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 HEALTH SCIENCES STANDARD 
 
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 QP45 .L87 The influence of ani 
 
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 Influence of Animal 
 
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 on Medical Science. 
 
 By A. L. LOOMIS, M. £>., LL.D. 
 
 i Transactions of the Congress of A merican 
 Physicians and Surgeons, 1&94] 
 

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 BY ALFRED L. LOOMIS, M.D., LL.D. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION ON 
 MEDICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 Gentlemen- : — This third meeting of the Congress of American 
 Physicians and Surgeons is a most memorable occasion, since it has 
 established the success of an undertaking, which aimed to unite in one 
 representative body groups of acknowledged experts in all departments 
 of Medicine and Surgery. It is, however, no longer an experiment, 
 for the record of work done places it high in the list of scientific 
 associations. Its broadening influences upon American Medicine and 
 Surgery have already been felt and acknowledged. The vast extent 
 of modern medical research, the various objects of separate interest 
 which it includes, and the limitations of human intellect, have made 
 it necessary that there should be groups of workers in many different 
 departments. 
 
 It is clear that one mind cannot advance medical knowledge except 
 by an infinitesimal degree. In ages when strong minds were few and 
 intercourse limited, men must needs have been more than human 
 t<» have accomplished much more than their masters did. For nearly 
 a thousand years the history of medicine may be traced by a 
 few names. Schools \vi-n- founded on men, not on principles, until 
 loyalty to one's master, the founder of a school, became stronger 
 than truth. Even as late as the sixteenth century, Galen, Hippocrates 
 and the Arabic authorities were the teachers of medicine throughout 
 the civilized world. From the crumbling ruins of abstruse theories 
 ami the wrecks of individual systems has come a scientific scepticism, 
 
 which i- to-day the most Striking characteristic of medical thought, — 
 
 pticism which doubts not for the sake of doubting, bul which 
 demands proofs and counter-proofs, which scans facts, not men, and 
 
 which learns to recognize truth from whatever source it conies. It is 
 
 which i- making modern medicine truly scientific and giving to 
 modern investigation an individuality which thinks and decides for 
 itself. It. i- this spirit, this love of truth, dominating such gatherings 
 as this, which, during the past, two decades, has been shaping medical 
 
300 THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPEEIMENTATION 
 
 thought and investigation. It is this keeping in close touch with one 
 another's work that is giving to modern medicine its freshness, special 
 activity in investigation and rapid growth, which is inspiring medical 
 workers with a community of thought and action, and which is hear- 
 ing fruit of the greatest promise. On such an occasion as this, in the 
 presence of so many trained and skilled workers, it seems fitting that 
 I should direct the current of thought to the lines of investigation 
 which have made the discoveries of the last quarter of the nineteenth 
 century possible. 
 
 From the beginning of history until the present century, medicine 
 has been either absolutely denied a place among the Sciences or else 
 branded as inexact, empyrical and laggard in its development and 
 progress. Although dealing, as it does, with the most complex prob- 
 lems of human existence, where, as in no other science, every law of 
 nature is controlled and modified by that unknown foree we call 
 vitality, Medicine has nevertheless, from the very first, been forced to 
 meet the demand for complete knowledge. To it alone, the answer 
 " we do not yet know all " has been denied. 
 
 No greater misconception has ever gained footing in the public 
 mind than the belief in disease as an entity, — an evil spirit to be exor- 
 cised or driven out by drugs. The superficial observer recognizes 
 only results and gross phenomena; he is content with knowing the 
 end, never asking for causes. For him motion and quiescence as 
 shown by his senses are the ultimatum; factors and forces have no 
 place in his mental processes. Yet these are precisely what science 
 seeks to define, and until he has made the first analysis of terms, 
 established absolute variations of quantity and quality, and deter- 
 mined the fixed ratio of forces, the scientific worker is not content. 
 
 In determining then the influence of any one factor in the develop- 
 ment of medical science, results cannot be measured by the perfection 
 of the whole, but must be estimated solely by the degree of advance 
 toward the completed investigations. 
 
 The specific problems with which medical science deals are thus 
 seen to be questions of the relative influence of multiple forces on the 
 production of given results. When Galvani recognized electric force 
 in the twitching muscles of his dismembered frogs and Volta was led 
 thereby to the development of apparatus for the continuous produc- 
 tion of this mysterious agency, there was no hint whatever of the far- 
 reaching influence of electricity in modern medicine. Yet history 
 shows that one discovery was the direct result of the other and that 
 every electrical device for the relief of disease has its origin in those 
 quivering batrachian limbs. 
 
ON MEDICAL SCIENCE. 301 
 
 Only the deepest ignorance can fail to recognize that the forces con- 
 cerned in the simplest changes of inorganic nature are so numerous, 
 and their relations so complex, that they defy recognition under un- 
 controlled conditions, while in the organic world the task is even 
 more hopeless. Experimentation, therefore, in which one or more of 
 the involved forces can he controlled or predetermined and eliminated, 
 becomes an absolute necessity in all scientific investigation. How- 
 ever clear the mental analysis, however accurate the logical demon- 
 stration from cause to effect, it is possible by^experiment alone, under 
 controlled conditions, to prove that no involved force has been over- 
 looked; that the premises were true and the conclusions therefore 
 ultimate. The truly scientific investigator is an analyist and purist, 
 who seeks to establish the values of single, in place of combined, 
 forces. His results are therefore primarily isolated facts, and their 
 value not immediately evident, often indeed their relations are so 
 remote, and their values so contingent upon yet other undetermined 
 truths that they gain but scanty recognition; if perchance they are 
 not totally ignored, and finally forgotten. Meanwhile the brazen 
 dicta of some mere observer, who only sees most superficial relations 
 and blindly accepts an assumed possibility as demonstrated fact, gain 
 unhesitating credence. Yet the scientific experimentator alone, adds 
 to our store of knowledge and power for good. He seeks for truth 
 and truth alone. However isolated or unrelated his results may seem, 
 he sees in each a potential value. The smallest discovery thus not only 
 has its own pecular merit, but points the way to other hidden truths, 
 although it may often be difficult to connect the several links in the 
 long chain of progressive knowledge. 
 
 The world might still be standing in dumb awe and barbaric fear 
 of Jove's thunder-bolts, had not Franklin's kite decoyed the blinding 
 force and locked it in his Leyden jar. Thus bound and under prede- 
 termined conditions of action, it was brought within the power of 
 scientific investigation. 
 
 Is it not strange thai .Medicine should be denied the right to follow 
 those imperative methods of scientific research which are so unques- 
 tioningly accorded to every other science? 
 
 It has been assumed thai the medical investigator finds ample op- 
 portunity for experimentation in studying disease under the ordinary 
 Litione of human life. 
 
 gnition, however, of the fad thai experiments are aever iso- 
 lated, but in continuous and consequenl series; thai unknown quanti- 
 iii- determined, as in solving algebraic equations, by successive 
 eliminations, and thai ultimate values are obtained only from expert- 
 
302 THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPEKIMENTATION 
 
 ments involving but a single unknown term, at once indicates how 
 uncertain, and hence valueless, conclusions drawn only from clinical 
 experience must be. If further proof be desired it is found in the 
 well-known uncertainty and variabdity of disease processes, and the 
 associated systemic reaction. Scientific experimentation thus demands 
 conditions under which the largest possible number of the involved 
 factors can be controlled or known. For medical science these condi- 
 tions can only be found in a healthy organism. This science must 
 therefore either stand still, or investigate the mysteries of life, where 
 life holds its myriad forces in perfect harmony. Thus, it seeks not 
 primarly to discover cures for disease, but rather to separate the 
 multiple factors of disease and to fix the relations of such factors to the 
 forces under our control, by which they may be modified. It is not a 
 little surprising that, with an appreciation of the necessity for experi- 
 mentation, men should for so long have preferred to be its subjects, 
 and that even to-day so many refuse to yield the place to animals. 
 For example, in wide-spread epidemics we note the effects of an infec- 
 tion on perhaps half a million of human beings, with a great sacrifice 
 of human life. On the other hand we study in laboratories the cause 
 of the epidemics, with comparatively small sacrifice of animal life. 
 
 In entering upon the consideration of this subject I fearlessly lay 
 down this proposition, confident that it states your unanimous 
 verdict as representatives of medical science on this continent. That 
 every distinct advance, every established principle, and every uni- 
 versally accepted law of medical science has been in the past and 
 will be in the future the indirect, if not direct, result of animal 
 experimentation. I ask you to review with me some of the more 
 obvious and conclusive proofs of this proposition. 
 
 The imperative lines of our investigation may be broadly classed 
 under four heads : 
 
 1. ^Experiments to determine the functions and normal relations of 
 the organs composing the physical economy. 
 
 2. The causes of those perversions of function present in the condi- 
 tion designated disease. 
 
 3. The nature of morbid processes and the relations of their causes 
 to the consequent systemic reactions. 
 
 4. The protective and curative influence upon these processes of 
 agencies under our control. 
 
 In this review I shall follow an historical order, and present in an 
 Appendix detailed accounts of all experiments to which reference is 
 made. 
 
ON MEDICAL SCIENCE. 303 
 
 It is not too much to claim that during the latter half of the present 
 century the results obtained from experiments on animals have done 
 more than all the observations of the preceding centuries to raise 
 medicine from conditions of vagueness to conditions of exactness. 
 From the time of Aristotle (1), who proved that the blood, brain and 
 spinal marrow in animals have no sensation, down to the present day, 
 animal experimentation has been practised by all investigators, who 
 have gained any definite knowledge of the more important phenomena 
 of animal life. 
 
 Galen (2), however, must always be regarded as the pioneer in this 
 line of investigation. He may be said to have laid the foundation 
 stone of medical science. By his experiments on living animals he 
 showed that arteries contain blood, that the lungs passively follow 
 the movements of the chest, and that the diaphragm, although the 
 most important, is not the only muscle of respiration. Furthermore, 
 by section of the spinal cord and the recurrent laryngeal nerve, he 
 demonstrated the nervous control of the voice and explained the 
 mechanics of respiration. By various methods he greatly advanced 
 the knowledge of the structure and functions of the alimentary canal, 
 demonstrated the movements of the stomach and the peristalsis of the 
 intestines and laid the foundation of our present extensive knowledge 
 of the functions of the brain and spinal cord. The results of his 
 experimental work are " as conclusive now as when he first made 
 them, and retain to-day their full value; " in fact they are the only part 
 of his vast labor which has stood the test of modern investigation. 
 The knowledge of the circulation and respiration which was gained by 
 bis experiments on animals in the second century was the foundation 
 and a accessary preliminary to Harvey's complete discovery of the 
 circulation in the seventeenth century. His experimental labor was 
 the only work that has survived the fluctuating medical systems of 
 the Dark Ages, with perhaps two except ions, viz. : First, Vesalius (3), 
 who in the sixteenth century created for medicine a solid foundation 
 by transforming anatomy into an exact science, found that the action 
 of the heart might be continued for some time by inflating the lungs 
 of animals with air after the chest cavity was opened, and published, 
 in ] 548, his discovery of artificial respiration. Secondly, R. Colum- 
 bm | I), in 1550, by direct experimentation on living animals discov- 
 ered the pulmonary circulation. In fact, from Galen's time till 
 Harvey'fl great discovery, with these exceptions little experimental 
 work wa- done and during motl Of this period medicine instead of 
 advancing towards a science became more and more the plaything of 
 theorists and impostors. 
 
304 THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION 
 
 Harvey (5) following the practice of Vesalius and Columbus, of 
 making anatomical examinations of the living parts according to ex- 
 perimental methods, established, in 1620, his great doctrine of the cir- 
 culation of the blood. As it has been frequently denied that his 
 discovery rested entirely on animal experimentation, I have given in 
 the Appendix his own quaint and detailed account of it, which I am 
 sure is quite enough to silence all question on this point. By a long 
 series of carefully conducted experiments on animals and by that 
 alone, he unravelled the system of the circulation and established a 
 discovery which, more than any other, influenced the future of medi- 
 cine and surgery. It needed only the microscopic demonstration of 
 the capillary circulation by Malpighi, (6) and his demonstration of 
 the circulation in the lung of a living frog, to make the solution of 
 the great vital problem complete. 
 
 The next series of important and epoch-making experiments on 
 animals were applied by Galvani (V) and Volta (8) to the nervous 
 system. Each investigator was in error in his explanation of the 
 results obtained by his researches, but their great discovery was not 
 lost on account of the wrong interpretation which they gave to it, for 
 their experiments on the electric condition of the nerves and muscles 
 of animals established an epoch in the history of the physiology and 
 pathology of the nervous system, which led to brilliant results a cen- 
 tury afterwards. 
 
 The first attempt to continue life for an indefinite period by arti- 
 ficial respiration was made by Robert Hook (9), in 1664. He showed 
 that " by inflating the lungs of animals with a bellows and then allow- 
 ing them to collapse, an artificial respiration might be established 
 which could be kept up for a long period." Artificial respiration 
 according to Hook's method was afterwards practised by Brodie (10) 
 and others for the purpose of studying the action of the heart and 
 blood vessels and for resuscitating asphyxiated animals. The principle 
 established by these experiments on animals was later applied to the 
 human subject and is now a recognized means of preserving life in 
 cases of asphyxia and of resuscitating the newly born. 
 
 The countless experiments on living animals, carried on during the 
 seventeenth century in all the medical centres of Europe, on the 
 action of the heart, the circulation, absorption, secretion and respira- 
 tion produced a fund of knowledge without which the brilliant ad- 
 vances of the eighteenth century would have been impossible. 
 
 By experiments on birds, frogs and insects, Boyle (11) near the close 
 of the seventeenth century (1670) showed that atmospheric air is 
 necessary to the maintenance of life, as he found that air which had 
 
ON MEDICAL SCIENCE. 305 
 
 been breathed by animals for some time, became finally unfit for 
 respiration so that the animals died. 
 
 Priestley (12) continued Boyle's experiments on air vitiated by 
 respiration, establishing the fact that by growing plants in the vitiated 
 air, it becomes regenerated and is again fit to breathe. It remained, 
 however, for Lavoisier (13), following Hook's and Priestley's experi- 
 mental methods, to establish at that time the true composition 
 of atmospheric air and to develop the real basis of respiration ; 
 viz. : tin- absorption of oxygen and the exhalation of carbon dioxide. 
 This discovery opened an entirely new field in the study of respira- 
 tion and laid the foundation of our present knowledge of the respira- 
 tory processes. 
 
 The injection of fluids into the blood vessels of animals was first 
 performed by Dr. Christopher Wren (14) of Oxford. He employed 
 an infusion of opium and produced narcotism in the injected animals. 
 His experiments in this line were soon followed by those of Richard 
 Lower (15), who, in 1666, performed the first transfusion of blood in 
 animals and the following year Dr. Denis (16) performed the same ex- 
 periment on man. Mr. Boyle (17) afterwards elaborated the method of 
 transfusing blood from one animal to another, and showed that death 
 from hemorrhage might be prevented by such transfusion. These 
 experiments led later to the establishment of the practice of trans- 
 fusion for certain conditions of bloodlessness, a principle which to-day 
 occupies a prominent place in life-saving methods. 
 
 After Galen's experiments on the nervous system of animals, the 
 labors of investigators were chiefly confined to anatomical studies of 
 the nervous system and little or no advance was made in the knowl- 
 edge of its function until the middle of the eighteenth century, when 
 Ballet proved by numerous experiments in cutting and irritating 
 nerves, " that all motion in the human body proceeds in a great meas- 
 ure from the brain and its annexed cerebellum and spinal marrow." 
 II also demonstrated that when the peripheral end of a severed nerve 
 is irritated the muscle to which it is distributed contracts. Soon after, 
 Sir Charles Bell (18) commenced liis experiments on the spinal cord 
 and nerves of animals in order to determine the functions of the cere- 
 brum and cerebellum, but after long labor reached no satisfactory 
 t. Ten yean later, however, while experimenting on facial 
 ■ -, in his attempts to demonstrate the existence of a great system 
 of respiratory nerves separate from those of sensibility and voluntary 
 motion, he established the important fad that the seventh oranial 
 nerve is a nerve of motion and the fifth a nerve of sensation. This 
 ii fruitful of practical results both iii medicine and 
 
 surgery. 
 
 20 
 
306 THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPEEIMENTATION 
 
 Although Bell did not believe in animal experimentation as a source 
 of knowledge, and employed it only to prove or confirm his anatomical 
 studies, nevertheless his experimental work is the only part of his 
 labor which has remained. The classifications and fascinating theo- 
 ries which he so ingeniously constructed on the basis of his anatomical 
 studies are hardly known to neurologists of the nineteenth century. 
 
 Magendie (19) inaugurated the present century by a series of most 
 brilliant experiments. He recognized the dangers of adopting theories 
 based on imperfect knowledge and devoted himself accordingly to 
 eliminating these imperfections by experiments on living animals. 
 " The love of knowledge for its own sake was the impulse which dom- 
 inated all his work. He claimed that all science was inductive and 
 consequently founded on experiment and maintained that the science 
 of life necessitated animal experimentation." 
 
 By a series of carefully conducted experiments on the spinal cord, 
 in which he divided successively the anterior and posterior roots of 
 the spinal nerve, he demonstrated the difference between the motor 
 and sensitive nerve roots. In this way the distinct endowment of the 
 two kinds of nerve fibres was established. Once placed on this foot- 
 ing the study of nerve physiology was greatly increased in efficiency 
 and extent. Thus, by applying the Galvanic stimulus to a spinal 
 nerve above and below the point of section, its mode of action was 
 determined by the excitability of its motor and sensitive fibres. He 
 employed the same methods in the study of the cranial nerves, both 
 externally and at their roots. In fact every branch of inosculation 
 was scrutinized by the same means. 
 
 It is hardly possible to estimate the importance of the change thus 
 introduced into the study of the functions of the nervous system and 
 the facilities which were thus supplied for further investigation. 
 " This distinction between the spinal nerve roots was of the utmost 
 importance, for it indicated a general plan of arrangement for the ner- 
 vous system throughout the body. It became immediately a subject 
 of criticism and verification for all the leading investigators of Europe 
 and the result was a complete acceptance of Magendie's discovery." 
 Magendie not only cleared up much that was vague and uncertain in 
 the physiology of the nervous system, but he established methods of 
 experimenting on the action of medicinal agents and was the first to 
 demonstrate conclusively that " poisons act on the spinal cord through 
 the circulation and not by means of the lymphatics and nerves." His 
 results, obtained by experiments on animals with strychnine, quinine, 
 iodine and a long list of medicinal substances, enabled him to lay the 
 foundation of the doctrine that remedies exert their special action 
 
ON MEDICAL SCIENCE. 307 
 
 upon special structures and organs, a doctrine which was afterwards 
 further developed by Claude Bernard and is now the accepted view 
 regarding the action of all medicinal agents. He further demonstrated 
 so thoroughly and clearly the action of strychnine on the spinal cord, 
 that subsequent investigations have added but little to his results. 
 
 Magendie entered upon the investigation of all subjects with a sort 
 of skepticism that demanded proof and counter-proof. In his studies 
 of the functions of organs he was forced to experiment on animals and 
 we may rightly regard him as the originator of the modern system of 
 animal experimentation. Following the path which his great teacher 
 had made so brilliant, Claude Bernard (20), by dividing the sympa- 
 thetic nerve in the neck of the rabbit, observed that the bloodvessels 
 in the ear of the corresponding side became enlarged and demonstrated 
 by a series of similar experiments that the size of the bloodvessels is 
 under the control of particular nerves which cause them to contract 
 and dilate. 
 
 I demand from all opponents of animal experimentation recognition 
 of the following fact. In all this long list of investigations not a sin- 
 gle experiment was directed immediately to the discovery of a cure 
 for a disease, but solely to the determination of physiological func- 
 tions and the normal action of the vital processes, as indicated under 
 the first head of our classification, and to defining the specific influence 
 of given substances upon healthy living organisms, as indicated under 
 the fourth head of our classification. It would have been impossible 
 at that time even to guess just what valuable results were to come 
 from these discoveries. Yet these experimentators fully understood, 
 what every one must understand who expects to comprehend the pur- 
 of medical science, that the practise of medicine is by principle 
 and not by precept. Each worker recognized that the truth he sought 
 uly a pari of medical science and each by his discoveries marked 
 an epoch in thai science. 
 
 It were a task for days even to tell the things we are now able to do 
 upon the basis ol Bernard's discovery of the Vaso-motor nerves, and 
 the story of the specific action of drugs is no shorter. It is probably 
 a conservative statement to say that, excluding the medicinal foods, 
 ninety per cent, of all our medication is made definite and valuable by 
 this principle alone, which occupies the same position Howard medicine 
 a- does Newton's Law of Universal Attraction toward Phi 
 
 Although Brodie 21) had done much experimental work on the 
 
 action of medicines without retching any satisfactory results, it 
 
 not until Claude Bernard applied his experimental methods 
 
 that the true action of drugs was fully understood. Ilis work on 
 
308 THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION 
 
 Digitalis offers a most excellent illustration of the relative values of 
 the experimental and clinical methods of study. Numerous observers 
 had previously recognized that digitalis made the heart's action slower 
 and therefore regarded it as a cardiac sedative. This conclusion Ber- 
 nard proved to be the direct opposite of the truth, showing, by experi- 
 ments on animals in which the drug was the only disturbing foi'ce, 
 that its effect is not sedative, but on the contrary, stimulating and 
 tonic, rendering the action of the heart more powerful and increasing 
 the tension of the bloodvessels. The rules for its use in disease were 
 thereby revolutionized and the results obtained by the use of this 
 drug in so many diseased conditions were for the first time made cer- 
 tain. The necessity of investigating the action of drugs upon animals, 
 in which the experiments could be controlled and varied, was thus con- 
 clusively proven by Bernard's work; and his methods were soon adopted 
 by other investigators, by whom our knowledge of the action of reme- 
 dies has been made definite to a degree that could never have been 
 attained by mere observations of their effects upon man. 
 
 Thus, modern Therapeutics, emancipated from the bondage of em- 
 pyricism, stripped of its chains, in which every link of personal inter- 
 pretation differed from its fellows, no longer wounding friend as well 
 as foe by aimless blows in the dark, stands forth a young but growing 
 Hercules, bearing in place of the old barbaric club a magazine rifle 
 with telescopic and microscopic sights, the ammunition box of which 
 holds not drugs alone but a manual of directions wherein are written 
 the truths which our modern priests, offering sacrifices on the altars of 
 science, have given to mankind to save them from their infirmities. 
 
 Still the tale goes on ; Magendie, Bernard and Longet established 
 by their experiments the doctiine of recurrent sensibility, which was 
 followed by the great discovery of Marshall Hall (22) of the reflex 
 action of the spinal cord. He observed that after the removal of the 
 brain in animals the limbs were still capable of motion and he showed 
 by further experiment that the spinal cord acts independently of the 
 brain as a medium of communication between the integument and the 
 muscles. The same form activity was afterwards found to be very 
 widely extended in the nervous system. Legallois (23) and Flourens 
 (24) showed that the medulla has its own centres of reflex action and 
 is either directly or indirectly an essential to to the continuance of 
 life. 
 
 There is to-day no more important department of nerve physiology 
 than that in connection with the vaso-motor nervous system. It has 
 been studied and developed by many observers but, as just mentioned, 
 was practically established by Bernard's experiments. It solved not 
 
ON MEDICAL SCIENCE. 309 
 
 only some of the most important and difficult problems of physiology-, 
 hut made intelligible many unexplained pathological changes. The 
 relation of disturbances of the surface circulation to diseases of the 
 internal organs, the mechanism of local congestion. The recovery of 
 nerves from the exhaustion of over stimulation, by rest. The varying 
 effects produced by different kinds of electric stimuli and much similar 
 knowledge mark the fruit of a long series of experiments made along 
 the line so clearly marked out by Bernard. Each one of these series 
 rested on the work of some preceding experimenter; together they 
 form a continuous line of development which can be traced directly 
 to the work done in Galvani's laboratory in 1789. 
 
 We turn now to experiments falling more directly under our third 
 class. It is extremely suggestive as well as interesting to note that 
 the order in which these discoveries came most clearly indicates that 
 all investigators were working toward the relief of human suffering 
 a* their one great object. Anatomy and physiology could not be 
 ignored, but pathology and etiology were forced to give place to 
 therapeutics. 
 
 John Hunter (25) in 1785, by his experiments on the arteries of 
 d"L-, established the fact that injuries to healthy arteries were soon 
 re]. aired and that ulceration of arteries after ligature only occurred in 
 such as were primarily diseased at the point of ligation. These 
 experiments led him to apply the ligature, for the cure of aneurism, to 
 the healthy portion of the artery above the point of dilation. For 
 more than a century his experiments on canine legs have borne fruit 
 an hundred-fold in saving human lives and limbs. 
 
 Hunter first learned by experiments on pigeons and young pigs, 
 " that the growth of bone takes place mainly from the exterior and is 
 probably produced by the nutritive power of the periosteum." Sub- 
 lequently, this question was further examined experimentally by 
 Howship (26), Flourens (27), Heine (28), Murray and others. Mr. 
 Byrne (20) endeavoured to ascertain "whether the periosteum pos- 
 - the power of forming new osseous substance independently of any 
 tance from the bone itself. Be extirpated the middle portion of 
 tli*- radius of adog with it> periosteum and found, as Sir Astley Cooper 
 ha<l previously done, thai after the recovery of the animal there was 
 BO bony union, but a Ligaments] hand running from one extremity to 
 the other." 
 
 Leopold Oilier (80), by transplanting portions of the periosteum, 
 demonstrated the power of the membrane to produce aew hone and 
 showed thai in the resection of bone, if the periosteum is left, new 
 hon<- will l«- developed in from one to three months. Following the 
 
310 THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION 
 
 teachings of his animal experiments, he introduced the operation of 
 resection for diseased bone, one of the most important discoveries in 
 surgery which inaugurates a new era in surgical procedure. The 
 practical results of his discovery' are to-day fully approved by sur- 
 geons in the management of injuries or disease of the bones and joints. 
 
 As we witness some capital operation performed at the present day 
 without pain, almost bloodless, followed neither by fever nor suppura- 
 tion, we may ask how far these great results are due to experiments 
 on animals. The anaesthesia of chloroform was discovered through 
 experimentation on a low form of animal life, the ant. The illustri- 
 ous Simpson practised and perfected his use of chloroform on animals 
 before he anaesthetised his first patient. While its discovery as an 
 anaesthetic cannot be claimed as altogether due to experiments on 
 animals, its great uses in surgery would be incomplete but for such 
 experiments. The same is true of that other great alleviator of pain, 
 the hypodermic, which was first used by Mr. Rand (31) on his sport- 
 ing dogs. He says " I feared that hypodermic injections might excite 
 suppurative inflammation in the subcutaneous tissue, but when I found 
 from experiments on dogs that this was not the case, I gained confi- 
 dence that justified their use on man." 
 
 Whether Ambrose Pare made experiments on animals before using 
 the ligature on man is not clear, but all the steps which were necessary 
 to perfect this discovery and all the other means for arresting hemor- 
 rhage from bleeding vessels, have been the result of experiments on 
 animals by Hunter (32), Jones (33), Benj. Travers (34), Bryant (35) 
 and a long list of eminent surgeons during the past century. 
 
 Robert McDonnell states that great as are these triumphal epochs 
 in sui-gery, which have rendered operations painless and bloodless, the 
 practical surgeon of to-day values even more highly those antiseptics 
 which render convalescence after operation free from fever and sup- 
 puration. 
 
 These three great epochs alone are sufficient to exalt animal experi- 
 mentation to the first place as a means of scientific advancement, nor 
 can they be obscured by the the multitude of brilliant discoveries that 
 are showering upon us with a bewildering rapidity in these latter days. 
 
 I cannot help again calling your attention to the peculiar signifi- 
 cance of the fact that etiology, which by right should have come first 
 in the study of disease, has hitherto marched but haltingly in the rear, 
 because it must depend upon animal experimentation alone for its 
 development. It is unfortunate that a false sentiment has sought by 
 every possible means to retard and check the progress of those, who 
 essayed this path of investigation. 
 
ON MEDICAL SCIENCE. 311 
 
 The first step in this important field of research was taken in 1850, 
 when a commission of the medical association of the " Eure et Loir " 
 proved that splenic fever could he communicated from one animal to 
 another hy innoculation ; and the first hint of bacteriological study 
 was given when Davaine (36) and Rayer found constantly in the blood 
 of animals so innoculated little thread-like bodies. 
 
 At about the same time Prof. Virchow (37) furnished definite knowl- 
 edge of the inception and prevention of parasitic diseases by a series 
 of experiments on animals to determine the origin, nature, mode of 
 development and communicability of trichinosis. Through these 
 investigations the medical profession first became aware of the exist- 
 ence of a fatal and heretofore unknown disease, and were at the same 
 time made acquainted with its source and manner of production. 
 
 M. Villemin (38) inaugurated a new and important era in medicine 
 when he established the fact that tuberculosis is an infectious disease. 
 By laboratory experiments he found that general and fatal tubercular 
 infection is produced in animals when they are inoculated with crude 
 tubercular matter from the human subject. His experiments in this 
 line were soon confirmed by other investigators and led directly to all 
 the far-reaching results, determining the modes by which tubercular 
 infection can be propagated. Villemin's discovery revealed endless 
 possibilities and was followed by similar investigations of many infec- 
 tious diseases. 
 
 The invaluable studies of Pasteur (39) introduced us into "a new 
 world of strange knowledge." His insight into the doctrine of fer- 
 mentation carried him far beyond the agencies of microscopic organ- 
 i&me in fermentative processes. He not only isolated and obtained 
 pure cultures of these organisms but also studied their life-history, and 
 by methods which had served him in all his previous investigations, 
 placed bacteriological science on a firm basis. 
 
 He demonstrated that, if the cause of an infectious disease be a self- 
 multiplying germ from the outside world, the habits of the living 
 enemy can he Btndied in its outside relations and that definite knowl- 
 edge may thus be obtained as to its biological affinities. No work 
 ha- ever promised greater things to the world than does that of 
 Pasteur. 
 
 The knowledge obtained by observation, previous to the middle of 
 the present century, concerning the changes effected by disease now 
 began to be examined from a new point of view. Pasteur's methods 
 of experimentation were adopted and practised by investigators all 
 
 over the world and his doctrine, tliat the cause of infectious diseases 
 
 wai to he Bought in self-multiplying germs, was everywhere accepted. 
 
312 THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION 
 
 The crowning glory of Pasteur's work came with the discovery of 
 attenuation of bacterial toxic products, the possible results of which 
 defy the imagination. In the record of human industry there is no 
 work of richer or grander promise; Yet it is a work which, from the 
 very nature of the case, Was possible only by experiments on living 
 animals. 
 
 The endless possibilities of research which the new doctrine of in- 
 fection suggests to the mind of the pathologist was the beginning of 
 the most brilliant era in the science of medicine since it has existed. 
 It would not be possible in the time allotted to me even to refer to all 
 the investigations which have been made along the line so clearly 
 defined by Pasteur. 
 
 I must pass by even the list of diseases over which victory has been 
 made possible, in order that I may speak briefly of those in which 
 practical results are already attained or in sight. The time is here 
 when abstract scientific principles are bearing concrete fruit in the 
 prevention and cure of disease. 
 
 The application of Pasteur's doctrine by Mr. Lister to the antiseptic 
 treatment of wounds, an application which was enforced by Mr. 
 Lister's eminent skill as an experimenter, has been a full confirmation 
 of this principle. The germs which Pasteur imprisoned in his test- 
 tubes were liberated by Lister's genius. Together they have put to 
 flight the horrors of surgery and forever stand guard when the sur- 
 geon plunges his knife into the sleeping flesh or binds up the torn 
 and mangled body. 
 
 The discovery of the bacillus tuberculosis by Koch (40) marks 
 another brilliant epoch in medical science. The details 'of the work 
 by which he reached this great discovery are too familiar to be re- 
 peated here, but it was only accomplished by Pasteur's method of 
 continuous animal experimentation. It has not merely revolutionized 
 our knowledge of tuberculosis, but has enabled us to understand and 
 explain the morbid processes of tubercular disease. The stimulus 
 which Koch's work gave to investigation in all countries is bearing 
 fruit in the department of preventive medicine and therapeutics. The 
 light which flashed from his laboratory was the dawn of hope that is 
 already breaking into the day of certainty, when we shall hold a pre- 
 vention and cure of tuberculosis in our grasp. 
 
 Following the line of Pasteur's work on the attenuation of bacterial 
 toxic products, Kitasato (41) and Behring (42) in their experiments on 
 the immunity and cure of tetanus have given definite knowledge of 
 the prevention and cure of infectious diseases, which goes far towards 
 the realization of the hope inspired by the work of Koch on the toxic 
 products of the bacillus tuberculosis. 
 
ON MEDICAL SCIENCE. 313 
 
 Within the past two decades animal experimentation has accom- 
 plished more in the field of cerebral localization than all the preceding 
 centuries of carefully recorded cerebral symptoms studied in the light 
 of post-mortem observations. It has opened to surgeons an entirely 
 new field of operations. Until the middle of the present century the 
 brain was described as a single organ and physiologists attributed to 
 its functions no special localization. To-day the areas of motion and 
 of special sense, and to a limited extent the mental areas also, have 
 been definitely placed. Most, if not all, of this knowledge has been 
 derived from experiments on the brains of living animals. From the 
 time when Fritsch and Hitzig (43) reported their faithfully recorded 
 and startling experiments in this new field of research, giving such 
 complete details of their experimental procedure that other investiga- 
 tors could easily follow and test their accuracy, numerous workers 
 have been adding to our knowledge, until we now have definite and 
 safe rules by which we may localize many cerebral lesions. Any dis- 
 crepancies which have been claimed as invalidating this line of work 
 Dr. Ferrier (44) states will be found on careful examination to be 
 more apparent than real and that experiments on animals under con- 
 ditions selected and varied at the will of the experimenter are alone 
 capable of furnishing precise data for sound inductions as to the 
 functions of the brain in its various parts. 
 
 The surgeons have not been slow to make this knowledge practical 
 in skillfully-devised operations. The region beyond the skull is no 
 longer forbidden ground. The hopeless because powerless inactivity, 
 that once watched in wondering silence the meaningless signs of con- 
 flict within tlie mind's temple, has now given place to a keen activity 
 that boldly enters the inner court to seize the offender even at the 
 base of the altar. 
 
 As we review the history of the experimental work which has placed 
 medicine in the list of the sciences we are impressed with the fact that 
 while each line of research was carried on for its own results, neverthe- 
 leea most of the discoveries remained apparently barren until subse- 
 quent discoveries invested them with an unexpected importance. 
 
 The fatal error of the critics of experimental work is their demand 
 that every experiment shall hear fruit immediately; few if any of 
 (hem Beem to be familial- with scientific methods. They constantly 
 Wander from the real issues to the moral or morbidly sentimental 
 
 aspect of t he question. 
 
 It seemi i trident from the history that I have spread before you in 
 this brief and fragmentary manner, that most, if not all, of the real 
 advance! in medicine have been made possible through experiments- 
 
314 THE INFLUENCE OF ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION, ETC. 
 
 tion. The only point open to discussion then, from either moral or 
 ethical point of view, is what price should be paid by the world for 
 the benefit received. This review of what our profession has thus far 
 done to serve mankind in this field is not a plea for mercy, not a bribe 
 to tempt a captious public. My voice has proved a recreant servant 
 if any tones of doubt or fear have marred this exposition. Its every 
 part is cause for pride. In such a sketch, however cursory it may be, 
 each point reflects the light of noble purpose and overflows with 
 promise of better things to come. So long as the moral and spiritual 
 development of mankind remains the supreme purpose of creation, 
 medical science can claim equal honors with the science of God and in 
 the conflict with physical evil must be the first to meet the foe. Until 
 Infinity repeals the edict which gave man power over all created 
 things, the right to claim the service of the brute creation, although 
 it takes the life of the animal or tears it limb from limb, can never be 
 denied to him who devotes his life to the service of mankind. 
 
 In this defence of animal experimentation results have not been 
 made prominent with any purpose to conceal methods. We are fully 
 prepared to count the cost and to meet the question " does the end 
 justify the means ? " As devotees to medical science, we yield prece- 
 dence to none in honesty and lawfulness of purpose, or faithfulness 
 of service in the bitter conflict humanity ever has waged and ever 
 must wage against pain and disease. We too have hearts that love 
 and pity, that ache and sometimes even break beneath the loads they 
 bear. We glory in our experimental work because we know the 
 tenderness of cruelty, the balm of pam; the life whose birth is only in 
 the throes of death. Must then our conflict cease ? our weapons be 
 laid aside because selfish ambition has now and then made fiends of 
 men? Since philosophers first learned to trace "with their golden 
 pen on the deathless page " heroic deeds of men, humanity has never 
 failed to offer its first homage to those who gave their lives for others. 
 As the servants of such a science we can fearlessly appeal to all intelli- 
 gent men for a just criticism. From the ignorant we expect to receive 
 only censure, but from those who in " the valley of the shadow of 
 death " have learned to know what manner of men we are, I have 
 faith to believe the reply will come; We have trusted you with the 
 lives of our loved ones ; we entrust to you God's dumb creation. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 CD 
 
 Aristotle,* History of Animals. Aubert and Wimmer's Edition. 
 
 Book II, Chapter II, Section 44, vol. i, p. 272. (In the Chameleon) "when, 
 cut open, respiration continues active for a long time, and there occur very 
 slight movements in the heart ; and contractions take place not only, and 
 especially, in the region of the ribs, but also in the other parts of the body." 
 
 Book III, Chapter XIX, Section 90. "In no animal has the blood any 
 feeling when touched, any more than the excretions in the belly; nor has the 
 brain or marrow, f when touched, any feeling." 
 
 Practical Anatomy and Experimental Physiology. De Anatomicis 
 Administrationibus. Galeni Opera Omnia, Kuhn's Edition, vol. ii, pp 
 651-70(3. 
 
 An in Arteriis Natura Sanguis Contineatur. Galeni Opera Omnia, Kuhn's 
 Edition, vol. iv, p. 703. Is blood naturally contained in the Arteries? 
 
 " For we have often exposed the large arteries convenient for this purpose, 
 and asked the disciples of Erasistratus whether the artery thus exposed did 
 not seem to contain blood. They were obliged to confess that it did, both 
 because Erasistratus asserted that the blood passed into the arteries when 
 they were uncovered, and because the fact was evident to the senses; for hav- 
 ing placed ligatures on both ends of the inclosed portion of the artery, and 
 made an incision into the vessel, between them, I showed that the artery 
 itself was full of blood." 
 J^^Iiook VIIT, Chapter II. " There is a form of respiration which is con- 
 sidered to be a natural (i. e. involuntary) as opposed to a psychical (i. e. volun- 
 tary) function, and in which the lower parts of the chest and hypochondria 
 are seen to be plainly in motion, but the upper parts sometimes not at all, and 
 sometimes obscurely. This is accomplished by the diaphragm alone, which 
 is a muscle not only in structure but in function also." 
 
 " But our teachers were wrong in believing the diaphragm to be the sole 
 ex <>f the chest in respiration, expanding it when itself in contraction, 
 and whan itself in relaxation permitting the chest to collapse ; for they did 
 not explain how we are able to blow out vigorously or to vocalize. They 
 thought that cviii tin- ample movements of the chest, which we see in run- 
 ning ami in all such sharp gymnastics, are accomplished by the energy of the 
 diaphragm.' 1 Galen goes on to say that no account was taken of the inter- 
 OOStals or miisHi-s of forced hrea thing, 
 
 *T). from Aristotle, Galen, V> -alius, Columbus, and Mulpitflii wire kindly 
 
 famished by Prof. J. C. Curtis from hia library. 
 
 f The wonl marrow »"• Lristotle Indifferently for the marrow <>f the 
 
 bonei and the tpinal cord, the (bnctioai of which latter wire unknown to him. 
 
316 APPENDIX. 
 
 Book VIII, Chapter III. The technique of the dissection and experimental 
 physiology of the muscles of respiration is here given, and the anatomy of the 
 two sets of intercostals is described. The experiments are done on pigs 
 because their voices are so strong that effects can be well observed. 
 
 If the external intercostal muscles are divided first and then the internal, 
 the. voice and forced breathing are abolished. 
 
 Galen uses large pigs, so that opening the pleura may be avoided, and 
 advises one to practice well on the cadaver before experimenting. This 
 demonstration of the use of the intercostal muscles Galen claims as new and 
 original with him. 
 
 Book VIII, Chapter IV. Next he proves that the intercostal muscles owe 
 their power to the intercostal nerves. For this purpose all these nerves are 
 exposed near the spine and ligatured, but not so tightly as to bruise or sever 
 the nerves. The ligatures on the nerves, if moderately tight, (1) paralyze the 
 intercostal muscles, (2) prevent forced breathing, (3) abolish the voice. All 
 these functions return when the ligatures are removed. 
 
 Book VIII, Chapter V. If the nerves now called the vagi are destroyed a 
 hoarse sound like a snore may still be produced; but if the intercostal muscles 
 are paralyzed, there is no hoarse sound at all. 
 
 Paralysis of the intercostal muscles may be effected not only by (1) section 
 of their fibres, and (2) injury of their nerves, but by (3) excision of their ribs, 
 and by (4) section of the spinal cord at the beginning of the back, between 
 the seventh cervical and first dorsal vertebrae. This section of the spinal 
 cord is found to paralyze every muscle below except the diaphragm, and also 
 to render the animal voiceless. In an animal breathing only by the dia- 
 phragm, after section of the spinal cord at the beginning of the back, sec- 
 tion of the phrenic nerves is seen to be followed by the contraction of certain 
 accessory muscles at the upper part of the chest. In another animal Galen 
 cut the phrenic nerves in the neck, and found that while the diaphragm was 
 paralyzed, the intercostal muscles continued to act. In experiments where 
 the spinal cord was cut at the beginning of the back, the upper and lower 
 parts of the thorax might be seen to move, the lower by means of the dia- 
 phragm, the upper by means of accessory muscles. 
 
 In Book VIII, Chapter VI, the technique of cutting the spinal cord is given 
 minutely. Galen sometimes used sucking pigs for this purpose. " When the 
 spinal cord is divided longitudinally from above downward, directly in the 
 middle line, not one of the intercostal nerves is paralyzed, either to the right 
 or left, nor the lumbar nor crural nerves. But if the cord is divided trans- 
 versely, only one-half way on either the right or left side, all the nerves of 
 the injured side are immediately paralyzed." Hemisection of the cord 
 reduces the volume of the voice one-half; complete section produces complete 
 aphonia. 
 
 Book VIII, Chapter VII. Excision of the ribs destroys forced breathing 
 and the voice as much as section of muscles or of nerves. Galen describes 
 the technique of this excision. It must be subperiosteal and he cautions 
 against piercing the pleura. The impression received is that not all of the 
 ribs are to be removed. 
 
 Book VIII, Chapter IX. Section of the spinal cord at its commencement, 
 or below the first, second or third cervical vertebra? totally paralyzes respira- 
 
APPENDIX. 31 7 
 
 tion, and the whole of the body below. If below the sixth vertebrae the animal 
 can still use the diaphragm, and if cut further down, other muscles of respira- 
 tion remain intact : the lower the section, the greater the number. 
 
 Vesalii, Bruxellensis,[ 1543. J De Humani Corporis Fabrica. Lib. 
 teVivorum Sectione. 
 filler that the life of an animal may be restored, an opening should be 
 made in the trunk of the aspera arteria (trachea), into which a canula of reed 
 is inserted and this blown through. For on slight inflation in the living 
 animal the lung swells up to the size of the thoracic cavity, and the animal 
 breathes after a fashion. The heart then resumes its force, and its motion 
 varies with beautiful diversity. The lung being inflated from time to time 
 the motion of the heart can be well examined, both by sight and touch, and 
 the trunk of the great artery [aorta] which extends along the back can be 
 examined also in the tltoracic cavity, or as far as the lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 ■• Nothing appears more manifest to you than the rhythmic beat of the heart 
 and arteries, which being observed for a time, the lung should be inflated 
 again. By this artifice, than which nothing I have discovered in experi- 
 mental physiology [literally anatomy, but with more than its present 
 meaning], pleases me more, much knowledge of the changes in the pulse 
 may be obtained. For when the lung has remained flaccid for a time, the 
 pulse or motion of the heart and arteries is seen to be undulating, creeping or 
 vermicular, but the lung being inflated the pulse becomes large and rapid 
 and shows remarkable inequality. 
 
 " I may say that this is the experiment by which I demonstrate to the best 
 advantage to the candidates in medicine the nature of every kind of pulse." 
 
 (4) 
 
 Realdi Columbi, De Re Anatomica. Venetiis, MDLIX. p. 177, 1.10-20. 
 
 " There are two cavities in the heart, that is two ventricles, not three as it 
 seemed to Aristotle. One of these is to the right, the other to the left; the 
 right is much larger than the left and contains natural blood, while the left 
 contains the vital. Moreover, it is easy to satisfy one's self by observation 
 that the substance of the heart which encloses the right ventricle is thin, and 
 that tli" lefl is thick ; this is partly for the sake of equilibrium, and partly in 
 order that the vital blood which is very thin may not exude. For between 
 these ventricles there is a septum through which almost all think that a pass- 
 age i- open for tlie blood from the right ventricle to the left , and that the 
 easier, because on the way the blood is attenuated for the purpose of the 
 generation of the vital spirits. But they are much out of the way ; for the 
 blood Is carried through the pulmonary artery to the lung, and there under- 
 attenuation; thence along with air it is carried through the pul- 
 monary rein to the lefl ventricle of the heart; which fact no one lias hitherto 
 noticed, or lefl recorded, although it is most worthy of the attention of all." 
 
 I>. 17*. I. :;i 88. "Indeed I think jusl the opposite; namely, that the pul- 
 monary \ «i n i- to carry blood mixed in the lungs with air to the left ventricle 
 of the heart; which h ai true as truth Itself ; for if you will examine not 
 
 Onlj in the Cadaver, bu( likewise In tin- living animal, you will find always 
 tbifl [vein] filled with blOOd, which would by DO means lie the case if it, were 
 
 merely for air and . apoi . 
 
318 APPENDIX. 
 
 p. 224, 1.16-21. "Verily I beseech you, oh candid reader, studious of the 
 learned, but most studious of the truth, to experiment upon animals and to 
 dissect them alive ; try, I say, whether what I have said agrees with the 
 facts ; for in these animals you will find the pulmonary vein full of blood, 
 not filled with air or smoky fumes, as they call them, please God ! Only 
 the pulse is lacking." 
 
 (5) 
 
 Harvey's works. Sydenham Edition, p. 19. 
 
 " When I first gave my mind to vivisections as a means of discovering the 
 motions and uses of the heart, and sought to discover these from actual 
 inspection and not from the writings of others, I found the task so truly ardu- 
 ous, so full of difficulties, that I was almost tempted to think, with Fracas- 
 torious, that the motion of the heart was only to be comprehended by God. 
 For I could neither rightly perceive at first when the systole and when the 
 diastole took place, nor when or where dilation and contraction occurred, by 
 reason of the rapidity of the motion, which in many animals is accomplished 
 in the twinkling of an eye, coming and going like a flash of lightning ; so 
 that the systole presented itself to me now from this point, now from that ; 
 the diastole the same ; and then everything was reversed, the motions occur- 
 ring, as it seemed variously and confusedly together. My mind was there- 
 fore greatly unsettled, nor did I know what I should myself conclude, nor 
 what believe from others ; and I was not surprised that Andreas Laurentius 
 should have said that the motion of the heart was as perplexing as the flux 
 and reflux of Euripus had appeared to Aristotle. At length, and by using 
 greater and daily diligence, and collating numerous observations, I thought 
 that I had attained the truth, that I should extricate myself and escape from 
 this labyrinth, and that I had discovered, what 1 so much desired, both the 
 motion and use of the heart and the arteries. Since which time I have not 
 hesitated to expose my views upon this subject, not only in private to my 
 friends, but also in public, in my anatomical lectures, after the manner of the 
 Academy of old." 
 
 From a Biographical Sketch of Harvey in the Philosophical Transactions, 
 London, Abridgment, 1809, p. 319. 
 
 " He shows, by experiments made on living animals, that the motion of the 
 heart is performed by the contraction of its muscular fibres ; that the auricles 
 contract first, and thereby propel the blood into the ventricles ; then the ven- 
 tricles contract, whereby the blood is driven into the arteries ; being pre- 
 vented from returning into the auricles by the situation and connection of the 
 valves. Now as by repeated contraction of the ventricles more blood is con- 
 stantly propelled into the arteries than can be supplied by nourishment 
 thrown into the veins (as appears upon calculation), and as moreover the arte- 
 ries cannot receive blood through any other channel but the veins ; it follows 
 either that the veins must be quickly emptied, and the arteries on the con- 
 trary every moment more and more distended, which however is not the 
 case ; or that the blood must flow back again from the arteries into the veins, • 
 by certain secret passages, or by pores of the flesh, or by mutual anastomoses 
 of the arteries and veins. He demonstrated that the last mentioned commu- 
 nication takes place in the lungs. Again : as along the course of the arteries 
 more blood is sent from the heart to all parts of the body than is necessary 
 
APPENDIX. 319 
 
 for the nourishment of those parts, he infers that the superfluous blood is 
 returned by the veins (that they may not be left empty) from the fact, that 
 no blood is found in the reins if the great artery be tied. On the other hand 
 if a ligature be placed on the vena cava at the place where it joins the right 
 auricle, it will immediately become distended in a very surprising manner. 
 Moreover it must be evident to every one (he observes) who considers the situ- 
 ation and connection of the valves, that the blood passes from the smaller 
 branches of the veins into their trunks, and from thence to the heart." 
 
 (6) 
 
 M. Malpighi. Opera Omnia. Lugduni Batavarum. ,x&pud Petrum Vander 
 Aa/ Bibliopolam MDCLXXXVII, Vol. II. De Puln^ubus Epistola II, p. 328. 
 
 ' • These things being apparent as regards the mere structure and connection 
 [of the lungs], microscopic observation discovers still more wonderful things. 
 For if the heart is still pulsating, the contrary motion of the blood is to be 
 observed in the vessels, although with difficulty, so that the circulation of the 
 blood is plainly to be detected, and can be made out even more successfully 
 in the mesentery and in the other large veins contained in the abdomen. The 
 blood then [entering] an [air] cell by the impulse through the arteries, as one 
 or another conspicuous branch passes by or ends in a cell, rains down, finely 
 broken up, as though poured out, and, thus multitudinously divided, loses its 
 ruddy color, and, carried sinuously about, is scattered on all sides until it 
 lands at the walls and angles [of the air-cells] and the branches of the veins 
 which take it up again. 
 
 "Nothing more could be seen in the living animal operated upon. Hence I 
 
 had believed that the body of the blood broke out into an empty space, and i 
 
 was gathered together again by an/open-mouthed vessel and by the help of ^y 
 the structure of the walls [of the air-cells]. The basis for this view was 
 offered by the tortuous movement of the blood, diffused as it was in various 
 directions, and by the gathering of it together at a definite point ; neverthe- 
 less, my faith was shaken by the [appearance of the] dried lung of a frog, 
 which, as it happened, had retained the redness of the blood in its smallest 
 parte (Teasels as I found them afterward); for by the aid of a more perfect 
 glass there appeared to the eye no longer points which looked like the skin 
 called Shagreen, but in place of them, minute vessels mingled together ring- 
 fa-hion, and so great is the divarication of these vessels, as they spring here * 
 from vein and thej^from artery, that then; is no longer any order preserved, /l^s 
 but they appear as a net-work made up of the prolongations of the two [main] 
 vessel-. Tin- net-work not only occupies the entire area [of the air cell]; but 
 extend- to the walls and blendfl with the efferent vessel, as I was able to 
 repeatedly, although with great difficulty, in the oblong lung of the 
 tortoise, which is likewise membranous and diaphanous. Hence it was made 
 apparent to tin- i □ as that the blood was divided up and flowed through tor- 
 tiiou not poured oul Into spaces, but moved always through 
 
 little tubes and wai scattered owing to the multitudinous bends of the vessel. 
 :mv new thing in nature fox the terminal mouths of vessels to be 
 joined together, since in the I or other parts the same plan is fol- 
 
 d, and, even more wonderful though It maj Beem, the upper ends of 
 
 veins are joined with the lower ends [of Others] by anastomo i . B ! was very 
 
 well observed by the most learned Fallopius. 
 
320 APPENDIX. 
 
 "In order, however, to obtain and verify the foregoing results, tie the turgid If 
 lung with a string, at its junction with the heart, as it protrudes from an 
 opened frog, and while it is every where' abundantly flushed with blood ; for 
 such a lung when dried will continue to have its vessels swollen with blood, 
 which then you will see exceedingly well by examining them against a hori- 
 zontal sun with a microscope of a single lens. Or you may use another 
 method in looking at the vessels. Place the lung upon a plate of crystal illu- 
 minated by the light of a lantern from beneath through a tube : employ for 
 this a microscope of two lenses, and there will be visible to you vessels arranged 
 in rings, and by means of the same disposition of instruments and light you 
 will observe the movement of the blood through the said vessels ; and, by 
 varying the amount of light, you will be able to contrive for yourself other 
 things which defy description by the pen. 
 
 (7 and 8) 
 
 Account of some Discoveries made by Mr. Galvani, of Bologna ; with Ex- 
 periments and Observations on them. In two letters from Mr. Alexander 
 Volta, F. R. S. Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Pavia, 
 to Mr. Tiberius Cavello, F. R. S. Read Jan. 31st, 1793. Philosophical Trans- 
 actions, London, 1793, pp. 10-44. 
 
 The fact that these letters are written in Old and very bad French renders a 
 certain freedom of translation necessary. 
 
 In speaking of the Commentary of Galvani, entitled " Aloysii TBononls l 
 Galvani de Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musclari CommentariusMl^l, 4to ; 
 de 58 pages, avec quatere grandes planches," Volta says "it contains one of 
 the most beautiful and surprising discoveries, and the germ of many others. 
 
 (1) ' ' Dr. Galvani, having dissected and prepared a frog in such a manner that 
 the legs were attached to the spinal cord only by the exposed crural nerves, 
 and having cut off the rest of the body, saw that he excited lively movements 
 in the legs, with spasmodic contraction of all the muscles, each time that a 
 spark was drawn from the conductor, not only on the body of the animal, but 
 upon every other body, and in every direction (the legs being at a considerable 
 distance from the large conductor of the electrical machine, and under cer- 
 tain other circumstances which I shall explain further on). 
 
 " The required circumstances were, therefore, that the animal thus dissected 
 should be in contact or very near some sort of metal or other good conductor, 
 sufficiently extended, and better yet, between two similar conductors, one of 
 which should be turned to the extremity of said legs, or some one of their 
 muscles, the other toward the spine or the nerves : it was also very advanta- 
 geous that one of these conductors (which the author distinguished by the' 
 names of nerve-conductor and muscle-conductor) and preferably the latter, be 
 in free communication with the floor. . It is in this position, especially, that 
 the legs of the frog, prepared as has been described, received violent shocks, 
 and twitched and struggled with vivacity at each spark of the conductor from 
 the machine, although it was quite far distant, and although the discharge 
 was made neither on the nerve-conductor nor on the muscle-conductor, but 
 on any other equally distant from them, having all communication for the 
 transmission of such a discharge, for example, on a person placed in the oppo- 
 site corner of the room." 
 
APPENDIX. 321 
 
 (5) "I applied myself with considerable attention to determine what was the 
 least electric force necessary to produce these results in the frog intact and 
 full of life, as well as one dissected and prepared in the manner described • 
 which Mr. Galvani had omitted to do. I chose the frog in preference to any 
 other animal because it is endowed with great vitality and is easily prepared. 
 Moreover, I have made experiments upon other small animals, with the same 
 end in view, and with about an equal success. To properly estimate the value 
 of the electric force, I thought it proper to subject the animal, destined for 
 experiments of this kind, not to the return currents occasioned by the atmos- 
 phere, but to the direct electric discharges, now by a simple conductor, now 
 by a Ley den jar, in such a manner that all the current should go through the 
 body of the animal. To this effect I was careful to hold it isolated in some 
 manner or other, and more often by fastening it with pins to two plates of 
 soft wood, supported by glass columns." 
 
 ********* 
 
 (8) " Thus we have, in the legs of the frog attached to the spinal column 
 solely by the uncovered nerves, a new kind of electrometer ; since electric dis- 
 charges which give no indications with the ordinary machines, give marked 
 signs with such an animal electrometer." 
 
 ********* 
 
 (11) " Mr. Galvani did not stop here in these truly astonishing experiments 
 on the frog ; he extended them with success not only to other cold blooded 
 animals but to birds ; in which he obtained the same results by means of the 
 same preparations ; which consisted in disengaging one of the principal nerves 
 from its envelope, where it entered a member susceptible of movement, arm- 
 ing such a nerve with a piece of metal, and establishing a communication, by 
 means of a conducting arc, of the nerve and its muscles " [with the machine], 
 
 (12) " He also very happily discovered, and demonstrated in a very evident 
 manner, the existence of an animal electricity in all or nearly all animals." 
 
 ********* 
 (19) " Experiment A. I caught with forceps the ischiatic nerve a little below 
 its insertion in the thigh, and applied wires, a piece of money or other metal- 
 lic plate, a little higher up upon the same nerve, carefully dissected from its 
 attacliments, and held up by a thread, or supported by a plate of glass, a stick 
 of "bees' wax, or of dry wood, or any other poor conductor. Then applying 
 the l>ody of a Leyden jar, very feebly charged, to said forceps, I carried the 
 arc into contact with the other metallic plate, and saw that the discharge was 
 made; which, though not strong enough to give the least spark, caused all 
 the mnaclea of the tlii^h and l<^ to become convulsed and twitch more or less 
 impetuously. Tin- was true of tli<' nerve throughout the entire leg, or any 
 pari of the nerve projecting beyond it, when in the course pursued by the cur- 
 rent in itx transit ; t bough but a small portion of the nerve he irritated, this 
 theleeg, was sufBcienl to occation contraction of the muscles." 
 
 (9) 
 
 An A'< 'Hint of an ExjMiriment, made by Mr. Hook, of preserving Animals 
 ■live by blowing into their LungB with Bellows. Philosophical Transactional 
 London, ■ •■>. 38, p. 
 
 " I did, therefore, heretofore give tin's Qluetrioua Society an account of an 
 21 
 
322 APPENDIX. 
 
 experiment I formerly tried of keeping a dog alive after his thorax was all 
 displayed by the cutting away of the ribs and diaphragm, and after the peri- 
 cardium of the heart was also taken off. But divers persons seeming to doubt 
 of the certainty of the experiment (by reason that some trials of this matter, 
 made by some other hands, failed of success), I caused at the last meeting the 
 same experiment to be shown in the presence of this Noble Company, and that 
 with the same success as it had been made by me at first, the dog being kept 
 alive by the reciprocal blowing up of his lungs with bellows, and then suffered 
 to subside, for the space of an hour or more after his thorax had been dis- 
 played and his aspera arteria (trachea) cut off just below the epiglottis, and 
 bound upon the nose of the bellows." 
 
 (10) 
 
 The Croonian Lecture on some Physiological Researches, respecting the 
 Influence of the Brain on the Action of the Heart, and on the Generation of 
 animal Heat. By Mr. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. Read Dec. 20th, 1810. Philosoph- 
 ical Transactions, London, 1811, vol. xi, p. 36. 
 
 ' ' In making experiments on animals to ascertain how far the influence of 
 the brain is necessary to the action of the heart, I found that when an animal 
 was pithed by dividing the spinal marrow in the upper part of the neck, 
 respiration was immediately destroyed, but the heart still continued to con- 
 tract, circulating dark colored blood, and that in some instances from 10-15 
 minutes elapsed before its action had entirely ceased. I further found that 
 ■when the head was removed, the divided blood-vessels being secured by a lig- 
 ature, the circulation still continued, apparently unaffected by the entire 
 absence of the brain. These experiments confirmed the observations of Mr. 
 Cruikshank (Phil. Trans. 1795) and M. Bichat (Recherches Physiologiques sur 
 la Vie et la Mort) that the brain is not directly necessary to the heart, and 
 that when the functions of the brain are destroyed, the circulation ceases only 
 in consequence of the suspension of the respiration. This led me to conclude, 
 that, if respiration were produced artificially, the heart would continue to 
 contract for a still longer period of time after the removal of the brain. The 
 truth of this conclusion was ascertained by the following experiment. 
 
 ' ' Experiment 8. — I divided the spinal marrow of a rabbit in the space between 
 the occiput and the atlas, and having made an opening into the trachea, fitted 
 into it a tube of elastic gum , to which was connected a small pair of bellows, so 
 constructed that the lungs might be inflated, and then allowed to empty them- 
 selves. By repeating this process once in five seconds, the lungs being each 
 time fully inflated with fresh atmospheric air, an artificial respiration was 
 kept up. I then secured the blood vessels in the neck, and removed the head, 
 by cutting through the soft parts above the ligature, and separating the occi- 
 put from the atlas. The heart continued to contract, apparently with as much 
 strength and frequency as in the living animal. I examined the blood in the 
 different sets of vessels, and found it dark colored in the vena? cavse and pul- 
 monary artery, and of the usual florid red color in the pulmonary veins and 
 aorta. At the end of 25 minutes from the time of the spinal marrow being 
 divided, the action of the heart became fainter, and the experiment was put 
 an end to." 
 
APPENDIX. 323 
 
 (11) 
 
 New Pneumatic Experiments about Respiration, by the Hon. Robert Boyle. 
 Phil. Trans. Lond. No. 62, p. 2011. 
 
 The account of these experiments is so long that it will be impossible to re- 
 produce it here. The headings or " Titles" of the different chapters will give 
 a sufficient insight into the experiments themselves. The air-pump, then 
 newly invented, was employed in nearly all of them. 
 
 "THE FIRST TITLE. 
 
 Observations on the lasting of Ducks included in the Exhausted Receiver. 
 
 THE SECOND TITLE. 
 
 Of the Phaenomena afforded by Vipers in an Exhausted Receiver. 
 
 THE THIRD TITLE. 
 
 Of the Phaenomena afforded by Frogs in an Exhausted Receiver. 
 
 THE FOURTH TITLE. 
 
 Of the Phaenomena afforded by a newly kittened Kitling in the Exhausted 
 Receiver. 
 
 THE FIFTH TITLE. 
 
 Some Trials about Air usually harbored and concealed in the Pores of the 
 Water, &c. 
 
 THE SIXTH TITLE. 
 
 Of the Phaenomena afforded by Shell Fishes in an Exhausted Receiver. 
 
 THE SEVENTH TITLE. 
 
 Of the Phaenomena of a Scale Fish in an Exhausted Receiver. 
 
 THE EIGHTH TITLE. 
 
 Of two Animals with large Wounds in the Abdomen, included in the Pneu- 
 matic Receiver. 
 
 THE NINTH TITLE. 
 
 Of the Motion of the separated Heart of a Cold Animal in the Exhausted 
 Receiver. 
 
 THE TENTH TITLE. 
 
 A Comparison of the Times wherein Animals may be killed by Drowning, 
 or withdrawing of the Air. 
 
 THE ELEVENTH TITLE. 
 
 Of Accidents that happened to Animals in Air brought to a considerable 
 degree, but not near the utmost of Rarefaction. 
 
 A digressive Experiment concerning Respiration upon very high Mountains. 
 
 THE TWELFTH TITLE. 
 
 Of the Observations produced in an Animal in Changes as to Rarity and 
 Density made in the self-saine Air. 
 
 TIIK THIRTEENTH TITLE. 
 
 Of an unsuccessful Attempt to prevent the Necessity of Respiration by the 
 Production or Qrowtb of Animals in our Vacuum. 
 
324 APPENDIX. 
 
 THE FIFTEENTH TITLE. 
 
 Some Experiments, showing that Air, become unfit for Respiration, may 
 retain its wonted Pressure. 
 
 THE SEVENTEENTH TITLE. 
 
 Of the long Continuance of a Slow-worm and a Leech alive in the Vacuum 
 made by our Engine. 
 
 THE EIGHTEENTH TITLE. 
 
 Of what happened to some Creeping Insects in our Vacuum. 
 
 THE NINETEENTH TITLE. 
 
 Of Phaenomena suggested by Winged Insects in our Vacuum. 
 
 THE TWENTIETH TITLE. 
 
 Of the Necessity of Air to the Motion of such small Creatures as Ants, and 
 even Mites themselves." 
 
 (12) 
 
 Joseph Priestley's Experiments on Respiration. Philosophical Transactions, 
 London. Vol. lxii, p. 147. Read March 5th, 12th, 19th, 26th, 1772. 
 
 His first experiments were upon "fixed air" (carbon dioxide), and for the 
 purpose he used " insects and animals which breathe very little " and frogs. 
 
 He then tried different methods for restoring air, in which candles had been 
 burned, to its former state, such as the effects of heat, cold, and condensation. 
 
 p. 166. " Though this experiment failed, I flatter myself that I have acci- 
 dentally hit upon a method of restoring air which has been injured by the 
 burning of candles, and that I have discovered at least one of the restoratives 
 which nature employs for this purpose. It is vegetation." 
 
 " On the 17th of August, 1771, I put a sprig of mint into a quantity of air, 
 in which a wax candle had burned out, and found that on the 27th of the 
 same month, another candle burned perfectly well in it." 
 
 4 ' This restoration of air I found depended upon the vegetating state of the 
 plant ; for though I kept a great number of the fresh leaves of mint in a small 
 quantity of air in which a candle had burned out, and changed them fre- 
 quently, for a long space of time, I could perceive no melioration in the state 
 of the air." 
 
 ********* 
 
 p. 181. " That candles will burn only a certain time, is a fact not better 
 known, than it is that animals can live only a certain time, in a given quan- 
 tity of air ; but the cause of the death of the animal is not better known than 
 that of the extinction of flame in the same circumstances." 
 
 Priestley noticed that plants, put into air tainted by putrefaction, grew vig- 
 orously, and at page 193 he says, " This observation led me to conclude, that 
 plants, instead of affecting the air in the same manner with animal respira- 
 tion, reverse the effect of breathing, and tend to keep the atmosphere sweet 
 and wholesome, when it is become noxious, in consequence of animals living 
 and breathing, or dying and putrefying, in it." 
 
 He fully proved his conclusion by experiments upon mice, and the experi- 
 ments will be found in detail in the article from which I have quoted. 
 
APPENDIX. 325 
 
 (13) 
 
 Traite Elementaire de Chimie par Lavoisier. 3d. ed. 1801 t. ii, p. 173. 
 
 Experiences sur la Respiration des Animaux, et sur les Changemens qui 
 arrivent a 1' air en passant par leur poumon. 
 
 " I confined in a convenient apparatus, of which it will be difficult to give 
 an idea without recourse to figures, 50 cubic inches of common air : I intro- 
 duced into this apparatus 4 ounces of very pure mercury, and proceeded to 
 the calcination of it by keeping up for twelve days a degree of heat almost 
 equal to that which is necessary to make it boil. 
 
 ********* 
 
 I observed that the air which the vessel contained was diminished by 8 or 9 
 cubic inches. 
 
 ********* 
 
 This air thus diminished, would not precipitate lime water, but it extin- 
 guished flames, and caused animals placed in it to perish in a little while. 
 ********* 
 
 In the preceding experiment, the mercury in calcining had absorbed the 
 better part, the respirable part of the air, and had left the mephitic or non- 
 respirable." 
 
 ********* 
 
 By reduction he "re-established the air to almost exactly the state it had 
 before calcination, that is to say, the state of common air. This air thus 
 re-established, no longer extinguished flames, no longer killed animals which 
 breathed it. 
 
 "Here then is an example of the very complete proof at which one can 
 arrive by means of chemistry, the decomposition of the air and its recompo- 
 sition ; it evidently results : 
 
 First, that five-sixths of the air which we breathe is, as I have already 
 announced in a preceding Memoir, in a mephitic state, that is to say, incapable 
 of maintaining the respiration of animals, and the combustion of bodies. 
 
 Second, that the surplus, that is to say, one-sixth only of the volume of 
 atmospheric air is respirable. 
 
 Third, that in the calcination of mercury, this metallic substance absorbs 
 the healthful part of the air leaving only the mephitic. 
 
 Fourth, that in bringing these two parts of the air, thus separated, together, 
 tin- r'spirable part and the mephitic part, one makes again air like that of the 
 atmosphere." 
 
 An account of tin- Method of conveying Liquors immediately into the Mass 
 of the Blood. By Mr. Oldenburg. Philosophical Transactions, London. No. 
 7, p. l'J* (Abridgment, vol. i, p. 48). 
 
 "In this account it is asserted that the discovery of a method of conveying 
 liquor Immediately into the masa of the blood to doe to l)r. < Ihristophei Wren, 
 at that time Savillian professor in Hie I'niversity of Oxford. The method 
 whieh be followed was to make a ligature on the veins and having made an 
 Opening Into them on the side of the ligature towards the heart, to introduce 
 into them slender syringes or quills fastened t.i bladders (in the manner of 
 
 rataining the matter to he Injected ; performing the operation 
 
 Upon pretty Ug and lean dogs, that the vessels might he large enough and 
 
326 APPENDIX. 
 
 easily accessible. These experiments were made at different times upon 
 several dogs. Opium and the infusion of crocus metallorum were injected 
 into the veins of the hind legs of these animals. The opium soon stupefied, 
 though did not kill the dog ; but a large dose of crocus metallorum induced 
 vomiting and death in another dog. These experiments are more circum- 
 stantially related by Mr. Boyle, in his excellent book on the " Usefulness of 
 Experimental Philosophy, Part II, Essay II, pp. 53-55." 
 
 A Letter from Dr. Timothy Clark. Phil. Trans. Lond. No. 35, p. 672, 
 
 Dr. Clark here gives the time of the infusing of liquors into the blood by 
 
 Dr. Christopher Wren, showing that it was done in the house of the French 
 
 ambassador, Due de Bordeaux, in the year 1657. 
 In a letter from Dr. Timothy Clark in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 35, 
 
 (15) 
 
 p. 672, it is stated that Dr. Richard Lower was the first who performed trans- 
 fix 
 
 fusion on brutes, and that the French anatomist, Dr. Denis, was the first who 
 tried it on man ; that the account of Dr. Lower's experiment was published 
 in the Phil. Trans, for Dec. 1666, but nothing was heard of Dr. Denis' opera- 
 tion until March 1667. 
 
 Richard Lower and Dr. King appear to have been the first who performed 
 the experiment of transfusion of blood. The account will be found in Be 
 Corde, item de motu et colore Sanguinis et Chyli in eo transitu, 1669. 
 
 (17) 
 
 "The Method observed in Transfusing the Blood out of one Animal into 
 another. By the Hon. Robert Boyle. 
 
 Phil. Trans. Lond. No. 20, p. 353. (Abridgment, 1809, vol. i, p. 128). 
 
 " The method here described was first practised by D. Lower of Oxford. 
 
 Take the carotid artery of the dog or other animal, whose blood is to be 
 transfused into another of the same or a different kind, and separate it from 
 the nerve of the eighth pair, and lay it bare above an inch. Then make a 
 strong ligature on the upper part of the artery not to be untied again ; but an 
 inch below, viz : towards the heart, make another ligature of a running knot, 
 which may be loosened or fastened as there shall be occasion. Having made 
 these two knots, draw two threads under the artery between the two liga- 
 tures ; and then open the artery and put in a quill, and tie the artery upon 
 the quill very fast by those two threads, and stop the quill with a stick. 
 After this make bare the jugular vein in the other dog about an inch and a 
 half long ; and at each end make a ligature with a running knot, and in the 
 space betwixt the two running knots, draw under the vein two threads as in 
 the other ; then make an incision in the vein, and put into it two quills, one 
 into the descendant part of the vein, to receive the blood from the other dog, 
 and carry it to the heart ; and the other quill put into the other part of the 
 jugular vein, which comes from the head (out of which the second dog's own 
 blood must run into the dishes). 
 
 ' ' These two quills being put in and tied fast, stop them with a stick till there 
 be occasion to open them. All things being thus prepared, tie the dogs on 
 their sides towards one another so conveniently that the quills may go into 
 
APPENDIX. 327 
 
 each other, (for the dogs' necks cannot be brought so near, but that you must 
 put two or three several quills more into the first two to convey the blood 
 from one to another). After that unstop the quill that goes down into the 
 first dog's jugular vein, and the other quill coming out of the other dog's 
 artery ; and by the help of two or three other quills put into each other, 
 according as there shall be occasion, insert them into one another. Then slip 
 the running knots and immediately the blood runs through the quills as 
 through an artery, very impetuously. And immediately as the blood runs 
 into the other dog, unstop the other quill coming out of the upper part of 
 the jugular vein (a ligature being first made about his neck, or else his other 
 jugular vein being compressed by one's finger) ; and let his own blood run out 
 at the same time into dishes, (yet not too constantly, but according as you 
 perceive him able to bear it) till the other dog begins to cry and faint, and fall 
 into convulsions, and at last die by his side. 
 
 Then take out both quills out of the dog's jugular vein, and tie the running 
 knot fast, and cut the vein asunder, (which you may do without any harm to 
 the dog, one jugular vein being sufficient to convey all the blood from the 
 head and upper parts, by reason of a large anastomosis, whereby both jugular 
 veins meet about the larynx). This done, sew up the skin and dismiss him, 
 and the dog will leap from the table and shake himself and run away, as if 
 nothing ailed him." 
 
 (18) 
 
 Sir Charles Bell. Nervous System of the Human Body. Third Edition, 
 London, 1844. 
 
 Page 24. " It was necessary to know, in the first place, whether the phe- 
 nomena exhibited on injuring the separate roots of the spinal nerves corre- 
 sponded with what was suggested by their anatomy. After refraining long, 
 on account of the unpleasant nature of the operation, I at last opened the 
 spinal canal of a rabbit, and cut the posterior roots of the nerves of the lower 
 extremity ; the creature still crawled, and there was no convulsion of the 
 muscles of the back, but on touching the anterior fasciculus with the point 
 of the knife, the muscles of the back were immediately convulsed." 
 ********* 
 
 Page 25. "Every touch of the probe, or needle, on the threads of this 
 root, was attended with a muscular motion as distinct as the motion produced 
 by touching the keys of a harpsichord. These experiments satisfied me that 
 the different roots, and different columns from which those roots arose, were 
 appropriated to different offices, and that the notions derived from anatomy 
 were correct." 
 
 Page 26. " On finding this confirmation of the opinion that the anterior 
 column of the spinal marrow and the anterior roots of the spinal nerves were 
 for motion, the inference presented itself that the posterior roots were for 
 ioility. But hen- a difficulty arose. An opinion prevailed that ganglions 
 were intended to cut off sensation; and everyone of those nerves, which I 
 ■opposed were 'In- instrument.-, of sensation, have ganglions on their roots. 
 
 Son)'- \<ry decided experiment was necessary to overturn this dogma. I 
 ■elected two nerves of the encephalon ; the fifth which had a ganglion, and 
 th' seventh which had no ganglion. On cutting aCTOM the nerve of the fifth 
 pair on the far.- <,f an ass, it was found that the sensibility of the parts to 
 
328 APPENDIX. 
 
 which it was distributed was entirely destroyed. On cutting across the nerve 
 of the seventh pair on the side of the face of an ass, the sensibility was not 
 in the slightest degree diminished. 
 
 By pursuing this inquiry, I found that the sole organ of sensation in the 
 head and face is a ganglionic nerve. Ganglions were therefore no hindrance 
 to sensation, but on the contrary, a necessary accompaniment to a nerve of 
 sensibility ; and thus my opinion was confirmed, that the ganglionic roots of 
 the spinal nerves were the fasces or faciciculi for sensation. 
 
 Page 28. The nerve of the fifth pair was exposed at its root, in an ass, the 
 moment the animal was killed ; and on irritating the nerve, the muscles of 
 the jaw acted, and closed with a snap. On dividing the root of the nerve in 
 a living animal, the jaw fell relaxed. Thus its functions were no longer a 
 matter of doubt : it was proved to be at once a muscular nerve and a nerve 
 of sensibility. And thus the opinion was confirmed, that the fifth nerve is to 
 the head what the spinal nerves are to the other parts of the body, in respect 
 to sensation and volition." 
 
 (19) 
 
 Magendie. Experiences sur les fonctions des racines des nerfs rachidiens. 
 Jour, de Phys. 1822, p. 276. 
 
 " A second, a third experiment gave me exactly the same result; I com- 
 menced to regard it as probable that the posterior roots of the spinal nerves 
 could well have functions different from the anterior roots, and that they were 
 more particularly destined for sensibility." 
 
 ********* 
 
 p. 279. ' ' I have repeated and varied these experiments upon several species 
 of animals : the results which I am about to announce have been confirmed in 
 the most complete manner, be it for the anterior members, or for the posterior. 
 I shall pursue these researches and give a more detailed account of them in a 
 future number. It is suficient for me to be able to announce to-day as positive 
 that the anterior and the posterior roots of the nerves which take origin from 
 the spinal cord have different functions, that the posterior seem more particu- 
 larly detined for sensibility, while the anterior seem more especially connec- 
 ted with movement." 
 
 (20) 
 
 L'QCuvre de Claude Bernard. Paris. Bailliere. Legons de Physiologie ; 
 Substances Toxiques. 
 
 Systeme Nerveux. Recurrent sensibility, Vol. I. pp. 25-112. 
 
 Discovery of function of sympathetic in the neck, pp. 317-327. 
 
 Page 320. ' ' However, the phenomena following seetion of the cervical 
 branch of the great sympathetic are not limited only to the pupil. I have 
 found that at the same time there is acceleration of the circulation in all the 
 corresponding half of the head, the temperature of which rises ; the skin 
 becomes more sensitive ; and, the arterial pulsation is stronger on this side, 
 and the vessels are dilated." 
 
 For Bernard's work on the action of digitalis see 
 
 Action physiologique de la digitale et de la digitaline. 
 
 Gourvat, 4°, 74 pp., 1870. 
 
APPENDIX. 329 
 
 {21) 
 
 Brodie, B. C. Experiments and Observations on the different Modes in 
 which Death is produced by certain vegetable Poisons. Communicated by 
 the Society for promoting the knowlege of Animal Chemistry. Read Feb. 
 21st, 1811. Philosophical Transactions, London, 1811, vol. xi, p. 178. 
 
 (22) 
 
 On the Reflex Function of the Medulla Oblongata and Medulla Spinalis. 
 By Marshall Hall. M.D., F.R.S.L. and E. etc. etc. Read June 20, 1833. Philo- 
 sophical Transactions 1833. p. 644. % 
 
 ' ' The first experiment which I made was upon the turtle. The animal was 
 decapitated in the manner usual with cooks, by means of a knife, which 
 divided the second or third vertebra. 
 
 '• The head being placed upon the table for observation, it was first remarked 
 that the mouth opened and shut, and that the submaxillary integument 
 descended and ascended, alternately, from time to time, replacing the acts of 
 respiration. I now touched the eye or eye-lid with the probe. It was imme- 
 diately closed : the other eye closed simultaneously. I then touched the nos- 
 tril with the probe. The mouth was immediately opened widely, and the 
 submaxillary membrane distended. This effect was especially induced on 
 touching the nasal fringes situated just within the anterior part of the maxilla. 
 I passed the probe up the trachea and touched the larynx. This was imme- 
 diately followed by a forcible convulsive contraction of the muscles annexed 
 to it. Having made and repeated these observations, I gently withdrew the 
 medulla and brain. All the phenomena ceased from that moment. The eye, 
 the nostril, and larynx were stimulated, but no movement followed. 
 
 • • The next observations were made upon the other parts of the animal. The 
 limbs, the tail, were stimulated by a pointed instrument or a lighted taper. 
 They were immediately moved with rapidity. The sphincter was perfectly cir- 
 cular and closed ; it was contracted still more forcibly on the application of 
 the stimulus. The limbs and tail possessed a certain degree of firmness or tone, 
 recoiled on being drawn from their position, and moved with energy on the 
 application of a stimulus. On withdrawing the spinal marrow gently out of 
 itfl canal, all these phenomena ceased. The limbs were no longer obedient to 
 stimuli, and became perfectly flaccid, having lost all their resilience. The 
 sphincter lost its circular form and its contracted state, becoming lax, flaccid, 
 and shapeless. The tail was flaccid, and unmoved on the application of 
 .stimuli. 
 
 " These experiments afford evidence of many important facts in physiology. 
 It proves that the presence of the medulla oblongata and spinalis is necessary 
 to tin- contractile function of the eyelids, the submaxillary textures, the larynx, 
 the limbs, the tail, on the application of the stimuli to the cuta- 
 nea. "I mucus membranes. It proves the reflex character of this 
 property of the medulla oblongata ami spinalis, and the dependence of these 
 motions upon tin- reflex (unction. It proves that the tone of the limbs, and 
 tli'- contractile properly of the sphincter, depend upon the same reflex func- 
 tion of tli'- medulla spinalis —effects not hitherto suspected by physiologists. 
 
 - in and hex occasion, ha \ tag removed the head of a frog, I divided the spine 
 between the Brd and 4th rertebra, and separated the upper portion of the 
 
 animal from the lower. There wire then the head, the anterior extremity, 
 
330 APPENDIX. 
 
 and posterior extremity, with their corresponding portions of medulla, as three 
 distinct parts of the animal. Each preserved the reflex function. On touch- 
 ing the eye, it was retracted, and the eyelids closed, whilst similar phenomena 
 were observed simultaneously in the other eye. On removing the medulla, 
 these phenomena ceased. On touching the toe of one of the anterior extremi- 
 ties, the limb and the opposite limb equally moved. On removing the spinal 
 marrow, this phenomenon also ceased. Precisely similar efforts were observed 
 in regard to the posterior extremity. 
 
 ********* 
 
 " One of the most remarkable of the phenomena attached to the reflex func- 
 tion in animals, is that presented by those muscles of the hedgehog (Erinaceus 
 Europaeus) by means of which that animal assumes, in certain circumstances, 
 the form and firmness of a ball. The reflex function seems specially to con- 
 nect the roots of the spine with the muscles. If the animal be examined under 
 the influence of hybernation, the reflex function continues for some hours 
 after the brain has been removed : the panniculus carnosus, the limbs, the 
 tail, the larynx, the sphincter ani, remain excitable, and retain a degree of 
 tone. These phenomena cease on removing the medulla spinalis. 
 
 " In the case of the decapitated young hedgehog, after all gasping had ceased, 
 motions of the larynx are still excited on irritating the nostrils, or on irritat- 
 ing the medulla itself ; just as the peculiar motions of the trunk are excited 
 on irritating the limbs, tail or spines, — or the spinal marrow. 
 
 ' ' Nor are we without evidence that the same principles obtain in the human 
 subject. The condition of the infant born without cerebrum or cerebellum, 
 and breathing from the influence of the medulla oblongata alone, is precisely 
 that of the reflex function, with the addition of respiration. Such a case has 
 been witnessed and described by Lawrence. ' The child moved briskly at first, 
 but remained quiet afterwards, except when the tumor was pressed, which 
 occasioned general convulsions. It breathed naturally, and was not observed 
 to be deficient in warmth, until its powers declined. I regret that from fear 
 of alarming the mother, no attempt was made to see whether it would take 
 the breast : a little food was given it by the hand. It voided urine twice the 
 first day, and once a day afterwards ; it had three dark colored evacuations. 
 The medulla spinalis was continued for about an inch above the foramen 
 magnum, swelling out into a small bulb, which formed the soft tumor on the 
 base of the skull. All the nerves from the fifth to the ninth were connected 
 to this.' This brief detail is full of interest. The respiration was natural, the 
 medulla oblongata being entire. Swallowing was affected when food was 
 brought into contact with the pharynx ; the sphincters performed their func- 
 tions ; the limbs were moved when the skin was first impressed by atmos- 
 pheric air. There was no indication of sensation — the child remained quiet 
 after the first brisk movements ; and no event is mentioned which could estab- 
 lish the existence of voluntary motion, — the acts of swallowing, and of the 
 expulsion of the urine and faeces, with the functions of the larynx and of the 
 sphincters, belong distinctly to the excito-motory system." 
 
 (23) 
 
 GSuvres de Legallois avec des notes de M. Pariset. Paris 1824, t. I, p. 64. 
 " Respiration does not depend upon the whole brain, but upon a quite cir- 
 cumscribed part of the medulla oblongata, which is situated at a little dis- 
 
APPENDIX. 331 
 
 tance from the occipital foramen and toward the origin of the nerves of the 
 eighth pair (or pneumogastrics). For if one opens the cranium of a young rab- 
 bit, and extracts the brain by successive portions, from before backward, by 
 cutting slices, one can remove in this manner all of the brain so-called, and 
 afterward all of the cerebellum and a portion of the medulla oblongata. But 
 it (respiration) ceases suddenly when one comes to include in the section the 
 origin of the nerves of the eighth pair." 
 
 (24) 
 
 Recherches Experimentales sur les Proprietes et les Functions du Systente 
 Nerveux dans les Animaux Vertebres par P. Flourens. Paris 1842, p. 55. 
 § VI. " General Conclusions of the Chapter. 
 
 I. The results obtained upon reptiles and mammals reproduce then and con- 
 firm the results given by birds : 
 
 With destruction of the cerebral lobes coincides constantly loss of volition 
 and perception ; 
 
 With destruction of a single lobe, loss of vision in the opposite eye ; 
 
 With the destruction of the cerebellum, loss [of the power] of jumping, 
 flight, walking, standing, etc.; 
 
 With destruction of the medulla oblongata, of the spinal cord, of the nerves, 
 [coincides] loss of muscular contraction, and, in consequence, loss of move- 
 ment, and death. 
 
 II. Contractions, the immediate excitation of contractions, the association 
 of these contractions in movements of the whole body, the coordination of 
 these movements in jumping, flying, walking, or standing, etc., the willing 
 of these movements, sensations, perceptions, all these phenomena are then 
 independent : the organs from which they are derived, distinct ; their isola- 
 tion, manifest ; their localization, demonstrated." 
 
 gn. 
 
 Page 189. I. — We have seen in the preceding chapter that the medulla 
 oblongata is, in all these classes [mammals, birds, frogs, reptiles, and fishes], 
 the organ which is the prime mover or the chief exciter and regulator of the 
 inspiratory movements ; it is, moreover, in all these classes, the organ imme- 
 diately productive, through the nerves, of the inspiratory movements, partic- 
 ularly of the face and head ; lastly, it is, in fine, in fishes, as I shall sbow, the 
 prime moving organ, and the organ immediately productive of all respiratory 
 movements. 
 
 II. — The medulla oblongata is then, in all the classes, the essential and prim- 
 ordial organ of the respiratory mechanism ; it is the exclusive organ of this 
 iiK'li.iiii -u i in fishes." 
 
 resj 
 
 An Account of Mr. Hunter's Method of Performing the Operation for the 
 •>f Popliteal Aneurism. Sir Everard I loin.', Bart. Works of John Hun- 
 ter with Notes by J. F. Palmer, 4 vols. London, 1835. Vol. iii, p. 590. 
 
 'Mr. Hunter finding ao alteration of structure in the coats of tin- artery 
 previous to it- dilation, and that the artery Immediately above the sac seldom 
 unites when tied up in tii" operation for aneurifm, bo that as soon as the lie;u- 
 tur<- come* away, the secondary bleeding destroy! the patient) was led to con- 
 clude thai a previoo (Uses e took place In the coats of the artery, in conse- 
 
332 APPENDIX. 
 
 quence of which it admitted of dilatation capable of producing an aneurism. 
 But not satisfied with the experiments on frogs, given by Haller in support of 
 the opinion that weakness alone was sufficient to produce the dilatation, he 
 resolved to try the result in a quadruped, which, from the vessels being very 
 similar in structure to those of the human subject, would be more likely to 
 ascertain the truth or fallacy of Haller's opinion." 
 
 Mr. Hunter's account of the experiment : Ibid., vol. i, p. 544. 
 
 "However, whatever may have been either the remote or immediate cause," 
 [of aneurism] " it must, in fact, in all cases arise from a disproportion between 
 the force of the blood and the strength of the artery, the coats being weakened 
 so as not to be able to support the force of the blood in its passage along its 
 canal, which therefore gives way. This weakness of the coats of the artery 
 would appear, in most cases, to depend on disease, for accidents, coeteris 
 paribus, have generally the power of recovery. As a proof of this, I will 
 relate an experiment made to ascertain the truth of the existence of the 
 mixed kind" [of aneurism], "which was supposed to arise from a partial 
 destruction of the coats of an artery, and that the remaining coat being too 
 weak to sustain the force of the circulation, gave way and distended. That 
 the artery might have the full force of the blood's motion, I chose the carotid, 
 as being near the heart. 
 
 One of the carotid arteries of a dog, for an inch in length, was laid bare, 
 and its coat removed, layer after layer, until the blood was seen through the 
 remaining transparent coat, and I had gone as far as I dared ; I then left the 
 artery alone for three weeks, when I killed the dog, expecting to find a dila- 
 tation of the artery as had been asserted ; but to my surprise the sides of the 
 wound had closed on the artery, and the whole was consolidated to and over 
 it, forming a strong bond of union, so that the whole was stronger than ever." 
 
 Vol. Ill, p. 598. "Mr. Hunter, from having made these observations was 
 led to propose that in this operation " [for popliteal aneurism] ' ' the artery 
 should be taken up in the anterior part of the thigh, at some distance from 
 the diseased part, so as to diminish the risk of hemorrhage, and admit of the 
 artery being more readily secured, should any such accident happen. The 
 force of the circulation being thus taken off from the aneurismal sac, the 
 progress of the disease would be stopped ; and he thought it probable, that if 
 the parts were left to themselves, the sac, with its contents, might be absorbed, 
 and the whole of the tumor removed, which would render any opening into 
 the sac unnecessary." 
 
 Experiments and Observations on the Growth of Bones, from the Papers of 
 the Late Mr. Hunter. (Published by Mr. (afterwards Sir Everard) Home, in 
 the Second Volume of the Transactions of a Society for the Improvement of 
 Medical and Chirurgical Knowledge.) Ibid., vol. iv, p. 315. Read October 
 4th, 1798. 
 
 ' ' It was some time anterior to the year 1772 that Mr. Hunter began to inves- 
 tigate this subject, and an account of the experiments and observations was 
 given to me to copy in that year, as a part of his future lectures. 
 
 Du Hamel had published a very ingenious theory upon the growth of bones, 
 which he endeavored to support by experiments tending to prove that bones 
 grow by the extension of their parts. With this doctrine Mr. Hunter was not 
 satisfied, and instituted experiments to determine the truth of Du Hamel's 
 opinion. 
 
APPENDIX. 333 
 
 Mr. Hunter began his experiments by feeding animals with madder, which 
 has the property of tinging with a red color that part only of the bone which 
 is added while the animal is confined to this particular food. He fed two pigs 
 with madder for a fortnight, and at the end of that period one of them was 
 killed ; the bones, upon examination externally, had a red appearance ; when 
 sections were made of them, the exterior part was found to be principally 
 colored, and the interior was much less tinged. 
 
 The other pig was allowed to live for a fortnight longer, but had no madder 
 in its food ; it was then killed, and the exterior part of the bone was found of* 
 the natural color, but the interior was red. 
 
 He made many other experiments of the same kind upon the increase of the 
 thickness of the neck and head of the thigh bone. From thence it appeared 
 that the addition of new matter was made to the upper surface, and a propor- 
 tional quantity of the old removed from the lower, so as to keep the neck of 
 the same form, and relatively in its place. 
 
 To ascertain that the cylindrical bones are not elongated, by new matter 
 being interposed in the interstices of the old, he made the following experi- 
 ment : he bored two holes in the tibia of a pig, one near the upper end, and 
 the other near the lower ; the space between the holes was exactly two inches: 
 a small leaden shot was inserted into each hole. When the bone had been 
 increased in its length by the growth of the animal, the pig was killed, and 
 the space within the two shot was also exactly two inches. 
 
 This experiment was repeated several times on different pigs, but the space 
 between the two shot was never increased during the growth of the bone. 
 
 Besides these experiments on the growth of bones, he made others, to deter- 
 mine the process of their exfoliation. 
 
 Bones, according to Mr. Hunter's doctrine, grow by two processes going on at 
 th> same time, and assisting each other ; the arteries bring the supplies to the 
 bone for its increase ; the absorbents are at the same time employed in remov- 
 ing portions of the old bone, so as to give to the new the proper form. By 
 these means the bone becomes larger, without having any material change 
 produced in its external shape." 
 
 (26) 
 
 Experiments and Observations on the Union of Fractured Bones. By John 
 Hbwship, Esq. Read March 17th, 1817. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. 
 London! 1818, vol. ix, p. 143. 
 
 Page 14 r ). "The following experiments were made upon rabbits, selected 
 at about the age of twelve mont lis. 1 1n- period at which, from their beginning 
 to bear young, they may be considered to have nearly attained their full 
 th." 
 
 Six experiments were performed. 
 
 e 170. "Having at length completed the account of my observationa 
 upon fracture, I .siiuii now lay before the Society the oon o l ueion a drawn from 
 the above enquiry, which will close the pre s e nt paper. 
 
 The first effect of fracture Is extrara ation of blood Into the Burrounding 
 soft pun-, the quantity poured oul rarying according to the degree of contu- 
 sion or complication. 
 
334 APPENDIX. 
 
 Page 171. " The blood effused in fracture suffers various degrees of change; 
 hut under all circumstances it forms the medium in which the ossific process 
 is established." 
 
 ********* 
 Page 172. " The mode of progress in the ossific process seems to indicate a 
 degree of caution, as if a principal object was to guard against the possibility 
 of the least disturbance or motion between the parts of the bone, subsequent 
 to the act of union." 
 
 ********* 
 
 "The circumstances of the fracture evidently regulate the quantity and 
 seats of the ossific deposit. In simple transverse fracture with little contu- 
 sion, where the bone is immediately reduced, and the limb kept perfectly 
 quiet, the degree of internal laceration will be small, the effusion of blood 
 inconsiderable, and the ultimate deposit of bone moderate in proportion." 
 ********* 
 
 Page 173. "In oblique fracture, where the bones have suffered more vio- 
 lence at the moment of accident, and are retained with more difficulty when 
 reduced, the effusion of blood will be greater, and the quantity of ossific mat- 
 ter formed will be also more abundant." 
 
 (27) 
 
 Flourens P. Recherches sur la formation des os. Compt. rend Acad. d. sc, 
 Paris, 1844, xix, 621-625. 
 
 (28) 
 
 Heine, B. Ueber die Wiedererzeugung neuer Knochenmasse, und Bildung 
 neuer Knochen. J. d. chir. u. Augenh. Berlin, 1836, xxiv, 513-527, also Gaz. 
 Med. de Paris, 1837, v, 386-388. 
 
 (29) 
 
 Syme. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1836, vol. xiv, p, 158. 
 
 (30) 
 
 Oilier, L. Des moyens chirurgicaux de favoriser la reproduction des os 
 apres les resections ; de la conservation du perioste ; resections sous-periostees ; 
 de la conservation de la couche osseuse periphirique ; evidement des os. 
 
 Gaz. hebdom. de med. Paris, 1858, v. 572, 651, 733, 769, 853, 899. 
 
 Oilier, L. Recherches experimentales sur la production artificielle des os, ou 
 moyen de la transplantation due perioste et sur la regeneration des os, apres 
 les resections et les ablations completes. 
 
 J. de la physiol. de l'homme, Par. 1859, ii, 1169, 468. 
 
 Oilier, L. De la transplantation des elements anatomiques du blasteme 
 sous- periosteal ; formation des petites grains osseux dans la region ou ont ete 
 semes ces elements. 
 
 Compt. rend. Soc. de biol., Par. 1860, 3 s., i, 108. 
 
 Oilier, L. Nouvelle demonstration de la regeneration osseuse apres les resec- 
 tions sous- periostees articulaires. 
 
 Bull. gen. de therap. etc., Paris, 1870, lxxix, 258-261. 
 
 Du Perioste au Point de Vue Physiologique et Chirurgical, communication 
 faite au congres medical de Lyon le 28 September, 1864, par M. Oilier, chirur- 
 
APPENDIX. 335 
 
 gien en chef de THotel— Dieu de Lyon. Gaz. hebdom. de med. Par. 1865, 2 s. 
 ii, 82, 116, 152, 195. 
 
 ' ' Proposition First. That the periosteum produces osseous tissue by a nor- 
 mal development, in the order of its proper anatomic elements. The deeper 
 layer, composed of protoplasmic cells, possesses this property, and to this 
 layer I have given the name osteogenic." 
 
 ********* 
 
 " I first repeated the experiments of my predecessors, but in studying the 
 role of the periosteum, with Du Hamel in fracture, or Heine and M. Floureos 
 in resections, I have recognized that it was difficult to determine the part 
 played by the divers elements of the bone in the act of reproduction." 
 
 ********* 
 
 " I isolated the different tissues, I studied them separately, either in their 
 normal situation, preserving the while their anatomic relations, or displacing 
 and transplanting them into distant regions. I experimented with the perios- 
 teum, the marrow, cartilage, bone, and the adjacent tissues, muscles and ten- 
 dons and I arrived at results which permit the setting forth of propositions 
 which I believe sufficiently exact to prevent all controversy." 
 
 " I commenced with the periosteum, which I detached from the bone ; I first 
 dissected up a piece of this membrane, 5 or 6 cm. long, from the tibia of a 
 rabbit, I rolled it around the limb amongst the muscles and under the skin, 
 and I obtained bone, or rather, osseous prolongations of varied form. I pro- 
 duced bone in a circle, in a spiral, in a cross, etc. etc. ; and finally I gave to the 
 new bone any form I desired, and for this purpose I had but to fix the perios- 
 teum in a predetermined way : after from 20-25 days (in the rabbit, the cat, 
 or the dog) I found new bone of the form of the periosteum, or to speak more 
 correctly, I found the periosteum ossified. 
 
 This experiment semed to me fundamental, it furnished simple and irrefu- 
 table proof of the osteogenic property of the periosteum ; and it answered the 
 greater part of the objections which had been offered to the doctrine of 
 Du Hamel, from the time of Haller to Bichat. 
 
 It proved that the periosteum produces bone of itself, independently of the 
 neighlxnin^ tissues; and from a surgical point of view it promised new re- 
 sources in autoplasty ; it also showed us the manner in which ossification takes 
 place in abnormal regions. But I did not stop at this first experiment which 
 I saw was so signal. Being anxious to obtain results of surgical value, I modi- 
 Bed it so as to make it still more convincing, and by means Of it answered all 
 objections that it was possible for me to foresee. 
 
 ********* 
 
 After haying detached and fixed my shn d of periosteum among the muscles, 
 I left it to live, or at least to form certain adhesions during three or four days ; 
 then, fimlin^ that it had become ossified, l detached from the bone I or5 nun. 
 of the entire depth of the perio team, in a manner to interrupt all connection 
 between the periosteum ami hone, [established then that, in spite of this 
 interruption, the periosteum continued to ossify, ami that new hone, inde- 
 pendently of tie- normal hone, was formed there. 
 
 But this did not yet satisfy me. To answer at onoe all possible objections, 
 [conceived the Idea of transplanting the periosteum into distant regions, 
 
 immediately after its separation from the hone. 
 
336 APPENDIX. 
 
 I transplanted it from the leg to the forehead or back, and I saw that this 
 membrane carried with it everywhere its osteogenic property. Everywhere 
 I engrafted the periosteum new bone was formed ; this was not an unformed 
 mass of calcareous particles, but a bone formed of the characteristic elements 
 of osseous tissue, hollowing itself out into spaces in its interior, and having 
 after a certain time a veritable canal containing medullary substance, and 
 surrounded by a compact layer." 
 
 (31) 
 
 Mr. Rand. " A new method for the treatment of neuralgia by sub-cutaneous 
 injection, 1855. 
 
 (32) 
 
 John Hunter, loc cit. 
 
 (33) 
 
 A Treatise on the Process Employed by Nature in Suppressing Hemorrhage 
 from Divided and Punctured Arteries. J. F. D. Jones. 8°, Lond. 1802. 
 
 I have been unable to find the above treatise, but the following account of 
 the experiments is given by Travers, loc cit. p. 440. 
 
 ' ' Jones ascertained, that the effusion of lymph from the wound inflicted by 
 the ligature was sufficient, even if the ligature were removed upon the instant,, 
 to obstruct the artery. By including a loose thread along with the artery in 
 the ligature, he readily withdrew the latter after the infliction of the wound. 
 In one instance he succeeded with a single ligature, and in several instances 
 with two, three or four, made at a small distance apart. The lymph effused 
 was in proportion to the extent of the section, or if this was incomplete, the 
 union was equally so. He was led to conclude that the complete circular sec- 
 tion of the internal coat was indispensable to union, and the success which 
 attended his experiments led him to conjecture, that in some surgical cases 
 removing the ligature as soon as it was made would be an efficient operation. 
 This suggestion, the value of which he left to be determined by future experi- 
 ments was caught at with eagerness by his readers, and by many considered 
 to be the essence of his publications." 
 
 In a foot note, the following quotation is given from Jones, p. 136. 
 
 " I leave the the fact (viz. — the complete obstruction of an artery conse- 
 quent upon the momentary application of a ligature) for those who have op- 
 portunities of applying it in practice, when all the circumstances which 
 determine its success or failure shall have been fully ascertained by further 
 experiments on brutes." 
 
 (34) 
 
 Observations upon the Ligature of Arteries and the Causes of Secondary 
 Hemorrhage. Benjamin Travers. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. iv, 
 p. 435. Read October 26th, 1813. 
 
 Page 439. " It is curious to observe the revolution which has taken place 
 within a few years in this branch of surgical practice, since experimental 
 inquiry has furnished the true explanation of the principle upon which the 
 ligature acts. Mr. Hunter and the surgeons who after him practised the opera- 
 tion for popliteal aneurism, were in the habit of applying the ligature with 
 force only sufficient to bring the sides of the vessel in contact ; and some 
 
APPENDIX. 337 
 
 included an extraneous body, as a piece of cork or wood, or a roll of linen, to 
 prevent the lesion of the artery in the act of tightening the ligature. The fear 
 of cutting the coats of the artery was uppermost in the minds of all, and next 
 to this, the fear of quickening the process of ulceration, and the casting off of 
 the ligature." 
 
 ********* 
 
 Page 443. "The original experiment of Jones, in whatever light we view 
 it, is of unquestionable importance, and deserves to be highly appreciated. 
 While its occasional failure demonstrates that the apposition of the cut sun- 
 faces is essential to the certain obliteration of the vessel, its occasional success 
 establishes that, coeteris paribus, it cannot with this precaution fail of its 
 intention." As a basis for the statements made in this paper, Travers per- 
 formed five experiments upon the ligaturing of arteries, using the ass, dog, 
 and horse. 
 
 In another paper on the same subject, which appears in vol. vi of the Tran- 
 sactions of the Medico-Chirurgical Society, p. 632, he records nineteen other 
 experiments. 
 
 The first eight were undertaken " To ascertain the earliest period at which 
 the ligature might be removed, and the artery wounded without hemorrhage." 
 
 Page 643. " The experiments next to be related, give the operation of the 
 compressor, and were undertaken with a view to determine its merits as a 
 surgical instrument, comparatively with the ligature. Professor Assalini of 
 Milan, who lately visited this country, entertains a preference for the practice 
 of compression in the operation for aneurism. He had employed it with sue- 
 in three cases of popliteal aneurism." 
 
 Experiment XV. — " I wished to know the effect of leaving the compressor 
 upon the vessel, and the time in which it was liberated by ulceration." 
 ********* 
 
 Page 658. " In contemplating the removal of the ligature at a given time, 
 it becomes essential to ascertain if this can be done with equal security when 
 a branch is contiguous as when at a distance. With this view I made the 
 following experiments." (Exp. XVI-X1X.) 
 
 ********* 
 
 Page 662. " The practical application of the facts and deductions contained 
 in this and my former Essay (Vol. IV) will probably be the subject of a future 
 communication to the Society. 
 
 " It is however, in my judgment, a subject too important to be lightly dis- 
 I of; and it carries with it, in reference to surgical practice, a responsi- 
 bility too serious to justify a rude and hurried trial of its merits." 
 
 On the Torsion of Arteries as a means of Arresting Hemorrhage, with Ex- 
 perimente by Thomas Bryant, F.R.C.S. Medico-Chirm-iral Transactions, 
 vol. li. ],. 199(1 
 
 r, 508. I propose to relate seriatim the experiments I have made upon 
 the dog, lior-.r- aii'l Iiijiii.iii sui..j<'<-t to test tlw value of torsion, and to observe 
 ti„- |. which the • treated become permanently sealed." 
 
 ********* 
 
 "Experiment 1. February 4th, 1888.— 1 divided the left femoral artery of 
 a dog ju-.t below Poupart'i ligament, and twisted the cardiac end by ' free' tor- 
 22 
 
338 APPENDIX. 
 
 sion four times, with success. During this time the distal end was held by- 
 forceps, and when these were removed hemorrhage occurred ; the bleeding 
 extremity was, however, seized by forceps and twisted four complete revolu- 
 tions, all bleeding at once ceased, and by the seventh day the wound had 
 united. 
 The dog was killed the 11th day after the operation." 
 
 ********* 
 
 "Experiment IV. — February 11th, 1868. — I cut down upon and divided the 
 right common carotid artery of a dog. I applied ' free ' torsion to the cardiac 
 end, making three revolutions without success, and accordingly seized the ves- 
 sel again and twisted it four times more. Hemorrhage was at once arrested. 
 Three complete twists were then given to the distal end of the artery, and no 
 bleeding followed. 
 
 On the second day the dog was quite well, he had taken his food as usual, 
 and appeared in no way disturbed by the operation. On the following day 
 the animal was destroyed. 
 
 It must be noticed that in this case, as in the second experiment, three rota- 
 tions of the artery were not sufficient to arrest bleeding ; four proved success- 
 ful in both cases." 
 
 ********* 
 
 "Experiment VII. March 17th, 1868.— I cut down upon and divided the 
 left common carotid artery of a horse ; applied two pairs of torsion forceps 
 transversely to the vessel, and divided the artery midway between them, 
 leaving an inch of artery on the distal side of each pair of forceps. With 
 a third pair of torsion forceps, I then seized the extremity of the artery at its 
 cardiac end, and twisted it seven complete revolutions. I then removed the 
 instrument that fixed the vessel, and not a drop of blood escaped ; the pulsa- 
 tions in the vessel were very strong. The same treatment was then applied 
 to the distal end with a like result. It was certainly something astonishing 
 to see the great vessel fill out and pulsate after the operation without one 
 drop of blood escaping ; and although the animal plunged somewhat during 
 and after the operation, the success was must complete. The animal was 
 allowed to live for forty -eight hours, and then killed." 
 
 (36) 
 
 Rayer and Davaine. Bull, de la Soc. de Biol, de Paris, 1850. 
 
 " In the blood are found little thread-like bodies about twice the length of a 
 blood corpuscle. Those little bodies exhibit no spontaneous motion." How- 
 ever, no importance was attached to their presence. 
 
 Davaine. Nouvelles recherches sur les infusiores du sang dans la maladie 
 connue sous le nom de sang de rate. Compt. rend. Soc. de Biol. 1863. Par. 
 1864, 3. s. v, 149-152. 
 
 (37) 
 
 The Life of the Trichina. (Monograph) 1864, p. 21. By Rudolph Virchow, 
 M.D., Ph.D. Translated by Rufus King Brown, M.D. 
 
 The author states that he received from Dr. Zenker some of the muscle of 
 a girl who died of trichinosis and also some of the flesh of the pig that caused 
 her disease. 
 
 "A rabbit fed with the trichina from the girl, died in a month with its 
 
APPENDIX. 339 
 
 flesh full of them. Some of its flesh was given to a second rabbit. It also 
 died in a month. With this meat three other rabbits were fed. Of these, 
 two died at the end of the third week, and the other in the fourth week. To 
 another animal the meat of this was fed. As it ate but little it lived six 
 weeks. In all these the muscles after death were found filled with trichina. 
 Even in the smallest particle of their meat several were found." 
 
 (38) 
 
 Cause and Nature of Tuberculosis. J. A. "Villemin. Gaz. hebdom. de me<j. 
 Par. 1865, 2. s., ii, 795. 
 
 " 1. Tuberculosis is the effect of a specific agent, of a virus, in a word. 
 
 2. This agent should be found, as its congeners, in the morbid products 
 which it gives rise to by a direct action upon the normal elements of the tis- 
 sues affected. 
 
 3. Introduced into an organism susceptible to it, this agent should then 
 reproduce itself, and reproduce, at the same time, the disease of which it is 
 the essential and determining cause. 
 
 Experimentation is undertaken to confirm these inductive conclusions. The 
 results are as follows : " — 
 
 1st Series. Of two rabbits, one is inoculated with two little fragments of 
 tubercular tissue and pus from a lung cavity. The other is kept as a control. 
 The two were placed under like conditions of existence. At the autopsies the 
 inoculated rabbit was found to be infected, while its mate showed absolutely 
 no sign of tubercle. 
 
 2'1 Series. Four rabbits were inoculated with tubercular matter, and, when 
 killed, all of them were found infected. Two other rabbits which had been 
 kept with these and afterward used for physiologic purposes presented no 
 trace of tuberculization. 
 
 From these experiments, Villemin draws the following conclusions : — 
 
 "1. Pulmonary phthisis (as tubercular diseases in general) is a specific infec- 
 tion. 
 
 2. Its cause is an inoculable agent. 
 
 3. The inoculation can easily be made from man to the rabbit. 
 
 4. Tuberculosa belongs then to the class of virulent diseases, and should 
 
 ;i place, in the nosologic table, along with syphilis, but better, perhaps, 
 witli glanders and farcy." 
 
 < '.ii tinning his experiments to the 3d Series, three pairs of rabbits are taken, 
 and one of eacb pair inoculated. Two of the pairs are put in the same cage. 
 At tli'- autopsies those not inoculated show no signs of tuberculosis. 
 
 I j.- ['attenuation da virus du cholera des ponies par M. L. Pasteur. Comptes 
 
 lus, t. xci, p. 878. 
 
 Chamberland. Le Charboa ei la Vaccination Charbonneuse d'apres les 
 cenl de M. Pasteur. (Paris, Tigno] 1888), p. Oetssg. 
 •i for X'-u- Sydenham Society, 1888, p. 551 et $eq. 
 "Tb<- experiments irere commenced in 1 1 » « - early days "i Lugust, 1878. 
 They consisted at flrsl in feeding certain lots "i i >• • i > with lurcnn- w inVh h.-i.i 
 
 been watered with artificial cultivations of the bacteria i anil. rax lull c.f 
 
 the parasite and 11 * * * * Notwithanding the imm 
 
340 APPENDIX. 
 
 number of the spores of the bacterium swallowed by all the sheep of each lot 
 many of them, often after having been distinctly ill, escaped death ; a smaller 
 number died with all the symptoms of spontaneous anthrax after a period of 
 incubation which might extend to eight or ten days, although, at the end, the 
 disease took on the almost sudden characters frequently noted by observers 
 who have thus been led to believe in a very short period of incubation. 
 
 The mortality was increased by mixing with the food, sprinkled with the 
 spores, sharp-pointed objects, especially the pointed extremities of the leaves 
 of dried thistles, and above all the beards of ears of barley cut into small frag- 
 ments about a millimeter long. 
 
 It was of great importance to ascertain whether the autopsy of animals 
 dying under these conditions would show similar lesions to those observed in 
 animals dying spontaneously in stables, or in flocks penned in the open air. 
 The lesions in the two cases are identical, and their nature authorized the con- 
 clusion that the disease begins in the mouth or pharynx." 
 
 De 1' attenuation des virus et de leur retour a la virulence, par M. L. Pasteur 
 avec la collaboration de MM. Chamberland et Roux. Comptes Renclus, t. xcii. 
 p. 429. 
 
 " I have made known in papers recently published the first example of the 
 attention of a virus by experimental means alone. * * * * It seems 
 probable that the oxygen of the air is the chief cause of these attenuations, 
 that is to say, of these diminutions in the facility with which the microbe 
 multiplies ; for it is clear that the various degrees of virulence are identified 
 with the varying power of the parasite to develop in the economy. * * * * 
 The virus of anthrax, being one of the best studied, must be the first to attract 
 our attention. A mycelial growth of the bacterium entirely free from spores 
 can be maintained in contact with pure air at a temperature between 43° C. 
 and 43° C. 
 
 After an interval of about one month the cultivation is found to be dead, 
 that is to say, fresh broth inoculated with it remains completely sterile. On 
 the day before that on which this inability to grow is noted, and on every pre- 
 ceding day during the month, reproduction of the growth is, on the contrary, 
 easy. 
 
 With regard to its virulence we discover this remarkable fact : after remain- 
 ing for eight days at a temperature of 42° to 43° C, and ever afterwards the 
 bacterium has lost its virulence ; at least its cultivations are inocuous to the 
 guinea-pig, the rabbit, and the sheep, three of the animals most likely to con- 
 tract splenic fever. We are, therefore, by using a simple artifice in cultivat- 
 ing, able to produce not merely an attenuation of virulence, but a suppression 
 which is apparently complete. More than this, we have the power of preserv- 
 ing and cultivating the terrible microbe in this inoffensive condition. 
 
 Experimental application of the Method " [of inducing immunity}. 
 
 " M. Pasteur proposed that 60 sheep should be used for this experiment, and 
 consented, at the request of the President of the Agricultural Society, to ex- 
 tend the experiment to 10 cows. He foretold that all sheep not protected by 
 inoculation of attenuated virus would die, and that all the cows not so pro- 
 tected would be, at least, made ill, and that some would die when inoculated 
 with a very virulent virus ; while all the protected sheep would survive the 
 inoculation with this very virulent virus, and that the cows would not be 
 
APPENDIX. 341 
 
 made ill ; 10 sheep were not to be dealt with in any way, but kept for ulti- 
 mate comparison with the inoculated sheep." 
 
 For further work done by Pasteur on immunity consult 
 
 Sur la rage, par M. Pasteur avec la collaboration de MM. Chamberland et 
 Roux. Comptes Rendus, t. xcviii, p. 1229, and 
 
 Methode pour prevenir la rage apres morsure, par M. L. Pasteur. Ibid., 
 t. ci, p. 766. 
 
 (¥» 
 
 The Etiology of Tuberculosis, by Dr. Robert Koch. Translated by Mr. Stan- 
 ley Boyd in Microparasites in Disease, pp. 157-160. Infection Experiments 
 with Tissue containing Tubercle Bacilli. 
 
 •' The inoculation was effected by making a small incision in the abdominal 
 wall of a guinea-pig with the scissors, inserting the point of the scissors to 
 form a pocket-like subcutaneous wound about a half centimeter deep. Into 
 this little pocket a fragment of the inoculation substance about the size of a 
 millefr-or mustard seed was pushed as deeply as possible. On the following 
 day the inoculation wound was always united, glued together and showed no 
 reaction. Generally it was not till after a couple of weeks that a visible swell- 
 ing of the lymphatic glands next the seat of inoculation occurred, usually 
 the inguinal glands on one side, and at the same time induration and the de- 
 velopment of a nodule took place in the inoculated wound, which up till then 
 had remained perfectly healed. After this the lymphatic glands enlarged 
 rapidly, frequently to the size of a hazel-nut, the nodule at the seat of inocu- 
 lation then generally broke and became covered with a diy crust, beneath 
 which was a flat ulcer with a cheesy floor, discharging very slightly. The 
 animals began to lose flesh about this time, their coat became bristly, dysp- 
 noea set in, and they died generally between the fourth and eighth weeks, or 
 they were killed within the same space of time. , In some instances the inocu- 
 lation substance was inserted into a pocket-like wound in the skin of a rabbit 
 also. But as the course of the disease was not so constant and rapid as in 
 tin- guinea-pigs after subcutaneous inoculation, I inoculated rabbits after- 
 wards only in the anterior chamber of the eye. 
 
 The following inoculations were carried out in the way above described : — 
 
 1. Miliary tuberculosis. Tubercle of the pia mater, very rich in tubercle 
 bacilli : 6 guina-pigs. Of these one died 5, two 6, and two 7 weeks after inoc- 
 ulation. The sixth was killed in the eighth week. In all the animals the 
 lungs, liver and spleen were highly tubercular, and the inguinal glands had 
 undergone caseation. 
 
 2. Miliary tuberculosis. Grey nodules in the lungs, with fairly numerous 
 tubercle bacilli : 8 guinea-pigs. Three died in the sixth week ; the rest were 
 killed some days later. All tubercular, as in No. 1. 
 
 ;;. Hillary tuberculosis. Grayish yellow nodules from the spleen and kid- 
 
 ■.vitii not many tubercle bacilli : 6 guinea pigs. Died In the 8th and 7th 
 
 All tubercular, as in No. 1. 
 
 4. Miliary tuberculo 1 1. Grey nodules from the lung, fairly rich In bacilli: 
 
 8 guinea-pigs. Two died in the 6th, one in the 7th week. All tubercular, as 
 
 .. i. 
 
 .'i. Miliar] tuberculosis. Grey nodule i from the lung containing few bacilli : 
 
 bbita at the root of the ear. one guinea-pig died after 8 
 
342 APPENDIX. 
 
 weeks, the remainder were killed some days later. All were tubercular. The 
 rabbits killed after 10 weeks had caseous lymphatic glands at the root of the 
 ear and in the neck, tolerably abundant grey nodules in the lungs, a few 
 in the kidneys and the spleen. Five more guinea-pigs were inoculated with 
 the tubercles from the spleen of one of the guinea-pigs. Three of these 
 died in the 8th week. The two remaining were killed the same week, and all 
 found tubercular. Some of the cheesy glandular substance from a rabbit was 
 rubbed up with water and injected into the peritoneal cavity in two rabbits. 
 When these two animals were killed after 8 weeks, tuberculosis of 'the omen- 
 tum, spleen and liver was found, together with a fair number of gray nodules 
 in both lungs. 
 
 6. Caseous pneumonia and tuberculosis of the meninges : 2 guinea-pigs 
 inoculated with the cheesy substance from the lungs in which there were 
 numbers of bacilli. The animals died in the 5th and 6th weeks. All tuber- 
 cular. 
 
 7. Lungs showing caseous infiltration with many bacilli : 6 guina-pigs. The 
 first died after 6 weeks, The remainder were very ill at the time and were 
 killed a few days later. All tubercular. 
 
 8. Phthisical lungs with cavities, intestinal ulcers and cheesy mesenteric 
 glands. Two guinea-pigs were inoculated from the contents of cavity contain- 
 ing a fair number of bacilli, and four more from the mesenteric glands, which 
 were very full of bacilli. The latter died in the 5th and 6th weeks : of the 
 first two, one died in the sixth week, and the other was Killed a few days 
 later. All tubercular. 
 
 9. Caseous bronchitis and intestinal tuberculosis. Five guinea-pigs were 
 inoculated from the lung substance, in which there was a good number of 
 bacilli. Two of them died in the 8th week. The remainder were killed be- 
 fore the end of the same week. All tubercular. 
 
 10. Phthisical lungs with cavities. Four guinea-pigs inoculated from the 
 consolidated lung tissue, in which were only a few bacilli. Three of them 
 died in the 7th and 8th weeks, the last not till the 12th week. All tubercular. 
 
 11. Phthisical sputum. Nine guinea-pigs were inoculated at different times 
 with fresh sputum containing a varying number of tubercle bacilli taken from 
 three different patients. Some of the animals died before the 8th week, some 
 were then killed. They were all tubercular. 
 
 12. Phthisical sputum dried for 2 weeks : 3 guinea-pigs. Two died in the 
 6th week, the third was killed at the same time. All tubercular. 
 
 13. Phthisical sputum dried for two months : 3 guinea-pigs, killed after 5 
 weeks, and tubercles found in lungs, liver, and spleen. 
 
 14. Tuberculosis of the uterus and tubes. Six guinea-pigs inoculated with 
 cheesy material from the tubes. Two animals died at 7 weeks. The others 
 were killed in the 9th week. All tubercular. 
 
 ********* 
 28. With lung tubercles from a second monkey, dying of spontaneous tuber- 
 culosis, 2 guinea-pigs were inoculated and died of tuberculosis in the 8th and 
 9th weeks. From these guinea-pigs again 2 guinea-pigs and 1 rabbit were 
 inoculated. They were killed in the 6th week, as they seemed already ill, and 
 they were found to be already tubercular. 
 
 Two more guinea-pigs were inoculated from the same monkey with lung 
 tubercles which had been dried and kept for 3 days. They too were killed in 
 the 6th week, and found tubercular. 
 
APPENDIX. 343 
 
 For the infection experiments just detailed (including 13 not quoted) 79 
 guinea-pigs, 35 rabbits and 4 cats were used altogether, and the inoculation of 
 these animals resulted in tuberculosis without exception." 
 
 (41 and 42 'J 
 
 Experiments on the Immunity and Cure of Tetanus in Animals. Zeitschr. 
 f . Hygiene u. infections-Krankheiten, 12, 1892, 45-57. By Dr. Behring. 
 
 " In November, 1890, I, in an announcement with Mr. Kitasato, stated that 
 with the blood of a rabbit rendered immune from tetanus, we could prevent 
 mice from taking the disease, and if they had been infected we could cure 
 them. 
 
 The certainty of the cure and the immunity of even such animals as had 
 received more than a hundred times the dose of the fatal infection, exceeded 
 our greatest expectation. If in the manipulation no technical mistakes were 
 made, unfavorable results were entirely excluded." 
 
 Here the author states that the practicality of this method was suggested 
 by his experiments in diphtheria, and that he and Dr. Kitasato arranged to do 
 all they could to perfect the new method so it could be used for larger animals 
 than mice, and especially that it might be used to render the human body 
 immune from tetanus. They were stimulated to their research by the belief 
 that tbey had a method which was applicable to different infectious diseases. 
 
 Drs. Kitasato and Behring carried on their investigations separately, but 
 each assisted the other where possible. 
 
 The successful use of IC1 3 in diphtheria led Dr. Behring to apply it for the 
 purpose of rendering immune from tetanus. 
 
 The author states that the experiments upon rabbits were very successful 
 and that the experiments were among the easier tasks which a bacteriologist 
 had to perform The first requisite of success being an exact knowledge of 
 the action of the culture relatively to the filtrate. In one month Dr. Behring 
 received 8 cultures from Dr. Kitasato and tested the effectiveness of them on 
 mice and rabbits. He gives an account of the last of these cultures. It was 
 received Nov. 15th, '91, in bouillon and had stood in the culture for ten days. 
 
 " Upon opening the paraffin the odor characteristic of tetanus was given off, 
 and a microscopical examination revealed an abundance of bacteria and 
 spores." 
 
 An-hiv fur Anatomie. 1870. 
 
 On the Electrical Irritability of the Cerebrum. By G. Fritsch and E. 
 Hitzig. 
 
 I 'age 308. "In the first experiment we used unnarcotized animals, dogs, 
 hut latex narcotized, and proceeded to open the skull in as level a spot as pos- 
 fible. Then with the sharp, round bone forceps we removed either 1 1 1 « - entire 
 half of the skull, OX only the pari covering the frontal lobe of the hrnin. 
 
 In in" t cases after experimenting on one hemisphere, ire removed fcl fcher 
 
 half of the skull In exactly the same way. En all these cases, after one dog 
 had died of hemorrhage through a small injury to the Longitudinal sinus, we 
 Long bridge oi bone to protect it. 
 
 •. the dura which had been Lefl Lntaci thus Car wim lightly cut and 
 grasped with the forceps and laid bach to the edge of the skull. Hereupon 
 the d ed violent pain by whining and characteristic twitohingfi 
 
344 APPENDIX. 
 
 But later when it had been exposed to the air for a longer time, the remain- 
 der of the dura mater was rendered far more sensitive, a circumstance which, 
 in carrying out the experiment, had to be taken carefully into consideration. 
 However we could shock, in any degree, the pia through mechanical or any 
 other irritation, without the animal manifesting sensation." 
 
 After giving a description of the electrical apparatus used, the authors con- 
 tinue : ' ' The following are the results which we give as a summary of a very 
 great number of experiments on the brain of the dog, which harmonize for 
 the most part to the minutest detail, without describing all the experiments. 
 
 A part of the convexity of the cerebrum of the dog is motor, and another 
 part is not motor. The motor part is placed, as it is generally expressed, more 
 to the front, the non-motor lies toward the back. 
 
 Through the electric stimuli of the motor part, one obtains combined muscle 
 contraction of the opposite half of the body." 
 
 (W 
 
 Ferrier. Functions of the Brain. 1886, p. xxii. 
 

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