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AUTHOR GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD TITLE: PICTORIAL HISTORY OF ANCIENT ROME PLACE: PHILADELPHIA DATE: 1875 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DEPARTMENT Master Negative # BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET Original Material as Filmed - Existing Bibliographic Record 874 i G63 I Goodrich, S^amuelj G^riswoldj 1793-1860. A pictorial history of ancient Rome. With sketches of the iiistory of modern Italy. By S. U. Goodrich ... Rev. and improved ed. Philadelphia, J^II. Butler & co., 18?t X, ill]-336 p. front., illus., maps. 19 m 1375 • 1. Rome — Hist. Restrictions on Use: Library of Congress DG210.G686 4-36636t TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA REDUCTION RATIO: FILM SIZE: 3.§ljfr_'^ IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA ^lA^ IB IID DATE Filmed :___lli_j!lil-^ INITI ALS___L__:._i^ HLMEDBY: RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. INC WOODDRIDGE, CT l(} X c Association for Information and Image Management 1 1 00 Wayne Avenue. Suite 1 1 00 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 301/587-8202 Centimeter 1 2 3 Uil mmmlmj^^ Inches 1 4 uimm 5 6 iliiiiliiiiliiii TT-rT7 8 iiiiiimiiiniiiiiiii T m 10 ii.i. 11 12 13 14 15 mm TTT 11 1.0 hi I 2 8 Urn ■ 63 IX ^ u lUlAte 1.4 2.5 22 I.I 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.25 III 111 llllHllllllll TTT MRNUFRCTURED TO PIIM STfiNDflRDS BY fiPPLIED IMPGE, INC. / / A \ay I STANDARD LIBRARY HISTORICAL SCHOOL SERIES. BY S. G. GOODRIOH. 1. GOODRICH'S PICTORIAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER PORTIONS OF AMERICA. 2 GOODRICH'S PICTORIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 3. GOODRICH'S PICTORIAL HISTORY OF FRANCE. 4. GOODRICH'S PICTORIAL HISTORY OF GREECE, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 6. GOODRICH'S PICTORIAL HISTORY OF ROME AND MODERN ITALY. 6. G00DR1CH.-PARLEY'S COMMON SCHOOL HISTORY-A Buibf COMPEND OP UnIVKRSAI. HiSTORY. 7 GOODRICH'S FIRST HISTORY— An Intuodiction to Parley's Com- mon School History. / / t^T (y^^'^ i^ ' ^^imr i PICTORIAL HISTORY OF ANCIENT ROME. ( • HISTORY. or. iI.()DE.,KN ITALY. . 1 " • J .J I C L C I BY S. G. GOODRICH, \m^)6Y OF^P^TER VVPLET^S TALiiS. / FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. REVISED AND IMPROVED EDITION. PHILADELPHIA: PUBUSHEP BY J. H. BUTLER & CU 1875. lijt«red, according to Act of Congress, in the .year 1848, hj S. G. GOODRICH, I the Clerk's OflBce of the District Court for the District of Massacbu«©tt» Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by S. G. GOODRICH, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern Distnot of New York. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 186C, by The Heirs of S. G. GOODRICH, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York, « • • • • • ~ir«-» — m-r-w — « — r • • « * • • •• • • •• • • • * • • ' ^ ^_t_ L « . • • • • ••* , *t ••••••• • € • • •* *«• •• •• •••«• • 1 • » 4 Caxton Press op Sherman & Co., Poilada. P R E F A C f Constantinc and the Sign. Tms 'vork heing the last of the series o{ Pictorial Histories for Sch^oh and FuiniUrs, it may be proper to state the leading views which have guided the writer in their preparation. In a work of this nature, it is obvious that simplicity of style and perspi- cuity of arrausfcment, are not merely desirable, but essential. Of course, ihc author has ailempled to secure these ends. To render the works especially availahle iii education, the subjects are presented in the form of short chap- ters, each chapter, as far as possible, presenting some distinct subj^'ct or subJGcls, likely tr) arrest the attention of the reader, and strons^ly to impress his menriory. The mailer is furlher divided into verses ; and questions on these are given to aid the teacher in his examination of the pupils. The writer would, however, suggest thai in many cases the teacher will liid it best to vary these questions so as to suit the particular capacity or taste i-ud char- acter of the pupil. The author has endeavored to steer between difficulties which always beset historical compends. If they present a full and complete chronological out- line, ihey are apt to be dry, repulsive and uninslructive to the beginner in his- tory. Ill such case his interest is not excited ; nothing being presented uoon which his imagination lays strong hold, he learns lillle, and remembers less. On the other hand, without a distinct chronological outline, history is a maze, by which the reader is more likely to be bewildered than enlightened. 'To avoid such difficulties, the writer has adopted this plan ; viz., to select •he great points of history, and present th*>m in clear, distinct chronological order ; and then make these leading points interesting by descriptive details, anecdotes and incidents. It has lieen said that Chronology and Geography are the iiDC Eyes of HUi- tory. The former tells when events happened, the latter teds where tney Happened. As the former has received careful altenlion in these works, the latter has not been neglected. In all cases, the history of a country is prc- cedeti by gooijra))hical descriptions, and maps have been introduced when th-ay were required. As great care has been taken to select from the endless mass of dtjtails pre- sented by the histories of the several countries treated of in this series, in order to give what is at once most important, instructive and amusing, so has it been the special design of the writer to inculcate just viev.s of the several characters wnich rise before the reader in the great drama of life. History, written in the spirit of the present age, must be very different from that w»ii 392639 n PREFACE. \Zn\uTv ^ ^ f^u"" ''^''''^''' ^^"^ " ^onmjer by this si-,.," was the inscription uponthebanneroflhecrossprrsenledtothevlsiaiofCo..siantine. Thismavl.c regarded as a toreshadowm- of wliai has since come to pass. Conquer bu thi truth, IS now the dictate ofhuiiian policy as well as that of divine revelation Jn earlier days, power lajr in »he sword, and war was the jame of the mas- ter spirits of mankind. Success in war was glory • displays of nhvsical strength and l.rute courage were celehrat-d by the poet, oraior, anil histc nan and were rewarded, not only ny fame on earth, but, according lo the notions of the age, by hi-h places in heaven. The writings of the Greeks and Romans were imbued with these views, and imparted their spirit to the histories of later times. It has been the special care of the rulers ]n Europe down to our own day to cherish and peri^nuate these views. JMcxlern monar- chies, like all nionarchies, have been built up by wars ; the sword is their archi- tect ; military heroes are the instruments of kings. War must therefore be made the path to wealth, fame and glory. Historians, as teachers of the people, bound to brinjthem up in the support of monarchical institutions, must do their part. Thus it is, that the exploits of British. French, and Russian nil lary heroes are spoken of in the pages of the modern historian ven' much m the language of the pagan authors of antiquity, when speaking of Alexander and Cossar. » j > r s • ^i^-Aaiiuui • ^I'l^"'? V' ^ ^"""^[y where unnecessary war is held to be wrong; where right furnishes the only rule of might ; where truth is acknowleil-ed as supe- rior to the sword, the author has of course viewed the characters and transac- tions of former times, m a light somewhat different from that ordinarily thrown over historical treatises. He has son-ht, indeed, to present them ifi their true colors ; and while making due allowance for the darkness of other times, has endeavored not to permit that darkness to become habitual in the mind of the reader, and disqualify him to judge of things as they must appear in the sight of human reason, enlightened by the spirit of Christianity The author may add, that in one other respt^cl he has deviated from the ordinary track ; he has not confined his details to the intrigues of politicians the achievements of kings, the rise and fall of empires - the mere skeletons ol^ history. Ho has, indeed, given these, so far as was necessary ; but he has been careful to present the movements of society ; to let the reader loo< in upon the masses ; to study their feelings, their opinions, their modes of li e their suf- ferings, their enjoyments. It is hoped, therefore, that these u As will be found not merely attractive, but useful and instructive, inasmuch as they wil enable the reader, bv studying mankind, to study himself; anc by learning the course ol Providence in respect to the past, to judge of it n'reeari tc 'ne future.. & *« CON TENTS. INTRODUCTION. UUAPTEIt rios II. ill. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. xn. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII XIX. XX. XXI XXil XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVIl. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVII. XLVIII. XLIX. L. M. LII. LIII. Description of Italy, n -Divisions of Modern and Ancient Italy la -Ancient Inhabitants of Italy, I6 ANCIENT RO.ME FIRST 'ERIOD. r —First Glimpses of Roman Histor\ — Legends of J..neas, — Legend of ilomulus and Remus, ' la — F'ouiidation of Rome, 20 — The Sabine Women, 21 —War with the Sabines .22 — Death of Romulus, 23 — Reign of JVuma, 24 — The Horatii L.nd Curiatii, 25 — Anciis Martius — Tarquin I., 26 — Reign of Servius Tullius, 27 — Reign of Tanjuin the Proud, 28 —Overthrow of Tarquin the Proud, 3C — Government of Rome under the Kings, . . . . .31 — Ancient Roman Annies — Customs in Founding Citi'is, 33 —Literature of the Romans under the Kings, . . . .34 ANCIENT ROME SECOND PERIOD. — War of Porsenna, .... — Mucins Scoevola — Battle of Rcgillus, — Internal Troubles at Rome, --Revolt of the Plebeians, . -Monenius Agrippa, — Hanishment of Coriolanus, — Veturia and Volumnia, —Dictatorship of Cincinnatus, . — Mount Algidus, .... — The Decemvirs, .... — Appius Claudius and Virginia, — Siege of Veii, — Capture of Veii, .... —Invasion of the Gauls, — March of the Gauls to Rome, . — Capture of Rome by the Gauls, — Defence of the Capitol, — Departure of the Gauls from Rome — Rebuilding of Rome, . — (condemnation of Manlius, —The Samnite and Latin War, . — Titus Manlius, .... — Devotion '>f Decius, . . . —The (>audine Forks, . —Arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy, —War with Pyrrhus, —Embassy of "Fabricius, —Defeat of Pyrrhus, —Progress of the Roman Commonwealth, —Foundation of Carthage, . —First Punic War, —Naval Victory of^Diiilius, — Regnlus invades Africa. . —Embassy of Regulus to Rome, —Death of Regulus, 35 36 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 47 49 5C 51 52 53 54 55 5r 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 iriii LIV. LV. LVI. LVII. LVIII. LIX. LX. LXI. LXU. LXIII. LXIV. LXV. LXVI. LXVII. LXVIII. LXIX. LXX. I.XXI. LXXIl. LXXIII LXXIV. LXXV. LXXVI. LXXVII. LXXVIII. LXX IX. LXXX. LXXXI. LXXXII. LXXXIII. LXXXIV. LXXXV. LXXXVI. Lxxxvn. I.XXXVIII. Lxxxrx. xc- XCI. XCII. XCIII. xciv. xcv. XCVI. XCVII. XCVlll. XCIX. c- CL- CII.- CIIL- CIV.- cv.- CVI.- CVIL- CVIII.- CIX.- CX.- CXI.- CXII.- CXIII.- CXIV.- CXV.- CONTENTS. CONTENTS. IX Erul of the First Pdnic War, — Illyrian and Gallic War, .... --Comineiicemetil of the ^5ec•ond P nic War, —Hannibal's Passage of ihe Alps, . —Campaign of Hannibal in Ilaly, . —Battle of Thrasymenus, .... — Fabius Maximus, — Battle of Cannoe, , . . , . — Battle of the Metaurus, ....*. —Capture of Syracuse — Scipio's WVs in Spain, -Battle of Zama — End of the Second Punic War ■Coiimiest of Greece by the Romans, — Death of Hannibal, . — Cato the Censor, —Third Punic War, — Ca|)iiireofCartha2:e, . —End of the Third Punic War, — Tilierius Gracchus, . — Caius Gracchus, . — End of Ronian Freedom, . — The Juirurthine War, -Conquest and Death of Jiigurtha, . —Invasion of the Cinibrians and Teutoncs —Defeat of the Barl)arians, . —Tumults at Rome, —The Social War, . . . —The Social War, . —Rivalry of Marius and Sulla, —Flight and Exile of Marias, . —Civil War of Marius and Sul'.a, —Civil War of Marius and Sul.a, continued, —Dictatorship of Sulla, —The Cilician Pirates, —Conspiracy of Catiline, . —Overthrow of Catiline, —Rebellion of '. par4acus, —The First Triumvirate, —Julius Caesar in Gaul, —Parthian Expedition of Crass —Disasters of Crassus, . — De^«!' of Crassus, — Rivairv of Pompey and CoRsar -Civil War, . . . . —Flight of Poinpey from Rome, — Pornpev and Caesar in Greece, -Battle of Pharsalia, . —Death of Pompey, -Triumph of CiEsar, . -Dictatorship of Cipsar, -Conspiracy against C;rsar, —Assassination of Caesar, . -Mark Antony, -Funeral of Cresar, -The Second Triumvirate, . -Brutus and Cassius, . -Battle of Philippi, . . -Antony and Cleopatra, Rome under the Triumvirs, -Octavius and Antony, Quarrel of Octavius and Antony, Battle of Actium, Flight of Antouv, • 75 . 76 . 77 . 78 . 80 HI . 82 . 83 . 84 . 85 . 87 . 88 . 90 . 91 . 92 . 93 . 94 . 95 . 96 . 97 . 99 . 100 . 102 . 103 104 . 106 . 108 . 109 . Ill . 112 . 113 . 114 . lie . 1(8 . 119 . 120 . 121 . 123 . 124 . 125 . 127 . 128 , 129 . 131 , 132 133 134 135 137 139 140 141 143 144 145 147 149 150 151 152 153 154 CXVl. CXVIL- CXVIIL- CXIX.- CXX. CXXl CXXIl.- CXXUL- CXXIV.- cxxv.- CXXVI.- CXXVII. cxxvin.- CXXIX. CXXX. CXXXI. CXXXII. CXXXIIl.- . CXXXIV. CXXXV. CXXXVI. :;xxxvn.- CXXXVIIL- CXXXIX. CXL.- CXLL- CXLII.- CXLIII.- CXLiV.- CXLV. JXLVL- : XLVII. ^XLVIII. CXLIX. CL. CLI. CLH. CLHI. CLIV. CLV. CLVI. CLVII. CLVIII. CLIX. CLX.- CLXI. CLXII. CI.XIII. CLXIV. CLXV. JLXVI. CLXVII. CLXVIII. CI.XIX. CLXX. CI.XXI. CLXXII. CLXXIII. CLXXiV. CLXXV -Death of Antony, • 155 -Death of Cle(»patra, 156 -Establishment of the Power of Augustus, . . .157 -Roman I/ilerature during the Second Period, . . . 158 -Livius Andronicus — Ncevius — Ennius — Plautus, . 1 60 -Terence — liUcretius — Catullus. ... .161 -Cato the Elder — Sallust, ...... -62 -Cicero — Ccesar, 164 ANCIENT ROME — THIRD PERIOD. -Description of the Roman Empire, 167 —Description of the Empire, continued, .... 168 — Inhabitants of the Empire, 170 -The City of Rome under Augustus, 171 —Rome und^r Augustus, . . .... 173 —Reign of Augustus, 174 —Reign of Augustus, 175 —Rome under Augustus, 177 —Rome under Augustus, 178 —Reign of Augustus, 180 —Reign of Augustus, 182 —Death of Augustus, 183 —Accession of Tiberius, 184 —Crimes of Sejanus, 1S6 -Reign of Caligula, 187 —Assassination of Caligula, 189 —Reign of Claudius, 190 —Reign of Nero, 191 —Crimes of Nero, 194 —Death of Nero, 195 -Galba and Otho, • ... 197 -Reign of Vitellius, 195 -Death of Vitellius, 199 —Reign of Vespasian, 201 — Reign of Vespasian, continued, 202 — Reign of Titus, 20S — Herculaneum and Pompeii, 206 —Reign of Domitian, 203 —Reign of Nerva, 210 —Reign of Trajan, . 211 —Eastern Campai£i:ns of Trajan, 213 — Adrian — Antoninus Pius, 214 —Reign of Marcus Aurelius, 215 —Reign of Commodus, 217 — Death of Commodus, 218 —Commerce of the Romans with the East, . . .219 —Commerce of the Romans with the South and North, . 221 — ReiG^n of Perlinax, 222 — Didius Julianus, 223 —Reigns of Seutimius Severus and Caracalla, . . . 225 — Macrinus ann Heliogabalus, .*.... 22€ — Alexander Severus — Maximin, 223 -Cruelties and Death of Maximin, 229 —The Two Gordians, 23v, — Gordian — Philip — Decius, 231 — Gallus — iEmilianus — Va'3rian, ... . 233 — Gallienus — Claudius — Quintillius, . . . 235 — Aurelian — Zenol)ia, 236 — Death of Aurelian, 239 -Tacitus— Probus, 239 — Carus, Carinus, and Numer'^n, . • . . 240 — Dioclesian — Galerius — Conslaulius, .... 241 * CONTENTS. 'JLXXyi — Ct^.^tantinc the Great, . ... .2*2 CLXXV'Il.— Tlic Sons of Constantine, '244 Cj^XXVIII.—Constans — Julian the Apostate, 245 CLXXIX. — Death of Julian, ! 247 ^r^'^A^r~X^^^"^'"'^" ^"^ Valens — Division of the Empire' ! 24S ^.vLAAXU.— lheodosius the Great, 250 CLXXXIII. — Arcadius and Honorius ' or.o CLXXXIV.-The Britons, ..... . ! 253 r^yy^rX~^u^ «'"^"'"' ^"'•^"n^ians. and Visigoths, . * 255 t^LiAAAVl.— 1 he Barl)arian Governments, 25f. CLXXXVIL— Spain, the Vandals and Alani, . . '257 ^^?^5-5^JU'~§^>i?'"?^^°" °^ ^"^^''" ^""O"^' Ihe Empire, . . . ' 25S oLXXXlX.— Stihcho, .... . , , 259 CXC— Alaric, Attila, and Genseric, . . . 260 CXCI.— End of the Western Empire, . .... 261 /4^9II-~Jtl^^':?^"''^ ^"d Eminent Men during the Third Period,* 263 ^v^r\r •~7.*'^^^^ ~ Horace — Ovid — Tihullus - Propertius, . 264 7>^Vr~k^T~^^f^^^^''"^^^^^"5"^*^» A"«^« .... 267 i^Ai^V.—Uecline and Extinction of Roman Literature, . . 209 CX(y VI. —Later Roman Writers, 270 CXCVIL— Religion of the Romans, . . . * .' 273 CXC VIIL— Roman Festivals, . ...... i 275 CXCIX.— The Circus — Amphitheatre— Gladiators, .* ! 27G CC- Private Amusement of the Romans, 2:s CCL— Roman Architecture, 2'7<: ■ ^CII— Sculpture and Paintino: among the Romans, .' ! ! 281 CCIIL— Manners and Dress of the Romans, 2S2 CCIV.—P^ood and Drink of the Romans, • . . . ! 2nl CC v.— Marriage and Funeral Ceremonies of the Romans, *. 2S7 CCVL— Roman Military Art — The Legion, 280 CCVIL— March and Encampment of a Roman Army — The Navv 20 1 CCVIIL— Roman Triumphs, .'294 MODERN ITALY. CCIX.— Odoacer — Theodoric — Belisarius, 297 CCX. — The Lombards, * 299 CCXL— Charlemagne — Frederic Barbarossa, . \ ! 30C CCXII. — The Guelphs and Ghibellines, ... . . 300 CCXIII.-Civil Wars in Italy, ........ 303 CCXIV. — Cola di Rienza, * 3^ CCXV.— Schism in the Panacy, .... . ' i/c CCXyi.-The Venetian Republic, ! . 307 CCXyil.— Genoa — Lombardv -- Florence — Naples, . . .303 CCXVIII.— Establishment of the Spanish Power in Italy, ,. .309 CCXIX.— Conspiracy of Fiesco, at Genoa, ... .310 CCXX. — Conspiracy of Venice, 311 CCXXI. — Insurrection of Masaniello * qiq CCXXIL-The Modern Popes, ... . Vit ^CXXIH.-Sixtus the Fifth, ! ! . ! 316 OCXXIV^— The Italians of the Eighteenth Century, . ! \ ] 313 CCXXV. — Modern Revolutions of Italy, * 32,1 ^^?^?^y^'~^"d*^^" Revolutions of Italy, continued, . . . 322 CCXXVII.— Modern Revolutions of Italy, concluded, . . . 324 THE CITY OF ROME — ANCIENT AND MODERN. ^^^^^Y^^^I- — Rome under the Kings and the Republic, . . . ;J26 OCXXIX. — Arclutccture of Rome, ] 327 ^^^?^^- — ^^r-'intieur, Embellishment, and Decay of the City, . 828 CCXXXI. — Rome after the Overthrow of the Emoire * ' '{20 LtAAAU. — Rome in the Middle Ages, 339 CCXXXIII. — Rome under the Popes, [ | 331 CCXXX IV.— Ruins of Rome in the Fifteenth Century! ! '. ] ;i82 CCXXXV. — Modern Rome -ijZ INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. Description of Italy, 1. Italy, which was the seat and centre of the most powerful pmpire of antiquity, is a larn^e peninsula on the northern side of the Mediterranean, having the Adriatic Sea on the east and the Tyrrhene or Tuscan Sea on the west. It is bounded on the north by the lofty mountain chain of the Alps, and is traversed through its whole length by the Apennines. 2. The surf;ice of the country is very diversified. The southern part is mountainous. In the north is a great plain extending in an unl)roken level from the Alps and Apennines to the Adriatic, and watered by the Po and its tributaries. This is the most fertile plain in Europe. 3. The soil of Italy is fruitful, producing plentiful crops of grain, fruits, wine and oil. The amenity of its climate, and its picturesque scenery, render it one of the uKJSt delightful regions in the varld. 4. The beautiful and fertile island of Sicily, with its lolty volcanic mountain, vEtna, lies at the Koutbern extremity of Italy, and is sep- anitcd from it only by a narrow channel. According to tradition, the 'siand and continent were once united, but some great convulsion of CHAP. I. — 1. How is Italy boundetl ' 2. Describe tne face of the c intry 3, lh« 0oii Hfi.l diinale. 4. Describe Sicily. Whai does Ovid say of it? f ^\\d\ wore iIk" ancient uaiiK)£i «>f luly 1 v^ DIVISIONS OF MODERN ITALY. nature rent them asunder. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses^ alludea tP this hcliel*: So /ancle* lo iho Italian oarlh was tied, And men once walked where ships al anchor ride, Till Neptune overlooked the narrow way, And in disdain jwured in the conquerinij sea. 5. Italy was called Hesperia by the Greeks, on account of its lyiui westivanl'of Greece. In very remote a-'^ miz % m ,^=K -\ ^ L_^-i!'- i^^»<:ainp^Jbasso ^» i I loiiii i5*3\n'"J:^* W^0^'' ')f^''f'onaro^^ S T^ A. f> j^i.^'' J.^ •a'^.j-. ^aratit*) "C5&, "^^kr Vi^> ■^^y,-.<;J .Ozeiii r k ^ 1 r::& ■^0^^ Mr^ M iTr r^enfi^^ ^' ■ "^,>xa cu sc m\ ft^^ Tion T.asi tfnm "Washhigion. lYcnti} •r^enttvv at'o PRESENT DIVISIONS OF IT.ALY. States. (lovernnicnt. Kingdom of Italy State of Sardinia States of the ( hurch. State of Naples Papal Dominions San Marino < Monarchy Papal lU'puhlic Austrian Viceroy. Capitals, with their Pop. Fh)rencc 114,000 Turin '2u5.000 Ancona 45 000 Naples 447,000 Rome 204,0('0 San Marino 8,000 Venice 119,000 14 DIVl^JlUNS OY ANCIENT ITALY. the ancient oiins, and the various cities bear marks of different deoreei of auti^'ii y. At Rome, and in other places, are many ruins which date hack for two thousand years. 3. The people of Italy are jo^enerally of a swarthy complexion, and though considerable differences are found between those of different districts, and though they have all lost the vigor of their ancestors, they are still distinguished by the same general characteristics, and by a high order of genius. 4. Ancient Italy comprised three great divisions: Cisalpine Gaul, in the north, Italy Proper, in the centre, and Magna Graecia, in the south. 5. Cisalpine Gaul was divided by the river Padus, now called the Po, into two separate territories, called Gallia Transpadana and Gallia Cis])adana. The whole country was, after the Roman con- quest, also termed Gallia Togata, in allusion to the people having adopted the use of the Roman ioga, or cloak. Venetia was in the north-east, and Liguria in the south-east, of this region. 0. Italy Proper extended southward from Gallia Cispadana to the rivers Silauru. and Trento, compreher jing modern Tuscany, the Papal States, and the northern part of the kingdom of Naples. The ancient divisions were Etruria, Latium, Umbria, Picernum, Campania. Samnium, and the territory of the Sabines. 7. Etruria was a highly civilized country at an early date, lis inhabitants had made great advances in science and the arts before the foundation of Rome. Many of their sculptured gems, vases and paintings, still exist. The walls of their ancient cities are to be seen at the present day at Cortona, Perugia, Fiesole and other places. The Etruscans formed a confederation of twelve states, each of which «vas an independent community with regard to its domestic policy. 8. Latium lay on the western coast of Italy, between the Tiber and the Liris. In early times it was inhabited by various tribes, called Latins, Ausones, Rutuli, Sabines, Volsci, &c!^ 9. Campania extended along the western coast from the Liris to the Silaurus, and comprised the territory around the city of Naples. This country has always been fiimous for its beauty and fertility, ft suffered more frequent changes of inhabitants in early times, than any other part of Italy. Attracted by the fertility of the soil and the mildness of the climate, one horde of invaders poured in after another, and established their dominion here, until the Roman conquest secured the tranquillity of the country. 10. Magna Graecia was settled at an early period by colonies from Greece, who brought with them the arts and institutions of that country. It was divided into Apulia, Calabria, Lucania, and Rrut- tium. The most important city in Magna Graecia was Tarentum, tne inhabitants of which were remarkable for their wealth and luxurious habits. iV.i Teople of Italy. 4. How was ancient Ital • divi.led? 5. Descrilw Cisalpine Gaul What name was siven to it after the Koman r rxinest 1 *. noscril)o Italy Pro[)er. In Jiviaions. 7. What of the Etruscans? S. latiur ? 9. Campania? Its history? '0. Magna Gt ecia'/ Its til'- isious ? 10 UR 112 HE ."^^^^ ^lj*.v ^' 1ffl>fi/u^sL0, 116 O IV I C U JVt 'FoCMiiiJulii 40 V^ X6»^" 9 resvj^^v.. tP I'alimiruni i^v|l| G*'' Coiiscn' A^^^ ^ yrac'iiiBo Ganlos lfelg^ TT^ ,,^ JMelitu I. ANCIENT ITALY 50 100 150 NialuTiryi iWa ' "'■ ""'■"■ •■■ 1% ANCIENT INHABITANTS OF ITALV. CHAPTER IIL Ajicient Inhabitants of Italy, A. By the light of the earliest historical records, it appears thai Italy, hetween one and two thousand years before ihe Christiin era, was inhabited by two races of people, differing from each other in language and manners. One race dwelt on the coast rmd the plain* adjacent, and the other on the mountains in the interior. 2. The former were probably a part of the great Pelasgic tribe ot family, which also inhabited Greece and Asia Minor in very ancient times. Of the latter, we know nothing previous to their appearance in the mountain regions of Italy, where they may be regarded aa indigenous or native. 3. The Pelasgians of Italy seem to have been similar in characte? to those of Greece. They were an agricultural peoplp, and builf towns with Cyclopean walls of unhauunered stone. Probably they came into Italy as conquerors or colonists ; but after having been long settled here, it seems that the aboriginal mountaineers descended into their territories and subjugated them. " 4. We then find the south of Italy occupied by a people calling themselves CEnotrians : the region in the neiirhborhd of the Tiber by the Siculi, who afterwards invaded the island of Trinacria and gave it the name of Sicily ; and Etruria inhabited by the Tyrrhe- nians. 5. Other names appear shortly afterward in history. The Latins, according o tradition, were driven down the river Anio by the Sabines ; and the latter, in their turn, exjH'iled the Siculi, who pro coeded soutit and crossed over the Strait of Messina. 0. AlM)ut one thousand v»»ars before Christ, the Greeks bejran to found colonies in the south of Italy. The Chalcidians and Eretrians. froHi the island of Eubu?a, built the cities of Cuma and Naples in Campania, and Rhegium on the strait. The Actiaeans built Sybaris, Crotona, and Melapontum. 7. In Sicily, the Dorian Greeks founded Messana, Syracuse, Hybla, Gela, and Agrigentum. The lonians founded Naxus, Catana, and Himera. There were also Greek colonies in Corsica and Sar- dinia. fhc teacher will here put stich questions upon the map of ancient Italy aa may famil liirize the pupil with the ilivisions, ^c. III. — 1. What is the earliest kiiowledsre we have of Italy 7 2. What is known of ihi two races of inhabitants? 3. Who were the Pelasgians? 4. Who inhabited the soulfe of Italy 7 5. What is said of the latins. Sabines and Siculi? 6. When did the Greekf be^in to found colonies in Italy? What cities did they Ixiild here? 7. Wlmt aeltle aitmU did they make in Sicily anecanie ofhim ? 7. Wliat did JEncas c4 rwpeclnif religion? 8. How did he die? What name waj afterward ever to k'n 9 WhJ took place at the eod of thirty years? LEGEND OF ROMULUS AND REIMITS. 15 2. After this he caused Numitor's only son to be slain, and mado his daughter Sylvia become one of the vestal virgins, whose duty it was to watch the ever-burning fire of the goddess Vesta. But Syl- via had made a private marriage with a person whom the supersti- tious people believed to be the god Mars. 3. Twin children were born of this marriage, and Amulius ordered them immediately to be thrown into the Tiber. It happened that the river had just risen and flooded the country, and when the childien were cast into the water, the biisket which contained them floated to the foot of a hill called Palatine, where it upset, and the children were landed under a wild fig tree. 4. The Roman legends go on to state, that while the children were lying here, a she-wolf came down to the river to drink, and when she saw the infants she carried them to her den, hard by, and suckled them. After some days, Faustulus, the king's herdsman, discovered them, and carried them to his own house, on the Palatine hill, where they were brought up along with his children. 5. The twins were named Romulus and Remus. When they grew up, the herdsmen of the Palatine chanced to have a quarrel with some of the people belonging to the household of the king. The latter laid an ambush, and took Remus prisoner. The young man was carried before Amulius, who was struck with his noble carriage, and asked him who he was. 6. When Remus told him how he had been found near the river with his brother, the king was struck with surprise, and began to suspect that these might be the sons of his brother Numitor. In the mean time Faustulus and Romulus had raised their friends to rescue Remus. 7. These peasants formed themselves into companies of one hundred men each, carrying as ensigns, /nanijmli, or bundles of hay on long poles. Thus organized, they made a desperate attack upon the place where Amulius lodged, defeated his men, and put him to death. Old Numitor was then called from his private farm, and made king. 8. The two brothers, however, did not wish to live at Alba, but preferred the hill on the banks of the Tiber, where they had been brought up. They determined to build a city there, and inquired of the gods, by divination, which of them should give his name to the city. They watched the heavens from morning till night, and through the night till the next morning, tor this was the practice in such cases. 9. Just as the sun was rising, Remus saw six vultures ; immedi- ately afterwards Romulus saw twelve. A dispute now arose, which of the two had beheld the truest sign of the gods' favor. The ma- jority gave their opinion in favor of Romulus. So he began to build the cit) on the Palatine Hill. V. — L What of Procas and his two sons ? 2. What of Sylvia and Mara ? 3 What ha{)pened to the twin children of Sylvia? 4. \Nhal sloty is related of the wolt? of Faustulus? 5, 6. What nanie.s were uiven to the iwin.s? What adventure lirst niaili Ihcin known to the kiuc? 7. Whrii cliani.'e did they make in the g(»verntnent? 8. Whai pie[Kiral'oji tiid they make litr l)uildiiig a city ? 9. What happened respec\ing vultures 20 FOUNni HON OF ROMK. CHAPTER ^l) Foundation of Rome. 1. Remus was mortified and an^y ; and when he saw the ditcJ and wall which were drawn round the space for the new city he Bcornfullv jumped ovef them, saying, " Will these" keep out an ene- my? Upon this insultinnr behavior, the man who had the charcre of the workmen struck Remus a blow with a sptide, and slew him.^ 2. Rome, as the city was named, from Romulus, is believed to have been founded 753 years before Christ. The Romans dated their events A. U. C, that is, Ajino ah Urbe Condita, or in the " Year from the Foundation of the City." 3 When the city was finished by Romulus, it consisted of about a thousand dwellings, irregularly arranged. The inhabitants were principally employed in the cultivation of the soil. Romulus was chosen king, and immediately devoted himself to the formation of laws, and the establishment of good order amon^r his subjects He appointed twelve lictors for his body-guard, and divided the people into curiae, decuriai, patricians, plebeians, patrons, clients, &c. 4. He established a senate of one hundred patricians, who debated and decided upon measures proposed by the king. To the people he gave the power of electing magistrates and declaring war. Of the re- ligious affairs ot Rome he was equally careful ; he appointed priests, established festivals, and arranged a regular system of worship 5. Nevertheless, Romulus found that his people were notsufH- eiently numerous, so he set apart an asylum in Rome to which any man might flee from the neighboring communities, and be safe from his pursuers. This rapidly increased the population of the city and Home became the refuge of a great many desperate characters, and fugitives of all kinds. 6. Rome being thus full of people, met with new embarrassments Women were scarce, for the people of the neighboring cities would not give their daughters to the Romans for wives. Romulus was therefore determined to provide for this want by stratagem and force 1 he senate united with him in the project, and it was carried intii ettect, as vill be seen in the next chapter. X' ^ Jfi~D ^''\ ^"""r ^''^ '^''''^^ ^'" Kemus? 2. When was Rome foundeil? How the people? 4. What of the senate, the elections, religion, Ac. ? 5. How wai the i>ii> Illation increased ? 6. What was the state of Ror^e with regard to woroea J '^ IHK SABLXK WUMt^N. 81 chapter; vn The Sabine Women Carrying off the Sabvie Women. 1. A GREAT feast in honor of Neptune was ordained at Rome, and announced in all the neighboring towns. On such occasions there were always splendid shows and ceremonies, which drew crowds of spectators. The people of Caenina, Crustumerium and Antemna, and a great multitude of Sabines, with their wives and children, flocked to Rome to witness the feast of Neptune. 2. The visitors were received with great civility by the Romans, but as soon as the shows began, a signal was given, and the Roman youth rushed into the crowd, seized the most beautiful girls, and carried them home for wives. The girls w^ soon reconciled to their husbands, but the strangers, whose daughters they were, took up arms to avenge this breach of hospitality. 3. The Sabines in particular, who had suffered chiefly on this oc- casion, took a very hostile and threatening attitude. They came with a great army under their king, Titus Tatius, and besieged Rome. The people of the city had built a strong fortress on the Capitoline Hill, which borders on the Tiber, and was at that time separated from the Palatine by a low swampy valley. 4. This fortress was the chief citadel and defence of Rome. The coiiimander of it had a daughter named Tarpeia, who was in the for- tress when the Sabine-i were encamped undor the walls. As she VII. — 1. What is said of ..e feast of Neptune? Who attended it? 2. How did tne RomaLs Teat the spectators? 3. What was done y the Sabines? Wiio commanded them? What fortress was built in Rome? 4. W- was Tarpeia? What bargiin cUc 22 V\'AK WITH lAE SABINES. looked on the hosts of the besiegers, she was struck with the sighv of their bracelets and collars of gold. Instigated by her avarice and love of finery, she entered into a treacherous correspondence with the enemy, promising to betray the citadel to them if they would mvf her " the bright things which they wore upon their arms." 5. This being agreed to, she watched her opportunity, and in an unguarded moment opened one of the gates of the place. The Sa- bines, as they entered, threw upon her their bright brazen shields, which they carried on their arms, and crushed her to death. Thus the Sabines got possession of this strong place, where they defied Un some time the power of the Romans. CHAPTER VIII. War ivitk the Sabvies, 1. Many battles ensued between the Romans and Sabines, in the valley which divided the two hills. The latter had the advantage, and approached close to one of the gates of Rome. As the story is told us, the inhabitants shut the jrate, but it openi d of its own ac- cord , they shut it again, and again it opened. But as the enemy were rushing into the city, a migbty stream of water burst from the temjde of Janus, and swept them away. 2. In commemoration of this wonderful event, it was ordered that ever afterward the temple of ,Tanus should stand open in time of war, that the god might always be ready, as on this day, to go out and give his aid to the people of Rome. 3. The Romans now made an attempt to retake the citadel, but I he Sabines threw great stones upon them from the walls. Romuhjs was struck upon the head, and his men began to flee, but he rallied them, and the fight waxed fiercer than ever. At this critical moment the Sabine wives of the Romans rushed into the thickest of the fight, between the contending hosts, and begged their husbands and Tathers not to exteruMpate each other. 4. The sudden appearance of these females brought the conflict immediately to a pause. Both parties stood in astonishment gazing at each other. The intercessions and entreaties of the women at length inclined them to peace. A treaty was made, and the two nations were combined into one. 5. It was agreed that the two kings should reign jointly at Rome, md that the Romans should take the name of Qmrites, from the city of the Sabines, which was called Quirium. The Sabines were to ?njoy all the privileges of R man citizens. Peculiar marks of dis- tinction were conferred on tin Sabine women, and their children were 5. How did ihey obtain possession of the fortress 1 Wliat she maKe with the Sabines? was the end of Tarpeia ? '''^ni. — : How uid the war with the Sabines proceed? What hap|)ened to the Sa wnes whet, ihey ailenipled to enter the gate 1 2. What was done in comnieinoraiiou ol ihis ? 3 How did the Sabine women conduci ? 4 Wiu:» was the cuu.-'eir.ionc«1 6 DKATH OF ROMULUS. t>-\ lUowed to \vear garments and decorations to distinguish them from the rest of the peoj/le. 6. Tatius was killed at Lavinium, some time after this, and Rom- ulus reigned alone. He was a just king, and humane towards his people. If any were guilty of crimes, he did not put theni tc dK.ath, but made them pay fines of sheep and oxen. In wars he uas vi^ry successful, and enriched Rome with the spoils of her enemies. CHAPTER IX. Death of Rovmlus, 1. When Romulus had reigned about forty years, he came tc hia end in a surprising manner, as the old legends relate. One day a public meeting was held in the Field of Mars, just without the city walls. All of a sudden arose a dreadful tempest ; it was as dark as night; the rain, thunder and lightning so terrified the people, that they immediately fled home to their houses. 2. The storm blew over, but Romulus was nowhere to be found. It was believed that Mars, his father, had carried him up to heaven in his chariot. Some time afterward, a Roman w4io was returning to the city by night from Alba, saw the ghost of Romulus, in more than mortal beauty, which said to him, " Go, tell my people to weep no more for me. Bid them be brave and warlike, and they shall make my city the greatest upon earth." The phantom then disap- peared. 3. This story was firmly believed by the Romans, and they gave Romulus the name of a god. They built him a temple, oflfered sac- rifices to him, and worshipped him by the name of Quirinus. The Roman writers of later times discredited this supernatural tale, and were of opinion that Romulus was put to death by the senators, be- cause he had attempted to usurp their authority. 4. Romulus having disappeared, there was no one to take his place. The senators refused to appoint a king, but they dividea themselves into committees of ten, each body holding the kingly power for ten days in rotation. A year passed under this govern- ment ; but the people murmured and clamored for a regular sovereign. 5. The Sabines and the Romans, thorgh united, still kept up a party distinction, and could not agree, each wishing a king of their ow^n side. At last it was agreed that he should be chosen from the Sa- bines, but that the Romans only should vote. The choice fell on Numa Pompilius, a man of high character for knowledge and integ- rity, and who is said to have learnt his wisdom from Pythagoras, the famous Greek philosopher. How did itie two rations unite? What name did the Romans take? What distinctior. Kas sbown to llie Siibine women ? 0. What is sal J of the reign of Ronnjlus? IX. --1. How Ions: did Itoniulus reign? Wlia: hap|)ened in the Field of Mars? 2. VVI.ai became of Romulus? What st«»ry i.s toll of a phantom ? 3. What was done U" Romulus after his death? What wa^ thought ' f this .story in later tires? 4. How wa« liw goven.ment carried on after the dej»tt of Romulus? 5 Whi ■*'as th^ \}0M% king? fl«»v w--*-* '^'^ser\ ^ 24 REIGN OF NUMA. CHAPTER X Reign of Numa. Numa Pompihus. I. Numa proved a most excellent kin^. He cherished the arts of peace, promoted agriculture, reformed the calendar, divided the ctj. zens mto classes according to their trades and pursuits, built temples and regulated religious worship. ^^mpms, 2 In all his acts of legislation, Numa professed to act under the ^irection of the goddess Egeria. She was believed to have taken hira for her husband, and his hours of retirement were supposed to ^nSr /" her company in a sacred grove near Rome, where a grotto and a spring of water were long afterwards known by hei name. -^ .ifi^^^'^^AT^"^ sovereign forbade all costly sacrifices and the ho fff "^/f ^u""^ T"" '^' ^^'^^- ^^ ^'^^'^^ ^hat nothing should be offered to the gods except the fruits of the earth, meal, cakes of flour, and parched corn He loved husbandry, and wished that every man miijht live happily on his own estate. The territories which the K.3mans had acquired in war he divided equally air org the "1 How did Numa reign? 2. Who was Egeria? 3. What of sacrifices an'- THE HORATIl AND CURIATII. 25^ 4. Everything in Rome was prosperous during the reio-n of Numa The temple of Janus was shut, for there were no wars! A temple A-as built to Faith, and a solemn worship appointed for her thai men mijrht learn to respect honesty and fair dealing. In such work^ Numa passed the whole of his happy reign, and died at the acre of eighty, B. C. 670. * 5. Tullus Hostilius was next chosen king. He was of a martia^ disposition, and soon had occasion to prove his valor. The borderers along the Roman and Aiban territory began to rob each other, and this brought on hostilities. The Albans advanced to within five miles of Rome, where they pitched their camp. The two armies, feeling tiiai they were descended from the same people, weie for seme time un- willing to fight. 6 The two leaders at length agreed to decide the quarrel bv n combat to be fought by six champions, three from each side, and the victorious nation was to reign over the other. In the Roman arnn were three brothers, born at one birth, named Horatii. In the Albau army were three others like them, named Curiatii. These were fixed upon for the champions. CHAPTER XI. The Horatii and Curiatii. j^f /^^^^^i^'^'nuV A =;z^'):? .,.#'■- -.J^l^; ,ii.«Ml«»l Combat between the Horatii ar,i Curiatii. I. The place of combat lay in an oper, space between the two marahalled hosts. The champions took their station amid the hopes nusUndry ? 4. How did Rome flourish unde- Nnma ? When did he die ' 5 Who •ur.ceed5d him ? What war took place ? G. How was it proposed to decide the war? '*^"^*' '■ '■--■'J^iKA. 26 ANGUS MARTI US. and anxieties of tneir countrymen. The glittering of their burn when swords, and the clashing of their armor as they rushed to the figh; stirr^^d the blood of the spectators with a mighty thrill, and ever? man held his breath in dreadful solicitude. 2. Victory at first seemed to incline in favor of the Albans. Two of the Romans were killed, and the survivor was soon surrounded by his antagonists. A deafening shout of exultation was set up by the Alban army, and a cry of wailing ran through the Roman ranks. The single champion gave ground, and at length took to flight. Again the Albans made the welkin ring with shouts of victory. 3. But this exultation was premature. The three Albans were severely wounded, while the Roman remained unhurt. As the Al- bans lagged behind each other in the pursuit, the Roman suddenly turned upon them, struck down the foremost ere the second could come up to his relief; the next he despatched in the same manner; the third, wounded and dispirited by this sudden change of fortune, could not maintain a single combat, and fell likewise. 4. Victory having thus declared for the Romans, they marched home in triumph. Alba became bound to obey them, and their strength was now greatly augmented. But in a war with the Fide- nates, the Alban general, Mettius Fuffetius, kept his arm/ aloof in- stead of joining the Romans in battle, meaning to take the side of the conquerors. 5. The Romans having won the battle, determined to punish this act of treachery. They took Mettius and bound him between two chariots ; then, driving the horses different ways, they tore him asun- der. After this they went to Alba, destroyed the city, and compelled the inhabitants to emiorate to Rome. 6. Tullus reigned thirty-three years. He was killed by lightning which struck his house and destroyed it, with all his family. Sucli is the old story, though some are of opinion that he was put to death and his family exterminated, by Ancus Martins, who succeeded hiin on the throne. CHAPTER XII. Anctcs Mar tills — Tarquin L 1. Ancient history does not say much of Ancus Martius, who began his reign B. C. 638. He had a war with the Latins, whom he conquered and brought to Rome, where they were allowed the Aventine Hill to dwell upon. He also founded a colony at Ostia where the Tiber flows into the Mediterranean, and added Mouni TanicuVu.Ti to Rome, joining it to the city by a brid^re across thd nver. . V"". u"^ ' ^^1 ^''^ cymbal l)eiween the Horatii and Curiatii bepin ? 2. What mi-for lunefiisl happened to the Romans? 3. Which side obtained the rictory 7 4 Whal happened in the war with the Fidenaies? 5. How did the Romans piuiitb MeltiiMM W^lMit became 'if Alba? 6. H:w did Tullus die? " ♦» 4wwvvni« i TAKUULN I. 27 4 Diifing the reign of Ancus, there < ame to Rome from Tar- quinii, a city of Elruria, a wealthy person whoin the Romans called Tarquin, or Lucius Tanjuinius. His father was a Greek of Corinth, who had emigrated to Etruria and married a wife there. Lucius was reirarded as a"^ foreigner in that coun'ry, on account of his father, and therefore removed to Rome with his wife, because foreigners were Ihere held in more respect than among the Etruscans. 3. The legend of Tarquin relates that as he sat with his wife in a chariot approaching the gates of Rome, an eagle plucked the cap from his head, flew up into the air, and then returning, placed it on his head again. Tanaquil, his wife, was well skilled in augury, ant told her husband that this was a sign he would rise to greatness. 4. Tarquin having settled in Rome, showed himself a brave mar. and wise in council. His riches gained him the favor of the multi lude, and he became known to the king. Tarquin served him weD in peace and war, so that Ancus held him in great honor, and when the king died, he appointed him by will to be the guardian of his children. 5. Tarquin being popular among all classes of the Romans, was chosen king, B. C. 009. He conciuered the Latins and Etruscans, and then devoted himself to the improvement of the city. He buiil the walls of Rome with hewn stone, and constructed a vast drain to carry ofl^ the water of the streets into the river. This work remains to the jjrtv^.ent day. G. Tarquin built also a gieat circus, or race-course for chariot and horse-races, and made the celebrated forum or public square of Rome, where markets were held, and great speeches were commonly made. 7. One day when Attius N^vius, a great soothsayer, had opposed a certain design of Tarquin, as contrary to the will of the gods, Tar- quin mocked at his art, and ?aid, *' Come now, augur; tell me by thy soothsaying whether the thing which I have in my mind be pos- sible or not." Naevius answered, '' It is possible." 8. *' Then," said the king, *' cut this whetstone w"lth a knife, for that is what I was thinking of." " Cut boldly," replied the augur. The king cut, and the whetstone came in two. All the old Romans believed this tale, but it was probably invented by the priests to keep up the popular belief in the art of augury. CHAPTER XIII. Reign of Servius Tullius. 1. Tarquin reigned long J.nd prosperously. He is known in Roman history as Tarquinius Priscus, or Tarquin Ihe First. The XTI — 1 When did Ancus Martin?" \yes.\n Id reicrn ? Whal were his deeds ? 2. Who was Taiuuiri? Why did he remove to Rome? 3. What is the legend of the eagle? How wai it explained? 4. How did Tanpiin succeed at Rome? 5 When was he chowjn kin«''» What were his deeds? 6. What public works did he constract . 7. Who was' Attius Nrevius? 3. What is the story aUmt cutting a whetstone? Wtat !• I'.ie probability of this? 2S TARQUIN THE PROUD. Bons of i^ ncus Martius, hoping to gain the crown, (aused hinn to h*i assassii atfc,1. But Tanaquil, as soon as the assassins had fled, gave out that he was only stunned by the blow, and that his son-in-law, Servius TuUius, would manage his affairs till he recovered. In the mean time Servius managed to secure himself in the possession of the government. 2. Servius began his reign B. C. 576. He was a just and good king, and made many wise laws to screen the poor from the oppres- sions of the rich. He added the Esquiline and Viminal hills to the city, and divided the citizens into tribes. He gave freedom to the slaves, and abridged the arbitrary power of the crown. 3. Servius had no son, but he had two dauo^hters who were married to the sons of the late King Tarquin. The younger daughter, TuUia, was an ambitious and wicked woman ; she formed the scheme of murdering her husband and sister that she might marry her brother- in-law. Having accomplished this by poison, she next aspired to the crown. 4. Lucius, her husband, joined with her in a plot for this purpose He fomented a conspiracy among the young nobles, and placing him- self at the head of an armed band, proceeded to the senate-house and placed himself on the throne. The king, hearing this news, hastened thither and demanded the meaning of his conduct. Lucius replied that the throne was his, and immediately seizing the old man, threw him down the steps of the senate-house. 5. Servius attempted to save himself by flight, but was overtaken and murdered in the street. Tullia, his daughter, impatient to see her husband king, mounted her yhariot and drove toward the senate-house. 6. Meeting the bloody corpse of the old king, the charioteer checked his horses, but this detestable woman ordered him to drive on, and the wheels rolled over his body. The spot where this unnatural deed was performed is pointed out at this day in Rome. and the street is called Vm Scelerata, or the " W eked Way." CHAPTER XIV. Reign of Tarqidn the Prnr.Ld, 1. Lucius Tarquinius thus became king of Rome, B. C. 520 He is the one known in history as Tarquinius Superbus, or the Proud. As he gained his power by crime, so he exercised it. He kept a guard of men around him, and ruled in an arbitrary manner. Hi} plundered the rich men of their wealth, banishing some and puttiiiji^ others to death In foreign affairs he behaved with great treachery. XIII. — 1. How (lid Tarquin I. die? What was done by his wife? 2. When did Servius TuUius l>egin his reis^n? What was his character? His de^eds ? 3. Hi« dausjhler's? What was done by Tullia? 4. What by Lucius? How did he treat his father-in-law? 5. What became of Servius? How did Tullia behave? 6. What is said of her unnatural cruelty ? What name is given to the street where this deed was per- formed 7 UV. —1. When did Tarquin the Proud begin to reisn? What was his conduct REIGN OF TARQUIN ThjL PROtD. 29 2. A strange woman came one day to the king and oflTered him aine books of the prophecies of the Sibyl at a certain price. The king refused them. The woma . went away and burnt three of the books. She then came back a .d oflTered the six at the same price which she had asked for the nine. Tarquin still refused. She went away again and burnt thrte more, and Returning, still demanded th3 same price for the remainder. 3. At this the king was astonished, and asked the augurs what he should do. They told him he had done wrong in refusing the gifts of the gods, and bade him by all means buy the books that were left. So l^arquin bought them, and the woman went away and was seen .o more. The Looks were put into a chest of stone and placed under ground in the capitol. They became the oracles of Rome, anc were called the Sibylline Books. 4. Tarquin subdued the Volscians and Gabians, and made his son, Sextus, king of the latter people. But the power which he had acquired by treachery and oppression did not last long. Among the men whom he had injured, was Marcus Junius, who had married the daughter of Tarquin the First. His son, Lucius Junius Brutus, liad assumed the character of an idiot, to evade the cruelty of the tyrant. Brutus pretends to be an Idiot. b. The Roman army marched against the citv of Ardea, and laid siege to it ; but as the city was strong, much tune was spent in the enterprise. The besiegers had leisure tor feastiu:.* and diversion, and one evening Titus and Aruns, the sons of the k:!i2^, were supping with their brother Sextus, and their cousin Taro-nnjus of Collatia, oi 2. What story is told of a strange woman ? 3. What were th 4. What nations did Tarquin subdue? What is eaid of Marciw ii 3* ibylline books ''niua BnttuDi iO OVKRTHROW OF TARQUIN THE PKOLD. Colatinus. They frot into a dispute about their wives, each one professing to have the worthiest. 0. ** Let us mount our horses," said one of them, "and lid? immediately to Rome, to see what our wives are doint> ; then we shall know which is the best." This was accordingly done ; tbey found the wives of Titus, Aruns, and Sextus, feasting and making merry. But Lucrctia, the wife of Collatinus, was found working with hei maids at the loom. They all then exclaimed, *'Lucretia is he worthiest lady !" CHAPTER [K^L Overthrow of Tarquiii the Proud, Tarqutntus Superbus banished and leaving Rome. 1. Sextus was so much taken with the beauty of Lucretia, thai ho fell into a violent passion for her. And some time afterward?:, he behaved towards her in so brutal a manner that the unhappy lady, unable to survive the insult, stabbed herself to the heart. Brutus, who was present when the deed was done, drew the knife from thi- wound, and took an oath by the blood which stained it, that he would lie avenfjed on ihe tyrant and his hutcd otfspring. 2. The people of Rome were wrought up to great indignation by this outrage. Tarquin was absent, and they shut the gates of the city. The bloody corpse of Lucretia was exposed to public view, 5. 6. Wt.at happened at the 8ie£;e of Arilea? How was the superiority of Lucretia proved ? XV. -\. What efTect did the beauty of Lucretia have upon Sextus? What was the fiite of Lucretia 1 How did Brutus behave ? 2. What was the conduct of t.ie Romans I COVER MENT OF ROME UNDER THE KLNGS 31 tnd Brutus harangued the people, explaining the reasons why he had oounterfeited his idiocy, and exhorted them to aid him in expelling ihe tyrant. 3. The senate declared Tarquin to be expelled from the throne. The people were called together in the Field of Mars, to form a new government. It was resolved that there should be no more kings of Rome, and that two chief magistrates should be elected annually, with the title of Consuls. This important revolution in the Roman gr;vernment took place B. C. 508. 4. With this change many of the laws of King Servius, which Tarquin the Proud had overthrown, were restored. The commoners also chose their own judges to try suits at law, and they had again their meetings and sacrifices, each tribe in its own district. Brutus and Publius A^alerius were the first consuls. 5. But in the mean while Tarquin was busily at work attempting to regain his authority. He sent emissaries privately to Rome, who organized a conspiracy in his favor. Titus and Tiberius, the sons of Brutus, were among the conspirators. Their proceedings were discovered by a slave who overheard them talking about the letters which they had written to Tarquin, and they were immediately arrested. 6. Brutus sat on the judgment-seat in the forum, and with the feelings of stern patriotism, ordered the execution of his own sons. The lictors struck off their heads before the eyes of their father. The people were filled with admiration when they saw that Brut* had loved justice and his country more than his own children, and had sacrificed them to the public welfare. V CHAPTER XVL Government of Rome under the Kings. 1. The regal oflice at Rome very much resembled that of the heroic ages of Greece ; but it differed from it in being elective, and not hereditary. The king had the absolute command of the army. He offered sacrifices for the nation. He convoked the senate and the [.eople, and proposed laws to them. 2. He could punish by fines and corporal penalties ; but an appeal lay from his sentence to the citizens. He had an unlimited power over strangers in the Roman territories, as well as over those citizens who had no houses. He sat personally for the administration of justice every ninth day. He could dispose of the booty and the land acquired in war, and a large portion o{ the conquered territory belonged to the crown. This was cultivated by the king's depend ants, and yielded him a large revenue. 3. Of the senate ? What new magistrates were next chosen 7 When did this chanee in llie government take place? 4. VV^ hat alteration did this cause in the laws? Who Hrere the first consids ? 5. What was done by Tar(]uin'- Wiio were engaged in the ccn epiracy f How was it discovered .* fj. How did Bru't s judce his sons ? JCVI. — 1. What was the regal ofiice at Rome 5 2. W^hat power liad the kiipgl sz JUVERNMENT OF ROME UNDER THE KINGS. 3. All the Roman kin^rs, after they had suhdiied a city, transportoa a part of the inhabitants to Home, and if th^^y did not destroy the fcuhjup:ated place, they fjarrisoned it with a Roman colony. "Thfc strangers thus hroufrht to Rome were not, hoy.e\er, admitted to the civic rights of the kingdom. 4. By successive conquests and immigratii.ns, I he nunjber of per- sons thus disqualified hecnme larger than that of the first inh J)itant8, and they naturally sought a share in the government, t(/ ))rotect their persons and pioperty. This subsequently led to violent stiuggles in (he state. 5. The inhabitants of the city were first divided by Romulus into Uiirty curm^ and each curia comprised ten }X€nt(s^ or associations The members were united by certain laws called jura gmtium. The head of each jr.m was regarded as a kind of father, and possessed a paternal authority over the members. 6. In each gens were attached numbers of dependents, called fhmis. These were generally foreigners who came to settle at Rome, and who, not possessing municipal rights, were forced to appear in the courts of law, &c., by proxy. In process of lime, 'his relation assumed a feudal form, and the clients were bound to the same duties as vassals in the middle ages. 7. The chiefs of the geiites composed the senate, and hence were called 'pcdres.KiX "fathers." In the time of Romulus, the senate consisted at first of one hundred members, but this number was :loubled after the union with llie Sabines. The i^cnivs were not onlv represented in the senate, but met also in a public tissembly called umutia curiata. In these meetings, the kings were elected and invested with royal authority. 8. The whole constitution was remodelled bv Scrvius Tullius, and a more liberal form of government introduced'. He formed the ple- beians into an organized body, and invested them with political rights. Still more remarkable was the institution of the census, and the dis- tribution of the people into classes and centuries proportionate to their wealth. 9. The census was a periodical valuation of all the property possessed by the citizens, and an enumeration of all the subjects of the state. The equestrian rank, or the knights, constituted an order in the Roman state, from the beginning. It was at first confined to the nobihty, and none but the patricians had the privilege of thus ser\in-> m the army on horseback. But in the later ages, it became a political dignity, and persons were made knights by the amount of theu wealth. i Hovv diJ the kin-.s improve Iheir conquests? How were ihe new cilizen.s circunv nanced? 4. What were .he,r numl^r. ? What was the consecjuence? f,. How weri l..e Romans originally dm.ieil ? What names were given to the divisions ? 6 Who "^^ if /k'-'c"- ^^S^ff."'''"^ 'Th* comitiai 8. H<.w was the coratiluiioo re nwJalled by Serv.ua 1 9 Whai was the cenaua ? Who were ihe krighU? CUSTOMS IN FuUNDlx^ c ES. 33 CHAPTER /XVIlA ^ - A Ancient iComan Armies — Customs in Fa nding Cities. 1. Rome was, from its very beginning, a military state. Witlk Liis people, -iis with the Spartans, all civil institutions had a refer- ence to warlike afibirs. The public assemblies were marshalled like armies. The order of their line of battle was regulated by the dis- tinction of classes in civil society. It was natural, therefore, that the tactics of the Roman armies should receive important changes with the political revolutions of the state. 2. The strength a*" the Etruscan armies consisted principally in their cavalry ; and if wc may judge from the importance attributed to the equestrian rank in the earliest ages, the Romans at that time esteemed this fi)rce equally valuable. It was to Servius Tullius, the great patron of the commonalty, that they were indebted for a body of infantry, which, after a lapse of centuries, received so many improvements that it became invincible. 3. The ancient battle-array of the Greeks was the phalanx. The troops were drawn up in close column, the best armed being in front. The Romans originally used this form, the lines being made up according to the classes of subjects. Those who were rich enough to purchase a whole suit of armor, formed the front ranks. Those who could procure only a portion of the defensive weapons, filled the centre. The rear ranks comprised the poorer classes, who scarcely required any armor, being protected by the lines in front. 1. It is not known what commander first abandoned this imperfect array for the admirable order of the I gion ; Init this great improve- ment in the art of war belongs doubtless to the republic. 5. Rome was originally built in a square form, whence it was called Roma Quadrata. When the city was founded, and when it was at any subsequent period enlarged, the first care was to mark out the Pomxrium^a consecrated space around the walls of the city. On this it was unlawful to erect any building. 6. This custom manifestly arose from the necessity of preventing besiegers from finding shelter near the fortifications. A set form was prescribed for marking the Pomcerium. A bullock and a heifer were yoked to a ploughshare, and a furrow was drawn marking the course of the future wall. 7. The plough was so guided that all the sods fell to the inside, ai^d if any went in an opposite direction, care was taken that they should be turned the proper way. As the plough was sacred, il would have been profanation if anything impure passed over the ground which it had ever touched. 8. But as things clean and unclean must necessarily pass into a cily, when the plough came to a place where a gate was intended, it XVH. — I. What was the oriel nal characirr of Rf)me ? 2. What is said of the Etru» jan armies? Who created the Roman infantry ? 3. What was the phalanx ? How did Ihe Romans form it? 4. How (hd the lenion originate? 5, How was Rome orieirally built? What was the ounuErium] G. What cave rise to this custom? 7. How vm 3 34 LITERATURE OF THE ROMANS. was taken up and carried across. Hence the Latins named a gai« porta, from a word signifying to " carry." 9. Tlie comi/iiim, or place of public assembly, was next conse- crated. The most remarkable part of this ceremony was the prepara- tion of a vault named inundus^ in which were deposited the first fruits of all things used to support life, and a portion of each colo- nist's native earth. 10. To this structure, many superstitious notions were attached. It was supposed to be the entrance to the invisible world ; and it waa opened three days in the year, with many solemn forms, to admit the spirits of the deceased. 11. Ancus Martins was the ..rst who fortified Rome with out- works, especially by erecting a castle on the Janiculine Hill, which was connected with the city by a wooden bridge. The elder Tar- quin Wis tlio first who beautified his capital with splendid buildings. CHAPTER XVni. Literature of the Romans under the Kings, 1. Few nations have been more completely illiterate than the Romans were during five centuries from the foundation of tlieir city. Yet of all the nations which have figured in the annals of the world, none certainl> ever attained to the same height of power, grandeur and civil wisdom, with an equal ignorance of literature and the fine arts. 2. It is not difiicult to account for this. Rome was not a regular colony sent out from a civilized and well-regulated state, but wa;. formed by a mixture of all sorts of people, little, if at all, acquainted with social life. The early Romans were, in fact, a banditti, inured to lawless acts, and subsisting by rapine. 3. This desperate community would not be much softened or hu- manized by their union with the Sabines, if we may judge of the civilization of the latter people by the story of Tarpeia. Numa did much for the domestic improvement of his subjects. He impressed their minds with a reverence for religion, and encouraged agriculture, but there was no germ of literature which he could foster. 4. For more than three centuries after his death, the persevering; hostilities of the neighboring states scarcely allowed the Romans a moment of repose. The laws of Romulus, which consigned, as igno- minious, all sedentary occupations to foreigneis or slaves, lonf^ con- tinued in undiminished respect and observance. 5. The shape in which literature first appears among a nide people is poetry ; but for centuries, the Romans had nothing which cao It cekbnifed 1 8. Why was a gate called porta ? 9. What of ilie camifium ? 10. Thi« munduaf U. Who first built outworks to Rome? Who erecieil the first splendid buildings? XVIIl. — 1 What waa the slate of literature amorg the early Romans? 2. How \n this explained ? 3. What of the Sahines? Of Nunr.a ? 4. What of the hostilities of 'i>« Romaiis ? Of the laws of Romulus ? 5. How d^ea literal u re first ipi>ear1 Whjf ^\AR OF PORSfiiVJSA. 35 properly be called by this name. The earliest specimen of their verse is a hymn which was chanted by the Fr aires Arvales, or college of priests, as they walked in procession through the fields in the beginning of spring, imploring from the gods a blessing on agricul- ture. 6. Some suppose this to be as ancient as the time of Romulus ; the Latin of It IS rude, and difiicuU of translation. The following is the sense • Ve Lares, aid us ! Mars, thou god of miglit ! From murrain shield the flocks ; the flowers from blight. For thee, O Mars ! a feast shall he prepared Salt, and a weihcr chosen from the herd, Invite hv turns each Demigod of Spring ; Great Mars, assist us ; Triumph ! Triumph . sing ! 7. The Fesccnnine verses appear to have been known to the Romans at 'a, very early period. These were rude and satirical strains rehearsed by the Etruscans at certain festivals in the time of harvest, and accompanied with rustic gestures and dances. Their name was probably derived from Fescennium, a city of Etruria. 8. They were also called Saturnian, from the irregularity of their metre, or their freedom from definite rules of composition. They were of a very licentious character, which it became necessary to restrain by law. Traces of this sort of poetry were retained in the hwsi periods of ancient Rome, in the songs of the young men on nuptial occasions. SECOND PERIOD. THE REPUBLIC. CHAPTER XIX. War of Forse)i?ia. 1. When Tarouin found that his plot had miscarried, he persuaded wwne of the Pkruscans to attempt his restoration by force of arms They assembled a body of soldiers, and Tarquin took the command. Hrntus led a Roman army to meet them. Aruns, the son of Tarquin, who commanded the Etruscan cavalry, being in the vanguard, chanced to encounter Brutus, who was leading the advance body of the Ro- man?. Aruns, seeing Rrutus in his consular robes, and with the J'ctors of a king around him, was inflamed with sudden anger. He levelled .s ihe earliest specimen of Roman verse? 6. AVhat is its age? 7, 8. What are the fwcennme verses? ^ XIX. — I. What did Tarquin after the failure of his plot ? What of Britus ? 2. What 36 IMUCIUS SCiEVOLA :^rJh;"n :.o^!' TVt'-rengaUent foUowL. ..U the vicU.rv 'i'"!n Ih "Sle'ol- "the night after the battle, there came a n.yste. riot v"o,ce or;.; a wood ...Sr the two a™'-' F-l-"'%^ f^a h^ I.-.r„«/-nns hnd lost one man more than the Romans. At this soiimi. I^r^ rans who were very superstitious, were struck with awes and fmSnu^iy n-Xed hoi. 'Perhaps the voice wa. a stratagem "^'TiSrTelt'lvmg consul, administered his authority with such popufi;! applause, U./he received the ^-^^^J'^^'^^l^Z Friend if the Rople. Tarquin, however ;^7 ""^^f^''^^^^^^;^ L . ri.miiim a city in the most distant part of tAruria, anu e'V'V" £. Po^enni^t^o assist him. A large army was raised, and Porscnnu .•Inselv that the latter had hardly time to escape. . A Roman, named lloralius Cocles, stood firm upon the bridge andfacedr enemy. Two others, incited by his example, stood by hm,td thete thre'e kept the pursuers at bay w^ile the Romans ^ their own side were cutting away the bridge. Horatius, hnUing liu companions disabled, bade them save themselves. Ttuis he stood single-handed, defying the whcde fo^e "J J^" <= F.truscans, who showered their javelins upon his ^.h'«W. ^ '^"^ j finding the brid•,cu:u^,. 6. Wha. of Horati.s Cocle. t '•ik".-TwharS'3rnrr'U-fRo:.-.e, 2. Ho« dl. Muciu, ..««<. BATTLE OF KEGILLU^:. a? flhH2:er from under his clothes, stabbed him dead But on being teiz'id, he discovered tliat this was only the king's secretary. 3. Mucius was carried before the king, and threatened with the torture, unless he would tell all he knew of the condition of the Ro- mans. Hut he defied their threats, and to show how little he feared the torture, he thrust his right hand into a fire that was burning near by, and held it there without flinching, till it was burnt off. 4. Porsenna, in admiration of his courage, gave him his liberty; but Mucius told him that there were three hundred young men in Home who had bound themselves by oath to take his life. The king, heUeving this talc, was greatly alarmed, and made proposals of peace to the Romans. A treaty was concluded, and the Etruscans marched home. 5. Such is the story related in the Roman annals. Nevertheless, there is good reason to believe that Porsenna captuied Rome, and comj)eried the inhabitants to give up all their arms. The legend of Mucius appears to be little more than a romance invented by the Ro- mans to disguise the mortifying fact of the surrender of their city. 6. A new war was afterwards excited by the Tarquins, and Pos- ihumius was appointed dictator. The Romans and Latin armies met near the lake Regillus. After an obstinate battle neither side pre- vailed, and it was agreed to decide the struggle by single combat. Two champions took the field ; but the only result was that both were wounded and thrown from their horses. 7. The battle, therefore, began again ; the Romans had the worst, and began to fly. In this critical emergency the dictator made a vow that he would raise a temple to the twin gods, Castor and Pollux, if they would aid him. Suddenly, as we are told, nj)peared two horse- men of gigantic height, on snow-white steeds, who rode at the head of the Roman cavalry, and jjut the enemy to flight. 8. The Romans pursued the flying Latins to their camp. After tlijs was taken and a full \-ictory accomplished, they looked for the white horsemen, but they were nowhere to be seen. On a hard black rock close by, was discovered the deep mark of a horse's hoof, which it was thought no earthly animal could have made. This hoof-mark was still to be seen in the time of Cicero, more than four hundred years afterward. 9. We must relate the sequel of this wonderful story, as the Romans for many ages believed every word of it. During the bat- tle, the people ol" Rome, who knew that the armies were engaged at a distance from the city, were in great anxiety to know the result ^.s the sun was going down, the two horsemen made their appear- ance in the forum. They were all bloody from the engagement, and their horses were covered with foam. 10. The horsemen alighted near the temple of Vesta, where a sjjring of • ,*tcr bubbles up from the ground, and fills a deep pool. There th^y washed aw^ay the stains of the conflict, and the people crowded around them, asking the news. The horsemen told tiiera In bis attempt ? 2. How did he behave in the presence of Porsenna? 4. How did Por- Benna beluwe? 5. What is the pr(»lKihle truth of the story? 6. What new war broke out? 7. What happened at the lake of Regillus? S. What is the story of the whit# i 38 INTERxVAL TROUBLES AT ROMt. how the battle had been fought and won by the RomAfts; then mounting their steeds, suddenly disappeared. The people believiMl them to be Castor and Pollux, and built them a temple, according to the vow of the dictator. 11. The Latins were now completely subjugated. But no sooner were the Romans reheved from the fear of foreign enemies, than tliey began to have troubles at home. The patricians and the plebe ians formed two parties, and in the midst of the disturbances occa- sioned by their disagreement, the V^olscians, the Sabines, and tne Hernici, took up arms and advanced to the gates of the city. This attack was repelled, but the war continued, and before long a critical .*,onjuncture of affairs led to an important change in the common- A^ealth. CHAPTER XXI. Internal Troubles at Rome, 1. At Rome, as in the ancient world in general, the laws regulat- ing the payment of debts were very severe. A person wishing to borrow money, pledged himself and all that belonged to him, before witnesses, for the payment. If the money was not repaid at the appointed time, the debtor was carried before the praetor, who sen tenced him to be a slave to liis creditor. 2. Such of the debtor's children and grandchildren as were still under his authority, shared his fate. The rate of interest was un- limited by law, and loans were usually made for the term of ten months, at the end of which, if the principal was not repaid, the in- terest was added to it. By this process of compound interest, a small debt soon rose to an amount impossible to be paid. 3. The creditors were generally the patricians, the debtors were the plebeians, who were exclusively devoted to agriculture. The pa tricians, having got the government into their own hands, managed to obtain an exemption from the tithes for the lands which they held, and by this means grew very rich. 4. On the other hand, these taxes were rigorously exacted from the plebeians, whose little farms, lying frequently at a distance from Koine, were exposed to the ravages of the enemy, at which times their houses were burnt, their cattle carried off, and their farming implement? acstroyed. 5. To add to thise distresses, the loss of the territory beyond the Tiber had reduced many families to absolute beggary, and the patri- cians excluded the plebeians from the public pastures. From all these causes the lower classes became hopelessly in debt, and were driven to despair by the rigor of their creditors. 6. In this posture of affairs, a single spark kindled a great confla horsemen? 9, 10. What happened al Rome 1 11. What look place afie- the subjug*- lioj\ of the Latins ? UU. — 1. What was the comlition of debtors at Rittne ? 2. What was the rale of \w iCTMi? 3. Whui of the creditors? 4. Tiie plelieiaiw ? 5. Wl»>** ska^ the general cob- HEVOLT OF THE PLEBEIANS. 39 ^ratlin. During the consulship of Appius Claudius ai.d Vubhua Ser^.Uus, B. C. 492, one day an old man, covered with rags and filth, pale, emaciated, and frightful from his squalid hair and beard, rushed into the forum, imploring the aid of the people. 7. He exhibited the scars of the wounds which he had received in twer'y-eight battles with the enemies of Rome. Several persons reco;;nized him as one whom they had known for a gallant captain in the army, and eagerly inquired the cause of his wretched appearance. 8. He informed them that while he was serving in the Sabine war., his fann had been plundered and his house burnt by the enemy ; the taxes had nevertheless been exacted from him, he had been obliged to borrow money ; compound interest had eaten up all his property, and the sentence of the law had given him and his two sons as slaves to his creditor. He then bared his back and showed the marks of recent stripes he had received as such. CHAPTER XXll. Revolt of the Plebeians, 1 A GENERAL uproar was the consequence of ibis singular exhi- bition. The multitude crowded the streets, clamoring for relief: the senators were struck with consternation, and it was with difficulty that a sufficient number of them were assembled for public business. Appius proposed to put down the mob by force. Servilius was for milder courses ; and at this moment news arrived that the Volscians were in arms against Rome. 2. This intellio-ence was received with great exultation by tht" lower classes. They refused to enlist for the war, and cried out tha: the patricians might go and fight their own battles. The senate em- powered Servilius to treat with them. He issued an edict proclaim ing that no one who was in slavery for debt should be preventei frouf serving in the army if he chose, and that as long as a man wa: under arms, no one should touch his property, or keep his childreri in bondage. 3. This had the desired effect ; the debtors came out of their dun- geons and joined the ranks. A large army took the field under the command of Servilius, the Volscians were defeated, their town of SuPKi?a Pometia was taken, and the plunder given up to the army. T'he consul led home his victorious troops, full of hope ; but a bitten disapj)ointment awaited all, when the iron-hearted Appius ordered the dehtors back to their prisons. 4. Dreadful clamors and disturbances ensued, and the next attempt to raise an army was fruhless. The people held nocturnal meetings dilion of U.e lower classes? 6. What happened B. C. 492? 7, 8, What was the story of the old man? XXII. — L What was the consetpience of the exhibition in the forum? What new war broke out ? 2. How did iliis alfeci the lower classes ? What was done by the sen ale? 3. How were the debtors alTected ? H"w did the war against ine Volscians sue- cee^l? What was the conduri of Appius'' 1 What was the hehav.orof the people' 40 ME.NE.'S'US AGRIPPA. on the Aventine and Esquiline hills, to cor cert measures of rcsisr ance. In this emergency Marcus Valerius was appointed dictator 5. He issued an edict similar to that of Servihus ; the people, with whom he was a favorite, readily enlisted ; the armies marched against the Sabines, the Volscians and the -^i^quians. Victory was every- where with the Romans Valerius, on his return, attempted to pro- cure a redress of the popular grievances from the senate, but in vain. 6. The plebeians, seeing no chance of legal relief, withdrew from the city; a portion took post on a hill about three miles distant, others oc( upied the Aventine hill, and everything threatened blood ihed and civil war. CHAPTER XXIII. Menenius Agrippa. 1. Both the patricians and plebeians were aware that the issue of their conflict was doubtful, and that the enemy might take advan- tage of these intestine troubles to accomplish the ruin of Rome. A mutual wish for accommodation therefore prevailed ; and the patri- cians, having strengthened themselves by an alliance with the Latins, deputed ten senators to visit the plebeian camp and propose terms of peace. 2. One of these, named Menenius Agrippa, addressed on this occasion the following apologue to the people. ** In ancient times, when the human body was not, as at present, an individual whole, but every member had its own separate plans, purposes, will, and language, it happened that on a certain emergency the limbs fell into a quarrel with the stomach. 3. " They complained that this member remained idle in the midsi of them, doing nothing but enjoying itself. To gratify their eumity, they agreed that they would no longer labor for it. The hands there- fore refused to convey food to the mouth ; the mouth refused to open, the teeth to chew, &c. 4. *' But while they thus attempted to starve the stomach, they weie starving themselves ; and when they were reduced to the most deplorable state of feebleness, they discovered that the stomach is by no means useless ; that it gives as well as receives nourishment, dis- tributing to all parts of the body, life and health." 5. Having propounded this fable, the design of which was to show that all classes of people are useful and necessary to each other in a state, Menenius and his colleagues proceeded to treat with the peo- ple, and an agreement was soon made and sworn to by the two orders. G. By this treaty all existing debts were cancelled, artd all persons in slavery for debt were liberated. The plebeians having offered sacrifices to Jupiter m the hill where they had encamped, bestowed upon it the name of the Sacred Mount, and returned to their dwell injjs in the citv. vVho was made dictator? 5. How did he conduct the war? 6. M\\9l was done by Iht piebciana ? XXIII. — 1. What was done by the patricians and piebciana? 2, 3. -1. lidate the fa ble of Menenius Agrippa. •? VVhat followed? 6. What was the character and effect of tht ireaiY ? VV'liaL aanio was given to the hill where the pev^ple ewCdnipedl BANISHMENT 01 CORIOLANUS. 42 CHAPTER XXIV. Banishment of Coriolanus, 1. The neglect of agriculture, occasioned by the numerous uars of the Romans, caused a severe famine. Dislurbances took place in consequence, and the senate and people became highly inflamed against each other. At length a supply of com was sent to Rome by the people of Sicily, as the American people lately sent corn and flour to the starving Irish. 2. It was proposed to distribute this supply at once among the peo- ple ; but this was opposed by Caius Marcius, a senator renowned for his bravery, who had received the surname of Coriolanus, from a famous exploit in capturing the town of Corioli. This man disliked the commons, and was angry that they had got tribunes to be their leaders. 3. Coriolanus made insulting speeches against the commons. " If they want bread to eat," said he, " let them behave better, and give up their tribunes. We will then give them corn, and take care of them." The commons, when they heard this, were quite furious, and they would have fallen upon him in the street and torn him to pieces ; but the tribunes withheld them, and promised to bring an accusation against Coriolanus. 4. They accordingly indicted him on a charge of aspiring to the bovereign authority. Coriolanus was banished from Rome, and took refuge among the Volscians. They received him kindly, and Attius Tullius, their chief man, took him into his house. Here he lived in exile ; his wife, Veturia, and his mother, Volumnia, remaining at Rome. 5. The Volscians before long became involved in a war with the Romans. They raised a large army, and marched under the guidance of Tullius and Coriolanus, and laid waste the Roman territories. They met with success everywhere, but devastated only the lands belong- ing to the commons. They next surrounded the city, and closely besieged it. 6. Within the walls there was no'.hing but tumult, distress, and lamentation. The women ran to the temples of the gods to pray for mercy ; the poor people cried out ir the streets for peace, and at length the senate were compelled to appoint deputies to treat with the enemy. 7. Coriolanus received the deputiee and answered them thus : — *' We will give you no peace till you restore to the Volscians all the territories which you and your forefatl ers have taken (!i»m them, and till you have granted them all the privileges of Roman citizens." XXIV. — 1. What caused a famine at Rome? What was the consequence? Who supplied the Romans with corn? 2. VVho opposed the distribution of it amon? tlia r»ple? 3. How did Coriolanus treat the conunons ? What was the consequence? To what city did Coriolanus retire? 5, What happened in the Volscian var? 6. What was the coiuliiion of Kome ? 7. How did Coriolanus receive tie Roman c«p» U»8? 8. What was ilie conduct of ibe senate? 4* 42 VETURIA AND VOLUMNIA. 8. The senate would not apjee to these conditions, and sent re- peated embassies to beg for milder terms, but tlie sturdy Coriclanua sent them back to the city. Despair now began to seize upon thp Romans, and they imagined that Coriolanus intended to make a gen erai massacre of his countrymen. /) / CHAPTER XXV. ^ Veturia and Vohimnia, 1. At length it was determined, as a last resource, to send a dep- utation of the Roman matrons, attended by Veturia and Volumnia, with the children of Coriolanus. It was a sad and mournful sijrht to see this train of noble ladies ; the very Volscian soldiers stood in si- ence as they passed by, and pitied and honored them. 2. They found Coriolanus sitting on a general's seat in the midst of the camp, with the Volscian chiefs standing round him. When he saw his mother, who walked at the head of the train, he could not contain himself, but leaped down from his seat and ran to kiss her. She stopped him and said, " Ere thou kiss me, let mc know whether I am speaking to my son or to an enemy, — whether 1 stand here as thy prisoner or as thy mother." __ 4-_ L.i-4 " ^^ '';sSr^%T»v'/v,""v,, *?.CcV/->S»,'» »v7>-3. Coriolanus and his Mother. 3. Coriolanus, in astonishment and perplexity, knew^ no what to reply ,• he stood in silence, and she continued, "Must it ue thus, that Rome would have escaped the .dishonor of beholding an enemy'a JCXV —I. W'hato \"eturia and Volumnia 1 2. Wliat was the be^» lorof Coriolanua* DICTATORSHIP OF ClNCINiNATUS. 43 camp at her walls, had I never borne a son? — that if I ha4 remiined childless I should have died a free woman in a free city? But I an. too old to bear much longer either thy shame or my misery. Ix)ok upon thy wife and children, whom thou art dooming to death or bondage." 4. Then Veturia and the children approached and kissed Coriolanus, and all the noble ladies wept and bemoaned their fate. At last Cori- olanus cried out, " O, mother! what hast thou done to me?" and ho wrung his hands and exclaimed vehemently, " Mother, thine is the victory ; Rome is saved, but shame and ruin await thy son." 5. Coriolanus then, embracing his wife and children, sent them back to Rome, and retreated with his army. He never afterwards made w^ar against his countrymen, but passed his life in exile among the Volscians. Some stories relate that he was killed by them in a [K)pular insurrection, but this seems to be only a romantic embellish men* of the history. CHAPTER XXVI Dictatorship of Cincinnatus. Cincinnatus called from the Plough to take command of the Army. 1. The anempts of the people to procure the enactment of the aorarian law, by which it was proposed to divide the public lands among the whole po])ulation, led to violent factions and disturbances. Under these circumstances, the consuls appointed a dictator B. C. 3, 4. Wlial i)assed between him aiul his mother ? 5 What was the result of the eiD 44 MOUNT ALGID US. THE DECEMVIRS. 46 458. The person selected was Lucius Quinlus, who, on account of Ills lemarkable shock-pate, was called " Cincinnatus,'' or curly-head. 2. This person lived on a farm in the neighborhood of the city, and was ploughing in the field when the deputies came to inform him that he was dictator of Rome. He immediately assumed the author- ity, and by the wisdom, moderation and justice of liis measures, soon restored tranquillity. The agrarian law was postponed, and Cincin- natus retired to his farm 3. Not long after this, the ^.quians broke the treaty which they had nr.ade with Rome, invaded the territory of the republic, and intrenched their camp on Mount Algidus. The Romans sent ambas- sadors to complain of the wrong. Gracchus, the yEcjuian leader, was a vain-glorious, haughty man, and received them in his lent, which was pitched under the shade of an oak. 4. He answered their remonstrances with mockery. "I am busy," said he, '* and cannot hear you ; tell your message to iliis oak tree." One of the Romans immediately answered, " Yea, let this sacred oak hear, and let all the gods hear, how treacherously you have broken the peace !" They went back to Rome, and war was declared. 5. When the Roman army marched out, the crafty Gracchus retreated before them, and they followed him heedlessly till he had led them into a narrow valley with hills on each side, high, steep and bare. He then took possession of the defiles in front and rear of the^ Romans, and covered the hills right and left with his troops. 6. The Romans thus found themselves decoyed into a trap without the power of advancing or retreating. There was neither food for the men, nor grass for the horses in the valley, and they were in danger of starving. Fortunately for them, however, five horsemen had broken out before the rear was quite closed up, and these escaped to the city with the news of the dangerous condition of the am y. CHAPTER XXVH. Mount Algidtis. J Upon this information, the senate all exclaimed, " There u\ only one man who can save us ; Cincinnatus must be dictator." Apain this honest farmer was invested with the oiHce. He went first into the forum, and ordered every man to shut his shop. He then stopped rhe courts of law, and gave directions that no man should attend to liis private business till the army was delivered. 2. Ever/ citizen of age to bear arms was next ordered to appear n the Field of Mars before sunset, with provisions for five days, and XXyi. — 1. What was the agrarian latpt Who was made dictator? 2. How wasi le called fmni the ploujrh? 3. What happened with the jEquianal 4. Hiw did ^icchus treat the Roman amliassadors ? 5. How did he ensnare the Roman armyl I How did the Romans send information of 'his to the city ? CXVIL— I. Who waamade lictator' What was done by Cincinnatus? 2 HowdiJ /• t doien stout stakes, which the Romans soldiers always u.sed foi pitching their camp. The city was now all alive, and the inhabitantf« in every quarter were cutting down trees and dressing food. 3. At sunset all was ready, and the army left Rome. By mid- night they reached Mount Algidus; and Cincinnatus ordered the Koldiers to ihrow down their baggage in a pile, but to keep the stakes. They then formed into a long column and completely surrounded the cnemv on the mountain. When this was done, a signal was given, and the whole army set up a tremendous shout. 4. The sound echoed through the camp of the enemy in the dead of the night, and filled them with surprise and terror. The Romans in the valley also heard it, and said one to another, " Our people have come to help us, for that is a Roman hurrah!" So they shouted back again, and began to assail the enemy. 5. In the mean time the Romans without were digging a vast ditch round the mountain, and fencing it with a rampart of stakes and turf. When the morning came, the astonished ^quians found themselves completely enclosed. Unable to escape, they offered Cincinnatus his own terms ; and the victorious Romans after stripping their enemies of their arms, baggage, and everything valuable" marched home in triumph. 6. Great was now the joy in Rome. The tables were set out at every door laden with meat and drink, for the soldiers and the people feasted together. Cincinnatus was hailed as the father and pro- tector of his people, and they gave him a golden crown. After he had held the dictatorship a fortnight, he returned again to his plough. CHAPTER XXVHI. /^ The Decemvirs, 1. After this the agrarian law again agitated the contending fac- tions. Licinius Dentatus, a plebeian , and a veteran soldier of extraor- dinary bravery, who h,id fought in a hundred and twenty battles, and gained all kinds of military honors, pleaded the cause of the people. The law, however, was violently opposed by several young patncians, who broke the balloting-urns and dispersed the multitude that threatened to oppose them. 2. Both the senate and the people at length became weary of these endless disputes, and all parties concurred in the opinion' that the existing evils might be removed by the enactment of a body of whole- some laws. Three commissioners were accordingly sent to Greece, B. C. 451, to examine the legal institutions of that country, and select such laws as were suitable to the Romans. 3. After a year's absence, they returned with a large collection of he collect an army ? 3. How d\\ they surround the enemy ? 4. AVhat was done by the Romans m ijie vaUey? 5. Hw were the .Ejracy ? 1 ) . What was the end of Msliua ) SIEGE OF VEIL a» CHAPTER XXX. Siege of VeiL an^ J"t'heTi?nl "if.V f " '""^ ''"" ^"''^" «" ">'«■'' =»»"<'- ance to the Kcmans, that the latter came at length to a detern iin- tion not to make peace till they had captured the riva" c, tv Th v ^ordmgly laid s.cge to Veil, but the place bein-. exceedinalv sir >^ r>oth by nature and art, was enabled to'muke a Ion. defence ^ ' .J. Uunng the summer of the seventh year of the sie.re, ti,ere hn.- pened a great drought ; the springs and rivers were almoL. ?y n a sudden the waters of the Alban lake, which hes about twe e'mi e from Rome embosomed in high hills, began to swell Thev r tp a^,ove the banks of the lake, and cove'red^he fields ad housj. I S-Sll/e'Tdar bir *""^' -"■ -"''-•"'^' ^--'' '•- " p ov-mg of no avaj , they sent to Delphi, in Greece, to ask counse of the oracle of Apollo, which was then famous in ev^ry land 4. The inhabitants of Veii heard of this catiistrophe ; and one dav an old man of the city was talking from the wal s with a Roman sentinel. The latter boasted that his countrymen would s^on -X the city but the old man laughed and said, ''You will nevruki it nil the lake of Alba is empty." ' 5. This reply caused a great commotion amon"s were finished, but before the further end 1, » Vy , '°''^" 'u ■""""''' ^^'''"'""^ «<='" »» Rome, directin-T U] «ho wished to share m the plunder of Veii to repair to the army'' £SSiSC"iSJ«HSS^^ / 50 CAPTURE OF VEII. CHAPTER XXXI CapUire of Veil. 1 EviRYTHiNG being ready, and the besieged entirely i^-joiarit of what had been done underground, Camillus gave orders for a genera assault upon the walls, to divert attention from his stratagem. A this moment the king of Veii was in the temple of Juno, m the cita- del, offerino- a sacrifice for the deliverance of the city. 2 The Soothsayer who stood by him, when he saw the animal killed, cried aloud, " This is an accepted offering, for victory is cei- tain to him who lays the victim upon the altar." The Romans heard these words underground, and suddenly burst into the citadel, seized the victim, and laid it on the altar. The city was taken, and thus, il all these tales be true, was the prophecy accomplished. 3 Great rejoicings took place at Rome upon this victory, hamu- lus entered the citv in triumph, riding in a chariot drawn by four white horses. Some men thought he was too proud of his achiev- ments, and predicted that his pride would have a tail. But such pre- dictions are often invented after the events, said to have been foretold, have taken place. . ^_ , .. . . , 4 Camillus afterwards laid siege to the city of Faleni. A school- master, who had the care of the sons of the principal citizens, took the opportunity, when he was walking with hi& boys outside the wal s, to lead them into the Roman camp, and deliver them into the hands ot the besiegers. 5 Camillus, indignant at this act of treachery, ordered the school- master's hands to be tied behind his back, and then bade the boys flog him back to town, for "the Romans," he said, ** never made wai upon children." The Falerians, won by his generosity, surrendered at discretion. . r^ n 6 Notwithstanding these signal triumphs, Camillus soon expe- rienced the ingratitude of his countrymen. Various charges were brouc^ht against him, and as he was unwilling to expose himself to the iTrnommy of a public trial, he left Rome and went into exile. 7.^It is said that as he was going out of the gate, he turned round and uttered a prayer to the gods, that his countrymen might one day be made sensible of his innocence and their own ingratitude. This was soon accomplished, in consequence of the invasion of the Gauls XXXI —1 How (lid the attack be?in ? 2. How wa« Veil taker.? 3. Wlial o r^ niflua? 4, 5. What happened at the siej?e of Falerii? 6. How did llw KomiA UtraJ Cainlllusi 7. How did he tike .U3 leave of Romol INVASION OF THE GAULS. 51 CHAPTER kxXII. Invasion of the Gauls, 1. Thk Gauls were a branch of the great nati ii of the Celts, or Kelt3, Avho inhabited, at a very early period of history, all the northern part of Europe to the westward of the Rhine. They were in a stale of complete barbarism, having hardly any acquaintance with agricul- ture or trade, and living on the milk and flesh of their cattle. In manners they were turbulent and brutal, easily excited, but deficient m energy and perseverance. 2. About the period of the last Veientine war, some unknown cir- cumstances appear to have caused a migratory movement amon^ them. One body of these people crossed the Alps, and made an irruption into Etruria. They quickly made themselves masters of the whole plain of the Po ; and then crossed the Apennines and laid sieo-e to Clusium, a city of southern Etruria. ^ 3. It was said that a citizen of Clusium was the cause of this inva sion. This person, named Aruns, had been the guardian of a Lucumo, or chief man of the city, and having been abused by him, and denied redress by the magistrates, resolved upon reveno-e. He loaded a number of mules with skins of wine and oil, and with rush mats filled with figs, and carried them across the Alps, into the country of the Gauls. ^ 4. Aruns found the Gauls, as he expected, highly delighted with these presents. They were delicacies unknown to the north of the Alps, and the barbarians were eager to obtain more of them. Aruns assured them that they might easily conquer the land that produced wine and figs, and forthwith an immense host of Gauls arose and marched off with their wives and children into Italy. 5. Their guide led them to Clusium, and they laid sieire to that city. The Clusians sent to the Romans for aid. The senate despatched three of the Fabian family to desire the Gauls not to molest the Clusians, who were the allies of Rome. The Gaula replied that they wanted land, and the Clusians must divide their ter- ritory with them. 6. The Fabii were angry at the ill success of their interference, and entered the city of Clusium, where they joined the people in arms. Hy this act they degraded their character as ambassadore, and violated the law of Rome, which declared that no citizen should bear arms against an enemy till war had been formally declared, and he had taken the military oath. XXXII. — 1. Who were the Gaulg? 2. How did they invade Italy ? ?, 4. Who wa» »^?rV rJ i ..v! ^''^*'« ^^^ Gaula into Italy? 5. What happeiwd at Clusiurnl f- What rf the Fabii? *^ fi2 MARCH OF THE GAULS TO KOMI CHAPTER! XXXIII. March of the Gauls to Roirte, 1. In a Killy from Cliisiiim, one of the Roman amba.-sadcrs dew ■ Gallic chief, and as he was stripping him of his armor, lie was :ecog nized by the Gauls. Brennus, the king, immediately ordeTcd a retreat t4) be sounded ; and then selecting the stoutest of his warriors, sent them to Rome, complaining of this infraction of the laws of nations by the ambassadors, and demanding that they should be given up to justice. 2. Most of the senators acknowledged the wrong, but they were unwilling to give up men of noble birth to the vengeance of a savage foe. They referred the matter to the people, who instantly created the offenders consular tribunes, and then told the Gallic envoys that nothing could be done with them till the expiration of their oflice. 3. Brennus, when he received this reply, gave the word *' For Rome !" The Gauls were immediately upon their march, breathing vengeance against the violators of national justice. Their horse and foot overspread the plains. They touched not the property of the husbandman ; they passed the towns and villages as if they were friends. They crossed the Tiber, and reached tho Allia, a little stream which flows into that river, about eleven miles from Rome. 4. It is said they would have taken the city by surprise, had not a supernatural warning been given to the Romans. According to this story, a plebeian, named Ciedicius, as he was passing in the night time along the foot of the Palatine Hill, heard a voice more than human, from the adjacent grove of Vesta, calling him by name. 5. He turned to see who had spoken to him, but no one was visi- ble. The voice was then heard again, commanding him to go in the morning to the magistrates and tell them that the Gauls were coming. Upon these tidings, the men of military age were called out, and led against the enemy at the Allia. 6. The Gauls were 70,000 strong; the Romans only 40,000. The latter were divided into two wings, the left resting on the Tiber, the right occupying some broken ground ; the Allia was between them and the enemy. Brennus attacked the right wing, and speedily routed it ; those in the left, seeing themselves out-flanked, were seized with a panic, broke their ranks, and fled towards the river. 7. The Gauls attacked the fugitives on every side. Great num- bers were slain ; many were drowned ; the survivors, mostly without arms, fled to Veii. Those of the right wing had made the best of their way across the hills to Rome, carrying the news of their defeat. Before night the Gaulish cavalry appeared^ before the walls ; but no ittack was made upon the city. During that night and the fol wing day, the Gauls were engaged in plundering and rioting without the walls, and frightening the inhabitants within by singing and shouting. XXXIII. — 1. Ho^ were the Roman ambassadors discovert? 1. What was done by the senate? 3. What by Brennus? 4, 5. What warn'ng is sak* have been given tc Iho Romans '/ 6. 7. Describe tho battle of the Allia? ^ u ^ TAPrURE OF ROME BY THE GAUL& ^ »**" I CHAPTE]^ XXXIV. Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Y-i K i— -i^ '\ Gauls before Rome. 1 The Romans found it impossible to defend the city, but they resolved to hold the capitol to the last extremity. About a thousand men took their station there, with a supply of provisions. The remainder of the inhabitants saved themselves as they could. Some fled to the neighbormg towns, others dispersed over the country. A part of the sacred objects used in worship were secreted under ground ; the Vestal Virgins fled with the remainder to Caere. 2. Nearly a hundred of the aged patricians and magistrates reniained in the city, determined not to survive the rum of the place which had been the scene of all their glory. They clothed them- selves in their robes of state, and having devoted themselves with solemn ceremonies to the cause of the republic, they sat awaiting death on their ivory seats in the forum. 3. On the second day after the battle, the Gauls entered Rome. At first, no person was seen, and a deathlike silence prevailed in the streets. But as they entered the forum, they beheld the walls of the capitol covered with armed men, and in the space beneath, the \en- erable senators seated in order, maintaining a profound silence, as immovable as .statues. 4. The barbarous invaders were struck with superstitious awe at the first sight of these persons, whom they took for divinities. At UjDgth one of the Gauls put forth his hand and seized the long beard JtXXT V. — 1. How did the Romans provide for their sa>' v after the baf.le '< 2. Whai 5* 54 DEFENCE OF THE CAPITOL. of Marcus Papirius. The old man, resentin<^ this indifrnity, str ch him over the head with his ivory staff, on which the barharian d-ew his sword and slew him. This was immediately followed by thf. massacre of all the other senators. 5. The Gauls then fell to plundering the houses, and the city was soon set on fire. All Rome was consumed, except the capitol and n few houses on the Palatine. They now summoned the capitol to rui iender, but the garrison defended themselves bravely. Brennus, find ing it impossible to capture the place by assault, blockaded it closely hoping to starve the Romans into a surrender. 6. Meantime some people of Etruria ungenerously took advantage of the distress of the Romans to ravage the Veientine territory, where the Roman peasantr} had taken refuge, with what property they had been able to save. But the Romans at Veil attacked them in the night and dispersed them. CHAPTER\ XXXV i Defence of the Capitol, ^ 1. Having thus obtained a supply of arms, of which they were su much in want, they prepared to act against the Gauls. A brave youth, named Pontius Cominius, swam one night on corks down the Tiber, and eluding the vigilance of the Gauls, clambered up the steep ascent of the capitol. Having given the requisite information to the garrison, he returned by the way he came. 2. The Gauls, the next day, took notice of a bush on the side of the hill, which had given way as Cominius had grasped it in climbing up. They also observed that the grass was trodden down in various places ; this showed that the rock was not inaccessible, and they resolved to scale it. 3. At midnight, therefore, a select body moved in dead silence to the spot, and began to climb, feeling their way slowly and cautiously up the steep side of the hill. No noise was made ; the Romans were buried in sleep, the sentinels were negligent or drowsy, and even the dogs, who start at the slightest sound, were not aroused. 4. All went on successfully, and the foremost Gaul had just reached the top, when the sacred geese in the temple of Juno, which in the famine of the siege had been spared by the garrison, bein<; startled, began to flap their wings and scream. The noise awoke Marcus Manlius, whose house stood neai the spot. He ran to the place where the Gauls were ascending, and threw the foremost down headlong ; in his fall he knocked down the others. The Romans were now aroused, and repelled the assailants. wag done by the patricians ? 3. How di: the Gauls enter ;he city 7 4. What of Paplr in? 6. What was the fate of the city ? G. What was dcre by the Etrurians) XXXV. -• 1. What rf Pontus Cominius • 2 3. How die. ,.1-^ Gauls attempt to selxe tIM DEPARTURE OF THE GAULS FROM ROME. 5-5 5 The officer whose negligence had placed the capitol in such peril, was thrown down the rock with his hands tied behind him, and The Gauls attacking the Capitol, every man in the citadel gave Manlius half a pound of corn and a quarter of a flask of wine as a reward. This was a liberality of no small account, in the distressed situation of the defenders. In mem- ory of the event, a goose was afterwards annually carried in triumph at Rome, on a soft litter, finely adorned. 6. But famine continued to press upon the Romans ; the blockade had lasted six months, and they had nearly eaten up the leather of their sandala and shields. The Gauls, in the mean time, had suflered the bodies of the Romans who were killed to lie unburied, and it being in ihe heat of summer, a pestilence broke out, which carried oir great numbers of the besieging army. CHAPTER XXXVI. f Departure of the Gauls fro?n Rome. 1. Both parties being now tired of the siege, an agreement was lade, that the Gauls should immediately withdraw on the payment it a thousand pounds of gold. This treaty havinfr been sanctioned •y an oath on both sides, the gold was produced by the Romans. In weighing it, the Gauls attempted to defraud them, which being com- [dained of by the Romans, the Gallic leader threw his sword into the scale, crying, " Woe to the vanquished !" capiioi? 4. What was done by Marcus Manli'3? 5. How was the defenc* t«pitoi rewarded and commemorated ? 6. How Icrg did the sie e endure ? :f tbi 6^ DEPARTURE OF THE GAULS FROM ROME. 2. By tliis repl}^ the Rorians saw that they were at the victor' mercy, and prepared to subnit; but while he dispute vviis going on, news came that Camilhis, the Roman geieral, was at the gates of the city, with a large army for their relief. He soon made his'^appear- ance, and demanded the cause of the dispute. 3. On learning the state of affairs, he ordered the gold to be carried back to the capitol. " For," said he, ** it has ever been the manner with us Romans, to ransom our country, not with gold, but vMth iron. I only am the man to make peace, as being the dictator of Rome ; and ray sword alone shall purchase it." 4. Each side then flew to arms, and a battle was fought on ilie ruins of Rome. The Gauls were defeated, and a second victory, on the Gabine road, annihilated their army. Camillus entered Rome in tnum])[i, leading Brennus captive. This much-dreaded barbarian leader was put to death, and the only answer to his remonstrances was made in his own words, '* Woe to the vanquished !" ^- *':m^a Camillus and Romans m battle with the Gauls. 5. Such is the account of the capture and deliverance of Rome, which wac generally current among the historians of that nation. It IS highly probable, however, that some part of the story has been talsified by the national vanity of the Romans. Instead of being defeated by Camillus, the Gauls, if we may credit more impar- tial accounts, withdrew peaceably, carrying olT the whole of the ransom. 6 Tlie city was now a heap of ruins ; x\e wealth of the inha])it- AHts was destroyed, and all were reduced to ^rreat misery. A tradi- „ ^^rnHl'n \ ^^u\ '•*'^"!"?'" ^va3 proposei f.r the Romu is ? 2. How was the business u.termpieil? 3 What said Cimillua? 4. -Vhat was I s success? 5. What is the groul.kuulh of this story? 6. What was he condition < the Romaua after the GauU REBmi.DING OF ROME. t» lion relates that food was so scarce among the pet-ile, that all who were over sixty years of age were thrown into the river and drov^iied. The people shrank from the idea of rebuilding the city, and proposed to emigrate in a body to Veil. /^ CHAPTER XXXVll. Rebuilding of Roine, 1. Against this project, Camillus raised his voice, and appealed to the Romans, both as men and citizens, not to desert the memorable seat of their ancestors. While the subject was under discussion, a lucky omen, which had perhaps been preconcerted for the purpose, decided the irresolute. 2. Just as a senator was rising co speak, a centurion, marching with his company to relieve guard, gave the usual word of command, " Halt! here is the best place to stay." The senators exclaimed, '* A hapyy omen ! The gods have spoken, — ive obey.'' The multitude caught the enthusiasm, and cried with one voice, " Rome forever !'' 3. Under the prudent guidance of Camillus, the military strength of Rome was renewed, and the states which had triumphed in the recent humiliation of the city were forced to own its superiority But this was a time of internal distress, which was augmented by the harshness and arbitrary conduct of the ruling classes. In this state of things, Manlius, who had saved the capitol, came forward as the champion of the sufferers. 4. This person aspired to be the first man in Rome, and felt mortified at the elevation of Camillus. With this view, he labored to ingra- tiate himself with the populace, paid their debts, and railed at the patricians. The senate saw through his schemr s, and created Come lius Cossus dictator, with a design to curb the ambition of Manlius. The dictator called Manlius to an account for his conduct, but the latter was too much the idol of the multitude to be affected by such a proceeding. 5. The dictator was obliged to lay down his office, and Manlius was carried from his confinement in triumph throujrh the streets. This success only served to inflame his ambition. He began to talk if a division of the lands among the people, and insinuated that there should be no distinctions of rank in the republic. C). To give weight to his discourses, Manlius always appeared in public at the head of a large body of the lower orders, whom his liberality hud enlisted in his cause. The city being thus filled with sedition and clamor, the senate had recourse tc another e>fe dient, which wa3 to oppose the jower of Camillus *.c that of tlu demagogue. XXXVn. ~ 1. What was the opinion of Caniillus ? 2. How were the Ronia.ia infu enced by an omen 1 .3. What was tlie stale of Rome after this? 4. What of MarJ" nd CoHsm ? 5, 6. What were the schemes of ManUus 7 53 COxNDElVINATION OF MANLIUS CHAPTER XXXVIIl. Condemnation of Manhns, 1. Camillus was accordingly made one of the military tribunes and he appointed Manlius a day to answer for his hfe. The place of trial was near the capital, and when he was tb^re accused of sedition, and of aspiring to the so\ereignty, he turned and pointed to that edi- fice, and put the people in mind of what he had there done for his countr) . , . 2. The multitude, whose compassion or justice seldom springs from rational motives, refused to condemn him so long as he pleaded in sight of the capitol. But when he was brought from thence to the Potciinc grove, where that building could not be seen, they con- demned Inm to be thrown headlong from tlic Tarpcian rock. 3. Thus the spot which had been the tiieatre of his glory became that of his punishment and infamy. His house, in which his con- spiracies had been carried on, and which had been built for him as the reward of his valor, was ordered to be razed to the ground, and his family were prohibited ever after from bearing the name of Manlius. 4. In this manner the Romans went on, with a mixture of turbu- lence and superstition within their walls, and successful enteri)riscs without. They submitted to the orders and requisitions of their r -iests with implicit obedience, and even encountered death itself, at Marcus Curtius leap hi g from the Rock. iheir command. As an example of this, we may instance the caw of Marcus Curtius XXXVIIl. — 1. What of Camillus and Manliua? 2. What • m the fate of Manliu*! It.lE SAMNITE AND LATLN WAR. 59 5. During an earthquake, a great gulf opened in the forum, and the augurs declared that it would never close till the most precious things in Rome were thrown into it. Curtius arrayed Iiimself in nomplete armor, mounted his horse, and boldly leaped into the yawn ing abyss, declaring that nothing was more truly precious than patri- otism and military virtue. The gulf, say the historians, closed immediately upon him, and he was seen no more. 6. Shortly after the execution of Manlius, the plague broke out at Rome. This was ascribed by the disafl'ected people to the anger of the gods at the destruction of the hero who had saved their tem- ples from pollution. But the patricians, by their triumph over Man- lius, and their steadiness in opposing popular claims, had acquired such strength that the lower classes became overawed, and the com- moners ceased to display the spirit and courage which they had previously shown in their contests with the nobles. CHAPTER XXXIX. The Savuiite and Latin War. 1. Rome was now on the point of degenerating into a miserable oligarchy, and her name would have come down to us shorn of its ancient glories, had not her decline been arrested by the appearance of two men, who changed the fate of their country and of the world. These were Caius Licinius Stole, and Lucius Sentius Lateranus. 2. These men were aided in their patriotic labors by Ambustus, a patrician, the father-in-law of Licinius, who is said to have espoused tlie popular cause to gratify the ambition of a favorite daughter. 3. Licinius brought forward three "rogations," or Inlls, as we should call them in modern legislation. The first opened the consul- ship to plebeians ; the second prohibited any person from occupying more than five hundred acres of public land, and forbade any individ- ual to feed on a common pasturage more than one hundred large or five hundred small cattle ; it also fixed the rent of the public land. The third provided that in all cases of outstanding debts, the interest paid should be deducted from the capital in making payment. 4. The patricians resisted the passing of these laws for five years, using every means of force and fraud to frustrate the designs of Li- cinius. At length the people took up arms, and gathered together on Mount Aventine. Nothing could save the republic now but a dicta- torship, and Camillus was intrusted with the office. 5. Camillus saw that concessions must be made to the people, to avert the horrors of civil war. He prevailed on the senate to pass the three laws, amending them only with a provision that the con- 3. Wh;it of his house and finiily? 4. How did l\\c Komaiia prosper? 5, What hap paned to Curtius? 6. What of the plairue at Rome? XXXIX. — 1, 2. What was the condition of Rome at this time? Who changed th« fate of the republic? 3. Whnt hills wore passed by Licinius? 4. What was the cense- Juence? 5. What of CamiHus? When were the praetors created » 6l What new wai id the Kouians now meditate? t)0 TITUS MANLltJS. DEVOTION OF DECIUS. 61 sills should no lonfjer act as civil judges, and that new magistrates should be ciiosen, witli the title of prcrtors, to exercise judicial func lions. This arrangement, B. C. 366, settled all atfairs for the time j-inicably. 6. The Romans had now triumphed over the Sabines, the Etru rians, the Latins, the Hernici, the ^^qui, and the A'^olsci, and began to look for still greater conquests. They accordingly turned their arms against the Samnites, a people descended from the Sabines, and inhabiting a large tract of Southern Italy, which is now comprise/J in the kingdom of Naples. ^ . H m CHAPTER XL. Titus Manlius, \. Valerius Corvus and Cornelius Cossus were the two consuls first intrusted with the management of this war. Valerius was one of the greatest commanders of his time. He was surnamed Corins^ or the '* crow," from the strange circumstance of his once having been assisted by a crow, while engaged in combat with a Gaul of gigantic stature, whom he killed in battle. 2. The Samnites were the bravest men whom the Romans had yet encountered. Cornelius led an army directly to Samnium, the ene- my's capital, while Valerius marched to relieve Capua, a city of Campania, which was threatened by the Samnites. The fortune of Rome prevailed. After an obstinate conflict in the field, the Sam- nites fled, declaring that they were not able to withstand the fierce looks and fire-darting eyes of the Romans 3. A war with the Latins followed soon after. These people were so similar to the Romans in language, dress, arms, &c., that the greatest caution was necessary to avoid mistaking enemies for friends, in an engagement. Orders were therefore issued by Manli- us, the Roman commander, that no soldier should leave his ranks, on pain of death. 4. Both armies were drawn up in face of each other, ready for battle, when Metius, the Latin general, pushed forward from his lines, and challenged any knight in the Roman host to meet him in single combat. For some time there was a general pause, no sol- dier daring to disobey orders, till Titus Manlius, son of the general, burning with shame to see the whole Roman army intimidated, bold ly rode forward and faced the challenger. 5. The soldiers on both sides stood still to witness the engage ment. The two champions drove their horses against each othei with a terrible shock. Metius wounded the horse of his antagonist in the neck ; but Manlius killed the horse of Metius. The Latm XL. — 1. Who were the consuls in this war? 2. What was the success of : lie R*^ mans? 3. What of liie war will the Laiiiis ? 4, 5. What was done bv Tilus Maiiliusf 6. What was his fate 1 7. How «lid ilie soUiiers ^jeiiave ? general, thrown to the ground, attempted for a while to support hun- self upon his shield ; but the Roman followed up his blows, and laid him dead as he was endeavoring to rise. 6. Manlius returned to the ranks in triumph, and laid the spoils of his victory at his father's feet. The stern Roman addressed him thus : ** Titus Manlius, as thou hast regarded neither the dignity of the consulship nor the commands of a father — as thou hast destroyed military discipline and set an example of disobedience, thou hast re- duced me to the deplorable extremity of sacrificing either my son or ny country. Lictor, bind his hands, and let his death be an example to the Romans in future." 7. At this cruel mandate the whole army was struck with aston- ishment, and stood in mute surprise. But when they saw their young champion's head struck off, and his blood streaming on the ground, a scream of horror ran through their ranks. The dead body of Manlius was carried forth without ihe camp amid the wail- ings of the soldiery, aud was buried with military honors. CHAPTER XLL Devotion of Dcciics, 1. After the funeral obsequies of Manlius, the battle between the Latins and Romans began with great fury, and as the two armies had often marched under the same leaders, they fought with all the animosity of a civil war. Their courage was equal, but after some time the left wing of the Romans, commanded by Decius, began lo give ground. 2. Previous to the battle, the augurs had foretold that the Romans would prevail if the commander of that portion which was hard pressed by the enemy should devote himsi'lf as a sacrifice for his country. Decius now saw that the time was come for the fulfilment of this prediction, and he resolved to offer himself. 3. He therefore called out to Manlius, who was chief pontiff, and demanded his instructions as to the ceremonies of the act. By the pontiff's directions, he was clothed in a long robe, his head was cov- ered, and his arms stretched forward ; in this manner, standing upon a javelin, he pronounced the solemn words devoting himself to the celestial and infernal gods, for the safety of Rome. 4. Then arming himself and mounting his horse, he drova furious- ly into the midst of the enemy, carrying terror and confusion wherever he came, till he fell, covered with wounds. The Latins, struck with superstitious awe, began to give way ; the Romans pressed them on every side, and caused them a complete overthrow. So great was the carnage, that scarcely a fourth part of the L.itins survived. XLI. — 1. What of the liaitle between the Konians and Latins? 2. What di J ine auffurs foretoll? 3,4. How di(i Dei-iiis devote himself? 5. How did the Romans sue ceed ? G. W^'^i was d(»ue l»y ihe other nations? 7. How did they aucceeil I G2 THE CAUDINE FORKS. 5. Tlie Romans followed up their succa^i with so much spiril during the three ensuing campaigns, that all Latium and Campam* were subdued, and annexed as provinces to the Roman republic. 6. These important advantages gained by their rivals alarmed tne Samnites. Many also of the other states in Southern Italy, particu- larly the Lucanians and Tarentines, became jealous of the rising great- ness of Rome, and a coalition was formed among them. The Romans became sensible of their danger, and appointed Papirius Cursor dic- tator. 7. Under this leader the Romans gained several victories over the Samnites ; and these successes being improved by the general thai succeeded Papirius, the enemy were reduced to such extremity that ihey begged for a truce, which was granted. II, CHAPTE The Caudine Forks. 1. The Samnites, as is usual with a populace when their own deeds have brought them into misfortune, threw all the blame on their leader. This person was named Rrutulus, and his country- men having resolved to deliver him up to the Romans as the cause of the war, the nuble Samnite saved himself from this disgrace by a voluntary death. 2. Nevertheless, the corpse of Bratulus was carried to Rome, the prisoners whom the Samnites had taken in battle were given up, and gold was sent to Rome to ransom the Samnite captives. But nothing could bend tlie haughty arrogance of the Roman senate, who were determined to reduce their rivals to complete subjection. 3. The Samnites, rather than resign their national independence, resolved to dare and endure everything. Pontius, an able general, was placed at the head of their army, and bade defiance to the Ro- man power. The consuls, Veturius and Postumius, immediately took the field with a large force, and invaded ihe territories of Sam- nium, B. C. 320. 4. The crafty Pontius put in practice a well-contrived stratagem. He sent ten of his soldiers, disguised as shepherds, to throw them- selves in the way of the Roman army. The latter meeting them, in([uired what route the Samnite forces had taken. The pretended shej[)herds answered, with seeming indifference, that they had marched to Luceria, a town of Apulia, and were then actually besieging it. 5. 'I'he Roman genera'., fully crediting this false intelligence, ad vat.ocd boldly and incau.iously. Near the town of Caudium he reached a narrow defile between two woody mountains, called the ('audine Forks. The Romans entered this passage, but when the XLII. — I. What of Brululus? 2. What was the determination of the ltom«n»1 3. Wlien (lid the war reconiiiience ? 4,5, 6. How did the Siin)nile.i entrap the Elooiuii VI the Caudine Forks 1 7, 8. What was the fate of the Roman anny ? ARRIVAL OF PVRRHUS IN ITALY. 63 head of their column reached the further end of the cefile, the^ found Iheir way stopped by trunks of trees and rocks. 6. They then faced to the right about, and attempted to return by the way they came, but found the entrance closed in the same rr.an- ner, and looking round them saw the woods and hills occupied by the enemy's soldiery. To their great consternation they perceived that they were caught, as it were, in a trap, without the power of advanc- ing or retreating. 7. The Samnites thus having the Romans entirely in their power, forced them to terras. It was stipulated that the Romans should withdraw entirely from the territory of the Samnites, and that the two nations should continue to live upon the terms of their former con- federacy. The Roman army was compelled to submit to the ignominy of "passing under the yoke." 8. This was done by setting up two spears, whh a third across them at the top. Under this every man of the army passed, having been stripped of all his arms and clothes except a single garment. The Romans, disarmed, half naked, and burning with shame at this dishonor, found a refuge in the city of Capua, an ally of Rome. CHAPTER I XLIIL 9 Arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy. 1. When the discomfited Romans reached their own city, the in- habitants were overwhelmed with grief, indignation, and shame. All business was suspended ; and while the unfortunate soldiers slunk out of sight in their own houses, or dispersed themselves over the country, a new levy of forces was ordered. The consuls laid down their ofhce, and new ones were appointed. 2. The treaty was disavowed by the senate, and the consuls who had signed it were sent bound to Pontius, that he might wreak his vengeance upon them. But the Samnite general spurned such poor satisfaction, and demanded that either the whole Roman army should again be placed in his power, or the treaty be observed with good faith. 3. The Romans disregarded these proposals, and the war was carried on for many years. The power of the Samnites declined every day, while that of the Romans gained fresh vigor from each new victory. The Samnites being now hard pressed, determined to call to their assistance a foreign power. They therefore applied ic Pvrrhus, kinj^- of Epirus, a country of Greece, lying on the eastern shore of the Ionian Sea. 4. Pyrrhus was a man of great courage, ambition, and military skill, who had always kept the example of Alexander befoi his eyes, and was desirous of becoming a universal conqueror. He XLIII —1. What of tlie discomfited Romans? 2. How did the senate behave re- iipectiivg the treaty? 3. Whom did the Samniles call to their aid ? 4. Wlial of ^yr rhu?? Cineas? 6. What of the arrival of Pyrrhus and liis army ? 0. Wliat >f Tareo UUA? 6{ WAR WITH '►YRRHUS. pi omised the Samnites that he would take the field In person againal tld Romans, and in the mean time he despatched in advance a^'body of three thousand men, under Cineas, one of his most experienced generals, to join the Samnites, B C 279. 5. Pyrrhus followed shortly aftei^ with a force of twenty thou- sand foot, three thousand cavalry, and twenty elephants, the first that had ever been seen in Italy. Only a small part of this armament landed in safety, a storm having scattered the lleet and sunk many of the ships. Pyrrhus landed at Tarentum, in the south of Italy, that city havmg put itself under his protection, in fear of the Romans. 6. Tarentum was one of the most luxurious cities of aiitiquity. The inhabitants were almost constantly occupied in feasting, dancing, and other amusements. Pyrrhus, finding them in utter ^neglect of everything pertaining to the business of war, gave orders to shut up all the places of public entertainment, and to prohibit the citizens from all such amusements as rendered soldiers unfit for battle. CHAPTERTXLi3 War loith Pyrrhus, 1. In the mean time the Romans did all that prudence could sug- gest, to meet this formidable enemy. The consul Lavinus was de- spatched with a large army to the south. Pyrrhus sent an ambassador, desiring to mediate between the Romans and the Tarentines ; but Lffivinus answered that he neither esteemed him as a friend nor feared him as an enemy. 2. Both armies now advancing, soon came in sight of each other and pitched their camps on the banks of the river Liris. As Pyrrhus viewed the Roman camp, he remarked that the barbarians seemed to exhibit nothing of the barbarian character in their tactics. At that period the Greeks were accustomed to bestow this name upon all peo- ple but themselves. 3. The object of Pyrrhus was to prevent the Romans from passing the river; but their cavalry out-manceuvred him, and gaining a ford higher up, enabled the whole army to cross. Pyrrhus then led on his Thessalian horee ; but the Romans stood their ground. He next advanced with his infantry. Seven times did the troops on each side advance and recede, without deciding the conflict. 4. Pyrrhus now brought his elephants into action. The sight of these strange animals struck both horses and men with terror, and the Romans broke their ranks. The Thessalian cavalry then charrred and scattered them, and the rout was general. The remnant of Ihe Roman army fled to Venusia. 5. When Pyrrhus on the following day viewed the field of battle, he cried, " Had I such soldiers as the Romans, the world would be XIJV. — I. Whatof Laevirms? 2. Wlint took plnce r tlu* Liris? 3 4 What of Ae haitle? 5. What was the remark of Pyrrhus ? ( r what of the emboauy y Cuieas 1 EMBASSY OF FABRICIUS 65 mine, had the Romans such a general as I, the world would be » heirs I" He ordered the bodies of the Romai slain to be burned and buried like his own men. 6. Notwithstanding this victory, Pyrrhus was still unwilling to drive the Romans to extremities, and sent his friend, Cineas, the orator, with proposals of peace. This person was so skilful a negotiator that Pyrrhus often asserted he had won more towns by the eloquence of Cineas than by the swords of his soldiers. But *vith all his art, he found the Romans inflexible. 7 Cineas informed his master that Rome looked like a great tem- ple, and the senate an assembly of kings. While he was there two legions had been raised to reinforce Laevinus, and volunteers had crowded with the utmost eagerness to enlist. chapter|xlv^ Embassy of Fabric ius, 1. An embassy was soon after sent from Rome to negotiate with Pyrrhus about an exchange of prisoners. At the head of this depu- tation was Fabricius, an ancient senator, who had long been a pat- tern to his countrymen for his contentment amid poverty. Pyrrhus received them with great kindness, and to try the integrity of the old senator, offered him rich presents ; but these were refused. 2. The next day Pyrrhus ordered one of his largest elephants to be placed behind a curtain, which at a signal was drawn, and discov- ered the animal raising his trunk over the Roman's head in a threat- ening manner. Fabricius stood unterrified, and then turning to the king° said, ** Neither your gold yesterday nor your big beast to-day can move /Tie." 3. Pyrrhus was gratified to find so much integrity and firmness in a barbarian, and as a mark of his regard, he released all the Roman prisoners, on the promise of Fabricius that if the senate should de- termine to continue the war, he might reclaim them if he thought proper. 4. In a short time the Romans began to recover from the efl^ects of their defeat. The panic occasioned by the elephants passed away, and a large Roman army again took the field. A battle vvas fought near Asculum; but the Romans, after a desperate resistance, were forced to give way, leaving six thousaiwl men dead on the spot. Pyrrhus, however, had met with such loss in the battle that he exclaimed, *' Another victory like this, and I am undone!" 5. The next season the campaign was opened with equal vigor on both sides. While the two armies were approaching each other, a XLV. — 1,2. How did Pyrrhus put Fabricius to trial? 3. What -vas his treatment of Fabricius? 4. Describe the battle of A<»^.ulum. 5. What of the 4ot to poison th« king 7 6. How did Pyrrhus behave to the • Dmans? 66 DEFEAT OF PYRRHUS. letter was Drought to Fabricius from the physician of Pyrrhus, o/ler- ing to poison the king for a proper rr-vard. The honest old Roman was fired with indignation at this treacherous proposal, and immedi. ately suggested in the senate that information of it should be sent to Pyrrhus, which was accordingly done. 6. The king received the message with amazement at the magna- nimity of his enemies, and exclaimed, ^'Admirable Fabricius, it would be as easy to turn the sun from his course as thee from the path of honor." He despatched Cineas to Rome with his thanks, and sent home all his prisoners with clothing and presents. The Romans, however, refused to make peace, unless Pyrrhus would quit Italy. ( " 'Vt/. CHAPTER XLV Defeat of Pyrrhcs. 1 Pyrrhus now passed over to Sicily, and in about two years made himself master of nearly the whole island. During his absence, the Romans retrieved their affairs. His allies solicited him to return' and he again took the field against the Romans, B. C. 274, with an army of 20,000 foot and 3,000 horse. 2. Part of this force he sent into Lucania, against the consul Len- tiilus. With the remainder he advanced to engage the other consul, Curius Dentatus, who was encamped near Beneventum, in Samnium^ m a strong position, on a height, where he intended to await the* arrival of his colleague. 3. It was the intention of Pyrrhus to attack him at claybreak, with some picked troops and elephants. A dream terrified him, and he wished to abandon the project ; hut his ofHcers represented the impolicy of allowing the two armies of the enemy to unite, and he gave orders for the attack. 4. In order to reach the heights in the rear of the Roman camp, the troops of the king were compelled to make a circuitous march throucrh a thick forest, by torchlight. They lost their way in the wood, their toiches burnt out, and it was broad day when they reached the spot where they were to assail the Romans. 5. The battle began, but the troops of Pyrrhus being fatio-ued with their long march, could not stand against the fresh Romans. The consul descended into the plain to engage the main army, and put one wing to flight. But in the other wing the Romans were driven back to their camp by the elephants. Here, however, the tide of victory was turned. ^ 6. The Romans having discovered that nothing terrif ^d the ele- phants so much as fire, had provided abundance of arrows headt^d with tow and balls compounded of tar, wax and rosin ; these were showered in a blaze upon the animals, who turned in affright upon ,i^yv]\^.\ %^rWhrofUie'i;lLrr'"l"H"^ ^- What of the drean, s. iyrruu3. q,o. wnat of tUe battle? 6. How were the elephants f.igluenedf fs -r PROGRESS OF THE ROMAN COMMOxXWEALTH. 67 iheir own ranks, and threw them all into disorder. The rout was oomplelo, and the camp of Pyrrhus was taken. 7. This victory served as a lesson to the Romans, who were ever on the watch for improvement. They had formerly pitched their tents without order, but by this new capture they were taught to measure out the ground, and fortify the whole with a trench, so that many of their subsequent victories are to be ascribed to their improved method of encamping. 8. Pyrrhus now utterly despaired of prevailing against the Romans , he therefore abandoned the Tarentines to their fate, and returned to Epirus with the remains of his shattered forces. The Tarentines, Avho were the original cause of the war, could not long resist the conquering career of the Romans, who, in the course of the succeed- ing nine years, established their dominion over all the south and eas» of Italy. CHAPTER XLVII. Progress of the Roman Commonivealtk. 1. The people conquered by the Romans, in general, retained all their lands in full possession, paying no land-tax. But in some cases a portion of their territory was converted into Roman public land, and assigned to colonists, or farmed by the Romans. The con- quered people were governed by their own laws and magistrates ; but they were compelled to supply troops for the Roman armies, and pay them. ^ 2. About this time, Appius Claudius, surnamed Caecus, or the Blind, distinguished himself, during his ofhce of censor, by the con- struction of the celebrated Appian Way, which, when completed, was three hundred and sixty miles in length, extending from Rome to Brundusium. It was paved the whole distance with square blocks of stone. He likewise built the first aqueduct at Rome. 3. Something like literature and oratory also begins to be visible at this time. Brief dry chronicles of public events were kept ; the funeral orations made on men of rank were preserved in their families. It seems to have been the custom to sing the praises of illustrious men at feast^ and banquets. Ballads of Rom.ulus and Remus formed the entertainment of the common people. None of these old poems have been preserved, but it is supposed that Livy incorporated many of them in his Roman history. 4. About this period Cneius Flavins gained a great popularity bv two acts which were highly beneficial to the people. The dies fasti, or days on which courts sai, and justice was administered, had been 7. What did the Romans learn by this victory? 8. How did the war with Pyrrhua XLVH.— 1. How did the Romans treat the '«nquered nations? 2. What of ih-n ^ppian Way J 3. What of Roman literature? 4, 5. What benefits were tonfjrred yr Ihe peopic by Cneius FJavius ? m FOUNDATION OF CARTHAGE. hitherto divided in a very perplexing way throucrh the year, anil peo- pie could opiy learn them by consulting the pontiffs. 5. Flavins made a calendar in which the nature of each day wa^ marked ; this he hung up in the forum, and thus saved the common people much trouble and loss of time. He also drew up and pub- lished a collection of all the lej^al forms in civil actions, by which thi» business of law-suits was much simplified. CHAPTER XLVHI. Fozcndation of Carthage. 1. The Romans, having overthrown all their rivals in Italy, bcffan to look abroad for further conquests. The Carthaginians were then in possession of a part of Sicily, and, like the liomans, only wanted an opportunity of embroiling the different states of that island with one another, to conquer the whole. But before we enter upon the history of the memorable wars between Rome and Carthaije sve must give some particulars respecting this latter nation 2 Carthage was a colony of the Phcpnicians, ftninded on tho northern coast of Africa, near the spot where l\inis now stan.ls about a century before the foundation of Rome. This colony was believed to have been led from Phoenicia by Elissa, or Dido, sister of the kinj^ of Tyre. A spot of land, under payment of tribute, waa obtained from the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, and a town was erected there, which rapidly increased in wealth and population. .^. Ihe Carthaginians gradually freed themselves from tribute then reduced the neighboring tribes, and extended their dominion along the Mediterranean coast of Africa, from Cyrene nearly to the Atlantic. 1 hey also subjugated the Balearic Isles and Sardinia, and made settlements on the northern coast of Sicily. 4. The constitution of Carthage is highly praised by Aristotle. It was like those of the most flourishing commercial states of antiquity, a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. The former was composed ot the ^mihes of greatest wealth and influence ; and from these all the chiel officers of state were selected, who served without salary. The senate was constituted much like that of Rome ; and there wore two chief magistrates, called suffetes, like the Roman consuls. 5 1 he Carthaginians were a very enterprising, commercial people, aiid their ships ventured out of the Mediterranean into the Atlantic. Ihey made trading voyages along the western coast of Africa, to many parts of Spain, and, it is said, to the British Isles. (>. Ihe troops of Carthage were chiefly mercenaries, hired in Africa, Spain, Gaul and Italy. The Carthaginians were remarkably sparing of the blood of their own citizens ; but they lavished that of their mercenaries with reckless prodigality. Df^nhL"^ ^■3^wCJ,r'"'^ ^"'^ '^' i:"r"' '''^^^ 2. What of the f.u.ulation FIRST PUNIC WAR. 61) CHAPTER XLIX. First Pmiic War,^ 1. When Xerxes invaded Greece, the Carthaginians took advan- •xige of that circumstance to attack the Greek states of Sicily, but in this attempt they suffered a most disastrous defeat from Gelon, king of Syracuse. This, however, did not deter them from new endeavors to extend their dominion in the island, where they carried on wars for more than a century, till at length they were brought into col- lision with the rising power of Rome. 2. Iliero, king of Syracuse, B. C. 264, engaged the Carthaginians to assist him in a war with the Mamertines, a powerful and ferocious band of Italian mercenaries, who had seized the city of Messana. These, on the other hand, put themselves under the protection of Rome. It was some time, however, before the Romans were willing to acknowledge these disreputable allies, but finding at length that the Carthaginians had got possession of the citadel of Messana, they prepared for war. 3. Thus began what is called the First Punic War. A Roman army eluded the vigilance of the Carthaginian fleet, and landed on Sicily. Messana fell into their hands ; successive victories over the Syracusans and Carthaginians soon procured allies for the Romans among the Sicilian states, and inspired them with the hopes of becom- ing masters of the whole island. 4. Hiero now deserted his old allies, and forming a treaty with the Romans, secured the tranquillity of his kingdom in the coming con- test. The Carthaginians, on the other hand, who looked upon Sicily as their own, were filled with rage at the intrusion of the Romans They hired a vast number of mercenaries in Gaul, Liguria and Spain and formed a grand military and naval station at the city of Agrigen tum, in Sicily. 5. The Romans, eager to possess the Carthaginian magazines, immediately laid siege to Agrigentum, notwithstanding its great natural and artificial strength, and defeated an immense army that had been sent to its relief. The garrison, in despair, abandoned the city, which, with all its valuable military stores, fell into the hands of the Romans. 6. Several of the towns in the interior of Sicily now surrendered to the Romans, but those on the coast stood too much in awe of the Carthaginian fleet, to follow their example. The coast of Italy also suffered from the Carthaginians, for their navy had the entire com- mand of the sea. XLIX. — I. What of the Carthaginians in Sicily? 2. What of the Mamertinesi a How did the First Punic War be/srin ? 4. What of Hiero ? C Agrigentum? 5. What became of this city 1 6. What further success had the Roma- s ? ♦ Punic is the Latin word for Carthaginian. The people f this nation wer« callH Pani by the Romans. 7C NAVAL VICTORY OF DUILIUSL CHAPTER^^^ Naval Victory of Duilius, 1. Ihe Romans now saw that they must meet .he Caiihagimans nn their own element, if they wished to prevail. But they had no ships of war, nor any model by which to construct one. Under such circumstances, almost any people but the Romans would have yielded to obstacles which appeared insurmountable, but nothing could di.^- coura-g^e or intimidate them. 2. They began to construct a navy, and an accident at this time came to their assistance. A Carthaginian ship of war was driven ashore on the southern coast of Italy, and sened them for a model In sixty days' time they built a fleet of one hundred and Jiirty ships. Meantime, stages had been erected, on which the sailors, rowers, and fighting men were taught the manceuvres to be practised on shipboard. Every obstacle was surmounted by perseverance. 3. But the Romans knew, at the same time that they were inferior to their enemy in naval experience, and that their main chance of suc- cess was in fighting hand to hand, as on shore. To accomplish this, they invented a machine for boarding, called a croiv. In the fore part of each ship they set up a mast with a pulley-wheel at the top, by which was suspended a long ladder, furnished with a sharp iron hook at the outer end. This ladder was to be raised on approaching the enemy's ship, and let fall upon her deck ; being thus grappled fast, the boarders could rush from deck to deck by the ladder. 4. The consul Duilius was the first commander who ventured to sea with this armament. When the Carthaginians saw him, they put to sea with a hundred and thirty ships, confident of victory. So much did they despise their enemy, that they did not take pains to form in order of battle. At the strange sight of the croics, they were somewhat puzzled, but soon advanced and attacked the Romans. 5. The crows were dropped, and the Carthaginian ships were boarded by their enemies before they had time to understand this new mode of naval warfare. Forty-four sliips were taken or sunk. Three thousand of the Carthaginians were killed, and seven thousand taken prisoners. 6. The account of this unexpected victory was received at Rome with unbounded exultation. A column, decked witli the rosfra, or beaks of the captured ships, was erected in the forum, and Duilius was permitted, for the rest of his life, to have a torch carried before him, and to be preceded by a flute-player, when he returned home from a feast. L. — 1. What l3 said of shifw of war? 2. How did the Roman* prepare a fleet 3. What machine did ihey invent? 4, 5 What success had Duilii ? 6. What -vhM done by the Romans in coasequeace ? ^ REGULUS INV^JES AFRICA. CHAPTER LI. Regulus invades Afriza, 71 r--. (^..^^--'^■."■.V ■j.^^A 'r.r^^^^ LO!:SINi:>BA^rl!TT SB Regulus. 1. Several other naval victories followed that of Duiims. Tho Carthaginians assembled at Lilybaeum a fleet of three hundred and fifty ships, carrying a hundred and fifty thousand men, probably the greatest naval armament that the ancient world ever witnessed. The Romans collected at Messana three hundred and thirty ships, with a hundred and thirty-nine thousand men. These two immense squadrons encountered each other off Lilybaeum, B. C. 255. 2. The Romans were commanded by the consuls Regulus and Manlius, tlie Carthaginians by Hanno and Hamilcar. An action took plaoe, but the fleets separated without a decided victory on either side. The Romans returned to Sicily to refit. They then sailed for Africa, it having been determined to carry the war into the enemy's countrv. 3. The Carthaginian fleet being too weak to oppose them, they LI. — 1. What was the magnitude of the Roman and Oart'iaginian fleets at Lilybaeum? %. What was the event of this battle 7 3. What of the invasion of Africa by ih« 72 EMBASSY OF REGULUS TO KOMK. .anded safely near Cape Bon, and captured the town of Tlupea. The country from this place to the city of Carthaj^e was like a garden, abounding in cornfields, vineyards, and beautiful country-seats of the nch citizens of the capital. The Romans pillao-ed and devastated this lovely region, subjecting it to all the horrors of war. 4. The Carthaginians recalled their general, Hamilcar, from Sicily, and he met the Roman army, under the consul Reguius, near the river Bagrada. While the latter lay encamped on the banks of this river, they are said to have encountered an enormous serpent, one hunilred and twenty feet in length, which drove the soldiers away when they went to the stream for water. 5. It was found necessary to employ the balista, and othei military engines, against him ; by these he was at length killed. I lis skin and jaw-bones were sent to Rome, where they were preserved in one of the temples for many years afterwards. 6. A battle between the two armies now took place, and the Car- thaginiaiis were defeated, w^th the loss of seventeen thousand men killed, and five thousand men and eighteen elephants taken. Regu- ius followed up his advantage, and captured seventy-five towns, rav- aging the country in every quarter. 7. The Numidian allies of the Carthaginians revolted, and all the country-people tied into the city, which soon began to suffer from famine. In this distress, the Carthaginians, destitute of generals at home, sent to Sparta, and offered the command of their armies to Xantippus, a general of great experience. 8. He began by giving instructions to the magistrates for levying their troops, assuring them that their armies had been overthrown, not by the strength of the Romans, but by the ignorance of their own commanders. / ) /I ■ ' ' ■>: //. CHAPTER LII. hmhassy of Regidus to Rome. 1 By the exertions of Xantippus, the Carthaginians were roused from their despondence, and a respectable army was soon raised, with which he took the field. He made the most skilful disposition of his forces, placing his cavalry on the wings, and the elephants at proper intervals behind the line of heavy-armed infantry. Then bringing up the light-armed troops in front, he directed them to discharge the it missiles and retire through the line of the infantry. 2 In this manner he engaged the Romans, and after a severe battle, defeated them with dreadful slaughter. The greater part of their army w^as destroyed, and Rrgulr.s himself taken prisoner. Other misfortunes at the same time fell upon the Romans. Thev Romans? 4, What of the serpent at the Bagrada ? 5. How was he killed? 6. What was the success of Reeulus? 7. What was done by the Carthaginians in their miafor tunes' 8. Hnw did Xantippus beqin his operations ? 'JI. — 1. What was the success of Xantippus ? 2. What misfortunes happened to the DEATH OF REGULUS. 7:^ lost their fleet in a storm, and thus the enormous it-eaith w^hich had been acquired by the plunder of the Carthaginian territory was swallowed up by the waves. 3. Agrigentum was taken by Carthalo, the Carthaginian general and a new fleet, which was built shortly afterward, shared the fate of the first one. The Carthaginians, seeing their enemy thus hum- bled, begun negotiations for peace, through the instrumentality ol Reguius. They had kept him four years in imprisonment, and flat tered themselves that, weary of his bondage and exile, he would 3xert himself for a. pacification. 4. He w-as accordingly sent with their ambassadors to Rome, on his promise to reiurn, if the negotiation proved unsuccessful. When the old general approached the gates of Rome, numbers of his friends came out to meet him. Their acclamations resounded through the city, but Reguius refused, with settled melancholy, to enter the gates. 5. In vain was he entreated to visit once more his little dwelling, and share in the joy which his return inspired. He persisted in say- ing that he was now a slave, belonging to the Carthaginians, and unfit to partake in the liberal honors of his country. 6. The senate assembled outside the walls, as usual, to give audi- ence to the ambassadors. Reguius opened the business as he had been instructed by the Carthaginian council, and the aml)assadors confirmed his statements. The senate themselves, who were weary of a war which had now continued for fourteen years, were inclined lo peace. But wnen Reguius was called upon to speak, he asto"~ shed every one by giving his voice for the continuance of tlie war. CHAPTER LIII. Death of Regidus, 1. The Romans pitied and admired the man who had spoken with such eloquence against his private interest, and were unwilling to resolve upon a measure which was to be his ruin. But Reguius relieved them from their embarrassment by breaking off the negotia- tions abruptly, and without embracing his family or taking formal leave of his friends, he returned immediately with the amlxissadors lo Carthage. 2. As the Roman historians relate the story, the C: rthaginian.^ were wrought up to the most furious indignation, when they heard the conduct of Reguius, and determined to punish him with the most barbarous torture. His eyelids were first cut off, and he was immured in a dark dungeon ; then he was taken out and exposed with his face \G the burning sun. At last, when the malice of \\% enemies was Romans? 3. What was done hy the Carthaginians to procure a peace? 4. How na» K?(rulu3 received at Rome? 5 How didhe behave? G. What idvicedid he sive to liic Kenate ? LHl — 1 \V!al of the return of Regrulus to Carthage? 2. »Vhat is llie story of 14« 74 DEATH OF REGULTJS. fatigued with studying al. the arts of torture, they threw him into t cask set with sharp spikes ^ where he died in proloiiged affonies. Regulus in Prison at Carthage. 3. Regulus no doubt ended his days a prisoner at Carthage, bui {here is reason to beheve that he died a natural death, and that the story of his torture was invented by the Romans as a pretext for the barbarity with which they afterwards treated the Carthaginians. 4. Both sides now took up arms with increased animosity. The Romans were defeated jA many battles, and had the Carthaginians possessed the. steady r^lution and perseverance of their enemies, they would have crushfd them effectually. The consul P. Claudius Pulcher, attacked Drepanum, in Sicily, with a fleet of a hundred and twenty-three ships. He hoped to surprise the place by sailinjj in the night, but it was daybreak when he arrived, and the Carthaginian admiral, Adherbal, had time to sail out of the harbor and meet him. 5. The consul's contemptuous disregard of religious auspices had a disheartening effect upon his men. The sacred chickens would not take their food, which was regarded as an ill omen. "//* thci/ will not cat, let them drink,'''' said the consul, and ordered them to l)e thrown into the sea. 6. A battle begun with what was thought an act of impiety, could not be prosperous ; the Romans were totally defeated, and the consul escaped with only thirty-three ships. Shortly afterward the Romans lost another fleet in a storm, and of a hundred and twenty men-of- war and eigM hundred transports laden with stores, not one was saved. Afte^his disaster, the Roman senate encouraged the peoj)le 40 fit out privateers. death'* 3. What is the probable truth? 4. How was the war {m^ecuieiH 6, Wliaf of Claudiu.>» Pulcher and the chickens ? 6. What w:vs the eve. .: of ilie iMtUt which fo] END OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR 76 CHAPTER LIY End of the Fi, st Punic War. 1. But no misfortunes could overcome the inflexible perLF.verance of the Romans, and their renewed exertions at last turned the tide af war. Fabius Buteo once more showed them the way to naval victory, by defeating a considerable squadron of the Carthaginans. Lucius Catulus, who commanded a fleet built and equipped by the private subscriptions of some patriotic individuals, gained a still more important victory, in which the Carthaginian naval power was almost annihilated by the loss of one hundred and twenty ships. 2. The Carthaginians were at length compelled to sue for peace, and the terms exacted by the Romans were the same which Regulus had offered at the gates of Carthage. The Carthaginians agreed tr pay one thousand talents of silver for the expenses of the war, and twenty-two hundred within ten years ; to give up Sicily and all the islands near it ; to abstain from making war with any of the allies of Rome, and from sending any ship of war into any part of the Roman dominions ; lastly, all prisoners and deserters were to be delivered up without ransom. 3. In this manner ended the First Punic War, B. C. 241. The Romans suffered immense losses in this struggle of twenty-four years. Seven hundred of their ships of war were taken or destroyed ; the population of the republic and her allies was greatly diminished, and the enormous property taxes that were imposed during this period caused great distress. Extensive sales of land for the purpose of raising money, gave origin to that enormous inequality of wealth which afterwards proved so pernicious to the state. 4. The temple of Janus was now shut for the second time since the foundation of the city. The Romans, being in friendship with all nations, had leisure for turning their attention to the arts of peace. They began to ^elish poetry, the first liberal art which rises in every civilized nation/ and the first also that decays.^^ 5. Hitherto tliey had been entertained only* with rude ballads, sim- ilar to those of Chevy Chase and Robin Hood, or with the boorish drolleries called Fescennine verses. They now invented graver com- positions, of a satirical character ; after which they imitated th«^ drama of tlie Greeks. Elegiac, pastoral, and didactic compositions began soon to appear in the Latin language. LIV. — 1. Who restored the fortune of the Romans? 2. On what terms vaa jiCrtC* vonclulod? :i What was the result of the F-rst Punic War ? 4. What wa. Iheun^ii ion of The Romans after this? 5. What of 'neir literature, ike. ? /fi LLYRIAN AND GALLIC WAR. CHAPTER LV lllyrian and Gallic War, 1 The next hostilities of the republic were directed against the Illyrians, a people inhabiting the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Tl ese had plundered some Roman traders ; the senate sent ambassador* to the lllyrian queen, complaining of the act; but instead of gnmtinq redress, she ordered them to be murdered. A war ensued, most of the lllyrian towns were captured, and the greater part of the coun- try was made tributary to Rome. 2. The Gauls were the next nation visited by the Roman army. These barbarians, finding the armies of the republic disbanded, made a sudden irruption into Etruria. They wasted everything with fire and sword, and advanced to within three days' journey of Rome. An army was quickly raised and despatched against them. 3. The Romans, who had wonderfully improved in the science of war since their first encounters with these people, easily surrounded the Gallic army. It was in vain that these hardy barbarians, who had nothing but their courage to protect them, formed two fronts to oppose their adversaries. Their naked bodies and undisciplined forces were unable to withstand the shock of an enemy complrtely armed, and skilled in military evolutions. 4. A dreadful conflict ensued, in whicn forty thousand Gauls were killed, and ten thousand taken prisoners. Another defeat, where Viridomarus, the Gallic king, was killed by the hand of Mar- cellus, the Roman consul, forced the nation to beg for peace. The dominion of the republic now extended over the whole of Italy. Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Illyria, and Corcyra, and the towns on the coast of Epirus. 5. But while the Romans were thus extending their sway in Italy and its neighborhood, the Carthaginians were eoually active in strengthening their power in the west. They had made peace solely because tht3y were exhausted by the length of the war, and there- fore took the earliest opportunity of breaking the treaty. 6. Tliey laid siege to Saguntum, a city of Spain, in alliance with Rome. Ambassadors were sent by the Roman senate to Carthage, complaining of this breach of the peace, and demanding that Hanni- bal, the general who had advised the measure, should be deliverc) a!;ai;is'. iicin? 5. Whai ofthe Car:haginianii } C. iiuw did the Secc id Puo'C War iMgia ? COMMENCEMENT OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAR 77 CHAPTER LVI. Commencement of the Second Punic War, 218, B. C, Hannibal, 1. The Carthaginians intrusted the management of the war to Hannibal. This extraordinary man had been the sworn foe of Rome Irom his childhood ; his father having carried him to the altar when very young, and caused him to take an oath never to hold friendship with the Romans, nor to desist from opposing them, till he or they should be no more. 2. Hannii)al was one of the greatest military commanders that ever existed. His courage in meeting danger was equalled by his presence of mind in every vicissitude and chance of battle. No fa- tigue wa^able to subdue his body, nor any misfortune to break his Bpirit. He was esteemed alike by his generals and the troops whom he conunanded. 3. At twenty-five years of age he took the command of the Car- thagmian army m Spain, and having overrun the whole country, and captured Saguntum, he determined to carry the war into Italy. As- LVI. — L Who was the Carthaginian general in the Second Punic War? What oattj 7» 78 HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE OF TH? ALPb Bembling in army of ninety thousand foot, twelve thousand horse and thirt) seven elephants, at New Carthage, he committed the ^o^ ernment if Spain to his brother, Hasdrubal, and marched toward ♦he Alps with the greater i)art of his forces. 4. When he reached tlic Rhone, lie found a large army of Gauls drawn up on the opposite bank to dispute his passage. The diflicul- ty of transporting the elephants across the stream threatened a fatal delay, as a Roman anny was also approaching by rapid marches. 5. Hannibal, by a skilful manoeuvre, overcame this difficulty. He Bent a detachment to cross the stream higher up, under cover of the night, with orders to attack the Gauls in the rear, on a signal being given. Everything being prepared, he gave the sign, and began to pass the stream. 6. The Gauls rushed down to oppose him, but soon saw their camp behind them in flames, and after a short resistance turned and fled. The Roman army then crossed the Rhone. 7. The elephants, dreading the water, could not be compelled to enter boats ; they were therefore conveyed across by the following artifice. Floats, or rafts of timber, covered with earth, were pre^- pared and joined to the river's margin. The animals, deceived by their appearance, took them for firm ground, and suffered themselves to be led upon them. The floats were then set loose and towed across by boats. 8. Having marched one hundred miles up the east bank of the Rlione, Hannibal wheeled to the right, and directed his course to he foot of the Alps, over which he was to explore a new passatTe to Italy. ° CHAPTER jJLVm HaiinihaVs Passage of the Alps. 1. Ir was almost vnnter when this desperate project was undo laken, and the season gave it additional horrors and difliculties. The •remendous height and steepness of the mountains, capped with snow /hat seemed to rest among the clouds ; the mountaineers, of barbarous irid fierce aspect, dressed in skins, with long shaggy hair, presenter ;i picture that struck every spectator with terror and astonishment. 2. The Gauls attacked the Carthaginian army with showers of stones among the narrow defiles of the mountains, and rolled down great rocks upon them from the precipices. Vast numbers of men, horses and elephants, were lost before the army escaped from these dangers. On tlie ninth day they reached the summit of the Alps, where they halted two days to rest. 3. Here a great fall of snow, and the prospect of further diflficul- iies, disheartened the soldiers ; but Hannibal, by pointing out to them •Jid he iHKe? 2. What was his character? 3. How did he begin the war ? 4.5. 6 How did he fross the Rhone? 7,8. How were the elephants carried over? lYII. — 1. What of the Alps? 2. The march of Hawjjbal's armyl 3. What 'n^k HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE OF THE ALPS. 7y fhc rich plain of the Po, and assuring them of the facility of the •jonquest of Italy, raised their spirits, and they recon.menced theii march Hannibal crossing the Alps. 4. The difliculties now increased ; the new-fallen snow had covered up the paths, and they lost their way; great numbers fell down precipices and were killed. At last they found their course stopped by a rock, almost perpendicular, which shelved down one thousand feet in depth. 5. They pitched their camp here amidst the deep snow, and the next day set to work to cut a passage through the rock. This was done by making large fires of wood on the rock till it was heated red hot, and then quenching it with vinegar. 6. In this manner the solid stone was sjdit into fragments, and a passage was opened through which the whole army pnssed, and at length reached the open country on the southern side of the moun- tains. Fifteen days in all were spent in crossing the Alps ; the route was probably the passage now known as that of Mont Cenis. 7. Hannibal having mustered his forces, found that he hnd lost .»ne half in passing the mountains ; the remainder consisted of twen- ty-six thousand men, Africans and Spaniards. 8. When the news of this invasion of Italy reached Rome, au army under Scipio was sent to oppose him. They met nejir the river Ticinus, and the Romans were compelled to retreat, with con- :»iderable loss. Hannibal, thus victorious, took the most prudent precautions to increase his army, sparing the possessions of the Cisalpine Gauls, and plundering those only of the Romans ; the jountry people, therefore, flocked to his standard with great alacrity. Jace on tiie top of the Alps ? 4. How was the march of the army stopped ? 5, 6. How d! I the Carthaginians split the rocks ? Where did they cross the mountains t 7. W at was the ioss of Hannibal 1 8. What success had he aflerwarJs ? ^ (Za^--/^-^ CAMPAIG* OF HANNIBAL IN ITALY. 80 CHAPTER nvn Campaign of Hannibal in Italy. 1. The consul Sempronius was now recalled fro.n Sicily, and another Rianan army took the field against Hannibd. The river Trebbia was the scene of tlie next engagement. The wily Cartlia- £Tinian, knowing the impetuosity of the Romans, detached a thousand eavalry, each trooper carrying a foot-soldier behind him, to cross the r.ver and ravage the enemy's territory. 2. This, as he had foreseen, provoked the Romans to a battle ; the Carthaginians, pretending a panic, fled to the river. The Romans pursued them across the stream, which was swollen by a heavy fall of rain. It was a cold, winter morning, and the Romans had been roused from their sleep to fight at the first alarm, without taking their break fusts. 3. When they had waded across the river, and were benumbed by the intense coldness of the water, they were suddenly encountered by the whole of the Carthaginian army, drawn up and prepared for their reception. The Romans, chilled, hungry and fatigued, could not Hiaintain their ground against fresh troops, but were put to a complete rout. Twenty-six thousand of them were killed or drowned in the river. 4. A body of ten thousand were all that survived ; these, finding themselves surrounded on every side, broke desperately through the enemy's ranks, and fought retreating, till they found shelter in tiie city of Placentia. Hannibal, after this victory, led his troops into winter quarters. 5. Early the next spring he attempted to cross the Apennines, but a violent tempest of thunder, hail, wind and rain, obliged him to de- sist. Another battle was fought near Placentia, in which the Ro- mans were defeated. 6. Haani])al then took up his march for the south, through a region full of marshes. Four days and three nights were consumed in wading amid mud and water ; the men suflfered every hardship. Hannibal lost one of his eyes, and almost all the beasts of burden perished. At length he reached Etruria, where the consul Flaminius lay encamped to meet him. 7. Hannibal, having learned the character of this commander, who was vain, rash, and altogether unskilled in military affairs, deter- mined to bring him to an engagement before he could be reinforced by the arrival of his colleague. He therefore moved onward to the south, laying waste the country. 8. Flaminius, enraged at the sight of these devastation^ , w:is eager t3 come to blows. Hannibal retreated before the Romans till he had decoyed them into a narrow pass between the hills o C'Ortonn and lake Thrasymenus. LVIIL — 1. Who commanded ihe Romans at the bailie of Trebbia? 2, 3. Describe the iKillle. 4. What was the result jf 5. What of Hannibal's attempt to cross the Ap- •amines? 6. What of hia march to Etruria? 7. How did he prov)ke Flaiuiniu-j U oattle ? 8. To what place did he decoy him? BAITLE OF THRASYMENUS. 81 CHAPTER LIX. Battle of Thrasymenus. 1. Here thr Carthaginian general placed his troops in ambush, sd that the Romans were hemmed in between the enemy and the lake before they suspected their danger. An accident favored the strata- gem of the Carthaginians on this occasion. As the Romans entered the valley early in the morning, a thick fog rose from the lake and filled the lower part of the valley. 2. Thus tlie Romans were unable to see their enemies, or even their own 'me of march, while the Carthaginians on the hills were in the sunshine. Never was a military stratagem more successful. On a signal given, the Carthaginians rushed down from the hills and fell upon their enemy in front, xiank and rear. 3. The Romans, not having time or space to form in order of bat- tle, were cut down in columns, and their total defeat was speedily accomplished. Fifteen thousand were killed or driven into the lake and drowned. Flaminius was among the slain. Six thousand were made prisoners, and ten thousand saved themselves by dispersion and dight. 4. During this battle a dreadful earthquake took place, which de- stroyed many cities, overturned mountains, and stopped rivers in itKMr courses ; but such was the fury of the combatants, that not one of them was sensible of this great convulsion of nature. Such the storm of battle on that day, And such the fury whose convulsion blinds To all save carnase, that beneath the fray An earthquake rolled unhecdedly away. None felt stern nature rocking at his feet, And yawning forth a c:rave for those who lay Upon their bucklers ior a winding sheet. Such is th' absorbing hale when warring nations meet. Byron. 5. The people of Rome were quite overwhelmed at the catastro- plie of Thrasymenus, but the senate remaintid unmoved and resolute. They appointed Fabius Maximus dictator. He was a man of great courage, but with a happy mixture of caution. He saw that the only way of obtaining any advantage over the enemy was by harass- mg and fatiguing them, without coming to a decisive battle. 6. For this purpose he always encamped upon the highest ^rrounds. inacxiessible to the enemy's cavalry. Whenever they moved, he watched their motions, straitened their quarters, and cut off their pro v^isinns. By these arts Fabius acquired the name of Cunctator, oi the Delayer LIX. — L How were ihe Romans siumled at the battle of Thrasymenus? What acci de lit favored the Carthaginians? 2. How did the battle iHjein? 3 What was the re suit? 4. What remarkable event hapfxiiied during the battle? 5 What was done V IVonie} 6. What waa the conduct of Fabius ? 6 82 FA 131 us MAXIMUS. CHAPTER LX. Fabius Mazi?nus. 1. Purs 7 ng this cautious system of tactics, Fabiia at len^li en- closed Hannibal amonjr the mountains, where it was hardly possible, for him to escape. The Carthaginian, however, rescued himself bv one of those stratagems which only men of prompt resources can invent. 2. He procured two thousand ^xen, and flistenhrr bundles of brushwood to their horns, set them on fire at night, ai.d drove them tow^ard the heights occupied by the Romans. The oxen, tossing their heads and running wildly up the heights, seemed to fill the whole forest with fire. 3. The Roman sentinels and outposts, that were stationed to guard the mountain passes, seeing such a body of flames advancing towards them, fled in consternation. By this stratagem Hannibardrew off his army, and escaped through the defiles, though with considerable loss to his rear guard. 4. Fabius, still pursuing the same cautious policy, followed Han- nibal in all his movements ; but before long he was recalled to Rome. On his departure from the army, he gave strict orders to Minucius, who held the command in his absence, not to hazard an engagement. 5. The latter disregarded these orders. He quitted the strong po- sition on the hills which had been occupied by Fabius, and descend- ing to the plains, engaged the enemy in some slight actions with success. These advantages were greatly exaggerated at Rome, and the people, who were weary of the salutary caution of Fabius, were induced to pass a decree establishing Minucius on an equality of com- mand with the dictator. 6. Fabius made no complaint, but on returning to the camp divided the army with his colleague. Each now pursued his own separate plan, and Hannibal, by skilful manoeuvres, was soon enabled to draw Minucius into an engagement, where his troops would have been cut otf to a man, had not Fabius sacrificed his private resentment to the public good, and hastened to their relief. 7. Minucius candidly acknowledged his fault, and the whole army encamped together again. On the expiration of his year of office Fabius withdrew from the command of the army, and his place was supplied by Terentius A'arro, a man of mean origin, with nothing but his wealth and self-conceit to recommend him. 8. The associate of Varro in the command was ^milius Paulus a man of quite different character, experienced in the science of war cautious in action, and imbued with a thorough contempt for his col league. The Roman army was now ninety thousand strong, and thf commanders determined to try the fortune of war with Hannibal^ who was encamped near Cannae, in Apulia. LX. — 1 Hovv were the Carthaginians ensnared by Fabius ? 2, 3. How did Hannibal extricate himself? 4. Who took command of the Romans on the depart-. re of Fahins i &. What was done by Minucius? 6. What look place on the divisio . (»r li.e army i T^Who fmally succeeded Fabiu.s ? 8. What resolution wa.«. adopted by Varro ukt I 4 V BArrLF OF CANNiE. CHAPTER ^XlI Datt^ of CaiincB, 8a Hannibal at Canuce. !. As the Romans approached, Hannibal took a position bringiijo the wind in his rear, which at that season blowing constantly one way, and carrying with it great clouds of dust from the parched plains behind, he knew must greatly distress the advancing enemy. 2. The Carthaginian forces amounted to but sixty thousand. The consuls, on their arrival in sight of Hannibars army, agreed to take the command on alternate days, ^jiiilius commanded on the first day, and judged it prudent not to attack the enemy. 3. But the next day, Varro, without asking advice of his col- league, gave the signal for battle, and crossing a branch of the river /Vufidus, that ran between the two armies, ])ut his forces in array. The battle began with the light-armed infantry, the horse engaged .ie> t, but being unable to stand against Hunnibal's Numidian cavalry, the legions came up to support them. 4. The action now became general. The Romans attempted in vain to break the centre of .their enemy's line, where the Gauls and Spaniards were stationed. Hannibal, observing this, ordered part of those troops to give way, and allow the Romans to advance till tliey were surrounded. 5. A chosen body of Africans then fell upon their flanks, and as ihcy could make no effectual resistance, they were cut down, in the language of the old historian, *'like ripe corn before the reaper." LXI. — I. How were the two armies .siiualed at the battle of Caniiie? 2. How were tha Romur.s commanded 1 3. How did the battle of Cau.ia bejjin '? 4, 5. 6. Describe 84 BATTLE OF THE METAURUS. Varro made a desperate effort to remedy his fatal error ; huf *h« Africans, who were fresh and vigorous, easily maintaiiied theii advantage over his wearied soldiers. 6. At lenc^th the rout became general throughout the Homan ranks, llie boastings of Varro were no longer heard, ^milirs fell bravely fighting, and his colleague escaped to Venusia with only seventy horse. 7. This was the greatest defeat that the Romans ever sustained : fifty thousand men were killed on their side, and among these were so many knights, that it is said Hannibal sent to Carthage, as tropliies, three busiiels of gold rings, taken from their fingers. 8. When the tidings of this terrible disaster reached Rome, llie inhabitants were overwhelmed with consternation ; but the senate, as usual, remained unshaken. By the advice of Fabius, measures were taken for preserving tranquillity in the city. A general mourning of thirty days was appointed, and all public and private religious rites were suspended. 9. Fabius Pictor, who wrote the earliest Roman history, was sent to consult the oracle t»f Delphi. Recourse was also had to the Sybil line books, and by their directions two Greeks, a man and a woman, were buried alive in the ox-market. Such was the influence of super- stition in this alarming conjuncture. 10. Marcus Junius was appointed dictator. All the citizens of age to bear arms were enrolled, and many of the slaves volunteered tlnnr services. The weapons and arms taken in former wars, which were hung up as trophies in the temples and porticoes, were now taken down and put to active use. 11. Hannibal has been censured by military critics for not march ing to Rome immediately after the battle of Cannaj ; but his army was by no means adequate to the siege of the city, and the allies of the Romans would have been able to cut off his supplies. CHAPTER LXH. Battle of the Met aunts, 1. Hannibal, desiring to repose and recruit his army, after the fatigues of the campaign, led them into winter quarters at Capua. This city had long been regarded as the abode of luxury, and the corruption of all military virtue. A new scene of pleasure now operied to his barbarian troops, and they at once gave themselves up to rioting and debauchery. Thus the hardy veterans became ener- vated, and when called again into the field, were no longer equal to the fatiguen of war. Ihe bailie. 7. What was ihe result? What trophy did Hannibal se-^d toCartha^ze; 5. What was done ai Rome? 9. Who was sent to Delphi ? What ceremonies were per formed at Rome? 10. Who waa appohited dictator? What preiwralions were made for defence? 11. What is said of Hannibal's conduct? LXJI. — 1. What happene«l to the Carihaginianrf at Capua? 2. What were (he nez* CAPitIRE OF SYRACUSE. 85 2 Hannibav's first loss was at the siege of Ntla, where the Romans made a successful sally. He next attempted to raise the siege of Capua, and attacked the Romans in their trenches, but was repulsed with considerable loss. He then marched toward Rome, but finding a superior army ready to receive him, he was compelled to retire 3. For dome years he continued to carry on the war without gain- ing any important success. The senate of Carthage came at length to a resolution of sending his brother Hasdrubal to his assistance, with a body of forces drawn from Spain. 4. Hasdrubal's march being known to the Romans, the consuls Livius and Nero marched against him. A great battle was fought on the Metaurus, a river of Italy, flowing into the Adriatic, B. C. 207. The Roman army consisted of forty-five thousand men ; that of Hasdrubal exceeded sixty thousand. 5. Victory, as at the battle of Cannae, declared for the weaker side ; and Hasdrubal, who had performed all the duties of an able general, seeing that the day was lost, spurred his horse into the midst of the enemy, and fell covered with wounds. Fifty-six thousand of the (^artha^inians were killed. 0. Hannibal had long expected his brother's army with impatience, and on the very night w^hen he had been assured of his arrival, Nero, with his victorious army, reached Hannibal's camp, and ordered the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into it over the ram-part. 7. The Carthaginian general, struck with the sight, exclaimed, **/ sec the doom of Carthage.''^ He then retreated to tiie south of Italy, being resolved to act oidy on the defensive. Soon after this, the Romans alarmed the Carthaginians with the prospect of a war in Africa, by entering into an alliance with Masinissa, king of Numidia. CHAPTER LXIH. Capture of Syracuse. — Scipio's Wars in Spain. 1. While the war was going on in Italy, the Romans, under the command of Marcellus, were besieging Syracuse, in Sicily. The city was defended by the ingenuity of the fiunous mathematician, Archimedes, who invented machines that destroyed the Roman ships, and for a long time baffled all their attempts to capture the place. 2. Treachery, however, enabled the besiegers to gain possession of many of the important outworks of the city, and at length the inhabitants surrendered at discretion. Syracuse was pillaged by the Roman soldiery, and great numbers of the people were put to the sword. 3. During the pillaging, a soldier entered the room where Archi- movenients of Hannit)al ? 3. What was done by ihe senate of Carihacre .- 4, 5. Describe the bai lie o*" the Metaurus. G. What was done o( y ol ISumidians, putting forty thousand of them to the sword. He then laid siege to Utica. The Carthaginians raised a larrre army to relieve a place of so much importance, but they were routed with ^reat slaughter, and pursued to their very walls. 8. This victory exposed Carthage itself to the perils of :i siecre. 1 unis almost within sight of the city, opened its gates to the Romans, and the Carthaginian senate, driven to extremities, recalled Harmibal rrom Italy, to the defence of his own country. 3 VVImt of iheiieaih of Arrnniedes? 4. Wimi was ihe comluci of Marcellus ? b What happe.u..i ui Spam? 6. What plau wu. formed by Scipio Africunu.? 7. WhatwcS u nrst successes in Africa ? n. What wa^ done by ^he Carihaginian« ^ 8? i/,;;t-^'^tLcHAPTER ] lXYv2 Battle of Zama, — E?id of the Second Pujiic War, 9 c 1. Nothing could exceed the regret and mc rtification of HannibaJ At this order ; but he obeyed with the promptness and submission of the meanest soldier. He took leave of Italy with the deepest grief, after having held dominion over the finest parts of that country for fifteen years. On his arrival at Leptis, in Africa, he began his march hx Adrumetum, where numerous volunteers awaited him. 2. Urged by the pressing requests of the citizens of Carthage, he low advanced to Zama, a town about five days' march to the west of that city. Here he sent three spies to explore the Roman camp. These were taken, and carried before Scipio, who ordered them to be led through every part of the camp, and then dismissed in safety. 3. Hannibal, struck by this conduct, which evinced, on the part of the Roman general, such confidence in his own strength, proposed a personal interview, in hopes to obtain favoral)le terms of peace from nim. The two generals met on the following day. 4. Hannibal began the conference by expressing his wish that the one people had never gone out of Africa, or the other out of Italy, their natural dominions. He reminded Scipio of the instability of for- tune, referring to himself as a notable instance. And he concluded by oflxjring, on the part of Carthage, to cede Spain, Sicily, Sardinia, and all the other islands, to the Romans. 5. Scipio replied that victory or unconditional submission alone remained for Carthage. The conference thus terminated, and each general retired to prepare for the conflict. 6. Never was a more important battle fought, whether we regard the generals, the armies, the two contending powers, or the empire that was at stake. Hannibal had the advantage in numbers, but they were mostly raw levies ; only a portion had served in Italy, and could vie in steadiness and discipline with the troops of Scipio. 7. The battle began with the elephants on the side of the Cartha- ginians. These, at the first onset, were terrified by the shouts of the Romans, and wounded by their slingers and archers. They quickly turned on their drivers, and made confusion in their own ranks, par- ticularly among the cavalry. 8. This advantage was followed up by the Romans, and viie whole Carthaginian army was soon put to the rout. Twenty thousand were killed, and as many taken prisoners. The Romans lost only two thousand. Ha mibal, who had done all that a great general could do to gain the victory, fled with a few horsemen to Adruinetum, fortune seeming to delight in confounding his ability, his valor, and hi? experience. 9. Fnmi ttiis place he was summoned by the government to (>ai LXIV. — 1. Wli:ii (if Haimibal's leaving Italy? 2,3. What look place at Zamaf I, 5. \\ l\al of ilie I'lmfereiice of Haiuiibal and Scipio? 6. How were the forces 'Hlaiicad at the battle of Zama? 7. How did the battle begin? 8. What whs the ee'>lil 85 CONQUEST OF CiKEEuE BY THE rCOMANS. ihsiijc, and he returned to that city after an absence of thirty-tix years. The battle of Zama had destroyed the hist liopes of Carthage and by HannibaFs advice a peace wjis made. The vanquished people submitted to whatever conditions their conquerors were pleased U impose. 10. The Carthaginians gave up all their territories out of Africa, agreed to pay ten thousand talents in fifty years ; to give up all their ships and elephants except ten ; to restore to the Numidian king all the lands which they had taken from him, and not to make war without the consent of the Romans. Thus, after a duration of seven- teen years enHed the Second Punic War B. O. 201. ^, CHAPTER |LXV. Conquest of Greece by the Romam, Philip of Macedon. I. Rome had now become a great military republic, supreme in estern Europe, and commanding a preponderating influence in the y What followed at Carthage? 10. What were the terms of })eace at the cIoi>e vf ll»« Second Punic War. CONQUEST OF GREECE BY THE ROAIaNS. 89 east, whi5re the kingdoms formed from the fragments of Alexander'* empire had sunk into weakness from the exhaustion of mutual wars. 2. The Athenians, exposed to the attacks of Philip, king of Mace- don, sought the protection of the Romans, which was readily granted, as the senate had long been anxious to find a pretext for med^dling in the affairs of Greece. 3. War was declared against Philip, notvdthstanding the opposi- tion of the tribunes of the people ; and it was resolved to follow up Scipio's policy, by making the enemy's country the theatre of hos tilities. 4. An army was sent into Macedonia, under Quintus Flaminius, and a decisive battle was fought at Cynoscephalae, in Thessaly, B. C. 197. The Macedonians were irretrievably overthrown, and forced to submit to such terms of peace as the conquerors chose to dictate. 5. At the Isthmian games, which took place shortly afterward, the Roman commander issued a proclamation declaring the freedom of those states of Greece which had been under the Macedonian dominion. 6. This, however, was notiiing more than an empty rhetorical flourish, the crafty Romans being well aware that the most certain way to establish their own supremacy was to amuse the Greeks with high-sounding professions. In fact, these people virtually became slaves to the Romans, through gratitude for freedom. 7. Antiochus, king of Syria, next became involved in a war with the Romans. Hannibal was believed to have contributed by his intrigues to this event, which is not unlikely. That great general, however, found that the vain-glorious Syrian king was unable tc comprehend his prudent plans for carrying on the war, and moreover had the mortification to find himself suspected of being secretly ir league with the Romans. 8. Antiochus, after much ill success, attempted to obtain a peace by oflfering to give up all his territories in Europe, and all those ir; Asia which preferred the alliance of Rome. But it was now toe late. 9. The two Scipios, who commanded the Roman armies, forced him to a battle at Magnesia, near Ephesus, where he was totally defeated. He was compelled to purchase a peace by abandoning all his European possessions, and those in Asia north of Mount Taurus, pa3'ing an indemnity of fifteen thousand Eubaean talents, nearly fifteen million dollars, and promising to give up Hannibal, who was then at his court. I'^'- — 1. What was now the condition of Rome? 2. How did the Romans become Involved in the affairs of Greece ? 3. What waa the poi icy of the war with Philip'. I What of the battle of Cyiioscephalne ? 5, 6. What hapf ^ned at the Isthmian gantett) 7 Wha: of Antiochus ? 8. What success had he? 9. Hr • did he obtain a peace! 8# *^ 00 DEATH OF HANNIBAL. CATO THE CENSOR. 9: ^ CHAPTER LXVT. Death of HaimibaL 1. H •JNiBAL, finding the vindictive Romans resolved on hi iestruction, left the dominions of Antiochus by st£;alth, and aftei wanderii g for some time from one petty state to another, took refuse with Prusias, king of Bithynia. But the Romans felt no safety while the great Carthaginian leader was alive. 8. With a mean and revengeful spirit utterly unworthy of a great nation, they sent one of their generals to demand him of this king. Prusias, fearing their resentment, and expecting to conciliate thcii friendship by this breach of hospitality, ordered a guard to be placed upon Hannibal, with an intent to deliver him up. 3. The unfortunate old general, thus implacably persecuted from one country to another, and finding all means of escape cut off, deter- mined to die. He, therefore, swallowed the poison which he had long carried with him for this purpose, and reproaching the Romans for their degeneracy, and Prusias for betraying his guest, expired B. C. 183. 4. It is said that Scipio Africanus, his conqueror, died the same year, an instance also of the mutability of fortune, for this great gen- eral breathed his last in exile ! The actions of these two eminent men sufliciently declare their characters. 5. As a general, Hannibal is almost without an equal. Not a single military error can be charged upon him ; and the skill and address with which he managed to keep an army, composed of the most discordant elements constantly in obedience, is truly aston- ishing. 6. The charges of perfidy and cruelty, made against him by the Roman writers, are utterly groundless, and contradicted by facts. Nowhere does Hannibal's character appear so great as when, after the defeat of Zama, he, with unbroken spirit, applied the powers of his mighty mind to the reform of political abuses, and the restoration of the finances, in the hope of once more raising his country to inde- pendence. Here he showed himself a true patriot. 7. A second Macedonian war was soon after proclaimed against Perseus, the successor of Philip. This prince, in order to secure th(^ crown, had murdered his brother Demetrius, and on the death of his father he succeeded to his power. 8 At first he obtained several important successes ovei the Romans, but when Paulus ^Emilius took the command against him, his affiiirs began to decline. At length a decisive battle was fought at Pydna, B. C. 167, and the Romans were completely victorious. LX'f'^. — I. Where did HanniDal take refuge? 2. How did the Romans perset:ni« him ? 3. What was \\\s end ? 4. What of the death of Scipio Africanus ? fi. 6. Whal is the character of Hannibal ? 7, What of the second IVIacedonian war ? 8 Whal euc ceas had Perseus? 9. What became of him? What were ihe consequences cf his Jefe«t 1 9. Pe .-sens xttempted to save himself by escaping into (Jrete, bu doing a.mndoned by every one, he was obliged to surrender to his enemy, who carried him to Rome, and led him captive at his triumph By this victory, Macedonia, Epirus and Illyricum, were reduced to the concUtion of Roman provinces, and it became evident that the independence of the remaining Grecian states would not long be CHAPTER LXVH. Cato the Censor, j Q 1. After the close of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginiana leemed disposed to remain at peace ; but the ambition of their neigh- bor Massinissa, king of Numidia, whose life, to their misfortune, waa extended to beyond ninety years, would not allow them to rest. This monarch was continually encroaching on the Cartliaginian terri- tory, and seizing their towns. 2. The Roman senate, when appealed to as umpire, sent out com- missioners, who almost invariably decided in favor of Massinissa. On one of these occasions, M. Porcius Cato, who is commonly known as Cato the Elder, acted as a commissioner. 3. When he saw the fertility of the Carthaginian territory, its high state of culture, and the strength, wealth and population of the city, he became apprehensive that it might yet endanger the supremacy of Rome. 4. His vanity, also, of which this morose old moralist had a larj^e share, was wounded because the Carthaginians, who were manifestly in the right, did not at once acijuiesce in the decision pronounced by him and his colleagues ; and he returned to Rome full of bitterness against them. 5. From this time he made a practice of concluding all his speeches '". the senate with these words, ^^Deknda est Carthago,^^ " f^ar- iKige must be destroyed." Qne day he carried to the senate-house a number of fresh African figs, and shook them out of his cloak while the general attention was directed towards him. The senators idmiring the fruit, he exclaimed, " The country that produces these, 8 but three days' sail from Rome !" 6. By such artful tricks, he kept alive among the Romans the memory of the Punic wars, and the danger of Rome. At length the senate resolved to lay hold of the first plausible pretext for declaring war against their ancient enemy. 7. At first the Carthaginians attempted to disarm their vindictive persecutors by submission. They banished all their citizens wiio had incurred the displeasure of the Romans, and surrendered their arms LXVH. — I. What new enemy annoyed the Carthaginians? 2. How were the dis- Eutes with Massinissa decided? 3. What of Cato the Elder at Carthage? 4. How was is enmity excited against the Carthaginians? 5. How did he display his enmity* 6. What was the consequence of this? 7. How did the Carthaginians attecipt toappeadi '.he K.Dmans ? 8. Wiiat di I the Roman senate determine? 92 *IEGE OF CARTHAGE. and miliUvy sto/:3. Two hundred thousand suits of armor, and weapons in proportion, were brought in warjons to the Roman camp. 8. The consul Censorinus, having praised their dihgen'^e and reaily obedience, then proceeded to inform them of the will of ihe senate. This was that they should abandon Carthage, which the Romans intended to level with the earth, and build another town not nearer to the sea than ten miles. ( CHAPTER jLXyil] Third Punic War. 1. When this cruel command was announced, the unhappy Car- thaginians abandoned themselves to every extravagance of grief and despair. They rolled themselves in the dust, tore their garments, beat their breasts, called upon the gods, and reproached the Romaiiji for their treachery and cruelty. Vv^hen they recovered from these paroxysms, they took courage from despair, and set their insulting foes at defiancj. Then began the Third Punic War, B. C. 149. 2. They piepared vigorously for the defence of their city, resolving to endure every extremity rather than abandon it. The two Has- dnjbals were appointed generals. The temples and other sacn-d places were turned into workshops. Men and women labored day and night in the manufacture of arms, and the females cut oft' their long hair that it might be twisted into bow-strings. 3. From this unexpected display of courage and patriotism, the Romans found Carthage a more difficult conquest than they had anticipated, and during the first and second years of the war, they suffered many reverses. But in the third year they intrusted the command of their armies to Scipio A^milianus. 4. He formed a camp within a dart's cast of the wall of the city, which extended quite across the isthmus on which Carthage was built By this means, he cut the besieged off' tVom the land, and their only chance of obtaining supplies was by sea. But Scipio deteimined to deprive them of this resource also, by stopping up the mouth of the harbor. 5. He began to construct a huge mole from shore to shore, with large stones. The Carthaginians at first mocked at the eflforts of their enemies, but when they saw how rapidly the work advanced, the}' became alarmed, and instantly set about digging another passage out of the port. 6. They labored so constantly and secretly, that the Romans were frustrated in their attempt, and the besieged, having built new ships out of their old materials, sent a fleet of fifty vessels to sea by the new channel. Had they taken advantage of the surprise and con- LXVni. — 1 . How were the Carthagfiruans afTecied by the orders from Rome ? 2. H<»vv did tltcy prepare for defenc^e? 3. How was the war carried on? 4. How did Scipio fmilianud l)egin his operations 1 5, 6, 7. How was the port of Carthage l)e8ioge«l aj\d defended ? CAPTURE OF CARTHAGK 93 cmatioo of the Romans, who were utterly unprc^pared for the sud ^n turn ot affairs, they might have attacked and destroyed thei** fleet. 7. But they only made a bravado, and then returned to port. The third day after this, the fleets engaged. The Carthaginian small vessels annoyed the Romans exceedingly, but in returning to port Ihey created much confusion on their own side, of which the Romans look great advantage. The next morning Scipio attacked the quay where the Carthaginian vessels lay. After a desperate struggle, the Romans at length eflTected a permanent lodgment on the place CHAPTER\LXIX. n Capture of Carthage. 1. On the opening of the spring the besiegers made a vigorous at- tack on the inner harbor. The Carthaginians set fire during the night previous to the buildings on one side, expecting the assault in that quarter. But a strong party of the Romans secretly approached on the opposite side, and made themselves masters of the place, while the attention of the defenders was directed to a different point. 2. Scipio then advanced to the great market, where he kept his men under arms during the night, and the next morning proceeded to attack the citadel, to which most of the inhabitants had now fled for refuge. Three streets, filled with houses six stories high, led to the citadel from the market. 3. The Romans, as they attempted to penetrate them, finding themselves assailed from the roofs, burst into the houses, and pur- sued the Carthaginians from roof to roof, killing and throwing thenr. down from the battlements. Others, in the mean time, forced their way along the streets. Weapons flew in all directions ; the groans t f the wounded and dying, the shrieks of women and children, and the shouts of the victors, filled the air. At length the assailants ar- rived in front of the citadel, and Scipio gave orders to set the city on ."ire behind them. 4. A dreadful scene of horror and devastation ensued. Carthajje was wrapped in flames, and its wretched inhabitants, between fire aFid the enemy, were devoted to destruction. Old men, women, and children, driven by the devouring element from their dwellings and iiiding-places, perished by thousands, and every fonn of appalling misery now shocked the eye. 5. For six days the flames raged uncontrolled. On the seventh, the Cartliaginians in the citadel offered to surrender on condition of ♦Jieir lives being spared. This being granted to all except deserters, they came out to the number of fifty thousand. The deserters, LXIX. — 1. How was the inner harbor taken ? 2, 3. How did the Romans reach th* citadel ? 4. What terrible spectacle was here presented? 5. How waf« the oiiabius, the historian, wno was present, interrogated ni::i a* to his meaning. He replied that his thoughts were fixed on his o\\ n country, which, he foresaw, must also submit to the vicissitude that attends all human things. 5. Scipio allowed his soldiers to plunder the city while it was burning. He despatched his swiftest ship to Rome, with the account of his achievement. The most unbounded joy prevailed among the unfeeUng Romans, on learning that Carthage was no more. Ten commissioners were sent out to join with Scipio in regulating the afl[airs of Africa. Carthage was destroyed B. C. 146. tXX — 1, 2, What of the wife of Hasdrul^-xl ? 3. What of Scipio on seeing the ruiim Jf Garihage'/ 4. WhU of IVIybius? 5. 6. How did the Romaics l«e lave loward* i\m TIBERIUS GRACCHUS. 6. The very ruins of the city were leveled with the earth, and heavy curses were pronounced on any one who should attempt to re- build it. All the towTis which had adhered faithfully to Carthago were treated in the same manner. Those which had joined Rome, particularly TJtica, were rewarded with an increase of territory. Africa was reduced to a province, a land and poll tax was laid upon the people, and a propraetor was sent from Rome every year to gov- ern it. 7. During the Third Punic War the disturbances excited in Mace- donia by an impostor, Andriscus, who pretended to be the son of Philip, kindled a new war, which proved fatal to the liberties of Greece. The Achaeans, stimulated by some factious leaders, toolj up arras, but were subdued in the same year that Carthage waa destroyed. S. Mummius, the Roman consul, after having plundered the city It Corinth of its statues, pictures, and most valuable eflfects, set it on fire, and reduced it to a heap of ruins. Thebes and Chalcis shared ihe same fate. 9. Mummius was so ignorant of the value of works of art, that on shipping his plunder to Italy, he bargained with the shipmasters that in case the statues and paintings were lost, they should furnish other? as ffood in their stead ! CHAPTER LXXI. Tiberius Gracchus, i\^ 1. The political state of Rome was now such as lo be highly un favorable to the preservation of the liberty of the citizens. The mass of the population, who had the power of bestowing all the great and lucrative offices, were poor, while numbers among the nobility were immensely rich. 2. Thus an oligarchy and a democracy were combined together ir the state, and it was evident that unless this condition of things could be speedily changed, there must be an end of the republican constitu- tion of Rome. The brothers, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, who were tribunes of the people, saw clearly the condition and tendency of things, and resolved to apply a timely remedy by renewing the Licinian law against holding large tracts of land. 3. This proposal was very unwelcome to the rich, who endeavored to persuade the people that the proposers of it aimed only at disturb- ing the government, and throwing all things into confusion But Tiberius Gracchus, who was one of the most eloquent men of his time, removed these impressions from the minds of the people, and the law was passed. conquere i people ? 7. What happened in Macedonia? 8. What of Corinth, Thebe», flcc. 1 9. What story is Irld of the ignorance of Mummius ? LXXI, _ 1. What waavhe slate of Rome at this time? 2. What of the tw t Gracchi 1 Si How were the rich inclined with regard to the Licinian law? 4. What of Attalut w CAIUS GRACCHUS. END OF ROMAN FREEDOM. 97 4. The death of Attalus, kinjr of Pergamus, afforded him a n^^ opportunity for espousing the side of the people acrainst the arislor- racy.^ This k'mcr had by his last will left all his territories to Rome and Uracchus proposed that the money should be divided among the poor. This caused greater disturbance than ever, B. C. 132. 5. Gracchus, haranguing the people at the capilol, was interrupted and threatened by the retainers of the nobles. He begged in vain to be heard, and at length raised his hand to his head to" signify that his life was in danger. His opponent immediately raised a cry that he demanded a diadem, and this caused an universal uproar in tlm city. 6. A large body of the senators, attended by their retainers, armed with clubs, marched to the capitol, knocking down all who ventured to oppose them. Tiberius, perceiving his danger, endeavored to flee ; he threw away his toga to expedite his movements, and attempted ^o ioTce his way through the throng. ^ 7. But happening to stumble over a person who lay on the ground, batureius, one of the tribunes, who was of the opposite faction' strucik him dead with a broken piece of a seat. Three hundred of' his partisans shared the same fate. The vengeance of the senate did not stop here ; many of the friends of Gracclais were driven into banishment without any legal process, and nothing was omitted to in- spire the people with an abhorrence of his pretended crimes. 8. Scipio Nasica, a large holder of the public lands, was the ring- leader of the senatorial faction in these proceedings, which, for the first time during several centuries, caused civil bloodshed in Rome, bo great was the odium which subsequently fell upon him from this cause, that the senate, to screen him from popular resentment, de- spatched him to Asia, under a pretext of public business, but in reali- ty as a species of honorable exile. He died in a few months, the victim of mortification and remorse. /^ CHAPTER TlXXIl} Caius Gracchus, 1. W HiLE the city was thus disturbed by civil tumults, Sicily wag exposed to the horrors of a servile war. The slaves in this island, exasperated by the cruelties of their masters, rose in rebellion, seizeo the town of Enna, and appointed one Eunus for their commander. 1 his person gained considerable advantages over the Romans, took the strong city of Taurominium, and maintained the war for six years. iJ. The consul Rupilius led an army against him, but wa.s obliged to use treachery to accom plish his purpose. Kunus was betrayed by uM^J-tL^^T wl' ^ What of Tiheri,,. Gracchn.s at the capiio! ? B How waa l.« Ni^?ca? ^h^^^^^^''«<^^«of«'-^cchusar.' hisa-^...;..;.? R What of }?ipio LXXII. — 1. What war happened in S.^iy? 2 H.nv wh.-. ii .|iiellerticy in a (Teneral assembly of the people. "^ 4. In consequence of this, Cassius Longinus was sent as praetor to Africa, with directions to bring Jugurtha to Rome, in order that those who had taken bribes from him might be convicted. Jugurtha, bemg broufxht before the assembly, was interrogated by Memmms ; but Bsebuis, another tribune, who had been bribed for the purpose, for- bade tlie king to reply. . , , i 5. The people were filled with indignation, but Baibius heerled them not, and Jugurtha, taking courage, ventured on another mur- der. His cousin, Massiva, then at Rome, was urging his own claims to the crown of Numidia ; and Jugurtha, seeing him likely to suc- ceed, resolved to have him put out of the way. Assassins were easily procured, and Massiva was slain in the street. 6. Such an insult could not be borne by the Romans, and Jugur- tha was ordered to depiirt. It is said that as he went out of the gate he turned round, and gazing at Rome, exclaimed, " Venal city I and soon to perish if a purchaser can be found !" 7. Albanus, the consul, was sent with an army to follow him ; but tiiis commander giving up the direction of the war to his brother, Aulus, an incompetent person, the Romans were compelled to hazard a battle on disadvantageous terms ; and the whole army, to avoid being pit to the sword, was obliged to pass under the yoke, and evacuate Numidia within ten days. LXXIV — 1 How dill the Jugurthine war originate? 2. What waa tne behavior of Jugurtha? What of the Roman senate ? 3. What success had Ju?uriha ? 4 o. W ».al WM dooe by him at Rome ? 6. What of his departure from the city ? 7 \V hat . ma fortune happened to the Romans in Africa ? 8. Who next undert'.ok the war ;». w .i» WM tlie succetjs of Metellus ? 100 CONQUEST AND DEATH OF JUGURTHA. 8. When this catastrophe was known at Rome, the city wu filled with g^rief and mortification. The conduct of the war waa given to Ctecilius Metellus, a man who was an honor to his order, of high talents, spotless integrity, and pure morals ; his only defect was pride, '' the common evil of the nobility," as remarked by Salliist he historian of these events. 9. Metellus, on his arrival in Africa, found the army utterly disor- ganized ; but by assiduous attention to business, he soon placefrica? 7. How was Bocchus induced to join Jugurtha? W^hal battles foUowed 8, 9 How wa*j Jugurllia sivcn up to the Romans? 10. What hecame jf \\\n\% 9^ \j t^/h 102 INVASION OF THE CIMBRIANS AND TEUTONKS CHAPTER y^XXVI^ Invasion of the Cimhrians and Teutones, 1. In the year 110 B. C, intelligence reached Rome of Oi" anproach of a barharous people named Cimhrians. This people is supposed to have inhabited the peninsula of Jutland, and those parti which afterwards sent forth the Anglo-Saxon conquerors of England At this time, urged by some of the causes which usually set barba- rous tribes in motion, they resolved to migrate southwards. 2. The consul Cn. Papirius Carbo, gave them battle, but was defeated. The barbarians, however, instead of advancing into Italy, turned back, and being joined by a German people named the Ten tones, poured into Southern Gaul, where they defeated the consul M. Junius Silanus. The next year the consul M. Aurelius Scaurus had a similar fate ; and in the following year the consul L. Cassius Longinus was defeated and slain by the Tigurinians, a Helvetic people who had joined the Cimhrians, and the remnant of his army Acre compelled to pass under the yoke to escape destruction. 3. Marius, who was made consul a third time, employed himself chiefly in restoring the discipline of the army; and Sulla, who was his legate tbe first, and a tribune the second year, displayed his diplo- matic talent now in Gaul as before in Numidia, and thus augmented the envy and hatred with which the rude ferocious consul regarded him. 4. His colleague happening to die just before the elections, Marius went to Rome to hold them, and there his friend the tribune L. Apuleius Saturninus, as had been arranged between them, proposed him for a consul a fourth time. Marius affected to decline the honor , Saturninus called him a traitor to his country if he refused to serve her in the time of her peril ; the scene was well acted between ihem and Marius was made consul with Q. Lutatius Catulus. 5. The province of Gaul was decreed to both the consuls ; and as the barbarians had divided their forces, the Cimhrians moving to enter Italy on the north-east, the Teutones and Ambrons from Gaul, Marius crossed the Alps, and fortified a strong camp on the banks of the Rhone, that he might raise the spirit of his men, and accustom them to the sight of tlie huge bodies and ferocious mien of the barbarians. 6. He refused all their challenges to fight, and contented himself ^ith repelling their assaults on his camp ; and at last the barbarians, giving up all hopes of forcing him to action, resolved to cross the Alps, leaving liim behind them. We are told that they spent six days in marching by the Roman camp, and that as they went they jeeringly asked the soldiers if they had any messages to send to theii wives. DEFEAT OF THE BARBARIANS. \ I IJCXVI. — 1. What of the Cimhrians? 2. The Teutones and Tigurinians 1 3. 01 Marius and Sulla ? 4. How did Marius obtain the consulship? 5, 6. What of the cwtt I nign of Marius aga/nrt the '>arl>arian3 ? 103 CHAPTER LXXVII. Defeat of the Barbarians, 1. Marius then broke up his camp and followed them, keeping or the high grounds till he came to Aquae Sextiae. He there chose foi his camp an eminence where there was no water, and when his soldiers complained, he pointed to a stream running by the enemies' camp, and told them they must buy it there with their blood. " Lead us on then at once, while our blood is warm!" cried they. "We must first secure our camp," coolly replied the general. 2. The camp-servants, taking with them axes, hatchets, and some spears and swords, for their defence, went down to the stream to water the beasts, and they drove off such of the enemies as they met. The noise roused the Ambrons, who were at their dinner. They put on their armor and crossed the stream ; the Ligurians advanced to engage them, some more Roman troops succeeded, and the Ambrons were driven back to their wagons with loss. This check irritated the barbarians exceedingly, and the Romans passed the night in anxiety, expecting an attack. 3. In the morning, Marius, having sent the legate Claudius Mar- cellus with three thousand men to occupy a woody hill in the enemy's rear, prepared to give battle. The impatient barbarians charged uphill ; the Romans, with the advantage of the ground, drove them back, Marcellus fell on their rear, and the rout was soon complete , the slain and the captives were, it is said, not less than one hundred thousand. As Marius, after the battle, stood with a torch, in the act of setting fire to a pile of their arms, messengers arrived with tidings of his being chosen consul for the fifth time. 4. Catulus, meantime, had not been equally fortunate. Not thinking it safe to divide his forces for defending the passes of the Alps, he retired behind the Atesis, securing the fords, and having a bridge in front of his position to communicate with the country on the other side. But when the Cimhrians poured down from the Alps, and were beginning to fill up the bed of the river, his soldiers grew alarmed, and unable to retain them, he led them back, abandoning the plain of the Po to the barbarians. 5. Catulus was continued in his command as proconsul the next year ; his deficiency of military talent being supplied by the ability of Sulla, who had left Marius to join him. Marius, who was at Rome, instead of triumphing as was expected, sunnnoned his troops from Gaul, and proceeded to imitcthcm with those of Catulus, hoping to have the glory of a second victory. A battle took place in the neighborhood of Vercellac ; Marius placed his own troops on the win^rs and those of Catulus in the centre, which he threw back, ir order that they might have as little share as possible in the action. IJCXVII. — 1, 2. What of the encampment of Marius at Aquae Sextiae ? 3. What of >lie Sittle here? 4. What was the success of Catulus? 5, 6. What oi tho battle (H 104 TUMULTS AT ROME. 6. But this manoeuvre was a failure, for an immcns/ cloud of duel fisintr, which prevented the troops from seeing each oilier, Marius in his chartre Mi the enemy on one side, and the hrunt of the hattle fell ou the troops of Catulus. The dust was of advantage to the Romans, as it orevented their seeing the number of their foes ; the heat of the weather (it being now July) exhausted the bi^rbarians, and they were obliged to give way, and as their front ranks had bound themselvea toiTCther by chains from their waists, they could not escape. 7. A dreadful spectacle presented itself when the Romans drove them to their line of wagons ; the women rushed out, fell on the fuf^itives, and then slew themselves and their children ; the men too put an end to themselves in various ways ; the captives amounted to sixty thousand, the slain to double that number. 8 Marius and Catulus triumphed together, and though the former had had little share in the victory, his rank and the fame of his former exploits caused this also to be ascribed to him ; the multitude called him the third founder of Rome, and poured out libations to him with the gods at their meals. 9. One evil of great magnitude which resulted from this war was, the great number of slaves that it dispersed over the Roman doiniii ions ; and at this very time those of Sicily were again in insurrection. Under the guidance of a slave named Salvius, who assumed the name of Trypho^and the royal dignity, they defeated the Roman armies. In another part of the island the slaves made one Athenio, a Cilician. their kinrr, but he submitted to Trypho, after whose death he had the supreme "command. At length the consul M. Aquilius slew Athenio with his own hand in an engagement, and suppressed the rebellion. CHAPTER LXXVIII. Tumults at Rome, 1. The cruelty with which the nobility had used their victory over the Gracchi, and the scandalous corruption and profligacy whic'i they had exhibited in the case of Jugunha, had greatly exasperated the people ao-ainst them, and had alienated from them the affections of the lovers of justice and honor. Ambitious and revengeful men took advantage of this state of feeling, to have themselves made tribunes, and to procure enactments injurious to the nobles as a body and as iiidividuals. i • i 2. Marius was raised a sixth time to the consulate, and it is said that he employed both money and arts to prevent Metellus from bemg >is colleague, and to have L. Valerius Flaccus, on whom he could rely, appomted. His ai/ies were Glaucia and Saturninus, both mor Vercellse? 7. What was the result of this battle? 8. What of the triumph of 3Iarin8 •nd Catulus? 9. What evil followed this war? LXXVIII. — 1. How were the i)eople exaspera'ed against the 'rbxliiyi ^ ^'^ riaioi TUMULTS AT ROME. 106 ill At enemies to Metellus, who, but for his colleague, uould, in his censorship, have degraded them for their scandalous lives. 3 Glaucia, as praitor, presided when Saturninus stood a second lime for the tribunate. He was notwithstanding rejected, and X. Nonius, a bitter enemy to them both, was elected ; but when the new tribune left the assembly, they sent a body of their satellites after him, who murdered him ; and the next morning Glau^'^a, without waiting for the people, made his own crew appoint Saiurninus to take his place, no one venturing even to murmur. 4. A series of popular measures were now introduced. By ore law the land which had been recovered from the Chnbrians beyond the Po was to be treated as conquered land, without any regard to the rights of its Gallic owners, and divided among Roman citizens anu soldiers ; one hundred acres apiece were to be given to the veterans in Africa, colonies were to be sent to Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia, and the prize gold was to be employed in the purchase of lands to be divided. 5. By another law corn was to be distributed to the people every month trrnfis. It was added to the law for dividing the Gallic land that in case of its passing, the senate must within five days swear tc it, and that any one who refused should be expelled the senate, ani fined five hundred thousand sesterces. (). The laws relating to the division of the lands were not at all pleasing to the town population, who saw that the advantages would fall mostly to the Italian allies. The movers, therefore, took care to bring in from the country large numbers of those who had served under Marius, to overawe and outvote the people of the city. These .ast cried out that it thundered, which, according to the Roman super- stition, would have made the vote illegal. Saturninus took no heed, but urged on his law ; they then girt their clothes about them, seized whatever came to hand, and fell on the country folk, who, incited by Saturninus, attacked them in turn, drove them olF, and then passed 4ie law. 7. Marius, as consul, laid the matter before the senate, declaring that he for one would never take the oath. Metellus, for whom the snare was laid, made a similar declaration ; the rest expressed their approbation, and Marius closed the senate. On the fifth day he assembled them again in haste, telling them that the people were very furious for the measure, and that he saw no remedy but foi J.hem to swear to it as far as it was law, and that when the country people were gone home they might easily show that it was not law, as it had been carried by force and when there was thunder. He himself and his friends then swore ; the rest, though thev now saw through the trick, were afraid not to do the same. 8. Metellus alone refused. Next day Saturninus sent and had him dragged out of the senate-house ; when the other tribunes defended him, Glaucia and Saturninus ran to the country people tell- big them they had no chance of land if Metellus was allowed to »he iixih consulship of Marius ? 3. What of ihe tribunate ? 4, 5. What new lawi? wn WW propoted ? 6. iow were these laws relished ? 7, 8 How was Metellus driv m iVM J)6 THE SOCIAL WAR THE SOCIAL WAR. iU> rtmaiii in Rome. Saturninus then proposed that the ccnsuls should be directed to interdict him from fire, water, and lod^inf^. The town people armed themselves, and were resolved to defend him ; but Metellus, thanking them for their zeal, said he would not have his country endanjrered on his account, and he went into voluntary exile at Rhodes. Saturninus then had his bill ajrainst him passed, and Marius made the proclamation with no little pleasure. 9. When the elections came on, Saturninus caused himic f to be rechosen, ana with Lm a freedman named L. EquitiusFirmo, wli(»m he gave out to be a son of Tib. Gracchus, in order to gain him the p(tpular favor. But the great object of him and his faction was to grt Glaucia into the consulate, which was a matter of some dilTiculty, for M. Anlonius, the celebrated orator, had been already chosen for one of the places, and C. Memmius, a man of high character, and extremely popular, stood for the other. 10. They did not, however, let this difficulty long stand in their way. Tliey sent some of their satellites, armed with sticks, who, in the open day, in the midst of the election and before all the people, fell on Meinmius and beat him to death ! The assembly was dis- solved, and Saturninus, next morning, having summoned his adherents from the country, occupied the capitol, with Glaucia, the quaestor 0. Saufeius, and some others. 11. The senate, having met, declared them public enemies, and directed the consuls to provide for the safety of the state. Marina then reluctantly took arms against his friends. While he loitered, some of the more determined cut the pipes which supplic How diu he alter the constitution ? d I M FLIGHT AND EXILE OF MARIUb. ill \i7 CHAPTER^LXXXIL^ Flight and Exile of Marius. 1. Sulpicius was betrayed by a slave, and was put to death Marius es^^aped in the night to Ostia, where one of his friends had piovided a vessel for him, in which he embarked ; but a storm coming nn, he was obliged to land near Circeii, where, as he and his com" panions were rambling about, some herdsmen, who knew him, telling him that a party of horse had just been seen in quest of him, they got into a wood, where they passed the night without food. 2 Next morning they set out for Minturna^, but on turning round they saw a troop of horsemen in pursuit of them. There happened to be two vessels just then lying close in to the shore, and they ran and got aboard of them. The horsemen came to the water's edge, and called out to the crews to put Marius out ; but they were moved by his entreaties, and, refusing to deliver him up, sailed away. Afterwards, reflecting on the danger they were incurring, they per- suaded him to land at the mouth of the Liris, to get some food and repose, and while he was lying asleep in the grass, they went on board, and making sail, left him tr his fate. 3. Marius rambled about the marshes till he reached the solitary hut of an old man, whose compassion he implored. The old man led him away into the marsh, and making him lie down in a hollow spot near the river, covered him with sedge and rushes. Presently Marius heard at tlie hut the voices of those who were in pursuit of him, and fearing lest his host might betray him, he got up, and went and stood up to his neck in the mud and water of the marsh. Here, however, he was soon discovered, dragged out, naked as he was, led to Minturn«, and placed in confinement. 4. The authorities there, having consulted together, resolved to put him to death, and a Gallic horseman was sent to despatch him. The Gaul, when he approached the spot where he was lying in a dark room, was daunted by the fiery glare of the old warrior's eyes, and when he rose and cried with a tremendous voice, " Dost thou dare to slay Caius Marius? " he rushed out, crying, " I cannot kill Caius Marius." The magistrates then determined not to have the blood of so great a man on their heads ; they gave him his liberty, and leading him to the coast, put him on bgard of a vessel to pass over to Africa. 5. Marius landed at Carthage ; but presently came a messenger from C. Sextilius, the governor of the province, ordering him to depart. He long sat in silence, looking sternly at the envoy, and on his inquiry of what reply he should make to the prajtor, he gruaned and i}aid, *'Tell him you saw Caius Marius sitting an exile amidst the ruins of Carthage." He then retired tj the little isle LXXXII. — 1. \^ hat became of Sulpicius and Ma' tis? 2, 3, 4 Relate the advcK art •f MariuK at Mintu.T;8e 5. His reply at Carthage. J 12 Ci.n WAR OF MAKIUS AND Sl'LlA. of Cercina, where he was joined by his son and several of his otl.e. friends, and lliey remained there watching the course of events CHAPTER fLXXXIIlJ 4— — . — ^ — — «— Civil War of Mariiis and Sulla, ^x K \ X 1 At lenprth Cinna, a partisan of Marius, was ciiosen c( Marius ? 5 6. What of the confederacy of Marius, Cinna, and Carbo ? 7, 8. WliaJ CIV P. WAR OF MARIUS AND SULLA. i]ti In the last ol these ei gagements, twenty thousand men were driven into a river and drowned, twenty thousand more were cut to pieces in a marsh. 9. Plutarc i states that the marshes were dyed with blood, that the course of the river was stopped by the bodies of the slain, and that m his own time, two hundred years after the battle, the swords, Dows, helmets, and coats of mail, were found buried in the sand. 10. Flaccus and Fimbria, having landed in Asia Minor, fell into a qiiarrel. The latter gained over the soldiery, attacked his colleague, and put him to death. He then assumed the command, and marched against Mithridates. He defeated the king's son, and compelled him to flee to Pergamus, where his father resided. 11. Fimbria pursued him day and night, and entered Pergamus sword in hand. Mithridates and his son escaped by a few hours, an(/ look refuge in Pitane, where they were immediately besieged by the Romans. Fimbria, having no ships to blockade the place by sea, ordered Lucullus, the Roman admiral, to hasten to Pitane with his fleet; but the latter, under the influence of private pique, refused and thus enabled Mithridates to escape with his ships to the islanc of Mitylene. 12. Fimbria, however, carried on the war in Asia Minor wnth suc- cess. He reduced most of the large cities, and at length Lucullus was prevailed upon to attack the fleet of Mithridates. The latter was totally defeated, and compelled to make peace on terms dictated by the Romans. / CHAPTER LXXXIV. Civil War of Mariits and Sulla, continued. 1. Sulla, having carried everything before him in Greece and Asia, now turned his anns against his rival, Fimbria. The latter, finding himself too weak to prevail by force, laid a plot for murder- ing his antagonist ; but this having miscarried, he committed suicide. 2. Thus freed from all his enemies in Asia, Sulla raised immense contributions upon the provinces which he had conquered ; and having in this manner amassed an enormous treasure, he turned his face toward Rome, first transmitting to the senate a full account of his victories, with an announcement of his determination to take full revenge upon his foes at home. 3. This intelligence spread consternation throughout Italy, and Marius, whose doom was sealed if Sulla returned, abandoned him- self to intemperance, which soon put an end to his life. 4. The senate raised an army, but the men all deserted to Sulla. The people hated Cinna and Carbo, who were now consuls, and had What of was hfl of the war against Mithridates? 9. What story is related by Pkitarch? 10. A Flaccus and Fimbria? II. What of the flight of Mitliridates ? 12. By whom finally co.inuered ? . ^ .. , /• i • • LXXXIV — 1. What of Sulla and Fimbria? 2. What tise did Sulla make of his vio lories ? J What became of Marius ? 4. Whi was done by the senate ? 5. What buo 8 114 DICTATORSHIP OF SULLA DICTATORSHIP OF SULLA. lU incurred the popular odium by their t>ranny and misg vemment they therefore flocked m crowds to the standard of Sulla The sen ate, who had now everything to fear, made an appeal to the compas sion of the coiiqueror, but Sulla persisted in the declaration that hi« enemies should perish either by the sword or by the axe of the execu tioner. 5. Numerous armies were sent against him, but he was everywhere victorious. Cinna was killed in a tumult, and the son of Marius, alter beinnr defeated, fled to Pr^neste, where he was closely besieged Civil war now raged in all its horrors. 6. Telesinus an experienced general of the Samnites, raised an army of forty thousand men, and advanced toward Praeneste under Uie pretence of relieving Marius. Having thus drawn the troops of feulla away from Rome, he suddenly wheeled about and made a rapid march by night toward the capital. 7. At break of day he arrived within a mile or two of the walls and avowed his determination to put to the sword every man in the city, without exception. A sally was made against him without suc- cess, and bulla himself was driven back to his camp 8 Rome was now on the very verge of ruin. Telesinus advanced with one wing of his army to storm the walls, but at this critical moment a Roman force, commanded by Crassus, attacked the other wing and put them to the rout. Telesinus was then assailed in front and flank, and utterly defeated. J) 6 1 / d CHAPTER LXXXV. Dictatorship of Sulla, 1. Sulla w^as now master of Italy. On his march to Rome he carried eight thousand prisoners from Antemn«, whom he delivered up to be massacred in the circus. Twelve thousand of the inhabit- ants of Praeneste shared the same fate. The people of Norba ii Campania, dreading his cruelty, set fire to their houses and perished in the flames. * 2. At Rome, a general proscription of the enemies of Sulla filled the city with massacre and blood. The streets were literally heaped up with dead bodies; and when a grave senator, in affright at these horrible butcheries, ventured to ask the bloodthirsty tyrant when he designed to cease from the slaughter of his countrymen, he replied with the utmost coolness, that he would take the subject into consid-' eration. '' 3. Cato the Younger, who afterwards became so celebrated bv his opposition to Julius Cffisar, and his suicide at Utica, was at this ^ time about thirteen years of age. One day, when he saw the head? who„'.t^:'¥;LsiLI\£tr/^^^^^^ ^ ^^^at danger now threatened Ro.e. R, LXXXV. - 1 . What of Sulla's cruelties ? 2. What was the state of Vomfi t 3, wii« i:i several noble Romans exposed to the public \iew after having been cut off *)y order of Sulla, he was so inflamed with indignation It the sight, that lie cned out to his teacher, and demanded a s'\o J Vhat he might kill the tyrant. Sulla 4. Nearly five thousand ot the most wealthy and eminent men in Rome were massacred by his orders; and having thus to a certain extent glutted his revenge, he caused himself to be proclaimed per- petual dictator, B. C. 80. Being now absolute sovereign of Rome, he annulled every law which stood in his way, and governed by his own will. 5. But to the astonishment of all, both friends and enemies, Sulla, after exercising the supreme power only two years, voluntarily re- signed the dictatorship, and withdrew to retirement at Puteoli. This conduct has never been explained ; and after a career of the most horrible tyranny and cruelty, this monster was allowed to pass the remainder of his life undisturbed. 6. It is said that one day a young man followed him home, cursing and reviling him, and that he bore it patiently, only saying, *' That anecdote is related of Cato? What of Sulla's dictatorship/ 4. What of hi.s abdica- tion ? 6. What anecdote is related of Sulla ? How did he die ? 6. What was his char- w ter 7 ii6 THE CILICIAN PmATES. youth's coiuluct will teach another dictator not to lay down his :ffir« 80 readily." He afterwards retired to Cumae, where he spen his time in wnting his memoirs, in hunting, fishing, drinking, and level- Img with players and musicians. He was attacked here with a most .oathsome disease, of which he died, B. C. 78. 7. Sulla composed his own epitaph, the purport of which was, that no man had ever exceeded him in serving his friends or injuring his enemies. He was a person, doubtless, of great talents, both as a general and as a statesman ; but never did a more ruthless soul ani- mate a human body, than his. He was cruel, less from natural ferocity than from a calm contempt of humaiv nature. He thoroughly do spjscd mankind, and was therefore an aristocrat. V: CHAPTER LXXXVL The Cilician Pirates. 1. The jealousies of Pompey and Crassus, the two most powerfil men in Rome, now gave rise to fresh dissensions. Pompey was the more admired for his personal character, but Crassus was the richest man in the republic ; he entertained the people of Rome at one thou- sand tables, distributed com to the poor, and fed the greater part of the citizens for nearly three months. 2. Ponripey, on the other hand, labored to repeal the unpopular laws of Sulla. He restored to the knights their judicial power, and to the tribunes all their former privileges. Both were chosen con- suls, and Pompey signalized his administration by the most brilliant success against the Cilician pirates. 3. From the earliest ages the Mediterranean Sea had been the the- atre of piracy, a profession which at first was hardly held dishonora- ble. When Athens became a strong naval power, the pirates of the iEgean Sea were suppressed. The Rhodians, an active maritime people, also assisted in checking the practice ; but when their naval strength had been reduced by the supremacy of the Romans, piracy revived. 4. The Cilicians carried on their system of robbing at sea to an extent hardly credible ; whole towns and islands were engaged in it as a regular occupation. The prisoners taken by the " pTrates were sold into servitude ; and these marauders supplied a large slave mar- ket in the island of Delos. 5. Their ravages were committed on a large scale. The temples of Samothrace, Claros, and other renowned sanctuaries, were plun- dered ; large towns on the coast were taken and sacked, and fleets of pirates ventured even to the columns of Hercules. C. Italy was not safe from their insults. They surprised the towns upon the coast, and carried off the Roman senators m\h their fami LXXX 7.-1, 2. What of Pompey and Crassus? 3. What of piracy In T'« Medl- rranean? 4. The Cilicians? 5. Their piracies? 6. How did ihey distrws Rf.niel THE CIUCIAN PIRATES. 117 lies, gainii.g large sums of money by their ranfeom. The fleets with com for the supply of the city were intercepted, and Rome was threatened with a famine. 7. Fleets and armies had at various times been sent against the pirates, but without success. Publius Servilius, with a strong squad- ron, dispersed their naval armament, captured several towns on the coast of Lycia, and subjugated all Isauria ; but he had hardly re- turned to Rome when the sea again swarmed with pirates ; and such was their audacity, that they laid siege to the city of Syracuse. 8. In this state of things, the tribune Gabinius proposed that one of the consuls should take the command against the pirates, and bo > 3sted with absolute power for three years, over the whole Mediter ranean and its coasts, to a distance of fifty miles inland, and authority to make levies and take money out of the treasury at his pleasure. 9. Though no person was named, ^very one knew that Pompey was meant in this proposal. The aristocratic party exerted themselves to the utmost against the passage of the law, and in the debates which took place in the forum such a clamor was raised, that a crow, which was flying over the place, fell down stunned. The measure was finally carried, and Pompey was invested with the command. 10. Such was the general confidence in his talents, that the price of corn immediately fell to its usual level. Pompey did not disap- point these favorable anticipations. He sent powerful fleets, well supplied with troops, along the whole coast of the Mediterranean, which soon cleared the sea of the pirates, and forced them to take refuge in their strong- holds in Cilicia. 11. Pompey pursued them to that country, captured all their ships, and compelled them to surrender the fortified places in which they had taken shelter Thus, within the space of a few months, this pow- erful band of marauders was completely broken up, and the prisoners were distributed as colonists among the towns of Asia Minor. 12. Pompey then undertook the management of the war against Mithridates, king of Pontus, who had been driven by Lucullus, i\\e Roman general, to take refuge in Armenia. Pompey, with great ease and expedition, subdued Mithridates, and established the Roman dominion over the greater part of western Asia. 13. But while he was thus gathering laurels in remote regions, and adding large territories to the republic, Rome itself narrowly es- caped destruction from the conspiracy of Catiline. ,^^*"\^rmamenl3 were sent against then) ? 8. What pronosal was made by Gabini- u»7 9. Wliat was the consequence? 10. What was the confidence of the IJomana ii Fcropey ? 1 1 What was his success ? 12. What of the war against Mithiidatea » lib CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. chapter] lxxxvij^ CoTispiracy of Catiline. Cicero speaking m the Senate against Catiline 1. Catiline was a man of noble birth, sullied, however, by ih* irost disgraceful debaucheries and infamous crimes. He was sing^u- larly constituted, both by art and nature, for intrigues and conspiracies. He possessed courage equal to the most desperate attempts, and eloquence which gave a specious color to the most dangerous ambi- tion. 2. Ruined in his fortune, profligate in his manners, vigilant and persevering in the pursuit of his aims, he was insatiable after wealth, only with a view to lavish it on his abandoned pleasures. Having contracted immense debts by his extravagances, he resolved to extri- cate himself by any means, however iniquitous. 3. He had collected around him a vast number of persons of des- perate fortunes, either involved in bankruptcy or dreadinjr the punish- ment due to their crimes — all, in fact, who had anything to hoi)e from a revolution. He sought by every means to inveigle young men ot family, and for this purpose spared no expense to gratify their vices. Some of the first men in Rome, magistrates, senators and knights, and several women of rank, were his associates. 4. The recent examples of Marius and Sulla stimulated Catiline to Ltiempt making himself master of the republic. He asf^^mbled a tneetino- of his most trustworthy associates, and opened to them his LXXXVII. — 1. Who was Catiline 7 2. What were his character a\u\ ilesisnis ? 3. Whc were his associatea ? t What did he projwse to ihem? 5. How .lid ite ronapiraion OVERTHROW OF CATILINE. 119 plan. He represented them as the most oppressed and wretched of mortals, and their rulers as the most inexorable tyrants , he promised them, in case of his success, the abolition of debts, the proscription of the wealthy, and rapine and plunder for all his friends. 5. The conspiracy was agreed upon, and it is said that the con- spirators, before they separated, bound themselves by an oath, drink- ing human blood mingled with wine. It was resolved among them ♦hat a general insurrection should be raised throughout Italy, the different parts of which were assigned to different leaders. 6. Rome was to be set on fire in several places at once, and Cati- hne, at the head of an army raised in Etruria, was, in the general oonfusion, to possess himself of the city, and massacre all the sena- tors. Lentulus, one of his profligate assistants, who had been a magistrate in the city, was to preside in their general councils. 7. Cethegus, a man of rank and influence, but who was carried away by the wish to gratify his revenge against Cicero, was to direct the massacre in the city, and Cassius was to arrange the business of setting fire to the houses. 8. The great obstacle to the success of the conspiracy, was the vigilance of Cicero, who was now consul, and had raised himself to that high office by his consummate eloquence and skill in political affairs. His murder was deemed a necessary preliminary to the undertaking. 9. Two of the conspirators undertook this task, on the morning after the secret conference. Cicero, how^ever, had previously obtained a knowledge of the designs of Catiline. By the instrumentality of a female named Fulvia, he had bribed Curius, her lover, one of the conspirators, and thus gained intelligence of all their proceedings. Tlie assassins were foiled in their attempt. 10. While the whole city was thrown into alarm by rumors of the danger, Catiline had the hardihood to present himself in the senate- house, where Cicero, inflamed with indignation at the sight of him, poured forth such a torrent of invective upon the head of the bold conspirator that he was overwhelmed with confusion and unable t." reply. 11. The whole senate cried out, calling him a public enemy and a parricide. Catiline then flung off the mask, and exclaimed in a fury that he would quench the flames raised around him ia-tke ruins of hia country. So saying, he hastened' away. I -^ * ' ^' ?^^ ^-^ CHAPTEB LXXXVni.,\ Overthrow of Catiline, 1. After a short conference with Leniulus and Cethegus, Catiline left Rome by night with a small retinue, and proceeded toward bind themselvea 7 6. What was their plan? 7. What of Cethegus andCassiuf?? P What obsincle lay in their way ? 9. How did Cicero escape assai-sinalion ? 10. Wli». •cene took place at '.he senate-house ? U. What was done by Catiline 3 ,0 f - 120 REBELLION OF SPARTACUS. Etruria, where Manlius, one of the conspirators, was raisinjr on annj to support him. In the mean time Cicero took proper measures to secure the city. 2. Catiline's associates attempted to form an alliance wit+i the Allobroges, a people of Gaul, who had sent ambassadors to petition the senate for some relief from the taxes with which they were oppressed. These ambassadors betrayed the negotiations to Cicero, who managed the matter so well that he arrested the chiefs of the conspiracy with the proofs of guilt on their persons. 3. After a warm debate in the senate, it was resolved that the traitors should be put to death. Julius Caesar, who was now fast rising into notice as the leader of the popular party, stood almost alone in protesting against the dangerous precedent of violating the Porcian law, which forbade the capital punishment of a Roman citizen. 4. Lentulus, Cethegus and Cassius, with several others, were immediately conveyed to the Mamertine prison and strangled. Cati- line, in the mean time, had raised a force of twelve thousand men ; but only a fourth part of these were completely armed ; the rest had been furnished with such weapons as chance afforded — lances, darts and clubs. 5. Catiline refused at first to enlist the slaves, who flocked to him in great numbers, but trusted to the strength of the conspiracy in the city. But on the approach of the consul Antonius, who was sent with an army against him, and hearing that his accomplices in Rome had been put to death, he became convinced that his cause was ruined. 6. He now attempted to save himself by rapid marches towards Gaul, but the passes of the Apennines were strongly guarded ; the consular army approached, and he was hemmed i^n on every side. Catiline, seeing his escape cut off, resolved to give battle to Antonius, and the armies met near Pistoria. 7. The conspiiators fought with the utmost desperation, but were slain to a man, B. C. 62. The suppression of this conspiracy was the most glorious act in the life of Cicero. The Romans unani- mously declared that he had saved the republic, and the senate bestowed upon him the honorable title of Father of his Country. CHAPTER LXXXIX. Echellion of Spartactis. —■ i 1. Sertorius, after the death of Marius and Cinna, had fled to Spain, where he established an independent republic. Pompey and LXXXVIII. — L What measures were next taken by Catiline ami Cicero? 2. What of the Allobroges? 3. What took place in the senate ? 4. What was done to the con epiraiors? 5. What preparations were made hyCaiiline? 6. How did be attempt IQ •scape? 7. What became of him ? What title did the Romans bestow uix)n Cicero? THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. 121 Metellus were sent against him, but they were defeated in everp battle although they were esteemed the best generals of the a^e 2. Ihe Romans were compelled to abandon the enterprise Lainsi sertorius, but the officers of this general, being jealous of his fame and authority, conspired against him and put him to death. The loss of their able general was the ruin of the Spanish republic ; the con- spirators, destitute of talents, were unable to supply the place of Ser> tonus, and Pompey was soon enabled lo establish the Roman author- ity in opain. 3. About this period Rome was disturbed by the rebel- lion of hpartacus. This person was originally a Thraeian shepherd • and having been Drought to Rome as a captive, was trained up for one of the gladiators, a class of unhappy wretches whom the R(,mans employed to hght and murder one another in the amphitheatre, for tneir amusement. ' 4. Spariacus, with thirty of his companions, escaped from their confinement at Capua, and took to the highway. Their numbers were quickly augmented by fugitives and desperadoes of every sort and bpartacus, with ten thousand men under his command, at leno-th emerged from the mountains of Campania, and began to lay waste the 5. His army increased every day, and became so well disciplined as to defeat two Roman consuls who were sent against them. The pranor Crassus was then placed at the head of a third army. Spar- tacus at first obtamed some advantages over him, and Crassus beo-an to despair of success ; but at length the Romans gained a decisive victory, U. C. /I, and put to the sword twelve thousand of the gladiator s army. 0. Spartacus fought to the last; when wounded in the lerrs, he ought upon his knees, wielding his sword in one hand and his buckler in the other. When he was overpowered by an irresistible force, he sunk and expired upon a heap of Romans who had fallen beneath his sword. 7. A portion of the army of Spartacus, however, rallied after luj. defeat, and being routed by Pompey, this ambitious leader claimed a ^reat portion of the glory which was due to Crassus. CHAPTER pre: The First Triumcirate, 1 1 HE overthrow of Catiline seemed only to leave an open theatre far ilie ambitious projects of other leaders. Pompey and CrLsus had for some time been jealous of each other ; burCalsar! Zse iyn^^'^^^elZ^'^lst^'^^^^^^ ' WhowasSpartacu.? Wm? 6. Deacr.1^ the death of SpLrLcuJr7>hat^^^^^ If! 122 THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. JULIUS CJESAK IN GAUL. lt>3 abilities were now known and valued, resolved to turn theii rIva.Ty U ^' V'rhL celebS^^^ descended fiom illustrious ancestors, but he warmly espoused the popular interests at his first entrance mtu nubli^Tfe Shortly after the death of Sulla, he procured the recall Tf those whom the dictator had banished. By acts similar to this h<» Kpcame a favorite with the people. ^%^"'^^,l^eonsummate skill he applied himself to the task of racou cilinff Pompey and Crassus, knowing that the result would be favora^ We to his own elevation. He succeeded so well that he persuade, them to forcTct all their old animosities, and combine with himscll in a Bcherae for'dividinjr the command of the republic between tliem. t»iiie«-i«»»'»'' CoBsar. Crassus and Pompey, dividing the Republic 4 They atrreod that nothing should be done m the commonwealth without their" mutual concurrence. This union was called the lirsi Triumvirate, which was established B. C. 59. They were supported in their project by Clodius, a man of profligate character, but possess- incr influence with the people. His chief object, on this occiision, was to wreak his vengeance on Cicero, for having given evidence ao-ainst him on a criminal trial. "^5 To do this more effectually, Clodius caused himself to l>e fans- ferred from the patrician to the plebeian order, and then becoming a .-mdidate for the tribunesbip, was elected without much opposition. iiv the exertions of Clodius, a decree of banishment was pronouncetl a-rainst Cicero ; but the great orator was honorably recalled at tlie elid of a year, and restored to his dignity anrt estates. "^JTZT'what followed the overthrow ..f Catiline? 2./Vyhat of Jnliu. Crpsar J ^ How did he .nanaire Pornpey and Crassus? 4. What of the t .rst TnumvuatelS Wtot was done b> CLnlins? What happened to Cicerol b. How U.d ihe cc«^ lifide Ihjir government ? 7. What of Gaul ? 6. While Clodius by his violence kept the city in constant agita- rion. Fompey and Crassus were again elected consuls torreiher The former chose Spain for his province, tb latter Syria, hoping that ii«* wraith would afl'ord a prey to his bounG...ss avarice. 7. Gaul was allotted to Caesar. This country was peopled bv h3rce and powerful nations, most of them unsubdued, and ilie remainder only under a nominal subjection to Rome. As this was an appointment rather to a conquest than to an administration, the ffovern- men. was granted him for five years, as if by its length to ccmpensate lor Its danirer. y^— '^ CHAPTER YXCL\ Julius CcBsar in Gaul. 1. CiEs^R's victorious career in Gaul lasted nearly eicrht years but it would be impossible, within the limits of tliis history ,"to enume- rate tlie battles which lie fought and the slates he subdued durinrr this period. He first marched against the Helvetians, whom h? defeated, killing nearly two hundred thousand oT them in battle 1 he Germans, commanded by their king, Ariovistus, were next cut olf, with the loss of eighty thousand m-n, their monarch himself nar- rowly escaping in a little boat across the Rliine. 2. The Belgj^ next encountered the Roman arms, and received so terrible an overthrow that the rivers and marshes were choked and heaped up by the piles of the slain. The Nervians, who were the most warlike of those barbarous nations, defended themselves valiantly for a short time. ^ 3 In one battle the Romans were in danger of being utterly routed but Cicsar, hastily snatching up a buckler, rushed through his troops into the midst of the enemy, and turned the fortune of'^the day, the barbarians being repulsed with a terrible carnage. The Celtic Gauls were next brought under subjection, and after these all the Gallic nations from the Mediterranean to the British Channel. 4. Stimulated by the desire of further conquest, Caesar crossed over into Britain, B. C. 54, alleging as an excuse for the invasion, that ihe inhabitants had furnished supplies to his enemies. A report of a pearl-fishery on the Ikitish shores is supposed to have supplied a stronger motive to his avarice. 5. On approaching the coast, near Dover clifTs, he found them covered with armed men ; and sailing along a few miles further, he anded at Deal, though vigorously opposed by the natives. At length, terrified at Caesar's power, they sent to sue for peace (). Some hostages had been given, when a spring tide suddenly damaged the Roman fleet, and the Britons resolved to try the chanco ol a battle. 1 hey attacked one of the legions while it Was foraging, r.r?^*'7"'- ^^^^ of Cffisar's success In Gaul? 2,3 The Belt'fE and NVrviana' a WThatoflhe invasion of Britain? 5. Wlierc did C^^fland? ^What im,!«,^^l i 12i PARTHIAN EXPEDITION OF CRASSUS. DISASl'ERS OF CRASSUS. 12© and Caesar had some difficulty in saving it. They next assailed the Roman camp, but were repulsed. 7. Caesar, who had neither cavalry nor provisions, thought it best to return to Gaul, and readily made peace with the Britons'; he then departed, and wrote a letter to the senate, giving an account of what he called his victory in Britain ; for this a thanksgiving was decreed at Rome. 8. The following year he invaded Britain a second time, with a much stronger force. He fought several battles with the natives, defeated their king, Cassibelan, crossed the Thames, and captured his chief town. The Britons, however, were far behind the Gauls in civilization, and their towns were nothing more than fortresses in the woods, without walls ; their houses were mere wigwams. 9. Having regulated the tributes to be paid by the conquered tribes, he returned to Gaul. The tributes, however, were never paid, and the Romans gained nothing by the invasion except some little knowledge of the island. 10. The conquest of Gaul was completed B. C. 50. Csesar established a system of administration for the country, imposing upon it an atmual tribute ; and having thus secured it under the Roman dominion, he prepared to carry out his ambitious designs by seizing upon the sovereignty of the republic for which he h'ad made this acquisition. 11. The military talent displayed by Caesar, in the subjugation of Gaul, is sufficient to place him in the first rank of generals. But we must bear in mind tliat in this brilliant achievement, nations were robbed and innocent people were slaughtered without mercy, that the renown of many victories might pave the way to the overthrow of the liberties of Rome. 12. We are told that Caesar captured eight hundred towns and cities, subdued three hundred nations, and defeated in battle three mil- lions of men, of whom one million were slain, and another million taken and sold for slaves. All this misery was inflicted that one man might be great ! CHAPTER XCn. Parthian Expedition of Crassus. 1. Crasaus, on taking possession of his province, proiected an expedition against the Parthians, hoping to enrich himself by the plunder of that people. He crossed the Euphrates with a large army, and began to ravage Mesopotamia. Several of the Greek tow.-.s in that quarter submitted without opposition, but instead of pushing his conquests without delay, Crassus returned to Syria to Romans? '7. What was tlie result of this invasion? 8. When was the invasion repeated ? What was its success? 9. What did the Romans gain by their invaaionsi 10 Whit of the conquest of Gaul ? What did Cajsar next prepare? 11, 12. Wl««i wu *•« character of his wars in Ga-il ? \ pass tne winttr, thus giving the Parthians leisure to collect theii forced 2. He spent the time here in amassing money. A Parthian embassy came to complain of his acts of aggression, as their nation had given the Romans no just cause for war. Crassus boastful y replied, that he would give his answer in Seleucia, a suburb of Ctesiphon, the Parthian capitol. The eldest of the envoys laughei, and showing the palm of his hand, said, " Crassus, hairs will grow there before you see Seleucia." 3. The Roman soldiers, when they learned the numbers of the Parthians, and their mode of fighting, were dispirited. The sooth- sayers announced evil signs in the victims. The officers of Crassus advised him to pause before deciding upon this dangerous under- taking, but in vain. 4. To as little eflfect did the Armenian prince, Artabazus, counsel him to march through Armenia, which was a mountainous country, and unfavorable to cavalry, in which the strength of the Parthians lay. He replied that he would go through Mesopotamia, where he had left many brave Romans in garrison. 5. The Armenian, who brought six thousand horse to join Crassus, and had promised as many more, saw the desperate character of the undertaking, and retired. Crassus passed the Euphrates at Zeugma. The thunder roared, lightnings flashed, and other ominous signs appeared, but nothing could stop him. 6. He took his march along the eastern bank of the river. No enemy appeared, and Cassius, one of his officers, advised to keep on the borders of the stream till they should reach the point nearest Seleucia ; but an Arab emir, named Akbar, who had been on friendly terms with the Romans when Pompey was there, joined Crassus, and assured him that the Parthians were collecting their most valuable property with the intention of flying to Hyrcania and Scythia ; for which reason he urged him to push on without delay. 7. This account was false, and designed to lead the Romans to their ruin. Crassus, however, trusting to the deceitful Arab, left tlie river, and entered on the wide plain of Mesopotamia. The Arab led the way, and when he had brought the Roman army to the place agreed on with the Parthians, he rode off, assuring Crassus that it was for his advantage. CHAPTER XCHI. Disasters of Crassus. 1. The Romans now began to discover signs of treachery, for or the same day a party of horse sent forward to reconnoitre fell in with XCII. — 1 What expedition was planned by Crassus? How did he commence it I 2. Wlial of the Parthian embassy ? 3. What of the soldiers and soothsayers? 4. What of Artabazus? 5. What of the passage'"' he Euphrates? 6, Itf Cassius and Akbar *. How was Crassus deceived? 11* 126 DISASTERS OF CRASSUS. the enemy, and were nearly all killed. Crassus was perplcx(;d, bnl Bill marched on, drawing: up his infantry in a square, with his cav- alry on llie flanks. They reached a stream, where his officers wished hiiu to halt for the nitjht and try to ^n'm further intelligence, but he persisted in advancinir, and at len«Tth came in sij^ht of the enemy. 2. The Parthian commander, however, kept tlie (rreater part of his forces out of view, and those who appeared had th(;ir armor covered to deceive the Romans. On a given signal the Partliians began to heat their kettle-drums, and when they thought this unusual sound had struck terror to the hearts of the Romans, they flung off their coverings, and appeared glittering in helms and corslets of steel. 3. Then, pouring in multitudes round the solid mass of the Roman army, they discharged showers of arrows upon them, camels being at hand laden with fresh supplies of missiles. The Roman light troops essayed in vain to drive them off, and Crassus ordered liis son to charge them with a body of cavalry. 4. The Parthians gave way and 'drew them on, but when at a suf- ficient distance from the main army, they turned upon their pursuers, riding round and round, raising such a dust that the Romans could not see to defend themselves. Great numbers were slain, and at length young Crassus broke through the enemy with a party of horsemen, and reached the top of a hill. 5. There the Parthians again surrounded him; and at length, being wounded and seeing no hope of escape, he caused his shield- bearer to kill him. The Parthians cut off his head, and stuck it on the point of a spear. Crassus was advancing to the relief of his son, when he heard the roll of the Parthian drums, and presently saw the enemy with the bloody head elevated in the air. 6. The Romans were struck with consternation at the sight. Crassus vainly tried to encourage them, crying out that the loss was hiss, not theirs. All day the Parthians hung upon their front and flanks, galling them with clouds of arrows. At night they withdrew, and Crassua now began to give way to despair. 7. A council of war was held, and it was resolved to retreat under cloud of the darkness. This was immediately carried into effect, but the wailings of the sick and wounded, who were left behind, informed the Parthians of tlie movement. However, as it was not their custom to fight by night, they remained quiet till mornmg. JCCIIl. — I What (lisaste first befell ihe army of Crassus ? 2, 3, 4. How did the Par iniims attack the Jioniaiis 5. What of ilio de^ilh of young ^.nusvjB? 6. 'What wai lij coriJuc of hU father ] What of ihe retreat of ibe Fjotna" ) DEATH OF CRASSUS. 127 CHAPTER XCIV. Death of Crassus. 1. The next morning the Parthians took possession of the deseited camp, slaughtering four thousand men whom they found in it; they then pursued the retreating army, and cut off the stragglers. Tlie Romans succeeded in reaching the town of Carrhai, where they had a garrison. The Parthian commander, to gain time, made proposals of peace, but after a while it appeared that he was insincere, and Crassus marched away from Carrhae m the night, under the guidance of a Greek. 2. This guide proved treacherous, and led the army into a place full of marshes and ditches. Cassius, who had distrusted him in season, turned back and saved himsej|pwritli a body of five hundred cavalry. Octavius, the second in command, having had faithful guides, secured a position among sohie mils, with his division of five thousand men, and enabled Crassus to escape from the marshes, after ho had been assailed in that dangerous position by the Parthians. 3. The latter now, apprehensive that the Romans would save themselves in the night, released some of their prisoners, declaring that their king did not wish to carry matters to extremities. Fur- ther to promote this stratagem, the commander, with a number of his officers, rode to the hill where Crassus was stationed, with their bows unbent, and the commander, holding out his hand, called on Crassus to come down and meet him. 4. The Roman soldiers were overjoyed at these signs of amity, but Crassus put no faith in them. At length, after urging and pressing, they began to abuse and threaten him. Crassus then took his officers to witness the force that was put on him, and went down, accompanied by Octavius, and some of his other officers. 5. The Parthians at first alTected to receive him with respect, and brought a horse for him to mount ; but they soon contrived to pick a (juar/el with their prisoners, and killed them all on the spot. Quarter w?s then offered to the troops, and most of them surrendered. 6. Twenty thousand of the Romans were killed and ten thousand made prisoners in this disastrous expedition, which was undertaken from the basest and most sordid motives, without a shadow of justice The Parthians, it is said, poured melted gold down the throat of Crassus, after having cut off" his liead, in reproach of his insatiacs avarice. XCIV.— I. What of tl>e Roman camp and army? 2. How was Crassus betrayed? What of Cassius and Octavius? 3. What stratagem was practised by the Partliians 1 I. How did they succeed? 5. What of the death of Crassus? G. What was the loss cf liie iioiaans in this war? How did the Parthians serve the dead body of Crassus ? 128 RIVALRY OF POMPEY AND C^SAK. CHAPTER \XCV. Rivalry of Pompey and Ccesar, Pompey 1. When the news of the defeat and death of Crassils reached Rome, the disaster to the national arms caused immense grief and mortification. The loss o the general gave the people no concern yet this was in reality th» greater misfortune of the two, for he alone had the power to keep Caesar and Pompey in friendship. 2. The removal of Crassus now left in the Roman world only these two competitors for the sovereign power, so far superior were they in weight and influence to all other men. There were at this time in the repuhlic two parties, one for maintaining the constitution as it ihcn was, the other for revolution. It was hardly possihle, therefore, to avoid a civil contest, in which the two parties should range them- selves in opposition under these two eminent men. 3. Pompey at first favored all the projects of Caesar, and i)rocurc(l liim a prolongation of his conunand, and supplies of troop*?. Hut XCV. — 1. How did the disaster of Crassus affef the Romans? 2. Whal was the *tale of parlies at Rome? 3,4. Whal of the rivalr )f Pomjiey and Caisar ? ^. Whal CIVIL WAR. 120 he soon bec3 lie envious of exploits that obscured the fame of hid own achieven ems. His partisans began to detract from the brilliant character of Caesar's victories, and many of that general's official Ic^t- '«rs were suppressed by the senate. 4. It soon became obvious that the jealousies of these great rivals could be settled only on the field of battle, and their adherents began to prei)are for the combat long before the principals had any decided inclination to commence hostilities. When Caesar became aware of the proceedings against him, he demanded permission to hold the consulship while absent, together with a prolongation of his govern- iryent in Gaul. 5. This was done for the purpose of trying whether Pompey '^ould openly oppose him. The latter remained apparently inactive, but he secretly employed two of his partisans, who maintained in the senate that the laws did not permit any one absent to stand as a candidate for the office of consul. 6. Caesar well knew that there was no safety for him except at the head of his army, for Cato and others had already threatened to impeach him for illegal acts done in his consulate ; he therefore chose to remain in Gaul till matters were further advanced. 7. He dismissed two of his legions which the senate ordered home, having previously attached both officers and soldiers to his mterest by bounties. He further strengthened his party at Rome by Uvishing bribes in great profusion, particularly on Caius Curio, a tribun** of the jnXjple, who had great influence in various ways. CHAPTER VXCVI. Civil War, 1. The senate, wlio were now devoted to Pompey, passed a decree recalling Caesar from his government. But Curio placed an obstacle in the way of this movement, by proposing that Pompey and Capsar should both lay down their offices. The apparent fairness and impartiality of the proposal threw Pompey and his party into gr*iat perplexity. Some time was wasted in debates and negotiations. 2. Pompey was as eager for war as Caesar possibly could be. 7'he joy manifested by the people on the occasion of his recovery from an illness gave him the most exaggerated notion of his influence o^er them. He was moreover completely misled by the accounts which he had received of the disaffiiction of Caesar's army, and the prov- inces. 3. He therefore derided the fears of his friends, who dreaded Caesar's power ; and when it was remarked that there were no troops in Italy to oppose him, he replied, " Wherever I stamp my foo*, took place in the senate? 6. What course was taken by Caesar? 7. How dil h< ttrenethen his parly? XCVI. — I. What was done by Curio? 2,3. What of Pompey 's exfwctatioai 9 « .30 CIVIL WAR. legions will sprino up!" The senate at length declared Caesar a public enemy, in case he did not give up his command by a certain day. 4. It was resolved that troops should be raised in every part of Italy, and that Pompey should be suppHed with money from tlie pub- lic "treasury. War, in fact, was declared against Caesar. Antony and Cassius, disguised as slaves, left Rome secretly and joined CiKsar, who had by this time entered the north of Italy, and was at Ravenna with one of his legions. 5. Caesar forthwith assembled his soldiers, and complained to them of the treatment he had received from the senate. The army having declared its resolution to stand by him, he sent off orders to his ^eJ^ates in Gaul to join him by forced marches with all their troops. He then took up his march for Rome. CcBsar at the Rubiron 6. On reaching i..' Rubicon, a little stream flowing into tht AdriAtic, near the modern city of Rimini, he halted. The Romans hod ever been taught to regard this river as the sacred boundary of Iheir domestic empire, and Caesar was arrested upon its banks by an impression of terror at the greatness and audacity of his enterprise. 7. He could not pass it without transgressing the laws ; he there- fore pondered for some time in fixed melancholy, looking earnestly upon the stream, and debating w th himself whether he should ven- ture to j)rofane it. " If I pass ;his river," said he, " what miseries shall 1 bring u})on my country ! And if I stop short, 1 am undone !" Ai length, yielding to a sudden impulse, he exclaimed, '* Let the die be cast !" and spurred his horse into the stream. 4. What wer« the p laiis of his p^rt) ? ii the Rubicon ? r. CsB;3ar's first movements 7 6 M<8 conducl ri-iUHT OF P03iFEY FROM ROMfc. 131 CHAPTER XCVII. Flight of Pompey from Rome. 1 . The news that Caesar had passed the Rubicon with his army caused the greatest consternation at Rome, where it was believed the conqueror of Gaul meditated a general massacre. The citizens fled into the country for safety, while the country people flocked to the city for the same purpose. 2. Pompey was overwhelmed with confusion. " Where is now," asked Favonius, a sarcastic senator of his party, " the army that was to rise out of the earth at your bidding ? Let us see if it will appear at the stamp of your foot." Pompey, in fact, was completely deceived in his expectations of the public spirit of the people. 3. His troops were all deserting to Caesar; the lower orders of the people were either favorable to the latter or wished for a change, and it was evident that Italy could not be defended against him. The senate, therefore, and all Pompey's partisans abandoned Rome, leav ing the public treasury with an enormous sum of money in it un- ^j^touched. 4. All Italy was subdued by Caesar in sixty days, and Pompev sailed from Brundusium for Greece, abandoning his country to his rival. Sicily and Sardinia speedily followed the fate of the peninsula. Elated by this rapid success, Caisar returned to Rome, where the tribune Metellus making some remonstrance against his proceedings as contrary to the laws, Caesar told him that it was no time to talk of laws, but that all must obey him. 5. He then went to the public treasury ; the keys were not to be found, and a smith was sent for to break open the door. Metellu? again interjmsed, but Caesar threatened to put him to death, saving. '* Know, young man, that it is easier to do than to say." Caesa^ having broken open the treasury, took out all the money, and even the most sacred deposits. 6. After a stay of six or seven days in Rome, he departed to attack Pompey's lieutenants in Spain and Gaul, He met with unexpected resistance from the city of Marseilles, but leaving a detachment to besiege the place, he continued his march to Ilerda, where he found his enemies posted under the command of Afranius and Petreius. 7. An indecisive battle was fought here, but Ca?sar, taking advan- tage of the incapacity of his opponents, soon reduced them to such fctraits that they were forced to surrender at discretion. The reduc- tion of the remainder of the Spanish peninsula was soon accom- plished, and Csesar returned to finish the siege of Marseilles. His nresencc soon forced the citizens to surrender ; their lives were spared, but they were forced to give up all their arms, magazines and money. CX^'II. — 1. What was the first consequence of Capsar's passage of the Rubicon ? 2. Whil was the coridititiM of Pompey ? 3. How were the people divided ? 4. What wrw 'JaMAr'a success ? 5. What of Melelhis and llie treasury 7 6, 7. W liat of Caesar in Spain? 132 POiMPEY AiND CJESAR IN GREECh. CHAPTER XCVIII. Pompey and CcBsar in Greece. 1. DuRiNii Uiese events Pompey was active in makinjj prcparationt in Greece to oppose tlie arms of Caesar. All the monarchs of the east, in alliance with Rome, had declared in Pompey's favor, and sent him large supplies. He had attacked Antony and Dolabella, who commanded Caesar's forces in that part of the empire, and defeated them, taking the latter prisoner. 2. Crowds of the most distinguished Roman citizens and nobha came every day to join Pompey. He had at one time above two hundred senators in his camp, among whom were Cicero and Cato, whose approbation of his cause was deemed equivalent to an army. Caesar resolved to pursue Pompey into Greece, but his inferiority in naval force exposed his soldiers to great dangers and hardships in their passage across the Adriatic tVom Brundusium to Dyrrachium. 3. Ca3sar himself, having crossed with a portion of his army, and finding tlie remainder delayed in their passage, re-crossed the strait in an open fishing-boat. The fisherman, who was ignorant of the nanip of his passenger, was alarmed at the r(»ughness of the sea, but the dictator encouraged him with the menu»rable words, *' Fear nothing ; you carry Caesar and his fortunes." 4. Both armies now being in the field, marched and counter- marched through a tedious campaign, in which both leaders showed themselves equally reluctant to hazard an engagement. From Epirus the armies moved into Thessaly, and finally met on the plain of Pharsalia, to contend for the empire of the Roman world. 5. Pompey's army consisted of forty-five thousand infantry and seven thousand cavalry, besides light troops. Caesar's fi)rce amounted only to twenty-two thousand infantry, and one thousand cavalry ; but Pompey's siiperiority of numbers was balanced by their inferior qual- ity ; his soldiers were mostly raw levies, while Caesar's army was composed of hardy veterans, familiar with victory, and full of the highest confidence in themselves and their leader. 6. When Pompey's ofiicers, however, saw the inferior numbers of their enemy, their confidence was raised to the highest pitch. They looked upon victory as certain, and disputed about dividing the spoils before the battle was fought. They disposed of all tiie dignities and offices in the repul)lic, and assigned the consuls for several yearr \v come. 7. Scipio, Spinther and Domitius had an angry contest, which c^ inem should be rewarded with the dignity of Pontifex Maximus which was then held by Caesar. Others sent to Rome to hire hous<;s suitable to the offices which they expected to enjoy after the victory XCVIII. — 1. How were Pompey's affairs ia the east ? 2. What of Pompey's ciu>ip? 3. What of Cee-sar's crossin? the strait? 4. Where did the rival armies nieet^ •% What were the resfieclive forces? 6. What was theconfideace of Pompey's party ' What of their ilisprtes? BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. 133 Pompey, who was naturally superstitious, had been greatly encour- aged by favorable signs in the entrails of victims, and resolved to risk a general engagement on the 30th of July, B. C. 48. CHAPTER KCIX Battle of Pharsalia, 1. Cesar's army was divided into three bodies, Domitius Ca vinua commanded the centre, Mark Antony the left, and Caesar the right wing, which last was to be opposed to Pompey, and which consisted of Caesar's favorite tenth legion. 2. The appearance of Pompey's cavalry in one spot indicated to Ca?sar the designs of his antagonist. He therefore drew six cohorts frtim his rear, and concealing them behind his right, he instructed them to wait till the approach of Pompey's cavalry, and then to aim their spears in the faces of the horsemen, who, consisting of the young nobility of Rome, dreaded a scratch in the face more than the severest wound in the body. 3. He then placed his own handful of cavalry on the right of the tenth legion. The signal being given for battle, Caesar's line advanced, while that of Pompey awaited the attack without quitting its position. The assailants, when they saw their enemy motionless, suddenly came to a halt. A short pause ensued ; both sides gazed at each other in a sort of amazement. But this feeling was of short duration. 4. Caesar's troops sprung forward, darted their javelins, and drew their swords. Pompey then ordered his cavalry to charge ; Caesar's men gave way, but the reserve of six cohorts now advanced, and striking at the faces of the enemy, soon produced the effect which had been anticipated. 5. The effeminate young Romans, who valued themselves upon their beauty, were intimidated by the unsightly wounds which they saw inflicted upon their companions, and thought of nothing but saving themselves. They were soon put to the rout, and fled in a most disorderly manner, leaving the archers and slingers to be cut to pieces. 6. The successful cohorts now advanced against the flank and rear of Pompey's line, which made a brave resistance till Caesar's third line attacked them in front, and forced them to fly to their camp. The auxiliaries had fled while Pompey's right wing was fighting with gieat bravery. 7 Ca»sar, perceiving that the issue of the conflict was no longei doubtfu, cried out to his men to pursue the strangers, but to spare XCfX — I. How was Cesar's army commanded? 2. How did he instruct his cohorts? 3,4. How did the battle begin? 5. What was the conduct of Pompey'a young men ? 6. What was the success of the coliorts ? 7. What was the euccets of 12 134 DLATH OF PomFht. TRl IMHH OF CJESAR. 13/5 the Romans. The auxiliary troops were slaughtered in rrreat num- bers, but the Ronnans laid down their arms and received quarter Notwithstanding the overthrow of the army, C«s»ir considered hit victory as mcomplete till he was in possession of Pompey's camp. chapterVcJ Death of Povipey fTTf /? / . r 1. The cohorts and Thracians, who guarded the camp, made an obstmate resistance, but they were driven from the trenches and put to flight. The victory being accomplished, Ca-sar cast a look over the battle-field, and saw it covered with the dead l)odics of his coun- trymen. He felt, or pretended to feel, a deep distress at the sight, and exclaimed in a mournful tone, '* Thnj would have it so!''' 2. Caesar, however, treated the vanquished with great humanity, and the honors which he acquired as a conqueror were soon rendered more glorious by the clemency and moderation which he exhibited in his subsequent conduct. Twenty-four thousand of Pompey's men iaid down their arms and enlisted in Csesar's army. 3. Poinpey lost all presence of mind as soon as he saw his troops give way. He took to flight, and rode with about thirty followers to the gates of Larissa, l)ut would not enter the town, lest the inhabita-iis should incur the anger of Ca^^sar. He then proceeded to the vale of fempe, and at the mouth of the Peneus, got on board a merchant /essel which he found lying there. 4. Thence he sailed to the mouth of the Strvmon, and havin<' jbtained some money from his friends at Amphipolis, proceeded to the island of Lesbos. Here he took on board his wife Cornelia, and nis son Sextus, and collecting a few vessels he sailed to Cilicia! and thence to Cyprus. 5. It is said tliat he consulted with his friends whether he should seek a refuge with the king of Purthia, or king Juba in Africa, or the yo mg king of Egypt, whose father had been restored to the tlirone through his influence some years before. The last was decided on, and Poinpey sailed for Egypt. 6. Arriving at Peiusium, he learnt that the young king was at that place with an army, being engaged in a war with his sister Cleopatra, whom their father had made joint heir of tne throne Poinpey sent to request his protection. The king's ministers either fearing Pompey's designs, or despising his fallen fortunes, resolved on his death. 7. They sent Achillas, a captain of the guard, and Septimms, who had been a Roman centurion, with some others, in a small bo:it, to inv/io him to land. He v^as requested to come into tne boat, as iht ~ ■ JV^V^Vlru'^ behavior Of (.esar on his viciory ? 2. How did ne treat ih« fanj.ii-sl.cl / a What was l\nn\Hiy's behavidr? 4. To what places .iid he Heel To wluch country did he last proceed ? 6. What happei^ed on hU arpval in F^ypii fchorc was toe shallow for a ship to approach it. Hi consented, and embracing ( Sophocles : embracing Cornelia, he entered the boat repeating the lines :rom " He wno unto a prince's house repairs, Becomes his slave though he go thither free !" 8. Thev rowed toward the shore for some time in silence. At lenglh Pompey, turning to Septimius, said, " If I mistake not, you and I have been fellow-soldiers." The latter merely nodded, and Pompey began to read over a speech which he had written in Greek, to pronounce before the king. 9. Tlie boat approached the shore, but as Pompey rose from his seat to land, Septimius stabbed him in the back. Achillas and the others then struck him, and Pompey, seeing death inevitable, drew his mantle over his face, fell, and expired. His head was then cut off, and the body cast upon the beach, where it lay till two of his friends burnt it on a pyre composed of the wreck of a fishing-boat. 10. Such was the end of Pompey the Great, a man of commanding talents, whose private morals were remarkably pure, and whose character was highly amiable. With these virtues, he was vain and amf}iiious, and could not brook a rival. 11. He was a better man than his antagonist, yet Caesar was better fitted for empire, as Pompey had not his rival's energy to restrain the violence of his followers. Cicero feared with good reason that Pom- pey's victory in the great struggle would have been more sanguinary than that of Caesar. CHAPTER<^ Triumph of Ccesar, 1. The news of Pompey's death occasioned a fresh division amonc his friends. Many, who were personally attached to him, and who held out, in hopes of seeing him again at their head, determined to have recourse to the conqueror's clemency. Cornelia returned to Italy, well knowing she had nothing to apprehend from Ca?sar. 2. Cato, with Pompey's two sons, marched to join the king of Numidia. Caesar, immediately after the victory at Pharsnlia, began a close pursuit of Pompey, aod did not hear of his death till his arrival at Alexandria, when messengers from the Egyptian king brought him the head and signet-ring of Pompey. He turned with disgust from these relics, and ordered the head of his unfortunate rival to be interred with due honor. 3. To show his disapprobation of Egyptian treachery, Caesar caused a temple to be erected near Pompey's tomb, dedicated to 7. Wl'(» were employed to murder him) 8, 9. Describe this act. 10, II. What was iha characirr of PomiJey 1 CI.— 1. What wa-i the consequence of Pompey's death? 2. What of C'alo ? Of oa his arrival in Egypt? 3. Of Pompey's tomb? Of c;iei>patia? 4 Of 1 3b TRIUMPH OF CjESAR Nemesis, the avenging power of cruel deeds. His next task was ic arrange the disputed succession of the crown ; but, seduced by the charms of the princess Cleopatra, he showed an undue preference fo? her interests, and thus induced the partisans of the young king Ptolemy to take up arms. Clcopacra receiving Cccsar. 4. As Caesar had brought only a small body of men with hiin \c Alexandria, he was exposed to great danger by this sudden burst ot insurrection. A fierce battle was fought in the city. Caesar set fire to the Egyptian fleet, but unfortunately the flames extended to the celebrated public library, which had been formed by the literary taste and munificence of the Egyptian kings. The greater part of this magnificent collection of the most valuable works of ancient times fell a prey to the flames. 5. After the struggle had been protracted for some time, Caesar received reinforcements from Syria, which enabled him to triumph over his enemies. From Egypt, he marched against Pharnaces, the son of the great Mithridates, and subdued him so easily that he described the campaign in a letter to the senate, comprised in three words, ** Veni^ vidi, vici,^^ " I came, I saw, I conquered." 6. Having thus composed the affairs of the east, he departed foi Rome. He found the affairs of the city in the greatest confusion, caused by the quarrels between Antony and Dolabolla. Caesar with difl>culty reconciled them, and then applied himself to the war in A.fricn anrainst Cato and the sons of Pompey. 7 (Ml his arrival in Africa, Caesar found his enemies much more fiiru'.idable than he had expected. But at length he forced them to a decitieti engagement at Thapsus, where they were defeated with z Vsar's danger at Alexandria ? Of the pii.ilic library ? .5 Of the war with Pharuar e« DICTATORSHIP OF CjESAR. 137 I«w often thousand men. Leaving a strong body to besiege the place, he next advanced to Utica, which was garrisoned by the cele- brated Cato the Younger, whose hostility to Cajsar was inflexible 8. Cato had formed a little senate or council of three hundred of tne Roman traders who resided in the place. When the news of the defeat at Thapsus arrived, he assembled this body and tried to inspire them with courage and resolution ; but finding them disposed to throw themselves on the clemency of Caesar, he gave up all hopes of defend- ing the town. 9. A body of cavalry, fleeing from the defeat of Thapsus, arriving^ at this juncture, Cato went out to attempt to engage them to stay, but during his absence the council met and determined on a surrender. Cato then prepared for suicide. He arranged his accounts, and com mended his children to the care of a friend. 10. In the evening he bathed and supped as usual with his family, discussing philosophical questions. After supper he took a walk, and then retired to his chamber, where he read over Plato's dialogue on the immortality of the soul. After this he lay down and slept soundly for a few hours. Towards morning he rose and stabbed himself with his sword. 11. The sound of his fall being heard, his friends ran into the room, and a surgeon attempted to bind up his wound. But he thrust them from him, tore open his own bowels, and expired. The war in Africa was finished by the death of Cato, and Caesar, having givan orders for the re-building of Carthage, returned to Rome. CHAPTE R;fc!fr\ Dictatorship of Ccesar. 1. On the arrival of Caesar in Rome, honois of every kind were decreed to him by the obsequious senate. They had already ordered a thanksgiving of forty days, for his African victory, granted him the dictatorship for ten years, and decreed that his chariot should be placed on the capitol opposite the image of Jupiter, with the statue of the dictator standing on a brazen globe, bearing the inscription; ^^C(Fsnr the Denii^rod.'''' 2. Having addres.sed the senate and the people, assuring them of his clemency and regard for the republic, he prepared to celebrate nis triumphs for his various conquests. Four of these took place within one month, the first being for Gaul, the second for Egypt, the third for Pontus, and the fourth for Numidia. 3. The first triumph was the most splendid, but as the procession approached the capitol the axle of the tnumphal car broke, and C./tesar was obliged to mount another, which occasioned n.uch delay ft. Of Ciesar's return lo Rome? 7. What success had Caesar in Africa? 8, 9. Wha: oi/ Ijaio at Ulica? 10, II. De.scril>e the death of Cato. QI — 1. What honors d=:' the Remans confer on Caesar? 2, \ 4. How did Cffisai 12* i:ib Dictatorship of c^esar. In the seconr*. triumph were seen pictures of battles^ llic; pharit of Alexandria .n fire, &c. LOSsmc-IMMiTr «• *uUus LoTsar 4. The third displayed a tablet with the words ** Veni, Vim, Vici!" The golden crowns borne in triumph were two thousand tight hundred and twenty-two in number. Csesar feasto'' the people of Rome at twenty-two thousand tables placed in the sifcets, and to a hundred and fifty thousand citizens he gave ten pecks of corn, ten pounds of oil, and four hundred sesterces apiece. As he return<^d home from the banquet, lights were borne on each side of him by forty elephants. 5. After this he entertained the people with all sorts of games sham-fights, chariot and horse-races, huntings of wild beasts, &c His veteran soldiers he rewarded with twenty-four thousand sesterces to each private, forty-eight thousand to each centurion, and ninety-six thousand to each tribune. Besides this pay, they all received dona- tions of land. (». Caesar now turned 1 is thoughts to legislation. He confined the Midiiual power to the senotors s.nd knights ; he sent eighty thousand citizens away as colonists, and ordered that no freeman betweeu -elelr-ile his triumphs? 5. How ilid he erteriain the i)eoi)le and reward the i«oWi«r« 6, 7. ?f hat were hid le^ialalive acts } CONSPIRACY AGALNST CESAR 139 c^i nty and for^ years of age should remain more than three years out K}{ Italy. ' . He granted the freedom of the city to all physicians and pro- fessors of the liberal arts. To perpetuate his power, he reserved to ■ himself the appointment of one half of those who were to be elected to offices in the state ; and at the approach of the elections he always signified to the people what persons he would have cliosen for the remaining places. CHAPTER Clll. / Conspiracy against Ccesar, 1. But all the genius of Caesar, and all the wisdom and :*lemency which marked his exercise of power, could not compensate in the minds of his countrymen for the crime of elevating himself on the ruins of the republic. 2. It was also rumored that he designed to assume the title of king, and although he already possessed the full authority of a mon- arcii, yet the name was insufferably odious to the Romans. Whether he ever designed to invest himself with that empty honor, must for- ever remain a secret. 3. Mark Antony, at the feast of Lupercalia, ventured to perform the ceremony of offering him a crown in the full presence of the Roman people. It is supposed that this was done by Caesar's insti- gation ; but the niurmurs of the multitude compelled him to refuse the emblem of regality. 4. The belief that Caesar was aiming at a throne, however, could not be removed from the minds of great numbers of people, and at length a conspiracy was formed for his destruction. No less than sixty of the senators were implicated in it, and the greater part of tiiem were among Caesar's adheients during the struggle with Pom- pey. 5. At the head of the conspiracy were Brutus and Cassius. The former made it his chief glory to boast of being descended from that Brutus who first gave liberty to Rome. The love of freedom seemed to have been transmitted to him with the blood of his ancestors. But though he detested tyranny, he could not forbear feeling a personal attachment to Caesar, from whom he had received distinguished favors. 6. The conspirators resolved to put their plot in execution in the senate-house, on the ides of March. The augurs had foretold that this day would be fatal to Caesar. His wife, Calphurnia, dreamed, on the r ight previous, that she saw him assassinated. These omens affected him in such a manner that he was inclined to defer going to IV as cm -1. How did the Romans feel respecting Caesar's elevation? 2. What riimoi .as current respecting him? 3. What of Mark Antony at the Lu{)ercalia? 4. What »f lh< conspiracy against Caesar ? 5. Who were at the head of it ? 6. What of the ide* »f March '^ Of omens? 7. What happened as Cajsar was going tc the senate-hoasi? /iO ASSASSINATION OF CiESAR. the senate on that day ; but one of the conspirators, who called upon him in the morning, represented to him the absurdity of his staying at home because his wife had unlucky dreams. 7. Casar ^as therefore persuaded to go, and the conspiracy was very near being detected. As he passed through the streets, a slave, who was in possession of the secret, attempted to come near liim and give informa/ion, but was prevented by the crowd. CHAPTER ^J?!v\ Assassination of CcBsar 1. Artemidorus, a Greek philosopher, who had discovered the whole plot, put a paper into the hand of Caesar, containing an account of it ; but the latter, imagining it to be a common matter of business, gave it, with other papers, to a secretary, without reading it, as was his custom. 2. Having at length entered the senate-house, where the conspira- tors were prepared to receive him, he met one Spurina, an augur, who had foretold his danger. " Well," said Caesar, with a smile' ** the ides of March are come." ** True," replied the augur, " but they are not yet past." 3. As soon as Caesar had taken his place, the conspirators ap- proached under pretence of saluting him. One of them, Cimber, in a suppliant posture, pretended to sue for the pardon of his brother, CIV. — I. What of Artemidorus ? 2. Of Spurina? 3 4. Describe the death e/ Je b, 6. What of his character a4id exploiia 1 MARK ANTONY. 141 who had been banished by the dictator. The others seconded him with great zeal. Cimber, pretending uncommon earnestness, took hold of the bottom of Caesar's robe, which prevented him from ris'ng. 4. This was the signal previously concerted, and all immediately nished upon him. Casca, who was behind, stabbed him first in the shoulder. Caesar turned upon him, and with his stylus, or steel writmg rod, wounded him in the arm. Thrusts were now aimed at the dictator on all sides ; he defended himself with great vigor, rush- ing upon his assailants, and throwing down such as opposed him, tili he saw Brutus among the conspirators. From that moment he made no attempt to save himself, but exclaiming, " And thou too, Brutus ! " he sunk down at the base of Pompey's statue, pierced by twenty- three wounds. 5. Thus perished, in his fifty-sixth year, B. C. 44, Julius Caesar, the greatest man in all Roman history. As a general, a statesman, an orator, and a man of taste, he is equally the object of admiration. He was free from vanity, clement and generous. But he was also insatiably ambitious ; and though not wantonly cruel, as no really great man can be, he could shed torrents of blood to gain a favorite object. 6. Though he enforced the laws when he held the supreme power, he trampled upon them without scruple when they stood in his way. According to the old Valerian law of Rome, Caesar was legally put to death ; yet the consequences of this act were most pemioious to the Roman people. CHAPTER CV. Mark Antony, 1. The conspirators had no sooner accomplished their work, than lirutus, brandishing his bloody dagger, congratulated the senate, and Cicero in particular, on the recovery of Roman liberty. But the senators, seized with fear and astonishment, rushed out of the capitol and hid themselves in their houses. 2. Caesar's friends had now an opportunity for gratifying their •ambition under the pretence of promoting justice. Mark Antony, one of these, distinguished himself above all others. He was a man of moderate abilities, disgraced by habits of vice, and only ambitious of power because it gave a wider range to his immoralities. He was, however, skilled in war, to which he had been trained from his youth. 3. Antony was consul for this year, and in conjunction with Lepi- dus, a person, like himself, fond of commotions and intrigues, he planned a scheme for seizing upon the chief authority. In pursuance of this design, Lepidus took possession of the forum with a chosen band of soldiers. The next step was to obtain possession of Caesar's papers end money. 4. The senate was then convened to pronounce whether Caesar had CV. — 1. Wliat was the behavior of Brutus? Of the senators? 2 Of M. Antony 142 MARK ANTONY. been a leg^l magistrate or a tyrannical usurper. This \va.* an em Imrrajssing question. Many of the senators had received all theii olfices from Cajsar, and had acquired large fortimes by servincr him • to vote him an usurper, therefore, would endanger their property ; yei to vote him innocent might endanger the stite. Mark Antomj 5. In this dilemma they attempted to reconcile the two contradie tory opinions ; they sanctioned all the acts of Ccesar, and yet graniod a pardon to his assassins. This decree was far from satisfying An- tony, as it granted security to a number of men who were the avowed enemies of tyranny, and who, he foresaw, would be active in oppos- ing his schemes of restoring absolute power. 6 Seeing, therefore, that the senate had ratified all Caenar's acts, without distinction, he formed a plan for making him rule after his death. Having obtained possession of the dictator's accouni books and papers, he bribed his secretary to insert in them whit'^ver he thought proper. By this scheme large sums of Caesar's moh**.y \vere distributed in a m inner favorable to Antony's designs. 3 What waa done by Antony and Lepiilns? 4. By the senate? 5. Howdm .h.^>«eafe Antony? 6. How did Aaiony distribute Coescir'a money ? FUNEIAL OF CJESAR. 543 CHAPTER CVI. Funeral of Ccesar, Antony addressing the People on the Death of Ctcsar. 1 Antony obtained a decree for the performance of Caesar's fu- n(;ra) Dbsequies. The body was carried into the forum with the utmost solemnity, and Antony, who had charged himself with these last duties of friendship, began to work upon the passions of the people by artful appeals to their private iD»>erests. 2. He first read to them Caesar's will. In which he made Octavius, his sister's grandson, his heir, permitting him to take the name of (Jaesar, with three fourths of his private fortune. To the people of Rome were left the gardens which he possessed on the other side of the Tiber, and to every citizen three hundred sesterces, or aboa . eleven dollars and a quarter. 3. After reading the will, Antony unfolded Caesar's bioody robe, pierced by the daggers of the conspirators, and pointed out the num- ber of stabs in it. He also displayed a w^axen image, representinn the body of Ca?sar, all covered with wounds. The people, excited by th(;se artful tricks, could no longer restrain their indignation against the conspirators. 4 They stonned the senate-house, tore up the benches to make a funeral pile for Ce?sar's body, and ran with flaming brands to set fiie to the houses of Brutus, Cassius, and tlieir associates. These per sons, howevc, i>ilncr well guarded, repulsed the attacks of the popu hc8 >\ih no great difl^culty ; but perceiving that they were no longe! sai^: m ivomo, th^y withdrew from the city. tVl. — 1. Who undertook the funeral of Caesar ? 2. What of Caesar's will ? 3, 4. How Here tho whole army to give way. 7. Brutus, surrounded by the most valiant of his officers, fought for a lonjT time with amazinjj valor. The son of Cato and the brother of Cassius fell fighting by his side. At last he was obliged to yield to superior numbers, and fled. - 8. The triumvirs, confident of victory, had given orders that Brutus should by no means be sufl^ered to escape ; but Lucilius, his friend, resolved to deliver him from danger at the expense of his own life. Seeing a party of Thracian horse closely pursuing Brutus, he boldly threw himself in their way, telling them he was Brutus. 9. The Thracians immediately took him prisoner, and sent word of their capture to Antony, who immediately hastened to meet bis illustrious prisoner, that he might insult his misfortunes. The ardoi of the pursuit having- been abated by this stratagem, Brutus escaped from his enemies, with a number of his most faithful followers. 10. The night coming on, he sat down under the shelter of a rock. After silting a while to take breath, he repeated a line from Kurip- ides, containing a wish to the gods that guilt should not pass in this life without punishment. To this he added another from the same poet : " O virtue ! I have worshipped thee as a real good ; but thou art an empty name, and the slave of fortune !" 11. He then called to mind with great tenderness tliose whom he had seen perish in battle. He sent out one of his friends to gain information of those who remained ; but this person never returned, being killed by a party of the enemy's horse. 12. Brutus, judging rightly of his fate, now resolved to die like- wise, and entreated those who stood round him to give him their lasf assistance ; but they all refused to render him so melancholy a sci vice. He then withdrew aside with his friend Strato, requesting him to perform the last oflice of friendship. 13. Upon his refusal, he ordered one of his slaves to execute what lie so ardently desired. At this Strato cried out that it should never be said that Brutus, in his last extremity, stood in need of a slave for want of a friend. Turning his head aside with these words he pre- sented the point of his sword. Brutus threw himself upon it, and irmnediatoly expired. Bliice a', the end of twenty days ? 6. What of the second battle? 7, Of the defeat of ruiiw • 8, 9. By what stralasem did B'-utu3 escape ? 10—13. Deacribe the death o* bruiud AMOXV AND CLEOPATRA. |4)h CHAPTER ex. Antony and Cleopatra, !. The last hopes of Roman liberty expired with Brutus The triumvirs made a cruel use of their victory, putting to death their political opponents without mercy. The men of the first rank m Home either fell by the hands of hired assassins, f r killed themselves lo avoid the insults of those who were about to murder them. 2. A senator and his son were ordered to cast lots for their lives but both refused. The father voluntarily gave himself up to the executioner, and the son stabbed himself before his face Another begged the favor of the rites of burial after his death, to which Octa- vius replied thiU he would soon find a grave in the vultures that would devour him. 3 The head of Brutus was sent to Rome, and thrown at the foot of Caesar s statue. His ashes were claimed by his wife, Portia, the daughter of Cato, who, following the example of her fatlier and husband, killed herself by swallowing coals of fire. 4. The power of the triumvirs being now established on the ruins of the commonwealth, they began to think of enjoving the homao-e of the people whom they had subjected. Antony went to Greece to receive the flattery of the refined Athenians. He spent some time at Athens, conversing with the philosophers and attending at their dis- putations. 5. Thence he passed into Asia, where all the monarchs of the east who acknowledged the Roman power came to pay him obei- sance, while the fairest princesses strove to gain his favor by the value of their presents or the allurements of their beauty. 6. In this manner he proceeded from kingdom to kingdom, attended by a succession of sovereigns, exacting contributions, distributing favors, and giving away crowns with capricious insolence. He bestowed the kingdom of Cappadocia upon Sysenes, because he admired the beauty of his mother. He settled Herod in the kinff. domofJudea. 7. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, surpassed all ' '•.^r^ in the arts by which she sought to inveigle Antony. It ha i^'i\^\ thai Serapion, her governor in Cyprus, had furnished assistar. ♦ or.asgius Antony summoned her to answer for his conduct, and aiie r«;jdilv compile.] confiding in her powers of fascination. 8. Antony was at Tarsus, a city of Cilicia, wheii Cleupaira resolved to attend his court in person. She sailed down the river Cydnus to meet him, with the most sumptuous pageantry. Tlie Stem of her galley was covered with gold, its sails were of purple eilk, the oars silver, and the rowers kept time to the sound of flutes and cymbals. ^^rhA^'^'^c^l^ ^^*^e t!:l""i^';« "se their victory 7 3. What of Brutus' head and Mhe. ? Of his wife? 4. What of Antony in Greece? 5, 6. In Asia, . This whimsical sort of religious expiation seems to have had a part at least, of its designed effect. The multitude were amused , he fancy of the Roman youths was strongly roused, and they imitated llie l^truscan actors ; improving on the entertainment by rallvina each other in jocose and extempore dialogue. 7. About the same time, the Fescennine verses, originally em ployed in Etruria at the harvest-home of the peasantry, became applied by the Romans to marriage ceremonies and pubhc diversions 1 here were also songs of triumph in a rude measure, which were sunrr by the soldiers at the ovations of their leaders ; some of these lauda- tory strains were seasoned with coarse jokes and camp jests. ' 8 Afterwards these effusions expanded into ballads, in which the exploits of heroes and the adventures of the Roman armies were related. However numerous these may have been, none of them were preserved after the Romans obtained a knowledge of Greek literature. *^ 9 A sudden improvement in the Latin language, and an equally sudden advancement in taste and literature, was caused by the con- quest of Magna Grecia, and the intercourse opened to the Romans with the Greek colonies of Sicily. By these events they could not fail to catch a portion of Grecian taste and spirit, or at least to admire the beautiful creations of Grecian fancy. Many of the conqueror^ nuriained in the Greek cities, while, on the other Ikuh!, the inhabitanlrs ot these cities, who were most distmguished tor literary attainments axed ilieir residence in. Rome. .onrjucsts? 3 Of their intercourse with the Greeks ? 4. Of the , Jague at Rome^ 5 li.e h'Mtrtones and ihe.r p.)rformances ? 6. What influence did ihey have ? 7 Wha» of t f Fesccnrlue varses, em? 8. Cf Catullus? 11 \ii2 CATO THE ELDER. SALLUST 63 ♦..- 8. Catullus was born B. C. 86. Little is known of h's life, except his inlimucy with Cicero. He wrote odes, songs, satires, elegies and epigrams. In literary merit he is ranked above all the other Latin poets, except Virgil and Horace. His pieces have much refinement of feeling, and grace of expression. The taste of the age, however, *ras growing corrupt, and Catullus was not free from its influence CHAPTER Cato the Elder — Sail us t. Cato. 1. Of the Latin prose-writers of the republican age, one of the L-arliest whose wor'i^s are extant is Cato the Elder, who was born B. C. 235. Like alm(;^t all his fellow-citizens, he was brought up *o the profession of arms. In the short intervals nf peace, he resided during his youth at a small country-house in the Sabine territory. 2. He was remarkable for his industrious habits, his frugality, and nis fondness for ao^riculture. In the morning he went to the villages round about, to plead and defend the causes of those who applied t« nim for assistance. He then returned to his fie ds, where, with a plain cloak over his shoulders in winter, and almost naked m summer, he labored with his servants till they had concluded their task. 3. After this he sat down with them at table, eating the same bread and drinking the same wine. He thus became the best farmer of his age. He was, besides, employed in all the more important civil and military offices of the state. Di^ring the greater part of his life, he showed the strongest dislike to the learning and refinement of the ' J reeks ; yet in his old age he began to study the Greek language. 1. Cato wrote history, orations, works on morals, education, med icine, war, and other topics. All these are lost, except a treatise on farming, and some epistles. The former is a composition destitute of method, yet abounding in curious matter. It gives rules how to buy land, how to cultivate it, how to manage a house, how to make cakes and puddings, fatten hens and geese, cure pains and disorders, &c., &c. 5. History among the Romans was not written merely to gratify curiosity, but also to stimulate by the force of example, and urge on the citizens of the republic to emulation in warlike prowess. Accord- ingly they had their annalists from the earliest period of the consular government. The works of all the early historians, however, have perished. 6. The most ancient whose writings are extant is Sallust. He was born B. C. 85, and engaged in jmlitics at an early period of life. In the civil wars he took the side of Cat^sar against Pompey, and was made governor of Numidia, whr e he enriched himself by plundering the province. 7. When he n^turned to Rome he built a magnificent palace in the suburbs, which was surrounded by delightful pleasure-grounds, long afterwards celebrated as the Gardens of Sallust. This palace became the residence of several of the emperors, and was destroyed by fire when the Goths under Alaric took the city. 8. Sallust wrote a history of Rome, from the death of Sulla to the conspiracy of Catiline, which is lost, with the exception of a few fragments. Two other works of his, however, are still extant, the History of Catiline's Conspiracy and that of the Jugurthine War. Sallust adopted Thucydides as his model. A noble brevity and a vivid manner of representing events are his chief characteristics. 9. The reflections which accompany his narrative are so just and pointed that he has been considered by some as the father of philo sophic history. The characters drawn by him have in all ages been regarded as master-pieces ; he has seized the delicate shades as well as the prominent features, and thrown over them the most lively and appropriate coloring. f'XXir. — 1. Of Cato the Elder ? 2, 3. His life? 4. His work3 lory ? 0. Sallusi ? 7. Hia lile 7 8, 9. His history ? b. 0( Roman hi* i6i CICERO. CHAPTER CXXIIl, Cicero 1. But the most distinguished writer of the republican period was < 'icero, who excelled equally as a statesman, as an orator, and as an elegant philosophical writer. He was bom at Arpinum, in the ?nodern kingdom of Naples, B. C. 100, and received instructions in oratory from Apollonius Molo, of Rhodes. Ke also visited Athens for study. After his return to Rome he was appointed quaestor, and subsequently consul. 2. In the latter office, as we have already seen, he rendered the f-late great service by defeating the conspiracy of Catiline. Yet he was shortly after banished from Rome, through the influence of the profligate tribune Clodius. He voluntarily withdrew from Italy to Greece, and was soon recalled in the most honorable manner. 3. In the civil war he took the side of Pompey against Caesar, bul after the battle of Pharsalia he was reconciled to the conqueror. Mark Antony was his bitter enemy, and during the last triumvirate CjCSAPv. 165 Oicero was proscribed through his influence, and murdered by one of Antony's emissaries, B. C. 43. 4. Cicero was of an amiable disposition, and upright principlew his failings were vanity and infinnity of purpose ; but he must bt pronounced, on the whole, one of the brightest characters of antiquity. ( 'icero was a voluminous writer ; much of vhat he left behind hiin has been lost, yet enough remains to giv us a high opinion of his powers as a writer and a speaker. 5. His works consist of orations, lett s, rhetorical treatises, and philosophical dissertations. Cicero was the greatest of Roman ora tors ; but he also possessed, in a degree superior to all other orators, of whatever age or nation, a general and discursive acquaintance with philosophy and literature, together with an admirable facility in com- municating the results of his labors in a manner the most copious perspicuous and attractive. 6 Cicero was an admirer of Plato, though in questions of morality he adopted the principles of the Stoics. In his philosophical writings he exliibits the opinions of all the various sects. It was his great aim to explain to his fellow-citizens, in their own language, whatever the sagos of Greece had taught on the most important subjects, in order to enlarge their minds and reform their morals. His writings are a most valuable collection, and have proved a mine of information to succeeding ages. 7. Julius Cffisar must be mentioned among the writers of the republican age. His life and character are prominent in the history of Rome, as we have already seen. He wrote his Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil Wars. These writings comprehend but a small extent of time, but they embrace events of the highest importance, and detail the greatest mihlary operr .ions, perhaps, to be found in ancient story. 8. The military genius of Rome breathes through the pages of Caesar, which comprehend all the varieties which warfare offers to our interest and adtuiration, — battles, encampments, retreats, marches through woods and over mountains, passages of rivers, sieges, defences, and those still more interesting accounts of the spirit and discipline of the enemy's troops and the talents of their generals. 9. The style of Cajsar is remarkable for clearness, ease, and a sim- plicity more truly noble than the pomp of words. When he speaks of himself, it is without aflfectation or arrogance. With the exception of the false colors in which he disguises his ambitious projects against the li ^ertics of his country, everything seems to be told with fidelity and candor. Caesar was also the author of other works, now lost. CXXIII. - 1. Of Cicero? 2, 3. His life? 4. Hischaracter? 5. His works? 1 E«* •hilodopb/J 7. C«MV? 8. Hiawcacs? 9. His style? DESCRLPTIOx\ OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. THIRD PERIOD. — The Empifk im CHAPTER CXXIV. I Description of the Roman Empire, 1. At his point of our history, we must pause to take a sun'c;}! \\ the Roman empire, which, under Augustus, had reached the hitjhest pitch of greatness. The very name of Rome calls up in oui nu"nd every image of grandeur, power, and magnificence ; and every association connected with it serves to concentrate around the Eter-. nal C'ity a halo of splendor and glory. 2. The republic produced men who, in moral dignity and force of character, were perhaps never surpassed on earth. They had trans- mitted their names, if not their virtues, to their descendants. Even to the very close of the empire, the men who, sunk in slavery and baseness, still called themselves Roman citizens, seemed to live in the midst of their shades, and to be encompassed by the atmosphere of their glory. The laws had changed their spirit, but the changes had been slow and scarcely perceptible to the people. 3. The manners were no longer the same, but the memory of the ancient virtue of Rome still survived. The literature had been pre- served with the language, and it established a community of opinions, of feelings, and of prejudices, between the Romans of the age of Virgil and those of the time of Claudian. The magistrates and officers of the state had generally preserved their ancient names and insignia, although their power had fled. 4. From the time of Augustus to that of Constantine, the empire of Rome was bounded by nearly the same frontiers. This pernia- nence of the national limits may in part be ascribed to the sagacity with which the Roman leaders, at the period of her highest power, voluntarily stopped short in the career of conquest where they found the best military frontiers. . 5. Great rivers, which afford little obstacle to the armies of civil- ized nations, are generally a formidable barrier to the incursions of barbarians ; and, in fact, great rivers, the ocean, mountain ridges and deserts, formed natural frontiers to this immense empire. 6. According to a vague calculation, it has been found that the Roman territory, in its largest extent, measured eighteen hundred iniles from north to south, and upwards of three thousand from east to west. On the north the empire was bounded by the territories of the Caledonians and Picts, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine. The Caledonian wall, which divided Scotland, left the Romans m possession of the lowlands of that country, and of the whole of Eiij^land. 7. The Rhine and the Danube, which rise nearly at the same point, and flow, one to the east and the other to the west, separated barbaric from civilized Europe. The Rhine formed the frontier of Gaul, which then comprised France, Switzerland, and Belgium. CXXIV —1 What of the Roman empire? 2. What of the men of the repi'^'J'c i ;i Of manners and literature ? 4, 5. What were the boundaries of the empire 1 6 Whai 16S DESCKIPTION OF THE ROMAN EMPIllK 8. The Danube flowed throiiofh countries, some of vvliich aie now regarded as Germanic and otliers as Slavonic. On its souinern bank the Romans possessed Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, and Miesia, which coiijcicje nearly with Suabia, Bavaria, part of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia. 9. The narrow space between the sources of the Danube and the Rhine was defended by a line of fortifications. The Black or Eux- ine Sea formed the northern boundary of Asia Minor. Several Greek colonies in the north and east of this region existed in a pre- carious sort of dependence upon Rome. * 10. On the east, the empire was bounded by the mountains of Ar- menia, a part of the Euphrates, and the Arabian desert. One of the loftiest mountain ranges of the globe, the Caucasus, extending from the Euxine to the Caspian, touching Thibet at one extremity, and the central ridges of Asia Minor at the other, divided the Scythians of Upper Asia from the Persians and Romans. 11. The wildest part of these mountains belonged to the Iberians, who maintained their independence. The more cultivated regions were inhabited by the Armenians, who submitted alternately to the yoke of the Romans, the Parthians, and the Persians. CHAPTER TcXXy^ Description of the Empire^ continued. 1. Along the whole of the eastern boundary, down to the sandy deserts between the Euphrates and Syria, the frontiers of the empire had not been traced by the hand of nature. We shall accordinirly see the two great monarchies of the Romans and Parthians, or tiieii successors, alternately wresting from each other the provinces of Armenia or Mesopotamia. 2. The deserts of Arabia formed the frontier of Syria for an ex- tent of six hundred miles. On the south, the African deserts of Libya and Sahara, and on the west, the Atlantic Ocean, were at once the limits of the empire and of what was then regarded as the habitable globe. The Roman empire thus included the fairest por- tions of the known world, surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. 3. The most westerly province was Spain, whose boundary, being fixed by nature, was unvaried during the Roman dominion. This was the first country out of Italy that submitted to the Roman arms, but i s final conquest baffled the eflTorts of the ablest commanders lor almcst half a century. 4. Spain was famous for its silver, whicb was so abundant thai the most common utensils were made of it. While the Romans held the country, they employed forty thousand men in the mines was the extent of the empire ? 7, 8. What of the Rhine and Danube? 9. Of the Eux iiie '' 10 Of the eastern boundaries? 11. Of the nHjrian? and Arineniansi? CXXV. — 1. What of Rome and Parihia? 2. Of the Arabiai. and African deserla'^ DESCRIPTION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 169 Many fine cities were erected here by them. At Segovia a magnifi- cent aqueduct still remains, and is one of the best preserved of their siructures now extant 5. Gaul wos divided into three great sections. Belgia, Aquitania, and Gallia Propria, which differed considerably in language, man- ners, and customs. The superior valor of the Gallic tribes re'ndcret them formidable to all the southern nations. It was commonly said that the Romans fought with others for conquest, but with the Gauls (*^c actual existence. 6 But from the time of the subjugation of their ccnmtry by Julius- CjEsar, the courage of the Gauls seemed to disappear with their lib- erty. They never revolted except when the extortions of their ruler? became insupportable, and their eflbrts were neither vigorous nor well-directed. 7. In iio j>rovincc did Roman civilization produce greater effects than in Gaul. Many public works, of stupendous size and great utility, were constructed here. Roads were opened and paved with stone, durabld b.idges were erected, and aqueducts formed to supply tho cities with water. Remains of these mighty works are still to be found, and they cannot be viewed without wonder and admiration. 8. Though Britain was not reduced to the fonri of a Roman province till long after the time of Julius Casar, yet as that conquer- or brought it nominally under subjection, it may enter into a general description of the Roman empire. The southern part of the island was originally colonized from Gaul. The tribes that inhabited the east and north are thought to have been of German descent. 9. That part of Britain which now constitutes England was anciently divided amon^. seventeen tribes. When this island waa first visited by the Romans, the inhabitants had made considerable advances in civilization. The country was well peojjled, and stocked with cattle. The Britons painted and tattooed their skins in the manner of the South Sea islanders of the present day. 10. In war they made use of chariots with sharp blades fixed to the axle-trees, which they drove at full speed against the hostile ranks. Little is known respecting their religion, except that they were under tlie influence of priests, called Druids, and that they offered human sacrifices to the gods. This religion also prevailed among the uncivilized tribes of Gaul. U. Germany was a name loosely given by the Romans to all the countries north of the Rhine and Danube. The Germans prided themselves on their military virtues, and successfully resisted the at- tacks of the Romans. Their religion seems to have resembled that of the Gauls, except that it was rather more sanguinary, and greater regard was paid to oracles and old soothsayers. 12. The j)rovinces of Asia Minor were in general the most tran- quil portions of the empire ; and the most prosperous and happy period in the history of this country was that during w hich it re aiaincd subject to Rome. Several of the stales in this quarter were 3. Of Spoil? 4. Of its mines? 5. Of Gaul ? 6. Ita suhjiiiraiiiin ? 7. Of -ivilizaiior 1.1 (.i.iul / N Of Britain? 9.10. lis inhabitants? 1) Of Germany 7 12. Of As'i Minor? <3 Of trade and commerce under the Romans ' J5 170 INHABITANTS OF THE EMPIRE. at first permitted to retain a qualified independence, but before Ine 3lose of the first century of the Christian era, they were ail absoibed into the empire. 13. Tlie Romans succeeded in Asia to the g^reat commercial marta of the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Egyptians, and acquired in Africa the ancient trading stations of the Carthaginians. Yet they made jttle or no effort to encourage traffic, and opened no new routes for tride. CHAPTER CXXVI. Inhabitants of the Empire, 1. Throughout this huge assemblage of races and communities, national recollections and national feelings were obliterated and sunk in imperial Rome. They were feebly replaced by two distinctions between the inhabitants of the empire, that of language and that of rank. *2. The Latin language was spoken in Italy, Gaul, Africa, part of Illyria, and on the banks of the Danube. Greek was the language o^ almost all the east. The great mass, however, of the rural pop- ulation had preserved their provincial languages. Celtic was spoken in Britain and the north of Gaul, Illyrian on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Syrian, Coptic, Armenian, &c., in other parts of the empire. 3. Where the people were the most enslaved they made the great- est efforts to learn the language of their masters. Tiie latter, on the other hand, were compelled to make the advances where the con- quered people were the most numerous and strong. Throughout the empire, however, there was a continual shifting of the population. occasiCmid by the immense traffic in slaves, the military service, and the exercise of civil functions. Hence, every province presented iu its lower classes a strange mixture of dialects. 4. Six classes of inhabitants distinguished the period of the em- pire. 1. The senatorial families, proprietors of immense territories and enormous wealth. 2. The inhabitants of large towns, a mixture of artisans and freed slaves, who lived on the luxury of the rich, and shared in their corruption. 3. The inhabitants of small towns, poor, despised and oppressed. 4. Husbandmen. 5. Slaves. 6. Banditti, who, to escape from oppression, took to the woods and mountains, and lived by robbery. 5. The peasantry were rigorously deprived of arms, and were in- •••apacitated from contributing to the defence of the country. The free cultivators possessed little of personal liberty, except tiie name. They labored upon the soil for certain fixed wages, generally paid in produce • but they were separated from their masters, the landholders CXXVI. — 1. What of national character among the 8ubje< ».aof the Koman empire 'i. 0< languages? 3. Of ilie mixtures of population? 4. Into how many classes wer» the people divided ? 5. What was the state of the peasantry 7 6. Of the slaves 7 niE CITY OF ROME UNi.ER AUGUSTUS. n\ bv an impassable distance. They were immediately dependent on some lavorite slave oi freedman, and were subjected to every degrefl of oppression. , Boman Country People. 6. The slaves lived in huts, under the eyes of their oversecTS, like the negroes on an American plantation. These wretched beings were v/orked almost constantly with chains on their feet, and were shut up nightly in subterraneous holes. The frightful sutTerings of 80 large a part of the population, and their bitter hatred against their oppressors, produced the natural consequences in the course of time, — servile insurrections, plots, assassinations, and poisonings. CHAPTER ^X XVnTlf y y. The Citij of Rome under Augi/stus. cx- 1. The city of Rome, during the prosperous days of the cinnire. was unrivalled for magnificence, wealth, and luxury. It was en- riched by its victorious generals with the spoils of a hundred nations, and the treasures of the most potent monarchs were poured into ils» ijofTcrs 2 It contained four hundred and twenty temples, beside theatres, amphitheatres, circuses, and public baths of vast extent, the ruins of which at the> present day strike every beholder with amazement. Some of the baths were constructed of marble, and were sufficiently large to accommodate three thousand bathers at once. CXXVII. — 1. What was the state of the '' y of Rrme in the prosperous tlav3 or the 17L> THE CITY OF ROME UNDER AUGUSTtJ> 3. Aqueducts of enormous size conveyed a copioiij supply of water from the neifrhborinpf country into Rome, and kept in play a prodigious number of fountains, many of which were remarkable for their archi*.ectural beauty. The palaces, triumphal arches, columns, porticos, and obelisks, were almost without number, and were for the most part elegant specimens of art. 4. The architectural splendor of the city properly dates from the reign of Augustus, who boasted that he *' found it of brick, and left it marble." Among the chief ornamental structures was the Capitc • This was built on the Capitoline Hill, the highest part of the cit\ and was ascended from the forum by a flight of one hundred steps The gates were of brass, overlaid with gold, and the whole building was so plentifully adorned in this manner that it acquired the name of the " Golden Capitol." Roman Forum and CapiloL 5 Tne Senate House was the grand legislative hall of the nation It was decorated with the statues of eminent warriors and statesmen. The Pantheon, or temple of all the gods, built in the reign of Augus- tus, is now a Christian church, and is the best preserved ancient building in Rome. It is universally admired for its fine dome and portico The Circus Maximus, and the Coliseum, or Flavian Am- phith^dtre, were enormous structures, destined to the combats of gladiators, and other shows. 6. In the forum was the celebrated temple of Janus, built entirelv of bronze. On the Capitoline Hill stood the temple of Jupiter Capi- tolinus, which was regarded as the national sanctuary of the Romans. It was constantly enriched by the oflbrings of successful generals an:) enipire? 2. Of its public buildings? 3. Aqueducts? 4. The Capiiol ? 5 Hdiuse. Panlhenn. Circus } axinius, and Coliseum ? 6 Temples ? The feenj«4 K03IE UNDER AUGUSTUS. 173 lureign princes, who were eager to conciliate the Romans, Everv year a nail was driven into this te.tiple by the chief magistrate. This curious custom is supposed to have been the first rude method of marking the lapse of time. CHAPTER |€XXYm3 Rome under Augustus, 1. In the valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills was the forum, or place of public assembly, and great market. It was sur- rounded with halls for the administration of justice, called basiiic/p, temples, and public ofllces. It was also adorned with statues of eminent Romans, and various trophies from conquered nations. 2. Among these memorials of conquest were several rostra^ or prows of ships, taken from the Carthaginians at Antium. These were used to ornament the pulpits from which the magistrates and public officers harangued the general assemblies of the people. Thus originated the phrase, ** to mount the rostrum." 3. The porticos or piazzas were very numerous at Rome ; tln^se were covered colonnades, adorned with statues, and were designed as places for the citizens to meet for business or walk for pleasure. They were sometimes separate structures, and sometimes connected with other large buildings. The most splendid was that of the tem- ple of Apollo, on tiie Palatine Hill. The largest bore the name of Milliaria^ from its thousand columns. 4. The city was adorned with triumphal arches, having statues and various sculptured ornaments. Some of these were very magnifi- cent. They were built of the finest marble, of a square figure, with a large arched passage in the middle, and a small one at the sides. 5. Tliere were large open spaces in the city, designed for assem- blies of the people, and for martial exercises. The Campus Martins was the most famous. It was near the Tiber, and was originally the property of Tarquin the Proud, but was confiscated after his expul- sion. In the most flourishing age of the city, it was surrounded by magnificent structures, with porticos, and was also adorned with statues and arches. 6. Thirty-one great roads centred in Rome. These, issuing from tbe forum, traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and terminated on the frontiers of the empire. Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the middle of the forum, called the Milliarinm aureirm, from which the distances on the various roads were reckoned. This curious monu- ment was discovered so late as 1823. There were thirty gates to the 3ity, and eight bridges crossed the Tiber. IJXXVIII. — I , Of the forum ? 5. Squared; 6. Roads? 15* 2, Rostra? 3. Porticos, &c. 7 4. Triuirphal arthssi 174 REIGN OF AUGUSTflS. CHAPTER';^ XXIX ^\ Reign of Augustus. Augustus. 1. Although the Roman empire was now a monarchy, yet the old forms of the repubhc were faithfully preserved. The consu'ij! were elected every year, in the usual manner, and the senate discussed matters of state as if the legislative authority continued in their body. 2. The name of kinpr was still odious to Roman ears, and their monarch contented himself with the title of Iitipcrator, which had been borne by the commanders of armies in the best (iays of the republic. To such an extent are mankind influenced by names ! 3. With the assumption of supreme power. Aufjustus took upon himself an entirely new character. He became distinfjuished for his clemoncy and moderation, and soutrht, by a beneficent and paternal ad- ministration, to obliterate the remembrance of his former cruelties. Thus, by a cool and calculatino^ policy, he was transformed into a mild and merciful ruler, truly anxious to insure the happiness of the peo- pk intrusted to his charge. nXXlX.— What was the government of Rome iimler Auguatual 2. Whai I'lk REIGN OF AUGUSTUS. 175 4 Some wi.ters state that Augustus at first wit. ed to resipn hit poMcr, after the example of Sulla, but was dissuaded by his friends, Agrippa and Mecaenas, who represented • to him, with great truth, that the Roman state could no longer be governed by its old con stitution. and that he would retire only to make room for another master. 5. Augustus, however, went through the form of an abdication in ihe senate, but on the urgent request of that body, he resumed his luthority. Still further to exhibit his moderation, he consented only to hold the sovereign power for ten years ; an example which was followed by succeeding emperors. This gave rise to the Sacra dc- ccnnalia^ or the festival celebrated at each renew?l of the imperial authority. G. Amid all the adulations of the senate and people, Augustus dm not forget that he owed his elevation to the army , he therefore ex ertcd himself diligently to attach the soldiers to his interest. He dispersed his veterans over Italy in thirty-two colonies, dispossessing, in many places, the ancient inhabitants, to make room for these settlers. 7. He maintained seventeen legions in Europe, namely, eight on the Rhine, four on the Danube, three in Spain, and two in Dalnia- tia. Eight more were kept in Asia and Africa ; so that the standing aimy of the empire exceeded one hundred and seventy thousand men. 8. A body of these, bearing the title of the Praetorian Guard, and comprising nine thousand men, were stationed in Rome, to protect the rmperor's person. A thousand more performed the duties of a city .guard in the capital. 6. Two powerful fleets were established in the Italian seas, one at Ravenna, to guard the Adriatic, and the other at Misenum, near Naples, to protect the western part of the Mediterranean. 10. It is calculated that the revenues of the empire under Augus- tus amounted to two hundred million dollars ; but this enormous sum was not more than sufl^cient to defray the expenses of the civil, mili- tary, and naval establishments, nnd of the public works undertaken to adorn the metropolis. CHAPTER CXXX. Reigu of Augustus. 1. After the death of Lcpidus, Augustus assumed the dignity of Chief Pontiff; so that, like the ancient kings, he was at the head of the state religion, which gave him still more power than he previ- ously possessed as a sovereign. 2. It has already been stated, that the title of emperor, as con- ferred on Julius Caesar, was a military one, and only had reference tn did he Dear? 3. What of the character of Augustus? 4, 5, Of his resignathnl 5. How did he dispose of the army? 8. The PrBelTJan Guard? 9. The fleets? \d Whnt was the reyenuo of the empire ? i76 REIGN OF AUGUSTUS. his command over the armies ; but with regard to his succtssors, it implied also the sovereignty of the state ; and in this sense it has come down to our times. * 3. As long, however, as the empire lasted, it was usual to style the sovereign of Rome, Emperor, when speakinnfof him in his mili- /ary capacity, and to call him Caesar, when referring to his civil authority. Formerly, any general, invested with the title of Impe- rator, was distinguished by a purple robe ; but from this time thn purple was one of the ensigns of imperial dignity. 4. Augustus exercised his supreme authority by ejecting from the senate a number of ignorant and unfit persons, so that he reduced :he number to six hundred. He recalled many who had been ban 'slied for political offences, and restored their estates. 5. He also established a vigilant police, by which Italy was freeo from the molestation of the banditti that, during the civil wars, had infested not oidy the country and provincial towns, but even Rome itself; and he repaired the great roads of Italy, which had been suffered to get into a bad condition. 6. The public roads were among the most valuable, as well as the most dura[)le, monuments of the power and greatness of the Roman nation. Some of these roads extended from the centre of Rome, to ihe most remote provinces of the empire. The portions of road with- in the city were paved with stones, such as is chietly used for the foot-pavement in London. The roads through the open country were at first overlaid with gravel, but afterwards paved on a bed of com- position, as may be yet observed in the remnants of Roman roads in Britain. 7. At an early period the censors had the care of the public roads ; but Augustus C«sar appointed sur\'ey'i>-s of the roads, (Curatores Viarum ;) and these officers had ihe power of enforcing the perform- ance of statute labor, to keep them in repair, exemption from which might be purchased with money. The construction of new road? (when not owing to the munificence of public-spirited persons) was paid for out of the revenues of the government. They were made by the military, who used to labor four hours daily, at some useful public work, in the open air, to often keep up their health and strength, and fit them for military duties. 8. But the greatest works performed in the time of Augustus were those by which Rome was converted from a very plain city into the most magnificent capital in the world. It was a favorite saying with the emperor, that he had found it a city of brick, but would leave it a city of marble ; and this he truly did ; for the splendid edifices that he raised were constructed chiefly of the latter material. 9. The pe< [)le were not taxed or oppressed in any way for these improvemer)i.s, which were made at the expense of Augustus him- self, and the wealthy nobles, who were stimulated by his example. Amt» ig these was his son-in-law, Agrippa, one of t'-e greatest men of the age, who held a distinguished rank in the d.pire, being next CXXX. -- 1. What religious office did Aiigusliis tssiime ? 2, 3. What of the title of tmpert»r? 4. How did Aiististus reform the senaw ' 5. Tlie police? 6,7. The publi; •uada / 3. The improvement of the city ? 9. Th« taxation 7 Agrippa? HOME UNDER AUGUSTUS 177 U) .he emperor in authority and dignity. He was a great soldier and engint Ilk: AlHuriianiaa lables? ROME UNDER AJGUSTUS 179 a people who came to their eastern dominions from some unknown rountry beyond , but whether they were Tartars, Chinese, or Indians, iS uncertain. 2. The Romans were totally unacquainted with the nature of silk They did not know how or where it was produced ; but they were willino" to o-ive any price for it because it was rare and beautiful. At Rome^it was sold for its weight in gold, so that only a few ladies of the highest rank could obtain it. Besides, it was so scarce, that thej used to make their slaves unweave the thick eastern silks, to manu- facture slighter ones, so that they might have two or three yards foi one. 3. It was worn only by females at this period : but in the course of time, the fine gentlemen of Rome used silk in their attire, either in the form of a toga, a scari', or a loose kind of robe ; for it was about this time that the toga began to be left off, except by clients when they waited on their patrons. But silk continued to be so expensive, that sumptuary laws were frequently made to restrict its use, and it was generally interwoven with cotton or wool ; so that it is men- tioned as an instance of the extravagance of the Emperor ElagahuluSj that he had a robe of pure silk. *£^v iSPy, Koman Family at Dinner. 4. But the luxury of the Romans was chiefly displayed in cook- cry. Their tables were sui)plied with the most costly viands and choicest wines, in such profusion, that the supper of a Roman citi- zen, when he entertained his friends, might have served for a royal banquet. 5. The dishes were often of embossed silver, so large that a boai CXXXIl. — 1, 2. What of silk at Rome? 3. How was it worn? 4 T). Of Roma' . This defeat, and the loss of so many of his best soldiers, was a sad blow to the emperor, especially as it was no easy matter, at this period, to raise new legions, as the people in general were unwilling to ser^'e in the armies ; so that it had become necessary to emancipate numbers of slaves, and make soldiers of them. 7. One reason of this was, that the frontiers of the empire were guarded by garrisons, stationed in fortified camps ; and the soldiers of these garrisons were obliged to remain there until they were old men, so that they were completely exiled from their country ; a sys- tem that sometimes led to rebellion among them. 8. The reign of Augustus Caesar is cor^sidered the great era of learning and the fine arts, among the ancient Romans ; so that it ia called the Augustan age. Everyman of rank had a library; and among the many great literary men of the time, were Horace, Virgil, Ovid, and Livy, the historian. They were patronized by Augustus ; and Virgil was so great a favorite that he died immensely rich. Virgil reading his Poems to Augustus. 9. The Romans were not originally accustomed to treat their empe- rors with much outward ceremony, as is proved by many anecdotes that are related of Augustus ( 'aRsar, of which the following may serve as an example. Among the ofl[icial duties of the sovereign, was that of calling the citizens to account for any impropriety in theii CXXXIII. — 1. What waer«»r.^' 10 Whdl anecdote is relited of Augustus ? 16 im KEIGN OF AUGUSTUS. conduct, as Jic censors were authc-ized to do in former time^, anc altiiough it appears absurd, in suci times as tliose of Augustus, to Itring any man before a tribunal on a charge of waste or extravagance, yet it was sometimes done, nevertheless , and as the emperor waa censor, he could not pass by an accusation of the kind unnoticed. 10. One day, a certain knight was summoned before him to answrr to a charge of having squandered his patrimony ; but wiien his de fence came to be heard, it appeared that he had improved his fortune, instead of havinn^ wasted it ; on which the emperor told him he was acquitted. "Another time, Caesar," said the knight, *' before you listen to a charge against an honest man, take care that your informer is honest." CHAPTER CXXXIV. Reign of Augustus. 1. Some disturbances in Spain and Gaul induced the emperor to cross the Alps and Pyrenees. He subdued the Cantabrians, who inhabited the province now called Biscay, and the Asturians. To restrain these tribes in future, he built several cities, and providfMl them with strong fortifications. \Vi;ile reposing himself in Si)ain from the fatigues of his campaign, Augustus received ambassadors from the Scythians, the Sarmatians, the people of India, and even from the Seres, who are supposed to be the Chinese. * 2. On his recovery from a fit of illness, which spread universal alarm throughout the empire, the senate conferred the tribuneship for life upon Augustus, which rendered his person sacro sand. This dignity was henceforth annexed to the imperial office, and consequent- ly all attempts against the life of the sovereign became high treason. 3. Upon entering his tenth con.*ulship, the senate, by oath, ap- proved of all the acts of Augustuu, and set him wholly above thi power of the laws. They sometime af«eT offered to swear not only to all the laws which he had made, but to all such as he should make in future. 4. Notwithstanding this concentration of authority in his person Augustus admitted every one to familiarity with him, and distin- guished himself by his alTability and condescension Though by his sole word he could condemn or acquit whomever he pleased, yet ho gave the laws their proper course, and even pleaded in person for individuals whom he desired to protect. 5. Wlien one of his veteran soldiers entreated his assistance, Au- gustus bade him apply to an advocate. " Ah!" replied the sddier *' it was not by proxy that I served you at the battle of Actium. This answer so pleased the emperor, that he pleaded the soldier*! cause, and gained it for him. CXXXIV. — 1. What of the expe.liiions of Augustus? 2. What of his recovery f-ou. sickiie.^s? 3. Of his tenth consulship? 4. Of his familiar manners? S. G, 7 WW Biiecdoies arc related of him *< '• DEATH OF AUGUSTUS. lai t . One day a petitioner approached him in so awe-struck a manner is to excite his displeasure. " Friend," said he, *' remember that 1 tm a man, and not an elephant. Be bolder." 7. Once, as Augustus was sitting in judgment, Mecaenas, perceiv- ing that he was inclined to be severe, and not being able to approach him for the crowd, threw a paper into his bosom, on which was written, " Arise, butcher !" Augustus read it without testifying any displeasure, and immediately rising from the judgment-scat, pardoned the culprits whom he was about to condemn. CHAPTER CXXXV. Death of Augustus. 1 In the midst of his unexampled power and good fortune, how- ever, Augustus was assailed by domestic troubles. He had married Livia, the wife of Tiberius Nero. She was an imperious woman, and, conscious of the strong attachment of her husband, controlled bim at her pleasure. She had two sons, Tiberius and Drusus. The former was of a temper so turbulent and obstinate, that Augustus t>xiled him for five years to Rhodes. 2. A still greater afl[liction was experienced by Augustus from the conduct of his daughter Julia, whose behavior was so abandoned lliat he determined at first to put her to death, but was finally induced to spare her life, and banished her to an island on the coast. ^ 3. In the seventy-fourth year of his age, Augustus began to think of withdrawing from the fatigues of government, and of making Tiberius his partner in the empire. He accordingly invested him with nearly the same authority as he had exercised himself. He next made his will, and intrusted it to the care of the Vestal Virgins. He then ordered the census of the people to be taken, which showed the population of the city to be four millions one hundred and thirty- seve.n thousand. 4. Shortly after, having accompanied Tiberius in his march into Illyria, he was taken ill at Naples. Hastening toward Rome, the disorder assumed a fatal character at Nola, in Campania, and he was unable to proceed any further. 5. A few hours before his death, he ordered a mirror to be brought to him, and his hair to be combed and arranged with unusual care. He then addressed his friends who stood around him, and asken wh«^'ther he had well played his part in life. All replied in the aflirmative. '* Then," said he, "give me your applause;" with these words ne expired, A. D. 14. 6. The death of Augustus caused unfeigned and general grief throughout the empire. Some believed that he had been poisoned CXXXV. — 1,2 What were the domestic troubles of Augustus ? 3. How did he pre pare wr the cJjse of his reii.'n ? What was the {wpuia.ion of the city ? 4, 5. I)esrri!)e his d>alh C What o| I.iviH 7 7. What ijonord were paid to the memory of AugUfMua" 84 ACCESSION OF TIB Kill US. by Livia to procure the suc^ssion more speedily for Tibeiihs. She took care to keep his death c icealed for a time, till nieasure*^ were proposed for the transmissior of the imperial power, and wten every- thing was ready she caused t le decease of Augustus to be f uhlished, witir the announcement that he had adopted Tiberius as his suc- cessor. 7. The honors paid to the memory of Augustus seemed to have no bounds. Temples were erected to his name : divine worship m at olfered to him ; and a senator named Numerius Atticus managed tc turn the extravajrant adulation of the people to his own benefit, by swearing that he saw Augustus ascend to heaven, for which he received a large sum of money. After this, no doubt was e\press*'c' of the divinity of the deceased emperor. CHAPTER J_CXXXyi Accession of Tiberius. ^ tOSMNO-tMHTI St I. Tiberius was hailed with extravagant j: v by the senatdis and t marine of Rome on his accession to the einpii-. , He had li\ed in a ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS. 1S5 •lute of profound dissimulation under Augustus, and although fift> six years of age, was not yet hardy enough to show himself in his real character. He met the adulation of the Roman nobility with a duplicity equal to their own, affecting to decline the sovereign power 2. But after long debates, he suffered himself to be persuaded tc accept it. In the beginning of his reign nothing appeared but gen erosity, clemency and prudence. Having bound himself by oath never to depart from the policy of his predecessor, he strove to win the affections or disarm the suspicions of the virtuous Germanicus, wnom Augustus had compelled him to declare his heir. 3. But the jealousies of Tiberius were greatly aggravated by 3 mutiny of the German legions, who offered to raise Germanicus to the throne; and though the latter firmly refused, and rebuked their disloyalty, yet Tiberius was thenceforth resolved upon his destruc- tion. The glory which the young prince acipiired in several success ful campaigns against the Germans, at length induced the emperor to recall him to Rome, under the pretence of rewarding him with a triumph. ♦ 4. But he soon became anxious to remove from the city a person whose mildness and virtue were so strongly contrasted with his own tyranny and debauchery. He appointed him governor of the eastern provinces, but at the same time he sent Piso, with his infamous wife, Plancina, into Syria, giving them secret instructions to take him off by poison. 5. This atrocious deed was accomplished, but such was the grief at Rome for the death of Germanicus, and so strong were the suspi- cions which fell upon Piso, that he was arraigned for the murder, and escaped the vengeance of the law only by laying violent hands upon himself. 6. Tiberius now gave way to the native cruelty of his disposition, and many of the most eminent nobles were put to death for high treason. His depravity was equalled by that of his prime minister Sejanus, whose name has passed into a proverb. This ambitious /avorite secretly aspired to the throne, and applied himself to win the tavor of the Praetorian Guards. He was also accused of having pro- cured the death of Drusus, the emperor's son. 7. But his most successful project was the removal of Tiberius from Rome. By his artful temptations he induced the emperor to withdraw from the cares of government into the beautiful island of CapreaR, near Naples. Here he abandoned himself to all sorts of lux- ury and vice. CXXXVL— 1. What of Iho accession of Tiberius 1 1 Wliai of Gerinmicus? 4. .'5. Of his assassiiiaiion? ^'hvra did Tiberius retire from Rome? 16* •low did he begin his reign 1 »f Tilierius and Sejanus ? 7 18G CRIMES OF SEJANUS. CHAPTER CXXXVII. Crimes of Sejantis. 1. Sejanus, having the entire administration of the emi: lo in Ins hands, employed hosts of spies and informers, for the pupcse of ridding himself of all obstacles. He put to c^ath numbers oi the most eminent Romans, after making them undergo the useless mockery of a trial. 2. In this manner he proceeded, removing all who appeared to stand between him and the empire, every day increasing his confi- dence with Tiberius and his power with the senate. The number of his statues set up in Rome excreded even those of the emperor. People swore by his fortune in the same manner as they would have done had he been upon the throne, and he was more dreaded than the tyrant who actually wore the purple. 3. But the rapidity of his rise seemed only preparatory to the greatness of his downfall. Tiberius received secret warnings of the dangerous projects of Sejanus. He immediately despatched a mes- senger to Rome with a letter to the senate, instructing him to inform Sejanus that it contained an earnest recommendation to have him invested with the tribunitian power. 4. The minister, deceived by this hope, hastily convened the senate, and on presenting himself to that body, was surrounded by a horde of flatterers, congratulating him on his new dignity. But when the fatal epistle was read, in which he was accused of treason, and orders were given for his arrest, he was immediately abandoned. 5. Those who had been most servile in their flatteries now became loudest in their invectives and execrations. A hurried decree was passed, condemning Sejanus to death. Tiiis was put in execution the same day, and a general slaughter of his friends and relations fol- lowed. His innocent children, though of very tender years, were put to death with circumstances of great barbarity, and the numerous statues which had been erected to his honor were broken to pieces by the fickle multitude. 6. The death of Sejanus only inflamed the emperor's rage for fur- ther executions, and he gave orders that whoever was accused should be put to death without trial. The whole city was filled with slaughter and mourning. One Carnulius killed himself to avoid the torture which had been designed for him. ** Ah !" cried Tiberius, *' how has that man been able to escape me? " 7. When a prisoner earnestly entreated that he might be executed speedily, " Know," said the tyrant, *' that I am not sufl^ciently your friend to shorten your torments." In this manner Tiberius lived, odious to the world and a burthen to himself. At length, in th<5 CXXXVII. — 1, 2. How did Se;ani i use his power? 3, 4. What of his downfall? B. What waa the fate of Sejanus and : k family * 6, 7, What is related of the cn/eltiM REIGN i>F CALIGULA. 18? .wenty-second year of his reign, he began to feel the approaches ol old age, and his appetite forsook him. 8. Tiberius, finding it was time to think of a successor, fixed upon Caligula, the only surviving son of his nephew and victim, Germani- pus. It is said that he made choice of this prince, whose depravity was not?jrious, that his own enormities mi^^ht be thrown into the shade by those of his successor. 9. Still, however, he cherished hopes of life, and strove by fre- quent change of place to drive away disquieting reflections. At last he fixed his residence at Misenum, where he fell into fainting-fits, which all believed to be mortal. 10. Caligula, supposing him dead, caused himself to be proclaimed by the prajtorian bands, and went forth from the emperor's aparlmeni amid the applauses of the multitude. On a sudden he was informed that the emperor had revived. 11. This unexpected news filled the whole court with alarm and apprehension. Every one who had before testified his joy now reassumed his pretended sorrow, and forsook the new emperor through a feigned solicitude for the fate of the old. Caligula deemed thunderstruck, and sat in a gloomy silei.ce, expecting immediate death instead of the throne to which he had aspired. 12. Macro, the commander of the guards, averted this danger by smothering the emperor with bed-clothes, under pretence of keepino him warm. Thus died Tiberius, A. D. 37, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, having reigned twenty-two years. In his reign the forms of the constitution were retained, but its spirit and substance were completely altered. The government became a (complete despo- tism, and the only use of the senate was to register the edicts of the sovereign. CHAPTER CXXXVm. Reign of Caligula 1. The accession of Caligula was hailed with the utmost enthu- siasm, both by the senate and by the people, on account of the great merit of his father Germanicus. He begau his reign by liberating all the state prisoners, and dismissing the whole horde of spies and infonners whom Tiberius had encouraged. 2. By these and other similar acts of generosity, he became so popular, that when he was attacked by sickness, the whole empire was filled with sorrow, and sacrifices were oflTered in every temple for his recovery. This sickness i)erhaps disordered his brain, for the savage conduct which he exhibited afterward was only worthy of a madman. 3. He ordered all the prisoners in Rome to be thrown to wild of Tiberius ? 8. Whom did he choose for his successor? 9—12. Describe the death n| 'cXiXVIII - 1. What of the ftccession of Caligula? 2. Of his sickness 3. liii 183 REIGN OF CALIGULA. tenst, vitl.out trial ; and .t was his fiendish pleasure to witness tl.e sulioriugs of his victims and protract their tortures, that they mi.rhi as he saiQ, feel themselves dying. Finding that no one dared tu oppose his sanguinary caprices, he began to regard himself us sonie- thmg more than a mere mortal, and to claim divine honors He erected a temple to himself, and instituted a college of priests to sup,r- mtend his own worship. o^i'-j Caligula. 4. A still more absurd piece of conduct was the reverence which he claimed for his favorite horse Incitatus, whom he frequently invie to dine at the imperial table, where the animal was fed wi h "d od oats and drank the most costly wines from jewelled goblets. Noth- Zslhip. P''''"'"^ ''^ '■^""' ^="^'"" ""^ luadruped to the 5. While the whole city was scandalized bv his outrageous conduct Home was suddenly astounded with the intelligence that the empe'or had resolved to lead an a^my against the Gemans. The gmndes „,l'l"^'"'''i1"'""'"^ his engines and warlike machines with H PXDcdilioa ASSASSINATION OF CALIGUL/^. 189 ft g"alloy, and coastinf^ along the shore, commanded his trumpets to Bound, and the sin^nal to be priven as if for a battle. The soldiers were then ordered to gather shells from the beach and put them in theii helmets. 7. These were dignified with the name of " spoils of the ocean.'* After this farcical triumph, the emperor called his army together, like a conquering general after a victory, and harangued them in a pom- pous manner, extolling their achievements. To commemorate this wonderful exploit, he ordered a lofty tower to be erected on the spot. 8. Caligula returned to Rome, where he continued his career of (extravagances He employed many inventions to imitate thunder, and would frequently defy Jupiter, crying out, " Do you conquer me or I will conquer you'" He pretended to converse in whispers with the statue of that divinity, and usually seemed angry at its replies, threatening to send it back into Greece, from whence it came 9. He built a stable of marble, and a manger of ivory for his horse and whenever he was to run a race, he stationed sentinels on the night preceding, to prevent any noises from breaking the slumbers of liis favorite steed. 10. The cruelties of Caligula augmented from day to day. He put many senators to death, and then summo led them to appear. He cast great numbers of old and infirm men to wild beasts, to free the state from such unserviceable citizens. Every tenth day he sent off a certain number of victims to his menagerie, which he jocosely called '* clearing his accounts." 11. Upon one occasion, being incensed with the citizens, he uttered a wish that the Roman people had but one neck, that he might despatch them all at a single blow. Finding the senate more reluc- tant in their adulations than he expected, he determined to massacre their whole body. But the Romans were by this time weary of a monster equally wicked and contemptible, and a conspiracy was organized for his destruction, headed by Cherea, the commander of the Praetorian Guards, whom the emperor had long treated with insult. CHAPTER \cxx2ax3 ryf/ Assassination of Caligula. 1. The Palatine Games, which lasted four days, were now at hand, and tliis was judged a favorable opportunity for accomplishing the purpose of the conspirators. The first three days were allowed to pass, and Clierea fixed upon the fourth day, when Caligula, after the conclusion of the games, would have occasion to retire through a private gallery to the baths near the palace. 2. The last day was more splendid than any of the oreceding, and \ x6 ieainsl Ihe Germans. 9. How did he defy Jupiter? 9. Of his hor;e'3 stable, iVcJ 10 His cruelties? 11. What saying is related of him? CXXXIX. — 1. When was the conspiracy against Caligula de 'gned to take tTek.l« 190 REIGN OF CLAUDIUS. the emperoi seemed more sprightly and condescending than .isu/il. Ha enjoyed the amusement of seeing the people scramble lor the fruits and other things which were thrown by his order among them, being totally unsuspicious of the plot against him. 3. But in the mean time, some intelligence of the design began to circulate among the multitude, and had the tyrant any friends remain \ng, he could not have failed to discover it. A senator who stood near him, asking one of his acquaintances whether he had heard any- thing new, was answered "No." ** Then," returned he, "you must know that this day will be represented a piece called the Death of a Tyrant." The other immediately understood the hint, but advised him to be cautious. 4. The conspirators waited many hours with extreme anxiety, and Caligula seemed resolved to spend the whole day without taking any refreshment. This unexpected delay exasperated Cherea, and hail he not been restrained, he would have fallen upon the emperor in the midst of all the people. 5. While he was hesitating, one of the attendants of Caligula per- suaded him to go into the bath and take some slight refreshment, that he might the better enjoy the rest of the entertainment. The emperor rising up, the conspirators used every precaution to keep off the throng, and to surround him, on pretence of seeing to his comfort. 6. Upon entering a little vaulted gallery that led to the bath. Cherea struck him to the ground with his dagger, saying, " Tyrant! think upon this!" The other conspirators closed in upon him, and while he was resisting and crying out that he was not dead, they despatched him with thirty wounds. 7. Such was the merited end of Caligula, after a reign of less than four years. His character may be summed up in the words of Seneca, who says, " Nature seems to have produced him for the purpose of showing what mischief can be effected by tlie grealesl vices supjorti^d by the highest authority." CHAPTER CXL. Reig7i of Claudius, 1. Cux^owi^, the brother of Germanicus, and uncle of the late emperor, a prinr-e of weak intellect, was raised to the throne by the conspirators, and this choice was sanctioned by the senate. This \vretched idiot, thus placed at the head uf the empire, was, during his entire r^ign, a mere puppet in the hands of worthless and unprin- cipled favoiites. Among thtse, the most infamous wiis the Empresa Mes&alina. 2. Th^ i^ign of Claudius began with the punishment of the con 2. What took place the last day? 3. What anecdote is given of a senator? 4 5 Describe the d«aih of Caligula. 7. His character. ' ' CXL. — 1. Who succeeded Calisuli ] 2 What b*-^ e of tlie conspirator* 7 3 Wh«. REIGN OF NERO. 19 spirators against Caligula. These were put tc death, not for the deed iney had done, but because it was suspected that they had a design to restore the ancient constitution. 3 Claudius, notwithstanding his imbecile character, undertook an expedition into Britain, where the native tribes were wasting tlieir strength in mutual wars. The Romans now commenced a series of campaigns, which eventually led to the complete subjugation of tlie southern part of the island. 4. Tlie senate granted Claudius a magnificent triumphal preces- sion on his return, and Messalina, whose scandalous conduct was now notorious, accompanied the emperor in a stately chariot during the solemnity. 5. The cruelty of this woman was as great as her infamy, and at length her crimes became so insufferable, that Claudius put her to death. Soon afterwards, the emperor married his niece, Agrippina, the widow of Domitius Ahenobarbus, by whom she had one son. This youth was originally called by his father's name, but he is better known in liistory by that of Nero. 6. The new empress showed herself avaricious, ambitious and cruel. She ruled the emperor, appeared with him in the senate, sat on the same throne during all public ceremonies, and gave audience to foreign princes and ambassadors. She at length prevailed upon her husband to adopt her son, Nero, and bequeath him the empire, in preference to his own son, Britannicus. 7. But Claudius showing some signs of an intention to restore the succession, Agrippina caused him to be poisoned. Having previ- ously gained over the commander of the Praetorian Guard, she con- cealed her husband's death till she had taken the steps necessary for the accession of her son. V CHAPTElt. CXLll Reign of Nero, 1. Nero became emperor A. D. 54. He had been nurtured in the midst of crimes, and educated for the stage rather than for the throne. He was but seventeen years of age at his accession, and he looked on the empire as only an extensive field for the indulgence of his possioria. 2. He soon became uneasy of his mother's imperious rule, and Agrippina, finding herself neglected, threatened to transfer the throne to Britannicus. This was the signal for the destruction of the young l)rince. Poison was administered to him by one of the emper(»r's emissaries, and a few hours after hia death, his body was exhibited to the public ; for so little care had the emperor of concealing his share ^^ took place in Britain? 4. What of the triumph of Claudius? 5. Of Messalina? 6. Of Agrippina? 7. Describe the death of Claudius. CXIJ •-!. What if the accession of Nero? 2. Of Agrippina and Britannicus? 3 Of '•¥ .92 ^ KEIGX OKi^GKO. ^^ in the murder, that th« preparations for the funeral uere niad*j iu i(>i riEIGN OF rfERO. the poisgn was administered. ^v fj, : Nero, 3. An infamous woman, named Poppaea Sabina, incited Nero to siill p^reater crimes. Persuaded that during- the lifetime of Ajfrip- pina she could not remove Ociavia, the wife of Nero, and become herself a partner in the empire, she urged the latter to murder his mother. 4. Nero himself was anxious for the removal of one whom he so greatly feared. But he dreaded the resentment of the Romans, who. in spite of her crimes, reverenced the last representative of the family of Germanicus. After various attempts to destroy her secretly had failed, he despatched a body of armed men to her houre, where they murdered her in her bed. 5. The death of Burrhus, an able statesman, happened shortly afterwards; this event, which was ascribed to poison, was a great public misfortune, for the influence of Burrhus had restrained thfi emperor from many extravagances in which he was prone to indulge. 6. Tigellinus, a person infamous for every crime, became the new minister, and Nero no longea: kept within the bounds of ordinary Popjwa Sahiiia? 4. What was the fate of Aarrippina? 5. Of Burrbjs? H Of rieeJ 193 decency. Seneca w^as banished from the court, Octavia was divorced and afterwards murdered, and finally Poppaja was marriea" to the emperor. 7. A tour through Italy gave Nero an opportunity of a])peaiing as a singer on the stage at Naples, and hc^vas excessively gratified by the applause with which the multitude red his vanity. Soon aftei hi3 jeturn to Rome, a dreadful conflagration, which lasted nine days, desJ:royed the*? reater part of the city, and it was generally believcfi dial it had been kindled by the emperor's orders Nero witnessing the Burning of Rome. ^ 8. It is said that he stood upon a tower during the conflagr^ibn, enjoying the sight, and singing in a theatrical manner, to the vnusic of his harp, the burning of Troy. To silence the report of his bein^ the cau?e r{ this calamity, Nero charged it upon the Christians, wh,,. then began to attract notice in Rome. 9. Nothing could be more dreadful than the persecution raised against them on this account. Some were covered with the skins of wild beasts, and in that disguise devoured by dogs. Some were crucified, and others bu^'it alive. " When the day was not suflficient for their tortures,'* says Tacitus, " the flames in which they perished Bcrved to illuminate the night." Nero, dressed like a charioteer, regaled himself wHh a view of their tortures from his gardens, where he entertained the people with their suflJerings. 10. Of the fourteen quarters into which Rome was divided, on)j n->ur lemnined entire after the conflagration. On the ruins of a por- tion of the city, Nero erected a palace, which he called his Golden >? liiuis? 7. Of Nero's lour Ihrouiih Italy? 8. What was his l)ehavior diirinslhe hiirr.ing .»f Xomo? 9. Describe the persecution of the Ciiristians 10, Jl. Describe Nero't Golden Palace. 13 '9. \ h 194 CRIMES OF NEFIO. y House ll contained within its enclosure artificial lakes, extenaivw woods parks, nrardens, tHrchards, vineyards, &c. The entpnce ol the Golden House was Sufficiently lofty to admit a colossal statui' of the emperor, one hundred and twenty feet hi^h. The g~»illeries. which rested on three rows of tall pillars, were each a mile in length 11. The roof was covered with tiles of gold, the walls were over laid with the same metal, and richly adorned with precious stoima and mother-of-pearl. The ceiling of one of the banoueting-rooins represented the firmament beset with stars, turning about incessaiitl) , night and day, and showering perfumed water on the guests. CHAPTER CXLIl Crimes of Nero, vm^i 1. The extravagant expenditures caused by this sumptuous edifice, the restoration of the city, and the emperor's luxuries, exhausted the public treasury, and led to a system of plunder and extortion which nearly caused the dissolution of the empire. Italy, the provinces, and the confederate nations, were pillaged and laid waste. The temples of the gods and tlie houses of individuals were stripped of their treasures, but still enough could not be obtained to support the em- peror's boundless prodigality. 2. A conspiracy was planned against him by Cncius Piso, and great numbers of the Roman nobility engaged in it. The discovery of this afforded Nero an opportunity to glut his san<»uinary disposi- tion. Most of the leading nobles were put to death, and 'among the ather victims were Lucan, the poet, and Seneca, the pliilosopher. 3. In the midst of the n^assacres, Nero appeared on the stage as a candidate for the prize of music, which of course he gained. About the same time he killed the empress Poppaea by a kick. It may appear strange that such repeated atrocities should not have raised the whole Roman people in rebellion. 4. But the lower classes felt nothing of the imperial despotism, and did not sympathize with the nobles in their calamities, lH;caus(! the ancient oppressions of the aristocracy were still remenibererl. They were, besides, gratified by a monthly distribution of corn, by occasional gifts of wine and meat, and by the magniticent shows of the circus. In fact, the periods of tyranny were the golden days ol " the poor; and Nero was far more popular'with the rabble than the most eminent man of the republic had ever been. 5. Not satisfied with his Italian fame, Nero resolved to disjday his musical skill at the Olympic Games, and for this purjmse he passed over into Greece ; where he received great applauses ; yet he did not abstain frou> pl,un(|ering the cbuntry during his visit While ho wa.i CXLn 1. What was the consequence of Nero'3 exlrava^inces ? "2. Who moved a conspiracy ajainal him? What was the consefiuence 1 3. What of Nero on the sta^e? His cruelty? 4. Ho'* 'id the lower classes regaal him? 5 VVh;.. of ih« Olympic #. UKATti OF NKRO. 196 ihus eniraixed the rebellion i>roke out in Palestine, which led, in the end, t the di'struction of the Jewish nation. 6. S)on after Nero's return to l^ome, formidable insurrections burst forth in the western })rovinces. Julius Vindex raised the stan- dard of revolt in Gau^ Scrvius Galba followed his exam|)le in Spain. From this moment tho tyrant considered his ruin almost certain. He received tjie account of Galba's revolt while he was at supper, am] instantly, struck with terror, he overturned the table with his fool, breaking two crystal vases of immense value. 7. He then fell into a s\^on, and on coming to himself, tore his clothes and struck his head, crying out that he was utterly undone. He next called for the assistance of Locusia, a woman famous in the art of poisoning, to furnish him with the means of death ; but being prevented in this, and the revolt becoming general, he ran from house to house, but every door was shut against him. 8. He then desired that one of hio favorite gladiators might despatch him, but no one would obey. "Alas!" cried he, "have I neither friend nor enemy^^" Then running desperately forth, he seemed resolved to throw himself into the Tiber; but his courage failed him ; he made a sudden stop, and asked for some sacred place where he might collect lii'i fortitude, and meet death with becoming spirit. CHAPTER CXLIII. ** . Death of Nero. 1. In this distress, Phaon, one of his freedmen, offered Nero his country-house, about four miles distant, where he might for some ' time remain concealed. The emperor gladly accepted the offer, and with his head covered, hiding his face with his handkerchief, he mounted on horseback, attended by four of his domestics. His jour- ney, though short, was crowded with adventures. 2. An earthquake gave him the first alarm. The lightning of heaven next Hashed in his face. Round him he heard nothing but confused noises Iroin the camp, and the cries of the people imprecat ing a ihousajid curses on his head. A traveller, meeting him on his way, said, "There go men in pursuit of Nero." Another asked him wliether there were any news of Nero in the city. 3. Amid such eiicoiint(;rs as these, his horse took frijjht at a d^ad body that lay near the road. Nero dropped his handkerchief, and v\a.s recognized by a soldier who haj)pened to be passing. The soldi* i accosted him by name, and Nero leaped from his horse, abandoned the highway, and Cfitered a thh ket tliat led toward the back part of Phaon's house, nuking the best of his way among the reeds and branbles with whic . the place was overgrown. Gane*i? 6. What iusurp;ction broke out? 7, 8. What effect had the news upoc. .Verj ? CXLlIl— 1. Who assisted Nero to escape? 2, 3. What accidents attended it' OALBA iD OTHO. 197 196 DKATH OF NERO. 4. During this interval, the senate, finding that the Praetoriin Guards had taken the part of Galba, proclaimed him emperor, and condemned Nero to die "according to the rigor of the ancient laws." When he was told of this, he asked what it meant, and was informed that the criminal was to be stripped naked, set in a pillory, and be beaten to death with rods. 5. Nero was so terrified at this that he seized two poniards which he had brought with him, and made a movement as if to stab him- self; but again losing courage, he returned them to their sheaths, pretending that the critical moment had not yet arrived. (). lie then desired Sporus, one of his attendants, to begin the lamentation which was used at funerals. He next entreated that one of those around him would die, to give him courage by his ex- ample. Afterwards he began to reproach himself for cowardice, crying out, *' Does this become Nero? Is this trifling well-timed? No ! let me be courageous !" 7. In fact, he had no time to lose, for the soldiers in pursuit of him were just then approaching the house. Upon hearing the sound of their horses' feet, Nero set a dagger to his throat, with which, by the assistance of Epaphroditus, his secretary, he gave himself a mortal wound. 8. He was not quite dead w^hen the officer sent by the senate arrived and endeavored to stop the blood. Nero, looking at him sternly, said, " It is too late. Is this your fidelity?" and then, with his eyes fixed and frightfully starinjr, he expired. 9. His body was interred privately, but honorably, and many of the lower ranks, whose favor he had won by his extravagant libe- ralities, lamented his loss, honored his memory, and brought flowers to decorate his tomb. 10. During the reign of Nero the provinces were harassed by frequent revolts. The Iceni in Britain took up arms under their queen, Boadicea, and falling unexpectedly on the Roman colonies and garrisons, they destroyed great numbers both of the Romans and their allies. Could this courageous female chieftain have secured the cooperation of all the native tribes, she might have liberated her country. 11. This formidable insurrection was quelled by Suetonius Pauli- nus, who added the island of Anglesey to the Roman dominions, thus taking from the Druids, who were the secret instigators of resistance to all foreign power, the great centre both of their reli- gion and their influence. 4. What did the senate decree? 5. What was the behavior of Nero on hparinp thlnf 8, :, 8, 9. Describe his death, l*^ What of Boadicea and the Britons? 11. What of Suetonius Paulicus? CHAPTER CXLIV. Galba and Otho. 1. Galba vas proclaimed emperor A. U. ^^8. He was descended from an illustrious family, but was now in the seventy-third year of his age. He journeyed slowly towards Rome, and Nymphidius, the miuister of Nero, took advantage of this to make an attempt for the empire himself, by bribing the Prajtorian Guards. 2. But his conduct during the reign of Nero had rendered him so deservedly unpopular, that he was murdered by the very soldiers w ho had taken his money. This rash conspiracy induced Galba to sully the commencement of his reign by unreasonable severities, whicii gave the more offence to his subjects, as such a course had not been anticipated. 3. It was soon discovered that the new emperor, however virtuous himself, was the tool of unwortliy favorites, who, under the sanction of his name, plundered the people, and deprived the soldiers of tiieir usual donations. A revolt of the legions in Upper Germany inducer^ Galba to nominate as his successor Cneius Piso, who was greatlv esteemed. 4. But this appointment gave great offence to Otho, who had been foremost to espouse the cause of Galba. Taking advantage of the discontent of the Prastorian Guards, he went to their camp, and easily persuaded these turbulent soldiers to proclaim him emperor. In ths struggle which ensued, Galba was killed. 6. Otho, thus raised to the empire, A. D. 69, was, during his brief reign, a passive instrument in the hands of the licentious sol- diers. Scarcely had he seated himself on the throne, when a rival started up in the person of V'itellius, who commanded the legions in Lower Germany. 0. Otho departed from Rome in all haste, to give him battle. Both parties hisiened to meet each other with such precipitation, that three consi(leral)le battles were foufjht within the space of as many days. 7. At. length Otho's forces suffered a serious defeat at Bodriacum, near Cremona, and the emperor, having learned the news, asseml)led the remainder of his soldiers, thanked them for their fidelity, and an- nounced l:is intention to withdraw from the contest, that he might n««t be the cause of further bloodshed. 8. The same night he committed suicide, having reigned but three months and five days. His soldiers deeply regretted his death, and it must be admitted, that his resolution to die, in order to save his country from the horrors of a civil war, had something in it truly heroic. CXMV —1. Who succeeded Nero? 2. What of Nymphidius? 3. How was tlw empire t?<»verued under Gallia? 4. What was the fate of Galba? 5. Who succeeds! bill! ? 6. Wlial rival a{)|)e «red against Oiho ? 7, 8- Wliai was the end jf Otho % 17* / 193 REIviN OF VITELLIUS. CHAPTER CXLV. Reign of ViteUius, 1. ViTELtiiJS havings been declared emperor by the senate, f/ar- joned all the adherents of Otho, and then set out for Rome, in all the splendor and magnificence which he could command. While he was sitting in painted galleys, bedecked with garlands and flowers, and feasting on delicacies, his soldiers were plundering in every quar- ter, without restraint. 2. He entered Rome as if it were a conquered city, and the scnato and people marched before him as if they had been prisoners taken in battle. After haranguing the citizens, and receiving the homage which his liberal promises had drawn forth, he quietly settled himself in his palace, to enjoy the pleasures which his gluttony and luxuri ous habits had rendered the chief happiness of his life. 3. The administration of public affairs was intrusted to the lowest and vilest of his favorites, and the soldiers forgot the art of war amid their unrestrained debaucheries. Vitellius thought of nothing but regaling himself with costly viands, and had learned the art of renewing the pleasure of his meals by disgorging the food whicU had alieady ministered to his appetite. Vitellihs and Guests at a Banquet. 4. The details of his gluttony would detract from the dignity of (■-istory. He invited himself to breakfast with one man, to dinner *'ith another, and to supper with a third. The influence of his CXLV. — 1. What of the accession of Vitellius? 2. How did he enter Rome? 3. What DEATH OF VITELLIUS 109 jourticrs depend d on the frequency of their entertainments, and the skill with vvljicli tliey ws were at len^rth ^o exhausted hy famine and their intestine wars, that the Romans captured the city by storm, A. D. 72. 6 The punishment inflicted upon this devoted people was dreadful. The city and temple were reduced to heaps of sliapeless ruins ; the best and bravest of the nation fell by the swords of the Romans or their own hands ; most of the wretched suvvivors were sold into slavery ; and the Jews, since that period, dispersed over the face of (he earth, have become outcasts and wanderers amon ii} u UKIGN OF NKUVA. alver considorablo resistance, by Sttphanus, the comptroller of h»« household, who was himself slain on the spot, hy some of the otP cers of the jruard. Domitian was the last of the Caesars, leavinjr no hfir to the throne CHAPTER CLII. Reign of Nerva, 1. The senate, dreading the influence of the army, appointea Cucceius Nerva the successor of Domitian, on the day of his assassi- nation, A. D. 97. This emperor was born in Spain, of an illustrious Roman family ; I e w^as sixty-five years old when he was called to govern the empire. 2. HaviufT been chosen by the senate solely from their experience of his talenfs and virtues, no doubt was entertained that he would do honor to the imperial purple. The horrors of the preceding reign induced Nerva to rule with an opposite excess of clemency and indul- gence. 3. When he accepted his dignity, he took an oath that no Roman senator should be put to death during his reign. He was liberal in his gifts to his friends, and he sold all his gold and silver plate to enable him to continue his generosities. He abolished the oppressive taxes which had been imposed by his piedecessors, and restored the property seized by Domitian. 4. Besides making many good laws, he united, more than any other sovereign, a system of retrenchment and economy with well- judged acts of liberality. He allowed no statues to be erected to himself, sold all those which had been raised to Domitian, and con- verted into money the gaudy robes and luxurious furniture of the palace. 5. Notwithstanding the benevolence and mildness which charac- terized the administration of Nerva, he soon began to experience that malignity which vice never fails to display against virtue. A con- spiracy was formed for his assassination ; this was happily detected, and the senate were desirous to deal rigorously with the authors, but Nerva contented himself by punishing them with exile. G. This act of clemency' encouraged another plot, among the prtKto- fian bands, who pretended a wish to revenge the death of Domitian. Nerva used all the gentle means in his power to quell this mutiny. Hi* even presented himself to the insurgents, bared his breast, and desired them to take his life rather than involve their country in ^ esh calam- ities. 7. But this act of self-devotion failed to subdue the ferocity of the mutineers. They kill -d two of the emperor's attendants before hia face, and compelled him to approve of their sedition. Fortunately, their insolence v«ent no further, and this insurreciion ultimately turned out most favorably for the empire. f^ 11, — I. Whoa-cr.eeiled Poinilian ? 2,3. What was t»,« character of Nerva 1 4 Hi? -ulminidlration ? Ti. What of a conspiracy } 6, 7. What was the corwequeiice n. REIGN OF TRAJAN. 211 8. Nerva saw the necessity of providing a colleague, who might atford liim assistance and counsel in the government of the empire Having no private objects in view, he set aside all his own relations «nd fixed his choice upon Trajan, who then held an ofiice in Ger «any. y. Before the latter could reach the city, Nerva died of a fever, vhich was said to have been brought on by a violent passio:>, in ^ (ispute with one of the senators, A. D. 98. CHAPTER CLHI Reign of Trajan, Trajan 1. TuAJAN was uorn at Seville, in Spain, though of an Italian femily. His father had been rais(3d to the rank of a patrician, by Vespasian, and after various successful expeditions on the Euphrates and the Rhine, in which his son accompanied him, he had been hon- ored with the consulship and a triumph. his clemency? 8. Whom did Nerva associate with him in the empire? 9 How dk* Nerva die? 212 RKIGN OF TRAJAN. 2 In this way, Trajan acquired, in early life, a considerable repu- tation in arms. When the command of the a;my in Lower German v was confided to him, he lived in the most unassuminj^ and simple style. He performed lonjr marches on foot with his troops, and shared with them all the dano-ers and fatigues of war. 3. He knew all the old soldiers by their names, and conversed with them in the most familiar manner. Before he retired to rest, he inspected the camp i)ers()nally, and satisfied himself of the vigilance of the sentinels, and the security of the army. 4. To these qualities of a soldier, Trajan added the most amiable modesty and mihhiess of disposition, and he united in his character all those moral and intellectual quuUfications, and all that experience in war and personal bravery, which seem rather to belong to many indivi(hials than to be combined in one. 5. His personal appearance corresponded with his noble mind ; and wlian he entered Home in the vigor of manliood, lie inspired his sul>- jects with a respect and admiration which they never afterwards ceased to attach to his name. 6. Trajan had no sooner ascended the throne than he was called upon to check the insolence of the Dacians, who had ravaged the empire during the reign of Uomitian, and now claimed from the Roman people a tribute, which the cowardice of that emperor had induced him to ofTer. 7. At the head of a powerful army, Trajan marched towards Dacia, and overawed the barbarians by his sudden appearance upon their frontier. A treaty was made with them, but s})eedily broken by their king, Decebalus. Trajan threw a bridge across the Danul)e, LMUered Dacia, and brought Inm to a general action. "^I'he Dacians were completely routed, and their king, in d(^sj)air, killed himself. 8. In this battle, whicii reduced Dacia to a Roman province, the slaughter was so great that all the linen in the Roman camp was n(»t sufficient to dress the wounds of the soldiers. On the return of Trajm to Rome, a splendid triumph was celebrated, and the rejoicings continued a hundred and twenty days. 9. The duties of peace now demanded tlie attention of Trajan ; hn (established many public works ; he settled C()h)nit?s in remote parts of the empire ; he opened communications between different i)rov- inces, and be laid up stores of corn and provisions to secure the capi- tal from famine. iO. To commemorate his victories, he employed the architect Apollodorus to eiect a magnificent column in Rome, covered with sculptures, representing the events of the Dacian war ; this structure still remains, and is one of the most remarkable objects of the city. 11. During the reign of Trajan, the Christians began to attract notice in Bithynia. As their doctrines were little known, it is proba- ble that they were misrepresented. Trajans regard for the estab- lished religion of Rome caused him to enforce the laws which bad CLIII. — 1.2. What is said of Ihe early life of Trajm ? 3, 4. f*. What of his charac ler? 6,7,8. Describe his campai<»n aijainsi the Dacians. 9. Whai of Trajati's ailinin islra-iop "n peace? 10. Of his iriuniphal column? 11. Of lis behavior iow*ril ihe CVriaiiJUi* » EASrblliN CAMPAIGNS OF TRAJAN. 9 1 'J been enacted against those who dissented from it. On this account, the mild and beneficent Trajan is numbered among the persecutors of Christianiiv. CHAPTER CLIV. Eastern Campaigns of Trajan. 1. The Armenians and Parthians having about this time ihrowTi off the Roman yoke, Trajan marched into Armenia, subdued the country, and made the king prisoner. He then entered the Parthian territories, where he obtained the most signal success. After con- quering Syria and Chaldea, he made his triumphal entry into iiabylon. 2. The Parthians made a stand on the Euphrates, but Trajan, hav- ing caused a large number of boats or rafts to be constructed among the mountains during a single night, brought them suddenly to the river, and transported his army across the stream in the face of the enemy. 3. Quitting the Euphrates, he traversed countries which had never before been trodden by the foot of a Roman soldier ; and he seems to have taken a peculiar delight in following that line of march which Alexander had pursued before him. He crossed the rapid stream of Tigris, and took the city of Ctesiphon. 4. After subjugating'the districts of Persia bordering on that river, he marched south towards the Persian Gulf. The inclemency of the weather, and the inundations of the river, nearly destroyed his whole army, and Trajan, sufFering from the infirmities of age, was com- pelled to return. 5. Persia had revolted during his absence, but he restored the Roman supremacy, and placed a king of his own choosing on the ihroue of that country. Having met with a repulse before the city of Atra, in Arabia, Trajan concluded thai the time had now arrived for limiting liis conquests and placing them under proper government. 6. He e'stablished a king over Albania, near the Caspian Sea, and placed governors and lieutenants in the other provinces. He now set his face towards Rome, leaving his forces in the east, under the com- mand of Adrian. The most magnificent preparations were made for the reception of the emperor m his capital, but Trajan was destined never again to behold that city. 7. Exhausted with the fatigues of war, he was taken ill in Cilicia, and finding liimself unable to travel any further, he was carried to the city of Selinus, where he died, A. D. 117, in the sixty-fourth year of his age, and the twentieth of his reign. His ashes were carried to Rome, and deposited at the foot of the column which bears his name. CLIV. — I-^. What campaigns did Trajan undertake in the east, and with what sue ? 5, 6. WhU of Persia, Arabia, and Albania? 7. Where did Trajan lie? 214 ADRIAiN CHAPTER CLV. Adrian — Antoniims Pins. 1. Trajan was succeeded in the empire by Adrian, who, hke his predecessor, was a native of Seville, but of a Spanish fiimily. He was quite satisfied with preservino^ the ancient limits of the empire, and seemed no way ambitious of makinp^ conquests. For this reason, ho abandoned all the acquisitions which had been made by Trajan, judging them rather a detriment than an advantage to the empire. 2. Adrian was the first Roman emperor that made a regular tour through the provinces. He spent many years in travelling over Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain, Greece, and all the countries of Africa and Asia that were under his dominion. There was scarcely any part of his vast empire that he did not embellish with noble buildings and other great works of art. 3. In Britain he greatly improved the city of York, which was then the capital of the island, and the residence of the Romar governor. For the better security of this province, he built a wall of wood and earth, extending from the river Eden, in Cumberland, to the Tyne, in Northumberland. This served as a barrier against tho incursions of the Picts, and other barbarous tribes of North Britain. Incursions of the Scots and Picts into Britain. 4. On his return to Rome, the senate decreed him a triumph, which he had the modesty to decline. The virtues of Adrian, how- CLV. — 1. Who succeeded Trajan ? What was the policy of Adrian ? 2. Of his louf through the provinces? 3. Of York, and Adrian's wall? 4. Of his persecution* t KEIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS 2]e'i evei, were no< unalloyed ; he was a cruel persecutor both of the Jews and the Christians ; he allowed himself to be influenced by unworihj favorites, and gave his ear to slanderers and informers. 5. During liis reign the Jews again rebelled, and were subdu(;( with dreadful slaughter. Adrian died of a lingering disease, ai Bai;R «W!ar Naples, A. D. 131i. 6. lie was succeeded by Titus Antoninus, whom he had adopted d iring his lifetime. This emperor divided the cares of goverinnen v\ ith Marcus Aurelius, his son-in-law. His mild and merciful reign procured for him the surname of Pius, and was undoubtedly the most lran(pnl and happy which the Roman empire ever enjoyed. ?. He suspended the persecutions against the Christians, and ordered their accusers to be punished as calumniators. Peace pre- vailed throughout the wide dominions of Rome ; the virtues of the sovereign conciliated the good- will of foreign nations, and he was chosen as the arbitrator of their differences. 8. For the first lime, the government of the provinces engaged the earnest attention of the sovereign, and the lieutenants of the emperor, perceiving that their conduct was closely watched, ceased to oppress those intrusted to their charge. 9. The provincial inhabitants now, instead of seeing their revenues wasted to maintain a profligate court, or pamper a degraded populace, were gratified with the sight of public schools erected for the instruc- tion of youth, of harbors cleaned out and repaired, of new marts of trade opened, &c. 10. After a beneficent and tranquil reign of twenty-two years, the prosperity of which is best proved by its affording no materials for history, Antoninus Pius died of a fever at one of his villas, bequeath- ing nothing but his own private fortune to his family. 1 1 . The Romans venerated so highly the memory of this excellent monarch, that during the greater part of the ensuing century every sovereign deemed it essential to his popularity to assume the surname of Antoninus. CHAPTER CLVI. Reign of Marcus Aurelius. 1. Marcus Aurelius, surnamed the Philosopher, on account of his attachment to the doctrines of the Stoics, succeeded to the empire A.. D. 163 ; but his power was shared by Lucius Verus, to whom he gave his daughter in marriage. He took, however, an early oppor- tunity of sending his unworthy colleague from Rome with the com- mand of an army against the Parthians. 2. Verus established his residence at Antioch, where he abandoned 5 What of the Jews ? 6. Who succeeded Adrian ? Who was the associate of Anlor.lnu': ) 7, 8, 9. What was the adminidiralion of Antoninus? 10, 11, What of his death? CLVI. — 1. Who succeeded Antoninus ? What of his colleague? 2. What was th# 216 KEIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS. himself to every species of debauchery, while his lieutenants con- quered some of the Parthian cities. Rome, in the mean time, enjoyed tranquillity and happiness under the firm but merciful administration of Aurelius. Marcus Anrelitts. J. But this prosperity was interrupted by the return of VcruB, who claimed a triumph for the victories g^ained by his officers. The eastern army brought the plague with it from Asia, and the infection was communicated to every province through which the legions passed. The violence of the pestile.ice did not abate for several years. 4. A dangerous war next broke out on the German frontiers, with the Marcomanni. Both emperors took the field, but in the opening of the campaijrn Verus died, the victim of his intemperate habits. 5. In the first engagement with the barbarians, the Romans were routed with g-reat slaughter, and the emperor was obliged to sell the plate and furniture of his palace, and the imperial jewels, to raise a sufficient sum to repair the loss. In his subsequent campaig-ns, Aurelius ventured across the Danube, into the territory of the Quadi. 6. This temerity had nearly proved his ruin. The barbarians .onduct of Verus ? 3. Wh;it of the plague ? 4. Whut war iiexl broke out ? 5. VVhav ii«ening of new communications with India. 2. Tadmor, or Palmyra, the wondrous city of the desert, distant only eighty-five miles from the Euphrates, and about one hundred and seventeen fron> the nearest coast of the Mediterranean, was the centre of the trade between Europe and southern Persia, including the countries bordering on the Indus, and the districts now attached to the Bombay presidency. CLVIIl. — 1 . What of Malermis ? 2, 3. What was the result of his undertaking ? 1 IVhat calamities followed ? 5. What of Oleander? 6. How did Commodus die ? CLIX. - 1. What of the age of the Antonines in respect to commerce? 2 (M 220 COMMERCE OF THE ROMANS. IX)MMERCE OF THE ROMANS. 221 3. In consequence of the great exports that this trade naturalh caused from the harbors of the Levant, considerable numbers ot ^yriar merchants settled in Rome, some of whom attained the highest honors of the «nite It appears that some merchants used a more northern route bV the Caspian and Oxus ; for we find the Roman geographers tolerably well acquainted with the countries that now form the king- doms of Khiva and Bokhara. , . , a . 4 Tlie areat caravan route across Asia, however, commenced at Bvzantium%ow Constantinople, which was long the seat of flourish- inrr commerce before it became the metropolis of an empire. Hav- ing passed the Bosphorus, the merchant adventurers proceeded throuffh Anatolia, and crossed the Euphrates ; thence they proceeded to Ecbatana, the ancient capital of the Medes, and Hecatompylos, the metropolis of the Parthians. Thence circuitously to Hyrcania and Aria. Finally, they came to Bactra, long the principal mart ot central Asia. , -, ,. 5 From Bactra there were two caravan routes, one to nortli maia, over the western part of the Himalaya, called the Indian Caucasus, the other toward the frontiers of Serica, over the lofty mountain-chain of Imaus, through a winding ravine which was marked by a cele- brated station called the Stone Tower, whose ruins are said still to exist, under the name of Chihel Sutun, or the Forty Columns. Little was known of the countries between the Imaus and berica, which were probably traversed by Bactrian, rather than European mer- chants ; but the road was described as wondertully difficult and tedious. ,. , , t. ^ . ^ 6 As the protrress of the caravans was liable to frequent interrup- tions from the Parthians, and the conveyance of manufactured silks through the deserts was very toilsome, the emperor Antoninus attempted to open a communication with the Chinese by sea Ol this singular transaction, no record has yet been found m any of the Greek or Latin authors. ^ . . j • ^ij 7 M de Guif^nes, however, has found it stated, in a very old Chinese historicaT work, that an embassy had come by sea from Antun, the king of the people of the western ocean, to Yanti or rather Hanhuanti. who ruled over China in the hundred arid sixty- sixth year of the Christian era. The name and date sufficiently identify Antun with Antoninus, and the projected intercourse was well w'orthy the attention of that enlightened emperor ; but nothing is known respecting the results of this embassy. Paimvra? 3. The Syrian merchanis? 4. How did the caravan for Asia 5 What of India and Ch^^^^ 6. The Parthians ? 7. The expcdiUor. of the Chifvi 7 proceci K'luiaiis 1? CHAPTER ^LX] Commerce of the Ro?nans with the Soicth and North, 1. The navigation to India was long confined to circuilous voyages P)und the peninsula of Arabia and the coasts of the Persian Gulf; but about a century after the establishment of the Roman dominion, Har- palus, the commander of a ship long engaged in the Indian trade, obserring the regular changes of the periodical winds, ventured to steer from the straits of Bab-el-Mandel across the Erythraean Sea, (Indian Ocean,) and was wafted by the western monsoon to the Mal- abar coast. This great improvement was deservedly regarded as of the highest importance ; and the western monsoon received the name of Harpalus, in memory of the courageous navigator who had turned it to such a good account. 2. The route of the Egyptian trade under the Romans has been described with considerable accuracy by Pliny. Cargoes destined foi India were carried up the Nile in boats to (Joptos, thence they were transferred by caravans to Myos Hormus, or Berenice. The latter though the longer, was the more frequented road, because the Ptole- mies had prepared excellent stations and watering-places at convenient distances along the road. 3. From Berenice the fleet sailed, in June or July, for Ocelis, at the mouth of the Arabian Gulf, and Cane, a promontory and emporium on the south-east coast of Arabia Felix. Thence they steered across the ocean for the Malabar coast, and usually made the passage in forty days. They began their voyage homeward early in December, and generally encountered more difliculty on their return, on account of the unsteadiness of the winds. 4. The chief imports from India were spices, precious stones, and muslins. There is a singular confusion in the Latin authors between the finer cotton goods and manufactured silks, which has led to their mixing up the Chinese and Indian trade together. The principal exports were light woollens, chequered linens, glass, wine, and bullion. 5. Commodus, with a wisdom which could scarcely have been expected from him, made some eflforts to open the old Carthaginian trade with the interior of Africa ; but the result of his labors is unknown. He also paid some attention to the corn-trade, so essen- tial to the prosperity of his central dominions, when Italy had long ceased to produce sufficient grain for the support of its inhabitants ; and he established a company to procure corn from northern Africi whenever the crops failed in Egypt. 6. The trade of the Black Sea, so flourishing in the age of tine CLX. — 1. How was the early navigation to India ? Who discovered the monsoons" 2, 3. What was ilie route of the Eiryptian trade to the Malabar coast? 4. What wer« Ihe imports and exi)ort8? 5. Of trade under Commodus ? 6. Of the Black *»ea' "* The amber trade ? 8. Fur and tin trade? 19* 222 REIGN OF PERTINAX. Greek repub.i.s, appears to have been greatly diminished after tlif Romans became masters of the countries on both sides of the -^gean : and it seems probable that little or no commerce passed through the Straits of Gibraltar into the Atlantic Ocean. 7. In consequence of this change, the amber trade was transferred from the coasts of the northern sea to tlie banks of the Danube, and tbe barbarous tribes who brought it from the shores of the Baltic are said to have been astonished at the prices they received for what seemed to them so useless a commodity. 8. Furs were purchased from the Scythian tribes ; but this brancii of trade appears never to have been of any great amount. The Biitish tin trade was rather neglected by the Romans; indeed, it appears to iiave been monopolized by the Gauls, and consequent! v was confined to the British Channel. From this slight sli^tch, it will be seen that the Romans were not naturally a mercantile people. CHAPTER CLXI. Reign of Fertinax. 1. Pertinax was placed on the vacant throne. He was a person i7ho had passed through so many adventures as to gain the appella- tion of '' Fortune's tennis-ball." Descended from an obscure family, either a slave or the son of a slave, he followed for some time the trade of a charcoal-burner. He then became a petty shopkeeper in Rome, then a schoolmaster in Etruria, where he taught Latin and Greek. 2. Next he became a lawyer, and next a soldier, in which capacity he distinguished himself by his courage, and was made a captain of a eohort in"the Parthian war. After passing through the usual grada- tions of preferment in Britain and Mcesia, he obtained the conunand of a legion under Aurelius. 3. This emperor caused him to be made consul, for his eminent services. He was next intrusted with the government of Mcesia, and at length made governor of Rome. Under Commodus he was sent into exile, but soon recalled to reform the abuses of the army. 4. During a mutiny which took place among the legions, he was ?ft for dead in a heap of the slain ; but having recovered, he punished .he mutineers, and restored discipline in the ranks. 5. He was then sent to Africa, where another sedition had nearly proved fatal to him, and being now fatigued witli this long series of hibors and dangers, he returned and lived in quiet retirement at Ronie He was, however, again called forth by Commodus, who made him prefect of the city. 6. Fertinax held this office when he was roused from his sleep at n\"\u by Laitus, the captain of the emperor's guard. Not doubting CLXI — I. Who succeeded Commodus ? 2—5. What were the early adventure* ol DIDIUS JULIA>^U& 223 that an order for his death had been issued by the tyrant, Fertinax made iiiinself rea / Si26 MACRINUS AND HELIOGABALUS. here to murdei his father. The old man was so shocked at the brutality of his son, that he called him into his presence, and offering him a naked sword, said, " If you are amhitious of reignint^ alone, in.orue your hands now in your father's blood, and let not the world witness your want of filial tenderness." 8. Caracalla was not greatly abashed by this reproof. He pre- vailed upon the soldiers to revolt, and proclaim him emperor. When Severus, who had now lost the use of his feet, heard of this, he ordered his attendants to place him in his litter ; he then summonec Caracalla, the tribunes and centurions, into his presence. 9. Confounded with the energy and boldness of the emperor, they implored bis pardon on their knees. Severus replied, ** It is the head that governs, and not the feet." Finding his disorder gaining upon him, he called for poison, but it was refused. lie then swal- lowed an enormous quantity of food to hasten his end, which had the desired etfect, and he died in the eighteenth year of his reign, A. D. 210. 10. Caracalla and Geta were proclaimed joint emperors by the army, arid immediately exhibited the most violent hatred towards each other. Soon after the return of the former to Rome, he mur- dered his brother in his mother's arms. To prevent the consequences of this atrocious act, he gained the support of the praetorian soldiers by large gifts of money, and then, with strange inconsistency, pre- vailed upon the senate to rank his brother in the number of the gods. 11. His sole dependence being upon the army, he used the most iniquitous means to procure money for purchasing their venal sup- port. The richest men of Rome were put to death under false accu- sation& of treason, and their estates confiscated. To lower the pride of the Romans, he granted the name and privileges of citizenship to all the subjects of the empire. 12. At length, after a series of tjrrannical and disgraceful acts, he was assassinated near Edessa, by Martial, a centurion, who had been engaged for this purpose by Macrinus, the praetorian prefect, A. I). 217. The latter was at first unsuspected of any participation in the deed, but Martial was seized and cut to pieces by the soldiery. CHAPTER CLXIV. Macrinus aiid Heliogahalus. 1. Macrinus was declared emperor by the army, and this choice was confirmed by the senate. He was a native of Mauritan'a, bu* was very popular with the Romans in the beginning of his reign This, however, was not of long continuance. His cowardice ii. 5. Of tht> wall of Severus? 7,8. How did Caracalla behave ? 9. Howdid Se^orua dif 10. Who succeeded him? 11. Of the cruelty of Caruoalla? 12. What wad Iuh •(.; ? MACRINUS AND HELIOGABALUS. 227 uurcl a.smg a peace from the Persians by a large sum cf money, and his constant affectation of imitating the virtuous Aurelius, irritated the people, and brought him into contempt. 2. In his efforts to restrain the licentiousness of the soldiers, be was compelled to adopt some severe rules of discipline, which led to a mutiny. Mffisa, the grandmother of Heliogabalus, who was an illegitunate son of Caracalla, took advantage of this rebellious spirit, and by distributing liberal presents among the soldiers, she recoin' mended Heliogabalus to their notice. 3. Macrinus was leading a hfe of pleasure at Antioch, when the troops at Rome proclaimed Heliogabalus emperor. This individual was but fourteen years of age ; and was a priest in the temple of the sun, in Phoenicia. His only recommendation for the impe- rial purple was his relationship to Caracalla and the beauty of his person. 4. Macrinus, on hearing of the revolution at Rome, despatched his lieutenant, Julian, with some legions into Italy ; but these troops slew their general, and declared for the new emperor. Macrinus now took the field in person, but being detained by an illness at Chalcedon, he was surprised and put to death by his enemies, A. D. 218. 5. The accession of Heliogabalus to the empire was ratified by the senate and people. Surrounded by flatterers, who found it for their interest to gratify all his wishes, he was soon initiated into all the profligacy of the times, and he is described by the Roman historians as a monster of sensuality and vice. 6. He appointed his mother and grandmother his colleagues in the empire. He created a senate of women, the business of which was to arrange the fashions of dress which were to prevail in the empire. He raised his horse to the dignity of consul, and fed him with gilded oats. 7. He compelled the Romans to worship the god whose name he bore, and which was nothing but a black stone. To this deity tem- ples were raised, and the shrines of the gods were plundered to deck that of the new divinity. 8. His prodigality was such that he regarded nothing as worth eating that was bought at a moderate price. His suppers cost some- times sixty thousand dollars each. He dressed himself in gold and purple, and never wore the same dress twice. 0. His apartments were furnished with the richest stufl^s, covered with gold and jewels. His mats consisted of the down of hares, or the soft feathers from beneath the wings of partridges. His carpets were made of gold and silver tissue, and his shoes were covered with prfX'ious Stones, to attract the admiration of the populace. 10. The mother of the emperor, annoyed by these extravagances, conceived the design of checking them by giving him a colleague in the empire. Alexander Severus was proposed for this ofllccs and accepted. But Helioo^abalus soon found this restraint upon his vices uncomfortable, and wished to recall what he had done. CLXIir. -I. Who succeeded Caracalla? 2,3. What of Helioirabalus? 4. What became ol Macrinus? 5. What waa the character of Heliogabafua? 6—9. Of hU 22b ALEXANDER SEVh.RUS. 11. The good qualities of Alexander, however, had gained him many friends, and when Heliogabalus attempted to expel h,m from his office, a riot ensued, and the latter would have been killed as ne was walking in his garden, had he not saved himself by flitrht. 12. The seditious spirit, once excited, was not to be quelled. The soldiers insisted upon guarding Alexander, and prohibiting any of the other emperor's favorites from contaminating him wiin their society. Heliogabalus was now seriously alarmed, and finding his cause desperate, made preparations for death suitable to his general habits. 13. He erected a tower with steps of gold and mother-of-pearl, from which he might, in the last extremity, cast himself headlong. He kept about his person cords of purple, silk and gold, for the pur- pose of strangling himself. He provided golden swords and daggers, and had boxes of emerald furnished with a variety of poisons. 14. In this state of mind, he meditated schemes for taking the life of his rival by poison and otherwise, but these all failed oi eflect. His soldiers at length mutinied, and pursued him through tlie rooms of his palace. They dragged him from an obscure corn«T, put him to death, and threw his body into the Tiber. His mothei- and many other partners of his crimes shared the same fate. CHAPTER CLXV. Alexander Sever us. — Maximin. 1. Alexander Severus was unanimously declared emperor by the senate, A. D. 222, and he was every way deserving of that high honor. One of his fust acts was to reform the abuses of his prede- cessor. He used his utmost strength to check the immoralities of the people. Under his beneficent sway, the Christians, who had sullbred much persecution in Rome, enjoyed full protection. 2. The personal accomplishments of this emperor are highly extolled by historians. He was not only a patron of literature, but he devoted his leisure hours to the study of the Greek and Latin authors. He was skilled in mathematics, geometry, music, painting and sculpture. 3. The Persians having disturbed the tranquillity of the empire, Alexander marched against them, and, if we may believe the annal- ists of that period, he routed an enormous army of that nation wit I: great slaughter, capturing the cities of Ctesiphon and Babylon, On his return to Antioch, his mother, Mammaea, sent for the celebrated Origen, to give the emperor instructions respecting the doctrines of Christianity. extravagant behavior? 10, 11. Of Alexander Severus? 12, 13, 14. What became of neli<)?al)alus? CLXV. — I 2. What of the character and acts of Alexander S«veni« J 3. Of the Pe- CRUELTIES OF MAXIMLN. 229 4. In the mean time the northern part of the empire was invaded by hordes of barbarians from Geimany and the regions beyond, who crossed the Rhine and Danube in such swarms that they spread the alarm even to the gates of Rome. 5. Alexander took the field against them in person. He obtained various successes, but the strict discipline which he enforced in his army excited a mutiny among the German legions, which had been accustomed to every kind of indulgence under the preceding reign. Maximin, one of the generals, fomented this spirit of sedition, and at length the soldiers burst into the tent of the emperor and cut off his head. 0. Maximin was immediately proclaimed emperor, A. D. 235. His father was a shepherd of Thrace, and Maximin himself exercised the same humble profession. Having frequently headed his country- men against the barbarians and robbers who infested the plains on whicii his flocks grazed, he had acquired a knowledge of irregular warfare, and was inflamed with a passion for military glory. 7. He therefore entered the Roman army, where he soon became as remarkable for his courage and discipline as he was for his strength and gigantic stature. He was nearly eight and a half feet in height, and liis frame was equally strong and symmetrical. He was capable of drawing a load which a yoke of oxen could not move. He could break the thigh-bone of a horse by a kick, and strike out his tefth by a blow of his fist. He commonly ate forty pounds of meat every day, and drank six gallons of wine. 8. Maximin first displayed his strength at the public games, which Septimius Severus celebrated on the birth-day of his son Geta. The gigantic Thracian had requested permission to contend for the prize of wrestling, but Severus allowed him to engage only with slaves. [n running, he outstripped sixteen persons, one after the other. He kept pace with the emperor on horseback, and after being thus fatigued, he overcame seven of the most active soldiers. 9. These feats of strength induced the emperor to take him into his body-guard. In the reign of Caracalla he was made a centuriou, after which, he went through various vicissitudes of fortune, t 1 Alexander Severus gave him the command of a legion in Germany | V\ . ' CHAPTER CLXVI. Crtcelties and Death of Maximiii. 1. Thl base ingratitude which Maximin had exhibited toward the virtuous Alexander was followed by a system of tyranny and brutality which had scarcely been equalled even in the reigns of hia most abaiidoned predecessois. The senate having refused to ratify his election, he determined to reign without their concurrence. ■nnwar? 4. The l)arbariaiis? 5. What became of Severus? 6 Whr su' teedeJ himl 7, % a. WlMit was ihe cliaracter and history of Maximin? ■.;Jar.w..-L>fc.trf 230 THE TWO GORDIANS. 2. He put to death every person whom he disliked, and rewiJvcJ to force an unwilling obedience from all ranks in the state. He con- demned rich men to the executioner, for the purpose ol' confiscating their estates. He persecuted the Christians, and with the true spirit of a mean upstart, put to death all who were acquainted with him in early life, and remembered the lowness of his extraction. 3. Whoever was suspected of plotting- against him, was sacrificed without delay, and in this manner four hundred persons lost their lives. Some of these Maximin killed by heating ; others he exposed to wild beasts; others were crucified, or sewed up in the carcasses of animals newly slain. 4. Maximin made war upon the Germans, defeated their annies, cut down their standing corn, and wasted their country to an extent of four hundred and fifty miles. The soldiers were strongly attached to him, on account of the increased pay which he allowed them or these expeditions. He also recommended himself to them by the zeal with which he shared in all the duties of a common soldier, heinir always found at the point of danger, and fighting as a private, while he commanded as a general. 5. But a spirit of sedition was aroused in the Africai provinces where the cruelties and exactions of Maximin had made his name odious. Gordian, the proconsul of Africa, now in his eightieth year, and whose talents and virtues were well known in the empire, was proclaimed emperor, in conjunction with his son. C. Finding it impossible to decline the office, which was forced upon him by the joint instances of the soldiery and the people, Gor- dian acquainted the senate with what had happened, assuring them of his reluctance to accept the important charge, and declaring thai he would retain his authority no longer than till he had freed the empire from its oppressor. CHAPTER CLXVH. The Two Gordians, 1. The senate and people of Rome confirmed the election of Gor- dian. They displaced the governors, declared Maximin a public enemy, and commanded the provinces to acknowledge Gordian. When this intelligence was brought to the tyrant, he was wrought up into a fury that nothing could control. He raved like a madman, and beat his head against the wall. 2. But growing a little cooler with reflection, he harangued his army, promised his soldiers to reward them with the estates of his enemies, and resolved to march to Rome and take his revenge by an indiscriminate slaughter. He accordingly made peace with the bai jarians, and led his army towards Italy. On his march he received CLXVI. — 1. 2, 3. What of the cruellies of Maximin? 4. Hiswara? 5. What look place ill Africa? 6. How did Gordian behave? (•LXV 11. — 1. How did l^ie seoale antl people benava 7 2. How did Maximin itehave % GORDIAN. J31 Ailelli^^ence that Gordian and his son had been defeated and slain by Capelianus, one of Maximin's adherents in Africa. 3. This unexpected turn of affairs, while it raised the hopes of the t5rrant, produced the most terrible consternation in Rome; but the senate, undaunted by the calamity, appointed Pupienus and Balbinus emperors. This choice did not satisfy the multitude ; a vast crowd assembled while the new sovereigns were offering the usual sacrifice, md demanded, uith loud clamors, a prince of the Gordian race. 4. After the senate had vainly attempted to quiet the mob, a youth of this family, only twelve years old, was proclaimed Csesar. In the mean time, Maximin entered Italy, and laid siegeto Aquileia ; but this city was bravely defended by the citizens, who dreaded the cruel- ties of the tyrant. They threw scalding pitch and sulphur upon the soldiers who attempted to scale the walls. The old men and women fought upon the ramparts, and the females cut ofi^ their hair to furnish bow-strings for the defenders. 5. The tyrant, exasperated by this unexpected resistance, turned his rage upon his own men, and put several of them to death. A mutiny soon broke out in the army ; and a large body of his men entered the tent of Maximin at noonday, and put him to death, with his son and his chief favorites, A. D. 238. 6. Tranquillity was restored by the death of Maximin ; but the empire was soon involved in foreign wars. The Carpi and Goths, passing the Danube, ravaged the province of Moesia ; while the Per- sians renewed their hostilities on the eastern frontiers. Pupienus was preparing to march against the latter, when events of a serious nature at home claimed his attention. 7. Jealousies had arisen between the two emperors. Pupienus was universally allowed to surpass his colleague, both as a soldier and as a statesman. But as he was the son of a blacksmith, Balbinus ooked upon him as his inferior. The petty dissensions which arose from this source, emboldened the Praetorian Guards to attempt a change in the government. They attacked the palace when the emperors were returning from the Capitoline Games, seized them both, and put them to death, A. D. 238. The young Gordian remained sole emperor. CHAPTER CLXVHI. Gordian. — Philip. — Decius. . MisiTHEUS, the commander of the PraBtorian Guards, acted as minisU^r and guardian of young Gordian. He was well qualified for ihe oflice, uniting the valor of a soldier to the wisdom of a statesman. The successes of the Persians drew his attention to the scene of war- fare in the east. On his march he encountered an army of Gauls in What l)ecan e of the Gordians? 3. What was done by the senate and people? 4. By Maximin? What of Acjuileia? 5. What l)ecame of Maximin ? 6. What folliiwu-l hia death 7 7. What of Pupienus and Balhinus ? •^•» 232 PHILIP— DECIUS. Moesia, who had endeavored to settle in Thrace, and after many con fiicts ho drove them back to their own territories. ^J'he Persiani \ver<; defeated in every battle, r.nd pursued to the grates of Ctesiphon 2. But these victories were more than counterbalanced by the death of Misitheus, who died suddenly, and was supposed to have been poisoned by Philip, an Arabian, who succeeded him in the com- mand of the praetorians. The good fortune of Gordian seems to have abandoned him with the loss of this able minister. 3. Philip took advantage of the public discontents, and contrived to have himself raised to an equal power with the emperor. Having attained to this elevation, he poisoned his colleague, and became sole emperor, A. D. 244. 4. The father of Philip had been captain of a band of robbers in Arabia, and had probably brought up his son to the same adventurous profession. Pliilip, on a visit to the scenes of his early life, founded a city in Arabia, which he named Philippopolis. 5. The thousandth year of Rome happened in his reign, and he celebrated the secular games with a magnificence corresponding to the occasion. The people were entertained with splendid shows, and two thousand gladiators fought in the amplutheatre for theii amusement. Gladiators. 6. The reign of Philip was disturbed by many insurrections, espe cially in Pannonia, the suppression of which he intrusted to Decius. Scarcely had this general reached Ulyricum, when his soldiers conn, pelled him, by the threat of instant death, to assume the imperial title. Philip, on hearing of this event, marched agauisi Decius, but was defeated and slain near Verona, A. D. 249. CLXVIII. — 1,2. What of Misitheus? 3, 4. Of Philip? 5 Whiil happeuc I in bit GALLU& 233 7. Decius is said to have been secretly a Christian, but no evidence of \iiis is appajent in his actions. He was acknowledged emperor by the senate and people ; the surname of Trajan was bestowed upon iiim, from his resemblance in character to that virtuous emperor. 8. He permitted the office of censor to be revived, and Valerian, a .man of the strictest morals, was intrusted with its duties. The emperor endeavored to watch over the interests of the inferior classes, while he guarded the dignity of the patrician orders. 9. But Rome had now reached such a state that no individual talent and no high example of virtue could suflice to arrest tin; progress of corruption, and prevent her downfall. The constant and bitter disputes which were carried on between the Christian and the Pagan inhabitants of the empire, created the most pernicious factions at home, while the growing insolence of the barbarian hordes of the north threatened the destruction of the empire from without. 10. Decius began his reign by one of the most sanguinary persecu- tions that ever oppressed the church. The Christians throughout the empire were driven from their habitations, dragged to execution like common malefactors, and subjected to the most exquisite tortures. Great numbers betook themselves to the mountains and deserts, choosing rather to live among wild beasts than with human beings mad witli religious fanaticism, fAJ ■/' CHAPTER CLXIX. Gallus. — Mmilianus. — Valerian, ^-^^^ 1. The religious disputes of the empire were interrupted by an invasion of the Goths, who crossed the Danube and devastated Mcesia and Thrace. Decius marched to oppose them, and in a single engagement destroyed thirty thousand of these barbarians. But in following up his success he was led into an ambuscade by the treason of his own general, Gallus. 2. The Roman army, surprised in a narrow defile, was surrounded by the Goths, and the emperor, seeing his son fall by an arrow, and his troops routed, resolved to die on the field of battle. Spurring his horse toward the enemy, he plunged into a marsh, where he was instantly swallowed up and never seen more, A. D. 251. 3. The remnant of the army proclaimed Gallus emperor. He con- cluded a dishonoraI)le peace with the Goths, and renewed the perse- cution against the Christians. His dastardly conduct provoked gen- oral indignation ; the provincial armies revolted, and Mmilianus was proclaimed emperor in Moesia. Gallus marched to oppose him, but was defeated and killed, A. D. 253. rcigii? 6. What became of him? 7. What of Decius ? 8. Of the censor? i». What ira-j Iho coajitioii of Home ? U How did Decius treat the Christians ? CL\IX. — I. What of iheGoiiis? 2. How did Decius die 7 3. Who succeeded hi "i 1 20* 2:n ^MILIANUS — VALERIAN. 4. ^^milianiis expected to be acknowledged emperor; but trie senale reCused, aid the army in Rluetia proclaimed Valerian. Tlie prospect of a civi: war induced the soldiers of ^milianus to put their treneral to death, and Valerian was acknowledged by the senate and people Valerian. 6. lliis emperor was sixty-three years of age when he was raised to the purple. He possessed an unblemished character, and powers which might have revived the sinking fortunes of the empire. But the virtues and talents which had distinguished him in private life did not appear to great advantage after he came to the supreme power. 6. He made, however, some good attemj)ts to reform the abuses of government, but he tarnished the character of his reign by perse- cuting the Christians. The incursions of the northern hordes called him into the field against the Goths and Scythians. He gained a victory over he latter ; but the invasion of Syria by Sapor, king of Persia, compelled him to undertake a further expedition for the relief of that country. 7. Imprudently passing the Euphrates, he was surrounded by the Persian army near Edessa, in a situation where neither courage nor 4,5 Wh.1t of Valerian? 6. What campaigns did he undertake? 7,8. What misfoi lune hapjiened to Valerian ? 9. What truth is in this story ? GALLIENUS-- CLAUDIUS — QUINTILLIUS. 235 military skill could be of any avail. He was taken prisoner, and carried by Sapor in triumph to his capital. 8. The captive emperor was exposed to every brutal insult by his barbarous conqueror, who used his neck as a footstool w henever he mounted his horse After he had languished in captivity for seven years, his eyes were put out, and he was flayed alive. His skin was tanned, painted red, and nailed up in one of the Persian temples as 2 national trophy. 9. Such is the common account of the captivity of this unfortunate emperor ; but the particulars are not fully authenticated, and there is no doubt that the tale is to a considerable extent an invention. ■\ \ CHAPTER CLXX. GalUenus. — Claudms. — Quintillius. 1. Gallienus, the son of Valerian, succeeded to the throne, A. D. 260, receiving the news of his father's misfortune with secret pleasure and open indifference. He seemed to be acquainted with almost everything except the art of government ; he was master of many curious but useless sciences ; he was a ready orator, an excellent poet, a skilful gardener, a good cook, and a most contemptible prince. 2. At the moment of his accession, the barbarians, encouraged by the captivity of Valerian, invaded the empire on all sides. The Goths and Scythians ravaged Pontus, the Franks and Alemanni carried fire and sword into Rhaetia, and advanced as far south as Ravenna, in Italy. The Sarmatians and the Quadi entered Dacia and Pannonia ; other barbarous tribes burst into Spain, and took possession of many strongholds in that country. 3. Gallienus drove out the barbarians from Italy, and Regillianus defeated them in Dacia and Pannonia. But after these successes, the emperor sunk into complete inactivity, and his indolence aroused a host of competitors for the sovereignty in the difl^erent provinces, who were commonly called the " thirty tyrants," though their num- ber did not exceed nineteen. 4. It would be useless to describe the struggles for powder among these rivals, which distracted every part of the empire. The most remarkable of them was Odenatus, of Palmyra, who gained several victories over the Persians, and besieged Sapor, in Ctesiphon. 5. Gallienus resolved to convert a rival into a friend, and pro- claimed Odenatus his partner in the empire. But the Palmyrenian chief was murdered by some of his own countrymen, and was suc- ceeded by his widow, Zenobia, who took the title of Queen of the East. CLXX. — 1. Who succeeded Valerian? 2,3. What of the wars of Gallienu.^? 4 Of the thirty tyrants? 5. Of Odenatus au^ Zenobia 2 6. Wliat became of Gallieuusi 7. Of Claudius and Quintillius. 236 AUREUAN— ZE> JBIA. 6. ]S ne 01 the other rivals of GaUienus had sufficient strenrrth tc resist his arms, and the emperor maintained the throne, while all his opponents fell by a violent death. Gallienus himself was assassinated A. D. 268, while he was besieg-inor Milan. 7. Flavins Claudius succeeded Gallienus. lie defeated the Ger- mans and Goths with gveai slaughter. He then prepared to marcl against Zenobia, who had conquered Egypt, and assumed a sort of imperial authority ; but a pestilence broke out in his anny, and the emperor himself was one of its victims. His brother Quinlillius was invested with the purple by the army, but he gave such dissatisfiiction by attempting to revive the ancient military discipline, that he was deposed and murdered at the end of seventeen days. CHAPTER CLXX l. ^ (^j ^ Aurelian. — Zenobia, yj 1. AuRELiAN, a native of Sirmium, in Pannonia, was next chosen emperor by the army, A. D. 270, and the senate, well acquainted with his merits, confirmed the election. He made peace with the Goths, and led his army against the Germans, who had once more invaded Italy. Aurelian was at first defeated, but he soon retrieved his fortune, and cut the whole barbarian army to pieces. His next victory was obtained over the Vandals, who had just crossed the Danube. Having thus secured the tranquillity of Europe, he marched into the east against Zenubia. 2. This celebrated queen of Palmyra is one of the most remarkable characters recorded in history. She claimed to be descended from the Ptolemies of Egypt, but it is more probable that she was of Jew- ish origin ; and she is said to have professed the religion of Moses. She was well acquainted with the principal languages of Asia and Europe ; she was skilled in the leading sciences of the times, and so well versed in affairs of state, that the successes of her husband, Ode- natus, are generally ascribed to her counsels. 3. For nearly six years she ruled Syria and Mesopotamia, dis- charging all the duties of an excellent sovereign and an intrepid com- mander. But ambition precipitated the ruin of Zenobia. Not satis- fied with the conquest of Egypt, she aspired to the sovereignty of Asia, and Aurelian resolved to put an end to this power" which encroached so audaciously upon the dignity of Rome. 4. On his march through Thrace, the emperor fought a gieat battle with the Goths. He pursued them across the Danube, nnd slew their king. After this, he crossed the Hellespont into Asia, and sncountered the forces of Zenobia near Antioch. The battle was sanguinary and well contested, but the Romans prevailed. 5. A second victory enabled Aurelian to besiege Palmyra, which CLXXI —1 What of Aurelian ? 2. Zenobia? 3. OfherambitiDul 1 Of Aurelian <^ictoriMi o, 6, 7. Of Palmyra? AURELIAN — ZENOBIA. 237 the vlaunvless queen defended with great spirit ai.d res(»lution. At length, finding there was no hope of succor, she attempted secretly to make her escape into Persia, but was betrayed by her servants, and made prisoner. Palmyra surrendered, but after Aurelian had taken possession of the city, garrisoned it, and begun his ma'ch for Rome, the inhabitants revolted, and put the Roman garrison to the bword Zenobia. 6. Aurelian marched backward without delay, took Palmyra bv b orm, and gave it up to pillage and massacre. The unfortunate inhabitants were put to the sword, without regard to age or sex ; torrents of blood were shed ; the wealth of the citizens became the prey of a greedy and cruel soldiery ; the temples were robbed of their splendid ornaments, and nothing but havoc, massacre and devastation, was seen in this devoted city. 7. This catastrophe was the final ruin of Palmyra, and the splendid papital of Zenobia fell from its ancient power and magnificence, never to rise again. Its ruins in the midst of the Syrian desert now excite the admiratH)n of the traveller by their beauty and grandeur. / 238 DEATH OF AURtLlAN chapterTclxxiij Death of Aurelian. 1. Scarcely had the revolt of tlie Palmjrrc nians been quelled, when Aurelian was again called upon to exercise his arms against an insurrection. The troops in Egypt rebelled , but the celerity of Aure- lian's march disconcerted this movement, which otherwise miglit have been formidable. The rebels were speedily conquered, and the em- peror, having thus suppressed all the troubles of the east, determined to recover Gaul, Spain, and Britain, which had for thirteen yeara been the prey of different usurpers. "2. A single campaign restored these provinces to the empire, and Aurelian, returning to Rome, was honored with the most magnificent triumph that the city had ever beheld. Far more honorable to him, however, was his generous treatment of his captives. A suitable estate was granted to Zenobia and her children, in the neighborhood of Rome, and the captive queen, reconciling herself to her lot, became a respectable Roman matron. Her daughters were married inio fam- ilies of distinction, and the race was not extinct at the downfall of the empire. 3. The latter part of the reign of Aurelian was disturbed by a vio- lent insurrection at Rome, occasioned by the debasing of the coinage. The imperial troops, which attempted to drive the insurgents from the Ccelian Hill, were routed, with ilie loss of several thousand men But by great exertions the insurrection was quelled. 4. The emperor punished the authors of this revolt with such severity as to bring upon him the general dislike of the citizens. He withdrew from the capital, and amused himself with a canjpaign in Gaul, where some disturbances had broken out. He then marched to Vindelicia, which he restored to the empire ; but he abandoned the province of Dacia to the barbarians, withdrawing all the Roman garrisons that had been stationed beyond the Danube. 5. The sternness of Aurelian's disposition, and the inflexible se- verity with which he exercised his authority, led finally to his destruc- tion. While he was preparing to march against the Persians, he discovered an act of peculation committed by Mnestheus, one of his secretaries. As the emperor had sentenced his own nephew to death, and the judgment was rigidly executed, the guilty functionary could indulge no hope of escaping ^he vengeance of his master. 6. By a forged writing, Mnestheus caused a number of persons to believe that they had been marked for destruction by tiie emperor, and thus induced thttr to join in a plot to take iiis life. On the march to Byzantium, Aurelian was attacked by the cons{)irdtors, who slew him with innumerable wounds, A. D. 275. But the fraud was soon discovered, and the soldiers, who were fondly attached to their gen- eral, tore the assassins to pieces. CLXXII. — 1. What look place in Egypt? 2. Of Aure'ian's triumph? 3,4 Whal r»Tolt happened at Rome ? 5,6. How did Aurelian die? TACITUS — PROBUS. 239 CHAPTER jQTVKyTTLl Tacitus, — Prohus, 1. The soldiers of Aurelian, after this act of vengeance, exhibited tn unaccountable moderation and respect for the laws. Instead of raising one of their number to the imperial dignity, they quietly sub- mitted the election to the senate. The wretched fate of the thirty tyrants appears to have operated as a check to that reckless ambition which marked the character of almost every Roman general, and not one of them on this occasion stepped forward to seize the imperial purple. 2. A tranquil interregnum of more than half a year ensued, and at lenjjth the senate made choice of M. Claudius Tacitus, a descend- ant of the historian of that name. Being in his seventy-fifth year, he refused the dangerous honor, and retired to his farm in Campania, to avoid the importunities of the Romans. The necessities of the state, however, induced him to yield. 3. This emperor was a pattern of temperance, moderation, and impartiality. He paid great attention to the morals of the people. He patronized literature, and ordered ten copies of the works of his ancestor to be transcribed every year, with great care and accuracy, to supply the public libraries. 4. He also distinguished himself as a warrior, and drove back the barbarians, who had made an irruption into Asia Minor. But the fatigues of war proved too much for his feeble age, and he died in Cappadocia, after a reign of seven months. 5. Florian, the brother-in-law of Tacitus, was proclaimed emperor by one portion of the army, and Probus, a Pannonian, by another. The party of the latter proved the stronger, and Florian, finding him Belf deserted by his friends, opened his arteries, and bled to death. 6. Probus, now undisputed master of the empire, marched into Gaul, which had been invaded by the barbarians of Germany. He defeated them in several battles, in which four hundred thousand of them were left dead upon the field. From Gaul he passed into Thrace, where he overthrew the Goths. In Asia Minor he subdued the in- surf^ent Isaurians, and divided their lands among his veteran soldiers. 7. Alarmed at these victories, Varanus, king of Persia, sent ambas- sadors to solicit peace, and submitted to the terms dictated by the emperor. ThretJ rebel emperors, who started up in different provinces, were next subdued. CLXXfll. — 1. What happened on the death of Aurelian? 2,3. Of Tacitus? 4 Whal t:ecaiK.e of him? 5. Florian? 6 Probus? 7. Varaaui? 5J40 UARUS, CaRINUS, AND NU.MERIAN. DIOCLESI AN - GALERIUS - CONSTANTIUS. 24 CHAPTER CLXXIV. Car us y CarinuSj Nume^k 1. The Goths and Vandals, hoping to find their advantaire in these insurrections, again invaded the empire. Probus took the field against them, and drove them back to their native wilds. After this he de- voted himself to the arts of peace. He encouraged the inhabitant? \j{ Gaul and Illyricum to plant vines, and he restored seventy cities which had fallen into decay, in different parts of the empire. 2. Having passed through his native city of Sirmium, Probus employed several thousands of his soldiers in draining a fen in its neighborhood, by cutting canals to the sea. The troops, disliking this labor, mutinied, and Probus was attacked by them near an iron tower which he had constructed for the purpose of watching their operations. 3. The emperor made his escape into the tower, but having none of his guards with him, he was overpowered and murdered by the soldiers, A. D. 282. Both his friends and enemies lamented his loss. The soldiers repented of their crime, and assisted in raising a stately monument to his memory. 4. Carus, the commander of the Praetorian Guards, was proclaimed emperor by the army, and this choice was confirmed, with some re- luctance, by the senate. The new emperor bestowed the title of Caesar on his two sons, Carinus and Numerian, the former of whom was one of the most depraved young men of the time, and the lattei Dne of the most virtuous. 5. Carinus obtained a brilliant victory over th<' Sarmatians, and would have carried the war into their own country, had he not been called away by a new invasian of the Persians. He marched into Mesopotamia, where he defeated these latter enemies, and pursued \hem to the gates of Ctesiphon. 6. The emperor, however, did not live to complete his victories by the capture of the city. He was killed by lightning in his tent, along with a number of his attendants, A. D. 283. The distress of Nume- rian, who had accompanied his father in this expedition, was so great that he brought on a disease of his eyes by excessive weeping, and was obliged to be carried in a close litter, on the return of the army from Persia. 7. Aper, his father-in-law, conceiving the design of seizing the empire, hired an assassin to murder him in his litter. In order to conceal the deed, he announced that Numerian was unable to bear the light, and the deception was kept up till the odor of the dead corpse discovered the treachery of Aper. An uproar was immedi- ately excited in the army. Dioclesian was immediately proclaimed rmperor by the soldiers, and with his own hands put the assassin to death. CT^XXIV. — 1. What of the Goths and Vandals ? 2. What were the deedn of Pr<»bu.-j ? 3. How did he die ? 4. Who succeeded him ? 5. 6. What of Caniai 7. 8. Of Aper anJ Numerian ? > , / / CHAPTER YTLXX g Dioclesian, — Galerius. — Constantius, 1. Dioclesian began his reign A. D. 284. This epoch is some rimed regarded as the beginning of a new era, called the " era of martyrs." The observance of this point of time long prevailed in the Christian church, and it is still used by the Copts, the Abyssinians, and the other African Christians. 2. The troubles of the empire appeared too great for one ruler, and Dioclesian selected as a colleague Maximian, a brave and skilful soldier, but also an ignorant and ferocious barbarian. His military talents were soon called into use by the invasions of the barbarians, whom he defeated in several campaigns. 3. A brief interval of tranquillity was followed by new and more alarming disturbances in almost every part of the empire. The two sovereigns, in great alarm, resolved on a further division of authority. Each chose an associate and successor. Dioclesian took Galerius. and Maximian made choice of Constantius Chlorus. A division of the empire followed. Dioclesian retained Asia, Galerius received Thrace and Illyricum, Maximian, Italy and Africa, and Constnntius Gaul, Spain, and Britain. 4. Dioclesian -obtained many signal successes over the Persians but his triumph was sullied by a general persecution of the Christians, which lasted ten years, and surpassed all that had preceded it in severity. Dioclesian and Maximian resigned the empire on the same day, A. D. 305. 5. Dioclesian survived this act nine years, and never regretted the loss of his throne. When Maximian and others wrote to^him advis ing him to resunie the purple, he replied, *' If you could see the cabbages I raise in my garden, you would not ask me to take a throne !" Dioclesian was the first Roman emperor that wore a dia- dem, and the last that enjoyed a triumph. 6. Galerius and Constantius became emperors by the abdication. They divided the empire between them, Galerius taking the east and Constantius the west. Within a ^ear the latter died, at York, in Britain, leaving as his successor, Coastantine, his son, afterwards entitled the Great. 7. From the time of the elevation of this prince to the throne, he wavered between paganism and Christianity. He had at first some competitors for the sovereign authority of the west. Among them was Maxentius, who was at that time in possession of Rome. Con- •^tantine took up his march for Italy, with an army of nearly one hundred thousand men, and advanced almost to the gates of Romei 8. Maxentius went out of the city to meet him, with a force nearly CLXXV,— 1. What of the epoch of Dioclesian? 2, What coUengue did lie choose? 3. \\ hat further division of authority was made? 4. Of persecution? Of the rt'.signa- lion of the (mpeiors? 5. What reply was made hy Dioclesian? 6. Of Oakrius and Constantius? 7. What was the character of Constantine ? 8. Of Maxentius? 242 CONSTANTLSE THE GREAT. double. The battle was fierce and bloody, but at leiifrth the Praetoriai Guards, upou whom Maxentius chiefly relied, were broken and cut tc pieces by repeated charges of the Gallic horse. Maxentius hiuisell was drowned in the Tiber, while attempting to make his escape ovei the Milvian bridge. c H APTE R^;^txxv£;\ Constantine the Greaf , ; ._ .t^ -X Constantine. 1. Constantine, now master of Rome, removed the great source of the calamities which had befallen that city, by disbanding the Prajtoiian Guards. He restored the authority of the senate and mag- istrates, recalled all those who had been banished by Maxentius, and dismissed the wholp tribe of spies and informers. He revoked the edicts which had been issued against the Christians, and paid great respect to the bishops and clergy. 2. In the mean time, by the death of Galerius, and the overthrow uf Maximian, his associate, the empire of tie east had passed into CLXXVl. — 1. What were Conslantine's first acts 7 2 What of Lichiius 1 3. Cour. CONSTANT .\E THE GREAT. o 41) the hands of Licinius, who was a zealous champion of pnuariism. These rivals were soon engaged in a struggle for tlie superiority; but at lenglli Licinius, being defeated in two severe battles, was taken prisoner at Nicomedia. and put to death, A. D. 324. 3. Constantine became thus sole master of the Roman empire. During his reign the controversies in the church led to the convocation of the celebrated Council of Nice, A. D. 325, in which the doctrin* of the trinity was fixed and defined, the heresy of Arius condemned and the spiritual supremacy of the emperor virtually acknowledged When the labors of this assembly terminated, Constantine returned to the western provinces, and paid a visit to Rome, where he vv;i& received in a manner by no means flattering. 4. The populace loaded him with insults and execrations for aban- doning the religion of his forefathers. His rage at this insulting treatment i-? said to have greatly influenced him in removing the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium. At the same time he was liarassed by domestic troubles. Instigated by the Empress Fausta, he put his eldest son, the virtuous Crispus, to death, without a trial, and when too late he discovered his error, he caused Fausta and her ac- complices to be slain. 5. These horrid deeds aggravated his unpopularity among the Ro- mans ; but he no longer regarded their displeasure, having finally resolved to give a new capital to tlie empire. For this purpose he made choice of Byzantium on the Thracian Bosphorus, a place with a magnificent harbor, open to the commerce of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. 6. Here Constantine built a new city, A. D. 330, on a plain rising gently from the water, and commanding the strait which serves as the communication between two great seas. Enormous sums were spent in embellishing the new metropolis, which was divided into fourteen regions, and adorned with a capitol, amphitheatre, splendid palaces, churches, and other public buildings. 7. This city received the name of Constantinople ; and its long r rosperity, and the invincible resistance which it otfered to its barbarian aggressors for a thousand years, show how admirably sagacious was the choice of its founder. 6. The removal of the seat of government completed the change in the Roman constitution, which had been commenced in the reign of Dioclesian ; it became a simple despotism, whh more of a political than of a military character. After he had fixed his residence in the new capital, Constantine adopted oriental manners. 9. He affected the gorgeous attire of the Persian monarchs, deco- rated his head with false hair of different colors, and with a diadem covered with pearls and gems. He substituted flowing robes of silk, eml)roidcred with flowers, for the austere garb of Rome, or the unadorned purple of the first emperors. He filled his palace with spies and parasites, and lavished the wealth of the emi)ire upon state-j ly architecture. y^ cil 01 Nice? 4. How was Conslaniine received at Rame? How did he hehave? 5 Wha; ntw designs diil he meditate? 6, 7. What of the building of Consiaiiliiioi^e? 8. Hov? did this atTect the Roman constitution ? 9. What of Constantine'a manners, dress, kc 7 10. Of Christianity ? 1 1. Of the death of Constantine ? 244 THE SONS OF CONSTANTIXK UOXS'IAIVS -JULIAIS THE APOSTATK. 245 10. Under Coiistantine, Christianity became the established reh^ioi. of the em[)ire ; yet the emperor himself was hardly a Christian. I'p to the age of forty he liad continued to make a public profession ol paganism, although he had long favored the Christians. His devotion u'as divided between Jesus and Aj)ollo, and he adorned the temples of the pagan gods, and the altars of the new faith, with equal ofTerinos. 11. Hut as he advanced in age, his confidence in the Christians increp^ed, and he gave up to them the (education of his children. When he felt the attacks of the disease which terminated his life, at the age of sixty-three, he was formally received into the church and baptized. He expired at Nicomedia, A. D. 337. \ CHAPTER fcLXXVIl. -i The Sons of Constantine. 1. At the death of Constantine, the Roman empire, by his direc- tions, was ordered to be divided among his three sons and two nephews Constantine H., the eldest son, received Gaul, Spain, and Ikitain. To Constantius, the second son, were allotted Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, and to Constans, the youngest, Italy, lllyricum, and Africa. Beside this division, Constantine had bequeathed other countries to his nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, but the senate paid no atten- tion to this part of his vvill. 2. The three sons of Constantine had been educated with the greatest care. The most pious of the Christian teachers, the most celebrated professors of the Grecian [)hilosophy and Roman jurispru- dence, had been engaged to superintend their instruction. But the princes resembled their mother Fausta more than their illustrious father. 3. Before they had emerged from boyhood they were successively invested with the title of Caesar, and intrusted with a share in the government. Such injudicious indulgence necessarily surrounded them with a crowd of flatterers, and exposed them to the corrupt adulations of a court. 4. Constantius was near the capital when his father died. He hastened to take possession of the palace, but his kinsmen being ap- prehensive of his jealous temper, compelled him to take an oath to protect them from danger. A few days afterwards a forged scroll made its appearance through the hands of the celebrated Eusebius. the bishop of Nicomedia. 5. This purported to be a document, signed by the late emperor, accusing his brothers of having poisoned him, and calling upon hiy Bons for vengeance. The soldiers, who were secretly prepared to second this atrocious and incredible charge, loudly demanded the punishment of the accused. CLXXVII. — I. What division did Conslanline make of the empire ? 2, 3. What of his I hie 1 sons? 4. Of Consianlius ? fi. Of ihe forgery 7 6 The massacre ' "^ H:»vi wvis ihe empire next diviiied ) 8. Wliat of Con^jtans and Constantine? ^ All kgai forms were violated, and a promiscuous massacre was made of tbe Flavian family. Gallus and Julian, the youngest son? of Julius Constantius, were with difliculty concealed till the rage of the assas.sins had subsided. A division of the whole empire was' then made by the princes. 7. The eldest took po.ssession of Constantinople: the secotd re- ceived Thrace and the Asiatic provinces ; the west was assigned lo ConsiJins. The eldest, however, not contented with his own por- tion, inviided the dominion of Constans, and made himself master of several towns in Italy. 9. Constans took the field against his brother, and Constantine, having fallen into an ambuscade near Aquileia, was cut olf with his whole army. His body was tiirowr into a river, but w;is afterwards found, and cdrried to Constantinople for interment. ./ CHAPTEJl Gb Constans. — Julian the Apostate. 1. Constans retained undisturbed possession of the western emphe for ten years ; but bis indolence having brought him into contempt with the army, Magnentius, a German, revolted against him. The emperor fled into Spain, but was pursued and put to death at a little village among the Pyrenees. 2. Constantius, in the mean time, was engj ged in a war with the Persians. Having terminated this successfully, he found occupation for his armies in the west, where several usurpers had started up. Nepotian, a nephew of Constantine the Great, made himself master of Rome, and committed great slaughter among the inhabitants. He was overthrown by Marcellinus, the prime minister of Magnentius. 3. Other revolutions followed, the particulars of which would be little instructive or amusing to the reader. Constantius raised his cousin Gallus to the rank of Caesar, and overthrew Magnentius at the battle of Mursa, in Pannonia. The tranquillity which followed was of short duration. The empire was disturbed"^ by irruptions of the barbarians of the north, and by the tyrannical conduct and cruelties of Gallus, who, at the instigation of his wife, filled the provinces with bloodsned. 4. Constantius at length put him to death, and raised his cousin Julian to the dignity of CaRsar. Though this young man had devoted himself principally to literature, yet he exhibited the greatest bravery and skill lus a soldier. Constantius appointed him governor of Gaul, and gave him his sister Helena in marriage. 5. Julian began his march for Gaul, and having come up with an army of barbarians in a thick wood between Auxerre and Troyes, he defijated them with great slaughter. He next overthrew a host of Germans, advanced to Cologne, repaired its f' rtifications, and went into winter quarters at Sens, in Gaul. CLXXVIII. — I. What of Cop.stans and Magnentius? 2 Nepotian? a Gallus Mas- 21* '//- 1 \ . < §. A 246 JLLIAiN THE APOSTATE. 6. Here he was besieged by the barbarians fur nearly a month, bui forced ihem to retire. He then drove the enemy out of their retreats in the islands of the Rhine, defeated a great army eoinmanded by seven kings, near Strasburg, and effected the complete pacif)calion o<" the country. Julian 7. Julian was in his thirty-second year, when, by the death of bis cousin, A. D. 361, he became sole emperor. He had been educated a Christian, but he abandoned that religion for pagafiism, and by that steji acquired in history the surname of the Apostate. Vanity was strongly marked in his character ; he chose to be regarded as a phi- losopher rather than as a sovereign. 8. To acquire that title, he thought fit to disregard some of the common decencies of life. A treatise is still extant from his pen, in which he expatiates with singular complacency on the fi'thy state of his beard, the length of his nails, and the inky Idaoknessof his hands, as if cleanliness were inconsistent with the philosophic character. nenlius, aiul the barbarians? Miy ? 8. His writings ? 4 ulian 1 5, €. The war in Gaul ? 7. Of Julian's apo» DEATH OF JULIAN. 247 r.HAPTEjTU^XlX.l Death of Julian. 1. In every other respect the conduct of Julian merits high praise Me was just, mercii'ul, and tolerant. Though frequently urged tc become a persecutor, he allowed his subjects that freedom of opinion which he claimed for himself. IJut though Julian would not inflict punishment for a difference of opinion, he enacted several disqualify- ing laws, by which he labored to deprive the Christians of wealth, knowledge, and power. He ordered their schools to be closed, and he jealously excluded them from all civil and miHtary offices. 2. In a war against the Persians, Julian advanced triumphantly as far as the Tigris ; but the enemy, though defeated in the field, adopt- ed a means of defence more terrible to an invader than arms. They laid waste the country, destroyed the villages, and burnt the crops, in the line of march pursued by the Romans." 3. A burning sun weakened the powers of the western veterans, and when famine was added to the severities of the climate, their suf- lerings became intolerable. With a heavy heart, Julian at length gave orders for a retreat, and led his exhausted soldiers back over the desert plains which they had already passed with so much difficulty. 4. But the march of the Romans was greatly impeded by the light cavalry of the Persians, who hovered round their flanks and rear, discharging showers of darts and arrows, but retreating whenever an attempt was made to bring them to a genera] engagement. 5. At length the rear guard of the Romans was thrown into disor- der by a charge of the enemy. Julian flew to its succor, with no other defensive anus than his buckler. The Persians were put to flight, but the emperor was struck by an arrow. As he tried to draw it out, another pierced his fingers. He fell from his horse, fainting and bathed in blood, and was carried to his tent, where he expired the same night, A. D. 363. 6. The name of Apostate has sullied the character of this emperor, yet it must be borne in mind that he was taught Christianity by a prince who was the murderer of his relatives, and that his dislike of that religion, under such circumstances, was quite natural. 7. Notwithstanding his vanity and paganism, Julian had many bhining qualities. He did not directly persecute the Christians, Ihough he did much to injure them and their cause. He attempted to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem, and restore the Jewish worship ; hut in this design he is said to have met with a most extra »rdinary obstacle. A miraculous explosion of fire from beneath the ounda- tions of the temple destroyed the workmen, and put a stop to the whole undertaking. Many critical writers, however, question the truth of this story. Cl.XXIX. — 1. What waa the character of Julian '.' 2 Of the Persian war? 3,4. What misfortune happened to the Romans ? 5, How did J»'lian die ? 6. Of his a})ostacjr ' T. Of his attempt to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem? t>48 VALKNTINIAN AND VALENS. — DIVISION OF THE EMPIRfc. CHAPTER CLXXX. Va/entiniati and Valens. — Division of the Empire, 1. On the death of Julian, the army unanimously raised to the eni pire, Jovian, a Pannonian, who bore the reputation of an able peneial Having been educated a Christian, he at first declined the charge, or. the ground that the peeple whom he was called to govern had relapsed ii.to idolatry. But when the soldiers assured him that they preferred (/hristianity, his scruples were overcome. 2. The army was now in extreme distress ; a famine niged in tiic camp to such a degree that every man would have perished had not the Persians made offers of peace. Though the terms were, on thp \vhol'\ disadvantageous, they were willingly accepted. 3. The first edict of Jovian was a repeal of Julian's disqualifying laws respecting the Christians ; at the same time he calmed the fears of his pagan subjects by a wise edict of toleration, in which le pro- hibited no rites, however idolatrous, except those of magic. 4. These judicious measures at once showed how ineflk lual had been the etTorts of Julian to revive the fallen spirit of paganism. The heathen temples were immediately deserted, the sacrifices neg- lected, and the priests left alone at their altars. Those persons, who, to gratify the former sovereign, had assumed the dress and title of philosophers, were assailed by such storms of ridicule, that they laid aside the designation, shaved their beards, and were soon undistin- guished in the general mass of society. 5. Jovian did not long survive this peaceful triumph of Christianity. On his journey toward Constantinople, he slept in a damp room, which his attendants heated with charcoal. The emperor was suffocated by the vapor, and found dead in his bed, A. D. 3G4. 6. For ten days after the death of Jovian, the Roman world re- mained without a sovereign. At length Valentinian was chosen by the council of ministers and generals, and the army acquiesced in their decision. The new emperor divided his dominion with his brother Valens, to whom he assigned the eastern provinces, reserv- ing to himself Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, Africa and Illyrieum. 7. The emperor of the west established his court at Milan, the eastern emperor resided at Constantinople. This division of the empire was so manifestly required by the necessities of the times, that all parties readily acquiesced in the arrangement. The annals of the Byzantine empire from this period form a separate history, although the two governments had occasional connections for a few years afterwards. 8. Valentinian displayed his military skill against the barbarians t)f Africa and Gaul, and those on the banks of the Hhine and Danube. The Quadi sent ambassadors to sue for peace, but the empercr up- braided tht?ln for their conduct, and wl?ile speaking with great warmtli, CLXXX. — 1. Who succeedetl Julian 1 2. ' Vhal of the ar-iy 7 3, 4. What was th SonducL /f Jjvian in regard lo relieio-^ 7 5, Jow did Jovian die? 6 Who succecde 'P:. :■ < GRAJ \N. -IN ASION OF THE HUNS. 245 \ he urst a blood-vessel and fell upon the ground, whcie he expired, A. J). 375. The reign of Valens iii the east was disturbed by revolts, which were aided by the Goths; but these were repressed. Valei.s perse- cuted the orthodox clergy; and a dej)utation of eighty of these being sent to remonstrate with him, he ordered them to be put to death. The person who was charged v;ith this odious duty, dreading a pop- ular commotion, put them all on board a ship, and when it was at some distance from the shore, the sailors set it on fire, and escaped in their boats. 10. Valens also persecuted those who professed to be magicians, and all who had books of magic in their possession. People of all ranks burnt tlieir libraries, lest their enemies might have secretly introduced such works into them. I 1 1 . The Goths, after committing great ravages in Macedonia .:>^ V and Thessaly, advanced toward Constantinople. A sanguinary battle was fought at Adrianople, in which the Romans were com- pletely overthrown. The emperor escaped ^rom the field in the darkness of the night, and took refuge in a hut, which was set on fire by the enemy, and Valens was burnt to death, A. D. 378. In the mean tune, Gratian, the son of Valentinian, had succeeded his father in the west. By the death of Valens he became master of the whole Roman world. x) CHAPTER CLXXXI, lU'ie^ Gratian, — Invasion of the Hu V i/ v^Nw 1. Both the eastern and western empires w^ere beginning to enjoy 'lie sweets of repose, when a people more barbarous and ferocious Jiian any previously known appeared on the north-eastern frontiers. These were the Huns, who came from that vast region of central Asia comprised between the river Irtish, the Altaian Mountains, the great wall of China, and Mantchoo Tartary. 2. Their persons are represented by the historians of that day as a frightful caricature of humanity ; their faces were more like lumps of flesh than a composition of intelligent features. Their deformed shapes may have been caused in some degree by their strange custom of flattening the nose of their male infants as soon as they were born, in order that the vizor which they wore in battle should fit closer to the face. They had also the custom of ph eking out the beard as soon as it began to grow. 3. They lived on flesh either entirely raw, or sodden by being placed under their saddles when riding at a heavy gallop. Their Hfe was devoted to war and hunting ; they left the cultivation of their fields to the women and slaves. They built no cities, and erected no houses. him? 7. Haw was the empire divided? 8. What of Valentinian? 9, 10. Of Valen? *nd hid persecutions ? 11. The Goths ? How did Valens die ? UJUUU. -- 1. What of the Huns ? 2, 3. How are they describe*! ^ 4. Wh?t of • N 2J0 THEOnOSlUS THE GREAT. A. place Jr a r rounded by walls they looked upon as a sepulchre, and they never believed themselves in safety beneath a roof. 4. About the commencement of the second century, the southern Huns, aided by the Chinese and the eastern Tartars, expelled theit noithern brethren from their ancient habitations, and compelled them to seek refuge in the Territory of the Bakshirs. Here they were brought into contact with the Alans, whom they gradually drove be- fore them, being pressed forward themselves by fresh hordes from the east, until they took possession of the places between the Volga and the Dv^n. 5. Being now joined by the Alans, and other barbarous tribes whom ihey had conquered, the Huns crossed the latter river with their in- numerat»le cavalry, and swept the rich fields of the Ostrogoths. The latter were defeated, and at length the greater part of the nation aban- doned tl e country, and retired behind the Dnieper and Dniester. The Huns mide a horrible carnage of all who remained, sparing neither women ror children. G. The conquerors soon passed the Dniester, and intlicted the same calahiities on the Visigoths. The whole Gothic nation was now re- duced to despair ; their warriors, who had so often maintained a fierce struggle against the Roman legions, now appeared as suppliants on the banks of the Danube, begging for permission to cultivate the waste lar.ds of Thrace. 7. This request was granted, on condition that they would resign their arms. But the officers who were sent to see this stipulation enforced were bribed ; the Goths retained their weapons, which they regarded as the means of obtaining more valuable possessions than those which they had lost. CHAPTER pTXXXH . Theodosius the Great. 1. Gratian assumed Theodosius as his partner in the empiie, and assigned him the provinces which Valens had governed. By his skill and experience in war, this prince obtained many splendid victories over the barbarians. He defeated the Goths in Tlirace, and captured four thousand of their chariots, with an immense number of prisoners. 2. He also gained the good-will of this nation by his equitable and moderate conduct, and they resolved never more to molest the Ro- mans, but guarded the banks of the Danube to prevent any invasion of the empire from that quarter. Gratian, being a zealous Christian; displayed his enmity to paganism in such a manner as to cause a re- rolt. He w;is defeated and slain near Paris, A. D. 383. 3. Maximinus, who was at the head of this insurrection, becamo Chinese, Tartars. Alans, Ac? 5. Of the invasion of the Huns? 6, What was iha :ondi;ion of the Gothic nation ? CLXXXII. — I. W^hal of Gratian and Thetwlosius? 2. What became of Gratian* THEODOSIUS THE GREAT. 251 eniperur of the west ; but in a few years he was overthrown by Tliec»- d(»sius, aud put to rieath. The city of Alexandria, in Egypt, was ai this time disturbea by tJie unimosities of tlie Christians and i»agai)s. The Kilter havinir attacked their opponents. Theodosius resolved to (/unish them severely. Theodosius. 4. He ordered all the pagan temples in that city to be thrown down, and on his return to Constantinople he completed his design by com- (nandinjr all the heathen temples throughout the empire to be destroyed His persecutions were directed with equal zeal against the Christians who ditfered from him in opinion, and he ordered the Arians to be expelled from every city in the empire. 5. Valentinian II., the emperor of the west, laving placed too much ^•onfidence in his general, Arbogastes, a native of Gaul, was treach- erously murdered by him at Vienne, in that C(umtry. The traitor might have seized upon the throne, but instead of this he invested witli the purple Eugenius, one of the imperial secretaries, ai I reigned in his name. C. He sent deputations to Theodosius, but the latter refused tt enter into any negotiations with the usurper, aud made preparations for w-ar. Having raised a powerful army, he crossed the Alps, and 3. What ')f Maximinus? 4. Of tlie persecutions of Theodosius ? 5. What of Valen 252 AKCADIUS A\U HONORIUS. l-Hfi DRITONS. 2o:\ encjuntonu the forces of Ei genius on the banks of tlie Wibach The usurper was d3feated, nnd his own soldiers cut off his head while he was be^ffing for his life before Theodosius. 7. Arbo^astes fled into the mountains, where he committed suicide His children, with those of Eugenius, took retujje in the churches. Theodosius granted them a pardon, restored to them their paternal estates, and raised them to honorable stations in the government. 8. In consequence of this victory, Theodosius became master of the whole Roman world. But he was well aware that the division of the empire into east and west had now become a permanent neces- sity. He therefore, by his will, appointed Arcadius, his elder son, emperor of the east, and Honorius, the young^er, emperor of the west. Shortly after making this arrangement, as he was prepanng to return to Constantinople, he was attacked by a dropsy, at Milan, and Hird in that city, A. D. 395. CHAPTER CLXXXHI. Arcadius and Honorius. 1. The memory of their father's virtues protected the feeble youth of Arradius and Honorius. Stilicho, a general of superior abilities, and a statesman of profound wisdom, acted as the guardian of Hono- rius. He was descended from the perfidious race of the V'andals, and possessed in an eminent degree the cunning, treachery, and crutdty that characterized his nation. 2. Rufinus, who possessed all the bad qualities of Stilicho, with- Hit his redeeming virtues, administered the government of the east, inder Arcadius. The ministers of the two empires liated each other most cordially, and each secretly sought to remove his rival. 3. A Gothic leader of the Roman troops, named Gainas, who was supposed to act from the instigation of Stilicho, put Rufinus to death. Arcadius chose for his new minister, Eutropius, one of his servants, and Gainas now declared himself the determined enemy of his former general. 4. The national hatred between the Greeks and the Romans was excited by the rival ministers, and thus, at a moment when a close union was necessary to prevent ruin, the subjects of Arcadius and Honorius were induced to regard each other not only as foreigners, but as enemies. 5- The Goths, who had remained quiet during the reign of Theo- dosius, disdained submission to his unwarlike successors. On pretence that the subsidy prudently paid them by the late emperor was with- held, they raised the standard of revolt, and chose for their leadei linian and Arbogasles? 6. What was the fate of Eugenius? 7. Or Arbogaslc?? 8. How liid Thftodosuia divide tho empire ? CLXXXlIl.— l. What of Arr^dius and Honorius? Of Stilicho? 2. 01 Slufir.us? 1. Ot (Jamas and Euiropiua ? 4. Of the Greeks and Romans i 5. The Goths ) Aiaric I 6 Whdt« <■ his invasion of Greece? 7. What of Suhcho and Alaric J Aiaric, the most formidable enemy that the R( mans had hitherto encountered. 6. Agaric, instead of confining his depredations to the northern provinces, which were already wasted by frequent incursions, resolved to invj,.do (Greece, where the din of arms had not been heard for cen- turies. The barbarians encountered little or no resistance. The memorable pass of Thermopyla? was abandoned by its garrison, and the Goths ravajjed the whole country without opposition. 7. The Greeks, unable to piotect themselves, sought the aid of Stilicho, and that great leader hastened to their assistance. He in- flicted a severe defeat on the Goths, but soon learnt that the court of ( Constantinople had concluded a treaty of peace with Aiaric. Stilicho returiied to Italy, while the eastern emperor, with incomprehensible folly, nominated the Gothic leader Mast^^-vjeneral of Eastern Illy- ricum. CHAPTER CLXXXIV. The Britons, 1. From the time when the barbarians established themselves in all •»arts of the empire, this vast portion of the world, heretofore subject to the levelling influence of a despotism which had broken down all distinctions and all diflferences, now presented the wildest assemblage of dissimilar manners, opinions, languages, religions, and govern- ments. In spite of the habits of servility which were hereditary among the subjects of the empire, their subordination was broken up ; the law no longer reached them ; oppression or protection no longer emanated from Rome or from Constantinople. 2. The supreme power, in its impotence, had called upon them 1 govern themselves ; and ancient national manners, ancient local opii. ions, began to reappear under the borrowed garb of Rome. But this strange medley of provincialisms was nothing compared to that intro- duced by the barbarians, who had pitched their camps in the midst of Roman cities, and whose kings were constantly intermingled witli senators and with bishops. 3. At one extremity of the Roman dominions, the island of Britain escaped from the power which had civilized but enervated it. Stili- cho had withdrawn the legions from it for the defence of Italy. The usurper Constantine, who had revolted against Honorius between the years 407 and 411, and who, after reducing Britain, had attempted the conquest of Gaul, led thither all the soldiers who still remained in the island. 4. After he was defeated, and his head sent to Ravenna, Honorius did not choose to deprive himself of any portion of his troops for the defence of so remote a province ; he wrote to the cities of Britain as \ CLXXXIV. — 1. What of the establishment of the IjarUrians in the empire? 2. f ♦he supreme power? 3. Of Stilicho and Constaniine in P ttaiii ? A. How did Honom 9:^ 254 THE BRITONS if they already formed an independent conludeialion, and exhorted them to provide for their own defence. 5. Fourteen of these cities were considerable ; several had already made great progress in arts and commerce, and, above all, in that Koman luxury winch so rapidly tamed and deadened the fiercest :ouraore. 0. London was a large and flourishing town ; but, amon^r its nu- merous inhabitants, not one was found who dared to take up arms. Its municipal government, established on the Roman system, like Jiose of York, Canterbury, Cambridge, &c., would have given th^ni the advantages of a republican administration, if they had preserved a little more public spirit; but the poison of a foreign domination had sapped the vital energies of the country. 7. It is in the country, and not in the towns, that we must look for the first symptoms of the revival of a national feeling. The Celtic language, which was almost extinct in Gaul, had been preserved in britain, — a proot that the rural population was not utterly crushed. 8. It seems that the rich proprietors, the ]3ritish senators, were aware that their security and their power depended wholly on their union with the people ; it is probable that they lived in the midst of their peasantry, and learned their language ; at all events, we find their reappearuig under British, and not under Roman names, in that str gg\e which they were soon called upon to sustain with the Picta a- J bcots, and, at a later period, with the Saxons. 9. The condition of Armorica, or Britanny, was nearly similar, jothinthe nature of its population, which had likewise preserved the Celtic language and manners, and in its remoteness from the cen tre of the empire. The Armorican cities also formed a league whicK raised a sort of miiitia for their own defence, and inspired some rt spect up to the time of the Frankish invasion. 10. The vigor of the fierce Osismians, who inhabited the western coast of Britanny ; their courage, their agility, their attachment to then- hereditaiy chieftains, recalled to the rest of the Gauls what their fathers had been. They resembled those mountaineers of Scotland whom Sir Walter Scott has so admirably depicted, such as thev remained scarcely more than half a century ago. 11. In spite of the prohibitory laws of Augustus and Claudius, many of them adhered to the primitive worship of tbe gods of the Druids ; those atrocious divinities, whose altars were buried in the depths ot forests, and stained with human blood. Others had em- braced Christianity, and, during four centuries, they furnished a great number of saints to the church of Rome. 12. So long as the British heroes, such as Hoel, Allan, Judicael (to whom several churches were dedicated,) retained the vigor of' youth or manhood, they knew no other passion than ti.at fo,- war • they poured down by night on the nearest Roman or (ia-ilish villages,' which they pillaged and burned ; but, when their ferocity was tamed l)y age, and began to give place to the terrors of a future judgment, Ihey shut themselves up in convents, and lived a life of the severest penance. COM.]ijcttoward.s the Britons? T,. The British cities? 6. London? 7. The Cell c, Ian fUH-e? ft. The Bniislj senator!* ? «J. Armorica? 10. The Osismians ? rHK FtlANKS, BURGUNDIANS, AND ViSRiOTllS. 255 CHAPTER^'^^XXVr The Franks^ Burgundians^ and Visigoths, 1. The Franks had begun to cross over from the eastcirn to tie i/estern bank of the Rhine, and had made some settlements in Bel- gium ; but. faithful to their alliance with the empire, which had made the greatest exertions and sacrifices to presence their friendship, thei^ everywhere appeared in the character of soldiers of the emperors , their numerous petty sovereigns solicited imperial dignities ; their highest ambition was to rise at the court of the s)ns of Theodosius : and they had learned how to combine the arts of intrigue with valor. 2. They oppressed and despoiled the peasantry upon whom they .vere quartered ; in a sudden burst of fury, or in a fit of rapacity, they attacked large cities ; even Treves, the capital of all the Gauls, and Cologne, the chief town of Lower Germany, were on several occasions pillaged by them. But the emperors and their prefects were too sensible of the importance of their Frankish allies to cherish long resentment, and peace was soon concluded at the expense of the defenceless sufferers. 3. The Burgundians in eastern, and the Visigoths in southern Gaul, also called themselves the soldiers of the emperors. Their condition was, however, very different from that of the Franks ; the entire nation had transmigrated into a new abode, without acknowledging any fixed limits ; it had extended its dominion wherever it could make its power feared. 4 . The king of the Burgundians sometimes held his court at Yiennc on the Rhone, sometimes at Lyons or Geneva ; the kings of the Visi- goths at Narbonne, at Bordeaux, or oftener at Toulouse ; the city was subject to them, yet Roman magistrates still continued to regu- late the police, and to administer justice according to Roman laws, and in favor of Roman subjects. 5. The Visif»oths and the Burgundians had appropriated lands either waste, or taken from the original proprietors without many formali- ties ; these were abandoned to their flocks and herds, or occasionally cultivated by their slaves ; but negligently and without any outlay which must await a tardy return. They chose to be ready to quit the fields they had sown, the next year, if needful. 6. The two nations had not yet taken root in the soil. The Visi- goths sometimes passed over from Aquitaine into Spain ; the Bur- gundians from the banks of the Rhine to those of the Moselle. The habits of a wandering life, confirmed by half a century, could not be broken through at once : all the Visigoths were Christians, but of tfie Arian sect, as were also the Burgundians. The bishops hated heresy far more than paganism. CLXXXV. — i. What of the Franks in the empire ? 2. Of their ravages and oppres •ion? 3. 1 he Bur2'in(]ians ? 4. The Burj^ndian and Visigoihic kir^s? 5. Tiieir or eupation rf the lauds? 6. Their wandering habits? 2H} THE BARBARIAN GOVEKNMKNl'S. chapter Tlxxxvl] The Barbarian Governments. 1. NtVF.RTHKLEss, the priests understood too well when-' the power of the sword lay, to dispute the authority ol" these harbaric kinp^s, as they had lately disputed that of the emperors. At Toulouse and at A' ienne, they paid their court conjointly with the senators ; the prelates, in all the pomp of their ecclesiastical ornaments, and thu senators, still wearing the once awe-inspiring toga, mingled with the rude warriors whom they hated and despised, but whose favor they sought and gained by dexterous flattery. 2. The same form of civil administration still subsisted. A praMo rian prefect still resided at Treves; a vicar of the seventeen Gallic provinces at Aries ; each of these provinces had its Roman duke , each of the hundred and fifteen cities of Gaul had its count ; each city its curia, or municipality. But, collaterally with this Romau organization, the barbarians, assembled in their mollum^ or parlia- ment, of which their kings were presidents, decided on peace and A^ar, made laws, or administered justice. 3. Each division of the army had its Graf Jarl, or count; each subdivision its centenary, or hundred-man ; and all these fractions of the free population had the same right of deciding by suflVagie, in »heir own mallums, or peculiar courts, all their common afl'airs. In cases of opposition between the barbarian and the Roman jurisdic- tion, the overbearing arrogance of the one, and the abject basen* sa of the other, soon decided the question of supremacy. 4. In some provinces the two powers were not concurrent ; the re were no barbarians between the Loire and the Meuse, nor betwe lu the Alps and the Rhone ; but the feebleness of the Roman govern ment was only the more conspicuous. A few great proprietors cul- tivated a part of the province with the aid of slaves ; the rest w is desert, or only inhabited by Bagaudae, runaway slaves, who lived ly robbery. 5. Some towns still maintained a show of opulence, but not one gave the slightest sign of strength ; not one enrolled its militia, n »r repaired its fortifications. Tours, renowned for the tomb of St. Mar- tin, and the miracles attributed to it, appeared to be a capital of priesti» , nothing waf to be seen within its walls but processions, churches, chapels, and books of devotion exposed for sale. 6. Treves and Aries had not lost their ancient passion for the games of the circus, and the crowd could not tear themselves from the theatre when the barbarians were at their gates. Other towns and especially the villages, remained faithful to their ancient godo ; and, spite of the edicts of successive emperors, many temples we/e CLXXXVI. — 1. How did the priests conduct toward the f evenly which varied with each particular country. CLXXXVIII. — I. What was the state of Britain after the death of Honorius ? 2. O* Gregory of Tours? 3, 4. What does Procopius relate of Britain"? 5, 6. Of the peopk af Britain ? 7. When was Britain separated from the rest of the world? STILICHO. fc> 09 7. This total ocparation of Britain from the rest of the world begins from the year 42(i or 427, the supposr-d date of the departure of the tasl Roman legion from her shores. It ends, or at least becomes jess distinct, frpm the time of the coronation of Alfred the Greit, in 872 CHAPTER CLXXXIX. Stilicho, 1. Stiliciio was soon called upon to defend Italy i gainst Alaric. who forced a passage over the Julian Alps, and advanced towaids Milan. Ilonorius lied from his capital, but was so c.osely pursucnl tliat he was overtaken and besieged in Asta. The rapid march of Slilicho saved the emperor, and the Goths were defeated on the same plains where Marius had overthrown the Cimbri. 2. Alaric, having rallied his shattered forces, moved rapidly toward Rome. The capital was saved by the diligence of Stilicho, biit the departure of the Goths from Italy was purchased by a large tribute. This invasion so alarmed the timid Honorius, that he resolved to fix liis residence in some strong fortress, and for this purpose he selected Ravenna, on the Adriatic. 3. Before Italy had recovered from the terrors ot the Gothic inva- sion, a new horde of barbarians, from the shores of the Baltic, swept over Germany and Gaul, and crossed the Alps, the Po and the Apennines, before an army could be assembled to resist them. These consisted of a mixture of Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians and Goths, under the conduct of Radagaisus, a more formidable enemy even than Alaric. 4. The Goths had embraced Christianity, and their fierce passions were in some degree moderated by the mild precepts of the gospel. IJut Radagaisus was a stranger to any religion but the cruel creed of his fiilhers, which taught that the favor of the gods could be propi- tiated only by human sacrifices. 5. The wealtl)y city of Florence was besieged by the barbarians ; but this place, being well garrisoned and provisioned, held out till the urrival of Stilicho, who again earned the title of Deliverer of Italy. He blockaded the army of Radagaisus, and compelled the besiegers to surrender at discretion, A. D. 40(). The barbarian leader was put to death, and his followers were sold as slaves. 6. Those of the hordes who were not involved in the calamity of Florence fell back upon Gaul, and laid waste that province from the Riiine to the Pyrenees. The provincials, receiving no aid from the court of Ravenna, proclaimed Constantino, the governor of Britain, emperor. Stilicho entered into a treaty with Alaric against the CLXXXIX —1. What of Stilicho and Honorius? 2. Of Marie's marrh to R„n.e? 3 What new horde of barbarians invaded the enr-ire? 4 What of Uadairmsi.s 5. OftheRiet,'e of Florence? 6. What Ivjcame of Sti ho? 7. Whatof Oiympiodorisi B What was done by the barbarian soldiers ? 60 ALARIC, AITILA, AND GENSERIC. usurper ; but before it could be carried into effect, this last proai penera of the Romans was treacherously murdered by his unwonhy mastet, A. I). 408. 7. Olympius, a miserable favorite, was elevated to his office. The first measure of the new minister was as impolitic as it was monstrous. He ordered a promiscuous massacre of the families of the barbarians througliout Italy, instead of retaining them as hostages for the fidelity of the mercenary cohorts. 8. The cruel edict was too well obeyed ; and thirty thousand of the bravest soldiers in the Roman pay invited Alaric to head them in avenging the slaughter of their wives and children. The Got ha marched immediately into Italy, and, disdaming meaner i»rizcSj took their course directly towards Rome. L i y CTAJ^ER \CXC| Alaric, Atiila, and Geiiseric, 1. Alaric laid siege to Rome A. D. 408, and would have ca|>- trred the city had not the emperor complied with his demand for u ransom. This consisted of five thousand pounds of gold, thirty thousand pounds of silver, four thousand silk garments, three thousand skins dyed purple, and three thousand pounds of pepper. To furnish these materials, the temples of Rome were stripped of their remaining ornaments, and, among others, of the statue of Valor, which the pagans did not fail to interpret as a presage of the speedy ruin of the state. 2. Alaric, having received this treasure, departed for a short time, but soon returned, captured the cjty, and gave it up to be plundered by his soldiers. The churches, however, were spared. On the sixth day after the capture, the Goths evacuated Rome and marched to the south. 3. Alaric was preparing to invade Sicily, when he was attacked by a sickness which quickly put an end to his life. His body was interred in the bed of a small river near Cosenza, and the captives who pre- pared his grave were murdered, that the Romans might never know the place of his sepulture. 4. Honorius died A. D 423. His nephew, Valentininn III., was declared emperor of the west, under the guardianship of his mother Placidia. He was scarcely seated on the throne when the empire was invMded by the Huns. The Romans had two celebrated gen- erals, ^]tius and Boniface, who by their union might have saved tho empire. 5. But unhappily, through the treachery of ^-Etius, his rival was driven into a revolt, a civil war ensued, and Boniface lost his life. CXC. — 1. What of the siege of Rome by Alaric ? 2. Of its cajMiire? 3. Of tlie death '■i Alaric? 4. 01 Honorius and Valeniinian? 5. Of ^ti us and Bon face? 6. Of ib« ■,L END OF THE WESTERN EIMPIKE. 261 /Eti IS, notwithstanding his treachery, was pardoned, and placed \\ ihe head of the forces of the empire. r>. The Huns, under Attila, made an irruption into Gaul, A. 3. 451. ^^^.tius entered into an alliance with the Visigoths, aided oy whom he ijained a great victory over Attila at Chalons, in the same year, and drove him beyond the frontiers of the province. But in the ensuing spring *he Huns poured like a torrent into Italy, and laid waste the countrv. 7. The death of Attila, who fell a victim to intemperance, and the civil wars among his followers, delayed the utter ruin of the empire. But the murder of -^tius by the ungrateful Valentinian, and the unchecked ravages of the barbarians, rendered all the provinces mis- erable. 8. The Vandals, under Gens^nc, ravaged Africa and Sicily ; the Goths, Burgundians, and SueTi had taken possession of Gaul and Spain, and the Britons were so oppressed by the Scots and Picts, that they were obliged to call in the Saxons to their assistance. 9. Valentinian was assassinated A. D. 455, by the patrician Max- imus, whose wife he had grossly injured. Maximus immediately assumed the purple ; but he was quickly disgusted with the cares of a throne, and wished to retire to private life. Being dissuaded from this by his friends, and his wife dying soon after, he compelled Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian, to marry him. This woman in revenge, invited Genseric and the Vandals into Italy. CHAPTER ire. t/ End of ihe Western Empire 1 . The Vandal army besieged Rome, A. D. 455. A violent tumult arose in the city, and Maximus was killed. Rome was taken and plundered by Genseric, who carried off what had been left by the Goths. A ship was loaded with costly statues, the tiling of the cap- itol, which was of brass plated with gold, sacred vessels enriched with precious stones, and those which had been taken by Titus out of the temple of Jerusalem, all of which were lost with the vessel on '\U passage to Africa. 2. By the influence of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, a Gaul of noble family, named Avitus, was made emperor. But he was soon deposed by Count Ricimer, the commander of the barbarian auxil- iaries intrusted with the defence of Italy, and Marjorian put in his place. 3. This emperor was also dethroned by the soldiery, A. D. 401 Ricimer then chose Severus, one of his own adherents, to be nominal Invasion of the Huns under Attila ? 7. Of the death of Attila and ^tius ? 8. Of Gen- fcric. the Vandals and Britons? 9. Of Valentinian and Maximus? CXCI. — 1. What of th3 sie^e of Rome by the Vandals ? What became of the pi %der of Rome t 2. What of Theodoric the Ostrogoth? Ricimer? Marjorian? c The >62 END OF THE WESTERN EMPIHK. emperor, retaininrr all the power of the government in his own han^ ^^^^^ «^»^««ls Of philoso- phy that the Romans had little motive to invent new systems, since every one might find, in the doctrines of some sect or other, tenets which could be sufficiently accommodated to his own taste and siiua- ifiun • AtllJ'pK^'i^^'^TAr"^^.^^ ^^"^^ frequented the schools of Athens, Rhodes and Alexandria, to learn rhetoric and philosophy. Ihe Greek philosophers were likewise patronized at Rome ; the respect which Auo-ustus paid to these sages was a politic measure and highly popular among his subjects. Augustan age ? 8. What of Greek and Roman eenin^ 1 Q wko. : n ^ j . literature of the Auirusian a-ei 10 11 Wh,,^!rf i J- 9- rj^hat innncnces had lh« Vk^Jiere were the noble Roinan youth oducaled 3 ^"" pblc«ophical i.rue« J 12L DECLINE AND EXTINCTION OF ROMAN LITEKATURK. Of\U CHAPTER CXCV. Decline and Extinction of Roman Literature. 1. After the Augustan age, Roman literature began very sensioly U» decline from its height of glory and perfection. From the concur- rence of many causes, this decay was more rapid than its forriiei progress and improvement had been. Among these causes were the establishment of despotism, the little encouragement given to litera- ture by most of the emperors succeeding Augustus, the great increase of luxury, and consequent degeneracy of manners. 2. The changes in the moral and political condition of Rome paralyzed the nobler motives which had stimulated the citizens. Pure taste and delicate sensibility were gradually lost ; gaudy ornament was admired rather than real beauty ; affectation was substituted f ii nature, and the subtleti(!s of sophistry for true philosophy. lOSSIMO'MHIIlTr St Tar It us. 3. Finally, the invasions ot the barbarians, the frequent interna commotions, the conflict of Christianity with pagan superstition, the CXCV. — 1. When did Roman literature decline? 2, 3. What were the causet 4, 5, 6. What of Tacitus? 7. Quintui* Curiiua ? 8. Florus? 23* 270 LATER ROMAN WRITERS. LATER ROMAN VVRllERS. 271 removal of the seat of goverrment to Constantinoi»le, anc\ the divisiot of the empire, consummated the fall of Roman literature. 4. Among the names deserving of mention during this latter period, the most prominent is that of Tacitus. lie was born about A. D. 50, at Interamna, in Italy, but received his education at Massilia, now Marseilles, in France. He began to rise in office under Vespasian, and gained some of the higliest honors in the state He was celebrated, while young, for his eloquence at the bar. 5. Tacitus wrote tlie Roman History, from the death of Nero to that of Domitian, and the Annals of Rome, from Augustus to Nero. Both of these works have come down to us in a mutilated state. He vvrote also the Life of Agricola, and a Treatise on the Manners of the Germans, both of wtiich have been preserved entire. 6. The writings of Tacitus are characterized by remarkable political acumen, a noble freedom of spirit, a judicious arrangement of circum- stances in narrative, and very great richness of thought, together with the most condensed brevity of expression. 7. Quintus Curtius, of whom little is known, probably lived about the middle of the first century. He wrote a history of the achieve- ments of Alexander the Great, a very interesting and agreeable work _ but much inferior in style to Tacitus or Livy. 8. L. Anna?us Florus, a native of Spain or Gaul, flourished about ihe beginning of the seconc' century. He wrote an epitome of Roman History down to the time of Augustus. Suetonius, a grammarian, rhetorician, and lavvyer of Rome, Hved about the same time. Ilia lives of the Twelve Cssars have the merit of candid impartiality, ami, an eisy and simple style. A/f j) ' i-K^ CHAPTER CXCVI. Later Roman Writers. 1. Pliny the Elder was born A. D. 23. In hie twenty-secoiint litera- ture. Acconhng to his own statement, it is a compilation drawn from nearly two thousand five hundred authors, the greater number of wliich are now lost. 3. Phny the Younger, nephew of the preceding, was born about A. D. GO. He studied eloquence under Quintilian, and acquired great celebrity and influence at Rome, as a judicial orator, Ui.der the emperor Trajan, he was sent to govern Rithyn^a and P< r.tus from .y whence he wrote his interesting epistle to Trajan respecting the per seculion of the Christians. Pliny the Elder. 4. He wrote rhetorical and epistolary works ; the former are lost, but the latter remain. Pliny's Letters possess much merit, both in matter and style, and may be considered models of epistolary writing. 5. Quintilian was born in Spain, about the same time with the younger Pliny. He was brought to Rome in his infancy, and was for nmny years an eminent teacher of rhetoric in that city. He wrote a work entitled the Institutes of Oratory, being a scheme of education to form a perfect speaker. It is written with much talent and judg- ment, and is highly valuable as inlbrming us respecting the manner of education in the Roman schools of rhetoric. - k j\ ' 0. Seneca was born at (>orduba, now Cordova, in Spain, A. D. .^, and after many vicissitudes became the instructor of ihe emperor Nero, at Rome, by whom he was sentenced to death on a charge of beincr' concerned in a conspiracy. Seneca was allowed the privilege of choosing the manner of his death, and selected that of opening hia veins; buf as the blood did not readily flow, he took poison. He wrote tragedies, epistles, and philosophical works. His style is cen- CXCVI —1 2 Pliny the Elder? 3,4. Pliny the Younper? 5. QuiiUil-%n? 6 Keiicca? 7, s/Lncan) 9. Persius? 10. Juvenal? II. Claudian? 272 LATER ROMAN WRITERS. snred as marked by affectation, and abounding vvMli c5cntentiou8 '■ithesis. :^''»' Ww^ ^^W^ _^_- .i-:^^s"'\^ Seneca. 7. J.ucan was also bom at Corduba, A. D. 38. He receiyed bia education at Rome and Athens. Nero bestowed upon him the offices of quaestor and augur ; but Lucan, having imprudently become a com- petitor with the emperor in a poetical contest, excited the jealousy of that stern tyrant, and this proSably caused Lucan to take part in a conspiracy against him. 8. Nero condemned him to die, with the same privilege that he granted to Seneca. Lucan wrote an epic poem entitled the Pharsalia the subject of which is the civil wars between Cssar and Pompey It IS historical raiher than epic, too strictly limited to facts, but it con- tains excellent delineations of character, and finely wrought speeches 9. Pcrsius was born A. D. 50, and died in his twenty-eighth year. He wrote satires, which are remarkable as containing earnest and severe animadversions on the prevailing corruption of morals 10. Juvenal was born A. D. 38, and lived to an advanced age, (Iving in a sort of exile, while holding a military command in Ecrypt; He wrote satires, in which he inveighs against the vices and FoWwh of the times with a noble and animated spirit, but with too much freedom of language. n. C:iaudian may be regarded as the last of the ancient Roman RELIGIOiN OF THE ROMANS. 273 •joets. He was oorn about A. D. 365, at Alexandria, in Egypt, where he was educated. He lived fur a time ai Rome, and at Milan, which was then the seat of the western empire. He enjoyed the patronage of Stilicho, the guardian and minister of the emperor Honorius. 12. Claudian wrote panegyrical poems, epics, satires, epigrams, &c. His works show great genius and poetic ability; but hi? liioughts, images, and expressions, bear the marks of the artificial and unnatural Uiste prevalent in his age. CHAPTER CXCVn. Relisioii of the Romans. Jicpiiei and his Court. 1. The Roman religion wa5 founded on the mythological system »f the Greeks. A plurality of deities superintending human concerns formed the prevailing creed. All these had priests, ministers, sacri- fices and oblations. 2. The augurs were considered as an important and necessary pari of the religious establishment. Each tribe had one of these pretended prophets, who announced the will of the gods with regard to any future enterprise, from an observance of the flight or the noise of birds, from the feeding of poultry, the movement of beasts, &c. 3. The high priest and his associates not only regulated the public W(;;-ship, but acted as judges in all cases which had reference to reli- gion. A remarkable order of priests was established in the reign of Numa. When a pestilence had made furious re n ges in Rome, a 18 274 KKLIGION OF THE ROlNIAxNS. brazen bsckler was produced, which the kin^r pretended nad been sent from heaven to indicate the divine will for the cessa* on of the dis- ease. 4. Numa ordered eleven others to be made exactly m the same form, that any one who mipht profanely wish to steal the sacred shield might not be able to distinguish it from the rest. These were consigned to the care of twelve priests, called Salii, who occasionally jcarmd the bucklers about Rome, singing as they passed. Bemg •considered as the priests of Mars, the Salii were highly respected by the warlike Romans. 5. The Corybantes, or priests of Cybele, were mtroduced at a much later period. These were Phrygians, who danced in armor, shouting, howling, and playing on a variety of instruments. This establishment was recommended by the Sibylline oracles, to which the Romans, from the time of Tarquin the Proud, paid a rrv«>renti?l regard Sacrijice r Cybele was worshipped at Rome under the name of Vesta She had six priestesses, called Vestal Virgins, who guarded a fire kept constantly burning, called the Vestal fire. This flame was su]> posed to be mysteriously connected with the origm of all thmgs The Vestal Virgins were treated with great reverence by the people, and in imploring pardon their intercession was of peculiar efficacy. 7. They did not live in seclusion, like the nuns of monkish times. ^ut were allowed to appear in public, and even to be present at the sports and games. When one of them died, it was so diflficult to supply her place, thai the high priest was generally obliged to seize rvrVTI — 1 What was the foundation of the Roman religion 1 2. The au n» hish prie3t1 4. The Salii 1 5. Corybanlea? 6. Cybele ? 7,8. c>.iaU 2. The aueursi ROMAN FESTIVALS. 27' t# upon some female by violence, and compel her to assume ♦he office of a VesUil. 8. This repugnance arose principally from the dreadful punishment which followed a violation of the Vestal's vow of chastity. The unfortunate delinquent was buried alive for her oflence ; but it doe* not appear that many suffered during a long succession oif ages CHAPTER CXCVIII. Roman Festivuis. I. Of the festivals which were periodically solemnizeil by the Rfimans, the Lupercalia and the Saturnalia were the most remarkable, The Luperci, or priests of Pan, were the earliest sacerdotal order in ihe Roman state. 'W/M Priest, Altar, and Vestal Virgins 2. Tliey sacrificed white goats in the t(;mple of the rust c god, smearing the face of two boys of noble birth witii the blood of these iniimals, and then wiping off the stains with wool dipped in milk. The boys, furnished with thongs from the skins of the victims, ran about the streets lashing the young women, who thought it a spec al !.iv<»r to receive the blows. 3. The festival of the Saturnalia did not at first extend beyond oup lay, but Augustus gratified the people with two additional days o^ aport an^ K m^rl 280 KOiMAN ARCHITECTURE. sCULFfURE AND PAINTING AiVlONU THE ROMANS. 281 4. The original Capitoline temple was not very large or maj^nih cent, but when it had been destroyed by fire, Sulla rebuilt it in greai splendor, and embellished it with beautiful columns brought from Athens. The Pantheon and other structures we have alread} described. 5. Ro.nan skill and industry were eminently conspicuous m the aqueducts. For above four hundred years the inhabitants were con tent with the water of the Tiber, and of wells and springs ; but as a more copious supply was required when the city became very larg* and populous, Appius Claudius devised means for the conveyance of water from the river Anio. 6. A course of strong brick-work or stone, arched at the top covered a canal, which, notwithstanding all inequalities of ground, regularly proceeded to the city. After the success of this experiment had been established, larger aqueducts were built, some of them with two chai.nels, one over the other. A grippa constructed one, pro- fusely adorned with statues and other embellishments. 7. The Romans particularly attended to the firmness and durability of their roads, and in these conveniences they surpassed all other people, ancient and modern. The Roman roads were frequently paved with flint, and cemented with as much care as the walls of buildings. Pebbles were interspersed with old fragments of masonry, and courses of brick and stone were regularly introduced with an accompaniment of the best mortar. The Roman bricks were verv strong and durable. Roman Bath. 8. I'he edifices designed for public baths were of extraordii.^ j lize and magnificence. They were built among extensive gardi m 3. Tartiuin? 4. Capitoline temple 1 5, 6. Aqueducts ? 7. Roads? 8. Ballwl 9 U( Uaracalla? 10. OJ Diocleaian ^ and walks, and were surrounded by porticoes. The main building contained spacious halls for swimming and bathing ; others for various athletic exercises ; others for the declamations of poets, and the lec- tures of philosophers ; in a word, for every species of polite and raanly amuse nent. 9 Architecture, sculpture and painting, exhausted their refine- ments on these establishments, which, for their vast extent, were compared to cities. The baths of Caracalla were ornamented with two hundred pillars and sixteen hundred seats of marble. Three thousand persons could be seated in them at one time. 10. The baths of Dioclesian surpassed all the others in size and sumptuousness of decoration. One of its halls forms at present the church of the Carthusians, which is among the largest and mosjf magnificent of modern Rome. jj Jf // \ CHAPTER ecu. Sculpture aixd Fainting among the Romans, "Roman Chairs. 1. Sculpture was introduced at Rome from Etruria, at a very early period ; but for a long time only statues of the gods were formed, and these were merely of wood or clay. Representations of warriors and patriots were afterwards exhibited, but in the fabricatior of these figures the Romans were unskilful. 2. The first brazen statue at Rome was set up in the temple ol UM CXII —1. Of Sculpture at Rome? 2. 3. Of I he first b" ize statue? 4. Of Roinar 24* 282 MANNERS AND DKESS OF THE ROIMANSL Cpr<=>s, '-idA was paid for out of the property of Cassius, who waa con- demned to death for aiming at arbitrary power. 3. The vanity of this aspiring citizen prompted him to display hi« own image in front of the altar of Vesta ; but tlie censors would not suffer it to remain, and they ordained that no statue of a citizen, how- ever illustrious, sh(»uld be erected by private gratitude or respect. IJut this restriction was afterwards removed, and Rome abounded m statues. 4. The Romans made some attempts in painting, but with no very splendid success. A citizen of the name of Fabius derived the appel- lation of pictor, or " painter," from his performances in this depart- ment of the fine arts, before the Punic wars ; but this is all we know of his skill. 5. Valerius Mossala made a public exhibition of the picture of a battle in which he had defeated the Carthaginians, but the name of the artist is not stated. Scipio Asiaticus, with equal ostentation, dis- played in the capitol a pictorial representation of his victories c^ver Antiochus. And Lucius Mancinus, by pointing out to the admiring citizens the beauties of a picture relating to his exploits, obtained the consulate. 6. When the subjugation of the Grecian states had excited a general taste for refined works of art, many of the Romans imitated those productions which they could not excel. Julius Caesar ex- pended great sums in purchasing pictures of the old Greek masters. Augustus was a patron of the art ; and portrait painters in his time seem to have been specially encouraged. CHAPTER CCIII. Manners and Dress of the Romaris, 1. The Romans continued to be a temperate and frugal people till their armies penetrated into Asia. After the overthrow of Antiochus, the varied pleasures and dissolute indulgences cf Ionia, Lydia and Syria, allured the stern and hardy conquerors to imitation, and from this period successive relaxations of the ancient system of discipline and manners were introduced. 2. Every species of voluptuous gratification crei)t into practice. But luxury did not reach its full height, nor did the decline of morals proceed to the utmost excess of depravity, before the death of Augus- tus, whose censorial authority and powerful influence checked for a lime the progress of degeneracy. 3. That prince was not indeed a model of purity, but he attended with seeming anxiety to the preservation of coirect morals. The majority of his successors were, in that respect, less vigilant. An painting? 5. Valerius Messala and Olivers? 6. How did tlie conquest of Greece affect the fine arts amons: the Romans? (X^III. — 1,2. What effect had the overilirow of An'.ioclms upon Roman manneisl MANNERS AND DRESS OP THE ROMANS. 283 nnocent species of luxury was that which depended upon dress an^ nprsonal nrnam'T.t. The plainness of the aiicient apparel gave way. Reman Costumes, Armor, t^c after the establishment of connections with Asia, to a fondness foi elegant attire among the hie her classes. Roman Lady, Private Citizen, Consul, Senator, Laborer. 4. It does not appear that the earliest Romans were, as some have i When were manners most corrupt? 4. Of Roman dress? Tlio foga ? the nallium ' 284 MANNERS AND DRESS OF THE ROMANS. said, content with the skins of beasts for clothing. A woollen toga or gown, full for the rich, and scanty for the poor, soon became th# distinctive dress of the nation, as was the 'pallium , or cloak, among thb Greeks. 5. A tunic, which, like the gown, was sleeveless, afterwards came into use ; it was at first short, like a waistcoat, but it was gradually lengthened. It subsequently received the addition of sleeves, and wasi fastened by a belt. That which the women wore, reached to the feet ; with the men, it ended at the knee. 6. These garments were intended to be worn together, but the poor frequently had only the tunic. In the progress of refinement, females had three garments ; the outer one was called stola, and was richly ornamented with embroidery and clasps of gold . 7. The senators were distinguished by a tunic which had broad studs or knobs worked into it ; the knights had narrow studs, and the common people none at all. The kings wore a white robe, with a purple border, and protuberances of scarlet. The emperors in public used one entirely of purple. Triumphant generals wore a robe adorned with various representations in embroidery, resembling the work of the pencil ; hence it was called toga picta. 8. Like the Greeks, the Romans were not accustomed to wear hats or caps ; but at sacrifices, festivals and games, or in a long journey, many wore a woollen or leather cap. When a slave had been set free, he was allowed the constant use of the pileus, or Phry- gian cap, as a mark of liberty. '* ^ WW- Roma^i Lictor 9. The ensigns of regal dignity were borrowed from the Etruscan^, and consisted of a golden crown, a chair of ivory, a sceptre of the same material, surmounted by an eagle, a white robe, with parple L-mbroidery, or borderings, and a body of twelve lictors, who went 6. The tunic? 6. Female dres.i ? 7. Senatorial drcaal fCiin:'d empertr's, and c«»r oral's (J resd " 8. Of caps? 9. Of ensigns of royal ilig.iity, liciora —..I fOOD AND DRINK OF THE ROMANS. 265 before the king, each carrying a bundle of rods with an axe in the middle. The use of the lictors was continued after the overthiow ol the kingly government, and the bundle of rods, ox fasces ^ has become emblematical of a republic. CHAPTER CCIV. Food aiid Drink of the Romaiis, Ruvuin Bed. 1. At the entertainments of early and frugal times, no other than the ordinary dress was used ; but as luxury advanced, a peculiar habit, ligiit and easy, was brought into use at convivial meetings. Sitting was the primitive posture at meals. Couches were aftei- wards introduced, first for the men only, and afterwards for both sexes. 2. The grand meal answered to our supper, and for this particu- larly, the guest-chaml ers or eating-halls were constructed. The table, being either quadrangular or rounded, had on each side three couches, each having three pillows on which to support the arm in reclining ; nine persons were therefore accommodated at a table ; the post of honor was the central place ; all the guests reclined on the left arm. 3. At the supper of the rich, there were commonly three courses. The first consisted of eggs, salad, radishes, &c., to whet the appc" CaV —1 What of the early Roman meals? 2. Of the grand meal? Tables anrf 286 FOOD AND DRINK OF THL KO.AIA.NS MARRIAGP; AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES. 287 tile , with this they drank usually mead, or a mixture of honey. The second course formed tlie essential part of the meal. Tiie tliird was the dessert, consisting of fruits, pastry and confectionary. 4. In social banquets it was customary to appoint a master of the feast, who seems to have been chosen by a throw of the dice Healths were drank, the memory of the gods and heroes being usually honored in the first place. Social games or plays were practist^d, not only after but durinp .he meal, between the dillerent courses and dishes. 5. In the time of the republic, it was customary for a patron occa- sionally to invite all his clients to a common supper in his halls, l! nder the emperors, it became usual to give to the clients, instead of a supper, a small basket of food. iii}!>>iu II te ~ Feast of January. Ladies receiving Presents. 6. Wine was the beverage chiefly used by the Roman??, and of this article they had innumerable varieties. Of the Italian wines, the most celebrated were the Falernian and the Massic. Of the foreign sorts, the Lesbian and Chian were preferred. Scarcely anything .<^eems to have been more important to the wealthy Roman, in all his arrange- ments for domestic comfort, than to be well f* rnished with choice and approved wines. 7. Hence great attention was paid to the cultivation of the vine, even to the neglect of other branches of agriculture. The wine waa usually kept in amphora, or earthen jars, wliich were ranged round the walls of the cellar, partly sunk in sand, each one having a mark to denote the name of the consul who was in oflice when the wine was made. 8. The villa of Diomedes, in Pompeii, has a very ^arge cellar, extendir.g round and under the whole garden, and lighted and venti- lated by port-holes from above. Some of the wine-jars still stand as ihey were packed and labelled more than seventeen hundred veara •ffo ^ Marriage and Funeral Ceremonies of the Romans. Roman Marriage. 1. Marriages among the Romans were always preceded by a sol- emn affiance or betrothment, which often took place many years before the wedding, and even during the childhood of the parties. 2. On the day of marriage the bride was adorned with a sort of veil, and a robe prepared for the occasion, which was bound around the waist by a marriage girdle. She was taken, as it were, forcibly, from the arms of her mother or nearest relative 3. She carried a distaff in her hand, and was careful to step over, or be carried over, the threshold of both houses, as it was ominous to touch it whh the feet. She was supported by two youths, one on each side ; another preceded her with alighted torch or flambeau, and iometimes a fourth followed, carrying, in a covered vase, the bride's furn'ture. 4 She bound the doorposts of her new residence with white wool- len fillets, and anointed them with the fat of wolves. She then itepped upon a sheepskin spread before the entrance, and called alouc? coiichesi 3. Suppers of ihe rich? 4. Socinl Innqiieis? 5. Of a patron's diiine"' 6,7 Of Reman wines 7 8. Of the wine-cellar of Diuuiede^ i CCV. — 1. Of R>man marriages? 2. The bride? 3. Her distaff, &c. ? 4. The doo? 2S8 MAimiAGE AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES. for the bridegroom, who immediately came and offered her the kej of the house, which she deHveved over to the chief servant. 5. The huskuid and wife then touched fire and water, as a syinho of purity and nuptial fidelity. Music, singing and feasting followed md the husband, after supper, scattered nuts among the bo3'8. W;'-. < iv, :'f Funeral. • Procession by' Torchlight. (5. When a Roman died, his body was exposed on a bier if Ae Tcstibule of the house for some days. During this time there wore frequent and loud outcries, accompanied by the strongest expressions of grief. A branch of cypress or pine was usually fixed before the door of the house. 7. Children and youth were interred by night, with lighted torches, and without attendants ; but adults by dav, and with more or less ceremony, according to their rank. The funeral of a distinguished person was previously announced in the city by a herald. 8. In the procession, the musicians and women hired as mourners advanced first, uttering lamentations, and singing the funeral song. Next came those who bore the images of the ancestors of th»i de- ceased. Next the relatives, all in black. Then followed players, mimics and dancers, one of them imitating the words and actions of the deceased. After these came the corpse, supported by bearers, and followed by a numerous train of both sexes. 9. The place of burning or burial was always without the city. When the corpse was to be burnt, it was laid on the funeral pile, and sprinkled with spices, or anointed with oil ; the nearest relatives then applied the torch, with averted faces. 10. Weapons, garments, and other things possessed by the deceased, po3t? 5. Of firn and water? 6. Roman funerals? procession? 9 10. Of burning and burial? 7. Children's funemlsi 8. The ROl.AN MILITARY ART- THE LEGION. 28^ •vere tnrown upon the pile, and when the whole was consumed, thf embers were quenched with wine. The bones and ashes wore after- wards collected and deposited in an urn, sometimes with a sm.il' phial of tears. The urn was solemnly deposited in the eartji o- a tomb. CHAPTER CCVl. Roman Military Art. — The Legion. General and Soldiers 1. A Roman legion was drawn up in three ranks, called the Has- ifiii, the Principcs^ and the Triarii. In addition to these were hght (roops, who detached themselves from the main body at the beginning of a battle, and skirmished with missile weapons. 2. The Hastati were young men in the flower of life, and occupy- ing the front rank ; the Principes were men in the full vigor of middle age, standing in the second line ; the Triarii were veterans, consti- tuting the rear rank. The legion was divided into maniples, or com- panies, each commanded by a centurion, and having its own standard, consisting of a silver eagle on a pole. '.I. A legion consis'^ed generally of about five thousand men. The weapons differed according to the rank of the soldier. The velites, Dr light troops, had a small, round shield, a javelin, and a helmet of leather. The Hastati had a large shield of wood, leather and iron a short, but stiff and pointed sword, which was worn on the right CCVI. — 1. How was a lei^ion drawn U] ? 2. Of the hnslali, tho principes. and lh< triaHi. and the maniples? 3. What wa? the lumber of men in a legion? Whaiweopoin 19 .^^fliii.«1lrii-rnih««--^.-^.»B''..- 290 ROMAN MILITARY ART -THE LEGnjN. side, two javelins, an iron or brazen helmet, greaves for the les^. plated with iron, and a coat of mail, formed of metal or hide, wcrked over with little hooks of iron. MAKCH AND ENCAINIPiMKNT OF A ROMAN ARMY. 291 Roman Armor. 4. The Principes and TViarii used weapons of the same kind, ex- 3ept some difference in the spears and swords. The shield was marked with the name of the soldier, and the number of the legion and maniple to which he belonged ; whoever returned from battle without his shield, forfeited his life. 5. The cavalry had weapons very similar to the last described Horns and trumpets were the only instruments of martial music. No one could be a soldier under seventeen years of age. All between seventeen and forty-five were liable to ^erve ; those above the latter fge were exempted. (J. The regular term of service was sixteen years for the foot sol- diers, and ten for cavalry. Persons of no property were not enrolled for service, because, havijg nothing to lose, they were not supposed to possess sufficient bravery and patriotism. 7. For three hundred years after the foundation of the city, the soldiers received no pay; afterwards a stipend was allowed them, of two bushels of wheat a month, and three ounces of brass a day ; this pay was subsequently increased. 8. Various extraordinary rewards were given to those who distin- guished themselves in war. Golden and gilded crowns were common as the camp-crown for him who first entered the enemy's entrench were used'* 6. Cavalry? Who were liable to serve in the army? 7. Of paying ih* ■oUliera? 9. Rewards, crowna, &c. ? ineiils. the mural crown for him who first scaled the walls of a city the naval crown for capturing a ship of war ; also wreaths and crown* formed of leaves and blossoms ; as the civic crown of oak-leaves foi Civic Crowns. rescuing a citizen from death or captivity ; the obsidional crown, of grass, for delivering a besieged city ; the triumphal crown, of lame* vorn by a general at his triumph. CHAPTER CCVII. Mar en and Encampment of a Roman Ar?ny. — The Navy Ceyitunon. I. iHE order of march, when a Roman army moved to the fieltf oi int4) the camp, was as follows. The light-armed went in advance • \l 292 MARCH AND ENCAMPMENT OF A ROMAN ARMY. then followed the heavy-armed, foot and horse ; then the pioneers *hen the bagg^age of the general and his horses, guarded by cavalry , then the i^eneral himself ; tlien the tribunes ; after these follow(;d the standards, the choice men of the army, the servants and drivers of beasts BatTtmng Engine. 2. In attacking fortified towns, battenng rams were used. The soldiers were drawn up into a testudo^ or tortoise ; this was an ar- rangement in which they stood close together, raising their shields s<; as to form a compact covering over them, like the scales of a tortoise 3. No part of the discipline was more admirable than the encamp- ment. However fatigued the soldiers might be by a lon«j march or a severe battle, the camp was regularly measured out and fortified by a ditch, before any one was allowed sleep or refreshment. It was an exact square of four hundred feet, with a rampart of earth, and stakes three fe(n high, surrounded by a ditch nine feet wide and seven deep. 4. Careful watch was kept during the night, and freciucnt pic(|uets were sent out to guard against a surprise, and to see that the senti- nels were vigilant. As the arrangf.ments were the same in ever\ camp, a soldier always knew his proper place, and if an alarnj oc curred, could easily find the rallying point of his division. 5. In the discipline of the Roman camp the soldiers were employed in various exercises, from which an army was called in Latin, extrcitus. These included walking and running, completely armed, leaping, swimmings vaulting upon horses of wood, shooting the arrow, hurl- ing the javelin, carrying weights, attacking the wooden image of a man as an enemy, &c. G. It was essential to the comfort of a soldier that he should be able to walk or run in full armor, with perfect ease. On common marches he was obliged to carry, in addition to his arms, a load con sistinrr of his provisions and customary utensils, amounting to sixty pounds weight. CCV[I.— 1. How ilid a Roman army march? 2, Of attacks? 3. Encampmsnil i Watches? 5.6. Exercise-s? 7,8. Roman ships? 9. Ships -»f war? 10. 0( n»»'a/ OQtllAS ? THE NAVY 293 /. The Roman ships weic of three kinas, the war-gailey, the ransport, and the ship of burden. The first was propelled chiefly War Galley. by oavi ; the second was often towed by the war-galley, and i\\e Itiiid depended on her sails. Eoman Ships. 8 Ships of burden were commo'ily much inferir- in size to mod 23* t>94 ROMAN rUlUlMPHS. om merchant ships, although some are mentioned of vast length • ir the reign of Caligula, a great obelisk was carried from Egypt tc Rome, in a ship which must have been of more than one thousand tons burden. 9. Ships of war had sometimes five rows of oars. Some hastiir%s the triumphing general was borne mto the city m a military ;>h;^ri*^, "vearing a crown of laurel, and attended by an immense pro- ftfciU5ii»u' ei:hibiting captives, spoils of war, &c Car of Triumph. ^ 4 The following description, extracted from PKtn 'h, of the great triumph granted to PauUus .T.milius, for his glorious f^rmmation of the Macedonian war, will give the reaxler an adequ^t. idea of the splendor displayed by the Romans on these festive occasivT.s. ^5 The people erected scafTolds in the forum ^nd ciirvs, and a^ other parts of the citv where tney could best behold the poni • 1 he spec a?oJ^were clad in white gar'ments ; all the temples wei. open, and full of garlands and perfumes; the ways were clea c 1 am cleansed by a great many officers, who drove away such as thro.jc. ^'7 tT^ triuTpriLtd trelSTon the first, which was scar... onff enough for the sight, were to be seen the statues, pictures, ar. Ta^s of an extraordina;y size, which were taken from the enemy drawn upon seven hundred and fifty chariots. 7. On the second, was carried in a great many wagon^, »•« ff^^^;? and richest armor of the Macedonians, both of brass and steel, all newly furbished and glittering; which, although piled up wi h the Ss art and order,'yet seemed to be tumbled on Heaps care essly and bv chance ; helmets were thrown on shields ; coats of mail Tpon Laves ; Cretan targets and Thracian bucklers and qtnvers of Tows, lay huddled among the horses' bits ; and through these ap- peared the points of naked swords, intermixed with long spears. l^T T^^;. J^t^^^ai^ ^«^J::S^S^f a 'i^rU^e^r^? T^^ 296 ROMAN' TiilUMPHS. 8. All these arms were tied together with such a just liberty thai they knocked against one another as they were drawn aloncr' and made a harsh and terrible noise, so that the very spoils of the con- quered could not be beheld without dread. 9. After these wagons loaded with armor, followed three thoucand men, who carried the silver that was coined, in seven hundred and filty vessels, each of which weighed three talents and was carried by ^our men. Others brought silver bowls, and goblets, and cups, ill disposed in such order as to make the best show, and all valuable as well for their magnitude as the thickness of their engraved work 10. On the third day, early in the morning, first came the trumpet ers, who did not sound as they were wont in a procession or solemn entry, but such a charge as the Romans use when they encourage their soldiers to fight. Next followed young men, girt about with girdles curiously wrought, who led to the sacrifice one hundred and twenty stalled oxen, with their horns gilded, and their heads adorned with ribands and garlands, and with these were boys that carried dishes of silver and gold. 11. After these was brought the gold coin, which was divided into vessels that weighed three talents each, similar to those that contained the Sliver ; they were in number fourscore, wanting three. These xvere followed by thr;so that brought the consecnaed bowl, which ail^railius caused to be made, that weighed ten talents, and was adorned with precious stones. Then were exposed to view the cups of An- tigonus and Seleucus, and such as were made after the fashion invented by Thericles, and all the gold plate that was used at the table of rerseus. 12. Next to these came the chariot of Perseus, in which his armor was placed, and on that his diadem. After a little intermission the king s children were led captives, and with them a train of nurse? masters, and governors, who all wept, and stretched forth their hands to the spectators, and taught the little infants to beg and entreat their compassion. 13. There were two sons and a daughter of the king, who, by reason of their tender age, were altogether insensible of the greatness of their misery; which insensibility of their condition rendered it much more deplorable, insomuch that Perseus himself was scarcely regarded as he went along, whilst pity had fixed the eyes of the Komans upon the infants, and many of them could not forbear tears • all beheld the sight with a mixture of sorrow and joy until the chil- dren were past. 14. After his children and attendants, came Perseus himself, clad m black and wearing slippers, after the fashion of his country ; he looked like one altogether astonished, and deprived of reason, iUnmnU the greatness of Ins misfortune. Next followed a great company of his friends and familiars, whose countenances were disfigured v\ii|j grief, and who testified to all that beheld them, by their tears and their cominual looking upon Perseus, that it was his hard fortune they so much lamented, and that they were regardless of their own f^TK ^'T'.f^*^- 1 i^ The third day ? The sacrifires. &c. V II. The cMd coin &c 1 ODOACER — THEODORIC - BELISARIUS. 25)7 15. After these were carried four hundred crowns of gold, sent from the cities by their respective ambassadors to -^milius, as a reward di;e to his valor. Then he himself came, seated on a chariot magnificently adorned, (a man worthy to be beheld even without Uiese ensigns of power,) clad in a garment of purple interwoven with gold, and with a laurel branch in his right hand. 16. All the army, in like manner, with boughs of laurel in theii hands, and divided into bands and companies, followed the chariot of their commander ; some singing odes, according to the usaal custom mingled with raillery ; others, songs of triumph and the praises of <'Emilius, who was admired and accounted happy by all men, vet •men vied by every one that was good. MODERN ITALt CHAPTER CCIX. Odoacer. — Theodoric. — Belisarius, 1. Hardly any period in the annals of the human race presents to the historical student a scene of greater confusion than the century which followed the overthrow of the Western Empire. The differ ent hordes of barbarians, pursuing no definite plan, established sepa rate monarchies in the dismembered provinces, engaged in sanguinary wars that had no object but plunder, and were too ignorant to form anything like a political system. 2. There is, consequently, a want of unity in the history of a time when nations ceased to have any fixed relations to each other ; and the narrative must appear desultory and digressive, until some one state, rising into command, assumes such importance that the fate of all the rest may be connected with its destinies. 3. Odoacer, having assumed the title of king of Italy, fixed his capital at Ravenna, a city which at this time almost equalled Rome in magnificence. He distributed a portion of the conquered land among his soldiers, assigning them also the people upon it, who thus became the slaves of the conquerors. But as ihe peasantry of Italy had been in no better condition under iheir former masters, the change ot government made little difference to them. 4. Odoacer and his Heruli, however, did not long enjoy their con- quest. Tlie Ostrogoths, who had established themselves in Noricum and Pannonia, soon invaded Italy under their king, Theodoric. Odo- irer was defeated and killed, and Theodoric became king of Italy, where he reigned with great glory for thirty-five years. 6. During this period the Italians enjoyed more prosperity and CCIX. —1. What followed llie overthrow of the westtrn empire I 2. What ot •^ 2:)8 ODOAULR - THEODORIC — BELISAKIUS. THE LOMBARDS 299 happiness tnan they had known for a long time previous. Tlie citiea were left in possession of their own laws, religion, and municipal government. They continued to choose their own magistrates, and their property was preserved untouched. Far from destroying what remained of the works of art with which the Romans had adorned every part of Italy, Theodoric established a fund for the repair of public buildings, and gave great encouragement to men of taste aiid talents. Odoacer ii. The reign of Theodoric seems to have been a golden age l(Tf the Italians, who also continued to enjoy a considerable share of prosperity under his successors. But the }5yzantine emperor, Jus- tinian, A. D. 53.5, sent his armies into Italy, under the command of Helisarius, the most renowned general of the age. 7. Italy was again desolated by war. Belisarius gained many great victories, and took possession of Rome. But he was recalled, in the midst of his successes, to take the command of an expedition against Persia, and his place was supplied by Narses, another great general, who completed the conquest which the former had begun. 8. The last Gothic king was slain in battle. Italy w:ts once more under the dominion of the Cajsars. Narses was appointed governor, •^ith th(» title of Exarch, and fixed his residence at Ravenna. He exercised all tht authorif^ of a sovereign prince for about fiftec years, when a new enemy appeared. CHAPTER CCX. The Lombards, 1 These were the Lombards, who caiae originally from the north •»f Germany. When they invaded Italy they were governed by a chief named All)oin, one of the greatest pri ices of his time, both as a warrior and a legislator. j u 2 He crossed the Alps with a powerful army, conquered, one by one, all the provinces in the north of Italy, and founded the new king- dom of Loml)ardy, which afterward comprised a considerable part ot the middle and southern provinces. ^ .^ , • r td • 3 Alboin selected for his capital the large fortified city of I'avia. He introduced the feudal system into his new dominions, by granting lar^e fiefs to his chief warriors. These took the title of Dukes, and in time grew very powerful, ruling/ over their own domains as independent princes. Each built a strong castle for himself, and gave estates to his chief vassals, who were called Counts, and were bound tofollowthestandardoftheir lord in war. , , .• i 4 In the mean time tlie popes, who were originally only the bishops )f Rome, were gradually rising to a much higher degree .if temporal power, in consequence of the progress of the Christian religion which the Romans had contributed to spread over the greater part ot 'T A schism took place between the Greek and the Latin church anil'thc officers of the Greek emperor attempting to enforce certair recrulations in the city of Rome, the people rose in insurrection, threv^ off their dependence on the Byzantine empire, and established a new republic, placing the pope at their head. G Very soon afterward, the Lombards captured Ravenna, and pu\ an end to the government of the exarchs. They then attempted t( subject Rome to their dominion. In this emergency, the pope and lis senate applied to Pepin, king of France, for his assistance. 1 his was readily granted, as Pepin was very anxious that the pope should confirm his title to the throne of France, which he had just usurped. 7 Pepin, accompanied by his eon, the renowned Charlemagne, led an army into Italy, and totally defeated the Lombards, from whom he took the exarchate of Ravenna, which he added to the see ot Rome This event took place about the middle of the eighth cen- tury and had a great effect on the religion and government ot Europe for manv a^es, as it was the beginning of that absolute power exer- iiistory of I lis period? 3. Of Odoacer? 4. The Oslro^oths? fj. Of Tialy during IhU period, ijuUer Theodoric ? 6. Of Jus'ii- iaii ? 7. Belisarius? 8. Narses? CCX-i Who were the Lombards? 2. Of the kin-dom ofLombardy ? J. Of Alboiii jVr f-.!ui av=t^m? 4 The Donesi 5. The sch sm m the church? 6 Of Pepii *.:! ;t;: £;',irL 1 7 or iL vK; or Pe,,in and Cl,arle,nag„e iu Italy 3 8. .;.»r.» Tiagiie'a empire/ ]U() CIIAULEMAGNE- FREDERIC HARRaROS'^A CHARLEMAGNE -FREDERIC BAKBAROSSA. 301 cise4 ill jfier times over all sovereign princes and their dominions, bt .lie RoLian pontiff. 8. The victories of Pepin prepared the way for the overthrow of the Lonil)ard monarchy, which was terminated by his successor, Charlemaj^ne, the greatest conqueror of the anre. He united in one vast empire, France, Germany, and nearly the wiiole of Italy. The last kinjj of the Lowihards was made prisoner, and sent with his wife and children into France, where they passed the remainder of then •lays m captivity. oMa^ ^10^ CHAPTER CCXI. / Charlemagne, — Frederic Barharossa, 1. A.vioNG the few states that preserved their independence during the dominion of the Lombards, was that of the Venetians, who, from a few poor fishermen, had become the most distinjruished trading- people in Europe. The wars had driven many wealthy families to take refuge on their little islands, which were then governed by a doi^e, or duke. 2. Their vessels made regular voyages to Constantinople, fiom whence they brought silks, spices and furs. They also made great |»r()fit by trading in slaves, whom they purchased in the Greek slave- markets and sold to the Saracens, of Africa. 3. Cliarlemagne was not only crowned king of the Lombard states, but was also declared emperor of the Romans, a title that had been extinct more than three hundred years. During his reign, the feudal system was carried to a much greater extent than it had been in the time of the Lombards. The whole country was filled with castles, in which the feudal lords resided. 4. After the death of Charlemagne, in 814, Italy continued to be i?overned by his successors, till 888, when it was detached from the Frankish empire, and became a separate kingdom. For seventy years it was independent, being governed by native sovereigns, elected by the nobles and clergy. 5. After this, the cities and states began to form themselves into republics, each governed by a duke and senators. The Saracens, in the mean time, made themselves masters of Sicily and the south of Italy. In 901 the German emperor was acknowledged as sovereign of Italy, and though he had very little authority here, he long retained a nominal dominion over the Italian states. 6. The emperors did not often visit their Italian dominions, unless called thither by an act of rebellion which threatened to subvert then authority. Sometimes a general parliament was held in the plains near Placentia, to which the emperor repaired, always with a power- / (.CXI. — 1. Of the Venetians ? 2. Their connnierce ? 3. Charlemagne's titles and th« fetidal system ? 4. Of Italy ifier \\\s death .' 5. Of the independent republics of Italy ? t)l ili« Saracens? 6, 7 The enj[>erors and their jwriiamenls ? 8. What were the mosl }\ i ful army ; and here he received the homage of the dukes, and promul- ga «d laws for the government of Italy. 7. This assembly was attended by the nobles, clergy, and magis- trates of the cities, who were all required to take the oath of allegi ance to the sovereign, which very few of them observed very strictly. 8. The most opulent cities at this time were Venice, Genoa and Pisa, all of which had a number of small states dependent on them, belonging to different counts, marquises, and lords of castles, who, during the civil wars, were glad to place themselves under the pro- lection of more powerful states. 9. The number of these rapidly increased, for every city had now its own military force, was encompassed by a wall, and defended by a citadel or tower, to which the inhabitants could retire in case of emergency. Many of the nobles lived in castles on their own domains, and they had also their armies, composed of the numerous dependents who crowded their castle halls, and the peasants that dwelt on their lands. 10. Sentiments of republican freedom now arose among the Italians, and a desire to assert their independence of the German empire had become manifest, when Frederic Barbarossa was elected emperor, in 1152. The claims of the German monarchs to the sovereignty of Italy had continued, though the utmost military power of the empire was incompetent to enforce them. Frederic spent thirty-three years of his life in a costly, desolating, and unsuccessful war, to obtain tho mastery over the Italian states. 11. He crossed the Alps six times with powerful armies, and although he committed dreadful ravages in this country, and totally destroyed the rich and powerful city of Milan, yet in the end he \\;t5 defeated with ignominy, and forced to concede to the Italian stattfi the right of independent self-government. 12. In the south of the peninsula the kingdom of Naples arose from small beginnings, under the Norman adventurers, in the eleventh cen- tury. A small band of these brave and enterprising warriors, on their way to the Holy Land, visited Amalfi about the year 1025. 13. They were ready for any enterprise which promised glory or wealth, and were consequently invited to engage in the wars then raging in Italy. Their success attracted other adventurers from Normandy, and their numbers so increased that they were soon enabled to become masters of a large portion of the south of Italy, including the city of Naples and its territories. Such was the found- ation of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Dpulenl cities? 9. Of the nobles? 10. Of republican freedom? Of Frederic Brirki rossa? 11. Of his wars? 12. The kingdom of Naples? 3. The Normans it Italy? S6 302 THE GULLPHS AND GHIBEL LINES. CHAPTER ^^gCXIL] The (hielpks and Ghibellines, 1. About the close of the twelfth century arose the struj^fiiP between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, which disturbed the peace of Italy fer a long series of years. These two parties were founded ofi the rival interests of the pope and the emperor of Germany. 2. No sooner were the Italians freed from a foreign enemy than their ancient intestine quarrels were renewed with more violence than ever. Yet the general state of Italy at this period, notwithstanding its internal troubles, is described as being far more prosperous than that of any other European nation. 3. The open country was well cultivated by an active, industrious peasantry, who labored for their own benefit, and lived in comfort, taking little or no part in the quarrels of the great. Rich vineyards' fine pastures, and abundant cornfields, were everywhere to be seen. 4. The great towns presented an appearance of wealth and ele- gance not to be found elsewhere. They were well paved, adorned with fine stone buildings, bridges, aqueducts, fountains, &c., and filled with handsome shops, plentifully stored with valuable mer- chandise, brought from the east by the merchants of Venice, Pisa Genoa, and other commercial states. * 5. Although the numerous Italian republics, of which there were not less than two hundred, had been left at liberty to govern them- selves, the iunperor of Germany was still the acknowledged sovereign ot them all. He possessed the right of granting or taking away poV ular privileges. J i f 6. This power was also claimed by the pope ; and as both had their partisans, the whole country was drawn into the quarrel between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the former taking sides with the pope, and the latter with the emperor. Among the Ghibellines were a great many nobles living in castles among the mountains, built in stronrr places. " 7. Here they kept numerous bands of retainers, and exercised a sort of sovereignty over the surrounding country. Most of these nobles espoused the cause of the emperor, because they preferred to live under nominal subjection to a prince whose absence from the country left them at liberty to do as they pleased. 8. The inhabitants of the cities, on the other hand, were in rren- eral Guelphs, because they looked up to the pope to defend their rights from being usurped by the emperors. There were, however, many Ghibelline nobles, who, in consequence of not having castles strong enough to resist an attack, or from other canses, chos'e to live under the laws of the republics, and reside within the precincts of the •owns. I, ™",~V Of thatruelphaandGhibellines? 2. Their quarrels? 3. Cultivaiic luy/ 4 1 he great t(»wns y 5 The repuhiics ami their nrivileeea'J 6 7 The *od iheir partisans ; The nohles ? S. Inhabitants of the cities J ion i- H»neii CIVIL WARS IN ITALY. 30r3 CHAPTER ^bcXin?! Cwil Wars m Italy. 1 In these towns the Ghibelline nobles erected, for their own aefence, dwellings with thick walls, strong towers, high, narro^^ windows, and heavy doors of oak, secured by massive bolts and bars. The Guelph nobles, of course, followed the example of fortiiying their houses, and civil war was thus introduced into the cities ot lus- cany and the Lombard states. Each of these castles was crowded u-ith knights, esquires, and dependents of inferior grade, who formed a little army always ready for action. 2 Among the great commercial cities of this period was Florence, the chief town of Tuscany. The Florentine and Lombard merchan s h-.:! established commercial houses in all parts of Europe, and their extensive and prosperous dealings enabled th^"^;!«,b'l^^^„";^f;f'^^^ palaces, so that Florence became the most splendid of all the Italian cities. Many of the wealthy Florentines were money-dealers or bankers, and opened houses in London and Pans. i_^„to 3 It happened that a gentleman of Florence, named Buondelmonte, who belonged to the Guelph P^^^y, had become attached to a young lady of a Ghibelline family, called Amidei. The day was fixed for the marriage, when the faithless lover changed his mind, and married the daughter of a powerful nobleman of Ins own party. 4. This insult was so deeply resented by the friends of the lady whom he had forsaken, that they assassinated Buondelmonte in t h l streer This act of violence produced the most fatal consequences. The principal members of the Guelph families met together a.id made avow of revenge. For many years afterwards the sreets ot Horen.t almost daily presented scenes of violence and ^l^^^^^lf/'^.,^^^^^^ . 5. The quarrel extended to all the other towns of Tuscany, and wi carried'to such a height that regular battles -^^l^^^^^^^ ^^. streets At every public festival or assembly, some altercation was sure to ari^e betw^eL a Guelph and a Ghibelline, -f-^^;;^ ^as instantly sounded, and the fiery Italians ^"^»^^"?/^ ^^J^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ swords filled the streets with tumults. On one ot these occasioi.s arthe Guel,)h families were expelled from Florence m a single night, Ninl tliirtv-six of their palaces destroyed. inll.efourte.M.lh century ma>.y of the republics began to grow tire.! if c,v.l war, and adopted the plan of ^hoos.ng^o.ne power ,: lobleman to govern them, in the hope that peace might by this me.ii. 3e rS"ored. ^Thus a number of petty sovere.gnfes were formed ■, Italy the princes of which, at various times, obtained from the empe'o«V«= title of Duke, and their territories came to be called duchies. CCXIII - i. Of the nobles in the towns? Their castles? ,2 Florence? 3 4. R^ peat the siory of Buondeln^onte '> 5. Of the wars m Tuscany ? 6 Of the pe ly eigntiea in Ii*ily 1 I / a '^ i) I 304 COiA DI UIExNZJ. CHAPTEPrjgCx2\ Cola di Rienzi, ^- ^^ 1 In these new states were generally two or more great families, who were jealous of each other, each wishing to enjoy the governing influence It was now no longer by the wars of the popes and empe- rors but by those of private families, that the country was disturbed, so that by degrees the names of Guelph and Ghibelline were discon- tmued. 2. Instead of these factions there now arose, in almost every city, two or three parties headed by the rival nobles, who carried on a per- petual warfare with each other. At Rome there were three famiHes t bus at variance, the Orsini, the Savelli, and the Colonna. Nearly all tlie castles in the patrimony of St. Peter belonged to them, and they all kept m their pay free companies, which were no other than banditti. 3. The peasantry, too, attracted by the hope of plunder, joined these CCXIV — I. or the sreat f.imilies in the slater? 2. The Roman families) 3. Tiw SCHISM IN THE PAPACY. 30o turb ilent chiefs ; so that the districts near Rome were the worst cul- tivated of any part of the country. The want of a proper government tended to increase these disorders, for sometimes the pope resided at I distance from the city, and sometimes there was a long interregnum jetween the death of one pontitT and the election of another. 4. When a pope died it was customary for the chief magistrate of Rome to send muffled drums through the streets, and order the gates to be thrown open. The inhabitants of every house were obliged to Durn a lamp all night in one of their windows, and a watch was held in every parish. 5. During the greater part of the fourteenth century the popes did not reside at Rome, but at Avignon, in France. This arrangement was very prejudicial to their authority in Italy, and gave rise to the revolution effected by Cola di Rienzi. 6. This person was the son of a Roman citizen in a rather humble sphere of life. He was distinguished in early youth by extraordinary talents, an ardent imagination, and an enthusiastic admiration of the liberties enjoyed by the ancient Romans in the days of the republic. He thought the glory of those days might be renewed, and he seized every opportunity of impressing his own sentiments on the minds of the people. 7. At length, in 1347, taking advantage of the absence of the chief senator, Stephen Colonna, he excited a revolt among the citizens, and established a new form of government, which he called the Good Estate. This government was accepted by the people, who placed him at the head of it, with the title of Tribune. 8. Rienzi made use of his power to banish the Colonna and other noble families from Rome, and for a while he was treated as a sever eign. But he did not continue to act with that moderation which was necessary to secure the success of the enterprise, and was at length assassinated in a tumult, by the very people who had raised him to power. CHAPTER CCXV. Schism in the Papacy, 1. During the administration of Rienzi, the nobles had made several attacks on the city, and on his death they returned. The Colonnas were reinstated in the government, the old quarrels of the rival families were renewed, and the people became anxious to have the pope once more reside among them. 2. Seventeen years had now elapsed since Clement V. had removed his court to Avignon, and daring that long interval, the whole of Italy 5, Of the removal of the pope to peasantry ? The popes ? 4. Of the death of a pope? Avij»nor. ? 6. Cola di Rienzi ? 7. Of the Good Estate? 8. Of Rienzi's administration and death 1 CCXV. — 1. Of the Colonnas in Rome? 2. Of taly while the popes resided a» 20 SOG SCHISM IN THE PAPACY. had been a prey to misrule and civil discord. Some of the emperou had paid occasional visits to the Italian states, hut their motive hai' been to obtain money rather than to restore order to the country. 3. At length Pope Gregory XL, at the earnest solicitation of the people of Rome, transferred his residence to that city, in 1378, where he soon after died. This event caused a great schism in the Catholic church, which lasted nearly forty years. 4. The French cardinals wished the papal court to remain m France, while the Italian cardinals preferred Italy. The formei, therefore, elected a Frenchman for pope, who took the name of Clement VII., and made Avignon his capital. The Italians chose a countryman of their own, who exercised the papal authority at Rome, under the title of Urban YI. 5. The whole of Christendom was divided between the two pon- tiffs. Urban was acknowledged in England, Germany, Italy, the northern states of Europe and Portugal, while Clement was obeyed in France, Spain, Scotland, Sicily, Rhodes and Cyprus. The papal authority was much impaired by this division, of which no one could see the end, for when either pope died, his party elected a successor. Two popes were thus reigning at the same time for thirty-eight years. 6. All attempts to induce one or both of them to resign were unavailing. To remove this scandal, a numerous council of prelates assembled at Pisa, in 1409, and elected Alexander V. for the purpose of superseding both the others. Instead of effecting such an object, this proceeding only set up a third competitor. 7. Such conflicts among ecclesiastics could not fail to bring odium on the whole body of prelates, and especially to impair the respect and confidence which laymen had entertained for the offices of church- men. The anathemas and denunciations of the popes, formerly so terrible, were now principally interchanged between the popes ♦hem- selves. 8. The church itself, »nd all its associations, were passing into contempt, and the only remedy seemed to be an authoritative coun- cil, in which all the Christian nations of Europe should be repre- sented. 9. Hence originated the council of Constance, held at the city ot that name in Switzerland. This council deposed the three rivals, and elected as pope Otho Colonna, a Roman, who took th°. title of Martin V"., A. D. 1417. The great schism was thus leriuinated. Avisrnoril 3. When did the pOpe return to Rome? Of the schism in the chwrch 4. Of the cardinals? 5. How was Kiirojw d.vidjd In this scni-^m ) t iV ♦>•• '"CtacU jif Pis* 1 7, 8. What eiTcci had the schism 7 d. Tlio council c/"Con«!#rs»T THE VENETIAN REPUBLIC. 307 CHAPTER CCXVI. The Venetian Repitblic. 1. Ti'E republic of Venice first rose into importance in thr bttei part of the tenth century. A free commerce was then established with the Greek empire and the Saracens of Egypt. The maritime rntii's of Istria and Dalmatia had also been subjected to the Venetian dominion. In the wars between the papal and imperial parties, the republic generally supported the former. 2. Pope Alexander III., as a reward for the services of the Vene- tians, conferred on them the sovereignty of the Adriatic, and hence arose the singular ceremony of celebrating annually a mystic marriage between that sea and the doge of Venice. 3. The crusades tended greatly to enlarge the power of the repub- lic. In the fourth crusade, Constantinople was taken by the Franks, and the Greek empire was dismembered. The Venetians, who were a party in this undertaking, acquired several maritime cities in Dal- matia, Albania, Epirus and Greece ; the islands of Crete, Corfu, Cephalonia, and several others. 4. But the increasing wealth of Venice led to a fatal change in its political constitution. The government was originally democratic, the power of the doge being limited by a council, who were freely chosen by the citizens. Several tumults at these elections furnished the doge Gradenigo with an excuse for proposing a law abolishing the annual elections, and rendering the dignity of councillor hereditary in the families of those who were at that period, A. D. 1298, mem- bers of the legislative assembly. 5. This establishment of a close aristocracy led to several revolts, 3ut the insurgents were defeated. Ten inquisitors were appointed to investigate the conspiracies, and this commission was soon rendered permanent, under the name of the Coimcil of Ten, the most formida- ble tribunal ever founded to support aristocratic tyranny. 6. Venice became the commercial rival of Genoa and Pisa, and the clashing of their interests led to the most obstinate and vindictive wars, in which many naval battles were fought with various success. The earliest of the serious misfortunes of Venice may be dated from the time when the republic began to display an ambition to conquer northern Italy. 7. Such an attempt was begun early in the fifteenth century, and ♦he Venetians were thus involved in the desolating wars of that pe- riod. They became masters of several duchies and other territories ou the north bank of the Po. The members of the rei^cnmg families whom they conquered were carried to Venice and put to death, as the most certain mode of preventing revolt and attempts to reinstate them- CCXVI —I. Of Venice and its commerce? 2. Of wedding the Adriatic? 3. Th« crusades? 4. What effect had the wealth of the Ve-'etiansJ 5. Of aristocracy ane Venice? 6. Of Genoa and Pisa? 7. Of their wars 1 308 GENOA - LOMBARD V — FLORENCE — NAPLES. ielves. Venice was now drawn into the convulsed politics of Italv, and w:ia destined to experience a full share of the misfortunes whick iwaittd that country. CHAPTER CCXVII. Genoa. — Lojyihardii. — Florence. — Naples, ) 1. Genoa, like Venice, owed its prosperity to its extensive com- merce, which flourished in spite of the political convulsions that agitated the repuhlic. The Genoese embraced the cause of the Greek emperors, and helped them to refrain Constantinople, from which they had been expelled by the crusaders. 2. Their services were rewarded with the cession of Caffa, Azof, and other ports on the Black Sea, throuj^h which they opened a lucrative trade with China and India. They obtained also Pera, a suburb of Constantinople, Smyrna, and several important islands in the Archipelago. 3. Nor were they less successful in extendin*T their power in Italy and the western Mediterranean, though they had a potent rival in the maritime republic of Pisa. The mutual jealousies of these powers, and the efforts of both to gain possession of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, led to a long and sanguinary war. This ended, A. D. 1290, in the complete overthrow of the Pisans, whose co'nmerce was anni- hilated by the loss of the island of Elba, and the destruction of Leg horn and the port of Pisa. 4. The states of Lombardy which had wrested their freedom froi.i the German emperors, after a time fell into anarchy. Embarrassed by the advantages which they knew not how to exercise for their own benefit, some of them voluntarily resigned their liberties to new m-^s- ters, while others yielded to usurpers. 5. The Marquis of Este became lord of Modena and Reggio, in 1336 ; the house of Gonzaga gained possession of Mantua ; and the Visconti took the title of Dukes of Milan, in 131)5. Florence retained its freedom and prosperity for a longer period ; it was not till the reign of the Emperor ChaHes V., A. D. 1530, that the republican form of government was abolished, and the supreme a ithority usuri>ed by the princely family of the Medici. 6. In 1200, the kingdom of Naples passed from the Gennan house of Suabia to the French house of Anjou, in the person of Charles I. This monarch acquired the name of the Tyrant of the Two Sicilies. John of Procida excited a conspiracy against him, which exploded on Easter day, 1282, and is known in history by the name of the Sicilian Vespers. CCXVIL — I. Of ihe commerce of Genoa? 2. Of ihe Genoese acnuisliiona on the j*ack Sea and at Constantinople? 3. Of Corsica and Sardinia? 4. The states c' Lorunardy? 5. Of Modena, Mantua and Florence? 6. Nap'-n^ 7. The Sicili* vMperd ? iSbTABLISHIMELNT OF THE SPANISH FOWER IN ITAL\ 3u9 7. At the sound of the vesper bell, on the evening of that day, the nhabitants of Palermo rose in insurrection and massacred all the French. Sicily became separated from Naples, and passed into the possession of a prince of Arragon. The house of Anjou was subse- quently expelled from Italv. 1 CHAPTER CCXVIII. Establishment of the Spanish Power in Italy, 1. The kings of France inherited the Anjou pretensions to the crown of Naples, but none of them attempted practically to assert this claim previous to the accession of Charles VIII. This young mon- arch, instigated by the solicitations of Lodovico Sforza, the usurping Duke of Milan, and enticed also by some romantic hope of overthrow- ing the Turkish empire, crossed the Alps with a powerful army, in 141)4. 2. He traversed the peninsula without encountering any effective opposition. Rome, Florence and Naples, submitted to the conqueror. But during the progress of the expedition, a league was formed for the expulsion of all foreigners from Italy. The Venetian republic was the moving power of this confederacy, while the emperor of Ger- many and the king of Spain secretly favored its designs. 3. Alarmed at the approaching danger, Charles, leaving half his army to protect his conquests, led the remainder back to France. He encountered the Venetians on his way, and gained a complete victory. But the forces which he left in Italy were compelled to surrender, and the old government of Naples was restored. 4. Charles was bent on vengeance, and the distracted state of the peninsula gave him hopes of success ; but before he could complete his arrangements for a second expedition, he was snatched away by a sudden death, A. D. 1498. 5. Louis XII., his successor, inherited also, from his grandfather, a claim to the duchy of Milan. He strengthened himself by alliances with Venice, the pope, and the king of S})ain, and invaded Italy. Milan was captured, and Louis next invaded Naples. 6. Ferdinand of Spain had entered into an alliance with the Neapol- itan monarch, Frederic, and his rival, Louis, with a secret intention of cheating both. By his aid the kingdom of Naples was subdued, and the dupe, Frederic, imprisoned for life. But no sooner was the conquest completed than the Spanish king prepared to secure for him- self the whole of the spoil. 7. Aided by the abilities of Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great Cap- tain, he succeeded in expelling the French from Naples, which thus became united to the Spanish monarchy. Charles V., who was at CCXVIII. — 1. Of the invasion of Italy by C harles VIII. ? 2. The league against him « 3. 01 his retreat ? 4. His death ? 5. Louis XII. ? 6. Ferdinand of Spain ? 7. Gon •aJvo de Cordova, and Charles V. ? 8. Italy under the Spaniards 1 310 CONSPIRACY OF flESCO. the same time emperor of Germany and king of Spain, carried on long wars against his rival, Francis I. of France, and at length lilspos- sessed him of all his Italian domains. 8 Charles then added the title of King of Lombardy to his oihei dignities. For nearly two hundred years after his death, Italy was ruled chiefly by the kings of Spain. Genoa, Venice and Lucca, retained a republican government ; Tuscany was erected into a Grand Duchy ; the German emperor held supremacy over some of the Lom- bardo- Venetian territories, and the pope continued sovereign of the States of the Church. CHAPTER CCXIX. Co7ispiracy of FiescOj at Genoa. ^ 1 . During the period that elapsed between the wars of the Emperor Charles V. and those of Bonaparte, no material changes happened in Italy, although many conspiracies were formed, at various times, for the purpose of effecting revolutions in several of the states. The first plot was at Genoa, in 1547, soon after the republican government had been restored by the emperor, at the solicitation of Andrea Doria, the great Genoese admiral. 2. The nobles of Genoa were jealous of the influence possessed by the Dorias in the state, and were also displeased at their attachment to the princes of the liouse of Austria. One of these discontented nobles was Fiesco, Count of Lavagna, the chief of one of the most ancient and illustrious families of Genoa, who thought that he ought to fill the station occupied by Andrea Doria, at the head of the repub lie. It was not so much the jealousy entertained of the aged admiral. who had really rendered a service to his country, as of his nephew, Gianettino, an arrogant youth, whose haughty behavior towards the ancient nobility caused him to have many enemies. 3. The elevation of this young man to a share in the government gave great displeasure to the citizens generally, but more particularly to Count Fiesco, who looked upon it as a usurpation of his own rights ; in concert with several other noblemen, he formed a con- spiracy, the chief object of which was, the destruction of the whole family of the Dorias. 4. Fiesco was only twenty-two years of age, and lately married to a very amiable and beautiful young lady, who was devotedly attached to him. He possessed several large fiefs and strong castles among the mountains ; and had numerous vassals and bands of brigands entirely devoted to his service ; and he had made himself exceedingly popular by his courteous maimers towards the lower orders of the people. 5. The conspirators laid their plans, and fixed a certain night for their intended attack on the palace. The fatal evening arrived, and CCXIX. — ] What of Italy between the times of Charles V. and those of Bonaparte? 8. Of the nobles of Genoa ? Fiesco? 3. What conspiracy did he form? 4. What i« CONSPIRACY OP VENICE. Fiesco, after partaking of a sumptuous entertainment with the most distinguished of his friends, went to his wife's apartments to impart his designs, which he had hitherto kept a secret from her. The noble lady, equally grieved and terrified, threw herself at his feet, and implored him to abandon so dangerous an undertaking ; but the ill- fated young man was firm to his purpose, and bade her adieu, saying, *' We either meet no more, or you shall see all Genoa at your feet." 6. Fiesco then put on his armor, and went to join his friends on board the galleys in the harbor, which he meant to seize ; when, in crossing from one vessel to another, his foot slipped off the plank, and he fell into the water, unperceived by his companions ; for the weight, of his coat of mail caused him to sink instantly, and he rose no more. In the mean time, seve-al parties of the conspirators, amounting to about five hundred armed men, had been sent, in various directions, with instructions to take possession of the city gates, and other imp(»rtant posts. 7. The news of the sedition being conveyed to the palace, Gianet- tino Doria went out at the head of a few armed men, thinking it was only a slight tumult, that might easily be appeased ; but he was almost immediately killed, and his uncle only avoided a similar fate, by making his escape from the palace through a secret passage. 8. The insurgents had expected to be joined by their leader, Fiesco, without whom they knew not how to proceed ; but when they found he did not come, they began to lose courage ; as soon as his death was made known, the greatest consternation prevailed, and each of them now only thought of providing for his own safety. Many of the principal conspirators were seized and beheaded. The whole of the unfortunate family of Fiesco suflfered for the ambition of their chief, by banishment and the confiscation of their estates ; while the ven- erable Andrea Doria was restored to his high ofl5ce. 9. From this time, the government of Genoa was highly aristocrat- ical ; that is, it was in the hands of certain noble families, whose names were inscribed in a register called the golden book, and none but these had a right to sit in the council. The doge, who had no authority beyond that of chief magistrate, was elected every two years from among the senators, and this form of government lasted until the invasion of Bonaparte. CHAPTER CCXX. Conspiracy of Venice, 1. Of all the Italian states, Venice still continued to be ihe mos* wealthy and powerful. The Venetians had suflfered much by the A-ars of the league of Cambray, but they employeJ the latter part of known of Fiesco? 5. Of the conspiracy ? 6. What became of Fiesco* 7 Of Dona 1 I. The insunre^!*! 9. Of the government of (3en)a? 312 CONSPIRACY OF VENICE the sixteenth century in rebuildinp^ their fortress, reviving? ijieir maju tactures, and rebtoring their agriculture to its former llouribliing coh dition. 2. The greatest calamity they sustained during this period, wastht loss of the beautiful island of Cyprus, which was taken hy the Turkisij sultan, Selim the Second, in the year 1570. It had belonged to the republic two hundred years, and was the most valuable of all the V'enetian possessions in the Mediterranean, on account of its extreme fertility, and the quantity of wine and wool that it produced. 3. The Venetians made an effort to recover Cyprus, and were assisted by the Spaniards, whose commander, Don John of Austria, gained a great naval victory over the Turks, and destroyed their fleet, in the Bay of Lepanto, in 1571. This victory was celebrated throughout all Christendom, as a glorious triumph of the Christians over the Mahometans. 4. At Venice, it was signalized by solemn processions, fireworks, illuminations, and all kinds of rejoicings, during the space of four rlays ; and on this occasion, the city companies, especially the silk and woollen manufacturers, and German merchants, paraded the streets with splendid pageants, and gave balls each evening, in booths erected for the purpose, and brilliantly illuminated outside. 5. But all this joy did not bring back to the Venetians the beautiful island they had lost ; for the government found it so inconvenient to continue the war, that a peace was soon afterwards concluded with the Turks, who, by its terms, were acknowledged sole and undisputed masters of Cyprus. 6. From this time to the breaking out of a fresh war with the Turks, about seventy years afterwards, the republic of Venice remained at peace with foreign powers, and enjoyed a high degree ol consideration among the states of Europe. 7. Nothing very remarkable occurred in the affairs of Venice, until the year 1G17, when a mysterious plot was partly discovered, that appeared to have been laid with the object of putting an end to the existing government ; and was believed to have originated with the Spanish authorities in Italy. This is the conspiracy celebrated in Otway's tragedy of *' Venice Preserved ;" but the facts are entirely misrepresented in that drama. 8. There were three Spanish noblemen in Italy, the Duke d'Ossuna, Viceroy of Naples ; Don Pedro de Toledo, Governor of Milan ; and the Marquis de Bedmar, ambassador at Venice ; and these three nobles were said to have concerted a plan to destroy the republic of Venice, with a view of increasing their own power in Italy, as well as that of their master, the king of Spain. 9. This plot was revealed to the Council of Ten by a French pirate, named Jacques Pierre, who had absconded from Naples, and obtained employment in the docks at Venice : and he also confessed to the council that he was himself a party concerned in the plot ; and that his real business at Venice was to enlist secretly in the service of tl)e CCXX. — 1 Of Venice in '.he sixteenth century? 2. The island of Cyprus? 3,4 l?a:ileofLepanio7 5. TheTurlts? Q. Stale of Venice in Europe? 7. Ol Venice Pro INSURKECTION OF MASAMKLI.O. 313 ficeroy, a number of the bravocs, who at that time formed a regular oart of the establishment of most rich men. Acconling to his own statement, he and another Frenchman, named Jaffier, were to head these assassins, who, on a certain day apjxiintcd, were to break into the palace when the council was sitting, and massacre the doge and uU the senators. 10. The reason why Pierre made this disclosure was never known ; and it is even doubtful whether any conspiracy ever really existed, or whether the rumor of such a plot w;is a contrivance between the Duke d'Ossuna and the government of V^enice, to cover a design of restor- ing the ancient independence of Italy, by drivinjs the Spaniar'*- frcm Lombardy, and converting Naples into a kingdom, of which the crown was to be bestowed on the viceroy. In that case Pierre was himself deceived both by the duke and the Venetian senate, who pretended to believe his story ; but these speculations are of little importance com- pared with the dreadful events that followed. IJ. After ten months had gone by, several bodies, amongst whom was that of Pierre, were one morning seen hanging in the open space before the palace, called St. Mark's Place ; and it was soon whispered abroad that a great many persons had been drowned in the grand canal during the night ; and others strangled in the state prisons. 12. Day after day, more executions took place in St. Mark's Square, to the great horror of the people, who were lo.st in wonder as to the cause of them ; nor were any reasons ever assigned for these acts, which fearfully illustrate the terrible power possessed at that time by the Venetian government, which could thus, without ques- tion or explanation, take away the lives of so many of its subjects. 13. In fact, people were afraid to speak of its proceedings, for spies were employed by the Council of Ten ; and there stood, at the foot of the Giant's Stairs, the famous Lions of St. Mark, with gaping mouths, for the reception of anonymous communications, by wh'ch means any one might be charged with a crime against the sla e, without knowing who was the accuser. CHAPTER CCXXI. Insurrection of Masa XI. ^.^ niello. I 1 An«>ther insurrection ocx^urred, at Naples, ubuat thirty yeart after that of Pierre, at Venice, known as the revolt of Masaniello ft was in the year 1647, while Naples was under the government of i.ie Spaniards, that great, discontent was caused among the lower 'inlers of the people, in consequence of a tax levied by the viceroy on fruit ivhich in summer was the principal food of the poor. 2. Every time the viceroy appeared in the market-place he waa served ? 8. Who laid a plot at Venice ? 9. Who revealed it? 10. What was the design? 11-13. Wlial was the result? „ ^r ^ • CCXXI — 1. When did the insurrection of Masaniello take place? 2. Of the viceroy 27 514 INSUKRECTION Or jViaSAMELLO. it appears he ,lw.'„^ u ?"'""«<"' '» abolish the tax; wnich, . which ensued ' '^ ""^ ''"' "'" '^'==^'°" "^ '^e mischief 4 Indignant at being treated with so much severity he laid a nlm fled for sheUe^lo a npTah '^'""'^ '"'"'^ Po^^^sion, while thevice.ov ft A . ^'^ ^^ ^ neighboring convent. taxes b,r"h;'fl T?'" ""^'Z' '"' °"""'='' »° ^''^''^l' several of the 2-ing the ,ndepe„dre o7h, ''"cl/, ;" hS:"hetfuTed th^ seized an "Ifellded ' ^^ '"' "'''"^ *^''^='' ""^emen were ^veern Drine; H„ ' '•'« c.ty and issued his commands as a sovereign prmce. He even held a conference with the vicerov wl„. fo. the sake of putting a stop to the outrages of t e mob aS utl lum retam the government, and signed a Treaty to thTc'f^? '" '*-' 8. Masamello now appeared in a splendid dress of cloU. of silver Son ^' '"'' ^' ^"^ =««-^inated ten days after las cLraU'ary .^patnsh authont.es. but none of equal importance to Xurrelatcd ?.r??;. iJ^^^^^7^^x:U^--::-^;^^'^^ -"- - THIi MODERN POPES 315 CHAPTER CCXXIl The Modern Popes. 1. At Rome, from the time of Paul the Thirrf, A. D. 1534, to the French invasion, in 1796, no less than twenty-nir.e pontiffs were ele- vated to the papal throne. Some of these ruled with mildness, and were much beloved ; others were very arbitrary, and sometimes, by their severity, occasioned tumults in the city. 2. One of these was Paul the Fourth, a proud man, ambitious of ruling over other princes, as his predecessors had done ; but the state of society was altogether changed, and the pope had no longer much authority out of his own dominions, except in such affairs of the church as came under his jurisdiction ; nor could he expect an} homage from the rulers of other states, beyond that which was due to his sacerdotal character. 3. Paul the Fourth was disliked at Rome, because he made the people pay very heavy taxes, and augmented the power of the Inqui- sition ; in consequence of which, the prisons of that tribunal were filled with people suspected of heresy. Yet he was often strictly just in his actions ; as a proof of which, he disgraced and banished, for bad conduct, three of his nephews, whom he had raised to very high oflices. _ -. 4. These were the Marquess of Montebello, the Duke of Fagliano, and the Cardinal Caraffa, all of whom had behaved in a manner very unbecoming their rank ; and as soon as the pope died, they excited public tumults at Rome, where the lower orders of the people set fire to the court of the Inquisition, after having broken open the dungeons, and released the prisoners. 5. Much mischief was done in the course of this tumult ; so that the next pope, Pius the Fourth, although he granted a general par- don, considered it necessary to except the leaders, who were all three beheaded. „ 6. One of the most distinguished of the Roman pontiffs was Lrregory the Thirteenth, who was elected in the year 1572. He was very much beloved, on account of his mild government, which was injurious in one respect, as not being calcrdated to check the depredations ol the numerous banditti that infested the country around Rome, and even the capital itself. . 7 Gregory the Thirteenth made that alteration in the calendar which is called the New Style. Until this period, the precise length of the year had never been exactly settled, so far as regarded some odd minutes at the end X){ it, which, by miscalculation, had, in the course of many centuries, brought the days out of their proper places; wherefore, Gregory ordered that the dates should be altered on a cer- tain day, to bring them right again. JCSXII -1. Of the pontiffs at Rome? 2. Paul IV. ? 3. The Inquisition? 4 Moo- Wbei^^fand Caraffa? 5^Pi... IV.? 6. Gregory XIII.? 7,8. The refor;aation of lh« :}16 SIXTUS THE FIFTH SlXTUb THE FIFTH. 317 8 This new mode of reckoning was adopted in all Ca holic conn tries, in the year 1582, when ten days were entirely omitted in the calendar, so that the day which used to be the eleventh of the month became the first. It was long before this alteration of the style was introduced into the Protestant states, which was a serious incon venience in many cases. 9. The established religion of some of the German cities waa Protestant, of others Catholic; so that in one town the inhabitanta were celebrating their Christmas, and other public festivals, ten days oefore those of another ; till, at last, it was found necessary to make the change universal. 10. Gregory the Thirteenth was a great friend to the Jesuits, for whom he built and endowed a college at Home, and twenty-seven seminaries in different parts of the world, many of them in heathen countries, where the fathers taught the Christian religion among the people. It is said they did so much good in the Japanese islands, that the emperor of Japan sent ambassadors to Rome to express his o^ratitude to the pope for the benefits that had been conferred on him- telf and his people. 11. Gregory ordered public rejoicings at Rome on account of the conversion of the rich and populous empire of Japan to the Christian faith ; but the festivities were cut short by the sudden death of the pope, who had reigned over the church of Rome above thirteen years CHAPTER CCXXIIL Sixt7/s the Fifth. 1. Gregory the Thirteenth was succeeded by'Sixtus the Fifth, whose history is very remarkable. This celebrated personage was the son of a vine dresser residing in a small village in tlie territory of Montalto, who, being very poor, placed the boy with a farmer in* the neighborhood, who employed him to look after his pigs. 2. It happened, one day, that a Franciscan friar travelling through that part of the country, required a guide to conduct him to AscoliTa town some few miles distant, and our hero was charged with the office. The worthy friar was so pleased with his conversation on the road, that he took him to his convent, where he remained ; by close study he became, in time, such an excellent scholar, that he waa appointed to a professorship in the college of Siena. .*K The fame he there gained by his lectures caused him to be appointed chief of the Inquisition at Venice ; but lie had not long filled that high office, before he became involved in a dispute with the Council of Ten, and found it prudent to make his escape from that city. He then took up his abode at Rome, where he was soon raised ealendar? 9. Of the celebration of Christmas? 10. The Jesuits? 11. The Jap «iiese 7 CrJGCIU. — 1. Sixtus v.? 2. IJow did he rise to notice? 3. How at Roiiui nud ) to the dignity of cardinal by Pope Pius the Fifth, a.d was also highly distinguished by Gregory the Thirteenth, at whose death he was elected pope. 4. A story is told of his having used some artifice on this occasion, pretending to be in very ill health, and extremely infirm, because he knew there were a great many of the cardinals who had reasons for wishing that the next pontificate should be a short one, and would perhaps be induced to choose him, if they thought he could not live 5. His government was extremely vigorous, and so strictiy just, that it is said he never granted pardon to a criminal under any circum- stances. But with this austere temper he did much real good, by freeing the country around Rome from those desperate bands of rob- UdTS that for many years had overrun the territory of the capital. (J. Sixtus took great pleasure in aggrandizing his humble family, and adarning his native place with fine buildings ; but his chief public works were at Rome, where he made an extensive aqueduct for con- veying water to the city from a distance of thirteen miles ; rebuilt the Vatican library on a more magnificent scale ; and erected near it a fine printing office. 7. This pontiff was a great admirer of Queen Elizabeth, and of Henry the Fourth of France, who were reigning in his time, although both these sovereigns were of the Protestant faith ; but he said they kn been expelled from several countries theii property confiscated, and their colleges shut up, or converted * other pur|)oses ; therefore, the pope was obliged to give his consc n, for the suppression of the order altogether which, it has been said, he did very reluctantly, in the year 1773. Venice' 4. What story is told of him? H. His eovermnenl? 6. His buildlngl t. Hi* policy? 8. Anecdote of him? 9. Cleme-.t XIV / JO. Tlie esuiia? 27' 318 THE ITALIANS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER CCXXIV. The Italians of the Eighteenth Century. 1. Home was not so gay a city as Venice, except on extraorilinarj occasions, such as the Jubilee, or the coronation of the pope, which was a very magnificent ceremony. It was usually performed in the church of St. John de Lateran, the most ancient of the sacred edificcH in Rome. 2. The procession from the Vatican was extremely splendid, the cardinals all attending on horseback, in their purple robes and scarlet hats ; the nobles of Home, in full dress, each followed by four pages, in rich array ; and the pope himself, riding on a white mule, preceded by his Swiss guards, in coats of mail and caps adorned with large plumes of feathers ; the cavalcade presenting altogether a very grand spectacle. 3. In this order, the pope took his way from the palace to the church, where he was crowned ; after which he proceeded to the ('ampidoglio, a citadel erected by Michael Angelo, opposite St. Peter's, on the site of the ancient Roman capitol, crowds of the com- mon people thronging around him to beg his blessing. On arriving at the capitol, the keys were presented to him by the governor, and restored by him with an appropriate benediction, after which the pro- cession returned to the palace. 4. The evening was celebrated with illuminations, fireworks, and other public rejoicings. The most striking feature in the public fes- tivities at Rome was the illumination of the great dome of St. Peter's, which had a most brilliant effect, as seen against the clear deep blue of an Italian sky. 5. The French style of dress was now prevalent in all the great towns of Italy, and in compliance with a strange custom which had been introduced, married people could not, on any occasion, be seen together in public, without violating the rules of fashion and etiquette. Every married lady, therefore, made choice of some particular gen- tleman, frequently a relative of noble birth and sc^yity fortune, who attended her wherever she went, and was called her cavalier servente. 6. Masks were very generally worn by both sexes at all public places, a gentleman usually appearing at an opera or assembly in s black silk domino, which was a short cloak, with a velvet mask under his hat, just concealing the upper part of the face. The ladies wore the mask quite over the face, and a veil thrown over the head. 7. No place in the world could be more gay, during the latter half of the eighteenth century, than the city of Venice, notwithstanding aF. its misfortunes ; for the Venetians, having no longer any preten- sions to power, devoted themselves entirely to amusement ; so that, to a stranger, each day appeared like a public holiday, in consequence of the processions, and shows of various kinds. CCXXIV. — 1. Of the Jubilee at Rome? 2, 3. The pr<»cession of the pope? 4. lUo- »lnatioii3' 5. Style of dress? 6. JVIaskiug? 7. Gayeiy of Venice? 8. GondolM i THE FT LIANS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CKM'UllY J19 8. Then the gondolas on the canals were occupied by parties in iiursuit of enjoyment, and the rooms called casinos, in St. Mark's Place, were every evening filled with company, it being customary for people of fashion, instead of entertaining their friends at their own houses, to invite parties of ladies and gentlemen to partake of refresh- ments at a casino. 9. The carnival was celebrated with more splendor at Venice than in any other place, and the city, at that mirthful season, was always visited by immense numbers of foreigners. In short, pleasure engrossed the whole time and thoughts of the Venetians, until the excilintr events of the French Revolution turned their thoughts to graver matters. 10. The happiest part of Italy is still, as it ever has been, the gran^'-duthv of Tuscany. Duke Ferdinand die! in 1824, and was succeeded by his son, Leopold the Second, who devoted a large share ot his time to attending to the welfare of his jjcople, and the improve- ment of the country. He made several new roads, and improved many parts of a low marshy country extending along the sea-coast, called the Maremma, which is so unhealthy, from damps, and the sulphureous nature of the soil, that it had long been entirely deserted ; but by his exertions, it was rendered partially habitabl(% 11. All modern travellers speak of the gayety, neatness, and easy turcumstances, of the Tuscan peasantry, who seem to enjoy more hap- piness than the rural population of any other country in Europe, except Austria. At every cottage door are seen women and girls busily employed in plaiting straw for hats, of which great quantities are sent all over Europe, and to the American states. 12. The young peasant girls wear these hats themselves, orna- mented with llowers and ribbons. The Italian language is spoken more correctly in Tuscany than in any other part of Italy, Rome not. excepted ; and even the lower classes express themselves with a degree of refinement that is seldom found amongst uneducated people. 13. The country siround Florence is well cultivated, beautiful and picturesque, and the hills are covered with elegant villas, belonging to the nobility and gentry. In Florence, as in almost all the large towns of Italy, the ground floors of the best houses, which are gen- erally dignified with the name of palaces, are let out as shops, and the family of the sho|)k*^eper occupies the first floor ; so that the owners of the palace have often to ascend two flights of stairs, to reach their residence 14. Most great families in Florence have also a custom, whicli ai)pears strange to American people, of agreeing with their cooks to furnish them with a dinner every day, for a certain price, which is of course determined according to the nund)er of the family, and the manner in which they choose to live. 1,5. The landed proprietors of Piedmop* are in general rich, at" estates are very productive in that countr} , which is one of the most 9 Carnival ? l(». Of Tuscany niider U(»|>olgress, and the three states entered into a customs-union, their respective rulers either conceding or promising freedom to the press, and representation to the people. The French Revolution of 1848 followed, producing a powerful effeot in Italy. The Sicilians and Neapolitans rose and demanded a constitution, which the kiug was compelled to grant, but which he soon found means to break. 3. In the north of Italy, still more important events signalized the progress of liberal opinions. The Lombards and Venetians rose in insurrection, and threw off the yoke of the Austrians. Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, espoused their cause, put himself at the head of the revolutionary movement, and drove the Austrians imder Radetzky out of Lombardy, and seemed upon the point of taking possession of Venice. 4. The scale turned, however, and Austrian rule was reestablished in Lombardy. The Sardinian king, encouraged by the flight of the Pope from Rome, in November, and by the obstinate resistance made by Venice to the Austrians, determined once more to measure swords with the oppressor. He was totally routed at Novara, in March, 1849, and abdicated on the day of the battle, leaving the throne and its perplexities to his son, Victor Emanuel II. 5. The Austrians resumed their sway ; the Pope was brought back to Rome by French troops — who were for a time obstinately resisted by Garibaldi and others— and was for many years kept there by French bayonets. The reaction in Southern Italy was complete, and the people were more oppressed than ever. 6. The new king of Sardinia sought to improve the condition of his subjects, by making commercial treaties with other nations, and by fostering industry in every possible way. So liberal were his views, that he was supported even by republicans like Garibaldi. Austria likewise sought to strengthen her position in Lombardy and Venice, CCXXVL— l.What was th? state of thinjrs in Italy in 1S40? In 1847? What of Pius IX.? 2. What of Tuscany and Sanlinia? What effect did the French Kevoluti«.n of 1S48 have? Sicily and Naples? 3. What of the Lombards and Venetians? The Kini: of Sardinia? 4. Was ho Buccessful ? Why did he perst>- vero ? What happened at Novara? 5. What now occurred? The Pope? Southern luly? 6. What did Victor Emanuel now strive to do? Austria? MODERN REVOLUTIONS OF ITALY. 323 but to no purpose, as an insurrection in 1854, in Milan, which was with difficulty suppressed, very plainly showed. 7. The political influence of Sardinia had been greatly increased by the part its army took in tlie Crimean war, 17,000 mr-n having fought with the French and English against the Russians. Several circum- stances now occurred to indicate the existence of some species of alliance between Victor Emanuel and France. When Orsini, an Italian, tried to take the life of the French Emperor, the Sardinian government passed a law against " certain suspected persons." Prince Napoleon, the cousin of Napoleon III., sought in marriage, and sub- sequently wedded, Victor ICmanuel's daughter. 8. The h^mperor of Austria was alarmq^ at these events, and sought to strengthen himself still more in Lombardy, and even to form an Italian league. He saw, however, that he must prepare for war, and to meet France and the States of Northern Italy in the field. The Italians were led to suppose that, in case of victory, they would secure their national independence, not merely exchange one foreign supre- macy for another. 9. The Austrians crossed the Ticino, a stream separating Lombardy from Piedmont, in April, 1859. They ravaged the Italian fields during the following month, and on the 20th of May wore defeated by the allies at Montebello, and were subsequently routed in the battles of Magenta and Solferino, on the 4th and 24th of June. Certain circum- stances — and among them the threatening attitude of Prussia — decided the French Emperor to tempt the fortunes of war no further ; a truce, and the treaties of Villafranca and Zurich, followed in July and November. 10. It was stipulated in these instruments that Austria should retain Venice, and tiiat Tuscany and Modena should resume their allegiance to their Austrian Grand-Ducal rulers; that Austria siiould cede to Sardinia a large portion of Lombards, for which the govern- ment of Victor Emanuel should pay the sum of forty-two millions of dollars. The French Emperor seemed to favor the establishment of some sort of Italian federation, under the presidency of the Pope, an idea which was received throughout Italy with the most profound dissatisfaction. 11. Six months had not elapsed, before Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and a large part of the Papal dominion?!, had voted by overwhelming majorities for annexation to the dominions of Victor Emanuel, who, it was now clearly seen, would soon become ''King of Italy," in fact and in name. The Pope was left with a small strip of territory sur- rounding the city of Rome. The province of Savoy and the county of Nice, belonging to Sardinia, were, by the consent of their inhabi- tants, transferred to France. 1 2. It now rem lius to describe the final and successful efibrt made by the people of Naples and Sicily to throw ofi* the yoke of their tyrant, and join t!ie new Kingdom of Italy. 7. Wh.it<»f an alliance bctwi'en France and Sardinia? S. What seemed now Imminent? What did the Italians hope for? 9. Describe the campaiirn which followed. Why CHAPTER CCXXVII. Modern Revolutions of Italy , Coneluded, 1. The uprising of tliq people of Sicilv, in January, 18 48, against their vsovereign, Ferdinand II., king of Naples, has been mentioned. The insurrection spread throughout the island, and soon extended to the continent. The king, in order to appease tlie people, ciiauged h s ministry, granted a constitution, and established universal suffrag • ; but, wliile making these concessions, was secretly preparing to revoke them. 2. On the 15tli of May, » revolt in the city of Naples was sup- pressed, and soon afterwards the island of Sicily had been recovered to the royal authority. The king took a bloody revenge upon the revolutionists, and terrible executions followed in Messina and Palermo. The merciless character of these punisliments obtained for their author the name of '' King Bomba." 3. The king, having re-enforced his mercenary troops, principally Swiss, and having secured by largesses the favor of the lazzaroui, or beggars of Naples, was enabled to end his days in comparative tran- quillity, lie was succeeded by his son, Francis II., in 1850, and another revolt in Sicily broke out soon afterwards. Garibaldi, who was at ti.is time in Sardinia, determined to go to the insurgents' assistance. 4. He left Genoa with a few hundred volunteers, and landed in Sicily in May, 18(50. The Sicilians Hocked to his standard, and in numerous engagements overpowered the king's troops. They took Palermo, in June, and Messina, in July. The king vainly sought to satisfy the people, by offering Sicily a separate constitution and a government of her own choosing. 5. Francis II., or, as he was sometimes called. Little Bomba, saw that ho had lost Sicily, but determined to make an effort to save his Neapolitan dominions. Ho set his fleet to cruising between Sicily and the main land, in order to capture Garibaldi, shoidd he attcm{)t to pass across. He had an army of b;0,000 men, and these he posted in advantageous positions. lie did not know that many of his soldiers and sailors were heart and soul with the revolutionists, arvd would go over to Garibaldi as soon as occasion offered. 6. Garibaldi landed on the Calabrian coast in August, defeated such of the king's troops as remained faithful to him, and w;is soon in undisputed possession of the southern lialf of the Neapolitan ter- ritory. The king fled, in September, to his stronghold of (Jaeta, on the sea-coast, to the north-east. Gariiialdi immediately entered Naples in triumph, and was looked u;)on an 1 obeyed as a dictator. 7. lie fought the king's troops onco more on the banks of the Yol- CCXXVII.—l. Whatof an uprisin;; in Sicily in 1S4S? How «H«1 the kinir scik to appease the people? 2. What happened in May y What ofthe kinir'sro venire? 3. The kinjr's tro<.ps? Who succeeiled Fer. How did he strive to save his Neapolitan dominion^? Ilisarrny »>nd navy? Oonid he depend upon them? 6. St;ito what followed. How was Gari- baldi now looked ui»on? MODERN REVOLUTIONS OF ITALY. 325 turno, and won a dearly-bought victory. On the 21st of October, he summoned the people of the Two Sicilies to decide their own destiny by vote. 1,420,000 votes were cast; of these, 1,:U0,000 were for annexation to the Kingdom of Italy, under Victor Emanuel. The king, thus invited, and accompanied by Garibaldi, entered Naples on the 7th of November. Garibaldi, neither asking nor receiving any reward whatever for his services, retired, a private citizen, to the island of Caprera. 8. Francis II. held his stronghold of Gaeta till Februar)^, 1861, when he was forced to abandon it. He fixed his residence at Rome, in the delusive hope that his late subjects would soon tire of their new condition and recall their former sovereign. Victor Emanuel assumed the title of King of Italy on the I7th of March, making Turin the capital for the time being. 9. He gave the people a constitution, which was an expansion of the charter granted in 1848, by Charles Albert, to the Sardinians. By this the people were to be governed by a parliament, this consist- ing of the king, a senate, and chamber of deputies. The senators are appointed by the king, the deputies are chosen by the people. Every man, 21 years of age, who pays annual taxes to the amount of eight dollars, is a voter. 443 deputies were sent to the chamber in 18t)2. The capital was removed to Florence soon afterwards. 10. in 1870, public opinion, as well in the i>apal territory iis in the rest of Italy, seemed to demand the annexation of this region to the new kingdom, and the king sent an army to take forcible possession. The troojis of the Pope made just suflicient resistance to show that violence was used, and the royal army obtained almost bloodless pos- Kcssion of the city. 11. Tlie Roman people were then called upon to vote upon the question whether they desired to form part ofthe Kingdom of Italy, and, by so doing, make it one single, united nation. The decision was so overwhelmingly in the aflirmative that it might almost be called unaninmu.s, and thus the aspiration of the Italians for national unity and independence was, after many vicissitudes, triumphantly realized. Rome became the capital in 1871. 12. Religion had nothing to do with the desire of the Romans to be freed from the dominion of the Pope as their temporal ruler. They remained as good Catholics as ever, and recognized him, as before, as their spiritual father. The Pope considered himself hardly used, and, feeling that he was a prisoner, remained for nearly a year in his i)alace of the Vatican. The Italian government, however, did everythitig in its power to secure his perfect independence as th(» licad of the church. 13. Italy is now one of the great powers of Europe, with an arm} S 400,000 men, and a navy of 100 vessels and 1100 guns. The l»eople liave within the last thirty years made great advances in 7. Wliat of another iMtth-? What of a vote in the Two Sicilies? Wliat Wiis the result? What did (iaiil'altii do? 8. What hccariic of tho drtlironed kin;r? What title «lid Victor Kniannel assume, and when? What was the capital of Italy? 9. What are the principal liatun-s t>\' the prc-icnt nuvcrnnient of Itiil.y? 1<>, 11. What happeiK'd in regard to Iluiii.'? 12. >\ hat ot religion in this connection ? Conduct ot tlie Italian p»vernnieiit tuwiir.ls (he l*opo ? 13. What of Itiily at the pruseut 1h> ? 14, 15. State tJie pruniiuuiit events in the life of GariUildi. 326 ROME UNDER THE KINGS AND THE REPUBLIC. everytliing that constitutes national greatness and leads to national prosperity 1 hey are building railroads and canals, educating the j>oor, embellishing and improving the cities. If thev are enabled to remain at peace, and are not drawn into any conflict with their neiglibors, the end of the century will doubtless see them a powerful and prosperous people. 14. Giuseppe Garibaldi, who has acted so important a part in these events, was born in Nice, in 1806, and was bred a mariner. Ho spent many years in South America, and aided the people there in tlieir struggles for independf nco. IIj sailed in 1848 with a body of men, recruited by liim, and called the Italian Legion, and, lauding in Sar- dmia, offered his services to Cliarles Albert; he shared in the disasters subsequently suffered by that monarch. 15. Upon the flight of the Pope from Rome, the new government offered Garibaldi a command. Ho fought the French successfully for a time, and, after a most romantic existence, was arrested in Sardinia and banished. lie came to New York in 1850, and declining a public reception, established himself at Staten Island as a maker of candles. He again became a sailor, and after various wanderings returned to Nice. In 1859, on the breaking out of the war with A'lstri >, ho formed a corps called the llnntor,-; of the Alps an I p.Tformed the splendid part in the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, which has been detailed above. THE CITY OF ROME CHAPTER CCXXVIil. Rome under the Kings and the RepuUk. 1. The part of Rome which is said to have been built by Roniuiut jjccupied the Palatine Hill, on the east side of the Tiber. This prim- itive town was built in a square form, according to the custom of the Latins. It was intersected by two main streets, one ruiming from north to south, the other from east to west. 2. The three hills north of the Palatine were occupied by tlie Sa- bines, and the C'apitoline Hill was their citadel. Etruscan settle- ments also existed on the Cwlian Hill, and part of the Es(juiline. The Seven Hills, thns iidiahiied by three different nations, were united into one city, and surrounded by a wall, by Servius Tullins. 3. The whole circuit of the wall was ab(Mit six miles. It included considerable tracts of land not occupied by buildings, but either devoted to pasturage, or covered with woods and thickets: such were large portions of the Esquiline and \'iminal. In times of war the people rCXXVITI.— 1. Of Home as built by Honiulus? 2. Tlie three hills? The Seven Ililli' 3. The walls? 4. Servius Tullius? 5. The cloaca maxima, Ac? 6. The capture by the Gauls? 7. The rebuilding? Alien ITECTU RE OF ROME. 32" of the neighborhood took refuge within the walls of the city, where they found sufficient space and food for their cattle. 4. Servius Tullius divided the whole city, within the walls, into four regi(»ns, which coincided with the four tribes of Roman citiz(Mis. Many great buildings, :is we have already remarked, were erected at Rome rluring the time of the kings. 5. The cloaca rrwrinta still remains, as also some part of the wall of Servius, the whole of which existed in the eighth century of Rome During the early part of the republic we find no mention of 3uch great architectural works as those of the kingly period ; hut with the increase; of the population many of the uninhabited districts must have gradually become covered with houses. About one hiuidred and twenty years after the establishment ol the republic, the city was captured by the Gauls, who set it on fire. The whole was consumed except tlie capitol, a few houses o^ the Palaline, and the l:irge siructun;s of stone. 7. The hasty manner in which the city was rebuilt explains the fact, that, d»)wu to the time of Nero, ihe si«iuii ' 6. Ai;ue(iucid '/ 7. Housaa? 328 GRANDEUR, EMBELLISHMENT, AND DECAY OF THE CITY. 4. Public edifices however still remainen tne cnief objects of the pride of the Romans. Theatres, a class of buildings which had pre- viously been scarcely tolerated, were erected in several parts of Rome during the last century of the republic, especially after the time of Sulla. During the civil wars between Marius and Sulla, the numlnjr of houses had increased to such a degree that they extended beyond the walls of Servius. 5. Of all the splendid buildings which were raised during the lat- ter days of the republic, scarcely any traces exist. Augustus migbi .veil say that he had changed Rome from brick to marble. The temples, porticoes, arcades, theatres, and public buildings of every description, which were erected during his reign, were inimmerable The whole plain t>etwoen the Quirinal and the river became a new town, which in ir.aguificence far surpassed the city of the hills. This new town was one mass of temples, arcades, and places of amuse- ment. 6. Aqueducts for supplying water had been built as early as 313, B, C. Others were constructed afterward, but it was not till the imperial period that this species of architecture reached perfection, and most of the remains now visible belong to the period of the em- pire. 7. All the houses in Rome were very high, after the city became populous. Augustus fixed seventy feet, and Trajan sixty, as the maximum height. The uj)per story was generally of wood. It was a law of the Twelve Tables, which also exi.sted in the legislation of later times, that no two houses should touch each other, but that a .space of five feet should be left between them. CHAPTER CCXXX. Grandeur J Emhpllishmenty and Decay of the City, 1. All that had been done for the embellishment of Rome previ- 0U5 to the reign of Nero, was eclipsed by the magnificent buildingn of this emperor; but the greater part of these structures, together with those of former days, perished in the conflagration whicli hap- pened before his death. 2. 1 1 is plan of restoring the city was gigantic, but it proved to be impracticable. He proposed to make Rome a seaport, and to connect it with the ocean by long walls, reaching to Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. But all that he was able to do was to restore those parts of the city which had been destroyed. W. The fiice of the rebuilt portions, however, assumed a totally different asoect. On the ruins of the Palatine rose the Golden House CCXXX.— 1. Of Xero's ombellishment of Rome? 2. His plans of restoring tho junit city ? .^ The Golden House? 4. Of .Home under Vespasian and ComnuKhis? b. severus and C'jiiacalla? 6. Wall of .Aurelian ? 7. Of tho eniijcrors after CouBtantine? ROME AFTER THE OVERTHROW OF THE EMPIRE. .^29 of Nero, which occupied a space equal to a large town. The great- est care was taken to make the new streets wide and straigl.t. All the new buildings were massive, and built of stone, without the old wooden upper story. 4. The width of the new streets rendered it necessary to extend the city beyond its former limits. In the reign of Vespasian a mca Burement of the circumference of Rome was taken, according to which it amounted to upwards of thirteen miles. The subsequent empe- rors continued to incrense and einbeliish the city, but in the reign of Cofiimodus, a great part was again destroyed by fire, which consumed all the buildings on the Palatine. 5. Septiiniiis Severus exerted himself to restore the burnt portions, and to ornament the city; some of his structures are still extant. But the grandeur and magnificence of the baths of Caracalla surpassed all the works of his predecessors. Almost all the great buildings, or their remains, which still exist at Rome, belong to the period between Nero«nd Cixijitaiitine. 0. The most extensive work of this period is the immense wall, with its numerous towers, with which Aurelian surrounded the city. 'J'his work appears to have been completed in the reign of Probus, A. I). 270. Tlie Janiculine Mount, which was fortified from the earliest times of the republic, was now, for the first time, included within the city walls, together with the region south of the Tiber. 7. After the time of Constantino, when the emperors and the Ro- man nobles had adopted the Christian religion, the decay and destruc- . tion of the ancient edifices commenced. The building of numerous churches was the immediate cause of this destruction. Neither the court nor private individuals possessed sufficient wealth to erect build- ings equal in form or materials to those of their ancestors; and as heathen temples could not always be converted intoChristian churches, ihey were ijenerdlly pulled down for the sake of the materials. Nu- merous columns were thus removed from their places, and the remaining parts were abandoned to any persons who chose to take them. CHAPTER CCXXXI. Rome after the Overthroio of the Empire. 1. During the fifth century of the Christian era, great calamities vvere inflicted upon Rome by the ravages of the northern barbarians. The population now began rapidly to decrease, and towards the end of the century the suburbs were no^ longer inhabited, except near the Janiculine Hill. CCXXXI.— I. What of Rome in the fifth century? 2. In the sixth? 3. In \\\t fev«iiih and eighth ? 4. Under the exarchate and Lombards? 5. In the year 600? 6 Xitt ponlifls) 7. Honorius I., Adrian I., and Paul II. ? 330 ROME IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 2. In the sixth century, when Rome w'as besieged by the Goths under Totila, there was so much cultivated land within the walls that the citizens thouoht the corn thoy had sown would be sufficient to supply the garrison and inhabitants in a protracted defence. 3. Great calamities combined to desolate Rome in the seventh and eighth century. Famine, earthquakes, a pestilence, and five trC' mendous inundations of the Tiber, drove the inhabitants from the greater portion of the ancient site of the city. 4. The period of the exarchate and of the Lombard dominion is that of the deepest distress of Rome. The fnost diligent inquiry is unable to discover who were her acknowledged masters, or what was the form of her domestic government. 5. Subsequently to the extinction of the exarchate, in 752, Rome had been abandoned, but was never formally resigned, by the Greek emperors. About the year 800, the Romans apj.ear to have recurred to the memory of their former institutions. They organized a corpo- ration, which received advice rather than conunand from the pope, who had silently usurped the title of *' Lord." 6. The history of Rome soon became merged in the history of the pontiffs, who employed every moment of peace and prosperity in rebuilding the walls, in burning lime, in constructing churches and shrines of majiyrs. the materials of which were supplied from the deserted ruin?.. 7. Honorius I. stripped the temple of Romulus of its gilt tiles Greijory III. took the columns from an ancient building ioi nie church of St. Peter. Adrian I. demolished one of the most gigantic and • massive of the old structures of the city, to enlarge a church. Paul II. employed the stones of the Coliseum to build a palace. 1 CHAPTER CCXXXIL ■// '// Rome 171 the Middle Ages, 1. With the introduction of modem manners, arff iterturc and political institutions, a now Rome rose on the ruins of the o d capit.il The rising importance of the modern city accelerated the destruotioi of what remained of ancient structures. Yxonx the time when Ronu^ again became worth a contest, we find her citizens in arms, som*- times against each other, sometimes against the pretenders to t|n imperial crown. 2. The spirit of feudalism bred a succession of factions within her walls, most ;>ernicious to the rej)ose and prosperity of the state. The gigantic structures of the city oecamc converted into fortresses, and sufTercil in the civil wars which distracted the comnuniity. 3. The Orsini occupied the mausoleum of Adrian and the theatre CCXXXTI— What of the new Kome? 2. Of the spirit of fiMidiilism? .3. Tlie Orsini, the C'olonna, the Krunjripani, ami their wars? 4. Quarrelti of the popes and eiiii)erorj* ? 6, ti. Of fire^ in Hoiii*' ? ROME UNDER THE POPES. 331 of Pompey. The Colonna chieftains intrenched themselves within tne massy walls of the tomb of Augustus and the baths of Constan- Ime. The Conti fortified the edifices on the Quirinal. The Frantri- pani fought their enemies from the innumerable arches of the Colise- um, f:jm the Septizoniuin of Severus, and the great arch of Janus. I he Savelh converted the enormous tomb of Cecilia Metella into a tortr^.^, and the pope devoted the Pantheon to the same purpose. 4. In the quarrels between the pope and the German emperor which embroiled the whole of Italy, the city of Rome was a chosen icene of combat. Within its walls were castles to defend and space fight. We read, accordingly, in the annals of those times, of armies encamped on the Aventine, and marching from the tomb of Adrian to the Lateran, or turning aside to the Coliseum or the capitol, as if through a desert, to the attack of the strong posts occupied by the respective partisans of the pope or the emperor. 5. Great fires were sometimes the consecjuence of these hostilities. The emperor Henry IV., the troops of the pope's nephew, Rusticus, and the Normans of Robert Guiscard, committed more havoc amoncr the remains of ancient Rome, from 1082 to 1084, than all the preced'^ ing barbarians of every age. 6. The first of these ravagers burnt a large part of that district called the Leonine city ; he destroyed the great portico from the Ostian Gate to the church of St. Paul, battered the tomb of Adrian, and demolished many of the Capitoline structures. The army of Guiscard, with the papal faction, burnt the city from the Flaminian Gate to the Antonine Col-unn, laid waste the sides of the Esquiline to the Latenui, set fire to the whole region from thence to the Coliseum and tlie capitol, and completed the ruin of the latter edifice. CHAPTER CCXXXIII. Rome under the Popes. 1. From this period must be dated the desolation of the Esquiline the \ iminal, and the Coelian Hills, the ruin of the Coliseum, and many of the structures in the Forum and the Sacred Way. A con- lemp(»rary viTiter says that all the regions of the city were ruine.1. Another spectator, who was in Rome twelve years afterwards, laments that although what remained could not be equalled, what wa.« ruined could never be repaired. 2. What chiefly excited the astonishment of this observer, was ihe beauty of the statues, which, according to him, the gods theuj- selves nught survey with envy, and which were worthy of beino worshipped, on the sculi)tor's account. " 3. In 11()T the German army of Frederic Barbarossa assaulted rCXXXITI.— 1. Of the desolation of the citv' 2 Of thf> Ktifii..«? i v7~^ u.,„ro«s,.? 4 Drancaleonc? 6. Of the deathaud tlM.ion of 1 c popest ? of the coronation of the emperors? v^v^t>i o, <• ui 332 RUINS OF ROME IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. MODERN ROME. 333 the Vatican for a week, and the pope saved himself in the Coliseum. After the popes had hegnv to yield to the unequal contest with the senators and people, and had ceased to reside constantly at the capi- tal, the field was left open for the wars of the nobles. 4. The people, to arrest their violence, placed the senator Bran- caleone at the head of the government. This magistrate threw down one hundred and forty towers of the refractory nobles, with a great number of palaces, baths, temples, and columns, the remains of the ancient city. 5. There were intervals between the death and the election of the popes, when the city was unprovided with any recognized authorities. In 1291 such an interval caused six months of civil war. The towers and fortresses of the city were furnished with engines which ca.st stones of twelve hundred pounds' weight ; and it is easy to imagine what mischief they cau.sed among the crumbling walls of the old structures. 6. The coronation of the emperor, Henry VII., was attended with battles fouglit in every quarter of the city, from the Vatican to the Lateran ; and while he received the ensigns of universal empire m the latter church, his rival, John, was in possession of the fortified church of St. Peter and other posts. 7. The fall of houses, conflagration, slaughter, the ringing of bells in all the churches, the shouts of the combatants, the clang of aims, and the rush of the people from all quarters, formed an universjii uproar which was the common prelude to the coronation of a German Cxsar in Home. CHAPTER CCXXXIV. Ruins of Rome in the Fifteenth Century, 1. The triumph of superstition conspired with the ignorance and necessities of the Romans to render them more indiHerent to the relics of pagan antiquity. Whatever nationality and j)atiiotism they had evinced in the tinies of turbulence, were degraded into a blind vener- ation for the shrines of the apostles, and for the person of their suc- cessor. 2. A secretary of the popes, an antiquary, and one who may be cited as a favorable specimen of the better class of citizens, writes thus. ** There 'are still at Rome most high and adminible objects, which can be seen nowhere else. Here is the threshold of the apos- tles, and the earth purple with the blood of the martyrs. Here is the handkerchief of St. Veronica, the heads of Peter and Paul, th< cradle of our Saviour, and the bridal ring sent from heaven to St. Agnes. More than fifty thousand strangers, from all parts of the world, come every year to Rome in the time of Lent, to see, touch, and venerate these things.' ?) 3. I'he remams of antiquity were mere rubbish in the eyes of that generation. In 1430, Poggio Bracciolini uttered the following solil- oipiy, as he surveyed the remains of the Eternal City from the sum- mit of the Capitoline Hill. '* The primeval state of Rome has been delineated by the fancy of Virgil. The Tarpeian Rock was then a savage and solitary thicket ; in the time of the poet it was crowned with the golden roof of a temple. 4. " The temple is overthrown ; the gold has been pillaged ; thf: wheel of fortune has accomplished its revolution, and the sacred ground is again disfigured with thorns and brambles. The hill of the capitol, on which we sit, was formerly the head of the R<)man empire, the citadel of the earth, the terror of kinffs. 5. '* Fhc spectacle of the world, how is it fallen! how defaced I The path of victory is obliterated by vines, and the bcnclies of the senators' are concealed by a dunghill. Cast your eyes on the Palatine Mount, and seek among the shapeless and enormous fragments, the marble theatre, the obelisks, and the colossal statues and the porticoes of Nero's palace. 6. '* Survey the other hills of the city ; the vacant space is inter rupted only by ruins and gardens. The forum of the Roman people where they assembled to enact their laws and elect their magistrates, is now enclosed for the cultivation of pot-herbs, or thrown open for the reception of swine and bufialoes. "7. *' The public and private edifices, that were founded for eternity lie pmstrate, naked and broken, like the limbs of a mighty giant. And the ruin is the more visible from the stupendoMjj relics that have survived the injuries of time and fortune." CHAPTER CCXXXV: Modern Rome. 1. 1 iB Rome of the middle ages was a mas5 )f irregulai lanes, OLilt ai iong ruins, and surmounted by brick towen The streets were so narr iw that two horsemen could with difficu't} ride abreast. The rebuilding of the city by Sixtus IV., and the embellishments of his successors, have completely obliterated this town, and that which Wt* now see is a city which can date no further back thar the close of the fifteenth century. 2. The destruction of the ancient relics continued till a ver^ late period. Statues of marble were burnt to make lime. One ponlill look down the temple of Hercules, and demolished an ancient bridge, to manufacture cannon balls for the castle of St. Angelo ; another stripped the Pantheon of its bronze tiles, to cast cannon for the same fortress. 3. Strange to say, the golden age of Leo X. witnessed the great- est height of this barbaric destruction. In the wars of the Emperor CCXXXIV. — 1. Wh.u of the 8iii»ersiiHon and ignorance of ihe Rnmanj?? 2. Ofa8«> relary of ine jxipe? 3. Of Poggio Bracciolini? 4 Of his description of the ruins o( EU>nae? CCXXXV. — 1. What was the Rome of the middle ages? What of Sixtus V. ? How were the ancient relica destroyed? '6. Of the ase (»f l^o X. ? 4 Paul III ? Alexander Vtl. ? 6 Of the jHifWd wl»o iniproved the city ? 2 S 334 REVIEW. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 385 Charles V., Rome was taken and sacked, A. D. 1.V27, by the Consta ble of Bourbon, who commanded the imperial iroops.^ For lui.e months tlie city was a prey to a barbarous (Jeruuiii and Spanish sol- diery. The churches and palaces were pillajred ; statues and oohinuis were overthrown, and the chambers of the Vatican and the irescoes of Raphael still bear the marks of this cahmiity. 4. The work of destruction, however, bep:an to cease m the six- teenth century. Paul III., by a bull issued in 1534, made it a capita; offence to grind down statues, and he appointed an antiquarian com- missary to attend to the preservation of the architectural remains Yet under the^uccessors of this pontiff, it was customary for sculp- tors to cut their statues from ancient columns, and many old struc- lures were plundered of their marble to erect palaces. 5. The embellishments of the rising city thus caused many of the old relics to disappear. The last recorded destruction oi this kind was the demolition of the Flaminian Arch, in the Corso, by Alexan- der VII. From 1527 to 1798, Rome wiis not entered by any hostile army, nor exposed to anv political revolution. G The popes who have done most for improving and embellishing the city, are Nicolas V., — Paul II., who built the Venetian palace and part of the Corso, — Leo X., who began St. Peter's church,-- GrefTory XIII., who founded the Roman college, — Sixtus \ ., wlio raised most of the obelisks, — Paul V., who built the splendid church of Sta. Maria Mageriore, the Borghese palace, and other structures, — GrecTory XV., — Alexander VII., — Clement XI., — Benedict XI > and ''lastly, Pius VI., who established that unrivalled repository of antiquities, the Vatican Museum. The French, also, during their Dcc ipation of Rome, from 1810 to 1814, contributed materially to the improvement and ornament of he city. 3. It would seem, then, that a small band of emigrants settled in .|i the central part of Italy, and founded a city, 753 years before Christ, M giving it the name of Rome, after their leader, Romulus. The city increased, and in time became the centre of an empire which con- quered nearly the whole civilized world. 4. The history of Rome we divide into three periods; the first ex- tending from 753, B. C, to 508, B. C. This is the Regal Period lor, during this space of almost two hundred and fifty years, Rome was governed by kings. 5. Tarquin the Proud was the last of these monarchs : after his expulsion, the government w^ changed for that of a Republic, This torm continue»l to the usurpation of .Tubus Cii-sar, who became sole master and ruler of l^ome, with its vast domains in Europe, Asia and Africa, 48, B. C. P » » 6. A period of war and confusion ensued, but Augustus, a nephew ^ of the great Caesar, prevailed over all competitors, and may be con- sidered as the founder of the Empire, A. D. 34. Thus the Republic lasted nearly five hundred years, and it was during this second period that Rome rose to its greatest pilch of power. 7 The third period of Roman history extends from the time of Augustus, to the time of Odoacer, 476, A. D. ; this was the period of Uie Empire, and occupies a space of more than five hundred years Thus the history of Ancient Home, extending from 753, B. C, to 470^ A. D., embraces a period of twelve hundred and twenty-nine years. 8. 'J'be ^ istory of Modern Italy, beginning with Odoacer, A L). 4 S exhibits a series of interesting events, especially during the middle ages, but since the fall of Rome, it has never been united under one governrxent; and though the people may be considered as one nat'on, thev have been always bioken into separate and secondary states CHAPTER CCXXXVl. Review. I We ha 76 now completed our Account of Ancient I ^me, and Sketch of Modern Italy. The former presents to us the inojrt powerlu. empire of antiquity, and perhaps the grandest subject ot n ntumpla- tion within the whole scope of history. 2. The early history of Rome goes back to a remote date, aid the stories of that period which are handed down to us are, no doubt, either entirely fabulous, or so mixed with fable as to be scarcely distinguishable from it. It is probable, however, that they are illus- trative of tlve events and manners of the times, and serve to give us just impressions of the remote ages to which they refer. rrWJiy -\. what does the hi.siory of ancient Rome yresenl? 2. What of lie V historv'of Pome ? 3. What was ihe origin of Ron^e? When was Ron.e f..m,. .-.I .' :^re dUrtl>me%i its name ? What <.f the pro CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Rome becomes a Republic, . 508 Cliiudius and S('rviliusconsuls,402 ('ori(>lanus baiiisbed, . . . 490 Laws of the Twelve Tables brought from (Jreece, . 450 Rome captured and set on fire by the Gauls 389 Curtius leaps from the rock, 36'^ Pyrrhus makes war o.. the Romans. ...... 28( First Pur ic War, . . . 204 Second Punic War, . . 2lfc Second, or RepithUoan Period. Battle of Cannae, Battle of Zama, Harmibal died, Third Punic War, 2lc 183 14«l Carthage conquered and destroyed, (Ireece finally couijuered and made a Roman provmce, Ciracchus slam, .... The Cnunri invade Rome, . Social War, Civil wars of Marius and Sulla Sulla dictator, Rebellion of Spartacus, Conspiracy of Catiline, Caesar crosses the Rubict;n, Battle of Pharsalia, . . Death of Casar, .... Battle of Philij)pi, . . . Death of Antony, Thirds or Imperial Period. 146 146 122 110 91 87 71 3 Zenobia taken to Rome as a captive, . . • . .2/0 275 284 320 33( 361 Death of Aurelian, Dioclesia i emperor, Constantine emperor, . . Constantinople built, . . Julian the Apostate, . . The empire divided by Val- entinian, 364 Britain finally separated from the Roman empire, . . 427 Rome besieged by Alaric, . 408 Rome taken and plundered by Genseric, 455 Odoacer king of Rome. . 47b ID=> The teacher can make this lable the basis of an exaniiriticn ei lis pupil, more or less extensive, as he may choose. -/ ( * • « * « •.-^ » • * « • < « • « t t « » « / « • « • • • • • « • • • *•• « •••• * • • • • • • • • • • • ■ ■ * • • ft • • ■♦.: • •• • • • This book is due two weeks from the last date stamped below, and if not returned at or before that time a fine of five cents a day will be incurred. 43 utc