MASTER NEGA TIVE NO. 91-80170 MICROFILMED 1991 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project" Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States ~ Title 17, United States Code ~ concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material... Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: BURTON, RICHARD FRANCIS, SIR TITLE: ETRUSCAN BOLOGNA PLACE: LONDON DA TE : 1876 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT Master Negative # 3ii?0J7O:y. BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARHKT Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record 874.5 B95 Burton, Sir Richard Francis, 18*21-1800. Kti-usciin Holoprim: ti study. 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ETRUSCAN BOLOGNA: |) ) A STUDY. BY RICHARD F. BURTON, AUTHOR OF 'pilgrimage TO EL MEDINAH AND MECCA,' 'CITV OF THE SAINTS AND ROCKY MOUNTAINS TO CALIFORNIA,' ETC i LONDON: SMITH, ELDER, & CO., 15 WATERLOO PLACE. 1876. l^il fights reserved.} ^l^eitaum €\xthf Pall Mall. A Nov. I, 1875. Dear Lady Otway, Be pleased to consider this little volume a sign that tlte Wanderer in Bologna has not forgotten yonr gracious and graceful hospitality , and believe me Ever yours sincerely ^ RICHARD R BURTON. Ladv Otivav, en CO I CM / PREFACE. I NEED hardly say that this Httle volume offers no novelty beyond introducing to the English reader the valuable results of Etruskische Forschunge7i in modern Italy. It can hardly be termed uncalled for. The discovery of the Bolognese Certosa which took place some six years ago, requires, for study, reference to a number of pamphlets and scattered letters, which we must not expect to see in our libraries. Other ' finds,' noticed in * Etruscan Bologna,* are even less accessible ; and even my own list is not quite complete. Like the Gipsy dialect, the Etruscan tongue has fascinated a host of scholars. The latest result is a belief that in it ' we have a waif of one of those many extinct families of speech which have gone to vni PREFACE. build up the languages of the present world ' (Sayce). For the moment we can only say that the problems of its origin and its position have not been solved ; that some Italic vocables have been detected, or rather guessed, and that there are, perhaps, a few * Turanian affinities,* possibly derived from Finnish, and pointing, haply, to an age when the Aryan limits were not definitively laid down. Some day, as linguistic science is In despair, we may bring to light a long bilingual Inscription, that will prove a veritable Rosetta Stone. Hitherto, the only keys applied to the ethnology of the mysterious race, which taucrht Rome her arts and arms, have been 'glottology* and comparative philology', while not a little violence has accompanied the application. In this volume, however, we shall find Professor Calori, to mention no others, searching the sepul- chres, and supplementing linguistic by craniological and other physiological studies. Finally, * Etruscan Bologna ' attempts for the first time to describe the North-Eastern, which may be the eldest. Etrurian Confederation, while the \ PREFACE. IX works of Dennis and other notable English autho- rities treat mainly, if not only, of Middle Etruria, almost corresponding with modern Tuscany. I must again conclude with my old apology for minor sins of omission and commission — the * single revise ' excuse. HaydarXbAd (Dekhan) : March 4, 1876. Richard F. Burton. CONTENTS. f -*o*- PART I. T//£ WORKS OF MAN, SECTION I. New Bologna II. Old Bologna • • PAGE 3 14 III. Public Collections of Etruscan Antiquities at Bologna. , . . . .21 IV. Private Collections, especially the Villanova. 48 PART II. THE ABODES OF MAN. I. Various Finds . . . . • 19 II. Further Afield, The Certosa and Casalecchio . 93 III. To Marzabotto, Misanello, and Misano . .107 IV. Conclusions ...... 137 xu CONTENTS. PART III. THE ETRUSCAN MAN 8BCTIOK I. The Etruscan Man II. The Etruscan Man (continued) . III. Craniology .... IV. Professor Calori V. The Etruscan Language . VI. Inscriptions . . . . VII. Modern Bolognese Tongue Appendix . . . . . Index ..... Synoptical Table of the Paleo-Ethnological PACK 163 187 212 242 263 271 Remains of Central Italy . To face Title i I ETRUSCAN BOLOGNA PART I. THE WORKS OF MAN * Le moindre debris ^chapp^ des mines de I'antiquit^ nous en apprend plus que tous les livres' Raoul Rochette B SECTION I. NEW BOLOGNA, I PROPOSE to write a study of the old * House of Aucnus/ the venerable ex-capital of Northern Etruria, promising never to borrow from the guide- books, and premising that the sooner they borrow from me the better for them. Not a line concerning the ancient city of Felsina, lately brought to light, appears in Murray (1869); and right few in Bae- deker (1873). Travellers, therefore, daily pass through without even hearing of our many admirable collections of archaeology, and without seeing that excavations are being pushed on with exemplary ' vigour. The stranger-herd visits the Art-galleries, asks after the Sta. Cecilia of Rafifaele and the S. Sebastian of Francesco Raibolini, *detto il Francia;' it stands wondering under the shadow of La Garisenda, the most towering of the leaning towers ; it admires the long miles of arcades and straightway it is gone. Still ' Bononia docet,' and B2 THE WORKS OF MAN. NEW BOLOGNA, we Students can now learn from her the tale of her older world. And first of the site. The rich plains of Lom- bardy to the north-west, and the sub-Alpine mari- time lowlands of Friuli and Venice to the north-east, Circumpadane Etruria forming the thigh-piece of the Italian boot, here abut southwards upon the Apennines, the mighty suture which, immediately north of Genoa, sweeping from west to east, gradu- ally assumes a south-eastern trend. Were I speak- ing geographically I should say that they begin in southernmost Italy, bend round the north-west limit, form the Alps, bifurcate at the great European nucleus of Switzeriand, where they send off a branch to form the Rheingau ; and, after becoming the Dinarians, they terminate in Greece, the whole being shaped like an elongated arch or a tuning- fork. The great steppe of Upper Italy is mostly composed of riverine valleys, feeding the Adriatic Gulf ; the main trunks, commencing with the eastern- most, where Italy geographically begins, being the Isonzo, Tagliamento, Livenza and Piave, the Bacchi- glione and Brenta of Padua, the Adige or Etsch, the network of the Po Proper, and the Po di Pri- maro alias the Reno. Many of these historical streams run, it is well known, upon planes several feet higher than the adjacent lands ; and the only tunnel between the Duchy of Gorizia (Gorz) and Bologna is that pierced through a vein of the extinct Euganean volcanoes {Colli Euganei) by the ex-Duke of Modena : like many an English gentle- man of the old school, he would not allow his senses and his feelings to be wounded by the ' destruction of all feudalism.' Near the south-western extremity of this noble prairie lies Bologna, with her head resting upon the gentle slopes which represent the foot-hills of the Apennines, and with her feet extended towards the broad, fat Reno Valley. Her site is in the heart of the temperates ; and, though she complains of wintry cold and summery heat, she is amply blessed by ' Nature and Nurture.' There is nothing bad in Bologna but the water, which, hardened by the dissolution of calcareous rocks, chaps the skin and offends the internals. Presently, however, the old Roman aqueduct will flow once more, and the one real nuisance will be effectually abated.^ Nothing will then remain but to cheapen and to improve the 1 See Analisi di alciuu acqiie potabili della Cittd di Bologria, by Cav. Domenico Santagata, 1872. THE WORKS OF MAN, post-office — a civilized instrument which sadly wants refurbishing throughout Italy. The characteristics of Bologna are the Arcade and the Leaning Tower. The former is of every age and shape ; we even find the rude wooden archi- traves and the post props — a palpable survival of the Etruscan temple which we shall visit at Marza- botto. The finished arch resting upon the classical column also dates from the days when it was appa- rently first employed, namely, in the Diocletianian Palace at Spalato. The result is that of an English Chester and a Switzer Bern, made artistic and beautiful, combined with the timber appurtenances of Tours—the most mediaeval amid civilised French cities. Of the hundred towers lately described by the learned and laborious Senator Count Giovanni Gozzadini,^ many if not most of them are distinctly out of the perpendicular. This is not the case in the adjoining cities ; and I would explain the fact by the ground having been so much worked by successive races and generations of men. All are mere defor- mities, rickety minarets, which, as the courses of * Delle Torri gentilizie di Bologna e delk famiglie alle quali prima appartennerono : Siudii, Bologna, 1874, with plates. The large 8vo. is considered the most interesting of Count Gozzadini's twenty-four publications. NEW BOLOGNA. 7 masoniy show, were begotten to be vertical. The numerous palaces of brick, without and with stone dressings, show that the master-hand of Palladio, who adorned Vicenza with the meanest of material, has passed here as at Milan ; and suggests that New London need not go to Scotland for her granite— a material to be used sparingly, as it ' kills ' all its neighbours. The ' Palazzo ' of the humblest noble is vast enough to contain two of the largest boxes that poor Belgravia can boast ; and the in- clined planes of staircase, evidently made for the comfort and convenience of the grandee s destrier, contrast wonderfully with the companion-ladder of masonry which, rodded and carpetted. suffices between Teuton-land and Scandinavia for the millionaire of the North. These are features of a bygone day, yet Bologna is not without her ' modern improvements.' The Via Miola. lately repaired, is one of the handsomest and the most striking in the whole peninsula. The ' Seliciata ' (slab-pavement) is gradu- ally extending, and, where the handsome equipages pass, flag-bands have been let into the torturing cobble-stones. The thoroughfares have changed their saintly names for those of modern patriots; and the Strada di S. Felice can hardly complain that 8 THE WORKS OF MAN. it has become ' Ugo Bassi/ Clubs abound ; besides the Societa Felsinea and the Domino Club, the latter on the small scale and the exclusive system which makes the reputation of the Marlborough, there is also, under the presidency of Count F. Carega di Muricci, the Club Alpino dell' Emilia (or della Romagna), a section of the Italiano whose head- quarters are at Turin.^ There are two chief news- paperr, the Monitore and the Patria, and a handy Italian guide-book.^ The shops are tolerable, and the hotels are new, and upon a large scale. The trotting horse has been naturalised ; the public com- missionnaire is firmly established ; and the policeman, has, like his brother of Milan, confessedly borrowed a uniform from the London * Peeler.' Still, the heart of the city, the great square, is essentially medio evo, as when she adopted her famous watchword ^Libertas.* Huge umbrellas, like those manufac- tured in England for the Court of murderous Dahome, shelter the buxom market-women, the lineal descendants of the Umbrians and the Etrus- » An energetic member, Signer F. Paventi, was kind enough to give me its first publication. - Guida di Bologna e suoi dintorni del Cav. Michelangelo Gua- landi. Quarta Edizione, interamente rifusa dair Autore. Bologna : Nicola Zanichelli, 1875. NEW BOLOGNA, 9 cans; and King Hensius, after a lapse of five centuries, would find little difficulty in recognising the view from his prison windows. The statue of Neptune (so out of place in an inland city) stands as it stood in a.d. 1564. I would leave it there, although statues in the open air appear some- what like a tree in a drawing-room ; but I would entirely abolish the boys who are dangling dolphins by the tail, and the handsome feminine monsters who are practising a very peculiar operation. If you wish to see the Contadini, go on Saturday morning to the section of the main street laid off by hand-rails ; it is a fine, tall, and sturdy race, which still affects the pastrano, or brigand cloak of murret-coloured wool or of mezza-lana (half-cotton), and the furs which some day will be more generally adopted in England. The result of this intimate blending of the mediaeval with the modern soon makes itself felt. There is a something in the presence of Bologna that softens the soul ; a venerable aspect appeal- ing to sentiments which men do not wear upon the sleeve; a solemnity of vast half-ruined hall, and of immense deserted arcade ; a pathetic vista of unfinished church and closed palace, relics of the lO THE WORKS OF MAN, poetical Past which have projected themselves into the prosaic Present. You learn with pleasure that you can lose your way in the long, labyrinthine streets and alleys, wynds and closes — such contrasts with the painful rectangular regularity of Mann- heim, New York, and Buenos Ayres. The artistic Greeks laid out straight lines of intersecting tho- roughfare ; but they had aesthetic reasons for the plan which led to the central temple; and they applied it to their miniature official towns, where the square and ritualistic form, oriented to the four cardinal points, must have compared pleasantly with the large irregular suburbs beyond the walls. We moderns have adopted it and, adapting it to a huge scale, we have produced not a copy but a caricature. Briefly to describe the effect of the aristocratic old city, the 'moral capital of the Emilia,' you have only to remember that of Man- chester or of Birmingham, and to conjure up into imagination the clear contrary. The * centre of trade' may have a poetry of its own, but it is certainly not * sensuous ' as Milton advises ; and here we have a mediaeval castle dwarfing the mass of bran-new semi-detached villas. The citizens and peasantry of Bologna are one NEW BOLOGNA, II I of the finest of Italian races, distinguished not only for physique, but by good fighting qualities, by a peculiar vivacity of mind {sveltezza cT ingenio) and by a fund of broad humour which is made broader by the * burr ' of their peculiar dialect Yet within the walls all speak Italian, and the same is the case with the 'contadini/ especially near the Tuscan frontier. After what we have heard about Papal misrule and want of progress, we might expect at Bologna, which is essentially Roman, a portentous display of ignorance, superstition, and violence. It is only fair to own that the reverse is notably the fact, and that Bologna still justifies her motto * Libertas.* I can hardly wonder that there are educated men who regret the change to ' Eleutheromania ' and * Italiomania.' The section called ' Society ' is exceptional as the aspect of their home. The effects of the media are that universal civility and * exquisite amenity * which have not been unnoticed by northern travel- lers. It is, in fact, *a rare land of courtesy,' an uncorrupted Tuscany. Many families date from the Middle Ages, when the city was ruled by a Governor and forty Senators, Aristos who utterly J 12 THE WORKS OF MAN. scouted the idea of a ' Lower house/ and — aristocracy is a rule of honour. Throughout Italy the richard IS for the most part a thrifty, if not a penurious, personage, who lives hard the wrong way, and who often, like the famous bishop, Will die from want of what he has. At Bologna parsimony is the exception. The wealthy nobles keep large establishments ; their equipages and liveries would ornament a capital ; and they do not dine in secret — a rare circum- stance in the * bel paese.* For their hospitality the Anthropological Congress of 187 1 can answer; all who had any claim upon their attention were received with open arms. This is probably due to the fact that Bologna has hitherto escaped the peine forte et dure of the foreign colony ; only two English families, two French, and a few of Spanish blood appear amongst the sixty or seventy that represent the Upper Ten, and all of them are ac- quisitions. The same cannot be said of Rome, Florence, and Naples, where, naturally enough, the stranger is excluded till he has passed a long and a somewhat rigid probation. The university at the * Mater Studiorum,* so famed for Professors of both sexes, still enjoys a green old age ; and this society NEW BOLOGNA, 13 does not characterise anything beyond and above chaff and chit-chat as una seccatura — a ' devilish good word,' said Byron, but the most terrible in the neo-Latin vocabulary. They remember The all Etruscan three — Dante and Petrarch, and scarce less they The Bard of Prose, creative spirit ! he Of the Hundred Tales of Love ; and they do not forget that ' honneur oblige! Hence we explain the saying that you are sure of returning to Bologna; and thus we account for the feeling that removal to the nearest thriving port, out of Italy, is a real lapse from grace. These venerable civilisations have their peculiar cachet \ an aroma like that of wine stored long in the cellar — the flavour is independent of instruction or education, in the limited sense of the words, and, like constitu- tionalism, it must be a growth, not a graft. Briefly, even the English bourgeois begins to realise at Bologna the full sense and significance of ' Northern Barbarian;' and, perhaps, he remembers a fine specimen of the British Philistine, Dr. Johnson. 14 THE WORKS OF MAN, V SECTION II. OLD BOLOGNA. But Bologna must not seduce us with her modern attractions ; we have no time to dwell on the me- mories of Michelangelo and Francia, the Caraccis and Domenichino, Galvani, Mezzofanti, and Achille Marozzo, the creator of our modern Art of Arms. We come here to inspect the vestiges of a day long gone by, to seek with Thucydides, the history of the people in its sepulchres, to detect under the earth which covers the Etruscan tombs the secrets of their civilisation. The researches which began systematically in 1856 have made study an easy matter. Things have greatly changed since Des- Vergers could write of Pelasgian Spina, Atria, and other Circumpadane cities : * Elles ont laisse bien peu de traces dans le souvenir des hommes, et les traces sont si legeres qu elles n'ont plus ni forme ni couleun* Between 1825-7 Zecchi was able to issue his four 8vos., describing the sepulchral OLD BOLOGNA, 15 monuments of the cemetery of Bologna, and illus- trating them with 152 plates. It is generally believed that the first Etruscan Federation of Twelve Cities was founded, west of the Apennines, on the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea ; and the date is laid about the fourteenth century b.c. The chief witness is the Karnak inscription of the * Pharaoh ' Merien Phtah (Menephtah I.), son and successor of Ramses the Great (II. of nineteenth dynasty), which mentions, amongst the invaders of the Egyp- tian Delta from the ' regions of the sea, the isles of the sea,' Sicily and Sardinia, the Lycians, and, to quote no other names, the 'Turis'a,' or * Tur- scha* (Tursci, Turski, or Tusci),^ the Greek Thyrsenoi, who occupied Tyrrhenia. After over- populating the land, they crossed the backbone of * The Eugubine Tables (commented upon by Lepsius), of which five are in Etruscan and two in Latin characters, give, as variants of Tuscus Tursce, Turscer, Tuscum, and, in the fourth line, Turskum. The Vicomte de Roug^ {Revue Archceo., Nouvelle Sdrie, 8th year, August 1867) translates * Turis'a (Tyrrhenus) coeperat caput belli totius, bellator omnis regionis ejus adduxerat uxorem (et) liberos suos,' and he remarks that, had the Etruscans not failed, * une colonie Tyrrhdnienne eut de- vancd Alexandre de plus de dix si^cles.' Chabas {Etudes sur PAntig., Sr^c, 1872), in a new version of this important inscription, makes the leader not the *Tursha' (Etruscans), but Marmaion, King of the Lybians, and son of Teit or Deid, who, after the battle on the left of the Nile, escaped to the north, leaving in the hands of the enemy 890 Etruscan hands and 6,369 Lybian trophies. The word ' Raseni ' occurs for the first time in Dion. LTa/., and thus it is comparatively modern. ^ I i6 THE WORKS OF MAN, OLD BOLOGNA. 17 the country, and conquered the Aryan Umbrians, whose mariere and terramare (pile-villages and kitchen-middens) — not to be confounded with the subsequent Etruscan — still remain. These races were familiar with metal-working, and they had succeeded the * great ocean of , Turanians ' which that highly-distinguished Mongol scholar. Prof. Paul Hunfalvy, would call * An-Aryans ;' and again these, perhaps, the men of the latest Tertiary or of the earliest Quaternary epoch. In the Circum- padane regions the Etruscan immigrants — dated, by the general voice of history, about the twelfth cen- tury B.C. built their cities and cemeteries, Felsina being the chief centre, and annexed Atria and Spina, the maritime depots. This theory as- sumes that the Etruscans all travelled by water and not by land — which, to say the least, is not proven. In the inverse case they would first occupy the eastern and afterwards the western slopes of the Apennines ; and thence, emboldened by strength and security, they would overspread the surround- ing lowlands, and become pedionomites. But there is nothing to disprove the habit of voyaging and of travelling at the same or at different times ; thus, indeed, I would explain the modern theory ( /^ of a dozen writers, which derives the Rasenna from the Rhaetian Alps, and the existence of the Euganeans, a kindred tribe in the vicinity of Padua. And, in the peculiar fanaticism of the modern Tyrolese, I find direct survival from the * gens ante omnes alias dedita religion ibus.* The tower-tombs of Palmyra and the rock-tombs of Asia Minor and Syria Proper, where the dead lay buried along the main lines of suburban road, were reproduced by the Etruscans in their new Italian homes. This aesthetic and artistic system of sepulture, which made the monuments true * monimenta,* — an immense advance upon the days when the corpse was interred, as by modern Africans, in the house ; by Moslems near it, and by Christians in the church — was borrowed, with a host of cere- monies and superstitions, by the Romans, as the well-known instance of the Via Appia proves : and yet the old habit survived in the burial of babes that had not cut their teeth under the roof-eaves (subgrundarium), like swallows* nests. These groups of sepulchres, which will presently be described, enable a ' hypothetical planimetry ' to lay down, with a tolerably sure hand, the lines and limits of Etruscan c i8 THE WORKS OF MAN, Felsina,^ the colony of Tarchon, the capital of the twelve Federated Cities in the so-called Etruria Nova. Evidently built upon an Umbrian site, and smaller than its Roman successor, it did not ex- tend, as some archaeologists have supposed, to the southern hills. The position was the normal isth- mus, * mull,* or peninsula ; whose base is the Reno River, a non ignobile flumen, rising in the nearest * The only names which have survived this Federation are Atria (Pelasgic), Spina (Pelasgic), Mantua, Melpum (captured by the Boii), Felsina or Velsina, and, perhaps, we may now add, Misa. Cav. Zannoni, of whom more presently, quotes Manetho : ' Apud enim Tuscos, Pyseo successit Tuscus junior annis xxxix. : huic Aucnus annis xxv., quem secutus est Felsinus annis xxxiii.' Sil. Ital. {De Bell. Pun. lib. viii. 6oi): * Ocniprisca domus/ Servius ad ^n. (x. 198) adds : * Hunc Ocnum alii Auletis filium, alii fratrem, qui Perusiam condidit referunt : et ne cum fratre contenderet in agro Gallico, Felsinam, quae nunc Bononia dicitur, condidisse/ Pliny (iii. 19) says: * Bononia Felsina vocitata.' Sempronius {De Div. et Chorogr. Italicp) : * Flaminea (regio) item a Bononia ad Rubiconem amnem ante a Felsina a principe He- truriae missis coloniis Lamonibus.' M. Cato {De Ofiginibus) : * Gallia Cispadana, olim Bianora a victore Ocno, postea Felsina dicta usque Ravennam, nunc Gallia Aurelia, Emilia a Romanis ducibus nomen habet. Princeps metropolis Felsina primum a rege Thusco conditur.' Livy has {Hist, xxxiii. 37) * Dein (consules, viz. M. Claudius Marcellus and L. Furius Purpureo) junctis exercitibus primum Boiorum agrum usque ad Felsinam oppidum populantes peragraverunt. Ea urbs, caeteraque castella et Boii fere omnes, praeter juventutem, quae praedandi causa in armis erat (tunc in devias silvas recesserat), in deditionem venerunt' {U. C. 556). * Felsina' then disappears from literature, and the historian (lib. xxxvii. 34) speaks of Bononia as a * colonia Latina,' established after a Senatus Consult, by the Triumvirs, S. Valerius Flaccus, M. Atilius Seranus and Valerius Tappus. OLD BOLOGNA. »9. Apennines about Pistoja, and whose arms are the Aposa affluent to the east, and the Rav6na westward. It was probably walled round, like Etruscan cities generally ; the interior was divided into ' insulae,' or * regiones,' by main lines of street, each with its own gate or gates ; and it is noticed that the most ancient sepulchres are those nearest the defences. Probably a considerable part was of timber. Strabo (v. i. § 7) tells us that Ravenna, a city of the Thessalians, given over by these Pelasgi to the Umbrians, was composed of wooden edifices;^ and Atria, Hat, or Hatri, which named the Adriatic, preserves, according to the learned Bocchi (' Importanza di Adria la Veneta'), memories of similar constructions, the spoils of the oaks, which in Virgil's day — On Padus* bank . . . Uprear their heads, and nod their crests sublime. JEn. ix. 680-2. Atop of the Etruscan city lay Bononia, whose name, revived in Bononia Gessoriacum (Boulogne), has been erroneously derived from the Boii. These barbarians, about B.C. 350, ravaged the Etruscan » The French translators understand IvXo-nayhQ oXtj, ' built wholly on piles.' 02 20 THE WORKS OF MAN. 21 Federation of the Po, and finally bequeathed a name to Bohemia. The Consular Via Emilia, the Great North- Eastern, probably a successor of the Etruscan highway, traversed the city from west to east, as is proved by the trachytic slabs found some three metres below the actual level ; a metalling brought from the Euganean hills, and still showing the wheel-rut. Bononia, larger than Felsina, was smaller than Bologna, a hexagon, measuring about two miles in circumference ; and the Via Emilia still enables us to master the intricacy of the modern city. This thoroughfare corresponded with the Corso, which runs, roughly speaking, between the two halves, northern and southern. Eastward the main street radiates into four branches : the Via Luigi Zamboni (old S. Donato) to the north-east ; the Strade S. Vitale, Maggiore, and di S. Stefano, the latter to the south-east ; while to the west there are three spokes, the Strade delle Lamme and di S. Felice, and the Via del ' Pradello.' \ SECTION III. PUBLIC COLLECTIONS OF ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, Before proceeding to the cities and cemeteries of this mysterious Etruscan race, it is advisable to spend a few days amongst the museums of Bologna. The two public are the R. Museo Archeologico deir Universita Bolognese, containing a collection which in 187 1 was exhibited in a house further down the street ; now it occupies a room in the modern Univer- sity, the old Palazzo Poggi. Here the most notice- able article is the metal mirror, known from its original owner as the Patera Cospiana, the * gemma Maffeiana,' which is described as a 'capolavoro di glittica : ' hither also the ' Mamolo finds ' were trans- ferred. The second— and allow me to remark, en passant, that the sooner Bologna combines the two collections, royal and communal, the better — is in the old Archi^innasio, afterwards called the Scuole Pie, from its Charity Schools, and now the Biblioteca del 22 THE WORKS OF MAN, Comune. The frescoes and inscriptions, the court and galleries, of this venerable edifice, which once rang with every tongue of Europe and the nearer East, are described by all the guide-books ; but none, not even Cav. Gualandi, notice the collections of 1870-1. They are deposited in the Sale (iii. and iv.), inscribed ' Scavi della Certosa,' of the Museo Civico, which lie at the northern end of the grand cloister. The arrangement is admirable. The walls of Sala No. iii. are hung with large and detailed maps and plans, illustrating the topography of the find, which may be called the ' Certosa Collection.' The merit of the discovery must be assigned to Cav. Antonio Zannoni, * Capo-Ingegnere Architetto* of the Municipality, who, guided by what seems archaeo- logical instinct, began to excavate in 1869. Four hundred tombs were opened in four years. All the skeletons lay supine ; only six were irregularly disposed, probably facing their homes — we find the practice noticed in Homer, and the beatulus of Per- sius ' in portam rigidos calces extendit.' All the rest were oriented with their feet towards the rising sun, as the Jews fronted Jerusalem. Thus Laertius tells us that the Greek liturgies ordered the face to look eastwards, and Helianus reports an old law, \ I ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 23 which directed the head to be disposed westward : we shall presently learn that this was also an Umbrian custom ; and that it was perpetuated by the Romans. A happy thought of Cav. Zannoni was bodily to transport the skeletons, adult and infantine,^ together with the remnants of coffins {arca\ and even the earth upon which they lay. Except only the (ss rude, the fee of the ' griesly grim ' Ferryman, grasped in the right hand, the funereal adjuncts were placed on the left (north). These are Celebes, amphorae, tazze, and unguentaria of glass or alabaster, in fact, the multiform vases and pots for whose names the curious reader will consult my friend and colleague Mr. Dennis (' Cities and Cemeteries of Western Etruria,' i.. xciv., c.) ; together with can- delabra, dice, and pebbles, the latter possibly counters for play. The marriage-ring still clings to the fleshless annular of the left hand : here is the old superstition (Isidore) which made a vein run from it to the heart, and which survives throughout modern Europe. It is often of iron,' the servile » They are mostly feminine ; seven are adults and five are children. . The iron ring of the ' stem old Romans ' is still found amongst the Sikhs ; and the strictest Moslems will not wear gold. Whilst the Aryans generally call the 'fourth finger' of the Book of Common Prayer (vulgarly the third finger) ' annularis,' in lUyrian persUn]ak, f 24 THE WORKS OF MAN, metal amongst the later Romans, who denoted nobility by gold, and the plebeian by silver. The more precious rings were rare at the Certosa. Prof. Calori, ' Delia Stirpe che ha populata T antica necro- poU alia Certosa di Bologna ' (Bologna : 1873. Plate ix.), a most valuable study kindly given to me by the author, figures two of these skeletons : I shall offer further remarks upon the collection when we visit the spot. A marking feature of this admirable trouvaille is the number of ciste in bronze a cordoni\ we have' here fourteen, whereas in 1871 Etruria Circumpadana had yielded only seyen (' Lettera deir Ing. Ant. Zannoni al Sig. Conte Comm. Glan Carlo Conestabile.' Torino : Stamperia Reale, Oct. 15th, 1873). All are of the same age, and undoubtedly denote a splendid epoch. The cylin- ders are two plates of thin bronze, flat bands alter- nating with cords repousse-worked. The cover is often a flat stone, and the lower band is sometimes ornamented with leaves ; the horizontal rings num- the Turanians, according to my learned friend Prof. Hunfalv)', of Pesth, term it the * finger without a name.' This is found in Chinese (Works of Mencius), in Japanese, and in the Dravidian tongues ; for instance, in Tamil, Telugu, and Canarese, it appears as andmika^ * anonymous,* from the Sanskrit, ndma. The * philological puzzle ' was lately dis- cussed in the columns of the Pall Mall. \'\ ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 21 ber fourteen or fifteen, and the bottom is also composed of concentric circles. Feet are present in some specimens, absent in others. The total height averages 0*33 metre (=1 foot 0*99 inch), and the diameter 0*29 metre (=11-42 inches) to 0*40 metre (=1 foot 375 inches). The ornaments are mostly leaf-like borderings, near the upper edge ; Bronze Cista, with Stone Cover. winged masks at the junction of the anscs\ and, on each of the three feet, appears in one specimen, a satyr, demi-couchant, and holding a wine-skin and a cup. These artistic articles followed the rude big- bellied urn of terra cotta, which contained the ashes t 26 THE WORKS OF MAN. of the dead,^ even as the earthen tazza became the bronze cup. It has been suggested that during the owner s life they served for pixides or dressing- cases ; and this is supported by the presence of the ansce, which in one specimen represent a bull and a ram. The cysts of Middle Etruria, and especially those of Praeneste, were buried as ornaments : they contained articles of toilette, sponges, unguentaria and unguents, the little rouge-box, the white ceruse, &c. The Bolognese cysts are said to have been the produce of local art and industry ; yet a precisely similar article, with handles and without feet, was found at Granholz, near Bern, and is exhibited at the Stadt Bibliotek of the Swiss capital. MM. Cave- doni and Gozzadini infer from their simplicity that they are more ancient than those of the Central Fed- eration and of Latium, which cannot date beyond the first half of the third century B.C. : the same may be said of the bronze disks which served as mirrors. I would further notice the resemblance of shape with the kilindi or bark cylinder, in which the Mnyamwezi stores and transports his valuables. Another characteristic of this collection is the * At the Certosa at least one cyst was found not to contain human bones. ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. rj huge and highly ornamented stela or cippus, the pro- totype of the humble headstone in the churchyards of our villages : perhaps, also, the meta, or goal- FiBUUiE FROM ViLLANOVA (all half size). I, Fibula with amber in setting, b. Amber beads, c. Glass beads, blue ground, yellow enamel. The bronze oii^t's/t fibula showed— Copper . Tin . . . 84-26 15 "74 100 '00 like shape, symbolised the end of man's exiguum curriculum. From the learned studies of the late 28 THE WORKS OF MAN, Count Giovanni da Schio, of Vicenza (* Sulle Iscri- zioni ed altri monumenti Reto-Euganei/ Padova : Angelo Sicca, 1853), of which I owe a copy to the courtesy of his two sons, Counts Almerico and Al- vise, we learn that the Euganeans used the obelisk- shaped gravestone, whose legend usually began with ^iX^ {hie, heic ?). Thirty tombstones were found, a monumental series unique in size and ornamenta- tion ; and the largest and most remarkable of these products of national art is thus described by Count G. C. Conestabile ('Congres,^ P- 271) : *The height, not including the base is about 2*10 metres (=6 feet iO'68 inches); the breadth 1-26 metre (=4 feet I -60 inch) and the thickness 0*30 metre (=ii-8i inches). The bas-reliefs, raised hardly half-a-centi- metre (=0-197 inch), are divided into four com- partments to the front and three behind. Beginning at the top, a hippocampus faces a Nereid holding a fish : in the second zone the defunct, umbrella in hand, rides a biga behind the auriga ; a winged figure soars above him, and before the horses marches a helmeted form, mantled about the reins, with a torch in the right and a rudder (oar) in the left hand. The third band contains two pugilists, separated by a little tibicen, and flanked by the f I ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 29 agonothetes (director of games), and a youth ; the latter holds an unguentarium and another utensil for the comfort of the combatants. In the lowest com- partment a throned figure is approached by a person- age accompanying a car, and by others with a basket and various offerings— apparently it is the Infernal Deity receiving the defunct and his suite. The reverse contains fewer figures : a feminine body, ending in a double serpent's tail, hurls a rock ; a charioteer urges his biga at speed, and in the lowest a warrior, with lance and shield, faces a cloaked form. These designs are separated, and mixed with orna- ments of leaves, ivy stems, and waving lines.* Count Conestabile, who would distribute the dates of the several kinds of stelce between the third and the fifth or even the sixth century of Rome, followed by Cav. Zannoni (loc, cit, p. 27), pro- poses a four-fold division of the thirty tomb-stones. 1. Rough water-rolled natural blocks, still found in the Reno bed; menisci, lenticular, cylindrical,, ovoid, or spheroidal. The diameter ranges to 077 metre ( = 30*35 inches). 2. Long-ovoid and cylindrical stelae, with plain faces, and sides converging below like termini, artificially smoothed and flattened ; in fact, the 30 THE WORKS OF MAN. menisci civilised. The bases were left, as usual, unworked for planting in the ground, and one shows the letters ian or nai. 3. The sculptured stela of the same shape, but especially the horse-shoe. Of these splendid speci- mens the tallest is 1-45 metre (=4 feet 9-08 inches) by o-8o (=2 feet 7*50 inches) broad ; a segment of a circle above, with the sides inclining inwards or de- scending vertically. It is carved on one, perhaps on both faces ; and here and there it preserves traces of red paint, with which, possibly, the name was inscribed (M. Hirschfeld). The vine and the ivy, both sacred to Bacchus,^ meander over the perimeter, enclosing, as has been shown, a variety of figures ; and certainly the most remarkable, when we remember how lately the umbrella found its way into England, are the personages holding it with the right hand— a frequent rilievo amongst Etruscans. The others, still repre- senting funereal usages, are a panoplied warrior, with lance at rest; a batde-scene between a horseman 1 Hence the Latin saw: * Vino vendibili suspensa hedera non opus est ' {' Good wine needs no bush ') ; and the ivy-tuft still hangs over the (Enopolium and the Thermopohum of Istria. It is not difficult to de- tect the origin of the practice in the beauty of the plant upon the borders of the Mediterranean : the rich purple clusters exactly re- semble the currant-grape of the Peloponnesus, and the perfume of the finely-veined leaf is stiU supposed to dissipate the fumes of wine. f ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 31 i i i and a footman ; a feminine face and bust ending, not in a fish, but in a double snake ; the winged Genius, with a serpent in either hand ; the biga and triga ; horse-races, and chariot-races; the barded steed; the altar and basket ; the bark (Baris ?), with mast and sail ; Charon, holding the oar in the left hand ; sports with balls and lances ; the star ; the funereal owl, the hippocampus, also a favourite ; the olive, the myrtle, and the pomegranate ; and various other herbs, flowers, lotus (?), and fruits. The signs of archaism are the shallowness of relief; heavy pro- portions ; angular movements in the figures ; im- perfect forms, and indistinctness of details. In later times the sculptors hand became freer, his tool worked with greater breadth, vivacity, and truth ; and, finally, he arrived at individualism. 4. Spheres and spheroid stones, worked and pro- longed in the rough where the parallelopipedon base was intended for planting in the ground — a form very rare in Etruria Proper, the central region between the Campanian and the Circumpadan. Two globes of remarkable size are in this museum ; perhaps they symbolised the head, neck, and shoulders which lay below. A smaller ball, carved with a little figure, was unearthed, as will after- I 32 THE WORKS OF MAN, wards appear, at Marzabotto ; and another, cut only on one side, was taken from the Torricelli tombs. The articles of pottery, not including fragments, reach the goodly total of 8io. These interesting remains of home life were found with the skeletons, as well as with the ashes, and they are divided by Cav. Zannoni into four kinds : — 1. The rude brown, black, and ash-coloured, numbering 200. 2. The plain red (160). 3. The plain varnished black (150). 4. The painted and figured (300). The latter again are either red figures on black fields with violet accessories, or black on red with violet and white, for flesh and tools. The former belonged generally to the tombs, the latter to the pyres. More than 50 bear inscribed marks. The collector's chief enemy, both in pottery and in bronze, is the general custom of breaking, sometimes with great violence, the objects which accompany the defunct : thus the ghost or ' material soul ' of a man ate the Manitou, spirit or ghost of food, out of the phantasm or ghost of a pot. So Propertius (iv. 7> 33)-— Hoc etiam grave erat, nulla mercede hyacinthum Injicere, et fracto busta piare cado. i( i! I ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 33 Amongst modern Fetishists it is not held loyal to take anything from the person of the dead, and some advanced tribes, such as the people of the Old Calabar River, allow houses, canoes, furniture, weapons, boxes, and moveable wealth to fall to pieces ; whilst others break them up and form a kind of monument. It is here easy to see the connec- tion with sacrifice, human and bestial. Specimens of the cbs signatum were also found. According to Pliny (xxxiii. 13) it was used in the days of Servius Tullus — king or dynasty — but we know from him (xxxiv. 13) that Numa had in- stituted cBvarii, or coppersmiths. The ess rude, whose funereo-religious use continued to Imperial ages, has four several shapes ^ at Villanova, rfie Certosa, and Marzabotto ; and these, again, vary not only in the amount of alloy, but in the nature of the metal. Some have tin and zinc with lead ; others only the last. I. The rude inform or scoriform mass, ash- coloured, and friable under the hammer, has 96*592 per cent, of copper; lead, 2-142; and the rest is impure matter without zinc or tin. > The as grave appeared only in the fourth century of Rome. 34 THE WORKS OF MAN, ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 35 2. The cylindrical or virgated, with longitudinal stri^, 9177 ; tin, 8*22 ; of lead a trace, and no zinc. 3. The flat, or laminated like the fragment of an ingot, has only 80*679; lead, 17-886; and tin, I-435- 4. The discoid, more or less ovoidal, possibly the oboles of Plutarch (YiL Nttmci), whence came the obolus. One disk (diam. 0*03 metre=ri8 inch) engraved with three parallel lines, may be an ces signattmi (?). The following is the late Prof Sgarzi's analysis ot the CBS rude of Villanova (i), and of the stips votiva of Vicarello (2), compared with the cbs rude of Mar- zabotto (3) (Prof Missaglia) : — I. 3. Copper Tin 9370^ 06-30, lOO'OO Copper . Tin . 95*20 . 04-80 1 0000 3. Copper . . 64-40 and 54-61 Lead . . . 32'53 » 38-ooh = loooo Accidental elements (trace) It will be seen that the bronze of Vicarello is the ruder material, and probably more ancient, as it con- tains the smallest quantity of alloy. Lead and tin in increased proportions appear at the Certosa, and even more at Marzabotto. That of Vicarello has the zinc alloy of the Romans. And, whilst all the reputed bronzes found outside Italy, as the vase in the museum of Bern, contain lead, here in some it IS present, and absent from others. Cav. Zannoni (p. 46) suggests that the shapes are not accidental, but arbitrary, to show the different monetary value, which would vary with the quantity and the quality of alloy. The industry of the stone age is represented by arrow-heads (elf-shots), axes (coins de foudre) ; ^ knives or scrapers, flakes artificially struck from the core ; fictile disks in great numbers — some of the latter may have been used for the dress weights, which will presently be described. In this part of the collection there is nothing to notice. The bronze weapons are fragments of a large round clypeus^ with gilt and engraved handle ; a galea ; three knives, like those of Caserta and Matray in Rhsetia,^ * These glossopetrcs or betuH, the cerannicE similes securibus of Pliny ; the ceraunicB gemmce of other writers, are so called in the Chan- nel Islands and elsewhere. The Calabrese believe that these cuogni di truoni are the bolt itself {cerauniteSy not arma heroum) : they strike 1 8 canne (each 2*2 1 metres) deep, and they mount i canna per annum, when they reach the surface, and form most valuable talismans against thunder. They are proved by being hung over the fire with a blue thread, which must not bum. With this boorish superstition the axe of the savage has been worn on the warrior's helm and on the royal diadem. * At Matray, also written Matrai, a village on the northern slope of the Brenner Mountain in the Tyrol, was found in 1845 the part of D 2 36 THE WORKS OF MAN. whence Freret and Heyne, Niebuhr, and Mommsen would derive the original Etruscans; one small and two long narrow cuspides (lance-heads) ; a long, heavy iron cutter, found in the grasp of a young and vigorous male skeleton, bore signs of a wooden scabbard, showing that the Etruscans were wiser in this matter than we are. Amongst the unexplained articles are cylinders, shaped like dumb-bells, but ending in menisci, not in THE ' DUMB-BELLS.* spheres, made of fine black clay, about o m. 8 cent. (=275 inches long), oftener plain, and sometimes a procession in relief, illustrated by the late Count Giovanni da Schio, to which allusion will presently be made. The rude art is held to confirm the testimony of Livy (v. 33), of Pliny (iii. 24), and of Justin (xx. 5), that Rhaetia was conquered by and occupied by the Etruscans when driven by the Gauls from their Padan settlements. Evidently it may prove the reverse, and an emigration from north to south is more credible than a movement vice versd. ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 37 ornamented at both ends with five circles and the mystic die. Of these as many as twenty, all un- broken, were found in the wealthiest tombs ; and Villanova yielded seventy-four. The ^Grotto of Isis' (necropolis of Volci) has supplied similar articles ; and Visconti figures (Mus. P. CI. ii. pi. i7> i8) what appear to be the same things in the hands of two Egyptian statues. He suggests, first, that they were emblems of the Agathodsemon ; secondly, that they were phalli. Others suppose them to have been used in worshipping the Lampsacan god, and they offer a superficial resemblance to certain emblems well known in India. They are always found in pairs, but no use for them has yet been defined. In the I sis-grotto of Vulci, however, we see similar shapes used by men jumping ; and the second table of Count Schio's learned study represents two nude pugilists contending with (leaden?) kalteres or alteres ' in their hands. I reminded Count Gozza- dini of his cousin s publication. He replied, however, that the resemblance could not be accepted, as many of the clay cylinders were only 3 centimetres (= I -18 inch) long. But, these simulacra might, as was the custom with the human figure, with weapons, » Quid pereunt stulto fortes altere lacerti ? (Martial, xiv. 44)- 38 THE WORKS OF MAN, ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA. 39 and with other articles, have been reduced imita- tions for the purpose of sepulture. The Lilliputian agricultural implements of bronze in Sardinia, to mention no other place, are supposed to be symbols or religious emblems (Congres, p. 27). Bronzes are numerous in the Archiginnasio ; but of the 1 3 mirrors, of which one is white metal, none are inscribed or figured. Besides sihikE, there are cenochoes (12), cullenders (11), simpuli (20), and candelabra (30) : many show the forms familiar to the peasant's cottage in the present day. Some of the iron coffin-rails have bronze heads, like those found at Salona. Professors Pucinotti and Casali detected little zinc in bits of fused and worked bronze of a candelabrum from Villanova (No. i), the Certosa (2), and Marzabotto (3) : — I. 2. Copper Tin Iron, trace Zinc, „ 9i'ii'\ 0877 = 99-88 Copper . Lead Tin lOO'OO Copper Tin 95 '93 04-07 1 0000 Iron, trace The beaten bronze from Villanova (i), the Certosa (2), and Marzabotto (3), gave the following results : — \l I. Copper . 94'4\ Tin . . 050 Iron, trace = 99'4 Copper Tin . 2. . 83754 . 16-246 Zinc, „ 3. ■ Copper . Tin • • a • . 91*32 . 08-68 »= loo-o Zinc, trace ; s= lOO'OO The bone dice were numerous and of two kinds, cubes (xu3os) and oblongs, the latter bear- ing the 'canis,' (xucov) or 'canicula,' the Greek Mova^ or "vrj (unio\ and one ace at one short end, and the deuce at the other.^ In both the concentric circlets varied from one to three, and were coloured red or blue. The disposition of the ' pips ' also completely distinguishes them from the Roman dice, according to Cav. Zannoni, who has forwarded his description to the eminent Etruscologue, Prof. Ariodante Fabretti, for publi- cation in the continuation of his great work. Thus the correspondence from Twickenham, concernmg > Lord Crawford {Athenmim, April n, 1874) remembering the ' damnosa canicula,' and the ' damnati canes '—the damned dogs— of the poets, hence derives the ' dog-luck of our modem slang speech.' This is going deep for a proverbial saying which lies on the surface. We might as well refer ' son of a doggess' to the offspring of Hecuba. And if unio, the ace, is so condemned, how can we believe it to repre- sent Sirius, the Canicula, sacred to Mercury or Hermes, the god of good luck ? 40 THE WORKS OF MAN. the scheme of the marks, which appeared in the * Athenaeum' (July 1874), is, to speak mildly, pre- mature, and the * hypothesis ' about Sig. Campanari uncalled for. I expect great things from a scien- tific illustration of these ' Lydian implements.* One of the sitiilcB contained a light ligneous matter, very porous and friable. Treated by Prof. Adolfo Casali, it proved insoluble in water ; concen- trated alcohol dissolved about one-sixth, and the dissolution strongly troubled water, which left when evaporated an orange-black sediment. The latter, exposed to fire, burnt with a fuliginous flame — briefly, it appeared to a mixture of olibanum and storax, serving like the incense still used in our churches. The amount of toilette articles was immense in variety, if not in number ; of bronze fibulcs 200 articles, of silver 120 (two large and fine), and of gold 2. They are, as usual, complicated and multiform, and three had enamelled glass beads on tlie needle. There were 150 bronze buttons; 10 armillcB ; huge pins for the use of the ornatrix [coiffeuse)\ 7 gold rings; 10 silver, and 3 iron; with sundry of paste, bone, and amber. The pen- deloques are 20 of glass, mostly enamelled, and • ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 41 50 of brown pottery. The earrings are of amber, iron, silver, and gold (7 pairs and 3 odd of the latter) : some weigh four- tenths of an ounce (13 grammes = 200*60 grains). The minute balls of gold, which the Etruscans soldered with a mar- vellous art, the elegant filigrane and granulated work, are the despair even of the famous Castellani. One is a serpent biting its own tail, and another a leonine head. The pixis or dressing-case, rivetted with plates of bone, stands on four feet, and contains little cylinders of the same material. The aryballa (perfume-holders) and trngtientaria of pottery, alabaster, and glass, coloured and en- amelled, still contain rouge, which analysis proves to be colcothar or crocus martis (oxide of iron), locally called rosso Inglese or rossetto di Parigi, The mirrors, all plain, number 13, including one of white metal, probably copper and tin ; the front disk is slightly concave, and none are of stone : 1 2 others are of bronze. The necklaces are chiefly of glass, and of amber, concerning which long dis- cussions took place at the Congress of Bologna. The general opinion was that this semi-mineralized gum came from the Baltic, and denoted an ancient connection with the Phoenicians. One necklace had, 42 THE WORKS OF MAN, by way of pendant, a silex arrow-head, probably a charm against the fiery tongue with which God spoke to man — a superstition far from extinct amongst the highly-civilised, even in this day, when the philosopher makes thunder and lightning in his cabinet. The gem of the collection is the splendid vase (Sala No. iii.), which contained burnt bones, ashes, and fragments of tissue ; it is a cone, truncated below, about a foot high ; or, more exactly, 0-32 metres (=1 foot 0*60), and in diameter a maximum of 0-29 (= 12-42 inches), and a minimum of 0*13 (= 5' 1 2 inches). The archaic aspect, the variety of subjects, the general composition, and the mar- vellous execution of this find demand a full notice. The bas-reliefs, repouss6 and chiselled work, cover- ing the bulge, are divided into four horizontal zones, which does not, however, exclude the unity of the design — a varied and pompous procession, and the ceremonies of a great religious act ending in a feast. The first, or highest, zone shows the proces- sion. Two horsemen and thirteen footmen, all with couched lances, marching from right to left; their shields are four oval, five long-oval, and the rest I II ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 43 circular {clypei) ; and of their helms five are hemi- spheres, with the apex which we still see in the German pickelhaub, while the rest have depending manes. A bird hovers over the horsemen, and four bell- men, with the bronze tintinnabula so frequently found in Central Etruria, bring up the rear of this processional section. The second band, the preparation for sacrificing a bull and a ram, shows the advance, this time from left to right, of the victimarii and the ministri with the animals and the sacred utensils, followed by three canephorce, vases on heads. Two of the ministri support a pole or brancard, from which hangs a situla (pail with handles) ; a third has charge of a huge ox, over whose head floats a bird like Progne ; whilst a victimary drags by the horns a goat, sacred to Mars.^ Two men escort a pair of mules, whilst others carry different articles, such as knives, vases, baskets {vamius mysticusf), and loads of wood. There are three quaint figures in long robes (togcB campestres ? without tunics P),^ and the gigantic pild of the Spanish cardinals, whom Mgr. de M^rode described as coming to the » * Hircum Marti victimant ' (Apuleius, lib. vii.). « * Primo sine tunica toga sola amicta fuerunt ' (A. Gellius). 44 THE WORKS OF MAN, ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 45 CEcumenical Council in their canoes ; this part of the composition ends with a big dog. The third zone, which resumes the direction of the first, displays the agricultural pursuits preced- ing the preparations for the feast : a calf carried on the shoulders of two slaves ; a pig drawn by a third, and others following. In the centre of the groups, acting the point de mire, appears the idea which inspires the whole. At one end of a couch {biclinittm or anaclynteris), whose arms are adorned with griffins* heads, sits a lyre-player, at the other a performer on the syrinx, each backed by a small boy in the nude. They wear the hug^pileus before alluded to ; and between them hangs another sihila. Rural episodes on the right— hare-hunting and bird- netting with the varra, and on the left a peasant carrying his primitive plough and driving his steers, finish both ends of this third zone. Finally, the fourth or lowest is filled with fantastic animals— five-winged chimaeras, two quadrupeds, a stag, and so forth. * It would be impossible,' says Professor Count J. Conestabile,' whose account differs in many points » Cav. Zannoni also looks upon it as representing not a funeral but a procession; a 'Laudesis' (Dionysius, ii, p. 129) ; a Panathenseum r from that of Cav. Zannoni (Scavi della CertosUy page 12)^ * to describe the multitudinous details of the figures and articles upon this admirable composition ; the marvellous care ; the finesse of execution in the ornamentation of the armour, the tunics, and the mantles ; and the minute exactness with which the costumes are represented. Whilst the animals are admirably drawn, the human beings show, in the highest degree, an archaic, or rather, artistically speaking, an infantine, type, in the prognathism, the puffy cheeks, and the general stiffness of the move- ments ; in the profiled position ; in the arrangement of the dress, and in the absence of distinction be- tween the latter and the forms which it covers. If this archaism be really what it appears, original and (Aristoph. Nitb. v. 984), a Saltatio (Livy, i. xx), or an Armilustrum (Plaut. Pseud, iii. 112). 1 * " Sur les D^couvertes de la Certosa de Bologne " (pp. 272-274) in the Compte Rendu of the Congr^s Internationale k Bologne, 1821/ The valuable volume printed by Fava and Garagnani at Bologna, 1873, is now not to be bought there. I owe my copy to the kindness of my excellent friend Prof Gian Giuseppe Cavaliere Bianconi, of Bologna, whose name in the world of letters is so well known. He was kind enough to give me copies of his three studies (Bologna, 1862, 1868, 1874) on Marco Polo and the Rukh-bird {Degli Scritti di Marco Polo e deir Uccello Rue, ^c), which supply much interesting matter con- cerning the original edition of the great traveller. In his memoir en- titled Esperienze intorno alia FlessibilitcL del Ghiaccio (Bologna, 1871), he proves by the experiment that the flexibility of ice, as supported by Forbes, and its torsionability, do not depend upon ' regelation.' i 46 THE WORKS OF MAN, not imitated, the vase may date from the third cen- tury of Rome (b.c. 450), a period which we obtain by comparison with other authentic antiquities, such as the fragments of the Etruscan car in the museum of Perugia, where the human figure is represented with more cunning. Thus this rare vase would be not only the most ancient of the artistic finds from the Bologna necropolis, but would antedate, as a witness to the art and industry of the people, everything that has been discovered in Northern Etruria/ The others with which it is compared are the bronze vase with burnt bones from Valdi- chiana; another from Peccioli, and the silver gilt sittila of Chiusi. I rejoice to add, that this unique sittda will be figured in facsimile by Cav. Zannoni in his forth- coming volume, ' Gli Scavi della Certosa di Bologna.' The work, which will illustrate the Circumpadan Federation, so rich in olden civilisation, as ably as the central and Campanian regions have been treated by a host of writers, is to be concluded in twenty-five issues, of which the first may be expected daily (March i, 1875) ; the total will be 300 pages of royal folio, with 150 tables and figures. The cost to the author can hardly be less than 20,000 francs. ETRUSCAN ANTIQUITIES AT BOLOGNA, 47 He is aided to a certain extent by the Municipality ; but the learned public will not, I hope, allow his five years of incessant labour, at hours snatched from official work, to go unrewarded. A large hall and its offset immediately adjoin on the west the two Etruscan Salle. The floor is covered, as well as the tables, with piles of remains taken from hut and tomb. In due time they will be thrown open to the world, classed by the in- defatigable Cavaliere. Meanwhile, a line from the courteous municipal authorities admits the student He will find much that merits his attention, such as the pin-heads of glass enamelled with various metals ; gold-leaf artistically beaten upon baser metal ; a vast variety of articles in bronze and clay ; and, finally, boars tusks, perhaps used for amulets, the custom of the modern Moslem. Of the collection of Crania, under charge of the celebrated Professor Calori, I propose to speak in a future page. 48 THE WORKS OF MAN, SECTION IV. PRIVA TE COLLECTIONS, ESPECIALL V THE VILLANOVA, The Aria family, who will be noticed at Marzabotto, have collected for two generations the Etruscan antiquities found upon their property. But the most interesting, not only for its antiquity, but also be- cause it has been described with so much learning and detail,^ is from Villanova, the property of Count Gozzadini. The village lies ' about eight kilometres ^ E.S.E. of Bologna/ in the parish of Santa Maria di Casella, upon the banks of the Idice fiurnara, of old a favourite site for tombs. The place, a mere * m6tairie,' was long known to the peasantry as the 1 The first essay is entitled Di un Sepolcreto Etrusco scoperto presso Bologna, &c. (Bologna, Soc. tip. Bologn. 1855— a quarto with 8 plates). The second is a quarto with one plate: Intorno ad altre settantitna tombe, &c. (Bologna, tip. all' Ancora, 1856) ; and the last is La Nicropole de Villanova (Bologna : Fava et Garagnani, 1870). This learned volume was given to me by the author, and I owe the copies of its illustrations to the kindness of Mr. Micklewright, of Trieste. The conversion of metres into English figures is the work of Mr. E. W. Brocks, British Vice- Consul, Trieste. PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 49 ' Camposanto/ from the large bronze rings turned pp by their ploughs. Circumstances, which will presently be alluded to, induce me to hold that the so-called cemetery was part of a town, but there are now no means of discussing the question — indeed, in these days the stranger will not visit the site, all the diggings having been filled up. On the other hand, the Count's cabinet is ad- mirably arranged ; and this unique collection, which may date from more than 3,000 years ago, is hos- pitably shown to the traveller. The first find, a ' pot ' full of bones and ashes, was in May 1853, and works were carried on regularly for two years, care- fully superintended by the owner, aidd, as he says, by the Countess. The area of excavation was an oblong, 74 metres east and west (= 242-9 ft), by 27 (= 387 ft.) north and south ; or 1,998 square metres (= 21,507 sq. ft). Of the tombs, some had been destroyed by the ditch- diggers, but a total of 193 were found unopened^ in the same state as left after the 'seternum vale!' Six, of the same material as, but of different and finer form than, the rest, and separated, as if for the dig- nity of a higher race, by a clear space, yielded pecu- £ ^ > THE WORKS OF MAN. liar articles, conjectured to denote an especial caste. The others were divided from one another by little more than a metre, but on the western 6dge, and cir- cling towards the south, this interval increased and distances became irregular. Here was found a conical stone, about one foot broad at the base and nearly two feet high, rising above the tombs : possibly, it represented the Termes which consecrated the limits. The depth varied from 0*30 metre (= i r8i inches) to 1*40 metre (=4 ft. 7 inches) below the actual surface. Fourteen skeletons, with crania mostly brachycephalic, lay at length supine ; with the feet turned eastward ; with the hands crossed over the pelvis after the fashion of the ancient Egyptians, and, as usual, with all the funereal objects, disposed on the left side, except the coin, which was grasped in the right hand. Some few were bent, like the mummies of Peru and the Brazil. The sepulchres represent four distinct shapes, in the following proportions : — 1. Those built with pebbles and kistvaens (slabs of grit) . 28 2. „ „ pebbles only 21 3. ,, „ kistvaens only 21 4. „ without kistvaens or pebbles . . .123 Total 193 On the walls of the collection-apartment are PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 51 drawings and illustrations of the first and most interesting class of tombs, nearly of the natural size. The following is a reduction. -/xu- TTsTO^ov or the SixuTreXXov of Homer (II. vi. 220), and of Aristotle (* De Hist. Animal.' ix. 40). A fre- quent ornament is the double line of crosses, some contained in circles : a subject treated by the learned Gabrielle de Mortillet, in ^ Le Signe de la Croix avant le Christianisme,' ch. 2. Finally, three ossu- aries and one black patera [NtcmcB nigrum catinnm) have each a meander, not engraved, but made by a white band of superimposed paste unhardened in the fire. This, perhaps, is an approach to painting. The so-called clay spindles found at Villanova 6o THE WORKS OF MAN, number 169, and of these only 3 bear makers' marks.^ As 7 were yielded by a single tomb, and an accessory vase contained 12, Count Gozzadini suggests that they were the glandules attached to the robe, intended to preserve the graceful form ; for instance, in the pallium of Jupiter, the tunic of Minerva, the chlamys of the Augustan lares, and the peplum of Hope and of the tragedian. He assigns the same office to 24 bronze globes and spheroids, the * clavi ' of Visconti, of which 8 were produced by one sepulchre ; each was attached to a ring, and the whole weighed 24 to 33 grammes (=370*37 to 509*26 grains avoir.). He would thus explain that debated passage in Horace (Epist. i. 6, 50):— Mercemur servum qui dictet nomina, laevum Qui fodiat latus, et cogat trans pondera dextram Porrigere. The metal articles were mostly bronze, with a few iron. Analysis of the former {Jibulcs) gave copper 84*26 parts, and 1574 of tin. Of the nine specimens of as rtide, irregularly shaped (7), and * Count Gozzadini {Di tin Sepolcreto, etc., p. 20) published eighteen of these makers' marks, which are either upon the edges, the bellies, or the bottoms of the vases. Usually they are supposed to show the proprietor or the value of the article ; they may be so on the two JibtilcB of Villanova, but these valueless bits of clay would hardly deserve the honour. PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 6i parallelopipedons (2), as if cut from an ingot; the smallest weighed 12*52, and the largest 64*18 grammes (= 193*21 to 989*2 grains avoir.). Count Gozzadini, finding them only in four tombs out of 193, doubts their being Charon's fee— the conclusion is against Villanova being purely Etruscan. Of the ^T^fibulce, 550 were bronze, offering at least 11 several types ; many were in pairs, as if used double to fasten the * plaid ; ' and one tomb produced 30, several of them twisted and broken. The hollow heads were stuffed with a paste containing 65 per cent, of alum, oxide of iron and carbonate of lime, 30 of silex, and the rest water and loss ; the enamel, which was generally dark blue and sometimes bright yellow, was composed of lime, silex, and oxides of iron and copper. The shapes are simple, delicate, and elegant, with fine curves and clearly cast angles ; the elongated forms explain why long, lean Junius was called * fibula ferrea' (Quinctil. vi. 3); and the ornaments are as various as the modules. Here a bird of many-coloured glass stands in relief; there the metal contains a bit of amber, which the old Etruscans appear to have valued as highly as the modern Somal.^ Others had chains, beads of ' Prof. CapeUini {Congresso Internazionale,ec.,nel iZy^. Bologna : 62 THE WORKS OF MAN, PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 63 blue glass, and similar materials, with pincers, and decorations, either pendent, or strung to the convex portion. The hair-pins numbered 53, besides the many which crumbled to pieces, and 6 were found in a single tomb. The large, hollow heads were stuffed, like iki^fibidce, with siliceous paste, and the blade was long enough to be used by Fulvia, Herodias, or the Trasteverian virago. Some of these served to retain the hair in position, and others are the discri7nmales — so called from the frontal discrimen (parting) which, in the days of Tertullian, dis- tinguished the matron from the maiden. Many of the shapes are still preserved by the peasantry of Polesina, and other parts of Italy. There were also bundles of rings, 29 items in one sepulchre, which, perhaps, were also used for supporting the hair. We find in Martial (ii. 66) : Unus de toto peccaverat orbe comarum Annulus, incertd non ben^ fixus acu. The 'tutulus,' a pyramidal or conical Etrus- can cap, more or less acute, which represented the Gamberini e Parmeggiani, 1874) discusses the Bolognese amber— a red, not a polychroic, variety, which is still found at Scanello, and about Castel S. Pietro ; whilst the polychroic has recently been discovered in the Cesenate. Thus the Umbrians and the Etruscans had no need to seek the semi-mineral in Sicily or on the Baltic shores. modern chignon, also required some such support ^ besides the tcsnice (fillets) and the bronze plates, 17 millimetres broad, which resembled the a^JLTruxsg of the Greek belles. There were rings of other sorts, especially groups of fives passing through a large circle which bore a peduncle. The average diameter was 8 millimetres (= 3*15 inches); a single ossuary yielded 46 bunches, besides 578 scattered specimens ; they were, probably, the de- corations of a dress consumed on the rogus, and, though cumbrous, they are not more so than the ' jets ' still in fashion. The small number (26) of bracelets, large and massive, thin and cylindrical, straight and twisted, shows that these articles were not of universal use, as we might expect to find amongst a people coming from the East. Some 3re TrspixapTria (wristlets), others bracelets proper, worn by both sexes upon the upper arm (TrepiS^pax^ivia) ; a single skeleton had an iron specimen, probably valuable in those times. One is marked with the broad arrow J, ; it also appears on the pottery, on a * *Tot premit ordinibus, tot adhuc compagibus altum ^dificat caput' (Juvenal, vi. 502), is painfully true ia 1875. The tutulus, or lofty conical cap of the priest, is worn by women in the Grotta delle Bighe (Dennis, i. 330 and 341). 64 THE WORKS OF MAN. bronze hatchet from Villanova, on a cyst found near Bologna, and on a carved ivoiy in the Vulci necropolis. Some are bent and broken, evidently by a heavy instrument The clavi, or buttons, 8 millimetres (= 3*15 inches) in breadth, and 199 in number, might have been applied to the peplum or tunic. The ossuary used also to be similarly draped in very ancient times; and our modern churchyards still show its descendant in the shape of a veiled urn — a mean- ingless article until we again begin to ' cremate.' The other buttons were, possibly, rather ornaments than intended for buttoning.^ The warlike weapons were two thick and heavy lance-heads, with tangs to fit into the shaft — the lance is believed, despite Herodotus, to be of Etruscan origin. Of the Paalstab or hatchets (?) two were of iron and three of bronze. One of the * I have never been able to arrive at any conclusion concerning the date when the button-hole originated. The oldest form, preserved by the peoples of the nearer East, is the loop which encircles the button. In Prof. Nicolucci's Age de la pierre dans les Provinces Napolitaines, published by the Congr^s, he remarks of (p. 32) five almond-shaped stones : 'J'ignore k quoi les instruments pouvaient servir, mais on peut penser ou que ce sont des poin9ons k double pointe . . . ou un bouton h. fermoir pour vetements, parceque, dtroite- ment serr^s au milieu avec un fil sur une peau ou sur du drap, ils pouvaient ^tre commoddment introduits dans un ceillet, et tenir les pieces de vetement solidement serr^es.' PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 65 latter, found broken into four twisted fragments, is remarkable for the disposition of its wings and for the length, 9 centimetres (= 3-54 inches), being exactly half the breadth. The other, measuring r 7 centimetres (= 6*69 inches) long, and 16^- (=6-5 inches) broad, has the wings or lateral points curved ; and the unusually thin blade is only i milli- metre (= 0-04 of an inch) thick ; it might have been used in religious ceremonies or as a votive offering, like the large bronzes from the Danish turbaries described by Worsaae. There are five smaller articles (axes }), between 8 and 1 1 centi- metres (= 3-15 to 4*33 inches) long, by 5 (= 1-97 inch) broad; and five have sockets instead of grooves. One shows an iron edge set in the bronze, which would suggest the baser metal to have been still valuable ; yet 18 are wholly iron ; and another bears the wedge V- Two litde archaic horses pro- bably belonged to the bridle-bit, offerings made when the steed was slain to carry the ghost into what Dahome calls Kutome, or Dead Man s Land. The culirt number 10 iron to 18 bronze, which may almost be called copper, as the percentage of tin is only 3-93. The very thin handles of wood or bone were rivetted by short screws. The most 66 THE WORKS OF MAN, peculiar, but by no means, as has been stated, pecu- liarly characteristic of Felsina, are a dozen 'ferra- menta lunata' (Columella De R,R, xii. 56), with edges only in the convex parts of the crescents. These have been found in the islands of the Greek Archipelago, in Attica, Bceotia, in many parts of Etruria, and even north of the Alps. The fineness of the blade suggests the razor, which India preserves in the hatchet shape. The Novacula. Thus we find in Martial (ii. 58), Sed fuerit curvd cum tuta novacula theci Frangam tonsori crura manusque simul;* and Pliny (N.H. xxxii. 5), terms a fish 'novacula 1 Varro {de R. R. ii. cap. ii) tells us that the Romans began to shave about the fifth century u.c. But the learned Prof. Rocchi has PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 67 seu orbis.* Ten large and heavy iron knives, some with handles of the same metal, are the ' clunacula,' used to cut up the victims, and there are a few shovel-shaped articles, with ornamental hilts and bevelled edges, which may have served as bis- touries to inspect the entrails. Six bronzes, composed of two concentric circles united by five rays, may h^pJialerceox horse-frontlets ; but no other museum possesses anything like them. The Bistourie. The PHALERiG. Equally mysterious are the hatchet-shaped bronzes, with large rings for handles, and in some cases profusely ornamented on both sides. They shown that this was a custom of the Etruscans long before that period. The cemetery of Alba Longa and the oldest Italic tombs have not yielded razors. Prof. Lignana {Bullet, deW Inst, Arch. Rom, Jan.- Feb. '75), considering the words Ksurd {Rig-Veda), Iv^ov (Iliad, x. 173, iirX Ivpov 'iffrarai oKfifji), the German scheere { = shears), holds that the shaving implement was known to the Indo-European race before its separation. F 2 68 THE WORKS OF MAN. are associated with small elongated rods of bronze capped at either end, and this suggested that the plate is a trigonum or deltaton ; in fact, a gong sounded with the virgtila. Real tintinnabula were known to the Etruscans, but that would not hinder them from using an article so common f^^^fgjs^y, throughout the East. On the other hand, when struck they yield no sound ; they are evidently unfit for cutting, and the bronze nails always found near them suggest that they were mounted on staves and were carried in procession — the 'pelekys,' or axe, being an amulet against fascination. The Canadian, PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 69 or rather Catholic, superstition of church-bells fright- ening away evil spirits is found in Ovid {Fast, v. 4, 23). Temesaeaque concrepat aera Et rogat ut tectis exeat umbra suis. On which Gierig remarks : * JEns autem ti'nnitum aptum esse habitum ad spectra ejicienda docet Neapolis ;* and the Scholiast of Theocritus teaches us that the sound of brass was used in the most sacred rites by reason of its purity, and because it expelled abominations. Hence the bells was adopted by Christianity and rejected by El Islam. Three bronzes, whose long, broad handles and rounded heads represent capcdines or cup-ladles for drawing wine during the sacrifices have also been found ; one in a clay pot, probably the urnulafictilis serving for the same object ; while a second was taken from one of the six distinguished tombs. The latter also yielded an inverted cone, with two move- able handles, to prevent the liquor being spilt, and a cover with the apical knob : this was probably the amula or acquiminarium for the lustration water, not the situla for sacrificial wine. Here were nails of sorts, one bearing on its broad head the cross, interlaced with the five circles of the mystic die. It 70 THE WORKS OF MAN. PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 71 is suggested that the latter may have been used either for the coffin, or as an offering to Charon, in case his barque required repair. Less intelligible are the seven hollow fusiform rods with raised cir- cles and hatted heads which so frequently occur. Some antiquaries have seen in them spindles, or *wharrow spindles* — those used when walking. But the practical fileitse declared that they are of no ac- count for her trade. It is a proof of high antiquity that only one ' idol * or human figure for worship was found. Better proportioned than are most archaic specimens, it appears, judging from the bosom, to be a woman ; and there are signs of her having been placed upon a pedestal. The head bears the symbolic circle, with two reversed birds, whilst another pair of volatiles perches upon the haunches ; and her arms appear to be holding two spherical bodies. All who are familiar with modern art in Egypt, Syria, and Persia will recognise these bird ornaments. The other figures are those on pottery and the archaic horses before mentioned. ••3f--. h Amongst minor matters are a small bronze sphere with two projecting points ; a bronze ring with the mystic Tau ; a little bronze handle richly adorned ; four volsellce (tweezers) ; an aurisculpium (ear-pick) ; five needles and nine bronze brooches. The bone implements are fibulce, a cylinder (a handle ?), and other articles of less importance. As regards the tomb-people. Count Gozzadini, judging from the phase of art and from the pre- sence of the CBS rude — a coin unknown to the days of Romulus^ — determines Villanova to be not Umbrian, but Etruscan, of the earliest iron age, whose apogee of civilisation preceded the founda- tion of Rome. He utterly rejects the Gauls both ^ With great satisfaction I see Mr. J. H. Parker, C.B., in his Archceology of Rome (2 vols. : Murray, 1874), sturdily preserving these time-honoured names, and thus protesting against the vague, nebulous, wunderbar myth-theories with which Germany during the last generation has infected the exact, practical, and matter-of-fact English mind. Perizonius, Pouilly, and Beaufort began the heresy, but left no school. As usual, it was adopted by the Germans, who carry out, but who do not invent ; and Niebuhr — so great as a his- torian, so small as a topographer, geographer, and archaeologist — took it up a§ an especial hobby. It has now tyrannised over the English mind for thirty-seven years, and the period (1825 -1862) was unhappily that when political and other matters introduced a kind of Teutono- mania into our island. The reaction began with M. J. J. Ampere's Histoire Romaine ci Rome (1862); and lately M. F. Max Mailer's theory has successfully been proved a * solar myth' — with a tendency, I might add, towards the earth's satellite. 72 THE WORKS OF MAN, PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 73 here and at Marzabotto.^ He is joined by Henzen, who, with a host of others, first judged the sepul- chres, chiefly from their shape, to be Keltic ; by Dr. Forchhammer; by MM. Minervini and Fabretti (the great Etruscologue) ; and by Prof. Carl Vogt/^ whose outspoken theories upon the subject of faith, A e.g, *L'Etre Sup6rieur est un produit de Tignor- ance et de la peur,' and upon the friendship be- tween Mr. Calvert and King Cakombau (p. 307), must have somewhat startled the ' respectables ' of the Bologna Congress. The late Professor Orioli, writing anonymously in the * Arcadia' paper (T. 412-414, p. 58), offered the three following objec- tions : — I. The tombs were neither rock-hewn, nor of * ' L'dldment dtrusque de Marzabotto est sans melange avec XiM- ment gaulois ' {Extrait des matdriaux pour Vhistoire primitive de rhomme: Toulouse, 1873). ^ In *Anthropophagie et Sacrifices humains' {Congrh, pp. 295- 328) man is successively insectivorous, frugivorous, and carnivorous, or rather anthropophagous (p. 296). Cannibalism denotes a relatively advanced civilisation (p. 298). Every religion is, without exception, * I'enfant de la peuret de I'ignorance' (p. 300);' the ' Deity is unknown,and religion is the worship of the inconnu* {ibid.)\ *Dieu est un superlatif, dont le positif est Thomme' {ibid.)\ Mes furieux couronnds de I'ancien Testament' (p. 308) ; human sacrifice amongst the ancient Israelites (p. 321); and a few other vigorous assertions of the kind, must have been somewhat * shokin' ' to the sons of that * terre predestin^e,' who combine easy incuriousness with a strong prepossession in favour of * leaving things alone.' ■ n % 1 opus qtiadratum, nor barrow-covered, after Rasennic fashion. 2. They contained articles of small value. 3. They had few weapons — he might have added, they lacked inscriptions. He therefore determined the tenants to be of barbarous strain, aborigines, Pelasgi, Umbrians — a theory also supported by the distinguished Professor G. Nicolucci — or even the Boii Gauls, who ended the Etruscan rule in the fourth century of Rome. M. de Mortillet assigned them to the interval be- tween the bronze age and the Etruscan occupation, and, *pour ne rien prejuger sous le rapport his- torique,' he prudently indicated the epoch as that of early Rome, First Iron. Prof. Calori reminds us of Polybius (ii. 1 7), who declares that the adjacent Gauls trafficked with the Etruscans, and that the only art or science known to the former was agricul- ture. This assertion, however, is somewhat modi- fied in the matter of metal by Livy (xxxvi. 40) ; in ornamentation by Diodorus Siculus (v. 27-30) ; and, finally, by modern investigation. That distinguished authority, however, is positive that * Tantica necro- poli alia Certosa e Etrusca, etruschissima.' Finally, Prof. Count J. Conestabile (pp. 74-81, 'Monument! ;{ 74 THE WORKS OF MAN. PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 75 e Annali di Corn Arch.,' 1856), comparing Villanova with Stadler in the Trentine, draws from the archi- tectonic forms and the interior disposition of the sepulchres the two following conclusions : — 1. The Etruscans everywhere varied their struc- tures to conform with material means and with local customs. 2. The northern Etruscans did not display in their cemeteries scattered near the Po and about its Campagna the wealth and luxury of Middle Etruria. The latter has ever been the great centre, the chief, the most evident, and the most durable image of the civilisation and power of the race — a development which, we may add, resulted from commerce with Greece and the nearer East. Despite this weight of authority, I must still withhold judgment The late Count Giovanni da Schio {loc, cit, p. 15, etc.) seems to have shown satisfactorily enough that, in the Vicentine, Gallic are freely mixed with Etruscan local names. But a stronger reason is the similarity of the catacombs in Guernsey, not to mention other places, with these so-called Etruscan remains. The former we know to be Keltic from such names as * Pouquelaye ' [Pwca = fairy, and lleSy a lay or place), ' Les Rocques hV 1^. If Brayes' (in Breton, * Roc'h Braz,' les grosses pierres)\ and * L'autel du Tus ' (or Thus), pronounced * Tautel du Dehus ' — evidently the Dus or Dusius of the Gauls. In Guernsey we have the hougue or cairn ; the kistvaen (Chambre des F^es) containing human ashes, pottery, celts, and arrow-heads ; pro- tected by cap-stones or ledgers, and floored with irregular slabs and round, smooth pebbles (for in- stance, at La Creux des F6es) ; * in which were deposited' (* Hist, of Guernsey' by Jonathan Dun- can. London: Longmans, 1841) ' the bones, urns, and other vessels, with such offerings as the zeal or affection of the friends of the deceased was disposed to leave with them.' I would not strain the resemblance. The kist- vaen was found by Capt. Congreve, and, since his day (1845), by many explorers in India and other parts of Asia. But the slab and pebble floorings, which argue that the dead would pollute the sacred fate of earth, are highly suspicious features, sug- gesting identity of race. On the other hand, we shall find the huts parquetted with this rudest of mosaic which still forms the pavement in the streets of North Italian towns, and the *long home' in Etruria is often a palpable copy of the home. And, 76 THE WORKS OF MAN, again, I have shown (p. 51, * Anthropologia/ No. i, October, 1873), that the Tupi BraziHans buried water-rolled pebbles as well as stone implements with their dead. I PART II. THE ABODES OF MAN 'L'^trurie, par la civilisation Romaine, a hate la civilisation de rhumanite toute enti^re, ou du moins elle lui a laisse par une longue suite des sikles Tempreinte de son caractere' Humboldt, Cosmos (ii.) 79 SECTION I. VARIOUS FINDS, Taking Bologna as a centre, the whole circle, with a radius of 22 kilometres, and especially the line of the Via Emilia, appears to be one vast repository of Etruscan antiquities. As early as 1848 Sig. G. Dozza discovered on the Ronzano hill, 4 kilo- metres west-south-west of the city, various bronzes ; a sword, with broken blade and handle ; two bridle- bits, with small figures of horses ; and a fragment of the fusiform and hatted rod before alluded to. Three years afterwards Sig. P. Calari unearthed human skeletons, bronzes, and coloured glass, near Sta. Maddalena di Cazzano, 15 kilometres on the riverine plains to the east-north-east In 1854 the property of Marchese Amorini, 13 kilometres east- south-east of Bologna, and 6\ from Villanova, disclosed a sepulchre containing fibulcB, and a hair-pin adorned with glass. In this neighbourhood an estate belonging to the Marchese Lodovico So THE ABODES OF MAN, Mariscotti yielded such a quantity of laminated gold wire — an article found for the first time in the Bolognese — that it was secretly sold for a good round sum, and to the great loss of archaeologists : presently an ossuary disclosed the true character of the find. In i860 a slab and pebble-rivetted kistvaen came to light in the parish Delle Lagune, where the small torrential * Rio Mavor ' breaks through the Castlar gorge. It contained black pottery ; clay * dumb-bells * (see Sect, iv.) marked with a wedge (V) ; hair-pins ; and a score of bronze fibul(B adorned with amber and figures of birds. Six kilometres farther from the capital, in the parish of Canovella, nearly opposite Marza- botto, appeared two crescent-shaped cultri or novaculcTy and brooches i^fibuk^^ with beads of glass and amber. At Ramonte, in the opposite mountains of Medelana, were found pottery ; cir- cular bones with engraved lines ; two bridle-bits ; a fusiform, hatted rod ; and a bronze ladle with a handle like an S inverted. In 1865 at Pontecchio, along the Reno, about 7 kilometres distant from Bologna, and beyond Ronzano, a kistvaen, resem- bling those of Villanova, was opened by Sig. C. Monari, who gave the contents to the Communal FORMER FINDS. 81 Museum ; here also Sig. Marconi found a crescent- shaped cutting-instrument. In t866, below the hills near the Ghiaie torrent, close to the village of Bazzano, 22 kilometres west-north-west of Fel- sina appeared ossuaries, fusiform rods, cylinders, Jibulcs, stamped pottery, and other articles. At the Comune di Liano, near the Via ^Emilia, in 1869, ossuaries and bronzes, and shortly afterwards other similar articles brought from the mountainous parish of Riosto, distant 15 kilometres, became the property of Dr. L. Foresti. Finds were made inside the new and outside the ancient city, at the Piazzale S. Domenico ; in the Via di S. Petronio Vecchio ; in the Ca de' Tortorelli (now Palazzo Malvasia) ; at the Pradello ; and in the Arsenale Militare. The three latter are especially interesting, because they disclose the remains of Old Felsina to the broad daylight of the nineteenth century; they define the eastern, western, and southern limits of what Pliny, describing the Padan or eighth region of Italy, calls (N. H. iii. 20) 'Bononia Felsina vocitata cum princeps Hetrurise esset' ^ And here I would warn my readers that » The translators, ' Bostock and Riley ' (Bohn, 1855), remark (vol. i. p. 241) upon the word Bononia: * The modern Bologna stands on its 82 THE ABODES OF MAN, THE TORTORELLI FINDS, 83 Bologna is split, Etruscologically speaking, into two camps. These, under Gozzadini, the man of science and literature, everywhere see the necropolis and the sepulchre. Those, headed by Zannoni, the man of practice and experiment, find remains of house and home where their opponents detect only the long home. This difference will be especially noticed when we visit Marzabotto. The Tortorelli mine was struck in 1856 when Count Ercole Malvasia was strengthening the found- ations of the old palace (No. 262) to support new buildings. The site is the Via Maggiore, doubtless a section of the Via ^Emilia, outside the two chief leaning towers, Asinelli and Garisanda. These * donkeys ears' formed in the sixteenth century the Ravennese gateway, which was probably added to the city in the eleventh century. Of the * Torr dai Asnie * I may remark that it is the seventeenth tallest building in the civilised world — only 2\ metres lower than St. Paul's. A local poet sings of it as follows : — In sta Cittk al fra quel d' i Strazzamo Ch' ha la Torr dai Asnie, e la Mozza indrito. The Tortorelli excavations were directed and site, and there are but few remains of antiquity to be seen.' A score of years has brought with it many changes. K described in detail by Count Gozzadini (* Di alcuni antichi sepolcri felsinei,' vol. iv. pp. 74 et seq,, in the Neapolitan paper * Giambattisto Vico,' 1857, and in the opuscule * Di alcuni sepolcri della necro- poli felsinea, Bologna:' Fava e Garagnani, 1868). Remains judged to be Roman were found at the usual depth of two metres ; eight sepulchres, of which three were intact, lay one metre below their successors, and extended two metres in depth, forming the normal total of five below the actual surface. Judging from the known cemeteries about Bologna, a small part of this mine has been worked and much is still hidden underground. The mortuary vases were eight ossuaries, some- times set obliquely ; potoria, possibly, for the silicer- nium;^ the crater of purely Etruscan shape, and the various tazze, cups, cup-covers, and accessories of the tomb. Many were beautifully shaped, wheel- made, hand-smoothed, polished not varnished, and adorned vith graffiti?' The metals are represented * This mortuary feast, which survives in our cake and wine, con- sisted of meat, bread, eggs, beans, lettuce, lentils, salt and cates, espe- cially the mustacea and the crustula (Kirchm. de Funer.y &c., p. 521). ■ The English reader, accustomed to our sense of this word < scrawlings ' or * scribblings ' on walls, &c.— will note that in this paper it also is used after the Italian fashion (graffito being opposed to lisciOf smooth) for denoting such marks as toolings on pottery. G2 84 THE ABODES OF MAN, by a single piece of oxidised iron, arguing a higher antiquity than the more distant tombs ; and by many bronzes, crescent-shaped knives, fusiform rods, fibulcB, nails, and an armilla : a bit of amber, and part of the dorsal column of a young pike The Malvasia Calves. [Exos Lucius, Linn.), which may have contributed towards the banquet, were also picked up. The most curious article is a stela, showing, in very flat relief, two calves erect and facing gardant, each THE PRADELLO FINDS, 85 with the near forehoof on the bracts of a caulis. The shape is to the highest degree archaic, this curious monument was presented by Count Ercole Malvasia to the Archaeological Museum of the Municipality. At the Pradello (Pratello) on the opposite or western side of Felsina, within the modern gate S. Isaia, upon the properties Borghi Mamo and Casa Grandi, appeared in 1873 certain remains, which Count Gozzadini judged, from a gold and figured mirror, to be sepulchres (* Rapporto alia R. Deputa- zione di stor. patria per la Romagna,' 1873), and which Cav. Zannoni seems to have established as huts {' Cenno sugli Scavi della Via del Pratello,' etc. : Bologna, Gamberni e Parmeggiani, 1873). The man of practice compares them with the five capanne (hovels) of the ' Mamolo find ' to the south, and with the 216 neolithic, and the 16 bronze-age huts discovered by Cav. Concezio Rosa in the Vibrata river valley,^ which also yielded traces of the early iron period. > This Abruzzian Valley extends from the Apennines at Montefiore, or Civitella del Tronto, to the Adriatic. A description of the finds, especially a fish-hook and lilliputian knives, will be found in pp. 25-27 of the Congrh. See also Prof. CapeUini's L etd della pietranella Valle della Vibrata. Quarto, three plates: Bologna, 1871. 86 THE ABODES OF MAN, The 29 Bolognese huts, distant about a metre from the road, mostly circular and some oblong, occupied an area sunk one metre below the actual road and 0*80 metre (=2 feet 7.5 inches) under the ancient horizon, which may be called the virgin soil. A few were isolated, others communicated by passage or corridor 0*85 metre (=2 feet 9*5 inches) wide, and a little raised above the level of the flooring ; and the latter in both kinds showed either dark grey earth, chiefly animal matter, contrasting with the yellow calcareous soil, based on water-rolled pebbles, sometimes in double layers, which suggest that the pavement of the kistvaen was a mere imitation of the house. Some of the hovel-founda- tions had holes to admit the perpendicular supports of the conical or the pent-shaped roofs ; and the walls were probably wattle daubed with clay, the adobe of which we shall presently see a specimen. Two huts had steps descending from north to south, and No. 25 seemed to be provided to the west with that manner of porch which the man of Central Africa loves. The earthen flooring carried in depth from 0*45 metre (= i foot 57 inches) to o-8o metre ( = 2 feet 7.5 inches), and a section showed a number of small strata, sometimes sepa- THE PRADELLO FINDS. 87 rated by thin layers of sand. Each bed was a conglomerate of remains. Amongst them, the principal were the cbs rude, mostly * scoriform,' then the laminated and the cylindrical ; bronzes, fibulcs, plain and decorated ; women's ornaments ; and a fine spear-head. The pottery, which composed most of the conglomerate, was red, brown, and rarely black ; a few bore graffiti, and some of the ansce wore the semblance of equine heads. The makers' marks appeared on many fictiles, whose forms were either absolutely new, or resembled those of the Villa- nova, Tortorelli, and Arnoaldi tombs. The clay 'dumb-bells' were not wanting, and there were 'pen- deloques' (pendants) of the same material. A few stone implements were found, and an extraordinary quantity of split bones of beasts, especially the stag, then the pig, sheep, goat, and ox. One cervine horn bore the tally as still used by the rustic world, and a handle was engraved with a rude sketch of some quadruped ; there were also rings and thin disks of deer-horn. Cav. Zannoni ends his interesting letter to Prof. Calori with expressing an opinion that the remains are those of the peo- ples who had occupied, and who left their tombs at, ViUanova, Ca de' Bassi, Ca de Tortorelli, S. 88 THE ABODES OF MAN. Polo, the Scavi Arnoaldl, and other adjoining sites. He leaves to that learned archaeologist the task of determining the race. The general opinion seems to be that these 29 huts were remains of the oldest or Umbrian settlement. ' The ' Mamolo find ' precedes, in point of date, the Pradello. It was worked in January-April by Cav. Zannoni. The site is the Villa Bosi, out- side the Porta S. Mamolo, or southern city gate, extending towards the Aposa rivulet, which is generally made the eastern limit of Felsina, and at the base of S. Michele in Bosco, where the Arsenale Militare all' Annunziata now stands. When ditch-digging near the right bank of the Aposa, and close to the modern ' road of circum- vallation,' the labourers, at a horizon of about three metres, came upon a huge doliform and ansated urn containing the covered ossuaritim of coral-red clay— a double precaution also noticed in the Tortorelli finds. Prof. L. Calori examined the bones, and judged them, from a tooth-fang, to be those of a woman aged 30-40. Cav. Zannoni transmutes the sepulchres into five hut foundations. Here the yield is comprised in 26 gold earrings of full size, 6 armillce, including one of iron, a bronze THE MAMOLO FINDS. 89 spillone (pin or bodkin) o'38 metre (=1 foot 2*96 inches) long ; fibula with transverse sections of bone and amber ; bits of amber ; glass or vitrified clay, with spiral uniting bands, coloured, as usual, blue or yellow ; and a quantity of fictile fragments, vases, paterce, urncBy and so forth. Count Gozza- dini (* Intorno ad alcuni Sepolcri scavati nelF Ar- senale Militare di Bologna/ Bologna : 1875), notices 5 tombs, of which only one was intact, and gives illustrations of two remarkable amber necklaces, (i) of 25 large spheroids, the largest in the centre, like a modern ' riviere ;' and (2) also numbering 25. In the latter the forms are very various ; some are imitations of the bullcB worn by patrician boys, whilst others represent shells {Cyprc^a, etc.), per- haps worn as amulets. He also figures a dwarf head upon a square base pierced with four holes ; an image, which he would attribute to Phtah (vulg. Harpocrates) ^ ; a band with four heads which ap- pears to be the Egyptian coiffure ; a fish-shaped ornament, also of amber ; a pendant ; a wonderfully- worked fibula with nine chimseras courant, retro- gardant, and baillant; and two of the hatchet- 1 The direct operator, under the Creative Will, in framing the universe. 90 THE ABODES OF MAN, THE S, PETRONIO FIND. 91 shaped bronze plates which have been supposed to be gongs and bistouries. The find in the Strada S. Petronio, near the Via Maggiore, produced only one remarkable object, but it is, perhaps, the most important of the whole. This virile head, larger than life and cut in the * molassa,* or common miocene sandstone of the country, is of very archaic type. The sides are ab- normally flat, the long hair is combed off the brow, and the bearded chin is of Patagonian dimensions. Its similarity with toreutic works on the banks of the hill reminds us of Strabo's assertion (viii. i, § 28) touching the likeness of Egyptian and Tuscan art. I have elsewhere suggested (* City of the Saints/ p. 555), after observing at the 'Dugway Station' the untutored efforts of the white man in the Far West, that * rude art seems instinctively to take that form which it wears on the bank of Nilus,' as babes are similar all the world over. Dennis (i. Ixviii.) also denies that the rigid and rectilinear Etruscan style was necessarily imported from Egypt : * Na- ture, in the infancy of art, taught it alike to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Etruscans, for it was not so much art, as the want of art' My observation was presently confirmed to me by the graven images of gods in Dahome and on the west coast of Africa. Yet the discoveries made at Bologna have fully justified the assertion of Strabo, an eye-witness; and the evidences of intercourse between the races now so far separated, not only explain a mystery but lead to a highly interesting conclusion. The cosmo- gonic system of the Etruscans has hitherto been accepted with reserve. Professor L. Calori (' Delia stirpe,' &c., p. 44), terms it * Genesi Mosaica co- rotta,' and, with C. Heyne and others, throws doubt upon the accuracy of Suidas, a Greek of the later ages {sub voce Tuppevla) ; but the late excavations of Mr. George Smith in Assyria distinctly prove that the * Creation and Fall of Man-myth ' extended from the banks of the Nile as far as the Tigris and 4 I 92 THE ABODES OF MAN. Euphrates ; and a cosmogony so widely diffused would readily be introduced into Italy by an Oriental race of immigrants, were they Lydians or Phoeni- cians. Thus we may, upon this point at least, rehabilitate Suidas versus C. Heyne, and explain the 12,000 years* cycle of the old Etruscans.^ Some writers, I observe, use Mr. George Smiths discoveries tp stultify ' Darwinism/ and to establish the universality of a tradition consecrated by * reve- lation : ' future ages will admire this distortion of fiction into fact. * Suidas is the only writer who relates that an anonymous Tuscan related to him how the Creator decreed a cycle of 12,000 years, half of which were assigned to the work of creation, and the rest to the dura- tion of the world, the period of subversion, and perhaps of renovation, for gods and men. In the first millenary the Demiurgus made heaven and earth ; in the second the visible firmament ; during the third the sea and waters ; in the fourth the great lights, sun, moon, and stars ; in the fifth, birds, reptiles, and four-footed animals of the earth, air, and sea ; and, finally, during the sixth, man. Here we have the germ of the modern theory which would prolong into periods, even of untold ages, what Genesis expressly asserts to be days, between 'Arab (Gharb or sunset) and Bakar, dawn or morning. The duodecimality of the Etruscan legend probably arises from a connection with the Zodiac : for the latter, see the Zodiaco Etrusco (with plate) by the late Count Giovanni da Schio : Padova, Angelo Sicca, 1856. 93 SECTION II. FURTHER AFIELD, THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO, We have now seen, in the rich collections of Bologna city, the art and industry of the Etruscan man, and we shall find interest in an excursion to the sites which yielded them : a long day may profitably be spent in visiting the actual diggings. We will, therefore, set out along the western line of the Via ^Emilia, passing the Pradello, and issuing from the S. Isaia or western gate. The grand discovery of the Certosa (August 23, 1869) stimulated public curiosity, and Cav. Zan- noni happily suggested ('fu millanteria, fu intuizione, fu intimo presentimento ? ' ) that detached groups of sepulchres would be found on alternate sides of the old highway extending to the city walls. The Scavi Benacci were begun in 1873, and early in 1875 I saw nine tombs and places of cremation which had been added to the 300 already laid open. As the ground is 94 THE ABODES OF MAN. THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO. 95 under cultivation, the exhausted trenches, after the contents had been carefully sketched and measured by the 'Capo Ingegnere Municipale* had been filled up, per non dannificare il podere. The half-dozen labourers received at the dead season 1*25 lire per diem ; and at other times 1*50 to 2 lire. Four distinct strata can be detected here and elsewhere, the section showing well-marked lines : ist, and highest, (Roman ?) mostly buried. 2ndly, buried and burnt (Etruscan ?). 3rd, mostly burnt (Um- brian ? Italic ?). 4th, and lowest, (protohistoric f) all burnt. The base of the rogus measured each way I* 10 metre (=3 ft. 7*31 in.); the north of the square was a roll of pottery, crushed by the weight of superincumbent earth ; in the centre lay a pot-cover, and to the east were the remnants of the ossuary. A few yards further west were the Scavi (of Cav. Francesco) De- Lucca ; two skeletons, with skulls to the setting sun, had been disposed in the bustunty some three metres under the modern level ; and at the lowest horizon was the ustrinum. The find which I witnessed was unusually rich ; pot- tery with graffiti, a little iron, a quantity of broken and rotten bronze, and a knife-blade, straight-edged on one side, and on the other finely toothed. It was \ I probably a saw for cutting bones into objects of use and ornament. Hereabouts are the {Fondo Astorre) 'Arnoaldi Diggings,* whence, about twenty years ago, an intact skeleton, with a figured vase, placed as usual on the left, was accidentally unearthed. Some forty-six places of sepulture and cremation were at once dis- covered in 1871-2, and, in 1873, silver-gilt fibulcp. were brought to light. On Dec. 4, 1873, two bronze cysts, with raised rings,^ were added to the two bronze situlcB, and other vases also with cordoni a sbalzo ; to two armillae, various fibulce, the usual quantity of ess rude, and large and elegant potteries, covered, like those of Villanova, with graffiti. Four tombs were also exposed in the Predio Tagliavini, near S. Polo, and a trench, measuring nearly fifty square metres, run from the Arnoaldi towards the Tagliavini diggings, was even more fortunate. We now resume the high road to Florence, a fine macadam, nescient of the ' pike ' : to the right or north lies the railway, and beyond it, as far as the eye can see, stretches a plain flat enough to cause short sight in its inhabitants. The frequent villages * They have also lately been found in the tumulus of Monceau- Laurent, Commune de Mag^y-Lambert (Burgundy), and at Hallstadt Rev. Arch., 1873 : plates xii. no. i, and xiii. no. 8). 96 THE ABODES OF MAN, and steepled churches which rise above the vine- bearing elm and the poplars hedging the wheat- fields, give this valley a thriving and a pleasing aspect. To the left are the rib-ends of the Pe- ninsula's dorsal spine, gently-swelling hills, either clothed in oak-scrub or patched with clayey white, denoting cultivation, and mostly crowned with villas and temples. After some 1,200 metres from the city gate we enter the huge Certosa, whose lofty Campanile has long been our guide. Dating from a.d. 1335, it measures some two kilometres in circumfe- rence. Fortunately it was reformed by Napoleon I., or its mines of antiquarian wealth would still lie buried. Now it contains only two seculars, a * guar- dian' for the church, and a 'custodian* for the churchyards. The latter acts as * demonstrator' ; he is the nephew of a M. Sibaud, a Frenchman, who made the first find, but who did not know how to utilise his discoveries. In 1835, when xki^ pronaos oi the Pantheon, which is still building, was begun, bronzes and potteries were thrown up ; and M. Marcellino, son of the old * demonstrator,' presented in 1 840 a bronze statuette to Dr. Venturoli, Conservator of the Archiginnasio (Old University) Museum at Bologna. When curiosity was thoroughly aroused (1870) the THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO, 97 relics were found by the present curator, Cav. Luigi Frati, stowed away in two boxes. They consisted of bronze fibulcB, fragments of simpula (ladles), a can- delabrum very like the modern Italian, and similar articles. The pottery was comprised in a painted tazza and pieces of a great celebe for mixing wine and water, similarly adorned ; an amphora, a crater (mixing-jar), and minor matters. After 1835 many small finds rewarded the workmen. At length, on August 23, 1869, when a tomb was being dug somewhat deeper than usual, in the cloister (No. 3) called * Delle Madonne in Certosa'; the fossini, reaching three metres, came upon a bronze cyst, of the form before figured, containing burnt bones and a large silver fibula : both the band-box and its alabaster balsamary were broken. Cav. Zannoni at once repaired to the spot, and deter- mined, with remarkable perspicacity, that the Campo degli Spedali, the burial-place of pauper hospital- patients, must contain an Etruscan cemetery : it pre- sently proved to be the greatest necropolis found about Felsina. The Sindaco and Giunta allowed him to expend 50 lire, and thus began, under his superintendence, the *Scavi della Certosa,' now so 98 THE ABODES OF MAN, famed throughout Europe, which show, perhaps, the most splendid age of the life of Felsina. As the plan proves, we have five great groups. The largest (No. i) lies in the northern part of the Campo degli Spedali, or eastern cloister ; No. 2 is NORTH Plan of the Certosa. I, 2, 3, 4, Groups of sepulchres in the Campo Santo, s. The church. south of it ; Nos. 3 and 5 are all around and even inside the church ; and No. 4 is in the Campetto delle Gallerie. The discoverer presently suggested that this necropolis, or rather this fivefold cemetery, THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO. 99 belonged only to the western regzo of Felsina, and formed items of, perhaps, ten groups scattered be- tween the city and its furthest western point^ He also suspected that the broad road, dividing the four greater groups into two, was a suburban branch- line of, or was perhaps, Ike primitive highway, - which ran a little south of its successor, the Via Emilia. He remarked also that the tombs and pyres of the wealthy were the deepest ; and, sur- rounded by open spaces, that they immediately fronted the road, whilst the poor lay behind we may see the same in England. How much the ground has changed is proved by the diggings, which show two distinct floodings and deposits of the Reno River. We have seen the Certosa collections in the Museo Civico, and we have remarked how admirably they demonstrate the home life, the warfare, the reli- gion, the commerce, the luxury of northern Etruria in the days of her highest development. The sepulchres illustrate the two epochs called further north ' bruna-old ' (cremation), and ' hauga- old' (inhumation, or rather tumulation^), the propor- > Sulle Ciste in Bronzo a Cordoni, ec, ec. Bologna : Oct. 15, 1873. • * Haugr,* a cairn, is a Scandinavian word, which we have seen preserved in the * Hougue' of Guernsey. H 2 lOO THE ABODES OF MAN, tions being respectively about 1:2. The depth of the rogus and tcrna varies from 0*26 metre (= 10*24 inches) to 5-83 metres (= 19 feet 1*53 inches) ; of the tomb between r2i metre (=3 feet 11*64 inches), and 6*13 metres (=20 feet 1*34 inches): in both cases computed from the ancient horizon, which is 1*37 metre (= 4 feet 6 inches) below the modern. Cav. Zannoni (p. 23) offers the following plan: Depth. Minimum. Maximum. t ^ Rude metals Large-sized . Figured I'll c 3 pq Marble Cysts — Bronze Situla I*i6 0-26 I -06 0*26 i-ii a> (/) (/) o (/) (A O 1st degree of . 2nd „ / 1 St degree of \ 2nd 13rd Wells ( 093 mean 2-88 3-98 076 4-02 1-85 mean 2*83 1*21 I 4*55 2*OI >» 271 1-98 4-48 583 6-13 For the interment of the whole body were found (p. 10) the four following arrangements, with their proportions out of a total of 250 : 1. 83 rectangular unlined fosses of various size, with the skeleton and the various articles almost always deposited on the ground to the left. 2. 122 same kind of fosse, with rounded pebbles THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO, lOI thrown confusedly over the skeleton.^ This total, however, includes No. 4. 3. 45 fosses with long wooden coffin (Pliny, xiii., 27), of which only fragments and nails remain. The area was sometimes covered with earth. 4. The small fosse, with walls lined by un-mor- tared pebbles. Here nothing is said about the kist- vaen ; and Cav. Zannoni seems to allude to one only (p. 14). Cremated remains were disposed in three ways (p. 10). Out of 115 — I. 72 in bronze cysts and situlce\ in fictile pots (plain, 36; ornamented, 20 or r8o to 100 of the figured, and one in a marble vase. II. 41 were in fosses, or 0*56 to 100 of the former. III. The two wells had each one. There is little at present to view in the Char- treuse, except the local Hon, its modern cemetery. * Here, again, we have the precaution of not allowing the corpse to touch the earth. The Moslems, on the contrary, do not permit the earth to touch the corpse ; the idea being that it would cause pain to the still sentient clay. I wonder much that when all the press in Eng- land, during the winter of 1874-5, was discussing an improved form of sepulture, suggested by Mr. J. Seymour Haden, no one pointed out how the system had extended through the Moslem East since the days of Mohammed, and probably for an indefinite period before him. 102 THE ABODES OF MAN, The entrance-hall contains the monuments which precede the seventeenth century ; and one of them, a sarcophagus on four dwarf pillars, resembles Petrarch's tomb at Arqua. The necropolis is thoroughly Italian, and one of the most remarkable of its kind. Series of arcades, developing their long galleries around the cloisters, embrace the little old Certosa church which formed the nucleus of the big new establishment. The bodies of the wealthy are deposited under the pavement, or in the thickness of the walls ; whilst the poor lie in the open central grounds. The walls of the Campo Santo are adorned with busts, reliefs, and statues, some of which pretend to considerable art and value — its general effect is somewhat that of a museum or a sculpture-gallery. The only remnants of the old tenants are a heap of water-worn oviform stones in the western cloister, and two similar mounds in the eastern, still showing the locality of the find. Even in the church, skeletons were disinterred, as may be seen from the fractures of the marble pavement fronting the altar ; and a wall-tablet records the visit of the fifth Archaeological Congress. At the Certosa the useless arcade — I speak as a Briton — crosses the Florence highway, and runs up THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO. 103 to the hill church of S. Luca, a favourite place of pilgrimage, with a glorious view. Like that of Vicenza, this gallery once bore frescoes showing the * stemmata ' of noble families who built the several arches, but during French occupation it w^as degraded by whitewash. Our Gallic neighbours have not left pleasant memories in this part of the world ; they seem to have taken example from their forefathers, the Boii, with the trifling difference of carrying off instead of destroying. A mile and a half from the Certosa places us at the villa of Count Denis Talon, whose grounds command a prospect ready made for Its painter. Deep below the clay bank — here sleep- ing in stagnant pools, where during frosts boys slide ; there trotting in a thready streamlet, whose bed is a broad, white Arabian wady, in summer mostly bone- dry — lies the Reno River, no taciturnus amnis ; at times the turbulent mountain-torrent, the general drain of many a burrone or gully, springs from its couch, in a mighty brown flood, and violently invades the fields on either side.^ A solid dam of masonry crosses the Fiumara bed, and from the left bank sets ^ For its classical claims consult the volume DelP Antico Ponte Romano sul Reno lungo V Emilia^ e delta precisa postura delV Isola del Congresso Triumvirale. Memoria del Dott. Luigi Frati (Anno vi. Atti e Memorie). Bologna, 1868. ( 104 THE ABODES OF MAN, x>ff the leat which supplies the city. Fertile ledges, the site of the ancient riyer-valley, limited north as well as south by mound-like and conical hill-ranges, denoting the old bank, mark where it debouches upon the plain. And afar, stretching from west to south-west, are the steel-blue peaks, bluffs, and blocks which, snow-capped in winter, part us from Tuscan Pistoja. Madame de Talon takes an intelligent interest in the excavations upon her property beyond the Reno. We cross the stream by a solid bridge of stone- work, not too solid for its task, as the five arches, of which three are full-sized, are sometimes choked by the floods. Here is the modern * Casalecchio,* a common term in this part of Italy, meaning a group of houses — Casalecchio di Rimini has lately distin- guished itself by discovering a foundry of the later bronze age. The sixty tenements are covered by a ^e^e de pont, and this forms a part of the earthwork line of vallation which defends Bologna on all but the southern or hill side. At the Osteria del Calza, famed for revelry on Sundays and Saint Mondays, we turn to the right, and ascend to the plane of the Diluvial epoch, when the Glacial disappeared in ca- taracts and cataclysms that swept everything before THE CERTOSA AND CASALECCHIO. 105 them. The bank shows a section of the ground ; humus based on a stratum of * ghiaia,' and these water-rolled pebbles overlie miocenic marl, resting upon impermeable clay — we shall need this observa- tion at Marzabotto. Vines and wheat flourish, but the trees are stunted. The find was made when dig- ging a trench to replant the elms. Ancient Casa- lecchio stood at the very edge of the raised river- bank, limiting the stream to the north, with a dainty view, as if it had been chosen by Carthusians. The little cemetery lay behind it. In Roman cities we usually look for graveyards to the south ; in the Greek colonies of Italy and Sicily to the north (De Jorio, p. 52) ; the only rule of Etruria is to seek the main lines of road. Three skeletons facing east- wards had been exhumed, and one was transported to Villa Talon, much to the horror of certain inmates. It was declared to be Roman by the fact of its lying upon broad tegular, or pan-tiles, under a sloping cover formed by two rows of the same pottery. This is probably the local variety for the earthenware coffins (^fictilia solid) of Pliny (xxxv. 46). The remains in situ were puddings of broken and crushed wine-jars; the ciottoloni (water-rolled pebbles) used as flooring for house and tomb; and a bit of io6 THE ABODES OF MAN. intonaco (plaster or daub), an adobe-like mass, burnt red, but still showing marks of calcined stalks and the tracery of leaves. The other articles were a few coins comparatively modern ; the sheath of 2. fibula, with ^n^ patina ; a number of solid amphorcE, and a fragment of pottery with bits of carbonised clay set, by way of ornament, in the lighter-coloured mate- rial. The owner will dig in a straight line between the skeletons, and if the labourers come upon the ancient highway a rich trouvaille may be expected. A little further down stream lies the property of Marchese Boccadelli, who is also preparing to make fouillesy especially upon the northern range of hillocks, the bank of a Reno much larger than it is now. 107 \ SECTION III. TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. Beyond Casalecchio the Florence road follows the left of the valley, passing through well-cultivated lands, where even wheel-ploughs are seen, and amongst villas which must be charming in the sum- mer heats. A total of I hour 15 minutes' sharp driving places us at the Borgo del Sasso, a substantial vil- lage, with the size of a hamlet and the houses of a city. Near it is the Ca di Bassi, in the Predio Cor- nelli, where six tombs were unearthed. One of them contained the skeleton, with bronze vases, a clay tazza^ dice, and pebbles (counters ? ) ; the other five showed remnants of the pyre, bronze engraved fibula, with burnt-red pots, on some of which were graffiti, whilst the sigli, or makers' marks, were very clear. This is known from its owner as the * Cor- nelli find ' ; and in the precipitous face of the rock- wall on the right are several caves : the entrances loS THE ABODES OF MAN, are of that converging form by which the Egyptians effected an economy of lintel ; and, if they have not been dug, the sooner it is done the better. Beyond the Borgo we debouch upon the con- fluence of the Setta from the south-east with the Reno from the south-west. The picturesque view of sulphur-blue water, in broad, glaring white beds overhung by high banks ; of gashed ravine and of shaggy foot-hill backed by the true Apennines, is justly admired, even in the land of ' rock, ruin, and ravine.' Nor less singular is the road at this pass, a blending of the highway and the railway. A deep cutting in the sandstone rock leaves a slice standing as a 'gardefou' upon the tall river-cliff; and, under the off or right side, 'pedionomitic,' ^//^i-Z-troglodytic, abodes, cut, like those of Ariano (Capitanata), in the ' molassa,' line the bottom of the scarp. This bend much resembles the place where the PVench line from Beyrut to Damascus overlooks the picturesque Wady Hammanah. Thence we run up and down the left side of the Reno, where the road is built on arches against inundations, and, after i hour 30 minutes — which will stretch to two or three if you ride in a one-horse voitiire de place — we reach the little station and village of Marzabotto. It is usually placed at ( TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 109 27 kilometres from Bologna : Dennis (i. 35, * Cities and Cemeteries,' etc.) says fourteen English miles ; but I hardly think that we travelled at the rate of three leagues an hour. Here we find a decent 'osteria;' and we enjoy all the civility and cordiality, the good cooking, and the comfortable ingleside, com- bined with the moderate charges which characterise such places in the byways of Italy. The bran-new Villa, with its single tall tower on the hill overlooking Marzabotto, belongs to the Aria family, now Counts of the Italian kingdom. The site has been known to Etruscologists for some years. As early as 1831 a number of bronze statuettes and other important objects attracted the attention of Micali (' Monument. Inediti,' p. 115, pi. xviii.). In 1850, again, other antiquities came to lighC but they were readily dispersed. About 1 862 systema- tic research was begun by the father of the present owner, the late Cav. Pompeo Aria, who died in May 1874 at the fine age of eighty-five. It is a thousand pities that he had not more sentiment of archaeology than to build up the old stones in his new house ; and that he did not employ more competent investi- gators than the rude men who superintended the works. On the other hand he was fortunate in no THE ABODES OF MAN. TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. in persuading Count Gozzadini to overlook part of the excavations ; and he wisely printed and published at his own expense two illustrated brochures by his learned friend. These are entitled ' Di una antica Necropoli in Marzabotto/ &c. (20 figs., 1865), and *Di ulteriori scoperte,' &c. (17 figs., 1870). The two large quartos (Favae Garagnani), followed by 'Ren- seignements sur une ancienne N^cropole a Marza- botto,' 1 87 1 — a brochure for the use of the Anthropo- logical Congress — have been noticed by a host of foreign writers. The Villa contains on the first floor a fine collection, of which the earlier discoveries are noticed by Count Gozzadini (p. 17, ' Di alcuni Se- polcri,' &c., and pp. 9-17 of the * Renseignements ') ; and the town-house has, we are told, another. Unfor- tunately, when Count Aria goes to Rome he takes his keys with him, and, perhaps, the less a stranger sees of the ' fattore, fatto re,* Giacomo Benni, a * lewd fellow of the baser sort,' the better for the temper of both 'parties.' The site of this Etruscan city, whose name, unless embalmed in the modern Misanello and Misano, has utterly perished, requires careful study. Count Goz- zadini's plan is old, and it wants a profile and section of the ground ; but there is nothing better to offer, I nor will there be until Cav. Zannoni has published his valuable volume. Here the swift and brawling Reno, flowing from the south-west, forms a loop, with the long diameter ^^ JV o A, Misanello. b, The Campuccelliera tombs, c, Morello tombs, d. High street and road. E, E, Prolongation of the ancient city now washed away by the Reno, m, Misano. X, Cross street to the easL y, Cross street to the west. facing to the south-east, and then bends to the north and north-east. At the most important point it hugs the left bank, a perpendicular of friable ma- terials, at least 80 feet high ; and thus it flows round 112 THE ABODES OF MAN. three sides of the wedge-shaped projection, which measures 700 yards in length by 350 of average breadth. This area, of 245,000 square yards( = 50*62 acres), has two distinct levels ; the upper, which sup - ports Misanello, is the oldest part of the river-site, backed by the hills forming its bank. The lower (Misano) is a flat ledge, the raised side of the present river. We begin by visiting Misanello. Passing through the coicr d'honneur and the southern gate of the Villa Aria, we walk a few yards along a broad gravelled walk, dividing the garden, to a newly- built pillar ; and we regret to see that these ' modern enrichments' almost equal in number the old re- mains. It records the names of Aria and Gozzadini, with the date mdccclx. ; and it bears on one side (v)mrvs — probably a family name, which some have hastily connected with the Umbrians — and on the other AKivs. Both are in Etruscan characters ; they were found upon fragments of tiles, and a third inscription was yielded by a fibula. Beyond it begin the ruins, and here we at once enter upon debated ground. Count Gozzadini, followed by Prof. Count J. Conestabile and others, sees a necropolis ; the Abbe G. Chierici and Cav. Zannoni TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 113 detect the abodes of the living, not of the dead. The foundations of the dry walls are water-rolled pebbles, varying from 1*40 metre (=4 feet 7 inches) to two metres in thickness. Upon these is laid the opus quadratum, of dimensions considerably smaller, and seldom exceeding two courses. The coarse calcareo-marly stone — according to the guide, an intelligent gardener — is still quarried in the Virgata Valley, some five or six miles up stream, and we shall find that it is nearly the only material used. The proprietor is entitled to our gratitude for the precaution of defending the old walls from Apennine weather by loose tiles, which can readily be removed on gala days. The numerous water-pipes, tubes hollowed in cubes of stone, an industry still ex- tending from Trieste to Recoaro, suggest, as in Palmyra, the utilisation of rain. And now we come upon what appears to be distinctly the foundation, a house with a conipluvium and a central cistern. I offer the following rude sketch, made upon the spot. The central well is fed by pipes, and the cavcediuniy t\i^ patio (Arabic *bathah') of modern Iberia, is sur- rounded by a corridor, upon which the rooms and bed-chambers opened. We can restore the frontage of the Etruscan house with the aid of a basso-rilievo 114 THE ABODES OF MAN, in the Museum of Florence. It shows two figures, the one sitting, the other standing, backed by a door- way and two flanking windows, the latter of double — » a o o o O ^ J O O O O O "1 CAV/tDIUM 1 DISPLUVIATUM A • V ^P^ TT \ a. Main entrance to Atrium, i, s steps to Cavaedium platform, c. The Cavaedium, 15 feet square, d, The cistern (impluvium). e-/, The rooms. lights, and provided, like the Egyptian, with a square-headed and overhanging lintel, or rather cap- ping of stone : this feature may be compared with the rod-moulded door in Dennis (i. J 233) ; his sketch, however, has panels recessed one within the other, perhaps suggesting the idea of a perspective. Of our Etruscan house at Misanello Count Gozza- dini writes (' Renseignements,* p. 8) : * Un de ces puits s 61eve sur I'ancienne surface de la necropole par un rectangle de quatre metres 36' de large (= 14 feet 3-65 inches), et de i metre 20' (= 3 feet 11 inches) de haut, biti en grosses pierres et en moellons k sec. TO MARZABOTTOy MISANELLO, AND MISANO, 115 II y a des degr^s ' (five can still be counted) ' pour y monter, comme dans les tombeaux de Castel d'Asso dans TEtrurie moyenne, peut-etre pour aller c^lebrer sur le d^funt des silicernes annuels/ With this conclusion we simply join issue. The wells — which, with the two at the Certosa,^ number twenty-seven — have again given rise to a long debate. We will begin by dividing them into Round-bottomed WelL two kinds, the round-bottomed, and the pointed like the amphora. The average depth varies from 2*io metres ( = 6 feet io*68 inches) to 10*25 metres * In the Certosa wells the bodies, as has been said, were burnt. I 2 ii6 THE ABODES OF MAN, (= 33 feet 7*54 inches). The most remarkable is seen in section upon the lower or Misano level, cut by the modern Pistoja road, which took the place of the highway on an upper gradient. It is well preserved; still fed by drainage, and said to be 16 metres (=52 feet 5*92 inches) deep : no corpses were found in it. The orifice varies from 30 centimetres Sharp-bottomed Well. ( =11*8 1 inches) to 77, and even 80 ( =30-31 to 31-50 inches), abolishing the theory which makes the mouth too narrow to admit a human being, and suggesting, consequently, that the walls had been built up around the remains. In all cases there TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 117 is a revetment of mortarless pebbles, allowing percolation, whilst the bottom is sunk, to prevent loss, into the impermeable clay which we remarked at Casalecchio. These so-called putts fundraires, ' which would be a unique feature of Etruria,'^ were found to contain bronze vases and rings, ceramic tablets — one inscribed with a single name — pottery, and painted urns, with several strata of bones, chiefly of sheep and goats, pigs and dogs. According to Prof Count J. Conestabile {' Congres,* p. 257), but upon what authority I know not, * from one to three human bodies were found in them, sometimes in the raised and doubled position, as shown by certain tombs of the Stone Age. They were surrounded by pebbles, which also underlay the head, probably for protection ; whilst in the lower part and under , the skeleton there was generally a large urn.* Similar constructions have been found in Savoy and in Transalpine Gaul, especially at Troussepoil, Beau- gency, Villeneuve-le-Roi, Trigueres, and Gourge. According to M. Quicherat this custom began, not during Gallic autonomy, but only after the Roman * This was asserted by Prof. Conestabile at the Congress, but it is by no means the case, as will presently appear. Ii8 THE ABODES OF MAN. conquest. In Middle Etruria, Dennis (i. 121) at first believed them to be ' silos,' the ' siH ' of Sicily, and the o-ffipoi or eri^o) of the Cappadocian and Thracian Greeks, but he presently * had not the smallest doubt of their sepulchral character/ I find it easier to believe either that a similar form was superstitiously used for the sepulchre and for secular purposes, or that these were simply cisterns and 'silos' proper, into which skeletons and other articles have been thrown, perhaps during the sack of the settlement. If Misanello be a village they cannot be funerary ; and, at any rate, the way in which they are scattered over the lower level (Misano) instead of being aligned, like all other Etruscan sepulchres, along the main roads, is a strong argument in disfavour of the sepulchral theory which is now generally waxing obsolete. We presently reach a feature even more interest- ing. Count Gozzadini tells us {loc, cit, p. 9) : ' Une tombe, bien plus remarquable et bien plus grandiose, mesure 10 metres de longueur sur chaque c6te, sans compter un avant-corps avec d^gr^s ' (five also here visible), ' lesquels auront servi au meme usage que ceux du puits fundraire, c'est \ dire a monter pour c^Mbrer les silicemes annuels. II ne reste de cette TO MARZABOTTOy MISANELLO, AND MISANO, 119 tombe que le soubassement de tuf, opere quadrato, de I metre 19' (= 46*85 inches) de haut, de style Toscane severe, bien sculpte, et correspondant a celui de semblables monuments s^pulcraux de I'Etrurie moyenne, et notamment de Vulci, de Caere, de Alsio, et de Tarquinii, qui cependant en different par ce quits sont circutaires^ ^ But the latter is an essential difference. At first sight I recognised a temple, an cedicuta in antis, and I was pleased to find that the same idea had oc- curred to Cav. Zannoni and to the Abbe G. Chierici. We cannot forget that a modern author, whose Etruscan vagaries will be alluded to in a future page, absolutely asserts^ the non-existence of Etrus- can temples, despite the * Fanum Voltumnae ' of * The italics are mine. * What can we make of parallel passages like these ? — * There are reasons to be- * There is not a vestige left of lieve that there were temples in a single Etruscan temple, or of a some of the Etruscan cities ' single Etruscan palace. Their (p. 49). constructive powers and the re- sources of their decorative arts were lavished on their tombs* (p. 41). Nor can I see by what right Mr. Isaac Taylor declares (p. 326) that * the Fanum Voltumnae was not a temple.' Its identification with the cemetery of Castel d' Asso or Castellaccio has been questioned by Dennis (i. 239), who shows some reasons for preferring Viterbo (i. 196) and its church of Sta. Maria in Voltuma. I20 THE ABODES OF MAN, Livy (iv. 23, &c.), where the deputies of the Federation met, and the express statement of Servius (ad ^neid, i. 422) that every city of Etruria, *genetrix et mater superstitionis,' had its threefold temple— outside, not inside, the walls — lodging the Triad, Jove, Juno, and Minerva, whence the triple shrine of the Roman Capitol (Dennis, i. 520). The most careful excavations in this platform failed to produce any trace of human remains. The following is Cav. Zannoni's rough restoration of this highly-interesting building. The direction of the long walls is from north to south ; and the steps show the entrance. The podium sup- ported four monoliths, truncated columns, of which some were found with socket-holes, probably to hold wooden pillars. Vitruvius (iv. 7) represents the epistylia to have been wooden ; hence the broader intercolumnations than in the Greek orders, and hence, probably, the reason why none of the temples are standing. We have remarked that the system is not yet wholly obsolete at modern Bo- logna : a house in the Via Maggiore, close to the two great Leaning Towers, still preserves the old Etruscanism ; but this survival is about to be ' im- TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 121 proved off.' The posts supported architrave and cornice ; there was, probably, a tympanum with cen- tral light, possibly with sculptured figures ; and a Temple of Misanello restored. Profile of the base still existing. Height of base 3 feet 10*85 inches. sloping roof is denoted by the find of many large tiles and antefixae. These civilised ornaments, hiding the ends of the joint-tiles, number no, 122 THE ABODES OF MAN. TO MARZABOTTOy MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 123 suggesting that they were also equally applied to sacred and profane buildings, sepulchres, or houses. Some are plain ; others are encaustic with human heads in demi-relief; and a few are decorated with graceful palmlets raised and coloured. Prolonging our walk for a few yards with an easterly bend where the ancient river-bank slopes to a lower level, we find another modern building in- scribed * Sorgente Etrusco,' from a relic which has been unwisely removed. Beyond it a bran-new obelisk — single, as usual, for greater disgrace — ^bears the name of Prince Humbert, President of the fifth Anthropological Congress, and the date of his visit (October 5, 1871). The base shows at the four angles as many archaic rams' heads, with the profiled eye drawn, after the Egyptian fashion, as if fronting the spectator.^ They are copied from a colonnette ' My venerable friend Prof. Owen {Journal of the Anthro. Insti- tute^ p. 244, vol. iv., no. I., April — July, 1874) explains the 'elongate, deeply-fringed, almond-shaped eye-aperture' of the Egyptian Middle Empire by the effects of solar glare and sandy khamsin contracting the winker-muscle {orbicularis palpebrarum). The strong action of this muscle, whose fixed point of attachment is to the inner side of the orbit rim, a little below its equator, would draw the line of the eyelids ob- liquely downwards and inwards. Hence, in artistic work, the slight exaggeration of the rim of the outer and the dip of the inner canthus. The law once passed in so hieratic a country would become unalterable for all time, and it would naturally extend from the human eye to all eyes. in the Aria collection ; and the local theory is * qu'ils semblent se rapporter au culte de Amon-ra.' Beyond the obelisk lies the original Etruscan aqueduct of Misanello, said to have been found 30 metres (?) below the surface. There is a central reservoir of hollowed stone, and three cut conduits sufficed, as the fourth would have led up-hill : more- over, in the latter direction there is a perennial pond, which may date from Etruscan days. All are large parallelopipedons of squared tufa. Upon the slopes head-stone shaped boards, marked and numbered, show where the sarcophagi were exhumed. The graveyard is thus sharply demarked from the town, which lay upon a higher level. The general as- pect at once suggests that Misanello is the arx or acropolis, probably an older foundation than Misano. It has its temple, its aqueduct, and its necropolis — in fact, all the requisites of its social life. During the visit of the Congress three tombs, opened for the first time, yielded the skeletons of a woman, round whose arm-bone ran a bracelet, and that of a man armed with a sword. Concerning the general collection we will speak afterwards ; here, however, was made the discovery of the admirable group and the amphora-bearing negro preserved in i' t 124 THE ABODES OF MAN. the Aria Museum. The warrior-god, armed with a casque, whose front suggests the horns of Moses,^ is offered a ritual patera, possibly for libations, by the Diva potens Cypri, whose raiment, after the old Italic fashion, decently and decorously descends to her feet.^ This group is 15 centimetres (= some 6 * Dennis (ii. 105) notices a warrior-figure, more than a foot high, whose ' helmet has a straight cockade on each side, almost like asses* ears.' * Similarly the discoveries in Cyprus by General di Cesnola and Mr. Lang are remarkable for the modesty and even * respectability ' of I rO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO, 125 inches) high, and its evident imitation and adapta- tion of Greek art renders it most valuable. The negro is also no mean work. Prof. Count J. Cones- tabile declares that in it M'imi- tation du vrai est absolument obtenue dune maniere magis- trale.* Near an ignoble pond rises a tall bronze group of Mars and Venus, a modern enlargement of that found in the sarcophagus. There are also sundry modern antiquities scattered about the ground ; and a third pool, sup- plied by a spring from above, here concludes the visitanda. Descending to the plane of the present bank we reach the second lakelet, an artificial water a few yards in diameter, also fed from the upper heights. A central pile of old stones forms a * cavern,' which can be ap- proached by a boat or by a bridge with wooden rails, painted to resemble bamboo— the whole in most approved cockney style. Here are the sarco- the statuary and the reliefs, where the reverse might have been ex- pected. 126 THE ABODES OF MAN. TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MIS AN O. 127 phagi removed from Misanello. They are upon the surface, not sunk in it, as was the invariable custom — this is, perhaps, a necessary evil, in order to display them without the necessity of digging out a large area of ground. But the tombs have been disposed pell-mell, without any regard for orientation, and, worse still, the pieces have been put together in the wildest way. Thus the columns belonging to other buildings have been planted where the pent-shaped lid of the sarcophagus positively forbade such ornamenta- tion. As might have been expected, many a casual visitor has carried away the impression that we have here the origin of our truncated columns placed upon gravestones, and thus the Congres (p. 225) actually sketches M'ancienne ndcropole de Marzabotto ' on the borders of the lake. The effect is something of this kind, and it forcibly suggests Pere La Chaise, with its gravelled walks and trim hedges. Of the spheroids and lenti- cular masses I shall speak in another place— />5^ at least belong to the tombs. We now leave the handsome eastern gates of the park, and proceed south-eastward to the farm- buildings of Misano {fundus Missanus or Misanus). Thence the path, bending southwards, spans vine- yards and wheat-fields, which were ankle-deep in mud after the rainy morning of the Anthropological visit. Here are three of the old pebble-built rain- CAR cisterns, two to the east and one to the west. We are, doubtless, treading over the burial-place of the old city, and the whole ' podere ' should be bought by the State and thoroughly explored. Cav. Zannoni would restore the form as above. It occu- pied the isthmus formed by the Reno — ^a site which 128 THE ABODES OF MAN. the Etruscans seem always to have chosen when possible. The shape was probably polyangular, not square; but the interior, we shall see, pre- serves the ritualistic form, oriented towards the cardinal points. The general style of single-arched gateway may be restored after this fashion, as three The Gateway restored. Bossed and draughted stones. layers of bossed stones have been found in situ. The cuneiform system was apparently well known, and we may believe that the early Romans borrowed it, like the paved road, from the Etruscans. The TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 129 flat cuneiform arch (Dennis, i. 201) is essentially Eastern. I found it in the ruined cities of the Hauran, and traced it through Diocletian's Palace (Spalato), to the Castle of Kirkwall. The official city had, doubtless, large suburbs extending all around it. A glance up-stream discloses a noble Apennine view, but we forget it in sorrow for the ravages of the Reno, which is still in the habit of shifting- its tJialweg, By prolonging the chief lines of inter- secting street and road, we see that a large and important section of the southern and western enceinte, possibly half the city, has been eaten away and engulfed in the wild torrent. The latter, of course, has sunk many yards below the level of the Etmscan days. The first remains to the west are pebble founda- tions of square and oriented cells, which have provoked abundant discussion. Count Gozzadini (^ Congres,* p. 278), gallantly owning that he will be glad to find himself in error, denies that they can be huts {casupoli\ for a variety of reasons, which, in my humble opinion, do not appear convincing. He objects to the small size of some cells, not exceeding 175 metre (=68-90 inches) in length, by 1-50 metre I30 THE ABODES OF MAN. (= 59*05 inches); but how many a Hindu hut, Buddhist Vihara (monastery), and the lodgings in Sepoys* * Lines * are not larger. And again, why should not the smaller divisions have been com- partments ? The depth of the foundation, a few centimetres below the pebble pavement, would not bear stable house-walls ; but again, why should these not have been partitions {ititercapedines) ? Three arguments are drawn from the presence of 'funerary wells,' but this use of the silo is not proven. Pieces of pottery, like those taken from sepulchres, were found both in the cells and in the wells ; but may they not also have been imbrices for roofs and other purposes ? Finally, there were no passages from cell to cell. I believe that they have since been discovered : moreover, the walls are mostly rased to their bases, and would not show the threshold which, some two feet high, is still preserved in the abominable town called Bonny (West Africa). Professor Conestabile hesitates about delivering a definitive opinion. On the other hand, the Abb6 G. Chierici offers the serious objection that in exca- vations opened to the extent of 100 square metres, the broken bones of animals appeared in abund- ance, whilst those of human beings were utterly or. TO MARZABOTTO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 131 some say, comparatively, absent. The remaining ob- jects : a long iron sword ^ and scabbard, votive arms and legs, idols, an ces 7'udey bronze and iron frag- ments, tiles and pottery, broken urns, bits of coloured glass, worked stones and bones, might have be- longed to a settlement of the living as well as to a city of the dead. The tubes for conducting water, and the little clay windows admitting light into the roof, denote huts, not tombs : again, the situation as regards the * High Street,' from north to south, would suggest that this space was included within the walls. The Abbe notices the remarkable likeness of the pebble foundations with the pre-historic, bronze-aged, terramare, or pile-villages of Reggio, Modena, and other parts of Italy.^ Remarking that under the * This blade, which is much longer than the usual bronze weapon, and lacks cross-piece, together with the iron lance-head, large and willow-leaf shaped, were deposited in the Aria Museum, and excited some discussion. M. Desor refers to the lances which Diodorus Siculus placed in the hands of the Gauls, and like M. de Mortillet, com- pares both weapons with those which had been found at La T^ne, on the battle-field of Tiefenau, and other places. Prof. Conestabile re- plies that similar swords have been exhumed in Central Etruria. Presently a sufficient collection of facts will enable us to determine how far Etruscan art, original or imitated, may have extended north of the Alps. * They are described in the Congrh (pp. 171 -i 80). Older writers held them to be * UstrinaJ as if the dead were burned in water. Ac- cording to the Abb^ G. Chierici, the six terramare of Reggio, espe- cially Sanpolo, the typical specimen which yielded articles of iron, K 2 . 132 THE ABODES OF MAN. TO MARZABOTTOy MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 133 pavement of Etruscan Misano a second stratum appears at the depth of 070 metre (= 2 feet 4*59 inches), and supports passages and houses with walls of clay, still bearing the tubular impressions of rushes, and wanting the bricks, the tiles, and the pottery so common in the more civilised successor, he would detect a still older setdement ; in fact, the first colony of setded Etruscans who established them- selves on the champ rase before walled villages were invented. From the pebble-cells, a few paces to the east lead us across a hollow ; it was intended as a cutting for the railway, which now runs in the Galleria di Misano, a tunnel below. Here we find a truly magnificent remnant of the * High Street,' trending from north to south, and probably meeting its eastern and western intersector in the space beneath which the Reno at present rolls. Seeing this fragment, we can easily understand that the Romans borrowed their paved roads, like their monuments, from the Etruscans. These w^ere the Plateae, Cardinalis and • had square and oriented constructions of pebbles and also * funerary wells ' ; they overlie the more ancient, bronze-aged pile-villages. He adds an illustration of Castellarano {Congrh, p. 285). In Italy the terramara or mariera is considered the third stage of the proto- historic habitation, preceded by the cavern, and i\it palafitta, or pile- village proper. Decumana, which divided the city into quarters and regions, and which led to the Portae Decumanae, where the loth Cohorts camped. A length of 300 (380 ?) metres has been opened, but of this only some 1 20 feet remain for inspection. The breadth of the thoroughfare is 14 metres, and the largest slabs, which are mixed with pebbles, exceed a square yard. The pavement shows no ruts, as if the biga were confined to the outside of the enceinte — still the rule in many Dalmatian cities. The broad central line is flanked by crepidines, path- ways on either side, the conveniences so common in Roman ' High Streets ;* and suggesting, as at Salona and Damascus, triple gateways to the north and south ; perhaps to the east and west. The deep flank-drains have orifices to gather the rain-water, and the middle is scientifically bombd. The two bands of large, square detached blocks which, dis- posed at regular intervals, run across the road, and determine the trottoirs, are usually explained as the cippi used for mounting horses when stirrups were unknown ; and others remark that the spaces allowed the passage of carriage wheels — where no ruts are to be found. I would look upon them as the succedanea for bridges in muddy weather, 134 THE ABODES OF MAN, resembling on a grand scale those of ancient Pompeii, and the modern cities of the nearer East. The same kind of ' unbuilded, unarched bridges ' are still remarked by visitors to Albanian Skodra. From this noble Platea Cardinalis, or Grande Rue, a single line of secondary thoroughfare sets off at a right angle to the west ; only a few feet now remain unburied. The fragment is ten feet broad, and in the middle appears a flag-covered conduit,^ like those now existing in all the older Veneto- Istrian towns, Muggia and Capodistria, for instance. The modern fashion came from the * Sea-Cybele,* and it extended south as far as Albania. The Eastern cross-street, of the same dimensions as the High Street (14 metres), which led south to the Morello tombs, and which, prolonged, would in- tersect the main line in the Reno bed, has been re-interred. I am not aware that any of the vici, or smaller thoroughfares, have yet been uncovered. And here I would utterly reject the theory of Count Gozzadini (' Renseignements,' p. 7) : * Ce ne pourraient etre non plus les rues d'une ville tres- antique, les deux grandes espaces, ou avenues, de 14 metres de largeur, qui semblent couper la n^cropole * I cannot be quite sure of this feature. ( TO MARZABOITO, MISANELLO, AND MISANO. 135 dans la direction des points cardinaux; car on ne pent pas supposer qu une ville, aussi ancienne que celle-ci, e{it des rues aussi spacieuses et aussi bien align^es. De telles avenues seraient au contraire fort propres a faire des grandes divisions dans la necro- pole, et a y donner acces ; comme cela a lieu dans les champs cimeteriaux actuels.' The state of the arts at Misano disproves this conclusion. From the High Street, a hundred yards to the north with easting, leads to the cemetery of Misano, which lying, of course, outside, defined the limits of the enceinte. Excavations are continued, but economy sometimes reduces the number of hands to two. The sarcophagi are placed upon the surface, so as to be in sight, and we can only hope that they will remain in situ. This Misano cemetery, as it is now called, shows a great variety of shapes and sizes ; single and double, large-square and small- square, long-broad and long-narrow. The lids fit into rims sunk in the border of the caisson ; they are pent-shaped, with a shallow elevation ; none of them have columns, while spheres and disks of sandstone, some of very large size, are everywhere exhumed. At the end of the visit we descended the path la^- THE ABODES OF MAN, 137 down the stiff earth-cliff to the north-east, and fol- lowed the leat taken from the Reno on the south- east of »the buried city. This * Canale del Molino ' formerly turned the wheel of a dwarf powder-manu- factory ; the latter has been closed after sundry explosions, some of which lodged human arms and legs upon the poplar-trees of the adjacent avenue. Close below the belvedere of the Aria farm-houses, other monuments (Campuccelliera) have been found, proving that the line of sepulchres was prolonged to the north-east ; and although the now sunken Reno is separated from the tall bank by an alluvial flat, over which the railroad runs, we can see by the water-lines, by the erosion, and by the dilapidation of the tombs, that the stream once swung near, and that even here there has been a considerable amount of destruction. SECTION IV. CONCLUSIONS. We have now inspected the many objects rescued from the kistvaen and the sarcophagus ; we have visited the homes and the long homes of the Cir- cumpadan Etrurians ; and we may venture upon a little cautious generalisation. The external shape of the sarcophagus at Misanello and Misano is of two great varieties. The first is the quadrangular coffin of tufa slabs, numbering 4 to 6. The dimensions are, length 090 metre (= 2 feet 11*43 inches) to 2*27 metres 136 THE ABODES OF MAN. down the stiff earth-cliff to the north-east, and fol- lowed the leat taken from the Reno on the south- east of ihe buried city. This * Canale del Molino ' formerly turned the wheel of a dwarf powder-manu- factory ; the latter has been closed after sundry explosions, some of which lodged human arms and legs upon the poplar-trees of the adjacent avenue. Close below the belvedere of the Aria farm-houses, other monuments (Campuccelliera) have been found, proving that the line of sepulchres was prolonged to the north-east ; and although the now sunken Reno is separated from the tall bank by an alluvial flat, over which the railroad runs, we can see by the water-lines, by the erosion, and by the dilapidation of the tombs, that the stream once swuno- near, and that even here there has been a considerable amount of destruction. 137 ( SECTION IV. CONCLUSIONS. We have now inspected the many objects rescued from the kistvaen and the sarcophagus ; we have visited the homes and the long homes of the Cir- cumpadan Etrurians ; and we may venture upon a little cautious generalisation. The external shape of the sarcophagus at Misanello and Misano is of two great varieties. The first is the quadrangular coffin of tufa slabs, numbering 4 to 6. The dimensions are, length 0*90 metre {=2 feet 11*43 inches) to 2*27 metres 138 THE ABODES OF MAN, CONCLUSIONS, 139 (=7 feet, 5*37 inches); breadth, 0*57 metre (= I foot io*44 inches) to i*6o metre (=5 feet 2*99 inches); height, 0*42 metre (= i foot 4*54 inches) to 1*92 metre (= 6 feet 3*59 inches) ; the thickness of the walls is from o*o8 metre to 0*32 metre (= 3*15 inches to i foot o*6o inch) ; the cover is gene- rally of one, sometimes of two pieces ; and though flat roofs are mentioned, I saw only the pent- shaped. The second kind is surmounted by a heavy weight, which, under the pressure of earth, has i\c^' -A .or .t^^ cSjST*/ often broken through the lid, and has been found inside the tomb. The upper gradient was crowned by a cut stone, supposed, like the horse-shoe, to represent the Homeric o-ijaa ; the material was mostly macigno or sandstone grit, and water-rolled I pebbles ; the shape was either spheroid or lenticular, and, in some cases, the diameter reached four feet. Prof. Conestabile ('Congres,* p. 255) mentions, as a third variety of sarcophagus, rectangular bases and truncated columns, which suggested to him the phallic stelce so common in the necropoles of Central Etruria, but he apparently did not see them. He also includes amongst sepulchres the pebble-lined wells, the * caisses form^es avec de grandes tuiles a couvercle, fa^onn^ en faite ' (coffins formed by the large tegiUce) ; the pebble-tumulus and kistvaen, and the pebble foundations before alluded to. Incineration has prevailed at Marzabotto. Only three or four out of 1 70 contained the whole skele- ton, which was supported by a quantity of marl and pebbles, and the presence of these articles did not appear accidental. The other contents were the ces (rude, etc), of which each individual had at least one ; pottery, statuettes, weapons, bronzes, fibiilcs, mirrors, and a variety of gold ornaments. Almost all the sarcophagi had been violated, but one, which had remained intact, yielded no less than 5 7 objects of the precious metal. Besides these, there were pietre dure of fine cutting and archaic Etruscan gems, e, g. the carnelian scarabaeus, with a walking Minerva, I40 THE ABODES OF MAN, cuirassed and winged ; the more advanced, as the engraved quartz, showing the heifer lo stung by the gadfly, and the pasto * tumble bug ' representing a tailed man contending against a fabulous monster that stands before him. As usual, amber and bone- dice were abundant, and so were the ossuaries, and the vases of plain and painted pottery. The bones picked up in the necropoles and the settlements are determined by Professors Cornalia and Rutimeyer to be those of the Urstcs arctoSy the Ca?its familiaris (and pahistris ?), the Fclis Cattus, the Mils Rat tits (?), the Eqntis Cabalius (and Asiniis ?), the Sus palustris (and Scrofa ferus ?), the Cervus [Elap/ms and Capreohis), the Ovis Aries, the Capra hircics (with two other varieties), and the Bos bra- chyceros. The birds are chiefly the Biifo vulgaris, and the Gal Ins domcsticus — this Indian bird sug- gesting by no means a remote date. The shells, probably used for necklaces, are principally the Pectttiiciihis glymneris (fossil) and the CyprcFa tigris. So my friend, Professor, now Rector G. Capellini, an ardent archaeologist, of whom more presently, when exploring the cannibal Grotta dei Colombi, in the Island of Palmaria, found and figured (plate 2, Fava e Garagnani, Bologna, 1873) a valve CONCLUSIONS. 141 ) of the P, glycinteris, pierced near the apex, and a Patella cceruleay cut to form a ring.^ The essential difference between the systems of sepulture in Northern and in Central Etruria, is that, whilst the latter built in the interior of hills and upon plateaux adjoining the towns, the former laid out their graveyards in our modern style. Fortunately for students, we have thus three great monumental series, which cannot be considered to be of the same date ; whilst certain crucial points of resemblance, for instance, the form, the system, and the ornamenta- tion of the bronze yf^/^/^, and, briefly, the great lines of art, suggest the peoples to be of one race. It is now given to us to trace how * fortis Etruria crevit.' Villanova and the Certosa belong to Fel- sina, whilst Marzabotto stands grandly alone. The greater antiquity of the first-named is proved by the absence of statuettes ; except the feminine idol with birds, the archaic horses, and the symbolical or conventional mannikins, raised upon the surface of ' Similar shells have been discovered in the Perigord Caves. Rector Capellini also brought from the Pigeon Grot large quantities of Ostrcea edulis, Natica millepunctata, Murex trunculuSy Trochus turbinatus. Columella rusticay Patella Lusitanica, Helix {nemoralis, and singu- lata\ an undetermined Triton, and a Dentalium not belonging to the existing Mediterranean species. It was probably brought to Spezia, like the Silex, from some part of Tuscany, 142 THE ABODES OF MAN, CONCLUSIONS, H3 an ossuary. The ornaments are chiefly meanders, disks, concentric circles, crosses, or circles containing crosses; and animals, ducks, geese, and serpents. There is no goldsmiths' work; the only iron ar- ticles are some few ornaments, several lance-points, Mannikins. two hatchets (?), knife-blades and shovels (?) ; and we must remember that the first kings of Rome were in the early iron epoch. Lead-alloy is also wanting in the cbs rude, which is of a ruder type than that of its neighbours. At Villanova there are no bas-reliefs, no inscriptions, no styli for writing ; and the cyst-shaped ossuary of bronze is supported by plain unpainted pottery, generally black, and pro- vided with handles of various forms. Thus the ) I \ Congress was enabled to date Villanova from the ninth and even the tenth century B.C., synchronous with the early Etruscan epoch, or at the end of the bronze and the beginning of the iron age. The study of this period has served as guide to a host of sepulchral discoveries in Switzerland and Franche- Comt^. The general aspect of the Certosa shows the greatest splendour of Etruscan art, a progress and development which would place it several centuries later ; Cav. Zannoni assigns it to about the fourth century of Rome. The bronze contains more lead, and an ess grave, apparendy an as of uncial weight, would fix the date after u.c. 537 (b.c. 216), the year in which a decree of the Republic reduced the weight of an ess to an ounce. Marzabotto is the latest of the three. Here we have three inscriptions, two on pottery and one on a sWv^r Jibula, besides three bronze writing- j-Zy//. The alloys consist of a greater proportion of lead, about 36 : 100. The ess rude is abundant; there is a large rectangular piece, perhaps the as signatum ^ (first century of Rome), bearing the trident and * It weighs, according to Count Gozzadini (p. 13, * Renseignements ' etc.), 2,157 grammes (-4 lbs. 12 oz. avoir., 45-14 grs.), and conse- quently exceeds by 367 grammes (= 12 oz. avoir., 454-52 grs.) the 144 THE ABODES OF MAN, the caduceus ; while the ces grave is wanting. Iron is much more common at Marzabotto than at Villanova, the articles being chiefly keys, bracelets, lance-heads, blades and scabbards of long knives, dao-o-ers, or swords. A Greek inscription upon a fragment of pottery, (xax)PrAION EnOIE2(sv), proves an advanced commercial intercourse. The Jibidce are often novel and beautiful : for instance, one represents a pair of tweezers ; another, in silver, has a double spiral, and the lower end reverted, reminding M. G. de Mortillet of Gallic objects in the Museum of St. Germain. The metal might be considered rare, yet a hundred such *bijous' have been found at Marzabotto. Gold, as well as silver, becomes more abundant, denoting ideas of luxury and a social condition which could appreciate the value of the material and the beauty of the work ; often, indeed, both were combined. Of this fact the necklace and the pendants, supposed to form part of a feminine collar {torques), figured by Count Gozzadini (' Di ulteriori scoperte a Marzabotto,' plate xvi.. No. it, a,b,c\ xvii., Nos. 2 and 3), are sufficient proofs. heaviest specimen cited in Mommsen's Monetary History, The as rude weighed from lo to 24 grammes (=169*33 to 406*40 grs. avoir.) and contained about 36 per cent, of lead. CONCLUSIONS. US Finally, the bas-reliefs and statuary, numbering about a hundred, enable us to compare the most archaic style (Venus), shapelessness, disproportionate limbs, unnatural length, rigidity, and drapery adhering to the body, with that of the most ad- vanced civilisation (Venus and Mars). Thus Prof. Count Conestabile is of opinion that the necropolis of Marzabotto was used for a considerable period after the Boian and Lingonian invasion ; whilst the Abb6 G. Chierici is of opinion that both Misanello and Misano owe their destruction to those bar- barians. PART III. THE ETRUSCAN MAN. *Nulli nota poetae Ilia fuit tellus, jacuit sine carmine sacro.' 149 SECTION I. THE ETRUSCAN MAN. We have now seen the arts and industry, the tem- porary abodes and the eternal homes of the Circum padan Etrurians : it remains only to interview what is left of the man himself. Here, again, a short preparatory course is advisable, a glance at the early geological history of Italy, especially at the central regions in their long career of adaptation for humanity. The pateontological field has been admirably worked by the writers of the Peninsula : amongst them we may single out Senator Ponzi (* Atti della R. Acad, dei Lincei, 1 871,' and many other publications), who offered to the Congress of Bologna (pp. 49-72) a synoptic table and a risumd of the five great periods belonging to the annals of our kind. He shall tell his own tale of cataclysms and convulsions, although modern belief prefers attributing to the normal activity of the present day, prolonged through unnumbered ages, what was ISO THE ETRUSCAN MAN. HIS DATE, 151 formerly held to be the work of paroxysmal epochs.^ But the last of the catastrophists has not yet gone his ways: the mantle of Murchison seems to have fallen upon the shoulders of Prestwich. I. The Lower Pliocene of the Tertiary Age, when the nummulitic strata are being laid, is a period of calm and of sub-tropical temperature, represented by the calcareous formations of Macco. The presence of Pliocene man in Italy is still disputed. Professor Nicolucci, of whom more presently, would place him in the centre of the Peninsula (' Congres,' p. 234). The Jury of the Congress (p. 520) opines that man existed during the uppermost Tertiary^ or the * The following table shows at a glance the four periods (A, B, C, and D) of the greatest excentricity during the last million years ; and the several glacial epochs which resulted from it : — Years be- fore A.D. Excentricity of Orbit. Difference of distance in millions of miles. Winter days in Excess. Mean of hottest month in the latitude of London. Mean of coldest month m the latitude of London. D 1,000,000 0151 2-75 7 3 83° F. 21° F. C b \c 850,000 800,000 750,000 •0747 0'I32 0-575 135 2*25 105 36-4 64 27-8 126° 82«» "3° B{? 210,000 200,000 o"575 0567 io*5 10"25 278 277 "3° 113'' o°-9 A 10,000 "0473 8-5 23 105°. 5» 0168 3 8-1 84° 80° ^ Mr. Frank Calvert, of the Dardanelles, declares that he has found traces of Miocene (Tertiary) man. From a chfT-face composed / oldest Quaternary or Post-Tertiary Age.^ In the Newer PHocene sub-division the sub-Apennine sea beats upon the mountains, depositing yellow silex in the shape of extensive sand-beds which, however, Nicolucci would attribute to a later age. The cold, presently extending from the Poles towards the Equator, causes a general and secular, as op- posed to a seasonal, emigration of the fauna both from higher to lower latitudes, and from the uplands to the netherlands. II. Follows the Diluvial Epoch at the end of the Tertiary period and at the opening of the Post-Tertiary Age : it is synchronous in the Apen- nines with the Alpine diluvium. The temperature, falling still, produces terrible meteoric convulsions. The condensation of vapours precipitates masses of water in successive deluges and whirlpools, ac- companied by incessant electrical discharges. The of strata dating from that period, at a geological depth of 800 feet, he * extracted a fragment of the joint of a bone of either a dinotherium or a mastodon, on the convex sides of which is deeply incised the un- mistakeable figure of a homed quadruped.* He also exhumed a flint- flake and bones of animals longitudinally fractured, probably to extract the marrow. The discovery has set at rest all the doubts of Sir John Lubbock (Pre-historic Times) and M. L. Figuier {Primitive Man). ^ The term Pleistocene was proposed, on palaeontological grounds, by Lyell, to demark beds later than the latest Tertiary, and older than the deposits of the recent period. 152 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. resulting torrents sweep towards the ocean, which still breaks against the Apennines, enormous burdens of dSris breached from the ancient rocks; and thus thick beds of conglomerates, breccias, and amygdaloids, showing the turmoil of the waters, are deposited upon the yellow Tertiary sands. The aspect of the Peninsula remains that of a com- plicated archipelago, and the emerged lands are covered, as their fossilised remnants prove, with dense forests of oak, pine, and other tall trees. The fauna continues to be the same, but the tempests and deluges compel it to seek shelter in the caves. Primitive man, a nomad like his congeners, doubtless occupied at this epoch the higher Apen- nines, together with the elephant, rhinoceros, hip- popotamus, cave-bear and hysena. Bos primigenius, hipparion, and Cervus elaphtts. The necessities of offence and defence taught him the use of stone weapons ; and we can hardly be surprised that the invention was not only anterior to history, but was even unknown to the earliest legends. Suetonius (*in Aug.* cap. 72) gives us an interesting detail concerning the Caesar who may be called the Father of proto-historic Anthropology : * Sua vero .... HIS BIRTH 153 excoluit, rebusque vetustate, ac raritate notabilibus ; qualia sunt Capraeis immanum belluarum, ferarum- que membra praegrandia, quce dicuntiir gigantum ossa et arma heroum.' The italics show that the Romans were not so ignorant of palaeontology. Al- dovrandi (* Museum Metallicum': Bononiae, 1648, p. 600) calls the fossil sharks' teeth glossopetrce, and tells us that others had termed the article ' lapi- dem ceraunium, nempe fulminarem.* The first undoubted evidence of Italian^ man appears in the diluvial breccias and upon the Jani- culan hill,2 at Acquatraversa, on the Via Cassia, which yielded two silex-flakes. As the stone im- plements are transported, it would, perhaps, be logical to admit the possibility of their pre-existence amongst the yellow Tertiary sands, but in these they are yet to be found. The flints show all the characteristics of the rudest palaeolithic age— the archaeoliths of the Ponte Molle, the Tor di Quinto, the Monte Sacro, and the Ponte Mammolo are the best proofs. According to Professor W. Boyd- 1 I say * Italian ' because Professor Busk has identified with the human /^///« a bone found in clay apparently pre-glacial— this would be the earliest relic of the cave-man. a Ponzi, Sulle selci tagliati rinvenuii in Roma ad Acquatraversa e Gianicolo \ Bulletin of Corr. Scient. of Rome, No. 3, vol. viii., 1870. Cav. de' Rossi expresses his doubts {Congrh, pp. 452-3)- 154 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, HIS MISERIES. 155 Dawkins ('Cave-hunting/ etc.) these ancientest types of hunting and fishing gear have left their representatives amongst the Eskimos, a people still associated with the fauna of the older Pleistocene or Stone Age, the reindeer and the musk-sheep. III. After the Diluvial sets in the Glacial Epochs the second period of the Quaternary Age. Under the ever - increasing cold the rains become snows ; polar ice drifts towards the equator, and the glaciers, Alpine and Apennine, deposit moraine and angular erratic blocks upon the abundant con- glomerates of the preceding period. The atmo- spheric perturbation is accompanied by earthquakes, which open the British and Saint George's Chan- nels, the Straits of Gibraltar, and the Dardanelles ; which sever Sicily from its mainland ; and which form the Dalmatian Archipelago. Volcanoes, chiefly sub-marine, begin to discharge lavas, mostly absent from the previous formations. The sub-Apennine shallows are gradually elevated into dry land, com- pelling the Arno to change its course : Monte Pisano sinks, and the central Italian Archipelago becomes a great gulf, in the midst of which the craters of Bolsena, Viterbo, and Bracciano, linearly disposed from north-west to south-east, f vomit the palaeo-plutonic tuffs which, in the Roman Campagna and the adjacent parts, overlie the dilu- vian breccias. The subaerial eruptions partially arrest glacier foitoation in the Apennines, and allow erratic blocks to be carried beyond the limits of the ice which had stunted and withered the flora, and which had scattered mountain and plain with the corpses of the fauna. A mere remnant of the latter saves itself by emigration ; and man, in the acme of his misery, is not wholly destroyed by cold and hunger, those implacable enemies of all life. Wan- dering in search of shelter he, also, descends to the sub-Apennine hills, and he seeks the calori- ferous centres where the radiation of plutonian heat defends him against the rigours of the secular winter. His remains are shown in the worked flakes of silex yielded by the volcanic tuffs of the Campagna di Roma. Shell-implements, carefully cut or chipped, and pierced with a hole for suspension — in fact, knives — have lately been discovered in a dilu- vial grotto near Les Corbieres, on the top of a moun- tain overhanging the Padern village. This novel fact also suggests that the Rousillon plains from Per- pignan to near Estagel once formed part of the sea. IV. During the ^//wz/^iz/^/^^//, the third period 156 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, of the Quatenary Age, the cold diminishes, the glaciers shrink towards their former limits, the atmo- spheric convulsions and the eruptions, both submarine and subaerial, are gradually extinguished ; and the sun, piercing the dark fogs and vapours, vivifies and awakens nature. The sea-bottoms, strewn with volcanic deposits, become dry land, and the great river-valleys begin to assume their actual profiles. The fusion of the retreating ice and snow, coursing in immense torrents, transporting vast masses of abraded matter, resetting their sides with travertinOy and lining their soles with sand, with river- drift, fluvial conglomerates and huge water-rolled blocks, forms deep ravines, and traces broad beds, especially upon the newly-born plains. This action is still distinctly marked in the valleys of the Arno, the Anio and, to mention no others, the Tiber. With the increment of heat there is a counter emigration on a small scale, the remnants of the fauna and flora return to their former seats, whose temperature, however, is still below that of its former average, while the isotherms occasion another geographical distribution of organic beings. A new vegetation supplies abundant food to the animal creation, and man, who has escaped the horrors of the diluvial HIS EARLIEST REMAINS, 157 and the glacial epochs, quits the mountains and begins to inhabit the plains. The variety of silex-implements, arrow and lance heads, knives, and axes, preserved in the strata of vegetable earth immediately overlying the oldest volcanic tuffs, proves that, during the alluvial epoch, the palaeolithic began to merge into the neolithic ag^- Signs of civilisation appear in bone (C. elaplms) handles, and in fragments of pottery ' sibi primum fecit agrestis pocula.' The quantities of stone weapons found, for instance, at Inviolatella ^ (Campagna di Roma), suggests that these neolithic cave-men — according to some, the earliest Aryan immigrants, who introduced the dog, the goat, the sheep, and the long-fronted bull— either had their manufactories or fought their battles there. To this the Jury (^Congres,* p. 513) would attribute the Olmo Calvaria, a calotte found incrusted with several centimetres of travertino. At this period the Bosprimigenius, the elephant, and the rhinoceros {tichorrhhios) were still in the land, showing climac- teric conditions which differ from the modern (.^). * Ponzi : Sui manufatti di focaja rinvenuti alV Inviolatella, etc. Accad, pontif. dei nuovi Lincei. Sess. i, 2 die. 1866. De' Rossi: Rapporto sugli studi, etc., nel bacino della campagna Romana. Ann. de rinst. de cor. arch., vol. xxxix. 158 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. Moreover, it is remarked in Italy that weapons of the second Stone Age outside the stratifications of the great rivers, prove that these had abandoned their gigantic primitive beds. De Rossi disinterred silex and lava instruments, neolithic arrows, as well as archaoliths, upon the flanks of the great Latial Cone; and in 1866 he made, near the Anio, above Cantelupo (formerly of the ^Equi), on the Via Valeria at the mouth of the Ustica valley, which discharges the Digentia rivulet of Horace, the re- markable discovery of regular sepulchres. Two sets of crypts or small galleries, at an upper and lower horizon, hollowed in the travertifio which had been left dry by the retreat of the Quaternary waters, produced five intact skeletons, distincdy establishing the existence, in the second Stone Age, of the two forms of skull which are still found throughout Italy. The adults of the higher sepulchre, one supine, the other doubled for want of room, were bra- chycephalic, and, though one was rachitic, both appeared to belong to a short, broad race ; amongst the many arrow-piles of grey silex and a fine knife, interred with them, were a coarse and primitive water-pot and a lance-head of fine quartz with ame- thystine veins. The three underlying dolichocephalic HE BUILDS CITIES. 159 skeletons, apparently of one family, showed much more delicacy of texture. The bones were not un- like those of modern man : there were neither arms, nor fictiles, but around them and at their feet were found remains, some worked, of the dog, horse, ox, pig, Cervus elaphus, and perhaps the rein- deer. The memory of the neolithic ttsT^sxus was long preserved by the Romans, who, in the Fecial rite derived from the Equicolae, sacrificed the pig with a stone hatchet, and it became the sign of Thurs, the 'giant,' the third letter in the Runic alphabet. Similarly the Jewish knife used in cir- cumcision was probably a survival of older days. The Hernician (' mountaineer ' ?) valley especially became the seat of a powerful and highly-civilised race ; and, during the period of quiescence which followed, Latium began to build cities. During this alluvial epoch the ancient volcanoes are closed by the elevation of the land, which some call the retreat of the sea ; and other subaerial vents open at Tichiena, Pofi, Callame, and other places in the Hernician (Anagni) and Ciminian (Viterbo) valleys. Hence the subterranean fire passes to Latium proper, whose late development of civilisa- tion was probably due to the long evolution of plu- i6o THE ETRUSCAN MAN, tonic disturbances. The Latin eruptions are usually distributed into four successive eras, each separated by periods of rest. The first raised the great Latial Cone (Mons Latialis), with its central and apical crater Artemisa, and its ring of auxiliary mouths, represented by Nemi, Vallericcia, Laghetto, Valle Marciana, Gabii, and others, discharging pyroxenic lavas. The second movement appeared at the same places after a period of calm, shown by fossils on the volcano flanks— for instance, at Monte Cavo, which resembles Vesuvius in the Somma Circle. To this or to the subsequent division belongs the discovery of bronze implements,^ and of stones which, like the Jadeite found near the Sabine Sacco, but not existing in Italy, argue the extension of commerce and emigration. This also is the period of monoliths, dolmens, mortarless Cyclopean walls, and hydraulic works cut in the rock ; and to it we must refer the legends of Picus and Faunus, Saturn and Janus—* those old credulities to nature dear.' The third eruptive era was apparentiy limited to opening the Albano crater. It spread around it 1 We have the testimony of Lucretius that bronze was used before iron ; the latter, moreover, was long prescribed in religious ceremonies— for instance, of the Romans. HIS MODERN EPOCH i6i not vast lava-rivers, but lapilli, scoriae, and ashes, which, converted by torrents of rain to a muddy paste, were presently solidified into the volcanic conglomerate known as /^^r/;^^. Upon this foun- dation Alba Longa was subsequently built, and became the capital of the Latin race. At last the craters were changed to rain-pools, and the Alluvial Epoch ended with scattering lakes over the surface of Latium. About this time lacustrine villages were numerous. The Sabines occupied the lands beyond the Anio, and the Etruscans settled north of the Tiber. V. During the Recent, or Modern, Epoch, fol- lowing the Post-pleiocene, the temperature becomes what it is now, and the rivers, the miserable rem- nants of the alluvial giants, shrink to cunettes in their huge beds. After many centuries of repose, the fourth and last outbreak in Latium opens the little vent of Monte Pila, on the edge of Monte Cavo. The latter was still in eruption when Romulus was laying the foundations of Rome : Livy (i. 31) mentions, under the reign of the third King, a thick shower of stones, and a heavenly voice sent from the Albano Mount — a prodigy which required a nine- days* festival. The comparatively modern date of l62 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, the convulsion is proved by the potteries, and even the libral ces grave, discovered, like the cinerary hut- urns, under the volcanic peperino. This movement ended in earthquakes, which continue till our day, and in the transference of volcanic tension to the south, where it is now shown by the Phlegraean Fields, Vesuvius, Stromboli, and Etna. / THE FOUR WAVES, 163 SECTION II. THE ETRUSCAN MAN. The geological sketch of early Italy ended, I would offer a few remarks concerning the successive im- migrations into the Italian Peninsula which finally brought the Etruscans — racial movements established either by old traditions or by modern science,* especially craniology ; and carefully investigated by later writers, especially by Pictet of Geneva, and more recently by Schleicher and Conestabile. It is beyond the scope of these pages to notice the great Mongoloid (?) or Turanian (?) substratum — which Prof Hunfalvy would prudently call an- Aryan, and which M. Thomas and his numerous school would make superior in culture to the Aryan,^ every- * I will not attempt to resume the discussion about the origin of * Aryan/ Some (older school) derive it simply from «r, the plough, which seems to have originated in Bactria and Irdn ; others find many Sanskrit and Zend roots, as arth, rtdh, rh, and r, meaning noble, worthy, rich, honoured. Again, the Zendavestan tradition assigns to Thraetavna (Indra) three sons, Airya, Caizima (Shem ? ), and Tuirya (Tur, Turan). Firdausi (loth century) makes the three races sons of Furaydun, and his Pehlevi * Irij ' (Airja) was the youngest but the steadiest of alL M 2 164 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, where met by the intruding family ;i or to enter into the subject of the Basques, whom Dr. Broca, despite their splendid type, moral as well as phy- sical, would consider autochthonous, and whom Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte would make, with Hum- boldt, Grimm, And, and Rask, remote kinsmen of the modern Finns and Uralians. Nor will my list in elude the modern Skipetar, Albanians whose origin is still a mystery,2 the Gipsies from the Valley of the Indus, and the Magyars, the latest flood which ihe East poured into Europe. Sogdiana and Bactriana— apparently the earliest seats of settled life agriculture and comparative civilisation— appear to have been the cradle of the conquering race whose dispersion throughout the furthest regions of the West was accomplished before the tenth century b.c. ; and the following are the four successive waves whose influx is admitted by modern anthropologists : — I. The Kelts first left the family home ; the Mt is still uncertain whether the first neolithic cave-men were of Iberian, Mongoloid, or Aryan stock. > Perhaps the most mysterious part of their language is the way in which it explains the oldest Greek terms (Fallmerayer : das Albane Eiem. in GrUchenland). Plutarch says that * swift-footed ' was 'AfTrrrc in the dialect of Epirus : it is still Chp^te in the tongue of the Tosks or Southerns, and Shpdte amongst the Gheghs or Northerns. THE FOUR WAVES. 165 ethnologic law declaring those tribes to be the oldest who have been driven to the extremities of conti- nents: — the voice of all history is in favour of their superior antiquity. They are supposed to have taken the direction of ancient Hyrcania ; to have passed south and west of the Caspian, as they planted .colonies in the Caucasian Albania and Iberia; and to have entered Europe, of course by land, via the southern shores of the Black Sea and the Danube Valley. Thence they spread westward far and wide ; they occupied, in historical ages, Western Austria, Northern Italy, the broad lands afterwards called Gaul, the Pyrenean countries, and the British Islands. This race is supposed to have brought with it the neolithic Stone Age and its constant accompaniment, pottery. We can hardly assign the movement to a date later than thirty centuries b.c.^ 11. The Aiyo-Pelasgi are supposed to have emi- grated either at the same time as, or shortly after, the • Kelts, and they followed the same line, by Ariana and Parthia, but a little to the south ; this is shown by their traces in Asia Minor and on the yEgean, the * The wide extension of the race justifies Pelloutier {Hist, des CelteSy p. 10), who, like the * Ulster King-at-Arms ' (* Etruria Celtica'), is generally ridiculed for seeing Kelts everywhere. T i66 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. THE SLAVS, 167 Hellespont, and Propontis, till, travelling by land, they reached the Mediterranean shores, Greece, Thrace, Illyria, and Italy, as far as the Alps, where they mingled with the Keltic Gauls.^ This second emi- gration would continue till the fifteenth century B.C. III. The ScandinavO'Tetiton appears much later in history, which, of course, ignores his first, coming. The group may be divided into two dis- tinct sections, the former being judged more ancient, for the same reason as the Kelts, namely, having been pushed further west by subsequent invaders ; but the similarity, amounting almost to identity, of physique, temperament, character, and even lan- guage, shows them to be brothers rather than cousins. They are supposed to have turned north of the Aral Lake and the Caspian — the negative proof being that there are no remains of them to the south — to have extended over Scythia and Sarmatia, the land of the Slavs, and to have en- tered Europe via the upper Danube and the Rhine. Hence they extended to the Baltic and to where the North Cape prevented further progress. This was ^ Mr. Edward A. Freeman, judging from the similarity of the Latin and Greek tongues, would make these cognate families of Aryans * branch off from the original stock as one swarm (?) and part, most probably, (?) at the head of the Adriatic Gulf/ the noble barbarian blood which overran the declin- ing Roman Empire. IV. The Lithuano-Slavs, the last great wave, passed by Asiatic Sarmatia, crossed the Volga, and occupied the eastern parts of the European Conti- nent, where population was thinnest. Their ninety millions still hold nearly half of it, being limited by a meridional line, connecting the western extremities of the Baltic with the Adriatic, bounding the Scandi- navo-Teutons on the south and east, as these bound the Kelts ; and they are preponderant in Old Prussia, Lithuania, Russia and European Turkey; in parts of Hungary ; in Bohemia, and in the Eastern regions of Austria. As the Latin race is of the Past, so the glories and triumphs in arts and arms await ^ the Future of the youngest member of the family — it is, perhaps, the most interesting, when we think not of what it has been, but of what it will be. This emigra- tion appears in history about the third and fourth cen- turies A.D. ; and the Sarmatian words, Hun, Geloni, and Sciri, or Scirri, have given a terrible significance to the modern Scythian. But we may fairly doubt this movement of the Slavs. The learned Fortis has detected not a few Slav roots in the names of regions and cities preserved by the Roman biographers and i68 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, historians of Dalmatia ; and the Eneti or Veneti of the Baltic, who, distinct from the Euganeans,^ named Venice, and whom Mommsen suggests may be Illyrians or Albanians, are still preserved in the Wenden of adjoining Styria, popularly known as Slovenes. This would denote the presence of the Slavs in Southern Europe many centuries before the date usually assigned to them : the question is highly interesting, but here our business is with the second, not the fourth, member of the family. The first wave of the Aryo-Pelasgi may have displaced the palaeolithic peoples to whom many attribute such archaic titles of the Tiber as Albula, Rumon, and Serra. These were the Fauns and Satyrs, the Caci and Cyclopes, the nymphs and drj^ads of a subsequent my thologj^ : here we find the terrcs filii, the aborigines of the classics, Gensque virum truncis et duro robore natum. The earliest families would be the lapyges of Apulia ; the old Italian or Messapian coast, now the Calabrias ; the Ausones and the Opici,^ Obsci, or Osci, * The brachycephalicEuganeo-Veneti are generally reputed Illyrians or Illyrio-Greeks (the brachycephalic Albanians ?). Grotefend {Zur Geographie von Alt-Italien, Hanover, 1840-2) would derive the Italic aborigines from Illyria— which, to say the least, is not proven. ' Thucydides (vi. 2). On this Prof. Calori remarks : {Joe. cit p. 19) THE ARYO-PELASGI. 169 who drove into Sicily the Siculi of Central Italy and the other kindred tribes of Lucania and Campania — in fact, those thrust into the extremities of the Peninsula by subsequent invaders. They found the mysterious Ligurians who occupied, not only modern Liguria as far south as the Tiber, but also the greater part of Italy, and who apparently extended for con- siderable distances northwards and north-westwards, to parts of France and even into Spain. The Ligu- rian type of brachycephalic skull is found, not only in the Certosa, but at Torre della Maina in the Modenese (Calori and Nicolucci : * La stirpe Ligure in Italia ne tempi antichi e moderni.' Atti del' Accad. delle Scienze di Napoli, i. 1865). The author holds that this race, cognate with the Iberians and the Siculi, occupied the greater part of Italy. The second great influx is that of the Um- brians and the Prisci Latini, forming the ' groupe Italiote * of Mommsen. The former rounding the head of the Adriatic and penetrating into the Apennines, occupied Tuscany (Dion. Hal. i. 19), the region between the Alps and the Apennines — in fact, the eastern lowlands of Italy. The Volsci, ' Per Opici non si devono intendere gli Oschi soli, ma i terrigeni od originarii itahci, da Ope terra.' Philistus in Dion. (i. 22) declares that the occupants of Sicily were Ligurians, led by Siculus, son of Italus. I70 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, Samnites, and Sabines, the ^Equi and CampanI (antiquissimus poptchis, Pliny and Florus) were branches of this tree, and it can hardly date after the twentieth century B.C. The Latins, who appeared about the same time as, or a little after, the Umbri, taking the westward line after leaving Lombardy, established themselves on the occidental lowlands of Latium, upon the basin of the Tiber, where the marshes and lagoons of that age permitted, and perhaps in Campania, the lands of the Opici. These tribes, marching by land, must consequently have passed through Venetia, Lombardy, Emilia, and Romagna, doubtless leaving scattered settle- ments 671 route, for the course of history was not so regular as it appears on paper. All had a know- ledge of metals, certainly of bronze, and, perhaps, except the earliest, of iron : this fact we find in the pre-historic terramare or mariere, the kitchen- middens and the pile-villages. The Umbro-Latins were shortly followed by the earliest maritime emigration that of the Grseco-Pe- lasgi, which poured into Italy via Arcadia, Thessaly, and especially Epirus (Albania). They settled themselves in Magna Grsecia, containing lapygia (Apulia), Italia Proper (the Calabrias), and CEnotria THE PELASGO-TYRRHENIANS. 71 (Lucania). By degrees these three great groups, marching over as many several routes to the centre of the Italic Peninsula, conquered, by arts rather than arms, the Ligurians, and the vividus UmbeTy including his Sabine, Samnite, and other kinsmen,^ together with the Prisci Latini ; extended themselves into Tuscany and the Padan valley, where their earliest settlement was known as Spina ; and reduced to Pelasgian rule all the choicest regions east of the modern Lamone or Santerno River. Their empire, characterised by its Cyclopean or Pelasgian constructions, must be held to begin with the fifteenth or even the seventeenth century B.C. ; and its decadence, which might have arisen from cosmical causes, earthquakes and eruptions, is re- lated by history with fables and supernaturalisms which, superficially considered, have made the name of Pelasgi sound quasi-mythical — * like the knights- errant of the Round Table.' And yet there is no 1 'Nam Umbria pars Tusciae est,* says Servius {ad j£n. xii. 753) ; and Strabo (v. i) informs us that before Rome rose to power the Umbri and the Tyrrheni fought for supremacy. Pliny (iii. 8) tells us : *Umbro (the modem Ombrone river which bisects Tuscany) navigio- rum capax et ab eo tractus Umbriae portusque Telamon.' Again: * Etruria est ab amne Macra.' Solinus, Servius, and Isidore report : ' Veterum Gallorum Umbros propaginem esse,' and the former would derive the name *ab imbribus.' 172 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, people concerning whom the voice of antiquity speaks with a clearer or a surer sound.^ The decay of the Graeco-Pelasgi was followed by the emigration of the Pelasgo - Tyrrhenians,^ the Lydians, or Maeonians, from Asia Minor, which still kept up its connection with Greece and Italy. The Turscha, Turs'a, Tuirs a, and Turis a of the Egyptian annals, the acerrmii Ttcsci of Virgil, are supposed to have come by sea about the four- teenth century B.C., and they occupied, as a great military power, the central peninsula with 300 oppida (Pliny, iii. 14), raising themselves upon the ruins of the former races. They are generally believed to have first founded the Tyrrhenian Federation of the west, * Etruria Madre,' and to have crossed the Apennines and occupied the Circumpadan regions, ' Etruria Nova,* as far as the Alps (Herod. 'Clio,' 94), and, lastly, Etruria Campania or Opicia, in the twelfth or, perhaps, in 1 Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius Halicamassus, Virgil and his commentators (Servius), Strabo (especially, v. i), Pliny, Pau- sanias, Silius Italicus, *e non pochi modemi fino alia noja/ The tra- dition of the three streams is preserved in the names of lapyx, Daunus, and Peucetius, the three sons of the Illyrian king Lycaon. ^ Pliny (iii. 8) : * Umbros, inde exegere antiquitus Pelasgi, hos Lydii.' Dionysius Hal. {Antiq. Rom. i. 20) tells us that the Pelasgi, uniting with the aborigines, took Umbrian Crotona and used it as an arx and a defence against its former owners. THE ETRUSCANS, 173 the thirteenth century b.c.^ This would be about the date of the Trojan war (popularly q,c., 1184), and some four centuries before Rome was built. But the superior antiquity of the Rhceto - Etruscan alphabet, the rarity of Felsinean inscriptions ob- served in almost every tomb of Middle Etruria, and the archaic finds of the Tyrol and Bolognese ter- ritories, may suggest that emigrations by land, and perhaps settlements, accompanied, or even preceded,., the sea voyages ; hence, possibly, the north-eastern was the most sacred quarter to the Etruscans. These peoples brought with them the Phcenico- Greek alphabet, and applied it to the dialect peculiar to or adopted by them. Thus the learned Corssen (* Die Sprache der Etrusker ') finds that the Etruscan alphabets form three groups — Common, Campa- nian, and Northern — whilst each has some peculiar letters, and others similar in form, but different in sense. They are closely related to the oldest Greek of the peninsula (Cumae and Neapolis), and this, again, is the same as used by the Chalcidian colonies of Sicily. They had learned the use of tin in the Caucasian regions, which supplied Egypt : > Varro {De Die Natali, cap. 17) says 450 years before Rome was founded. Niebuhr (i. 138) also carries back the first Etruscan saculum to B.C. 1 188, or 434 years A.u.c. 174 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. CRANIOLOGY. 175 the mines next worked were in Spain, and lastly came the Kassiterides, with which the Phoenicians had traded, probably during the domination of the Shepherd - kings, the Syro - Aramaean Bedawi in- vaders of Egypt, typified by Abraham and Lot, between the twenty-first and the seventeenth cen- turies before our era. The Etruscan rule, which, in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., embraced nearly all Italy, lasted — with the interval of conquest by the Kymric Boii in B.C. 396^ — till B.C. 281, and its dialect till B.C. 202 ; thus the life of the nation ranged between nine hundred and a thousand years. ^ The legend says that on the same day Veii was taken by the Romans. I SECTION III. CRANIOLOGY. The collection of skulls exhibited at the Congress of 187 1 was in no wise remarkable except for its poverty. The principal contribution of the paleoli- thic (post-Pleiocene) age was the (Colle del) ' Olmo skull * from near Arezzo, now in the Royal Museum of Natural History, Florence : this calvaria or calotte was, as I have said, found in the diluvial travertino. The (Isola del) * Liri skull,' also dolichocephalous, and probably synchronous, was discovered in sand under a stratum of the same concretionary deposit, 80 centimetres in thickness. The cubic contents of the latter are laid down at only 1,306 cubic centimetres ( = 79701 cubic inches), showing a brain of 1,156 grammes (= 2 lbs. 878 oz.) ; and the likeness to the Engis skull has been generally remarked. The neo- lithic specimens were more abundant. Two skulls from the Monte Tignoso cave, near Leghorn one exceedingly brachycephalic (ceph. ind. 92), the other 176 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, very dolichocephalic (c. i. 71)^ — show, during the second Stone Age, the existence of the two distinct types still characterising the Italian race. It is an observation generally made that the modern peoples of upper Italy are mostly short-headed, and the southerners long-headed, whilst the two forms blend in the Island of Elba, in modern Umbria, and in the Province of Rome, where, however, the brachy- cephalic is said to be waxing rarer. The Tignoso skulls are both small, with restricted, depressed, and narrow frontal regions, and exagge- rated occiputs. Two brachycephalic skulls from the Grotta di Castello, on the Monte Pisano, beyond the Serchio, greatly resembled them, although only the calvarice remained. A third pair, from the neo- * Dr. Paul Broca, the learned Secretary of the Anthropological Society of Paris (p. 398, Stir la Classijication et la Nomenclature Cephaliques, when it is the dawn of faith, the belief in things unseen ; therefore it was universal, and it lingers in the most advanced creeds— for instance, in Christianity, to whose spirit the material ghost is opposed. We have (p. 84) the vague assertion that "Semitic races tend to a theocracy, while the ten- dency of the Aryans is to a democratic government : " this view is formed by reading only Jewish, Greek, and Roman history ; but the Bedawin, the type of the so-called Semitic race, have never shown a symptom of theocracy, and, indeed, may be said to be of no LANGUAGE, 217 religion at all. *The Turanian tombs are family- tombs ' (p. 36) ; but what are the so-called ' Tombs of the Kings' and * of the Prophets' near Jeru- salem ? What are those of Dahome, Ashanti, and Benin ?— perhaps these also are Turanian ! Of the contradiction about the temple and the tomb (pp. 41 and 49) I have already spoken. Even Stonehenge (p. 43) is a primaeval sepulchre of the Turanian type, when Mr. James Fergusson has proved it to be comparatively modern. I presume that Pococke's 'two black demons' who * dwell in the sepulchre with the (Moslem) dead' (p. 117, from Dennis i., 310) are our old friends the Angels Munkir and Nakir, known to Lord Byron ; they simply visit the corpse for the purpose of questioning it. And most people know that the Arab Jinn was a human shape made of fire, not 'an unsubstantial body of the nature of smoke' (p. 127). The geographer and anthropologist stand aghast before the seven ' Ethnographic Notes ' which con- tain such assertions as these. * This is an absolute note: No Aryan or Semitic people is found separated by any great interval from other nations of a kindred race ' (p. 69). Some have traced the Aryan tongue to South America, and what are the 2l8 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. Gipsies scattered about the Old and New Worlds ? Are the Jews Semites or Turanians ? And the Arab, who, in pre-historic times, spread north-east to Samarkand, south-east to Malabar, south-west to Zanzibar and Kafirland, and west to Morocco and to Spain ? Is this ' an unbroken continuous block without detached outliers ' ? How can it be said that the * conquests of the Goths, Vandals, and other Teutonic (add, Scandinavian), and Slavonic (Slav) ^ races' were the * conquests of armies rather than the migrations of nations ' (p. 8i) ? It sounds passing strange to an Englishman in Istria, sur- rounded by vestiges of Kelts and Romans, and preserved by a Scythian population. We read, again, {ibid,) the * Turks have developed a re- markable genius for the government and organisa- tion of subject races,* when the experience of the Eastern man is embodied in the proverb that where the Osmanli plants his foot the grass will not grow. Nor did the Turks * instinctively take to the sea* {ibid.) ; they engaged Greek, Dalmatian, and other Aryans to man their ships. How are the Nairs of the Malabar coast * hill-tribes * (p. 57) ? are they confounded with the Todas of the Nilgiri ? We * I am sorry to see Mr. Freeman using the debased form * Slave/ LANGUAGE. 219 are told (p. 66) that 'geographically, ancient Etruria is modern Tuscany,* without the qualification that there were two other sets of ' duodecim populi* — one to the south, the other to the north-east,^ so as to embrace nearly the whole peninsula ; and in 1874 the author had apparently no knowledge of the immense finds which since 1856 have enriched Bologna. Converging door -jambs (p. 353) are, doubtless, Egyptian and Etruscan, but also they belong to all primitive architecture, the object being simply to facilitate the construction of the lintel; we find them in Palmyra, and we find them in the far West of America. I read (p. 66) that ceramic art is the one permanent legacy which the Etrus- cans have bequeathed to the world, when all their highest works were either imitations of the Greeks or were imported from Greece ; nor have we a word about the merchant-prince Demaratus of Corinth, who is said to have brought the alphabet to Etruria (Tacit. ' Ann.' xi. 14, and others) with the fictores Eucheir and Eugrammos (titles, not names). The * passion for vivid and harmonious » Dr. Paul Broca {Joe. cif.) remarks that Etruria < Media' is a purely geographical term, which, anthropologically speaking, should be 'Antiqua,' opposed to *Nova' (Circumpadana), and to * Novis- sima' or * Opicia ' : the latter is disconnected by Latium, which was- never occupied by the Etruscans. 220 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, colour' is not only Turanian (p. 65); even we English have received it in Fair Isle from Spain, which received it from Morocco. * Tracing descent by the mother's side' (p. 14) is common to an immense number of barbarous races ; the Congoese Africans, for instance, can hardly be Turanian, and even the old Icelanders, who have nothing in com- mon with the * Skrselingjar,' under certain circum- stances took the surer matronymic.^ Exogamy, again (p. 58), belongs to a certain stage of society where all the members of the tribe are held to be of one blood, and where marriage would be within the prohibited degree. We find it amongst the East African Somal, who will be Turanians only when the Copts are. It would be fastidious work again to slay the slain after the critique upon the vocabulary of 'Etruscan Researches,' printed in the * Athenaeum ' of March 28th, 1874, by Mr. Wm. Wright. But ^ The case stands thus : The Lycians (Herod, i., 173) always traced their descent, unlike the Greeks and Romans, through the maternal line, and this has been verified by Fellows {Lycta, 276). The Etrus- cans (Dennis, i., 133) * being less purely Oriental, made use of both methods/ But this careful author is hardly justified in deriving the custom from the East : it would arise naturally from the high position of women in a people of diviners, augurs, and, perhaps, of mes- merists ; but we cannot say that such dignity is an Asiatic custom. LANGUAGE. 221 the absolute ignorance of all Eastern languages, and the unscrupulous ingenuity with which names of persons and places are distorted, require some notice. The authority of MM. Lenormant, Sayce, Edkins, and Sir Henry Rawlinson is invoked ('Athenaeum,* May 2nd, 1874) to defend as Tura- nian or * Turkish ' such familiar Arabic words as Nasi, Jinn, and Ghoul; but what of *li-umm' {Lemures !) meaning simply in Arabic ' to the mother ' ? The learned interpreter of Cuneiform must be charmed with the role here assigned to him. The name of Attila, we are told, is *of an Etruscan type, and can be explained from Etruscan sources' (p. 75), when we find it even in the Scandinavo-Aryan Atli, * The name of the Budii, a Median tribe,' is 'seen in the town-name of Buda in Hungary ' (p. 78) ; the latter {butd), signifying literally a 'boy,' was the proper name of Atil or Attila's brother, put to death by him. The dis- puted word * Ogre ' is derived ' from the Tartar word ugry, a thief (p. 376), which also named the * Ugrian,' I should rather find its equivalent in the Hindu aghor, as aghorpanthiy the religious mendi- cant, part of whose Dharma (duty) was cannibalism. * The very name of Darius, the Mede, can be 222 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. explained from Finnic sources; which seem able, like a certain statesman, to explain away everything (p. 79); but we trace its cognate in the modern Persian Ddrd. ^Tarquin' (Tar;^i) is Tark-Khan, the ^xw- dent prince (2<5/^.) ; ' Lucumo' (p. 322) means 'great Khan, from lu and kan (for 'khan'); and here we may note that the * great Cham of Tartary,' which the unlettered Englishman is tempted to pronounce as in ' ^7/^;;^ '-ber, came to us through the Italians. Perfunctory enough are the connection (pp. 266-8) of the prsenomen Vele (an axe-handle, or ful in Yeni- seian) with Caius (a cudgel, Latin, caja\ which was Gains ; and such resemblances as Soracte with Ser-ak-Tagh, snow-white mountain (p. 346) — worse than Nibly's Pelasgic Saipo^-'AxTTj — as Ascanius with Szon Khan, and as lulus with Eszen Hi (p. 374), ancestors of the Turkomans. Father Tiber (p. 330) hails from ' Teppeh-ur ' (peh Teppeh, hill, Persian Mr, water, Turanian ?); but what of Varro^s Thebris or Dehebris, and of Thepri, Thephri, the forms given by Dennis (ii. 481)? Who has attributed the in- vention of dice to the Etruscans (p. 332) ? The derivation of Kiemzathrm (p. 188), explained, as 2+1-1-44.10-fi, to mean twice forty or eighty, from the Yeniseio-Ariner ' kina-man-tschau-thjung,* LANGUAGE, 223 is a masterly waste of time to the reader as well as to the writer. If Juno (p. 133) come from Joniu, God, we will take the liberty of associating with hef our old friend * Mumbo Jumbo,' not worshipped in the Mountains of the Moon. In p. 315 the Etruscan 'Antai,' the winds, are identified with ventus, avsfxog, and the Teuton windy when the Sanskrit vdta shows the nasal not to be radical. Why go to the Ugric ker, or akcr in Lapp, for a^^er, when even in Scandinavian we have A Mr (p. 333). As Dr. Birch remarks {' Athen^um,' June 20, 1874), Mr. Taylor has made a ' petitio principii in assuming that thapirnal = niger\ kahatial = violens, kiartJialisa = fuscus, and vanial = sccb calls, whatever that may mean.' It by no means appears that the Roman words in the bilingual epitaphs were translations of the Etruscan ; they might have been aliases. * In fact, kahatial is translated in the bilingual inscriptions cafatld natus and varnallsa by varld natus, not Rufus, which, added afterwards, was something besides which he was called, as an agnomen in Latin, but not Etruscan. In p. 319 we are informed that there is no tenable Aryan etymology for popu^usy the poplar-tree, whence Populonia, Colonel Yu'e 224 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, LANGUAGE. 225 (' Some Unscientific Notes on the History of Plants/ p. 49, ^Geog. Mag.; Feb. 1875) has shown the contrary to be the case ; like bhurja, the birch, the word accompanied the earliest emigration from the East. Populus, pioppo {fioppa, in Bolognese), peuplier, and poplar are the Sanskrit pippala. the modern Hindu pipal {Ficus religiosa), whose superficial likeness causes the French to name the Indian fig * peuplier d'Inde' and the Palermo gar- dener to baptise it * pioppo delle Indie.' Major Madden also found the populus ciliata of Kumaon called by the people ' Gar-pipal' Lord Crawford explains the Etruscan Bacchus by this process * Pampin= fajtxTrsX = Phuphl + ans, uns or ana = Phuphluns, Pupliana, le,, **God of the Vine."' The existence of the Huns in Etruscan days is proved (pp. 76 and 367) by the word hvins (mirror engraved by Gerhard. Taf. ccxxxv.), the terminal sibilant being ^probably the Etruscan definite article.' I suggested (^Athenaeum,' March 28, 1874) that the word might also be read hltns, (Hellenes ?) part of an inscription over what has generally been supposed to be the Trojan Horse. Dr. Birch, however, says (^Athenaeum,' June 20, 1874) that it ' may, with equal, if not greater, proba- ]i bility, be referred to the capture of Pegasus (Pecse) by Vulcan (Sethlans), and to the Fountain Hippo- krene, or Fons Caballinus, in Etruscan huins, analo- gous to the Latin fons. He suggests ' Etule Pecse Sethlans,' as equivalent to the Greek *Edoulene Pegason Hephaistos;' but * under any circumstances the Huns take to flight.' Again, it is evident that the inscription * Nusthieei ' or *Nusthieh' (pp. 11 2-1 13) should be read the other way, Heithzun, or, probably, Heiasun — lason or Jason, according to Dr. Birch. The difficulty is that the e faces from left to right and the s from right to left. *The French Mar^chal,' a groom or farrier (p. 267), is not fairly explained. Our popular derivation is from the Scandinavian mara, a mare — hence noti-mara, a night-mare — and skjald, a ser- vant. The latter has passed through sundry vicissi- tudes before he became a vmx-shaL I would, how- ever, observe that the Illyrian and other Slavs have v mara or marra, meaning a witch. It is unpardon- able to make (p. 113) historic *ezhdiha' Turkish; everyone knows the origin of this Persian word, the old Bactrian and intensely Aryan az-i-dahdka, the biting snake ; the ahi, the midgardsorm, the zohak of Firdausi — slain, according to Zendavestan Q 226 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. tradition, by Thraetavna (Indra). Curiously enough, the Illyrian Slavs still retain aidaja (pron. 'azhdaya') for a 'dragon/ The camel,^ with capi- tals (p. 151). as if alluding to Henri Heine's * Great Camel Question,' is, we are assured, * Turanian ; ' when the Semitic jamal — pronounced, probably, by the Jews and Phoenicians, and certainly by the modern Bedawin, * gamal ' — became the kamel-os of the Greeks. It may explain Camillus, but if so, the word is, like Cadmus^ Semitic. Of the four test- words, * on which the whole case as to the Ugric affinities of Etruscan might safely be rested ' (pp. 93-113) — ktilmn (which Corssen reads ctdstc, p. 380), vanth, hinthial, and nahum — the second and third are interpreted by the wildest processes. Vanth {thanatos f) relies solely upon the * Turkish ' fdjii (p. 102) and ' vaniy ready to perish' (p. 103) ; the former being pure Arabic, and the latter a corrup- tion of the active form fdnu Hhithial loses half its superficial resemblance to the Finnic haltin (or haldia, p. 107), * which is, letter for letter, the same ^ I regret that no one has answered my questions in the AthencEum (March, 1874) concerning the Etruscan camel, whether it be the Northern (two-humped) or the Southern. And it is even more to be regretted that in the Lost Tombs of Tarquinii (Dennis, i., 348) no notice was taken of the elephant being African or Asiatic. LANGUAGE. 227 as the Etruscan word/ when we compare its other form * phinthial ' ; nor can we * identify ' it (p. 109), with 'the Turkish ghyulghe {gyulgeh), a shadow/ or break it into hin-thi-al, *the image of the child of the Grave' (p. iii). Manitou {^. 136) is cer- tainly;/^/ *the North American heaven god: it is simply the Jialtia of the Finns ; the phantasm which resides in every material object. To such informa- tion (p. 102), as *the suffix d^;^t(!) in Turkish commonly denotes abstract nouns ' we can only reply *Pro-di-gious!' The four Arabic words melekyut (inalakiyyat^ from malik), munidat (corrupted), nejdet^ and neddmety quoted in support of this doctrine, end with what grammarians call the Hi el-masdar {k of abstraction). A man must be Turan-smitten, must have caught a Tartar, to find (p. 1 24) that ' the title of the Russian Emperor, the Tzar, is doubtless of Tartaric origin ; ' and perhaps he would say the same of Caesar and Kaiser. But, seriously, is all history thus to be thrown overboard ? And why, in the name of common sense, should we compare the * Indian Menu ' with Mantus, Minos, and Manes ? (p. 122). Why, again, should not Kharun be Charon, instead of Kara (black), and ' un, an abraded form of aina, a " spirit, or of jtini^ god " ' ? q2 228 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, (p. 1 1 8). The derivation (p. i6o) of the Etruscan 7fzach (one),^ though * safe ground to tread on ' (p. 174), is another marvel. It proceeds from the Turkic bar-mach, a finger (read parmak or pdrmaJi)^ and the ' Turkish ' (!) mikh lab, * the clawed foot of a bird or animal/ i.e,y the noun of instrument in Arabic from the triliteral root khalaba, * he rent/ So in our vernacular the fish-yf« perhaps comes from Jin-g^r, And yet this conglomerate of errors is made to take a crucial part in the Turanian scheme ; it is the basis of interpreting the ' invaluable ' (Campanari) dice of Toscanella, now in the Cabinet des Medailles, Paris, where words, taking the place of pips, form, according to some scholars, an adjuration or prayer, to others a name and a gift. Lord Craw- ford explains this (bogus) * Rosetta Stone* of Mr. Taylor by an adjuration which also contains an echo of the current names of numerals in Japhetan, if not Teutonic, speech. * Curious to say the only dialect in which Mach means one, is the 'Sim' of the Gipsies (see * Anthropologia,' p. 498, vol. i), probably derived from the Greek fim, whilst * Machun* is two. Judged by its numerals, and by Prof, von W. Corssen's undoubted failure, Etruscan has no affinity with any known tongue, and though Mr. Ellis suspected a double system, this has not yet been proved 1 \ LANGUAGE. 229 Mach (i) (May the) Dice or ace Hut (4) fall Thu (2) Zal (3) of Zeus (two) (in) number (three) Ki (twice) Sa (6) twice sixes. And the sprachforscher, Prof. Corssen proposes (pp. 28, 806) :— Mach Magus Thu-zal Donarium Huth Hoc Ci-Sa Cisorio fecit. Mr. Ellis {Numerals as Signs of Primceval Unity, and Peruvia Scythica, p. 158) makes Makh (i), T/m (2, duo?), Zal (3), Htdh (4), Ki (5), and Sa (6) ; Mr. Taylor, inverting the sequence, Mach (i), Ki (2), Zal{z\ Sa (4), Thu (5), and Huth (6). The relics were found in 1848, and probably Mr. Taylor is not answerable for the * dodge' which, in announcing his book, omitted the date and left the public to believe that, when the find was de- scribed in 1848 by Dr. Emilio Braun (p. 60, Bull. Archa^ol hist, of Rome), and afterwards of Orioli, Steub, Lorenz, Morenz, Bunsen, Pott, and others, a new * key to Etruscan ' had lately been discovered. But he is answerable for the tone of his reply (^ Athenaeum,* May 2, 1874) to the * Gentle Lindsay' (^ Athenseum,' April 11, 1874)— a painful contrast with the courtesy of the 'earl's blood.' 230 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. Such are the process of ' exhaustion * or ' elimina- tion ; * the far-fetched * affinities ; ' the broadest con- clusions on the narrowest of bases ; the ' curious/ or rather supposed, ' coincidences/ the guess-work of an unwary philologer ; the plausible agnation ; the perverted ingenuity — such as holding ancient nume- rals to be fragments of ancient words denoting members of the body — and explaining the stone circles round tumuli as the survivals of tent- weights, which affiliate Etruscan with Altaic. These * picklocks or skeleton keys ' do not open the lock of the dark chamber, and the ' secret is locked with more than adamantine power/ The whole volume is a simple confusion of all scientific etymology, and its * abrasion-doctrine ' might be applied as profit- ably to deriving roast beef from plum-pudding. The * cumulative arguments ' which make the Rasenna Ugrians are mere sorites of errors called analogies, and exactly the same defects have been noted in the author s ' Words and Places.* Prof Corssen, perhaps the profoundest Etruscologue of his age, even asserted that of twenty-two numerals which Mr. Taylor has claimed as proofs of the connexion be- tween Etruscan and the Altaic branch of the Tura- nian family of tongues, as many as eighteen are not LANGUAGE, 231 even Etruscan, and, of the four remaining, three are pronouns, and one is a proper name.* Finally, in his preface (p. vii.), the * Livingstone of linguists,* as a certain reviewer entitles him, was * conscious of the shortcomings ' of his book ; in the Reviews he fought his * free fight ' more obstinately for its errors, its hallucinations, and its ignorance than most men have fought for their truths. I was not a little amused after noticing his contradictions about the existence of Etruscan temples to read the diatribe (* Athenaeum,* June 6, 1874) about my * utter recklessness in making groundless accusa- tions.' Let me ask, with the distinguished Arabist Prof Wright, quid plura ? The Family Pen has never been employed worse than in writing * Etruscan Researches.* Yet by substituting a scatter of colonists from Asia Minor, either Lydian or Ly do- Phoenician, for the pure Turanian, we may find in Mr. Taylor a useful picture of Etruscan life. The conclusions which we draw from our actual 1 Prof. Corssen's numerals are Italian :— Uni (i), Teis (2), Trinache (3), Chvarthu (4), Cuinte (5), Sesths (6), Setume (7), Untave (8), Nunas (9), Tesne (10), Tesne eka (11), and Tisnteis (20). Perhaps these may be the Italiot, used synchronously ^vith the Lydo-Etruscan numbers. 232 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. State of knowledge concerning the Etruscan tongue are — i. That it may possibly be proved *Italiot'; 2. That its origin and its affiliation are at pre- sent mysterious as the Basque ; 3. That, whereas almost all previous authorities had advocated some form of the great Indo-European speech, Mr. Taylor has made himself a remarkable * Turanian * excep- tion ; and 4. That certain Finnish 'affinities' deserve scientific investigation. INSCRIPTIONS. 233 1; SECTION VI. INSCRIPTIONS. The three great finds, Villanova, the Certosa, and Marzabotto, have made but one real addition to the inscriptive literature of the Etruscans. Whilst the Central and the Campanian Federations proved rich, the Circumpadan has shown itself exceptionally poor in this point, much resembling the Phoenicians, whom Prof. Calori assigns to the Etruscans as ancestry. The citizens of Sidon and Tyre were probably great writers of ledgers, invoices, and such matters, but how few are the important epigraphs which they have left us ! In this point they offer a curious contrast with their immediate neighbours, the Egyp- tians and the Assyrians. At Villanova no engraved record was found beyond the broad arrow, the phceon of heraldry, possibly representing the letter x i"^ two shapes — Nj7 (* La Necropoli di Vill.,' p. 52), V {ibid. p. 56). As a makers mark (?) it has been detected, not 234 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, INSCRIPTIONS, 235 only in the other two diggings, but also at Adria, Mantua, Mo- dena, and Reggio. It is otherwise at the Certosa, and hap- pily so, as the single important inscription (see p. 24.0) is able to remove all doubts about the Etruscani- city of the noble dis- coveries. The accom- panying illustration is borrowed from a fac- simile in lithograph (plate ix.) by Prof. Calori, who, after Fa- bretti, translates it (p. 4) : — * I am the se- pulchre of Tanaquil (Tankhe) wifeofTitul- lius.* This feminine name began to appear at Chiusi, and it tho- ^ roughly establishes the Etruscan character of Old Felsina. Cav. Zannoni (* Sugli Scavi della Certosa,* pp. 27, 54) tells us that a rough ^/^/^ showed the letters IAN, perhaps to be read, as at Monte Alcino, from right to left, NAI; a similar cippus bore the letters ITVandNIM, the latter in red paint, whilst the largest and most per- fect specimen of these noble headstones had IA>|AN inscribed under the horses' hoofs. The sigli or marks upon pottery found at the Certosa are about fifty, and they have been sent for publication to the celebrated Professor Ariodante Fabretti, who ft proposes to publish them in the * Aggiunta/ or sequel to his * Corpus Inscript. Ital. Antiq. iEvi.' Many fictiles are also inscribed. The familiar KAAE and (HO HAIZ ?) KAAOS often occurs ; it is repeated six times upon the largest tazza, suggest- ing nuptial gifts to women, or presents to the * beautiful boy.' Cav. Zanetti (ibid, p. 39) offers the following scatter of sigli (marks) and graffiti : — H^ ^A^ 236 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, then T>N.A-, At the base of the vases -1 finally 'twikiA'^V Upon a tazza rr \ were TT P O S^ A A O ^"^ PeVO * ^"^ "P^" ^^^ it^/^^^ of the two qiiadrigcey one face shows before the charioteer ,0 ^ I 1^ ^ < ; between the horses' hoofs are \t ^ h ^ 5 ^"^ fronting the same appear ^ ^ S ^ |i ^ * . The other side offers also facing the charioteer ^ - ^ * ; and between the a V horses' hoofs ^ with o % <- I in front of them. The circle, it will be remarked, concludes every line. The following two words are of pure Etruscan type. m appears INSCRIPTIONS, 237 upon a pot-cover of brown clay, and upon a red fragment. MY'^U The Etruscan alphabet is still a debated sub- ject, especially in the matter of the two sibilants. Mr. Murray believes that the fact of their being double (M and 2) points to an age when the Greeks had not abandoned the Samech (d) as well as the Shin (t^ = ^^ or ^). The Etruscan alphabet of Bomarzo (Dennis, i. 225; compare with the Pelasgic or archaic Greek graffiti ; and with the primers ii. 54, and ii. 138) begins, like all the Semitics, with Alif (Alpha). The next three do not follow the Hebrew form retained by the Arabs in their chro- nological Abjad (A, B, J, D), and by the Greeks with certain modifications. The three following are regular, Hutti (H, Th, the Etruscan and archaic Greek ©, the Arabic L, and I or Y), and the L, M, N, are the Arabic KalamaUy omitting only, while the old Greek and the Lycian (Fellows) retain, the first. Then S a a/as (S, Oin or Ayn, P or F, and S= >j, in Hebrew Tzaddi V) is preserved only in two Etruscan letters P and S (M), and the eighth word Karashat (K, R, SH, and T) is likewise reduced to R, S (Sh ? 2) and T. This certainly 238 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, \ suggests that the second sibilant was aspirated (= Sh), while the absence of O is distinctly Arabic. At Marzabotto, besides the pottery marks, we have the following three specimens : — 1. 3- Aurssa (proper name) on a fibula. 1. Archaic Etruscan inscrip- tions (*Akius') on the bottom of a clay pot found at Marzabotto. 2. Fragment of a clay tablet found in a ' funereal well ' at Marzabotto. <•••-- x\ U-' INSCRIPTIONS. 239 The other four Bologna inscriptions, given in the * Secondo supplemento alia raccolta delle anti- chissime iscrizioni italiche ' (per cura di Ariodante Fabretti, Roma — Torino — Firenze presso i Fratelli Bocca, Librai di S. M. 1847) are the following : — (No. I Plate.) I. qV + /31=VelW; circularly inscribed upon the bottom of a red-clay pot found at the Certosa. Velthur is an Etruscan praenomen in the inscriptions of Tarquinii ; and, as the letters are evidently traced with the tool before the vase was burnt, it would appear to be the name of the maker. 2. (No. 2 Plate.) Yqv\ = Nru, was forwarded, like the rest, by Cav. Zannoni to Prof. Fabretti in Dec. 1872. It is inscribed upon a fragment of a great dolium, found on the Arnoaldi property, near the Certosa; the letters are eight centimetres long, and are held to be part of the 1 240 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, name of the Bolognese artificer at Marzabotto, which Fabretti (' Corp. Inscr. Ital/ No. 46) reads NruSy and not Umrus, e,g, MVDM. MVyA>l+l+: MV>II5>IHAG l+[V<]lW Mi (su) ti ban-)(yiltis titlahcSy appeared copied from a clay model in * Primo suppl.' to the * Corpo delle antichissime iscrlzioni italiche/ p. 2, note i. ; then reduced to one-third natural size in the * Atti della R. Accademia delle Scienze/ vii. 894, and lastly lithographed in the second supplement (plate No. 3). It is remarkable for the squared form of the A.' MIMV^QAHMia = Veipi Karmunis, 5 is inscribed above the two human figures, feminine on the right and masculine to the left, upon a great sepulchral stela from the Scavi Arnoaldi. Evidently the sculptor had no space for the letter 5 (V), as if he had begun from left to right, whereas the reading is the reverse. Here we may understand Vibia, Carmonii uxor. * The facsimile is given in page 228. INSCRIPTIONS, 5. 241 VyAW1>l'Vy^=t'. luxjia lu, is inscribed on a figured stela at the Certosa cemetery. The upper line, which contained some twenty letters cut into a band, is much injured ; the lower, which separates the two human figures, is read easily enough. * Luchma,' probably an archaic form, like Luchumes and Lucumu, is not without interest to those who study the relations between Upper and Central Etruria, which are daily developing them- selves. The final syllable V 7 (^^^) recalls to mind the praenomen VnI^V^ [Ltic/m) read upon a fictile urn at Chiusi (* Corp. Inscr. Ital.,' No. 597 dis r). 242 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, SECTION VII. MODERN BOLOGNESE TONGUE. The contadznesca favella Bolognese is little known in England, where Goldoni has made the witty Venetian dialect tolerably familiar. Mr. Greville (* Memoirs/ i. 404) simply remarks that ' the dialect is unintelligible/ whilst Mezzofanti assured him that it is * forcible and expressive.' These local families, which are numerous throughout the peninsula, may hardly be compared with those of our counties, even with the difference of cultivation ; they are rather what the speech, of Holland is to that of Germany. Whilst we have, or rather had till late years, little, if any, written monuments, the Italian variants are rich in local literature. For example, the only book familiar to our forefathers of what the Gipsies now call the Peero-dillin-teni, foot-giving, that is, 'purring * or kicking county, and known to the great conversational linguist of Bologna was ' Thomas and Mary/ This generation has done much in cul- I i i MODERN BOLOGNESE, 243 tivating the rustic muse ; yet the detached private publications, as opposed to those printed by the English Dialect Society and other learned bodies, are generally confined to their own parts, or, at most, to the curious in philology. The fact of the Italian favelle being literary and not analphabetic, containing dictionaries and classical poems, may account, to a certain extent, for their universal use even in educated and culti- vated society. At home we should marvel to hear a dinner-party of ladies and gentlemen suddenly lapse into the broadest Yorkshire or Somersetshire, and it is only an occasional ' original ' who persists in retaining his or her country brogue. In Italy the resident stranger is accustomed to the appear- ance of the local dialect whenever the company becomes excited or confidential, and he generally has the sense to learn it, as otherwise he would be utterly unintelligible to the peasantry, and partly so to the lower order of citizens. Italians, who hold to * Italia una* as the first article of faith, consider the diversitas lingtiarum to be non academica sed vere Babyloiiicay and denounce the practice as an unmitigated evil. I am disposed, despite all sentiment, to agree with them. Differ- R2 f 244 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. ence of dialect tends to maintain a species of bi- lingualism, and history tells us that bi-Hngual peoples have done next to nothing in literature, and very little in anything else. Sometimes a genius, like Milton, may write in Latin and Italian as well as in English ; a Camoens may poetise in Portuguese and Spanish, or a Swinburne may b' ^-.A^y happy in French and English. These are mre exceptions — brains big enough to contain two and even three tongues. But the multitude has enough and more than enough to do with mastering one. It is not only race that has prevented Wales from producing a single writer, in verse or in prose, whose name has become a household word to the world ; and senti- mentalists who, like Mr. Gladstone, advocate the Eisteddfod, offer, methinks, the worst advice of their unreal and aesthetic school. The cultivation of local dialects is the strongest engine for maintaining those racial distinctions which the whole course of modern civilisation does its best to obliterate : the worst symptom in Jewish progress is their being constantly reminded of the words of Moses, * sepa- rated for ever from all the people on the face of the earth.' Such a study was well for that divided land, that mere * geographical expression' in which the I i I MODERN BOLOGNESE. 245 first Lord Lytton (* Last Days of Pompeii') found * the only hope of Italy.' How potent the instrument may be found in political warfare, in alienating man from man may be seen in the battle of races at Trieste. The Itilianissimi party, opposed to the Tedeschi and the Pan-Slavic, carefully supports half- a-dozen weeklies or flying-sheets written in the cor- rupt Venetian, dashed with a few words of Friulano,^ which distinguishes the city of Charles VI. and Maria Theresa. Here we had or have, to mention only a few, ' La Baba ' (the grandmother) which first appeared ; ' El Portinajo ' ; * El Poveretto ' ; * El Rusignol ' (the nightingale), which ceased to sing in 1873 ; and * El Ciabiatin' (the cobbler, who also acts as house-porter), which has lately become ' El Triestin.' Its rival is at present the 'Gazzettino del Popolo.'* * The borrowing from Friulano is mostly of words. For this dialect the curious reader will consult the Poesiis de Fieri Zorutt (Pietro Zorutti), published at Udine. Some of the poems are much admired and deserve translation : an especial favourite is the Ana- creontic beginning * Piovesine, fine, fine.* * I know only two books of proverbs in the Triestine dialect : i. Dialoghi Piacevoli of the (Canonico) D. Giuseppe Mainati, with map and letters of Mgr. Bonomo, which begin with the i6th century (151 1), the whole translated into Italian (Trieste, G. Marenigh, 1828) ; and 2. Sa^io di Proverbi Triestini, by Angelo C. Cassani (Trieste, Colombo Coen, i860). 246 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. MODERN BOLOGNESE. U7 The * Bulgnes * is one of the rudest of its kind, so * tronco e mozzato/ (truncated and elided), that at first strangers, familiar with Italian, can hardly understand a word of it, especially when spoken * stretto/ For instance : *A n* vuoi t* m* in pari, S'gnor * or * M sier ' (I won't have you speak to me about it, Sir) rapidly pronounced, sounds almost like one word. Again, *Ai me ne seng meng brisa (io non ne so mica ') with a double negative, in Italian an affirmative ; and, lastly, to die is not morire, but * andar in squezz ' (to go squash or in dissolution). Yet it has its classics, such as the works of Dr. Lotto Lotti, which run through a multitude of editions ; nor are collections of local poetry disdained by the learned of the present day. In the list of modern M.A.'s and Professors at * Blogna,' or * Bulogna,' I see that the Senator Conte Commendatore Carlo Pepoli published a * Discorso Academico * upon the patriotic subject * Di taluni canti dei Popoli.* The Professor of Italian Literature, Cav. Giosue Carducci, has also printed, in periodicals, specimens * Di alcune poesie popolari Bolognesi del Secolo XIII. incdite' (Bologna, 1866), and * Di alcune rime antiche ritrovate nei memoriali dell'Archivio notarile di Bologna* (Bologna, 1872-73). There is a large quarto vocabulario, or dictionary of > 1 I Bolognese- Italian, and Italian-Bolognese, by Claudio Ermanno Ferrari (publisher, Nicola Zanichelli, Bologna, 1858 ; price 4 lire). My kind friend Prof, Gian Giuseppe Bianconi gave me three volumes, whose contents may not be uninteresting to the general reader. The oldest is a rude little duodecimo of 158 pages, entitled ' La Togna, Commedia Rusticale, tradotta (it was originally in the Florentine dialect) dal timido Accademico dubbioso, recitata nella Villa di Fossolo, e dedicata alF illustriss. Signora, la Signora Alexandra Bianchetti, Gambalunga, ne' Zaniboni. Con Privilegio. In Bologna, per Giacomo Monti, MDCLIV. Con licenza de superiori.' The imprimatur appears at the end, signed by the ' Archiep. Bonon. & Principe,' and by two members of the ' Inquisitionis Bononiae.' The two opening sonnets, * Felsina alia Togna,' and ' Sunnett fatt pr Caprizzi, in lod d' la Togna,' will give the measure of elision and truncation ; for instance, in these lines — E s' in Fiurenza cun fadigh, e spes (fatigue and expense) Fu zk mustrk la gloria dal t6 inzegn, Qui in Bulogna, und i Studi han al s6 Regn T'hark gloria mazor, e piu pales (more evident), we may remark that the pronouns me or mi; ft, lu, nil, vii, and lori or ei are used everywhere between I 248 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. Dalmatia and Bologna. Mi is remarkable for occurring in so many different and far-divided languages ; for instance, in Slav and Teutonic, where mich is older than ich. The Bolognese use A or ai for the first person, only where it would be em- phatic. The elision of the last syllable in the noun {niedgh for medico), in the infinitive {gtcardd for guardare), and in the participle {battic for battiUo) is similar on both sides of the Adriatic. We have also the same omission of the liquids, as in cavai for cavalli, and maraveia for maraviglia. The country girl La Togna (Antonia), daughter of Barba (Gaffer) Bigh (Biagio, Giles), is loved by Minghett d^Greguor, and she loves Sandrin, whilst she, or rather her father, is proposed to by Petronio.^ The latter is a zdatin (citizen), speaking, of course, pure Italian, and compelled by the master passion to forget his morgue of the 1 7th century. Yet he cannot help quoting (p. 108) Alio sprone i Caualli, al fischio i Cani Ed al bastone intendono i Villani. The contrast of the dialects leads, in the unsmooth ^ The name is intensely Etruscan, as we learn from the tombs of the Petruni family at Perugia. La Togna in the fishennan's dialect of Trieste would mean * a float.' MODERN BOLOGNESE, 249 course of courtship, to such quid pro quo as the following (p. 36) : — Petr. — Non vedi, come per te languisco ? Togna, — Mo, ch' vien a dir languiss ? D' gli anguill ? (eels ?) Petr. — N6, vuol dir ch' io moro ! Togna, — Un Mor (Moor) bianch', 6 negr? Another zintilhuomin, also a citizen pour rire, is Cintio Musico, who writes songs for his friend ; and the valet Malgaratin, the ' seruitore del cio di Petronio.' There are two ridiculous old women, Ze Drathie (Aunt or Gammer Dorothy), and Ze Betta (Elizabeth), who recite * sympathetic verses * when La Togna faints under her troubles. After the usual peripetice of love and cross-love, caused by the * Diaul dl* Infern,' the conclusion is happy. Petronio is for- bidden by his family to wed a rustic : Minghett, after attempting suicide, consoles himself with Flippa, whose ' Padr ' or * Par ' is Barba Pasqual. There is a general song and dance lasting through six pages, and Sandrin dismisses the audience before living happily with La Togna ever after. Here, evi- dently, we have a pre-shadowing of Goldoni in Florentine and Bulgnes, instead of in Venetian. The next is a more ambitious production, and Professor Bianconi considers it the most correct in point of orthography — a trifle which, as in 250 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. Milton's day, has hardly been placed upon a settled basis. It is entitled *La Liberazione di Vienna assediata dalle armi Ottomane, Poemetto giocoso ; e la Banzuola, dialoghi sei, del Dottore Lotto Lotti, in lingua popolare Bolognese' (no date but 1746 in the last plate). We gather from the preface that the work of this citizen, *a good Catholic,' has often been reprinted, despite the poetical licence of certain sentiments. It is an old-fashioned octavo of 248 pages, with 12 copper-plates, including a burlesque frontispiece, where Fame flogs a kicking Pegasus : the illustrations are curious enough for the costumes and views of the city in the last century. The dialect is mixed : in those days there were various phrases, pronunciation, accent, and proverbial sayings in the several quarters of the city, especially in those which, being nearest to, had most intercourse with, Romagna, Lombardy, and Tuscany. Moreover, the filatoglieri (silk- workers) had their own variety. Similarly we find at Venice two distinct dialects, one in the Cana- vecchio (Old Canal) to the north ; the other in that peculiar region the Castello, south : the same is the case even in Rome, where the Trasteverini do not speak like their eastern fellow-citizens. MODERN BOLOGNESE, 251 The first part (pp. 1-88) is entitled in Bolognese ' Ch* n' ha cervell ava gamb * (who hath no brains has legs), * o sia La Liberazione di Vienna.' It is preceded by the normal sonnet * Dal Sgnor Duttor Jacm' Antoni Buzzichell/ which ends thus : — Dla t6 penna ml ammir la gran furtuna Ch' sk in t' un medesm temp, grav e burlesca, E battr sod (to hit hard), e andar sbactand la LUNA (to chaff the moon, i.e. the Crescent.) The poemetto, relating the attack of Sulayman the Magnificent with his 300,000 men, is divided into five cantos, each preceded by its argument; and the following is a specimen of the first stanza, which opens like Ariosto : — A cant la stizza, al fugh, gl' arm, e la rabbia D' qlor ch' in t* al nostr vlen cazzar i pj, D' qla zent qsl dsprpust^, ch' sempr s'arrabbia : pr dir mli d' qla maledetta znj Ch' aveva fatt pinsir d' grattarz la scabbia Ben ch' a n' aven' scador, prch' Damndj Ch' h sempr in nostr ajut, e in nostra dfsesa, 1 ammurto la candela ch' era impresa.^ * I sing the wrath, the fire, the arms, and the rage Of those who would thrust their feet into our country, Of that folk so inconsequent, which is always in a fury : Or, better to say, of that accursed brood Which had thought to have scratched its itching. Although without much chance, for the Lord (Dominiddio) Who is ever in our aid and our defence, Put out the candle which they had lit. 252 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. In Stanza 4 of the same canto we have an expression which has lately been made world- famous by Prince Bismarck : E ch' la s' av6 da frizr in t' al so grass.* The first canto marshals the Christian and the infidel forces, including ' Mustafa prim Visir/ the * Bassas ' of various places — Mesuputamia, Bosnia, Damasc, and Alepp — Msir Agha of the Gianizr, and others. In the second there is a dialogue between the Devil (Diavl or Belzebu), the Re Pluton, and Povr Macumett, who is called to relate in presence of * r Deita ch* assistn ai argumint ' why the Turk attacks Leopold Imperator. Mohammed is opposed by a certain * Squizimbraga, un duttor ' — the doctor, professor, or savant is, of course, a favourite gibe with the town versus gown, and the historic * duttour Balanzon,' who was a real personage of that name, still appears at every carnival. Macumett so pleases Pluto that he receives as a gift ' una furca antigh, antigh.* In Canto 3 we have the siege and the sufferings of * i puvr Chstian * ; the 4th shows the relieving army of Sobieski (1683) guided by *Gabriell Anzlin * And which had to fry in its own grease. MODERN BOLOGNESE. 253 Bndett' appearing in * s* la muntagna d' Kalem- bergh,' and putting the Ottomans to flight. The ' Quint Cant ' sings the triumph of the Christians. E i Bulgnis al so solit in dardella Con al fugh portn' al cil V ovra si bella.* The ' loot ' is also carefully enumerated. The pocmetto has its merits, but it can hardly com- pare with the ' Rape of the Tub,' by Tassoni, whom Dickens (* Italian Notes') confounded with Tasso. * La Secchia Rapita ' proposed for itself the patriotic task pf ridiculing petty feuds about nothing between neighbouring cities; and its admirable wit, intermingled with charming poetical descriptions, found a worthy echo in some of Byron's latest masterpieces. The second part (pp. 93-248) is entided * Remedi per la Sonn, da lezr alia Banzola,^ Dialogh Sj ' (* cures for sleep, to be read on the bench or foot- stool, 6 dialogues '). It is addressed * Alle Oneste Cittadine di Bologna,' by the ^Vecchietto,' Lotto Lotti, who quotes for their benefit ' Marc' Aurelio's ' 1 And the Bolognese, after their fashion, in great excitement By their fiery valour raise their noble work to the sky. 3 The banziiola or banzola is quite Bolognese, and corresponds with the scamnum or low stool of the Romans ; it is also used for a bench. Mh«> 254 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, saying : * The retired life of women bridles the tongues of men/ The author was induced to collect the various * bizzarie ' of sentiment, sayings, and pro- verbs, by the example of Signor Carlo Maria Mazzi, who published learned and amusing comedies in the Milanese dialect. All the dialogues are in irregular verse, rhymed and unrhymed ; the persons, men and women, vary from two to six. They have also their ' moral ' : No. I.. * Al Servitor,* teaches to distrust servants who are apt to chatter about the secrets of the house. No. II., * Gropp,' e macchia ^ is a warn- ing against gadding about No. 1 1 1., * La Cantatriz,* encourages mothers to teach their daughters music and singing, but warns them against the cupidity of husbands who would make their children profes- sionals. The music lesson (p. 159) is good : — Cricca (the * Mestr ').— Ossu, sgnora, ch' la vigna Zk dsen su : fa^fa. Sandrina (Alessandrina, the pupil) sings : — V empio oggetto da me abborito Trovi schemOy e non pietd / Cricca.— O vj su alligrament. Trovi sche-e-e-e, Sandrina. — E-e-e-e non pictiH. Cricca. — Pietci, sol, db. ^ * Far gropp' e maccia ' (not ' macchia '), />• ' to do knot and stain,' is still a saying at Trieste when a man finishes off a business at once. MODERN BOLOGNESE. 25s No. IV. dialogue, *La Miseria,' bids the gude- wife save money against a rainy day, as hus- bands often go to ruin. *A1 Bagord' {Le Noceur), No. V., illustrates the saying of * Dione Filosofo/ that *la Donna civile non solo dev' essere onesta, ma non deve dar cagione alcuna, che in lei si sospetti mai cosa disonesta' — familiar to England through * Caesar's wife.' No. VI. and last is ' L' ippucondria,* in which the wife is taught how to treat a hypochondriac husband : * Scannacapon ammala ' is relieved by the contrivances of ' Buni- fazia, so mujer' and Mado Pira, the servant-woman, rather than by the medgh [medico) and spzial (pothecary). * Finis ' is preceded immediately by — Pira. Scann. Bunif. Baslaman a Sgnerj. The author has succeeded in fulfilling the diffi- cult promise of his preface (p. 96). * In tale imi- tazione pero ho proccurato, per quanto ho potuto, di scansare certi equivoci sporchi, ed indecenti di parole, che la favella Bolognese suol partorire, perche, tolti da voi ' (to the citizenesses), * verrei ad offendere la vostra modestia, ed a svegliarvi quella verecondia, che sul vostro volto e la Rocca della vostra bellezza.' 256 THE ETRUSCAN MAN, The third is a little octavo of 96 pages, * Poesf in Dialett Bulgneis D' Camell Nunzi \ Bulogna, Stampari Militar, 1874. It consists of sonnets, of various pieces, epigrams, &c., and, finally, of the say- ings of Z6-Rudell. Of the sonnets, the most amusing are the * Matrimoni ed lusfett con la Rusali ' and the ' Pensir ed lusfett per la nascita d* un fiol d* zeinqu mis.' The unfortunate * Balanzon ' also appears on two occasions, * Pr' una strenna del Duttour Balanzon,' and ' Dscours fatt pr al Duttour Balanzon.' Z6 Rudell discourses on various themes, such as * in Lod dla Puleint ' (in praise oi polenta, or porridge); * in Mort d' un Toe' {tacchino, or turkey) ; ' in Mort d' un Oca/ and on the * Manira d' cunzar I'insala ' (to prepare a salad). The third (p. 58) begins with — Dies tree, dies ilia. L'Oca e morta e piu non strilla S' find r oli in dla luzerna, Pace a lei, requiem etema ! * In a rhyme (p. 61), addressed 'all' Illustrissem SgnorCommendatour Professour Franzesc Rizzol,'we find the following sharp political allusions (1866) : — ^ The goose is dead and no more hisses, Ended the oil in its lantern. Peace to its manes, requiem eternal ! MODERN BOLOGNESE, 257 Arcurdav (he perceived) ch* fra i amala (sick) Che 1' Italia ha un mal in dl' uter, Ch' 1' an s'andass mai a Mo sperain ch' 1' ha finird E d' sta p^sta guarird (will be cured of this evil), Tolt da R6mma al mal Franz^is (Morbus Gallicum) L' amala' 1' sintrd mine p^is. (will not feel the worse). The following is a specimen of the epigrams (p. 27) :— Un Muntanar mandd a Bulbgna un fiol (figliuolo), Per cavari un Dutt6ur, mo T imparo (but he learned) D6p zeinqu ann, che lu fava al lardarol : (that he was a charcutier) Non ostant con al t^imp, al s' rassegn6, Digand (saying), * le mei (better) ch' al seppa frd i salam (salami) Che un Asen (asino) frd i Duttur ch' as' mor ed fam.' In these extracts from the *Rem Bulgneisi' it would appear that the modern dialect is growing broader, with more of the sing - song. For in- stance, ' duttour,' with emphasis on the penultimate vowel, takes the place of * duttor ' ; * ztadein ' of * ztadin ; ' * Bulogna ' of * Blogna ; ' and so forth. The same is noticeable in the prose ; for instance, in the first sentences of the preface : * Tiitt i liber del mond hann una prefazion,' e la vrev (vorrei) aveir anca me. Le bein veira ch' an (that I do not) so da ch' banda em prinzipiar' (on what side to begin). *A dir6 che la prefazion la fa I'effett del Wermutt, dl' asseinzi, dl' amaron e dl' antipast premma del dsnar (before dinner), ch' i preparen 258 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. MODERN BOLOGNESE, 259 al stamg (stomach) a dar una bona magna' (good feed)/ My kind friend, Dr. Bianconi, further obliged me with the following ' Detti popolari in dialett Bolognese ' : — 1 . * La pill trista roda del car (carro) Y e quella qu' zirla' (strida) — said of the bad workman who complains of his tools, of much cry and little wool, and of the noisy and pushing mediocrity. 2. ' L' e sempre mei (meglio) rusgar (rossichiare, to gnaw) un os (osso) che un baston/ So the Triestines say : * Meyo rosigar un osso che un baston.' 3. * Quel sgnor Y a fatt tant armesa (armaggio, or preparations), e p6 al s' en anda con el piv in tal sac/ So the Triestines, who must be visited in the highly Conservative quarter called La *Rena (from the Roman arena or amphitheatre), have it : * Se n' andato colle pive in sacco/ The piva is the bag, the zampogna is the pipe, of the bag-pipe, and when the former is not distended, the latter sinks into it. The meaning is our popular saying 'he shut up.' 4. * An s' i p6 diri una parola ch* el salta a la grand ' (alia granata^ that is m furore^ or si stizza). P Trieste prefers ' Che ghe (gli) vegna (venga) la mosc' al naso ' (the fly to his nose)— said of a man who has a peppery temper. 5. ' Fiol car (figlio caro) quand a' s vol combinar un* affair, b'sogna dar un colp a la bott (a blow to the barrel) e un alter al sere ' {al cerchio, to the hoop) — a cooper's metaphor for * age quod agis.' 6. * Eh ! la sra abilita anch questa, d' mudar el rason cmod s' fa al bisacc ' {bisaccia, scrip or satchel). This vulgar saying means that a man should be abJe to change his intentions as easily as he carries or deposes his (travelling) bag. 7. * Avedi pazienzia (abbiate pazienza) : al ien beli rason (they are good reasons), ma non caven un ragn (ragno, a spider) d'in t'un bus' (dal buco). The Triestine form is ' Nol caveria una maladeta (e>., cosa, not worth a d ) dal muro ; so the latter, who make no difference between singular and plural verbs, say — E anche questi ve dig* in confienza (confidence) No i gaveva (essi non avevano) studik una maladeta. 8. ' Lii al dsior mei (parla meglio) qu' un liber stiazza' {slracciato, lacero). This 'chaff' to a man who talks like a (torn) book becomes in Tries tino * Lii (or el) parla meyo de un libro strazzi# s 2 26o THE ETRUSCAN MAN, MODERN BOLOGNESE, 261 9. * Al s r e giccia (egli se X e gettata) dri dal spal (dietro le spalle) e bona nott ;' in Trieste, ' El se lo ga butta drio le spalle, e buona notte, Siori ! ' (Signori) ; applied to a man who gets rid of a business. 10. *Cos' e mai sta pladour {rumor e) b a fai ? * (What's the meaning of all this row ?) The Triestines say : ' Cossa xe 'sto baccan {z.e,, baccanale) che fe ? ' In the terminal nunnation the stranger must be careful to pronounce the third liquid rather after the French nasal fashion (bombon), than the Italian and English {man) : it most approaches the Spanish. 11. * An basta aver rason, b'sogna trauer chi v la daga ' ; in Trieste, * No basta aver razon, mabisogna trovar chi vi la daga ' — it's not enough to be in the right, you must find people to believe it. Since my last visit to Bologna Prof. Bianconi informs me that he has found one of the greatest rarities produced by Bolognese typography of the fifteenth century ; it is one of the two only copies, the other being in Rome. The subject of the poem is the jousting, or tournament,^ held at the venerable » From the * Trattato sopra le Gioste ed i Tomei del Senatore Berlingiero Sessi,' printed in the volume containing the * Prosi degli Accademici gelati' (Manolessi, Bologna, 1671), we learn that the first tournament known in Italy took place at the old Etruscan capital in A.D. 1 147. • \ i city on October 4, a.d. 1470, by order of * Giovanni ( ?) Bentivoglio, Signore della Citta.' The author, Francesco Cieco of Florence, writes his 204 octaves in rather rude and rustic Italian. He enters into the minutest details concerning the sport ; he describes the Piazza and the stockades with which it was provided ; he records the various cities that supplied combatants ; he relates how on one side the Benti- voglio chose 60 knights, whilst as many were opposed to them by Antonio Trotti di Alessan- dria, Capitano dei Bolognesi ; he names the com- batants ; he notes the various modes of weapons, the harness, and the devices of the cavaliers, together with the ornaments of the fair dames, whose beauties he compares with the most famous charmers of antiquity ; he narrates the order of the several gests, and finally he leaves the victory with the 'parte Bentivolesca.' This famous tournament was also described by Giovanni Sabbattino degli Ariendi (See Giordani's ' Almanacco Storico-Archeologico Bolognese,* 1836; and Antonio Bertolini's ' Eccita- mento,* November, 1838, p. 685). The Bolognese copy of Francesco Cieco, a small quarto, wants frontispiece, pagination, and index : the experts remember that about 1470 the 262 THE ETRUSCAN MAN. printing-press was introduced into Bologna by Baldazzarre Azzoguidi, and, remarking that the types are those adopted by this artist in his edition of Ovid (a.d. 147 1 ), they have concluded that the poem was printed in the early part of the same year, or shortly after the tournament was held. Prudential reasons may be attributed to the suppression of the printer's name. I here end my study of the venerable ex-capital of Northern Etruria, with the hope that readers will take kindly into consideration the circumstance^ under which it was written. Richard F. Burton. Watson's Hotel, Bombay: Feb. 15, 1876. I I I APPENDIX. Rdsum^ofa Letter addressed to Signor W. Hclbig, by Cav. A. Zannoni, upo?i the bronze articles supposed to be razors {printed by the Bidlettino deW Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, anno 1875. Roma: cot tipi del Salviucciy a SpesedelT Instituto), 1873. You ask me in yours of the 19th inst. two questions : 1. Have the supposed razors bcm fotmd in the Felsina Necropolis ? 2. If SO, what objects accompanied them, or, to be more precise, did these implements occur together with pottery and bronzes of the primitive type, as, eg., those of Villanova, or were they discovei'cd with painted pottery and historical subjects in black and red ? Before answering you, allow me to submit an outline of my discoveries in the Certosa diggings (1869). I first found the four groups, numbering more than 400 sepulchres ; the great series of figured pottery, black and red; the unique bronze sitnla\ the many-figured stelce, and the first specimen of Etruscan writing. The Certosa is, therefore, one great period in the life of Felsina, ' prince of Etruria.' But, as was pointed out in my report of October 2, 1871, at the opening of the * Museo Civico,* the Certosa 'finds* no longer form the isolated discovery from which I had deduced that, between our old monastery and Bologna, ran 264 APPENDIX, a highway, with tombs grouped to the right and to the left, showing several and successive epochs— in fact, the develop- ment of Felsinean life. It appeared to me certain that the earlier inhabitants would have pushed forward their cemeteries from the limits of population, which, as my discoveries in the Strada Pratello prove, represents a part of the modern city ; and this, too. not only westward, but to the other cardinal points. Evidently the citizens, increasing in numbers and subject to social and political changes, would deposit their dead in several and distinct groups along the road, at increased distances of a hundred yards or so ; sometimes above, at other times around, those which preceded them. And therefore I expected to find at least ten roadside groups between the two extreme points, Bologna and the Certosa. The fact of eight such groups coming to light have proved my conjecture to be correct. Besides the four in the Certosa proper, 1869, I discovered to the eastward— that is, in the direction of Felsina— two more, below the Arnoaldi property (end of September 18; i); a seventh, distributed under the Arnoaldi-Tagliavini farms and the Certosa lane; and, finally, an eighth (mid-August 1872), in the Benacci estate. The Tagliav'ni find demanded fresh researches in the contiguous Arnoaldi property, which presently yielded another group. The first, of thirty-six sepulchres, pro- duced very few figured vases, with red pottery, fibiilcu of bronze and silver, and the remains of two cists. There were some sculptured stelce, far inferior in splendour to those of the Certosa, but two had an especial value, on account of their Etruscan inscriptions. This group, there- fore, has the characteristics, without, however, the im- portance, of the four which compose the Certosa find. The sixth group (Tagliavini property) produced, as APPENDIX. 265 I i\ first-fruits, four sepulchres, containing three skeletons, with lyown and red earthenware, and a doliiim worked in bands: its contents were burnt bones, sWv^r fibul(^, and a bronze knife. But it was a spark that kindled a mighty flame. The adjacent Arnoaldi diggings, begun in early December 1872, were continued till the end of June 1874, and have already yielded 150 tombs. Here we gathered, besides the brown and ruddy earthenware, a rich harvest of pottery with graffiti geometrically worked in a large and grandiose manner, and not wanting the usual ducks, the doves, and even the monkey; a great variety of bronzes, such as fibulcB^ and utensils, sit2d(£y cups, two cists in repoitsse-woxV. with bands and points, and, finally, a sculptured stcia with rosetted crosses, resembling that of Pisaro, consequently, those of the Certosa. During last summer (1874), the lane which separates the Arnoaldi and Tagliavini diggings, explored by me at the expense of the municipality, produced eighty most important tombs; and the axis of the line apparently corresponds with that of the cemetery, which extends on both sides under the two farms. Here, more remarkably than in No. 2, Arnoaldi group, emerged the luminous epoch of Villanova, far richer sepulchres, proved by the engraved potteries and bronze utensils ; two banded cists, two others of rcpouss e-\work with bands and points, and two with representations of quadrupeds like the far- famed situla of the Certosa, not to speak of the number and beauty of the situlce, the large bronze pins, the bronze vases, and the utensils whose forms show remarkable novelties. The other Arnoaldi group (our No. 7) has yielded hitherto sixteen sepulchres, identical with those of the Certosa ; a large oxyhaphon, a few other red-figured potteries, also in the style of what we found at the 266 APPENDIX. monastery ; a stela and the fragment of a second with a bit of inscription. But the history of Felsina returns to its origin in the vast Benacci group, discovered in September 1873. Here 300 tombs show four epochs distinctly marked by their stratification, namely : — i. An age preceding Villanova (Pelasgian?); 2. The first era of Villanova (Umbrian?); 3. Gallic ; and 4. Roman. The pre-Villanovan epoch appears splendidly in the ^w^ sepulchres, which I will presently describe ; in earthen- ware with peculiar graffiti, and in special bronzes for utensils, arms, and ornaments. And now comes the first Villanovan age, with some en- graved potteries and others whose type has not hitherto ap- peared ; with an extraordinary quantity and variety oi fibula;, armillce, and bronze pins ; with bronze vases, amongst which six are banded, some are worked with repousse points, and one cist, festooned in repousse^ bears little geese like those stamped on the earthenware. The so-called tintiimabtda yielded by Villanova here appeared in greater numbers ; they are evidently not bells, but articles of toilette. The Gallic epoch has offered various very long sword- blades, like those from the tumuli of Magny- Lambert ; and bronze vases resembling the discoveries of Upper Alsace (* Aus'm Werth der Grabfund von Wald-Algesheim ' ; Bonn, 1870). For our present purpose I need not note the Roman age. Here, then, are the successive peoples and life-periods of Felsina— Pelasgic, Umbrian, Etruscan, Gallic, and, finally, Roman. The lower Benacci group shows the pre- Villanovan (Pelasgic ?) and the early Villanovan age. The Arnoaldi-Tagliavini and the Certosa lane record the luminous epoch of the later Villanova ; the second stra- tum proves the influence of the coming age, gradually APPENDIX, 267 r ••V deteriorating in the first Arnoaldi group. In the third it again rises, and it culminates in the four Certosa groups. After this sketch of my discoveries, I proceed to your questions concerning the so-called * razors * ; and let me at once state that the obtuseness of the edge, and the small size of the articles, forbid our attributing such use to them.* These lunated articles were found only in one part of the Certosa, the Campo degli Spedali, scattered over th^ sub-surface ; none appeared in seven of the groups : the four Certosan (proper), the two Arnoaldi ; and the Ar- noaldi-Tagliavini and Certosa lane. The Benacci diggings, however, yielded *■ razors' in nine tombs, of which five belonged to the pre-Villanovan (Pelasgic .?), and four to the early Villanovan epochs. The following is a succinct description of the articles and their accompaniments. Of the four early Villanovan tombs which yielded 'razors/ No. I was a square fosse (070 m^tre x 070 m^tre), contain- ing the large cinerary urn of Villanovan type, with burnt bones, covered with its cup ; to the northwards were some small brown and red pots, one of them engraved round the rim with a zig-zag ornament, and with horizontal channellings from mid-belly to bottom. A three-barbed //^w/ Note by the Translator.— After seeing the Chinese blades, little hatchets, I cannot attach importance to either of these objections. <\ 268 APPENDIX. the uppermost is straight, the central is a zig-zag, and the lowest is in short and parallel perpendicular lines. No. 3 fosse was of the same size as the second. The ossuary (same type) was subtended northwards and south- wards by brown and reddish pots ; there were only traces of bronze fibulce, and amongst the burnt bones lay the * razor ' engraved with parallel lines along the back. No. 4 was a little smaller (0-90 metre x 090 metre), than the two latter. The ossuary had its cup- cover, and near its mouth was a three-barred/^///^ like that of No. i ; westward lay a i^w small vases, of which one was zig- zagged in relief at the rim. Upon the burnt bones of the ossuary stood a few engraved fibulcB and some bronze pins. Among the bones was the * razor,' much oxidised. In these four cases, then, the * razor ' is always inside the ossuary ; it is accompanied by fibulce, bronze pins, brown and red earthenware, and a few engraved potteries. It remains to consider it in connection with the pre- Villanovan (Pelasgic t) age. No. I tomb was walled with slabs of moiassa or yellowish sandstone; the inside (i m(^tre x 070 metre) showed a cup-covered ossuary, engraved after the Grecian fashion, Upon the bones lay the 'razor,' together with certain twisted bronze JibnlcB of novel form, and the last found was a very long pin, also of bronze. No. 2, similarly walled, showed the great ossuary opening to the north-west. It was similarly worked, and covered with a cup, also engraved, upon which lay an amber-headed bronze pin. With the bones were fragments of fibHl(E, armlets, and a bronze ligula ; at the southern angle lay three small bronze rings ; and to the north, on a level with the belly of the ossuary, stood the 'razor/ worked with ' wolves' teeth ' near the blade-back. No. 3 was stopped by a large pebble, under which, APPENDIX. 269 with its mouth opening south, lay the main ossuary, cup- covered and adorned under the lips and around the belly with Grecian tracery in white. Beneath this urn appeared a pin, and to the east a small bronze celt with cylindrical socket {a bossolo cilindricd). Little rings of the same metal lay below it. Mixed with the bones was a ligida, broken into very small bits, and \.yNO fibiilce with amber ; finally, at the bottom of the urn the ' razor ' lay flat, worked like that of No. 2. No. 4 tomb resembled Nos. i and 2, but it was much richer. A rectangle of roo m^tre x 070 m^tre, its sandstone revetment formed a fallen cover for the ossuary, whose mouth was turned southwards. Both it and the cup had large graffiti in the Greek style. Among the bones were two .large bridle-bits of bronze, with their respective belongings ; * a pin and engraved fibidcz. Near the rim was a little bronze paalstab (axe), like those of Scandinavian type, and then the ' razor.' No. 5 was covered with a large revetment of sand- stone. Underneath it stood the cup-covered ossuary turned southwards. The burnt remains were accompanied by a long cylinder of bone, worked in straight lines after the Greek fashion. To westward lay flat a very large and peculiar paalstab, whose faces were engraved also after the Greek way, with triple zones in zig-zag and with toothed lines. On the south was an unusually long pin with amber under the head, and near it lay the * razor.' The latter is peculiar in its greater size, in its shape, and in its ornamentation. It is especially noteworthy for the part between the back and the handle ; and each face is engraved near the blade-back with Grecian ornaments like the paalstab, the lowest being a zig-zag zone. » Translator's Note.— In the original 'la relativa bardatura,* which means the whole harness or equipment of the horse— evidently not intended here. 270 APPENDIX. Such, then, are the ^v^ pre-Villanovan (Pelasgic ?) sepulchres containing the * razors.' The principal accom- panying objects are, as I have shown, urns with large graffitiy celts, paaistabs, fibula, and pins differing from those of the early Villanovan era. Under different circumstances the * razors * were also found in three tombs explored by my excellent colleague, Awocato Arsenio Crespellani (see his paper * Di un Sepol- creto pre-romano a Savignano sul Panaro ;' Modena, 1874). He discovered one adorned with * wolves* teeth ' in a sepul- chre which has all the characteristics of the Benacci group, of older date than the Villanovan ; and the two others in tombs which belong to the first Villanovan epoch. I INDEX. ALB A LB A Longa, foundation of, 161 •^~*' Albanian language, the, 164 note Albano crater, first eruption of the, 160 Aldovrandi cited, 153 Alphabet. See Etruscan Amorini estate, discoveries on the, 79 Ampere, J. J., cited, 71 Anthropology. See Man, Palaeon- tology, Craniology, Italy, Bologna Antiquities. See Etruscan Apennines, configuration of the, 4 Apuleius cited, 43 Aria collection, 48, 109 ; villa, I09, no, 112 Arnoaldi diggings, 95, 266, 267 Aryan, derivation of the word, 163; language, 217 Aryo-Pelasgi, emigration of the, 165, 168 ; in Italy, 169 Asnie, Torr dai, 82 T) ACTRI AN A, one of the earliest "^ seats of civilisation, 164 Basques, the, 164 Bassi, Ck di, tombs of, 107 Bedawin, the, 216 Bells, Etruscan, 68 ; Pagan and Christian, 69 BOL Benacci diggings, 93 ; tombs, 268 Bianconi, Prof G. G., 45, 258 Birch, Dr., 223, 224, 225 Boccadelli estate, intended exca-t vations on, 106 Boii, the, 200 Bologna, excavations in, 3 ; its site, 4, 5 ; characteristics of, 6 sq. ; modern improvements, 7 ; clubs and newspapers, 8 ; statue of Neptune in, 9 ; mediaeval and modem, 10 ; its contadini and aristocracy, ll ; University, 12; Anthropological Congress of 187 1 noticed,i2,28,45,72, 85, 122, 123, 126, 129, 149, 150, 157, 175, 177, 178, 180, 183; antiquarian re- searches, 14 sq.\ the city of Felsina, 18; of Bononia, 19; the Via Emilia, 20 ; collections of Etruscan antiquities, 21 sq. \ museums, ib. ; discoveries near, 79 sq. ; antiquarian factions, 82 ; Tortorelli excavations, ib, ; Pra- dello diggings, 85 ; scavi della Porta S. Mamolo, 88; della Strada S. Petronio, 90 ; of the Certosa and Casalecchio, 93 sq. ; ancient inscriptions, 239 ; intro- duction of the printing press, 262 272 INDEX. BOL Bolognese, the modern dialect, 242 sq> ; its classics, 246 sq. ; pro- verbs, 258 Bonaparte, Prince Lucien, cited, 213,214 Bononia, ancient city of, 19 Broca, Dr. Paul, his classification of skulls, 176; cited, 197, 204, 219 Brock, Mr. E. W., 48 Bronzes, Etruscan, 33 sq.^ 38 sq.^ 60, 65 sq.,67y 71, 160 ; Cav. Zan- noni on, 265 Busk, Prof., cited, 153 /^ALABRESE superstition, 35 ^^ Calari, Signor P., his discovery of Etruscan remains, 79 Calori, Prof. L., cited, 73, 88, 91, 168, 187, 210, 211 ; his craniolo- gical researches, 187 sq. ; on the Etruscan religion, 191 ; language, 193 ; civihsation, 195 ; general conclusions, 208 sq. Calvert, Mr. F., on the antiquity of man, 150 Cantalupo Mandela, skulls from, 179 Capellini, Prof. G., cited, 61, 140, 141 ; originates the Bologna Congress, 177 ; on cannibal re- mains, ib. Casalecchio, excavations near, 104. See Certosa Cato, Major, cited, 18 Cavedoni, M., cited, 26 Celts. See Kelts Ceramic art, Etruscan, 219 Certosa, excavations at the, 22 sq.y 93, 95, 97; plan of, 98, 10 1, 265 sq. ; antiquity of, 143; skulls, 197, 204, 210 ; inscriptions, 234 Chabas, M., cited, 15 Chierici, Abbd, cited, 130, 131 Cieco, Francesco, Bolognese poem by, 261 ETR Conestabile, Prof, cited, 28, 29, 44, 53,73, 117, 139 Corssen, Prof, cited, 194, 228, 231, 236 Craniology, 175 sq.\ palaeolithic and neolithic skulls, 175, 176, 179 ; skulls of the Bronze epoch, 178, 180 ; of Villanova and Mar- zobotto, 180 sq. ; of Sardinia, 184 ; Oscan and Etruscan cal- variae, 185, 186; Prof. L. Calori's researches in, 187 sq. Crawford, Lord, cited, 39, 224 Cremation, Etruscan, loi, 139 Cyprus, discoveries of General di Cesnola and Mr. Lang in, 124 "pvAHOME, skulls from, 199 ^ Davis, Dr. J. B, 185, 186, 189, 197 Dawkins, Mr. W. B., cited, 153 De Jorio, cited, 53 De- Lucca, excavations of Cav. F., 94 Dennis, Mr., his * Cities and Ceme- teries of Western Etruria,' cited, 23, 63, 91, 118, 120, 124, 129,217, 220, 222, 226 De Rossi, discoveries of, 158 De Rougd, M., cited, 15 Desor, M., cited, 131 Dozza, Signor G., his discovery of> Etruscan remains, 79 T7LBA, skulls from, 178, 180 Ellis, Mr., cited, 228, 229 Etruria, early settlers of, 15 sq. ; federations ol, 15, 18, 191 ; modes of sepulture in, 17, 141, 172 j^., 191 Etruscan antiquities, collections of, 21 sg. \ rings, cysts, &c., 23 \ INDEX. 273 ETR tombstones, 29 sq. ; pottery, 32 ; bronzes, 33 ; stone implements, 35 ; cylinders, 36 ; bone dice, 39 ; toilette articles, 40 ; vases, 42 ; the Villanova collection, 48 sq. ; burial of the dead, 55, 131, 139 ; discoveries on the Via ^Emilia, 79 sq. ; mortuary feasts, 83 ; graffiti, ib. ; the Malvasia calves, 84 ; discoveries at Pradello, 85 ; the Mamolo * find,' 88 ; legend of the Creation, 92 ; Certosa and Casalecchio, 93 sq. ; fosses at the Certosa, 100 sq. ; Marza- botto, 109 sq.\ Misanello, 112; funerary wells, 115; necropolis of Misano, 127 sq. ; varieties of sarcophagus, 137 sq. ; animal re- mains, 140; alphabet, 173, 209, 237 ; skulls, 175, 187 sq., 201 ; religion, 191 ; inscriptions, 233 sq. Etruscan language, origin, theories, and affinities of, 193, 210 sq. Etruscans, their first settlements in Italy, 172 sq. ; their rule, 174 ' Euganean tombstones, 28 ; lan- guage, 194 Eugano-Veneti, the, 168 Eugubine Tables, versions of the, 15 "PELSINA, Etruscan city of, 3, ^ 18 ; remains of, 81, 97 ; skulls of, 205 sq. ; necropolis and city, 208 ; epochs of, 268 Frati, Cav. L., relics found by, 97 Freeman, Mr. E. A., cited, 166 /^AMBA, Cav. A., on Etruscan ^^ craniology, 182 Garbiglietti, Cav. A., cited, 182 KAR Gellius, A., cited, 43 Geology of Italy. See Italy Gozzadini, Count, his collection of antiquities, 48 sq. ; cited, 56, 57, 60,61,83,85, 89, 110,111, 114, 118, 129,134, 143, 144, 180 G\*aeco-Pelasgi, their arrival in Italy, 170 ; decay of, 172 Greville, Mr. (* Memoirs *), cited, 242 Grotefend (' Zur Geographie von Alt-Italien '), cited, 168 Guernsey, catacombs in, 74 TTERNICIAN valley, the, 159 '■' -*■ Hincks, Dr., cited, 190 Horace, cited, 60 Hunfalvy, Prof. P., cited, 16, 24 T TALY, rivers of Upper, 4 ; modes "*• of sepulture of the Etruscan settlers, 17, 55, 131, 139 ; geolo- gical history of, 149 sq. ; Lower Pliocene epoch, 150; Diluvial epoch, 151 ; primitive man, 152 sq., 157; Glacial epoch, 154; Alluvial epoch, 155 ^^. ; eruptive eras, 159 sq.\ modern epoch, 161 ; immigration of the Lithu- ano-Slavs, 168; aborigines, ib.; influx of the Umbrians, 169; of the Latins, 1 70 ; of the Graeco- Pelasgians, ib. ; of the Pelasgo- Tyrrhenians, 172 ; of the Etrus- cans, ib. ; cannibalism in, 177 ; craniology of ancient, 175 sq.^ 1 79 sq. T UVENAL, cited, 55, 63 TT'ARNAK Inscription, noticed, ^^ 15 T \ 274 INDEX. KEL Kelts, emigration of the, 164; their wide extension, 165 Kistvaens, 52, 53, 75, 80, 86 T ANGUAGE. ^^^ Etruscan Latins, their first appearance in Italy, 170 Latium, first cities of, 159; vol- canoes in, 160 s^. Liano, discoveries near the Co- mune di, 81 Lithuano-Slavs, emigrations of the, 167 Livy cited, 161 Lotto Lotti, Dr., his Bolognese works, 246 Lucretius cited, 160 TVTAINA, skulls of Torre della, 180 Malvasia calves, the, 84 Mamolo, discoveries near the Porta S., 88 Man, prae-historic in Italy, 15, 150, '52, 157, 159, 164, 179; early civilisation and emigrations, 164 sg. ; the Kelts, id. ; Aryo-Pelasgi, 165 sg. ; Scandinavo-Teutons, 166 ; Lithuano-Slavs, 167 ; waves of immigration in Italy, 168 sg. Mandela, Cantelupo, skulls from, 179 Mariscotti estate, discoveries on the, 80 Martial cited, 37, 62, 66 Marzabotto, discoveries at, 109 ; prevalence of cremation at, 1 39 ; antiquity and remains of, 143 ; skulls from, 180, 181, 182, 183; inscriptions, 238 sg. Matray, relief of, 35 Misanello, discoveries at, 112 j-^.; PIL an Etruscan house at, 114; funerary wells, 115; temples, 119,121 ; aqueduct of, 123 ; skele- tons, 1 24 ; group of Mars and Venus, 125 Misano, necropolis of, 127 sg.j 135 sg. ; bronze weapons, 129; thoroughfares, 132 sg. Montegazza, Prof. P., cited, 183 Mortillet, Gabrielle de, cited, 59, 131, 144; on the tombs of Vil- lanova, 73 Moslems, mode of sepulture of, loi Miiller, Max, cited, 71 ISJICOLUCCI, Prof., cited, 64, -''^ 150, 178, 181, 182, 186 Niebuhr cited, 71, 195 Nunzi, Camell, Bolognese poetry of, 256 QVID, cited, 55,69 ^^ Orioli, Prof, cited, 72 Owen, Prof., on the conformation of the Egyptian eye-aperture, 122 PALEONTOLOGY of Italy, 149 ; the Romans not igno- rant of, 152 ; first traces ot Italian man, 153. S^e Italy. Man Palmaria island. Pigeon grot of, 140 Parker, Mr. J. H., cited, 71 Pelasgo-Tyrrhenians occupy Italy, 171 Pelloutier(* Hist, des Celtes'), cited, 165 Phoenicians in Italy, 194 Pila, Monte, first eruption of, 160 4 \ INDEX, 275 PLI Pliny cited, 35, 81, 171, 172 Pontecchio, remains in, 80 Ponzi, Senator, cited, 149, 153, 157 Pradello, Etruscan remains found at, 85 Propertius cited, 32 "DAMONTE, Etruscan remains -■■^ at, 80 Religion, Etruscan, 191 sg. Reno, River, 103, in Rome, German myth theories con- cerning, 71 ; dialects in, 250 CARCOPHAGUS, varieties of Etruscan, 125, 137 Sardinia, ethnography of, 184, 186 Scandinavo-Teutons, emigration of, 166 Schio, Count G. da, cited, 28, 36, 37, 194 Sempronius cited, 18 Sepulture, 17,55, 131, I39, Hi Sgarzi, Prof., cited, 34, 57 SiHus Italicus cited, 172 Skulls. See Craniology Smith, Mr. George, his discoveries in Assyria, 91, 92 Sogdiana, one of the earliest seats of civihsation, 164 Spedali, cemetery of Campo degli, 97, 98 Strabo cited, 171, 172 Suetonius cited, 152 sg. Suidas cited, 91, 92 'pAGLIAVINI diggings, 266 sg. Talon estate, explorations of the, 103, 104 Taylor, Rev. I., on Etruscan tem- ples, 119 ; cited, 195 ; his Etrus- can Researches, 210 sg Temples, Etruscan, 119 sg.j 121 Thucydides cited, 168 ZAN Tignoso, Monte, skulls from, 176 Tombs, Etruscan, 22 sg. Tortorelli excavations, 82 Turanians, their creed, 216 Turscha, the, 172 TJMBRIANS, their influx into Italy, 169; skulls of the, 198 sg. WARRO cited, 173 Velsina. See Felsina Venice, dialect in, 250 Via iCmiha, discoveries on the, 79 sg. Vibrata valley, 85 * Vienna, La Liberazione di,' Bo- lognese poem, 250 Villanova collection of remains, 48 sg. ; accounts of, td. ; tombs and skeletons, 50 sg., 269 ; pottery, 56 ; ossuaries, 58 ; clay spindles, 59, 70 ; bronze articles, 60, 65, 67,69, 71 ; toilette articles, 62 ; war implements, 64 sg. ; novacula, 66 ; tintinnabula, 68 ; idol, td. ; tombs, 72 ; great anti- quity of, 141 ; skulls from, 180, 181, 182, 183 ; inscriptions, 233 Virgil cited, 55, 171, 180 Vogt, Prof. Carl, 72, 177, 178, i8r, 213 VIZ" ELLS, Etruscan funerary, IlSJ^r., 130 "VT'ULE, Colonel, on Aryan ety- mology, 223 VANNETTI, Cav., on Etruscan inscriptions, 235 Zannoni, Cav., his excavations, 22 sg., 97 ; cited, 39, 46, 87, 88, 127, 235 ; on Etruscan bronzes, 265 sg. /( I// LONDON : PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREKT SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET \ r h This book is due two weeks from the last date stamped below, and if not returned at or before that time a fine of five cents a day will be incurred. ^__^__ COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 655930 >h Gale 13 ^<:<0^