MASTER NEGATIVE NO. 95-82475 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted materials including foreign works under certain conditions. In addition, the United States extends protection to foreign works by means of various international conventions, bilateral agreements, and proclamations. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be "used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research." If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of "fair use," that user may be liable for copyright infringement. The Columbia University Libraries reserve the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. Author: Thompson, Eliza Bailey Title: Cotton and linen Place: New York Date: 1922 q^-^;^nis>;;. MASTER NEGATIVE # COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DIVISION BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET ORIGINAL MATERIAL AS FILMED - EXISTING BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD business 264,53 T37 Thompson, Eliza Bailey, 1864- ... Cotton and linen, by Eliza B. Thompson ... New York, The Ronald press company, 1922. xix, 199 p. front., illus.. plates. 19^"'. (Merchandise manual series) *'Books for reference": p. 189-190. 1. Cotton growing and manufacture. 2. Linen. i. Title. Library of Congress Copyright A 677531 O HFS461.M4 vol.4 22-14270 RESTRICTIONS ON USE: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: ?f)Vm\ DATE FILMED: TRACKING # REDUCTION RATIO: m. IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA (HA / IB IIB U-WA.^ INITIALS :_2& MM^ 0UiS2S^ FILMED BY PRESERVATION RESOURCES. BETHLEHEM. PA. *^^F^ ^^^. ^J^^ ''''' ^^^7^ CJl 3 3 O) o > -.m Is go •— '— I (ji o^x OOM U3 ^ '# *•!!/ U1 3 > 0,0 o m Q."n CD O 5:3 2 -vj o o X <: N X tSI A? -v^' ">7 ^ a? */,S» ^.'5 ^«. o: e' .^ ^^^^ 10 o o 3 3 > m o 3 3 8 3 3 en O r^Encisisisi? Pf H l^l;:; | K) 00 00 o to 1.0 mm 1.5 mm 2.0 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ •bcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 2.5 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 V ^^ ^o & fo fp ^>^. ^#>«^. ■^fr '^^' 'i^ '^ *^^^ #1^^ < ^^ f^ 'A> O O ■o m -0 s > C Cd X TJ ^ 0(/) ; m 39 D % ■^2^ ^^>^ ^ «^' '<^ '^^ |Mk 1^ 01 3 3 3 3 Is — o 3 1 3 — -e W "^ S r !*?c .r»'^- MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES : t XT. 2 .2 C0TT0N5»mEN THOMPSON MMiMm rW LIBRARY School of Business MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES COTTON AND LINEN BY ELIZA B. THOMPSON Instructor in Salesmanship, High School, New Haven. Conn.; formerly Store Teacher, Stem Brothers, New York City, and A. I. Namm & Son, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Instructor of Textile Merchandise Courses, New York Univereity NEW YORK THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 1922 INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES COTTON AND LINEN BY ELIZA B. THOMPSON Instructor in Salesmanship, High School, New Haven, Conn.- formerly Store Teacher, Stern Brothers, New York City, and A. I. Namm & Son, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Instructor of Textile Merchandise Courses, New York University NEW YORK THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 1922 Copyright, 1917, by The Ronald Press Company Copyright, 1922, by The Ronald Press Company AU rights reserved .y 154-. 53 T3 7 Zfiii Attita in Sebitateb to Mrs. Henry Ollesheimer, Miss Virginia Potter, and Miss Anne Morgan, who desiring to give greater opportunity for advance- ment to commercial employees and believing that all business eflficiency must rest upon a solid foundation of training and education gave years of enthusiastic service to the testing of this belief. EDITOR'S PREFACE MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES EDITOR OF SERIES BEULAH ELFRETH KENNARD, M.A. Formerly Director of Department Store Courses. New York Un^ersity; Clmirman of Committee on Merchandise Courses fo? nIw YOTk City Public Schools; Educational Director, Department Store Education Association CONSULTING EDITOR LEE GALLOWAY, Ph.D. Professor of Commerce and Industry, Head of Department «/ Manaaement and formerly Director of Training School for AachS of Retail Selling. New York University: fSJmJrly Educational Director,, the National Commercial ' Gas Association As "Department Store Merchandise Manuals" these books were originally written for salespeople and were designed to give them reliable information concerning the sources and manufacturing processes of the mer- chandise which they handle. When it was necessary to deal with scientific or historical material it was treated as simply and concretely as possible and the pomt of view taken was that of business rather than that of the school or laboratory. In this form they have proved their practical value not only to the de- partment store salesperson but in the specialty shop It has been pointed out, however, that the material has a wider scope than that of sales manuals alone As reference books, librarians will find the short clear statements and full indexes invaluable. As an encyclopaedia of merchandise the series con- tains scientific information in a simple, compact form which makes it available for children and others to whom the subjects treated are unfamiliar As textbooks they are adapted for use in commercial schools, high schools, night schools, settlement classes and by teachers of household arts and domestic science' VI EDITOR'S PREFACE As source books for practical story-telling, kinder- gartners, primary and vacation school teachers will find in them an abundance of interesting material for short "true" stories on the various industries and crafts the manufacture of household articles, such as pins and needles, as well as the making of pottery glass, and steel. These manuals contain just the material often hunted for in vain by teachers and librarians. As household helps and shopping guides the young housekeeper will find the manuals her best friends be- cause they not only describe the manufacturing pro- cesses but tell her how to distinguish well-made articles of good materials from the inferior and badly made They also tell her how to care for the clothing or household goods which she has bought. For salespeople and storekeepers they supply the general and specific information about their merchan- dise which is indispensable to efficiency, yet very hard to gather from the scattered sources upon which they now depend. These changes should enlarge the usefulness of the manuals without losing any of their specific value in the field of salesmanship. We wish to express our grateful appreciation to the manufacturers and experts who have given us such valuable counsel and cordial co-operation. Beulah Elfreth Kennard. AUTHOR'S PREFACE Textiles comprise a large part of the merchandise in common use. Purchasers as well as salespeople therefore should know how cotton is grown and picked, how it is manufactured into cloth, and especially should understand the finishing processes which make one cotton material differ from another. Otherwise they cannot judge quali- ties and values. Linen should be studied in the same way, from flax to table linen, or other fine material. As these two vegetable fibers are alike in so many ways and are sold and used for the same purposes they may well be studied together. This manual includes the prin- cipal departments in which cotton and linen are found, except the upholstery and curtains, the laces, and the ready-to-wear departments which need special treatment. Thanks are due to Dr. Paul Nystrom, the author of "Textiles," Miss L. R. Balderston, and Mrs. Ellen B. McGowan of Teachers' College, and to James Mc- Cutcheon and Company for valuable help and criticisms. For illustrations thanks are due to The United States Department of Agriculture, The American Museum of Natural History, James McCutcheon and Company, The Spool Cotton Company, and The York Street Flax Spin- ning Company. Eliza B. Thompson. vu i \ CONTENTS CHAPTER PART I — THE COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT I Introductory Uses of Cotton Goods Divisions of the Department Cotton Yard Goods II Sources and Cultivation of Cotton Importance of Cotton Conditions Necessary for Cultivation of Cotton United States the Chief Source of Supply Varieties of American Cotton Egyptian Cotton Peruvian Cotton Indian Cotton Other Sources of Supply Properties of Cotton Cotton Growing Cotton Picking Cotton Ginning Baling Marketing Grading The Cotton Exchange Spot Sales and Future Sales III Spinning .... Processes of Manufacture Spinning Origin of the Art of Spinning ix PAGE I H CONTENTS CONTENTS XI CHAPTSI Hand Spinning The Spindle The Distaflf Hand Cards Spinning Wheels Inventions of Spinning Machines The Industrial Revolution Samuel Slater Spinning in the Mill Sizes or Counts of Yarns rAd CHAPTEB IV Weaving . Definition Origin The Primitive Loom The Upright or Vertical Loom The Hand Loom Parts of the Hand Loom The Flying Shuttle The First Power Loom The Jacquard Loom The Power Loom in the United States Weaving Processes Inspecting . 26 Imitations of Wool Names of Imitation Goods Tests for Cotton Materials Cotton Under the Microscope VII Color and Design in Cotton Fabrics Importance of Color Arrangement Effect of Colors Upon Each Other Effect of Artificial Light on Colors Color Combinations Reproducing the Design Other Effects PAGE V Finishing Importance of Finishing Processes Outline of the Processes Mercerization Discovery of Mercerization Process of Mercerization Difference between Mercerization and Calendering VI Mixtures, Adulterations, Imitations, 34 45 and Tests for Cotton Mixtures Adulterations Imitations Imitations of Linen Imitations of Silk 39 VIII Dyes and Dyeing Origin Natural Dyes Animal Dyes Vegetable Dyes Mineral Dyes Artificial or Aniline Dyes Direct Cotton Dyes (Substantive Dyes) Sulphur Dyes Mordant Dyeing Vat Dyes Methods of Dyeing The Dyeing Process Printing Block Printing Machine Printing Direct Printing Discharge Resist Thickened Dyes IX Cotton Fabrics Classification Batiste Calico Cambric Canton Flannel 50 . 6x « 1 XIS CHAPTER CONTENTS CONTENTS Challis Chambray Cheese-Cloth Corduroy Crepe or Crepon Damask (Cotton) Denim Dimity Drilling Duck (Cotton) Flannelette Galatea Gingham Huckaback (Cotton) India Linen Indian Head Jaconet Khaki Lawn Linon Long Cloth Madras Marquisette Mull Mosquito Netting Muslin Nainsook Organdy Osnaburg Outing Flannel Percale Piqu6 Poplin Ratine Shirting Swiss Tarlatan Terry Cloth Ticking Tucking Velveteen Voile PAGE CHAPTER X The Lining Counter Attractiveness of Linings Varieties of Linings Buckram Cambric Canvas Crinoline Drilling Farmer's Satin Interlining Percaline Quilted Lining Sateen Silesia Wadding Wigan Xlli PAGE 77 XI XII History and Centers of Cotton Indus- ^TRY g^ History of Cotton Cotton in America Centers of the Cotton Industry Classification of Stock of Cotton Goods Departments g^ PART II — THE LINEN DEPARTMENTS XIII Introductory Oq Linen Display Divisions of the Department XIV Sources and Preparation of Linen for Manufacture qj Sources Characteristics of Linens from Various Sources Properties of Linen XIV CHAPTER CONTENTS PAGE The Flax Plant Harvesting Processes for Removing the Fiber Rippling or Threshing Retting (or Rotting) Drying Breaking Scutching XV Process of Manufacture 98 Spinning Processes — Line Spinning Roughing Hackling Sorting Spreading Drawing and Roving Spinning Weaving Process Principal Weaves Weaving Machines Finishing Processes Bleaching Grades of Bleaching Beetling Calendering XVI Other Vegetable Fibers 105 Varieties Ramie and China Grass Preparation of Ramie Jute Preparation of Jute Hemp Preiparation of Hemp XVII Adulterations and Tests for Linen . no Adulterants Adulteration with Cotton Difference Between Cotton and Linen Adulterations with Sizingt CHAPTEB CONTENTS Simple Tests Washing or Rubbing Test Acid Test Microscope Test XV PAGE XVIII Linen Yard Goods Art Linen Bird's-Eye Linen Butcher's Linen Cambric Crash Damask Diaper Linen Linen Duck Glass Toweling Handkerchief Linen Holland Linen Huckaback Linen Lawn Pillow-Case Linen Sheeting Toweling XIX Toilet Linen IIS 120 Classification Towels Turkish Towels Wash Cloths Damask Towel Design Coarse Towel Design Design of Fine Grades Designs for Turkish Towels, Bath Mats, and Wash Cloths Plain Towel Design XX Bed Linen 126 Definitions Sheets Sheeting Mattress Pads XVI CONTENTS CONTENTS xvii CHAPTER PAGI Pillow-Cascs Blankets Quilts Comfortables Counterpanes Bed Spreads Children's Spreads Sizes of Bed Linen XXI Table Linen , . 133 Classification Table Cloths Napkins Tea Cloths Tray Cloths Doilies Silence Cloths Asbestos Pads Sizes of Table Linen Classification of Designs in Table Linen DiflSculties of Designing Method of Designing Designs of Borders Designs for Other Table Linens CHAPTER XXIV History of Linen Ancient Manufacture Medieval Manufacture Introduction of Machinery Cultivation in the United States Manufacture in the United States Effect of European War PAGE XXII Fancy Linens Classification Laces Embroidery Drawn-Work Japanese Sets Imitations XXIII The Handkerchief Department Location Handkerchief Materials Grades and Sizes Designs for Handkerchiefs History Centers of Industry 143 146 PART III — SUGGESTIONS TO SALES- PEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS XXV Selling Suggestions ...... 154 Arrangement and Display Materials Suggestions as to Care Suitability Manufacture Result of Misstatements History XXVI Suggestions to Purchasers .... 160 Considerations in Buying Garments Considerations in Buying Household Goods Buying Good Cotton Materials Choosing Between Cotton and Linen Adulterations The Historic Interest of Textile Study Uses of Cotton Materials XXVII Laundering of Cotton and Linen Fabrics 168 Knowledge of Laundering Primitive Methods of Laundering Usual Method Labor-Saving Devices Effect of Washing on Fibers Bleaches ZVIU CONTENTS CHAPTER Cleansing Materials Yellow and White Soaps Quality of Soap Other Forms of Soap Substitutes for Soap Starch Recipe for Starch Bluing Kinds of Bluing Proper Methods of Laundering Special Directions XXVIII Classification of Stock of Linen De- partment PAGE 179 Appendix jgc Leading Cotton Manufacturers in the United States Leading Linen Manufacturer! Books for Reference LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Cotton Picking Frontispiece "^"";" . , FACING PACE 1. Different Staples of American Cotton with Seeds . . 6 (The longest staple is Sea Island cotton.) 2. Cotton Bolls ^ 3. Cotton Baled for Shipping „, 4. Flax Wheel (^n page) 18 5. Mule Spinners «. ^ 6. Primitive Loom ^ 7. The Jacquard Loom jg 8. Cotton and Flax Fibers Under the Microscope (on page) 43 9. Roughing Flax ^g 10. The Spread Board ^g 11. Grass Bleaching of Linen jq^ 12. Designs in Table Cloths ,^ COTTON AND LINEN Part I— The Cotton Goods Department Chapter I INTRODUCTORY Uses of Cotton Goods A large variety of materials is found in the Cotton Goods Department, differing both in kind and quality. These range from the coarser fabrics for dresses for mommg wear, to the very fine and sheer qualities especially desirable for young girls' graduation and evenmg dresses. There is also the variety of materials for under- garments from the coarser cottons to the fine nain- sooks and batistes. The fine materials are suitable for infants' and children's wear, and the coarser materials tor men's and boys' aprons, etc. 2 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Since the discovery of the mercerization of cotton, table clothes and napkins have been made to imitate linen, and for ordinary household use, cotton is fast taking the place of linen, especially as during the war linen has been almost unobtainable. Cotton has also been treated so that it will absorb moisture, making it more suitable for toweling than formerly. Divisions of the Department According to the size of the store and, consequently the size of the department, different divisions are made in different stores. In some large stores, the division is as follows: 1. Domestics, goods that are made in the United States. These are mostly staples. 2. White Goods, including both imported and domestic materials. 3. Dress Goods, including domestic and imported materials. 4. Linings. 5. Flannels. 6. Blankets and Comfortables. Cotton Yard Goods The materials which belong in the yard goods divisions include the following: INTRODUCTORY I. Domestics Calico Cambric Canton Flannel Cheese-Cloth Denim Galatea Gingham Lawn Longcloth Muslin Nainsook Percale Sateen Sheeting Pillow-Case Tubing 2. White Goods Batiste Corduroy Crepe Dimity Flaxen Gaberdine India Linen Lawn Madras Marquisette Mull Organdy Persian Lawn Pique Poplin Swiss Voile 3. Dress Goods Cheviot Chiffon Corduroy Crepe Crepe de Chine Dimity Gingham Japanese Crepe Khaki Lawn Marquisette Mull Organdy Pique Poplin Swiss Voile 4. Linings Buckram Cambric Canvas Crinoline Drilling Lawn (Colored) Moreen Near-Silk Percaline Sateen Silesia Imitations of Silk Interlinings Cotton Wadding Quilted Linings Heatherbloom 1'^ Ill )!n Chapter II SOURCES AND CULTIVATION OF COTTON Importance of Cotton Cotton is the most important vegetable fiber, as it makes the cheapest and most useful of all textile ma- terials. It is the short, fluffy fiber which grows around and is attached to the seed of the cotton plant. These fibers cling close together and can be drawn out into a continuous slender thread. Cotton yam is therefore an elongated mass of fibers. The strength, length, and evenness of the fibers determine its value. The fiber is known as the staple. Conditions Necessary for Cultivation of Cotton A long season is needed for raising cotton. About 55 degrees north and south of the equator where there is a long season of continuous warm weather, is the range for cotton growing. Plenty of rain is required during the first part of the season, and sunshine dur- ing the latter part. The humidity in the air, which comes from nearness to the sea affects the cotton so 4 CULTIVATION OF COTTON S that it grows more rapidly and produces a longer and finer variety of fiber. United States the Chief Source of Supply The southern states of the United States have just the right climate for the successful growing of cotton, and the result is that the United States produces three- fourths of all the cotton used in the world. The states arranged in order of production are: Texas Mississippi Georgia Alabama Arkansas North Carolina South Carolina Louisiana Tennessee Florida Missouri Virginia Oklahoma Kentucky California Varieties of American Cotton There are two principal varieties of cotton grown in the United States : Sea Island and Upland cotton. Sea Island cotton is a long staple cotton, fine and silky. The fibers are from i% to 2% inches long. Strong warp yams are made of this cotton. It is used chiefly for the finest lawns and muslins and for spool cotton. Upland cotton is a short staple cotton, soft and 6 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT fairly strong. The fibers are from % to i% inches long, or about half the length of the Sea Island cotton. This variety is used for filling or weft yarns, binghams, calicoes, sheetings, and coarser materials are made from this cotton. (See Figure i for illus- trations of the different staples.) Egyptian Cotton Egypt ranks next to the United States in the quality of the cotton produced and much Egyptian cotton is im- ported into this country, as it is better adapted to some purposes than American cotton. The fibers are long and silky, measuring from i% to I A inches, but they are not so good in quality as the Sea Island cotton. They are brown on account of the coloring matter in the waters of the river Nile. A system of irrigation is used in Egypt to furnish moisture for the growth. It is used in making fine fabrics, underwear, and hosiery. Peruvian Cotton Peru in South America, because of its favorable climate, long season, and suitable soil, grows a very large amount of cotton. The fibers are rough, harsh, and wiry, fairly strong and I to i^ inches in length. It resembles wool and is used to mix with wool. i iMl w Q I ii l> CULTIVATION OF COTTON 7 Indian Cotton India produces a large amount of cotton which is sent to Germany and other parts of Europe and to Japan. The fibers of Indian cotton are short and coarse, and about % of an inch long. It is used for low-grade cloth. Other Sources of Supply China, Russia, and other countries raise cotton but very little is exported. Properties of Cotton The distinctive qualities of cotton are that it: 1. Burns easily on account of natural oil and cellu- lose in the fiber. 2. Soils easily on account of short fibers. 3. Does not absorb water readily and dries slowly on account of vegetable gum and oil in the fi{)er. 4. Crushes readily because a vegetable fiber. 5. Shrinks because the finish which pulls the fiber out is loosened by water and soap and the fiber goes back to its original twisted shape. 6. Is non-conductor of heat, therefore good for summer underwear. 7. May be laundered without injury to the fibers. ■ 8 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Cotton Growing The seeds are planted in March, April, or May, frequently by machine. They are planted in rows, close together. Later the plants are thinned and left from 8 inches to 14 inches apart. Four months are required from the planting to the ripening of the seeds. The blossom, which resembles a hollyhock, lasts only one day, during which time the color changes from yellow in the morning, to white at noon, and pink in the evening when it drops off. The boll begins to form as soon as the blossom drops off. The plant blossoms first at the bottom and from there to the top. (See Figure 2.) Cotton is sometimes injured by a wet season, an early frost, or a severe sand storm. Insects such as the boll-weevil sometimes destroy cotton crops. Cotton Picking Cotton is picked during the months of July and August, and in the fall until frost comes. It is usually picked by hand. Several machines have been invented for the purpose, but as the bolls do not all ripen at one time a machine cannot be used to advantage. As the plant begins to blossom at the bottom and the bolls form there first ripening gradually toward the top, it is necessary to go over a field two or even three different times. Bolls which are not ripe are often CULTIVATION OF COTTON forced open and sent on with the ripe cotton, but this lowers the quality. Ripe cotton when seen under the microscope shows a twist which lends itself readily to the spinning, while the unripe fiber has no twist, will not spin readily, is not strong, and will not hold the dye as well as the ripe fiber. This mixing is done by dishonest raisers who also sometimes wet cotton to make it heavier. Negroes (men, women, and children) are employed in the picking of cotton, which they take from the opened boll and put in a bag hanging at their side. When the bag is full they go to the end of the row of plants and empty it into a large basket. (See Frontis- piece. ) Each person's work is weighed and an account kept of it. Cotton pickers work from six o'clock in the morning until six o'clock at night. Two hundred pounds is about an average day's work and they re- ceive from 40 to 50 cents a hundred pounds. The baskets are taken to the cotton house and the cotton is piled up in the cotton room. It is then sent to the cotton gin for the removal of seeds. Cotton Ginning In this process, sharp knives or saws in the machine cut through the fibers and the seeds drop out. This injures the fibers somewhat. II 10 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT The Sea Island cotton seeds are easier to remove as the cotton does not cling so tightly to them. They are black and shiny and are removed by passing the fibers between closely set rollers through which the seeds cannot go. The cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney in 1794, and caused a wonderful development of the cotton industry. Baling After the seeds are removed the cotton is put in large bales of 500 pounds in weight. Egyptian bales weigh 700 pounds. Each bale is put under heavy pressure in a hydraulic press, until it is reduced to about half its original size. Bagging and iron bands are put around the bale for protection. This becomes the raw cotton of the market. (See Figure 3.) Marketing When the cotton is ready for market, it may be sold in various ways. The cotton farmer may sell to some local storekeeper who makes a business of buying cotton, or to some local cotton buyer or factory. There are also cotton dealers and brokers, located in the larger cities to whom he may sell. Again he may sell to traveling buyers sent by cotton merchants or manufacturers, or he may sell direct to the cotton INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 10 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT The Sea Island cotton seeds are easier to remove as the cotton does not cling so tightly to them. They are black and shiny and are removed by passing the fibers between closely set rollers through which the seeds cannot go. The cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney in 1794, and caused a wonderful development of the cotton industry. Baling After the seeds are removed the cotton is put in large bales of 500 pounds in weight. Egyptian bales weigh 700 pounds. Each bale is put under heavy pressure in a hydraulic press, until it is reduced to about half its original size. Bagging and iron bands are put around the bale for protection. This becomes the raw cotton of the market. (See Figure 3.) Marketing When the cotton is ready for market, it may be sold in various ways. The cotton farmer may sell to some local storekeeper who makes a business of buying cotton, or to some local cotton buyer or factory. There are also cotton dealers and brokers, located in the larger cities to whom he may sell. Again he may sell to traveling buyers sent by cotton merchants or manufacturers, or he may sell direct to the cotton M CULTIVATION OF COTTON II Jf spinning mill, especially if it is near enough so that the cotton may be transported easily. Grading In any case the buyer of the cotton grades it by examining the cotton in the bale, pulling out a little for this purpose. The quality of the cotton depends upon the fineness or coarseness of the fiber, the length of the fiber, and its breaking strength. As each bale of cotton is sup- posed to weigh 500 pounds, it is necessary for the buyer to determine whether this weight is partly made of dirt, leaves, and too much moisture. Dead or unripe fibers, or those damaged by frost or insects lower the grade of the cotton. The color and luster of the cotton is also considered. All these things must be taken into account in determining the grade of cotton. Mistakes in grading are possible because there may be many varieties of cotton in one bale and the sample may come from the poorer or better variety. The standard grades of cotton generally recognized in the cotton markets are as follows : Fair Strict middling fair Middling fair Strict good middling LL "«' 12 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Good middling Strict middling Middling Strict low middling Strict good ordinary, Good ordinary Strict ordinary Ordinary Cotton which is discolored is classed as tinged if only slightly discolored or stained if it has a deeper color, as for instance, " strict good ordinary tinged " or "good middling stained." Cotton crops vary in color; one may be bright and white, another creamy, another dingy. Consequently, cotton may be said to be of "good color" meaning that while it may not be very white, still it is neither tinged or stained. The Cotton Exchange This IS a market-place or building where cotton is bought and sold. There are certain rules laid down by an association which is made up of cotton mer- chants, local dealers, cotton brokers and exporters, and some cotton spinners. These rules tell how the business is to be conducted and the cotton graded. Much of the cotton which is bought and sold at the exchange is never seen by the cotton broker. CULTIVATION OF COTTON 13 Spot Sales and Future Sales In the cotton exchange two kinds of sales are made. The spot sale calls for the delivery of the cotton at once, while with the future sale the cotton is to be delivered at some future time. There is the element of speculation in buying or selling for future delivery as the cotton may not even be grown and much might happen to the crops before they could be delivered. If there is a good crop and the price of cotton goes down the broker may lose, while if there is a poor crop and a good demand for cotton, then the price will go up and he will make a good profit. If he con- cludes that he is likely to lose on his deal he goes to the cotton exchange and tries to sell his contract at as low a price as possible, and so the risk is transferred to a third party who in turn may see his mistake and sell to another party and so on. This process is known as "hedging." I ,v Chapter III SPINNING Processes of Manufacture The manufacture of cotton is the leading industry in the textile world. From the time that the raw cotton is brought to the factory in the bale, until the goods are ready to be sold in the store the processes of its manufacture may be grouped under three heads : Spinning Weaving Finishing These processes are not always completed in one place. Often the spinning is done in one mill, the weaving in another, and the finishing in still another. Some concerns buy goods from one factory " in the gray," which is really unbleached cotton, and engage another factory to dye and finish it for them. Spinning Spinning is the drawing and twisting of fibers to form a continuous thread. 14 SPINNING 15 Although the process of spinning may seem very complicated when we see the machinery in a cotton mill, these great machines are only separating the matted and tangled fibers and drawing them out into a continuous strand. This strand is combed or carded so that the fibers may be parallel and smooth, and it is twisted so that it may be strong for weaving. The processes in the factory may be better under- stood if spinning is seen in its simpler form and fol- lowed through the various stages of its later develop- ment. Origin of the Art of Spinning The art of spinning is so ancient that its origin is unknown. Wool and flax were the first fibers used for textiles. Cotton was more difficult to spin on ac- count of its short fibers and was used very little until the invention of machinery for spinning. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Chinese all claim the discovery of the art of spinning, but there is no ab- solute proof in any case. It is certain from pictures found on Egyptian tombs that flax was used there at a very early time. The spinning of cotton by hand was developed first in India. Hand Spinning The three processes of spinning are : I i6 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Drawing Twisting Winding The first spinning was done by drawing out the fiber and twisting it with the fingers; then winding it on a stick or a stone to keep it from becoming tangled. The Spindle The stick on which the spun thread was wound in early times was later called a spindle. By dropping it with a twirling motion it was made to do the twisting. It was soon found that a full spindle revolved faster than an empty one and a piece of stone, clay, or metal was attached to make it revolve faster and twist better. This weight was called a whorl. The Distaff The stick on which the bunch of raw unspun fibers was placed was called the distaff. If both hands were to be left free for spinning, it could be held under the left arm or placed in the girdle. This process of spinning was used from before the dawn of history until the fourteenth century and may still be found among primitive people. Hand Cards At first the fibers were straightened by the fingers SPINNING 17 but this was found to be unsatisfactory and so boards with upright wires were used for this purpose. By rubbing the wires of one board against the wires of the other the fibers were straightened, cleaned, and made ready for spinning. Spinning Wheels The Great Wheel or Jersey Wheel. The first and simplest spinning wheel was made during the four- teenth century and was used for spinning wool. It consisted of a large wheel connected by a band to a smaller wheel which turned the spindle. The spindle was in a horizontal position. The woman spinning stood at the side and turned the large wheel with her right hand. With her left hand she drew out the thread which came twisting from the end of the spindle; when it was long enough she stopped and turning the wheel again, wound it on the spindle. This wheel had no place for the distaff, and it was necessary to pick up new fibers constantly. Here again are seen the three processes, drawing, twisting, and winding. The Flax Wheel or Saxony Wheel. The flax wheel was the next improvement. It was run by foot-power and the spinner could now twist, draw, and wind with- out stopping the wheel. Around the spindle was a horse shoe arrangement called a " flier " which twisted ii ii i8 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT the thread and on this flier were hooks for distributing the thread evenly on the spindle. The distaff for holding the fiber was now fastened to the frame. The motion of this wheel was continuous. The thread made on the Saxony wheel was drawn out ^ „„ , and twisted better than that on Figure 4. Flax Wheel ^, ^ 1 1 a-. the great wheel. On account of its greater strength it was used for the warp or foundation thread of cloth, while the thread from the great wheel was used for weft or filling. These wheels were used from the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries and all yarns for clothing and household materials were made in this way. Inventions of Spinning Machines In 1764 James Hargreaves invented a machine whereby eleven spindles could be wound at once. This was based on the principle of the great wheel, the thread being drawn out and twisted and afterwards wound on the bobbins. He named his machine the spinning jenny using his wife*s name. This furnished the weft or filling thread. In 1768 Richard Arkwright invented a machine on SPINNING 19 the principle of the Saxony wheel. This had rollers at the top going at different speeds for drawing out the threads, and the spindles which were at the bottom of the machine had the fliers for twisting the thread as it was wound on the bobbins. The machine was run by water-power and was called Arkwright's water frame. It furnished warp for the weavers. In 1779 Samuel Crompton, a textile worker, in- vented a machine which was a combination of Har- greaves' jenny and Arkwright's water frame and was called Crompton's mule. With this machine much finer thread could be spun. In 1830 Roberts, by means of an invention called a "quadrant,'' succeeded in making the mule self- acting. The Industrial Revolution These and other inventions following one after an- other during the period from 1750 to 1800 changed the whole textile industry. The invention of the steam engine by Watts in 1769 came during this time, also the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. Factories were built and the spinning and weaving of cloth which had always been done in the home was transferred to the factory where machines could be used to advantage. These inventions were of the greatest importance to the cotton industry which de- veloped with wonderful rapidity. 20 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Samuel Slater During the years when some of these wonderful inventions were being made in England, the United States was at war with that country, fighting for her independence. On account of the war and the fact that laws were made to prohibit any models or draw- ings from being brought to this country, none of the inventions could be brought over, but Samuel Slater was able to construct a machine from memory as he was familiar with Arkwright's spinning frame in Eng- land. He was called the father of the textile industry. The first machine was made in Pawtucket, R. L, in 1790. Spinning in the Mill The following are the processes through which the raw cotton passes after being received at the mill : 1. Opening, The bale is opened. Iron bands and burlap coverings are removed. 2. Breaking and Pulling. The cotton is broken and pulled apart. It is put into a machine which breaks up the hard lumps of cotton and pulls the fibers apart. 3. Mixing. After the cotton is opened up in the bale-breaker it is mixed to form one quality of cotton. This consists in taking fibers of equal length, all of the same variety, but perhaps different pickings, which may not be the same grade and mixing them together. SPINNING 21 4. Picking and Scutching. The picking machines loosen the matted fibers and beat out the sand, leaves, and pieces of boll, which fall through a wire lattice. The cotton is formed around the cylinder in a sheet or " lap " like cotton batting. The scutching machines continue the work of clean- ing the fibers. Four laps from the picking machine are fed to the scutcher and come out as one single sheet or lap, each time cleaner than before. 5. Carding and Combing. Carding is a very im- portant process for it not only cleans the cotton from dirt, sticks, and other impurities which have not been removed by previous processes, but disentangles and straightens the fibers, and lays them parallel. The wide lap of cotton, as it comes from the previous machine is placed in the carding machine where the fibers are straightened and drawn out into a thin filmy layer of cotton about forty inches wide. This sheet as it comes out passes through a sort of metal funnel which condenses the lap into a round, soft rope called a sliver. It is about as thick as a man's finger. As this emerges from the machine it is conveyed into a device which coils it into a deep can called a sliver can. When full this can is carried to the drawing frame. If a finer yam is required the carding process is repeated. For very fine yarns the sliver is taken to i| I I J. l! 2.2 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT the combing machine to be combed before it is sent to the drawing frame. Combing is required for all fine yams such as are made from the long staple cotton, as Sea Island and Egyptian cotton. In this process the slivers from several cans, eight or ten or even more, are united in the combing machine and at first made into a smooth lap about nine inches wide. This is passed on to the comber where the fibers are thoroughly combed, any impurities and short fibers being removed. The lap is then formed into a sliver and taken to the drawing frame as in carding. As a result of this process, the cotton is fine and silky. All short ends have been combed out, but as there is a great deal of waste, it is an expensive process and only used for the production of the very best and finest yarns, such as are required for sewing thread, fine grades of white goods, underwear, fine hosiery, and lace curtains. In recent years there has been improvement in the combing machines so that short staple cotton may be combed. 6. Drawing and Doubling. A certain number of slivers from the carding machine are drawn parallel and united into one sliver by means of a series of rollers which revolve, each set faster than the one preceding so that the sliver is stretched or drawn out SPINNING 23 continuously. In uniting several slivers in this way, weak places are strengthened and the sliver is drawn even and smooth. Just enough twist is put into the slivers to hold them together. 7. Stubbing, Intermediate Stubbing, and Roving, These processes consist of drawing out, twisting, and winding on bobbins. The cotton passes through these three machines in succession. They all work on the same principle but as the cotton leaves each machine it is longer, stronger, and finer until it is ready for spinning. 8. Spinning. In the final process of spinning the cotton roving is drawn out to the required size or fineness and twisted the right number of times for the required strength for the weaving of certain ma- terials. There are two methods of machine spinning : (a) Ring spinning, which is more rapid and is used more in cotton spinning especially for warp. (b) Mule spinning, which is the older method, more complicated and which takes up more room. It produces a softer and more elastic yarn which is especially good for hosiery. (See Figure 5.) The kinds of yarn spun for weaving are : M COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT I (a) Warp yarns, which are hard, twisted, strong yarns made of long cotton fibers. These yams must be strong in order to bear the strain of weaving. (b) Weft or filling yams which are loose, slightly twisted yams, made of short cot- ton fibers. Very little strain comes on the filling yams, consequently they need not be so strong as the warp yarns. After it is spun, yarn is usually doubled and twisted according to the size which is required for its use and afterwards wound into skeins. Sizes or Counts of Yarns In the United States cotton yams are known by numbers or counts: No. I yarn (seldom used because too coarse) has I skein of 840 yards ta a pound. No. 2 yarn has 2 skeins of 840 yards each to the pound. No. 12 yam has 12 skeins of 840 yards each to the pound. No. 30 yarn has 30 skeins of 840 yards each to the poimd, still finer, and so on. No. 200 yam has 200 skeins of 840 yards each to the pound. This is very fine yam which can be made from Sea Island cotton. U C c '5- u 3 be A\ INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 24 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT (a) Warp yarns, which are hard, twisted, strong yarns made of long cotton fibers. These yarns must be strong in order to bear the strain of weaving. (b) Weft or filling yarns which are loose, slightly twisted yarns, made of short cot- ton fibers. Very little strain comes on the filling yarns, consequently they need not be so strong as the warp yarns. After it is spun, yarn is usually doubled and twisted according to the size which is required for its use and afterwards wound into skeins. Sizes or Counts of Yarns In the United States cotton yams are known by numbers or counts: No. I yarn (seldom used because too coarse) has I skein of 840 yards to- a pound. No. 2 yarn has 2 skeins of 840 yards each to the pound. No. 12 yarn has 12 skeins of 840 yards each to the pound. No. 30 yarn has 30 skeins of 840 yards each to the pound, still finer, and so on. No. 200 yarn has 200 skeins of 840 yards each to the pound. This is very fine yarn which can be made from Sea Island cotton. to iJ SPINNING as Yarns may be single twist, 2 ply, 3 ply, etc. : 2 ply means two single-twisted yams twisted to- gether. 3 ply means three single-twisted yams twisted to- gether. Cotton yam is yellowish in color and may be bleached before weaving or the cloth may be woven and bleached later. >!! Chapter IV WEAVING Definition Weaving is the making of cloth by the interlacing of two sets of threads crossing each other at right angles. Of these the lengthwise threads are called the warp while the crosswise threads are called the woof, weft, or filling. In this country the crosswise threads are usually spoken of as filling while in Eng- land they are called the weft threads. Origin The art of weaving can be traced to the very earliest people. The women of savage tribes used any ma- terial, such as grasses or reeds, that might be at hand, interlacing the fibers in a very crude manner to make mats, baskets, etc. At first the strips were put over and under one at a time. Then the women found that they could fasten pieces together to make longer strips. The Primitive Loom In the next stage the long strips of the grasses or WEAVING 27 other materials to be woven were stretched and fastened on the ground and the cross material was carried over and under these long pieces. Next a stick was fastened to every alternate thread of warp so that these threads could be raised to allow the cross threads to go through. ( See Figure 6. ) The Upright or Vertical Loom In the upright loom the warp threads were held in an upright position by fastening them to two beams, one at the top and one at the bottom, and fastening the top beam to a tree. The alternate warp threads were fastened to a stick as in the primitive loom, so that they could be raised or lowered to form a shed as the cross threads were drawn through. This type is still used by the Navajo Indians in the weaving of the famous Navajo rugs. The Hand Loom The primitive looms were gradually improved to suit the needs of people wishing for finer materials and better workmanship until the hand loom was de- veloped, which has been called the colonial loom though it was used in Europe before the colonies were settled. This is the type upon which the power loom of the present day is based. It consisted of upright beams held together by cross beams. The different parts of the loom were fastened to these beams. !»' I f 28 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Parts of the Hand Loom The hand loom consisted of the following parts: The warp beam for holding the warp. The cloth beam for winding up the cloth after it was woven. The reed through which the warp threads passed, and which was also used as a batten to beat the weft threads together. The heddles through an opening or eye of which the warp threads passed. The shuttle for carrying the woof or filling thread. The harness which consisted of two or more shafts each having a sort of framework for holding the heddles. These shafts were connected by a rope to the treadles and by this means were moved up and down to form the shed through which the shuttle passed. In weaving wide materials it required two weavers, one at each end of the loom to return the shuttle. In machine weaving the same names are used to designate corresponding parts of the loom. Most of the inventions for the machine looms were made in the last half of the eighteenth century. The Flying Shuttle In 1773 John Kay, a native of Lancashire whose father was a woolen manufacturer, invented what is Courtesy of American Museum of Natural History Figure 6. Primitive Loom Courtesy of York Street Flax Spinning Company Figure 7. The Jacquard Loom INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 28 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Parts of the Hand Loom The hand loom consisted of the following parts: The warp beam for holding the warp. The cloth beam for winding up the cloth after it was woven. The reed through which the warp threads passed, and which was also used as a batten to beat the weft threads together. The heddles through an opening or eye of which the warp threads passed. The shuttle for carrying the woof or filling thread. The harness which consisted of two or more shafts each having a sort of framework for holding the heddles. These shafts were connected by a rope to the treadles and by this means were moved up and down to form the shed through which the shuttle passed. In weaving wide materials it required two weavers, one at each end of the loom to return the shuttle. In machine weaving the same names are used to designate corresponding parts of the loom. Most of the inventions for the machine looms were made in the last half of the eighteenth century. The Flying Shuttle In 1773 John Kay, a native of Lancashire whose father was a woolen manufacturer, invented what is Courtesy of American Museum of Natural History Figure 6. Primitive Loom Courtesy of York Street Flax Spinning Company Figure 7. The Jacquard Loom WEAVING 29 known as the flying shuttle. This invention consisted of two boxes, one at each side of the loom. By means of a rope the shuttle was made to pass through the sheds of alternate threads to one box and back again to the other box. In this way only one man was needed to operate the loom where two were needed before. At first this was not well received, but it was soon seen that more cloth could be woven, the price reduced, and more work done. The First Power Loom The first power loom was patented in 1785 by Rev. Dr. Cartwright, a clergyman of England. It is on his foundation that the perfected automatic loom of today is built. Many inventions have followed, the most wonderful of all being the Jacquard harness for the loom. The weaving of figures in cloth was first done by using several heddles and harnesses. This sort of weaving was in process when M. Jacquard invented the loom which bears his name. The Jacquard Loom By means of the Jacquard loom the most intricate and beautiful patterns can be woven into the cloth. Joseph Marie Jacquard, the inventor, was bom in 1752. In 1804 he brought forward his invention and met with bitter opposition, his machine was burned in !ii f 30 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT the streets but was later reconstructed with improve- ments. It consists of a pierced cylinder around which a chain of cards revolves, each card pierced with holes and the total of all cards indicates the complete pat- tern; opposite this cylinder are horizontal needles which, as the cylinder turns, come up and strike the cards. Each needle governs a hook which, by means of an upright connecting cord, governs a certain warp thread. As the needles strike the cards, those that pass through the holes in the cards lift the hooks which lift the warp threads. The other needles strik- ing the card where there are no holes, do not lift their hooks and the threads remain in position. When the threads are lifted by the hook the shuttle passes under and the cylinder turns again with the next card in place for the next row of threads to be lifted. In this way very beautiful and intricate designs are woven into cloth. (See Figure 7.) The Power Loom in the United States Steam-power for the running of the loom was not used in this country before the period from 181 2 to 1820. So in the United States it is scarcely 100 years since the modern factory with the power loom was started. The industry has developed into one of the greatest of the time. Each year brings new improve- WEAVING 31 ments and devices until the results obtained are almost marvelous. The value of time and labor during the colonial period when everything was made by hand did not seem to be considered ; the main object seemed to pro- duce something good and durable and beautiful if possible. Today in the department stores are found machine- made fabrics which are beautiful but most of them have not the strength or durability of the hand-made materials. The speed with which fabrics can be manu- factured has enabled the production of greater quan- tities and a lower price has been the result, as well as greater variety of materials. Weaving Processes Of the two sets of threads which are used in the weaving, the warp threads which run lengthwise of the loom, are called ends, and the woof, weft, or filling threads which are put in across the warp threads, are known as picks. I. Preparing the Warp, When the width of the cloth is decided upon, a certain number of warp threads or ends must be counted and put into the loom. Before the threads are drawn into the loom they are put through a sizing process, which is a process of strengthening the cotton yam by passing it through a 32 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT starchy or glutinous liquid. This also prevents it from becoming rough or fluffy in the loom. 2. Threading. The threads are wound on a large beam in the right order and then threaded and drawn in through the heddles and reed of the loom. By means of the harness the warp threads are raised and lowered alternately forming a shed, through which the weft thread is carried by means of a shuttle which holds the bobbins and thread. After each passage of the weft thread across the warp, the reed pushes it back tight against the preced- ing threads, forming a firm piece of cloth. The finished cloth is rolled up on the cloth beam. One weaver can take care of from i6 to 24 looms as they stop automatically if a thread breaks. 3. Weaves. Many weaves may be produced but only the simplest ones will be considered. (a) The plain weave is the simple interlacing of the warp and weft threads over and under each other regularly as in muslin, percale, lawn, and nainsook. (b) The twill weave is one in which weft threads may go under two or more warp threads and over two or more, each row beginning one thread in advance of the preceding row and so forming what is called the twill; as in denim, galatea, canton flannel, etc. (c) The satin or sateen weave leaves long threads on the surface. Either the filling threads in each row have been carried over several warp threads (from 4 WEAVING 33 to 12) and under only one, or they have been carried under the desired number and over one. Light is re- flected from these longer threads causing them to shine like satin, while the short ones are entirely concealed. (d) The pattern weave is made on a Jacquard loom, as in cotton brocades and cotton damask. A float is a length of thread which passes over several threads before it is caught down. This may be found in the satin weave but is noticeable in the pattern weave where floats of different lengths make the pattern. (e) The pile weave is used in weaving corduroy, velveteen, and cotton velvets. Two sets of filling threads are used to one warp. The extra filling thread forms the pile on the face of the cloth, and as the weaving proceeds it is cut along the length of the material. Inspecting When the cloth is taken from the loom it is looked over carefully for defects such as weak places, tears, etc., and these are mended. If the mill does none of the finishing processes, the cloth is measured, made up in bolts, wrapped in paper, and put in cases to be shipped. The value of cotton cloth depends upon the fineness of the threads and this is spoken of as so many picks and ends to the inch. " Berkely 180 " means 180 picks and 180 ends to the inch. This is called the " count." y \ 1 i'; I >■] Chapter V FINISHING Importance of Finishing Processes The method of finishing a cloth is often the deter- mining factor in its manufacture, as the only differ- ence between some materials is in the dressing and finishing after weaving. Outline of the Processes The following is an outline of the various methods : 1. Bleaching — cotton cloth when taken from the loom is yellowish unless the yarn has been previously bleached, and must be bleached white. This is usually done in the piece. Chloride of lime is the chemical commonly used. 2. Dyeing (a) Piece dyeing — solid colors. (b) Printing — designs stamped on, as per- cales, organdies, dimity. 3. Dressing (a) Glycerin and oils for softness, as in mull. 34 FINISHING 35 (b) Starch for fullness of finish, as in musHn. (c) Mucilage and gum for gloss and stiff- ness, as in percaline lining and swiss. (d) China clay for solid appearance, as in cretonne and canvas. 4. Finishes (a) Brushing — removal of knots and other defects by emery rolls and beaters. (b) Tentering — stretching the material crosswise to keep an even width. (c) Beetling — beating by hammers and pressing to give a shiny surface like linen. (d) Calendering — giving luster and smooth- ness by pressure under heavy rollers. This gloss is lost in laundering. Schreinerizing is also done by this process. (e) Embossing — producing pattern effects by heated rollers. These patterns are lost in laundering. (f) Singeing — removing the short ends by passing through red hot copper plates or Bunsen burners and water troughs. Beetling follows. Percales and cali- coes are finished this way. (g) Napping or gigging — loosening and 36 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT roughing the ends by means of cylin- ders covered with card clothing as in outing flannel. (h) Mercerizing — producing a permanent silk-like gloss by chemical means. Mercerization Mercerization is so widely used and so important a process that more space should be given to describing it The materials most commonly mercerized are: Tussur Foulard Sateen Silkoline Imitation Silk Linings Various Upholstery (}oods Hosiery and Knit Underwear There are also many so-called silk mixed goods in which cotton yarn has been mercerized and used as silk. These are found especially in the novelty cotton goods which seem to have silk stripes. These ailk- like cotton materials are often sold either in the aisles or on the counters very near the silk goods section. Discovery of Mercerization The permanent gloss which is found on these cotton materials is made by a process discovered by John Mercer, for whom the process is named, in 1844, and Poplin Lawn Cotton Taffeta Tub Silk Voile Shantung Cotton Damask FINISHING 37 patented in 1850. He found that by immersing cot- ton goods in caustic soda, the cotton fiber, which under the microscope is flat and ribbon-like, swelled imtil it was round and tube-like, and then contracted or shrank in length making it stronger. It was found that such cotton also took dyes more easily than the ordinary cotton. (See Figure 8.) Little was done with this discovery until 1889, when in experimenting with this process, the goods were stretched to prevent shrinking. When the caus- tic soda was washed out a gloss appeared which was found to be permanent. As chemicals were cheaper than when the process was first discovered, mercerized cotton began to be put on the market, with the result that it has gained in popularity, and is now used to a great extent. It has given to cotton fabrics a much wider use than before and is, therefore, a most im- portant discovery. Process of Mercerization The long-fibered cotton. Sea Island or Egyptian, is used because it will stand more strain than the shorter fibers. The yarn or cloth is first washed, rinsed, and dried. It is then put in the caustic soda and left for ten or fifteen minutes. Then it is removed and stretched to its original length. The material may be passed \ 38 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT ). through the caustic soda solution on rollers which keep it stretched. While still under tension it is washed in water to which a chemical has been added, usually sulphuric acid. This counteracts any harm the caustic soda might do the material. The material is then bleached, although the bleaching may be done before mercerizing. It is finished by dyeing, singeing, and calendering. Sometimes the yarns are gassed to remove the ends of the fibers before being mercerized. Mercerization not only gives a silk-like appearance to cotton goods, but makes the goods stronger through the swelling and contraction of the fibers. There- fore, mercerized materials may be recommended for their strength and durability. They wear well and look well, but should not be passed oflF as silk. Difference Between Mercerization and Calendering Calendering or schreinerizing should not be con- fused with mercerizing, as by these processes the gloss formed is not permanent, but will be lost in the first laundering. Schreinerizing is a calendering process. The cloth is passed under rollers engraved with fine lines. The threads are pressed flat and the lines ap- pearing on the surface reflect the light, giving the high luster. Chapter VI MIXTURES, ADULTERATIONS, IMITATIONS, AND TESTS FOR COTTON Mixtures Cotton may be mixed with other materials to pro- duce mixed or fancy effects. These mixtures may be : cotton and linen, cotton and wool, cotton and silk, cotton and artificial silk or fiber silk, or cotton and mercerized cotton. Many attractive cotton fabrics with silk stripes and figures are made by combining cotton with artificial silk, mercerized cotton, and sometimes weak, spun silk. Adulterations Adulterations have been the result of the demand for a low-priced article, and competition has been so keen among the manufacturers that they have tried to make poor material look like good material. They also have given their goods names which would lead the public to think they were made from a better ma- terial. Cotton, although the cheapest fiber, may be adulter- 39 1^ '1 h i 40 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT ated and further cheapened by sizings, such as starch, glue, gum, and china clay, which are put in to strengthen the fiber. The sizing washes out, leaving a poor, loosely woven, thin material. Imitations Cotton has an extraordinary capacity for imitation so that it can be made to look like all the other fibers. For instance, there are cotton tweeds and cotton cashmeres, cotton voiles and cotton challis, cotton poplins and cotton pongees, and many other imita- tions. Many of these materials are very attractive and serve their purpose well, but customers are be- coming more and more interested in the exact quality that they are buying. If salespeople know these imitations and can speak intelligently about the materials of which their stock is made, showing the advantage of each for the pur- pose required, buyers will learn to trust their judg- ment as well as their honesty. If people understand that they are getting imitation goods for a lower price than that for which the real article could be sold, they will not expect them to wear so well as the more ex- pensive materials. Imitations of Linen Cotton is made to imitate linen by the calendering process whereby a gloss is put on which will not re- IMITATIONS OF COTTON 41 main after washing. Plain cotton is made to imitate mercerized cotton by the calendering process. Imitations of Silk Silk effects are produced by using silk patterns of which taffeta silk is an example. The lustrous satin finish is given to the cotton sateens by using a dressing of glycerin and passing the material through heated rollers under pressure. This is the calender finish. Mercerized cotton ever since its discovery has been U3ed to imitate silk, and when woven in a silk pattern strongly resembles spun silk. Embossed patterns are sometimes made to imitate brocades. These patterns are made by machines, after the cloth is woven. As the nap around the pat- tern is simply pressed flat with a little dressing to hold it down, the dressing and gloss will disappear if laundered. Imitations of Wool It is made to look like wool in various ways. Sometimes patterns which are usually seen only in wool are used. Sometimes the fibers are chemically treated so that they resemble wool. The imitation of wool with which we are most familiar is the napping process. By this process the loosely woven cotton material passes between rollers covered with small teeth or wires which scratch the surface of the cloth, COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT H't giving it a rough appearance like wool. Examples of this are outing flannel, flannelette, blankets, and others. Names of Imitation Goods Misleading names for cotton materials are : Flaxon Linon Linene Near-Silk Silkaline Sateen Velveteen Outing Flannel Flannelette Tests for Cotton Materials There are some very simple tests which can be made for cotton. These are: 1. For heavy sizings: (a) Hold the cloth to the light and look through to see if the sizing can be seen in the meshes. (b) Rub the cloth between the hands and a white powder will come off if it is heavily sized. (c) Boil a sample to remove the sizing and notice the quality of the material afterwards. 2. To test the cloth for strength, press the thumbs against it. If it is weak it will break easily. 3. The calendered or glossy finish used in imita- TESTS FOR COTTON 43 tion of linen or mercerized cotton will dis- appear if a sample is washed. Cotton Under the Microscope Each fiber has its own characteristic structure, which will show plainly under the microscope. There- I I '^ A— Unripe Cotton. B — Ripe Cotton. C — Mercerized Cotton. D— Flax. Figure 8. Cotton and Flax Fibers Under the Microscope fore, the fibers of which materials are composed may be detected in this way. 44 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT I The ripe cotton fiber under a microscope looks like a flat ribbon with a ridge at each side and is twisted several times. This twist helps in the spinning, for the fibers twist around each other, adding to their strength. In good fibers the twist is rather uniform and strong. Unripe cotton fibers have very little twist and do not take the dye well. Mercerized cotton fibers have a cylindrical, smooth, and stretched appearance. There is usually no twist, but occasionally a slight one may be detected. (See Figure 8.) Chapter VII COLOR AND DESIGN IN COTTON FABRICS Importance of Color Arrangement Color is important in the display of goods, in mak- ing an appeal to the customer and in its relation to the store as a whole. Inharmonious or crude combinations of color give an unpleasant impression which is not always clearly defined but affects one's judgment of the merchandise in question. If bright colors are all placed together, they detract from each other, while quiet colors bring out the full values of the more brilliant ones and their own softer tones are made more interesting. A person intending to stop and look at goods for the purpose of buying may almost unconsciously pass by a counter where color combinations hurt the eye. Most people are sensitive to color, many without realizing it. A person may be especially attracted to a counter where goods are arranged in pleasing combi- nations and although not intending to buy, may be- come a customer at once. 45 ! 46 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Effect of Colors Upon Each Other Two colors that are pleasing in themselves may be injured by being put next to each other; each borrows an effect or value from the other. If red and blue are put next to each other, the blue will appear green- ish, while red will turn more orange. Black makes any other color look darker and white makes the color brighter. Saleswomen should be able to assist in matching colors and also in selecting the color suitable for dif- ferent people. This requires a study of the effect of color on the complexion. The use for which materials are intended makes some difference in the choice of the color, bright colors being more attractive in the house than on the street. Warm colors are those suggested by sun and fire, as red, orange, yellow ; cool colors are those suggested by sky and grass, as green, blue, violet. A knowledge of color and design is valuable in every department, but its importance is greatest in the Silk Department. Therefore, a much fuller treatment of the subject will be given in that manual and only a brief outline here. Effect of Artificial Light on Colors In artificial light, colors change, i.e., Purples and violets appear brown. COLOR AND DESIGN 47 Yellow, orange, and red are brightened and en- riched. Green appears yellower and darker. Blue is less pure and darker. Color Combinations There are certain safe guides to good color com- binations : 1. From science. (Color wheel harmonies — See manual for " Silk Department.") 2. In nature — as birds, butterflies, flowers. 5. In pictures — Japanese prints, reproductions of masterpieces, etc. 4. In good textiles — as seen in museums. Many of the bright colors are found at the lining counters as these materials are used on the inside of a garment where only an occasional glimpse may be seen. Sometimes these bright colored linings are not as desirable as a gray or quiet color, because if worn next to white the color may come off. Effective con- trasts of color are often desired in linings. Reproducing the Design Designs in cotton materials are produced by two methods, weaving and printing. Woven patterns often increase the cost of the material. When the cloth is woven, the pattern, whether a 48 i» COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT figure, stripe, or plaid, may be woven into the cloth at the same time. The pattern may be of the same color as the background of the fabric, or it may be of various colors, each woven into its proper place. Ginghams are a good example of this method. The pattern may be printed or stamped on the cloth in one or in many colors. This method is used for reproducing the flowered patterns of dimities, percales, and challis. Sometimes material is found where both methods have been used on one piece. Other Effects A lengthwise cord effect may be produced by using a thick warp yarn at regular intervals. A crosswise fine rep may be produced by using a thick and heavy weft and a thin warp. A variety of patterns may be produced by using a yarn different from the yarn forming the main part of the cloth ; for example, by using a mercerized cotton or artificial silk with a regular cotton yarn. Striped and plaid materials are made from yam which has been dyed before it is woven. Thus dif- ferent colors of yarn may be placed side by side in the warp, and the weft may be all one plain color, in which case a stripe is formed. The weft may be of colors the same as the warp and put in in such a way as to form a plaid. COLOR AND DESIGN 49 The designer must know the fashions of the season to follow and make his designs accordingly. Some- times stripes may be the prevailing fashion and an- other season plaids; also fashion may demand small patterns or large patterns. *K Chapter VIII DYES A^D DYEING Origin Many of the dyes used in coloring textiles have been known and used for centuries. Long ago people realized that they could extract coloring matter from certain plants, small animals, or minerals, and use this coloring substance as a dye for their textile materials. These dyes are called natural dyes. However, dur- ing the last fifty or sixty years a wonderful discovery and development has been made in the so-called arti- ficial or coal tar dyes, which are chemical compounds. Natural Dyes As the name implies, the natural dyes are those which are obtained from nature either from animals, plants, or minerals. The natural dyes are the older and have been used from the most ancient times until the middle of the last century when the artificial dyes were discovered. A few of these natural dyes are still used to some 50 DYES AND DYEING SI extent but most of them have been replaced by arti- ficial dyes. The natural dyes may be classified as animal, vege- table, and mineral. Animal Dyes The animal dyes are prepared from insects, etc., such as : Cochineal, a bright red dye, which is obtained from the dried bodies of small insects. Lac, a scarlet or crimson dye, which is also ob- tained from the bodies of small insects. Tyrian purple, which was obtained from the body of a small shell fish in quantities of two or three drops. Vegetable Dyes The dyes made from vegetables include: Logwood, which is used principally for black silk. This is extracted from the wood of a West Indian and Central American tree. Indigo, which is obtained from the juice of a plant, coming originally from India. This juice is yellow when fresh but turns blue upon exposure to the light and air. Madder, which is used in the process of making ! 52 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Turkey red dye. It is obtained from the root of the plant. Fustic, which is a yellow dyestuff. This is ex- tracted from the wood of a tree. Cutch, which is a brown dye. This is obtained from the leaves, seeds, pods, and nuts of the acacia tree. Mineral Dyes There are a great many combinations of metallic salts for making colors, such as : Iron bufif, which is a solution of saUs of iron used in the present day in the dyeing of khaki cloth. Prussian blue, which has copperas and potassium ferro-cyanide as a basis, used as a substitute for the more expensive indigo. Chrome yellow, made of lead acetate and potas- sium bichromate. Artificial or Aniline Dyes Artificial dyes were discovered by an English chemist, W. H. Perkin, in 1856, and the discovery has completely revolutionized the art of dyeing. These dyes are known also as coal tar dyes because obtained indirectly from coal tar, a thick, oily, black product left from the manufacture of coal gas. For DYES AND DYEING S3 many years this substance was hard to get rid of, as there was no use for it. Now it is a valuable product and is used not only for dyeing, but for the production of medicines, perfumes, flavoring extracts, and so on. In the distillation of coal tar a great many different products are obtained; one of these is called aniline and it was while experimenting with aniline that the first dye was discovered. This was called mauve, and since then hundreds of colors have been obtained which are known as aniline dyes. Thus far Germany has led the world in the pro- duction of artificial dyes and the industry employs many chemists who are constantly discovering new colors. Direct Cotton Dyes (Substantive Dyes) It was not until 1884 that a dye was discovered which would dye cotton directly. This was known as Congo red. After this, many other colors ap- peared. The dye is dissolved in water and brought to a certain temperature. Common salt is usually put into the bath, the cotton is immersed for a short time, then taken out and rinsed, and then, in order that the color shall be fast, it may be necessary to put the material through other chemical solutions such as aluminum, copper, or chromium salts. " Diamond Dyes '* belong to this class. r } 54 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Sulphur Dyes These also dye cotton directly ; that is, without the use of a mordant and are especially good in the darker colors. With many sulphur colors, an after treatment with a metallic salt is necessary. They are fast to light, washing, and perspiration and therefore they are good for hosiery and knit goods in black and dark colors. Mordant Dyeing Until the discovery of the direct cotton dyes, all cotton materials had to be treated with a mordant before dyeing, because without such treatment the dye would not unite with the cotton fiber. A mordant or fixing bath is a chemical which unites with both the cotton fiber and the dye so that the color becomes fixed or fast in the material. Usually the cotton goods is first immersed in a mordant bath and dried, and then immersed in the dye. Sometimes the mordant can be put into the dye bath in which case only one process is necessary. The mordant process is preferred to other processes for some colors and some materials as the colors are more fast. Vat Dyes These dyes are especially fast to light and washing. DYES AND DYEING 55 They are so called because of a special preparation which is made in the dyeing vats before putting in the cloth. The coloring matter in certain dyes is insoluble in water, consequently, a chemical must be used which will form a new compound that is soluble in water. This new compound is either colorless or yellow. The cloth is put into the solution, worked up and down for the solution to penetrate, and is then washed and hung so that the air will reach every part of it. The color appears on the material as the compound on the fiber comes in contact with the oxygen of the air and is oxidized. Methods of Dyeing Raw Cotton. This is sometimes, but not often, dyed before it is spun. Yarn Dyeing, Striped and plaid materials, as ginghams, madras, etc., are made from yarn which has been dyed before it is woven. Piece Dyeing. The woven cloth may be dyed in the piece. Cloth which is all one color is usually piece-dyed. This is the cheapest method as it is done by machinery. It may be done by simply preparing the dye bath and when the proper temperature is reached the goods may be run into the bath where they are kept in constant motion by means of rollers, and then passed to the rinsing box. Most of the plain 1 1 ^ )i 56 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT cotton materials, as sateens, denims, muslins, velvet- eens, etc., are piece-dyed. The Dyeing Process The material is first washed to remove any oil and coloring matter that may be present. As cotton cloth is of a yellowish tinge it must be bleached if light colors are desired, but for dark colors this is not necessary. Before dyeing, the material must be thoroughly and evenly wet. In the dye vat it must be kept in constant motion that the dye may penetrate evenly. The longer it is allowed to stay in the dye the deeper will be the color. Upon removal from the dye vat, it is plunged into cold water to remove the loose dye, and it is then dried. Printing Designs or patterns which are not woven into the cloth are printed on the surface. Examples of printed cotton goods are : Calico Flannelette Challis Lawn Chintz Muslin Crepe Organdy Dimity Percale DYES AND DYEING 57 Cotton materials are usually printed in the piece, but in goods which have a rainbow effect, the yarn is printed at intervals with different colors before weav- ing. In the manufacture of cotton cloth one manufacturer often spins the yarn and makes the cloth, which in turn is sold as print cloth to another manufacturer, who finishes and prints it, whereupon it is bought by the jobbers and retailers. There are other manufac- turers who spin the yam, weave the cloth, finish it, print it, and sell it direct to the retailer. Block Printing Cloth was first printed by means of wooden blocks and this process is still used to some extent. These blocks are square pieces of wood of various sizes ac- cording to the pattern which is to be made on them. The pattern or design is traced on the wood and then the wood around the design is cut away leaving it standing out, like the letters on a rubber stamp. A pad is saturated with the required color. The wood block design is pressed against the pad until the color is taken up. The block is then placed on the cotton cloth, and a blow from a mallet impresses the pattern on the cloth. This process is repeated until the whole surface of the cloth has been covered. It is an expensive process A !■ I M 58 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT because of the time which is required in printing. Machine Printing The work of printing can be accomplished in much less time now by machines in such ways as ; 1. Direct printing 2. Discharge 3. Resist Direct Printing By this method the cloth is passed between polished copper rollers, 3% feet wide and 6 inches in diameter, on which the design or pattern is engraved over the entire surface. If different colors are required there is a roller for each color that is in the pattern. The cloth is first singed or gassed to remove the short fibers, and frequently it is bleached, especially if a white material is to be printed. The cloth then passes over a central roller or heated drum around which the engraved rollers are fastened. The cloth comes in contact with each roller in turn. Each roller has its own design and comes in contact with its own color, which is in a trough just below the roller, impressing it upon the cloth. A strip of steel called the doctor removes the color from all parts of the roller except the design. Sometimes a mordant is required to fix some part DYES AND DYEING 59 of the design. The dye may be mixed with a power- ful mordant but the colors are not so fast as when mordanted afterwards. Discharge Another method of printing is by discharge. In this method color is removed by a chemical from goods which has been already dyed in the piece, thus leaving a white pattern, which may be printed over again in another color if desired. Copper rollers with engraved designs are also used, but they come in contact with chemicals instead of dyes, removing the color as the cloth passes between them. Sometimes the chemical used in printing the pat- tern is too strong and weakens the cloth. For in- stance, polka dots in cheap goods have been known to drop out entirely before the cloth was worn out. Resist In this method a chemical is stamped on a plain white cloth and the cloth afterwards dyed. The dye has no effect on the pattern which has the chemical on it, while the rest of the cloth will be dyed. Thickened Dyes Practically the same dyes are used in printing as ( 6o COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT in dyeing, except that in printing the dye must be thickened as it is used in the form of a paste instead of a liquid. The materials used in thickening are starch, gum arable, gum tragacanth, and dextrin. Chapter IX COTTON FABRICS Classification Only the staple fabrics are mentioned in the list below. There are many fancy materials with trade names which appear each year but as these are con- stantly changing it seems best to consider only the fabrics which are always to be found on the shelves. Batiste This is named from the inventor, Jean Baptiste, a French linen weaver. Batiste was originally a linen fabric, fine and sheer, either plain or printed. It is now usually woven of a fine quality of cotton yam in different grades of material. It is used for dresses and fine underwear, and the coarser grades are used for linings. Calico The name comes from Calicut, India, where it was first printed. It is a coarse, cheap, cotton fabric printed with a design on one side only. As it is cheap, 6i I 62 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT the colors are often not fast and fade when laundered. It is used for wrappers, morning dresses, shirt waists, and aprons. Cambric This was first made in Cambrai, France, from which it receives its name. It was originally made of fine linen threads and was imitated in cotton by the Scotch people who called it cambric muslin. It is woven of fine cotton yams and carefully finished by bleaching and calendering. It is used for infants' dresses and underwear. One make is named Berkeley cambric. Canton Flannel This is so called from Canton, China, because it was first imported into England from China. It is also called cotton flannel. It is made of soft twisted yarns woven with a twill weave and has a nap raised on one side. It is finished as unbleached or bleached canton flannel and is dyed in plain colors. It may be used for winter undergarments white or unbleached. When dyed it may be used for interlinings or draperies. Challis This is an inexpensive cotton fabric of plain weave and printed pattern. It varies considerably in quality and price. A cheap, rather coarse grade is used for COTTON FABRICS 63 covers for comfortables, kimonos, etc., while the better qualities are used for dresses and dressing sacques. Chambray The name also comes from Cambrai, the French city, where the material was originally made of linen yarn. It is a plain gingham with a colored warp and white weft or filling, which gives a blended or softened effect. It is woven with a plain weave of finer yarns. In the finishing it is stiffened with starch and then calendered. It is used for dresses, aprons, shirtings, etc. Cheese-Cloth This was originally used for covering cheese. It is a cheap, thin fabric, either bleached or unbleached. It is used for cheap, fancy dresses when a draped effect is wanted; it dyes easily, drapes nicely for decora- tions, and is unsurpassed for cheapness and pleasing effect. Corduroy The name is derived from the French corde-du-roi, meaning a king's cord. The material was first made in France in the seventeenth century, for the king's huntsmen. At the present time it is made principally in England. Corduroy is a cotton fabric made by pile weaving. ii I 64 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT the pile being in the weft or filling. Sometimes only one weft, making both the pile and the foundation weave, is used. For the better grades two wefts are used. One is thrown up, forming loops for the pile, where the cords are to appear; the other is for the foundation weave only, and is used both for the cords and the furrows between. If the loops in the center of the cord are longer than those at the sides a rounded effect is given the cord. After weaving, the loops are cut on a special machine. The material is then sheared and singed for a smooth surface and dyed in the piece. The width is about 27 inches. Corduroy is used for women's skirts and suits and for boys' and men's suits and trousers when rough and hard wear is required. It is also used for up- holstery. Crepe or Crepon These are fine muslins with a crinkled effect, which is produced by an adaptation of the mercerization process. Some of the yarns used in weaving are coated with gum or gelatin while others are not. After weaving the cloth is treated with caustic soda which has no effect on the coated yarns but the un- protected ones, usually the weft, shrink, crinkling the cloth. It is used for dresses, fancy aprons, children's clothes, etc. COTTON FABRICS 65 Damask (Cotton) This is a cheap fabric woven to imitate linen damask. It is used in the same way as linen damask for table cloths, napkins, towels, etc. Denim Denim is a heavy material with a twill weave, dyed in plain colors or with stripes and checks. It is used for men's overalls, jumpers, and blouses. Art denim, a finer and better quality, is used for petticoats, furni- ture coverings, sofa cushions, draperies, and decora- tive purposes. Dimity Dimity is a fine cotton fabric characterized by small cords running lengthwise, forming stripes, checks, or plaids. It is used for waists, children's dresses, etc. Drilling (See "Linings," Chapter X.) Duck (Cotton) Duck is a stout, heavy material made in different weights, finished as bleached or unbleached and either dyed or printed. It has a plain weave but two threads of the warp are laid close together and treated as one in the weaving. The width is usually from 28 inches to 30 inches. : ; 66 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT It is used for women's suits, men's trousers, etc. The dark colored material is used for overalls and jumpers. In fancy stripes it is used for awnings and in lighter weight for women's skirts and suits. Flannelette This is a cotton fabric having a slight nap on one side. In the weaving, a soft, loose thread is used for the filling in order that the nap may be easily raised as the teeth of the napping rollers pass over it. The colors and patterns are printed on the material. It is used for wrappers, kimonos, etc. Galatea Galatea is a strong, firm, heavy fabric with a satin or a twill weave. It is dyed in plain colors or it may have printed patterns. It is used for middy blouses, skirts, children's dresses, etc. Gingham The name comes from Guingamp, France, where it was first manufactured. The material was originally brought to Europe from India. It is a fabric with a plain weave made in stripes, plaids, or checks of two or more colors. The yarn is dyed before weaving. A wide range of materials is sold under this head from the checked apron ginghams made of coarse yams, to the better goods made of fine yarns in most artistic COTTON FABRICS 67 colorings and designs. It is used for dresses for women and children and in the coarser grades for aprons. Huckaback (Cotton) The word huckaback comes from huckster and back. The huckster or pedler is a man who carries his wares on his back. It is a coarse material made of soft twisted cotton yams. It is finished to look like linen huckaback and closely resembles the coarsest weave of the linen material. In width it ranges from 18 to 27 inches. It is used for coarse toweling. India Linen This is a fine, bleached cotton lawn having consider- able dressing in the finish. The width is from 30 to 36 inches. It sometimes comes in colors. It is used for summer dresses, and for infants' and children's wear. Indian Head This name is given to a cheap, heavy, white fabric which wears well, looks well, and launders well. It is used for skirts and dresses. Jaconet This is a thin, soft variety of muslin somewhat heavier than cambric. It is a full-bleached cotton 68 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT with a plain weave. It is made with both a hard and a soft finish. The hard finish is obtained by first mangling and then sizing with pure corn-starch after which the fabric is glossed by passing it twice through the calendering machine. The soft finish is produced similarly except that less starch is used and the goods are calendered only once. This material is used for summer dresses, for infants' and children's wear, etc. Khaki The name comes from the Hindoo word meaning dust or clay colored. It is a variety of cotton drilling dyed clay-color or a yellowish-brown. It is a strong material made from long staple cotton and woven with double and twist twill. It is finished by a secret pro- cess which renders it water-proof. It shrinks little in laundering and requires no starch. The process was invented by an Englishman named Lehman. It was first used in India by the English regiments in 1875 and in this country during the Spanish-American War in 1898. It is manufactured in England and also in the United States and is now used by both the United States Army and Navy. The government re- quires that the best American cotton be used, that the material shall have no singeing but shall be soft, smooth, and water-proof and that the weave be a twill COTTON FABRICS 69 with not less than 32 twills to the inch. It is used also for skirts and suits. Lawn The name comes from the town of Laon, France. One authority contends that it received its name from the cloth's being put on the lawn to dry instead of the coarse grass. It is a thin, sheer cotton fabric in plain weave, lace stripes, or open work effects. It may be printed in floral patterns, stripes or plaids, or it may be dyed in plain colors in which form it is often used as a lining under thin white materials. It is used for dresses, aprons, and underwear. The varieties of lawn include: Persian, linen, Victoria, and printed lawn. Linon This is a fine, plain-woven firm fabric made of cot- ton yarns but treated so as to resemble linen. It is a good wearing material. Long Cloth The name is supposed to come from the fact that originally only long, staple cotton was used. It is a fine, soft, bleached material usually made of a good grade of cotton fiber. It is woven 36 inches wide and usually comes in 12-yard pieces. It is used almost entirely for undergarments for women and children. m 4 70 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Madras The name comes from Madras, India, where it was first made. Madras gingham is a white, cotton fabric ornamented by stripes, both white and colored. The colored stripes are usually printed on the material. It is used for women's waists and men's shirtings. Marquisette This is a fine, sheer fabric made with a plain weave and an open mesh. It is used for dresses. Mull The name is from the Hindoo mal which means soft.^ It is^ a soft, thin, sheer, and semitransparent fabric. It is sometimes dyed in light colors, but it is usually full-bleached. It is used for millinery, as it shirs nicely on account of its softness. Swiss mull is the same material, finished with a stiffening. Mosquito Netting This is a coarse, thin, transparent material. It is commonly woven with a single threaded warp, and a weft of two loosely twisted strands of thread. It is dyed in all colors and comes in bundles of 12 pieces which together amount to icx) yards. It is used for screens, for canopies for beds, children's carriages, cribs, etc., as a protection from flies, and mosquitoes. , COTTON FABRICS 71 Tarletan is the same kind of material with finer meshes. Muslin The name comes from Mosul, a city in Asia, which produces muslins of greatest beauty. It is a general term for plain-woven cotton cloth. It may be coarse or fine, bleached, imbleached, or half -bleached. It is used for underwear, sheeting, etc. Nainsook The term is derived from the Hindoo nainsukh. It is a thin, fine, white cotton material of plain weave. It is used principally for undergarments and infants' wear. Organdy Organdy is a thin, semitransparent material known by its stiffness or crispness and bright, clear finish. The material must be very carefully laundered. It is a plain weave material, although sometimes stripes or checks may be woven in. It is also printed with de- licate designs and sometimes dyed in plain light colors. It is used for dresses and is especially attractive over colored slips for evening or for bridesmaid dresses. Osnaburg The name was first applied to a coarse material H yuyl ., 72 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT made in Osnaburg, Hanover. The name as now used applies to a coarse cotton sheeting in imitation of linen. The goods were originally made in plain colors only, then stripes, plaids, and checks were introduced. Most of these sheetings are woven in the southern mills. No finishing processes are required after weav- ing except calendering, although some of the finer grades have a slight dressing. The sheetings are folded in yard lengths, then doubled over in three folds and secured by strings at the edges like muslin and other domestics. They are packed in burlaps and hooped with iron. The higher grades, woven of finer yams and slightly dressed, are rolled on boards and ornamented with paper bands. These are packed in cases instead of bales. Outing Flannel This is a cotton fabric having a nap on both sides. It is woven with a soft loose thread and the nap is raised by passing the cloth between cylinders covered with card clothing. It is used for nightgowns, petti- coats, infants' wear, etc. Percale This is a firmly woven fabric containing consider- able dressing but not much gloss. It is made in dif- ferent qualities, some of the cheaper qualities being COTTON FABRICS 73 practically the same as calico. It is usually known by its printed figures and printed stripes and plaids, but it also is sold in plain white or colors. It is from 28 to 36 inches in width. It is used for dresses, shirt waists, wrappers, aprons, children's dresses, and men's and boys' shirts. Pique Pique is a heavy corded or figured cotton fabric, the cords usually extending across the cloth from selvage to selvage. It comes only in white. A lighter weight quality with lighter cords is sometimes figured or printed. It is used for skirts, dresses, children's coats, collars and cuffs, vests, etc. Poplin This is a fabric having a fine cord across the cloth, the cord being produced by a fine warp thread and a soft, heavier filling thread. It is used for dresses, waists, and skirts. Ratine This is a fabric woven with small tufts on the sur- face with spaces between or with loops, as in terry weaving (see "Terry Cloth," below). It is used for dresses and skirts. Shirting Shirting is a general term for fabrics which are liiiuil h 74 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT especially suitable for shirts. It may be plain bleached muslin which comes 36 inches wide, but more often it is a strong cotton material with printed or woven patterns in stripes. Swiss The term comes from Switzerland where Swiss was first woven. It is a thin, pure white, semitrans- parent muslin having considerable dressing in the finish. It is woven plain or with dots or patterns at regular intervals. It is used for dresses, aprons, etc. Tarlatan This is a thin, transparent muslin finished with considerable dressing. It is rather coarse in quality, with a plain weave. It comes 54 inches wide in white and cream color and is also piece-dyed. It is used for children's dresses, window screens, and fancy work. Terry Cloth This is a coarse, rough cotton fabric which has a looped pile surface made with two sets of warp threads, one called the ground warp and the other the pile or terry warp, which is used to form the loops. These warp threads are wound on separate beams. The ground warp is kept at a regular tension all the time, while the pile warp is arranged so that it can be made slack to form the loops. After leaving the loom there COTTON FABRICS 75 is practically no finishing process for the cloth. This process was invented by Samuel Holt of England in 1848. In 1864 he left London and began the manu- facture of the cloth in Paterson, New Jersey. It is used for bath towels, bath robes, and wash cloths. Ticking Ticking is a strong material with a twill weave having lengthwise colored stripes of blue, red, brown, etc. The width ranges from 2y to 60 inches. The standard width of bed ticking is 36 inches. The cheap grades are used mostly for bed ticking, mattresses, and pillows. The better grades are made of fine yams woven with a satin twill. Harmonious colors and the satin luster of the surface make a ma- terial suitable for many purposes besides mattresses and pillows, such as fancy work, fancy aprons, bags, shirts. Tucking Tucking is fine, white cotton goods of lawn, muslin, or cambric, with rows of tucks stitched across, either close together over the entire surface or in clusters. It is used for skirts, underwear, waists, yokes, trim- ming, etc. Velveteen The name comes from the Italian velluto di cotone. I 76 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT It IS a cotton fabric made in imitation of velvet. It is usually heavier and wider than velvet. Velveteen was first manufactured in England about the last of the sixteenth century and has never been made to any extent in the United States. It is manufactured prin- cipally in Manchester, England, and in Crefeld, Bar- men, and Elberfeld, Germany. Velveteen is woven by means of one warp thread and two weft or filling threads, whereas velvet is woven by means of two warp threads and one filling thread. In the weaving of velveteen one weft thread is used in forming the pile which is made with a float or satin weave, while the other weft thread forms with the warp either a plain or a twill weave and binds the pile weft in tightly so that when this pile thread is cut later it may be brushed, dressed, and sheared to give the appearance of velvet. It is dyed after this. It is used for dresses, suits, and hats. Voile This is a semitransparent fabric made with a plain, somewhat open weave. It may be plain, striped, or figured. Ill Chapter X THE LINING COUNTER Attractiveness of Linings In passing the lining counter one is attracted by the display, which rivals the Silk Department in its pro- fusion of printed silk design. The mercer ization of cotton has made possible the marketing of these silk-like materials which indeed wear better than ordinary lining silk. Owing to the high cost of silk only an inferior grade is used for linings, so that the finer mercerized linings which look and feel like silk have to a great extent replaced the genuine article. Varieties of Linings Linings for men's garments are serge, silesia, farmer's satin, light-weight silks, and satins. Linings for women's garments are cambric, drilling, percaline, silesia, sateen, silk, and various mercerized materials. Buckram Buckram is named from Bokhara, Tartary, where 77 i 78 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT it was first made. It is a coarse, very stiff material usually linen but sometimes cotton, heavily sized with glue or gum. It is used as a stiffening to keep certain parts of a garment in shape. Cambric Cambric is a cheap, thin, cotton material, both dull and glaze finished. The latter, called paper cambric, is often sold from rolls. Cambric is dyed in plain colors. It was formerly used for lining skirts. It may be used as a lining for any heavier material where the lining does not show. Canvas Canvas is named from the Latin cannabis, meaning literally " a hempen cloth." It is a heavy, thick, un- bleached cloth of plain weave and may be either linen or cotton. When used for linings it is stiffened with gum. It is used as a stiffening for coats, collars, etc., the poorer grades being utilized for package coverings, ship sails, mail bags, etc. Crinoline This is a coarse, cotton material, made stiff by a heavy sizing. It was originally made of horse hair and linen and was then used for stiffening skirts to make them stand out. Its present use is for inter- THE LINING COUNTER 79 linings of collars, cuffs, etc., where only a little stiff- ness is needed. Drilling Drilling is a stout cotton material with a twill weave. It ma> be bleached, unbleached, or dyed in plain colors. It is used for dress linings, and for pockets and linings in men's clothing. Farmer's Satin Farmer's satin is also called Italian cloth. It is made of cotton or more often of cotton warp and wool filling. It is woven with a satin weave and finished with a luster to resemble satin. It is dyed in plain colors and in black. It is used chiefly as a lining material for men's coats and vests, and to some extent for women's petticoats. Interlining This is a layer of material placed between the out- side cloth and the lining proper, to give added warmth to the garment, or as a stiffening to preserve the shape. For warmth, cotton flannel is sometimes used for wadding. For stiffening, crinoline, buckram, canvas, wigan, or haircloth may be used. Percaline This is a lining material of fine, light weight. It 8o COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT ■I is dyed in plain and fancy colors and finished with a gloss and watered effect. It is 36 inches wide and double folded; that is, folded in the middle with the edges together. It is used as a lining for waists and dresses. Quilted Lining Quilted lining is a heavy lining, composed of a layer of cotton wadding between two pieces of thin material, the three being held together by quilting stitches. Silk and satin are used for the outer material in the better grades, sateen in the cheaper grades. It is used as a lining for winter wraps and coats. Sateen This is a fine cotton fabric known by its glossy satin- like finish and softness. It has a close twill weave and is bleached white, dyed in plain colors, or printed with figures. It comes in various widths and qualities. Its principal use is for linings, but when printed with figures to resemble silk it is used for dresses. Silesia The name comes from Silesia, a province of Prussia, where it was first made. It is a thin, closely woven cotton fabric with a twill weave, finished with a glazed surface in black, white, and plain colors. It is used for linings. THE LINING COUNTER 81 Wadding Wadding is a thin sheet of carded wool or cotton. The term has been in common use since the seventeenth century. Cotton wadding is a sheet of raw cotton similar to batting, only much thinner, with glazed outer surfaces. Usually it is 32 x 36 inches and comes in white and various colors, slate, blue, green, yellow, etc. It is used for interlinings of all kinds, for stuff- ing out to give a rounded effect, and for quilting into linings. Wigan Wigan is named after the town of Wigan in Eng- land. It is a very stiff and open cotton material usually dyed in dull shades of drab, gray, and black. It is 32 inches wide. A few years ago it was used extensively for stiffening the bottoms of dresses. . Hi Chapter XI HISTORY AND CENTERS OF COTTON INDUSTRY History of Cotton It cannot be definitely stated when cotton was first used for clothing. Cotton was known and used in Egypt 2,000 years ago. It was grown in India and manufactured into cloth at a very early date. The first record we have of it is about 800 b. c. but it was then already a well-developed industry. The Greeks and Romans used cotton, but only for garments of luxury. It is said that cotton was first cultivated in China as a garden plant and it was not until the thirteenth century that cloth was manufactured there. India continued to manufacture the best cotton ma- terial, the fineness and texture of which no other country could approach, and it held this place until the invention of machinery in England in the last part of the eighteenth century. Cotton in America Columbus, when he discovered America in 1492, 82 CENTERS OF COTTON INDUSTRY 83 found that the inhabitants were using cotton, and Cortez, the Spanish conqueror of Mexico in 15 19, found that the Mexicans knew how to weave the finest fabrics of cotton. Cotton was first cultivated in America by some Virginia colonists. Centers of the Cotton Industry Manchester, in Lancashire County, England, is the chief cotton spinning and weaving center of the world. Preston, Oldham, Bolton, and other towns in Lan- cashire and Cheshire are other centers of the industry. Glasgow, in Scotland, and Yorkshire, England, are large producers of colored cotton. France manufactures the finest cotton goods. In the New England States, New Bedford, Mass., is the center for fine goods. Fall River, Mass., is the largest cotton manufacturing city in the United States. Rhode Island, as well as Massachusetts, has extensive cotton manufactories. Charlotte, North Carolina, is the center of the cotton industry of the South. Cotton is also manufactured extensively in South Carolina, Georgia, ajnd Alabama. The list of cotton manufacturers given in the Ap- pendix shows the large number of factories in these localities. Factories must be located where there is a moist atmosphere and a good water supply. Chapter XII CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK OF COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENTS A — Domestics (Non-Imported Goods) 1. Materials Calico Cambric Canton Flannel Cheese-Cloth Denim Galatea Gingham Lawn Longcloth Muslin Nainsook Percale Sateen Sheeting Pillow-Case Tubing 2. Weaves Plain Twilled Satin Pile 3. Colors White CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 85 Plain Colors Stripes Plaids and Checks Figures (Printed) B — White Goods (Imported and Domestic Manu- facture) I. Materials Batiste Corduroy Crepe Dimity Flaxon Gaberdine India Linen Lawn Madras Marquisette MuU Organdy Persian Lawn Pique Poplin Swiss Voile Novelties C — Dress Goods (Imported and Domestic Manu- facture) I. Materials Cheviot Chiffon Corduroy Crepe Crepe de Chine Dimity t ■ 86 D — COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT Gingham Japanese Crepe Khaki Lawn Marquisette Mull Organdy Pique Poplin Swiss Voile Novelties 2. Weaves Plain Twill Jacquard Fancy 3. Colors Plain Woven (Plaids, Checks, Stripes) Mixed Figured (Woven, Printed) Linings (Domestic Manufacture) I. Materials Buckram Cambric Canvas Cotton Wadding Crinoline Drilling Heatherbloom Interlinings Lawn (Colored) Moreen CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK Near-Silk Novelty Linings (Imitations of Silk) Percaline Quilted Linings Sateen Silesia 2. Weaves Plain Satin Twilled Damask 3. Colors White Plain Stripes Mixed Figured (Woven, Printed) E — Flannels (Cotton) 1. Kinds Canton Flannel Eiderdown Flannelette Mixtures (a) Viyella (Cotton and Wool) (b) Scotch (Largely Cotton) Outing Flannel 2. Weaves Plain Twill 3. Knitted 4. Colors Plain Printed (Stripes, Checks, Figures) 87 1 1^ ) • d 88 COTTON GOODS DEPARTMENT F — Blankets and Comfortables (Domestic and Im- ported Manufacture) 1. Blankets Wool Cotton Wool and Cotton Imported Novelties Summer (All Wool, All Cotton, Cotton and Wool) Honeycomb Indian 2. Comfortables Silkaline Cover, Cotton Filling Silk Mull Cover, Cotton FilUng Jap Silk Cover, Wool Filling Satin Cover, Wool Filling Satin Cover, Down Filling 3. Mattress Protectors 4. Bed Spreads Plain (Hemmed, Fringed, Scalloped) Fancy Weaves Embroidered Printed Part II— The Linen Departments Chapter XIII INTRODUCTORY Linen Display What woman is not attracted to the Linen Depart- ment, which is so typical of the comforts, pleasures, and intimacies of the home and its duties? In the modem department store, beautiful table- cloths are displayed on tables, just as they will appear in the home. Doilies of endless variety, delicate crea- tions of crochet and lace, dresser scarfs, sideboard covers, tray cloths, handkerchiefs, and all the innu- merable varieties of useful and dainty articles of which linen is made, fascinate customers and salespeople alike. Towels, with their variegated colors and designs, add a touch of color to the display. Bath towels, large and small, initialed, crocheted, or simply hemmed, are shown, together with wash cloths to match. There are hand towels in damask or hucka- 89 90 LINEN DEPARTMENT back, smaller guest towels, and coarse towels for kitchen and pantry use. At another counter linen materials for diflferent purposes are sold by the yard, many housewives pre- ferring to buy toweling, etc., in this way and do the finishing themselves. At other counters may be found the sheets and pil- low cases which are more often of cotton than of linen, and at other counters the counterpanes and bed spreads, mostly of cotton. Divisions of the Department In the large department stores the Linen Department is often divided in the following way : 1. Linen Yard Goods 2. Toilet Linen 3. Bed Linen 4. Table Linen 5. Fancy Linens Chapter XIV SOURCES AND PREPARATION OF LINEN FOR MANUFACTURE Sources With the exception of some of the crash towelings which are made in this country, the linen goods found in the Linen Department come principally from Ireland, Belgium, Holland, France, Germany, Russia, and the Madeira Islands. Russia raises the greatest amount of flax from which linen is made, but Belgium raises the best quality. In Ireland and Holland where the linen industry has been established for many genera- tions the people have become expert in its manufac- ture. The war has seriously affected the industry and the price will probably be high for several years to come. Much money has been spent from time to time in an effort to manufacture linen goods in this country, but failure has always resulted, for two reasons. One is that much hand labor is required which in this country is expensive. Another reason is that the climate in the United States is not so well suited to the growth 91 hf 92 LINEN DEPARTMENT and development of flax, as a very moist atmosphere is needed. Characteristics of Linens from Various Sources Irish linen is white, reliable, and enduring. Old patterns are still used. Some are hand-woven, an honest method, but not always showy. Irish linen includes the table linens, cambrics, lawns, and batistes. Belfast is the center of the Irish linen industry, closely rivaled by Limerick, Dublin, and Dimfermline. Scotch linen is silver-white, grass bleached, and lighter in weight than the Irish. The designs are more showy, and the prices are moderate. Canvas and tarpaulins are also made in Scotland. Dundee and Aberdeen are the manufacturing centers. French linen is of exquisite design and especially attractive. The thread is fine and round. Besides table linen the French make expensive dress goods and embroidered linens. Belgian linen contains the finest fiber in the world. It has more dressing than Irish linen and is made into table linens, twilled fabrics, diapers, and drillings. Ghent is the main flax-growing district. German linen is silver-white and of high g^ade. Dresden produces exquisite designs in table linen, and in printed and dyed linen, such as lunch cloths and napkins. PREPARATION FOR MANUFACTURE 93 Austrian linen is like the German. Russian linen cracks, perhaps from the method of bleaching. English linens are the heavier qualities, used for toweling, aprons, etc. Yorkshire, Leeds, and Barns- ley are important centers of production. Properties of Linen Regardless of the country from which the flax may come, linen has many distinctive characteristics which differentiate it from all other fibers. The most im- portant are the following : Absorption. Linen absorbs water quickly. Evaporation. Water evaporates quickly from linen, making it good for toweling, handkerchiefs, and wash cloths. . Cleanliness, It does not soil quickly. Laundering increases its brilliancy and freshness. Strength. It is the strongest of the vegetable fibers. Therefore it wears well. Unbleached linen is stronger than bleached of the same weight. It is heavier than cotton. Smoothness, It is smooth and soft. Fineness, It may be spun to a most delicate thread, as in fine lace. Luster. Linen has a luster almost as fine as that of silk. This is seen in tablecloths. 94 LINEN DEPARTMENT Dyes, Linen is difficult to dye, and the colors often fade. The Flax Plant Flax is a bast fiber, that is, a fiber taken from the stalk of the plant. It is found just under the outer bark. A damp and mild climate is best, not only for the growth of the plant, but also for the manufactur- ing and bleaching of the linen cloth. Flax is also grown for its seed, from which linseed oil is made. Harvesting The seeds are sown in the spring. If for fiber pro- duction, they are sown close together to avoid branch- ing; if for seed, farther apart. The harvesting time for fiber is the latter part of July and in August before the seeds have ripened. The plant grows to a height of about three feet and when the stalk is yellow for about three-fourths of its length the plant is pulled up by hand with its roots, which not only allows a greater length of stalk but prevents the sap from running out. If the stalks are cut a part of the sap is lost and the fiber is not so good. The plant cannot be used equally well for both seed and fiber because the stalk is too woody after the plant goes to seed; but the woody fiber may be used for twine and rope or woven into coarse material such as dish toweling. PREPARATION FOR MANUFACTURE 95 After the plant is pulled the dirt is shaken off the roots and the stalks are tied in bundles. Flax cannot be raised on the same ground during successive years. Plantings should be four or five years apart in order that the soil may fully recover its fertility. Processes for Removing the Fiber There are five processes for removing the fiber from the stalk, as follows : Rippling Retting Drying Breaking Scutching Rippling or Threshing Rippling is a process of removing the seeds and leaves from the dried stalk and is done either by hand or by machine. There is great danger of injury to the fiber if this is not done carefully. If it is done by hand, the flax stalks are drawn through a sort of comb with iron teeth which pulls off the seeds and leaves. If it is done by machine, the seed heads are removed by being crushed between rollers and the flax straw which is left is then tied into bundles. 96 LINEN DEPARTMENT Retting (or Rotting) This process decomposes the gum which holds the woody portion of the plant together. When this gum is dissolved the soft inner fiber of the flax can be easily removed from the woody covering. There are three methods of retting: Dew retting Cold water retting Chemical retting Dew Retting, This method is used in Russia prin- cipally and the flax is usually of a dark color. The flax straw is spread on the grass from 2 to 8 weeks and exposed to the dew, rain, or snow which removes the gummy substance. Cold Water Retting. There are two methods of cold water retting: 1. Stagnant water. In Ireland bundles of the flax straw are placed in pools of stagnant water and left for about lo days, during which time the gum decom- poses through fermentation. This method also dark- ens the flax. 2. Running water. In Belgium the water of the river Lys is especially good for retting. The bundles of flax are placed in the water or in crates which are kept under water by weights. The process requires from 6 to 15 days and care must be taken to remove it PREPARATION FOR MANUFACTURE 97 from the water at just the right time or the fiber will be weakened. The flax comes out a good cream color. Chemical Retting. Several processes have been in- vented for the retting of flax with chemicals, but none of them have yet been very successful as they weaken the fiber and injure its color. The advantage of chemical retting would be the saving of time. Drying After retting, the flax is taken out of the water and spread on the grass to dry. Breaking This process consists of beating the flax by hand or passing it through machines with grooved or fluted rol- lers which break up the woody outside substance. Scutching The flax stalks are put through a machine with re- volving blades of wood which beat and break the outer portion still more. This process also cleans the fibers from the wood or bark. The flax is then tied up and baled ready for market or for the spinning mills. Chapter XV PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE Spinning Processes — Line Spinning When the bales of flax reach the spinning mills they must be opened and' put through the following clean- ing and spinning processes : Roughing Hackling Sorting Spreading Drawing Spinning Roughing A handful of flax is passed rapidly over a sort of comb with sharp steel points, which remove the re- maining straw, dirt, and some loose fiber. It is done by hand. (See Figure 9.) Hackling This is a machine process of combing the fiber still finer. Often it is passed through several of these 98 Courtesy of York Street Flax Spinning Company Figure 9. Roughing Flax Courtesy of York Street Flax Spinning Company Figure 10. The Spread Board INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE Chapter XV PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE Spinning Processes — Line Spinning When the bales of liax reach the spinning mills they must be opened and* put through the following clean- ing and spinning processes : Roughing Hackling Sorting Spreading Drawing Spinning Roughing A handful of flax is passed rapidly over a sort of comb with sharp steel points, which remove the re- maining straw, dirt, and some loose fiber. It is done by hand. (See Figure 9.) Hackling This is a machine process of combing the fiber still finer. Often it is passed through several of these 98 Courtesy of York Street Flax Spinning Company Figure 9. Roughing Flax f Courtesy of York Street Flax Spinning Company Figure 10. The Spread Board II ^ fi PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE 99 machines, each one combing it finer than the last. The short fibers which are broken off or combed out arc the tow which is made into the coarser materials; the long fibers, called line, make the finer linens. Sorting Fibers of the same length and quality are then put together. Spreading The machine for this process is called the spread board. The long fiber is laid in bunches on traveling bands, one bunch overlapping the other. It then passes through sets of rollers which draw out the fibers into one continuous length and produces what is called a ribbon or sliver. (See Figure lo.) Drawing and Roving In this process several slivers are put together, drawn out as one, and twisted slightly. Spinning This is the final process which converts the loose twisted fibers into fine twisted yarns. There are three ways of spinning: 1. Wet spinning is the process by which the yam passes through hot water before being twisted. It yields the finest yams. 2. Damp spinning is the process by which the yam lOO LINEN DEPARTMENT comes in contact with a wheel damp with water. By this process the yam is not quite so fine as in wet spinning. When the old-fashioned spinning wheels were in use a cup of water was often fastened to the frame or placed near at hand so that the flax might be moistened as it was drawn out. 3. Dry spinning is the process by which the fibers are spun without any moisture. Even then it is better to have a moist atmosphere. The coarsest and cheap- est yarns are made by this process. After being spun, the yarn is made into skeins or hanks and shipped all over the world to be made into cloth or thread. Weaving Process Some yams are boiled and some are bleached be- fore weaving. Yarns intended for fine white linens, pillow-cases, sheetings, and damasks are boiled in order to make the cloth firmer and tighter. Yarns intended for glass towels, huckaback towels, etc., are bleached. Warping and threading preparatory to weaving are the same as for cotton, except that the yarn is given a dressing or sizing to strengthen it for the weaving process. Weaving linen or making cloth from the spun y2Lm is more difficult than weaving cotton because the linen PROCESS OF IMANUFACTURE lOI fiber is not so elastic as cotton and is more apt to break. Principal Weaves The principal linen weaves are : Plain weave for sheetings, dresses, embroidery linens, etc. Twill weave for drilling. Damask, or satin weave (Jacquard loom) for damask table linen. Weaving Machines The machinery required for preparing and spinning fine linen is very expensive, a flax spinning mill cost- ing about four times as much as a cotton mill. Al- though the machinery is not very different from that for cotton the brittleness of the flax fiber necessitates expensive additions to stop the machine automatically when a thread is broken. Machinery for manufacturing linen did not come into use for a number of years after the invention of cotton machines, until these difficulties could be over- come. Finishing Processes All fabrics after leaving the loom are put through certain finishing processes. Probably linen requires I02 LINEN DEPARTMENT as little finishing as any fiber. The finishing processes which bring out the beauty of the linen are : Bleaching Beetling Calendering or Pressing These processes repeated several times bring out the gloss. Dressings are sometimes used for the cheaper linens made from tow, but a good linen requires little dressing. Bleaching If the yam was unbleached the cloth may be bleached after weaving. There are two kinds of bleaching: grass and chemical. Grass Bleaching, By this method the linen, brown or yellow in color, after being put through various processes of washing, boiling in lime and also soap baths, is laid on the grass to whiten. This bleaching takes from six to eight weeks. During this time the linen is often taken up, put through the different processes of washing, and returned to the grass. The place where the linen is bleached must be away from smoke and dust and near good, pure water. Much of the Irish linen is grass bleached, especially the finest qualities. The linen bleached in this way is soft and white and has better wearing qualities. (See Figure INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE I02 LINEN DEPARTMENT as little finishing as any fiber. The finishing processes which bring out the beauty of the linen are : Bleaching Beetling Calendering or Pressing These processes repeated several times bring out the gloss. Dressings are sometimes used for the cheaper linens made from tow, but a good linen requires little dressing. Bleaching If the yarn was unbleached the cloth may be bleached after weaving. There are two kinds of bleaching: grass and chemical. Grass Bleaching, By this method the linen, brown or yellow in color, after being put through various processes of washing, boiling in lime and also soap baths, is laid on the grass to whiten. This bleaching takes from six to eight weeks. During this time the linen is often taken up, put through the different processes of washing, and returned to the grass. The place where the linen is bleached must be away from smoke and dust and near good, pure water. Much of the Irish linen is grass bleached, especially the finest qualities. The linen bleached in this way is soft and white and has better wearing qualities. (See Figure II.) \ PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE 103 Chemical Bleaching, Most of the linens are now bleached by chemicals, because of the resultant saving in time and labor, although the chemicals are very apt to injure the fiber, rendering the material less durable. Grades of Bleaching Four grades of bleaching are found in the stores: Full bleach Three-quarter bleach Half or silver bleach Quarter bleach Full bleached linen is not so strong as other linen on account of the chemicals used in the process. Unbleached linen is the strongest and bleaches in the using. Beetling Beetling is a process which gives a soft finish and luster to the material. The dampened cloth is passed slowly through a machine which consists of a pair of wooden rollers to which are fastened heavy wooden hammers. These beat the cloth mechanically, making it soft and smooth, adding luster, and giving to the threads a uniform thickness. Beetling is sometimes done by hand. Calendering Calendering is a process which gives the cloth a I04 m\ m\- Hi "^T* LINEN DEPARTMENT smooth surface and an extra glaze. This is done by passing the cloth through a machine with heavy iron rollers. Any amount of pressure may be applied. Sometimes these iron rollers are hollow so that steam may be admitted for hot calendering. The cloth is then folded, given a heavy pressure in a hydraulic press, marked, and packed ready for shipment. Chapter XVI OTHER VEGETABLE FIBERS Varieties Some of the cheaper merchandise of the cotton and linen departments is made entirely or in part of vege- table fibers other than cotton and linen. The com- monest of these are : Ramie and China grass Jute Hemp Ramie and China Grass Ramie and China grass although similar in kind are really two distinct fibers, but being so much alike they are generally considered under the name of ramie. Ramie or ramie linen as it is often called, has very much the appearance of linen but with a higher luster. It may be used for the same purposes as linen, such as dress goods, underwear, tablecloths, toweling, up- holstery, linings, and in the manufacture of hosiery and knit goods. It is also used with silk in the manu- facture of union silk goods. It is exceptionally white in color being almost as white as bleached cotton. 105 io6 LINEN DEPARTMENT OTHER VEGETABLE FIBERS 107 m\ I ifi. The fiber is grown principally in China and India and has been grown in America. The plant from which the fiber is obtained is a hardy shrub growing from four to six feet in height. Preparation of Ramie The chief diflSculty in its use is the difficulty of separating the fiber from the rest of the plant. In China and India this is done by hand and the fiber is used for the weaving of very fine and beautiful fabrics. The ramie fiber cannot be removed from the woody substance by simple retting as in flax and jute, but it must undergo severe mechanical treatment to remove the outer bark. The fiber thus obtained is held to- gether by a large quantity of gum and this gum must be removed by a chemical agent before the fibers can be combed out. Ramie is good for some purposes but it is not so elastic as wool or silk or so flexible as cotton. Con- sequently, it makes a harsher fabric. As it is difficult to spin to fine counts, the materials made from it are usually of a coarse weave. Jute Jute is a vegetable fiber growing principally in India. Although it is used chiefly for making coarse woven fabrics such as bagging and burlap, in the manufacture of twine and small sizes of rope, as a binding thread in the weaving of carpets and rugs, it is also used with wool to make novelty dress goods. Like flax it is a fiber obtained from the stalk of the plant which grows to a height of from ten to twelve feet. The fibrous layer is very thick, so that the yield is from two to five times as much as flax. Preparation of Jute The preparation of the jute fiber is a more simple operation than the flax although something like it. The leaves and seed vessels are stripped from the stalks which are then retted in a sluggish stream of water. After the retting or rotting the stalks are pressed and scutched; that is, the outer substance is broken off and the inner jute or bast fiber set free. This fiber then has very little of the woody substance adhering to it. As jute is more sensitive to the action of chemicals than either cotton or linen, it cannot be bleached very successfully for the action of the bleaching powder weakens the fiber. The jute fiber is weak compared with other fibers of its kind but the fibers are fine and silk-like and lend themselves readily to spinning. Consequently it is used a great deal where durability is not required, as in the cheap pile fabrics used in upholstery. Jute is the cheapest of all the fibers used in textile ^ io8 LINEN DEPARTMENT manufacturing in America, and it is used in great quantities, although it lacks durability especially when bleached. The color is usually pale yellowish-brown and some of the best qualities are yellowish-white or silver-gray. Hemp Hemp is used in the manufacture of homespuns and linen crash, the coarse fibers for sailcloth and canvas, twine, cordage, ropes, and fishing lines. It is also used for the warp in making carpets and rugs. There are many varieties of hemp, but the so-called common hemp grows as a shrub from six to fifteen feet in height, and is found in many countries. Several varieties are grown in America ; a large quan- tity is grown in Russia and Poland ; France and Italy produce a high grade hemp; Japanese hemp is also of good quality and seems to have been the first textile fiber used in Japan. Preparation of Hemp The hemp fiber is obtained from the plant by a process of retting similar to flax. Dew retting is the method used chiefly, the stalks being spread out on the grass until the action of the elements causes the wood and gum to decompose. The fiber is gray and some- what harsh. It is a very strong fiber and is not rotted by water. In this respect it differs from jute. It is OTHER VEGETABLE FIBERS 109 seldom used for woven textiles as it is harsh and stiff and not sufficiently pliable and elastic. It also pos- sesses a rather dark brown color and cannot be suc- cessfully bleached without serious injury to the quality of the fiber. Manila hemp is a variety obtained from the Philip- pine Islands. It is a strong fiber, the coarser ones be- ing used in the manufacture of cordage, while the finer fibers are carefully prepared and used for a high-grade muslin. i|ii ADULTERATIONS OF LINEN III Chapter XVII ADULTERATIONS AND TESTS FOR LINEN Adulterants The adulterations used for linen are of two kinds: 1. Cotton Plain Mercerized 2. Sizing^ Starch Glue Gum Adulteration with Cotton Cotton is the cheapest and most common adultera- tion or substitute for linen. In the processes of weav- ing and finishing, cotton has been made to imitate all of the other fibers and especially linen; so that many unmformed people do not realize that in buying in- expensive table linen they are buying cotton finished to look like linen. The adulteration with cotton is often done so skil- IIO fully that it is difficult to detect until the material has been washed, when the frizzy ends of the short cotton fibers will show on the surface of the cloth. Large quantities of cotton are imported every year into Belfast, the great linen center, where it is worked in with the more expensive flax fiber. Difference Between Cotton and Linen Fabrics made from cotton and linen respectively have their own characteristic qualities of luster, beauty, and qualifications for wear. While linen is a more beautiful and more expensive material than cotton, yet cloth woven from broken and short ends of poor flax will not be so good or so strong as a good cotton material, while a poor cotton material is the poorest of all. Adulterations with Sizings The cheaper grades of cotton and linen are adul- terated with sizings in order to give them body pr firmness and gloss and to conceal imperfections in the fiber or weave. The question is often asked: "Why do people hold cotton or linen up to the light, and look through it?" If poor material is held up to the light one can easily see the coarse weave and thin weak threads and the sizing or starch which is holding the threads ••♦I 112 LINEN DEPARTMENT If together, while good material will look firm with the threads woven closely together. Simple Tests Although there are many chemical and microscopic tests which will show accurately the composition of materials, these can only be made in the laboratory, and it is only the simple tests which are of any use at present to either the buyer, the salesperson, or the consumer. The following tests are not so accurate as the chemical tests, but they aid one in judging until one soon becomes proficient through care and expe- rience. Burning, Cotton : Bums quickly and is hard to blow out. Linen: Bums more slowly and smolders. Tearing. Cotton: The edges curl up. Docs not tear quickly. Sound not shrill. Ends even and short, tufted, curly, and lusterless. If a cotton thread is broken quickly the end curls up. Linen: Edge straight and smooth. Tears quickly with shrill sound. Ends uneven, long, pointed, parallel, and glossy. If a linen thread is broken quickly the end remains straight. Feeling. Cotton: Is warm and holds the heat TESTS FOR LINEN II3 Linen : Is cool and leathery. Light Test. Cotton: Threads are even and uniform. Linen: Threads are uneven and streaked. Oil Test. Cotton : Is opaque. Linen: Is translucent. (Note: The dressing must be removed from both materials before the drop of oil is ap- plied.) Moisture. Cotton: Does not absorb moisture readily. Linen: Absorbs moisture quickly. Washing or Rubbing Test A mixture of cotton or linen becomes fuzzy when the dressmg is removed because the cotton fiber is short and curled at the end. Acid Test Wash samples to remove dressing. Immerse in concentrated sulphuric acid for 1% or 2 minutes. Wash and dry on a blotting paper; the linen fibers remain, the cotton fibers have been dissolved. Microscope Test Under the microscope the cotton fiber is flat, short, 114 i LINEN DEPARTMENT twisted, and has no luster excepting mercerized cot- ton, which is very kistrous, has no twist and appears cyhndrical in form. The linen fiber is long, straight, and lustrous, and the end tapers to a sharp point. It has cross lines at mtervals resembling bamboo. Sometimes swellings appear at these cross sections. ( See Figure 8 on pa^e 43) ^ ^ Chapter XVIII LINEN YARD GOODS Art Linen Art linen is a soft-finished, plain woven linen, made with round hard-twisted yamsw It is usually full bleached or dyed. Its width is from 24 to 36 inches. It is used for embroidery, in making pillow covers, doilies, etc. It is often called round thread linen. It is especially useful when it is necessary to pull threads for hemstitching as the round threads are stronger and do not break so easily as the fiat threads ordinarily used. Bird's-Eye Linen This is a linen fabric in which the pattern is made up of small figures resembling birds' eyes, these figures being repeated over and over until they cover the entire surface of the fabric. Butcher's Linen This is a stiff, heavy, coarse-weave linen. It is used for butchers' aprons, hence its name; and also for dress materials. "5 ii6 LINEN DEPARTMENT Cambric Cambric was named from town of Cambrai, France, where it was first made in 1520. It is a fine, sheer! plain woven linen. The name French cambric is given to the finest and thinnest variety. It is used for dress goods, lingerie, handkerchiefs, etc. Crash This is a coarse linen toweling, either twill or plain- weave, bleached or unbleached. Russia crash is a very narrow material of coarse thread and coarse weave. It may be used for towel- ing, also for table runners and art needlework. Crash suiting is a heavy, plain, rather coarse-weave linen material used for suits for both men and women. Damask The name comes from Damascus, where the cloth was first made. It is a beautiful linen with a figured weave made on a Jacquard loom. These figures are made with a satin weave of the warp threads, and the ground with a satin weave of the weft or filling threads. The linen warp for table damask is dressed before beaming. This dressing not only enables it to stand the friction of weaving, but gives the cloth a beautiful satin finish. Double damask is made with a double thread in the filling and is woven of well- LINEN YARD GOODS 117 twisted fiber. In double damask the pattern shows more distinctly than in single damask. That which is hand-woven and grass bleached wears best. For medium quality damask there are 180 thread warps per inch; for fine damask, 220 threads. The filling of double damask has 280 threads per inch; of single damask, 180 threads per inch. Diaper Linen This is a strong, soft-finished linen cloth made with a damask weave in a small set pattern. It is used for towels. Linen Duck The name is derived from the Dutch " dock," mean- ing a linen cloth. It is a strong material originally made of linen, now made in both linen and cotton, but chiefly cotton. (See " Cotton Duck," page 65.) Glass Toweling This is a linen material of plain weave characterized by plain colored threads of red or blue, woven into the cloth in the form of checks. It is of narrow width and light weight. It is used principally for kitchen towels ; the better qualities occasionally being used for embroidery as for sofa cushions. Handkerchief Linen This is a fine, plain linen used chiefly for making handkerchiefs, also for dresses and waists. in ii8 LINEN DEPARTMENT Holland Linen This is a plain woven linen finished by a sizing of oil and starch which renders it opaque and impervious to the sun's rays. It is used for window shades. Originally material of this name was used for dress material and was neither calendered nor starched. Huckaback The word comes from huckster and back. The huckster in England is a man who carries his wares on his back. It is a linen toweling of various qualities and prices, characterized by the long threads brought to the surface at regular intervals, giving somewhat the appearance of small dots. The better qualities often have a damask figure woven in. The width varies from i6 to 24 inches when sold by the yard. Huckaback comes as separate towels in regulation sizes and also in small sizes for guest towels. It is also used for embroidering. Linen Lawn This is a fine, sheer linen, much like handkerchief linen. It is used for dresses, waists, lingerie, and handkerchiefs. Pillow-Case Linen This is a bleached linen material which is used espe- cially for pillow-cases. LINEN YARD GOODS 119 Sheeting This is a wide, heavy linen material which is used especially for sheets. Sometimes, however, on ac- count of its width and quality it is bought for dress and suit material for the reason that, being wide, it cuts to advantage. Toweling This is a general term for materials suitable for towels and it is sold by the yard from the piece. The width ranges from 12 to 24 inches. The materials are crash, damask, huckaback, terry cloth, glass cloth, honeycomb, diaper, and momie. TOILET LINEN 121 I I J« Chapter XIX TOILET LINEN Classification Toilet linen, both linen and cotton, consists of towels of various kinds and sizes, wash cloths, and bath mats. These may be divided into the following groups : Finished Towels Huckaback (Hemmed, Hemstitched, or Scal- loped) Damask (Hemmed, Hemstitched, or Scal- loped) Fancy Weaves (Hemmed, Hemstitched, or Scalloped) Turkish Towels Turkish Bath Sheets Crash Towels (Kitchen) Glass Towels Toweling by the Yard Damask Huckaback lao Crash Unbleached Linen Half -Bleached Linen Old Bleach Linen Glass Toweling Cotton Toweling Union Groods Turkish Toweling Terry Cloth Wash Cloths Woven Knitted Bath Mats Rubber Sheeting Towels The name is derived from the Spanish toalla. A towel is a moisture-absorbing cloth used to wipe anything dry. The absorbent property of linen makes it the best material for towels but recent treatments of cotton with certain chemicals make it answer nearly as well. The rough and fancy weaves are the best for this purpose: huckaback, terry cloth, crash, and softer materials such as honeycomb, momie, and oatmeal. Damask is also used, but it is less effective than the rougher weaves because of its smooth surface. I I 1^- 122 LINEN DEPARTMENT The finer qualities of linen towels are made in Ireland, Scotland, and Germany. Coarse linen towels and cotton towels are made in the United States. Flax grown in this country for flax seed produces a coarser fiber because the plants are allowed to mature, which makes the fiber tougher. Toweling, both im- ported and domestic, is made from union goods, a mixture of cotton and linen. Turkish Towels The name is said to be derived from the fact that large quantities are shipped to Turkey, where they are much appreciated. A Turkish towel is a coarse, rough cotton tow-el with a looped pile surface. ( See " Terry Cloth,'* page 74.) These towels are made in various sizes some of them being especially large. Although the machinery for making them is of modem invention, the making of this material is of ancient origin. The machinery was invented by Samuel Holt in 1848. In 1855 he was awarded a medal by Queen Victoria, because she was so pleased with the towel which he presented to her, and this immediately established its popularity. Wash Cloths A wash cloth should have a rough surface, but should not be harsh or stiff. The loose, open mesh TOILET LINEN 123 of the knitted or crocheted wash cloth is preferred by many people because of its softness, and for this rea- son terry cloth is the most common weave. Wash cloths are usually made of cotton. Children's wash cloths are sometimes made of silk and linen as silk is softer for a tender skin. Cloths for washing dishes are made of loosely knitted imbleached cotton. Damask Towel Design Designs for finished damask towels are adapted from table linen designs (Chapter XXI) and are less elaborate. The two ends of the towel are the field for the most important part of the design, which may run across the width of the material like a border pattern, or be a " turnover," with the two sides bal- anced and opposite. The pattern sometimes con- tinues in a narrower border on the sides of the towel. Sometimes these designs are finished only with a line or the selvage. The body of the towel may be plain but in damask it usually has a diaper or filling pattern of dots or small figures. Coarse Towel Design The weave of huckaback, momie, oatmeal, etc., is a design in itself and these towels usually have a plain woven space at each end on which a damask design is 124 M LINEN DEPARTMENT woven. The finer materials in these fancy weaves may have damask patterns on the body of the towel. An excellent grade of toweling in these weaves has no decoration save the hemstitching at the end. They may be embroidered with handsome initials in white or color. Design of Fine Grades The finest grades of towels are almost always pure white. Less expensive ones usually have colored borders, geometrical patterns being common. Fancy towels are sometimes elaborately embroidered either at one or both ends. Guest towels, which are meant to be used only once, are small and dainty, and are made of the same ma- terial as the larger towels. If they are to be em- broidered plain material is the best foundation. Designs for Turkish Towels, Bath Mats, and Wash Cloths Turkish towels have either white or colored end borders in lines or geometrical patterns. Bath mats have borders or all-over patterns in plain weave to distinguish them from terry cloth. Wash cloths have border designs or are ornamented with crochet edges. Those in terry cloth may have all-over designs, but are usually plain. TOILET LINEN 125 Plain Towel Design Toweling by the yard is plain, or it has a diaper pattern in small figures for the face towels and colored cross bars for glass toweling. ¥ li Chapter XX BED UNEN Definitions Bed linen is a name which was used when all the sheets, pillow-cases, shams, etc., were made of linen. The term ,s still used although now these various ar- ticles are usually made of cotton. Bedding is a term used for any and all of the ma- terials and articles used in furnishing a bed, as sheets, pillow-cases, blankets, quilts, comfortables, counter- panes, as well as mattresses and pillows. Sheets An extensive business is now done in made and finished sheets. These come in sizes to correspond with the sizes of beds and are finished either with plain hemming or hemstitching. Sometimes they are embroidered. They come from the manufacturer tolded m a convenient way for handling and showing Three yards, or io8 inches, is considered the best length for sheets. The width of sheets is given in « quarters," that ia6 BED LINEN 127 is, quarters of a yard, 6 " quarters " being 54 inches wide, and 10 " quarters " 90 inches. Single beds are in such general use now that larger quantities of single sheets are sold. The usual width for single beds is 7 quarters, 63 inches, to tuck in, or 8 quarters, ^2 inches, to hang down. Hemstitched and embroidered sheets are often sold simply to be used as top sheets. Sheeting The term sheeting may be applied to any cotton or linen cloth which has a plain weave, soft finish, and suitable weight for bed sheets, but it usually refers to cloth of extra width ranging from 45 to 108 inches. Rubber sheeting is a cotton cloth coated with rubber to make it water-proof. It is from 2y to 54 inches wide and comes in white or gray. It is used for many purposes where a soft, water-proof material is re- quired. (See manual for " The Notion Department," for a description of the preparation of water-proof cloth. ) Mattress Pads A mattress pad is a covering used between the sheet and mattress to protect the mattress. It is made of cotton wadding covered with heavy cotton cloth, the whole being quilted together and bound on all four sides. I 128 LINEN DEPARTMENT Pillow-Cases A pillow-case is the outside covering for a pillow. The regular size is 22 x 34 inches. Pillow-casing is a plain-weave material which comes from 42 to 50 inches wide. Pillow-tubing or tubular pillow-casing is a material woven in the form of a tube so that no scam is re- quired in making. In circumference it is from 42 to 54 inches. Made and finished pillow-cases are in greater de- mand than the cloth in either form. Pillow-cases are finished with wide plain hems or hemstitching to match the sheets. Bolster cases for the long pillow or "bolster" which was formerly laid across double beds under- neath the pillows are sometimes called for, though now there is comparatively little use for them. Small cases for pillows placed in front of larger ones or on couches are usually hemstitched and often embroidered. They may be sold in the infants' de- partment or among the fancy linens. Blankets Blankets are made of a loosely woven woolen or cotton fabric with a long nap. Originally blankets were made entirely of wool, but these have been re- placed in the less expensive grades by union blankets BED LINEN 129 which are made with a cotton warp and a wool weft or filling. Blankets are also made entirely of thick cotton yarns, the nap being raised by machinery. In a union blanket the cotton warp may be seen at the edge, or when a fold is doubled over the straight lines of the cotton can be detected. Summer blankets of wool are woven like flannels. They are made in six sizes besides the crib size for infants. Quilts A quilt is a bed covering consisting of a soft layer of cotton or wool wadding covered with cloth on both sides, quilted or tacked together at regular intervals, and bound. The old-fashioned " patchwork quilt " was made of small pieces of cotton or woolen cloth, made into "blocks" of fanciful design. When the blocks were finished and sewed together, a piece of plain cloth was stretched on a wooden frame, sheets of wadding were placed on this cloth, and the patchwork piece laid on top. Then the three layers were tacked together for quilting. The frame consisted of wooden bars on four sides. The quilt was wound upon the two side bars, as the " quilters " who sat in two rows at the sides of the frame stitched it together by hand. Modem quilts are usually covered with light cotton materials. 130 LINEN DEPARTMENT Comfortables These are bed coverings similar to quilts, but with a thicker layer of wadding in them. Sometimes the words are used interchangeably. The coverings for comfortables may be of : Cheese-cloth Silkoline Chalhs Sateen Chintz sjii^ Batiste The wadding for the better grades may be of cotton battmg or carded wool. Low-priced comfortables may be filled with coarse shoddy or flocks, short refuse wool. Down comfortables or puffs are filled with fine down feathers. These comfortables are exception- ally light and warm. Comfortables have been factory-made since 1875. Previous to that time they were always made at home. Now factory-made ones are so inexpensive that it is scarcely worth while to make them by hand. They come in but one size, 72 x 78 inches, except the down puffs, which are made in several sizes. Counterpanes The name comes from the French counterpoint, which means point against point, suggestive of the "panes" or small squares of the old-fashioned bed quilt. BED LINEN 131 A counterpane is the outside cover of the bed. It is made of cotton and woven with a raised pattern, and may be either crochet or marseilles. The crochet counterpane is made of coarse, bleached cotton, woven in conventional patterns by means of a Jacquard at- tachment to the loom. The term crochet is used because of its resemblance to the old-fashioned " crochet *' spreads made by hand. The marseilles counterpane, so called because first made in Marseilles, has a compound weave but the embossed pattern, usually a large design, appears on one side only. The yam for the face is much finer than that used for the back and has twice the number of threads. Both of these are woven in continuous strips into from five hundred to one thousand counterpanes in a piece. After leaving the loom the counterpanes are in- spected. Knots and ends are removed and then they are passed over rollers into the bleaching vat, where they remain for about two hours in a solution of chlorine. After being rinsed, boiled, and blued the long strip is dried over smooth, heated rollers. The counterpanes are then cut apart with sharp knives, hemmed, folded, ticketed, and shipped. Bed Spreads Counterpanes are often called bed spreads, though ^^1 1,01 1 1 II 132 LINEN DEPARTMENT the latter are usually of lighter weight, being made of dimity, cretonne, or of corded material with or with- out fringe. They may be stamped in colors. Children's Spreads Dainty covers for children's cribs and carriages made of fine marseilles, dimity, or embroidered mus- lin, and edged with lace or embroidery, as well as embroidered baby pillows and cushions, add much to the attractive display in this department. Sizes of Bed Linen These sizes are the same for cotton and linen. Sheets 54X 96 63X 96 72X 96 72x108 81 X 96 81x108 90X 96 90x108 Pillow-Slips 22MiX 36 (regulation 25 X 36 27X 36 Bedspreads 72 x 90 (single bed) 72 X 100 (single bed) 80 X 100 (3 quarter bed, or double, not hanging down) 90 X 100 (double brass bed) 97x116 (extra size) Blankets 60X 80 (single bed) 60 X 90 (single bed) 72 X 82 (3 quarter) 72 X 90 (3 quarter) 76 X 84 (double) 80X 90 (double) Comfortables size) 72x78 (one size) Chapter XXI TABLE LINEN Classification Table linen consists of : Table Cloths Napkins Tea Qoths Tray Cloths Doilies Silence Cloths Table Cloths Linen table cloths have long been used to cover the table on which a meal is to be served. Because of the high price of linen, many cloths are now made of union goods or cotton. The finer cloths are white with a damask weave, but some linens and many cheap cotton cloths are made in colors. Table cloths may come in more than thirty sizes. A table set consists of one table cloth and twelve napkins which match in design, quality, and color. 133 134 LINEN DEPARTMENT I Napkins A napkin is a square piece of cloth used at the table to wipe the hands and mouth and also to protect the clothes. The name was originally used to mean a handker- chief and some of the Scotch people, still call handker- chiefs pocket napkins. Until recently, napkins were made of linen and woven with a damask pattern. Cotton napkins are now used to some extent and especially since through ^e process of mercerizing a good imitation Hnen can be obtained. These mercerized cotton napkins make a good ordinary napkin, but should never be sold as linen Still cheaper cotton napkins are made with a calendered finish, a gloss resembling the luster of mercerized cotton or linen, but which will wash out leaving a cheap plain cotton material. Napkins, woven in long strips, are attached to each other end to end. The strip is usually the width of the napkin with a selvage on each side. Napkins are sold at the counters in packages of a dozen or a half dozen and must be cut apart and hemmed on the ends by the purchaser. Cheap napkins are sometimes woven several napkins in width as well as in length, m which case they must be cut apart and hemmed all around. Cheap napkins may also be bought singly already hemmed by machine. . TABLE LINEN 135 The sizes of napkins range from 16 inches to 32 inches square, and are known as breakfast napkins, dinner napkins, and tea napkins. Tea Cloths A tea cloth is a small cloth of plain, bleached linen or damask having either a hemstitched or scalloped edge and sometimes finished with drawn-work or em- broidery. It is used as a cover for a table or a tray. Tray Cloths A tray cloth is an oblong piece of cloth, made of different materials, such as plain, bleached linen, damask, etc., and finished with hemstitched edge, fringe, or scallops. It is used to cover a tray on which food is carried, also on the table to protect the table cover. Doilies Doilies are small mats or centerpieces, made of em- broidered linen, cotton, or lace. Originally they were small fringed napkins woven in colors. They are named for Sir John D'Oyley, an English merchant, who first made them. Doilies come in sets and are used to decorate dining- room tables, sideboards, dressers, etc. A limcheon or tea table is often set with doilies of different sizes for the plates, glasses, and often the dishes, in which case a table cloth is dispensed with. Doilies used in r, I 136 LINEN DEPARTMENT this way are suitable for less formal occasions. They are also placed on plates under finger bowls, ramekins, or glass dishes for fruit, etc. Glass is more effective when placed on linen than on china. Silence Cloths Silence cloth is the name given to any heavy cloth which is laid under the table cloth to deaden the sound of the dishes and also to protect the table varnish from heat. It is usually made of cream colored or white woolen felt or a double-faced cotton flannel, and ranges in width from 54 to 64 inches. Asbestos Pads Asbestos table pads made of sheets of asbestos board covered with cotton flannel are taking the place of silence cloths, as asbestos is a poor conductor of heat, and therefore a better protection for the table. Any soft cloth laid under the table cloth adds to its apparent weight and richness. Where doilies are used on an uncovered table, small asbestos mats are placed under the doilies upon which hot plates are to be set. These mats come in a num- ber of different sizes, both round, and oblong. Sizes of Table Linen The standard sizes for table cloths, both hemmed and unhemmed, napkins, and doilies are given in the following table: TABLE LINEN 137 Unhemmed Tablecloths Hemmed or Scalloped I yd. square Tablecloths iV* (( 36 X 36 in. (tea cloth) 1% « 54 X 54 " 1% n 72x72 " 2 t€ 80x80 " (rise by % yd.) 2 X2% " 90x90 " it a n n 2 X3 " Add a leaf by adding ^ yd. 2 X3% " 2 X4 " Unhemmed Napkins 2y4X2y4 " 2y4X2% " Tea: 16 in. 17 " 18 " 2y4 X 3 " 2y4X3% " 2y4 X 4 " Breakfast : 19 in. 2%X2% " 20 " 2%X3 " 21 " 2%X3% " 22 " 2%X4 " Dinner: 24 in. 2%X4^ " 25 " 2% X 5 " 26 " 2%X5^ « 27 " 2%X6 " 28 " 2^X7 " 29 " 30 " 2%X8 " 3 x3 " 31 " 3 X4 " 32 " 3 X5 " 3 x6 " Doilies 3^x3^ « 12 in. 3^x4% " 14 " 3^x5% " 16 " 3%x6% " 18 " 4 yd. sq. ) for cutting 20 " 5 " " ) round. 24 " t, it ! V. r f ' I' 138 LINEN DEPARTMENT Table cloths and napkins are folded, irrespective of s.ze mto 7-anch folds. The finer qualities are wrapped smgly m either blue or gray paper. On this paper and also on a paper pasted on the cloth are written the registered number, size, and name of design. Classification of Designs in Table Linen wit?,' ^.f'^'u^ *' '^'''^'' '' *° «" ^ ^'^rtain space snaces P""'™, ^'T? '^' P^^per balance of lines and spaces. Textile design makes certain demands and has Its special limitations, and table linen must be con- aS r. "^T^- ^''"^ ^""^ ^^^" '^' ''^'^' designer. At fir t thought ,t seems as if the problem were e^r JS^in .f " """" *^" ^^' '° ^''P hi« pattern The standard designs for table linen are: Shamrock p^pp^ Snowdrop pjeur de lis Maidenhair fern Checks ^^^^ Stripes l^''^^^ Polka dots "^'^"^ Scroll patterns Difficulties of Designing The uninitiated may wonder why there are so few patterns mstead of the almost endless number shown TABLE LINEN 139 in carpets, wall paper, or yard goods. The reasons may be found in the lack of color of the weave, and the necessity for making the design in different pro- portions for different lengths of cloths. First, the pattern is usually without color which makes it depend for its beauty entirely upon the re- flection of light by the " floats," or threads which lie on the surface of the cloth. Table linen is always woven with a damask weave in order that the pattern may be thrown out by the alternate reflection of light on the masses of warp and weft threads. The pattern must also be simple and flat. Shading is not apt to be successful because it blurs the effect and patterns with a great many lines break up the shining satiny surface. Very delicate patterns should be made only in finely woven linen, as coarse threads make a ragged outline for a dainty design. The flower patterns which come in the finest linens have certain characteristic lines which have been found to be most successful. The necessity for making a pattern which can be lengthened out for tables of different lengths limits the designer more than anything else. Method of Designing If the maker of table linen could plan just for a square or oblong design his work would be easy. He would first design a square or oblong with all its ^ p I 144 LINEN DEPARTMENT !•' Hi I ¥■ different countries they are almost entirely worked upon Irish-made linens. Since labor is cheap in Japan that country exports quantities of goods of this kind that may be sold at reasonable prices. Laces The laces used in fancy linens are : Cluny, a heavy bobbin lace. Filet, a square mesh lace. Renaissance, a lace made of braid formed in pat- terns. Torchon, a bobbin lace made in simple patterns. All of these laces were originally made by hand of linen thread, but all of them are now imitated in a cotton lace made by machine. Though Cluny and Torchon lace are both made with bobbins the Cluny has more elaborate patterns, which are darned on an open ground. Some Cluny sets are hand-made. Re- naissance or Battenberg lace is not used so much as it was a few years ago. Filet, which is very popular at present, is an imitation of the expensive hand-made filet. Embroidery The embroidery on fancy linens is usually done by machine, that done on the Swiss embroidery machines being almost equal to hand work. FANCY LINENS 145 Madeira embroidery, which is seen on tea napkins, tray cloths, doilies, and small table cloths is done by hand. Sometimes, however, in cheaper grades the edge is done by machine. The patterns are usually in one corner of the cloth and the edge is scalloped. Drawn-Work Mexican drawn-work is also seen in all fancy linens. Sometimes the center of small doilies consists entirely of drawn-work, sometimes it occupies the comers or runs around the cloth as an insertion. The drawn- work is made by drawing out a part of the threads of a piece of cloth, and using the remain- ing threads as a base for elaborate designs made with a needle. Japanese Sets Japanese bungalow sets are made of soft cotton materials printed in attractive designs. Imitations These articles may also be found at lower prices, made of union materials, that is, linen and cotton. However, they should be so marked that inexperienced salespeople will know that they are not pure linen. A store in which this is done soon gains a reputa- tion as a " reliable store " and gains rather than loses purchasers, especially if the salespeople can show de- finitely the reasons for variations in price. pll 'I ■fTTfl Chapter XXIII THE HANDKERCHIEF DEPARTMENT Location Handkerchiefs are usually found in a separate de- partment, seldom with other linen goods. Men's handkerchiefs, for instance, are often sold in the riien's furnishing department. Handkerchief The name comes from the words "hand" and "kerchief." Kerchief originally meant a cloth to cover the head. A handkerchief is a small square piece of linen, cotton, or silk cloth, carried for the purpose of wiping the face or hands. Materials Linen is the best material for handkerchiefs be- cause it is soft, absorbs moisture quickly, and launders well. Cotton is very apt to be harsh and to lose its finish in laundering ; also it does not absorb moisture readily. Nevertheless large quantities of cotton and union handkerchiefs are made and sold, many of them erroneously marked " pure linen." Fine lawn is used 146 HANDKERCHIEF DEPARTMENT 147 frequently. Some "Irish linen" handkerchiefs are only 50 to 60 per cent linen, the rest being cotton. Silk does not absorb moisture readily and although silk handkerchiefs have been popular at times they are more suitable as kerchiefs for the head or neck than for the hand. Lace handkerchiefs also have been very fashionable at times. They consist of small squares of linen bordered with lace. Real lace handkerchiefs of ex- quisite quality and workmanship are among the most costly articles in a woman's wardrobe. Mourning handkerchiefs are edged with black bor- ders of various widths. They are not often used except by people in deep mourning. Grades and Sizes The cheapest handkerchiefs are machine hemmed; the next grade may be machine hemstitched. There are handkerchiefs with hand hemstitching, embroidery, or lace-trimmed edges, and initials; the embroidered and initialed ones naturally being higher priced. Many stores take orders for special monograms or initials to be embroidered on handkerchiefs. Handkerchief sizes range from 12 to 18 inches square for women, and from 20 to 22 inches for men. The hems vary in width from one-fourth of an inch to one inch. 148 LINEN DEPARTMENT Handkerchiefs of the cheaper grades are put up in boxes containing five dozen. The better grades have a dozen or a half dozen in each box. Designs for Handkerchiefs There are four types of patterns for handkerchiefs: Patterns which follow the border. Patterns repeated in each of the four comers. Patterns for one corner only. Initials or monograms more or less elaborate. Patterns which follow the border should be small and symmetrical. If flower forms are used they should be conventionalized and the best balanced de- signs are the most satisfactory. Geometrical designs, as the fret or key pattern, squares, or scrolls may be used effectively. Corded or colored stripes are used in less expensive grades. If the pattern is repeated in each of the corners it may have a little more freedom than a border pattern but it should be a " turnover," that is, one which has its two sides exactly corresponding but turned in the opposite direction. A pattern for one comer only may be very elaborate. It is usually more effective when the handkerchief is folded than when it is spread out as the "comer" often looks out of proportion to the rest of the square. HANDKERCHIEF DEPARTMENT 149 Unsymmetrical figures such as sprays of flowers strewn across the corner, or several figures turned the same way, are very inartistic designs. Initials or monograms either plain or in a more or less ornamental frame are the best decoration for the single comer. There is an obvious reason for not repeating initials and usually they are not so large as to look out of proportion. Some very long narrow initials, however, are out of proportion. History Handkerchiefs were originally made of silk and are first mentioned in the chronicles of the sixteenth cen- tury. Originally these pieces of silk cloth were used only by priests at the altar, but gradually they came into general use. The Empress Josephine is said to have made them popular and now they have become an indispensable article. Centers of Industry Linen handkerchiefs are made in Ireland, Scotland, Belgium, Germany, France, and Switzerland. Most of the pure linen handkerchiefs come from Belfast, Ireland. The finest grades of embroidered handker- chiefs come from Ireland, although the greatest quantities are made in Switzerland, the principal center being St. Gall. Many of the Swiss handkerchiefs are of cotton. I50 LINEN DEPARTMENT embroidered by machine; while the Irish handker- chiefs are embroidered by hand, though in the less expensive grades these also are made partly of cotton. Fine lawn handkerchiefs come from France and Switzerland. Silk handkerchiefs are imported from China and Japan. Chapter XXIV HISTORY OF LINEN Ancient Manufacture The cultivation of the flax plant and the spinning and weaving of linen began in very early times. Linen is mentioned in the Bible as a part of the priests' clothing at the time of the exodus from Egypt, which took place more than three thousand years ago.' Very fine linen is found in Egyptian mummy cases. The Greeks and Romans imported their linen from Egypt at first, but later made it themselves. Medieval Manufacture In the tenth century linen markets were established in Bruges, Courtrai, and other places. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries many Flemish weavers went to England and built up the linen industry there. From that time until the eighteenth century flax was the most important vegetable fiber, and the manu- facture of linen was general in western Europe; but during all of this period the cultivation of the flax and the spinning and weaving of the cloth were solely home industries. ISI HIHii 152 LINEN DEPARTMENT Introduction of Machinery Then the introduction of machinery stimulated the manufacture of cotton which, on account of its short fiber, had been hard to spin by hand ; and in the latter part of the eighteenth century cotton cloth began to displace linen because it was so much cheaper. The demand for good linen, however, has almost always been greater than the supply. The European coun- tries which have developed linen manufacture arc Ire- land, Scotland, England, Belgium, France, Germany, Austria, and Russia. (See Appendix.) Cultivation in the United States Flax was introduced into this country by the early colonists, the records showing that it was grown in Massachusetts as early as 1630. Its manufacture into linen was, however, only a household industry for family use and very little was sold. Flax was also grown in Vermont, Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey, but with the increased use of cotton the in- dustry declined. At present flax is grown in the United States for its seed; only a few coarse varieties of cloth being manufactured from it. Manufacture in the United States The linen products manufactured in this country are HISTORY OF LINEN 153 chiefly thread and twine, and coarse linen toweling; but the industry is a growing one. Effect of European War The European war has so limited the manufacture and export of linen that prices have more than doubled and very little pure linen can be had at any price. Nearly all of that now sold is union goods, that is, a mixture of linen and cotton. A Belfast report stated that during the first six months of 191 5, 2,664 tons of cotton were imported to be used in the manufacture of union fabrics. Dur- ing the same period in 1916, 5,021 tons of cotton were imported for this purpose. !i Part III — Suggestions to Salespeople and Customers Chapter XXV SELLING SUGGESTIONS Arrangement and Display In the departments where colored cotton or linen fabrics are sold, there is a large opportunity to arrange effective and artistic displays by good color combina- tions. Many of the colored fabrics are shown on the counters, the bolt either lying flat or standing on end, with part of the material unrolled and hanging down. A pleasing and effective color combination will draw customers to the counter while a confusion of colors with bad color harmony will cause people to turn away, not even stopping to look for the material which they may really want. In showing materials a fabric should be taken away if it spoils the effect of other colors which are being shown. Otherwise a sale may be lost. On the shelves also a more pleasing effect is gained if the 154 SELLING SUGGESTIONS 155 arrangement of color combinations is considered. In displaying fabrics, ideas for trimming one fabric with another may be given and ways of making up the material suggested. In order to keep goods looking fresh and clean they should be put away quickly after they have been shown. This also keeps the counter looking well. Materials When one is beginning to sell materials the names of the fabrics and the sections in which they are kept should be learned as soon as possible. The widths and prices must be learned, and most important of all the quality of the materials, whether the quality is worth the price and why it is worth the price. In selling yard goods care must be taken to give the correct measurement. Every customer wants the full amount for which she pays, but if several inches too much is given to each customer, the profit for the department is considerably lessened and perhaps lost entirely. A salesperson must learn to cut materials straight as much loss may come to the department through the straightening which may be necessary later. With materials that may be torn, not only the first selvage must be cut but the selvage at the opposite side also. Otherwise the material may tear along side of N 156 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS the selvage and not across it. Unless the material is torn quickly there is danger that it may tear down on some heavier lengthwise thread instead of straight across. Suggestions as to Care Salespersons are often asked if goods will shrink or fade and they should know something of the shrink- age of their goods and the effect of water and heat on different materials. For instance, a cheap cotton material usually becomes thin and sleazy after wash- ing because the starch washes out and leaves a poor loosely woven material. Again, hot water, a hot iron, and strong sunshine will fade colors. Hot water may cause colors to "run," as with materials which are made up of a colored stripe and a white stripe where the color runs into the white. Suitability The salesperson is often asked to suggest materials suitable for certain occasions or purposes. In order to advise a customer intelligently she should study the patterns and color combinations of her stock, observe the choices made by her customers, and listen to their comments. Then she must use her own judgment with regard to their value, training her own eyes and her own taste by looking at the best models. Handsome linens are often purchased for gifts, par- SELLING SUGGESTIONS 157 ticularly for wedding gifts, and the customer wishes to know what patterns are most approved as well as what styles are suitable for the purpose. When an- other person's taste is to be considered the salesperson is often called upon to give an opinion. If she can give good reasons for her suggestions the customer will rely upon her judgment. Manufacture The salesperson who understands something of the source and growth of the raw material of which fabrics are made, as well as the manufacture of this raw material into cloth, will understand better the differ- ences in the qualities of fabrics, and will be able to explain when necessary the difference in the cost of materials, that is, why some can be bought for a small price and why others are expensive. The question of frankness about quality is often raised, especially with regard to the adulteration of linen with cotton. Very often customers will ask whether certain low-priced articles are all linen. A knowledge of qualities is most necessary when dealing with a critical customer. Upon advising the salesgirls to tell the truth in an- swering questions, one replied : "If, when they ask us, we tell them the squares are cotton and not linen they walk away from the counter and we lose a sale." 158 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS Suppose this same sale were made, and the customer thought she was buying hnen when really it was cotton finished like linen, what would be the probable result? Result of Misstatements The customer upon examining her purchase more closely would become suspicious. If she concluded it was not linen, the article would be returned ; in which case not only would the sale be lost, but the firm would be put to more trouble and expense than if the sale had been lost in the beginning. Again, if the customer did not at first discover that the material was cotton she would detect the fraud after it was laundered, with the result that she would lose her faith, not only in the salesgirl, but also in the firm, and would buy her linen at some other store even if she paid more for it, which probably she would have been willing to do in the first place. A knowledge of the manufacture and wearing quali- ties of mercerized cotton will help in the selling of that material not only in the dress goods department but also in the table linen department where much of it is sold for ordinary household use. History All people know that cotton is widely used but not all people realize that this has been made possible through the invention of machinery. SELLING SUGGESTIONS 159 Housewives admire fine and handsome linen. They also know that it is expensive, but do they know that the hand labor required in the preparation of the flax fiber is one reason why it is expensive and that no machinery has been invented which will do this work successfully ? Our grandmothers used linen instead of cotton be- cause linen could be more easily and successfully made by hand than cotton. Linen was the first material made, and it has been used for centuries, but now it is being replaced more and more by cotton. Chapter XXVI SUGGESTIONS TO PURCHASERS Considerations in Buying Garments Cotton and linen materials are bought for both personal ^nd household use. When buying garments the purchaser must consider: 1. The use of the article, as for outer or inner wearing apparel, the season, etc. 2. Its suitability to one's circumstances and to one's purse. 3. Its style and becomingness. 4. Its durability. Very often style is the only question considered; even becomingness takes second place and suitability or durability are never even thought of. When the garment is inexpensive and intended only for one season these may not be serious matters, but women could greatly reduce the high cost of their clothing if they always bought good materials in conservative and becoming styles and did not have to discard them after 160 SUGGESTIONS TO PURCHASERS 161 a single season. This is especially true of under- clothing. Considerations in Buying Household Goods For household use the appropriateness of diflFerent materials varies greatly. Those which must be con- stantly laundered, like bedding, table linen, or towels, should be first of all strong and firm. Draperies may serve their purpose quite well when rnade of rather inexpensive material in good and suitable colors and designs. Buying Good Cotton Materials Good cotton materials wear well and are the least expensive of any on the market. Good materials are known by their firmness, as they are woven of well- twisted yarns made of good cotton fibers. When purchasing materials, quality, durability, and suitability should be considered first. Garments made from materials purchased by the yard will usually wear better and cost less than the ready-to-wear gar- ment. Mercerized cotton is one of the more recent products on the market (see pages 36-38). It is made from the best and longest cotton fibers and the mercerizing process tends to strengthen them still more. It may I62 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS be recognized by its gloss, which is permanent and which will not disappear when the material is laundered. All materials with a gloss are not mercerized, so that the purchaser must be on her guard to see that she is not being sold a substitute. The substitute, "calen- dered" cotton, may be detected by washing a sample ; the beautiful gloss will entirely disappear. Choosing Between Cotton and Linen Since the war, mercerized cotton has taken the place of Hnen to a large extent because linen has not only become very expensive but is very hard to get. Mer- cerized cotton should not be expected to look like linen nor be confused with linen. It serves its own purpose as an inexpensive material but will never look so well as linen although it may wear as long. After a time the short cotton fibers will wear up and make a fuzzy surface which is not seen on linen. For table cloths and napkins for ordinary wear, mer- cerized cotton serves a good purpose, provided one is satisfied and realizes that it is cotton and not linen. For handsome table cloths and napkins nothing is equal to good pure linen. Linen is much better than cotton for towels because it absorbs moisture readily. Cotton towels do not absorb moisture on account of a covering of wax on the fiber. This wax may be removed and the cotton SUGGESTIONS TO PURCHASERS 163 becomes more absorbent but at its best it does not equal linen in this respect. The best linen is bleached by the action of dew and sunshine, being laid on the grass for this purpose; hence it will wear longer than linen which has been chemically bleached. Linen does not dye easily. Consequently there is danger that it will not hold the dye or retain its color. For this reason white and natural-color linens are used much more than bright colors. Adulterations A demand for cheap materials and the increasing cost of production has caused manufacturers to adul- terate materials in various ways. As cotton is the cheapest fiber in general use, it is not adulterated with other fibers, but the same purpose, that of reducing the cost, is secured by using short, poor cotton fibers, which make a thin, "sleasy" material. This is then filled with starch or china clay in the finishing process so that it looks strong and firm. Such heavy sizing can be detected as indicated on page 42 by holding the material to the light, rubbing it between the fingers, or boiling a sample. The first test is very easy to make and is fairly reliable, as the filling is not evenly distributed and may be seen between the meshes. Because of the great scarcity of linen since the war *i I r 164 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS a very large part of that which is on the market is adulterated with other fibers. Even the Hnen-producing countries import cotton, or hemp, to mix with their supply of flax. These mixed goods will often answer the purpose very well, but if the purchaser wishes to buy really "pure'* linen she will need to apply the tests given on pages 112 and 113. To the experienced eye the light test may be suf- ficient, and there is also a great diflPerence in the feel- ing of the two materials, but when the adulteration is not too great and is cleverly done the burning, tearing, or even microscopic or acid test may be necessary. Formerly the moisture test could be applied by merely wetting the finger, but now cotton can be so treated that it will seem to absorb moisture in small quantities as well as linen. Time is the best test but unfortunately that does not help the buyer. Linen not only wears longer than cotton but retains its beautiful gloss and satiny softness to the end, thus justify the higher price. The Historic Interest of Textile Study To the purchaser who becomes interested in textile study, the history of textiles will be most fascinating. Women since the early days of the race have made cloth for household use. They have worked beautiful designs into it, having no inspiration but tliat of their simple surroundings. But they knew what kind of SUGGESTIONS TO PURCHASERS 165 cloth they were making, for they began with the fiber itself and worked it up to the cloth. They did not depend upon the fancy of manufacturers who were so desirous of cheapening the material or adapting them- selves to the constant change in style that they cared little for real beauty or durability. Uses of Cotton Materials The following suggestions as to the materials suit- able for various purposes will often be of service. For Waists and Dresses Batiste Organdie Chambray Percale Corduroy Persian Lawn Crepe Pique Dimity Poplin Gingham Ratine Indian Head Swiss Lawn Voile Madras For Undergarments Cambric Muslin Crepe Canton Flannel Nainsook Flannelette Long Cloth Lonsdale, and c f] l66 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS Pot Aprons Calico Muslin Gingham Percale Lawn Swiss Long Cloth For Kimonos, Negligees, Petticoats Flannelette Dimity For Infants* and Children's Dresses Batiste Nainsook Lawn Persian Lawn Long Cloth For Children's Coats Velveteen Corduroy For Middy Blouses Drilling Duck Galatea Indian Head Khaki For Skirts Duck Indian Head Khaki Pique Poplin Ratine SUGGESTIONS TO PURCHASERS 167 For Rompers Drilling Gingham Indian Head Khaki Seersucker For Linings Percaline Lace Net Lawn Sateen Silkaline m Chapter XXVII LAUNDERING OF COTTON AND LINEN FABRICS Knowledge of Laundering Nearly all the goods sold in the cotton and linen departments are bought with the expectation that they may be laundered without injury. It is therefore very necessary for a salesperson to know what are the best methods of laundering and what materials re- quire special treatment, in order that she may be able to advise the customer and prevent the dissatisfaction which arises from ignorance or carelessness. All materials, before being brought to the stores, have been pressed in some way. Most of them have been passed between rollers. Some of them have been washed. White linens have been washed and bleached. Primitive Methods of Laundering In early days women washed their linen by holding it or shaking it in running water or by pounding and rubbing it on a flat stone. The second method, still l68 LAUNDERING 169 practiced in some European countries, is very hard on linen or cotton cloth. Usual Method The methods of laundering used by our grand- mothers and familiar to most of us are: Soaking the clothes for some time in a tub of cold water. Soaping the soiled spots and rubbing them on a wash board. Boiling, rinsing, bluing, and starching. Wringing, drying, and ironing. Labor-Saving Devices Washing machines replace tubs and boards and as they cleanse by forcing streams of water through the material instead of rubbing it against a hard board they are less severe on the fabric. Gas and electric irons which retain their heat are often substituted for the iron that requires reheating. Mangles are much used for pressing or " mangling " table and toilet linen, bedding, and all flat work. Mangles are machines with large rollers, one of which is usually heated and the other cloth covered like an ironing board. Cloth may be pressed between these rollers. Effect of Washing on Fibers Cotton and linen are vegetable fibers and are of a i I70 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS LAUNDERING 171 V ' h; V: woody nature. They are strong and tough and may be washed, boiled, starched, and ironed without in- jury. All cotton goods will shrink, but linen does not shrink unless mixed with cotton. Coarse-weave linen will stretch. Some dyes do not unite readily with cotton and linen and therefore the colors fade, and some fabrics lose their finish when laundered. Linen launders more easily than cotton, but must be handled more carefully, as the fibers are brittle and liable to break, especially if starched stifif. Care should be taken in the laundering of all delicate fabrics, es- pecially in regard to the materials used in soap, starch, and bluing. Clothes often become yellow from care- less washing. Bleaches The best bleaches for cotton and linen arc sunshine, moisture, and fresh air. Chloride of lime is used in the mills. The chemical weakens the fibers somewhat, which accounts for the fact that unbleached materials are stronger than bleached. Cleansing Materials Laundry soaps are made of a combination of fat with an alkali (usually caustic soda). They also con- tain soda, borax, ammonia, kerosene, benzene, and naphtha. Soda, borax, and ammonia add to the cleansing properties, but should not be too strong. Kerosene loosens the dirt and also softens the water, while benzene and naphtha cut the grease. Yellow and White Soaps Some laundry soaps are white and some are yellow. White soaps have been found by chemical analysis to be purer than yellow or darker soaps. Yellow soaps contain resin, which is a gum from trees. This resin aids in forming suds, but as the suds are sticky and gum-like, they often cause a scum to form, which will adhere to the clothes. The sticky feeling of the yellow soaps is caused by the resin. Quality of Soap The quality of any soap depends upon the cleanness of the fat, the proportion of fat and alkali, and the kind and amount of other substances. Soaps which contain strong soda, borax, etc., should never be used for fine materials, though they serve a useful purpose in cleaning heavy fabrics which have been much soiled. Other Forms of Soap There are many soap powders on the market, which are powdered soap with more or less washing soda. Soap flakes come in pure form and may be used instead of cake soap in the laundering of delicate fabrics. 1 «H V i (• 172 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS Soap solution is made by dissolving shavings of cake soap or soap chips in hot water. This on cooling forms a jelly, which may be kept and used in washing all colored materials. Washing soda is used in many home laundries, but as it contains an excess of alkali, it is a dangerous substitute for pure soap. Substitutes for Soap If the color seems very uncertain, substitutes such as soap bark, bran water, or starch water may be used, as it is the alkali in the soap which often affects the color. None of these substitutes, however, are useful if water alone affects the color. If bran or soap bark is used, four cups are required to one gallon of water. For starch water, 3 tablespoons of starch to i gallon of water should be used. Each of these may be cooked 20 minutes, then strained, and the water which is left used in the place of a soap solution in the wash water. Wash and rinse as usual. If starch is used there would be enough starch left after the rinsing water to give a slight stiffness if the material is ironed wet. Starch Starch is a substance contained in the cells of grain and of some other plants. Heat and moisture cause LAUNDERING 173 these small granules to burst and form a jelly-like substance. The sizings which manufacturers put into the cloth are often made of starch. This adds weight to the cloth and fills in the spaces between the threads, es- pecially if the material is cheap and loosely woven. The starch also stiffens the material and prevents its soiling and mussing when handled. Laundry starch comes principally from corn, rice, wheat, and potatoes. Corn starch is the cheapest sort and is consequently used the most. The results are very satisfactory. Rice starch is the most expensive, but it is par- ticularly good for fine meshes, lingerie, and sheer dainty fabrics as it gives a new finish to the material. Wheat starch is used in public laundries, as it gives stiffness and pliability to the material. Potato starch is in use in the factories as a filling for cloth. Substitutes for starch are borax, gum arabic, glue, and dextrin, which are especially good for colored goods and are used where the white starch might show. Recipe for Starch To one quart of water add from i to 3 tablespoon- fuls of starch according to the thickness of the article 174 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS to be starched. Add also one-half teaspoonful of fat and one-half teaspoonful of borax. Starch should boil gently for at least fifteen min- utes. Otherwise it will not be sufficiently cooked and will leave white spots on the garment and the iron. The heat of the iron continues the cooking process. Starch must not be too thick. Bluing Bluing is used to whiten clothes. Careless washing with dark colored soaps often causes cloth to become yellow. Bluing counteracts this tendency. Kinds of Bluing The kinds of bluing are : indigo, of vegetable origin from the indigo plant ; ultramarine, of mineral origin ; Prussian blue, a chemical compound ; and aniline blue, a chemical product made from coal tar. Indigo is also now manufactured chemically. Bluing is sold either in solid or liquid form. Indigo was the first bluing used, but the color is dark and dull. This fact, together with the cost of manufacturing, makes it less desirable now that other blues may be obtained. It comes in solid form. Ultramarine blue came originally from the stone lapis lazuli, which was ground fine. It is now manu- factured chemically. It has a bright color and is LAUNDERING 175 much used in the home. This is the bluing which is sold in little balls. Prussian blue is of chemical origin with a com- pound of iron as one of its bases. It is of greenish color and sold in liquid form. It is used in many households, but if the clothes are not thoroughly rinsed or if any of the blue is left in the clothes, the iron m its composition will unite with the alkali of the soap and iron rust spots will appear on the clothes in a most unaccountable manner. Aniline blue is a strong dye and only a small quantity is required. It is sold in solid or liquid form. As compared with other blues it is cheaper and more effective and gives a good clear color. It is used prin- cipally by public laundries. Proper Methods of Laundering 1. To Prevent Shrinking, Cotton goods should be shrunk before making. Goods shrink less when washed and dried quickly and ironed before they are entirely dry. Cotton goods will average one or two inches shrinkage to the yard. Linen goods shrink very little, but coarsely woven linen will stretch. 2. To Prevent Fading: (a) Use pure or white soap for all colored cotton and linen goods. Strong soap should not be used and no soap should 176 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS ever be rubbed on the fabric, but soap jelly should be made and dissolved in the water. (b) Warm water, not hot, should be used. (c) Soaking in strong salt and water before washing will help to set the dye. (d) Materials of different colors should never be washed in the same water, as the colors from one material may be trans- ferred to the other. (e) Articles should be hung in the shade to dry as strong sunshine will fade them. Fading is more often due to careless drying than to any fault in washing. (f) Colored goods should not be folded when wet or ironed with a very hot iron. (g) Colored articles should not be laid next to white ones for the color may be transferred to the white ones, (h) Strong bluing will strengthen a blue. 3. To Set Colors. This process must precede the washing. Salt, vinegar, or sugar of lead, a poison, may be used, according to the color of the article. For general purposes salt is used for setting or brightening colors. Use one tablespoon ful to one quart of cold water. Soak the garment in this solu- tion for an hour or more, then rinse thoroughly in LAUNDERING m two or more waters to remove the salt, which if al- lowed to remain will prevent the soap from making a good suds. Vinegar is sometimes preferred for purple and black, as it not only fixes the color but may restore the tint to a faded purple or violet. Use one-fourth cup of vinegar to one gallon of water, allowing the garment to soak for an hour or two before washing. Sugar of lead may be used for delicate greens, blues, and tans, one teaspoonful to one gallon of luke- warm water. Stir until dissolved. Soak for one hour, wash, etc. 4. For Gloss and Finish. Linen table cloths and napkins should be ironed when quite damp, and the ironing should be continued on both sides of the cloth until it is " bone dry." This gives linen its beautiful gloss. Mercerized cotton keeps its gloss after launder- ing, but calendered cloth, an imitation of mercerized, loses its finish. Mangling is a quick and easy method of pressing, but it hardens linen, leaves a poor gloss and gradually wears off the fiber, leaving it thin and sleazy. Special Directions Embroidered waists and similar things should be ironed on the wrong side over several thicknesses of flannel or a turkish towel so that the embroidery may 178 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS sink into the soft material and not be ironed flat. Corduroy may be washed in warm, soapy water by sousing it up and down. It is then rinsed in the same way and hung dripping on the hne to dry. Garments should be put on a hanger or hung by the belt, as the line will mark them. When nearly dry the nap should be brushed and smoothed down. Chapter XXVIII CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK OF UNEN DEPARTMENT A — Linen Yard Goods 1. Materials Art Linen Bird's-eye Linen Butcher's Linen Cambric Crash Damask Diaper Linen Linen Duck Glass Toweling Handkerchief Linen Holland Duck Huckaback Linen Lawn Pillow-Case Linen Sheeting Toweling 2. Weaves Plain Twill Damask 179 l80 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS Bird's-eye Huck 3. Colors White Plain Colors White and Colors B — Toilet Linen 1. Finished Towels Huckaback (Hemmed, Hemstitched, or Scal- loped) Damask (Hemmed, Hemstitched, or Scal- loped) Fancy Weaves (Hemmed, Hemstitched, or Scalloped) Turkish Towels Turkish Bath Sheets Crash Kitchen Towels Glass Towels 2. Toweling by the Yard Damask Huckaback Crash Unbleached Linen Half-Bleached Linen Old Bleach Linen Glass Toweling Cotton Toweling Union Goods Turkish Toweling Terry Cloth 3. Wash Cloths Woven Knitted CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 181 4. Bath Mats 5. Rubber Sheeting C — Bed Linen 1. Sheets and Pillow-Cases Plain Hemmed Hemstitched Scalloped Embroidered 2. Blankets, Comfortables, and Bed Spreads (See "Classification of Stock of Cotton Goods Departments," pages 84-88) D — Table Linen 1. Articles Table Cloths (By the yard or in sets) Napkins (By the dozen or in sets) Tea Cloths Tray Cloths Doilies Silence Cloths Asbestos Pads 2. Weaves Plain Damask 3. Styles Hemmed Hemstitched Scalloped Drawn-Work Embroidered Fringed 1 l82 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS E — Fancy Linens 1. Articles Dresser Scarfs Sideboard Covers Table Covers Squares Cases for Handkerchiefs, etc. Tea Napkins Tray Cloths Doilies Luncheon Sets Japanese Bungalow Sets 2. Laces Filet (R^al and Imitation) Cluny (Real and Imitation) Torchon Duchess (Real and Imitation) Renaissance Venise Arabian Point de Venise Filet 3. Embroidery Cut Work French Irish Azure Appenzell German Madeira Drawn-Work CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 183 F — Handkerchiefs I. Materials (a) Linen Handkerchief Linen Hand Spun, Machine Spun Sheer, Medium, Heavy (b) Cotton Cambric Lawn VoUe (c) Silk Japanese China Crepe de Chine Pussy Willow Chiffon Georgette (d) Mixtures , , . . Shamrock Lawn (>4 Cotton, K L^nen) Irish Lawn (e) Laces Armenian Carick-ma-Cross Duchess Filet Point Venise Princess Rose Point Valenciennes 2. Styles Regular Mourning Glove i 184 TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS Peter Thompson (Squares, >4 Squares) English Squares 3. Sizes (a) Regular Women's (12 to 18 inches) Men's (20 to 22 inches) Children's (6 to 14 inches) (b) Glove (6 to 9 inches) 4. Decorations Hemstitching Drawn-Work Embroidery Madeira Appenzell Spanish Lace, Tatting Tape Border Cross-Bar Printing and Hand-Paintinff Rolled Edge 5. Colors White Plain Colors Two-Toned 6. Initials and Monograms Block Script Longfellow Appendix Leading Cotton Manufacturers in the United States ' Acushnet Mill Corporation, New Bedford, Mass. Amoskeag Mfg. Co., Man- chester, N. H. Sheetings, Twills, etc. Tickings, Denims, Sheetings, Cotton Flannels, Print Cloths, Ginghams Anderson Cotton Mills, South Carolina Sheetings Androscoggin Mills, Lewis- Sheetings, Shirtings, Jeans, ton. Me. Arlington Mills, Lawrence, Mass. Seersuckers, Quilts Combed Cotton, Mercerized Yams Avon Mills Co., Lewiston, Cotton, Linen & Fine Turk- Me. ish Towels, Crochet & Satin Bed Spreads, Bath Mats Baltic Mills Co., New Lon- don, Conn. Fine Lawns, Sateens Bates Mfg. Co., Lewiston, Table Damasks, Seersuckers, Me. Quilts Berkshire Cotton Mfg. Co., Organdies, Mulls, India Adams, Mass. Berkeley Mills, Berkeley, R. I. Blumenthal, Sidney & Co., Shelton, Conn. Booth Mills, Lowell, Mass. Borden, Richard, Mfg. Co., Fall River, Mass. Linens Cambrics, Lawns, Nainsooks, Fine Cottons Velvets, Plushes Dobby & Plain Weaves, Drill- ings, Sheetings Print Ooths, Fancy Weaves 185 i86 APPENDIX Border City Mfg. Co., Fall River, Mass. ^ Bourne Mills, Fall River, Mass. Brandon Mills, Greenville, S. C. Bristol Mfg. Co., New Bed- ford, Mass. Brookside Mills, Knoxville, Tenn. Butler Mill, New Bedford, Mass. California Cotton Mills, Cal. '> Chadwick-Hoskins Co., Char- lotte, N. C. ^ Clifton Mfg. Co., Qifton, S. Continental Mills, Lewiston, Me. Dallas Mfg. Co., Ala. Darlington Mfg. Co., Dar- lington, S. C. ' Dartmouth Mfg. Corp., New Bedford, Mass. ' Davis Mills, Fall River, Mass. Edwards Mfg. Co., Augusta, Me. ' Erwin Cotton Mills Co., Dur- ham, N. C. Everett Mills, Lawrence, Mass. Flint Mills, Fall River, Mass. Gosnold Mills Co., New Bed- ford, Mass. Granite Mills, Fall River, Mass. Sheetings, Shirtings, Crepes, Fancy Cloths Twills, Sateens, etc. Sateens, Sheetings Plain & Fancy Fine Combed Cotton Goods Corduroys, Velvets, Ducks, Specialties Fine Lawns, Organdies, Sateens, Fancy Goods Warps Sheetings Sheetings, Shirtings, Twills, Sateens, etc. Sheetings, Drillings, Print Cloths Brown & Bleached Sheetings Shirtings, Prints, Sateens Fine Cottons, Plain, Fancy & Jacquard Goods Fine & Fancy Goods Sateens. Flannels, Twills, Pillow Tubing Denims, Brown & Bleached Sheetings, Sheets & Pillow- Cases Ginghams, Fine Shirtings, Denims, etc. Cotton Goods Fine, Plain & Fancy Cotton Goods Plain & Fancy Goods APPENDIX 187 Grinnell Mfg. Corp., New Bedford, Mass. Henrietta Mills, Caroleen, N. C. King, John P. Mfg. Co., At- lanta, Ga. *^ing Philip Mills, Fall River, Mass. Fine, Plain & Fancy Goods Sheetings, Shirtings, Drill- ings, Print Cloths Sheetings, Shirtings, Drill- ings Lawns, Cambrics Lancaster Mills, Clinton, Ginghams, Shirtings, Fine Mass. Dress Goods Lincoln Mfg. Co., Fall River, Mass. Locke Cotton Mills, Concord, N. C. Lockwood Co., Waterville, Me. Lonsdale Mills, Lonsdale, R. I. ''Lorraine Mfg. Co.. Paw- tucket, R. I. Lyman Mills, Holyoke, Mass. Manville Co., Woonsocket, R. I. Mars Cotton Mills, Lowell, Mass. McLean, A. Co., Passaic Mills, Passaic, N. J. Merrimack Mfg. Co., Ala. Nashua Mfg. Co., Nashua, N. H. Naiunkeag Steam Cotton Co., Salem, Mass. Page Mfg. Co., New Bedford, Mass. ^Pacific Mills, Lawrence, Mass. ^-Pacolet Mfg. Co., Pacolet, S. C. Fine Goods Plain & Fancy Dress Ging- hams Sheetings, Shirtings Fine Bleached Sheetings, Silesias, Twills Dress Goods Lawns, Fancy Dress Goods, Drillings Sheetings, Shirtings, Linings, Fancy Weaves Denims, Chambrays, Ging- hams, Flannelettes, etc. Linings, Shade Cloth, Napped Goods Lawns, Print Cloths Blankets, Cotton Flannels, etc. Sheetings, Jeans, Sheets & Pillow-Cases Fancy, Plain, Fine Goods Prints & Fancy Cottons Sheetings, Drillingf I88 APPENDIX Pequot Mills, Montville, Conn. Pilgrim Mills, Fall River, Mass, Pocasset Mfg. Co., Fall River, Mass. Ponemah Mills, Taftville, Conn. Potomska Mills Corp., New Bedford, Mass. Pepperell Mfg. Co., Bidde- ford, Me. Renfrew Mfg. Co., Adams, Mass. Sagamore Mfg. Co.. Fall River, Mass. ^ Slater, S. & Sons, Inc., Web- ster, Mass. Soule Mill, New Bedford, Mass. Spartan Mills, Spartanburg, Stafford Mills, Fall River, Mass. Stark Mills (International Cotton Mills), Manchester, N. H. Tremont & Suffolk Mills, Lowell, Mass. Union Mfg. Co., Fall River, Mass. Union-Buffalo Mills Co., Union Mills, N. Y. Union Wadding Co., Paw- tucket, R. I. Sheetings Fine Goods Sateens, Twills, Plain Cloths Fine and Fancy Goods Fancy Goods, Linons, Lawns Sheetings, Jeans, Drillings, Sateens Colored & White Wash Goods, Table Damasks, Ta- ble Cloths Print Cloths Sateens, Silesias, Percales, Sheetings Lawns, Organdies, Fancy Goods Brown Sheetings, Print Cloths Print Cloths Sheetings, Shirtings, Drill- ings, Ducks, Seamless Bags Sheetings, Drillings, Canton Flannels, Cotton Blankets Print Cloths Print Cloths, Sheetings Wadding, Batting APPENDIX 189 Utica Mills, Utica, N. Y. Utica Steam & Mohawk Val- ley Cotton Mills, Utica, N. Y. Victor Mfg. Co., Greer, S. C. ^'Wamsutta Mills, New Bed- ford, Mass. Warren Mfg. Co., Warren, R. I. White Oak Cotton Mills, Greensboro, N. C. Whitman Mills, New Bed- ford, Mass. York Mfg. Co., Saco, Me. Sheeting! Sheetings, Shirtings Striped & Checked Madras, Dimities, Lawns Bleached & Brown Sheetings, Shirtings, Lawns, Sateens Lawns, Sateens, Fancy Goods Denims Plain & Fancy Goods Ginghams, Denims, Dress Goods Leading Linen Manufacturers* John S. Brown & Sons, Ltd. Ireland Bros. Hillsborough Linen Co. James Mathewson & Son Hay & Robertson R. E. Walker, Reid & Co. Belfast, Ireland Belfast, Ireland Belfast, Ireland Dunfermline, Scotland Dunfermline, Scotland Dunfermline, Scotland Bcx>Ks FOR Reference Spinning and Weaving Cotton Spinning, R. Marsden. Macmillan, $1.75 Cotton Weaving, R. Marsden. Macmillan, $3 Ongin of Inventions, O. T. Mason. Scribner, $1.50 Practical Treatise on Weaving and Designing of Textile Fabrics, T. R. Asherhurst. (Out of Print) •Owing to th« European conditions a complete list of linen manu- facturers cannot be obtained. If 1 1 190 APPENDIX Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, O. T. Mason. Apple- ton, $1.75 Textiles and Textile Fibers Cotton Fabrics Glossary, A. Bennet. F. P. Bennet, $3 Encyclopedia of Dry Goods, G. S. Cole. (Out of Print) Fibers Used in Textile and Allied Industries, Mitchell and Prideaux. Van Nostrand, $3 Flax for Seed and Fiber, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 5 cents. Household Textiles, Charlotte McGibbs. Whitcomb and Bar- rows. $1.25 How We Are Clothed, J. F. Chamberlain. Macmillan, 40 cents Methods of Textile Chemistry, F. Dannerth. Wiley, $2 Story of the Cotton Plant. F. Wilkinson. Appleton Textiles, A. F. Barker. Van Nostrand, $2 Textiles, Wm. H. Dooley. Heath, $1 Textiles, Paul H. Nystrom. Appleton, $1.50 Textiles, Woolman and McGowan. Macmillan, $2 Textiles and Clothing, K. H. Watson. Am. School of Home Economics, $2 Textile Fibers, J. M. Matthews. Wiley, $4 The Story of Textiles, Perry Walton. J. S. Lawrence, $3 Dyeing Dyes and Dyeing, C. E. Pellew. McBride Nast & Co., $2 Laboratory Manual of Dyeing and Textile Chemistry. J. M. Matthews. Wiley, I3.50 Laundering Approved Methods for Home Laundering, Mary Beali Vail. Procter and Gamble Co. Laundering, L. R. Balderston, 1224 Cherry St., Phil., Pa. $1.25 The Practical Dry Cleaner, Scourer, and Garment Dyer, W. T. Brannt, Baird, $2.50 ABBItDBBN, 93 Acid Test, 113 Adulterations. cotton, 39 linen, no tests, 164 American Cotton, s, 10 Aniline Dyes, bluing. 1 75 discovery, 53 Animal Dyes, 51 Arkwright, Richard, 18 Artificial Dyes (See dyes") Art Linen, us Asbestos Pads, 136 Austrian Linen. 93 Baling of Cotton, 10 Bast Fiber, Definition, 94 Batiste. 3, 61, 8s, 130 Bedding, bed spreads, classification, 88 description. 131 sizes, 133 blankets, description. X38 sizes. 133 summer, 88, 139 classification, 88 comfortables, classification. 88 INDEX BKDDiHG—Continued comfortables — Continu9d description, 130 sizes. 132 counterpanes, crochet, 131 description, 130 Marseilles, 131, 133 mattress pads, 88, 137 mattress protectors, 88. 127 pillow cases and slips. description, 128 linen, 118 sizes, 13a "Aniline tubing, 3, 84 quilts, 139 sheets, 136 sizes, 133 sizes. 132 Bed Spreads (See "Bedding") Beetling, cotton, 35 linen. 103 Belgian Linbn, 93. 143, 149 Bird's-Eyb Linen, 1x5 Blankets and Comfortables (Sm "Bedding") Bleaching, chemical, 103 definition, 34 grades, X03 grass, 103 Block Printing, 57 Breaking. cotton, 30 flax, 95. 97 Brokers, Cotton, zo, za. 13 191 1 I 192 • INDEX Brushing, 35 Buckram, 3, 77. 86 Butchers' Linsn, 115 Calbndbring, 35, 38, 103, i6a Calico, 3, 56, 61, 84 Cambric. 3t 62, 77, 78, 84, 88 linen. 116 Canton Flannbl, 3, 62, 84, 87 Canvas, 3, 78, 86 Carding, by machines, ai hand cards, 16 Jacquard loom, 30 process, 21 Cartwright, Rev. Dr., 29 Centers of Industry, cotton, 83 handkerchiefs, 149 linen, 91 Challis, s6, 62, 130 Chambray, 63 Cheese-Cloth, 3. 63, 130 Chemical Bleaching, 103 Cheviot, 3, 8s Chiffon, 3, 8s China Clay, 3s China Grass, ids Chintz, 56, 130 Chrome Yellow, 52 Classification of Materials (See " Materials, classification and names") Cloth Beam, Hand Loom, 28 Coal Tar Dyes (See "Aniline dyes") Cochineal, 51 Color, artificial light, 46 fading, I7S harmony, 45 (See also "Silk Manual") Combing, 21 Comfortables (See "Bedding") Congo Red, sj Corduroy, 3, 63, 8s Cotton, American, s baling, 10 centers of industry, 83 cultivation of. 4, 8 damask, 36, 6s dealers and brokers, 10 Egyptian, 6 exchange, 12 fiber (See "Vegetable fiber") finishing processes, 34 ginning, 9 grading, 11 history, 82 Indian, 7 invention of cotton gin, 19 long staple, s marketing, 10 materials (See also " Material! ") mercerization, 36 mixtures, adulterations, etc., 39, no Peruvian, 6 picking, 8 preparation of. 20 properties, 7 Sea Island, f services of supply, s short staple, s spinning, 14 taffeta, 36 Upland, s Cotton Gin, Invention, 10, 19 Cotton Wadding (See "Wadding") Counterpanes (See "Bedding") Counts of Yarn, 24, 33 Crash, 116 Russia, 116 suiting, 116 CRfiPE, 3. S6, 64. 85 Japanese, 3. 86 index 193 CRtPE de Chine, 3, 8s Crepon (See " Crepe ") Crinoline, 3. 78. 86 Crochet Counterpanes, 131 Crompton, Samuel, 19 Crompton's Mule, 19 Cultivation of Cotton Plant, 4 Cutch, 52 Damask, cotton, 36, 65 linen, 116 towels, 123 Damp Spinning, 99 Denim, 3, 65, 84 Departments of Stores, divisions of cotton goods, 2 Design, 47, S7, 138, 148 (See also "Silk Manual") in handkerchiefs, 148 in table linen, 141 difficulties, 138 lengthening pieces, 140 method, 139 standard patterns, 138 printed, 57 Dextrin, 60 Diaper Linen, 117 Dimity, 3. 56, 65, 85, 132 Direct Cotton Dyes, 53 Direct Printing, 58 Discharge Printing, 58, 59 Distaff, 16 Doilies, description, 135 sizes, 137 Domestics, Classification, 3, 84 Doubling, 22 Drawing, 14, 16, 22, 99 Drawn Work, 14s Dress Goods, Classification, 3, 85 Dressing, 34 Drilling, 3. 77, 79. 86 Drying, Flax, 95, 97 Dry Spinning, 100 Dublin, 92 Duck, cotton, 65 linen. 117 Dundee, 92 Dunferline, 92 Dyeing Methods. 55 mordant, 54 piece, 34, 55 printing, 34 process, 56 raw cotton, ss yam. 55 Dyes, aniline, 52 animal, 51 cochineal, 51 Congo red, 53 direct cotton, 53 indigo, 51 lac. 51 logwood, 51 madder, 51 mineral, 52 natural, 50 sulphur, 54 Tyrian purple. 51 vat, 54 vegetable, 51 Egyptian Cotton, 6 Eiderdown, 87 Embossing, 35, 41 Embroidered Linbn, Madeira, 14s Swiss, 144 Embroidery, 144 Ends, 31, 33 English Linen, 93 I i 194 Exchange Cotton, la P Fabrics (See "Materials") Fancy Linens, classification, 143, i8a imitations. 145 Japanese sets, 145 Farmer's Satin, 79 Fiber (See "Vegetable fibers") Filling (See "Weft") Finishing Processes, cotton, 34 linen, loi Flannelette, 42, 56, 66, 87 Flannels, Cotton, 87 Flax, breaking, 95, 97 cultivation, 94 drying, 95, 97 harvesting, 94 plant, 94 retting, 95, 96 rippling, 95 scutching, 95, 97 wheel, 17 Flaxon. 3, 42, 8s Flier, 17, 19 Flying Shuttle, 28 Foulard, 36 French Linen, 92. 143, 149 Fustic, 52 Future Sales, 13 Gaberdine, 3, 85 Galatea, 3. 66, 84 German Linen, 92, 122, 143. 149 Ghent, 92 Gigging, 3S Gingham, 3. 66, 84, 86 Ginning of Cotton, 9 INDEX Glass Toweling, 117 Glycerin, 34 Grades of Blbachinc, 103 Grading of Cotton, h Grass Bleaching. loa Great Wheel, 17 Gum. 3S, 60, I Id Gum Arabic, 60 Gum Tragacanth. 60 Hackling Flax, 98 Hand Cards, 16 Hand Loom, 27 Hand Spinning, 15 Handkerchiefs, description, 146 design, 148 grades, 147 history, 149 linen, 117, 171 silk, ISO Swiss, 149 Hargeaves, Jambs, 18 Harness, hand loom, 48 power loom, 29, 32 Hbathbrbloom, 3, 86 Heddlbs, Hand Loom, 28 Hemp, ios, 108 Japanese, 108 Manila, 109 History of, cotton. 82 linen, isz Holland, duck, 179 linen, 118 Holt, Samuel, ts, laa Huckaback, cotton, 67 linen, 118 index 195 Imitations of, fancy linens, 145 linen, 40 silk, 3. 36 wool, 41 India Linen, 3, 67, 8s Indian Cotton, 7 Indian Head. 67 Indigo, si. 174 Interlinings, 3, 79, 86 Irish Linen. 92. 102, 122, 144, Iron Buff. S2 Italian Cloth. 79 Jaconet.^ 67 Jacquard, Joseph Marie, 29 Jacquard Loom, 29 (See also Manual") Japanese, crSpe, 3, 86 hemp, 108 linen, 143 Japanese Bungalow Sets, 14s Jersey Wheel, 17 Jute, ids, 106 Kay, John. 38 Khaki. 3. 68, 86 Lac, 51 Laces, 174. i 8a Laundering, best methods, 67 bluing, 174 mangling, 177 setting colors, 176 Laundering — Continued soap, 170 starch, 172 Lawn, 3, 36. s6, 69, 84. 8$, 86 linen, 118, 179 Persian, 8s Limerick, 92 Line, Fibers, 99 Linen, Austrian, 93 Belgian, 92 colored, 163 149 cultivation of flax plant, 94 display, 89 divisions of department, 90 dyes, 94 English. 93 fiber (See "Vegetable fibers") finishing processes, loi French, 92, 143, 149 "Silk German. 9a, 122, 143, 149 history, 151 India, 3, 67. 85 Irish, 92, 102, 122, 144. 149 lawn (See "Lawn") line, 99 manufacture, 98 materials, 118 properties, 93 Russian, 93 Scotch, 93 sources of supply, 91 toilet, 120 tow, 99 United States, 91, laa. 153 LiNENE, 42 Linings, classification, 3, 86 description, 77 varieties, 77 LiNON, 42. 69 Linseed Oil, 91 Logwood, sx Long Cloth, 3. 69, 94 196 INDEX Long Staple Cotton, s Loom, hand, 26, 37 Jacquard, 39 parts. 38 power, 39 Maddkk, 51 Madeira, embroidery, 145 linen, 91 Madras. 3, 70, 85 Mangling, 177 M anilaHbmp, 109 Manufacture of Cotton, 14 Manufacturers , cotton, 185 linen. 189 Marketing of Cotton, 10 Marquisette, 3, 70, 85, 86 Marseilles Counterpanes, 131, 133 Materials. cotton, classification and names. 3, 36. 43,84 description, 61 uses. i6s durability. 31 laundering, 175 linen. classification and names, 90. I30, 133, 143 description. 115 shrinking, 170, 175 tests. 42, iia Mattress. pads, 137 protectors, 88, 127 Mercer, John, 36 Mercbrization, discorery, 36 process, 37 Mercerized Fiber. 43. 44 Mercerized Goods. 3, 36, 77, 161 Mexican Drawn Work, 14s Middling (See "Grades of Cotton") Mineral Dyks. 53 Mixtures, 39. tio Mordant Dyeing. 54 Moreen, 3, 86 Mosquito Netting, 70 Mucilage, 35 Mule, Crompton's. xf Mule Spinning. 23 Mull, 3, 70. «s. 86 Muslin. 3, 56, 71, 84 Nainsook. 3, 71. 84 Names of Materials (See "Mater- ials, classification and names") Napkins. description, 134 sizes, 137 Napping, 35. 41 Natural Dyes, so Near-Silk, 3. 42, 87 Novelties, 85, 86, 87 Old Bleach Liken, hi Organdy, 3. 56, 71. 8s osnaburg, 71 Outing Flannel, 43. 73, 87 Patchwork Quilts. i«9 Percale, 3. S6, 72, 84 Percaline. 3. 35. 77, 19. 87 Perkin, W. H., S2 Persian Lawn, 8s Peruvian Cotton, 6 Picking and Scutching, ax INDEX 197 Piers, 31, 33 Piece Dyeing, 34. SS Pile Weave, 33 Pillow Cases (See "Bedding") Pillow Slips (See "Bedding") Pique, 3, 73. 85 Poplin, 3, 36, 73. 8s Power Loom, 39, 30 Preparation of Flax Fiber, 95 Printing, 34, 56 block. 57 designs. 57 direct, 58 discharge, 58, 59 process, 56 resist. 58, 59 thickened dyes, 59 Properties of Linen, 93 Prussian Blue. 52. i75 Purchasers. Suggestions to, 160 Quilted Lining. 3. 80. 87 Quilts. 129 R Ramie, 105. 106 Ramie Linen, 105 Ratine. 73 Reed. Hand Loom. 28 Resist Printing, 58, 59 Retting, Flax, 95, 96 Ring Spinning. 23 Rippling. 95 Roughing Flax, 98 Roving (See "Drawing") Rubber Sheeting (See "Notions . Manual") Russian Linen, 93 S Sales, future. 13 spot, 13 Sateen. 3, 36, 41. 43, 77. 80, 84. 87, 130 Saxony Wheel, 17 schrbinerizing, 35. 38 Scotch Flannel. 87 Scotch Linen, 92, 123, 149 Scutching, 31. 9s, 97 Sea Island Cotton, s. 10 Shantung. 36 Shed, Hand Loom, 38 Sheeting. 84, 127 linen, 119 rubber (See "Notions Manual") Sheets (See "Bedding") Shirting. 73 Short Staple Cotton, 5 Shuttle. Flying. 28 Shuttle, Hand Loom. 28 Silence Cloth. 136 Silesia. 3. 77. 80. 97 SiLKOLiNE. 36. 130 Silver Bleach, 103 Singeing, 3S Sizes, Bed Linen, 13a Sizes op Yarn, 34 Sizing, 34. 42. no, in Slater, Samuel, 30 Sliver, si, 99 Slubbing, 23 Soap, 170 Sorting Flax, 99 Spindle, 16, Z7 Spinning, by hand, 15 by machinery. 18 Spinning Jersey. 18 Spinning Machines, 18 Spinning Processes, cotton. 20 flax, damp spinning, 99 dry spinning. 100 line spinning, 98 wet spinning. 99 I t 198 IKDEX Spinning Whbbls, 17 Spot Sales. 13 Spreading Flax, 99 Starch. 3S, 60. no, 17a Substantive Dyes. 153 Substitutes for Soap. 17a Sulphur Dybs, 54 Swiss, 3. 35, 74. 8S, 86 embroidered linen. 143, 144 handktrchiefs. 149 Table Cloths. description, 133 sizes. 137 Table Covers, 143 Table Linen, classification, 133 design (See " Design in table linea ") doilies. 135, 137 napkins. 134. 137 silence cloths. 136 standard sizes. 137 table cloths, 133, 137, 138 tea cloths, X35 tray cloths, 135 Tarlatan, 74 Tea Cloths, 135 Tbntbring, 35 Terry Cloth. 74, 119 Tests, acid, 113 cotton materials, 4t linen, 113 microscope, 43. 113 Textile Study. Historic Intkrbst, 164 Thickened Dybs, 59 Ticking, 75 Toilet Linen, classification, I30 design. 123 finished towels, lao Toilet Linen — Coniinmd toweling, lao Tow. 99 Toweling. 119 Towels, classification, 120 cotton, i6a damask, 123 definition, X2i sources, laa Turkish, 122 Tray Cloths. 135 Tub Silk, 36 Tucking, 75 Turkish Red Dye. 5a Turkish Towels. lat (Sm also "Terry cloth") TUSSUR. 36 Tyrian Purplb, sz UmoN Goods. 39. no Upholstery Goods. 36 Upland Cotton. 5 Upright Loom. 27 Varieties op Cotton, f • zo Vat Dyes. 54 Vegetable Dyes, 51 Vegetable Fibers. China grass. 105 cotton. 4. 6. 7. 9. IX. 15. 43, i^ flax, 43, 94. 9I. 114, 161 hemp. Z05, lot jute. 105. X06 ramie*. 105. 106 varieties, 105 Velveteen, 4a. 75 VlYELLA, 87 Voile. 3, 36, 76. «s, »6 i INDEX 199 W Wadding. 81. 16, ia9. 130 Warp, a6, 31 Warp Beam, a8 yams. a4 Wash Cloths. laa, x8o Water Frame, 19 Weaves, 3a, 84, 86, 87 Weaving, history of, a6 machinery, lox (See also "Loom") processes. 31 (See also "Silk Manual ") Weft. a6. 31 yams, 34 Wet Spinning. 99 White Goods. Classification. 3. 8s Whitney. Eli. 19 Whorl. 16 WiGAN, 81 Yarn Dyeing. s5 Yarns. sizes or counts, 34 warp, 24 weft, 34 !• Date Due 0*n^--2.1 n M ( ljQjj> ^ ! M TF^I -^ •. -^ PM^ Vr«r ♦J M^H06o3