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 ON THE 
 
 MOTION OF THE HEART AND BLOOD 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
ON THK 
 
 MOTION OF THE HEART AND BLOOD 
 IN ANIMALS. ^ 
 
 I'.y WILLIAM HARVEY, M.D. 
 
 WILMS'S TRANSLATION, REVISED ANl> EI'ITED BY 
 
 ALEX. BOWIE, M.D., CM., 
 
 Licentiate of the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, Edinh. ; 
 
 Physician to St. John's Hospital for Diseases of the Skin; 
 
 Lecturer on the Principles and Practice of Diseases 
 
 of the Skin at St. Johns Hospital ; Late 
 
 Hon. Physician to the Injir mart/ for 
 
 Consumption and Diseases 
 
 of the Chest and 
 
 Throat. 
 
 LONDON : GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORK STREET, 
 CO VENT GARDEN. 
 
 1889. 
 
CHISW1CK PRESS : — C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT, 
 CHANCERY LANE. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Biographical Inteoduction v 
 
 Explanation of Technical Terms xix 
 
 The Motion of the Heart and Blood .... 1 
 Fiest Disquisition, addressed to John Riolan, Jin. . 91 
 Second Disquisition, addressed to John Riolan, Jin. Ill 
 
 348455 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 IT 1ms often been said thai the world knows little of its 
 greatest men, and in the case of William Harvey the 
 Bftatemenl receives a striking illustration. Two hundred 
 and seventy years have passed since he made his great 
 discovery of the circulation of the blood. With the 
 progress of medical and physiological science, the lustre 
 surrounding his name has steadily increased, and we now 
 place it chief in the roll of those who have attained im- 
 mortality through benefiting their kind. 
 
 The eldest child of Thomas Harvey and Joan Halke, he 
 was born at Folkestone, Kent, on the 1st of April, 1578. 
 In the printed accounts of the family, his father is style. 1 
 gentleman ; and upon referring to the register of William's 
 matriculation at Cambridge, we find him designated a 
 yeoman of Kent. He must have been a man of some 
 substance and position, as all of his seven sons followed 
 careers, and attained positions necessitating the possession 
 of capital at the outset. Five of them, by name Thomas, 
 Daniel. Eliali, Michael and Matthew, were merchants of 
 repute in the city of London, and traded extensively with 
 Turkey and the Levant. John, the second son, was at one 
 time Member of Parliament for Hythe, and afterwards 
 became King's Eeceiver for Lincolnshire, and Footman to 
 His Majesty. There were two daughters, one of whom 
 died young, and of the other nothing beyond her name is 
 known. 
 
 Of Joan Halke, Harvey's mother, but little has been 
 
 b 
 
BIO GRAPHICAL INTR 01) UGTION. 
 
 preserved to us, and that little is derived from the in- 
 scription on a monumental slab in Folkestone Church. 
 She is there described as having died in her 50th year, 
 the mother of seven sons and two daughters. " A Godly 
 harmles Woman : A chaste loveing Wife : A charitable 
 quiet Neighbour: A co'fortable frendly Matron: A 
 p'ovident diligent Huswyfe: A careful te'der-harted 
 Mother. Deere to her Husband: Reverensed of her 
 Children : Beloved of her Neighbours : Elected of 
 Cod. Whose Soule Rest in Heaven : her Body in this 
 Grave : To Her a Happy Advantage : To Hers an 
 Unhappy Loss." Conjecture has attributed the author- 
 ship of the foregoing inscription to her son William. 
 
 At the age of ten Harvey entered the Grammar School 
 of Canterbury, where he remained for five years. There 
 he worked at the ordinary subjects of an English educa- 
 tion, and acquired a good knowledge of Latin and Greek. 
 This was essential at a time when the influence of authority 
 was triumphant, and when even contemporary literature, to 
 appear learned, must needs be expressed in Latin. 
 
 At sixteen we find him entered as a student at Caius- 
 Gonvil College, Cambridge, where he spent the following 
 three years in the study of classics, dialectics and physics. 
 Such a course of training was then, as now, considered a 
 fitting prelude to the study of the science and art of 
 medicine. In 1597, being then nineteen years of age, 
 he was made a Bachelor of Arts of his university. At that 
 time, and indeed until quite recently, the University of 
 Cambridge was in a very different position with regard 
 to the teaching of medicine from what we now find. 
 Divinity was its chief glory, and the well equipped 
 medical school of the present was almost unrepresented, 
 one or two professorships only being devoted to medical 
 subjects. 
 
 As a consequence, it was the almost universal practice 
 
niOGRAPHICAL INTRonrcriON. v ii 
 
 iii England far the intending physician to commence his 
 studies at the University, and after having obtained liis 
 degree in arts, i < > prosecute his more purely medical 
 studies on the Continent. The great medical schools of 
 tlir time were those of Montpellier and Padua. Among 
 
 the professors at the University of Padua were sucli nun 
 as Fabricius of Aquapendente, 1 and Julius ( 'asserius, names 
 which have come down to us as among the most renowned 
 in medicine and surgery of the time. Of the fame of Padua's 
 university we have much contemporary and later evidence, 
 The writer of the " Accomplisht Physician," published in 
 lbTO, in sketching the course of the medical student, suggests 
 that he should visit Padua, with its famous Hospital of 
 San Lorenzo, and observe the Italian method of curing 
 diseases by means of alterative broths, without having resort 
 to bleeding or purging ; certainly a very advanced method 
 of treatment when compared with the too often harmful 
 and cruel methods then prevalent among the more ignorant 
 practitioners of the art. When the student had resided at 
 Padua for the necessary period, our author suggests that 
 he might then " justly aspire to a degree of Doctor in 
 Physic, which the fame of the place should persuade him 
 to take here, being the Imperial University for Physic of 
 all others in the world, and where physicians pass a very 
 exact scrutiny and severe test." 
 
 The course suggested by the " Accomplisht Physician," 
 although published seventy-three years later, was indeed 
 the one followed by Harvey ; for we find him at Padua in 
 1597, enrolled under Fabricius, and doubtless attending 
 
 1 Fabricius was consulted, in conjunction with Spigelio, a most re- 
 nowned surgeon, by the Council of Ten when the famous Fra Paolo, 
 spiritual adviser to the Republic of St. Mark, was stabbed at Venice on 
 the 5th October, 1607. Fabricius was rewarded on the recovery of Fra 
 Faolo by being knighted, and presented with a silver cup weighing 
 thirty ounces, with a winged lion of St. Mark engraved upon it. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 with wrapt attention to that celebrated anatomist, as lie 
 unfolded his views on the anatomy of the human body, 
 and drew special notice to his labours on the position and 
 structure of the valves in the veins. There can be little 
 doubt that the seed then sown fell into suitable soil, and 
 that to Eabricius we owe the awakening of the spirit of 
 enquiry and observation which ended only with Harvey's 
 life, but which, in its course, enriched the world of know- 
 ledge and of thought with one of its grandest generalizations. 
 
 When twenty-four years of age, having resided five years 
 at Padua, he obtained the diploma of Doctor of Physic, with 
 the licence of its University to practise and to teach the arts 
 and medicine in every land and seat of learning. The same 
 year he returned to England, and received the degree of 
 Doctor of Medicine from his Alma Mater, the University 
 of Cambridge. Two years later he married the daughter 
 of Dr. Lancelot Brown, a well known physician, and settled 
 to the practice of his profession in London. In 1607 he 
 was chosen a Fellow of the College of Physicians of London. 
 
 We next hear of Harvey successfully applying, in 1609, 
 for the reversion of the office of physician to St. Bartholomew' s 
 Hospital, then held by Dr. Wilkinson. He supported his ap- 
 plication by King's letters recommendatory to the governors, 
 and by a testimonial, among others, from Dr. Adkinson, 
 President of the College of Physicians. Upon the death of 
 Dr. Wilkinson, in the same year, Harvey was at first ap- 
 pointed to discharge his duties, and soon afterwards to fill 
 the vacant post. For the next six years we hear little of 
 him, his time being much taken up with the practice of his 
 profession. That he was successful we cannot doubt, as he 
 numbered among his patients such men of bight and lead- 
 ing as Lord Chancellor Bacon, and Thomas Howard Earl 
 of Arundel. 
 
 The year 1615 was an important one in Harvey's life, for 
 it was then he was appointed by the College of Physicians 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. a 
 
 to deliver tlie lectures on anatomy and rargery, "which bad 
 
 I n Pounded by I>r. Richard CaldwalL In all probability 
 
 ahnoal Erom the firai be described bis views upon the cir- 
 culation, for although his work on the motion of the heart 
 
 and blood was nol published until ltJ'JS. yet In- tells us in 
 
 his preface thai ho ha<l lieen demonstrating his views for 
 more than nine years. 
 
 Soon afterwards he musl have heeii a j (pointed Physician 
 Extraordinary to the King, with the promise of I'hysician-in- 
 ( hrdinary when it should occur. The latter position, how- 
 ever, he did not attain until after the death of James I., 
 and until Charles had reigned five or six years. When it 
 did come, his position must have been a very distinguished 
 one. He was in close connection with the Court, and the 
 Kong was interested in, and sympathized with, the investi- 
 gations of his physician. On several occasions he inspected 
 his preparations, and witnessed the dissection of some of 
 the does supplied out of the royal forests. 
 
 In 10:28 Harvey published his modest volume of eighty 
 pages at Frankfort, in which he deals with the movement 
 of the heart and blood. It immediately curtailed his prac- 
 tice as a fashionable physician ; Aubrey tells us that he had 
 heard Harvey say : " that after his book on the ' Circulation 
 of the Blood ' came out, he fell mightily in his practice ; 
 'twas believed by the vulgar that he was crackbrained, and 
 all the physitians were against him." Even years after- 
 wards, the same chronicler says that " though all his pro- 
 fession would allow him to be an excellent anatomist, I 
 uever heard any that admired his therapeutique way. I 
 knew several practitioners in this town that would not have 
 given threepence for one of his bills (prescriptions) and 
 (who said) that a man could hardly tell by his bills what 
 lie did aim at." That he should suffer detraction at the 
 hands of the more ignorant of his profession, is in accor- 
 dance with all precedent, and it can scarcely surprise us to 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 learn that even the intelligent section of the public should 
 lack confidence in so bold an innovator. 
 
 Having held the office of Treasurer to the College of 
 Physicians, he resigned it in 1629. The following year he 
 was appointed to accompany the young Duke of Lennox in 
 his " travels beyond seas." Nothing appears to be known 
 as to the places visited in this journey, but it is probable 
 that it occupied over two years. In 1632 Harvey had 
 returned to England, and was appointed physician-in- 
 ordinary to Charles I. The following year he accompanied 
 the king on his first visit to his Scottish dominion, and we 
 find the surgeons of St. Bartholomew's Hospital complain- 
 ing of the absence of their colleague "by reason of his 
 attendance on the king's majesty." The Governors of the 
 Hospital appointed Dr. Andrews his substitute, but " with- 
 out prejudice to him in his yearly fee or in any other 
 respect." 
 
 In 1636 Thomas Howard Earl of Arundel was dis- 
 patched on an embassy to the Emperor. Harvey, who 
 was his private physician, accompanied him, and in this 
 manner had an opportunity of visiting many of the prin- 
 cipal cities of Germany, and of making the acquaintance of 
 the leaders of his profession in that country. To Caspar 
 Hofman, one of the most obstinate of his opponents, he 
 wrote offering to give a public demonstration of the ana- 
 tomical particulars upon which his theory of the circulation 
 of the blood was founded. This demonstration was actually 
 carried out in Nuremberg to the satisfaction of all present 
 excepting Hofman. It is related that as Hofman continued 
 to urge the most futile objections, Harvey, recognizing 
 further argument to be useless, laid down his scalpel and 
 retired. Slegel, in his " Commentary on the Motion of the 
 Blood," published at Hamburg in 1650, says, that although 
 he tried to convince Hofman of the circulation of the blood, 
 it was in vain, and he died an unbeliever of its truth. 
 
BIOGBAPSICAL IXTRODCCTIOX. n 
 
 W'lu'ii Charles advanced at the head of an expeditionary 
 tunc into Scotland in L639, to allaj with ih<' sword the 
 religions discontenl prevailing there, Earvey, in virtue <>t" 
 his office, accompanied his royal master. An arrangemenl 
 having been made, he returned to the capital, again to 
 accompany Charles is the following year against the 
 Covenanters of thai country. He was with (In- King at 
 York when the royal forces suffered tin; reverse at 
 Newburn. During the complications between Charles 
 and his parliament, Harvey remained in attendance upon 
 the King, and although the relations between the monarch 
 and the representatives of his subjects were of a most criti- 
 cal nature, yet parliament specially desired Harvey to con- 
 tinue in his care of the royal person. The battle of Edge- 
 hill soon afterwards followed, and if the account given bj 
 Aubrey be correct, Harvey felt little solicitude at its result. 
 He says : " When King Charles by reason of the tumults 
 left London he (Harvey) attended him, and was at the 
 fight of Edge-hill with him ; and during the fight the 
 Prince and Duke of York were committed to his care. 
 He told me he withdrew with them under a hedge, and 
 tooke out of his pockett a booke and read. But he had 
 not read very long before a bullet of a Great Gun grazed 
 on the ground near him which made him remove his 
 station." His two boy companions by the hedgeside 
 were afterwards Charles II. and James II. There can be 
 no doubt of Harvey's attachment to his Sovereign, but 
 his philosophical studies were evidently more absorbing 
 of his interest than the contentions of rival political fac- 
 tions. Most likely the book which proved so fascinating 
 to the discoverer of the circulation, as he sat by the hedge 
 on the battlefield on that cold Sunday in October, was Ins 
 favourite " Fabricius' Treatise upon Generation," for we 
 find that a few days alter the battle he accompanied the 
 King and the remnants of his army to Oxford, and there. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION 
 
 says Aubrey, " I remember be came several times to our 
 college (Trinity) to George Batburst, B.D., wbo bad a ben 
 to batcb eggs in bis cbamber, vvbicb tbey opened daily to 
 see tbe progress and way of generation." At Oxford sucb 
 a man as Harvey was likely to be well received ; at once a 
 king's pbysician, and autbor of a far-reacbing discovery. 
 Nor was the City of Colleges untrue to itself, for during 
 tbe years tbe King made it the seat of his Court and the 
 headquarters of his army Harvey was entertained and 
 received with becoming dignity. The honorary degree 
 of Doctor of Physic was conferred upon him. Merton 
 College being deprived of its Warden owing to Sir 
 Nathaniel Brent joining the popular party, Harvey was 
 elected in his place at the suggestion, it has been said, 
 of John Greaves, the learned antiquary and mathema- 
 tician, and upon the special recommendation of the 
 King. But his tenure of tbe Wardenship of Merton was 
 of short duration, as upon tbe flight of tbe King and the 
 surrender of the city in the following year to the par- 
 liamentary forces, Sir Nathaniel Brent again took posses- 
 sion of the College, and Harvey returned to London. 
 
 The four years of civil war with their antecedent years 
 of pohtical strife, no doubt contributed to make Harvey 
 long for a more restful life, and for more congenial pur- 
 suits. At tbe age of sixty- eight he quitted for ever the 
 service of tbe King, and sought privacy and leisure in the 
 houses of his brothers. At the residence of Eliab, in the 
 city, and at Roehampton, and in those of Daniel at Combe, 
 near Croydon, in Surrey, and in tbe then suburban village 
 of Lambeth, he bad his own apartments, and occupied him- 
 self in composing his work on Generation. Nor was he 
 too feeble at the age of seventy-one to undertake, in com- 
 pany with bis accomplished friend Dr. Ent, a visit to the 
 Continent, during which they went as far as Italy. 
 
 In 1651, when seventy-three years of age, he published 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. xiii 
 
 bis great work on Animal Generation. The following year 
 the College of Physicians determined to place liis statue in 
 their ball, emphasizing the general opinion thai in Harvej 
 they had tlif most distinguished Anatomist and Physician 
 of bis age. Harvey, aboul the same time, commenced the 
 erection, al his own cost, of a very handsome addition to 
 flic college buildings. According to Aubrey it was "a 
 noble building of Roman Architecture (of rustic work with 
 Corinthian pilasters), comprising a greal parlour, a bind 
 of convocation house for the fellows to meet in below, and 
 a library above." The library he furnished with books, 
 and the museum he enriched with many specimens. 
 
 The greal fire of 1666 spared little in its reckless course, 
 and the college buildings of the physicians, with the 
 Harveian library, parlour, statue, and all were engulfed 
 by i lie desl roying angel. 
 
 In loWt, a1 the unanimous desire of the fellows, Harvey 
 was offered the Presidency of the College of Physicians; 
 but on the score of failing health, and advancing years, he 
 gracefully declined the honour of filling the foremost place 
 among the physicians of England, and begged to propose 
 the late president for re-election, which was at once ratified. 
 
 Although still retaining his mental activity, and con- 
 tinuing to lecture until within a year or two of his death, 
 accumulating years, and frequent attacks of gout, began 
 to make serious inroads on his health. On the 3rd of 
 dune, 1657, Aubrey tells us that at ten in the morning he 
 found, upon attempting to speak, that he had lost the 
 power of utterance. He was quite conscious, and feeling 
 that his end was approaching, he sent for his nephews, 
 and to each ga\e something as a memento. To Sambroke, 
 his apothecary, he made signs to let blood for him in the 
 tongue, without, however, any benefit ; and on the evening 
 of the same da\ the great soul of William Harvey took its 
 easy flight. All that remained of him was placed in his 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 brother Eliab's vault in Hempstead, in Essex, and on his 
 breast, in great letters they placed his name, DR. WILLIAM 
 HARVEY. 
 
 So lived and so died William Harvey, whose labours in 
 the cause of truth, and whose discoveries in the domain of 
 physical science, must ever keep him fresh in the memory 
 of every student of nature. From the few facts of his life 
 which have come down to us, and which we treasure all 
 the more because of their scarcity, we are able to form 
 some idea of the man, although only in outline. 
 
 He was of small stature, nervous, energetic, and full of 
 spirit. His temples and cheeks slightly hollowed ; a full 
 and thoughtful forehead; a penetrating, calm, contem- 
 plative dark round eye ; lips slightly curved, determined 
 and sensitive ; just the slightest tinge of melancholy over 
 his round olive-coloured face, backed by wavy locks of 
 raven hue, but white for the last twenty years of his life ; 
 these make up a description quite in accordance with all 
 that we know of his person. Simple and modest, with an 
 aversion for pomp and circumstance, he lived on terms of 
 the closest affection with his brothers and friends. The 
 most cursory perusal of his works cannot fail to impress 
 us that his mind, naturally bright, had been quickened by 
 persistent cultivation. At once profoundly religious, and 
 a student of nature ; imaginative and laborious in the col- 
 lection of facts ; inquisitive and eager in the acquirement 
 of knowledge ; these characteristics were so proportioned 
 and arranged as to constitute a singularly brilliant mind. 
 
 That he was subject to some of the weaknesses that 
 afflict humanity, who can doubt ? But from none having 
 reached us, we may fairly enough conclude tbat they were 
 few and slight, and amply redeemed by his nobler qualities. 
 In him we trace the best qualities of the Englishman of 
 his time, and we would fain hope of all time. Sincerity, 
 manliness, patience and forbearance, were united with a 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 dauntless love of fact, and the power of lofty generaliza- 
 tion. His logical mind was prepared <<» Eollov. truth 
 wherever it should lead him, ami his great induction in 
 the physics of the animal body was the reward. 
 
 Of his works but little need be hero said. As has I n 
 
 previously remarked, he had sufficiently elaborated bis 
 news on the circulation to present them to his class so 
 early as 1616. There is good reason for believing that 
 he wrote his treatise on the subject before 1619, but its 
 publication was delayed until 1628. Of the reasons for 
 the delay we are not left in doubt, for even in 162H be 
 is apprehensive lest its appearance make "mankind his 
 enemy." In 1620 Lord Bacon had published his "Novum 
 Organum," advocating the principles upon which Harvey's 
 induction had been buill up: doubtless, the favourable re- 
 ceplion accorded to the work of England's great chancellor, 
 did much to encourage the modest Harvey in giving his 
 small book to the world. 
 
 In an age of enqurry it is difficult to realize what must 
 have been Harvey's struggles before he completely threw 
 off the influence of authority ; the manner in which he 
 convicts the " divine Galen " of fallacious reasoning, leaves 
 no doubt as to his solicitude in the matter. 
 
 The chief points in Harvey's induction were (1) that the 
 blood moved in a ceaseless stream, as it were in a circle, 
 and (2) that the heart was the great propelling power. 
 
 If we examine the views held about the circulation, 
 before the appearance of Harvey's book, we shall find 
 that the veins were regarded as the principal vessels of 
 the body, and they only were believed to contain true blood. 
 The arteries were supposed to contain only a little blood 
 mixed with vital spirits, of which they were the channels. 
 The liver was held to be the origin of all the veins, and the 
 hearl was regarded as the generator of vital spirits, and of 
 beat, in addition to its being B chief cistern of the blood. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The blood was believed to be propelled by the act of inspira- 
 tion, and its flow to any part of the body determined by 
 special excitation. When Vesalins asserted that the vena cava 
 arose f rom the heart, he was opposed by the greatest anato- 
 mists of his day — such great authorities as Jacobns Sylvius, 
 Rialdus Columbus, Bartholoinseus Eustachius, and Grabriel 
 Falopius, maintaining that it arose from the liver. The pulse 
 was thought to result from the contraction and dilatation 
 of the arteries upon a mixture of blood and air. The air 
 within the arteries was replenished by means of suction, 
 the dilatation and contraction of the vessels being analogous 
 to the action of a pair of bellows. There was thus an 
 imaginary respiration all over the body, with the addition 
 of lungs around the heart for the better " ventilation and 
 refrigeration of the blood." 
 
 That the blood moved, was known previously to Harvey's 
 time, but the discovery that its motion is in a circle is en- 
 tirely Harvey's. The functions of the tricuspid valves, and 
 those at the orifices of the aorta and pulmonary artery, 
 had been settled by Berengarius of Carpi. Fabricius had 
 for many years worked at, and perfected the knowledge of 
 the valves in the veins. Berengarius in 1521, and Vesalius 
 in 1555, had both shown that the septum dividing the two 
 sides of the heart was unpermeable, and the passage of the 
 blood through that muscular partition being proved to be 
 impossible, Michael Servitus appeared upon the scene with 
 the suggestion that the blood from the right side of the 
 heart, in order to get into the left side, had to traverse the 
 lungs. This has been called the lesser circulation. But 
 in making the suggestion, Servitus had before him no 
 anatomical evidence of the possibility of such a transit ; 
 and the only credit due to him is that of having made a 
 very happy guess, but one which did not advance the 
 explanation further. 
 
 Rialdus Columbus recognized the true action of the valves 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 at the orifices of the vessels in the heart, and supported 
 the probability of the lesser circulation with more r< 
 
 than Hervitus. Hut liis anatoniical and physiological con- 
 vict iims could never permil him bo make any larger genera- 
 lization. He believed the vena cava to arise from the liver, 
 and to fulfil all the functions of taking nutrient blood to 
 the stomach, black Idle to the spleen, nourishment to the 
 intestines, and nutritive matter from the intestines to the 
 liver, t" be there elaborated int<> blood; truly a variety of 
 functions to be carried on in one channel, and in opposite 
 directions. Columbus denied the muscular nature of the 
 heart. Andreas Ceesalpinus, of Arezzo, went considerably 
 farther, nt»t. only asserting from the anatomical arrange- 
 ment of the valves of the heart that there must be a 
 passage for I lie blood through the lungs; but also recog- 
 nizing the true nature of the pulmonary artery, previously 
 called arteria venosa, which he demonstrated to be a tine 
 artery, and analogous iu structure and function to the 
 aorta. CsBalpinus certainly seems to have discovered that 
 the blood moved in the veins, and in one direction only. 
 Had it not been for preconceived notions, he might have 
 reached what he certainly was in measurable distance of, 
 but we find him believing in the permeability of the septum 
 of the heart, and discussing the flux and reflux of the blood 
 in the most approved Galenic style. His explanation of the 
 blood distending the veins on the farther side of a ligature, 
 which compresses them, was that the blood was afraid lest 
 it should be cut off and suffocated. 
 
 Coming to our own country, does not Shakespeare make 
 Brutus say to Portia : — 
 
 " You are my true and honourable wife, 
 As dear to me as are the ruddy drops 
 That visit my sad breast;" 
 
 But neither Shakespeare, nor Cajsalpiuus, nor Servitus. 
 dreamt of the great principle of the blood's movement, uor 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 did others discover it until William Harvey demonstrated 
 its necessary truth. 
 
 That there is one blood stream, common to both arteries 
 and veins, that the blood poured into the right auricle, 
 passes into the right ventricle, that it is from there forced 
 by the contraction of the ventricular walls along the pul- 
 monary artery through the lungs and pulmonary veins to 
 the left auricle, that it then passes into the left ventricle 
 to be distributed through the aorta to every part of the 
 animal body : and that the heart is the great propellor of 
 this perpetual motion, as in a circle ; this is the great truth 
 of the motion of the heart and blood, commonly called the 
 circulation, and must for ever remain the glorious legacy 
 of William Harvey to rational physiology and medicine in 
 every land. 
 
 A. B. 
 
 London, April, 1889. 
 
The following explanations of some technical l> rms which 
 occur in /ln's Treatise may be found useful to non~ 
 
 2>rofets!i>mil renders. 
 
 Anastomosis, the communication of branches of blood-vessels or of one 
 
 blood-vessel witli each other. 
 Aorta, the Large artery which arises from the lefc ventricle of the heart, 
 
 and \\ hich conveys the blood for general distribution over the body. 
 Arieria venosa, the pulmonary vein. 
 Artsriotomy, the dividing or opening into an artery. 
 Auricle, one of the two chambers at the base of the heart. 
 Bronchia, the tubes formed by the division of the windpipe, and which 
 
 convey the air to the lung cells. 
 Cava — see vena Cava. 
 
 Chi/lopoictic, connected with the formation of chyle. 
 Cadiac, belonging to the stomach, or lower portion of the abdomen. 
 Coronary, applied to the blood-vessels of the heart, because they encircle 
 
 the part like a crown. 
 Diastole, the dilatation of the heart or arteries. 
 Efmpyt ma, a collection of matter in the cavity of the chest. 
 Emiilgcnt, applied to the vessels of the kidneys, from their supposed 
 
 straining action. 
 Furuncle, a boil, or inflammatory swelling. 
 Gastric, belonging to the stomach. 
 Gastroepiploic, applied to blood-vessels supplying the stomach and 
 
 omentum. 
 Iliac, connected with the flanks. 
 Li pot hij > nia, the sensation of fainting or syncope. 
 Mesenteric, belonging to that part of the peritoneum which covers the 
 
 small intestines. 
 Mitral, applied to the valves between the left ventricle and left auricle, 
 
 because of their shape resembling a mitre. 
 Parietes, the walls or sides of any cavity. 
 Pathology, that branch of medicine which treats of the nature and effects 
 
 of diseases. 
 Phlebotomy, the operation of blood-letting by opening a vein. 
 Phlegmon, acute inflammation of the tissue immediately under the skin, 
 
 generally ending in suppuration. 
 Physiology, the study of the laws of life and the ntiturc and functions 
 
 of the animal body. 
 Pulmonary, connected with the lungs. 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 Semeiotics, the observation of the symptoms of disease. 
 
 Semilunar valves, the three half-moon shaped valves placed at the en- 
 trance of the aorta and of the pulmonary artery. 
 
 Systole, the contraction of the heart, by which the blood is forced into 
 the arteries. 
 
 Tabes, wasting of the body. 
 
 Therapeutics, the study of the action of drugs and their application to 
 the treatment of disease. 
 
 Thorax, the chest. 
 
 Trachea, the windpipe. 
 
 Tricuspid valve, the valve which is placed at the opening of the right 
 auricle into the right ventricle. 
 
 Vena arteriosa, the pulmonary artery. 
 
 Vence cava, the two terminations of the general venous system which 
 open into the right auricle. 
 
 Ventricle, one of the two cavities of the heart, which form its body; also 
 applied to spaces in the brain. 
 
 Villi, small projections like the pile of velvet. 
 
AN ANATOMICAL DISQUISITION 
 
 ON THE 
 
 MOTION OF THE HEART AND BLOOD 
 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 

 THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS AND. INDOMITABLE PRINCE, 
 
 CHARLES, 
 
 KINO OF GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, AND IRELAND, 
 DEFENDER OF THE FAITH. 
 
 Most illustrious Prince ! 
 
 The heart of animals is the foundation of their life, the 
 sovereign of everything within them, the sun of their 
 microcosm, that upon which all growth depends, from 
 which all power proceeds. The King, in like manner, is 
 the foundation of his kingdom, the sun of the world 
 around him, the heart of the republic, the fountain whence 
 all power, all grace doth flow. What I have here written 
 of the motions of the heart I am the more emboldened to 
 present to your Majesty, according to the custom of the 
 present age, because almost all things human are done 
 after human examples, and many things in a King are 
 after the pattern of the heart. The knowledge of his 
 heart, therefore, will not be useless to a Prince, as eni- 
 bracing a kind of Divine example of his functions, — and it 
 has i-ver been usual with men to compare small things with 
 great. Here, at all events, best of Princes, placed as you 
 are on the pinnacle of human affairs, you may at once con- 
 tcmjilate the prime mover in the body of man, and the 
 emblem of your own sovereign power. Accept therefore, 
 witli your wonted clemency, I most humbly beseech you, 
 illustrious Prince, this, my new Treatise on the Heart ; 
 
4 DEDICATION. 
 
 you, who are yourself the new light of this age, and indeed 
 its very heart ; a Prince abounding in virtue and in grace, 
 and to whom we gladly refer all the blessings which 
 England enjoys, all the pleasure we have in our lives. 
 
 Your Majesty's most devoted servant, 
 
 William Harvet. 
 
 [London 
 
 1628.] 
 
To his very dear Friend, Doctor Argent, the excellent 
 and accomplished Preaidenl <>!' the Royal College of 
 Physicians, and to other learned Physicians, his most 
 esteei 1 Colleagues. 
 
 I have already and repeatedly presented you, my learned 
 friends, with my new views of the motion and function of 
 the heart, in my anatomical lectures; but having now for 
 more than nine years confirmed these views by multiplied 
 demonstrations in your presence, illustrated them by argu- 
 ments, and freed them from the objections of the most 
 Learned and skilful anatomists, I at length yield to the 
 requests, I might say entreaties, of many, and here present 
 them for general consideration in this treatise. 
 
 Were not the work indeed presented through you, my 
 learned friends, I should scarce hope that it could come 
 out scatheless and complete; for you have in general been 
 the faithful witnesses of almost all the instances from 
 which I have either collected the truth or confuted error. 
 You have seen my dissections, and at my demonstrations 
 of all that I maintain to be objects of sense, you have 
 been accustomed to stand by and bear me out with your 
 testimony. And as this book alone declares the blood to 
 course and revolve by a new route, very different from the 
 ancient and beaten pathway trodden for so many ages, 
 and illustrated by such a host of learned and distinguished 
 men, I was greatly afraid lest I might be charged with 
 presumption did I lay my work before the public at home, 
 or send it beyond seas for impression, unless I had first 
 proposed its subject to you, had confirmed its conclusions 
 by ocular demonstrations in your presence, had replied to 
 your doubts and objections, and secured the assenl and 
 support of our distinguished President. For I was most 
 
DEDICATION. 
 
 intimately persuaded, that if I could make good my pro- 
 position before you and our College, illustrious by its 
 numerous body of learned individuals, I bad less to fear 
 from otbers. I even ventured to hope that I should have 
 the comfort of finding all that you had granted me in 
 your sheer love of truth, conceded by others who were 
 philosophers like yourselves. True philosophers, who 
 are only eager for truth and knowledge, never regard 
 themselves as already so thoroughly informed, but that 
 they welcome further information from whomsoever and 
 from wheresoever it may come ; nor are they so narrow- 
 minded as to imagine any of the arts or sciences trans- 
 mitted to us by the ancients, in such a state of forwardness 
 or completeness, that nothing is left for the ingenuity and 
 industry of others. On the contrary, very many maintain 
 that all we know is still infinitely less than all that still 
 remains unknown ; nor do philosophers pin their faith to 
 others' precepts in such wise that they lose their liberty, 
 and cease to give credence to the conclusions of their 
 proper senses. Neither do they swear such fealty to their 
 mistress Antiquity, that they openly, and in sight of all, 
 deny and desert their friend Truth. But even as they see 
 that the credulous and vain are disposed at the first blush 
 to accept and to believe everything that is proposed to 
 them, so do they observe that the dull and unintellectual 
 are indisposed to see what lies before their eyes, and even 
 deny the light of the noonday sun. They teach us in 
 our course of philosophy to sedulously avoid the fables 
 of the poets and the fancies of the vulgar, as the false con- 
 clusions of the sceptics. And then the studious, and good, 
 and true, never suffer their minds to be warped by the pas- 
 sions of hatred and envy, which unfit men duly to weigh 
 the arguments that are advanced in behalf of truth, or to 
 appreciate the proposition that is even fairly demonstrated. 
 Neither do they think it unworthy of them to change their 
 opinion if truth and undoubted demonstration require 
 them to do so. They do not esteem it discreditable to desert 
 error, though sanctioned by the highest antiquity, for 
 they know full well that to err, to be deceived, is human ; 
 that many things are discovered by accident, and that 
 many may be learned indifferently from any quarter, by 
 
DEDIC iTION. 
 
 an <>I<1 mas from :i youth, by a person of understanding 
 from one of Inferior capacity. 
 
 My dear colleagues, I li.nl no purpose i>> swell this trea- 
 tise into ;i large volume by quoting the names ami writings 
 of anatomists, or to make a parade of the strength of my 
 memory, tin- extent of my reading, and the amount of my 
 pains; because I profess both to Learn and to teach 
 anatomy, ool from books but from dissections ; not from 
 the positions of philosophers but from the fabric of 
 nature; and then because I do not think it right or proper 
 to strive to take from the ancients any honour that is their 
 due, nor yet to dispute with the moderns, and enter into 
 controversy with those who have excelled in anatomy and 
 1 n my teachers. I would not eharge with wilful false- 
 hood anyone who was sincerely anxious for truth, nor lay 
 it to anyone's door as a crime that he had fallen into error. 
 I avow myself the partisan of truth alone ; and I can 
 indeed say that I have used all my endeavours, bestowed 
 all my pains on an attempt to produce something that 
 should be agreeable to the good, profitable to the learned, 
 and useful to letters. 
 
 Farewell, most worthy Doctors, 
 
 And think kindly of your Anatomist, 
 
 William Harvey. 
 
AN ANATOMICAL DISQUISITION 
 
 OH THE 
 
 MOTION OF THE HEART AND BLOOD 
 IN ANIMALS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 As we are about to discuss the motion, action, and use 
 of the heart and arteries, it is imperative on us first to 
 state what has been thought of these things by others in 
 their writings, and what has been held by the vulgar and 
 by tradition, in order that what is true may be confirmed, 
 and what is false set right by dissection, multiplied expe- 
 rience, and accurate observation. 
 
 Almost all anatomists, physicians, and philosophers, up 
 to the present time, have supposed, with Galen, that the 
 object of the pulse was the same as that of respiration, 
 and only differed in one particular, this being conceived to 
 depend on the animal, the respiration on the vital faculty; 
 the two, in all other respects, whether with reference to 
 purpose or to motion, comporting themselves abke. 
 WTience it is affirmed, as by Hieronymus Fabricius of 
 Aquapendente, in his book on " Respiration," which has 
 lately appeared, that as the pulsation of the heart and 
 arteries does not suffice for the ventilation and refrigera- 
 tion of the blood, therefore were the lungs fashioned to 
 surround the heart. From this it appears, that whatever 
 lias hitherto been sa i«l upon the systole and diastole, or on 
 the motion of the heart and arteries, has been said with 
 especial reference to the lungs. 
 
10 MOTION OF THE 
 
 But as the structure aud movements of the heart differ 
 from those of the lungs, and the motions of the arteries 
 from those of the chest, so it seems likely that other ends 
 and offices will thence arise, and that the pulsations and 
 uses of the heart, likewise of the arteries, will differ in 
 many respects from the heavings and uses of the chest 
 and lungs. For did the arterial pulse and the respiration 
 serve the same ends ; did the arteries in their diastole 
 take air into their cavities, as commonly stated, and in 
 their systole emit fuliginous vapours by the same pores of 
 the flesh and skin ; and further, did they, in the time 
 intermediate between the diastole and the systole, contain 
 air, and at all times either air, or spirits, or fuliginous 
 vapours, what should then be said to Galen, who wrote a 
 book on purpose to show that by nature the arteries con- 
 tained blood, and nothing but blood, and consequently 
 neither spirits nor air, as may be readily gathered from the 
 experiments and reasonings contained in the same book ? 
 Now if the arteries are filled in the diastole with air then 
 taken into them (a larger quantity of air penetrating 
 when the pulse is large and full), it must come to pass, 
 that if you plunge into a bath of water or of oil when the 
 pulse is strong and full, it ought forthwith to become 
 either smaller or much slower, since the circumambient 
 bath will render it either difficult or impossible for the air 
 to penetrate. In like manner, as all the arteries, those 
 that are deep-seated as well as those that are superficial, 
 are dilated at the same instant, and with the same rapi- 
 dity, how is it possible that air should penetrate to the 
 deeper parts as freely and quickly through the skin, flesh, 
 and other structures, as through the cuticle alone ? And 
 how should the arteries of the foetus draw air into their 
 cavities through the abdomen of the mother and the body 
 of the womb ? And how should seals, whales, dolphins 
 and other cetaceans, and fishes of every description, living 
 in the depths of the sea, take in and emit air by the 
 diastole and systole of their arteries through the infinite 
 mass of waters ? For to say that they absorb the air that 
 is present in the water, and emit their fumes into this 
 medium, were to utter something very like a figment. 
 And if the arteries in their systole expel fuliginous vapours 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. | | 
 
 from their cavities through the pores of the flesh and skin, 
 
 in 
 
 wliv not tin 1 spirits, which are said t<> be contained 
 these vessels, at the Bame time, Bince spirits are much 
 more subtile than fuliginous vapours or smoke? Am) if 
 the arteries take in and east out air in the systole and 
 diastole, like the Lungs in the process of respiration, why 
 do they no1 do the same thing when a wound is made in 
 one of them, as in the operation of arteriotomy? When 
 the windpipe is divided, ii is sufficiently obvious that the 
 air enters and returns through the wound by two opposite 
 movements; I'nt when an arten is divided, i1 is equally 
 manifest that blood escapes in one continuous stream, 
 and thai no air either enters or issues. If the pulsations 
 of the arteries fan and refrigerate the several parts of the 
 body as the lungs do the heart, how comes it, as is com- 
 monly said, that the arteries carry the vital blood into the 
 different parts, abundantly charged with vital spirits, which 
 cherish the heat of these parts, sustain them when asleep, 
 and recruil them when exhausted? How should it 
 happen that, if you tie the arteries, immediately the parts 
 not only become torpid, and frigid, and look pale, but at 
 length cease even to be nourished? This, according to 
 (bilen, is because they are deprived of the heat which 
 flowed through all parts from the heart, as its source; 
 whence it would appear that the arteries rather carry 
 warmth to the parts than serve for any fanning or re- 
 frigeration. Besides, how can their diastole draw spirits 
 from the heart to warm the body and its parts, and means 
 of cooling them from without? Still further, although 
 some aflinn that the lungs, arteries, and heart have all the 
 Bame offices, they yet maintain that the heart is the work- 
 shop of the spirits, and that the arteries contain and 
 transmit them ; denying, however, in opposition to the 
 opinion of Columbus, thai the lungs can either make or 
 contain spirits. They then assert, with Galen, against 
 Erasistratns. that it is blood, not spirits, which is contained 
 in the arteries. 
 
 These opinions are seen to be so incongruous and mutu- 
 ally subversive, thai every one of them is justly broughl 
 
 under suspicion. Thai it is blood and U 1 alone 
 
 which is contained in the arteries is made manifest by the 
 
12 MOTION OF THE 
 
 experiment of Galen, by arteriotomy, and by wounds ; for 
 from a single divided artery, as G-alen himself affirms in 
 more than one place, the whole of the blood may be with- 
 drawn in the course of half an hour, or less. The experi- 
 ment of Galen alluded to is this : "If you include a 
 portion of an artery between two ligatures, and slit it 
 open lengthways, you will find nothing but blood ; " and 
 thus he proves that the arteries contain blood only. And 
 we too may be permitted to proceed by a like train of 
 reasoning : if we find the same blood in the arteries as in 
 the veins, after having tied them in the same way, as I 
 have myself repeatedly ascertained, both in the dead body 
 and in living animals, we may fairly conclude that the 
 arteries contain the same blood as the veins, and nothing 
 but the same blood. Some, whilst they attempt to lessen the 
 difficulty, affirm that the blood is spirituous and arterious, 
 and virtually concede that the office of the arteries is to 
 carry blood from the heart into the whole of the body, and 
 that they are therefore filled with blood ; for spirituous blood 
 is not the less blood on that account. And no one denies 
 that the blood as such, even the portion of it which flows 
 in the veins, is imbued with spirits. But if that portion 
 which is contained in the arteries be richer in spirits, it is 
 still to be believed that these spirits are inseparable from 
 the blood, like those in the veins ; that the blood and 
 spirits constitute one body (like whey and butter in milk, 
 or heat in hot water), with which the arteries are charged, 
 and for the distribution of which from the heart they are 
 provided. This body is nothing else than blood. But if 
 this blood be said to be drawn from the heart into the 
 arteries by the diastole of these vessels, it is then assumed 
 that the arteries by their distension are filled with blood, 
 and not with the surrounding air, as heretofore ; for if they 
 be said also to become filled with air from the ambient 
 atmosphere, how and when, I ask, can they receive blood 
 from the heart? If it be answered: during the systole, 
 I take it to be impossible ; the arteries would then have to 
 fill while they contracted, to fill, and yet not become dis- 
 tended. But if it be said : during the diastole, they 
 would then, and for two opposite purposes, be receiving 
 both blood and air, and heat and cold, which is impro- 
 
HEART Ay I) lil.OOD. 13 
 
 bable. Further, when it is affirmed Unit the diastole <>f 
 the hear! and arteries is simultaneous, and tin- systole of 
 the two is also concurrent, there is another incongruity. 
 
 For how can two bodies mutually connected, which are 
 simultaneously distended, attract or draw anything from 
 one another ; or, being simultaneously contracted, receive 
 anything from each other? And then, it seems impos- 
 sible that one body can thus attract another body into 
 itself, so as to become distended, seeing that to be dis- 
 tended is to be passive, unless, in the manner of a sponge, 
 which has been previously compressed by an external force, 
 it is returning to its natural state. But it is difficult to 
 conceive that there can be anything of this kind in the 
 arteries. The arteries dilate, because they are filled like 
 bladders or leathern bottles ; they are not filled because 
 they expand like bellows. This I think easy of demonstra- 
 tion, and indeed conceive that I have already proved it. 
 Nevertheless, in that book of Galen headed "Quod Sanguis 
 continetur in Arteriis," he quotes an experiment to prove 
 the contrary : An artery having been exposed, is opened 
 longitudinally, and a reed or other pervious tube is 
 inserted into the vessel through the opening by which the 
 blood is prevented from being lost, and the wound is 
 closed. " So long," he says, " as things are thus ar- 
 ranged, the whole artery will pulsate ; but if you now 
 throw a ligature about the vessel and tightly compress its 
 walls over the tube, you will no longer see the artery 
 beating beyond the ligature." I have never performed 
 this experiment of Galen's, nor do I think that it could 
 very well be performed in the living body, on account of 
 the profuse flow of blood that would take place from the 
 vessel which was operated on ; neither would the tube 
 effectually close the wound in the vessel without a liga- 
 ture ; and I cannot doubt but that the blood would be 
 found to flow out between the tube and the vessel. Still 
 Galen appears by this experiment to prove both that the 
 pulsative property extends from the heart by the walls of 
 the arteries, ami that the arteries, whilst they dilate, are 
 filled by that pulsitic force, because they expand like bellows, 
 and do not dilate as if they are filled like skins. But 
 the contrary is obvious in arteriotomy and in wounds; for 
 
14 MOTION OF THE 
 
 the blood spurting from the arteries escapes with force, 
 now farther, now not so far, alternately, or in jets ; and 
 the jet always takes place with the diastole of the artery, 
 never with the systole. By which it clearly appears that 
 the artery is dilated by the impulse of the blood ; for of 
 itself it would not throw the blood to such a distance, and 
 whilst it was dilating ; it ought rather to draw air into its 
 cavity through the wound, were those things true that are 
 commonly stated concerning the uses of the arteries. Do 
 not let the thickness of the arterial tunics impose upon us, 
 and lead us to conclude that the pulsative property pro- 
 ceeds along them from the heart. For in several animals 
 the arteries do not apparently differ from the veins ; and 
 in extreme parts of the body, where the arteries are 
 minutely subdivided, as in the brain, the hand, etc., no 
 one could distinguish the arteries from the veins by the 
 dissimilar characters of their coats ; the tunics of both are 
 identical. And then, in an aneurism proceeding from a 
 wounded or eroded artery, the pulsation is precisely the 
 same as in the other arteries, and yet it has no proper 
 arterial covering. To this the learned Eiolanus testifies 
 along with me, in his Seventh Book. 
 
 Nor let any one imagine that the uses of the pulse and 
 the respiration are the same, because, under the influence 
 of the same causes, such as running, anger, the warm 
 bath, or any other heating thing, as Gralen says, they 
 become more frequent and forcible together. For, not 
 only is experience in opposition to this idea, though Gralen 
 endeavours to explain it away, when we see that with 
 excessive repletion the pulse beats more [forcibly, whilst 
 the respiration is diminished in amount ; but in young 
 persons the pulse is quick, whilst respiration is slow. So 
 is it also in alarm, and amidst care, and under anxiety of 
 mind ; sometimes, too, in fevers, the pulse is rapid, but 
 the respiration is slower than usual. 
 
 These and other objections of the same kind may be 
 urged against the opinions mentioned. Nor are the views 
 that are entertained of the offices and pulse of the heart, 
 perhaps, less bound up with great and most inextricable 
 difficulties. The heart, it is vulgarly said, is the fountain 
 and workshop of the vital spirits, the centre from which 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. ] :, 
 
 life is dispensed to the several parte of the bodj . Y.t it is 
 denied thai the right ventricle makes spirits, which is rather 
 held to supply nourishment to the lungs. For these reasons 
 it is maintained thai fishes are withoul any righl ventricle 
 (and indeed every animal wants a righl ventricle which is 
 unfurnished with lungs), and thai tin- righi venirirlr is 
 presenl solely for the sake of the lungs. 
 
 1. Why, I ask, when we see that the structure of both 
 ventricles is almost identical, there being the saint- appa- 
 ratus of fibres, and braces, and valves, and vessels, and 
 auricles, and both in the same way in our dissections are 
 found to be filled up with blood similarly black in colour, 
 aud coagulated — why, I say, should their uses be imagined 
 to be different, when the action, motion, and pulse of both 
 are the same? If the three tricuspid valves placed at the 
 entrance into the right ventricle prove obstacles to the 
 reflux of the blood into the vena cava, and if the three 
 semilunar valves which are situated at the commencement 
 of the pulmonary artery be there, that they may prevent 
 the return of the blood into the ventricle ; why, when we 
 find similar structures in connexion with the left ventricle, 
 should we deny that they are there for the same end, of 
 preventing here the egress, there the regurgitation of the 
 blood? 
 
 2. And, when we have these structures, in point of size, 
 form, and situation, almost in every respect the same in 
 the left as in the right ventricle, why should it be said 
 that things are arranged in the former for the egress and 
 regress of spirits, in the latter or right ventricle, for the 
 blood? The same arrangement cannot beheld fitted to 
 favour or impede the motion of blood and of spirits indif- 
 ferently. 
 
 3. And when we observe that the passages and vessels 
 are severally in relation to one another in point of size, 
 viz., the pulmonary artery to the pulmonary veins; 
 why should the one be destined to a private purpose, 
 that of nourishing the lungs, the other to a public func- 
 tion ': 
 
 4. And, as Bealdus Columbus says, is it probable that 
 such a quantity of blood should be required for the nutri- 
 tion of til.- line's; the vessel that leads to them, the vena 
 
16 MOTION OF THE 
 
 arteriosa or pulmonary artery being of greater capacity 
 than both the iliac veins ? 
 
 5. And I ask, as the lungs are so close at hand, and in 
 continual motion, and the vessel that supplies them is of 
 such dimensions, what is the use or meaning of the pulse 
 of the right ventricle ? and why was nature reduced to the 
 necessity of adding another ventricle for the sole purpose 
 of nourishing the lungs ? 
 
 When it is said that the left ventricle draws materials 
 for the formation of spirits, air, and blood, from the lungs 
 and right sinuses of the heart, and in like manner sends 
 spirituous blood into the aorta, drawing fuliginous 
 vapours from there, and sending them by the pulmonary 
 vein into the lungs, whence spirits are at the same time 
 obtained for transmission into the aorta, I ask how, and 
 by what means, is the separation effected? And how 
 comes it that spirits and fuliginous vapours can pass 
 hither and thither without admixture or confusion ? If 
 the mitral cuspidate valves do not prevent the egress of 
 fuliginous vapours to the lungs, how should they oppose 
 the escape of air ? And how should the semilunars hinder 
 the regress of spirits from the aorta upon each super- 
 vening diastole of the heart? Above all, how can they 
 say that the spirituous blood is sent from the pulmonary 
 veins by the left ventricle into the lungs without any 
 obstacle to its passage from the mitral valves, when they 
 have previously asserted that the air entered by the same 
 vessel from the lungs into the left ventricle, and have 
 brought forward these same mitral valves as obstacles to 
 its retrogression ? Good God ! how should the mitral 
 valves prevent the regurgitation of air and not of blood ? 
 
 Moreover, when they appoint the pulmonary artery, a 
 vessel of great size, with the coverings of an artery, to none 
 but a kind of private and single purpose, that, namely, of 
 nourishing the lungs, why should the pulmonary vein, 
 Avhich is scarcely so large, which has the coats of a vein, 
 and is soft and lax, be presumed to be made for many — 
 three or four, different uses ? For they will have it that 
 air passes through this vessel from the lungs into the left 
 ventricle ; that fuliginous vapours escape by it from the 
 heart into the lungs ; and that a portion of the spirituous 
 
HEART AND lil.oOI). 17 
 
 blood is distributed to the Lungs for their refresh- 
 ment, 
 
 [f they will have ii thai fumes ami air fumes flowing 
 from, air proceeding towards thehearl —are transmitted by 
 the same conduit, I reply, thai nature is no1 wont to con- 
 Btruct but out' vessel, to contrive but one way for Buch 
 contrary motions and purposes, nor is anything of the kind 
 seen elsev here. 
 
 If fumes or fuliginous vapours and air permeate this 
 vessel, as they do the pulmonary bronchia, wherefore do 
 we find neither air nor fuliginous vapours when we divide 
 the pulmonary vein? Why do we always find this vessel 
 full of sluggish blood, never of air, whilst in the lungs we 
 find abundance of air remaining? 
 
 If anyone will perform Galen's experiment of dividing 
 the trachea of a living dog, forcibly distending the lungs 
 with a pair of bellows, and then tying the trachea securely, 
 he will find, when he has laid open the thorax, abundance 
 of air in the lungs, even to their extreme investing tunic, 
 but none in either the pulmonary veins, or left ventricle of 
 the heart. But did the heart either attract air from the 
 lungs, or did the lungs transmit any air to the heart, in the 
 living dog, much more ought this to be the case in the 
 experiment just referred to. Who, indeed, doubts that, 
 did he inflate the lungs of a subject in the dissecting-room, 
 he would instantly see the air making its way by this 
 route, were there actually any such passage for it ? But 
 this office of the pulmonary veins, namely, the transference 
 of air from the lungs to the heart, is held of such impor- 
 tance, that Hieronymus Fabricius of Aquapendente, con- 
 tends that the lungs were made for the sake of this vessel, 
 and that it constitutes the principal element in their 
 structure. 
 
 But I should like to be informed why, if the pulmonary 
 vein were destined for the conveyance of air, it has the 
 structure of a blood-vessel here. Nature had rather need 
 of annular tubes, such as those of the bronchia, in order 
 that they might always remain open, and not be liable to 
 collapse ; and that they might continue entirely free from 
 blood, lest the liquid should interfere with the passage of 
 the air, as it so obviously does when the lungs labour from 
 
18 MOTION OF THE 
 
 being either greatly oppressed or loaded in a less degree 
 with phlegm, as they are when the breathing is performed 
 with a sibilous or rattling noise. 
 
 Still less is that opinion to be tolerated which, as a two- 
 fold material, one aereal, one sanguineous, is required for 
 the composition of vital spirits, supposes the blood to ooze 
 through the septum of the heart from the right to the left 
 ventricle by certain hidden porosities, and the air to be 
 attracted from the lungs through the great vessel, the 
 pulmonary vein ; and which consequently, will have it, 
 that there are numerous porosities in the septum of the 
 heart adapted for the transmission of the blood. But, by 
 Hercules, no such pores can be demonstrated, nor in fact 
 do any such exist. For the septum of the heart is of a 
 denser and more compact structure than any portion of the 
 body, except the bones and sinews. But even supposing 
 that there were foramina or pores in this situation, how 
 could one of the ventricles extract anything from the other 
 — the left, e.g. obtain blood from the right, when we see 
 that both ventricles contract and dilate simultaneously ? 
 Why should we not rather believe that the right took 
 spirits from the left, than that the left obtained blood 
 from the right ventricle, through these foramina ? But it 
 is certainly mysterious and incongruous that blood should 
 be supposed to be most commodiously drawn through a 
 set of obscure or invisible ducts, and air through perfectly 
 open passages, at one and the same moment. And why, I 
 ask, is recourse had to secret and invisible porosities, to 
 uncertain and obscure channels, to explain the passage of 
 the blood into the left ventricle, when there is so open 
 a way through the pulmonary veins ? I own it has always 
 appeared extraordinary to me that they should have chosen 
 to make, or rather to imagine, a way through the thick, 
 hard, dense, and most compact septum of the heart, rather 
 than take that by the open pulmonary vein, or even through 
 the lax, soft, and spongy substance of the lungs at large. 
 Besides, if the blood could permeate the substance of the 
 septum, or could be imbibed, from the ventricles, what use 
 were there for the coronary artery and vein, branches of 
 which proceed to the septum itself, to supply it with 
 nourishment ? And what is especially worthy of notice is 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 19 
 
 this: if in Hit- I'ti'ius, where everything is more las and 
 soft, nal are saw herself reduced to the necessity of bringing 
 Hie blood from the righl into the left Bide of the heart by 
 the foramen ovale, from the vena cava through the pulmo- 
 nary win, how should il he likely thai in the adult she 
 should pass il so eommodiously, and without an effort, 
 through the septum of the ventricles, which has now 
 become denser by age P 
 
 Andreas Lime ntius, 1 resting on the authority of Galen 2 
 and the experience tit' Uollerius, asserts and proves that 
 the serum and pus in empyema, 3 absorbed from the cavi- 
 ties of the chest into the pulmonary vein, may be expelled 
 and got rid of with the urine and faeces through the left 
 ventricle of the heart and arteries. He quotes the case of 
 a certain person affected with melancholia, and who suf- 
 fered from repeated fainting fits, who was relieved from 
 the paroxysms on passing a quantity of turbid, fetid, and 
 acrid urine. But he died at last, worn out by the disease ; 
 and when the body came to be opened after death, no 
 fluid like that he had micturated was discovered either in 
 the bladder or in the kidneys ; but in the left ventricle of 
 the heart and cavity of the thorax plenty of it was met with. 
 And then Laurentius boasts that he had predicted the cause 
 of the symptoms. For my own part, however, I cannot but 
 wonder, since he had divined and predicted that hetero- 
 geneous matter could be discharged by the course he indi- 
 cates, why he could not or would not perceive, and inform 
 us that, in the natural state of things, the blood might be 
 eommodiously transferred from the lungs to the left 
 ventricle of the heart by the very same route. 
 
 Since, therefore, from the foregoing considerations and 
 many others to the same effect, it is plain that what has 
 heretofore been said concerning the motion and function 
 of the heart and arteries must appear obscure, inconsistent 
 or even impossible to him who carefully considers the 
 entire subject, it will be proper to look more narrowly 
 into the matter, to contemplate the motion of the heart 
 and arteries, not only in man, but in all animals that have 
 
 1 Lib. ix. cap. xi, quest. 12. 2 De Locis Aflfeetis. lib. vi, cap. 7. 
 
 3 [A disease of the chest characterized by the formation of pus in the 
 pleural cavity. — Ed.] 
 
20 MOTION OF THE 
 
 hearts ; and also, by frequent appeals to vivisection, and 
 mnch ocular inspection, to investigate and discern the 
 truth. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MOTIVES FOR WRITING. 
 
 When I first gave my mind to vivisections, as a' means 
 of discovering the motions and uses of the heart, and 
 sought to discover these from actual inspection, and not 
 from the writings of others, I found the task so truly 
 arduous, so full of difficulties, that I was almost tempted 
 to think, with Fracastorius, that the motion of the heart 
 was only to be comprehended by God. For I could 
 neither rightly perceive at first when the systole and when 
 the diastole took place, nor when and where dilatation 
 and contraction occurred, by reason of the rapidity of the 
 motion, which in many animals is accomplished in the 
 twinkling of an eye, coming and going like a flash of 
 lightning ; so that the systole presented itself to me now 
 from this point, now from that ; the diastole the same ; 
 and then everything was reversed, the motions occurring, 
 as it seemed, variously and confusedly together. My mind 
 was therefore greatly unsettled, nor did I know what I 
 should myself conclude, nor what believe from others. I 
 was not surprised that Andreas Laurentius should have 
 written that the motion of the heart was as perplexing as 
 the flux and reflux of Euripus had appeared to Aristotle. 
 
 At - length, and by using greater and daily diligence and 
 investigation, making frequent inspection of many and 
 various animals, and collating numerous observations, I 
 thought that I had attained to the truth, that I should 
 extricate myself and escape from this labyrinth, and that 
 I had discovered what I so much desired, both the motion 
 and the use of the heart and arteries. From that time I 
 have not hesitated to expose my views upon these subjects, 
 not only in private to my friends, but also in public, in my 
 anatomical lectures, after the manner of the Academy of 
 old. 
 
HEART .i.\/> BL <>(>/>. 21 
 
 These views, ;is usual, pleased some mOTO, Others 1 
 
 some chid and calumniated me, and laid it io me b 
 crime that I had dared to depart from the precepts and 
 opinion of all anatomists ; others desired further explana- 
 
 I ions Of I lie novel! ies, whirl: I hey sai<l were li..| h WOri h\ oJ 
 Consideration, and mighl perchance he found of signal 
 
 use. At length, yielding to the requests of my friends, 
 thai all might be made participators in my labours, and 
 partly moved b) the env\ of others, who, receiving my 
 views with uncandid minds and understanding them indif- 
 ferently, have essayed to traduce me publicly, I have been 
 moved to commit these things to the press, in order thai 
 all may be enabled to form an opinion both, of me and my 
 labours. This step I take all the more willingly, Beeing 
 
 that BieronymUS Pabricius of Aquapendente, although he 
 has accurately and learnedly delineated almost even one 
 of the several parts of animals in a special work, has left 
 the heart alone untouched. Finally, if any use or benefit 
 to this department of the republic- of letters should accrue 
 from my labours, it will, perhaps, be allowed that I have 
 not lived idly, and, as the old man iu the comedy say- : 
 
 For never yet hath any one attained 
 
 To such perfection, but that time, and place, 
 
 And use, have brought addition to his knowledge ; 
 
 Or made correction, or admonished him, 
 
 Thai he was ignorant of much which he 
 
 Had thought he knew; or led him to reject 
 What lie had once esteemed of highest price. 
 
 So will it, perchance, be found with reference to the 
 heart at this time; or others, at least, starting hence, with 
 the way pointed out to them, advancing under the 
 guidance of a happier genius, may make occasion to pro- 
 ceed more fortunately, and to incpviire more accurately. 
 
22 MOTION OF THE 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Or THE MOTIONS OF THE HEART, AS SEEN IN THE 
 DISSECTION OE LIVING ANIMALS. 
 
 In the first place, then, when the chest of a living animal 
 is laid open and the capsule that immediately surrounds 
 the heart is slit up or removed, the organ is seen now to 
 move, now to he at rest ; — there is a time when it moves, 
 and a time when it is motionless. 
 
 These things are more obvious in the colder animals, 
 such as toads, frogs, serpents, small fishes, crahs, shrimps, 
 snails and shell-fish. They also hecome more distinct 
 in warm-blooded animals, such as the dog and hog, if they 
 he attentively noted when the heart begins to flag, to move 
 more slowly, and, as it were, to die : the movements then 
 become slower and rarer, the pauses longer, by which it is 
 made much more easy to perceive and unravel what the 
 motions really are, and how they are performed. In the 
 pause, as in death, the heart is soft, flaccid, exhausted, 
 lying, as it were, at rest. 
 
 In the motion, and interval in which this is accomplished, 
 three principal circumstances are to be noted : 
 
 1 . That the heart is erected, and rises upwards to a point, 
 so that at this time it strikes against the breast and the 
 pulse is felt externally. 
 
 2. That it is everywhere contracted, but more especially 
 towards the sides, so that it looks narrower, relatively 
 longer, more drawn together. The heart of an eel taken 
 out of the body of the animal and placed upon the table 
 or the hand, shows these particulars ; but the same things 
 are manifest in the hearts of small fishes and of those 
 colder animals where the organ is more conical or 
 elongated. 
 
 3. The heart being grasped in the hand, is felt to become 
 harder during its action. Now this hardness proceeds 
 from tension, precisely as when the forearm is grasped, its 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 28 
 
 tendons are perceived to become tense ami resilient when 
 the fingers ore moved. 
 
 4. It niav further I bserved in fishes, and the colder 
 
 blooded animals, such as frogs, Berpents, etc., thai the heart, 
 when it moves, becomes of a paler colour, when quiescent 
 <>f m deeper blood-red colour. 
 
 Prom these particulars it appeared evident to me lliat 
 the motion of the heart consists in a certain universal ten- 
 sion hot li contract ion in the line of its fibres, and con- 
 striction in every sense. It becomes erect, hard, and of 
 diminished size during its action ; the motion is plainly of 
 the same nature as thai of the muscles when they contract 
 in the line of t heir sinews and til ires ; for the muscles, when 
 in action, acquire vigour and tenseness, and from soft be- 
 come hard, prominent and thickened: in the same manner 
 the heart. 
 
 We are therefore authorized to conclude that the heart, 
 at the moment of its action, is at once constricted on all 
 sides, rendered thicker in its parietes and smaller in its 
 ventricles, and so made apt to project or expel its charge of 
 blood. This, indeed, is made sufficiently manifest by 
 the preceding fourth observation in which we have seen 
 that the heart, by squeezing out the blood it contains 
 becomes paler, and then when it sinks into repose and the 
 ventricle is filled anew with blood, that the deeper crimson 
 colour returns. But no one need remain in doubt of the 
 fact, for if the ventricle be pierced the blood will be seen to 
 be forcibly projected outwards upon each motion or pulsa- 
 tion when the heart is tense. 
 
 These things, therefore, happen together or at the same 
 instant : the tension of the heart, the pulse of its apex, 
 which is felt externally by its striking against the chest, 
 the thickening of its parietes. and the forcible expulsion of 
 the blood it contains by the constriction of its ventricles. 
 
 Hence the very opposite of the opinions commonly 
 received, appears to be true; inasmuch as it is generally 
 believed that when the heart strikes the breast and the 
 pulse is Belt without, the heart is dilated in its ventricles 
 and is filled with blood ; but the contrary of this is the 
 fact, and the heart, when il contracts [and the impulse of 
 the apes is conveyed through the chest wall], is emptied. 
 
24 MOTION OF THE 
 
 Whence the motion which is generally regarded as the 
 diastole of the heart, is in truth its systole. And in like 
 manner the intrinsic motion of the heart is not the diastole 
 but the systole ; neither is it in the diastole that the heart 
 grows firm and tense, but in the systole, for then only, 
 when tense, is it moved and made vigorous. 
 
 Neither is it by any means to be allowed that the heart 
 only moves in the line of its straight fibres, although the 
 great Yesalius, giving this notion countenance, quotes a 
 bundle of osiers bound in a pyramidal heap in illustra- 
 tion ; meaning, that as the apex is approached to the base, 
 so are the sides made to bulge out in the fashion of arches, 
 the cavities to dilate, the ventricles to acquire the form of 
 a cupping-glass and so to suck in the blood. But the true 
 effect of every one of its fibres is to constringe the heart at 
 the same time that they render it tense ; and this rather 
 with the effect of thickening and amplifying the walls and 
 substance of the organ than enlarging its ventricles. And, 
 again, as the fibres run from the apex to the base, and 
 draw the apex towards the base, they do not tend to make 
 the walls of the heart bulge out in circles, but rather the 
 contrary ; inasmuch as every fibre that is circularly dis- 
 posed, tends to become straight when it contracts ; and is 
 distended laterally and thickened, as in the case of mus- 
 cular fibres in general, when they contract, that is, when 
 they are shortened longitudinally, as we see them in the 
 bellies of the muscles of the body at large. To all this let 
 it be added, that not only are the ventricles contracted in 
 virtue of the direction and condensation of their walls, but 
 farther, that those fibres, or bands, styled nerves by 
 Aristotle, which are so conspicuous in the ventricles of the 
 larger animals, and contain all the straight fibres, (the 
 parietes of the heart containing only circular ones,) when 
 they contract simultaneously, by an admirable adjust- 
 ment all the internal surfaces are drawn together, as if 
 with cords, and so is the charge of blood expelled with 
 force. 
 
 Neither is it true, as vulgarly believed, that the heart by 
 any dilatation or motion of its own, has the power of draw- 
 ing the blood into the ventricles ; for when it acts and be- 
 comes tense, the blood is expelled; when it relaxes and 
 
HEART INS BLOOD. 25 
 
 sinks together it receives the blood in the manner and i 
 which will by-and-bj be explained. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF THE MOTIONS OF ARTERIES, AS SEEN IN THE 
 DISSECTION OF LIVING ANIMALS. 
 
 In connexion with the motions of the heart these things 
 are further to be observed having reference to the motions 
 and pulses of the arteries: 
 
 1. At the moment the heart contracts, and when the 
 breast is struck, when in short the organ is in its state of 
 systole, the arteries are dilated, yield a pulse, and are in 
 the stale of diastole. In like manner, when the right 
 ventricle contracts and propels its charge of blood, the 
 pulmonary artery is distended at the same time with the 
 other arteries of the body. 
 
 2. When the left ventricle ceases to act, to contract, to 
 pulsate, the pulse in the arteries also ceases ; further, when 
 this ventricle contracts languidly, the pulse in the arteries 
 is scarcely perceptible. In like manner, the pulse in the 
 right ventricle failing, the pulse in the pulmonary artery 
 ceases also. 
 
 3. Further, when an artery is divided or punctured, the 
 blood is seen to be forcibly propelled from the wound at 
 the moment the left ventricle contracts ; and.Jagain, when 
 the pulmonary artery is wounded, the blood will be seen 
 spouting forth with violence at the instant when the right 
 ventricle contracts. 
 
 So also in fishes, if the vessel which leads from the 
 heart to the gills be divided, at the moment when the 
 heart becomes tense and contracted, at the same moment 
 does the blood flow with force from the divided vessel. 
 
 In the same way, when we see the blood in arte- 
 riotomy projected now to a greater, now to a less distance, 
 and that the greater jet corresponds to the diastole of the 
 artery and to the time when the heart contracts and Btrikes 
 
26 MOTION OF THE 
 
 the ribs, and is in its state of systole, we understand that 
 the blood is expelled by the same movement. 
 
 From these facts it is manifest, in opposition to commonly 
 received opinions, that the diastole of the arteries corre- 
 sponds with the time of the heart's systole ; and that the 
 arteries are filled and distended by the blood forced into 
 them by the contraction of the ventricles; the arteries, 
 therefore, are distended, because they are filled like sacs or 
 bladders, and are not filled because they expand like 
 bellows. It is in virtue of one and the same cause, there- 
 fore, that all the arteries of the body pulsate, viz., the 
 contraction of the left ventricle ; in the same way as the 
 pulmonary artery pulsates by the contraction of the right 
 ventricle. 
 
 Finally, that the pulses of the arteries are due to the 
 impulses of the blood from the left ventricle, may be 
 illustrated by blowing into a glove, when the whole of the 
 fingers will be found to become distended at one and the 
 same time, and in their tension to bear some resemblance 
 to the pulse. For in the ratio of the tension is the pulse of 
 the heart, fuller, stronger, and more frequent as that acts 
 more vigorously, still preserving the rhythm and volume, 
 and order of the heart's contractions. Nor is it to be ex- 
 pected that because of the motion of the blood, the time at 
 which the contraction of the heart takes place, and that at 
 which the pulse in an artery (especially a distant one,) is 
 felt, shall be otherwise than simultaneous : it is here the 
 same as in blowing up a glove or bladder ; for in a plenum, 
 (as in a drum, a long piece of timber, etc.) the stroke and 
 the motion occur at both extremities at the same time. 
 Aristotle, 1 too, has said, " the blood of all animals palpi- 
 tates within their veins, (meaning the arteries,) and by the 
 pulse is sent everywhere simultaneously." And further, 2 
 " thus do all the veins pulsate together and by successive 
 strokes, because they all depend upon the heart ; and, as it 
 is always in motion, so are they likewise always moving 
 together, but by successive movements." It is well to ob- 
 serve with Galen, in this place, that the old philosophers 
 called the arteries veins. 
 
 1 De Anim., iii, cap. 9. 2 De Eespir., cap. 20. 
 
//// //,"/■ A \/> BLOOD. 27 
 
 [ happened upon one occasion bo have a particular case 
 under mj care, which plainly satisfied me of this truth : A 
 certain person was affected with a large pulsating tumour 
 on the right sidi ■ <>t' the neck, called an aneurism, jusl 
 
 at thai part where the artery descends into the axilla, pro- 
 duced by an erosion of the artery itself, and daily increas- 
 ing in size; this tumour was visibly distended as it 
 
 received the charge of blood brought to it by the artery, 
 
 with each stroke of the heart : the connexion of parts was 
 obvious when the body of the patient came to I pened 
 
 alter his death. The pnlse in the corresponding arm was 
 
 small, in consequence of the greater portion of the blood 
 being diverted into the tumour and so intercepted; 
 
 Whence it appears that wherever t lie motion of the blood 
 through the arteries is impeded, whether it be by compres- 
 sion or infarction, or interception, there do the remote 
 divisions of the arteries heat less forcibly, seeing that the 
 pulse of the arteries is nothing more than the impulse or 
 shock of the blood in these vessels. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF THE MOTION OP THE HEAET AND ITS AURICLES, AS 
 SEEN IN THE BODIES OP LIVING ANIMALS. 
 
 Besides the motions already spoken of, we have still 
 to consider those that appertain to the auricles. 
 
 Caspar Bauhin and John Riolan,' most learned men and 
 skilful anatomists, inform us from their observations, that 
 if we carefully watch the movements of the heart in the 
 vivisection of an animal, we shall perceive four motions 
 distinct in time and in place, two of which are proper 
 to the auricles, two to the ventricles. With all deference 
 to such authority I say, that there are four motions distinct 
 in point of place, but not of time; for the two auricles 
 move together, and so also do the two ventricles, in such 
 
 1 Bauhin, lib. ii, cap. 21. Kiolun, lib. viii, cap. 1. 
 
28 MOTION OF THE 
 
 •wise that though the places be four, the times are only two. 
 And this occurs in the following manner : 
 
 There are. as it were, two motions going on together ; 
 one of the auricles, another of the ventricles ; these by no 
 means taking place simultaneously, but the motion of the 
 auricles preceding, that of the heart following ; the 
 motion appearing to begin from the auricles and to extend 
 to the ventricles. When all things are becoming languid, 
 and the heart is dying, as also in fishes and the colder 
 blooded animals, there is a short pause between these two 
 motions, so that the heart aroused, as it were, appears to 
 respond to the motion, now more quickly, now more 
 tardily ; and at length, when near to death, it ceases to 
 respond by its proper motion, but seems, as it were, to 
 nod the head, and is so slightly moved that it appears 
 rather to give signs of motion to the pulsating auricle, than 
 actually to move. The heart, therefore, ceases to pulsate 
 sooner than the auricles, so that the auricles have been 
 said to outlive it, the left ventricle ceasing to pulsate first 
 of all ; then its auricle, next the right ventricle ; and, 
 finally, all the other parts being at rest and dead, as Galen 
 long since observed, the right auricle still continues to 
 beat ; life, therefore, appears to linger longest in the 
 right auricle. Whilst the heart is gradually dying, it 
 is sometimes seen to reply, after two or three contrac- 
 tions of the auricles, roused as it were to action, and 
 making a single pulsation, slowly, unwillingly, and with 
 an effort. 
 
 But this especially is to be noted, that after the heart x 
 has ceased to beat, the auricles however still contracting, 
 a finger placed upon the ventricles perceives the several 
 pulsations of the auricles, precisely in the same way and 
 for the same reason, as we have said, that the pulses of 
 the ventricles are felt in the arteries, to vrit, the distension 
 produced by the jet of blood. And if at this time, the 
 auricles alone pulsating, the point of the heart be cut off 
 with a pair of scissors, you will perceive the blood flowing 
 out upon each contraction of the auricles. Whence it is 
 
 1 [It will be observed that Harvey, when he speaks of the " heart," 
 invariably refers to the ventricles, and not to the organ as a whole. — Ed.] 
 
heart ami BLOOD 
 
 manifest thai the blood enters the rentricles, not by any 
 ction or dilatation of the heart, bol by being thrown 
 into them by the pulses of the auricles. 
 
 And here I would observe, th;it whenever I speak of 
 
 occurring in the auricles or ventricles, I 
 
 be auricles etmtraet, and then 
 
 and subsequently the heart itself eontractt. When the 
 
 auricles contract they ar>.- seen to become whi ? illy 
 
 wh*.-r>- they contain but little blood ; but they an.- till*-* 1 as 
 
 : the blood, which is tending 
 >usly and, by its motion in the veins, under pres- 
 towards the centre; the whiteness indicated is most 
 ■ lieui »us towards the extremities or edges of the auri 
 at the time of their contractions. 
 
 Tn fishes and frogs, and other animals which have hearts 
 with but a single ventricle, and for an auricle have a kind 
 of bladder much distended with blood, at the base of the 
 i. you may very plainly perceive this bladder contract- 
 ing first, and the contraction of the heart or ventricle 
 following afterwards. 
 
 But I think it right to describe what I have observed of 
 
 an opposite character: the heart of an eel, of several 
 
 is, and even of some [of the higher] animals taken out 
 
 of the body, pulsates without auricles ; nay, if it be cut in 
 
 pieces the several parts may still be seen contracting and 
 
 relaxing ; so that in these creatures the body of the heart 
 
 may be seen pulsating and palpitating, after the cessation 
 
 of all motion in the auricle. But is not this perchance 
 
 Ldar to animals more tenacious of Life, whose radical 
 
 jture is more glutinous, or fat and sluggish, and less 
 
 readily soluble ? The same faculty indeed appears in the 
 
 flesh of eels, which even when skiuned and embowelled, 
 
 and cut into pieces, are still seen to move. 
 
 Experimenting with a pigeon upon one occasion, after 
 the heart had wholly ceased to pulsate, and the auricles 
 too had become motionless, I kept my finger wetted with 
 saliva and warm for a short time upon the heart, and 
 observed, that under the influence of this fomentation it 
 rered new strength and Life, so that both ventricles 
 and auricles pulsated, contracting and relaxing alternately, 
 recalled as it were from death to life. 
 
30 MOTION OF THE 
 
 Besides this, however, I have occasionally observed, after 
 the heart and even its right auricle had ceased pulsating — 
 when it was in articulo mortis in short — that an obscure 
 motion, an undulation or palpitation, remained in the 
 blood itself, which was contained in the right auricle, this 
 being apparent so long as it was imbued with heat and 
 spirit. And indeed a circumstance of the same kind is 
 extremely manifest in the course of the generation of 
 animals, as may be seen in the course of the first seven 
 days of the incubation of the chick : A drop of blood makes 
 its appearance which palpitates, as Aristotle had already 
 observed ; from this, when the growth is further advanced 
 and the chick is fashioned, the auricles of the heart are 
 formed, which pulsating henceforth give constant signs of 
 life. When at length, and after the lapse of a few days, 
 the outline of the body begins to be distinguished, then is 
 the ventricular part of the heart also produced ; but it 
 continues for a time white and apparently bloodless, like 
 the rest of the animal ; neither does it pulsate or give 
 signs of motion. I have seen a similar condition of the 
 heart in the human foetus about the beginning of the third 
 month, the heart being then whitish and bloodless, al- 
 though its auricles contained a considerable quantity of 
 purple blood. In the same way in the egg, when the chick 
 was formed and had increased in size, the heart too in- 
 creased and acquired ventricles, which then began to 
 receive and to transmit blood. 
 
 And this leads me to remark, that he who inquires very 
 particularly into this matter will not conclude that the 
 heart, as a whole, is the primum vivens, ultimum moriens 
 — the first part to live, the last to die — but rather its 
 auricles, or the part which corresponds to the auricles in 
 serpents, fishes, etc., which both lives before the heart and 
 dies after it. 
 
 Nay, has not the blood itself or spirit an obscure pal- 
 pitation inherent in it, which it has even appeared to me 
 to retain after death? and it seems very questionable 
 whether or not we are to say that life begins with the 
 palpitation or beating of the heart. The seminal fluid of 
 all animals — the prolific spirit, as Aristotle observed, leaves 
 their body with a bound and like a living thing ; and 
 
ill: //,•/■ AND BLOOD. ::| 
 
 nature in death, as Aristotle' further remarks, retracing 
 her steps, reverts to where she bad sel out, and returns a1 
 the end of her course to the goal whence she bad started. 
 
 Aj animal generation proc Is from thai which is n->t 
 
 animal, entity from nonentity, so, by ;i retrograde course, 
 entity, bj corruption, is resolved into nonentity; whence 
 thai in animals, which was las) created, fails lirst ; and 
 thai which was first, fails hist. 
 
 I have also observed, thai almost all animals have truly 
 a heart, no1 the larger creatures only, and those that have 
 red l 'loo. I. I. ut i ho smaller, ami pair- 1, loo. led ones also, such 
 a- slu--. snails, scallops, shrimps, cral's. craytish, and man\ 
 others; nay. even in wasps, hornets, ami Hies, I have, with 
 th.' aid of a magnifying -lass, and at the upper part of 
 what is .-ailed the tail. l»o1 h seen the heart pulsating myself, 
 and shown it to many others. 
 
 But in the pale-blooded tribes the heart pulsates slug- 
 gishly and deliberately, contracting slowly as in animals 
 that are moribund, a fact that may readily be seen in the 
 snail, whose hearl will be found at the bottom of that 
 orifice in the right side of the body which is seen to be 
 opened and shui in the course of respiration, and whence 
 saliva is discharged, the incision being made in the upper 
 aspect of tli<- hody, near the part which corresponds to the 
 liver. 
 
 This, however, is to be observed: that in winter and the 
 colder season, exsanguine animals, such as the snail, show 
 no pulsations; they seem rather to Hve after the manner 
 of vegetables, or of those other productions which are 
 therefore designated plant-animals. 
 
 It is also to !"■ noted that all animals which have a heart, 
 have also auricles, or something analogous to auricles ; and 
 further, that wherever the hearl has a double ventricle 
 there are always two auricles present, bul not otherwise. 
 If yon turn to the production of the chick in ovo, however, 
 you will find at first no more than a vesicle or auricle, or 
 pulsating drop of blood: it is only by and by, when the 
 development has made some progrrss, that the heart is 
 fashioned : even so in certain animals not destined to 
 
 1 I)e Motu Animal., cap. 8. 
 
32 MOTION OF THE 
 
 attain to the highest perfection in their organization, such 
 as bees, wasps, snails, shrimps, crayfish, etc., we only find 
 a certain pulsating vesicle, like a sort of red or white pal- 
 pitating point, as the beginning or principle of their life. 
 
 We have a small shrimp in these countries, which is 
 taken in the Thames and in the sea, the whole of whose 
 body is transparent ; this creature, placed in a little water, 
 has frequently afforded myself and particular friends an 
 opportunity of observing the motions of the heart with 
 the greatest distinctness, the external parts of the body 
 presenting no obstacle to our view, but the heart being 
 perceived as though it had been seen through a window. 
 
 I have also observed the first rudiments of the chick in 
 the course of the fourth or fifth day of the incubation, in 
 the guise of a little cloud, the shell having been removed 
 and the egg immersed in clear tepid water. In the midst 
 of the cloudlet in question there was a bloody point so 
 small that it disaj)peared during the contraction and 
 escaped the sight, but in the relaxation it reappeared 
 again, red and like the point of a pin ; so that betwixt the 
 visible and invisible, betwixt being and not being, as it 
 were, it gave by its pulses a kind of representation of the 
 commencement of life. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE MOTION, ACTION, AND OFFICE OF THE HEART. 
 
 From these and other observations of a similar nature, I 
 am persuaded it will be found that the motion of the heart 
 is as follows : 
 
 First of all, the auricle contracts, and in the course of 
 its contraction forces the blood, (which it contains in 
 ample quantity as the head of the veins, the store-house 
 and cistern of the blood,) into the ventricle, which being 
 filled, the heart raises itself straightway, makes all its 
 fibres tense, contracts the ventricles, and performs a beat, 
 by which beat it immediately sends the blood supplied to 
 it by the auricle into the arteries. The right ventricle 
 
HEART t\l> lil.OOD. 33 
 
 sends ils charge into the lungs l»y (lie vessel vvliich is 
 called vena, arteriosa, but which, in structure and Function, 
 and all other respects, is an artery. The left ventricle 
 sends its charge into the aorta, and through this by the 
 arteries to the body a1 la rge. 
 
 These two motions, one of the ventricles, the other of the 
 auricles, take place consecutively, bul in such a manner 
 (hat there is a kind of harmony or rhythm preserved 
 between them, the two concurring in such wise that but 
 one motion is apparent, especially in the warmer blooded 
 animals, in which the movements in question are rapid. 
 Nor is this for any other reason than it is in a piece of 
 machinery, in which, though one wheel gives motion to 
 another, ye1 all the wheels seem to move simultaneously; 
 or in that mechanical contrivance which is adapted to fire- 
 arms, where the trigger being touched, down comes the 
 flint, strikes against the steel, elicits a spark, which falling 
 among the powder, ignites it, when the flame extends, 
 enters the barrel, causes the explosion, propels the ball, 
 and the mark is attained — all of which incidents, by 
 reason of the celerity with which they happen, seem to 
 take place in the twinkling of an eye. So also in degluti- 
 tion : by the elevation of the root of the tongue, and. the 
 compression of the mouth, the food or drink is pushed 
 into the fauces, when the larynx is closed by its muscles and 
 by the epiglottis. The pharynx is then raised and opened 
 by its muscles in the same way as a sac that is to be 
 filled is lifted up, and its mouth dilated. Upon the 
 mouthful being received, it is forced downwards by the 
 transverse muscles, and then carried farther by the longi- 
 tudinal ones. Yet all these motions, though executed by 
 ■ I i Hi 'rent and distinct organs, are performed harmoniously, 
 and in such order, that they seem to constitute but a 
 single motion and act, which we call deglutition. 
 
 Even so does it come to pass with the motions and 
 action of the heart, which constitute a kind of deglutition, 
 a transfusion of the blood from the veins to the arteries. 
 And if anyone, bearing these things in mind, will care- 
 fully watch the motions of the heart in the body of a 
 living animal, lie will perceive not only all the particulars 
 I have mentioned, viz., the heart becoming erect, and 
 
 D 
 
34 MOTION OF THE 
 
 making one continuous motion with its auricles ; but far- 
 ther, a certain obscure undulation and lateral inclination 
 in the direction of the axis of the right ventricle, as if 
 twisting itself slightly in performing its work. And indeed 
 everyone may see, when a horse drinks, that the water is 
 drawn in and transmitted to the stomach at each move- 
 ment of the throat, which movement produces a sound 
 and yields a pulse both to the ear and the touch ; in the 
 same way it is with each motion of the heart, when there 
 is the delivery of a quantity of blood from the veins to the 
 arteries, a pulse takes place, and can be heard within the 
 chest. 
 
 The motion of the heart, then, is entirely of this descrip- 
 tion, and the one action of the heart is the transmission of 
 the blood and its distribution, by means of the arteries, to 
 the very extremities of the body ; so that the pulse which 
 we feel in the arteries is nothing more than the impulse of 
 the blood derived from the heart. 
 
 Whether or not the heart, besides propelling the blood, 
 giving it motion locally, and distributing it to the body, 
 adds anything else to it, — heat, spirit, perfection; — must be 
 inquired into by-and-by, and decided upon other grounds. 
 So much may suffice at this time, when it is shown that 
 by the action of the heart the blood is transfused through 
 the ventricles from the veins to the arteries, and distributed 
 by them to all parts of the body. 
 
 The above, indeed, is admitted by all, both from the 
 structure of the heart and the arrangement and action 
 of its valves. But still they are like persons purblind 
 or groping about in the dark, for they give utterance 
 to various, contradictory, and incoherent sentiments, de- 
 livering many things upon conjecture, as we have already 
 shown. 
 
 The grand cause of doubt and error in this subject 
 appears to me to have been the intimate connexion be- 
 tween the heart and the lungs. When men saw both the 
 pulmonary artery and the pulmonary veins losing them- 
 selves in the lungs, of course it became a puzzle to them 
 to know how or by what means the right ventricle should 
 distribute the blood to the body, or the left draw it from 
 the venae cavse. This fact is borne witness to by Galen, 
 
HEART AND B LOOD. 
 
 whose words, when writing against Erasistratus in regard 
 to the origin and use of the veins ami the rod ion of the 
 blood, are the Following: 1 "You will reply," he says, 
 "that the effect is bo; thai the blood is prepared in the 
 liver, and is thence transferred to the heart to receive its 
 proper form and last perfection ; a statement, which does 
 
 not appear devoid of reason ; for no great and perfect 
 work is ever accomplished at a single effort, or receives its 
 
 final polish from one instrument. But if this he actually 
 so, then show ns another vessel which draws the abso- 
 lutely perfect bloodfrom the heart, and distributes it as the 
 arteries do the spirits over the whole body." Here then 
 is a reasonable opinion not allowed, because, forsooth, lie- 
 sides not seeing the true means of transit, lie could not 
 discover the vessel which should transmit the blood from 
 
 the heart to the body at large! 
 
 But had anyone been there in behalf of Erasistratus, 
 and of that opinion which we now espouse, and which 
 Galen himself acknowledges in other respects consonant 
 with reason, to have pointed to the aorta as the vessel 
 which distributes the blood from the heart to the rest of 
 the body, I wonder what would have been the answer of 
 that most ingenious and learned man? Had he said that 
 the artery transmits spirits and not blood, he would 
 indeed sufficiently have answered Erasistratus, who ima- 
 gined that the arteries contained nothing but spirits; but 
 then he would have contradicted himself, and given a foul 
 denial to that for which he had keenly contended in his 
 writings against this very Erasistratus, to wit, that blood 
 in substance is contained in the arteries, and not spirits ; 
 a fact which he demonstrated not only by many powerful 
 arguments, but by experiments. 
 
 But if the divine Galen will here allow, as in other 
 places he does, "that all the arteries of the body arise 
 t'ri mi the great artery, and that this takes its origin from 
 the heart ; that all these vessels naturally contain and 
 carry blood; that the three semilunar valves situated at 
 the orifice of the aorta prevent the return of the blood iuto 
 the heart, and that nature never connected them with 
 
 1 De Plaeitis Hippocratis et IMatonis, vi. 
 
36 MOTION OF THE 
 
 this, the most noble viscus of the body, unless for some 
 most important end ; " if , I say, this father of physicians 
 concedes all these things, — and I quote his own words, — I 
 do not see how he can deny that the great artery is the 
 very vessel to carry the blood, when it has attained its 
 highest term of perfection, from the heart for distribution 
 to all parts of the body. Or would he perchance still 
 hesitate, like all who have come after him, even to the 
 present hour, because he did not perceive the route by 
 which the blood was transferred from the veins to the 
 arteries, in consequence, as I have already said, of the 
 intimate connexion between the heart and the lungs ? 
 And that this difficulty puzzled anatomists not a little, 
 when in their dissections they found the pulmonary artery 
 and left ventricle full of thick, black, and clotted blood, 
 plainly appears, when they felt themselves compelled to 
 affirm that the blood made its way from the right to the 
 left ventricle by transuding through the septum of the 
 heart. But this fancy I have already refuted. A new 
 pathway for the blood must therefore be prepared and 
 thrown open, and being once exposed, no further difficulty 
 will, I believe, be experienced by anyone in admitting 
 what I have already proposed in regard to the pulse of 
 the heart and arteries, viz., the passage of the blood from 
 the veins to the arteries, and its distribution to the whole 
 of the body by means of these vessels. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE COURSE BY WHICH THE BLOOD IS CARRIED FROM 
 THE VENA CAVA INTO THE ARTERIES, OR FROM THE 
 RIGHT INTO THE LEFT VENTRICLE OF THE HEART. 
 
 Since the intimate connexion of the heart with the lungs, 
 which is apparent in the human subject, has been the 
 probable cause of the errors that have been committed on 
 this point, they plainly do amiss who, pretending to speak 
 of the parts of animals generally, as anatomists for the 
 most part do, confine their researches to the human body 
 
///•; t/rr ami blood. 37 
 
 alone. Mini thai when i< is dead. They obviously do not 
 aci otherwise khan he who, having Btudied the forms of ;i 
 Bingle commonwealth, should sei aboul the composition of 
 a general system of polity; or who, having taken cogni- 
 zance of the nature of a single field, should Imagine thai 
 he had mastered the science of agriculture; or who, upon 
 the ground of one particular proposition, should proceed 
 to draw general conclusions. 
 
 Had anatomists only been as conversant with tin' dis- 
 section of the lower animals as they arc with that of the 
 human body, the matters that have hitherto kept them in 
 a perplexity of doubt would, in my opinion, have met. 
 them treed from every kind of difficulty. 
 
 And first, in fishes, in which the heart consists of but a 
 single ventricle, being devoid of lungs, the thing is suffi- 
 ciently manifest. Here the sac, which is situated at the 
 base of the heart, and is the part analogous to the auricle 
 in man, plainly forces the blood into the heart, and the 
 heart, in its turn, conspicuously transmits it by a pipe or 
 a it ery, or vessel analogous to an artery; these are facts 
 which are confirmed by simple ocular inspection, as well 
 as by a division of the vessel, when the blood is seen to be 
 projected by each pulsation of the heart. 
 
 The same thing is also not difficult of demonstration in 
 those animals that have, as it were, no more than a single 
 ventricle to the heart, such as toads, frogs, serpents, and 
 lizards, which have lungs in a certain sense, as they have 
 a voice. I have many obseiwations by me on the admir- 
 able structure of the lungs of these animals, and matters 
 appertaining, which, however, I cannot introduce in this 
 place. Their anatomy plainly shows us that the blood is 
 transferred in them from the veins to the arteries in the 
 same manner as in higher animals, viz., by the action of 
 the heart ; the way, in fact, is patent, open, manifest ; 
 ther,- is no difficulty, no room for doubt about it; for in 
 them the matter stands precisely as it would in man, 
 were the septum of his heart perforated or removed, or 
 one ventricle made out of two ; and this being the case, I 
 imagine that no one will doubt as to the way by which 
 the blood may pass from the veins into the arteries. 
 
 But as there are actually more animals which have no 
 
38 MOTION OF THE 
 
 lungs than there are furnished with them, and in like 
 manner a greater number which have only one ventricle 
 than there are with two, it is open to us to conclude, 
 judging from the mass or multitude of living creatures, 
 that for the major part, and generally, there is an open way 
 by which the blood is transmitted from the veins through 
 the sinuses or cavities of the heart into the arteries. 
 
 I have, however, cogitating with myself, seen further, 
 that the same thing obtained most obviously in the embryos 
 of those animals that have lungs ; for in the foetus the 
 four vessels belonging to the heart, viz., the vena cava, the 
 pulmonary artery, the pulmonary vein, and the great artery 
 or aorta, are all connected otherwise than in the adult ; a 
 fact sufficiently known to every anatomist. The first con- 
 tact and union of the vena cava with the pulmonary veins, 
 which occurs before the cava opens properly into the right 
 ventricle of the heart, or gives off the coronary vein, a little 
 above its escape from the liver, is by a lateral anastomosis ; 
 this is an ample foramen, of an oval form, communicating 
 between the cava and the pulmonary vein, so that the blood 
 is free to flow in the greatest abundance by that foramen 
 from the vena cava into the pulmonary vein, and left auricle, 
 and from thence into the left ventricle. "Farther, in 
 this foramen ovale, from that part which regards the 
 pulmonary vein, there is a thin tough membrane, larger 
 than the opening, extended like an operculum or cover ; 
 this membrane in the adult blocking up the foramen, and 
 adhering on all sides, finally closes it up, and almost 
 obliterates every trace of it. In the foetus, however, this 
 membrane is so contrived that falling loosely upon itself, 
 it permits a ready access to the lungs and heart, yielding 
 a passage to the blood which is streaming from the cava, 
 and hindering the tide at the same time from flowing back 
 into that vein. All things, in short, permit us to believe 
 that in the embryo the blood must constantly pass by 
 this foramen from the vena cava into the pulmonary vein, 
 and from thence into the left auricle of the heart ; and 
 having once entered there, it can never regurgitate. 
 
 Another union is that by the pulmonary artery, and is 
 effected when that vessel divides into two branches after 
 its escape from the right ventricle of the heart. It is as 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 39 
 
 if in the two trunks already mentioned ;i third were super- 
 added, .1 kind of arterial canal, carried obliquelj from the 
 pulmonarj artery, to perforate and terminate in the great 
 artery or aorta. So that in the dissection of the embryo, 
 as ii were, two aortas, or two roots uf the ^reat artery, 
 appear springing from the heart. This canal shrinks gra- 
 dually after birth, and after a linn- heroines withered, 
 and anally almost removed, like the umbilical vessels. 
 
 The arterial canal contains no inemhrane or valve to 
 direct or impede the tiow of blood in this or in that direc- 
 tion: for at the root of the pulmonary artery, of which 
 the arterial canal is the continuation in the foetus, there 
 are three semilunar valves, which open from within out- 
 wards, and oppose no obstacle to the blood flowing in this 
 direction or from the right ventricle into the pulmonary 
 artery and aorta; but they prevent all regurgitation from 
 the aorta or pulmonic vessels back upon the right ven- 
 tricle; closing with perfect accuracy, they oppose an effec- 
 tual obstacle to everything of the kind in the embryo. 
 So that there is also reason to believe that when the heart 
 contracts, the blood is regularly propelled by the canal or 
 passage indicated from the right ventricle into the aorta. 
 
 What is commonly said in regard to these two great 
 communications, to wit, that they exist for the nutrition of 
 the lungs, is both improbable and inconsistent ; seeing 
 that in the adult they are closed up, abolished, and conso- 
 lidated, although the lungs, by reason of their heat and 
 motion, must then be presumed to require a larger supply 
 of nourishment. The same may be said in regard to the 
 assertion that the heart in the embryo does not pulsate, 
 that it neither acts nor moves, so that nature was forced 
 to make these communications for the nutrition of the 
 lungs. This is plainly false ; for simple inspection of the 
 incubated egg, and of embryos just taken out of the 
 uterus, shows that the heart moves in them precisely as in 
 adults, aud that nature feels no such necessity. 1 I have 
 myself repeatedly seen these motions, and Aristotle is 
 likewise wit ness of their reality. " The pulse," he observes, 
 
 1 | The modern stethoscope completely confirms Barvey'a views, as by 
 its use the heart of the embryo can be heard to pulsate through the 
 abdominal walls of the mother. — Ed.] 
 
40 MOTION OF THE 
 
 " inheres in the very constitution of the heart, and appears 
 from the beginning, as is learned both from the dissection 
 of living animals and the formation of the chick in the 
 egg." * But we further observe, that the passages in ques- 
 tion are not only pervious up to the period of birth in 
 man, as well as in other animals, as anatomists in general 
 have described them, but for several months subsequently, 
 in some indeed for several years, not to say for the whole 
 course of life ; as, for example, in the goose, snipe, and 
 various birds, and many of the smaller animals. And 
 this circumstance it was, perhaps, that imposed upon 
 Botallus, who thought he had discovered a new passage 
 for the blood from the vena cava into the left ventricle of 
 the heart ; and I own that when I met with the same 
 arrangement in one of the larger members of the mouse 
 family, in the adult state, I was myself at first led to some- 
 thing of a like conclusion. 
 
 From this it will be understood that in the human 
 embryo, and in the embryos of animals in which the com- 
 munications are not closed, the same thing happens, 
 namely, that the heart by its motion propels the blood by 
 obvious and open passages from the vena cava into the 
 aorta through the cavities of both the ventricles ; the right 
 one receiving the blood from the auricle, and propelling it 
 by the pulmonary artery, and its continuation, named the 
 ductus arteriosus, into the aorta ; the left, in like manner, 
 charged by the contraction of its auricle, which has re- 
 ceived its supply through the foramen ovale from the vena 
 cava, contracting, and projecting the blood through the 
 root of the aorta into the trunk of that vessel. 
 
 In embryos, consequently, whilst the lungs are yet in a 
 state of inaction, performing no function, subject to no 
 motion any more than if they had not been present, nature 
 uses the two ventricles of the heart as if they formed but 
 one, for the transmission of the blood. The condition of 
 the embryos of those animals which have lungs, whilst 
 these organs are yet in abeyance and not employed, is the 
 same as that of those animals which have no lungs. 
 
 So it clearly appears in the case of the foetus, that the 
 
 1 Lib. de Spiritu, cap. v. 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 41 
 
 heart by its action transfers the blood IV the vena cava 
 
 into the aorta, and thai In ;i route as obvious and open, as 
 if in tlir adult 1 1n • two ventricles were made to communi- 
 cate by the removal of their septum. We therefore find 
 
 thai in the greater nuinlier of animals, in all, indeed, at a 
 certain period of their existence, the channels for the 
 transmission of the blood through the heart are con- 
 spicuous. But we have to inquire why in some creatures 
 — those, namely, that have warm blood, and that have 
 attained to the adult age, man among the number — we 
 should not conclude thai the same thing is accomplished 
 through the sulistance of the lungs, which in the embryo, 
 and at a lime when the function of these organs is in 
 abeyance, nature effects by the direct passages described, 
 and which, indeed, she seems compelled to adopt through 
 want of a passage by the lungs; or why it should be 
 better (for nature always does that which is best) that 
 she should close up the various open routes which she had 
 formerly made use of in the embryo and foetus, and still 
 uses in all other animals. Not only does she thereby open 
 up no new apparent channels for the passage of the blood, 
 but she even shuts up those which formerly existed. 
 
 And now the discussion is brought to this point, that 
 they who inquire into the ways by which the blood reaches 
 the left ventricle of the heart and pulmonary veins from 
 the vena cava, will pursue the wisest course if they seek by 
 dissection to discover the causes why in the larger and 
 more perfect animals of mature age, nature lias rather 
 chosen to make the blood percolate the pai'enchyma of the 
 lungs, than as in other instances chosen a direct and 
 obvious course — for I assume that no other path or mode 
 of transit can be entertained. It must be because the 
 larger and more perfect animals are warmer, and when 
 adult their heat greater — ignited, as I might say, and 
 requiring to be damped or mitigated, that the blood is 
 sent through the lungs, in order that it may be tempered 
 by the air that is inspired, and prevented from boiling 
 up, and so becoming extinguished, or something else 
 of the sort. But to determine these matters, and ex- 
 plain them satisfactorily, were to enter on a speculation 
 in regard to the office of the lungs and the ends for which 
 
42 MOTION OF THE 
 
 they exist. Upon such a subject, as well as upon what 
 pertains to respiration, to the necessity and use of the air, 
 etc., as also to the variety and diversity of organs that 
 exist in the bodies of animals in connexion with these 
 matters, although I have made a vast number of observa- 
 tions, I shall not speak till I can more conveniently set 
 them forth in a treatise apart, lest I should be held 
 as wandering too wide of my present purpose, which is 
 the use and motion of the heart, and be charged with 
 speaking of things beside the question, and rather com- 
 plicating |and quitting than illustrating it. And now, 
 returning to my immediate subject, I go on with what yet 
 remains for demonstration, viz., that in the more perfect 
 and warmer adult animals, and man, the blood passes 
 from the right ventricle of the heart by the pulmonary 
 artery, into the lungs, and thence by the pulmonary veins 
 into the left auricle, and from there into the left ventricle 
 of the heart. And, first, I shall show that this may be so, 
 and then I shall prove that it is so in fact. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE BLOOD PASSES THROUGH THE SUBSTANCE OF THE LUNGS 
 FROM THE RIGHT VENTRICLE OF THE HEART INTO THE 
 PULMONARY VEINS AND LEFT VENTRICLE. 
 
 That this is possible, and that there is nothing to prevent 
 it from being so, appears when we reflect on the way in 
 which water permeating the earth produces springs and 
 rivulets, or when we speculate on the means by which the 
 sweat passes through the skin, or the urine through the 
 substance of the kidneys. It is well known that persons 
 who use the Spa waters, or those of La Madonna, in the 
 territories of Padua, or others of an acidulous or vitriolated 
 nature, or who simply swallow drinks by the gallon, 
 pass all off again within an hour or two by the bladder. 
 Such a quantity of liquid must take some short time in 
 the concoction : it must pass through the liver ; it is 
 allowed by all that the juices of the food we consume pass 
 
///.' \RT ANT) BLOOD. \.\ 
 
 twice through this organ in the course of the da} •. i it musl 
 IImw through the veins, through the tissue of the kidney . 
 and through I he ureters into the bladder. 
 
 To those, therefore, whom I bear denying thai thebl 1, 
 
 aye the whole mass of the U I may pass through the sub- 
 stance of the lungs, even as the nutritive juices percolate 
 the liver, asserting such a proposition to he impossible, and 
 by no means to be entertained as credible, 1 reply, with 
 the poet, thai they are of thai race of men who, when they 
 will, assent full readily, and when they will not, by no 
 manner of means; who, when their assent is wanted, fear, 
 and when it is uot, fear not to give it. 
 
 The substance of the liver is extremely dense, so is that 
 of the kidney; the lungs, however, are of a mucb looser 
 texture, and if compared with the kidneys are absolutely 
 spongy. In the liver there is no forcing, no impelling 
 j.ower; in the lungs the Mood is forced on by the pulse of 
 the right ventricle, the necessary effect of wbose impulse is 
 Ihe distension of the vessels and pores of the lungs. And 
 then the lungs, in respiration, are perpetually rising and 
 falling ; motions, the effect of whicb must needs be to open 
 and shut the pores and vessels, precisely as in the case of 
 a sponge, and of parts having a spongy structure, when 
 they are alternately compressed and again are suffered to 
 expand. The liver, on the contrary, remains at rest, and is 
 never seen to be dilated or constricted. Lastly, if no one 
 denies the possibility in man, oxen, and the larger animals 
 generally, of the wbole of the ingested juices passing 
 through the liver, in order to reach the vena cava, for 
 this reason, thai if nourishment is to go on, these juices 
 in usl needs get into the veins, and there is no other way 
 but the one indicated, why should not the same arguments 
 be held of avail for the passage of the blood in adults 
 through the lungs? Why not maintain, witb Columbus, 
 thai skilful and learned anatomist, that it must be SO 
 from the capacity and structure of the pulmonary vessels, 
 and from the tact of the pulmonary veins and ventricle 
 corresponding with them, being always found to contain 
 blood, which must needs have come from the veins, and 
 by no other passage save through the lungs? Columbus, 
 
 and we also, from what precedes, from dissections, and 
 
44 MOTION OF THE 
 
 other arguments, conceive the thing to be clear. But as 
 there are some who admit nothing unless upon authority, 
 let them learn that the truth I am contending for can be con- 
 firmed from Galen's own words, namely, that not only may 
 the blood be transmitted from the pulmonary artery into 
 the pulmonary veins, then into the left ventricle of the 
 heart, and from thence into the arteries of the body, but 
 that this is effected by the ceaseless pulsation of the heart 
 and the motion of the lungs in breathing. 
 
 There are, as everyone knows, three sigmoid or semi- 
 lunar valves situated at the orifice of the pulmonary artery, 
 which effectually prevent the blood sent into the vessel 
 from returning into the cavity of the heart. Now Galen, 
 explaining the uses of these valves, and the necessity for 
 them, employs the following language: l " There is every- 
 where a mutual anastomosis and inosculation of the arteries 
 with the veins, and they severally transmit both blood and 
 spirit, by certain invisible and undoubtedly very narrow 
 passages. Now if the mouth of the pulmonary artery had 
 stood in like manner continually open, and nature had 
 found no contrivance for closing it when requisite, and 
 opening it again, it would have been impossible that 
 the blood could ever have passed by the invisible and deli- 
 cate mouths, during the contractions of the thorax, into the 
 arteries ; for all things are not alike readily attracted or 
 repelled ; but that which is light is more readily drawn in, 
 the instrument being dilated, and forced out again when it 
 is contracted, than that which is heavy ; and in like manner 
 is anything drawn more rapidly along an ample conduit, 
 and again driven forth, than it is through a narrow tube. 
 But when the thorax is contracted, the pulmonary veins, 
 which are in the lungs, being driven inwardly, and power- 
 fully compressed on every side, immediately force out some 
 of the spirit they contain, and at the same time assume a 
 certain portion of blood by those subtile mouths ; a thing 
 that could never come to pass were the blood at liberty to 
 flow back into the heart through the great orifice of 
 the pulmonary artery. But its return through this great 
 opening being prevented, when it is compressed on every 
 
 1 De Usu partium, lib. vi, cap. 10. 
 
II HART AND BLOOD. | :, 
 
 side, a certain portion of it distils into the pulmonary veins 
 by tlie minute orifices mentioned." Ami shortly after- 
 wards, in the n<'\t «h;i | .t <•]•, In- says: "The i • i > » i"* - the 
 
 thorax contracts, the more it strives to force oul the blood, 
 the more exactly do these membranes (viz., the semilunar 
 valves) dose up the mouth of the vessel, and Buffer nothing 
 to regurgitate." The same fait he lias also alluded to in a 
 preceding part of the tenth chapter: "Wnvi here no valves, 
 a three-fold inconvenience would result, so that the Mood 
 would then perforin this lengthened course in vain; it 
 would Mow inwards during the diastoles of the lungs, aud 
 till all their arteries ; bul in the systoles, in the manner of 
 the tide, it would ever and anon, like the Euripus, flow 
 backwards and forwards by the same way, with a recipro- 
 cating motion, which would nowise suit the Mood. This, 
 however, may seem a matter of little moment; but if 
 it meantime appear that the funetion of respiration suffer, 
 then I think it would be looked upon as no trifle, etc." 
 Shortly afterwards he says : " And then a third in- 
 convenience, by uo means to be thought lightly of, would 
 follow, were the blood moved backwards during the expira- 
 tions, had not our Maker instituted those supplementary 
 membranes." In the eleventh chapter, he concludes: 
 "That they (the valves) have all a common use, and 
 thai it is to prevent regurgitation or backward motion; 
 each, however, having a proper function, the one set draw- 
 ing matters from the heart, and preventing their return, 
 the other drawing matters into the heart, and preventing 
 their escape from it. For nature never intended to distress 
 the heart with needless labour, neither to bring aught into 
 the orpin which it had been better to have kept away, nor 
 to take from it again aught which it was requisite should 
 be brought. Since, then, there are four orifices in all, two 
 in either ventricle, one of these induces, the other educes." 
 And again he says : "Farther, since there is one vessel, 
 which consists of a simple covering implanted in the heart . 
 and another, which is double, extending from it, (Galen is 
 lure speaking of the right side of the heart, but 1 extend 
 his observations to the left Bide also,) a kind of reservoir 
 had to be provided, to which both belonging, the blood 
 should be drawn in by one, and sent out by the other." 
 
46 MOTION OF THE 
 
 Galen adduces this argument for the transit of the blood 
 by the right ventricle from the vena cava into the lungs ; 
 but we can use it with still greater propriety, merely 
 changing the terms, for the passage of the blood from the 
 veins through the heart into the arteries. From Galen, 
 however, that great man, that father of physicians, it 
 clearly appears that the blood passes through the lungs 
 from the pulmonary artery into the minute branches of the 
 pulmonary veins, urged to this both by the pulses of the 
 heart and by the motions of the lungs and thorax ; that 
 the heart, moreover, is incessantly receiving and expelling 
 the blood by and from its ventricles, as from a magazine or 
 cistern, and for this end it is furnished with four sets of 
 valves, two serving for the induction and two for the educ- 
 tion of the blood, lest, like the Euripus, it should be incom- 
 modiously sent hither and thither, or flow back into the 
 cavity which it should have quitted, or quit the part where its 
 presence was required, and so the heart might be oppressed 
 with labour in vain, and the office of the lungs be interfered 
 with. 1 Finally, our position that the blood is continually 
 permeating from the right to the left ventricle, from the 
 vena cava into the aorta, through the porosities of the 
 lungs, plainly appears from this, that since the blood is in- 
 cessantly sent from the right ventricle into the lungs by 
 the pulmonary artery, and in like manner is incessantly 
 drawn from the lungs into the left ventricle, as appears 
 from what precedes and the position of the valves, it cannot 
 do otherwise than pass through continuously. And then, 
 as the blood is incessantly flowing into the right ventricle 
 of the heart, and is continually passed out from the left, as 
 appears in like manner, and as is obvious both to sense and 
 reason, it is impossible that the blood can do otherwise than 
 pass continually from the vena cava into the aorta. 
 
 Dissection consequently shows distinctly what takes 
 place in the majority of animals, and indeed in all, up to 
 the period of their maturity ; and that the same thing 
 occurs in adults is equally certain, both from Galen's words, 
 and what has already been said, only that in the former the 
 
 1 See the Commentary of the learned Hofmann upon the Sixth Book 
 of Galen, " De Usu partium," a work which I first saw after I had writ- 
 ten what precedes. 
 
///■: //,•/• AND BLOOD. 47 
 
 transit is effected h\ open and obvious [assay's, in the 
 
 latter bv the bidden porosities of the lungs and the minute 
 
 inosculations of vessels. It then -fore appears that, although 
 one ventricle of the beart, the lefi to wit, would suffice for 
 the distribution of the blood over the body, and its educ- 
 tion from the vena cava, as indeed is done in those crea- 
 tures that have no lungs, nature, nevertheless, when she 
 ordained that the same blood should also percolate the 
 1 udlts, saw herself obliged to add the right ventricle, the 
 pulse of which should force the blood from the vena cava 
 through the Lungs into the cavity of the left ventricle. 
 In this way, it ma\ he said that the right ventricle is 
 made for the sake of the lungs, and for the transmission 
 of the blood through them, not for their nutrition ; for it 
 were unreasonable to suppose that the lungs should require 
 so much more copious a supply of nutriment, and that of 
 so much purer and more spirituous a nature as coming im- 
 mediately from the ventricle of the heart, than either the 
 brain with its peculiarly pure substance, or the eyes with 
 their lustrous and truly admirable structure, or the flesh of 
 the heart itself, which is more suitably nourished by 
 the coronary artery. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF THE QUANTITY OF BLOOD PASSING THROUGH THE HEART 
 FROM THE VEINS TO THE ARTERIES ; AND OF THE CIRCU- 
 LAR MOTION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 Thus far I have spoken of the passage of the blood from 
 tin- veins into the arteries, and of the manner in which it is 
 transmitted and distributed by the action of the heart ; 
 points to which some, moved either by the authority of 
 Galen or Columbus, or the reasonings of others, will give 
 in their adhesion. But what remains to be said upon the 
 (piantitv and source of the blood which thus passes, is of 
 a character so novel and unheard-of that I not only fear 
 injury to myself from the envy of a few, but I tremble 
 
48 MOTION OF THE 
 
 lest I have mankind at large for my enemies, so much 
 doth wont and custom become a second nature. Doctrine 
 once sown strikes deep its root, and respect for antiquity 
 influences all men. Still the die is cast, and my trust is 
 in my love of truth, and the candour of cultivated minds. 
 And sooth to say, when I surveyed my mass of evidence, 
 whether derived from vivisections, and my various reflec- 
 tions on them, or from the study of the ventricles of 
 the heart and the vessels that enter into and issue from 
 them, the symmetry and size of these conduits, — for nature 
 doing nothing in vain, would never have given them so 
 large a relative size without a purpose, — or from observing 
 the arrangement and intimate structure of the valves in 
 particular, and of the other parts of the heart in general, 
 with many things besides, I frequently and seriously 
 bethought me, and long revolved in my mind, what might 
 be the quantity of blood which was transmitted, in how 
 short a time its passage might be effected, and the like. 
 But not finding it possible that this could be supplied by 
 the juices of the ingested aliment without the veins on the 
 one hand becoming drained, and the arteries on the other 
 getting ruptured through the excessive charge of blood, 
 unless the blood should somehow find its way from the 
 arteries into the veins, and so return to the right side of 
 the heart ; I began to think whether there might not be A 
 motion, as it were, in a circle. Now this I afterwards 
 found to be true ; and I finally saw that the blood, forced 
 by the action of the left ventricle into the arteries, was 
 distributed to the body at large, and its several parts, in 
 the same manner as it is sent through the lungs, impelled 
 by the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery, and that 
 it then passed through the veins and along the vena cava, 
 and so round to the left ventricle in the manner already 
 indicated. This motion we may be allowed to call cir- 
 cular, in the same way as Aristotle says that the air and 
 the rain emulate the circular motion of the superior bodies ; 
 for the moist earth, warmed by the sun, evaporates ; the 
 vapours drawn upwards are condensed, and descending in 
 the form of rain, moisten the earth again. By this 
 arrangement are generations of living things produced ; 
 and in like manner are tempests and meteors en gen- 
 
Ill- ART AND BLOOD. p.i 
 
 tiered bj the circular motion, and by the approach and 
 r Bsion of t he sun. 
 
 A ti< I similarly does it come to pass in the body, through 
 
 the motion of the bl I. that the various parts are 
 
 nourished, cherished, quickened by tin* warmer, more per- 
 fect, vaporous, spirituous, ami, as I may say, alixnentive 
 blood; which, on the other hand, owing to its contact with 
 these parts, becomes cooled, coagulated, and, so to speak, 
 effete. It then returns to its sovereign the heart, as it' to 
 its source, or to the inmost home of the body, there to 
 recover its state of excellence or perfection. Here it 
 renews its fluidity, natural heat, and becomes powerful, 
 fervid, a kind of treasury of life, and impregnated with 
 spirits, it might be said with balsam. Thence it is again 
 dispersed. All this depends on the motion and action of 
 the heart. 
 
 The heart, consequently, is the beginning of life ; the 
 sun of the microcosm, even as the sun in his turn might 
 well be designated the heart of the world ; for it is the 
 heart by whose virtue and pulse the blood is moved, per- 
 fected, and made nutrient, and is preserved from corrup- 
 tion and coagulation ; it is the household divinitv which, 
 discharging its function, nourishes, cherishes, quickens the 
 whole body, and is indeed the foundation of life, the source 
 of all action. But of these things we shall speak more 
 opportunely when we come to speculate upon the final cause 
 of this motion of the heart. 
 
 As the blood-vessels, therefore, are the canals and agents 
 that transport the blood, they are of two kinds, the cava and 
 the aorta ; and this not by reason of there being two sides of 
 the body, as Aristotle has it, but because of the difference 
 of office, not, as is commonly said, in consequence of any 
 diversity of structure, tor in many animals, as I have said, 
 the vein does not differ from the artery in the thickness of 
 its walls, but solely in virtue of their distinct functions 
 and uses. A vein and an artery, both styled veins by the 
 ancients, and that not without reason, as Galen has re- 
 marked, for the artery is the vessel which carries the blood 
 from the heart to the body at large, the vein of the present 
 day bringing it back from the general system to the heart ; 
 the former is the conduit from, the latter the channel to, 
 
 E 
 
50 MOTION OF THE 
 
 the heart ; the latter contains the cruder, effete blood, ren- 
 dered unfit for nutrition ; the former transmits the digested, 
 perfect, peculiarly nutritive fluid. 
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 THAT THERE IS A CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD IS CON- 
 FIRMED FROM THE FIRST PROPOSITION. 
 
 But lest anyone should say that we give them words only, 
 and make mere specious assertions without any founda- 
 tion, and desire to innovate without sufficient cause, three 
 points present themselves for confirmation, which being 
 stated, I conceive that the truth I contend for will follow 
 necessarily, and appear as a thing obvious to all. First, — 
 the blood is incessantly transmitted by the action of the 
 heart from the vena cava to the arteries in such quantity 
 that it cannot be supplied from the ingesta, and in such a 
 manner that the whole must very quickly pass through the 
 organ ; Second, — the blood under the influence of the 
 arterial pulse enters and is impelled in a continuous, 
 equable, and incessant stream through every part and 
 member of the body, in much larger quantity than were 
 sufficient for nutrition, or than the whole mass of fluids 
 could supply; Third, — the veins in like manner return 
 this blood incessantly to the heart from parts and mem- 
 bers of the body. These points proved, I conceive it will 
 be manifest that the blood circulates, revolves, propelled 
 and then returning, from the heart to the extremities, from 
 the extremities to the heart, and thus that it performs a 
 kind of circular motion. 
 
 Let us assume either arbitrarily or from experiment, the 
 quantity of blood which the left ventricle of the heart will 
 contain when distended, to be, say two ounces, three 
 ounces, or one ounce and a half — in the dead body I have 
 found it to hold upwards of two ounces. Let us assume 
 further, how much less the heart will hold in the con- 
 tracted than in the dilated state ; and how much blood it 
 
HEART A \i> BLOOD. 51 
 
 will projeci into the aorta upon each contraction ; ami all 
 
 the world allows thai with the sj stole a thing is always 
 
 projected, a necessary consequence demonstrated in the 
 third chapter, and obvious Erom the structure of the 
 
 valves; ami let us suppose as approaching the truth thai 
 the Eourth, or fifth, or sixth, or even bui the eighth paii 
 of its charge is thrown into the arterj at each contraction ; 
 this would give either half an ounce, or three drachms, or 
 one drachm of blood as propelled by the hearl at each 
 pulse into the aorta; which quantity, by reason of the 
 valves at the root of the vessel, can by no means return 
 into the ventricle. Now in the coarse of half an hour, the 
 heart, will have made more than one thousand heats, in 
 some as many as two, three, and even four thousand. 
 Multiplying the number of drachms propelled by the num- 
 ber of pulses, we shall have either one thousand half 
 ounces, or one thousand times thi-ee drachms, or a like 
 proportional quantity of blood, according to the amount 
 which we assume as propelled Avith each stroke of the heart, 
 Bent from this organ into the artery; a larger quantity 
 in every case than is contained in the whole body ! In the 
 same way, in the sheep or dog, say that but a single scruple 
 of blood passes with each stroke of the heart, in one half 
 hour we should have one thousand scruples, or about three 
 pounds and a half of blood injected into the aorta ; but the 
 body of neither animal contains above four pounds of 
 blood, a fact which I have myself ascertained in the case of 
 
 the sheep. 
 
 Upon this supposition, therefore, assumed merely as a 
 ground for reasoning, we see the whole mass of blood 
 passing through the heart, from the veins to the arteries, 
 and in like manner through the lungs. 
 
 But let it be said that this does not take place in half 
 an hour, but in an hour, or even in a day ; any way it is 
 still manifest that more blood passes through the heart in 
 consequence of its action, than can either be supplied by 
 the whole of the ingesta, or than can be contained in the 
 veins at the same moment. 
 
 Nor can it be allowed that the heart in contracting 
 sometimes propels ami sometimes does not propel, or at 
 most propels but very little, a mere nothing, or an imagi- 
 
52 MOTION OF THE 
 
 nary something : all this, indeed, has already been refuted, 
 and is, besides, contrary both to sense and reason. For if 
 it be a necessary effect of the dilatation of the heart that 
 its ventricles become filled with blood, it is equally so that, 
 contracting, these cavities should expel their contents ; and 
 this not in any trifling measure. For neither are the conduits 
 small, nor the contractions few in number, but frequent, 
 and always in some certain proportion, whether it be a 
 third or a sixth, or an eighth, to the total capacity of the 
 ventricles, so that a like proportion of blood must be ex- 
 pelled, and a like proportion received with each stroke of 
 the heart, the capacity of the ventricle contracted always 
 bearing a certain relation to the capacity of the ventricle 
 when dilated. And since in dilating, the ventricles cannot 
 be supposed to get filled with nothing, or with an imagi- 
 nary something, so in contracting they never expel nothing 
 or aught imaginary, but always a certain something, viz., 
 blood, in proportion to the amount of the contraction. 
 Whence it is to be concluded, that if at one stroke the 
 heart in man, the ox or the sheep, ejects but a single 
 drachm of blood, and there are one thousand strokes in 
 half an hour, in this interval there will have been ten 
 pounds five ounces expelled: if with each stroke two 
 drachms are expelled, the quantity would of course amount 
 to twenty pounds and ten ounces ; if half an ounce, the 
 quantity would come to forty-one pounds and eight ounces ; 
 and were there one ounce it would be as much as eighty- 
 three pounds and four ounces ; the whole of which, in the 
 course of one half hour, would have been transfused from 
 the veins to the arteries. The actual quantity of blood 
 expelled at each stroke of the heart, and the circumstances 
 under which it is either greater or less than ordinary, I leave 
 for particular determination afterwards, from numerous 
 observations which I have made on the subject. 
 
 Meantime this much I know, and would here proclaim 
 to all, that the blood is transfused at one time in larger, 
 at another in smaller quantity ; and that the circuit of the 
 blood is accomplished now more rapidly, now more slowly, 
 according to the temperament, age, etc., of the individual, 
 to external and internal circumstances, to naturals and 
 non-naturals, — sleep, rest, food, exercise, affections of the 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 58 
 
 mind, and the like. But, supposing even the smallest 
 
 quantity of bl 1 to I"' passed through the hearl and the 
 
 lungs with each pulsation, a vastly greater amount would 
 still be thrown into the arteries and whole body, than 
 
 could by ; 1 1 1 \ possibility be supplied by the E 1 consumed. 
 
 Ii could I"' furnished in no other way than by rnakiug a 
 circuit and returning. 
 
 This truth, indeed, presents itself obviously before us 
 when we consider what happens in the dissection of living 
 animals; the ureal artery need not he divided, hut a very 
 small branch only, (as Galen even proves in regard to man |, 
 to have the whole of the blood in the body, as well that of 
 the veins as of the arteries, drained away in the course of 
 no long time — some half hour or less. Butchers are well 
 aware of the fact and can bear witness to it; for, cutting 
 the throat of an ox and so dividing the vessels of the neck. 
 in less than a quarter of an hour they have all the vessels 
 bloodless — the whole mass of blood has escaped. The 
 same thing also occasionally occurs with great rapidity in 
 performing amputations and removing tumours in the 
 human subject. 
 
 Nor would this argument lose any of its force, did any 
 one say that in killing animals in the shambles, and per- 
 forming amputations, the blood escaped in equal, if not 
 perchance in larger quantity by the veins than by the 
 arteries. The contrary of this statement, indeed, is cer- 
 tainly the truth ; the veins, in fact, collapsing, and being 
 without any propelling power, and further, because of the 
 impediment of the valves, as I shall show immediatelv, 
 pour out but very little blood ; whilst the arteries spout it 
 forth with force abundantly, impetuously, and as if it were 
 propelled by a syringe. And then the experiment is easily 
 tried of leaving the vein untouched, and only dividing the 
 artery in the neck of a sheep or dog, when it will be seen 
 with what force, in what abundance, and how quickly, the 
 whole blood in the body, of the veins as well as of the 
 arteries, is emptied. But the arteries receive blood 
 from the veins in no other way than by transmission 
 through the heart, as we have already seen; so that if the 
 aorta lie tied at the base of the heart, and the carotid 
 ©r any other artery be opened, no one will now be BUT- 
 
54 MOTION OF THE 
 
 prised, to find it empty, and the veins only replete with 
 blood. 
 
 And now the cause is manifest, why in our dissec- 
 tions we usually find so large a quantity of blood in the 
 veins, so little in the arteries ; why there is much in the 
 right ventricle, little in the left, which probably led 
 the ancients to believe that the arteries (as their name 
 implies) contained nothing but spirits during the life of 
 an animal. The true cause of the difference is perhaps 
 this, that as there is no passage to the arteries, save 
 through the lungs and heart, when an animal has ceased 
 to breathe and the lungs to move, the blood in the pulmo- 
 nary artery is prevented from passing into the pulmonary 
 veins, and from thence into the left ventricle of the heart; 
 just as we have already seen the same transit prevented in 
 the embryo, by the want of movement in the lungs and the 
 alternate opening and shutting of their hidden and in- 
 visible porosities and apertures. But the heart not ceasing 
 to act at the same precise moment as the lungs, but sur- 
 viving them and continuing to pulsate for a time, the left 
 ventricle and arteries go on distributing their blood to the 
 body at large and sending it into the veins ; receiving 
 none from the lungs, however, they are soon exhausted, 
 and left, as it were, empty. But even this fact confirms 
 our views, in no trifling manner, seeing that it can be 
 ascribed to no other than the cause we have just assumed. 
 
 Moreover it appears from this that the more frequently 
 or forcibly the arteries pulsate, the more speedily will the 
 body be exhausted of its blood during hemorrhage. 
 Hence, also, it happens, that in fainting fits and in states 
 of alarm, when the heart beats more languidly and less 
 forcibly, hemorrhages are diminished and arrested. 
 
 Still further, it is from this, that after death, when the 
 heart has ceased to beat, it is impossible by dividing either 
 the jugular or femoral veins and arteries, by any effort to 
 force out more than one half of the whole mass of the 
 blood. Neither could the butcher ever bleed the carcass 
 effectually did he neglect to cut the throat of the ox which 
 he has knocked on the head and stunned, before the heart 
 had ceased beating. 
 
 Finally, we are now in a condition to suspect wherefore 
 
HEART A.\i> BLOOD. 
 
 it is that qo one has yet sai>l anything to the purpofe upon 
 the anastomosis of the veins ami arteries, eitnei as to 
 where or how it is effected, or for what purpose. I now 
 enter upon the investigation of the subject. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE FIRST POSITION: OF THE QUANTITyToF BLOOD PASS- 
 ING FROM THE VEINS TO THE ARTERIES. AND THAT 
 THERE IS A CIRCUIT OF THE BLOOD, FREED FROM OBJEC- 
 TIONS, AND FARTHER CONFIRMED BY EXPERIMENT. 
 
 So far our first position is confirmed, whether the thing be 
 referred to calculation or to experiment and dissection, 
 viz., that the blood is incessantly poured into the arteries 
 in larger quantities than it can be supplied by the food ; 
 so that the whole passing over in a short space of time, it 
 is matter of necessity that the blood perform a circuit, 
 that it return to whence it set out. 
 
 But if anyone shall here object that a large quantity 
 may pass through and yet no necessity be found for a 
 circulation, that all may come from the meat and drink 
 consumed, and quote as an illustration the abundant 
 supply of milk in the mammae — for a cow will give three, 
 four, and even seven gallons and more in a day, and a 
 woman two or three pints whilst nursing a child or twins, 
 which must manifestly be derived from the food consumed; 
 it may be answei'ed, that the heart by computation does 
 as much and more in the course of au hour or two. 
 
 And if not yet convinced, he shall still insist, that when 
 an artery is divided, a preternatural route is, as it were, 
 opened, and that so the blood escapes in torrents, but that 
 the same thing does not happen in the healthy and un- 
 injured body when no outlet is made; and that in arteries 
 filled, or in their natural state, s<> large a quantity of blood 
 cannol pass in so short a space of time as to make any 
 ret urn necessary; — to all this it may be answered, that from 
 the calculation already made, and the reasons assigned, it 
 
56 310TI0N OF THE 
 
 appears, that by so much as the heart in its dilated state 
 contains in addition to its contents in the state of constric- 
 tion, so much in a general way must it emit upon each 
 pulsation, and in such quantity must the blood pass, the 
 body being entire and naturally constituted. 
 
 But in serpents, and several fishes, by tying the veins 
 some way below the heart, you will perceive a space be- 
 tween the ligature and the heart speedily to become empty ; 
 so that, unless you would deny the evidence of your senses, 
 you must needs admit the return of the blood to the heart. 
 The same thing will also plainly appear when we come to 
 discuss our second position. 
 
 Let us here conclude with a single example, confirming 
 all that has been said, and from which everyone may 
 obtain conviction through the testimony of his own eyes. 
 
 If a live snake be laid open, the heart will be seen pul- 
 sating quietly, distinctly, for more than an hour, moving 
 like a worm, contracting in its longitudinal dimensions, 
 (for it is of an oblong shape,) and propelling its contents. It 
 becomes of a paler colour in the systole, of a deeper tint in 
 the diastole ; and almost all things else are seen by which I 
 have already said that the truth I contend for is established, 
 only that here everything takes place more slowly, and is 
 more distinct. This point in particular may be observed 
 more clearly than the noon-day sun : the vena cava enters 
 the heart at its lower part, the artery quits it at the 
 superior part ; the vein being now seized either with 
 forceps or between the finger and thumb, and the course 
 of the blood for some space below the heart interrupted, 
 you will perceive the part that intervenes between the 
 fingers and the heart almost immediately to become empty, 
 the blood being exhausted by the action of the heart ; at 
 the same time the heart will become of a much paler 
 colour, even in its state of dilatation, than it was before ; 
 it is also smaller than at first, from wanting blood ; and 
 then it begins to beat more slowly, so that it seems at 
 length as if it were about to die. But the impediment to 
 the flow of blood being removed, instantly the colour and 
 the size of the heart are restored. 
 
 If, on the contrary, the artery instead of the vein be 
 compressed or tied, you will observe the part between the 
 
HEART t\l> /:/.(><)/>. r,7 
 
 obstacle and the heart, and the heart itself, t<> become 
 inordinately distended, to assume a deep purple ot even 
 livid colour, and at length to be bo much oppressed with 
 
 blood that you will believe it aboul to be choked; but the 
 obstacle removed, all things immediately return t<> their 
 oatural state in colour, size, and impulse. 
 
 Sere then we have evidence of two kinds of death: 
 extinction from deficiency, and suffocation from exa 
 Examples of both have now been set before you, and you 
 have had opportunity of viewing the truth contended for 
 with your own eves in the heart. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE SECOND POSITION IS DEMONSTRATED. 
 
 That this may the more clearly appear to everyone, I 
 have here to cite certain experiments, from which it seems 
 obvious that the blood enters a limb by the arteries, and 
 returns from it by the veins ; that the arteries are the 
 vessels carrying the blood from the heart, and the veins 
 the returning channels of the blood to the heart; that in 
 the limbs and extreme parts of the body the blood passes 
 either immediately by anastomosis from the arteries into 
 the veins, or mediately by the porosities of the flesh, or in 
 both ways, as has already been said in speaking of the 
 passage of the blood through the lungs whence, it appears 
 manifest that in the circuit the blood moves from that place 
 to this place, and from that point to this one ; from the centre 
 to the extremities, to wit; and from the extreme parts back 
 again to the centre. Finally, upon grounds of calculation, 
 with the same elements as before, it will be obvious that 
 the quantity can neither be accounted for by the ingesta, 
 nor yet be held necessary to nutrition. 
 
 The same thing will also appear in regard to ligatures, 
 and wherefore they are said to draw; though this is 
 neither from the heat, nor the pain, nor the vacuum fchej 
 occasion, nor indeed from any other cause yet thought of; 
 
58 MOTION OF THE 
 
 it will also explain the uses and advantages to be derived 
 from, ligatures in medicine, the principle upon which they 
 either suppress or occasion hemorrhage ; how they induce 
 sloughing and more extensive mortification in extremities ; 
 and how they act in the castration of animals and the 
 removal of warts and fleshy tumours. But it has come to 
 pass, from no one having duly weighed and understood 
 the causes and rationale of these various effects, that 
 though almost all, upon the faith of the old writers, 
 recommend ligatures in the treatment of disease, yet very 
 few comprehend their proper employment, or derive any 
 real assistance from them in effecting cures. 
 
 Ligatures are either very tight or of medium tightness. 
 A ligature I designate as tight or perfect when it so con- 
 stricts an extremity that no vessel can be felt pulsating 
 beyond it. Such a ligature we use in amputations to con- 
 trol the flow of blood ; and such also are employed in the 
 castration of animals and the ablation of tumours. In the 
 latter instances, all afflux of nutriment and heat being 
 prevented by the ligature, we see the testes and large 
 fleshy tumours dwindle, die, and finally fall off. 
 
 Ligatures of medium tightness I regard as those which 
 compress a limb firmly all round, but short of pain, and 
 in such a way as still suffers a certain degree of pulsation 
 to be felt in the artery beyond them. Such a ligature is in 
 use in blood-letting, an operation which the fillet applied 
 above the elbow is not drawn so tight but that the arteries 
 at the wrist may still be felt beating under the finger. 
 
 Now let anyone make an experiment upon the arm of a 
 man, either using such a fillet as is employed in blood- 
 letting, or grasping the limb lightly with his hand, the 
 best subject for it being one who is lean, and who has 
 large veins, and the best time after exercise, when the 
 body is warm, the pulse is full, and the blood carried in 
 larger quantity to the extremities, for all then is more 
 conspicuous ; under such circumstances let a ligature be 
 thrown about the extremity, and drawn as tightly as can 
 be borne, it will first be perceived that beyond the liga- 
 ture, neither in the wrist nor anywhere else, do the arteries 
 pulsate, at the same time that immediately above the liga- 
 ture the artery begins to rise higher at each diastole, to 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 59 
 
 fchroli more violent lv, and to swell in its vicinitj with ;i 
 kind of tide, as it' it strove to break through and overcome 
 
 tl lista.lr to its current; tin 1 artery here, in short, 
 
 appears as if it were preternaturally full. The hand under 
 such circumstances retains its natural colour and appear- 
 juice; in tlic course of time it begins to fall Bomewnal in 
 temperature, indeed, bul nothing is drawn into it. 
 
 After the bandage lias been kept on for Borne short time 
 in this way, lei it be slackened a little, brougb.1 to that 
 state or term of medium tightness which is used in 
 bleeding, and it will be seen thai the whole hand and arm 
 will instantly become deeply coloured and distended, and 
 the veins show themselves tumid and knotted; after 
 ten or twelve pulses of the artery, the hand will be per- 
 ceived excessively distended, injected, gorged with blood, 
 drawn, as it is said, by this medium ligature, without pain, 
 or heat, or any horror of a vacuum, or any other cause vet 
 indicated. 
 
 If the finger be applied over the artery as it is pulsating 
 by the edge of the fillet, at the moment of slackening if, 
 the blood will be felt to glide through, as it were, under- 
 neath the finger ; and he, too, upon whose arm the experi- 
 ment is made, when the ligature is slackened, is distinctly 
 conscious of a sensation of warmth, and of something, viz , 
 a stream of blood suddenly making its way along the 
 course of the vessels and diffusing itself through the hand, 
 which at the same time begins to feel hot, and becomes 
 distended. 
 
 As we had uoted, in connexion with the tight ligature, 
 that the artery above the bandage was distended and pul- 
 sated, not below it, so, in the case of the moderately tight 
 bandage, on the contrary, do we find that the veins below, 
 never above, the fillet, swell, and become dilated, whilst the 
 arteries shrink ; and such is the degree of distension of the 
 veins here, that it is only very strong pressure that will 
 force the blood beyond the fillet, and cause any of the 
 veins in the upper part of the arm to rise. 
 
 Prom these facts it is easy for every careful observer to 
 leani that the blood enters an extremity by the arteries; 
 for when they are effectually compressed nothing ib draton 
 to the member ; the hand preserves its colour ; nothing 
 
60 MOTION OF THE 
 
 flows into it, neither is it distended ; but when the pres- 
 sure is diminished, as it is with the bleeding fillet, it is 
 manifest that the blood is instantly thrown in with force, 
 for then the hand begins to swell ; which is as much as to 
 say, that when the arteries pulsate the blood is flowing 
 through them, as it is when the moderately tight ligature 
 is applied; but where they do not pulsate, as, when a 
 tight ligature is used, they cease from transmitting any- 
 thing, they are only distended above the part where the 
 ligature is applied. The veins again being compressed, 
 nothing can flow through them ; the certain indication of 
 which is, that below the ligature they are much more 
 tumid than above it, and than they usually appear when 
 there is no bandage upon the arm. 
 
 It therefore plainly appears that the ligature prevents 
 the return of the blood through the veins to the parts 
 above it, and maintains those beneath it in a state of per- 
 manent distension. But the arteries, in spite of its pres- 
 sure, and under the force and impulse of the heart, send on 
 the blood from the internal parts of the body to the parts 
 beyond the ligature. And herein consists the difference 
 between the tight and the medium ligature, that the 
 former not only prevents the passage of the blood in the 
 veins, but in the arteries also ; the latter, however, whilst 
 it does not prevent the force of the pulse from extending 
 beyond it, and so propelling the blood to the extremities 
 of the body, compresses the veins, and greatly or altoge- 
 ther impedes the return of the blood through them. 
 
 Seeing, therefore, that the moderately tight ligature ren- 
 ders the veins turgid and distended, and the whole hand 
 full of blood, I ash, whence is this ? Does the blood accu- 
 mulate below the ligature coming through the veins, or 
 through the arteries, or passing by certain hidden porosi- 
 ties ? Through the veins it cannot come ; still less can it 
 come through invisible channels ; it must needs, then, arrive 
 by the arteries, in conformity with all that has been already 
 said. That it cannot flow in by the veins appears plainly 
 enough from the fact that the blood cannot be forced 
 towards the heart unless the ligature be removed ; when 
 this is done suddenly all the veins collapse, and disgorge 
 themselves of their contents into the superior parts, the 
 
WE ART A XI) DI.OOD. 61 
 
 band a1 the Bame time resumes its natural palecolour, the 
 
 tumefaction and the stagnating U I having disappeared. 
 
 Moreover, he whose arm or wrist lias thus been bound 
 
 for some little time with the medium handage, so that it 
 lias not only go1 swollen and livid bul cold, when the 
 lillet is undone is aware of something cold making its 
 way upwards along with the returning blood, and reaching 
 thf elbow or the axilla. And T have myself been inclined 
 
 to think that this cold blood rising upwards to the heart 
 was the cause of the fainting thai often occurs after 
 bloodletting : fainting frequently supervenes even in rolmst 
 subjects, and mostly at the moment of undoing the fillet, 
 as the vulgar say, from the turning of the blood. 
 
 Farther, when we see the veins below the ligature in- 
 stantly swell up and become gorged, when from extreme 
 tightness it is somewhat relaxed, the arteries meantime 
 continuing unaffected, this is an obvious indication that 
 the blood passes from the arteries into the veins, and not 
 from the veins into the arteries, and that there is either 
 an anastomosis of the two orders of vessels, or porosities 
 in the ilesh and solid parts generally that are permeable 
 to the blood. It is farther an indication that the veins 
 have frequent communications with one another, because 
 they all become turgid together, whilst under the medium 
 ligature applied above the elbow ; and if any single small 
 vein be pricked with a lancet, they all speedily shrink, and 
 disburthening themselves into this they subside almost 
 simultaneously. 
 
 These considerations will enable anyone to understand 
 the nature of the attraction that is exerted by ligatures, 
 and perchance of fluxes generally ; how, for example, when 
 the veins are compressed by a bandage of medium tight- 
 ness applied above the elbow, the blood cannot escape, 
 whilst it still continues to be driven in, by the forcing power 
 of the heart, by which the parts are of necessity tilled, 
 gorged with blood. And how should it be other- 
 wise? Heat and pain and a vacuum draw, indeed ; but in 
 such wise only that parts are filled, not pretermit urally 
 distended or gorged, and not so suddenly and violently over- 
 whelmed with the charge of blood forced in upon them, 
 that the ilesh is lacerated and the vessels ruptured. 
 
62 MOTION OF THE 
 
 Nothing of the kind as an effect of heat, or pain, or the 
 vacuum force, is either credible or demonstrable. 
 
 Besides, the ligature is competent to occasion the afflux 
 in question without either pain, or heat, or a vacuum. 
 Were pain in any way the cause, how should it happen 
 that, with the arm bound above the elbow, the hand and 
 fingers should swell below the bandage, and their veins 
 become distended ? The pressure of the bandage certainly 
 prevents the blood from getting there by the veins. And 
 then, wherefore is there neither swelling nor repletion of 
 the veins, nor any sign or symptom of attraction or afflux, 
 above the ligature ? But this is the obvious cause of the 
 preternatural attraction and swelling below the bandage, 
 and in the hand and fingers, that the blood is entering 
 abundantly, and with force, but cannot pass out again. 
 
 Now is not this the cause of all tumefaction, as indeed 
 Avicenna has it, and of all oppressive redundancy in parts, 
 that the access to them is open, but the egress from them 
 is closed ? Whence it comes that they are gorged and 
 tumefied. And may not the same thing happen in local 
 inflammations, where, so long as the swelling is on the 
 increase, and has not reached its extreme term, a full 
 pulse is felt in the part, especially when the disease is of 
 the more acute kind, and the swelling usually takes place 
 most rapidly. But these are matters for after discussion. 
 Or does this, which occurred in my own case, happen 
 from the same cause. Thrown from a carriage upon one 
 occasion, I struck my forehead a blow upon the place 
 where a twig of the artery advances from the temple, and 
 immediately, within the time in which twenty beats could 
 have been made, I felt a tumour the size of an egg de- 
 veloped, without either heat or any great pain : the near 
 vicinity of the artery had caused the blood to be effused 
 into the bruised part with unusual force and velocity. 
 
 And now, too, we understand why in phlebotomy we 
 apply our ligature above the part that is punctured, not 
 below it ; did the flow come from above, not from be- 
 low, the constriction in this case would not only be of no 
 service, but would prove a positive hinderance ; it would 
 have to be applied below the orifice, in order to have the 
 flow more free, did the blood descend by the veins from 
 
HEART A VD BLOOD. 
 
 Buperior to inferior parts; but as it is elsewhere forced 
 
 through the extreme arteries into tl streme veins, and 
 
 the return in these lasl is opposed l>\ the Ligature, bo do 
 they till and swell, and being thus filled and distended, 
 they are made capable of projecting their charge with 
 force, and to a distance, when any one of them is suddenly 
 punctured; but the ligature being slackened, and the re- 
 turning channels thus loft open, the blood forthwith no 
 longer escapes, save by drops; and, us all the world 
 knows, it in performing phlebotomy the bandage be either 
 Blackened too ninth or the limb be hound ton tightly, the 
 blood escapes withoul force, because in the one case the 
 returning channels are not adequately' obstructed; in the 
 other the channels of influx, the arteries, are impeded. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Tll.VT THERE IS A CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD IS SHOWN 
 FROM THE SECOND POSITION DEMONSTRATED. 
 
 If these things be so, another point which I have already 
 referred to, viz., the continual passage of the blood through 
 the heart will also be confirmed. We have seen, that the 
 blood passes from the arteries into the veins, not from 
 the veins into the arteries; we have seen, farther, that 
 almost the whole of the blood may be withdrawn from a 
 puncture made in one of the cutaneous veins of the arm 
 if a bandage properly applied he used ; we have seen, still 
 Farther, that the blood flows so freely and rapidly that not 
 only is the whole quantity which was contained in the 
 arm beyond the ligature, and before the puncture was 
 mad'', discharged, but the whole which is contained in the 
 body, both that of the arteries and that of the veins. 
 
 Whence we must admit, first, that the blood is sent 
 along with an impulse, and that it is urged with force 
 below the ligature ; for it escapes with force, which force 
 it receives from tin- puis.' and power of the heart ; for the 
 force and motion of the blood are derived from the h.-art 
 
64 MOTION OF THE 
 
 alone. Second, that the afflux proceeds from the heart, 
 and through the heart by a course f roni the great veins ; 
 for it gets into the parts below the ligature through the 
 arteries, not through the veins ; and the arteries nowhere 
 receive blood from the veins, nowhere receive blood save 
 and except from the left ventricle of the heart. Nor could 
 so large a quantity of blood be drawn from one vein (a 
 ligature having been duly applied), nor with such impetu- 
 osity, such readiness, such celerity, unless through the 
 medium of the impelling power of the heart. 
 
 But if all things be as they are now represented, we 
 shall feel ourselves at liberty to calculate the quantity of 
 the blood, and to reason on its circular motion. Should 
 anyone, for instance, in performing phlebotomy, suffer the 
 blood to flow in the manner it usually does, with force 
 and freely, for some half hour or so, no question but that 
 the greatest part of the blood being abstracted, faintings 
 and syncopes would ensue, and that not only would the 
 arteries but the great veins also be nearly emptied of their 
 contents. It is only consonant with reason to conclude 
 that in the course of the half hour hinted at, so much as 
 has escaped has also passed from the great veins through 
 the heart into the aorta. And further, if we calculate how 
 many ounces flow through one arm, or how many pass in 
 twenty or thirty pulsations under the medium ligature, we 
 shall have some grounds for estimating how much passes 
 through the other arm in the same space of time : how 
 much through both lower extremities, how much through 
 the neck on either side, and through all the other arteries 
 and veins of the body, all of which have been supplied 
 with fresh blood, and as this blood must have passed 
 through the lungs and ventricles of the heart, and must 
 have come from the great veins, — we shall perceive that a 
 circulation is absolutely necessary, seeing that the quan- 
 tities hinted at cannot be supplied immediately from the 
 ingesta, and are vastly more than can be requisite for the 
 mere nutrition of the parts. 
 
 It is still further to be observed, that in practising 
 phlebotomy the truths contended for are sometimes con- 
 firmed in another way ; for having tied up the arm 
 properly, and made the puncture duly, still, if from alarm 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 65 
 
 or :ni\ other causes, a Btate of Eaintness supervenes, in 
 which the hearl always pulsates more languidly, 1 1 x ■ blood 
 does ii"i flow Ereely, bul distils \>\ drops only. The reason 
 is, that with the somewhal greater than usual resistance 
 offered to the transil of the blood by the bandage, coupled 
 with the weaker action of the heart, and its diminished 
 impelling power, the Btream cannol make its way under 
 tin' ligature; and farther, owing to the weak and languish- 
 ing Btate of the heart, the Mood is not transferred in such 
 quantity as won! from the veins to the arteries through 
 the sinuses of thai organ. So also, and for the same 
 reasons, an- the menstrual fluxes of women, and indeed 
 hemorrhages of every Kind, controlled. And now, a con- 
 trary state of things occurring, the patient getting rid of 
 his fear and recovering his courage, the pulse strength is 
 increased, the arteries begin again to beat with greater 
 force, and to drive the blood even into the part that is 
 bound ; so that the blood now springs from the puncture 
 in the vein, and Hows in a continuous stream. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE THIRD POSITION IS CONFIRMED : AND THE CIRCULA- 
 TION OF THE BLOOD IS DEMONSTRATED FROM IT. 
 
 Thus far we have spoken of the quantity of blood passing 
 through the heart and the lungs in the centre of the body, 
 and in like manner from the arteries into the veins in the 
 peripheral parts and the body at large. We have yet to 
 explain, however, in what manner the blood finds its way 
 back to the heart from the extremities by the veins, and 
 how and in what way these are the only vessels that convey 
 the blood from the external to the central parts; which 
 done, I conceive that the three fundamental propositions 
 laid down for the circulation of the blood will be so plain, 
 so wel] established, so obviously true, that they may claim 
 general credence. Now the remaining position will be 
 made sufficiently clear from the valves which are found in 
 
 F 
 
66 MOTION OF THE 
 
 the cavities of the veins themselves, from the uses of these, 
 and from experiments cognizable by the senses. 
 
 The celebrated Hieronymus Fabricius of Aquapendente, 
 a most skilful anatomist, and venerable old man, or, as the 
 learned Eiolan will have it, Jacobus Silvius, first gave re- 
 presentations of the valves in the veins, which consist of 
 raised or loose portions of the inner membranes of these 
 vessels, of extreme delicacy, and a sigmoid or semilunar 
 shape. They ai*e situated at different distances from one 
 another, and diversely in different individuals ; they are 
 connate at the sides of the veins ; they are directed upwards 
 or towards the trunks of the veins ; the two — for there are 
 for the most part two together — regard each other, mutually 
 touch, and are so ready to come into contact by their 
 edges, that if anything attempt to pass from the trunks 
 into the branches of the veins, or from the greater vessels 
 into the less, they completely prevent it ; they are farther 
 so arranged, that the horns of those that succeed are oppo- 
 site the middle of the convexity of those that precede, and 
 so on alternately. 
 
 The discoverer of these valves did not rightly under- 
 stand their use, nor have succeeding anatomists added 
 anything to our knowledge : for their office is by no means 
 explained when we are told that it is to hinder the blood, 
 by its weight, from all flowing into inferior parts ; for the 
 edges of the valves in the jugular veins hang downwards, 
 and are so contrived that they prevent the blood from 
 rising upwards ; the valves, in a word, do not invariably 
 look upwards, but always towards the trunks of the veins, 
 invariably towards the seat of the heart. I, and indeed 
 others, have sometimes found valves in the emulgent veins, 
 and in those of the mesentery, the edges of which were 
 directed towards the vena cava and vena portae. Let it 
 be added that there are no valves in the arteries, and that 
 dogs, oxen, etc., have invariably valves at the divisions of 
 their crural veins, in the veins that meet towards the top 
 of the os sacrum, and in those branches which come from 
 the haunches, in which no such effect of gravity from the 
 erect position was to be apprehended. Neither are there 
 valves in the jugular veins for the purpose of guarding 
 against apoplexy, as some have said ; because in sleep the 
 
in: 1/,-v A \n ii/.ood. <;7 
 
 head La more ap1 to be influenced by the contents of the 
 carotid arteries. Neither are the valves present, in order 
 thai the blood may !»' retained in the divarications or 
 smaller trunks and minuter branches, and nol be suffered 
 to flow entirely into the more open and capacious channels; 
 for they occur w here then' aiv no divaricat ions ; although 
 il musl I"' owned thai they art- mosl frequenl at the 
 points where branches join. Neither <l«> the) exist for 
 the purpose of rendering the current of blood more slow 
 from the centre of the body; Eor it seems likely that the 
 
 lil 1 would be disposed to How with sufficient slowness 
 
 of its own accord, as it would have to pass from larger 
 into continually smaller vessels, he'nig separated from the 
 mass and fountain head, and attaining from warmer into 
 
 collier places. 
 
 But the valves are solely made and instituted lest the 
 blood should pass from the greater into the lesser veins, 
 and either rupture them or cause them to become varicose; 
 lest, instead of advancing from the extreme to the central 
 parts of the body, the blood should rather proceed along 
 the veins from the centime to the extremities; but the 
 delicate valves, while they readily open in the right direc- 
 tion, entirely prevent all such contrary motion, being so 
 situated and arranged, that if anything escapes, or is less 
 perfectly obstructed by the cornua of the one above, the 
 fluid passing, as it were, by the chinks between the 
 cornua, it is immediately received on the convexity of the 
 one beneath, which is placed transversely with reference 
 to the former, and so is effectually hindered from getting 
 any farther. 
 
 And this I have frequently experienced in my dissections 
 of the veins : if I attempted to pass a probe from the trunk 
 of the veins into one of the smaller branches, whatever 
 care I took I found it impossible to introduce it far any 
 way, by reason of the valves ; whilst, on the contrary, it 
 was most easy to push it along in the opposite direction, 
 from without inwards, or from the branches towards the 
 trunks and roots. In many places two valves are so placed 
 and tilted, that when raised they come exactly together in 
 the middle of the vein, and are there united by the contact 
 of their margins; and so accurate is the adaptation, that 
 
68 MOTION OF THE 
 
 neither by the eye nor by any other means of examination, 
 can the slightest chink along the line of contact be per- 
 ceived. But if the probe be now introduced from the 
 extreme towards the more central parts, the valves, like 
 the floodgates of a river, give way, and are most readily 
 pushed aside. The effect of this arrangement plainly is to 
 prevent all motion of the blood from the heart and vena 
 cava, whether it be upwards towards the head,or downwards 
 towards the feet, or to either side towards the arms, not a 
 drop can pass ; all motion of the blood, beginning in the 
 larger and tending towards the smaller veins, is opposed 
 and resisted by them ; whilst the motion that proceeds 
 from the lesser to end in the larger branches is favoured, 
 or, at all events, a free and open passage is left for it. 
 
 But that this truth may be made the more apparent, let 
 an arm be tied up above the elbow as if for phlebotomy 
 (a, a, fig. 1). At intervals in the course of the veins, 
 especially in labouring people and those whose veins are 
 large, certain knots or elevations (b, c, d, e, f,) will be 
 perceived, and this not only at the places where a branch 
 is received (e, f), but also where none enters (c, d) : these 
 knots or risings are all formed by valves, which thus show 
 themselves externally. And now if you press the blood 
 from the space above one of the valves, from h to o, (fig. 2,) 
 and keep the point of a finger upon the vein inferiorly, you 
 will see no influx of blood from above ; the portion of the 
 vein between the point of the finger and the valve o will be 
 obliterated; yet will the vessel continue sufficiently dis- 
 tended above that valve (o, a). The blood being thus 
 pressed out, and the vein emptied, if you now apply a 
 finger of the other hand upon the distended part of the 
 vein above the valve o, (fig. 3,) and press downwards, you 
 will find that you cannot force the blood through or beyond 
 the "valve; but the greater effort you use, you will only 
 see the portion of vein that is between the finger and the 
 valve become more distended, that portion of the vein 
 which is below the valve remaining all the while empty 
 
 (H, o, fig. 3). 
 
 It would therefore appear that the function of the valves 
 in the veins is the same as that of the three sigmoid valves 
 which we find at the commencement of the aorta and pul- 
 
in: \irr i \/> BLOOD. 
 
 
 monary artery, viz., i<> prevenl all reflui of the blood thai 
 
 is passing <>\ er 1 1 1 • ■ 1 1 1 . 
 
 Farther, the arm being bound as before, and the veins 
 Looking full ami < li^t • -n< !■ •« I. il* you press at one part in tin- 
 
70 MOTION OF THE 
 
 course of a vein with the point of a finger (l, fig. 4), and 
 then with another finger streak the blood upwards beyond 
 the next valve (n), you will perceive that this portion of 
 the vein continues empty (l n), and that the blood cannot 
 retrograde, precisely as we have already seen the case to be 
 in fig. 2 ; but the finger first applied (h, fig. 2, l, fig. 4), 
 being removed, immediately the vein is filled from below, 
 and the arm becomes as it appears at d c, fig. 1. That 
 the blood in the veins therefore proceeds from inferior or 
 more remote to superior parts, and towards the heart, 
 moving in these vessels in this and not in the contrary 
 direction, appears most obviously. And although in some 
 places the valves, by not acting with such perfect accuracy, 
 or where there is but a single valve, do not seem totally 
 to prevent the passage of the blood from the centre, still 
 the greater number of them plainly do so ; and then, 
 where things appear contrived more negligently, this is 
 compensated either by the more frequent occurrence or 
 more perfect action of the succeeding valves, or in some 
 other way : the veins, in short, as they are the free and 
 open conduits of the blood returning to the heart, so are 
 they effectually prevented from serving as its channels of 
 distribution from the heart. 
 
 But this other circumstance has to be noted : The arm 
 being bound, and the veins made turgid, and the valves 
 prominent, as before, apply the thumb or finger over a vein 
 in the situation of one of the valves in such a way as to 
 compress it, and prevent any blood from passing upwards 
 from the hand; then, with a finger of the other hand, 
 streak the blood in the vein upwards till it has passed the 
 next valve above (n, fig. 4,) the vessel now remains empty ; 
 but the finger at l being removed for an instant, the vein 
 is immediately filled from below ; apply the finger again, 
 and having in the same manner streaked the blood up- 
 wards, again remove the finger below, and again the vessel 
 becomes distended as before ; and this repeat, say a thou- 
 sand times, in a short space of time. And now compute 
 the quantity of blood which you have thus pressed up 
 beyond the valve, and then multiplying the assumed quan- 
 tity by one thousand, you will find that so much blood has 
 passed through a certain portion of the vessel ; and I do 
 
HEART AM) BL 001). 71 
 
 now believe thai yon will find yourself convinced of the 
 circulation of the Mood, ami of its rapid motion. But if 
 in this experiment yon say thai a violence is dune to 
 nature. I do not doubt but that, if you proceed in the same 
 
 way, only taking as great a Length of vein as possible, and 
 
 merely remark with what rapidity the blood flows upwards, 
 
 and tills the vessel from below, you will come to the same 
 conclusion. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 CONCLUSION OF THE DEMONSTRATION OF THE CIRCULATION 
 
 And now I may be allowed to give in brief my view of the 
 circulation of the blood, and to propose it for general 
 adoption. 
 
 Since all things, both argument and ocular demonstra- 
 tion, show that the blood passes through the lungs and 
 heart by the force of the ventricles, and is sent for distri- 
 bution to all parts of the body, where it makes its way 
 into the veins and porosities of the flesh, and then flows 
 by the veins from the circumference on every side to the 
 centre, from the lesser to the greater veins, and is by them 
 finally discharged into the vena cava and right auricle of 
 the heart, and this in such a quantity or in such a flux 
 and reflux thither by the arteries, hither by the veins, as 
 cannot possibly be supplied by the ingesta, and is much 
 greater than can be required for mere purposes of nutri- 
 tion ; it is absolutely necessary to conclude that the blood 
 in the animal body is impelled in a circle, and is in a state 
 of ceaseless motion ; that this is the act or function which 
 the heart performs by means of its pulse; and that it is 
 the sole and only end of the motion and contraction of the 
 heart. 
 
72 MOTION OF THE 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD IS FURTHER CONFIRMED 
 BY PROBABLE REASONS. 
 
 It will not "be foreign to the subject if I here show further, 
 from certain familiar reasonings, that the circulation is 
 matter both of convenience and necessity. In the first 
 place, since death is a corruption which takes place through 
 deficiency of heat, 1 and since all living things are warm, all 
 dying things cold, there must be a particular seat and 
 fountain, a kind of home and hearth, where the cherisher 
 of nature, the original of the native fire, is stored and pre- 
 served ; from which heat and life are dispensed to all parts 
 as from a fountain head ; from which sustenance may be 
 derived ; and upon which concoction and nutrition, and all 
 vegetative energy may depend. Now, that the heart is this 
 place, that the heart is the principle of life, and that all passes 
 in the manner just mentioned, I trust no one will deny. 
 
 The blood , therefore, required to have motion, and 
 indeed such a motion that it should return again to the 
 heart ; for sent to the external parts of the body far from 
 its fountain, as Aristotle says, and without motion, it 
 would become congealed. For we see motion generating 
 and keeping up heat and spirits under all circumstances, 
 and rest allowing them to escape and be dissipated. The 
 blood, therefore, becoming thick or congealed by the cold of 
 the extreme and outward parts, and robbed of its spirits, 
 just as it is in the dead, it was imperative that from its 
 fount and origin, it should again receive heat and spirits, 
 and all else requisite to its preservation — that, by return- 
 ing, it should be renovated and restored. 
 
 We frequently see how the extremities are chilled by 
 the external cold, how the nose and cheeks and hands look 
 blue, and how the blood, stagnating in them as in the 
 pendent or lower parts of a corpse, becomes of a dusky 
 hue ; the limbs at the same time getting torpid, so that 
 
 1 Aristoteles De Respiratione, lib. ii et iii : De Part. Animal, et alibi. 
 
HEART AM) BLOOD. 73 
 
 they can scarcely \»- moved, and Beem almosi to have losi 
 their vitality. Now they can by no humus be bo effec- 
 tually, and especially bo Bpeedily restored to heal and 
 colour and life, as by a new efflui and contacl of heal from 
 its source. Bui how can parts attract in which the heal 
 add life are almosi extinct? Or how Bhould they whose 
 
 passages are filled with condensed and frigid bl 1. admit 
 
 Eresh aliment— renovated blood — unless they had first L, r <>t 
 rid of their old contents? Unless the hear! were truly 
 that fountain where life ami heat arc restored to the refri- 
 gerated fluid, and whence new lilood, warm, imbued with 
 spirits, being senl out by the arteries, that which has become 
 cooled and effete is forced on, and all the particles recover 
 their heat which was failing, and their vital stimulus well- 
 nigh exhausted. 
 
 Hence it is that if the heart he unaffected, life and health 
 may he restored to almost all the other parts of the body ; 
 hut if the heart he chilled, or smitten with any serious 
 disease, it senns matter of necessity that the whole animal 
 fabric should suffer and fall into decay. When the source 
 is corrupted, there is nothing, as Aristotle says. 1 which 
 can he of service either to it or aught that depends <>n it. 
 And hence, by the way, it may perchance he why grief, 
 and love, and envy, and anxiety, and all affections of 
 the mind of a similar kind are accompanied with emacia- 
 tion and decay, or with disoi'dered fluids and crudity, 
 which engender all manner of diseases and consume the 
 body of man. For every affection of the mind that is 
 attended with either pain or pleasure, hope or fear, is the 
 cause of an agitation whose influence extends to the heart, 
 and there induces change from the natural constitution, in 
 the temperature, the pulse ami the rest, which impairing 
 all nutrition in its source and abating the powers at large, 
 it is no wonder that various forms of incurable disease in 
 the extremities and in the trunk are the consequence, 
 inasmuch as in such circumstances the whole body labours 
 under the effects of vitiated nutrition ami a want of native 
 
 heal. 
 
 Moreover, when we see that all animals live through 
 1 l)c Part. Animal, iii. 
 
74 MOTION OF THE 
 
 food digested in their interior, it is imperative that the 
 digestion and distribution be perfect; and, as a conse- 
 quence, that there be a place and receptacle where the 
 aliment is perfected and whence it is distributed to the 
 several members. Now this place is the heart, for it is 
 the only organ in the body which contains blood for the 
 general use ; all the others receive it merely for their pecu- 
 liar or private advantage, just as the heart also has a 
 supply for its own especial behoof in its coronary veins and 
 arteries. But it is of the store which the heart contains in 
 its auricles and ventricles that I here speak. Then the 
 heart is the only organ which is so situated and con- 
 stituted that it can distribute the blood in due proportion 
 to the several parts of the body, the quantity sent to each 
 being according to the dimensions of the artery which sup- 
 plies it, the heart serving as a magazine or fountain ready 
 to meet its demands. 
 
 Further, a certain impulse or force, as well as an im- 
 peller or forcer, such as the heart, was required to effect 
 this distribution and motion of the blood ; both because 
 the blood is disposed from slight causes, such as cold, 
 alarm, horror, and the like, to collect in its source, to con- 
 centrate like parts to a whole, or the drops of water 
 spilt upon a table to the mass of liquid; and because 
 it is forced from the capillary veins into the smaller rami- 
 fications, and from these into the larger trunks by the 
 motion of the extremities and the compression of the 
 muscles generally. The blood is thus more disposed to 
 move from the circumference to the centre than in the 
 opposite direction, even were there no valves to oppose its 
 motion ; wherefore, that it may leave its source and enter 
 more confined and colder channels, and flow against the 
 direction to which it spontaneously inclines, the blood re- 
 quires both force and an impelling power. Now such is 
 the heart and the heart alone, and that in the way and 
 manner already explained. 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. ~:, 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE CIRCULATION OF TIIK BLOOD IS FURTHER PROVED 
 FROM CERTAIN CONSEQUENCES. 
 
 Thi:ki: arc still certain problems, which, taken as conse- 
 quences of this truth assumed as proven, are nut without 
 their use in exciting belief , as it were, a posteriore ; and 
 which, although they may seem to be involved in ninth 
 doubt and obscurity, nevertheless readily admit of having 
 reasons and causes assigned for them. Of such a nature 
 are those thai present themselves in connexion with con- 
 tagious, poisoned wounds, the bites of serpents and rabid 
 animals, lues venerea and the like. We sometimes see 
 the whole system contaminated, though the part first 
 infected remains sound ; the lues venerea has occasionally 
 made its at lack with pains in the shoulders and head, and 
 other symptoms, the genital organs being all the while un- 
 a lb scte< 1 ; and then we know that the wound made by a rabid 
 dog having healed, fever and a train of disastrous symp- 
 toms may nevertheless supervene. Whence it appears that 
 the contagion impressed upon or deposited in a particular 
 part, is hy-and-by carried by the returning current of blood 
 to the heart, and by that organ is sent to contaminate the 
 whole body. 
 
 In tertian fever, the morbific cause seeking the heart in 
 the iivst instance, and hanging about the heart and lungs, 
 renders the patient short-winded, disposed to sighing, and 
 indisposed to exertion, because the vital principle is op- 
 pressed and the blood forced into the lungs and rendered 
 thick. It does not pass through them, (as I have myself 
 seen in opening the bodies of those who had died in the 
 beginning of the attack,) when the pulse is always frequent, 
 small, and occasionally irregular; bul the heat increasing, 
 the matter becoming attenuated, the passages forced, and 
 the transit made, the whole body begins to rise in tem- 
 perature, and the pulse becomes fuller and stronger. The 
 febrile paroxysm is fully formed, whilst the preternatural 
 
76 MOTION OF THE 
 
 heat kindled in the heart is thence diffused by the arteries 
 through the whole body along with the morbific matter, 
 which is in this way overcome and dissolved by nature. 
 
 When we perceive, further, that medicines applied ex- 
 ternally exert their influence on the body just as if they 
 had been taken internally, the truth we are contending for 
 is confirmed. Colocynth and aloes in this way move the 
 belly, cantharides excites the urine, garlic applied to the 
 soles of the feet assists expectoration, cordials strengthen, 
 and an infinite number of examples of the same kind 
 might be cited. Perhaps it will not, therefore, be found 
 unreasonable, if we say that the veins, by means of their 
 orifices, absorb some of the things that are applied ex- 
 ternally and carry this inwards with the blood, not other- 
 wise, it may be, than those of the mesentery imbibe the 
 chyle from the intestines and carry it mixed with the 
 blood to the liver. For the blood entering the mesentery 
 by the cceliac artery, and the superior and inferior mesen- 
 teries, proceeds to the intestines, from which, along with 
 the chyle that has been attracted into the veins, it returns 
 by their numerous ramifications into the vena portse of 
 the liver, and from this into the vena cava, and this in 
 such wise that the blood in these veins has the same colour 
 and consistency as in other veins, in opposition to what 
 many believe to be the fact- Nor indeed can we imagine 
 two contrary motions in any capillary system — the chyle 
 upwards, the blood downwards. This could scarcely take 
 place, and must be held as altogether improbable. But is 
 not the thing rather arranged as it is by the consummate 
 providence of nature ? For were the chyle mingled with 
 the blood, the crude with the digested, in equal propor- 
 tions, the result would not be concoction, transmutation, 
 and sanguification, but rather, and because they are 
 severally active and passive, a mixture or combination, or 
 medium compound of the two, precisely as happens when 
 wine is mixed with water and syrup. But when a very 
 minute quantity of chyle is mingled with a very large quan- 
 tity of circulating blood, a quantity of chyle that bears no 
 kind of proportion to the mass of blood, the effect is the 
 same, as Aristotle says, as when a drop of water is added 
 to a cask of wine, or the contrary; the mass does not then 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 77 
 
 presenl itself as a mixture, but is still Bensiblj either wine 
 ur wiitcr. S<> in the mesenteric reins of an animal we do 
 mil I'm i< I either chyme or chyle and blood, blended together 
 or distinct, bul only blood, the same in colour, consistency, 
 and other sensible properties, as L1 appears in the veins 
 generally. Still as there is a certain though sum 1 1 and inap- 
 preciable proporl ion <>t' chyleor incompletely digested matter 
 mingled with this blood, nature has interposed the liver, in 
 
 whose meandering ehannels it suiters delay and undergoes 
 additional change, lest arriving prematurely and crude at. 
 the heart, it should oppress the vital principle. Hence in 
 the embryo, there is almost no use tor the liver, but the 
 umbilical vein passes directly through, a foramen or anas- 
 tomosis existing from the vena, porta'. The blood returns 
 from the intestines of the foetus, not through the liver, 
 but into the umbilical vein mentioned, and flows at once 
 into the heart, mingled with the natural blood which is 
 returning from the placenta ; whence also it is that in the 
 development of the foetus the liver is one of the organs 
 that is last formed. I have observed all the members 
 perfectly marked out in the human betus, even the genital 
 organs, whilst there was yet scarcely any trace of the liver. 
 And indeed at the period when all the parts, like the heart 
 itself in the beginning, are still white, and except in the 
 veins there is no appearance of redness, you shall see 
 nothing in the seat of the liver but a shapeless collection, 
 as it were, of extravasated blood, which you might take 
 for the effects of a contusion or ruptured vein. 
 
 But in the incubated egg there are, as it were, two 
 umbilical vessels, one from the albumen passing entire 
 through the liver, and going straight to the heart; another 
 from the yelk, ending in the vena porta? ; for it appears 
 that the chick, in the first instance, is entirely formed and 
 nourished by the white; but by the yelk after it has come 
 to perfection and is excluded from the shell ; for this part 
 may still be found in the abdomen of the chick many days 
 after its exclusion, and is a substitute for the milk to other 
 animals. 
 
 But these matters will be better spoken of in my obser- 
 vations on the formation of the foetus, where many propo- 
 sitions, the following among the number, will be discussed: 
 
78 MOTION OF THE 
 
 Wherefore is this part formed or perfected first, that last, 
 and of the several members, what part is the cause of 
 another ? And there are many points having special re- 
 ference to the heart, such as wherefore does it first acquire 
 consistency, and appear to possess life, motion, sense, before 
 any other part of the body is perfected, as Aristotle says 
 in his third book, "De partibus Animalium" ? And so also 
 of the blood, wherefore does it precede all the rest ? And 
 in what way does it possess the vital and animal principle, 
 and show a tendency to motion, and to be impelled hither 
 and thither, the end for which the heart appears to be 
 made ? In the same way, in considering the pulse, why 
 should one kind of pulse indicate death, another recovery? 
 And so of all the other kinds of pulse, what may be the 
 cause and indication of each? Likewise we must consider 
 the reason of crises and natural critical discharges ; of 
 nutrition, and especially the distribution of the nutriment ; 
 and of defluxions of every description. Finally, reflecting 
 on every part of medicine, physiology, pathology, semeiotics, 
 and therapeutics, when I see how many questions can be an- 
 swered, how many doubts resolved, how much obscurity 
 illustrated by the truth we have declared, the light we 
 have made to shine, I see a field of such vast extent in 
 which I might proceed so far, and expatiate so widely, that 
 this my tractate would not only swell out into a volume, 
 which was beyond my purpose, but my whole life, perchance, 
 would not suffice for its completion. 
 
 In this place, therefore, and that indeed in a single 
 chapter, I shall only endeavour to refer the various parti- 
 culars that present themselves in the dissection of the 
 heart and arteries to their several uses and causes ; for so 
 I. shall meet with many things which receive light from 
 the truth I have been contending for, and which, in their 
 turn, render it more obvious. And indeed I would have it 
 confirmed and illustrated by anatomical arguments above 
 all others. 
 
 There is but a single point which indeed would be more 
 correctly placed among our observations on the use of the 
 spleen, but which it will not be altogether impertinent to 
 notice in this place incidentally. From the splenic branch 
 which passes into the pancreas, and from the upper part, 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 79 
 
 arise tin' posterior coronary, gastric, .nxl gastroepiploic 
 veins, all of which arc distributed upon the Btomach in 
 numerous branches and twigs, jusi as the mesenteric 
 vessels are upon the intestines, [n a similar way, from the 
 inferior pari of the Bame splenic branch, and along the 
 back of the colon and rectum proceed i li<* hemorrhoidal 
 veins. The blood returning by these reins, and bringing 
 the cruder juices alone- wilh it, on the one hand from the 
 Btomach, where thev are thin, watery, and not yet perfectly 
 chylified ; on the other thick and more earthy, as derived 
 from the fseces, but all poured into this splenic branch, 
 are dulv tempered by the admixture of contraries; and 
 nature mingling togel her these two kinds of juices, difficult 
 of coction by reason of most opposite defects, and then 
 diluting them with a large quantity of warm blood, (for 
 we see that the quantity returned from the spleen must 
 be very large when we contemplate the size of its arteries,) 
 they are brought to the porta of the liver in a state of 
 higher preparation. The defects of either extreme are 
 supplied and compensated by this arrangement of the 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE MOTION AND CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD ARE CON- 
 FIRMED FROM THE PARTICULARS APPARENT IN THE 
 STRUCTURE OF THE HEART, AND FROM THOSE THINGS 
 WHICH DISSECTION UNFOLDS. 
 
 I do not find the heart as a distinct and separate part in 
 all animals ; some, indeed, such as the zoophytes, have no 
 heart ; this is because these animals are coldest, of no 
 gnat bulk, of soft texture or of a certain uniform same- 
 ness or simplicity of structure ; among the number I may 
 instance grubs and earth-worms, and those that are en- 
 gendered of putrefaction and do not preserve their species. 
 These have no heart, as not requiring any impeller of 
 nourishment into the extreme parts ; for they have bodies 
 
80 MOTION OF THE 
 
 which are connate and homogeneous, and without limbs ; 
 so that by the contraction and relaxation of the whole 
 body they assume and expel, move and remove the aliment. 
 Oysters, 1 mussels, sponges, and the whole genus of zoophytes 
 or plant-animals have no heart ; for the whole body is 
 used as a heart, or the whole animal is a heart. In a 
 great number of animals, almost the whole tribe of insects, 2 
 we cannot see distinctly by reason of the smallness of the 
 body ; still in bees, flies, hornets, and the like, we can 
 perceive something pulsating with the help of a magnify- 
 ing-glass ; in pediculi, also, the same thing may be seen, 
 and as the body is transparent, the passage of the food 
 through the intestines, like a black spot or stain, may be 
 perceived by the aid of the same magnifying- glass. 
 
 But in some of the pale blooded and colder animals, as in 
 snails, whelks, shrimps, and shell-fish, there is a part which 
 pulsates — a kind of vesicle or auricle without a heart — 
 slowly indeed, and not to be perceived except in the warmer 
 season of the year. In these creatures this part is so con- 
 trived that it shall pulsate, as there is here a necessity for 
 some impulse to distribute the nutritive fluid, by reason 
 of the variety of organic parts, or of the density of the 
 substance; but the pulsations occur unfrequently, and 
 sometimes in consequence of the cold not at all, an arrange- 
 ment the best adapted to them as being of a doubtful 
 nature, so that sometimes they appear to live, sometimes 
 to die ; sometimes they show the vitality of an animal, 
 sometimes of a vegetable. This seems also to be the case 
 with the insects which conceal themselves in winter, and 
 lie, as it were, defunct, or merely manifesting a kind of 
 vegetative existence. But whether the same thing happens 
 in the case of certain animals that have red blood, such as 
 frogs, tortoises, serpents, swallows, may be very properly 
 doubted. 
 
 1 [Oysters and mussels are structurally much more complex than 
 Harvey believed. In both a distinct heart is to be found. — Ed.] 
 
 2 [It is now known that insects have a rudimentary heart in the form 
 of a long contractile cavity, styled the " dorsal vessel." It is usually 
 composed of eight sacs which open into one another by means of 
 valvular apertures allowing the current of blood to flow in one direction 
 only, towards the head. — Ed.] 
 
HEART A M> BLOOD. 81 
 
 In .ill the larger and warmer animals which bare red 
 blood, there was need <>!' an impeller of the nutritive fluid, 
 ami that perchance possessing a considerable amount 
 of power. In fishes, serpents, lizards, tortoises, frogs, ami 
 others <>f the same kind there is a, heart present, furnished 
 with both an auricle anil a ventricle, whence i< is perfectly 
 true, as Aristotle lias observed, 1 that no sanguineous 
 animal is without a heart, b\ the im j .« -1 ling power of which 
 the nutritive fluid is forced, l>oth with irn at cr vigour and 
 rapidity to a greater distance ; and not merely agitated by 
 an auricle as it is in lower forms. And then in regard to 
 animals t hat are vet larger, warmer, and more perfect, as 
 they abound in Mood, which is always hotter and more 
 spirituous, and which possess bodies of greater size and con- 
 sistency, these require a larger, stronger, and more fleshy 
 heart, in order that the nutritive fluid may be propelled. 
 with yet greater force and celerity. And further, inas- 
 much as the more perfect animals require a still more 
 perfect nutrition, and a larger supply of native heat, in 
 order that the aliment may be thoroughly concocted and 
 acquire the last degree of perfection, they required both 
 lungs and a second ventricle, which should force the nutri- 
 tive fluid through them. 
 
 Every animal that has lungs has therefore two ventricles 
 to its heart, one right, the other left; and wherever there is 
 a right, there also is there a left ventricle; but the con- 
 trary of this does not hold good : where there is a left there 
 is not always a right ventricle. The left ventricle I call 
 that which is distinct in office, not in place from the other, 
 that one namely which distributes the blood to the body at 
 large, not to the lungs only. Hence the left ventricle seems 
 to form the principle part of the heart; situated in the 
 middle, more strongly marked, and constructed with 
 greater care, the heart seems formed for the sake of the 
 left, ventricle, and the right but to minister to it. The 
 right neither reaches to the apex of the heart, nor is it 
 marly of such strength, being three times thinner in its 
 walls, and in some sort jointed on to the left, (as Aristotle 
 says;) though indeed it is of greater capacity, inasmuch as 
 
 1 De Fart. Animal, lib. iii. 
 G 
 
82 MOTION OF THE 
 
 it has not only to supply material to the left ventricle, but 
 likewise to furnish aliment to the lungs. 
 
 It is to be observed, however, that all this is otherwise 
 in the embryo, where there is not such a difference be- 
 tween the two ventricles. There, as in a double nut, they 
 are nearly equal in all respects, the apex of the right reach- 
 ing to the apex of the left, so that the heart presents itself 
 as a sort of double-pointed cone. And this is so, because 
 in the fcetus, as already said, whilst the blood is not 
 passing through the lungs from the right to the left 
 cavities of the heart, it flows by the foramen ovale and 
 ductus arteriosus, directly from the vena cava into the 
 aorta, whence it is distributed to the whole body. Both 
 ventricles have therefore the same office to perform, whence 
 their equality of constitution. It is only when the lungs 
 come to be used, and it is requisite that the passages indi- 
 cated should be blocked up, that the difference in point 
 of strength and other things between the two ventricles 
 begins to be apparent. In the altered circumstances the 
 right has only to drive the blood through the lungs, whilst 
 the left has to propel it through the whole body. 
 
 There are moreover within the heart numerous braces, in 
 the form of fleshy columns andfibrous bands, which Aristotle, 
 in his third book on Respiration, and the Parts of Animals, 
 entitles nerves. These are variously extended, and are 
 either distinct or contained in grooves in the walls and par- 
 tition, where they occasion numerous pits or depressions. 
 They constitute a kind of small muscles, which are super- 
 added and supplementary to the heart, assisting it to execute 
 a more powerful and perfect contraction, and so proving 
 subservient to the complete expulsion of the blood. They 
 are in some sort like the elaborate and artful arrangement 
 of ropes in a ship, bracing the heart on every side as it 
 contracts, and so enabling it more effectually and forcibly 
 to expel the charge of blood from its ventricles. This 
 much is plain, at all events, that in some animals they are 
 less strongly marked than in others ; and, in all that have 
 them, they are more numerous and stronger in the left 
 than in the right ventricle ; and while some have them 
 present in the left, yet they are absent in the right ventricle. 
 In man they are more numerous in the left than in the 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 
 
 righl ventricle, more abundant in the ventricles than in 
 the auricles; and occasionally, there appear to be none 
 presenl in the auricles. They are numerous in the large, 
 more muscular and tardier bodies <>t' countrymen, l>nt 
 fewer in more slender frames and in females. 
 
 In thus.' animals in which the ventricles of the heart are 
 smooth within, and entirely without fibres or muscular 
 bands, or anything like hollow pits, as in almost all the 
 smaller birds, t he partridge and the common fowl, serpents, 
 frogs, tortoises, and most fishes, there are no chords ten- 
 dinea\ nor hum lies of fibres, neither are there any tricusj .ii 1 
 rail es in the ventricles. 
 
 Some animals have the right ventricle smooth internally, 
 hnt the left provided with fihrous bands, such as the goose, 
 swan, and larger birds ; and the reason is the same here 
 as elsewhere. As the lungs are Bpongy, and loose, and soft, 
 no great amount of force is required to force the blood 
 through them, therefore the righl ventricle is either without 
 the bundles in question, or they are fewer and weaker, and 
 not so fleshy or like muscles. Those of the left ventricle, 
 however, are both stronger and more uumerous, more 
 fleshy and muscular, because the left ventricle requires to 
 be stronger, inasmuch as the blood which it propels has to 
 he driven through the whole body. And this, too, is the 
 reason why the left ventricle occupies the middle of the 
 heart, and has parieties three times thicker and stronger 
 than those of the right. Hence all animals — and among 
 men it is similar — that are endowed with particularly 
 Strong frames, and with large and fleshy limbs at a great 
 distance from the heart, have this central organ of greater 
 thickness, strength, and muscularity. This is manifest 
 and necessary. Those, on the contrary, that are of softer 
 and more slender make have the heart more flaccid, softer, 
 and internally either less or not at all fibrous. Con- 
 sider farther the use of the several valves, which are all so 
 arranged, that the blood once received into the ventricles of 
 the heart shall never regurgitate, once forced into the pul- 
 monary artery and aorta shall not flow hack upon the ven- 
 tricles. When the valves are raised and broughl together 
 they form a three-cornered line, such as is loft by the bite 
 of a leech ; and the more they are forced, the more firmly 
 
84 MOTION OF THE 
 
 do they oppose the passage of the blood. The tricuspid 
 valves are placed, like gate-keepers, at the entrance into 
 the ventricles from the venae cavae and pulmonary veins, 
 lest the blood when most forcibly impelled should flow 
 back. It is for this reason that they are not found in 
 all animals, nor do they appear to have been constructed 
 with equal care in all the animals in which they are 
 found. In some they are more accurately fitted, in others 
 more remissly or carelessly contrived, and always with 
 a view to their being closed under a greater or a slighter 
 force of the ventricle. In the left ventricle, therefore, in 
 order that the occlusion may be the more perfect against the 
 greater impulse, there are only two valves, like a mitre, 
 and produced into an elongated cone, so that they come 
 together and touch to their middle ; a circumstance which 
 perhaps led Aristotle into the error of supposing this ven- 
 tricle to be double, the division taking place transversely. 
 For the same reason, and that the blood may not regurgi- 
 tate upon the pulmonary veins, and thus the force of the 
 ventricle in propelling the blood through the system at 
 large come to be neutralized, it is that these mitral valves 
 excel those of the right ventricle in size and strength, and 
 exactness of closing. Hence, it is essential that there can 
 be no heart without a ventricle, since this must be the 
 source and storehouse of the blood. The same law does 
 not hold good in reference to the brain. For almost no 
 genus of birds has a ventricle in the brain, as is obvious 
 in the goose and swan, the brains of which nearly equal 
 that of a rabbit in size ; now rabbits have ventricles in the 
 brain, whilst the goose has none. In like manner, where- 
 ever the heart has a single ventricle, there is an auricle 
 appended, flaccid, membranous, hollow, filled with blood ; 
 and where there are two ventricles, there are likewise two 
 auricles. On the other hand, some animals have an auricle 
 without any ventricle ; or at all events they have a sac 
 analogous to an auricle ; or the vein itself, dilated at a 
 particular part, performs pulsations, as is seen in hornets, 
 bees, and other insects, which certain experiments of my 
 own enable me to demonstrate have not only a pulse, but 
 a respiration in that part which is called the tail, whence 
 it is that this part is elongated and contracted now more 
 
HEART AND BLOOD. 85 
 
 rarely, now more frequently, as the creature appears to be 
 blown and to require a larger quantify of air. Bui of these 
 
 things, more in our Treatis Respiration. 
 
 Ii is in like manner evident thai the auricles pulsate, 
 contract, as 1 have Baid before, and throw the blood into 
 the ventricles; so that wherever there is a ventricle an 
 auricle is necessary, nol merely thai ii may serve, according 
 to the genera] belief, as a source and magazine for the 
 
 blood : for what were the use of its pulsations lia<l it Only 
 to contain? The auricles arc prime movers of the blood, 
 especially the righl auricle, which, as already Baid, is "the 
 first to live, tin' last to die;" whence they are subservient 
 to sending the blood into the ventricles, which, contracting 
 continuously, more readily and forcibly expel the blood 
 already in motion; just as the ball-player can strike the 
 ball more forcibly and further if he takes it on the rebound 
 than if he simply threw it. Moreover, and contrary to the 
 general opinion, neither the heart nor anything else can 
 dilate or distend itself so as to draw anything into its cavity 
 during the diastole, unless, like a sponge, it has been first 
 compressed, and is returning to its primary condition. But 
 in animals all local motion proceeds from, and has its origin 
 in the contraction of some part: consequently it is by the 
 contraction of the auricles that the blood is thrown into 
 the ventricles, as I have already shown, and from there, 
 by the contraction of the ventricles, it is propelled and 
 distributed. Concerning local motions, it is true that the 
 immediate moving organ in every motion of an animal 
 primarily endowed with a motive spirit (as Aristotle has 
 it,') is contractile; in which way the word vtvpov is derived 
 from vtvw, nuto, contraho; and if I am permitted to pro- 
 
 1 in my purpose of making a particular demonstration 
 
 of the organs of motion in animals from observations in my 
 possession, I trust I shall be able to make sufficiently plain 
 how Aristotle was acquainted with the muscles, and ad- 
 visedly referred all motion in animals to the nerves, or to 
 the contractile clement, and therefore called those little 
 bands in the heart nerves. 
 
 But that we may proceed with the subject which we have 
 
 1 In the book, <le Spiritu, and elsewhere. 
 
MOTION OF THE 
 
 iii hand, viz., the use of the auricles in filling the ventricles, 
 we should expect that the more dense and compact the 
 heart, the thicker its parieties, the stronger and more mus- 
 cular must be the auricle to force and fill it, and vice versa. 
 Now this is actually so : in some the auricle presents itself 
 as a sanguinolent vesicle, as a thin membrane containing 
 blood, as in fishes, in which the sac that stands in lieu of the 
 auricle, is of such delicacy and ample capacity, that it seems 
 to be suspended or to float above the heart. In those fishes 
 in which the sac is somewhat more fleshy, as in the carp, 
 barbel, tench, and others, it bears a wonderful and strong 
 resemblance to the lungs. 
 
 In some men of sturdier frame and stouter make, the 
 right auricle is so strong, and so curiously constructed 
 on its inner surface of bands and variously interlacing 
 fibres, that it seems to equal in strength the ventricle of 
 the heart in other subjects ; and I must say that I am 
 astonished to find such diversity in this particular in 
 differeat individuals. It is to be observed, however, that 
 in the foetus the auricles are out of all proportion large, 
 which is because they are present before the heart ] makes 
 its appearance or suffices for its office even when it has 
 appeared, and they therefore have, as it were, the duty of 
 the whole heart committed to them, as has already been 
 demonstrated. But what I have observed in the forma- 
 tion of the foetus as before remarked (and Aristotle had 
 already confirmed all in studying the incubated egg,) throws 
 the greatest light and likelihood upon the point. Whilst 
 the f cetus is yet in the form of a soft worm, or, as is com- 
 monly said, in the milk, there is a mere bloody point or 
 pulsating vesicle, a portion apparently of the umbilical vein, 
 dilated at its commencement or base. Afterwards, when 
 the outline of the foetus is distinctly indicated, and it begins 
 to have greater bodily consistence, the vesicle in question 
 becomes more fleshy and stronger, changes its position, 
 and passes into the auricles, above which the body of the 
 heart begins to sprout, though as yet it apparently per- 
 forms no office. When the foetus is farther advanced, 
 when the bones can be distinguished from the fleshy parts, 
 
 1 [The ventricles. — Ed.] 
 
HEART AM> BLOOD. 87 
 
 and movements take place, then it also has a bear! which 
 pulsates, and, as I have said, throws blood by either ventricle 
 
 Erom tli«' vena cava into tin- arteries. 
 
 Thus nature, ever perfect and divine, doing nothing in 
 
 vain, has neither given ii heart where it was not required, 
 nor produced it before its office had heroine necessan ; hut 
 by the same Btages ill t he development of every animal, 
 passing through the forms of all, as I may say (ovum, 
 worm, lotus), it acquires perfection in each. These points 
 will he found elsewhere confirmed by numerous observations 
 on the formation of the foetus. 
 
 Finally, it is not without good grounds that Hippocrates, 
 in his book, De Corde, entitles it a muscle; its action is 
 the same, so is its function, viz., to contract and move 
 something else, in this case, the charge of hlood. 
 
 Farther, Ave can infer the action and use of the heart 
 from the arrangemenl of its fibres and its general structure 
 as in muscles generally. All anatomists admit with Galen 
 that the body of the heart is made up of various courses of 
 fibres running straight, obliquely, and transversely, with 
 reference to one another; but in a heart which has been 
 boiled the arrangement of the fibres is seen to be different. 
 All the fibres in the parietes and septum are circular, as in 
 the sphincters ; those, again, which are in the columns 
 extend Lengthwise, and are oblique longitudinally; and so 
 it comes to pass, that when all the fibres contract simul- 
 taneously, the apex of the cone is pulled towards its base 
 by the columns, the walls are drawn circularly together 
 into a globe, the whole heart in short is contracted, and 
 the ventricles narrowed. It is therefore impossible not 
 to perceive that, as the action of the organ is so plainly 
 contraction, its function is to propel the blood into the 
 arteries. 
 
 Nor are we the less to agree with Aristotle in regard to 
 the importance of the heart, or to question if it receives 
 sense and motion from the brain, blood from the liver, or 
 whether it be the origin of the veins and of the blood, and 
 such like. They who affirm these propositions, overlook, 
 or do not rightly understand the principal argument, to the 
 effect that the heart is the first part which exists, and that 
 it contains within itself blood, life, sensation, and motion, 
 
MOTION OF THE 
 
 before either the brain or the liver were created or had 
 appeared distinctly, or, at all events, before they could 
 perform any function. The heart, ready furnished with 
 its proper organs of motion, like a kind of internal crea- 
 ture, existed before the body. The first to be formed, 
 nature willed that it should afterwards fashion, nourish, 
 preserve, complete the entire animal, as its work and 
 dwelling-place : and as the prince in a kingdom, in whose 
 hands lie the chief and highest authority, rules over all, 
 the heart is the source and foundation from which all 
 power is derived, on which all power depends in the animal 
 body. 
 
 Many things having reference to the arteries farther 
 illustrate and confirm this truth. Why does not the pul- 
 monary vein pulsate, seeing that it is numbered among 
 the arteries ? Or wherefore is there a pulse in the pulmo- 
 nary artery ? Because the pulse of the arteries is derived 
 from the impulse of the blood. Why does an artery differ 
 so much from a vein in the thickness and strength of its 
 coats? Because it sustains the shock of the impelling 
 heart and streaming blood. Hence, as perfect nature does 
 nothing in vain, and suffices under all circumstances, we 
 find that the nearer the arteries are to the heart, the more 
 do they differ from the veins in structure ; here they are 
 both stronger and more ligamentous, whilst in extreme 
 parts of the body, such as the feet and hands, the brain, 
 the mesentery, and the testicles, the two orders of vessels 
 are so much alike that it is impossible to distinguish 
 between them with the eye. Now this is for the following 
 very sufficient reasons: the more remote the vessels are 
 from the heart, with so much the less force are they dis- 
 tended by the stroke of the heart, which is broken by the 
 great distance at which it is given. Add to this, that the 
 impulse of the heart exerted upon the mass of blood, 
 which must needs fill the trunks and branches of the 
 arteries, is diverted, divided, as it were, and diminished at 
 every subdivision, so that the ultimate capillary divisions 
 of the arteries look like veins, and this not merely in con- 
 stitution but in function. They have either no perceptible 
 pulse, or they rarely exhibit one, and never except where the 
 heart beats more violently than usual, or at a part where 
 
HEART txn BLOOD. 
 
 the minute vessel is more dilated or open than elsewhere. 
 It therefore happens thai a1 times we are aware of a pulse 
 in the teeth, in inflammatory I amours; and in the fingers ; 
 :,i another time we Eeel aotmngof the Bort. By this single 
 Bymptom I bave ascertained Eor certain thai youngpersons, 
 whose pulses are naturally rapid, were labouring under 
 Eever; and in like manner, on compressing the angers in 
 youthful and delicate subjects during a febrile paroxysm, 
 'l have readily perceived the pulse there. On the other 
 
 hand, when the hearl pulsates more languidly, it is often 
 impossible to Eeel the pulse not merely in the fingers, but 
 the wrist, and even at the temple, as in persons afllicted 
 with lipotlivmiie asphyxia, or hysterical symptoms, and in 
 t he debilitated and moribund. 
 
 Here surgeons are to be advised that, when the blood 
 escapes with force in the amputation of limbs, in the 
 removal of tumours, and in wounds, it constantly comes 
 from an artery ; not always indeed per saltum, because 
 the smaller arteries do not pulsate, especially if a tourni- 
 quet has been applied. 
 
 For the same reason the pulmonary artery not only has 
 the structure of an artery, but it does not differ so widely 
 from the veins in the thickness of its walls as does the 
 aorta. The aorta sustains a more powerful shock from 
 the left than the pulmonary artery does from the right 
 ventricle, and the walls of this last vessel are thinner and 
 softer than those of the aorta in the same proportion as the 
 walls of the right ventricle of the heart are weaker and 
 thinner than those of the left ventricle. In like manner, 
 the Lungs are softer and laser in structure than the flesh 
 and other constituents of the body, and in a similar way the 
 walls of the branches of the pulmonary artery differ from 
 those of the vessels derived from the aorta. And the same 
 proportion in these particulars is universally preserved. 
 The more muscular and powerful men are, the firmer their 
 flesh; the stronger, thicker, denser, and more fibrous their 
 hearts, the thicker, closer, and stronger are the auricles and 
 arteries. Again, in those animals the ventricles of whose 
 hearts are smooth (in their inner surface, without, villi 
 or valves, and the walls of which are thin, as in fishes, 
 serpents, birds, and very many genera of animals, the 
 
90 MOTION OF THE HEART AND BLOOD. 
 
 arteries differ little or nothing in the thickness of their 
 coats from the veins. 
 
 Moreover, the reason why the lungs have such ample 
 vessels, both arteries and veins, (for the capacity of the 
 pulmonary veins exceeds that of both the crural and 
 jugular vessels,) and why they contain so large a quantity 
 of blood, as by experience and ocular inspection we know 
 they do, admonished of the fact indeed by Aristotle, and 
 not led into error by the appearances found in animals 
 which have been bled to death, — is, because the blood has 
 its fountain, and storehouse, and the workshop of its last 
 perfection in the heart and lungs. Why, in the same way 
 we find in the course of our anatomical dissections the 
 pulmonary vein and left ventricle so full of blood, of the 
 same black colour and clotted character as that with which 
 the right ventricle and pulmonary artery are filled, is be- 
 cause the blood is incessantly passing from one side of the 
 heart to the other through the lungs. Wherefore, in fine, the 
 pulmonary artery has the structure of an artery, and the 
 pulmonary veins have the structure of veins. In function 
 and constitution, and everything else, the first is an 
 artery, the others are veins, contrary to what is commonly 
 believed ; and the reason why the pulmonary artery has so 
 large an orifice, is because it transports much more blood 
 than is requisite for the nutrition of the lungs. 
 
 All these appearances, and many others, to be noted in 
 the course of dissection, if rightly weighed, seem clearly to 
 illustrate and fully to confirm the truth contended for 
 throughout these pages, and at the same time to oppose 
 the vulgar opinion ; for it would be very difficult to ex- 
 plain in any other way to what purpose all is constructed 
 and arranged as we have seen it to be. 
 
AN ANATOMICAL DISQUISITION 
 
 ON THE 
 
 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 TO 
 
 JOHN RIOLAN, Jun., of Paris; 
 
 MOST SKII.Fl'L I'M YSH'IAX ; THE CORYPH.-EUS OF ANATOMISTS; REGIUS 
 PROFBSSOB OF ANATOMY AM) BOTANY I.N T11K UNTVEBSITY OF 1'AKIS; 
 DEAN OF THK SAME UNIVERSITY i AND FIRST PHYSICIAN To 
 THE QUEEN, MOTHEB OF LOUIS XIII. 
 
 BY WILLIAM HARVEY, AN ENGLISHMAN, 
 
 PBOFBSSOB OF ANATOMY AM' 8UBGBBY IX THK ROYAL COLLEGE 01 
 
 PHYSICIANS OF LOXDOX ; AX1> PRINCIPAL PHYSICIAN TO 
 
 11 [S MOST SERENE MAJESTY THK KING. 
 
 Cambridge, 1649. 
 
THE P] l.'ST A NAT* >MICAL DISQUISITION ON THE 
 
 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD, ADDRESSED 
 
 TO JO. RIOLAN. 
 
 Somk few months ago (hero appeared a sma.ll anatomical 
 and pathological work from the pen of the celebrated 
 
 Kiolanus, for w hich, as sent to mo by the ant hop himself, 
 
 I return him my grateful thanks. 1 I also congratulate 
 this author on the highly laudable undertaking in which 
 
 he lias engaged. To demonstrate the scats of all diseases 
 is a task thai can only be achieved under favour of the 
 highest abilities ; for surely he enters on a difficult pro- 
 vince who proposes to bring under the cognizance of the 
 eyes those diseases which almost escape the keenest under- 
 standing. But such efforts become the prince of anato- 
 mists; for there is no science which does not spring from 
 pre-existing knowledge, and no certain and definite 
 idea which has not derived its origin from the senses. 
 Induced, therefore, by the subject itself, and the example 
 of so distinguished an individual, which makes me think- 
 lightly of the labour, I also intend putting to press my 
 Medical Anatomy, or Anatomy in its Application to Medi- 
 cine. Not with the purpose, like Riolanus, of indicating 
 the seats of diseases from the bodies of healthy subjects, 
 and discussing the several diseases that make their appear- 
 ance there, according to the views which others have enter- 
 tained of them; but that I may relate from the many 
 dissections I have made of the bodies of persons diseased, 
 worn out by serious and strange affections, how and in 
 what way the internal organs wen 1 changed in their situa- 
 tion, Bize, structure, figure, consistency, and other sensible 
 qualities, from their natural forms and appearances, such 
 ;is they are usually described by anatomists; and in what 
 
 1 Eiicheiridium Anatomicum ot l'athologicum. 12mo. Par isiis, 1648. 
 
94 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 various and remarkable ways they were affected. For 
 even as the dissection of healthy and well-constituted 
 bodies contributes essentially to the advancement of phi- 
 losophy and sound physiology, so does the inspection of 
 diseased and cachectic subjects powerfully assist philoso- 
 phical pathology. And, indeed, the physiological consi- 
 deration of the things which are according to nature is to 
 be first undertaken by medical men ; since that which is 
 in conformity with nature is right, and serves as a rule 
 both to itself and to that which is amiss, and by the light 
 it sheds, errors and preternatural affections are defined. 
 Pathology then stands out more clearly, and from 
 pathology the use and art of healing, as well as occasions 
 for the discovery of many new remedies, occur. Nor could 
 anyone readily imagine how extensively internal organs are 
 altered in diseases, especially chronic diseases, and what 
 monstrosities among internal parts these diseases engen- 
 der. So that I venture to say that the examination of a 
 single body of one who has died of tabes or some other 
 disease of long standing, or of a poisonous nature, is of 
 more service to medicine than the dissection of the bodies 
 of ten men who have been hanged. 
 
 I would not have it supposed by this that I in any way 
 disapprove of the purpose of Eiolanus, that learned and 
 skilful anatomist. On the contrary, I think it deserving of 
 the highest praise, as likely to be extremely useful to 
 medicine, inasmuch as it illustrates the physiological 
 branch of this science. But I have thought that it would 
 scarcely turn out less profitable to the art of healing, did 
 I place before the eyes of my readers not only the places, 
 but the affections of these places, illustrating them as I 
 proceed with observations, and recording the results of my 
 experience derived from my numerous dissections. 
 
 But it is imperative on me first to dispose of those obser- 
 vations contained in the work referred to, which bear upon 
 the circulation of the blood as discovered by me, and which 
 seem to require especial notice at my hands. For the 
 judgment of such a man, who is indeed the prince and 
 leader of all the anatomists of the present age, is not 
 to be lightly esteemed in this matter, but is rather to be 
 held of greater weight and authority, either for praise or 
 
cincriiiiox or nil-: ru.no/>. >,>:, 
 
 blame, than the commendations or censure of al] the world 
 
 besides. 
 
 Kiolanns, then, in Knehiridiou, book iii. chapter 8, 
 admits our motion of the blood in animals, and mils in 
 with our conclusions in regard to the circulation ; ye1 qoI 
 entirely and avowedly] Eor he Bays, in the second 1 »< >< >1< . 
 chapter twenty-one, thai the blood contained in the vena 
 porta 1 docs in >1 circulate like thai in the \ena cava ; and in 
 the third book, chapter eight, he states thai there is sum.' 
 blood which circulates, and thai the circulatory vessels are 
 the aorta and vena cava ; hut ihen he denies that the con- 
 tinuations of these trunks have any circulation, " because 
 the blood is effused into all the parts of the second and 
 third regions, where il remains for purposes of nutrition, 
 nor does it return to any greater vessels, unless forcibly 
 drawn back when there is a great lack of Mood in the 
 greater vessels, or driven by a fit of passion when it flows 
 to the greater circulatory vessels;" and shortly afterwards : 
 "thus, as the blood of the veins naturally ascends inces- 
 santly or returns to the heart, the blood of the arteries 
 descends or departs from the heart. Still, if the smaller 
 veins of the arms and legs be empty, the blood filling the 
 empty channels in succession, may descend in the veins, as I 
 have clearly shown," he says, "against Harvey and Walseus." 
 And as the authority of Galen and daily experience con- 
 firm the anastomoses of the veins and arteries, and the 
 necessity of the circulation of the blood, "you perceive," he 
 continues, " the manner in which the circulation is effected, 
 without perturbation or confusion of fluids and the destruc- 
 tion of the ancient system of medicine." 
 
 These words explain the motives by which this illus- 
 trious anatomist was actuated when he was led partly to 
 admit, partly to deny the circulation of the blood; and 
 why he only ventures on an undecided and inconclusive 
 opinion of the subject. His fear is lest it destroy (he 
 ancient medicine. He does not yield implicitly to the 
 truth, which it appears he could not help seeing, but 
 rather guided by caution, he feai's speaking plainly out, 
 lest he offend the ancienl physic, or perhaps seem to retract 
 the physiological doctrines he supports in his Anthro- 
 pology. The circulation of the blood does not shake, but 
 
96 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 much rather confirms the ancient medicine ; though it runs 
 counter to the physiology of physicians, and their specula- 
 tions upon natural subjects, and opposes the anatomical 
 doctrine of the use and action of the heart and lungs, and 
 rest of the viscera. That this is so shall readily be made 
 to appear, both from his own words and avowal, and 
 partly also from what I shall supply ; viz., that the whole 
 of the blood, wherever it be in the living body, moves and 
 changes its place, not merely that which is in the larger 
 vessels and their continuations, but that also which is in 
 their minute subdivisions, and which is contained in the 
 porosities of every part ; that it flows from and bach to 
 the heart ceaselessly and without pause, and could not 
 pause for ever so short a time without detriment, although 
 I admit that occasionally, and in some places, its motion is 
 quicker or slower. 1 
 
 In the first place, then," our learned anatomist only denies 
 that the contents of the branches in continuation of the 
 vena portse circulate ; but he could neither oppose nor 
 deny this, did he not conceal from himself the force of his 
 own arguments ; for he says in his Third Booh, chap, viii., 
 "If the heart at each pulsation admits a drop of blood 
 which it throws into the aorta, and in the course of an 
 hour makes two thousand beats, it is a necessary conse- 
 quence that the quantity of blood transmitted must be 
 great." He is farther forced to admit as much in reference 
 to the mesentery, when he sees that far more than single 
 drops of blood are sent into the cceliac and mesenteric 
 arteries at each pulsation ; so that there must either be 
 some outlet for the fluid, of magnitude commensurate 
 with its quantity, or the branches of the vena portae must 
 give way. Nor can the explanation that is had recourse 
 to with a view of meeting the difficulty, viz., that the 
 blood of the mesentery ebbs and flows by the same chan- 
 nels, after the manner of Euripus, be received, as either 
 probable or possible. Neither can the reflux from the 
 mesentery be effected by those ways and that system of 
 translation, by which he will have it to disgorge itself into 
 the aorta ; this were against the force of the existing cur- 
 
 1 Vide chapter iii. 
 
ci iter i. 1 1 at v OF I in: BLOOD. !>7 
 
 rent, \<\ a contrary motion; nor can anything like pause 
 or alternation be admitted, where there is very certainlj 
 an incessanl influx: the blood soil into the mesentery 
 must as inevitably go elsewhere as thai which is poured 
 into the beart. This is obvious; were if otherwise, in- 
 deed, everything like a circulation might be overturned 
 upon the same argumenl and by the same subterfuge ; it 
 mighl just as well lie said that the blood contained in the 
 Ici'i ventricle of the heart is pro] >cl led into the aorta during 
 the systole, and Hows hack to it during t lie diastole, the 
 aorta disgorging itself into the ventricle, precisely as the 
 ventricle has disgorged itself into the aorta. There would 
 thus be circulation neither in the heart nor in the mesen- 
 tery, but an alternate llux and reflux, — a useless labour, as 
 it seems. If, therefore, and for the reason assigned and 
 approved by him, a circulation through the heart be argued 
 for as a thing necessary, the argument has precisely the 
 same force when applied to the mesentery: if there be no 
 circulation in the mesentery, neither is there any in the 
 heart ; for both affirmations, this in reference to the heart, 
 that in reference to the mesentery, merely changing the 
 words, stand or fall together, by force of the very same 
 arguments. 
 
 He says : " The sigmoid valves prevent regurgitation 
 into the heart ; but there are no valves in the mesentery." 
 To this I reply, that this is not true ; for there is a valve 
 in the splenic vein, and sometimes also in other veins. 
 And besides, valves are not met with universally in veins ; 
 there are few or none in the deep-seated veins of the 
 extremities, but many in the subcutaneous branches. For 
 where the blood is flowing naturally from smaller into 
 greater branches, into which it is disposed to enter, the 
 pressure of the surrounding muscles is enough, and more 
 than enough to prevent all retrograde movement, and it is 
 forced on where the way lies open ; in such circumstances, 
 what use were there for valves? But the quantity of 
 blood that is forced into the mesentery by each stroke of 
 the heart, may be estimated in the same way as you 
 estimate the quantity impelled into the hand when you 
 bind a ligature with medium tightness about the wrist : if 
 in so many beats the vessels of the baud become distended, 
 
 li 
 
93 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 and the whole extremity swells, you will find, that much 
 more than a single drop of blood has entered with each 
 pulse, and which cannot return, bat must remain to fill 
 the hand and increase its size. Analogy permits us to 
 say, that the same thing takes place in reference to the 
 mesentery and its vessels, in an equal degree at least, if 
 not in a greater degree, seeing that the vessels of the 
 mesentery are considerably larger than those of the wrist. 
 And if anyone will but think on the difficulty that is 
 experienced with all the aid supplied by compresses, liga- 
 tures, and a multiplied apparatus, in restraining the flow 
 of blood from the smallest artery when wounded, with 
 what force it overcomes all obstacles and soaks through 
 the whole apparatus, he will scarcely, I imagine, think it 
 likely that there can be any retrograde motion against 
 such an impulse and influx of blood, any retrograde force 
 to meet and overcome a direct force of such power. Turn- 
 ing over these things in his mind, I say, no one will ever 
 be brought to believe that the blood from the branches of 
 the vena porta3 can possibly make its way by the same 
 channels against an influx by the artery of such impetuosity 
 and force, and so unload the mesentery. 
 
 Moreover, if the learned anatomist does not think that 
 the blood is moved and changed by a circular motion, but 
 that the same fluid always stagnates in the channels of 
 the mesentery, he appears to suppose that there are two 
 descriptions [of blood, serving different uses and ends ; 
 that the blood of the vena portse, and that of the vena 
 cava are dissimilar in constitution, seeing that the one 
 requires a circulation for its preservation, the other requires 
 nothing of the kind ; which neither appears on the face of 
 the thing, nor is its truth demonstrated by him. Our 
 author then refers to Enchiridion, book ii. chapter 18, 
 where " A fourth order of mesenteric vessels, the lacteal 
 vessels, discovered by Asellius," is mentioned, and seems 
 to infer that they extract all the nutriment from the 
 intestines, and transfer this to the liver, the workshop 
 of the blood, whence, having been concocted and changed 
 into blood, (so he says in his third book, chapter the 8th), 
 " the blood is transferred from the liver to the right 
 ventricle of the heart," " Which things premised," he con- 
 
CIRCULATION 01 THE BLOOD. -.ei 
 
 tin lies, 1 "all i li<' <liili< 'nit ics which were formerly experienced 
 in regard to the distribution of the chyle and blood bj 
 the same channel cease; Eor the lacteal veins earn the 
 chyle to the liver, and as these canals are distinct, bo maj 
 they be severally obstructed.' 1 Bu1 truly 1 would here 
 
 ask: how lliis milky fluid can DC DOUred into and pass 
 through the liver, and how from thence gain the vena cava 
 and the ventricle of the heart: when our author denies 
 thai the Mood of the vena porta? passes through the liver, 
 and that so a circulation is established'. I pause for a 
 reply. I would fain know how such a thing can be shown 
 to be probable; especially when the blood appears to be 
 both more spirituous or subtile and penetrating than the 
 chyle or milk contained in these lacteal vessels, and is 
 further impelled by t he pulsations of the arteries that it 
 may find a passage by other channels. 
 
 Our learned author mentions a certain tract of his on 
 the Circulation of the Blood : I wish I could obtain a 
 sight of it; perhaps I might retract. But had the learned 
 writer been so disposed, I do not see but that having 
 admitted the circular motion of the blood," all the diffi- 
 culties which were formerly felt in connexion with the 
 distribution of the chyle and the blood by the same 
 channels are brought to an equally satisfactory solution ; 
 so much so indeed, that there would be no necessity for 
 impairing after or laying down any separate vessels for the 
 chyle. Even as the umbilical veins absorb the nutritive 
 juices from the fluids of the egg and transport them for 
 the nutrition and growth of the chick, in its embryo state, 
 so do the mesenteric veins suck up the chyle from the 
 intestines and transfer it to the liver ; and why should we 
 not maintain that they perform the same office in the 
 adult? For all the mooted difficulties vanish when we 
 cease to suppose two contrary motions in the same vessels, 
 and admit but one and the same continuous motion in the 
 mesenteric vessels from the intestines to the liver. 
 
 1 shall elsewhere state my views of the lacteal veins 
 
 Enchiridion, lib. ii. cap. 18. 
 
 2 Enchiridion, lib. iii. cap. 8: "The blood incessantly and natnrallv 
 ascends or Hows back to the heart in the veins, as in the arteries it 
 descends or departs from the heart." 
 
100 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD, 
 
 when I treat of the milk found in different parts of new- 
 born animals, especially of the human subject ; for it is 
 met with in the mesentery and all its glands, and in those 
 of the thymus, the axilla, and the breasts of infants. 
 The latter the midwives are in the habit of pressing out, 
 for the health, as they believe, of the infants. But it has 
 pleased the learned Biolanus, not only to take away circu- 
 lation from the blood contained in the mesentery; he 
 affirms that neither do the vessels in continuation of the 
 vena cava, nor the arteries, nor any of the parts of the 
 second and third regions, admit of circulation, so that he 
 entitles and enumerates as circulating vessels the vena 
 cava and aorta only. For this he appears to me to give a 
 very unstable reason. "The blood," he says, in Book ih., 
 chapter 8, " is effused into all the parts of the second and 
 third regions, and remains there for their nutrition ; nor 
 does it return to the great vessels, unless forcibly drawn 
 back by an extreme dearth of blood in the great vessels, 
 nor, unless carried by an impulse, does it flow to the 
 circulatory vessels." 
 
 That so much of the blood must remain as is appro- 
 priated to the nutrition of the tissues, is necessary ; for it 
 cannot nourish unless it be assimilated and become co- 
 herent, and form substance in place of that which is lost ; 
 but that the whole of the blood which flows into a part 
 should there remain, in order that so small a portion 
 should undergo transformation, is not necessary, for no 
 part uses so much blood for its nutrition as is contained 
 in its arteries, veins, and interstices. Nor because the 
 blood is continually coming and going is it necessary to 
 suppose that it leaves nothing for nutriment behind it. 
 Consequently it is by no means necessary that the whole 
 remain in order that nutrition be effected. But our learned 
 author, in the same book, where he affirms this, appears 
 almost everywhere else to assert the contrary. In that para- 
 graph especially where he describes the circulation in the 
 brain, he says : " And the brain by means of the circulation 
 sends back blood to the heart, and thus refrigerates the 
 organ." And in the same way are all the more remote 
 parts said to refrigerate the heart ; thus in fevers, when 
 the prsecordia are scorched and burn with febrile heat, 
 
CISCU1 tTION OF THE BLOOD. ]o| 
 
 pat ion is baring their limbs and casting off the bed-clothes, 
 
 seek to cool the heart; and the U 1 generally, tempered 
 
 and cooled down, as our Learned author states it i<> be 
 with reference to the brain in particular, returns by the 
 
 veins and refrigerates the heart. Our author, therefore, 
 appears to insinuate a certain necessity for a circulation 
 from every part, as well as from the brain, contrary to 
 whal be bad before said in very precise terms. Bui thru 
 
 he cautiously ami ambiguously asserts, that the blood 
 docs not return from the parts composing the second and 
 third regions, unless, as he says, it is drawn by force, and 
 through a marked deficiency of blood in the larger vessels. 
 Which is most true if these words be rightly understood ; 
 for by the larger vessels, in which the deficiency is said to 
 cause the reflux, I think he must be understood to mean 
 the veins not the arteries; for the arteries are never 
 emptied, except into the veins or porosities of the parts, 
 but are incessantly filled by the strokes of the heart ; but 
 hi the vena, cava and other returning channels, in which 
 the blood glides rapidly on, hastening to the heart, there 
 would speedily he a -Teat deficiency of blood did not every 
 pari incessantly restore the blood that is incessantly poured 
 into it. Add to this, that by the impulse of the blood 
 which is forced with each stroke into every part of the 
 second and third regions, that which is contained in the 
 porosities is urged into the small veins, from which it 
 ] passes into larger vessels, its motion assisted besides 
 by the motion and compression of circumjacent parts. 
 From everj containing thing when compressed and con- 
 stringed, contained matters are forced out. Thus it is 
 thai by the motions of the muscles and extremities, the 
 blood contained in the minor vessels is forced onwards and 
 delivered into the larger trunks. That the blood is inces- 
 santly driven from the arteries into every part of the body, 
 that it there gives a pulse and never flows back in these 
 channels, cannot he doubled, if it be admitted that with 
 each pulse of the heart all the arteries are simultaneously 
 distended by the blood sent into them. Our learned 
 author himself allows that the diastole of the arteries is 
 produced by the systole of the heart, and that the blood 
 once out of the heart cannot regurgitate into the ventricles 
 
102 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 by reason of the opposing valves ; if I say, our learned 
 author believes that these things are so, it will be as mani- 
 festly true with regard to the force and impulse by which 
 the blood contained in the vessels is propelled into every 
 part of every region of the body. For wheresoever the 
 arteries pulsate, so far must the impulse and influx extend, 
 and therefore is the impulse felt in every part of each 
 several region ; for there is a pulse everywhere, to the 
 very points of the fingers and under the nails, nor is there 
 any part of the body where the shooting pain that accom- 
 panies each pulse of the artery, and the effort made to 
 effect a solution of the continuity is not experienced when 
 it is the seat of a phlegmon or furuncle. 
 
 Moreover, that the blood contained in the porosities of 
 the parts returns to the heart, is manifest from what we 
 observe in the hands and feet. For we frequently see the 
 hands and feet, in young persons especially, during severe 
 weather, become so cold that to the touch they feel like 
 ice, and they are so benumbed and stiffened that they 
 seem scarcely to retain a trace of sensibility or to be 
 capable of any motion ; still are they all the while saturated 
 with blood, and look red or livid. These parts can be 
 warmed in no way, save by the circulation ; the chilled 
 blood, which has lost its spirit and heat, being driven out, 
 and fresh, warm, and vivified blood flowing in by the 
 arteries in its stead, which fresh blood cherishes and 
 warms the parts, and restores to them sense and motion ; 
 nor could the extremities be restored by the warmth of a 
 fire or other external heat, any more than those of a dead 
 body could be so recovered. They are only brought to 
 life again, as it were, by an influx of internal warmth. 
 And this indeed is the principal use and end of the circu- 
 lation ; it is that for which the blood is sent on its cease- 
 less course, to exert its influence continually in its circuit, 
 that all parts dependent on the primary innate heat may 
 be retained alive, in their state of vital and vegetative 
 being, and able to perform their functions ; whilst, to use 
 the language of physiologists, they are sustained and 
 actuated by the inflowing heat and vital spirits. Thus, by 
 the aid of two extremes, viz., cold and heat, is the tem- 
 perature of the animal body retained at its mean. For as 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 108 
 
 the air inspired tempers the too greal beat of 1 1 1 « - blood in 
 the Lungs and centre of the body, and effects the expulsion 
 of suffocating fumes, so in its turn does tin- lx>i blood, 
 thrown by the arteries into all parts of the body, cherish 
 au>l nourish and keep them in life, defending them from 
 extinction through the power of external cold. 
 
 It would, therefore, be unfair and extraordinary did not 
 every particle composing the body enjoy the advantages of 
 the circulation and transmutation of the blood; the ends 
 for which the circulation was mainly established by nature 
 would no longer be effected. To conclude then: you see 
 how the circulation may be accomplished through the 
 whole body.and each of its individual parts, in the smaller 
 as well as in the larger vessels, without confusion and 
 disturbance of humours; and all as matter of necessity 
 and for the general advantage. Without circulation, 
 indeed, there would be uo restoration of chilled and 
 exhausted parts, no continuance of these in life, since it 
 is apparent enough that the whole influence of the preser- 
 vative heat comes by the arteries, and is the work of the 
 circulation. 
 
 It, therefore, appears to me that the learned Riolanus 
 speaks rather expediently than truly, when in his Enchi- 
 ridion he denies a circulation to certain parts ; it would 
 seem as though he had wished to please the many, and 
 oppose none ; to have written with such a bias rather than 
 rigidly and in behalf of the simple truth. This is also 
 apparent when he would have the blood to make its way 
 into the left ventricle through the septum of the heart, by 
 certain invisible and obscure passages, rather than through 
 those ample and abundantly pervious channels, the pul- 
 monary vessels, furnished as they are with valves, and 
 opposing all reflux or regurgitation. He informs us that 
 he has elsewhere discussed the reasons of the impossibility 
 or inconvenience of this: I much desire to see it. It would 
 be extraordinary, indeed, were the aorta and pulmonary 
 artery, with the same dimensions, properties, and structure, 
 not to have the same functions. But it would be more 
 wonderful still were the whole tide of the blood to reach 
 the left ventricle by a set of inscrutable passages of tin 
 septum, a tide which, in quantity must correspond, tir>t 
 
104 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 to the influx from the vena cava into the right side of the 
 heart, and next to the efflux from the left, both of which 
 require such ample conduits. But our author has adduced 
 these matters inconsistently, for he has established the 
 lungs as an emunctory or passage from the heart ; x and 
 he says : " The lung is affected by the blood which passes 
 through it, the sordes flowing along with the blood." And 
 again : " The lungs receive injury from distempered and 
 ill-conditioned viscera ; these deliver an impure blood to 
 the heart, which it cannot correct except by multiplied 
 circulations." In the same place, he further proceeds, 
 whilst speaking against Gralen of bloodletting in peripneu- 
 monia and the communication of the veins : " Were it 
 true that the blood naturally passed from the right ventricle 
 of the heart to the lungs, that it might be carried into the 
 left ventricle and from thence into the aorta ; and were the 
 circulation of the blood admitted, who does not see that in 
 affections of the lungs the blood would flow to them in 
 larger quantity and would oppress them, unless it were 
 taken away, first, freely, and then in repeated smaller 
 quantities in order to relieve them, which indeed was the 
 advice of Hippocrates, who in affections of the lungs takes 
 away blood from every part — the head, nose, tongue, arms 
 and feet, in order that its quantity may be diminished and 
 a diversion effected from the lungs ; he takes away blood 
 till the body is almost bloodless. Now admitting the circu- 
 lation, the lungs are most readily depleted by opening a 
 vein ; but rejecting it, I do not see how any revulsion of 
 the blood can be accomplished by this means ; for did it 
 flow back by the pulmonary artery upon the right ventricle, 
 the sigmoid valves would oppose its entrance, and any 
 escape from the right ventricle into the vena cava is pre- 
 vented by the tricuspid valves. The blood, therefore, is 
 soon exhausted when a vein is opened in the arm or foot, 
 if we admit the circulation ; and the opinion of Pernelius 
 is at the same time upset by this admission, viz., that in 
 affections of the lungs it is better to bleed from the right 
 than the left arm ; because the blood cannot flow back- 
 wards into the vena cava unless the two barriers situated 
 in the heart be first broken down." 
 1 Lib. iii. cap. 6. 
 
CIRCUL ITI0I9 OF TEE BLOOD, LOS 
 
 He adds yel further in the Bame place: ' " If the circu- 
 lation of the bl I be admitted, and it be acknowledged 
 
 thai this fluid generally passes through the Lungs, not 
 through the middle partition of the heart, a double circu- 
 lation becomes requisite; one effected through the lungs, 
 in tlir course of which (he I >lood quitting the righl ventricle 
 uf the bear! passes through the Lungs in order thai it may 
 
 arrive al the Lefl ventricle; Leaving the heart on 1 1 oe 
 
 hand, therefore, the blood s| lily returns to it again ; 
 
 another and Longer circulation proceeding from the left 
 veil i ricle of the bearl performs the circuit of the whole body 
 by the arteries, and by the veins returns to the righl side 
 of the heart." 
 
 The learned anatomist mighl here have added a third 
 and extremely short circulation, viz. — from the left to the 
 righl ventricle of the beart, with that blood which courses 
 through the coronary arteries and veins, and by their 
 ramifications is distributed to the body, walls, and septum 
 of the heart. 
 
 " He who admits one circulation," proceeds our author, 
 "cannot repudiate the other ; " and he might, as it appears, 
 have added, "the third." For why should the coronary 
 arteries of the heart pulsate, if it were not to force on the 
 blood by their pulsations? and why should there be coro- 
 nary veins, the end and office of all veins being to receive 
 the blood brought by the arteries, were it not to deliver 
 and discharge the blood sent into the substance of the 
 heart ? In this consideration let it be remembered that a 
 valve is very commonly found at the orifice of the coronary 
 vein, as our learned author himself admits," preventing all 
 ingress, but offering no obstacle to the egress of the blood. 
 It therefore seems that he cannot do otherwise than admit 
 1 his third circulation, wdio acknowledges a general circula- 
 tion through the body, and that the blood also passes 
 
 through the Lungs and the brain/' Nor, ind 1, can he 
 
 deny a similar circulation to every other part of every 
 ot her region. The blood flowing under the influence of the 
 arterial pulse, and returning by the veins, every particle of 
 the body has its circulation. 
 
 1 Lili. iii. cap, 6. J Lib. iii. cap. 9. :1 Lib. it. cap. _\ 
 
106 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 From the words of our learned writer quoted above, 
 his opinion may he gathered both of the general circula- 
 tion, and then of the circulation through the lungs and the 
 several parts of the body ; for he who admits the first, 
 manifestly cannot refuse to acknowledge the others. How 
 indeed could he who has repeatedly asserted a circulation 
 through the general system and the greater vessels, deny a 
 circulation in the branches continuous with these vessels, 
 or in the several parts of the second and third regions ? as 
 if all the veins, and those he calls greater circulatory vessels, 
 were not enumerated by every anatomist, and by himself, 
 as being within the second region of the body. Is it pos- 
 sible that there can be a circulation which is universal, 
 and which yet does not extend through every part ? Where 
 he denies it, then, he does so hesitatingly, and vacillates 
 between negations, giving us mere words. Where, on the 
 contrary, he asserts the circulation, he speaks out heartily, 
 and gives sufficient reasons, as becomes a philosopher ; and 
 when he relies on this opinion in a particular instance, he 
 delivers himself like an experienced physician and honest 
 man, and, in opposition to Galen and his favourite Fernelras, 
 advises bloodletting as the chief remedy in dangerous 
 diseases of the lungs. 
 
 No learned man and Christian, having doubts in such a 
 case, would have recommended his experience to posterity, 
 to the imminent risk, and even loss of human life ; neither 
 would he without very sufficient reasons, have repudiated 
 the authority of Galen and Fernelius, which has usually 
 such weight with him. Whatever he has denied in the cir- 
 culation of the blood, therefore, whether with reference 
 to the mesentery or other parts, and in favour of the lacteal 
 veins or the ancient system of physic, or in any other 
 respect, must be ascribed to his courtesy and modesty, and 
 is to be excused. 
 
 Thus far, I think, it appears plain enough, from the very 
 words and arguments of our author, that there is a circu- 
 lation everywhere ; that the blood, wherever it is, changes 
 its place, and by the veins returns to the heart ; so that 
 our learned author seems to be of the same opinion as my- 
 self. It would therefore be labour in vain, did I here 
 quote at greater length the various reasons which I have 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE Id. 001). L07 
 
 given in my wort on the Bffotion of the Bl I. in confirma- 
 tion of my i ij.ii lions, and which are derived from the struc- 
 ture of the vessels, the position of the valves, and other 
 
 matters of experience and observation; i "cover, I have 
 
 not yel seen the treatise on the < lirculatdon of tin- Blood <»f 
 tin- Learned writer; nor, indeed, have I vet met with a 
 Bingle argumenl of his, beyond his hare negation, which 
 e<nil. I lead him to repudiate a circulation which he admits 
 as universal, in very many parts, regions, ami vessels. 
 It is true that by way of subterfuge he has recourse t<> 
 
 an anastomosis of the vessels on the authority of Galen, 
 and the evidence of daily experience. J Jul bo distinguished 
 a personage, an anatomist so expert, so inquisitive, and 
 careful, should first have shown anastomoses between the 
 larger arteries ami Larger veins, and these, both obvious and 
 ample, with mouths in relation with such a torrent as is 
 constituted by the whole mass of the blood, and larger 
 than the capacity of the continuous branches, (from which 
 he takes away all circulation,) before he rejected those that 
 are familiarly known, that are more likely and more open. 
 lie ought to have clearly shown us where these anastomoses 
 are, ami how they are fashioned, whether they be adapted 
 only to permit the access of the blood into the veins, and 
 not to allow of its regurgitation, in the same way as we see 
 the ureters connected with the urinary bladder, or in what 
 other manner things are contrived. But — and here I speak- 
 over boldly perhaps — neither our learned author himself, 
 nor Galen, nor any experience, has ever succeeded in making- 
 such anastomoses as he imagines, sensible to the eye. 
 
 I have myself pursued this subject of the anastomosis 
 with all the diligence I could command, and have given not 
 a little both of time and labour to the inquiry ; but I have 
 
 never succ led in tracing any connexion between arteries 
 
 and veins by a direct anastomosis of their orifices. Iwouhl 
 gladly learn of those who give so much to Galen, how they 
 dare swear to what he says. Neither in the liver, spleen. 
 Lungs, kidneys, nor any other viscus, is there smh an anas- 
 tomosis; and by boiling, I have rendered the whole paren- 
 chyma of these organs so friable that it could be shaken 
 
 like dust from the fibres, or picked away with a needle, 
 
 until 1 could trace the fibres of everj subdivision, and see 
 
108 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 every capillary filament distinctly. I can therefore boldly 
 affirm, tliat there is neither any anastomosis of the vena 
 porta? with the cava, of the arteries with the veins, or of 
 the capillary ramifications of the biliary dticts, which can 
 be traced through the entire liver, with the veins. This 
 alone may be observed in the recent liver : all the branches 
 of the vena cava ramifying through the convexity of the 
 liver, have their tunics pierced with an infinity of minute 
 holes, as is a sieve, and are fashioned to receive the blood in 
 its descent. The branches of the porta are not so consti- 
 tuted, but simply spread out in subdivisions ; and the dis- 
 tribution of these two vessels is such, that whilst the one 
 runs upon the convexity, the other proceeds along the 
 concavity of the liver to its outer margin, without anasto- 
 mosing. 
 
 In three places only do I find anything that can be held 
 equivalent to an anastomosis. From the carotids, as they 
 are creeping over the base of the brain, numerous and 
 interlaced fibres arise, which afterwards form the choroid 
 plexus, and passing through the lateral ventricles, finally 
 unite and terminate in the third sinus, which performs the 
 office of a vein. In the spermatic vessels, commonly called 
 vasa prarparantia, certain minute arteries proceeding from 
 the great artery adhere to the vense pra3parantes, which 
 they accompany, and are at length taken in and included 
 within their coats, in such a way that they seem to have 
 a common ending, so that where they terminate on the 
 upper portion of the testis, on that cone-shaped process 
 called the corpus varicosum et pampiniforme, it is alto- 
 gether uncertain whether we are to regard their termina- 
 tions as veins, or as arteries, or as both. In the same way 
 are the ultimate ramifications of the arteries which run to 
 the umbilical vein, lost in the tunics of this vessel. 
 
 What doubt can there be, if by such channels the great 
 arteries, distended by the stream of blood sent into them, 
 are relieved of so great and obvious a torrent, but that 
 nature would not have denied distinct and visible passages, 
 vortices, and estuaries, had she intended to divert the whole 
 current of the blood, and had wished in this way to deprive 
 the lesser branches and the solid parts of all the benefit 
 of the influx of that fluid ? 
 
CIRCULATION or nil: BLOOD. L09 
 
 Finally, I shall quote this Bingle experiment, which 
 appears t<» me sufficienl to clear up all doubts about the 
 anastomoses, and their uses, if anj exist, and to Bel a1 
 resi the question <>i' a passage of 1 1 1 « - blood from the veins 
 to the arteries, by any special channels, or by regurgitation. 
 
 Eaving Laid open the thorax of an animal, and tied the 
 vena cava Dear the heart, bo thai nothing shall pass from 
 thai vessel into its cavities, and immediately afterwards, 
 having divided the carotid arteries on both Bides, the 
 jugular veins being left untouched ; it' the arteries be now 
 perceived to become empty bul uol the veins, I think it 
 will be manifest that the blood does nowhere pass from 
 the veins into the arteries except through the ventricles 
 of the heart. Were it not so, as observed by Galen, we 
 should see the veins as well as the arteries emptied in 
 a very short time, by the efflux from their corresponding 
 arteries. 
 
 For what further remains, oh, Riolanus ! I congratulate 
 both myself and you : myself, for the opinion with which 
 you have graced my circulation ; and you, for your learned, 
 polished, and terse production, than which nothing more 
 elegant can be imagined. For the favour you have done 
 me in sending me this work, I feel most grateful, and I 
 would gladly, as in duty bound, proclaim my sense of its 
 merits, but I confess myself unequal to the task; for I 
 know that the Enchiridion bearing the name of Riolanus 
 inscribed upon it, has thereby more of honour conferred 
 upon it than it can derive from any praise of mine, which 
 nevertheless I would yield without reserve. The famous 
 book will live for ever ; and when marble shall have 
 mouldered, will proclaim to posterity the glory that belongs 
 to your name. You have most happily conjoined anatomy 
 with pathology, and have greatly enriched the subject with 
 a new and most useful osteology. Proceed in your worthy 
 career, most illustrious Riolanus, and love him who wishes 
 that you may enjoy both happiness and length of days. 
 and that all your admirable works may conduce to your 
 eternal fame. 
 
 William Harvey. 
 
SECOND DISQUISITION TO JOHN KIOLAN, JUN., 
 
 IN W1IICII 
 
 MANY OBJECTIONS 
 
 TO THE 
 
 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 
 
 AKE REFUTED. 
 
A SECOND DISQUISITION TO JOHN RIOLAN. 
 
 It is now man v years, must Learned Kiolanus, since, with 
 the add of the press, I published a portion of mj work. 
 But scarcelj a day, Bcarcely an hour, has passed since the 
 birthday of the Circulation of the Blood, that I have not 
 heard something for good or for evil said of this my disco- 
 very. Some abuse it as a feeble infant, and yet unworthy 
 to have seen the light; others, again, think the bantling 
 deserves to be cherished and cared for; some oppose it 
 with much ado, others patronize it with abundant commen- 
 dation ; one party holds that I have completely demon- 
 strated the circulation of the blood by experiment, observa- 
 tion, and ocular inspection, against all force and array of 
 argument; another thinks it scarcely yet sufficiently illus- 
 trated — not yet cleared of all objections. There are some, 
 too, who say that I have shown a vainglorious love of 
 vivisections, and who deride the introduction of frogs and 
 serpents, flies, and others of the lower animals upon the 
 scene, as a piece of puerile levity, not even refraining from 
 opprobrious epithets. 
 
 To return evil speaking with evil speaking, however, I 
 hold to be unworthy in a philosopher and searcher after 
 truth ; I believe that I shall do better and more advisedly 
 if I meet so many indications of ill breeding with the light 
 of faithful and conclusive observation. It cannot be 
 helped that dogs bark and vomit their foul stomachs, or 
 that cynics should be numbered among philosophers ; but 
 care can be taken that they do not bite or inoculate their 
 mad humours, or with their dogs' teeth gnaw the bones 
 and foundations of truth. 
 
 Detractors, mummers, and writers defiled with abuse, 
 as I resolved with myself never to read them, satisfied 
 that nothing solid or excellent, nothing but foul terms, was 
 to be expected from them, so have I held them still Less 
 worthy of an answer. Let them consume on their own ill 
 
 I 
 
114 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 nature ; they will scarcely find many well-disposed readers, 
 I imagine, nor does God give tliat which, is most excellent 
 and chiefly to be desired — wisdom, to the wicked ; let 
 them go on railing, I say, until they are weary, if not 
 ashamed. 
 
 If for the sake of studying the meaner animals you 
 should even enter the bakehouse with Heraclitus, as related 
 in Aristotle, I bid you approach ; for not only are the im- 
 mortal Gods not absent here, but the great and almighty 
 Father is sometimes most visible in His lesser, and to the 
 eye least considerable works. 1 
 
 In my book on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in 
 Animals, I have only adduced those facts from among 
 many other observations, by which either errors were best 
 refuted, or truth was most strongly supported ; I have left 
 many proofs, won by dissection and appreciable to sense, 
 as redundant and unnecessary ; some of these, however, I 
 now supply in brief terms, for the sake of the studious, 
 and those who have expressed their desire to have them. 
 
 The authority of Galen is of such weight with all, that 
 I have seen several hesitate greatly with that experiment 
 before them, in which the artery is tied upon a tube placed 
 within its cavity, by which it is proposed to prove that the 
 arterial pulse is produced by a power communicated from 
 the heart through the coats of the arteries, and not from 
 the shock of the blood contained within them ; and in 
 like manner, that the arteries dilate as bellows, and are 
 not filled as sacs. This experiment is spoken of by Vesalius, 
 the celebrated anatomist ; but neither Vesalius nor Galen 
 says that he had tried the experiment, which, however, I 
 did. Vesalius only prescribes, and Galen advises it, to 
 those anxious to discover the truth, and for their better 
 assurance, not thinking of the difficulties that attend its 
 performance, nor of' its futility when done, for indeed, 
 although executed with the greatest skill, it supplies 
 nothing in support of the opinion which maintains that 
 the coats of the vessel are the cause of the pulse. It rather 
 proclaims that this is owing to the impulse of the blood. 
 
 1 [To those who hesitated to visit him in his kiln or bakehouse, 
 Heraclitus addressed the words in the text. Aristotle, who quotes them, 
 has been defending the study of the lower animals.— Ed.] 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BL odd. \ \ ;, 
 
 For the moment you have thrown your ligature around 
 the artery upon the reed or tube, immediately, by the 
 force of the 1 > 1< »< >« 1 thrown in from above, ii is dilated 
 beyond the circle of the tube, by whicb the flow is impeded, 
 
 and tin- si luck is broken. The artery which is t i. ■<] only pul- 
 sates obscurely, being now cul off from the full force of 1 1 1 « - 
 
 lil I thai flows through it. the shock being reverberated, 
 
 as it were, from that pari of the vessel which is above the 
 Ligature. Bui it' the artery below the ligature 1"' dow 
 
 divided, the contrary of whal lias l □ maintained will be 
 
 apparent, from the spurting of the blood impelled through 
 i he I ube, jusl as happens in the cases of aneurism, referred 
 to in my boot on the Motion of the Blood, which arise 
 from an erosion of the coats of the vessel, and when the 
 Mood is contained in a membranous sac formed not by 
 the '-oats of the vessel dilated, but preternaturally pro- 
 duced from the surrounding tissues and flesh. The arteries 
 beyond an aneurism of this kind will be felt beating very 
 feebly, whilst in those above it and in the swelling itself 
 (Ii.- pulse will be perceived of great strength and fulness. 
 Here we cannot imagine that the pulsation and dilatation 
 take place by the coats of the arteries, or any power com- 
 municated to the walls of the sac; they are plainly due to 
 the shock of the blood. 
 
 But thai the error of Vesalius, and the inexperience of 
 those who assert their belief that the part helow the tube 
 iloes not pulsate when the ligature is tied, may be made 
 the more apparent, I can state, after having made the 
 trial, that the inferior part will continue to pulsate if the 
 experiment be properly performed; and whilst they say 
 that when you have undone the ligature the inferior 
 arteries begin again to pulsate, I maintain that the part 
 below heats less forcibly when the ligature is untied than 
 ii did when the thread was still tight. But the effusion of 
 blood from the wound confuses everything, and renders 
 the whole experiment unsatisfactory and misleading, so 
 that nothing certain can be shown, as I have said, on 
 account of the hemorrhage. But if, as I know by expe- 
 rience, you lay bare an artery, and control the divided 
 portion 1>\ the pressure of your fingers, von may try many 
 things at pleasure l>y which the truth will be made to 
 
116 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 appear. In the first place, you will feel the blood coming 
 down in the artery at each pulsation, and visibly dilating the 
 vessel. You may also at will suffer the blood to escape, by 
 relaxing the pressure, and leaving a small outlet ; and you 
 will see that it jets out with each stroke, with each con- 
 traction of the heart, and with each dilatation of the artery, 
 as I have said in speaking of arteriotomy, and the experi- 
 ment of perforating the heart. If you allow the efflux to 
 go on uninterruptedly, either from the simple divided 
 artery or from a tube inserted into it, you will be able to 
 perceive by the sight, and if you apply your hand, by the 
 touch likewise, every character of the stroke of the heart 
 in the jet ; the rhythm, order, intermission, force, etc., of its 
 pulsations, all becoming sensible there, just as the jets from 
 a syringe would be obvious to sight and touch, if pushed in 
 succession and with different degrees of force upon the 
 palm of the hand. I have occasionally observed the jet 
 from a divided carotid artery to be so forcible, that, when 
 received on the hand, the blood rebounded to the distance 
 of four or five feet. 
 
 But that that may be made clearer which is in doubt, viz. 
 — that the pulsific power does not proceed from the heart 
 by the coats of the arteries, I beg here to refer to a por- 
 tion of the descending aorta, about a span in length, with 
 its division into the two crural trunks, which I removed 
 from the body of a nobleman, and which is converted into 
 a bony tube. By this hollow tube, nevertheless, did the 
 arterial blood reach the lower extremities of this nobleman 
 during his life, and cause the arteries in these to beat ; and 
 yet the main trunk was precisely in the same condition as 
 is the artery in the experiment of G-alen, when it was tied 
 upon a hollow tube. Where it was converted into bone it 
 could neither dilate nor contract like bellows, nor transmit 
 the pulsific power from the heart to the inferior vessels ; it 
 could not convey a force which it was incapable of re- 
 ceiving through the solid matter of the bone. In spite of all, 
 however, I well remember to have frequently noted the pulse 
 in the legs and feet of this patient whilst he lived, for I was 
 myself his most attentive physician, and he my very par- 
 ticular friend. The arteries in the inferior extremities of 
 this nobleman must therefore and of necessity have been 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 117 
 
 dilated by the impulse of the blood like flaccid sacs, and 
 in >i have expanded La the manner of bellows through the 
 action of their tunics. It is obvious, thai whether an 
 artery be tied over a hollow tube, or its tunics be converted 
 into a bony and unyielding canal, the interruption to the 
 pulsific power in tli«' inferior pari of the vessel must be the 
 same. 
 
 I have known another instance in which a portion of 
 the aorta Dear the heart was converted into bone, in the 
 bod} of a nobleman, a man of great muscular strength. 
 The experimenl of Galen, therefore, <>r, at all events, a 
 state analogous to it, not effected on purpose but en- 
 countered by accident, makes it sufficiently appear, thai 
 compression or ligature of the coats of an artery does not 
 interfere with the pulsative properties of its derivative 
 brandies; andind I, if the experiment which Galen re- 
 commends were properly performed by anyone, its results 
 would be found in opposition to the views which Vesalius 
 believed t hey would support. 
 
 But we do not, therefore, deny everything like motion to 
 the walls of the arteries; on the contrary, we allow them 
 the same motions which we concede to the heart, viz., a 
 diastole, and a systole or return from the distended to the 
 natural state. This much we believe to be effected by a 
 power inherent in the coats themselves. But it is to be 
 observed, that they are not both dilated and contracted 
 by the same, but by different causes and means, as may be 
 observed of the motions of all parts, and of the ventricle 
 of the heart itself, which is distended by the auricle, and 
 contracted by its own inherent power. Thus the arteries 
 are dilated by the heart, but they subside of themselves. 1 
 
 You may also perform another experiment at the same 
 time: it' you fill one of two basius of the same size with 
 blood issuing per saltum from an artery, the other with 
 venous blood from a vein of the same animal, you will 
 have an opportunity of perceiving by the eye, both imme- 
 diately and by-and-by. when the blood in either vessel has 
 become cold, what differences there are between them. 
 
 1 Vide Chapter III. of the Disquisition on the Motion of the Heart 
 
 it i »« I P.Iuod. 
 
118 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 You will find that it is not as they believe who fancy that 
 there is one kind of blood in the arteries and another in 
 the veins, that in the arteries being of a more florid colour, 
 more frothy, and imbued with an abundance of I know 
 not what spirits, effervescing, swelling, and occupying a 
 greater space, like milk or honey set upon the fire. For 
 were the blood which is thrown from the left ventricle of 
 the heart into the arteries, fermented into any such frothy 
 and flatulent fluid, so that a drop or two distended the 
 whole cavity of the aorta, unquestionably, upon the sub- 
 sidence of this fermentation, the blood would return to its 
 original quantity of a few drops ; (and this, indeed, is the 
 reason that some assign for the usually empty state of the 
 arteries in the dead body). The same thing would happen 
 to arterial blood in the cup, as we discover with milk and 
 honey when they come to cool. But if in either basin you 
 find blood nearly of the same colour, not of very different 
 consistency in the coagulated state, forcing out serum in 
 the same manner, and filling the cups to the same height 
 when cold that it did when hot, this will be enough for 
 anyone to rest his faith upon, and afford argument enough, 
 I think, for rejecting the dreams that have been put 
 forward on the subject. Sense and reason alike assure us 
 that the blood contained in the left ventricle is not of a 
 different nature from that in the right. Moreover, when 
 we see that the mouth of the pidnionary artery is of the 
 same size as the aorta, and in other respects equal to that 
 vessel, it would be imperative on us to affirm that the 
 pulmonary artery was distended by a single drop of frothy 
 blood, as well as the aorta, so that the right as well as the 
 left side of the heart was filled with an effervescing or 
 fermenting blood. 
 
 The causes which especially dispose men's minds to 
 admit diversity in the arterial and venous blood are three 
 in number : one, because in arteriotomy the blood that 
 flows is of a more florid hue than that which escapes from 
 a vein ; a second, because in the dissection of dead bodies 
 the left ventricle of the heart, and the arteries in general, 
 are mostly found empty ; a third, because the arterial 
 blood is believed to be more spirituous, and being replete 
 with spirit is made to occupy a much larger space. The 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. \\\) 
 
 causes and reasons, however, of all these things presenl 
 themselves to us when we seefc utter them. 
 
 1st. With reference t" the colour it is to be observed, 
 that wherever the blood issues by a. very small orifice, it is 
 in some measure Btrained, and the thinner and lighter 
 
 part, which USUallj swims mi the tojp ami is the most 
 
 penetrating, is emitted. 1 Thus, in phlebotomy, when tin 1 
 blood escapes forcibly and to a distance, in a full stream, 
 ami from a large orifice, it is thicker, has more body, and 
 a darker colour ; hut, if it Hows from a, small orifice, and 
 only drop by drop, as it usually does when the bleeding 
 fillet is untied, it is of a brighter hue; for then it is 
 Strained, as it were, and the thinner, and more penetrating 
 portion only escapes; in (he same way, in the bleeding 
 from the nose, in that which takes place from a leech- 
 hite, or from scarifications, or in any other way by dia- 
 pedesis or transudation, the blood is always seen to have 
 a brighter cast, hecause the thickness and firmness of the 
 coats of the arteries render the outlet or outlets smaller, 
 and less disposed to yield a ready passage to the out- 
 pouring blood. It happens also, that when fat persons 
 are bled, the orifice of the vein is apt to be compressed 
 by the subcutaneous fat, by which the blood is made to 
 a p pear thinner, more florid, and in some sort arterious. On 
 the other hand, the blood that flows into a basin from a 
 large artery freely divided, will look venous. The blood 
 in the lungs is of a much more florid colour than it is in 
 the arteries, and we know how it is strained through the 
 pulmonary t issue. 
 
 2nd. The emptiness of the arteries in the dead body, 
 which probably misled Erasistratus in supposing that they 
 only contained aereal spirits, happens from this, that when 
 respiration ceases the lungs collapse, and then the passages 
 
 1 [Harvey was in error in making this statement. The Mood can in 
 DO sense lie strained as suggested. The brighter colour of slowly 
 transuded blood is owing to its greater exposure to the air, the bright- 
 ness or darkness of its hue being dependent upon I he amount of OX v^en 
 in combination with the haemoglobin of the red corpuscles. When 
 
 insufficient oxygen is present, the haemoglobin is reduced and gives rise 
 
 to the purple colour of venous blood. The haemoglobin of arterial blood 
 
 is saturated with OXVgei] gas. Ed.] 
 
120 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 through, them are closed ; the heart, however, continues 
 for a time to contract upon the blood, whence we find the 
 left auricle more contracted, and the corresponding ven- 
 tricle, as well as the arteries at large, appearing empty, 
 simply because there is no supply of blood flowing round 
 to fill them. In cases, however, in which the heart has 
 ceased to pulsate and the lungs to afford a passage to the 
 blood simultaneously, as in those who have died from 
 drowning or syncope, or who die suddenly, you will find 
 the arteries, as well as the veins, full of blood. 
 
 3rd. With reference to the third point, or that of the 
 spirits, it may be said that, as it is still a question what 
 they are, how they exist in the body, of what consistency, 
 whether separate and distinct from the blood and solids, 
 or mingled with these,— upon each and all of these points 
 there are so many and such conflicting opinions, that it is 
 not wonderful that the spirits, whose nature is thus left 
 so wholly ambiguous, should serve as the common subter- 
 fuge o f ignorance. Persons of limited information, when they 
 are at a loss to assign a cause for anything, very commonly 
 reply that it is done by the spirits ; and so they introduce 
 the spirits upon all occasions, even as indifferent poets are 
 always thrusting the gods upon the stage as a means of un- 
 ravelling the plot, and bringing about the catastrophe. 
 
 Fernelius, and many others, suppose that there are 
 aereal spirits and invisible substances. Fernelius proves 
 that there are animal spirits, by saying that the cells in 
 the brain are apparently unoccupied, and as nature abhors 
 a vacuum, he concludes that in the living body they are 
 filled with spirits, just as Erasistratus had held that, 
 because the arteries were empty of blood, therefore they 
 must be filled with spirits. But Medical Schools admit 
 three kinds of spirits : the natural spirits flowing through 
 the veins, the vital spirits through the arteries, and the 
 animal spirits through the nerves ; whence physicians say, 
 after Galen, that sometimes the parts of the brain are 
 oppressed by sympathy, because the faculty with the 
 essence, i.e., the spirit, is overwhelmed ; and sometimes 
 this happens independently of the essence. Farther, 
 besides the three orders of influxive spirits adverted to, a 
 like number of implanted or stationary spirits seem to be 
 
CIRCULATloX <>/ THE BLOOD. !■_'] 
 
 acknowledged ; bul we have found aone of all these spirits 
 by dissection, Qeither in the veins, nerves, arteries, nor 
 other parts of living animals. Some Bpeai of corporeal, 
 others of incorporeal spirits ; and they who advocate the 
 
 corporeal spirits will have the blood, or the thinner portion 
 of the blood, to be the bond of union with 1 ho sold, t he 
 
 spirit being contained in the blood as the flame is in the 
 
 Smoke Of a lamp or candle, and held admixed by the 
 
 incessant motion of the fluid. Others, again, distinguish 
 
 between the spirits and the blood. The\ who advocate 
 incorporeal spirits have no ground of experience to stand 
 upon; their spirits indeed are synonymous with powers OT 
 faculties, such as a concoctive spirit, a chylopoietic spirit, 
 a procreative spirit, etc. — they admit as many spirits, in 
 short, as there are faculties or organs. 
 
 But then the schoolmen speak of a spirit of fortitude, 
 prudence, patience, and the other virtues, and also of a 
 most holy spirit of wisdom, and of every divine gift ; and 
 they besides suppose that there are good and evil spirits 
 that roam about or possess the body, that assist or cast 
 obstacles in the way. They hold some diseases to be owing 
 to a Cacodaemon or evil spirit, as there are others that are 
 due to a cacochemy or defective assimilation. 
 
 Although there is nothing more uncertain and cpuestion- 
 able, then, than the doctrine of spirits that is proposed to 
 us, nevertheless physicians seem for the major part to 
 conclude, with Hippocrates, that our body is composed or 
 made up of three elements : containing parts, contained 
 part, and causes of action, spirits being understood by the 
 latter term. But if spirits are to be taken as synonymous 
 with causes of activity, whatever has power in the living 
 body and a faculty of action must be included under the 
 denomination. It would appear, therefore, that all spirits 
 were neither aereal substances, nor powers, nor habits; 
 and that all were not incorporeal. 
 
 But keeping in view the propositions that especially 
 interest us, and omitting others, as leading to tediousness, 
 it seems that the spirits which flow by the veins or the 
 arteries are nol distinct from the blood, any more than 
 the flame of a lamp is distinct from the inflammable 
 vapour that is on fire, but the blood and these spirits 
 
122 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 signify one and the same tiling, though different, — like 
 generous wine and its spirit. For as wine, when it has 
 lost all its spirit, is no longer wine, but a vapid liquor or 
 vinegar, so blood without spirit is not blood, but some- 
 thing else — clot or cruor. In like manner a hand of 
 stone, or of a dead body, is no hand in the most complete 
 sense, neither is blood, void of the vital principle, proper 
 blood. It is immediately to be held as corrupt when 
 deprived of its spirit. The spirit, therefore, which inheres 
 in the arteries, and especially in the blood which fills 
 them, is to be regarded either as its act or its agent, in the 
 same way as the spirit of wine in wine, and the spirit of 
 aqua vitse in brandy, or as a flame kindled in alcohol, 
 which, as it were, lives and feeds on, or is nourished by 
 itself. The blood consequently, though richly imbued 
 with spirits, does not swell, nor ferment, nor rise to a 
 head through them, so as to require and occupy a larger 
 space,— which may be ascertained beyond the possibility 
 of question by the two cups of equal size. It is to be 
 regarded as wine, possessed of a large amount of spirits, 
 or, in the Hippocratic sense, of signal powers of acting 
 and effecting. 
 
 It is therefore the same blood in the arteries that is 
 in the veins, although it may be admitted to be more 
 spirituous, and possessed of higher vital force. But it is 
 not changed into anything more vaporous, or more aereal, 
 as if there were no spirits but such as are aereal, and no 
 cause of action or activity that is not of the nature of 
 flatus or wind. But neither the animal, natural, nor vital 
 spirits which inhere in the solids, such as the ligaments 
 and nerves (especially if they be of so many different 
 species), and are contained within the hidden interstices 
 of the tissues, are to be regarded as so many different 
 aereal forms, or kinds of vapour. 
 
 Here I would gladly be informed by those who admit 
 corporeal spirits in the bodies of animals, of a gaseous 
 or vaporous consistency, whether or not they have the 
 power of passing hither and thither, like distinct bodies 
 independently of the blood? Or whether the spirits follow 
 the blood in its motions, either as integral parts of the 
 fluid or as indissolubly connected with it, so that they can 
 
Cim ii \ riox OF THE moon. [23 
 
 neither quit the tissues pass hither aor thither withoul 
 
 the iiillux and reflux, and motion of 1 1 1 < ■ blood? II the 
 spirits exhaling from the blood, like the vapour of water 
 attenuated by beat, exisl in a state of constant flow and suc- 
 cession as the pabulum of the tissues, it necessarily follows 
 thai they are no1 distind from this pabulum, bu1 are inces- 
 santly disappearing. It therefore seems thai they can neither 
 have influx nor reflux, nor passage, nor ye1 remain al resl 
 
 withoul the influx, the reflux, the passage of the l»l I 
 
 which is the fluid thai serves as their vehicle or pabulum. 
 
 And next I desire to know of those who tell us that the 
 spirits are formed in the heart, being compounded of the 
 vapours or exhalations of the Itlood (excited either l>y the 
 heat of the heart or the concussion) and the inspired air, 
 whether such spirits are not to be accounted much colder 
 than the blood, seeing that both the elements of their 
 composition, namely, air and vapour, are much colder? 
 For the vapour of boiling water is much more bearable 
 than the water itself; the flame of a candle is less burning 
 than the red-hot snuff, and burning charcoal than incan- 
 descenl iron or brass. Whence it would seem that spirits 
 of this nature rather receive their heat from the blood, 
 than that the blood is warmed by these spirits. Such 
 spirits are rather to be regarded as fumes and excremen- 
 titious effluvia proceeding from the body in the manner of 
 odours, than in any way as natural artificers of the tissues, 
 a conclusion which we are the more disposed to admit, 
 when we see that they so speedily lose any virtue they may 
 possess, and which they had derived from the blood as 
 their source. They are at best of a very frail and evanes- 
 cent nature. Whence also it becomes probable that the 
 expiration of the lungs is a means by which these vapours 
 being cast oft, the blood is fanned and purified; whilst 
 inspiration is a means by which the blood in its passage 
 between the two ventricles of the heart is tempered by the 
 cold of the surrounding atmosphere, lest, getting heated, 
 and blown up with a kind of fermentation, like milk or 
 honey set over the fire, it should so distend the lungs thai 
 t he animal got suffocated, as we often see in those with dan- 
 gerous asthma, which Galen himself seems to refer to its 
 proper cause when he says it is owing to an obstruction 
 
124 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 of tlie smaller arteries, viz., the vasa venosa et arteriosa. 
 I have found by experience that patients affected with 
 asthma might be brought out of states of very imminent 
 danger by having cupping-glasses applied, and a plentiful 
 and sudden affusion of cold water. Thus much — and 
 perhaps it is more than was necessary — have I said on the 
 subject of spirits in this place, fori felt it proper to define 
 them, and to say something of their nature in a physio- 
 logical disquisition. 
 
 I shall only further add, that they who descant on the 
 calidum innatum or innate heat, as an instrument of nature 
 available for every purpose, and who speak of the necessity 
 of heat as the cherisher and retainer in life of the several 
 parts of the body, who at the same time admit that this 
 heat cannot exist unless connected with something, and be- 
 cause they find no substance of anything like commensu- 
 rate mobility, or which might keep pace with the rapid 
 influx and reflux of this heat (in affections of the mind es- 
 pecially), take refuge in spirits as most subtile substances, 
 possessed of the most penetrating qualities, and highest 
 mobility — these persons see nothing less than the wonder- 
 ful and almost divine character of the natural operations as 
 proceeding from the instrumentality of this common agent, 
 viz., the calidum innatum. They farther regard these 
 spirits as of a sublime, lucid, ethereal, celestial, or divine 
 nature, and the bond of the soul, even as the vulgar and 
 unlettered, when they do not comprehend the causes of 
 various effects, refer them to the immediate interposition 
 of the Deity. They therefore declare that the heat perpe- 
 tually flowing into the several parts is in virtue of the influx 
 of spirits through the channels of the arteries ; as if the 
 blood could neither move so swiftly, nor penetrate so inti- 
 mately, nor cherish so effectually. Such faith do they put 
 in this opinion, to such lengths are they carried by their be- 
 lief, that they deny the contents of the arteries to be blood ! 
 And then they proceed with trivial reasonings to maintain 
 that the arterial blood is of a peculiar kind, or that the ar- 
 teries are filled with such aereal spirits, and not with 
 blood, all the while, in opposition to everything which 
 Galen has advanced against Erasistratus, both on grounds 
 of experiment and of reason, But that arterial blood 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. [25 
 
 differs in nothing essentia] from venous Mood has been al- 
 ready sufficiently demonstrated; and onr senses likewise 
 assure us thai the blood and spirits do nol flow in the 
 arteries separately and disjoined, bul as one body. 
 
 We have occasion to observe bo often as our hands, feet, 
 or ears have become stiff and cold, thai as they recover 
 again by the warmth thai flows into them, they acquire 
 their natural colour and heal simultaneously; thai the 
 reins which had become small and shrunken, swell visibly 
 ami enlarge, s<> that when tiny regain their heal suddenly 
 they become painful; from which it appears, thai thai 
 
 which by its influx brings heat is 1 he same which causes re- 
 pletion and colour. Now this can be and is nothing but the 
 
 blood. 
 
 When an artery and a vein are divided, anyone may 
 clearly see thai the part of the vein towards the heart 
 pours out- no Mood, whilst that beyond the wound gives a 
 torrent ; the divided artery, on the contrary, (as in my ex- 
 periment on the carotids,) pours out a flood of pure blood 
 from the orifice next the heart, and in jets as if it were 
 forced from a syringe, whilst from the further orifice of the 
 divided artery little or no blood escapes. This experiment 
 plainly proves in what direction the current sets in either 
 order of vessels. It also shows with what velocity the 
 current moves, not gradually and by drops, but even with 
 violence. And lest auyone, by way of subterfuge, should 
 take shelter in the notion of invisible spirits, let the orifice 
 of the divided vessel be plunged under water or oil, when, 
 if there he any air contained in it, the fact will be pro- 
 claimed by a succession of visible bubbles. Hornets, 
 wasps, and other insects of the same description plunged 
 in oil, and so suffocated, emit bubbles of air from their 
 tails whilst they are dying. For which reason it is not im- 
 probable that they thus respire when alive, for all other 
 animals if submerged and drowned, when they finally sink- 
 to i he bottom and die, emit bubbles of air from the mouth 
 and lungs. It is also demonstrated by the same experi- 
 ment, that the valves of the veins act with such accuracy, 
 that ail' blown into them does not penetrate. Much less 
 then can Mood make its way through them, so i hat it 
 is certain that neither sensibly nor insensibly, nor gradually 
 
126 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 and drop by drop, can any blood pass from the heart by the 
 veins. 
 
 And that no one may seek shelter in asserting that these 
 things are so when nature is disturbed and put into a pre- 
 ternatural state, bnt not when she is left to herself and at 
 liberty to act, that the same things do not come to pass in 
 morbid and unusual states as in the healthy and natural 
 condition, they are to be met by saying, that if it were so, 
 that so much blood was lost from the farther orifice of 
 a divided vein because nature was disturbed, still the inci- 
 sion does not close the nearer orifice, from which nothing 
 either escapes or can be expressed, whether nature be dis- 
 turbed or not. Others argue in the same way, maintaining 
 that, although the blood immediately spurts out in such pro- 
 fusion with every beat when an artery is divided near the 
 heart, it does not therefore follow that the blood is pro- 
 pelled by the pidse when the heart and artery are entire. 
 It is most probable, however, that every stroke impels 
 something ; and it seems certain that there would be no 
 pulse of the container, without an impulse being communi- 
 cated to the thing contained. Yet some, that they may 
 seize upon a farther means of defence, and escape the 
 necessity of admitting the circulation, do not fear to affirm 
 that the arteries in the living body and in the natural 
 state are already so full of blood, that they are incapable of 
 receiving another drop ; and so also of the ventricles of the 
 heart. But it is indubitable that, whatever the degree of 
 distension and the extent of contraction of the heart and 
 arteries, they are still in a condition to receive an additional 
 cpuantity of blood forced into them, and that this is far more 
 than is usually reckoned in grains or drops, seems also cer- 
 tain. For if the ventricles become so excessively distended 
 that they will admit no more blood, the heart ceases to beat, 
 (as we sometimes see in our vivisections,) and, if it con- 
 tinues tense and resisting, death by asphyxia ensues. 
 
 In the work on the Motion of the Heart and Blood, 
 I have already sufficiently discussed the question as to 
 whether the blood in its motion was attracted, or impelled, 
 or moved by its own inherent nature. I have there also 
 spoken of the action and office, of the dilatation and con- 
 traction of the heart, and have shown what these truly are, 
 
CIRCULATION 01 THE BLOOD, [27 
 
 ;ni'l how the heart contracts during the diastole of the 
 arteries; bo thai I nm.-t hold those who take points for dis- 
 pute fn>m among them as either nol understanding the 
 gubject, or as unwilling t<> lo.-k at things for themselves, 
 and to investigate them with their own » 
 
 I do ii"t believe that any kind of attraction can be 
 demonstrated in the living body excepl thai of tin- nutri- 
 ment, which gradually and incessantly passes on to supply 
 the waste that takes place in the tissues, in the same way 
 as the oil rises in the wick <>f a lamp to be consumed bythe 
 flame. Whence I conclude that the primary and common 
 d of all sensible attraction and impulsion i> of the na- 
 ture of sinew, or fibre, or muscle, in order that it may be 
 contractile, that contracting it may be shortened, and. so 
 either stretch out, draw towards, or propel But these 
 topics will be better discussed elsewhere, when we speak of 
 the organs of motion in the auimal body. 
 
 To those who repudiate the circulation because they 
 neither see the efficient nor final cause of it, and who 
 exclaim, cut bono? I have yet to reply, having hitherto 
 taken no note of the ground of objection which they take 
 up. And first I own I am of opinion that our first duty is 
 to inquire whether the thing exists, before asking why it 
 exists r For from the facts and circumstances which meet 
 us in the circulation, its uses and objects are to be sought. 
 M untime I would only ask, how many things we admit in 
 physiology, pathology, and therapeutics, the causes of 
 which are unknown to us r That there are many, no one 
 doubts, such as the causes of putrid fevers, of revulsions, 
 and of the purgation of excrementitious matters. 
 
 Whoever, t! -ets himself in opposition to the cir- 
 
 culation, .if it be acknowledged, he cannot account 
 
 for a variety of medical problems, nor in the treatment of 
 diseases and the administration of medicines, give satisfac- 
 tory r.-asons for the phenomena that appear; or who will 
 not see that the precepts he has received from his teachers 
 are false ; or who thinks it unseemly to give up accredited 
 opinions ; or who regards it as in some sort criminal to call 
 in question doctrines that have descended through a long 
 
 1 Vide Chapter XI V. 
 
128 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 succession of ages, and carry the authority of the ancients ; 
 — to all of these I reply, that the facts cognizable by the 
 senses wait upon no opinions, and that the works of nature 
 bow to no antiquity. For indeed there is nothing either 
 more ancient or of higher authority than nature. 
 
 To those who object to the circulation as throwing ob- 
 stacles in the way of their explanations of the phenomena 
 that occur in medical cases (and there are persons who will 
 not be content to take up with a new system, unless it ex- 
 plains everything, as in astronomy), and who oppose it 
 with their own erroneous assumptions, such as that, if it be 
 true, phlebotomy cannot cause revulsion, as the blood will 
 still continue to be forced into the affected part ; that the 
 passage of excrementitious matters and foul humours 
 through the heart, that most noble and important viscus, is 
 to be ajyprehended ; that an efflux and excretion, occasion- 
 ally of foul and corrupt blood, takes place from the same 
 body, from different parts, even from the same part and at 
 the same time, which, were the blood agitated by a con- 
 tinuous current, would be shaken and effectually mixed in 
 passing through the heart, and many points of the like 
 kind admitted in our medical schools, which are seen to be 
 repugnant to the doctrine of the circulation, — to them 
 I shall not answer farther here, than that the circulation is 
 not always the same in every place, and at every time, but is 
 contingent upon many circumstances, as the more rapid or 
 slower motion of the blood, the strength or weakness of 
 the heart as the propelling organ, the quantity and quality 
 or constitution of the blood, the rigidity or laxity of the 
 tissues, and the like. A thicker blood moves more slowly 
 through narrower channels ; it is more effectually strained 
 in its passage through the substance of the liver than 
 through that of the lungs. It has not the same velocity 
 through flesh and the softer parenchymatous structures 
 and through sinewy parts of greater compactness and consis- 
 tency : for the thinner and purer and more spirituous part 
 permeates more quickly, the thicker more earthy and indif- 
 ferently concocted portion moves more slowly, or is refused 
 admission. The nutritive portion, or ultimate aliment of 
 the tissues, the dew or cambium, is of a more penetrating 
 nature, inasmuch as it has to be added everywhere, and to 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 129 
 
 everything that grows and is nourished in its length and 
 thickness, even to the Ikhmis, nails, h;t,ir and feathers; and 
 then the excrementitious matters have to be secreted in 
 some places, where they accumulate, and either prove a 
 burthen or are concocted. But I d<> not helieve that the 
 excrementitious fluids or bad hnmoiirs when once separated, 
 nor the milk, the phlegm, ami the spermatic fluid, nor the 
 ultimate nutritive part, the dew or cambium, necessarily 
 circulate with the Mood. That which nourishes every part 
 adheres and becomes agglutinated to it. Upon each of 
 these topics and various others besides, to be discussed and 
 demonstrated in their several places, viz., in the physiology 
 and other parts of the art of medicine, as well as of the 
 consequences, advantages or disadvantages of the circula- 
 tion of the blood, I do not mean to touch here; it were 
 fruitless indeed to do so until the circulation has been 
 established and conceded as a fact. And here the example 
 of astronomy is by no means to be followed, in which from 
 mere appearances or phenomena that which is in fact, and 
 the reason wherefore it is so, are investigated. But as he 
 who inquires into the cause of an eclipse must be placed 
 beyond the moon if he would ascertain it by sense, and not 
 by reason, so with regard to things sensible, for things that 
 come under the cognizance of the senses, no more certain 
 demonstration or means of gaining faith can be adduced 
 than examination by the senses, and ocular inspection. 
 
 There is one remarkable experiment which I would have 
 everyone try who is anxious for truth, and by which it is 
 clearly shown that the arterial pulse is owing to the impulse 
 of the blood. Let a portion of the dried intestine of a dog 
 or wolf, or any other animal, such as we see in the drug- 
 gists' shops, be taken and filled with water, and then 
 secured at both ends like a sausage. By tapping with the 
 finger at one extremity, you will immediately feel a pulse 
 and vibration in any other part to which you apply the 
 fingers, as yoti do when you feel the pulse at the wrist. In 
 this way, indeed, and also by means of a distended vein, 
 you may accurately either in the dead or living body, 
 imitate and show every variety of the pulse, whether as to 
 force, frequency, volume, rhythm, etc. Just as in a long 
 Madder full of fluid, or in an oblong drum, every stroke 
 
 K 
 
130 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 upon one end is immediately felt at the other, so also in a 
 dropsy of the belly and in abscesses under the skin, we are 
 accustomed to distinguish between collections of fluid and 
 of air, between anasarca and tympanites in particular. If 
 every impulse and vibration given on one side is clearly felt 
 by a hand placed on the other side, we judge the case to be 
 tympanites, not, as falsely asserted, because we hear a 
 sound like that of a drum, and this produced by flatus, 
 which never happens, but because, as in a drum, even the 
 slightest tap passes through and produces a certain vibra- 
 tion on the opposite side, for it indicates that there is 
 a serous and ichorous substance present, of such a con- 
 sistency as urine, and not any sluggish or viscid matter as 
 in anasarca, which when struck retains the impress of the 
 blow or pressure, and does not transmit the impulse. 1 
 
 Having brought forward this experiment I may observe, 
 that a most formidable objection to the circulation of the 
 blood rises out of it, which, however, has neither been ob- 
 served nor adduced by anyone who has written against me. 
 When we see by the experiment just described, that the 
 systole and diastole of the pulse can be accurately imitated 
 without any escape of fluid, it is obvious that the same 
 thing may take place in the arteries from the stroke of the 
 heart, without the necessity for a circulation, but like 
 Euripus, with a mere motion of the blood alternately back- 
 wards and forwards. But we have already satisfactorily 
 replied to this difficulty ; and now we venture to say that 
 the thing could not be possible in the arteries of a living 
 animal. To be assured of this it is enough to see that the 
 right auricle is incessantly injecting the right ventricle of 
 the heart with blood, the return of which is prevented by 
 the tricuspid valves ; the left auricle in like manner filling 
 the left ventricle, the return of the blood there being 
 opposed by the mitral valves. The ventricles in their turn 
 are propelling the blood into either great artery, the reflux 
 
 1 [Harvey here makes several mistakes, due to the imperfect medical 
 knowledge of his time. The distension of a cavity by gas is not dis- 
 covered by the presence of vibrations as suggested, fluid being a much 
 better conductor of such impulses. Nor does the distinction drawn be- 
 tween serum ichor and anasarca hold good in the light of modern ex- 
 perience. — Ed. ] 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE moon. \:\] 
 
 in each being prevented bj the sigmoid valves in its orifice. 
 Either, therefore, the blood must move on incessantly 
 through the Lungs, and in like manner within the arteries 
 of the body, or stagnating and penl up, il musl rupture the 
 containing vessels, or choke the hearl bj over distension, as 
 I have shown it to do in the vivisection of a Bnake, de- 
 scribed in my book on the Mot ii>n of the Blood. To lTsnhv 
 tliis doubl I shall relate two experiments among many 
 others, the first of which, indeed, 1 have already adduced, 
 ami w bich show \\ "it h siugular clearness that the blood flow s 
 incessantly and with greal force and in ample abundance in 
 the veins towards the heart. The internal jugular vein of 
 of a live fallow deer was exposed, and divided (many of the 
 nobility and his most serene majesty the king, my master, 
 being present) ; a few drops only of blood were observed to 
 escape from the lower orifice rising up from under the 
 clavicle; whilst from the superior orifice of the vein and 
 coming down from the head, a round torrent of blood 
 gushed forth. You may observe the same fact any day in 
 practising phlebotomy: if with a finger you compress the 
 vein a little below the orifice, the flow of blood is imme- 
 diately arrested ; but the pressure being removed, forthwith 
 the flow returns as before. 
 
 From any long vein of the forearm get rid of the blood 
 as much as possible by holding the hand aloft and pressing 
 the blood towards the trunk, you will perceive the vein col- 
 lapsed and leaving, as it were, a depression in the skin ; but 
 now compress the vein with the point of a finger, and you 
 will immediately perceive all that part of it which is 
 towards the hand, to enlarge and to become distended with 
 the blood that is coming from the hand. How comes 
 it when the breath is held and the lungs thereby com- 
 pressed, a large quantity of air having been taken in, that 
 the vessels of the chest are at the same time obstructed, the 
 blood driven into the face, and the eyes rendered red and 
 Buffused? Why is it, as Aristotle asks in his problems, 
 that all the actions are more energetically performed when 
 the breath is held than when it is given ? In like manner, 
 when the frontal and lingual veins are incised, the blood is 
 made to How more freely by compressing the neck and 
 holding t he breath. I have several times opened the breast 
 
132 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 and pericardium of a man within two hours after his exe- 
 cution by hanging, and before the colour had totally left 
 the face, and in presence of many witnesses, have demon- 
 strated the right auricle of the heart and the lungs dis- 
 tended with blood ; the auricle in particular of the size of 
 a large man's fist, and so full of blood that it looked as if 
 it would burst. This great distension, however, had disap- 
 peared next day, the body having stiffened and become cold, 
 and the blood having made its escape through various chan- 
 nels. These and other similar facts, therefore, make it 
 sufficiently certain that the blood flows through the whole 
 of the veins of the body towards the base of the heart, and 
 that unless there was a further passage afforded it, it would 
 be pent up in these channels, or would oppress and over- 
 whelm the heart ; as on the other hand, did it not flow out- 
 wards by the arteries, but was found regurgitating, it would 
 soon be seen how much it would oppress. 
 
 I add another observation. A noble knight, Sir Robert 
 Darcy, an ancestor of that celebrated physician and most 
 learned man, my very dear friend Dr. Argent, when he had 
 reached to about the middle period of life, made frequent 
 complaint of a certain distressing pain in the chest, espe- 
 cially in the night season ; so that dreading at one time 
 syncope, at another suffocation in his attacks he led an un- 
 quiet and anxious life. He tried many remedies in vain, 
 having had the advice of almost every medical man. The 
 disease going on from bad to worse, he by-and-by became 
 cachectic and dropsical, and finally, grievously distressed, he 
 died in one of his paroxysms. In the body of this gentle- 
 man, at the inspection of which there were present Dr. 
 Argent, then president of the College of Physicians, and 
 Dr. Grorge, a distinguished theologian and preacher, who 
 was pastor of the parish, we found the wall of the left ven- 
 tricle of the heart ruptured, having a rent in it of size 
 sufficient to admit any of my fingers, although the wall it- 
 self appeared sufficiently thick and strong. This lacera- 
 tion had apparently been caused by an impediment to 
 the passage of the blood from the left ventricle into the 
 arteries. 
 
 I was acquainted with another strong man, who having 
 received an injury and affront from one more powerful 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 133 
 
 than himself, and 1 1 1 >• > 1 1 whom be could not have his 
 revenge, was bo overcome with anger and indignation, 
 
 which he ye1 communicated lo no one, (hat at last lie fell 
 into a strange distemper, suffering from extreme oppression 
 ami pain of the heart ami breast, and the prescriptions of 
 none of the very best physicians proving of anj avail, he I'cll 
 in the course of a few years into a scorbutic and cachectic 
 state, [lined away and died. Tins patient only received 
 some little relict' when the whole of his chest was com- 
 pressed, stroked and kneaded by a strong man, as a baker 
 kneads dough. His friends thought him poisoned by some 
 maleficent inllnence, or possessed with an evil spirit. The 
 arteries of his throat, enlarged to the size of the thumb, 
 looked like the aorta, itself, for they were as large as the 
 descending aorta. They pulsated violently, and appeared 
 like two long aneurisms. These symptoms had led to try- 
 ing the effects of arteriotomy in the temples, but with no 
 relief. In the dead body I found the heart and aorta so 
 much gorged and distended with blood, that the cavities of 
 the ventricles equalled those of a bullock's heart in size. 
 Such is the force of the blood pent up, and such are 
 the effects of its impulse. 
 
 We may therefore conclude, that although there may be 
 impulse without any exit, as illustrated in the experiment 
 lately spoken of, still that this could not take place in 
 the vessels of living creatures without most serious dangers 
 and imj)ediments. From this, however, it is manifest that 
 the blood in its course does not everywhere pass with the 
 same celerity, neither with the same force in all places and at 
 all times, but that it varies greatly according to age, 
 sex, temperament, habit of body, and other contingent cir- 
 cumstances, external as well as internal, natural or non- 
 natural. For it does not course through occluded intricate 
 and obstructed passages with the same readiness that it 
 does through straight, unimpeded, and pervious channels. 
 Neither does it, run through close, hard, and crowded parts, 
 with the same velocity as t hrough spongy, soft, and perme- 
 able I issues. Neither does it flow and penetrate with such 
 swiftness when the impulse is slow and weak, as when this 
 is forcible and frequent, in which ease the blood is driven 
 onwards with vigour and in large quantity. Nor is the 
 
134 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 sanie blood, when it has become inore consistent or earthy, 
 so penetrative as when it is more serous and attenuated or 
 liquid. And then it seems only reasonable to think that 
 the blood in its circuit passes more slowly through the 
 kidneys than through the substance of the heart ; more 
 swiftly through the liver than through the kidneys ; 
 through the spleen more quickly than through the lungs, 
 and through the lungs more speedily than through any of 
 the other viscera or the muscles, in proportion always to 
 the denseness or sponginess of the tissue of each. 
 
 We may be permitted to take the same view of the 
 influence of age, sex, temperament, and habit of body, 
 whether this be hard or soft ; of that of the ambient cold 
 which condenses bodies, and makes the veins in the ex- 
 tremities to shrink and almost to disappear, and deprives 
 the surface both of colour and heat ; and also of that 
 of meat and drink which render the blood more watery, by 
 supplying fresh nutritive matter. From the veins, there- 
 fore, the blood flows more freely in phlebotomy when the 
 body is warm than when it is cold. We also observe the 
 signal influence of the affections of the mind when a timid 
 person is bled and happens to faint : immediately the flow 
 of blood is arrested, a deadly pallor overspreads the surface, 
 the limbs stiffen, the ears sing, the eyes are dazzled or 
 blinded, and, as it were, convulsed. But here I come upon 
 a field where I might roam freely and give myself up to 
 speculation. But, indeed, so great a light of truth breaks 
 in upon me here ; occasion offers of explaining so many 
 problems, of resolving so many doubts, of discovering the 
 causes of so many slighter and more serious diseases, and 
 of suggesting remedies for their cure, that the subject 
 seems almost to demand a separate treatise. And it will 
 be my business in my "Medical Observations," to lay be- 
 fore my reader matter upon all these topics which shall be 
 worthy of the gravest consideration. 
 
 What, indeed, is more deserving of attention than the fact 
 that in almost every affection, appetite, hope, or fear, 
 our body suffers, the countenance changes, and the blood 
 appears to course hither and thither ? In anger the eyes 
 are fiery and the pupils contracted ; in modesty the cheeks 
 are suffused with blushes ; in fear, infamy and shame, the 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 185 
 
 Eaoe is pale, but the ears burn as if for the evil fchej were t" 
 bear; in lust lm« quickly ia the member distended with 
 blood and erected! But, above all, and thia is of the 
 highest importance to the medical practitioner,— how 
 Bpeedily is pain relieved or removed by the detraction of 
 blood, the application of cupping-glaaaea, <»r the compres- 
 sion of the artery which Leads to a part? It sometimes 
 vanishes as if by magic. But these are topics that I must 
 
 refer to my "Medical Observations," where they will be 
 
 found referred to and explained. 
 
 Sonic weak and inexperienced persons vainly seek by 
 dialectics and Ear-fetched arguments, either to upset or es- 
 tablish things that are only to be founded on anatomical 
 dissection, and believed on the evidence of the senses. He 
 who truly desires to he informed of the question in hand, 
 and whether the facts alleged be sensible, visible, or not, 
 must he held hound either to look for himself, or to believe 
 the conclusions held by those who have tested the matter. 
 Indeed, there is do higher method of attaining to assurance 
 and certainty. Who would attempt to persuade those who 
 had never tasted Avine that it was a drink much pleasant er 
 to the palate than water ? How should we prove to the 
 blind from birth that the sun was luminous, and. far sur- 
 passed the stars in brightness? So it is with the circula- 
 tion of the blood, which has now for so many years been 
 before all, confirmed by facts recognizable by the senses, 
 by autopsies and by various experiments. No one has yet 
 been found to dispute the sensible facts, the motion, efiiux 
 and afflux of the blood, by like observations based on the 
 evidence of sense, or to oppose the experiments adduced, by 
 other experiments of the same character ; nay, no one has 
 yet attempted an opposition on the ground of ocular testi- 
 mony. 
 
 There have not been wanting many who, inexperienced 
 and ignorant of anatomy, and making no appeal to the 
 senses in their opposition, have, on the contrary, met 
 it with empty assertions, and mere suppositions, with 
 assertions derived from the lessons of teachers and captious 
 cavillings. Many, too, have vainly sought refuge in words, 
 and these not always very nicely chosen, but reproachful 
 ami contumelious, which, however, have uo farther effect 
 
136 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 than to expose their utterer's vanity and weakness, and ill 
 breeding, and lack of the arguments that are to be sought 
 in the conclusions of the senses, and false sophistical 
 reasonings that seem utterly opposed to sense. Even as the 
 waves of the Sicilian sea, excited by the blast, dash against 
 the rocks around Charybdis, and then hiss and foam, and are 
 tossed hither and thither ; so do they who reason against 
 the evidence of their senses. 
 
 If nothing were to be admitted by the senses without 
 evidence derived from reason, or occasionally even con- 
 trary to the previously received conclusions of reason, 
 there would now be no problem left for discussion. Had 
 we not our most perfect assurances by the senses, and 
 were not their perceptions confirmed by reasoning, in the 
 same way as geometricians proceed with their figures, we 
 should admit no science of any kind ; for it is the province 
 of geometry to make rational demon stration of things that 
 are not sensible from things sensible, to discover things 
 abstruse and beyond the senses from things more manifest 
 and better known. Aristotle counsels us better when, in 
 in treating of the generation of bees, he says : x " Faith is to 
 be given to reason, if the matters demonstrated agree with 
 those that are perceived by the senses ; when the things 
 have been thoroughly scrutinized, then are the senses to 
 be trusted rather than the reason." Whence we ought to 
 approve or disapprove, to receive or reject everything only 
 after the most careful examination ; but to examine, to 
 test whether anything have been well or ill advanced, to 
 ascertain whether some falsehood does not lurk under a 
 proposition, it is imperative on us to bring it to the proof 
 of sense, and to admit or reject it on the decision of sense. 
 Whence Plato in his Critias says, that the explanation of 
 those things is not difficult of which we can have expe- 
 rience. They are not of apt scientific apprehension who 
 have no experience. 
 
 How arduous and difficult is it to teach those who have 
 no experience, the things of which they have not any know- 
 ledge by their senses ! And how useless and intractable 
 to true science are such auditors ! They show the judg- 
 
 1 De Generat. Animal, lib. iii. cap. x. 
 
CIRCULATION OF TWE BLOOD. 187 
 
 in. n( of the l>Iiixl in regard to colours, of the deaf in 
 reference to concords. Whoever pretended to teach the ebh 
 and H"\\ of the tide, or from ;i diagram to demonstate the 
 measurements of the angles and the proportions of the 
 sides of a triangle to a blind man, or to one who had never 
 Been the aea nor a diagram ? Ee who is ao1 conversanl 
 with anatomy, inasmuch as he Eorms qo conception of the 
 Bubjecl from the evidence of his own eyes, is virtually 
 Mind to all that concerns anatomy, and unlit to appreciate 
 what is founded thereon. Ee knows nothing of thai which 
 occupies the attention of the anatomist, nor of the prin- 
 ciples inherent in the nature of the things which guide 
 him in his reasonings; facts and inferences as well as 
 their sources are alike unknown lo sueh a one. But no 
 kind of science can possibly flow, save from, some pre- 
 existing knowledge of more obvious things; and this is 
 one main reason why our science in regard to the nature of 
 celestial liodies is so uncertain and conjectural. I would 
 ask of those who profess a knowledge of the causes of all 
 things, why the two eyes keep constantly moving together, 
 up or down, to this side or to that, and not independently, 
 one looking this way another that ; why the two auricles 
 of the heart contract sinmltaneoxisly, and the like ? Are 
 fevers, pestilence, and the wonderful properties of various 
 medicines to be denied because their causes are unknown ? 
 Who can tell us why the foetus in utero, breathing no air 
 up to the tenth month of its existence, is yet not suffo- 
 cated ? why, if born in the course of the seventh or eighth 
 month, and having once breathed, it is nevertheless suffo- 
 cated if its respiration be prevented ? ' Why can the foetus 
 still contained within the uterus, or enveloped in the mem- 
 branes, live without respiration ; whilst once exposed to the 
 air, unless it breathes it cannot retain life ? 2 
 
 1 Vide Chapter VI. of the Disq. on the Motion of the Heart and Blood. 
 
 2 [It may he here stated that the ahove questions relating to intra- 
 uterine and early aerial life have been satisfactorily explained by later 
 study. Harvey had only a vague idea of the uses of the Respiration, 
 although in the main it was right, and far in advance of contemporary 
 knowledge. It remained for Chemistry to unlock the secrets of that 
 function, upon which the hitherto inexplicable transition depended. 
 Chemistry can scarcely be said to have existed until long after Ilanev 
 wrote the above.— Ed.] 
 
138 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 Observing that many hesitate to acknowledge the circu- 
 lation, and others oppose it, because, as I conceive, they 
 have not rightly understood me, I shall here recapitulate 
 briefly what I have said in my work on the Motion of the 
 Heart and Blood. The blood contained in the veins, as it 
 were in its base, and where it is visibly in largest quantity, 
 viz., in the vena cava, close to the base of the heart and 
 right auricle, gradually increasing in temperature by its 
 internal heat, and becoming attenuated, it swells and rises 
 in the manner of fermentation, whereby the auricle being 
 dilated, and then contracting, in virtue of its pulsative 
 power, forthwith delivers its charge into the right ven- 
 tricle. This being filled, and the systole ensuing, the 
 charge, hindered from returning into the auricle by the 
 tricuspid valves, is forced into the pulmonary artery, 
 which stands with open door to receive it, and is imme- 
 diately distended with it. Once in the pulmonary artery, 
 the blood cannot return, by reason of the sigmoid valves. 
 Then the lungs, alternately expanded and contracted 
 during inspiration and expiration, afford it passage by the 
 proper vessels into the pulmonary veins, from which the 
 left auricle, acting equally and at the same time with the 
 right auricle, in motion, rhythm, order, and function, 
 drives the blood into the left ventricle, as the right auricle 
 does into the right ventricle. Then the left ventricle, 
 acting harmoniously with the right ventricle, and all 
 regress being prevented by the mitral valves, the blood is 
 projected into the aorta, and consequently impelled into 
 every branch of the arteries. The arteries, filled by this 
 sudden impulse, as they cannot discharge themselves so 
 speedily, are distended ; they receive a shock, or undergo 
 their diastole. But as this process goes on incessantly, I 
 infer that the arteries both of the lungs and of the body 
 at large, under the influence of such a multitude of strokes 
 of the heart and injections of blood, would finally become 
 so over-gorged and distended, that any further injection 
 must cease, or the vessels would burst, or the whole blood 
 in the body would accumulate within them, were there not 
 some exit provided. 
 
 The same reasoning is applicable to the ventricles of the 
 heart, distended with blood by the ceaseless action of the 
 
CIRCULATION OF Tin: BLOOD. L89 
 
 auricles. Didthej nol emptj themselves bj the arteries, 
 they would become over-gorged, and be fixed and made 
 incapable of all motion. Now this, mj conclusion, is true 
 ami necessary, if my premises be true; bul thai these arc 
 either true or false, our senses must inform us, not our 
 reason ocular inspection, not any process of the mind. 
 
 I maintain further, thai the blood in the veins always 
 and everywhere Hows from less to greater branches, ami 
 from every part towards the heart ; whence I gather that 
 the whole charge which the arteries receive, ami which is 
 imessant ly thrown into t hem, is delivered to the veins, and 
 Hows bach by them to the source whence it came. In this 
 way, indeed, is the circulation of the Mood set in motion 
 by an impelled How from and a reflux to the heart ; the 
 fluid being forcibly projected into the arterial system, and 
 then absorbed and imbibed from every part by the reins, 
 it returns through these in a continuous stream. Sense 
 assures us that all this is so, and necessary inference from 
 the perceptions of sense takes away all occasion for doubt. 
 Lastly, this is what I have striven, by my observations and 
 experiments, to illustrate and make known; I have not 
 endeavoured from causes and probable principles to de- 
 monstrate my propositions, but, as of higher authority, to 
 establish them by appeals to sense and experiment, after 
 the manner of anatomists. 
 
 And here I would refer to the amount of force, even of 
 violence, which sight aud touch make us aware of in the 
 hear! and greater arteries; and to the systole and diastole 
 constituting the pulse in the large warm-blooded animals, 
 which I do not say is equal in all the vessels containing 
 blood, nor in all animals that have blood ; but which is of 
 such a nature and amount in all, that a flow and rapid 
 passage of the blood through the smaller arteries, the 
 porosities of the parts, and all the branches of the veins, 
 must of necessity take place ; and therefore there is a cir- 
 culation. 
 
 For neither do the minute arteries, 1 nor the veins, pulsate ; 
 
 1 [It would almost seem as if Harvey had confused what we now 
 designate capillaries with the minute arteries. Pulsations synchronous 
 with the heart's action are occasionally observed even in such minute 
 arteries as those of the web of the frog's foot, while in man they are 
 
140 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 but the larger arteries and those near the heart pulsate, 
 because they do not transmit the blood so quickly as they 
 receive it. 1 Having exposed an artery, and divided it so 
 that the blood shall flow out as fast and freely as it is 
 received, you will scarcely perceive any pulse in that 
 vessel ; and for the simple reason, that an open passage 
 being afforded, the blood escapes, merely passing through 
 the vessel, not distending it. In fishes, serpents, and the 
 colder animals, the heart beats so slowly and feebly, that a 
 pulse can scarcely be perceived in the arteries ; the blood 
 in them is transmitted gradually. Whence in them, as 
 also in the smaller branches of the arteries in man, there 
 is no distinction between the coats of the arteries and 
 veins, because the arteries have to sustain no shock from 
 the impulse of the blood. 2 
 
 An artery denuded and divided in the way I have indi- 
 cated sustains no shock, neither does it pulsate ; whence it 
 clearly appears that the arteries have no inherent pulsative 
 power, and that neither do they derive any from the heart ; 
 but that they undergo their diastole solely from the im- 
 pulse of the blood. In the full stream, flowing to a dis- 
 tance, you may see the systole and diastole, and by touch 
 perceive, as I before stated, all the motions of the heart — 
 their order, force, rhythm, etc., 3 as it were in a mirror. 
 Precisely as in the water that is forced aloft, through a 
 leaden pipe, by working the piston of a forcing-pump, each 
 stroke of which, though the jet be many feet distant, is 
 nevertheless distinctly perceptible,- — the beginning, increas- 
 ing strength, and end of the impulse, as well as its amount, 
 and the regularity or irregularity with which it is given, 
 being indicated, the same precisely is the case from the 
 orifice of a divided artery. Wherefore, as in the instance 
 of the forcing engine quoted, you will perceive that the 
 
 more marked. As a general statement it may be asserted that the 
 pulse is absent from capillaries and veins. — Ed.] 
 
 1 Vide Chapter III, on the Motion of the Heart and Blood. 
 
 2 [While the above is approximately, it is not absolutely, the case. 
 The coats of the arteries are highly elastic throughout, with a circular 
 muscular envelopment which increases in relative importance as the 
 vessels diminish in size. The veins are less elastic than the arteries, and 
 have a very variable muscular element present. — Ed.] 
 
 3 Vide Chapter III, on the Motion of the Heart and Blood. 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. Ill 
 
 efflux is uninterrupted, although the je1 is alternately 
 greater and less. So in the arteries, besides the concussion 
 or impulse of the blood, the pulse or beal of the artery, 
 which is no1 equally exhibited in all, there is a perpetual 
 How and motion of the blood, which returns in an unbroken 
 stream to the point from whence it commenced the righi 
 auricle of I he heart. 
 
 All these points you may satisfy yourself upon, by 
 exposing one of the longer arteries, as those in the neck-, 
 and having taken it between your finger and thumb, 
 dividing i1 on the Bide remote from the heart. By the 
 greater or less pressure of your fingers, yon can have the 
 vessel pulsating less or more, or losing the pulse entirely, 
 
 and recovering it at will. And as these things proc I 
 
 thus when the chest is uninjured, so also do they goon 
 I'or a short lime when the thorax is laid open, and the 
 lungs having collapsed, all the respiratory motions have 
 eeased. Here, nevertheless, for a little while you may per- 
 ceive the left auricle contracting' and emptying itself, and 
 becoming whiter. At length, by growing weaker and 
 weaker, it begins to intermit, as does the left ventricle 
 also, and then it ceases to beat altogether, and becomes 
 quiescent. In* like manner does the stream of blood from 
 the divided artery grow less and less, the pulse of the 
 vessel smaller and weaker, until finally, the supply of blood 
 and the impulse of the left ventricle failing, nothing 
 escapes from it. You may perform the same experiment, 
 tying the pulmonary veins, and so taking away the pulse 
 of the left auricle, or relaxing the ligature, and restoring 
 it at pleasure. In this experiment, too, you will observe 
 what happens in moribund animals, viz., that the left 
 auricle first ceases from pulsation and motion, then the left 
 ventricle, next the right ventricle, finally the right auricle. 
 So that where the vital force and pulse first, begin, there do 
 they also last fail. 
 
 These particulars having been recognized by the senses, 
 it is manifest that the blood passes through, the lungs, 
 and not through the septum of the heart, and only through 
 t hem when they are moved in the ad of respiration, not 
 when they are collapsed and quiescent. We therefore see 
 the probable reason why nature has instituted the foramen 
 
142 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 ovale in the embryo, as it does not breathe, instead of 
 sending the blood by the way of the pulmonary artery into 
 the left auricle and ventricle, which foramen she closes 
 when the new-born creature begins to breathe freely. We 
 can also now understand why, when the vessels of the 
 lungs become congested and oppressed, and in those who 
 are affected with serious diseases, it should be so danger- 
 ous and fatal a symptom when the respiratory organs 
 become implicated. 
 
 We perceive none the less why the blood is so florid in 
 the lungs. It is because it is there thinner, having to 
 undergo filtration. 
 
 Moreover, it is to be observed from the summary which 
 precedes, and by way of satisfying those who demand the 
 causes of the circulation, and incline to regard the 
 power of the heart as the source of everything — that it is 
 not only the seat and source of the pulse which propels 
 the blood, but also, as Aristotle thinks, of the power which 
 attracts and produces it. Besides, they believe that the 
 spirits are engendered by the heart, and by the influxive 
 vital heat, in virtue of the innate heat of the heart, as the 
 immediate instrument of the soul, or common bond and 
 prime organ in the performance of every act of vitality ; 
 in a word, that the motion, perfection, heat, and every 
 property besides of the blood and spirits are derived from 
 the heart, as their fountain or original, and that it is the 
 primary cause of pulsation and life. This doctrine is as 
 old as Aristotle, who maintained all these qualities to 
 inhere in the blood, as heat inheres in hot water or in 
 boiling pottage. To those persons, were I to speak openly, 
 I should say that I do not agree with the common opinion. 
 There are many points to be noted in the production of the 
 parts of the body which incline me this way, but which it 
 does not seem expedient to enter upon here. Before long, 
 perhaps, I shall have occasion to lay before the world 
 things that are more wonderful than these, and which will 
 throw still greater light upon natural philosophy. 
 
 Meantime I shall only say, and set forth without de- 
 monstration — with the good leave of our learned men, and 
 with all respect for antiquity — that the heart, with the 
 veins and arteries and the blood they contain, is to be 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 11:', 
 
 regarded as the beginning a n<1 author, tin; fountain and 
 origin of all things in the body, the primary cause of life, 
 
 in the same wa\ as the; brain with all its nerves, organs of 
 sense and spinal marrow inclusive, is spoken of as the One 
 
 and general organ of sensation. But if by the word 
 heart the mere body of the heart, made up of its auricles 
 and ventricles, be understood, then I do not believe thai 
 the heart, is the fashioner of the blood ; neither do I 
 imagine that the blood has powers, properties, motion, or 
 heat, as the gift of the heart. Lastly, I do not admit that 
 the cause of the systole and contraction is the same as 
 that of the diastole or dilatation, whether in the arteries, 
 01 in the auricles, or vent rides of the heart; for I hold that 
 that part of the pulse which is designated the diastole 
 depends on another cause different from the systole, and 
 that it must always and everywhere precede any systole. 
 I hold that the innate heat is the first cause of dilatation, 
 and that the primary dilatation is in the blood itself, after 
 the manner of bodies in a state of fermentation, gradually 
 attenuated and swelling, and that in the blood this is 
 ultimately extinguished. I assent to Aristotle's example 
 of boiling gruel or milk thus far, that the rising and 
 falling of the blood does not depeu 1 upon vapours or 
 exhalations, or spirits, or anything rising in a vaporous or 
 aereal shape, nor upon any external agency, but upon an 
 internal principle regulated by nature. 
 
 Nor is the heart, as some imagine, anything like a 
 chauffer or fireplace or heated kettle, and so the source of 
 the heat of the blood. The blood, instead of receiving, 
 rather gives heat to the heart, as it does to all the other 
 parts, for the blood is the hottest element in the body. 
 It is on this account that the heart is furnished with 
 coronary arteries and veins ; it is for the same reason that 
 other parts have vessels, viz., to secure the access of 
 warmth for their due conservation and stimulation ; so 
 that the warmer any part is, the greater is its supply of 
 blood, or otherwise ; where the blood is in largest quantity, 
 there also is the heat highest. For this reason the heart, 
 remarkable through its cavities, is to be viewed as the 
 laboratory, fountain, and perennial focus of heat, and as 
 comparable to a hot kettle, not because of its proper sub- 
 
144 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 stance, but because of its contained blood. For the same 
 reason the liver, spleen, kings, etc., are reputed hot parts, 
 because they have numerous veins or vessels containing 
 blood. In this way do I view the native or innate heat 
 as the common instrument of every function, the prime 
 cause of the pulse among the rest. This, however, I do 
 not mean to state absolutely, but only propose it by way 
 of thesis. Whatever objections may be brought against 
 it by good and learned men, without scurrilous or con- 
 temptuous language, I shall be ready to consider, I shall 
 even be most grateful to anyone who will take up and 
 discuss the subject. 
 
 These then, are, as it were, the very elements and indi- 
 cations 'of the passage and circulation of the blood, viz., 
 from the right auricle into the right ventricle ; from 
 the right ventricle by the way of the lungs into the left 
 auricle ; thence into the left ventricle and aorta ; then by 
 all the arteries flowing from the heart through the poro- 
 sities of the parts into the veins, and by the veins back 
 again with great rapidity to the base of the heart. 
 
 There is an experiment on the veins by which anyone 
 that chooses may convince himself of this truth : Let the 
 arm be bound with a moderately tight bandage, and then, 
 by opening and shutting the hand, make all the veins to 
 swell as much as possible, and the integuments below the 
 fillet to become red. Now let the arm and hand be plunged 
 into very cold water, or snow, until the blood pent up 
 in the veins shall have become cooled down ; then let the 
 fillet be undone suddenly, and you will perceive, by the 
 cold blood returning to the heart, with what celerity the 
 current flows, and what an effect it produces when it has 
 reached the heart. You will no longer be surprised that 
 some should faint when the fillet is undone after venesec- 
 tion. 1 This experiment shows that the veins swell below 
 the ligature not with attenuated blood, or with blood 
 raised by spirits or vapours, for the immersion in the cold 
 water would repress their ebullition, but with blood only, 
 and such as could never make its way back into the 
 arteries, either by anastomoses or by devious passages. It 
 
 1 Vide Chapter XI. of the Motion of the Heart, etc. 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 1 !• 
 
 shows, moreover, how and in what way those who are 
 travelling over Bnowy mountains are Bometimes stricken 
 
 suddenly with death, and other things of the same 
 kind. 
 
 Lest it should seem difficult for the blood to make its 
 way through the pores of the various structures of the 
 l)ody. 1 shall add one illustration: The same thing happens 
 in tiie bodies of those that are hanged or strangled, as in 
 the arm that is bound with a ligature: all the parts 
 beyond the noose, — the face, lips, tongue, eyes, and every 
 part of the head appear gorged with blood, swollen and of 
 ;i deep red or livid colour. If the noose be relaxed, in 
 whatever position you have the body, before many hours 
 have passed you will perceive the whole of the blood to 
 have l.-t't the head and face, and gravitated through the 
 pores of the skin, flesh, and other structures, from the 
 superior parts towards those that are inferior and depen- 
 dent, until they become tumid and of a dark colour. But 
 it' this happens in the dead body, with the blood dead and 
 coagulated, the frame stiffened with the chill of death, 
 the passages all compressed or blocked up, it is easy to 
 perceive how much more apt it will be to occur in the 
 living subject, when the blood is alive and replete with 
 spirits, when the pores are all open and penetrable, and 
 the passage in every way made easy. 
 
 When the ingenious, able, and acute Descartes, (whose 
 honourable mention of my name demands my acknowledg- 
 ments,) and others, having taken out the heart of a fish, 
 and put it on a plate before them, see the pulse continue 
 and the heart contract, aud when it raises or erects itself 
 and becomes firm to the touch, they thiuk it enlarges, 
 expands, and that its ventricles thence become more capa- 
 cious. But, in my opinion, they do not observe correctly; 
 for, at the time that the heart gathers itself up, and be- 
 comes erect, it is certain that it is rather lessened in every 
 one of its dimensions ; that it is in its systole, not in its 
 diastole. Neither, on the contrary, when it collapses and 
 sinks down, is it then properly in its state of diastole and 
 distension, by which the ventricles become more capacious. 
 But we do not say that the heart is in the state of diastole 
 in the dead bodv, as having sunk relaxed after the svstole, 
 
146 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 but it is then collapsed, and destitute of all motion, it is 
 in a state of rest, not distension. It is only truly distended, 
 and in the proper state of diastole, when it is filled by the 
 charge of blood projected into it by the contraction of the 
 auricles, which appears evident enough in the course of 
 vivisections. Descartes, therefore, does not perceive how 
 much the relaxation and subsidence of the heart and 
 arteries differ from their distension or diastole ; and that 
 the cause of the distension, relaxation, and constriction, is 
 not one and the same. As contrary effects so must they 
 acknowledge contrary causes ; as different movements they 
 must have different motors ; just as all anatomists know 
 that the flexion and extension of an extremity are accom- 
 plished by opposite and antagonistic muscles, so contrary or 
 diverse motions are necessarily performed by contrary and 
 diverse organs instituted by nature for the purpose. Nor 
 do I find the efficient cause of the pulse aptly explained 
 by this philosopher, when with Aristotle he assumes the 
 cause of the systole to be the same as that of the diastole, 
 namely, an effervescence of the blood due to a kind of 
 ebullition. The pulse is a succession of sudden strokes 
 and quick percussions ; but we know of no kind of fer- 
 mentation or ebullition in which the matter rises and 
 falls in the twinkling of an eye ; the heaving is always 
 gradual where the subsidence is notable. Besides, in the 
 dissection of a living animal, we can perceive the ven- 
 tricles of the heart both charged and distended by the 
 contraction of the auricles, and more or less increased in 
 size according to the charge ; and farther, we can see that 
 the distension of the heart is rather a violent motion, 
 the effect of an impulse, and not performed by any kind 
 of attraction. 
 
 There are others who consider that, as no kind of 
 impulse of the nutritive juices is required in vegetables, 
 but that these are attracted by the parts which require 
 them, and flow in to take the place of what has been lost, 
 so neither is there any necessity for an impulse in animals, 
 the vegetative faculty in both working alike. But there 
 is a difference between plants and animals. In animals, a 
 constant supply of warmth is required to cherish the 
 members, to maintain them in life by the vivifying heat, 
 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 147 
 
 and to restore parts injured from without. Ii is aol 
 merely nutrition thai lias t<> be provided for. 
 So much for the circulation, which if impeded, perverted, 
 
 or too much excited, is followed l»v a host of dangerous 
 diseases and remarkable symptoms: in connexion with 
 (lie veins by varices, abscesses, pains, hemorrhoids, hemor- 
 rhages; in connexion with the arteries by enlargements, 
 phlegmons, severe ami lancinating pains, aneurisms, sar- 
 COSes, fluxions, Sudden attacks of suffocation, asthmas, 
 
 stupors, apoplexies, and innumerable other affections. 
 But this is not the place to enter on the consideration of 
 
 these; neither may I say under what circumstances and 
 how speedily some of these diseases, that are even reputed 
 incurable, are remedied and dispelled, as if by enchant ment. 
 I shall have much to put forth in my Medical Observations 
 and Pathology, which, so far as I know, has as yet been 
 observed by no one. 
 
 That I may afford you still more ample satisfaction, 
 most learned Riolanus, as you do not think there is a 
 circulation in the vessels of the mesentery, I shall conclude 
 by proposing the following experiment : ligature the porta 
 close to the liver, in a living animal, which is easily done. 
 You will perceive the veins below the ligature swelling in 
 the same way as those of the arm when the ligature is 
 bound above the elbow, which will proclaim the course of 
 the blood there. And as you still seem to think that the 
 blood can regurgitate from the veins into the arteries by 
 anastomoses, let the vena cava be tied in a living animal 
 near the bifurcation of the crural veins, and immediately 
 afterwards let an artery be opened to give issue to the 
 blood ; you will soon observe the whole of the blood dis- 
 charged from all the veins, even in the ascending cava, 
 beyond the ligature the crural veins and the parts belo\s 
 them remaining full. This certainly could not happen 
 were there any retrograde passage for the blood from the 
 veins to the arteries by anastomoses. 
 
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