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The Columbia University Libraries reserve the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. Author: Lehmann, Helen Mary Title: Paper and stationery Place: New York Date: 1922 J ' ^.^ .J- ' -l H - ^ .J* I .-. i- .XT- l>J l-J» .l.iL»U» fl.IMIl-IUtlJ-t-l.M II W f 5'- S5-y7^ ' ^3 MASTER NEGATIVE « COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DIVISION BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET ORIGINAL MATERIAL AS FILMED - EXISTING BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD ; I Lehmann, Helen Mary, 1883- ra,..r ana slaliono.y, l>y II.;l.-u Mary V/i"""" ,\a a.ui Hotilal, KlfrHl. Konuanl ... Ni-w \ork, ilie Ronald press company, li)22. xvii 195 ,. fr..nt., ill.-s.. platcs. W-i™. (Mcrchamli.se manual scr.es) P..,:H.k.., 1917 a, one of ...c nc^^^^^^^^^^^^^ — ' ""''" the title Tho stationery ,< ci>ar mcnt by Mary "Books for reference : p. 184-l»3. 1. Stationery II. Title. ,. Kennard. Beulali Klfreth. 1867- uoint author., r^ 23-2408 Lilirary of CoiiRrcss CopyriRlit A 692709 T1F5461.D52 vol.3 (3i RESTRICTIONS ON USE: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: ^<^^ REDUCTION RATIO: /^-< & DATE FILMED: >-/j^ I& INITIALS: ^c^J TRACKING # : »s*M 0U^2. FILMED BY PRESERVATION RESOURCES. BETHLEHEM, PA. a? ^<^. 00 3 3 o > ti 3 X N CO CJl ^-< OOM o ^^ CJl 3 3 > CO 0,0 o m CD O OQ ^ o o X N M o: .-v^' .^i ^J^^ %y^ a? ^s^.i ^.: lO o o 3 3 Ui o 3 3 8 3 3 NO o o- 00 b bo 1.0 mm 1.5 mm 2.0 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdef ghi|klmnopqrstuvwxyz 1 234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzl234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 2.5 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 V 'o ^^ ^^ fp ^^ ^. ''^- 6^ 'i^ 4^ ^ ^^' - ^P. ^' ^ "^-^P <» ip ^fp 'fo- m o -052 > C CO IE ^ ^ 0(0 ; m O m A-. '^^ # t-> M OI 3 3 3 3 8 iN ID , i T ^1 MERCHANDISE MAiNUAL SERIES PAPER LEHMANN-KE NNARD Criuntbta lBn\r>tviitp LIBRARY School of Business •*• f-» Courtesy of Eberhard Faber Company Process of Making Pencils MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES PAPER AND STATIONERY BY HELEN MARY LEHMANN, B.A. Member of Editorial Staff, Dry Goods Economist; formerly Instructor in Merchandise, New York City Department Stores, Texas University, and New York University AND BEULAH ELFRETH KENNARD, M.A. Editor of Series; formerly Director of Department Store Courses, New York University: Chairman of Committee on Merchandise Courses for New York City Public Schools; Edu- cational Director, Department Store Education Association NEW YORK THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 1922 INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES « HF.UUO!« PAPER AND STATIONERY BY HELEN MARY LEHMANN, B.A. Member of Editorial Staff, Dry Goods Economist; formerly Instructor in Merchandise, New York City Department Stores, Texas University, and New York University AND BEULAH ELFRETH KENNARD, M.A. Editor of Series; formerly Director of Department Store Courses. New York University: Chairman of Committee on Merchandise Courses for New York City Public Schools; Edu- cational Director, Department Store Education Association Courtesy of Eberhard Faber Company Process of Making Pencils NEW YORK THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 1922 2^ 2 "*^ ^ '7 Copyright, 1917, by The Ronald Press Company Copyright, 1922, by The Ronald Press Company All rights reserved 1^ ^54-. 53 Lso. to Mrs. Henry OUesheimer, Miss Virginia Potter, and Miss Anne Morgan, who desiring to give greater opportunity for advance- ment to commercial employees and believing that all business efficiency must rest upon a solid foundation of training and education gave years of enthusiastic service to the testing of this belief. EDITOR'S PREFACE MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES EDITOR OF SERIES BEULAH ELFRETH KENNARD, M.A. Formerly Director of Department Store Courses, New York University; Chairman of Committee on Merchandise Courses for New York City Public Schools; Educational Director, Department Store Education Association CONSULTING EDITOR LEE GALLOWAY, Ph.D. Professor of Commerce and Industry, Head of Department of Management, and formerly Director of Training School for Teachers of Retail Selling, New York University: formerly Educational Director, the National Commercial Gas Association As "Department Store Merchandise Manuals" these books were originally written for salespeople and were designed to give them reliable information concerning the sources and manufacturing processes of the mer- chandise which they handle. When it was necessary to deal with scientific or historical material it was treated as simply and concretely as possible and the point of view taken was that of business rather than that of the school or laboratory. In this form they have proved their practical value not only to the de- partment store salesperson but in the specialty shop. It has been pointed out, however, that the material has a wider scope than that of sales manuals alone. As reference books, librarians will find the short, clear statements and full indexes invaluable. As an encyclopaedia of merchandise the series con- tains scientific information in a simple, compact form which makes it available for children and others to whom the subjects treated are unfamiliar. As textbooks they are adapted for use in commercial schools, high schools, night schools, settlement classes, and by teachers of household arts and domestic science. VI EDITOR'S PREFACE As source books for practical story-telling, kinder- gartners, primary and vacation school teachers will find in them an abundance of interesting material for short "true" stories on the various industries and crafts, the manufacture of household articles, such as pins and needles, as well as the making of pottery, glass, and steel. These manuals contain just the material often hunted for in vain by teachers and librarians. As household helps and shopping guides the young housekeeper will find the manuals her best friends be- cause they not only describe the manufacturing pro- cesses but tell her how to distinguish well-made articles of good materials from the inferior and badly made. They also tell her how to care for the clothing or household goods which she has bought. For salespeople and storekeepers they supply the general and specific information about their merchan- dise which is indispensable to efficiency, yet very hard to gather from the scattered sources upon which they now depend. These changes should enlarge the usefulness of the manuals without losing any of their specific value in the field of salesmanship. We wish to express our grateful appreciation to the manufacturers and experts who have given us such valuable counsel and cordial co-operation. Beulah Elfreth Kennard. AUTHORS' PREFACE The information contained in this manual has been gathered and arranged for the purpose of giving a better acquaintance with the quality and styles of paper sold in the Stationery Department, as well as with the many arti- cles associated with the desk or library table. The chap- ter on engraving has been included to furnish the technical knowledge necessary for the intelligent handling and sell- ing of cards, invitations, and other engraved goods. The definite knowledge concerning the various proc- esses of paper manufacture was obtained from prominent manufacturers of paper and from an extended study of technical works on the subject. The authors are indebted to Mr. E. H. Naylor, Secre- tary of the American Paper and Pulp Association, George B. Hurd and Company, The Parsons Paper Company, Mr. G. Nelson Ball of the Ball Engraving Company, Mr. Thomas A. Isert, Secretary of The National Associa- tion of Steel and Copper Plate Engravers, to the Tech- nology Department of the New York Public Library, and especially to the Forestry Service of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, and to the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis., for valuable assistance ren- dered. For illustrations thanks are due to The United Vll Vlll AUTHORS' PREFACE States Department of Agriculture, Crane and Company, Mr. John E. Meyer, L. E. Waterman Company, The American Magazine of Art, and Eberhard Faber Com- pany. Helen Mary Lehmann. Beulah Elfreth Kennard. CONTENTS CHAPTER I The Stationery Department . . Divisions of the Department Variety of Stock Sources of Supply of Paper ^ Other Departments in Which Paper is Found / PAGB I II Paper Foundation Material of Paper Linen Cotton Cotton and Linen Rags Wood Pulp Destruction of the Forests Government Investigations Forest Fires Reforestation Using New Species of Trees Crop Fibers Straw Paper in the United States Esparto and Rice Straw Papyrus Bast Fibers Hemp Hurds Cotton Linters Increased Supply of Cotton Linters Since the War Experiments on New Materials Resources of Alaska Extent of the National Forests of Alaska Alaskan Transportation iz X CHAPTER III CONTENTS Alaskan Water Power Alaskan Climate Cost of Development of Alaskan Forests The Use of Waste Paper The Manufacture of Paper Pulp . . Descriptions of Process for Rag Paper Dusting Sorting Cutting Boiling Washing Water Bleaching Making Wood Pulp Mechanical Pulp The Drum Barker Grinding the Pulp Adapting Process to Other Varieties of Trees Screening and Pressing Sulphite Pulp Preparation of Wood Digesters Cooking and Screening Sulphite Pulp The Decker and Wet Machine Characteristics of Sulphite Pulp Soda Pulp Preparation Digestion or Cooking Recovery of Chemicals Sulphate Pulp Cotton Linters Processes Bagasse Waste Paper Bleaching IV Converting Pulp into Paper .... Beaters or "Hollanders" Construction of "Hollander" Stock or Stuff Chests CONTENTS PAGB CHAPTBR XI fACS 23 The Jordan Engine The Furnish Dyeing Coloring Matters Characteristics of Different Dyes Leading or Filling Sizing Tub-Sizing V Finishing the Paper 52 Hand-Made Paper The Water Mark Length of Time of Process Fourdrinier Machine Time Required to Make Pulp into Paper Pulp on the Wire The Deckle Straps The Dandy Roll Passing to the Rolls The Dryers Calendering or Glazing Rewinding and Cutting Supercalendering and Plating Kinds of Finish Coated Paper Glazed Paper Water Finish Writing Paper Novelty Finishes of Writing Paper Book Paper Newsprint 42 VI Making Paper into Stationery Cutting Envelopes Cards Sizes Commercial Stationery — Bond Paper Sizes of Commercial Stationery Ledgers • 63 I xu CHAPTER VII VIII PAGB 76 CONTENTS Loose-Leaf Devices Filing Envelopes Special Kinds of Envelopes Characteristics or Properties of Good Paper Characteristics Texture Finish Durability Strength Color Tests for Bond Papers Tests for Ledger Papers Specially Prepared Papers and Paper Products 83 Bank Note Paper Blotting Paper Blue Print Paper Boards or Board Paper Carbon Paper Crepe Paper Deckled-Edge Paper Filter Paper Hardware Paper Japanese Paper Kraft Paper Manila Paper Onion Skin Paper Packing Papers Papier Mache Paper Toweling Parchment Paper Photographic Paper Protective or Safety Papers Rice Paper Roofing and Building Papers Silverware Paper Tin Foil CHAPTBR CONTENTS Tissue Papers Tracing Paper Transfer Paper Vellum Vulcanized Paper Vulcanized Fiber Waxed Paper Imitations of Other Materials XIU PAGE • • • • • IX Wall Paper . Manufacture Printing Wall Paper Grounding Printing the Design Dry and Rolling Block Printing Embossing Flock Papers Japanese Leather Papers Other Finishes Design in Wall Paper Colors for Household Decoration Suggestions for Color Schemes History X History of Paper Early Methods of Keeping Records Parchment Earliest Form of Paper Ancient Use of Papyrus The First Real Paper Japanese Paper Present Methods Paper-Making in Europe American Industry Use of Cotton and Linen Rags Extent of Present-Day Industry Canadian Industry Chronology of the Principal Inventions Patents 94 105 and XIV CHAPTER CONTENTS PACK XI Engraving and Printing .... Orders for Engraving How Engraving is Done Intaglio Engraving Copper Plate Engraving Steel Plate Engraving Steel Die Engraving Copper Plate Printing Steel Plate Printing Steel Die Embossing or Stamping Illumination Care of Plates and Dies Writing the Copy for the Engraver Origin of Engraving Imitation of Engraving Printing from Type XII Engraving and Printing (Continued) . 124 Styles and Social Customs Sizes of Visiting Cards Styles of Lettering Forms of Visiting Cards Wedding Invitations and Announcements Personal Form of Wedding Invitation Impersonal Form of Wedding Invitation Wedding Announcement Invitation to the Wedding Reception Card of Admission to the Church At Home Card Customs as to Wef'ling Invitations Invitations for Other Occasions Forms Sizes and Styles Monograms Styles of Monograms Addresses Crests and Coats of Arms CHAPTER XIV XV XIII Leather Goods Articles Leathers 136 CONTENTS Russia Leather Morocco Parchment and Vellum Levant Tanning and Dressing Tooling Design Color XV PACE Metal Goods Articles Metals Qualities Gold Silver Other Metals Color Design Methods of Applying Design Other Materials Novelties, Gifts, and Favors . . . Importance of Display Gifts and Favors Slow Stock Seasonal Goods, Calendars, and Cards Playing Cards XVI Stationery Supplies and Miscellane- ous Importance of These Small Articles Lead Pencils Wood Used Finishing Special Kinds of Pencils Pens — History Process of Manufacturing Pens Other Metals Used for Pens Fountain Pens Materials 141 151 154 if XVI CONTENTS CHAPTBR XVII XVIII PAGB Set of Fountain Pens Ornamentation Forms of Fountain Pens Ink Requirements of a Good Ink Special Kinds of Inks Glue Mucilage Paste Sealing Wax Rulers Erasers Rubber Bands Seals Labels Paper Sets Twines and Cords Suggestions to Salespeople and Cus- tomers i5g For Correspondence Papers For Engraving For Novelties and Supplies Classification of Stock of Stationery Department jy^ Appendix j^g Classification of Paper and Paper Products Imports and Exports of Paper and Pulp Partial List of Substances Experimented on for Paper-Making Manufacturers of Writing Paper Manufacturers of Fine Stationery Books for Reference LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Process of Making Pencils Frontispiece FIGURE FACING PAGE 1. Flax Fibers Highly Magnified (on page) 5 2. Cutting Rags 24 3. Wood Pulp Fibers Highly Magnified 34 4. A Beating Machine 44 5. Jordan Engine . 44 6. "Dry End" of a Fourdrinier Machine 56 7. Rolls of Paper 60 8. Supercalender 60 9. An Example of Scenic Wall Paper 102 10. Styles of Engraving (on page) 127 11. Steel Pen in Different Stages of Manufacture (on page) 157 12. Cross Section of a Fountain Pen .... (00 page) 160 xvu PAPER AND STATIONERY Chapter I THE STATIONERY DEPARTMENT Divisions of the Department The stock of the Stationery Department comprises correspondence paper, writing materials, accessories for the writing desk or library table, and many novelties for table decorations or favors. It may be grouped in six divisions : Paper Engraving Leather Goods Metal Goods Novelties, Gifts, and Favors Stationery Supplies Variety of Stock Paper is the staple material in the department. It is seen in the boxes and pound packages of correspond- 2 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS ence stationery, in invitation and announcement cards, in pads and note books, score cards, albums, calendars, Christmas or other seasonal cards, and playing cards. Table decorations and favors, hand-painted and daintily colored, and tissue novelties all are made of paper. The engraving section is an important one and needs accurate information on the part of those who buy or sell stationery, as invitations, announcements, and call- ing cards must be in accordance with good form and also with the prevailing fashion. Among the leather goods are many varieties of mem- orandum books, diaries, dance, calling, and laundry lists, and desk sets. The metal goods are equally varied, consisting of desk and library sets, ornaments, and book ends, and are made of many metals and alloys. Sources of Supply for Paper The materials and sources of supply for paper have changed so radically within the hst ten years and they are so closely connected with other changes in our commercial situation that paper has become a peculiarly interesting subject for study, as well as one of the most useful and adaptable forms of merchandise. The artistic arrangement of stock, with suitable combinations for desk or table, always attracts atten- tion to the counter and if a thorough knowledge of THE STATIONERY DEPARTMENT 3 stock is added to good taste it becomes one of the most interesting of all departments to the salesperson. Other Departments in Which Paper Is Found Paper, aside from wrappings and containers, may be found in almost every department of a modern store. Chief among these are the Stationery and Wall Paper Departments, but it is also found in the following : House furnishings Upholstery Leather Goods Furniture Lamps Carpets and Linoleums Curtains Notions Millinery Art Paper is used extensively in the arts and trades and is employed for such different purposes as phonograph records and shingles. Chapter II PAPER Foundation Material of Paper Paper is made from cellulose, the fibrous material of which plants and trees are mainly composed, and differs from cotton or linen cloth only in the way in which these fibers are held together. Very much shorter fibers may be used in paper than in cloth. They may be obtained from a large variety of plants and trees and experiments have been made with very strange materials, including hornets' nests, gutta percha, and stone. (See Appendix.) Though paper may be made from many kinds of plants, the difficul- ties of manufacture are often prohibitive. The com- mercial value of each depends upon the cost of separating the cellulose from resins, fatty substances, coloring matter, and other non-fibrous material; upon the length and strength of the fiber ; and other factors, such as cost of transportation and regularity of supply. Linen The best linen rags are used for the highest grades of writing, bond, and ledger papers. The government PAPER 5 paper used for bank notes is made at the Crane government mills at Dalton, Mass., of new clean linen rags which are cut- tings from the textile factories. Papers made from linen are close, strong, and durable be- cause the flax fiber from which linen is made is longer, stronger, straighter, and more even than cotton fiber. Fig- ure I shows the flax fiber highly magnified. Cotton The growing scarcity of linen rags has caused cotton to be substituted even for fine writing and ledger papers. During the war cotton rags were used for bank notes. Papers made from cotton are softer than those made from linen. Tender cotton rags are also used for blotting papers and filter papers. Cotton and Linen Rags Cotton and linen rags would be the most satisfactory Figure i. Flax Fibers Highly Magnified 6 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS materials for stationery and nearly all paper products If the supply were at all equal to the demand. The ease with which they can be converted into pulp and the strength of the fiber, which does not need to be treated with destructive chemicals, make these materials ideal but the amount of rag paper now used is small, neariy all of It ^ing used for fine stationery, bonds, and bank notes. For other purposes either wood pulp or a combination of wood and cotton rags is emploved, though experiments are being made at the United btates laboratories and elsewhere to bring other fibers into use. Wood Pulp The use of wood pulp for nearly all printed matter and paper products has made this source of supply of the greatest importance, especially in the United States.^ Woods vary in the amount of cellulose which they contain, but they average about 50 per cent. In length the fibers vary from 1/25 to ;^ of an inch, and are usually very thin. Yellow pine has a long soft, and flexible fiber, very similar to cotton, while other wood fibers are generally short, circular, and in- flexible. Mechanical wood pulp has little felting qual- p^l' per cent of the paper used in the United States is made from wood PAPER 7 ity and requires the addition of longer fibers, such as chemical wood pulp, to make a good paper.^ Destruction of the Forests Until a few years ago the forests of America were considered inexhaustible and they were used, like our other natural resources, in the most wasteful and ex- travagant way. The cutting has far exceeded the an- nual growth and no provision has been made for the future. The European forests have been guarded for centuries so that new timber should always equal the annual cut, but many parts of the United States which used to be heavily wooded are now almost bare of trees. Only a few varieties of trees were cut, namely, spruce, true firs, and hemlock among the evergreens, and aspen, poplar, birch, and cottonwoods among the deciduous (non-evergreen) trees. According to the 1 Relative approximate lengths of paper-making fibers in millimeters: Linen 25-30 Cotton 20-40 Hemp 20-25 Manila 4-6 Jute 2 Esparto 5 Straw 0.2 I meter = 39.37 inches. A millimeter is 1/1,000 of meter or about 1/25 of an inch. Relative amounts of cellulose in woods: Poplar 62.77 Pine 57.00 Lime 53.09 Beech 45.47 Birch 55.42 8 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS report of the Secretary of Agriculture in 1918 the sup- ply of pulp came almost entirely from four species : Spruce 55^^ Hemlock 15 Balsam 7 Poplar 5 These species grow in the northeastern and lake states where nearly all the paper mills are located. The United States still exports lumber, but in 1914 we were importing large quantities of pulp wood and pulp from Norway and Canada. When European sup- plies were cut off by the war we turned to Canada for larger quantities, but eastern Canada sees the early exhaustion of her own pulp woods. At the present rate of cutting they will be gone within 25 years. Canada therefore prohibited the export of pulp wood and en- couraged the home manufacture of paper. Since the close of the war Australia, South America and Asia have been competing with us for pulp from Norway and Sweden, so that if :he United States would avoid prohibitive costs she must learn to depend upon her own resources instead of looking to forei^ countries for two-thirds of her newspaper pulp as in 1919. Yet paper manufacturers have found that their materials were not only growing more expensive every year but if present methods are continued the home product cannot be obtained at any price. PAPER 9 Government Investigations For a number of years the United States govern- ment has been making investigations and conducting experiments for the relief of this situation. The Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., the Forestry Bureau in Washington, and the Department of Agriculture are co-operating in this effort and they are all in touch with the work of the mills and Paper Manufacturers' Association in a national movement for the protection of the forest reserves. There are five lines of development in the work : 1. Saving the trees from wasteful forest fires. 2. Scientific reforestation. 3. Using new species of trees. 4. Substituting crop fibers for wood pulp. 5. Utilizing the forests of Alaska. Forest Fires The destruction of our forests by fire is appallingly great and most of the loss is quite unnecessary. Colonel W. B. Greeley, a chief of the Forest Service, stated to a committee of the House of Representatives that we have from ten to twenty-five thousand forest fires every year which destroy the young forest growth on at least eight or ten million acres annually.^ In Canada the destruction of forests by fire is said to be greater than for all manufactures combined. *H. R. 15337, January 26, 1921. I :' 1!' 10 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS In order to prevent this destruction, many forest patrols are needed but neither the state nor national governments have as yet appropriated nearly enough money for this service. Patrols include lookout sta- tions at important points, and foresters who walk over trails, and the recent addition of air service. The cost of adequate protection has been estimated at about eight million dollars a year (against a fire loss of twenty-five million) which should be divided be- tween the national and state governments and private owners who are not able to protect even their own prop- erties without government co-operation. While only 6 or 8 per cent of the lumber cut is used for paper, yet the paper industry has led in the conservation movement. Reforestation Reforestation includes the planting of new acreage and also the control of the lumber cut, so that young trees may grow to maturity and the old wasteful methods of logging may be prevented. Reforestation is a slow and expensive process, re- quiring the co-operation of all the lumber interests with the government. The growth of the long-fibered coniferous (cone-bearing) trees is very slow: Red spruce grows 44 feet in 80 years. Hemlock grows 37 feet in 80 years. White pine grows 82 feet in 80 years. f.f' PAPER II The planting has been going forward at the rate of from 6,000 to 9,000 acres a year, but it should be not less than 100,000 acres a year.* Using New Species of Trees Spruce and hemlock have been used so extensively for paper pulp not only because of their long fibers but because of their freedom from resin which makes the southern pines and gums more difficult to handle successfully. Spruce trees have exceptionally strong, clean fibers which can be used in making mechanical pulp and in the sulphite process (see Chapter III) better than any other, but experiments have shown that resinous trees may be pulped successfully with the soda or sulphite process and it is hoped that they may soon become commercially profitable for this purpose. One conifer, the jack pine, has a long fiber, similar to spruce, but has been considered valueless because of the pitch which it contains. Recent experiments show that the pitch may be easily removed by the sulphate process. Crop Fibers In Europe, where labor is cheap and wood is dear, various kinds of grasses and straw have long been in use for the making of paper. Among these are : *H. R. 15327. 12 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS 1. Wheat, oats, and barley straw. 2. Rice straw and esparto— more recently papyrus. 3. Hemp and flax fiber and the related fibers of manila, ramie, and jute. Straw Paper in the United States Straw is used in considerable quantities for straw- board (pasteboard), cardboard, and wrapping paper and sometimes for newspaper. Much of the straw comes from the eastern part of the wheat belt in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The government laboratory has recently made the following report on the suitability of these fibers: It is believed that these fibers are not suitable for pulping under present American conditions as they offer the following difficulties in handling. 1. Plant stalks, straws, grasses, etc., usually contain a large percentage of pith giving pulps low in fibre content and require high chemical consumption. 2. Material of this type represents seasonal crops so that large storage facilities must be provided ... in order to permit the paper mill to operate throughout the year. The susceptibility of material of this nature to decay also adds greatly to the costs and difficulties of storage. 3. Due to the bulkiness of these materials the digester charge is reduced, thereby reducing the yield and increasing the overhead costs proportionately. (See Chapter III.) PAPER 13 £sparto and Rice Straw Esparto is a tough wiry grass, like fine broom corn, that grows in Africa and Spain. It is similar to flax in structure but stronger and more elastic. It is largely used in the making of English books. Two million tons of it are imported by England from North Africa every year. It makes a paper soft and chalky in texture and is especially valuable in making the featherweight papers used in bulky volumes of fiction. Esparto was first used about the middle of the nine- teenth century and in the next thirty years became more important than rags in the English paper industry. Grasses similar to esparto are found in this country, but they have not yet been used commercially in paper- making. Rice straw is much used in China and Japan, but in this country it is not commercially valuable. It is not very different from wheat straw. Papyrus Papyrus, the plant fiber used by the Egyptians and early Greeks, is again being considered among the im- portant sources of material for paper. Africa con- tinues to be the home of the plant and there are now papyrus mills in Zululand. Thousands of acres in Central Africa are covered with the reedy grass. This area is controlled by France but concessions have been 14 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS given to Norway and Belgium and manufacturers from these countries are locating paper mills near the ancient centers where the stems were slit, pressed together, and dried in the sun. (See page 107.) Bast Fibers Both hemp and flax are raised in the United States but the demand for the bast (stem) fibers in the manufacture of textiles, rope, and similar uses exhausts the supply. Hemp usually comes to the paper mill in the form of old ropes and strings which can only be made into unbleached wrappings, cardboard, etc. The quantity of manila and ramie is very limited and jute is a coarse heavy fiber only used for inferior grades of paper. Hemp Hurds The government has been making experiments with the woody inner portion of the hemp stalk which is broken into pieces when the fiber is removed and is called "hemp hurds." The hurds are now used for stable bedding and packing and have very little com- mercial value, being considered a waste product. It has been estimated that wherever hemp is raised in con- siderable quantities, as in Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, and California, and collected at a few central places for machine "breaking" the hurds may be cheaply baled PAPER 15 and sent to paper mills in quantities large enough to be valuable to the trade. According to the calculations of the Department of Agri- culture : Every tract of ten thousand acres devoted continuously to hemp raising is equivalent to a sustained pulp produciHg capacity of 40,500 acres of average wood lands. In other words, in order to secure additional raw material for the production of 25 tons of fiber per day there exists the pos- sibility of utilizing the agricultural waste already produced on 10,000 acres of hemp lands instead of securing, holding, reforesting, and protecting 40,500 acres of pulp-wood land. The annual growth per acre, although decidedly in favor of hurds, has little bearing on the project, because the utiliza- tion of the hurds is subordinate to the raising of hemp, and the paper manufacturer probably could aflford to use only hurds resulting from the hemp industry. The question of storage of raw materials is a seri- ous one in the case of all crop plants and would be the main obstacle here also. Cotton Linters Another promising source of paper-making material may be found in cotton linters and hull fiber, which is also largely a waste product at present. After the cottonseed has passed through the ginning process for the removal of long staple cotton it is shipped to the oil mills for the extraction of cottonseed I6 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS oil. When it arrives at the mills it has adhering to it about 200 pounds of cotton for each ton of seed. Before the war it was customary to take off a "cut'* of from 40 to 60 pounds of the fiber per ton of seed, the balance being left adhering to the hull. This cut was used for stuffing mattresses, pads, and upholstery and for the making of guncotton, pyroxylin, and var- nishes. The tremendous demand for nitro-cellulose between 191 5 and 191 9 caused the mills to put in better machinery by which 125 pounds of linters per ton of seed was obtained instead of 40 to 60 pounds. Increased Supply of Cotton Linters Since the War Since the war demand has ceased, this increased pro- duction may be available for other purposes and, owing to the large quantity which the War Department had on hand in 191 9, the Salvage Board of the Ordinance Department, United States Army, asked the Forest Products Laboratory at Wisconsin to determine the suitability of second-cut cotton linters and hull fibers for paper manufacture. Commercial trials at the laboratory indicate that second-cut linters and hull shavings can be pulped with much less chemical and bleach consumption than wood and that they are well suited for the production of high-grade papers. The government stock was soon provided for PAPER 17 but the annual production of cottonseed is betweefi 4 and 4j^ million tons. If each oil mill removed 100 pounds of the linter and hull fiber per ton (after mak- ing a 75-pound cut for the mattress trade), there would be available annually about 200,cxx) tons of this ma- terial, or 650 tons a day. Experiments on New Materials The Forest Products Laboratory, Bureau of Plant Industry, has experimented with the following new materials for paper-making : Bagasse, which is the waste material of sugar cane after the juice has been pressed out, contains both fibrous and non-fibrous cellulose, which may be con- verted into paper by treating the fiber with either the sulphite or soda process and the non-fibrous by the "Lee" process (see Chapter III). Corn stalks are found to have several objections to their use — difficulties of collection and storage and the presence of pith which weakens the paper and makes it brittle. This latter difficulty has been met by a change of process but not the former. Broom com has the same objection. Zacaton. Epicampes macaroura, known locally as "zacaton," is a Mexican grass, the roots of which are extensively used in the manufacture of brushes. The grass cut from the roots is not utilized, and moreover, 1 8 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS the grass grows wild over immense areas in different portions of Mexico. Practical mill tests have shown that this material is suitable for the production of very excellent grades of book paper, and the material may at some time be worthy of consideration as a paper- making material. Hemp Flyings, Hemp flyings is the industrial waste derived from hemp fiber in the process of rope manu- facture. Practical paper mill tests have demonstrated that this material may be readily converted by the com- monly employed pulp and paper-making processes into a thin, pliable, opaque paper, which characteristics make it eminently suitable as a so-called "Bible paper." Such papers are used in the printing of thin, light editions of the Bible, encyclopedias, etc. Hemp fiber appears to be a fiber pre-eminently suitable for the production of this grade of paper. This sample at- tracted no little attention from the manufacturers of this grade of paper, and the work may result in the utilization of this domestic by-product. Resources of Alaska The necessity for new sources of supply for pulp wood has caused the development of pulp and paper mills in the northwestern part of British Columbia and seems to justify the opening up of the National Forest in southeastern Alaska, which is but little farther away. PAPER 19 The British Columbia mills have a reported invest- ment of $42,000,000 and have met the pioneer con- ditions of successful operation. Former Secretary of Agriculture Meredith has said that Alaska is destined to become a second Norway. With her enormous forests of rapidly growing species suitable for pulp, her water power and her tide water ship- ment of manufactured products, Alaska will undoubtedly become one of the principal paper sources of the United States. A substantial development of the paper industry in this wonderful region combined with the intelligent reforesta- tion of pulp lands in the older regions should settle forever the question of a paper shortage in the United States. Extent of the National Forests of Alaska The National Forests of Alaska probably contain 100,000,000 cords of timber suitable for the manu- facture of paper. Under careful management they should produce enough pulp wood for one-third of all the pulp products of the United States. The timber con- sists of spruce, hemlock, red cedar, and Cyprus with a small amount of cottonwood, birch, etc. The hemlock and spruce are commercially suitable for mechanical and sulphite pulp, while the cottonwood is a source for soda pulp. Alaskan Transportation The Tongass Forest, which is nearest to the sea, 20 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS has already been investigated and is much more ac- cessible than is usually supposed. Southeastern Alaska has also many deep water harbors open all the year and is well located with reference to shipments by rail and water. The canneries have already created systems of transportation with over thirty freight and passenger steamships running regularly between American and Canadian ports. Alaskan Water Power Owing to the mountains, which rise almost imme- diately from the coast, there is abundant water power during the summer season. Many of the streams are made of a series of cataracts. They head either in glaciers or in small lakes which occur a short distance from the shore line. The lakes afford good opportunity for storage, as dams could be constructed to raise the water level, but at present the streams have a very uneven flow which almost stops in winter when the ground is frozen to bed rock, holding back the water. This condition lasts for three or four months each winter, but if storage were provided the flow might be controlled so that the time of drought would be much shorter, perhaps no longer than the time in which pulp mills are obliged to shut down in the late summer elsewhere. PAPER 21 Alaskan Climate The climate of southern Alaska is mild compared to that in the same latitude inland. The Japan current modifies the temperature to such an extent that it is possible to work in the open all the year round and the low summer temperature is an advantage in sulphite mill practice. On account of the short winter days, however, indoor work would be more profitable at that season. Cost of Development of Alaskan Forests The country is undeveloped, and if mills were erected, towns must also be built with wharves, store- houses, dwelling houses, machine shops, stores, and water works. The initial cost of a paper plant located in Alaska would be great and require a large invest- ment of capital without any return for two years or more. However, when once established the supply of timber would be permanent and the other production costs might be stabilized to a greater degree than in the average location in the United States. The Use of Waste Paper The Waste Reclamation Service of the Department of Commerce urges a more extensive use of waste paper as raw material in paper manufacture. Every ton of waste paper that can be substituted in !■ f- I. . 22 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS paper manufacture will save eight trees of mature growth, required to produce a ton of wood pulp. We are sending annually to the dump 150,000 tons of waste paper, representing substituted power for at least 1,200,000 trees of mature growth. The Waste Reclamation Service says that the largest amount of waste paper consists of any and every sort and scrap of paper, such as old newspapers, and its chief use is for paper boxes, roofing and building boards, paper shipping containers, and wrapping paper. More than 2,000,000 tons of ordinary waste papers are used for boxes and shipping containers alone, the use of waste papers for this purpose preventing the con- sumption of over 1,000,000,000 feet of lumber an- nually. To a limited extent, old newspapers are used in making new print paper but the resulting paper is weak and requires an addition of sulphite pulp to give the finished product the requisite strength. Repulped old news stock cannot be so rapioly run through the paper machines, but its use in the manufacture of boxes, wrapping paper, etc., is thoroughly practicable and satisfactory. A great variety of old paper is used by the paper industry, ranging from the best qualities of old book paper to waste ''common papers." Chapter III THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER PULP Description of Process for Rag Paper The ragman is still called upon for material for the finer grades of paper, even as he was before the inven- tion of sulphite or mechanical wood pulp. Cotton and linen rags are also obtained in large quantities from the cuttings of textile manufacturers, but the advance in the price of rag papers and the limited supply of the material has caused the substitution of wood pulp in larger and larger quantities for all but the finest grades of stationery and book papers. The process of making paper from rags is in its earlier stages simpler than for wood or other fibers. We may consider the process of making paper from rags as representative and descriptive of the method used for all materials. Dusting The first step is the dusting of the bales of rags gathered from all parts of the world, which are bought by the pound. The rags are put into a huge machine which frees them from much of their dust and filth before going to the sorting room. If they have come from questionable sources they are fumigated first. 23 If 24 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Sorting Although the rags are separated according to their different qualities before going to the mills, so that the paper-maker can secure the particular grade he needs for a certain purpose, yet a second sorting takes place inside the mill, as the quality of the finished paper depends very largely upon the condition of the rags. For example, it is impossible to make a high grade linen paper if the rags are old and worn and contain more or less cotton. Therefore, the rags are carefully sorted as to material (cotton, linen, hemp, or wool), color (white or dyed), quality (new or worn), and condition (clean or dirty) ; the hooks and eyes, seams, etc., are removed by hand and the sorted lots are sent to the cutting rooms. New rags do not have to be dusted or sorted. Cutting In the cutting room the rags are dumped into a big machine where they are cut and chopped by revolving knives into small pieces suitable for cleaning in the rollers. For fine grades of paper the rags are often cut by hand, so that the fibers may not be torn as they are in the machine-cut rags, but machine cutting is the usual method. They come out in small shreds freed from much of the dust and dirt left after the dusting process. As they are being tossed and whirled about i INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 24 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Sorting Although the rags are separated according to their different qualities before going to the mills, so that the paper-maker can secure the particular grade he needs for a certain purpose, yet a second sorting takes place inside the mill, as the quality of the finished paper depends very largely upon the condition of the rags. For example, it is impossible to make a high grade linen paper if the rags are old and worn and contain more or less cotton. Therefore, the rags are carefully sorted as to material (cotton, linen, hemp, or wool), color (white or dyed), quality (new or worn), and condition (clean or dirty) ; the hooks and eyes, seams, etc., are removed by hand and the sorted lots are sent to the cutting rooms. New rags do not have to be dusted or sorted. Cutting In the cutting room the rags are dumped into a big machine where they are cut and chopped by revolving knives into small pieces suitable for cleaning in the rollers. For fine grades of paper the rags are often cut by hand, so that the fibers may not be torn as they are in the machine-cut rags, but machine cutting is the usual method. They come out in small shreds freed from much of the dust and dirt left after the dusting process. As they are being tossed and whirled about MANUFACTURE OP PAPER PULP 25 in the cutting machine, the suction of air currents draws out the dust and carries it off in tubes, while ingenious devices such as magnetic brushes, placed in various positions in the machine, take out the metal and other hard matter which would lower the quality of the finished paper. Finally, the partially cleansed and cut rags are carried out of the cutting machines by an endless belt on which they may be inspected before going to the boiling and beating machines. (See Figure 2.) Boiling In the floor of the room, where the endless belt drops the cut rags, are openings into huge revolving boilers made of steel plate, each of which will hold five or more tons of material. Through these openings the rags are dumped into a hot solution of lime and soda in which they are boiled under heavy steam pressure. This severe boiling and digesting process which lasts from three to seven hours removes the coloring and glutinous matters, as well as grease, dirt, and other impurities. The rag pulp now looks like thin, dirty mush. Washing The pulp is then put into a beating engine in order to wash out all the alkali and also the grease or other 26 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS impurities which have been loosened in the boiler. It has been estimated that in manufacturing one ton of finished paper 50,000 to 200,000 gallons of water are required in the various processes. Water An abundance of good, clear water is therefore obviously necessary to the paper-maker. Spring water is preferable and for this reason paper mills are located where the natural supply is abundant. It is essential to fine white paper. For the lower grades of paper it, of course, is not of such vital importance. Any impuri- ties in the water will combine with the chemicals in the various materials and bring about a result different from that obtained with pure water. The paper manu- facturer must know exactly what elements are in the water, which when perfectly pure is colorless, trans- parent, tasteless, and odorless. Natural water may come from rain, rivers, or wells. Rain water may contain acids and impurities such as soot, but, being soft, is very desirable. River water is also soft but is likely to contain impurities such as iron and lime. Well water resembles spring water and is more or less hard, containing lime, earthy salts, and organic matters. Hard water must be softened before it is suitable for use in manufacturing the best qualities of white paper. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER PULP 27 Settling ponds or filters attached to the washing and beating engines may be employed in softening. Bleaching It is necessary to bleach the pulp after it has been washed and this process takes place in the washers. Early in the industry before bleaching processes were known, the color of the rags or other materials de- termined the color of the paper. But today, in paper making as in the textile industry, bleaching has become a highly specialized work. By means of bleaching powders, such as chloride of lime, sulphuric or chloric acid, color may be removed from the rags quickly and effectively. Bleaching also aids in eliminating the vegetable and mineral impurities from the paper. Care must be taken, however, not to continue the process too long or the strength of the fiber will be weakened. The bleaching materials must also be well washed out before dyeing or the coloring matter will be effected. Making Wood Pulp The conversion of wood into paper pulp is a more complicated process. There are now four different methods of making wood pulp, the product in each case being named from the method. These products are: ? m 28 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS 1. Mechanical pulp 2. Sulphite pulp 3. Scxla pulp 4. Sulphate pulp Mechanical Pulp The "ground wood," or mechanical, process of re- ducing wood to pulp requires a non-resinous, long- fibered wood of good color, free from impurities, as the color and cleanliness of the pulp depend directly upon the color and quality of the wood, which are not changed by any chemical process. Spruce and balsam are the woods most used. The logs are first barked and cut into two-foot lengths. A barker is a steel disk enclosed in a heavy iron frame. The disk has three knives inserted in it in such a way that they can shave the bark off as the log is held against it. Both the disk and the wood are turned in the machine so that the knives reach every part of the circumference. The Drum Barker Owing to the uneven surface and different sizes of the logs, there is a large amount of wood cut away with the bark. Some manufacturers there- fore use a barking drum, which is a revolving iron cylinder fitted with projections to scrape off the bark MANUFACTURE OF PAPER PULP 29 as the blocks of wood tumble about in it. A stream of water assists in clearing the bark away. Some- times both the drum and disk are used. Grinding the Pulp There are two different methods of grinding the pulp. In the first the wood is ground in the presence of large quantities of water, producing a fine even grade of pulp. This is called "cold grinding." When the wood is ground with little water the fiber is longer and coarser and is called "hot ground." This is because the friction between the wood and the grindstone against which it is held creates a great deal of heat which the water reduces. The grindstones used in this process are usually about 54 inches in diameter and 24 inches thick with a ridged or "burred" surface. Each stone is mounted on a shaft and revolves within an iron casing. On the upper side of the machine there are three compartments into which the wood is put and pressed against the grindstone by means of hydraulic piston heads. The quality and rapidity of production of mechani- cal pulp depend upon the size of the wood, the rate of growth, and moisture content, as well as upon the surface of the stone and the temperature of grinding. If the pulp is ground too cold it will consist of small bundles of fibers which will not "felt" properly. If i^ If 30 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS it is too hot the stock is burned and made lifeless. At the best the fibers are so broken and cut that me- chanical pulp is not fit to make into paper unless mixed with sulphite or other chemical pulps. The poor quality of the paper made during the war was due to the lack of chemicals which caused paper-makers to omit the addition of the stronger pulps. Adapting Process to Other Varieties of Trees Spruce is used for making mechanical pulp because it has a long tough fiber which will stand the rough treatment. Hemlock is so much softer that it is ground to powder, and the other coniferous trees are either too short fibered or contain pitch which would injure the grinding surface and spoil the pulp. Recent ex- periments with jack pine show that the pitch may be removed by steaming and soaking and this wood will then yield as much pulp as spruce in proportion to its bone dry weight. The fiber of the jack pine is very much like that of spruce. Though the hemlock fiber is short and soft it may be made into mechanical pulp by dulling the ridges on the grinding stones. The increased use of these two woods would save spruce for the more valuable sulphite pulp. Screening and Pressing After grinding, the pulp is run through a series of ^i II MANUFACTURE OF PAPER PULP 31 screens to remove chips and any other coarse material. If it is to be used at once for making paper it is deprived of part of the water by passing it over a wire cylinder. The pulp adheres to the wire and the water drains through, leaving a thin coating which is scraped off and pumped directly to the beater, where the process is continued as described in Chapter IV. If the pulp is to be sent to another mill for the final processes, it is put into the "wet machine" which picks it up on a felt and carries it between press rolls which squeeze the water out. It is then cut off from the top press roll and the pieces are folded lengthwise and across into laps (folded sheets) ready for shipment. Sulphite Pulp The sulphite process is still the most important method of making chemical wood pulp. The process was patented in 1867 by B. C. Tilghman of Phil- adelphia but it did not become practical from a com^ mercial point of view until improvements had been made by inventors of several different countries Sidney D. Wells of the Forest Products Laboratory reports that in 1921, 70 per cent of sulphite pulp was made from spruce and fir, 26 per cent from hemlock, 2 per cent from poplar, and 2 per cent from all other species. Trees ranging from 70 to 80 years old are considered the best for the purpose. (^ *w 32 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Preparation of Wood The logs are cut into either 2- or 4-foot lengths and the bark removed by a tumbling drum and barking machine. They are then put into a machine called a "chipper" which cuts them into slices % of an inch thick. The chipper is a flat- faced iron disk weighing about three tons strongly mounted on a shaft in a heavy iron frame. On the inner face of the disk are several knives set at such an angle that as the wood is pressed against them they slice off thin sections obliquely, thus ex- posing more pores for the acid to penetrate than if the cut were made across the grain. The chips are broken into small pieces in a crusher and finally screened, to reduce them to a uniform size, and then carried by a chip conveyor on an endless belt to the chip bins at the top of the digester building. Digesters Digesters are boilers in which paper stock is "cooked" into pulp. The usual form of digester for the sulphite process is a tall cylindrical container made of steel plate but lined with one or two layers of acid-proof brick in order to protect the steel from destruction by the sulphuric acid which is used to disintegrate the wood. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER PULP 33 Digesters run from 10 to 15 feet in diameter and 30 to 50 feet in height. The cover or "head" of the digester is lifted by a chain when the chips are poured in and then bolted down. A system of pipes at the top supplies the acid and another system near the base is used to introduce steam. The cooking liquor consists of sulphurous acid and lime and is usually made in an acid plant at the mill.^ I Cooking and Screening Sulphite Pulp The stock is allowed to cook about 8 hours and then blown or forced into a blow pit, which is a wooden or concrete tank holding twice as much material as the digester. In the blow pit the acid is washed out of the stock with clean water, which filters through the mass, carrying the acid with it, and escapes through holes in the bottom of the tank. The stock is so nearly dry that is must be thinned with water before it can be pumped into the stock vat, where it is stirred with an agitator and then passes through a "knotter," an enclosed revolving screen through which the knots and » The acid plant is an important part of a sulphite miTl. Most of the American sulphur is obtained in Louisiana in a very pure form Lime- stone is found in nearly all parts of the country. The sulphur is burned in sulphur burners with an excess of oxygen, forming sulphur dioxide, and when the gas has cooled it is either driven into tall concrete towers filled with limestone, or into a series of tanks containing lime and hot water. The resukant liquid consists of lime and magnesia bisulphites and sulphur 34 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS other undigested matter cannot go. The stock then flows or is pumped to the riffling tank, a long wooden sluice with raised bars over which the pulp flows leaving the heavier particles on its way. It passes through one more shaker screen and then goes either to the wet machine or to a thickener called a "decker." The Decker and Wet Machine The decker is a deep wooden vat containing a revolv- ing wire cylinder over which is a roll covered with felt, called a "couch roll." As the cylinder revolves, the pulp is drawn against it by suction and the water drains through the wire. The cylinder carries the pulp under the couch roll where more water is pressed out. The thickened stock is scraped from it with a knife attached to the roll and drops back into the vat from which it is pumped to the wet machine, where another wire cylinder picks it up and carries it to a traveling felt. As the felt passes under a wooden roll the water is pressed out, so that the pulp seems quite solid, though it still contains nearly 60 per cent of water. It adheres to this roll until several layers are formed. Then it is cut off and folded and stored or sent to the paper mill. Characteristics of Sulphite Pulp The appearance of sulphite pulp under the micro- A — Spruce Sulphite Pulp B— Soda Pulp C — Hemlock Ground Wood Pulp Figure 3. Wood Pulp Fibers Highly Magnified Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture MANUFACTURE OF PAPER PULP 35 scope is quite different from soda or sulphate pulp. The fibers are longer and cleaner looking and there is far less short material. (See Figure 3.) Sulphite pulp alone makes a hard and nearly trans- parent paper. It is usually combined with other pulps For newsprint it is mixed with mechanical pulp in the ratio of I to 4, thus supplying the necessary strength and firmness. For medium grades of writing paper it •s mixed with rag pulp, and for book and magazine paper with soda pulp. ^ Soda Pulp The soda process is simpler than the sulphite It was invented in 1853 and patented in 1854 by Charles Wat^ and Hugh Burgess. It has been improved and developed by French and English manufacturers. Many more varieties of trees are available for this process and the wood need not be so carefully prepared because the alkali used will dissolve all elements in it except the cellulose. Though nearly all kinds of wood ""7.^ "'. :. '^' ^'°'^'' '' "^"^"y ^^^tricted to the soft-fibered deciduous trees, such as poplar, aspen willow, and similar varieties. ^ ' Preparation The logs are barked as for the sulphite process but It IS not necessary to use such care that no small pieces 36 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS of bark are left because they are dissolved by the strong alkali. After barking, the logs are chipped into slices y2 inch thick and broken smaller by means of a shredder, after which they are passed over screens to remove dust and foreign matter. Digestion or Cooking The digesters for soda pulp are sometimes round or egg-shaped and constructed so that they rotate during the cooking process, but they are now more often of the stationary cylindrical type used for sulphite, but unlined, as the alkali does not attack steel. The screened chips are loaded into the digester from the top and a solution of caustic soda (NaOH) is added to the charge. Live steam is introduced at the bottom of the vessel where the cooking liquor naturally settles, and as this rises it carries the liquor up with it and sprays it over the mass of chips. The cooking process takes 8 hours or more and reduces the wood to a pulpy mass which is blown into the blow pit, and from this transferred to the washing pans where the strong * 'black liquors" are drained off and the pulp is washed first with weak black liquors, the washings of previous cooks, and then with clean, hot water. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER PULP 37 Recovery of Chemicals The drainings and first washing waters of soda pulp are afterward evaporated and calcined (treated with lime) to recover the chemicals. Between 8o and 90 per cent of the total amount used may be reclaimed in this way. The washed pulp is then diluted with water and run over screens so that any uncooked parts may be taken out. It is then bleached (see page 40) (nearly all soda pulp is bleached), run through the wet ma- chine, for storage or shipment, or put through the paper-making process immediately. Soda pulp is too soft to be successfully used alone. When combined with long-fibered sulphite it gives softness, bulk, and opacity, while the sulphite gives strength. Sulphate Pulp The sulphate process was invented in Sweden about 1880 but was only introduced into this country a short time ago. It has been used almost exclusively for making kraft papers (see Chapter VIII) for wrap- pings, bags, and similar uses. It is a modification of the soda process, caustic soda (NaOH) and sodium sulphide (NaS) being employed in the cooking liquors instead of caustic soda alone. The equipment for the two processes is similar except that the reclaiming of Ii?i 38 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS the cooking liquors is more complicated. From 2j^ to 6^ hours are required for cooking. Since the sulphate process has been used only for papers requiring strength, the long-fibered coniferous trees have supplied the pulp for it, but recent experi- ments have shown that any wood can be reduced by this method. The presence of knots and bark or of resinous matter offers no difficulties and the pulp can be bleached successfully. More severe cooking is re- quired for the bleached pulp and the process is still in the experimental stage, but it is believed that the ton- nage of sulphate pulp will increase rapidly as its advantages are more widely recognized. Cotton Linters Cotton linters are reduced to pulp by methods similar to those used for wood but they produce a longer fiber and therefore make a stronger paper. The fiber length of spruce sulphite is less than 3mm., while the length of linter fiber is from 3 to 5mm. and of hull fiber and shavings 2mm. Aspen soda pulp has a fiber length of imm. or less. Processes For linters without hull fiber the soda process is used and the equipment is the same as for wood. The consumption of caustic soda is less than half of that ifi MANUFACTURE OF PAPER PULP 39 required for wood and only about one-sixth of the bleaching powder is required. The hulls need a some- what different treatment with a larger amount of chemical. The sulphate process has also been tried with hull fibers. A larger yield of pulp was obtained and less bleach required. This process seems to remove the non-cellulose matter with less effect on the fiber. Various grades of paper have been made from linter pulps. The stock can be used for bond, ledger, writing, book, blotting, and other high-grade papers, releasing wood pulp for newsprint, boards, etc. The manufacture could be stabilized and costs estimated much more accurately than the supplies of soft rags, which are dependent on the rag dealers. An interesting experiment with blotting paper made from the hull fiber showed that it was more absorbent than all-rag paper. Bagasse The non-fibrous waste from sugar cane is cooked by the Lee process in which a low-grade molasses is hydrated (combined with the elements of water) by boiling it with lime. The cooking toughens the cellulose so that it can be used for pulp, though it has very little fiber in it. This pulp is manufactured into paper boards. lii. 40 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Waste Paper Waste paper is reduced to pulp by various defibering processes, washed, bleached, and repulped, but not "beaten'' again. There are now machines for re- moving the ink from waste paper at the same time that the fibers are softened and separated. Bleaching As was stated earlier (page 2y)j pulp made from rags is bleached in order to remove dyes or other coloring matter, but the process is quite simple. The bleaching agent is put into the boiler when the cooking process is nearly complete and the surplus bleach is disposed of with other impurities in the washer. For bleaching wood pulp, esparto, or straw pulps the agent is usually some compound of chlorine, as for rags, but the amount required is much greater and the equipment is more complicated because the color is chemically combined with the fiber. The equip- ment for these other materials consists of a series of tanks with agitators to keep the stock in motion during the oxidizing or bleaching process, which takes a number of hours. It is estimated that, whereas from 2 to 5 pounds of bleach are required to bleach 100 pounds of rags, the same quantity of esparto takes from 10 to 15 pounds and sulphite spruce from 15 to 25 pounds. An electro- MANUFACTURE OP PAPER PULP 41 XyiXc process is now used in many mills instead of bleaching powder. Ground wood pulp is still more difficult to bleach because it contains all the coloring matter of the original wood and it never becomes so brilliantly white as sulphite pulp. Chapter IV CONVERTING PULP INTO PAPER Beaters or "Hollanders" The real making of paper begins in the beating machine where all pulp, whatever its source, is given the same kind of treatment. The beating machine, often called a "Hollander" because invented in that country, is an oval, tank- like container made of heavy wood, iron, or concrete, 25 feet being a common length. (See Figure 4.) A machine of this size holds from 1,600 to 1,800 pounds of pulp. Construction of "Hollander" A partition, called a mid feather, extends through the middle of the tank, but a space of 3 or 4 feet at each end is left open so that the pulp can circulate freely. In the most common form of beater there is a cylindrical "beater roll" on one side of the partition which is surrounded by 78 blunt knives or bars from >4 to J^ inch in thickness. The bottom of the tank has a bed plate under this roll MAKING PULP INTO PAPER 43 with 42 similar knives, set in such a way that they cross the knives in the roll diagonally; as the two sets come in contact they separate and draw out the fibers with a shearing or pulling action. This pulling of the fibers also serves to make them curl at the ends and felt or mat together as the beating continues. Besides pulling the fibers apart the blunt knives cut the longer ones, reducing them to a more uniform size. While the strength of any paper is largely dependent on the length of the fibers composing it, they must not be too long or they will not felt properly on the paper-making machine. The beater roll is very heavy, weighing several tons, but it can be raised or lowered to exactly the right distance from the bed plate by means of bars which are regulated with a hand-wheel. In the case of fine papers the pressure must not be too great at first, the beating is slower and less severe, sometimes taking six hours. Heavy papers may be given sharper treatment and require less time. Stock or Stuff Chests Stock or "stuff" chests are storage tanks In which the pulp is stored before it is furnished to the beater. In this state it is often called "half stuff.'* Other tanks are provided for the beaten stock where it remains from five days to two weeks for "ripening." It is kept >; tr t li m- 44 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS in constant motion during this period by means of revolving paddles or agitators and from these chests goes to the paper machine or to the Jordan engine where it is still further refined. The Jordan Engine The Jordan engine (see Figure 5) consists of a conical shell which is fitted with knives running lengthwise along its inner surface and a plug of the same shape as the shell carrying a similar set of knives on its outer surface. The plug fits so closely in the shell that a very small space is left for the pulp when it is forced in at the smaller end. As it passes through the cone the plug is rotated swiftly and the two sets of knives divide the fibers still more finely and make the stock perfectly consistent. The Furnish The materials for making a certain grade of paper are mixed in the beater according to an exact formula. This is called the **furnish/' and after the proper combination for a certain grade of paper has been determined it must not vary in any particular. Nearly all papers are made from mixed pulps. Fine writing or ledger papers are made from all-rag or rag and sulphite or soda pulps. Cotton linters are being substituted for rags at some mills. For book paper sulphite and soda pulp are combined in varying quanti- Figure 4. A Beating Machine IV '\ Figure 5. Jordan Engine MAKING PULP INTO PAPER 4S ties with some rag pulp in the better grades and ground wood pulp in the cheaper ones. Esparto is much used in English books. Sulphate kraft is the basis of strong wrapping and bag papers. It is combined with sulphite, ground wood, and waste paper pulp in varying quantities. Newsprint is a mixture of sulphite and mechanical pulp in the ratio of i to 4. The quantity of each kind of pulp for the "furnish" desired is determined according to its "bone dry" weight. The other ingredients are dyes or coloring matter, loading or filling, and size. Dyeing Even though well bleached, white papers are colored in order to tone the pulp and to correct the yellow tint. Cream papers are brightened and enriched by the addition of ultramarine and carnation. Cover papers and tissues are dyed in the piece, but writing and print- ing papers have the color added to the pulp during the beating process. The principles for dyeing paper are practically the same as those for dyeing cotton and linen textile fibers. Consequently, most paper pulp must be first treated with a mordant before the coloring matter will thoroughly combine with the fiber. Alum in some cases serves this purpose. I f i I- ':^' It I- p 46 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS A mordant is a chemical substance used to fix colors. Vegetable fibers particularly need this treatment, in order that they may combine with and hold the dye. Materials may be mordanted first, then dyed, or the mordant may be combined with the dye. (For a more extended treatment of dyeing see manual on "Cotton and Linen.") Coloring Matters The coloring matters used may be : Natural dyes 1. Mineral pigments, such as "smalts" or Prussian blue. 2. Soluble colors (a) Animal dyes, such as cochineal in liquid or "lac" for pinks. (b) Vegetable dyes, such as logwood for violet, lavender, and black; brazilwood for red or orange brown. 3. Artificial or aniline dyes made from coal tar. Characteristics of Different Dyes Most papers are now colored with aniline dyes, which are reasonably stable and cheap and afford a great variety of colors. Only in the highest grades of writing paper and in a few papers that must remain MAKING PULP INTO PAPER 47 " fast " when exposed to light are the natural dyes employed. Much skill is required in mixing the color- ing matter evenly with the fiber in order to insure uniform color. Blue and sometimes a small amount of red is required even for white papers in order to correct the yellow tint. Delicate tints are more expen- sive than deeper colors, not only because the colors themselves are more difficult to prepare, but also because a better quality of paper is required to take these tints evenly. Papers colored with pigments are likely to be darker on one side than the other as the suction in drying tends to draw the small particles of color to one side of the sheet. The less expensive papers usually have chemical wood pulp and esparto added to the rag pulp ; but when fibers are mixed in this way the paper-maker has a difficult problem, as the different fibers have different affinities for the coloring matter. This he must pro- vide for. He must consider the use to which the paper will be put and whether it should be " fast " to light, moisture, or chemical agencies ; also he must remember that some colors darken in drying and others fade. Dyeing to match a certain shade is difficult because of the uncertain effect of coloring matter on some of the paper materials, as well as the character of the fibers and coloring matters themselves. The drying operation also affects color. Materials and properties 'V. 48 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS must be well understood. Samples of colored pulp must be compared with the moistened sample. Often the coloring matter must be added several times before the exact color of the sample is obtained. A diffused daylight is the best light in which to judge color as under artificial light white paper appears yellow; yellow more nearly white; red more pro- nounced ; blue and violet, greener and darker ; and light blue, greener and yellowish. Loading or Filling Various materials are added to the paper pulp in order to fill the pores and give the paper a smoother surface or finish, to increase its weight, and to make it more opaque. Loading is run into the beater and mixed with the pulp while both are in liquid form. The substance most commonly used is china clay which is pure, light, and absorbent. This is used for newspapers and the cheaper grades of periodicals and books. It enables paper to take ink more readily, but if improperly strained it forms pin holes and makes the paper less capable of resisting dampness and ordinary usage. For the finer grades the substances used are : I. Sulphate of calcium or pearl hardening, which gives brilliancy to fine writing paper and also imparts a purity of shade. MAKING PULP INTO PAPER 49 2. Barytes or blanc fixe, a white clay used as a filler and as one of the materials in satin white. 3. Satin white, a combination of alumina and sul- phate of lime used for coated papers. 4. Magnesia, which gives a peculiar soapy feeling. 5. Starch, which resists moisture and gives a high polish. The choice of loading or filling material must be determined by the character of the pulp, the color of the paper, and the purpose for which it is designed. Defects in paper may be due to spots and specks caused by sand, dirt, knots of fiber, or lumps of the mineral matter used for filling or coloring matter. Filling is also added to the cheaper grades of paper as an adulteration. All cheap fillers weaken the paper, as they lessen its resistance to wear. For an uncoated paper 10 per cent is the maximum amount of filler allowed. Fillers are of benefit in coloring as they combine readily with the pigments and therefore are usually added after the dyeing but before the sizing. Sizing Sizing makes the paper impervious to moisture, binds the fibers together, and gives a smooth finish which ' >i I I'^f 50 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS prevents the ink from settling into the written page. Blotting papers are purposely left soft and absorbent. In the modern paper industry the method used is " engine-sizing," a method by which the sizing is mixed with the pulp in the beater machine. The early paper maker dipped his sheet of dried pulp into a tub or barrel of " size." The two kinds of sizing are : 1. Animal size, which is made of gelatin or glue and is used for hand-made and good writing paper. 2. Vegetable size which is made of resin or rosin (from the sap of certain fir and pine trees) boiled with carbonate of soda and is used for printing paper and also for cheap writing paper. Alum is used to fix the size but in highly colored papers it tends to cause fading. Tub-Sizing Some papers are " tub-sized " as well as " engine- sized." These are the higher grades of writing paper, the engine-sizing being sufficient for the ordinary book and cheaper writing papers. As tub-sizing is a sepa- rate process it, of course, adds to the expense. Such papers while still wet are passed through a tub or vat MAKING PULP INTO PAPER 51 filled with a liquid sizing made of gelatin mixed in a solution with alum. Tub and animal-sized papers become soft with age as the gelatin is acted on by the moisture of the air, and so should be kept dry. Very heavily sized papers are also spoiled by the dry heat of steam pipes. , 1' k:\ w > i: . in %'l !;■■ \\ I 'I K I Chapter V FINISHING THE PAPER Hand-Made Paper The process of converting the pulp from the stuff chest into paper can be best understood by first describ- ing the hand-made papers. All paper was originally made by hand. After the fibers had been separated by decomposition they were beaten in a small vat and the pulp was dipped out by a " mold," a wooden frame with a fine wire screen at the bottom, and a movable frame called a " deckle " which fitted tightly into it determined the width of the paper. The arrangement of the wires in the mold determined the appearance of the paper. Three men were required for the operation of " laying " : a " vatman," a " coucher,** and a " layer man." The first dipped the mold into the pulp, taking up the amount required for a sheet of the desired weight and thickness. The mold was then shaken from side to side in order to cause the fibers to felt or adhere together, and to allow the water to drain away. The edge of the paper pulp pressed down by the deckle 52 FINISHING THE PAPER 53 was rough and uneven. In cutting the paper this edge was usually removed, but if left on the paper it was called " deckle-edged." The deckle was removed and the coucher then pressed the mold against a sheet of felt to which the paper adhered and covered it with another sheet of felt. When a pile or " post " of these sheets was made it was put under heavy pressure. Then the ** layerman " removed the sheets of paper from the pile of felt sheets and again put them into the press. The moist sheets were finally hung up to dry on poles in a large loft or drying room. Hand-made paper was tub-sized after the first drying process. The Water Mark The water mark was produced by weaving a pattern on the wire screen of the mold. The layer of fibers was thinner over this pattern and made the paper more translucent. The history of the water mark is interesting. Many varieties of modem papers took their names from these early marks. Foolscap, Crown, Post, Pott, and other names probably originated in this way. The cap and bells, crown, post, horn, and tankard were used as water marks. A ram's horn in the water mark was found in a book of accounts dated 1330. In 1649 the water mark of the finest English paper bore the royal arms, but later in the time of Charles I, a fool's cap i 1- il' r . 54 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS with bells was substituted for the king*s arms. The original purpose of the marks was to add distinction. Later they were used to prevent forgery of valuable documents or notes. Today they are used largely to designate the manufacturer rather than to distinguish the paper itself. A notable example of the original use of the water mark to denote quality of paper and add distinction is Crane's Distaff Linen, which has a distaff for a mark. Length of Time of Process The finer imported stationery is still made by the careful hand process. A very small amount is made in the United States. By this method it takes three men a day to mold, press, and hang up to dry or finish four thousand small sheets of paper while the process from beginning to end requires about three months. Today paper can be made in twenty- four hours from a tree standing in the forest. Paper made by machinery differs from the hand-made in that it is a continuous sheet. Fourdrinier Machine The Fourdrinier is a complicated machine from lOO to 300 feet long which receives the pulp at one end, called the "wet end," and delivers it at the other, FINISHING THE PAPER 55 or "dry end," as a continuous sheet of paper wound on reels and ready for finishing, which in some cases means only rewinding and cutting. ( See Figure 6. ) Newsprint is run at from 600 to 900 feet a minute, while some other papers run at a speed of only 200 feet a minute. The principal parts of a Fourdrinier machine are : 1. The head box, in which the pulp and water are received. 2. The apron, a shallow trough through which this mixture flows onto the wire. 3. The wire, an endless belt made of copper or brass wire, about 60 or 70 wires to the inch, on which the pulp is carried in the first stage of the felting process. 4. The deckle straps, made of soft rubber — ^bands 2 inches wide and 2^ inches thick running on each side of the wire and determining the width of the paper. 5. Brass tube rolls, which form a sort of moving table under the wire, supporting it. 6. The shake rails or the shake machine which carries the tube rolls and deckle frames, giving them a shaking motion which causes the fibers to turn in various directions in- stead of all lying with their sides parallel I ^i 56 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS with the sides of the wire as they flow in the water. 7. Suction boxes under the table rolls, which are made with perforated covers and are con- nected with a suction pump; the pump ex- hausts the air in the boxes and they in turn draw some of the water from the pulp above. 8. The dandy roll, a wire cylinder supported in such a way that it rests lightly on the top of the pulp, smoothing it and giving it the water mark. 9. Couch rolls, to begin the pressure which squeezes the water out of the pulp. 10. Press rolls, like a huge wringer, for the same purpose — there are usually three of these presses. 11. Wet felts, endless belts made of woven woolen cloth with a nap like a blanket, which receive the wet sheet of paper from the couch rolls and carry it through the presses. 12. The dryers, a series of cast iron cylinders heated by steam, which dry out the rest of the water (over 65 per cent) still left in the paper. 13. Dryer felts, similar to the wet felts, only harder and firmer, which carry the paper through the dryers. Hi INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 56 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS with the sides of the wire as they flow in the water. 7. Suction boxes under the table rolls, which are made with perforated covers and are con- nected with a suction pump; the pump ex- hausts the air in the boxes and they in turn draw some of the water from the pulp above. 8. The dandy roll, a wire cylinder supported in such a way that it rests lightly on the top of the pulp, smoothing it and giving it the water mark. 9. Couch rolls, to begin the pressure which squeezes the water out of the pulp. 10. Press rolls, like a huge wringer, for the same purpose — there are usually three of these presses. 11. Wet felts, endless belts made of woven woolen cloth with a nap like a blanket, which receive the wet sheet of paper from the couch rolls and carry it through the presses. 12. The dryers, a series of cast iron cylinders heated by steam, which dry out the rest of the water (over 65 per cent) still left in the paper. 13. Dryer felts, similar to the wet felts, only harder and firmer, which carry the paper through the dryers. y^ ! Ail' y WRpf nr i\ jH ■ WA^ Wm'' s^:-^-**Wh|I — ? »^^M ■ ■■ HI jSmjUBamjemm f ^^^K| ■ ''■'■^9 "^ ^K .^^^^H^fl^^l tt «W 1 II 1 ^. ; W w ii'i'MMfTX^ WT^' ' r^^mi. ■ii.. t' '^*t i^ b \^. '1.. s- # 1 , ^•'^ .urn \ 'n X^>^^l! fe,V . . ;.r m h ^m ' 1 MM r-m^. M^-^~ -J ^1 ^- mmmmsm^ c C3 o c u •—I w o as o u FINISHING THE PAPER 57 14. The calender rolls, of chilled iron and polished to give the paper its finish. 15. Reels on which it is wound as it comes from the calenders. There are other features, some of which are neces- sary to complete the machine, and others, such as suction rolls and smoothing rolls, which do not appear in all machines. Variations of the Fourdrinier and special machines for certain kinds of paper are also used, but this is the standard type with such changes in detail as the paper-maker wishes. Time Required to Make Pulp into Paper In spite of the elaborate machinery required to change the watery solution in which fibers are floating freely into a sheet of paper, the process takes a very short space of time. On the high-speed newsprint ma- chines paper is produced at the rate of 600 or 700 feet a minute, and even the "slow pulps" are run at a rate of 200 feet a minute, or more. Pulp on the Wire As the pulp flows out of the head box through the apron or trough the speed is regulated by thin brass sheets running across the trough a little above the floor which act as dams. These are called "slices." The ini I-* 1. ) ;. I 58 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS pulp and wire should move at the same speed. It is very necessary that the fibers should be crossed and inter- laced while the pulp is thin, and yet they tend to float with the current with their heads in one direction. Various devices are used to secure the interlacing, the most important of these being the shaking machine, which gives a sidewise motion to the rolls under the wire and keeps the pulp stirred up. The Deckle Straps As the thin sheet of pulp is carried forward on the wire the width of the sheet is regulated by wide rubber deckle straps at each side. These do not make a ragged edge as did the old deckle frame but a straight and even one. For fine books and stationery a stream of water is sometimes played along the edge to give the ragged effect. The Dandy Roll The dandy roll, an important part of the Fourdrinier machine, is a wire-covered roll, whose wires are arranged in various manners to impress permanently on the soft paper all water marks, patterns, and designs. In "wove" papers the rows of wires are equally dis- tributed, making a paper of even texture. In "laid" papers, heavier wires, placed at equal intervals cause a translucency of the paper at those places, because less FINISHING THE PAPER 59 pulp lodges there, giving it a lined appearance. Water marking is produced in the same way. Passing to the Rolls The wire carries the web of paper to a pair of couch rolls, the lower one of which is covered with rubber and the upper one with a jacket of wool over the metal. Some of the water is squeezed out between these, and the web passes to the press rolls, which are made of rubber-covered metal and wood. At the press rolls the web is taken up by the wet felt, a belt of wool more like a blanket than a piece of felt, to which the pulp clings during its passage through them. The paper-making process depends more on this capacity of wool to pick up the wet fiber and then release it without injury than on any other thing. The felts differ according to the kind of paper to be made. For tissue paper the felt must be finer and smoother than for heavier grades. The Dryers The last of the water is removed by the dryers. These are steam-heated cylinders arranged in a double or triple row. The web of paper is carried from the last press to the dryers and threaded in and out so that it is held tightly against the rolls. The dryers are also equipped with felts on which i 'i:-:^ I W lit mm 60 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS the paper travels around and between the polished steam-heated rolls (from 12 to 50 in number) until it is quite "dry," though it still has from 5 to 10 per cent of water in it. The paper leaves the last drying roll and goes to the calender, which is a stack of 6 or 8 polished rolls set upright one above the other. The calenders really iron out the paper, which is then wound on reels. (See Figure 7.) Two stacks of calenders are often used. Not all papers are machine-dried. The higher grades are dried by natural means (as are the hand- made papers), very slowly and evenly in a loft specially constructed for this purpose. The paper is hung on poles for several days in a temperature of from 80° to 100° F. This allows a natural shrinkage in which the fibers regain their elasticity and thus attain a maximiun strength. Calendering or Glazing The first process is used for book and print papers and the cheaper grades of stationery. But for spe- cially finished papers special calenders are employed, in which the rollers run closer together and with great pressure so that any degree of gloss can be put on. The more times it is passed through, the higher the gloss. This process also reduces the thickness of the sheet by about 40 per cent, increases its strength, and t Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture Figure 7. Rolls of Paper Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture Figure 8. Supercalender INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 60 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS the paper travels around and between the poHshed steam-heated rolls (from 12 to 50 in number) until it is quite "dry," though it still has from 5 to 10 per cent of water in it. The paper leaves the last drying roll and goes to the calender, which is a stack of 6 or 8 polished rolls set upright one above the other. The calenders really iron out the paper, which is then wound on reels. (See Figure 7.) Two stacks of calenders are often used. Not all papers are machine-dried. The higher grades are dried by natural means (as are the hand- made papers), very slowly and evenly in a loft specially constructed for this purpose. The paper is hung on poles for several days in a temperature of from 80° to 100° F. This allows a natural shrinkage in which the fibers regain their elasticity and thus attain a maximum strength. Calendering or Glazing The first process is used for book and print papers and the cheaper grades of stationery. But for spe- cially finished papers special calenders are employed, in which the rollers run closer together and with great pressure so that any degree of gloss can be put on. The more times it is passed through, the higher the gloss. This process also reduces the thickness of the sheet by about 40 per cent, increases its strength, and C uuriLsy ui U. S. Uepariiiitjni uf Agriculture Fiji^urc 7. Rolls of Paper ^^1 # . ^ M 1 ' ^t ■mm ^^^^^^*^ - 1^-41 Y 1 V x^ ^ '^ '^' ' i ^^ ^^i^^^^^^^M i H' Courtesy of U. S. Department of Agriculture Figure 8. Supercalendcr FINISHING THE PAPER 61 generally improves it. Too much glazing, however, makes the paper brittle. Rewinding and Cutting The wound roll is removed from the reel to the rewinders, which may be either straight or drum winders. The straight type carries the paper over a roll and under a set of slitters consisting of circular knives bearing against the paper. The drum winders roll the paper by means of friction. Some rewinders cut the paper into sheets by means of a revolving cross knife and a stationary blade. If the paper is not to receive any additional finish it is now ready for shipment. Supercalendering and Plating Supercalendering is a process used to give paper an especially high or glossy surface. It is done by passing the paper through a series of 7, 9, or 1 1 calenders made of metal (chilled iron) and compressed cotton or paper, these calenders being arranged alternately one above the other. The paper passes through these calenders many times and takes on a smooth, high polish. Supercalendered paper is used for magazine covers. (See Figure 8.) When a finish of less glaring and more silky effect is desired, another process called plating is used. In t !' J 62 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS this process the paper is cut into sheets and arranged in piles of 12 to 15 sheets with sheets of zinc between each. The piles are subjected to hydraulic pressure. This plating process is more expensive than supercal- endering. Kinds of Finish In general, paper has either a smooth or rough finish called glazed or unglazed. Different names are applied to distinguish the various degrees of roughness or smoothness, such as antique and vellum for the former, and kid, supercalendered, or plate for the latter. The finish, of course, depends upon the kind and amount of sizing used, and the method of pressing or calender- ing the sheet of paper before it is cut into the various sizes. Coated Paper This is made by applying a mixture of china clay and glue to ordinary paper. A fine quality of pure white clay known as **blanc fixe" is used. The paper to be coated is passed through a vat containing the solution and then through rollers and sets of camels' hair brushes, which regulate the thickness of the coating, and is finally passed into the drying room where it is dried in a temperature of 140° F. It is calendered after drying. FINISHING THE PAPER 63 Dampness will affect the quality of supercalendered and coated papers, and therefore in the stock room and elsewhere these papers should be kept dry and in a well-ventilated place. Glazed Paper This may be produced by friction or by flint after a coating process which resembles that described above except that wax is added to the coating solution. In the friction glazing, the paper passes between one cotton and two steel or chilled iron rolls. One of the latter revolves at a greater speed than the other and burnishes one side of the paper. In the flint glazing, a flint stone working back and forth across the sheet brings out a brilliant and lasting polish. The flint glaze can be detected by the lines running across the sheet. Water Finish In water finish paper a film of water is passed over the paper just before it is passed between the rolls of the supercalender, bringing the mineral particles to the surface and making a very level finish with a high degree of polish. "Water leaf" does not indicate a special finish. It is simply paper which is left unsized, like blotting paper. ■. 64 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Writing Paper There are many varieties of finish for writing paper. The most important are the following: Laid paper has vertical water mark lines made by the dandy roll wires. Wove paper has an even machine finish. English finish paper has a dull velvety surface. High hulk paper is thick and soft. Linen finish is given only to fine papers. The paper, in sheet form, is taken from the machine while it is still moist and then loft dried (see page 60). Before it is quite dry it is given the finish in the following manner : A sheet of linen is placed on a sheet of heavy tin. Then a sheet of paper is laid on the linen; this is covered by another sheet of linen, and so on until a pile is made which is about 4 inches thick including tin, linen, and paper sheets. The entire pile is run through plate rolls under heavy pressure and the paper comes out with the imprint of the linen on it. Bond paper is strong with plenty of sizing. Linen or ledger bond paper should be all-linen and tub-sized. Writing paper is usually water marked. (See page 58.) Novelty Finishes of Writing Paper Many pretty and pleasing effects are made by com- ^ FINISHING THE PAPER 65 binations of the various colors and finishes on a hard paper. Imitations of the weaves of fabrics as batiste, organdy, madras, and grosgrain, are called "fabric finishes." Popular imitations of leathers are the chamois and angora finishes. Among other striking novelties are the Grecian antique which has a coarse, rough surface ; tgg shell which has a fine rough surface resembling an tgg shell; alligator, brown with the stripings of the alligator leather; birch bark, a thin, silky, light brown paper with flecks of deeper brown; and the Scotch granite, a gray, with loose fibers washed through it resembling granite. Book Paper Book papers are similar to writing papers of the different grades but they are often given special finishes, such as supercalendering, plating, and coating. The principal grades of book paper are machine finish (M.F.), sized and supercalendered (S.&S.C), coated, and cover. In the first three grades the differ- ence is chiefly in the finish. Cover paper is a strong heavy grade, usually coated. Sized and supercalendered paper is used for illustrated magazines. Coated paper is used for high-grade illustrative and lithographic work. For reproducing half-tone cuts the paper is coated with blanc fixe, satin white, or a similar prepara- tion (see page 62). ; I 66 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS India paper is made of all-rag pulp, beaten by a method which causes the fibers to felt firmly together, and is loaded with mineral matter to give it opacity. It has only one-third of the weight of ordinary book paper of the same opacity and legibility. The first "India" paper was made in China, but at that time everything eastern was called "Indian," and the name was thus applied to the new product. As early as 1841 a thin, opaque printing paper was made by British machines and after many experiments Thomas Combe of Oxford brought out the "Oxford India Paper Bible" in 1875. The paper in this volume was so light and strong that its 1,500 pages could be suspended by one leaf, and it was also so compact that when rubbed it became soft and looked like chamois leather. India paper is used in printing books, especially the Bible and works of literature, where it is desirable to avoid bulk and weight but to preserve durability. It is also used for fine engravings. India proof paper is made from the inner fibers of bamboo stems. It is extremely soft and absorbent. A paper similar to India paper is now made in this country from hemp fiber. Book paper is furnished either in rolls or sheets. The roll paper is largely used for magazines and the sheets for books and other purposes. School pads, envelopes, and cheap writing papers are t 4 ♦ FINISHING THE PAPER 67 made of book paper, and it is also used for wrappings by druggists and soap manufacturers, and to cover paper boxes. Newsprint Newsprint paper includes that used for some 2,500 daily and 14,000 weekly and semi weekly papers and also large amounts made into catalogues, handbills, directories and railway guides, scratch pads, etc. It is made of either ground wood alone or ground wood mixed with 20 per cent sulphite pulp. The machines are run at a tremendous speed, often as high as 800 or 900 feet a minute, and make a sheet 150 inches wide or more. li i Chapter VI MAKING PAPER INTO STATIONERY Cutting The dried paper ruled off in feet, inches, and frac- tions is finally placed by a sliding gauge in the flat on the bed plate of a cutting machine fitted vnth revolving knives that can be set to any size. The paper is held firmly in position by a clamp. Fine and highly calen- dered papers must be held very firmly and cut by sharp knives with great accuracy as a slight movement out of place will ruin the sheet. The machine sometimes cuts through 200 sheets at one time. The cut paper is then sorted, laid in systematic piles, counted and divided into quires, reams, and bundles, and packed for storage and shipping. As paper is generally purchased by weight, the various weights are often designated by the size of paper, as for example, " size in inches 18 x 23, weight 28 lbs., sheets in ream 480." The quantities are: 24 sheets make a quire. 20 quires make a ream. 2 reams make a bundle. 68 s ^ MAKING PAPER INTO STATIONERY 69 The English ream has varied from 472 to 516 sheets. The French ream (1908) is 500 sheets unless otherwise specified. The American Paper Manu- facturers' Association has fixed 500 sheets as the standard ream for stationery and 480 sheets for tissue paper. The manufacturers of writing paper send out their product in large flat sheets to be cut into the required sizes and made up in stationery form by the papeterie manufacturers or makers of fine stationery. A list of these manufacturers is given at the end of the book. Only a few firms who manufacture paper complete the process. Paper is regularly boxed by the quire, but special boxes may contain 2 or 5 quires, and fancy or holi- day boxes often contain two sizes of paper and corre- spondence cards. The quantity is ordinarily desig- nated. The number of sheets in a pound of paper varies according to the weight of the paper stock, but is usually a little less than 5 quires. Quires of writing paper are put up in four sections of 6 sheets each. Envelopes are sold in packages of 25. When put into quire boxes they are broken into two smaller packages. 70 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Envelopes Envelopes are cut to proper shape and size by heavy machinery. Large piles of paper stock are placed under the die and held in exact position by vices while the die drops, cutting out several dozen envelopes with one blow. The pile of envelopes while in the flat are removed to a table and " fanned " out, that is, spread out so that each envelope extends a little beyond the one just above it. It requires considerable skill to do this quickly and evenly. Pure gum arabic is then deftly applied by a brush to the part left bare and the envelopes set aside to dry. Regular sized envelopes are folded by machinery, but the odd and novelty sizes are hand- folded, this again requiring accurate, neat workmanship. Cards Cards are cut from sheets of cardboard by sharp, accurate machinery. By adjusting the knives of the machine, cards of any size may be cut. The high-grade cardboard used for calling cards is known as bristol- board because it was first made at Bristol, England. It is made by pressing several layers of moist paper together under heavy weights. If the cards are to be black-bordered, they are " fanned " out and the blacking applied with a brush in the same way as the gum arabic to the envelopes. It MAKING PAPER INTO STATIONERY 71 requires great dexterity to arrange the cards so that the borders will be even and to apply the coating properly. Mourning stationery is bordered in the same way. Sizes Correspondence papers of the various manufacturers vary in size. The standard sizes for the papers of one prominent manufacturer are : Lakewood 5 % ^ 6i%6 Arverne 5 % x 6 %6 Octavo .4^6 X 6 % Commercial 4 % x 7 % Athena — (i) 3 %x4 % (2) 4 %x5iyi6 (3) 5 Hx6 yi6 The standard sizes for the papers of another prom- inent manufacturer are: Imperial 6x8 Commercial 5^8 Octavo 4^/^ X 7 Gladstone ^V^yi^V^ Douglas 4% X 6H Mildred 4V2 x 6 Astoria 4^/^ x 5% Victor 4x5y2 72 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Correspondence cards for ladies usually come in two sizes, 5y2 X 3%, and 4% x 3^/4. The larger size is the proper size for men. It is advisable to keep a stock of correspondence cards to match the envelopes in the finer grades of stationery. Commercial Stationery — Bond Paper The best commercial stationery is made of linen bond, so called because bond papers were first made for engraving and printing bonds, stocks, and other finan- cial certificates which required an especially strong, firm paper. Much of what is called bond paper is made of cotton fiber. Sizes of Commercial Stationery The sizes of papers in the commercial stock are : Letter heads and typewriting papers, full size, 8H X 1 1 ; half size, 8y2 x 5%. Legal cap, 8x13 and 8% x 13. Foolscap, Sy2 X 14. The sizes of commercial envelopes are : No. 6% 3^2 X 6 No. 10 6% 3% X 51/2 II 7 3% X 6% 14 9 3% X 8% 4% X 9H 4% X 10% 5 XII>^ MAKING PAPER INTO STATIONERY 73 Ledgers The paper used in ledgers must be of good quality, smooth, thick, and durable. It is ruled according to the required purpose, by manufacturers who make a specialty of this line. The backs are of various mate- rials. Cloth, especially a heavy canvas, is the material generally used, sometimes with leather backs and corners. Leather and leatherette backs are attractive and durable if of good quality. Loose-Leaf Devices Loose-leaf devices are of several kinds, and should be chosen with reference to their use. The post is capable of the greatest extension. The ring, limited by the size of the ring, is suitable for most general purposes, such as school notes. The ledger usually has a closed back and can be filled only to a certain extent. The prong is used for railroad purposes, filing bills, etc. The sheet-holder is a loose-leaf device used by expressmen. Filing Envelopes Filing envelopes are of various sizes and shapes and are made chiefly from ** fiber stock," a heavy paper, usually colored, and leatheroid, which is an imitation of leather in a heavy, coarse, smooth paper. /. . I; 74 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Special Kinds of Envelopes Bank book envelopes are closed with a side seam, have no flap, and are "thumb-cut" on the end. They are made of manila, jute, or red rope. They come in ten sizes, from 3^ x 4}i to 4j4 x yYz. Coin envelopes, specially gummed, are open at the end. They come in white and manila in seven sizes, from 2}i X 3>4 to 3>4 x 6. Display envelopes have the seams on the front or address side so that the back can be used for advertis- ing purposes. Drug and pay envelopes are white, colored, or manila. They come in five sizes, from 1% x 2>4 to 25^ x 4^^. Duplex or double envelopes are usually white lined with blue, the sizes ranging from 3 1/16 x sJ/^ to Sys X eyi. They are also made of cloth lined with blue and white and these range in size from zVs ^ 5%to5x iiy2. Expansion wallets come in same sizes as wallet en- velopes (see page 75). Fastener envelopes are of two kinds : ( i ) with a metal prong which slips through an opening in the flap and is bent out or back to secure the fastening; (2) with a paper or leather disk on the body of the envelope and a cord secured to the flap which is twisted around the disk. These envelopes are made of manila and come in fourteen sizes, from ^Ys x sVs to 9J^ x 12}^. MAKING PAPER INTO STATIONERY 75 Postage-saving envelopes have one end ungummed, so that they seem closed with the flap sealed down, but in reality the end can be pulled out. Security mailing envelopes have a double fold at the top and bottom, a heavily gummed flap, and are open at the side. They are made of jute and kraft. There are three sizes, 4^4 x 10, 5 x 11, and 5 x 12. Wallet envelopes, for holding securities and im- portant papers, have ungummed flaps and red rope. They come in 11 sizes, from 4 x g^ to 6 x loj^. In manila they have an open side and a large flap, in size 10 X 12. Window envelopes are of two varieties : ( i ) with the opening covered with transparent paper through which the name and address on the enclosed letter can be read; (2) with a similar opening, but uncovered.. |! n ,1 1 r ' Chapter VII CHARACTERISTICS OR PROPERTIES OF GOOD PAPER Characteristics Writing papers of the best quality are all rag, tub- sized, air-dried, and plate-glazed. Whether they be " wove " or " laid," this does not change the quality. Where the fibers are drawn out rather than cut, the paper is harder and more resistant to wear. When there is also a felting or matting tendency as in linen and rag paper, the texture is improved. Texture When a sheet of paper is held up to the light, it should be of uniform texture. " Wildness " or an irregular or patchy appearance is objectionable. It is desirable that all papers, except those used for tracing purposes, should be opaque rather than transparent. This even texture and solid appearance is given by proper sizing, loading, and finishing. Paper made of sulphite wood pulp, which has a tendency to produce transparency, is for this reason mixed or loaded with 76 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PAPER 77 mechanical wood pulp when it is to be used for writing papers. Too dense texture shows too much filling. Well-sized paper does not allow the ink to penetrate to the other side but only deeply enough to dry in a reasonable time. Poorly sized paper may be detected by moistening a part and observing its flabby, saturated, and transparent appearance at that spot, or by writing thickly upon it and observing the time it takes for the ink to dry. Finish Good writing paper is usually well glazed. Type- writing papers are best unglazed. Printing paper should not be too heavily crushed. Imperfect calen- dering may be detected by looking across the sheet, held on a level with the eye. If fibers stick up it is not well glazed. Durability The durability of paper depends upon the fiber used, and upon the chemicals used in the process of prepara- tion. Cotton and linen rags which are respectively 91 per cent and 90 per cent pure cellulose, and which con- sequently need little chemical treatment to convert them into pulp, make a paper that lasts longest. Some very durable drawing papers are manufactured from rags without the aid of chemicals. The rags are It '1 i J j ( i-,. 78 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS simply boiled in plain water, beaten into pulp, and spread into sheets. The larger the amount of sizing and other chemicals used in the loading and coloring process, the more quickly paper deteriorates as the result of their chemical action. For this reason mechanical wood pulp is likely to make a perishable paper. The polished surface given by plating, supercalender- ing, or water-finishing may account for deterioration. In such cases the paper is susceptible to dampness and is apt to crack. Glazing improves the appearance but not the quality. Resin-sized papers may be affected by sunlight ; gela- tin-sized paper is useless in damp, hot countries. Starch- or alum-sized paper disintegrates. The order of durability of papers made from the various fibers is as follows: 1. Rag 2. Chemical wood 3. Esparto, straw 4. Mechanical wood Strength Quality is measured by the paper's resistance to rough usage, and depends principally upon the length and quality of the fibers of which it is made. Rag papers whose fibers have felting or interlacing proper- CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PAPER 79 ties are both strong and durable, while sulphite pulp, under-bleached and well-sized, is also strong and tough, though not so durable as linen and cotton because of its chemical treatment which makes it subject to the action of air and light. The Japanese papers whose fibers are separated into lengths rather than torn into small pieces are notably strong. For the same reason writing and parchment papers are stronger than blotting or filtering papers. Machine-made papers tear irregularly in all direc- tions. Hand-made or mold-made tear in almost a straight line either crosswise or lengthwise. Color Good writing paper should have a pure, clear, uni- form color and should be reasonably " fast " to light, moisture, and wear. Blotches of color or a difference of color on the two sides is most undesirable. The reason that the under surface is darker than the top is due to the shaking of the pulp in the Fourdrinier which causes the particles of color to settle at the bottom. Fading may be due to exposure to light ; or, in the packing the paper may have come in contact with boards or materials whose chemicals have changed the color. Unevenness in color may be due to the fact that dif- 1 ! 4 4 I 1I 80 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS ferent fibers absorb the color in different ways, or it may be due to a lack of care in straining the dyes. The calendering brings out this effect. Tests for Bond Papers The Parsons tests for quality of bond papers are simple, and easily applied. They are as follows : 1. Test for Crackle. Shake the paper in the hand and listen to the crackle. If it is a high-grade bond it will have a rattle and a snap. It will have a ** feel " like that of crisp, new bills and a stiffness and firm structure that indicates strength. 2. Test for Looks. Hold the paper up to the light and note the appearance. Good bond papers are slightly mottled, but not spotty nor speckled, nor uneven; that is, they are uniform in quality. Good bond paper also does not fade. 3. Test for Finish. Look along the surface of a sheet. Good bond paper is smooth, firmly textured, slightly uneven, yet with no "hills and valleys" to interfere with the writing qualities. Then fold back and see how the two sides compare on the same test. Good bond papers are uniform on both sides. 4. Test for Strength. Tear the paper twice, once from the end and once from the side. It is important to make the two tears because the fibers tend to settle lengthwise along the wire in the Fourdrinier machine CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PAPER 81 and this makes a slight difference in the relative strength. 5. Test for Writing. Write on the paper with a pen and see how it slips along the surface. It should not catch or miss or tear off little fibers. A good bond paper is evenly and uniformly finished on both sides and writes as well on both. Poorly sized bonds let the ink spread and show through the paper. 6. Test for Wearing. Crumple up and rub the sheet between the hands as a washwoman rubs a garment in the tub. Good bond papers lose the fine surface finish and work into the shape of a piece of cloth but do not tear or show pin holes when held to the light, as a cheaply made bond will. Tests for Ledger Papers The Parsons tests for ledger papers are as follows : 1. Test for Writing. Same as for bond. This is the most important requisite for ledger paper. 2. Test for Erasing. Good ledger paper must per- mit of quick erasures and rewriting without discoloring or spreading of the ink. On a good ledger paper one can erase on the same spot on each side of the page and write over the surface without the erasures being evi- dent to the casual eye. 3. Test for Wearing. Same as for bond paper. 4. Test for Strength. Same as for bond paper. ■ i 1 82 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS 5. Test for Finish. Look along the surface of the paper. Good ledger paper presents a smooth, firm, even finish, allowing the pen to glide smoothly over it. Both sides should be the same. 6. Test for Looks. Hold it up to the light. Good ledger paper should be even toned, pure in color, with- out spots or waxy patches or little specks. It must not fade or become yellow with age. I^^ Chapter VIII SPECIALLY PREPARED PAPERS AND PAPER PRODUCTS Bank Note Paper Bank note paper is made of all-rag pulp, and until the war was made of linen rags only. It is distinguished by the silk threads which are introduced into the pulp while it is in the beating machine. Blotting Paper Blotting paper is of several grades. The best is made from old soft, well-matured cotton rags. A medium grade is made from soda pulp and cotton mixed, or from soda pulp alone, while a cheap grade may be made of mechanical wood pulp. The requirements of blot- ting paper are absorbency, freedom from fluff, which blurs the ink, and a good printing surface. Very pure soft water must be used in making the pulp, which is beaten quickly. It is not sized but contains starch as a filling. Blue Print Paper Blue print paper is coated with a solution of red 83 r I ■' m 84 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS prussiate of potash and peroxide of iron, which makes it sensitive to light. When exposed to the sunlight it takes the impression of drawings or photographs which are laid upon it. There are two forms — one in which the blue lines of the photograph or drawing appear on a white ground, the other in which the white lines appear on a blue ground. Blue print paper was dis- covered by Sir John Hirschel in 1842. Boards or Board Paper Boards or board paper are made from wood pulp, old paper stock, and even leather scraps. The raw materials are cut up in a chopper and boiled with lime or soda, and go through the earlier processes as for ordinary paper, but not through the Fourdrinier. A cylinder machine is used which resembles the wet machine in the pulp mill. The stock is pumped into this machine and taken up on a wire cylinder. By this it is deposited on a traveling felt and taken to a wooden roll. The num- ber of laps allowed to wind around the roll decide the thickness of the board. Twenty-five revolutions of the roll gather enough pulp to make >4 inch board. The lap is cut ofif the roll while it is still in motion and hung up to dry. It is then smoothed between calenders and is ready for shipment. Bristol board, a fine variety of board used for draw- ing, is made of bleached pulp and has a smooth surface. SPECIALLY PREPARED PAPERS 85 Carbon Paper Carbon paper is tissue paper faced with carbon or lampblack mixed with oil or wax. Black carbon paper is more popular than blue or purple. Crepe Paper Crepe paper is simply tissue paper bent in slight cor- rugations resembling crepe, and may be of any color. It has become an important speciality of the Stationery Department on account of its adaptability for many decorative purposes. It is most popularly used for : Lamp and candle shades Table decorations Flower making Shelf paper Costumes for fancy balls The best tissue paper used in making crepe paper is made from pure flax and is grass-bleached, no chem- ical being used. The fibers are longer in good tissue, thereby giving strength to the paper. Age does not aflfect the stock. Cheaper qualities of tissue are made of wood pulp and rags. The first crepe or crinkled paper was made by draw- ing a good grade of tissue paper through the hands until it became finely ribbed. The first real crepe paper was made of the pulp. Its discovery was appar- 86 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS ently an accident due to the fact that one of the machines was not working properly and the paper was spoiled. The attendant threw away the crinkly sheets, but a member of the firm happened to pass through the factory and saw the discarded paper. For a long time all crepe paper was made directly from the pulp, but now it is made from tissue paper. The modern method of manufacture of crepe uses a wood pulp tissue paper. The tissue passes through a liquid that practically reduces it to a pulp, but it still retains its sheet form. It passes over a cylinder, run- ning at a certain speed which is determined by the type of crepe paper to be made. A long knife lifts the paper from the cylinder. The paper is pulled away at a rate of speed less than the speed of the cylinder. This crepes the paper. Next it is dried. If the paper is to be colored a single color, the dye is put into the liquid that the tissue first passes through. If printed, each color is put on by separate rollers, but all on the same machine. Deckled-Edged Paper This is paper which has been given a rough, uneven edge similar to that made by the old deckle frame. Filter Paper Filter paper is somewhat similar to blotting paper but SPECIALLY PREPARED PAPERS 87 must be made with much greater care. That which is made for scientific purposes has been given special study by experts in England, France, Germany, and Sweden, in order to produce the wide variety of papers needed for different purposes. For fast filtering the paper is very loose in structure, but some of the finer particles of the precipitate pass through with the liquid. Sometimes it is important that no material should be lost even if the filtration is very slow. The paper is made of cotton rags treated with hydrochloric and hydro- fluoric acids, then with alkalies, and washed many times so that no chemical remains. It is almost pure cellulose. Hardware Paper Hardware paper, used for wrapping steel, is sized with glue and an excess of alum to keep the steel bright. It must be free from chemicals which would tarnish the metal. Japanese Papers Japanese papers are of various qualities all having peculiar strength and appearance, due to the fact that the fibers are beaten out with mallets and retain their full length. This description applies only to the paper made by the Japanese. i V ^ ii 88 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Kraft Paper Kraft paper is a very strong unbleached wrapping paper made from sulphate pulp. The fibers are long and well felted by slow beating. Many imitations of kraft paper are made from mechanical pulp but they only resemble it in color. Wrappings are also made from combinations of kraft with sulphite, ground wood and waste paper. Manila Paper Manila paper was originally made of pulp from manila rope, but now it is merely ground wood paper with a little sulphite to give it strength and colored to look like manila. Onion Skin Paper This is a translucent, high-grade writing paper with a finish described by its name. Packing Papers These papers are lined with gauze or cloth. Papier Mache Papier mache is manufactured from old waste and scrap paper by various methods. It contains paper pulp, resin, sugar of lead, and drying oil, forming a SPECIALLY PREPARED PAPERS 89 paste which may be molded or pressed into shape. It is used for various purposes. For the papier mache boxes made to imitate the thin Japan wooden boxes, a spongy paper is soaked in a paste of flour and glue. Four sheets of paper are then laid one over another in a metal mold which has been rubbed over with tallow. The "crust" is put in a cool oven to dry. It is then covered with another layer and again dried, the operation being repeated until the sheet is of the desired thickness. It is then dipped in a hard- ening mixture and dried in a hot oven, rubbed, and filed to prepare it for the final coating of black or colored enamel. A sort of paper dough, used for dolls' heads, is made of paper pulp, powdered clay, and glue. This is pressed into molds and when dry is painted with an air brush and given the necessary finishing. Paper Toweling Paper toweling is made of unsized ground wood pulp and may be either bleached or unbleached. Parchment Paper Parchment paper is unsized rag or high-grade sul- phite pulp which is put through a bath of dilute sul- phuric acid, washed with water and diluted alkali to neutralize the acid, and then with pure water to get \ I 4 1 'i l; t . 90 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS rid o! the alkali. This treatment changes the surface fibers into a tough gelatinous covering which is similar to animal parchment and is moisture proof. Zinc chloride is sometimes substituted for the sulphuric acid. Photographic Paper Photographic printing paper is coated by machinery with emulsions of silver haloids in gelatine. For the platinotype process silver bromide and salts of platinum are used. Paper negatives are treated with gelatine bromide made translucent with an emulsion of caster oil. For making positive prints from negatives, photo- graphic paper is prepared with albumen salt or other coating. For printing in colors, tissues are coated with pigmented gelatine or pigmented gum. Protective or Safety Papers These papers are treated with chemicals which make the detection of forgery or dishonesty easier. Rice Paper Rice paper is made from the pith of the "rice paper tree." This tree grows 20 feet high in China and Japan and has leaves a foot across. The pith is cut into pieces 3 inches long and i>^ inches in diameter and these are then pared into thin rolls with a sharp knife, SPECIALLY PREPARED PAPERS 9i flattened, and dried under pressure, making sheets a few inches long. The Chinese draw and paint on them. Roofing and Building Paper Roofing and building papers are made from coarse, heavy materials, such as old gunny sacks or jute waste. They are usually impregnated with chemicals, asphalt, etc., or combined with asbestos to make them water- proof. Silverware Paper This paper used for wrapping articles made of silver is treated with caustic soda and zinc oxide. Tin Foil Tin foil is a solution of gum and finely powdered tin. Tissue Papers Tissue papers are made on special machines, as the web is too thin to support its own weight and must be carried at all times on a felt. The machines run more slowly and the web is only a third as wide as for news- print. When ground wood is used it must be very carefully selected and must not contain sticky or resin- ous matter. When sulphite is used it must be cooked very carefully and not too quickly. i 92 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Tracing Paper Tracing paper is tissue paper sized with oil and varnished, or with turpentine and gum, so that it is transparent and yet of such a texture as to take marks. Transfer Paper Transfer paper for transferring designs to materials is coated with starch, flour, or gum before it is printed. When heated the pattern comes off with the coating. Vellum Vellum is a thick paper resembling prepared calfskin. It is made from good quality rags which have been long beaten. Vulcanized Paper Vulcanized paper is saturated and coated with tin, calcium, magnesium, or aluminum chloride to give it toughness and strength. Vulcanized Fiber Vulcanized fiber, used for waste baskets, trunks, tubs, etc., is made of sheets of paper treated with zinc chloride and pressed together and washed to remove the chemicals. SPECIALLY PREPARED PAPERS 93 Waxed Paper Waxed paper is prepared by rubbing melted beeswax or paraffin into the paper with a hot iron. This makes it impervious to moisture. Imitations of Other Materials Paper is now substituted for leather in many in- stances. Furniture coverings, hangings, and many other 'leathers" are made of paper prepared with glue or by other secret processes which toughen the fiber and give it a grained appearance. Sometimes these imitation leathers are very difficult to detect. Leatherboard is paper pulp containing ground-up leather hardened under great pressure. Linoleum is also sometimes made of paper instead of cork and spun and woven paper is used in many ways. Paper carpets are still an experiment but paper roofing is extensively used not only in the crude form of tar paper, but in imitation tiles. Beaver board is a heavy building board used in country houses and for temporary partitions in many other buildings instead of plastered inner walls. It is made from the long fibers of spruce. Chapter IX WALL PAPER »» One of the important uses of paper is for "hangings or wall paper. Manufacture Wall paper is made in the same manner as newsprint until it arrives at the finishing processes. The furnish is unbleached ground wood with about 15 per cent of sulphite, also unbleached. As it is a bulky paper and of a relatively cheap grade, the treatment in the beater is short and sharp to keep the cost of production down. The machine is also run at a high speed. About 10 per cent of clay is added to give it bulk and softness and it is heavily sized, for unless it is well sized it will not take the paste properly. For cartridge paper and those of similar character the color is introduced in the beater, but most wall papers are printed either with blocks or in color machines. Printing Wall Papers Designs for wall papers are painted on sheets of paper with at least one ''repeat" to show the relation of 94 WALL PAPER 95 parts to each other.^ Tracings are then made in the block-cutter's department, and on each tracing the parts to be printed in a single color are filled in with red. Machine printing is done with sets of rollers. Strips of brass are bent to conform to the heavier outlines of the pattern and the lighter parts are made of sheet brass. Brass pins are also used for certain effects. These are all attached to the wooden rollers, of which there are as many as there are variations of color in the design. There may be twelve rollers in a set. Grounding The paper is first passed through a machine for "grounding," or giving the background color. This is spread on by means of brushes. The paper is then taken up on round sticks which carry it to the ceiling and down the length of the drying room where the warm air dries it before it reaches the printing room. Printing the Pesign The printing machine has a revolving drum over which the paper passes, and two sets of rollers. One set dips into the color pans and the other set, the print- ing rollers, are connected with the first by cloth belts called "sieve cloths." Each sieve cloth presses against » See pages 120 and 121 in "Silk Manual" for classes of patterns. 96 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS a color roller and then passes to the printing roller, which receives the color on its raised portions and deposits it upon the paper. Drying and Rolling When the paper has passed under all the printing rollers, receiving one color from each, it is again carried up to the ceiling of the drying room and allowed to hang in long loops reaching almost to the floor so that a large part of the paper's surface is exposed to the warm air and it is quite dry when it reaches the reeling or rolling machine. This machine rolls the paper into "double roll'* lengths which are cut off and tied in bundles of fifty. Block Printing Block printing is used only for the more expensive papers. The pattern is worked out in relief (raised) on wooden blocks and the colors are prepared on pads. The blocks take the colors up from the pads and trans- fer them to the paper. It is a slow process for each color is on a separate pad and each one must be printed with a separate block by placing it on the paper and giving it a blow with a hammer. Engraved papers are printed on hand engraved rollers of polished copper. i WALL PAPER 97 Embossing Papers are embossed after they are pnnted. Ihis is done by passing them between rollers. The "pper one is of steel with a raised design, such as pebbhng (a surface covered with fine grains like some leather finishes) or lines similar to the marks of woven fabrics. The lower roller is covered with a paper cushion. Double-process papers are passed through the pnntmg machine twice but "overprints," or papers which have apparently two patterns, one over the other, are made at the time of the first printing by means of extra rollers. ... • i. For "varnish golds" the pattern is pnnted in varnish, and bronze or other metal is dusted on the sticky ^""Liquid goW" is applied like a color by a special roller in the printing machine. The color for printing wall papers is made of white clay mixed with an adhesive liquid and stirred m agita- tors to the consistency of thin cream. The color used is aniline dye. Engraved papers are printed in oil colors. Flock Papers . "Flock papers" or velvet papers were first made in 16^0 by Le Fran9ois of Rouen, France, who spread powdered wool of different colors on a drawing covered with a sticky substance. 98 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS The name comes from the Latin floccus, a lock of wool. The wool is dyed in hanks and then sheared in a cutting machine to a fine powder. The paper is first coated with a thin film of varnish and then dusted with the wool powder and beaten on the underside with sticks to make each fiber stand on end. Florentine flock is brushed to give it the appearance of a nap. Designs in oil colors are sometimes painted on flock papers. The depth of color and variety of shading may be very beautiful. Instead of wool, powdered glass, metallic dust, or mica may be dusted on the varnished surface. Silk flock paper is also made but is very expensive. Japanese Leather Papers The paper is made from the paper mulberry and is pressed, while wet, into designs carved on wooden rollers. When it has been well pounded into the design it is sized, covered with tin foil, lacquered, and sten- ciled. The results are quite gorgeous. The Japanese also make a grass cloth paper. The grass cloth is woven from a vegetable fiber with a warp of thread. It is pasted on paper which is usually of a different color or has a metallic luster. Another Japanese paper is woven of strips having one color on the face and another on the back. The strips are turned over to show the contrasting color. \t WALL PAPER 99 Tea box papers which have a metallic luster are used for ceilings. Other Finishes Satin finish, crepe finish, and watered effects are given by means of special processes. Design in Wall Paper * Wall paper designing is one of the most important of the applied arts as the room hangings form the back- ground for all other decoration. The effect of glaring contrasts, bad color combinations, or ugly and obtru- sive designs is nowhere more unfortunate than when they are on the walls where we must look at them whether we want to or not. They are also responsible for spoiling the effect of good pictures and well-ar- ranged furniture. Fashions in wall paper change as in other things but there has been a great improvement in the treatment of unpretentious rooms in the past few years. During the period which we call "Victorian,'' heavy patterns, large bouquets of natural or unnatural flowers, and dark or glaring colors were common. They have been replaced by neutral colors which make good back- grounds, simple conventional designs, or allover pat- » See Chapters X and XII in "Silk Manual" for the principles of color and design. I i m lOO PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS terns which do not attract too much attention from the pictures hanging on them. When walls are not intended to be a background for pictures they may have a more pronounced pattern and very charming effects are obtained by copying some of the old colonial wall designs, especially if the furniture is of that period. Colors for Household Decoration In selecting colors for a room it should be borne in mind that everyone is more or less sensitive to the in- fluence of color. Each color has a distinct effect upon persons and produces different sensations in different moods. All intense colors, moreover, need to be modified. In deciding on color combinations for a room the fol- lowing facts must be considered : The size of the room. The number of windows. The size of the windows. The location of room — ^whether north, south, east, or west. The kind of room— whether living room, bedroom, etc. Effect of adjoining rooms. One should remember also that : <. i WALL PAPER lOI Yellow and its varying tones will give light and warmth. It is not needed where a room has plenty of sunlight. . Red will appear to give warmth. Pure red is exciting. ^ . , ., Blue will appear to diminish the size of the room. Color harmonies in draperies or furniture coverings may be very vivid, especially if the room is not bril- liantly lighted, but it is usually more satisfactory to have one dominant color with harmomes of likeness prevailing, and only touches of the brilliant harmonies of contrast. . , If broken tones or colors of half-intensity are used the harmony of contrast may be more evenly distributed between the two colors. Suggestions for Color Schemes If a good color scheme is desired, there are three reliable sources from which suggestions may be gained : Nature-among flowers, the autumn leaves, the mosses and lichens, the birds, the shells and minerals, the sunset. _ Museums— where there are wonderful collections of old tapestries, embroideries, etc. Pictures— especially among the Japanese prints, II I'BW I ' 1 I02 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS where color is simply but daringly used with unusual beauty and quality. William Morris in 'The Lesser Arts of Life" said : "Whatever you have in your rooms think first of the walls for they are that which makes your house and home and if you don't make some sacrifice in their favor you will find your chambers have a sort of make- shift, lodging-house look about them however rich and handsome your movables may be." William Morris and Walter Crane were among the notable artists who have designed English wall papers. History Men began to decorate their walls and to make wall coverings at a very early time. The decoration may be traced historically through : Relief sculpture Glazed brick or tiles Stamped leather Painted canvas or cloth Printed hangings and wall papers Tapestries were much used by the Greeks and leather hangings were common in the Middle Ages. In Europe, printed stuffs were used for hangings as early as the thirteenth century. ( Courtesy of American Magazine of Art Figure 9. An Example of Scenic Wall Paper •• Bay of Naples " paper formerly in the reception room of Dunbar Hall. Phillips Academy, Exeter. N. H. ^^■c H^R WALL PAPER 103 Old Wall Papers A search for origins usually leads one to Chma and wall papers are no exception to the rule. The Chinese and Japanese used paper hangings and -eens ,n - y ancient times, but wall paper was not a European fashion until the middle of the seventeenth century. It then began to take the place of the woven ha«gmgs and ^pestries which had preceded it, and the designs were very similar. Chinese Papers The Chinese had painted and printed their patterns with hand-engraved wooden blocks on hand-made paper which was in sheets about 18 inches square. A f avonte Tubiect was "The Cultivation of Tea" and this paper has been found in England and America. The earlier natterns were made in China but soon the English and French began to imitate them. Then the pattern. changed from pagodas to castles and sylvan scenes with shepherds and shepherdesses. Scenic Wall Papers The Bible and mythology were both drawn upon for the subjects of these papers; other subjects were pic- u es of noted cities and free renderings of famou paintings. They sometimes required hundreds of blocks and one French paper took three thousand. The 104 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS small sheets were not replaced by wall paper in strips and rolls until the end of the eighteenth century. Color in Early Wall Papers The scenes in these early papers were sometimes small medallions surrounded with scrolls or frames and sometimes they covered the entire wall of a room. Some New England homes have walls with these large scenic papers in soft grey or blue tones or in natural colors. Miss Kate Sanborn in a book called "Some Old-Time Wall Papers" describes such a paper in the house where she was born. She says "I was a native of New Hampshire and yet I was bom at the foot of Mount Vesuvius" because there was a picture of the Bay of Naples on the wall of her room. (See Figure 9) Chapter X HISTORY OF PAPER Early Methods of Keeping Records From the earliest times men have tried to keep rrom uic tradition, by which records of important events. Oral ^^^^ ''^''' / history was handed down from generation to genera 'ot was always subject to change though the f^^^^^^ to keep popular legends unchanged were more success M than could be imagined in times when wntten rprords are common. , Variations would gradually creep in. however^ -d memory needed some form of assistance. In order to mal the location of a decisive battle or other great Tvent Ls were sometimes planted or 9^^J^on^^ erected. Later we find that the bark of these trees was scratched with symbolic pictures and carved o painted monuments were made of wood or stone. The Egyptian obelisks and Alaskan totem poles are really Srical documents, and the Ten Commandments were written on "tables" or tablets of stone. Then as civilization developed men wanted some means by which they could send messages as well as TecorS hfstory and laws. This led to the use of tables Of bone, ivory, metals, and wood, either carved or 105 i I06 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS covered with wax which could be cut or incised with a sharp instrument. Skins of beasts were also used to write upon. Parchment Parchment is made from the dried skins of sheep and goats which are thin and pliable. It was used in the ancient world for documents. An ancient library con- sisted of books written on parchment, but the books were not made of leaves bound between covers. The tanned skins were joined together in a continuous strip which was fastened to two wooden sticks and rolled up so that as one read the book he unrolled the strip from one stick and rolled it on the other. In the year 270 B.C. the Jews carried a copy of the Jewish Law to Ptolemy Philadelphus which was written in letters of gold on skins so cleverly joined together that the intersections could not be seen. For many centuries legal documents were always written on parch- ment and many are today. A diploma is sometimes spoken of as a * 'parchment" or a "sheepskin." Earliest Form of Paper When men discovered that the inner bark of trees and plants could be used for making records the first step toward paper-making was taken. Paper was made by the Egyptians as early as 670 b.c. from the stalk of HISTORY OF PAPER 107 the papyrus, a reed growing in water about 4 feet deep and abundant in the river Nile. Ancient Use of Papyrus The papyrus plant has a horizontal stem about as thick as a man's wrist from which grow shoots n angular in shape, set at right angles. Accordmg to the ancient metho'd of paper-making the stalks were sh with a sharp instrument into thin strips A number of The strips were laid side by side on a table and covered with other strips laid similarly but crossmg the first ones. Water was then poured over the layers and they were put under heavy weights which pressed them to^ gether, forming small sheets which were dried m the sun and polished with smooth stones or ivory. The sheets were in three sizes, 6, 6/., and 7 mches wide. To make a manuscript the sheets were pasted together in strips 10, 12, or even 20 yards long and rolled on sticks in the same manner as parchment scrolls. The use of papyrus passed from Egypt to Greece and Rome, the latter improved it with a sizing made of flour paste. In 670 B.C. the emperor Numa left works written on papyrus and Herodotus speaks of it in he fifth century B.C. It continued to be used until the eleventh century a.d. when it was superseded by parch- ment and paper made of cotton. (See Chapter II for modern use of papyrus.) f < I08 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS The First Real Paper The Chinese were the first to make paper from fibers which had been reduced to pulp, though the process was very different from the modern one. According to Chinese records the manufacture was invented about 105 A.D. by Ts'ai Lun. In the year 284 a.d. the Em- peror of China sent a present of 30,000 sheets of paper to the Roman Emperor AureHus Carus. This early paper was made of many materials. Silk cocoons and silk refuse were tried as well as the stems of bamboo, but silk was too expensive and bamboo was too heavy so that combinations were made of bark, hemp, rags, fishing nets, and seashore moss. The fibrous inner bark of the paper mulberry tree was also used. (See Chapter II.) The process of making the pulp into paper was very laborious. After the fiber had been separated and re- duced to pulp by long soaking in water it was first dried on frames of fine reed under the pressure of heavy stones. It was then wet a second time and the sheets were plastered on the walls of a room. Finally they were coated with a gum size and polished with stones. During the fifth century the Chinese made a paper which shone like silver. The establishment was managed by a special officer appointed by the emperor. But in spite of their early genius they have no modern paper mills. HISTORY OF PAPER 109 Japanese Paper Japanese paper was also made from the paper mul- berry tree. The old method was to cut the twigs m winter, tie them in bundles, and place in large vessels filled with lye. They were boiled in the lye until the bark shrank away from the top, then exposed to cool air dried, and the bark stripped off. Later the twigs were soaked in water for three or four days, cleaned, boiled again in a clear lye, and washed. The softened mass was spread on a table and beaten with mallets, put in a tub with an infusion of rice and roots, spread on reed molds, and dried in the sun. Present Methods The Japanese have now adopted modern methods. A few years ago a paper mill costing $4,000,000 was fitted out with machinery from Watertown, N. Y Japan produces a thin, strong, hand-made paper of excellent quality known as "Japanese copying paper used for copying books. She also makes a thick, tough, and durable paper known as "Japanese vellum suitable for documents and a silky transparent paper from the paper mulberry with a satin-like surface used in fine books and proofs of engravings. A great deal of paper is used in Japan, some of it for purposes which seem peculiar, such as the inner walls of houses. Paper no PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS screens, fans, lanterns, parasols, and other productions are familiar to everyone. Paper-Making in Europe In the seventh century paper-making was brought into Spain by the Arabs who had learned it from either the Chinese or Hindoos. From Spain it went to Italy where a paper mill was established at Fabriano about 1276. The first French paper mill was built as early as the year 1189. This paper was made at first from raw cotton but later from cotton rags. The process was less laborious than the making of paper from papyrus and the material cheaper than parchment. The manufacture flourished in France from whence paper was for many years exported to Holland, Eng- land, Switzerland, Denmark, and Russia. Linen paper seems to have been used first in Ger- many. The first recorded documents were in 1239, whereas the first French document on linen was in 1270 and the earliest linen paper in England was used in 1320. In 1 7 19 a Frenchman discovered that paper could be made from the fiber of wood by examining the material of wasps* nests. Straw paper was made in Germany in 1756. Kieler patented a process for making paper from wood in 1840. This was a grind- ing process. Chinese rice paper, made from the rice paper tree HISTORY OF PAPER III or the paper mulberry (see above), ^^J^^'^^^^j;^ England in 1805 for the making of artificial Aowe- The Princess Charlotte is said to have given 70 gumeas for a bouquet of these flowers. Many strange materials were eirt^er used o^ sugge ted for the making of paper. In 1765 Jacob Schaffers of Ratisbon mentioned sixty, among which were asbestos and guttapercha. (See Appendix.) All^aper was made by hand until the m.ddk of the eighteenth century when the engine mode of beating was invented in Holland. During the next hun- dred years constant improvements were made until tl^ n^chines were perfected and few changes have ta^en place since 1855. It required three -n^hs to complete for delivery paper made by the hand process. American Industry The first paper mill in the United States was bu.lt in^irmantoVn, a suburb of Philadelphia, in 1690. The owner was a Hollander named Wilham Ri ten- house or Rythinghuisen, who was induced to start the new enterprise by William Bradford, a printer^ Some ;rrs later Bradford went to New York but he cor. Lued to send to this mill for his paper, sending back ''tWs mTwas celebrated in a quaint poem written I' 112 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS about this time entitled : **A short Description of Phila- delphia or a Relation of What Things are known, Enjoyed or like to be discovered in said Province." There are 26 lines devoted to the making of paper and the description ends with these philosophical words : Then of the rags our paper is made Which in process of time does waste and fade, So that what comes of the earth appeareth plain The same in time returns to earth again. The wasting and fading, however, was far less to be feared then than now as paper made from pure linen rags lasts several times as long as wood pulp paper. The first watermark of this paper was the word "Company," afterwards the letters "WR" were used in a monogram with a clover leaf on a shield surmounted by a crown and beneath it the word "Pennsylvania." The clover device was said to be the town seal of Germantown. The second paper mill in the country was also in Germantown. In 1729 Thomas Wilcox built a mill at Chester Creek, Pa., which supplied Benjamin Frank- lin with paper. He was the first to make bank note paper. The first paper mill in New England was built in 1730 at Milton, Mass. In the Boston Newsletter HISTORY OF PAPER "3 (founded in 1705 and the first newspaper in America), it was announced at this time that a "Bell cart will go through Boston to collect rags for the paper mill at Milton." Use of Cotton and Linen Rags The Declaration of Independence was printed on paper made of the finest linen rags and on special molds and felts. For many years cotton and linen rags were used almost exclusively because of the ease with which they could be converted into pulp and the excellent quality of the paper made from them. Before the middle of the nineteenth century, however, experiments had been made with straw, grasses, and wood especially for newsprint paper, for which the publishers could never secure enough rags. The Philadelphia Public Ledger was printed on straw paper as early as 1854, and the New York Examiner of March 19, 1863, was on paper 80 per cent wood pulp. As the use of paper increased, the supply of rags became far too limited for the demand. Paper-makers were accustomed to advertise for rags from discarded clothing and household linen as well as the scraps and cuttings from factories. As far back as 1807 a paper mill in New York printed a "Poetic Address to Ladies" : 8 I PP 1 114 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Sweet ladies pray be not offended Nor mind the jests of sneering wags. No harm, believe us, is intended When humbly we request your rags. In spite of all efforts to collect this superior paper material it was necessary to find other resources and gradually straw, grasses, and wood fiber have been substituted for all the cheaper grades of paper. Of all these wood has become the greatest source of supply in the United States. Extent of Present-Day Industry At least thirty-five states are interested in the paper industry. New York has the greatest output. Maine comes next, with Wisconsin and Massachusetts third and fourth, the latter ranking first in the output of writing and book papers. New York leads in the pro- duction of wood pulp, with Maine second and Wiscon- sin third. Massachusetts leads in the value of the output because of its nearness to forests, good water power, skilled labor, cheap and convenient transporta- tion. She produces rag and finer writing papers, also book and ledger papers. The city of Holyoke has twenty- four mills, turning out 200 tons of paper a day, and is the greatest paper center in the world. A list of manufacturers of writing paper is given in the Ap- pendix. HISTORY OF PAPER 115 Canadian Industry The first paper mill in Canada was built in St. An- drews, Quebec, in 1803. In 1918 there were 94 estab- lishments, of which 37 were pulp mills, 31 paper mills, and 26 combined both processes. About 40 per cent of the increase was between 19 17 and 191 8. In 1919 Canada exported to the United States chemical wood pulp valued at $26,256,265, mechanical wood pulp valued at $4,418,555, and paper valued at $39,666,535, and imported from the United States paper and manu- factures of paper valued at $8,564,940. According to the capital invested, paper ranks second among Canadian manufactures, but according to the valuation of manufactures exported by Canada it ranks first. t Chronology of the Principal Inventions and Patents 1750 The cylinder or engine mode of beating was mvented in Holland. 1774 Chlorine gas combined with lime was first used for bleaching. 1799 Robert Lewis made the first paper on an endless web machine. John Gamble and Leger Didot obtained an English patent for it. 1804 Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier purchased the patents of Didot and Gamble and perfected the Fourdrinier machine. (They spent a fortune on it and died in poverty.) 1827 M. Obry, a Frenchman, began to size paper in a vat i" 11 ' Il6 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS with a solution of alum and rosin dissolved in soda and combined with potato starch. 1828 Crompton and Taylor obtained an English patent for cutting paper lengthwise by means of circular revolving knives. 1829 Thomas Cobb invented a process of embossing paper by pressing the pulp between rollers or plates, either engraved or covered with cloth having a raised pattern. 1830 Thomas Gilpin patented the finishing of paper with calenders. 1855 Watt and Burgess of London experimented with wood for paper-making. I I Chapter XI ENGRAVING AND PRINTING Orders for Engraving Special order, or made-to-order engraving is usually in the hands of a special saleswoman, who should know the technical features of engraving so as to handle the order intelligently. The three classes of orders are : Printing from engraved plates (cards, invitations, announcements, etc.). Embossing (monograms, crests, addresses). Printing from type (an imitation of engraved work, for programs, menus, etc.). How Engraving Is Done The engraver must be a very skillful workman. He cuts the design to be printed in the metal plate with a burin or graver, a small bar of pointed steel set in a wooden handle. It requires accurate work to incise the design at the right depth and also to reproduce it in inverse form.^ 1 The balance of this chapter is taken from Isert's Engraving Educator by permission of the author. 117 Il8 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Intaglio Engraving This is the proper and general trade term that in- cludes all steel and copper plate and die engraving. Printing or stamping from intaglio plates differs from all other printing processes since the impression is made by the part of the plate lying belov/ the surface. Copper Plate Engraving This refers to all work cut or engraved in copper. The principal common uses for copper plate engraving are cards for social and business purposes and invita- tions for all purposes where not more than 4,000 or 5,000 impressions are to be run from the plate. Work of similar character for many other purposes is cut on copper; in fact, there is considerably more engraving on copper than upon steel. Steel Plate Engraving This is similar in many respects to copper plate, al- though steel is susceptible of a much greater variety of work through the various mediums of engraving, etch- ing, and transferring. For long runs the steel plate, because of its hardness and wearing qualities, is the only metal that should be employed. The steel plate may be used for every purpose that the copper plate is used for, and in addition for the production of bank- note work, certificates, bonds, and commercial headings. , ENGRAVING AND PRINTING no Steel Die Engraving This is something different from steel plate engrav- ing. Dies are cut or sunk in steel approximately one- half inch thick. Monograms, address dies, crests, business and professional headings, and heavily raised designs for all purposes are some of the familiar products of steel die engraving, or die sinking as it is also called. Copper Plate Printing This is accomplished through covering the surface of the plate, both the engraved and blank parts, with ink. The surplus is wiped and polished off, leaving the ink in the cut lines. Then the sheet or card is laid on the plate and passed through rollers, the pressure forcing the ink to adhere to the paper. Nearly all copper plate impressions are made with black inks, copper not being very well adapted for the use of col- ored inks. The prints from copper plates when well executed are soft and velvety in appearance, never glossy, and sharp and clean cut, with a solid, deep color due to the mass of ink which makes the impression. Steel Plate Printing This does not differ greatly from copper plate print- ing, the same general rules applying except that the hardness of the metal and the higher polish of the j\ , '■ I20 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS plate surface give it working qualities along much broader lines than copper. Thus, all colors are work- able in steel plate printing, which is not the case in cop- per plate printing. Very large steel plates with the subject repeated many times, like United States postage stamps, are employed in bank-note plate printing. Steel Die Embossing or Stamping The terms stamping and embossing are both em- ployed to designate the making of impressions from steel dies. This must not be confused -vith plate print- ing, for in printing plates the entire sheet or most of it is under pressure as it passes between rollers. Stamping or embossing from dies is a direct up and down striking movement. The pressure is very great, but it is exerted only on that portion of the stock where the die is stamped. The principle of inking and wip- ing a die is to some extent the same as in the older art of plate printing. Stamping is the process used for monogram, crest, and address work on fine note papers and commercial headings. A surface die or one lightly cut produces an impression raised but slightly above the surface of ■ the paper. A sunk die gives a highly elevated impres- sion. As to variety of impressions, die stamping or embossing offers the widest range of any form of in- taglio engraving. Water color inks, oil inks, varnish ENGRAVING AND PRINTING 121 inks, and all kinds of bronzes are workable in stamp- ing. The high-gloss impressions are produced with varnish colors, the flat or dull effects from ink similar to those used in plate printing, and brilliant bronze work from special inks, the chief ingredient of which is either gold, silver, or other bronze powders. Illumination This is a variation of stamping. Such impressions are partly stamped, partly hand-painted. Illuminating is the hand-painting of backgrounds that are not part of the engraving proper. Care of Plates and Dies Plates and dies should be very carefully handled. The two things that injure them are rust and scratches. Scratches or holes in the metal hold the ink the same as the engraving, and must be removed. If a rust spot occurs in the engraving, its removal will either tone down the engraving or leave a hole in the plate. Moisture, or even the perspiration from the finger tips will often cause rust on the plates. In the case of copper plates, the slight discoloration often seen between the runs does no particular harm. Steel plates and dies require the same care that the copper ones do. Steel does not scratch so easily, but it rusts very quickly. Engravers always dry the sur- M 122 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS face of steel plates and dies after use, and coat them with wax or varnish to prevent rusting. This coating should not be removed by anyone except the engraver. Plates and dies should therefore always be kept in a dry place and handled as little as possible. The best rule to follow is to leave the plate in the envelope or wrapper. When examining it, handle it by its edge. Writing the Copy for the Engraver Engravers seldom send proofs of their work and it is not wise to make alterations on a finished plate. Engraver's copy, therefore, should be absolutely cor- rect and clearly written. The writers of poor copy will never admit that it is not perfectly clear because it is readable to them. Close inspection will show, however, that the n's, m's, u's, and i's of many poor writers, as well as I's, h's, and k's, are so similar that only their place in the word or sentence makes it pos- sible for other people to read it. In the case of proper names, guessing is almost sure to lead to errors for which the engraver is not responsible. The best way to avoid them is to send clear, typewritten copy; the next best is to use block letters similar to printed type. Origin of Engraving Line engraving and plate printing were suggested by the goldsmith's work about the middle of the ENGRAVING AND PRINTING 123 fifteenth century. Some of the goldsmith's ornamen- tation consisted of designs cut out of the metal and then filled up with black enamel. From this originated the idea of filling incisions with a certain ink, wiping off the surface of the plate and pressing paper over it until the design was printed upon the paper. Imitation of Engraving There is an imitation of both steel and copper plate engraving, made by ordinary type. The ink is heated which causes it to swell and makes an embossed sur- face, giving the effect of engraving. Printing from Type A cheaper way of preparing cards is by type print- ing, which, of course, is not engraving at all. The sur- face of the set type is coated with ink, which is trans- ferred to the paper or other material by pressure. It is the same process as that used in the manufacture of the daily paper. Type or steam press printing is used for programs, menus, " in memoriam " cards, etc. Artistic printing grew out of the desire of the ed- ucated artisan to display his skill in ornamental work, with brilliant color, original design, and perfect finish. i ft n Chapter XII ENGRAVING AND PRINTING (Continued) Styles and Social Customs Many customers ask the salesperson for advice as to suitable styles, sizes, colors, and tasteful decora- tions of paper and cards, as well as to the correct plac- ing of addresses and monograms, particularly when the customer herself is not familiar with the prevailing styles. Expert service of this kind demands a knowledge of appropriateness of color, line, and style, which is gained not merely by experience in selling, but by an acquaintance with certain guiding principles of art as to color, harmony, and design. The salesperson should be familiar with the social customs of the day. She should not only have a knowledge of the principles of good taste and appro- priateness, but she should also keep in touch with pre- vailing styles. The latter may be learned from high grade stationers. Customs will vary from time to time, but good taste is always conservative and avoids 124 ENGRAVING AND PRINTING 125 startling and conspicuous effects. She should know the proper materials, forms and sizes for wedding and anniversary announcements. The following rules are now in vogue as to the proper forms for visiting cards, invitations, and mono- grams. Sizes of Visiting Cards Cards vary in size according to their users. Men's cards are smaller than women's. The size in common use is the club card, which measures 2^%6Xi%6 inches. This card may be used when calling, or may accompany a lady's card. A larger size, measuring 3%6X i^Ke inches, is used by mem- bers of the diplomatic corps in Washington, and in cases where an exceptionally long name prohibits the use of a smaller card. Men's cards should bear merely the name, although cards to be used when men call on each other may bear also the name of a club. Misses' cards measure approximately 2^%6X2K6 inches. The matron's size is larger, measuring 3^x2% inches, and may also bear the address. Many fashion- able engravers use the same size cards for both Miss and Mrs., about 2x3 inches. A card bearing the name of husband and wife, which 126 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS is used for joint sending of gifts, at home cards, Christmas cards, etc., is 3%6 x 2^4 inches. Styles of Lettering The style of lettering to be selected is another im- portant consideration in visiting cards. (See Figure lo.) Formerly, heavy, ornate styles were popular, but in recent years these have been replaced by lighter styles. For this reason Old English and Caxton are not at present fashionable, though always in good form, and Gothic and Roman block letters are used for business cards only. Ninety per cent of all social engraving is in English script, and this style is always looked upon with favor. Modified Roman is the most fashionable style at present. Louis XV is a very popular style at the present time. It is a combination of two styles, the French Roman being used for all proper names, and script for the rest of the card. This combination gives a dignified, yet light and delicate appearance. Forms of Visiting Cards The form in which the name is to appear is purely a personal matter. Some prefer to use the complete name, others prefer initials. In the case of unmarried women, the eldest daugh- ENGRAVING AND PRINTING 127 Mrs.Reginald E.Madison MrAVili-iam H.Bdtgham >fr. Gilbert Day Clinton DR.LlNI>SArA^?ARINOKKAN MR.CDMUND EARL BUICK Walter Shelpon Brewster Figure 10. Styles of Engraving A atiH R— Shaded Roman. C and D— Black Roman. E and F — Gothic G-Shaded Old English H-Black Old English. J-Shaded French Script. K. L, and M — Script. 128 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS ter may omit her given name from her card, using simply " Miss." In case an older branch of the family resides in the same locality, however, it is not consid- ered good form for any other than the eldest daughter of the eldest branch to use this form. If an address is to be given, the lower right-hand corner is preferred, but, when it is necessary to change the plate, it is permissible to have it appear in the lower left corner. Wedding Invitations and Announcements Wedding invitations and the cards accompanying them must be correct in every detail. No other social form has such strict rules. The size, shape, and finish of the paper used for invitations varies from year to year. The correct styles can always be learned from the proper authori- ties, the engravers. None but the finest quality of paper and the best of workmanship properly expresses the sentiment surrounding the occasion. The present style is to use a white, angora finish paper and a long, narrow form which fits an almost square envelope. The plate-marked panel is also much used. The styles of lettering most used are Louis XV, shaded Roman, and English script. The invitations are issued and paid for by the bride's parents, or surviving parent. In case neither ENGRAVING AND PRINTING 129 parent is living, a married brother and wife, married sister and husband, bachelor brother, the nearest rela- tive, or guardian issues them. Forms of invitations to church weddings and an- nouncements may be either personal or impersonal, ac- cording to the following models : Personal Form of Wedding Invitation Mr. and Mrs. James Seymour Bennett request the honour of presence at the marriage of their daughter Mabel Louise to Mr. Arthur Symonds Hancock on Wednesday, the ninth of June one thousand, nine hundred and seventeen at half after four clock at the Church of the Ascension in the City of New York Impersonal Form of Wedding Invitation Mr. and Mrs. James Seymour Bennett request the honour of your presence at the marriage of their daughter Mabel Louise to Mr. Arthur Symonds Hancock on Wednesday, the ninth of June one thousand, nine hundred and seventeen at half after four o'clock at the Church of the Ascension in the City of New York I30 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Wedding Announcement Mr. and Mrs. James Seymour Bennett have the honour of announcing the marriage of their daughter Mabel Louise to Mr. Arthur Symonds Hancock on Wednesday, the ninth of June one thousand, nine hundred and seventeen at half after four o* clock at the Church of the Ascension in the City of New York Invitation to the Wedding Reception Mr. and Mrs. James Seymour Bennett request the pleasure of company on Wednesday, the ninth of June at Hve o'clock at Seven hundred and twenty Madison Avenue Card of Admission to the Church Please present this card at the Church of the Ascension Fifth Avenue at Tenth Street on Wednesday, the ninth of June At Home Card Will he at home on Wednesdays, after the tenth of September ^00 Sunnyside Avenue Newark, New Jersey ENGRAVING AND PRINTING 131 Customs as to Wedding Invitations If the guest is invited to the church ceremony only, the card of admission to the church should be enclosed, but if invited to the reception, and the guest is to call at the home, the card to the reception and the " at- home " card should be enclosed. In cases where the wedding is to take place at a country house, a card giving the departure and arrival of trains to and from the point at which the ceremony is to be held, is also sometimes enclosed. Invitations should be issued two or three weeks be- fore the wedding, and announcements sent immediately after the ceremony. Invitations and announcements are always enclosed in double envelopes. For church weddings the old English spelling " honour " is always used, and many prefer it for all occasions. Invitations for Other Occasions Other occasions for which engraved invitations are commonly issued are : Dinners and banquets Evening receptions Dances Teas At-homes i } 132 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Fraternal and club affairs Public events Business openings and displays Forms Invitations for evening affairs, such as dinners and receptions, are issued in the names of both host and hostess ; those for afternoon affairs, as teas, at-homes, etc., in the name of the hostess only. If an answer is expected, it is customary to place in the corner "R. S. V. P.," "Please respond," or "The favor of an answer is requested." No acceptances are necessary for afternoon at-homes or teas. Dinner dances require two forms of invitations, one for the dinner guests with " Dancing after ten " in the corner, and another in the form of an at-home with " Dancing after ten " in the comer for those invited for the dance only. Those who entertain extensively often have an en- graved form with blank spaces to be filled in for the various occasions. Sizes and Styles The usual size for invitation cards is about 3x5 inches. A larger square is very popular at the present time, and a plate-marked panel is also in favor. For bridge parties, etc., it is permissible to use a ENGRWING AND PRINTING 133 small emblem, such as a minature card design or mono- gram, on the invitation. Monograms The monogram is an expression of the individuality of the person it represents, as no one else can use it. Although it may be largely influenced by fashion and fancy, there are always certain features to be kept in mind. Styles of Monograms The styles usually follow very closely those in vogue for engraving upon jewelry and silverware. For sev- eral seasons the long, narrow monogram has been in favor, but the recent tendency has been toward round, oval, ' and diamond-shaped forms. The fact that Chinese and Japanese initials are being used so largely on signet rings has made this style popular for letter paper monograms. Conservative styles, always in good taste, are plain script monograms, and plain block initials in either Roman or Old English. Addresses Many people prefer to use their address instead of a monogram as a heading for note or letter paper, and in guest rooms it is customary to supply paper bearing the address of the hostess. Sometimes street numbers are given in figures; in other cases the numbers are i ill 134 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS . I written out. When three or four numbers are re- quired, the written number is apt to be awkwardly long and figures are preferable. Crests and Coats of Arms Crests and coats of arms are an inheritance from the days of chivalry when every knight was known by his coat of arms, a symbolic device denoting his rank and family. The coat of arms was a figure in the shape of a shield such as the knight carried in battle. This shield was sometimes divided into four sections with small figures in each section; sometimes it had one large emblem which filled the whole space. Above the shield was a helmet with flying drapery called " mantling " and above that a wreath supporting a figure or part of a figure, such as a lion or a deer or an arm holding a sword. This upper part was called the "crest," while the shield and crest combined, either with or without the helmet, was called the coat of arms. Royal families had crowns instead of helmets, and in each case the device was usually completed with the motto of the family. Strict rules were made regarding the use of a coat of arms or crest. Lists of all families entitled to them were compiled and in books of " Heraldry " the proper markings for all noble families were described. The ENGRAVING AND PRINTING 135 devices were beautifully embroidered on banners or clothing, were cut in castle walls and on silver plate, and were engraved on bookplates and stationery In democratic countries heraldry has no hereditary class to enforce its rules and some people who have no knowledge of its meaning choose crests and coats of arms according to their fancy, but, as a very large number of Americans are descended from arms-bear- ing families, such assumptions only lead to ridicule. If customers bring in their own dies for stamping crests or coats of arms on paper, the saleswoman is only required to send the order to a competent engraver, observing the rules of the store in such matters but she should not take the responsibility of giving advice regarding this kind of social usage. Not one en- graver in fifty understands heraldry, which is the work of highly paid experts. To take orders for heraldic engraving one must have some knowledge of gen- ealogy, heraldic marshaling and blazoning, and under- stand the rather difficult technical features of cutting such plates and dies. This is not within the province of the department store. II II hM LEATHER GOODS 137 i *. iSl Chapter Xni LEATHER GOODS Articles Among the more or less varied articles found in the leather goods division of the Stationery Depart- ment are diaries, memorandum and other leather cov- ered books, desk sets, writing pads, book covers, cal- endars, telephone pads, calling and laundry pads, stamp boxes, clock cases, score pads, etc. Leathers and their manufacture are therefore of importance to both salespeople and purchasers. For fancy articles, color, finish, and decoration are the first considerations, while for useful articles, such as diaries and book covers, it is a question of material. Leathers The leather goods of the Stationery Department are manufactured chiefly from sheepskin, goatskin, calf- skin, pigskin, and cowhide, though they are usually known by the tanning and finish which are given to the skin, as Levant, Russia, Morocco, parchment, and vellum. Alligator skin and seal are also used, but 136 much of the "seaV' is an imitation made by putting an artificial grain on a cheaper leather. Russia Leather Russia leather was originally calfskin tanned with birch bark which gave it its fragrance, being so named because the Russians first used this process. The older Russia leather was colored a deep red, but now may be brown or black. In this country the tanning is often done with chemicals, birch bark oil being added to give the odor. Morocco Morocco was a goatskin first made in Morocco. Like Russia leather, it was vegetable-tanned and stained red, but the term is now applied to any goatskm or calfskin which resembles the Morocco finish. Parchment and Vellum Parchment was sheepskin or goatskin prepared by steeping the skins in lime pits and then separating them. Pumice stone and chalk was used to give them the proper color and a surface suitable for writing pur- poses. Vellum was prepared by a similar process from calfskin which is finer than sheep or goatskins. Both parchment and vellum are now imitated in paper. Levant Levant leather has an embossed or printed surface sssas, 138 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS finished in grain, and dressed with oil. The embossing is done with an engraved roller which is passed over the dampened skin. After this the leather is blacked with logwood, softened, and grained. Tanning and Dressing For the tanning and dressing of leather, see manual on * 'Leather Goods and Gloves." The natural grain and gloss of leather is brought out by the various processes of finishing, such as buffing or ironing, sueding or fluffing. An imitation grain may be put on by boarding or pressing into the mois- tened leather a heavy roller with the design cut into it. Tooling Leather is also decorated by tooling, which may be done in any of the following ways : 1. Incising, by which the outlines of the design are made by an incising knife and then opened by an opener, making a flat decoration sometimes called engraved or cut leather. In carving, the design is cut much deeper than in incising, leaving a design which stands out in sufficient relief to be further ornamented. A thick, firm leather is necessary for carving. 2. Embossifig, by which the design is outlined and raised on the surface by means of pressure from the back, making it stand out in high relief. Padding of LEATHER GOODS 139 wax cotton, or leatherette is usually inserted. Model- ing tools are used on the embossed design m order to make it more effective. 3 Hammering or punching, which is usually used for backgrounds and done by steel punches of different patterns to add richness and finish. 4. Stamping, by which the design is sunk mto the dampened leather by an incised steel die held m a press. Stamped leather may be finished by hand to look like tooled leather. 5 Burning, or etching or engraving with fire, where the design is made by a platinum pointed tool, an alcohol lamp, and benzene. This is a method of deco- ration most effective on soft-finished leather and also on wood, paper, and ivory. Design Natural designs are not so appropriate for tooling as the conventional or geometrical forms ; first, because leather is a rather unyielding material, and secondly, because leather articles are expected to withstand hard usage designs drawn from nature have too much de- tail In modeled work bold, but not too elaborate or detailed, designs are most suitable. Embossing m low relief and with flowing lines makes the decoration seem a part of the leather and suggests rather than forces the design upon the attention. I .. 140 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Color Color is much used in fancy leather goods. It is produced by dyeing the skins with aniline dyes or by staining the finished article. Sprinkling, spraying, marbling, or shading also give various color effects. In tooled leather, color is often produced by using various colors of India ink. Bright color may be effectively used in certain kinds of design, especially Moorish or geometrical patterns, which are also highly ornamented with gold. A beautiful color harmony, shading from deep black to palest brown, may be pro- duced on soft brown leathers by burning. Landscapes and other pictures may be painted on leather. This painting is usually done in very subdued tones which blend with the brown background. The crackled effect usually seen in old pieces of painted leather is due to the shrinking of the skin. For a more extended description of leather goods see manual on "Leather Goods and Gloves." Chapter XIV METAL GOODS Articles In the metal goods division of the Stationery Depart- ment are included desk sets, library sets composed of shears, paper cutter, etc., book ends, desk clocks, mantle ornaments, and paper weights. A desk set usually consists of an inkwell and pen tray, letter opener and paper cutter, calendar, blotter, stamp box, letter rack, and penwiper. To these may be added to make it more complete, a paper clip, paper weight, scales, and desk clock. Such articles, whether simple or elaborate m design and decoration, are all more or less ornamental, if in keeping with the materials of which they are made and their purposes. During each season many novel- ties appear, and after a season or two some of them are generally accepted so that they become staple stock. Metals Among the metals used for useful and decorative purposes are brass, bronze, copper, nickel, gold, silver, 141 it V 142 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS tin, white metal, and composition. Of these, gold, silver, copper, nickel, and tin are native or found pure in nature. The rest are alloys or mixtures of two or more native metals caused to unite permanently by heat. Mixing the precious metals (gold and silver) with other metals not only makes a cheaper metal, but a more useful and durable one. Alloying cheaper metals also increases their usefulness and adds to their artistic effect. (See chapter on "Alloys" in manual on *']eyNdTy and Silverware.") Each metal has its distinguishing qualities which make it valuable in the industries and arts. The beauty and durability of gold and silver compensate for their costliness ; while the color and hardness of nickel and the luster and toughness of copper give these a wide usefulness, especially in various combinations. Qualities Three distinct qualities mark all metals to a greater or less degree: 1. Malleability, or capability of being beaten or shaped. 2. Ductility, or capability of being drawn out as for wire. 3. Luster or metallic brightness, which makes metals so valuable for decorative purposes. METAL GOODS 143 Gold Gold is found free and also in connection with other minerals such as silver, mercury, and platinum. It is the most malleable and ductile of all metals and is not affected by the air. Gold leaf, which is used for deco- rative purposes, is beaten out to ^50,000 of an inch in thickness. Pure gold is 24 karats fine, but gold for commercial purposes is from 10 to 18 karats pure. In the Stationery Department gold is found chiefly as decoration, but fountain pens have gold points and are often mounted in gold. (For further information on gold see the manual on ''Jewelry and Silverware.") SUver Silver occurs free, associated with native gold, or mixed with sulphur or lead. It is the most common of the " precious metals." It is very soft, though harder than gold, and so is often alloyed with copper to give it hardness. It is malleable, ductile, and unaffected by pure air, but tarnished by sulphur compounds. Ster- ling silver is 921/2 per cent pure, and is valuable for its durability and luster. Many silver articles are sold in the Stationery De- partment. Almost any of the fittings for a desk or library table may be made of it, and many glass sets are mounted in silver. Sheffield plate consists of a thin sheet of pure silver 144 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS plated on copper. Real Sheffield silver is no longer manufactured. Dutch silver is distinguished by its artistic designs, which are usually in filigree or embossed patterns. German silver is a combination of zinc, copper, and nickel, copper and nickel contributing the strength, and zinc and nickel the desired color effect in imitation of silver. For further information upon silver see the manual on "]ewt\Ty and Silverware." Other Metals Copper is found in larger and more widely dis- tributed deposits than any other metal. Like gold and silver it is highly malleable, but unlike them is very tough. For this reason, as well as because of its rich color and cheapness, it is much used in alloys. Zinc, though found native, is more often found in combination with other metals such as copper. Its color is bluish-white, which, together with its property of being only slightly altered by the air, makes it valu- able for artificial alloys. Mercury, or quick-silver, is an almost chemically pure metal coming out in drops from the ore cinnabar. It is liquid at the ordinary temperature, becoming so at 40° C. ; it boils at 357° C. It has the power of dis- solving other metals, forming alloys called amalgams. METAL GOODS 145 In the Stationery Department mercury is found only in thermometers. Nickel is a hard and malleable metal, not affected by dry air. It is used chiefly as a coating for other metals. Iron is the most useful of all metals. It is seldom found free as it oxidizes quickly when exposed to the air and is therefore usually found in oxides. Red and yellow soils often owe their color to the presence of iron. Wrought iron is seen in the Stationery Depart- ment in many useful and ornamental forms for desk and library sets, candlesticks, and mantel ornaments. Steel is a hard form of iron, made by many different processes. All cutlery is made of steel, because it can be tempered. Library shears and sometimes paper- knives are the forms of steel found in the Stationery Department. Aluminum was a chemical curiosity until twenty years ago. It is light, soft, malleable, and ductile and takes a high polish. It does not tarnish nor corrode and is useful in alloys. Pen trays and other small articles in this department may be made of aluminum. Brass is an alloy of zinc, copper, and nickel, m which the durability and color of copper are combined with the added advantages of the other two metals. It was probably first suggested when the natural alloys of copper and zinc were melted together. Bronze is an alloy of zinc, copper, and tin. ':. ■ t- jt' 146 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Brass desk furnishings are often iron plated with brass. Imitation bronzes are made in two ways. They are either cast iron or a very hard composition material painted or sprayed with a liquid "bronze" paint. Color The color and luster of metals make them suitable for decorative purposes. Their alloys may combine the characteristic colors and lusters of several metals, thus producing beautiful shades or combinations of color such as the greenish-yellow of brass or the browns and reds of bronze. Various color effects on the same metal are produced by annealing or heating the article while in the process of shaping or decorating it. Paint, enamel, or lacquer, used for ornamenting metal, must be applied sparingly and wisely if it is to heighten rather than lessen its artistic effect. Design The metal goods found in the Stationery Depart- ment are designed especially for the writing desk or library, and care should be taken in their selection so that they may be artistic as well as useful and also that they may harmonize with the other room furnishings. Library furnishings may be ornamental but should not be too light or fragile looking. Brass, bronze, or I METAL GOODS H7 wrought iron are more appropriate for library fittings than silver or Dresden china. The library is a place for comfort and restfulness, and people do not like to be careful lest some pretty ornament may be broken. Extreme or fanciful designs are also out of place in a library. A man's den may be furnished with skulls or dancers or other pleasing figures, because he is supposed to indulge there any wandering fancy. A lady's desk should be dainty and if possible its fittings should match the rest of the room in which it is placed, whether French, English, colonial, or modern m stvle. Office furnishings should be solid, heavy, and plain, so that they may be easily kept clean. Methods of Applying Design The shape of metal goods may be so graceful and artistic that they need no ornamentation. Designs are applied in the following ways : 1. Embossing — raising the design above the sur- face, usually from the back. Sometimes called repousse. 2. Stamping — marking out a design by a machine and then smoothing and polishing it. 3. Engraving — applying a design by cutting into the article by means of a graver. 148 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS 4. Etching — cutting a design by means of an acid. Filling in with enamel or other substances such as gold or bronze gives an added effect. 5. Beating or hammering — denting the surface of the article by means of a dull prong and hammer. This produces a highly artistic and soft reflection of light or metallic luster. It is often used for background effects. 6. Inlaid work — cutting out a design and filling it in with another material. 7- Cut or pierced work — cutting out a design with a fret saw and other hand tools. Book racks are sometimes seen in wood covered with pierced brass. Other Materials Other materials found in the Stationery Department and usually in this division are woods (as mahogany, oak, and ebony), vulcanite or hard rubber, crystal or glass, celluloid, alabaster, onyx, amber, mother-of-pearl, and ivory. The Swiss-carved sets are notable exam- ples of beautiful woods used for library purposes, as is also the Japanese lacquer wood. 1. Hard rubber is the result of extreme vulcanization of crude rubber and is a durable material capable of a high polish and varied color effects. 2. Celluloid is a substance made of gun cotton, cam- METAL GOODS 149 phor, and other ingredients, imitating ivory or, when colored, tortoise shell, coral, amber, etc. 3. Alabaster is a marble-like mineral of two varie- ties. The gypseous or soft is of various colors — yellow, red, gray, but most valuable when pure white and soft so that it can be worked into vases, statuettes, etc. The finest quality is found in Florence, Italy. Calcareous or Oriental alabaster is the other variety. 4. Onyx is a variety of quartz closely related to agate. It is characterized by a structure of parallel bands of white and black, brown and red, differing in color and degree of translucency. It is used for cameos, etc. 5. Marble is limestone in a more or less crystalline condition. It is white, black, gray, bluish-gray, and dove-colored, less frequently red, yellow, green, and blue. The vicinity of the Mediterranean Sea is rich in marble. 6. Enamel is a glassy substance, white or colored, and is either transparent or opaque. It is applied as a coating to pottery and porcelain of many kinds, and also for decorative designs on metals. 7. Ivory is the material constituting the tusks of the elephant, walrus, and other animals. Vegetable ivory is the nut-like seed of a South American palm. It is as large as a hen's tgg and can be cut and carved for various purposes. I50 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS 8. Mother-of-pearl is the inner layer of the shell of various animals such as the pearl oyster. It is hard, silvery, iridescent and is the same substance as a pearl. It is found in Ceylon and the Australian Seas. 9. Amber is the resin of extinct pine trees found in fair abundance on the shores of the Baltic Sea where it is thrown up by the waves. It is hard, translucent, brittle, and without taste or smell except when heated. More complete information regarding these mate- rials and the metals may be found in the manual on "Jewelry and Silverware." Chapter XV NOVELTIES, GIFTS, AND FAVORS Importance of Display The sale of most of the items coming under the list of novelties depends to a very large degree upon their proper display. Gifts and Favors Ability and willingness to assist in selecting gifts is welcomed by customers in this department. Dainty conceits and novelties are brought out so frequently that customers cannot know the stock beforehand and are grateful for suggestions as to what is suitable and satisfactory to buy. This requires both a sympathetic knowledge of the customer and her desires and a thorough acquaintance with the stock. The selection of place cards, table decorations, and favors requires a discriminating and cultivated taste. They should, if possible, bear a relation to each other, if they are to be used for the same occasion. Slow Stock Ability to push merchandise is particularly needed 151 i' 152 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS in a department so full of novelties and perishable stock and so dependent in its sales upon having a constant supply of new stock. Attractive appearance and sug- gestive display as well as suggestive selling will aid in accomplishing this. Seasonal Goods, Calendars, and Cards The Stationery Department is a popular place in the holiday season. Calendars alone sometimes seem to require a department of their own. Although they change with every season, calendars may be grouped into five general classes : 1. Practical calendars, as engagement calendars, with little or no decoration. 2. Literary calendars, with quotations and senti- ments. 3. Art calendars, designed for decorative use. 4. Odd and fanciful calendars. 5. Permanent or adjustable calendars. To a tired and distracted customer (and nearly all customers ar6 tired and distracted when selecting Christmas calendars), some such classification would be very helpful and save much fruitless searching. Many saleswomen have no suggestions to furnish, all calendars being just calendars to them. Christmas cards will be sold much more quickly and NOVELTIES, GIFTS, AND FAVORS 153 with less damage if they are kept in groups and are not allowed to become jumbled in hopeless confusion. For all anniversaries and special occasions there are both appropriate and inappropriate cards. Some of those offered at Easter time are pecuharly out of place. Here is an excellent opportunity for the culti- vation of a refined taste and a sense of fitness. Playing Cards Playing cards are made of a highly glazed or super- calendered cardboard. Some cards have been made from celluloid, but they are expensive, the designs wear off and they have not been found satisfactory. Besides the regulation playing card deck there are also bridge sets, 500 packs, pinocle packs, cribbage sets, and the diminutive sizes. Poker chips are usually made of either mother-of - pearl, ivory, or a composition material. II 1 •is 1 n Chapter XVI STATIONERY SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS Importance of These Small Articles Miscellaneous items are the magnets of the stationery trade. Always, if properly displayed, they draw cus- tomers to a store and give greater opportunity to sell staple goods. Great improvements have been made in such items as sanitary moisteners, letter openers, and other special- ties. In fact, the improvements made in this class of goods are so many and so great that one has to be con- stantly on the alert so as not to be overstocked with unsalable goods. Lead Pencils The term " lead pencil " does not accurately describe a pencil. The *' lead " is graphite, a mineral mined in many parts of the world. In preparing it for use in pencils it is first reduced to a pure, fine powder, and then clay of a very fine quality is added to bind it together. The greater the proportion of clay, the 154 STATIONERY SUPPLIES 155 harder the pencil. The proportions are very exactly worked out. Some lines are made in 15 degrees of hardness; for example, in one well-known make a No I pencil which is very soft, has 50 parts amlme, 37 5 graphite, and 12.5 clay ; while the very hard No. 4 has 25 parts aniline, 25 graphite, and 50 clay. The mixture of graphite, clay, and water is placed in heavy steel cylinders and forced through a die which forms the slender sticks for filling the pencils. After the sticks have been straightened and cut to pencil length, they are heated and tempered. They are then ready for the wooden cases. (See Frontispiece.) Wood Used The wood used for good pencils is southern red cedar, because it has an even grain which whittles well. The seasoned wood is first cut into slats about the len^h of a pencil. The slat is then planed and grooved for the lead, the lead laid in the grooves, and another slat coated with glue fitted over it. When ^^ed they are cut apart, sandpapered, and varmshed At this stage the pencils are really finished and ready for use. Finishing Some finishing touches are usually given, however such as stamping with the manufacturer's name and tipping with metal tip and rubber. In the better pencils 156 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS the lettering is stamped on in gold or silver leaf with hot steel dies. The metal tips are seamless, being shaped from sheet brass or bronze. The pieces from which the tips are made are drawn or stretched and fitted onto the pencil. Special Kinds of Pencils There are hundreds of styles of pencils, such as dainty program pencils for tally and dance cards; broad, flat carpenter's pencils; skin-marking pencils for surgeons ; and refillable pencils with separate leads. Indelible pencils are made of 8 parts clay, 2 parts manganese dioxide, finely powdered, and 3 parts silver nitrate, mixed and kneaded with 5 parts distilled water. Colored pencils are made by adding the different coloring matters to a base of starch, sugar, or wax. Pens — History The first metallic pen was made in 1780. This is a comparatively recent date when the long ages during which men have been writing are considered. The quill pen was the immediate forerunner of the metallic pen, being used as late as 1865 ^"^ holding sway for generations, even centuries. They were made from the feathers of geese, swans, and crows. A reed pen was used before the quill. James Perry, in 1824, started the manufacture of STATIONERY SUPPLIES 157 pens on a large scale in England and was the first to manufacture separate pen points, as up to this time the pen and holder were in one piece. Process of Manufacturing Pens The first step in manufacturing the pen is to cut the sheets of steel, which come in very large sizes, into strips about 19 inches long and wide enough to cut two j^ VB VC TD Figure 11. Steel Pen in Different Stages of Manufacture pens with points interlapping. These strips are heated gradually, cooled, and then flattened in a rolling mill to .009 of an inch in thickness. The imperfect, cheap pens have little rolling. The pens are cut out of these strips by presses, and one operator can cut 40,000 to 45,000 in a day. There are about 200 styles. The flexibility of the pen is determined by the pierc- ing and side cutting. In this part of the process the so-called " blanks *' are heated again and while soft J I ! 158 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS are marked and shaped by a screw press. They are then hardened or tempered by dropping into cold oil many times. They are dried in sawdust, which makes the pens brittle. Resiliency, by which is meant the property of being stiff and at the same time elastic, is obtained by gradually reheating until this desired prop- erty is the result. A coating of oxide, left on the pen, is removed by scouring in revolving barrels. The pens are ground on emery " bobs " to make them hold the ink better. The slit is put in by a delicate machine and the point ground smooth. If they are to be left gray, they are polished, or they may be bronzed, blued, or blacked by heat. In these cases they are quickly chilled to prevent change in color. They may be lacquered to prevent rust, or plated with bronze, silver, or gold. (See Figure 11.) The pens are counted by weight, arranged in parallel lines in boxes by shaking in a cylinder; then they are labeled and packed. During its process of manufac- ture a pen has from 20 to 28 handlings. Other Metals Used for Pens Other metals such as silver, zinc, German silver, aluminum, and bronze, have been tried for pens, but steel has the most desirable qualities. It has one great disadvantage, however, it rusts. Gold does not corrode or oxidize. The gold used in STATIONERY SUPPLIES 159 gold pen points is an alloy of gold, silver, and copper, 14 karats being the standard for fountain pen pomts. Gold pens are usually tipped with iridium to protect the point. Iridium is the hardest metal known, bemg second to the diamond, and three times as hard as the ruby. Before the discovery of iridium, diamonds or rubies were used for this purpose. The placing of the tiny ball of iridium on the gold pen point is a very delicate operation. Fountain Pens * The component parts of the fountain pen are, the cap, which fits over the pen protecting it; the barrel, which holds the ink ; the point section, which holds the pen and screws into the barrel ; the " spoon feed," which provides the pen with a steady flow of ink; and the pen point. Materials The material from which the greater part of the fountain pen is made is hard rubber. Crude rub- ber is the juice of a South American tree. The trees are tapped and the juice which flows is collected, washed, ground, and then dried for several months. It is finally vulcanized, which is a process of mixmg sulphur and white lead with crude rubber and heatmg it to 300° F. for about fourteen hours. The greater I ill. l6o PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS the amount of sulphur and the higher the temperature, the harder and more resistant will the rubber be. The rubber must be hard enough not to be bent out of shape and yet have enough resiliency so that the joints will be ink-tight. After molding, each part of the pen is turned by hand on machinery. The parts are polished by wheels, ashes, and pumice stone to remove tool marks, and are then tested for leakage. The pen point itself is made of gold, protected by iridium. Set of Fountain Pens Every shape or grade of pen point requires a dif- ferent set, so that it will feed freely and evenly. For •MMCT OOieMH '^^^^'ttte^KtmrMt'Kn Courtesy of L. E. Waterman Co. Figure 12. Cross Section of a Fountain Pen example, a stub must have less resiliency than a fine point so that it will feed ink more freely. The desired set is accomplished by hand and by feel- ing rather than sight. (See Figure 12.) Ornamentation The barrels and caps of the ordinary fountain STATIONERY SUPPLIES 161 pen are either plain or chased. Chasing is done m the molding process. The design having been ait m the mold, leaves its impression on the rubber. The more expensive pens are often ornamented with silver or gold or inlaid with mother-of-pearl. Forms of Foimtain Pens The stylographic pen is a variety of fountam pen m which a needle at the end of the pen serves as a valve to release the ink when the point is pressed on the paper. Non-leakable or safety fountain pens are of two varieties. In one type the pen is drawn down mto the barrel and the cap, having an inside plate, fits securely over the open top. The other type has a rigid pen point, but the cap screws down upon the barrel so tightly that no ink can escape. Self-filling pens are those in which the pen is placed point down in the ink bottle and the ink is drawn up into the barrel without the use of a filler. The prin- ciple of the action is the same as when a filler is used. A slight pressure on the soft rubber ink holder ms.de the barrel expels the air, and when the pressure is released the ink draws up into the empty holder. ^"ink may be either a solution of any colored dye stuff, or as in the case of common black ink, a finely divided insoluble substance mixed with water. A permanent II 1 >(! 1 62 ^APER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS and penetrating ink is made from gall nuts and sul- phate of iron, with perhaps the addition of aniline black. The chief materials used for making inks are gall nuts, green vitriol, and gum, in varied proportions. The gall nuts are crushed to a powder and boiled, and the gum and green vitriol added. In cheaper inks log- wood, a dark dye made from the wood of the logwood tree, may be used instead of gall nuts, but logwood inks tend to produce black flakes upon exposure to air. Requirements of a Good Ink A good black ink must flow readily from the pen and yield at once or in a short time a deep black, per- manent color. It must not corrode metallic pens, nor destroy the paper. It should not have sediment if kept in air-tight bottles, nor yield to water or absolute alcohol. It is of interest to know that the State of Massachusetts has an official ink. Up to 1850 most inks were good, but carelessness in the choice of ink resulted in illegible state records. After this the inks employed had to stand a test of the action of the sun's rays, wind, rain, and frost for six months on paper soaked with water and alcohol. Special Kinds of Inks Aniline inks are made of aniline dissolved in strong alcohol diluted with distilled water and mixed with a STATIONERY SUPPLIES 163 solution of powdered gum arabic. Aniline black inks are cheap and not permanent. Arnold's writing fluid is a mixture of sulphate of indigo and ordinary ink. It flows freely from the pen, becoming permanently very black. Blue black inks are made of galls and iron, with blue coloring matter (Prussian blue, indigo or an aniline blue) added. Colored inks (red, blue, violet, and green) are in most cases solutions of dyestuffs, and very few are permanent. Red ink is a solution of brazilwood, cochineal, magenta, or eosine. Fountain pen ink consists of tannic acid, gallic acid, and water. Ordinary writing fluid is not clean enough and clogs the pen. India ink is colored by finely divided carbon, which is unaffected by chemical reagents, and is therefore per- manent. It is high priced and is used for drawing. Indelible ink is usually made from a salt of silver. It is used for marking clothing which is to be laundered. Ink eradicators are made of hydrochloric or oxalic acid and javelle water. When used upon goods, the cloth should be rinsed quickly and thoroughly. Ink erasers are made of rubber mixed with ground glass. Glue This is made chiefly from gelatin obtained from II II I II h it 164 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS cuttings of hides, skins, tendons, and other refuse parts of animals. These are first soaked in Hme, washed, and then boiled. The liquid is run off and clarified with powdered alum. Before cooling, it is drawn off in molds. Good glue should be light brown in color and semitransparent. It loses its strength by frequent remelting. Mucilage The best quality of mucilage is made by dissolving clear glue in equal volumes of water and strong vinegar, one-fourth of an equal volume of alcohol, and a little alum. The vinegar prevents the glue from gelatiniz- ing as it cools. Some of the preparations are merely boiled starch or flour, with nitric acid to prevent gelatinizing. Stick mucilage is made of gum arabic water, clove oil, and powdered gum dextrin to thicken. Paste Office paste is usually a mixture of soluble starch and glue, with a little alum and oil of cloves for a preserva- tive. Sealing Wax The various qualities of sealing wax range between extra superfine and common. In the best qualities the chief ingredient is pale shellac mixed with turpentine, resin, and a coloring matter; in the cheaper grades resin is used in place of shellac. Red waxes are colored STATIONERY SUPPLIES 165 with vermilion or red lead, black with lampblack, and brown with iron ochres, a brownish mineral. Too much coloring matter makes it less adhesive. A good sealing wax is glossy and breaks with an even fracture, showing no holes or stripes. If too brittle it shows too much resin in the mixture. It should not run in thin drops but should soften on being heated and should not harden too rapidly. It should take a clean, sharp impression. Rulers Rulers come in either 12 or 15 inch lengths, and may be marked in inches only, or in inches on one side and millimeters on the other. The better rulers are edged with a brass plate to preserve a sharp ruling edge more permanent than the softer wooden edge. A 15 inch ruler is a valuable aid in the department for use m measuring paper etc. Erasers Rubber erasers are made by mixing washed crude rubber, sulphur, and other materials, and vulcanizing the mixture in molds. The various pigments used to color rubber goods are added to the mixture to give the desired color (carbon for black, vermilion for red, and sulphite of cadmium for yellow). Ink erasers differ from the pencil in having more grit (such as ground glass) added to the mixture. i I* 'W 'TV' 1 -« 1 66 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Rubber Bands There are two kinds of rubber bands — those which are a complete circle of rubber, sHced from the end of a rubber tubing, and those made from rubber thread with the ends cemented together. Both kinds are made from a vulcanized rubber mixture. Rubber tubing is formed by vulcanizing the mixture over a cylinder or mandrel of the desired size. Finely adjusted machinery cuts the bands according to the desired width. This process produces a very strong band. Rubber thread is washed rubber mixed with sulphur and naphtha, then pressed on cloth by rollers. French chalk is dusted on the rubber to prevent adhesion. It is then taken from the cloth, wound around a cloth- covered cylinder, and vulcanized; it is then removed from the cylinder, pasted over with shellac, and wound around a roller and dried. While still on the roller the threads are cut the required width by a rapidly revolv- ing circular knife which is kept very wet to prevent sticking. Rubber goods should not be kept in stock too long as they deteriorate rapidly. Seals Seals are metal dies with the crest, monogram, or initial of the owner incised upon them. They are used for " sealing " letters by stamping this impression on i STATIONERY SUPPLIES 167 hot sealing wax dropped on the edge of the envelope flap. . The seal is of very ancient origin and was used m many ways to protect property or documents. All im- portant legal papers have seals attached to represent the proper authority. Labels In recent years there has been a great increase in the numbers and varieties of tags, stickers, and labels. They are made for almost every conceivable use, for mailing purposes, for marking household goods, such as jars, bottles, boxes, books, etc. The fancy Imes of these goods have come to occupy a prominent place m the holiday displays and it may sometimes require the time of one salesperson to handle the goods. Paper Sets Paper sets, including napkins, tablecloths, and doilies, are also made in a great variety of pretty designs. Twines and Cords The twines and cords sold in the Stationery Depart- ment are usually the lighter cords. They are made of cotton, hemp, jute, flax, and other textile fibers. They are from three to twelve ply, and run m sizes from 12 (fine) to 48 (coarse). The strength of the cord depends upon the material used and the twist. TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS 169 Chapter XVII SUGGESTIONS TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS For Correspondence Papers The attention of customers who wish a good corre- spondence paper may be called to the fact that ink does not spread so easily on linen paper, which has a harder surface and so is less inclined to blot. Customers who object to the high cost of delicately tinted papers should know that this is due to the fact that they are more difficult to prepare. A salesperson should call attention to the effect of artificial light on colors and, if necessary, have the paper carried to daylight for inspection. Customers who desire a fine grade of stationery will be interested in knowing that loft-dried or pole-dried paper is dried by the air alone without the aid of artificial heat and that this makes it stronger and more elastic. As paper by the pound is less expensive than that sold in boxes containing only a quire, many people will find it to their advantage to purchase their stationery in this way and will appreciate the suggestion that they do so. 168 The sample books commonly used in the Stationery Department are: Correspondence writing papers. Mourning writing papers. White visiting and business cards, and card envelopes. Mourning visiting and mourning card envelopes. Dinner, menu, and escort cards. Sympathy acknowledgment cards. Birth announcements, party invitations, congratu- lations, and removal cards. Paper should always be shown from the sample book which must be carefully kept. The cover should be blackened when it becomes gray and the paper cleaned with sponge rubber. The salesperson should always turn the leaves herself. This is not only a mark of courtesy, but prevents the book from becoming soiled and damaged. The book should not be bent, as the samples will come off. In replacing samples they should be pasted on neatly, using not too much glue. Paper should be a little smaller than the envelopes with which it is matched. If the exact size is not at hand, the envelope chosen should be a little too large rather than too small. The material used for black borders on stationery will rub, so paper or envelopes which are black-bordered should be carefully wrapped. 170 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS In buying blotting paper for desk pads, it is better to buy more than one sheet, as it is easier to send it. Letters for foreign countries are usually written on thin paper to lessen the cost of postage. When selling thin paper it is well to suggest envelopes having a lining which prevents the writing from showing. For Engraving In accepting orders for additional engraving on old plates, there are two things to be remembered : 1. The salesperson should not guarantee new work to match the old, because no two engravers produce exactly the same work. 2. The salesperson should be sure that the metal is large enough to receive additional engraving. Failure to mention these two dangers often results in a dissatisfied customer. When an order for wedding invitations and an- nouncements is received, the salesperson may profitably suggest other stationery needs for the occasion, such as new visiting cards, monogram and addressed stationery for the bride, menus, place cards, and decorations for the luncheon or breakfast, cake boxes, etc. A book of etiquette or correct social usage is a neces- sary possession of the Stationery Department. For Novelties and Supplies Leather goods should be displayed attractively in TO SALESPEOPLE AND CUSTOMERS 171 handsome show cases, and the salesperson must see that the articles are kept clean and rearranged occasionally. The stock should be carefully watched so as to avoid being out of staple numbers. Book racks are not ordinarily included in desk or writing sets, and it is well to suggest to a customer who has purchased a set that a book rack would be a fitting accompaniment. The salesperson may not always have the stock to carry out ideals of " fitness " in matching favors, table or other decorations and the customer may have decided ideas of her own, but a knowledge of the appro- priate thing is of the greatest value in making satis- fied customers. Often customers can be interested in favors and invitations by showing them the sample book while they are waiting for packages or change. It is well to ask a customer what is the prevailing color in her dining room and what flowers she intends to use. This information will suggest appropriate colors and designs in cards and may sometimes give opportunity for originality in the plan of decoration. The salesperson should be familiar with the general requirements of the various games, so as to be able to advise customers. It is wise to have on hand a book of instructions, such as Hoyle, to which to refer cus- 172 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS *l tomers who may ask about the technicalities of certain games. The tassels of tally cards are very easily tangled and care should be exercised in taking them from and returning to the boxes. The salesperson should be familiar with the general character of the other games kept in the department, and be able to advise as to those which are suitable for children, etc. This information can be obtained from the rules in the boxes. Selling points on pencils are the uniformity and toughness of lead and the even grain of the wood, which make it possible to sharpen a pencil easily and neatly. A thorough understanding of the action of a foun- tain pen is necessary for expert salesmanship. It is always a good plan to tie the brush to the mucilage bottle to insure no omission. Sealing wax is easily broken and so should be care- fully handled and wrapped in plenty of tissue paper before sending to customers. Novelties make up a large part of the stock of a modern Stationery Department. Because of their seasonal character the salesperson has an opportunity for suggestive selling and may assist customers in mak- ing wise selections. Chapter XVIII CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK OF STATION- ERY DEPARTMENT Divisions A. Paper B. Engraving C. Leather Goods D. Metal Goods E. Novelties, Gifts, and Favors F. Stationery Supplies and Miscellaneous A — Paper /. Correspondence Paper 1. Forms Box Paper and Cards Pound Paper and Separate Envelopes 2. Materials Linen Mixed Rags Wood Pulp 3. Sizes Letter Note Small Note 173 174 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS 4. Finish Rough (Vellum, Antique) Smooth ( Supercalendered, Plate) Novelty or Fabric (Linen, Madras, etc.) 5. Color White Gray Blue Lavender Buff Brown Green Purple Two-Toned Black-Bordered Checked and Other Novelties Combinations White with Colored Linings White with Colored Borders //. Commercial 1. Stationery Letterheads and Envelopes Legal Cap Foolscap 2. Typewriting Supplies Paper Carbon, etc. Tissue 3. Pads and Note Books 4. Ledgers and Loose-Leaf Devices 5. Filing Envelopes, Cabinets, Indexes 6. School Supplies CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 1 75 B — Engraving 1. Kinds (or Methods) Plate Printing (Engraving) Type Printing 2. Styles (a) Types Script Old English Roman Caxton (Plain and Shaded) French (Plain and Shaded) Spanish (Plain and Shaded) (b) Monograms, Crests, Coats of Arms, Ad- dresses 3. Articles Letterheads Cards, Invitations, Announcements C — Leather Goods 1. Articles (a) Books Memorandum Books and Diaries Guest Books, Albtmis, and Address Books Receipt and Cash Books Dance Lists, Laundry Lists, etc. (b) Desk Sets (c) Pads (Writing, Desk, Score, etc.) (d) Lists (Telephone, Calling, Laundry) (e) Boxes (Stamps, Sewing) (f) Clock Cases (g) Book Covers 2. Material and Finish Russia, Morocco, Levant 176 PAPER AND STATIONERY DEPARTMENTS Calf, Pig, Sole Alligator, Walrus, Seal Chamois, Vellum Imitation Leathers D — Metal Goods 1. Articles Sets (Desk, Library) Book Ends Clocks Ornaments 2. Materials (a) Metals Silver Copper Tin Brass, Bronze Nickel Composition (b) Woods (Mahogany, Ebony, Oak) (c) Hard Rubber (d) Glass (e) Onyx, Ivory, Celluloid, Mother-of-Pearl, Amber E — Novelties, Gifts, and Favors 1. Favors 2. Seasonal Goods Cards Calendars 3. Playing Cards and Other Games Score Pads Tallies CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 177 Stationery Supplies and Miscellaneous Pencils Pens and Penholders Fountain Pens Ink Glue Mucilage Paste Sealing Wax Rulers Erasers Rubber Bands Seals Labels Paper Sets Twines and Cords Handy Boxes Appendix Classification of Paper and Paper Products^ Manufacturers report their production of paper as nearly as possible in accordance with the following classification : Total Newsprint includes all Standard News and special grades of newsprint but excludes hanging paper, which is shown separately. Standard News is the principal subdivision of Total News- print, being 32-pound paper used for printing newspapers. Book includes all periodical paper and miscellaneous grades of machine finished, supercalendered, coated, etc Total Paperboard includes all grades of board, such as box, straw, chip, tag, press, fiber, binder, leather, etc. Boxhoard, the principal subdivision of Total Paperboard, is shown separately beginning with March, 1920. Figures for Boxboard prior to March, 1920, were included under Paper- board. Wrapping includes kraft, manila, fiber, and miscellaneous grades such as glassine, grease proof, etc., but excludes bag paper, which is shown separately. Bag includes paper made into flexible commercial con- tainers such as grocery bags, flour sacks, etc. Fine includes writings, bonds, ledgers, etc. Tissue includes toilet, crepe, fruit wrappers, etc. Hanging includes paper ultimately intended to be used for * From Report of Federal Trade Commission, February, 1921. 178 APPENDIX 179 purposes of interior decoration, such as No. 2 hanging, oatmeal, tile paper, etc. Felt and Building includes roofing, felt, sheathmg, and other grades of building paper. Other Grades includes a great variety of specialties that do not classify under any of the above captions. i8o APPENDIX Imports and Exports of all Grades of Paper (Pounds and (Net Tons), 191 7 to PAPER 1920 1919 Pounds Value Pounds Value Imports: Newsprint Book Paper Wrapping Hanging All other grades (b) 1,459,737.288 4,340,425 4.941,824 $68,600,950 496,132 460,289 353,791 2,741.238 1.255,462,866 164,886 4,802,487 $43,674,094 58,319 406,570 104,326 1. 638.7 1 1 Exports: Newsprint Book Paper Paper board Wrapping Bag 91.951,913 95,689,512 5,983.611 13,765,694 5,553,094 6,994,381 2,593.459 8,90«.230 2,654,529 1,251,743 11,091,952 220,589,829 153.327,185 10,100,229 16,160,777 4,604,048 6,664,462 1,566,373 13,188,165 2,237,570 899,457 8,799.550 61.264.501 74,916,830 Tissue Hanging All other grades (b) Total Imports Total Exports 72,652,400 58,796.693 45,882,030 64,220,631 PULP 1920 1919 1918 1917 Imports Net Tons Net Tons Net Tons Net Tons Chemical Wood Pulp: Bleached Sulphite 128,206 42.755 16,757 41,037 Unbleached Sulphite 344.969 239.952 253,454 248,173 Bleached Sulphate 17,277 S.145 3.759 1,62s Unbleached Sulphate 182,697 145.91 1 118,761 107,933 Ground Wood Pulp 233,148 202,253 185.478 279,073 Paper Stock other than wood pxilp 254.755 110,195 29,397 20,977 (d) Total 1,161,052 746,211 607,606 698,818 (a) Data furnished by the Department of Commerce. Figures for pulp given in long tons and reduced to net tons by the Commission. (b) Includes some paper already converted into commercial articles. a APPENDIX 181 Value); and Imports and Exports of all Grades of Pulp 1920, Inclusive, (a) paper I9I8 I917 Pounds Value Poimds Value 1,192,540,059 182,995 7,942,134 $35,023,161 42.633 S41.866 143,449 2.541. 157 1,118,225,912 412,091 6,661,518 $30,929,628 67,931 456.752 281,906 4.144,426 193.477,853 99,220,241 7.978,296 8.710,940 3,055.255 4.828,856 884.415 6,113,498 1,526.777 529.539 6,170,601 187,732,739 94.548,586 7,586,374 8,179,868 3,232,135 59,899,043 52,485,911 3,987,239 1,136,272 3,636,235 480,289 (c) 465,814 5,374.707 38,292.266 10.708. I 77 35,880.643 33,078.933 PULP Exports 1920 Net Tons 1919 Net Tons 1918 Net Tons I9I7 Net Ton3 Domestic Wood Pulp t Rags and Other Materials made from Vegetable Fibres 32,133 42,282 40,095 27.271 22.324 X6,I2I 39,180 i6,3i2 Total 74.41S 67,366 38,445 55.492 (c) Last six months only. First six months included in other grades. (d) Rags only. 1 82 APPENDIX Partial List of Substance Experimented upon FOR Paper-Making ^ APPENDIX 183 Pasteboard scraps Animal substances Wheat straw Rice straw Raw cotton Hornets' nests Grapevines Lily of the valley Cabbage stumps Broom com Bass wood Cinch grass Marshmallow Willow twigs Leather cuttings Cotton waste Printed waste Corn husks Plantain Hay Bracken Sawdust Nettles Lime Burdock Asparagus Bamboo Mulberry Bark Silk Flax Hemp Satin Blue grass Asbestos Leaves Tan Moss Beech Willow Aspen Ropes Bagging Figs Peat PiHC Aloes Arroche Thistles Linden Oakum Manures Hollyhock Reeds Oak Stone Old sacks Floss silk Licorice wood Pine shavings Decayed wood White wood Banana leaves Gutta-percha Mummy cloth Scotch ferns Sultana bark Cotton stalks Dwarf palm Water broom Beet root Corn stalks Wool Bran Seaweed Rushes Elm Manufacturers of Writing Papers JEtnsL Paper Co. American Writing Paper Co. Beckett Paper Co. Berkshire Hills Paper Co. Dayton, Ohio Holyoke, Mass. Hamilton, Ohio Adams, Mass. % iProm "Chronology of Paper and Paper Making" by J. Munsell. Brown, L. L., Paper Co. Carew Mfg. Co. Chapin & Gould Paper Co. Chemical Paper Mfg. Co. Crane, Z. & W. M. Crane & Co. Crocker-McElwain Co. Eastern Mfg. Co. Esleeck Mfg. Co. Fox River Paper Co. Gilbert Paper Co. Glalfelter, P. H., Co. Hammermill Paper Co. Hampshire Paper Co. Hawthorne Paper Co. Henry Paper Co. Howard Paper Co. Keith Paper Co. Kimberly-Clark Co. Lakeside Paper Co. Lee Paper Co. Marathon Paper Mills Co. Millers Falls Paper Co. Mountain Mill Paper Co. Munising Paper Co. Neenah Paper Co. Odell Mfg. Co. Old Berkshire Mills Co. Parsons Paper Co. Poland Paper Co. Rising, B. D., Paper Co. Riverside Fibre & Paper Co. Southworth Co. Strathmore Paper Co. Taylor-Logan Co. Valley Paper Co. Weston, Byron, Co. Wheat Paper Co. Whiting, Geo. A., Paper Co Adams, Mass. So. Hadley Falls, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Holyoke, Mass. Dalton, Mass. Dalton, Mass. Holyoke, Mass. Bangor, Me. Turners Falls, Mass. Appleton, Wis. Menasha, Wis. Spring Grove, Pa. Erie, Pa. So. Hadley Falls, Mass. Kalamazoo, Mich. Lincoln, N. H. Urbana, Ohio Turners Falls, Mass. Neenah, Wis. Neenah, Wis. Vicksburg, Mich. Wausaw, Wis. Millers Falls, Mass. Lee, Mass. Munising, Mich. Neenah, Wis. New York City Dalton, Mass. Holyoke, Mass. Portland, Me. Housatonic, Mass. Appleton, Wis. Mittineague, Mass. Mittineague, Mass. Holyoke, Mass. Holyoke, Mass. Dalton, Mass. Elkhart, Ind. Menasha, Wis. i84 APPENDIX Whiting Paper Co. Whiting-Plover Paper Co. Worthy Paper Co. Associa- tion Holyoke, Mass. Stevens Point, Wis. Mittineague, Mass. Manufacturers of Fine Stationery American Papeterie Co. Bainbridge, Charles T., Sons Berlin & Jones Co. Birnie Paper Co. Coyle & Gilmore Co. Crane, Z. & W. M. Eaton, Crane & Pike Co. Hurd, George B., & Co. Kalamazoo Stationery Co. Morgan Envelope Co. Division Murphy, John A., Co. National Papeterie Co. Powers Paper Co. Taylor-Atkins Paper Co. Ward, Marcus, Co. Ward, Samuel, Co. Weyand, Charles E. & Co. White & Wyckoff Mfg. Co. Whitney Mfg. Co. Whiting & Cook Co. Whiting Paper Co. Albany, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. New York City Springfield, Mass. New York City DaUon, Mass. Pittsfield, Mass. New York City Kalamazoo, Mich. Springfield, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Burnside, Conn. Brooklyn, N. Y. Boston, Mass. New York City Holyoke, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Holyoke, Mass. New York City i Books for Reference Paper Technology, R. W. Sindall. Lippincott, $4 The Manufacture of Paper, R. W. Smdall. VanNostrand, $2 Manufacture of Paper, C. T. Davis. Baird, $6 . ^^ ^^ Practical Paper Making, G. Clapperton. VanNostrand, $2.50 Bulletins of United States Department of Agriculture APPENDIX 185 Modern Pulp and Paper Making, G. S. Witham, Sr., Chem- ical Catalog Co., Inc. (N. Y.) Chronology of Paper and Paper Making, J. Munsell Report on Paper and Pulp Manufacturing, National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters Paper and Paper Making, Herring. The Story of Paper Making, F. O. Butler. J. W. Butler Paper Co., 75 cents Chapters on Paper Making, Clayton Beadle. VanNostrand, $2 , ^ The Art of Paper Making, A. Watt. VanNostrand, $3 Paper and Its Uses, Dawe. Crosby Lockwood & Sons (Lon- Wood Pulp and Its Uses, Cross, Bevan, and Sindall. Van- Nostrand, $2 Outlines of Stationery Testing, Bromley Treatment of Paper for Special Purposes, L. E. Andes. Van- Nostrand, $2.50 The Paper Trade, A. Dykes Spicer Commerce and Industry, J. Russel Smith. Holt, $1.40 Industrial Chemfstry, Rogers Benson. Macmillan, $1.90 Scientific American Cyclopaedia ^ „ . Old Time Wall Papers, Kate Sanborn. Literary Collector Press (N. Y.) Wall Paper News and Interior Decorator Forty Centuries of Ink, D. N. Carvalho. Banks, $3.50 From Out of the Ashes. Derapsy and Carroll Work, American Stationer INDEX Addresses, Engraved, 133 Alabaster, 149 Alaskan Forests Alaskan") Aluminum, 14S Amber, 150 Aniline Ink, 162 Announcements, (See "Forests, Wedding (See " Wedding Invitations and An- nouncements") At Home Card. 130 B Bond Paper, 64. 72 tests for, crackle, 80 finish, 80 looks, 80 strength, 80 wearing, 81 writing, 81 Book Paper, 6s India, 66 Brass, 145 Bristol Board, 84 Bronze, 14S Building Paper, 91 Burgess, Hugh, 35 Bagasse, 17. 39 Bank Book Envelopes, 74 Bank Note Paper, 83 Barking Drum, 28 Barytes, or Blanc Fixe, 49. 62 Bast Fibers, 14 Beaters or Hollanders, 42-43 Beaverboard, 93 Bible Paper, 18, 66 Blanc Fixe, 49. 63 Bleaching. pulp, rag, 27 wood or straw, 40 Block Printing, Wall Papers, 96 Blotting Paper, 83 Blue Black Ink, 163 Blue Print Paper, 83 Boards or Board Paper, 84 Calendars, 152 Calenders, S7, 60 Calling Cards, 125-128 form of name, 126-128 manufacture, 70 sizes, 125 husband and wife, 12S matron, 125 men, 125 misses, 125 styles of lettering, 126 Carbon Paper, 8s Cards, Christmas and anniversary, IS2 correspondence, 72 calling (See "Calling Cards") playing, IS3> I7i 187 1 88 INDEX Celluloid, 148 Cellulose, foundation material for paper, 4 sources of, 4 Chemicals, recovery of, in pulp manufacture, 37 Chinese, early papers, 108 wall paper, 103 Christmas Cards, 152 Coated Paper, 6a Coats of Arms, 134 Coin Envelopes, 74 Color, in good paper, 79 in household decoration, 100-102 in leather goods, 140 in metal goods, 146 Colored Inks, 163 Colored Pencils, 156 Commercial Stationery, bond paper, 72 envelopes, special kinds, 74-75 sizes, 73 Copper, 144 Copper Plates, care of, lai engraving, Ii8 printing, 119 Copy, Writing for Engraver, 122 Cord, 167 Corn Stalks, 17 Correspondence Cards, 72 Cotton Linters, is. 16, 38 Cotton Rags, St 6, 113 Couch Roll, of decker, 34 of Fourdrinier, s6, 59 Crackle, Test for in Bond Paper, 80 Crane, Walter, 102 Crepe Paper, 8s. 86 Crests. 134 Crop Fibers, ii Customs, Social, 124 calling cards, 126-128 crests and coats of arms, 134 invitations, 132 wedding. 131 Dandy Roll, s6, 58 laid paper, 58 wove paper, 58 Deckle, 52 straps, 55. 58 Deckle-Edged Paper, 53. 86 Design. in leather goods, 139 in metal goods, 146 methods of applying, 147 in wall paper, 99 Dies (See " Steel Dies") Digesters, Sulphite Pulp, 32 Display Envelopes, 74 Double Envelopes, 74 Drug and Pay Envelopes, 74 Dryers, 56, 59 Duplex or Double Envelopes, 74 Durability of Paper, 77 order of, 78 Dutch Silver, 144 Dyes, Coloring Paper, 46 B Embossed Wall Paper, 97 Embossing or Stamping from Steel Dies. 120 Enamel, 149 Engine-Sizing, 50 English Finish Paper, 64 Engraved Wall Paper, 96 Engraving, 117-135 addresses, 133 calling cards (See "Calling cards") INDEX 189 Engraving — Continued copper plate, 118 printing, 119 copy for, 122 crests and coats of arms, 134 intaglio, 118 invitations, 123 lettering, styles of, 126, 127 monograms, 133 origin of, 122 selling suggestions, 170 social customs (See "Customs, social ") steel die, 119 embossing or stamping, 120 illumination, 121 Steel plate, 118 printing, 119 wedding invitations and announce- ments (See "Wedding Invitations and Annovmcements") Envelopes, bank book, 74 coin, 74 display, 74 drug and pay, 74 duplex or double, 74 expansion wallets, 74i 75 fastener, 74 manufacture of, 70 postage-saving, 75 security mailing, 75 window, 75 Erasers, ink, 163. 165 pencil, l6s Esparto, 13 Expansion Wallets, 74 Fastener Envelopes, 74 Favors, 151 Fibers Usbd in Paper-Making, bast, 14 cotton and linen, 4-6 cotton linters, 15. 16 esparto, 13 grasses, li hemp hurds, 14 lengths, 7 papyrus, 13 ^ rice straw, 13 straw, II, 12 various substances experimented with, 17, 182 waste paper, 21 wood pvtlp, 6, 30, 35 Filter Paper, 86 Finish, tests for, 77 bond paper, 80 ledger paper, 82 Finishing Paper, book, 65-66 calendering, 60 coating, 62 glazing, 60, 63 hand-made, 52-S4 difference between it and machine made, 54 length of process, 54 water mark, 53 newsprint, 67 plating, 61 rewinding, 61 stationery, 64 supercalendering, 61 water finish, 63 Flock Papers, 97 Foolscap, S3. 72 Forests, Alaskan, climate, 21 cost of development, ai extent, 19 resources, 18 190 INDEX Forests — Continued Alaskan — Continued transportation, I9 water power, 20 destruction of, forest fires, 9, 10 government investigations, 9 overcutting 7 reforestation, 10 Fountain Pens (See "Pens, fountain") FOURDRINIER MACHINE, SA"^ dandy roll, 56, S8 deckle straps, 55, 58 dryers, 56, 59 parts of, 55-57 pulp on wire, 57 time required to make into paper, 57 Furnish, The, 44 German Silver, 144 Gifts and Favors, 151. I7I Glazed Paper, 63 Glue, 163 Gold, I43 Hand-Made Paper, 52-54 difference between it and machine- made, 54 length of process, 54 water mark, 53 history, 53 Hard Rubber, 148, iS9 Hardware Paper, 87 Hemp Flyings, 18 Hemp Hurds, 14 Heraldry, 134 High Bulk Paper, 64 History of Paper, 105-116 American industry, 111-114 History of Paper — Continued Canadian industry, IIS Chinese papers, 108 chronology of principal inventions and patents, 115 cotton and linen rags, 113 earliest forms, 106, 108 European industry, no Japanese, 109 papyrus, 107 parchment, 106 Hollanders or Beaters, 42-43 Household Decoration, color for, 100-102 iLLXmiNATION OF EMBOSSED WORK, 121 Imitations, of engraving, 123 of leather, 93 Indelible Ink, 163 Indelible Pencils, 156 India Ink, 163 India Paper, 66 Ink, aniline, 162 blue black, 163 colored, 163 eradicators, 163 erasers, 163 fountain pen, 163 indelible, 163 India, 163 materials, 162 requirements, 162 Ink Eradicators. 163 Ink Erasers, 163, 165 Intaglio Engraving, 118 copper plate, 118 steel die, 118 steel plate, 118 i INDEX 191 Invitations (See also "Wedding In- vitations and Announcements") forms, 132 sizes and styles, 13a Iron, 145 Ivory, 149 Japanese Papers, 87, io9 leather, 98 Jordon Engine, 44 K Kraft Paper, 37, 88 Labels, 167 Laid Paper, 58, 64 Lead Pencils (See "Pencils") Leather Goods, 136-140 (See also Manual on "Leather Goods and Gloves") articles, 136 color, 140 design, I39 leathers used, 136 Levant, I37 morocco, 137 parchment, I37 Russia, 137 tanning and dressing, 138 tooling, 138, 139 burning, I39 embossing, 138 hammering or punching, I39 incising, 138 stamping, I39 vellum, 137 Lbatherboard, 93 Ledger Papers, tests for, 8i-8a erasing, 8x finish, 82 looks, 82 strength, 81 weaving, 81 writing, 81 Lee Process, 17. 39 Lettering, Styles of, calling cards, 126 wedding invitations and announce- ments, 128 Levant Leather, 137 Linen Finish, 64 Linen Rags, 4. 6 Linoleum, 93 Loading or Filling Pulp, 48-49 Looks, Test for, in bond paper, 80 in ledger paper, 82 M Manila Paper, 88 Marble, 149 Mechanical Wood Pulp (See "Wood ptdp, mechanical") Mercury, 144 Metal Goods, color, 146 design, 146, I47 application of, 147-148 metals used in, altmiinum, 145 brass. 145 bronze, 14S. 146 copper, 144 gold, 143 iron, 145 mercury, 144 nickel, 145 silver, 143. 144 steel, 145 192 INDEX Mbtal Goods — Continued metals used in — Continued zinc, 144 other materials used. alabaster, 149 amber, 150 celluloid, 148 enamel, 149 hard rubber, 148 ivory, 149 marble, 149 mother-of-pearl, 150 onyx, 149 Monograms, 133 styles, 133 Morocco Lbathbr, 137 Morris, William, 102 MoTHER-OF-PeARL, ISO Mourning Stationery, 70 mucilagb, 164 National Forests, Alaska (See "Forests, Alaskan") Newsprint Paper, 67 Nickel, 14s Novelties, 151-1 53 selling suggestions, 170-172 Novelty Finishes, Writing Paper, 64 Onion Skin Paper, 88 Onyx, 149 Oxford India Paper Bible, 66 Packing Papers, 88 Paper, book, 65 cellulose, fotindation material. 4 Paper — Continued classification of, 178 fibers used for (See "Fibers Used in Paper- Making ") finishing (See "Finishing Paper") history, 105-116 (See also "His- tory of Paper") newsprint, 67 pulp (See "Paper Pulp") qualities of good, 76-82 color, 79 durability, 77 finish. 77 strength, 78 texture, 76 special kinds of, 83-93 terts for, 80-82 wall (See "Wall Paper") writing (See "Stationery") Paper Carpets, 93 Paper Pulp, conversion into paper, 42-SX beaters, 42-43 dyeing, 45-48 finishing (See "Finishing Paper") Pourdrinier machine (See "Four- drinier machine ") furnish, the, 44 Jordan engine, 44 loading or filling, 48-49 sizing, 49-51 BtuS chests, 43 time required, 57 rag pulp manufacture, 23-27 bleaching, 27 boiling, 25 cutting, 24 dusting. 23 sorting, 24 washing, 25, 26 wood pulp manufacture (See "Wood Pulp") Paper Sets, 167 Paper Toweling, 88 INDEX 193 Papier MachC, 88 Papyrus, 13 early use of, 107 Parchment, 106, I37 Parchment Paper, 89 Paste, 164 Pearl Hardening, 48 Pencils, kinds, 156 manufacture, i54i ISS wood used, i55 selling points, 172 Pens, fountain, 159-161 forms, 161 ink, 163 materials and manufacture, 159 ornamentation, 160 parts, 159 set of, 160 history, 156 manvifacture, iS7t 1S8 metals used, 158 Photographic Paper, 90 Plates (See "Copper Plates" and "Steel Plates") Playing Cards, i 53. 171 Postage Saving Envelopes, 75 Printing, imitation of engraving, 123 Protective Papers, 90 Quick-silver, 144 Quires, 68, 69 Rag Paper; manufacture (See "Paper rag pulp manufacture") Reams, 68, 69 13 Pulp, Records, early methods of keeping, 105 Reforestation, 7 Rice Paper, 90 Rice Straw, 13 Roofing Paper, 91 Rubber Bands, 166 Rubber, Hard, 148, iS9 Rulers, 165 Russia Leather, 137 Safety Paper, 90 Sample Books, in Stationery Department, 169 Sealing Wax, 1641 172 Seals, 166 Seasonal Goods, 152 Security Mailing Envelopes, 75 Sheffield Plate, 143 Silver, 143 Dutch, 144 German, 144 Sheffield plate, 143 Silverware Paper, 91 Sizes of Stationery, commercial, 72 correspondence, 71 envelopes, 74-75 Sizing, 49-Si Soda Pulp (See "Wood Pulps, Soda") Spruce, ii Stamping or Embossing from Steel Dies, lao Stationery, commercial, 72 finishes, bond, 64 English, 64 high bulk, 64 laid, 64 linen, 64 194 INDEX Stationery — Continued finishes — Continued novelty, 6s wove, 64 making paper into, 68-75 cards. 70 correspondence paper, 68 envelopes, 70 sizes, commercial, 72 correspondence, 71 envelopes, 74-75 suggestions to customers on, 168- 170 Stationery Department, classification of stock, I73-I77 divisions, i high-grade salesmanship essential, 2 sample books in, 169 variety of stock, i Stationery Supplies, cord, 167 erasers, ink, 163, 165 pencil, i6s glue, 163 ink (See "Ink") labels. 167 mucilage, 164 paper sets, 167 paste, 164 pencils (See "PencUs") pens (See "Pens") rubber bands, 166 rulers, i6s sealing wax, 164 seals, 166 selling suggestions, 170-17* twine, 167 Steel. 145 Steel Dies, care of, 121 embossing or stamping. lao illumination, 121 Steel Dies — Continued engraving, 119 Steel Plates, care of. 121 engraving, 118 printing, 119 Stock or Stuff Chest. 43 Straw Paper, 12 Strength of Paper, 78 tests for, bond paper, 80 ledger paper, 81 Stuff Chest, 43 Sulphate Pulp. 37. 38 Sulphite Pulp (See "Wood Pulp, Sulphite") Supbrcalendering, 61 Tea Box Papers. 99 Tests. bond papers, 80, 81 ledger papers, 81, 82 Texture of Good Paper, 76 TiLGHMAN, B. C, 31 Tin Foil, 91 Tissue Papers, 91 ToNGASs Forest, Alaska, 19 Tooling. Leather Goods (See "Leather Goods") Tracing Paper, 92 Transfer Paper, 92 Traveling Paper, 88 Tub Sizing, 50-51 Twine, 167 Vellum, 92, 136 Visiting Cards (See "Calling Cards") Vulcanized Fiber, 92 Vulcanized Paper, 92 INDEX 195 I i W Wall Paper, 94-104 design in, 99 drying, 76 embossed. 97 engraved. 96 flock, 97 furnish, the, 94 history, 102 Chinese, 103 scenic, 103 Japanese leather, 98 manufacture, 94 printing. 94-96 block, 96 grounding, 95 Waste Paper, manufacture into pulp, 40 use as raw material for paper, 21 Water Finish Paper, 63 Water Leaf Paper, 63 Water Mark, history, 53 in hand-made paper, 53 Watt, Charles, 35 Waxed Paper, 93 Wearing, tests for, bond paper, 81 ledger paper. 81 Wedding Invitations and An- nouncements. 128-131 customs, 131 forms, 129-130 announcements, 130 at home cards, 130 cards of admission to church, 130 impersonal, 129 invitations to reception, 130 personal, 129 paper used, 128 styles of lettering, 128 Window Envelopes, 75 Wood Fibers, 6, 7, i* Wood Pulps, bleaching, 40 fibers, 6 length, 7 forests (See " Forests") importation, 8 mechanical, 28-31 barking drum, 28 bleaching, 4^ characteristics, 6 grinding, 29 screening and pressing, 30 woods used, 28, 30 soda, 35-37 characteristics of , 37 digestion or cooking, 36 invention. 35 preparation of wood. 35 recovery of chemicals, 37 woods used, 35 sulphate, 37. 38 sulphite, 31-35 characteristics, 34 deckers, 34 digesters, 32 invention of , 31 preparation of wood. 32 woods used, 31 Woods (See also "Wood Pulps") used for pencils, IS5 used for various pulps, 8, 28, 30, 31. 35, 38 Wove Paper, 58, 64 Writing, tests for, bond paper. 81 ledger paper, 81 Writing Paper (See "Stationery!') Zacaton, 17 Zinc, 144 Date Due MtJO^^T^ rj.viii^j-' . I C^±>'\ Feb 13 SI — — i . 9 Z5^.5-3 usa Lehoann Paper and stationery /;_.,../ ^, >)yc| OCT 4 1935 MAR 2 9 1938 APR 5 193^ . ~r 2 2 1340 yrtiH^'l^h^ 4"? 3 Ik 1 A IP to C£ £ . ^. ■" • ' /. lb ^^15^ >^$/^ ^^5i^X JIOVi«i»»( COLUMBIA UNIVERS TY LIBRARIES 0041442857 WOM ta^*^ ■ v -^^ssi^ ^i: w^ "^ rtrJ-^r fk' ^ w END OF TITLE