MASTER NEGA TIVE NO. 91-801 74 MICROFILMED 1991 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES/NEW YORK as part of the Foundations of Western Civilization Preservation Project Funded by the NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES Reproductions may not be made without permission from Columbia University Library COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States - Title 17, United States Code ~ concerns the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material... Columbia University Library reserves the right to refuse to accept a copy order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. AUTHOR: BURN, ROBERT TITLE: ANCIENT ROME AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD ... PLACE: LONDON DA TE : 1895 ■ f — ' ■^.^^iti^mau:^-'-— ■ COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT Master Negative # BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET 876 B933 Restrictions on Use: Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record Bum, Robert, 1829-1904. bo^fiTL^.'''"!^^!^'^'''^^^^^ ^^ illustrated hand- llnHon r'^'n ?f ' "''^o^^^ Campagna. By Robert Bum ... lx)ndon, G. Bell & sons, 1895. xlll. 292 p. Incl. front, lllus., plates, maps, plans. 19-. "Condensed from 'Rome and the Campagna' and 'Old Rome\"-Pret Another copy in Lav/. 1895. l.^ome (City)— Descr. 2. Rome (City)— Antlq. Library of Congress DG63.B97 i42eli r- 4—32882 K TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: ^ ^ ^^_ REDUCTION RATIO: IMAGE PLACEMENT: IMHlA IB IIB "O i r DATE FILMED: ^^^ INITIALS ir_'____ FILMED BY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. INC WOODBRIDGE. CT " l/x 1 r Association for Information and image Management 1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1100 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 301/587-8202 Centimeter 12 3 4 INI n 5 6 7 8 9 10 iIiimIiiiiIiiiiI i|[i|i|| iIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiIiiiiI ^M I I I I I 11 12 13 14 lllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 15 mm TTT Inches 1.0 lall" 163 Urn m n IS. 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 I.I 1.25 1.4 MfiNUFfiCTURED TO fillM STRNDPIRDS BY nPPLIED IMRGE, INC. Cduntbta ©nitoewittp THE LIBRARIES GIFT OF NELSON GLENN McCREA I I 4 / ^ z^ ^ BURXS A.\'CIENT ROME^ Th.. Voi.rMK >s A,.o .s.r,:,. ,.vs A Gu.nE Book, >n Limp RfI. C,Or„. KO. ,„p, ,oNVKV,..-,NCE OK TraVK,,,.ERS. Pricr, in cilhrr style, -s. (,ti. l-0\])().\: GKOR(^.K WAA. ,XX|, SOXS. J tu kv ,1 ) > GEORGE BELL & SONS LONDON : YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN AND NEW YORK : 66, FIFTH AVENUE CAMBRIDGE : DEIGHTON, BELL AND CO. !l In i X S OS o fa ANCIENT ROME AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD AN ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOK TO THE RUINS IN THE CITY AND CAMPAGNA By ROBERT BURN M.A. FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; AUTHOR OF ROME AND THtt A," "old ROME," "ROMAN LITER RELATION TO ROMAN ART," ETC. CAMPAGNA," "old ROME," "ROMAN LITERATURE IN • • • I • • •»*•** so . LONDON • III- GEG)ft(^g BELL AND SONS Mdcccxcv ■ • • > » 1- Ul o hliZ > «^ en 00 PREFACE. The following pages, condensed from " Rome and the Cam- pagna" and "Old Rome," include the latest discoveries amongst the ruins of Rome an4 its neighbourhood, and they will, it is hoped, prove a useful guide to archaeologists and travellers. The most important excavations since the publication of the above books have been those of the Temple of Vesta and of the Rostra in the Forum. My thanks are due to Mr. Edward Bell, my publisher, for the care and trouble with which he has revised the whole work, and also to Miss Dora Bulwer for personal help in Rome, and for allowing me to use one of her photographs, the Portico of Octavia. RoBEBT Btjen. Cambridge, September, 1894. CHISWICtC IKESS:— CHARLKS WIIITTINGHAM AND CO. TOOKS COURT, CHANCKRV I.ANF, LONDON. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • ••• • • ■ • ••••• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • ••• • • - • • • • • ', • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • '• • • • • • CONTENTS. CHAP, I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. PAGE Introduction 1 The Palatine Hill and the Velia .... 13 The Forum Romanum 41 The Coliseum and Esquiline 71 The Imperial Fora and the Capitolium . . .100 The Velabrum and the Circus Flaminius . . 127 Pantheon, Column of Marcus Aurelius, Mauso- leum OF Augustus, Mausoleum of Hadrian, AND Neighbourhood 159 The Quirinal Hill— Baths of Diocletian— Agger OF SeRVIUS— CASTRA PRiETORIA . . . .185 The Aventine and Celian Hills . . . .193 The Geology of Rome 214 The Neighbourhood of Rome 225 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Forum Romanum, 1893 Frontispiece Triumphal Car of Titus 1 Tuscan Order 7 Doric ^ Roman Doric 8 Plan of Pseudoperipteral Temple 8 Ionic ® Debased Ionic (Temple of Saturn) 9 Corinthian (Temple of Castor) 10 Composite (Arch of Titus) 10 Palatine Stadium 17 Palace of the CiESARS 19 Basilica, Typical Plan 23 Arch of Titus 32 Temple of Venus and Rome 34 Basilica of Constantine 36 Coliseum and Lavacrum of Heliogabalus . ... 38 Churches of S. Lorenzo in Miranda and SS. Cosma and Damiano 40 Temple of Castor and Pollux 42 Forum, from the S.E 43 Atrium Vest^ 45 Statue of a Vestal 46 Temple of Antoninus and Faustina 48 Column of Phocas 49 Fragments of the Capitoline Plan 53 Temples of Saturn and Vespasian, 1870 .... 56 Temple of Saturn 57 Temple of Vespasian 59 Arch of Septimius Severus from N.W 62 Arch of Septimius Severus from S.E 65 Remains of the Gr^costasis and Rostra .... 66 Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOE Tabularium 69 Meta Sudans and the north face of the Arch of Con- stantine 72 Arch of Constantine from the south .... 76 Coliseum from the Palatine 77 Terme di Galuccio or " Minerva Medica " . .93 Porta S. Lorenzo (Porta Tiburtina) 96 Porta Maggiore (Porta Pr^nestina or Labicana) . . 98 Shops in Trajan's Forum lOl Column of Trajan 103 Pedestal of Trajan's Column 105 Temple of Mars Ultor (Forum Augusti) . . ill External Wall of the Forum Augusti . .113 Nerva's Forum, the Colonnacce 116 Forum of Nerva in 1600, after du Perac . . . .118 Capitoline, as seen from the Marmorata . . . .121 Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on a coin of Vespasian 122 Remains of the Therms of Constantine . . . .124 View of the Palatine from the Tiber in 1870 . 126 Janus Quadrifrons 128 Arcus Argentariorum 130 Cloaca Maxima, upper end 132 Temple of Fortuna 135 Circular Temple near the Tiber 137 S. Maria in Cosmedin 139 Theatre of Marcellus 142 ponte rotto 145 The Island of the Tiber 147 PORTICUS OCTAVIiE 150 Site of the Porticus OcTAViiE as indicated by the Capi- toline Plan 152 The Pantheon 163 muro torto 178 The Castle of S. Angelo (Mausoleum of Hadrian) . 179 Bronze Cone and Peacocks in the Vatican Gardens . 182 Porta Chiusa 191 Remains of the Servian Walls 195 Tomb of Caius Cestius 200 Baths of Caracalla. Remains of the Tepidarum. . 203 Arch of Drusus 208 Arch of Dolabella 212 Alban Hills from S. Pietro in Montorio . . . .221 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XllI PAGE The Appian Road 224 Porta Appia (P. San Sebastiano) 228 Circus of Maxentius 230 Tomb of Cecilia Metella 232 Alban Lake 239 The Ancient Porta Asinaria and the Modern Porta S. Giovanni 246 Porta Latina 247 Ruins of the Claudian Aqueduct 249 Tomb of the Plautii 267 Temple of Vesta at Tibur 273 Vico Varo, the neighbourhood of Horace's Sabine Farm 277 Porta Salaria 280 PONTE NoMENTANA 282 MAPS AND PLANS. Roma Antiquissima 2 The Hills and later Walls of Rome .... 4 The Palatine Hill to face page 13 Forum Romanum ,, 4% Site of Aurea Domus and Baths of Titus „ 90 FORA OF the C.ESARS ,, 114 Circus Flaminius ,, 154 Therms Diocletian^e 186 The Servian Walls 104 The Baths of Caracalla 202 Geological Map of Rome .... to face page 214 The Neighbourhood of Ancient Rome .... 226 Environs of Tivoli 271 Iconographia Rom^ Veteris at end Trumphal Car of Titus: from the North Side of the Arch of Titus. I INTEODUCTION I.— The Site of Rome and the Walls of Rome. One of the principal points in the early history of every nation IS the effect of the natural configuration of the country in which their first settlements are formed upon the subsequent character of the people. The site of Rome consists of several separate hills, upon which distinct groups of original settlers established them- selves. These groups after a temporary rivalry seem to have agreed to form a confederation, in which the leading part was assigned to the Palatine settlement. Such was the origin of that special aptitude shown by the Romans for forming coalitions with rival states, and also of that most valuable trait in their political character, their reverence for law as laid down by a central authority, for each group was taught by their confederate union to regard itself as sharing that central authority. Hence, the historian Livy remarks that ANCIENT ROME. INTRODUCTION. under the Roman Republic which built up the power of Rome, the command of law was 8U[)erior to that of men. But besides this aptitude for confederate union and respect |i Roma Antiquissima V e n t 1 n e for central authority which the nature of the site seems to have instilled into them, the Romans were also taught bv it a readiness to meet their enemies in the open field, and not to trust much to the protection of steep crags or fortified posts. None of the hills of Rome afforded a strong acropolis, such as most other ancient cities possessed. The Capitol of Rome was by no means impregnable. Its central depression rendered it always more* or less accessible and liable to be seized by a powerful enemy. The Palatine, though partially fortified, was never considered a strong position. Hence we find that the Servian walls were the only fortifications erected to protect Rome for more than eight hundred years, from the time of Servius down to that of Aurelian. The statement of Strabo, that the absence of fortifications round Rome was to be accounted for by the native spirit of the Romans, which was " to defend their walls by their men, and not their men by their walls," is evidently full of meaning. II. — Monumental History. Relics of the two great public works executed during the regal period of Roman history still remain in the venerable stone arches of the main drain which was constructed to make the Forum valley more habitable, and in the rough portions of the Servian walls which have been found on the Aventine and Quiriual Hills. It is probable that some of the ruined walls at the edge of the Palatine are anterior to the monuments of the time of Servius. Of tlie earlier republican period of Roman history there are no monumental ruins now existing. The ruins which have been excavated on the Capitoline Hill and the basement of the Temple of Vesta in the Forum date from the regal epoch. And this is what might be naturally expected from the dislike of a republican government to require the forced labour anciently called for in the erection of large buildings. But in the later period of the Roman republic some of the oligarchical leaders and successful generals constructed large buildings, of which traces can now be found. Thus the foundations of the temples and of the portico built in the Campus Martins by Metellus Macedonicus and by Cn Octavius can be still recognized, and ruins of the immense stone theatre of Pompeius Magnus remain to the present day But the greater portion of the ruins of Rome dates from the Augustan age and the subsequent imperial ages. The-Theatre of Marcellus, and the Mausoleum of Augustus are among I IXTRODUCTIOX. 5 the earliest of these ruins. To the Julian dynasty may be also ascribed the colossal columns of the Temple of Mars Ultor, with the hup^e wall adjoining them, and the Egyptian obelisks which still decorate some of the piazzas. To the same dynasty we owe the vast arches of the Claudian aqueduct, and the massive brick foundation of the Palatine palace. The Flavian dynasty, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian changed the characteristic features of the city of Rome. Where Caligula and Nero had covered the ground with costly palaces and pleasure-grounds, the Flavian emperors built the resorts of military and of national life. The Coliseum and the Arch of Titus were the fit accompaniments of their world-sub- duing, blood-thirsty legions, and the Baths of Titus, and the public reception rooms on the Palatine, encouraged the citizen life of Rome once more to develop itself. The political aims and imperial ideas of Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines are nobly illustrated by the modifications and enlargements they introduced in the structure and extent of the city of Rome. Trajan in his magnificent Forum and library sought to encourage the metropolitan life and literary tastes of the nation, while on his storied column he recorded their world-wide triumphs and reminded them of their enor- mous power. The Mausoleum of Hadrian remains to commemorate the vast and ponderous strength of his rule, and the Aurelian Column stands to attest the lofty magnificence of the Antonine dynasty. In the reign of Commodus, between the Antonine era and the time of Severus, a great fire devastated the central dis- tricts of Rome. The restorations effected by Severus and the popular policy of his successors are commemorated in the Arch of Severus, the Portico of the Pantheon, and the huge ruins of the Baths of Caracalla. The defensive power of the Roman nation then became gradually weaker and weaker, till in sixty years after the time of Caracalla, Aurelian com- menced the sad task of home fortification. His walls, which were completed a hundred years later by Honorius, still sur- round the greater part of Rome. During these hundred years the power of the Constantinian rule, of which the great 6 ANCIENT ROME. Ijasilicii and arch remain monuments, and the warlike coiiraf^e of Diocletian revived for a time the imperial spirit at Rome. The last and most familiar of the monuments which follow the transfer of ])Ower from Kome to Constantinople is the Column of Phocas in the Forum, erected when three centuries of desolation had followed the grandeur of Constantiue and his dynasty. The Vatican Hill and the northern end of the Transtiberine district were not inclosed within walls till the time of Pope Leo IV. He undertook in a.d. 848 the inclosure of St. Peter's and the Vatican Hill, thus forming that district into a se])arate town, which was named after the Pope Civitas Leoniana. The western wall of this inclosure has been traced by its ruins in the garden of the Vatican palace. After the successive destructions and minor repairs of the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, in 1527 the architect San Gallo was employed to erect huge bastions on the wall of Rome, which he placed chiefly between the Porta Ostiensis and the Porta Ai)i)ia. In 1628 Pope Urban VIII. restored the walls on the left bank, and subsequently, in 1(342, he pro- ceeded to erect the walls which now stand between the Porta Portese and the Porta Cavallegieri, where the arms of that Pope are still affixed to the walls. This was the final important addition to the main walls of the city. III. — Roman Building and Architecture. The earliest form of Roman masonry, consisting of rectan- gular tufa blocks ])laced in layers alternately parallel to and acr*^ss the line of the wall, so as to bind the mass together firmly, may be best seen in the ancient fragments of the Servian wall on the Aventine and the Quirinal Hills and in the ruins on the western slope of the Palatine. This kind of building is the natural product of the peculiar parallel cleavage in the tufaceous rocks of the Roman hills. In those parts of the Campagna where basalt rather than tufa be- comes the usual material, as at Prseneste, we find polygonal masonrv'. One specimen of a mode of construction anterior to the introduction of the arch into Roman masonry is left us at Rome. This is the vault of the old well-house near the INTRODUCTION. Ca])itol called the Mamertine Prison, where we find over- lapping horizontal blocks of stone which originally r H b: 1,1,1 ,1 71 T X— L ^ r ^ Fig. 1— Tuscan Order. met in a conical roof, but " fi ^ are now truncated and cai)j)ed by a mass of stones cramped together with iron. That the prin- ciple of the arch was known in the regal period of Rome is shown by the great arch of the Cloaca Maxima. But no arches remain of so earlv a date which are not subterranean, and it is not likelv that the arch was used ft' in the earl}- temples at Rome. These were, as we learn from Vitruvius, constructed in the so-called Tuscan style, which was the Italian contem- A porary of the Greek Doric. It is Ll possible that the columns in the walls of S. Maria in Cosmedin, which are placed at unusual distances from each other, may have been an imperial restoration of the Temple of Ceres, after the old Tuscan fashion (Fig. 1). The next modification of architec- tural style, which is usually called, from the general influence of the Greek colonists on Latin art, the Tusco-Doric order, may be seen in the lowest range of columns and bases in the Theatre of Marcellus. The shaft of these columns is much more slender than in the Grecian Doric, and only partially fluted, if at all ; while a quarter-round is substituted for the echinus of the capital (Figs. 2 and 3). The position of the triglyphs and the proportions of the cornice were also much changed, and the whole effect became less massive and bold than that of the Tuscan temples. The ancient Tuscan arrangement of the interior of temples remained after this modification of their columns and capitals. The three ruins which now occupy the most prominent place at the northern end of the Forum, the Temples of Saturn, of Concord, and of Vespasian, all retain the plan called prostylos by Vitruvius. The Temple of Concord is especially remarkable for the union of a broad Tuscan cella with a narrow Greek portico. An alteration peculiarly Roman was made in the ANCIENT ROME. cella of the Greek temple. Instead of surrounding this part f- •K Fig. 3.— R(»ma.\ Doric. rows of columns, the Romans clothed it with pilasters, thus introducing the mode of construction deservedly stigmatized by Vitruvius, under the name ^jseudoperip- teral (Fig. 4). This may be seen in the building commonly called by the name of the Temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome.^ The Greek Ionic order became known and employed by the Romans early in the third century B.C. The Tomb of Scipio Barbatus shows the Ionic volute and dentil mixed with the Doric tri glyph and gutta. The Roman alterations in the Ionic capital may be best seen in the pillars of the Temple of Saturn, and in the second range of columns surrounding the Theatre of Marcellus and the Coliseum. Specimens ^ Engaged cohmins were not absolutely un- known to the (ireeks. They occur in the choragic monument of Lysierates, the Erech- theum, and elsewhere. hi INTRODUCTION. 9 may also be seen in the basilica of S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and in the church of Sta. Maria in Trastevere, which have been transferred from the ancient temples. The distinctive Roman modification was the position of the volutes diagonally instead of laterally (Figs. 5 and 6). It is supposed that the first introduction of the Greek Corinthian order into Rome was brought about by the barbarian act of Sulla, in transporting the columns of the Temple of Zeus from Athens to the Capitoline Temple of mmmmmi^^m^ JTn. i i f i i rrl ri T mm Fig. 5.— Ionic. Fig. 6.— Debased Ionic (FROM THE Temple of Saturn). Jupiter. Of the remaining specimens of this order in Rome, the portico of the Pantheon is the oldest. In that building the capitals appear somewhat shorter and broader than in the later examples, such as the ruins of the Temple of Castor in the Forum (Fig. 7), and in the peristyle of Nerva's Forum called the Colonnacce. The Composite capital, for it can hardly be called an order, as there is nothing in the entablature or the base to distin- guish it from the Corinthian, was formed probably under the patronage of the early emperors. The earliest instance we have of it now extant in Rome, is in the Arch of Titus i> I 10 ANCIENT ROME. (Fi^'. 8), aud there are only three other ruins where it is found. These are, the Arch of Septimius Severus, the Arch of the Goldsmiths, and the Baths of Diocletian, at Sta. Maria de*;li Anj^eli, where it is mixed up with Corinthian capitals. The peculiar combination of which it consists, the sui>erposi- tion of the Ionic volutes uix)n two rin^s of Corinthian acan- thus leaves, is not generally considered a very haj)py artistic design. Hoi)e says of it, that "instead of being a new creation of genius, it gave evidence of poverty to invent and M5»i_jM>ii>niiiiii»ttimntini ■iiMjijiilii Fio. 7.— Corinthian (from THK Tkmplk of Castor). Fig. 8.— Composite (from the Arch of Titls). ignorance to combine," and Fergusson is hardly more com- plimentary to the Roman architects. But though we must deny to this Roman adaptation of Greek forms the credit of originality, or even of symmetrical design, yet its rich appearance was peculiarly suited to the lavish ornamentation with which the Roman emperors de- lighted to trick out their palaces and halls, and it well repre- sents to us the character of the Roman imperial architecture, with its indiscriminate combination of mouldings and pro- fusion of gaudy detail. INTRODUCTION. 11 The three great triumphal arches of Titus, Septimius Severus, and Constantine at Rome, and also the so-called Arch of Drusus, are decorated with an unmeaning and foreign dress. In the Arch of Constantine alone, the columns which stand in front are in some measure justified by the statues they support. Of the minor archways at Rome, that of Gallienus has Corinthian pilasters in the roughest style of art, the Janus Quadrifrons probably had rows of Corinthian columns between its niches, and the small gateway near it has decorative pilasters with Composite capitals. On the other hand, the Arch of Dolabella on the Cselian, which has a single line as cornice, and the Porta S. Lorenzo are examples of the striking effect of a simj^le arch without Greek ornament. The un- meaning pediments and tasteless columns with which most of these arches are adorned, remind us of Pope's recipe for the front of a villa, " Clap four slices of pilaster on't ; that, laid with Ints of rustic, makes a front." Colossal columns were as genuine a creation of Imperial Rome as triumphal arclies. In both the sculpture had become subordinate to the pedestal. The idea of placing a statue upon the top of a column was probably unknown to the Greeks, or at least, never carried out on the immense scale of the two great Roman Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. It must not, however, be forgotten, that the Column of Trajan (and probably also that of Marcus Aure- lius) was inclosed wdthin a narrow court, and that the bas- reliefs were intended to be seen from the roofs and windows of the surrounding buildings. Some of the most characteristic remains of the Roman national taste in architecture are the Mausoleum of Hadrian (now called the Castle of S. Angelo), and the Tombs of Csecilia Metella and of the Plautii. The ponderous walls of these massive and indestructible marvels of masonry were essentiallv Roman, but in their external decorations we find a strange combination of foreign designs. The Mausoleum of Hadrian was dressed up with an array of pilasters, columns, and statues, and the Mausoleum of Augustus was covered with terraces and trees, in imitation of the Temple of Belus at Babylon. The most conspicuous among the Roman appropriations of ill M 12 ANCIENT ROME. foreign monumental designs were the oriental obelisks which were brought from Egypt, and erected in the Circi at Rome and in front of some of the buildings, and some of which still stand in the piazzas of modern Rome. The remains of eleven of these have been found. The Komans often misused them by placing them alone, and not following the Egyptian method of always setting them in pairs. The huge vaulted arches of brick-work and concrete which remain in the Baths of Caracalla, and the Basilica of Con- stantine, and the massive arches of the Claudian Aqueduct, are the glory of Roman architecture. For the Coliseum, astounding as are its durability and massive grandeur, is not 80 illustrative of the special Roman development of the use of the arch and of brick- work as are the other great ruins just mentioned. We see embodied in them the indomitable energy which bridged the valleys and tunnelled through the hills, but which possessed no eye for fine proportion of outline or sym- metrical and harmonious combination of details. Brickwork was the material in which the characteristic Roman ruins were executed. The Coliseum and the Theatre of Marcellus are dressed in Greek robes, while the brick arches of the aqueducts, and the massive structure of the Baths of Caracalla reflect the peculiar genius and character of the Roman imperial power. P.13. THE PALATINE KUINS. INDEX TO THE PLAN. 1. Clivus Victoiise, 2. Museum. 3. Water reservoir. 4. Fragments of ruins. 5. Altar of Cal < inuji^. 6. Fragments of i uiii. 7. Domus Gelotij na. 8. Graffiti of Ass, etc. 9. Stadium Palatinum. 10. Exedra. 11. Baths. 12. Palatine Belvedere. 13. Imperial Box over Circus. 14. Augustan Palace,| 15. Ruin called the Academy. 16. Triclinium. 17. Viridarium. j 18. Peristylium. I 19. Smaller chamber^;. 20. Basilica. i 21. Imperial reception hall. 22. Lararium. 23. Area Palatina. 24. Fragment of ancient ruin. 25. Clivus Palatinus. 26. Porta Mugionia. 27. Temple of Jupiter Stator. 28. Walls of substruction. 29. Cryptoporticus. 30. Subterranean passage. 31. Piscina. 32. House of Tiberius. 33. Well. 34. Unknown ruins. 35. So-called Temple of Jupiter Victor. 36. Uncertain basements. Scala Caci. 37. So-called Auguratorium. 38. Soldiers' quarters. 39. Garden. 40. 41. Staircase and substruc- tions of Caligula's build- ings. 42. Ruins of lavacrum of Helio- gabalus. ^ > Path to be followed. i i^ 1 ^ U-x. -■ ^.l •-Ms El ■■•''•■■'rt-'iX'' 1 CHAPTER I. the palatine hill and the velia. The Palatine. The entrance to the ruins on the Palatine Hill is now made through a gateway ojjposite to the Church of S. Teodoro. The Museum in which are collected the various fragments of statuary and antiquarian interest which have been found in the late excavations on the Palatine has been placed in the ground-floor of the casina which stands near the Clivus Victoriae. Porta Romanula. — The ancient road at the N.E. end of the Palatine is oveiTeached and arched over by the extensions of the Palatine imperial palace built by Caligula, under which it passes to the site of the ancient Porta Romanula/ Most of the chambers on the left were probably occupied by the guards of tlie gateway, and the graffiti they contain are of a character which confirms this supposition. Outside the Porta Romanula the road bends round the hill along the side which looks towards the Capitoline. The first ruins to be seen under the slope of the hill here are the remains of a portico of the republican era, constructed of tufa with reticular- work facings. This portico has been supposed to be possibly that which Lutatius Catulus built in the Area Flac- ciana after his victory over the Cimbri, mentioned by Valerius Maximus and by Cicero as being near his house.^ But there ^ Festus, p. 262, "infimo clivo Victorise." ^ A descent from this point of the hill to the right to the Forum has been observed by a French architect. See "Le Forum Romain," par Dutert; Levy, Paris, 1876, p. 14. "Guida del Palatino," p. 71. Valerius Maximus, vi. 3, 1. Cic. pro Dom. 38. 102. 14 ANCIENT ROME. seems to be nothing left which can identify this ruin with the -Porticus Catuli. Area Flacciana—Beyond this so-called Area Flacciana tUe line ot walls presents some projecting masses, which appear to be built upou the ancient substructions of towers such as would be formed in fortified buildings. A great part ot the walls erected here in imperial times were built of c(m. Crete framed and sui>i)orted by beams and plunks of timber. Ihese beams having now rotted awav, have left their impres- sions on the concrete, and hence the vertical and horizontal grooves which form so conspicuous a feature in these walls 1 wo remarkable fragments of antiquitv must be noticed here The first IS a conical aperture in the *side of the hill which supplied a cistern placed below with water. Such cisterns are to l>e found elsewhere in the hills, and mav be supposed to have been constructed previous to the great supplies of water having been brought by the aqueducts. At the western corner of*the hill opposite to the Janus guadrifrons stands a large fragment of the most ancient walls of the Palatine. It is constructed of masses of tufa, taken from the hill behind it, and roughly laid together without cement or mortar. These stones apj^ear to have been spht troin the rock, and not cut by chisel, which shows the antiquity of their construction. The wall of Eomulus is the name bv which this and the other ].ortions of massive tufa walls round the Palatine are now known.- They undoubtedly belon<^ to the earliest defences of the Palatine settlement "^ Archaic Altar— Not far from this ancient fragment of wab stands a most interesting relic of primitive superstition an altar of travertine stone cut in archaic fashion, with volutes resembhng those in the well-known tomb of Scipio in the Vatican Museum. The inscription on this altar is as follows • SEI DEO SEI DEIV.E SAC. C. SEXTIU8, C. F. CALVINUS, PR DE SENATI SENTENTIA RESTITUIT. This is SUpposed bv SOme antiquarians to be the altar mentioned by Cicero and Livy as having been erected in consequence of the voice heard before the Gallic invasion predicting disa.strous times.' But that altar is said to have been placed above the Temple of Vesta at the end of the Nova Via, which was on the other ' Cic. de Div. i. 45 ; ii. 32. Liv. v. 32. L THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 15 side of the Palatine. This mode of dedication to an unknown Deity was not uncommon at Rome, and is mentioned by Cato and commented upon by Gellius. The form of the word DEiv^ shows that the inscription belongs to the earher Latin.' C. Sextius Calvinus, who restored the altar, was probably son of C. S. Calvinus, the Consul of a.u.c. 630, and was the competitor of C. Servilius Glaucia in the year 654.^ Germalus.— The north-western end of the Palatine Hill, round which we have been passing, was the spot with the name Germalus which Varro tells us was given to it in memory of the (germani) twin brothers, Romulus and Remus having been cast ashore here from the Tiber waters, and suckled by the wolf. How far the district called Germalus extended over the hill is not known. Cicero speaks of a house belonging to Milo which stood upon the Germalus, and Livy says that a wolf ran through the Vicus Tuscus and the Germalus to the Porta Capena.^ The bronze figure of the wolf and twins now in the Capitoline Museum is said by Flaminius Vacca, who wrote in 1594, to have been found at no great distance from this place, and Urlichs has shown that this figure is probably the one dedicated by the Ogulnii, gediles in b.c. 297.^ Further southwards at the foot of the slope we come to another fragment of the most ancient wall of the Palatine settlement. This building appears to stand at right angles to the line of the hillside, and it was therefore supposed at first to have belonged to a wall traversing the intermontium or depres- sion which crosses the Palatine Hill from this point to the Arch of Titus, and to have confirmed the opinion of those archaeolo- gists who confine the extent of Roma quadrata to the north- western end of the hill. But subsequent exploration has shown that this wall does not pass along the intermontium, but turns off at a right angle. Another fragment of the most ancient wall was found in 1860, according to Lanciani, under the Villa Mills, showing that the wall of Roma quadrata passed round the whole hill, and not only round the north-western end. Domus Gelotiana. — Close to the fragment of ancient Frag. of early Latin, p. 167, ^ Corp. Inscr. i. 632. Wordsworth 410. ^ Cic. de Orat. ii. 249. ' Cic. atl Att. iv. 3, 3. Liv. xxxiii. 26. ' Vacca, Memorie 3, Urlichs, Rheinisches Museum, 1846 16 ANCIENT ROME. wall we come to a series of chambers excavated first in 1857, and afterwards cleared and rendered more accessible in 1869.' These belonged to a building in connection with this part of the imperial palace, and were occupied by soldiers of the em- peror's guard, as may be seen by examination of the inscrip- tions left on the walls. The traces of a square court, sur- rounded with a portico, one granite pillar of which remains, and on the side of this court towards the hill, of a number of chambers arranged on each side of a semicircular recess, are the main features of this ruin. The brickwork supports which appear here were erected by Canina, and a large quantity of remains have fallen from the higher levels of the hill. The inscriptions which are most remarkable here are the following. On the right-hand wall near the entrance is the name HiLARUs, followed by the letters mi. v. d. n., which have been interpreted to mean " miles veteranus domini iiostri," a veteran soldier of our Lord. Numerous other inscriptions with the letters v. d. n. will be found in the chamber to the left of the central recess. One of these in the triangular room records the name of two soldiers who belonged to the foreign troop of Peregrin! : bassus et saturus pereg.' Other inscriptions allude to a paedagogium, or training school, as for example, corinthus exit de pedagooio. Most of these are in the tri- angular rooms behind the central semicircular recess, or in the furthest room on the left of it. In this last is to be seen the figure of an ass turning a mill, with the inscription, labora aselle quomodo ego laboravi proderit tibi. But the most famous of these graffiti is that now shown in the Kircherian Museum representing the crucified ass, with the title" Alexa- menus worshipping his god," which was taken from the room on the right of the central semicircular recess, and has been the subject of much comment. Another record of the same Alexamenus was found here in 1870, in which he is called Ale.\amenus fidelis. From these two inscriptions it has been supposed that Alexamenus was a Christian soldier, in mockerv of whose devotions his brother soldiers drew the caricature of an ass. Stadium.— Passing now beneath the Villa Mills which ^ See Henzen, in Bull. dell. Inst., 1867. The name of Domus Oielotiana has heen jjiven to this ruin by Visconti. See '• Rome and the CauiiMigna," p. 181. THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 17 occupies the site of the library, and the Temple of Apollo, built by Augustus, we turn to the left up the slope of the hill and find a large open space in which the later excavations have disinterred the relics of a stadium, consisting of a curved series of walls, surrounding the foundation of a meta or goal, and two lines of bases of columns, which ran along the sides and the end of the stadium.^ A large build- ing in the form of a semicircu- lar recess or exedra, a stand for viewing the races, is still partially re- maining, and also the foun- dation of two entrances on the southern side. That this was a stadium con- nected with the imperial palace is evident from its shape and its length, which corresponds to that laid down by the ancient writers as the ^proper length of a stadium for foot-races. The large exedra at the southern side contains on the ground-floor a vast central saloon, and two side rooms. A few decorative paintings of the latest and least valuable kind of art remain on the walls, ^ The marks on the bricks found here bear the names of Clonius and Ermetes, freedmen of the Gens Domitia, but the walls which stand near the meta are constructed of materials which show that they are of later date, and belong to the Restoration of Theodoric, a.d. 500. O ■ r ^HI^^j^^^^H w ^^^^ -pj"-' ^j^Hft > '^~:1 ^^^Sl sp^^-. wilk f^K^jj^l liBii ^HHjj^^Hj^^B ^'flB^H^^^^I B^^^ ^^S^^ ■fflwJ^fl W~' K ^ • •••Tiai^ -^^HB ^^^^k" ^Ssi^^l k -^ , y"iiTn-ii«iiH . !•■?_'• ■"U 1^^^^^ 'r . "Tl^^fiiii ^C^Ji^ ^^^^^^^^^1 u^H^^^^fea^^ -=sW^^- A(caSi ss^^^MT'^'' ^^^H ^i^^^^^HHI ^^^^9 ^^^H ^'k^^^^^H E^^kE^L. -jtf^^^^H 'A^^^^l ^^Kgi^^Sg^jt BMH^^^M^.^^y^^^H ^^KSiwM ^^^HH^^H |p_|_^_ ^^^^H^^^H ^^^^H ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 ^^^H ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H ^M ^^^^^^^^H ^^^^^^^^^^^1 ..•x" ; ,-_ r^. ,-^^1 H^l^l^^l^^^l HHII^^^^HHHIHI The Palatine Stadium from the S.W. End. 18 ANCIENT ROME. among which are some geographical and astronomical figures. A coat of foreign marbles covered the walls, and the pave- ment was of marble. This part of the Palatine buildings was probably occupied by the Frangipani in the thirteenth century. The right-hand chamber was apparently without decoration, but in the one on the left the wall is ornamented with fresco paintings of elegance, and the pavement is of fine mosaic. A list of names with numbers attached to them, which seem to be those of combatants in the stadium, was found am oner the graffiti here. The upi)er level of the semicircular exedra was filled by a large chamber, the side of which, towards the stadium, was occupied by a line of granite columns, fragments of which remain in the arena below. The interior of this chamber was also ornamented with marbles and statues. Some statues of Amazons and the Hercules of Lysippus now in the Pitti at Florence, were found here according to Vacca, who wrote at the end of the sixteenth century. The brickwork and the architecture of this exedra seem to be of the time of Hadrian, and the bricks found here with labels give the date of a.d. 134, the third consulship of Ursus Servianus. The portico which ran round the stadium was ajjparently of later con- struction than the exedra, as the date on its bricks seems to refer to TertuUus Scapula, Consul in a.d. 195, in the reign of Septimius Severus, under whom great alterations and exten- sions were carried out in this wing of the palace. The vast ruins which remain on the south of the stadium belong chiefly to the works of Septimius Severus, and have long been celebrated as the most picturesque among the Csesarean relics. The curved wall behind the great exedra, and the numerous passages and chambers which stand near it, seem to have belonged to a bath supplied with water from the branch of the Aqua Claudia, four arches of which are still remaining on the hill below, opposite to the church of S. Gregorio. This was a branch from the Claudian aqueduct, and crossed the valley from the opposite Cselian Hill. Palatine Belvedere. — The lofty wing of the palace, which extends along the slope of the Circus Maximus, opposite to the Aventine, is reached by a modem bridge from the ruins adjoining the stadium. From the top of this huge ruin a splendid view of the Cselian, the Aventine, and the Alban Hills iy.' I < ■«! wl ■< o o a H a H a < < K < Eh B Si H o a H Z o < m '•^ a X H fa O 20 ANCIENT ROME. may be seen, and the spot has been sometimes called the Palatine Belvedere. What the exact nature of the build- ings placed upon these lofty ranges of arches was cannot be easily determined, but they correspond in some degree to the arched walls of the side between the arches of Titus and Constantine and to those of the palace of Caligula near the Capitoline, and were mainly intended to raise the imi)erial saloons to the higher level of the northern end of the hill. Spartianus in his "Life of Sever us " says that Severus bestowed particular pains on this part of the Palatine Hill in order to make it the chief entrance to the imperial palace, and that his reason for so doing was to produce an impression of his magnificence upon his African fellow- countrymen, who, when visiting Rome, would naturally enter at this point by the Porta Capena, which was the gate just below. The Septizonium was an im^xirial building near this part of the hill probably built by Severus, views of the ruins of which are to be seen in the books of the topographers Du Perac and Garrucci who wrote before the end of the sixteenth century, when the Septizonium was pulled down by Sixtus the Fifth.' At the western end of the long and lofty ruin, and near the end of the stadium, is a projecting portion of ruined chambers which has been generally supposed to have contained the emperor s private pulvinar, or box whence he viewed the games in the Circus Maxim us. But the construc- tion of this edifice, including its round tower, seems to be of a very late style, and it may have been built as late as the sixteenth century. We now return along a modern path which runs under the grounds of the Villa Mills towards the Domus Gelotiana described above. A curved terrace occupies the upper edge of the hill, along which probably ran a portico commanding a view over the southern part of Rome and the Trastevere. At the back of this are the buildings called the Villa Mills from their former possessors, now occupied by a nunnery, and therefore inaccessible to the public. In the year 1777, the plan of the ancient buildings which stood here was explored by Rancoureuil. They consist of a court surrounded with columns and suites of chambers. Parts of the main front » Hist. Aug. Severus, 19, 24. See "Rome and the Canipagna," p. 180. THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 21 looking towards the circus remained till the year 1827. The brickwork of these ruins has induced Cav. Rosa to assign them to the Augustan Age and to call them Domus Augustana.* Academia and Bibliotheca. — Passing back again by the ruins called the Domus Gelotiana as before described, we turn to the right and ascend the side of the hill. On the higher level at this point are the ruins of two buildings to which the names of Academia and Bibliotheca have been given by Rosa. In one of these the remains of semicircular ranges of seats and a platform have been supposed to be recognizable, and here may have taken place the recitations and discussions mentioned by Pliny as constantly kept up in the imperial palace.^ Behind these rooms stand the ruins of a portico, built upon substructions of an earlier period, with Corinthian columns of cipollino, probably forming the side of a small courtyard. Here it may be seen through an opening in the ground to what a depth the substructions of this part of the Palatine buildings descend into the depression or intermontium which originally separated the two parts of the hill, and was filled up by the Flavian emperors. JEdES PuBLICiE. We now enter the range of reception rooms commenced by Vespasian when he destroyed Nero's golden house, and completed by Vespasian and his sons, Titus and Domitian, at the same time with the Coliseum.^ These are raised on gigantic constructions of opus quadratum to the level of the Palatine Hill. Many stamps on the bricks found here seem to show that the buildings were finished by Domitian. Triclinium. — We enter at the back of the triclinium or dining hall, at the end of which is a semicircular apse, possibly intended for the emperor's table when he dined here. The form of the room corresponds to Vitruvius' de- scription of the proper arrangements for a triclinium. Very little of the original decoration remains, except two granite columns, of which there were originally sixteen, and a portion ^ See " Rome and the Campagna," pp. 174, 200. 2 Plin. En. I. 13. =* See '* The Journal of Philologj^" Cambridge, 1869, vol. ii. p. 89. 22 ANCIENT ROME. of beautiful pavement composed of porphyry, serpentine, and giallo antico. It is possible that this may be the triclinium in which Statins dined at Domitian's table, and of the marble decorations and spacious size of which he speaks in the fourth book of his " Silvse.'* ' Near the apse of this room an opening in the ground leads down to some subterranean rooms which formerly belonged to a private house situated in the depression of the hill, and afterwards covered over by the Flavian emperors. The brick- work in this house seems to be of the later republican period, and the walls retain decorations of the best style. These decorative paintings have, of course, suffered ver\' much from damp and neglect, and all the principal features of the house have been destroyed by the substructures of the Flavian triclinium. The name of Bagni di Li via was long used in connection with this spot by the ciceroni. Nymphseum. — Returning to the upper level, we find, at the side of the triclinium, the remains of a nymphaeum or viri- darium, consisting of an elliptical basin and fountain of marble, with niches for statues and bas-reliefs, and ledges for ornamental flowers and plants. On the western side of the nymphceum a garden-house was built by the Farnese, the portico having some arabesques and some paintings by a pupil of Taddeo Zuccari, representing scenes on the Palatine as described by Virgil, the meeting of ^neas and Evander, and the monster Cacus. Peristylium. — Beyond the triclinium and nymphaeum we come to the remains of the largest court in the suite, which is called the peristylium, occupying a space of 140 by 154 paces, anciently surrounded by a portico of columns of Porta Santa marble. The pavement and decorations of this quadrangle would seem by the remains to have been most superb. On the north-west side of it are eight rooms of various shapes, arranged symmetrically round an octagonal central chamber, from which four large doors open, with four corresponding niches. The same plan of rooms was carried out also on the opposite side of the peristylium, as was shown by some excavations in 1869. These were waiting-rooms and offices of various kinds. » Stat. SUv., iv. 2, 26. THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 23 Atrium. — From the great quadrangle of the peristyhum we pass to the grand audience chamber, the position of which corresponds generally to that of the atrium of a Roman house. This was surrounded by a portico of sixteen Corinthian columns of foreign marbles, and their frieze and bases were ornamented in a most elaborate manner. Eight niches with colossal statues of basalt are said by Bianchini to have stood round this court, and in the Tribune at the southern end was placed the solium augustale, where the emperor sat on grand occasions, when meetings of the senate or other bodies were held here. The grand entrance of this atrium, which looked towards the Arch of Titus, was adorned by two huge columns of giallo antico, and the threshold stone consisted of a mass of Greek marble from which the altar in the church of the Pantheon was made. Many of the marbles from this atrium were taken by the Farnese to Naples. Lararium. — On the right hand of this reception room was a building which shows us by its position and shape that it was the lararium or shrine of the household gods where sacrifices were offered on solemn occasions. The remains of an altar were discovered here. Basilica. — Opposite to the lararium are the foundations of a building with a tribune and podium, probably used by the emperor in cases such as those described by Tacitus, when imperial constraint was exercised over a legal verdict. Two rows of columns, arranged as is commonly the case in the basilicae, and a portion of some white marble railings have been found and preserved here.^ The name BasiHca Jovis placed here by Rosa probably refers to a pie and not to this tribunal. Fig. 9.— Basilica ; Typical Plax. 24 ANCIENT ROME. THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 25 Along the side of this tribunal hall and that of the peri- styliiim and its adjoining offices, ran a long portico connecting the whole suite of halls together. The history of this range of imperial buildings has been very prol^ably supposed to be as follows. Vespasian intended them to be used in support of his revival of the Augustan im])erial policy, and that a name such as ^des Publicae, *' National Chambers," should be given to them. Accordingly, all these rooms have the character of public rather than private buildings. There is apparently no pro- vision for domestic life, and all the sections of the edificiB seem to have been public audience or banqueting rooms. Porta Mugionia. — In front of the last described buildings, which we have called the basilica, the atrium, and the lararium, is an oj^en space, on the right hand of which, looking towards the Arch of Titus, a fragment of the earliest walls of the Palatine remains, constructed of tufa blocks taken from the hill underneath. Beyond this, towards the Arch of Titus, are the paving stones of an ancient road which was probably the approach to the palace, and to the left of this road stand the relics of one of the most ancient gates, the Porta Mugionia. This is described by Vacca as having been discovered at the end of the sixteenth century-, when it was still decorated with marble. The substructions alone now remain. Jupiter Stator. — Close to them may still be traced the foundations of an ancient temple which can be no other than the temple of Jupiter Stator. Solinus says that the house of Tarquiuius Priscus was near the Porta Mugionia, and Livy states that Tarquinius Priscus lived near the Porta Mugionia. The statue of Clcelia is also said by Livy to have stood at the top of the Sacra Via which was near the Arch of Titus, and this statue is further placed by Pliny near the Porta Mugionia.^ The remains of the temple show that it was arranged accord- ing to the cardinal points of the compass, looking north and south. On the foundation stones are the names of Philocrates and Diodes, masons employed in building. Three old inscrip- tions referring to the worship of Jove were found here, and are to be seen in the Palatine Museum. I (( Rome and the Campagna," p. 34. Near the ruins of this Temple of Jupiter Stator we find vast blocks of substruction which belong to the complicated ranges of buildings occupying the north-eastern end of the hill, and generally believed to have been erected by Caligula. They extend along the side of the hill over the Forum, and along the Clivus Victoriae by which we entered, to the point which overlooks the Velabrum. The modifications and en- largements of this structure during the ages succeeding Caligula have rendered it a confused mass of ruins, and the walls and chambers now left have served chieflv as substruc- tions for the lofty mansions erected upon them in the course of ages. Cryptoporticus. — From the corner of these ruins, next to the Temple of Jupiter Stator, runs a long arched crypto- porticus or covered passage, which can be entered from the ruins of this temple or from below nearer to the modern entrance gateway. It is supjjosed that this may have been the cryptoporticus in w4iich, as we learn from Josephus, Caligula was assassinated on his return from the ludi palatini given in front of the palace. He is said to have turned off from the direct line of entrance, and to have passed into this covered wav in order to hear and see some youths from Asia performing. The assassins, after accomplishing their end, were afraid to venture through the front of the palace, and took refuge by hiding in the house of Germanicus.' House of Tiberius. — At the western end of the crypto- porticus a house has been disinterred by the late excavations, and it has been inferred that this must have been the one called by Josephus the house of Germanicus. Whatever name may now be assigned to it, the house appears to have been preserved for some reason from destruction, and it seems reasonable to conclude that some connection with the earlier history of the imperial Caesars rendered it an object of veneration and care. The space between the crypto- porticus, along which we have passed, and the so-called basilica of the palace, is supposed to have been called the Area Palatina, where those who came to call upon the emperor had to wait."^ The long cryptoporticus was connected with the Flavian public buildings, and perhaps also previously ^ Josephus, Ant. Jud. xix. 1, 15. 2 Gelhus, N. A. xx. 1, 2. j 26 ANCIENT ROME. with the house of Augustus, by a branch passage which runs off from the long cryptoporticus at right angles, towards the back of the atrium and lararium. By this means the emperor could pass from his private palace to the public audience and banqueting chambers without encountering the crowd of those who were waiting for audience in the area. In this area was found, in 1868, the pedestal bearing the name of Domitius Calvinus, now placed on the site of the ruined temple which lies farther to the west, and which we shall presently mention. In the angle of the cryptoporticus, near the house of Germanicus, are some beautiful remains of decorative work, consisting of paintings of birds and winged genii. These have been much injured by the damp exuding from a piscina which was constructed here in the second or third century for the keeping of fish, and which can be entered at the angle of the cryptoporticus. Near this piscina is the entrance to the building called the house of Tiberius or Germanicus. The construction of this house belongs to the period of Roman architecture, when reticulated work formed of the harder tufa, with small diamond- shaped stones, but without brick- work, was generally used. It was therefore probably built during the later republican times, and this agrees with the supposition that it was the work of Tiberius' s father or grandfather. Suetonius says that Tiberius was born on the Palatine.^ The leaden pipes which have been found here bear the names of Julia, the daughter of Titus, of one of Domitian's freedmen, and also one of Septimius Severus's. The house is divided into two main parts, one of larger dimensions for receiving guests and showing hospitality, and the other of smaller- si zed rooms, for the family. The vesti- bule is an arched passage adorned with paintings on the walls, and mosaic pavement. From this the atrium is entered which had no impluvium, but was covered entirely with a roof. On the left are the remains of an altar of the Lares, and at the further side of the atrium are three large rooms, the decorative paintings of which are well preserved. In the central chamber the walls were divided into large compartments by columns of the Composite order, adorned with vine leaves. One of the large scenes represented here > Suet. Tib. 5. I THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 27 is that of Polyphemus, who, after having crushed his rival Acis with an enormous rock, turns towards Galatea, who is riding on a hippocampus. Another, placed above the frieze, is a picture of a domestic initiation ceremony, as the sacred taenia which is being presented seems to prove. A third picture, also above the frieze, shows the preparations for a sacrifice. On the right sits a female figure, with a mantle, and a faun standing before some utensils for ablution, which are being lifted by a second female figure, while the sacri- ficial kid is being brought by a young slave. The next picture represents a row of houses along the side of a street or road, at the door of one of which a lady with her maid is knocking, while four or five figures present themselves above on the balconies. The last picture is one of lo hidden in the wood of Juno at Mycenae, and watched by Argos, with a figure of Hermes descending by Jove's command to rescue lo. The names of lo, Argos, and Hermes are legible here. The room on the left hand of this one was also divided by Composite columns adorned with vine leaves, and by a beautiful frieze of giallo antico. The lower compartments have no figures, but the upper are ornamented with designs of genii and fantastic flowers. The room on the right hand is festooned with beautifully- designed paintings of flowers and fruit. From these festoons hang the emblems of various divinities, the lyre of Apollo, the timbrel of Cybele, and the mystic sieve and mask of Bacchus. These seem to indicate that this was the lararium of the house. The frieze contains a number of landscape and marine views, with many figures of men and animals painted on a yellow ground. At the north-western corner of the atrium opens a fourth chamber, which may perhaps have been the dining-room, or triclinium, decorated with trophies of sacred emblems of Diana and Apollo. The atrium communicates with the rooms at the back of the house and with a small courtyard by means of a corridor. Some of these rooms were used as baths, others seem to have opened towards the street, the pavement of which still remains along the side of the house. Palatine Temples. — On the other side of this street is an entrance to the subterranean caves which have been cut in this part of the hill. These hollows were mainly stone iU i 28 ANCIENT ROME. THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 29 quarries and wells. A puteal, or well-cover, has been placed over one of these in front of the house which we have de- scribed. On this side of the street also stand the foundations which have been supposed to have belonged to the priests of the Temple of Jupiter Propu^nator on the Palatine, some portions of the fasti of whose college have been found near the Basilica Julia and the Marforio.^ There is also the foundation of a temple, called by Kosa the Temj)le of Jupiter Victor, to be seen extending; from this street towards the viridarium of the sedes publicse of Domitian before men- tioned, and towards the edge of the hill which looks over the Circus Maximus. These ruins consist of masses of tufa work mixed with later brickwork of the Antouine times. The pedestal with the name of Gnseus Domitius Calvinus which is placed here came, as we have said, from the spot called the Area Palatina before mentioned. The Notitia also places the Temple of Jupiter Victor in the Area Palatina, and for these two reasons the name seems to be wrongly applied to this ruin. We can trace in it the remains of a building raised on a basement with lofty flights of steps, alternating with terraces in front, towards the Circus Maximus, just as we find at Tibur and at Tusculum temples, placed on the side of a hill with high flights of steps ascending to them.^ Germalus and Scala Caci. — The remainder of the upper level of this nortli-western corner of the hill is occupied by numerous ruins of squared tufa stone, which evidently be- longed to some of the most ancient and venerated relics of Some. Tliis was, no doubt, the part of the Palatine to which the name Germalus was given, in memory of the Germani, or twin-brothers, Romulus and Remus, who were cast ashore at its foot from the flooded waters of the Tiber. Two distinct edifices have been disclosed here, from the first of which, a rectangular foundation of tufa stones, a passage bearing marks of great antiquity descends towards the church of S. Anastasia and the gas works. This rectangular ruin has been called by many various names, such as the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius, the Tugurium Faustuli, the Temple of the Magna Mater Cybele, or of the Lares Praestites. The descend- ing passage to the Vallis Murcia has been supposed to be the ^ OrelH, Inscr. 6057, 6058. ^ See *' Rome and the Canipagna," p. 178. Scala Caci mentioned by Solinus,^ and it is possible that the legend of Cacus refers to this point of the Palatine next to the Aventine. The marks on the stones of this descent are probably only quarry marks. No brickwork is found here in the lower ruins, nor any marbles. But in the mass of frag- ments there are remains of the republican and of the imperial restorations of the many venerated buildings and altars which must have stood upon this corner of the hill. On the right hand of this descent a small rectangular court was discovered in 1872, with a staircase and a channel for water running through it. This is thought by Lanciani to have been possibly the fifth Argean Chapel, which was somewhere on the Ger- malus. A statue found here bears some marks of having represented the goddess Cybele. Auguratorium. — The most conspicuous ruin at this end of the hill is a mass of concrete and tufa blocks, apparently of the republican era, in the shape of a rectangular basement. This has the form of a temple in antis, i.e., with projecting side-walls, and faces the south, commanding a view over the Aventine and Tiber valley. Cav. Rosa has conjectured that this is the ruin of the auguratorium mentioned by the Notitia as situated near the other most ancient sacred spots on the Palatine. But an inscription which records the restoration of the auguratorium by Hadrian does not support this view, as the work now remaining is mostly republican.^ Lanciani thinks that this may have been the ^des Matris Deum, to which the statue of Cybele found as before mentioned in front of it belonged.^ At the back of the so-called auguratorium we find a long series of rooms running in a line across the hill from north- west to south-east, which have vaulted roofs, and are similar to those found below in the domus Gelotiana, before described. Cav. Rosa has inferred with reason from this and from the graffiti in these rooms that they formed a part of the offices and guard-rooms attached to that large portion of the palace which lay on the site occupied by the vast masses of brick- work at the northern comer of the hill. The graffiti to be seen here are chiefly the scribblings of soldiers' names, rude sketches of ships and animals, and combats of gladiators. 1 Solinus, i. 18. "" Orelli, 2286. ^ Mart. i. 70, 10 ; Cybeles Tholus. 30 ANCIENT ROME. i Tiberiana Domus. — Several passages of the Eoman his- torians lead us to conclude that the suite of rooms occupied by Til)erius were situated here. It was from the Tiberiana Domus, as Tacitus relates, that Vitellius surveyed the con- flagration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, and the engagement between his adherents and the Flavian party under Sabinus. The Tiberian part of the palace was also that through which, as Tacitus also tells us, Otho descended into the Velabrum, after joining Galba at the sacrifice in the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine.^ Afterwards, the Tiberiana Domus became the favourite residence of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, and it was probably during their reigns that the library which we find mentioned by Gellius was established here.^ We now 2>ass through the ground which lies over the re- mains of the Domus Tiberiana, and descend on the side which looks over the Forum, by a long staircase through the immense masses of brickwork and concrete which are said to have been part of the insane additions of Caligula to the imperial palace. He is declared to have made a passage from this wing of the palace to the back of the Temple of Castor below in the Forum, in order that he might appear in that sacred shrine as an equal of the twin gods and an object of worship when the Senate met there. He is also said to have joined this corner of the palace with the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter by a huge viaduct, which passed over the Basilica Julia, in order that he might thus make himself the contubernalis of Jupiter.^ Some of the substructions of this viaduct are thought to be seen near the back of the church of S. Maria Liberatrice. We now leave the Palatine by the Clivus Victorise, and turn to the arch of Titus and the ruins which stand near it. The Velia. Near the arch of Titus the Palatine Hill runs out in a gradually sloping ridge north-eastwards towards the Esquiline Hill. On one side of this ridge the ground sinks towards the Forum Romanum, and on the other towards the Meta > Tac. Hist. i. 27. =» Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius, 10; Ant. Phil. 6; Gell. xiii. 20. ^ See " Rome and the Canipaj^na," p. 160, note 1. THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 31 I Sudans and the Coliseum. The level of the pavement under the arch of Titus is 53 feet above the ancient pavement of the Forum. It seems probable that this outlying part of the Palatine was that which bore the name of Velia. ^ Arch of Titus. — On the summit of the ridge above de- scribed stands the arch of Titus, one of the best preserved of the monuments of imperial Rome. The central part of the original building remains, and is easily distinguished from the subse- quent travertine restorations i3y being constructed of Pentelic marble. The height of the arch is 49 feet and its breadth 42 feet. Originally there were two fluted columns with compo- site capitals (see Fig. 8, j). 10) on each side of both faces of the arch, the two inner of which are now left, while the two outer are modern. Over the arch are two bas-reliefs of Victory which, though much inj ured , are still remarkable for the beauty of their outlines. On the keystone of the side towards the Coliseum is a figure of Rome, and on the other side Fortune with a cornucopia. The most interesting parts of the arch have fortunately been preserved by their protected position in the interior. On each side is a magnificent alto-relievo, representing the triumphal procession of Titus after the capture of Jerusalem. The relievo on the south side shows a number of persons carrying the spoils of the Jewish Temple. The golden candle- stick, the golden table for shewbread, and the trumpets are clearly recognizable. These, according to Josephus,^ among other utensils of the Jewish Temple, were deposited in Ves- pasian's Temple of Peace. The procession is moving towards a triumphal arch. In the northern relief (see jd. 1) the emperor is represented in his triumphal car, drawn by four horses, and surrounded by his guards and suite. Victory is holding a crown over his head, and the goddess Roma guiding the reins. The soffit of the arch is ornamented with richly-carved rosettes and coffers, and upon the crown is a rather undignified representation of the apotheosis of the emperor astride upon an eagle's back. On the Coliseum side a small portion of the entablature is left. The frieze had a bas-relief, which partially remains, of a sacrificial procession. The attica is modern, with the ex- ception of the inscription. That the arch was erected after * See " Rome and the Campagna," p. 162. ^ Josephus, Bell. Jud. vii. 5, 7. Arch of Titus. S.E. Side. TIIK PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 33 the emperor's death is shown by the title Divus, and also by the figure of his apotheosis under the archway. Another arch had been erected in the Circus previously in a.d. 80, when the Coliseum was completed, and Titus gave a great festival. The date of the extant arch is, therefore, A.D. 82 or 83. Porticus Margaritaria. — Between the round ruin which was the Temple of Vesta, and the Arch of Titus, on the slope of the Palatine, ran a row of buildings w^hich were probably shops, and were called Porticus Margaritaria. These were built after the destruction of the Regia, across the site where the Regia stood. ^ Temple of Venus and Rome. — Almost the whole of the southern slope of the Velia towards the Coliseum is occu- pied by the ruin of a vast foundation which extends under the church and convent of S. Francesca Romana. The sub- structions, of which only the inner core, consisting of rubble- work, is left, were originally cased with travertine blocks. They form an enormous quadrilateral terrace, round which a portico of granite columns ran. Upon this was raised a base- ment some four or five feet higher, and a building with two iipses back to back, similar to the tribunes of a basilica. These are ornamented with large square coffers and niches for statues. It has heen generally inferred from the state- ments of Dion Cassius and Spartianus that this building was the Temple of Venus and Rome built by Hadrian, and dedi- <*ated by the Antonines, but burnt down in the time of Con- stantine and restored by him." Pope Honorius I. stripped the bronze tiles from the roof, and they were placed on the Basilica of S. Peter, whence they were taken by the Saracens in A.D. 846. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, lime- kilns were set up near the arch of Titus by the Romans, and the marbles of this spot were burnt into lime.^ The two tribunes which stand back to back and the buildings near them have not the appearance of a temple, but rather of a legal court or basilica. For this reason, and also because a large portico of this shape is represented in the marble plan ' See Laneiani's article in the " Nuove scavi ned Foro Romano," Koma, 1882. The probable position of the Arch of Fabius is also noticed by him. * See "Rome and the Campaj^na,"' p. 170. ^ Ibiff., p. 171. D 34 ANCIENT ROME. THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 35 of the city, the fragments of which are now in the Capitoline Museum/ as having belonged to the Porticus Liviae, Mr. Parker, in his ** Archaeology of Rome," has maintained that this was the Porticus Liviae, built by Augustus, and after- The Temple of Vems and Rome. wards used by Hadrian for the Temple of the Sun and Moon. Jordan has also shown that the Porticus Liviae was near this spot, but he places it farther to the north-east, behind the Basilica of Constantine.^ Since Dion Cassius speaks of the * Parker's " Archaeology of Rome," vol. il p. 98. Jordan, •' Fomia urbis Ronijv," Berlin, 1874, p. 37. Temple of Venus and Rome as having been close to the Coli- seum, and also near the Sacra Via, and Spartianus says that it stood in the vestibule of the Domus Aurea of Nero, we are almost compelled to assign this position to that temple.^ Domus Transitoria. — Nero's enormous extension of the Palatine buildings must have occupied a great part of the Velia, reaching across it from the Palatine to the Esquiline. But his great Domus Aurea and its surrounding porticoes and halls, which were called Domus Transitoria, and occupied not only the slope of the Velia but also the site of the Coliseum, were destroyed by the Flavian emperors, and we can only point to one fragment of the Domus Transitoria which stands near the corner of the Basilica of Constantine at the side of the path which leads between that ruin and the buildings of S. Francesca Romana. Basilica of Constantine. — The vast arches of the ruin called the Basilica of Constantine form, next to the Coliseum, the most conspicuous object in the neighbourhood of the Forum, and they were long supposed to have belonged to the Temple of Peace, Vespasian's great temple. But the decision of modern archaeology has assigned them to Constantine, on the ground that the brickwork is of much later date than the time of Vespasian, and also that the few remains of decoration which are extant bear indications of a great decline of orna- mentative art when they were constructed. Further evidence has been derived from a coin of Maxentius, the rival of Con- stantine, having been found in 1828 embedded in the mortar of one of the fragments. Aurelius Victor says that the basilica called by the name of Constantine was begun by Maxentius.^ The three gigantic arches now standing formed the roof of the northern aisle of the basilica, which consisted, as the foundation clearly shows, of a central hall and two side aisles. The arches are 68 feet in span and 80 feet high. They are ornamented by octagonal caissons or coffers, con- taining central rosettes and the interspaces are relieved by rhomboidal panel work. The two side arches have their backs wailed up, and there are six arched windows in each wall. At the back of the central arch is a semicircular tribune, with niches for statues and a central pedestal. Some ' " Rome and the Canipa^a," p. 169. '^ Aur. Vict. Cjks. xl. 26. See " Rome and the Canipagna " p. 166. piiiP THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 37 of the marble ornaments of this tribime are still left, and show in their rude execution evidence of the Constantinian style of art. A screen seems to have separated the tribune from the interior of the hall. In front of the three great arches can be plainly seen the spring of the enormous roof which covered the central hall of the basilica. This central hall must have been at least 80 feet in width and 115 feet in height. The southern aisle was of the same construction and size as the northern, and in place of the tribune had a grand entrance on the side towards the arch of Titus. A flight of steps and a }X)rtico with porphyry columns, two of which are now in the Conservatori Museum on the Capitol, formed the approach to the entrance. A white column from the central hall is to be seen erected in front of S. Maria Maggiore, where it was placed in the seventeenth century by Paul V. At the western end of the central hall was a tribune, and at the eastern end an entrance in three divisions opened into the road between the basilica and the portico of the so-called Temple of Venus and Rome. This entrance had a vestibule or veranda similar to those found at S. Giovanni in Laterano and at S. Maria Maggiore, and answering to the building called a chalcidicum by Vitruvius.^ (Fig. 9, p. 23.) SS. Cosma and Damiano. — The church of SS. Cosma * and Damiano which now stands at the north-western end of the Basilica of Constantino is, like many other churches in Rome, constructed on the ruins of some ancient temple. A most careful account has been given of its various stages of construction by Mr. Parker.^ This may possibly have been the site of the original Temple of the Penates, and some archaeologists have thought that the round temple which has been converted into the vestibule of the church was that of the Penates. The doorway of this temple with its columns,- frieze and bronze doors, has been raised from the lower level of the old temple, on which the crypt of the church now stands beneath the floor. At the back of this the nave of the church was built on the ruins of some temple which Jordan and Lanciani say was the Templum Sacrae Urbis,^ and behind ^ Vitruv. v. 1. * " ArchaH)lo^y of Rome," vol. ii. p. 75. ' See Middleton's " Ancient Rome," ii. 17. ■ K THE PALATINE HILL AND THE VELIA. 39 '^. >^ c the apse of the nave is said to have been the wall on which the celebrated Capitoline marble plan of Rome was hung. The fragments of this plan, which was shaken down, as is supposed, bv. the fall of a great mass from the Basilica of Constantine, were found here. The chapel of the Penates was on the road from the summa Sacra Via to the Carinae, which would place it near this spot.^ The name ** Temple of Romulus " given to the ruins by mediaeval writers may have been derived from some restoration by Romulus, son of Maxentius. Lavacrum of Heliogabalus. — We now pass through the arch of Titus along the ancient road towards the Coliseum, and on the slope of the Palatine to our right stand the ruins of a mediaeval church which was excavated in 1873 by Cav. Rosa. This is said to have been called the church of S. Maria Aritiqua, and to have been placed upon the ruins of the lava- crum of Heliogabalus.^ The chambers now disclosed seem to have been used as a bath. Along the side of the hill near this are numerous ruins similar to those on the other side of the Palatine, which were apparently guard rooms. ^ See '* Rome and the Campagna,*' p. 163. - Lanipridiuw, Hist. Aug. Ant. Hel. 8, 17, in ncdibus aulicis. Parker, " Archjuology of Rome," vol. ii. p. 92. :|! I CHAPTER II. , THE FORUM ROMANUM. Temple of Castor. — At a short distance from the entrance to the Palatine we can enter the Forum near the ruins of an ancient temple, three columns of which are still standing. These three columns are among the most conspicuous and beautiful remains of ancient Rome. No doubt can now be felt that they belonged to the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The situation agrees with that which is pointed out by the Ancyraean inscription, and by the fact that Caligula made a passage from the Palatine Palace to this temple. The substructions of this building have been cleared, and the length and breadth of the basement and of the steps forming the approach can now be clearly seen. The three columns belonged to the central part of the south-eastern side. They are of most elegant proportions, and their capitals, architrave and frieze are ornamented with decorative work of the very best period of Graeco- Roman architecture. The designs on the entablature are most delicate and perfect, and well repay a minute examination. Besides the usual orna- ments upon the cornice and modillions there is along the upper edge a row of beautiful lions' heads, through which the rain- water ran off. (See Fig. 7, p. 10.) The temple had evidently eight columns in front, and eleven side columns, reckoning in the corner column. The approach was raised high above the Forum level, and has three steps projecting beyond the line of the next building, the Basilica Julia. The lines of the front steps are preserved, and also those of the side towards the Capitol, while the other side has been destroyed. The pavement in front of this has been 42 ANCIENT ROME. miserably altered and mended at a late date, probably after the fourth century. The capitals when compared with the Corinthian capitals The Temple of Castor and Pollux. of the Pantheon, show a longer and narrower type which is also found at the Temple of Vespasian and the peri- style of Nerva's Forum, the Colonacce. The lower founda- tions of the basement are of old tufa rubble construction, I ^ ! 41 ANCIENT ROME. and possibly belong to the date of the original foundations in B.C. 494 by the dictator Aulus Postumius, who vowed to build it at the battle of the Lake Regillus in the Latin war. It was afterwards dedicated by his son in B.C. 484. Two restorations are mentioned, the first executed by L. Metellus Dalmaticus, consul in B.C. 119, and the second by Brusus and Tiberius in a.d. 6. The temple was used for meetings of the senate, for harangues from its steps to the people in the forum, and for holding courts of law. A register of changes in the value of money was kept in the tabularium of the temple, and deposits were made here as in many other temples.' Standing as the old temple did near the veteres tabernse of the forum, and the newer restorations of them near the Basilica Julia, it was convenient for business trans- actions. On the north-west side a street pavement leading to the Velabrum has been laid bare, which may be that of the Vicus Tuscus. Puteal.— Descending from the temple of Castor to the ancient pavement of the Forum Romanum, we find at the eastern comer of the ruin the remains of a puteal or well- house which has naturally been supposed to be the fountain of Juturna from its neighbourhood to the Temple of the Twin Brethren, who are said to have given their horses drink there after the battle of Regillus. Templum and Atrium Vestae and Regia.— The site of the Atrium and Templum Vestae and of the Regia has long been known from passages of Ovid and Plutarch,' and that the temple was round in shape to represent the earth. ^ But till 18S3 no excavations had been made suflicient to enable us to judge of their size and exact position. This has now been done, and we learn certainly what their extent was, and many statues of Vestal virgins and inscriptions have been found, and are now to be seen in situ. The exact position of the atrium or hall was opposite the church of S. Maria Liberatrice. and it was a right-angled building, 345 feet long and 171 feet wide. It had but one entrance, and was surrounded apparentlv with statues of the most celebrated Vestals and their benefactors, of which some curious examples have been ^ See *' Rome and the Camnagna," p. 100. 2 Ov. Fa.sti, vi. 265 ; Plut. Nuiiia, 11. => See " Rome and the Camiwigna," p. 103. H ■T. 46 ANCIENT ROME, discovered. The hall, which, as we have said, was large, had porticoes surrounding it. At one end was a basin of water, and behind it a reception room, with six small rooms opening into it. There is also a small courtyard with fur- naces and a mill for grinding meal, and a small staircase leading to bedrooms, which re- main on the west side. The rites and ceremonies of the Vestals and their privileges and exemptions will be found in most dictionaries of Roman antiquities. The Regia was originally the house of the Pontifex' Maximus, but was given up to the Vestals by Augustus. It was not far off the Atrium, and remains of it have been found near the Temple of Vesta. From some relics the temple has been resuscitated, and a figure of it will be found in Lanciani's book, "Ancient Rome," p. 159. Chapel of Julius Caesar. —In front of the Temple of Castor a large block of sub- structions has been cleared, which is with great probability assigned to the chapel built in honour of Julius Caesar, and called the Heroon of Csesar. Ovid's lines, in one of his letters from Pontus — •* Like the twin brethren, whom in their abode ^^ Julius, the go(l, beholds from his liigli shrine, seem to prove that the Heroon was in front of that temple The body of Cffisar was burnt in front of the Regia and Statue of a Vestal. s i THE FORUM ROMAN UM, 47 Temple of Vesta, which were at this end of the Forum, and the Heroon was placed on the spot where it was burnt. The remains of two small staircases were found at the sides of the Heroon, and a wider staircase in front. The epithet " high," given by Ovid to its position, seems to be in ac- eor<&nce with the raised basement. The semicircle of masonry on the north side has not been satisfactorily ex- plained. It is usually supposed to have belonged to the Julian rostra.^ Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. — To the north- east of the Heroon of Julius Caesar, we find the ancient pave- ment of the road which ran along the north-eastern side of the Forum, and to this road descend the steps of a temple with a conspicuous row of six cipollino columns, and with two columns and a pilaster besides the corner column on each side. These columns have Attic bases and Corinthian capitals of white marble. The inscription upon the plain architrave in front shows that the temple was first dedicated to Faustina alone, and that the first three words, including the emperor's name, were added after his death. The Faustina here commemorated was probably the elder Faustina, wife of Antoninus Pius, as a representation of this temple is given on one of the medals struck in her honour.* She died in A.D. 141, and Antoninus Pius in 161. The frieze of the temple is ornamented at the sides with a bold and finely- executed relief representing griffins with upraised wings, between which are carved elaborately-designed candelabra, and vases. A considerable part of the side walls of grey peperino blocks anciently faced with marble h still standing. A church wai built here at a very early time, but the present building, which forms a strange contrast in the meanness ot its style and proportions to the massive grandeur of the grey old ruin which embraces it, was built in 1602 by the guild of the Roman apothecaries.^ It is dedicated to S. Lorenzo in Miranda. Extent of the Forum. — We now pass along the ancient stone pavement towards the Capitol, and observe how small * Professor Middleton thinks that it was made to contain a pre- existing column or altar (" Ancient Rome," i. 286). •^ Eckhel, vii. 37. ' See Reber's "Ruinen Roms," p. 132. 1 THE FORUM ROMANUM. 49 the space occupied by the ancient Forum Romanum was. The temple we have just left stood in the eastern comer, and the columns of the two temples opposite to us on the slope of the Capitol mark the other end of the Forum. The central pavement now laid bare is of travertine flags, while the roads are marked by basaltic blocks. The Column of Phocas. Column of Phocas. — On the side of the central space runs a row of seven large masses of brickwork, which seem to be the bases of pedestals which supported dedicatory columns, or columns with statues similar to the one still standing near, which has become known to English travellers as '* the nameless column with the buried base " of Byron. Since Byron's time the base of this has been unburied, and E 50 ANCIENT ROME. THE FORUM ROMANUM. 51 I* bears the name of Smaragdus, proclaimed exarch of Italy for the eleventh time/ who erected it in honour of the Emperor Phocas. The date is given by the words indict, und., which show that Smaragdus was in his eleventh year as exarch, and we know that he was exarch under Mauricius for five years, A.D. 583-588, and six years under Phocas, a.d. 602-608. His eleventh year would thus be in 608, and this was the fifth year of Phocas' reign, so that the last words of the inscription confirm the explanation given of the previous words indict. UND.' " P. C." in the inscription probably mean, as Clinton explains, }X)st consulatum, which was the way of reckoning in the later years of the Eastern Empire. Pedestal of Equestrian Statue. — In the centre of the Forum traces of the base of a large pedestal can be dis- cerned, and this is supjx)sed to have been the position of the equestrian statue of Domitian described at length by Statins, who says in the first jx)em of his ** Silvae" that an equestrian statue of Domitian stood at the north-western end of the Forum, looking towards the other end. It was a triumphal statue erected in honour of Domitian's campaigns against the Catti and Daci. The poet describes its position very accu- rately, mentioning the Heroon of Julius Caesar which faced it, the Basilica Julia on the right, the Basilica PauU on the left, and the temples of Concord and Vespasian behind. The Temple of Saturn is omitted for some unknown reason. Statins also alludes to some other principal objects in the Forum, the Temple of Vesta, the Temple of Castor, and the statue of Curtius. He concludes with prophesying that the statue will outlast the eternal city.^ It seems, however, pro- bable, as Mr. Nichols in his admirable book on the Forum has said, that the statue was removed after Domitian's death, when his memory was execrated, or was dedicated to a succeeding emperor, and that the statement of Herodian about the dream of Severus, who imagined that he saw an * Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. vi. pt. 1, No. 1,200. " Intlictionis untlecimo Past Consulatum pietatis ejus anno quinto " are the last words of the inscription. *' In the eleventh year of his appointment and the fifth year of his reverence the enij)eror." See Nibby, "Roma antica," p. 152; Zell. Epijrr. 1,226. A D = A Deo. 2 See Clinton, Fast. Horn. a.d. 608. ' Stat. Silv. i. 1. Mr. Parker thinks that this was the pedestal of a statue of Constantine. Archteol. vol. ii. pi. xix. equestrian statue in the Forum, a colossal representation of which remained there in the historian's time, may refer to this pedestal.' Trajan's Bas-Reliefs. — Two of the most interesting monuments which have been brought to light by the recent excavations in Rome were discovered in 1872, near the base of the column of Phocas, where they have been re-erected. They consist of marble slabs, sculptured with bas-reliefs and form- ing low screens. Each screen is constructed of slabs of unequal size, and some of these have been unfortunately lost. Their original position has been restored as nearly as possible, and they stand parallel to each other in a line crossing the area of the Forum. On the inner sides of both of these sculptured screens, the sacrificial animals, the boar, sheep and bull, always offered up at the Suovetaurilia, are represented. The other sides, which are turned outwards, represent scenes in the Forum, and are commemorative of some public benefaction of one of the emperors, probably Trajan or Hadrian. On one of them Italia is represented thanking the emperor for establishing some " alimenta publica," public relief institutions, and for apportioning lands to encourage needy parents to rear their children. Such relief funds and lands intended to supply the defective population of Italy were first established by the Emperor Nerva, and afterwards by Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, and are frequently commemorated on medals, and mentioned by the historians Dion Cassius and Aurelius Victor, and the authors of the Augustan history." The emperor is represented in a sitting posture, and stretching out his hand towards a child pre- sented by a woman in the character of Italia, who apparently holds another child ready for presentation. Behind the emperor's seat is the fig-tree called Navia or Ruminalis, which is said to have grown near the rostra, and also the figure of Marsyas which stood in the same place. At the other end of this sculptured scene stands a speaker with a roll in his hand, addressing a crowd of citizens from a rostrum, which may perhaps represent the publication of the edict establish- ing alimenta. ^ Nichols, "The Roman Forum," p. 78. ^ See " Home and the Campagna," Appendix, p. 452. 52 ANCIENT ROME. I' The other bas-relief scene shows a rostrum at one end, from which a sitting figure is superintending the burning of large bundles of books, carried and placed in front of him in a heap. The outline of a figure applying a torch can be traced, and also of several attendants. At the opposite end to the sitting figure the fig-tree and Marsyas are placed as in the other relief. The style of art in which the reliefs are executed cannot, in Professor Henzen's opinion, belong to an earlier period than Trajan's reign. The treatment corresponds to that on those reliefs that were transferred from Trajan's arch to Constan- tine's. After Trajan's time the style of bas-relief was so much altered that we cannot suppose them to have been sculptured later than the first year of Hadrian. As Trajan gained great popularity in the early years of his reign by an abolition of the arrears of certain debts due to the imperial treasury, amounting to a large sum, and as he also established alimenta, these reliefs have been generally supposed to commemorate his public benefactions, in found- ing relief institutions and cancelling public debts. The most reasonable ctmjecture which has yet been made as to the purpose which these sculptured screens served is that they formed a pons or passage along which voters passed at a time of election from the Forum to the office where the votes were taken. A great part of the structures used at such times was probably temporary, and made of wood for the occasion. Another explanation suggested by Mr. Nichols is that they formed a passage leading to an altar and statue of * the Emperor. It may be that the sculptures never reached their destined site, but were left here, as many of the marbles on the Tiber banks were, and gradually buried in rubbish. Basilica Julia. — We now pass to the rows of restored bases of columns, which occupy the long space on the south- western side of the seven pedestals above mentioned. Here we find the ground plan of the great Basilica Julia marked out by a treble row of columns at each of the larger sides, and a double row at each end. One pier of the outer row towards the Forum has been restored by Rosa so as to show the original height. The proof that these ruins belong to the Basilica Julia THE FORUM ROMANUM. 53 which was planned by Julius Caesar, and begun by him but completed by Augustus, who dedicated it to his grandsons Caius and Lucius, is the statement in the Monumentum Ancyranum, in w^hich it is placed between the temples of Saturn and Castor. A second proof is derived from two inscriptions found during the process of clearing the site, one of which records the repair of the Basilica Julia, and the erection in it of a statue by Gabinius Vet- tius Probianus, prefect of the city in A.D. 377. and the other the rebuilding of the Basilica Julia under Maximian after the fire which destroyed it in the time of Carinus and Nu- merian. This site is also as- signed to the Basilica on the Capitoline plan which may be seen on the staircase of the Capitoline Museum. The out- line given there, and marked by the name Basilica Julia, agrees in proportion, and in the rows of columns with the extant remains, and this shows that the present ruin is the same in its main points with that which stood in the time of Severus, when the Capitoline 2>lan was made.^ Seven steps lead up to the level of the floor from the Forum level. Fragments of the Capitoline Plan. ^ Jordan, *' Forma urhis Roma?," pp. 4, 25. The proportion of the len^h to the breadth is nearly that given by Vitruvius as proper for a basilica. I; J -^ ■ r. A great deal of legal business was transacted here, as maj be seen from the frequent mention of it in Pliny's Epistles. There were four tribunals, of which Quintilian speaks, at which four trials could be carried on at the same time ; but these tribunals were probably wooden and temporary erec- tions, and there is no trace of any semicircular apses, such as. those in the Basilica of Constantine. One of Caligula's amusements, as we are told by Suetonius, was to stand upon the roof of this basilica, and throw money to the mob in the Foriim to scramble for. Whether the basilica was covered over in the centre is not certain, but it probably was so, with two aisles open to the Forum. The row of arches standing at the north-west comer is partly a restoration of the basilica by Canina, and partly consists of some piers and a wall standing behind, which has not yet been satisfactorily identi- fied with any ancient building. The most probable supposi- tion is that they belonged to the Porticus Julia mentioned by Dion Cassius, and were parts of an earlier edifice, in front of which and upon which the basilica was placed by Augustus. Cloaca.— Under the southern end of the floor of the Julian Basilica, an opening has been made in which the arch of the main cloaca of the Forum valley can be seen imssing across the Forum towards the Subura. This is the drain of which Juvenal sj)eaks, when he says that the fish taken from the Crypta Suburse is the climax of indignity offered to the unhappv parasite Trebius at his patron's table.^ The course of the drain runs from here under the Via dei Fenili down to the Janus Quadrifrons in the Velabrum, where it meets other branches and passes down to the Tiber. Between the eastern end of the Basilica Julia and the temple of Castor ran the Vicus Tuscus, of which the paving-stones may still be traced. At the western end the Vicus Jugarius led towards the Velabrum. Arch of Tiberius. — The Arch of Tiberius, which stood at the corner of the Basilica Julia, where the Vicus Jugarius and the Clivus Capitolinus diverged, cannot be clearly traced, though some of its ruins have been thought to exist among those uncovered at the edge of and under the modern road. 1 Juv. Sat. v. 104. THE FORUM ROMAN UM. 55 This arch has been with great probability supposed to be that alluded to by Tacitus in speaking of the recovery of the Roman standards lost by Varus, and retaken by Germanicus under the auspices of Tiberius.^ The triumphal arch repre- sented on the Arch of Constantine is also thought to be that of Tiberius placed here. Temple of Saturn. — We now pass along the foot of the Capitoline Hill, and proceed to examine the most prominent ruin at the western end of the Forum. This consists of eight columns, six of grey granite forming a front, and two side columns of red granite. The capitals of these and the decoration of the entablature, architrave and frieze sur- mounting them are of a late and debased Ionic order with volutes in the later style (see Fig. 6, p. 9), and they have been pieced together in the last restoration of the temple with extraordinary negligence. Unequal spaces are left between the columns, and some are set upon plinths while others are without them. One of the side columns has been so badly re-erected that the stones are misplaced, and consequently the diameter of the upper portion is of the same size as that of the lower. The restored carving on the inner frieze is of the roughest description, and the barbarous negligence of the whole restoration shows that it cannot have been done earlier than the fourth or fifth century. A comparison of the ruins now remaining with the plan as given on the fragments of the Capitoline map, bearing the name sat vrni, has been made by Jordan, who shows that the remains of a prominent and peculiar flight of steps in front of the six columns corre- spond to the rough sketch on the plan, and that this flight of steps facing north must be taken to be the front of the temple.^ The pavement stones of the road which led from the forum past the front of the temple may still be traced curving round this projecting flight of steps. Little doubt now remains that the ruin of the eight columns, the name of which has been so much discussed, and was often identified with the Temple of Concord, belonged to the Temple of Saturn. The inscription now upon the front was placed there at its latest restoration which, as we have seen, was in Christian times, and the name of the divinity is therefore omitted. ' Tac. Ann. ii. 41. Jordan, ** Forma urbis Romse," p. 26. 56 ANCIENT ROME. This temple was one of the most revered and ancient in the city, and its foundation is traced back in legendary myth to the Hellenic Kronos. The earliest date given for the The Temples of satlu.n am) Vfisi-asian, in l87o. dedication is B.C. 498. Many restorations must have taken place. An inscription recording one in the time of Augustus by Munatius Plancus has been found. This temple long a^cuv/rr.cMrs-e. The Temple of Satlrx. 58 ANCIENT ROME. retained the name of the Mint, from the fact that the state treasures were deposited under the care of the god Saturnus, as one of the most venerated of Roman deities. Area of the Dii Consentes. — The ancient road leading up to the Capitol made a turn behind the Temple of Saturn, and a portico with semi-Corinthian or Composite columns has been restored from some columns and capitals found here in 1835. At the back of this portico were twelve re- cessed chambers occupied by chapels of the twelve deities called the Dii Consentes. Four of these still remain under the modem Via del Campidoglio. The walls are chiefly of brickwork, apparently of the second or third century, but the back wall against the ascent to the Capitol is of hard tufa. The interiors were faced with marble, of which traces are left. From the inscription found in 1835 upon the archi- trave it appears that Vettius Prsetextatus, a prefect of the city in A.D. 367, restored the statues of the Dii Consentes, which had stood here from ancient times. Varro mentions gilded statues of the gods of the council as near the Forum, and also speaks of their temple. This portico and chambers cannot, however, have been a temple, but were evidently clerks' offices connected with the state depositories near the Temple of Saturn. Cicero speaks of the clerks of the Capi- toline ascent.' Vettius Prsetextatus, who restored the building in 367, was notorious for his opposition to the Christian religion and for his zeal in sup])orting the ancient cultus. He held several offices, and was pro-consul of Achaia under Julian, and prol»ably recommended himself to that emperor by his attachment to the old Roman religion. Schola Xanthi. — Below the portico and its chambers stands another row of lower chambers, three of which are said by Marliani to have been found entire in the sixteenth century. Inscriptions found here give the name of Schola to the cham- bers, and hence thev have been called Schola Xanthi, from the name of Xanthus, which occurs in the inscription as a restorer. They were undoubtedly clerks' offices, similar to those behind the portico of the Dii Consentes above them. Temple of Vespasian. — We now turn from the portico of the Dii Consentes to the three Corinthian columns which » Cic. Phil. ii. 7. The Temple of Vespasian. ^m 60 THE FORUM ROMANUM. 61 ANCIENT ROME. stand under the large building called the Tabularium. These three columns have now been proved to belong to the ruin of a temple dedicated to Vespasian by his son Domitian. This position of Vespasian's temple agrees with the statements of the Notitia and Curiosura and of Statins. The inscription, of which only the letters estituer now remain, was seen and the whole of it transcribed by a writer of the ninth century, whose MS. is preserved at Einsiedeln.^ It recorded the restoration of this temple by Severus and Caracalla. The letters estituer stand at the lower edge of the frieze, showing that there was another line above. This upper line was divo. VESP. AUG. S.P.Q.R., and referred to the original building of the temple, while the lower line recorded its restoration. The temple was approached by a flight of steps from the road be- tween it and the Temple of Saturn, the uppermost of which were placed between the columns and have been partially re- stored. The three columns which now remain are the three corner columns of the portico. They have fluted shafts and Corinthian capitals. The letters of the inscription were of metal, and the holes of the rivets which fastened them are still visible. The architrave and cornice are ornamented very richly with the usual mouldings, and there are some most interesting reliefs upon the frieze representing sacrificial implements and the skulls of oxen. A horsetail for sprinkling, and a sacrificial knife with a vase, a patera, an axe, and a high ]>riest's mitre are plainly distinguishable. Another portion of the entablature was pieced together by Canina and is still kept in the rooms of the Tabularium. The walls of the cella were built of travertine faced with marble. Against the back wall stands a large pedestal which supported the statue of the deified Emperor. Temple of Concord.— Next to the temple of Vespasian, we are told by Statins, stood the Temple of Concord. The site is also determined by passages in Plutarch and in Dion Cassius, and by the plan given in the Capitoline map. Exca- vations were carried out here in 1817, 1830, and 1835, which resulted in disclosing the foundations of the temple, and in finding some inscriptions which attest the dedication of this spot to the goddess Concord. The temple of Concord was * See '* Rome and the Campagna," p. 58. founded, according to Livy, Ovid, and Plutarch, by Camillus in B.C. 367, on the memorable occasion when the senate, after a long and anxious debate, wisely determined to make peace with the Commons by throwing open the office of Consul to the plebeian order. ^ It was placed near the old meeting-place (Comitium) of the privileged families (gentes), as if constantly to remind them that the newly established concord of the community was under the special sanction of the gods. When the Temple of Camillus was first restored we do not learn. The earliest notice of a new Temple to Concord is the statement that the Consul Opimius was ordered by the senate on the death of C. Gracchus to build a new temple to Concord. The temple seems to have been a kind of Pantheon or museum, for it was filled with a great number of statues of various gods, and with curiosities. On the left-hand side of the remaining founda- tions of the cella are two large pedestals which probably sup- ported two of the principal statues. Tiberius rebuilt it after his German campaign in a.d. 6 and 7, and dedicated it in honour of himself and his brother. The form of the latest restoration, which seems to have been carried out after the building behind it, the so-called Tabu- larium, was built, as it is placed close to that building which must have rendered the decorations on its walls invisible, can be traced by the present relics of foundation walls, and pre- sents a singular deviation from the normal j^lan of a Roman temple. The pronaos, or front chamber, is narrower than the cella or shrine behind it, and forms a sort of porch to it. This is an instance of the form of temple called prostylos by Vitruvius, and consisting of a broad Tuscan cella with a narrow Greek portico.^ The cella has greater breadth than depth. The basement is of considerable height in front, and some of the steps, Cicero's Gradus Concordise ^ can be traced, while the enormous threshold of African marble still remains. A coin of Tiberius shows us that the temple had a portico of six columns in the Corinthian style, and a group of three figures embracing as a * See •* Rome and the Campagna," p. 91. * Ibid., p. xxix. ' Cic. Phil. vii. cli. 8. The third Catilinarian oration was delivered here. •^:^ K.^.; THE FORUM ROMAN UM. 63 ;i of fliA ton One of the bases of the ,«bol of concord, atj^etop^ One^^.^^ Museum and a tlumus l^^,f '\\.P^/;;';rtsto>-ed by Caniua, showing that the ortion of t^J^»';«J''„\ eat beauty. The inscription is IjBcorative work was oi ^r century, and the ,en in the Bmsiedeln MS of t*^^ "^^"^^^^rv, as we learn mile was still standing in the twelttn cenxu • ;}i aie Ordo Bomanus a i^ocession ro^^^^^^ ^rrpos^in the Jre probably earned away ?/ H'"'''\"-,J simple of Con- ^irte^nth century, mween the luiiisot^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^ Bili^^r:? Cstr::; W^S' ^^e name has been ^^'^^l^-^rSSr^^^^^^ ijts'^been'iden^ified of late years with the church of S. lAdriano near the arch^fSeveruB. ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^ ^, Arch of Severus. ^lobt: Septimius Severus, Concord stands ^etnum^^^^^^ The side composed ot three arcnwctp^a pp^ifral archway by small -•'^W^rthX^nntw^t -S :r:hed Wriors of openings in the '"^^V^"",' °^^,,„.„ coffers with rosette orna- all three are decorated by square cone p,<,eonnesian ments. On each side «t^".'J,\°'''^„t?iTedestals of which are marble with Composi^^e -F^^^^btlSn captives clothed bas-reliefs representing 'Ji'"''^, , ^ phrvgian cap, and in breeches j^"-! -*=^""S ^^^^r^ weLtng the 'lacerna. The conducted by B^man ^^^^lers weai g ^^^^^ ^ ^^,, spandrils of the arches are ^uf'^f °;^*^ r" ^ ^u^gg ^f the of Victory and symbols of captivity >n t^e on riyer gods of .tl^e f "J^;X::tJlVge bS rdief sculptured of outer and inner pillars there^a^^ g ^^^^^^^ ,tyle. The scenes executed in a yery c""^ , ^jj^ goddess Eoma £o-l--'--\ra;rortC^'Ct wM^h is personified by r:raltarrnra Uara. B^;nd^h^.^in a^^^^^ carts -VbTteurAbo^'h!: t'roriine of figures rcrrls^u^fm^^^^^^^^^^ KS i^SSLl^^^"^ on the side 1 See Middleton's " Ancient Rome," i. 239. / 64 ANCIENT ROME. towards the Forum is represented on the left hand the raising of the Parthian siege of Nisibis in northern Mesopotamia by Severus after he had crushed his rivals ^Emilianus and Pescennius Niger in Pontus and Syria. The taking of the town of Carrse west of Nisibis, and the march of the Koman army thence against the Adiabeuians are also here portrayed. The compartment on the right hand, looking from the Forum, contains a bas-relief representation of the surren- der of Abgarus, king of Osroeue,' and the siege of the town of Hatra on the Tigris. On the other side towards the Capitol and so-called Tabu- larium,the second campaign of Severus in the East is portrayed. On the right hand the flight of the Parthians from Babylon, the entry of the Romans into the city and the second siege of Hatra are represented. On the left is the wresting of the towns of Seleucia and Ctesiphon from the Parthians, the flight of their king Artobanus and the surrender of the Arabians who had joined the Parthian side." The entablature which surmounts these arches is badly designed and executed, the projections over the columns being far too heavy. Upon the attica above the entablature there are the traces of nails on the corner pilasters which seem to have borne some military ensigns. The whole central space of the attica is occupied by a long inscription formerly inlaid, as appears from the rivets, with metal. Upon a coin of Severus giving a representation of the arch, a chariot with six horses is shown standing over the attica, and on the four comers were equestrian statues. From the inscription it api)ears that the arch was built in the year a.d. 203. The repetition of the title Parthicus, points to the Parthian campaigns of Severus. In the fourth line the name of Geta and his titles have been erased, as in other ruins of the same date, and the words optimis fortissi- MiSQUE PRiNCiPiBUs inserted in their place. In the middle ages the tower of a church called SS. Sergio e Bacco was built upon the top of this arch, but was removed in 1536 on the entry of Charles V. by command of Pope Paul III. The Graecostasis and Rostra. — Near the Arch of H 09 > H ^ Dion Cass. Ixxvii. 12. a Herodian, iu. 9, 10, 11. Hist. Aug. Vit. Sev. 9, 16, 17. 66 ANCIENT ROME. Severus, and also between the temple of Saturn and the corner of the Basilica Julia, some substructions of large peperino stones and other forms of building have been dis- closed. These may have belonged to pedestals upon which statues were placed, or in the case of those near the arch of Severus to the later Rostra and Grsecostasis, and in the case of those near the corner of the Basilica Julia to the Arch of Tiberius. The round pedestal which stands near the Arch of Severus was possibly the pedestal of the Miliarium Aureum, ^^^. \itn. Remains of the Gr.ecostasis and Rostra. as it is not strong enough to bear the weight of a heavy statue.' A representation of the Rostra of the Empire which stood here is given in the relief on the face of the Arch of Constan- tine, which looks towards the Coliseum, where three arches are seen, corresponding to the Arch of Severus on the right, and one arch corresponding to that of Tiberius on the left. Constantine is shown in this bas-relief addressing the j^eople from the Rostra. These Rostra and Grsecostasis have now ^ See Parker's Arch.Tol. vol. ii. pi. xi. \ THE FORUM ROMANUM. 67 III been more completely excavated, and the form of the Rostra has been approximately determined.^ The Career. — Under the church of S. Giuseppe dei Faleg- nami, which stands near the Arch of Severus, are two chambers, which are always shown as the ancient prison of Rome, said to have been first built by the King Ancus Martins, and then rebuilt or enlarged by Servius Tullius. The upper of these two chambers is of an irregular shape, but the lower is con- structed in a conical form by the gradual projection of the stones forming the sides. This mode of building an arch is of very early date, before the introduction of the principle of the round arch, and is found in the oldest tombs of Etruria, and in well-houses at Tusculum and Caere. There can be no doubt that this part of the building is of great antiquity. But the proofs that it ever formed a prison are not so clear. This has been inferred from the striking account by Plutarch of the imprisonment of Jugurtha, who states that Jugurtha was placed in a cell with water at the bottom, and exclaimed, ** Hercules, how cold your bath is ! '* Hence it has been thought that the prison must have had water in it, as this chamber has. Another proof that this is the ancient prison, called in the Middle Ages the Mamertine prison, from a statue of Mars or Mamers, or from the Forum Martis near it, has been derived from the statements of many Roman authors, who place the prison on the slope of the Capitol, near the Forum, and speak of an inferior as well as a superior chamber. The prison was probably in this neighbourhood, but the shape of the conical vault is rather that of a well-house. Mommsen has therefore suggested that this was the original purpose of the lower chamber, and that it was used as a cistern for collecting the water from the surrounding slopes. Middleton, who thinks that it was the Career, commonly called the Tullianum, agrees that it was originally a well.^ The top of the ancient conical vault is truncated and closed, vdth the exception of a round hole, by slabs of stone fastened together with iron cramps. A communication with the arched sewers which run down to the Forum, and also with an archway which reaches up the slope to some large chambers on the north-west under the 1 See Middleton's " Ancient Rome," i. 253. =* See ''Ancient Rome," i. 153. i \ 68 ANCIENT ROME. THE FORUM ROMAN UM. 69 Vicolo del Ghettarello, has been opened by Mr. Parker, and these larger vaulted chambers which are of great antiquity, have been taken to be extensions of the original regal j)rison. But there is no sufficient evidence to show that those arched passages were used for any purpose of transit, and they were more probably channels for draining off the water, which would otherwise have accumulated in the chambers or on the sloj>es. An inscription is fixed in the outer wall, recording a restora- tion of the building by the Consuls C. Vibius Rufinus and M. Cocceius Nerva, as ordered by a decree of the Senate. These two men were consules suffecti before a.d. 24, probably in A.D. 22, the ninth year of Tiberius. But the name of the building is not mentioned in this inscription, and it seems uncertain whether it has not been removed from elsewhere. There was another and larger prison in this district, called the Lautumiae. Forty-three iEtolian prisoners are said by Livy to have l>een crucified in the Lautumiae, which must therefore have been certainly much more extensive than the cell which is called the Career Maraertinus. Seneca also mentions the request of a prisoner, Julius Sabiuus, that he might be removed from the Career to the Lautumiae.* There seems, therefore, to be hardly any distinct proof that the conical cell was ever anything more than a water tank, and the name of prison which has been attached to it is possibly a mediaeval legenoetieal : Georg. ii. 502. CHAPTER III. THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE. Meta Sudans. — On the road from the Forum Romanum to the Coliseum, after passing through the Arch of Titus, we descend between the platform and ruins of the Temple of Venus and Rome, and the remains called the lavacrum of Heliogabalus, mentioned previously (p. 39), and, close to the south-western corner of the mass of substruction on the left, we find a conical column of brick-work about 30 feet high. A large breach on the side towards the Coliseum shows that the centre was pierced with a perpendicular pipe, and the eastern side exhibits traces of having been divided into three ledges or stages.^ This conical building stood in the centre of a circular basin, the ruin of which has been traced out and restored. The shape would of itself point to the purpose which this building served, even if this were not rendered clear by the remains of a water-course which descended to it from the Esquihne. The name Meta Sudans, by which the ruin is known, comes from the mediaeval list of buildings known as the Curiosum Urbis, but the earliest authority to which we can appeal for its date is a coin of Alexander Severus, a.d. 222. The passage of Seneca in which he gives the name Meta Sudans as being a spot at which the flute-players and trumpeters made a din by their practice, does not give us any information as to its position, and therefore we are not justified in assuming that the fountain was erected in Nero's time. The coins of Titus which represent the Coliseum do not show it. Cassiodorus and other chronologists place the date of the Meta Sudans in Domitian's reign, and this agrees with the coins of Titus and also with the nature of the brick- work, which is of the Flavian era. ^ See illustration, p. 34. THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE. 73 H H © © O Si < X Sei © H © H X Arch of Constantine. — Near the Meta Sudans at the entrance of the Via di S. Gregorio stands the Arch of Con- stantine, the most completely preserved of all ancient Koman buildings. The name of Constantine, revered by subsequent ages, seems to have defended the archway from the barbarous spoliation which attacked most of the great monuments of Rome. The most interesting feature of this arch in the history of art is the proof which it gives of the decline of art in the fourth century. Some of the reliefs with which it is ornamented were taken from an older arch, probably that which formed the entrance to Trajan's Forum, and those which are of Constantine's time show a coarse and harsh style of execution in lamentable contrast to the flowing and delicate lines of the more ancient work by their side. Among the sculptures which belong to the earlier and better j^eriod are the large reliefs under the central arch and those which are placed on either end of the attica. These four were originally parts of a larger relief which has been sawn into four equal pieces for the purpose of adorning Constantine's arch. The order in which they stood in the original design has been pointed out by Bellori. The first part is that now placed on the inside of the middle archway towards the Coliseum, the second stands on the side of the attica over the arch towards the Cselian, the third on the inside of the middle archway towards the Palatine, and the fourth upon the attica on the same side. When united they represented Trajan crowned by Victory, with the goddess Roma standing near ; a battle between Dacians and Romans, ending in the defeat and submission of the barbarian army. The dress of the Roman soldiers and of the Dacians is similar to that represented on Trajan's column, and quite different from the Roman military habit in the age of Constantine. Besides these four rectangular reliefs the eight circular sculptures which stand over the smaller archways belong to the time of Trajan. They represent hunting scenes and sacrificial ceremonies. The eight large reliefs upon the attica over the side archways are also of the workmanship of Trajan's time, and commemorate some of the exploits of that emperor, among which may be mentioned the construction of a road through the Pontine marshes represented upon the second relief from the left on the side of the attica towards the 74 ANCIENT ROME. Coliseum. The reclining figure with the wheel represents the road, and the other figures the surveyors, one of which is perhaps Apollodorus, the famous Greek architect of Damascus. The other reliefs upon the sides of the attica re])reseut interviews of Trajan with barbarian princes, and the common sacrifice of the Suovetaurilia, so frequently depicted on the reliefs of the columns of that emperor, and also on the large marble screens now standing in the Forum Komanum. The remainder of the sculptures belong to the Constantinian era, ajid contain, viewed as works of art, nothing worth attention. One of them on the side next to the Coliseum is, however, of great interest to the antiquarian, as it repre- sents the rostra of the later Empire and the northern end of the Forum, with the arches of Severus and Tiberius, and the end of the Basilica Julia, and another, on the side towards the Via di S. Gregorio representing the victory jf Constantine over Maxentius at the Milvian bridge, is historically valuable. The figures which stand in front of the attica have the Dacian costume, and have been removed from some one of Trajan's buildings. Upon the side of the central archway can be still seen the traces of nails which fastened some Roman ensigns to the stones. Similar traces of nails are to be seen upon the arch of Severus as before mentioned. The inscriptions over the smaller arches refer to the decen- nalia or vicennalia, a festival celebrated after the time of Augustus every ten years of an emi)eror's reign when he was supposed to have the imperium conferred upon him afresh. The meaning of the expression votis x. votis xx. seems to be that these inscriptions were put up on the " vota " or day when vows were made for the emperor's safety at the beginning of the tenth and twentieth years of his reign. This is not an uncommon signification of the word " vota " in later Latin. The day which was usually called vota was either the first or third of January, and the custom of offering these vows was retained long after Christianity had been nominallv made the state religion, so that it is not surprising to find it alluded to on Constantine's arch.' The words on the other side of the arch SIC. x. sic. xx. may be interpreted as the form of words ,J See Cafftubon's note on Spartian, Hist. Aug. p. 40 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 17 ; x\i. 22. H Pm en O O b O X u « 76 ANCIENT ROME. used in makiuor vows to the emperor. " Sic x. annos regnet ; sic XX. annos regnet." " May his reign last ten years more or twenty years." The larger inscription which is cut upon the attica on both sides shows that the arch was erected in honour of the victor}- of Constantine over Maxentius, and the union of the empire under one sovereign. It is not, however, certain that the arch was built in the first year of Constantine's sole reign, for not only do the words instinctu divinitatis " by inspiration of the Deity," seem to indicate a more decided leaning to Christianity than Constantine showed at the beginning of his reign, but the title of Maximus, which is found in the inscrip- tion, does not occur in the coins of Constantine before the tenth year of his reign. The solid contents of this arch, as may be seen by ascending the staircase which is entered by a door at some height from the ground at the end nearest the Palatine Hill, are mainly composed of pieces of marble taken from other buildings, and it has even been suspected that the plan itself, which in beauty of proportion suri)asses the Arch of Severus, was borrowed, together with the materials, from Trajan's Arch or some older building now destroyed. The Coliseum. We now pass from the Arch of Constantine, with its borrowed ornamentation, to the great ruin of Eome, the Coliseum, or Flavian Amphitheatre. Although two-thirds of the original building have disappeared under the shameful treatment to which the barbarous nobles of the middle ages subjected it, enough still remains to show the arrangement of the entrances, passages, and seats of this wonderful construction. The plan of the whole may be best described as consisting of three principal massive concentric elliptical arcades. The intervals between each of these are filled in with other arched work containing corridors and stair- cases, and between the innermost of these three arcades and the wall which surrounded the arena was a triple system of substruction supporting the lower parts of the rows of seats in the amphitheatre. The stone used throughout is travertine, with the exception of some interior work of brick X r. < X u. o 78 ANCIENT ROME. and concrete, and some pumice-stone in the arches. The elliptical 8ha{)e was probably chosen instead of the circular in imitation of the amphitheatre of Curio, which was composed of two semicircular theatres with their stages between them. The name Coliseum was possibly derived from the great colossal statue of Nero which for a long time stood close to the Flavian Amphitheatre, and when the real history of the amjihitheatre was lost, would naturally become the most prominent mark by which it could be designated. This colossal statue was placed originally in the vestibule of Nero's Golden Palace, and was 120 feet high, according to Suetonius. The material was bronze and the artist was Zenodorus. It appears that Vesimsian, and afterwards Hadrian, moved the colossus to make room for their new buildings, and that it was finally placed upon the massive pedestal of brickwork which still remains on the north of the Coliseum. That it actually stood upon this pedestal is shown by a coin of Alexander Severus, whi(;h represents the Coliseum with the colossus close to it. It is said by Gibbon that the name Coliseum was also given to the amphitheatre at Capua without reference to a colossal statue. The Capuan title may, however, have been taken from the Roman. The major axis of this huge amphitheatre, from one outside wall to the other, measures 602 feet, the minor 507. The principal outer wall is 157 feet in height, and is divided into four stories.^ Of these the lowest stands on a substruction of two steps, and originally consisted of an arcade of eighty arches, between which stood half columns of the Doric order. These outer arches, with the exception of thirty-three arch- ways, have disappeared. Upon these rests a very simple en- tablature without any of the usual peculiarities of the Doric style, and rather belonging to the Ionic, a mixture of styles not very rare in Rome.' The arches are all numbered. These numbers were probably intended to correspond to those upon the entrance tickets and rows of seats, in order that the * The ffreat amphitheatre at El Djenmi in Tunis is 480 feet by 420 and 102 feet in height, that at Pola in Istria 437 by 346 feet and 97 feet m height. Shaw's "Travels," i. p. 220. Ann. dell' Inst. 1852. Allason s Pola. =* The tomb of Scipio Barbatus in the Vatican is another curious instance of this mixture ofDoric and Ionic decorative forms. THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE. 79 spectators might find their proper seats with ease. There is a staircase and a vomitorium corresponding to every four arches, and the vomitoria as well as the entrance arches were all numbered to prevent confusion. A ticket for the amphi- theatre at Frosinone has been found. It bears an inscription CAN. VI. IN. X. VIII., thus giving the position and number of the seat. The arches which stood at the extremities of the minor axis were the approaches to the imperial pavilions. They were ornamented with marble columns and carved work on the exterior, and led in the interior to a large withdrawing-room, from which there was a separate passage to the emperor's throne (pulvinar) on the podium. On the Esquiline side the imperial entrance may still be recognized by a slight projection in the substructions, and by the pillars of white marble lying near it, which originally stood on each side. The same arrangement was doubtless made on the Caelian side, where the Emperor Commodus made himself an underground approach. The other two principal entrances at the extremities of the major axis lead directly into the arena, and were probably used for the entry of processions or marching bodies of gladiators, or machines of various kinds. The entablature of the first story is surmounted by an attica, with projections corresponding to the columns below. Above these stand the arches of the second story, between which half -columns of the Ionic order are placed. The details of the architecture here are in a very meagre style, for the spiral lines on the volutes are omitted, and also the usual toothed ornaments of the entablature. The same remark applies to the third story, the half -columns of which have Corinthian capitals with the acanthus foliage very roughly worked. The fourth story has no arches, but consists of a wall, pierced with larger and smaller square windows placed alternately, and is decorated with pilasters of the Com- posite order. Between each pair of pilasters three consoles project from the wall, and above these are corresponding niches in the entablature. The purpose of these was to sup- port the masts upon which the awnings were stretched. The second and third of the principal concentric walls contain arches corresponding to those in the outer wall. Con-idors run between these concentric walls, and on the first 80 ANCIENT ROME. and second floors of the outer ring, and the first floor of the inner ring, these circles afford a comi>letely unobstructed passage all round. The other corridors are blocked up in parts by various staircases, leading to the ui)per rows of seats. Within the third principal concentric arcade the supports of the building take the form of massive walls, radiating from the centre of the ellipse, and divided by elliptical corridors into three ranges. Between these massive walls and in the corridors are the steps and passages leading to the lower seats of the amj^hitheatre. The actual seats which were of marble have been all i)ilfered for the benefit of the Eoman palaces and churches of the feudal ages, but we can still make out with tolerable certaintv the five princiiml divisions into which they were separated. The lowest of these, called the podium, was a platform raised 12 or 15 feet above the arena, ui)on which were placed the chairs of the higher magistrates and dignitaries. This was protected by railiucrs and nets full of sj)ikes, and sometimes also bv trenchers called euri]>i, and horizontal bars of wood or iron which turned freely round, and thus afforded no hold to the paws of a wild animal. Above the i)odium were four different orders of seats, divided by belts of upright masonrv from each other. The first of these consisted of about twenty rows of seats, and was appropriated to the knights and tribunes, and other state officers. The upi)er row of this set was probably at a heic^ht of about ten feet above the top of the arches of the lowest story. The next ranges of seats between the second and third belt were appropriated to Koman citizens in general, and held the greatest number of spectators. The wall dividing these seats from the next set was verv high, and contained, besides the vomitoria and entrance doors a number of windows for the purpose of lighting the corridors and passages. A considerable part of this wall is still extant upon the side towards the Esquiline Hill. Above it ran the third set of seats, occupied by the lower classes of the people and above this again, and separated from it by a very low wall without vomitoria, was the fourth group of seats, im- mediately under the windows of the uppermost story and ssibility of the failure of any part to bear whatever weight might be heaped upon it, and the entrances, galleries and vomitoria were by the oval form of the buildmg rendered so numerous that each seat in the whole cavea was accessible at once and without difficulty. A system of carefully arranged barriers in the passages would effectually prevent confusion and excessive crowding. In endeavouring to adorn the great amphitheatre of the metropolis more richly than those of the provinces its architect defeated his own object. Some of the provincial amphitheatres, as that of Capua, though in other respects like the Coliseum, show a simpler and therefore more natural exterior. When the Doric order is retained in all the tiers, it harmonizes far better with the rude strength of such an edifice than the Corinthian and Ionic orders of the Coliseum. At Verona and Pola a still further improvement is made by the rustication of the exterior. At Nismes, on the other hand, the faults of the Coliseum are aggravated by breaking the entablatures, and introducing pediments over each front ; and in the small Amphitheatrum Castrense at Rome, where the Corinthian order is executed in brick, a lamentable illustration of Roman want of taste is exhibited. The holes which are now so conspicuous in the travertine blocks of the exterior wall of the Coliseum were probably made in the middle ages to extract the iron clamps by which the stones were fastened together. Some antiquarians have, however, held that they are the holes in which the beams of the buildings which clustered round the Coliseum in mediaeval times were fixed. At the end of the fifteenth and at the be- ginning of the sixteenth century, the travertine blocks of the amphitheatre were used as a quarry from which to build palaces, and it is said that the Palazzo di Venezia, the Palazzo Faruese, and the Palazzo della Cancelleria were con- structed of the stone robbed from hence. During part of the eleventh and twelfth centuries a castle of the powerful family of the Frangipani, which afterwards belonged to the Anni- baldi stood in the walls of the Coliseum. Later generations of nobles and popes since the beginning of the nineteenth century have propped the building by buttresses of brick- work, and have endeavoured to postpone the date foretold by two Anglo-Saxon pilgrims as that of the fall of Rome. " When the Coliseum falls, Rome will fall." ' » GiblKin, '* Decline and Fall," ch. Ixxi. 'i 88 ANCIENT ROME. The Esquiline. Aurea Domus of Nero. Baths of Titus.— The Coli- seum was built by Vespasian in a depression between the Cselian and Esquiline Hills, which had been occupied bv a large lake of ornamental water, called the Stagnum Neronis, used by Nero for aquarian entertainments and exhibitions! The vast palace known as the Domus Aurea Neronis extended along the side of the Esquiline on the north of the Coliseum. The Flavian emperors destroyed this palace, and Titus built a new group of courts and chambers over the ruins. The relics of these buildings of Titus are now remaining mingled with the substructures and lower parts of the Domus Aurea which they superseded. They are entered bv a gateway on the road leading from the Coliseum to S. Pietro in Vincoli. So far as we can draw any conclusion from the fragmentary and confused piles of ruins now left, and from the plan which Palladio sketched at a time when the remains of the palace had not so completely disappeared, it seems that this part of Nero's palace consisted of a long straight facade of buildings extending along the slope of the Esquiline from east to west m the direction marked on the plan (a— b). In front of this there seems to have been a projecting court surrounded by small chambers (c— d). A few of these still remain at the western end, and are used as a dwelling-house for the custode. Behind the above-mentioned facade were numerous rooms of various kinds, and courts surrounded with colon- nades. One of these courts with its adjacent corridors and apartments is now partly accessible (e, f), but the greater part were filled in with rubbish when the baths of Titus were built over them, and have never been entirelv cleared. In the centre of this court the remains of a fountain-basin and a pedestal may be seen. The area is now traversed by parallel walls built by Titus to serve as substructions to his Thermse. These are indicated on the plan by the dotted lines in black. All the rooms in this part which are now accessible have arched roofs, and are covered with decorative paintings. Fortunately a great number of these have been preserved to us by artists who copied them before they were destroyed by damp and the soot of the cicerone's torch. At the present ) THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE. 89 time scarcely enough remains to show the beauty and delicacy of the designs. The best preserved paintings are in the long north corridor, where is also an inscription illustrating Persius, Sat. i. 113. The two snakes were symbolic of the Lares Compitales, and are common at Pompeii. Raphael adopted the same style of ornamentation as that preserved here in the Loggie of the Vatican. The rooms now shown, which contain a bath and other household apparatus, apparently belonged to a private house, and may either have formed a pai*t of the Aurea Domus, or of some house built on its site at the time im- mediately following Nero's death. The eleven rooms (f) which occupied the north side of the court (e) contain traces of wooden staircases leading to an upper story. The decora- tions and fittings of these appear to have been so inferior to those of the other rooms, that we must suppose them to have been occupied by the imperial slaves, or by the household troops. At the northern end of this row of chambers is a room with mosaic pavement at a considerably lower level than those surrounding it, and which must therefore have belonged to some building earlier in date than the Domus Aurea. It is sometimes called a part of the House of Maecenas, but there is no authority for this, and it is more probable that the House of Maecenas stood nearer to the Agger of Servius. Sette Sale. — Another portion of the Domus Aurea is still visible at the Sette Sale, a large brick building lying in a vineyard to the left of the Via delle Sette Sale. The purpose of this was plainly to serve as a reservoir for water, and it is shown to have belonged to the Domus Aurea, and not to the Thermae of Titus, by the correspondence of its position with the ground-plan of the former. It may have been afterwards used in connection with the Thermae, and was possibly preserved with that view, while the rest of the palace was destroyed or buried. The peculiar construction of the interior, which is divided into nine compartments, communicating with each other by openings — not placed opposite to each other, but in a slanting direction across the building — is said to have been so arranged in order to prevent the heavy mass of water from bursting open the sides of the building. The group of the Laocoon was found near the 90 ANCIENT ROME. Sette Sale, and it is supposed that the state-rooms of Titus may have contained that group of statues. Thermae of Titus.— Returning to the ruins of the Baths of Titus near the Coliseum it may be observed that these Thermae were connected with the Coliseum by a portico, traces of which can still be seen on the north* side of the amphitheatre. The arrangement of the building corresponded m some degree to that of the Baths of Caracalla, consisting apj)arently of a large square court surrounded bv various offices and places for recreation, in the centre of which stood a vast mass of building containing the bath-rooms. The sides of this court were not parallelto any lines of building in the Domus Aurea, and, therefore, in order to form a level area many new substructions had to be erected. This is plainly the case with the theatre (a), which occupied the centre of the side towards the Coliseum. In order to raise this to the level of the rest of the area, the nine huge arched chambers, which are now a most conspicuous part of the ruins, were erected, and one of the courtvards of the Domus Aurea was filled, as we have seen, with parallel walls of bnckwork. On each side of the theatre there were probably gymnasia, libraries, or ball courts (b b). The central building was occui)ied with the frigidarium and tepidarium, and the other usual adjuncts of a large Roman bath (c c c). The catalogue called the ** Curiosum urbis Romse " places not only the Baths of Titus but also those of Trajan in the ^ird region. The anonymous MS. of Einsiedeln places Trajani Thermae near the Church of S. Pietro in Vincoli ; and Anastasius in his " Life of Symmachus," mentions them as near the Church of S. Martino. It is, therefore, abun- dantly proved that the Thermae of Trajan stood at the back of the Baths of Titus, and it is here that we find them placed m the plan of Palladio. That they were distinct buildings seems clear from an inscription in which they are separately mentioned. A satisfactory explanation of the apparently strange fact that Trajan erected new and smaller Thermae near those of Titus is given by one of the chronologers of the period, who speaks of the Baths of Trajan as intended for women, for whom there was no separate accommodation provided in those of Titus. The scattered ruins to the north of the Baths of Titus may have belonged to Trajan's Baths. p. 90. A^^'^^F" ^ /'.':^/i/}(iiiii<-i\\\W \'\^'^' :/;.\'f.imii:-c. «s§^ §|S?&':^>- % ■^r^li'li^ :^^>: . The Site of the AUREA DOMUS OF NeRO AND THE Baths ofTitus. Th^rrrvet Titi et Trcdajvi. Aurew dxjnvuLS et stagmcrw Nercmis. Ltfnjdxjw: G.StU/Ji Sons. ¥.S.W«Uer,FJLG.S. THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE. 91 On the Esquiline Hill, besides the Baths of Titus, the Domus A urea, and the Sette Sale, we find four remarkable ruins, which are called the Trophies of Marius, the Arch of Gallienus, the Minerva Medica, and the Auditorium of Maecenas. Trophies of Marius.— The ruin called the Trophies of Marius stands at the comer of the Via di S. Bibiana. It consists in the lower part of a number of small and curiously- shajied comjmrtmcnts of brickwork, with openings at seven or eight different points. Underneath these, and now hidden under the level of the ground, is a large basin or tank, and above them the upper part of the building is formed by the remains of three niches, in which stood the marble trophies now placed upon the balustrade of the steps of the Capitol. They were removed to the Capitol by Sixtus V. in the year 1585. The name Trophies of Marius is an attempt to explain the more ancient name of Cimbrum, which we find attached to the ruin in the middle ages, by identifying the trophies with the Tropsea Marii mentioned by Suetonius as having been pulled down by Sulla and restored by Julius Caesar.' But although we must allow that there is some probability in the supposition that the Marian trophies may have occupied these niches, yet it is certain that the building itself was intended to serve another purpose, that of the castellum or principal reservoir of an aqueduct, with a public fountain in the form of a cascade in front. The basin which has been discovered under the building, and the peculiar shape of the complicated interior structure, can be best explained thus, and the remains of some part of the aqueduct itself may be seen at the back. It was at one time supposed that the Aqua Julia ended here, but it is now generally acknowledged that the ruin belonged to the Aqua Alexandrina, and that the name Nymphaeum Alexandri, found in the catalogues of the fifth region, must be assigned to it. The Alexandrine Aque- duct was built by Alexander Severus in the year a.d. 225. Water was brought to Rome by means of it from a spot near the Lake Regillus, and a portion is still visible on the left hand of the Via Labicana about two miles from Rome. The level of this aqueduct corresponds exactly with the building * Suet. Jul. ii. Propert. iv. ii. 46. 92 ANCIENT ROME. in question, and the style of brickwork and architecture are such as might belong to the third century. It is possible, as Reber remarks, that Alexander Severus may have found the exact spot where the Trophies of Marius had l)een placed by Julius Csesar convenient for the castellum of his aqueduct, and have used the trophies to ornament the new building which he erected. Arch of Gallienus.— Close to the Church of S. Vito, and spannmg the Via di S. Vito, stands the Arch of Gallienus, erected by M. Aurelius Victor, prefect of Rome in a.d. 262, in honour of the Emperor Gallienus and Empress Salonina. It 18 constructed of travertine, and the ornamental work upon it 18 extremely simple, consisting only of pilasters crowned by roughly worked Corinthian capitals, and surmounted by an entablature of the commonest kind. Part of the basement is buried under the present level of the soil, and from a sketch by San Gallo of its state in the fifteenth century there appears to have been a pediment above the entablature, and two smaller archways on each side. The inscription, which is now hardly legible, is cut upon the architrave and contains a flattering description of one of the most singularly accom- plished and incapable emi)erors of Rome, of whom Gibbon says, " Gallienus was a master of several curious but useless sciences, a ready orator and elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and most contemptible prince." ^ So-called Temple of Minerva Medica.— In the grounds of the Villa Magnani, which are reached from the Via di S. Bibiana, are two small Columbaria, one of which formerly contained inscriptions relating to the family of the Arruntii, and also one which belonged to Statilius Taurus, a nobleman mentioned by Tacitus. This was decorated with scenes from the ^neid of Virgil, but these are nearly destroyed. In the same gardens, not far to the north-west of the Porta Maggiore, stands a lofty and picturesque ruin, comprising a central decagonal hall surrounded by four other apartments, the ground-plan of which has been preserved by San Gallo. The central hall contained nine deep niches, *and the entrance passes through the tenth side. Over the niches and the entrance archway are round-headed windows, and the roof was of Giblon, " Decline and Fall," cli. x. 94 ANCIENT ROME. vaulted brickwork. Traces still remain of stucco work and <.-ement on the inner walls, from which it appears that they were covered with ornamental work and in some jiarts with marble. Parts of the pavement, which was of porphyry, have also been found, and in the neighbourhood of the ruin a number of sculptures have been at various times discovered, among which are statues of Pomona, jEsculapius, Adonis, Venus, Hercules, Antinous, some Lu}>erci, and a Faun. The old toj)ographers, Blondus Flavins and Lucius Fauuus, give the name of Terme di Galuccio or Galuzze to the ruin, and this name has been ingeniously explained as referring to the Thermae or Basilica of Caius and Lucius. But there is no good foundation for this conjecture, or for the identification of the building with the Temple of Minerva Medica, mentioned in the Notitia. The latter name was derived from the supposed discovery here of the Pallas Giustiniani, now in the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican. But another and more ancient account asserts that the statue of Pallas was found near S. Maria sopra Minerva, and therefore the name of Minerva Medica cannot with any certainty be applied here. Canina has proposed another explanation of the name Galuzze. He thinks that the ruins belonged to the Palatium Licinianum, which is mentioned by Anastasius, in his " Life of Simplicius," as near the Church of S. Bibiana. This palace, he thinks, is identical with the Pleasure Gardens of Gallienus, who bore the name of Licinius, in which, according to Tre- bellius PoUio, he used to bathe and banquet with his courtiers. The name Galuzze is, therefore, according to Canina, derived from Gallieni Liciniaria, and the building may be supposed to have formed a part of the baths in Gallienus's pleasure grounds, resembling as it does in its construction the great rotunda of the Baths of Caracalla. The proximity of the Arch of Gallienus adds probability to this conjecture. The basin now standing in the ruin is not ancient, and therefore cannot be held to support this conjecture, but the brickwork and style of architecture are said by competent judges to be such as might have been erected at the time of the later Empire. The building called Minerva Medica by the Notitia may have been near this spot, as some inscriptions here discovered show, but it most probably consisted only of a chapel of no great extent standing near the Via Praenestina. THE COLISEUM AND ESQUILINE. 95 The extensive alterations which have been carried on at Rome during the last few years in the district at the back of the Viminal and Esquiline Hills, where a new quarter of the city is being laid out, have disclosed a number of fragments of sculptures and inscriptions, a detailed account of which has been given from time to time in the " Bullet tino della Com- missione Archeologica Municipale," and in the letters of Mr. Hemans to the "Academy." The most interesting relics bearing upon topographical questions are the inscription relating to the Macellum Liviae and Forum Esquiliuum found near the Arch of Gallienus, and the supposed foundations of the Villa of Maecenas. Most of the antiquarian and artistic relics lately discovered here have been deposited in the Capitoline Museum. Unfortunately the necessary extension of the buildings attached to the railway station has resulted in the destruction of a large portion of the Servian Agger. Some large frag- ments of the huge blocks belonging to the Servian wall may be seen at the back of the station. Traces of a road and a gate were found which have been supposed to belong to the Via and Porta Viminalis, and many confused heaps of ruins, the relics of private houses built up against the side of the agger. In one of these the bricks bore the date of the third consulship of Servianus, a.d. 134, and of that of Niger and Camerinus, a.d. 138. A Hermeracles in marble was found near the station, which is figured in the '* Bullettino della Commissione " for March 1873, and numerous mosaic pavements, one of which is laid on the floor of the waiting-room at the station. Auditorium. — One of the buildings attached to an ancient house in this neighbourhood has been carefully preserved and walled in for protection. It stands near the ruin called the Trophies of Marius, and not far from the Arch of Gallienus, and consists of a semicircular recess with ledges rising one above another in the form of a miniature theatre. A more correct description of the site is given by stating that it stands where the former gardens of the convent of the Redentoristi were situated. This building has, on account of its resem- blance to a theatre, and of its position on a spot over which the famous Gardens of Maecenas probably extended, been called the Auditorium of Maecenas, and romantic ideas have Thk Pouta S. Lorenzo (Porta Tibirti.na) with thk spkcus of the Marcian, Tepilan, and J I LI an A'AL Wall of the Forum Augusti (Arco dei Pantani). 114 ANCIENT ROME. which it was probably covered originally, and being now half buried in the rubbish of ages, it presents a somewhat mean and rough appearance. This archwav formed one of the entrances to the Forum Augusti from the east. The wall of the inclosure can be traced for a considerable distance on each side of it, but there are no other archways now open. The monotonous appearance of so high a wall is relieved by having the edges of the stones cut so that each block stands out separately, and the lower part of the wall is divided into two, and its upper into three stages by projecting ruins of travertine. It is said that the blocks of stone in this masonry are fastened with wooden bolts made in the shape of double swallow tails, and that some of these have been found com- pletely petrified. When the Forum was first designed Augustus encountered great opposition from owners of private house property ; and through fear of the unpopularity which wholesale evictions might have caused, he accommodated the shape of the external walls to that of the ground he could occupy. Hence arose the irregular line of the exterior, which was, however, reduced to a symmetrical plan inside by secondary walls. The general shape of the interior area of the inclosure was that of a broad oblong piazza with two large semicircular side extensions or wings (somewhat like those in the Piazza S. Pietro) opposite to and corresponding with each other. The area was large, for the horse races, and games in honour of Mars were held here once when the Tiber had overflowed the circus.^ The temple stood at the northern end between these two side extensions, and occuj)ied about one- sixth of the whole space. Tribunals were placed in the hemicycles and courts of law held there. Some portions of the semicircular recesses are still extant by which their plan may be traced, but the outer wall is in no part preserved entire except at the back and sides of the temple. Its height at the back of the temple is 120 feet, and near the Arco dei Pantani 100 feet, which we must suppose to have been the normal height of the rest of the inclosure. These enormous walls served as a defence against fire, no less than to exclude the traffic and noise of the streets. Although it is possible that Augustus may have entertained ^ Dion Cass. Ivi. 27. '/ THE IMPERIAL FORA AND THE CAPITOLIUM. 115 the design of erecting a new group of public buildings as a means of gaining distinction and popularity before the battle of Philippi which established his power, yet so far as we know, the temple of Mars Ultor and the Forum Augusti owed their existence to a vow made by the emperor immediately before the decisive battle of Philippi, b.c. 42, to build if victorious a temple to Mars as the avenger of his adopted father. The dedication of the temple took place in b.c. 2, accompanied with most magnificent shows of gladiators and splendid sham sea-fights. Forum of Nerva. The Colonnacce. — The Forum of Nerva was in the district through which the Via della Croce Bianca passes, and was connected with the ruin commonly called the Temple of Minerva, still standing on the right- hand side of that street where it is crossed by the Via Alessandrina. Two columns are there to be seen now called the Colon- nacce, half buried in the earth, surmounted by an entab- lature and an attica. The wall behind the columns is built of blocks of peperino of unequal size, and is in a style of masonry inferior to the walls of the Forum of Augustus. In it may be seen the traces of an arch which has l^een filled up with the same stone as that of which the wall is built. The columns, which are of fluted marble, stand out in front of the wall ; but, as in the Arch of Severus, the entabla- ture does not lie between them, but projects from the wall over the capitals, and unites them with the wall. The edges of the architrave are richly decorated, and the frieze contains an elaborately carved bas-relief, which, though unfortunately much disfigured, can be partially understood by the help of old engravings taken before it was reduced to its present lamentable state. From these it apx)ears that the figures represent various attributes of Minerva as the patroness of household manage- ment. Some of them are drawing water, others weaving or spinning, and others dyeing, washing, holding scales and purses as if bargaining. The remaining portion of the design is incomplete, and was probably carried round the rest of the frieze of the inclosure.^ On the cornices, both upper and ' The frieze is described and representations of it are given in the Annali and Monumenti dell' Inst. 1877. i III THE IMPERIAL FORA AND THE CAPITOLIUM. 117 lower, the omamentatioii is very rich, but not so chaste as work of the Augustan period. In the centre of the attica stands a figure of Minerva in alto-relievo, with spear, helmet, and shield. That this beautiful ruin, which is one of the most picturesque in Rome, belonged to the wall of Nerva's Forum is rendered certain by the old views of the sixteenth century, which repre- sent it as* part of the inner side of the wall inclosing a splendid temple which stood to the north-west of it. Seven of the columns of this temple were still standing in the fifteenth century, belonging to the left-hand side of the portico, and a considerable part also of the walls of the cella with the pilasters of the portico. The cella of the temple adjoined the semicircular part of Augustus's Forum on one side, and, as will be seen by the plan, the wall of the inclosure met it on the other, so that only the portico of the temple projected into the open space of the Forum. On tlie front were the words, probably the last line of a longer inscription, " imp. nerva c^sar aug. font, maxim. TRIE. POT. II. IMP. II. PROCOS," showiug that the temple was dedicated by Nerva. There can be but little doubt that this was the temple of Minerva begun together with the Forum by Domitian, and finished by Nerva. It is true that there is no actual notice in any of the ancient writers of a temple of Minerva here, but the assertion of Dion Cassius that Domitian had a particular reverence for Minerva and Janus, and the character of the designs and statues of Minerva found upon the ruined part of the inclosure alreadv described, leave little doubt on the sub- ject. The name of Palladium given to the Forum by Martial also agrees with this supposition. The fate of the Temple of Minerva is better known than that of most of the ancient temples m Rome. In the time of Pope Pius V. (1566-1572) the building of a new quarter of the city was begun in this district. The streets Via Alessandrina and Via Bonella were laid out, and as the new quarter grew, the ruins of the old temple became an impediment to their progress, which Paul V. in the beginning of the seventeenth century ordered to be removed, and to be applied to the construction of the Chapel of S. Paul in the church of S. Maria Ma> The pediment and tympanum over the inscription are still preserved, but two of the columns below have been replaced by a high brickwork arch, probably of the fifth century, which now supports the inscription and pediment. Passing round again into the street Via di Pescaria, we find ourselves in the interior of the gateway. It consisted of four columns placed on each side between two antae or projecting piers ornamented with pilasters, and was of larger dimensions than the colon- nades to which it formed the entrance. The brickwork of the ' Ann. deir Inst. 1850, p. 347. Monum. v. xxiv. O 0, THE VELABRUM AND THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS. 151 antae was originally faced with marble, and they supported arches which led into the colonnades along the line of the street. The bases of the columns are now buried in rubbish, but parts of the architecture, frieze, and cornice, which are of a simple description, may be still traced over the front. The inner side of the gateway, with the exception of the two columns and the pier which stand at the entrance of the Via di S. Angelo in Pescaria, has been removed to make room for the church of S. Michaele Archangelo. If we enter the street just mentioned, the capital of a column may be seen on the right hand, and in the yard stand three others, with a portion of the architecture above them. Their position shows that they formed the corner of a temple. There is ample proof that we have in the ruins just de- scribed, the entrance gateway of the Porticus Octaviae and the corner of the temple of Juno Regina. For Festus states that there were two Octavian porticoes, one built in honour of Octavia, the sister of Augustus, near the Theatre of Marcellus, and a second close to the Theatre of Pompeius, built by Q. Octavius, the conqueror of Perses. The site upon which the former was built had been previously occupied by the Porticus Metelli, built by Q. Metellus Macedonicus, pro- prfietor in b.c. 146, and the Octavian portico was a complete restoration of this by Augustus.' Pliny also mentions two statues of Apollo near the Porticus Octaviae, which probably stood in the Temple of Apollo, known to have been situated outside the Porta Carmentalis between the Forum Olitorium and the Circus Flaminius. But the principal evidence is derived from the plan of Rome, now on the staircase of the Capitoline Museum, where the whole design of this portico is laid down, and the temples which it inclosed are named. We learn from this plan that the portico was in form an oblong space inclosed with colonnades, and that the ruins now remainmg constituted the principal entrance to this court, and to the Temple of Juno Regina which it inclosed. The line of the Via di Pescaria corre- sponds to one of the shorter sides of the court, and in the centre of this side the gateway stood. In two points only » Festus, p. 178, ed. Muller. Velleius, i. 1, 3; ii. 1, 2. 152 A>'CIENT ROME. the Capitoline map fails to correspond with the actually existing ruins. The antae of the gateway are not represented, and the comer column of the Temple of Juno is omitted. The former of these two omissions may be explained by sup- posing that the plan was probably made before the restoration of the portico by Severus. The excavations carried on in 1861 by Pellegrini and Con- I a a a D □ a a a a □ a a n P M a Cliieea a dC a S.Mich. a Arch. n a boaoC a via diFt%carUv PCmzzoc Pescana Site of the Porticus Octavke, as indicated by the Capitoline Plan. tiglioizi, established the following limits for the Portico of Octavia. The southern comer of the rectangle was occupied by a quadrifrontal archway, and this was situated near No. 4 in the Via della Catena di Pescaria. From this the south- western side of the portico ran nearly along the line of the street till it reached the gateway to which the present ruins belong, near the oratory of S. Angelo. The western comer of the portico was also formed by a quadrifrontal archway. The north-western side passed through the church of S. Ambrogio a little below the high altar, and then skirted the THE VELABRUM AND THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS. 153 Palazzo Righetti near the Piazza di S. Caterina de' Funari, where it joined the north-eastern and shorter side. In this side there was a pediment with pillars corresponding to the gateway at the opposite end, but not containing the real entrance, which stood near the angle of the Palazzo Caraletti in the Via de' Delphini. The eastern angle was near the Palazzo Capizucchi, and the south-eastern side passed close to the convent of monks of the order of Madre di Dio, at- tached to the church of S. Maria in Portico in the Piazza di Campitelli. The three Composite columns of marble, which still stand in the house in the Via di S. Angelo in Pescaria, belonged to the Temple of Juno, and stood at the western angle of that temple. The remains of the Temple of Jupiter are hidden under the church of S. Maria in Portico, and the street which is now called Via della Tribuna dei Campitelli occupies the line of the interval between the two temples. A part of one of the side walls of the Temple of Jupiter rises a little above the ground at the corner of the church of S. Maria in Portico. The school or academy of Augustus was behind the temples, and stood near the centre of the Via della Tribuna di Campi- telli. The back of this formed a part of the northern side of the portico. The interior of the gateway has of late years been cleared of some of the buildings which have blocked it up, and the whole is now visible, with all the columns except one, which has been taken away to enlarge the church door. A most interesting relic was found near the side door of the church of S. Angelo in Pescaria in April, 1878, consisting of a pedestal of marble engraved with the title of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi. This was evidently the pedestal of the sitting statue of Cornelia mentioned by Pliny in his "Natural History" as having been placed in the Portico of Metellus. The statue was the work of Tisicrates. Excavations which have been made in the repair of houses and for other objects since 1873, have confirmed the con- clusions which have been stated as to the position of the Portico of Octavia, and the temples near it. Some of the columns of the north side of the portico were found along the row of houses in the Via di Pescaria. 154 ANCIENT ROME. The basement of the Temple of Apollo, between the Theatre of Marcellus and the Portico of Octavia, was found under the Alberto della Catena. Crypta and Theatrum Balbi. — In the Via di S. Maria in Cacaberis were two Doric columns of travertine half buried in the ground, with a portion of entablature above them, and between them an ancient brick arch, forming the entrance to a stable. In the interior of the stable are two other similar arches and columns, and above these there are indications of an upper story. Other ruins of the same description were built into the next house, and into several other houses near. In the sixteenth century, the Bolognese architect SerHo saw more ruins here, and he represents in his sketch an upper story with Corinthian pillars. The name Crypta Balbi, which is found in the catalogue of places in the ninth region, has been given with much probability to these ruins. A crypta, or cryptoporticus, according to Pliny, was a covered corridor with windows, which could be shut or opened at pleasure. Such a building was used for exercise in wet or hot weather. Some were open on one side, others closed on both sides. A cryptoporticus of the latter kind is to be seen in the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea under the baths of Titus. The ruins in the Via di Cacaberis appear to have had open arches at the sides. This cryptoporticus was probably attached to the Theatre of Balbus, as the porticus Pompeii was to the Theatrum Pompeii, and Venuti thinks that it extended along the back of the scena, and that it was intended as a place of shelter for the spectators in case of the sudden showers of rain peculiar to the Roman climate.* The name of the street Cacaberis, or Caccavari, has been derived from crypticula. The Mirabilia, an ancient list of the sights in Rome, calls these ruins Tem})lum Craticulse. Circus Flaminius. — The Circus Flaminius, named from the Flaminian family of ancient Rome, lay in the quarter traversed by the Via delle Botteghe Oscure, and in the neigh- bourhood of the Palazzo Mattei. The Circus was destroyed before the ninth centurv, and there are now no traces of it left to guide us, but before the erection, in the fifteenth cen- tury, of the larger houses in this quarter, some few ruins * Vitruv. v. 9. p~~7 ^ r-^r :J r .s"?. /--. // ^TT W6 J "1 -4, / S-fi-ances Lcesoo '/- I c^ n vj- FalaM.xo / / -1=.^ ^ ^ -^ zTV \ N ":/^ \ \ y '^■ =n JC„A^ 1 1 -/■ V y- L --x < ^N ^-y-- / / >r>/Belloii / \ ^1 /^ ^X \ Wl -r^ \ A / Vxv V / \ N T IVv \ Zj R X X v^ N'^. // ^f^^J'W\=^z ^ ^ X X The ^ Circus Flaminius. ./^ } \ H c Ltondxm/: &.BtU/ Jt, Sons- F.S.WeUer,F.B.G.S. THE VELABRUM AND THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS. 155 appear to have been visible in the neighbourhood of the Palazzo Mattei. These are described by Andrea Fulvio and Ligorio as having belonged to the Circus Flaminius, and according to their account the length of the Circus lay in a direction from west to east, and reached from the Palazzo Mattei, where the semicircular end was situated, to the Piazza Margana where the starting-point lay. A tower, now called the Torre Citrangole, was once called the Torre Metangole, and marked the spot where the goal of the Circus stood. Theatre of Pompeius. — In the district called by the name Circus Flaminius, stand the ruins of a vast range of buildings, the theatre, porticus, curia, and domus Pompeii. That these ruins, which are situated at the back of the church of S. Andrea della Valle, and are plainly those of a theatre, belonged to the Theatre of Pompey, is clear if the proofs given of the situation of the other two theatres in ancient Eome be admitted as sufficient. The place was so familiar to the Romans that we hardly ever find its locality indicated even in any such general terms as in campo Martio or juxta Tiberim, expressions commonly applied to other buildings of less note in the Campus Martins. The remains which are now left of these celebrated build- ings are to be seen in the small piazza of S. Maria di Grotta- pinta, behind the church of S. Andrea della Valle. They consist of ranges of travertine walls, converging to a centre, similar to those still visible in the interior of the Theatre of Marcellus and in the Coliseum, and are plainly the remains of the substructions supporting the cavea of a theatre. Further remains of piers and converging archways of peperino are visible in the cellars of the adjoining Palazzo Pio ; and during some excavations made in 1837, a part of the outer walls of the theatre was discovered, with Doric half columns, and a Doric cornice. Most fortunately the ground plan, not only of the theatre, but also of the whole adjoining portico, is given upon some fragments of the Capi- toline map. The first idea of building such a magnificent theatre seems to have been suggested to Pompey by his visit to the theatre at Mitylene, whither he went after the Mithridatic war to be present at a contest of rival poets held in his honour. Only one attempt had before been made to build a permanent ^i^i 156 ANCIENT ROME. theatre in Kome. The Censor C. Cassius Longinus in the year B.C. 154 had entered into a contract for the construction of a stone theatre near the Lupercal, but the senate, by the advice of Scipio Nasica, a rigid Puritan of the old Roman school, and jealous of the introduction of Greek luxury, ordered it when half finished to be demolished, and the materials sold. The same decree inflicted penalties on any- one who should, either in the city or within a mile of its walls, venture to place any seats for spectators at the games, or sit down while looking on at them. Tacitus states that even in Pompey's time the conservative Romans retained the same dread lest indolence and luxury should be promoted by the construction of permanent theatres.' In carrying out this grand design Pompey was assisted by his freedman Deme- trius, who had amassed immense riches during his master's campaigns, and took this opportunity of paying his acknow- ledgments to the author of his wealth. The capabilities of the theatre must have been very great ; nor need we be surprised to hear that it contained 40,000 seats, for the remaining frag- ments show that it comprehended the whole space between the Via de' Chiavari which corresponds nearly to the line of the scena, the Via di Giubbonari, the Campo di Fiore and the Via del Paradiso. Eastwards from the Via de' Chiavari stretched the long ranges of colonnades of which the Capito- line plan gives the outline, and beyond them the Curia and a temple, with a variety of offices and shops, as far as the Via di Torre Argentina, including the modern Teatro Argentina within their compass. In this theatre Nero gave the grand entertainment to Tiridates, on which occasion not only the scena but the whole interior of the theatre and its furniture was covered with gilding, and a purple velarium stretched over it, upon which Nero himself was represented driving his chariot in the character of the Sun God, with golden stars glittering around him. The scena was burnt in the great fire in A.D. 80, but restored again by Vespasian. Two other con- flagrations and restorations are recorded in the first half of the third century, one in the reign of Philippus in a.d. 249, and a second in that of Diocletian.^ An inscription was found in the Via de' Chiavari in 1551, which commemorates the re- * Tac. Ann. xiv. 20. 2 Hier. Chron. ed. Roncalli, i. 475 ; ii. 247. ' THE VELABRUM AND THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS. 157 storatiou of one of the colonnades under the name of Jovius, a title which Diocletian often assumed, and in the time of Ammianus Man^ellinus the theatre could still be reckoned among the Mirabilia Urbis.' Another inscription given by the anonymous writer of the Einsiedeln MS. records a re- building by Arcadius and Honorius about a.d. 395. At the time the Notitia was compiled, the number of seats had diminished from 40,000, as given by Pliny, to 27,580 or even less, and the theatre was therefore probably in a ruinous state when the last-mentioned restoration took place. The building naturally suffered much in the Gothic wars, and we find that it was again restored by Symmachus in the time of Theodoric, after which it is again mentioned under the right name of Theatrum Pompeii by the anonymous writer of Einsiedeln in the ninth and by the Ordo Romanus in the twelfth centuries ; but in the thirteenth the Orsini family had occuxned it, and so changed the building that at the beginning of the fourteenth century it is called in the Mirabilia, Palatium Pompeii. The Florentine Poggio saw the ruins of the outer wall still stand- ing in the Campo di Fiore in the fifteenth century, but the name of Pompey was then no longer connected with them, until Marliani, Fulvio, and Fauno, the topographers of the sixteenth century, revived the right designation. Canina, in his work on the buildings of the ancients, has taken the greatest pains to give a full description of the ruins now left, and it is from him that most of our information is derived. Ponte S. Sisto.— The bridge now called Ponte S. Sisto, near the ruins of the Theatre of Pompeius, stands on the site of an ancient bridge, which was most probably the one named Pons Aurelius in the Notitia. There is no conclusive proof that this was the Pons Aurelius, but the situation of none of the other bridges seems to suit this name, while it is peculiarly applicable to the bridge in question, because it was the principal passage over the Tiber to the Porta Aurelia and the Aureliau road along the coast to Civita Vecchia. The name frequently given to it by topographers, Pons Janicularis, appears to be a mere invention, as it is not found in any trustworthy authority ; and another name. Pons Antoninianus, by which we find it called in the Middle Ages, > Grut. Inscr. cxi. 6. Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. 158 ANCIENT ROMK. seems to have arisen from the mistaken name Theatrum Antonini, formeriy given to the Theatrum Balbi, which is not far distant, and also from the well-known fondness of Severus and Caracalla for the trans-Tiberine pleasure grounds. Marliani gives an inscription which is said to have existed formerly upon this bridge commemorating its restoration under Hadrian by Messius Rusticus, the Conservator of the Tiber. The bridge must therefore have been originally built before Hadrian's time, and cannot be a work of the Antonines. CHAPTER VI. PANTHEON, COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS, MAUSOLEUM OP AUGUSTUS, MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN, AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. The Septa. — Near the Piazza Venezia and S. Marco, to the east of the site of the ancient Circus Flaminius, stood the Septa, an ancient building erected for the purpose of holding the Roman comitia or elections. Some ruins of a very peculiar kind are situated under the Palazzo Doria and the church of S. Maria in Via Lata. They consist of ancient piers of travertine stone, about 39 inches square, standing in rows at distances of 5 or 6 yards, and evidently belonging to the remains of a portico. There are three rows of these, each containing eight piers under the Palazzo Doria, and five rows under the church of S. Maria in Via Lata, containing each five piers. It is plain that these were originally faced with marble, as the exterior surface of the travertine is rough hewn. The situation of these pillars agrees well with the locality in which the Septa are placed by classical writers, and a further proof that they certainly formed a part of that building is given by the Capitoline map, upon which we find a large tract occupied by a building resting upon piers arranged in regular rows exactly corresponding to the piers under the church of S. Maria and the Palazzo Doria. Upon these frag- ments the letters s^ept and lia are legible, which appear to belong to the words s^pta julia. The shape of the building is very peculiar. It must have reached along the side of the Via Lata from the Piazza di S. Marco to the church of S. Maria in Via Lata, and consisted of a long cloister suppoi-ted by parallel rows of eight marble piers. This cannot have been the arrangement of the place in the Republican or early Imperial times, for a design less 160 ANCIENT ROME. adapted for the orderly meeting of a large body of people can hardly be conceived. It is much more probable that m the present ruins we have the remains of Hadrian s bepta, built when the original purix>se of the building, the reception and division of the centuries when they voted, had become an affair of the past. , , • ^ 4. The desi^m of these spacious covered cloisters seems to have been to afford a sheltered place for various classes of the Roman populace. Even in Domitian's time the Septa had become the common resort of slave vendors, dealers in tancy goods, flaneurs and loungers, and the new arcades were intended possibly for the express accommodation of such per- sons The wide court in which the great assemblies ot the centuries had previously been held was partly filled up by these new buildings, and partly occupied by private houses, as the Capitoline plan shows. When that plan was prepared, in tlie time of Septimius Severus, the old Septa had entirely lost their form and original use, and the name only remained attached to the spacious colonnades of Hadrian. In the early times of the Republic the Septa were simply an inclosed place on the Campus Martins partitioned off mto a number of different plots by means of ropes or slight railintrs, in each of which one division of voters or century assembled, and whence the presidents passed one by one over the pontes to deliver the vote of their respective century. Hence arose the nickname of ovilia, which was given to the 8e])ta on account of their similarity to a sheepfold Julius Cisar first entertained the idea of setting up marble inclo- sures for the comitia centuriata, and surrounding them with a magnificent portico. The whole formed a spacious cloistered court, decorated with works of art, and closely connected with the Villa Pubhca. Caesar's design was completed after his death by Agrippa in b.c. 27, and he gave the building the name Septa Julia. A rostrum was erected in it, and such was the extent of the space inclosed that gladiatorial shows, and sometimes naumachise were held there. This was afterwards altered bv Hadrian as above described. Temples of Isis and Serapis.— Westwards from the septa and nearly upon the site now occupied by the church of S Stefano del Cacco, the little Via di pie di Marmo and a part of the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, stood the TEMPLES OF ISIS AND SERAPIS. 161 temples of Isis, Serapis, and Minerva Chalcidica.' The names of the three temples are given in the catalogue of the Curio- sum in the ninth region, and the sites of the two first, the Iseum and Serapeum, have been sufficiently traced by the numerous Egyptian antiquities which have been found*^ near the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva. Of these the most remarkable are the two obelisks, one of which now stands in the Piazza della Rotonda in front of the Pantheon, and the others on the Piazza della Minerva. The latter of these was found between the church of S. Ignazio and that of S. Maria in the time of Alexander VII. in 1665, and the former had stood, previously to its erection on the present pedestal, in a little piazza near this place, whence it was removed by Clement XI. The antiquarian Fea, in his Miscellanea, gives an account of various other Egyptian relics found on the south-east side of the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, which undoubtedly belonged to the Iseum and Serapeum." Among these was a statue of Isis now in the hall of the dying gladiator in the Capitol, the two Egyptian lions now at the foot of the steps of the Capitol ; the famous group of the Nile now in the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican, and two fragments of an altar with Egyptian reliefs, and the inscrip- tion isiDi SACRUM. Further traces of the same Egyptian worship were found by Canina in the year 1852, of which he has given an account in the Annali dell' Institute of that year. The emperors Commodus and Caracal la were particu- larly given to the worship of Egyptian deities, and the emperor Alexander Severus is said to have bestowed addi- tional decorations upon those temples. The third temple, that of Minerva Chalcidica, which was restored by Domitian, together with the Iseum and Serapeum after the fire in a.d. 80, stood nearer to the Pantheon, and probably occupied the site of the present church called S. Maria sopra Minerva. The statue of Minerva, formerly in the Giustiniani Palace and now placed in the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican, was found here. Some few remains of pilasters which are built into the foundations of the houses between the Via della Minerva and the Via di pie di Marmo may have belonged to this temple. ^ Juv. Sat. vi. 529. Josepli. I}. J. vii. 5, 4. - Fea, Misc. Ixvi. 26 ; cxxv. 17 ; ccliv. 112. M 162 ANCIENT ROME. Pantheon.— The Pantheon is now consecrated as a Christian Church under the name of S. Maria ad Martyres or della Rotonda. This consecration, together with the con- crete structure of the walls, has secured the building against the waste of time, and the still more destructive attacks of the barons of the Middle Ages, who destroyed most of the other great edifices of imperial Rome by either making them their strongholds or pulling them down for building materials. The pronaos rests upon sixteen granite columns, with marble Corinthian bases and capitals. It was formerly approached by six steps, but two only are now above the level of the sur- rounding gn)und. The architrave and frieze are plain, and on the latter stands the inscription, whicli formerly, as may be seen by the holes for nails, was formed by metallic letters : M . AGRIPPA . L . F . cos . TERTIl'M . FECIT. Agrippa was consul for the third time in B.C. 27. Another inscription in small characters stands under this upon the two upper ledges of the architrave, commemorating the restoration of the building by Severus and Caracalla. The i^ediment, as may be seen by the holes of the metal fastenings, formerly contained a bronze relief representing Jupiter hurling thunder- bolts upon the giants. The roof of the pronaos was originally arched, but the vaulting has been replaced by strong beams, and on the outside the gilded bronze has l)een replaced by lead. In the interior of the pronaos, on each side of the entrance are two huge niches which formerly contained the statues of Augustus and Agrippa, but are now empty. The pronaos is connected with the rotunda by two massive projections of masonry ornamented at the sides with marble pilasters and exquisitely worked reliefs in j^entelic marble representing candelabra and sacrificial implements entwined with wreaths. The doorway is of magnificently carved marble slabs, and the folding doors, moving on massive hinges fixed in two projecting pilasters, are of exquisitely worked bronze. The rotunda rests on a rectangular base, similar to those which support the cylindrical part of the mausoleum of Hadrian and the tomb of Csecilia Metella. In the parts where the thickness of the wall is not lessened by niches in the interior, it has the amazing breadth of 19 feet of solid con- The Pantheon. The obelisk in the foreground was found near the site of the Temples of Isis and Serapis. 164 ANCIENT ROME. Crete. In addition to this numerous arches of brick are built into the wall. Three cornices run round the exterior of the rotunda anenin<' 17 feet in diameter. Kound the opening is a ring of ornamental gilded bronze, which is the only part of the old bronze gilt roof now remaining. The masonry of the dome is i)artlv erf pumice stones, chosen for this purix)se on account of their* lightness. The same kind of stone is used in several other buildings in Rome where lightness combined with moderate strength is required. The exterior of the dome is flat and lieavv, and impressive only from its stern and massive soliditv. Tlie proportions of the interior are altogether diffe- rent, and have Ix-en universally admired for their elegance, and the exquisitelv simple taste with which they are decorated. The lower part contains eight deep niches, alternately semi- circular and square, in one of which the entrance doors are placed, while the others were tilled with statues of deities, now replaced bv Romish altars. They are decorated with pilasters, and two Corinthian columns stand in front of each, supporting the entablature which runs round the whole interior. Between the eight principal niches are eight smaller ones, now used as altars, faced with sediculse consisting of two small columns with entablature and pediment. The two ring cornices in the interior answer in position to the lower exterior cornices. Above the upper cornice which runs quite round the building there were originally twelve niches surrounded with elegant marbles and stucco work. These were altered in 1747, and their effect injured by the introduction of heavy pediments, and by the removal of the marbles and stucco work. The interior of the roof is relieved by well-designed rectangular coffer work, decreasing in size towards the ai)ex of the dome so as to give the impression of height and space. The floor is laid with slabs of Phrygian and Numidian marble, porphyrv, and grev granite, in alternate squares and circles, set in reticulated 'work. In the centre it has a depression pierced with small holes to carry off the rain water from the THE PANTHEON. 165 aperture above. This drain probably communicated with the great cloaca built by Agrippa to drain the Camions Martins. The proportions of the interior of the dome are admirably adjusted, so that no part of the building has an undue prominence, contrasting favourably in this respect with S. Peter's, where the immense size of the piers on which the dome is supported dwarf the upper part too much. The Pantheon will always be reckoned among the masterpieces of architecture for solid durability combined with beauty of interior effect. The Romans prided themselves greatly upon it as one of the wonders of their great caj)ital, and no other dome of antiquity could rival its colossal dimensions.^ The height from the pavement to the crown of the dome is 143 feet, half of which is occupied by the cylindrical wall and half by the dome ; this height is insignific^ant when compared with S. Peter's, the dome of which is 405 feet from the pavement to the base of the lantern, and the exterior appearance of St. Peter's is far finer, but the diameter of the Pantheon is the greater, and the proportions of the interior more harmonious. Some doubt has arisen as to the date of the building of the dome of the Pantheon. A young French architect, M. Cliedanne, has found bricks in what aj)23ears to be part of the original structure bearing stamps of about the time of Hadrian. As tiles and bricks with stamps of any kind were probably unknown in Rome in the time of Agrippa, it would seem, from this discovery, that the date of the building where the bricks were found, w^as about a.d. 116. Assuming that the bricks now found by Chedanne are jmrt of the building of Hadrian, the suj^position of the Roman magazine " Anthologia " seems likely, which is, that we may on the evidence suppose Agrippa to have built a quadrilateral temple, and that it was altered by Hadrian into a rotunda. For it must be noticed that neither Pliny nor Dion Cassius call what they attribute to Agrippa a rotunda, but simply Pantheon, which may mean a temple. The inscription on the portico assigns it to the year B.C. 27, the third consulship of Agrippa. For a long time the mis- taken notion prevailed that the building was dedicated to ^ Amni. Marc. xvi. 10. Seneca, de Ben. iii. 32. 166 ANCIENT ROME. Jupiter TJltor, a misapprehension arising from a corrupt reading in a passage of Plmy, where the words Jovis Ultoris had been inserteer ring were occu- pied by the inferior inhabitants of Olympus. Dion hints at this explanation when he suggests that the name was taken from the resemblance of the dome to the vault of heaven.' The bronze gilt statuary, the work of Diogenes of Athens, with which the temple was decorated, was much admired by the Roman connoisseurs, and in particular the group upon the pediment and the Caryatides. The statue of Venus was adorned with the two divided halves of the famous pearl of Cleopatra, fellow to the one which Cleopatra is said to have dissolved in vinegar in order to win her wager that she could spend ten million sesterces in one dinner. In the fire of a.d. 80 the Pantheon suffered with the rest of the buildings in this part of the Campus Martins, but from the solidity of its construction the injury done was not great, and was repaired soon afterwards by Domitian. It was damaged by lightning in the reign of Trajan, but restored or reconstructed by Hadrian, who used it frequently as a court of justice. A hundred years after this, the restoration by Septimius Severus, recorded in the extant inscription, took place a.d. 195. Honorius closed this temple, with the other temples of Rome, in a.d. 399, but it was not consecrated as a Christian church until two hundred years afterwards, when Boniface IV. dedicated it to All Saints in allusion to the pauan name of Pantheon, giving the name of S. Maria ad Martyres. Two acts of plunder perpetrated upon the building deserve mention. In the middle of the seventh century, a.d. 650, Constans II. took off the gilded bronze tiles of the roof, and was carrying them to Constantinople, with the plunder of the Forum of Trajan, when he was intercepted at Syracuse by the Saracens and killed. His act of plunder was imitated by Urban VIII.^ ^ Dion Cass. Hii. 27. ^•?^'l THE DOGANA. 167 who in 1632 took away the bronze girders which supported the roof of the pronaos and had them melted down and used partly for the pillars of the baldachino in S. Peter's, and partly for the cannon of the castle of S. Angelo. Aqua Virgo. — Not far from the Pantheon the arches of the Aqua Virgo projected from the side of the Pincian Hill and crossed the Via Lata. Some remains of these arches are still to be seen in the Via del Nazareno at the back of the Fountain of Trevi. They bear an inscription which was copied in the ninth century by the anonymous chronicler of Einsiedeln, recording the restoration of the arches by Claudius after they had been partially destroyed by Caligula, who intended to build an amphitheatre in this neighbourhood. The arches are now entirely covered with rubbish, and the conduit of the aqueduct itself, which formerly was raised upon them, is consequently now upon the level of the ground. The inscrip- tion stands on the side of the conduit, and was formerly at the spot where some principal street passed under the aque- duct. Above it is a simple cornice, and below, an architrave, with the uj)per part of some Doric pilasters, appears above the surface of the water, which is here tapped to afford a washing trough to the laundresses of the neighbourhood. The masonry is of solid travertine blocks, carefully cut and fitted. Dogana in the Piazza di Pietra. — Some topographers have identified the ruin in the Piazza di Pietra, now the Dogana, with the Posidonium, a portico built by Agrippa in memory of his naval exploits ; but unless the ruin in the Piazza di Pietra be a later restoration after the fire of a.d. 80, which is possible enough, the style is not such as to allow us to assign it to the Augustan age. It has eleven fluted Corinthian marble columns supporting a tolerably well- preserved entablature, and plainly belonging to the longer side of a basilica or temple. The architrave, frieze, and cornice, have a heavy and unimpressive appearance, though some of the details of the work are rich and carefully executed. In the courtyard of the building a portion of the wall of the cella, and the spring of the arches of the vaulted roof, can be seen now incorporated into the modem building. Gnomon Obelisk. — North of the Piazza Capranica, in the open space called the Piazza di Monte Citorio, is a large obelisk of red syenite. This is the Gnomon Obelisk, of which I 168 ANCIENT ROME. Pliny gives an interesting account in his ** Natural History.'* It was brought by Augustus from Egypt, with that which is now in the Piazza del Popolo, and was erected on the Campus Martins under the directions of the mathematician Facundus Novus to serve as a sun-dial, by which not only the hour of the day, but also the day of the month, might be shown. For this purpose the jmvement of the piazza in which it stood was marked out with a complicated system of lines in bronze ; and, to prevent any disturbances caused by the settlement of the foundations, they were laid as deep below the ground as the height of the ol)elisk itself. Pliny remarks that when he wrote, the gnomon had ceased for thirty years to mark the time rightly, and he ascribes this inaccuracy to some displace- ment of the obelisk due to natural causes, such as earthquakes or inundations.^ It is more probable that the inaccuracy of the Julian calendar gradually produced the change. Ammiauus Marcellinus, the Notitia, and the anonymous writer of the Einsiedeln MS., all mention this obelisk as still standing on the place where Augustus placed it. It was then— after the ninth century — lost for a time, but discovered again in 1463 with part of the figures of the dial. Marliani, in the first half of the sixteenth century, mentions a part of the obelisk as lying neglected in a cellar near S. Lorenzo in Lucina, and it was not erected upon the present site until 1792. To the east and north of the Monte Citorio lay the great buildings of the Antonine era, of which we still have some remains in the base of the Pillar of Antoninus Pius, now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican, the magnificent Pillar of M. Aurelius in the Piazza Colonna, and the remains of the arch of the latter emperor, now in the Palace of the Conservators on the Capitol. Pillar of Antoninus Pius.— The first of these, the Pillar of Antoninus Pius, was a monolith of red syenite, resting upon a pedestal of the same stone ornamented with reliefs. These remained upon their original site in the garden of the Casa della Missione near the Monte Citorio, until the time of Benedict XIV., when the pedestal was removed and placed in the Piazza di Monte Citorio near the Gnomon Obelisk, but the monolith was found to be so damaged, as not to be worth ' Plin.N. H. xxxvi. 9,71,72. COLUMN OF M. AURELIUS. 169 . the expense of re-erection. Pius VI.. when he placed the Gnomon Obelisk in the Piazza di Monte Citorio, removed the pedestal and took it to the Vatican Gardens, and it was finally placed in the Giardino della Pigna by Gregory XVI., who caused it to be carefully restored. Column of M. Aurelius.— The second of the great Antonine monuments, the Column of M. Aurelius, still stands upon its original site in the Piazza Colonna. Formerly it was the centre point of a group of massive temples and colossal halls, which have entirely perished. It is now surrounded by houses of modem construction, and surmounted by a statue of S. Paul, and looks like a grey veteran clothed in the dress of a later generation, in which he feels self-conscious and ill at ease. The only remains of the colonnades, which once inclosed the court in which it stood, are to be found on the east side of the piazza in the palace of the Prince of Piombino. They consist of a triple portico of brickwork, proliably faced in ancient times with marble. The temple of M. Aurelius, which stood, like that of Trajan, in front of the column, was probably upon the western side towards the Piazza di Monte Citorio, and it is from the ruins of this temple, and not of the Amphitheatre of Statilius, as commonly suj^posed, that the mound of ruins called Monte Citorio may have been formed. But no traces of the substructions or of the walls or columns have been found.' The column itself, which is a close imitation of that of Trajan, stands upon a pedestal which was so altered by Fontana from its original shape as to present a totally different appearance. The ancient pedestal was much less massive and better proportioned to the upper part of the monument. Its base stood at a level thirteen feet lower than the present pavement of the square, and it consisted of a basement of solid stonework about sixteen feet in height resting on three steps, nearly the whole of which is now under the level of the surrounding ground. On the east side was the door by which the spiral staircase in the interior was reached. Upon the basement stood a large square flat stone, ornamented with genii and triumphal and military ensigns, and above this the pedestal upon w hich, before the restorations by Fontana, only » Annali dell' Inst. 1852, p. 338. ^^^A 170 ANCIENT ROME. the words consecratio and d. antonini. aug ph. were legible The original shape and inscription of this lower part are only known to us from old prints and antiquarian notes in Gamucci, Du Perac, and Piranesi's works. It became necessary for the safety of the pillar, in 1589 to restore the base and the whole was eased in marble and repaired by Fontana, under the orders of Sixtus V., who at the same time placed the statue of S. Paul upon the top. From a want of accurate historical information, howeyer, the old inscription was supposed to refer to the elder of the Antonines Antoninus Pius and the new inscription accordingly speaks ot the monu- ment as dedicated to him. The error was discovered by a narrower inspection of the reliefs upon the shaft, which clearly relate to the exploits of M. Aurelius. The plinth is quite simple, and the base of the shatt is formed, like the Column of Trajan, in the shape of a laurel crown The whole of the shaft is occupied by a spiral series of reliefs, and only a small ring of fluted mouldings separates them from the capital, which is of the Komano-poric order The whole pillar measures 122 feet in height, being two ieet lower than that of Trajan. The shafts of the two are exactly of the same height (100 Roman feet) and are formed in the same way of solid cylinders of marble, in the centre of which the spiral staircase which leads to the top is hewn ^ The great winding wreath of bas-reliefs which twines round the column contains scenes from the history of the German wars in the years from a.d. 167-179, in which a number of the tribes north of the Danube, the Marcomanni, Quadi, Sueyi, Hermonduri, Jazyges, Vandali, Sarmati, Alani, and Roxolani, with many others, took part. The representations begin with an army on the march crossing a river (the Danube) ; then follJw, as on the Pillar of Trajan, scenes m which the general harangues his troops, the enemy's encamp- ments are seen, and a great victory is won, accompanied with the usual thank- ofeerings. But the most remarkable part of the whole relief is a scene which plainly corresponds to the account given by Dion Cassius of the sudden, and, as it seemed, supernatural reliet afforded by a thunderstorm to the Roman army when hard pressed by the Quadi, who had surrounded them and succeeded ^^s:- COLUMN OF M. AURELIUS. 171 in preventing all their efforts to escape. " The Roman army,** says Dion, " were in the greatest distress from fatigue, many of them were wounded, and they were hemmed in by the enemy, without water, under a burning sun. They could neither fight nor retreat, and would have been compelled to stand in their ranks and die under the scorching heat, had not some thick clouds suddenly gathered, and a heavy rain fallen, which refreshed them, and afford them drink. This did not happen without the intervention of the gods (ovk dBtei), for it was said that one Arnuphis, an Egyptian magician, was with Marcus Aurelius, and that he, by invoking the aid of Hermes, the god of the air, and some other deities by means of incantations, drew down the rain." Xiphilinus, however, from whose abridgment of Dion we have the above account, declares that '* Dion has purposely falsified the circumstances, for he must have known that the ' legio f ulrainata ' obtained its name from this incident, the true history of which was as follows. There was a legion in the army of Marcus Aurelius, consisting entirely of Christians. The emperor being told that their prayers in such an emergency never remained un- answered, requested them to pray for help to their God. When they had prayed, God immediately smote the enemy with lightning, but refreshed the Roman army by a copious rain, upon which Marcus published a decree, in which he complimented the Christian legion and bestowed the name fulminate upon it." History, however, does not bear out this wonderful tale of Xiphilinus, for the name fulminate is known, from inscriptions, to have been given to the twelfth legion as early as the reign of Augustus.^ Upon the pillar the scene is represented by the figure of Jupiter Pluvius dripping with rain, which the soldiers are eagerly catching in their shields. The drought is followed by an inundation, in which many of the Germans are drowned. A grand battle takes place, followed by the burning of the enemy's huts and the seizure of numerous captives. The figure of Marcus Aurelius on horseback, accompanying a long train of spoil taken from the German tribes, and a long series of battles, conflagrations of villages and towns, 1 Dion Cass. Iv. 23. Orelli, Inscr. 517, 5447. H 172 ANCIENT ROME. conferences with the enemy's generals follow, and the first campaign ends at a point near the centre of the column with a procession of trophies and spoils of war, in the midst of which a figure of Victory inscribes the triumph on a Over this figure of Victory begins the history of the second campaign, in which four battles are represented, and various militarv scenes, as the crossing of the Danube in boats, the thanksgiving sacrifices after victory, the emperor addressing his army, captures of women and children, and finally a long train of captives and spoils led off in triumph. This great marble history is after the model of that on Trajan's Column. The style of execution is, however, somewliat different : the figures stand out much more from the surface, are more roughly cut, and have a heavier and stiffer look, resembling that of the reliefs upon the Arch of Severus, and the base of the Pillar of Antoninus Pius. The column is called in all ancient writings Columna Antonini, which mav apply to either of the Antonines. But it is perfectlv evidient from spiral reliefs, representing the frequent crossings of the Danube, and especially from that recording the incident of the sudden storm which extricated the Roman armv from their difficulties, that the German wars of Marcus Aurelius are the subject commemorated. Aurelius Victor and Julius Capitolinus state that temples, columns and priesthoods, were dedicated to this emperor after his death, and some inscriptions discovered in 1777 in the Piazza Colonna establish the conclusion that this pillar was erected in his honour Ijevond doubt. These inscriptions, now in the Gallery of Inscriptions in the Vatican, contain a petition from Adrastus, a f reedman of Septimius Severus, and custodian of the Pillar of Marcus Aurelius, addressed to the Emperor Severus requesting leave to have the miserable hut (cannal>a) in which he lived changed into a habitable house (solarium) for himself and his heirs, and also the decree of the emperor, giving the permission and assigning materials and a site. The petition was presented immediately on the accession ot Severus, and the decree is dated in the consulship of Falco and Clarus, a.d. 193, two months after the emperor had taken possession of the palace. In this inscription the pillar is called the Columna Centenaria, and exact measurements ot MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS. 173 the shaft have shown that it is just one hundred Roman feet in height, including the base and capital.^ The bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius, which stood on the summit, was probably carried off by the Byzantine emperor, Constans II., to Syracuse, and was there taken by the Saracens from him, and conveyed to Alexandria with the rest of the plunder he had stripped from the buildings of Rome. To distinguish this column from the above-mentioned Pillar of Antoninus Pius, it is called in some of the legal documents of the tenth century " Columpna major Antonina." As recorded in the inscription on the modem base, it was much injured by lightning in the fourteenth century, and restored by Sixtus V. Piazza Navona. — The Piazza Navona was formerly a stadium, not a circus. The strongest evidence we have in favour of this rests on the shape of the piazza and of the ruins. One of the essential parts of a circus, the spina, is entirely wantiuij, and the end from which the runners started is at right angles to the longer sides, while in a circus, as in the case of the Circus of Maxentius, the carceres always stood in a slanting direction across the course, in order to equalize the distances round the spina. The obelisk, which now stands in the centre of the piazza was broutfht bv Innocent X. from the Circus of Maxentius on the Appian Road. The Circus of Maxentius was not, how- ever, its original site, for the hieroglyphics are of Roman execution and contain the name of Domitian. Mausoleum of Augustus. — The northern part of the Campus Martins, between the Via del Ripetta and the Pincian Hill, contained only one great building of which we have any knowledge. This was the Mausoleum of Augustus, the ruins of which are now buried under the Teatro Correa, and are approached by a narrow entry leading out of the Via dei Pontefici. All that can now be seen of the shapeless mass which this once stately building presents, is a small part of the cylindrical brickwork basement on the left of the entrance to the Teatro Correa, and another fragment of the same at back of the Church of S. Rocco. The proofs that these are the remains of the Mausoleum of Augustus are quite indis- ^ Gruter, Inscr. 466. 174 ANCIENT ROME. Dutable Suetonius places it between the Tiber and the C\n Koad, and'sfubo speaks of it as standjng near the bank of the river, descriptions which, though they are not ^ry definHe. agre^ with tL site of the Teatr-C-ea effi- ciently. Complete certainty is, however, .f«off/' 7 *^^ inscriptions which have been found ou the site of the Ustrina C^sarum. where the bodies were burnt before ^"^^^l^ Th«^ were found near the Corso, between the Via ^^^'^ Otto Cantom and the Via dei Pontifici, a spot answering to Strabos notice of the site of the Ustrina as standing in the middle of the Campus, which is here narrowed by the approach of the l^in- cian Hill towards the river. , . , • •*!,„..„ Augustus had built this magnificent tomb >" his sixth con- sulthfp (B.C. 28). At that time the course of the Flaminian Soad through the Campus was lined with the tombs of many eminent Roman statesmen and public characters, v^liKJi hjive aU, w'?h the exception of the insignificant Tomb »£ Bibulu totally disapi>eared. The modem city has entirely eflaced all i^Jot thUe, but we may in all probability «"Pl>ose that the Flaminian road presented no less striking a spectacle in the to regard as the great burying-place of Rome. The name mausoleum was apparently given to this tomb it not immediatelv, yet soon after its completion, not from any re- semZce in the plan of the building to the famous monument rHaUcarnassus! which differed entirely in shape and des^^ hilt because the expression mausoleum had already become a Lme used to designate any tomb of colossal pPortK-ns^ The Mausoleum of Halicamassus was a rectangular building surrounded with a colonnade, while the Tomb of Augustus waTcvlfndrical and ornamented with deep niches S i^bo rives the following description of the latter monument The Sost remarkable of all the tombs in the Campus is that Called treMausoleum. which consists of a huge mound of earth raised upon a lofty base of white marble near the nver bank rJplanted to the summit with evergreen trees Upon the top i« a bronze statue of C«sar Augustus and under the mind are the burial-places of Augustus and l"s fouiily and friends, while behind it is a spacious ^f «°nUm.n^ admirably designed walks. In the middle of the Campus is tSlosure he made for burning the corpses, also of whit« MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS. 175 marble, surrounded by an iron railing, and planted with poplar-trees." ^ The mound of earth here described by Strabo was probably of a conical shape, and the trees were planted on terraced ledges. The mass of the building was cylindrical, like the central portions of Hadrian's Mausoleum, and of the tombs of Plautius and Caecilia Metella, and was supported upon a square basement which is now entirely buried beneath the level of the ground. The exterior of the cylindrical part was relieved by large niches which doubtless contained statues, and broke the otherwise heavy uniformity of the surface. At the entrance were the bronze pillars which Augustus had ordered to be erected after his death, on which was engraved a catalogue of the acts of his reign. We now possess a frag- ment of a copy of this interesting document in the famous Monumentum Ancvranum, found at Ancvra in the vestibule of a Temple of Augustus. Besides these pillars two obelisks stood in front of the entrance door, one of which is now placed in the Piazza of S. Maria Maggiore, while the other stands between the statues of the Dioscuri on the Quirinal, These obelisks were not, however, placed there at the time when the tomb was first built, but at a later period of the empire. The entrance fronted towards the city, i.e., to the south, near the apse of the Church of S. Rocco, and appears to have had a portico with columns, the traces of which are still left. The interior was formed by massive concentric walls, the spaces between which were vaulted and divided into cells for the deposit of the urns containing the ashes of the illustrious dead. A great alabaster vase found near the Mausoleum in 1777, and placed in the Vatican Museum, was probably one of these. We know from various passages of Roman authors that the first burial which took place here was that of the young Marcellus, the favourite nephew of Augustus, who died at Baise ^ in b.c. 23, and the last, that of the Emperor Nerva in a.d. 98. Trajan was buried under his column. The Mausoleum of Hadrian became the Imperial tomb in A.D. 138.^ During the 160 years which intervened, the ashes of Agrippa, Octavia, the mother of Marcellus, Drusus, Caius * Strabo, v. .3, 8. ^ Dion Cass. liii. 32, liv. 26. ^ Dion Cass. Ixix. 23. 176 ANCIENT ROME. MURO TORTO. 177 and Lucius. Augustus hims..lf and Livia, Germamcus, Drusus. son of TiU^riusTthe elder Agrippina, TilH>nus. Antoma (wife of L Douiitius). Claudius and Britannicus were deposited herT" m-sides these there must have been a great number of oth!.r frtnds and relations of the Im,>erial am.ly buned here^ OnW one of all the inscriptions recording these burials is now extanr It is engraved on a pedestal, which bore the urn where the ashes of the elder Agrippina the wife of German - Tus and mother of Caligula, lay. In the '"«^"l'«'7, °» ,^'| nedestal Caligula is .ailed Augustus, showing that the bunal took plac-^ after his accession, in accordance with the account of A S"«^*« I'aiiishmeut by TiW-rius. The pedestal was holWd out and used in the Middle Ages as a measure for CO land is still inscribed with the words »-";^^^^^ OBANO It mav now be seen in the courtyard of the Conser- vator's Palace on the Capitol. At the same time, and at Is^^t Ix-tween the Mausoleum and the Corso were found tix dppi of travertine, recording the burning ot the bodies of foir ot the ch.ld,x.n of Germanicus, T.l^rius C«sar Caius C^sar, Livilla. and one whose "''•'»« 3%^"^^^^^ J^„^ reniainiu>' two cippi record the burning of the bodies ot Tson of"Drusus, and of one of the Flavian family. It is :v dent that these U-longed to the Ustrina C^sanun, a pkce described bv Strain), as quoted aWve. where the corpses of the dead were burnt and the formal ceremony of collecting ?he bones took place. The cippi may still Ix, seen in the "" ThT^Xun remained closed after Nerva's funei.1 until the capture of Kome by Alaric in a.d. 409 when the Goths broke it o,.en in their se*ch for treasure, and scattered fhe ashes of the 'ca^sars to the winds. It was then probably that the alabaster vase mentioned al>ove was removed from the Mausoleum and carried to the Ustrina where it -as^-d- In the 12th century the Mausoleum suffered the fate ot all the other great buildfngs of Rome. It became a castle of the Colonna family, and bore the "'^m%A"Sr*^- J'^wv of earth was then probablv removed, and a stone or brick ower buut in its [,lace. "Previously to tWs «- sta - "f Augustus, with the bronze decorations of the Pantheon and Forlm of Trajan, had probably l.een carried to Syracuse by Constans, and thence to Alexandria by the Saracens. The building might, however, still, like the tomb of Hadrian, have long defied the attacks of time, had not the Romans themselves, in the commotions of 1167, demolished the Colonna Castle, and with it the greater part of the walls upon which it was built. Two hundred years later, the body of the last of the Tribunes, Cola di Rienzi, was burned by the Jews before the Mausoleum.^ At that time the spot was called Campo d' Austa from the ancient site of the Ustrina. The interior chambers seem to have been entirely demolished in the fifteenth century, and only the exterior wall left. Poggio, the Florentine, describes the building as used in his time (1440) for a vineyard, and before that date its shape was comi>letely changed by the falling in of the vaulting of the interior, so that it presented the appearance of an amphi- theatre instead of a lofty conical building. In Donati's book (1638) it is represented as a funnel-shaped ruin with a garden on the sloping sides of the interior. Much informa- tion might doubtless be gained by well-directed excavations, which have apparently never been undertaken on account of the present occupation of the ruin as a circus in winter and a theatre (the Teatro Correa) in summer. Muro Torto. — Beyond the Porta del Popolo on the edge of the Pincian hill, there is a very ancient piece of wall, faced in the style called opus reticulatum, which is made of small diamond- shaped blocks of tufa set in the surface of a mass of concrete. These blocks are driven into the concrete before the lime has dried and set. This ruin, which is called the Muro Torto, is often spoken of as having been a part of the house of Sylla, but I do not know upon what authority. It may have formed a part of the substructions of some of the private buildings on the Pincian, previous to the time of Aurelian, who incorporated it in his wall. Near the angle of the wall where it turns sharply to the south is a point at which the brickwork leans in great masses considerably out of the perpendicular, whence the name of Muro Torto. Pro- copius speaks of this as having been in the same state long before his time, and calls it the broken wall. Pons iElius.— Passing along the bank of the Tiber by the Via Ripetta from the Porta del Popolo we come to the * Reumont, Gescli. Roms, vol. ii. p. 917, A.D. 1354 ; Gibbon, ch. Ixx. H I MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN. 179 bridge of S. Angelo (Pons ^lius) which crosses the river close to the Castle of S. Angelo, anciently the Mausoleum of Hadrian. This bridge was built by the Emperor Hadrian at the same time with his Mausoleum. The anonymous writer of the Einsiedeln MS. gives an inscription which in his time remained upon the bridge assigning its erection to the nine- teenth tribuneship and third consulship of Hadrian, which indicates the year a.d. 135, and in confirmation of this Nardini gives a medal of Hadrian which dates from his third consul- ship, and has on the obverse a representation of this bridge. The Castle of S. Angeix), formerly the Mausoleum of Hadrian. The name Pons ^lius, given to it by Dion Cassius in his account of Hadrian's funeral, was probably derived either from Hadrian's praenomen ^lius, or from the name of his son ^lius Caesar whose burial was the first which took place in the Mausoleum. The piers of the bridge are ancient, but the upper parts have been rebuilt. Mausoleum of Hadrian.— The Mausoleum of Hadrian owes its preservation entirely to the peculiar fitness of the site and shape for the purpose of a fortress which it has served since the time of Belisarius. Had it not been thus made serviceable to the turbulent spirit of the mediaeval 180 ANCIENT ROME. Komans, the same Lands which stripped the great pile of its marble facing, and, after hurling the statues with which it was adorned into the moat, allowed them to lie there in oblivion, would have torn asunder and carried away the whole mass to furnish materials for the palaces and stables of their ferocious and ignorant nobles. The original form of this colossal mausoleum is now greatly changed by the modern buildings which have been piled upon it, by the addition ot the corbels round its upper part, and by the loss of the exterior facing of marble, so that the ancient appearance can be onlv conjecturally restored. The remaining ancient part consists of a square basement of concrete and travertine blocks, the sides of which measured 95 yards surmounted by an enormous cylindrical structure of travertine 70 yards in diameter and 76 feet high. Procopius tells us that this was cased in Parian marble, and that upon the summit stood a number of splendid marble statues of men and horses. There are several other tombs in Italy constructed upon the same plan with a cyhndrical tower placed upon a square base. Two of these are upon the Appian road about three miles from Rome, the celebrated Tomb of Caecilia MeteHa, and that of the Servihi, and belong to the Eepublican Era. Two others are of the Augustan Age, the tomb of the Plautu at Ponte Lucano, near Tivoh, and the beautiful monument of Munatius Plancus, near Gaeta. Hadrian's design was not therefore by any means a new one, as we might have expected in the case of an emperor who was himself an architect, and proud of his artistic designs. . ., , ^i x x * It is plain from the history of Procopius that the statues ot men and horses which he describes were upon the top of the building For the defenders of the mausoleum against the army of Vitiges, being hard pressed by the approach of the Goths under shelter of a testudo, in their despair seized these statues and hurled them upon the heads of their assailants, thus breaking down the testudines and repelling the attack. Ut the exact order in which they were arranged we have no evidence. Tradition asserts that the twenty-four Corinthian columns destroyed by fire in the Basilica of St. Paul in 1823 formerly belonged to the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and that they were » Procop. Bell. Goth. 22. MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN. 181 removed by Honorius.^ A comparison of this tradition with a passage of Herodian, in which he says that the ashes of Septimius Severus were buried in the temple where rest the bones of the Antonini, has led to the conjecture that the columns formed the colonnade of a round temple on the top of the mausoleum in which temple Hadrian's colossal statue stood, and that the bronze fir-cone found here, which is now in the Vatican garden, ornamented the summit. Round this temple, and upon the level top of the cylindrical tower, may have been arranged the various statues of which Procopius speaks. The colossal head of Hadrian's statue found here is still to be seen in the Museo Pio Clementino. The bronze gilt pea- cocks and the pine-cone in the Giardino della Pigna, the famous Barberini Faun, now at Munich, and the dancing Faun at Florence, were amongst the ornaments of the upper part of the tomb. The cone has been pierced with holes, and apparently used as a fountain at some later date. Another conjecture as to the shape of the upper part of the building is that it was surmounted by a smaller cylindrical tower, in which stood the colossal statue of Hadrian. There is not sufficient evidence to give any degree of certainty to either of these conjectural restorations. The interior of the building, according to the latest dis- coveries, consists of a large central rectangular chamber (36 by 30 feet wide and 54 feet high), approached by an ascending spiral corridor, leading from a lower chamber which communicated immediately with the principal entrance. The entrance was a high arch in the cylindrical tower immediately opposite the bridge ; it is now walled up and the lower chamber into which it leads can only be approached from above. In the central chamber there are four niches in which formerly stood the urns and tombstones of the illustrious persons buried here. A large sarcophagus of porphyry found here was used for the tomb of Pope Innocent II. in the Lateran, and the lid may still be seen in the Baptist^rium of St. Peter's, where it is used as a font. The chamber was lighted and ventilated by square passages cut through the ^ Bunsen's Memoirs, vol. i. p. 208. Hirt. Gesch. der Bauk, ii. p. 373. 182 ANCIENT ROME. stone in a slanting direction, and the rain water was carried off by other channels, which conveyed it into drains at the foot of the building. It does not appear to be certainly MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN. 183 Bko.nze Cone and PtucocKs in the Vatican Gardens. known whether other chambers may not exist in the interior which have not been yet discovered. Piranesi gives a number of additional chambers besides the two above mentioned, but his representation is probably conjectural. After the burial of Nerva no more room was left in the Mausoleum of Augustus for the interment of the imperial ashes. Trajan's remains were deposited under his column in the forum bearing his name, but Hadrian gladly seized the opportunity of adding another to the many colossal structures he had already reared. The mausoleum was begun at the same time with the ^lian bridge in the year a.d. 135. The bricks of which part of the building consists have stamps of various years of Hadrian's reign, and show that the greater part of the building was erected by him, though Antoninus Pius probably completed it. Hadrian's son ^lius, who died before his father, was the first Caesar whose ashes were placed in this tomb. After him, Hadrian himself was buried here, and the Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his wife the elder Faustina, three of their sons, Fulvius Antoninus, M. Galerius Aurelius Antoninus, and L. Aurelius Verus, the colleague of M. Aurelius in the empire, and a daughter Aurelia Fadilla. No record has been preserved of the burial of M. Aurelius, but it seems probable that his ashes were deposited here, as the Mausoleum of Hadrian continued to be the tomb of the Antonines till the time of Severus, who built a third imperial monument, the Septizonium, on the Appian Road.^ Four children of M. Aurelius were buried here, who died during their father's life, named Aurelius Antoninus, T. ^lius Aurelius, and Domitia Faustina, and also his miserable son and successor the Emperor Commodus. The inscriptions recording all these burials, were copied by the anonymous writer of Einsiedeln in the ninth century, when they were apparently still legible upon the south wall of the square basement. The inscriptions recording the names Hadrian and M. Aurelius may have been placed upon the upper part of the tomb, like those on the Plautian Tomb and the Tomb of Csecilia Metella, and may therefore either have escaped the notice of the above-mentioned anonymous traveller, or have been stripped off with the marble casing of the exterior. After the burial of M. Aurelius the tomb was closed until the sack of Rome by Alaric in a.d. 410, when this barbarian's soldiers probably broke it open in search of treasure, and scattered the ashes of the Antonines to the winds. From ^ Hist. Aug. Sept. Sev. 19, 24. Herodian, iv. 1, 4. 184 ANCIENT ROME. this time for a hundred years the tomb was turned into a fortress, the possession of which became the object of many stru^'<;les in the wars of the Goths under Vitiges a.d. 537 and Totilas who was killed a.d. 552. From the end of the sixth century, when Gregory the Great saw on its summit a vision of St. Michael sheathing his sword in token that the prayers of the Romans for preservation from the plague were heard, the Mausoleum of Hadrian was considered as a consecrated building under the name of S. Angelus inter nubes, usque ad caelos, or inter caelos, until it was seized in a.d. 923 by Alberic, Count of Tusculum and the infamous Marozia, and again be- came the scene of the fierce struggles of those miserable ages between pojH'S, emperors, and reckless adventurers.' The last injuries appear to have been inflicted upon the building in the contest between the French Pope Clemens VII. and the Italian Poj)e Urban VI. The exterior was then finally dis- mantled and stripped. Partial additions and restorations soon began to take place. Boniface IX., in the beginning of the fifteenth century, erected new battlements and fortifica- tions on and around it, and since his time it has remained in the possession of the Papal Government. The strange medley of Papal reception rooms, dungeons, and military magazines which now encumbers the top was chiefly built by Paul III. The corridor connecting it with the Vatican dates from the time of Alexander Borgia (a.d. 1494), and the bronze statue of St. Michael on the summit, which replaced an older marble statue, from the reign of Benedict XIV.^ ^ Oilihon, cli. xlix. * Donati, •' Koma vetiLs ac recens," 1665, p. 476. i CHAPTER VII. THE QUIRINAL HILL BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN AGGER OF SERVIUS CASTRA PRETORIA. Baths of Diocletian.— The broad flat space to the N.E. of the Quirinal Hill, was occupied by the Thermae of Dio- cletian, now converted into the great Church of S. Maria degli Angeli. This enormous group of buildings was the most extensive of all the gigantic edifices of the empire, and the ground plan is not difficult to trace by the aid of the existing ruins. Some idea of their dimensions will be given by remarking that the grand court inclosed a space once occupied by the church, monastery, and spacious garden of the Monks of S. Bernard, the great church and monastery of the Carthusians, two very large piazzas, the large granaries of the Papal Government, part of the grounds of the Villa Montalto Negroni, and some vineyards and houses besides. The north-western side of this grand court is now only marked by the remains of two semicircular tribunes in front of the railway station. The rest of the foundations of this side are hidden under the great cloister of the Carthusian monastery, and in the district beyond. The principal entrance was on this side. The south-eastern side is now occupied by the buildings of the railway station, at the back of which were discovered the ruins of a large reservoir now destroyed (k), in the shape of a right-angled triangle. The peculiar form of this building seems to have been necessitated by the course of a public road of some importance confining it on the south side, and it has been supposed, not without reason, that this was the principal road leading out of the city at the Porta Viminalis. The interior was filled with pillars like those which still stand in the ancient reservoirs at Baise and Constantinople. 186 ANCIP:NT ROME. On the south-western side of the court there are con- siderable remains. In the gardens of the monastery of S. Bernardo, part of the cavea of a theatre (a) with a radius of about 70 yards, may be traced, not unlike that in the Thermae of Titus. The seats of this are gone, but parts of the back wall with niches remain. On each side of this are traces of rectangular chambers, and at the corners stand two round buildings, one of which is nearly perfect, and has been converted into the Church of S. Bernardo. The ancient domed roof with its octagonal panelled work is still standing. Part of the other rotunda at the southern corner is also left, and has been built into the end of the Via Strozzi. The north-western side of the court ran parallel to the Via di Venti Settembre from the Church of S. Bernardo. It con- tained, according to Palladio's plan, two semicircular exedrse (ll) for philosophical conversation or disputation, and some other rooms the purpose of which is not known. The Ulpian libraries are said to have been transferred to these baths from the Forum Trajani. In this spacious court stood a great pile of buildings, the centre of which was occupied by a great hall (d), now the church of S. Maria degli Angeli. The pavement of this was raised above the ancient level of the ground by nearly eight feet, when Mi(;hael Angelo undertook to convert the ancient building into a church, and thus the bases of the columns remain buried, and new bases of stucco work have been placed round them. This roof must therefore have been in ancient times considerably more lofty than at present. The ancient roof was 120 feet high, and constructed as now, with an intersecting vault in three compartments, supported by the eight colossal ancient granite pillars. These columns of Egyptian granite with their Corinthian and composite capitals form the sole relic of the magnificence of the hall. In the modern church the transept corresponds to the longer axis of the ancient hall, and the nave to the shorter. Vanvitelli, who altered the arrangement of the church in 1749, threw out an apse for the choir on the north-east side, and made the circular laconicum (c) of the old Thermae serve as an entrance porch. Antiquarians are not agreed as to the purpose of this great central hall. Scamozzi, in his edition of Palladio, calls it a xystus for athletic exercises, but, following the analogy of the Thermae of Caracalla, the baths at Pompeii, and some of the p. 186. i^ecUuraL rtstoratUmji. ItondLoiv: G.Btli/ JbSorvm. F.S.Weller.r.R-G.S. THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN. 187 other great thermae, we should rather suppose it to have been the tepidarium. This view is confirmed when we notice that the laconicum or sudarium (c) is on one side, and the natatio (p) for the cold baths on the other, between which the tepi- darium was kept at a mean temperature. The two wings of the central building were occupied by- large peristjlia, with cold piscinae in the centre of each (ee). Round these peristylia were built various rooms for athletic exercises, called sphaeristeria and gymnasia. The style of brick building used in these Thermae, recalls that of the Basilica of Constantine, where we see the bricks irregularly and hastily laid ; and the whole of the architec- tural details which have been preserved seem to point to the same period. Positive evidence of the date and the builder is not, however, wanting. An inscription, which was still to be seen two hundred years ago in the thermae, and which has been partially preserved to us, when compared with three others which were found in the neighbourhood, shows that Maximianus gave orders for building these thermae when he was absent in Africa, during his Mauretanian cam- paigns, and intended them to be dedicated to the honour of his brother Diocletian. The dedication took place after the abdication of Diocletian and Maximianus, when their successors Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus had begun their reign, a.d. 305, but before the death of Constan- tius in 306. The old chronologers place the date of the com- mencement of the buildings in 302, which agrees very well with the date of the Mauretanian campaigns of Maximian. Baronius accounts for the preservation of so large a part of these thermae by the statement that they were considered to be a monument of the Diocletian persecution. There was a tradition, he says, that Diocletian, after dismissing some thousands of his* soldiers because they held the Christian faith, compelled them to work as slaves in the erection of his thermae, and ordered them to be martyred when they had finished the building. It has also been said that the bricks are in some cases marked with a cross, but this is not well authenticated. At the end of the fifth century, the baths are mentioned by Sidonius ApoUinaris as still used, but at the time of the visit of the .anonymous writer of the Einsiedeln MS., pro- 188 ANCIENT ROME. bably about a.d. 850, they were evidently in ruins. Among the ruins have been found, from time to time, a number of busts of the Emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantine, and also the well-known busts of philosophers now in the Farnese collection at Naples. The great fountain now in front of the railway station is supplied by the water brought along the course of the ancient Aqua Marcia. The Servian Agger. — The Agger of Servius, which has now been so much levelled and destroyed, ran between the Church of S. Maria degli Angeli and the present walls. This enormous rampart has been described by Dionysius. He says that the ditch outside was more than 100 feet broad at the narrowest part and 30 feet deep, and that a wall stood upon the edge of the ditch supported by the agger, which was of such massive strength that it could not be shaken down by battering rams, or breached by undermining the foundation. Dionysius gives the length of the agger as seven stadia, and Strabo as six, which, taking the stadium a,t 202 yards, nearly corresponds to 1,400 yards. The breadth he states at 50 feet. That this ditch and wall were the work of some of the later kings there can be no doubt, but it cannot he determined what part each took in their erection. The final completion of the whole undertaking is ascribed to Tar- quinius Superbus, who deej^ened the ditch, raised the wall, and added new towers. The additions made by him can be distinguished in the portion brought to light by the modern excavations in the railway cutting.^ Excavations which have been made in this part of the agger from time to time, and the extensions of the city in this direction have brought to light an enormous wall buried in the earth, constructed of huge blocks of peperino. This is probably the wall mentioned by Dionysius, which in his time stood outside the rampart on the edge of the ditch. The remains of buildings of the imperial times have been found placed upon and outside of this wall, and it is probable that the whole ditch is now filled with such remains, and most part of the wall buried in them. The central railway station stands close to this agger, and ^ Dionys. ix, 68. Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, p. 144. THE QUIRINAL HILL. 189 ■ cuttings have lately been made through it to make room for the station, by which new portions of the wall have been disinterred. AH these excavations have proved the truth of Dionysius's description, the wall having been found on the outer side of the original agger, which is easily distinguishable from the rubbish in which it is buried by being composed of clean soil unmixed with potsherds and brickbats. The wall probably ran from the southern end of the agger along the back of the Esquiline and Caelian in the direction of the modern Via Merulana and Via Ferratella. In this portion must be placed the Porta Querquetulana and the Porta Cajli- montana, but their exact situation is unknown.^ The Praetorian Camp. — Near the Porta Pia, to the north-east of the church of S. Maria degli Angeli, the square of the Castra Praetoria projects from the walls. This per- manent camp was established under Tiberius by Sejanus ; subsequently Aurelian made use of the four outer walls of this camp as a part of his fortification, and therefore Con- stantine, when he abolished the Praetorian Guard, pulled down the side towards the city only. The porta decumana of the camp is still to be seen though it is now walled up, and also the porta principalis dextra, but the porta principalis sinistra has disappeared, or perhaps never existed. The camp was inclosed by a wall at least as early as the time of Pertinax and Julian, for here occurred that memorable and most melan- choly scene in Roman history, when the Praetorian guards shut themselves within their camp after the murder of the re- forming emperor Pertinax and put up the throne to auction. Julian and Sulpicianus were the bidders. The soldiers let down a ladder and allowed Julian to get up upon the wall, says Herodian, for they would not open the gates before they heard how much would be offered. Sulpicianus was not allowed to mount the wall. They then bid one against the other, and at last they ran up the price little by little to five thousand drachmas to each soldier. Julian then impatiently outbid his rival by offering at once six thousand two hundred and fifty, and the Empire was knocked down to him. This was not by any means the first or only time that the fate of the Empire had been decided here.^ ^ Ann. deir Inst, xxxiv. 133. Festus, p. 261. Varro, L. L. v. § 49. ^ Herodian, ii. 6. 190 ANCIENT ROME. The chief power in the Roman state had lain within these walls of the Praetorian camp since the time when Tiberius consented to allow their designing colonel, Sejanus, to establish the Praetorian guards in j^ermanent quarters, and the readers of the historians of the Empire will recall the many vivid pictures of their rapacity and violence. To go to the Praetorian camp and promise a largess to the guards was the first duty of a Roman emperor. The eastern side of the camp, which is probably the only one now retaining its original form, measures 500 yards, and the southern 400 yards. The latter seems to have been partly pulled down, and the northern side has also been altered. Aurelian's Wall did not exactly meet the two angles of the camp towards the city, but its course was here determined by the houses and buildings in the vicinity which it was desirable to protect. The walls of the camp were, according to Bunsen, at first only 14 feet high, but were raised by Aurelian and fortified with towers. Some parts of the walls doubtless consist of the original brickwork of Aurelian's time, as the masonry bears the marks of great age, and is of a most regular and solid style. A few of the soldiers' quarters are still left, consisting of rows of small low-arched rooms similar to those on the Palatine and at Hadrian's Villa near Tivoli.' Porta Chiusa. — In the angle formed by the projecting wall of the Praetorian camp and Aurelian's Wall, there is a gate now walled up and called simply by the name of Porta Chiusa. This gate is one of the mysteries of Roman topo- graphy. It is not mentioned by Procopius or by the anony- mous writer of Einsiedeln, yet it seems too large and important to have been altogether omitted. That a gate would be required here in Aurelian's Wall, at least before Constantine's reign, while the camp was still occupied, seems probable. No passage would be allowed to the public through the camp, and besides the Porta Nomentana, another gate would be wanted for the convenience of persons resorting to the camp from the country with supplies of provisions, or on business of various kinds, or for the shopkeepers who would naturally live within the walls near the camp. It may have been closed when the * Bunsen, Beschreilmng Konia, iii. 2, 359. H O m 192 ANCIENT ROME. camp was abolished by Constantine, and that part of the city became comparatively empty, and it would thus in the time of Procopius, or the anonymous writer of Einsiedeln, have been lon^ blocked up and forgotten or j>erhaps concealed by other buildinj's. This mav account for their silence. CHAPTER VIII. THE AVENTINE AND C^LIAN HILLS. The Servian Walls. — Before the end of the regal period there was an enlargement of the limits of the city in which the Aventine and Cselian were comprehended. Dionysius, Livy, and Aurelius Victor all relate that Tarquinius Priscus undertook the building of a new stone wall for the defence of the whole of the new quarters of the city, but that he did not live to finish it. The design was carried out by Servius Tullius, who also constructed the enormous agger called by his name, and still partly remaining at the back of the Esqui- line, Viminal and Quirinal Hills. Before this great work was accomphshed we must suppose that each suburb, as it grew out of the original settlement, was defended by a new piece of fortification, but these fortifications were, as Dionysius de- scribes them, only temporary and hastily erected for the nonce. The expressions of Livy and Aurelius would lead us also to the conclusion that they were not of stone, but probably were intrenchments of earth. Rome then became the capital of Latium ; she had lately united all her citizens, the Montani, the Collini, and the other freeholders living within the districts of Servius by a complete military organization, and her powers were directed by a form of government which has always proved best calculated for the production of great public works. A new stone wall was accordingly planned on a vast scale, and the drainage of the low-lying parts of the city was effected about the same time by colossal sewers. The king having the whole control of the finances of the state could appropriate large sums of money for works of public utility, and could also doubtless command the labour of immense gangs of workmen. The Servian walls and the Cloacae of o ^'■^ discovered in the depression between the north-western and south-eastern parts of the Aventine, another portion upon the Servian Agger, and a few remnants on the Quirinal in the Barberini and Colonna Gardens/ no remnants of the Servian walls are now to be seen, and we have to infer their probable extent from the nature of the ground, the rough estimate given by Dionysius of the space which they inclose, and the ^ Bull, dell' Inst. 1855, p. 87. H ir. a > u s H O ■< > •ji u s H o < S3 ^ *So . T -■; .-Mr lained by the supposition that they were saved in order to be used a second time ; but the immense quantity of potsherds still remains to be accounted for. Further, it is said that a coin of Gallienus has been found in such a position on the smaller portion of the hill as to leave no doubt that the accumulation of that part could not have been anterior to Gallienus. A medal of Constantine has also been found in the interior of the larger portion. Bunsen's explanation that the hill is composed of the rubbish cleared away by Honorius when he restored the walls of Aurelian, and other ingenious hypotheses of the same kind, do not sufiiciently account for the peculiar composition of the hill. M. Keifferscheid, in a paper communicated to the Roman Archaeological Institute, has propounded the most natural and proper solution of the problem.^ He observes that it is not necessary to go farther than the magazines of the neigh- bouring Emporium for an explanation of this immense mass of jx)tsherds. Every kind of provisions brought to Rome in ancient times was stored in earthenware jars, not only wine, but com, oil, and other articles of commerce. A fire, there- fore, which consumed any part of the Emporium would leave rubbish composed in great part of fragments of earthen jars 1 Bull, dell' Inst. xxv. 85, 116; xxxvii. 235. THE AVENTINE AND C^LIAN HILLS. 199 (dolia) ; and, since many such fires must have taken place in the course of ages, and immense quantities of earthen jars must have been broken in the process of unloading, it does not seem at all impossible that so large an accumulation of matter should have taken place. At Alexandria and at Cairo similar heaps of potsherds are to be seen oujtside the walls, and their extent, though less, as might be expected, than that at Rome, is such as to create astonishment in the traveller's mind when he sees them for the first time. An attempt has been made by M. Reifferscheid to determine the earliest date at which we can suppose this gradual deposition of potsherds to have taken place, but the data upon which he builds his con(;lusion, that the accumulation forming the Monte Testaccio first began to be deposited in the time of the decay of the Empire, about the third century, are not by any means such as to produce conviction. Tomb of Cestius. — Near the Monte Testaccio, and close to the Porta S. Paolo, stands a pyramidal monument, measuring about 97 feet on each side, and 120 feet in height. It is placed upon a square basement of travertine, and the rest of the building is of rubble, with a casing of white marble. It is built into the Aurelianian Wall, no pains having been taken to avoid the injury which this might cause to the building. It has, however, suffered but little from this except in appearance. The ancient entrance, which was probably on the north-east side, has been walled up. No trace is now to be seen of it, and the present entrance on the north-west was made in 1663. The interior consists of a small plastered chamber 16 feet long by 13, and 12 feet high, the comers of which are ornamented with paintings of winged genii. No coffin or sarcophagus was found when the tomb was opened, but the inscription on the outside gives the name of C. Cestius, the son of L. Cestius, of the Publilian tribe, as the person who was buried in it. It further appears that this C. Cestius had been Praetor and Tribune of the commons, and one of the seven epulones who superintended the sacrificial banquets to the gods. The date of his burial has been discovered by means of two marble pedestals containing inscriptions which were found near the pyramid. On one of these the foot of a colossal bronze statue is still fixed. They show that C. Cestius's death took place in the time of M. Agrippa, and, therefore, of the Emperor THE AVENTIXE AND C^LIAN HILLS. 201 Augustus, and that the statues were erected from the proceeds of the sale of some costly robes of cloth of gold (attalica), which Cestius had by his will ordered to be buried with him. Such burial being forbidden by law, the robes were sold a.nd the statues erected from the proceeds by order of his heirs. They probably stood at the corners of the pyramid. Two fluted Doric pillars, the fragments of which were found near the spot, have now been placed at these corners. Cestius may possibly liave been the same person who is mentioned by Cicero as a Roman knight. Baths of Caracalla. — To the south-east of the hills of S. Saba and S. Balbina, between Aurelian's walls and the Via Appia, lie the most colossal ruins in Rome, covering a space each side of which measures more than 1,000 feet. It is certain, from the arrangement of these buildings, that they were destined for public baths ; and as tradition and the catalogue of the twelfth region both assign the name of the Thermae Antoninianae to them, and the style of the masonry is that of the Antonine era, we may feel satisfied that they belonged to the baths mentioned by Cassiodorus and Hiero- nymus as already partially built by Caracalla in the year a.d. 216, and finished by Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus.^ This enormous mass of building consisted of a central oblong block, containing all the halls and chambers appro- priated more immediately to the baths, and a surrounding court, the sides of which were formed by gymnasia and other places of amusement, and the area of which was laid out in gardens, with shrubberies, ornamental colonnades, and fountains. A similar arrangement is found in the Thermae of Titus and Diocletian. The central block of buildings contained four immense halls and a rotunda, around which numerous smaller rooms were grouped. The first of these large halls (a) was entered from the north-eastern side by two wide doorways. Rows of niches for sculpture broke the broad inner surfaces of its walls, and it communicated with the chambers on each side by open passages filled with columns of splendid marble and granite. The floor formed an immense basin shaped hollow, showing that the purpose for which it was used was that of a cold ^ Hist. Aug. Car. 9. Hel. 17. Al. Sev. 25. recesses at lx)th ends. The richest marbles. The four hot baths, and were fitted kinds for bathers. In the enormous porphyry basins, in the Museum at Naples. floor of this was paved with the lateral circular recesses formed with steps and seats of various recesses at the ends stood two one of which is now preserved This hall was probably the tepi- H H CO < O o Oi X H 'ml •?<■' ^ 204 ANCIENT ROME. dariiim, and had a very lofty roof supported by eight granite pillars of colossal size, and by a network of brazen or copper rods. One of the pillars was given to Duke Cosmo I. by Pius IV., and stands in the Piazza 'di Trinita in Florence. The smaller chamljers (c) (d) (e), at the western and southern angles of the tepidarium, contained the apparatus for heating water. These chambers, the purpose of which is unknown, separate the tepidarium from the rotunda (/). The position of this latter and its shape would seem to indicate that it was a laconicum or hot-air room, but the state of the ruins is at pre- sent such as to preclude any positive assertion as to its purix)se. On each side of the above-mentioned three chambers is a similar range of halls. The south-eastern wing (g), being the most perfect, serves as the better guide to the arrangement of this part of the building. We pass through two chambers (h) (i) containing fine mosaic pavement, and then reach a large long hall (g), which apparently consisted of three aisles and two semicircular tribunes, divided from each other by rows of columns, somewhat in the manner of a basilica. A considerable portion of the mosaics on the floor of this hall have been laid bare and may be seen amongst the ruins of the roof and upper part. In the larger tribune was discovered the great mosaic pavement of the Athletes, now preserved in the Lateran Museum, whence it has been inferred that this side hall as well as the corresponding one on the north-west side were used as gymnasia or ball courts (sphseristeria), with galleries for spectators. The purpose of the rooms situated on each side of the rotunda is not' known, but it has been con- jectured that they were additional tepidaria, since even the magnificent central tepidarium is hardly large enough to» furnish the accommodation spoken of by Olympiodorus, who stated that there were 1,600 marble seats for bathers in the Antonine Baths. ^ There were numerous chambers in the upper stories in and about these large halls, to which the staircases led, one of which has been restored. These were perhaps used as libraries, picture galleries, and museums of curiosities. The whole north-eastern side of the court which surrounded • Olymp. ap. Phot. Bibl. 80, p. 63. Bekker. THE AVENTINE AND CJilLIAN HILLS. 205 these central halls consists of ranges of rooms built of brick and opening outwards. Many of these are stiil standing, and the traces of an upper story are to be seen over some of them (j, j). Different opinions have been held as to their use. Some writers think that they were offices and rooms for the slaves belonging to the establishment, others that they were separate baths for women. The principal entrance to the inclosure was in the centre of this side of the court. On the north-western side of the court the remains can be traced of a large shallow tribune in the shape of a segment of a circle and surrounded by a vaulted corridor or cloister (k). Within this were three large apartments, probably used as lecture and conversation rooms. The rest of this side has entirely disappeared, as has also the opposite south-eastern side with the exception of one of the large apartments. These two sides of the court probably correspond in the same way as the wings of the central building. The fourth side of the court was occupied by an immense reservoir of water divided into numerous compartments (I), in front of which was the cavea of a stadium (w), and on each side two large halls, possibly used as dressing-rooms and gymnasia {n, n). The reservoir was supplied with water by a branch aqueduct from the Aqua Marcia. The numerous magnificent works of art, sculptures, bronzes, lamps, cameos, and coins, which have from time to time been discovered in these ruins, are now dispersed through the museums of Italy. Some of the larger sculptures, including the Hercules of Olykon and the group called the Toro Farnese are in the Naples Museum, and two large porphyry fountain- basins are in the Piazza Farnese at Rome. Some excavations have been lately made in the Vigna Guidi, a vineyard on the south-east side of the Court of these Thermae. The ruins of a large house have been found which had been demolished and covered with earth, to make room for the Thermae. Nothing is known of the history of this house, but various conjectures have been hazarded, taken from the catalogues of the Eegionaries. Tomb of the Cornelian Scipios. — The vast Necropolis of Rome stretched along both sides of the Appian Road from the Porta Capena nearly as far as the Alban Hills. 206 ANX'IENT ROME. Conspicuous among these burial-places is the tomb which remained in possession of the great family of the Cornelian Scipios for nearly four centuries.^ The entrance to this is near the gate of one of the vineyards, on the north-east side of the Appian Road, about two hundred and fifty yards from the Porta S. Sebastiano. The tomb itself consists of a number of passages roughly hewn in the tufa stone, as the catacombs are, without any apparent plan of arrangement. Unfortu- nately, the original state of the catacomb has been so altered by the substructions which have been found necessary to sup- port the roof that it can hardly be recognized at the present day, and the sarcophagi and inscriptions have been removed, and placed for greater security in the Vatican Museum. Those now seen in situ are modern copies. Anciently there were two entrances, one from the Via Appia, and the other from the road which here unites the Via Appia and Via Latina. The present entrance has been cut for the convenience of access from the Appian Koad. Columbaria. — The catacomb of the Scipios differs from most of the other burial-places which suiTound it, on account of the retention by the gens Cornelia of the old Latin custom of burying in coffins, instead of burning the corpse of the de- ceased. Most of the burying-places on the Monte d'Oro are arranged in the manner called a columbarian by the Romans, from the resemblance of the niches in it to the holes in a pigeon-house.* Four of these columbaria have been excavated in the Vigna Codini, near the Porta S. Sebastiano, and are now to be seen in almost perfect preservation. They consist of a square pit roofed over, and entered by a staircase. The roof is supported by a massive square central column, and the whole of the sides of the pit and of the central column are pierced with semicircular niches, containing earthenware jars filled with ashes. In one of the columbaria in the Vigna Codini there is room for 909 jars. Most of the names which are inscribed above each niche upon a marble tablet are those of imperial freed men, or servants of great families or public officers, and other persons of the middle class of life, and are therefore of little historical interest. The ashes of some few of a somewhat higher grade, are placed in small marble sarco- ^ Cor. Insc. Lat. vol. i. p. 12. * Marini, Frat. Arv. p. 674. THE AVENTIXE AND C^LIAN HILLS. 207 phagi or urns, but no persons of distinguished rank appear to have been buried in this way. There are, however, few places in Rome where the ordinary manners and customs of the ancient Romans are more vividly placed before the eye than here, and the very insignificance of some of the details ex- hibited is somewhat striking. In one corner we find the ashes of a lady's maid attached to one of the imperial princesses ; in another, those of the royal barber ; and in another, a favourite lapdog has been admitted to take his place among his mis- tress's other faithful servants. Arch of Drusus. — Not so far from these columbaria, and close to the Porta S. Sebastiano, the Via Appia is spanned by a half ruinous archway, of which little but the core remains, the marble casing having long been torn off. It was probably originally ornamented with eight columns, two only of which now remain standing on the side next the modern gateway. These have shafts of Numidian marble (giallo antico), and composite capitals with Corinthian bases. Upon the top of this arch is a brick ruin apparently belonging to the Middle Ages, as the style of building is similar to that called opera saracenica by the Italians. It was probably a part of a fortified tower, placed upon the arch, resembling that which formerly surmounted the Arch of Titus. On each side of the arch are some remains of the branch aqueduct, which brought water from the Aqua Marcia to the Baths of Caracalla, and it is natural to conclude that this arch carried the aqueduct over the Via Appia, and was built by Caracalla for that purpose. The costly nature of the materials used has, however, induced most topographers to reject this explanation, and to assume that the arch is one of the three mentioned by the Notitia in the first region, as built in honour respectively of Drusus, Trajan, and Verus. The composite capitals seem to point to the earliest date of these three, and as the building bears a resemblance to a representation of the Arch of Drusus, which has been dis- covered upon a coin,^ the arch has been thought identical with that erected to Drusus, the father of Claudius, mentioned by Suetonius. Sessorium. — Two ruins standing near the Basilica of ^ Eckhel, Num. Vet. ii. 6. 176. ■rt- The Arch of Drusu^, so called. THE AYENTINE AND CJELIAN HILLS. 209 S. Croce in Gerusalemme may be reckoned as belonging to the district of the Caelian Hill. They are called by the topo- graphers the Sessorium and the Amphitheatrum Castrense. The first of these consists of a ruin built of brick, containing a large semicircular apse with round-headed windows, from which two walls project. No excavations having been made in order to ascertain the further extent of the buildings, any opinion formed as to their purpose must necessarily be highly uncertain. The most probable conjecture which has been made is that they are the ruins of a tribunal called the Sessorium. Such a court of justice is mentioned by the Scholiast on Horace as situated on the Esquiline near the place where criminals and paupers were buried. Further notices of the same name as applied to an edifice in the neighbourhood of the Basilica of S. Croce are to be found in Anastasius's Life of S. Silvester, and in a fragmentary history of certain passages in the Life of Theodoric, printed at the end of the work of Ammianus Marcellinus. Theodoric is there said to have ordered a criminal to be beheaded in palatio quod appellatur Sessorium, using the same phrase which Anastasius also employs. The authors of the Beschreibung Roms supposed that this ruin was the Nymphaeum Alexandri of the Notitia, but this has been disproved by Becker, who shows that the Nymphaeum was near the Villa Altieri. The opinion that it was the Temple of Spes Vetus, which Frontinus places near the commencement of the branch aqueduct of Nero, is more likely to be correct, but the shape of the building, so far as it is at present known, does not agree with such a supposition. The ruin? are commonly known by the name of the Temple of Venus and Cupid, a name which was given to them from the discovery of a statue near them representing a female figure. But it is a fatal objection to this that the name of the Roman matron (Sal- lustia) whose statue was supposed to be that of Venus, has been discovered to be engraved upon the pedestal. The statue may be seen in the Museo Pio Clementino. Amphitheatrum Castrense. — On the other side of the Basilica, and forming a part of Aurelian's wall, is a portion of an amphitheatre. The interior, now used as a garden, may be seen by entering the door on tlie right hand of the 210 ANCIENT ROME. basilica The larger axis of the amphitheatre was apparently about 110 yards, and the shorter 85 yards or thereabouts. It 18 entirely constructed of brick, even to the Corinthian capitals which ornament the exterior, and the workmanship shows it to belong to the best age of Roman architectural art Ihe second tier of arches has almost entirely disappeared, and ot the lowest tier only those are left which are built into the city wall. But to suppose, as Becker does, that it was not an amphitheatre, but the vivarium, where the wild beasts used vi iP°^^^ "^f^ ^'^P*' ^^^"^^ ^"* ^^ ^^^ question. The only difficulty IS to determine what the special history and purpose of the building, manifestly an amphitheatre, placed so far from the populous parts of the city, was. The Notitia here comes to our aid. for it records the existence of an amphi- theatrura castrense in the fifth region ; and there can be little doubt that we have here the remains of the amphitheatre built for the entertainment of the praetorian troops quartered in a fortified camp beyond the Porta S. Lorenzo. Aurelian made use of the outer side of the building as a part of his walls, and it is most probable that when Constantine pulled down the inner portion of the praetorian camp, he also de^royed the greater part of this amphitheatre. House of the Laterani.— In consequence of the sinking of part of the wall which supports the apse of the Basilica of iQ'yi 'I'^l'^'i* ^''^^''^^^ona became necessary in the year 1» 76 which disclosed the foundations of some ancient build- ings between the baptistery and the Via della Ferratella, and of some others under the apse itself. These were carefully examined, and it became evident that they belonged to the extended rums of a large villa, probably that called the ilouse of the Laterani, which was occupied and enlarged by the emperors of the second and third centuries, and finally given by Constantine to the Bishop of Rome. The House of t^sTite "" mentioned by Julius Capitolinus. was probably on Claudian Aqueduct.— Not far from the Sessorium, and spnngmg out of the angle of the wall close to the Porta Mae- giore. a series of lofty arches begins which extends through- out the whole length of the Caelian Hill. This is a branch aqueduct of the Aqua Claudia, built by Nero to supply the Caelian and Aveiitine Hills at a higher level than the Aqua THE AVENTINE AND CAELIAN HILLS. 211 Marcia and Aqua Julia, on which they had previously de- pended for their supply. It passed over the road leading from the Porta Maggiore to the Basilica of S. Croce, and thence ran along the higher ground, through the vineyards of the Scala Santa, whence it skirted the Via di S. Stefano, and, at the Arch of Dolabella, was divided into three branches, one of which crossed the valley to the Palatine, the second ran towards the edge of the hill over the Coliseum, and a third towards the Porta Capena. Arch of Dolabella. — The arch of Dolabella stands a little to the north-west of the Piazza della Navicella, and spans the road leading down from thence into the valley between the Caelian and Palatine, formerly called the Clivus Scauri. The archway consists of a single arch of travertine, without any ornamentation, but carrying an inscription to the effect that Publius Cornelius Dolabella, when consul, and Caius Julius Silanus, when Flamen Martialis, erected the arch by order of the Senate. The consulship of this Dola- bella falls in the reign of Augustus a.d. 10, and therefore the arch can originally have had no connection with the Neronian aqueduct. It is possible, however, as Becker and Reber sug- gest, that the arch may have been originally built to carry the Aqua Marcia and Julia, which, as we know from Fronti- nus, supplied the Caelian before the building of the Neronian branch of the Aqua Claudia.^ On one side the Arch of Dolabella is still completely hidden by the brickwork of the Neronian arches, and the other side was probably covered in a similar manner until after 1670, and we find no mention of this arch in Donatus, who could not have omitted to notice it in his description of the Neronian aqueduct had it been visible in his time. Navicella. — The marble representation of a ship, which stands now in the Piazza della Navicella and gives its name to the place, was probably a votive offering to Jupiter Redux, and there may be some connection between these and the Castra Peregrinorum, as having perhaps been the place where the troops employed on foreign service were quartered. An inscription seems to allude to this connection between the Temple of Jupiter Redux and the camp. 1 V Frontin. 76. II THE AVENTINE AND C^LIAN HILLS. 213 Houses on the Caelian. — In the time of the empire many palaces of the richer classes stood upon the Caelian. Among them we have distinct mention of the houses of Claudius Centumalus, which was visible from the Arx, of Mamurra, and of Annius Verus, in which Marcus Aurelius was born. Tetricus also, the unsuccessful rival of Aurelian, built a magnificent residence on the Caelian, in which, on his readmission to the emperor's favour, he entertained Aurelian. Palace of Commodus. — It seems probable, as Bunsen has conjectured, that the Vectilian Palace in which Com- modus lived, occupied the part of the Caelian next to the Coliseum. The ruins there consist of arches of travertine, forming a rectangular space upon the northern end of the hill. They are massively constructed, so as to bear a great superincumbent weight, and would be in every way suitable for the terraces of a large imperial villa such as Commodus may have built, when, as Lampridius tells us, he removed from the Palatine, where he found himself unable to sleep, to the house of Vectilius on the Caelian. He was afterwards murdered there. The position may have pleased him from its immediate vicinity to the Coliseum, where he was so fond of superintending the exhibitions, and displaying his own skill in killing wild animals. The story that he had an underground passage made from his villa to the Coliseum is also a strong confirmation of the conjecture of Bunsen, and some additional probability is given to it by the course of the branch aqueduct which leads from the Arch of Dolabella in the direction of this garden, and would certainly be required to supply the luxuries of a large Roman j)alace. Arch of Dolabella. CHAPTER IX. THE GEOLOGY OF ROME. The geological strata found on the site of Rome and in its immediate neighbourhood divide themselves into three prin- cipal groups. The oldest of these is a marine formation, and exhibits itself upon the Vatican, Janiculum, and Monte Mario. The second, of which all the hills on the eastern bank and the district of the Campagna are composed, is of volcanic origin, and consists chiefly of beds of tufaceous matter erupted from submarine volcanoes and more or less solidified. The third, which appears in the hollows of the Tiber valley, is a fresh-water formation, and is found on the slope of the hills on both banks of the river. Marine Formation. — The oldest of these three groups belongs to the division of the tertiary period, called by Lyell the older pleiocene, as having had a fauna and flora in which the greater number of species were identical with those now living on the earth. These strata are of marine formation, and are similar to those which extend over a great breadth of Italy on both flanks of the Apennine mountains, reaching as far south as the point of Reggio in Calabria. Their lower bed consists of a bluish-grey clayey marl, which will be found in the valley between the Janiculum and the Vatican. Its marine origin is sufficiently proved by the fossils found in it, and the remains of sea- weed. This bed of clay is of a plastic nature, and is still used for making pottery, as it was in the time of Juvenal. Above it lies a stratum of yellow calcareous sand, which sometimes takes the form of loose sand with boulders, sometimes of a stratified arenaceous rock, and some- times of a rough conglomerate. This may be seen outside the Porta Angelica, on the left, under the walls of the city, THE GEOLOGY OF ROME. 215 and in the Belvedere Gardens on the Vatican Hill. The Church of S. Pietro in Montorio is said to derive its name Montorio, monte aureo, from the yellow colour of this sand. On Monte Mario an abundance of fossil shells, of the Ostrea hippopus and other varieties of sea shells, may be seen, plainly indicating the marine origin of this formation. The only places within the actual walls of Rome where these tertiary marine strata are to be found, are the Vatican and the Janiculum. At the base of the Capitoline, in the subterranean vaults of the Ospidale della Consolazione, under the volcanic rock which forms the upper part of the hill, Brocchi found a stratum of calcareous rock and clay, which he affirms to be of marine origin, and to resemble the lime- stone of the Apennines. Volcanic Formation. — The second group of strata found on the site of Rome is one which is not confined to the neigh- bourhood of Rome, but is most extensively spread over the whole of the Campagna, the district of Campania, and a con- siderable part of southern Italy. The great mass of the Capitoline, Palatine, Aventine, Esquiline, Caelian, Viminal, Quirinal, and Pincian Hills, is composed of this formation. Geologists give it the general name of tufa, and divide it into two kinds, the stony and the granular. It is distinguished from lava by not having flowed in a liquid state from the volcano, and is a mechanical conglomerate of scoriae, ashes, and other volcanic products which have been carried to some distance from the crater of eruption, and then consolidated by some chemical rearrangement of their constituent elements. The harder kind of tufa, the tufa litoide, is a reddish brown, or tawny stone, with orange-coloured spots. These spots are embedded fragments of scoriaceous lava. It is hard enough to be used as a building stone, and has been quarried largely under the Aventine Hill near S. Saba, at Monte Verde, on the southern end of the Janiculum, and at other places near Rome, as at Torre Pignatara on the Via Labicana, at the bridge over the Anio, on the Via Nomentana, and at the Tarpeian rock. This tufaceous stone presents itself in very thick banks, traversed by long vertical and oblique fissures, probably pro- duced by the contraction of the mass on passing from a humid and soft to a drv and hard state. The Arch of the Cloaca 216 ANCIENT ROME. Maxima, near S. Giorgio in Velabro, is built of this stone, and the inner part of the substruction of the so-called tabu- larium on the Capitol. Portions of the Servian wall were also built of it, and many stones which were taken from this wall are to be seen at the present day in the walls of Aurelian, near the gate of S. Lorenzo ; and others have been laid bare by the railway excavations in the Servian Agger. Brick- shaped masses of it are found in the ambulacra of the Theatre of Marcellus, so that the use of it must not be restricted to the earliest times of Roman architecture. In fact, several buildings of the Middle Ages in or near Rome consist of this stone, as may be seen at the Fortress Graetani, near the Tomb of Csecilia Metella, and in the large tower at the side of the palace of the Senator. The granular tufa, now called pozzo- lana, was used for mortar and cement. Fresh-^vater Formation. — Fresh-water formations cover the bottoms of all the valleys in the district of Rome and in the whole of the Campus Martins, and ascend to a consider- able height on the flanks of the hills and into the Campagna. They consist chiefly of sand, clay, gravel, and the stone called travertine, and of tufa beds which have been disturbed and then re-deix)sited. This re-deposited tufa has been the sub- ject of some controversy. It was at one time thought to indicate that the lower tufa was also a fresh- water deposit, since it is sometimes found overlying the fresh-water forma- tions. But no doubt now remains that it must have been formed by a re-arrangement in fresh water of previously de- posited marine tufa beds. The water of the Tiber, at the time when these fluviatile formations took place, stood at such a height as to leave deposits upon the intermontium of the Capitol, and as high as the Church of S. Isidoro on the Pincian, and it must have partially removed and shifted the previously existing light and porous volcanic soil of the sea- bottom. Even the top of the Pincian was covered by this fresh water; for modules of calcareous matter, such as are deposited in fresh water alone, were found in digging the excavations for the fountain on the public promenade. The surface of the broad river which then existed, seems, in fact, to have been at from 130 to 140 feet above the present surface level of the Tiber, relatively to the level of the land, and its water must have been more surcharged with alluvium, THE GEOLOGY OF ROME. 217 derived from sources with which the present river is no longer connected. Among the fluviatile deposits, argillaceous marl beds now play an important part. They intercept the water as it descends from the hills, and impede its descent to the river, thus furnishing supplies to the wells in Rome, but rendering the soil less dry and healthy. The greater portion of these strata consist of a mixture of sand and clay. The ridge be- tween the Forum and the Coliseum, on which the Arch of Titus stands, is formed almost entirely of these mixed strata of clay and sand. To prove the fresh-water origin of these deposits, we need only refer to the modules of travertine and the shells of lacustrine animals which they contain. Such species of fresh-water shell-fish could not live in turbid and rapid water like that of the Tiber as it now is, and we must therefore conclude from their presence that the waters of the Tiber valley where such fossils are found were once in a semi- stagnant state. That there was also a period of violent movement during the prevalence of this lacustrine era is testified by the quantities of matter brought from a distance and accumulated at considerable altitudes, and by the size of the pebbles and boulders which have been rolled along by the stream. But before a more accurate investigation of facts shall have been made, it will be impossible to distinguish these two periods of stagnation and rapid movement from each other. Tiber Water. — The river water has no longer the power which it once possessed of depositing the travertine which we find lying in thick beds upon the slopes of some of the hills of Rome, and from which the larger ruins are all built. This travertine is formed from carbonate of lime which the waters take up as they pass through the soil containing it. In order to give the water the power of holding this carbonate of lime in solution, a certain quantity of carbonic acid gas must be present in it. When by means of the rapid movement of the water or from other causes this gas becomes disengaged, it leaves the carbonate of lime behind in the shape of a hard stony deposit. This natural process of petrifaction is familiar to all who have seen the Falls of the Anio at Tivoli, and the way in which the artificial canals of running water in that neighbourhood are choked by limestone concretions, and it mav be seen in all vessels made use of to boil water which is impregnated with lime. The more violent the agitation of the water the more rapid is the disengagement of the carbonic acid gas, and the consequent settlement of the lime. This process is accompanied, in most places where it can be seen, by the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen, which produces a white colour in the water by depositing the sediment called gesso by the Italians. Hence an explanation of the ancient name of Albula given to the Tiber is easy. In the period when the Tiber had the power of depositing travertine, its waters were much more strongly impregnated not only with carbonate of lime, but also with gesso, which gave a white tinge to the water as it now does to the sulphureous waters near Tivoli. The same colour was characteristic of " the white Nar, with its sulphureous stream," Virgil's description of the chief stream of the central Apennines. Climate. — The subject of the climate of Rome is naturally connected with that of the nature of the soil and configura- tion of the hills and valleys. It is not diflficult to see why the peculiar geological forma- tion of the Campagna proves, without careful drainage, extremely deleterious to health. We have there a district containing numerous closed valleys and depressions in the soil without outlet for the waters which naturally accumulate. The tufa which composes the surface seems commonly to take the shape of isolated hills with irregular hollows between them, so as to impede the formation of natural watercourses. Under this tufa is a quantity of marl and stiff clay, which retains the water after it has filtered through the tufa, and sends it oozing out into the lower parts of the country, where it accumulates, and, mixed with putrescent vegetable matter, taints the surrounding atmosphere. A want of movement in the air caused by the mountainous barriers by which the Campagna is inclosed is another source of malaria. The sites of Veii, Fidenae and Gabii, once the rivals and equals of Rome, are now entirely deserted except by a few shepherds and cattle stalls. Along the coast stood Ardea, Laurentum, Lavinium and Ostia, all of them towns apparently with a considerable number of inhabitants. Of these Ostia is now a miserable village, Ardea contains about sixty inhabi- tants, while Laurentum and Lavinium are represented by THE GEOLOGY OF ROME. 219 single towers. During a part of the year the ancient Roman nobility lived in great numbers on these very shores now found so deadly. Pliny the younger describes the appearance of their villas near Laurentum as that of a number of towns placed at intervals along the beach, and he writes an enthu- siastic letter in praise of the salubrity and convenience of his own house there. ^ Lselius and Scipio used to make the seaside at Laurentum their resort, and to amuse themselves there with collecting shells." Nor was it only on the sea- coast that the country villas were placed. Six miles from Rome on the Flaminian Road, at the spot now called Prima Porta, there stood a well-known country house belonging to the Empress Livia, part of which has lately been excavated.^ This was a highly decorated and commodious house, as the rooms which have been discovered, in which was found a splendid statue of Augustus, and the busts of several members of the imperial family, amply testify. The views from this spot over the Campagna and the Sabine Hills are most lovely, but the contrast between the beauty of nature and the haggard and fever-stricken appearance of the modern inhabitants is melancholy enough. A few squalid houses occupied by agri- cultural labourers stand by the roadside. Among their tenants not a single healthy face is to be seen, and even the children are gaunt, hollow-cheeked, and sallow in complexion. No wealthy Roman would now consent to live on the site of Hadrian's stately villa in the Campagna near Tivoli. Tivoli itself, which Horace wished might be the retreat of his old age, and which was celebrated as a healthy place in Martial's time, has now lost its reputation for salubrity, and is known as — Tivoli di mal conforto, O piove, o tira vento, o suona amorto. Strabo speaks of the now desolate district between Tusculum ^ Plin. Ep. ii. 17. The depopulation of the Campagna began even in the time of the later Republic. See Appian, B.C., i. 7. In the Antonine era and the followmg reigns, pestilence and famine swept off millions of inhabitants. Zumpt, " Stand der Bevolkerung," p. 84, quoted by Merivale, vol. vii. p. 610. ^ Cic. ile Or. ii. 6. Val. Max. viii. 8. See Mommsen, R. H. i. 13, p. 200. =» Suet. Galb. i. Plin. N. H. xv. 40, 136, 137. 220 ANCIENT ROME. n and Kome as having been convenient to live in. But there is no need to multiply proofs which might be gathered from all sides of what is an acknowledged fact, that the malarian fevers of the present day were not nearly so deadly in the classic times of Kome, or even in the Middle Ages. The troops of lal>ourers who, fearing to pass the night in the country, are met returning to Rome every evening, the for- saken towers and buildings which stand rotting everywhere about the Campagna, all tell the same tale of a pestilence- stricken district. The peculiar physical features of the district have had no little influence in determining the mode in which the popu- lation was grouped in ancient times. Everywhere we find the hills of Rome reproduced on a reduced scale. Small isolated flat-topped hills, irregularly divided by deeply cut watercourses, and edged with steep low cliffs, afford numerous sites for the settlement of limited independent communities. Such are the hills on which Laurentum, Lavinium, Fidense, Antemnse, Ficulea, Crustumerium and Gabii stood, and similar places abound in many parts of the district. Such hills afforded suitable sites for the small fortified towns with which ancient Latium was thickly studded. Their sides can be easily scarped so as to afford a natural line of defence, and they are in general fairly supplied with water from numerous land springs. Thus, although the general aspect of the Campagna is that of a plain country, yet the main level of its surface is broken by numerous deep gullies and groups of hillocks. The tertiary marine strata, already described as forming the Janiculum and other hills upon the right bank of the Tiber, do not rise to the surface in the Campagna, except on the flanks of the ^quian and Sabine hills. These hills themselves consist of great masses of Apennine limestone jutting out here and there into the spurs upon which some of the more considerable cities of the Latin confederacy stood, as Tibur, Prseneste, Bola and Cameria. The Alban Hills form a totally distinct group, consisting of two principal extinct volcanic craters somewhat resembling, in their relations to each other, the great Neapolitan craters of Vesuvius and Somma. One of them lies within the embrace of the other, just as Vesuvius lies half inclosed by H GO n u 222 ANCIENT ROME. Monte Somma. The walls of the outer Alban crater are of peperino, while those of the inner are basaltic. Both are broken away on the northern side towards Grotta Ferrata and Marino, but on the southern side they are tolerably perfect. From the legendary times, when Latinus, Evander, ^neas, and the rest of Virgil's heroes are supposed to have occupied the great plain of Latium, down to the final settlement of the district by its subjection to Rome in B.C. 338, the Roman Campagna was peopled by communities chiefly living in towns. Etruria on one side and Latium on the other, con- tained confederacies of independent cities, with one or other of which the Romans were constantly at war. Etruria gave way first, and after the fall of Veii in b.c. 395, the Roman dominions extended northwards as far as the Lago Bracciano and Civita Castellana. At that time the great confederacy of Latium, though Alba was destroyed, still existed under the Hegemony of Rome as the successor of Alba, and numbered Tibur, Praeneste, Tuscu- lum, Aricia, Antium, Lanuvium, Velitrse, Pedum, and Nomen- tum among its members. But after the victories gained by the consuls of the year b.c. 338, the absorption of the Latin cities made rapid progress, and the character of the population of the Campagna began to be completely changed.^ Li this, the second period of the history of the Campagna, the towns were gradually reduced to mere villages, the small farmers disappeared, and the land was occupied by the immense estates (latifundia) of rich proprietors cultivated by hordes of slaves. Such is the condition in which we find the Campagna in the time of Cicero.^ The great villas which strew the ground everywhere in the neighbourhood of Rome with their ruins were then constructed, and the colossal aqueducts which served not only to supply Rome with water but also to irrigate the farms and country seats of the Campagna. There seems to have been a constant tendency during the later republic and early empire to reduce the amount of arable land, and to increase the extent of pasturage in the Campagna. Thus the country was rendered less and less healthy, and » PUn. N. H. xxxiv. § 20. Kutilius de Red. 224. Strabo, v. 3, ^ Cic. pro Plane. 9. De Leg. Agr. ii. 35. THE GEOLOGY OF ROME. 223 Rome became gradually more dependent than ever on foreign countries for her supply of corn. The last phase of the history of the Roman Campagna is the most melancholy. The aqueducts were nearly all destroyed by the Gothic army at the siege of Rome under Vitiges in A.D. 536, and the great country seats of the Roman nobles and princes must have been ruined by the successive devasta- tions of Roman territory during the fifth and sixth centuries in which the Lombards were the principal actors. Agriculture ceased, and the few villages and country houses which remained soon became uninhabitable during a great part of the year, in consequence of the increase of malarious exhalations arising from the uncultivated state of the soil, or were rendered unsafe by the lawless bands of ruffian marauders who infested the oi>en country. Such is in the main the condition of the Roman Campagna at the present day, for the most part a waste of ragged pastures without human habitations, and wild jungles tenanted only by foxes, bears, and other wild animals. The above remarks will serve to show that after b.c. 338 the Campagna became deprived of all historical interest except as the summer residence of the great Roman proprietors. Its history belongs almost entirely to the early times of the Roman Republic. Mi\.:- CHAPTER X. the neighbourhood of rome. The Yia Appia and the Alban Hills. The Appian Road. — Of the great roads along which the principal tmffic from ancient Rome passed, the Appian Road may perhaps be said to have been the most important, as it led to the southern and oriental provinces of the great empire ; and it is on the line of this ancient road that the greatest number of ruined tombs and other buildings are still left. Two hundred ruins are said to stand on the sides of the Appian Road between the site of the Porta Capena, by which this road left the Servian walls, and Albano, a distance of fourteen miles. The tombs were of the most varied and fantastic shapes and designs, the most common forms being those with square or circular bases, cylindrical superstructure, and conical roof. Some were square with several floors, and surmounted by a pyramid, others consisted of chapels in brick, placed upon a cubical base, or of sarcophagi in various shapes, mounted upon brick substructions. Many fragmentary inscriptions have been found which once belonged to these tombs, but not one of any historical impor- tance. The greater part of them record the names of f reedmen, and other obscure people, as the larger and more highly deco- rated tombs were plundered first, and their marble casing and inscriptions completely destroyed at an early period. The older fragments which have been saved may be studied in the Berlin Collection of Inscriptions where they are learnedly and ably edited by Th. Mommsen. There were also many fountains and semicircular ranges of THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF HOME. 227 seats by the side of the road designed as resting-places for travellers. The commencement of the ancient Appian Road now lies l^tween the Porta S. Sebastiano (Porta Appia in Aurelian's Walls) and the site of the old Porta Capena. From this part of the road the Via Latina diverged on the left, and the Via Ardeatina on the right. Beyond the Porta S. Sebastiano, the first monument now visible is a mass of stonework on the left hand, about 100 yards from the gate. From its form and the style of masonry there can be little doubt that it was a pyramidal tomb similar to that of Caius Cestius at the Porta S'. Paolo, and that it was built in the Augustan era. The road then crosses the Almo, and the remains of another pyramidal tomb are to be seen on the left. This is sometimes called the Tomb of Priscilla, mentioned by Statius, but that name more probably belongs to the larger tomb further on, beyond the Church of Domine quo Vadis. This latter ruin agrees better with the description of Statius, as it had a cupola and loculi for the reception of unburnt corpses. The immense number of ruined tombs and other buildings which crowd the sides of the road beyond this point, make it necessary to restrict our remarks as much as possible, and we shall therefore only notice a few of the most prominent ruins upon the road or in the immediate neighbourhood. Divus Rediculus. — The brick building called the Temple of the Divus Rediculus stands half a mile to the left of the road at the second milestone in the Caffarella valley. The legend which connects it with Hannibal's march on Rome is altogether unworthy of credit,' and it is plain that the building, which had no rows of surrounding columns, but is constructed with Corinthian pilasters, had two stories, and cannot there- fore have been a temple. Professor Reber considers that it was a chapel tomb similar to that to be seen further on the road at S. Urbano, near the Tomb of Csecilia Metella. Grotto of Egeria. — The Grotto of Egeria, as it is called, lies in the valley of the Almo about half a mile above the building just mentioned. It is an arched nymphseum of brick, at the back of which a plentiful stream of clear water issues. The mutilated statue of the nymph still remains, but no other 1 Festus, p. 232. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 229 .. . - ■ >• ■ « parts of the decorations. There is little doubt that it was the nymphaeum of some suburban villa. Temple of Bacchus or Honos. — On the hill above it stands the Church of S. Urbano, probably an ancient tomb in the shape of a chapel. It is commonly called the Temple of Bacchus from the discovery under it of an altar of Dionysus with a Greek inscription. But this altar seems to have been moved here from some other spot. The building is in the form which has a projecting porch with four Corinthian columns and capitals. These are now built up into the modern wall. The whole, except the entablature and columns, is of brickwork of the Antonine era, as appears from the stamps of the bricks. The triple frieze, forming a kind of attica between the architrave and cornice, seems to contradict the notion that this was a temple, though the great antiquary E. Q. Visconti considered that it was the Temple of Honour built by Marius outside the Porta Capena.^ The interior is tolerably well preserved, and has a vaulted roof with coffers and reliefs in the form of trophies. The Circus of Maxentius and Temple of Romulus. — On the left of the Appian Road, where it dips suddenly into a valley near the Church of S. Sebastian, lies a group of ruins, the principal of which consist of a circus, a building inclosed in a large square court, and some remains of rooms apparently belonging to an ancient villa. The walls of the circus are still in such preservation that they can be easily traced round the whole inclosure, and are in some parts nearly of the original height. They are built of rubble mixed with brick- work, and with jars of terra-cotta to lighten their weight, as in the case of the masonry in other walls of the same date. The towers at each side of the Carceres, or starting post, the curved line of Carceres themselves, and the spina, or central division line, can be easily traced. An inscription found here in 1825, and now placed at the entrance to the ruins, seems to show that the circus was built in honour of Romulus, son of Maxentius, who died before his father, 309. This is confirmed bv a statement in one of the A.D. ancient chronicles published by Roncalli, in which it is said that Maxentius built a circus near the catacombs, evidently ^ Visconti op. Milan, 1829, vol. ii. p. 387. I: THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME, 231 la < < r. H ;>. «^ H as O < H if x H /■. X o ■r. a: X referring to the neighbouring catacombs of S. Sebastian and others, and also by the style of masonry used in the circus. The adjoining ruined temple, with its inclosing court, seems to belong to a somewhat earlier style of construction, but some reasons derived from the coins of Maxentius and Romulus have been given for supposing that it was the temple dedicated to Romulus after his apotheosis by his father/ The ruins are not sufficiently preserved to make it certain that the building was a temple, and there is nothing to contradict the h\^)othesis that it was a tomb. Nor is anything whatever known about the adjoining villa. Tomb of Csecilia Metella.— On the end of the mound formed by the great lava stream which ages ago flowed down from the"^ Alban Hills, and along the top of which the Via Appia runs from this point, stands the conspicuous Tomb of Csecilia Metella, the daughter of Metellus Creticus, and wife of Crassus, but whether of the Triumvir Crassus, or of the orator, or of some other less well known Crassus is uncertain. The shape of the tomb is the same as that of the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and the Tomb of the Plautii at Tivoli ; a cylindrical towerlike edifice, resting on a square base of concrete with massive blocks of travertine. The upper part has been destroyed, and the marble casing stripped off, with the exception of a band of ox skulls and garlands which surround it, and some trophies carved in relief above the inscription. The roof was probably conical. Mediaeval battlements, erected by the Caetani family, who held it as a fortress in the thirteenth century, now crown the upper edge. The remains of their castle are sdll visible on each side of the road bevond the tomb, Ronia Vecchia, Villa of Seneca.— After passing the third milestone, the Appian Road is fringed with ruins of innumerable tombs, and here and there the relics of a suburban villa. Scarcely any of these can have names attached to them with any certainty. The spot is now called Roma Vecchia, and the Campus sacer Horatiorum, the Fossa Cluiha, and the Villa Quintiliana Commodi lay near here. The suburban villa in which Seneca committed suicide by opening his veins was at the fourth milestone, as we learn from Tacitus, and near this ^ Hobler, Koman coins, p. 821. No. 2,035. Eckliel, Num. Vet. viii. p. 59. The Tomb of C'.kcilia Mktfxla on the Appian Road, THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 233 was found in 1824, by Nibby, a marble slab with the name of Granius, a military tribune. A tribune of this name was em- ployed by Nero to compel Seneca to kill himself, but whether the stone refers to him or not is of course doubtful. Tomb of Atticus. — At the fifth milestone on the right hand of the road is a round mass of ruins with a rectangular chamber inside, which has been supposed to be the tomb mentioned by Cornelius Nepos, as the burial place of Atticus, Cicero's friend. Near this is the great platform of peperino blocks which is thought to have been used as a burning place (ustrina) for the bodies interred at the side of the road. Villa Quintiliana. — On the left hand, a little way beyond the fifth milestone, the remains of the Villa Quintiliana of Commodus begin, and reach along the side of the road for at least half a mile, extending also towards the left into the ad- joining fields as far as the edge of the great lava current, on the top of which the Via Appia is here carried. The whole of this space, nearly two miles in circumference, is covered with fragments of costly marbles, of sculpture, and bits of mosaic, showing that it was covered with handsomely decorated buildings. The style of construction, says Nibby, belongs to three different epochs. The buildings nearest to the Appian Road, comprising the great reservoir, on the foundation of which the farmhouse of S. Maria Nuova is built, are of brick- work and reticulated work of the time of Hadrian, the great mass of the ruins which lies on the left towards the new road to Albano, exhibits workmanship of the Antonine era, and amongst them have been found numerous fragments of sculp- ture, also belonging to the reigns of the Antonines. The third style of building is that called opera mista by the Italian antiquarians, which prevailed in the Constantinian times, at the beginning of the fourth century. The buildings of the Antonines have been repaired and overlaid in many places by this later work. The stamps of most of the bricks found here belong to the reigns of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus, and were made chiefly in the imperial brick- yards. Thus the date of the principal parts of the building is decided, and it is seen that the villa was most probably an imperial villa. But all doubt on this point was completely cleared away by the discovery, in 1828, of a number of large 234 ANCIENT ROMK. leaden pipes bearing the inscription, ii. quintiliorum con- DiNi ET MAXiMi, from which it became evident that the villa was the same place which Vopiscus and Dion Cassius mention as the property of the Quintilii, consuls in the years a.d. 151, under Antoninus Pius, and victims of the spite of Commodus in A.D. 182.' Commodus seized their property, and the villa became one of his favourite residences. The great extent of the ruins explains the circumstance related by Herodian, that the emjjeror, being in the back part of the villa, could not hear the shouts of the infuriated mob on the Appian Eoad, who were demanding the life of Cleander." The ruins which extend along the side of the road, are plainly fragments of a kind of vestibule or grand entrance to the imperial villa. They consist of a nymphseum or grand fountain, and a row of chambers intended for slaves' lodgings. The fountain is supplied with water by an aqueduct, the arches of which can be seen at the seventh milestone, where it leaves tlie lava rocks, and crosses the country towards Marino, at a higher level than even the Aqua Claudia. This nymphseum and aqueduct are built of opera mista, which shows that they are probably the work of the Constantinian The principal mass of the villa itself stood nearly half a mile from the old Appian Road, on the edge of the rocks of basaltic lava. Between them and the road the space was occupied by gardens and ornamental summer-houses and ponds. Nibby describes the chief ruins as having belonged to a richly ornamented fountain, and a suite of bathing-rooms of great grandeur. One spacious saloon, the walls of which form a picturesque ruin, as seen from the new post road to Albano, stands on the edge of the rising ground, and commands a magnificent view of the whole of the Alban and Sabine Hills and the city of Rome. Near this was a small theatre, from which the cipol- lino columns of the entrance to the Tordinone Theatre in Rome were taken. An immense quantity of valuable sculpture, now in the Roman museums and palaces, was discovered by excavations here in 1787 and 1792. Among these sculptures was a ^ Hist. Aug. Flor. 16. Dion Cass. Ixxii. 5, 13. "^ Herotlian, i. 12. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 235 splendid statue of Euterpe, now in the Galleria dei Candelabri, a tiger now in the Hall of Animals ; and the busts of Lucius Verus, Diocletian, and Epicurus, Socrates, the Isis and Antinous in the Vatican, with numerous Sileni, Fauns, and Nereids. Casale Rotondo. — Between the sixth and seventh mile- stones from the Porta Capena there is a large round ruin 300 feet in diameter, called Casale Rotondo, now supporting a house and olive orchard upon the top. The fragments of sculpture found here have been arranged on the face of a wall, close to the pile of ruins. The name Cotta was found on an inscription belonging to this, and hence it has been supposed to be the tomb of the gens Aurelia, who bore the surname of Cotta. On the left are the arches of the aqueduct which supplied the Villa of Commodus. At the eighth milestone there was a Temple of Hercules erected by Domitian. Martial mentions this temple in several passages. There are considerable remains of a tetrastyle temple on the right hand of the road, consisting of columns of Alban peperino ; but this, which was once supposed to be the Temple of Hercules, is now said to have contained an altar to Silvanus. The Villa and Farm of Persius the poet is said by his biographer to have been near the eighth milestone. At the ninth stood the Tomb of Oallienus, and perhaps the ruins there belong to his suburbanum. At the tenth milestone, the Rivus Albanus, formerly the Aqua Terentina, is crossed ; and at the eleventh, the road begins to ascend the slope towards Albano. Bovillae.— At the twelfth, the circuit of the walls of the ancient town of Bovillse is approached. Dionysius says that Bovillae was situated where the hill before reaching Albano first begins to be steep, and this answers to the position of the modem Osteria delle Frattocchie. The ruins which are now generally held to be those of Bovillae lie on the cross road, called Strada di Nettuno, a little way above Frattocchie.' They consist of a small theatre built of brickwork and opus reticulatura, and a somewhat larger circus, the inclosure of which and the carceres are still pretty well preserved. The I Ann. deir Inst. 1853, 1854. 236 ANCIENT ROME. town did not lie close to the road. It was founded hy a colony from Alba Longa, and was a flourishing j^lace until Coriolanus destroyed it. For centuries afterwards we find but little notice *^taken of it. In Cicero's time it was a very insignificant village, and had it not been immortalized by the assassination of Clodius there, which led to such important results, it could hardly excite any interest in later times.' The honour of being the native place of the gens Julia gave it some artificial imix)rtance in the imperial times. Tiberius is mentioned by Tacitus as having erected a sacrarium of the Julian family and a statue of Augustus there, and founding Circensian games in honour of the gens Julia. Some inscrip- tions found on the spot show the town still existed in the second century a.d. It is now occupied by plots of land laid out as gardens. The Villa of Clodius, Cicero's enemy, appears to have been at or near the thirteenth milestone from Rome, close to the left side of the Appian Road, between Bovillae and the modem Albano. It was raised on immense sub- structions, the arches of which were capable of concealing a thousand men, and Cicero declares that Clodius had not respected even the confines of the Temple of Jupiter Latiaris or the sacred groves of Alba." The ruins which lie under Castel Gandolfo, on the left side of the road towards the Porta Romana of Albano, may have formed ])art of the substruction of which Cicero speaks. The estate of Clo- dius passed after his death, when the family of the Claudii Pulcri became extinct, into the hands of the Claudii Nerones, from whom Tiberius inherited it, and thus it became imperial property. Villa of Pompey.— The Villa of Pompey was between that of Clodius and Aricia, and therefore occupied the site of the present town of Albano. Nibby thinks that the walls of reticulated work in the Villa Doria belonged to Pompey's house, and that the great tomb, near the Roman gate of Albano was Pompey's burial-place. Plutarch states that Pompey was buried at his Alban villa. The tomb, with five truncated cones, usually called the Tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii, has also been called the Tomb of Pompey. It is more probably an imitation of the old Etruscan tombs ^ Cic. pro Plane. 9 ; Propert. v. 1, 33. » Cic. pro Mil. 10, 19, 20, 31. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 237 executed at a later time. After the death of that great general, the estate became the property of Dolabella, and subsequently of Antony, who held it till the battle of Actium, when Augustus took possession of it. After the adoption of Tiberius, it was united with the Clodian grounds, and thus formed the nucleus of the Albanum Csesarum. Albanum Csesarum. — Augustus and some of the early emperors found the Albanum a convenient halting- place on their journeys to the south, but it was in the time of Domitian that the place was extended so much as to contain a military camp, enormous reservoirs of water, thermae, a theatre, an amphitheatre, and a circular temple. It is called Arx Albana by Juvenal, Tacitus, and Martial. The plan of the camp can still be traced. It resembled that of the Praetorian camp at Rome, in being a quadrangular space rounded off at the corners. The two longer sides ex- tend from the Church of S. Paolo at Albano to the round Temple, now the Church of S. Maria. One of the shorter sides was parallel to the Appian Road, and the other ran near the Church of S. Paolo. There were four terraces or levels in the camp rising towards the hill behind. The Porta Decu- mana was in the north-eastern side, and the Porta Praetoria on the south-western. The great reservoirs for water stand on the northern side near S. Paolo, and the thermae towards the south-east on the opposite side of the Appian Road. At the western corner is the round building usually called the Temple of Minerva, and supposed to be that alluded to by Suetonius as annually visited by Domitian. This round building is in good preservation, but its purpose cannot be determined with certainty. Nibby says that the ancient mosaic pavement still remains at a depth of 6 feet below the present surface. The amphitheatre is situated between the Church of S. Paolo and that of the Capuchin Convent. It is principally constructed of opus quadratum, but the interior parts are of a mixed masonry, consisting of bricks and fragments of the local stone. This amphitheatre is supposed to have been the scene of the feats performed by Domitian, in killing with his own hand hundreds of wild beasts with arrows and javelins, and also of the degradation of Acilius Glabrio, who was forced, according to Juvenal, by Domitian to join him in these sports of the arena. ¥^ m- 238 ANCIENT ROME. Between Castel Gandolfo and Albano four magnificent terraces, rising one above the other, were traced by Cav. Rosa as forming part of the Albanum Csesarum, and m the Villa Barberini there is a considerable part of a cryptopor- ticus, ornamented with stucco reliefs, which probably stands over the old substructions of the Villa Clodi. On the side towards the lake there were open balconies for viewing the mock naval engagements ; and near the entrance of the Barberini Villa the ruins of a theatre have been discovered. It appears probable from the numerous ruins found upon the edge of the lake that the whole of it was surrounded with quavs and tiers of stone seats, and chapels of Nymphs, making it resemble a gigantic natural naumachia, or sheet of water for sham naval fights. These ruins may possibly, however, have belonged to separate private vilks placed at different points round the water. To the south of Albano, in the grounds of the Vi la Dona there are the ruins of an extensive Rresent village of Nemi. The wooded cliffs which surround the crater here are steep and descend immediately into the water, except on the side near Genzano, where they slope magnificently and are planted with vines. Their average height is 300 feet. In the Latin i)oets frequent mention is made of this lake as one of the principal ornaments of the neighbourhood of Rome, and in connection with the widely celebrated temple of Diana. Hence it was called Speculum Dianse, lacus Trivia? and Stag- num Diana;. Whether the name Lacus Aricinus also l)elonged to this lake is doubtful, for Pliny speaks of a lake which formerly occupied the valley of Ariccia, and the water in this valley was certainly called Lacus Aricinus in the middle ages. The water of the lake is supplied partially at least from a small spring near the road from Genzano to Nemi, and also from the copious stream which turns the mills of the village of Nemi. The latter is probably alluded to by Strabo when he savs that the sources whence the lake is filled are visible, and are near the temple of Diana. The mention of paving tiles, marbles, and leaden pipes as among the objects raised from the bottom of the lake, renders the notion that they belonged to a ship impro- bable, and Nibby's conjecture that a Roman villa, partly built out into the water, stood here, seems much more likely, though his application of the passage of Suetonius is very doubtful.' Cav. Rosa, who examined the neighbourhood of Nemi and Genzano with a special view to the solution of the question of the site of the Temple of Artemis, has given a careful account both of the ruins under Genzano and those to the west of Nemi. The former he pronounces undoubtedly to belong to a villa, the latter he thinks belonged to a temple with a large court in front, and an ancient road leading to it from the western side of the lake. These ruins are just above the lower road leading from the Capuccini convent at Genzano to Nemi, at the point where a cross road leads to the left and joins the * Nibby, Analisi, ii. 305. higher road to Nemi, not far from the place called le Mole.^ Genzano is a town of mediaeval origin. II. The Via Latina and Tusculum. Latin Road. — The modern Porta Giovanni is now the point at which the new road to Albano, and also that to Frascati, leave Rome. The Latin road anciently diverged, after passing the Porta Capena, from the Alban road and had a gate of its own in Aurelian's wall, called the Porta Latina, now walled up (see p. 247). The old Via Latina is unfortunately now almost lost, and can only be traced by the lines of ruined tombs which mark its former course. After leaving the old Porta Latina it runs along the edge of the hills which fringe the right bank of the Caffarelli valley, and crosses the new road to Albano at the second milestone, at a point on the other side of the valley almost opposite to the so-called fountain of Egeria. Tombs on Latin Road. — Not far from this spot some very interesting tombs were excavated in 1860. A full account of them has been given in the '* Annali dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica " for 1860. The sarcophagi and stucco ornaments are the most perfect remains of the kind in the neighbourhood of Rome. These sepulchral monu- ments are near the remains of the Basilica of S. Stefano, a ruin of the fifth century, and on the farm which bears the name of Arco Travertino from the travertine arches of the Claudian Aqueduct which cross it. The ancient pavement of the Latin road has been uncovered in some places near the tombs, and also some traces of a villa, which probably belonged to the Servilian and Anician families, have been excavated. The portico of the tomb which faces the southern side of the road leads down to two large vaults, in the outer of which stand the mutilated remains of a marble sarcophagus in a niche, while the inner vault is decorated with well-preserved stucco ornaments in relief, representing sea-monsters and nymphs. Some of the marble casing which covered the walls remains, but no name has been found on the bricks or stones. ^ Annali e Monumenti dell' Inst. 1856. H^ W. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 247 lf< o O < H © » o u Q en < H s H U In the tomb on the opposite side of the road there is a well- preserved mosaic with figures of sea-monsters at the entrance, and below are paintings of birds upon the arches which sup- PoRTA Latin A. port the sarcophagi in the outer chamber, and an inscription which gives the name of the Pancratii as the owners of the tomb. The family .figures and profiles are only sketched ii H m 248 ANCIENT ROME. roughly in outline, as is common in the catacombs. The roof of the inner chamber in this second tomb is exquisitely orna- mented with paintings and stucco reliefs, representing mytho- logical subjects and landscapes. In the centre a large marble sarcophagus containing places for two bodies is left standing. This sarcophagus is plain and without any decoration. The date of this tomb cannot precede the Antonine era, as there are no cinerary urns in it. Torre Fiscale. — At the fourth milestone from the Porta Capena, the Latin road passed under the arches of the Claudian and Marcian aqueducts, at the tower now called Torre Fiscale. At this point the two aqueducts cross each other, and present a most magnificent series of arcades running along the side of the old Latin road for more than a mile. Tlie arches of the Claudian aqueduct are here more than 50 feet in height. The railway to Naples runs very close to the line of the old Latin road here. A great number of ruins are still to be seen at a place called Sette Bassi, four miles and a half from the Porta S. Giovanni and near the Osteria del Curato. This spot, as well as the district near it on the Appian road, bears the name of Roma Vecchia. The scattered ruins occupy a space of nearly three-quarters of a mile in circumference, and appear to have been built at two different epochs. The bricks of which one portion of them is constructed have the dates a.d. 123 and 134 upon them, the years when Poetinus and Africanus and Ser- vianus and Juventius were consuls. The other part of the building is evidently contemporaneous with the ruins on the Appian road and belongs to the Antonine era. All the bricks were made at one of the imperial kilns, and it has therefore been generally supposed that the villa was an imperial resi- dence, forming a part of the already-mentioned Suburbanum Commodi. The marbles found on the spot show that it was decorated with great magnificence, and a particular kind of breccia, numerous fragments of which have been picked up there, obtains its name. Breccia di Sette Bassi, from the place. The plan, according to Nibby, was that of a large oblong area, the longer sides of which ran north and south. In the centre there was room for a large pleasure garden. The front of the buildings was at the northern end towards Rome, and the remains of a portico can be traced, which supported a u M X >. o i I w 250 ANCIENT ROME. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 251 terrace on a level with the first floor rooms of the mansion. One of these rooms with three doors and the same number of windows can still he traced. In some of the walls the remains may he seen of terra-cotta pipes for heatinj? the rooms. The ground floor apartments were without decorations, and are therefore supposed to have served as storehouses for grain and farm produce.' Behind this front building, on the eastern and western sides, are long ranges of building, the eastern consisting of two suites of rooms, probably intended for baths or for gym- nasia, and the western forming a long ambulacrum terminated by an exedra. On the south side there is a cryptoporticus and a reservoir for water which was supplied by a branch of the Claudian aqueduct. About a quarter of a mile farther south, near the Latin road, there is an outlying building which seems to have been intended to command a view of that road. The railway to Frascati now runs between the Claudian aqueduct and these ruins. The castella of the Aqua Marcia, the Tepula, the Julia, the Claudia, the Anio Vetus, and the Anio Nova lie on the right of the old Latin road here, at the sixth milestone, where the arcades make a right angle. The old road then runs to the right of the present road to Frascati, nearly on the line of the modem Strada di Grotta Ferrata, and ascending the 8l<)i>es of the Alban Hills, passes l)ehind Tusculum and Corbio, along the valley called Vallis Albana. Tusculum. — Since the excavations carried out by Lucien Bonaj)arte at the beginning of this century, there has been no doubt left as to the site of the ancient city of Tusculum. The ruins lie from alwut a mile and a half to two miles above Frascati, upon the ridge forming the edge of the most ancient crater of the Alban Hills. Between this ridge which bore the name of Tusculani CoUes, and the hills ui)on which Marino and Kocca di Papa stand, the great Latin road ran. Tusculum stiinds just over this road, and was approached from it by a steep path ascending the northern side of the valley. The main road entered the city on the other side, from the direc- tion of Frascati and Rufiiaella, leaving the Via Latina at the ' Nibby Anal. iii. p. 736. tenth milestone, between Morena and Ciampino. The ancient pavement of this road can be clearly traced on the slope of the hill above Frascati, and it leads us along the top of the hill through what has plainly been the main street of the town to the citadel, which stood at the eastern extremity. The site of the citadel is a platform nearly square and 2,700 feet in circuit, standing about 200 feet above the level of the surrounding parts of the hill. Its walls were com- pletely demolished by the Romans in 1191 and not a vestige of them is left. Sir William Gell thought, however, that he could discover the traces of four ancient gates, one on the west, another on the side of the Alban valley, a third on the eastern side, and not far from this last, a postern communicating with a steep and rocky path which descended to the Alban valley. Most of the ruins now visible belong to the mediaeval fortress of the Dukes of Tusculum, and a few only of the quadrilateral blocks of the ancient inclosure are visible. In the ^quian and Volscian wars this citadel played an important part. It must therefore have been a fortress of considerable strength from very early times. Dionysius describes it as a very strong position, requiring but a small garrison to hold it, and adds that tlie whole country, as far as the gates of Rome, is plainly visible from it, so that the defenders could see the Roman forces issuing from the Porta Latina. The city itself lay on the ridge of the hill westwards from the citadel. The area which it occupied is an oblong strip of ground about 3,000 feet long, and from 500 to 1,000 feet in width. On the north and south sides the limits of the city are clearly marked by the edges of the hill, but on the west they are not so easily defined. Theatre. — At the foot of the descent from the citadel are the ruins of a large water tank of an oblong shape divided into four compartments by three rows of piers, and imme- diately under this tank is a small theatre built of peperino, which was excavated by the dowager Queen of Sardinia Maria Christina in 1839 and 1840. This, with the exception of the theatres at Pompeii, is the most perfectly preserved in Italy. The walls of the scena are unfortunately destroyed, but the ground plan of it can still be traced. The stage, which abuts closely on the western side of the semicircular cavea, is 110 feet in length, and 20 feet in depth. It has the three 1 k,'- 252 ANCIENT ROME. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 253 ||MI usual entrances from the back, and one at each end. These opi*n into a corridor and communicate with two chambers, probably used as dressing rooms by the actors. Nearly the whole of the fifteen rows of seats in the lower division are still preserved unl)roken, but the upper part which contained, to judge by the height of the outer walls still remaining, about nine rows of seats, is entirely destroyed. Other Ruins. — The curved walls on the northern side of the theatre were supjx)sed by Nibby to have belonged to another theatre, but are now generally believed to have been a part of a fountain connected with the above-mentioned reser- voir. Along the northern side of the reservoir are two parallel walls, which apparently inclosed the street leading to the citadel. The roadway must have been here carried by an arched corridor under the side of the theatre. Gate and Walls. — Near the ancient road from the theatre westwards is a mass of ruins the plan of which cannot be determined, and beyond these, not far from the point where the road divides, and on its right-hand branch, is one of the gates of the city, marked by two fragments of ancient fluted columns which perhaps formed a part of its architecture. Near this are the remains of the ancient north wall of the city, consisting of blocks of peperino of great size more or less regularly laid, and of restorations here and there in reticulated work, partly of the later republic, and partly of more modern times. The pavement of the street is here i)erfectly j^reserved, and near the gateway there is a wide space left, probably as a turning place for carts or carriages. Tank and Fountain. — In the walls near this point is a stone doorway leading into a stone water-tank, with a pointed roof formed by overlapping stones, on the same principle as the roof of the so-called Mamertine prison at Rome, the gate of Arpinum and the treasuries of Mycenae and Orchomenos. The doorway is about 10 feet high and 5 wide, and the tank of the same dimensions. In the interior are three divisions or basins for water, and at the back an aqueduct enters by means of which the water was supplied. At the side of this tank there is a small ancient fountain under the wall which was supplied from the tank by a leaden pipe. An inscription on the fountain records that it was made by the ^diles Quintus Cselius Latinus, son of Quintus, and Marcus Decumo, by command of the Senate of Tusculum. Not far from the fountain was found the fifteenth milestone from Rome. On the road to Frascati, near the point where the western gate of the city has been supposed to have stood, the remains of an amphitheatre can be discovered. The seats are entirely destroyed, and it is only by the oval shape and by the position of the substruction that the ruins can be recognized as those of an amphitheatre. A round tomb stands a little above the amphitheatre, and beyond this the ruins of a large villa called Scuola di Cicerone cover the side of the hill towards the Alban valley. The legend which ascribes the foundation of Tusculum to Telegonus, the son of Circe and Ulysses, is familiar to all readers of the Latin poets. It is remarkable, however, that Virgil, who mentions most of the towns of Latium, has en- tirely omitted to notice Tusculum. This may be mere acci- dent, or it may be attributable to a grudge similar to that which led him, according to Aulus Gellius, to omit Nola from the lines in the Georgics celebrating the fertility of Campania, but it certainly cannot be due to the fear of making an anachronism, as Nibby supposes. In the times of the Latin league, from the fall of Alba to the battle of the Lake Regillus, Tusculum was the most prominent town in Latium. It suffered, like the other towns of Latium, a complete eclipse during the later republic and the imperial times, but in the ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries under the counts of Tusculum it became again a place of great importance and power, no less than seven Popes of their house having sat in the chair of St. Peter. The final destruction of the city is placed by Nibby, following the account given in the records of the Podesta of Reggio, on the 1st of April, a.d. 1191, in which year the city was given up to the Romans by the Emperor Henry VI., and after the withdrawal of the German garrison, was sacked and razed to the ground. Those of the inhabitants who escaped collected round the church of S. Sebastian on the foot of the hill, in the district called Frascati, whence the town of Frascati took its origin and name. They founded their new town upon the remains of an ancient villa, which stood near the round tomb which still remains on the road to the Villa della Rufinella. The name of Lucullus has been attached to this villa and tomb from the statement of 254 ANCIENT ROME. Plutarch that Lucullus was buried by his brother at his Tus- culan villa. It is, however, much more probable that the larger round tomb in the Vigna Angelotti on the road towards Rome was the burial-place of Lucullus. Scuola di Cicerone.— The building now called Scuola di Cicerone is not far from the ruins of the western gate of Tus- culum. Tlie ground floor is apparently about 270 feet in length and 100 in depth, but the upper parts of the buildings have now completely disappeared. The materials were of brick and reticulated work, similar to that now found in the gardens of Sallust at Rome, and generally considered as be- Tonging to the last age of the Republic or the early Empire. The ground floor had a cryptoporticus along its whole length, and above this on the first floor was probably an oi)en portico with a colonnade. Eight large rooms opened out behind the cryptoporticus, in the second of which are the remains of some stairs, and at the back of the eighth a recess. At the ends of the cryptoporticus are the remains of some more rooms. There are no signs of decoration on any of the walls, and therefore this lowest story of the building is supposed to have been used as a storehouse for corn and farm produce. There is, however, no evidence whatever to connect these ruins with Cicero's Villa. The only indication we have of its site is given by the Scholiast on Horace, who speaks of it as situated near Tusculum on the upper slopes of the hill.^ Villa of Gabinius.— This will agree either with the rums just described or with those found in 1741 under the modem Villa Rufinella, which is a little way lower down the western slope. That Cicero's Villa was upon the upper part of the hill is confirmed by his own statement that it was so near that of the consul Gabinius, that at the time of Cicero's exile, not only the furniture but the trees in his garden were transferred to the Villa of Gabinius, and we also find that this latter villa was upon the upper part of the hill. Nibby accordingly places the Villa of Gabinius on the site of the modem Villa Falconieri close to the Rufinella. Several particulars about his villa are mentioned by Cicero 1 Schol. ad Hor. Ep. i. 29. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 255 himself. It contained two rooms called gymnasia, to the upper of which he gave the name of Lyceum, and which con- tained his library. The lower gymnasium was called the Academy in honour of Plato. The Lyceum seems to have been used in the morning, and the Academia in the afternoon, as being more sheltered from the heat of the sun. The Hermathena, a double-headed bust of Hermes and Athena, mentioned in the letters to Atticus, was probably placed in the Lyceum, for the phrase he uses there seems to refer to Apollo as the patron of the gymnasium, in which it was placed. There were also some Hermae of Pentelic marble, bronze busts, and Megarian statues placed in the gymnasia, and Atticus had a general commission to buy up anything which he might think suitable for these rooms. Another part of the villa was called the atriolum. Nibby has shown from one of the letters to Quintus that the atriolum of a villa was a small courtyard surrounded with bedchambers and oflSces. The Tusculan 'atriolum was decorated with stucco reliefs on the walls, like those in the tombs on the Latin Road. III. Gabii and Pr^neste. Tomb of Atta. — The road to Gabii and Prseneste leaves Rome at the Porta Maggiore. The most conspicuous ruin, which it passes at about one mile from the walls of Rome, is a very large circular sepulchral monument more than 100 feet in diameter, to which the name of Quintus Atta has been attached. Villa Gordiana. — Beyond this, at a distance of two miles and a half from Rome, we come to the remains of a vast villa, which has been identified with that spoken of by Julius Capitolinus in his history of the Gordian family. That historian says that their '* country house was situated on the road to Praeneste, and was remarkable for the magnificence of a portico with four ranges of columns, fifty of which were of Carystian, fifty of Claudian, fifty of Synnadan and fifty of Numidian marble. There were' also three basilicas in it, each of 100 feet in length, and other buildings of corre- sponding size, in particular some Thermae more magnificent 256 ANCIENT ROME. than any others in the world except those at Kome." The ruins of this great imperial villa extend for nearly a mile along the road, consisting chiefly of some huge reservoirs for water, two spacious halls belonging to the Thermae, a round temple or Heroon, and a stadium surrounded with arcades. The style of construction in most of these is the irregular brickwork with thick layers of mortar which is known to be characteristic of the third century. Gordian III. was killed in A.D. 244. The great reservoirs are close to the road, two on the left and two on the right-hand side, beyond the depres- sion in which the stream called Acqua Bollicante runs, where the ground rises towards the hill of Torre de' Schiavi. Some of them appear to be of an earlier date than the reigns of the Gordians, and are referred by Nibby to the Antonine epoch. The brickwork of these last is more regular, and they contain a good deal of reticulated work and layers of squared tufa stones. The two large halls which belonged to the Thermae are to the east of the reservoirs. One of them was a spacious octagonal building with round windows. It was occupied as a fortress or watch-tower in the middle ages, and has been repaired in the style called Saracenesca. In the walls of this may be seen the earliest instances of a mode of construction afterwards, as in the Circus of Maxentius, very common, the introduction of jars of terra-cotta in the walls to make the work lighter. The interior is ornamented with niches alter- nately square and circular headed, and retaining some of their ancient stucco decorations. The other hall of the Thermae stands not far off, and is circular with a domed roof. The Heroon, or circular temple, of which mention has been made, is similar to that near the Circus of Maxentius. The diameter of this is 56 feet, and it was lighted by four large round windows. The front was turned towards the road according to the rule laid down by the architect Vitruvius. Underneath, there is a crypt supported by a massive round pillar, and containing six niches. In this, Nibby thinks that the ashes of the dead were placed, as their statues were in the temple above, and that the building was the Heroon of the reigning family. In the middle ages this Heroon was used as a church, and some of the paintings then introduced are still visible on the interior walls. Not far from the Heroon are THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 257 the ruins of the arcades which surrounded the stadium and bounded the domain of the villa on the east side. Torre Pignatara.— In this district, but along the ancient Via Labicana which runs in the direction of Frascati, stands the consi>icuous tower now called Torre Pignatara from its construction with pigne or earthern pots. It surmounts a large circular hall and a catacomb to which the titles of S. Helena's Mausoleum and the Chapels of SS. Peter and Mar- cellinus have been given, but the real history of the building is unknown. Ponte di None. — At the ninth milestone on the road to Palestrina, where the road crosses a small brook, is a magnifi- cent monument of ancient Roman architecture, consisting of an arched viaduct built of peperino and tufa blocks. The length of this viaduct is 105 yards, and the highest of the seven arches about 50 feet. The blocks of stone used are in some cases 10 feet in length, and they are firmly fitted together without any kind of cement. This viaduct is now called Ponte di Nono.^ The ancient roadway of polygonal fragments of basalt still remains, but the parapet on each side has been destroyed. Gabii. — At a distance of about three miles beyond the Ponte di Nono are the ruins of Gabii on the edge of the lake called Lago di Pantano in the district of Castiglione. Nume- rous traces of the ancient city are still visible. It occupied a long strip of ground extending from the sepulchral mound on the right of the road near the outlet of the lake to the tower of Castiglione. Nibby thinks that this tower stands on the spot formerly occupied by the citadel of Gabii, the original stronghold founded according to the legend by a colony from Alba. In the year 1 792 extensive excavations were made on the site by Prince Marcantonio Borghese at the suggestion of Mr. Hamilton a Scotch jjainter, and a quantity of sculptures and inscriptions now in the Louvre at Paris were discovered. The principal ruins now remaining are those of the cella of a temple built of the famous lapis Gabinus, and some steps in a semicircular form, probably the remains of a theatre. The temple is generally supposed to have been that of Juno alluded to by Virgil. * Canina, Mon. dell' Arch. ant. tav. 183. s ..■px m- ANCIENT UOME. The form of tliis temple was almost identical with that at Aricia. The interior of the cella was 27 feet wide and 45 feet lon^'. It had columns of the Doric order in front and at the sides, but none at the back. The walls of the chamber at the back were here, as at Aricia, prolonged on each side, so as to close the side porticoes at the back. The surrounding area was alnnit 54 feet in breadth at the sides, but in front a space of only 8 feet was left open, in consequence of the position of the tlieatre, which abutted closely upon the temple. On the eastern side of the cella are traces of the rooms where the }>riests in charge of the temjde lived. The shape of the forum can only be partially made out. From^ the plan published in the " Monumenti Gabinoborghe- siani," itapj>ears that it was a rectangular quadrilateral space, traversed by the Via Prsenestina at the southern end, and that it was surrounded with a i>ortico of Dorit- columns except at the end along which the Via Prsenestina was carried. It was believed at the time when the excavations were made that the Curia and Augusteum could be distinguished among the surrounding buildings, but this seems now to be very doubtful. In the centre stood the statue of Titus Flavius ^lianus, the patron of the borough town. The pedestal of this statue with its inscription was found in situ m 1 792. *• The stone of Gabii quarried near the lake and the product of its extinct volcano, is used in many of the Roman buildings and esj)ecially in the building called the tabularium at the head of the Forum Romanum. It is a hard species of peperino, of a brownish. grey colour, which when exposed to the air becomes paler than the common peperino of Albano. It resists the action of fire, and is a compound of volcanic ashes mixed with small fragments of black, brown, and reddish lava, scales of mica, and bits of Apennine limestone." * The city of Gabii lost its independence soon after the beginning of the Republican em of Rome. It was restored as a colony of veterans by Sylla, but sank into obscurity, and became almost proverbial for its desolate condition in the Augustan era. It afterwards recovered its prosperity in some degree by means of the celebrity of its cold baths, and in the time of Hadrian was patronised by the Emperor, who built ^ Nibby, Anal. vol. ii. p. 87. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 259 an aqueduct and a Curia ^Elia there. The inscriptions found on the spot l)elong chiefly to the Antonine era, and the busts of Severus and Geta also found there show that in the first part of the third century Gabii was still a flourishing borough town. Labicum. — The most conspicuous outlying hill of the volcanic district not far from Gabii is that of La Colonna, about three miles below Rocca Priora. It stands apart from the rest of the range, and is easily seen from Rome. From Strabo's descrii)ti()n of the site of Labicum there can be but little doubt that this hill must be considered to be the place to which he refers in his account of the Via Labicana. " That road," he says, " begins at the Esquiline Gate, at which the Prsenestine Road also leaves the city, and leaving both this latter and the Esquiline plain on the left, proceeds for more than a hundred and twenty stadia (fifteen and a half Roman miles) till it reaches Labicum, an old, dismantled city, lying on a mount. The road leaves it and Tusculum on the right, and ends at the station called ad Pictas, where it joins the Latin Road." There are no ancient ruins now on the spot. In Strabo's lime it was apparently ruined and deserted, and at an earlier date Cicero says that it was difficult to find any inhabitant to represent Labicum at the Ferise Latinse. It seems probable, therefore, that it suffered severely in the civil wars of Sylla and Marius, and did not recover itself until the establishment of an imperial villa there gave it some importance. Prseneste.— Beyond La Colonna, the ancient Labicum, by far the most important place on the ^quian frontier was the strong fortress-town of Praeneste, now Palestrina, which com- mands the passage from Latium into the valley of the Sacco. Prseneste is placed on one of the projecting spurs of the mountainous district which intervenes between the Anio and the Sacco. Standing, as the city does, more than 2,100 feet above the sea level, it forms a very conspicuous object in the view from the hills of Rome. After its eventful history as the great border fortress of Latium, we can only wonder that it has been foimd possible to restore the ancient plan of Praeneste with tolerable accuracy, as has been done by Nibby and other archaeologists. The modern town, an agglomeration of filthy narrow alleys. 260 ANCIENT ROME. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 261 occupies little more than the space on which stood the great Temple of Fortune and its approaches. Nearly a mile dis- tant from this, on the summit of the hill, stood the citadel united with the town by two long walls of jx)lygonal masonry, traces of which are still to be seen, though they do not rise to any height above the ground. The site of the citadel is now occupied by a wretched little suburb called Borgo di S. Pietro, and by a ruined mediaeval castle of the Colonnas built in the style called opera Saracenesca. On the side towards the town the walls of the citadel are still easily traced, and present admirable examples of |X)lygonal struc- ture, rising in some places to a considerable height. On the other side, where the steepness of the hill made artificial defences less necessary, the walls have almost disappeared. The original fortifications of the city may be followed from the Porta del Sole, where the ancient polygonal masonry is visible. " In this part of the walls," says Nibby, '* are some towers of opus incertum, standing between the Porta delle Monache and the Porta Portella. Near the latter gate the polygonal wall is nearly fifteen feet in height, and on one great block mav l)e read in verv ancient letters the words ped. xxx. After having surrounded the summit of the hill of S. Pietro, the wall descends to the Porta S. Martino, where it was strengthened at the time of the Punic wars with additions of quadrilateral structure, and where an ancient gate now closed may be seen. From this point the wall proceeds in a nearly straight line in the direction of the upper garden of the Barberini Palace and the Via di S. Girolamo towards the Porta del Sole. This circuit of about three miles in length was intersected at different points by at least three other lines of fortifications above the Contrada della Cortina and hence }>erhaps the city bore the name of ' many crowns,' given it by Strabo, forming, as it were, four sejmrate inclosures, besides the various terraces of the great temple, which could almost be regarded as so many divisions of the town." ^ The original foundation of the Temple of Fortuna Primi- genia at Praeneste is lost in obscurity ; but the ancient poly- gonal substructions which support it show that it was a very large temple even in early times. > Nibby, Anal. ii. 496. Cicero in his description of the Praenestine lots, calls it a splendid and ancient temple, and Valerius Maximus speaks of it as the most celebrated oracle of Latium at the end of the first Punic war. The ancient town extended to a considerable distance be- yond the precincts of the temple. Outside the Porta S. Fran- cesco of the modern town, at about the distance of half a mile, are two huge reservoirs, similar to those described as placed at the foot of the Temple of Fortune; and in the Contrada degli Arconi is the cistern of an aqueduct. This, with other ruins near it, belonged to that part of the town founded by Sylla, which extended to a distance of a mile and a half from the lowest terrace of the great temple. The forum of the city lay between the western reservoir of the temple, and the churches of S. Lucia and S. Madonna deir Aquila. This is inferred from numerous inscriptions, and some commemorative y^illars and altars found there. The Praenestine Registers of Verrius Flaccus were found in the Contrada delle Quadrelle, a mile and a half from this spot. They may, however, as Nibby suggests, have been moved from the forum, where we should naturally expect to find them. IV. OsTiA AND Porto. Ostia. — Ostia is fifteen miles distant from the Porta di S. Paolo of Rome. The site of the old town is plainly discer- nible by the hillocks of rubbish with which it is covered, and the ruined brick walls which protrude here and there. On approaching from the modem village, which is half a mile nearer Rome than the ruins of the old town, we pass between lines of tombs on each side of the road, similar to those which have been excavated at Pompeii. The tombs are very closely packed together, and of different sizes and shapes. On the left-hand side, two sarcophagi remain, with the names of Sex. Carminius Parthenopaeus Eq., and T. Flavius Verus Eq., and a terra-cotta inscription on the tomb of Flavia Caecilia, priestess of Isis at Ostia. ^ At the end of this street of tombs, the gate of the city has * Mon. deir Iiist. VI. tav. xi. Ann. dell' Inst, 1857, p. 281. nW':'.-- ■th". 262 ANCIKXT ROME. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 263 been laid bare, and its foundations can be easily traced to- gether with those of a guard- house on the left-hand side, havinj^ a rude tabula lusoria marked on the pavement, where the soldiers whiled away their time at some game resembling skittles. The street which is then entered passes l)etween the ruins of private houses, without anything more remarkable about them than a few common mosaic pavements and two foun- tains. The j)rincipal j)ul»lic buildings which have been exca- vated, are, I. The house of the priests of Mithras, in which] a well- preserved altar still stands with the inscription : C CAKLIVS . HERMAKROS ANTISTES . HVIVS . LOCI FKCIT II. The Thermae, consisting of a large court, and several smaller side rooms for vapour-baths, with mosaic pavements of various designs. These baths may possibly be the lavacrum Ostiense of Antoninus Pius. The stamps on the bricks are said to he of the Antonine era. III. A large rectangular bri(;k edifice with three windows on each side. In the mterior are the remains of ornamental niches, Corinthian capitals, and a marble cornice. The walls have rivets upon them, by which it appears that they were covered with a marble casing, and the magnificent block of African marble which serves as the threshold shows that the building was of a costly description. Traces have been found of a front chamber with a portico of grey granite columns. Whether this was a temple or not is uncertain, but it has been supposed that the arrangements in the interior would agree with such a supposition. The masonry may be assigned to the age of Trajan or Hadrian. The name of Vulcan has been usually given to this temple, which was at one end of the ancient forum. Many excavations have Ixjen made here within the last ten years, and some valuable works of art have been discovered, and numerous stores and shops of various kinds have been uncovered. IV. The ruins of a theatre supposed by Nibby to he that mentioned in the Acta Marty rum, near which S. Quiriacus and S. Maximus, and S. Archelaus, and a number of others were martyred. It is built partly of yellow and red brick- work, and partly of opus reticulatum, and apparently belongs to the restorations and additions made by Hadrian to the city. V. The ruins of an extensive building, probably an em- porium, on the bank of the river near Torre Bovacciano. In this place a great number of works of art were discovered by Fagan in 1797, showing the magnificent decorations with which the building was ornamented ; and several inscriptions with the names of Severus and Caracalla found here are given by Nibby. ^ Grove of the Arval College.— Fiumicino at the present mouth of the Til)er, and Porto which stands at the site of the ports formed by Claudius and Trajan, may be reached from Rome by steamer down the river, or by carriage. The road which leads to Fiumicino and Porto leaves the city walls at the Porta Portese, and at about the fifth milestone reaches the celebrated grove of the Dea Dia, where the worship of the great collegiate priesthood of the Fratres Ar vales was carried on. The railway to Civita Vecchia crosses the road at this spot, to which the modern names of the Moute delle Piche and the Vigna Ceccarelli are given. Discoveries of inscriptions had been made here since the vear 1570, but no formal collec- tion of them was made until the publication of Marini's great work in 1785. No effective investigations were, however, carried on until April, 1868. The remains of a Christian cemetery were then disinterred on the slope of the hill above the Vigna Ceccarelli, where many of the marble tablets upon which the Arval Brothers had inscribed their records were found to have been used in the graves in lieu of coffins and as gravestones. One tomb was covered with a slab containing the records of the year a.d. 155, and numerous fragments of inscriptions were found scattered in all directions. These inscrij^tions are of great interest both arch geologically, as containing authentic particulars about the worship of the Arval Brothers, and the places at Rome or elsewhere in which it was held, and also historically, since many of them give the titles of eminent persons, or fix the dates of consuls and other ministers of state, and enable us thereby to correct ^ Nibby, Anal. ii. 468. 264 ANCIENT ROME. and compare the statements of Tacitus and Suetonius with those of Dion Cassius. Many points of mythology are also illustrated by the mention of the divinities whom the college worshipped in their ritual. Porto.— Beyond the site of the Arval Chapel, the road passes by the relics of the papal palace of La Magliana, and then along a causeway six miles in length to Porto. The site of the ancient Portus Trajani on the right branch of the Tiber is now occupied by the town of Porto, mainly consisting of the cathedral, the Villa Pallavicini, and some farm buildings. The sea has here continuously receded for many centuries, and the river deposits of sand and marl have extended. Fiumicino at the i)resent mouth of the river is two miles distant from Porto, and its site was entirely covered by the sea at the time when Claudius, and Trajan after him,' con- structed their new ports. The large marsh v tract to the north of Porto marks the site of the port of Claudius. The hexagonal basin of Trajan lies between this marsh and the town of Porto. It is not at all clear when the right arm of the Tiber, or rather the canal which now serves for communication between the sea and the Tiber proper, assumed its present shape. Inundations and occasional repairs and alterations have changed its course, and the constant retreat of the sea must have lenthened it considerably. Ruins at Torre Paterno.— Passing from Ostia along the sea coast through the woods of Castel Fusano to Torre Paterno, we find the ruins of a large villa, which have been supposed by some to belong to Pliny's Laurentinum. But they are more probably the relics of *^an imperial villa men- tioned by Herodian as the retreat to which Commodus with- drew, by the advice of his physicians, at the time of the great plague in Rome, in the year 187 a.d. The neighbourhood of Laurentum was recommended, says the historian, on account of its being cooler than Rome, and also because it was shaded with large woods of laurel and bay trees, the strong scent from which was supposed to counteract the influence of the deadly malaria which was devastating the capital.' The pre- sent ruins at Torre Paterno consist of brick walls in two ' Herodian, i. 12, 2. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 265 styles, one of which Nibby refers to the age of Nero, and the other to the reign of Commodus or Severus. The central building, which contained the grand suite of rooms, is the only part where work of the first century, analogous to that of Nero's buildings at Rome, is to be seen ; the rest, says Nibby, IS composed of various courtyards in the style of the Antonine era, which have been altered and partly concealed by later modern edifices. On one side of the ruins are two large cisterns, supplied by an aqueduct which comes from the Tenimento la Santola. The brickwork of this is apparently contemporaneous with other works which we know to have belonged to the age of Commodus or Severus as having very thin bricks and a great quantity of mortar. Near these reser- voirs is an inclosed space which was probably a courtyard or garden of a rectangular shape. On the north side it has some rums in the mode of construction called opus mixtum of the fourth century ; and on the east is the principal part of the villa built of large and thick triangular bricks, with thin layers of mortar beautifully laid, and evidently of an early date. On the west there is a large dining hall looking towards the sea, like that described in Pliny's Laurentinum. ' Various other rooms and the foundations of a tower can be traced on the sites occupied by the modern guardhouse and the Chapel of S. Filippo.' V. TlBTIR. The Via Valeria or Tiburtina leading to Tivoli, the ancient Tibur, now leaves Rome at the Porta S. Lorenzo. Traces of the polygonal pavement of the old road can be seen at intervals along the modern road to Tivoli, especially between the eighth and ninth milestones, and here and there elsewhere. In the Basilica of S. Lorenzo, a mile from the gate, are many ancient fragments of architecture. The Ponte Mammolo, by which the Anio is crossed at three and a half miles from Rome, is modern and there are scarcely any relics of the old bridge. Here and there on the road are the naked cores of tombs, but nothing of any interest offers itself to an archaeologist until the Aquae Albulae are reached. Some few remains of an * Nibby, Anal. ii. p. 205. 266 ANCIENT ROME. I ancient building, which may have belonged to the Thermse here, have been discovered. They are now built into the walls of a modem farmhouse. These ruins may have belonged to the Thermae of Agrippa, which Augustus frequented. The ancient quarries of travertine mentioned by Strabo, whence the stone of the Coliseum came, lie on the right of the road beyond the Solfatara, and the modem quarries on the left. The road then crosses the Anio over an ancient bridge still called the Ponte Lucano, from Marcus Plautius Lucanus, a Tiburtine magistrate, whose memory is preserved in an in- scription discovered upon the ancient fourteenth milestone on this road. The l)ridge was originally composed of three travertine arches, of which the one next to the left bank remains entire. The central arch has been restored with masonry of the sixth century, similar to that in the Ponte Nomentano and the Ponte Salario. The arch on the right bank was restored in the fifteenth century, and the whole bridge was repaired again about 1836. This bridge was broken down by Totila when he was encamped at Tibur, and Nibby thinks that he destroyed the middle arch, which was then restored by Narses. Tomb of the Plautian Family.— Just on the other side of the bridge is the tomb of the gens Plautia, well known from numerous paintings and photographs. It is very similar to that of Csecilia Metella on the Appian Road, and to the Mausoleum of Hadrian, in its main features. A cylindrical tower of travertine, based on a square foundation, and capped with a cone, was the original design, but a mediaeval tower built upon the top now disfigures it. Two inscriptions placed in a projecting front with Ionic pilasters record the names of M. Plautius Silvanus, consul with Augustus in the year b.c. 2, and his son Ti. Plautius Silvanus, prefect of the city in a.d. 73. A third inscription, which is now destroyed, commemorated a P. Plautius Pulcher. The longer inscription is given with notes in Wilmann's Inscr. Lat. No. 1145. The person whose memory it preserves was the pontifex who officiated at the rebuilding of the Capitoline Temple in a.d. 70, as recorded by Tacitus. Hadrian's Villa.— Beyond the Ponte Lucano to the right are the ruins of Hadrian's great Tiburtine Villa. They o o H q' o » n H O H P H B H fa O n o H 268 ANCIENT ROME. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 269 occupy the slopes of a hill of volcanic tufa, which may be called an outlying part of Monte Affliano, extending for about three miles in a direction from south-east to north- west. The various levels afforded by the ground have been formed into terraces adapted to the buildings they were in- tended to support by means of substructions, which in some places are of vast solidity and gigantic height. ** From these terraces." says Nibby, " the views are most varied and pic- turesque. On one side the horizon is bounded by the pointed heights of the Montes Corniculani, and by the ridges of the Peschiatore, the Ripoli, and the Affliano,* and on the other, the eye ranges over the gently undulating expanse of the Ager Romanus, from which rise the towers of the Eternal City ; while beyond, the long streak of light reflected from the waters of the Etruscan and Laurentine Sea seems to encircle the whole with a silvery zone. The situation of the villa is open to the healthy breezes of the west wind, but is sheltered by the mountains from the fury of the north wind, the piercing chills of the north-east, and the unwholesome hot summer blasts of the south." The high ground on which the villa stands rises between two valleys, which may be called from their position the north and south valleys. They run down into the plain through which the Anio cuts its bed. The northern valley has been artificially altered, with the view of increasing its picturesque appearance, by cutting the sides so as to form perpendicular cliffs of reddish stone. The tints of these rocks, the soft verdure of the plants and trees which grow luxuriantly upon them, the bright colours of the wild flowers scattered here and there, and the lovely hills which rise as a screen behind them, give this valley such a character of soothing and enchanting retirement and beauty, that it has been universally regarded as the spot to which the name of the Vale of Tempe was given by the emperor. The southern valley is less deep and bold, and from its mono- tonous and severe aspect it may perhaps have been the spot where Hadrian placed his imitation of the infernal regions.' The brook which runs at the bottom of the northern valley ' Hist. Aug. Hadrian, 26. Aur. Vict. Epit. xiv. Tertull. Apol. 5. (Fosso deir Acqua Ferrata) has received the name of the Peneius from antiquaries, and that in the southern valley is called Fosso di Risicoli by the modern inhabitants. These streams are now very scantily supplied with water, but in ancient times, when the villa was watered by a constant flow from its aqueducts, they must have been of considerable volume. The ruins, now overgrown with clumps of cypress and other trees, extend for a space of seven miles in cir- cumference, and in the middle ages were known as Tivoli Vecchio, from a vague and unfounded idea that the ancient city of Tibur stood here. It has been remarked that the Coliseum is strikingly characteristic of the Flavian emperors who planned and executed it, and with equal truth it may be said that the Tiburtinum of Hadrian gives a marvellous picture of the many-sided genius of the great man who v/as at once the ruler of the whole known world and had travelled throughout his vast domains from Britain to the Euphrates, organizing and controlling everywhere, and at the same time showing an appreciation of and value for literature, philo- sophy, and the fine arts, which was generally foreign to the Roman character. Hadrian constructed in his villa at Tibur a panorama of all the sights which had struck him most in his world-wide travels, in order that he might in this realm of enchantment, when no longer able to travel, have the sights and thoughts in which he had taken such pleasure, revived for his imagination to feed upon. Considering the size and magnificence of the place, which almost resembles a town in its vast extent, it is surprising that so few notices of it should be found among the Roman historians and bio- graphers. Dion Cassius, or rather his epitomizer Xiphilinus, does not even mention it, and Spartianus and Aurelius Victor pass it over without such special remark as we should expect. As, however, a great part of the building consisted of the familiar Thermae, stadia, theatres and gymnasium, which were constructed in every large Roman villa, they were perhaps not noticed, as matters of course, and only the peculiarities of the villa were recorded. After Hadrian's return to Rome at the end of his last journey to the East in a.d. 135, he resigned the care of the empire to Lucius ^lius Verus and retired to this villa, which had probably been built during his absence, and may have been begun in a.d. 125 when he returned to Rome 270 ANCIENT ROME. from his first journey, and finished during the last three years of his life, from 135 to 138. This opinion as to the date at which the villa was built is confirmed by the stamps found on the bricks, which range from the year 123 to the year 137, and that the ruins belong to Hadrian's villa is sufficiently attested by universal tradition, and by the number of statues of Antinous, and other works of art found here unquestionablv belonging to the reign of Hadrian. Tibur.— Ascending from Hadrian's Villa to the point where the Anio issues from a valley dividing the JEquism from the Sabine Mountains, we find the river winding round a considerable hill, partly clothed with groves of olive, and rising to the height of 830 feet. At the back of this hill the river has forced a passage for itself through the limestone rocks which threaten to impede its exit from the upper valley, and falls in a tremendous cataract down a precipitous cliff of 320 feet in height to the lower level. The water is strongly charged with carbonate of lime, which is constantly being deposited in the shape of masses of travertine in the channels through which the stream runs, especially where the water, in consequence of the violent agitation caused by its rapid descent, parts quickly with the carbonic acid gas contained in it. The course of the stream is from time to time blocked up by its own formations of stone, and it is forced to open new passages for itself. From this cause the city of Tibur, which stands on the hill, close to the point where the river falls to its lower level, has always been subject to violent and dan- gerous inundations. The great inundation of 1826 proved so formidable that it was at once resolved to divert the course of part of the river and provide it with an artificial outlet. This was effected by boring two tunnels through Monte Catillo on the east of the city, through which any rush of water can be allowed to pass and fall harmlessly into the lower valley. A part of the river water is always allowed to pass through these tunnels, and forms at their lower end a magnificent cascade. Another part passes under the bridge called Ponte S. Gregorio and then rushes through a fantastic grotto of travertine blocks called by the local guides Grotta di Nettuno, and joins the stream from the tunnels at the bottom of the valley. A third portion of the Anio is diverted ANX'IENT ROME. just above the bridge into canals apparently of very ancient date, which, passing completely through the centre of the town, are used as the motive-power of water-mills and fac- tories of various kinds, and then fall again into the main stream at various points of the romantic cliffs on the western hill side. These form the wreaths of " snow white foam " so celebrated as the cascades of the Anio, and explain perfectly the expression of Horace : O headlonj; Anio, O Tilmrnian «,'roves, And orchards saturate with shifting streams. But few traces of the ancient walls of the city are left. Nibby is, however, doubtless right in saying that there can be no question about their course along the northern and eastern sides of the city, where the brow of the hill is steep and perfectly adapted for defence by a wall placed on the edge of the rocky valley of the Anio. The citadel was probably situated in the quarter called Castro Vetere— where the two temples commonly called the temples of the Sibyl and of Drusilla stand, for it is plain that some pains have been taken to isolate this from the remainder of the site. On the western side the limit of the ancient walls is marked by the old gate, and by the fragments of walls which still exist at the point where the direct road from Rome enters the city by the modem Porta del Colle. The course of the walls then excludes the Villa d'Este, and runs across the hill to the Church of the Annunziata and the Porta Santa Croce and the citadel built by Pius II. on the site of the ancient amphitheatre. From thence the walls passed in a straight line down to the river near the Church of S. Bartolommeo. The ancient town did not extend to the right bank of the Anio. Temple of Vesta.— Two ancient temples are still stand- ing in tolerable preservation at Tibur. The first of these is a small round temple perched on the very edge of the pre- cipitous ravine through which the Anio dashes. It has been protected against the violence of the furious torrent bv massive substructions, which apparently existed in ancient times and have' often been renewed. Ten of the eighteen ccrlumns which formerly surrounded the inner chamber still remain. Temple of Vesta at Tibur. 274 ANCIENT ROME. The details of this temple are rather peculiar in style, and show an originality of invention very rare in Roman architec- ture. The columns have Attic bases, but the grooves of the fluting are cut m a style which is neither Doric nor Ionic Ihey terminate above in an abrupt horizontal line, and reach at the foot of the column quite down to the base without any intermediate cylinder The capitals exhibit a fantastic variety of the Corinthian order, having the second row of acanthus leaves nearly hidden behind the first, and a lotus blossom as the decoration of the abacus. The frieze is ornamented with the skulls of oxen and festoons, in the loops of which are rosettes and paterae placed alternately. The inner cham- ber which IS built of opus incertum, is partly destroyed, but the lower half of the door and a window still remain From the above description it will be seen that the archi- tecture of the temple appears to belong to the end of the Republican era, but the inscription on the architecture gives us no fur her hint of the exact date, as the whole of it, with tlie exception of the words l. cellio. l. f., has disappeared. The most probable conjecture as to the deity to whom it was dedicated is that based upon the fact that Vesta was wor- shipped at Tibur, as is shown not only by two inscriptions found near the spot, but also by the fact that in the tenth century this quarter of the town bore the name of Vesta.^ Ihe form of the temple also confirms such an opinion. Temple of Albunea.-The second temple stands quite close to this round buildmg, and is now consecrated as the Church of S. Giorgio. Its shape was that of a pseudo- peripteral temple, i.e., with the side columns half sunk in the walls raised on a meagre base of tufa blocks. It had a front with four Ionic columns, one of which still remains, forming a support to the Campanile An inscription dedicated to Drusilla, the sister of Caligula, was found here, but no refe- rence as to the name of the temple can be drawn from it. A bas-relief, also found on the spot, represents the Tiburtine Sibyl sitting and in the act of delivering an oracle. Hence it has been thought that we have in the Church of S. Giorgio the Temple of the Sibyl Albunea mentioned by Horace! Tibullus, and Lactantius, and this seems to be the most pro- THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 275 \ (( Rome and the Canipagna," pp. 397-399. bable of the various conjectures which have been hazarded on the subject. Tiie Grove of Tiburnus mentioned by Horace was probably on the right bank of the Anio, but further than this it IS impossible to determine its exact position. There was also a grove dedicated to Diana. The Mons Catillus, now Monte Catillo or Monte della Croce, is the height on the right bank of the Anio. The name is at least as early as the time of Servius. Villas.— As may easily be imagined there are numerous remains of ancient villas scattered about the immediate neighbourhood of Tibur, and the local guides, in order to please travellers, but without the slightest evidence in sup- port of their assertions, have dubbed them the Villas of Catullus, Horace, Ventidius, Quintilius Varus, Maecenas, Sallust, Piso, Capito, Brutus, Popillius, and other celebrated Romans. The most remarkable ruins are those to which the name of Maecenas has been attached. The greater part of these have been now unfortunately concealed by new buildings and by an iron manufactory, but a fine terrace and parts of the porticoes still remain on the lofty bank of the Anio. The rest is a mere confused mass of vaulted chambers and arch- ways. The Via Tecta, or Porta Oscura, as it is sometimes called, by which the road passes underneath these ruins, was built, as we learn from an inscription now in the Vatican collection, by O. Vitulus and Rustius Flavos. The materials and style show that it can hardly be of a later date than the first century a.d. Tempio*^ della Tosse.— The Tempio della Tosse which probably obtains its name from a vulgar interpretation of the name of the gens Tossia, is a ruin standing in a vineyard at the side of the old road, called the Via Constantina, below the Villa d' Este. It has none of the characteristic marks of an ancient temple, and the large number of windows it contains forbid us to suppose it to be a tomb. The interior of the building is round, the exterior octagonal. It is built of layers of small fragments of tufa intermixed with courses of bricks, materials which point to the fourth century as the earliest possible date of its erection. On the walls are the remains of frescoes of the Saviour and the Virgin, dating probably from the thirteenth century. These show that, if it was not origi- B^ .iJs^ m. 276 ANCIENT ROME. nally a Christian Church, it was used as oue at the time the frescoes were j)ainted. Villa of Cassius.— The ruins of a considerable villa lie near the Porta S. Croce of Tivoli, in the estate called Carciano, from the mediaeval name of the Fundus Cassianus, which is stated in a list of the estates l)elon^ing to the cathedral at Tivoli to have Leen the site of a villa of Caius Cassius. Part of these ruins consist of a verj- ancient structure of polygonal work, but the rest is pronounced by Nibby to belong to the time of the later republic. The casino of the Collegio Greco is now built on the spot, but the plan of th6 ancient villa can l)e so far traced as to show that it had several terraces, and looked towards the south-west. In the sixteenth century there were still eighteen large apartments existing, surrounded with a portico of Doric columns, and also some temples, a theatre, some fountains, and lish ponds. The opus reticulatum of these ruins is peculiar for the alternate arrangement of coloured tufa in its lozenges. An immense number of works of art were dug up here, and the nearly complete destruction of what still remained of the villa in the sixteenth century, is probably due to the fact of its having been found to be so rich a mine of sculpture. Sabine Farm of Horace.— The Sabine Farm of Horace can hardly be passed over here, though it is not strictly included within the district of Tibur. There is no evidence to show that Horace ever had any villa at Tibur in addition to his Sabine farm ; indeed his own words seem expressly to imj^ly the contrary. The estate he had was plainly usually called a Sabinum, not a Tiburtinum, and must therefore be looked for at some distance from Tibur. Horace mentions two places in its neighbourhood, Varia, and Mandela, the sites of which can be exactly determined. The ancient list of towns places Varia on the Via Valeria, eight miles beyond Tibur, and precisely at this distance are the remains of an ancient town now covered by the modem village of Vico Varo. But the position of Mandela is more important for ascertaining the site of Horace's farm, because if we can fix upon it, we then can discover to which of the mountain streams which flow into the Auio the name Digentia belonged. An inscrip- tion dug up in 1757 near the Church of S. Cosimato, on the Via Valeria, two miles from the village of Bardella, shows PS u 3D M O ■*; es © o a o o o c o o b: < > © 278 ANCIENT ROME. THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 279 that an estate in the modern district formed bj the union of Cantalupo and Bardella was called in the later imperial times, or the early Middle Ai^'es, Massa Mandelana. From this it is plain that the Di^^entia was the torrent 4alled Mariscella, which joins the Anio l)etween Cantalupo, Bardella and Vico Varo, descending' from near Licenza, a small villaj^fe ahout six miles from Vico Varo. As to the exact sjmt where the farm of Horace itself stood in the valley of the Dif^entia, we cannot be quite certain. The ruins usually pointed out are on a little knoll opposite to the village of Licenza, and on the other side of the stream. These are possibly situated on the spot on which the farmhouse stood, if they do not date so far back as the lifetime of the poet himself. Dennis in Milman's Horace says, ** The ruins consist only of a mosaic pavement, and of two capitals and two fragments of Doric columns lying among the bushes. The pavement has been much rumed by the planting of a vineyard, and can only be seen on removing the earth which covers it. The groundwork is white with a border of animals in black. These were the sole traces now visible (1842), but some fifty years ago, the mosaic floors of six chambers were brought to light, but were covered again with earth, as nothing was found to tempt any further excavation. The farm is situated on a rising ground which sinks with a gentle slope to the stream, leaving a level intervening strip now yellow with the harvest. In this I recognized the sunny meadow which, as the poet says, was in danger of being inundated. The sunny fields were probably then, as now, sown with com. Here it must have been that the poet was wont to repose on the grass after his meal, and here his personal efforts perhaps to dam out the stream provoked his neighbours' smiles." The place is surrounded on all sides by hills, except where the main valley of the Digentia separates them, nmning nearly due north and south, so that facing down the valley, the sun before midday rests on the right-hand slopes, and in the afternoon on the left hand, thus corresponding exactly to the poet's description of the site. ' The other spots mentioned by Horace as near his farm, are ^ Dennis in Mihiian's Horace, p. 101 ; pratum apricum, Ep. i. 14 .30; aprica rura, Od. iii. 18, 2. See also Od. iii. 16, 30; Ep. i. 14, 35, 39. " Rome and the Canipagna," p. 430. the Chapel of Vacuna, the sloi^es of Ustica, and the mountain of Lucretihs. The first of these has been placed bv the Italian topographers at Rocca Giovane, a village perched on a hill on the west side of the valley about two iuiles above Cantalupo Bardella. The evidence for this identification is, however, verv doubtful. "^ The Ustica Cubans of the poet is commonly with some probability supposed to be La Rustica, which lies on the hill close to Licenza on the eastern side of the valley. Lucretilis IS probably a name applied to the whole range of hills con- nected with Monte Gennaro. Cav. Rosa, however, places it at Monte del Corynaleto just above Rocca Giovane. The name of Fons Bandusiae has been given to most of the springs in this valley by the enthusiastic admirers of Horace, but it IS quite uncertain whether the Fons Bandusiae was not in Apulia. VI. The North-Western District. The principal roads which traversed the Campagna to the north and north-west of Rome are the Nomentana, the Salaria and the Flaminia. These roads offer but little, within the bounds of ancient Latium, which calls for remark. The Via Nomentana diverged from the Via Salaria at the Collina gate in the Servian walls, and passed through Aurelian's wall at a gate which now stands a little to the south of the modern Porte Pia. The present road follows the Ime of the ancient Via Nomentana, as may be seen by the ruins of tombs which fringe it beyond S. Agnese. ' The Chapel of S. Constanza, opposite S. Agnese, is an interesting building of the Constantinian epoch, and the mosaics it contains, including a mixture of Christian and pagan emblems, are very remarkable. The Mons Sacer stands just beyond the bridge over the Anio, and the Villa of Phaon, where Nero ended his life, was at the Vigne Nuove, on a side road which branches off to the right, just beyond the Ponte Nomentano. The Via Salaria is said to have been so named from the sup- plies of salt conveyed along it to the Sabine district at the time when the Romans and Sabines were confederates. It is first mentioned in history as the scene of the single combat between THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 281 X Manhus and the gigantic Gaul. The ancient road passed out at the CoUma gate and followed very nearly the same line as the present road along the left bank of the Tiber, as may be seen by the ruins near Serpentara, and by the position of the ancient bridge, the Ponte Salaro, which carries it over the Anio close to Antemnge. Beyond this, Fidense and the Allia are the most remarkable points of interest upon the road in the neigh- bourhood of Eome. Beyond Malpasso, the ancient road, according to Nibby, diverges to the right, crossing the railwav to Ancona. The Via Flaminia, after passing through the Porta Eatu- mena at the Tomb of Bibulus, left Aurehan's fortifications at the Porta Flammia, which stood a little nearer the slope of Monte Pincio than the present Porta del Popolo. It ran to the right of the present street, and then crossed the Tiber at the well-known Milvian bridge (Ponte Molle), and then diverged to the right along the Tiber valley, while the Via Cassia ascended to the left among the Etruscan hills towards Veii, which lay to the right at the twelfth milestone. The old Flaminian Koad lay closer to the river than the modern, which is carried through a cutting in the hills and rejoins it at Tor di Quinto. There are a few rock tombs on the left hand, between the fifth and sixth milestones. One of them has been connected with the poet Ovid by a mistaken inference drawn from the in- scription found upon it which bears the name of Q. Nasonius Ambrosius. The Ponte Molle, which derives its name from an unknown Koman Mulvius, or from the neighbouring hills, carries the Flaminian Eoad over the Tiber at a distance of two miles from the Porta del Popolo, Some of the foundations of the bridge, and parts of the peperino and travertine stonework in the smaller arches, are ancient. This victory of Constantine over Maxentius, which is usually called the battle of the Pons Mulvius, was gained six miles further along the road. An inscription cut in a block of travertine has been fixed in the right-hand parapet of the bridge. This inscription records the inspection of the banks of the Tiber by the Censors M. Valerius and Publius Serveilius, who were Censors in the year B.C. OO. Villa of Livia at Prima Porta.— One of the imperial villas of an early date was placed on the right bank of the /' THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROME. 283 i o < H /: s o in, y^ o Tiber at the ninth milestone on the Via Flaminia in the V eientine territory. The Via Flaminia is here bordered for a long distance on the left-hand side by tufa rocks of a reddish hue, whence the district had obtained, in Livy's time, the name of Saxa Rubra. i m^r^^^^' ^^^ *^® ^^^^^' ^^ ^^^ ^^ *^^® streams which enter the riber in this district, and beyond it, where the road turns to the left, and, leaving the yalley of the Tiber, ascends the hill through a cutting, is the stream and hamlet of Prima Porta. On the right of the road here, and between it and the Tiber, he the ruins of a large villa, the various terraces of which! ^ised one above the other, occupy the whole of the top of the ^11, and command magnificent views of the Sabine and Aquian highlands. There can be no doubt that these ruins are the remains of the villa of Livia called ad GaUinas, men- tioned by Plmy and by Suetonius as situated at the ninth milestone on the Via Flaminia. The stvle of construction in the walls which remain corresponds to that of the Mausoleum of Augustus m the Campus Martins. The reticulated work has that pecuhar irregularity about it which indicates the transition from the opus incertum to the more regularly formed opus reticulatum. Nibby had pointed out this spot in 1837 as one in which a rich harvest might be reaped from ex- cavating, but it was not till 1863 that the splendid statue of Augustus, now in the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican with other interesting sculptures, was dug up here.^ At the same time some rooms were excavated at a depth of ten feet, under the level of the ancient villa. They had apparently been closed at a very early time and filled with earth, m order to erect a building over them. The largest of these was apparently intended as a cool retreat during the summer heats, and the walls are painted with trees and birds, m imitation of a rustic bower. These paintings have attracted great attention as being some of the most ancient now in existence, and also on account of their intrinsic beauty, and the wonderful way in which they have preserved their fresh- ness of colour. The pavement of this painted room was of marble, which was, however, removed when the earth was thrown in at the time of building the rooms above. * Nibby, Anal. iii. 31. Bull, dell' Inst. 1863, pp. 72, 81. 284 ANCIENT ROME. The legend about this villa connects it with the death of Nero, relating that the laurel bushes and the white fowls, for which the villa had been celebrated since the days of Livia, withered and died out during Nero's last days. y eii. Beyond Prima Porta, to the west, is the site of Veii. This is about twelve miles from Rome, and now bears the name of Isola Farnese. But little remains of the ancient city have been found; no doubt, however, is now felt by antiquaries that the city occupied the rocky ground between the Cremera and the Fosso de' due Fossi. Inscriptions bearing the names of some Etruscan families, especially the Tarquitii, have been found here, and the remains of the ancient citadel, on the spot now called the Piazza d'Armi, are mentioned in some old ecclesiastical documents. One of the gates must have been at the spot now called the Porta de' Sette Pagi as the road from Veii to Sutri pro- bably passed out here, and another gate was opposite Isola called the Porta dell' Arco. A third may have stood towards Fidenae, where the ancient postern and flight of steps is now to be seen, called La Scaletta. Other remains are to be seen near the site of a gate called by Canina La Spezieria. The Ponte Sodo and the tombs near it are worth attention, as is also the ancient Etruscan tomb called the Grotta Campagna, m which a most interesting set of sepulchral ornamentations and cinerary urns has been preserved. The chief monuments of Veii, which have been taken to Eome, are the Ionic columns in front of the Post Office in the Piazza Colonna, the Statue of Tiberius, and the colossal heads of Tiberius and Augustus, now in the Vatican Museum.* * See Dennis, "Etruria," ch. i. REDUCTION RATIO CHANGE(S) WITHIN TITLE irf^-. EXPLICATIO SupplanmUi' crrta IS 'i >/„., I..-U- TuUMi HORTi DOM IT L*: r , -^mj-. 'Ji [^i "ORTi '^UlTijUi ^^^ "^Hoi fS 5 7 ^.. \ .^' f'ons.i l^i^*^^/^ SI.' I'-r 21. ', ! '^^^ f* \C" Villa vl.iidiAisi ►"/' siii^ \N \-^ JL, :i'', ii^ ■f^' < ^'j^ ..^ fOtJIIrrn. ■ ■.ft ' ..—■:;• , ■ *rfl^ %- M»u ''^, Cir^ljL^ I^Uoninio* k« .1' ''^- %/A«»|M ^/^ "Xa \*^w. rUdu '•>* IV '■Sp* ,# y r.AmOTu)t_ # ^> ^^ ^ H6 ■.V #* if /S.hmi^thic \\ 1 'v/ If.-/, ,, PurUiiPraauMinMy ,S /1j/mI .\ C'/., / S << ^V f>^ ^'-;5^. 0-' V Vr^^ff"--'. V >,. ■-■■fi\-** J?/ M Carii ^'i- /jP^pd^^MwIB/ Jfcru/ -^' ^ ^^^ .^• / ''^;' •■"^J ;^ 'v-V '' T%nm%s iW l> «,f^ d/,»ut«. f^ fl«^ '•^"^^ '\ ■>/> ^^ R£G101 STl. /.*i / **y' */ MONS .^ AVEN' /.u/ll'V- nTl>«*^' ^ '^^) '^ 1^/?, y il (rtrf -is Irviggl '^^ ftiMAy-jicuiMina/g .1^,. ^VS^ sS^ >>'i', 'rsf^ vi;>ii<< Of UJ l<' \ tSa. A% XII ^ ^^^ a \AE 1 113 S II ^^-Z'.u^^ "v^^ ^^SaMoriiat ,.Jv- It/i/i ri- •^V ;./x luTOS bUs^ Gtetr, "ense 'A (hf'vnttiu i^ i ■X:^ Tallu£^«u* :.V-.. -i^ itirus X .'.^ ^Muroi ^^-' Z^' iniou •*■>' S Sab». Vp-R"' J;;" <7r«a - Pralo \\ iV^' ^^ 8/' Xfl/ — *^ /S£mstbio ..'->!• i^arii lae nvi v^|»-w<^ MdSc Orio \ ^:4 . EXPLICATIO. McmimverCba/ cfuae saperstaU/. SappUnvcntcu certw. SuppLenuntcu prohahtUa/. r CO 1 pi ( ^ 1 ^Sfj'^ ' V 5 W' \j D m o W' r M ^SJ^*" ( .^ ^ , \ 1 Murus Ai# A. lUHtTUJBlt \ — ■ ^^v^mQj 1 TFaJumni. K^ N > V -^^ ^ / '#0 ^ / Mk-'K^ colore, (Upidteu est ^Romw hodier REGIO I. PORTA CAPENA. n. CAELIMONTIUM. m. ISIS ET SERAPIS, rv. VIA SACRA, (templum pacis) V. ESQUILIAE. VI. ALTA SEMITA. YII VIA LATA. YELL FORUM ROMANUM. IX. CIRCUS FLAMINIUS. X. PALATIUM. XI. CIRCUS MAXIMUS. XII. PISCINA PUBLICA. Jan. AVENTINUS. XIV. TRANS TIBERJM. I ^d^o^-^-ymjo-MOv INDEX. INDEX. A CADEMIA, Palatine, 21. .-Edes Publican Flavian, 21. ^^^raria, 70. .Esculapius, temple of, 144. Agorer of Servius, 95, 188. Agripi)a, M., 131, 162, 264. Agripnina, pedestal of, 176. Alba Longa, 243. Alban Hills, 220. Lake, 238 ; Eniissarium or tunnel of, 240. Mount, 242. Albanuni Ca^saruni, 237. Albula, 218. Albulaj Aqua^ 265. Alexanienus, 16. Alinienta Publiea, 51. Allia, 281. Altar of Sextius, Palatine, 14. Ampbitlieatres, ancient, 78, )wtc, 81, note, 87. Aniphitheatruni Castrense, 209. Ancyrean Inscription, 53, 175. Anio, falls of, 270. Antoninus Pius, column of, 168 ; his temple of Faustina, 47. Appian Itoad, 225, 243. Aqueduct, Alexandrine, 91. Anio Novus, 98, 250. Anio Vetus, 250. Claudian, 18, 97, 210, 248, 250. Julian, 211, 2.50. Marcian, 197, 205, 207, 211, 248, 250, Aqua Tepula, 250. Aqua Virgo, 167. Arches and archways, 11. Arch of Constantine, 73. Arch of Dolabella, 211. Drusus, 207. Gallienus, 92. Severus, 6.3. Silversmiths, 129. Tiberius, 54. Titus, 10, 31. Trajan, 73, 100. Architectural styles, 6-12, 78. Arco dei Pantani, 112. Area Flacciana, 13, 14. Palatina, 25, 28. Argentariorum Arcus, 129. Ariccia, causeway at, 243. Arval College, 263. Atrium, Palatine, 23. Vestae, 44. Atta, tomb of, 255. Atticus, tomb of, 233. Auditorium of Maecenas, 95. Auguratorium, Palatine, 29. Augustan buildings. Palatine, 21, Augustus, Forum of, 110. Mausoleum of, 173. Temple of, at Ancyra, 175. Aurelian's Walls, 5, 190, 199. Aurelius, M., column of, 169. Aventine and Cjtiian Hills, 193. Balbus, Theatre of, 154. Bandusiae Fons, 279. Basilica, of Constantine, 35. Julia, 52. Palatine, 23. Ulpia, 100. Bas-reliefs in Forum, 51. Baths of Agrippa, at Aqua? Al- buL-e, 264. Caracalla, 201. i: V'' 288 ANCIENT ROME. Baths of Constantine, 123. Du)cletian, 185. Titus, 88. Trajan, 90. Belvedere, Palatine, 18. Bihliotheca, Palatine, 21. Bibulus, toinl» of, 119. Brickwork, 12, 71. Bronze cone and peacocks, 181. Bovilla% 235. C.Tcilia Metella, tonil> of, 231. Oiidian, houses on, 213. Catt'arelli Palace, 120. Cali;;ula, Buildings of, on Pala- tine, 30. Canipagna, unhealthinessof, 219; hills of, 220 ; population, 222. (.^apitoline plan of Konie, 39, oS, 14.3, 151. Capitoliuni, 120. Caracalla, Baths of, 201. Career Maniertinus, 7, 67. <^a.sale Kotondo, 23.">. (.^assius, villa of, at Tilmr, 276. Castiglione, Tower of, 257. Cement, Roman, 216. (^estius, tonibof, 199. Cicero's Mlla, 254. (,'ircus Flaminius, 154. Maxinius, Carceres of, 1.38, 1-11. of Maxentius, 229. Cisterns, 14, 67, 265. Claudian Aqueduct, 18, 97, 210, 248, 250. Climate, 218. Clivus Victorias 30. Cloaca of Forum, 54. Maxima, 54, 131. Clodius, Villa of, 236, 238. Cladia, statue of, 24. Cluilia Fossa, 231. Coliseum, 76 ; architecture of, 79, 87 ; excavations in, 82 ; charac- teristic of builder, 85. Colonnacce, 115. Colossus of Nero, 78. Columbaria, 92, 206. Column of Antoninus Pius, 168. Marcus Aurelius, 169. Column of Phocas, 49. Trajan, 102 ; casts of, 106, 108. Columna Centenaria, 172. Columns, 11. Comitium, 61. CommcMlus, Palace of, 213. Composite capitals, 9. Cone, bnmze, 181. Constantine, Arch of, 73. Basilica of, 35. Baths of, 123. Corinthian capi teals, 10, 42. Cornelia, statue of, 153. Cosmedin, S. Maria in, 136, 1.39. Cremera, The, 283. Cryj)ta Suburu', 54. Bjilbi, l.>4. CrvptoiM)rticus, 25, 84, 154. Curia, 6.3. Cyl)ele, statue of, 29. D.acian campaigns, Trajcan's, 106. Diana' Nemus, 244. Digentia, 276. Dii Ct)nsentes, area of, 58. Dioscuri, statues, 124. Divus Kediculus, Temple of, 227. Dogana, in Piazzi di Pietra, 1()7. Doral)ella, Arch of, 211. Domitian, Statue of, 50; his Tem- ple of Minerva, 117. Domitius Calvinus, pedestal, 2(5, 28. Domus Aurea of Nero, 35, 78, 88. Gelotiana, 15. Tiberiana, 30. Transitoria, 35. Doria P.alace, 159. Drusus, Arch of, 207. Egeria, grotto of, 227. Egvptian antiquities, 161. Einsiedeln MS., 60, 63, 90, 157, 183, 187, 190. Emissaria, 133, 240, 270. EmiK)rium, 198. Eurysaces, tomb of, 97. Equestrian statue in Forum, base of, 50 ; in Velabrum, 148. Esquiline, 88, 91. INDEX. 289 See Fasti Praenestini, 261. Faustina, Temple of, 47. Cha}»el of, 63. Feria^ Latiniie, 242. Fidena', 281, 284. Fiumicino, 263. Flaminia, Via, 279, 283. Flavian amphitheatre, 76. Coliseum. Fontana Paolo, 117. Forum Augusti, 110. Boarium, 129. Julium, 110. Nerva\ 115. Olitorium, 140, 151. Roiuanum, 41. Trajani, 100. Fratres Arvales, 263. Freshwater strata, 216. Gabii, 257 ; stone of, 258. Gabinius, Villa of, 254. Gallienus, Arch of, 92. Galuccio, Terme di, 93. Gelotiana, Donms, 15. Geology of Campagna, 214. Germaius, 15, 28. Germanicus, House of, 25. (ieta, erased, 61, 64, 129, 149. Gnomon Obelisk, 167. Gordiana, Villa, 255. Gothic spoliations, 180, 184, 223, 266. Gradus Concordia?, 61. Graffiti, 16, 29, 84. Gnecostasis, 64. Grotto of Egeria, 227. Hadrian's Villa, 266; mausoleum, 179. Heliogabalus, Lavacrum, of, 39. Heroon of J. Ciesar, 46. of Villa Gordiana, 255. Horace, Sabine farm of, 276. Horatii and Curiatii, so called tomb of, 236. Imperial Monuments, .3. Island of Tiber, 144. Isola Farnese, 284. Janus Quadrifrons, 127. Julius Ca'sar, Heroon of, 46. Jupiter Latiaris, 242. Pluvius, 171. Propugnator, 28. Redux, 211. Stator, 24. Victor, 28. Juturna, fountain of, 44. Labicum, 259. Laocoon, 89. Lararium, Palatine, 23. Laterani, House of, 210. Latifundia, 222. Latin road, tombs on, 245. Latin m, toMns of, 222. Lautumia', 68. Lavacrum of Heliogabalus, 39. Legio fulminata, 171. Li via. Villa of, at Prima Porta, 97, 219, 281. Lucretilis, 279. Maecenas, house of, 89; Audi- torium of, 95. Mamertine Prison, 7, 67. Mandela, 276. Marcellus, theatre of, 141. Marcus Aurelius, statue of, 109, 173 ; Column of, 169. Marine strata, 214. Marius, Trophies of, 91. Masonry, Roman, 6, 196. Mausoleum of Augustus, 173. Hadrian, 179. Maxentius, Basilica of {see Con- stantine), Circus of, 229. Meta Sudans, 71. Miliarium Aureum, 66. Minerva Medica, 92, 94. Mons Sacer, 279. Monte Cavallo, 124. Citorio, 169. Testaccio, 198. Monumental History, 3. Monumentum Ancyranum, 53, 175. Muro Torto, 177. Navicella, 211. U 290 ANCIENT ROME. Nenii, T^ke of, 238, 243 ; Villa at, 244. Nero, Colossal statue of, 78 ; (lolden House of, 88; see also Donius Aurea. Nerva, Forum of, 115. Noinentana, Via, 279. Nyiii|»li;»'Uin, Alexaiidri, 91, 209. Palatine, 22. Obelisks, 12, 102, 161, 167, 173, 175. Octavia, Portico of, 149. Ostia, 261. Palace of the Senator, 68. Palatine, 13; ancient walls, 14; Belvedere, 18 ; paintings, 22, 26. Pantheon, 162 ; date of, 165 ; plundered, 166. Pedestals, in Forum, 49. Penates, chapel of, 39. Poristvlium, Palatine, 22. Phaon, Villa of, 279. Phre, 97. Mugituiia, 24. Ratuniena, 1 19. Romanula. 13. Saiaria, 280. S. Lorenzo, 96, 97. S. Paolo, 199, 200. Viminalis, 95, 185. Porticus Catuli, 13. .lulia, 54. Livia% 34. Margaritaria, 33. Metelli, 151. (Jctavias 149. Pompeii, 154. Porto, 264. Pozzolana, 216. Pra'nestc, 259. Pra'torian Camp, 189, 210. Prima Porta, statue of Augustus from, 2S3 ; Villa of Livia, 281. Puteal,io delle Tosse, 275. Temple of ^-Esculapius, 144. Albunea at Tivstites, 28. Marcus Aurelius, 169. Mars Ultor, 110, 115. Minerva, 117. Minerva Chalcidica, 161. " Minerva Medica," 92. • Penates, 37. Pietas, 148. Romulus, 39; also, 231. Sacra Urbs, 37. Saturn, 9, .55. Serapis, ItJO. Sibyl at Tibur, 274. Spes, 148. Spes Vetus, 209. Sun, Aurelian's, 123. Sun and Moon, Hadrians, 34. 292 ANCIENT I\OME. Temple of "Venus and Cupid," '2iYX Venu^and Rome, 33. -* — Vesj)a.sian, oS. Vesta, 44, 46 ; at Tibur, 272. Vesta or Hercules, 136. Temples, on Palatine, 27. Templnm Cratieuhe, 154. Terme di (Jaluocio, 04. Theatre of Ballms, 154. Marcel! us, 141. Pompey, 155. Thernue. See Baths. Tiher, Island of, 144 ; water of, 217. Til)erius, palace of, 30 ; arch, 54. House of, 25. Titus, arch of, 10, 31 ; baths of, 88, 90. Tivoli, or Tibur, 219, 265 ; Villas at, 275. Tomb of Q. Atta, 255. Atticus, 233. Bibulus, 119. Camellia Metella, 231. C. Cestius, 199. Flurysaces, 97. the Horatii, 236. the Plautii, 266. Tombs of Cornelian Scipios, 78, note, 206. on Via Latina, 245. Torre Fiscale, 248. Paterno, ruins at, 264. Pij^natara, 257. Citranj;«)le, 155 Trajan, bas-reliefs, 51 ; his arch, 73 ; column, 102 ; Forum, 100. Transitoria, Domus, 35. Transitorium, Forum, 112. Transtiberine Walls, 6. Travertine, quarries, 266. Triclinium, Palatine, 21. Trophies of Marius, 91. Tufaceous stone, 215. Tujrurium F'austuli, 28. Tulli.anum, 67- Tunnels, hydraulic, 133, 240, 270. Tuscan style, 7. Tusculum, 250 ; gate and walls, 252; history of city, 253; theatre at, 251. Ustica, 279. Ustrina Cjiesarum, 177. on the Appian road, 233. Vacuna, Chapel of, 279. Varia, 276. Vatican Hill, inclosed, 6. Veii, 2S4. Velabrum, 127. Velaria of Coliseum, 81. Velia, 30. Verus, Hcmse of, 210. Vespasian, Temple of, 58. Vestals, 44, 46. Vettius Pra'textatus, 58. Via Appia, 225. Ardeatina, 227. Flaniinia, 279, 283. Labicana, 259. Latina, 227, 245. Nomentana, 279. Sacra, 35, 39. Salaria, 279. Tiburtina or Valeria, 265. Vico Varo, 276. Vicus Jugarius, 54. Tuscus, 44, 54. ^> Vijma (;uidi, 205. ^ Villa Mills, 20. Villas, ancient, 219, 222. See Cicero, Hadrian, Pomi)ey, etc. Volcanic strata, 215. Vota, 74. Walls of Rome, 3, 4, 6, 15. Aurelian, Servian. Wolf, bronze figure, 15. Xanthi Schola, 58. See CHISWICK PRESS :— CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. 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