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The Columbia University Libraries reserve the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. Author: U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Title: Dyestuffs for American textile and other industries Place: Washington, Date: 1915 qc|-82ziz-i COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DIVISION BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET MASTER NEGATIVE * ORIGINAL MATERIAL AS FILMED • EXISTING BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD RESTRICTIONS ON USE: U.S. Dept, of commerce, ' . ... Dyestuffs for American textile and other industries, by Thomas H. Norton, commercial agent of the Department of commerce. Washington, Govt, print, off., 1915. 67 p. diagrs. 25". At head of title: Department of commerce. Bureau of foreign and domestic commerce. B. B. Pratt, chief. Special agents series — no. 96. 1. Dyes and dyeing. 2. Textile Industry and fabrics — V. S. I. Nor- ton, Thomas Herbert, 1851- . n. Title. — 16—26284 Library of Congress Copy 2". HD9999.D9U6 1915 a i40bl| TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: 3^1 IVirt TRACKING # : REDUCTION RATIO: llx IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA (na) IB IIB DATE FILMED: Q|2C> ^^ INITIALS: wW mn 0SiS33 RLMED BY PRESERVATION RESOURCES. BETHLEHEM. PA. CO CJl 3 3 Q) O > IS o ^ n \ ■ r-l- < X o o ^ ^ M C/5 CJl ^-< COM o ^^: 3 3 > CD o m CD O OfQ ^ o O cC/5 X < N rsi o- U) O: CN ■^^3 ^1 o 5 ig k> In 1.0 mm 1.5 mm 2.0 mm ABCOEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ «l)C C CO I ^ ^ 0(/) 5 m o m ^ fo H^ ro CJl o 3 3 ^ |s 5.0 si OBfM 8 — O '«sJ-< ODISI s DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE E. E. PRATT, Chief i SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES-No. 06 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN TEXTILE AND OTHER INDUSTRIES BY tHTOMAS H. NORTON CoaimsrcUl Agent of the Deptnment of Commerct WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICi 1915 \ D3&^ UnSTl Cobnnlrid Wini'otviitp LIBRARY i School of Business < /« /, / Si \ > «\ ''^ r / i> t ) \ k I I DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE E. E. PRATT, Chief SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES— No. 96 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN TEXTILE AND OTHER INDUSTRIES BY THOMAS H. NORTON Commercial Agent of the Department of Commerce WASHINGTON GOVERNAlE^^Jf ^PINT\NG OFFICF. • 19J5 i i US ADDITIONAL COPIES Of THIS PUBUCATION MAT BE PROCUKED FROM THE SX7PERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTINO OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY t ) % i^ i ) \ i « t * t a • t • . • • CONTENTS. i I 5 7 12 12 12 14 15 15 Letter of submittal ^*^®. Introduction Dyestuff situation in the United States '..*... Dyestuffs used in the United States * * * Natural organic dyes • Importation of natural organic dyes Mineral dyes Artificial organic dyes Domestic manufacture of artificial dyestuffs i6 Foreign sources of artificial dyestuffs 17 Economic effects of dependence upon a single foreign source ^ * * . 17 Increased cost of coal-tar dyes ,« ^ Outlook for the immediate future *'' " jg Alternatives in case of a dyestuff famine jg Outline of the coal-tar chemical industry 20 Coal-tar dye industry in the United States .'....... 2I Slow development of the American industry / 21 American supply of raw materials Coal tar from gas works Coal tar and benzol from coke works Present production of crude tar products ! ." ! . 26 Price movement of American coal-tar crudes 28 Position of the American tar distiller Supply of general chemicals required The German coal-tar dyestuff industry Trade in crudes and intermediates Causes of Germany's supremacy Xo Research the chief cause 34 German industry, capital, dividends, etc * " * " * 34 Geography of the German industry 35 Relations between companies 05 Equipment of plants 07 Wages in the German factories 37 Processes of manufacture «« Uniformity of product ^ Typical phases ^ Illustrative outlines 4, Alizarin, naphthol yellow, magenta 4^ Hydroquinone and synthetic indigo \ 42 The ketone dyes ^ Benzidine dyes ^^ Tolidine and allied dyes ' 40 Patents in the German industry 40 American attitude toward the German industry 51 Producers of coal-tar crudes 59 Manufacturers of heavy chemicals * 52 Manufacturers of artificial dyestuffs 52 Consumers of artificial dyestuffs 53 Economists ^4 American Chemical Society, New York section * 54 Establishment of an American industry 55 The problem in England and France Kti Summary *'-*-".'."/-'-"..'..".*.* .'.".V.V.*..'. 57 23 24 24 28 29 30 31 ) I {■ l( i 10% /,. > ) .» LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Washington, March 20 j 1915. Sir: There is submitted herewith a report by Commercial Agent Thomas H. Norton on dyes tuffs for American textile and other industries. This report was called for by a resolution of the Senate, under date of January 26, 1915. It presents fully the nature of the dyestuffs used by American industries and the sources of supply, showing the limited extent of the domestic manufacture and the general dependence upon foreign-made dyes. The predominance of Germany in this field is shown, and the reasons for this situation are detailed. AH factors connected with the creation of a self-contained, independent, American coal-tar chemical industry are given in full, and the problems involved by a threatened cessation of the present foreign supply are considered. Respectfully, E. E. Pratt, Chief of Bureau. To Hon. William C. Redfield, Secretary of Commerce, 5 \ DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN TEXTILE AND OTHER INDUSTRIES. ,: < > ^ i * ) *l k «• K r V rf- - >. y f\* INTRODUCTION. Under date of January 26, 1915, the Senate of the United States passed the following resolution: Resolved, That the Secretary of Commerce be, and he is hereby, directed to inform the Senate as fully aa possible as to the facts relating to the supply of dyestufts for American textile and other industries, the sources of such supply, the extent and nature of the supply, the movement of prices, the available materials for the manu- facture of such supplies in this country, the possibilities, if any, as to the stoppage of such supply by reason of the existing European war, and any and all such other facts as will bring the existing conditions in the aniline color industry fully to the knowledge of the Senate. In response to this resolution, the Secretary of Commerce com- municated to the Senate, under date of February 20, 1915, the fol- lowing preliminary report, which summarizes the main facts and outlines the scope of the full report as here given. PRELIMINARY REPORT. Numerous American industries are closely dependent upon the use of dyestuffs. To the great textile branches they are almost as essen- tial as their supplies of vegetable or animal fibers. The same con- dition exists in the paint, varnish, and ink trades, the paper indus- try, the feather and leather trades, and a group of minor industries. Dependent upon the products of these industries are a host of other branches, all users of textiles. The old-time natural dyestuffs, such as indigo, madder, cochineal, orchil, fustic, and a score more, have no longer an extended use, with the exception of logwood, which still plays a valued auxiUary role. The same is the case with mineral colors, with some inconsiderable exceptions, such as Prus- sian blue in silks and iron buff in khaki. Artificial dyestuffs, derived from coal-tar products, have displaced nearly all rivals, combining quahties of fastness, ease of appUcation, briUiancy, variety of shades, etc., utterly unknown to the former generation of dyers. EFFECT OF WAR ON DYESTUFF CONSUMERS. The American consumption of artificial dyestuffs has attained an annual value of $15,000,000, and grows steadily. It is supphed partly by a. domestic production valued at about $3,000,000. This apparent domestic production is based chiefly upon the use of foreign materials — half-made or nearly completed color compounds. But a small portion is made from American crude coal- tar compoimds. "inl' I 8 DYESTUPFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. The great bulk of the artificial dyestuff supply comes from Europe. I^mZT^r 'TS'*^' ?^^' ^/"""^ Germany, $7,850,000; Switzerland, 35910,000, Great Britam and others, $370,000; total, $9,130,000 , feince August 1, 1914, m consequence of the outbreak of hostilities m J^urope, this foreign supply has been interrupted and constantly threatened with nearly complete cessation. Until the present date. German makers have been able to supply a considerable proportion ot the normal demands of theu- customers, but not entirely. Some unportant dyes are totally unobtamable. Prices have mounted from 25 to 50 per cent on such dyestuffs as can be dehvered. The imports may cease any day through inabihty to make shipments, on account of mantmie dangers, or what is more probable, through the mihtary necessity of comniandeering the available supply of the chief coal- tar crude matenal, benzol, for use as a motor fuel, or diverting the limited supply of nitnc acid— the chief chemical used in color nfanu- lacture — to the manufacture of explosives. The multitude of users of dyestuffs in the United States have been crippled in various ways, forced to change designs, or abandon certain products or to revert to a temporary use of natural dye- stutts, with all the accessory readjustment and revolution in dyeing processes. On every hand there is difficulty in meeting contrac! specifications and m makmg definite plans and agreements for the future. The importation of dyewood has quickly increased. It is now four times as great as in normal times. Prices of these dyewoods have niounted. I ustic, for example, has doubled in price The four American establishments making artificial dyestuffs have done their best to meet the emergency by enlarging the ordinary output. They have been crippled by the difficulties or impossibUity of securing half-manufactured: materials from abroad or crude ma- terials at home. Some large consumers of dyestuffs have erected emergency plants and make the colors they absolutely need, but at considerable cost. j , au DOMINANCE OF THE GERMAN INDUSTRY. In all this annoyance, loss, and uncertainty why do we not have an American coal-tar chemical industry, capable of meeting the Nation's demands, self-contained and independent of foreign control utiliz- mg our native raw material ? ' A careful analysis of the situation shows that not only is the American supply and the limited American production of coal-tar dyestuffs completely dominated by the German industry, but that this is the case throughout the world. Even countries such as Great Britain and France, with ample supplies of crude material and highly developed industrial power, are in the same condition as the United States. In 1913 the total consumption of artificial dyestuffs in the world had attained a value of over $92,000,000. Germany furnished 74 per cent of the entire amount and over one-half of the materials needed to make the remainder. The. only country, in addition to irermany manufacturing dyestuffs in any noteworthy manner for the world s markets IS Switzerland. That country rdies, however for Its crude and half-manufactured materials chiefly upon German sources. The dommance of Germany in the dyestuff production and •f S i f w / > ) 4 <^ ^ •• •^ •• % f|# DYESTUFFS FOB AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 9 commerce of the entire world is so marked, and inherently of such potential might, that it does not hesitate to make itself felt when- ever and wherever an effort is made toward emancipation from its control. The methods used are those often associated with the working of great industrial corporations in various lands and now effectively checked by legal enactment in the United States. In the case of tne German coal-tar chemical industry, the field is interna- tional and its operations are unchecked by law. Its influence has been felt at once in our own country when efforts to manufacture intermediate compounds or finished dyes threatened in any way the interests of the German production and trade. ADVANTAGES POSSESSED BY GERMAN MANUFACTURERS. The coal-tar chemical industry includes not only the manufacture of dyestuffs, but of a number of valuable medicinal preparations, and of various high explosives. It is based upon the use of crude com- pounds present to a, .small extent ia the tar obtained in the de- structive distillation. efcoaTin gas works and coke ovens. These 10 crude compounds — benzol, carbolic acid, anthracene, etc. — are separated^ f rom some 145 other substances present in tar, by frac- tionaLdistiUation. Thisis the work of the tar distiller. From the 10 crudes, nearly 300 more complex compounds, none of them dyes, are produced by highly refined and comphcated chemical and me- chanical processes, involving in most cases a number of complete chemical transformations. These serve as the materials for the manufacture of about 920 dyestuffs now in current use. In the case of Germany, the domestic supply of '^crudes" is amply sufficient. The color factories make aU of the 300 intermediates re- c^uired for Germany's own industry and a large share of those used in the very restricted production of other lands. The industry has been chiefly developed by the inventive power of German chemists, combined with a wealth of technical skill and keen business management, scarcely equaled in the history of any other branch of manufacture. The 21 German companies engaged in the dyestuff manufacture have a nominal capital of over $36,700,000 on which dividends average 22 per cent. Actual profits often reach 50 per cent. The great excesses have been devoted to new construction. It is the most remunerative industry in the Empu-e, the one niost solidly and formidably intrenched, the one of which the nation is most proud as showing the triumph of science applied to industrial purposes, and the one iQustrating most strik- i^igly the ability to wm and maintain international supremacy in a given field. ABUNDANCE OF AMERICAN RAW MATERIAL. In the United States the supply of coal tar is ample, suflScient to provide in abundance all of the crudes required for the manufacture of the dyestuffs consumed in the country. The amount of valuable by-products not yet recovered in our present coking plants amounts to $75,000,000 annually. With adequate provision to save all the benzol and tar liberated in American coke ovens, enough of the 10 crudes could be secured to more than cover the world's consumption in making artificial dyestuffs. 10 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. If a commercial demand is present, American tar works can quickly provide all of the crudes needed, practically as cheaply as in Europe. In the manufacture of intermediates the production is restricted to four or five compounds, and these cover about one- quarter of the needs of American color works. Our manufacture of heavy chemicals is well developed, able to expand rapidly, and supply all needed chemicals for the production of intermediates and theu- transformation into finished dyes. The four establishments devoted to the production of dyes supply nearly 100 different colors, largely, however, as already stated, by '^assembling'' nearly finished products of foreign origin. These American firms are bold ana enterprising, commanding about $3,000,000 capital, evidently doing the oest they can under existing conditions to build up a national industry. Investigation shows that their advance, beyond certain limits, in the manufacture of either intermediate or finished dyes is per- sistently checked and prevented by the united action of German producers in underselling. The entire German color industry is so completely organized and accustomed to act as a unit in furthering the general interests, at home and abroad, that little success in facing their determined opposition has heretofore been obtained. The present crisis has evoked deep interest on the part of all con- cerned — tar distillers, manufacturers of chemicals, manufacturers of dyestuffs, the many users of the same, and American economists in general — as to how the problem can be settled. There is no ques- tion but that our coke interests are ready to multiply their recovery plants for the production of benzol and tar, if a permanent market is assured. There is no question of the readiness of tar distillers to enlarge their plants for the production of an ample supply of the needed crudes if a continued demand is certain. American chemical works and American manufacturers of dyestuffs are ready to embark capital and experience in building up a distinctly American coal-tar chemical industry, using entirely American crudes and intermedi- ates, provided there is adequate legislative prohibition against both "dumping" or unfair restraint of American trade by the arbitrary action of foreign monopoly permitted by foreign law and not as yet forbidden by our own. Domestic maKers assert their ability to make at once over 90 per cent of the dyes now consumed in the United States, which are now patent-free, and state that the remain- ing tenth will soon be freed from patent restriction. WHAT THE AMERICAN INDUSTRY REQUIRES. There seems to be a consensus of opinion that anv rapid develop- ment and evolution of the dyestuff branch, on a scale commensurate with the Nation's needs, present and prospective, can be assured only on the basis of an effective law preventing that action toward con- trol of our markets by a foreign monopoly which is now prohibited to a domestic monopoly. Some of the largest manufacturers have personally informed the department that what is needed is not a tariff change, but laws placing a foreign monopoly on the same basis as an American one. American economists feel that the present crisis offers the most favorable moment to decide upon a policy with regard to this one V ^ < i •« ; > ) \ t; ) -X DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 11 important industry, whether it is to be firmly rooted in American soil or whether the dependence upon a foreign source is to continue indefinitely. It is pointed out that each year elapsing increases in geometrical ratio the difficulties attendant upon any attempt to create a self-contained American dyestuff industry. Further, it is claimed that it is the only highly organized industry not yet brought on a broad and generous scale within the cycle of American economic activity. In England and France the textile and other branches have insisted that the national industries must be permanently freed from dependence upon a foreign source for one oi the vital needs of the most varied manufactures. Within a fortnight the group of French chemists intrusted with the problem claim that they have satisfac- torily solved aU difficulties m the way. During the same period the necessary steps have been taken in England, where the Govern- ment has provided for the organization of a national company to create an independent dyestuff industry, contributing nearly $2,000,000 to its capital, and granting at the same time $500,000 for the requisite research laboratory. -A > DYESrUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 13 DYESTUFF SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES. There is a large and steadily growing consumption of dyestuflFs in the United States required in a variety of industries. The most important of these industries are: Textiles — cotton, silk, woolen, etc.; pamts and pigments; varnishes; inks; leather articles; feathers. A great variety of industries, in addition, are closely dependent upon the above for all that concerns color effects. Promment among these are the printing trades; automobile and carriage manufacture; implement manufacture; paper trade; soap trade; upholstery trade; millinery, dressmaking, etc. Further, a notable and increasing number of preparations made from by-products and accessory products of the manufacture of artificial dyestuffs are now used in photography, medicine, the pro- duction of high explosives, and the manufacture of artificial per- fumes. Economically these are very closely interlocked with the dyes tuff industry. Directly and indirectly, a large proportion of American industries are dependent upon a constant and varied supply of dyestuffs. DYESTUFFS USED IN THE UNITED STATES. The dyestuffs consumed by American industries fall into three classes: Natural organic dyes, mineral dyes, and artificial organic dyes. Until about 1860 the dyeing trades were restricted to the use of preparations falling in the first two classes. Soon after that date the earlier anihne colors were introduced into general use. The number and variety of these artificial products, made from the different con- stituents of coal tar, rapidly increased. It was soon possible to replace, in most cases with very pronounced advantages, every tint and shade yielded by natural and mineral dyes, and, m addition, to increase greatly the hues available for color designs in a multitude of industries. The use of the older dyeing materials, both organic and mineral, quickly lessened. To-day, and for some years past, the great bulk of the dyestuffs consumed in the United States con- sists of synthetic products of the coal-tar chemical industry. The dyestuffs of an earlier day have been in most cases almost completely superseded. In a few instances they play a minor and humble r6le, chiefly as accessories in the use of the artificial dyes. ♦■4 NATURAL ORGANIC DYES. The natural organic dyes are conveniently classified in four sub- divisions: (1) Indigo; (2) logwood; (3) red dyes; (4) yellow dyes. (1) Indigo. — This substance, obtained from various plants of the fenus Indigofera, was for centuries the most important of aU dyestuffs. Intil quite recently it was supphed from Asiatic countries, chiefly from India, and to some extent from tropical America. The natural dyes tuff is now replaced almost entirely by the synthetic product, which has manifest advantages in uniformity of strength and shade, as well as in price. The amount of natural indigo now used in the United States is about 7 per cent of the total amount of indigo. 12 > ^ } ^< H ik (2) Logwood,— This dye is extracted from campeachy wood, found m tropical and subtropical America. Our supply comes ahnost entu-ely from Jamaica. The extraction of the coloring matter from the wood IS done usually in American mills, although a certam amount of extract is also imported. Next to indigo, logwood was until the past half century, the most important dyes tuff known It was universally employed for the dyeing of black on aU classes of fabrics, as was indigo for the production of blue. It is to-day the only natural coloring matter, except indigo, employed extensively by the dyer. While of limited application now on cotton and wool for the production of very cheap blacks, there is stiU a large amount used m dveing silk, to the fiber of which it gives greater opacity than can be obtamed from coal-tar dyes. There is ako an extended use in dyemg leather. Considerable amounts are employed in connection with dyestuffs, m order to tone shghtly the shade produced. (3) Red dyes— These include among the dyewoods, Brazil wood peach wood, Japan wood, and Lima wood, which yield soluble tinctorial matters; and barwood, camwood, and Saunders wood which contam msoluble colormg substances. None of these to-dav has more than a very limited use. Most of the woods in question are supphed by Central America and South America Mad.der, obtained from the root of the Ruhia tinctoria, used for centuri^ to produce the famous ^'Turkey red," has now ahnost dis- appeared from commerce Its coloring prmciple, ahzarin, has been manufactured synthetically from the anthracene of coal tar smce 1871. A small amount of the root is still imported Cochineal, a brUliant scarlet, extracted from the female of the msect Coccus cacti, found abundantly on the cactus plant in Mexico and Central America, was once a valued dye for woolens, and is still employed to dye the uniforms of the British army. It resisted longer than madder the invasion of artificial dyestuffs, but its use m the Umted States is now very limited. , OrchU and its dried extract, cudbear, found very extensive use in producmg purphsh-red and reddish-brown shades on wool and on sUk. It IS extracted from lichens, found in abundance on the sea- coasts of subtropical countries. Lower California formerly yielded great quantitie^ At present the use is restricted and Umited chiefly to tonmg the effects produced by other dyes. Annatto from the fruit of the Bixa oreUana, in South America, has a Imuted application m silk dyeing. It is more largely used to Safflower, the dried florets of Carthamus tinctonus, has a very . slight use for imparting pmks to cheap cottons. (4) Yelhw dyes.— The principal yellow dye is fustic, obtained from the wood of Morus tinctona, a tree occurring abundantly in the West Indies and Central and South America. Formerly used largely for yellows and ohves, it now finds a hmited employment for tomnk logwood effects, especially on woolens. ^^ ^n!ifc^^^^ extracted from a species of oak in the Middle and Southern States, still has a limited use in cahco printing frn^^?i?n -^T'^ ^^? """^'^.^ ^^^j.^^, ^^ ^^^ buckthorn, imported from the Orient are also used to a shght extent for calico printing. a iJi™^T'- ^.^^r^^^ed from Curcuma tinctoria, an Asiatic rootTlias a very restricted use, chiefly in producing composite shades 14 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. Cutch, obtained from an Indian variety of acacia, is employed slightly for a few brown shades, but more extensively as a tannin mordant on cottons. The displacement of these natural dyes by artificial colors was not due entirely to the fact that the latter could often be manufactured more cheaply. Most of the vegetable dyes were far removed from being pure dyestuffs. The extracts obtamed from woods and plants contained, in addition, a variety of non-tinctorial substances, resins, tannins, sugars, pectinous bodies, etc. It was practically impossible to isolate the pure coloring matter. As a consequence, the extracts varied seriously in their strength, and the colors imparted were dull. The processes of dyeing became easier, simpler, and cheaper, and could^be readily standardized. It was furtner possible to extend greatly the range of colors. Many tones and shades, hitherto un- known, were at the service of the dyer. Most important of all was the fact that the artificial dyestuffs, as a rule, were fast as compared with most of the natural colors. Indigo was the fastest color, and still represents the standard for comparison. Madder was practically as fast, but neither could be obtained from their vegetable sources in a form at all pure or approaching uniformity. The synthetic prod- ucts were pure and of uniform strength. Cochineal was a fairly fast color, faster than the earher coal-tar scarlets; and although the latter were cheaper, the animal dyestuff held its own until the appearance of anthracene and chrome scarlets, which possessed even higher de- grees of permanence. The otner natural dyestuffs enumerated above were highly fugitive, as compared with the corresponding coal-tar colors, which appeared in rapid succession from 1860 on. Logwood was fast to washing, but not very resistant to Hght or on exposure to weather. It held its own, however, until the appearance oi the fast alizarin blacks. Even now it is employed largely for cheap grades of cotton and woolen, and is the one natural dyestuff that continues to maintain a rela- tively important position m the dveing branch. With regard to the sources of the natural organic dyestuffs, it will be noticed that the present supply of the United States is chiefly drawn from the tropical and subtropical regions of the Western Hemisphere. A few materials — natural indigo, cutch, Persian berries, madder, and turmeric — come from Asia. A single dyestuff, quercit- ron, is indigenous to the United States. IMPORTATION OF NATURAL ORGANIC DYES. The following table gives the quantity and value of the imports of natural organic dyestuffs into the United States for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913: 1 Articles. Quantity. Vahie. Annatto pounds. . Camwood Cochineal pounds. . Cudbear do — Dyewoods, diverse tons. . Fustic wood do — Indigo, natural iwunds. . Logwood tons. . Logwood (and other wood) ex- tracts pounds.. 405,024 109,089 27,971 155 3,785 231,834 36,952 2,258,206 S19,991 191 44,249 1,755 1,794 53,303 88,716 475,484 111,575 Articles. Quantity. Madder, ground pounds. Madder, extract do. . . Orchil Persian berries,extract pounds. SaflSower, saflron Turmeric Total. 30,602 2,154 64,883 Value. $2,803 233 27,386 7,173 03,146 33,735 961,534 een made in their works. In all cases the production has been abandoned because German makers reduced their prices on interme- diates to such an extent that competition became hopeless. During the last seven months, when it has been almost impossible to obtain intermediates from Europe, the American works have hur- V » i > ^ t s ' it * i I nedly put up emergency plants and made the requisite intermediates at considerable expense in order to avoid a complete stoppage. In this connection material assistance has been rendered by the intro- duction in 1911 of the manufacture of nitrobenzol andf aniline oil and salts in the works of one of the largest American companies en- gaged in the production of chemicals. This company has been able to supply about one-quarter of the demand of American dyestuff manufacturers for the intermediates in question. The quality of these compounds has been recognized as fully equal to that of European products, and the abihty to make these com- pounds in the United States from American benzol, so hotly con- tested on the other side of the ocean, has been abundantly demon- strated. A plant is now under erection that will be able to provide for one- half of the needs of the American color makers, as far as aniline oil and salts are concerned, and will be capable of easy expansion. The dyes manufactured by the four American estabhshments are chiefly standard colors, called for in fairly large quantities, on which patent rights have expired. They number about 100 and represent the active types in the trade. No attempt is made to manufacture synthetic indigo, which remams imder patent protection for a few years longer, or alizarin, which requires an exceedingly expensive plant. Both of these dyestuffs are on the free Hst. Mention should be made of a fifth factory for makmg coal-tar dyes which has been estabhshed m the State of New York by one of the largest German firms engaged in the manufacture. This branch house, according to statements, is occupied with the transformation of intermediates into finished dyes, especially in such cases where the series of operations is costly, and the last steps relatively simple and mexpensive. There is manifestly a temptation to utihze tariff pro- visions m this manner, and the practice is probably not limited to the one foreign branch. An unfinished dyestuff pays 10 per cent duty or no duty, as compared with a duty of 30 per cent on the finished product. The cost of the last steps in ^'assembling" the finished dye, may, however, be less than 1 per cent of its total value. Reviewing the growth and present status of the manufacture of artificial dyestuffs in the United States, it may be said that all has practically been accomphshed that could safely be attempted m the face of exceptionally powerful competition. Those conducting these mdustries have shown an abundant measure of perseverance and patience in facmg economic difficulties and gradually building up as extensive a structure as now exists. There seems to be present a determmation and readmess to invest capital and energy on a large scale in expandmg the industry as soon as the factors of safety are assured. AMERICAN SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIALS. As already noted, attempts in the past to manufacture intermediates have been hampered by the insufficiency of the domestic supply of coal-tar crudes. It is desirable at this pomt to know exactly how far the recovery of the by-products of American gas works and coke ovens IS developed and to what extent they can supply in the im- paediate future the crudes needed by an expanded coal-tar chemical industry. The two sources of coal tar are gas works and coke plants 24 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. DYESTXJFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 25 •^ bi COAL TAR FROM GAS WORKS. In 1909, according to the census returns, the coal used in American gas works amounted to 4,941,000 tons, valued at $16,305,000. At the same time 580,000,000 gallons of oil, valued at $17,346,000, were employed m the production of gas. The tar collected was 92,153,000 gallons. Of this quantity 78,340,000 gallons, valued at $1,876,000, appear to have come into the market. The valuation is a little over 2 cents per gallon. This tar is not rich in the hydrocarbons benzol, toluol, and xylol, as it is sought to retain as large a volume as possible of these volatile constituents in the gas, in order to in- crease the illuminating power. Coal gas usually contains from 0.5 to 1.2 per cent of benzol and its homologues. On an average, when coal is distilled, 100 pounds of coal yield 1.25 pounds of benzol and its higher homologues that are present in the gas evolved. Of this amount 0.94 pound is pure benzol, and 0.31 pound is toluol and xylol. A small additional amount is found in the tar. It consists of 0.05 pound of benzol, and 0.08 pound of toluol and xylol. The coal tar from gas works contains on an average 0.32 per cent of pure benzol, 0.50 per cent of toluol and xyol, 0.26 per cent of pure phenol, 4.5 per cent of pure naphthalene, and 0.44 per cent of pure anthracene. Assuming that the present American production of gas tar amounts to 100,000,000 gallons, this represents about 1,000,000,000 pounds, or 500,000 short tons. From this quantity it is possible, on the above figures, to extract: Benzol, 1,600 tons; toluol and xylol, 2,500 tons; phenol, 1,300 tons; naphthalene, 22,500 tons; antliracene, 2,200 tons; and the minor constituents, cresol, phenanthrcne, etc., in proportion. COAL TAR AND BENZOL FROM COKE WORKS. The majority of the coke plants in the United States are equipped with old-fashioned beehive ovens, which allow all gas, ammonia, and tar to be wasted. Modern recovery ovens, with condensation plants, have been in- stalled to some extent in this country. Their use is much more extended in European coke works, especially in Germany, where nearly aU the by-products are saved. In 1913 there were 102,650 coke ovens in the tJnited States, and of these only 5,688 were retort, or recovery, ovens. The increase during the year of such ovens was 477. There was a decrease in the number of beehive ovens of 57. At the close of the year 504 retort ovens were under construction, and contracts had been made for building many more. During 1913, 30,485 beehive ovens— 31.4 per cent of the entire number— were idle throughout the entire year. In 1912 the amount of coal used for coke plants reached 65,578000, short tons. The coke produced totaled 32,869,000 tons, valued at $69,172,000, from beehive ovens, and 11,115,000 tons, valued at $42,633,000, from recovery ovens; in all, 43,984,000 tons, valued at $111,805,000. The coke obtained from the recovery ovens repre- sents 25 per cent of the total product in quantity and 38 per cent in value. The retort ovens are expensive, but the increased outlay is more than compensated by the value of the ammonia, tar, and gas recov- \ > < If > ( |v ^ Ir ♦ ered, especially if there is an adequate demand at hand for the gas. The recovery plants contain the necessary condensers for collecting ammonia and tar, but are not always provided with the ''scrubbers," or benzol towers, designed to extract from the otherwise purified gas the benzol and toluol present therein and enhancing the value for illuminating purposes. In the towers the current of gas comes in contact with the heavier oils obtained in the distillation of coal tar, and the benzol and toluol present are largely absorbed by them. The oils, when saturated, are i*un into a still, and the benzol and toluol are driven out by heat and are collected in suitable condensers. Benzol towers constitute an important additional item of expense, and introduce an additional complication into the general process. They give a yield of about 22 poimds of benzol and toluol for each ton of coal submitted to coking. Their construction has hitherto been largely dependent upon the current demand for these hydrocarbons. The cost of benzol towers for a plant coking 300 tons of coal daily is about $21,000 in Germany. It requires a capital of about $5,000 for operation. The operating expenses are about $23,000 per annum. Such a plant gives yearlv profits exceeding $30,000 when benzol prices are favor- able. With low prices for benzol it may barely meet the cost of operation. The 65,000,000 tons of coal now employed in coking are capable of producing 715,000 tons of benzol and its nomologues from benzol towers alone, but the cost of the necessary plant would be over $14,000,000. It is estimated that our present system of coking involves an annual loss of $75,000,000, but at the present rate of advance, by 1920 one- half of our coke supply wiU come from recovery ovens. The intro- duction of such ovens in the United States began in 1892. The tar recovered in American coke plants was 66,300,000 gallons m 1910. It rose to 94,300,000 gallons in 1912, with a value of $2,311,000, or 2.45 cents per gallon. The weight of this tar was about 944,000 tons. Taking as a basis the customary yield obtained from coke tar, this contains 16,420 tons of benzol, toluol, etc.; 2,380 tons of phenol; 56,600 tons of naphthalene; and 1,890 tons of anthracene, and the minor constituents in proportion. From the 65,000,000 tons of coal now used in coking it would, however, be possible, with complete recovery plants, to obtain 3,350,000 tons of tar, or three and one-half times the present quantity. This would mean a potential supply from the tar of coke plants, on an existing basis of production, of approximately 58,000 tons of benzol, toluol, etc.; 8,300 tons of phenol; 200,000 tons of naphthalene; and 6,700 tons of anthracene. Together, the existing gas and coke production, provided the latter be completely equipped with recovery plants, can furnish tar and benzol capable of yielding annually approximately 780,000 tons of benzol; 9,600 tons of phenol; 222,000 tons of naphthalene; and 9,000 tons of anthracene; and the minor compounds, cresol, methyl, an- thracene, phenanthrene, and carbazol in the customary relative pro- portions. From existing American gas works and coke plants, as equipped at present, about 25,000 tons annually of benzol, toluol, and xylol can be obtained if there is sufficient demand, and the proportionate quantities of the other constituents. 26 if DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. These figures for the possible and potential production in the United States of the crude coal-tar proaucts may De compared with those for the production in Germany. In 1910 Germany was equipped to produce, if necessary, 98,000 metric tons of benzol and its homologues (metric ton = 2,204.6 pounds). The actual production was 66,000 tons. Of this, 56,000 tons were benzol and 10,000 tons toluol and higher homologues. A little over one-half of the total product was sold for use in motors, automobiles, etc. Aniline color works required 32,300 tons. As Ger- many supplies over two-thirds of the finished coal-tar dyes now pro- duced, and the ^eat bulk of the intermediates required in other countries, fumishmg from German works nearly all of the crudes, it is evident that the United States has at hand the raw material requi- site for supplying the crudes needed in the manufacture of over one- half the world's supplv of artificial dyestuffs. At the same time its coke industry is capable, upon demand, of furnishing in the future twenty times as much benzol, etc., as the world now requires for coal-tar colors. PRESENT PRODUCTION OF CRUDE TAR PRODUCTS. The handling of coal tar and its further treatment are concentrated in a few hands, as is the case in Germany. This has given to the industry a pronounced unity and economy. Consumers of coal-tar crudes state that there has been a marked disposition to meet their needs, and to so adapt and modify manufacturing processes that domestic demands may be met as far as general market conditions permit. In 1911 the amoimt of coal tar subjected to distillation amounted to 56,000,000 gallons. The remainder of the tar production was employed in the manufacture of roofing paper ana for sprinkling streets. There is not much attempt to obtam separate products in a state of purity. The most important products are the light oil, creosote oil, and the residual pitch. Tnese articles can compete successfully with European products. The light oil, containing ben- zol, etc., constitutes about 1 per cent of the tar. It is used largely for a solvent, for cleaning purposes, and as an iUuminant. The creosote oil constitutes about 23 per cent of the tar and is used exten- sively for preserving timber. The domestic supply is far from cover- ing tne current demand. In 1914 the United States imported 61,000,000 gallons of creosote oil, valued at $3,840,000, Great Britain supphed 41,000,000 gallons, Germany 10,000,000, and the remainder came largely from Belgium and the Netherlands. The home production of creosote oil in 1909 was 13,000,000 gallons. It has about doubled since then. With regard to the production in the United States of the coai-tar crudes, necessary for dyestuff manufacture, the following is the situation: Benzol, toluol^ xylol. — Such limited amoimts as have been called for to make intermediates in American works, about 500 tons annually, have been supplied the last few years. Provision can be quickly made for an ample supply on a much more extensive scale if a per- manent demand is evident. DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 27 Phenol, or carbolic add, — The method of treating American coals IS such as to favor a relatively low production of phenol in coal tar. There has been httle attempt to separate, regularly, technically pure > phenol from the tar distillates. The American demand is covered mostly by importations from abroad. In 1913 American imports were valued at $675,000. Of the import of 4,077 tons, Germany supphed 1,354 tons. Great Britain 2,422 tons, and the Netherlands 287 tons. The average price was ^ $166 per short ton. In addition to furnishing material ?or a variety i of important dyes, phenol has an extended use in medicine, in the man- ufacture of explosives, and in various industries. One important chemical made from phenol is sahcylic acid, widely used in medicine as well as in the manufacture of artificial dyes. This is imported to ^ the extent of 32,000 pounds. Another derivative is picric acid used as an explosive as well as a dye. The import is now 85 000 pounds, valued at $18,000. ' The embargo on exports of phenol from Europe during the last few months, on account of its importance in connection with military 4 supphes^ has forced American chemists to fall back on its synthetic production from benzol. The operation is relatively easy. It is based upon the transformation of benzol mto its sulphonic acid by the action of sulphuric acid, and the fusion of the product with caustic soda. With an ample supply of benzol the manufacture of synthetic I phenol in the United States could be readily assured, at a cost not much in advance of that of the European product. NaphtJialene.— This is a leading constituent of coal tar and fur- nishes a variety of derivatives employed in dye manufacture. The bulk of the pure product is used as a moth preventive. The United t States consumes annually about 5,000 short tons. Nearly 1,600 tons ^ are supphed by American tar distillers. The remainder comes from Germany and Great Britain, in about equal amounts. Phthalic acid, one of the most important derivitives of naphthalene, is imported to the extent of 38 tons annually, with a value of $21,000. Naphtha- lene is a proniinent constituent of the fraction of creosote oil ob- f tained in the distillation of coal tar. It is a purely commercial ques- tion to the tar distiller, whether he can more profitably sell the crude creosote oil or separate out the naphthalene present therein. Anthracene.— This hydrocarbon is also present in the creosote oil, and the same question arises as to the profit of its separation. No K attempt is niade in American tar works to isolate this valuable con- stituent, which serves as the basis of the manufacture of synthetic • ahzarin and all the alizarin dyestuffs. The same may be said of the relatively small but still important amounts of cresol, methylanthracene, phenanthrene, and carbazol, all of which occur in the creosote oil, and all of which are essential to an mdustry providing all current artificial dyestuffs. It should be mentioned here that the quantity of anthracene present in the coal tar now treated in American tar works is far in excess of that required to manufacture the alizarin dyes imported into the United States, while the naphthalene present could more than meet the demands of the world's entire dyestuff manufacture. A competent authority gives the following estimate for products of the coal-tar industry in the United States for 1914: Total pro- 28 DYESTTJFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 29 N duction of refined benzol in all forms, 2,550,000 gallons, or about 9,600 short tons (of this amount, 200,000 gallons, or 750 tons, was devoted to the manufacture of aniline compounds) ; total production of refined toluol, in all forms, 840,000 gallons, or about 3,200 tons (nearly all used for making explosives) ; production of refined phenol, 75 tons; production of refined naphthalene, 1,500 tons. PRICE MOVEMENT OF AMERICAN COAL-TAR CRUDES. Since August 1, 1914, there has been a steady movement upward in the market rates for nearly all crude products of coal tar, required in making dyestuffs or explosives. The following table shows the increases : Crudes. Benzol : f*ure per gallon . 100 per cent do. 90 per cent do. . . 50 per cent do Toluol: I'ure do... Commercial do. . . Xylol , pure do . . . Solvent naphtha do. . . Heavy naphtha do . [ . Naphthalene, pure i)or pound. Phenol , pure do . . . Aug.l, Feb. 15, 1914. 1915. 90.30 SO. 40 .27 .37 .25 .35 .28 .38 .35 .45 .27 .40 1.20 1.20 .27 .27 .18 .16 .023 .033 .075 1.00 The present quotation for phenol is nominal. The demand for phenol is so far in excess of the supply, foreign or domestic, that exaggerated prices are often offered without finding any taker. American toluol is used almost entirely for producmg high explosives. The naphthas, mixtures of the hydrocarbons, not used for dyestuffs, etc., show no tendency to rise. POSITION OF THE AMERICAN TAR DISTILLER. The tar industry of the United States is on a different basis from that of Europe. In Europe its importance is confined almost en- tirely to the production of raw material for a highly organized chemical industry. Here the use of tar itself is widespread, wnile the utilization of its chief constituent, pitch, is confined to very narrow limits across the ocean. Pitch forms 70 per cent of coal tar. In Germanv little use is made of it except as a fuel. Nine-tenths of the pitch supphed by American tar works is employed in road mak- ing, in roofing, and in general waterproofing. The very extended use of creosote oil in the United States makes it a purely commercial question as to whether the tar distiller should attempt a refining of its constituents. The current demand in America for benzol, toluol, and xylol is entirely met by the product from the benzol towers of coke plants. To attempt any extended provision for supplying the entire range of coal-tar crudes, such as might be required m the United States for the manufacture of its own supply of artificial dyestuffs, would mean an assurance that the distiller could profitably dispose of nearly all of the products isolated in a more or less pure form during f \ t ■ • i 1^ the various processes, and secured in far different proportions from those required in the general manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs. At once he would face a very delicate and compUcated problem, with many factors, technical, economic, financial. A dominant factor is an assured market, if he enlarges his plant on a scale comparable with foreign establishments. Less than 10 per cent of tar consists of matters available for use in the dyestuff industry. If a distiller attempts to meet the needs of a growing or rapidly expanded domestic dyestuff industry, he must find channels for d.isposing of the remaining 90 per cent. The tar distiller feels that he should not be expected to embark in the manufacture of intermediates, but that this branch should be undertaken preferably by the producer of heavy chemicals, as the production of intermediates means a heavy consumption of acids, alkalies, and a variety of other chemicals. There seems to be no lack of enterprise in the tar-distilling branch; but there does seem to be a deep-seated conviction that fundamental changes in legislation are absolutely essential before any far-reaching effort can be organized, to assure the preparation from American coal tar of an adequate supply of ''crudes for the needs of a self- contained American coal-tar dyestuff industry. SUPPLY OF GENERAL CHEMICALS REQUIRED. With regard to the great bulk of the heavy chemicals required in the coal-tar dyestuff industry, the United States is now compara- tively independent of the rest of the world. This is especially the case with sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sodium carbonate, caustic soda, wood alcohol, grain alcohol, and the chromates, all of which are used in large amounts. Liquid chlorine can easily be produced here on a large scale by electrolytic methods if the demand exists. The same can be said of glacial acetic acid and of acetic anhydride, the raw material for which is furnished abundantly by numerous plants for wood distillation. In common with the rest of the world, the United States depends largely upon Germany for potash compounds. The world depends likewise upon Chile for the raw material required in making nitric acid and sodium nitrite, except as these products are ob tamed from the air by the new pro- cesses for oxidizing atmospheric nitrogen. There is promise of this new industry being created in the United States. For the time being Norway, with its very cheap water power for generating electricity^ is the only country where the synthetic production of nitric acid is a pronounced success on a fairly large scale. Most of the nitrite required for the manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs is very advan- tageously manufactured as an adjunct of the Norwegian nitric-acid production. The bulk of the nitric acid made in Norway is transformed immediately into nitrates for use as fertihzer. All of Norway's water power, if utilized for the production of nitric acid and nitrates, would suffice for the production of only a fraction of the world's demands. In this connection it is of interest to note that Germany has hastily erected works on the Rhine for the production of nitric acid from atmospheric nitrogen, generating the necessary electric current at high cost by means of coal. The works will be in operation by April, 1915, and will partly meet the vastly increased demand for mtric acid required in the manufacture of explosives. 30 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 31 1 THE GERMAN COAL-TAR DYESTUFF INDUSTRY. As already noted, all efforts to build up on a large scale a distinctly American coal-tar chemical industry have been crippled and rendered useless when brought into conflict with the interests of the German coal-tar chemical industry. It is necessary to analyze the sources of this power, exerted apparently with such ease in all the leading indus- trial countries of the world, but felt most keenly in the United States, with its abundant supply of the raw materials and its large and rapidly growing consumption oi artificial dyestuffs. First of all, it is important to establish just how large a proportion of the world's production of artificial ayes is made in Germany. From export returns and careful estimates of local consumption, the following may be regarded as a fairly approximate statement of the world's present production of finished coal-tar dyes: Countries. Germany Switzerland.. Great Britain . France United States Austria Value. $68,300,000 6, 450, 000 6,000,000 5,000,000 3,000,000 1,500,000 Countries. Russia Beleium Netherlands . . . Other countries Total Value. 11,000,000 500,000 200,000 200,000 92,150,000 This shows that Germany furnishes 74 per cent, or about three- quarters, of the world's dyes. The production of artificial dj^estuffs for exportation is confined practically to Germany, Great Britain, and Switzerland. The values of such exports in 1912 were: Germany, $48,430,000, or 88.2 per cent; Switzerland, $5,450,000, or 9.9 per cent; Great Britain, $990,000, or 1.8 per cent; total value, $54,870,000. In the world's markets Germany's domination is evident, Switzerland being prac- tically the only competitor. The distribution oi Germany's exports of artificial dyestuffs amons the different countries is a matter of interest. The exports of finished dves in 1912 were valued as follows: Aniline dyes, $31,836,000; alizarin, $2,197,000; anthracene dyes, $3,429,000; indigo, $10,968,000; total, $48,430,000. The following table, compiled by Dr. Bernhard C. Hesse, the well-known chemist and statistician, shows very clearly the present dependence of the various countries upon Germany for their supplies and the importance of the United States as the leading customer. Noteworthy is the enormous consumption of synthetic indigo by China. The table shows the percentage of the exports of each dye taken by the principal consimiers. Consuming countries. Aniline dyes. Alizarin. Anthra- cene dyes. Indigo. Europe: Great Britain Per cent. 17.14 2.15 .65 1.03 6.38 8.99 .68 .35 .lA Per cent. 24.34 1.59 Percent. 23.72 2.52 Per cent. 3.54 France .97 Portueal Spain.. .20 Italy 3.23 6.80 1.96 Austria 3.38 4.08 Turkey . .33 Roumania Servia I Constuning coiutries. Aniline dyes. Alizarin. Anthra- cene dyes. Indigo. Europe— Continued. RnliniriA . Per cent. .20 .10 1.22 1.71 .37 .42 1.40 .37 2:12 3.90 5.45 13.17 5.35 .22 .38 Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Greece .... RwitziPrl^nd , 4.23 2.83 Russia 3.17 1.30 Finland Norway. Sweden . .73 Denmark.... .08 Netherlands. 3.09 2.76 L96 1.63 1.83 Belrium. ...... . . .94 Asia: Japan 2.46 China 64.03 British India 39.89 4.44 .97 British Malacca .36 Dutch East Indies 8.41 L49 2.86 Persia .18 South America: Areentina. .25 .98 .09 .69 21.55 .85 .34 .16 , Brazil Chile North America: Canada .25 United States &03 44.10 lass Mexico .05 Africa: Ecvpt L33 Australia: Australian coloni<^r .47 Recapitulation: Europe 49.32 24.57 1.32 23.09 .34 .16 39.46 48.30 44.89 7.56 15.20 Asia 7a 86 South America Nwth America 8.03 44.10 ia68 Africa 1.33 Australia .47 • • . . Total 98.80 95.79 96.55 98.54 TRADE IN CRUDES AND INTERMEDIATES. The domination of the German color industry is, however, greater than would appear from the export statistics for finished dyes. As far as the production of crude coal-tar products is concerned, Ger- many has been for nearly 20 years practically independent of other countries. Its own tar industry produces, or is capable of producing, all crude compounds needed in tne industry. The nearest approacn to an exception is in the case of anthracene, the raw material for the manufacture of alizarin and an important class of dyes. There is enough of this hydrocarbon in German tar to meet the needs of the dyestuff works. In England, however, the separation of anthracene from the heavv oil of the tar works has been highly perfected and it is commercially profitable to draw upon the Englisn supply. The independence otherwise of the German production of cruaes, and its ability to send supphes to other countries, is shown by the following summary, for 1912, of Germany's trade in crude coal-tar products: Crudes. Imports. Exports. Benzol and bomologues S509,000 537,000 7,600 184,000 66,400 $1,631,000 852 000 Phenol Cresol 72,C01 211 003 Naphthalene Anuracene 12 noo Total 1,304,000 2,778,000 86201*»— 16- 32 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. I i Germany's excess of exports is $1,474,000. Much more striking and of far-reaching importance is the revela- tion of the figures contained in the summary, for 1912, of Germany's trade in intermediate coal-tar products: Aniline oil and salt Naphthol, and naphthalene compounds Nitrobenzol, resorcin, phthalic acid, anthraquinone, etc Total 152,000 $1,559,000 682,000 1,433,000 3,674,000 Here is an excess of $3,522,000 in favor of the exports. A calcu- lation based upon the unit prices of the various coal-tar products shows that in a rough approximate way crudes worth $1 produce intermediates worth $3.56 and finished dyes worth $7.61. Assum- ing that one-half of the excess of exports of crudes and all of the excess of intermediates are used to produce colors in other coun- tries, the value of the dyes manufactured abroad from German products would be, from crudes, $5,608,000; from intermediates, $7,529,000; total, $13,137,000. These figures show how largely the manufacture of dyes outside of Germany depends upon the industries of that Empire for the primary and intermediate compounds serving as raw materials. The manufacture of artificial dyestuffs outside of Germany has a value of about $24,000,000, and over one-half is made with mate- rials from German factories. The effects of this condition are seen in the trade statistics of other countries. Switzerland's net excess of crudes imported is $315,000; of intermediates, $846,000. Austria exports a net excess of 3,309 metric tons of crudes, and the net excess of imported inter- mediates is 1,032 tons. Great Britain exports crudes worth $2, 073, 000, and intermediates worth $156,000. British imports of both classes — but chiefly intermediates — are valued at $758,000. As already noted, nearly all the intermediates employed in manu- facturing coal-tar dyestuffs in the United States come from Germany. This is also the case for Belgium, the Netherlands, and Russia, and very largely so for France. Briefly stated, Germany makes three-quarters of the world's arti- ficial dyes and controls the supply of raw material for one-half of the remainmg quarter. Furthermore, for one great class of dyes, the aliza- rin colors, and for a vast number of minor subdivisions, that country is almost the sole source of supplv. It possesses in an exceptional degree a well-known commercial power to influence if not force customers requiring a large variety of dyestuffs to purchase from it all the entire stock needed. The industry is in such a position that it can easily render almost impossible in a given country the production of intermediates or finishea dyes, unless prevented by governmental protection or assistance. The exceptional position of the Swiss industry is due to the fact that it started simultaneously with the German industry, and kept even step with its more powerful neighbor in the different stages of evolution. There are very friendly relations between the leaders in DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 33 / 1 I \ ri the two coimtries. The bulk of the Swiss production is at Basel, on the German frontier. The Swiss industry depends chiefly on Germanvfor its intermediates and for its heavy chemicals; at the same time it does not threaten the supremacy of the German dyestuff trade in the world's markets. CAUSES OF GERMANY'S SUPREMACY. The actual supremacy of Germany in the production of coal-tar dyes has been outlined above and its dominating position in inter- national commerce clearly shown. It remains to describe how this supremacy has been won and how it is maintained. The base of the present structure was laid half a century ago when the industrv of artificial dyestuffs was still in swaddling clothes. A remarkable number of German chemists of the first rank and of the second rank were attracted to the new industry. The admirably equipped laboratories of the German imiversities and schools of science were devoted largely to research in the new field. Simultaneously, in Germany, the molecular constitution of the aro- matic hydrocarbons was revealed by Kekul6, and a vast amoimt of scientific knowledge, keen mental effort, high inventive capacity, and patient labor was devoted to applying the new theories to the dis- covery of tinctorial compoimds among the derivatives of the aro- matic series. A small army of plodding, but still clever, young chemists carried out thousands and thousands of separate researches under the leadership of brilliant men, such as Hoffmann; Bayer, Liebermann, Graebe, Witt, and many others. Far more was done in Germany to develop the possibilities in the province of synthetic dyes than in all the rest of the world. At the same time the young industry was fortunate in securii^ the generous cooperation of finan- ciers with farsighted courage and technical managers of exceptional sagacity. What is said of Germany is also essentially true of Swit- zerland but naturally on a more modest scale. The seventies saw the industry well defined and established upon a solid basis, while the progress of discovery continued at an increased rate. The notable triumph of this period was the introduction of synthetic alizarin. Durmg the eighties there was an increased appearance of new classes of important dyes. It was the golden decade. The mdustry was recognized as one of the great national assets of Ger- many. In the nineties there was a decided lull in invention. Great attention was devoted to the standardizing of manufacture, and espe- cially to the organization of the foreign trade. Germany became practically independent of the world in regard to its supply of coal- tar crudes. The relations between the great manufacturing houses became cordial, and there was a general spirit of cooperation. The manufacture of a large number of valuable medicinals and photo- graphic chemicals from coal-tar intermediates was added to the pro- duction of dyestuffs. Great quantities of these intermediates were •u ^"°^^^y®^ ^ ^^^ preparation of high explosives. All this con- tributed to making the mdustry better balanced and more symmetric, whde, of course, adding to its complexity. The present century has seen a steady development. Synthetic mdiffo won its great victory. The discovery of new types of colors has become rare. Close trade agreements have come into existence, * ^ K\' S4 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. I With Government approval, and have been maintained without difliculty. At present the mdustry is the most remunerative in the J^mpire, and the one most conspicuous in international trade as distmctly and predonunantly German. It has been created in Germany, and is regarded by Germans as then- most briUiant triumph m applying science to industry. The rest of the worid generously recognizes the full right of Germany to be justly proud of its accom- phshment. RESEARCH THE CHIEF CAUSE. Unquestionably the chief factor in favoring the early start of the industry and its remarkably rapid and harmonious development was the spirit of research in Germany and the marvellous equipment for facihtatmg, largely at pubhc expense, the exercise of this spuit While other countnes sought to encourage the introduction of^new branches of mdustry by the aid of tanff protection, in Germany manufacturers, capitahsts, and Government officials ^arly recognized the creative power and earning capacity of highly organized industrial research. Any marked advance m developing the coal-tar chemical mdustry m the Umted States must depend upon the full recognition of this fact, for no other industry is so intimately associated with research of the highest scientific character. A most competent authority. Dr. B. C. Hesse, says in this connec- tion: What we do need is a semimanufactiiring laboratory in which to ascertain the most favorable conditions for carrying out those operations which the work of the Germans both in their patents and in their commercial exploitation of them, has shown to be needful or worthy of prosecution. That, however, is no child's play task; it calls for engineering skill of the hidiest order chemical knowledge of great refinment, and experimental ability of high rank. Much will have to be learned and determined as to the proper materials of construction, the proper size and shape of the apparatus and the most favorable working unit, which is by no means constant from one dyestuff or one intermediate to another. Many dyestuffs can not be made commercially in lota much greater than 100 pounds; others can be made in lots of 1 ton, but the manufar- tunng unit, as a rule, is small. GERMAN INDUSTRY, CAPITAL, DIVIDENDS, ETC. In analyzing the organization of the German dyestuff industry it will be found that not only a vast amount of brain effort has bern expended m its creation but that also the cash investment has been extremely large. There are now 22 German establishments devoted to the manufac- ture of coal-tar colors. Of these 21 are owned by joint-stock com- panies. The combined capitalization of the 21 companies in 1913 was $36,700,000. In that year they paid dividends amounting to $11,600,000, or 21.74 per cent of the nominal capitalization. The explanation of this high percentage hes in the fact that for many years the industry has regularly devoted a large share of its profits to wntmg off the real estate and plant accounts and to new construction. One of the oldest and strongest companies has a capital of $13,100,000. Its stock seUs at 600. In 1913 its net profits were $6,000,000, nearly one-half of the capital. One-third of this sum was devoted to a sinking fund for the erection of new plants etc and to welfare funds for operatives. From the remainder a dividend DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 35 of 28 per cent was paid. This course has been pursued for so many years that it is now estimated that at least $400,000,000 have been invested in the industry. It is worthy of note that the next most remunerative chemical industries in Uermany are those devoted to explosives, glass, heavy chemicals, metallurgy, soap, and candles. The factories number 252. Dividends range from 11.2 to 11.8 per cent. Most of the remaining chemical industries in the Empire pay dividends of 5 to 10 per cent. It is easily seen that financially the German coal-tar dye mdustry is exceptionally well fortified and in a position to resist powerfully any attempt to destroy its supremacy. GEOGRAPHY OF THE GERMAN INDUSTRY. A marked feature of the industry is its concentration. The plants are all located within an area forming a square, with sides of 300 miles. The actual concentration is even more pronounced, for, with the exception of the big works at Berlin, all the leading estab- lishments, as well as the coke fields supplying the tar and the benzol, are situated on the Rhine and its tnbutaries, in a narrow strip of territory less than 200 miles in length. This means cheap haulage for the bulkier raw materials and facilities for the economical dis- tribution of finished products by water to all parts of the world. If an industrv of this size in the United States, doing an extensive trans-Atlantic Dusiness, were located chiefly along the banks of the Hudson, between Albany and New York, and obtained most of its raw material and fuel supply within short distances from the river, the concentration would oe practically the same. These conditions are readily seen in the accompanying map. RELATIONS BETWEEN COMPANIES. The advantages of this close concentration, permitting easy com- munication and transfer of products between different factories, are intensified by the close relations between the several companies. Three of the largest organizations are closely alhed; three other powerful companies form another combine. The relations between the two big units are, however, friendly, and this is the case also with the relations between the larger and the smaller firms. There is keen competition to maintain high standards of excellence in products ana to diminish the cost of production, as well as to bring out new dyestuffs; but there is a well-organized combination to maintain prices and to render mutual assistance in utihzing inter- mediates and by-products. For practical purposes the industry is a unit, especially in all that concerns its dealing with foreign markets and with foreign attempts at competition. These trade agreements and cooperative arrangements seem to have prevented the appear- ance of rivals on German soil during recent years. They have made themselves frequently felt on this side of the ocean, as efforts have been exerted from time to time to secure emancipation from de- pendence upon German intermediates or finished products. i 36 DYESTUFFS FOB AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. E s* C %» I < I ' a d n o a K n I DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. EQUIPMENT OF PLANTS. 37 As the general industry has developed, the individual companies have, in several cases, widely extended their operations, so as to manufacture all or nearly aU of the intermediates required in their processes and a large share of the heavy chemicals needed. They nave gone outside the hmits of color chemistry and manufactured a variety of synthetic medicinal preparations, several synthetic per- fumes, and some important photographic chemicals, as well as mater- ials for modem high explosives. This has meant a great diversity of eq^uipment and a delicate adjustment of manufacture, so as to permit the complete utihzation of all by-products. In this respect the coal-tar chemical industry shows a marked resemblance to the great American packing industries. Starting with 10 crude coal-tar compounds, it produces a host of valuable articles, but finds methods of utilizing and deriving profit from all its by-products. If any such compoimds occur in the evolution of a new product, and threaten waste and loss, they are transformed into otner new preparations, for which uses can be created. All of this involves extended application of chemical engineering, and means the employment of a wide range of technical devices. A couple of examples may be cited as showing the extensive plant, and staff and output of German works and the rate of expansion. The famous ^Tarbwerke" at Hochst started in 1863 with 5 work- men, making the few anihne dyes then known. By 1888 it employed 1,860 workmen and 57 cheimsts, and utilized 1,840 horsepower in its steam engines. It then produced 1,750 different colors. In 1912, 30,000 norsepower were required. The staff included 7,680 workmen, 374 foremen, 307 chemists, and 74 engineers. Wages amounted to $2,050,000, and salaries and bonuses to $1,240,000. The number of colors reached 11,000. Synthetic alizarin and indigo were leading products, and such materials as antipyrine, tuberculin, and diphtheria serum were made on a laige scale. A stiU larger estabhshment is the Badische Anilin- und Soda Fabrik, near Mannheim on the Rhine. It covers about 500 acres, with a water front of a mile and a half on the Rhine. The buildings cover 100 acres. Transportation between the several himdred build- ings is effected by 42 miles of railway. Power is generated and transmitted by 158 boilers, 386 steam engines, and 472 electric motors. Steam fire engines number 25, and there are 400 telephones. Each day there is a consumption of 1,000 tons of coal, 40 tons of ice, 40,000,000 gallons of water, and 2,500,000 cubic feet of gas. In 1908 workmen numbered 8,000, chemists 217, engineers 142, and the commercial staff 918. WAGES IN THE GERMAN FACTORIES. The participation of labor in the cost of finished dyes is not high. It ranges from 10 to 15 per cent, and is usually nearer the lower figure. There has been, however, a steady increase in the average wage rate of late years. The average dailv wage in Germany for all labor — ^boys, and common and skflled labor — was $0.65 in 1886. In 1908 it had reached $1.14, an increase of 77 per cent. In 1906 the average daily wage in the Badische works for a • 10-hour day was $1.04. To the normal wage should be added the contribution by p ^ 38 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 39 emplovers to the State old-age, accident, and sick funds, bonuses gained by many workmen, and the gifts for general welfare. In the case of the Badische this gift was $750,000 in 1908. Including these various items, it may be assumed that the prevalent adult daily wage in the dyestuff works is now about $ 1 .80, as far as the actual outlay by the employers is concerned. A lai^e item in the cost of production is due to the salaries of well-trained, competent chemists and engineers, who supervise every step of the multitudinous processes. Thus, the '^Badische" employs 30 well-equipped chemists — university graduates — in the research laboratory alone, quite apart from the manufacturing staff. PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE. The chief processes employed in transforming the 10 coal-tar "crudes" into nearly 300 intermediates required for the direct pro- duction of dyestuff s are 11 in number. Shghtly varied in individual cases, they constitute the great bulk of the operations performed in color works. They are of such fundamental importance that a brief description is desirable in order to bring out clearly the high degree of correlation and coordination that characterizes the in- dustry. These processes are (1) nitration, (2) chlorination, (3) sul- phonation, (4) reduction, (5) oxidation, (6) caustic fusion, (7) alkyla- tion (8) liming, (9) condensation, (10) carboxylation, (11) diazo- tizing and coupung. (1) Nitration. — An aromatic compound is treated with a mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid. As a result usually one, but some- times two or three, atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the nitro group, NOj. The extent and nature of the reaction are largely effected by the factors of time, temperature, and proportions. Usu- ally the residual, somewhat dilutea, sulphuric acid can be concen- trated and used repeatedly. (2) Chlorination. — ^Action of dry chlorine gas. The gas is usually obtained in connection with the electrolytic production of caustic soda from salt, is liquified for transportation, and allowed to vola- tilize as needed. The reaction is not so easily controlled as nitration and a variety of substitution products are often the result, causing much difficulty in separation. One-half of the chlorine employed is recovered in the form of hydrochloric acid. The synthetic produc- tion of indigo involves the use annually of over 5,000 tons of cnlorine, prepared simultaneously with nearly 6,000 tons of caustic soda, and yielding, as by-product, nearly 8,000 tons of 33 per cent hydro- chloric acid. (3) SulpTionation. — The action of fuming sulphuric acid, usually in very large excess, to act as a vehicle. The reaction is, in a few cases, easily controlled. In most instances a variety of sulpho-acids are obtained, requiring separation, and involving the problem of utiUza- tion. The excess of sulphuric acid is generally lost. (4) Reduction. — The substitution of hydrogen for oxygen in nitro- compounds, forming the corresponding amido-bodies. Thus, benzol is changed by nitration to nitrobenzol and that, by reduction, to amidobenzol, or aniline. Iron fiUngs or turning, with acetic or sulphuric acid, form the usual reducmg agents. The resultant iron salts are without value. \l ; f h (5) Oxidation. — Potassium bichromate, potassium chlorate, lead peroxide, manganese dioxide or a permanganate, with hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid, are the usual reagents. The residues, chrome alum, potassium chloride, etc., are all susceptible of utilization. (6) Caustic fusion. — ^The operation is performed chiefly with sulpho-acids. As a result the sulpho-group is replaced by hydroxyl. Thus benzol monosulpho-acid, on fusion with caustic soda, gives phenol, or carbohc acid. The residue of sodium sulphite is some- times used in making bisulphite, more often discarded. The oper- ation is one requiring unusual care, and the results are often variaole. (7) Alkylation. — ^The introduction into hydroxyl or amido groups of the radicals methyl or ethyl, present in wood, alcohol ana grain alcohol. The alcohols, or methyl or ethyl chloride, are used, along with hydrochloric acid, and the operation is effected at elevated temperatures under pressure in autoclaves. (8) Liming. — ^The use of Hme or chalk to effect separations in mixtures, especially of sulpho-acids, through the differing solubil- ities of the calcium salts. Sometimes the purpose is to decompose chlorides and effect the separation of resultant acids and aldehydes. (9) Condensation. — ^A large class of operations in which two mole- cules of the same substance, or of different substances, unite to form a new compound, with the eUmination of water, or ammonia, or hydrochloric acid. Sulphuric acid in considerable excess is the usual condensing agent. When used it reappears as a spent acid, too weak to admit of profitable recovery. Otner condensers are the chlorides of zinc, aluminum, antimony, sulphur, and phosphorus. In most cases they can be recovered at slight cost and used repeatedly. (10) Carboxylation. — The introduction of the acid carboxyl group, by the joint action of caustic soda and carbon dioxide on phenol and its homologues. Thus phenol gives saUcyUc acid; a-naphthol gives oxy-naphthoic acid. The alkaU is recovered in the form of chloride or sulpnate. (11) Diazotizing and coupling. — ^An aromatic amine reacts with nitrous acid, forming a diazo-compound. Thus aniUne yields diazo- benzol. Such a diazo-compound m the presence usually of sodium acetate unites readily with a variety oi aromatic substances; the operation is termed coupling. The product of such a reaction spHts up, yielding the original amine and the amido-derivative of the second substance employed. Thus, salicyUc acid, by coupling with a diazo-compound and subsequent reduction, is changed into amido- salicylic acia, an intermediate of widespread use. 'fiiis sequence of reactions is of prime importance. It serves to produce a variety of intermediates, and is the fundamental operation in the manufacture of the so-called azo dyes, which constitute about one-half of the number of artificial dyes now current in the world's trade. The purely chemical transformations fail to reveal the full extent of the seauence of operations in eventually obtaining intermediates from cruaes by a chain of reactions. Between any two successive chemical changes there are from one to three mechanical operations, such as baking, boiling filtering, precipitating, blowing off with steam, and the like. There are also minor chemical operations, such as the change of acids or bases into salts ; the separation of salts from liquids; their purification, drying, and storing, etc. 40 DYESTUPFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. In the preparation of about 300 intermediates by the use of these IL^r^ ?^ reactions there is encountered the gi4te8t d'versitHf problems to be handled. Every step involves SenroHnpH^^^ compounds other than the one ^ainly^ so^r How Cli^t the^^ appearance so far as possible, how to utUife them when Stablv formed, how to adjust and balance the consLSn of all KrS S.^'' 5'?^^'T ^^f^ ^"^^"^ exceptional technical ai^d busCi abihty and the closest cooperation between the manufacture and the commercial staffs of an organization. ^ UNIFORMITY OF PRODUCT. «f,^? ^l the most serious demands on the technical staff of a dve- stuff factory IS the necessity of obtaining the highest uniformitv h^ finished products. Standards of purity\re nol very riSr fc m^tJr ^'l^y^l^^ ^o sever^B tesi. This mean^ S ref^ STdvitur fI" fV'^'"^ ?^'^^ P^^^^ i^ ^^ ^^olutfon Tfa^ S Exhaustive and careful tests are essential at each ?ioition '%^'^'^'.' T ^5 .^^bmitted to a new chemfcd transformation. The margin allowed for variation from the standarrl of purity IS very slight. In some instances the presence La c^^^^^ mtermediate of as httle as one-fifth of 1 per cen^of a closely E hSni^^sTulrut^^^^^ ''' P-^"^^^-' woSttro- Tn^Lf ^^ ""^^^ ^Z *^'^ complexity of the manufacturing problem In fact, at every stage the artificial-dyestuff industry presents a marvelous maze of materials and operations, interdependent and closely interlocked technicaUy and economicaUy. ""^P^^^^^^ ^^^^ TYPICAL PHASES. Tlie astounding complexity of the manufacture as a whole has re C. Hesse, m comprehensive presentations of the entire series of onera tions mvplved m the production of certain classes of dyes K his permission summaries of some of the more strikin/phas^ of manufacture, as admn-ably outhned by him, are presented.^ , 1 he current types of dyes now number 921. Each one as a rule IS oflFered commercially fn a variety of brands, differing minuTelv ceTai^'textnt" Th^r' '\t'^ "' ^ 'I' avaUabihty ?o^r useS certam textiles. There are thus many thousand distinct brands for These 921 dyes are divided into 17 separate chemical classes as shown in the table that follows: c"ii^«u classes, as Classes of dyes. Alizarin and anthraquinone Indigo Aw) Tri- and di-phenylmethane Sulphide Oxazin and thiazin . . ,', Xanthone Pyrazolone Stilbene Acridin Nitro, nitroso, aurflinlneVchinoUn* thio^ benzyl, and indophenol Total 20 921 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 41 ILLUSTRATIVE OUTLINES. ALIZARIN, NAPHTHOL YELLOW, MAGENTA. Some of the simpler tynes of production may first be presented. Crudes, intermediates, and final dyes are distinguished by capitals. Operations are in parentheses. Sequence of operations in alizarin manufacture: ANTHRACENE (oxidation) ANTHRAQUINONE (sulphonation) ANTHRAQUINONE MONOSULPHO-ACID (fusion with caustic soda and chlorate) ALIZARIN There are here only three chemical transformations, guinone serves also as the starting point for a variety dyes. Alizarin has been the source of a vast amount Germany since its discovery in 1869, when it began madder. The patent rights expired in 1886, but its has never been attempted in the United States. Operations in manufacture of naphthol yellxm: NAPHTHALENE (sulphonation) The anthra- of important of wealth to to supersede manufacture I A-MONOSULPHO-ACID (fusion with caustic soda) ^Hl A-NAPHTHOL (sulphonation) A-NAPHTHOL TRISULPHO-ACID (nitration) NAPHTHOL YELLOW. It This IS one of the earher standard dyes. Patent rights expired in 1897. Some has been manufactured in this country from imported a-naphthol trisulpho-acid, the last transformation being compara- tively easy. Practically none is made here. K 42 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. Operations in manufacture of magenta: BENZOL (nitration) i, NITROBENZOL (reduction) 1, ANILINE (reaction with o- and p- toluidine, and o- and p- nitrotoluol) ,1 MAGENTA BASE (treatment with hydrochloric acid) rT^ MAGENTA DYE Preparation of nitrotoluol and toluidine: TOLUOL (nitration) [T] o- and p- NITROTOLUOL (reduction) o- and p- TOLUIDINE. Magenta is a dyestuff largely used in the United States. It is made here to some extent, but the manufactiu-e is confined to the final step, the action of hydrochloric acid on the magenta base. In $1,000 worth of magenta the hydrochloric acid participates to the extent of about $5.50. HTDROQUINONE AND SYNTHETIC INDIGO. Following are the operations in the manufacture of hydroquinone: BENZOL (nitration) ,1, NITROBENZOL (reduction) i, ANILINE (oxidation) m QUINONE (reduction) HYDROQUINONE Hydroquinone, while not a dye, is used in great amounts as a photographic developer, and is an important accessory product of German factories. It is made to some extent in the limited States from imported or domestic aniline. DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 43 There are four methods of making indigo, and the fourth from naphthalene. Three start from benzol BENZOL (nitration) NITROBENZOL (reduction) ,1, ANILINE (treatment with chlor-acetic acid) PHENYL GLYCINE (fusion with sodium oxide) i INDOXYL (air blast) INDIGO The crucial point in the sequence is the transformation of phenyl ghrcine into indoxyl. An older method used fusion with caustic soda. The yield was about 45 per cent. A later process made use of sodium amide, with nearly quantitative results. A still later process substi- tuted advantageously sodium oxide for the amide. The manufacture from naphthalene is slightly more involved: NAPHTHALENE (oxidation) i, PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE (action of ammonia) PHTHALAMID (action of sodium hypochlorite) ANTHRANILIC ACID (action of chlor-acetic acid) PHENYL GLYCINE A-CARBOXYLIC ACID (fusion with caustic soda) i INDOXYL (air blast) INDIGO The development of this industry illustrates the influence of quan- tities. This last method was the first to be used successfully on a conmaercial basis. This was due primarily to the fact that at that time, by fusion with caustic, 90 per cent of the phenyl glycine com- pound could be changed into indoxyl. It was also largely due to the fact that naphthalene could be had in abundance, and was seek- ing a market. Pure benzol could be secured, but the preparation of il 44 DTESTUFFS FOE AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. DYESTUFPS FOE AMEEICAN INDUSTEIES. 45 of rdrgorS?LtCraSl^^^^^ '''' ^^'^i^'' consumption large amouTof tXoT for whilT"^**"''''"^ production of a very industry, and how in dl bran^he« . ''%*'-^ matenaJs in the /yestuff be maintWed i^ ordefto ^s2e tt h r '"^*"'^ ?^ P*'^^'- >""«* interesting to note that tTp fit.* t highest economic results. It is involves tie usnUplSaSgd? dL^pr^LrAl^^^^ ^^^ sumption of 80,000 tons of 50 oer CMit nw^If tk ^ ui^ """"^ *^°°- empfoyed represents an annuaTconTuSo^'of IsoS to^Tf*' 1 * -'1 acetic acid, and 5,000 tons of liquid cmS! ^ **"** THE KETONE DYES. ca£ tSVer^l^rd^nrrsl^^^^^^ "'"''' ^^^.7 "^ - closely related cheSuv fn.l?.5? ^ ^® summarized. Tfiese are the 17 classes andXw howfw representatives from several of locked with oAe anothe^ The 2?Hvif?^,K-''^ interlaced and inter- fortieth of the total nLbet of cJ^l\%*ves^T.f/"'^"'"^^^ seUers. Most have been in use 30 ve^i^ F^t; ^^ *'" ^ g«°.akm. LS'oKS' dves is bonyl chloride on dimethyl anuLe T^Tw^- ^'^^ r?''°" «^<'«^- anihne salt, and wood Xhol AniW ^ *i " ?**^* ^''"° »°""»«- from benzo by nitration and redm^W^f^i./ ""**''' '^ '""''« Carbonyl cHoride Sts W tK "^^he resultant nitrobenzol. oxide an/cZ^d^e in Te pr^Zce „'f T^^T ^*^^"" *'»^l>«'» ™°n- num or animal ch^cod.^ fn a cun-enT''nr^o^'''V '"""^ f P^««- calcmm chloride, lime and coke »Zh^!i 5 " *^ ""{ manufacture, The carbonyl chioride sTevoW U a "\ *" ^'^^t"" f"™ace The gas is Jassed^to^h^uid diLettvT^nr"'' *°*f 'i^^''^ «* 8° C. increlsed 40 per cent thp r»r^f- ^ • *"'^*' ,""^'^ **>« weight has several W^at 1W» C Ae rS«n1 ?°fPJ'"?d by heatV for at 174° C. ® resultant ketone is a solid, melting By using grain alcohol instead of wood alcnbnl th^ ethyl compound is secured. tJ Ts'^^^j'V^i^^^^^^ 2L2" poLr^^^^^ and dimethyl aniline pouncis of ketone landed! ^ ^^ ""^"^^^ ^^^ ^^^^y 100 In making dyes by the aid of ketone, " condensation " f « t. i Ine ketone and another poaI fo,. ^«J V"""^"saiion takes place. in the presence of phospWrtri^^^^^ T^"^ ^P^^ ^^^^ "^^her The co^x dye S, 3 h^^^^^^ are by-products. The latter c/nh^nhlr. a • .Phosphonc acid oxycliloride for renewed use. ^^"^ ^^^"^ "'^^ phosphorus «M In making 100 pounds of ketone and in using it to produce dyes, a total amount of 100 pounds of 33 per cent hydrocnloric acid is released. Of this about 30 pounds are utilized to prepare salts of basic dyes produced. The remainder is available for other purposes. In making and using the ketone, four of the eleven general opera- tions required in dye manufacture come into play, viz, nitration, reduction, alkylation, and condensation. The materials employed are benzol, coke, phosphorus, chlorine, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, iron fiUngs. Intermediates formed are nitro- benzol, anihne, dimethyl anilme, carbonyl chloride. Turning now to the production of the 24 dyes in question, it is found that 23 final intermediates are necessary. The total number of operations requisite to produce these final intermediates, starting in each case from coal-tar crudes, is 118. Derivatives of benzol, toluol, naphthalene, and phenol appear in the combinations effected. In 16 cases a single coal-tar crude is represented; in the remaining cases, two are present. On an average 5 transformations are re- Suired to produce a final intermediate ready to condense with ketone. I,eduction occurs 31 times, nitration 21 times, sulphonation 13 times, oxidation 12 times, condensation 11 times, etc. If equal amounts of ketone were used to manufacture the 24 dyes, using in each case 100 pounds, the total 2,400 pounds of ketone would produce 4,605 pounds of finished dyes. In this final product different constituents would participate as follows: Ketone, 52.11 per cent; benzol, 7.58 per cent; toluol, 5.21 per cent; naphthalene, 11.42 per cent; phenol, 1.69 per cent; from sulphonation, alkylation, etc., 21.99 per cent. Benzol, however, constitutes 58.21 per cent of the ketone used, so that the total participation of this hydrocarbon in the dyes would average 37.91 per cent. Naturally these 24 dyes are not required by the trade in approxi- mately equal amounts. In constructing a plant for their manufac- ture a high degree of intelligence is imperative, in order to avoid waste of time, space, and apparatus, in planning the size and relative position of the different buildings. To effect the 118 operations it is not necessary to have that number of sets of apparatus. The 11 major operations require, however, in each case, equipment varying in size, etc., depending upon the materials to be transformed, their relative amounts, the time for manufacture, etc. Thus the same apparatus for nitration is not necessarily adapted for use with both benzol and naphthalene, the same condensation apparatus is not applicable for all forms of con- I densation, etc. In the manufacture of this group of 24 dyes there are several instances where operations produce two or more products, usually isomeric compounds, and the problem of complete utihzation is pre- sented. I When chlorine acts upon toluol, three substances, in varving pro- j portions, are always formed — benzal chloride, benzyl chloride, benzo- » trichloride. Benzyl chloride serves in producing 3 dyes, and benzo- I trichloride 1 dye, in the group of 24. feenzal chloride is not utilized i in this group, but it serves as the starting point for the manufacture ^of a much larger group — the benzaldehyde dyes. Again in nitrating toluol, two isomeric products are always formed — orthonitrotoluol and paranitrotoluol. The latter is used in making one dye of the 46 DYESTUFFS FOB AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. group in question. The ortho variety is, however of much wp^f ^r general importance. It is the starting 'poinTfor maUng tSe fnl^n"" !?• *'»'^t'tJ'«'»t in a p,up of 45 Syes. The ,Le o? the Sra ^Vt wL'r i^^ "A**'"'' "'Z a by-product u^avoffly ^voiZ^of ra^SnSrss".' °' "'-"^-'-«' -^^ the consequent trJ^ *T" "^^^^''f illustrate how the commercial side of the Indus- piuuucis in augnment, with avoidance of excess nrodnrtinn n™r market requirements. This merchandizing effort mvolves ^Tfi paii^taking and highly developed skill involves inlmite Ihe group of 24 dyes includes 15 acid and 9 basic products F.ir wJoiitrthTi^'o'f th*e*T " ^" '^' ''^^ -oorJnd 5 morf'^n r^„r **ie aid of the chrome process. One is emplovcd in calico T:^ci:T^r:il^&-^ '- P^P-' leatherfiu^te^'^ttiS FnZ?^ the simplest and least intricate series of rortfoS ia tft BENZIDINE DYES. nutbS Rf ^r ''""'P^''-^ ^"MP is that of the benzidine dyes, srv'aS 'k^^ToTi^ LTotr '"'' ^ '^'"''^^' "^ ^«-«i BENZOL (nitration) J, . NITROBENZOL (fusion with caustic soda and zinc dust) HYDRAZOBENZOL (action of hydrochloric acid) 1, BENZIDINE ;„ ^'^^ Mi'^Wer's ketone benzidine itself is not a dyestuff It is onlv in combination with other coal-tar derivatives that it rives ris^ to H?i. iffi ?*"< ^'^ r.^*"" ^ «ff««t any such combinatio?The b^nz* dme IS first changed by the action o? nitrous acid into its tetr^o derivative In this form it reacts with some 44 intennedifttP«^« S^'^Tp.^^'r;*"'^ •*^^-, ^"^ 44 final inten^ediates^re feed ' from benzol, toluol, xvlol, phenol, cresol, and naphthalene E ' preparation caUs for tfie production of 55 other i^termeTatesnoT r.l^^in'H'T* 'taction with tetrazobenzidine. The XivSnTs '1 Benzol 10 toluol 2, xylol 1, phenol 1, cresol 2, naphthdenr28 nvea Irom the 44 final intermediates. Of the multitude hnf «•> have won a recognized position in the field of dyel^ ' DVESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 47 o n 86201"— 15- 48 DYESTUFFS FOB AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 49 The average number of transformations required to make final intermediates from naphthalene is 4.5, from the other crudes 3. As the operations requisite to prepare tetrazobenzidine and its final reaction with one to four intermediates are 5 in number, the total number of chemical changes involved in the manufacture of benzi- dine dyes ranges from a minimum of 6 to a maximum of 23. The interdependence is illustrated by the two accompanying charts. Benzidine dyes are of prime importance, as they dye cotton di- rectly without the use of a mordant. The range of colors and shades is, however, inadequate to meet the demands of cotton dyers. TOLIDINE AND ALLIED DYES. In order to fill in the lacking tints, recourse is had to tolidine, dianisidine, and five other less important derivatives of benzidine. Together these yield the 167 direct cotton dyes, of the so-called diphenyl type, now in current use. They are divided as follows: Benzidine 82, tohdine 43, dianisidine 28, a-nitrobenzidine 1 , dichlorben- zidine 3, benzidine-monosulpho-acid 2, benzidine-disulpho-acid 4, ethoxy-benzidine 4. These complementary substances are used exactly as benzidine itself, reacting in the same way with the 44 final intermediates alreadv mentioned. They require, however, for the production of several current dyes, a number of additional finished intermediates, more or less comphcated in their relationship. They react also di- rectly with phenol and cresol. Tolidine is made from o-nitrotoluol in the same manner as benzidine is prepared from nitrobenzol. Together, the dyes of the ketone, benzidine, tohdine, etc., types form about one-fifth of the current artificial colors. PATENTS IN THE GERMAN INDUSTRY. Patents have been multitudinous in connection with the evolution of the German coal-tar dyestuff industry. From 1876 to 1912 they numbered 8,062, or 224 annually on an average. Many correspond- ing patents were taken out in other lands, especially in France and Great Britain. The number in the United States was 2,432. But very few of the important intermediates have been patented. Not a few dyes tuffs have been patented by non-German inventors. Most patents cover a vast range of possibifities, and protect the manufacture of thousands of theoretical dyestuffs, of which an infini- tesimal number ever win a place in the world's markets. It is claimed with authority that not over 1 per cent of the German patents in this industry have ever proved remunerative. In the case of the 921 dyes in current use at the beginning of 1913, 762 German patents were involved. Of these, 485 were originally patented in the United States. One-half of the American patents have expired. Many of the remaining patents expire this vear or in the immediate future. Over 50 per cent of the current clyestuffs were never pat- ented in the United States. The general situation shows clearly that, as far as patent protection is concerned, numerous dyes have been patented by non-German / 4 ' <► d S o o ae ^ c^ ui S « fQ a. 3. ^ jEa . ^ •» ♦- — JJ o ^ « ^c of IS^J I. f \ r ll li 3 ^ ^ III 3? 1. It 1 III 3 toJ -I < x: o = .E oo S 5 g •-I c £ a a o CO a u 9 a, >> pq & i>rt li/ \ 50 DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. in / « 4 '• <► \0- 1C!'> DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 51 inventors, that many dyestufFs have never been patented, that the patents on many others have expired, a considerable number each year, since 1880. In spite of aQ this apparent freedom, and the absence of all patentprotection on theproduction of the intermediates requisite for dyestutt manufacture, efforts m other coimtries to chal- lenge and contest Germany's dominant position in the dyestuff indus- try have been few, and practically futile. As a matter of fact, Germany has demonstrated her ability to outrank the entire world in making patentable compounds from nonpatented intermediates and, in addition, to manufacture these intermediates in open competition with all rivals. In its ultimate analysis, the situation shows that German chemists and captains of industry have actually done the bulk of the hard and complicated labor inherent in the creation and organization of a vast branch of manufacture, and that they have not hesitated to use the power associated with its hardly won national predominance to prevent effectively any serious competition in industrial lands. AMERICAN ATTITUDE TOWARD THE GERMAN INDUSTRY. The inquiry why the natural resources of our country have never been utilized on any extensive scale to meet the needs of American consumers and create a distinctly American coal-tar chemical industry has often been raised. The few American manufacturers of artificial dyestuffs claimed that they were doing all that was possible under existing economic and fiscal conditions. Consumers of dyestuffs were, as a rule, indifferent, satisfied to receive regularly a supply of all needed colors, ordinarily uniform in strength and meeting every possible requirement in shade or adantability to fabric and material. American economists dwelt upon the enormous complexity of the problem, bristling with diffi- culties at every step, should any attempt be made to dispute the supremacy of the foreign industry, intricate and complicated beyond any other organized field of human effort and formidably intrenched within the limits of a single powerful nation. No direct, concrete attempt was ever made to focus national thought in the United States upon the problem, to enhst the coopera- tion and combined effort of producers of crude products, actual or potential manufacturers of fimshed dyes, the many trades consuming dyestuffs in Quantity, the still more numerous branches dependent in turn upon tnem, and the general industrial world in seeking an effective solution worthy of the nation's rank. The present crisis in the world's affairs, threatening to interrupt any day the customary supply of artificial dyestuffs, lias served to awaken general attention to the importance ojt this national question to a degree never attained by the more or less academic discussions of the past. A famine in dyestuffs strikes at the very existence and profitable continuance of a large group of industries. American chemists have been put in the position of defending themselves, and explainmg why they could not, at once, meet the Nation's need in an emergency. 52 DYESTUPFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. PRODUCERS OF COAL-TAR CRUDES. Those in control of our coking interests, and controlling the coal-tar branch, are thoroughly sympathetic to any prospective enlargement of the demand for coal-tar crudes. Recovery plants for benzol and tar m coke works wiU be rapidly increased, tar distilleries will erect the requisite plant for an ample supplj of the requisite 10 coal-tar crudes, just as soon as there is the fairly permanent assurance of a regular demand for the products. MANUFACTURERS OF HEAVY CHEMICALS. These likewise are thoroughly in sympathy with the creation of a krge industry, capable of using great amounts of staple chemicals. There does not seem to be any inclination on the part of such man- ufacturers to embark themselves in the production of dyestuffs. There is, however, a distinct readiness to cooperate, by organizing, on a modest scale, the manufacture of the leading intermediated. One firm has ventured to erect a somewhat extensive plant, after successfully estabhshing the manufacture of a few intermediates of recognized purity. The feeling here is, however, conservative. There is a marked disinclination to invest considerable amoimts, while the danger is present of awakenmg sooner or later the determi- nation on the part of the German industry to throttle any too am- bitious attempts by eflPective and persistent selling at prices under cost. With the assurance of adequate legislative protection against the danger of ''dumping" on the part of foreign producers of coal-tar intermediates, there is every indication that existing chemical indus- tries would embark readily and extensively in the production of this class of compounds. Hydroquinone, the well-known photographic developer, falling practically in this category of coal-tar compounds, although not used m the production of colors, is now successfully manufactured by an American chemical firm. MANUFACTURERS OF ARTIFICIAL DYESTUFFS. In this class there is no question of a readiness to advance far beyond the modest hmits of the present manufacture as soon as adequate legislation is assured. The manufacturers assert that 90 per cent, by value, of the artificial colors used in the United States are now unprotected by patents, or will be freed from patent protection within two or three years; and, further, that practically all of the genuine needs of American colorists are covered by this 90 per cent of dyes. With the protection of an effective antidumping clause, they feel that much can be done toward buUding up the dyestuff industry in our country. The manufacture of the simpler mtermediates, and of finished dyes involving a minimum of chemical transformations, could be attempted with a degree of security and confidence now unknown. The certainty that ruthless and prolonged undersoUing on the part of foreign competition could be effectually forestalled would undoubtedly stimulate effort in several directions and aid in gradually building up important features of the industry, even if there could bo i DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 68 '%- If h no attempt at creating a self-contained, national, dyestuff industry in the immediate future. Instances are cited where such an exten- sion of the range of manufacture of intermediates and of finished dyes would unquestionably take place. Among these are such important intermediates as nitrobenzol, aniline oil, and salts, resorcin, nitrophenol, saUcyhc acid, benzaldehyde, phthalic acid, the naphthols and the naphthylamines. Among the finished dyes are a variety of colors obtained by not more than two transformations from the above list. There is some feeling, in this connection, among our dyestuff manu- facturers that the patent laws could advantageously be modified, so as to assure the working on American soil of all patents granted by our Government. Great Britain has lately made changes in this direction in her patent laws. Germany has for years required that the owiiers of a patent must work the invention to an adequate extent in the Empire or do all that is necessary to secure such working. Otherwise, if deemed needful in the public interest, permissionTs granted others to use the invention. The owner of the patent receives adequate compensation, and the manufacture in Germany is assured. It is claimed that if such legislation had been in force 30 to 40 years 1^0, when invention in the dyestuff industry was at its height European patentees would have been forced to build branch factories m the United States. These factories would undoubtedly have developed other products. While not helping the then existing American factones, a large dyestuff industry would inevitably ha^ been created on American soil, with resultant benefit to the country at large. "^ . "^.^/^^^^^^ opinion among American chemists and inventors in this field is antagonistic to such legislation. Its evils, it is claimed more than counterbalance the advantages. Certainly in England it has not aided in the development of the artificial-dyestuff industry. CONSUMERS OF ARTIFICIAL DYESTUFFS. The great textile branches and the other branches consummg large amounts of dyestuffs have been indifferent or lukewarm in the pit to the question of an American color industry. Now that their normal manufacture is threatened by dislocation, they are more keenly ahve to the vital character of the subject. The chairman of the dyestuffs committee of the National Association of Finishers of Cotton Products, A. L. Lustig, lately stated in this connection: ^'The textile tmisher would have to sacrifice temporarily in some directions m order to accomplish the greatest good for all, which would be a gradual development of the coal-tar chemical industry in the United States, ii- • "^^^ i^ would be good business judgment on our part to bear additional financial burdens for some years to come in order to help to establish an American coal-tar chemical industry and in this way ultimately benefit ourselves." Mr. Lustig is strongly of the opinion that by cooperation between the American manufacturmg interests and the German color makers much could be accomplished, that we could gain years of time, save large sums of money, and establish the industry under the most favorable conditions. He adds: ^^The German people will require aU theu- hnancial resources to repair the damages caused by the present 54 DYESTUFFS FOB AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. rr,' ''"^*t«y cm fumkh m with patent licenses and with some ex- work' o^t'thir^nl^h/"™ ? nucleus%r the elaborate step^ need^ to ZuhtZvtj^^^^""- } ^^'^^^ *^** ^y the resulting cooperation with the European manufacturers who, at the proper moment m^hf W ^?i^ ^i^'l^'' ^^*^' "^ """"^^^'^P toVablirSdX „t^tt. • ^J^'^^ manner prevent a recurrence of the conditions which jeopardize textile interests at the present time; this Si be S.Tta^''*'^" "^ '""**"'^ '^'^'^ ^ ^^ Patent laws ch^^i of ,,nnn"^Lr?^""^^'^ ''^ ^I^- "\ SU^ntities, and absolutely dependent upon certam colors unobtamable at present, have erected emergency plants and produce the needed dy^ at some considerable bfS m cost. In one such case the experiment has worked so well tC SteSv inT^iTP^^ ^T ^?P^^^ •'^ readmess to embark extensively m the industry and enlarge steadily its present modest ^^'J r^A-^.-^^ r'^f legislation generally^demaS ' t^ iA .f * fu"'*'* ^^^ ?" th« P""t of some users of dyes in regard to identifymg themselves with any concerted move to favofthl S lishment of an American dyestuff industry. Thev state frimll^fhaJ hZutrf H K '"?, """'^ P^^'''/ result^ in th4- tig ilpdy blacklisted by all unporters of cofore and cut off from any Tupplv df dyes, outside of the Lmited American product. ^'^^ ECONOMISTS. t;J?r^'^ f growing feeling among American econombts that the time 13 npe for reaching a decision whether the Unitod States is ever to have a coal-tar chemical industiy, self-contained and independent utihzing the great natural resourc^'and meeting the NaSneed^ as fuUy as is the case with our iron and steel in^dustrv^or a score of other promment phases of national activity. It is pointed out with force t-hat every year which elapses strengtiiens relaCely and absS lutely Germany's predominance in this ffeld and multioUrin^fr metrical ratio the difficulties to be overcome sh^d the attorn^ ever be made to create the fully equipped American bdust^ K seems to be no doubt in the minds*^of some American eTonomiste that the task can be accompUshed, and that the present worWrco^ juncture offers the most favorable opportunity for takinrthe initial and fundamental steps. The enactment of igislS to preven "dumpmg" would unouestionably give an enormous imDetuI^n American enterprise an3 capital, aJreldy attracted^ thisreFdBu? some years must mevitably elapse before a scient fie and technica staff could be thoroughly traine/and before such captains of iStit could be evolved, as m our iron, steel, petroleum electrical a^d of hZ ^orid'lelder' P"" ""' *''''' foreigA^rivals, and often rl^l^edt AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY. NEW YORK SECTION. To meet a widespread demand for explanation a commitf p« w«« appointed by the l5[ew York section of ?he AmericanTh^S ciety to report upon the situation. This committee was composed S the foUowing members: J. B. Herreshoff, representing the^ranu ofcoair fc f r"^ V'- .^l.^^""^' -presenting SfanufUfre^s 01 coal-tar colors, J. Memtt Matthews, representmg the textile in ter- DYESTUFFS FOR AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. 55 i * "*"««. *»•*. ) » f /( ests; H. A. Metz, representing the importers; David W. Jayne, rep- resenting the producers of crude coal-tar products; Allen Rogers, chauman of the New York section; and Bemhard C. Hesse, chemicai expert, chairman. The findings of this committee were considered on November 9, 1914, in detail, and after discussion the report was unanimously adopted by the section. Tne committee's conclusions were in harmony with the general expression of opinion on the part of those more closely concerned with the miestion, consumers, manufacturers, and others, as just outlined. Special stress was laid in the report upon the imperative necessitv of adequate legislation to prevent "dumping," or under- selHng, by the present dominant foreign industrv before any serious attempt could be made to materially enlarge the existing scope of American dyestuff manufacture. ESTABLISHMENT OF AN AMERICAN INDUSTRY. The successive steps necessary for the estabhshment of a self-con- tained American coal-tar chemical industry, under favoring condi- tions, have been outhned as follows: 1. Determination of the American demand for dyestuff 8. — Statistics show the total value of our imports of foreign dyes, but they do not show the exact amounts of each dye consumed m the United States except approximately for alizarin and indigo. It is necessary to take a census in order to have the data for planning intelHgently the different phases of a combined manufacture destined to supply the entire domestic demand, and for so coordinating the various features, as to secure the highest economy. This is not an easy matter, but it IS mdispensable. The information might be secured by a general communication on the part of American consumers of the average annual amounts required of each dyestuff. It might be obtained through a careful collocation of the data contained in consular invoices. Certainly it will never be communicated by importers. 2. Research laboratory.— AM interested parties should unite, pos- sibly with Federal cooperation, in the estabhshment of a research laboratory m which the various chemical, mechanical, and engineering problems connected with the formation of each intermediate and the production of each finished dye could all be solved and standardized. Further, in such an experimental institute the entire coordination of the industry, on the basis of evenly supplying American consumption could be carefully determined. . ' 3. Evolution of the productive industry. — Simultaneously with the organization of such a laboratory, existing and newly formed fac- tories could start units of production, beginning with the simpler dyes, or those involving a minimum of transformations. Graduallv the volume would increase, until finally the entire field would be covered. The central research laboratory would constantly serve as a clearmg house to plan and provide agamst waste through improper coordmation; and such cordial trade cooperation as exists between the component parts of the German industry should be sought for. At the same time our schools of science would organize special courses to train up the necessary corps of chemists and chemical engineers to naan the growing industry, exactly as they have done for the exten- sive dyemg and bleaching industries of our country. 56 DYESTUFFS FOE AMEEICAN INDUSTRIES. n, JA 1^^^ ^''}'t ?. '^^r'^^' possibly less, before the industry could Sni iiH^r.t^"^H ^''aT °e«ds; but it would be disSictly a national industry. Here and there a minor gap must be fiUed from abroad until patent rights have expired. Unquestionably AmeriZ inventiye gemus woullbe spurred to score successes in the n^ field THE PROBLEM IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE. J= ^Tt Britam is a countnr m which the artificial dyestufiF industry is much more developed t&an in the United States. It depS fmn, X= • V i^^.^e^n «"t off entirely for over seven months nfZ. ■ ^ ?™^ ^'"■^'S'} ^"PPly- So severely have its textUe and dee^ Jft"" ^ been endangered that the British Govermnent W deemed it an imperative duty to take the requisite steps to buiW up promptly a national coal-tar industry, depending upon nationd SranTo^^e^^riyr""^^ "^^ ^"^"""^ ^^^ -*- --^^"^ On November 27, 1914, the President of the British Board of Trade m presentmg the subject before the House of Commons, said: ''If we were to go on being dependent in the larger portion of our textile trade on suppheswhicTi Germany has the power'^to cut off whenevS Sfn{^'?ri' T *'^' '^f "»''."?tfJ: i" "^ state Sf peril, and we sho^d cer- tainly be lackmg m foresight if we were not prepared to take the steps nectary to put a stop to the entire dependence of what wm alter all the greatest of our manufacturing industries (i. e., textUe manufactures) on commodities entirely untfer foreign controf " hmce then the subiect has been actively discussed by chenjcal in- terests textile and cfvers' associations, chambers of commie ete Some have advocated; a reversal of the traditional free-trade p'oUc^ nil ^g^om. makmg a temporary exception in favor of artificial dyes, bome have proposed active cooperation with Switzerland whose dye production could rapidly be charged, raw matS S suppbed from England. Othe« favor ample°fi,iancTal aid and closf cooperation on the part of the Govermnent, with the assrance of adequate protection agamst unfair competition after the war 1 his last pohcy seems to have the majority of adherents 'and ha. I • • • •' ■ ^ « • • « << / ^ COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY This book is due on the date indicated below, or at the expiration of a definite period after the date oTCowiST as provided by the rules of the Library or by sS^' rangement with the Librarian in char^ DATE BORROWED APR 2 a 19 1tf DATE DUE 6' csa(u»)Mioo ) i 1^ II NEH JULiifiW r t ■HI - ■■ ■ ■ ■ JM DEC 8 1d39 END OF TITLE