-600 Coloni- Samaria zation of Greeks 672 Assyrian invasion 625 Revival of Rise of the 586 Destruction 621 Draco Egypt Medes of Jerusalem Period of Greek 606 Fall of 594 Reforms of influence Nineveh Solon 604 Nebuchad- Tyrants in many nezzar Greek cities Rise of Persia 525 Conquest 538 Fall of 509 Reforms of by Persia Babylon Cleisthenes ^ The early dates are, of course, 'estimated. For example, some high authorities think that Menes lived earlier than 5000 B.C. and that Sargon ruled in 3800 b.c. 122 THE NEAR EAST Topics The Palace at Knossos : Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, 42-47 ; Hawes, Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, 4&-75 ; Baikie, Sea Kings of Crete, 63-116. Mycen^ : Cotterill, Ancient Greece, 9-17 ; Stobert, The Glory that was Greece, 23-24. Greek Colonization : Morey, Outlines of Greek History, 139-148; Fling, Source Book of Greek History, 29-41; Holm, History of Greece, I, 140-148, 267-294. Solon : Fling, Source Book, 81-86 ; Cunningham, Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, I, 99-105 ; Plutarch, Lives, "Solon." Studies 1. The charm of Greek scenery. Zimmern, The Greek Com- monwealth, 13-17. 2. Influence of the geography of Greece. 3. The Cretan palace at Knossos. Baikie, J., in National Geographic Magazine, 23 (1912), 7-15. 4. Crete and Egypt. Baikie, The Sea Kings of Crete, 139- 169. 5. Crete and Greece. Hawes, Crete, the Forerunner of Greece, 144-154. 6. Rameses III and the ^Egean peoples. Cormack, Egypt in Asia, 220-230. 7. The influence of the East upon the Greeks. Hogarth, Ionia and the East, 99-117. 8. The Trojan war. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome, 305-336. 9. Family life in the Homeric age. Fling, Source Book of Greek History, 1-7. 10. The city-state. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient His- tory, 97-101. 11. Pandora and her box. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome, 28-35. 12. Jason and the Golden Fleece. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome, 263-274. 13. The Lower World of Greek Mythology. Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome, 160-170. 14. The oracle at Delphi. Snedeker, The Spartan, 343-354, 366-370. ATHENS 123 15. The Olympic games. Blumner (Zimmern), Home Life of the Ancient Greeks, 352-359. 16. The training of the Spartans. Fling, Source Book of Greek History, 66-76. 17. The Peloponnesian League. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 119-121. 18. The reforms of Cleisthenes. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 120-129. Questions 1. Into what three parts is Greece divided geographically? Show how they are different and name a city or place in each. 2. What was the nature of the geography of Greece ? How did the geography influence the people ? Point out on the map : Sparta, Argolis, Olympia, Corinth, ^gina, Salamis, Plataea, Thebes, Euboea, Thessaly, Chalcidice, Delos, Rhodes, Samos, Miletus, Ephesus, Sardis, Phocaea, Hellespont, Propontis and Bosporus. 3. Name and give the difference between the first three civilizations of the ^gean area. 4. What were Knossos, the minotaur, the labyrinth, the lion gate, the Vapio cups ? 5. Why was the horse so important that it was considered sacred by many ancient peoples? Why did the Anthenians ac- cept the offer of Athena (Minerva) , the olive, instead of that of Apollo, the horse ? (Compare § 121.) 6. Name the three great epic poems of the Greeks and the Romans, with the author of each. To what extent do they relate facts, do you think ? 7. What were the three homes of the Greeks ? What were the two chief Greek races ? What other countries had used city- states ? 8. Name and explain the three chief bonds of unity among the Greeks. Were the Greeks united or separated by the geog- raphy of their country ? By the temperament of the people ? 9. Write a short paper telling about an imaginary visit to either the Delphian oracle or to an Olympic contest. 10. How were Greek colonies established ? Point out on a map two of importance east or northeast of Greece, two in southern Italy, two in Sicily, one in France. What important modern cities have grown out of Greek colonies ? 124 THE NEAR EAST 11. Compare Sparta and Athens in regard to manner of living, interests of the people, and influence on Greece. 12. What is meant to-day by the word Spartan ? What was the importance to Greece of the military methods of the Spar- tans ? of the Peloponnesian League ? 13. Trace the development of Athenian democracy in the reforms of Draco, Solon and Cleisthenes. 14. To what extent is the early history of the vEgean area a political history ? an economic history ? a social history ? PART II THE EXPANSION OF THE NATIONS, 550-146 B.C. A. GREECE CHAPTER V GREECE AND PERSIA 156. The Period of Expansion, 550-146 B.C. — Although Succession there had been several small empires before 550 B.C., gj^^^j^gg the great empires of the ancient world were established during the four centuries from 550 to 146 B.C. The first of these was that of the Persians, which extended from the iEgean Sea to the Indus River. The second was that of Alexander the Great, which was larger, for a short time, than that of the Persians. The third was that of the Carthaginians in the west. It covered most of the western Mediterranean basin. The last and greatest was that of the Romans, which showed that it was to be the only empire of the Mediterranean world, by its conquest, in 146 B.C. of both Carthage and Greece. The Geography of Ancient Expansion 157. The Three Geographical Areas of Ancient Empires. Ancient — In the study of the history of the ancient world, we ^™p^^.^s •^ . were in find that there were three great geographical areas over Asia, in which the empires extended. The first of these is that ^ecHtei-^^ inland area of western Asia, extending on the west from ranean the great bend of the Euphrates eastward to the Indus River and the borders of India. The second and the third Mediter are simply subdivisions of that great important area, the ^^^^^^ ^^^^ Mediterranean basin. For the sake of convenience in the study of history, however, we may consider the Medi- terranean basin as divided into two, the eastern Mediter- ranean, from the Euphrates to the Ad-ri-at'ic Sea and 127 area or in the western 128 THE NEAR EAST The geo- graphical unity of the Medi- terranean basin. The Medi- terranean basin was surrounded by moun- tains. The people of the basin had common interests. from the Danube to Nubia, and the western Mediterranean, from the heel of Italy west to Gibraltar and from the Sahara desert north almost to the English Channel. 158. The Mediterranean Basin as a Whole. — The history of the ancient world is preeminently the history of the Mediterranean basin. We must think of the Mediterranean Sea, and of the basin which is drained into the Mediterranean Sea, as a whole, for it is a single geo- graphical area. Not only does the great sea form the connecting link between Spain and Eg^-pt, between north- western Africa and Greece, but there is no very great dif- ference between the cHmate of the north and the south shores. In summer there is little rain in Greece and south- ern Italy, as there is in northern Africa. Not only is the Mediterranean Sea the largest salt- water lake in the world, but it is shut in on almost all sides by rather high mountain ranges that are not far inland from the shores of the sea. This mountain boundary sep- arates the sea from the rest of the world ; although there are a few outlets to the outside world. ^ The river valleys of the Mediterranean basin are small.- All of the people of the Mediterranean basin therefore lived within easy communication of the Mediterranean Sea and looked to the sea rather than inland for trade with their neighbors, and for the interchange of ideas. Four great peninsulas on the north gave some isolation to the people that inhabited them. These are Asia Minor, Greece, Italy and Spain. The Carthaginian peninsula, 1 The Mediterranean basin offers a few passages to the outside world, on the northeast to the Black Sea, on the east by the Euphrates, on the southeast by the Red Sea, on the west, across France and through the strait of Gibraltar to the Atlantic. The Mediterranean basin was a mountain-rimmed basin with several good but easily defended outlets to the outside world. 2 Even the Nile valley, long as it is, has a cultivated area of but 10,000 square miles north of the rocky barriers of the Nile cataracts. THE GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT EXPANSION 129 as well as these northern peninsulas, brought its people into contact with all Mediterranean interests. 159. The Eastern and Western Mediterranean. — Italy, Separate Sicily and the Carthaginian peninsula almost divide the east°and° Mediterranean Sea into two parts, an eastern and a west- west Medi- ern. In fact, during the period that we are now studying, (55^(^]_4'J3^ that is, the four centuries from the rise of Persia to the b.c). conquest of Greece and of Carthage by Rome, the eastern Mediterranean had one history, the western Mediterranean another. During the first half of this period Persia was in control Early su- of the eastern Mediterranean. Then came Alexander, p^^j.^^^^^^^^^ and at once the eastern Mediterranean became Greek, and later su- it remained Greek not only up to the coming of the Ro- ^rQ^gg^g man conquerors, but for centuries after. In fact, long and Greek after the eastern Mediterranean was incorporated into |^^^'t|Je^^^"^ the Roman world state, it was Greek rather than Roman, eastern Its civihzation was a combination of Greek and oriental Mediter- ranean. elements, and it never became Roman in the sense that the West did. Carthage considered the western Mediterranean a Early Car- " Carthaginian lake " for several centuries. About 200 ^^^^^^^^ B.C. Rome became the dominant power in the West, and, and later after the conquest of Greece by Rome in 146 B.C., the eastern Mediterranean as well during the next two in the centuries was brought under Roman sway. Mediter- ranean. The Persian Empire 160. Empires before the Persian. — There had been Babylonian, numerous empires before the Persian empire was estab- g??l^/^'^^' j lished about 550 b.c. These early empires had been small Assyrian and were poorly governed compared with the later Persian empires, empire, with that of Alexander and with that of Rome. The two very early empires had been those of Sargon of Roman supremacy 130 THE NEAR EAST Agade and of Hammurabi whicli extended nominally to the Mediterranean, but in reality, as we have already noticed, were confined to the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Then came the empire of the Egyptians whicli lasted for several centuries and, under Thotmes III, extended be- yond the great bend of the Euphrates, but usually was limited to Palestine in Asia. The Hittite empire, before the time of Rameses II, covered all of eastern Asia Minor and Syria, and dominated also Mesopotamia and western Asia Minor to the ^gean. The short-lived Assynan empire, which developed later, was the largest of these early empires, for it extended from the table-land of I-ran', or Persia, into Egj^pt on the southwest and into Asia Minor on the northwest. Extent of 161. The Kingdom of the Medes. — The Assyrian the Median gjj^pjj^P {q\\ ^q pieces when Nineveh was captured by the combined armies of the Babylonians and the Medes (§ 60). The Medes gained the highlands from the Caspian sea west to the Halys river, halfway across Asia Minor. The Medes The Medes were a hill people, unrelated to the Semitic and other (^^yellers in the Tigris-Euphrates valley and closely related European" to the Persians, another hill people who had moved down peoples. Qj^^Q ^jjg north slope of the Persian Gulf. These hill people spoke a language which is distantly related to ► English and is connected with the old classical language of India, the San'scrit, so that all of these related lan- guages, Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, French, German, English and many others are called Indo-European. This does not mean that the Indians and the Persians belonged to the same race as ours, but it means that the languages of all of these peoples developed from the same stock, the language of one tribe being borrowed bj^ man}^ people of different races because it was more satisfactory than their own. wiuiA'/s Er.;. CC, ui;. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE 131 162. Cyrus, the Conqueror. — From their little province Cyms the on the Persian Gulf the Persians reached out first into Persian seizes the Media. Cyrus, the king of the Persians, having removed Median the king of Media (550 b.c), placed himself on the throne ^^^o^®- of the Medes. At this time there were four kingdoms in the Orient, that of the Medes, the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor,^ that of Nebuchadnezzar and that of Egypt. Cylinder of Cyrus (with an account of his capture of the city of Babylon, B.C. 538). Any one who could unite these would have an empire far greater than that of the Assyrians. As soon as Cyrus became king of Media, he was called Cra?sus of upon to defend his western boundary, the river Halys. ^^^^^^^3^^^ From the river Halys to the ^Egean Sea was the kingdom by Cyms. of Lyd'i-a. Croesus, king of Lydia, marched against Cyrus, expecting to destroy the Median kingdom, but 1 Lydia had been an inland kingdom without a sea coast, but it had gradually made treaties with the Greek cities of the ^gean coast or had conquered them. Its king at this time was Croe'sus, and his wealth seemed so vast to the poor Greeks that "rich as Croesus" has passed into a byword. Croesus was anxious to rule all of Asia Minor, so, when Cyrus became king of Media, a greater Persia, Croesus went to Delphi and con- sulted the oracle. He was told that, if he crossed the Halys river, he would destroy a great kingdom. 132 THE NEAR EAST Later con- quests of Cyrus and Cambyses. Darius re- conquers the revolted pro\'inces. Govern- ment of the prov- inces in early em- pires. Govern- ment through satraps, generals and secre- taries. quickly lost his own, for Cyrus very promptly conquered Lydia (546 b.c). Cj^rus soon after brought his armies into the Tigris- Euphrates valley, and in 538 b.c. he captured the city of Babylon after a prolonged siege. When he added to this Syria and Palestine and the cities of Phoenicia, Cyrus had an empire far larger than that of the Assj^ians, for he had extended his conquests to the east also. His son Cam-by'ses went down into Egypt, where he spent several years. 163. Darius, the Organizer. — When Cambyses died on the wa}' back from Egypt, his army supported the claims of Da-ri'us to the throne. After many campaigns Darius not only conquered all the rebels,^ but he organized such an empire as the world had never seen. Before this time the provinces of the early empires had been ruled by native princes who obej^ed the commands of their king because they did not dare do other\vise, or by " governors-general " who were generals of the im- perial army sent out to rule the various provinces. These generals were almost as fond of revolting as were the native princes, because they wanted the power of the king and hoped to take his place on the throne. 164. How Darius Ruled the Persian Empire. — Darius divided the Persian empire into about twenty separate and well-organized provinces. Over most of the provinces he placed a governor, called a '^ sa'trap," a general of the army, and a secretary.^ As no one of these had powers 1 Darius found that almost every province of the empire was in revolt against him, and it took him a great many years to restore order through- out the empire. He captured Babylon by marching along the dry bed of the Euphrates, when the city was in the midst of a feast. 2 Over each of the provinces on the frontier, where there was danger of invasion, he placed a general of the army who had both military and civil authority. These generals were too busy to revolt and too far away to be dangerous, if they did rebel against the rule of the "Great King." THE PERSIAN EMPIRE ' 133 except in his particular line of work, there was small danger of any successful rebellions. In addition Darius sent out royal messengers to see Super\asion, whether the provinces were being governed properly, and ^^^^^es some imperial judges.^ He improved the roads, so that officials and the army could travel more quickly from one part of the empire to another. This Persian empire lasted, with very slight changes in extent of territory or in methods of government, until it was conquered by Alexander the Great, two centuries after Cyrus. Perhaps the most interesting of the works of Darius was his attempted con- quest of Greece (§ 168). This was the beginning of the conflict known in history as the Persian Wars. 165. Character of the Persians. — The Persians bribed Virtues their way to success, since they had a great deal of gold. ^J^d vices Yet '^ the most disgraceful thing in the world, they think, Persians, is to tell a lie, the next worse to owe a debt, because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies." '^ Their sons are carefully instructed, from their fifth to their twen- tieth year, in three things alone — to ride, to draw the bow and to speak the truth." '' There is no nation which so rapidly adopts foreign customs as the Persian. As soon as they hear of any luxury, they instantly make it their own." This, then, was the race that came into conflict with the Greeks. In many ways they were a simple, hardy and courageous people who ruled severely a vast motley of subject peoples, but they were a people given to bribery, to hard drinking, and fond of luxury. 166. Persian Religion. — Some time before the Persians Theology came into conflict with the Greeks a great religious teacher ^"? "^^ " ° rality of had established a new religion among them. The old the p»er- sians. ^ For some of the more central provinces he sent out imperial judges who held courts at Susa, the capital, at Babylon, and in a few other im- portant cities. Darius compelled each province to pay its own expenses, and furnish money for the imperial treasury as well. 134 GREECE religion was a worship of the forces of nature and was looked after })y priests called magi, from whom we get our word magic. The new religion was called Zo-ro-as'tri- an-istn. It taught that the world is ruled by two great Spirits, a greater Spirit of light, and a lesser spirit of darkness. The Persians did not believe in images, but they worshipped the God of Light by prayer, sacrifice, purity and the use of the divining rod. As in the Egyp- tian Book of the Dead, a high moral standard of living was required. In fact, the Persians are one of the earliest peoples whose religion really included morality. The Ionic cities of Asia Minor under Lydia and Persia. The burn- ing of Sar- dis and the recapture of the Ionic cities. The Persian Wars 167. The Ionic Revolt, 500 B.C. — Among the most important of the Greek cities before the Persian wars were the Ionic cities of Asia Minor. In the time of Croesus some of these cities had a much better culture than Athens or any other city of Greece. Miletus was alhed with Lydia, and a few other cities were subjects of Lj^dia, pay- ing tribute, but being left alone by the Lydians so long as they furnished money. When Cyrus conquered Lydia, he compelled most of the Ionic cities to pay tribute.^ In 500 B.C. the people of these Ionic cities united and revolted against Persian rule. They marched against Sar'dis, the capital of Lydia, which they burned and im- mediately abandoned. After several years of fighting the Persians captured Miletus and the other cities, burn- ing most of them, killing many of the men and taking as slaves some of the women and children. In the first part of the revolt, the expedition against Sardis, the Athenians had taken part, for they were friendly with the Ionian 1 The Miletians bought a treatj^ so that they might continue their trade. The people of one city moved in a body to Sar-din'i-a rather than submit to the rule of a Persian despot. THE PERSIAN WARS 135 cities and were afraid that Persia would compel them to take back Hippias as a tyrant (§ 153). This inter- ference of the Athenians in Asiatic affairs angered the Persians. 168. Attempted Invasion of Greece by the Persians. — First at- Darius immediately made preparations to punish the ^"^p^^^ Athenians, having a slave repeat to him every day : invasion. " Master, remember the Athenians." An expedition was ^^^^^f ^^- ' ^ ^ mands eartn fitted out which came by land and water along the north and water. Marathon, looking toward the Sea. shore of the ^gean Sea. When the fleet was badly dam- aged by a storm off one of the capes, the expedition was abandoned. Messengers were now sent by Persia to the cities of Greece demanding earth and water in token of submission. Most of the cities of Greece gave earth and water, but Athens and Sparta threw the messengers into pits, telling them to help themselves. 169. Marathon, 490 B.C. — Darius now had a new fleet fitted out which sailed directly across the ^Egean Sea against Athens. A hundred thousand soldiers were landed 136 GREECE Notable victory of the Athe- nians at Marathon. Significance of Mara- thon. The Athe- nians sup- port the naval policy of Themis- tocles and banish Aristides. on the north shore of Attica, at Mar'a-thon, about twenty- five miles from Athens. The Athenians had already sent out frantic appeals to Sparta for help, but the Spartans would not march before the full moon. Ten thousand Athenians, supported by a thousand troops from Platsea, under the command of Mil-ti'a-des, charging down the slope of Marathon upon the Persian forces, drove them in confusion into their ships. ^ Before this time no soldier, Greek or barbarian, had been able to stand before the Persians. Even the stolid Spartans, coming too late by forced marches, 140 miles in three days over rough paths, warmly praised the valor and the skill of the Athenians. Every- where throughout Greece hope revived. The Persian was not invincible, after all, and Greece might be kept free. 170, Themistocles and Aristides. — The effect of Mara- thon on Athens was remarkable. It gave the Athenians new courage. It made them confident, determined and willing to undergo any hardship rather than surrender their free institutions. Athens was now compelled to choose between two leaders. One was T he-mis' to-cles, a shrewd, unscrupulous politician, who had great power of persuasion and understood both the great danger and the need of thorough preparation against the Persians. The other was Ar-is-ti'des, the Just, a man so fair-minded that he would vote against his own interest, a man who was selected to settle disputes because his decision would be better than that of the famous Athenian courts, but a man less able than Themistocles. When these two leaders asked for the support of their policies, the people voted 1 A swift runner carried the news of the great victory to Athens, whither the army returned the next day, since the Persians had immedi- ately set sail in order to take Athens by surprise, before the defenders returned. THE PERSIAN WARS 137 in favor of Themistocles, and they ostracized Aristides so that Themistocles should have a free hand.^ 171. The Naval Policy of Themistocles. — Before the battle of Marathon Themistocles had realized that Athens' future depended on her becoming a great naval power. To do this she must have a navy and a port that could be fortified. The Piraeus was therefore selected as a port and the fleet was developed until in 480 b.c. Athens had 180 tri'remes, a trireme being a war vessel with three banks of oars. When the Persians made their great expedition against Greece in that year, the Athenians asked advice of the Delphic oracle.2 They were told that the Athenians would suffer loss of hfe at SaFa-mis, an island near Athens, but that they should depend on the wooden walls for safety. Themistocles persuaded the Athenians that the wooden walls meant the ships, and that they would gain a great naval victory at Salamis. 172. The Expedition of Xerxes, 480 B.C. — - Many things had happened in the Persian empire in the ten years since the victory had been won by the Greeks at Marathon. Darius had died and revolts in Egypt had delayed the expedition against Greece. The new king, Xeroxes, was much less able than his father. Having gathered a great host from all the peoples of his empire, he proceeded to build a bridge across the Hel'les-pont. When a storm destroyed the first bridge, he had his attendants lash the waters of the Hellespont to punish them for their insub- ordination. Finally, he crossed into Thrace and came Construc- tion of a fleet after Marathon. The oracle urges de- pendence on their wooden walls. Xerxes gathers a great army and crosses the Helles- pont. 1 The story is told that one citizen, who did not know Aristides, asked him to mark a ballot (a bit of pottery) with the name Aristides. Aris- tides asked the citizen what he had against Aristides. "Nothing," he replied, "but I am tired of hearing him everywhere called the Just." 2 The oracle had been favorable to the Persians that year, for the Greeks seemed to stand small chance of success, on' account of the large number of Persian invaders. 138 GREECE Failure to make plans for defence. Leonidas and his three hun- dred Spartans. down the coast with his army and fleet until he reached the mountain range that divided central Greece from northern Greece. A congress of men from most of the Greek states had already met at Cor'inth to discuss plans for the defence of Greece.^ Jealousy and selfishness kept the Greeks from adopting any definite plan, but ten thousand Greeks were sent to defend the pass at Thermopylae and a fleet was sent up the coast to cooperate with this small army. 173. Thermopylae. — The pass at Thermopylae is very narrow, hardly w4de enough for carts to pass at its nar- rowest point, and for a distance, the road follows the edge of the cliff far above the sea. Here the ten thousand took their stand under the leadership of Le-on'i-das, king of Sparta, and 300 Spartans. Below them was spread the great host of the Persians, perhaps 400,000 strong, al- though He-rod 'o-tus places the number at nearly two millions. Day after day the Persians threw their brave and skilled warriors into the narrow pass, only to be driven back with great slaughter. Then a Greek traitor showed them a path which led over the mountain to the rear of the pass at Thermopylae. The defenders of the pass must retreat or be trapped. Leonidas, the three hundred Spartans and seven hundred Pla-te'ans refused to leave. Charging the Persian army, they sold their lives dearly and w^on immortal fame.^ 1 There were three main plans: (1) to construct a wall across the isthmus at Corinth so as to defend the Peloponnesus, and let the rest of Greece go ; (2) to depend chiefly on the fleet, and, by destro^nng the Persian fleet, force Xerxes to retreat ; (3) to stop the Persians at the pass which separates northern Greece from central Greece. 2 Meanwhile the navy had kept the Persians in check. A storm off Ar-te-mis'i-imi injured more than a third of the Persian vessels, and, in the narrow strait opposite Thermopylae between the mainland and the island of Eu-boe'a, a small fleet like that of the Greeks was better than a larger navy. When the Persians forced the pass at Thermopylae, however, the fleet withdrew to Athens. THE PERSIAN WARS 139 174. Salamis. — As the Persians marched southward, Great ^^c- the Athenians abandoned their city, withdrawing to the q^"^^°^ island of Salamis across from the port of Athens, the fleet Piraeus. Here the fleet of the Greeks awaited the Per- ^^^^ ®•^•^• sians. When Themistocles found that the Spartan leader would not fight voluntarily, he sent word to the Persian admiral that the Greek ships would slip away unless he advanced at once. The Persians immediately made an Bay of Salamis. attack, overconfident and without careful plans. In the narrow strait between Salamis and the mainland only a small number of vessels could fight at once, and vessel for vessel, the Greeks were far superior to the Persians. In fact, the Greeks were desperate, since the Persians were surrounding the island. The battle raged for several hours, King Xerxes watching it from his throne on a prom- ontory overlooking the channel. The outcome was not long in doubt. The Greeks had the advantage from the first, and the Persian fleet was almost destroyed. Xerxes at once made preparations to return to Asia,^ placing his 1 Xerxes' retreat was hastened by a message from Themistocles that the Greeks had proposed sailing to the Hellespont, for the purpose of 140 GREECE Mardonius, completely defeated, withdraws from Greece. Victor>' of the Greek fleet at Mycale (479). Invasion of western Greek cities by Carthage (480 B.C.). The pro- gressive Greek cities of Asia Minor ceased to develop under Persia. ablest general, Mar-do'ni-us, in command of the army which he left for the conquest of Greece. 175. Plataea, Mycale and Himera. — The next spring (479) Mardonius came down from his winter quarters in northern Greece to complete the conquest of the ob- stinate Greek states. He advanced to the patriotic httle city of Plataea, where he was met by the Spartans and their allies. Although the Persians came near winning a decisive victory, in the end they were overwhelmingly defeated.^ About the same time, the same day that the battle of Plataea was fought, Herodotus tells us, at Myc'a-le, a cape off Asia Minor, the Greek fleet met the Persian vessels which had escaped from Salamis. These were captured and burned. It was a long time, however, before the ^gean and Asiatic cities were freed from Persian rule. While this great expedition of Xerxes threatened Greece, the important Phoenician city of Carthage had been attack- ing the Greek cities of Sicily. The Carthaginians were defeated at Himera by Ge'lon, tyrant of Syracuse (480 b.c). (§ 307.) Thus western Greece was freed from danger at the same time as Greece proper. 176. The Importance of the Greek Victory. — The im- portance of the victory of the Greeks over the Persians can be understood better when we study chapter VIII on the Place of Greece in History and compare the civili- zation of the Orient (chapter III) with the culture of the destroying the bridge, but that they would not be able to do so for a few weeks. In fact, all of the Greeks were only too anxious that a way of retreat should be left open to Xerxes. 1 Through bad management the Greeks were almost shut off from a decent supply of water. They hesitated to attack, however, because the auspices were not favorable. When the Persians were almost in their midst, the auspices suddenly became favorable, and the Peloponnesian soldiers proved their skill as well as their courage. Herodotus tries to make us believe that the Greek loss was a few hundred and the Persian loss was a quarter million men. THE PERSIAN WARS 141 Greeks. What the Persian rule did for the Asiatic Greeks we have already noted. Before Persia gained control of western Asia Minor, the Asiatic Greek cities were the most intellectual and the most progressive of the Greek world. Under Persia they continued their commerce and seemed prosperous, but they fell behind their kinsmen in Greece, and in the West, in arts, science and general culture. Al- most without exception their ablest men migrated to free Greece across the ^Egean. The national patriotic outburst which Greece showed The na- in her contest with Persia carried Greece forward rapidly ^^^"^^ . X .y patriotism to her Golden Age. Never before and never since has so aroused brilliant a period been found as that half century following ^^^^^^ the Persian wars. Certamly Greece under Persia could stimulated never have been greater than Greece had been before the f^*' ^^^^ra- . ture and Persian wars, and the world would have lost much of general that art, literature and philosophy which we now consider culture, the best that the world has ever seen. What Herodotus wrote of Athens after she rid herself of her tyrants (§153) might truly be said of Greece during the " Golden Age." " It is manifest that not in one but in every respect the right of free speech is a good thing, if indeed the Athe- nians, so long as they were under their tyrants, were no better in war [and in culture] than any of their neighbors, whereas, so soon as they had got rid of their tyrants they became a long way the best. This makes it plain that, when subjects, they were slack because they were only working for a master, but, when liberated, each became eager to achieve success for himself." 177. Summary. — With the exception of the Egyptian The Per- empire, all the empires before the Persian were in western ^^^^ empire. Asia. In 550 b.c. there were four great kingdoms, Media, Lydia, the new Babylonian kingdom and Egypt that were conquered in turn by Cyrus or by his son. Cyrus was the first " Great king " of the Persians, a hardy, honest and 142 GREECE moral hill people. When Darius became king of the Persian dominions he organized them into a consolidated empire which he and his successors ruled from his capital, with satrape, generals and secretaries in the provinces. The Persian empire had covered all of western Asia and desired to annex Greece. In 490 an expedition crossed the ^gean Sea against Athens. This force was badly beaten by a much smaller Athenian army at Mara- thon, but Greece was unable to unite on an}' policy of defence. Athens, however, following the advice of The- mistocles, prepared a fleet. In 480 Xerxes gathered a great host from all of his western provinces. At Thermopylae he was checked by Leonidas and his Spartans. The fleet now withdrew to Salamis, where a great naval victory was gained by the Greeks in the narrow channel. Xerxes immediately left Greece, and the next year his army was beaten at Plat sea and his navy at Mycale. Later the iEgean islands and the Asiatic cities were freed from the Persians. Greece was now able to develop the fine civili- zation of her Golden Age. General References Fling, Source Book of Greek History, 98-143. Davis, Reading in Ancient History, I, 45-61, 130-198. Cotterill, Ancient Greece, 181-282. Ragozin, The Story of Media, Babylonia and Persia. Holm, History of Greece, II, 1-89. Topics The Ionic Revolt : Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 152-161 ; Bury, History of Greece, 241-247 ; Hohn, History of Greece, II, 1-14. Marathon: Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 137-144; Holm, History of Greece, II, 16-24 ; Creasy, Decisive Battles of the World, chapter I. Themistocles and Aristides: Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 144-150 ; Abbott, Pericles, 22-30. THE PERSIAN WARS 143 Studies 1. The empire of Hammurabi. Boscawen, The First of Em- pires. 2. How the Assyrians governed their empire. Winckler, Babylonia and Assyria, 289-298. 3. The Rule of Darius. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, 576-579. 4. Persian customs. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient His- tory, 59-65. 5. The Persian empire. Wheeler, Alexander the Great, 187- 207. 6. Miletus before the Persian conquests. Holm, History of Greece, I, 268-269, 274-278. 7. Miltiades. Plutarch, Lives. 8. Themistocles and Aristides. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 144-150. 9. Athens and the Delphian oracle (480). Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 151-154. 10. The nations and their equipment in Xerxes' army. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 155-158. 11. How Leonidas held the pass at Thermopylae. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 165-175. 12. The battle of Salamis. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, 1, 185-190. Questions 1. Name the three great areas of ancient empires. Tell why we must consider the Mediterranean basin as a whole geographically. Why should we distinguish between the east- ern and the western Mediterranean, historically ? 2. Name, in chronological order, the empires of the ancient near East. Give the approximate period, the chief ruler and the extent of each. 3. Show how Cyrus created the greatest empire up to his time by conquering the four great kingdoms of 555 B.C. (See map, p. 131.) 4. Compare the rule of Darius with that of earlier rulers. Were not the Persians more honest, more religious and more humane than the Babylonians and the Assyrians ? 5. How did Persian rule affect Miletus and other Greek cities in Asia Minor ? Would not Persian rule in Greece have brought 144 GREECE Greece into closer contact with the civilization, the trade and the wealth of the East? Why, then, was the danger from Persia so great ? (). What was the importance of Marathon ? of Thermopylas ? 7. What was the effect of Greek victory over the Persians on Greek unity ? on the independent spirit of the Greek cities ? on the leadership of Sparta ? on art and culture ? CHAPTER VI HELLENIC GREECE The Golden Age of Greece (479-431 b.c.) 178. Formation of the Confederacy of Delos. — Athens Salamis and Plataea had freed Greece, but the contest organized a . ' maritime With Persia was by no means ended. Persian tyrants still league held most of the islands of the ^gean, and Persian rulers ^^^^^^ and troops still held the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Again Athens came to the front as the real leader of Greece. There was organized a maritime confederacy made up of Athens and a few other coast cities of Greece, of the Greek islands and some Greek cities in Asia Minor. Territorially it corresponded rather closely to the religious amphictyony of earlier times (§ 134). It was called the Delian League, or Confederacy of Delos, and its head- quarters were at the island of Delos, where was located the shrine of Apollo that had been for centuries the centre of the Delian amphictyony. 179. Organization and Work of the Confederacy of The con- Delos. — The Confederacy had a congress made up of one fleeroTthe delegate from each city in the Confederacy. The common Confeder- treasury was in Delos. Each of the large cities contributed ^^^* one or more ships, the smaller cities giving a sum of money. It was left to Aristides, the Just, who had been recalled from exile before the invasion of Xerxes, to decide how many ships or how much money each member of the Confederacy should contribute, for all knew that Aristides would give them a '' square deal." Under the leadership of Ci'mon, son of Miltiades, the fleet of the Confederacy gradually freed the ^gean L 145 146 GREECE Cimon frees the .^gean and Asiatic cities from Persian rule. Attempted secession of island cities gives Athens ex- cuse to form the Athenian empire. Athens develops her sea power. islands from the Persians. Then the Confederacy drove the Persians from the Greek cities of Asia Minor, Cimon destroying a new fleet that the Persians had gathered. Within fifteen years after Salamis the Greeks, under Athenian leadership, had freed themselves entirely from Persian rule. 180. Formation of the Athenian Empire. — As the Confederacy of Delos had been formed to drive out the Persians, and the Persians had been defeated, one of the island cities withdrew from the Confederacy. Athens conquered her and brought her back as a Subject slate, which was forced to pay tribute, but had no share in the affairs of the league. In a few years almost every city in the Confederacy, having rebelled against the rule of Athens in the Confederacy, was made into a subject state. Then the treasury was removed to Athens and the money was used to build up the Athenian nav}^ or to build defences or public buildings in Athens. The Confederacy of Delos had become the Athenian empire. It was the ex- perience of Greece, just as it has been the experience of America, that a league or confederation either fails to ac- complish very much or is changed into a stronger union. 181. Athens becomes a Walled Seaport. — Since The- mistocles showed the Athenians that their hope of greatness lay in the development of their naval strength, Athens had been ambitious for sea power. She had at first built a great wall around the city. When the Spartans, through jealousy, objected, Themistocles went to Sparta to talk the matter over with the Spartan leaders. Before the Spartans reahzed that Themistocles was " playing for time," the walls were so high that Athens was practically a walled citj'. The port of Piraeus was also defended by a strong wall several miles in extent. The next step was taken by Per'i-cles about twenty-five years later, when he built THE GOLDEN AGE OF GREECE 147 two ^'long walls," twelve feet thick and thirty feet high, Fortifica- connecting Athens with the Piraeus. Athens was now a p?^^g and the long walls. Piraeus (Munychia). seaport and was invincible, so long as she held control of the sea. 182. Importance of the Athenian Empire. — The empire How the which Athens held together for about a half century f^p^J^^^ included all of the islands of the ^gean and most of the united and coast cities on the west, north and east shores of the Q^eeks^ ^ 148 GREECE The demo- cratic character and poH- cies of the assembly. JEgesLii. Athens ruled the empire absolutely, no city being allowed to decide any imperial policy. The empire, however, did three things: (1) It united the maritime cities of the Greeks, protecting them from the Persians and other enemies, and giving them prosperity that they had never had before. Athens tried also to build up a great land empire. Naturally this was opposed by Sparta, the military leader of Greece. Athens' attempt therefore failed. (2) It upheld democracy in all of the cities of the league. If any city was seized by a tyrant or by its aris- tocrats, Athens forced the citizens to rule themselves again, through their assembly. (3) Athens sent out colo- nies which were unlike the earlier Greek colonies. Every colonist still retained his Athenian citizenship and helped to govern the colony in which he resided. 183. The Athenian Democracy. The Assembly. — What was the democracy that ruled Athens and the Athenian empire ? It was made up of all male citi- zens of Athens, that is, of Attica, above the age of thirty years. These citizens gave almost their entire attention to public affairs, for there was nothing the Athenian Seats in the Amphitheatre, Athens. loved so well as to meet his fellow-citizens and discuss politics or war, or listen to speeches or debates. Even the poorest citizen was able to give considerable time to the assembly, in which affairs were discussed, for the great Pericles saw that the state paid for attendance at the as- THE GOLDEN AGE OF GREECE 149 sembly, paid for jury service and furnished free seats at the theatre. In this assembly business was considered, after it had Powers of been proposed by or brought before a council of fifty ofh- *^^ f f" . p 1 1- 1 M T 11 sembly and cials/ the erection oi pubhc buildings was debated, the council, holding of festivals or questions connected with the navy, the subject states, the allies or the colonies were discussed, and war or peace was decided. The Bema. Under the leadership of men like Themistocles, or The Athe- Aristides, or Cimon, or Pericles, this assembly made ^^^^ democ- ' ^ ' "^ racy a Athens great, but it was an assembly ruled by leaders, popular As time went on, it banished all of these leaders except s^vem- ' ^ ment by Pericles, and most of them died in exile. After the death leaders, of Pericles, it was swayed from one extreme to another. At one time it decided that all of the people in a revolting subject state, Mytilene, should be put to death, but the next day this harsh decision was changed. The assembly had no policy but that of its leaders. It was successful only so long as it was well led. 184. Public Positions in the Athenian Democracy. — In Athens there were many offices and a vast number * There were ten councils of fifty members, each of which looked after affairs for thirty-six days in the year, for which they were chosen. 150 GREECE Offices filled by election or by lot. The popu- lar juries and trials. Extent and importance of Greek democracy. The great- ness of Pericles and the greatness of Athens under Pericles. of public positions. Some of the offices, such as those of the general, engineers and financial experts, were filled by popular election. The other offices and public posi- tions were filled by lot, and many of the offices could be held only once. They were therefore " passed around," giving public training to a great many men. Every year six thousand men were drawn for jury ser- vice. One thousand were held in reserve and the rest were divided into ten juries of 500 each. When a case was to be tried before one of these juries of from 200 to more than a thousand Athenians, the parties were obliged to plead in person. Professionals wrote many of the argu- ments, but the delivery, if not the writing of the speeches, tended to make the Athenians orators and debaters. It can readily be seen that this was a more popular system of administering justice than our own jury system. In addition, more citizens were brought actively into public affairs. It was a system, however, that could be used only by a people whose citizens had a great deal of leisure and intelligence. This was the democracy that Athens tried to make her allies and her subject cities copy. This was the democracy to which the modern orator looks back as the highest political product of the ancient world. 185. The Age of Pericles. — The leader of the Athenian assembly during the greater part of the Golden Age of Greece, the first cit- izen of the first Greek city, the "uncro\sTied king" of the Athenian empire, was Pericles. Pericles was a born leader, a man of considerable ability and of great moderation ; a states- man, an orator and a patron of all the arts. So much Pericles. THE GOLDEN AGE OF GREECE 151 did he dominate Athens and so much did Athens dominate Greece, that the quarter century before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War is called the Age of Pericles. In general, it was an age of peace and prosperity, for the fear of Athens kept the Persians in the East and the Carthaginians in Africa. The greatness of Athens may be sho^vn by a speech made by Pericles, not long before his death. ^ "Our form of government does not enter into rivalry with the in- stitutions of others. We do not copy our neighbors, but are an ex- ample to them. It is true that we are called a democracy, for the administration is in the hands of the many and not of the few. But while the law secures equal justice to all alike in their private dis- putes, the claim of excellence is also recognized ; and when a citizen is in any way distinguished, he is preferred to the public service, not as a matter of privilege, but as the reward of merit. Neither is poverty a bar, but a man may benefit his country whatever be the obscurity of his condition. . . . Because of the great- ness of our city, the fruits of the whole earth flow in upon us ; so that we enjoy the goods of other countries as freely as our own. Then again our military training is in many respects superior to that of our adversaries. . . . We are lovers of the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness. Wealth we employ, not for talk or ostentation, but when there is a real use for it. ... To sum up : I say that Athens is the school of Hellas, and that the individual Athenian, in his own person, seems to have the power of adapt- ing himself to the most varied forms of action with the utmost versatility and grace." 186. The Athens of Pericles. — Athens was not only the centre of the Athenian empire ; it was the centre of the Greek world in the great half century following the Persian wars, which is rightly called a Golden Age. Athens was the magnet that attracted every Greek who excelled in literature, art or philosophy. In the whole Hellenic period, that is, from the Persian wars to the empire of The great- ness of Athens as shown in the "funeral oration" of Pericles. How Athens attracted the ablest Greeks from Asia, Greece and the West. 1 The so-called Funeral Oration, reported by Thucydides. 152 GREECE The build- ings of the Acropolis. **, . m _^^^^^MflQ0E w^^^ "^^3 kj ^- ..M^^Mfll ■Il^p9 > ij| HT ? fH ■ ^ - i B i fl| r . 1 1 -■•■ ' ii ■•'V ' 1 ^1 «aaa i iiiiyiiii mm ^^*^- -^^ 1 J if--- -■!-_ _ . , -:-i. - ^ Photo by Geo. F. Howell Porch of the Maidens (Erectheum, Athens.) Alexander, an Athe- nian was said to be not a man born in Athens, but one who fitted into the intel- lectual atmosphere of Athens. It is not strange then that the Athens of the Hel- lenic period, and even of the Hellenistic pe- riod after Alexander, was the most bril- liant intellectual city of all time, for she had the best of the Greek writers and thinkers. 187. The Beautiful Buildings of Athens. — It was during the Age of Pericles, while Athens had plenty of money in her treasury, that Athens constructed the most beautiful public buildings in the world. Many of these were on the heights of the Acropolis in the centre of the city. The approach to the Acropolis, the Pro-py-lce'a with its attractive steps and col- umns, was completed within five years. Once at the top of the Acropolis one faced the gigantic statue of A-the'na, whose spear- head served as a beacon to ships approaching the Piraeus. Beyond, at the left, was the Er-ech-the'iim with its '' porch of maidens," and, at the right, the Parthenon, the PaUa.s Athena, Parthenon. (By Phidias.) H < Q pq O w h- ( O o u < w o < lO 154 GREECE Buildings and streets in Hellenic Athens. Contrast between the Golden Age and the fol- lowing century. Lack of national spirit due to jealousy. temple of Athena (§ 252), the finest example of Greek architecture, and therefore the finest building, ever con- structed. On the south slope of the Acropohs rows of circular seats were placed, forming an amphitheatre in which the renowned dramas of .^schylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes (§§ 242-244) were given. Over to the west of the Acropolis is Mars Hill (the A-re-op'a-gus) where the old men of Athens for centuries had held a famous court. Here the apostle Paul, five centuries later, preached to the Athenians. Beyond Mars Hill was the meeting place of the Athenian assembly (the Pynx), with the Be'ma or platform over next to the city wall. Other public buildings and statues adorned the city, especially after Alexander's time, but the streets were as narrow and as dirty, and the houses as unattrac- tive as those of many oriental cities. This was a splendid Athens, but it was neither a clean city nor a city of com- forts. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 b.c.) 188. Causes and Results of Dissensions in Greece. — The Golden Age of Greece saw comparatively few wars between the different Greek states, but it was followed by a great conflict, lasting nearly thirty years, which involved all Greece and the ^gean cities. This was called the Peloponnesian war. It was the beginning of a period of strife and dissension which lasted practically a century, and was ended by the battle of Chae-ro-ne'a (338 b.c), in which the father of Alexander the Great, Philip of Macedon, united Greece by making Greece subject to Macedon. The cause of these dissensions is found in Greek char- acter, for the Greek was jealous. He was so jealous of the success of his fellows that he seemed to take pleasure in sending the greatest Greeks into exile or to death. Each THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 155 state was jealous of every other greater than itself, and it was especially jealous of its local independence. The Greeks never had any national spirit. They were never united except in the face of great common danger, or as the subject state of some conquering power. 189. The Beginning of the Peloponnesian War. — Cause: the The Peloponnesian War grew out of the arrogance of ^^^^^ °^ Athens and the jealousy of the other states toward power and Athens. Sparta was jealous because Athens had taken commercial ^ "' ^ ^ success. from her the leadership in Greece. Corinth, ^-gi'na and other cities were jealous because Athens had seized the commerce which they formerly had had. Many other states were jealous because Athens was successful and looked after Athens first, last and all of the time. These jealous states joined with the Peloponnesian League (§ 149) against the maritime league of the Athenian em- pire and its allies. 190. Three Incidents of the First Period of the War. The war — The first period of the war lasted ten years (431-421). pj^^ ^^ Three incidents only are worthy of notice. First: In the Nicias. third year of the war Pericles died, during a great plague in Athens. The Athenian empire thus lost its great leader. Second: At Pylos, on the west coast of Greece, the Athenians cut off part of the Spartan force, including more than one hundred Spartans. To the amazement of all Hellas, the Spartans surrendered. Third: The Spar- tans tried to strike at Athens' aUies and colonies in the north ^gean Sea, since Athens depended for her strength on her control of the sea. These allies also furnished Athens with ships, masts and ship timbers. In 421 a truce was arranged between the Athenians and the Spartans. This is called the Peace of Nicias. 191. The Expedition against Syracuse. — Although Athenian there is no city in eastern Hellas whose commerce or navy ^g^f^^gy could compare with that of Athens, Syracuse in Sicily, of Syracuse. 156 GREECE The Athe- nian navy hemmed in at Syracuse and the army destroyed. Remark- able spirit and quick recovery of Athens. a colony of Corinth, had a large fleet to protect her exten- sive trade. Fearing that this fleet would be used by their enemies and willing to gain some of the trade that Syracuse had, the Athenians decided (415 B.C.) to send an expedi- tion against Syracuse. They were induced to take this step partly by the eloquence of Al-ci-bi'a-des. Alcibiades was a tall, handsome young man of great ability, but he was selfish and unscrupulous. Alcibiades was typically Greek, for he had those charms that the Greeks especially desired and those qualities which many Greeks possessed.^ Being asked to return to Athens, Alcibiades went over to Sparta and advised Sparta to send her ablest general, Gy-lip'pus, to Syracuse, and to occupy a hill fourteen miles from Athens which controlled all of Attica. After a severe siege, lasting two years, the Athenians were hemmed in the harbor at Syracuse and their forces de- stroyed.2 Only seven thousand surrendered ; their gen- erals were executed, the rest being sent to the damp unhealthy quarries about Syracuse. The Sicilian expedi- tion was the greatest disaster in Greek history. 192. Renewal of War by Athens. — What was the effect upon Athens of the destruction of her fleet and the loss of 40,000 men, including the flower of her arm}'? Never, except in the dark days before Salamis, when Athens had been abandoned to the Persians, did 1 Alcibiades might have been a second Themistocles. He was ap- pointed to a command of the expedition against Syracuse, but on the eve of the departure for that city, the statues of Hermes were mutilated in Athens. Alcibiades was accused of connection with this act of im- piety and was told to return to Athens. 2 The Athenians sent reenforcements to Syracuse, but the walls of the city were strengthened, and the fleet of their opponents was growing stronger month by month. As the Athenians could not break through the walls of Syracuse, they were in danger of being hemmed into the harbor. Having decided to return to Athens, the Athenians then tried to cut their way out of the harbor. When this failed, they attempted to burn their ships and march overland to a friendly city. This attempt failed. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 157 the Athenians show themselves so great. Undaunted by this terrible disaster, Athens recruited a new army and constructed a new fleet. Crippled as she was, she kept up the fight for nine years against Sparta and her allies, and the Persians. She recalled Alcibiades, only to find that he deserted her again. 193. Downfall of Athens. — The war against Athens was now being carried on chiefly in the north ^gean. Attica could not supply the city with food, especially as the Spartans destroyed crop after crop. Most of the food supply of Athens was brought therefore from the Black Sea. In 405 B.C. the Athenian fleet was surprised and captured by the Spartans at ^-gos-pot'a-mi in the Helles- pont.^ The Spartans slew all of the Athenian prisoners. They now controlled the food supply of Athens. The capture of Athens followed quickly, of course. Athens was obliged to destroy her long walls and the for- tifications of the Piraeus. She was forced to accept the rule of ^' thirty tyrants," upheld by a Spartan garrison. This was soon overthrown, but Athens never regained her polit- ical or naval supremacy. She still remained, for several centuries, the most distinctively intellectual centre of the ancient world. By the cut- ting off of the food supply Athens is forced to give up. The hu- mihation of Athens. ^GOSPOTAMI TO CHiERONEA (404-3^8 B.C.) - The Greek Harshness They found ^^^ '^"^'^- 194. Spartan Supremacy (404-371 B.C.). cities had objected to the rule of Athens, -lx^^j xv^^xxvt g^y of Sparta much more tyrannical. Sparta forced the cities Sparta that had had assemblies to accept the government of 1 The Athenian assembly helped her enemies by its unfairness. After a great naval victory, a storm arose. The Athenian generals were unable to collect the bodies of most of the dead. They were therefore con- demned to death by the assembly. If the body of a Greek was not buried, its "soul" wandered about forever without a fixed abode. The Greek dreaded nothing so much as to be lost at sea. 158 GREECE The ten thousand showed the real weak- ness of the Persian empire. Under Epaminon- das, Thebes is the leading city of Greece. their aristocracy. In some cities she stationed garrisons to see that Spartan orders were obeyed. She made war on Persia, but at the close of the war, she allowed Persia to keep the Asiatic Greek cities and to control others. Sparta dissolved the leagues of Greek cities that had been formed for defence. There was in this way less opposition to Sparta and also to Persia. Thus Sparta was not only harsh, but she sold out to the Persians the interests of her neighbors and friends. 195. The March of the '' Ten Thousand." — The war with Persia grew out of a revolt in the Persian empire. A Persian king died about the time that the Peioponnesian War ended. He was succeeded by an elder son, but a younger son, Cyrus, a satrap of Asia Minor, gathered a force of Asiatics and Greek ^' soldiers of fortune " and marched against his brother. This force penetrated al- most to Babylon. There a battle was fought in which Cyrus was killed. The ten thousand Greeks then fought their way back through Assyria and Ar-me'ni-a to the Black Sea. This was the famous '' March of the ten thousand." It showed that the Persian empire was a mere shell which could be destroj^ed by a good army under an able leader. 196. Sparta yields to Thebes. — After the peace with Persia Sparta found that her rule was not accepted quietly by her subject cities in Greece. As she especially feared the Thebans, she seized the citadel at Thebes. But Thebes was revenged. She formed an organization of her young men called the Sacred Band. Under the lead of Pe-lop'i-das this band regained the city and freed Thebes from the Spartan garrison. Sparta sent an army against Thebes, but the The])ans had discovered a new way of fighting by massing their men several lines deep. Under E-pam-i-non'das the Thebans gained a complete victory over a larger Spartan army at Leuctra (371 B.C.). iEGOSPOTAMI TO CH^RONEA 159 For nine years, until Epaminondas was killed in battle, Thebes was the leading state of Greece. 197. Philip of Macedon. — There hes on the north Macedonia. shore of the ^gean Sea a country called Macedonia or '^.^p^^j^.^^^^ Macedon. This country has recently been the battle- ground of the Turks, the Greeks, the Bulgarians and the Servians. In the time of Epaminondas Macedon was a small hilly province without a seaport, ruled by a prince or king, and inhabited by a people who were related to the Greeks but were rude and uncultured. A few years after the death of Epaminondas Philip II became king of Macedon. Philip had spent most of his boyhood in Thebes, where he had learned to appreciate Greek civil- ization, and he had seen the superiority of the troops of Thebes over those of Sparta. 198. What Philip did for Macedon. — Philip did three Philip things for INIacedon. (1) He reorganized the government ^reated a ^ . ^ ^ ^ ® fine army and particularly the army. Philip organized the horse- and en- men of the Macedonian hills into a fine cavalry corps. He \^^^^^^ ^^ '^ ^ territory. changed the infantry of Epaminondas into a more solid mass of soldiers, with long spears, so that the spears of the men in the fifth row projected in front of the first row. This was his famous Macedonian phalanx, which was not beaten until it met the Roman legion. (2) By diplomacy or force Philip added to his kingdom all of the coast of the iEgean from Thermopylae to the Hellespont. He was preparing to cross the Hellespont into Asia Minor, when he was murdered. (3) The third thing that Philip did was in Greece. The Sacred Philip joined Greek states in a war on the Pho'ci-ans, who ^^^^' had taken money from the treasury of Apollo at Delphi. At the close of the war Philip took the seat which the Phocians had had in the Delphian Amphictyonic council. 199. Subjugation of Greece by Philip. — The only city that had understood Philip's plans was Athens. 160 GREECE In spite of Demos- thenes Philip de- feats his opponents. Greece united under Macedonian rule. Importance of the period. Athens in the Golden Age. At this time the leader of Athens was the famous orator De-mos'the-nes. Demosthenes thundered against PhiUp, in orations known as Phi-lip' pics, but he was not able to unite Greece against Philip. In 338 b.c. Philip won at Chffir-o-ne'a a great victory. Philip punished severely sev- eral of the Greek cities that had been friendly to him, and had then turned against him, but he treated Athens with respect, for Athens had fought him bravely and openly. Although he had conquered Greece, he looked up to her, and Philip ujiited Greece, under Macedon. Greece never be- fore had been united, for each state wanted to do as it pleased, and the only way that it could be united was by an outsider and by force. By some people the victory of Philip was considered the end of Greek history, for it marked the end of the independence of the little city-states. 200. Summary. — The fourth and fifth centuries be- fore Christ were the glorious classical or Hellenic period of Greek history. Some people consider this age the greatest in the history of the world. Athens made herself a walled seaport, organized the Con- federacy of Delos against Persia, and later changed the Confederation into the Athenian empire. She tried to create a land empire also, but failed. Athens was the most Demosthenes. .3i:G0SP0TAMI TO CH.ERONEA 161 beautiful and the most distinguished city of the world at this time. She was governed by a popular assembly under leaders, aided by a popularly elected council, which was changed every thirty-six days. The important offices were filled by election, the others and the juries by lot. Athens insisted that her dependencies and allies have similar democratic governments. The last part of the Golden Age was a period of peace and prosperity called the Age of Pericles, after the great Athenian statesman. In 431 began that great internal war, called the Pelo- Peiopon- ponnesian war, caused by the arrogance of Athens and the ^^^^^" ^^^• jealousy of the other Greek states. Nothing important happened before the ill-fated Sicilian expedition, urged by the traitor Alcibiades, which ended in the complete loss of the Athenian army and navy. The war was brought to a close by the destruction of Athens' food supply. Athens then submitted (304 B.C.) and Sparta ruled ^gospot- Greece for thirty years, selling out to Persia. Sparta was ^h^rone succeeded by Thebes under Pelopidas and Epaminondas, and Thebes gave way to Philip of Macedon. Philip had a fine arm}^ and had gained a large kingdom. After the Sacred war and Philip's victory at Chseronea (338), Greek independence came to an end. General References Webster, Ancient History, 211-258. Botsford, A History of the Ancient World, 182-278. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 199-297. Fling, Source Book of Greek History, 144-295. Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens. Weller, Athens and its Monuments. Ferguson, Greek Imperia.lis?n, 38-115. Grant, Greece in the Age of Pericles. Abbott, Pericles. Wheeler, Alexander the Great, 81-207. Stobart, The Glory that was Greece, 132-236. M 162 GREECE Topics The Athenian Empire : Ferguson, Greek Imperialism^ 65-78 ; Cotterill, Ancient Greece, 283-296 ; Zimmern, The Greek Commonwealth, 175-192. The Sicilian Expedition : Davis, Readings in Ancient His- tory, I, 226-232; Fling, Source Book of Greek History, 211-230; Plutarch, Lives, !' Alcibiades " ; Holm, History of Greece, II, 466-480. Philip of Macedon : Botsford, Source Book of Ancient His- tory, 266-275 ; Wheeler, Alexander the Great, 1-8 ; Plutarch, Lives, "Philip." Studies 1. Aristides and the Confederation of Delos. Plutarch, Lives, "Aristides," last part. 2. The port of Athens, Weller, Athens and its Monuments, 283-295. 3. The Athenian assembly. Ferguson, Greek Imperialism, 49, 57-61. 4. Importance of sea power to Athens. Zimmern, The Greek Commonwealth, 348-359. 5. Athens in the Age of Pericles. Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, 29-53. 6. The Athenian victory at Pylos. Davis, Readings in An- cient History, I, 221-226. 7. The tragic defeat at ^gospotami. Da\'is, Readings in Ancient History, I, 232-234. 8. Retreat of "the ten thousand" through the snows of Ar- menia. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 251-255. 9. Last days of the old Greek poUtical system. Wheeler, Alexander the Great, 138-148. 10. Epaminondas. Davis, Readings, I, 276-279. 11. How Demosthenes became an orator. Davis, Readings, I, 286-292. Questions 1. Compare the maritime league of Athens (the Delian Con- federation) with the land league of Sparta (the Peloponnesian League). Which lasted longer? Which included more cities? Which was more united? In which were the city-states more nearly equal ? ^GOSPOTAMI TO CH^RONEA 163 2. Compare in the same respects the DeHan Confederation and the Athenian empire. Explain the steps by which the latter was organized and show its importance. 3. Show how Athens was famous for her assembly ; for her art ; for her literature, during this period. Had the Athenians more self-government than we have to-day ? Name any other people that have equalled them in art or in literature. 4. Write a short paper telling about an imaginary trip from the bay at Piraeus between the long walls of the city, to the PropylsBa and among the ruins of the Acropolis. 5. What was the fault which the Greeks had because they were independent? Is it usually true that we have the "faults of our virtues" ? 6. Explain the difference between the three periods of the Peloponnesian War. Where was each fought ? Why was the expedition against Syracuse the turning point of the war? 7. Should not nations as well as men specialize in their busi- ness ? How far can a nation specialize without danger of being overwhelmed by its enemies ? For example, should it de- pend on outside countries for its supply of food, for clothing, for other necessities ? What was the lesson taught by Athens ? by the Southern Confederacy in the Civil War ? Compare Athens with Great Britain to-day in regard to economic depend- ence on outsiders. 8. What three things did Philip do for Macedon ? Was Philip a great man ? Why was unity forced upon Greece by Macedon rather than developed by Greece herself ? Was Philip or was Demosthenes right ? Why ? CHAPTER VII ALEXANDER: THE HELLENISTIC AGE The Empire of Alexander Charac- teristics of the young king of Macedon. Stories of his youth. 201. The Youth of Alexander. — Philip of Macedon had not only made his little principality into a great kingdom, and united Greece under Macedon, but he had started to drive Persia out of Asia Minor. At his death he was succeeded by his son Alexander, who was only twenty years of age. Alexander was an impetuous youth of magnificent phy- sique. His mind was quick and capable and he had been trained by able teachers, by far the greatest of whom was the philosopher Ar-is-to'tle. He excelled in athletic sports and was willing to eat plain food and undergo the hard- ships of a soldier's life. As a boy Alexander had won the admiration of Persian ambassadors by his brilliant conversation and his keen questions. One day a magnificent horse, Bu-ceph'a-lus, was brought to Pliilip's court. None of the courtiers was able to manage him. When Alexander criticized them, he was told to see what he could do. He immediately turned 164 Alexander. THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER 165 the horse toward the sun, having noticed that he was afraid of his shadow, and sprang on his back. He then gave the high-spirited steed a chance to run. On his return his father embraced the lad, saying, '' 0, my son ! look thee out a kingdom equal to and worthy of thyself, for Mace- donia is too little for thee." 202. Alexander Makes himself Master of Greece. — Greece had yielded to Philip, the crafty diplomat and able general. It had no intention of submitting to a boy, especially a boy whom his enemies in Macedon did not recognize as king. Alexander seemed to enjoy the troubles on every hand. With amazing activity he subdued the rebellious Macedonian nobles and marched into Greece, which he pacified within a few Aveeks. As soon as he went north, Greece revolted again, and Alexander suppressed the revolts with violence, destroying Thebes.^ Then Alexander became dissatisfied with his father's plan of simply invading Asia Minor. He made preparations to conquer the whole Persian empire. 203. Alexander's Conquest of Asia Minor. — In 334 B.C. Alexander crossed into Asia. The Persian satraps of Asia Minor tried to stop him at the river Gra-ni'cus near the site of Troy. Alexander depended somewhat on his Mace- donian phalanx, but chiefly on his cavalry, which he really led in person. Several times his life was in great Alexander puts down rebellions in Macedon and along the Danube. Alexander wins two of his hardest battles. • 1 Alexander was called north by rebellions on the frontier along the Danube. He marched rapidly northward, and no word was heard of him in Greece for many months. Immediately half of Greece took advan- tage of his absence, and city after city proclaimed its independence. As the tribes along the Danube had been subdued easily, Alexander astounded the Greeks by his sudden appearance. A few swaft marches, a few short sieges, and Greece north of the Peloponnesus was once more at his feet. To punish Thebes, the treacherous, the city where his father had spent his boyhood, he destroyed the city and sold the people into slavery. Thus was Thebes treated as she had treated her own traitorous allies. With this terrible warning of the treatment that rebels might expect Alexander started on his campaign against Persia. 166 GREECE Alexander destroys Tyre for comnieroial reasons. Alexander founds Alexandria and believes that he is a god. danger and the battle was nearly lost, but, in the end, as was always the case, Alexander won a complete victory. He crossed Asia Minor slowly, keeping in touch with Greece, for fear that Greece might revolt again. At Gordium he w^as asked to untie the famous Gordian knot, but with characteristic directness cut it with his sword. As he approached Syria, he was met by the Persian king and a great army at Is'sus, where the mountains came down close to the sea. In this narrow pass Alexander won a second victory by charging with his cavalry into the camp of the Great King. The way was now open down the Euphrates or along the Mediterranean coast. He chose the latter. 204. Alexander Destroys Tyre and Founds Alexandria. — For two centuries the island of Tyre had been under Persian rule. In return for vessels in time of war Persia had restored Tyre to the position she had held for several centuries before Cyrus the Conqueror, — the greatest commercial city of the eastern Mediterranean. This city which Nebuchadnezzar had besieged unsuccessfully for thirteen years, Alexander, with his new siege machines, captured in seven months. He destroyed the city utterly, not simply to prevent Tyre from furnishing a fleet to the Persians, for Alexander did not expect to leave a Persian empire, but for the reason that Alexander wanted to con- trol the trade between the East and the West. When Egypt welcomed him as her deliverer from the Persians, Alexander founded, at the mouth of the Nile, a city which he called Alexandria. This city gained most of the trade that had formerly belonged to Tyr(\ In Egypt Alexander consulted the temple of Am'on. He was told that he was a god and that he would conquer the world. Before this Alexander had believed that he would do the latter ; now he sometimes acted as if he might be the former. He lost much of the personal charm that he 5 ^ THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER 167 had had, although he retained all of his former arro- gance. 205. Alexander's Conquests of Persia. — Alexander now turned his attention to Persia. He was met again by the Persian king Darius, with a much larger army, at Ar-he'la near Nineveh. When Darius fled to escape the impetuous attack of Alexander's cavalry, the retreat be- came a rout, and the whole Tigris-Euphrates valley lay open before the conqueror. Without further difficulty he occupied Babylon, Su'sa and Per-sep'o-lis, cities of very great wealth. ^ Alexander went east as far as the Indus River, but his troops would go no farther. In 323 he died after a revel. He was only thirty-three years of age at the time, but he had lived a very full and a very hard life. Tradition relates that he died sighing for more worlds to conquer. At first thought it might seem as though Alexander was only a conqueror, and a conqueror whose work did not last. He was much more than that. 206. Alexander's Work in Uniting West and East. — Alexander married the daughter of Darius III as well as daughters of several other oriental, princes. He per- suaded or forced most of his generals to take oriental wives and he induced many of his soldiers to marry and settle down in the East. His idea was of course to break down completely the barriers between the East and the West, Arbela, and eastern conquests. Death of Alexander (323 B.C.). Alexander tries to weld East and West together by mar- riages. 1 Alexander pursued Darius across the plateau of Iran and the desert wastes farther east until one of Darius' satraps assassinated the unhappy fugitive. Alexander would gladly have forgiven his enemy. He soon after married the daughter of Darius so that he might be considered the regular successor of the last Persian king. Alexander spent several years in military and exploring expeditions in the northeastern provinces of the Persian empire. He wished to push on into India, a land of great wealth and of an ancient civilization ; but his troops rebelled and refused to go beyond the In'dus River. In fact, Alexander almost ended his career at this time, for he was severely wounded while storming a town, having exposed himself in the same reckless fashion as he had on the Granicus and a score of other times since. 168 GREECE The Greek cities in the East were cities of Greek cul- ture. Limitation of Greek markets before Alexander. Alexander made the Greek world rich through new trade oppor- tunities. for, if the social barrier were broken clown, none of the others could be kept up. Alexander founded not only Alexandria in Egypt, at the mouth of the Nile, but he founded several other Greek cities, usually called Alexandrias, in Asia Minor, in Syria, in Babylonia, in Persia and in the deserts or plateaus still farther East. To each of these cities he brought a colony of Greeks, who spoke the Greek lan- guage, worshipped Greek gods, read Greek literature and kept Greek ideals in art. These cities and the Greek quarters in the oriental cities were centres of Greek civil- ization from which Greek culture and learning spread to other cities, so that the East became partly Hel'len-ized. To be sure, this Hel-len-i-za'tion was very incomplete in the real East, but along the border of the Mediterranean there was a complete blending of the civilizations of the Orient and of Greece. The wealth and luxury of the Orient also invaded Greece. 207. Commercial Importance of Alexander's Conquests. — Alexander opened up new markets for Greece. Greece was poor. Her valleys were small and her agricultural products were hmited. Most of her wealth had always come from trade. After the downfall of Athens (§ 193) this trade was much more Hmited. The goods manu- factured by Greek slaves were sold in a very much re- stricted market for three-quarters of a century after ^gospotami. Alexander opened all of the markets of the East to Greek products and to Greek traders. By the destruction of Tyre he opened the way for a great commerce, not only to Alexandria in Egj-pt, but to Athens, to Corinth, to Rhodes and afterward to Antioch. Greeks controlled the trade of all of these great cities and the Greeks became rich and powerful through improved business opportuni- . ties. THE HELLENISTIC AGE 169 The Hellenistic Age 208. Comparison of the Hellenic and Hellenistic Importance Periods. — The name Hel-len-is'tic Age is given to the |^^ thl^^^^ period from the death of Alexander in 323 b.c. to the con- Hellenic quest of Greece by Rome in 146 b.c. In the Hellenic gl^,^ period from the Persian Wars to the subjugation of Greece by Phihp at Chseronea (338 b.c.) Greek culture had been centred at Athens. From the whole Greek world the greatest of the Greeks had been drawn to the city by the Acropolis. No other city could compare in culture with Athens during the Age of Pericles or during the century of dissension following the death of that great statesman. 209. Importance of the Hellenistic Period. — After The spread Alexander's time, things were different. Athens was ^^ Hellenic ' " ^ culture a still great, but she no longer monopolized the culture or great gain the learning of the Greek world. Instead of being cen- tred in one city, Greek civilization was spread thinly over a great area. It is not reasonable to suppose that the Greek language and hterature of Greek Syria, for example, would be the pure language of the beautiful drama of Athens. Greek culture could not very well he both concentrated and diffused at the same time. What it lost in concentration y the world gained by its diffusion. It was better that the whole eastern Mediterranean world should have a semi-Greek culture than that little Greece should have a more highly developed culture centred in one city. It was better that a score of millions should be raised consid- erably in the scale of civilization by the diffusion of Greek culture than that a few hundred thousand should enjoy a high civiUzation by keeping away from the world of the foreigner. History owes much to the high culture of the Hellenic Age. It owes more to the diffusion of Greek culture in the Hellenistic -period.^ ^ Compare with the period of colonization, §§ 139-144. to the world. 170 GREECE Problem of keeping the empire intact. Areas of the three permanent kingdoms. Different pohcies in Syria and in Egypt. 210. The Division of Alexander's Empire. — When Alexander died so untimely a death at the early age of thirty-three, it was said that he left his empire '' to the strongest." He left no heir, and none of his generals was strong enough, by gaining the allegiance of the others, to keep the empire together. After a number of years spent in quarrelling over the division of his empire, a great battle was fought at Ip'siis (301 b.c.) between his generals. As a result of this battle Alexander's empire was divided into three kingdoms which survived for more than a cen- tury, until Rome conquered each in turn during the second and first centuries before Christ. 211, The Three Kingdoms of Alexander's Successors.^ — The first kingdom was that of Macedonia, which included Macedon and Greece. The second was that of the Se-leu'cids, which temporarily stretched from the Mediterranean Sea into the remote East, but really in- cluded only Syria and Babylonia. The third was that of the Ptolemys (Tol'mys) who held Eg^^pt and quarrelled with the Seleucids for the possession of Palestine and the Phoenician cities. It is unnecessary for us to follow the fortunes of these *' Alexandrian " kingdoms, but we should notice this fact. It was through them that Greek learning and cul- ture were kept alive in the East. The Seleucids indeed followed Alexander's custom of planting Greek cities in different places. The Ptolemys on the contrary were content to concentrate in Alexandria the culture of EgjTDt. For this reason they did not Hellenize Egypt as Syria, and even Palestine, was Hellenized, but they made Alexandria the most learned and most famous city of the Hellenistic Age. ^ Originally there were four kingdoms, that of Asia Minor and Thrace soon being destroyed by invasions of Celts from the north. CENTRES OF HELLENISTIC CULTURE 171 commerce of Athens. Centres of Hellenistic Culture 212. The Hellenistic Cities of the jEgean. Athens. — Wealth, If we glance for a moment at the cities of this Plellenistic '^^f^ty' • 1 1 11 11- culture and period, we shall see that they are not to be despised. First, there is Athens, larger and far more attractive than in the time of Pericles. To the public buildings of the Golden Age have been added theatres, porticos and in- numerable statues. The streets are cleaner and the houses are more beautiful, for wealth has poured in from the East, and the citizens no longer spend their entire time discuss- ing public affairs. The Piraeus is full of ships from every quarter of the Mediterranean, the shops of this seaport being scarcely less busy than in the palmy days of the Altar of Zeus, Pergamum. Athenian empire. As the Athenian schools are the most famous in the world, no man considers his education complete until he has visited Athens, and, if possible, studied under her teachers. 213. Pergamum. — Across the ^Egean and south of The ornate the site of ancient Troy there has arisen a little kingdom called Per'ga-mum. In the city of the same name there was considerable interest in art and in literature. The peo- art of Pergamum. 172 r.RKECE Rhodes' leadership in com- mercial regulation and in colossal art. pie were famous for the preparation of skins, to be used in writing. We use such skins now chiefly for graduation diplomas, but we still call the sheets of skin parchment, af- ter Pergamum. At Pergamum there was a famous art school and the city was distinguished for its rather ornate art. On the height above the market place was a huge altar of Zeus surrounded by a colonnade of giants nine feet high. 214. Rhodes. -^ The third ^gean centre of culture and art was Rhodes, which was situated on an island between Crete and Asia Minor. The Rho- dians were very suc- cessful traders, and they made laws for international com- merce which were followed by all of the civilized people of the eastern Medi- terranean.^ At the entrance to the har- bor of Rhodes was a huge bronze statue, the Colossus of Rhodes, under which the ships sailed. Laocoon. ^ p The people of Rhodes were more fond of colossal art (§ 256), than of the simpler statuary of Per-i-cle'an Athens. The statue ^fr-yJI^^^k ■ ■k'*/^^ ^I^^H ^^^^^^1 H^^^^^H ^^^^?SS^^I^^ ^''j QHH H^WIi^i/!^ m^^ S^fl W^k, p^^^^B ^BBk'^ ■'...-i3 » So just and so fair were the Rhodians in carrying on trade, that, when an earthquake destroyed part of the city (227 B.C.), the merchants from all parts of the eastern Mediterranean contributed for the rebuild- ing of the city, for the prosperity of Rhodes meant the success of those cities with which she traded. CENTRES OF HELLENISTIC CULTURE 173 of La-oc'o-on and his sons is a good example of the art of Rhodes. 215. Syria and Palestine. — In Syria and Palestine the oriental civilization was now changed by the addition of Greek culture. The official language became Greek. Greek art was their model, Greek philosophy w^as studied by them. Greek literature became theirs. The Greek religion was urged upon them, and was accepted by most of the peoples of the coast. The capital of Syria, Antioch, was the most oriental of the Hellenistic cities.^ The Jews were the chief people that objected to accept- ing Greek gods and Greek rulers. They had their own religious belief and they refused to give it up. In order that they might have an independent kingdom in which they should have their own religion, they supported the Mac'ca-bees in a general revolution against the Greek kings. After this revolution their religion was left undis- turbed. 216. Alexandria and Its Commerce. — The most famous and the most influential of the Greek cities of the Hellen- istic period was Alexandria. Alexandria was located at the mouth of the Nile. It had two fine harbors formed by building a dike from the city to the island of Pha'ros, about a mile from the mainland. At the entrance to the eastern harbor was that great lighthouse, higher than the pyramids, which the ancients considered one of the seven wonders of the world. The western harbor was connected by canal with Lake Morris, the Nile and the Red Sea. This gave Alexandria direct water communi- cation with the East, and was an important reason why ^ The capital of the kiiigdoru of the Seleucids was Antioch, in north- western Syria. On account of its location, it had extensive commerce with Babylonia and was the most oriental of the Greek cities, excelling most others in wealth and luxury. Through Antioch the West became well acquainted with those eastern customs that broTight to Rome the superstition and luxury of the "effete East." Addition of Hellen- istic culture to that of Babylon and Egypt. The Jews demanded religious and politi- cal inde- pendence. Alexan- dria's har- bors, water routes and commerce. 174 GREECE Alexan- dria's library and copyists. The mu- seum, science and literature in Alexan- dria. Alexandria had more commerce and greater wealth than any other Hellenistic cit}'. 217. Alexandria as an Intellectual Centre. — Alexandria used her wealth, as Athens did in the fifth century before Christ, to attract scholars in order that the city might be a seat of learning and a centre of culture. The Ptolemys gathered the greatest library of the ancient world, num- bering more than a half miUion manuscripts. A vast army of copyists was kept busy copying old manuscripts. Great sums were paid for old and valuable documents. It is said that some of the manuscripts of the famous Greek dramatists were borrowed from Athens, the sum of 100 talents of silver being deposited as surety for the return of the papers. That sum was forfeited and the manu- scripts were kept in Alexandria. The oldest manuscript that we have of the Old Testament is in Greek and was made by the Alexandrian copyists. At Alexandria was the Mu-se'um, practically a uni- versity at which gathered some of the greatest scholars and teachers from the whole Greek world, with tens of thousands of pupils. In science Alexandria was pre- eminent. The best-known names in ancient times among mathematicians, geographers and other scientists were those of Alexandrian scholars (§§ 265-267). Although her Hterature was the literature of imitators and copyists, it had more influence on the literature of Rome than had the literature of classical Greece. Greece after Alexander Greece was drained of her ablest men, but not of her troubles. 218. The Condition of Greece after Alexander. — After the time of Alexander, the history of Greece proper contains little of value for us. So many of her famous men were d^a^vn away as generals or statesmen or scholars, and so manv of her humbler citizens went forth to found GREECE AFTER ALEXANDER 175 Greek cities in the East, that Greece had less material with which to estabhsh a reputation for herself in the Hellenistic period than in the Hellenic period which pre- ceded it. There was, however, the same petty jealousy between the states, and, in spite of the attempted rule of Macedon, there was much warfare among the Greek cities. There was much more wealth and luxury among the rich than there had been before Alexander, but poverty was also more prominent. There was more strife between rich and poor, since warfare between the cities was limited, and the cruelty that had been sho^vn to enemies outside of the city was now visited more often on domestic enemies. 219. The ^tolian League. — Two leagues were organ- The west- ized by the cities in this period. These were the A-chce'an ^J", ?j^^^^ League a d the M-to'li-an League. The Mtolian League tribes. was a union of tribes, not cities, of western Greece. They banded together to keep out the Gauls, who overran Asia Minor about this time, and tried to occupy Greece. They were little more than bands of pirates and bandits during the last century of Greek history. 220. The Achaean League. — Like the Confederacy of The im- Delos, the Achcean League grew out of an old religious P^^^f^* ^^* association. It was made up of a number of cities in Achaean southern and central Greece, each of which had a vote ^^^s^^- in the federal council of the League. For nearly a half century the League maintained the freedom of its cities from Macedonian rule. Then they attempted to force Sparta into the League. When it seemed possible that Sparta might defeat them, A-ra'tus, their able but un- scrupulous leader, called upon Macedon. That was the end of real independence for the cities of the League, but they held the League together for nearly a century longer. The Achaean League was the best that Greece produced. In many ways the union was not unlike the Confederation in the United States at the close of the Revolutionary 17(3 GREECE War be- tween the leagues becomes war with Rome. Conquests and work of Alex- ander. War. The idea of the league, hke that of democracy, is one of the pohtical ideas that we owe to Greece. 221. Greece Becomes a Dependency of Rome. — In its wars against Macedon, the ^EtoHan League asked aid of a great but new power that had gained Italy and all of the surrounding territory. This new power was Rome. Rome was glad to take part in Greek affairs. She first defeated Macedon and then broke up both the ^Eto- lian and the Achaean Leagues, when she found that they could not or would not keep order in Greece. The conquest of Greece by Rome, and the destruction of the great commercial city of Corinth in 146 B.C. made Greece a dependency of the great Roman republic. Thence- forth Greek history was merged in Roman history. 222. Summary. — When Philip of Macedon was assas- sinated, he was succeeded by his son Alexander. Mace- don, Greece and the Danubian provinces at once revolted. Alexander quickly suppressed each in turn, destroying Thebes. He then gathered an army to conquer the Persian empire. The battle of Granicus gave him western Asia Minor. Issus gave him Syria. The siege and de- struction of Tyre left the way open to Egj'pt, where he founded Alexandria. He then proceeded toward Persia. At Arbela he overthrew Darius III. His later campaigns brought him to the Indus River. Alexander tried to unite the East and the West, social^ by intermarriages, eco- nomically through giving Alexandria, Rhodes, Athens and Corinth more eastern trade, and in general by the founding of cities and the spread of Greek culture throughout the East. The Hellenistic period from the death of Alexander (323 B.C.) to the fall of Corinth (146) is a period of diffu- sion of the old Hellenic civilization rather than the devel- opment of a new culture. Greek culture in the East was kept alive by the kingdom of the Ptolemys (Egypt, etc.) GREECE AFTER ALEXANDER 177 and that of the Seleucids (Syria and the East). Egypt The spread and Syria being the two permanent kingdoms that, be- [*g^i^^^^^f' sides Macedonia, survived from Alexander's empire. In ture this Hellenistic world the chief centres of culture were +}je°^^^gj:^jj^ Alexandria, famous for her wealth, commerce, science Mediter- and literature ; Athens, famous for her general culture : ^^^^f ^ ' ' ... coasts. Pergamum, noted for her art ; Rhodes, distinguished for her colossal art and her maritime law ; and Antioch, noted for her luxury. From these centres Greek civil- ization was united with the civilization of the Orient, so that the eastern Mediterranean became Hellenistic. In Greece the invasions of the Gauls interfered with The leagues Macedon so that two leagues were formed, the iEtolian, of. Greece. 1 c 1 Dissensions a league of hill tribes, and the Achaean, a league of about and the half of the cities of Greece. The quarrels of the leagues fo^quest . .by Rome. brought about the entrance of Rome in Greek affairs and led to the overthrow by Rome, first of Macedon, and later of Greece. General References Westermann, Story oj the Ancient Nations, 199-243. Morey, Outlines of Greek History, 307-346. Mahaffy, Progress of. Hellenism in Alexander' s Empire. Mahaffy, The Story of Alexander's Empire, esp. 1-42, 89-95, 142-155, 176-183, 187-198, 218-224. Wheeler, Alexander the Great. Holm, History of Greece, IV, esp. 437-513. Ferguson, Greek Imperialism, 116-248. Topics The Work of Alexander the Great : Westermann, Story of the Ancient Notions, 199-213 ; Wheeler, Alexander the Great, 496-501 ; Holm, History of Greece, III, 376-388. Alexandria: Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 303-310; Holm, History of Greece, IV, 303-314, 437-442; Mahaffy, Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's Empire, 63-89. N 178 GREECE Studies 1. The youth of Alexander. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 298-304. 2. The siege of Tyre. Fling, Source Book, 300-308. 3. The sack of Persepolis. Botsford, Source Book, 277-280. 4. Alexander's trip to the temple of Amon. Wheeler, Alex- ander the Great, 344-355. 5. Zeno and Epicurus. Mahaffy, Surrey of Greek Civiliza- tion, 256-264. 6. The Greek federations. Ferguson, Greek Imperialism, 23.5-240. 7. Aratus and Sparta, Plutarch, Lives, " Aratus " (last third). Questions 1. What were the problems that confronted Alexander at his father's death ? How did he solve each of them ? 2. Trace on the map the route of Alexander, locating in turn the Granicus, Issus, Tyre, Alexandria, Arbela, Persepolis and the Indus. 3. What were some of the social, commercial and intellectual changes due to Alexander ? 4. What was the Hellenic period ? The Hellenistic period ? What was the importance of the Hellenic period ? Of the Hellenistic period ? 5. On a map point out the four temporary and three perma- nent kingdoms after Alexander. Give the names of the ruling house in two of the kingdoms. Name the most important city of each kingdom. 6. Why were Alexandria and Athens the most important cen- tres of the Hellenistic period ? 7. For what was Pergamum distinguished ? for what Rhodes ? What was the Museum ? 8. Name the seven wonders of the ancient world. Describe them. Name seven wonders of the modern world. 9. Tell about the organization of the Achaean league. Was it like our Confederation from 1781 to 1789 ? In what respect was it like our present Union? 10. Give dates of the following important events in Greece history, explaining why each is important : the first Olympic contest, Marathon, Philip's victory over Greece, the destruction of Corinth. CHAPTER VIII THE PLACE OF GREECE IN HISTORY 223. Importance of Greek Civilization. — Western civil- Modern- ization of the present time is largely an outgrowth of ^^^ ^^ ^^^ Greek civilization. As the Greek language is related to compared the languages of western Europe, so the civilization of ^^t^ ^^j western Europe is closely connected with that of ancient Greece. The ancient Orient seems very remote to us, because the people of Babylonia and ancient Egypt are not kinsmen of ours, and their civilization seems almost to belong to a different world from our own. Greece, however, seems more a part of ourselves. The Pharaohs are oriental monarchs, but Themistocles and Demosthenes are modern politicians. Egyptian and Babylonian archi- tecture seems to us fantastic and oriental. That of Greece furnishes models that we love to copy. The proc- lamations of the Assyrian kings are crude and stiff ; but the writings of the Greeks remind us of the best of our own, in their grace, their simpKcity and their beauty of form. The Greek youths, meeting in athletic contests, are cer- tainly not far removed from the high school boys or college men of to-day. The assemblies of Athens and other Ionian cities have a certain kinship to our New England town meetings. Greece then is the most modern of the ancient nations. 224. Greece was the Melting Pot of Ancient Civiliza- Greece took tions. — A mixed people like ourselves, the Greeks were EaS^the the heirs of all the ages before them, as we are. They gave to took the architecture and science of the Egyptians, the I^JJJi^\y(^^/ business codes, methods and standards of the Babylo- 179 180 GREECE nians, the alphabet of the Phoenicians and the art of the Cretans, and, out of these elements which they borrowed from their predecessors, they created a new and distinct civilization, which they passed on to all Mediterranean peoples, first in the East, and later, as we shall see (§§ 268- 273), to those of the West. Because our religion and many of our ideas differ from those of the Greeks, we do not look upon them as our older brothers ; but, because we have learned so much from them, we do look up to them as our great teachers. Greek citi- zens. Inter- relations of family, re- ligion and citizenship. The need of metics and their dia- abilities. Social Life 225. Classes of the Greeks, Citizens. — Greek society was divided into three classes, the citizens, the foreigners, or met'ics, and the slaves. The citizens were born in Greece of Greek parents. . They were separate from all others. They alone had the right to take part in reH- gious festivals and rites, for religion was an affair of the family and of the state. Those who did not belong to a Greek family necessarily could not share in the family's religion. If they were not members of a Greek family, they could not be members or citizens of a Greek city-state either (§ 236). So fmnily, religion and citizenship ivere hound up together. None but an adult male citizen might hold office or attend the assembly or own land or protect himself in the courts. So it was very important that a person should be a citizen. 226. Foreigners. — The metics were not very numerous in Greece, for the people did not welcome them unless there was trade to be carried on or manufacturing, which the citizen did not consider suitable for himself. The metic was treated like the Jew to-day in Russia, or as the Jew was treated throughout Europe during the Middle Ages. The metic was tolerated because he was needed SOCIAL LIFE 181 in business, but he was despised. He was forced to place himself under the protection of some citizen who looked after him, who was responsible for his good conduct and represented him, if necessary, in the courts, where citizens only were allowed to plead. 227. Slaves. — The third class in Greece, numbering nearly one-half of the entire population, included the slaves or serfs. In Laconia they were serfs tied to the land. They could not be sold apart from the land. These per- sons, of course, were not true slaves. The slave was a man who belonged absolutely to his master. He had been bought and could be sold, he might be punished or put to death. He could not marry without his master's consent, and his children were slaves. He might buy his freedom, however, and he then became a freedman, and was in about the same position as a metic. The Greeks sometimes put to death their prisoners of war, but they usually enslaved them. Occasionally, if one Greek state conquered another Greek state, the inhabit- ants of the conquered state were left free, but more fre- quently they were enslaved, and occasionally they were condemned to the harshest toil, as were the Athenians, who were kept in the quarries of Syracuse after the fail- ure of the Sicilian expedition (§ 191). When a Greek city conquered any barbarians — and they called all non-Greek peoples ^' barbarians '' — slavery was the lot of the conquered people almost without exception. 228. The Position of Woman. — In their attitude to- ward slavery and in their attitude toward women the Greeks were not modern, they were oriental. In Homeric society and later in Sparta and in some of the more primi- tive communities, women were allowed considerable free- dom. They even shared in the sports of the men, the Spartan women having their own athletic contests. This, however, was exceptional. How the slaves were treated. Treatment of Greek and bar- barian prisoners of war. Survival in Sparta of primitive ideas of freedom for women. 182 GREECE The Greeks treated their women as inferiors and kept them in sofhision. Limited practical training of Greek girls. In most of tlie Greek .states women lived secluded lives. They took no part in public affairs of any kind. They managed their own households, but they never went in public except with attendants. When a girl was married, a dowry was given with her and the arrangements for the wedding wore made by the groom's father. If her husband brought guests to the house, she immedi- ately retired, for she was not sup- posed to have the capacity, or the training, to understand men's af- fairs. Practically she was a metic rather than a citizen, for she did not have any of the privileges of citizenship. 229. The Education of the Greek Youth. — Greek girls were not brought up in utter ignorance, of course, for they had practical training in the duties of looking after a home. Woman's Dress (Eirene). Greek Chairs. Sometimes they were educated by slaves, so that they could read, write and sing as well. Principally, however, education in Greece, as every- where in the world until recent years, was for the boys.^ 1 In Greece the young boys were taught chiefly by slaves, pedagogues (boy leaders), but the youths were ordinarily sent to regular schools. SOCIAL LIFE 183 Four different subjects were studied, the purpose of edu- Purpose and cation being, not to impart information, but to make m *:i^ "\^'riting Material. the youth a well- rounded man, phys- ically and morally sound. The four different kinds of instruction were gymnastics, music, ^ reading and writing, and science.- 230. Worship of the Greek Gods, Prayer. — The wor- ship of the Greek gods was an important matter to every Greek, especially to the Greeks of the early and Hellenic periods. Religion was an affair of the family and of the state, rather than of the individual. In all towns temples were erected, and on every highway there were altars. The temples were simple structures, small and beautiful, being homes for the statues of the gods rather than places of worship for the multitude. The religious exer- cises of the Greeks took place within the home or at public gatherings rather than within the temples. At the begin- ning of a meal the presence of the god was invoked and a libation of wine was poured out for the god.^ Prayers were usually offered standing, the supplicant stretching forth his hands to the heavens, except when addressing the gods of the lower world. 231. Sacrifices to the Gods. — Offerings were made to subjects in Greek edu- cation. Informal nature of worship. Those who were especially interested attached themselves to some great teacher who met his pupils every day in the academy, or the Lyceum or some porch of the city. 1 Religious services, fetes and festivals, athletic contests, public meet- ings and home gatherings were often opened or closed with music, music being often the most essential feature of the gathering. 2 After Aristotle's time the boys usually studied, in addition, mathe- matics, natural science and perhaps some philosophy. 3 The wine was usually poured from a shallow dish to the ground. 184 GREECE Purifica- tion, blood- less sacri- fice and burnt of- ferings. Moral standards of the Greeks. the gods as tokens of thanksgiving, or to secure the favor of the deity, or to appease his anger. Before offering prayer or sacrifice, a worshipper must be purified, usually by sprinkling with sacred water. The offering might be a spray of flowers, first fruits of the fields, or an animal. The sacrifices of burnt offerings were of doves, goats or oxen, or of young pigs, if a crime had been committed. While animals without blemish were sought for the Olympic deities, black animals were offered to those of the lower regions. Usually only a part of the victim was burnt for the god ; the rest of the flesh, roasted, was eaten by the worshipper and his friends. The entrails of the victims were consulted to learn the wishes of the gods. This brief account will give us just a little idea of the part played by religion in the family and social life of the Greeks. 232. Greek Character. — The moral instruction of the Greek youth failed to teach him some of those virtues which modern men consider most important. The Greek had a different moral standard from ours. Alcibiades has been called the typical Greek, for he was handsome, was physicall}^ well developed ; he had a keen mind, and was without moral scruple. The Persians despised the Greeks, because a Greek could always be bought.^ Mile- tus, for example, deserted her neighbors in order that her trade might not suffer when Cyrus marched against her. No Spartan was a coward, but every Spartan was taught to steal, the immorality of the act consisting solely in being caught, as with some modern people, in high finance or low. In comparing the modern Greek with the ancient Greek, one very high authority says there is little difference.^ 1 The Greeks talked smoothly, and appeared honest, yet all the time they could be bribed at slight expens^e. Even the oracle at Delphi gave answers that were more favorable, if the suppliant came with gifts. 2 Mahaffy, What have the Greeks done for Modern Civilization? SOCIAL LIFE 185 " There is the same cleverness, not without a special delight in overreaching an opponent ; the same diligence, the same patriotism, but the same undying jealousy of the success of others, the same want of spirituality in religion, the same light esteem for veracity." 233. The Life of the Greeks. — As we have been accustomed to consider the Greeks a " classical " people who were superior to all others, we forget sometimes that Greece was not a paradise and that all Greeks were not statesmen and philosophers. In fact, Greece was a barren country, and Greek people lived in i:)overty, lacking much of what we might call " material civil- ization." That does not mean that they were less civil- ized than Ave, it may mean exactly the opposite, for civilization consists not in the things that man hath, but is in himself, in his appreciation of what is worth while and his ability to dispense with material comforts. Let us consider for a moment some of the things that we have of which the Greeks knew nothing. "It is easy to think away railways and telegraphs and gas works and tea and advertisements and bananas. But we must peel off more than this. We must imagine houses without drains, beds without sheets or springs, rooms as cold, or as hot, as the open air, and draughtier, meals that began and ended with pudding, and cities that could boast neither gentry nor millionaires. We must learn to tell time without watches, to cross rivers without bridges, and seas without a compass, to fasten our clothes (or rather two pieces of cloth) with two pins instead of a row of buttons, to wear our shoes or sandals without stockings, to warm ourselves over a pot of ashes, to judge open- air plays, or lawsuits on a cold winter's morning, to study poetry without books, geography without maps, and politics without newspapers. In a word, we must learn how to be civilized with- out being comfortable." ^ Mahaffy's comparison of the ancient and modern Greek. Some dif- ferences between Greek life and civil- ization and our own. Zimmern's comparison of ancient and modern times. ' Zimmern, The Greek Commonwealth, p. 209. 186 GrKKli/GK Government Importance of the city- state in Greek histon-. City-states united in leagues ; never in a nation. Importance of citizen- ship and of ch-il rights. 234. The City-State. — The Greeks never had a national government, even for all of Greece proper. As we have already noticed (§ 120) there were many areas in Greece, each of which was organized as a single city-state. These city-states were the important political units in Greece, for all communities within the boundaries of the city-state were subordinate to the city-state. Every person living within these boundaries was either a citizen of the city- state or a subject. In an early period the citizens were those who were bound closely together by ties of religion and blood. They alone had any possible share in the government, even in the democracies. In Greek history the need of union was met by the for- mation at first of amphictyonies and later of political leagues such as the Peloponnesian League, the Delian League, the leagues broken up by Sparta (§ 194), and the Achsean and ^tolian leagues. The city-states main- tained their independence and equality in these leagues. 235. Importance of Citizenship. — It does not mean very much to us, perhaps, to say that we are citizens of the United States because we were born here or because our parents have been naturalized in the United States. Yet it is just as important for a man to be a member or a citi- zen of a nation as it is? for a child to be a member of a home. The man who is a citizen is looked after and cared for by the government (the state). His life and property are protected. His right to buy property, to do business, to care for his family, is upheld by the government. Such rights are called civil rights. If he travels abroad, the government sees that he is not molested. If he de- cides to live abroad, he can appeal to his old government for protection at any time until he becomes a citizen of some other country. GOVERNMENT 187 If he has the right to take part in the work of govern- ing his city, his county, his state and his nation, he has, in addition to the ordinary rights of citizenship which all of us have, the privileges of voting and of holding office. Sometimes we think that these political privileges are the chief rights of citizenship, but they are not, for living and getting a living are more important than voting. 236. Development of the Greek Idea of Citizenship. — So long as any people are ruled arbitrarih^ by kings, they are subjects, not citizens. But, as soon as certain rights and privileges are recognized as belonging to them, they really are members of the nation to w^iich they belong, whether they are ruled by a king or a group of men. They deserve then to be called citizens. In most of the Greek city-states, a man was a citizen of his city, but of nothing else.^ In Athens, however, Athenian citizenship was extended first to all the people of Attica, then to Athenian colonists and finally to all adult free male residents of Attica. In the Achaean league a citizen of any city in the league was allowed all of the rights and privileges of citizens in any other city. A citizen of one city might move to another and become a I'olitical privileges are some- times added to civil rights. Difference between a subject and a citizen. Athens and the Achaean League developed on a small scale the modern idea of citizenship. 1 However, in Athens there were three important changes. (1) In a very- early day, Athens, which was the largest city of the peninsula of Attica, allowed all of the inhabitants of Attica who were not foreigners or slaves to become Athenian citizens. This was a very important change, for it carried the idea that citizens need not live in the city. (2) During the Athenian empire, Athens founded colonies, especially on the shores of the north ^gean and the Black Seas. The inhabitants of these colonies retained their Athenian citizenship, so that they might return at any time to Athens. No other Greek colonists (§ 141) could do this, for they had lost their citizenship in their native city, when they set out as colonists. (3) During the Hellenistic period, when Macedonian agents really ruled Athens and citizenship did not mean so much, Athens gave citizenship to all who came to Attica, except slaves. This is quite like our modern idea of citizenship, that is, that citizenship belongs primarily to those born in the country, but that it shall be given also to those that make that country their home. 188 grp:ece Four stages in Greek political develop- ment. Importance of written law. Extent of Greek democracy. Importance of Greek democracy. citizen of the st'coiul city. This wjis an intcr-citij ciiizen- iihip, which showed that national citizenshij) could be de- veloped as it was developed afterward by the Romans. All civilized countries of the present time have national citizen- ship, which they owe in great part to the Greeks. 237. The Development of Greek Government. — As we noticed at the beginning of the study of Greece, the Greek cities which developed most passed through four successive stages of government, monarchy, aristocracy, tyranny and democracy. Some of them remained aristo- cratic almost to the end ; others, especially those of cen- tral Greece and the islands of the ^Egean, were demo- cratic. 238. Aristocracy and Democracy. — Aristocracy may seem very much better than monarchy, because it sub- stituted the rule of several for the rule of one. But aristocracy is not a step upward if the aristocracy rules selfishly and unjustly. The people in Greek and Roman aristocracies were usually obliged to demand that the laws be written, so that the leaders could not make such laws as they pleased at any time and apply them or not, as they wished. Nearly one-half of the Greek cities were democracies. In some of the dependencies of Athens, of course, a demo- cratic form of government was adopted because Athens wished it, and it was the popular thing to copy Athens. We have already noticed the character of this democracy (§§ 183, 184). Since the assemblies proved that localities could govern themselves through their own assemblies, councils and magistrates, we owe a great debt, especially to Athens, for the democratic government of Greek cities. We owe to the Greeks also the development of the idea of the league, a union of self-governing states. LITERATURE 189 Literature 239. Character of Greek Literature. — The Greeks thought clearly and directly. They expressed themselves with a simplicity and an exactness that has never been excelled, and has never even been equalled, except, per- haps, in modern times by the French. The Greek lan- guage was wonderfully adapted to express shades of mean- ing, so that the Greeks delighted in what we may call '' hair-splitting arguments." Their fondness for fine distinctions often led them into the most elaborate dis- courses on subjects that were in themselves not worth while. In short, they often wrote and spoke chiefly for the sake of writing and speaking rather than for the purpose of explaining the subject under consideration. This was especially true in the later Golden Age and in the earlier Hellenistic period. 240. Homer and Hesiod. — The earliest writers used poetry rather than prose for the expression of their thought. Homer was perhaps the earliest of these. The great epic poems attributed to Homer were the Iliad and the Odyssey (§§ 128, 129). Of Homer himself we know nothing. Tradition says he was blind and the poet says of him : "Seven cities warred for Homer being dead, Who living had no roofe to shroud his head." Another early poet was Hesiod, who wrote, not of war and of kings, but of toil and of farmers. His Works and Days is his best-known poem. 241. The Lyric Poets. — After Homer and Hesiod most of the poems were shorter and were written to be sung, and accompanied by the lyre. They are therefore called lyric poems. The most famous of the lyric poets were Sap'pho, a brilliant woman of the Asia Minor coast, and Pin'dar, whose lyric poems were most admired in the Clearness, exactness and elabo- rateness of Greek writing. Early epic poetry. Homer and Hesiod. Lyric poetry. Sappho and Pindar. 190 GREECE Early de- velopment of the drama at Athens. contests at the Olympic games and other festivals in the period of the Persian Wars. 242. Athenian Tragedy. — The drama was essentially an Athenian product. From an early day choruses had sung at the festivals. At the festival of Di-o-nys'i-us at Athens, one of the chief events of the year, Thes'pis added to the chorus a single actor who appeared in several parts. More characters were introduced by the later dramatists and the drama became a fine art, but tragedians are still Masks for Tragedy. The ear- liest great tragic poet. zEschylus. Sophocles the suc- cessor of ^schylus. called Thespians after the Greek poet who was the father of tragedy. The earliest of the great trio of Athenian writers of tragedy, Ms'chij-lus, first won distinction at the time of the Persian Wars. His first great tragedy was called the Per- sians, for he had fought at Salamis and his drama gives us a stirring picture of that naval struggle. His Pro-me'theus Bound brings out more clearly the style in which he wrote, for he was ver\' much in earnest. 243. Later Athenian Writers of Tragedy. — Sophocles defeated ^schjdus in the Di-o-nys'i-a (the festival of Dionysius) (468 b.c), and the younger man became rapidly the most prominent of the Athenian dramatists. His style is lighter and his plays are more artistic than those of ^schylus. He makes more of the moral inter- est in the development of his themes. His An'tig'o-ne and his (Ed'i-pu^ Ty-ran'nus may be given as examples of his tragedies. LITERATURE 191 Later than Sophocles was Eu-rip'i-des, who wrote Euripides, during the last years of the Golden Age of Pericles and the Peloponnesian War. Euripides was more human than either of his predecessors. His plays were written with Greek Theatre. DiMK.COGBeS- / fONfilkS TO / THE St3»U$ WAOitefiN Alb NO* usaroe we 3flwc BKXMe w,Km^ ^ j/eisrraNTiortoPtKB ' \ wsKTtt T/fflaro. ur-it or sn^ JliTKESriSSKI Roman Theatre. the idea of making a strong appeal to the audience and were on this account extremely popular. Perhaps his Me-de'a and his two Iiph-i-ge-ni' a plays may serve as examples of his tragedies. 244. Early Comedy in Athens. — Athens was not only the home of the great tragedians. It was the home of 102 GREECE Develop- ment of the old comedy. Aristoph- anes. The world influence of the new Greek comedj'. Herodotus, the stor>'- teller. comedy as well. Soon after the palmy days of Euripides, Ar-is-toph'a'nes began to write for the Athenian public. For a long time tragedy had been gradually growing more " popular," that is, lighter and with a stronger popular appeal, but at the same time Athenians had been becom- ing interested in something still lighter, comedy. Aris- tophanes was the greatest writer of comedy in ancient times. He caricatured the people and affairs of Athens, making sport of pompous statesmen and philosophers of his own day. In his Clouds he makes fun of the Sophists. In his Wasps he satirizes the jurymen. His Birds and his Frogs caricature other phases of Athenian life. 245. The " New Comedy " of Hellenistic Athens. — After the time of Alexander there arose in Athens what was called the New Comedy, which was more like a modern play with a plot. Me-nan'der was the chief of the drama- tists of the new comedy. His plays are coarse and his plots have little variety, but his plays were '' alive." The new comedy was copied in Alexandria and in Rome and has had a greater direct influence on later drama than the dramas of Menander's predecessors, whose plays were much finer literature than were his. 246. Fifth Century Historians. — The Greeks have left us some of the finest and some of the most interesting examples of historical literature. All of us have read with interest those classics of Herodotus describing the famous stand at Thermopylae and the Greek victory at Salamis. Herodotus justly deserves to be called the '' father of history." As a story-teller he is without a peer and he makes his scenes live before us. Herodotus travelled widely and he describes accurately what he saw. He accepts too credulously what he heard, but, if we discount his proneness to exaggeration, we find him a good guide to the Greece of the Persian Wars and an in- LITERATURE 193 teresting if untrustworthy guide to the story of earlier nations. Thu'Cyd'i-des, who left us an account of the Pelopon- Thucydides, nedan Wars, was the opposite of Herodotus. He was a J!l® ^"^^^" careful, painstaking scholar who examined and weighed torian. all of his materials as carefull}^ as the most accurate, mod- ern scientific historian. Thucydides wrote in clear, choice Greek that it is a pleasure to read. 247. Later Historians and Biographers. — The story Xenophon of Greece is continued by Xen'o-phon, who is best kno^^Tl ?^^ Polyb- by his vivid narrative of the March of the Ten Thousand (the A-nab'a-sis, § 195), in which Xenophon took an important part. The story of Roman conquest is told by Po-lyb'i-us, a statesman, and later a captive in Rome, whose History gives us a good account of the downfall of Greece. Two centuries after Polybius, in a little town of central Plutarch's Greece, a man named PluHarch lived a very secluded life, ^^^^^" devoting himself to the writing of Parallel Lives of the great men of ancient times. So charming are these biog- raphies of Plutarch that it has been said truly, he wrote parallel lives, but his Lives were without a parallel. 248. Greek Oratory. — In the life of the Greeks oratory Oratorj^ was certainly more important than history, and probably ^^^ ^ ^*V^^ ^ ^ -^ ' ^ "^ of correct, more important than the drama. All the Greeks, with elegant and the exception of the Spartans, loved to talk, and they ^^''^^^^^ studied the subject carefully, so that they might speak pression of well. They studied grammar and rhetoric as well as per- ^^o^sht. suasion and literary style, for they rightly deemed the correct and elegant oral expression of their thoughts one of the most important points in their education. Few of the Greeks carried oral speaking to the point that it was brought by the Athenians. The Athenians insisted that men should take some part in the assembh' and that any one brought before a court should defend himself in 194 GREECE Demos- thenes the typical and the greatest Greek orator. person. In Athens therefore we find, as might be ex- pected, the best of the orators. 249. Demosthenes. — One name must suffice for our study. That of course is the Athenian statesman Demos- thenes, who stood up for " state's rights " against the semi- foreign but national leader, Philip of Macedon. These orations, as we know, were called Philippics. Whether he was right or wrong in his politics, Demosthenes was undoubtedly the greatest orator of the Greeks. He proved that in the way he held Athens firm in her opposi- tion io the successes of Philip. When his friends sug- gested that he be offered a crown of gold, he made his last and perhaps his greatest speech, On the Crown, in his argument against ^Es^chi-nes. Like so many of the great men of Athens, he died a fugitive and an exile. The Greeks excelled in art. The debt of Greece to Eg>'pt. The three kinds of Greek columns. Greek Art 250. Greek Architecture. — Preeminent as the Greeks were in literature, they WTre even more distinguished in certain forms of art, particularly sculpture. The Par- thenon is still the model of the world's best architecture. No sculptor has excelled Phid'i-as, the friend of Pericles. Greek architecture was undoubtedly influenced by the Egyptians. Like the Egyptians the Greeks made a specialty of temples and they surrounded their temples with columns. Here the resemblance stops. The Egyp- tian columns are heavy and unsightly compared with Greek columns, and the massive Egyptian buildings have none of the grace, symmetry and beauty of the Greek temples. 251. The Three Orders of Greek Architecture. — There are three orders of Greek architecture, distinguished by the capitals at the top of the columns. The earhest and simplest of the orders is called Dor'ic. The cap is plain and usually square. The next capital developed by the GREEK ART 195 Greeks is in the form of a double scroll and is called I-on'ic. The last, which was used in the Hellenistic period, is much more elaborate and ornate then the earlier, and the capital is made up of acanthus leaves. It is called Co-rin'thi-an. m, §k k k k D O R 1 G I o N The " orders " of Greek Architecture. 252. The Parthenon. — The Par'the-non was built, The most during the Golden Age of Athens, near the centre of the [^^iid^ng^n Acropolis. This marble temple of the patron goddess of the world, the city, Athena, is little more than one hundred feet long. A row of beautiful columns with Doric capitals surrounds the building, with double columns at the ends. The lines of the building are simplicity itself, and the strange thing is that there is scarcely a straight line in it. In order to have the columns look straight they are slightly curved. The floors and the lines of the ceiling are shghtly curved so that they ma}^ not appear to sag. Around the 19G GREECE building below the cornice there was a frieze several feet high which bore, in relief, exquisite sculptures illustrating events in Athenian history, mythical or actual. Some of these were the work of the great Phidias and are among the most spirited of his carvings. A little more than one hundred years ago some of these were taken to the British Museum by Lord EFgin, the British Minister to Greece, The Parthenon, Present Condition. The Erech- theum, of the Acrop- oHs. who feared that they might be destroyed. They are therefore called the Elgin marbles. Other fine carvings adorned the pediments at the ends of the building. In the interior was the famous colossal ivory and gold statue of Athena by Phidias, which ranked with his still larger Olympian Zeus in popular renown. 253. Other Greek Buildings. — Close by the Parthenon is another temple called the Er-ech-the'um. It is a build- ing of irregular shape with a very famous porch called the porch of the maidens (Car-y-a'tids). The roof of this GREEK ART 197 porch is supported by figures of maidens, exceedingly graceful and beautifully carved. On the opposite side of the Parthenon, cut into the side hill, is the theatre of Dionysius, one of the most famous of the Greek amphitheatres. This was not constructed in marble until the time of Alexander the Great. Olympia, the city in which the Olympic contests were held, was famous not only for the huge statue by Phidias (the Olympian Zeus) but for the temples, colonnades and other structures. Outside of Greece there were many famous buildings, as the temple at Pse'stum in Italy and the temple of Diana at Ephesus. The massive architecture at Pergamum has already been mentioned. 254. Athenian Sculp- ture. — If we go back to Cretan and Myce- neandays (§§124-126), we find that the Greek people were always ar- tistic. Their statues are alive and graceful, not stiff and conventional, like those of oriental peoples. It was not until the time of the Persian Wars, however, that Greek sculpture attained the promise shown in these prehis- toric carvings and paint- ings. The first of the great sculptors was My'ron, who is best known by his discus thrower (Dis- cob'o-lus). We have only a copy of this statue ; in fact, A Greek amphi- theatre. The public; buildings at Olympia. Famous buildings outside of Greece. Greek art a develop- ment of Cretan and Mycenean art. Myron's Discobolus. 198 GREECE Three Fates. we have nothing but copies of most of the famous Greek statues. The work 255. The Two Greatest Sculptors. — The Olympian Phidias^^^^ Zews of Phidias, sixty feet high, and his colossal Athena Hermes, by Praxiteles. are among the lost treasures of Greek art. We have copies of the Athena but we have none of the Zeus, which the GREEK ART 199 Greeks considered one of the wonders of the world. Phid- ias' figures on the Parthenon frieze are about the only specimens of his work that have come down to us, but his skill can be judged by his great fame among a people which produced many famous sculptors. A century after Phidias came Prax-it'e-les, whose fame Praxiteles, is little less than that of Phidias. One of the best of his statues that we have is his Her'mes. Sarcophagus of the King of Sidon. 256. General Character of Hellenistic Art. — In general General Hellenic art is simple and dignified, while Hellenistic art ^" jj^ n"n is ornate and elaborate. Because beauty unadorned is istic art. adorned the most, the art of the Golden Age is considered superior to the later art. Yet the fame of the statues of the earlier period is partly due to the fact that they were better advertised, for the Hellenistic Age has left us the finest examples of Greek art that we have, aside from a few specimens from Athens. We do not know the names of any of the sculptors of these masterpieces of the later age. 200 GREECE Four fa- mous speci- mens of Hellenistic art. The color- ing of the marbles. Character of Greek painting. 257. Examples of Later Greek Art. — The Sar-coph'a- gus of the king of Sidon is covered with roHefs that are almost worthy of a place })eside those of the Parthenon frieze. Belonging to the same period is the statue of the Winged Victory of Sa'mo'thrace, whose grace, action and charm make it per- haps the most fa- mous statue in the world. Somewhat later is the A-poVlo Bel-vi-dere, and still later the famous Ve7ius de Mi'lo, which makes a popular ap- ]:)eal only a Httle less strong than that of the Winged Victory. 258. Greek Paint- ing. — We must not think of the marble statues and buildings of the Greeks as be- ing pure white. The Greeks painted all of their marbles, not in one color but in many. In doing this they followed the custom of the Egyptians and other oriental people, the Egjq^tians using yellow to designate a woman and red a statue or relief of a man. Greek painting undoubtedly showed the same active graceful figures that the reliefs htve preserved to us, but of course most of the paintings have perished. The natu- ralness of Greek painting i*? illustrated by the well-known story of the contest between Zeux'is and Par-rha'si-us. Apollo iiclviderc GREEK ART 201 One of them painted grapes so skilfully that the birds were attracted to them. The other had a picture covered with a veil. When asked to draw aside tbe veil, he asked his rival to do so, and, behold, the veil was the picture ! Winged Victory of Samothrace. Venus de Milo. Intellectual Science 259. Early Philosophers. — Combine intellectual ac- Conditions tivity, a fondness for fine distinctions and a language ^J™^ that conveys very exactly shades of thought, and we are phUosophy. almost certain to have philosophers and schools of phi- losophy. In Greece, therefore, philosophy was well de- veloped. Before the Persian Wars a few bold thinkers had proclaimed their theories of the universe and of life. Among these we should remember Thales and Pythagoras (§§ 265, 266). ^ 202 GREECfij The Sophists. Methods and high moral tone of Soerates" teachinjis. Trial and death of Socrates. The first promiiu'iit school of philosophers, however, was that of the Soph/ists. The Sophists were not intel- lectual giants, but were keen students of life and teachers of the best ways to express one's thoughts. They were so intent on establishing their arguments that tliey degen- erated into mere arguers, so that the name sophistry is applied to argument that sounds well, l)ut is not valid. 260. Socrates. — A student of the Sophists was Soc'ra- tes, a younger contemporary of Pericles. Socrates was an exceedingly homely man, rather untidy in dress, who spent most of his time in the streets. He had a passion for the truth, and he sought to learn the truth by question- ing his hearers and his opponents. This process of ob- taining a knowl- edge of truth by questioning is called the So-crat'ic method. Socrates was a man of un- usual moderation and wisdom who found the end of exist- ence to be VIRTUE ; piety, justice, courage and temperance being four important forms of virtue. In other words, his was a practical philosophy. His own virtue and the high standard of life that he set forth did not save him from the enmity and jealousy of those in power in Athens after the close of the Pelopon- nesian War. His ruthless questioning had exposed the ignorance, the selfishness and the dishonesty of too many people. He was therefore a dangerous man. He was Socrates. INTELLECTUAL SCIENCE 203 accused of crime because he did not worship the Greek gods, his enemies charging him with corrupting youth. He was tried before a popular court, and, as he had ridi- culed popular government, he was condemned to death. He had refused to take his trial seriously, suggesting that the state punish him by supporting him for life. When the day arrived which had been set for his death, he calmly drank the cup of hemlock poison, after bidding farewell to the friends with whom he had been discussing questions of philosophy. 261. Plato. — Socrates did not write nor did he de- The ideai- velop a system of philosophy. His ablest pupil, Pla'to, j^*^^ ^^ ^ did both. Plato's philosophy is a philosophy of ideas, piato/ He thought that ideas, not material objects, are the things that actually exist. A man that sees only the objects of the material world, he likened to a man who gropes blindly in a cave. When he sees that ideas are real, and that material things are but shadows of ideas, he comes out into the clear sunlight. Plato's idea of the state, as shown in the most famous of his Dialogues, the Republic, was this: the state is the idea of Justice ''writ large." His idea was that the government should rule justly and should try to secure justice before all else. Plato did most of his teaching in a building called the Academy. 262. Aristotle. — Ar-is-tot'le was much younger than Aristotle Plato. He did not write in the finished style that Plato H^lf^^^ used and he did not favor Plato's philosophy of ideas, knowledge Aristotle was an exceedingly practical man, with an al- ^^ ^^^ ^^"^^• most limitless amount of knowledge which he organized in systems. With the help of his assistants he wrote treatises on almost every subject, gathering together and organiz- ing into systems or sciences all of his vast amount of knowledge. He was equally at home in an abstruse sub- ject like philosophy, or in a mental science like logic, or in practical subjects such as poUtics, ethics and natural 204 CREEOR Stoicism and its high moral standard. Epicurus' doctrine of happiness degenerates into a pursuit of pleasure. history. Some ot his best work in natural historj^ grew out of the material which his former pupil Alexander sent him from the East. Because Aristotle gathered and or- ganized so much of the knowledge and methods of his age, which was one of the most intellectual in all history, he was widely studied by the people of western Europe in the Middle Ages. 263. Later Philosophers. — Philosophers after Aristotle were less distinguished than the three great men of the Hellenic period. Two of these Hellenistic philosophers deserve mention because they founded schools that were of great importance in later history. One of these was Ze'no, the Stoic. Zeno was a pupil of Diogenes, the Cynic. Di-og'e-nes is famous as the man who lived in a barrel, who told Alexander to stand out of his sunshine and who went about in the daytime with a lantern, hunting for an honest man. The Stoics believed that the world was ruled by a Supreme Being whom men should worship by the cultivation of virtue. They believed in self-denial, in moral growth, and in i*ndifference to suffering, to luxury and to the world about them. The Stoics were not true Greeks and Stoicism never gained a real foothold in Greece, but it made a very strong appeal to Greeks in Asia Minor and to the Romans, as we shall see. The other Hellenistic philosophy was that of Epicurus. Ep-i-cu'rus taught that men should be good if they were to be happy. Happiness was therefore the chief end of existence. To many of his followers happiness meant simply pleasure, and they brought Epicurus into disrepute because they practised the motto, '* Eat, drink and be merry, for to-morrow we die." 264. Science in Egypt, Babylonia and Greece. — Be- fore the time of the Greeks there had been some science. The science of the Egyptians and the Babjdonians was a queer mixture of theory, fact and superstition. Their INTELLECTUAL SCIENCE 205 early astronomical observations were really remarkable, Science but they did not make much progress later. The Egyp- ^®^°^^ *^® tian geometry was crude, and used chiefly for the measure- among the ment of lands. The Babylonian mathematics was used Egj-ptians almost exclusively in business. The Greeks were the great Babylo- scientists before the nineteenth century. mans. 265. Pure and Applied Mathematics among the Greeks. Arithmetic — The Greeks never developed arithmetic very far, for q"^°^^ arithmetic is a practical subject, and the early Greek scientists were philosophers, rather than men of affairs. As they did not have our system of figures, they used count- ing boards almost exclusively, in reckoning numbers. Geometry was fully developed by the Greeks, for the Extraor- Greeks excelled in both theory and logic, which geometry (^g^^g^Qp. combines. The elements of geometry were developed ment of by early philosophers, especially Py-thaxj'o-ras, but were ^^°"^® ^^'• not organized into a complete science until the time of Eu'clid, an Alexandrian mathematician, who lived soon after the time of Alexander. Euclid's geometry has been in use as a text-book within the memory of people who are living to-day. Plane and spherical trig-o-nom' e-try were studied and other left well developed by the Greeks. As-tro-nom'i-cal mathe- "^^^he- ^ "^ ^ matical matics was employed for the study of the heavenly bodies, sciences Ar-chi-me'des of Syracuse made a specialty of applied aj^<^ /^p- mathematics. He made many machines which used the mathe- lever and the multiple pulley. He is said to have asserted ^^^^^s. that if he could find a resting place for his lever he could move the earth. Our present science of physics owes a great deal to Archimedes and to some of his successors. 266. Astronomy and Geography. — The astronomical The great knowledge of the other ancients looks childish compared J^Qj-eek^^ with the attainments of the Greeks. A century before scholars, the Persian Wars Tha'les was predicting eclipses, something that the older peoples had never attempted. Soon after. 20() GrREciCrj Greek measure- ments of earth and sun. Natural science under Aristotle. Medical progress. Pythagoras and his toUowers maintained that the earth was a sphere, and liad motion. One later philosopher showed that it revolved around the sun. Unfortunately Aristotle rejected the idea that the earth has motion, and scholars for two thousand years accepted his error. Unfortunately also a geographer, Ptol'e-my, who lived in the second century after Christ, taught that the sun revolves around the earth, and this error, called the Ptol-e-ma'ic system, was believed generally until the time of Christopher Colum])us. Not only did the Greeks prove that the earth is round, ])ut one of the great Alexandrian scholars, Er-a-tos'the-nes, measured the size of the earth. ^ He estimated the cir- cumference of the earth as 28,000 miles, a remarkably accurate estimate under the circumstances. A later scholar determined the size of the sun compared with that of the earth. 267. Other Sciences among the Greeks. — If Aristotle was wrong about the motion of the earth, he did a great deal for many sciences. His classification of animals has come down almost to our own time as the basis of the science of zo-oVo-gy. One of his pupils made great progress in the study of bot'a-ny. The Greeks were intensely interested in the human body. They thought too much of it to dissect it, but they were quite well acquainted with its anatomy. One Greek, Hip-poc'ra-tes, the father of medicine, studied the laws of health and the laws of disease. He abandoned super- stition absolutely, in his study of medicine, for he be- lieved that diseases followed natural laws and were not due to evil spirits. We can see from this brief survey of Greek science how ^ Eratosthenes' method was a combination of two processes. He examined the length of shadows at the two solstices and he measured angles at two points in Egypt 5000 stadia apart. SPREAD OF HELLENISM 207 much we owe to the Greeks. For ten centuries after their Our debt time the western world added practically nothing to the ^ *\® scientific attamments of the Greeks. science is very great. Spread of Hellenism 268. Eastward Spread of Hellenism. — If this attrac- The east- tive culture and fine civilization had beeun and ended ^^^ Medi- ^ terranean with the Greeks, we should find it interesting but not was a Greek important. No other civilization has been spread more "^o^^^; . ^ _ ^ combining widely. With the conquests of Alexander Greek culture Greek and and learning were carried by him and his successors oriental ^ ^ civihza- (§§ 206, 209) to all parts of the eastern Mediterranean tions. basin and to some extent into Asia. When we consider the character of the civilization of Pergamum, of Rhodes, of Antioch and of Alexandria in the Hellenistic Age, we must realize that at least the cities of the eastern Mediter- ranean coast were Greek rather than oriental. When we observe that Greek was the language of the eastern Medi- terranean basin, that a Greek philosophy, Sto'i-cism, was the religion of southern Asia Minor and that it prepared the way for Christianity among the " gentiles," we can understand perhaps how important to the world was the spread of Hellenism over the eastern Mediterranean basin. 269. Western Greek Civilization before the ''Fall" of The Greek Greece. — It is very easy to forget that the peninsula Xded^the of Greece was only one of the homes of the Greeks. The western Greeks have been identified so long simply with the pe- '^^^ ^" ninsula of Greece and the Greeks proper have been studied so much from the standpoint of Athens, that the Greeks of the West have been overlooked. What has been said in this chapter of the Greeks applies not only to the Athe- nians but to the western as well as the Asiatic and the penin- sular Greeks. As we noticed, these western cities were 208 GREECE The west- ern Greeks carried Greek civilization to Italy and the West. Greek treasures and Greek slaves in Rome. Rome learned from Alex- andria science, literature, religion. famous for their laws, their governments and their material development. These western Greek cities wvro not only centres of Greek culture and learning in the West. They carried Greek civihzation to their neighbors. The E-trus'cans (§ 283) borrowed the Greek alphabet and many other Greek ideas, probably getting most of them from Cumse. The Romans learned from the Etruscans and also from the western Greek cities which they conquered, or with which they were allied. 270. Influence of Rome's Conquests of Greece upon Rome. — ^lost of the Greek culture of Rome and the western Roman world came after the conquest of Greece in 146 B.C. It came from two sources, Greece itself and Alexandria. Even before the final conquest of Greece an immense amount of Greek treasure was carried to Rome as booty by soldiers and commanders. Even the upright iE-mil'i-us PauFus carried away 250 wagons of paintings and statues. When Corinth was destroyed in 146 b.c, Greece was made into a Roman dependency (§ 323), a much greater amount of booty was taken to the western capital and tens of thousands of educated Greeks were taken to Rome as captives. As Morey well says, Greek culture " was borne into Asia on the chariot of a conqueror, while it was brought into Italy in the chains of a captive.^' These educated Greek slaves and thousands of free Greeks who voluntarily emigrated to Rome taught the Romans Greek ways, so that it became the fashion to do every- thing as the Greeks did them, from the fastening of a cloak to the writing of a poem or the building of a temple. 271. Greek Culture in the Roman Empire. — Even more Greek influence was exerted upon Rome by Alex- andria, for Alexandria was the greatest centre of Greek learning at this time. Roman writers imitated the second rate Alexandrian literature. Rome borrowed from Alex- SPREAD OF HELLENISM 209 andria Greek culture, religions half Greek and half Egyp- tian, and a luxury that was really oriental. The Romans were not an intellectual people and their intellectual at- tainments, in philosophy, science and the principles of equity, were really Greek. The western Mediterranean was never a Greek world The minor like the eastern. It was too practical and too uncultured ^y^Qreek^^ ever to absorb the spirit of Greek culture. So the western culture in Mediterranean remained a Roman world, but a Roman * ^ ^^^" world in which Greek philosophy, Greek literature and Greek ideas played an important part. 272. Greek in the Middle Ages. — Greek influence How Greek reached the western Europe of the Middle Ages ^"^^""^'^f through three channels; (1) through the Romans whose the West civilization was borrowed by the Germans and survived ^^mTand in many forms ; (2) through the eastern Roman empire. Constan- Constantinople kept alive the learning of the Greek world, t^'^op^®- for her libraries and schools were famous. (3) The Middle Ages learned more through the Mos'lems The spread who conquered Egypt, the south shore of the Mediterra- f^J^^^^^^^j^ nean, Sicily and Spain during the seventh century after developed Christ. Like all Semitic peoples, these Arabs were skilled ^^gj^gj^^g at taking the civilization of another people and using it to Sicily to good advantage. The Moslems borrowed Greek learn- ^^^ ^p^^^- ing, and they, added to it algebra, chemistry and other sciences. Through their schools in Spain and Sicily western Europe in the Middle Ages learned these subjects, and became interested in Aristotle. Aristotle was studied with so much zeal and so little discretion that the scho- las'ti-cism of the Middle Ages, which was connected with the study of Aristotle, was a rather dry and profitless kind of learning. 273. Greek Influence in Later History. — In the later Middle Ages, the Turks invaded the eastern Roman empire and threatened the capture of Constantinople. 210 GREECE Spread of Greek learning by scholars from the East (loth centur>-) . Study of the Greek language and Greek culture in modern times. Great numbers of scholars, carrying manuscripts, went to western Europe, especially Italy, where they taught in the universities. They interested people in the Greek manuscripts and in Greek "science. The idea that the earth was round was revived, so that Christopher Co- lumbus dared to make a voyage into the western seas in search of the Indies. A passion for the study of Greek revived in this period, known as the Renaissance. The study of Greek literature and philosophy will be pursued as long as there is higher education. The study of these subjects in the original Greek may not be pursued so faithfully, for the Greek language does not have the place in our high school curricula that it had two genera- tions ago, or even one generation ago. We do not need a knowledge of the Greek language, however, to show us how much we owe to the Greeks, for it njust be clear to every one who has read this chapter that the Greeks were the great teachers to the world of art and the intellectual sciences. General References Duruy, History of Greece, IV. Myers, Ancient History, 294-348. Morey, Outlines of Greek History, 149-164, 193-262, 287-298, 320-333, 346-354. Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens. Gulick, The Life of the Ancient Greeks. Zimmern, The Greek Commonwealth. Mahaffy, What have the Greeks done for Modern Civilization? Whihley (ed.), A Companion to Greek Studies. Topics The Governmen't of Athens : West, Ancient World, revised, 201-207; Whibley (ed.). Companion to Greek Studies, 360-368; Wilson, The State, 64-89 ; Ferguson, Greek Imperialism, 49-65. The Sculptures of the Parthenon : Tarbell, History of Greek Art, 190-199; Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archeology, 237-245; Weller, Athens and Its Monuments, 283-302. SPREAD OF HELLENISM 211 Socrates : Fling, Source Book of Greek History, 240-250 ; Cotterill, Ancient Greece, 371-382 ; Murray, Ancient Greek Literature, 170-177. Studies 1. Slavery in Greece. Whibley (ed.), Companion to Greek Studies, 416-422. 2. Greek clothing. Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks, 153- 162. 3. Pictures of Greek school life. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 251-257. 4. Marriage and the home among the Greeks. Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks, 119-126. 5. Religions, prophecy and mysteries. Whibley (ed.), Com- panion of Greek Studies, 339-345. 6. A meeting of the Athenian assembly. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, I, 234-237. 7. ^schylus, "The Persians." Fling, Source Book of Greek History, 122-126. 8. Selections from Aristophanes. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 196-202. 9. Polybius on the end of Greek freedom. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 389-394. 10. Demosthenes. "On the Crown." 11. The Greek theatre. Whibley (ed.), Companion of Greek Studies, 332-339. 12. Stories of Socrates. Davis, Readings in Ancient His- tory, I, 240-245. 13. Aristotle. Williams, Every Day Science, I, 182-188. 14. Alexandrian science. Williams, Every Day Science, I, 189-194, 225-233. 15. Phidias and the Parthenon. Reinach, Apollo, 47-55. 16. The Parthenon. Weller, Athens and Its Monuments, 270-283. 17. Hellenistic and Roman agora of Athens. Weller, Athens and Its Monuments, 130-149. 18. Hellenistic sculpture. Fowler and Wheeler, Handbook of Greek Archeology, 274-292. 19. Spread of Greek culture. Morey, Outlines of Greek His- tory, 320-323, 346-353. 20. Commerce and industry among the Greeks. Whibley (ed.), Companion to Greek Studies, 428-433. 212 GREECE Questions 1. Name the three classes of people living in Greece, and show what privileges or disabilities each had. 2. Were women freer in early primitive communities than they were in highly developed societies like those of Babylonia and Greece ? If so, how do you account for that fact ? 3. What is the object of education ? Did the Greek educa- tion serve to prepare the children for life ? Was it one-sided ? Was it interesting ? Was it practical ? 4. Tell about sacrifices among the Greeks. Were the Greeks a religious people ? How were their moral standards different from our own ? Were they more or less civilized than we are ? 5. What is a state ? a government ? an aristocracy ? a democ- racy ? a citizen ? a subject ? What are civil rights ? political privileges ? codes of laws ? 6. Did small citj^-states favor democracy or monarchy ? Were the Greeks more or less self-governing than the American people ? 7. Name the four successive forms of Greek city-state govern- ment. Name the four successive steps in the development of the Greek idea of citizenship. 8. In what did the excellence of Greek literature consist ? Name two early poets, two dramatists and two' historians, giv- ing the name of an important work of each. 9. What philosopher discovered truth by questioning ? What two philosophers founded important religions ? Who was the great philosopher of ideas ? Who was the most learned phi- losopher and scientist of the ancient world ? What city was most famous for its science in the Hellenistic period ? 10. What debt do we owe to the Greeks in government ? in science ? in art ? 11. What is the Parthenon? Name two Greek sculptors of the Hellenic period; three famous statues of the Hellenistic period ; three famous Greek buildings outside of Athens. 12. When and how was Greek culture extended to the eastern Mediterranean coasts ? to Sicily and southern Italy ? to Rome? to western Europe? 13. Point out at least two radical differences between the so- cial classes of Greece and those of the United States. 14. What privileges and responsibilities have American women that were not possessed by the women of Greece? SPREAD OF HELLENISM 213 15. Compare the education of a Greek boy or girl with that of boys and girls in your school. 16. In modern life what takes the place of the sacrifices of the Greeks? 17. What is a pure democracy ? Does pure democracy exist in the United States ? 18. The life of Socrates has in it much of interest and inspira- tion. What do you know about him? Are you acquainted with Plato's picture of him as given in his Dialogues? 19. What specimens of Greek art do you know at sight ? Wliat do you know about them and which do you like best ? 20. Compare the population of Greece with that of your own state. 21. Compare the area of Greece with that of your own state. 22. A well-known American scholar once said, in speaking of the attainments of the Greeks : " A pigmy standing on the shoul- ders of a giant can see farther than the giant but he remains a pigmy just the same." What do you think he meant? 214 CIREECE Chronological Table The Near East The West Events IN Greek History B.C. 753 (§ 282) Founding 776 First Olympic Assyrian Empire of Rome Contest fiOG Fall of Nineveh 004 Nebuchadnezzar 550 Cyrus, King of Media 538 Cyrus in Babylon 525 Persian Conquest of Eg>'pt 508 Formation of 500 Ionic Revolt against Darius I Persian Wahs 479 Mycale (Battle) 401 March of the Thousand 387 Peace of Antalcidas Ten 333 Issus (battle) 332 Tyre (capture of) 332 Founding of Alexandria 331 Arbela (battle) Empire of Alexander 301 Ipsus (battle) Republic (§284) 494 Secession to Sacred Mount (§286) 480 Himera (battle) (§ 305) 452 Decemviri (§ 288) 445 Revolutions in favor of pleb.s. (§ 289) 415-3 Sicilian expedition I 405 Empire of Diony- sius I of Syracuse (§305) 396 Conquest of Veii (§ 293) 367 Licinian laws (§ 289) 340 Timoleon the liberator (§ 305) Agathocles in Africa 343-272 Conquest of Italy (§ 297) 490 Marathon 480 Thermopylae, Salamis 479 Platsea 445 Thirty Year Peace 431-404 Peloponne- sian War 415 Syracusan expedi- tion 405 ^gospotomi • 404-371 Spartan su- premacy 371-362 Theban supremacy Sacred Wars 338 Cha^ronea (battle) 336-323 Alexander the Great's conquests 323 Death of Alex- ander 301 Division of A's Empire SPREAD OF HELLENISM 215 Chronolo(Jical Table Greek Government Lycurgus Greek Literature Epic poems Homer Hesiod Philosophy, Science AND Art 621 Draco's code 594 Reforms of Solon Peloponnesian League Early tyrants 509 Reforms of Cleisthenes 477 Confederacy of Delos 454 Athenian Empire 610-565 Sappho 338 Macedonian supervision ^schylus Pindar Sophocles Euripides Aristophanes 624-546 Thales Myron The Sophists Phidias The Parthenon Socrates Plato Praxiteles Aristotle Demosthenes 216 GivliiJljCIii Chronological Table (Continued) The Near East The West ^ Events in Greek History Alexandrian Kingdoms 287 Hortensian law (equalization of the orders) (§ 290) 265-241 First Punic War. Sicily, first Roman Province (§311) 217-202 Hannibal — Second Punic War 216 Cannae (battle) Gauls invade Greece (§ 315) 211-205 First Mace- 207 Metaurus (battle) donian War (§ 347) Conquest of Antiochus, 202 Zama (§318) the Great (§ 320) Increase of wealth 200-197 Second and corruption in Macedonian War Humiliation of Rhodes Rome (§ 323- 168 Pydna (§ 319) (§321) 331) 146 Destruction of 146 Destruction of Carthage (§ 322) Corinth (end of 146 Establishment of Greek "inde- Roman supremacy pendence") in the Mediter- ranean (§ 323) ■ SPREAD OF HELLENISM 217 Chronological Table {Continued) Greek Government Greek Literature Philosophy, Science AND Art Menander and the new Sarcophagus of King of comedy Sidon Alexandrian school Euclid 280 Achaean league formed Winged Victory of ^tolian league Samothrace Eratosthenes Apollo Belvidere Venus de Milo B. ROME CHAPTER IX Succession of civiliza- tions. EARLY ROME (TO 264 B.C.) 274. The World Movements of Ancient Times. — Be- fore 500 B.C. the Tigris-Euphrates basin and Egypt were the centres of the greatest movements in world history. For three centuries after 500 B.C. Greece held the centre of the stage. Then Rome came to the front, and, for six centuries, there was very little history unconnected with Rome. Before considering the part played by Rome as a world state (Part III) we must study the geography of Rome and Italy, the Roman people and their rise to the po- sition of the first power in the western Mediterranean. Shape, position and defence of Italy. The western slope of the Ap- ennines. Geography 275. Geography. — Italy is a long narrow peninsula extending south from Europe almost across the centre of the Mediterranean Sea. It is protected from invaders on the north by the high Alps mountains. The northern end of the peninsula is a wide, fertile valley, that of the Po river, which played a surprisingly small part in the history of the ancient world. Italy proper is divided by the Ap' en-nines mountains into a western slope, which is long and narrow, and a southern slope, facing the gulf of Ta-ren'tum. Because of our previous study of " Great Greece " our interest now centres in the western slope of the Apennines. 276. Political Divisions of Italy. — The valley of the Po was called Cis'al'pine Gaul. The rest of the peninsula 218 ^ ITALY V Miles ') 2() 40 Co 60 100 Greek Colon ies \ | Phocniciun Colon ies \ I ^4' 16" is' GEOGRAPHY 219 from the river Rub'i-con south was called Italy in ancient important districts peoples. times. The western slope of the Apennines in the north districts of was known as E-tru'ri-a. The slope south of Etruria and south of the river Tiber was called La'ti-um. South of Latium was Cam-pa'ni-a. Inland from Latium lived the Sahines, and inland from Campania dwelt the Sarnnites. These districts and peoples were historically the most important in the peninsula. 277. The Geography of Rome. — On the western slope Rome and of the Apennines there are a few comparatively small gf^ ^^f ^^" rivers. The largest of these, which is in almost the the Apen- middle of the slope from north to south, is the Ti'her. It ^^°^^- is clear then that this western slope of the Apennines is practically the peninsula of Italy, and that the Tiber valley is the central and commanding valley of that western slope. -About eighteen miles back from the coast on the Tiber Advantages river, there is a ford where the people were in the habit commerce °^ of crossing from the plains south to the hill slopes north and de- of Rome. At this point there are, near the left bank, ®"^^* seven hills, rising out of somewhat swampy valleys. Two of these hills were close to the ford, and were very steep, so that they were easily defended. These are now known as the Cap'i-tol-ine and the Pal'a-tine hills, because the Roman capitol and the palaces of the Cae'sars afterward stood on their heights. This then was Rome, a city of seven hills which could be defended, near a ford which was used as a commercial highway from north to south and back far enough from the coast to afford protection from pirates, yet near enough so that trading vessels might come up the Tiber river. 278. Commanding Position of Rome and Italy in the tion^Umion Mediterranean. — The diverse mountain ridges and was easier numerous peninsulas of Greece kept Greece from develop- ^^an^in ing into a nation. In Italy the western slope of the Apen- Greece. 220 ROME From Italy to the whole Mediter- The quali- ties that made the old Ro- mans suc- cessful. nines, covering most of the peninsula, made national union easy. Greece faced the East and was forced to keep out eastern invaders. Italy faced the newer and less developed West. She was left free to become united before foreign foes pressed upon her, for she was pro- tected by the Apennines on the east and by the Alps on the north. It was natural moreover that Italy should be united by the city that controlled the central valley of the western slope, and, as we have seen, that city was Rome. 279. Steps in the Expansion of Rome. — Once in con- trol of the western slope of the Apennines and of Italy, Rome naturally reached out to Sicily. Holding Italy and Sicily, her commanding position at the centre of the Mediterranean gave her access to northern Africa,^ to Greece, to Egypt, to Asia, and to western Europe. The character of the Mediterranean basin (§ 158) made pos- sible a single Mediterranean state covering the whole basin. The geography of Italy and Rome gave Rome an excellent chance to form, as she did, that powerful world- state. The Romans before 510 B.C. 280. An Old Roman. — The Romans had no very great geographical advantages, however, over the people of Syracuse or of Carthage. Their real advantage was one of character. We sometimes hear a person called an old Roman. What does the term mean? If the man is really like the old Romans, it means that he is plain and crude, living a life of Spartan simplicity ; that he works hard on his Uttle farm ; that he rules his household sternly and with a keen sense of justice; that he loves fighting and does not mind long marches. In short, it means that he is a plain, practical, austere son of the people, honest and moral, who despises luxury, who hates effeminacy THE ROMANS BEFORE 510 B.C. 221 and who never knows when he is beaten.^ It means that he is stohd, sturdy and determined. 281. The Roman Family. — In Rome the family was important, as in Greece (§ 133). In both it was the basis of religion and of the state. In early Rome however the family was important in itself. The father {pater familias) had almost absolute authority. He was head of the family, high priest and judge. If his wife committed a crime, he would decide the punishment and the courts would accept his decision. The old Roman father would punish his wife or his son as dispassionately as any out- sider could have done. That was because he was an old Roman. The Roman family was very different from the Greek in many ways, however. The women might be absolutely under the control of the father, but the mother had a position of dignity and of comparative freedom, which the Greek wife did not have. Roman family ties were very strong. Divorce was unknown before the close of the first Punic War (§ 313), and immorahty was un- common. 282. Roman Religion. — The high moral standard of the early Romans was a result of character and of custom, not of religion. The first Romans had an exceedingly primitive nature religion, in which the gods were powers of nature that resided in stones or trees or waterfalls. These gods must be appeased. Therefore, the Roman made his sacrifices so that the wrath of the gods should be averted and the favor of the gods be gained. When he did this, he was careful to go through the correct forms. The early Roman might be said to have worshipped form. When he made a contract, or brought a suit at Absolute legal au- thority of the father, with real freedom for the mother. Crude beliefs of the early Romans. ^ The fact that the Roman was plain and practical is illustrated by this text, the letters of which are called Roman. If we compare this plain, square Roman type with the ornate Greek, German or old English letters, we can see how practical the Roman was. 222 ROME Importance of form to the Ro- The house- hold duties of later times. The Etrus- can civil- ization, with Baby- lonian and Greek ele- ments. law, or offered a sacrifice, the important thing was the form ; that is, the way in which it was done. The act itself was incidental. If a Roman had finished half of a religious ceremony and left out a word, he would begin again, for the first ceremony was of no value. The earh' Roman was exceedingly superstitious. He believed in omens and he gladly learned from his Etruscan neighbors, on the north, to study the flight of birds or the en- trails of victims sacrificed on the altars. In later times, when the Roman moved to a new house, he took with him his household gods, his goddess of the hearth and his other household deities, some of which later were called the La'res and Pe-na'tes. When we some- times speak figuratively of our Lares and Penates, we refer to the embodiment of the spirit of our home. 283. The Etruscans. — Among the peoples of Italy north of the Greek cities before 510 B.C. only one , the E-trus'cans, had a well-developed civilization. They un- derstood the use of the arch and of drainage, they paved roads, and it was from them that Roman religion acquired the method of divination through an inspection of the liver. ^ They kept up their interest in Greek things by trading with the Greek cities of south Italy. For several 1 This " Babylonian " civilization was probably brought to Etruria by those Etruscans who came from Asia Minor. They exhibited a similar acquaintance with Greek mythology anrf early Greek learning. Vestal Virgin. THE ROMANS BEFORE 510 B.C. 223 Sacred Chickens. centuries they were the most powerful people of Italy and in fact of the western Mediterranean. They ruled Etruria and gained control of cities farther south, especially Rome. Wherever they went they built walls and drains and public buildings, and in- troduced some of their civilization. Rome owed the Etruscans a great debt. 284. The Regal Period of Rome. — The early history of Rome is legendary, and it is difficult to discover the truth about early events. According to legend Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Rom'u-lus, who had been '' ex- posed " with his twin-brother Re'mus, had been nursed by a wolf and brought up by a shepherd. Romulus was the first of seven mythical kings, who ruled until a re- public was established in 510 b.c. Of course there must have been more than the sacred and mystical number seven, but, as we know little about any of them, it does not matter. According to tradition, which in this case may represent a fact, the last kings of Rome were Etruscan princes. The Etruscan princes apparently were men of ability and in- fluence. Tradition relates that they drained the swamps, especially by building an immense drain or sewer called the Max'i-ma clo-a'ca. They undoubtedly did construct numerous pubhc buildings, built a wall around the most Legendary founding of Rome. Progress of Rome under the last, or Etruscan, kings. 224 ROME Military and politi- cal organ- ization of Rome. important hills, introduced Etruscan customs and Greek and Etruscan civilization. These kings ruled not only the city of Rome but much of the surrounding country. 285. Co-mi'ti-a Cen-tu-ri-a'ta. — The Romans were originally organized in tribes, on a religious basis, like that of the Greeks (§ 133). The Etruscans introduced a new system, based on wealth. The army was made up of centuries, or hundreds, and a popular assembly (called " co-mi'ti-a ") was held in which the people voted by centuries. The wealthy men of the infantry and the cavalry {" equites ") had more than half of the votes, al- though the poorer soldiers outnumbered them many times. This assembly of the centuries, which met outside the city in a military field called the Campus Martius, lasted for several hundred years. The ex- pulsion of the kings by the aristoc- racy in- jures Rome. Patrician control of the comitia centuriata. The Struggle of the Classes (510-287 b.c.) 286. The Establishment of the Republic. — In 510 B.C. the Roman aristocrats, called the pa-tri'cians, drove out the Etruscan princes and established a republic. This republic was, of course, ruled by the patricians for their own benefit. They did not treat the common people, the ple-he'ians, as well as the kings had done, for the kings needed the support of the common people against the aristocracy. In addition, Rome lost her influence over her immediate neighbors, who had supported the Etrus- cans but refused to support the patricians. 287. The Government of the Early Republic. — The republic was governed by the patricians through the as- sembly of the centuries, and through a senate, and through magistrates. As we have seen, voting in the assembly of the centuries was controlled by the wealthy citizens. The assembly had considerable power. It made the laws and decided whether there should be war or peace. THE STRUGGLE OF THE CLASSES 225 The sen'ate was made up of the most influential pa- Organiza- tricians. It met more frequently than the assembly *^^^ ^^^, powsr of and it really discussed public affairs. When the assembly the senate. made laws or decided matters it probably only ratified the decision of the senate. Every year the assembly elected two chief magistrates Magis- called con'suls} These men enforced the laws and com- tf^t^s under manded the army on alternate days. In time of great republic, danger a dic-ta'tor was elected military commander, with absolute power for a period of not more than six months. ^ 288. Troubles of the Plebs. — With the patricians in The cam- absolute control of the government, the plebs (the name P^igns for used for the plebeians as a class) were worse off than be- of Rome fore. After the expulsion of the kings, Rome fought ^^*^f ^^P made the almost contmuously with her neighbors who sympathized plebeians with the Etruscan princes. The Roman army was in the debtors. field most of every summer. This meant that the plebeian farmers left their crops, which suffered from lack of care and from the depredations of the enemy. The more the plebs fought, the deeper they came into the debt of the rich patricians, who were glad to lend them money. Ac- cording to the law of that time, as before the time of Solon in Athens (§ 152), debtors who could not pay their debts became slaves. • 289. The Plebs gain Tribunes and an Assembly. — In The first 494 the plebs seceded to the Sacred Mount just outside secession of the city. They refused to return to Rome until the pa- nomic and tricians gave them relief. An agreement was drawn up pro- pojiticai viding that thereafter no debtor was to be sold as a slave. The plebs were to elect yearly two officials called trib'unes who could say '' veto " (I forbid), if a magistrate tried to ^ The consuls were preceded by lictors with axes, as was a victorious conqueror. See e.g. the lictors preceding Caesar, in the illustration, p. 233. 2 There were other officials, including a rex (king), who had religious duties, as the Athenian king-archon had (§ 150). 226 ROME The plebe- ians gain a written law, the XII tables. The plebs gain more offices and new politi- cal and social rights. enforce any harsh law against a plel^eian.^ The persons of the tribunes were sacred ; that is, they could not be arrested or interfered with in any way. Some years later (471 B.C.) the plebs were allowed to hold a plebeian assembly of their own to elect the tribunes and to make laws for themselves. 290. The Laws of the Twelve Tables. — The plebs found that their assembly and their tribunes did not pro- tect them so long as the patricians made the laws and elected the officials who enforced them. We have already noticed the importance of an unwritten law to the govern- ing classes and of a written law to the people who were governed. The plebs therefore demanded a written law. After ten years of agitation de-cemVirs (ten men) were appointed to draw up a code of laws. These laws were in the form of twelve tables, and are called the laws of the twelve tables, the " Magna charta of Roman liberty." ^ So important were they considered that the school boys four centuries later were obliged to learn them. 291. Progress of the Plebs. — Within a few years after the granting of the twelve tables, a veritable revo- lution took place, ^ by which the plebeians gained a great 1 Tradition records that public lands were given to the plebeians soon after the first secession, but although this shows that other relief measures were taken, it is probable that there were no public lands for distribution until many years after. 2 Some of these laws were as follows : Let the father have power over the life and death of his son. Let it be lawful to sell the son as a slave three times. If the father shall sell the son three times, let the son be free from his father. Let no man take more interest for money than one per cent a month. If he shall do otherwise, let him be fined four times that sum. If any one breaks the limb of another and makes no reparation, let retaliation take place. ' The tribunes and the assembly of the plebs became almost as power- ful as the regular magistrates and assembly. The plebs gained the right to interynarrij with the patricians and even to elect some of the six 77ulitnry tribunes with consular power. The senate decided each year whether THE STRUGGLE OF THE CLASSES 227 many social privileges and political rights. Three quar- ters of a century later the plebs asked for more rights, as the foreign wars (§§ 295-298) interfered with their work. In the Li-cin'i-an laws (367 b.c.) the rich patricians were not allowed to monopolize the public lands as formerly, and one of the consuls must be a plebeian. So the plebs gained political power, economic reforms and partial control of the state religion at one stroke.^ 292. The Plebs gain Political Equality, but the People The plebs lose Political Power. — In the next three quarters of a s^\^ ^^g^l . . ^ rights, but century the plebeians gamed the right to hold any office the senate In 287 the assembly of the plebs, ^^^^'^^^ •^ ^ ' the govern- or religious position which was now open to any citizen, was made the official ment assembly of the Roman people, and all distinctions be- tween plebeians and patricians vanished. From this time the Roman emblem, S. P. Q. R.,^ took on a new meaning. But Rome had already become mistress of Italy (§ 298), so that the real government belonged not to the assembly, but to the senate, which was now made up of ex-magis- trates. The Conquest of Italy (396-264 b.c.) 293. Some Early Trials of the Young Republic. — While this great internal struggle was going on for two consuls or military tribunes should be elected. Only patricians could be consuls but some of the military tribunes might be plebeians. The patricians diminished the powers of the consuls however by creating a censor, who looked after public works and public morals and decided who were eligible for the senate and other offices. 1 The Sib'yl-line books were thereafter to be looked after by plebeians as well as patricians. The Sibylline books were three books that had been purchased by one of the later kings from a prophetess of Cumae. At first nine books were offered, but the king demurred at the price. The sibyl then destroyed three, and offered the others at the same price. Again the king objected to the price, but he finally paid the same amount for the last three. The books contained oracular sayings of the Greeks. They were guarded carefully and consulted in times of great danger. 2 Senatus Populusque Romanus = The Roman senate and people. Rome's struggles first for existence, then for conquest. 228 ROME Horatius at the bridge. Cincinna- tus, the dictator. Relations with Latium. centuries between the plebeians and the patricians, Rome, during the first century, was spending her time in keeping off her enemies, and, during the second, in making herself mistress of Italy. Two of the stories of the first struggles of the Roman repu])lic for existence are worth our con- sideration, because of their place in the world's book of lore. The kings whom the Romans had expelled from Rome (510) appealed for help to an Etruscan king not far from Rome. This king advanced with his army and seized the hill across the Tiber from Rome. A bridge connected the foot of this hill with the city of Rome. To prevent the Etruscans from crossing, a brave young man, Ho- ra'tius, with two companions held the Etruscan army at bay, while the Romans demolished the bridge. In a loud voice he committed himself to the Tiber, and, amid a shower of darts, swam across to his comrades. The Etrus- cans w^ere finally induced to withdraw. Another legend tells of a Roman army surrounded among the hills, with escape cut off. The senate met to consider the crisis. Cin-cin-na'tus was appointed dictator be- cause of the great danger. The messengers to Cincinnatus found the old man plowing in his field. Leaving his plow where it was, he hastened to the city, gathered an army, marched against the enemy, defeated them, and freed the imprisoned Roman force. Returning to Rome without delay, Cincinnatus laid down his office at once, and re- turned to his plowing sixteen days after he had left it so abruptly. Cincinnatus was an old Roman. 294. Rome and the Latin Confederacy (493-338 B.C.). — After the expulsion of the kings in 510 B.C. the Romans were attacked by the friends of the kings and by numerous hill tribes on the west slope of the Apennines. In spite of the devotion of such men as Horatius and Cincinnatus Rome hardly held her own against these enemies. Fortu- THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 229 nately Rome gained allies among the Latin cities south of Rome in Latium. These cities were united in a Latin Confederacy, which aided Rome for a century and a half, until, jealous of the growing power of Rome, the Latin cities tried to destroy Rome. The cities of the confederacy were defeated (338) ; some being incorporated in Rome and others being made dependents of the larger city. 295. The Conquest of Veil. — The earhest conquests Contest of Rome were north of the city in Etruria, not south in with Veu n ^ for the Latium. Etruria, like the rest of Italy, was dotted with control of fortified cities, each of which controlled the country that the Tiber valley surrounded it. The nearest, and one of the strongest (396 b.c). of these fortified cities, was the Etruscan city of Ve'ii, which fought ^\ath Rome for control of the Tiber valley. After several years of a life and death struggle Veii was captured and its inhabitants were sold into slavery. This victory gave Rome undisputed possession of the Tiber valley. This valley, as we noticed (§ 277), really controls the western slope of the Apennines, and the western slope of the Apennines is really Italy. 296. The Sacking of Rome by the Gauls. — Scarcely The Gauls had Rome downed her nearest and most dangerous rival, s^^k J^o^ne, ^ and destroy before a new peril arose. Only six years later Rome was the records. seized and sacked by nomadic Gauls, the Romans taking ^^^f ^^^° •^ ' . weaken refuge in the citadel. The Gauls finally agreed to ^\dth- Etruria. draw on payment of a thousand pounds of gold, but were driven off, we are told, before the money was paid. The Gauls finally withdrew to the valley of the Po, but not before they had destroyed the power of the Etruscan cities. Although the Gauls had sacked Rome and destroyed all of the old records, they made it easy for Rome later to conquer the whole of Etruria. 297. The Wars with the Samnites. — By the middle of the fourth century the Romans controlled the western coast of Italy southward almost to Naples. This brought 230 ROME The Ro- mans are checked by the Sam- nites. Results of victory over all enemies. Rome gains control of all "Italy." the Romans into conflict with the Samnites, a rude, war- Uke and aggressive hill people living east of Naples. Three protracted wars followed. In the second of these, in a battle at the Cau'dine Forks (321 B.C.) the Roman army was captured and deeply humiliated by being sent under the yoke, a great disgrace. The yoke was made by placing two spears upright in the ground and fastening a third across between them at such a height that the vanquished soldiers must stoop to pass under. In the last war with the Sam'nites, all of Rome's ene- mies, north, east and south, united in an effort to check the growing power of the city on the Tiber. In 295 Rome gained a signal victory over the Etruscans and Gauls in the north and five years later subdued the Samnites, making them dependent allies of Rome. Rome was now supreme from the Rubicon to the Greek cities of the south. 298. The Wars with Pyrrhus. — The Greek cities ap- pealed to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus in Greece. Pyrrhus brought to Italy an army and a large number of ele- phants.^ It was the elephants rather than the army that threw the Roman army into confusion, so that Pyr- rhus won two victories. But they did him no good, for the Roman army refused to retreat, and the Roman sen- ate refused to treat for peace so long as Pyrrhus was on Roman soil. The term Pyrrhic victory has ever since been used to denote an apparent victory which is little better than a defeat. In the end Rome completely con- quered Pyrrhus and the Greek cities. 1 Pyrrhus hoped to unite under his rule all of the Greek cities of the West and conquer Carthage. In short, he hoped to be the Alexander the Great of the West. He did spend several years in Sicily as well as Italy, but was beaten in both countries. THE ROMAN STATE AND ARMY 231 The Roman State and Army 299. Roman Allies and Colonies. — Rome now con- trolled practically all of Italy south of the Rubicon river. We must not think of Italy, however, as a single state under Roman rule . Only one third of it was really Roman territory, the rest being occupied by Roman allies, or colonies estab- lished by Romans, or subject states dependent on Rome. Frequently, when Rome conquered a tribe, such, for instance, as the Samnites, she allowed them the right to look after all of their local affairs. They were treated not as subjects, but as allies. To be sure, Rome looked after all of their external business. Each of them might trade with Rome, but they might not trade with each other. This generous treatment was naturally given to those cities that voluntarily placed themselves under Roman protec- tion, but it was unusual for a con- queror to give such terms to a conquered people. We shall see however that it paid. Besides the allied cities, there were the military posts called col- onies. These were cities founded by groups of Roman soldiers for purposes of protecting Roman in- terests. There were more than one hundred of them at this time scattered all over Italy. Their in- habitants had lost their full Roman citizenship, but they had more civic (citizenship) rights than the II- u J Roman Soldier. allies had. 300. The Three Classes of Citizens. — There were three classes of citizens in Italy. First, there were the Roman citizens. Some of these lived in or near Rome, and Division of Italian territory. Generous treatment of the Roman allies. The Ro- man col- onies were military- posts. 232 ROME A Triumph — Triumph Difference between Roman, Latin and Italian citizen- ship. Service and pay of the Roman soldier. were enrolled as voters ; the others were Roman citizens without the suffrage. Then there were those that had the Latin right. Although these had fewer rights than a Roman citizen, the right of intermarriage with Roman citizens was granted to them. Most of the colonists were Latin citizens. Third, there were those with the Italian right. These had the right to own property and do business, but did not have as full rights as the Latin citizens. 301. The Roman Army. — The Roman army, which had defeated the phalanxes of Pyrrhus and was to meet the trained troops of Carthage, was one of the finest military bodies the world has ever seen. It was composed of citi- zen soldiers, with a war-footing of 300,000 for Rome, and about as many more from the allies. Every Roman man from 17 to 45 was subject to military service for a term of 20 years. The soldiers drew pay, and with each THE ROMAN STATE AND ARMY 233 of Caesar, 46 B.C. campaign came considerable booty, especially in the later wars against rich Carthage and the wealthy East. The infantry was organized in le'gions of about 4500 Organiza- soldiers each, later 6000. The legion fought in three eq^'pment lines, not in a compact mass like the Macedonian phalanx and (§ 198). Each soldier was trained carefully in the exer- "^^^^^^^ cise of arms, as the open order of the legion demanded soldiers, that the soldiers should have skill as well as strength. A Roman's shield was like that of the Greek soldier, his spear was shorter and he depended more on the short sword. Those soldiers that did not have spears hurled short iron-pointed javelins. The cavalry was made up of the wealthier young men, but it never became as im- portant an arm of the service as the Macedonian horse- men of Alexander or the Numidian cavalry of Hannibal (§ 316, note). 234 ROME Celebra- tion of a great victory. Geography of Italy and Rome. Roman character, religion and early history. The struggle between the patricians and the plebs. 302. A Triumph. — The greatest honor that could be conferred on a Roman general was the right to celebrate a triumph. A huge procession moved through gaily decorated streets of Rome to the temple of Jupiter on Capitoline hill. Near the head of the procession were the consuls, preceded as usual by the lictors, with other mag- istrates and the senators. Then came the booty, in the later days making a procession several miles in length. After the booty marched the captives, with occasionally^ a king to give added honor to his conqueror. In the rear came the army, led by the fortunate commander, in a triumphal chariot. The people and the soldiers shouted '' triumphe." The triumph ended with a feast. In later times the emperors erected triumphal arches to com- memorate some victory. 303. Summary. — Rome occupied the central part of the central peninsula extending from Europe mto the Medi- terranean. It was at a commercial cross-roads, defended by hills and swamps, and it controlled the most important valley of the western slope of the Apennines. In the valley of the Po were the Gauls, north of Rome was Etruria, east, the Sabines, south, Latium, and farther south, Campania and Samnium. The old Romans were simple sturdy peasants, severe, unimaginative and courageous. The father ruled his family sternly, although the Roman matron had a position of dignit}'. The early Romans worshipped objects of nature, they emphasized form in religion and in law. They learned of their neighbors the Etruscans to worship gods that were powers rather than objects, to build walls, drains and buildings and to organize governments. In 510 B.C. the last of the seven kings, an Etruscan prince, was driven out and a patrician republic was estab- lished. The patricians governed through consuls, senate and comitia. The plebs rebelled and gained, first, tribunes state and army. THE ROMAN STATE AND ARMY 235 and an assembly ; second, a written law ; third, social and political rights, and last, the right to hold any office and (287 B.C.) to an equal share in making the laws. Rome gained control of the Tiber valley by destroying Conquest Veil. The overthrow of Etruria was aided by the invasion °^ '^^^^y- of the Gauls. When the Latin confederation turned against Rome, she crushed it, but gave good terms to the people. Then Rome finally conquered the Samnites and gained control of all Ital}^ by defeating Pyrrhus and the Greek cities. Some of the people of Italy were Roman citizens. Roman Others, including some colonists, had the Latin right, and the allies and some others had the Italian right. The army was organized by legions and comprised more than 600,000 Romans and allies. It was organized in legions. After a victory a triumph was celebrated. General References Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 9-99. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 313-378. Munro, Source Book of Roman History, 1-77, Davis, Readings in Ancient History, II, 1-52. Seignobos, History of the Roman People, 1-85. Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 3-107. How and Leigh, History of Rome, 1-130. Ihne, Early Rome. Abbott, Roman Political Institutions, 1-77. Heitland, The Roman Republic, I, 1-185. Topics Government of the Early Republic : Seignobos, History of the Roman People, 27-35 ; Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 49-54 ; How and Leigh, History of Rome, 47-51 ; Heitland, The Roman Republic, I, 60-69 ; Botsford, Source Book, 338-342 ; Munro, Source Book of Roman History, 6-22. Early Roman Religion : Seignobos, History of the Roman People, 36-44 ; Mommsen, History of Rome, Book I, ch. XII ; 236 ROME Carter, Religious Life of Ancient Rome, 9-16, 24—27; Sandys (ed.). Companion to Latin Studies, 149-159. The Licixiam Laws (367 b.c.) : Davis, Readings in Ancient History, II, 23-27; How and Leigh, History of Rome, 91-94; Heitland, The Roman Republic, I, 96-100. The Roman Army : Seignobos, Roman People, 74-85 ; Munro, Source Book of Roman History, 23-40; How and Leigh, History of Rome, 134-141. Studies 1. The place of Rome in history. Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 9-11. 2. Roman names. Johnston, Private Life of the Romans, 35- 42. 3. The Etruscans. Carter, Religious Life of Ancient Rome, 16-24. 4. Romulus. Guerber, Story of the Romans, 22-33 ; Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 334-338. 5. Stories of old Romans. Guerber, Story of the Romans, 66-69, 76-78. 6. The first secession of the plebs. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, II, 19-23. 7. Cincinnatus. Davis, Readings, II, 27-29. 8. The laws of the twelve tables. Botsford, Source Book, 351-353. 9. The struggle between the patricians and plebs. Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 53-72. 10. Sack of Rome by the Gauls. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 362-365. 11. Humiliation of the Romans at Caudine Forks. Munro, Source Book of Roman History, 74-77. 12. Pyrrhus. Botsford, Source Book, 365-369. 13. Roman municipia and colonies. Botsford, Source Book, 371-374. Questions 1. Show how the Alps and the Apennines divide Italy into three great areas, the Po valley, the western slope, and "Magna Grsecia." 2. Give the names and locations of the most important peoples of Italy. THE ROMAN STATE AND ARMY 237 3. Why was Rome favorably situated for the task of control- ling the Tiber valley ? Italy ? the Mediterranean world ? In relation to the Mediterranean basin, compare Rome with Corinth ; with Syracuse ; with Carthage. Was the location of Rome more favorable for world dominion than that of any of the others ? 4. What were the characteristics of an old Roman ? What was the importance of the family in ancient Rome ? of the father in the family ? What was the nature and importance of the old Roman religion? 5. What did Rome owe to the Etruscans ? What did she owe to the Greeks before the Punic wars ? 6. Describe the government of Rome at the beginning of the republic. Name the chief steps by which the plebs gained equality with the patricians. Why did the senate rather than the people control Rome after 264 b.c. ? What does S. P. Q. R. mean? 7. Show the importance of the Latin confederacy to Rome. Why was the struggle with Veii so important ? How did the Gauls help Rome more than they injured her ? 8. Describe the steps by which Rome gained control of Italy. What were the next natural steps in expansion ; south ? north ? , 9. What was an ally ? a colony ? a Roman citizen ? What were Latin rights ? Italian rights ? Why was Rome's policy toward the Italians a wise one? Why was the legion better than the phalanx ? CHAPTER X Steps in the ex- pansion of Rome. Changes in govern- ment, agri- culture and society. CONQUEST OF THE MEDITERRANEAN (264-146 b.c.) Before and after the Punic Wars 304. Importance of Rome's Conquests. — The period before the Punic wars was a period at first of self-defence and slow development for the Roman republic, followed by a period of expansion throughout Italy. ^ The period following 264 B.C. w^as at first a trial of strength between Rome and her great rival, Carthage. By 200 B.C. Rome was the undisputed mistress of the western Mediter- ranean. Another half century (200-146 B.C.) sufficed for the humiliation of Macedonia and the forced with- drawal of the ambitious Seleucids (§ 215) from Asia Minor. By 146 B.C. Rome was recognized as the greatest power of the eastern Mediterranean, as well as the only power in the western, for Carthage was destroyed in 146 B.C. After 146 b.c. it was simply a question of time before the whole eastern Mediterranean became Roman also, al- though this inevitable expansion continued for nearly three centuries. 305. The Change in the Character of Rome. — The influence of these victories upon the government and policies of Rome was necessarily great, for no popular assembly could rule a vast republic with so many varied interests and foreign complications. The senate became the real ruling body of Rome. The people lost their old simplicity. They became avaricious and wealthy. East- ^ Freeman says, "The first step in expansion, in short, was sudden and swift ; every later step was slow, but the first carried every other step with it as its necessary consequence." Chief Periods, p. 40. 238 BEFORE AND AFTER THE PUNIC WARS 239 ern luxury and customs filled society with corruption. The old peasant farmer was forced out by the great plan- tations managed by slaves and Rome was filled with a poverty-stricken mob. Before taking up the story of these conquests and their results we must notice the international situation in the western Mediterranean be- fore the Punic wars and study Carthage, the great rival of Rome. 306. Controlling Peoples of the Western Mediterra- Spheres of nean before 400 B.C. — In the middle of the sixth cen- 'JJ^^hT^^ tury before Christ three peoples shared in the control Etmcans, of the middle-western Mediterranean : the Etruscans, the ^nd^hr^^ Greeks and the Carthaginians. The Etruscans controlled Cartha- most of Italy from the valley of the Po to the plain of ^^^^^' Campania. The Greeks occupied the south of Italy and the eastern half of Sicily. Greek influence was dominant in the middle Mediterranean. The Carthaginians had brought into subjection most of the northern part of Africa, and they controlled practically all of the western Mediterranean and its shores. The Etruscans, not able to withstand the attacks of The decline the Samnites in Campania, the Romans in Latium, Etruscans. and the Gauls in the north, decHned rapidly. This left the western Mediterranean to the Greeks and the Car- thaginians, whose contest for supremacy took place in Sicily. 307. Conflict for Sicily. — As we noticed (§ 175), at the Sicily in time of the Persian wars, Carthage made an attack upon ^f^g^^^^e^^^ Sicily the same year that Xerxes invaded Greece (480 b.c). Persian This invasion failed with the defeat of the Carthaginians ^^^^• at Himera. After the defeat of Athens by Syracuse in 413 B.C. (§ 191) the Carthaginians again invaded northern Sicily. They captured Himera, sacrificing three thousand Greeks on the battlefield where the Carthaginians had been defeated in 480, and finally gained all of Sicily except 240 ROAIE Sicily in the century before the Punic wars. Syracuse. Later the Carthaginians were defeated by Di-o-nysH-us,^ tyrant of Syracuse, who extended his sway over the greater part of Sicily and a large part of " Magna Grsecia " as well. After Dionysius came Ti-mo'le-on, the liberator, who soon drove back the Carthaginians, deposed the tyrants and formed a confederacy of the Greek cities. He was honored as the noblest of the western Greeks. A genera- tion later A-gath'o-des carried the war with the Cartha- ginians into Africa. Still later Pyrrhus gained temporary victories in Sicily only to lose control of all of the island except Syracuse before he returned to Italy, where he was defeated by the Romans (§ 298). Importance of the location of Carthage. Carthage 308. Location of Carthage. — This great Phoenician city, which had disputed with the Greeks for three cen- turies the possession of the fair island of Sicily, and had gradually become the only power in the western Mediter- ranean, was located on a fine harbor at the outlet of one of the most fertile valleys of northern Africa. The resources of the valley and of the continent behind Car- thage furnished an ample food supply for a great city. The location of the harbor on the great peninsula which juts into the Mediterranean, only seventy miles from Sicily, was even more central and commanding than that of Rome. Less exposed than Sicily to attack, it was almost as close to the crossing of the commercial highways from east to west and from north to south. 309. Dominions and Trade of Carthage. — The Car- thaginians were so much interested in trade and the gain- 1 Able, shrewd, but unprincipled, without mercy for friend or con- sideration for foe, Dionysius ruled the greatest kingdom that any Greek ever established in the West, but he left western Greece weaker than he found it. CARTHAGE 241 ing of wealth that for several centuries after the founding of the city a ground rent was paid for the land on which the city stood. In order to extend this commerce the people were forced to drive back their enemies. Phoenician cities in Sicily which asked for protection were brought under Carthaginian rule ; northern Africa was subdued ; colonies were planted in Sardinia and Spain ; and at one time 30,000 persons were sent to the Atlantic coast beyond the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar) to establish trading posts and colonies. This occurred the century be- fore the traditional date assigned for the founding of Rome. Carthage had extensive trade with Spain, Britain, northern and western Africa.^ This trade with the west- ern Mediterranean and the Atlantic was guarded so jealously that all intruders were hunted down and drowned. The western Mediterranean of this time had been called '^ a Phoenician lake." This western commerce of Car- thage was less extensive, but politically more important than trade with the interior of Africa and with countries east of the Mediterranean. ^ The trade of Carthage made her the wealthiest city of that time, and her governmental revenues were very great. 310. The Government of Carthage. — Carthage was governed by a commercial aristocracy. The control of affairs was always held by a few powerful families which Conquests and trade were ex- tended together. Cartha- ginian supremacy in the western Mediter- ranean. 1 She founded trading posts or factories for the extension of the Car- thaginian trade. Gold and slaves, to be obtained from the region of the Niger, drew her to the African coast beyond Gibraltar. The tin of Brit- ain and the amber of the Baltic attracted her ships to the north Atlantic. Spain, rich in silver mines, required settlements along both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean to develop trade and to protect those engaged in the mining of silver. Iron brought the Carthaginians to the little island of Elba, while agricultural products formed a large part of the trade with the Balearic islands, with Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily. ^ There were two commercial treaties between Carthage and Rome before 340 b.c. In the second of these Rome was not allowed to trade with Cor'si-ca, Sar-din'ia, the coast of Africa or other places more distant. R 242 ROME Aristo- cratic government and harsh rule of dependen- cies. The large navy and mercenary' army of Carthage. The great wealth and dominion of Carthage compared with the poverty of the small Roman republic. succeeded in protecting Carthaginian interests abroad at the same time that they maintained order and prevented insurrections at home.^ In her treatment of her depen- dencies Carthage was both harsh and avaricious ; harsh, because by levelHng the walls of their cities, she left them helpless ; and avaricious, ])ecause of the heavy tribute that she demanded from them. The Carthaginian dependen- cies were bound to her only by ties of fear. In time of public danger they almost always were glad to revolt. 311. The Army and Navy of Carthage. — To protect her commerce from the pirates that infested every sea, Carthage maintained the largest navy of that day; to maintain her authority over her vast dominion, she had an army composed of Carthaginians and mercenaries.^ The mercenaries were frequently treated, not as sol- diers, but as subjects. They were bullied and abused when danger was not present, or abandoned sometimes in the face of the enemy ; hence, the term " Pun'ic faith," that is, Phoenician faithlessness. It is not strange then that, when reverses came to Carthage, her armies revolted, seeking freedom for their people and revenge on their despotic rulers. 312. Comparison of Rome and Carthage. — It was between this great city, ruler of the western Mediterranean, and Rome, mistress of Italy, that a struggle now began (264 B.C.) which must lead to the destruction of one or 1 Aristotle comments on the remarkable freedom from insurrection that was enjoyed by Carthage for several centuries. The ruling classes, however, gave no real share in the government to the people, for as- semblies of the citizens, like those of Sparta, could only accept or reject proposals made to them. 2 Comparatively few Carthaginians entered the army, because there was more money to be made in trade, but there was usually a sacred band of 2500 as body guard for the general, and a citizen army of 25,000 might be raised with ease. Greater dependence was placed on the hired troops, the swift and skilful Numidian cavalry, fierce warriors from Spain and levies gathered from a hundred dependent cities. CARTHAGE 243 the other. Carthage was still at the height of her power, with broad dominions, limitless resources of wealth, abso- lute control of the sea and freedom from internal dissen- tions. On the other hand, Rome, poor, ^\dthout a navy, possessed of but a few thousand square miles of territory, though she was the real head of Italy, still remained a commonwealth of peasants, rude and unimaginative, but brave and sturdy. Rome excelled Carthage not only because she depended on herself rather than on her wealth, but because she had treated her dependents as human beings rather than as sources of revenue. A great many cities and tribes which Rome had conquered were treated as allies, most of the others still possessed many rights and looked forward to the time when Rome would give them also the privileges of allies or of Italian citizens (§ 300). Even the terrible dangers of Hannibal's invasion in the second Punic war did not shake the loyalty of many of these subject Italians. Even more, Rome owed her final success to her citizen- soldiers and to the determination with which she replaced every army that was destroyed. How could a nation of traders conquer such a people ! Rome owed her success to the char- acter of her people, to her citizen- army and her faithful dependents. The Early Punic Wars 313. Beginning of the First Punic War. — The wars between Rome and Carthage naturally began with a struggle for Sicily. The Romans were asked to help some of their allies who had attacked Messena and were shut in there by Carthaginians. Rome sent help be- cause she realized that war with Carthage was inevitable. Rome soon learned that nothing could be done so long as Car- thage was supreme on the sea.^ Fortunately a Carthaginian ^ The Romans had only the triremes of some allies, whereas the Car- thaginians had hundreds of quinqueremes. To fight a quinquereme with a trireme, such as the Greeks and the Persians had used at Salamis, was like fighting a battleship with a cruiser. The war in Sicily shows Rome the need of a fleet. 244 ROME Rome's fleets de- cided the first and the second Punic wars. Rome gains Sardinia and Cor- sica, and creates her first provinces. galley ran aground and was captured by the Romans. With this as a model a fleet was constructed, the rowers being trained meanwhile to row on land. With the same indomitable pluck these Roman landsmen sallied forth to meet the great fleet of the mistress of the western seas. Their galleys carried picked soldiers who rushed across bridges thrown from Roman vessels to those of the enemy, turning a sea fight into a semblance of a land battle, in which the Romans excelled. 314. Rome's Naval Victories. — Four years after the war started a great naval battle occurred at My'lce off the north coast of Sicily. The Carthaginians were badly defeated. Because her men could not learn the art of navigation in one generation, Rome afterward lost several large fleets by shipwreck, but, with great persistence, each fleet was replaced by another. As the Punic wars were decided hy Rome's control of the sea, Rome was well rewarded for her perseverance. After more than twenty years of fighting, Carthage agreed to give up Sicily and pay Rome a large sum of money. The Greek historian, Polybius, considered this a greater war than that of the Greeks with the Persians, and a greater war than the Peloponnesian war of Greece. 315. From the First to the Second Punic Wars. — Both Rome and Carthage realized that this first war was a preliminary struggle. The question at issue was not the control of Sicily. It was a question whether Rome or Carthage should control the western Mediterranean. At the close of the first Punic war, Carthage, however, had her hands full suppressing a revolt of her mercenary' troops. Rome took advantage of this insurrection to occupy Sar- dinia and Corsica. Sicily she made into one province, the other islands into another. This was the beginning of Rome's great provincial system (§ 330). Taking advantage of the peace with Carthage, Rome THE EARLY PUNIC WARS 245 tried to suppress the Gauls in the Po valley and the pirates on the Adriatic. This was not done very effectively, since Rome was able to give but a small part of her atten- tion to these barbarous peoples. They naturally took the first opportunity to rise against her. 316. Hannibal Invades Italy. — In Spain Hamilcar Barca ^ and his sons raised a fine army. In time Hanni- bal, eldest of the '^ lion's brood," became sole commander of these troops. He at once prepared to invade Italy. To do this Hannibal was forced to cross the high Alps. As the narrow trails were covered with ice thousands of his men lost their footing and fell over the cliffs. Several times Hannibal was forced to stop and cut a new and broader path across a pass. After several weeks of ter- rible suffering and hardship, weeks filled with constant attacks by the native tribes, Hannibal brought the rem- nant of his fine army into the valley of the Po. Here he was welcomed by the Gauls. Within a year two Roman armies were trapped and practically destroyed by Hannibal. 317. Cannae. — In this time of great danger Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus was appointed dictator. Fabius followed a policy of avoiding pitched battles that has ever since been known as the Fabian policy."^ Later the command Conquest of Cisal- pine Gaul. Hannibal crosses the Alps (218 B.C.) and annihilates two Roman Hannibal destroys Rome's fine army at Cannae. 1 The most successful Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca, spent the interval after the first Punic war in conquering Spain, which he made into a Carthaginian province. In Spain he trained a very fine army of Nu-mid'i-an horsemen and Spanish infantry, for he attached the loyal Spanish people very closely to his own interests. He prepared his sons for a military life in order that they might avenge Carthage on Rome. The story is told that he took his little son Hannibal, a boy of nine years, and made him swear, on the altar of his gods, eternal hatred to the Romans. 2 Fabius hung upon the army of Hannibal, occupying the best positions as Hannibal moved down through Italy, but refusing to be drawn into a battle. Hannibal did not dare attack, as Fabius' positions were too strong. After a time however the Romans became impatient and crit- icised the Fabian policy, calling the dictator Fabius Cunctator ("De- layer") in derision. 246 ROME Hannibal fails to win over most of Rome's allies. Hannibal is deprived of his last chance for help. was turned over to the two consuls. Hannibal now watched his chance. At Can'nos, in eastern Italy, Hanni- bal, attacking from several directions, threw into incredible confusion an army nearly twice as large as his own. The Roman army lost all order, only those on the outside of this seething mass being able to fight. The dead were said to have numbered more than 50,000. Not a family in Rome escaped bereavement. The senate lost eighty members. Cannae was a terrible blow to the young re- public. 318. Hannibal Tries to win over the Italians. — Any other people, in such a crisis, would have been glad to accept terms of peace, but not so the Romans. A new army was raised at once and put in the field, though it did not dare to face Hannibal. Hannibal meanwhile was doing everything in his power to shake the allegiance of the Roman allies. He had freed at once all of the allies taken prisoner at Cannae and in previous battles. He offered one and all the most favorable terms of trade and self-government, if they would desert the Roman cause. Wherever he went some cities naturally accepted his terms and offered no opposition, ^ but others stood steadfast in their friendship for Rome. Rome was surely getting a reward for her wise policy toward her allies. Once Han- nibal marched rapidly almost to the gates of Rome, but he did not dare stop and lay siege to the city. 319. Metaurus. — With only the Gauls and a few cities to support him, Hannibal kept his army in Italy, unde- feated and undiscouraged, but gradually dwindling. It was only a question of time before he would be forced out of Italy unless help came. As Rome controlled the sea, help must come by land. In 207 this seemed at hand. 1 Among the cities that deserted Rome were Capua and Syracuse. The siege of these cities formed two very interesting and important events in the second Punic war. See Seignobos, Roman People, 111-112. THE EARLY PUNIC WARS 247 for Hannibars brother Has'dru-bal crossed the Alps with an army from Spain. At the river Me-tau'rus two Roman armies met and destroyed the army of Hasdrubal. It is said that Hannibal first learned of this great disaster when the head of his brother was brought to his camp. He understood then that he had failed. 320. The Close of the Second Punic War. — Not dar- ing to attack Hannibal the Romans decided to send an army into Africa. Pub'li-us Cor-neri-us Scip'i-o, after- ward called Scipio Africanus, the elder, had command of this army. Hannibal was immediately recalled from Italy. The two armies met at Za'ma (202 b.c) near Car- thage. Here Hannibal met his first real defeat, but it was decisive. Carthage now sued for peace. The terms of the Romans were accepted without much modification. Carthage lost Spain and all islands in the Mediterranean. She gave up all her naval vessels but ten. She paid a huge indemnity and continued to pay a yearly sum for fifty years. She could not make war on a Roman ally and her foreign relations were subject to Rome. Some of her dependencies in northern Africa became allies of Rome. All that was left to Carthage was her own territory and her trade. Carthage no longer rivalled Rome as a Medi- terranean power, for her commanding position had been destroyed. Hannibal is defeated at Zama in Africa. Carthage loses most of her territory and pays a large in- demnity. Completion of Mediterranean Conquests 321. Conquest of Macedonia. — The king of Mace- Macedonia donia had tried to help Hannibal because he feared that ^?^^f ^2. ^ check Kome the Romans would expand eastward toward the ^Egean and is Sea. After Hannibal's defeat the Romans began war in overthrown, earnest, as Macedonia Was interfering with Greek allies of Rome. In two great battles the Roman legion met the 248 ROME Rome be- comes the dominant power in the eastern Mediter- ranean. Change in Rome's policy toward Greece. Macedonian phalanx. Each time the victory was won by the more active Roman troops, as the battles were fought on rough ground. The second battle, at Pyd'na (168 B.C.), decided the fate of Macedonia. Her treasure was taken to Rome, 150,000 inhabitants of E-pi'rus were sold into slavery, and Macedonia became, first a dependency, and afterward a province of Rome. 322. The War against Antiochus of Syria. — A rival greater than the king of Macedonia was the ambitious An-ti'o-chus of Syria, who had conquered the peoples of Asia ]\Iinor and had invaded Greece. The Romans marched to the help of their allies in the East and de- feated Antiochus at Mag-ne'si-a (190 B.C.). Al- though they kept no territory in Asia, from this time Ro7ne was recognized as the greatest power in the eastern Mediterranean as well as in the West. One storj^ illus- trates this. A successor of Antiochus wished to con- quer Egypt. The Roman senate sent a legate to Syria telling him not to do it. The Syrian king agreed to con- sider the matter. Immediately the Roman legate drew a circle in the sand about the king, telling him that he should not pass outside the circle until he had agreed not to make war on Egypt. The Syrian king yielded at once, for he did not wish a war with Rome. After the conquest of Macedonia and Syria '' the whole civilized world thenceforth recognized the Roman senate as the supreme tribunal, whose commissioners decided in the last resort between kings and nations." 323. The Conquest of Greece. — Rome had always looked up to Greece as a country of culture and a high civilization. Ordinarily she interfered in Greek affairs only at the request of some Greek ally. After the second Punic war the Romans began to devise the overthrow of the most enterprising Greek cities because they had trade which the rich Roman merchants and bankers wanted. COMPLETION OF CONQUESTS 249 Rhodes was the first of these great cities to be punished, because she was prosperous. Later Rome found abundant excuse to interfere in the affairs of Greece proper, for the Greeks quarrelled con- tinually after the overthrow of Macedonia at Pydna. In the end Greece was subdued in 146 b.c. One of its most powerful cities, Corinth, was plundered, its inhabitants were sold into slavery, its buildings were destroyed and its site was cursed by the Romans. 324. The Destruction of Carthage. — The prosperity of Carthage likewise aroused envy among the avaricious Romans. For a long time the most severe of the Romans, Cato the Censor, had ended every speech with the words, " Carthage must be destroyed." An excuse for war came when Carthage made war on her neighbor Numidia, an ally of Rome that had repeatedly injured Car- thage. At first the Romans were successful ; Car- thage was compelled to give up some of her best citizens as hostages and surrender her naval vessels and her arms. The Romans then de- manded that Carthage be abandoned, as they feared so powerful a commercial rival. The patient Carthaginians rebelled. With mar- vellous energy they began to rebuild walls and to fashion Aveapons out of scraps of metal. The women gave their hair for the cords Roman Artillery. Anarchy in Greece leads to conquest by Rome. Rome sought an excuse to destroy her great rival. The des- perate courage of the Car- thaginians does not save their city. 250 ROME Provinces added by Sulla, Pom- pey and Csesar. Augustus places the material boundaries at the Dan- ube and the Euphrates. on the huge bows. For several years the Carthaginians resisted the Roman attacks until in 146 b.c, starving and overwhelmed, they were forced to surrender. Of the 700,000 that began the siege but 50,000 survived. Like Corinth, and in the same year, Carthage was destroyed because of the commercial rivalry of Rome.^ 325. Roman Expansion after 146 B.C. — Under the Roman repubhc, which lasted until 27 b.c, Rome added Gaul, most of the northern coast of Africa and parts of Asia Minor and Syria. Most of this territory was con- quered by the great generals of the late Republic, Sul'la (§ 342), Pom'pey (§ 344) and Cse'sar (§ 347). When Aug-us'tus established the empire (§ 354), he not only completed the circle of Roman possessions around the Mediterranean, but he wisely limited the empire to the Rhine and the Danube rivers in central Europe and to the Euphrates River in Asia. Later emperors held to those boundaries, with one exception.^ Social, po- litical and economic changes create a new Rome. Changes in Rome 326. General Changes. — During the later foreign wars a new Rome was created, due, in large part, to the wars themselves. Some of these changes were (I) Social changes, due chiefly to the new wealth and luxury, and shown in corruption, in religion, in family life and the new amusements ; (XL) Political changes which affected the 1 Carthage, Corinth and Tyre were afterward rebuilt, because they were natural commercial centres. The Romans found that they had injured rather than helped themselves by destroying these ports through which much of their trade must be carried on. 2 The emperor Tra'jan (98-117 a.d.) was a great conqueror and added to the Roman empire lands beyond the Danube River and the Euphrates River, but his successors did not try to defend the.se frontiers against their enemies. To be sure Britain, which had been concjuered before the time of Trajan, was held for four centuries until invasions of German tribes caused the "break-up" of the Roman empire (ch. XIV). CHANGES IN ROME 251 international position and relations of Rome, and the government of the provinces as well as of Rome herself ; and (III) Economic changes, such as the development of a capitalist class, the spread of slavery and the destruc- tion of the old time peasantry, which had been the chief strength of old Rome. 327. Influence of Wealth in Rome. — The Roman public Influence treasury was filled by the great wealth that came to Rome °^ society, •^ _ . . the army from the indemnity levied upon Carthage at the end of the and govern- second Punic war, upon Macedonia a little later, from trib- "^®^^- ute paid by subject peoples, and from gifts and be- quests like that of the king of Pergamum (133 b.c.).^ From a state almost of poverty the Romans became suddenly wealthy. Opportunities to make money were offered that soon created a capitalist class (§ 331). The old styles no longer satisfied ; new luxuries were im- ported yearly from the East. The elder Cato, last of the old Romans, protested in vain against the new luxury the dissipations that wealth brought and the growing corruption in government and society. Soldiers no longer enlisted for purely patriotic reasons, since service in the eastern wars meant rich booty for privates as well as for generals and the state. 328. Social Changes. — Contact with the East brought imitation many of the refinements of the Hellenistic civilization. °^ Greek . models. Greek dress and Greek foods were copied. Houses were built and furnished after Greek models. Greek slaves taught the sons of rich Romans. Greek plays furnished models for Roman dramatists and Greek works of art were brought from the plundered cities of Greece. The ^ Rome had undertaken the war against Antiochus the Great at the request of the king of Pergamum. At the close of the war Pergamum received great additions of territory, as the Romans were not ready to govern lands so far distaYit as Asia Minor. In 133, when the last king of Pergamum died, his territories and his treasure were bequeathed to Rome. 252 ROME Changed position of women. Political corruption due to "bread and games." Romans were, however, rather poor imitators, and they were not intellectual or artistic like the Greeks.^ Family bonds were relaxed under the new era that had begun at Rome. There is no record of a divorce earlier than the first Punic war, but separations occurred with alarming frequency after the second war with Carthage. Women had greater legal freedom also, from this time, the father no longer having the full rights of ^'patria po- testas," that is, absolute control as '^ pater familias." 329. Introduction of Public Games. — Instead of the one annual festival that was held before the second Punic war, new games and festivals were introduced. These in- aSTIANAX KaendiO Roman Gladiators. eluded fierce combats between animals and between men (gladiators) with short swords (§ 380). They were fre- quently held at the expense of the lesser magistrates, whose chance of election to higher offices usually de- pended upon the pleasure that they gave to the Roman mob. This custom and the distribution of grain b}^ wealthy men who wished to have a ''following" led to ^ Many Romans had already lost faith in their own religion (§ 280) ; Greek scepticism was welcomed. Orgies in the name of the Greek god Bacchus were practised secretly at Rome and throughout Italy. Sooth- sayers from Asia flocked to the capital city. Temples were erected to the Egyptian Isis and to numerous other foreign deities. CHANGES IN ROME 253 an immense amount of political corruption during the last century and a half of the republic. 330. The Government of the Provinces. — Rome did Roman pro- not set out to create an empire composed of provinces ^^asTetter^ — but she was forced to borrow or develop some system than that of government for the subject peoples whom she con- ° ^^^L^^^ ' quered. The method of government for the early prov- inces, like the provinces themselves, was Carthaginian. A governor with almost absolute power ruled each prov- ince,^ and taxes were ^^ farmed out " to publicans. Not all of the cities in a province were on equal footing — some were still allies ; others paid tribute while a few became the property of Rome. In general, before the destruction of Carthage, it may be said that Roman rule in her prov- inces and in the states of dependent allies was better than the rule it replaced. Taxes were less heavy in Macedonia under Rome than they had been under the Macedonian kings. The Roman officials were honest compared with the Greek and Carthaginian rulers. Yet in later times the misrule of the provinces, the heavy taxation and the sacrifice of business in the cities for the benefit of Rome are blots on the history of the republic. ^ 1 The Roman governors were usually ex -magistrates who were ap- pointed for one year, later for three years. They were absolute within the provinces, not even being subject to the senate until their term of office had expired. They controlled the provincial army of which there was usually need on the borders of the province or in unruly cities. They issued orders and enforced the laws. If a provincial had a grievance there could be no appeal beyond the governor, who had the highest ju- dicial power. Through a subordinate, the governor supervised the finances. ^ If a governor plundered a province, no one could try him until after his term was over. Then he was brought before a tribunal of fellow-sen- ators. If convicted, he went into exile, usually at his country home. It was a common saying, when the governor's term was three years, that it took the plunder of the first year to pay the senate for giving the posi- tion, that of the second to buy off the jury, leaving only the plunder of the third year for the governor. 254 ROME Contrac- tors and Publicani Abuses in tax collec- tion. Extension and results of slavery. 331. The Publicans. — The acquisition of provinces added greatly to the pul^lic })usiness which Rome trans- acted through contractors. Taxes had to be collected in a province. If a sewer was to be constructed, a road built, or a public ])uil(ling erected, the work was done by contract. The contracts were let by the censors at five- year intervals. The censors estimated the amount of revenue that each province should bring ; the right to collect the taxes was then sold to the highest bidder. The bidders were necessarily capitalists. These associa- tions of publicans collected the customs revenues in Italy and farmed the taxes in the provinces. The pubhcans collected as much as they could, usually far in excess of the amounts paid into the public treasury. If a man did not pay the tenth or fifth of his produce that the law required, or did not pay the rent on his land which might legally belong to the state, he might be cast into prison or sold into slavery. 332. Slavery. — Slavery grew with the extension of Roman dominion. Each war brought thousands of captives who were sold as slaves.^ Slaves were employed in large numbers on the great estates of Italy and Sicily. They were not treated like human beings, but, being human, revolted in terrible slave insurrections. Sicily was the scene of three prolonged servile wars during the century after the fall of Carthage. Slavery made the Romans more callous and corrupt than ever, and slave labor caused great economic crises. 333. The Decline of the Middle Class. — Italy had once been a land of small farmers, sturdy, self-supporting, 1 One of the most upright of the Roman commanders, -^milius Paulus, sold 150,000 inhabitants of Epirus into slavery (§321). Ten thousand of the most intelligent Greeks, including the statesman and historian Polyb- ius, were sent to Rome practically as slaves when the Achaean league was broken up (151 b.c). Slave raids were common, and the island of Deloa, once sacred to Apollo, became the slave market of the Mediterranean. CHANGES IN ROME 255 self-respecting yeomen, who lived plainly, feared the gods The smaU and reared large families. The Licinian laws (§ 291) J^r^Zama' had attempted to help this class by distributing the pubhc (202 b.c). lands in small farms ; but these laws had been broken by the nobles who controlled the senate. Then came Hanni- bal, whose terrible campaigns devastated Italy and kept the farmers under arms, when they should have been cultivating their crops. After Hannibal, wealthy men jDought up these neglected From Zama farms. The other yeomen could not grow grain to com- q^.^^^^^^ pete with the cheap corn of Sicily and Africa. Neither (133 b.c). could they compete with the large sheep and cattle estates of their wealthy neighbors, with their cheap slave labor and broad fields. A few tried raising vines and olives, but most of them lacked the capital and the skill for such enterprises. Flocking to Rome, these men crowded the capital, and failing to find work, joined the city rabble which enjoyed the free games and cheap food. Thus the rich grew richer and the poor poorer ; while Rome, nomi- nally governed by all citizens, yet actually ruled by the wealthy but corrupt nobles, was drifting into new diffi- culties which neither the nobility nor the peasant could solve. 334. Summary. — The territorial history of the west- Supremacy ern Mediterranean during the four centuries from 550 B.C. ?^ Carthage ° in the to 146 B.C. is the history (1) of the supremacy of Carthage West before in the West and (2) of the conquest of Carthage by Rome, ^o"^®- The Carthaginians supplanted first the Etruscans and later the western Greeks, especially in Sicily. Carthage owed her supremacy to her central location, to her trade and tributary provinces, to her strong navy, her stable government and her able leaders. Carthage was inferior to Rome in her selfish policy toward subject-states and in her dependence on mercenaries rather than on citizen soldiers. 256 ROME The three The first struggle between Rome and Carthage began ^mTthr^^^ in 264 B.C. in a contest for Sicily. Soon after the Romans destruction equipped themselves to fight on the sea, they acquired of Carthage si(^.iiy ^nd later, Sardinia and Corsica. The second by Rome. . ' Punic war was the war waged by Hannibal for fifteen years in Italy against great odds. At Cannae he destroyed the flower of Rome's troops, but he could not break down the allegiance of Rome's allies. When Hasdrubal was defeated at the Metaurus (207), Hannibal was beaten, although he did not acknowledge defeat until Zama (202). A half century later, in 146 B.C., Carthage was destroyed by the jealous and avaricious Romans. Rome mis- Rome expanded to the east as soon as Carthage was ^lu^] °^ *^® out of the way. She was successful against the kings of Mediter- Syria, and of Macedon (Pydna, 168 b.c.) and easily over- ranean. came the disunited states of Greece. Conquests after 146 B.C. extended Roman dominions to the Scottish high- lands on the north, to the Rhine and the Danube on the northeast, to the Euphrates on the east, and to the Sahara desert on the south. Bad results Rome's success and the introduction of wealth and ^LT^^^~ luxury from abroad made her people less religious and moral. She was no longer governed by the people but by a set of wealthy senators. The provinces were badly ruled and the provincials were oppressed by the tax- farmers. In Italy the rise of great estates, the spread of slavery and the decay of the peasantry prepared the way for mob rule in Rome, for the ascendency of generals and finally for the empire. General References West, The Roman World, Revised, 357-418. Seignobos, History of the Roman People, 86-176. Seignobos, Ancient Civilization, 233-273. Freeman, Chief Periods of European History, 29-59. sion. CHANGES IN ROME 257 Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 109-198. How and Leigh, History of Rome, 131-326. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 379-416. Smith, Rome and Carthage. Topics Carthage : How and Leigh, History of Rome; 143-149 ; Cunningham, Western Civilization, I, 140-150 ; Smith, Rome and Carthage, 5-22. Hannibal: Davis, Readings, II, 56-60; Dodge, Hannibal, 642-653; Plutarch, Lives, "Hannibal." MiSGOVERNMENT OF THE PROVINCES '. West, Ancient World, 413-417; Davis, Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, 16-23; Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 173-189; Cicero, Oration Against Verres. Studies 1. Etruscans, Greeks and Carthaginians. Freeman, Story of Sicily, 76-86, 2. Dionysius and Timoleon. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 241-246. 3. Rome and Carthage before the first Punic, war. Munro, Source Book of Rome and History, 89-91. • 4. Influence of sea power in second Punic war. Mahan, Influence of Sea Power, 14-21. 5. Regulus, an old Roman. 6. End of the first Punic war. Munro, Source Book, 81-84. 7. Hamilcar Barca. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient His- tory, 380-382. 8. Hannibal crossing the Alps. Munro, Source Book, 85-86. 9. Cannae. How and Leigh, History of Rome, 194-198. 10. Metaurus. Creasy, Decisive Battles of the World, ch, IV. 11. Social and religious changes after the defeat of Hannibal. Seignobos, History of the Roman People, 144-151. 12. Slavery in Rome. Seignobos, Ancient Civilization, 255- 261. 13. A governor in his province. Church, Roman Life in the Days of Cicero, 247-266. 14. Tax farmers and usurers under the republic. Davis, Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, 23-36. 15. Causes of the fall of the republic. How and Leigh, History of Rome, 322-326. s 258 ROME Questions 1. What were the three great steps in the expansion of Rome ? How did the subjugation of Carthage and the cities of East influence Rome ? 2. Outhne the struggle in the western Mediterranean: (1) be- tween the Etruscans, Greeks and Carthaginians ; (2) between the Carthaginians and Greeks ; (3) between Rome and Car- thage. 3. Who were Gelon, Dionysius, Timoleon, Agathocles and Pyrrhus ? What were Himera, the Sicilian expedition and a PjTrhic victory ? 4. Show the importance of Carthage. Consider location, dominions, trade, government and navy. Compare Rome with Carthage. 5. How many wars were there between Rome and Carthage ? Characterize each, that is, explain very briefly the real nature of each struggle. 6. Explain the policy 'of Hannibal. Give an account of his methods and describe one battle. Why did not the allies desert Rome ? Why was the second Punic war as well as the first decided by "sea power," that is, by the control of the sea? 7. Tell about the conquest of Macedonia, Syria and Greece. Why was Rhodes humiliated ? Why were Corinth and Car- thage destroyed ? Why were Tyre, Corinth and Carthage after- ward rebuilt ? 8. Draw a map showdng the five different stages in Roman expansion. Did Rome gain more territory before 146 b.c. or after 146 b.c? Why do we take 146 b.c. as the end of the period of the "expansion of the nations" ? 9. Name the three classes of changes in Rome during the sec- ond and first centuries before Christ. Explain each as fully as possible. First name the chief changes under each class, and then explain those that you have named. Make a summary of this for your note-book. 10. Explain : MylsB, the earliest provinces, Fabian policy, Metaurus, Zama, Pydna, Magnesia, bequests of the king of Pergamum, tax-farming, publicans, the "city rabble." PART III THE ROMAN WORLD STATE (146 B.C.-476 A.D.) CHAPTER XI THE REVOLUTION AND IMPERIALISM (146 B.C.-14 A.D.) 335. The Problem of Governing the Roman World, The prob- 133 B.C. — As we have seen, two great changes had been ^^^\°.^ ^^' ' ^ ^ ganizing going on in the Mediterranean world during the second the Roman century before Christ; (1) the expansion of the Roman ^^R^^^" power until practically every country that bordered on the Mediterranean was either subject to Rome or a dependent ally of Rome ; and (2) the decadence of the old simple life and spirit of the Roman people. One part of the problem then was how to organize these conquered countries into a siiigle '' empire,^'' or vast republic. Another part of the problem was the question as to The prob- who should govern this immense area. Under the consti- should ^ov- tution that had been developed during the early years of em the the republic, as we noticed, after 287 b.c. the law gave the ^o^li" power of governing Rome to the assemblies, but custom and ability had left it to the senate. Neither the assemblies nor the senate knew how to govern properly so vast a realm as the Roman armies had conquered. In 133 the senate was not only governing Roman dominions unwisely, but the senate itself was narrow, selfish, and incompetent. The assemblies were just as incapable of governing, for they were largely made up of self-seeking merchants, of property owners corrupted by unaccustomed wealth and slavery, and of the city mob, degraded by poverty. The century from 133 to 27 b.c. was taken up with The Revo- attempts to solve these two problems. This century after ^"*^o"- 133 B.C. is sometimes called the century of the Revolution. 261 262 ROME Character and pur- pose of the Gracchi. Reforms and death of Tiberius. The Early Revolution — Revolt against Sena- torial Rule (146-88 b.c.) 336. The Reforms of the Gracchi. — The first attack upon the senatorial rule came from two brothers of noble aims and high principles. Ti-be'ri-us and Ga'ius Grac'chus belonged to a plebeian family of nobles, and through their mother, the famous Cor-ne'li-a, were descended from Scipio Africanus, the Elder. Their real purpose was to relieve the distress of the poor citizens who had been driven from their farms (§ 333) in the vain effort to find a living in Rome. 337. Tiberius Gracchus. — Having been elected trib- une in 133 B.C., Tiberius Gracchus tried to get a redistri- bution of the public lands, according to the Licinian laws (§ 291). This aroused the enmity of the senators, many of whom had occupied large blocks of state land which they did not wish to give up. Tiberius appealed to the people in assembly and they passed his law, as they had a legal right to do, but they were obliged to remove a tribune who had vetoed the law at the request of the sena- torial party. This was a very ancient use of the modern method that we term the " recall." Tiberius then tried to secure his own reelection as tribune, although the law did not provide for reelection. The senators, alarmed at the great increase in the tribune's power under Tiberius, and fearing the loss to themselves if his programme of reform was com- pleted, attacked him in the city streets and put him to death. Thus violence pointed the way to the military rule which finally overthrew the republic. But the death, of Tiberius did not end his work, for later censuses show that within a few years the number of land owners in Italy increased 80,000. 338. The Work of Gaius Gracchus (123 B.C.). — Gains Gracchus continued the work of Tiberius for the relief of THE EARLY REVOLUTION 263 the peasants in Rome and in Italy. In addition he devel- Gaius oped plans for the complete reorganization of the Roman ^^^cchus government. In two successive terms as tribune/ he tribunate sought to make himself legal ruler of Rome. To do this powerful Ml r ^^^ plans Gaius made the tribune by far the most powerful magis- many trate in the government. He relieved the city of many ^^fo"^s. of its poor by continuing the distribution of the public lands, and by sending out colonists outside of Italy. He gained the favor of the city voters by distributing grain at half price. This followed a custom that had been used by many nobles, but was a dangerous practice which he probably intended should be temporary. It was used later by demagogues and generals to win popular favor and was, unfortunately, the only law of Gaius Gracchus that survived. His downfall came with his statesmanlike suggestion Gaius that citizenship should be extended to the Italians, a ^^^'^^"^^ ^ _ / IS over- proposal that united the senate and the city mob against thrown by him. When Gaius Gracchus failed to secure a second senate, reelection as tribune, a senatorial force attacked his fol- lowers in the streets, killing him and three thousand of his supporters. The senate quickly reestablished its supremacy and undid, so far as it could, the work of Gracchus, but it could not conceal the need of reform, nor destroy the demand for it. A revolution had begun. 339. The Briberies of Jugurtha. — For several years The wars after the death of Gaius Gracchus, Rome was ruled by j^^^^j-tha the senate, which was corrupt and inefficient. The revolt of the people against this misrule was brought about by the failure of the war against Ju-gur'tha, who had seized the throne of Nu-mid'i-a in Africa and had bribed and defeated every army that the senate sent against him. He was summoned to Rome to answer charges against him, of massacring thousands of Roman subjects, but he 1 A man could now hold the position of tribune more than one year. 264 ROME Marius conquers Jugurtha and the Germans. By yielding citizenship Rome finally over- throws the Italians. bought his freedom. On his departure he is reported to have said, " Oh, city for sale and doomed to speedy ruin, if it finds a purchaser." 340. Marius, the Saviour of Rome. — The people demanded a leader who was incorruptible. They found one in Gains Ma'ri-us, an uneducated man of humble parentage, but an able general. Marius found the army honeycombed with corruption. He reformed it, defeated Jugurtha and his allies, and, with the aid of Lu'cius Sul'la, captured Jugurtha. He was at once reelected consul and was recalled to Italy to repel the invasion of two hordes of Germans, the Cim'bri and the Teu-ton'es. These tribes, having defeated four consuls, were threaten- ing to seize the rich lands of northern Italy and plund(T the wealthy cities. Six years in succession Marius held the consulship. In 102, at Aquae Sex'ti-2e, in Southern Gaul, he destroyed the huge force of the Teutones, and the next year, at the Raud'ine plain in northern Italy, he anni- hilated the Cimbri as well. For four centuries, Rome was comparatively free from invasion by the barbarians. 341. The Social War. — Marius made the army demo- cratic by abolishing social distinctions and by admitting landless men from Rome and Italy into the legions, but he did nothing for the Italians. As the Italians were op- pressed by the Romans, they formed a new Italian state which they defended in a war known as the social war, from the Latin word " socii," meaning allies.^ Rome took prompt and vigorous measures to crush the revolts, but the Italians were not conquered. Then the Roman government offered full citizenship to those Italians who had remained loyal. Later the same rights were granted 1 A tribune, Marcus Drusus, tried to secure for the discontented Italians the rights of citizenship which Gaius Gracchus had proposed for them. His law was passed, but Drusus was assassinated, and the law was vetoed by the senate. STRUGGLE OF LEADERS FOR SUPREMACY 265 to those who swore allegiance to Rome within sixty days.^ These laws and a vigorous campaign by Sulla ended the war, although more blood was shed before the new Italian citizens were finally enrolled as voters. The number of Roman citizens loas more than doubled by these changes^ and Italy from the Rubicon to Tarentum was united into a single state. The Struggle of Military Leaders for Supremacy (88-46 B.C.) 342. The War with Mithridates (88-84 B.C.). — Disorder and violence were common features of the party strife that went on at Rome each year, but as yet no leader had used an organized army to secure power. Sulla, the aristocrat, champion of the senate, was the first to introduce the army into Roman politics. Unfortunately he had many successors. He did this in order to secure command of the force to be sent against Mith-ri-da'tes, king of Pontus. The assembly had voted that Marius, the democratic leader, should have the command ; the sen- ate, on the contrary, selected Sulla, the leader of the aristocrats. 2 Mithridates seemed as great a danger as the invasions of the Cimbri and the Teutones a few years earlier. He was king of Pontus, on the south shore of the Black Sea.^ ^ The Italians wanted full rights of citizenship as a protection. They did not care particularly about voting in Rome, but they did wish to be able to protect themselves from insult and their property from seizure. Only full citizens were really able to do this. 2 As soon as Sulla left Italy, however, Marius and his friends re- entered Rome, where they murdered the friends of Sulla and plundered their homes. Marius was no longer an able general and a wise leader, but a harsh, revengeful old man who died soon after this Ijutchery. ^ He was a man of gigantic stature, able, and cruel, but with a polish that came from a Greek education. On an appointed day he had massacred all of the Italians in Asia Minor, men, women and children, numbering perhaps one hundred thousand. Contest foi command in the Mithri- datic war (SS B.C.). Conquests and mas- sacres of Mithri- dates in the East. 266 ROME Sulla con- quers Mithri- dates. Sulla's pro- scriptions (82). Having conquered his immediate neighbors, he had in- cited all of the eastern provinces of Rome to revolt. Mithridates then crossed into Greece and was joined by the Greeks and many of the Macedonians. Although Sulla had only a small army, he had no great difficulty in defeating the forces of Mithridates and driving them out of Europe. Mithridates was glad to make peace by surrendering most of his conquests in Asia Minor. He preferred to wait for a more favorable time to attack Rome (§344). 343. The Rule of Sulla. — After conquering Mithri- dates, Sulla returned to Italy, which the democratic party defended to the best of their ability. By a victory just outside the Colline Gate of Rome, he gained complete control of the government. Sulla immediately l)egan a series of proscriptions in which he and his followers murdered their enemies and seized their property. No one's Hfe was safe, for a fresh list of those that might be killed for a reward was published every day, and private enmity or greed caused the death of many men of ability or wealth who had not opposed Sulla. The horrors of these fiendish proscriptions were not forgotten for two generations. Sulla completed his work by reestablishing the rule of the senate in a constitution which also intro- duced some necessary reforms.^ The constitution lasted barely a decade, but Sulla had set an example of rule by '^ blood and iron " that other Romans were quick to follow. 1 Sulla restored the rule of the senate. He tried to cripple the tribune by not allowing a person who had been tribune to hold any other office. These changes lasted but a few years. Other changes lasted longer. He increased the number of financial and judicial officers in Rome and Italy, since more were needed. He prescribed that none should hold important offices until he had served in lesser offices, thus giving the higher magis- trates training for their work. These reforms might have been valuable, had not Rome already abandoned civil rule for leadership by its great generals. STRUGGLE OF LEADERS FOR SUPREMACY 267 344. Pompey. — Soon after the death of Sulla, a young Conrjuests man named Pom'pey became the most prominent citizen ^ ompey. of Rome. Pompey had helped Sulla, had conquered Spain by the aid of assassins and had put clown the revolt of the gladiators under Spar'ta-cus. In a remarkably short cam- paign of forty days, Pompey swept the pirates from the eastern Mediterranean. Then he again conquered Mithri- dates, accepting all of the glory that belonged to his immedi- ate predecessor. Pompey also invaded Syria and Palestine. In Jerusalem Pompey not only visited the temple but entered the Holy of Holies. He thus gave Rome a claim to lands in the east Mediterranean coast, as well as most of Asia Minor. oinpc.v 345. Cicero and the Conspiracy of Catiline. — While Catiline's Pompey was in the East an attempt was made by Cat'i-Une ^'*^^* to gain control of the government of Rome. He gathered about himself an army of discontented men. When Catiline was denounced in the senate by Cic'e-ro, who was consul that year, he fled and his army was destroyed. Cicero was an able man and a great orator. He was a " new man," since he did not belong to one of the families that held most of the offices. His orations and writings were polished and interesting, but Cicero was vain and timid. The work of preserving and reorganizing Rome was left to men of tougher fibre. 346. The First Triumvirate. — When Pompey returned Cicero, the man and the orator. 268 ROME The alli- ance of Poiupoy Crassus and Caesar. Julius Csesar. Caesar conquers Gaul, and Gaul gives him mili- tary help. to Rome, after the defeat of Mithridates and the pirates, with a great, if rather undeserved, miUtary reputation, he found that the ruHng nobles were jealous of his fame. He therefore allied himself with a rich man named Cras'sus and an exceedingly popular patrician, Ju'lius Cae'sar. This alliance of Pompey, Csesar and Crassus was called the first tri-umVi-rate. These three men practically dominated Rome. After a year as consul, Csesar was ap.- pointed proconsul of Gaul for five years. 347. Julius Caesar. — Julius Caesar is one of the most interesting, as well as one of the ablest men of history. Although he belonged to a patrician family, he was related by marriage to Marius, the leader of the popular party, and had sided with Marius against Sulla. After Sulla's death he had been elected to positions in which he had entertained the populace of Rome at great expense, his creditors paying the bills. Csesar realized as perhaps few men did that Rome could never be governed again by either the senate or the assembly. Since Rome must be ruled by one man, a military leader, Csesar decided to be that man, and he sought in Gaul the army that should make him ma-ster of Rome. Csesar conquered Gaul in a series of brilliant cam- paigns that he describes graphically and simply in his well-known, if not well-beloved, book on the Gallic war. By skilful diplomac}' he solved the serious problems of the Gallic tribes. Caesar united Gaul and made it half-civilized, giving the province a firm, wise rule. Gaul helped him even more, for it gave him military experi- ence. It furnished him an army of veterans who were greatly attached to him and would do anything for him. 348. Pompey versus Caesar. — Csesar needed this ex- perience and this help. The senate and Pompey, fearing Csesar, told him to give up his command and return to THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN EMPIRE 269 Rome. Knowing that he would not be safe in Rome By defeat- if he were alone, Caesar crossed the Ru'bi-con River with JJ^^^ ^^^^ his army (49 b.c.).^ Pompey and his friends immediately becomes fled. Caesar at once made himself master of Rome and ^q^^^!^ ° Italy, treating with generosity his opponents who had re- mained. With his army he followed Pompey into Greece, where he defeated him. Pompey fled to Egypt, where his head was brought to the conqueror. In three years from the time that he crossed the Rubicon, Coesar had made himself master of the Mediterranean world. The Establishment of an Empire, 46 e.g.- 14 a.d. 349. The Work of Caesar. — In order to carry on his work Caesar concentrated in his own hands almost auto- cratic powers. Not only was he im-per-a'tor, that is, military com- mander, but he held the offices of dictator, consul and many others. ^ Caesar enlarged the senate and per- mitted some provincials, especially the Gauls, to have full Roman citi- zenship. By establishing sound govern- ment in Rome, Caesar virtually changed the decaying and disor- derly republic into an empire. He looked after the health and order of the imperial city. He reduced the mob that had been 1 The Rubicon separated Italy from a province on the north. Gov- ernors were not allowed to return to Italy with their armies, an act of that kind being considered treason. That is the reason that Caesar hesi- tated at the Ruliicon and finally plunged in, saying, "The die is cast." 2 He exercised the powers of chief judge and of trilmne. He could not hold the office of tribune, since he belonged to a' patrician family. Naturally all branches of the government were under his authority, so that Rome and her dominions were governed according to his wishes. Julius Csesar. Powers held by Julius Csesar. Political and social reforms of Csesar. 270 ROME Cajsar's death. Octavius and his associates. fed at public expense, partly by establishing in the prov- inces colonies of Roman citizens, a scheme proposed by Gaius Gracchus years before. By making the provincial governors responsible directly to himself, and by creat- ing a system of more direct taxation Caesar gave to the provinces a much better and a much less costly government. He introduced the calendar from Egypt, since New Year's day under the old Roman calendar came only a short time before the spring solstice in March. One of the months of the reformed calendar he named after himself, July. These examples of reform show how exten- sive and thorough were the changes made by Caesar. 350. The Second Triumvirate. — Caesar's autocratic rule aroused against him the envy of many who wished to overthrow him. As Shakespeare has so vividly told us, Cassius and Brutus were among the leaders of the con- spiracy against Caesar. In March, 44 B.C., Caesar was attacked in the capitol and fell, mortally wounded, at the foot of Pompey's statue. Caesar's work did not die with him. His nephew and adopted son, Oc-taVi-us, arranged a second triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus, Caesar's master of the horse. Octavius, although a mere youth at this time, showed himself a cold-blooded and unprincipled schemer. Without mercy these three triumvirs hunted down their enemies in Rome and abroad. So many estates were confiscated by the triumvirs that no buyers for land could be found, although it was offered at very low prices. For years Italy had been losing her people, who had gone to Rome or the provinces. After the pro- scriptions of the triumvirs farms, hamlets and even cities were practically aVjandoned. 351. The Success of Octavius. — After ten years of autocratic rule, Lepidus having been dropped, Antony and Octavius quarrelled. Their forces met at Ac'ti-um THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN EMPIRE 271 (31 B.C.) off the west coast of Greece. Antony and his sweetheart, Cle-o-pa'tra, Queen of Egypt, sailed away, leaving their fleet to its fate. A little later Antony com- mitted suicide in Egypt in order that he might not be captured by Octavius. Cleopatra was considered the most beautiful woman of her time. She had charmed Pompey, and Caesar and Antony, but her charms made no impression on Octavius. Rather than march through the streets of Rome in the '' triumph " of Octavius, Cleopatra killed herself. Octavius was now master of the Roman world. On his return to Rome he celebrated a triumph and closed the gates of the temple of Janus, an act signifying that the Roman world was at peace. But three times had these gates been closed since the days of Romulus. 352. The Need of Empire. — The people welcomed the strong rule of one man because they were tired of the quarrels between military leaders. During the preceding- century there had been so much disorder in Rome and in Italy that life was not safe. On the sea piracy was common, even after the time of Pompey. In some of the provinces brigandage was continuous ; in others it was merely inter- mittent. The empire promised peace. There was need of a strong hand to protect business and stop the exploitation of all Roman possessions. A law had already been passed reducing the rate of interest that capitalists might charge to one per cent a month. A government was needed that would enforce this law, that would safeguard proper investments of capital, at the same time that it checked speculation. 353. Changing Conditions in the Roman World. — The Roman world had been prepared for a Roman empire in many ways. Rome was no longer a city of Romans. It was cosmopolitan, its population being made up chiefly of provincials and other foreigners. As rulers, merchants or Octavius becomes master of the Roman world. Cleopatra. The return of Augustus to Rome. Need of peace and order. Protection of business. Growing unity within Roman world. 272 ROME Political, econoniif and social demoraliza- tion of Rome and Italy. Autocratic powers held by Augus- tus. soldiers, the Romans and Italians had gone to every part of the Roman world. The Mediterranean world was becoming Romanized (§§ 382-387). It was demanding a government capable of ruling a world-state. As neither the senate nor the assemblic^s had ])een ca- pable of ruling the empire, Rome and Italy had become demoralized. Bribery, vote-selling and mob influence were not the worst evils that existed. In business, men seemed to have lost all idea of right and wrong. There was little respect for the sacredness of family life. The moral standards of society were shockingly low. Although these changes were not due to the lack of good government, they were aggravated by the misrule of the preceding century. In time, with better government, the conditions in Rome and Italy improved very much. 354. The Rule of Augustus, — As soon as Octavius was in control of the Roman world, he offered to give up all of the extraordinary offices that he held and re- store the rule of the senate and assembly. The people at once thrust new honors on him, proclaiming him Au-gus'-tus, 27 B.C., and adding to his office of imperatcr, from which we get our word emperor, the power of con- sul within the city and proconsul outside. He himself preferred to be called prin'ceps, that is, first citizen, some- Augustus. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN EMPIRE 273 what like Pericles, the '' uncrowned king " of Athens, and he referred to the years of his reign by the years that he held the power of tribune. He did this to gain favor with the common people, the tribune being pri- marily a popular official. Although Augustus held almost absolute authority^ The pres- he carefully preserved the forms of republican rule. The ^J^^e^^^u assemblies met, made laws, and elected magistrates, lican forms The senate deliberated as in former years. The rule of ^^ . •^ empire. Augustus was one of influence as well as power, for he was now moderate, kind and beloved by his people. 355. The Provinces under Augustus. — As a wise The two general and statesman, Augustus extended the territories ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^ _ . provmces of the empire to the Rhine and the Danube on the north, and their to the Euphrates on the east and to the Sahara desert on ^^^^^^~ the south. He reorganized the provinces, continuing the provincial reforms of Julius Caesar. He divided all provinces into two classes, the senatorial and the imperial. The senatorial provinces were the older and more settled provinces which were directly under the supervision of the senate. The more distant and exposed provinces Augus- tus kept under his own direct supervision, since the army was needed to repress outbreaks of the people or invasions from abroad. The provinces became orderly, and a juster method of collecting taxes greatly lightened the burdens of the oppressed provincials. 356. Rome under Augustus. — Augustus ruled the Public empire until his death in 14 a.d. He was therefore able to ^uiidmgs and im- do a great deal more both for the provinces and for Rome provements than Julius Caesar had been able to do in the two or three of Augustus. years of his rule. So many improvements did Augustus make in the imperial city that he could justly boast that he " found Rome brick and left it marble." ^ 1 This applies to the public thoroughfares and buildings, not to the homes of the people. T 274 ROME Bread and games for the popu- lace. Deification of the emperor. Germany remains free from Roman influence. The birth of Jesus Christ. Augustus was very generous to the people. He ex- tended the number of persons to whom free corn was granted. He furnished more elaborate games and amuse- ments for free entertainments of the populace. By his direction the water supply of Rome was improved greatly. But when the people suggested that free corn and free water should be supplemented by free wine, even good- natured Augustus rebelled. After his death Julius Caesar was deified by the Romans. Augustus did not wait for death, but set up in many places in the provinces altars for the joint worship of Rome and Augustus. Thus we see that it was Augustus' ambition to be not only the ruler of Rome, but to be associated also with the gods as the divine ruler of the empire. 357. Germany and Palestine under Augustus. — The reign of Augustus brought epoch-making changes to Germany and Judea. The Germans had pressed across the Rhine so many times that Augustus decided to invade Germany. One of his generals crossed to the Elbe, but a few years later (9 a.d.) the Germans under Ar-min'i-us rose in rebellion against the Roman governor, \^ar'us, and destroyed a Roman army. After news of the disaster reached Rome, Augustus was heard to exclaim, '' Varus, Varus, give me back my legions." The attempt to make Germany a Roman province was abandoned, and the Germans were allowed to develop without coming directly under Roman influence. During the reign of Augustus a leader far greater than Augustus was born (5 B.C.), in the little village of Beth- lehem, in Judea. The birth of Jesus Christ, with his teach- ing, and crucifixion and resurrection under Augustus' successor, Ti-ber'i-us, introduced into ancient civilization a new element whose influence upon humanity was to exceed that of the justly famous civilizations of Greece and Rome. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN EMPIRE 275 358. Roman Literature. — Augustus and many of his Literature supporters patronized letters very liberally. In the last before years of the republic there had been several distinguished writers in Rome. Cicero (§ 345) was famous not only as an orator, but as a man of letters. He has left us some of the best pictures that we have of life in his day. Ccesar wrote chiefly of war, but his simple, direct style makes his writings literature instead of annals. Sal'lust was a keen writer and critic. The reign of Augustus produced several famous writers The Golden and this period is frequently called the Golden Age of ^^^ °^ Roman literature. In the time of Augustus Vir'gil wrote literature, his great epic, the .^neid (§ 130). Li'vy gathered all of the old legends and accounts, writing a history of Rome in more than a hundred books. Like Herodotus, Livy was rather too credulous and his accounts may not always be absolutely depended upon. Hor'ace was famous for his Odes and other shorter poems. Although no age in Roman history was so famous for Writers its literature as that of Augustus, the period immediately ^^stus^^' following produced several notable writers and philos- ophers. Tac'i-tus wrote of the Germans and the invasion of Britain. Many of the quotations in chapter XIV are from Tacitus. Ju've-naVs Satires criticised severely the manners and morals of his time. Sen'e-ca, the tutor of the emperor Nero, and Mar'cus Au-re'li-us (§ 394) were two great Roman philosophers. 359. Summary. — In 133 B.C. Rome was ruled by her The decline corrupt nobles through the senate. An attempt was made ^^ ^^^^~ by the tribunes Tiberius and Gains Gracchus to over- throw the power of the senate and restore that of the people. Both of the Gracchi met violent deaths. Marius saved Rome from the invasions of the Cimbri and the Teutones, but he could not establish order. The Italians objected to the narrow policy of the senate and secured the right to help rule Rome. 276 ROME Rule of Rome by a succession of military conmian- dcrs. Caesar shows the way to an empire which Au- gustus es- tablished. After the admission of the ItaHans it became more evi- dent that Rome must be ruled by one man, a mihtary leader. Marius failed to become ruler of Rome because he lacked ability. Sulla, the conqueror of Mithridates, king of Pontus, next became the leader in Rome, using his army in Italy to enforce his wishes. Sulla was narrow and vindictive and failed partly because he tried to rule through the senate. Pompey the Great, who conquered the East, was obliged to form a triumvirate with Caesar and Crassus in order to have power in Rome. Later he quarrelled with Csesar, who had gained an army and military experience in Gaul. Caesar crossed the Rubicon into Italy, defeated Pompey at Pharsalus (48 B.C.), and made himself master of Rome. Caesar held many offices and ruled Rome wisely but arbitrarily until he was assassinated by men who in- sisted on having a republic. His adopted son, Octavius, after forming the second triumvirate, quarrelled with Anton}^ defeated him at Actium (31 b.c.) and made him- self in turn master of Rome. Rome had already been prepared for empire, politically, economically and socially. Octavius was hailed as Augustus, and held many offices or powers, but kept up the forms of the republic. Really he estabhshed an empire (27 b.c). He reorganized the provinces into two classes, senatorial and imperial. He established direct taxes. He gave Rome a better water supply and finer buildings. In his reign, which has been called the Golden Age, literature flourished, and Jesus Christ was born. For two centuries after Augustus the Roman empire remained at its height. General References Botsl'ord, Ilislorij of Ihr Ancient Worhl, 409-462. Botsford, The Story of Rome, l.'39-241. Davis, Readings in Ancient Hiatorij, II, S5-181. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN EMPIRE 277 Beesly, The Gracchi, Mcirius and Sulla. Seignobos, History of the Roman People, 177-288. Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 201-509. How and Leigh, History of Rome, 322-557. Topics The Work of Gaius Gracchus : Botsford, Source Booh, 421-425; How and Leigh, History of Rome, 343-357; Beesly, The Gracchi, Marius and Sulla, 35-64 : Plutarch, Lives, "Gaius Gracchus." The Social War : Seignobos, Roman People, 196-199 ; How and Leigh, History of Rome, 399-412 ; Heitland, The Roman Republic, II, 423-458. C^SAR : West, The Ancient World, 445-457 ; How and Leigh, History of Rome, 539-551 ; Warde-Fowler, Caesar, 326-359, 379-384. The Government of Augustus : Morey, Outlines of Roman History, 217-224 ; Capes, Early Empire, 6-23 ; Jones, Roman Empire, 1-19 ; Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, 400-455. Studies 1. Tiberius Gracchus, Botsford (eds.). Story of Rome, 160-166. 2. Corruption of the senate by Jugurtha. Davis, Readings, II, 109-111. 3. The reign of terror under Sulla. Davis, Readings, II, 115- 117. 4. Sertorius in Spain; Plutarch, Lives (Ginn ed.), 226-243. 5. The revolt of Spartacus. Guerber, Story of the Romans, 167-170. 6. Caesar's early experience as a Roman official. Davis, Readings, II, 138-142. 7. A Roman candidate for the consulship, 63 b.c. Davis, Readings, II, 129-135. 8. Conspiracy of Catiline. Church, Roman Life in the Days of Cicero, 129-149. 9. Cicero and Demosthenes. Lodge (ed.). World's Classics, I, 190-196. 10. Gaul in the time of Caesar. Botsford (eds.), The Story of Rome, 202-210. 11. The funeral of Caesar. Davis, Readings, II, 154-158. 278 ROME 12. Antony and Cleopatra. Davis, Readings, II, 162-106. 13. The deeds of Augustus. Davis, Rvndinqs, II, 16()-172. 14. Augustus as a social and religious reformer. P^irth, Augustus C(Fsar, 199-221. 15. The poet Virgil. Sandys (ed.), Coinpauion to Roman Studies, 619-621. l(j. Deification of Augustus. Capes, Early Empire, 41-44. Questions 1. Explain as clearly as possible the difference between the law and the fact in the government of Rome 133 b.c. How is the corruption of Rome shown by the attempted reforms of the Gracchi? in the struggle with Jugurtha ? 2. Compare the plans, powers and work of Tiberius and Gains Gracchus. 3. How did the Gracchi injure Rome (1) by maintaining their power by illegal means ? (2) by distributing cheap grain to the people ? 4. Show the importance of the Social War. (Compare § 385, next chapter.) 5. What did Rome owe to Marius, Sulla and Pompey as mili- tary leaders ? as civil rulers ? 6. Of what value were the triumvirates to their members? Could a triumvirate be possible except as a temporary expedient, in a time of transition ? 7. Make a table showing the powers held by Caesar and Augustus, and the reforms made by each. 8. Show how the Roman world was prepared for empire, politically, ecoiiomically, socially. 9. Compare taxation and the rule of the provinces under the late republic and under the empire. 10. Why did Rome need an imperial government? CHAPTER XII THE ROMAN WORLD Rome and the Empire 360. Imperial Rome — The Forum. — The Rome of The Roman Augustus and his successors was a city of more than a v°7^"-id^*^ milHon people, very different in size and appearance from ings. that ancient Rome which had defied and finally had de- feated Hannibal. The centre of the Roman world is still the Forum/ a long, rather narrow area between Rome's two most famous hills, the Capitoline and the Palatine.^ In the views of the Forum on the next page, we are looking toward Capitoline hill. At the extreme left we see the palaces of the Caesars. Near the centre the base of the basilica of Julius (Csesar) is still to be seen in the upper picture. Beside this ran the '' Via Sacra," the Sacred Way, which began at the golden milestone from which all distances were reckoned on the famous Roman roads. Directly in front of us formerly stood the famous platform, marked by shafts in the lower view, and deco- rated with the beaks of captured galleys. This platform was called, from the Roman word " beaks," the rostra, thus we get the word rostrum. To the right of this platform, beyond the later triumphal arch of Septimius 1 Besides the Forum were forums of the Caesars and of later emperors, usually constructed to the north of the Forum of the republic, that is, at the right of our views of the Forum. 2 The Forum was drained after the founding of the republic by the famous "Cloaca Maxima." Tradition, however, assigns the building of this great sewer to the time of the Etruscan kings. 279 280 ROME Arches, circuses, amphi- theatres and other buildings. Severus, was the senate house. The heights in the back- ground were crowned by the temples of .Jupiter and Juno. 361. Imperial Rome — Pubhc Buildings. — If we were to turn around, we should see, near at hand, the arch of Titus, and, farther away, the Colosseum and the arch of Constantine. All of these were erected by emperors later than Augustus. Beyond the Palatine hill, between that i • '— . ■■■■ V^"^ 'mWi mS"' ri i7vl!S The Forum To-day. The Forum, Restored. liy (Jatlcschx 1. Capitolinc Hill. 2. Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 3. Roman Forum. 4. Palatine Hill. 5. Palaces of the Emperors. 6. Circus Maximus. 7. Baths of Caracalla. 8. Claudian Aqueduct. 9. Temple of Claudius. 10. Baths of Trajan. 11. Colosseum. 12. Forum of Peace. GENERAL VIEW OF IMPERIAL R< 13. Forum of AuRUstus. 14. Fonini of CiP.sar. 15. Forum of Trajan. 1(). Baths of Constantiuc. 17. Temple of the Sun. 18. Mausoleum of Augustus. 19. Mausoleum of Hadrian. 20. Stadium. 21. Pantheon. 22. Odeon. 23. Theatres. 24. Circus of Fhiminius. E, RESTORED (Time of Constantine). ROME AND THE EMPIRE 281 and the Aventine hill, was the Circus Maximus, the largest and most famous of the circuses in the empire. If we were to ascend Capitoline hill, we could look out across the Campus Martins, on which stood the fine Pantheon, built The Colosseum, Present Condition. for all gods, and many attractive theatres, porticos and baths. Across the river in this direction the emperor Hadrian erected a beautiful mausoleum, which still stands and is called the castle of St. Angelo. Beyond this, where to-day we find St. Peter's church and the pope's residence, the Vatican, was one of the many circuses of Rome. 362. Public Welfare Work in Rome. — Long before Lack of the days of the republic, it had been necessary to drain !|].op^r^°^' the marshes between the principal hills, in order to have building land for business and 'houses, as the city grew. Even in ffj^ p^otec- the time of the empire, however, the public sanitation tion. was imperfect and there was almost no attempt at street cleaning or collection of garbage. There were regulations 282 ROME in regard to the height of buildings, but the streets were narrow and vacant land in building districts was more uncommon than in lower New York to-day. Fires were frequent and there was no fire department except the guard- ians of the peace, who used buckets and other primitive fire The Pantheon. Aqueducts and foun- tains gave free water. apparatus.^ Building regulations must have been poor or carelessly enforced, for many buildings fell down each year. There had been aqueducts before Augustus, but the new aqueducts constructed under that emperor and Claudius greatly improved the supply of water. Public fountains were placed in all of the numerous plazas. From these water was supplied free to all. ' Crassus, the triumvir (§ .346), made a large part of hi.s money by buying up house.s that were on fire, or were near those on fire. His own followers then aided in extinguishing the flames. ROME AND THE EMPIRE 283 In spite of several thousand guardians of the peace, Rome was disorderly as well as dirty. Life was not always safe in daylight, and it was not wise for a Roman to go about without attendants at night. 363. Cities of the Empire. — The early Roman empire was largely an empire of cities, especially in the East. The older cities did not imitate Rome very closely, but were frequently more distinguished as centres of commerce and culture than Rome. In every city of importance there were fine public buildings and arches and statues, as there were in Rome, sometimes erected at public expense and sometimes donated by rich provincials. In the West Lack of proper police protection. The cities of the em- pire were often little Romes, with some self-gov- ernment at first. Ruins of the Gymnasium of Hadrian, Athens. there were fora, circuses and theatres, as in Rome. Most cities had assemblies, local senates and magistrates, chosen by themselves, with the consent of Rome. These munici- palities taxed themselves, paying to the Roman represent- atives the amount to be set aside for the imperial treasury. 284 ROME jiTfV (^ L - , J liKr^:^'^r: ■ ■»L, Ry . soldiers, Garrisons of soldiers stationed in the provinces, or colonies merchants established at different points, became centres for the ^V^, ^°^°" ^ ' . , rusts. spread of the language of Rome — Latin. This was not the book-Latin of the best orators, but a colloquial language, the speech of the streets and the barracks. Latin first gained a foothold in those provinces which. Develop- like Spain, had no well-developed language of their own. ™^^* ^^ It took root finally in all western Europe, and from it Roman or sprang a number of Roman or Romance lanquaqes, chiefly ]^o™^^ce . i} ij T J languages the Italian, the French, the Spanish and the Portuguese, in western Garrisons and colonists in Dacia made that province ^^^°p^- largely Roman, the Rou-ma'ni-a of our day. Elsewhere in the East, Greek rather than Latin was' the universal tongue and the official language, for Greek was already in use everywhere in the eastern Mediterranean and was a finer language than the cruder Latin. 387. The Development of Roman Law. — In the law The law of of the Twelve Tables, the city of Rome had a crude and !^^,'^^^ , '^ tables aiid formal set of laws. These were applied and explained by the edicts judges, called prse'tors. Every year the new praetors ^^ *5^^ . . ^ ^ I prsetors. issued edicts stating the law that would be used by them during the year. These prcetor's edicts rather than the Twelve Tables became the law of Rome. As Rome extended her conquests, she was obliged to Develop- decide manv cases between Romans and foreigners, or "^^^* °^,, * . o 7 equity, the between two foreigners from different cities. In doing law of the this the praetors who took charge of such cases relied J^^^^^p"^ ^^^^ . ^ legal codes. on general principles of justice more than they did on the law of the cit.y of Rome. As the Italians and afterward 302 ROME The teach- ings of the Stoics and the Chris- tians helped to make the laws better. The sur- vival of Rome's law in later ages. provincials were admitted to citizenship, it seemed best to give them the benefit of this outside law, the law of the natio?is. After a time the emperors gathered all of these prae-tor'i-an edicts together and arranged them scien- tifically into codes of laws. About the time that these codes were made for the whole Roman world, the Stoics, and, later, the Christians, were making people more considerate of other people and more lenient in the punishment of criminals and in the treat- ment of slaves. So these codes included new and better means for protecting the rights of all people, and espe- cially the rights of those that could not easily protect themselves. This great system of law was Rome's great contribution to the world. The invasion of the Germans in the fourth and fifth centuries did not destroy it, for the Germans accepted as much of the Roman law as they could under- stand. After the German invasions, Justinian, the ruler of the eastern Roman empire, had these Roman laws brought together into a new and more perfect code, the code of Justinian, which is still the basis of most of the law systems of western continental Europe, and survives to-day in the equity law of England and the United States. General References Webster, Ancient History, 386-391, 465-492, 562-600, 631-639. Da\4s, Readings in Ancient History, II, 85-103, 211-284. Tucker, Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul. Fowler, Social Life at Rome. Thomas, Roman Life under the Casars. Preston and Dodge, Private Life of the Romans. Johnston, Private Life of the Romans. Ouhl and Konor, Life of the Greeks and Romans, 297-596. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurcliiis, l(K)-286, Davis, Influence of Wealth in Lmperial Rome Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire^ 143-281. ROMANIZATION OF MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 303 Abbott, The Common People of Ancient Rome. Sandys (ed.), A Companion to Roman Studies. Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries. Topics Municipalities of the Roman Empire : Webster, Ancient History, 476-480 ; Sandys (ed.), A Companion to Roman Studies, 366-379 ; Abbott, The Common People of Ancient Rome, 179- 204; Dill, Rornan Society froin Nero to Marcus Aurelius, 196- 250. The Lower Population : Tucker, Life in the Roman World, 238-259 ; Davis, Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, 194-229 ; Fowler, Social Life at Rome, 24-59. Roman Women and Marriage : Tucker, Life in the Roman World, 289-313 ; Davis, Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, 288-313 ; Fowler, Social Life at Rojne, 135-167. The Roman House : Preston and Dodge, Private Life of the Romans, 28-43; Johnston, Private Life of the Romans, 117-157; Fowler, Social Life, 237-262 ; Tucker, Life in the Roman World, 139-179. Extension of the Latin Language : Sandys (ed.), A Com- panion to Latin Studies, 806-808, 821-827 ; Munro and Sellery (eds.). Medieval Civilization, 3-17; Abbott, The Common People of Ancient Rome, 3-31. Studies 1. The Roman Forum. Tucker, Life in the Roman World, 102-118. 2. The great buildings of Rome. Davis, Readings in Ancient History, 232-235. 3. The water supply of Rome. Tucker, Life in the Roman World, 135-137. 4. Dangers in Rome. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient His- tory, 498-503. 5. Life in the provinces. ' Capes, The Early Empire, 190-202. 6. The decay of the Roman middle class. Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Republic, 266-281. 7. Life in the upper classes. Davis, Readings in Ancient His- tory, II, 240-244. 8. The Roman gilds. Davis, Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, 229-237. 304 • ROME !). Crops raised 1».\ the luuriaiis. Pnstoii unci I)o rule of Diocletian. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient Ilistori/, 527-532. 10. Constantine the Great. Gardner, Rome the Middle of the World, 90-109. 11. The Sermon on the Mount. The Bible, Matthew, chap- ters V-VII. 12. Spread of the Christian doctrines. The Bible, Acts, chapter II. 13. The Arian controversy. Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, 98-102. 14. Theodosius and Ambrose. Davis, Readings, II, 298-300. 15. Growth of the papacy before 476 a.d. Emerton, Intro- duction to the Middle Ages, 102-108. 16. Effect of the Germanic invasions on the Romans. Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire, 378-382. 17. The small farmers and the coloni. Davis, Influence oj Wealth in Imperial Rome, 237-247. Questions 1. Name three important emperors of the first century a.d. ; three of the five good emperors ; three of the later emperors. Give one important fact about each. 2. Of what importance was the army to the emperors ? Show how Hadrian and Diocletian changed the imperial government. Describe the reorganized government of Diocletian. 3. State the most important teachings of Jesus Christ. What work did Paul do for the early Church? How was the Church organized ? Why were the early Christians persecuted ? 4. What does orthodox mean ? Why were the Arians heretics after 325 a.d. ? 5. What was done l)y Constantine for the Christian Church? by Theodosius? How important were the bishops at the time of the invasions? Why was the bishop of Rome the greatest of the bishops ? 6. Summarize the reasons for the decline of Rome. TRANSITION FROM ANCIENT TIMES CHAPTER XIV THE GERMANS IN WESTERN EUROPE (376-800 A.D.) The Germans 412. Character of the Germans. — The Germans 'who A war-like invaded western Europe during the fourth and fifth cen- ^^^'^' ^^^^' pendent turies came in great tribes. In other words, whole peoples and rev- would migrate into western Europe in order to make their ^^^^* °^ ^ ^ . , women. homes there. They were tall and fair with fierce blue eyes.^ The Germans were fond of war, and devoted a large part of their time to gaining skill with arms, if not to actual fighting. They were exceedingly independent^ They loved personal freedom as none of the ancient people had clone. The Greeks desired the independence of each local community, but the Germans insisted on the freedom of the individual, which is quite a different matter. The Germans had a higher moral standard than the Greeks or the later Romans. Their reverence for ivornenis especially notable when they are compared with other early peoples. 413. How the Germans Lived. — The Germans had Primitive no cities or even large permanent villages before the inva- fon^^^umty sion of the Roman empire. They hved in communities, the early Germans. 1 "All have fierce blue eyes, reddish hair, and huge bodies fit only for sudden exertion. They are not very able to endure labor that is exhaus- tive. Heat and thirst they cannot withstand at all, though to cold and hunger their climate and soil have hardened them. Their food is of a simple variety, consisting of wild fruit, fresh game and curdled milk. They satisfy their hunger without making much preparation of cooked dishes, and without the use of any delicacies at all. In quenching their thirst they are not so moderate." 325 32G THE GERMANS Distinction of social classes. The tribal govern- ment. The leaders, the assem- bly and the methods used. however, looking after their flocks and dividing up the land each year. In this way no man had a settled home and farm, and they did not lose their zeal for war. They did not l)uild carefully, for exposure made them better able to endure cold and heat. They dis(;ouraged private owner- ship of property, hoj^ing in this way to keep any one from gaining a large amount of property, and to keep all men as nearly equal as possible. 414. Classes among the Germans. — If the Germans tried to keep an economic equality of their members, they did not object to social inequahties. There were three well-marked classes. The nobles held the impor- tant offices and enjoyed all of the honors. The ordinary freemen had the right to bear arms and attend the assem- blies. There were also some slaves, who were usually agricultural bond-servants. In the later German laws, if an offender injured a slave, there was either no penalty or a very small fine. If he injured a freeman in the same way, he was punished lightly ; but, if he did the same thing to a noble, the punishment was heavy. 415. How the Germans were Governed. — At the time of the invasions the Germans were organized into great tribes, composed of many communities. The largest tribes were ruled by kings, who were chosen always from certain families. The king was advised by a council of nobles (princes) which helped him to govern the tribe. Each prince had many " companions," noble youths who followed him everywhere.^ Each of the local communities of the Germans had its own assembly and leaders. The assembly comprised all nobles and all freemen who could bear arms. It met once a month, usually at the time of the full moon. The > "On the field of l)attle it was shameful for the prince to be outdone in courage, shameful for the band of companions to be unequal in cour- age to their prince." THE GERMANS 327 assembly considered all public questions and chose its own leaders. '' The speakers are heard more because of their ability to persuade than because of their power to command. If the speeches are displeasing to the people, they reject them with murmurs ; if they are pleasing, they applaud by clashing their weapons together, which is the kind of applause most highly esteemed." 416. How the Germans used Private Vengeance. — Right of Among the earlv Germans, and to some extent in later P^vate 1 •"" 1 can • 1 >> 1 • vengeance times, there existed a law oi nst-right, that is, the and money right of personal vengeance. If a man killed another, the P^y^^ei^*- family of the second man took up the quarrel and any one of them might murder the assassin. In later times a duel, or v/ager of battle, was used to decide whether the accuser or the accused was right. This appealed to the German idea of war as a final means of deciding all impor- tant interests in life. On the other hand the family of the injured man, even in the case of murder, might accept a payment of horses or cattle or some other property in full satisfaction of the offence. 417. Trial by Compurgation. — If a person accused of Cases de- crime was brought before the assembly, the accused man ^"^^^ ^^ was likely to be set free, if a sufficient number of his by"com- friends would swear in his favor. These were not wit- purgation." nesses, and the guilt or innocence of the accused was not considered. If many of his friends stood by him, he was acquitted, even if he really was guilty. If they failed to stand by him, he was convicted, even if he was inno- cent. The Germans had great faith that the gods would help an innocent man through his friends, and would desert a man who was guilty. 418. Ordeals. — Among the early Germans many The ordeal offenders were tried in still different ways, which were as an appeal • 1 • 1 1 f 1 1 mi *° ^^^ gods used extensively even m the later feudal age. Ihese to decide a methods were called ordeals and were appeals to the dispute. 328 THE GERMANS Some im- portant forms of ordeal that survived to the feudal age. The chief deities of the primi- tive Ger- mans. gods, or later to the Christian's God, to decide the case. The accused man was obHged to undergo the ordeal to prove his guilt or innocence. Sometimes the accuser also was forced to submit to the ordeal to prove that he had not been unfair in the charge that he had made. One of the common forms of ordeal was trial by fire. If the person passed through the fire unharmed, he was innocent. Another was trial by some hot substance, as boiling water or hot iron. If the victim was injured by holding his arm in boiling water or by carrying a hot iron bar a certain distance, it proved that the gods con- sidered him guilty. Still another ordeal consisted in throwing the accused into a pond or river. If he sank, he was innocent, although, as he was bound hand and foot, the proof did him very little good. These methods which survived so many centuries show us what crude and barbaric ideas of justice prevailed among the Germans. 419. The Religion of the Germans. — The Germans had a rather primitive religion before they were converted to Christianity. We know comparatively little about this rehgion, because almost all of the Germans became Chris- tians, in name at least, before they invaded the Roman empire. They had two great gods of the heavens. Thor was represented as the thunder-god, and carried with him a great hammer, with which he struck. Wooden represented the grandeur of the heavens and was the god of war. He was aided by fleet and beautiful spirit-maidens, called Valkyries. The val-kyr'ies rode abroad on their swift steeds (the clouds). They snatched dying warriors from the field of battle and carried them over the rainl)ow l)ridge Bifrost to Val-hal'la, the hall of slain heroes. Here the valkyries waited on these fortunate warriors in glorious feasts, and here the heroes daily renewed combats at arms from whose wounds they quickly recovered. One of the chief goddesses of the Germans, Frei/a, looked after the home and the THE TEUTONIC KINGDOMS 329 crops. From the names of these three deities we get the names of three days of our week. The Germans made sacrifices to their gods and goddesses, Religious accompanying the sacrifice by a feast that lasted as long P^^^^ices as there was liquor to drink. They worshipped in groves of the or in other out-of-door places, and not in temples built Germans, with human hands. As Valhalla shows, they had an idea that at least warriors might become immortal. The Teutonic Kingdoms 420. The Invasions of the Goths. — In the year 376 a.d. the Goths crossed the Danube River, and the great migration of the Germans began. This movement was due to the pressure of the Huns on the Os'tro-goths (East Goths) in southern Russia. The East Goths pressed upon the West Goths (Vis'i-goths), and the latter pressed into the Roman empire. Until the death of Theodosius the Great the Goths had done comparatively little damage. Soon after the death of Theodosius, the West Goths, under their young, energetic king, Al'a-ric, moved down into Greece and later into Italy. Their advance was checked by an able German of gigantic size, Stil'i-cho, of the tribe of Vandals. Had not Stilicho been murdered by his jealous emperor, Alaric would never have been able to reach Rome. As it was, Rome was captured and sacked (410 a.d.). Upon Alaric's death, soon after this event, the Visigoths moved into Spain, where they estab- lished the first of the Germanic kingdoms in the Roman empire. 421. Theodoric, the Ostrogoth. — Later emperors used German leaders like Stilicho to fight the barbarians. The ablest of these leaders was The-od'o-ric the Ostrogoth, who was authorized by the emperor to drive the barbarians out of Italy. Theodoric did this by making a treaty with The Goths cross the Danube River, 376 A.D. The mi- grations of the West Goths in Greece, Italy and Spain. Theodoric conquers Italy. 330 TllK CJKUMAXS The groat Romanized German kingdom of Theod- oric. Invasions by way of the Rhine River his chief opponent, O-do-a'cer. Afterward Theodoric assassinated Odoacer with his own hand at a banquet. This odious crime left a stain on the career of the best and ablest of the German leaders. Theodoric estal)lished in Italy and in Ill\'ria a large Ostrogothic kingdom. Theodoric tried to unite the Romans and the Goths, keeping many of the old Roman municipal institutions, such as the senate. He made laws that THF: GER3IAN MIGRATIONS (Ordinary type shows original home: capitals final home.) ::.■■■... lU were similar to those of the Romans, rebuilt roads and re- drained swamps, thus restoring the agricultural prosperity of the early empire. He encouraged art and literature, was tolerant of other religious faiths than his own, and in general brought to his kingdom ])ea('e and ])rosperity. 422. Invasion by Way of the River Rhine. — While the \'isigoths and Ostrogoths were crossing the Danube and occupying southern Europe, other German tribes, THE TEUTONIC KINGDOMS 331 more barbarous than those, were crossing the Rhine or the North Sea and occupying the western provinces. One of the earhest of these Rhine invaders was the tribe of Van'dals that finally crossed into Africa and afterward (455 A.D.) sacked Rome (§ 405). Another was the tribe of Bur-gun' di-ans that settled in the southeastern part of what is now France. A third was the tribe of Franks. They located in northern France and in western Germany. 423. Anglo-Saxon Invasion of Britain. — Some of the Conquests invaders crossed from northern Germany by water into *^^ ^*}^ . Angles and Britain. In 449 a.d. the earhest of these Angles and Saxonsin Saxons landed on the coast south of London. Within a Britain, few years most of the southern part of England was oc- cupied by Saxons and most of the eastern and central parts of the country were held by the Angles. These people drove the Britons back into Wales and Scotland, or subdued the older peoples. In time the conqueror and the conquered intermarried, so that the English race of the seventh and eighth centuries was Briton as well as Anglo-Saxon. 424. Clovis, King of the Franks. — The Germanic race Clovis that had the largest share in the later history of western "Yf k^ " Europe before 850 a.d. was that of the Franks. Like most of ah the of the other German tribes, the Franks were at first divided ^^^"^^• into many small tribes, each of which had its prince or king. One of these petty kings, Clo'vis, proceeded to conquer the kings of near-by Frankish tribes, using assassination and other means to rid himself of his rivals. He finally made himself king of all the Franks.^ In order to get the help of the God of the Christians, 1 At one time, in Sois-sons', the soldiers were distributing the booty. • There was a very beautiful vase which the Church claimed. Clovis de- manded the vase for himself so that he might give it back to its owners, but a soldier struck it. Clovis gave it back to the Church, and the next year, after a quarrel with the soldier, cleft the latter' s head with his axe, saying, "Thus you did to the vase at Soissons." 332 TITK GERMANS Clovis the Catholic conquers his Ariaii neighbors. Clovis was baptized into the Church of his wife, who was a Roman Catholic. As practically all of the other Ger- mans of the West were Arians (§ 403), Clovis now had the support of the Roman Church in his campaigns against the Burgundians and the Visigoths in southern France. As he was a man of great ability, he succeeded in con- quering these enemies and extended his dominions until they covered most of Gaul.^ The successors of Clovis did not hold this Frankish kingdom together, but divided it into many smaller kingdoms. They were called Mer-o- vin'gi-an kings and were popularly known as the '' do- nothing kings." The in- vaders took part of each estate hut left the rest to the people. The Ger- mans added new blood and after- ward inter- married with the " Romans." Fusion of Roman and Teuton 425. Nature of the Invasions. — These German mi- grations were migrations of whole peoples, frequently num- bering several hundred thousand men, women and children. As they were seeking for permanent homes, they did not destroy the cities and estates of the Romans, although they seized anything that pleased their fancy. The people of the empire were neither driven out nor put to death, except in a few cases. The Germans simply came in, took pos- session of the best, and left the rest to the people.'^ The farther north we go, the more thorough do we find the conquests, for the northern barbarians were less civilized than their southern kinsmen. 426. Fusion of the Races. — In general the original inhabitants greatly outnumbered the German invaders, although the Germans held all of the high positions and * Clovis died a few years before Theodoric the Ostrogoth, so that he was practically a contemporary of Theodoric. He was like Theodoric in that he was able, but Clovis remained to the end a cruel, bloodthirsty barbarian. 2 The invaders usually took from one half to two thirds of each estate and loft the balance to the former owners. FUSION OF ROMAN AND TEUTON 333 furnished practically all of the soldiers. The Germans were a younger and more energetic race. The older people had become sluggish and had lost their ambition. They needed the infusion of new blood which the Germans added. In the course of a few centuries the intermar- riage of the invaders and the people of the empire left few traces of the two original races, for over almost all of western Europe they had become one people. The fusion of the races was made much easier by the great expansion of the Christian or Catholic Church at this time (§§ 431- 436). 427. Government. — The German kingdoms combined Attempt of Roman and German ideas of government. The German *^® ^^ tribal chief became the king of a territory, in imitation copy the of the Roman idea of emperor. The Germans tried to ^^^^^^ surround their kings with officials who had the same titles govern- as the emperor's assistants. There were courts of law "^^^^' after Roman models, although they administered justice after the German fashion rather than in accordance with the Roman law. Many things made it difficult for the Germans to follow Predomi- the forms of Roman government. The invaders did not J\^^^^ ° . . . . . . (jrermaii like to settle in cities, and had no interest in municipal ideas in government. In consequence cities declined more than J^^/eu- they had done under the later Roman empire. The Ger- kingdoms. mans divided their kingdoms among the sons of the king. In this way the kingdoms lost all of the dignity and author- ity that the earlier Romanized kingdoms had. On the other hand, the Germans abandoned the township assemblies, except in England or in other places a long way from Roman influence. 428. The Law of the Germanic Kingdoms. — The law of 'western Europe for several centuries after the invasions was the German law (§§ 416-418), modified by Roman forms and courts. The Germans left to each conquered 334 TIIK (IKHMAXS The Ger- mans per- mitted local op- tion in the trial of cases. The Ger- man law codes and their final replace- ment by the Roman law. Continued use of Latin in religion and in other ways. Great in- fluence of Latin in modern languages. people the right to l)e judged under its own laws. This was due to their intense belief in the right of an individual or a tribe to do as it pleased. In a dispute between a native and an invader, they used a law combining Roman and German law, and the cases were tried in special tri- bunals. In imitation of the Roman codes of law, more- over, the German tribes allowed Roman lawyers to make codes of the laws of the German tribes, during the period following the invasions. These codes naturally gave a great deal of attention to the liberty of the individual and the privilege of the in- dividual to protect his rights by the peculiar usages of the Germans, such as the wager of battle, and ordeals (§418). In the northern part of Europe laws were little influenced by Rome. After a few centuries, however, when the older Roman law of Justinian (§ 410) was studied in the new universities, the Teutonic codes were replaced almost entirely by the Roman law in all of the countries that had Romance languages. 429. Language. — As all of the countries of the western empire had used Latin, that language continued to be the language of the educated people, of the Church, and, to some extent, of the courts. As each tribe had its own dialect, Latin was a very convenient means of communi- cation. Even in Germany and in England this universal language was used a little, and in other countries it was used extensively. The new languages, as we noticed (§ 386), were forms of Latin. The Italian language was so much })etter than that of the invaders that only a few German words found their way into Italian. French was not greatly influenced by the Germans, as only a lew hundred German expres- sions were added to the French language. Even English is more Latin than German, if we compare the number of words of Latin and German origin. FUSION OF ROMAN AND TEUTON 335 430 The General Civilization of the Teutonic King- Roman cul- doms. — The German invasions did not destroy the cities ^^^^ gradu- "^ _ ally disap- and the civihzation of the empire, yet the Germans failed pears, to preserve most of that civilization. The Germans were like rough, uneducated children, who cared nothing for the art, the culture and the learning of the empire. The result was that the schools were no longer well attended, no new fine buildings were constructed, the roads, covered with dirt, became unfit for use, and the people settled back into a cruder, more primitive way of living. On account of the interest of the Germans in personal Disorder independence, a man was allowed to take the law into his P^eva^^ , ... ^i^d ClVll- own hands and punish a person who had injured him. ization So disorder was common and little attempt was made to ^^^^^y^- protect merchants or travellers. The armies that should have defended the cities became mere bands of plunderers, when there was no need for real warfare. Churchmen naturally were despised by warriors, church buildings fell into decay and the Church had less interest than it should have had in the spiritual welfare of its members. The old Roman civilization was like a forest of old The old trees, full of dead or decaying wood. Like storms the ^^^^^^ ^"^^ \ . . ^he new. invasions swept over these forests, stripping leaves from trees, breaking branches, and throwing trunks prostrate. At the same time they brought in the seeds of new trees and wild plants. A few old trees remained standing, scarred and broken. For a time the new growth seemed like a jungle, choked with weeds. Yet out of this jungle, after centuries of development, there was to develop a finer forest than the old, for the best trees of the old forest were to be reproduced in the new. 33G THE GERMANS The Christian Church Civilizing work of the Church. Organiza- tion of a religious empire with the pope at the head. Spiritual power of the pope. 431. Importance of the Church. — The fusion of German and Teuton was aided, and the unity of Western Europe was preserved, largely by the Christian Church. The Church was in fact the great civilizing power of this period. The Church not only stood for righteousness, but it stood for law and order. It preached industry and brotherly love. Its monks tilled the soil, planted crops and per- suaded others to do the same. Largely through the in- fluence of the Church slavery was replaced by serfdom, the serf being attached to the land so that he could not be bought or sold except, with the land. The Church sent out missionaries. It converted prac- tically all of the people of western Europe to the orthodox faith. In this way it unified the people of western Europe and made them have at least one great interest in com- mon — their religion. But it did more than that. It began to organize this great body of Christian believers into a religious empire with the bishop of Rome (the pope) at the head. This was not done in a short time, and it was not perfected until several centuries later. Of course many of the churchmen of this period were not highly civilized. Many were selfish, ambitious or un- scrupulous, and the Church was sometimes more interested in bringing people into the Church then in making people better. 432. Growth of the Papacy. — From a very early day the bishop of Rome had been looked upon as one of the most important bishops of the Church. Rome was still the capital of the empire and by far the largest city of the West. The Church at Rome was believed also to have been founded by Peter, who had received special authority from Christ and had granted it to his successors. Because these bishops, or popes, as we may call them now, claimed THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH 337 to have universal oversight of the other bishops and churches, we shall speak of the Church under the super- vision of the bishop of Rome as the Catholic, or universal, Church. During the German invasions the bishops of Rome had Temporal taken charge of the defence of the city. They had nego- f^wer of ^ ./ vf o ^]^g papacy. tiated with the barbarian leaders. The greatest of these popes, Leo the Great, was recognized by the emperor at Constantinople as the head of the Church. In addi- tion to his spiritual authority and his power as civil ruler in time of danger, the pope began to acquire land over which he ruled. The combination of civil powers and the government of papal estates is called the temporal power of the papacy, and the term should be remembered, for in time it became very great. 433. The Work of the Monks. — During this period of St. Bene- confusion a great many holy men and women desired to fofio^grg "^ withdraw from the world in order that they might be- come more religious. They lived in monasteries, most of which followed the rules laid down by St. Benedict. Benedict believed that monks should work with their hands. Seven hours for labor, seven hours for prayer, seven hours for sleep, was the rule in many monasteries. The monks reclaimed the fields that were going to waste and taught the people the dignity of labor. They wel- comed to their midst all who were sick of the conflict with sin and the world. They practised self-denial, living in comfortless cells on a few crusts and often wearing hair shirts. Although they lived apart from the world, the example What the of the monks (their industry and their self-denial) had a ?^T^^!u^^ much greater influence on the people than their preaching people. could have had. Yet they helped the people directly. Beggars were fed in great numbers at the gates of the monasteries. Monasteries entertained most of the trav- 338 THE GERMANS Conversion of the Goths and other tribes to the Arian faith. Gaul be- comes Catholic. Conversion of the Irish and the Anglo- Saxons. Britain becomes Roman Catholic. oilers, for there were no other inns, and the monks or nuns had charge of a large number of schools. 434. Acceptance of Catholic Leadership in Italy and Gaul. — The po]w and the monks were very anxious to convert all of the Germans to the Catholic, or orthodox, faith. Less than a half century before the Goths crossed the Danube, they had been converted to the Arian faith by Ul'fi-las, who had translated the Bible into the language of the Goths. These Arian Christians naturally had a greater respect for the rights of the Church in the empire than heathen would have had and were greatly influenced by the bishops of the cities. Gradually they came to recognize the leadership of the pope at Rome. The conversion of the Franks to the Catholic faith and the conquest of all Gaul by the Franks helped to unite all of the Christians of Gaul, for the older inhabitants were Catholics. 435. The Church in Britain. — In Britain the Christian faith survived among Britons in the north, who had several famous monasteries. Several missionaries were sent out from these monasteries, among them St. Patrick to the Irish and several to the tribes of Germany. The con- version of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain was due, however, to a Catholic monk, Au'gus-tine. One day the great pope, Gregory the Great, saw some beautiful boy slaves in Rome. He asked who they were. He was told that they were Angles, and heathen. He rephed that they were not Angles but angels, and he sent out Augustine to Britain to convert them. Later the British Christians from the north and the Roman Catholics from the south of the island clashed, because each wished to manage the religious affairs of the island. Fortunately it was decided that the Roman Church should control English religious affairs, and Eng- THE MOHAMMEDANS 339 land was brought into close contact with the civilization of the continent of Europe. 436. Boniface in Germany. — A century after the con- The people version of the Anglo-Saxons by Augustine, an Englishman, ^^J^^^j^g. Bon'i-face, became the apostle of the Church to the Ger- come man tribes east of the Rhine River. Boniface made many Catholics, converts, and his work was continued by Charlemagne. After the time of Boniface practically all of the people of western Europe were Roman Catholics, acknowledging the supremacy of the pope, and bound together as mem- bers of the great Church which we call Roman Catholic, or Universal. The Mohammedans 437. Mohammed. — In the seventh century of our era Mohammed there arose in Arabia, and spread in all directions, a new religion. The founder of this religion was Mohammed, a native of Mecca in' Arabia. At about the age of forty he began to teach a new doctrine.^ There was no national government in Arabia at this The Hegira time, and the numerous tribes had very primitive religions (622) and ' . . . , "^ . '^ spread of in which spirits and idols played a considerable part. As islam. Mohammed preached against idols and was feared by the people of Mecca, he was driven forth from that city in 622 A.D. This flight from Mecca to Medina is called the He-gi'ra. From this date the Mohammedans reckon time, as we do from the birth of Christ. After the Hegira, Mohammed made many powerful friends, and his religion became the dominant faith of Arabia before his death, ten years later. 438. Islam. — The doctrines of the Mohammedans are contained in a book of sacred writings called tlie Ko'ran. ' Mohammed was a poor man until he married a rich widow. He travelled in looking after his wife's business, and was able to devote a great deal of time to religious meditation. 340 TIIK GKRMANS A TIIOIK)- thci^rtic faith with a belief in a future hfe. Ceremonies and prac- tices per- mitted or forbidden by Moham- medanism. Early con- (luests in the East. Conquests in .\sia Minor, in Africa and in Sicily. The faith itself is known as In' lam. Islam is a monothe- istic faith. '' Great is Al'lah," the only God, and " there is one God and Mohammed is liis prophet " are still the mottoes of the Mohammedan devotees. The Mohamme- dan is a fatalist, that is, he believes that whatever is was ordained as his fate, and he cannot change it. Therefore he does not tr}^ to do so. The early followers of Mo- hammed thought that, if they died fighting for their faith, they would be sure of paradise, and their victims also would be saved from damnation. So they fought with remarkable zeal for Islam, since paradise was wtU worth striving for, with its attractive gardens, its feasts and its beautiful maidens. Mohammedanism w^as very exacting in its demand for prayers, which the faithful to-day repeat with their faces toward Mecca ; for its insistence upon at least one pil- grimage to the holy city, Mecca ; and for its periods of fasting. It prohibited the eating of pig's flesh and the drinking of intoxicating liquors. In general it demanded a much higher standard of conduct than its followers had known, although it permitted polygamy. It especially required the giving of alms to the poor. 439. The Spread of Islam. — The religious enthusiasm of the Moslems and the assurance of salvation for those that died in battle caused them to make converts in all parts of the East. Syria, Egypt and Persia were added to Arabia within a few years after the death of the Prophet. Then missionary effort ceased. A half century later the Mohammedans began another great crusading movement. Asia Minor was overrun, and for a year the hosts of Islam besieged the strong walls of the capital of the Eastern empire, Constantinople. More than one hundred thousand Mohammedans lost their lives in this terrible siege before the Moslems withdrew, unsuccessful. After the conquest of northern Africa, from THE MOHAMMEDANS 341 Carthage to Gibraltar, the Saracens (as we shall call most of the Mohammedans hereafter) moved against Sicily which they conquered. 440. The Saracens in Spain and Gaul. — Meanwhile Moslem (711 A.D.) the Saracens crossed at Gibraltar and con- ^'^nquest ^ of Spain. quered the Visigothic kingdom in Spain. Some Chris- tians were driven back into the mountains of northern Spain, where they estabhshed petty governments of their own. The older inhabitants of the Spanish peninsula were perfectly willing to exchange the rule of the Visi- goths for that of the Saracens, since the latter allowed them their Catholic faith and gave them a better govern- ment than the German conquerors had. The Saracens did not stop at the Pyrenees mountains Germans but invaded Gaul. Here, Charles Martel, the powerful ^^^\ mayor of the palace of the " do-nothing " Merovingian Martel king (§ 442), gathered a great army of Franks, Burgun- u^^^i^^^f dians, Visigoths and other German peoples. Tours (732). 441. The Saracens are Checked at Tours. — At Tours The Sara- (Toor), near the Loire River, 732 a.d., the Saracens threw ^ens mvade their fleet horsemen against the solid wall of German infantry. Time after time they swooped down upon the clumsy but courageous Europeans. Upon that solid wall of men they made no impression, and, when night came, they withdrew. So in the West as well as in the East the Saracen advance was checked. The victories at Constantinople and at Tours, only a Importance few years apart, saved Christendom from beins; over- ^? ^}^^ , . victory at whelmed by Islam. While the Saracens were more civil- Tours, ized than the Franks at this time, they represented a religious faith whose ideals were much lower than those of Christianity. In spite of their brilliant successes, the Saracens did not possess the ability to develop a high civilization. So it was a great day in the history of the world when the Cross defeated the Crescent at Tours. 342 TTTE ^,KR^^AXS The Empire of the Franks Rise of the great Frankish mayors of the palace. The alli- ance of Pepin the Short and the pope. Ability and methods of Charle- magne. 442. The Early " Carolingians." — It was fortunate for Christendom that tlie Frankish kingdoms wore united under a strong ruler at this time of danger. Under the Merovingian kings, the Frankish territories were held by- many kings, no one of whom was a real leader or ruler. The real ruler of Austrasia, a Frankish kingdom east of Paris, was the mayor of the palace, a kind of prim.e min- ister. One of these mayors had made himself the real ruler, not only of Austrasia, but of all the Frankish king- doms.^ His son was the Charles whose victory at Tours gave him the title of Martel, the Hammer, because he struck such hard blows. The rulers of the house of Charles Mar-tel' are called Car-o-lin'gians. 443. Pepin the Short. — The son of Charles Martel, Pep 'in the Short, was able to make himself even more powerful than Charles Martel had been. He finally (752) deposed the king and made himself king of the Franks. The pope consented to this, saying that it was right for the one who held the power to be called king. The pope was glad to do this because he wanted the help of the Franks against the rude Loml^ards who had pushed into northern Italy, and w^ere threatening to seize the lands and destroy the temporal power of the pope. So Pepin punished the Lombards and gave the poj^e new lands, called the Donation of Pepin, since the pope had helped him to be king. 444. Charlemagne. — Pepin was succeeded (768 a.d.) by his son Charles, or Karl, afterward called the Great, or Char-le-magne'. Charlemagne was a man of good build and imposing appearance. He possessed great energy 1 One of these mayors had thought it would be a good plan to n)ako his son king, as his royal master had just died. The nobles thought other- wise and put both father and son to death. THE EMPIRE OF THE FRANKS 343 and was a conqueror, a statesman and a patron of educa- tion and the arts. He had friendly relations with distant and powerful rulers, such as the pope, the eastern em- peror and the great caliph at Bagdad, Haroun al Raschid. He died in 814 a.d. 445. Conquests of Charlemagne. — Charlemagne first Conquest proceeded against the Lombards in Italy. When he had "^ northern conquered them, he placed upon his own head the iron the Spanish crown of the Lombards and added northern Italy to his "^^^c^- kingdom. He invaded Spain, conquering many cities, most of which the Saracens proceeded to regain almost immediately. As a '^ buffer state " be established the Spanish march, or mark, beyond the Pyrenees mountains. On his return from Spain, the rear guard of his army was attacked and annihilated. Afterward the hero of the rear guard, Roland, was made famous in the songs of the troubadours. On the east Charlemagne attacked the barbarous charle- Saxons and Slavs. Year after year he " conquered " the niagne Saxons, only to have them rise and destroy his garrisons, the Saxons as soon as he withdrew. After many years, by the whole- ^^^ drives sale decapitation of the leaders and the breaking up of siavs. bands of the Saxons, Charlemagne forced these obstinate people to become his obedient Christian subjects. Farther east he drove back invaders and made the inhabitants subject to him. His empire therefore extended from the Ebro in Spain to the Elbe in German}', and from a point south of Rome to the North Sea. 446. The Work of Charlemagne. — Charlemagne was Charle- a good ruler for this wide dominion. Since it was difficult '"^gne's use to rule such a great area directly, he selected a powerful counts and leader for each county and gave him considerable au- ^^^^ '. "."P^j thority. These leaders were called counts. The position of count was not hereditary in Charlemagne's time, al- though it afterward became so. In order to keep the 344 THP] GERMANS Assemblies and educa- tion. counts in submission Cliark'niagne sent out every year special messengers called '* mis'si do-min'i-ci," who re- ported what the counts were doing and acted as a check on them. In the making of laws Charlemagne consulted both the nobles and the i)eople. Every May a great assembly of all freemen was held, called a May field. These assem- blies, like the old German tribal assemblies, had the right Crowning of Charle- magne as emperor. St. Peter's Church, Early Middle Ages. to approve the laws. Charlemagne established schools and gathered about himself a large number of scholars and writers. 447. Charlemagne the Emperor. — On Christmas day in the year 800 a.d. Charlemagne was worshipping in the great church of St. Peter in Rome. As he rose, after a few moments of silent prayer, the pope, placing on his head a golden crown, proclaimed him emperor, and the multitude shouted, " To Charles Augustus, crowned the great and peace-giving Imperator of the Romans, be life and victory! " Charlemagne claimed to be the successor THE EMPIRE OF THE FRANKS 345 not only of the Caesars but ruler of the eastern Roman empire as well, since the head of the Eastern empire at this time was a woman. 448. The Old Empire and the New. — The old Roman The empire empire of the Caesars had included most of the civiUzed ^J^^^ world. It was a Mediterranean empire, stretching from the Pillars of Hercules to the borders of Persia. Although it included hundreds of diverse races or peoples, it had a fairly uniform civilization throughout it's length and breadth. The eastern half used one language, Greek ; the western half spoke Latin. This empire of the Caesars had great cities, carried on extensive trade — not only by way of the Mediterranean, but over the famous Roman roads — and enjoyed the advantages of culture and wealth. The new empire of the Germans barely touched the The Ger- Mediterranean, though it covered most of western Europe. "^'^'\^^ Its subjects were chiefly of one race, the Teutonic, but they had less in common than the citizens of the old Roman empire. They spoke hundreds of dialects and lived a free, independent, out-door life, being interested in hunt- ing and warfare, not in art and commerce. Consequently the centuries after Charlemagne were very different from those after Augustus, and Charlemagne's empire is more closely related to the later Holy Roman Empire of the German nation than to that of Roman times. 449. Summary. — The Germans were large, blue-eyed, Character- fierce-looking blondes. They were noted for their inde- f}^^"^ "^ ^^^^ pendence, their assemblies of freemen, and their insti- tution of " companions." They were brave, and they reverenced women, but they drank to excess. Their re- ligion was a religion of warriors. They thought that the gods would not permit a guilty man to escape, so they tried an accused person by ordeals, or by swearing that they had faith in him. They claimed the right to avenge 346 THE GERMANS German in- vasions and kingdoms. Faith, ex- pansion and defeat of the Mos- lems. The work of the Carolingian Franks. a wrong done to their family, l)ut they frequently accepted a payment, greater or smaller, according to the rank of the injured })erson as well as the nature of the offence, in place of vengeance. The German invasions })egan when the Goths crossed the Danul^e river in 37() a.u. Under Alaric the Visigoths invaded Italy, later moving on into Spain, where they established a kingdom. The Ostrogoths followed under Theodoric, trying to unite the Teutons and the Italians. The Vandals, Burgundians and Franks crossed the Rhine, going, however, in various directions. The first crossed into Africa, the second remained in southeastern Gaul, and the last, under Clovis, conquered practically all of Gaul. The Angles and Saxons came to Britain. Fortunately the invasions were over and the western Germans were fairly well united before the Saracens in- vaded Gaul. These religious followers of the Arabian Mohammed believed in one God and a future life. They prayed and gave alms religiously. After the Hegira (622 A.D.) the faith had spread within less than a century to Persia, to the gates of Constantinople, and into Spain. At Constantinople the Moslems were repulsed and at Tours in Gaul, 732 a.d., they were beaten back by the western Germans under Charles Martel. Thus central Europe was saved to a civilization that was Roman, German and Christian. Charles Martel was mayor of the palace of all the Franks. His son, Pepin the Short, aided the pope against the Lombards and in return was recognized as king of the Franks. His grandson, Charlemagne, made new con- quests against the Lombards in Italy, against the Sara- cens in Spain and against the Saxons and Slavs in the east. In 800 A.D. he was crowned emperor of the west, his em- pire being a great Germanic kingdom of central-western Europe. He was an enlightened and able ruler and a GERMANS IN WESTERN EUROPE 347 patron of education and the arts. With Charlemagne ends the first period of transition from Roman to modern times. This early period is the period of the fusion of the Roman and the German; the second is the Feudal Age. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Western Europe The Near East 146 B.C. Destruction of Carthage 146 B.C. End of Greek independ- ence 133-123 B.C. The Gracchi 91-89 B.C. Social War 133 b.c. Province of Asia 88-82 B.C. Marius and Sulla 63 B.C. Cicero and Catiline 67-63 b.c. Pompey's conquests 60 B.C. First Triumvirate 58-51 B.C. Conquest of Gaul 48 B.C. Pharsalus (battle) 46-44 B.C. Rule of Csesar 43 B.C. Second triumvirate 31 b.c. Actium (battle) 27 B.C. Establishment of Empire under Augustus Golden Age of Literature 5 b.c. Birth of Christ 43-86 A.D. Conquest of Britain 70 a.d. Destruction of Jerusalem 79 A.D. Destruction of Pompeii Conquests of Trajan (98-117) Hadrian (117-138) l^'irst great codes of Roman law Marcus Aurelius (death 180) 212 Extension of citizenship by Caracalla 273 Fall of Palmyra 284 Reorganization of empire by Diocletian 313 Recognition of Christianity by Constantine 323 Council of Nicaea 376 Beginning of German Invasions Christianity the State religion 395 Division of the empire at death of Theodosius I 442 Bishop of Rome officially recognized as the greatest bishop 451 Huns defeated at Chalons 476 "Fall of Rome" 511 d. Clovis, King of Franks (493-527) Theodoric, the Ostrogoth (527-565) Justinian and the Great Roman Code 590-604 Pope Gregory the Great 622 The Hegira 664 Council at Whitby, Roman 718 Defeat of Saracens at Con- Christianity for England stantinople 728 Iconoclast controversy between eastern and western Churches 732 Defeat of Saracens at Tours 756 Donation of Pepin 800 A.D. Charlemagne Emperor (786-809) Caliph Haroun al Raschid 348 THE GERMANS General References Robinson, History of Western Europe, 21-91. Robinson, Readings in European History, I, 35-170. Bemont and Monod, Medieval Europe, 21-210. Ogg, Source Book of Medieval History, 19-148. Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages. Duruy, History of the Middle Ages, 1-138. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 1-109. Eginhard, Life of Charlemagne. Cambridge Medieval History, I, II. Topics Ordeals: Emerton, Introduction, 81-85; Ogg, Source Book of Medieval History, 196-202 ; Henderson, Historical Docuvients of the Middle Ages, 314-319. Theodortc: Bemont and Monod, Medieval Europe, 55-62; Gardner, Rome the Middle of the World, 138-146; Duruy, His- tory of the Middle Ages, 34-38; Cambridge Medieval History, I, 437-455. Growth of the Papacy : Robinson, History of Western Europe, 44-55; Emerton, Introduction, 102-113; Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 107-136. The Coronation of Charlemagne : Robinson, Readings in European History, I, No. 56 ; Thatcher and Sehvill, Europe in the Middle Age, 125-133; Duncalf and Krey, Parallel Source Problems in Medieval History, 3-26. Studies 1. The Germans. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History, 544-554. 2. Tacitus' account of the early Germans. Ogg, Source Book of Medieval History, 23-31. 3. Thor. Guerber, Myths of Northern Lands, 61-73. 4. Valhalla. Guerber, Myths of Northern Lands, 23-28. 5. Influence of the German migrations. Munro and Sellery (eds.). Medieval Civilization, 44-49. 6. The deeds of Clovis. Ogg, Source Book, 47-59. 7. The Saxon invasion of Britain. Ogg, Source Book, 68-72. 8. Gaul after the invasions. Bemont and Monod, Medieval History, 86-97. GERMANS IN WESTERN^ EUROPE 349 9. The laws of the Franks. Ogg, Source Book, 59-67. 10. The rule of St. Benedict. Ogg, Source Book, 83-90. 11. Economic influence of the monasteries. Cunningham, Western Civilization, II, 35-40. 12. The mission of Augustine to Britain. Ogg, Source Book, 72-77. 13. The teachings of Islam. Davis, Readings, II, 357-362. 14. Moslem civilization. Munro, History of the Middle Ages, 86-94. 15. The battle at Tours. Creasy, Decisive Battles of the Worlds Chapter XX. 16. Charlemagne, the Man. Ogg, Source Book, 108-114. Questions 1. Compare the early Germans with the Homeric people (§ 131), the early Romans (§§ 280-282) and the later Romans (§ 328). What did the Germans and the first two have in common ? How did they differ from the later Romans ? 2. What qualities or practices of the Germans have come down to us ? (Notice New England town meetings ; second paragraph of the Declaration of Independence ; moral ideas, etc.) 3. How did the Germans learn the guilt or innocence of an accused person ? Did they consider an accused person guilty until he was proved innocent ? Did the later Romans ? Do we ? 4. What was a Mayfield? Valhalla? a Valkyrie? Woden's day? a "companion" ? 5. On a map show the original homes and the later homes of the most important German tribes. Who was Alaric ? Stilicho ? Theodoric ? Clovis ? Show important work of each. 6. To what extent did culture survive in this Roman-Teutonic period ? Is it true that the farther we get from Rome the less Roman civilization survived the invasions ? What did the Ger- mans add to the civilization of western Europe ? (See 2, above.) 7. What were the principal teachings of Islam ? Why was Islam a good thing for Arabia ? for northern Africa ? Wliy would it have been undesirable for Gaul and in central Europe ? What, then, was the importance of the battle of Tours ? 8. Explain the development of the Frankish monarchy and empire under Charles Martel, Pepin the Short and Charle- magne. 350 THE GERMANS 9. On a map show the extent of Pepin's kingdoms. Point out the territories added by Charlemagne. 10. How did Charlemagne's empire compare with that of Augustus in location? size? race? importance? Does Char- lemagne's empire show that the Romans and the Teutons were more united in his day or in the time of Theodoric and Clovis? INDEX A'bra-ham, 53 Achaean League, 175 citizenship privileges, 187 A-chse'ans, 103 A-chil'les, 101 A-crop'o-lis, 152, 195 plan of, (il.) 153 present condition, (il.) 116 restoration of, (il.) frontispiece Actium, 270 Ad-ri-a-no'ple, 318 Ad-ri-at'ic Sea, 127 -^gean area, 95-120 early civilization of, 98 geography of, 95 iE-gos-pot'a-mi, 157 iE-miri-us Paul'iis, 208 ^-ne'as, 103 M-ne'k\, 103 ^s'chy-lus, 190 A-e'tius, 319 -^-to'li-an League, 175 A'ga-de, 42 Ag-a-mem'non, 101 A-gath'o-cles, 240 Ages, three historic, 8 Cretan, 99 Feudal, 347 Hellenic, 169 Hellenistic, 169-177 Homeric, 103 Mycenaean, 101 Agriculture, in Egypt and Baby- lonia, 34, 83 of Greece affected by geography, 97 of Greece in the Homeric Age, 103 in prehistoric times, 23 Roman, 255. See Irrigation. Ag-ri-gen'tum, 111 Al'a-ric, 329 Al-ci-bi'a-des, 156 Alexander, conquests of, 165, 167 death of, 167 division of empire, 170 portrait of, (il.) 164 youth of, 164 Alexandria, 166 and Roman culture, 208 as intellectual centre, 174 commerce of, 173 Al'lah, 340 Allies, Roman, 231 Alphabet, connection with sign writing, 25 of Phoenicians, 52, 81 origin of, 81 Al'pine race, 27 .Utar of Zeus, (il.) 171 Am-phic'ty-o-ny, 105 Amphitheatre, Greek, 154 seats in amphitheatre, Athens, (il.) 148 Roman, 295 Colosseum, present condition, (il.) 281 restored, (il.) 295 A-nab'a-sis, 193 Angles, 331 An-tig'o-ne, 190 An-ti'o-chus of SjTia, 248 Antonines, 311 Antony, Mark, in Egypt, 271 in second triumvirate, 270 Ap'en-nines Mts., 218 Apollo, 104, 106 Apollo Belvidere, (il.) 200 Apostles, 315 Appian Way, 298, (il.) 298 Aquae Sex'ti-oe, 264 Aqueducts, 282 Claudian, (il.) 298 Roman, (il.) 284 A-ra'tus, 175 351 352 INDEX Ar-he'hi. 167 Archos, Roman, 279-280 Ar-chi-mo'des, 205 Architecture, Babylonian, 75 Egyptian, 74 Greek, 152-4, 194-7 orders of Greek, (il.) 195 Roman, 280-3 Ar'chons, 115 A-re-op'a-gus, 154 A'ri-ans, 317, 332, 338 Ar-is-ti'des, 136 Aristocracy, in Athens, 117 in Greece, 188 in Rome, 224-7 Ar-is-toph'a-nes, 192 Ar-is-tot'le, 203, 209 Ar-me'ni-a, 159 Army, Carthaginian, 242 Macedonian, 159, 165 Roman. See Roman army. Art, Cretan, 99 vases, (il.) 99 Greek, 194 201 prehistoric, 15 painting, (il.) 14 Artillery, Roman, (il.) 249 Artisans, in Near East, 65 Roman, 287 Arts, industrial, in Egypt, 39 in the Near East, 85 paleolithic, 18-21 Assembly, Athenian, 148 of Germans, 326, 344 Roman, 224, 225, 261 As-shur-ban'i-pal, 45, 80 Assyrian empire, 44 As-syr'i-ans, 44 Ath-a-na'sius, 317 A-the'na, (il.) 152 Athens, architecture of, 152-4, 194-7 art of, 194-201 democracy in, 148-50, 188 early government of, 115 Golden Age of, 145-54 ; in Hellenistic Age, 171 literature of, 189-194 location of, 96, 115 in Peloponnesian war, 154-7 in Persian wars, 134-42 ~ philosophy of. 201-7 At'ti-ca. 96 At'ti-la, 319 Au'gus-tine, 338 Au-gus'tus, 272-5 portrait, (il.) 272 Au-re'li-an, 312 walls of, (il.) 312 B Babylon, 42-3, 45, 47-8, 132, (il.) 47 Babylonia, 39. See also Babylon and Babylonians. "Babylonian captivity," 47. 54. Babylonian temple, (il.) 75 Babylonians, laws of, 43 literature of, 79 religion of, 73 Barrack emperors, 311 Basketry, 20 Bastinado, 65, (il.) 65 Baths. Roman, 294 of Garacalla. (il.) 294 Behistun rock. 78 Be'ma, 154, (il.) 149 Ben'e-fice, 321 Bishops as civil leaders, 318 Ba-o'tia. 96 Bon'i-face. 339 Books, ancient, 78-81, 189-92, 275 Bridge. Roman, (il.) 284 Britain, converted to Christianity, 338 invasion of, 331 Bronze, world-wide use of, 85 Bu-ceph'a-lus, 164 Buildings, in Athens, 152, 195-6 in imperial Rome, 280 in the Near East, 35, 74, 75 Bur-gun'di-ans. 331 By-zan'ti-um, 111, 314. Cae'sar, Ju'lius, assassination of, 270 crosses the Rubicon, 269 defeats Pompej'-, 269 in first triumvirate, 268 man of letters, 275 proconsul of Gaul, 268 reforms of, 269 INDEX 353 Cae'sar, Ju'lius, portrait, (il.) 269 Csesars, twelve, 306 Ca-lyp'so, 102 Cam-by'ses, 132 Cam-pa'ni-a, 219 Campus Martius, 224 Cannse, 245 Cap'i-tol-ine hill, 219 Car-a-cal'la, 300 baths of, (il.) 294 Car-o-lin'gians, 342 Carthage, army, 242 compared with Rome, 242 conquests and trade, 241 defeat of, in Sicily, 140 destruction of, 249 government of, 241 location of, 51, 240 position before Punic wars, 239, 240 position of, after second Punic war, 247 supremacy in western Mediter- ranean, 241 Castle of St. Angelo, 311 Cat'i-line, 267 Cau'dine Forks, 230 Cave men, 13-5 Censor, 227 n. Centuries, assembly of, 224 ' Chi3er-o-ne'a, 160 Chairs, Greek, (il.) 182 Chal-de'an, 47, 49 (.-ha'lons, battle of, 319 Char-le-magne', 342-5 Charles Mar-tel', 341 Cha-ryb'dis, 102 Che-ops', 36 Christ, ])irth of, 276, 314 teachings of, 315 Christians, persecution under Ro- man emperors, 316 teachings of, 302 Christianity, acceptance of, by Rome, 314, 317 conversion of Germans to, 332, 338-9 organization of church of, 315- 16 spread of, 314-17 triumph of, over Mohammedan- ism at Tours, 341 2 a Chronological table, Greece (spread of Hellenism) [753 B.C.-146 A.D.], 214-7 Oriental nations and Greece [4241 B.C.-525 B.C.], 121 Western Europe and Near East, [146 A.D.-800 A.D.], 347 Church, in Britain, 338 and Clovis, 332 and Constantine, 317 early, 315 importance of, 336 organized as empire, 336 Roman state and, 317 Churches, St. Peters, (il.) 344 St. Sophia, Constantinople, (il.) 313 Cic'e-ro, and Catiline, 267 orator and man of letters, 275 Cim'bri. 264 Ci'mon, 145 Cin-cin-na'tus, the dictator, 228 Cir'ce, 102 Circus Maximus, 281, (il.) 296 Circuses, Roman, 281, 283, 296 Cis'al'pine Gaul, 218, 245 Cities in early Roman empire, 285 Citizenship, Greek, 180, 186-7 Roman, 231-2, 264, 299, 300 -City-^tate, in Tigris-Euphrates val- ley, 41 of Greece, 97, 105, 187 Civilization, Greek, 179-207 modern, and the past, 3 of Near East, 60-89 in Nile valley, 34, 38 carried by Phoenicians, 52 prehistoric, 18-25 Roman, 281-99 standards of, 6 of Teutonic kingdoms, 335 in Tigris-Euphrates valley, 48 western Greek, 207-10 Clau'di-us. 300, 307 Cleis'the-nes, 118 Cle-o-pa'tra, 271 Clients, 287 Climate, of Egypt, 33 of Greece, 97 of Italy and Rome, 218-20 of Mediterranean basin, 128 of the Near East, 84 354 INDEX Climate, of Tigris-Euphrates vallcv, 39 Clothing, Greek, 182 in the Near East, G2, G7 in preliistoric times, 21 Roman, 293 Clo'vis, king of the Franks, 331 Code, of Draco, 116 of Hamnmrabi, 43 of Justinian, 321 in twelve tables, 226 Coins, ancient, 117, (il.) 117 Colonization, Athenian, 187 n. Greek, 109-12, (map) opp. Ill Roman, 231 Colosseum, 295 present condition of, (il.) 281 restoration of, 295 Colossus of Rhodes, 172 Comedy in Athens, 191-2 Co-mi'ti-a Cen-tu-ri-a'ta, 224 Commerce, in Ancient Orient, 88 of Alexandria, 173 of Carthage, 241 of Greeks increased by Alexander, 168 Roman, 219, 298, 322 Community life of the Germans, 325 Confederacy, of Delos, 145 Latin, 229 Con'stan-tine, 313 Constantinople, 209, 313 Con'sul, 225 Cor'inth, congress at, 138 destruction of, 20S, 249 Cor-ne'li-a, 262 Courts, Athenian, 150 German, 334 Roman, 301 Crassus, in first triumvirate, 270, 282 n. Cre'tan civilization, 98-101 in prehistoric period, 17 Cretan vase, (il.) 99 Culture, of Athens and ^Egean cities in Hellenistic period, 171-4 Greek, stimulated by Persian wars, 141 Greek, spread by Alexander, 168, 169, 207 Greek, spread to Rome and the West, 208-9 in Near East, 90 Roman, darkened by Teutonic invasions, 335 Sumcrian, 41 in Tigris-Euphrates valley, 49 Cn'mist, 112 Cu'ne-i-form writing, 40, 45, 48 Cupid, 104 Cylinder, six-sided, (il.) 40 of Cyrus, (il.) 131 Cyrus, 131 cylinder of, (il.) 131 D Da'ci-a, 310 Danube River, 250, 329 Da-ri'us, 132 David, 53 De-cem'virs, 226 Deities, 104. 328 De-la'tors, 306 De'los, 106 Dcl'phi, 96 Deluge, Babylonian story of, 73 Democracy, in Athenian emi)irc. 148-50 under Cleisthenes in Athens, 118 Greek, 188 in Rome, 227, 261 D(-mos'the-nes, 160, 194 statue, (il.) 160 Di-a'-na, 104 Dic-ta'tor, 225, 228, 271 Di'do, 103 Di'o-ce-ses, 313 Di-o-de'ti-an, 312 Di-og'e-nes, 204 Di-o-nys'i-us, tyrant of Syracuse, 190 Dis-cob'o-lus, (il.) 197 Divorce, in Near East, 69 in Rome, 221, 252, 289 Domestication, of animals, 22, (il.) 22 of plants, 23 Do-mi'ti-an, 309 Do'ri-ans, 109, 113 Dra'co, 116 Dramatists, Greek, 190-2 Dress, Greek, 182 woman's (il.) 182 INDEX 355 Dress, in the Near East, 62, 67 Roman, 293 toga, (il.) 293 E East Mediterranean coast, (map) 50 Education, under Charlemagne, 344 in Greece, 182 in Near East, 64 in Rome, 289 punishment, (il.) 290 Egypt, 33-9 (maps), 34, opp. 49 business in, 84-8 life in, 60-70 in prehistoric times, 17 vases, (il.) 17 religion of, 71-2 Judgment of the Soul, (il.) 73 writing materials and books in, 77-9 Egyptian house, (il.) 62 Egyptian ship, (il.) 88 Empire, of Alexander, 164-70, (map) opp. 167 Assyrian, 44, (maps) 40, opp. 49 Athenian, 146-47 of Augustus, 273 New Babylonian, 46 Old Babylonian, 42, (map) 40 By-zan'tine, or Eastern Empire, 318 of Caesar, 269 Egyptian 36-8, (map) opp. 49 Prankish, 342-5 Germanic, 345, (map) opp. 331 Hittite, 50, (map) opp. 49 Persian, 129-34, (map) opp. 131 Plan of Imperial Rome, (il.) opp. 280 Roman, 269-323, (maps) opp. 250, 312 E-pam-i-non'das, 158 Ep-i-cu'rus, 204 E-pi'rus, 248 Equites, 224 Er-a-tos'the-nes, 206 Er-ech-the'um, 196, (il.) 152 E-tru'ri-a, 219, 229 E-trus'cans, carriers of Greek cul- ture, 208 influence in Mediterranean, 239 kings of Rome, 223 Eu'clid, 205 Euphrates River, 39. (See a/so Tigris- Euphrates valley Eu-rip'i-des, 191 "Exodus" from Egypt, 53 F Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus, the "delayer," 245 Family, Greek, 180 Roman, 221, 252 Farmers, Roman, 254 Fates, (il.) 198 Fay'um, 84 Feudal beginnings in Roman em- pire, 320 Feudal period in Egypt, 36 n. Fire and civilization, 18 Fist-hatchet, 11, (il.) 11 "Five good emperors," 309 Fla'vi-an Rulers, 308 Fleet, Greek, 137-9, 140, 145 Roman, 243, 244 Forum, Roman, 279 to-day and restored, (il.) 280 Pompeian, (il.) 309 Franks, 331, 342-5 Freedmen, 287 Frey'a, 328 Furniture, Greek chairs, (il.) 182 Roman, (il.) 292 G Games, Greek, 106-9 Roman, 252, 276, 294 Gaul, Caesar in, 270 Saracens in, 341 Gauls, revolt during Punic war, 245 sack Rome, 229 Ge'la, 111 Ge'lon of Syracuse, 140 Geography, of .^gean area, 95 of Carthage, 240 of east Mediterranean coast, 49- 50 of Egypt, 33 35G INDEX Geography, of Italy and Rome, 48, 218-220, (map) opp. 219 of the Mediterranean basin, 128 of Pha'nicia, 51 of Tigris-Euphrates valley, 39 Germans, civilization of, 335 community life of, 325 government of, 326, 333 ideas of justice, 327 and the Latin language, 334 law of, 333 migration of, 329-31, (mai)s) 330, opp. 331 religion of, 328 and the Roman Empire, 318, 319, 345 social classes, 326 Gilds in Rome, 288 Girga-mesh, labors of, 79 Gladiators, contests, 296 in public games, 252 Roman, (il.) 252 Golden Age of Greece, 145 Goths, 329, 338 Government, early Athenian, 115 of Carthage, 241 German, 326, 333 Greek. See Greek government in Near East, 90 Roman. (See Roman government Spartan, 114 Grac'chus, Ga'ius, 262-3 Grac'chus, Ti-be'ri-us, 262 Gra-ni'cus River, 165 Greece, after Alexander, 174 conquest of, by Rome, 249 a dependency of Rome, 176 early i)eriod of, 113-20 geographical divisions, 95, (maj:)) opp. 95 Golden Age of, 145 Hellenic period of, 145-161 Hellenistic period of, 169-77 influence of geography on, 96, 97 literature of, 189-94 period of expansion of, 127 (map) opp. Ill place of, in history, 179-210. subjugation of, by Philip, 159 wars with Persia, 134-42, (map) 119 See also Trade, etc. Greek government, 186-8 Athenian democracy, 148 early, of Athens, 1 15 early, of Sparta, 1 14 Greeks, art of, 194-201 character of, 184 civilization of, 179-210 colonization of, 109-13 modernness of, 5, 179 sciences among, 201-7 social life of, 180-5 unity among, 104 See also Housing, Dress, etc. Gy-lip'pus, 156 Gymnasium, Hadrian's ruins of, (il.) 283 H Ha'dri-an. 310 gymnasium, (il.) 283 tomb, 281, 311 Ham-mu-ra'bi, 42 code of laws, 43, (il.) 42 Hannibal, 245-7 Has'dru-bal, 247 Hebrews, 50, 52-4 Hec'tor, 101 He-gi'ra, 339 Hel-le'nes, 104, 109 Hellenic Greece, 145-54 Hellenism, 171, 207 Hel-len-is'tic Age, l(i9 Hel'les-pont, 137 He'lots, 113 Her-cu-la'ne-imi, 308 Hermes, (il.) 19,S Herodotus, 193 Hesiod, 104, 189 Hi-er-o-giyph'ics, 38, 78 Egyptian, (il.) 78 Him'e-ra, 112, 140, 239 Hip'pi-as, 117. 135 Hip-poc'ra-tes, 206 Historians, Greek, 192 Ronian, 275 History, ages of, 8 epochs of, 7 records of, 6 Hit'tites, 49, (map) opp. 49 Ho'mer. 102, 189 Ho-mer'ic Age, 101-4 Hor'ace, 275 INDEX 357 Ho-ra'tius, 228 Horsing a boy in Roman school, (il.) 290 Housing, Assyrian and Babylonian, 45 Greek, 185, (il.) 182 in the Near East, 61, 66-7 Egyptian house, (il.) 62 peasant's house, 66 prehistoric, 13, 15, 16 Roman, 290-3 typical plan, (il.) 291 peristyle, (il.) 292 Huns, 319 Hyksos, 36 H'i-acl, 102, 189 Im-per-a'tor, Augustus, 272 Caesar, 269 Industry, in Greece, 97 in Near East, 83-7 in the Roman world, 287 Invasions, Persian, 135, 137 Invasions of Rome, ])y Angles and Saxons, 331 by Burgundians and Franks, 331 by Cimbri and Teutones, 264 by Germans, 318 by Goths, 329 by Huns, 319 nature of Teutonic, 332 by Vandals, 331 I-o'ni-an, 113 Ionic revolt, 134 Iph-i-ge-ni'a, 191 Ip'sus, battle of, 170 Irrigation, in ancient times, 84 on the Euphrates, (il.) 82 Egyptian water sweep, (il.) 83 Is'lam, 339-40 Is'ra-el, 54 Is'ra-el-ites, 45 Is'sus, 166 Isth'mi-an games, 108 Italian right. 232 Italians, Roman citizens, 264, 300 Italy, conquest of, by Romans, 227, 230, 231 geography of, 218 lu'lus, 103 Janus, 271, 297 Je-ru'sa-lem, 54 destruction of, 308 spoils from, (il.) 308 Ju-de'a, 54, 315 Ju-gur'tha, 263-4 Julian emperors, 306 Juno, 104 Jupiter (Zeus), 104 altar of, (il.) 171 Jury in Athens, 150 Jus-tin'i-an, 321 Ju've-nal, 275 K Kar'nak, 37, 74 great colunms, (il.) 37 Kingdom, of Alexander's successors, 170 new Babylonian, 46 old Babylonian, 42 in Egypt, 35 Hebrew, 53 of Medes, 130 Teutonic, 329 Kitchen Middens, 15 Knights, Roman, 286 Knos'sos, 82 Ko'ran, 339 L Laconia, 113 Lake dwellings, 16 Language, Greek, 207, 210 Latin, 300, 334 in the Near East, 77-83 prehistoric, 24 romance, 301 La-oc'o-on, 173 group, (il.) 172 La'res and Pe-na'tes, 222 Latin language, 301 Latin right, 232 La'ti-um, 219 Laws, of Draco in Athens, 116 of Germanic kingdoms, 333 of Hammurabi, 43 of Justinian, 302, 321 Licinian, 227 development of Roman, 301 of twelve tables, 226 Sec Codes, 358 INDEX LcaKiu's, A-i'htu'an, 175 ^.-to'li-an, 175 Confcdoracy of Dclos, 145 of Greek city-states, 186 Greek, dissolved by Sparta, 158 importance of. 188 Peloponnesian, 115 Le'gions, 233 Le-on'i-das, 138 Leuctra, 158 Li-cin'i-an laws, 227, 255 Lictor, 225 n. Lion Gate, Mycenae, (il.) 100 Literature, in Assyria, 79 in Babylonia, 79 in the Near East, 77-83, 90 in Egypt, 78 in Greece, 189-94 in Rome, 275 Li'vy, 275 "Lost ten tribes," 54 Lux'or, 37, 74 restored, (il.) 74 Ly-cur'gns, 115 Lydia, 134 M MacVa-bees, 173 Mac'e-don or Macedonia, defeated by Romans, 247 location, 96 subdued by Alexander, 165 under Philip, 159 Mag-ne'si-a, 248 Mankind, classifications of, 26 in prehistoric period, 11-25 Mar'a-thon, 135, (il.) 135 March of "Ten Thousand," 158 Mar'cus Au-re'li-us, 275, 311 statue, (il.) 310 Mar-do'ni-us, 140 Ma'ri-us, 264-5 Marriage and domestic life, Greek, 181, 182 in the Near East, 69 Roman, 221, 252, 289 Mars, 104 Masks for tragedy, (il.) 190 Mas-.sil'i-a, 112 Matheniatics among Greeks, 205 Max'i-ma do-a'ca, 223 Mayfield of Charlemagne, 344 Mecca, 339 Me-de'a, 191 Medes, 130 Mcflina. 339 Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an race. 27 Mediterranean Sea, 128, 220 east coast, (niaj>) 50 Megaliths, 16 Memi)his, 35 Me-nan'der, 192 Menes, 35 Mer'cu-ry, 104 Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a, 39 Mes-sa'na, 112 Metal age, 8 Me-tau'rus, 246 Mct'ics, 180 Middle class in Rome, 254-5, 286, 321 Migrations, German, 329-31, (niap) 330 Mi-le'tus, 110 Mil-ti'a-des, 136 Minerva, 104 Mis'si do-min'i-ci, 344 Mith-ri-da'tes, king of Pontus, 256, 265, 267 Moabite stone, (il.) 52 Mohammed, 339 Mohammedanism, 339-41, (map) opp. 340 Monasteries, 337 Money introduced in Ath(>ns, 116 Monks. 337 Monotheism, 54, 76 Morality, among Persians, 133 in Rome, 272 Mos'lems, 209, 340-1 Mummies, 72, (il.) 72 Mu-ni-cip'i-a, 286 My-ea'le, 140 My-ce-nse'an Age, 100 Lion Gate at, (il.) 100 My'ue. 244 Mv'roii, 197 N Navy. Athenian, 146. 156 Carthaginian, 242 See Fleet. INDEX 359 Near East, dress, 62 geography, 49-52, (map) 50 government, 60 life of people, 64-70 religion, 70-7 trade and industry, 83-9 writing and literature, 77-83 Neb-u-chad-nez'zar, 46 Ne-me'an games, 108 Ne-o-lith'ic civilization, 15-8 in Crete, 17 in Egypt, 17 Nep'tune, 104 Nero, 307 persecution of Christians, 316 Ni-cse'a, council at, 314, 317 Nicias, Peace of, 155 NUe River, 33 Nin'e-veh, 45, 46 Nobles, among the Germans, 326 in Near East, 61 Roman, 224, 285, 320-1 Nor'dic race, 27 Nu-mid'i-a, 249, 263 Nu-mid'i-an horsemen, 245 n. O Ob'e-lisques, 79 Oc-ta'vi-us Caesar, 270, 271. See Augustus. O-do-a'cer, 330 Od'ys-sey, 102, 189 (Ed'i-pus Ty-ran'nus, 190 Olympia, 106 restored, (il.) 107 O-lym'pi-ad, 108 0-I>Tn'pus, 104 Omens, Roman, 222 Oracles, 106, 137 Oratory, Greek, 193 0-si'ris, 71 Os'tra-cism, 118, 137 Os'tro-goths, 329 Painting, Greek, 200 prehistoric, 15, (il.) 14 Pal'a-tine hill, 219 Pa-le-o-lith'ic civilization, 11-15, 18, 22. See also Prehistoric period. Pal'es-tine, 50, 173, (map) 50 Pal-my'ra, 312 Pantheon, (il.) 282 Papacy, 336, 337 Pa-py'rus, 79 Paris, the award of, 101 Par'the-non, 152, 195 present condition, (il.) 196 Pa-tri'cians, 224-7 Pax Ro-ma'na, 297, 311, 320 Peasants, 65, 287-8, 320 house, (il.) 66 Pe-Iop'i-das, 158, Peloponnesian war, 154-7 Pel-o-pon-ne'sus, 96, 115 Pe-nel'o-pc, 102 Pen-tath'lon, 108 Pep'in, 342 Per'ga-mum, 171 altar of Zeus at, (il.) 171 Per'i cles, 146 portrait, (il.) 150 golden age of, 145-54 Per-i-oi'ci, 113 Per-sep'o-lis, 167 Persia, character of people of, 133 conquest of, by Alexander, 167 religion, 133 Persian wars, 134-42 Phalanx, of Alexander, 165 Macedonian vs. Roman legion, 248 of Philip, 159 Pharaohs. 35 Phidias, 109, 196, 198 statue of Athena, (il.) 152 Philip of Macedon, 159 Philippics, 194 Philosophy, Greek, 201-4 Ronaan, 311 Pho'ci-ans, 159 Phce-ni'cians, 50 and the alphabet, 81 as carriers of civilization, 52 colonies of, 51 trade of, 51. 87, 88 Pin'dar, 189 Pir-aj'us, 146, 157, (il.) 147, (map, showing long walls) 147 Pi-sis'tra-tus, 117 Platffia, 140 360 INDEX Plato, 203 Pl(>-lH>'iiins, 225-7 Plu'tarch, VXi Po-lyh'i-us, 193 Polytheism, 76 Pompeii, destruction of, 308 Pompey, 267-9 portrait, (il.) 267 Pon'tius Pi'late, 315 Po River, 218 Pottery, 20 Prse'tor, 301 Prax-it'e-les, 199 Hermes, (il.) 198 Pre'fec-tures, 313 Prehistoric horse, (il.) 22 Prehistoric man, 11-8 Prehistoric ijeriod, 7, 11-29 civilization of, 18-25 epochs of, 8 Pre-tor'i-an guard, 307 Priest, 63 Prin'ceps, 272, 306, 30S Principate of Claudius', 307 Prisoners, Greek, 181 Pro-py-lffi'a, 152 Proscriptions, under Marius and Sulla, 266 under second triumvirate, 270 Proverbs, 53 Provinces, Persian, 132 Roman, 250, 253, 273, 285 Psalms, 53 Ptol'e-my, 206 Ptolemys in Egypt, 170 Public offices, in Athens, 150 among Germans, 326 in Rome, 285-7 Public works, in Alexandria, 173 Athenian, 146, 152, 154 long walls to Piranis, (il.) 147 under Darius, 133 German, 330 in the Near East, 84, 89 Roman, 281-3, 291, 294, 297-8 Publicans, 254 Punic wars, 243-50 Pyd'na, 248 Pyramids, 35, (il.) 36 Pyrrhus, 230, 240 Py-thag'o-ras, 112, 205 Pyth'i-a, 108 R Races, classification of, 26-7 fusion of Roman and Teuton, 332-5 Ram'e-ses II, 37 Raud'ine plain, 264 Religion, Bal)ylonian, 73 C;hristianity, 274, 314-7, 336-9 Egyptian, 71 Judgment of the Soul, (il.) 73 of Germans, 328 Greek, 104, 105, 183 Hebrew, 64, 76 Mohammedanism, 339-41 monotheism and polytheism, 76 Persian, 133 of i)rimitive man, 70 Roman, 221, 314, 316 in Tigris-Euphrates valley, 75 Rennis, 223 Republic, Roman, 224-69 Revolution, Roman, 262 Rhine River, 330 Rhodes, 172, 249 Roads, Roman, 297, (map) 299 Appian Way, (il.) 298 Per.sian, 133 Roman army, 232 decline of, 322 made democratic by Marius, 266 influence in naming emperors, 307 rule of, 311 soldiers, 232, (U.) 231 Roman artillery, (il.) 249 Roman government, under Au- gustus, 275 under Caesar, 271 changes due to struggle of plel s, 225-7 luider Diocletian, 315 in early republic, 224 Ijefore the Revolution, 261 of provinces, 253 principate, 309 copied in Teutonic kingdoms, 335 Romans, army of, 232, 311 character of, 220 family life. 221, 290 nioderiiness of, 5 religion, 221 INDEX 361 Romans, social classes, 287-8 See Housing, Dress, etc. Rome, and her allies, 231 of Augustus, 272-4 and Carthage, 242 citizenship in, 231 conquests of, 238, 250 early period, 220-4 empire of, 272-322, (map) opp. 312 and Etruscans, 223 expansion of, 227-30, 243-50 fall of, 319 and Gauls, 229 geography of, 218 and Greek culture, 208 influence of wealth on, 251, 272 literature, 175 in Mediterranean, 238-50 public buildings of, 273, 279, 280 plan of, (il.) opp. 280 Punic wars, 243-50 republic of, 224-34 and the early Revolution, 264 in late republic, 250 vinder rival leaders, 265—71 See also Trade, Industry, etc. Rom'u-lus, 223 Ro-set'ta stone, 77, (il.) 77 Rub'i-con River, 219, 265, 269 n. S S. p. Q. R., 227 Sabines, 219 Sacred chickens, (il.) 223 Sacred war, 159 Sacrifice, Roman, 222 Greek, 183 Sal'a-mis, 139, (il.) 139 Sal'lust, 275 Sa-ma'ri-a, 54 Samnites, 219 Sam'nite wars, 229 Sap'pho, 189 Sar'a-cens, 341 Sarcophagus of King of Sidon, (il.) 199 Sar'dis, 134 Sargon of Agade, 42 Sa'trap, 132 Saul, 53 Saxons, 331 conquered by Charlemagne, 345 Scho-las'ti-cism, 209 Science, among the Greeks, 206 before the Greeks, 204-5 Scip'i-o, Pub'li-us Cor-nel'i-us, 247 Scribe, 64, (il.) 64 Sculpture, Greek, 197-201 Scyl'la, 102 Secession of plebs, 225 Se-leu'cids, 170, 173 n., 238 Sem'ites, 41 Sen'ate, Roman, 225 controls government, 227 degeneration of, 261, 263 enlarged by Csesar, 271 revolt against, 262 restored by Sulla, 266 under Augustus, 273 Senators, Roman, 285 Sen'e-ca, 275 Sep-tim'i-us Se-ve'rus, 311 Sib'yl-line books, 227 n. Sic'i-ly, 109, 111, 155 Carthaginian invasions, 140, 239, 240 Slavery, in Greece, 181 in Near East, 70 in Rome, 254, 288, 320 slave in fetters, (il.) 288 in Sparta, 113 Socii, 264 Social classes, German, 326 Greek, 180-1 in Near East, 60-3 Roman, 224, 251, 254, 285-9 Soc'ra-tes, 202, (il.) 202 Soldier, Roman, 232-3, (il.) 231 Sol'o-mon, 53 So'lon, 116 Soph'ists, 202 Sophocles, 190 Spar'ta, location of, 96, 113 supremacy of, 157 yields to Thebes, 158 Spar'ta-cus, 267 Spartans, 113-4 Sphinx, 36 Spinning and weaving, 21 St. Benedict, 337 St. Peter's Church, (il.) 344 St. Sophia, Constantinople, (il.) 313 362 INDEX Stil'i-cho. 320 Sto'i-risni, 204, 302 Stoiu^ age, 8 now, 15-8 old, 11-5 Subject cities, Rome's policy, 300 Sulla, 268 Sunierians, 40 Su'sa, 167 Syr'a-cuso, 1 1 1 before the Punic wars, 240 expedition of Greeks against, 155 Syria, 49, 132 controlled by Rorn(«, 248 influenced by Greek culture, 173 Tac'i-tus, 275 Ta-ren'tum, 112, 218 Taxes, a})uses in collection of, 254 direct in provinces, 271 in early Roman provinces, 253 Tel el Amarna tablets, 79 Temples, in Egypt, 74 Luxor, (il.) 74 Greek, 195 altar of Zeus, (il.) 171 Parthenon, (il.) 196 Roman Pantheon, (il.) 282 in Tigris-Euphrates valley, 75 Babylonian, (il.) 75 Tenements, Roman, 293 "Ten lost tribes," 45 Teu-ton'es, 264 Teu'tons, 27, 329-35 Tha'les, 205, 112 Theatre, Greek, plan of, (il.) 191 Roman, 294 ruins of, at Orange, France, (il.) 284 plan of, (il.) 191 Thebes, destroyed by Alexander, 165 "hundred-gated," 37 victory over Spartans, 158 The-mis'to-des, 136 The-od'o-ric, 329, 330 The-o-do'si-us, 317-8 Ther-mop'y-la^ location, 96 Leonidas at, 138 Thes'pis, 190 Thor, 328 Thotmes III (Tot'mes), 37 Three Fates, (il.) 198 Thu-cyd'i-des, 193 Ti'ber, 219 Til)erius, 306 Tig'lath Pi-le'ser, 44 Tigris-Euphrates valley, 39, (map) 40 Mgriculture, 83-4 c-i\ilization of, 48-9 geograpliy of, 39 literature of, 79-80 religion of, 75-6 Ti-mo'le-on, 240 Ti'tus, 308 To'ga, Roman, 285, 293, (il.) 293 Tools, prehistoric, 11, 19 in Near East, 84 Tours (Toor), battle of, 341 Trade, encouraged by Alexander's conquests, 168 Carthaginian, 241 of Cretans, 99 of Greek colonies. 111 in Near East, 85-9. 91 Egyptian market, (il.) 86 in neolithic times, 17 of Pha-nicians, 51-2 of Rome, 298-9 routes of, 89 Tragedy, Athenian, 190 masks, (il.) 190 Tra'jan, 310 Transportation in Near East, by caravan, 88 by sea, 88 trade routes, 89 Trials, Athenian, 150 by compurgation, 327 by ordeal, 327 in Teutonic kingdoms, 336 Trib'unes, 225-7 power of, 263, 269, 273 Triumph, Roman, 234 of Gffisar, (il.) 232-3 Triumvirate, first. 2(»7 .second. 270 Trojan war, 101 , Twelve tables (written law), 226 Tyranny in Greek history. 188 Tyrants expelled from Athens, 117 INDEX 363 Tyre, destroyed by Alexander, 166 founded as Phoenician colony, 51 Tyrian purple, 52, 85 U Ul'fi-las, 338 U-lys'ses, 101 Unity, Greek, 105 Roman, 271, 299 Val-hal'la, 328 Val-kyr'ies, 328 Van'dals, 329, 331 Vap'i-o cups, 101 Ve'ii, conquest of, 229 Venus, 104 Venus deMilo, 201, (il.) 201 Ves-pa'si-an, 308 Vestal virgin, (il.) 222 Ve-su'vi-us, 309, (il.) 309 Victory of Samothrace, 201, (il.) 201 Vir'gil, 103, 275 Vis'i goths, 329 W Wars, Greek, Peloponnesian, 154 Persian, 134 Roman, against Antiochus of Syria, 248 conquest of Greece, 248 against Jugurtha, 265 with Macedonia, 247 with Mithridates, 267 Punic, 243 social, 266 Sec Army. Winged bull, (il.) 46 Winged victory, (il.) 201 Wo'den, 328 Woman, position of, among Ger- mans, 325 position of, in Greek states, 182 dress of Greek, (il.) 182 position of, in Near East, 68, (il.) 67, 68 l)osition of, in Rome, 252, 289 dress of Roman, 293 Spartan, 114, 181 Wonien of the Near East grinding, (il.) 67 making bread, (il.) 68 Woodworking, 85 Writing, Assyrian, 80-1 Egyptian, 78 hieroglyphics, (il.) 78 Rosetta stone, (il.) 77 materials, Greek, (il.) 183 Phoenician, 52 Moabite stone, (il.) 52 prehistoric, 25 Sec Alphabet. X Xen'o-phon, 193 Xer'xes, 137, 139 Z Za'ma, 247 Ze'no, 204 Ze-no'bi-a, 312 Ze\is. Sec ,Jui)iter. Zo-ro-as'tri-au-isni , 134 American History, Revised By ROSCOE lewis ASHLEY Head of History Department, Pasadena High School, California Cloth, J2mo, illustrated, j^y p