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A UTHOR: 
 
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 T^e Student's Latin Grammar, 
 
 A aPiiMIAE, 
 
 ■4 * 
 
 i 
 
 OF 
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 By WILLIAM SmTH, LL.D., 
 
 CLASSICAL EXAMINER IN THE UNITERSITT OF LONDON, AND EDITOR OF 
 THE CLASSICAL AND LATIN DICTIONARIES. 
 
 For the Use of CoUeges and the XTpper Forms in Schools. 
 
 THE SYNTAX BY THEOPHILUS D. HALL, M.A. 
 
 - LONDON: 
 JOHN MURKAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 
 1863. 
 
I • 
 
 . • • • • • 
 ; • . • • • • 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 • • 
 
 . . i • • • 
 
 Uniform irith the preMiit V^orh, 
 
 THE STUDENT'S GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 BY DR. GEORGE CURTIUS, 
 
 PROFESSOB IN" THE UNrVERSITT OF LEIPZIG. 
 
 7s. 6d. 
 
 For the Middle and Lower Forms in Schools. 
 
 A SMALLER LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 BY DR. WILLIAM SMITH. 
 3s. 6d. 
 
 A SMALLER GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 BY DR. GEORGE CURTIUS. 
 3s. 6</. 
 
 
 
 LONDON': PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STUEET, 
 
 AND CHARIKG CROSS. 
 
 Q 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The present Latin Grammar was commenced several 
 years ago with a twofold object. 
 
 1. In common with many other Teachers and Examiners, 
 I had long felt the want of a Latin Grammar, holding an 
 inteimediate place between the larger works of Zumpt and 
 Madvig, and the elementary treatises which still continue 
 to be used even in the higher forms of our public and 
 private schools. It has been found by experience that so 
 much time is taken up by the Student in finding out in 
 Zumpt and Madvig the information which he requires, as 
 greatly to discourage him in that constant recourse to the 
 Grammar which the judicious Teacher knows to be essential 
 to a correct knowledge of the language. Moreover, in 
 reading through one of the more voluminous Grammars, 
 the Student is prevented by the very amplitude and 
 comprehensiveness of the treatment, from obtaining a 
 clearly defined conception of those outlines of structure, 
 without which he cannot acquire the mastery of a sym- 
 metrical language like the Latin. The grammai^ of 
 Zumpt and Madvig are, indeed, suitable only for the 
 advanced and critical Student, for whom the present work 
 is not designed. My object has been to provide a Manual 
 of convenient size, and easy of reference for the class-room, 
 presenting a fuller account of the forms and structure of 
 the language than the ordinary grammars, and yet con- 
 
 OO*^ 
 
 z- 
 
 /■ 
 
 1 ''^H 
 
 a 2 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 taining, a^ far as possible, all that is really needful for the 
 
 Student. 
 
 2. The second object which I have had in view has been 
 to introduce into Latin Grammar some of the results 
 of the linguistic discoveries of modem philologists. It is 
 certainly a surprising fact that, while few sciences have 
 made greater progi-ess during the last forty years than the 
 science of language, our great public schools should, with 
 a few honourable exceptions, continue to use antiquated 
 grammars, written in Latin more than three hundred years 
 ago. Every one would regard it as an absurdity for 
 teachers of chemistry to adhere to the text-books even 
 of illustrious chemists of a former generation : and yet 
 classical schools cling to Grammars which ignore all the 
 researches of eminent modem philologists, such as Bopp, 
 Pott, Curtius, Max Muller, and others, who have thrown 
 a new light upon the structure of the classical languages. 
 It is surely high time that our schools should share in 
 the progress that has been made, and should obtain some 
 insight into the results of the improved philology of the 
 present day. I am not insensible to the difficulties attend- 
 ing a reform in our Latin Grammars. Professor Curtius, 
 in the Preface to his Greek Grammar, which is published 
 at the same time as the present Work, has pointed out 
 reasons which render it inexpedient to attempt the con- 
 struction of a Latin Grammar on the same strictly scientific 
 principles as can safely be adopted in reference to a Greek 
 Grammar. In addition to this, the present arrangement 
 and nomenclature of the Accidence have been so long 
 and so generally established, that any important deviation 
 from it would be too violent a shock to long-established 
 habits. Moreover, it is important that pupils who have 
 been trained in the old fashioned Grammars should be 
 able to pass on to a more advanced and philosophical 
 work, without encountering too sweeping a change in 
 
 ' 
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 the general form and stmcture of the Grammar. I have 
 therefore considered it wiser to retain the usual arrange- 
 ment of the Declensions and Conjugations, and have 
 only introduced alterations when some clear and positive 
 advantage was to be gained ; as, for instance, in the classi- 
 fication of Substantives of the Third Declension according 
 to the final letter of the Stem, instead of the one in the 
 ordinary Grammars, which occasions so much difficulty 
 and perplexity. I may have erred from an unnecessary 
 fear of innovation, but my object has been Eeform and not 
 Revolution. On the other hand, though the matter might 
 have been presented in a more scientific form, I have not 
 intentionally allowed anything to remain which the pupil 
 would afterwards have to unlearn; and I have in the 
 Observations on the Declensions, and in the Chapter on the 
 Formation of Tenses, been careful to distinguish between 
 the Stem and the Inflexion, and to explain the forms in 
 accordance with the views of modern philolog}^ Much 
 important infonnation respeeting the changes of letters, 
 and their influence upon the Inflexions, is given in the 
 Appendix upon the Alphabet (pp. 329 — 356), which is de- 
 signed chiefly for Teachers and more advanced Students. 
 
 After the Accidence and the Chapters on the Formation of 
 Words had been several years in type, I found that my other 
 literary engagements, more especially the labour connected 
 with the preparation of the English-Latin Dictionary, pre- 
 cluded the hope of my being able to complete the book my- 
 self in any reasonable time. Being unwilling to delay its 
 publication for an indefinite period, I entnisted the pre- 
 paration of the Syntax to my friend Mr. Theophilus D. Hall, 
 M.A., who had obtained the highest classical honours in 
 the University of London. He has drawn up this part of 
 the work in accordance with my original plan, and it has 
 undergone a careful revision on my part. Pains have been 
 taken to present such an explanation of the structure of 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE, 
 
 tJbe language as experience has shown to be most suitable 
 to Students, and in particular to give as clear and satis- 
 factory treatment as possible of that tentamen of all capacity 
 for Latin Scholarship— the Subjunctive Mood. In treating 
 of the Cases, it has been felt to be injudicious to attempt to 
 carry out in a practical work a philosophical and philo- 
 logical adherence to the original laws of the Inflexions. The 
 Case-System of the Latin language is a fragmentary one, 
 the several uses of the different Cases being influenced by 
 empirical considerations ; and to refer every particular 
 usage back to the original force of the case, though an 
 interesting study for the philologist, is not necessary, and 
 is sometimes confusing, to the student of grammar. 
 
 It has been thought desirable to aiTange the S}Titax in 
 two parts : the ordinary, and the extraordinary or St/ntaoois 
 Oniata. The latter subject furnishes an opportunity for 
 noticing various peculiarities of construction or style 
 which ought to be kno^\Ti to the accurate Student, while 
 the substantial structure of the language is, for the most 
 part, independent of them. In this portion many valuable 
 sections have been derived from one of the most accom- 
 plished productions of recent German scholarship, the 
 Stilistik of Ntigelsbach. To this part of the Work are added 
 a few short chapters on the styles of the principal Prose 
 writers. Hitherto the young Student has had no guide to 
 enable him to distinguish what is special and individual in 
 the author, and what belongs not to the author, but to the 
 genius of the language in which he writes. 
 
 Free use has been made of the labours of preceding 
 Grammarians, especially of Zumpt and Madvig. But I 
 have consulted most of the Latin Grammars in general use 
 both in this country and Germany, and have endeavoured 
 to incorporate in the present Work any special advantages 
 which each seemed to possess. In the Prosody I have 
 been specially indebted to an excellent little treatise by 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Vll 
 
 Habenicht, published in 1860. The Appendix on the 
 Alphabet is derived from Corssen's admirable work * Ueber 
 Aussprache, Vokalismus, und Betonung der Lateinischen 
 Sprache ' (2 vols. 1858 — 1859), which is a perfect store- 
 house of information respecting the forms of the Latin 
 language. 
 
 Although this Grammar is intended primarily for those 
 who have already learned the rudiments of the language, 
 it has been thought advisable to set forth the inflexions 
 as simply and fully as in a purely elementary work. I 
 know, by long experience as an Examiner, how dangerous 
 it is to presume upon the previous knowledge of a Student ; 
 and I would strongly recommend all who may use this 
 book to go through the Accidence again from beginning to 
 end. Moreover, the Accidence and Syntax have been so 
 arranged that pupils, if it is thought desirable, may begin 
 the study of Latin with the present work, by omitting the 
 Observations in smaller type, and the second and third 
 books of the Syntax. But a more elementary Grammar 
 will probably be deemed more suitable for the lower forms 
 of schools ; and for that purpose an Abridgment is pub- 
 lished simultaneously with this Work. 
 
 My object throughout the Book has been a practical 
 one ; and I have therefore taken the advice of many 
 experienced teachers respecting the general form and 
 arrangement of the Work. I am indebted, among other 
 friends, to Mr. John Eobson, for many valuable suggestions 
 in the Accidence. 
 
 Wm. Smith. 
 
 London^ March 25, 18G3. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I 
 
 PART I.— ACCIDENCE. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. The Alphabet 1 
 
 II. Parts of Speech, Inflexion, Stem 3 
 
 III. The Substantive 4 
 
 IV. The First Declension 5 
 
 V. The Second Declension 6 
 
 VI. The Third Declension 8 
 
 VII. Eemarks on the Cases of the Third Declen- 
 sion (including Adjectives) 17 
 
 VIII. Greek Substantives of the Third Declension 20 
 
 IX. The Fourth Declension 22 
 
 X. The Fifth Declension 23 
 
 XI. Irregular Substantives 24 
 
 XII. Declension of Adjectives 26 
 
 XIII. Comparison of Adjectives 29 
 
 XIV. The Numerals 32 
 
 XV. The Pronouns 36 
 
 XVI. The Verb 41 
 
 XVI [. The Verb Sum and the Four Conjugations.. 44 
 
 XVIII. Deponent Verbs 64 
 
 XIX. Periphrastic Conjugation 66 
 
 XX. Stems of Verbs, Formation of Tenses, and 
 
 Peculiar Forms 67 
 
 XXI. Irregular Verbs 74 
 
 XXII. Defective Verbs 82 
 
 XXIII. Impersonal Verbs 84 
 
 XXIV. Adverbs 85 
 
 XXV. Prepositions 91 
 
 XXVI. Conjunctions ~ 93 
 
 XXVII. Interjections 94 
 
 XXVIII. Appendix A. — The Genders of Substantives 95 
 
 XXIX. Appendix B. — Perfects and Supines of Verbs 102 
 
 I 
 
t CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I— ACCIDENCE— con^mwed 
 
 CHAP. I' AGE 
 
 XXX. Formation of Words. Derivation of Sub- 
 stantives 121 
 
 XXXI. Derivation of Adjectives 127 
 
 XXXII. Derivation of Verbs 130 
 
 XXXIII. Derivation of Adverbs 132 
 
 XXXIY. Composition of Words, 133 
 
 PART II.— SYNTAX. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 Of Sentences 135 
 
 Concord and Government ,, 137 
 
 The Nominative Case 142 
 
 The Accusative Case 143 
 
 The Genitive 152 
 
 The Dative 162 
 
 The Ablative 170 
 
 The Vocative 179 
 
 Adjectives iso 
 
 Pronouns 185 
 
 The Verb: Indicative Mood 193 
 
 The Imperative Mood 198 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood .. 200 
 
 The Infinitive Mood 223 
 
 Participles 228 
 
 The Gerund and Gerundive Participle .. 231 
 
 The Supines 234 
 
 Adverbs 235 
 
 Prepositions 237 
 
 Conjunctions 248 
 
 BOOK IL-SYNTAXIS ORNATA. 
 
 Peculiarities in the use of Substantives .. 255 
 Ditto ditto op Adjectives .. 260 
 Ditto ditto of Pronouns .. ..261 
 Ditto ditto of Verbs 266 
 
 Ditto ditto /^^ Adverbs and \ ^ 
 
 \ Prepositions / " 
 
 Conjunctions and other Words as Particles 273 
 
 On the Order of Words 276 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 XXXVI. 
 
 XXXVII. 
 
 XXXVIII. 
 
 XXXIX. 
 
 XL. 
 
 XLI. 
 
 XLIl. 
 
 XLIII. 
 
 XLIV. 
 
 XLV. 
 
 XLVI. 
 
 XLVII. 
 
 XLVIII. 
 
 XLIX. 
 
 L. 
 
 LI. 
 
 LII. 
 
 LIII. 
 
 LIV. 
 
 LV. 
 
 LVI. 
 
 LVII. 
 
 LVni. 
 
 LIX. 
 
 LX. 
 LXI. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 BOOK ni. -STYLES OF AUTHORS. 
 
 LXII. STYLfe OF Sallust £84 
 
 LXIII. Style of Caesar 287 
 
 LXIV. Style of Cicero 288 
 
 LXV. Style of Livy 290 
 
 LXVI. Style of Tacitus 292 
 
 PART III.— PROSODY. 
 
 LXVII. Quantity 297 
 
 ^^etre 305 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 I. The Alphabet 309 
 
 II. Latin Authors 357 
 
 III. The Calendar 3^0 
 
 IV. Money 3^3 
 
 V. Roman Names 3^4 
 
 VI. Abbreviations 355 
 
 I^^DEX 3(37 
 
THE STUDENT'S LATIN GRAMMAK. 
 
 PART I. — ACCIDENCE. 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 p. 6, 1. 4, for ir read !r. 
 
 P. 123, No. 9, after 1), rmd and tnim. 
 
 P. 157, 1. 5, dde 2. 
 
 P. 168, middle, /or Adverbs and Adjectives read Adjectives 
 
 AND Adverbs. 
 P. 173, 1. 10, for Jasonem read Jasunem. 
 P. 213, 1. 16 from bottom, /ar contdmeliae read contOmcliae. 
 
 \ 
 
 Chapter I.— The Alphabet. 
 
 § 1 . The Latin Language was the language of Latiiim, of 
 which Rome was the chief city. The conquests of the 
 Komans caused it to spread over the rest of Italy, and over 
 the greater part of France and Spain. The Latin Lan- 
 guage IS no longer spoken, but the French, Italian, Spanish, 
 and i oi-tuguese languages are mainly derived from it. 
 
 § 2. The Latin Alphabet consists of 25 letters, being: the 
 same as the English without W^ 
 
 A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, 
 a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, 
 
 Q, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z. 
 
 q, r, s, t, u, V,, X, y, z?) 
 
 Obs. 1. Originally i was used to express also the semivowel y, and v to de- 
 note both the vowel sound u and the semivowel sound v. 
 
 Obs. 2. The letters y and z do not belong to the old Latin alphabet, and occur 
 only in words borrowed from the Greek. 
 
 § 3. The letters are divided into Towels, which can bo 
 sounded by themselves ; and Consonants, which cannot be 
 somided without a Vowel. 
 
 § 4. The Vowels are a, e, ?, o, n, y, 
 
 § 5. Consonants are divided into Mutes, Liquids, Sibilants, 
 and Semivowels. 
 
 The Mutes are divided according to the vocal organ 
 which is chiefly employed in pronouncing tliem. 
 
 LahiaJs (lip-letters) 
 Gutturals (throat-letters) 
 Dentals (teeth-letters) 
 
 Sharp or Thin. 
 
 P 
 
 c (A-, q) 
 
 t 
 
 Flat or Medial. 
 h 
 
 9 
 d 
 
 Aspirated. 
 
 / 
 h 
 
 (none). 
 
FARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 §6. 
 
 § 12. 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 The Liquds are h m, n, r. compounded of cs or 
 
 The Sibilants are s, x, and z. A ib ^^f P^'^^ . ^^.^ 
 
 ,s : a^, dux = dues, a leader ; rex = regs, a hug. X and 
 
 Sometimes called double consonants. 
 The Sernwoucels are j and v. 
 
 0,s. 1. A- is used only before a at t.c bc,innin, of a few words : as, K.- 
 
 lendac, </ie CaZen^f^. 
 06a 2." Q is used only before u : as. sc^quor, Ifollou. 
 
 ^Sl'irircointo; audi. .-. ui, .Mcb occuv ,n 
 only a few words. 
 
 Ohs. The diphthongs ae Co.), «e (*), are pronounced as e. 
 
 § 7 A Sy?aW. consists of one or more letters pronounced 
 
 ?prist?c of a%owel or svUaWo is called its qmMn. 
 '"TZrt'Zd is marked by (-) : as, pater, a father. 
 
 Ohs. A vo^cl foUo,.cd by another vo«el is usually short : as, pQer, a ho,j. 
 
 A hna voicel is marked bv (-). and may bo cither long by 
 mtoc as mater, a mothe?; or'loug by position : as, men«x 
 a table '■ dQx, a lade,: A vowel is long by po-sition, when 
 ?tt follow Jd by t^vo or more consonants or by a donb.e 
 consonant. 
 
 Obs. 1. These marks of Quantity were not used by the Latin wnters ; serving 
 
 onlv for grammatical purposes. 
 
 Ohs. 2. AU diphthongs are long by nature : as, aurae, breezes. 
 
 A doahfful v(ncel is sometimes short, sometimes long : as, 
 amo or amo, / love, tenebrae or tenebrae, darhtess. 
 
 nu X vnwel is doubtful when followed by a mute and a liquid, especially 
 "^ roi r a^ dapleAr dQplex, tu^fulcl ; tenebrae or tenCbrae. darkness. 
 
 S 8 Accent.— In words of two syllables the accent is on 
 4.T, fi,i<.f cvll'ible- as, mdsa, a inuse, dolus, deceit. 
 "^^.^T^^e^or rno^e syllables the accent i. on the 
 1 J sYllible but one, if this syllable is long : as, Eonninus, 
 ^il„^^^ the last syllable but two, if the last syllable 
 but one is short : a«, dominus, a lord. 
 
 V 
 
 Chapter II. — Parts of Speech. Inflexion. Stem. 
 § 9. There are eight parts of speech : 
 
 I. The Koux Substantive, or simply Substantive, is the 
 name (Nomen) of a person or thing: as, Qsi^^M^-Ccujar 
 vir, a man ; domus, a house ; virtus, valour. 
 
 Obs. Names of persons and places are called Proper Kouiu : all other Sub- 
 stantives are called Common Noutis or Appellatices. 
 
 II. The Noux Adjective, or simply Adjective (Adjcc- 
 tniim, joined to), is joined to a Substantive to express its 
 quality or natui'e : as, bonus vir, a good man, 
 
 III. The riiONOUN (Tronomen) is used instead of a Sub- 
 stantive : as, ego, /; tu, thou. 
 
 IV. llie Verb (Yerbum, word) is the word by which we 
 make an assertion about something: as, equus ciin-it, the 
 horse imns ; 'sdr sedet, the man sits. 
 
 V. ITie Adverb (Adverbium) is joined to Verbs, Ad- 
 jectives, and other Adverbs, to qualify their meaning : as, 
 celeriter cmrit, he runs quickly ; magis pius, more dutiful; 
 satis diu, long enough, 
 
 VI. The l^REPOSinoN (Pi-aepobitio) is placed before Sub- 
 stantives to mark their relation to other words : as, in, ih ; 
 habito in urbe, 1 dwell in the city. 
 
 VII. ITie Conjunction (Conjunctio) unites words and sen- 
 ttjnces : as, et, and ; lit, in order that : vir ^^ ,£Liuina, Um manaua 
 the iDornan ; edimus ut vivamusTiA^e eat in order that we may live. 
 
 VIII. The Inteiuection (Interjectio) is a word of excla- 
 mation : as, heu, alas I 
 
 — « 
 
 § 10. There is no article in the Latin language: thus 
 domus may be translated by either house, or a house, or the housed 
 
 § 11. Substantives, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Verbs are 
 inflected : that is, their final syllables are changed in order 
 to imirk their number or relation to other words. 
 
 The inflexion of Substantives, Adjectives, and Pronouns 
 is called Declension (Declensio) : the inflexion of Verbs is 
 called Conjugation (Conjugiitio). 
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inteijoctions are 
 not inflected, and are frequently called Particles. 
 
 § 12. Ilie Stem of inflected woi-ds is that part of the 
 M'ord which remains after the changeable endings are taken 
 away: thus, in trab-s, a plank, trab-is, of a plank, tiab i, to 
 a planh, the Stem is trab: and in leg-o, 1 read, leg is, thou 
 readesty the Stem is leg. 
 
 b2 
 
 i 
 
THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 Chapter III.— The Substantive. 
 
 §13. 
 
 § 13. There are three Genders : the Masculine (Mascu- 
 liniim)*, the Feminine (Feinimnum), and the Neuter (Neu- 
 tioim). 
 
 Obs. Substantives M-hich are either Masculine or Feminine are called Common. 
 The rules for the Genders are collected in§§141-U8. 
 
 ' § 14. There are two Numbers (Numeri) : the SinfjuJar 
 (Singuiaris), which designates one, and the Plural (PlOrulis), 
 which designates more than one. 
 
 § 15. There are six Cases (Casus) : 
 
 I. The Nominative (Nominativns) Case answers the ques- 
 tion TUo? or What ? denoting the Subject of a sentence : as, 
 magister docet, the master teaches ; domus est ampla, the house 
 
 is large. " -. x- 
 
 II. The Genitive (Genitlvus) Case answer the question 
 Whose? or of What? as, magistri dOmus, the masters house; 
 folia arborum, the leaves of trees. 
 
 III. The Dative (Datlvus) Case answers the question To or 
 for whom / To or for what i as, do libi-um magistro, / gwe 
 
 the hook to the master. 
 
 lY. The Accusative (AccusatTvus) Case answers the ques- 
 tion Whom / or What ? as, amo magisti-um, 1 love the master. 
 It also signifies motion tou-ards : as, eo Komam, / go to Home. 
 V. The Vocative (Yocativus) Case is used for addressing : 
 as, magister, master I 
 
 YI The Ablative (Ablativus) Case answers the questions 
 liu or with what? Wwn ? &c. : as, Ilasta interfectus est, A(^ 
 was hilled with a spear; aestate, in tlie summer. It also sig- 
 nifies motion or separation from : as, abeo Koma, J depart 
 from Home. 
 
 § 16. All the Substantives in the Latin language are 
 arrano-ed in five classes, called Declensions, which may bo 
 di.stin?niished by the endings of the Genitive Case Snigiilar. 
 The Genitive Singular of the 1st Declension ends m ^e_ 
 
 2nd „ „ i 
 
 3rd „ „ IS 
 
 4th „ ,, us 
 
 5th - .. el 
 
 »» 
 
 »i 
 
 
 »j 
 
 >» 
 
 »> 
 
 »» 
 
 ?» 
 
 The Stems of Substantives can generally be ascertained 
 bv taking away the terminations urn or ram of the Genitive 
 riural. 
 
 . 
 
 §18. 
 
 FIRST declension. 
 
 Chapter IV.— The First Declension. 
 
 § 17^^ The Nominative Singular of Substantives of the 
 First Declension, with the exception of a few Greek nouns, 
 ends m a. ' 
 
 Sinsr. 
 
 Norn. Mens-a, a table 
 
 Gen. Mens-ae, of a table 
 
 TJat. Mens-ae, to or far a table 
 
 A<x. Mens-am, a fable 
 
 Voc. Mens-a, table [table. 
 
 Abl. Mens-a, by, with, or from a 
 
 Plur. 
 Mens-ae, tables 
 Mens-arum, of tables 
 Mens-is, to or for tables 
 Mens-afi, tables 
 Mens-ae, O tables 
 Mens-is, hfj, with, or from tables. 
 
 Obs. The meaninirs here and in subsequent examples assi-ned to the Genitive, 
 Dative, and Ablative cases are the usual ones ; but it must not be sup- 
 posed that tliese cases can always be thus translated. 
 
 Gexdeh.— All Substantives of the First Declension are Feminine 
 unless they designate males : as, nauta (masc), a sailor. 
 
 ala, 
 barba, 
 causa, 
 coena. 
 
 a ■fcinjj. 
 a beird. 
 a C'tnse. 
 a supper. 
 
 Examples for Declension, 
 liora, an hour. 
 poena, a punishment. 
 feniftia, a woman. 
 porta, a gate. 
 
 silva, a wood. 
 Stella, a star. 
 via, a way. 
 
 victoria, a victory. 
 
 Obs. I. The stems of all substantives of the first declension end in a. 
 
 ^**\ ?• '^^f. ^^«'''«^« Singular ended originally in as (a contraction of a-is). 
 I his ending is kept in fTonllia, when compounded with pater, mater, fliius 
 °^ Jl^ ' ^^' P'l*^^f'^"^liS«. thefatherofafnmihj; C^j.patrisfamnias; Bat. 
 patrlfammas, &c. In poetry the old form of the Genitive ai instead of 
 ais, IS sometimes found : as, aquaY, of the water; terrai, of the earth. 
 
 Obs^ 3. The GeniPire Plural of some substantives ends in urn instead of 
 arum. The ending in urn is found in the compounds of c51a and g^na • as 
 coellcolum from coellcola, an inhabitant of heaven ; terrigenum from terrl- 
 gt^na, earth-born : also in drachmum, amphorum, from drachma, amphfira 
 (with numerals) : and in Greek patronj-mics : as, Aeneadum, from Aeneades 
 a descendant of Aeneas. 
 
 Obs. 4. The Dative and Ablative Plural of some words end in abus • as 
 deabOs from dea, a goddess; flliabus from fllia, a daughter. This ending 
 distinguishes them from corresponding masculine substantives of the 
 second declension: as, dels from deus, a god; filiis from filius, a so7: 
 So likewise duabus from duae, two; ambabus from ambae, both. See §68. 
 
 t 
 
 § 18. Declension of Greek Substantives. 
 
 _ Greek Substantives of this declension employed in Latin end in e 
 as, es m the Nonimative Singular, and are thus declined :— 
 
 Feminine. 
 Xom. EpTtom-e, abridgment 
 Gen. KpTtom-os 
 Dat. Kpltom-ae 
 Aec. EpTtdm-cn 
 Voc. EpTtom-e 
 Abl. Epit6m-e 
 
 Masculine. 
 Aene-as (proper name) 
 Aene-ae 
 Aene-ae 
 Aene-an (am) 
 Aene-a 
 Aene-ii 
 
 Masculine. 
 AnchTs-es (proper name) 
 AnchTs-ae 
 AnchTs-ae 
 AnchTs-fn (am) 
 AnchTs-e (fi, it) 
 Anchls-e (aj. 
 
SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 §19. 
 
 § 19. 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 Chapter Y. — The Second Declension. 
 
 § 19. The Nominative Sincjular of ]\rasonline Substan- 
 tives of Ihe Second Declension ends in us and er (ir), and of 
 K enter Substantives in urn. 
 
 A. MascicUne, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. Domin-us, a lord 
 
 Gen. D6min-i, of a lord 
 
 J)at. Domin-o, to or for a lord 
 
 Ace. Domm-um, a lord 
 
 Voc. Domin-e, lord [a lord. 
 
 Abl. Domin-o, hi/, icitK or from 
 
 Sing. 
 Kom. Magister, a master 
 Gen. Magistr-i, of a master 
 Bat. Ma^str-6, to or for a master 
 Ace. Magistr-um, a master 
 Voc. Magister, master 
 All. Magistr-6, hy, with, or from 
 
 a master. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Domin-I, lords 
 
 Domin-orum, of lords 
 D6min-is, to or for lords 
 Domin-os, lords 
 Domin-I, . O lords [lords. 
 
 Domin-is, hy, with, or froia 
 
 Sin?. 
 
 Nom. Puer, 
 Gen. Puer-i, 
 Dot. Puer-o, 
 Ace. Puer-nm, 
 Voc. Puer, 
 Ahl. Puer-6, 
 
 a hoy 
 
 of a hoy 
 
 to or for a hoy 
 
 a hoy 
 
 hoy [Itoy. 
 
 hy, iciiK or from a 
 
 2. Plur. 
 
 Magistr-i, masters 
 
 Magistr-orum, of masters 
 Magistr-!s, to or for masters 
 Magistr-63, masters 
 Magistr-i, masters 
 
 Magistr-Is, hjj, irHh, or from 
 
 masters. 
 
 8. Plur. 
 
 Puer-i, hoys 
 
 Puer-orum, ffhoys 
 
 Puer-is, to or for hoys 
 
 Puer-6s, hoys 
 
 Puer-i, O hoys 
 
 Puer-is, hy, ic'th, or from hoy^. 
 
 B. Neuter, 
 
 S'mg. 
 
 Nom. Regn-um, a hingdom 
 Gen. Rcgn-i, of a hingdom 
 Bat. Kegn-o, to or for aldngdom 
 Ace. Regn-um, a VJngdom . 
 Voc. Regn-um, kingdom 
 Ahl. Regn-5, hy, ivith, or from a 
 
 hingdom. 
 
 Plur. 
 Regn-5,, kingdoms 
 
 Regn-orum, of kingdoms 
 Regn-is, to or for kingdoms 
 Regn-a, kingdoms 
 
 Regn-a, O kingdoms 
 
 Regn-i3. hy, iciih, or frovi 
 kingdoms. 
 
 n;:NT>KTi.— 1. A few Substantives in «* of the Second Declension 
 are Feminine ; the nfiraes of Trees, Towns, ati<l Countries : as, pinis, 
 n pear tree, C<Hrint1ius, Corinth; and a few other words: as, hfinins, 
 the ground, alvus, thehelly, colus, a distaff, vannns, a loinnoioing fan. 
 
 2. Three in vs are Neuter : virus, poison ; pflJlprns, the ocean; and 
 vuU'us, the multitude. The last is sometimes ^lasculine. 
 
 J 
 
 / 
 
 , 
 
 3. All "Neuter Substantives have the Nominative, Accusative, and 
 Vocative Cases alike in each Number ; and in the Plural the^e Ci £C8 
 always end in a. 
 
 Examples for Declension like dOmtniis. 
 
 cTbns, food. 
 
 liipus, a xcolf. 
 
 iiiimgi-us, a nnmber. 
 malus (/.), an apple-tree. 
 
 annus. 
 
 a year. 
 lamiis, a branch. 
 
 livus, a stream. 
 
 ulmus (/.), an elm. 
 
 nidus, 
 
 hortus, 
 
 cervus, 
 
 a nest, 
 a garden, 
 a stag. 
 
 prunus (/.), a plum-tree. 
 
 Scjer, a feld. 
 S,per, a boar. 
 
 Examples for Declension like magist^. 
 
 cancer, a crab. 
 caper, a he-goat. 
 
 faber, a smith. 
 liber, a book. 
 
 Examples for Declension like^jw^r. 
 
 s5cer, a father-in-law. 
 vesper, evening. 
 
 e;6ner, a son-in-law. 
 adulter, an adulterer. 
 
 r.iber, Bacchus. 
 
 libgi-i (plu.), children. 
 
 Note 1. The above are the only Substantives in er -which preserve the e in all 
 the cases. The Adjectives which preserve the e are given in § 56, Obs. 1. 
 
 Note 2. Vesper is irregular. See § 53, Obs. 2. 
 
 donum, a gift. 
 tectum, a roof. 
 
 Examples for Declension like regnum. 
 
 scutum, a shield. I belhirn, tear, 
 
 vinum, wine. | tcmplum, a temple. 
 
 Obs. 1. The stems of all substantives of the second declension end in o, as 
 domYno, regno, pufro, mSgist^ro. The Nominntive Singular originally 
 ended in os, and the Accusative in om : as, domln^^-s, domlno-m : pudro-s, 
 pu?ro-m. In the older writers and poets the o is usually found after t? ; 
 as serv6-s, servo-m, a slave. 
 
 Ohs. 2. When the Genitive Singular ends in it, it is often contracted into 7 : 
 as, fill instead of fIliT, of a son ; oti instead of otiT, of leisure. 
 
 Cbs. 3. The Vocative Singular of fllius, a son, genius, a guardian spirit, ard 
 of Proper Names in ius ends in 7 .- as, fllT, son ; ggnl, guardian spirit ; 
 LaelT, Laelius ; TullT, Tullius. 
 
 Obs. 4. The Genitive Plural of some words ends in tnn instead of orum. This 
 is especially the case with words signifying money, weights, measures, and 
 trades : as, nummum from nununus, a piece of money ; sestertium from 
 sestertius, a sesterce, a silver coin (about 2d.) ; mfidium from modius, a 
 Roman corn-measure, a peck ; fabrum, from t^ber, a smith. 
 
 Obs. 5. The only substantives of the second declension ending in ir are vYr, a 
 man. Gen. vKr-T, &c., with its compounds, triumvir, &c. ; and levlr, Iri, a 
 husband^s brother, a brother-in~laic . 
 
 Obs. 6. Deiis, God, is declined in the following manner : 
 
 Plur. 
 Del, DiT, or DT, Gods 
 Deorum or Deiim, of Gods 
 Dels, DiTs, or Dis, to Gods 
 Deos, Gods 
 
 DeT, DiT, or DT, O Gods 
 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Derts, 
 
 God 
 
 Gen. 
 
 DcT, 
 
 of God 
 
 Bat. 
 
 Deo, 
 
 to God 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Deum, 
 
 God 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Derts, 
 
 God 
 
 Ahl. 
 
 Deo, 
 
 by, with, 
 
 [God. 
 or from 
 
 [Godf. 
 
 Dels, Dils, or DTs, by, with, or from 
 The forms Dei {pi.) and Deis are rarely used. 
 
8 
 
 THIRD DECLENSIOX. 
 
 §20. 
 
 §22. 
 
 THIKD DECLENSION. 
 
 9 
 
 § 20. Declension op Greek Substantives. 
 
 Greek Substantives of this declension employed in Latin differ 
 from the ordinary declension in the following points : — 
 
 1. Greek Substantives in ds frequently have the Greek endings ds 
 and un instead of the Latin us and Mm in tlie Nom. and Ace. Sing. 
 
 2. Greek Substantives in os (us) of the Attic Second Declension 
 generally retain the Greek declension, but they sometimes have in the 
 Gen. i as well as o: 
 
 Nom. Delc5s 
 
 Qm. Dell 
 
 DaU Delo 
 
 Ace. Del6n, Delum 
 
 Voc. Deie 
 
 AM. Delo 
 
 Androgfos 
 ArnlrogoT, Androg?5 
 Androgoo 
 
 Andi-6j;?on, Androg«^6 
 A ndro<ro68 
 Androgeo 
 
 Obs. Substantives in ds sometimes form their Accusatives in ona : as, Andrd' 
 geGnd : so, Nom, Atbos, Ace. AthGna. 
 
 3. Greek Substantives in eu^ (eus) of tlie Tliird Declension some- 
 times follow the Second Declension (exctpt in the Nominative and 
 Vocative), but frequently preserve the Greek declension : 
 
 Nom. Orpheus 
 &M. Orphi^I, Orphei 
 Dai. Orphdo 
 Ace. Orpheum 
 Toe. Orpheu 
 Abl. Orpht^o 
 
 Orph^s 
 Orpheos 
 Orphcl, OrphI 
 Orphi'a 
 Orpheu 
 
 4. The Genitive Plural in some titles of books has the Greek ending 
 m instead of the Latin rum or um : as, Gcorglcon libri, the boohs oj 
 the Georgics. 
 
 \| ' 
 
 Chapter YI.-^The Third Declension. 
 
 § 21. The Xominative Singular of Substantives of the 
 Third Declension ends in various letters. Their stems 
 end in some consonant or i. 
 
 A. Masculine and Feminine Substantives. 
 
 I. Substantives the stems of which end in the labial 
 mutes p, b, and in the labial liquid m. 
 
 ) 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. Trab-s (f.), a beam 
 Gen. Trab-is, of abeam 
 Dal. Trab-i, 
 Ace. Trab-em, « beam 
 Voc. Trab-s, O beam 
 Abl. Trab-e, 
 
 to or for a beam 
 
 [beam, 
 by, icith, OT from a 
 
 Sing. 
 Xom. Princep-s ^m.\ a chief 
 Gen. Princip-is, of a chief 
 Dat. Princip-i, to or for a chief 
 Ace. Princip-em, a chief 
 Voc. Princeps, chief [a chief. 
 All. Princip-e, bi/, with, or from 
 
 riur. 
 
 Trab-es, beams 
 
 Trab-um, of beams 
 
 Trab-ibiis, to or for beams 
 
 Trab-es, beams 
 
 Trab-es, beams 
 
 Trab-ibiis, by, u-ith, or from beams. 
 
 2. Plur. 
 
 Princip-es, chiefs 
 
 Princip-um, of chiefs 
 
 Princip-ibiis, to or for chiefs 
 
 Princip-es, chiefs 
 
 Princip-es, chiefs [chiefs. 
 
 Princip-ibus, by, mith, or from 
 
 Sing. 
 Xom. Hiem-s Cf ), lointer 
 Gen. Hiem-is, of ic inter 
 Dat. Hiem-i, to or for icinter 
 Ace. Hiem-em, icinter 
 Voc. Hiem-s, icinter [winter 
 Abl. 
 
 8. Plur. 
 
 Hiem-es, iviniers 
 Hiem-um, of winters 
 Hiem-ibiis, to or for winters 
 Hiem-es, zcinters 
 Hiem-es, winters [ters. 
 
 Hiem-e, by, icith, or from I Hiem-ibiis, by, loith, or from icin- 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Xom. Urb-s (f.), a city 
 Gen. TJrb-is, of a city 
 Bat. Urb-i, to or for a city 
 Ace. Urb-em, a city 
 Voc. Trb-s, city [city. 
 
 Abl. Urb-e, by, icith, or from a 
 
 4. Phu-. 
 
 Urb-es, cities 
 
 TJrb-ium, of cities 
 
 XJrb-ibiis, to or for cities 
 
 TTrb-es, cities 
 
 Urb-es, O cities 
 
 Urb-ibiis, by, with, or from cities. 
 
 Obs. 1. When a monosyllahic Stem ends in two consonants, the Gen. pi. ends 
 in him, not um : as urb-ium. So also below : arx, Ge7i. PI. arc-ium ; mons. 
 Gen. PL mont-iuni. 
 
 06*. 2. When a Stem of more than one syllable has ^ in the last syllable, that 
 ^ is changed into z when another syllable follows : as, Stem princfp, Gen. 
 princTp-is; So also below : Stem jud&c, e'en. jQdic-is ; Stem mll^t, Gen. 
 mllit-is; Stem nOmdn, Gen. nOmin-is. 
 
 § 22. II. Substantives the stems of which end in the 
 guttural mutes eg. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Xom. Dux (e.g.), a leader 
 Gen, Diic-is, of a leader 
 Dat. Diic-i, 
 Ace. I)iic-em, 
 Voe. Dux, 
 Abl, Duc-e, 
 
 to or for a leader 
 a leader 
 
 leader [leader, 
 by, with, or from a 
 
 1. Plur. 
 
 Diic-es, leaders 
 Diic-um, of leaders 
 Diic-ibus, to or for leaders 
 Diic-es, ' leaders 
 Diic-es, O leaders 
 liic-ibiis, by, with, or from leaders. 
 
 b8 
 
10 
 
 THIKD DECLENSION. 
 
 C no 
 
 Sing. 
 Nam. Lex ^f.\ « '«»f 
 
 8 
 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 
 AM. 
 
 Leg-13, 
 
 Leg-i. 
 
 Leg-em, 
 
 Lex, 
 
 Leg-e, 
 
 of a laio 
 
 to or for a Jaw 
 
 a law 
 
 law IJaio. 
 
 hy, icith^ OT from a 
 
 Sing. J 
 
 Nom. Judex (c.\ a judge 
 
 Gen. Judic-is, of a judge 
 
 Dat. Judic-i, to or for a judge 
 
 Ace. JMic-em, a judge 
 
 Vac. Judex, judge {judge. 
 
 Abl. Judic-e, by, with, or from a 
 
 Sinrr. - 
 
 Nom. Arx (O, a citadel 
 
 Gen, Arc-is, of a citadel 
 
 Dat. Arc-i, to or for a citadel 
 
 Ace. Arc-em, a citadel 
 
 Voe. Arx, citadel [citadel 
 
 Ahl. Arc-e, by, with, or from a 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Leg-es, laws 
 
 Leg-um, of hues 
 
 Leg-ibus, to ov for laics 
 
 Leg-e3, lavs 
 
 Leg-es, hfvx 
 
 Leg-ibus, by, with, or from law8. 
 
 , riur. 
 
 Judic-es, j^idges 
 
 Judic-ura, of judges 
 
 Judic-ibus, to or for judges 
 
 Judic-es, judges 
 
 Judic-es, judges [j^tdges. 
 
 Judic-ibiia, by, with, or from 
 
 L Plur. 
 
 Arc-e3. citadels 
 
 Arc-ium, of citadels 
 
 Arc-ibus, to OT for citadels 
 
 Arc-e3, citadels 
 
 Arc-es, citadels 
 
 Arc-ibus, by, icith, or from citadels. 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 nnx r/.\ 
 fax (f.\ 
 pax (7 ). 
 fornax (/.), 
 vox >/.), 
 ra.lix (/.), 
 rex (w.), 
 
 nilc-is, 
 
 fat-is, 
 
 l^ac-is, 
 
 fomac-is, 
 
 v6c-is, 
 
 radic-is, 
 
 leg-is, 
 
 a nut. 
 a torch, 
 peace, 
 an oven, 
 a voice, 
 a root, 
 a king. 
 
 grex (m.), grCg-is, 
 
 remex (m.), renilg-is, 
 
 pollex (m.), pnllit'-is, 
 
 index (c), in<iir-is, 
 
 vertex (m.), vertk-is, 
 
 falx (/."), falc-is, 
 
 raerx (/.), merc-is, 
 
 a flock. 
 a rofrer. 
 the thumh. 
 an informer^ 
 an eddy. 
 a sickle, 
 merchandise. 
 
 Ohs. Cs and gs are contracted into x: as, dux instead of duc-s, lex instead of 
 le^-s. In nix, stiou; Gen. ntv-is, Dat. niv-i, «S:c., the yom. ends in x, be- 
 cause the Stem originally ended in a guttural. 
 
 § 23. TIT. Piibstantives the Stems of which end in tlie 
 dental mutes t, d. 
 
 1. Phir. 
 
 Aetat-e3, ages 
 
 Aetat-um, of ages 
 
 Aetat-Ibus, to or for ages 
 
 Aetat-es, ages 
 
 Aetat-es, ages 
 
 Aetat-ibiis, hy, with, or from agea. 
 
 -ing. 
 
 Nom. Aeta-9 ^f.\ an age 
 
 Gen. Aetat-is, of an age 
 
 Dat. Aetat-i, to or for an age 
 
 Ace. Aetat-em, an age 
 
 Voc. Aeta-s, age [an age. 
 
 Abl. Aetat-e, by, tc'th, or from 
 
 \ 
 
 §24. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 11 
 
 I 
 
 ] 
 
 Sins:. 
 
 2. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. Lapi-s '^ra.% a stone 
 
 Gen. Lapid-is, of a stone 
 
 Dat. Lapid-i, to or for a stone 
 
 Ace. Lapid-em, a stone 
 
 Voc. Lapi-s, stone [a stone. 
 
 Lapid-es, stones 
 Lapid-um, of stones 
 Lapid-ibus, to or for stones 
 Lapid-es, stones 
 Lapid-es, stones 
 
 Abl. Lapid-e, by, loith, or /rom 1 Lapid-ibiis, by, with, ox from stones. 
 
 Sing. 3. 
 
 Nom. Mile-s (q.^, a soldier 
 
 Gen. Milit-is, of a soldier 
 
 Dat. ^niit-i, to or for a soldier 
 
 Ace. Milit-em, a soldier 
 
 Voc. Mile-s, soldier [soldier. 
 
 Abl. Milit-e, by, with, ot from a 
 
 Sing. 4. 
 
 Nom. Mon-s (m.), a mountain 
 
 Gen, Mont-is, of a mountain 
 
 Dat. Mont-i, to or for a mountain 
 
 Ace. Mont-em, a mountain 
 
 Voc. Mon-s, mountain 
 
 A III. Mont-e, by, witK or from a 
 
 mountain. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Milit-es, soldiers 
 
 Milit-um, of soldiers 
 
 Milit-ibiis, to or for soldiers 
 
 Milit-es, soldiers 
 
 Milit-es, soldiers [diers- 
 
 Milit-ibiis, by, with, or from sol- 
 
 Plur. 
 Mont-es, mountains 
 Mont-ium, of mountains 
 Mont-ibus, to or for mountains 
 Mont-es, mountains 
 Mont-es, mountains 
 Mont-ibls, by, with, or from moun- 
 tains. 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 ohses (c), obsi,l-is, a hostage. 
 
 pars (/.), part-is, a part. 
 
 sei-pens (c), serpent-is, a serpent. 
 
 ars (/.), art-is an art. 
 
 frons (/.), front-is, a forehead. 
 
 clvltas r/.), civTtut-is, a state. 
 virtus (/.), virtut-is, virtue. 
 sriceixlos(c.),sacerd<3t-is, a priest, 
 
 priestess. 
 cassis (/.), ca.ssW-is, a helmet. 
 coraSs (c), c6mlt-is, a companion. 
 
 Ohs. 1. T and d are dropped before s: as, aetii-s, lapY-s, mTl^-s, mon-s, instead 
 of aetat-s, lipid-s, mllet-s, mout-s. 
 
 Obs. 2. In nox, noct-is, night, the Stem is noct : in the Xom. t is dropped 
 before s, and the letters cs are contracted into x : noct-s = noc-s = nox. 
 
 § 24. lY. Substantives the Stems of which end in the 
 liquids 1, r, and the sibilant s. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. Consul (m.^, a consul 
 Gen. Consiil-is, of a consul 
 Dat. Consiil-i, to or for a consul 
 Ace. Consiil em, a consul 
 Voc. Consiil, O consul 
 Abl. Console, by, with, or from 
 
 a consul. 
 
 1. PIUT. 
 
 Consul-es, consuls 
 
 Consiil -um, of consids 
 
 Consiil-ibus, to or for consuls 
 
 Consul-es, consuls 
 
 Consul-es, consvls 
 
 Consul-ibiis, by, with, or from 
 consuls. 
 
12 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 §24. 
 
 Sing. 8. Plur. 
 
 Nom. Clamor (m.), a shout Clamor-es, shouts 
 
 Gen. Clamor-is, of a shout Clam5r-um, of shouts 
 
 Clamor-i, to or for a shout Clamor-ibus, to or for shouts 
 
 Bat 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 Ahl 
 
 Clamor-em, a shout Clamdr-es, shouts 
 
 Clamor, shout [a shout. Clamor-es, shouts [^shouts. 
 
 Clamor-e, hy, irith, or from [ Clamor-ibus, hy, withy or from 
 
 Singr. 
 
 Nom. Anser^ra,), a goose 
 
 Gen. Anser-is, of a goose 
 
 Dat. Anser-i, to or for a goose 
 
 Ace. Anser-em, a goose 
 
 Voe. Anser, O goose [a goose. 
 
 Ahl. Anser-e, hij, with, or from 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. PatSr, a father 
 Gen. Patr-is, of a father 
 
 Patr-i, to or for a father 
 
 Patr-em, a father 
 
 Pater, father [father. 
 
 Dat 
 Ace. 
 
 Yo^. 
 Ahl 
 
 % Plur. 
 
 Anser-es, geese 
 
 Anser-um, of geese 
 
 Anser- ibus, to or for geese 
 
 Anser-es, geese 
 
 Anser-es, O geese 
 
 Anser-ibus, hy, icith, or from geese. 
 
 C Plur. 
 
 Patr-es, fathers 
 Patr-um, of fathers 
 Patr-ibus, to or for fathers 
 Patr es, fathers 
 Patr-es, fathers 
 
 Patr-e, hy, with, or from a I Patr-ibiis, hy, with, or from fathers. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. Flos Cm.), a flower 
 Gen. F16r-is, of a flower 
 Dat. Flor-i, to or for a flower 
 Ace. F16r-em, afloicer 
 Voc. Flos, O flower [flower. 
 Ahl. F16r-e, hy, with, or from a 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Flor-es, flotrers 
 
 F16r-um, of flowers 
 
 Flor-ibus, to or for flowers 
 
 F16r-es, flowers 
 
 F16r-es, O flowers 
 
 Flor-ibus, hy, with, or from floiccrs. 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 sol (w.), sol-is, 
 
 exsfll fc), exsfll-is, 
 
 color (m.), color-is, 
 
 timor (m.), timor-is, 
 
 mos (m.), mor-is. 
 
 the sun. 
 an exile, 
 colour, 
 fear, 
 a custom. 
 
 aggSr (w.), agggr-is, 
 career (m.), carc6r-is, 
 mQliSr, muligr-is, 
 
 matgr, matr-is, 
 
 fratgr, fratr-is, 
 
 a mound, 
 a prison, 
 a woman, 
 a mother, 
 a brother. 
 
 Obs. 1. In some Substantives ending: in ?r, the ^ is dropped in ail cases 
 except the ^om. and Voc. Sing. : as pJiter, mater, etc. 
 
 Obs. 2. The s of the Stem is changed into r, when another syllable follows : 
 as, Stem and JV'ow. flos, Gen. flor-is : Stetn and 3'owj. puJvIs, dust, Gen. 
 pulv^r-is. 
 
 \\ 
 
 (\ 
 
 
 I 
 
 §26. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 13 
 
 § 25. V. Substantives the Steins of which end in on. 
 
 Sing. 1. 
 
 Nom. Leo (m.), a lion 
 
 Gen. Leon-is, of a lion 
 
 Dat. Leon-i, to or for a lion 
 
 Ace. Leon-em, a lion 
 
 Voc. Leo, lion [lion. 
 
 Ahl. Leon-e, hy, with, or from a 
 
 Sing. 2. 
 
 Nom. Virgo, a maiden 
 Gen, Virgin-is, of a maiden 
 Dat. Virgin-i, to or for a maiden 
 Ace. Virgin-em, a maiden 
 Voc. Virgo, maiden [maideii. 
 
 Ahl. Virgin-e, hy, loith, or from a Virgin-ibus, hy, with, or from 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Leon-es, lions 
 
 Leon-um, of lions 
 
 Leon-ibus, to or for lions 
 
 Leon-es, lious 
 
 Leon-es, lions 
 
 Le5n-ibiis, hy, icith, or from lions. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Virgin-es, maidens 
 
 Virgin-um, of maidens 
 
 Virgin-ibus, to or for maidens 
 
 Virgin-es, maidens 
 
 Virgin-es, maidens [maidens. 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 sermou-is, a discourse. 
 piigion-is, a dagger. 
 
 semio (m.), 
 
 prtgio C'/i.), 
 
 liitro (m,), latron-is, a robber. 
 
 praeco (w.),. 
 
 oratio (/.), 
 
 pave (m.), 
 
 praecon-is, a cncr. 
 oriition-is, a speech. 
 pavon-is, a peacock. 
 
 homo (c), homin-is, 
 
 gi"ando (/.), grandin-is, 
 
 ordo (m.), ordin-is, 
 
 imago (/.), imagin-is, 
 
 hirundo if.), hirundin-is, a swallow, 
 
 arundo (/.), arundin-is, a reed. 
 
 a manoYv:0' 
 hail. [man. 
 a rank, 
 a likeness. 
 
 Obs. 1. If the Stem ends in on (short), the o is changed into t, when another 
 ylldblc follows : as, Stem virgon, Gen. virgln-is. Comp. § 21, Obs. 2. 
 
 Obs. 2. Caro [Stem citron) flesh, drops the o in all cases except the I^Tom. and 
 Voc. Sing. : as, Nom. ciro, Gen. cam-Is, Dat. carn-I, &c. 
 
 § 26. YI. Substantives the Stems of which end in *. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. Host-is (c), an enemy 
 Gen. Host-is, of an enemy 
 Dat. Host-i, to or for an enemy 
 Ace. Host-em, an enemy 
 Voc. Host-is, enemy [enemy. 
 
 1. Plur. 
 
 Host-es, enemies 
 
 Host-ium, of enemies 
 
 Host-ibus, to or for enemies 
 
 Host-es, enemies 
 
 Host-es, O enemies [mies. 
 
 Ahl. Host-e, hy, with, or from an \ Host-ibus, hy, tcith, oi from ene- 
 
 civis {c.\ a citizen. 
 avis (/.), a bird. 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 ovis (/.), a sheep. 
 lelis (/.), a cat. 
 
 vestis (f.), a garment 
 classls (f.)f a fleet. 
 
11 
 
 THIRD DECLESSIOS. 
 
 
 Some Stems end in i or e. and are thus declined :— 
 
 bins:. 
 
 Nom. Nub-es, a cloud 
 
 Gen. Nub IS, of a cloud 
 
 Dai. Nub i, to or for a cloud 
 
 Aec. Nub em, a cloud 
 
 Voe. Nub-es, cloud [cloud. 
 
 AU. Nub-e, hij, with, or from a 
 
 2. I^l''^"- 
 
 ! Nub-es, clouds 
 
 Nub-ium, of clouds 
 
 Nubibus, to or for clouds 
 
 Nub es, clouds 
 
 Nub-e3, O clouds 
 
 Nub-ibus, by, with, or from clouds. 
 
 Examples fcr Declension. 
 cla.Ies, a defeat. | nipes, a rock. \ se.les, a seat, 
 
 B. Xeuter Snhstajitives, 
 
 § ">! The Nominative, Accnsative, and Vocative Singular 
 of Substantives of the Third Declension are properly the 
 same as the Stem. The >: om., Ace, and \ oc. 1 lurul always 
 end in a, as in the Second Declension. 
 
 § 2S. T. Substantives the Stems of which end in n, r, s, t. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. Nomen, a name 
 
 Gen. Nomin-Is, of a name 
 
 Pat. Nomin i, to or for a name 
 
 Ace. Nomen, a name 
 
 Voc. Nomen, name [name. 
 
 1. Plur. 
 
 N6min-a, namrs 
 
 Nomin-um, of names 
 
 Nomm ibus, to or for names 
 
 N5min-a, names 
 
 Nomm-a, Jiames [ymmes. 
 
 roc. xiouieu, 1/ #€Mi»c L""" — ' - , 
 
 All. N6min-e, by, ir/^^t, or /rom a | Nomin ibus, hy, with, or jron, 
 
 Sin<r. 
 
 Kor>i. Fulgur, lightning 
 Gen. Fulgur-is, of lightning 
 Dot. Fulgur-i, to ox for lightning 
 Ace. Fulgur, lightning 
 Voc. Fulgur, lightning 
 AM. Fulgur-e, hy, icith, or from 
 
 lightning. 
 
 2. rinr. 
 
 Fulgur-X, lightnings 
 Fulgur-um, of lightnings 
 Fulgur ibus, to or for lightnings 
 Fulgur-a, lightnings 
 Fulgur- a, lightnings 
 Fulgur-ibus, hy, with, or /rr/.* 
 lightnings. 
 
 Nom. Crus, 
 Gen. Crur is, 
 D'lt. Cruri, 
 Ace. Ctus, 
 Voc. Crus, 
 AU. Crur-e, 
 
 a leg 
 of a leg 
 to OT for a leg 
 a leg 
 
 leg [leg. 
 
 hy, with, or from a 
 
 8. riur. 
 
 Crur-&, legs 
 
 Crur-um, of legs 
 
 Crur -ibus, to or for legs 
 
 Crur- a, legs 
 
 Crur a, legs 
 
 Crur-ibils, hy, with, or from IcQf. 
 
 §28. 
 
 THIFiD DECLEXSIONT. 
 
 15 
 
 Sing. 
 
 4. 
 
 riur. 
 
 Nom. Cpus, a work 
 
 Gen. Cper is, of a tcorh 
 
 Bat. Operi, to or for a icorh 
 
 Ace. opus, a work 
 
 Voc. Opus, work [toork. 
 
 Abl. Oper-e, hy, with, or from a 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. Corpus, a body 
 
 Gen. Corpor-is, of a body 
 
 l)at. Corp6r-i, to or for a body 
 
 Ace. Corpus, a body 
 
 Voc. Corpus, body [body. 
 
 Abl. Corp6r-e, by,iclth, oifroma 
 
 6pSr-a, icorks 
 
 Cper urn, of icorks 
 
 6per-ibu3, to or for works 
 
 Oper a, icorks 
 
 Cper-a, O icorks 
 
 Oper ibus, by, with, or from works. 
 
 5. Plur. 
 
 Corpor-§,, bodies 
 
 Corpor-um, of bodies 
 
 Corpor-ibus, to or for bodies 
 
 Corpor-a, bodies 
 
 Corp6r-a, bodies [bodies. 
 
 Corpor-ibu3, hy, with, or frotix 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. Caput, a head 
 
 Gen. Capit-is, of a head 
 
 Dat. Capiti, to or for a head 
 
 Ac^.. Caput, a head 
 
 Voc. Caput, head [head. 
 
 Abl. Capit-e, by, with, or from a 
 
 6. Plur. 
 
 Capit-a, heads 
 
 Capit um, of heads 
 
 Capit ibus, to or for heads 
 
 Capit a, heads 
 
 Capit-a, heads 
 
 Capit-ibiis, by, with, or from heads. 
 
 ;N-ote. — A i'cw Siibstaiitivos ending in en and ns ore not Neuter : fis, 
 flamCMi, luis m.), a special priest; Venas, oris, the goddess of love; lepas, 
 Oris (m.), a hare. 
 
 Examples fcr Teclension. 
 
 flumSn, 
 
 In is, 
 
 a river. 
 
 carmen, 
 fidmgn, 
 semen. 
 
 Inis, 
 Inis, 
 inis, 
 
 a son;]. 
 
 a thunderbolt. 
 
 a seed. 
 
 murmiir, 
 guttfli", 
 
 OS, 
 
 uris, 
 uris, 
 oris, 
 
 a murmur. 
 a throat, 
 a mouth. 
 
 eenfl<5, 
 foc'dus, 
 
 6ris, 
 6ris, 
 
 a race, 
 a treaty. 
 
 funiis, 
 
 6ns, 
 
 a funeral 
 
 latus, 
 
 eiis, 
 
 a side. 
 
 si<lus, 
 
 eris, 
 
 a constellation 
 
 vulnus, 
 
 eiis, 
 
 a ic und. 
 
 lit! us 
 
 oris, 
 
 a shore. 
 
 pignus, 
 
 oris, 
 
 a pledge. 
 
 tern pus, 
 
 oris, 
 
 a time. 
 
 nCmiis, 
 
 oris. 
 
 a grove. 
 
 pectu>, 
 
 oris, 
 
 a breast. 
 
 Ohs. 1. The substitution of r for the final s of the Stem, when another syl- 
 lable follows, is an euphonic change : as, crus, crur-is, instead of crus-is ; 
 6pf 8, 6pf r-is, instead of op^s-is ; corpus, corp6r-is, instead of corpOs-is. 
 
 Ob.f. 2. The u in iis of the Xom. Sing, is only an euphonic change of the 
 e and 6 of the Stem : as, Stems opCs, corpos ; Nom. opiis, corptls. 
 
 Oh$. 3. In cripQt, cilplt-ts, the ft of the Stem is changed into i when another 
 pvllable follows, like the ^ in nOm$n, nomln-is. See '^ 21, Ohs. 2. 
 
16 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 §-9. 
 
 §1^2. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 17 
 
 § 29. II. Substantives the Stems of which end in i (tha 
 JVbm. in e, al, ar). 
 
 5inc 
 
 1. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. Maf-e, the sea 
 
 Gen. Mar is, of the sea 
 
 Dat. Mar-i, to or for the sea 
 
 Ac-c. Mare, the sefi 
 
 Voc. Mare, sea [sea. 
 
 Ahl. Mar-i, hy, icith, or from the Mar-ibus, hij, icith, or from seas. 
 
 Mar-ia, 
 
 seas 
 
 Mar ium. 
 
 of seas 
 
 Mar-ibus, 
 
 to or for seac 
 
 Mar ia, 
 
 seas 
 
 Mar ia, 
 
 seas 
 
 \ 
 
 Sfnex, an old 
 
 man. 
 
 Jupttgr (=J8v-ptt6r, i. e 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 the god. 
 
 2foTn. S^nex 
 
 Sfn-es 
 
 Nom. Juplt?r 
 
 Gen. Sfn-Ts 
 
 Sfn-um 
 
 Gen. J5v-t8 
 
 Dat. Sfn-T 
 
 S^n-n)ti3 
 
 Bat. J6V-T 
 
 Ace. sen-em 
 
 S^n-es 
 
 Ace. Jdv-ein 
 
 Vnc. Sfncx 
 
 Son-es 
 
 Voc. Jupiter 
 
 Abl. S6n-6 
 
 Scn-ibtis 
 
 Ahl. J5v-e. 
 
 p&tfr), 
 
 St 
 
 mg. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Animal-ia, animals 
 Animal-ium, of a)iimals 
 
 Nom. Animal, an animal 
 Gen. Ajiimal-is, of an animal 
 Bat. Animal i, foor/or awmt/maZ ' Animal-ibus, to or for am mule 
 Ace. Animal, an animal , Animal-ia, anima) 
 
 Voc. Animal, animal 
 Abl. Animal-i, by, with, or from 
 
 an animal. 
 
 Animal-ia, animals 
 Animal-ibus, hy. icith., or from 
 animals. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. Calcar, a spur 
 
 Gen. Calcar-is, of a spur 
 
 Bat. Calcar-i, to or for a spur 
 
 Ace. Calcar, a spur 
 
 Voc. Calcar, spur [spur 
 
 S. Plur. 
 
 Calcar-ia, spurs 
 Calcar-ium, of spurs 
 Calcar-ibus, to or for sjmrs 
 Calcar-ia, spu rs 
 Calcar-ia, O spurs 
 
 Abl. Calcar-i, 6^, iciV/i, or /ro//i a , Calcar-ibus, by, icith, or from spurs. 
 
 rets, 
 ovue, 
 
 a net. 
 
 a sheepfold. 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 monilg, a necklace. 
 vectigal, a tax. 
 
 cei-vical, a pillow. 
 exemplar, an example. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Stems of mare and similar Substantives end in i, the final ? of the 
 Nom. being only an euphonic change of the i: as, Stem miiri, Nom. muiC*. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Stems of words whose Nominatives end in al and or, end in rlli 
 and dri, the t being dropped and the a shortened in the Nom. Sing. : as, 
 Stem animuli, Nam. ftnlmJll ; Stem culcari, Nom. calcar. Hence the Ahl. 
 in t, see §§ 32, 33. 
 
 § 30. The following irregular Substantives are thus declined : 
 
 Bos (c), an ox or eoic. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Bos 
 
 Gen. 
 
 BQr-ts 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Bov-T 
 
 Ace. 
 
 B6v-eni 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Bos 
 
 Abl. 
 
 B6v.« 
 
 Plur. 
 B8v-es 
 
 B3v-um or btS-um 
 Bo-biis or bu-bvi8 
 Bov-es 
 BQv-es 
 Bo-bas or bubtls. 
 
 P 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Chapter VII. — Eemarks on the Cases of the 
 Third Declension (including Adjectives). 
 
 § 31. Accusative Singular in im. 
 
 Tlie Ace. Sing, of many Substantives, of which the Nom. ends in is 
 has im, not em : 
 
 1. Always in the five words : — • 
 
 amussis, rfivis, sTtis, tussis, vis, 
 
 and in the names of cities and rivers; as, Hispalis, Seville; TI- 
 beris, the Tiber. 
 
 amussis (/.), a rule. 
 ravis (/.), hoarseness. 
 sitis (/.), thirst. 
 
 tussis (/.), a coyujh. 
 vis (/.), violence. 
 
 2. Generally in the six words : 
 
 febris, pelvis, puppis, 
 restis, turris, s6curis. 
 
 febi-Is (/.), fever. 
 
 pelvis (/.), a basin. 
 
 puppTs (/.), the stern of a ship. 
 
 restis (/.), a rope. 
 turris (/.), a tower. 
 securis (/.), an axe. 
 
 3. Sometimes in the three words : 
 
 clavls, messis, navis. 
 
 clavls {f.)yCi hey. \ messis (/.), a hai^est. \ navIs (/.), a ship. 
 
 § 32. Ablative Singular in i. 
 
 The Abl. Sing, has i, not S: 
 
 1. In all words of which the Accusative ends in im only : as, 
 sitl, Tiber! . 
 
 2. In Neuters in ^, al, and ar, (Gen. aris) : as, mirl, animali, 
 calcari. 
 
 > rt^J- 
 
 I 
 
f^a "-Tge-^vrviua 
 
 f wwjs8Rm*««i*iC3Sa»3t'i •^■'r *#4 ' -^^ 
 
 18 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 § 
 
 O). 
 
 §36. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 VJ 
 
 Obn. 1. Sometimes, but very rarely, these Substantives have ? in the 
 Ablative : as, mare (Varr., Lucr.). 
 
 065. 2. Names of towns in e always have ? in the Abl. : as, Praenest?. 
 
 Ohs. 3. Substantives in ar, the Gen. of which is not aris, have ? in the 
 Abl.: as, far, farris, spelt; baccJlr, baccilris, a siveet herb; jilbilr, 
 juhULTis, a sun-beam ; nectar, nectSris, n^-ffar. 
 
 3. In Adjectives ending in is, e, and er, is, e: as, filcTli from 
 fileilis, easy ; acri from ilcer, sharp. 
 
 § 33. AUativs Singular in i and e. 
 
 The All. Sing, has both i and <f: 
 
 1. In most words the Ace. of which ends both in im and em: as, 
 puppi and puppi^. 
 
 Also in ij?nts, avts, imber, vesper, silpellex. 
 
 igt.Is (m.), fire. siipellex, /. (AM. supellectTli, or stlpol- 
 
 Svis C/.), a bird. lectilo), household utcnsi/s. 
 
 inibSr, n. (Abh imbi! & vesper, w. (AbL vespgii or vespgrg). 
 
 inibrg), rain. \ everdng. 
 
 Ohs. Restls has only rest? ; sScurts only s?curT. 
 
 2. In Adjectives of one termination and in the Compamtives : 
 as, prudenli and prudentcJ from prfidens, experienced; altiurl and 
 altiorC from altior, higher. The Comparatives usually have S. 
 
 Obs. 1. The following Adjectives have $ only : 
 pauper, pubes, desds, 
 jf^^B comp«)s, impos, caelebs, 
 
 ^ princeps and sOperst<*s. 
 
 paup?r, ?ris, poor. 
 pubes (?r) dris, an adult. 
 des^s, Wis, lazy. 
 
 compos, Otis, having the 
 mastery of. 
 
 impfts, fitis, 
 caelebs, Ibis, 
 princeps, l(pi«, 
 siiperstCs, Itis, 
 
 not master <■/. 
 unmarried, 
 chief, 
 surviving. 
 
 Obs. 2. par, equal, and mfmor, mindful, have only /. But par, a pair 
 (subst.), has i also. 
 
 Obs. 3. The Participles in ns generally have I when used as Adjectives, 
 but otherwise $. 
 
 § 34. N'ominativs^ Accusative, and Vocative Plural in la. 
 
 The Nom., Acc.t and V^r. Plnr. of Neuter Nouns have Tii: 
 
 1. In Snbstantivt^s, the Nom, Sinp:. of which end in e, al, ar 
 (Gen. arts) : as, mJlria, anlmi'dia, calcaria. 
 
 2. In Adjectives which have the Abl. Sinp:. either in I alone, or 
 in I and ^, except the Comparatives : as, gnlvul, acrta, prfidentLl ; 
 but altiorfl. 
 
 Ohs. Except v?t{is, old, which has vStJrS. Complures, several, has bctli 
 complfiri and corapliiriJl. 
 
 ^• 
 
 < 
 
 * 
 
 § 35. Genitive Plural in lum. 
 
 The Gen. Flur. has ium, not um : 
 
 1. In Substantives the Nom. Sing, of which ends inis or es: as, 
 hofctis, hostium ; aedes, aedium. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 Ambages, strues, jOv^nTs, 
 Vates, c^nTs, voliicrls, 
 
 In genitive have «m, 
 While Spis, mensTs, sedes, 
 
 Have either um or turn. 
 
 ambages* [/.), 
 strues (/.), 
 jiivdnls (c), 
 vates (c), 
 cinls (c). 
 
 a trinding. 
 a heap. 
 a youth. 
 a prophet, 
 a dog. 
 
 volOcris (/.), 
 apts (/.), 
 mensls [m.), 
 sedes (/.), 
 
 a bird, 
 a bee. 
 a month, 
 a seat. 
 
 » See § 52, Obs. 3. 
 
 * 2. In the words : 
 
 Imber, uter, Unt(?r, 
 Insuber, c^ro, vcntfir : 
 
 as, imbrium, camlum, &c. 
 
 iml'Sr (m.), rain, 
 
 uter (m.\ a hvi made of len- 
 
 linter(//i.), a uherry. [ther. 
 
 Insiil gr (m.), name of a Gallic tribe. 
 (•aro (/.), fiesh. 
 venter (/n.), the belly. 
 
 3. In monosyllabic words, the stems of which end in two 
 consonants: as, urbs, mb-ium ; arx, arc-ium ; mons, mont-iura 
 So also OS {Stem oss^ 7i., a bone. Gen. Ft. oss-ium ; as (Stem ass), 
 in., a small coin. Gen. Ft. ass-imn. 
 
 4. Also in the following monosyllabic words in which the 
 
 stem ends in a single consonant : 
 
 Lis, glTs, and vis, 
 Mas, mas, and nix, 
 Add faux and strix. 
 
 lis Oiti""!"*' /. a lavrsnit. 
 
 glls ( i;liriu*i), m. a dormouse. 
 
 vis (virium), /. force. 
 
 ni us (murium), m. a mouse. 
 
 mas (marium), a m/xle. 
 rvx (nivium), /. snxtw. 
 faux (taucium), /. the throat. 
 strix (st)igiura),/. an oul. 
 
 Obs. The Xom. faux is not used. See § 52, Obs. 3. 
 
 5. In all neuter substantives which have the Nmn.Fl. in ia : 
 as, mtlrium ; animuliura ; calcarium. 
 
 § 36, Genitive Plural in ium (rarely um). 
 
 The Gen. Flur. generally ends in lum, rarely in um : 
 
 1. In words of more than one syllable, the Nom. Sing, of which 
 
 1^ 
 
20 
 
 THIKD DECLENSION. 
 
 §37. 
 
 ends in ns: as, cliens (clientium, rarely clientnm), a client; :\<lo- 
 lescens (fldulescentiuni, rarely adolescentura), a young man; pru- 
 dens (priidentiiim, rarely prudentiim), prudent. 
 
 2. In national names : as, QuMs (QuTritinm), a Homan : Arjuns's 
 rArpinfitiura), a native of Arpinum. Also Ptfnates (Pcnatiumj, the 
 household gods ; optlmates (optlmatiiun), the nobles. 
 
 § 37. Accusative Plural in is and 
 
 es. 
 
 The Ace. Plur. of most mnscnline and feminine nouns, the Gen. PI. 
 of which ends in ntw, lias is as well as es: as, hostis and hostes ; urtis 
 and artea ; praesentis and praesentes. 
 
 Obs. The words which have in the Sing, the case-endinprs im and i, and 
 in the Phtral the case-endinps /«, itim, and is, generally have Stems 
 ending in i. The cases are thus formed according to the analogy of 
 words of other declensions of which the Stems end in a vowel : as, 
 Ace. Sing, puppi-m like gradu-m ; 
 
 Abl. Sing. puppT 
 Kom. PI. mari-S, 
 Gen. PI. mari-um 
 Ace. PI. puppI-8 
 
 gradu ; 
 genu-a ; 
 genu-um ; 
 manu-s. 
 
 But many such words follow the analogy of words of the third declen- 
 sion, the Stems of which end in a consonant : thus we have also the 
 forms puppem, i)uppo, puppes, ire. The i of the Stem is frequently 
 dropped in the Norn. Sing.: see § 29, Obs. 2. 
 
 Chapter YIII. — Greek Substantives of the Third 
 
 Declension. 
 
 § 38. Nominative Singular. 
 
 The Norn. Sing, of many Proper Names ends in the Greok on (wv) 
 as well as the Latin 6 : as, Agamemnon, rarely Agamemno. 
 
 § 39. Genitive Singular. 
 
 1. The Gen. Sing, of Proper Names in es ends in F more fre- 
 quently than in U: as, N&m. PCricles, Gen. Pc-ricl-i and PCriel-fs. 
 
 2. The Geji. Sing, of Proper Names in tlie poets frequently ends 
 in the Greek (?« ^os) instead of in the Latin s: as. TJietIs Gen 
 ThStidos; Pallas, Gen. Pallad-os. ' 
 
 3. The Gen. Sing, of F« minine Names in o generally ends in the 
 Greek Us 'ovs) instead of in the Latin dnis : as, Sapplio, Gen. 
 Sapphus. The Dat., Ace, and Abl. are usually Sappho, 'rarely 
 Sapphon-i,-em, -6. 
 
 § 40. Accusative Singular, 
 
 1. The Ace. Sing, frequently ends in the Greek a instead of in the 
 Latin em : as, aer. Ace. uer-a ; Agamemnon, Ace. Agamemnon-a. 
 
 §4,5. 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 21 
 
 ^ 2. The Ace. Sing, of Substantives in is (with the Stem in i) ends 
 either in im or in the Greek in (iv) : as, poesis. Ace. poesim and 
 poesin ; Charybdis, Ace. Charybdim and Charybdin. 
 
 3. The Ace. Sing, of Proper Names in es frequently ends in the 
 Greek en (t}v\ which is the Ace. of the first Greek Declension : as, 
 Aescliines, Ace. Aeschinen and Aeschinem. 
 
 § 41. Vocative Singular. 
 
 1. The Voc. Sing, of Substantives in is, ys (uy), eus (eus), and 
 as (Gen. antis), ends, as in Greek, without s: as, Phyllis, Voc. 
 Phylli ; Cotys, Voc._ Coty ; Orpheus, Voc. Orpheu (see § 20) ; 
 Calchas, Voc. Calcha. 
 
 2. The Voc. Sing, of Proper Names in e«, Gen. fe, ends in es, 6s. 
 and e : as Socrfttes, SScratCs, and Sdcrate. 
 
 § 42. Nominative Plural. 
 
 The Norn. Plur. in the poets frequently ends in the Greek Ss (es) 
 instead of in the Latin es : as, Arcades. 
 
 § 43. Genitive Plural. 
 
 I'he Gen. Plur. in on {wv) is found in the titles of books only ; 
 as, Metamorphoseon libri. 
 
 § 44. Accusative Plural. 
 
 The Ace. Plur. in the poets frequently ends in the Greek as 
 instead of in the Latin es : as, Arcad-as. 
 
 § 45. Dative and Ablative Plural. 
 
 The Bat. and Ahl. Plur. of Greek Substantives in ma^ Gen. 
 mdtXs, frequently end in Is (according to the Second Declension) 
 instead of in ihiis: as, poemat-is from poemft {iroirj/xa). 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Sing, 
 Nam. Pgricles 
 Gen. Pgriclls, Pgricli 
 Dat. Pgricli 
 Ace. PSriclem, PgricleS, 
 Voc. Pgricles, Pfiriclgs, Pgricle 
 Abl. PSricle. 
 
 H'om. P&rts 
 
 Gen, raiWIs, ParWOs 
 
 Dat. Pftrfdi 
 
 Ace, ParWem, PftrMft, Pftrin 
 
 Voc. ParX 
 
 Abl. ParKde. 
 
 Sing. 
 Pallas 
 
 Paliadts, Paliados 
 Paliadi 
 
 Paliadem, Paliada 
 Pallas 
 PaliadS. 
 
 Sappho 
 
 Sapphtis, SapphSnfa 
 
 Sappho, Sapphoni 
 
 Sappho, SapphOnem 
 
 Sappho 
 
 SapphonS. 
 
"!!ft .i'-'t- 
 
 22 
 
 FOURTH DECLENSION. 
 
 §46. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. chlSmys, '< cloak. 
 Gen. chlilmjf'dis, chlamydos 
 i?a<. chlSmydi 
 Aec, chld,mydem, chiam^dil 
 Abl. chlSm^de. 
 
 P!ur. 
 chlS.mj^d?s or -& 
 chlftmydum 
 chiamydibus 
 chlilnij^dSs, chlSmydis 
 chlimj^dibus. 
 
 Chapter IX. — The Fourth Declension. 
 
 § 46. The Nominative Singular of Masculine and Femi 
 nine Substantives of the Fourth Declension ends in tU, and 
 of Neuter Substantives in u. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom Grad-u.8, a step 
 
 Gen. Grad-us, of a step 
 
 Dat. Grad-iii, to or for a step 
 
 Ace. Grad-um, a step 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Grad-us, stejys 
 Grad-uum, of steps 
 Grad-ibus, to or for steps 
 Grad-iis, steps 
 
 Voc. Grad-us, step [step. Grad-us, steps 
 
 Abl. Grad-u, by, with, cy from a Grad-ibus, by, with, or from steps. 
 
 Nom. Gen-u, a knee 
 
 Gen. Gen-us, of a hiee 
 
 Dat. Gen-u, to or for a knee 
 
 Ace. G§n-u, a Tcnee 
 
 Voc. Gen-u, knee [knee. 
 
 2. Plur. 
 
 Genua, knees 
 Gen-uum, of knees 
 Gen-ibiis, to or for knees 
 Gen-ua, knees 
 Gen-ua, O knees 
 
 Abl. Gen-fl, by, with, or from a Gen-ibus, by, with, or from knees. 
 
 Gender. — Substantives in ua of the Fourth Declension are mascu- 
 line, with the exception of the names of trees and the words mentioned 
 below. 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 fructus, fruit. 
 
 currus, 
 sensus. 
 
 a chariot, 
 a sense. 
 
 raOtus, a movement. 
 usus, a use. 
 c&sus, a fall. 
 
 passus, apace. 
 cursus, a running. 
 cantus, a song. 
 
 Femi 
 
 nine. 
 
 m&nus, a hand. 
 
 trYbus, a tribe (a division of the 
 
 icus, a needle. [Roman people.) 
 
 portkus, a portico. 
 
 dCmus, a house. 
 
 ntirus, a daughter-in-law. 
 
 socrus a mother-in-law. 
 
 Juius, an old-woman. 
 
 idus ( pi.), the Ides (a division of the 
 Konum month). 
 
 §47. 
 
 FIFTH declension. 
 
 23 
 
 cornu, a horn. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 I vgni, 
 
 a spit. 
 
 Ohs. 1 . The Stems of all Substantives of the Fourth Declension end in u. 
 Ohs. 2. The Gen. Sing, us is a contraction of ms : as, grSdus from graduls. 
 Obs. 3. The Dat. Sing, ui is often contracted into u : as, grSduT, gradu. 
 Obs. 4. The Dat. and Abl. Plur. of the following -words end in iibus, but 
 portus and vi^ru have also tbiis: — 
 
 qucrcus, also acus, 
 arcus, voru, liicus, 
 spi^cus, tribus, artus, 
 portus, pecu, partus. 
 
 l^cus {m.), a lake, tank.' artus (m.), a Joint. 
 
 quercns (/.), an oak. 
 
 &CU.S (/.), a netdle. 
 
 arcus ( m.), a bote. 
 
 v^ru [n.), a spit. 
 
 specus (ot. /. I ^^^,^ portus (?«.), a harbour. 
 
 cave. 
 
 & n.) 
 tribus (/.), a tribe. 
 
 p6cu («.), cattle. 
 partus (m.), a birth. 
 
 Obs. 5. Domus, a house, belongs partly to the Second, partly to the Fourth 
 Declension. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Kom. Dfim-ds Dom-us 
 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 Voc. 
 Abl. 
 
 D6m-us 
 
 D6m-uT 
 
 Dom-um 
 
 Dom-vis 
 
 D(3m-o 
 
 Dom-iium or dom-onim 
 
 Dom-ibiis 
 
 DQm-6s (^rarely d6m-us) 
 
 D6m-U8 
 
 Dom-ibiis. 
 
 Ilcnce the memorial line : 
 
 Toll? »??, mfi, ml, nils. 
 Si decllnar? domus vis. 
 i. e. leave out the endings me, mu, ml, tnls, if you wish to decline domiis* 
 D5ml is used only with the meaning at home, and is probably a dative. 
 
 Chapter X. — The Fifth Declension. 
 
 § 47. The Nominative Singular of Substantives of tlie 
 Fifth Declension ends in es. 
 
 Sing. 
 Nom. Dies, a day 
 Gen. Di-ei, of a day 
 Dat. Di-ei, to or for a day 
 Ace. Di-em, a day 
 Voc. Di-es, day [day 
 
 Phir. 
 Di-es, days 
 Di-erum, of days 
 Di-ebiis, to or for days 
 Di-es, days 
 Di-es, days 
 
 Abl. Di-e, by, with, or from a Di-ebiis, by, with, or from days. 
 
 Gender. — Substantives of the Fifth Declension are Feminine : 
 excepting dies, which in the Singular is sometimes Mascuhne and 
 somitimcs Feminine, and in the Plural always Masculine : also 
 meridies (w.), noon, which is a compound of dies. 
 
24 
 
 IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 1 48. 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 rSs, a thing. 
 acies, a point. 
 fades, a face. 
 
 effigies, 
 
 fides, 
 
 s6ries. 
 
 a likeness, 
 faith, 
 a series. 
 
 species, appearance. 
 
 spes, hope. 
 
 meddies (?n.), noon. 
 
 Ohs. 1. The Stems of all Substantives of the Fifth Declension end in e. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the Gen. and Dat. Sing, the e in el is long after a vowel, but short 
 after a consonant : as, dl-el, ficl-el ; but, r6l, fldCl. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the Gen. and Dat. Sing, the ei is sometimes contracted into e ; as, 
 die, fide. 
 
 Obs. 4. Res and dies are the only words of this Declension which have a 
 complete Plural. The words acies, fades, effigies, series, species, and spCs 
 occur in the Plural only in the Norn., Ace, and Voc. cases. No other 
 words of the Declension have any Plural. 
 
 Chapter XL — Irregular Substantives. 
 
 § 48. Some Substantives are not declined : as, fas, permilted hij 
 di cine law; iiHiiis, oppostd to divine law ; iilhi\, nothing ; iustar, resem- 
 blance. 
 
 §49, Some Substantives Lave no Plural : as, ^usiliia, justice ; fames, 
 hunger; aurum, gold. 
 
 § 50. Some Substantives have no Singular : as, nuptiae, a marriage; 
 f^riae, holidays; tenebrae, darkness; libCri, children; arnul, arms. 
 
 § 51. Some Substantives have a different meaning in the Singular 
 and the Plural : as, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Aedes, a temple; 
 
 Aqua, icater; 
 
 Auxllium, help ; 
 
 Career, « prison ; 
 
 Castnim, a fort ; 
 
 Comitium, the place of A sscrnhly ; 
 
 Copia, plenty ; 
 
 Fortiina, fortune ; 
 
 Gratia, favour; 
 
 ImpdJlmentum, a hindrance; 
 
 Pliir. 
 
 Littgra, 
 
 Ludiis, 
 
 opera, 
 
 Opis (Gen.), 
 
 Pars, 
 
 Rostrum, 
 
 T&bttla, 
 
 a letter of the alpha- 
 play, school ; [_bet ; 
 exertion ; 
 help; 
 
 a portion ; 
 a beak ; 
 
 a board f picture ; 
 
 aedes. 
 
 a house. 
 
 &quae, 
 
 medicinal springs. 
 
 aiixllia, 
 
 auxiliary forces. 
 
 carceres, 
 
 a starting-place. 
 
 cast r a, 
 
 a camp. 
 
 Comitia, 
 
 the Assembly itself. 
 
 •copiae, 
 
 forces. 
 
 fortunae. 
 
 the gifts of fortune. 
 
 grutiae. 
 
 thanks. [property. 
 
 impedimenta, 
 
 baggage. 
 
 litterae, 
 
 an epistle. 
 
 Ifldi, 
 
 public games. 
 
 6j)erae, 
 
 workmen. 
 
 opes. 
 
 power, wealth. 
 
 partes, 
 
 a part in a play. 
 
 rostra, 
 
 the platform for speak- 
 
 
 ers in the Boman fo- 
 
 
 rum {adorned with 
 
 
 the beaks of ships). 
 
 tibulae, 
 
 icriting tablets. 
 
 §54. 
 
 IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 25 
 
 § 52. Some Substantives want one or more Cases. 
 
 1. The following Substantives have no Nominative Singular : 
 
 (daps), dSpis (/.), a feast. 
 
 (dttio) ditionis (/.), dominion. 
 
 (frux) frugis (/.), fruit. 
 
 (internecio) interneciSnis (/.), destruction. 
 
 2. The following Substantives have only certain cases : 
 
 fors (/.), chance. Only Nam. and Abl. Sing, forte (without Plural), 
 (ops) opis if.), help. Only Gen., Ace, Abl., Sing. 8pls, opem, op^. Full 
 
 Plural, 
 (prex, precis) (/.), prayer. Only Dat., Ace, and Abl. Sing. Full Plural, 
 (vicis), change. Only Gen., Ace, Abl. Sing. vMs, vicem,vlce. Full Plural, 
 
 except Gen. 
 vis (/.), force. On\y Norn., Ace, Abl. Sing, vis, vim, vl. Full Plural 
 
 vires, virium, virlbiis, vires, vires, viribtis. 
 
 8, The following Substantives have in the Singular the Ablative only, but 
 a full Plural :— 
 
 ambagS (/.), a circuit. \ fauc$ (/.), the throat. \ verbgrg (n.), a stripe. 
 
 4. One word has only the Ablative Singular, and no Plural : — spontg (/.), hy 
 inclination. 
 
 § 53. Some Substantives are IlHSrijclUd, that is, have a two-fold 
 Declension. 
 
 1. In the Second Declension some Substantives end in us and urn: as, 
 callus and callum, hardened skin ; commenturius and commentarium, a 
 note-book. 
 
 2. Some Substantives fluctuate between the First and Second Declensions : 
 as, menda and mendum, a fault. Vesp^t (also vespera), the evening, has, 
 according to the Second Declension, the Ace vesperum, but the Abl. usually 
 according to the Third Declension, vespfrf, vesper!. 
 
 3. Some Substantives fluctuate between the First and Fifth Declensions : 
 as, barbaria and barburies, barbarism ; mollitia and mollities, softness ; 
 luxiiria and luxuries, luxury ; materia and mutories, timber. 
 
 4. Some Substantives fluctuate between the Second and Fourth Declensions : 
 as, dOmus, a house (see § 46, Obs. 5) ; laurus, a bay-tree ; ciipressus, a 
 cypress; ficus, a fig-tree ; pTuus, a pine-tree; eventus (4) and eventual, 
 an occurrence; suggcstds (4) and suggestum, a platform for speakers. 
 
 5. Some Substantives fluctuate between the Third and Fifth Declensions : 
 as, plebs, plebis, and plebes, plebel, the commonalty; requies, rSquietis and 
 requiel, rest. 
 
 6. Jugerum, an acre, is of the Second Declension in the Sing., but of the 
 Third in the P/i/r. ; as, jug^ra, jugerum, jugeribus. Vas, vasis, a vessel, 
 is of the Third Declension in the Sing., but of the Second in the Plural : as, 
 vasa, vasorum, vusls. 
 
 § 54. Some Substantives are HSterdgSn^a, that is, have a different 
 gender in the Singular and the Plural. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 jtfcus {m.), a joke. 
 
 locus (m.), a place. 
 
 carbasus (/.), fine linen. 
 
 coelum (w.), heaven. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 j5ci (m,), joca (n.) 
 loci (m.), loca (n.) 
 carbasS. (n.), sails. 
 coeh (m.) (rare). 
 
 
26 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 §55. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 frenum (n.), 
 Tartai-us (w.), 
 dies,* 
 i-astrum (n.), 
 
 a hit. 
 
 the infernal rejioiis. 
 
 a day. 
 
 a rake. 
 
 * See § 47, note. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 freni (m.), fienS (/J.) 
 
 Tartar^ (?i.) 
 
 dies (//I.) 
 
 rastii ('«.), rastrS (n.) 
 
 Chaptek XII. — Declension of Adjectives. 
 
 § 55. Adjectives are either of Three Terminations (one f»»r 
 each gender) ; of Tico Terminations (one for the Masculine 
 and Feminine, and the other for the Neuter) ; or of One 
 Termination (for all genders). 
 
 § 56. I. Adjectives of Three Terminations are div^ided 
 INTO Two Classes. 
 
 Adjectives of tlie first class end in us, a, urn, or er, a, um, 
 and are declined in the Masculine and Neuter like Substan- 
 tives of the Second Declension, and in the Feminine like 
 Substantives of the First Declension : as, bonus, bona, 
 bonum, goal ; niger, nigra, nigrum, black ; tener, tCnera, te- 
 nenim, tender. 
 
 Kom 
 Gen. 
 Dai. 
 Ace. 
 Voc. 
 Abl 
 
 M. 
 Bon-US 
 B6n-i 
 Bon-5 
 Bon-nm 
 Bon-e 
 Bono 
 
 M. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 F. 
 
 bona 
 bcn-ae 
 bon-ae 
 bon-am 
 bon-a 
 bona 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. 
 
 N. 
 
 bon-um 
 bon-i 
 bon 5 
 bon-um 
 bon-um 
 bon 5 
 
 N. 
 
 Jr. 
 
 Bdn-I 
 
 Bonorum 
 
 Bonis 
 
 Bon-OS 
 
 B6n-i 
 
 B6n-is 
 
 2. 
 
 M. 
 
 riur. 
 
 F. 
 bon ae 
 bon-anim 
 bon Is 
 bon-as 
 bon-ae 
 bon-is 
 
 riur. 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 bon-a 
 
 bononim 
 
 bon-is 
 
 bon-a 
 
 bon-a 
 
 bonis 
 
 N. 
 
 Nom 
 
 . Niger 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 nigr-um 
 
 Nigr-i 
 
 nigr-ae 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Nigr-i 
 
 mgr-ae 
 
 nigr-i 
 
 Nigr-omm 
 
 nigr-amm 
 
 nigr-orom 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Nigr-o 
 
 nigr-ae 
 
 nigr-o 
 
 Nigr-is 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 Ace. 
 
 NigT-um 
 
 nigr-am 
 
 nigr-um 
 
 Nigr-6s 
 
 nigr-as 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Nig-er 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 nigr-um 
 
 Nigr-i 
 
 nigr-ae 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 AU. 
 
 Nigr-6 
 
 nigr-a 
 
 nigr-o 1 
 
 Nigr-is 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 nigr-is 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 V 
 
 §57. 
 
 declension OF adjectives. 
 
 27 
 
 Sing. 
 
 8. 
 
 Nom. Tener 
 Gen. Tener-i 
 Dat. Tener-5 
 Ace. Tener-um 
 Voc. Tener 
 Abl. Tener-o 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 tener-a tener-um 
 tener-ae tener-i 
 tener-ae tener-6 
 tener-am tener-um 
 tener-a tener-um 
 tener-a tener-o 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 Tener-i tener-ae tener-a 
 Tener-orum tener-arum tener-onim 
 
 Tener-is tener-is tener-is 
 
 Tener-6s tener-as tener-a 
 
 Tener-i tener-ae tener-a 
 
 Tener-is tener-is tener-is 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 malus, a, um 
 
 carus, a, um 
 
 clarus, a, um 
 
 plenus, a, um 
 
 albus, a, um 
 
 magnus, a, um 
 
 parvus, a, um 
 
 had. 
 
 dear. 
 
 bright. 
 
 fall. 
 
 white. 
 
 great. 
 
 little. 
 
 superbus, 
 
 sacer, 
 
 aeger, 
 
 macer, 
 
 pnlcher, 
 
 mber, 
 
 siuister, 
 
 a, um, 
 era, rum, 
 gra, rum, 
 era, rum, 
 chra, rum, 
 rum, 
 rum. 
 
 bra. 
 tra. 
 
 proud. 
 
 sacred. 
 
 sick. 
 
 lean. 
 
 beautiful^ 
 
 red. 
 
 left. 
 
 Obs. 1. The only Adjectives declined like tener are the following :— 
 
 iTber, era, frum, 
 miser, ^ra, erum, 
 
 free, 
 wretched. 
 
 asper, fra, f'rura, rough. 
 
 licer, fra, erum, torn. 
 
 prosper, era, erum, prosperous. 
 With all Adjectives infer and ger : as, 
 
 luntger, ?ra, erum, wool-bearing. | 
 All other Adjectives in ?r drop the ?, and are declined like nIger. 
 Dextir is declined in both ways, dextera and destra, dexterum and 
 
 dextrum. 
 
 5ptfer, era, grum, help-bringing. 
 
 Obs. 2. There is one Adjective in iir, sStOr, satur3, sruiirum, full of foe d^ 
 sated. 
 
 § 57. Irregular Declension in us, a, wm, and er, a, um. 
 
 The following Adjectives and Pronouns, 
 
 unfis, solQs, totfts, ullfis, 
 tit^r, neuter, altt^r, nullOs, 
 and allCis, 
 
 have in the Genitive Sing, ius and in the Dative i. For example — 
 
 M. 
 
 Kom. UU-ds 
 Gen. Ull-Tiis 
 Dat. UU-T 
 Ace. Ull-um 
 Abl. UU-6 
 
 F. 
 
 uU-i 
 
 uU-am 
 uU-a 
 
 N. 
 
 ull-um 
 
 ull-um 
 ull-6 
 
 M. 
 
 Ut-er 
 
 rtr-Tiis 
 
 Utr-T 
 
 Utr-um 
 
 Utr-o 
 
 F. 
 utr-Jt 
 
 utr-am 
 utr-fi 
 
 N. 
 utr-Tina 
 
 utr-um 
 utr-o 
 
 unus, one, 
 solus, alone, 
 totus, whole. 
 
 uUus, any. 
 
 nullum, none. 
 
 titer, which of two. 
 
 neuter, neither of two. 
 
 alter, one of two, 
 
 &lius, one of any number, another. 
 
 Obs. 1 . In prose the i in the Gen. ius is always long, except in alterlOs. The 
 Gen. alius is a contraction of all-Iiis, and therefore always long. In the 
 other words the i in the Gen. ius is short as well as long in poetry. 
 
 Obs. 2. The compounds of (iter are declined in the same way : as, dterqu^, 
 fltervis, fiterlib^t, txtercunquC : Gen. utriusque, utriusvTs, etc. 
 
 C2 
 
'28 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 §58. 
 
 § 58. Adjectives of Tliree Terminations of the second class 
 end in er, ris, re, and are declined like Substantives of the 
 Third Declension. They have three tenninations in the 
 >'ominative and Vocative Singidar only : in all other cases 
 they have only two terminations : as, acer, acris, acre, sharp. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dili. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Ahl. 
 
 M. 
 Acer 
 Acris 
 Acri 
 Acrem 
 Acer 
 Acii 
 
 Sing. 
 F. 
 acris 
 
 riur. 
 
 acris 
 
 N. 
 acre 
 
 acre 
 acre 
 
 M. and F. 
 Acres 
 Acrium 
 Acribiis 
 Acres 
 Acres 
 Acribiis 
 
 N. 
 acria 
 
 acria 
 acria 
 
 Ohs. The termination er is sometimes, but very rarely, found in the Xum, 
 Sing. Fern. 
 
 There are only thirteen Adjectives of this kind ; 
 
 acer, ahlcer, campester, 
 cCler, cClCber, t^questor, 
 pater, v5lacer, terrcater, 
 pahister, pCdester, 
 saluber, Silvester. 
 
 filacer, 
 
 campester, 
 
 cSler, 
 
 cgleber, 
 
 fequester, 
 
 puter, 
 
 Obs. 1. 
 bc'for 
 
 Obs. 2. 
 Sing 
 
 live!;/. volvlcer, winded. 
 
 level. tei tester, jpertaining to the earth, 
 
 quick. paluster, marsh;/. 
 
 crowded. pgilester, pedestrim. 
 
 equestrian. saluber, hcdthfal. 
 
 rotten. Silvester, woody. 
 
 Cfli^r, cfleris, c?l?r? is t'le o".ly Adj. of this class that keeps the e 
 ■e the r. Celer has um, not ium, in t!ie Gen. PI. 
 Sometimes these Adjectives have also the termination ris in the Xom. 
 Masc. 
 
 § 59. II. Adjectives of Two Tehmixatioxs are declined 
 like Substantives of the Tliird Declension : as, tristis, triste., 
 md ; altior, allius, higher (§ ^d). 
 
 Situ 
 M. and V, 
 Nom. Trist-is 
 Gen. Trist-is 
 Dat. Trlst-i 
 Arc. Trist-em 
 Voc. Trist-is 
 Ahl. Trist-i 
 
 is' 
 
 trist-e 
 
 trist-e 
 trist-e 
 
 PI jr. 
 ]\T. and F. 
 Trist-es 
 Trist-ium 
 Trist-ibiis 
 Trist-es 
 Trist-es 
 Trist-ibiis 
 
 N. 
 trist-ia 
 
 trist-ia 
 trist-ia 
 
 iSvis, 
 levis, 
 <:!avi<;, 
 dulcis, 
 
 Ujht. 
 smixjth. 
 he- ivy. 
 sweet. 
 
 Examples for Declension. 
 
 brgvis, short. 
 
 fortis, brave. 
 
 turpis, disgraceful. 
 
 sliullis, like. 
 
 mol!i« 
 
 tacilis 
 
 soft. 
 
 easy. 
 vilis, cheirp, 
 
 hiimilis, love. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 §62. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 29 
 
 I 
 
 ' 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 § 60. III. Adjectives of One Termination are declined 
 like Substantives of the Third Declension : as, felix, fortu- 
 nate ; prudens, prudent. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 L 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 M. and F. 
 
 N. 
 
 
 M. and F- 
 
 N. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Felix 
 
 felix 
 
 
 Felic-es 
 
 felic-ia 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Felic-is 
 
 — 
 
 
 Felic-ium 
 
 — 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Felic-i 
 
 
 
 Felic-ibus 
 
 — 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Felic-em 
 
 felix 
 
 
 Felic-es 
 
 felic-ia 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Felix 
 
 — 
 
 
 Felic-es 
 
 felic-ia 
 
 Ahl. 
 
 Felic-i or e 
 
 — 
 
 
 Felic-ibus 
 
 — 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 S 
 
 1. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 M. and F. 
 
 N. 
 
 
 ]\I. and F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Prudens 
 
 priidens 
 
 
 Priident-es 
 
 prudent-ia 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Prtident-is 
 
 
 
 Priident-ium 
 
 — 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Priident-i 
 
 
 
 Prudent-ibiis 
 
 — 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Pnident-em 
 
 prudens 
 
 
 Prudent-es 
 
 pnident-i& 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Prudens 
 
 — 
 
 
 Prudent-es 
 
 priident-ia 
 
 Ahl. 
 
 Priident-i or 8 
 
 — 
 
 
 Prtident-ibiis 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Examples for Dec 
 
 .ension. 
 
 
 andax, 
 
 aois, bold. 
 
 
 
 potens, entis. 
 
 powerful. 
 
 verax, 
 
 aois, truthful. 
 
 
 in^ens, entis, 
 
 huge. 
 
 loquax, 
 
 acis, talkative. 
 
 
 dlilgens, entis, 
 
 diligent. 
 
 velox. 
 
 ocis, sicift. 
 
 
 
 s&juens, entis. 
 
 wise. 
 
 ftrox. 
 
 ocis, haughty. 
 
 
 praesens, entis. 
 
 present. 
 
 Obs. 1. On the Abl. Sing., see §§ 32, 33. On the Xom. Plur. Neuter in ta, 
 see § 34. On the Oen.Flur. in ium, see §§ 35, 36. 
 
 Obs. 2. DTvfs, dlvttts, rich, has a contracted form : Nom. dTs, dTt6 ; Gen, 
 dit-ls, &c. ; Nom. Plur, Neut. dltia. 
 
 Ohs. 3. Some Adjectives are indeclinable : as, ncqnam, trorthhss ; frupT, 
 honest (properly the Dative of a Substantive) : as, frugl homo, frugl 
 li5mlnem. 
 
 CHAPTEPt XIII. — COMPAllISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 § 61. Adjectives have three forms, which are usually 
 called the I'ositive, Comparative, and Superlative Degrees : 
 as, 
 
 Pnsitii'e. Comparatir^. Siipei-lative. 
 
 altOs, high. altior, higher. altis.simCls, highest. 
 
 § 62. The Comparative is formed by addinp; ior, and the 
 Superlative by adding issimus, to the Stem, any final vowel 
 of which is dropped ; as. 
 
30 
 
 COMPARISON OF xVDJECTIVES. 
 
 §63. 
 
 Posit. 
 Nom. Stem, 
 alt da, alto, 
 Ii5vls, levi, 
 
 felix, felic. 
 
 Comp. 
 
 highj alt-ior, 
 
 light, ICv-ior, 
 
 fortunate^ lelic-ior, 
 
 Sttp. 
 
 alt-issYmiig. 
 It'V-issiraiis. 
 felic-issTmiis. 
 
 prudens, prudent, prudent, prudent-ior, prudeut-isslimls. 
 
 § 63. The Comparative is an 
 nations, having ior in the Nora. 
 Feminine, and ius in that of the 
 follows : 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Adjective of Two Termi- 
 
 Sing. of the Masculine and 
 
 Neuter. It is declined as 
 
 riur. 
 
 
 IVT. and F. 
 
 X. 
 
 M. and F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Altior 
 
 altius 
 
 Alti6r-€S 
 
 altior-a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Altior-is 
 
 
 Altior-um 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Altior-i 
 
 
 Altior-ibiis 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Alti5r-ein 
 
 altius 
 
 Alti5r-es 
 
 altior-a 
 
 Voe. 
 
 Altior 
 
 altius 
 
 Altior-es 
 
 altior-a 
 
 Ahl. 
 
 Altior-e rareltj 
 
 r-i — 
 
 Altior-ibiis 
 
 
 § 64. The Superlative is an Adjective of Tliree Termi- 
 nations, us, a, urn: as, altissimus, alti.ssiraa, altissimum. 
 
 § (jo. Exceptions. 
 I. Adjectives ending in er form the Superlative in limus : 
 
 as, 
 
 JPosit. 
 
 pnlchgr, heaiitiful, 
 
 liber, free, 
 
 ac6r, sharp, 
 
 c6l6r, swift. 
 
 Comp. 
 
 pulchr-iur, 
 llber-ior, 
 acr-ior, 
 c6lCr-iur, 
 
 Sup. 
 
 pulcber-rYmas. 
 liber-run Qs. 
 acer-rlinfld. 
 cCler-rlraus. 
 
 Also vCttis {Gen. vCt<5r-is}, old, has a Superlative, v^ter-rimag. 
 
 II. The following six Adjectives ending in lUs form their 
 Superlative in Umus : as, 
 
 Posit. 
 
 filcllis, 
 
 ditfiellis, 
 
 simllis, 
 
 dissTiuIlis, 
 
 graellla, 
 
 littimlls. 
 
 easy, 
 
 difficult, 
 
 like, 
 
 unlike, 
 
 thin, 
 
 low. 
 
 Comp. 
 
 fftcTl-ior, 
 
 ditfTcil-i(5r, 
 
 sirail-ior, 
 
 disriimll-ior, 
 
 gnlcil-ior, 
 
 hamll-i6r. 
 
 Sup. 
 facil-llimls. 
 ditflcil-limils. 
 simil-llm as. 
 dissTrail-lTmus. 
 grftcil-llmtts. 
 hilniil-limas. 
 
 Obs. The substitution of rimus and Umus for simvs in these Superlatives is 
 owing to the assimilation of s to the preceding liquids r and /. 
 
 III. Adjectives ending in -dicus, -ficns, and -volus (de- 
 rived from the verbs dlco, facio, and volo) form their 
 Comparatives in entior, and their Superlatives in eiLtisd- 
 tJius (as if from Positives ending in ena) : as, 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 , 
 
 } 
 
 §66. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 31 
 
 Posit. 
 
 malSdlcfls, 
 bCugflctts, 
 b6nCv61us, 
 
 slanderous, 
 
 beneficent, 
 
 benevolent. 
 
 Comp. 
 ma,l6dicentior, 
 bCngficentior, 
 bCngvolentior, 
 
 Sup. 
 malCdtcentissimiis. 
 bgngfleentissiinQs. 
 bgngvolentisslmus. 
 
 Obs. These Comparatives and Superlatives are formed as from the Participles, 
 dicens, saying ; fdciens, doing ; \olens, wishing. 
 
 ly. Adjectives which have a vowel before the termination 
 w-S usually form the Comparative by prefixing the Adverb 
 magis, more, and the Superlative by prefixing the Adverb 
 maxime, most : as, noxius, hurtful, magis noxius, moi^e hurt- 
 ful, maxime noxius, most hurtful, 
 
 Obs. Adjectives ending in quits form the Comp. and Sup. regularly, since the 
 u in qu is not regarded as a vowel : as, antlquiis, ancient^ antlquiSr, more 
 ancient, antlquisslmfis, most ancient. 
 
 ^ QQ, Irregular Comparison. 
 Some Adjectives are compared irregularly : as, 
 
 Posit. 
 
 bSnas, 
 
 m^las, 
 
 magQ'^s, 
 
 par V as, 
 
 multus, 
 
 iiequam, 
 
 good, 
 
 bad, 
 
 great, 
 
 small, 
 
 much, 
 
 icorthless. 
 
 frugi {indecl.) frugal. 
 
 Comp. 
 
 mclii'^r, 
 
 pejor. 
 
 majOr, 
 
 minor, 
 
 plus (pi. plures, plura), 
 
 nequTrir, 
 
 frugalior, 
 
 Sup. 
 
 optimug 
 
 pessiinus 
 
 maximas 
 
 minim as 
 
 plurimas 
 
 nequissimQs 
 
 frugalissimus 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes one or more of the Degrees of Comparison are wanting : as, 
 
 Posit. 
 jiivenis, young, 
 fiSnex, old. 
 
 nSvils, neic. 
 
 Comp. 
 junior 
 s^niSr 
 
 detSriSr, worse, 
 ocior, swifter, 
 priSr, former. 
 
 Sup. 
 {minimus natu) 
 {maximus natu) 
 deterrlmOs 
 ocisslmiis 
 primus, first 
 novissimus. 
 
 06s. 2. Some Comparatives and Superlatives, expressing relations of time and 
 place, either have no Positive (the corresponding Preposition taking its 
 place), or the Positive has a different meaning : as, 
 
 Posit. Comp. Sup. 
 
 (citra, on this side), clt$ri8r, more on this side, citlmtis, most on thtsside^ 
 
 (ultra, on the farther side), ulterior, farther, ultlmtis, farthest. 
 
 (extra, on the outside, with- extSriftr, outer, extremtls, outermosU 
 
 out), 
 
 Note. — The Adjective extgii, ae, a, signifies /orezV/n. 
 
 (infra, below), infSri8r, lower, inflmiis (Tmus), lowest. 
 
 Note. — Inf^nis is used only in Infgrum j\jfi,r6, the Loirer f?ea, i. e. 
 the sea south and west of Itnly, and in the Plural Inieii, ae, a, 
 belonging to the lovcer world. 
 
32 
 
 THE NUMERALS. 
 
 §67. 
 
 Comp. 
 interior, inner^ 
 pr6pi6r, nearer. 
 
 Sup. 
 inttmtts, or Tmtis, innermost. 
 proximiis, nearest. 
 
 Posit. 
 (intra, within), 
 (pr5pe, near), 
 
 JHote. — In the Positive prSpinquus is used, of which the Comparative 
 pr6pinqui6r is rare, 
 (post, after), post?ri6r, later, postremtts, last. 
 
 Note. — The Positive postgrils siVnifies the next or following (in 
 time), and the Substiintive post6i-I, descendants. 
 
 (suprS, above), sflpSriSr, upper, supremfls, or summus, up- 
 
 permost. 
 
 2^0^^.— Siipgriis is used only in Sfip^rum Mar?, the Upper Sea, 
 i. e. the Adriatic, and in the Plural Siip€ii, ue, a, belonging to 
 the upper world. 
 
 Chapter XIV. — The Numerals. 
 
 § 67. Cardinal Niniierah denote numTiers simply or abso- 
 lutely : as, unus, one ; duo, two ; tres, threj. 
 
 § 68. Tlie first three Cardinal Numerals are declined as 
 follows : 
 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 trn-us 
 
 un-a 
 
 un-um 
 
 tJn-i 
 
 un-ae 
 
 fin-a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 tTn-ius 
 
 
 — 
 
 tTn-orum 
 
 un-arxun 
 
 un-6rum 
 
 Jhd. 
 
 0n-i 
 
 
 — 
 
 trn-is 
 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 t^n-Tun 
 
 un-am 
 
 un-um 
 
 trn-5s 
 
 un-as 
 
 un-a 
 
 Abl 
 
 tFn-o 
 
 un-a 
 
 un-6 
 
 trn-is 
 
 — 
 
 
 Ohs. Vnua is used in the Plural with Plural Suhstantives which have a 
 singular meaning : as, flni castrii, one camp ; Qnae aedes, one house ; unae 
 litt^rae, one letter. 
 
 
 
 8. 
 
 
 8. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M. nnd F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Norn 
 
 Bu-o 
 
 du-ae 
 
 duo 
 
 Tres 
 
 tari& 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Du-6rum 
 
 du-anim 
 
 du-6rum 
 
 Trlum 
 
 — 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Du-obus 
 
 du-abiis 
 
 du-obus 
 
 Tribus 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Du-ds 
 
 du-as 
 
 du-o 
 
 Tres fyr tris 
 
 trii 
 
 Abl 
 
 Du-6biis 
 
 du-abus 
 
 du-obus 
 
 Tribus 
 
 — 
 
 06*. Ambo, both, is declined like duo. 
 
 § 69. The Cardinal Numerals from quattnor, four, to 
 centum, a hundred, are indeclinable. 
 
 Ducenti, ae, a, two hundred, and the following hundreds, 
 are declined regularly. 
 
 
 §72. 
 
 3^ 
 
 THE NUMERALS. 
 
 
 !m<,.-L 
 
 
 Mille, a thoumnd, is an indeclinable Adjective ; but in the 
 Plnml it is a declinable Substantive : as. Nam. millia, Gen. 
 millium, JJat. millibus, Ace. millia, All. miUibus. 
 
 Obs. I. Mille is sometimes, but rarely, used as a Substantive in the Singular: as, 
 milli^ homlnum, a thousand of men, the common form being milld homines. 
 In the Plural millia is regularly followed by the Genitive : as; triS millia 
 homlnum, three thousand man. But if smaller Numerals follow, the Geni- 
 tive is not used : as, tria millia trecenti homines, three thousand three 
 hundred men. 
 
 Obs. 2. The numbers between 20 and 100 are expressed either by the larger 
 numeral first without ct, or by the smaller numeral first with Pt : as, 
 vlgintl uniis, or uniis et vTgintT, tuenty-one. The numbers above 100 
 always have the larger number first : as, centum H sexaginta sex, or 
 centum sexaginta sex, one htmdred and sixty-six. 
 
 Obs. 3. The nun bers 18, 19, 28, 29, 38, 39 have the smaller numeral first 
 with the preposition d? to indicate s_btraction : as, duode vlgintl, undevTgintI, 
 duodetrlginta, undctrlyinta, &c. 
 
 § 70. Ordinal Numerals denote numbers regarded as form- 
 ing parts of a seiies ; and hence they have a relative signifi- 
 cation : as, primus, first ; secundus or alter, second. They are 
 declined regularly as adjectives ; see § 56. 
 
 Obs. Dates of years are expressed by annfis with the ordinal numeral : 
 annds miricslmiis octingentcsimiis sexageslmus primus, the year 1861 
 
 as. 
 
 § 71. Distributive Numerals denote numbers regaided as 
 constituting groups, each group being treated as a unit ; and 
 these Latin numerals may be translated in various ways : as, 
 bini, two each, two to(/ether, two by two, 
 
 Obs. 1. Distributive Numerals are also used to give a plural signification to 
 those Substantives the plural forms of which have otherwise a singular 
 meaning : as, bTna castra, two camps ; binae aedes, taco houses ; blnae 
 litt^rae, two lettej-s. Duo castra would be two forts ; duae aedes, two 
 temples, etc. See § 51. 
 
 Obs. 2. MuUiplicatire Numerals end in -plex, Gen. plYcTs (from the verb plico, 
 to fold), and, as their name implies, denote how many times any number or 
 quantity is to be taken. Only the following are in use : 
 
 10. Dfcemplex, fwi/>>?rf 
 
 100. Centuplex, a huft- 
 
 dredfold. 
 
 1. Simplex, onefold 
 
 2. Dfiplex, twofold 
 
 3. Triplex, threefold 
 
 4. Quadruplex, fourfold 
 
 5. Quincuplex, ^re/o/d 
 7. Septemplex, sevenfold 
 
 Obs. 3. Proportional Numerals end in -plfts, pla, plum, and denote the number 
 of times that one number or quantity contains another : as, tripla pars, 
 apart three times as great as another. Only the following are in use, cor- 
 responding to the multiplicatives in the preceding list : 
 
 1. SimplQs 
 
 2. Duplils 
 
 3. TnpIQs 
 
 4. QuadriiplQs 
 
 5. QuinquiplQs 
 7. Septuplus 
 
 8, OctuplOs 
 
 10. DdcuplOs 
 
 100. Centupliis. 
 
 § 72. Numeral Adverbs denote the number of times that 
 anything happens or is done : as, semel, once ; bis, twice ; ter, 
 three times, 
 
 c 3 
 
34 
 
 m 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 TO 
 
 c 
 O 
 
 OJ 
 1-2 
 
 < 
 
 . rn 
 
 c o 
 
 THE NUMERxVLS. 
 
 §73. 
 
 00 
 
 
 a 
 1—1 
 
 T 7J 
 
 2 
 
 tr ^ '- f: a 'jl ^ 
 
 S ^ — 3 — 3 "^ 
 
 05 S ^ >::j ,5 * 
 
 
 .? o 1: § •= « c^^ ,§ ^ 3 '5 ? 3 s ^ ?^ 5 c 
 
 'x 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 lO 
 
 73 
 
 rrj 
 
 
 
 I'ii 
 
 
 ll-l 
 
 ZJ 
 
 > 
 
 K— 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 VH 
 
 F"^ 
 
 I'J 
 
 m 
 
 >^ 
 
 ' — ! 
 
 tO) 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rn 
 
 
 •k 
 
 
 f3 
 
 Tr 
 
 7J 
 
 
 P 
 
 ^ 
 
 /■^ 
 
 
 V- 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ^M 
 
 
 r« 
 
 ■^ 
 
 )-^ 
 
 
 10 
 
 'r* 
 
 'A' 
 
 -•-* 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 > 
 
 CC 
 
 > 
 
 Tl 
 
 -4^ 
 
 3 
 
 
 r* 
 
 i) 
 
 >-* 
 
 -t-a 
 
 
 CO 
 
 3 
 
 
 C^ 
 
 
 
 c ►> o > 
 
 en 
 
 3 3 '?i 
 13 'T! -^ 
 
 
 •-^ 3 1-1 T 3 
 
 .3 :;i .3 3 >ii 3 3 > ,-- 
 
 C t: — 
 
 be 
 
 3 tr, 3 
 
 ,3 ■- r^ 
 
 \^ 
 
 3 
 
 ^ C 
 ^ I'tj >5 )5 C 3 ^ 3 3 :B cT ^ 3 
 
 x3oo3'TdP'o-5?r'cr'Mt»'T3;3 
 
 3 rn 
 P> '3 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 ;^. 
 
 ^- l-H I— t f— I I— ( !-H I— I 1— I rH I— ( 11 C^ C-l 
 
 §73. 
 
 THE XUr.IERALS. 
 
 
 
 3 3 J2 cr"T3 
 
 QQ 
 
 10 
 
 ^^ 
 
 • ^i^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 r- ^ tH 
 
 
 ^ d 
 
 £ « 
 
 ■5 ^ 
 
 3 OQ 
 
 00 ;:s 
 
 
 "** ^Th 
 
 10 -♦^ 
 
 bf) 3 
 
 '■^ ?, 
 
 .C3 ^ 
 
 " 
 
 3 oD 
 
 cr'.'S 
 
 3 •>-) 
 
 3 -^ 
 
 '3 *~' 
 3 OJ 
 
 •5^ 
 
 0^ 
 
 errs 
 
 )sS 
 
 =3 ^ 
 
 ■3 MS a 
 
 • ^^ v-s *'" '■"^ 3 
 
 r:2 '^ v-» c "-^ .-< o 
 
 :^ )o3 — .'2 ,§ -3 3 ti 
 
 xd 
 
 ^ 
 
 xS 
 
 .5 tn irt 
 
 i-r t- 3 'I-' li3 — i:3 
 t» ■*"• T" 3 T- 3 -*-• 
 
 0000 
 
 - 0000 
 
 - _ -OOOOto 
 
 -^ J.-3 O O O 
 
 r^ »r: o 
 
 35 
 
86 
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 a 
 
 Chapter XV.— The Pronouns. 
 
 §74. , 
 
 § 74. The Pronouns are : 
 
 1. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 2. Eeflective Pronouns. 
 
 3. Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 4. Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 5. Detenninative Pronouns. 
 
 6. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 7. Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 8. Indefinite Pronouns. 
 
 9. Correlative Pronouns. 
 
 The Pronouns belonging to several of these classes are 
 properly Adjectives. 
 
 § 75. I. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 1. Pronoun of the First Person. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nostri and nostnim, of us 
 
 Nom. tgo, 
 Gen. Mei, 
 Ihit. MiM, 
 Arc. Me, 
 Abl. Me, 
 
 Sin^. 
 
 I 
 
 of me 
 
 to or for me 
 
 me 
 
 by, with, or from me 
 
 Nobis, 
 
 Nos, 
 
 K5bis, 
 
 to or frr us 
 us l_from us. 
 by, iciih, or 
 
 2. Pronoun of the Second Person, 
 Sin^. Plur. 
 
 Kom. Tii, 
 Gen. Tni, 
 
 thou 
 
 of thee 
 Dot. Tibi, to or for thee 
 Aee. Te, thee 
 Voc. Tu, thon 
 AbL Te, ?>y, loith, or from thee. 
 
 Vos, 
 
 y« 
 
 Vestri and vestnun, of you 
 Vobis, to or for you 
 
 Vos, you 
 
 Vos, ye [//'*«• 
 
 Vobis, by, with, or from 
 
 Obs. 1. The Pronouns of the First and Second Persons may be strenfrthened by 
 the addition of the syUables mSt or t? ; as, f^ftmCt, / myself; tQte, tuteiuet, 
 , - thou thxjaelf ; nosmet, vosmet, tve aurselres, you yourselves. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Dat. mYhi is sometimes contracted into ml. 
 
 3. Pronoun of the Third Person, 
 
 Por the Pronoun of the Third Person, he, she, it, the De- 
 terminative Pronoun is, ea, id is usually employed. See § 79. 
 
 § 76. II. Eeflective Pronouns. 
 
 The Reflective Pronouns refer to the suhject of the 
 sentence, and therefore do not require a Nominative case. 
 
 
 §78. 
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 37 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 (• 
 
 The Reflective Pronouns of the First and Second Persons 
 are the same as the First and Second Personal Pronouns ; 
 but the Reflective Pronoun of the Third Person is thus 
 declined : 
 
 Sine, and Plur. 
 
 Nom. (wanting) 
 Gen. Sui, 
 JJat. Sibi, 
 Ace. Se or sese, 
 Abl. Se or sese. 
 
 of himself, herself, itself, or themselves, 
 to or for himself, herself, itself, or themselves, 
 himself, herself, itself, or themselves. 
 by himself, herself, itself, or themselves. 
 
 Obs. SIbi and se are strengthened by the addition of nut : as, sibimdt, semgt. 
 
 § 77. III. Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 These are formed from the First and Second Personal and 
 the Tliird Reflective Pronouns, and are declined regularly : 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 
 Metis, 
 
 metl, 
 
 meura, 
 
 my or mine. 
 
 TuGs. 
 
 tua. 
 
 tuuni. 
 
 thy or thine. 
 
 Nostt^r, 
 
 nostra, 
 
 nostrum. 
 
 our. 
 
 VestCr, 
 
 vestra, 
 
 vestrum, 
 
 your. 
 
 SuQs, 
 
 sua, 
 
 suum. 
 
 his, her, its, their. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Voc. Sing. Masc. of metis is mi. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Abl. Sing, of the Possessive Pronouns is sometimes strengthened 
 by the syllable ptS : as, meopt^ ingenio, by my oicn ability. Met is added 
 to suiis : as, suamft scel^rS, his otcfi crimes. 
 
 Obs. 3. A Possessive Pronoun is also formed from the Pvelative : as, cujQs, 
 cuji, cujum, whose ( 
 
 Obs. 4. From nost^r, vest?r, cujiis (a, urn) are formed Adjectives ending iu 
 ils (Gen. alls), which signify belonging to a country ; as, 
 nostras, -atTs, of our country ; 
 vestrus, -utis, of your country ; 
 cujas, -atls, of what country ? 
 
 § 78. IV. Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 These are of the First, Second, and Tliird Persons : namely, 
 hie, haec, hoc, this near me ; iste, ista, istud, that near you ; 
 ille, ilia, illud, that near him, or that yonder. 
 
 1. Ilic, haec, hoc, this near me. 
 
 M. 
 Nom. Hie 
 Gen. Hujus 
 Dat. Huic 
 AcG. Hunc 
 Abl. Hoc 
 
 Sing. 
 
 K. 
 haeo 
 
 banc 
 Lac 
 
 N. 
 hoc 
 
 hoc 
 hoc 
 
 Plur. 
 M. K. N. 
 
 Hi hae haec 
 
 H5niiii harum horum 
 His 
 
 Hcs has haec 
 
 His 
 
38 
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 2. Iste, ista., istud, that near you. 
 tjinsi. 
 
 M. ~ F. N. 
 
 Norn. Iste isti isttid 
 Gen. Istiiis 
 Bat. Isti 
 
 AcG. Istum istam istud 
 
 Ahl. Isto ista isto 
 
 3. 111c, illri, illud, that near him, that yonchr. 
 
 M. 
 Isti 
 
 Istorum 
 Istas 
 Istos 
 Istis 
 
 Plur. 
 F. 
 istae 
 istamm 
 
 istas 
 
 §79. 
 
 N. 
 ist^ 
 istomm 
 
 ista 
 
 §81. 
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 33 
 
 }<om. Hie 
 Gen. niius 
 Dat. nil 
 Ace. lUum 
 Ahl. nio 
 
 ^F. 
 ilia 
 
 illam 
 Ula 
 
 N. 
 illud 
 
 Ulud 
 ill5 
 
 HU 
 
 inorum 
 
 HHs 
 
 lUos 
 
 Illis 
 
 Plur. 
 
 F. 
 illae 
 ill arum 
 
 illas 
 
 N. 
 ilia 
 illorum 
 
 ilia 
 
 nh. 1 The cases of these three Pronoum are streufirthened by the particle 
 a or c. This particle is inseparable from several of the cases of hie, but 
 may be added to others also : as, hujusctS hTc(\ &c. 
 
 Iste with the particle ce or c is thus declined : 
 
 riur. 
 F. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 M. 
 
 Kom. Tstic 
 Gen. IstiuscS 
 Bat. Isti 
 Ace. Istunc 
 Abl. Istoc 
 
 F. 
 
 istaec 
 
 istanc 
 istac 
 
 istuc 
 
 istuc 
 istoc 
 
 M. 
 
 IstlC(4 
 
 IstOrunc 
 IstiscS 
 
 IstoscS 
 Istisco 
 
 istaec 
 istarunc 
 
 istascS 
 
 N. 
 istaec 
 istorunc 
 
 istaec 
 
 as. 
 
 im with the particle ce or c is declined in the same way 
 illic illaec iHuc, etc. 
 
 OU 2 Fxce or en, behold, are sometimes prefixed to illc and iste : as 
 ""teuium or ellum '; eccistam ; which were of frequent use xn ordinary hfe^ 
 Ohs 3. Virgil often usesollT as a Dat. Sing, and Nam. PL instead of HIT. The 
 stem was originally ol, which appears in ol-im, yonder. 
 
 § 79. V. DhtermiNxVtive Pronouns. 
 
 Hiesc are : !s, ea, id, tUs, and he, she, that, referring to 
 words in the context of a sentence ; its compound, idem, 
 eridem, idem, the^ same ; and ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self, same. 
 
 1. Is, ea, Id, this, and he, she, it. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ])al. 
 
 ACC. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 9 
 
 M. 
 Is 
 
 Ejus 
 Ei 
 
 Eum 
 £5 
 
 6ing. 
 
 F. 
 ea 
 
 earn 
 ea 
 
 N. 
 Id 
 
 Id 
 e5 
 
 M. 
 
 n 
 
 Eorum. 
 lis or eis 
 Eos 
 Eb or eis 
 
 Plur. 
 
 F. 
 eae 
 earum 
 
 eas 
 
 N. 
 
 ea 
 e5ruin 
 
 e^ 
 
 2. Idem, eJldem, idem, the same. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Ahl. 
 
 M. 
 Idem 
 Ejusdem 
 Edem 
 Eundem 
 Eodem 
 
 Sing. 
 F. 
 eadem 
 
 eaudeiu 
 eadem 
 
 idem 
 
 idem 
 eodem 
 
 Plnr. 
 F. 
 eaedem 
 earundem 
 
 ^1. 
 Edem 
 Eorundem 
 lisdem or eisdem 
 Eosdem easdem 
 lisdem or eisdem 
 
 N. 
 
 eadem 
 eorundem 
 
 eadem 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 3. Ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self, same. 
 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 X. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Ips§ 
 
 ipsa 
 
 ipsum 
 
 Ipsi 
 
 ipsae 
 
 ipsa 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Ipsius 
 
 
 
 Ipsorum 
 
 ipsarum 
 
 ipsorum 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ipsi 
 
 
 
 Ipsis 
 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Ipsum 
 
 ipsam 
 
 ipsum 
 
 Ipsos 
 
 ipsa.s 
 
 ipsa 
 
 Abl. 
 
 Ips5 
 
 ipsa 
 
 ips5 
 
 Ipsis 
 
 
 
 Obs. 1 . Ecce is frequently prefixed to is : as, ecca, eccum, eccam, eccos, cccas. 
 
 See § 78, Obs. 2. 
 Obs. 2. Ipse compovmded with some cases of is sometimes loses the t ; as, 
 
 eiunpse, eampse, eopse, eapse ; also reapse = re ipsa or re ea ipsa. 
 
 § 80. VI. Kelative Pronouns. 
 
 Qui, quae, qiiud, icho or which. 
 
 Sing. 
 M. F. N. 
 
 Nom. Qui quae quod 
 
 Geii. Cujus 
 Dat. Cui or cui 
 
 Ace. Quern quam quod 
 
 Abl. Quo qua quo 
 
 Qui 
 
 Quorum 
 QuibiiS 
 Qu5s 
 Quibiis 
 
 Plur. 
 F. 
 quae 
 quarum 
 
 quas 
 
 N. 
 quae 
 quorum 
 
 quae 
 
 Obs. 1. There is an older form in the Gen. Sing. quoiQs, in the Dat. Sing. 
 quoi, in the AbL Sing, qui (instead of quo), and in the Dat. and Ahl. PI., 
 quTs (instead of qutbiis). The Ahl. qui is usually found in combination 
 with the preposition cum : as, quTcum instead of quocum. 
 Obs. 2. From qui are formed the two indefinite relatives quTcunqug and 
 quisquTs, ichoerer, ichosocver, whichever, tvhafevei'. 
 
 QuTcunque, quaecunque, quodcunque is declined like quT, quae, quod, 
 with the addition of the indeclinable cunque : as. Gen. cujuscunqui^, &c. 
 
 Besides quisquts, the Neut. quidquld (or quicqutd) and Abl. quoquo arc 
 the only forms in use. 
 
 Qulcunqug is generally an Adjective ; quisquis alwajs^ Substantive. 
 
 Obs. 3. The interrogative (it?r, utrS, utrura, which of the twoi is used as a 
 relative with cunqug ; as, utercunquS, utriicunqu6, utrumcunquC, whicheier 
 of the ttco. 
 
 § 81. VII. Interrogative Pronouns. 
 Quts or qui, quae, quid or quod, wAo, which ? what ? 
 
 M. 
 Qui 
 
 Qu5rum 
 Quibus 
 Qu5s 
 Quibus 
 
 Obs. 1. QuYs is used both as a Substantive and as an Adjective ; quYd only as 
 a Substantive ; qui and quod as Adjectives : as, quid commlsit, what has 
 he done! 4u6d faclniis commlslt-, uhat deed has he done! 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 
 ^\. V. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nom 
 
 Quis or qui quae 
 
 quid 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Cuius 
 
 [or quod 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Cui 
 
 [or quod 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Quem quam 
 
 quid 
 
 Ahl. 
 
 Qu5 qua 
 
 qud 
 
 I'lur. 
 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 quae 
 
 quae 
 
 quarum 
 
 Quorum 
 
 quas 
 
 quae 
 
 
40 
 
 THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 §82. 
 
 §84. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 41 
 
 Ohs. 2. The Ahl. Sinff. qiiT is used only in the signification how ? as, quT fit ! 
 how does it happen / 
 
 Obs. 3. Quts and qui are strengthened by the addition of nam in emphatic 
 interrogations : as, quisnam or quTnam, quaenam, quidnam or quodnam, 
 wAo then, what then ! 
 
 Obs. 4. When the question refers to one of two, i1t?r, utrS, ntrum, which of 
 the ttvo, is used. For the declension of titer and its compounds see § 57, 
 Obs. 2. 
 
 Obs. 5. Some derivatives of quis are also capable of being used interrogatively ; 
 as, quantus, how great / qualia, of what sort ? quot, haw many 1 See § 83. 
 
 § 82. VIII. Indefinite Pronouns. 
 
 Quis is also used as an Indefinite Prononn (= amj)^ 
 especially after the Conjunctions si, if^ and ne, lest. Thus, 
 si quis is *' if any one " ; ne quis, " lest any one,^^ *' tJiat no 
 one." 
 
 When quis is so used, it changes quae to qua wherever 
 that form occurs. In other respects it is declined like the 
 Interrogative quis. 
 
 Obs. 1. Qutd is used as a Substantive, qu5d as an Adjective : quts both as a 
 Substantive and as an Adjective, qui usually as an Adjective. 
 
 Obs. 2. Ecquts (ecquT), eequil (ecquae), ecquld (ecqiiod), any, and, strength- 
 ened with the particle nam, ecquisnam, is formed from quis, and declined 
 in the same manner. 
 
 Obs. 3. AlTquts, vMqnld, any one, some one (a.?. Substantive), and allquT, alTqua, 
 ailquod, an;/, some (as Adjective), are declined like quis (qui), except 
 that in the Xom. Fern. Sing, and in the Neatr, Flur. only the form ftliqua is 
 used. 
 
 Obs. 4. Quisquam, quidquam (quicqnam), anyone, has no Feminine and no 
 Plural. Gen. cujusquaiii, &c. It is used as a Substantive in negative sen- 
 tences. The corresponding Adjective is ullQs. 
 
 Obs. 5. The following Indefinite Pronouns are declined either like the 
 Relative or the Interrogative ; the Neuters in quid being used Substantively, 
 and those in qu6d Adjectively : — 
 
 Quidam, quuedam, quoddam or quiddam, 
 Qui?piam, quaepiam, quotlpiam or quidpiam, 
 Quivis, quaevis, quodvis or quidvis, 
 
 QuTUbet, quaellbft, quodlfb^t or quidlTbdt, 
 Quisqu^, quaequ?, quodqu? or quidqu?, 
 rnu<quisqu?, unaquaequ?, unumquodqu6 or unumquidqut?, Gen. 
 unluscujusqu^, &c., each one. 
 
 a certain one. 
 any one. 
 
 any one you please, 
 any one you phase, 
 every one. 
 
 Obs. 6. The following form the Gen. in tiis and the Dat. in 7 : ullus, any ; 
 nuUus, none; nonnullus (usu. in pi.) some; Slius, one, another ; alter, fh^; 
 one or other of two ; neuter,(a contraction of ne uterj, neither of two. See 
 § 57. In early Latin and sometimes in the best writers the Gen. is also 
 found in i, ae, and the Dat. in o, ae : as nuUi consilii, nullo consilio, &c. 
 The compound alterfiter is declined either in both words : as. Gen. alti^riua 
 utrlus : or only in the latter : as, Dat. alterutro. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 § 83. IX. Correlative Pronouns. 
 
 Correlative Pronouns denote relation to one another by 
 corresponding forms. 
 
 Demonstrative. 
 
 TalTs, 
 
 of such a kind. 
 
 TantQs, 
 ao great. 
 
 Relative and 
 Interrogative. 
 
 Tot (indecl.), 
 
 so many. 
 Totldem (indecl.), 
 
 juit so many. 
 
 Quilts, 
 of such a kind 
 as (rel.); of what 
 kind ! (interr.) 
 
 Quantfls, 
 so great as (rel.); 
 how great f (in- 
 terr.) 
 
 Quot (indecl.), 
 so many as (rel.) ; 
 hmv many ? (in- 
 terr.) 
 
 Indefinite 
 Relative. 
 
 QuJlliscunqu^, 
 
 Qualisqualis, 
 of what kind so- 
 ever. 
 
 Quantuscunqu?, 
 Quantusquantus, 
 how great soever. 
 
 QuotcunquS, 
 QuotquQt, 
 how many soever. 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 Qualisltb^t, 
 of any kind you 
 please. 
 
 Altquanttts, 
 of a certain, con- 
 siderable size. 
 
 Quantuslib^t, 
 
 Quantusvis, 
 of any size you 
 please. 
 
 AltquSt (indecl.), 
 some number. 
 
 Quotlib&t'(indecl.) 
 any number you 
 please. 
 
 Ch.nj>ter XYL— The Verb. 
 
 § 84. Verbs are of two kinds : 
 
 1. Transitive Verbs, which govern an Accusative Case, 
 representing the object of the action: as, amo puerum, 
 J love the boy. 
 
 2. Intransitive Verbs, which do not govern an Accu- 
 sative Case : as, sedeo, / sit ; curro, / run. 
 
 Transitive Verbs have Two Voices : 
 
 (i.) The Active Voice, which denotes that the Nomina- 
 tive represents the actor (from ago, actum, to do) : as, pater 
 a,mat, the father loves. 
 
 (ii.) The Passive Voice, (from patior, passus, to suffer), 
 which denotes that the Nominative represents the object of 
 the action : as, pater amatur, the father is loved. 
 
 Obs. 1. Some Verbs may have a reflective ser\»e in the Passive Voice : as, 
 armSr, / arm myself; vertor, I turn myself; livSr, I wash myself. 
 
 Obs. 2. Intransitive Verbs have no Passive Voice, except in the Third Person 
 Singular Impersonal : as, currttdr, it is run (they run). 
 
 / 
 
42 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 §85. 
 
 Deponen^t Verbs have a Passive form but an Active 
 meaning, and are hence called Deponent, because they lay 
 aside (deponwtt) the I'assive sense. They are either Transi- 
 tive, Intransitive, or Keflective : as, hortor milites, 1 exhort 
 the soldiers ; miles moritur, the soldier is dying ; glorior, 1 
 glorify myself (or, more usually, I boast^. 
 
 § 85. Verbs have Four Moods (Modi) : 
 
 I. The Indicative Mood declares a thing positively or 
 unconditionally : as, amo, / love ; scrlbit, he writes. 
 II. The SuRJUNCTiVE Mood is subjoined to another 
 Verb, and states what is conditional, relative, or 
 contingent : as, scribo ut legat, J write that he may 
 read ; legSt aliquis, let some one read. 
 
 Obs. The Subjunctive Mood however must frequently be translated as an 
 Indicative ; owing to the defectiveness of the English Verb. 
 
 III. The Imperative Mood commands or entreats : as, 
 
 amil, love ; ne occidito, thou shalt not kill. 
 
 IV. The Ixfin'itive Mood expresses the action denoted 
 
 by the Verb without reference to person or time : 
 as, amare, to love. 
 
 § 86. Besides these four Moods three other fonns are de- 
 rived from and partake of the signification of Verbs. 
 
 1. The Participle, which is a Verbal Adjective. 
 There are four Participles : 
 
 Active, 
 Imperfect, Amans, loving. 
 Future, Amaturus, about to love. 
 
 Passive. 
 Perfect. Amatus, loved. 
 Gerundive. Amandus, fit to be loved, 
 
 2. The Supine, w^hich is strictly a Verbal Substantive 
 of the fourth declension, having two cases only, the 
 Accusative and the Ablative : as, 
 
 Amatum, to love. 
 
 Amatu, in loving, to be loved. 
 
 3. The Gerund, w4iich is also a Verbal Substantive, 
 having four Cases : as. 
 
 Gen. Amandl, of loving 
 
 Dat. Amando, for loving 
 
 Ace. Amandum, a loving 
 
 Abl. Amando, by loving. 
 
 Obs. The want of a Nominative Case to the Gerund is supplied by the Infini- 
 tive Mood. 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 §89. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 43 
 
 § 87. Verbs have six Tenses (TemporS,) or times, three 
 expressing Imperfect or unfinished action, and three express- 
 ing Perfect or finished action. . 
 
 Imperfect Tenses, 
 
 1. Present. Amo, / love or I am loving, 
 
 2. Past. Amabam, / was loving. 
 
 3. Future. Amabo, / shall love. 
 
 Obs. The Present and Future Tenses are frequently Indefinite and not Im- 
 perfect. In Active Verbs the Future Tense is never Imperfect ; amabo 
 never signifies / shall be loving. Hence it is better to call these two tenses 
 Present and Future simply. 
 
 Perfect Tenses. 
 
 1. Present. Xmavi, I have loved, 
 
 2. Past. Amaveram, / had loved. 
 
 3. Future. Amfivero, I shall have loved. 
 
 Obs. The Present-Perfect has also the meaning of an Indefinite-Past : thu?, 
 Amavl signifies 1 loved as well as I have loved ; and in the former sense 
 it is sometimes called the Aorist. As the tense has thus two meanings, it 
 is better to call it Perfect simply. 
 
 § 88. Verbs have two Numbers, Singular and Plural, 
 and three Persons in each Number : as, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. Amo, I love 
 
 2. Amas, thou lovest 
 
 3. Amat, he loves. 
 
 ^0 
 
 Amamiis, 
 
 Amatis, 
 
 Amant, 
 
 Plur. 
 We love 
 ye love 
 they love. 
 
 § 89. Latin Verbs are arranged in four classes, called 
 Conjugations, distinguished by the ending of the Imperfect 
 Infinitive Active ; which in, 
 
 I. The First Conjugation ends in are : as, amare, to love. 
 
 -TT^ rm a ^ _ w I as, mouere, to 
 
 II. I he becond ,, „ 
 
 ere 
 
 I as, monere, 
 
 i c 
 
 III. The Third 
 
 IV. The Fourth 
 
 »> 
 
 5» 
 
 
 advise. 
 ere : as, regere, to rule, 
 ire : as, audire, to hear. 
 
 The Present Indicative, the Perfect Indicative, the Im- 
 perfect Infinitive, and the Supine are called the Principal 
 I' arts of the Verb ; because it is necessary to know these in 
 order to conjugate a Verb. 
 
41 
 
 THE VERB SU3I. 
 
 §90. 
 
 Chapter XVIL— The Verb Sum and the Four 
 
 Conjugations. 
 
 § 90. The Verb Sum, I am^ is irregular, its inflexions 
 differing in many respects from those of the Verbs belonging 
 to the four Conjugations. 
 
 Sam, fiii, futiirus, esse,— #o he, 
 
 INDICATIVE iMOOD. 
 
 * 1. Present Texse. 
 
 I am 
 thou art 
 
 Sing, Sam, 
 Es, 
 
 Est, 
 
 he is. 
 
 Plur. Sumus, 
 Estis, 
 Sant, 
 
 We are 
 ye are 
 they are. 
 
 Sing. £ram, 
 £ras, 
 £rat, 
 
 * Sing. £ro, 
 £ris, 
 Erit, 
 
 Sing. Fai, 
 Faisti, 
 Fait, 
 
 Sing. Faeram, 
 Fueras, 
 Faerat, 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 I was 
 thou wast 
 he was. 
 
 Plur. £ ramus, 
 £ratis, 
 £raiit, 
 
 3, Future Tense. 
 
 I i<hall he 
 thou wilt he 
 ^ He will be. 
 
 Plur. firimus, 
 firitis, 
 £ruut, 
 
 I have heen, or 
 
 / teas 
 thou hast been, or 
 
 tfum wast 
 he has heeHj or 
 
 he was. 
 
 4. Perfect Texse. 
 
 Plur. Fuimus, 
 
 Fuistis, 
 
 Fuerunt 
 or fuere 
 
 We were 
 ye were 
 they were. 
 
 We shall be 
 ye will he 
 they will be. 
 
 We hare heen, or 
 
 we were 
 ye have been, or 
 ye toere 
 ) they have been, or 
 j they were. 
 
 5. Past-Perfp:ct Tense. 
 
 7 had been 
 thou hadst been 
 he had been. 
 
 Plur. Fueramiis, We had heen 
 Fueratis, ye had been 
 Fuerant, they had been. 
 
 • <fc6. Future-Perfect Texse. 
 
 Sing. Fuero, 
 Fueris, 
 Fuerit, 
 
 I shall have heen 
 thou wilt have been 
 he will fiave been. 
 
 Sing. £s, 
 
 Sing. Esto, 
 £sto, 
 
 Fuerint, 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 1. Present Tense. 
 Be thou. I P?Mr. Este, 
 
 2. Future Texse. 
 
 Thou shall he 
 he shall be, or let 
 him be. 
 
 Plur. Fuerimus, We shall have hetn 
 Fueritis, ye will have hr^n 
 they will havebecn. 
 
 Be:ye. 
 
 I 
 
 Plur. Estate, Ye shall be 
 
 Sunto, they shall be^ or let 
 them be. 
 
 \ 
 
 (I 
 
 90. 
 
 the verb sum. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 45 
 
 S. Sim, 
 Sis, 
 Sit, 
 
 I may be 
 thou mayst he 
 he may he. 
 
 P. Simiis, 
 Sitis, 
 Sint, 
 
 2. 
 
 S. 
 
 Essem or 
 forem, 
 
 Esses or 
 fores, 
 
 Esset or 
 foret. 
 
 Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 P. Essemus or 
 foremus, 
 
 Essetis or 
 foretis, 
 
 Essent or 
 forent, 
 
 > I might he 
 
 > thou mightst he 
 
 > he might he. 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 
 We may he 
 ye may be 
 they may be. 
 
 > We might he 
 
 > ye might he 
 
 \ they might he. 
 
 S. Futuriis sim, I may 
 Futuriis sis, thou mayst 
 Futurus sit, he may 
 
 P. Futtiri simus, We 
 Futuri sitis, 
 Futtiri sint. 
 
 
 may 
 ye may . ^ ^ 
 they may J ^ "*" 
 
 -S. 
 
 Fuerim, 
 
 Fueris, 
 
 Fuerit, 
 
 I may have been 
 thou mayst have heen 
 he may have heen. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 P. Fuerimus, 
 
 Fueritis, 
 Fuerint, 
 
 We may have heen 
 ye may have heen 
 they may have been. 
 
 S. Fuissem, 
 Fuisses, 
 Fuisset, 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 I might )^^^.^ 
 thou ^nirPitst >^^^^^ 
 
 he might ] 
 
 P. Fuissemus, Wk might j^^^.^ 
 Fuissetis, ye might >y^^_^^ 
 Fuissent, they might ) 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Future. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Esse, to he. 
 
 Fuisse, to have heen. 
 
 Futurum esse, or fore, to be about to he. 
 
 P A P. T I C I P L E. 
 Futurus, -a, -mn, about to he. 
 
 ivmd^mc wantingi .^^^ 
 Araum, and Traeseny fron: 
 
 Present Participle is 
 m Pracsum. 
 
 Ols. 1. The Supine and Geri 
 found only in Absens from . 
 
 Obs. 2. The Verb has two Stems, es (whence esum, afterwards 'sum, and all th»% 
 Imperfect Tenses), and/w (whence all the Perfect Tenses). 
 
 Ola. 3. Like Sum are conjugated its compounds : 
 
 Absum, I am away. O^m,' I am in the nay. 
 
 im, I am hefure. 
 
 sum, / am serviceable. 
 
 SifBaijn, / am under. 
 
 I am present. 
 
 I am icanting. 
 Insum. I am in. 
 Intei9m, 7 am present at. 
 
 Adsum, 
 Pcsura, 
 
 SQpersum, J am survicing. 
 Prosum, however, takes d before e ; as, 
 
 riur. Prosiimiis, 
 Prodestis, 
 Prosuut. 
 
 Sing. Prosum, 
 Prodis, 
 Prodcst, 
 
 Obs. 4. Possum, lam able, is a contraction of p8ti8 (pot)-sum, but is irregular. 
 
 Past-Imp. Pr6d?ram. 
 Future. Prodoro. 
 Imp. Inf. Prodess?. 
 
I 
 
 46 FIRST CONJLTGATIOX — ACTIVE. 
 
 § 91.— FIRST CONJUGATION.— Active Voice. 
 Amo, amavi, amatTun, amare, — to lave. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 I. Present Tense. 
 
 §91 
 
 Sing. Am-o, 
 Am-as, 
 Am-at, 
 
 Hove 
 thou lor est 
 he loves. 
 
 riur. Am-amus, We love 
 Am-atis, ye love 
 Am-ant, they love. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. Am-abam, I teas loving 
 
 Am-abas, thou icast loving 
 Am-abat, he was loving. 
 
 Flur. Am-abamus, TTe were loving 
 Am-abatis, ye were htvhig 
 Am-abant, they were loving. 
 
 Sing, Am-abo, 
 Am-abis, 
 Am-abit, 
 
 Sing. Am-avi, 
 Am-avisti, 
 Am-avit, 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 
 I shall love 
 thou wilt love 
 he will love. 
 
 Flur, Am-abimus, We shall love 
 Am-abitis, ye will love 
 Am-abunt, they will love. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense, 
 
 Plur. Am-avimiis, We have loved, 
 
 or we loved 
 Am-avistiS, ije have loved, 
 
 or ye loved 
 Am-kverant,] they have loved, 
 or am-avere/ or they loved. 
 
 I have loved, or 
 
 I loved 
 thou hast loved, 
 
 or thou lovedst 
 he has loved, or 
 
 he loved. 
 
 5. I'ast-Perfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. Am-averam, I had loved 
 
 Am-averas, thou hadst loved 
 Am-averat, he had loved. 
 
 Plur. Am-averamus, We had loved 
 Am-averatis, ye had loved 
 Am-averant, they had loved. 
 
 6. Future-Perfect Tense. 
 
 Sing. Am-avero, I shall U 
 
 Am-averis, thou wilt j, 
 Am-averit, he wilir^'^- 
 
 Flur. Am-averimiis, TI e 87ia/n , 
 
 Am-averitis, ye wilVj^j 
 Am-averint, they icill] "'^''^''• 
 
 Sing. Am-a, 
 
 Sing. Am-ato, 
 Am-ato, 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Love thou. I Flur. Am-ate, Love ye. 
 
 Future Tlnse. 
 
 Tltoti shall love 
 he shall love, or 
 let him love. 
 
 Flur. Am-atote, Ye shall love 
 
 Am-anto, they shall love, or 
 let them love. 
 
 §91. 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION — ACTIVE. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 47 
 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 S. Am-«in, 
 Am-es, 
 Am-et, 
 
 S. Am-arem, 
 Am-ares, 
 Am-aret, 
 
 I may love 
 thou mayst love 
 he may love. 
 
 P. Am-emus, 
 Am-etis, 
 Am-ent, 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 I might love 
 thou mightst love 
 he might love. 
 
 P. Am-aremus, 
 Am-aretis, 
 Am-arent, 
 
 We may love 
 ye may love 
 they may love. 
 
 We might love 
 ye might love 
 they, might love. 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 
 S. Am-aturus sim, I may ) | ?f 
 Am-aturus sis, thou maystl'^ -2 
 Am-aturus sit, lie may J « ^ 
 
 P. Am-attiri simiis, Tl'e w«?/] 1 
 Am-aturi sitis, ye may \ '| 
 Am-aturi sint, they may ) 5 
 
 S. Am-averim, 
 Am-averis, 
 Am-averit, 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 I may j , 
 
 thoumaystlj J 
 7 _ „, „:. loved 
 
 he 
 
 may 
 
 P. Am-averimiis, 
 Am-averitis, 
 Am-averint, 
 
 We may^., 
 ye may' 
 they may 
 
 ELrjfZ. 
 
 S. 
 
 Am-avissem, I might ) ^^^• 
 Am-avisses, thou mightst > ~ -2 
 Am-avisset, he might j '^ -^ 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 P. Am-avissemus, We might] ^^• 
 Am-avissetis, ye might [ | ^ 
 Am-avissent, they might) -^ 
 
 « § 
 
 INFINITIVE ]\IOOD. 
 
 Imperf. Am-are, to love. 
 
 Perfect. Am-avisse, / '^, ^'^'J 
 
 { loved. 
 
 Future. Am-atumm itohe about 
 
 (am, um) esse,/ to love. 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 Gen. Am-andi, of loving 
 
 Dat. Am-ando, for loving 
 
 Ace. Am-andum, the loving 
 
 Ahl. Am-ando, hy loving. 
 
 Am-atum, 
 Am-atu, 
 
 SUPINES. 
 
 to love, 
 to he loved. 
 
 Imperf. 
 Future. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Am-ans, antis, loving. 
 Am-aturus, a, um, ahoiit 
 to love. 
 
 Ohs. In all the Perfect Tenses ct and ve may be omitted before s and r ; as, 
 
 Smavisti becomes SmastT 
 amavistis „ amastis 
 &maverunt „ Smarunt : 
 (but Smaverg does not become 
 jimarP, ■which would be con- 
 founded with the Imperf. Infin.). 
 
 fimavPram becomes Smaram 
 amavero ,, Smaro 
 
 SmavPrim ,, amririm 
 ^max-isscm „ Smassera 
 amavissg „ Smassg. 
 
48 SECOND CONJUGATION— ACTIVE. 
 
 § 92.— SECOND CONJUGATION.— Active Voice. 
 
 Moneo, moniii, monitram, monere,— to advise, 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 §92, 
 
 S. Mon-eo, 
 Mon-es, 
 Mon-et, 
 
 I advise 
 thou adcisest 
 he advises. 
 
 P. Mon-emus, 
 Mon-etis, 
 Mon-ent, 
 
 We advise 
 ye advise 
 they advise. 
 
 2. PAsr-lMPERFt:cT Tense. 
 
 5^. Mon-ebam, I was advising 
 Mon-ebas, thou wast advising 
 Mon-ebat, he was advising. 
 
 P. Mon-ebamus, We were advising 
 Mon-ebatis, ye ivere advising 
 Hon-ebant, they were advising. 
 
 3. Future Tensk. 
 
 S. Mon-ebo, I shall advise 
 Mon-ebis, thou wilt advise 
 Mon-ebit, he will advise. 
 
 P. M5n-ebiinus, We sliall advise 
 Mon-ebitis, ye will advise 
 Mon-ebunt, they will advise. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. 
 
 Mon-ui, 
 
 I have advised, or 
 I advised 
 
 Mon-uistl, thou hast advised, or 
 thou advised^ 
 
 Mon-nit, he has advised, or 
 he advised. 
 
 P. Mon-uimus, We have advised, 
 
 or we advised 
 Mon-uistis, ye have advised, 
 or ye advised 
 Mon-uerunt ) they have advised, 
 or -uere, / or they advised. 
 
 8. HLon-vuBTSim,! had advised 
 Mon-ueras, thou hadd advised 
 Mon-uerat, he had advised. 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 P. Mon-ueramus, We had advised 
 M6n-uerati8, ye had advised 
 Mon-uerant, they had advised. 
 
 6. Future-Perfect Tense 
 
 Mon-nero, I shall i ^^^.^ 
 Mon-ueris, thou ivilt [^j,;,,^, 
 Mon-uent, he wiU 
 
 P. Mon-uerimus, ire shall i , 
 
 Mon-ueritis, ye will > , . , 
 Ti,- - • .. i J -77 aavited. 
 Mon-uennt, theywdl ) 
 
 S. Mon-e, 
 
 8. Mon-eto, 
 MOn-eto, 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Advise thou. \ P. Mon-ete, Advise ye. 
 
 Future Tlnse. 
 
 Them shall advise 
 he shall advise, or let 
 him advise. 
 
 P. Mon-etote, Ye shall advise 
 Mon-ento, they sliall advise, or 
 let them advue. 
 
 ' iV' 
 
 §92. 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION— ACTIVE. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 49 
 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 S. Mon-eam, 
 Mon-eas, 
 Mon-eat, 
 
 I may advise 
 thou mayst advise 
 he may advise. 
 
 P. Mon-eamiis, We may advise 
 Mon-eatis, ye may advise 
 Mon-eant, they may advise. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 S. Mon-erem, / might advise 
 Mon-eres, thou mightst advise 
 Mon-eret, he might advise. 
 
 P. Mon-eremiis, We might advise 
 Mon-eretis, ije might adv)se 
 Moa-erent, they might adviS&. 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 
 S. 
 
 M6n-iturusi7 may he about to 
 
 sim, / advise 
 Mon-iturusW/tow mayst he ahout 
 
 sis, / to advise 
 
 Mon-ituriis I /<e may he ahout to 
 
 sit, j advise. 
 
 P. Mon-ituri ) We may he ahout to 
 
 LUS, / 
 
 simtis, / advise 
 
 Mon-ituri j ye may he ahout to 
 
 sitis, / advise 
 
 Mon-ituri ^ they may he about 
 
 sint, J to advise. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 8. Mon-uerim, I may j 
 
 Mon-ueris, thou ma i/st I ! "F^ , 
 Mon-uerit, he may j«^i-'^'«?. 
 
 P. Mon-uerimiis, TTe may] , 
 Mon-ueritis, tje may\ \^F^ n 
 Mon-uerint, they may j ^^^''■^^d. 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 8. Kon-uissem, I might j ^ '^^ 
 Mon-uisses, thou miqhtst] i .| 
 Mon-uisset, he might J'^-^ 
 
 P. Mon-uissemus, We might ] ^ ^ 
 Mon-uissetis, ye might \ | .5 
 Mon-uissent, they might ) '^ ^^ 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 IMPERF. Mon-ere, to advise. 
 
 Perfect. Mon-uisse, i^^^'^'^e, 
 
 I advised. 
 
 Future. ^on-ltvLrum (toheahout 
 
 BLon-itvLnim (toheahout ^^^- Mon-endu: 
 (am, urn) esse,\ to advise. | Ahl Mon-endo, 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 Gen. Mon-endi, of advising 
 
 Dat. Mon-endo, 
 Aec. Mon-endum, 
 
 for advising 
 the advisivg 
 hy advising. 
 
 SUPINES. 
 Mon-Itum, to advise. 
 
 M6n-itu, to be advised. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Imperf. Mon-ens, entis, advising. 
 Future. Mon-ituriis, a, um, ahuut 
 to advise. 
 
 \ i 
 
 V ^ 
 
rr ?^ Vis*- 
 
 
 48 SECOND CONJUGATION— ACTIVE. 
 
 § 92.— SECOND CONJUGATIOX.— Active Voice. 
 Moneo, monui, monitum, monere,— <o a<?»/««. 
 
 §92, 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 8. Mon-eo, 
 Mon-es, 
 Mon-et, 
 
 J advise 
 thou advisest 
 he advises. 
 
 P. M5n-emiis, 
 Mon-etis, 
 Mon-ent, 
 
 We advise 
 
 ye advise 
 they advise. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Mon-ebam, I was advising 
 Mon-ebas, thou icast advising 
 Mon-ebat, lie was advising. 
 
 P. Mon-ebamus, We were advising 
 Mon-ebatis, ye were advising 
 Mon-ebant, they were advising. 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 
 S. Mon-ebo, I shall adviie 
 Mon-ebis, thou wilt advise 
 Mon-ebit, he will advise. 
 
 P. Mon-eMmus, We shall advise 
 Mon-ebitis, ye will advise 
 Mon-ebunt, they will advise. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. Mon-ui, I have advised, or 
 
 I advised 
 
 Mon-Tiisti, thou hast advised, or 
 thou advisednt 
 
 Mon-nit, he has advised, or 
 he advised. 
 
 P. Mon-uimus, TT'e have advised, 
 
 or we advised 
 
 Mon-uistis, 
 
 Mon-ueront 
 or -uere, 
 
 ye have advised, 
 or ye advised 
 they have advised, 
 or they advised. 
 
 S. TKon-ueT3.m, I had advised 
 Mon-ueras, thou hadM advised 
 Mon-uerat, he had advised. 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 P. Mon-ueramus, We had advised 
 Mon-ueratis, ye had advised 
 Mon-uerant, they had advised. 
 
 6. Future-Perfect Tense 
 
 shall 
 
 Mon-uero, I snun i j^^^,^ 
 Mon.neris, thou ivilt \^j^-^,j^ 
 Mon-uent, he 
 
 will 
 
 P. Mon-uerimiis, We shall I ^^ 
 Mon-ueritis, ye will [„j • j 
 Mon-uerint, they loill ] ' ^ ' 
 
 S. Mon-e, 
 
 S. Mon-eto, 
 Mon-eto, 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 Advise thou. \ P. Mon-ete, Advise ye. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 TJioii shall advise 
 he sh<dl >idvise, or let 
 him advise. 
 
 P. Mon-etote, Ye shall advise 
 Mon-ento, they shall advise, or 
 let them adriiyt. 
 
 V , 
 
 §92. 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION— ACTIVE. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 49 
 
 S. Mon-eam, / may advise 
 Mon-eas, thou mayst advise 
 Mon-eat, he may advise. 
 
 P. Mon-eamiis, We may advice 
 Mon-eatis, ye may advise 
 Mon-eant, they may advii-e. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 S. Mon-erem, I might advise 
 Mon-eres, thou mightst advise 
 Mon-eret, he might advise. 
 
 P. Mon-eremiis, We might advise 
 Mon-eretis, ye might adv)se 
 Mon-erent, they might advise. 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 
 S. M6n-iturus|7 may he about to 
 
 sini* / advise 
 M6n-iturus|///oit may.^t he about 
 
 sis, f to advise 
 
 Mon-iturus I /<e may be about to 
 
 sit, / advise. 
 
 P. Mon-ituri | We may be about to 
 
 simus, / advise 
 
 Mon-ituri | ije may be about to 
 
 sitis, / advise 
 
 Mon-ituri [ they may he about 
 
 sint, j to advise. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 ^S". Mon-uerim, / may J 
 
 Mon-ueris, thou maystl , '/"^ 
 Mon-uerit, he may J«"^*'^<^'^ 
 
 P. Mon-uerimus, Tl'e may] 
 
 Mon-ueritis, ye may) l^^'^ , 
 Mon-uerint, they may] ««'''^*^^''- 
 
 5. Pa-st-Perfect Tense. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Imperf. Mon-ere, to advise. 
 
 Perfect. Mon-uisse, i*^ ''"^'^ 
 
 ( advised. 
 Future. lion-itwnim (to be about 
 (am, urn) esse,\ to advise. 
 
 GEi:UND. 
 Gen. Mon-endi, of advising 
 
 Dat. Mon-endo, 
 Ace. Mon-endum, 
 Abl. Mon-endo, 
 
 for advising 
 the advising 
 by advising. 
 
 SUPINES. 
 Mon-itum, to advise. 
 
 M6n-itu, to be advised. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Imperf. Mon-ens, entis, advising. 
 Future. Mon-itiirus, a, urn, abuui 
 to advise. 
 
50 THIRD CONJUGATION-ACTIVE. § 93. 
 
 § 93. THIHD CONJUGATION.-AcTivE Voice. 
 Bego, rexi, rectum, regere,-/o rule. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 S. Reg-o, 
 Eeg-is, 
 Reg-it, 
 
 5. Beg-ebam, 
 Beg-ebas, 
 Beg-ebat, 
 
 5. Beg-am, 
 Beg-es, 
 Beg-et, 
 
 S. Bex-i, 
 Bex-isti, 
 Bex-it, 
 
 S. Bex-eram, 
 Bex-eras, 
 Bex-erat, 
 
 S. Bex-ero, 
 Bex-eris, 
 Bex-erit, 
 
 I rule 
 thou rulest 
 he rules 
 
 P. Beg-imiis, 
 Beg-itis, 
 Beg-unt, 
 
 We rule 
 ye rule 
 they rule 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 J ims ruling 
 thou wast ruling 
 he was ruling. 
 
 P Beg-ebamus, We were ruling 
 Beg-ebatis, ye were ruhng 
 Beg-ebant, they were ruling. 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 
 I shall rule 
 thou wilt rule 
 he icill rule. 
 
 P Beg-emus, We shall rule 
 ' Beg-etis, ye will rule 
 Beg-ent, they icill rule 
 
 I have ruled, or 
 
 I ruled 
 thou hast ruled, or 
 
 thou ruledst 
 he has ruled, or 
 
 he nded. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 P. Bex-imiis, 
 
 Bex-istis, 
 
 We have ruled, or 
 
 ice ruled 
 ye have ruledy or 
 ye nded 
 
 Bex-erunt ovUhey have ruled, or 
 -ere, j they ruled. 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 I had ruled 
 thou hadst nd 
 he had ruled. 
 
 p Bex-eramus, We had nded 
 ' Bex-eratis, ye had ruled 
 Bex-erant, they had ruled. 
 
 6. Futuhe-Perfect Tense. 
 
 
 S. Beg-e, i2uZe thou. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1 P. Beg-ite, 
 
 S. Beg-ito, 
 Beg-ito, 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Thou shall rule 
 he shall rule, or let 
 him rule. 
 
 P. Beg-itote, 
 Beg-unto, 
 
 Bule ye 
 
 Ye shall rule 
 they shall rule, ov 
 let them rule. 
 
 i 
 
 1/ 
 
 I 
 
 §93. 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION — ACTIVE. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 51 
 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 S. Reg-am, 
 Beg-as, 
 Beg-at, 
 
 1 may rule 
 thou mai^st rule 
 he may rule. 
 
 p. Reg-amiis, 
 Reg-at!s, 
 Eeg-ant, 
 
 We may nile. 
 ye may rule 
 they may rule. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 S. Reg-erem, 
 Beg-eres, 
 Reg-eret, 
 
 I might rule 
 thou mightst rule 
 he might rule. 
 
 P. Reg-eremiis, We might rule 
 Reg-eretis, ye might rule 
 Eeg-erent, they might rule. 
 
 3, Future Tense. 
 
 S. Rect-uriis 
 sim, 
 
 1 I may he about to 
 ) rule 
 Bect-urus ) thou mayst he about 
 SIS, to rule 
 
 } 
 
 Bect-i 
 sit. 
 
 he may he about to 
 rule. 
 
 P Bect-uri \ We may be about to 
 
 simus, / rule 
 Bect-uri "I ye may be abovt to 
 _ sitis, / ride 
 Rect-uri ) they may he about t6 
 
 sint, J rule.. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. Rex-erim, 
 Bex-ens, 
 Rex-erlt, 
 
 S. Rex-issem, 
 Bex-isses, 
 Bex-isset, 
 
 .J -' , have 
 
 thoumamt) , 7 
 , '' i ruled, 
 
 he may 
 
 P. Rex-erimiis, 
 Rex-eritis, 
 Rex-erint, 
 
 We may]^j^^^.^ 
 
 yf '^''y\ruled. 
 they may] 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 I might j , 
 thoumiqhtstlj, 
 he might r^'"^' 
 
 P. Rex-issemus, We might) ■, 
 Rex-issef^s, ye might '^7^, 
 Rex-issent, they might\^^^^^'^^' 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Imperf. Reg-ere, to rule. 
 
 Perfect. Rex-isse, \ 
 
 -V 
 
 (am, um)esse,j 
 
 to have 
 ruled. 
 Future. Rect-urum \to be about 
 
 to rule. 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 Gen. Reg-endi, of ruling 
 
 Bat. Reg-endo, for ruling 
 
 Ace. Beg-endum, the ruling 
 
 Abl. Beg-endo, by ruling. 
 
 Bec-tum, 
 Bec-tti, 
 
 SUPINES. 
 
 to rule, 
 to he ruled. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Imperf. Beg-ens, entis, ruling. 
 Future. Bec-turus, a, um, about 
 to rule. 
 
 r2 
 
52 FOURTH CONJUGATION— ACTIVE. 
 
 § 0:t. FOURTH CONJUGATION.— Active Voice. 
 Audio, audivi, auditum, audire,— <o hear. 
 
 §94. 
 
 §9i. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 S. Aud-io, 
 Aud-Is, 
 Aud-it, 
 
 S. Aud-iebam, 
 Aud-iebas, 
 Aud-iebat, 
 
 S. Aud-iam, 
 Aud-ies, 
 Aud-iet, 
 
 S. Aud-ivi, 
 Aud-ivisti, 
 Aud-ivit, 
 
 I hear 
 Ikon hear est 
 he hears. 
 
 r. Aud-imus, 
 Aud-it:s, 
 Aud-iunt, 
 
 We hear 
 ye hear 
 they hear. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 I was hearing 
 thou wast hearing 
 he was hearing. 
 
 P Aud-iebamiis, We were hearing 
 Aud-iebatis, ye were hear in j 
 Aud-iebant, they were hearing. 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 
 I shall hear 
 thou icilt hear 
 he will hear. 
 
 P. Aud-iemiis, 
 Aud-ietTs, 
 Aud-ient, 
 
 We shall tiear 
 ye icill hear 
 they icill hear. 
 
 I have heard ^ or 
 
 I heard 
 thou hast heard, or 
 
 thou heardtft 
 he has heard, or 
 
 he heard. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 P. Aud-ivlmus, 
 
 We have heard^ 
 
 or tee heard 
 ye have heard, 
 or ye heard 
 Aud-ivenmt \they have heard, 
 or -ivere, J or they heard. 
 
 Aud-ivistiS, 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. Aud-iveram, 
 Aud-iveras, 
 Aud-iverat, 
 
 S. Aud-ivero, 
 Aud-iveris, 
 Aud-iverit, 
 
 I had heard 
 thoii hadst heard 
 he had heard. 
 
 P. Aud-Iveramiis, We had heard 
 Aud-iverat:8, ye had heard 
 Aud-iverant, they had heard. 
 
 6. Future-Perfect Tense. 
 
 -f ^''«//, 1 have 
 thou wdt \j^^^^^ 
 
 he wdl ) 
 
 P. Aud-!verimu8, TFe shall) j^^^.^ 
 Aud.-iveritTs. ye i^inW^,,,j^ 
 Aud-ivennt, they wdl ] 
 
 S. Aud-i, 
 
 S. Aud-ito, 
 Aud-ito, 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 Hear Oiou. \ P. Aud-ite, 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Tliou shalt hear 
 he shall hear, or 
 let him hear. 
 
 P. Aud-itote, 
 Aud-iunto, 
 
 Hear ye. 
 
 Ye shall hear 
 the;/ shall hear, or 
 let them hcur. 
 
 1 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION — ACTIVE. 
 
 53 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 S. Aud-iam, 
 Aud-ias, 
 Aud-iat, 
 
 S. Aud-irem, 
 Aud-ires, 
 Aud-iret, 
 
 S. Aud-ituriis 
 
 sim, 
 Aud-iturus 
 
 sis, 
 Aud-ituriis 
 
 sit, 
 
 S. Aud-iverim, 
 Aud-iverls, 
 Aud-iverIt, 
 
 S. Aud-ivissem, 
 Aud-ivisses, 
 Aud-ivisset, 
 
 J may hear 
 thmi niayst hear 
 he may hear. 
 
 P. Aud-iamiis, 
 And-iat"8, 
 Aud-iant, 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense." 
 
 I might hear 
 thou mighlst hear 
 he might hear. 
 
 Aud-iremiis, 
 
 Aud-iretis, 
 
 Aud-irent, 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 
 } 
 
 I may he about 
 
 to hear 
 thou mayst he 
 
 about to hear 
 he may be about 
 
 to hear. 
 
 Aud-ituri 
 simus, 
 
 Aud-ittiri 
 sitTs, 
 
 Aud-ittiri 
 slut, 
 
 } 
 } 
 
 We may hear 
 ye may hear 
 they may hear. 
 
 We might heai 
 ye might hear 
 they might hear. 
 
 We maybe about 
 
 to hear 
 ye may be about 
 
 to hear 
 they may be about 
 
 to hear. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 I may i j, ^ 
 thou mayst\ 5 b 
 he may '"^ ^ 
 
 P. Aud-iverimus, TT'e 
 Aud-iveritis, y-i 
 Aud-iverint, iJicy 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 P. Aud-ivissemus, TTe 
 Aud-ivissetis, ye 
 Aud-i vissent, they 
 
 thou mightd . | ^ 
 he might j^,^ 
 
 may 
 may 
 may 
 
 mi 
 
 ight\ 5,^- 
 mighty I « 
 might] '* r< 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Imperf. Aud-ire, to hear. 
 
 Perfect. Aud-ivisse, j^^l ''"'"? 
 
 ( heard. 
 
 Future. Aud-iturum \tobe about 
 
 (am, um) esse, j to hear. 
 
 GERUND. 
 
 Gen. Aud-iendi, 
 Dat. Aud-iendo, 
 Ace. Aud-iendum, 
 Abl. Aud-iendo, 
 
 of hearing 
 for hearing 
 the hearing 
 by hearing. 
 
 SUPINES. 
 
 Aud-itum, 
 Aud-Itu, 
 
 to hear, 
 to he heard. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Imperf. Aud-iens, ientis, hearing. 
 
 Future. Aud-iturus, a, um, about 
 
 to hear. 
 
 Ohs. In all the Perfect Tenses r is frequently omitted before e and t. The 
 two t's are often contracted into v; as, 
 
 axulTvistT becomes audiistT or aiulistl 
 audlvistls .. audiistis or audistis 
 
 s.udlvtt 
 audlverunt 
 auclTv(^ram 
 audlvero 
 
 auditt 
 audierunt 
 audidram 
 audi^ro 
 
 audTvPrim becomes 
 
 audTvissem 
 audlvissS 
 
 M 
 
 >» 
 
 { 
 
 audierim 
 audiissem or 
 
 audissem 
 audiissC or 
 audiss^. 
 
51 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION — PASSIVE. 
 
 § 95. FIRST COXJUGATIOX.— Passive Voice. 
 
 Amor, amatiis sum or fiu, amari,— /o be loved, 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 §93. 
 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 S. Am-or, 
 Am-aris or 
 
 am-are, 
 Am-atur, 
 
 Am-abax, | 
 
 Am-abar.'s on 
 am-abare, \ 
 
 I am loved 
 thou art loved 
 he is loved. 
 
 P. Am-amur, 
 Am-amini, 
 Am-antur, 
 
 ^Ve are loved 
 ye are loved 
 they are loved. 
 
 Am-abatur 
 
 -( 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 I icas being 
 
 loved 
 thou least being' 
 
 loved 
 he was being 
 
 loved. 
 
 F. Am-abamur, 
 Am-abam:ni, 
 Am-abantur, 
 
 We were being 
 
 loved 
 ye were being 
 
 loved 
 {they were being 
 \. loved. 
 
 3. Future Te^se. 
 
 S. Am-abor, 
 Am-aberis or'i 
 am-abere, j 
 Am-abitur, 
 
 / shall be loved 
 thou icilt be loved 
 he will be loved. 
 
 P. Am-ab^mtir, 
 Am-abimini, 
 Am-abuntuT) 
 
 TT'e shall be loved 
 ye icill be loved 
 they will beloved. 
 
 S. Am-atiis sum\I Jmve been loved, 
 or foi J or was loved 
 
 -^v - ]thou lM,st been 
 Am-atus es j^^^^j^ ^^ ,^„,^ 
 
 or fuisti, ( j^^,^^ 
 
 ' Am-atua estl^e has been roved, 
 or fait, ) or was loved. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 ^ ■ .^- «. w I We have been 
 P. Am-ati sumus ,^,^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ 
 
 orfu^mus, j j^^,^^^ 
 
 Am-ati estis (ye have been loved, 
 or fuistls, \ or icere loved 
 
 Am-ati sunt, ithey have been 
 fuerunt, or \ loved, or wcro 
 loved. 
 
 fuere, 
 
 ) 
 
 S. Am-atus eramW j^^^^j ^^^,^ j^^.^^ 
 or fueram, I 
 
 Am-atus erasl^^ow hadst been 
 
 or fueras, / loved 
 Am-atus ^eratK^^^^^^j^^^^^..^.^ 
 ^ or fuerat, I 
 
 been 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 P. Am-ati eramus) We had 
 or fueramus, f loved 
 
 Am-ati ^^^^^\ye had been loved 
 
 or fuerat: s, )^ 
 Am-ati eTa.nt]they had been 
 
 or fuerant, ) loved. 
 
 G. Future-Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. 
 
 Am-atiis ero ) I shall have been 
 
 cr fuero, I loved 
 Am-atus erls, tJiou icilt /tare 
 
 or fueris, f been loved 
 Am-atus erltUie icill have beai 
 
 or fuerlt, ) loved. 
 
 Am-ati erimus ) We sh a II ha ve 
 or fuerimus, I been loved 
 Am-ati eritialye ivill have been 
 
 or fueritis, f hrved 
 Am-ati eruntif/ie// icill have 
 
 or fueriat, / been loved. 
 
 \ 
 
 4 
 
 5 95. 
 
 S. Am-are, 
 
 S. Am-ator, 
 Am-ator, 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION — PASSIVE 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 Be thou loved. \ P. Am-amini, 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Tliou shalt be loved P. Am-antor, 
 he shall be loved, or 
 let him be loved. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 55 
 
 Be ye loved. 
 
 They shall be 
 loved, or It 
 them be loved. 
 
 Am-er, 
 Am-eris or 
 
 am-ere, 
 Am-etur, 
 
 I may be lor^d 
 1 thou mayst be 
 I loved 
 
 he may be loved. 
 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 P, Am-emur, 
 Am-emini, 
 Am-entur, 
 
 TT^e may be loved 
 ye may be loved 
 they maybe loved. 
 
 S. Am-arer, I might be loved 
 
 Am-arerls OT\thou mightst be 
 
 am-arere, / loved 
 Am-aretur, he m igh t be loved. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 P, Am-aremiir, We might be loved 
 
 Am-aremini, ye might be loved 
 
 Am-arentur, they might be loved. 
 
 3. Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. Am-atus simj J may have been 
 
 or fuerim, / lovtd 
 Am-atus sis Uhou mayst have 
 
 or fueris, J been loved 
 Am-atus sit \he may have been 
 
 or fuerit, / loved. 
 
 P. Am-ati simuslTTe may have 
 or fuerimus, ) been loved 
 
 Am-ati sitis )ye may have been 
 or fueritis, t loved 
 
 Am-ati sint U/tey may have 
 or fuerint, j been loved. 
 
 4. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. Am-atus essBva.') I might have been 
 
 or fuissem, j loved 
 Am-atus esses If /io«t mightst have 
 
 or fuisses, j been loved 
 Am-atus essetVie might have 
 
 or fuisset, • been loved. 
 
 P-Am-atiessemus"! TFe might have 
 or fuissemus, j been loved 
 
 Am-ati essetis,j?/e might have 
 or fuissetis, / been loved 
 
 Am-ati essentU/ie?/ might have 
 or fuissent, been loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Imperfect. Am-ari, to be loved. 
 
 Perfect. Am-atum (am, um) esse or fuisse, to have been loved. 
 Future. Am-atum iri, to be about to be loved. 
 
 Obs. The form dmdttnn in the Future-Infinitive is the Supine ; and conse- 
 quently the same for all genders. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Perfect. Am-atiis (a, um), loved or having been loved. 
 
 Gerundive. Am-andiis (a, um), 
 
 Jit to be loved. 
 
5G SECOND CONJUGATION— PASSIVE. 
 
 § 96. SECOND CONJUGATION.— Passive Voice. 
 
 Moneor, monltus sum or fui, moneri -^ he advised. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 §96. 
 
 1. Present Tekse. 
 
 S. Koa-eor, 
 Mon-erls or 
 mon-ere, 
 Mon-etur, 
 
 P. Kon-emur, 
 Mon-emlni, 
 Mon-entur, 
 
 2. Tast-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 I am advised 
 Uhou art advised 
 he is advised. 
 
 We are advised 
 ye are advised 
 they are advised. 
 
 .^« ( I iras being ad- 
 
 5. Mon-ebar, j ^^-^^,1 
 
 Mon-ebar!s ox\tlioH icast being 
 xnon-ebare, ( advisnl 
 
 Mon-ebatur, | ^.-^^j^ 
 
 ,. ^ iWe were being 
 p. Mon-ebamur, | advised 
 
 ^ _, _ - - iye were being 
 Mon-ebamMi, ^ advised 
 
 hheij were being 
 Kon^bantur, [ ^^^^,-^^j 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 \I shall be ad 
 
 8. Mon^Wr, {^ ^ '" ""' P- KSn-ebTmfir, 
 
 Mon-eber's ov\th>u wilt be ad- 
 
 Kon-ebere, \ vised 
 
 ,- .^-^- ihe wdl be ad- 
 Mon-ebitur, | ^-^^^i^ 
 
 j We slifdl be ad- 
 
 \ vised 
 
 w -, - - - I '/e icill l^e ad- 
 M:oii-eb.iii:iu, ^-^ ^.;^^^j 
 
 iih'ij will be ad- 
 \ vised. 
 
 Kon-ebtmtiir, 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 
 [tje have been ad- 
 vised, or were 
 advised 
 
 or fui, 
 
 Mon-itus es 
 or fuisti, 
 
 advised 
 {thon hast been ad- 
 vised, or least 
 advised 
 
 ^ -.« 4.\he has been ad- 
 
 Mon-itus est) ^..^^,^j^ ,-,r ^^as 
 
 t>r fttit, advised. 
 
 Mon-iti estTs 
 or fuistis, 
 
 Mon-iti sunt, j fheij hu ve been ad- 
 fuerunt, or< vised, or tvtre 
 fuere, ( advised. 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tr.Nsr,. 
 S.mn-U^s et^im! I had l>em ad- P Mon^^tlerlmusj We hael been ad- 
 or fueram, 
 
 ^,^ ,^ , ^ viseel 
 
 Mon-itus eras ithou hadd l^een 
 or fueras, i advised 
 
 or fueramus, \ vised 
 
 Mon-iti eratis iye had been ad- 
 or fuerat-s, \ vised 
 
 M^n^r^^t '^:h:^been ad- ^^^.ti Jrant ..^^^ been eul 
 orfuerat, \ vised, » or fuerant, \ used. 
 
 6. Future-Perfect Tense 
 
 S. Mon-itus ero (I shall have been 
 orfuero, \ eidvised 
 
 Mon-itus erls jthon wilt hat^ 
 or fueris, I been advised 
 
 M6n-itus erit ihe will have been 
 or fuerit, \ advised. 
 
 P. Mon-iti erimusnre shetll hnve 
 or fuerimus, \ bem advis>d 
 Mon-iti eritis (ye will have been 
 
 or fueritis, I aelvised 
 Mon-iti erunt jthey will hove 
 or fuerint, 1 been advised. 
 
 1 
 
 §9G. 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION — PASSIVE. 
 
 57 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 S. Mon-erc, Be thou advised. \ P. Mou-emini, 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 S. Mon-etor, Thou shall be advised P. Mon-entor, 
 Mon-etor, he shedl be advised, or 
 lei him be advised. 
 
 Be ye advised. 
 
 Tlify shall be ad- 
 vised, or lei them 
 be advised. 
 
 S. Mon-ear, 
 
 mon-eare, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 1. Present Tense. 
 I may be ad- p. Mon-samiir, {^^^.^ ^* ''^' 
 
 Mon-eamini, |^^ !^7 ^' "^- 
 ' ( vised 
 
 jl may 
 I vised 
 
 Mon-ear^s or jtJioii maysi be 
 J, \ advised 
 
 Mon-eantiir, {'^^'4';^';^ ^' "^' 
 
 __w ..^ ihe mail be ad 
 Mon-eatur, | ^.^J^ 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 „ „w _ w (I miqht be ad- r, iurx„ ^^-y^,-^ ( We might be ad- 
 
 S. Mon-erer, | ^.J^ P. Mon-eremor, | ^.^J 
 
 „« . -_w - lue miqht be ad- 
 Mon-eremini, j-^ ^,. J 
 
 Mon-erentur, {''*;^.;"^^'^' ^' "^^" 
 
 Mon-ereris or jthou mightst be 
 
 mon erere, \ aelvised 
 
 __w - '..« \he miiiht be ad- 
 Mon-eretur ^ 
 
 Uie mujh 
 ' \ vised. 
 
 3. Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. Mon-itus simfJ way 7mre been 
 or fuc-rim, \ aelvised 
 
 Mon-itus sis {ihoii mayst have 
 or fueris, | been advised 
 
 Mon-itus Sit (he may have been 
 or fuerit, \ eulvised. 
 
 P. Mon-iti simusl'TT'e may heive 
 or fuerimus, \ been advised 
 
 Mon-iti sitis I ye may have been 
 or fueritis, \ advised 
 
 Mon-iti sint \ihey may have 
 or fuerint, I been advised. 
 
 S. Mon-itus essem( I might have been 
 or fuissem, \ advised 
 Mon-itus esses ithou mightsthave 
 
 or fuisses, ( been advised 
 Mon-itus essH (he might heive 
 \ been advised. 
 
 or fuisses, 
 
 ilon-itus es 
 
 or fuisset, 
 
 4. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 P. Mon-iti essemiis r TT e might have 
 
 or fuissemus, \ been aelvised 
 
 M6n-iti essetls(//e might have 
 
 or fuissetis, \ been advised 
 
 Mon-iti essent ithcy might have 
 
 or fuissent, \ been advised. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Imperfect. Mon-eri, to be advised. 
 
 Perfect. Mon-itum (am, um), esse or faisse, to have been advised. 
 Future. Mon-itum in, to be about to be advised. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Perfect. Mon-itus (a, um), advised or having been advised. 
 
 Gi:^iUNDiVE. Mon-endus (a, um), 
 
 fit to be advised. 
 
 d3 
 
58 
 
 THIRD CONJUGxVTION — PASSIVE. 
 
 § 97. THIRD CONJUGATION— Passive Voice. 
 Eegor, rectus sum or fui, regi,— <o he rultd. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 §97. 
 
 I. Present Tense. 
 
 S. Reg-6r, I am ruled P. Eeg-imur, 
 
 Eeg-eris or |^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ 
 
 reg-ere, 
 Eeg-itur, 
 
 he is ruled. 
 
 Eeg-Tmini, 
 Keg-untur, 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 being 
 
 S. Reg-ebar, | ^^j^^^ 
 
 Reg-ebaris or j thou icast being 
 reg-ebare, ( ruled 
 
 ihe icns being 
 ruled. 
 
 Reg-ebatur, 
 
 (' 
 
 P. Reg-ebamiir, 
 Reg-ebamini, 
 Reg-ebantiir, 
 
 Reg-ar, 
 Reg-ens or 
 
 reg ere, 
 Reg-etur, 
 
 S. Rec-tus sum 
 or fai, 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 Isludl be ruled I P. Reg-emur, 
 
 \thou wilt be ruled \ Reg-em^ni, 
 he icill be ruled. ' Reg-entur, 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 have been 
 
 ruled, or teas 
 
 ruled 
 
 -, ^w V ithou hast been 
 Rec-tus es or ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ 
 
 ^"'^^' I ruled 
 
 Rectus est or (he has been rided, 
 fuit, \ or teas ruled. 
 
 P. Rec ti sumus 
 or fulmus, 
 
 Recti esf^s 
 or fuistis, 
 
 Recti sunt, 
 fuenmt, or 
 fuere, 
 
 TI e are ruled 
 ye are ruled 
 they are rultd. 
 
 \ We were being 
 [ ruled 
 
 ye icere being 
 [ ruled 
 
 [they icere being 
 ruled 
 
 We shallberided 
 ye will be ruled 
 they will he ruled. 
 
 We have been 
 
 ruhd, or weie 
 ruled 
 
 ye have been 
 
 nded, or were 
 ruled 
 
 they have been 
 i ruled, or were 
 { ruled. 
 
 S. ^eo-t^Jr^ra) mad been nded 
 or fueram, j 
 
 Rec-tus eras (thou hadst been 
 
 or fueras, \ ruled 
 
 Rec-tus erat ihe had been 
 or fuecat, \ 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 Rec-ti eramus nre had 
 or fueramus, i ruled 
 
 Rec-ti eratis iye had 
 or fueratis, \ nded 
 
 Recti erant (they had 
 or fuerant, \ ruled. 
 
 ruled. 
 
 been 
 been 
 
 been 
 
 S. Rec-tus ero ( 
 
 or fuero, \ nded 
 Rectus eris (thmi wilt have 
 
 or fueris, \ been ruled 
 Rec-tiis erit ihe trill have been 
 
 or fuerlt, \ ruled. 
 
 6. Future-Perfect Tense. 
 
 I shall have been P. Recti erimus | TT e shall have 
 
 or fuerimu8,\ been nded 
 
 Rec-ti eritis j ye ivill have been 
 or fueritis, | ruled 
 
 Rec-ti erunt (they will hai-e 
 or fuerint, \ been ruled. 
 
 I 97. 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION — PASSIVE. 
 
 59 
 
 •?. Reg-ere, 
 
 ^^. Reg-itor, 
 Reg-itor, 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 Be thou ruled. \ P. Reg-imini, 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Thou shalt be ruled P. Reg-untor, 
 he ah all he ruled, or 
 let him be ruled. 
 
 Be ye ruled. 
 
 They shall he 
 ruled, or ht 
 them be ruled. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 5'. Reg-ar, 
 
 Reg-aris or 
 
 reg-are, 
 Reg-atur, 
 
 I may be ruled P. Reg-amur, 
 thou mayst he 
 
 ruled 
 he may be ruled. 
 
 Reg-amini, 
 Reg-antur, 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 We may be nded 
 ye may he ruled 
 they may be ruled. 
 
 S. Reg-erer, I might he ruled 
 
 Reg-ererTs or Uhoii mightst be 
 j ruled 
 
 reg-erere, 
 Reg-eretur, 
 
 .^. 
 
 Rec-tus sim 
 or fuerim, 
 
 Rec-tus sis 
 or fueris, 
 
 he might be ruled. 
 
 3. Perfect Tense. 
 [I ma'/ have been 
 
 P. Reg-eremiir, We might he ruled 
 Reg-eremlni, ye might be ruled 
 Reg-erentur, they might be ruled. 
 
 )I ma'/ h 
 j ruled 
 
 Uhon mayd have 
 j hem ruled 
 Rec-tus sit orYlie may have been 
 fuerit, / ruled. 
 
 P. Rec-ti simus )We may have 
 or fuerimus, j been ruled 
 
 Recti sitis or Uje may have been 
 fueritis, j ruled 
 
 Recti sint or) they may have 
 fuerint, j been ruled. 
 
 4. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. Rec-tiis essem 1 J might have 
 or fuissem, j been ruled 
 
 Rec-tus esses Uhou mightst have 
 or fuisses, j been ruled 
 
 Rec-tus esset Vie might hare 
 or fuisset, / been ruled. 
 
 P. Rec-ti essemiis lire might havt, 
 or fuissemus, ) been nded 
 
 Rec-ti essetis \ije might havt 
 or fuisset- s, / been ruled 
 
 Rec-ti essent \they might have 
 or fuissent, / been ruled. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Imperfect. Reg-i, to be ruled. 
 
 Perfect. Rectum (am, um) esse or fuisse, to have been ruled. 
 Future, Rectum iri, to be about to be nded. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Perfect. Rec-tiis (a, um), ruled or having been rultd. 
 
 Gerundive. Reg-endiis (a, um), Jit to he rultd. 
 
CO 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION — PASSIVE. 
 
 §98. 
 
 §98. 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION — PASSIVE. 
 
 61 
 
 §08. FOURTH COXJUGATIOX.— Passive Voice. 
 Audior, auditus sum or fui, a.VLdiirl, — to he heard. 
 
 S. Aud-ior, 
 Aud-irls or 
 
 aud-ire, 
 Aud-itiir, 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 1. Prksext Tknse. 
 I am heard 
 \thou art heard 
 he is heard. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tesse 
 
 r. Aud imur, 
 Aud-imini, 
 Aud-iuntur, 
 
 We are heard 
 ye are heard 
 they are heard. 
 
 S. Aud-iebar, 
 
 (I iras being 
 
 \ heard 
 
 Aud-iebarjs or ( thou wast being 
 
 aud-iebare, \ heard 
 
 > 3 ---u-^- \^te was being 
 Aud-iecatur, < t j 
 ' \ heard. 
 
 -r. . J -v.- -- (^6 if^cre being 
 P. Aud-iebamur, | ,^^^,^^^ 
 
 . , .-, - w - t ue were being 
 Aud-iebaimiii,^^ j^^^^^^l 
 
 Aud-iebantur, ^^^^^^^_ 
 
 .c 
 
 Aud-iar, 
 Aud-ieris or 
 
 aud iere, 
 Aud-ietur 
 
 3. Future Tense. 
 I shall be heard . P. Aud-iemur, 
 
 (thou wilt he\ Aud-iemini, 
 \ heard i 
 
 he will be heard. 1 Aud-ientur, 
 
 IVeshallbe heard 
 ye will be heard 
 they willbeheard. 
 
 S. Aud-itus sum 
 
 ^•^^^ I heard 
 
 , J .. V w [tlam hast been 
 
 Aud-itu8 _es J ;,,«,,;, or ic«.< 
 
 ^^^"^^' I heard 
 
 » a -i- ^ ilte has been 
 
 Aud-itus est j^^^^^j 0^ ^^^,^ 
 
 «^^*' heard. 
 
 4. Perfect Tense. 
 fieord, or was ^^ fuimus, 
 
 TUtf /aa-e been 
 s heard, or icere 
 ( heard 
 
 Aud-itiestis y j„ard, or w.re 
 orfuistis, ) ^^^^^^ 
 
 Aud-iti sunt, ithey hare been 
 fuerunt, or < heard, or were 
 fuere, | heard. 
 
 5. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. Aud-itus eram 
 or fueram, 
 Aud-itus eras 
 or fueras, 
 Aud-itus erat 
 or fuerat, 
 
 S. Aud-itus ero 
 or fuero, 
 
 Aud-itus eris 
 or fueris, 
 
 Aud-itus erit 
 or faerit, 
 
 } 
 
 V 
 
 / heard 
 \he had 
 ) heard. 
 
 I had been heard 
 \thoH hadst been 
 
 been 
 
 been 
 
 1\ Aud-iti eramus ) We h a d 
 or fueramus, ) heard 
 Aud-iti gratis ^y^j.^d been heard 
 
 or fueratls, 
 Aud-iti erant 
 or fuerant, 
 
 itltey had 
 heard. 
 
 been 
 
 6. Future-Perfect Tknse. 
 
 I shall have been P. Aud-iti erimus) TTe 
 heard \ 
 
 Wiou wilt have 
 j been heard 
 \he will have been 
 I heard. 
 
 shall have 
 or fuerimus, / been heard 
 
 Aud-iti eritis Yye will have bten 
 or fueritis, / heard 
 
 Aud-iti erunt \they will have 
 or faerint, / been heard. 
 
 1 ! 
 
 I' 
 
 ' S. Aud-ire, 
 
 S. Aud-itor, 
 Aud-itor, 
 
 perative mood. 
 
 Present I'ense. 
 Be thou heard. \ P. Aud-imini, Be ye heard. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Thou shall he heard 
 
 he shall be heard, or 
 
 let him be heard. 
 
 P. Aud-iuntor, TJieyshallbe heard, 
 
 or let them ie 
 heard. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 ^^. 
 
 Aud-iar, 
 Aud-iaris or 
 
 aud-iare, 
 Aud-iatur, 
 
 I may be heard 
 Wiou mayst be 
 } heard 
 
 1. Present Tense. 
 
 P. Aud-iamur, We may be heard 
 
 Aud-iamini, ye may be heard 
 
 Aud-iantiir, they may be heard^ 
 
 he may be heard. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tense. 
 
 P. Aud-iremur, We might be heard 
 Aud-iremini, ye might be heard 
 Aud-irentur, they might be heard. 
 
 Aud-irer, / might be heard 
 
 Aud-ireriS or ithoii mightst be 
 
 aud-irere, / heard 
 Aud-iretur, he might be heard. 
 
 3. Perfect Tense. 
 
 ^^. 
 
 Aud-itiis sim ) I may have been 
 
 or fuerim, ) heard 
 Aud-itus sis )fhou mayst hare 
 
 or fueris, f been heard 
 Aud-itiis sit )he mayhaveheen 
 
 or faerit, ; heard. 
 
 P. Aud-iti simiis I TTe may hare 
 or fuerimus, ) been heard 
 
 Aud-iti sit:s "l//e may hove been 
 or fueritis, / heard 
 
 Aud-iti sint \ihey may have 
 or faerint, J been heard. 
 
 4. Past-Perfect Tense. 
 
 S. Aud-itus essem\ I might have been 
 or fuissem, / hrard 
 
 Aud-itus esses Wiou mightst have 
 or fuisses, \ been heard 
 
 Aud-itus esset )he might have 
 or faisset, j been heard. 
 
 P. Aud-iti essemus) TTe might hare 
 or fuissemus, ( been heard 
 Aud-iti essetis ]ye might have 
 
 or fuissetis, / been heard 
 Aud-iti essent \they might have 
 or faissent, / been heard. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Imperfect. Aud-iri, . to be heard. 
 
 Perfect. Aud-itum (am, urn) esse or faisse, to have been heard. 
 Future. Aud-itum iri, to be about tc be heard. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Perfect. Aud-itiis (a, um), heard or having been heard. 
 
 Gerundive. Aud-iendus (a, um) Jit to be heard. 
 
62 THIRD CONJUGATION MIXED WITH FOURTH. § 99 
 § 99. EXAMPLES FOR CONJUGATION. 
 
 Examples for Conjugation like cimo. (See also ^ 149.) 
 
 accuso, 
 aro, 
 clamo, 
 hablto, 
 
 adhtbeo, 
 cohlbeo, 
 deljeo, 
 eierceo, 
 
 I accuse. 
 I plough. 
 I cry out. 
 I dwell. 
 
 honuro, 
 laiulo, 
 libero, 
 nOuiIno, 
 
 / honour. 
 I praise. 
 I set free 
 I name. 
 
 opto, 
 orno, 
 pa.ro, 
 
 logo, 
 
 / icish. 
 I adorn, 
 I prepare. 
 J ask. 
 
 Examples for Conjugation like mSneo 
 
 habeo, / have. 
 niereo, / deserve. 
 
 I apply. 
 I restrain. 
 I owe. 
 I exercise 
 
 noceo, 
 pareo, 
 
 / injure, 
 I obey. 
 
 (See also $ 150.) 
 
 placco, T please. 
 
 praeljeo, / present. 
 
 prohibeo, / prevent. 
 
 terreo, I frighten. 
 
 Examples for Conjugation like r^go. (See also <J>5 157, sqq) 
 
 cingo, 
 dice, 
 
 / gird. 
 I say. 
 
 duco, '' lead. 
 juugo, I join. 
 
 plango, / beat. 
 
 sugo, 
 
 / suck. 
 
 tScro, I cover. 
 tingo, / dye. 
 
 Obs. Dico, speak, duco, lead, have ale, due, in the Singular Imperative 
 Present Active. See § 106, Obs. (p. 69). 
 
 Examples for Conjugation like audio. (See also ^ 168.) 
 
 custudio, / guard. 
 dormio, / sleep. 
 eiudio, / train. 
 
 f inio, / end. 
 
 impCdio, / himler, 
 niollio, - / Soften. 
 
 niunio, 
 nutrio, 
 puiiio, 
 
 I fortify, 
 I nourish. 
 I punish. 
 
 § 100. THIRD CONJUGATION MIXED WITH THE FOURTH, 
 Capio, cepi, captum, capere, — to tahe. 
 
 I. ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Pad-Imperf. 
 Future. 
 
 Present. 
 Past-Imperf. 
 
 Present. 
 Future. 
 
 Cap-io, I take 
 Cap-is, thou iahest 
 Cap-it, he tahes. 
 
 Cap imus, TTe tahe 
 Cap-itis, ye tahe 
 Cap-iunt, theu tahe. 
 
 Cap-iebam, I iras taking, 
 Cap-iam, I shcdl tahe, 
 
 Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 Cap-iam, I may tahe, 
 
 Cap-erem, I might tahe, 
 
 like aud-iebam. 
 aud-iam. 
 
 i> 
 
 Cape, 
 Cap ito, 
 Cap-ionto, 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 
 take thou, 
 thou shalt tahe, 
 they shall tcdie, 
 
 like aud-iam. 
 „ reg-erem. 
 
 like reg-e. 
 regito. 
 aud-iunto. 
 
 I 
 
 § 100. THIRD CONJUGATION MIXED WITH FOURTH. 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 Imperfect. Capere, to tahe, like reg-ere. 
 
 Participle. 
 Imperfect. Cap-iens, ■ takhig, like aud-iens. 
 
 Gerund. 
 Capiendi, of tahing, like aud-ieadL 
 
 q:^ 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past-Imperf. 
 Future. 
 
 Present. 
 Past-Imperf. 
 
 Present. 
 Future. 
 
 Cap-ior, I am taheii 
 Cap-eris )thou art 
 or -ere, / tahen 
 Cap itur, he is tahen. 
 
 Cap-iebar, 
 Cap-iar, 
 
 n. PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Indicative Mood. 
 
 Cap-imur, 
 
 Cap-iminI, 
 
 Cap-iuntiir, 
 
 I u-as being tahen, like 
 I shall he taken. 
 
 a 
 
 SuKjuNCTivE Mood. 
 Cap-ilr, I may he tahen, 
 Cap-erer, I might he tahen, 
 
 Imperative Mood. 
 Cap-ere, he thou tahen, 
 Cap-itor, thou shalt he tahen, 
 Cap-iuntor, they shall he tahen, 
 
 Imperfect. Cap-i, 
 
 Infinitive Mood. 
 to he tahen. 
 
 like 
 
 like 
 
 like 
 
 We are taken 
 
 ye are tahen 
 
 they are tahen. 
 
 aud-iebai; 
 aud-iar. 
 
 aud-iar. 
 reg-erer. 
 
 reg-ere. 
 
 reg-itor. 
 
 aud-iuntor. 
 
 reg-i. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Tenses derived from the Perfect and Supine are not given, 
 as their conjugation is quite regular: cep-T, cep-6ram, ccp-ero, &c. ; 
 capturus sim, captus sum, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Verbs conjugated like cnpio are : 
 
 facio, feci, factum, facf^r^, make. 
 
 jiicio, jecl, j actum, jacerf, throw. 
 
 fQgio, fugl, fQgttum, fiiggr?, Ilee. 
 
 fodio, fodi, fossum, foderf, dig. 
 
 rSpio, rapul, raptum, rSpgr?, seize. 
 
 pario, p^p^rl, partum, parCr^, bring forth. 
 
 quiltio, (no perfect), quassum, quSt^r^, shake. 
 
 cQpio, cQplvT, cQpItum, cflp^r^, desire. 
 
 sapio, sSpIvl, sapgre, taste. 
 
 ^^^^°» lSc?r§, rff atr^rare, except in 
 
 sp^c^rd, look j composition. 
 
 specio. 
 Also the Deponent Verbs : 
 
 griidior grcssds sum, 
 
 mSrior, mortQQs sum, 
 
 piitior, passes sum, 
 
 Ob.^. 3. Orior, ortus sum, orTrT, to rise, follows the Thiid Confugation only in 
 the Present IndicatiYC and in the Imperative. 
 
 gradT, 
 morl, 
 
 pati. 
 
 v.'alk. 
 die. 
 
 stiffer. 
 
6^ 
 
 §101. 
 
 Chapter XVIII. — 
 
 I. Hortor, hortatiis sum, hortari, to exhort, like amor. 
 II. Vereor, veritus sum, vererl, to f tar, „ moneor. 
 
 I. 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 Present. Hortur, 
 Hort-aris 
 (aret, 
 &c. 
 Fa!it-Imp. Hort-ubiir, 
 ^ . Future. Hort-abOr, 
 •- ' Vtrject. Hort-atds 
 
 sum, 
 Past Per/. Hort-atus 
 
 t^ram, 
 Fut.-Perf. Hort-atQs 
 Cro, 
 
 I exhort. 
 \thuu exhorted, 
 
 I was exhorting. 
 I shall exhort. 
 I ha re exhorted, 
 oi I exhorttd. 
 
 \l had exhorted. 
 
 ^ I shall have ex- 
 / horted. 
 
 } 
 
 ^ (Present. Hort-5r, 
 Past-Imp. Hort-arer, 
 Future. liort-atiiras 
 sim, 
 Ilort-atiis 
 sim, 
 Past-Perf. Hort-atil3 
 esscm, 
 
 i < 
 
 X 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 I may exhi>rt. 
 
 I might txhort. 
 
 ( I may he about 
 \ t-j exhort. 
 (I ma/ have ex- 
 \ horted. 
 (I might hare 
 \ exhorted. 
 
 II. 
 
 Ver-eor, 
 Ver-oils 
 
 (,erC), 
 &c. 
 Yor-vbar, 
 Ver-ebOr, 
 Ver-itfts 
 
 Slim, 
 Ycr-itfia 
 
 cram, 
 Yer-itils 
 
 C'l'o, 
 
 I J tar. 
 \thou fearest, 
 
 I uns fearing. 
 
 1 shall fear. 
 \I have feared, 
 j or I feared. 
 
 \l had feared. 
 
 ^J shall have 
 ) fea nd. 
 
 Preserd. 
 5 p ] Future. 
 
 Ilort-arC', 
 Hort-ator, 
 
 Exhort thou, 
 (thou shall ex- 
 \ hort. 
 
 > 
 
 'Imperf. 
 M \Perfect. 
 
 r- I Future. 
 
 Hort-ari, to exhort. 
 
 Hort-atum ito hare ex- 
 
 essC, \ horted. 
 
 Hort-aturum ito he about to 
 
 €-38(5, I exhort. 
 
 YCr-eiir, 
 
 Yer-erer, 
 
 Yer-iturds 
 
 sim, 
 Yer-itii3 
 
 sim, 
 YCr-itil3 
 
 ti:;3cm. 
 
 I may fear. 
 
 I might fear. 
 
 I may he aboiU 
 to fear. 
 ^I may have 
 ) feared. 
 ll ntight have 
 ) feared. 
 
 ] 
 
 Yi5r-cre, Fear thou. 
 Yer-ctor, thou shall fear. 
 
 ■^ [Imperf. Hort-ans, exhorting. 
 
 ^ XFuture. Hort-atOriis, about to exhort. 
 
 I {Perfect. Hort-atas, having exhorted. 
 
 S I ^ , . TT i. 1 «c (fit to he ex- 
 
 ^ GeruncZa-e. Hort-andas, ^ j^^^^^^^^ 
 
 SUPIXES. Hort-atura, to exhort. 
 
 Hort-atii, to be exhorted. 
 
 C.ERrNn. Hort-autli, of exhorting. 
 
 Yor-cri, to fear. 
 
 Yer-itum h^j^ave feared. 
 
 Y<5r-iturum Vto he about to 
 esse, j fear. 
 
 Yt^r-cns, fearing. 
 Ver-Tturas, about to fear. 
 YCr-itas, ha ving fea red. 
 
 YCr-endiis, fit to he feared. 
 
 Yt^r-Ttum, to fear. 
 YCr-itii, to hr feared. 
 YOr-cndi, of fearing. 
 
 I. ConSr, 
 Consolor, 
 iliror, 
 
 / endeavour. 
 I console. 
 I xconder. 
 
 Examples for Conjugation. 
 II. bitueor, 
 Mereor, 
 Polllceor, 
 
 / behold. 
 I deserve. 
 I promise. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Besides the Passive forms, the Deponents have the two Active Parti- 
 ciples, the Supines, and the Gerunds. 
 
 Deponents are the only Latin Verbs that have a Perfect Participle -with an active 
 meaning : as, hortatQs, having exhorted. 
 
 The Gerundive and Perfect Participle (the latter only in certain verbs), are the 
 
 unly forms in the Deponent that ever have a passive meaning : as, hortandOs, 
 
 ft to be exhorted; Jldeptus, having obtained, or having been obtained. The 
 
 following: are the principal Perfect Participles of Deponent Verbs u^ed in 
 
 a Passive sense : abOmlniitus, adeptus, ausp^cZLtus, amplexus, complexus, com- 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 Deponent Yerbs. 
 
 Go 
 
 III. Loquor, locutiis sum, loqui, to speaTi, like regor. 
 IV. Partior, partltiis sum, partiri, to divide, „ audior. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past-Imp. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Past-Perf 
 
 Fut.-Perf 
 
 m. 
 
 Loquor, 
 Loqu-6rIs, 
 
 (ere ), 
 &e. 
 Loqu-ebar, 
 Loqu-ar, 
 Locu-tus 
 
 sum, 
 Locu-tCls 
 
 6ram, 
 Locu-tiis 
 
 ero, 
 
 } 
 
 / speak. 
 
 thou speakest, 
 
 &c. 
 I was speaking. 
 I shall speak. 
 I have spoken, 
 or I spoke. 
 
 I had spoken. 
 
 I shall have 
 
 spoken. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past-Imp. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Past-Perf. 
 
 Loqii-ar, 
 
 Ldqu-erer, 
 
 Loeu-tfiras 
 
 sim, 
 Locii-tils 
 
 sim, 
 Loeu-tils 
 
 cssem. 
 
 I may speak. 
 I might speak. 
 I may he about 
 
 to speak. 
 I may have 
 
 spoken. 
 I might have 
 
 spoken. 
 
 Present. Loqu-erC, Sjieak thou. 
 
 Future. Loqu-Itor, i^^''"' f''^^ 
 
 ^ \ speak. 
 
 Imperf. 
 Perfect. 
 
 Future. 
 
 LOqu-i, to speak. 
 
 Locfi-tum ). , , 
 
 \*^ "^ ^^ spoken. 
 
 Loed-tCirum \to be about to 
 
 es.so. 
 
 speak. 
 
 Imperf. Loqu-ens, speaking. 
 
 Future. Loeu-turfis about to speak. 
 
 Perfect. Locu-tus, having spoken. 
 
 Gerundive. Loqu-endils, fit to be spoken. 
 
 fc?ui*iNES. Locu-tum, 
 
 Locu-tu, 
 Cerqnd. Loqu-endi, 
 
 to speak, 
 to he spoken, 
 of speaking. 
 
 Partior, 
 Part-iris 
 Cir6). 
 &c. 
 Part-iebar, 
 Part-iar, 
 Part-Itus 
 
 sum, 
 Part-itus 
 
 eram, 
 Part-itils 
 
 6ro, 
 
 IV. 
 
 I divide. 
 
 thou dividest, 
 
 d'C. 
 
 I icas dividing. 
 I shall divide. 
 I have divided, 
 or I divided. 
 
 ►J had divided. 
 
 I / shall have di- 
 \ vided. 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 r. 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 Part-iar, 
 
 Part-irer, 
 
 Part-iturus 
 
 sim, 
 Part-itQs 
 
 sim, 
 Part-ittts 
 
 csscm, 
 
 I may divide. 
 
 I might divide. 
 
 I may be about 
 to divide. 
 
 I may have di- 
 vided. 
 
 I might have 
 divided. 
 
 XT. 
 
 c 
 
 v. 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 Part-ire, 
 Part-itor, 
 
 { 
 
 Divide thou, 
 thou shalt di- 
 vide. 
 
 
 W 
 
 Part-iri, 
 Part-itum 
 
 essC', 
 Part-iturumlfo he about to 
 
 esse, / divide. 
 
 to divide. 
 \to have divided. 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 
 ft 
 
 Part-iens, dividing. 
 Part-iturils, about to divide. 
 Part-itiis, having divided. 
 
 Part-iendus, fit to he divided. 
 
 
 Part-itum, to divide. 
 Part-itfi, to he divided. 
 
 Part-iendi, of dividing. 
 
 Examples fcr Conjugation. 
 
 III. Fruor, frultu>^ sum, / enjoy 
 Funo;6r, functiis sum, I perform. 
 Labor, lapsus sum, / slip. 
 
 lY 
 
 Blanilior, 
 
 Largior, 
 
 Llentior, 
 
 I flatter. 
 I give money. 
 I lie. 
 
 mentus, confossu", dotest'itus. omcntltus, expertus, exsecrutus, meditntus, 
 
 mcnsus, modoratus, opinatus, pactus, pai-tltus, testatus, ultus. See §§ 169-172. 
 Obs. 2. Intransitive Deponents have no Supine in u and no Gerundive. 
 Obs. 3. The four following Verbs have a Passive form with an Active meaning 
 
 in the Perfect Tenses only, and are therefore called Semi-Deponeuis, or 
 
 Keuter-Passives : 
 
 Poleo, B^lTtiis sum, sfileri\ to he accustomed. 
 Audeo, ausus sum, auder6, to dare 
 
 Gaudeo, gavTsQs sum, gauderf , to rrjnice. 
 . Fldo» fisus sum, flderS, to trust. 
 
CG 
 
 PEEIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 
 
 § 102. 
 
 Chapter XIX. — Periphrastic Conjugation. 
 
 § 102. I. The Active Periphrastic Conjugation consists 
 of tlie Future Participle in turns with the Verb sum^ and 
 expresses intention or futurity. 
 
 indicative mood. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past-Imperf. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Past-Perfect. 
 
 Present. 
 Past-Imperf. 
 Perfect. 
 Past-Perfect. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 Perfect, 
 
 Amatunis sum, 
 Amaturus eram, 
 Amaturus ero, 
 Amaturus fui, 
 Amaturus fueram, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Amaturus sun, 
 Amaturus essem, 
 Amaturus fuerim, 
 Amaturus fuissem, 
 
 I am about to love. 
 
 I was about to love. 
 
 I shall be about to love, 
 
 I have been or was about to love. 
 
 I had been about to love. 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 I nui'j be about to lore. 
 
 J might be about to love. 
 
 I )mnj have been about to love. 
 
 I might have been about to love. 
 
 Amaturum esse, 
 Amaturum fuisse, 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOIX 
 
 to be about to love. 
 
 to have been about to love. 
 
 II. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation consists of 
 the Gerundive with the A^erL sinn, and expresses that which 
 is to be, should be, or ought to he done. 
 
 indicative mood. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past-ImperJ. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Past-Perfect. 
 
 Present. 
 I'ast-Imperf. 
 Perfect. 
 Past-Perfect. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 Perfect. 
 
 Amandus sum, 
 Amandus eram, 
 Amandus ero, 
 Amandus fui, 
 Amandus fueram, 
 
 I am to be loved. 
 
 I was to be loved. 
 
 I shall be to be loved. 
 
 I have been or icas to be loved. 
 
 I had been to be loved. 
 
 subjunctive mood. 
 Amandus sun, / may be to be loved. 
 
 Amandus essem, 
 Amandus fuerim, 
 Amandus fuissem, 
 
 infinitive 
 
 Amandum esse, 
 Amandum fuisse, 
 
 I might be to be loved. 
 
 I may have Ijeen to be loved. 
 
 I might have been to be loved. 
 
 mood. 
 
 to be fit to be loved. 
 
 to have been Jit to be loved. 
 
 Ohs. 1 . This passive conjugation occurs only in transitive verbs. In other 
 verbs the impersonal form is used, and the agent Ls represented by the 
 Dative : as, mlhi cundum est, / must go; obllviscendum tlbi injurliirum 
 ess$ censeo, I am of opinion that you ought to forget your xcrongs. 
 
 Obs. 2. The translations above given are intended rather to represent the 
 meaning of the separate words than the ordinary signification of the com- 
 binations, which will be fully explained in the Syntax. 
 
 § 105, 
 
 STEMS OF VERBS. 
 
 67 
 
 Chapter XX. — Stems of Verbs, Formation of 
 Tenses, and Peculiar Forms. 
 
 ^ § 103. Stems.— The Stems of Verbs of the First Conjuga- 
 tion end in a : as, ama, love. 
 
 The Stems of Verbs of the Second Conjugation end in 
 e : as, mone, adcise. 
 
 The Stems of Verbs of the Third Conjugation end in 
 a consonant or u : as, reg, rule ; minu, lessen. 
 
 The Stems of Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation end in i : 
 as, audi, liear, 
 
 § 104. U^TONTRACTED AND CONTRACTED VeRBS. — In the 
 
 Thiixl Conjugation the Terminations of the Persons and of 
 the Tenses are affixed without any change in the Stem; 
 but in the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations the 
 Vowel of the Stem is frequently contracted with the Vowels 
 of the Terminations. Hence the Third Conjugation is 
 Uneontracted, the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations 
 are^ Contracted. This will be seen from the Present Indi- 
 cative Active. 
 
 
 Ill CONJUGATIOX 
 
 • 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. rgg-0 
 
 minu-o 
 
 
 2. r5g-ls 
 
 mlnu-Is 
 
 
 3. r6g-It 
 
 in!au-!t 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. r^g-lmus 
 
 niluu-lmiis 
 
 
 2. r6g-ltls 
 
 mlnu-Itls 
 
 
 3. rgg-unt 
 
 minu-unt 
 
 
 I 
 
 Conjugation. 
 
 II Conjugation. 
 
 IV Conjugation. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 1. 
 
 a,ma-o = ilmo 
 
 m5ne-o 
 
 audi-o 
 
 
 
 Uma-is = Jlmas 
 
 m6ne-is =ni5nes 
 
 audi-ls =audis 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Jlma-It = Jlmat 
 
 mOne-lt = mQnSt 
 
 audi-lt = audit 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 nma-lmus = amamiis 
 
 m6ne-tmtis = mSnemiis 
 
 audi -Im tis = audimus 
 
 
 o^ 
 
 a,ma-ltls = amatls 
 
 mSne-ltls = mQnetts 
 
 audi-ltis =auditls 
 
 
 3. 
 
 S.raa-unt = Jtmant 
 
 mOne-unt =mQuent 
 
 audi-unt 
 
 § 105. Personal Terminations. — The Personal Termi- 
 nations are the personal pronouns more or less corrupted. 
 The regular terminations in the Active Voice are in their 
 simplest form : 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 -m 
 
 -mus 
 
 as in 
 
 regeba-m 
 
 regeba-mils 
 
 2. 
 
 -S 
 
 -tis 
 
 »t 
 
 regeba-s 
 
 regeba-tis 
 
 3. 
 
 -t 
 
 -nt 
 
 ti 
 
 rC'geba-t 
 
 r?geba-ut. 
 
Q8 
 
 FORMATION OF TENSES. 
 
 §106 
 
 § lOG. 
 
 FORMATION OF TENSES. 
 
 09 
 
 Or with a vowel prefixed : 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 o-(m) 
 
 1-3 
 
 i-t 
 
 I-mfts 
 
 i-tIs 
 
 u-nt 
 
 as in rCg-o 
 reg-i-3 
 „ r^g-i-t 
 
 r6g-I-mii3 
 
 r6g-i-ti3 
 
 r6g-u-iit. 
 
 Obs. 1. Actice Voice.— 1. The -m is tVe 1st personal pronoun, -rhich appears 
 in moT, mlhi, me. It disappears in the 1st person singular of the present 
 indicative of all verbs except sum, / am, inquam, / say. In the plural 
 -mus the letter S is the sign of plurality. 
 
 2. The -S is the 2nd personal pronoun, and represents the t in tu, tui, 
 tibi,' te (Gr. av). In the 2nd person of the perfect indicative (rexis-ti) the 
 t appears. Also in the plural -tis the t represents the 2nd person, 
 the s being the sign of plurality, as in the 1st person. 
 
 3. The -t is the 3rd personal pronoun, and is the same root as appears 
 in the Greek article, and in the English pronouns this and that. In tbe 
 plural -nt the letter n is the sign of plurality. The letter n, as well as », is 
 a sign of plurality in other languages akin to the Latin, Thus in English 
 ■we have ox-en as well as dog-jf. 
 
 II. Passive Voice. 1. The 1st personal termination singular always 
 disappears before -r, the sign of the pas.«*ive : as, rfgOba-r from rogt-ba-ni ; 
 ii?ga-r from rCga-m ; regere-r from reg6rc-m, &c. In the plural in like 
 manner *, the sign of plurality, disappears before the r ; as, rogebamu-r 
 from rogebamus ; regamu-r from regamiis ; regeremii-r from ri^g^rtmQs. 
 
 2. The 2nd personal termination singular is -lis (more rarely -re), in 
 M-hich r represents the s of the Active, and is is the sign of the Passive : 
 as, ima-r-ls from ama-s, amaba-r-is from amaba-s. 
 
 XoTE. — On the interchange of s and r we have examples in crQs, crur-is, 
 instead of crus-is, andsimilar words. (See § 28, Obs. 1, p. 15.) 
 
 The 2nd personal termination plural is -tmtnl or -mtnT (as reg-tmtnT, 
 ama-mtnl), and has no connexion with the singular termination. It is, 
 perhaps, a participial termination (Gr. tt-^voi), 
 
 3. The 3rd personal termination, singular and plural, is formed from 
 the Active Voice by adding -ur, the sign of tlie Passive : as, r^gtt-Qr, 
 rcgunt-iir, from r^gtt, regunt; regC-bat-iir, regebant-ur, from regebat, 
 regC'bant. 
 
 § lOG. FORMATION' OF THE IMPERFECT Tenses.— 1. Present 
 Te,ises.—The Indicative and Imperative are formed by adding 
 the personal terminations to the stem without any tense 
 suffix. In the Imperative the .s the termination of the 
 2nd person, is dropped, and e alone remains: as, reg-e, 
 1 eg-ite in the contracted conjugations, uma = uma-e ; mOne 
 = mone-e ; audi = audi-e. 
 
 The Subjunctive has the tense suffix -a: as, reg-a-m, 
 mone-a-m, audi-a-m. In the 1st conjugation the a of the 
 stem is contracted with the a of the tense suffix into e : as, 
 ama-a-m = ame-m. The Infinitive has the tense suffix ere : 
 as, reg-ere ' in the contracted conjugations, »ma-re = 
 rima-erl ; mone-re = mone-ere ; audl-re = audi-ere. llio 
 Favtici^le has the suffix -ens (stem -ent) . as, reg-ens, audi^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 k 
 
 i 
 
 ens: in the 1st and 2nd conjugations, ama-ns = ama-ens ; 
 mune-ns = mone-ens. 
 
 Obs. The e of the Imperative is dropped in die, speak, from dico ; due, lead^ 
 from duco ; fac, make, from ficio ; fer, bring, from ffro. 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect Tenses. — The Indicative has the tenfe 
 suffix eba: as, reg-eba-m, audi-eba-m ; in the 1st and 2nd 
 conjugations, amii-ba-m = araa-eba-m ; mone-ba-m = mone- 
 -eba-m. The Subjunctive has the tense suffix ere: as, reg- 
 ere-m : in the contracted conjugations ama-re-m = ama- 
 ere-m ; mone-re-m = mone-ere-m ; audi-re-m = audi-ere-m. 
 
 Obs. The suffix eba, originally Ja, is the same as fu, the root oifu-i. 
 
 3. Future Tenses. — The Indicative has the tense suffix b 
 in the 1st and 2nd conjugations : as, ama-b-o ; mone-b-o : 
 and the tense suffix a or e in the 3rd and 4th conjuga- 
 tions, a being used in the first person, and e in all the other 
 persons : as, reg-a-m, reg-e-s, reg-e-t, &c. ; audi-a-m, 
 audi-e-s, audi-e-t, &c. 
 
 Ohs. The suffix b is also the same as fv, which has a future meaning in 
 fore. The futures in the 3rd and 4th conjugations are allied to the Sub- 
 junctive ; but theoe conjugations, in all probability, originally formed 
 their futures in b: the forms ibo and scibo, from eo and scio, were in 
 common use. 
 
 The annexed Table exhibits the above Tense Terminations 
 with the Contractions : 
 
 • 
 
 o 
 > 
 
 r- 
 
 1 
 
 Indicative. 
 Present. 
 Past-Imperf. 
 
 Future. 
 
 III. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 IV. 
 
 r6g-o 
 rCg-ebam 
 
 r^g'-am 
 
 ama-o = amo 
 ama-ebam = 
 
 Jimabam 
 Jima-bo 
 
 mone-o 
 mone-ebam = 
 
 mOnebam 
 m6ne-bo 
 
 audi-o 
 audi-ebam 
 
 audi-am 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 Present. 
 
 Past-Imperf. 
 
 rSg-am 
 rgg-6rem 
 
 a,ma-am = 
 
 a,mem 
 Xma-Srem = 
 
 S,marem 
 
 m5ne-am 
 
 m5ne-6rem = 
 mQnerem 
 
 audi-am 
 
 audi-grem = 
 audirem 
 
 Imperative. 
 Present. 
 
 Future. 
 
 r6g-S 
 rgg-lto 
 
 ama-g = 
 
 am a 
 ama-lto = 
 
 amato 
 
 mSne-S = 
 
 mone 
 m5ne-lto = 
 
 mSneto 
 
 audi-5 = 
 
 audi 
 audi-tto = 
 
 audito 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 rgg-giS 
 
 ama-SrS = 
 amarS 
 
 mone-2rt5 = 
 m6nci2 
 
 audi-Sie = 
 audirS 
 
 Participle. 
 
 rSg-ens 
 
 ama-ens = 
 amans 
 
 m5ne-ens = 
 mSnens 
 
 audi-ens 
 

 70 
 
 FORMATION OF TENSES. 
 
 § 106. 
 
 §107. 
 
 FORMATION OF TENSES. 
 
 71 
 
 
 f 
 
 III. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 Present. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r8g-<5r 
 
 S,ma-3r = 
 
 n)Qne-5r 
 
 audi-or 
 
 
 
 
 llmQr 
 
 
 
 
 Past-Imperf. 
 
 rSg-ebd,r 
 
 Jlma-ebJlr = 
 Jlma'jtlr 
 
 mone-ebir = 
 monebar 
 
 audi-ebiir 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 rSg-Jlr 
 
 ama-bor 
 
 mone-bor 
 
 audi-Jlr 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ed* 
 
 Present. 
 
 r6g-Jlr 
 
 Jlm.-x-Jir = 
 
 mone-Jlr 
 
 audi-Hr 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 
 amt5r 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 >l 
 
 > 
 
 Past-Imperf. 
 
 rSsr-^rSr 
 
 ama-6r6r = 
 JtmaiiSr 
 
 mone-grSr = 
 niQrierCr 
 
 audi-erer = 
 audirer 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 Present. 
 
 rSg-erS' 
 
 a,ma-^r8 = 
 JiraarS 
 
 m5ne-8rS = 
 nioneiS 
 
 audi-Cre = 
 audiio 
 
 
 Future, 
 
 rgcr-lftSr 
 
 ama-ttQr = 
 
 m<5ne-tl5r = 
 
 audi-!t5r = 
 
 
 
 
 ZimatSr 
 
 niSnctQr 
 
 auditor 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 rSg-i 
 
 ama-eri = 
 
 nione-eri = 
 
 audi-oii = 
 
 
 
 
 amari 
 
 moneii 
 
 audiii 
 
 
 Gerundive. 
 
 s 
 
 rt5g-endtls 
 
 Jlma-cndils = 
 
 mone-en(liis = 
 
 audi-endiis 
 
 
 
 amandris 
 
 monendus 
 
 ■ 
 
 Stem. 
 scid 
 
 tag 
 
 rtlp 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 scTdl tear 
 
 Obs. The Stems of some Verbs are strengthened in the Imperfect Tenses 
 in the following ways : — 
 
 1 , By the insertion of n or m before the final consonant : as, 
 
 Imperfect 
 Tenses. 
 
 scindo 
 
 scindtbam 
 
 scindam 
 
 tango 
 
 tan pf bam 
 
 tangam 
 
 rumpo 
 
 rumpf'bara 
 
 rumpam 
 
 n is inserted before the dental and guttural letters : as, scindo, frango ; 
 m before the labial letters : as, eumbo. 
 
 2. By the insertion of n after the final consonant : as. 
 
 t5-«gl 
 rup! 
 
 touch, 
 hurst. 
 
 Stem. 
 spSr 
 
 c6r 
 
 p5s 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Tenses. 
 sperno 
 spernebam 
 ppernam 
 cerno 
 cernebam 
 cemam 
 pono 
 poncbam 
 ponam 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 spre-vl despise. 
 
 cre-vT 
 
 p5s-ul 
 
 distinguislt. 
 place. 
 
 I 
 
 3. By adding t or doubling the final consonant 
 
 Impeifect 
 Tenses. 
 
 as. 
 
 Stem. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 flexT 
 
 bend. 
 
 p5-ptill drive. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 g6n-ul 
 
 6tI-tT 
 
 produce. 
 
 cause to stanC\ 
 
 flecto 
 flectebam 
 flectam 
 P^l pello 
 
 pellebam 
 pellam 
 
 4. By relupUcation, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant with the 
 
 conuectmg vowel t ; as, 
 
 Ste Imperfect 
 
 Tenses. 
 g^n gi-gno 
 
 gi-gncbam 
 gi-gnam 
 8ta si-sto 
 
 »i-stebam 
 si-stam 
 Obs. Gigno is a contraction for gYgt-no. 
 
 5. By adding sc, which is the termination of the inceptive verbs. See § 164. 
 
 § 107. Formation of the Terfect Tenses. The Perfecl 
 1 crises are formed : 
 
 1. By adding v to the Stem; as. ama famo). ama-v-i • audi 
 (audio) audi-v-i This is the regular way of fonn ng the Perfects 
 of the First and Fourth Conjugations. ° ^eritcta 
 
 2 By adding u to the Stem : as, mone (m6neo\ m6n-u-! The 
 final vowel of the Stem is dropped. This is the rei way of 
 forming the Perfects of the Second Conjugation ° ^ 
 
 '*;he'pe'rL^T:v:rb Vb^ ^ ''' ''' ^^"^' ^^^ ^ ^-^-<^ ^^ ^-^^ 
 2. Some verbs drop the sign of the Perfect: *bis is e^neciallv th*. 
 
 3. By adding s to the Stem : as, reg (r<5g^), rexi=:re-s-i 
 Obs. The Euphonic changes of letters must be noted. ° 
 
 (i) cs, gs, qus, hs are contracted into x : as, duco, duxi lead • 
 c6quo, coxi, cook; trSho, traxi, drag. ' ' ' 
 
 (u) h IS changed into p before s : as, scrlbo, scrips!, write • nubo 
 nupsi, marry (of women). ^Psi, w/^re, nubo, 
 
 ^""^ ' TaesM^l'';""'' '''"^'^•- ^^' °^"t^' ^'^^^ ^^-d; laedo, 
 
 4. By reduplication : as, 
 
 tend (tendo), tS-tendi, stretch. 
 cad (cado), ce-cidi, faU. 
 morde (mordeo), mo-mordl, bite. 
 
 5. By lengthening the vowel of the Stem : as, 
 
 jac or jaci f jacio), jed, throw. 
 veni (vCnio). veni, come. 
 
 move (moveo\ m5\ri, move. 
 tit'drft'rSut'co'f '!i' Reduplication is usually omitted: as, tundo. 
 
 Pono is Instead of pos-no, the s being dropped before n. 
 
 X 
 
FORMATION OF TENSES. 
 
 §108. 
 
 §111. 
 
 REMARKS UrON CERTAIN FORMS. 
 
 73 
 
 1. Present-Perfect or Aorist Tenses. — The Indicative has the 
 tense suffix is ; 2nd pers. rimfiv-is-tT, timav-is-tis ; 3/y/ pcrs. 
 amav-er-imt ; the s disappears in the other persons. The 
 Subjunctive has the tense suffix eri: as, rimav-eri-m. The 
 Infinitive has the tense suffix isse : as, amav-isse. 
 
 Ohs. 1. In the Indicative is is probably the same as es, the stem of 's-um. 
 
 The change of is into er in the 3rd person plural (iimav-er-unt) is also 
 
 found in pulvis, pulver-is, dust. 
 Ohs. 2. In the Snhjunctice eri-m is the same as csi-m or 'si-m, the present 
 
 subjunctive of sum. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the Infinitive isse is the same as cssi*, the present Infinitive of 
 sum. 
 
 2. Past-Perfect Tenses. — The Indicative has the tense suffix 
 >a: as, amav-era-m. The Subjunctive has the tense suffix 
 "se: as, amav-isse-m. 
 
 Obs. The suffixes era-m and esse-m are the same as cra-m and cssc-ui, 
 the past Indicative and Subjunctive of sum. 
 
 The Future-Perfect Tense has the suffix er: as, amav-er-o. 
 
 Obs. The suffix er-O is the future of sum. 
 
 § 108. The Supine is formed by adding turn and tu to the 
 Stem : as. 
 
 I. Ama-tum, ama-tfi. 
 II. MOni-tum, mOnl-tu. 
 
 III. Roc-tum, rec-tu. 
 
 IV. Audi-tum, audi-tu. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the Second Conjugation the e of the Stem is changed into t. 
 Obs. 2. The Euphonic changes of letters must be noted : 
 
 (i) g, tilt, h become c before t : as, ri'go, rectum ; coquo, coctum ; 
 triho; tractum. 
 
 (ii) b becomes /> before t: as, scrTbo, scriptum ; nubo, nuptum. 
 
 (iii) d and t are dropped before the t of the Supine, which in these 
 cases becomes s : as, laedo, laesum, injure ; claudo, claiisuMi, 
 shut. In some cases, but rarely, the rf or < of the Stem also 
 becomes s: as, cede, ces-sum, yield ; mitto, mis-sum, send. 
 
 § 109. The Future Participle is formed by adding ti'irus to 
 the Stem : as, 
 
 ama-taru3; monl-turCia ; rcc-turus ; aiuli-tiirfls. 
 
 Obs. 1. The same euphonic changes of letters occur in the Future Participle 
 as in the Supine : as, 
 
 tracturiis, scripturiis, lacsurtis. 
 
 Obs. 2. In a few Verbs the Supines of which vavy from the rcprular forma- 
 tion, the Future Participles do not adopt these variations : as, 
 
 Stem. Supine. Fut. Part. 
 
 jOvo (jiiva) jQtum jiivaturtis, help. 
 
 sfco (s^ca) sectum s^caturfls, cut. 
 
 sSno (sona) sonltum sGnaturOs, sound. 
 
 mSriSr (mor and mori) mortuiis (;)arf.) morlturtls, die. 
 
 V 
 
 § 110. Kemarks upon certaix Forms. 
 
 1. Perfect Active.— {[). On the omission of i\ vi, and ve, in the Fir-t 
 and Fourth Conjugations see § 91 Obs., § 94 Obs. 
 
 Obs. Sometimes the tit in the Third Person Singular is contracted into tt : as 
 petit (in Virg. Aeti. ix. 9) = p^tTvit : ablt = abiit, 6blt = obiit, perlt = 
 p(iriit (Juv. vi. 128, 559, 295). Even ii in the First Person is sometimes 
 contracted into i : as, sepell = sfp^lii (Pers. iii. 97). 
 
 (ii). In poetry is and iss are often omitted after « or a; in the Perfect 
 and Past Perfect of tlie Third Conjugation : as. evasti := evasisti ; 
 dixti = dixisti ; dlvisse = divisisse ; surrexe = surrexisse ; consumpso 
 = consumpsisse ; abscessem = abscessissem. 
 
 (iii). The suffix erunt in tlie Perfect Indicative Active is frequently 
 shortened by the poetij : as, dediirunt, they gave. The suffix ere instead 
 of erunt is rarely used by Cicero, frequently by Salluat and later 
 writers. 
 
 2. The form of the Second Person Singular Passive in rS rarely 
 occurs in the Present Indicative, because it might be confounded witii 
 the Imperfect Infinitive Active. 
 
 3. The Gerund and Gerundive in the Third and Fourth Conjugations 
 sometimes end in nndum and undue instead of oidum and eud'us : as 
 taciuiidum from facio, make or do ; potiundmn from p5ti6r, ohtain poa- 
 session of, 
 
 4 From some Verbs is derived a Participle, or Participial Adjective, 
 m bundus ^vlth an intensive signification: as, laetabundus, rejoicin^t 
 greatly, full of joy ; lacrimabundus, iceeping profusely : furibundus: 
 JuU of rage; mOribundus, in the very article of death. 
 
 ^*i\Vvv^'°/'*^ '"^ *""'^"* '^''"'^ '^^^^^5' ^^^'^ ^^'■^^ o^ the First Conjugation. 
 Padifbundus, full of modesty, is the only one from a verb of the Second 
 Conjugation; and lasclvftundus, /?<// of wantonness, the only one from a 
 verb of the Fourth Conjugation. 
 
 Obs. 2. These words generally govern no case : but we find in Livy vltu- 
 bundus castra, avoiding the camp, and similar expressions. 
 
 § 111. Ancient Forms. 
 
 1. The ancient termination of the Imperfect Infinitive Passive was ier • 
 as, amarigr instead of amaii ; rCgier, instead of r6gi. 
 
 2. In the Present Subjunctive Active the old terminations were iw 
 IS, it .-as, Sim, sis, sit from sum ; v6lim from vxilo, be willing; iiGlim froni 
 nolo, 6e unwdlmg ; malim from malo, be more willing. Also Cdim instead 
 ot 6dam from 6do, eat; and duim from do, give, and its compounds, 
 particularly in prayers and execrations : as, di duint, may the gods 
 grant ; di ie peTduint, may the gods destroy thee. 
 
 3. The Future-Perfect Indicative and the Perfect Subjunctive ha.! 
 ancient terminations in so and sim, the terminations being originally 
 e«o and esim, instead of ero and erim: hence the forms levasso, faxo, 
 laxim, are contractions of l6vav6so, fkc6so, facCsim. In like manner 
 ausim 18 fornied from the old Perfect ausi (from audeo). which has 
 become obsolete. 
 
 £ 
 
74: IRREGULAR TERES. §112. 
 
 Chapter XXI. — Irregular Verbs, 
 
 § 112. Irregular Verbs are such as are not conjugated 
 according to the common liules. The Conjugation of one 
 Irregular Verb, sum, has been already given (§ 90). The 
 rest aie here given : 
 
 L Possum, potu!, posse, — to he able. 
 
 ] 
 
 N'DICATIVE. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 
 1. Present. 
 
 
 4. Perfect. 
 
 s. 
 
 Pos-Bum 
 
 Pos-sim 
 
 S. 
 
 Pot-ul Pot-uerim 
 
 
 P6t-es 
 
 Pos-sis 
 
 
 Pot-uisti Pot-ueris 
 
 
 Pot-est 
 
 Pos-slt 
 
 
 Pot-uit Pot-uerit 
 
 r. 
 
 Pos-sumus 
 
 Pos-simus 
 
 P 
 
 Pot-uimiis P6t-uerimu3 
 
 
 Pot-estis 
 
 Pos-sitis 
 
 
 P6t-uist;s P6t-uerit:8 
 
 
 Pos-sunt 
 
 Pos-sint 
 
 
 Pot-uerunt (ere) Pot-uerint 
 
 
 2. Past 
 
 ■Imperfect. 
 
 
 5. Past-Perfect. 
 
 s. 
 
 Pot-eram 
 
 Pos-sem 
 
 s. 
 
 Pot-usram Pot-uissem 
 
 
 Pot-eras 
 
 Pos-ses 
 
 
 Pot-ueras Pot-nisses 
 
 
 Pot-erat 
 
 Pos-set 
 
 
 Pot-uerat Pot-uisset 
 
 p. 
 
 Pot-eramus 
 
 Pos-semus 
 
 p. 
 
 Pot-ueramus Pot-uissemus 
 
 
 Pot-eratis 
 
 Pos-setis 
 
 
 P6t-uerat;s Pot-uissetia 
 
 
 Pot-lrant 
 
 Pos-sent 
 
 
 Pot-uerant Pot-uissent 
 
 
 3. Future. 
 
 
 6. Future-Perfect. 
 
 s. 
 
 Pot-ero 
 
 Pot-erls 
 
 Pot-erit 
 
 (wanting.) 
 
 s. 
 
 Pot-uero (wanting.) 
 
 Pot-uerls 
 
 Pot-uerit 
 
 p. 
 
 Pot-erimus 
 Pot-eritiS 
 
 
 p. 
 
 Pot-uerimiis 
 Pot-ueritis 
 
 
 Pot-erunt 
 
 • 
 
 
 Pot-uerint 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Imperfect— TosBe. Perfect— Thtxnase. Fu^Mrc— wanting. 
 
 The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are wanting. 
 The Imperfect Participle potens ia used only as an Adjective, j30trer/«7. 
 
 Obs. Possum is compounded of 'pot* (pStis, able) and sum: hence 
 pos-sum is a contraction of pOt-sum ; pos-sim of pSt-sim ; pos-sem of 
 pQt-€ssem ; p6t-ul of pot-ful j and pos-sC of pot-e»8^. 
 
 S 
 
 §113. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 75 
 
 t 
 
 -^. 
 
 P. 
 
 § 113. n. Volo, volui, velle, - 
 III. Nolo, nolui, nolle, - 
 lY. Malo, malul, malle, - 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 - to be willing, 
 to he unwilling, 
 to he more willing. 
 
 S. Volo 
 
 Vis 
 
 Vult 
 P. Voliimiis 
 
 Vultis 
 
 Volunt 
 
 S. Vol-etam 
 Vol-ebas 
 Vol-ebat 
 
 P. Vol-ebamiis 
 Vol-ebaf^s 
 Vol-ebant 
 
 V61-am 
 
 V61-es 
 
 V61-et 
 
 Vol-emiis 
 
 Vol-etis 
 
 Vol-ent 
 
 S. V61-ui 
 
 Vol-uisti 
 
 Vol-uit 
 P. Vol-uimiis 
 
 Vol-uistis 
 
 Vol-uerunt or -uere 
 
 S. Vol-ueram 
 Vol-ueras 
 Vol-uerat 
 
 P. Vol-ueramus 
 Vol-ueratis 
 Vol-uerant 
 
 S. Vol-uero 
 Vol-ueris 
 Vol-uerit 
 
 P. Vol-uerimiis 
 Vol-ueritis 
 Vol-uerint 
 
 1. Present, 
 
 N51o 
 Non vis 
 Non vult 
 Kolumus 
 Non vultis 
 Nolunt 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect. 
 
 Nol-ebam 
 
 Ndl-ebas 
 
 Nol-ebat 
 
 Ndl-ebamus 
 
 Nol-ebat'S 
 
 Nol-ebant 
 
 3. Future, 
 
 N51-am 
 
 N61-es 
 
 N61-et 
 
 N51-emus 
 
 Nol-etis 
 
 Nol-ent 
 
 4. Perfect. 
 
 N61-ui 
 
 Nol-uisti 
 
 Nol-uit 
 
 Nol-uimiis 
 
 Nol-uistis 
 
 N51-ueruiit or -uere 
 
 5. Past-Perfect. 
 
 Nol-ueram 
 
 N51-ueras 
 
 Nol-uerat 
 
 Nol-ueramus 
 
 Nol-ueratis 
 
 Nol-uerant 
 
 6. Future- Perfect. 
 
 Nol-uero 
 
 Nol-ueris 
 
 Nol-uerit 
 
 Nol-uerimiis 
 
 Nol-ueritis 
 
 Nol-ueriut 
 
 Halo 
 
 Mavis 
 
 Mavult 
 
 Malilmiis 
 
 Mavultis 
 
 Malunt 
 
 Mal-ebam 
 
 Mal-ebas 
 
 Mal-ebat 
 
 Mal-ebamus 
 
 Mal-ebatis 
 
 Mal-ebant 
 
 Mal-am 
 
 Mal-es 
 
 Mal-et 
 
 Mal-emils 
 
 Mal-etis 
 
 Mal-ent 
 
 Mal-ui 
 
 Mal-uisti 
 
 Mal-uit 
 
 Mal-uimiis 
 
 Mal-uistis 
 
 Mal-ueruut or -uere 
 
 Mal-ueram 
 
 Mal-ueras 
 
 Mal-uerat 
 
 Mal-ueramus 
 
 Mal-ueratis 
 
 Mal-uerant 
 
 Mal-uero 
 Mal-ueris 
 Mal-uerit 
 Mal-uerimiis 
 Mal-uerit IS 
 Mal-uerint 
 E 2 
 

 S. Vel-im • 
 Vel-is 
 Vellt 
 
 P. Vel-imus 
 Vel-iti8 
 Vel-int 
 
 S, Vel-lem 
 Vel-les 
 Vel-let 
 
 P. Vel-lemus 
 Vel letis 
 Vel-lent 
 
 Vol-uerim 
 Vol-ueris • 
 Vol-uerit 
 Vol-uerimiis 
 Vol-uerit: 8 
 Vol-uerint 
 
 iS', Vol-uissem 
 Vol-uisses 
 Vol-uisset 
 
 P. Vol-uissemus 
 Vol-uissetis 
 Vol-uisseiLt 
 
 Cwanting.) 
 
 Vel-le 
 
 V51-uifl8d 
 
 IllREGULAR VERB 
 
 S. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 1. Present, 
 
 
 Nol-im 
 
 Mal-im 
 
 N6l-i8 
 
 Mal-Is 
 
 N61-it 
 
 Mal-it 
 
 Nol-imiis 
 
 Mal-Imus 
 
 Nol-it^s 
 
 Mal-iti8 
 
 Nol-int 
 
 Mal-int 
 
 2. Past-Imptrfect. 
 
 
 Nol-lem 
 
 Mal-lem 
 
 Nol-les 
 
 Mal-le8 
 
 Nol-let 
 
 Mallet 
 
 NoMemus 
 
 Mal-leinu8 
 
 Nol-letrs 
 
 Mal-letr8 
 
 Nol-lent 
 
 Mal-lent 
 
 3. Perfect. 
 
 
 Nol-uerim 
 
 Mal-uerim 
 
 Nol-ueris 
 
 Mal-ueris 
 
 Nol-uerit 
 
 Mal-uerlt 
 
 Nol-uerimus 
 
 Mal-uerimus 
 
 Nol-uerit"s 
 
 Mal-uerit8 
 
 Nol-uerint 
 
 Mal-uerint 
 
 4. Past- Perfect. 
 
 
 Nol-uissem 
 
 Mal-nissem 
 
 N51-ui88e3 
 
 Mal-iiis8es 
 
 Ndl-Tii88et 
 
 Mal-ai88et 
 
 Nol-iii8seinu8 
 
 Mal-ai88einus 
 
 N61-uisset"8 
 
 Mal-ui8set"8 
 
 Ndl-uissent 
 
 Mal-ais8ent 
 
 lilPERATIVE, 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 mi-i 
 
 (wanting. 
 
 Nol-ite 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 
 Nol-ito 
 
 
 Nol-ito 
 
 
 Nol-itote 
 
 
 Nol-unto 
 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 
 Nolle 
 
 Mal-le 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 
 Nol-uisse 
 
 Mal-nisse 
 
 §113. 
 
 § 114. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Impeefect Participle. 
 
 77 
 
 VoleiLS 
 
 Kolens 
 
 (wanting.) 
 
 H 
 
 Ohs. 1 . Nolo is a contraction of ne, not, and volo ; malo of miig (magis), 
 more, and vQlo. 
 
 Obg. 2. In consequence of the tendency of liquids to assimilate, the r of the 
 terminations is changed into I : thus, vel-lem, nol-lem, mal-lem, are con- 
 tractions of v?l-6rem, nol-Srem, mal-6rem ; and vel-l^, nol-16, mal-le, of 
 vel-§r#, n61-?r&, mal-SrS. 
 
 Obs. 3. SI vis, if you will, if you please, is sometimes contracted into sis. 
 
 § 114. V. Fero, tiili, ferre, latum, — to bear. 
 I. ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 S. 
 
 P. 
 
 S. 
 
 P. 
 
 S. 
 
 w 
 I 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 1. Present. 
 
 
 4. Perfect. 
 
 Fer-o 
 
 Fer-am 
 
 S. 
 
 Tul-i Tul-erim 
 
 Fer-8 
 
 Fer-as 
 
 
 Tul-isti Tul-eriB 
 
 Fer-t 
 
 Fer-at 
 
 
 Tul-it Tul-erit 
 
 Fer-imiis 
 
 Fer-am ii 8 
 
 P. 
 
 Tul-imus Tul-erimu3 
 
 Fer-tis 
 
 Fer-atis 
 
 
 Tul-i8ti8 Tul-eritls 
 
 Fer-unt 
 
 Fer-ant 
 
 
 TiU-erunt or ere Tul-erint 
 
 2. Past 
 
 -Imperfect. 
 
 
 5. Past-Perfect. 
 
 Fer-ebam 
 
 Fer-rem 
 
 s. 
 
 Tul-eram Tul-iesem 
 
 Fer-eba8 
 
 Fer-res 
 
 
 Tul-eras Tul-isses 
 
 Fer-ebat 
 
 Fer-ret 
 
 
 Tiil-erat Tul-isset 
 
 Fer-ebamiia 
 
 1 Fer-remiis 
 
 p. 
 
 Tul-eramiis Tiil-issemus 
 
 Fer-ebati8 
 
 Fer-reti8 
 
 
 Tiil-eratis Tul-issetis 
 
 Fer-ebant 
 
 Fer-rent 
 
 
 Tiil-erant Tul-issent 
 
 3. . 
 
 Future. 
 
 
 6. Future-Perfect. 
 
 Fer-am 
 
 LaturTi8 sim 
 
 s. 
 
 Tul-ero (wanting.) 
 
 Fer-es 
 
 Laturu8 8ls 
 
 
 Tul-eris 
 
 Fer-et 
 
 Laturus 8it 
 
 
 Tul-erit 
 
 Fer-emua 
 
 Laturl 8imu8 
 
 p. 
 
 Tul-erimiis 
 
 Fer-eti8 
 
 Latori siti8 
 
 
 Tul-eritis 
 
 Fer-ent 
 
 Laturl sint 
 
 
 Tul-erint 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Fer 
 
 Imperfect. Ferens 
 
 
 Fer-tS 
 
 Ft 
 
 iture. Laturiis (a, nm) 
 
 Future. 
 
 Fer-to 
 
 
 
 
 Fer-to 
 
 
 Supines. 
 
 
 Fer-tote 
 
 
 Latum 
 
 ( 
 
 Fer-unto 
 
 
 Lattl 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 
 * 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 Fer-rg 
 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Tul-i88e 
 
 
 Gen. Fer-end 
 
 Future. 
 
 Laturum esse 
 
 
 &c. 
 
78 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 II, PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 §1U. 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 I. Present. 
 
 F. 
 
 P. 
 
 P. 
 
 S. 
 
 er-or 
 Fer-ris 
 Fer-tur 
 Fer-imur 
 Fer-imini 
 Fer-untiir 
 
 Fer-ar 
 
 Fer-ar:s 
 
 Fer-atur 
 
 Fer-amur 
 
 Fer-amini 
 
 Fer-antur 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect. 
 
 Fer-ebar 
 
 Fer-ebaris 
 
 Fer-ebatiir 
 
 Fer-ebamiir 
 
 Fer-ebamTiii 
 
 Fer-ebantur 
 
 Fer-rer 
 
 Fer-rerTs 
 
 Fer-retur 
 
 Fer-remur 
 
 Fer-remini 
 
 Fer-rentnr 
 
 3. Future. 
 
 Fer Sr 
 
 Fer-eris 
 
 Fer-etur 
 
 Fer-emur 
 
 Fer-em^ni 
 
 Fer-€iitur 
 
 (wanting.) 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Future, 
 
 Fer-re 
 Fer-imini 
 
 Fer-tor 
 Fer-tor 
 Fer-mitor 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 4. Perfect. 
 
 S. 
 
 P. 
 
 Latiis sum 
 latus es 
 latus est 
 latl sumus 
 Lati est^s 
 Latl sunt 
 
 Latiis sim 
 Latus sis 
 Latns sit 
 Latl simus 
 Latl sitis 
 Latl sint 
 
 5. Past-Pcrfent. 
 
 S. 
 
 Latus eram 
 Latus eras 
 Latus erat 
 Lati eramus 
 Latl erafs 
 Latl erant 
 
 Latus essem 
 Latus esses 
 Latus essct 
 Lati essemus 
 Latl esset's 
 Latl esscnt 
 
 S. 
 
 P. 
 
 G. Future-Perfect. 
 
 Latus ?ro (wanting.) 
 
 Latus cr s 
 
 Latus erit 
 
 Lati erimiis 
 
 Lati erltis 
 
 Lati Iront 
 
 INFINITIVI; 
 
 Imperfect. Far ri 
 
 Perfect. Latum (am, um) ess3 
 
 Future. Latum iri 
 
 Perfect. 
 Gerundive. 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Latiis (a, um) 
 Fer-endiis (a, um) 
 
 Ohs. 1. In the Imperfect Tenses of fPro the only irrefrularity is the omis- 
 8ion of ? and T in some of the terminations : thus, fer-s = fer-ts ; fer-t = 
 f&r-it ; fer-rem = f?r-^rem ; fer-r? = fi^r-^r?, &c. 
 
 Ois. 2. The compounds of fPro are conju<7ate<l in the same way : 
 
 Affero (ad, 
 Auf^ro (ab, 
 Eff^ro (ex, 
 Inf?ro (in, 
 Off^ro (ob. 
 
 fero), 
 fero), 
 fero), 
 fero), 
 fero), 
 
 ProfT-ro (pro, fero), 
 B?f?^ro (re, fero), 
 
 attulT, 
 abstillT, 
 extillT, 
 intrtll, 
 obtQlT, 
 protfllT, 
 JrftQli ) 
 Irettaiij"' 
 
 afferrf*, 
 
 aufcrri"', 
 
 efferrr\ 
 
 infcrro, 
 
 offerr?, 
 
 profunS 
 
 alliltum, 
 
 ablatuni, 
 
 elatum, 
 
 illJtuni, 
 
 oblatum, 
 
 prolutum. 
 
 hn'nff to. 
 carry a way. 
 carry out. 
 carry into, 
 present, 
 carry ffrnvard. 
 
 rfferre, r^latum, bring hack. 
 
 § 115. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 79 
 
 § 115. VI. £do, edi, edere or esse, esum, — to eat. 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 1. Present. 
 
 £d-am or ed-im 
 £d-as or ed-is 
 Ed-at or ed-it 
 Ed-amiis or ed-imiis 
 Ed-itis or estis £d-atis or ed-itis 
 £d-unt £d-ant or ed-iut 
 
 £d-o 
 
 Ed-is or es 
 £d-it or est 
 £d-imus 
 
 2. 
 
 Past-Imperfect. 
 
 £d-ebam 
 
 £d-erem or essem 
 
 £d-ebas 
 
 £d-eres or esses 
 
 fld-ebat 
 
 ild-eret or esset 
 
 id-ebamiis 
 
 Ed-eremiis or essemiis 
 
 fid-ebatis 
 
 fid-eretis ur essetis 
 
 £d-ebant 
 
 Ed-erent or essent 
 
 
 3. Future. 
 
 £d-am 
 
 £siiriis sim 
 
 Ed-es 
 
 Esiiriis sis 
 
 £d-et 
 
 Esiiriis sit 
 
 £d-emiis 
 
 Esuri simiis 
 
 id-etis 
 
 Esuri sitis 
 
 td-ent 
 
 Esuri sint 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 4. Perfect. 
 
 S. £d-i Ed-erim 
 
 Ed-istI Ed-eris 
 
 Ed-it Ed-erit 
 
 P. Ed-imiis Ed-erimus 
 
 Ed-istis Ed-eritis 
 
 Ed-erunt or -ere Ed-eriut 
 
 S. 
 P. 
 
 s. 
 p. 
 
 5. Past- Perfect. 
 
 £d-eram 
 
 Ed-eras 
 
 Ed-erat 
 
 Ed-eramiis 
 
 £d-eratis 
 
 £d-erant 
 
 Ed-issem 
 
 £d-isses 
 
 Ed-isset 
 
 Ed-issemiis 
 
 £d-issetis 
 
 £d-issent 
 
 6. Future-Perfect. 
 
 £d-ero 
 
 Fd-eris 
 
 Ed-erit 
 
 Ed-erimiis 
 
 Ed-eritis 
 
 £d-erint 
 
 (wanting.) 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Present. £d-e or es 
 
 £d-ite or este 
 
 Future. £d-ito or esto 
 Ed-ito or esto 
 £d-it5t& or estote 
 £d-unto 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Imperfect. £d-ere or esse 
 
 Perfect. Ed-isse 
 
 Future. Esiirum (am, um) esse 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Imperfect, fid-ens 
 Future. Esiiriis (a um} 
 
 Supines. 
 
 Esum 
 Esu 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 £d-endi, &c. 
 
 Ohs. 1. The Passive Voice is regular : only eafitr is used instead of fdltiir, 
 and essetUr instead of M^retiir. The Perfect Participle is esus. 
 
 Ob3. 2. The compound c5mMo, eat tip, is conjugated in the same way : 
 as, cornMls or comes ; comedU or comest, &c. 
 
80 
 
 IREEGULAK VERBS. 
 
 § lie. Vn. £o, ivi, ire, !tum, — to go. 
 
 I\-DICATIVE. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 1. Present. 
 
 £-0 
 
 Is 
 
 It 
 
 I-miis 
 
 I-tis 
 
 E-unt 
 
 E-am 
 
 £-as 
 
 Eat 
 
 E-amiis 
 
 E-atis 
 
 £-ant 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect. 
 
 S. 
 
 I bam 
 I bas 
 Ibat 
 I bamus 
 I-batis 
 I -bant 
 
 I rem 
 I res 
 I-ret 
 fremus 
 I retis 
 I rent 
 
 3. Future. 
 
 S. 
 
 Iba 
 Ibis 
 
 Ibit 
 I bimus 
 I-bitis 
 I bunt 
 
 I-turus sim 
 I-turus sis 
 f turus sit 
 I turi simiis 
 i-turi sitis 
 I turi sint 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 §116. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 4. Perfect. 
 S. I-vi or I-i I verim or I-eriin 
 
 I-visti &c. 
 
 I-vit &c. 
 
 P. I-vimiis ice. 
 
 I-vistis &c. 
 
 I-venmt &c. 
 
 I veris 
 
 I-verit 
 
 I-verimus 
 
 I-veritis 
 
 I-verint 
 
 &c. 
 &c. 
 &c. 
 &c. 
 
 or I-vere 
 
 S. 
 
 5. Past-Prrfert. 
 
 I-veram or I vissem, I issem 
 
 or Issem 
 
 I-eram 
 I veras &c. 
 I-verat &c. 
 I-veramus &c. 
 I-veratis &c. 
 I-verant &c. 
 
 I vissea &c. 
 I-visset &c. 
 I-vissemus &c. 
 I vissetis &c. 
 I vissent &c. 
 
 6. Future-Perfect. 
 
 S. I vero (fr I-ero 
 
 I veris &c. 
 
 I-verit &c. 
 P. I-verimus &c. 
 
 I-veritis &c. 
 
 I-verint &c. 
 
 C wanting) 
 
 Present. 
 Future. 
 
 Imperativi: 
 
 f 
 
 Its 
 Ito 
 Ito 
 
 I tote 
 £-anto 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Imperfect. Ire 
 Perfect. I-visse, iisse or isse 
 
 Future. f ttirum (am, um) esse 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Imperfect I-ens {Gen. e-untis) 
 Future. f- turns (a, nm) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Gerund. 
 E-nndi, &c. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Stem of this Verb is i, -which is changed into e before a, o, 
 and u : as, eo, eunt, earn, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Passive is used impersonally. Txnic. : Tttlr, IbatQr, IbYtQr, 
 Itum est, &c. SuBJ. : eutrtr, Irotlir, ttum stt, &c. 
 
 Obs. 3. The compounds of eo usually take ii, rarely tjt', in thcPerfect Tenses: 
 as, Meo, / approach, makes Sdii, Sdrfram, Jldiissem, &c. 
 
 Obs. 4. The compounds of eo, which have a transitive meaninf?, are conju- 
 pated throughout in the Passive : as, adeo, 1 approach ; Pass. : adeOr, 
 adTris, adltilr, adlmilr, adlmlnT, Sdeuntilr, &c. 
 
 Obs. 5. Ambio, I (jn about, retains the i throughout and is conjugated re- 
 gularly like a verb of the Fourth Conjugation. Hence we find ambirbani, 
 hut occasionally ambTbam-(Ov. Met. v. 361), the Gerund ambiendi, &c. 
 The Perf. Participle is ambKus {Ov. Met. i. 37), though the Verbal Sub- 
 stantive is ambitus. 
 
 §119. 
 
 rKREGULAR VERBS: 
 
 81 
 
 § 117. VIII. Qneo, qnivi, quire, qnitnm,— fo he able. 
 
 § 118. IX. Nequeo, neqnivi, nequire, nequitnm, — to he unable. 
 
 These Verbs are conjugated exactly like eo, but are 
 defective in some forms. In the Present Indicative non quis, 
 non quit are used instead of nequis, nequit. 
 
 § 119. X. — Neuter Passives. 
 
 A. Three Neuter Verbs — Fio, to become, or he made, vapnlo, to he 
 beaten, veneo, to he soil, are Passive in their signification and cou- 
 etruction, and are lience called Neuter- Passives. 
 
 1. Fio, factus snir fieri, — to become or he made. 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 1. Present, 
 
 Il-o 
 
 Fi-B 
 
 Fi-t or fi-t 
 
 S. 
 
 S. 
 
 P. 
 
 [Fi-mus] 
 
 [Fi-tis] 
 
 Fi-unt 
 
 Ham 
 
 Fi-as 
 
 Fiat 
 
 Fi-amus 
 
 Fi-atis 
 
 Fi-ant 
 
 2. Past-Imperfect. 
 
 Fi-ebam 
 
 Fi-ebas 
 
 Fi-ebat 
 
 Fi-ebamus 
 
 Fi-ebatis 
 
 Fi-ebant 
 
 Fi-erem 
 
 Fi-eres 
 
 Fi-eret 
 
 Fi-eremus 
 
 Fi-eretis 
 
 Fi-erent 
 
 3. Future. 
 
 Fi-am 
 
 Fi-es 
 
 Fi-et 
 
 Fi-emua 
 
 Fi-etis 
 
 Fi-ent 
 
 (wanting). 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctfve. 
 
 4. Perfect. 
 
 S. 
 
 P. 
 
 s. 
 
 p. 
 
 s. 
 
 p. 
 
 Factus sum 
 Factus es 
 Factus est ' 
 Facti siimus 
 Facti estis 
 Fact! sunt 
 
 Factus sim 
 Factus sis 
 Factiis sit 
 Facti simus 
 Facti sitis 
 FacU sint 
 
 5. Past-Perfect. 
 Factus eram Factus essem 
 
 Factus eras 
 Factus erat 
 Facti eramiis 
 Facti eratis 
 Facti erant 
 
 Factus esses 
 Factus esset 
 Facti essemus 
 Facti essetis 
 Facti essent 
 
 6. Future-Perfect. 
 
 Factus ero 
 Factus eris 
 Factiis erit 
 Facti erimus 
 Facti eritis 
 Facta enint 
 
 (wanting.) 
 
 Present. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Future. 
 
 Imperative. 
 K, fi-te 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Fieri 
 
 Factum (am, tun) esse 
 
 Factum iri 
 
 PARTICIPLEa. 
 
 Perfect, Factus (a, mn) 
 
 Gerundive, Faciendus (a, urn) 
 
 Obs. 1. FTo is used as the Passive of fScio. 
 
 Obs. 2. The t in fio is always long, except in fit and when not followed by r, 
 
 Obs. 3. Tbe forms flmQs and fttis are doubtful. 
 
 £ 3 
 

 DEFECTIVE VEKBS. 
 
 § 120. 
 
 § 123. 
 
 DEFECTIVE VETIBS. 
 
 83 
 
 2. Vapiilo, vapulavi, to he beaten, is conjugated regularly, and is used 
 as the Passive of VerbSro. 
 
 X Veneo, venivi, venittim (or venTim\ to he soil, is a compound of 
 the supine venum and the verb eu, an»l is used as tlie passive of Vendo. 
 
 B. Four other Verbs are also called Neuter- Pam're^, becnnse their 
 Perfect Tenses are Passive in form. They are likewise called Semi- 
 deponents, because their Perfect Tenses are Deponents. 
 
 Audeo, ausus sum. auderr, to dare, venture. 
 
 Fido, fisus sum, f dere, to trust. 
 
 Gaudeo, gavisus sum, g-audere, to rejoice. 
 
 Soleo, solitus sum, solere, to he accustomed. 
 
 Obs. The four followine: verbs use also the Perfect Participle Passive in nn 
 active sense : jCiro, jfiratus, harififf sirorti ; coeno, coenatus, baring dined ; 
 prandeo, pransus, having breakfasted ; poto, potus, having drunk. 
 
 Chapter XXII. — Defective Verbs. 
 
 § 1 20. Defective Verbs are sncli as want many Tenses 
 and Persons. 
 
 I. CoepT, / began. 
 II. Meiuinl, 1 remember, 
 
 III. Odi, / hate. 
 
 IV. Novi, J know. 
 
 These three Verbs are used only in the Perfect Tenses ; 
 bnt the three latter have a present signification. 
 
 Perfect. 
 Past Perfect. 
 Future- Perfect. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Fast-Perfect. 
 
 Coepi 
 
 Coeperam 
 
 Coepero 
 
 (Joeperim 
 Coepissem 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Memini 
 
 Memineram 
 
 Meminero 
 
 SX7BJITNCTIVE. 
 
 •mmfi^ WW* 
 
 Memmerim 
 ' Memlnissem 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 661 
 
 oderam 
 
 Odero 
 
 Oderim 
 Odissem 
 
 Future. 
 
 (wanting.) Memento 
 Memeutdte 
 
 Perfect. 
 Future. 
 
 Coepisse 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Memiuisse 
 
 Odisse 
 
 Novi 
 
 Noveram 
 
 Novero 
 
 Noverim 
 Novissem 
 
 (wanting.) 
 
 Novisse 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 Coepturus (wanting.) Csuriis 
 
 Oh.s 1. Instead of cocpi and its Tensfs, the Passive cpeptus sum, &c,, is used 
 before an Infinitive Passive : as, urbs aeUtffcirl coepta est, the cUy began 
 to be built. 
 
 Obs. 2. Hovi is properly the pei feet of Noaco, to learn to Irnotv 
 
 \ 
 
 § 121. V. Aio, I sai/, has only the following forms 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 SlBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 Present 
 
 
 Past- 
 
 Fmperfect. 
 
 
 S. Aio 
 
 
 _— 
 
 S. Aiebam 
 
 
 
 
 Ais 
 
 
 Alas 
 
 Aiebas 
 
 
 
 
 Alt 
 
 
 Aiat 
 
 Aiebat 
 
 
 
 P. — 
 
 
 — 
 
 P. Aiebamus 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Aiebatis 
 
 
 
 Aiont 
 
 
 Aiant 
 
 Aiebant 
 
 
 1 
 
 Imperfect PARTicirLE. 
 Aiens. 
 Obs. The form aisnS, sat/est thou ! is often contracted into ain'. 
 
 § 122. VI. Inquam, sa?/ /, has only the followin 
 forms : — 
 
 rr 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. Inquam 
 Inquis 
 Inquit 
 Inquimiis 
 Inquitis 
 Inquiunt 
 
 Future. — 
 
 Inquies 
 Inquiet 
 
 Past-Imperfect. Inquiebam 
 Inquiebas 
 Inquiebat 
 Inquiebamiis 
 Inquiebatis 
 Inquiebant 
 
 Perfect 
 
 luquisti 
 Inquit 
 
 Present, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 Inque | Future. 2 Pers. Inquito 
 
 Obs. Inquam, like the English say I, says he, is always used after oth 
 ■words in a sentence. 
 
 § 123. yir. Fari, to speak, a Deponent, is used only i 
 the following forms : — 
 
 cr 
 
 11 
 
 Indicative. Subjcnctive. 
 
 Present. 
 Fatiir _ 
 
 Future. 
 J'abor, ^bitiir — 
 
 Perfect. 
 Fatus sum &c. Fatus sim&c. 
 
 Past-Perfect. 
 fatiis eram Fatiis essem | 
 
 iMrEIJATIVE. 
 
 Present. S. Fare 
 
 Infinitive. 
 Fan 
 
 Participles. 
 
 Imperfect. Fantis &c. (without a 
 
 2Coin.) 
 Perfect. Fatiis (&, um> 
 
 Gerundive. Fandiis (a, urn) 
 
 Supine — Fatu. 
 Gerund— Fandi &c. 
 
8i 
 
 IMPEKSONAL VERBS. 
 
 §ii:4" 
 
 V 
 
 h 
 
 § 129. 
 
 ADVEEBS. 
 
 b£> 
 
 § 124. yill. Salve, hail! is found in the Imperat. salve, 
 salvete, salveto ; in the In fin. salvere ; and in the Future 
 salvebis. 
 
 IX. Ave (hiive\ hail ! is found in the Imperat. ave, 
 avete, aveto ; and in the Infin. avert. 
 
 X. Apage, leg one ! (the only form). 
 
 Xr. Cedo, pi. (cedite) cette, give me, tell me, are Impera- 
 tives of an obsolete Verb. 
 
 Xri. Quaeso, / entreat, qnaesumus, we entreat, are the 
 only forms used in this sense. 
 
 Chaptek XXIII. — Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 § 125. Impersonal Verbs are such as cannot liave a Per- 
 gonal subject (I, thou, he), and are used only in the Third 
 Person Singular. 
 
 § 126. The following are the principal Impersonal 
 Verbs : — 
 
 I. Verbs which denote Mental States, etc. 
 
 Decet, decuit, decere, 
 Dedecet, dedecuit, dedecer?, 
 Iibet, libuit & libitum est, libere, 
 Licet, Ucuit & licitum est, licere, 
 Liquet, liquere, 
 
 it is seemly, 
 it 18 unseemly. 
 it pleases, 
 it is lairful. 
 it is clear. 
 
 Miseret or miseretiir, misentum est, miserere, it excites pity. 
 
 Oportet, oportuit, oportere, 
 
 Piget, pTguit & pigitum est, pigSre, 
 
 Placet, placuit or placitum est, placerg, 
 
 Poenitet, poenituit, poenitere, 
 
 Pudet, puduit or puditum est, pudere, 
 
 Taedet, (pertaesum est,) taedere, 
 
 it behoves. 
 
 it vexes. 
 
 it pleases. 
 
 it causes sorrov\ 
 
 it shames. 
 
 it disgusts. 
 Qbs. All these Verbs belong to the Second Conjugation. 
 
 II. Verbs which denote Atmospherical Phenomena. 
 
 Grandinat, 1, it hails. 
 
 Ningit, ninxit, ninggrS, it snoics. 
 
 Pluit, pluit or pluvit, plugrS, it rains. 
 
 
 Tonat, tonuit, tonare, 
 Lucescit, (illuxit,) lucescere, 
 Vesperascit, vesperavit, vesperascere. 
 
 it thunderst. 
 
 it becomes light. 
 
 evening approaches. 
 
 Obs. Many verbs which are conjugated regularly with their proper signifi- 
 cations are in certain senses used impersonally : as, accidit, it happetis ; 
 exp^dlt, it is advantageous, &c. 
 
 § 127. Most Impersonal Verbs have no Imperatives, Parti- 
 ciples, Supines, or Gerunds. Consequently pudet, for 
 example, has only the following forms : 
 
 
 iNDlCATrVTE. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 Present. 
 
 Pudet 
 
 Pudeat 
 
 1 Pudere 
 
 Fast' Imperfect. 
 
 Pudebat 
 
 Puderet 
 
 Future. 
 
 Pudebit 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Puduit 
 
 Puduerit 
 
 V Piiduisso 
 
 Past-Perfeci. 
 
 Puduerat 
 
 Puduisset 
 
 Future-Perfect. 
 
 Puduerit 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 The Persons are expressed in the following way in the 
 Present Indicative, and similarly in the other Tenses : 
 
 Pudet me, 
 Pudet te, 
 Pudet eum, 
 Pudet nos, 
 Pudet vos, 
 Pudet eos, 
 
 it shames me, or I am ashamed, 
 it shames thee, or thou art ashamed, 
 it shames him, or he is ashamed, 
 it shames us, or we are ashamed 
 it shames you, or you are ashamed, 
 it shames them, or they are ashamed. 
 
 § 128. Intransitive Verbs are used in ihe Passive Voice 
 impersonally : as, 
 
 Curritur, itiir, ventum est &c. {They) run, {they) go, {they) came, etc- 
 
 Chapter XXIV. — Adverbs. 
 
 § 129. Adverbs derived from Adjectives, Participles, and 
 Substantives, end in e, 6, ter, itus, tim. Their formation is 
 explained in § 196, sqq. 
 
 Adverbs in e, 6, ter, have Comparafives and Superlatives. 
 
 The Comparative of the Adverb is the same as the Neuter 
 Nominative Singular of the Comparative Adjective, and 
 consequently ends in ius. 
 
 The Superlative of the Adveib is foimed frcm ihe Super- 
 
S6 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 § l'-'^ 
 
 § 1.^3. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 87 
 
 lative of the Adjective by changing the final syllable of 
 the latter into e. 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 doctns, 
 
 learned 
 
 aeger, 
 
 8irK\ 
 
 fortis, 
 
 brave f 
 
 slmilis, 
 
 like. 
 
 acer, 
 
 keen. 
 
 felix, 
 
 hickij. 
 
 Adverps. 
 
 Positive. Comparative. 
 
 docte doctius 
 
 aegie with difficult t/^ aegiius 
 fortiter fortius 
 
 similiter similius 
 
 aciiter acrius 
 
 feliciter felicius 
 
 prudens, prudent, prudenter 
 
 prudentius 
 
 Superlative 
 
 doctissime 
 
 aegerrime 
 
 fortissime 
 
 similiime 
 
 acerrime 
 
 ^licissime 
 
 prudentissime 
 
 § 130. If the Adjectives are irregular in their Com- 
 parison, the Adverbs also are irregular. 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 bonus, good, 
 
 malus, had, 
 
 multus, much, 
 
 magnus, great, 
 propinquus, near, 
 
 (pro) prior, before. 
 
 Positive. 
 bene 
 male 
 multum 
 
 prope 
 
 Adverbs. 
 Comparative. 
 melius 
 pejus 
 plus 
 magis 
 propius 
 priua 
 
 optime 
 
 pessime 
 
 plurimum 
 
 maxime 
 
 proxime 
 
 primum & primo 
 
 §131. Only the following Adverbs, not derived from 
 Adjectives, are compared • — 
 
 Positive. Comparative. 
 difl, for a long time, diutius 
 
 nuper, lately, 
 
 saepe, often, ' gaepius 
 
 secus, otherwise, secius 
 
 temper! (tempori), timely, temperius 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 dititissime 
 nuperrime 
 saepissime 
 
 § 132. ^lany Adverbs were originally particular Cases 
 of Substantives, Adjectives, or Pronouns : as, 
 
 tempori, temperi, from tempus, sensonahly (see § 131). 
 
 gratis (gratiis\ gratia, for thanks, i. e. for nothing. 
 
 ingratiis ingratis), „ ingratia, tcifhout thanks, again'^t an>/ 
 
 foras, foris, fora (ohs.) = foris, abroad. [ones will. 
 
 iioctu, „ iioctns(o6<».) = nox, hy night. 
 
 diu, old «W. of dies, bydat/.* 
 
 perperam, ace. sing.f. of perperus, icrongly. 
 
 * In this sense onlj- in the phrase noctu diuque (rare). 
 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 Some are compounded of two or more words : as of an 
 Adjective and Substantive ; or a Preposition and a Sub- 
 stantive ; or two Verbs : as, 
 
 hodie, 
 
 quotidie, 
 
 magnopere, 
 
 tantopere, 
 
 obviam, 
 
 quamobrem, 
 
 invicem, 
 
 scilicet, 
 
 videlicet, 
 
 qoamvis 
 
 from 
 
 f* 
 
 hoc die, 
 quot dies, 
 magno opere, 
 tantd opere, 
 6b viam, 
 quam ob rem, 
 in vicem, 
 scire licet, 
 videre licet, 
 quam vis (volo), 
 
 With many others. 
 
 on this day. 
 
 every day. 
 
 greatly. 
 
 greatly. 
 
 in the way of. 
 
 wherefore. 
 
 in turn. 
 
 doubtless, of course. 
 
 manifestly, to wit. 
 
 however much. 
 
 § 133. Adverbs may be divided, according to their signi- 
 fication, into the following classes :— 
 
 I. Adverbs of Ixterkogation, Affirmation, and Negation. 
 
 (a) Of Interrogation. 
 
 utrum . . . ne, an, is this the care, 
 quare, cur, whyi [or that i 
 
 quoties, how often ? 
 
 Note. Concerning the use of these Particles, see Syntax. 
 
 -ne, 
 
 is it so? 
 
 num, 
 
 it is not so, isjtl 
 
 nonne, 
 
 is it not so i 
 
 Qj) Of Affirmation, 
 
 sane, vero, utique, indeed. 
 edepol, pol, by Pollux, truly. 
 mehercle, hy Hercules, in truth. 
 
 ecastor. 
 
 by Castor. 
 
 mediusf^dius 1 by the god of faith 
 
 .}' 
 
 (me dius fidius), j in very truth 
 
 Ohs. There is no word in Latin precisely equivalent to the English yes. Ir- 
 stead of it some part of the question is generally repeated. Tu ita dicis .' 
 Ego vero dico. Do you say so .' Yes, 1 do. 
 
 non, hand, 
 
 (c) Of Negation, 
 not. I minime, 
 
 by no means. 
 
 Ohs. Immo (imo) is equivalent to nay, nay rather : and may sometimes be 
 rendered by y^-s or no : as, 
 
 Fitctur 1 Immo pcmPgat. Does he confess 1 No, he denies outright. Plaut. 
 Causa igitur non b6na est ! Immo optima. li our cause then not good ? 
 Te$, exceedingly good. Cic. 
 
88 
 
 ADYERBS. 
 
 § 133. 
 
 §133. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 89 
 
 II. Adverbs of Place. 
 1. Rest in a Place. 
 
 (a) Derived from Pronouns. 
 
 hiC, here, near me. 
 
 istiCt there, near you. 
 
 illic, there, near him, yonder. 
 
 ibi, there. 
 
 ibidem, in the same place. 
 
 iibi, where. 
 
 iibiqug, everywhere. 
 
 ubicunque, 1 , 
 
 ubiubi, l^cheresoever. 
 
 alibi, ehewhere. 
 
 ^licubi, 
 
 uspiam, 
 
 usquam, 
 
 nusquam, 
 
 nullibi, 
 
 ubivis, 
 
 ubique, 
 
 ubilibet, 
 
 somewhere. 
 > anywhere. 
 
 nowhere. 
 
 , in any place you will, 
 I everywhere. 
 
 utrobique, in both places. 
 utrimque, on both side^. 
 
 int^s, 
 
 intrinseciis, 
 
 extrinsecus, 
 
 prope, 
 
 procul, 
 
 passim, 
 
 (&) Derived from Prepositions and other Words. 
 
 I within. 
 
 without, 
 near. 
 
 at a distance, 
 here and there, every- 
 where, 
 
 2. Motion to a Place, 
 
 (All with one exception derived from Pronouns.) 
 
 foris, 
 
 peregre, 
 
 subtiis, 
 
 out of doors, abroad 
 
 abroad. 
 
 beneath. 
 
 siipenie, 
 infeme, 
 
 above, 
 below. 
 
 praesto. 
 
 at hand. 
 
 hue, to the place near me. 
 
 istuc and isto, fo the place near you. 
 illuc and ill5, to the place near him, 
 
 to yonder place. 
 eo, thither. 
 
 eddem, to the same place. 
 
 - ( whither i 
 
 ^ ' {any whither. 
 
 alio, to another place. 
 
 aliquo, 
 
 quocunque, 
 
 quoquo, 
 
 quovis, 
 
 quolibet, 
 
 ntroque, 
 
 utrdvis, 
 
 foras. 
 
 any xchiihcr. 
 \ whither sot ver. 
 
 \ whither you will. 
 
 to both places. 
 
 to which of the two 
 
 places you will, 
 abroad. 
 
 3. Motion from a Place, 
 (a) Derived from Pronouns. 
 
 hinc, 
 
 from the place near me. 
 
 istincr 
 
 from the place near you. 
 
 illinc, 
 
 from the place near him. 
 
 
 from yonder place. 
 
 inde. 
 
 thence. 
 
 indidem, 
 
 from the same place. 
 
 unde. 
 
 wheruje f 
 
 aliunde, 
 
 from elsewhere. 
 
 alicunde, from some place or 
 
 another. 
 undique, from every side. 
 
 undeunde, )- , ^ ., 
 
 undecunque, r''"* tr/taferer ^de. 
 
 undelibet, from which side you 
 
 w,ll. 
 ntrinquS, from both sides. 
 
 • 
 
 coelltfts, 
 
 dlvlnitls, 
 
 fuuditus, 
 
 (b) Derived from other Words, 
 radicitiis, 
 
 from heaven, 
 from the gods, 
 from the ground, 
 utterly. 
 
 stirpitiis, i-f'^^ ''*« '•o«'»- 
 
 eminus (ex maniis), /ro/» a distance 
 (of skirmisliing with missiles). 
 
 Oba. With cmKnus compare comKnQs, hand to hand, at close quarters. 
 
 4. Motion by a Way 
 
 hac, 
 
 ista, istac, 
 ilia, iliac, 
 
 e&, 
 
 eadem, 
 
 alia, 
 
 qua, 
 
 aliqua, 
 
 hy this road near me. 
 by that road near you. 
 by that road near him, 
 
 by yonder road, 
 by this way. 
 by the same way, 
 hy another way. 
 by which icay. 
 by some way. 
 
 quaqua, 1 , 
 
 quacunque, T^ ^^^^'^ ^^V «^^^'^'"- 
 
 quavis, J , , . . 
 
 quaiibet, y^^J '^'^^^^^ ^^y y^^ ^i^^' 
 
 utraque, by both ways. 
 
 utracunque, by tvhich of the two 
 
 icays you icill. 
 recta, by a straight way. 
 
 5. Motion towards a Place. 
 (All compounds of the Preposition versus Cversum), toicards.) 
 
 horsum, towards where I am, 
 
 hitherwards. 
 
 istorsum, towards where you 
 
 are. 
 
 illorsum, towards yonder place. 
 
 quorsum (-us), towards whither i 
 
 aliorsum (-us), towards another place. 
 
 aliquorsum | . 
 
 (-us), } toicards some place. 
 
 quoquoversum } . 
 
 (-us), r" every direction. 
 
 utroqueversum) . , ^, ,. ,. 
 (-US) r^ ^^"* directions. 
 
 introrsum (-us), inwards. 
 deorsum (-us), doionwards. 
 8ursum(-us), i.e.) 
 
 subversum, l^P^f^f^rds. 
 
 retrorsum (-us), backwards. 
 prorsiis, straight-forwards, 
 
 outright. 
 adversiis (-um), tmmrds, against. 
 seorsum (-us), apart. 
 dextrorsum (-us), towards the right. 
 siuistrorsum ) . j .. , ^ 
 (-US) J ^^"'^^"S ''*e left. 
 
 III. Adverbs of Time. 
 1. When? 
 
 quando, 
 
 nunc, 
 
 jam, 
 
 mods, 
 
 tunc, 
 
 turn, 
 
 nfiper, 
 
 dudum, 
 
 pridem, 
 
 jamdudum, 
 
 jampridem, 
 
 mox. 
 
 when 9 at any time, l cito, 
 
 710W. 
 
 note, presently, 
 just now. 
 
 ) 
 
 then, 
 lately. 
 
 immediately, forth, 
 with. 
 
 I 
 
 some time ago. 
 
 soon. 
 
 quichly. 
 statim, 
 confestim, 
 protinus, 
 ilicet, 
 illico, 
 post, postea, ) afterwards after 
 
 posthac, I that, 
 
 interim, interea, meanwhile. 
 Ellas, at another time. 
 
 tandem, at length. 
 
 jamdiu, long since. 
 
CO 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 § 133. 
 
 § 138. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 91 
 
 interdum, 
 
 nonnunquam, 
 
 aliquando, 
 
 quandoque, 
 
 quondam, 
 
 olim, 
 
 nondum, 
 
 vixdum, 
 
 nunquam, 
 
 diu, 
 
 quamdiu, 
 
 aliquamdiu, 
 
 aliquantisper, 
 
 tamdiu, 
 
 }som€tiines\ 
 
 \formerly, hereafter. 
 
 not yet. 
 hardly yet. 
 never. 
 
 semper 
 
 hodie, 
 
 eras, 
 
 heri (here), 
 
 pridie, 
 
 nudiustertius, 
 
 postridie, 
 
 perendie, 
 
 always, 
 to-day. 
 to-morrow, 
 yesterday, 
 the day be/ore. 
 three days since, 
 the following day. 
 the next day but 
 one. 
 
 2. How long ? 
 
 long. 
 
 how long, as long 
 
 >for a while, '- 
 
 80 long. 
 
 tantisper, 
 
 pammper, 
 
 paulisper, 
 
 adhuc, 
 
 semper, 
 
 } 
 
 so long. 
 
 for a little while. 
 
 hitherto, 
 always. 
 
 3. IIoic often ? 
 
 semel. 
 
 bis, ter, &c. 
 
 to ties, 
 
 quoties, 
 
 aliquSties, 
 
 plerumque, 
 
 interdum, 
 
 subinde, 
 
 saepe, saepenumero, often. 
 
 once. 
 
 twice, thrice, dc. 
 
 so often. 
 
 how often ; as often 
 
 several times, [as. 
 
 usually. 
 
 now and then. 
 
 crebro, 
 
 raro, 
 
 identidem, 
 
 mrsus, 
 
 iteriim, 
 
 denijo, 
 
 quotidie, 
 
 qudtannis. 
 
 frequently. 
 
 seldom. 
 
 repeatedly. 
 
 > again. 
 
 afresh, 
 every day, 
 every year. 
 
 IV. Adverbs of Comparison, or Order, Manner, Degrfe. 
 
 as if. 
 
 how far, as far ci. 
 
 in so far 
 
 thus far. 
 
 to a certain point. 
 
 at least. 
 
 tridy, very. 
 
 enough. 
 
 otherwise. 
 
 so, in this way. 
 
 as. 
 
 only. 
 
 as, as if. 
 
 so greatly 
 
 \only. 
 
 as, how. 
 very, greatly, 
 just as. 
 
 hardly, with d'J/i' 
 culty. 
 
 adeo. 
 
 to such a degree. 
 
 quasi, 
 
 admodum, 
 
 exceedingly. 
 
 quatenus. 
 
 aliter, 
 
 in another way. 
 
 eatenus. 
 
 aeque (ac), 
 
 equally. 
 
 hactenus. 
 
 )ta, 
 
 in that way, so. 
 
 aliquatenus, 
 
 item. 
 
 likewise. 
 
 saltem. 
 
 magis, 
 
 more, rather. 
 
 sane, 
 
 minus, 
 
 less. 
 
 satis. 
 
 modo, 
 
 only. 
 
 secus, secius, 
 
 omnino, 
 
 altogether. 
 
 sic, 
 
 paene, 
 
 almost. 
 
 siciiti, 
 
 pariter. 
 
 equally, side by side. 
 
 solum. 
 
 perinde (proinde), just as. 
 
 tanqnam, 
 
 perquam, 
 
 very. 
 
 tantopere, 
 
 potius. 
 
 rather. 
 
 tantum, tant 
 
 potissimum. 
 
 in preference to all 
 
 ummodo. 
 
 praecipue, 
 
 chiefly. [others. 
 
 lit, 
 
 prope, 
 
 nearly. 
 
 valde. 
 
 prorsiis, 
 
 altogether 
 
 velut, veluti. 
 
 quam, 
 
 as, than. 
 
 vix. 
 
 quantopere, 
 
 how greatly, as 
 (greatly as. 
 
 
 I 
 
 k 
 
 Chapter XXY. — Prepositions. 
 
 § 134. Of the Prepositions some govern the Accusative 
 Case, some the Ablative, and some either the Accusative 
 or the Ablative. Their construction is explained in thor 
 Syntax, 
 
 § 135. I. With the Accusative alone. 
 
 Ad, to. 
 
 Adversus, ) ... , 
 
 Adversum, j^pposite, towards. 
 
 Ante, before. 
 
 Apud, near. 
 
 Circa, circum, around. 
 
 Circiter, about. 
 
 Cis & citra, on this side of. 
 
 Contra, against. 
 
 Erga, towards (of the 
 
 Extra, outside of, fniind). 
 
 Infra, below. 
 
 Inter, between, among. 
 
 Intra, inside of, within. 
 
 Juxta, hard by, beside. 
 
 Cb, 
 
 on account of. 
 
 Penes, 
 
 in the power of. 
 
 Per, 
 
 through. 
 
 Pone, 
 
 behind. 
 
 Post, 
 
 after. 
 
 Praeter, 
 
 beside. 
 
 Prope, 
 
 near. 
 
 Propter, 
 
 on account of 
 
 Secundum, 
 
 following, along, in ac- 
 
 
 cordance with. 
 
 Supra, 
 
 above. 
 
 Trans, 
 
 across. 
 
 Ultra, 
 
 on the farther side of. 
 
 Versus, 
 
 ). / 
 
 Versum, 
 
 > towards. 
 
 Obs. Versus is always placed 
 toicarda Rome. 
 
 after the Accusative : as, fiomara versus, 
 
 A, ab, or ab3, 
 
 by or from. 
 
 Ex or e, 
 
 Absque (^rure,\ 
 
 without. 
 
 Prae, 
 
 C5ram, 
 
 in the presence of. 
 
 Pro, 
 
 Cum 
 
 with. 
 
 Sine, 
 
 De, 
 
 down from, from. 
 
 Teniis, 
 
 § 13G. II. With the Ablative alone. 
 
 out of. 
 
 before. 
 
 in front of, before. 
 
 without. 
 
 reaching w, as far as. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Ab is used before vowels and h ; both a and (ib before consonants , 
 abs very seldom except in the phrase abs te. 
 
 Obs. 2. JEx is used before vowels and h ; both ex and c before consonants. 
 
 Obs. 3. Teniis is always placed after the Ablative : as, pectorC tentis, as 
 far as the breast. 
 
 § 137. III. With the Accusative or Ablative, 
 
 bl, in, info. | Super, over. 
 
 Sub, up to, under. \ Subter, under. 
 
 Clam, tbithout the knowledge of. 
 
 In and Sub with the Ace. answer tjie question Whither? 
 -with the Abl, the question Where ? 
 
 § 138. Obs. 1. Some Propositions are used as Adverbs: as, ant?, clam, coram, 
 contra, post, praeter, propter. 
 
92 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 § 138. 
 
 Obs. 2. Prepositions, in composition with other words, frequently undergo 
 euphonic changes. The most common change is the assimilation of the 
 final consonant of the Preposition to the initial consonants of the -words 
 with which it is combined : as, all6quor from ad and loquor. 
 
 Ab. abs. Ab remains unchanged hefore vowels and most consonants. 
 Before m and v it becomes a : as, a-moveo, u-vfho. Ab becomes au in 
 au-f^ro, au-fcigio. Abs stands before c and t only : as, abs-cedo, abs- 
 tlneo. 
 
 Ad remains unchanged before d, j, m, v : as, ad-do, ad-jSceo, ad-mlror, 
 ad-v?ho. The d is assimilated before most other consonants : as, ac- 
 cedo, af-f?ro, ag-gt^ro, ap-pOno, ac-quTro, as-sisto, as-sumo. The d is 
 omitted before * followed by a consonant, and gn : as, a-splcio, a-gnosco. 
 
 Com (instead of cum) remains unchanged before the labials p, 6, m : as, 
 com-pono, com-blbo, com-mitto. The m is assimilated before /, n, r ; 
 as, col-lTgo, con-necto, cor-rlpio. The m is changed into n before the 
 other consonants : as, con-f^ro, con-g^ro, con-triho. The m is dropped 
 before vowels and h : as, co-ulesco, co-eo, co-haereo. 
 
 Ex remains unchanged hefore vowels and the consonants e, p, q, s, t : as, 
 ex-eo, ex-clpio, ex-pono, ex-qulro, ex-solvo, ex-traho. The x is assimi- 
 lated before / : as, ef-fero. The x is omitted before the remaining con- 
 sonants : as, e-Ugo, e-jicio. 
 
 In becomes im before the labials p, 6, m : as, im-p6no, Im-buo, im-mitto. 
 The n is assimilated before / and r : as, il-lQdo, ir-rumpo. Before other 
 consonants and vowels it remains unchanged. 
 
 Inter undergoes assimilation only in the verb intel-Ugo and its deri- 
 vatives. 
 
 Ob undergoes assimilation before c, /, g, p: as, oc-eurro, of-f?ro, og-gi-ro, 
 op-pOno, 
 
 Per undergoes assimilation only in pel-Ucio and its derivatives. 
 
 Sub undergoes assimilation hefore c, /, g, m, p, and often before r ; aa, 
 suc-curro, suf-ficio, sug-g*^ro, sum-mitto, sup-pono, sur-rlpio. 
 
 Trans is frequently shortened into ML : as, tra-duco, tr3-jtcio. 
 
 Obs. ^. Inseparable Prepositions occur only in composition. 
 
 Amb, around : as, amb-io, to go around ; amb-Tgo, to wander around. 
 The b is dropped before p : as, am-pQto, to cut around or away ; ani- 
 plector, to twine around or embrace. Amb becomes an before gutturals 
 and / ; as, an-ceps, two-headed ; an-quiro, to seek around ; an-fractus, 
 a bending. 
 
 Dis or dii in different directions : as, dis-pono, to set in different parts ; 
 dl-rTpio, to tear in pieces. Before /, dis becomes dif: as, dif-fundo, to 
 pour in different directions. 
 
 Re or red. back .• as, r?-mitto, to send back ; r?d-eo, to go back. 
 
 Se» aside: as, se-duco, to lead aside; se-cHvas, free from care. 
 
 §139. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 93 
 
 Chapter XXVI. — Conjunctions. 
 
 § 139. Conjunctions may be divided into tlie following 
 classes : 
 
 I. Connective. 
 
 £t, 
 
 Atqne, ac, 
 Que, 
 
 Aut, 
 Vel, ve, 
 
 > and. 
 
 > either, or. 
 
 Neque, nee, ) .., 
 Neve, neu, / '^^i^^^^^ior. 
 
 or if. 
 
 Sive, seu, 
 Necn5n, 
 Etiam, 
 Quoque, 
 
 also. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Qu8 and ve are always added to the end of the second of the two 
 words which they unite, and must be pronounced with it, as if they 
 formed a single word : as, terra mSrlqu^, by land and by sea ; plus 
 minusvf , more or less. Such words are called enclitics. 
 
 Obs. 2. Ac, vCi nec» neUi seu are contractions respectively of atqu6, v^l, 
 n^u?, nevd, 8#. 
 
 Obs. 3. Ac is never used before vowels orh : atqufi occurs most frequently 
 before vowels, but also before consonants. 
 
 To these 
 (solum) . . . 
 quum (turn) 
 
 Sed, 
 Autem, 
 A St, at, 
 Atque, 
 
 Si, . 
 Nisi, ni, 
 Sin, 
 
 Etsi, 
 
 £tiamsi, 
 
 Tametsi, 
 
 Licet, 
 
 Quanquam 
 
 Quum, 
 Quia, quod, 
 Quoniam, 
 Quandoquidem, 
 
 may be added the correlatives non modo 
 . sed (verum) etiam, not only .... hut also ; 
 .... turn, both .... and. 
 
 II. Adversative. 
 
 Tamen, 
 Verum, vero, 
 finimvero, 
 Attamen, 
 
 III. Conditional. 
 
 if' 
 
 if not. 
 
 if not; hut if. 
 
 Bum, 
 
 Modo, 
 
 Dummodo, 
 
 [although 
 
 IV, Concessive. 
 
 Quamvis, 
 Quum, 
 Ouidem, 
 Dt, 
 
 V. Cadsal. 
 
 whereas, since, 
 hecanse. 
 since, 
 seeing that. 
 
 Nam, 
 
 £nim. 
 
 £tenim, 
 
 yet, nevertheless, 
 hut, indeed, 
 hut indeed 
 hut yet. 
 
 
 provided that. 
 
 however much, al- 
 although, [though, 
 indeed. 
 
 granting that, al- 
 though. 
 
 }for. 
 and in fact. 
 
94 
 
 Ergo, 
 
 Idcirco, 
 
 Ideo, 
 
 Igitur, 
 
 } 
 
 therefore. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 VI. Conclusive. 
 
 Itaque, 
 Qaocirca, 
 Quare, 
 Quapropter, 
 
 §140. 
 
 and 80, accordiunhj. 
 ' ichcre/ore. 
 
 Quo, 
 Quin, 
 
 Quominiis, 
 
 TIL Final. 
 
 /that, in order that. ^. 
 
 yhat not. ^^ve, ncu, 
 
 that not, lest, 
 and that . . . not. 
 
 YIII. Temporal. 
 
 Antequam, 1 7 * 
 Priusquam, j More that. 
 
 Postquam, after that. 
 
 Donee, 
 Quoad, 
 Bum, 
 
 so long as, until. 
 
 Eimulatque (ac), as soon as. 
 Note.— Conceriiing the uses of the above Conjunctions, see Si/fitar. 
 
 Chapter XXVII.— Interjections. 
 
 § 140. Interjections are not so much parts of speech as 
 substitutes for definite sentences. They are mostlv sounds 
 or cries expressive of emotion. 
 
 They may be divided into the following classes :— 
 
 1. Of surprise : 6 ! eu ! ecce ! papas ! atat ! etc. 
 
 2. Of grief : ah ! eheu (heu) ! liei ! vae ! etc. 
 
 3. Of joy : 10 ! ha ! Svoe ; eu (euge) ! etc. 
 
 4. Of disgust : phui ! apage ! etc. 
 
 5. Of adjuration : pr5 (proh) ! To this may be added the abbrevi- 
 ated oaths mehercle Cmehercule, hercle, etc.), pol, edepol, mediusfidlus. 
 uud the like, ' 
 
 §142. 
 
 GENDERS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 i)j 
 
 APPENDIX A, 
 
 Chapter XXVIII.— The Genders of Substantives. 
 
 GEKEPtAL KULES. 
 GENDER ascertained BY THE MEANING. 
 
 § 141. Males, Mountains, Months, Winds, and Faiers 
 
 are Masculine, 
 
 2. Females, Countries, Islands, Towns, and Trees 
 are Feminine. 
 
 Obs. In the case of some animals sex is disregarded : thus, aqulla, eagle, and 
 vulpcs, fox, are always feminine ; while lepus, hare, mus, mome, and 
 passer, sparrow, are always masculine. Such Substantives are called 
 Upicene (cttI K0iv6<i). 
 
 3. Indeclinable Substantives, as, 
 
 Fas, nefas, nihil, instar, 
 are Neuter. 
 
 fas, permitted by heaven. 
 
 nefas, not permitted by heaven. 
 
 nihil, nothing. 
 instar, resemblance. 
 
 4. Substantives denoting both the male and the female, as 
 
 Civis, conjux, sacerdos, testis 
 are Common. 
 
 civis, a citizen (male or female), 
 conjux, a husband or wife. 
 
 sScerdos, a priest or priestess. 
 testis, a witness Tmale or female). 
 
 SPECIAL EULES. 
 
 GENDER ascertained BY THE TERMINATIONS. 
 
 § 142. I. First Declension. 
 
 Principal Rule. 
 
 A and e are Feminine, 
 Ab and es are Masculine. 
 
94 
 
 INTERJECTIOXS. 
 
 § 140. 
 
 Ergo, 
 
 Idcirco, 
 
 Ideo, 
 
 igitiir, 
 
 1 
 
 therefore. 
 
 VI. Conclusive. 
 
 Itaque, 
 Quocirca, 
 Quare, 
 Quapropter, 
 
 and 80, accoTdinQhj. 
 
 ichcrefore. 
 
 Quo, 
 
 Quin, 
 Quomlnus, 
 
 YII. Final. 
 >that, in order that 
 
 } 
 
 that not, ^^^^' '^G^* 
 
 VIII. Temporal. 
 
 that not, lest, 
 and that . . . not. 
 
 Postquam, after that. 
 
 Donee, 
 Quoad, 
 Bum, 
 
 80 long as, untX 
 
 Eimu!atque (ac), as soon as. 
 NoTE.--Concerning the uses of the above Conjunctions, see Syntax. 
 
 Chapter XXVII.— Inter jectioxs. 
 
 § 140. Interjections are not so mucli parts of speech as 
 substitutes for definite sentences. They are mostly sounds 
 or cries expressive of emotion. 
 
 They may be divided into the following classes ;— 
 
 1. Of surprise : ! eu I ecce ! papae ! atat ! etc. 
 
 2. Of grief : ah ! eheu (heu) ! hei ! vae ! etc. 
 
 3. Of joy : io ! ha ! fivoe : eu (euge) ! etc. 
 
 4. Of disgust : phui ! apage ! etc. 
 
 5. Of adjuration : pro (proh) ! To this may be added the aldirevi- 
 ated oaths mehercle ^meherciile, hercle, etc.), pol, edepol, mediusfidius. 
 and the like. 
 
 §142. 
 
 genders of substantives. 
 
 Oj 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Chapter XXVIII.— The Genders of Substantives. 
 
 GEXEEAL EULES. 
 GENDER ASCERTAINED BY THE MEANING. 
 
 § 141. 31ales, Mountains, Months, Winds, and Fiivers 
 
 are Masculine. 
 
 2. Females, Countries, Islands, Towns, and Trees 
 are Feminine, 
 
 Obs. In the case of some animals sex is disregarded : thus, aqufla, eagle, and 
 vulpes, fox, are always feminine ; while lepus, hare, mus, mome, and 
 passer, sparrow, are always masculine. Such Substantives are called 
 £picene (cttI koivos). 
 
 3. Indeclinable Substantives, as, 
 
 Fas, nefas, nihil, instar, 
 are Neuter, 
 
 fas, permitted by heaven. 
 
 nefas, not permitted by heaven. 
 
 nihtl, nothing. 
 instar, resemblance. 
 
 4. Substantives denoting both the male and the female, as 
 
 Civis, conjux, sacerdos, testis 
 are Common, 
 
 civis, a citizen (male or female), 
 conjux, a husband or wife. 
 
 sScerdos, a priest or priestess. 
 testis, a witness (male or female). 
 
 SPECIAL EULES. 
 
 GENDER ascertained BY THE TERMINATIONS. 
 § 142. I. First Declension. 
 
 Principal Rule, 
 
 A and e are Feminine, 
 Ab and es are Masculine. 
 
96 
 
 GENDERS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 §143 
 
 Exceptions, 
 
 1. Names of Males in a are 
 Masculine : as, 
 
 scriba, a clerk, 
 nauta, a sailor. 
 intola, an inhabitant. 
 
 2. Most Rivers in a are Mascu- 
 liiie (§141, 1): as, 
 
 AdJua, the Adda. 
 
 Garumna, the Garonne. 
 SequSna, the Seine. 
 Also Hddria, the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 But tlie following are Feminine : 
 Albiila, ancient nattie of Tiber. 
 Allia, in Latium. 
 Mati5ua, the Mame. 
 
 § 143. II. Second Declension. 
 
 Principal Rale. 
 
 Us and er are Masculine, 
 Um is Neuter. 
 
 Exceptions, 
 
 1. Trees and Towns in us follow 
 tlie general rule, and are Feminine 
 (see § 141, 2) : as, 
 
 ulnius, an elm-tree 
 
 Corinthus, Corinth, 
 
 2. The following are also Fe- 
 
 mnune : 
 alvus, 
 col us, 
 humus, 
 vaanus. 
 
 the belly. 
 
 a distaff. 
 
 the ground. 
 
 a winnowing fan. 
 
 And some Greek words : as, 
 meth5dus, method. 
 arctos, the constellation 
 
 Bear. 
 carbilsus, fine flax, 
 
 3. The following are Neuter : 
 
 virus, 
 
 pelilgus, 
 
 vulgus. 
 
 potson. 
 
 the sea. 
 
 the common people. 
 
 Obs. Vulgus is sometimes Masculine. 
 
 § 144. III. Third Declension. 
 Preliminai^ Mules, 
 
 1. The rules for determining the Gender of Substantives 
 from their meaning (given in § 141) are of course appli- 
 cable in this as in the other Declensions : thus, pater, a 
 father ; Tiberis, the Tiber ; Libs, a S. W. wind, are Masculine : 
 while millier, a woman ; soror, a sister ; Venus, the goddess of 
 'beauty and grace, are Feminine. 
 
 2. All Abstract Substantives derived from Adjectives 
 
 §144. 
 
 GENDERS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 97 
 
 (sometimes also from Substantives), and denoting qualities, 
 are Feminine : as, 
 
 hamilltas, lowness, humility, from 
 
 sua vitas, sweetness, 
 
 altltudo, height, 
 
 fortitudo, bravery, 
 
 virtus, 'manliness, virtue, 
 
 i» 
 
 »t 
 
 litlmilis, 
 
 suavis. 
 
 altus. 
 
 fortis. 
 
 vir. 
 
 3. Substantives in io (tic, sic), derived from Verbs, and 
 expressing the action abstractly, are Feminine : as, 
 
 expugnutio, talcing by storm, from 
 
 munitio, the act of fortifying, 
 
 decessio, departure, 
 
 largitio, bribery, 
 
 opinio, thinking, opinion, 
 
 contagio, touching, contagion. 
 
 )» 
 
 »» 
 
 >> 
 
 »> 
 
 expugno. 
 
 munio. 
 
 decedo. 
 
 largior. 
 
 opinor. 
 
 contango (root tag). 
 
 Obx. 1. In some of the above the active signification is lost, as regio, a district 
 (from r»?go) ; K'gio, a legion (from lego). 
 
 2. To the above may be added those which denote a pcrma7ient action or 
 condition, in go and do : as, 
 
 prurigo, itching, from prurio. 
 
 cflpTdo, a desire, passion, „ cdpio. 
 
 vertigo, giddiness, „ verto. 
 
 With the exception of the above, all Gendei-s of this 
 Declension must be decided by the termination. 
 
 First Principal Pule (Masculine). 
 
 0, or (oris), 03, and er, 
 Es, increasing short in Genitive, 
 are Masculine.— Hxamplks : Leo, onis, a lion ; dolor, oris, 
 pain ; flos, floris, a flower ; anser, eris, a goose ; pes, pgdis, a 
 foot^ 
 
 Exceptions, 
 
 1. In 0. 
 
 Feminine arc do, go, io, 
 To these add euro, echo. 
 But Masculine are harpago, 
 Or do, car do, scipio. 
 
 Stellio, septentrio, 
 Margo, ligo, pugio 
 Titio, pdpilio, 
 Unio, curcUlio, 
 Lastly vespertilio. 
 
 c&ro, 
 
 cam is, 
 
 6cho, 
 
 Schus, 
 
 harpUgo, 
 
 finis. 
 
 ordo, 
 
 Inis, 
 
 cardo. 
 
 Inis, 
 
 scipio, 
 
 onis, 
 
 stellio, 
 
 onis, 
 
 st^ptentrio, 
 
 onis, 
 
 flesh. 
 
 raargo, 
 
 Inis, 
 
 aborder or edge. 
 
 an echo. 
 
 Hero, 
 
 onis, 
 
 a spade. 
 
 a grappling-hook. 
 
 pugio, 
 
 onis. 
 
 a dagger. 
 
 a row. 
 
 titio, 
 
 onis, 
 
 a fire-brand. 
 
 a hinge. 
 
 papllio, 
 
 onis. 
 
 a butterfly. 
 
 a staff. 
 
 unio. 
 
 Onis, 
 
 a pearl. 
 
 a lizard. 
 
 curculio, 
 
 Onis, 
 
 a weevil. 
 
 the north. 
 
 vespertilio, 
 
 oai», 
 
 a but. 
 
98 
 
 GENDERS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 § 145. 
 
 \ 
 
 2. Tn or. 
 
 Neuter Nouns wliicli end m or 
 
 Are only four : 
 
 raarmor, 5ris, marble. 
 aequor, Gris, the level surface of 
 
 the sea. 
 
 3. In OS. 
 
 Feminine are cOs and ads. 
 
 c6s, cotis, a whetstone, 
 dos, dOtis, a dowry. 
 
 4. Iner. 
 
 Many Neuters end in er: 
 Ver, cadaver, iter, tuber, 
 Cicer, piper, siser, uher, 
 
 y§r, 
 
 vens. 
 
 cadaver, 
 
 gris. 
 
 Iter, 
 
 Itlneris, 
 
 tuber. 
 
 eris, 
 
 clcer. 
 
 gris, 
 
 piper, 
 
 Sris, 
 
 slser, 
 
 6ris, 
 
 uber, 
 
 gris, 
 
 the spniKJ. 
 
 a corpse. 
 
 a joumey, 
 
 a swelling. 
 
 the chick-pea. 
 
 pepper. 
 
 a plant (shirr ef). 
 
 an adder. 
 
 5. In es, increasing in the Genitive. 
 Feminine are rSquies^ 
 
 quies, 
 r5t|uies, 
 inquies, 
 merces, 
 
 etis, > 
 etis, ) 
 6tis, 
 edis, 
 
 rest, 
 
 restlessne 
 wages 
 
 3Iarmor, aeqnar, ador, cor. 
 
 Fomiuini giiuoris 
 
 Is only arbor iarhoris}. 
 
 ador, Qris, spelt. 
 cor, cordis, the heart, 
 arbor, 5ris, a tree. 
 
 J Neuter Nouns are Ss and as. 
 
 iJs, ossis, a bone. 
 OS, oris, the mouth. 
 
 Zingiber, papdver, suber, 
 Acer, slier, verber, spiuther 
 Feminine is only linter. 
 
 zingiber, 
 
 papaver, 
 
 suber, 
 
 acer, 
 
 slier, 
 
 verber. 
 
 Sris, 
 gris, 
 Cris, 
 Sris, 
 6ris, 
 6ris, 
 
 spinther, Sris, 
 
 ginger, 
 
 the poppy. 
 
 the cork-tree 
 
 the maple. 
 
 a withy. 
 
 a whip, scourge. 
 
 a kind of bracelet. 
 
 linter, tris (/.), a wherry. 
 
 Quie8, merces, merges, t?g?s, 
 Compes, inquies, and segSs, 
 
 mergSs, Itis, 
 tSgSs, Ctis, 
 compes, 6dis, 
 
 sS;iSd 
 
 etis, 
 
 a sheaf of cor n. 
 a mat. 
 a fetter, 
 standing corn . 
 
 § 145. Second Pnncipal Rale (Feminine), 
 
 X, as, aus, and is, 
 S preceded by a consonant, 
 Es not increasing in Genitive, 
 are Femmui^.— Examples : Fax, pi'icis, ])eace ; libertas, atis, 
 liberty ; laiis, landis, praise ; navis, is, a ship ; urbs, iirbis, a 
 city ; nubes, is, a cloud. 
 
 I 
 
 § U5. 
 
 GENDERS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 09 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 In X. 
 
 Masculine are words in ex : 
 Feminine alone are lex, 
 Supellex, cdrex, ilex, nex. 
 
 lex, 
 
 supellex, 
 carex, 
 ilex, 
 uex, 
 
 legis, a law. 
 \Qi:t)l\s, fw~niture. 
 Icis, a kind of rush. 
 Icis, the scarlet oak. 
 ngcis, violent death. 
 
 In as. 
 
 Six Mascullna end in as : 
 A8_ (assis), mas, and eUphds, 
 Vds (vddis), gtgds, dddmds. 
 
 as, assis, a Roman coin. 
 
 mas, mJlris, a male. 
 
 elgphas, antis, an elephant. 
 
 vas, vadis, a surety. 
 
 glgas, autis, a giant. 
 
 In is. 
 
 3Iany Nouns which end in is 
 Are Mascdlini generis : 
 rdnis, piscis, crlnis, finis. 
 Ignis, lapis, pulvis, cm is, 
 Orbis, amnis, and cdndlis. 
 Sanguis, unguis, gl'is, anndlls. 
 
 panis, 
 
 is. 
 
 p ISC IS, 
 
 is. 
 
 crinis. 
 
 IS, 
 
 finis, 
 
 is. 
 
 Ignis, 
 
 IS, 
 
 lapis. 
 
 Idis, 
 
 pill vis. 
 
 6ris, 
 
 clnis. 
 
 Cris, 
 
 orbis. 
 
 is. 
 
 aninis, 
 
 is, 
 
 canalis. 
 
 is. 
 
 sanguis. 
 
 Inis, 
 
 unguis, 
 
 IS, 
 
 g^is, 
 
 iris. 
 
 annalis ' 
 
 usu. plur 
 
 fascis. 
 
 is, 
 
 axis. 
 
 is. 
 
 funis. 
 
 IS, 
 
 ensis- 
 
 Js, 
 
 bread, 
 a fish. 
 hair. 
 Qn end. 
 fire, 
 a stone 
 dust, 
 ashes. 
 a circle. 
 a river, 
 a conduit, 
 blood. 
 
 a finger- or toe-nail. 
 a dot-mouse. 
 .), a year-book. 
 a bundle, 
 an axle, 
 a rope. 
 a sword. 
 
 IMasculine are trddux, cdh'x, 
 Plioeriix too, as well hq fornix. 
 
 tradux, ucis, 
 calix, icis, 
 j)hoenix, icis, 
 fornix, icis, 
 
 a vine-branch. 
 a cup. 
 
 a fabulous bird, 
 an arch. 
 
 The Neuter Nouns which end 
 in as 
 
 Are Vds {vdsis), fas and nljfds. 
 
 adamas, antis, a diamond. 
 vjls, vasis, a vessel. 
 
 fas (indecl.), permitted by heaven . 
 ngfas (indecl.), not permitted by 
 
 heaven. 
 
 Fascis, axis, funis, ensis. 
 Fastis, vectis, vomis, mensis. 
 Vermis, t orris, cUcHmis, 
 Post is, follis, mugflis, 
 Cassis, caulis, callis, coll/s, 
 Sentis, torquis, penis, pollis. 
 
 fustis, 
 vectis, 
 vomis 
 
 iS, 
 
 is. 
 
 a cudgel, 
 a lever. 
 
 , (more freq.l , , . 
 vomer) vis, P ^^^'^^^^^«'-^- 
 
 mensis, 
 vermis, 
 torris. 
 
 IS, 
 
 is, 
 is. 
 
 a month. 
 a worm, 
 a firebrand. 
 
 ciictimis, is, and Sris, a cucumber. 
 postis, is, a doorpost. 
 
 follis. 
 
 IS, 
 
 a pair of bellows. 
 
 mugllis(usu.raugil), a mullet. 
 cassis (plur. ium), a net. 
 caulis, is, a stalk. 
 
 callis, is, a path. 
 
 collis, is, a hill. 
 
 sentis, is, a bramble. 
 
 torquis (also es), is, a chain for the 
 pSnis, is, a tail. [tierk. 
 
 pollis, Inis, fine flour, meal. 
 
 f2 
 
100 
 
 GENDERS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 § U6, 
 
 4. Ill fl preceded by a consonant ! 
 Masculine are pons and fu7is. 
 Hydrops, torrens, gryps, & mom. 
 
 Adeps, rudeiis, drieiis, 
 Deiis and trldcns, occidcns. 
 
 pons, 
 
 tis, 
 
 a bridge. 
 
 adeps, 
 
 Ypis, 
 
 fat. 
 
 fons, 
 
 tis, 
 
 a fountaiTk 
 
 rtidens, 
 
 entis. 
 
 a cable. 
 
 hydrops, 
 torreus. 
 
 6pis 
 tis. 
 
 dropsy, 
 a torrent 
 
 6riens, 
 dens, 
 
 tis, 
 tis, 
 
 the east, 
 a tooth. 
 
 gnT^j 
 
 gryphis. 
 
 a griffin. 
 
 tildens. 
 
 tis. 
 
 a trident 
 
 n.ons, 
 
 tis, 
 
 a mountain. 
 
 occldens. 
 
 tis. 
 
 tlie west. 
 
 5. In es. 
 
 Masculines which end in es 
 Are verres and dcindccs. 
 
 verres, is, a boar-pij. 
 acinJlcgs, is, a scimitar. 
 
 § 146. Third Principal liule (Neuter) 
 
 A, e, and c, 
 
 L, n, and t, 
 
 Ar, ur, and us, 
 are Neuter, — Examples : Poema, atis, a poem ; m^re, is, the 
 sea ; lac, lactis, milk ; animal, alis, an animal ; nomtn, inis, a 
 name ; caput, capitis, a head ; fulgur, iiris, lightning ; corpus, 
 oris, a Imly^ 
 
 Exceptions, 
 
 1. In 1. 
 
 Masculines in 1 are mUgll, 
 Sol and consul, sal and piigtl. 
 
 mugil, lis, a mullet. 
 sol, sOlis, the swi. 
 consul, lis, a consul. 
 
 sal, sal is, salt, 
 pugil, lis, ff 
 
 boxer. 
 
 2. In n. 
 
 Masculines in n are ren, 
 
 splen, 
 PectSn, lien, attagen. 
 
 ren, renis (usu. in pi.), the kidney, 
 splen, enis, the spleen. 
 
 pectSn, Inis, a comb. 
 li§n, enis, the spleen. 
 attagen, enis, a heathcock. 
 
 \ 
 
 \ • 
 
 § 148. 
 
 GENDEES OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 101 
 
 5. In us. 
 
 The Feminines which end in us 
 Are Juvenilis, vlrtOs, servUus, 
 
 S^ectug, tellus, incus, salug, 
 Add pecus {})Scudis) and pdlus. 
 
 juventus. 
 
 utis, 
 
 youth. 
 
 virtus, 
 
 utis, 
 
 virtue. 
 
 servltus. 
 
 litis. 
 
 slavery. 
 
 senectus. 
 
 utis. 
 
 old-age. 
 
 tellus, 
 
 uris. 
 
 the earth 
 
 incus, tidis, 
 
 saius, utis, 
 
 peciis, udis, 
 
 j)alus, udis. 
 
 an anvil, 
 safety, 
 cattle, 
 a marsh. 
 
 § 147. 
 
 IV. Fourth Declension. 
 Principal Pule, 
 
 Us is Masculine 
 U is Neuter. 
 
 Exceptions, 
 
 Feminines which end in us: I Domus, nurus, socrus, anus, 
 
 Trihus, acus, poH'tcus, \ Mils {idMm) and warms. 
 
 titbus, a tribe (a division of the 
 
 Roman people). 
 Ticus, a needle. 
 porticus a portico, 
 dQmus, a home. 
 iitirus, a daughter-in-law. 
 
 socrus, a mother-in-law, 
 
 anus, an old-woman. 
 
 idus (/>/.), the Ides (a division of the 
 
 Roman month ) . 
 manus, a hand. 
 
 §148. 
 
 Fifth Declension. 
 Rule, 
 
 All are Feminine except dies (meridies), which in the 
 riural is always Masculine, and in the Singular either 
 Masculine or Feminine. 
 
 3. In ur. 
 
 Masculines in ur are furfur, 
 Astur, vultur, fur, and turtur. 
 
 furfur, iiris, bran. 
 astur, iiris, a haxck. 
 vultur, uris, a vulture. 
 
 fiir,uris, a thief. 
 
 turtur, uris, a 
 
 turtle-dove. 
 
 4. In us. 
 
 The Masculines whicli end in us 
 Are Upus {lSp6ris) and mUs. 
 
 ISpus, oris, 
 mus, muris. 
 
 a hare. 
 a mouse. 
 
102 
 
 FIRST CONJUGxVTION. 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 § 14 r. 
 
 Chapter XXIX. — Perfects and Supines 
 
 OF Verbs. 
 
 I. The First Conjugation. 
 
 § 149. The Perfects and the Supines of the First Conju- 
 gation end regiihxrly in avi, atum: as, amo, amavi, amatum, 
 inare, to love. The following are exceptions : — 
 
 Perfect — id. /Sapiwe— turn. 
 
 NoTK. Some of these rerbs have likewise Perfects and 
 atum. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 CrC'po, 
 Cubo, 
 
 3. Domo, 
 
 4. Sono, 
 
 5. Veto, 
 
 6. Tono, 
 
 7. Mico, 
 
 8. Plico, 
 
 9. Frico, 
 10. Sdco, 
 
 crCpui, 
 cilbui, 
 domiii, 
 sonui, 
 vCtiii, 
 tomu, 
 mlcui, 
 fpliciii, 
 iplieuvi, 
 
 fricui. 
 
 Nt5co (regular). 
 
 {Nt5co (i 
 En^co, 
 
 (enCcm, 
 (enCcuvi, 
 
 crPpTtnm, 
 
 cilbitnm, 
 
 domitiim, 
 
 sonitnm, 
 
 iretitum. 
 
 plieitum, 
 pllci'itiim, 
 (iricatum, 
 \frictiira, 
 sectimi, 
 
 enectum, 
 eneeutuiii. 
 
 crepare, 
 
 cilbarc, 
 
 douiurc, 
 
 sonare, 
 
 vetaie, 
 
 tOnare, 
 
 micare, 
 
 plieare, 
 
 frtcare, 
 sCcarc, 
 
 enCcJirc» 
 
 Supines in avi, 
 
 to creak, 
 to lie. 
 to tame, 
 to sound, 
 to forbid, 
 to thunder. 
 to glitter. 
 
 to fold. 
 
 to rub. 
 to cut. 
 
 to kill. 
 
 Remarks and Compound Verbs. 
 
 Obs. Only those compound rerbs are inserted -which differ fVom the simple 
 verbs. 
 
 1. Discr^pos discT^pui, discr^pTtmn, 
 discrepuvi, discrepatum, 
 Increpo, incr^pui, increpttum, 
 increpari, increpatum. 
 
 But the forms in uri and dtum are rare. 
 
 discrfp5re, to differ. 
 increpare, to chide. 
 
 2. Ciibo. Some of the componnds are of the Third Conjugation : 
 
 accumbo, aecdbui, accQbltum, accnmb«?re, to recline at tabic. 
 
 In like manner ineumbo, lie or lean vpon ; procumbo, lie down ; succumbo. 
 He or fall under ; occumbo (supply mortem), die^ &c. 
 
 4. Sdno. Future Part. sSniltunis. 
 7. emtco, cmtcui, cmtcatum, 
 
 dimico, dluiicuvi, dlmlcutum. 
 
 omlcSre, 
 dlmlcare. 
 
 to spring out, 
 to fight. 
 
 § li)0. 
 
 PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 
 
 103 
 
 8, rUco is used only in composition : 
 
 expHco, cxpltcui, expllcttum, expltcare, to unfold. 
 
 cxpltcavi, expllcatum, 
 
 impHco, impllcui, impllcltum, impUcare, to fold in, entangle, 
 
 implicavi, impllcatum, 
 
 10. Si-co. Future Fart, st^caturus. 
 
 2. Perfect— i (vi)— turn. 
 
 1. Javo, jdvi, jfitum, juvare, to (issist. 
 
 Ihtvatiim, 
 lautum, lavare, to wasli, 
 
 lotum, 
 
 Remarks and Compound Verbs. 
 
 1. Jiivo. Future Part, jiivatunis. 
 
 2. L(ivo. There is also an infinitive lavere of the Third Conjugation. In 
 composition liio, of the Third Conjugation, is used : as, 
 
 abluo, ablui, ablutum, ablu^re, to wash away. 
 
 3. Perfect with JiedupUcation. Supine — turn. 
 
 1. Do, 
 
 2. Sto, 
 
 dCdi, 
 stt'ti, 
 
 datum, 
 statum. 
 
 dare, 
 
 stare, 
 
 to give, 
 to stand. 
 
 Compound Verbs. 
 
 1. Do. In composition with prepositions of two syllables it is the 
 same : as, 
 
 circumdo, circumdt^di, circumdatum, circumdiire, to surround, 
 
 Eut in composition with prepositions of one syllable it is of the Third Con- 
 jugation ; as, 
 
 addo, addidi, additum, addere, to put to, to add. 
 
 See § 159, No. 18. 
 
 2. Sfo. In composition with prepositions of tico syllables it is the 
 same : as, 
 
 circumsto, circumsteti, circumstarc, to surround. 
 
 But in composition with prepositions of one syllable the perfect is stiti : 
 adsto, adstiti, adstare, to stand near. 
 
 II. The Second Conjugation. 
 
 § 1 50. The Perfects and the Supines of the Second Con- 
 jugation end regularly in ui and itum: as, moneo, monui, 
 nioDitiun, monere, to advise. The following are exceptions : 
 
 1 . Doc CO, 
 
 2. Tciieo, 
 
 3. Misceo, 
 
 1. Perfect— ni. Supine — turn. 
 
 docui, doctum, docere, 
 
 teiiui, tentum, t6nere, 
 
 miscui, /"^i^^^". 
 ' l^mistum, 
 
 miseere, 
 
 to teach, 
 to hold. 
 
 to mix. 
 
104 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 4. Torreo, torrui, 
 
 5. Surbeo, |^«'^^"' 
 
 (sorpsi, 
 
 6. Ceuseo, ceiisui. 
 
 tostum, torrere, 
 
 — sorbere, 
 
 censum, censere. 
 
 Compound Verbs. 
 
 rPttnC're, 
 
 2. KJ^ttneo, n^ttnui, r^tentum. 
 
 So also the other comptmnds ©f teneo. 
 
 j rfcensTtum 
 \ rC'censum 
 
 §151. 
 
 to roast, 
 to suck up. 
 toassessjhiuk. 
 
 to hold back. 
 
 6. Recenseo, r^censui, 
 
 n 
 
 r^ccnsere, to ret tew. 
 
 § 151. — 2. Terfect — evi. Supine— ^\MrcL. 
 
 1. Deleo. (lelevi, deletura, delere, to hlot out, destroy. 
 
 2. Fleo, flevi, fletiim, flere, to iceep. 
 
 3. Neo, nevi, netiim, iiere, to spin. 
 M j Pleo only in composition. 
 
 • "iCompleo, coniplevi, completum, complere, to fill vp. 
 Oleo only in composition. 
 
 Aboleo, abolevi, abOlltum, abOlerc, 
 
 adultum, •— 
 
 5. 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4 
 
 5. 
 0. 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 Adoleo, adOlevi, 
 (Adolesco,) 
 P^xuleo exolevi, 
 (Exolescov) 
 Obsoleo, obsolevi, 
 (Obsolesco,) 
 
 to ahol'sh. 
 to groio vp. 
 
 exoletum^ 
 ob solo turn. 
 
 to grow old. 
 
 to grow out of us:. 
 
 To this class may be added : 
 
 C. Cieo, 
 
 Givi, 
 
 citum. 
 
 ciere, 
 
 to stir. 
 
 €. Cieo in composition is either the same, or a verb of the Fourth Con. 
 jugation : 
 
 concieo, concTvi, concttum, concifre, 
 concio, conclvi, concltum, concire, 
 
 But accio, accTvi, accTtum, accTre, to sumoion^ is of the Fourth Conjugation 
 only. Excio has both excltus and excttus. 
 
 ^^' } to 
 
 rouse thoroughly. 
 
 Prandeo, 
 Sedeo, 
 Video, 
 Strideo, 
 
 IMordeo, 
 Pendeo, 
 Spondeo, 
 Tondeo, 
 
 § 152.— 3. Fer/ect—i (di). 
 
 prandi, 
 stMli, 
 vldi, 
 stridi. 
 
 pransum, 
 
 sessum, 
 
 vlanm, 
 
 Supine— Bum. 
 
 prandere, 
 Si'd('re, 
 vTdere, 
 strlderc. 
 
 With Beduplication in tlie Perfect Tenses. 
 mOmordi, morsum, mordere, 
 
 p(?pendi, pensum, pcndiTo, 
 
 spopondi, sponsum, spondero, 
 
 tutondi, tonsum, toudcre, 
 
 PiEMARKS AND COMrOUND VERliS. 
 
 to hrealfast. 
 to sit. 
 to see. 
 to creak. 
 
 to bite, 
 to hang, 
 to promise. 
 to shear. 
 
 1. Prnnrfro. The Participle pransus has an active meaning : one nho has 
 hrettkfasted. § 119, Obs. 
 
 2. Si^deo in composition with prepositions of two syllables is the same : 
 
 circumsiMco, circumsCdi, circumsessum, circumsedcre, to sit around. 
 
 > 
 
 I 
 
 § 156. 
 
 PEPiFECTS AND SUPINES. 
 
 lO.J 
 
 But with prepositions of one syllable the first e of the stem becomes i in 
 the imperfect tenses : as, 
 
 assldeo, assedi, assessum, assldere, to sit by. 
 
 5, 6, 7, 8. In composition the reduplication is dropped : as, 
 admordco, admordi, admorsum, admordcre, to bite at. 
 
 propendco, prOpendi, (propensum), propendere, to hang down. 
 respondeo, respond!, responsum, respondere, to answer. 
 attondeo, attondi, attonsum, attondere, to shear closely. 
 
 1. Citveo, 
 
 2. Faveo, 
 
 3. Foveo, 
 
 4. Moveo, 
 
 5. Voveo, 
 
 Paveo, 
 Ferveo, 
 
 § 153. — 4. Perfect— i (vi). Supine— tvaa.. 
 cavi, cautum, cavere, to guard ones self. 
 
 favi, 
 fovi, 
 movi, 
 vOvi, 
 
 pavi, 
 rfervi, 
 \ferbui. 
 
 fautura, 
 futum, 
 motum, 
 votum, 
 
 favere, 
 fovere, 
 mOvere 
 Tovere, 
 
 Without Supine. 
 
 — pavere, 
 
 — fervere. 
 
 to favour, 
 to cherish 
 to move, 
 to vow. 
 
 to fear, 
 to boil. 
 
 Conniveo. {^^^^]^b 
 
 (^connixi, 
 
 — connivere, to wink. 
 
 Of all verbs ending in -veo the Perfects are formed by lengthening 
 vowels of the Stems. 
 
 1 1. 
 
 Augeo, 
 
 2. 
 
 Indulge 
 
 3. 
 
 Torquec 
 
 4. 
 
 Ardeo, 
 
 5. 
 
 Haereo, 
 
 ^ 6. 
 
 Jilbeo, 
 
 7. 
 
 Maneo, 
 
 8. 
 
 Mulceo, 
 
 9. 
 
 Mulgeo, 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 Rideo, 
 
 V 11. 
 
 Suadeo, 
 
 1 12. 
 
 Tergeo, 
 
 13. 
 
 Algeo, 
 
 14. 
 
 Frlgeo, 
 
 15. 
 
 Fulgeo, 
 
 16. 
 
 Luceo, 
 
 17. 
 
 Lugeo, 
 
 18. 
 
 Turgeo, 
 
 19. 
 
 
 
 Urgeo, 
 
 1. 
 
 Audeo, 
 
 2. 
 
 Gaudeo, 
 
 3. 
 
 Suleo, 
 
 § 154.— 5. Perfect— bI 
 
 auxi, auctum, 
 
 Lidulgeo, indulsi, indultum, 
 
 torsi, tortum, 
 arsi, 
 haesi, 
 jussi. 
 
 Supine — turn and sum. 
 
 arsum, 
 haesum, 
 jussum, 
 mansi, mansum, 
 mulsi/ mulsum, 
 
 mulsi, 
 
 risi, 
 
 suasi, 
 
 tersi, 
 
 alsi, 
 
 frixi, 
 
 fulsi, 
 
 luxi, 
 
 luxi, 
 
 (tursi), 
 
 ursi, 
 
 mulctum, 
 risum, 
 suasum, 
 tersum. 
 
 augere, 
 
 indulgere, 
 
 torquere, 
 
 ardere, 
 
 haerere, 
 
 jubere, 
 
 manere, 
 
 mulcere, 
 
 mulgere, 
 
 ridere, 
 
 suadere, 
 
 tergere, 
 
 algere, 
 
 frigere, 
 
 fulgere, 
 
 iQcere, 
 
 lugere, 
 
 turgere, 
 
 urgere, 
 
 } 
 
 to increase, 
 to indulge, 
 to twist, 
 to blaze. 
 to stick, 
 to order, 
 to remain, 
 to stroke. 
 to milk, 
 to laugh, 
 to advise, 
 to wipe. 
 
 to be cold. 
 
 to shine, 
 to be light, 
 to grieve, 
 to swell, 
 to press. 
 
 § 155. Semi-Deponents or Neuter-Passives. 
 
 ausus sum, — audere, 
 gavisus sum, — gaudere, 
 solltus sum, — sOlere, 
 
 to dare. 
 
 to rejoice. 
 
 to be accustomed. 
 
 § 156. Obs. 1. Many Verbs, chiefly Intransitive, hare regular Perfect Ter.^cs, 
 but no Supines : 
 
 f3 
 
106 
 
 TIIIKD COXJUGATIOX. 
 
 §!: 
 
 >i, 
 
 
 I. 
 
 Arcea, 
 
 arcui, 
 
 arc ere, 
 
 fo Jcpep of. 
 
 2. 
 
 Calleo, 
 
 callui, 
 
 callcre, 
 
 to be skilful. 
 
 3. 
 
 Egeo, 
 
 ?Rui, 
 
 fgere, 
 
 to Kant. 
 
 4. 
 
 Floreo, 
 
 florui. 
 
 florere, 
 
 to flourish. 
 
 5. 
 
 Horreo, 
 
 horrui, 
 
 horrfre, 
 
 to shudder. 
 
 6. 
 
 Lateo, 
 
 l;ltui, 
 
 latere, 
 
 to lie hid. 
 
 7. 
 
 Nlteo, 
 
 nttiii. 
 
 nltere, 
 
 to shine. 
 
 S. 
 
 Oleo, 
 
 61ui, . 
 
 filere, 
 
 to smell. 
 
 9. 
 
 Pateo, 
 
 p;ltui, 
 
 piltere. 
 
 to lie open. 
 
 10. 
 
 Rtgeo, 
 
 »Igui, 
 
 Ttgere, 
 
 to be stiff. 
 
 11. 
 
 snpo, 
 
 sYlui, 
 
 stlere. 
 
 to be silent. 
 
 12. 
 
 StQdeo, 
 
 stddui, 
 
 stfidere, 
 
 to pay attention to. 
 
 13. 
 
 Tlmeo, 
 
 ttniui, 
 
 tlmcre, 
 
 to fear. 
 
 14. 
 
 TTpeo, 
 
 Tlgui, 
 
 TtgCre, 
 
 to thrive. 
 
 15. 
 
 Mreo, 
 
 Ttrui, 
 
 Ttrere, 
 
 to be green. 
 
 has 
 
 the compoT 
 
 jnds coercco, 
 
 to reatrahiy and 
 
 exerceo, to exercise^ 
 
 i 
 
 ¥rith Supines coercitum and exercltum. 
 
 Obs. 2. Many Verbs, chiefly Intransitive, have neither Terfcct Tenses nor 
 Supines : 
 
 1. 
 
 Aveo, 
 
 Jlvcre, 
 
 to desire. 
 
 2. 
 
 Calveo, 
 
 calvere, 
 
 to be bald. 
 
 3. 
 
 Ciineo, 
 
 ciinere, 
 
 to be grey. 
 
 4. 
 
 Flaveo, 
 
 flavfre, 
 
 to be yelleiv. 
 
 5. 
 
 Foeteo, 
 
 foetcre, 
 
 to stink. 
 
 6. 
 
 Ht^beo, 
 
 ht^bcre, 
 
 to be blunt. 
 
 7. 
 
 Huraco, 
 
 humere. 
 
 to be damp. 
 
 8. 
 
 Llveo, 
 
 Uvtre, 
 
 to be livid. 
 
 9. 
 
 iVIaereo, 
 
 maerere. 
 
 to mnurti. 
 
 10. 
 
 Polleo, 
 
 poUere, 
 
 to be powerful 
 
 11. 
 
 Ri^nldeo, 
 
 r?nldere, 
 
 to shine. 
 
 12. 
 
 Scfttco, 
 
 scatore, 
 
 to gush forth. 
 
 13. 
 
 Squaleo, 
 
 squaiere, 
 
 to be dirty. 
 
 III. The Third Conjugatioj^. 
 
 § 157. Verbs of the lliird Conjnp^ation are best classified 
 according to the final consonants of the Stems. 
 
 1. Verbs the Stems of which end in the Lalials B, P. 
 
 (a.) Perfect — si. Supine — tram. 
 
 Note. — B becomes p before s and t. 
 
 I Carpo, 
 
 2. Glubo, 
 
 3. Nil bo, 
 
 4. Repo, 
 
 5. Scalpo, 
 
 6. Scribo, 
 
 7. Serpo, 
 
 ! 
 
 V> 
 
 carjisi, 
 
 carptiim, 
 
 carpf're. 
 
 to phicl:. 
 
 glupsi, 
 
 gluptum, 
 
 glubere, 
 
 to peel. 
 
 iiupsi, 
 
 nuptum, 
 
 nubere, 
 
 to marry. 
 
 repsi, 
 
 reptiim, 
 
 rcpCre, 
 
 to creejt. 
 
 scalpsi, 
 
 scalptum, 
 
 8calp<5re, 
 
 to scratch 
 
 scripsi. 
 
 scriptum, 
 
 BcriV)ere, 
 
 to ipvite. 
 
 serpsi, 
 
 eerptum, 
 
 BerpCre, 
 
 to craivl. 
 
 §158. 
 
 PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 
 
 107 
 
 (b.) Perfect — ui. Supine — turn or itum. 
 8. Rjip-io, rapui, raptum, rapC*re, to seize. 
 
 n ( Cumbo, 
 
 ncumbo, incfibiii, incilbitum, incumbCre, to lie upon. 
 
 10. Stri^po, strt'pui, strepitum, strepere, to make a noise. 
 
 (c.) Perfect— 'L Supine — tum, or wanting. 
 
 11. Cilp-io, cepi, cap turn, capere, to take. 
 
 12. Kuuipo, rfipi, niptum, nimp(5re, to hurst. 
 
 13. Bibo, bibi, — bibere, to drink. 
 
 14. Lambo, Iambi, — lambere, to lick. 
 
 15. Scabo, seabi, — ■ scabdre, to scratch. 
 
 (d.) Perfect— ivi. Supine — itnin, or wanting. 
 IC. Citp-io, ctiplvi, ctipitum, capture, to desire. 
 
 17. Sap-io, {''S^^/^} - sapcre, to taste. 
 
 Remarks and CoMrocrxD Verbs. 
 
 1. Deccrpo, decerpsi, dccerptum, decerpere, to pluck off. 
 
 8. Arrlpio, arrlpui, arreptum, arripere, to snatch. 
 
 9. Cumbo occurs only in compounds. The simple Verb is cMo of the 
 
 First Conjugation. See § 149. 
 11. Acclpio, rdclpio, etc. (see § 206, 1). 
 17. Destpio, — — desTpore, to be foolish. 
 
 § 158. —2. Verbs the Stems of which endin the gutturals 
 
 C, G, H, Q, X. 
 
 (a.) Perfect— %i. , Supine — turn. 
 Note. — Cs, hs, and gs become x. G becomes c before t. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 8. 
 
 5. 
 
 Dice, dixi, 
 
 Duco, duxi, 
 
 Coquo, coxi, 
 
 Cingo, ciuxi, 
 
 (■(Fligp, not used.) 
 \AfflIgo, afflixi, 
 
 dictum, 
 ductum, 
 eoctum, 
 cinctum, 
 
 aflflictum. 
 
 6. Frigo, frixi. 
 
 7 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 15. 
 
 { 
 
 frictum, ) 
 frixum, j 
 junctum, 
 linctum, 
 
 Jungo, junxi, 
 Lingo, *linxi, 
 (Mungo, not used.) 
 
 Eniungo, emunxi, emunctum, 
 
 Plango, planxi, planctuin, 
 
 KCgo, rexi, rectum, 
 
 ("(SpCcio, very seldom used.) 
 
 (Asplc-io, aspexi, aspectum, 
 
 Sugo, Buxi, suctum, 
 
 TGgo, texi, tectum, 
 
 /Tingo, ... ^. , 
 
 tTin<'uo, ^^"^^» tinctum, 
 
 { 
 
 dic6re, 
 ducCre, 
 coqu6re, 
 cingCre, 
 
 aflSigCre 
 
 frIgCre, 
 
 junggre, 
 lingere, 
 
 emunggre, 
 
 planggre, 
 
 rCgCre, 
 
 aspicSre, 
 
 sugCre, 
 
 tSgCre, 
 
 tinggre, 
 
 tinguSre, 
 
 to say. 
 
 to lead, 
 to cook, 
 to surround, 
 to strike, 
 to strike to the 
 ground. 
 
 to parch, to fry. 
 
 to join, 
 to lick. 
 
 to blmc the nose. 
 
 ■o heat. 
 
 to directy rule. 
 
 tc behold, 
 to suck, 
 to cover. 
 
 to dip. 
 
108 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 IG. 
 
 17. 
 
 18. 
 19. 
 
 20. 
 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 
 ( ITnjro, 
 I Uiiguo, 
 
 i ( Stinguo, not used. ; 
 lExstiuguo, exstiiixi, 
 TrJllm, traxi, 
 
 VtJho, vexi, 
 
 ( ( LJlc-io, rery seldom 
 I Allie-io, allexi, 
 Ango, anxi, 
 
 Ningit, niiixit, 
 
 Fingo, finxi, 
 
 24. Mingo, 
 
 25. Pingo, 
 
 26. Striugo, 
 
 minxi, 
 
 pinxi, 
 
 striaxi 
 
 line turn, 
 
 exstinctum, 
 tractum, 
 veotiim, 
 used.) 
 allectum. 
 
 fictum, 
 
 mine turn, 
 
 pictum, 
 
 strictum. 
 
 fungi^ro, 
 \ungut}re, 
 
 exstinguere, 
 
 traliCre, 
 
 vC'iiere, 
 
 allieere, 
 angcTe, 
 ningtTe, 
 fiugere, 
 
 mingdre, 
 pingere, 
 stringt^re, 
 
 § 15S. 
 
 to anoint. 
 
 to extinguish. 
 to drag, 
 to carry. 
 
 to entice. 
 
 to vex. 
 
 to snow. 
 
 to form, to /n- 
 
 vent. 
 to make icatcr. 
 to paint, 
 to grasp. 
 
 § 153. 
 
 27. 
 28. 
 2t». 
 80. 
 31. 
 32. 
 83. 
 34. 
 
 85. 
 
 36. 
 
 37. 
 38. 
 39. 
 40. 
 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 44, 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 48 
 49, 
 
 (h.) Perfect — si. Supine — snm and xnm. 
 
 Mergo, 
 
 Spargo, 
 
 Tergo, 
 
 Flgo, 
 
 Flecto^ 
 
 Necto, 
 
 Pecto, 
 
 Plecto, 
 
 mersi, 
 
 sparsi, 
 
 tersi, 
 
 fixi, 
 
 flexi, 
 
 mersum, 
 
 sparsuni, 
 
 tersum, 
 
 fiximi, 
 
 flexuni, 
 
 nexi (an^-ui\ nexmn, 
 pexi, pexuni, 
 
 plexi 'and-\\i), plexun), 
 
 mergCre, 
 
 spargure, 
 
 tcrgSre, 
 
 figere, 
 
 flecWre, 
 
 nectCre, 
 
 pectCre, 
 
 pleetere, 
 
 to sink, 
 to scatter. 
 to icipe. 
 to fix. 
 to bend, 
 to hind, 
 to comh. 
 to plait. 
 
 (c.) Perfect~i {with Reduplicatioii Supine— sxim and tum. 
 
 Pango, 
 
 Parco, 
 
 Pungo, 
 Tango, 
 Disco, 
 Posco, 
 
 (d.) 
 
 Ago, 
 
 Fac-io, 
 
 Frange, 
 
 Fttg-io, 
 
 leo, 
 
 Jac-io, 
 
 L6go, 
 
 Linquo, 
 
 Vinco, 
 
 p(5pTgi, pactum, 
 
 U)6pt'rci, jparcitum, 
 
 (parsi, iparsuni, 
 
 pQpilgi, punctura, 
 
 t^tlgi, tactum, 
 
 dldlei, — 
 
 poposci, — 
 
 pangCre, 
 
 paretTC, 
 
 pungCre, 
 tangCre, 
 diseere, 
 pose«5re. 
 
 to fix. 
 
 to spare. 
 
 to prick, 
 to touch, 
 to learn, 
 to demaml. 
 
 Perfect— i {with vowel of Stem lengthened). 
 
 feci, 
 
 fregi, 
 
 fugi, 
 
 ici, 
 
 jeci, 
 
 leg'., 
 liqui, 
 
 vici, 
 
 actimi, 
 
 factum, 
 
 fnictum, 
 
 fugitum, 
 
 ictum, 
 
 jaetum, 
 
 lectum, 
 
 (lictmu,) 
 
 victum, 
 
 agCre, 
 
 facCre, 
 
 frangCre, 
 
 fiigere, 
 
 icere, 
 
 jac^re, 
 
 l«5g(5re, 
 
 liiiqu6re, 
 
 viuccre, 
 
 to do. 
 
 to make, to do. 
 
 to break. 
 
 tofiee, tofiij. 
 
 to strike [o. treaty). 
 
 to throw. 
 
 to read. 
 
 to leave. 
 
 to conquer. 
 
 50. Texo, 
 
 51. Fluo, 
 
 52. Struo, 
 
 53. Vivo. 
 
 (c.) Perfect — ui. Supine — turn, 
 texui, textum, texere, 
 
 (/.) Gtdtural Stem disguised. 
 
 fluxi, fluctum, flui^re, 
 Btruxi, struetum, struC're, 
 vixi, victum, viv6re, 
 
 to weave. 
 
 to finw. 
 to pile up. 
 to live. 
 
 11 
 
 PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 
 Remarks and Compound Terus. 
 
 105 
 
 11. Ohs. Re go in composition becomes rtgo, as, 
 
 Arrlgo, arrexi, arrectum, arrig^re, to raise. 
 So al.xo corrYpo, crTgo, &e. Pergo (a contraction of per and rego) and 
 siirgo (a contraction of sub and rego) make 
 
 rergo, perrexi, perrectum, pergr-re, to go straight on. 
 
 Surgo, surrexi, surrectum, surgere, to rise vp. 
 
 12. The other compounds of specie, as consplcio, despYcio, etc., are conju- 
 gated like aspYcio. 
 
 23—26. In fiugo, pingo, stringo the « is a strengthening letter, and the 
 Stem appears in the Supine. 
 
 28. Conspergo, conspersi, conspcrsum, conspergere, to sprinkle. 
 
 31—34. In flecto, tiecfo, pecto, plecto, the t is a strengthening letter and 
 not a part of the Stem. 
 
 35. Compingo, compegi, compactum, comping^re, to fix together. 
 
 2Q,i ^^^T>^^^o , comparsi, comparsum, comparcere, to save. 
 \ (Comperco,) 
 
 37. Compungo, compunxi, compunctum, compungPre, to priak. 
 
 38. Attingo, attigi, attactum, attingCre, to touch, 
 
 and the like. 
 
 41. Ago in composition changes the a into i in uhtgo, udtao extoo 
 siibigo, transJgo: 
 
 Ablgo, abegi, abactum, ribYg^re, to drive auay. 
 
 It preserves the a in perrigo, circumago. In cGgo (a contraction of coa 
 and ago) we have — 
 
 Cogo, coegi, coactum, cogt-re, to drive together, to 
 
 force. 
 
 42. Fiicio in compos, with other verbs and with adverbs remains un- 
 altered : 
 
 Ctliefacio, calffeci, ciilefactum, caleficc^re, to make warm. 
 SatisHicio, satisfcci, satisfactum, satisfacere, to give satisfaction. 
 
 But in compos, with prepositions we have — 
 
 Perficio, perfoci, perfectum, perfYct^re, to complete, 
 and the like : v. § 206, 1. 
 
 Al?o, mellYfYco, I make honey ; and nldlfYco, I build a nest, are of the 
 First Conjugation (v. § 205, Obs.). 
 
 43. Perfringo, pcrfregi, perfractum, perfring^re, to break through. 
 
 46. AbjYcIo, conjicio, dejicio, etc.: v. § 206, 1. 
 
 47. Zl^go preserves the e in allego, perlego, praeli^go, r^hgo : as, 
 
 Allege, allegi, allectum, allfgdre, to choose in add it icn 
 It changes the e into i in colltgo, deligo, eHgo, seltgo: as, 
 
 CoUIgo, collegi, collectum, coUYggre, to collect. 
 The Present- Perfect is different in 
 
 DllYgo, dllexi, dllectum, dTlYgere, to lore. 
 
 IntellTgo, intellexi, intellectum, intellYgere, to ntiderstand. 
 
 ^>gl^go, neglexi, neglectum, negllg^re, to neglect. 
 51—53. In/»o and struo the root isfi'M and strue, the c being dropped 
 m the Imperfect Tenses. In vivo the second v represents a guttural. 
 
no 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 § 150. 
 
 § 109. 
 
 PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 § 159. — 3. Verbs the Stems of which end in the Dentals D, T. 
 
 (a.) Perfect — si. Supine — ttun. 
 Note — D and t are generally dropped before s, but are sometimes changed into s. 
 
 23. 
 
 1. Clamlo, 
 
 2. Diviilo, 
 
 3. Laedo, 
 
 4. Lfido, 
 Plaudo, 
 Rado, 
 Rodo, 
 Triido, 
 
 f. ( Vildo, 
 '• lliivado, 
 
 10. Cedo, 
 
 11. Mitta, 
 
 12. Quat-io, 
 
 5. 
 
 7, 
 
 8. 
 
 claiisi, 
 
 divisi, 
 
 laesi, 
 
 liisi, 
 
 plaiisi, 
 
 rasi, 
 
 rosi, 
 
 trusi, 
 
 invusi, 
 
 cessi, 
 
 misi. 
 
 claiisiim, 
 
 divisiim, 
 
 laesum, 
 
 lusum, 
 
 plausiim, 
 
 rasum, 
 
 rosum, 
 
 trusum, 
 
 invasiim, 
 cessum, 
 missuni, 
 quassuni. 
 
 claiidcre, 
 
 divld^re, 
 
 laedi^re, 
 
 ludere, 
 
 plaudi5re, 
 
 radt^rc, 
 
 r6d(?re, 
 
 trudere, 
 
 vaderc, 
 
 iiivadCTC, 
 
 cedCre, 
 
 mitt(?ro, 
 
 qiiatt^re, 
 
 to shut. 
 
 to divide. 
 
 to striJie^ to injure. 
 
 to play. 
 
 to clap the hands. 
 
 to scrape. 
 
 to gnaw. 
 
 to thrmt. 
 
 to (JO. 
 
 to (JO against* 
 to yield, 
 to send, 
 to shake. 
 
 18. 
 14. 
 15. 
 
 16. 
 
 17. 
 18 
 
 Cado, 
 
 Caedo, 
 Pendo, 
 
 Tendo, 
 Tundo, 
 
 Do in composition. 
 Abdo, a])didi, 
 Addo, addidi. 
 
 (6.) Perfect icith the 
 
 cCcIdi, casum, 
 c6cidi, caesum, 
 pCpendi, peusum, 
 / tcnsum, 
 ( tcntum, 
 jinnsum, 
 (tiisuni, 
 
 tutendi, 
 tiltadi, 
 
 abditum, 
 additiirn. 
 
 Condo, condidi, coudltum, 
 
 10. 
 
 Dedo 
 
 Edo, 
 
 Indo, 
 Perdo, 
 Pnxlo, 
 Reddo 
 
 Subdo, 
 
 Trado, 
 
 Credo, 
 Vendo, 
 Sisto, 
 
 dedidi, 
 
 edidi, 
 
 indidi, 
 perdidi, 
 prodidi, 
 reddidi, 
 
 subdidi, 
 
 trudidi, 
 
 credidi, 
 
 vcndidi, 
 
 stiti, 
 
 deditum, 
 
 cditum, 
 
 indltnm, 
 pcTditiim, 
 pruditimi, 
 reddituni, 
 
 subditiim, 
 
 trudltuni, 
 
 crodltiim, 
 
 venditiira, 
 
 statum. 
 
 Reduplication. 
 
 cildC're, to fall. 
 
 caedCre, to strike. 
 penderc, to hang, to xcei<jh. 
 
 tendere, to stretch. 
 
 tuuderc, to heat. 
 
 to put. 
 
 abdere, toputaicay,tohide. 
 
 addt're, to put to, to add. 
 
 condCre to put together, to 
 huild, hide. 
 
 dedt5re, to put down, to sur- 
 
 render. 
 
 edcrc, to put forth Jo pub- 
 
 lish. 
 
 indere, to put on. 
 
 ptrdore, to ruin, to lose. 
 
 prrMlore, to betray. 
 
 reddCre, to put bade, to re- 
 gtore. 
 
 subdere, to put under, to sub- 
 stitute. 
 
 trud«5re, to put across, to de- 
 
 liver up. 
 
 crcdCre, to believe, trust. 
 
 vend^re, to sell. 
 
 sijjtCre, to cause to stand. 
 
 (c.) Perfect — i. Supine — sum. 
 2Q f^Cando) 
 
 * lAccendo, accendi, accensum, aceondCre, to set on fire. 
 
 21. Ciido, cudi, cusum, ciidere, to hammer. 
 
 22. £do, edi, csum, gdC're, to eat. 
 
 il 
 
 \ 
 
 '(Fcndo not used, 
 Defendo, defendi, defensum, defenderc, 
 
 Oflendo, offendi, offensum, offendCre, 
 
 to striJie.) 
 
 to ward off, to de- 
 fend. 
 
 to strike against, to 
 assault. 
 
 24. 
 
 Fodio, 
 
 fodi, 
 
 fossum. 
 
 fodt^re, 
 
 to din. 
 
 25. 
 
 Fiiudo, 
 
 fudi, 
 
 fusum, 
 
 fundere, 
 
 •7 
 
 to pour. 
 
 26. 
 
 Mando, 
 
 maudi, 
 (rare,;; 
 
 mausum, 
 
 mandGre, 
 
 to chew. 
 
 27. 
 
 Pando, 
 
 pandi, 
 
 fpansum, 
 \passum. 
 
 pandere, 
 
 to spread. 
 
 28. 
 
 Pr(?hendc 
 
 ), prChendj 
 
 I, prehensum, 
 
 prghendSre 
 
 , to grasp. 
 
 20. 
 
 Scando, 
 
 seandi, 
 
 scansum, 
 
 scandere, 
 
 to climb. 
 
 30. 
 
 Strido, 
 ' Strideo, 
 
 stiidi. 
 
 — 
 
 stridCre, 
 
 to creak. 
 
 31. 
 
 Verto, 
 
 verti, 
 
 versum, 
 
 vert«5re, 
 
 to turn. 
 
 32. 
 
 Findo, 
 
 fidi. 
 
 fissum. 
 
 findere, 
 
 to cleave. 
 
 33. 
 
 Scindo, 
 
 scidi, 
 
 scissum, 
 
 scindere, 
 
 to tear. 
 
 34. 
 
 JFrendo, 
 \Frendeo, 
 
 — 
 
 (fressum, 
 \lrcsum, 
 
 (d) Other 1 
 
 frendere, 
 ^^orms. 
 
 to gnash the teeth. 
 
 35. 
 
 MCto, 
 
 messui, 
 
 messura, 
 
 m6t€re, 
 
 to mow. 
 
 36. 
 
 Peto, 
 
 pGtivi or 
 pCtii, 
 
 pGtitum, 
 
 pCt«5re, 
 
 to seek. 
 
 37. 
 
 Sido, 
 
 sedi (rarely — 
 
 sidt're, 
 
 to settle dotcn. 
 
 
 
 sidi), 
 
 
 
 
 38. 
 
 Sterto, 
 
 stertui, 
 
 — 
 
 stertere, 
 
 to snore. 
 
 39. 
 
 Fido, 
 
 fisus sum, 
 
 
 id^re. 
 
 to trust. 
 
 Remarks and Compound Verbs. 
 1. The compounds of claudo change au into «; as concludo, occludo, etc. 
 3. The compounds of laedo change ae into t; as, allTdo, coUldo, etc.: v. 
 § 206, 3. 
 
 C. riaudo in compos. Applando is the same, but the others are like 
 ExplOdo, explosi, explosum, explOdere, to hiss of. 
 
 12. The compounds of quatio change qua into cu; as, 
 
 Conctitio, concussi, concussum, concutere, to shake together. 
 
 13. OccTdo, occTdi, occ'isum, occidcre, to fall dovn, to set, 
 
 and the like. 
 
 14. The compounds of caedo change ae into T, and drop the reduplication; 
 
 as 
 
 OccTdo, occldi, occlsum, occTdere, to slay. 
 
 15. No reduplication in the compounds. 
 
 16. Tendo in compos, generally has only tentum ; hut a few Compounds 
 
 have both tcnsum and tentum : as, 
 
 Extendo, extendi, \ ^^ ^^^^ ' extendere, 
 ' textentum, 
 
 17. No reduplication in the compounds. 
 
 19. The compounds take stitum for statum ; as, 
 
 Subsist©, Bubstiti, substttum, subsistfre, 
 29. Ascendo, ascendi, ascensum, ascend^re, 
 
 to stretch out. 
 
 to halt. 
 
 to climb upt 
 
112 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 § 160. 
 
 § 160. — Verbs the Stems of ichich end in L, M, N, 
 
 
 
 (a.) Perfect — ui. Sup 
 
 hie— itnm or 
 
 turn. 
 
 
 
 illui. 
 
 alitiim or 
 altum, 
 
 alere. 
 
 to nouriah. 
 
 2. 
 
 Colo, 
 
 culiii. 
 
 ciiltimi. 
 
 colere. 
 
 to till. 
 
 o 
 
 Cousulo, 
 
 coiisilUii, 
 
 coii?)iiltiim, 
 
 consillere. 
 
 to ron.<uJt. 
 
 4. 
 
 MOlo. 
 
 molni. 
 
 molltiim, 
 
 inolere, 
 
 to grind. 
 
 5. 
 
 Occulo, 
 
 occfilui. 
 
 occultum, 
 
 oceillere, 
 
 to conceal. 
 
 0. 
 
 Volo, 
 
 voliii. 
 
 — 
 
 velle. 
 
 to tcish. 
 
 7. 
 
 FrCrao, 
 
 fremui, 
 
 frPmitiim, 
 
 fri^mere. 
 
 'to roar. 
 
 8. 
 
 Gemo, 
 
 jremiii, 
 
 ggmitum, 
 
 geinere. 
 
 to groan. 
 
 9. 
 
 Treino, 
 
 tit?miii. 
 
 — 
 
 trC'inere, 
 
 to trend'Ie. 
 
 10. 
 
 Vomo, 
 
 vomui, 
 
 vomltum. 
 
 vumt^re. 
 
 to vomit. 
 
 11. 
 
 Gigno, 
 
 g6mii. 
 
 gign<5re. 
 
 geiiitum. 
 
 to produce. 
 
 
 
 (5.) Terfeet with lieduplication. 
 
 
 12. 
 
 Fallo, 
 
 ftfelli, 
 
 falsnm, 
 
 fallero, 
 
 to deceive. 
 
 13. 
 
 Pello, 
 
 pep 111 i. 
 
 pulsum, 
 
 pellere, 
 
 to drive. 
 
 U. 
 
 Cano, 
 
 cC'Ciui, 
 
 cantura, 
 
 caiit^re. 
 
 to sing. 
 
 
 
 (c.) Perfect— si. , 
 
 Supine — tnm. 
 
 
 15. 
 
 Como, 
 
 compsi. 
 
 comptum. 
 
 comere. 
 
 to adorn. 
 
 IG. 
 
 Demo, 
 
 dempsi, 
 
 demptimi. 
 
 demere, 
 
 to take aivay. 
 
 17. 
 
 Promo, 
 
 prompsi. 
 
 promptiira, 
 
 promt^re. 
 
 to take out. 
 
 18. 
 
 Sumo, 
 
 sumpsi, 
 
 suniptum. 
 
 sumt^re. 
 
 to take up. 
 
 19. 
 
 Temuo, 
 
 tempsi. 
 
 temptum. 
 
 temut^re. 
 
 to despise. 
 
 
 
 
 (d.) Other farms. 
 
 
 20. 
 
 Percello 
 
 perculi. 
 
 perculsum, 
 
 percellerc. 
 
 to strike dmm. 
 
 21. 
 
 Psallo, 
 
 psalli. 
 
 — ^ 
 
 psallere, 
 
 to play on a stringed 
 instrument. 
 
 22. 
 
 Velio, 
 
 vein. 
 
 Till Slim, 
 
 yellere. 
 
 to pluck. 
 
 23. 
 
 Tollo, 
 
 sustali, 
 
 sublatum, 
 
 tollCre, 
 
 to raise up. 
 
 24. 
 
 £mo. 
 
 cmi. 
 
 emptiim. 
 
 emere, 
 
 to buy or take 
 
 25. 
 
 Prt^rao, 
 
 iressi, 
 
 pressum, 
 
 premiere, 
 
 to press. 
 
 2G. 
 
 Lino, 
 
 evi. 
 
 litiim, 
 
 lintire. 
 
 to smear. 
 
 27. 
 
 Sino, 
 
 sivi, 
 
 situm. 
 
 siiiGre, 
 
 to permit. 
 
 
 
 
 Compound Verrs. 
 
 
 
 12. R?fello, r^felli, — 
 
 rffelU^re, 
 
 to refute. 
 
 
 13. ExpcUo, expiili, expulsum, expellfre, 
 
 to drive out. 
 
 
 14. Occtno, occmui, occentum, occTnt'Te, 
 
 to sing against. 
 
 \ 
 
 \n 
 
 i> 
 
 15 — 19. Coino, demo, promo, sumo are compounds of con, de, pro, silbf 
 and cmo. 
 
 § 161. — Verbs the Stems of which end in R. 
 
 cretiim, cem?re, to sift, to divide. 
 
 spretura, spernf re, to despise. 
 stratum, sterii6re, to strew. 
 
 1. 
 
 Cemo, 
 
 crevi. 
 
 2. 
 
 Sperno, 
 
 sprevi. 
 
 3. 
 
 Sterno, 
 
 stravi, 
 
 § 163. 
 
 PERFECTS AND 
 
 SUPINES. 
 
 lU 
 
 4. GCto, 
 
 gessi. 
 
 gestum, 
 
 gCrCre, 
 
 to carry. 
 
 5. Uro, 
 
 ussi, 
 
 ustum, 
 
 urCre, 
 
 to burn. 
 
 6. Curro, 
 
 cilcurri, 
 
 cursum, 
 
 cnrrere, 
 
 to run. 
 
 7. Fero, 
 
 tali. 
 
 latum. 
 
 ferre. 
 
 to bear, carry. 
 
 8. Par-io, 
 
 peperi. 
 
 partum. 
 
 parere, 
 
 to produce. 
 
 9. Quaero, 
 
 quaeslvi, 
 
 quaesitum, 
 
 quaerere, 
 
 to seek. 
 
 10. SCro, 
 
 serui, 
 
 sertmn. 
 
 s(5rere. 
 
 to put in n/ws, to 
 plait. 
 
 11. S6ro, 
 
 sevi. 
 
 satum. 
 
 serdre, 
 
 to sow. 
 
 12. T6ro, 
 
 trivi, 
 
 tritum, 
 
 tCrere, 
 
 to rub. 
 
 13. Verro, 
 
 verri. 
 
 verisum. 
 
 verrCre, 
 
 to sweep. 
 
 Remarks and Compound Verbs 
 
 1 — 3. In cemo, sperno, sterno, the Steins are cer, sper, ster, the n being 
 the strengthening letter of the Imperfect Tenses. See § 106, Obs. 2. 
 
 C. Curro in compos, sometimes retains but generally drops the redupli- 
 cation : as, accurro, accurri, rarely accucurri. 
 
 8. Purio. Flit. Part, piirtturus. 
 
 9. Quaero has the Stem ending in s as •well as r. Hence "we find not 
 only quaeslvi, quaesitum, but also qnacso, quaesumus, / pray, tee 
 pray. See § 124. Quaero in compos, becomes quiro : as, 
 
 ConquTro, eonquIsTvi, conquIsTtum, conquTrdre, to collect. 
 
 162. — Verbs the Stems of which end in S, X, 
 
 to knead. 
 
 1. 
 
 Depso, 
 
 2. 
 
 Pinso, 
 
 3. 
 
 Piso, 
 
 4. 
 
 Viso, 
 
 5. 
 
 Pono, 
 
 0. 
 
 Arcesso, 
 
 7. 
 
 Capesso, 
 
 8. 
 
 Facesso, 
 
 9. 
 
 Lacesso, 
 
 depsui, depstum, 
 
 ("pinsui, (pinsitum, 
 
 \pinsi, (pinsum, 
 — pistum, 
 visi, — 
 
 posui, posltum, 
 arcessivi, arcessitum, arcessSre, 
 capesslvi, eapessitum, capessSre, 
 ftlcessi, ft,cessitum, fa,cess6re, 
 lacessivi, lacessitum, lacess6re. 
 
 Remarks and Compound Verbs. 
 
 depsCre, 
 
 pinsCre, 
 
 pisdrc, 
 vis<5re, 
 ponere, 
 
 to pound. 
 
 to pound. 
 
 to visit. 
 
 to place. 
 
 to send for. 
 
 to take in hand. 
 
 to make, to cause, 
 
 to provoke. 
 
 5. In pono the root is pos, the n being the strengthening tetter of the 
 
 Imperfect Tenses. See § 106, Obs. 2. 
 C — 9. Arcesso, capesso, fiicesso, lacesso are formed respectively from 
 
 arcio (an old verb, the root of which is seen in ct>o), cdpio, facio, liicio. 
 
 There was also an old verb pc^tesso, to seek, from poto. 
 Arcesso sometimes has an Infin. Pass, arcesslri. 
 
 § 1 63. — Verbs the Stems of ichich end in U, V, 
 
 
 
 Perfect — i Sup in e — tarn. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Aeno, 
 
 acui, 
 
 acutum, 
 
 acuere, 
 
 tt sharpen 
 
 2. 
 
 Arguo, 
 
 argui, 
 
 nrgutum. 
 
 argnere. 
 
 to prove. 
 
 3. 
 
 Imbuo, 
 
 imbui. 
 
 imbutnm, 
 
 imbuere. 
 
 to soak. 
 
 4. 
 
 Induo, 
 
 indui. 
 
 indfituin. 
 
 induere, 
 
 to put on. 
 
 5. 
 
 Exuo, 
 
 exui, 
 
 exutum. 
 
 exuere. 
 
 to put oj. 
 
 i 
 
114 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 §164 
 
 § 168. 
 
 PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 
 
 115 
 
 6. 
 
 Minuo, 
 
 miniii, 
 
 minutum. 
 
 mtnut^re, 
 
 to lessen. 
 
 7. 
 
 RQo, 
 
 mi. 
 
 rQtum, 
 
 mere. 
 
 to rush. 
 
 8. 
 
 Spiio, 
 
 spui. 
 
 sputum. 
 
 spuere. 
 
 to gpit. 
 
 9. 
 
 Statuo, 
 
 statui, 
 
 statutum, 
 
 statuCre, 
 
 to set lip. 
 
 10. 
 
 Suo, 
 
 sui. 
 
 sutum. 
 
 8u6re, 
 
 to sew. 
 
 11. 
 
 Tribuo, 
 
 tribiii, 
 
 tributum, 
 
 tribut^re, 
 
 to distribute 
 
 12. 
 
 Lavo, 
 
 lavi. 
 
 (lautum, 
 \lotiim, 
 
 lavt5re, 
 
 to icash. 
 
 13. 
 
 Solvo, 
 
 Bolvi, 
 
 solutum, 
 
 solvCre, 
 
 to loosen. 
 
 14. 
 
 Volvo, 
 
 volvi. 
 
 vOlutimi, 
 
 volvCre, 
 
 to roil. 
 
 15. 
 
 Congruo, 
 
 congrui. 
 
 — 
 
 congruCre, 
 
 to agree. 
 
 16. 
 
 Liio, 
 
 (Nuo, 
 
 lui. 
 
 — 
 
 luere, 
 
 to atone, 
 to nod.) 
 
 17. 
 
 ' Abnuo, 
 
 abnui. 
 
 — 
 
 abnuCre, 
 
 to refuse. 
 
 
 (Annuo, 
 
 annui, 
 
 _ 
 
 annut're, 
 
 to assent. 
 
 18. 
 
 INlCtuo, 
 
 mCtui, 
 
 — 
 
 mgtut^re, 
 
 to fear. 
 
 19. 
 
 Pluit, 
 
 pluit or 
 pliivit. 
 
 "— 
 
 pluOre, 
 
 to rain. 
 
 20. 
 
 Stcrnuo, 
 
 sternui. 
 
 — 
 
 stcmudrc. 
 
 to sneeze. 
 
 
 OU. In Jiuoy itruot vico^ the Stem ends in c or g. 
 
 See § 158. 
 
 
 
 
 Rem.\rks. 
 
 
 7. Jiuo. Put. Part, ruiturus. 
 12. Lavo is also of the First Conjugation. See § 149, 2. 
 16. Zuo. Fut. Part, luiturus. 
 
 § 1G4. — Verhs the Present Tense of ichich ends in SCO. 
 
 Terhs ending in sco are Inceptive, that is, denote the 
 beginning of an action. They are formed from Verbs, 
 Substantives, and Adjectives. See § 194, 2. 
 
 § 1 G5. Inceptives formed from Verbs have the Peifects 
 of the A'erbs from which they are derived, but usually no 
 Supines : as, incrdesco, incalui, incidescere, to grow icarniy 
 from caleo, calui, calere, to he warm. The following Incep- 
 tives are exceptions and have Supines : — 
 
 I. Abulesco, abolevi, abolitum, abolescCre, 
 
 in grow out of 
 use. 
 
 to grow up. 
 
 to groic old. 
 
 to grow toge- 
 ther. 
 
 2. Adolesco, adolevi, adultura, adfilescCre, 
 
 3. ExOlesco, exulevi, exolitum, exulescCre, 
 
 4. C»')aleseo, cCialui, cOalitum, cOalescCre, 
 
 (alo) 
 
 5. ConcQpisco, concupivi, concflpitum, concupiscCre, to desire. 
 
 (cQpio) 
 C. Convalesco, convalui, convalltum, convalescere, to grow strong. 
 '^valeo) 
 
 7. Exardesco, exarsi, exarsum, exardesc6re, totahefire. 
 
 (ardeo) 
 
 8. InvCtt^rasco, invetCravi, inv6t<5ratum, invCtCrascCre, to grow old. 
 
 (invetCro) 
 
 9. Obdormisoo, obdormivi, obdormitura, obdormiscSre, to fall asleep, 
 
 (domiio) 
 
 ) 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 10. RCvivisco, revixi, rCvictum, rCvIviscCre, to come to life 
 
 (vivo) again. 
 
 11. Scisco, scivi, Ecitum, sciscCre, to seek to know, 
 
 (scio) to enact. 
 
 Ohs. Abolesco, adolesco, exolesco are formed from an obsolete verb dleo, 
 to grow. 
 
 § 166. Inceptives formed from Substantives and Adjec- 
 tives have either Perfects in ui and no Supines, or they 
 want both Perfects and Supines : as, 
 
 1. ConsCnesco, consdnui, 
 
 (sCnex) 
 
 2. Ingravesco, - — 
 
 (gravis) 
 
 3. Javenesco, — 
 
 (JLivenis) 
 
 4. Maturesco, muturui, 
 
 (maturus) 
 
 5. Obmutesco, obmutui, 
 
 (mutus) 
 
 consenescCre, 
 
 ingravescere, 
 
 javenescere, 
 
 maturescCre, 
 
 obmiitescCre, 
 
 to grow old. 
 to grow heavy, 
 to groin young, 
 to groio ripe, 
 to grow dumb. 
 
 § 167. The following Verbs in sco are derived from 
 forms no longer in use, and are therefore treated as unde- 
 rived Verbs : 
 
 1. 
 
 Cresco, crovi. 
 
 crC'tum, 
 
 crcscGre, 
 
 to grow. 
 
 2. 
 
 Glisco, — 
 
 
 gliscCre, 
 
 to swell. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hisco, (bio}, — 
 
 — 
 
 hiscore. 
 
 to gape. 
 
 4. 
 
 Nosco, novi. 
 
 no turn. 
 
 nosc^re, 
 
 to learn, to know. 
 
 5. 
 
 Pasco, pavi. 
 
 pastuin. 
 
 pascere. 
 
 to feed. 
 
 0. 
 
 Quiesco, quicvi. 
 
 quietiim, 
 
 quiescere. 
 
 to become quiet. 
 
 
 JSuesco, suevi, 
 
 suetum, 
 
 suesc^re. 
 
 to groio accus' 
 tomed. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 4. Nosco. The Perfect signifies I know ; the Tast-Perfect, I knew. The 
 Stem is gno : in compos, we have 
 
 Agnosco, agnovi, agnUum, agnosciJre, to recognise. 
 Cognosco, cognOvi, cognltum, cognoscere, to learn^ toknoxo. 
 
 IV. The Foctrth Conjugation. 
 
 § 168. In the Fourth Conjugation the Perfect ends 
 regularly in ivi, the Supine in itum: as, audio, audivi, audi- 
 tum, audire, to hear. The following are exceptions : 
 
 1. Farcio, 
 
 2. Fulcio, 
 
 farsi, jfartum, farcire, to cram, 
 
 I (farctura,) 
 fulsi, fultum, fulclre, to prop. 
 
116 
 
 DEPONENTS. 
 
 § 169. 
 
 § 169. 
 
 DEPONENTS. 
 
 117 
 
 f 
 
 ^■■ 
 
 3. Haurio, 
 
 4 Sancio, 
 
 5 Sarcio, 
 G. Sentio, 
 
 7 Saepio, 
 
 8 Vincio, 
 
 9 Eo, 
 
 10. Salio, 
 
 11. Sgjic'lio, 
 12 Venio, 
 
 13. Amicio, 
 
 14. 
 15. 
 
 A pterin, 
 Operio. 
 
 liausi, 
 sanxi, 
 
 sarsi, 
 
 seiisi, 
 
 sacpsi, 
 
 viiixi, 
 
 ivi, 
 
 salui or 
 
 salii, 
 
 S(5pelivi, 
 
 veni, 
 Jamlciii, 
 ( amixi, 
 
 aperui, 
 
 operui. 
 
 liaiistum, 
 (saiicltuin, 
 (sanctum, 
 sartiim, 
 seiisum, 
 saeptiim, 
 vinctiim, 
 itiim, 
 saltu 
 
 sCpiiltum, 
 vt'utum, 
 
 haiirire, 
 
 sancire, 
 
 sarcire, 
 
 sentire, 
 
 saepire, 
 
 vincire, 
 
 ire, 
 
 sal. 
 
 sCpc'lirc, 
 venire, 
 
 to (haw f water). 
 
 to ratify. 
 
 to 'patch, 
 to feel, to think, 
 to fence in. 
 to bind. 
 
 to CfO. 
 
 to leap, 
 
 to bury, 
 to come. 
 
 araictum, amicirc, /<> clothe. 
 
 apertiim, 
 up er turn, 
 
 apc'rire, 
 OpOrlre, 
 
 to open, 
 to cover. 
 
 Compound Verbs. 
 
 1. Farcio takes e in the compounds : as, confercio, r^fercio, etc.: v. 
 
 desultum, desTlIre, to leap down. 
 
 § 206, 1. 
 10. Dcbllio, dcsYlui, 
 
 M 
 
 Y. Deponents. 
 § 109. First Conjugation (all regular). 
 
 XcTE.— The words to which an asterisk is prefixed occur also in the active form. 
 
 Aiixllior, to aid. 
 
 Aversor, to didihe, ovoid %cilh 
 horror. 
 
 Bacchor, to revel as a Bacchanal, 
 
 Calumnior, to cavil. 
 
 Cavillor, to banter. 
 
 Caiiponor, to dtal in retail. 
 
 Causor, to allege. 
 
 Circalor, to form a circle around 
 one. 
 
 Comissor, to revel. 
 ♦Comitor, to accompany (active 
 only in the poets ). 
 
 Coramentor, to reflect upon, dis- 
 pute. 
 
 Contionor, to harangue. 
 *Conflictor, to contend. 
 
 Conor, to attempt. 
 
 Consilior, to advise. 
 
 Consptcor, to get sight of. 
 
 Conteraplor, to contemplate. 
 
 Convicior, to revile. 
 
 Convivor, to feast (conviva). 
 
 Cornicor, to chatter as a crow. 
 
 Criminor, to accuse. 
 
 CuDctor, to delay. 
 
 *Admin!€rilor, to aid. 
 
 Abomlnor, to express abhorrence. 
 
 Adversor, to oppose myself. 
 *Adulor, to Jiatter. 
 
 Aemalor, to rival. 
 *Altercor, to quarrel. 
 
 Xlucinor also alluc. and halluc"), 
 to dote, talk idly. 
 
 Amplexor, to embrace. 
 
 Ancillor, to be a handmaid. 
 
 Apricor, to sun oneself. 
 
 Aquor, to fetch water. 
 
 Arbitror, to think. 
 
 Arcliitector, tobuild (arch i tec tus). 
 
 Argumentor, to argue. 
 
 Argutor, to chatter ^to be argutus). 
 
 Aspemor, to despise. 
 
 Assentor, to agree, Jiatter. 
 
 Astlpfllor, to agree. 
 
 Auctionor, to sell at auction. 
 
 Aucapor, to catch birds (to be 
 auceps.) 
 
 Augflror (angur), ] 
 •Aiisplcor fauspex), ( to practise 
 
 Hariolor (hariolus), [soothsaying. 
 
 \atlciuor (vates), 
 
 
 Depecidor, to pluruler. 
 Despicor, to despise; but dcspl- 
 
 catus is passive, despised. 
 Deversor, to lodge, 
 Digladior, to fight. 
 Dignor, to think loorthy (Cicero 
 
 sometimes uses it as a passive, 
 
 to be thought worthy). 
 Dodignor, to disdain. 
 Dominor, to rule (dominus). 
 *Eliicubror, to produce by dint of 
 
 labour. 
 
 KM 
 
 Epulor, to feast. 
 
 Exsecror, to execrate. 
 ♦Fabrlcor, to fashion. 
 
 Fabillor, coiittibrdor, to talk 
 
 FamQlor, to serve (famulus). 
 *Feneror, to lend at interest, (the 
 active, " to restore witli interest," 
 occurs in Terence ; in later 
 writers the active has the same 
 sense as the deponent;. 
 
 Ferior, to keep holiday. 
 
 Frumentor, to collect corn, 
 
 Frustror, to disappoint. 
 
 Furor, suffuror, to steal. 
 
 Glorior, to boast. 
 
 Graecor, to live in the Greek style, 
 i.e., luxuriously. 
 
 Grassor, to advance, attack 
 
 Gratificor, to comply with. 
 
 Grator and gratCilor, to give thanks, 
 to present gratulations. 
 
 Gravor, to think burdensome; to 
 grudge. 
 
 Helluor, to gluttonise. 
 
 Hortor, to exhort ; adhortor, ex- 
 hortor, dehortor {to dissuade). 
 
 Hospltor, to be a guest ; lodge. 
 
 Imaginor, to imagine. 
 
 Iniitor, to imitate. 
 
 Indignor, to be indignant, spurn. 
 
 Infltior, to deny. 
 
 InsTdior, to plot. 
 
 luterprGtor, to explain {to be an 
 interpres). 
 
 Jacfllor, to throw, dart. 
 
 Jocor, to jest, 
 
 Laetor, to rejoice. 
 
 Lamentor, to lament. 
 
 Latrocinor, to rob. 
 
 Lenoclnor (alicui), to flatter, 
 
 Libidinor, to be voluptuous. 
 
 Licitor, to bid at an auction. 
 
 Liguor, to collect wood. 
 
 Lucror, to gain. 
 
 Luctor, to strive, wrestle (obluctor 
 
 and reluctor, to resist), 
 *Ludificor, to ridicule. 
 Machinor, to devise. 
 INIaterior, to fell timber. 
 *Medicor, to heal. 
 IMdditor, to meditate, 
 INIercor, to buy. 
 ♦Moridior, to repose at noon. 
 Me tor, to measure out. 
 Minor and minitor, to threaten. 
 Miror, to wonder (dOmiror, ud- 
 
 miror). 
 Miseror, commiseror, to pity. 
 ModCror, to restrain, temper, 
 Mudillor, to modulate. 
 Morigeror, to comply. 
 Moror, to delay; trans, and ia- 
 
 trans. (comraoror). 
 Muneror, remuneror (aliquem ali- 
 
 qua re\ to reward. 
 Mutuor, to borrow. 
 N<5gotior, to carry on business. 
 Nidulor, to build a nest. 
 Nugor, to trijie. 
 Nundinor, to deal in buying and 
 
 selling. 
 Odoror, to smell out. 
 Ominor, to prophesy (at)uminor, 
 
 to abominate). 
 OpCror, to bestow labour on. 
 6pinor, to think. 
 Opitulor, to lend help. 
 ♦Oscitor, to yawn. 
 Osculor, to kiss. 
 Otior, to have leisure, 
 Pabalor, to forage. 
 Palor, to wander. 
 *Palpor, to stroke, Jiatter. 
 Parasitor, to act the parasite (para-| 
 
 situs). 
 Patrocinor, to patronize. 
 Percontor, to inquire. 
 Pcregrinor, to dwell as a stranger. 
 Pgriclltor, to try, to be in danger. 
 Philosopher, to philosophize. 
 *Pigneror, to take a pledge, to bind 
 
 by a pledge. 
 Pigror, to be idle (piger). 
 Piscor, to fish. 
 ♦Popttlor, to lay waste. 
 Praedor, to plunder. 
 Praestolor, to wait for (with the 
 dat. or accus.). 
 

 
 118 
 
 DEPONENTS. 
 
 §170. 
 
 § 171. 
 
 Praevartcor, imlh tcith crooked 
 legs, act dishonestly, us a pme- 
 vurieator, that iti, as a false 
 accuser. 
 
 Precor, to pray ; coinprccor, in- 
 voice ; depr«5cor, deprecate , im- 
 preeor, imprecate. 
 
 Proelior, to fight a battle. 
 
 EatiOciiior, to reason. 
 
 KCcordor, to call to mind. 
 
 Refragor, to oppo.<c. 
 
 Rimor, to examine minutely. 
 
 Rixor, to icrangle. 
 
 Rusticor, to live in the country. 
 
 Scitor ami sciseitor, to inquire. 
 
 Scortor, to live wwhastely. 
 
 ScuiTor, to play the buffoon. 
 
 Sector, to follow {i\\Q frequenta- 
 tive of sequor) ; assector, con- 
 sector, insector. 
 
 SennOeinor, to hold discourse. 
 
 Solor, consOlor, to comfort. 
 
 Spatior, exspritior, to walk. 
 
 SptJciilor, to keep a look out. 
 
 Stipillor, to make a bargain ; ad- 
 stipulor, to agree. 
 
 Stomachor, to be indignant. 
 
 Suavior, to kiss. 
 
 Suffrfigor, assent to. 
 
 Suspicor, to suspect. 
 
 Terglversor, to shuffle. 
 
 Testor and testificor, to bear wit- 
 ness. 
 
 Tricor, to make unreasonable dlffl- 
 cutties (tricae). 
 
 Tristor, to be sad. 
 
 Triltlnor, to weigh. 
 
 Tftmultuor, to make uproar. 
 
 Tutor, to defend. 
 
 Urinor, to dip under water i^to void 
 urine is urinani faccro or rtd- 
 dere). 
 
 Viidor, to let go on bail. 
 
 Vagor, to wander. 
 ♦Vellficor, to steer towards (fig. to 
 gain a purpi^e ; witli dat. j. 
 
 Velitor, to skirmish with light 
 troops. 
 
 VcMicror, to venerate. 
 
 Venor, to hunt. 
 
 Yerecundor, to feel shame at doing. 
 
 Versor (properly passive of verso , 
 to dwell, be occupied in; iiver- 
 Bor, conversor, obverjjor. 
 
 VOciferor, to vociferate. 
 
 I 
 
 §170. Second Conjugation, 
 
 1. 
 
 Fateor, 
 
 fassus sum, 
 
 fateri, 
 
 to confess. 
 
 2. 
 
 Liceor, 
 
 licitus sum, 
 
 llceri, 
 
 to bid ( at a sale), 
 
 3. 
 
 Medeor, 
 
 — 
 
 mederi. 
 
 to heal. 
 
 4. 
 
 •jVIereor, 
 
 nierltus sum, 
 
 mCreri, 
 
 to earn, to deserve. 
 
 5. 
 
 Misercor, 
 
 mis(5ritus sum or 
 misertus sura, 
 
 misereri, 
 
 to take pity on. 
 
 G. 
 
 PoUiceor, 
 
 poUlcItus smu, 
 
 pollleeri, 
 
 to promise. 
 
 7. 
 
 Reor, 
 
 ratus sum, 
 
 reri. 
 
 to think. 
 
 8. 
 
 Tueor, 
 
 tuTtus sum. 
 
 tueri. 
 
 to look upon, pro- 
 
 9. 
 
 Vereor, 
 
 vOrltus sum, 
 
 C0M1X)UND 
 
 vCreri, 
 Verls. 
 
 to fear. [ted. 
 
 
 1. Conflfteor, 
 
 confessus sum, 
 
 conftteri, 
 
 to confess. 
 
 
 Proftteor, 
 
 prOfessus sum, 
 
 profttC'ri, 
 
 to a row. 
 
 
 Difnteor, 
 
 — 
 
 difflteri. 
 
 to deny. 
 
 2. PolHceor is a compound of pro and liceor. 
 
 4. Comm?reor, Demfrcor, PrOmercor, to deserve. 
 
 8. Contueor, Intucor, Obtucor, to look upon, to look at. 
 
 9. HJ^y^xQOTf to reverence ; Suhxifreor, to fear slightly. 
 
 I 
 
 DEPONENTS. 
 
 §171. Third Conjugation. 
 
 119 
 
 1. Fruor, 
 
 2. Fungor, 
 
 3. Gradior, 
 
 4. Labor, 
 
 5. Liquor, 
 
 6. Loquor, 
 
 7. Morior, 
 
 8. Nitor, 
 
 9. Patior, 
 
 10. QuCror, 
 
 11. Ringor, 
 
 f(fructus sum,) 
 ifrultus sum, 
 functus sum, 
 gressus smn, 
 lapsus sum, 
 (llquefactus sum,) 
 locutus sum, 
 mortuus sum, 
 r nixus sum, 
 (nisus, 
 passus sum, 
 questus sura. 
 
 12. 
 13. 
 
 14. 
 
 SCquor, 
 Utor, 
 ((Verto) 
 \ RCvertor, 
 ((Plecto) 
 15. <Amplector, 
 I Complector, 
 -^ (Apiscor, 
 ^^' t Adipiscor, 
 
 17. Commlniscor, 
 
 18. Rfmiiiiscor, 
 
 19. Dcfetiscor, 
 
 20. Expergiscor, 
 
 21. Irascor, 
 
 22. Nanciscor 
 28. Nascor, 
 
 24. dSirvTscor, 
 
 25. Paciscor, 
 
 26. Proficiscor, 
 
 27. Uleiscor, 
 
 28. Vescor, 
 
 sCcutus sum, 
 usus sum, 
 
 frui, 
 
 fungi, 
 
 gradi, 
 
 labi, 
 
 liqui, 
 
 loqui, 
 
 mOri, 
 
 niti, 
 
 pati, 
 
 queri, 
 
 riugi, 
 
 s6qui, 
 uti. 
 
 to enjoy. 
 
 to perform, 
 to step, 
 to slip, 
 to melt, 
 to speak, 
 to die. 
 
 to strain. 
 
 to suffer. 
 
 to complain. 
 
 to show the teetht 
 
 to snarl, 
 to follow. 
 to use. 
 
 (rCversus sum% rCverti, to return. 
 
 amplexus sum, 
 complexus sum, 
 aptus sum, 
 adeptus siun, 
 commentus sum, 
 
 defessus sum, 
 experrectus gum, 
 
 nactus sum, 
 natus suni, 
 oblilus sum, 
 pactus sum, 
 
 profectus sum, 
 ultus sum. 
 
 amplecti, ] 
 
 complecti,/ 
 
 apisci, 
 
 adipisci, 
 
 comminisci, 
 
 r^mlnisci, 
 
 def2tisci, 
 
 expergisci, 
 
 irasci, 
 
 nancisci, 
 
 oblivisci, 
 pacisci, 
 
 proflcisci, 
 
 ulcisci, 
 
 vesci, 
 
 to embrace- 
 to obtain, 
 to obtain, 
 to devise, 
 to remember, 
 to grow weary, 
 to wake up. 
 to be angry, 
 to obtain by chance, 
 to be born, 
 to forget. 
 
 to make an agree- 
 ment. 
 
 to set out. 
 
 to avenge. 
 
 to eat. 
 
 Compound Verbs. 
 
 perfrui, to enjoy completely. 
 aggrfdi, to attack. 
 
 perpeti, to endure. 
 
 1. Fruor. Fut. Part, fruiturus. 
 
 Perfruor, perfructus sum, 
 
 3. AggrMior, aggressus sum, 
 
 7. Morior. Fut. Part. mSrtturus. 
 9. Perpttior, perpessus sum, 
 
 19. DefStiscor, from fStisco, to crack, to grow weary. 
 
 20. Expergiscor, from ex and pergo. 
 
 21. Irascor has no Perf. In IrStus sum, lam angry, iratus is an Ad- 
 
 jective. 
 26. Prd/tciscor, from pro and facio. 
 
120 
 
 PErONENTS. 
 
 § 172. 
 
 §130. 
 
 FORMATION OF WORDS 
 
 121 
 
 §172. Fourlh Conjugation. 
 
 FORMATION OF WOEDS. 
 
 1. 
 
 ♦Assentior 
 
 assensus sum. 
 
 assentiri. 
 
 to agree to. 
 
 2. 
 
 Bland ior, 
 
 blaiiditus sum. 
 
 blun<liii 
 
 to flatter 
 
 3. 
 
 Expt'rior, 
 
 expertus sum. 
 
 expC'riri, 
 
 to inj. 
 
 4. 
 
 OppCrior, 
 
 ■ f oppertus sum, 
 1 oppcritus. 
 
 opporiri, 
 
 to wait for. 
 
 5. 
 
 LiiTf^ior, 
 
 lurgitus sum. 
 
 larglri. 
 
 to givehount i fully. 
 
 0. 
 
 !Mentior, 
 
 mentitus sum, 
 
 mentiri. 
 
 to lie. 
 
 
 !Motior, 
 
 mensus sum. 
 
 metiri. 
 
 to measure. 
 
 8. 
 
 Molior, 
 
 molitus 6um, 
 
 moliri. 
 
 to labour. 
 
 a 
 
 Ordior, 
 
 orsua sum. 
 
 ordiri, 
 
 to begin. 
 
 io. 
 
 Orior, 
 
 ortus sum. 
 
 uriri. 
 
 to rise. 
 
 11. 
 
 *Piirtior, 
 
 partltus sum. 
 
 partiri. 
 
 to divide. 
 
 A2. 
 
 ♦Potior, 
 
 pOtitud sum, 
 
 putiri, 
 
 to obtain posses- 
 sion of. 
 
 13. 
 
 *Punior, 
 
 punitus sum. 
 
 puniri, 
 
 to punish. 
 
 14, 
 
 *Sortior, 
 
 sortitus sum, 
 
 sortiri. 
 
 to take by lot 
 
 Remarks and Compound Verbs. 
 
 4. Compeiior, to find out, is used only as a Deponent in the Present. 
 The usual form is comperio, compt^ri, compertum, comperlre. 
 
 10. Orior. The Fut. Pass, is ortturus. The Pres. Ind. follows the 3rd 
 
 Conjugation: 6reris, oritur, ortmur. In the Imperf. Stihj. b )th 
 ftrerer and orlrer are found. The compounds cOorior and exorior, 
 to arise, are conjugated like orior: but adurior, to attack, has 
 lidorlris, adorltur, 
 
 11. Part ior. 
 ♦Dispertior, dispertTtus sum, dispertlri, 
 
 Impertior, impertltus sum, impertiri, 
 
 It. The active form punio is more usual. 
 
 to distribute, 
 to communicate. 
 
 Chapter XXX. — Formation of Words. 
 Derivation of Substantives. 
 
 § 173. Words are either Simple or Compound. 
 § 174. A Simple Word may be either, 
 (1.) A Pure Root, without any addition whatever: as, 
 ad, ab, sub; ne or non; with other indeclinahle words. 
 
 Obs. Some words have become identical with pure roots by the loss of a 
 Suffix properly bclonfring to them : as, feij bear thou ; die, say thou ; 
 flir, a thief; and the like. 
 
 Or (2.) A word derived from a Single Root by the addi- 
 tion of a SuJJix : as, dic-o, dic-tio, dic-ax, from die. 
 
 § 1 75. A Compound Word is formed from two or more 
 roots : as, homicida, a maaslayer, from hom-o, a man, and 
 caed-o, to hill. 
 
 § 170. A Root is always a monosyllable, and expresses 
 an elementary notion. 
 
 § 177. A Suffix is a ter nation added to a root to modify 
 its meaning, but not intelligible by itself: as, the s of the 
 Nominative Case Singular in all Declensions except the 
 First ; the Adjectival terminations -osus, -inus, -ills, etc. 
 
 Obs. For the sake of convenience the term Suffix will hereafter be applied 
 to the terminations Used in the derivation of words, without regard to 
 their inflexion. 
 
 § 178. A Prefix is a syllable placed before the root to 
 modify its meaning : as, ainb-io, to go around. In inflexion 
 a prefix is found only in certain Tenses of Verbs : as, 
 te.tig-i (Root, -tag), mo-mord-i (Root, mord), etc. 
 
 § 179. ThcASVem of a word is that part which remaiiv; after 
 taking away the inflexions : as, agilis (Stem, agili) active ; 
 volens (Stem, volant), willing ; from the Roots ag {act), vol {icill). 
 
 § 180. Some words are formed at once from the Root 
 simply by adding the inflexional terminations. These are 
 called Primary Words ; and in them the Root and the Stem 
 are the same ; as, 
 
 tlg-o. 
 
 Stem and Root 
 
 AG, 
 
 set in motion, act. 
 
 duc-0, dux (duc-s), 
 
 »» 
 
 
 DUG, 
 
 lead. 
 
 rCg-o, rex Creg-s\ 
 
 »« 
 
 
 REG, 
 
 rule. 
 
 lego, lex (leg-s). 
 
 »> 
 
 
 LEG, 
 
 read. 
 
 pes, pCd-is, 
 
 *• 
 
 
 TED, 
 
 the foot. 
 
 Bui, solis. 
 
 n 
 
 
 SOL, 
 
 the sun. 
 
 sal, sails, 
 
 •» 
 
 
 SAL, 
 
 salt. 
 
 Q 
 
 i 
 
122 
 
 DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 §181. 
 
 §182 
 
 DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 123 
 
 § 181. I. Substantives derived from Verbs. 
 
 Substantives are derived from A^erbs by the addition of 
 the following Suffixes - 
 
 1. or (m.) expresses the action or condition of the verb as an 
 abstract substantive : as. 
 
 am-or, 
 
 love^ 
 
 from amo 
 
 clam-or. 
 
 a shout f 
 
 „ clamo 
 
 eal-or. 
 
 warmth. 
 
 „ caleo 
 
 tim-or. 
 
 fear. 
 
 „ timeo 
 
 ftlv-or. 
 
 favour. 
 
 „ faveo 
 
 fiir-or, 
 
 madness f 
 
 „ faro. 
 
 Obs. VThen the Stem of the Verb enda in a vowel, the vowel is dropped 
 before the Suffix or. 
 
 2. tor (m.) denotes the doer • as. 
 
 ama-tor, 
 audi -tor, 
 monitor, 
 vie -tor, 
 vena-tor, 
 lec-tor, 
 
 a lover, 
 a hearer, 
 an adviser, 
 a conqueror 
 a hunter, 
 a reader. 
 
 from amo 
 audio 
 
 »» 
 
 moneo 
 
 vinco (root vie) 
 
 veuor 
 
 Icfxo. 
 
 
 Most Substantives in tor have a corresponding Feminine 
 Substantive in trix : as, 
 
 victor, victrix, conqueress. 
 
 Venator, venutrix, huntress. 
 
 Obs. The Suffix tor is subject to the same changes that occur m the Supine : 
 as, cursor, a runner, from curro (cursum). 
 
 3. io and tio {Gen. Gnis, /.) denote the action : as, 
 
 obsid-io, a siege, from obsldeo 
 
 obliv-io, forget fulness, „ obliviscor 
 
 contag-io, a touching, contagion, „ contingo, root (con)TAG 
 
 ac-tio, doing, „ ago 
 
 lec-tio, reading, „ ICgo 
 
 scrip-tio, icriting, „ scribo. 
 
 4. tns (Gen. tiis, m.) also denotes the action : as, 
 
 ac-tus, doing, from a«:o 
 
 audl-tus, hearing, 
 
 auc-tus, an increase, 
 
 can-tus, singing, „ cano. 
 
 Obs. The Suffixes tio and tiis undergo the same euphonic changes as occur in 
 the Supine : as, versio and versus from verto ; visio and visus from video. 
 
 5. tura also usually denotes the action : as, 
 
 merca-tura, trading, from mercor 
 
 aper-tOra, an opening, „ apCrio 
 
 cinc-tura, a girding, „ cingo 
 
 junc-tura, a joining, ,, jungo. 
 
 
 audio 
 augeo 
 
 , C. lum (w.) denotes an act or state : as, 
 
 gaud-ium, joy, from gaudeo 
 
 Od-ium, hatred, „ Odi 
 
 incend-ium, a conflagration, „ incendo 
 
 ^ d,ediftc-ium, ^ a building, „ aedifico. 
 
 7. men (Gen. minis, n.) usually denotes an instrument : as, 
 
 flu-men, a river, from fluo 
 
 lu-men, a light, „ luceo 
 
 sola-men a consolation, „ isolor 
 
 teg-men, a covering, „ t6go. 
 
 Obs. The Suffix men has sometimes a Passive force : as, agmen, that tvhich 
 is led, an army marching ; gestumen, that which is carried, etc. 
 
 8, mentum (n.) denotes an instrument : 
 
 doca-mentum, a proof, 
 
 impCdi-mentum, a hindrance, 
 
 mo-mentum, a moving force, 
 
 oma-mentum, an ornament. 
 
 as, 
 
 from doceo 
 „ impgdio 
 moveo 
 orno. 
 
 
 9. biilum, and ciilum («.) (brum and cram after I) also denote an 
 instrument : as. 
 
 a hunting-spear, from venor 
 
 pascor 
 gabemo 
 fCro 
 lavo 
 fulcio 
 veutllo. 
 
 »» 
 » 
 
 vena-bulum, 
 
 pa-bulum, fodder, 
 
 guberna-calum, a rudder, 
 
 fer-calum, a tray, 
 
 lavacrum, a bath, 
 
 fulcrum, a prop, 
 
 ventilabrum, a winnowing-forlc, „ 
 
 Obs. 1. If the verb ends in c or ^ the termination is ulum only : as, 
 jac-iilum, a dart, from jacio 
 
 cing-iilum, a girdle, „ cingo. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes the Suffix biilum signifies a place : as, stS-biilum, a 
 standing-place or stall, from sto (sta-re). 
 
 10. ies (/.) denotes that which is made, or which is the result of 
 an action : as, 
 
 filcies, figure, from ^cio 
 
 effigies, image, „ effingo (root ex-FiG. 
 
 a heap. 
 
 congeries, 
 
 »» 
 
 cougero. 
 
 § 182. II. Substantives derived from Substantives. 
 
 Substantives are derived from Substantives by the ad- 
 dition of the following Suffixes *, 
 
 1. arius (m.) denotes a person engaged in some trade or occu- 
 pation : as, 
 
 argent-arius, a silversmith, Irom argentum 
 stata-arius, a statuary, „ statua 
 
 aer-arius, a coppersmith. 
 
 aea 
 
 8ic-anus, 
 
 a)i assassin. 
 
 „ sica. 
 
 g2 
 
 \ 
 

 avis 
 
 columba 
 aes. 
 
 121 PERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. §182, 
 
 2. arium (n.) denotes tlio place where anything is kept : as. 
 
 arm-arium a cuphmrd, ' from arma, orum 
 
 avi-ariiim, an aviary, 
 
 cwlumb-urium, a dove-cote, 
 aer-arium, a treasury^ 
 
 Obs. drius and drium are properly the Suffixes of Adjectives. See § 1 8 7 , 9. 
 
 3. ina (/.) denotes an employment, and also the place where the 
 
 employment is carried on : as, 
 
 ni6dlc-ina, the liealing art, from medieiis 
 
 offic-iua, a icorlsJiop, ^ „ off icium 
 
 sutr-ina, a shoemaker 8 shop, „ sutor. 
 
 Obs. Officlna is a contraction for optflclna (opus, fiicio). 
 
 Sometimes lia denotes simply the female : as, 
 reg-ina, a queen, from rex 
 
 gall-Ina, a hen, « gallus. 
 
 Obs. Jna is properly a feminine Suffix of Aajcctives. See § 187, 7. 
 
 4. atus ^Gen. iis, m.) and ura ^ f.^, added to Substantives designating 
 public officers, denote the office : as, 
 
 consQl-atus, constdsh'p, from consul 
 
 tribun-atus, tribuneship, „ tribunus 
 
 cens-ura, censorship, „ censor 
 
 praet-iira, praetorship, „ praetor. 
 
 ium ji.) denotes an employment, condition, &c. : as, 
 
 sacerdot-ium, prietithood, from saccrdos (-dotis] 
 
 ministfr-ium, service, „ minister 
 
 ex3ll-ium, exile, „ exsul 
 
 hospit-ium, hospitality, „ hospes (-pitis). 
 
 C. al ^n.) and ar n.) denote a material object : as, 
 
 antm-al, an animal, from anima, life. 
 
 calcur, a spur- „ calx (calc-s\ the heel. 
 
 7. etnm (n.^ affixed to names of trees or plants denotes the place 
 
 wliere they grow in a quantity, and also the trees themselves 
 collectively : as, 
 
 myrt-etum, a myrtle-rjrove, from myrtus 
 
 qiierc-etum, an oak-plantation, „ quereus 
 
 oliv-etum, an olive-yard, „ oliva 
 
 vln-etum, a vineyard, „ vinea. 
 
 8. Ue {Gen. is, n.) affixed to the names of animals denotes a 
 
 place foi them ; as, 
 
 bov-Ue, an ox-stall, from bos, bovis 
 
 6qu-lle, a stahle for horses, „ Cquus 
 
 ov-ile, a sheep-fold, „ ovis. 
 
 Obs, tie is properly a neuter Suffix of Adjectives. See § 187, 4. 
 
 I 
 
 § 183. 
 
 DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 § 183. Diminutives. 
 
 125 
 
 I 
 
 Diminutives denote not only smalhiess^ but also endear- 
 ment y commiseration, or contempt. They follow the gender 
 of the substantives from which they are derived, and are 
 formed by the addition of the following Suffixes : — 
 
 1. ulus, iila, ulum, added to substantives of the First and Second 
 Declensions ; as, 
 
 a little nest, 
 
 a little garden, 
 
 a little river, 
 
 a little table, 
 
 a little wood, 
 
 a little twig, 
 
 a small head, „ capilt 
 
 a small rock, „ saxum 
 
 a small shield, „ sciitum. 
 
 nid-illus, 
 
 hort-Glus, 
 
 riv-illus, 
 
 mens-illa, 
 
 silv-ida, 
 
 virg-ala, 
 
 capit-ilhim, 
 
 sax-uhun, 
 
 scut-illum, 
 
 from nidus 
 hortus 
 rivus 
 mensa 
 silva 
 virga 
 
 2. cuius, ciila, ciilum, added to substantives of the Third, Fourth, 
 and Fifth Declensions : as. 
 
 frater-cillus, 
 
 a little brother. 
 
 from f rater 
 
 iios-culus. 
 
 a little flower. 
 
 »» 
 
 flos 
 
 versi-crdn?. 
 
 a little verse. 
 
 »> 
 
 versus 
 
 mater-cfUa, 
 
 a poor mother. 
 
 »» 
 
 mat or 
 
 navl-cilla. 
 
 a small ship, 
 
 ». 
 
 navis 
 
 avi-cula, 
 
 a small bird. 
 
 »» 
 
 avis 
 
 rc-cula. 
 
 a small matter. 
 
 »» 
 
 res 
 
 corpus -culum, 
 
 a small body, 
 
 »> 
 
 corpus 
 
 munus-cuhim, 
 
 a small present. 
 
 »> 
 
 munus 
 
 reti-calum. 
 
 a little net. 
 
 »> 
 
 rete. 
 
 Ohs. 1. If a vowel precede the Suffixes iilus, 
 
 iila, ilium, they become olus. 
 
 61a, olum : as, 
 
 
 
 
 flli-eius. 
 
 a little son. 
 
 from fTlius 
 
 nialle-olus, 
 
 a small hammer, 
 
 
 malleus 
 
 flli-ola, 
 
 a little daughter, 
 
 
 filia 
 
 iTne-ola, 
 
 a little line, 
 
 
 llnea 
 
 nc^oti-olum. 
 
 a little business, 
 
 
 negotium 
 
 ingfni-olum, 
 
 a little talent, 
 
 
 ingf'nium. 
 
 06s. 2. If the final vowel of the stem of the primitive is preceded by /, n, 
 or r, and in a few other cases, a contraction takes place, and the tcr.. 
 mination of the diminutive becomes elhis, ella, ellum, and sometimes, 
 but rarely, illus, ilia, ilium : as, 
 
 ocellus, 
 
 a little eye. 
 
 from 
 
 ocOlus 
 
 (stem. 
 
 Scfllo) 
 
 nbellus. 
 
 a little book. 
 
 
 liber 
 
 ( » 
 
 libro) 
 
 lapillus. 
 
 a little stone. 
 
 
 lapis 
 
 ( » 
 
 lupid) 
 
 catella. 
 
 a little chain. 
 
 
 catena 
 
 ( » 
 
 catena) 
 
 anguilla, 
 
 a little snake, 
 
 
 anguis 
 
 ( » 
 
 angui) 
 
 sigillum. 
 
 a little figure. 
 
 
 signum 
 
 ( ,. 
 
 signo). 
 
 Obs. 3. If the Stem of the primitive ends in c ov g, t or d, the diminutives 
 are generally formed by adding iilus, iila, iilum : as, 
 
 rcg-tilus, a petty king, from rex (reg-s) 
 
 radlc-ula, a little root, „ radix (radic-s) 
 
126 
 
 DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 § 184.1 
 
 §187. 
 
 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 127 
 
 § 184. Patronymics. 
 
 Patronymics are Greek words, used by the Latin poets, 
 -which designate a person by a name derived from that of 
 his father or ancestor. 
 
 Masculine Patronymics end in : 
 
 1. ides : as, Priam-Ides, a son of Friamus. 
 
 2. ides : as, Atr-ides, a son of Atreus. 
 
 3. ades and lades: as, Aene-ades, a son of Aeneas; Atlant-iades, 
 
 a son of Atlas. 
 
 Obs. Patronymics in Ides (etSrj?) are only formed from Proper Nsuucs in cus 
 (m). 
 
 Feminine Patronymics end in : 
 
 1. is, Gen. idist as, Tantal-is, a daughter of Tantalus. 
 
 2. els, Gen. eidis: as, Nel-eis, o daughter of Xeleus. 
 
 3. las, Gen. ladis : as, Laert-ias, a daughter of Laertes. 
 
 4. ine: as, Neptun-ine, a daughter of Neptunus. 
 
 5. one : as, Acrlsi-one, a daughter of Acrlsius. 
 
 § 185. III. Substantives derived fro:m Adjectives. 
 
 Substantives derived from Adjectives denote a quality 
 or state, and have the following Suffixes : — 
 
 1. la (/.) : as, 
 
 / 
 
 r» 
 
 grat-ia. 
 
 favour. 
 
 from gratug 
 
 insan-ia, 
 
 madness. 
 
 „ insanus 
 
 mis&r-ia. 
 
 icfetchedness. 
 
 „ miser 
 
 prudent-ia, 
 
 'prudence. 
 
 „ prudens. 
 
 tia (/.) : as. 
 
 
 
 laetl-tia. 
 
 joy. 
 
 from laetus 
 
 justl-tia. 
 
 justice. 
 
 „ Justus 
 
 moll I- tia. 
 
 softness. 
 
 „ mollis 
 
 pigri-tia. 
 
 sloth. 
 
 M piger. 
 
 ta8(Gen. tatis,/.) 
 
 as, 
 
 
 boni-tas. 
 
 goodness. 
 
 from bonus 
 
 verl-tas. 
 
 truth. 
 
 „ verus 
 
 crudell-tas. 
 
 cruelty. 
 
 „ crudelis 
 
 atroci-tas. 
 
 fierceness. 
 
 „ atrox. 
 
 tudo {Gen. tudlnis. 
 
 /.) : as. 
 
 
 altl-tudo. 
 
 height. 
 
 from altus 
 
 aegrl-tudo, 
 
 sickness. 
 
 „ aeger 
 
 forti-tudo. 
 
 bravery. 
 
 „ fortis 
 
 sTmlll-tudo, 
 
 liheness. 
 
 „ sTmllis. 
 
 monla (f.) i as. 
 
 
 
 sanctl-mcmia, sandity. 
 
 from sanctus 
 
 castl-munia, 
 
 purify. 
 
 „ castus 
 
 acrl-monia 
 
 sltarpness. 
 
 „ acer. 
 
 i < 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 Chapter XXXI. — Derivation of Adjectives. 
 § 186. I. Adjectives derived from Verbs. 
 
 Adjectives are derived from Verbs by the addition of the 
 following Suffixes : 
 
 1. bundus, intensifying the meaning of tbe imperfect participle. 
 
 See § 110, 3. 
 
 2. idus denotes the quality expressed by a verb : as, 
 
 frig-Idus, 
 mad-idus, 
 tim-idus, 
 val-Idus, 
 
 cold, 
 
 icet, 
 
 fearful, 
 
 strong. 
 
 from frlgeo 
 madeo 
 timeo 
 valeo. 
 
 >> 
 
 note the possibility of a thing in a passive 
 
 3. His and bills 
 
 sense : as, 
 
 doc-His, 
 
 fac-ilis, 
 
 ama-bilis, 
 
 mo-bilis, 
 
 ( = m5vi-bilis) 
 
 4. ax dcHotes a pro nsity, and generally a faulty one : as, 
 aud-ax, daring, from audeo 
 
 teachable, 
 doable {easy), 
 loveable, 
 moveable. 
 
 from doceo 
 „ t^cio 
 „ amo 
 „ moveo. 
 
 f» 
 
 6d-ax, gluttonous, 
 
 I6qu-ax, talkative, ,. 
 
 vor-ax, voracious, „ 
 
 Obs. The following Suffixes are less common : 
 
 1. Cundus: as, Ira-cundus, angry, 
 
 fa-cundus, eloquetit 
 
 2. ulus: as, qu^r-iilus, querulous. 
 
 edo 
 
 loquor 
 voro. 
 
 from Tra-scor 
 furi 
 qu6ror. 
 
 »» 
 
 § 187. II. Adjectives derived from Substantives. 
 
 Adjectives are derived from Substantives by the addition 
 of the following Suffixes : — 
 
 1. eus denotes the material, and sometimes, but rarely, re- 
 semblance : as, 
 
 golden, 
 wooden, 
 pitchy, 
 maidenlike. 
 
 aur-eus, 
 lign-eus, 
 ptc-eus 
 virgln-eus. 
 
 from aurum 
 „ lignum ^ 
 „ pix, picis 
 „ virgo, -Inis. 
 
 2. icius or itlus denotes the material, or relation to something : as, 
 latCr-icius, made of lyricks, from later 
 
 tribun-lcius, relating to a tribune, „ tribfmua 
 aedil-icius, relating to an aedile, „ acdilis. 
 
 Obs. 1. acens has the same meaning, but is rare : as, argill-uceus, mode 
 of clay, from argUla. 
 
 Obs. 2. Adjectives in icltLS derived from the Perfect Tart, or Supine have 
 the » long, and denote the way in which a thing originates, and hence its 
 kind : as, commentlcius, feigned. 
 
128 PEIIIVATTOX OF ADJECTIYE>J. § ISt 
 
 3. icns denotes belonging or relating to a thing : as, 
 
 bell-!cii3, relating to war, from helium 
 
 civ-Icii?', rehftfng to a citizen, „ eivis 
 
 ela^s-icus, relating to a fleet, „ classsis. 
 
 Obs. The following Adjectives in icus have i : 
 uniTcus, friendhj, from 
 
 antTcus, 
 
 posticus, 
 
 aprlcus. 
 
 front, 
 
 hinder^ 
 
 sunny. 
 
 it 
 n 
 
 limo, imor 
 anti^ 
 post, 
 ipcrio (?) 
 
 4. ills has the same meamng : as, 
 
 host-Ills, hostile, 
 
 serv-ilis, slarish, 
 
 puCr-ilis, childish, 
 
 alls has the same meaning : as, 
 
 fat-ill is, fatal, 
 
 reg-alis, kimjhj, 
 
 vit-alis, vital. 
 
 from hostis 
 „ serviis 
 „ puer. 
 
 from fatimi 
 „ rex 
 „ vita. 
 
 Obs. If the last syllable of the substantive is preceded by /, the SuflPx nf 
 the Adjective is aris (comp. § 181, 9) : as, 
 
 pupul-uris, perfninifig to the people, from popQlus 
 
 siiiat-uris, salutary, „ silus, salutis. 
 
 6. ius has the same meaning, and is usually fonued from personal 
 
 names : as, 
 
 patr-iui=i, pertaining to a father, from pater 
 
 soror-ius, pertaining to a sister, „ soror 
 
 orator-ius, pertaining to an orator, „ orator. 
 
 7. inns has the same meaning, and is found especially in deriva- 
 
 tions from the names of animals : as, 
 
 can-Inus, pertaining to a dog, from cJlnis 
 
 t'qu Inus, pertaining to a horse, ,, Cqnns 
 
 dlv-inus, pertaining to the gods. 
 
 >» 
 
 divus. 
 
 S. anus has the same meaning : as, 
 
 urh-anus, pertaining to a cifij, from urbs 
 
 font-anus, j>frfa/?i//<f/ M «. /o»»^a/M, „ fons, fontis 
 
 mont-anus, pertaining to a mountain, ., mons, niontis. 
 
 9. arius has the same meaning • as, 
 
 agr arius, pertaining to land, from tiger 
 
 gr»5g-arius, belonging to a flork, „ grex, gregis 
 
 iGgion-arius, belonging to a legion, „ iCgio. 
 
 Obs. Srius and <lrium are often used as the Suffixes of Substantive's. 
 See § 182. 
 
 10. osus denotes fulness • as, 
 
 lapid-osus, full of stones, 
 p<5rleal-<")sus, full of dangers, 
 auIm-Osus, full of courage. 
 
 from lapis 
 „ peru'rtlnm 
 „ animus. 
 
 y 
 
 ! 
 
 §189. 
 
 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 129 
 
 11. lentus, usually preceded by the vowel tl or o, also denotes ful- 
 ness : as, 
 
 fraud-illentus, full oj deceit, from fraus (fraud-s) 
 
 vi-olentus, full of violence, „ \is 
 
 12. atus, sometimes itus and utuc, denote having something or pro- 
 vided witli something as, 
 
 ala-tus, furnished icitli icings, icinged, from ala 
 tog-atus, „ a toga, „ toga 
 
 aur-Itus, „ ears, „ auris 
 
 corn-utus, „ horns, honied, „ cornu. 
 
 § 188. III. Adjectives deri\t:d from Proper Names. 
 
 Adjectives are derived from Eoman names of men by the 
 Suffix anus or ianus : as, 
 
 j\Iari-anus, 
 Sull-anus, 
 Gracch-anus, 
 Ciceron-ianus, 
 
 from Marius 
 „ Sulla 
 „ Gracchus 
 „ Clc6ro. 
 
 The Suffix inus is rare : as, 
 
 Verr-Inus (punningly), from Verres ^or verres, a hog). 
 
 Obs. From Greek names of men we have the Suffixes eus or ius and 
 Icus: as, 
 
 Eptcur-eus, from EpYcurus 
 
 Aristotf'l-Ius „ Aristoteles 
 
 Piaton-Icus, „ Piato. 
 
 The poets form Adjectives in eus from Eoman names : as, 
 Romal-eus, from Romtilus. 
 
 § 189. Adjectives are formed from the names of towns 
 by the addition of the following Suf&xes : 
 
 1. ensis: as. 
 
 Cann-ensis, 
 
 Com-ensis, 
 
 Sulmon-ensis 
 
 from Cannae 
 „ Comum 
 „ Sulmo (Sulmon-is). 
 
 2. inus, from names of towns in ia and ium : as, 
 
 Amer-Inus, from Am^ria 
 
 Caud-inus, „ Caudium. 
 
 i. 
 
 3. anus, from names of towns in a and ae, and from some in um 
 
 and i as, 
 
 Rom-anus, from Roma 
 
 Theb-anus, „ Thebae 
 
 Tusctil-anus, ,, TuscQlum 
 
 Fund-anus, „ Fundi. 
 
 G 3 
 
130 
 
 DEraVATION OF \T:rBS. 
 
 §190, 
 
 §19^. 
 
 DERIVATION OF VEEBS. 
 
 131 
 
 4. as, Gen. §,tis, chiefly from names of towns in num, but sometimes 
 from those in na and nae : as, 
 
 Arpinus, from Arpinum 
 
 Caixnias, „ Capona 
 
 Fidenas, ., Fidenae. 
 
 Ohs. 1. These Adjectives are also used as Substantives to denote the 
 
 inhabitants. 
 Obs. 2. In Adjectives derived from names of Greek towns the Greek suffixes 
 are retained. The most frequent sutiix is ins as, 
 Corinth-ius, from Corinthus. 
 
 § 190. Sometimes Adjectives in icus arc formed from tlio 
 
 names of people, especially when the latter are used only 
 
 as Substantives : as, 
 
 Gall-Icus, Gallic, from Oallns, a Gaul. 
 
 Arab-icus, Arabic, „ Arabs, an Arab. 
 
 Ohs. The names of countries are usually derived from those of the 
 people : as, Ilispunia, Spain, from Ilispanus. Adjectives in ensis de- 
 rived from such names denote some relation to the country, not to the 
 people : as, exercltus nispuniensis, an army stationed in Spain, not an 
 army consisting of Spaniards ; but, on the other hand, spartum His- 
 panicum is a plant growing in Spain ; similarly Gallicunus from Galltcus. 
 
 Chapter XXXII.— Derivation of Verbs. 
 
 § 191. I. Verbs derived from Substantives -and 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 Derivative Transitive Verbs are usually of the First 
 Conjugation, and are formed from Substantives and Ad- 
 jectives by the addition of the suffixes of the First Con- 
 jugation. They signify to make what the Substantive or 
 Adjective denotes : as, 
 
 matCiro, I mcike ripe, from maturus 
 
 lil)ero, I make free, „ liber 
 
 rOboro, I make strong, I strengthen, „ robClr (robor-is). 
 
 Obs. A few Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are similarly formed : as, , 
 
 flnio, I finish, from finis 
 
 moUio, / soften, „ mollis. 
 
 § 192. Many Deponents of the First Conjugation are 
 foimed in the same way, and signify to be or to provide 
 oneself with what the Substantive or Adjective denotes : as, 
 
 ancillor, I am a maid-servant, from ancilla 
 
 aquor, I fetch water, „ aqua 
 
 laetor, I am joyful, „ laetus 
 
 phflOsopbor, I am a philosopher, „ philosoi)liU3. 
 
 ( 
 
 i' 
 
 f 
 
 §193. Derivative Intransitive Verbs are usually of the 
 Second Conjugation, and are formed in a similar manner 
 from Substantives and Adjectives : as, 
 
 ealveo, 
 albeo. 
 
 / am bald, 
 I am white. 
 
 from calvTis 
 albus. 
 
 *• 
 
 J cry out often. 
 
 from clamo 
 
 I ask ofte7i. 
 
 u rogo 
 
 I threaten often. 
 
 „ minor 
 
 I read often. 
 
 „ l6go, lectnm 
 
 I write often. 
 
 „ scribo, scriptum 
 
 I come often. 
 
 „ v6nio, ventum. 
 
 Obs. Many Verbs of this kind are only found as inceptives (see § 194, 2) : 
 as, duresco (durco), I grow hard, from durus. 
 
 § 194. II. Verbs derived from Verbs. 
 
 1 . Frequentative Verbs express the repetition of an action, 
 and are formed by adding ito to the Stem of the First Con- 
 jugation, and to the Supine of the other Conjugations ; as, 
 
 clam-ito, 
 
 rOg-ito, 
 
 min-itor, 
 
 lect-Ito, 
 
 script-ito, 
 
 vent-ito, 
 
 Obs. Many frequcntatives, especially of the Third Conjugation, are formed 
 at once from the Supines by simply adding the terminations of the 
 Verb : as, 
 
 curso, I run hither and thither, from curro, cursum 
 salto, r dance, „ silio, saltum. 
 
 2. Inceptive Verbs express the beginning of an action, 
 and are formed by adding sco Casco, esco, isco), 3, to the 
 Stems of Substantives and Adjectives as well as of Verbs : 
 as, 
 
 I begin to totter, from labo 
 
 I groic warm, „ cJileo 
 
 I begin to tremble, „ tremo 
 
 I fall asleep, „ dormio 
 
 / grow old, „ s6nex. 
 
 lab-asco, 
 
 cal-esco, 
 
 trCm-isco, 
 
 obdormi-sco, 
 
 86u-esco, 
 
 3. Desiderative Verbs express a desire after a thing, and 
 are formed from the Supine by adding urio, and dropping 
 the um of the termination : as, 
 
 es-tlrio, _ I long to eat, from 6cIo, esmn 
 
 script-urio, / Img to icrite, „ scribo, scriptum. 
 
 Ohs. By analogy is formed Sullatvirio, / long to play the part of Sulla. 
 
 4. Diminutive Verbs express a diminution of the action 
 and end in illo (illare, 1); as, 
 
 cant-illo, 
 8orb-illo, 
 conscrib-illo, 
 
 I warble. 
 
 from canto 
 
 I sip. 
 
 „ Borbeo 
 
 I scribble. 
 
 „ conscribo 
 
] 32 
 
 DEPwIVATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 §19, 
 
 ». 
 
 § 195. Intransitive Yerl3s of the Second Conjugation are 
 sometimes derived from Transitive Verbs of the Third Con- 
 jugation, the hitter signifying a momentar}^ act and the 
 former a state : as, 
 
 jJlcio, jaei?re, to throw, jiiceo, jtlcfro, to lie. 
 
 peiulo, pemlorc, to han<j, to iceigh, pcMuk'0,ptn(lorc, to he hanging. 
 pario, parere, to bring forth, parco, parere, to be visible. 
 
 (caiulo, caiult^re\ \io g^t on fire, candco, caudHrc, to be burning. 
 
 meeiido, mceiidere,j "^ 
 
 Chapter XXXIIL— Derivation of Adverbs. 
 
 § 19(3. Adverbs in § are derived from Adjectives of the 
 First and Second Declensions, or from Perfect Fai-ticiples 
 Passive : as, 
 
 modesto, viodesthj, from modestua 
 
 pulchro, beautifulhj, „ pulchcr 
 
 docte, 
 
 learnedly. 
 
 )i 
 
 doctiis. 
 
 Ohs. 1. From bonus comes bono, from mulus comes millo, both with the 
 final e short. From viilTdus, strong, comes valde. 
 
 Ohs. 2. Some Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions have Adverbs 
 in ter as well as in e : as, 
 
 dure, durttfr, sererehj, 
 
 firme, firmttPr, finnbj, 
 
 gnfive, gnavttt'r, actlccly, 
 
 humane, 7 humuntti^r, courteously, 
 
 largo, larpttor, bounteous! i/, 
 
 luculcnte, : luciilentor, splendidly. 
 From violentus, rehemcnt^ there is only violentSr ; the form vidlens is 
 never used in prose. 
 
 from durus 
 firmus 
 gnfivus 
 humanus 
 largus 
 luciilentua. 
 
 »> 
 
 u 
 
 § 197. Adverbs in 5 are derived from Adjectives of the 
 First and Second Declensions, and from Perfect Participles 
 Passive, and are properly Ablatives Singular : as, 
 
 falso, falsely, from falsiis 
 
 tiito, safely, „ iuiua 
 
 crebro, frequently, „ creber. 
 
 Obs. The form in is rare. From some Adjectives come Adverbs both in 
 e and 6» but with a difference of meaning : as, certo, certainly, and 
 certc, at any rate ; vero, tn tntth, indeed, and verc, truly, 
 
 § 198. Adverbs in ter are formed from Adjectives of the 
 Third Declension : as, 
 
 gra,vi-tt5r, heavily, 
 telici-ter, fortunately. 
 
 from <rrilvis 
 „ tt'lix. 
 
 ) 
 
 §205 
 
 COMPOSITION OF AVORDS. 
 
 1.^8 
 
 
 i 
 
 '♦ 
 
 Obs. If the stem of an Adjective or Tarticiple ends in t, one t is 
 omitted : as, 
 
 siipientcr, v:isely, from sapiens (sSpient-s) . 
 
 § 199. The Neuters Singular of many Adjectives are 
 used as Adverbs : as, 
 
 ftLcile, easily; rc^ccns, lately ; mill turn, much. 
 
 § 200. Adverbs in itiis are derived from Substantives and 
 Adjectives, and denote proceeding from something : as, 
 
 coel-Itils, from heaven, from coclum 
 radic-itas, roni the roots, „ radix (radic-s). 
 
 § 201. Adverbs in tim are formed from Substantives, Ad- 
 jectives, and A^erbs, and denote the way or manner ; as, 
 
 caterva-tim, in troops, from caterva 
 
 priva-tim, as a private person, „ privatus 
 
 stil-tim, immediately, „ sto (stare) 
 
 puuc-tim, icitli the point, „ pungo. 
 
 •§ 202. Adverbs derived from Numerals are given in 
 §§ 72, 7? 
 
 § 203. Adverbs derived from Pronouns are given in 
 § 133. 
 
 •Chapter XXXIV. — Co:mpositton of Words. 
 
 § 204. A Compound Word is formed of two or more 
 roots, 
 
 Ohs. Sometimes a Substantive and Adjective, both of which are declined, 
 or a Genitive and the Substantive on which it depends, ^are written 
 together, but these are not genuine compounds : as, 
 
 respubltca. Gen. ri^Tpubltcue, the commomcealth. 
 
 jusjurandum, 6rrn. jurisjurandi, an oath. 
 
 senatus-consultum, a resolution of the senate. 
 
 Squae-ductus, crater-channel. 
 
 § 205. The first part of a compound word may consist 
 
 of any part of speech ; but a verb is only found in the 
 
 first part, when facio is in the second : as, 
 
 arefilcio, to make dry, 
 
 caleftlcio, to make ivarm. 
 
 liqiiefacio, to cause to melt. 
 
 madeftlcio, to make weL 
 
 pateftlcio, to throw open. 
 
 Ohs. Such apparent compounds as nldtfTco, / bui/d a nest, are rather to be 
 referred to an intermediate Adjective ; as, nTdTftcus, nest-bvilditig. 
 
134 
 
 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 § 20G. 
 
 ( 135 ) 
 
 § 206. A compound verb, as a general rule,^ consists 
 only of a preposition and a verb ; but the vowel of the 
 verb usually undergoes the following changes : — 
 
 1. Sliort a is usually changed into short i before one consonant, 
 but sometimes into sliort e : as, 
 
 cJlpio, to idkey 
 
 rapio, to seize t 
 
 patior, to suffer 
 
 gradior, to icallt, 
 
 Obs. PerJigo, to complete, perphtceo, to please greatly, and facio com- 
 pounded with adverbs, as satisfilcio, to satisfy, are exceptions. 
 
 2. A before two consonants is usually changed into e ; as. 
 
 accTpio • 
 arripio \ 
 perpdtior 
 contrrOdior. 
 
 to plucK; 
 to condemn, 
 to climb, 
 to scatter 
 
 coneerpo 
 condemno 
 conscendo 
 conspergo. 
 
 carpo, 
 diimno, 
 scando, 
 spargo, 
 
 3. A is sometimes changed into u : as, 
 
 salto, to dnnce, insulto -, 
 
 calco, to tread, conculeo 
 
 quatio, to shake, conditio. 
 
 4. Short e is changed into sliort * before one consonant : as, 
 
 C'gC'O, to leant, indigeo 
 
 sedeo, to sit, insideo 
 
 tCneo, to hold, abstineo. 
 
 Ohs. Perlfgo, to read through, praeli^go, to read to others, r«51cgo, to read 
 again, are exceptions. 
 
 5. The diphthong ae becomes long i : as, 
 
 caedo, to cut, occido 
 
 quaero, to seek, iiiquiro 
 
 laedo, to strike, collido. 
 
 6. Tlie diphthong au becomes either o or u, but in one instance 
 i: as, 
 
 plaudo, to clap the hands, explodo 
 
 chiudo, to shut, conclude 
 
 audio, to hear, obedio. 
 
 Obs. The changes -which the prepositions undergo in composition arc 
 mentioned in § 138 
 
 § 207. Substantives and Adjectives in composition are 
 usually connected by the vowel i, or the last syllable of 
 the first word is changed into i: as, 
 
 pedisicquus, a follower on foot, from pes (pCd) and scquor 
 munltlcua, bountiful, „ munus and ftleio 
 
 causldious, an advocate, „ causa and dice 
 
 agricok, a husbandman, „ gaor and c6lo 
 
 fiquililer, a standard-hearer, „ q uila and fOro. 
 
 § 208. The quantify/ of Verbs in composition is the same 
 as that of the simple verbs: as, fero, aif ero ; habeo, pro- 
 hibeo, etc. The only apparent exceptions are mentioned in 
 the Prosody. 
 
 
 I 
 
 PART II. — SYNTAX, 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 § 209. S}Titax treats of the relations of words and sen- 
 tences or parts of sentences to each other. 
 
 Chapter XXXV.— Of Sentences. 
 
 § 210. The elementary parts of a sentence are two : 
 Subject and Predicate. 
 
 The Subject is that whereof something is affirmed or 
 predicated (praedicare, to affirm); the Predicate is that 
 which is affiimed of the Subject. 
 
 Obs. 1. In Grammar, the terms Subject and Predicate are applied to single 
 words ; the remaining words of the sentence being regarded as enJar:je- 
 mcnts of the Subject or Predicate. Thus in the sentence, Alexander 
 Magnus rex Miicedonum erat, Alexander the Great was king of tie 
 Macedonians, Alexander is the Subject, and rex the Predicate ; Mai/niut 
 being an enlargement of the Subject {Alexander), and Macedonum in 
 enlargement of the Predicate [rex). Transitive verbs require an object aa 
 the enlargement of the Predicate : thus in the sentence, Caesar vicit Gallos, 
 Caesar conquered the Gauls, the object Gallos is an enlargement of the 
 predicate vicit. 
 
 Obs. 2. The term Predicate is by an extension of its original meaning 
 applied to sentences which contain a question or a command instead of an 
 affirmation : as, 
 
 Quis credat ? vho ivould believe f Tu ne quaesiSris, inquire not thou : 
 where the Predicates are credat and quaesieris. 
 
 § 211 TfiE Subject. — The Subject of a sentence must be 
 either a Substantive or some word (or words) equivalent 
 to a Substantive : as, 
 
 India mittit 6bur, India sends ivory. — Virg. 
 
 Hos ?go verslctiloa feci, I made these little verses.— Yirg. 
 
 Obs. The Subject is often only indicated by the termination of a Verb, so that 
 a sentence may consist of a single word ; as, viclmus, we have cofiquered ; 
 fuerunt, they have been, have ceased to exist. 
 
 § 212. Hence the Infinitive Mood, being a verbal Sub- 
 stantive, is often the Subject of a sentence : as, 
 
 Juvat vtdere Dorica castra. To see the Doric camp gives joy. — Virg. 
 Fas odisse viros. To hate the men {is) right. — Virg. 
 
 Obs. Any word, or even letter, when spoken of as a word, may become the 
 Subject of a sentence : as, 
 
 Atqne partTctkla conjunctio esse dTcttur connexlva, The particle atque 
 is said to be a connective conjunction, — Cell. 
 
136 
 
 OF SENTENCES. 
 
 §213; 
 
 §218. 
 
 CONCORD AND GOVERNMENT. 
 
 137 
 
 § 21 o. The Predicate. — Tlie Predicate of a sentence may 
 b© a Verb, an Adjective, or another Substantive : as, 
 
 Omnia jani /jen/, All the things will now come to pass. — Ov. 
 Soorfitc's Graeconun siqtientisslmus f Crat), Socrates teas the wisest oj 
 the G reels. — Cic. 
 
 riarmibal Hiimilcaris fllhis (fuit}, Hannibal was the son ofBamilcar. 
 
 Obs. 1. AMien the Verb "to be " is employed to connect Subject and rrcdicate 
 (as in two of the above examples), it is called the Copula (cOpQla, tie or 
 band), 
 
 Obs. 2. Occasionally an Adverb forms the Predicate after the Verb esse : as, 
 b^nff rede est, it is tcell. 
 
 § 214. Apposition. — Sometimes the Subject is enlarged 
 by the addition of another Substantive descriptive of it. 
 The latter Substantive is said to be in Apposition with th(3 
 former, and is put in the same Case, generally in the same 
 number, and, if possible, in the same Gender. 
 
 Themistocles, imperator PersTco bello, Gracciam scrvTtute Hhc'ravit, 
 T7ie)tii.<fofIes, commander in the Persian war^ delivered Greece from 
 bondage. — Cic 
 
 Sct'lerum inventor tHyssos, Tltjsses, contriver of icirked deeds. — Virg. 
 
 Olcae IMtnerva inventrLr, Mtnerva, inventor of the olive. — Vir<^. 
 
 Ut omittam illas omnium doctrinanim inventrices Atlionas, To say 
 nothing of the famous Athens, inventress of every branch of learning. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. Two Substantives never come together in the same case -without Appo- 
 sition, except when a person or place is indicated at once by its name, like 
 Hex Tullius, urbs Ituma : as, 
 
 Copias in campum MardthGna (Greek ace.) deduxerunt, They marched 
 their forces doicn into the plain {of) Marathon. — Nep. 
 
 Ohs. 2. In the case of substantives possessing a twofold form, as magister, 
 magiatra ; nuimter, ministra ; inventor, inrentrix ; and the like, the 
 Masculine form is used in apposition with Masculine Substantives, and the 
 Feminine with Feminines, as in the preceding examples. 
 
 .§ 215. 3^'ben the Substantive in Apposition is not of the 
 same Gender or Number as that to which it refers, the 
 Predicate usually follows the Gender and number of the 
 original subject : ns, 
 
 :Tull:r.la, deltcivJac nostrae ,' n\\\.mxBQVi\\\vci tmim flugitat, Tullia, uy 
 little darling, clamov -^^ '"- your present.— Cic. 
 
 But when the ^substantive in apposition is iirhs, oppidum, 
 clvUas or a similar word, the Predicate is made to agree 
 therewith : as, 
 
 Volsinii, oppidum Tiisconim, concrtmHtum est fnlmine, Volsinii, a 
 town of the Tuscans, ivas consumed by lightning.— Vlin. 
 
 li 
 4 
 
 § 216. Adjectives and Participles can also be used in 
 Apposition; when of course (§ 223), they agree with the 
 Substantives to which they refer in Gender, Number, and 
 Case : as, 
 
 Catillna, nOblli genCre ndfus, fuit magna vi et animi et corporis, 
 Catiline, born of a distinguished family, was possessed of great strength 
 of mind and body. — Sail. 
 
 Artes sunt innumerabiles, ad victum necessdriae, Tliere are innu- 
 merable arts necessary for living. — Cic. 
 
 § 217. Sometimes simple Apposition takes place where in 
 English we sliould use the words " as" or " when : " as, 
 
 Defendi rcmpnbltcam juvcnis, I defended the commonicealth as (or 
 ichen) a young man. -Cic. 
 
 Nemo fCre saltat subrius, ni^i forte insanit, Tlardly any one dances 
 when sober, unless, perchance, he is out of his mind. — Cic. 
 
 06s. But when as denotes something supposed or presumed (e.g. he was 
 taken up as a thief), it must be expressed by tamquain, quasi or ut : and 
 when as denotes a comparison, it must be expressed by ut, sic— tit, tan- 
 quam : as, 
 
 acfro ea, quae nunc usu voniunt, cf'ctnit ilt vates, Cicero predicted, like 
 a prophet, those things ichich are note happening. — Xep. 
 
 Chapter XXXYI.— Concoed and Goveenment. 
 
 § 218. S}Titax may be divided into two parts: Syntax 
 OF Concord and Syntax of Government. 
 
 The Syntax of Concord treats of such agreement or cor- 
 respondence as exists between words related to each other ; 
 Syntax of Government of the modifying influence exerted 
 upon one word by another on which it depends. Thus in 
 the sentence, 
 
 Alexander vicit Darlum, Alexander conquered Darius, 
 
 the Yerb vicit corresponds ("agrees") with the subject 
 Alexander in Number and Person [Syntax of Concord] ; 
 while the Substantive Darium is put in the Accusative 
 Case, on account of its dependence upon the Transitive 
 Verb vicit, by which it is said to be " governed." '^Syntax 
 of Government.] 
 
138 
 
 CONCORD AND GOVERNMENT. 
 
 §2:9. 
 
 § 224. 
 
 CONCORD AND GOVERNMENT. 
 
 139 
 
 First Concord. 
 
 § 219. The Nominative Case and Verh. — A Verb agrees with 
 its Subject or Nominative Case in Number and Person : as, 
 
 Cdnon magnas res gessit^ Conon achieved great exploits. — Nep. 
 
 MaErniis hoc beilo ThSmistocles fuity Themistocles icas great in this 
 tear. — Nep. 
 
 Athenienses omnium civinm suonim potentiam exttmegcebant, TJie 
 Athenians stood in great dread 0/ the predominance of any of their feUcAJO- 
 citizens. — Nep. 
 
 § 220. When two or more Substantives form tbe joint 
 Subject, the Verb is put in the Plural Number : as. 
 
 Castor et Pollux ex Cqiiis pugnare vtsi sunt. Castor and Pollux were 
 seen to fight on horseback. — Cie. 
 
 Si^phax regnumque ejus in potestate Roraanorum erant, Syphax and 
 his hingdom icere in the hands of the Romans. — Liv, 
 
 Vita, mors, divitiae, paupertas, omnes homines vCliCmentissIme per- 
 mffvent. Life, death, riches, poverty, have very great influence upon all 
 people. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. When the Subject consists of two Sinprular Substantives which 
 together form but one idea, the Verb is in the Singular : as, 
 
 S^nutus popQlusque Romanus intelUgit, The senate and people of Rome 
 are (lit. is) axcare. — Cic. 
 
 Tempus n?cessltasque posWat, Time and necessity demand. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes, when there are two or more subjects, the Verb agrees 
 with the nearest and is understood with the rest : as, 
 
 Org^tSrtgis fllia et iinus e filiis captus est. The daughter of Orgetorix 
 and one of his sons was taken prisoner. — Caes. 
 
 Ohs. 3. Occasionally a Plural Verb is used when an Ablative is connected by 
 the Preposition cum with a Nominative Case in the Singular : as, 
 
 Bocchus cum pPdttXbm . . . postremam Hciem Romanorum inradunt, 
 Bocchus along with the infantry^fall (s) upon the rear of the Romans. Sail! 
 
 Obs. 4. When the Subject consists of two Substantives connected by aut, the 
 Verb may be in the Plural as well as the Singular : as. 
 
 Si SocrSites aut AntisthSnes dlc^ret or dlc^rent, If Socrates or Ant is- 
 thenes were to speak, 
 
 § 221. TThen Subjects having a common Predicate are of 
 different Persons, the First is preferred to the Second, and 
 the Second to the Third. For in fact a Subject of the First 
 Person and a Subject of the Second or Third Person are 
 together equivalent to a First Person Plural ( = nos) ; while 
 a Subject of the Second Person and a Subject of the Third 
 Person are together equivalent to a Second Person Plural 
 
 ( = vos) : thus ego et tu, or ego et frater mens, both = nos ; 
 while tu et ille, tu et frater, = vos : as, 
 
 Si tu et Tullia hix nostra valetis, ego et suavissimus CicSro valemus, 
 Jf you and my darling Tidlia ( = ye) are well, so am I and my sweetest 
 Cicero {=■ so are ice). — Cic 
 
 Obs. In Latin the First Person always takes precedence of the Second : as, 
 fgo et rex, 1 and the king. 
 
 § 222. When the Subject is a Collective Substantive 
 (" Noun of Multitude "), or a word implying plurality, the 
 Verb is sometimes put in the Plural, especially in the 
 poets : as, 
 
 Tura fSrant pldcentque novum pia turha Quirinmn, Let the pious 
 people offer incense and propitiate the new {deity) Quirinus. — Ov. 
 
 Desectam segCtem magna vis hdminum simul immissa corbibus 
 fadere, A large body of men was set to work to reap the corn and empty 
 it from baskets into the river. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. 1 . This construction is far less common in Latin than in English, and is 
 rarely used when the Collective Substantive stands quite by itself. In the 
 following passage the Singular and Plural are combined : — . 
 
 \ Pars stiipet innuptae donum exttiale Minervae 
 Et mirantur t^qui mOlem, 
 
 Part are av:e-struck at umcedded Minerva* s fatal offering, and wonder at 
 the massy bulk of the horse. — Virg. 
 
 Obs. 2. A Plural Verb is sometimes used after iitergue, quisque (especially ^ro 
 se quisque), pars — pars (for (ilii — alii), alius — alium, and alter — alterum, 
 since these words contain the idea of plurality : as, 
 
 Eodem die titerque eorum ex castris stativis exercYtum educunt. On the 
 same day both of them lead out the army from the stationary camp. — Caes. 
 
 Missi (sunt) honoratisstmus quisque ex patrtbus. All the most distinguished 
 (lit. every most distiyiguished man) from the fathers were sent. — Liv. 
 
 Second Concord. 
 
 § 223. The Substantive and Adjective. — An Adjective agrees 
 with its Substantive in Gender, Number, and Case : as, 
 
 Jam pauca ^mtrojUgSra regiae 
 Moles rClinquent, 
 Ere long the princely piles loill leave few acres for the plough. — Hor. 
 
 Nee te [silebo]' mStuende certd 
 
 Phoebe sugittd. 
 
 Nor will I hold my peace of thee, Phoebus ; to be dreaded for thine 
 unerring shaft. — Hor. 
 
 Obs. The rule is the same whether the Adjective is used as an Attribute or a 
 Predicate : as, vlr bonus, a good man ; or vir est bonus, the man is good. 
 
 I 
 
 § 22-1:. In like manner, the Perfect Participle used in 
 
140 
 
 COXCORD AND GOVERNMENT. 
 
 §225. 
 
 forming the Perfect Tenses of the Passive Voice, agrees in 
 Gender and Number with the Subject of the Verb : as, 
 
 Omnium assensii comprdhdta ordtio est, The speech was approved Inj 
 the assent of all. — Liv. 
 
 NegJeetum Anxuri praesidium (est), The garrison at Anxur loas not 
 looked after. — Liv. 
 
 § 225. When an Adjective or Participle is predicated of 
 two or more Subjects at once, it is put in the Plural 
 Kiimber. 
 
 (1.) If the Subjects are persons, though of different 
 genders, the Adjective is Masculine : as, 
 
 Filter milii et muter mortiii sunt. My father and mother are dead. 
 — Ter. 
 
 (2.) If the Subjects are things without life, and of different 
 genders, the Adjective is Neuter : as, 
 
 Seeimdao res, liOnores, imperia, victoriae fort tut a sunt, Prosper it ij, 
 honours, places of command, victories are accidental. — Cic. 
 
 Liihor rolnptasque societfite qufulam inter se conjuncta sunt, Labour 
 and oijoijment are linked together by a kind of partnership, — Liv 
 
 Obs. 1. Even if the things are of the same Gender, the Neuter is often used ; 
 as, 
 
 Tra et (ii'ilntia imp^rio potentiura erant, Anger and avarice icere too 
 strong to he controlled. — Liv. 
 
 Oh$. 2. When an Adjective is used attributively of more than one Substan- 
 tive, it usually agrees with the nearest, and is left to be understood with 
 the rest : as, omncs agri et muria, all seas and lands ; or the Adjective 
 is repeated, as, agri omnea omniaque miria. 
 
 § 220. Sometimes the Adjective or Participle of the Pre- 
 dicate follows the sense instead of the gi'ammatical fonn of 
 the Subject : as, 
 
 Dno millia Tyriorum crficibus a^ixi sunt, Twc thousand Tyrians 
 were crucified. — Curt. 
 
 CCqnta eonjurationis virgis caesi ac securi percimi sunt. The heads 
 of the conspiracy were scourged and beheaded. — Liv 
 
 Obs. In both the above examples ihc Masculine of the participle is used 
 because Persons are meant, though the words millia and cfipTta are 
 Neuter. 
 
 § 227. Sometimes a predicative Adjective, instead of 
 agreeing in Gender with the Subject, is put in the Neuter ; 
 where in English we sliould express the word ''thing :" as, 
 Trist" hlpus stabillis. The wolf is a sorry thing in cattle'Stalls.—\hg 
 
 Turpitudo pejus est quani dolor, Disgrace is a worse thing than pain, 
 — Cic. 
 
 I 230. 
 
 CONCORD AND GOVERNMENT. 
 
 141 
 
 Third Concord. 
 
 § 228. TJie Relative and its Antecedent.— n\Q Pelative agrees 
 with its Antecedent in Gender, Number, and I'erson : as. 
 
 Ego, qui to confinno, ipse me non possum, I who am encouraging 
 you, cannot [encourage) myself. — Cic. 
 
 Nullum rmimal, quod sano;uinem habet, sine cordo esse potest, No 
 animal, ichich has blood, can be destitute of a heart.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. The Case of the Relative is determined by its relation to its own clause, 
 which is thus treated as a separate sentence : as, 
 
 Arbores seret dTlTgens agrKcola, qunrum adspiciet baccam ipse nunquam. 
 The industrious husbandman will plant trees, the fruit of uhich he will 
 himself never set eyes on. — Cic. 
 
 IVoTE.— Here the Relative quartim is governed by the Substantive 
 baccam in the Relative sentence. [Genitive of Tossessor, § 2G5.] 
 
 § 229. AVhen the Pelative has for its Predicate a Sub- 
 stantive of different gender from the Antecedent, the 
 Itelative usually agi-ees in gender with the Predicate : as, 
 
 Caesar GompUos pcrvenit, quod ^not qut) est opptdum Boeotiae, 
 Caesar came to Gomphi, u-hich is a town of Boeotia.— Cues. 
 
 Levis est animi, justam glGriam, qui (not quae) est fructus vcrae 
 virtfitis honestissimus, repiidiare, It is characteristic of a worihless mind 
 to despise Just glory, which is the most honourable fruit of true virtue.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. The same construction is used when the Relative is the Subject of a 
 I'assive Verb of naming (§ 232), or the object of an Active one (§ 234) : as, 
 
 Pororutio, qui ipXlogus dlcUur, TJic conclusion of a speech, which is 
 called the epilogue. — Cic. 
 
 Domktlia conjuncta, quas urbes dicimus. Dwelling-houses connected 
 together, which we call cities. — Cic. 
 Obs. 2. The same construction is found in the case of the demonstrative and 
 determinative I'ronouns : as, 
 
 idem velle et idem nolle, ea (not id) demura vifra amlcitia est, To have 
 the same wishes and the same fears, that and nothing short of it is true 
 friendship. — Sail. 
 
 § 230. AVhen the Eelative has for its Antecedent a whole 
 reposition, the latter is treated as a Neuter Substantive, 
 and id quod is generally used instead of quod : as, 
 
 TImoleon, id quod diif icTlius putatur, multo sapiontius tulit sCcundam, 
 qnam adversam Ibrtunam, Timoleon, a thing which is ihou<iht the more 
 dij^cult, bore prosperity much more wisely than adversity. — Ncp. 
 
142 THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 
 
 § 231. 
 
 Chapter XXXTII.— The Xominative Case. 
 
 § 231. The Nominative Case is used to denote the Sub- 
 ject of a Sentence : as, 
 
 Effo reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis, I expelled kings, ye are 
 bringing in despots. — Auct. ad Her. 
 
 See also § 219. 
 
 Obs. Only in the case of the Infinitive Mood, in the Ohriqxia oratio, the Suhject 
 is in the Accusative. 
 
 § 232. The Nominative is also used to denote the Predi- 
 cate after the following Verbs :- 
 
 (1.) Verbs which signify to he or to become: as, sum, ex- 
 isto, fio, cvudo {to issue, turn out) nascor {to be born), etc. 
 
 (2.) Verbs w^hich denote a state or mode of existence: as, 
 muneo (to remain), duro (to endure), etc. 
 
 (3.) Passive Verbs of naming, mahinq, appointing : as, 
 nomrnor, dicor, appellor [also audio, in sense of to be 
 called] ; creor, flo, designor, instituor, etc. 
 
 (4.) Verbs signifving to seem or be thought: as videor, 
 Mbeor, existimor, ducor, etc. : as, 
 
 fl.) Nemo repeute fit iurjmshnus, No one becomes utterhj base all at 
 once. — Juv. '' 
 
 Nemo nascitur dives. No one is lorn rich.—Scn. 
 
 (2.) Mimitionea integrae manebant. The fortifications remained 
 entire, C/aes. 
 
 (3.) Noma Pompllius rex creatus est, Numa Pompilius was made 
 Uing. — tiutr. 
 
 Justltia erj:^a deos religio dicltur. Justice towards the nods is 
 called religion.— Qic. '' 
 
 (4.^ Satis altitiKlo miiri exstrncta vIdGbutur, The height of the wall 
 seemed sn^cienthj raised. — Nep. 
 
 1.1 rebus angiistis 'anwumts et fortis appare, In truing circum- 
 stances, show thyselj courageous and manly.— Hot. 
 
 ^tan^Jr.1 /n f "f.^f 5" "^^'! ^' ^ P^^«°"^l verb, though more frequently 
 translated in English as an impersonal : as, 
 
 M^n^ba7tTi^^^^^^'^ vldentur, It seems that the Alps hate conquered 
 
 § 233. The Nominative is used even after the Infinitive 
 01 the above-mentioned Verbs, when they follow possum, 
 
 H 
 
 §235. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 113 
 
 volo, malo, nolo, cupio; incipio, coepi; dcsino, videor, 
 existimor , and the like : as, 
 
 Bedtus esse slue virtute nemo potest. No one can be happy without 
 virtue. — Cic. 
 
 Cato bonus esse quam vldcri malcbat, Cato preferred being good to 
 seeming so. — Sail. 
 
 Miltiades iion vldebatur posse esse privdtus, Miltiades did not seem 
 to be capable of being a (mere) private citizen. — Nep. 
 
 Desinant nimimn esse tinudi. Let them cease to be {so) excessively 
 fearful. — Cic. 
 
 Cn.M>TER XXXVIII. — TuE Accusative Case. 
 
 1. Accusative of the Object. 
 
 § 234. ITie Accusative denotes the Direct Object of an 
 Action., 
 
 Transitive Verbs of all kinds, both Active and Deponent, 
 govern the Accusative : as, 
 
 Deus mundum aedlficdvit, God built the icorld. — Cic, 
 
 Gloria virtMem tanquam umbra sequitur, Glory follows virtue Vice u 
 shadow. — Cic. 
 
 Nulla ars Xmitdri sollertlam naturae i)otcst, Nc art can imitate the 
 ingenuity of Nature. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. Active Transitive Verhs -which govern the Accusative case are capable 
 of becoming Passives, the object of the Active Verb becoming in the Passive 
 the Nominative of the subject, and the subject of the Active Verb becoming 
 in the Passive the Ablative of the Instrument or Agent : if the Agent is a 
 living being, the Preposition a or ab is prefixed : as, mligister puerum laudat, 
 The master praises the boy, becomes in the Passive, puer a magistro laudu- 
 tur, The boy is praised by the master. 
 
 Obs. 2. But the Verbs which govern any other case can be used in the Passive 
 only impersonally : as, 
 
 Invtdetur praestanti florentique fortunae, £minetU and flourishing 
 fortune is envied. — Cic. (Lit., £tivy is felt by men /or eminetit fortune.) 
 
 Non parcetur labori. Labour shall not be spared. — Cic. (Lit,, There 
 shall be no sparing for labour.) 
 
 The Dative still indicates the Object no less after the Passive than after 
 the Active Verb. 
 
 Obs. 3. The principal apparent exceptions to the Government of an Accusa- 
 tive by Transitive Verbs will be found at § 291. 
 
 § 235. Cognate Accusative. — Intransitive Verbs are some- 
 times followed by an Accusative of cognate or kindied 
 sense to themselves : as, 
 
 Hac nocto miruni somnidvi somnium, This night I dreamt a strange 
 dream. — Plaut. 
 
114 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 § 236 
 
 \enimi\umjusjurandumjurure, To swear a most true oath.—Clc. 
 Obs. The Intransiiire Verb has in such cases a transitive force : thus, to 
 dream a dream =^> hare a dream; to swear an oath = to use or utter 
 an oath. This construction is especially used when an Attributive 
 Adjective is employed. 
 
 § 236. Other intransitive Verbs often govern an Accu- 
 sathe bv virtue of some transitive meaning implied in 
 tliem. This is often the case with those verbs which de- 
 note a state of mind, like lugeo, / mourn, lugeo aliquid, / 
 mourn on account of som'thing ; horreo, / ahudder, horreo aliquid, 
 1 shudder at something^ «&c. : as, 
 
 St<<iii!lm Ariovisti crudelUiltem horrehani. The Sequanl shuddered at 
 the cruelty of Arloclstus. — Cacs. 
 
 Amore Cdtquam di'ptlr'ire. To he dying of love for some one. — Plaut. 
 ContrHmire hastam, To tremble at the lance. — Virg. 
 
 Here horreo, deperco, contremo (strictly intransitive Verbs), 
 involve the transitive meanings, to h\:e, to fear, to desire, 
 respectively. This idiom is most frequent in the poets. 
 
 Ohs. But such Verbs, not bcini? real Tran<Uives, are not used as Personal 
 Passives (§234, Oba. 1) : thus such forms as doleor, horreor, are never 
 found. 
 
 § 237. In like manner Verbs signifying to ta>te of and to 
 smell of are used as Transitives, and govern an Accusative : 
 as, 
 
 Olet umjutnta, lie sucAh of perfumes. — Tor. 
 
 Piacis ipsum mure rcdJlet, The fish tastes of the very sea.— Sen. 
 
 And in a figurative sense : 
 
 Olet peretjrlnum. It has a foreign smell. — Cic. 
 BcdOlet anfiqaitatem, It smachs of antiquity. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Sitio and anhelo arc used in like manner : a=, 
 
 Siinffiunein nostrum sUiebat, He was thirstint; for our Hood. — Cic. 
 Scelus anhelure, To breathe out wickedness. — Cic. 
 
 § 2>8. All Intransitive verbs of motion compounded with 
 the Prepositions circom, per, praster, trans, super, and subter, 
 become Transitives, and govern an Accusative : as, 
 
 TimOtiit-Us Pifldjvmn'sum circumrehens Lricunlam popr.latus est, 
 Timofhens saiUiKj ruiind Feloponnesus, laid icaste Laconia. — Xep. 
 
 Hanulbal Alp^^s cum exercitu transiit, Ilannihal crossed the Alps 
 i^'ith an army. — Xep. 
 
 Obs. Such verbs are regarded as real Transitives, and may therefore become 
 Personal Passives, the object of an Active Verb becoming the subject of the 
 Passive (§234, Obs. 1) : as, 
 
 Rhodanus nonnullis lucis vide transttur, Tlie Rhone is crossed in some 
 places by a furd. — Cues. 
 
 §242. 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 145 
 
 § 230. Many Intransitive verbs of motion compounded 
 with the Prepositions ad and in, and some verbs compounded 
 with ante, con, ex, and prae, become Transitives, and govern 
 an Accusative : as, 
 
 Naves Genuam accessei'iint, Tlie ships reached Genoa. — Liv. • 
 
 Urbem iiivaduut, They fall upon the city. — Virg. 
 
 Xcmluem couveni, / have met no one. — Cic. 
 
 Soci^tdtem coire. To form a partnership. — Cic 
 
 iModnin exccJere, To exceed the limit. — Cic. 
 
 Quantum Galli virtiite cetSros mortUles praesturent, How much the 
 Gauls surpassed the rest of mcuikind in valour. — Liv. 
 
 Nemo eum in amicitia antecessit, no one excelled him in friendship. — 
 Nep. 
 
 Ohs. 1. After Verbs compounded with ex, the Ablative is more common (see 
 § 306) ; and after those comijounded with con, prae, ante, the Dative 
 (§ 292). 
 
 Obs. 2. With many of these verbs the Preposition is very often repeated : as, 
 accedo ad, invddo in, excedo ex, 
 
 § 240. Intransitive verbs of rest (jaceo, sedeo, sto, sisto), 
 compounded with circum, become Transitives, and govern 
 an Accusative : as, 
 
 fiquttes Rrmiani sendtum circumstant, Homan hiights stand around 
 the senate. — Cic. 
 
 § 241 . These five Impersonal Verbs, pudet, it shameth ; 
 taedet, it wearieth ; poenitet, it repenteth ; piget, it grieveth ; and 
 nuseret, it pitieth (affects with jnty) ; take an Accusative of the 
 Person whom the feeling affects. The object of the feeling is 
 put in the Genitive (see § 282) : as 
 
 Me ptget stultitiae mcae, I am vexed at iny folly.— Cic. 
 Timothei post mortem piSprdum jQdieii stti poenttuit. After the death 
 of Timotheus the people repented of their judgment. 
 
 Obs. The Object (or cause) of the feeling is sometimes expressed by an Infini- 
 tive mood or clause : as, 
 
 Non me vixisse poenitet, / repent not having lived. — Cic. 
 
 Quintum poenttct, quod amnium tuum offendit, Quintus is sorry that 
 he has wounded your feelincis.- — Cic. 
 
 § 242. In like manner decet, it is becoming, and dedecet, it is 
 unhecaming, take an Accusative of the Person : but, unlike 
 the above-named Impersonals, they may have an Iniper- 
 sonal Nominative as their subject : as, ' 
 
 Orfitorcm miiiimc direct irasci, It very ill becomes a speaher to lose his 
 temper. — Cic. 
 
 Trux dUcet Ira feras. Savage anger becomes loild-beasts. — Ov* 
 
 H 
 
146 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 § 243. 
 
 § 217. 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 117 
 
 Ohs. In like manner the Impersonals juvat, it delights; latet, fallit, 
 fiigit, praeterit, it escapes ^notice) ; oportet, it behoces^ take an Accu- 
 sative of the Person. 
 
 2. Double Accusative. 
 
 § 243. Verbs of teaching and concealing take a doublo 
 Accusative after them— one of tlie thing and another of 
 the person : as, doceo, / teach (witli its compounds) ; celo, 
 I conceal, hide from : as, 
 
 Quis muslcam docuit Epaminondam, Who taurjld Epamlnondas 
 music, — Nep. 
 
 Non celavi te sernionem bomlnum, I have not liept from you the men' > 
 discourse. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1 . The reason of this double Accusative is that we may say, for example, 
 both docuit mustcam, he taught music; and ducuit EpuniTnondam, he 
 taught Epaminondas : hence blending the two, musicam docuit Epatni- 
 nondam. 
 
 Obs. 2. Doceo, to inform, takes the Ablative with de : as, 
 
 Praemittit ad Boios qui de suo adrentu duceant, He sends foncard men 
 to the Boii to inform them of his arrival. — Caes. 
 
 Obs. 3. Celo, to conceal, takes the Ablative with de in the Passive, and some- 
 times in the Active : as. 
 
 Est de illo rencno celata mater, The mother tras kept in ignorarice of 
 that poisoning. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 4. Accusative after a Passive Verb. When a Verb of teaching, &c. 
 is turned into the Passive (see § 234, Obs. 1), the thing taught may still 
 remain in the Accusative : as, 
 
 L. Marcius omnes mTlttiae artcs edoctus fut^rat, Lucius JIarcius had been 
 taught all the arts of uar. — Liv. 
 
 Doctus tier mClius (Tibris), Taught a better course.— Uor. 
 Obs. 5. With verbs of teaching, the instrument on which an art is practised 
 is put in the Ablative : as, 
 
 SocrUem fidib us docuit nobtlisstmus ftdtcen, A most noble I grist taught 
 Socrates the lyre [i.e. to play on the lyre). — Cic. 
 
 § 244. !Many verbs of asking, entreating, and demanding 
 take a double Accusative after them— one of the thing and 
 another of the person : as, interrogo and percontor, 1 ask ; oro, 
 / entreat, rogo, I ask or entreat ; and posco, reposco, flagito, J 
 demand : as, 
 
 Legati Venem simrddorum Ci5rSris rCposcunt, The envoys demand 
 hack from Verres the statue of Ceres.— Cic. 
 
 Caesar frumentum Aeduos llagitabut, Caesar hept demanding com of 
 the Aedui. — Caes. 
 
 Obs. 1. Peto, pnstiilo, and quaero are never used with a double Accusative. 
 
 Peto and posfi'ifo always have the Ablative of the person with de ; quaero 
 
 the Ablative of the person with ex, ah, or de. 
 Obs. 2. Verbs of entreating and demanding may also take the Ablative of the 
 
 person with de (Oro, rogo, posco, rPposco illiquid ab allquo) : verbs of 
 
 V 
 
 asking, the Ablative of the thing with de (interrogo, percontor aliquem de 
 altqua re). The double Accusative is most frequently used when the thing 
 is expressed by the neuter of a pronoun or an adjective : as, 
 
 Hoc te oro, I entreat you this; »jw//o me interrogavit, He asked me 
 many questions. 
 Obs. 3. When a verb of asking, &c. is turned into the Passive, the thing may 
 still remain in the Accusative : as. 
 
 Primus rogutus est sententiam, He was first asked for his opinion. — Sail. 
 
 § 245. Factitive Accusative. — Verbs signifying to mme, to 
 make or appoint, to reckon or esteem, and the like, take after 
 them a double Accusative — one of the Object and the other 
 of the Predicate to that object : as, 
 
 Eomillus urbem ex nomine suo Itumam (Fact. Ace.) vucavit, 
 liumultis called the cdy Rome from his oicu name.—l^niv. 
 
 Contempsit SicQlos, non duxit (eos) homines (Fact. Acc.\ lie de- 
 spised the Sicilians ; he did not take them for human beings.— Cie. 
 
 Ancuni Martium regem {Fact. Ace.) pCpulus crtavit, The people 
 made Ancus Martins khig. — Liv. 
 
 Cicorunein imiversa elvitas consrdem [Fact. Ace.) declaravit, Tlic 
 irhole state declared Cicero consul.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. The Factitive Accusative becomes a Predicative Nominative after the 
 Passive of the above verbs : see § 232. 
 
 § 24G. Transitive Verbs compounded with trans and 
 circum, as transjicio, transduce, tran^porto, to carry across, 
 and circumdiico, to lead around, take after them a double 
 Accusative, one of the person, and the other of the thing 
 crossed : as, 
 
 Age.silaiis Hellesponfum copies trajecit, Agesllaus carried his troops 
 across the Utllespont. — Nep. 
 
 Hannibal nonaginta mdlla pCdiium Ihcrnm tradiixit, Ilannioal 
 carried ninety thousand foot-soldiers across the Iherus. — Liv. 
 
 Pompcius Rosclllum omnia sua praes'dla circumduxit, Pompelus led 
 lioscillus round all his eidroichnients.— Caes. 
 
 Ohs. 1. In such cases, one Accusative is governed by the Verb, and the other 
 
 by the Preposition in composition. 
 Obs. 2. In the Passive one of the two Accusatives remains: as, 
 
 Major multitudo Oermundrum lihPniim tr-.insducltur, A greater multitude 
 
 of Germans is carried across the Rhine. — Cues. 
 
 3. Accusative of Motion towards. 
 
 § 247. Names ot Tow^ns and small Islands are used 
 in the Accusative without a Treposition after Verbs signi- 
 fying Motion towards.. For examples, see § 259 in the Ap^ 
 pendix on the Construction of names of Towns. 
 
 II 2 " 
 
 N 
 
■stflSiisi 
 
 148 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 §248. 
 
 § 248. Similarly the Accusative is used after many Pre- 
 positions signifying motion toicards, proximity, or relation to : 
 as, ad, in for into, inter, prope, &c. See the Chapter on Pre- 
 positions. 
 
 4. Accusative of Time or Space, 
 
 § 249. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are put 
 in the Accusative, answering to the questions — How long ? 
 How far ? How high ? How deep ? How broad / How thick ? 
 as, 
 
 QiiaeJam bcstiOlae unum diem vivunt, Some insects live hut one dau. 
 -Cic. "^ 
 
 VQriQles quad rag inta annas praefuit AthOuis, Pericles Governed AfJiens 
 for forty yea r*\— Cic. 
 
 P(5dem e villa adlmc egressi non siimus, As yet we have not stirred 
 one foot from the {country) house. — Cic. 
 
 Campus ^larathon ab Athenis circiter millia passnum decern abest. 
 The plain {of) Marathon is distant from Athens about ten thousand 
 paces, — Nep. 
 
 Milites aggf'iem latum p!fdes trifcentos trlginia, altum pedes octoginta 
 exstruxerunt, The soldiers constructed a mound 330 feet high and SO feet 
 deep. — Caes. 
 
 (Without the Adj. latus, altus, the Genitive would have been used : 
 see § 274.) ; 
 
 Obs. 1. Duration of Time is also expressed emphatically by per : a?, 
 
 Ludi di<cem per dies facti sunt. The games were celebrated through ten 
 entire days. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. Duration of time is sometimes, but rarely, expressed by the Ablative 
 in the best writers : as, 
 
 PugTiatum est contlnenter huris quinque, Theij fought for Jirc hours hi' 
 cessantly.— Cues. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the same manner in answer to the question, how old ? the Accu- 
 sative is used with nutus, born^ (so many years) : as, 
 
 Alcibiadcs annos circtter quadruginta ndtus diem obiit suprcmum, 
 Alcibiades died tchcu about forty years old. — Nep. 
 
 5. Accusative in Exclamations. 
 
 § 250. The Accusative is used in exclamations, either 
 with or without an Interjection : as, 
 
 Me caecum, qui haec ante non viderim, My hlimlness not to have seen 
 this before /—Cic. 
 
 O vim maximam err^iris, the enormous power of error I— Cic. 
 Eheu me miserum, hapless me! 
 
 Pro deOrum atque hominum fklem! In the name of gods and men! 
 —Cic. 
 
 En quatuor dras, Lo, four altars.— Wi^. 
 
 §253. 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 140 
 
 Obs. 1 . But en and ecce are quite as frequently found with the Nominative 
 
 as. 
 
 Ecce tuae titcrae (sc. sunt) de Varrone, There is your letter about Varro! 
 — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. JIvi and roe are construed with the Dative : as, 
 Vae rictis, Woe to the conquered. — Liv. 
 
 llci mtscro mihi. Woe to icretched me. — Ter. 
 
 6. Accusative of Closer Definition. 
 
 § 251 . The Accusative is used, especially by the Poets, 
 after Verbs, Participles, and Adjectives, to indicate the 
 part of the Subject specially referred to : as, 
 
 Hannibal, adversum femur grJlviter ictus, cdctdit, Hannibal fell 
 severely wounded in the fore part of the thigh. — Liv. 
 
 Equus tremit artus. The horse trembles in its limbs. — Virg. 
 
 Feminae nudae hruchia ct lacertos, Women ivith both the lower and 
 tipper part of the arm hare. — Tac. 
 
 Trajectus ^eJes, }yith the feet pierced. — Virg. 
 
 Obs, In prose, the Ablative is more generally used : as, 
 • 'Pedlbus aeger, Diseased in the feet. — Cic. 
 
 Capti ociilis talpae, Moles maimed in the eyes (i.e. blind). — Virg. 
 
 W. Greek Accusative. 
 
 § 252. Sometimes, by a Greek idiom, a Passive Verb is 
 used in a middle sense, and made to govern an Accusative : 
 as, induor, amicior, / clothe, put on myself ; exuor, / strip off (from 
 myself) ; cingor, accingor, I gird on mysef; and the like : as. 
 
 Inutile ferrum cingitur, lie girds on the bootless steel. — Virg. 
 
 Aiidrugei gdleam induitur, He puts on the helmet of Androgeus. — 
 Virg. 
 
 Obs. On this principle must be explained Horace's, 
 
 Suspcnsi Idciilos tdbiilamquc hlcerlo, Wtth their satchels and tablet 
 swinging at their elbow. (Suspcnsi, having fastened to themselves: 
 
 ClTnjpTTJjU.tVoi.) 
 
 8. Other Uses of the Accusative. 
 
 § 253. The Neuters of some Pronouns (id, hoc, illud, laem, 
 &c.), and of Adjectives im])lying number (unum, multa, 
 pauca, &c.), are frequently used with verbs which require a 
 difierent construction in the case of other words : as, 
 
 Idem gloriari, To make the same boast. — Cic. 
 
 Onincs muliCres eadem stQdent, All women have the same inclina- 
 tions. — Ter. 
 
 Id operam do, I strive after this. — Ter. 
 Utrumque laetor, I rejoice at both things. — Cic. 
 

 :=^?Ki^ 
 
 150 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 §25+. 
 
 §259. 
 
 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 
 
 151 
 
 DiscIptUos id unum moneo, / remind pupih of this one thing. — Cic. 
 
 Saepe iioii audimns ca, quae ab natarii niuueimir, We often do not 
 hear those things^ icluch ice are reminded hij nature.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. This Accusative may also be used with the Passive, as in the last 
 
 example. 
 Obs. 2. The same construction is used even without verbs : as, 
 Id temporis, At that time. — Cie. 
 Homo id aetatis, A man of that age. — Cic. 
 
 § 254. The Accusative is used adverbially in the expres- 
 sions magnam (maximam) partem, for the most part ; vicem, Oil 
 account of; secus, sex ; cetera, m other respects : as, 
 
 Suevi maximam partem lacte atqiie peeure vivunt. Hie Suevi for the 
 most part live on milk and cattle.— Cic. 
 
 Tuam vtcem sjicpe doleo, I often grieve on your acrmmt. — Cic. 
 
 Lilit^ronira eJlpltiim virile sHcus a<l d6cem millia capta, Ten thousand 
 free j^ersons of the male sex were tahen.- Liv. 
 
 Vir cetOra egrCgius, A man illustrious in other respects. — Liv. 
 
 § 255. On the construction of the Accusative Case and 
 Infinitive ^lood, see tlie Syntax of Verbs. 
 
 ApPEXDIX ox THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE XaMES OF ToWNS. 
 
 § 256. It has been thought advisable to place together 
 all the rules for the construction of the names of towns 
 and small islands, in answer to the questions Where ^ 
 Whither ^ Whence ^ 
 
 1. Answer to the Question Where P 
 
 § 257. In answer to the question Where ? names of towns 
 and small islands are put in the Genitive, if the Substantive 
 be of the First or Second iJeclension and Singular; in. 
 all other cases in the Ablative without a preposition : as, 
 
 Bomae Cuiisiiles, AthC'nis Archontos, Carthiiglne Siiffetes, sive jfi- 
 (iTces, quotiinnis ereabantiir. At Rome Consuls, at Athens A rchons,ut 
 Carthage iSuffetes, or judges, were tlevted annually. — Xtp. 
 
 Tr/>«r6 Eomam Jliuo, When at Tirdi I am in love witli Rome. — Hor, 
 
 Tlichis, Argis, TJluhris, At Tliehes, Argos ^ Argij, Uluhrae. — Ilor. 
 
 DionySius Corinfhi pueros docebat, Bionysius taught hoys at Corinth. 
 — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. It is probable, however, that these cases were originally Locatives, 
 a case which exists In Sanscrit, with the termination i m the Singular. 
 This accounts for the form ae in the 1st Declension, which was originally 
 c/, for the form i in the 2nd Declension, and for such forms as Carthdgtni, 
 
 
 
 €.-. 
 
 Lacedaemoni, Turi in the 3rd Declension, which frequently occur in MSS., 
 instead of the Ablative, in answer to the question Where ? Ilence ruri 
 rather than riire, in the country. See § 258. 
 
 Obs. 2. When the name of a town is qualified by an Adjective, the Ablative is 
 used either with or without the preposition «n / as, 
 In ipsa Alexandria, At Alexandria itself. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 3. If the Substantive rii-bs, oppidum or eJnfashe added in apposition, 
 it is put in the Ablative usually with in : as, Mllites Albae constltcrunt, in 
 urbc opportunu, Tlie soldiers halted at Alba, [in] a suitable city. — Cic. 
 
 § 258. After the same manner are used the following 
 Substantives : domi, at home ; humi, on the c/round ; riire, more 
 frequently ruri, in the country ; militiae, belli, in the field : as, 
 
 Vir domi non solum sed etiam Eomae clurus, A man famous not 
 only at home {in his own country) hut also at Rome. — Liv. 
 
 Non eadem ddmi quae miltiae fortuna erat plebi Roinanao, Tlie 
 Roman commons had not the same good fortune at home as in the field. — 
 Liv. 
 
 Vir domi helliqiiQ fortissimus. A man most valiant at home and in tlie 
 field.-\c\\. 
 
 Forte evenit ut ruri (or riire ) essemus, It so happened Uiatweicere 
 in the country. — Cic. 
 
 Obs, Domi is also used with meac, tuae, suae, nostrae, vestrae, and alienae ; 
 but if any other Adjective or a Possessive Substantive is used with it, the 
 preposition in is more common, as in Hid domo ; in domo publtcd ; in 
 do mo Caesar is. 
 
 2. Answer to the Question, Whither ? 
 
 § 259. In answer to the question Whither? names of 
 towns and small islands are put in the Accusative without 
 a preposition : as, 
 
 Carius primus clophantos quatuor Ronuun duxit, Curius first brought 
 four elephants to Rome. — Eutr. 
 
 Pausaniani cum classc commrmi Cyprum atqne Ilellespontum mise- 
 runt. They spnt Pausanias with tlie comhined fleet to Cyprus and the 
 Jftllespont. — Nep. 
 
 Obs. 1. 1{ urbs or oppidum be added In Apposition, the Preposition in must 
 be used : as, 
 
 Consul pervenit in oppMum Cirtam, The consul arrived in the town, of 
 Cirta. — Sail. 
 
 Ohs. 2. The poets use the same construction with the names of countries, and 
 Substantives generally : as, 
 
 Itrdiam venit, To Italy he came. — Virg. 
 
 Verba refers aures non pervenientia nostras, Words thou repeatest uhich 
 reach not to our ears. — Ov. 
 
 Obs. 3. Even in prose writers the preposition is frequently omitted with 
 Acyyptus, Chcrsonesus, and Hellespont us. (See the second example.) 
 
152 
 
 THE GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 §260. 
 
 §2G6. 
 
 THE GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 153 
 
 § 260. The Accusatives domum, home ; and nis, to the coun- 
 try^ liave the same construction as Names of Towns : as, 
 
 SSmel egressi, nunquam domum rtvertere, Ilaving once gone abroad, 
 they never returned home. — Cic. 
 
 Ej^o rus ibo, atque ibi mJlncbo, I icill go into the country and remain 
 there. — Ter. 
 
 3. Answer to the Question Whence P 
 
 §261. In answer to the question Whence? names of 
 Towns and small Islands are put in the Ablative without 
 a Preposition : as, 
 
 DiOnysius Platonem Athenis arcesslvit, Dionyslus sent Jor Plato from 
 Athens. — Nep. 
 
 Derailratus, TarquTnii ref^^is pJlter, Tarqiitnios Cotiutlio ffigit. Dema- 
 ratus the father of King Tarqiiinius fled from Corinth to Tarquinii. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Obs. When urbs or opptdum are used in Apposition or before the name of 
 towns, they follow their ordinary construction and take a Picposition 
 (comp. § 259, Obs. I.): as, 
 
 Expellltur ex 02U'^do Gergovia, He is driven out of the tovcn of Ger- 
 govia. — Caes. 
 
 Chapter XXXIX. — The Genitfv e. 
 
 § 262 The Genitive Case denotes the dependence of a 
 Substantive (or I'ronoun) upon another word, which is 
 generally a Substantive or Adjective, but sometimes a Verb. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Genitive appears originally to have denoted origin, in English 
 from or of: it can, however, very seldom be translated by /; owj, a meaning 
 ■which is expressed by the Ablative. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Genitive is also found after the Preposition tcnus : see the Chapter 
 on Prepositions. 
 
 A. Genitive after Substantives. 
 
 § 263, General Rule. — The Genitive is used to denote the 
 dependence of any one Substantive upon another : as, 
 
 Bellum Pyrrhi, Tlie war of or with Pyrrlms. 
 Simfllatio amicitiae, Tfie pretence of friendship, 
 Navis auri, A ship of i.e. laden with gold. 
 (But a ship \made] of gold would be navis aurea or navis ex auro facta.) 
 
 § 264. Hence the Genitive depends upon causa, gratia, ergo, 
 for the sake (of), which are Ablatives. The Genitive usually 
 stands before these words ; as, 
 
 Am » 
 
 Vuluptates omittuntur majorum vfiluptatum adtpiscendamm causa. 
 Pleasures are neglected for the sake of obtaining greater pleasures.— CicT' 
 
 Dolores suscipiuntur majorum dolorum efugiendurum gratia, Suffer- 
 ings are submitted to for the sake of avoiding greater sufferings.— Cic. 
 
 SI quid contra alias leges hujiis legis erg6 factum est, If anythinq 
 has been done against other laws for the sake of this law. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Causa is commonly used, gratia less frequently, and ergo (Gr epvw) 
 rarely, chiefly in law phrases. 
 
 Obs. 2. Instead of the Genitive of the Personal Pronoun, the Possessive Pro- 
 noun is used with causa and gratia : as, mea causa, for my sake : tua causa 
 fur thy sake. ' 
 
 Obs. 3. In the same way the Genitive depends upon the indeclinable instar, 
 instead of like : as, 
 
 Instar montis ?quus, A horse like a mountain. — Virg. 
 
 Pluto mYhi unus instar est omnium, Plato alone is, in my opinion, worth 
 them all ptit together. — Cic. 
 
 1. Possessive Genitive, or Genitive of the Possessor. 
 
 § 265. The Genitive denotes the Possessor, or the person 
 or thing, whereto anything belongs : — 
 
 Graves CycUpum off!cinae, Tlie heavy forges of the Cyclops.— Ror, t^Sj 
 In umbrusis Helicdnis oris, In the shady regions of Helicon. Hor. 
 
 § 266. The Possessive Genitive is frequently used after 
 the verb sum, when in English the word property (hehnging 
 to), duty, mark, characteristic, or the like, is expressed : 
 
 Omnia sunt victdris. All things are the [property of the) conqueror 
 (i. e. belong to the conqueror). — Liv. 
 
 Mllitum est dGci parere. It is {the duty) of soldiers to obey the general. 
 Nihil est tam angusti unimi quam amare divitias. Nothing is (the 
 characteristic) of so petty a mind as the love of riches.— Cic. 
 
 Ciijusvis hominis est errare. It is {the part) of any man to err.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Substantive or Adjective (as officium, munus, proprium) is 
 sometimes expressed : as, 
 
 S^natus officium est clvitatem consHio jiivare, It is the btisiness of the 
 senate to aid the state with counsel. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. This construction is not admissible in the case of the Personal 
 Pronouns : thus we must say, meum est, it is initic or tny duty ; tuunx est, 
 it is thine or thy duty ; not mei, tui est. 
 
 Obs. 3. The words "wife," "son," or "daughter," are sometimes omitted 
 before the Possessive Genitive : as, 
 
 Verania Pisonis, Piso's Verania, that is, Verania the irife of Piso.—VUn. 
 
 Ilusdriibal GisgOnis, Gisgo's Hasdrubal, that is, Has'drubal the son of 
 Gisgo. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. 4. The word "temple" (aedes or templum) is frequently omitted after 
 the preposition ad, and before the Genitive of the name of the deitv : as, 
 Ventuia erat ad Vestae, We had come to [the temple) of Vesta— Hot'. 
 
 H 3 
 
13{ 
 
 Tin: gexitivp: case. 
 
 §2G7. 
 
 §270. 
 
 THE GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 155 
 
 2. Subjective Genitive. 
 
 § 207. The Suhjoctive Genitive denotes the Salject of the 
 action expressed in tlie word on which it depends, and 
 takes the place of tlie subject of a verb ; thus amor Dei, the 
 love of God ( = Dens umat nos) : as, 
 
 Ctitonis ndbile lotum, Cafo's noble death. — Ilor. 
 Cum patnnn. Care on the part of senators. — Ilor. 
 Flumtnum lapsus, The (jUding courses of rivers. — Ilor. 
 
 Obs. 1. The possessive pronouns are used instead of the Subjective Genitive 
 of the personal pronouns: as, pater meus, my father ; liber tuns, t/mir 
 book. 
 
 Obs. 2. Hence a Genitive may stand in apposition to a possessive pronoun : 
 as, 
 
 Tuum, hdnunis simpltcis, pectus vTdYnins, Ve hare seen your breast 
 (i. e. heart), an artless man as you are. — Cic. 
 
 Mei hhIus opera respubllca salva est, The republic was saved by my 
 exertions alone. — Cic. 
 
 Hi ad vestram omnium caedem Romae restYtorunt, TTtese remained at 
 Home with a rietc to the shiuyhter of you all U>f all oj you). — Cic. 
 
 The Genitives unius, ipaius [ipsomm) are often so used. 
 
 Obs. 3, So the Relative may agree with a Genitive implied in a Possessive 
 Pronoun: as, 
 
 Rostra caede qui rCmansissemus, With the massacre of such rf ta as 
 rem a in ed, — Cic . 
 
 3. Objective Genitive. 
 
 § 208. The Objective Genitive denotes the Object of the 
 notion expressed in the word on which it depends, and 
 takes the place of the object of a verb : thus amor Dei, love 
 towards God ( = nos amfimus Deum) : as, 
 
 FortTtrulo est ddhlrum llhdrHmque contemptio. Fortitude is the 
 despising of sufferings and hardships. — Cic. 
 
 Ex injuria Sabliifiriini mrditrum bellum ortum est, Fro.u the icrong 
 done to the Sabine loonien war arose. — Li v. * 
 
 Obs. 1. The Objective Genitive is more frequently used in Latin than the 
 Subjective, and the latter does not occur unless where the context prevents 
 ambifruity : thus cura Caesaris (Hor. Od. i. 12. 50) is "care ^>/or /'v/Caesar '* 
 [Objective], while cura Tatrum (id. iv. 14. I) in the example given in 
 § 267, it is equally plain, must mean "care on the part of the Senators." 
 In case of any real ambiguity a preposition is used instead of the Objective 
 Genitive, especially in denoting a feeling towards any one : as, 
 
 Odium in homtnum untversum gtnus, JIatttd against the whole race of 
 man. 
 
 Obs. 2. Both the Objective and Subjective Genitive when dependent upon 
 a Substantive may be reduced to the head Possessive Genitive , and may 
 often be translated by the English Possessive Case. The Objective Geni- 
 tive, however, more frequently rccixiires some other Trepositiou. 
 
 # ^ 
 
 Obs. 3. An Objective and Subjective Genitive are sometimes dependent upon 
 the same substantive : as, 
 
 Pro vrnPrtbus nelvetiorum inj Qriia Pttpuli Romani, For old wrongs done 
 by the Helvetii to the Roman people. — Caes. 
 
 Here ITelvetiorum is the Subject and PoptiH Romani the Object ; and the 
 sentence is equivalent to. The Helvetii did ivro7igs to the Roman people. 
 
 Obs. 4. With the Objective Genitive, the Genitive ot the personal pronoun, 
 {mei, tui, sui, uosfri, vestri), and not the possessive pronoun, is used : as, 
 Misit filium non solum dcprecatOrem sui, sM ^tiam accusfitorem mei, 
 He sent his son not only to intercede for himself^ but also to accuse me. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Memoriam nosfri quam maxKme longam effYc?re debomus, We ought to 
 make the remembrance of ourselves as lasting as possible. — Sail. 
 
 Obs. 5. The Objective Genitive is also found after Adjectives derived from 
 Verbs: see § 276, Obs. 1. 
 
 4. Partitive Genitive. 
 
 § 269. The Genitive is used after Substantives, to denote 
 the whole whereof a part is taken : as. 
 
 Magna vis auri, A great quantity of gold. — Cic. 
 
 Modius triiici, A peck of icheat. — Cic. 
 
 Multcique pars inei vltabit Libitiuam, And an ample part of me 
 sJudl evade the tomb. — Hor. 
 
 _ § 270. The Partitive Genitive is often found after the 
 Xeuter of Adjectives and Adjective Pronouns used sub- 
 stantively. 
 
 These Adjectives are : 
 
 tantum, quantum, JllTqiiantum 
 multura, plus, pliiriraum, 
 niliil,* mInQs, minimum, 
 dimldium, paullum, rCliquum. 
 
 * Niliil is however always a Substantive. 
 
 The Pronouns are : 
 
 hoc, idem, illud, id, 
 quidquam, aliquod, aiid quid. 
 
 They are nsed as Substantives only in the Nominative and 
 Accusative, and must not depend upon Prepositions : as, 
 
 PlQs vlrium. More of strength. — Sen. 
 
 Quidquam ndvi. Anything new. — Cic. 
 
 Nihil humunarum rerum. No human affairs. — Cic. 
 
 Quantum incrementi Nilus ca,pit, tantum spei in annum est. So murk 
 rise as the Nile undergoes, just so much hope is tliere for the harvest. — 
 
 Sen. 
 
 Obs, 1. The Genitive used with these Neuters is frequently an Adjective of 
 the Second Declension, used Substantively. Sae above. 
 
15G 
 
 THE GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 § 27i; 
 
 §276. 
 
 THE GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 157 
 
 
 Ohs. 2. But Adjectives of the Third Declension cannot be used as Substantives 
 in the Genitive : hence we have altquid difficile, something difficult ; altquid 
 diincflius, something more difficult. 
 Ohs. 3. roets and prose- writers, after Cicero, use the Neuters of any Ad- 
 jectives as Substantives, with a Partitive Genitive dependent on them : as, 
 Cuncta terrarum. All (of) the world. — Ilor. 
 
 Ardua terrarum. The lofty [parts or regions) of the earth. — Virg. 
 Ext^uum campi ante castra 6rat, There was a small portion of the plain 
 before the camp. — Liv. 
 
 Rfllquum nocfis acquiovit, He slept the remainder of the night. — Curt. 
 Tacitus is fond of this construction. 
 
 § 271. Tlie Partitive Genitive is also found after Adverbs 
 of Quantify * Place, or Time, used Substantively : as, 
 
 Satis eldquentiae, ^pientiae purum, Vlentij of eloquence, little enoiujh 
 of icisdom. — Sail. 
 
 Ubinam_f/.»f/um | ^yj^^^^ .^^ ^^^ icorhU -Cic. 
 L bi terrarum » 
 
 Eo mMridrum, To such a pitch of wretchedness, — Sail, 
 
 Postea loci. Afterwards. — Liv. • 
 
 Inde loci. Thereupon. — Lucr, 
 
 * These Adverbs are : ^ 
 
 siitis, enoufjh. 
 parum, too Utile, 
 
 abunde, 
 aff 
 
 rTtim, } «&""^?«»'^i/- 
 
 § 272. The Partitive Genitive is also found after Com- 
 paratives and Superlatives : as, 
 
 Major jwr^/utm, (Thou) elder of the youths. — Hor. 
 
 "^lixxime princtpurn. Greatest of princes- — Hor. 
 
 Graecorum ordtorum pracstantissimi, The most eminent of Greeli 
 orators. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Instead of the Genitive, the Prepositions ex, de, and in certain cases in, 
 inter, are used : as, 
 
 Acerrtmus ex omnthus nostris sensthus est sensus vMcndi, The keenest 
 of all our senses is the sense of sight. — Cic. 
 
 Croesus inter rPges opQlentissImus, Croesus, uealthiest among kings. — Sen. 
 
 § 273. The Partitive Genitive is also found after Nume- 
 rals, and Pronouns or Adjectives implying a number : as, 
 
 Tnmi jilvenum. First of the youths.— Yhg. 
 Consilium alter, one of the two consuls.— Liv. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Genitive is often used in English with numerals and adjectives 
 ■when there is no Partitive meaning, but only an enumeration of the 
 w hole. In such cases the Genitive is very seldom used in Latin : thus we 
 say in English, *' The veterans, of whom few are surviving," but in Latin 
 I* qui pauci supersunt," because these few are all. So also " all of us" is 
 in Latin " nos omnes." 
 
 If 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
 ' 1 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 Obs. 2. Kostrttm and restrum are used as Partitive Genitives, but not nostri 
 and resfri . as, iiterque nostrum, both of tts ; nemo vestrum ignorat, no 
 one of you is ignorant : but, miserere nostri, pity us ; vcstri similes, 
 like to you. 
 
 2. But nostri and vestri may be used as Partitives, when a division of human 
 nature is spoken of : as, 
 
 Nostri melior pars animus est, Tlie better part oftis is the soul. — Sen. 
 
 5. Genitive of Quality. 
 
 § 274. AYhen a Substantive of quality, quantity, or de- 
 scription, has an Adjective joined with it, it may be put in 
 the Genitive or Ablative (see § 318) : as, 
 
 (Vir) priscae ac nimis durae sSveritatis, A man of antique and ex- 
 cessively rigorous severity. — Liv. 
 
 Ager quattuor jrigerum, A farm of four acres. — Liv. 
 Vir maximi corporis, A man of very great stature. — Nep. 
 
 Ohs. 1. The Genitive of Quality denotes a more inherent and abiding quality 
 than the Ablative. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Genitive and Ablative can never be used without an Adiective : 
 thus, a man of talent, is homo ingoniusus (not homo ingenii) ; but a man 
 of great talent, is homo magni ing«inii. 
 
 Ohs. 3. It must be particularly noticed that this Genitive of Quality is limited 
 to the connexion of two Substantives : thus we say, fossa quindecim 
 
 ^ pedum, a ditch of fifteen feet ; but when longus or latus is added, we must 
 say fossa quindocim pedes lata : in like manner, pucr decem annOrum, a 
 hoy of ten years, but puer decem annos niitus. See § 249. 
 
 6. Genitive of Definition. 
 
 § 275. Sometimes a Substantive is used in the Genitive 
 ^y way of Definition, where we should rather have expected 
 a Substantive in Apposition : as, 
 
 Haec vox vdluptdtis. This word pleasure. — Cic. 
 
 B. Genitive after Adjectives. 
 
 § 276. Adjectives signifying capaciti/ ; also of desiring, ex- 
 perience, remembering, participating, fullness, and their opposites, 
 govern a Genitive of the Object : as, 
 
 Themistoc\es peritisstmos belli 7iat'aZ/s Athcuienses fecit, TJiemistocles 
 made tJie Athenians the most shilful in naval war. — Nep. 
 
 Omnes immemorem bSnSficii oderuut, All hate the man ivho is 
 unmindful of kindness. — Cic. 
 
 Ira impotens sui est, Anger is incapable of governing itself — Sen. 
 
 Homo partlceps est rationis et cogttdtiOnis, Man is partaker of reason 
 and thought. — Cic. 
 
 Bestiae rStionis et drdtiOnis expertes sunt, Beasts are destitute of 
 reason and speech. — Cic, 
 
158 
 
 THE GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 §277. 
 
 §279. 
 
 THE GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 139 
 
 Plenum Bacehi pectus, A bosom (soul fidl of Bacchtis. — Ilor. 
 lirtruis comp(js. Possessed of virtue. — Cic. 
 
 The following Adjectives follow the above rule and 
 govern the Genitive : — 
 
 1. riviirus, 
 avitlus, 
 capiilus, 
 
 stiuliosiis, 
 
 fastidiGj>us, 
 
 invldiis, 
 
 timidus, 
 
 pavidiis, 
 
 libemlia, 
 
 prolusus, 
 
 parens, 
 
 2. i^Sritus, 
 imperitus, 
 conseius, 
 inaeius, 
 nesciiis, 
 praescius, 
 gnarus, 
 iguarus, 
 prudeiis, 
 imprudens, 
 
 covetous, 
 greedy, 
 eager, 
 fond, 
 disdainful, 
 jealous. 
 
 \fearful. 
 
 liberal, 
 lavish, 
 stingy. 
 
 sJiilled. ' 
 
 nnskilled. 
 
 conscious. 
 
 \ignora)it. 
 
 forelinowing. 
 knowing, 
 not knowing, 
 foreseeing, 
 not foreseeing. 
 
 
 rudis, 
 
 unshillcd. 
 
 
 insolens, 
 
 j 
 
 
 iiisolitiis, 
 
 > unaccustomed 
 
 
 insiu'tiis, 
 
 ) 
 
 
 coiapos, 
 iinpos. 
 
 master of. 
 not master. 
 
 
 potens, 
 inipoteus, 
 
 powerful, 
 not powerful. 
 
 3. 
 
 memor. 
 
 mindful. 
 
 
 immemor, 
 
 unmindful. 
 
 
 ciiriosus, 
 
 careful. 
 
 
 inciiriOsus, 
 
 careless. 
 
 4. 
 
 partYccps, 
 
 particii>ating 
 
 
 cousors, 
 
 sharing. 
 
 
 exsors, 
 expers, 
 liiops» 
 
 \ttot sharing, 
 weak. 
 
 5. 
 
 pleuus, 
 
 full. 
 
 
 Inunis, 
 
 empty. 
 
 Terbal Adjectives in as follow the above rule : as, edax, 
 djvonnng ; capax, holding. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Genitive after Adjectives enumerated in 1, 2, 3, and those in ax, 
 atis, and ens (see § 277), is an Objective Genitive : thus, cilptdus sum 
 pecuniae = ciipio pecuniam : comp. § 268. The Genitive after Adjectives 
 enumerated in 4, 5, is a Partitive Genitive. Comp. § 269. 
 
 Obs. 2. Those signifying plenty or want are also used with the Ablative : 
 
 see § 317. 
 Obs. 3. The Genitive is also sometimes found after Verbs of plenty or want : 
 
 see § 317. 
 Obs. 4. Etidis and prudens arc also used with in and the Ablative : a*, prudens 
 
 in jure civlli, skilful in civil law. — Cic. 
 Obs. 5. Such Adjectives as SmTeus, friendhj ; Inlmlcus, unfriendhf ; f tdtlis, 
 
 fTdus, faithful, &c., do not fall under the above rule, but govern the Dative 
 
 according to § 298. 
 
 § 277. Many Imperfect Participles become Adjectives, 
 and, according to the above rule, govern the Genitive, 
 though as Participles they govern the Case of their Verbs : 
 thus patiens {adj ) Idhdrum S'gnifies capable of enduring hard- 
 ships ; patiens (part.) labdres, (actnaUg) enduring them : as, 
 
 EpSmiTiondas Jldeo fult verUHtis dllfgens, lit ne juoo quidem menti- 
 i-etur, Epaminondas was so careful of truth that he would not tdl a lie 
 even in sport. — Ncp. 
 
 Alien* app«?tens, sui profusus, Covetous of ivhat belonged to others^ 
 lavish of his own.— Sail. 
 
 I 
 
 C. Genitive after Verbs. 
 
 1. Genitive after to Remember or to Forget. 
 
 §278. Verbs signifying fo. remember or to forget usually 
 govern the Genitive (of the Object) . as, 
 
 Aninms mUmlmt praeterltdrum, Tlie mind remembers the past. — Cic. 
 
 Nee unqitam oblivisear ilUus noctis. Nor shall I ever forget that 
 (memorable) night. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. I. But they govern the Accusative : — 
 
 (a) When the entire object is represented as retained in the mind or dis- 
 missed from it : as, 
 
 Remlnisci pristlni tempdris acerbttdtem, To remember the bitterness of the 
 past. — Nep. 
 
 Tu, C. Caesar, oblTvisci nthTl soles, nTsi injurias, Thou, Caitis Caesar, art 
 iiont to forget nothing sare injuries. — Cic. 
 
 Hence memini invariably governs an Accusative to indicate a contem- 
 porary : as, 
 
 Cinnam momfni, vTdi SuUam, I remember Cinna, I saiv Sulla. — Cic. 
 
 (6) When the object is a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective : thus, id, ea, 
 omnia, multa ri'cordiiri, ri^minisci, &:c. ; not ejus, eorum [but earum 
 rerum], &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. Verbs of remijiding (moneo, admcSneo, commoneo, &c.) govern the 
 Accusative of a person and the Genitive of a thing : as, 
 
 CatilTna admonebat lilium egestafis, Slium ciipidttdtis suae, Catiline re- 
 minded one of his destitute circumstances, another of his ruling passion.— Sail. 
 
 But if the thing is a Neuter Pronoun, it likewise is put m the Accusative, 
 so that a verb of reminding is thus joined with twj» Accusatives : as, illud 
 me admones, you remind me of that. 
 
 Ohs. 3. Verbs of reminding are frequently constructed with de and the Abla- 
 tive : as, 
 
 De aede Telluris me admones, Fou remind me of the temple of Tellus. —Cic. 
 
 Obs. 4. Hccordor generally governs the Accusative, very rarely the Genitive : 
 as. 
 
 Communes belli casus recordubantur. They called to mind the common 
 chances of war. — Caes. 
 
 Ohs. 5. The impersonal phrase, " venit mihi in mentem," to think of, fo 
 recollect, is also used with the Genitive : as, 
 
 Solet mihi in mentem venire illitis tempdris, T am wont to call to mind 
 that time. — Cic, 
 
 But the plirase ia^lso used personally : as, 
 
 Non vfnit in mentem pugna apud Regillum lacum. Do you not call to 
 mind the battle at lake Reyillus ?— Liv. 
 
 2. Genitive after to Accuse, Condemn, and Convict. 
 
 § 279. The Genitive is used after Verbs of accusing, con- 
 demning, and acquitting, to denote the Charge : as, 
 
 Accusutus est prodltiunis, lie {Miltiades) was accused of treason. — 
 Xep. 
 
 CiK!sar Drrlfibellam rUpetundHrum postuluvlt, Caesar impeached Dola- 
 hdla for extortion. — Cic. 
 
1C)0 
 
 THE GEXITIVE CASE. 
 
 §280. 
 
 §283. 
 
 THE GENITIVE CASE. 
 
 161 
 
 Judex absolvit injuriarnm euiu, The judge acquitted the man of 
 wrong-doing. — Aiiet. ad Her. 
 
 Absens |>rof?r//(7n/« damnutus est, He (TJiemistocles) was hrought in 
 guilty of treason in his absence. — Nep. 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes the Ablative crTmtne is expressed: as damnatus est 
 crimlne repC'tuudarum, He teas condemned on the charge of extortion. 
 
 Obs. 2. Instead of the Genitive wq also find the Ablative with de : as, 
 
 Appius de pecfiniis repetundis est postiilatus, Appius was impeached for 
 
 extortion. — Cic. 
 
 This is the only admissible construction in the case of vis, violence : as 
 
 de vi postulare, damnure, &c. 
 
 Obs, 3. The Genitive is also used with the Adjectives signifying guilty^ 
 innocent, condemned : as, reus, noxius, innoxius, insons, munHfestus, and 
 the like. 
 
 § 280. Tho Genitive is sometimes used to denote the 
 punishment to which a person is condemned : as, 
 
 Capitis houiTnem conderanare, To condemn a man to death. — Cic. 
 Ochpli damuuri, To be condemned in an eight-fold payment. — Cic, 
 
 Obs. 1. The Ablative is also used : as, cap'ite damnare. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. If the money-penalty is expressed by an Adjective of Quantity, the 
 Genitive is used, as tanti, quant i, dupli, qttadrupli (comp. §281): but 
 if the sum is definitely expressed, the Ablative must be used : as, 
 
 Ea lis quinquaginta talentis aestimuta est, IVie damages tcere fixed at 
 fifty talents. — Nep. 
 
 3. Genitive of Price or Valuation. 
 
 § 281. The Genitive is also nsed with Verbs to denote 
 Price or Valuation when not definitely expressed, but in- 
 dicated by an Adjective of quantity; as tanti, quanti, pluris, 
 minoris: as, 
 
 Quanti ChrysogOnus docet, At what price does Chrysogonus give 
 lessons i — Juv. 
 
 PlUris, minoris, vendC're, To sell for less or more. — Cic, 
 
 ■ 
 
 Obs. 1. But a definite price is expressed with the Ablative : see § 316 ; and 
 even the Ablatives magno, parro, plurimo, mimmo, &c. are of frequent 
 occurrence. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the same manner are used the Genitives flocci, plli, nauci, assis, 
 to denote that a thing is of no value at all : especially in the phrases flocci, 
 pHi fac^re, penderc, &c., ""not to care a straw for. ^^ 
 
 4. Genitive with Verbs of Feeling. 
 
 § 282. Tlie Personal Verbs misereor, miseresco, to pity ; and 
 the Impersonals miseret, miserescit, miseretur, it causes pity ; 
 piget, it vexes ; poenitet, it repenteth ; pudet, it causes shame ; 
 taedet, pertaestim est, it causes weariness^ govern tho Genitive of 
 the cause of the emotion : as, 
 
 -'i 
 
 i 
 
 O virgo, mTsCrere mei, O maiden, have pity on me ' — Ov, 
 
 Me pigct stultltiae meae, I am vexed at my folly. — Cic. 
 
 Nunqiiara suscepti n^gotii Atticum pertaesum est, Atticus never 
 tired of a business he had taken in hand. — Nep. 
 
 Obs. 1. With the Impersonals mentioned above, the Subject of the feeling is 
 put in the Accusative : see § 241. ' 
 
 Obs. 2. The object of the feeling is also sometimes expressed by an Infinitive 
 Mood or a clause, with quod. See § 241, Obs. ~^ 
 
 Obs. 3. Misi^ror, and commtseror to commiserate, follow the regular usage of 
 transitive Verbs and govern an Accusative. 
 
 5. Genitive with Interest and Eefert. 
 
 § 283. The Genitive is used with the Impersonal Verbs 
 interest and refert, it is of ad vantage ^ importance | rarely with 
 the latter], to denote the Person to ichom a thing is of 
 importance or benefit . as, 
 
 Quid Milonis intererat interfici Clodium, What advantage was it to 
 Milo that Clodius should be slaini — Cic. 
 
 Refert compvsitiOnis, It is of importance for the right arrangement of 
 words.— QMini. 
 
 Obs. 1. This construction is not admissible in the case of the Personal 
 Pronouns, the Adjective forms mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, being used 
 instead : as, 
 
 Quid tiKi id refert, What matters that to you ? — Ter. 
 
 Vestra interest commllltones, It is your concern, felloiv-soldiers. — Tac. 
 
 JfoTK. — Refert probably ^rei fert, it contributes to the interest ; and with 
 interest, rei may be understood : in that case the forms med, tud, &c. may 
 perhaps be regarded as datives agreeing with rei. 
 
 Obs. 2. liefer t is generally used absolutely, very rarely with the Genitive, 
 but less rarely with med, tud, &c. 
 
 Obs. 3. The subject of interest (and refert) is never a Substantive, but is 
 expressed, 
 
 (a) By the Infinitive : as, 
 
 Interest omnium recte facere, It is the interest of all to act rightly. 
 
 (6) By the Accusative and Infinitive : as, 
 
 Mea interest, te valere, It is of importance to me that you should be 
 in good health. — Cic. 
 
 (c) By a secondary clause beginning with ut, ne, or an interrogative : as, 
 lUud mea magni interest, te ut vtdear, It is of great importance to 
 
 me that I should see you. — Cic. 
 
 Vestra, commllltones, interest, ne imperdturem pesstmi fnciant. It 
 
 is of importance to you, fellotr-soldiers, that the worst men should 
 
 not hare the making of an emperor. — Tac. 
 
 Magni rtfert, quid hie velit, It is of great importance what this 
 
 person wishes. — Caes. 
 
 (rf) By a neuter pronoun, hoc, illud (so that the Verbs are not quite 
 impersonal) : as, 
 
 Hoc vohemcnter interest, This is of prodigious importance to the 
 republic. — Cic. 
 
162 
 
 THE DATIVE CASE. 
 
 §284. 
 
 §290. THE DATIVE CASE. 
 
 163 
 
 Obs. 4. The deg^ree or measure of importance Is expressetl : 
 
 (a) I?v the Genitives of value, mngni, pnrri, plurls, tajili, quanii : v, 
 
 §2S1. 
 
 (i) By the \(lverbs ralde, rchementer, inagnfipere, magia, maxhne, &c. 
 (c) By Neuter Adjectives, miiltitm, plus vlurbnum, &c. 
 
 D. Exceptional Uses of the Genitive. 
 
 § 284. The Genitive is occasionally used after Verbs 
 and Adjectives of Separation or Removal ; whether accord- 
 ing to the Greek idiom, or hy virtue of the original meaning 
 of the Case (see § 262, Ohs. 1) : as, 
 
 Desine moUium tandem querelarum. Cease at length from wimanly 
 repini)i(js. — Hor. (Comp. tlie Gmk yowv, K\avd/j.ov Travcadai.) 
 
 ScSleris purus, Pure from guilt. — Hor. (Gr, Kadaphs aSiKias.) 
 
 SOlutus dptrum, lieleased from toil. — Ilor. (Gr. \e\v/j.4vos iroywv.) 
 
 ^ § 285. The Genitive is sometimes used (especialh' by the 
 poets), in the sense of icifh regard to, in reference to, for : as, 
 
 O te, Bolane, felicem cerebri, my friend BoJanus, hicliy for your 
 clioteric rein ! — Hor. 
 
 Xotiis in iratros unhni puterni, Henowned for right fatherly affection 
 to his brothers. — Hor. 
 
 (Comp. the Greek u\$ios, /xaKap rwv riKvwv, etc.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Note especially the use of animi in such phrases as JinKmi pendcre, 
 to be in suspense or anxious in mind ; crCiciare se linlmi, to torture oneself 
 in mind, kc. (But we also find an'uno ; which seems to imply that the 
 form is a Locative : sec § 257, Obs. Y.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Tacitus uses the Genitive very freely, and especially after Adjectives : 
 as, atrox udii, savage in hatred ; mOdicus voluptutis, moderate in enjoy- 
 ment, &c. 
 
 § 280. The Locatives domi, at home ; militiae, in the field ; 
 Eomae, at Home ; Sagunti, at SaguntiDn ; and the like, are com- 
 monly regarded as Genitives: but see § 257, Obs. 1. 
 
 Chatter XL. — The Dative. 
 
 § 287. The Dative may usually bo translated by the 
 l^repositions to or for, in English. It denotes the Remoter 
 Object, as distinguished from the Immediate Object ; the 
 latter being put in the Accusative (see § 234) : as, 
 
 Aesopo (luulum lapidem impcgerat, A person had cast a stone at Aesop. — 
 Phaedr. 
 
 Ohs. Here the immediate ohjert of the action is the stone (lapidem) which it 
 cast ; while the Dative Aesopo denotes the remoter object, or the person to 
 uhom the action has reference. 
 
 4 
 
 A. Dative AFTER Verbs. 
 
 1. Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage. 
 (^Ddtwus Commddi or Incommodi.) 
 
 § 288. The Dative may be used after any kind of Verb 
 soever, to signify /or, /or the good of : as, 
 
 Donuis dominis aedifieutur, iion mUrlbus, A house is built for its 
 owners, not for the mice. — Cic. 
 
 Non schOlae sed vltae discimus. We learn not for the school, but for 
 I'fe.— Scn. 
 
 Non bolnm nobis divites esse vol ilmus. We wish not to be rich for our- 
 selves only. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. "NVTien for signifies in defence of, in behalf of , prO must he used: as, 
 mori pro patriu, to die for one's country ; dicerc pro ultquo, to speak for 
 any one (i. e. in behalf of any one). 
 
 Obs. 2. The Dativus Commodi is also used after Adjectives : see § 298. 
 
 § 280. Hence some Intransitive verbs, which usually do 
 not govern any case, are constructed with a Dative to ex- 
 press that the action is done with reference to something 
 or somebody. Thiis vaco, to be free, signifies with the 
 Dative to have leisure for a thing, to devote oneself to it ; nubo, 
 to cover or veil signifies with the Dative, in reference to a 
 woman, to cover herself or put on the veil for a man, hence to 
 marry ; supplico, to be a suppliant, signifies with the Dative to 
 supplicate, to implore a person : as, 
 
 Phllosophiae semper vaco, I always find leisure to study philosophy. 
 —Cic. 
 
 Venus mipsit VulcHno, Venus married Vulcan.— Cic. 
 
 Caesdri pro te libentissime siippllcubo, I will most willingly suppli- 
 cate Caesar for you. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Of course nubo is used only of a woman marrying. 
 
 2. Dativus Ethicus. 
 
 § 290. Sometimes the Dative (especially in the case of 
 the Personal I^ronouns 7nihi, tihi, sibi, nobis, vobis) is used 
 to signify that the matter spoken of is regarded with 
 interest (/^Ool) by some person . as, 
 
 Quid mihi Celsiis Jlgit, IJow does my friend Celsusf — Hor. 
 Hie :Milriu3 vCniet t'lbi orlgine parva, Uere shall come your Marius, 
 of stock obscure. — Sil. 
 
 Obs. The Dativus Ethicus is a more delicate shade of the Dativus Commodi, 
 
 i 
 
164 
 
 THE BAIIVE CASE. 
 
 §291. 
 
 §291. 
 
 THE DATIVE CASE. 
 
 16:7 
 
 3. Dative after various Verbs. 
 
 § 291. The following verbs, apparently transitive, govern 
 a Dative, wliicli in many cases is the Dativus Conimodi or 
 Incommodi : 
 
 1. To assist: subvenio, succurro, anxilior. 
 
 2. To resist, oppose: resisto, adversor, obnltor, renltor, 
 repugno, obsuni, &c. 
 
 3. To favour, study (be devoted to) : faveo, iudnlgeo, studeo. 
 
 4. To envy, he jealous of : invideo, aeiuulor (see Obs. 4). 
 
 5. To please : placeo, arrideo. 
 
 6. To serve, obey, benefit : pareo, obedio, obtempero, servio, 
 prosnm. 
 
 7. To trust or distrust : credo, fido, confido, diffido. 
 
 8. To spare, refrain from : parco, tcm^»ero. 
 
 9. To advise, persuade : suadeo, persufideo. 
 
 10. To fatter: adillor, assentor, blandior.^ 
 
 11. To cure : medeor, medicor. 
 
 12. To pardon: ignosco. 
 
 13. To congratulate : gratiilor. 
 
 14. To revile : mrdedlco, obtrecto, convicior. 
 
 15. To be angry : Irascur, succenseo. 
 
 16. To protect : patrocmor. 
 
 17. Ih command : impero, impeiito, praecipio, and some-' 
 times dominor, moderor, tempero 
 
 AVith some others. 
 
 HumTnes hommhus plurimiim ct prosunt et ohsunt. Men very greatly 
 henejit and harm their fellow-men.— Cic. 
 
 JAhcT is est existlinaiuhi.-^, qui iiulli turprtwliiii sferrit. That man 
 fihouhl he deemed a freeman icho is in hondufje to no disgraceful passion. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Non licet sui commudi causa, nocere alter! , It is wrong to injure 
 another far one's own advantage.— Cic. 
 
 Domostlit5ncs ejus ipsius artis, cui studehat, primam literam non 
 potc'iat du'ore, Denioxfhenes could not pronounce the first letter of the very 
 art which he was studying. — Cic. 
 
 Aiitir)chus se nee impenme, nee lahlri, nee pSr'iculo parsHrum polltce- 
 batur, Antiuchus promised to spare neither expense, labour, nor peril. — 
 Liv. 
 
 BIc'tlTci t<3to corpora cfirando, mlnlmae Ctiara parti mSdentur, 
 Physicians, hy treating the whole of the body, cure also the smallest part 
 of it. — Cic. ' 
 ^ PrObus invidet nemXni, The good man envies no one.— Cic. 
 
 • 
 i 
 
 »\ 
 
 Epicurus Phaedoni turpissime maUdixit, Epicurus maligned Phaedo 
 very grossly. — Cic. 
 
 Quis Isocruti est adversUtus impensius fquam Aristotelcs), Who op- 
 posed Isocrates more strongly than Aristotle? 
 
 lis aemulamur qui ea liabeant quae nos habere cupiamus, We are 
 jeulous of those loho have what we want. — Cic. 
 
 OmiiDms gentthus ac nationibus impSrdre, To rule over all peoples and 
 nations.-^Cic. 
 
 ModSrari dnimo et orutioni cum sis iratus, To govern temper and 
 tongue tchen you are angry.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Passives of these verbs can be used only impersonally : as, mVhi 
 invWetur, I am envied. See § 234, Obs. 2. 
 
 Obs. 2. Jtlvo, adjtivo, I assist ; delecto, oblecto, I delight ; euro, I take care 
 of, or treat medically ; always govern the Accusative : as, 
 
 Multum putes nos apud Tlancum jiivare. You are able greatly to help 
 me with Planciis. — Cic. 
 
 Atttcam salvcre jQbe, et earn dllYgenter cura, Pay my respects to Attica, 
 and take good care of her. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 3. Medeor, modtcor, I heal ; and adQlor, I flatter, have sometimes the 
 Accusative and sometimes the Dative. 
 
 Obs. 4. Aemdlor, in sense of to rival, emulate, is always followed by an 
 Accusative : 
 
 Me Agatnemyionem aeraulari pQtas, Ton fancy I am emidating Aga^ 
 memnon. — Nep 
 
 Obs. 5. Invtdeo, I envy, begrudge, may take in addition to a Dative of the 
 Person an Accusative (or in later writers an Ablative) of the thing be- 
 grudged : as, 
 
 Invtdcnt nobis magistram opttoiam, They envy us the best of teachers 
 [Nature). — Cic. 
 
 Ne spectncfilo qutdem proelii nobis invTderunt, They (the gods) have not 
 even begrudged us the spectacle of a battle. — Tac. 
 
 Obs. 6. Jiibeo, rego, and giiberno are always followed by the Accasative, and 
 dominor, moderor, tempero, as frequently by the Accusative as by the Dative ; 
 especially when they mean to govern : as, 
 
 O diva gratum qui regis Antium, goddess who rulest thy favourite 
 Antium ! — Ilor. 
 
 Sperare nos vvrnXcxjiihent, Our friends bid us hope. — Cic. 
 
 Qui (Juptter) res homtnum ac deorum, qui mare ac terras temperat. 
 Who governs the affairs of men and gods, who governs sea and land. — Ilor. 
 
 Cum solus rcmpublicam gererct, or^7«que terrarum giibcrnarct. When 
 he was carrying on the commonwealth alone, and governing the u-orld. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 7. Some verbs have different meanings, according as they govern the 
 Accusative or Dative : as, 
 
 Ilaec nobis conveniunt, These things agree with us. 
 Conv^nTre aliquem, To hare an interview with any one. 
 Mdtuo, tlmeo te, I fear you. 
 
 tibi, I am apprehensive for you, 
 
 Consiilo te, / consult you. 
 
 tibi, / consult for your interests. 
 
 Prosptcio, and provtdco te, / see you at a distance. 
 
 ~ tibi, I consult for your interests. 
 
 CJlveo te or a te, I am on my guard against you. 
 
 ttbi, I am concerned for your safety. 
 
 Tempfro, mSderor aliquid, to regulate, arrange. 
 
 mihi, irae, &c., to set botmds to, to check, restrain. 
 
IGG 
 
 THE DATIVE CASE. 
 
 § 202. 
 
 §29G. 
 
 THE DATIVE CASE. 
 
 167 
 
 4. Dative after Verbs compounded with Prepositions. 
 
 § 292. V^erbs compounded with the Prepositions 
 
 ad, ante, con, in and inter 
 
 ob, post, prae, sub and super 
 govern the Dative, when the Preposition retains its oiiginal 
 force in reference to an object. Transitive verbs have 
 also an Accusative case in addition : as, 
 
 Tu mthi tcrram //i-jtce, FUng thou earth on me {my corpse). — Virg. 
 
 Delphines altis //<-C'ursaiit ramis, TJie dolphins courae lujainst the hojh 
 branches.— Ov. 
 
 Jyi-cttbuit tiiro. She leaned upon her couch. — Virg. 
 
 Quum prupC'iuodo mfirls ac-cessissct, When he had almost got ttp to 
 the walls. — Liv. 
 
 Caesjri veuienti oc-eurrit, JJe hastens to meet Caesar on his icaij. — 
 Cues. 
 
 Quum virtfite omn?/'j/s]jrae-stureut, ^yhereas they {the Ileh'ctiij cur- 
 passed all in valour. — Cues. 
 
 Natura liOmliud pccHdibus a/ift-cedit, The nature of man excels hrute 
 beasts. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. The preposition, liowerer, is frequently repeated with its case instead 
 of the Dative, especially after verbs compounded with ad, con, in. For 
 instance eommunico is always constructed aliquid cum aVtquo : inesse in 
 the best writers is constructed with in. On the contrary adjdcco, assiden, 
 adsto always have the Dative. It may be observed in general that when 
 the Preposition is compounded with a Verb sijrnifying motion to or from a 
 place, it usually governs the same Case as it would out of composition. 
 
 Ohs. 2. Assuefiicio, assuesco are usually constructed with the Ablative, rarely 
 with the Dative : as. 
 
 Cum LusTtanis gt'nt^re quodam pugnae assucfacti, Accustomed to a certain 
 kind of fighting ivith the Lusitani. — Caes. 
 
 Obs. 3. Verbs compounded with ante and prae, as anfesto, ant?cedo, anti'cello, 
 praesto, are usually constructed with the Dative, but sometimes with the 
 Accusative : v. § 239. 
 
 Obs. 4. Some compound verbs, especially aspergo, inspcrgo, circnmdo, have 
 two constructions, namely, either an Accusative of the thing and a Dative 
 of the person, or an Accusative of the person and an Ablative of the 
 thing : as, 
 
 Circumdare brachia collo. To put the arms about any one's neck. — Ov. 
 
 Oppidum vallo et fossa circumdare, To surround a town with a rampart 
 and moat. — Cic. 
 
 5. Dative after Passive Verbs. 
 
 § 293. The Dative is often used with the Perfect Tenses 
 Passive to denote the Agent, instead of a or ab and the 
 Ablative : as, 
 
 Cic. 
 
 Mihi consilium captum}iim. diu est. My plan has been already formed. — 
 
 I 
 
 Cni non sunt audltae DemosthCnis vigiliac, IHiO is there to ichom 
 the night-watchings of Demosthenes are a thing unheard 1 — Cic. 
 
 Obs. The Dative is by the Poets used with all tenses of the Passive Verb ; as, 
 Barbiirus hie Pgo sum quia non intellTgor ulli. Here I am a barbarian, 
 inasmuch as I am understood by none. — Ov. 
 
 >'?que cernltur uili. Nor is she seen by any {visible to any). — Virg. 
 
 Carm^na quae scrlbuntur ilquae pGtGrXbus, Poems that are u-ritten by 
 nater-drinkns. — llor. (But here perhaps poioribus is the Ablative : v. 
 § 311, Obs.) 
 
 § 294. The Dative is regularly used after the Gerundive 
 Participle with the Verb esse, to denote the Agent : as, 
 
 Quod fSrendum est inohiter sapienti, Which the wise man must bear 
 gently. — Cic 
 
 Semper ita vivamus, ut rationem reddendam ^esse; nobis arbitremur, 
 ■Let us always so lice as to believe that we must render up an account. — 
 Cic. 
 
 6. Dative after Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 § 295. The Impersonal Verbs licet, it is lawful; libet, it^ 
 pleases ; expedit, it is expedient, govern the Dative : as, 
 
 Licet nemhii dacere exercitura contra patriara. It is not lawful for 
 any man to lead an army against his cowitry. — Cic 
 
 Ei Itbebit, quod non licet (ei), It will please him to do thcd ichich is 
 unlawful for him. — Cic 
 
 Obs. After Ucet, &c., we often find a second Dative following the Infinitive V i^^f' 
 Mood esse ; as, ^r^r*-; 
 
 Llcuit esse Themistocli oiiuso, It teas allowed Tlicmistocles to be inactive. ^ 
 
 —Cic. 
 
 Illis timtdis ct ignuvis licet esse, It is for them to be timid and cowardly. 
 -Liv, 
 
 7. Dative witli the Verb Sum. 
 
 § 296. The Verb sum with the Dative is used as equi- 
 valent to habeo : as, 
 
 3Irhi est injusta noverca, I have an unjust stepmother.— Yirg;. 
 Troja huic loco nomon est, This place has the name Troy. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. 1. When, as in the last example, a 7iame is specified after the verb esse 
 or any similar Verb, it is usually attracted into the Dative also : as, 
 
 ScTpio cui Afrtcano cognomen ex virtuto fuit, Scij}io, loho had the sir- 
 name of Africanus o?i account of his valour. — Sail. 
 
 In campis, quYbus nomen erat Raudiis, decertuvcre, They fought in the 
 plains which have the name [are called) Rattdii. — Veil. 
 Ohs. 2. The following use of the Dative is an idiom borrowed from the 
 Greek : 
 
 Ut mirifibus labor volentlbus esset. That the soldiers might be willing /-> 
 undertake labour. (Lit., Tliat the labour might be to the soldiers as willing 
 persons : jois arparifairais /SovAo/teVots et»j) 
 
168 
 
 THE DATIVE CxiSE. 
 
 § 297; 
 
 § sot 
 
 THE DATIVE CASE. 
 
 IC9 
 
 8. Double Dative. 
 
 § 297. A Dative of the Person (Dativus Commodi, 
 § 288) and a Dative of Purpose or Result are used witli 
 Verbs signifying to he or become ; to give, send or come ; to 
 impute or reckon, 4'C- ' a-s, 
 
 Flumen aliis verbGmin corf?/ est, A flood of icords is the gratification 
 of others. — Cic. 
 
 Ampla doraiis saepe fit ddmlno dedccori, A spacious home often turna 
 to the disgrace of its owner.— Cic. 
 
 Pausaniaa rex Lacedaemonionim renit Atticis auxilio, Paiisanias, 
 king of the Lacedemonians, came to the help of the Athenians.— 'Scy*. 
 
 Nec timuit sihi ne vUio quis vert^ret. Nor was afraid that some one 
 might impute it to him as a fault. — Hor. 
 
 Cui b5uo fuit, For ichose advantage icas it ?— Cic. 
 
 ts. The Dative of result is also used without a Dative of the Person : as, 
 Nec earn rem hibuit re/Ti/tJn*, Nor did he deem that circumstance a 
 
 religious objection. — Cic. 
 
 Magno odio esse apud iiltquem, To be an object of intense hatred with 
 
 anybody. — Cic. j 
 
 B. Dative after Adverbs and Adjectives. 
 
 §298. The Dative (in many cases a Dativus Commodi, 
 § 288) is used after the following classes of Adjectives :— 
 
 1. Of Utility : utilis, commodus, fructuosus, &c. 
 
 2. 0/ Unprofitableness or injury : inutilis, noxius. 
 
 3. Of Fitness : aptus, accommudfitus, iduneus, conveniens, 
 
 proprius, 
 
 &c. 
 
 4. Of Unfitness : incommudus, inconveniens. 
 
 5. Of Acceptahleness : grfitus, jucundns, cfirus. 
 
 6. Of Displeasure : ingrfitus, injucundus. 
 
 7. Of Friendliness : benignus, amicus, benevolus, fidelis, 
 fidus. 
 
 8. Of Hostility : inimicus, peiTiiciusus, mrdevOlus, malig- 
 nus, mulestus, irutus, infestus. 
 
 9. Of Similarity and dissimilarity : similis, dissimilis. 
 
 10. Of Equality and inequality : aequfdis, inacqualis. 
 
 11. Of Proximity : finitimus, vicinus, propinquus. 
 
 Ronwlhis multrtiidini grUtior fuit qnam Patrlbiis, Romulus icas more 
 acceptable to the multitude than to the Fathers.— Ij\\. 
 
 Deiotarii3 fidelis erat Popiilo Romano, Deiotarus was faithful to the 
 Roman people. — Cic. 
 
 I 
 
 Patriae solum omnibus carum est, The soil of our country is dear to 
 all. — Cic. 
 
 Siciili Verri inimici infestique sunt, The Sicilians are unfriendly to^ 
 and exasperated against Verres. — Cic. 
 
 Homo alienisslmus mihi, A man most unfriendly to me. — Cic. 
 
 Ingrvttam V^Cri poue sriperbi^m. Lay aside your arrogance, dis- 
 pleasing to Venus. — Hor. 
 
 Numquid irfdus es mihi propter has res. You are not angry icitli me 
 for these things, are youi — PI. 
 
 Idque eo iUcilius crcdebatur quia simile rero videbutur, And the 
 tiling was the more readily believed, because it seemed like truth. — Cic. 
 
 Paupertatem divitiis Ctiam inter homines esse aequdlem volumus, 
 We would have poverty on a level with riches even among men. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. Some of these Adjectives are used as Substantives, amicus, tmmlcus, 
 
 finitimus, viclmis, propinquus, &c., and are then constructed with the 
 
 Genitive. 
 
 Obs. 2. SXmiUs and dissHmiHs are quite as often found with the Genitive : as, 
 
 Decem stmtles Xestoris, Ten meti the like of Nestor. — Cic. 
 
 Impii elves, tui disstmillimi, Impious citizefis most unlike yourself. — Cic. 
 
 Mutual likeness, &c., is expressed with inter : as, 
 
 Disstmilltmi inter se Zeuxis, Aglaophon, &c., Zeuxis, Aglaophon, ^c, are 
 very unlike each other. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 3. An Adjective denoting fitness or utiUty may take, in addition to the 
 Dative as above, an Accusative of the purpose with ad : as, 
 
 Multas ad res perutHes (nJfiis) X&nophontis libri sunt, TTie works of 
 Xenophon are very useful {to us) for many purposes. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 4. The Adjectives which express friendliness, as benignus, b^ncvolus, 
 &c., are often constructed with erga and adrersus ; and those which ex- 
 press hostility, as malignus, mulevolus, with adversus. 
 
 § 299. After Adverbs. Any Adverb may govern a 
 Dative which is derived from the Adjectives above de- 
 scribed : as, 
 
 Congruenter nUtHrae vivere. To live agreeably to nature. — Cic. 
 
 C. Exceptional Uses of the Dative. 
 
 § 300. In the Poets, the Dative is sometimes, by a Greek 
 idiom, used after a Verb of fighting (instead of the Ablative 
 with cujn) : as, 
 
 Luctantem Icuriis fluctibus Africum mercator mCtuens, The merchant 
 when (actually) in dread of the south wind wrestling the Icarian billoics. 
 —Hor. 
 
 (Compare the Gr. fidxf<T6ai rivi.) 
 
 § 301. The Dative is sometimes used by the Poets io 
 express motion towards : as. 
 
 It clamor coelo, The shout rises to heaven. — Virg. 
 
'' 
 
 17v) THE ABLATIVE CASE. § 'W 
 
 3. 
 
 Chapter XLI.— The Ablative. 
 
 § 302. The Ablative has two leading sigiiiiicatioiis : it 
 denotes, 
 
 (A.) Separation from. 
 
 (B.) Various Conditions of an action : as, manner, cause, 
 instrument, time, i)lace, attendant circumstances. 
 
 It is usually expressed in English by the help of the 
 Prepositions />w«, by, with, in : as, 
 
 Trojae venit ab oris, He came from the coasts of Troy.—\iTg. 
 Fato profugus. An exile by destiny.— Virg. 
 
 Carthago, studiis asponimd belli, Carthage, most fierce in the pursuits 
 of loar.— Virg. 
 
 1. Ablative of Separation. 
 
 § 303. From a Place or Person is put in the Ablative 
 both with and without a Preposition. 
 
 § 304. Names of Towns and small Islands are put in the 
 Ablative without a Preposition, to denote Motion from. See 
 § 2G1. 
 
 § 305. All Prepositions (^QnoWwg Motion or Absence from, 
 as a or ab, de, ex, sine, etc., are construed with the Abla- 
 tive. See Chapter on Prepositions. 
 
 § 306. The Ablative of Separation is found with Verbs 
 signifying to separate, remove, deliver from ; but more fre- 
 quently, "especially in Prose writers, with a Preposition : 
 as, 
 
 (a.) Verecuntlum Bacehum sang^uineis prohiUte rixis, Save ye honest 
 Bacchus from hlooil- stained frays I— Kor. 
 
 Nodosa corpus pruhihcre chiragra, To save the body from the hnottj 
 gout. — Hor. 
 
 Libi^rare aliquem culpa. To free a man from blame.— C'lc. 
 
 Vercingtitorix oppugndtione destUit,Vercingetorix abandoned the siege. 
 — Caes. 
 
 (b.) Ab oppidis vim liostium prohXbent, They icard off the violent 
 attacks of the enemy from their walls.— Cues. 
 
 Viri boiii laptdibua afuro pellebantur, Good citizens were being pelted 
 from the forum with stones. — Cie. 
 
 Euin ab omtii erratioue llboravit, lie freed it (the world) from all 
 possihiJ/fy of going astray.— Cic. (But UbCro is quite as frequent With 
 tUe abL alone.^ 
 
 § 310 
 
 THE ABLATJVE CASE. 
 
 171 
 
 f 
 
 O 
 
 Til JupUer, hunc a tuis uris arcebis, TJiou, Jove, wilt heev thU 
 (mllain)from thine altarsI-Cic. ^ ^'"* 
 
 § 307. The Ablative is used after Adjectives denotin 
 freedom or exemption from : as, 
 
 RObustus animus omni est liber curd, The strong mind is free from 
 
 Ciit (l)l3Cl€ttJ^ — v>lC» 
 
 ^ Fdmd atque fortunis cxpertes, Destitute of character as well as 
 jortune. — Sail. 
 
 Obs. 1. A Preposition is often used along with the Ablative: as, 
 
 Zlber ab omni sumptu, Free from all expense. Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. Alienus is likewise used both with ab and with the Dative : see § 290. 
 
 § 308. 6pus est, the7^e is need, like verbs of want, governs 
 the Ablative : as, 
 
 Auctdritdte nGbis opus est, We have need of authority.~Cic. 
 Opus est mature /acto, TJiere is need of prompt execution.— Sixll 
 Obs. But OPUS is also used as an Adjective (indeclinable), in the Predicate : 
 
 Themistocles ceU^rltcr, quae opus erant, rdpericbat, Themistocles Kas 
 quick atfindmg out what teas tcanted.— Nep. 
 
 2. Ablative of Origin. 
 
 § 309. The Ablative of Origin arises out of the Ablative 
 of separation. It denotes that /row which anything is made, 
 or originates : as, 
 
 (Domus) amocnitas non aedrficio sed silva consfcbaf, TJie pleasant- 
 ness oj the house consisted not in the building {itself), but its trees.— 'Nep. 
 
 PrLidentia constat ex scientid rerum bOnarum et malurum, Prudence 
 consists of the knowledge of things good aiul evil.— Cic. 
 
 § 310. The Ablative of Origin is found especially after 
 tlie Participles natus, born from ; ortus, oriundus, sprung from ; 
 genitus, begotten of: also in the Poets with satus, editus, creatus, 
 cretus, sprung frmn or begotten of: as, 
 
 Jove natus et Maia, Born of Jove and Maia.—Clc. 
 
 Orte Sdturno, thou offspring of Saturn .'—Hor. 
 
 Quo sanguine cretus, From what blood (family) siirung. —Xirg. 
 
 Albd oriundum sacerdotium, A priesthood that had its orinin in Alba. 
 — Liv. 
 
 Obs. But oriundus and likewise ortus when it refers to more remote 
 origin, are more frequently used with a Preposition : as, 
 
 Hippocrates et Epicydcs, nati Carthagtne, sed oriundi ab Svracus:s 
 Hippocrates and Epkydea, natives of Carthage, but having their orioin 
 from Syracuse. — Liv. ^ " 
 
 Relgae orii sunt a Gcrmanis, The Belgians are descended from the 
 Germans. — Caes 
 
 I 2 
 
5 
 
 172 
 
 THE ABI^iTIVE CASE. 
 
 §311 
 
 3. Ablative of Cause, Manner, Instrument. 
 
 § 311. The Ablative is used after Verbs, Participles, and 
 Adjectives, to denote the Causey Manner, Means, or JnatnimeHt 
 of an Action or state of being : as, 
 
 Sol cuncta sua luce illustrat tt coniplet, The sun iUuniines ami Jillis 
 all things with its liqfit. — Cic. 
 
 Helvetii reliqiios Gallos virtiite praeecdunt, The Helcetii surpass the 
 rest of the Gauh in valour. — Caea. 
 
 (Britiinniy equItUta atquo esscdis ad flumen progrcssi (sunt), The 
 Britons Mlvanced to the river icith cavalry and war-chariots. — Caes. 
 
 Epilminondas princeps meo judicio Graeciae, Epaminondas, in my 
 judgment, the foremost man of Greece, — Cic. 
 
 Eimiua fuit major niitu quam Plaiitus et Xacvins, Ennius was earlier 
 in his period ofbirtJt than Plantns and Naevius. — Cic. 
 
 Cornfbus tauri, npri dentlhus, morsu leCmcs, so tutaiitnr, Bulls ivifh 
 {their) horns^ hoars with {their) tusks, lions by biting, defend themselves. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Obs. Ilenco the Ablative is used after a Passive Verb -vrithout a preposi- 
 tion to denote the thing by which a purpose is effected ; but if the agent is 
 a person, the preposition a or ab is required with the Ablative : see 
 § 234, Obs. 1. By the poets, however, the Ablative is sometimes used 
 alone : as, 
 
 Scrlberis Viirio, Thou shall be written of by Varius. — Ilor. 
 
 § 312. 1. If the manner in which anything is done, be 
 expressed by a Substantive and an Adjective, the Ablative 
 is generally used without cum : 
 
 2. But if the manner is expressed by a Substantive 
 alone, cum must be used : as, 
 
 3Iiltiades res Chersonesi summd aeqnltatc constituit, Mdtiades 
 arranged the affairs of the Cher»onesu8 with the greatest fairne»s. — Nep. 
 
 Athenicnses cum sileiitio auditi sunt, The Athenians were heard 
 with silent attention. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Substantives signifying manner, as vindns, riitio, mos, rltus, con- 
 suetildo, never take the preposition cum: as, hoc modo, in (his manner; 
 Persarum more, after the custom of the Persians. 
 
 Obs. 2. The student should observe that where with in English means in 
 company with, cum is always used ; but where with denotes the instrument, 
 as, to kill a person icith a sword, cum cannot be used, but only the Ablative 
 
 of the instrument. 
 
 « 
 
 § 313. The Ablative is used with Intransitive verbs to 
 express the cause of anything happening, especially the 
 cause ot feelings or emotions, as, for example, ardere studio, 
 to burn with zeal ; exsultare gaudio, to exult icith joy ; intcriro 
 (peiire, mori) fame, to die of hunger ; gaudere (laetfiri) amici 
 adventu, to rejoice at the arrival of a friend; gloriari victoria 
 
 §316. 
 
 THE ABLATIVE CASE. 
 
 173 
 
 sun, tohoastofhis victory; confidere natura loci, to trust in 
 tJie nature of the ground : as, 
 
 Delicto dolore. cnrrectione gaudc^^ro, nos oportet. We ought to arievf nt 
 a fault, to rejoice at its correction.~Cic. ^ ^ ^ "' 
 
 ^ Nomlnlbus vmmm glGriantur, They glory in the names of the ancients. 
 
 Ad versus JasOnem Timotheus poprtli jussu bellum gessit Timotheus 
 earned on war ayatnst Jason hy command of the people -Ne^' ^""'"'^^"^ 
 
 g J?.^^-'''" '''^' *,^ preposition propter or causa with the Genitive fsee 
 , § 2G4J, IS generally used instead of the Ablative of the Cause 
 
 ""^sVnif Jfnl" " fo'induce '' T" "' '' n"^' '''' '''''''' ^^^^^"P^^ ^' ^^-'^ -^^ 
 
 ncnt nf .,' ^" .^ grcnerally used with the Ablative of the Instru- 
 
 . ment ^as, cup.nt.teaddnctus, commGtus, incrtatus, impulsu,, incensusXl 
 
 tL fy! A """^ ^"•^f'^'' f ^ ^^'° "'^^ ^ith the Dative (see S 291) • doleo 
 t ./'/r'' -"',''" § '''^ ' ^^-'---ith the preposition! J.o j/ as 
 In vrtutc rectc glonumur, We rightly glory in virtue.~Ci^. 
 De tuts dnitns glonaris, Fou boast of your wealth.— Cic. 
 
 §3U. The Adjectives, which express a state of the 
 feelings, are followed by an Ablative of the Cause • as 
 contentus, contented, laetus, rejoicing, superbus, proud, fretus relu- 
 h.g on, and, less frequently, moestus, sorroicful, anxius, anxiou^ : 
 as, 
 
 Fretus dlltgentid vesirU, dissCro breviiis, Hehjing on your diligence I 
 treat {the matter) more briefly. ~Qic. '^ your aiugence, i 
 
 Faucis contentus, Content with litfle.—Hor. 
 
 ^_^ Pliocbe sflperbe lyra, Thou Phoebus ivho falsest pride in thy lyre !- 
 
 Obs. For dignus, indignus, see § 320. 
 
 ^ § 315. The Deponent Verbs utor, fruor, fungor, vescor, nitor, 
 potior, with their comi:)ounds, govern an Ablative : as, 
 
 „v,5'^'p "' ''^^'^''' ''P*^"''' "^'^'"'' ^^'^ ''^''' "^'^ "^^« reason in the best 
 
 PJiirlniis maritYmis rinms fruimnr atquc utimur. We enjoy and make 
 use of very many maritime productions.-Cic. ^ 
 
 Vre^t%tJt-:^e^"^ ""'* ^''^'''^^ ^'''*^^"'' ^OesHaus obtained possession of 
 
 Obs. I. Most of the above are Instrumental Ablatives : the Deponents having 
 been ongmal y P^ussives or Ileflcctives. The Ablative with pLr is perhaps 
 governed by the Comparative implied in it (§319). 
 
 ^^I'J- .^f ''';;;°'^'^«"^^« takes the Genitive ; especially in the phrase rerum 
 pot in, to obtain the management of afairs. —Cic. 
 
 ^T ^ '^v Y^^'^^ ^^ ^«y%, selling, valuing, exchanging; and 
 I[^^ ^tljcctives cams, dear, and vilis, cheap, are used with 
 the Ablative of Price : as, 
 
174 
 
 THE ABLATIVE CASE. 
 
 §317. 
 
 Lu^g^^^^^ ihuhlunos should he hought, not ^clth money, hut hy an 
 equimlent of g(mls—3nsim. , ,.. x * ii . 
 
 Viginti ialenth unam oratiCmom TsocrStes rendUht, Isocmtes sold a 
 gingle'speech for Ucenty talents.— Villi. ^.v* c • o v.. n 
 
 SC-ius in (annOnae^ cuntate asse moainm poprtlo dcM, Sems m a 
 dearth of com gave it the people at an ii^ per peck.-Y^; 
 
 Quod non opus est, asse rarum est, TF/mf you don t icant is dear at 
 «»yimee',lit., at an asj.-Cic. 
 
 Mutiit qua<lrata r^undis, He changes square for rou^'^;'^?:^^ f ^ 
 muto, either of the articles ofexchan-o may be put ni the Ablative.) 
 
 Obs. 1. The Ablative is used because the Price is the »ica«s by which a 
 
 thing IS obtained. 
 06v 2 The Ablative of Price is only used when a definite stun is expressed 
 bv a Subslantive ; but an Indefinite Price is expressed by the Geiutnc 
 of an Adjective of quantity : see § 281. 
 
 ExcBPTiON-s.-But the Ablatives ma?no, at a high price ; perma-no, plu- 
 Ttmo at a very hiqh price; nlmio, at too hujh a pnve ; parvo «r » lou 
 pHc^-JnLo'fJaverylow price; n^hilo, /.r .othi,^; -e also found 
 ^ith ;ords of biyin,, selling, and valuing, without a Substantive : ^> 
 
 Permagno d^^ciimas vendldisti, You farmed the dues {tenths) out at a 
 very high rate. -Cic. . ,-nu 
 
 Non potest ;>«rro res magna constare, A great thing cannot cost htlle.- 
 
 Sen. 
 Obs. 3. Sometimes the punishment to which a person is comlcmned is put in 
 the Ablative, but more freciuently in the Genitive : see ^ -80. 
 
 § ni7. Yerl)s and Adjectives signifying fidhicss or xmnt 
 govern an Ablative of the means or manner : as, 
 
 Germania rlvls ftunitnlhusqne abundat, Germany abounds in streams 
 and r/rers.— Sen. 
 
 Neptunus ventis iniplevit vela secundis, Neptune filled the sads inVi 
 
 favourable winds. — Yirg. . 
 
 F(yZup<af« virtus saepe caret, minquam indiset, Virtue is often inth- 
 
 out pleasure, never needs (it). — Sen. 
 
 Cera referta notis, A tcax tablet full of marhs.—Ov. 
 
 Obs. 1. Verbs of filing and leant rarely govern the Genitive ; but Adjectives 
 more frequently govern the Genitive than the Ablative: see § 2,6. In- 
 digeo, however, usually takes the Genitive : as, aeris mdtgere, to tcant 
 money. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Verbs aflcere, instruh-e, ornare, &c., come under this rule, an.l 
 govern an Ablative of the thing : as, 
 
 Praeda affecit popOlures suos, Me has enriched his countrymen with 
 booty, riaut. 
 
 Obs 3 PraedXtm, endowed with, also governs the Ablative : as, 
 
 ' Mens est praedtta motu semptterno, The mind is endowed with perpetual 
 motion. — Cic. 
 
 §320. 
 
 THE ABLATIVE CASE. 
 
 I/O 
 
 4. Ablative of Quality. 
 
 § 318. The Ablative of Quality is nsed in describin<r a 
 1 erson or Thing. Like the Genitive of Quality (§ 274)*^ it 
 requires an Adjective to be in agreement with it : as, 
 
 Caesar fuisse truditur excehd statura, coldre candkJo, tCrmhus mem- 
 
 5. Ablative of Comparison. 
 § 310. The Ablative is used after Comparatives instead 
 of quam wiih the Nominative, and also instead of qaam 
 with the Accusative of the subject in the construction ol 
 the Accusative with the Infinitive : as, 
 
 V- ^^^'\ f\frfsaiectHfe( = qumn otiosa scnectns) jucundius, NoViinn 
 ts more dehghfjid than an old age of retirement.- Cic. ^ "J 
 
 Tullus Uo^mimlidmrdo{ = qnam Romulus, fiiit ftrOcior, T. Hostilius 
 teas more irarl, he than liomulus.— Liv. ^^^^lus 
 
 Sc-iraus solcm ranlto majorem esse terrrJ rquam terram\ We knoiv 
 tuat the sun ts much greater than the earth.— Cc. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Ablative instead of quam, vcifh the Object-Accusative, is rare in 
 prose, when the Accusative is a Substantive, but frequent in poetry : as, 
 
 ^^?T ^^^J"^'^ '"y'"^ r77»V7«o ( = quam sanguinem viperinum) eautius 
 If J> J! </oe« he avoid the olice-oil more cautiously than th, viper* 
 blood f — 1 1 or. ^ • 
 
 When the Object-Accusative is a Pronoun, the Ablative is frenuentlv 
 used instead of 9««,«; and this is always the case with the Relative in 
 negative clauses : as, 
 
 Punicuin helium, quo nullum majus Romani gessere, The Putiic tear, 
 than which the liomans carried on none greater. Liv, 
 
 Cbs. 2. The omission of guam with the comparative of an adverb is rare in 
 prose : as, 
 
 Lacrima nil cHius arescit, Kothirig dries quicker than a tear. —Cic. 
 Cbs. 3. The Ablative is never used when two Predicates are compared : as 
 Miltiades aniTcior (fuit) omnium iTbertati quam suae ddnitndtioni. 
 Miltiadesuas more a friend to the freedom of all, than to his own sovereign 
 power. — Nep. * 
 
 ^*'- -; '^^/ "'^,^f ^^^ Ablatives spe, erspectatione, dplniune, aequo, jmlo, 
 soltto, after the comparative, is peculiar, and must be explained by guam 
 est or erat : as, ^ ^ ^ 
 
 OpJnione omnium mfijorem eepi dolorem, 7 experienced greater grief 
 than all thought I should (lit. greater than the opinion of all men).— Cic. 
 
 § 320. In like manner dignus, worthy, and indignus, unworthy 
 govern the Ablative : as, 
 
 Virtus hn'filtidne, non invidia, digna est, ViHue is. deserving of imi- 
 tdton, not of enn/.— Cic. ^ •' 
 
 Qnammxutiliicemdigni sunt, How many are umcorthy of the llaht 
 of day J— ben. j j )i 
 
176 
 
 THE ABLATIVE CASE. 
 
 § 321. 
 
 §329. 
 
 THE ABLATIVE CASE. 
 
 6. Ablative of Measure. 
 
 § 321. The Ablative of Measure denotes hj how much one 
 thing is greater or less than another, and occurs in con- 
 nexion with Comparative words . as, 
 
 Turres denis pcdihus quara muri altiOres sunt. The towers are higher 
 than the walls by ten feet.— Cnrt 
 
 Q. Pompeius, biennio quam nos major, Quintus Fompeius, icho icas 
 older than I [^Cicero) by two years. — Cic. 
 
 Nutura id multo urti/iciOsius efflcit, Nature effects that more ingeni- 
 ously by far. — Cic. 
 
 Quo quisque est sollertior et iiifr^niosior, hoc docct lalxjriosiiis. The 
 more by what degree the more) clever and gifted a man is, with the more 
 labour does he give lessoiis. — Cic. 
 
 7. Ablative of Time. 
 
 § 322. The answer to the question When? is expressed 
 by the Ablative without a Preposition : as, 
 
 Pliito iino et octogesTmo anno scribens est mortuus, Plato died {while) 
 writing in his eightij-fird year. — Cic. 
 
 Extrcmu puerltid iiiTles fuit siinimi imperatoris, In the last part of 
 his boyhood he was the soldier of a very great general. — Cic. 
 
 Soils occdsu At sunset, — Liv 
 
 Saturni stella trlginta fere annis ciirsum suuni conf icit, The star of 
 Saturn completes its orbit in about 30 years. — Cic 
 
 § 323. AVhen the Substantive denoting Time is without 
 an Attributive the Preposition in is generally used . as, 
 
 Aiirlgandi arte in Sdolescentia fuit clarus, Ue (Nero) icas distinguished 
 tn his youth for his shill in driving. — Siict 
 Ter in anno, Thrice in the year. — Cic. 
 
 Ohs. The following Ablatives are exceptions ; die, hy day ; nocte, bi/ night 
 (but also de die, de nocte) ; vespere s. vesperi, in the evening ; tempore, 
 t« time, in season : which are used without a Preposition. 
 
 § 324. The answer to the question Within what time ? is 
 expressed by the Ablative alone, or by the Ablative with 
 the Preposition in : as, 
 
 A<]:ainemnon vix decern annis imam cepit iirbcm, Agamemnon tvith 
 dificulty in ten years took a single city. — Nep. 
 
 Senatas dcerevit, ut le^'ati jQ^urtliae in dicbus proxlmis decern 
 Italia dectHferent, The Senate decreed that the ambasmdors of Jugurtha 
 should depart from Italy within the next ten days.— 'Sei*. 
 
 § 325- The answer to the question How long before? or 
 How long after ? is expressed by the Ablative with ante or 
 
 177 
 
 M 
 
 I 
 
 ii 
 
 satire mav be used T),„« nil ♦! i ^\ ?'^''»*"'e or Accu- 
 ««ed wiUrtho same .nelilng ' '^^ '""""'"^ forms ^.y be 
 
 Accusative. Ajj r 
 
 ante or post ires annos fr,'].,,. « • ^^'"^^^*^- 
 
 ^ . post tertium annum S anno%nf '^ ""'f' 
 
 tros ante or post annos Irihl? I ^*^ '''' P^^^' 
 
 *orti.ua ...Jor post ^Lun, ^ r4%T,S Z? 
 
 the cIUj.~Ck. ■' •' "' " '*"""" ^'0 2'««'-« after the founding of 
 ''t,J*':r„;r/berd : '"""^-^'^ "^ '-'•' -" ^ ™*. t^o lowing 
 
 lofo anno post quam (or postquam) vcnSrat. 
 I o»t annum tertium quam vOnerat 
 Or post may be omitted ; 
 Tcrtio anno quam vent^rat. 
 
 All those expressions signify equally, nree year, after he had come. 
 Obs. 2. Abhinc, ago, is used both with the Accusative and Ablative • as 
 Ablnnc annos quatuordfcim. Fourteen years ago -Cic 
 Abhinc trlginta dicbus, Thirty days ago.~Cic. 
 
 8. Ablative of Place. 
 
 ' § 32G. The answer to the question Where '^ i& r>ut in fl.« 
 Ablative 1,0th without and with a Preposition. ^ '' 
 
 .J?^^l'^^\'' construction of the names of Towns md 
 
 ,JJ^1 -^''^ *"''"°T'"? ^Watives are used without a Pre- 
 posit on, m answer to the question Where ? dextra, on the right 
 hand, laeva. sinistra, on the left hand; terra marioue on .JZ 
 land; beUo, in the field (oomp. § 258): as 
 
 IntOnuit lac-a. It thundered on the left hand.— Vit<r 
 
 Terra mariqne conquirure. To make search by Ma and land.-Cic. 
 
 § 329. The following Substantives, locus, terra, regio, via. 
 ter. are frequently used in the Ablative without a P^ 
 position, when some Attributive is attached to them : L, 
 
 I 3 
 
 .1 
 

 
 irc> 
 
 JO 
 
 THE ABLATIVE CASE. 
 
 § ?>ro. 
 
 Atlienienses hico mneo castra ir>corimt, ne Atheniam jonned ilieir 
 camp in a suitahle spot.—'Svp. 
 
 Aurelid via prOfectus est, He set mt hy the Aurelian icay.-Cic. 
 
 § 330 Any Suhstantive, with the Adjective totus, may 
 he put in the Ablative without a Treposition : as, 
 
 Quis fdto muri ICvcus tutus fiiit, What place ivas safe throughout all 
 ike sea i—Cic. 
 
 Tota Asia, Throughout all Asia.— Cic. 
 
 § 331. In all cases besides the above a Preposition must 
 be used : as, 
 
 In Itdlii'i nullus excrcTtiis (crat . Tliere was no army in Italy.— 
 
 Sail. ^ ^ . , ., ; r 
 
 In hac Bdimdtne cJlrco omnium collr^quio, In this solitude 1 an 
 without the society of anyhudy.—C\c. 
 
 Obs. These restrictions are not observed by the Poets, vrbo use the Ablative 
 freely to denote place : as, ^, ^ . ^ ,j j 
 
 Silvisque agrisqne rilsque corpora foeda jacent, O'er fores., field au.i 
 highway the loathsome bodies lie. — OT 
 
 9. Ablative Absolute. ^ 
 
 § 332. When a Substantive or Trononn, together with a 
 Participle or an Adjective, form a clause by themselves, 
 and are not under the government of, or in agreement with 
 any other word, they are put in the Ablative Absolute : as, 
 
 Bis rehus cogmtis, Caesar ad nfivos revertltur. Having learnt tJu>e 
 things (lit., these Oiings having been learnt), Caesar returns to the fleet.— 
 Caes. 
 
 Pv-tMcrnras Tarqmnio Silperho regnante m Itrdiam venit, rythagon:^ 
 came into%ahj in the reign of Tarquinias Superbus ait. Tarquuuns i>u- 
 perbus reigning). — Cic. 
 
 Aliquid ealcis Icgibus Jlgere, To do a thing xcithout breaking the lani*, 
 —Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Ablative Absolute may often be explained as the Ablative of Tmo 
 ik 322), as in the 1st and 2nd of the alwve examples: sometimes as tlie 
 Ablative of Manner (§311), as in the 3rd. It always denotes some con- 
 dition or attendant circumstance of that which is described in the rest 
 of the sentence as taking place. 
 Ob». 2. As there is no Perfect Participle Active in Latin, except in the ease 
 of Deponent Verbs, this Participle in English must in Latin usually be 
 changed into the Passive, and put in the Ablative Absolute agreeing with 
 what was before its own object : as, 
 
 Caesar, exposXto exercltu, ad hostes contendit, Caesar, having landed the 
 army, hcfstens against the enemy. — Caes. 
 
 § 333. Sometimes a peifect participle passive is put in 
 the Ablative Absolute, where the Substantive is repre- 
 hented by an entire clause : as, 
 
 <^ 
 
 I 
 
 § 337. 
 
 THE VOCATIVE CASE. 
 
 179 
 
 Nonclum comperto, in quam regioncm venisset Tf «./ 7 • 
 tamed into what quarter he had come.-Liv ''"^ ^^^ ""''^^^ 
 
 Excepto quod nou sTniul esses, cetCra lacfim TL/e / . 
 y^-renotrvitkme,(Iam)happyTant^^^^^^^ '""'^^'^ '^-' 
 
 ''^:t:^^^rZT^'^ - ^^-- «^^^e Ablatives 
 
 Obs 2 Tacitus even uses an Adjective in the same way: as 
 
 Juxta ;j(./-7f ,?/j4.o, ficta seu vera nromiVpt 7> ;..; /•, !' 
 
 he spoke what nas false or true^ ' "^ "^''^^ ^"^'^'-'^^'^^ ^^'heth<r 
 
 Natus est Auo'ustim 1\T T,i7i:^ n-^^ - ± , 
 
 Chapter XLII.-Tiie Vocative. 
 j3^o. T1.0 Vocative Case indicates the object spoken 
 
 aJ^I^^^^^' ''^"•™ '*-t. "'•^'' reason. C.rus, ,0 tley pro.la!,n 
 Et tu, nrfde, And thou too, Brutus! 
 
 Obs. Ilcnce the Pronouns of the Third Prr^on .. • t • 
 with the Kelative, can have no Vodltlve. ' '"'' '"'' '^^^' '*^^' ^''^ 
 
 , § 336. The Vocative is often introduced bv tliP Tr.v 
 jection 0. especially in the Poets : as, ^ ■^''^''■ 
 
 O lux Darcluniao, thou light of the land \f Troy .^-Virj, 
 O decus imperii, thou glory of the empire I -Lucan. 
 
 ''^^a^l^^'t^^^!^/>^ -t be confounded With that ex. 
 S . me V ocatn e is used only m speaking to or invocation. 
 
 § 337. A Substantive or othpr wmvl -.'r, a^ 
 a Vocative sometimes ^anif^tutZti^rT ^'''' 
 Audi tu pBpSlus Albinm. Hear, tl,o» people ofAlba.'-Uy 
 
ISO ADJECTIVES. § 338. 
 
 Chapter XLIII. — Adjectives. 
 
 § 338. The ordinary niles for the constniction of Ad- 
 jectives are given under the Second Concord (§§ 223-227), 
 and the several Cases of Substantives. The following are 
 of a more special nature. 
 
 § 339. A ^Masculine Adjective is often used without a 
 Substantive to denote Persons ; and a Neuter Adjective to 
 denote Things : as, 
 
 Omnes omuia bona dictJre, All (men) say all kinds of good [thinys). 
 Ter. 
 Parvum parva decent, Small ■things) befit a small {man). — Hor. 
 
 Obs. 1. But "when the termination of the Adjective alone would not be a 
 sufficient guide, the Substantive homo or res must be expressed : thus, 
 multurum hominum, of many persons ; multurum rerum, of many thiugs. 
 [Mult or urn alone might refer to either persons or things.] 
 
 Obs. 2. Masculine Adjectives are mostly used in this way in the Plural : as, 
 docti, learned men. But in the Singular vir or homo is usually added : 
 as, homo doctus, a learned man. 
 
 § 340. When two Adjectives are attributives to one Sub- 
 stantive they must be connected by a Conjunction. Thus 
 whereas in English we say, " Mani/ Qood 7nen," the Latin 
 idiom requires multi et boni vii'i, etc. 
 
 Obs. 1. But if an Adjective and Substantive together form one single notion, 
 an additional Adjective may be used without a Connective : as, 
 >'avis oneruria maxima, A transport of the largest size. — Cic 
 Stiituae equestres Inaurutae, Gilded equestrian-statues. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. The above rule does not apply to numerals or to Adjective Pronouns ; 
 thus 'we may say, dt'cem boni vlri, illi boni ^iri, omnes boni viri. 
 
 § 34:1. Adjectives equivalent to Suhstantives. — Sometimes an 
 Adjective is used in Latin where the English idiom re- 
 quires a Substantive. This is the case with summus, at the 
 top J the top of; infimus or imus, at the bottom ^ the bottom of ; 
 medius, the middle ; extremus, last, at the end of ; primus, //>/, at 
 the beginning of ; reliquus, remaining ^ the remainder of ; dimidiatus, 
 halved, the half of : as, 
 
 Ad imam quercum, At the foot of an oah. — Phacdr. 
 Unus dimidiutuaque mensis, One month and a half. — Cic. 
 Extrema hieme, At the end of icinter. — Cic. 
 RSliqua vita, The rest of life, — Cic. 
 
 Ob$. But reliquum is also found as a Neuter Substantive governing the 
 Genitive ; as, reliquum vitae (= reliqua vita), Liv. 
 
 f 
 
 § 344. 
 
 adjectives. 
 
 181 
 
 • 
 
 i 
 
 § 342. The Xeuter of an Adjective is often equivalent to 
 an abstract Substantive. Thus, aequum, the equitable, is 
 equivalent to aequitas, equity ; honestum, the honourahlel to 
 honestas, honour, virtue ; and the like . as, 
 
 Omnis honest i just iqne disciphna, The entire training ichich belongs 
 to honour and justice. — Quint. 
 
 Injure aut in aequo. Injustice or in equity.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. This is especially the case in such adverbial phrases as ex aequo, in 
 accordance with equity ; ex (de) improvise, unexpectedly ; etc. 
 
 Obs. 2. Adjectives in is, e, are rarely used in this way except in the Nomi- 
 native and Accusative. Yet Horace has misccre utile dulci, to mingle the 
 useful with the agreeable (A. V. 343) ; and Livy, potior utilis quam ho- 
 nesti cura, the care for expediency took precedence of that of honour (42, 47 ). 
 
 § 343. Adjectives equivalent to Advey^bs. — Adjectives are often 
 used along with Verbs where the English idiom requires an 
 Adverb. This occurs when the word may be regarded as 
 describing the condition of the actor, rather than the manner 
 of the action ; also in the case of some Adjectives of time, 
 place, or attitude : as, 
 
 Ego eum a me invitissimus dimisi, I parted with him very unwillingly. 
 — Cic. 
 
 Plus hudio boni imprudens feci, quara sciens ante liunc diem unquani, 
 Ihave to-day done more good unwittingly, than I ever before did wit- 
 tingly. — Ter. 
 
 ; ^ The following Adjectives are some of those most fre- 
 quently used in the above manner : invitus, unwilling, un- 
 uillinghj ; laetus, joyful, joyfully ; libens = libenter, gladly, with 
 pleasure; sciens, knowing, knowingly ; imprudens, unwitting, un- 
 wittingly ; imperitus, unskilled, unskilfully : also, matfctlmis, in the 
 morning ; vespertinus, in the evening ; domesticus, at home ; pronus, 
 on one's face ; supinus, on one's back ; sublimis, alcft. 
 
 Obs. Of the above matutTnus, vespertinus, domesticus as = man^, vespfr?, 
 domi are of rare occurrence. 
 
 § 344. Tlie neuter (accusative) singular is sometimes 
 used adverbially ; especially by the poets : as, 
 
 Dulce ridere, Idqui, Sweetly to smile, to spealc. — Hor. 
 
 Pectus turbidum laetatur, {My, bosom feels a tumultuous joy. — Hor. 
 
 Sometimes the neuter plural is used . as, 
 Acerbd tQens, looking fiercely. — Virg. 
 
 Obs. 1. Tl'is idiom is occasionally found in prose: as, 
 
 Falsum rCuldens vultu, Wearing a counterfeit smile on his features,— 
 
132 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 § 345. 
 
 / 
 ¥. 
 
 § 553. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 183 
 
 M. 2. This use of the neuter accusative is to be explained on the principle 
 of the cognate accusative (see § 280). Thus dulce ridere (Gr. vSit yeA^i') 
 is equivalent to dulcem risum ridere ; turbKdum laetari, to turbldam laetS- 
 tionem laetari, etc. 
 
 § 345. Prior, primus, posterior, postremus, are used in agix^e- 
 nient wiili a Substantive, where in English a relative 
 clause with the verb to he is required : as, 
 
 Hannil>al prhnns cum cxercltii Alpcs transiit, Ilannihal teas the first 
 who crossed the Alptt with an army. 
 
 Hispania postrema omnium provincianira pcrdumTta est, Spain was 
 the last of all the provinces ichich was thoroiujhhj subdued. — Liv 
 
 Obs. The nsc of prior, primus, and posterior, postremus, must be carefully 
 distinguished from that of the corresponding adverbs prius, prlmum, etc. 
 The Adjectives serve to compare a person with some one else (in point of 
 time) ; the Adverbs, to denote the order of the Subject's own action : thus 
 primus dixit means, he uas the first tcho spoke ; primum dixit, he first 
 spoke, and then, etc. 
 
 Comparatives. 
 
 § 346. When two members of a comparison are united by 
 qiiam, the second member is put in the same case as the fir^t, 
 when the verb or governing word belongs to both : as, 
 
 Neque liabet [hirus ineus] phis silpioutiae quam lapis, Nor has he 
 [my master] any more sense than a stme i^has). — PI. 
 
 Docet nobis cariorcm e^ise pat riani quam nosmetipsos, Our countrj 
 ought to be dearer to us than ourselves. — Cic. 
 
 § 347. But iL the first member of a comparison is governed 
 by a w^ord which does not belong to the second, the verb 
 sum must be used with the latter, though in English the 
 verb to be is frequently omitted . as, 
 
 Haec verba sunt Varronis, liom!ni.s doetioris quam fuit Claudius, 
 TJiese are the icords of Varro, a more learned man than Claudius. — Gell. 
 
 Verres argentum reddidit L. Cordio, liomini non gratiGsiori, quam 
 Cn. Calidius est, Verres restored the silver to L. Cordius, a man not more 
 infiuential than Cn. Calidius. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. If the first member of the clause is in the Accusative, the second is 
 frequently put in the same case by attraction : as, 
 
 Ego h(5mtnem calltdiOrem vTdi nemTnem quam PhormiGncm (= quam 
 Phormio est), I have seen no man more cunning than Phormio. Ter. 
 
 Patrem tam pliicYdum reddo quam otem (=quam Qvis est), I make mij 
 father as quiet as a sheep. — Ter. 
 
 § 348. Tha Comparative frequently governs the Ablative, 
 with the Dmission of quam. This is explained under § 31!>. 
 
 i 
 
 § 349. Plus and amplius, 7nore, and minus, less, are used with 
 numerals and woids of quantity, either with or without 
 (juam, as indeclinable words, and without influence upon 
 the construction : as, 
 
 Nuu plus quam quattuor millia effugcnint (not effugit), Not more 
 than four thousand escaped. — Liv. ' // 
 
 Pictures antiqui non sunt usi plus (not pluribus) quam quattuor 
 culorUms, The ancient painters did not use more than four colours. — Cic. 
 
 Minus duo millia homtnum ex tanto exercttu etfugenint, Less than 
 tico thousand men escaped out of so great an army. — Liv. 
 
 § 350. When two Adjectives are compared together, 
 magis is either used with the first Adjective, or both 
 Adjectives are in the comparative degree . as. 
 
 Corpora magna magis quam firma, Bodily frames rather big than 
 strong. — Liv. 
 
 Paulli contio fuit rcrinr qu;im grdtior popillo, The speech of Paullus 
 loas more true than popndar. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. Tacitus departs from this construction, and uses the positive in the 
 second member of the comparison, or even in both : as, 
 
 Claris mujOribus quam vHustis, Of a family more distinguished than 
 old. — Tac. 
 
 § 351. The Comparative also denotes that the quality 
 exists in a considerable or too high a degree : as, 
 
 Sencctus est niitura loquHcior, Old age is naturally somewhat tallm- 
 tive. — Cic. 
 
 Vuluptas, quum major est, onuie animi lumen exstinguit, Pleasure, 
 when it is too great, extinguishes all light of the mind. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. \. Too great in proportion to something is translated by the Comparative 
 and qxiam pro . as, 
 
 Proelium atrociu^ quam pro niim<5ro pugnantium, A fiercer battle than 
 one might expect from the number of the combatants. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. 2. The same notion in connexion with a Verb is expressed by the Com- 
 parative and qtiam qui or quam nt : as, 
 
 Mrljor sum quam cui possit fortuna nocere, I am too great for fortune to 
 he able to injure. — Ov. 
 
 Damna mdjura sunt quam quae aesttmiiri possint, The losses are too 
 great to be able to be estimated. — Liv. 
 
 § 352. Atque and ac are sometimes used by the poets 
 instead of quam after Comparatives : as, 
 Artius atque hCdera, More closely iJian ivy. — Hor. 
 
 Superlatives. 
 
 § 353. To express the highest possible degree, the Super- 
 lative of Adjectives and Adverbs is used with quam, or in 
 
 
 e' 
 
ISl 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 § 354. 
 
 § 360. 
 
 the case of maximiis with quantus also, either witli or 
 without possum ; as, 
 
 Jftgurtlm quam maximas potest copias armat, Jugurtha raises the 
 largest force he can.— Sail. 
 
 Tuiita est inter eos, quanta maxima potest esse inGruni studiGnimqiie 
 (listautia, There is the greatest jpossihle difference in chara * and in 
 pursuds between them. — Cic. 
 
 Dicam quam hrHvissimc, I will speaJc as hrieflu as possd)le.—C\c. 
 
 Obs. We also occasionally find ut instead of quam without anv difference of 
 meaning. 
 
 §354. The Superlative may be strengthened by the 
 addition of : 
 
 1 . TJnns or unus omnium : as, 
 
 ^ P. Scaevrjlam unum iiostrae civltatis et iuirenKo et justUia prae'itant- 
 tssunmu aucUo dicere, 7 venture to call P. Scaevola by far the most dis- 
 tinguished man in our state both in ability and justice.— Cic. 
 
 MiUi^des et antlqiittate gt^nt^ris et gloria mnjorum wius omnium 
 maxtmc flurobat, Mdtiades was distinguished above all others both bu the 
 antiquity of his family and the glory o/ his ancestors.— ^Sc^, 
 
 2. By longe or multo ; as, 
 
 Alcibirides omnium aetatis suae multo formdsissimm fiiit, Alcibiades 
 teas by far the most handsome of all persons of his age. — Xep.' 
 
 § 355. Comparison may also be made with quam qui and 
 the Superlative : as, 
 
 Tam smn mitis quam qui laiissimus, (/. e. est), lam aa as the 
 
 grnthst man in the world.— Cic. 
 
 Tam ,smn amicus loipublicae quam qui maxXm', I am as much a 
 friend io the commonicealth as any one in the world. — Cic. 
 
 § 356. *' AU the lest," ''all tJie icisest," and similar phrases 
 are expressed by quisque with the Superlative : as, 
 
 Siipientissimus quisque aequissimo animo niorltiir, All the icisest of 
 men die icith the most resignation. — Cic. 
 
 _ AUisshna quaeque flumina minimo sono labuntiir, (All) the deniest 
 rivers flow icith the least noise.— Curt ' 
 
 Obs. A similar meaning may be expressed with the comparative : th'is the 
 former of the above sentences might be expressed, 
 
 Quo {or ut) q'lisque est sapientior, Ita aequiOre unlmo morltur. 
 
 i 
 
 PEONOUNS. 
 
 Chapter XLIY.— Pronouns. 
 
 185 
 
 1. The Personal Pronouns. (See § 75.) 
 
 § 357. The Personal Pronouns are not usually expressed 
 when they are the Subjects of personal Verbs. But they 
 must be expressed where emphasis is required : as. 
 
 Ego te laudavi, tu me culpasti, I have praised thee, thou hast blamed 
 me. 
 
 Kos, nos consilles desfimus, It is we, ice the consuls, who are wanting 
 [in our duty) ! — Cic. 
 
 § 358. The speaker often uses the 1st Person Plural 
 when he does not wish to intrude his own personality as, 
 
 Sex libros de republica scripsimus. We wrote six books upon the 
 commonwealth. — Cic. 
 
 ItCliqiiiim est ut de felloltato Pompeii pauca dicdmus. It remains for 
 us to say a few words respecting the good fortune of Fompey. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Confer is used in the same way instead af 7netis. 
 
 § 359. The plural fonns nostrum, vestrum, must be care- 
 fully distinguished from nostri, vestri. The former alone 
 (being true Plurals) are used as Partitive Genitives, or in 
 connexion with omnium. Thus one of us is unus nostrum 
 (not unus nostri) ; the icish of you a//, omnium vestrum {jiot 
 vestri) voluntas. — Cic. 
 
 Ohs. Nostri, vestri, are not true Plurals, but the Genitives Singular Neuter 
 of nosier, tester, u^cd ubstiactly._ Thus, niemor nostri = mindful of our 
 interest (i. e. of its.) 
 
 2. Reflective Pronouns of the Third Person. 
 
 (See § 76.) 
 
 § 360. The Peflective Pronoun sui, sibi, se, with the Pos- 
 Fessive Pronoun suus, refer to the subject or Nominative 
 case of the sentence : as, 
 
 Nicias tua sui mCraoria delectatiir, Nicias is delighted icith your 
 recollection of him. — Cic. 
 
 Bestiis bomlnes uti possunt ad suani utUUatem Men can make use (f 
 animals for their own advantage. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. These pronouns also refer to a Noun which is not the Nominative case, 
 provided it be the real subject : as, 
 
 Jam inde ab tnttio Fnustulo spes fuerat, regiam stirpem apud se educari, 
 Fausfulus had from the very bcgimmig entertained the hope that the 
 children brought up irith him ivere of royal origin. — Liv. 
 
 A Caesare invTtor, sibi ut sim legutus, / am invited by Caesar to become 
 his lieutenant. — Cic. 
 
ISQ 
 
 PEONOUXS. 
 
 § 361. 
 
 § 361. The Possessive Pronoim snus in principal sentences 
 sometimes refers to the Object or to another case, when 
 there is a close connexion between the two words : as, 
 
 HanmhriJem sui cives e civltute cjecerunt, His own citizens drove 
 Uannihal out of the state.— Cic. 
 
 Ccttthna atlmonebat aliuni g<?estatis, ulium ciiptdttatis suae, Catiline 
 remindfitJ one of his poverty, another of his {riding} passion.— Cic. 
 
 Sua ciljusque unnnantis natura est, Ecery living creature has its own 
 nature. — Cic. 
 
 § 362. Tn subordinate propositions, sui, sibi, se, and suns 
 may refer, not only to the subject of that proposition, but 
 also to the subject of the principal proposition, especially 
 when that proposition expresses the thoughts or wishes 
 of the previous subject : as, 
 
 (Procalus') dixisse fertur, a se visum esse Romulum, Proculus is re- 
 ported to hace said that Jiomulus had been seen by him.— Cic. 
 
 Ariovistus respondet, si quid Caesar a se v5lit, illnin ad se venire 
 oportere, Ariovistus replies that, if Caesar wishes anything of him 
 {Ariovistus , he ought to come to him [Ariovistus). — Caes. 
 
 Obs. Inter se is used for se inter se : as, 
 ^ Teri amici inter se dlltgent, True friends will love one another. — Cic' 
 
 3. Possessive Pronouns. (See § 77.) 
 
 § 363. The Possessive Pronouns are frequently omitted 
 in Latiu. when they are not emphatic, and can be easily 
 STipplied from the context; as, 
 
 Apud matrem recte est. All is well with iijour) mother.— Cic. ad Att. 
 De friffre conf ido ifa esse ut semper volui, As for {my) brother, Iftd 
 confideid that all is as I desired. — ib. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Possessive Pronouns often denote something proprr or /aroj//-- 
 ablc to : as, suo loco, suo tempore, at a farourable place or time. 
 
 Obs. 2. On the use of the Possessive Pronoun instead of the Genitive of the 
 Personal Pronoun, as, nulla tua epistOla, no letter from you, see § 267. 
 
 4. Demonstrative Pronouns. (See § 78.) 
 
 § 364. Hie is the Demonstrative Pronoun of the First 
 Person, an<l denotes this near me. Hence it may frequently 
 be translated by present or some similar word : as, 
 
 Opus vel 111 hac mngiitftcentia urbis consptciendum, A work icorthy 
 of beintj seen even in the present magnificence of the city —Liv, 
 
 Qui haee vltilperari vOluut, Those who icish the present state of thinqs 
 to he blamed. - Cic. 
 
 Sex. Stola, judex hie noster, Sextus Stola, who sits here as our jud"e. 
 — Cic. *' 
 
 § 369. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 187 
 
 § 365. Hie is the Demonstrative Pronoun of the Third 
 Person, and denotes that near him or yonder. Hence it is 
 used to denote something at a distance, which is well 
 known or celebrated ; as, 
 
 Ex suo regno sic jNTitlutdates proffigit, ut ex eodem Ponto Medea 
 iUa qiiond;im pvofngisse dlcltiir, Mithridates fled from his kingdom just 
 «« the famous Medea fled once upon a time from the same Pontus.— Cic. 
 
 § 366. AVhen hie and iUe are used together, referring to 
 two persons or things mentioned before, hic refers to the 
 nearer, ilk to the more remote : as, 
 
 Caesar bgneftciis atque mimtflcentia magnus linbebatur, integrltate 
 vitae Cuto. lUe mansuetudliie et inlSL-rlcordia clarus factus, huic scvc- 
 ritas diuMiItatcm addld^rat, Caesar was deemed great for his generosity 
 and muniflcence, Cato for the spotlessness of his life. The former had 
 gained renown by his gentleuess and clemency : on the latter, severity had 
 conferred distinction. — Sail. 
 
 Obs. Hie sometimes refers to that -wliich is nearest in the mind of the 
 speaker, though more distant in the order of -words : as, 
 
 cave CatOni anteponas ne (Socratem) qutdem .... htijus enim facta, 
 iUltis dicta laudantur, Beuare of preferring to Cato even Socrates, for 
 vhile it is the deeds of the former {Cato), it is the words of the latter 
 {Socrates) that receive praise. — Cic. 
 
 I^Ielior tutiorque est certa pax quam spcrata victoria, haec (pax) In tua, 
 ilia in (ieoriim potcstate est. Sure peace is better and safer than anticipated 
 victory : the former is in your otcn control, the latter in the control of the 
 ffods. — Liv. 
 
 * § 367. Hie and ille are both used to denote the folloicing, 
 or something to be mentioned ; but hie refers to something 
 present, ille to something new or different from the previous 
 subject : as, 
 
 Uiium hoc dofinio, esse necessKtatem virtutis, Tliis one thing I 
 woidd lay down, that there exists a necessity for virtue.— Cic. 
 
 lUud in his rebus vCreor, ne forte rearis There is one thing 
 
 (however I I fear, in connexion with these matters {namely) that you should 
 perchance suppose, &c. — Lucr. 
 
 § 368. Iste is tlie Demonstrative Pronoun of the Second 
 Person, and denotes that near you or that of yours : as, 
 
 De istis rebus exspecto tuas litttras. Concerning those tilings {where 
 you are) i am expecting your letters. — Cic. 
 
 Ista oratio, That speech {ichich you make).— Cic. 
 
 § 369. Iste often has a contemptuous meaning, especially 
 in addressing an opponent : as, 
 
 Iste vir opttmus. That excellent man of yours (ironically \— Cic. 
 Obs. The distinction in meaning between hic, ille, iste is found in the adverbs 
 deiived from ihem. 
 
188 
 
 TEOXOUNS. 
 
 § 370. 
 
 § 379. 
 
 PEONOUNS. 
 
 189 
 
 5. Determinative Pronouns. (See § 79.) 
 
 § 370. Is refers to some person or thing determined by 
 the context : as, 
 
 P. Asinius Ascllus mortims est C. Siicerdote praetore. Is quiim 
 hillxTet unlearn filiara, earn bonis suis Iieredem instltuit, P. Asinius 
 A<eUHS died in the praetorship of C.Saccrdos. Since he had an only 
 daughter, he appointed her heir to his property. — Cic. 
 
 § 371. The Accusative and Dative of is are frequently 
 omitted, when they would be in the same case and refer 
 to the same object as in the previous clause : as, 
 
 Fnitrem tunm in ceteris rebus laiulo : in bac una reprcbend»5re 
 cOjiTor, In other resi^ds I commend your brother ; in this alone I am com- 
 pelled to censure (lum). — 
 
 Non obsistam fratris tui voluntati ; fflvere non p(5tt5ro, I icill not 
 stand in the way of your brothers desire : further {it) I cannot. — 
 
 Obs. Sometimes the Accusative of is is omitted, even when it refers to a 
 different case : as, 
 
 Libri, de quibus scrTbis, mei non sunt ; sumpsi a fratre meo, The books 
 about which you uriteare not mine ; I borrowed {them) from my brother.— 
 
 § 372. Is or its strengthened form idem is the regular 
 attendant of the Relative qui : as, 
 
 Bestiae in quo loco natae sunt ex eo se non commdvent. Beasts do 
 not move from the region in ichich theyicere horn. — Cic. 
 
 Eudem uttlitatis quae bonestatis est regula, The rule of expediency is 
 the same as that of honour. — Cic. 
 
 § 373. Is and idem are emphatic, if placed after the re- 
 lative clause : as. 
 
 Quod virtute effici debet, id tentatur peciinia, What ought to be done 
 by icorth, the same is attempted by means of money. — Cic. 
 
 Qui multa loquuntur iidem multa mentiuntur, TJiose icho talk muclu 
 (the same J tell many fahthoods. 
 
 § 374. Et is (isque, atque is, et is quidem) or nee is, make the 
 preceding substantive more emphatic, and define it more 
 particularly : as, 
 
 Hilbet liomo meraSrltam ei earn infiiiitam ronim innumCrabtlium, The 
 man has a recollection, and that an unbounded one, of innumeraUe subjects. 
 —Cic. 
 
 E[)icurus una in domo et ea qutdem ancjusta tf nuit Smicorum greges, 
 Epirurus in one house, and thut a small one, entertained troops of friends. 
 —Cic. 
 
 Uno atque eo fitctli proelio cacsi bostes, Tlie enemy were cut to pieces 
 in a single engagement, and that a slight one. — Liv. 
 
 M 
 
 § 375. Idem may often be translated by also or on the other 
 hand, when it denotes similarity or opposition in reference 
 to a person or thing already mentioned : as, 
 
 Tliorius utebatur co clbo, qui et suavisslmus esset et idem facillimus 
 ad conc(5quendum, Thorius used such food as was at once most palatable 
 and also easiest of digestion. — Cic. 
 
 Niliil iitlle, quod non Idem bonestum, {Tiiere is) nothing expedient 
 which is not also honourable. — Cic. 
 
 Inventi multi sunt, qui vitani profundero pro patria piirati essent, 
 iidem gloriac jactiiram ne miutiiiam quidem lacere vellent, r//e?-e have 
 been found many who were prepared to pour out life for their country, and 
 at the same time icoidd not make the very least sacrifice of glory {on her 
 behalf).— a 
 
 § 370. Ipse gives emphasis to the word with which it 
 
 agi'ees, and may often be translated by veiy, just, or exactly : 
 
 as, 
 
 Quaeram ex ipsa, Iicill enquire of the woman herself — Cic. 
 
 Acclpio quod dant ; mihi cnim siltis est, ipsis non sJitis, I accept 
 tvhat they give: for it is plenty for me though not for themselves. — Cic. 
 
 Ibi mibi Tulliola mea fuit praesto, natali suo ipso die, Tliere met me 
 my [daughter) Tullia : just on her very birthday. — Cic. 
 
 Crassus triennio ipso minor crat quam Antonius, Crassus icas younger 
 than Antony by exactly three years. — Cic. 
 
 § 377. Ipse, when joined to a personal pronoun, agrees 
 
 with the Subject or the Object, according as either one 
 
 or the other is more emphatic. Thus " me ipse laudo," / 
 
 (but not another person) praise myself; but "me ipsum laudo," 
 
 I praise myself (but not another person) : as, 
 
 Non t5geo mCdlcina [i. e. ut alii me consolentur] ; me ipse consGlor, 
 / do not require any medicine ; I comfort myself — Cic. 
 
 Cato se ipse intCremit, Cato slew himself [i. e. others did not slay 
 him]. 
 
 Fratrem suum dein seipsum intcrfecit, He slew his brother and after- 
 wards himself. — Tac. 
 
 6. Relative and Correlative Pronouns. (See § 80.) 
 
 § 378. The chief rules for the agreement of the Relative 
 and its antecedent are given in §§ 228-230. 
 
 § 379. Correlation. — The following is a list of the prin- 
 cipal Kelative Pronouns, with their respective correlatives 
 or regular antecedents, and their corresponding Adverbs : 
 
 Relatives. Correlatives. 
 
 qui is, idem 
 
 qualis talis 
 
 quantus tantas 
 
 quot ^iudecl.) tot (indecl.; 
 
190 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 380. 
 
 § 38G« 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 ISl 
 
 Adverbs, 
 ut 5ta 
 
 qualiter taliter (rare) 
 
 quantopere tantopere 
 
 quoties -ens) toties (^-ens) 
 
 Qudl€8 prindpes, tales . . , . cives, Lihe rulers, like people. — Cic. 
 
 TaiUas Opes quantas nunc habet, non liaberet. He would not be in 
 possession of such icealth as he now possesses. — Cic. 
 
 Qaotiescunque dico, toties milii vtdeor in jiulicium vtinire, As often as 
 I s}}€ak, so often do I seem to stand my trial.— Cic 
 
 Obs. 1. For a complete list of the Relative Adjectives, see § 83, and of the 
 Relative Adverbs, § 133. 
 
 Obs. 2. After talis, ianfus, tot and the corresponding Adverbs, the Relatives 
 qualis, qnantus, etc., are often left to be understood : as, 
 
 Quaeso tam angustam talis vir [sc. qualis tu es) ponis domxim, Prythee, 
 being such a man {as thou art), buildcst thou so small a house ? — Phaedr. 
 
 Conservare urbes tantas atqne tales (sc. quales eae sunt), To preserve 
 cities so great and so remarkable (as those). — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 3. It must not be supposed that the Relative ^mi is regularly preceded 
 by is or idem : but these pronouns are to be used when such a determina- 
 tive antecedent is necessary, and not hie, ille, or iste. When the la>t- 
 naraed Pronouns occur as Antecedents, they retain their proper demon- 
 strative force : as, 
 
 nie fulgor qui dicttur Jovis, Fonder splendour which is called [that of) 
 Jupiter. — Cic. 
 
 § 380. Special constructions of the Relative. — Instead of the 
 full construction is . . . qui, the Eelative is often made to 
 agree, as if attributively, with the Substantive to be de- 
 fined : as, 
 
 Quae eupTd'tutes a natfiril proficiscuntiir, filctle explentur s!ne ulh'i 
 injuria, Snch (= eae cupiditates quae; passions as proceed from nature, 
 are easily gratified without any wrung-doing. — Cic. 
 
 (So Horace, Sat. I. 1, init.) 
 
 Obs. Virgil's urbem quam stiituo vcstra est (Aen. I. 573), for urbs quam, &c., 
 is an irregular extension of this usage. • 
 
 § 381. AVhen in English a Relative sentence defines and 
 limits the extent of a Superlative in agreement with the 
 antecedent, the Superlative is in Latin inserted in the 
 Kelative clause : as, 
 
 TliSraistocles noctn de servis suis [eumj quern hahuit fidtlissimum, 
 nd Xerxem niisit, Themisfocles sent the most faithful slave ichom he pos- 
 sessed, by night to Xerxes. — Nep. 
 
 § 382. The Relative Adjectives qualis, quantus, are capable 
 of being governed (like the simple Relative) by a Verb 
 Substantive or Adjective in their own clause : as, 
 
 i 
 
 Talis es 5Ma7e/n te semper putavi, You are the Wee of ichat I have 
 always thought you. 
 
 Tanti erant lubores quantos nimquam speraverant, Their hardships 
 were greater than they had ever anticipated. 
 
 Obs. Talis, tantua are often followed by the Subjunctive with ut. 
 
 7. Indefinitive Pronouns. (See § 82.) 
 
 § 383. Aliquis is more emphatic than quis. Hence dliqms 
 stands by itself, while quis is an enclitic, used with relative 
 clauses and after the conjunctions quum^ si, nisi, ne and 
 niim : as, 
 
 nils proraissis standura non est, quae coactus qiu's m^tii promisfrif, 
 One is not bound by thoae promises ivhich one has made under compulsion 
 of fear. — Cic. 
 
 Diviti.lcus Caesilrem obsecnivit, ne quid grJivius in fratrem stittuSret' 
 Divitiacus besought Caesar, not to resolve on anything too severe against his 
 brother. — Caes. 
 
 § 384. Quispiam is used like dllquis, but with less em- 
 phasis : as, 
 
 Forsttan Ullquis Jlllquando ejnsmodi quidpiam fecdrit. Perhaps some 
 one may have at some time done something of the like. — Cic. 
 
 § 385. Quidam, a certain one, denotes a person or thing 
 of which no further definition is considered necessary or 
 desirable : as, 
 
 Quidam ex advocatis intelllgCre se dixit, non id Sgi, ut verum invc- 
 niretur, One of the assistant counsel said he could see the object aimed at 
 was not the discovery of truth. — Cic. 
 
 Habitant hie quaedam miil!erculae, Tltere dwell here certain young 
 women. — Ter. 
 
 Obs. Quidam and quasi quidam arc often used to soften an expression : 
 as, 
 
 Ex tuis litt^ris cognovi praepost(*ram quandam festTnutionem tuam, / 
 learnt from your letters your ill-timed haste — so to call it. — Cic. 
 
 Non sunt isti audiendi, qui virtutem duram et quasi ferream quandam 
 volunt, Your school are not to be heeded icho want a hard and, so to speak, 
 iron virtue. — Cic. 
 
 § 386. The substantive quisquam and the adjective ullus, 
 any one whatever, are used in negative propositions, and in 
 questions with the force of a negation, and with sine : as, 
 
 Justttia nunquam nocet cuiquam, qui eam hJibet, Justice never harms 
 any one ivho possesses it. — Cic. 
 
 Sine sociis nemo quidquani tale conatur,3M0 one attempts anything of 
 the sort icithout associates, — Cic. 
 
192 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 § 387. 
 
 § S95. 
 
 THE VERB; INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 193 
 
 Sine virtute noqiie amicttiam neque nUam rem exp5teTi(lam consequi 
 posS^L"^^^ we cannot attain either to fnendsh^p or to any 
 
 desirable object. — Cic. _ „-t o tt'-L/i/ ;« 
 
 Q,M Jt, V^od qutsquam di^m™ PompCo afferro poss.t? m>at ,s 
 
 there tliat my one am admnce uvdhj of fompey ?— Oic. 
 
 Obs. In riautus and Terence omirn is sometimes used, instead of ulhs, with 
 '""' ■ ""' Sine omni perlclo, Wilhoiit ant/ ifanjfr.— Ter. 
 S 387. ftuisquam ami uUu3 are also used witli empliasis 
 after comparatives and conditional and relative proposi- 
 
 tions. as, 
 
 Tetrior hie t>-rannus Syracu3anu3 fait qiiam quisqiiam siipj<ri(inim, 
 nht^Z^slracm^ icas more bloodthirsty than any one of h.s prede- 
 
 cessors. — Oic. .n i » • a 
 
 Si temcus est tOhm iure homfncs ndcandi, certc illajl est lustum. 
 o„um vf vU la" .lefendltur, If there U «ny time JorjuMhj pM,„.jmen 
 ZZ,lh, Zaidy that U the M time ichen violcu^e offered ,> repelled by 
 
 violence. — Cic. , . _ , 7^,,^ _. 
 
 Quamdiu quisqncnn Crit, qui te defendSre aiuleat, vives 54. ?o,^ «« 
 
 there shall be a si.njle man who mil venture to dejend you, you shall Ine.-^ 
 
 Cic. 
 
 Obs. The two rules above mentioned apiif also to unquam and usQTlam : 
 
 ^''Bellum maxlme mt^mSrubtle omnium, quae unquam gesta sunt, The most 
 memorable of all uars that have ever been waged.— Liv. 
 
 ^ 388 Quisque denotes each one hy himself (distributively), 
 and in principal sentences is always placed after se and 
 suus : as, 
 
 Stbi quisque maxMe eonsulit, Everybody consic:ts his own interests 
 
 ''^''^if '^"^m^ne fortunac maximo poenltet, Ecerybody has most fault to 
 find with his own fortune.— dc. 
 
 Obs. In relative sentences quisque stands immediately after the relative, as 
 an enclitic, and consequently precedes se and suus .-as, 
 
 Quam quisque norit artem, in hac se exerceat. Let each practise hmself 
 in the art ichich he is acquainted with. — Cic. 
 
 § 389. Quisque is also used with the Comparative and 
 Superlative. See examples nnder § 356. 
 
 § 390. Alius, when repeated, signifies one . . . another ; 
 alter, when repeated, signifies the one . . . the other (being 
 used of only two persons or things) : as, 
 
 • Profc^rebant alii piirpfiram, tua alii, gemmas alii. Tliy brought for- 
 ward some purple, others incense, others precious stones.-iuic 
 
 Alter exereltum pcrdtdit, alter vendldit. TJie one has lost an army, 
 the other sold one.— Cic. 
 
 Chapter XLY.— The Verb: Indicative Mood. 
 
 § 391. The Indicative Mood is used, 
 
 A. To state a proposition ; or, Predicatively. 
 
 B. To ask a question ; or. Interrogatively. 
 
 O'js. On the use of the Indicative Mood in Hypothetical sentences, see § 424. 
 
 A. The Indicative Mood used Predicatively. 
 
 § 392. Present Tense.— (1). The Present Tense is used 
 both of that which is now taking place, and of that which is 
 generally true : as, 
 
 Dextru laevaque duo maria claudunt ^nos), On the right and on the 
 left two seas shut lis in. — Li v. (Hannibal to his soldiers.; 
 
 VOluptiis seusibus nostris blanditur, Pleasure u'ins upon our senses. — 
 Cic 
 
 § 393. The Present Tense is often used (for a past) in 
 narrative for the sake of greater vividness, and is hence 
 called the Historical Present : as, 
 
 Duni haec in his locis gcruntur, Cassivellaunus nuntios mitt it. While 
 these events are going on in these })arts, Cassivellaunus sends messengers. — 
 Caes. ^ 
 
 Obs. 1. This mode of speech, in English found only in quasi-Dramatic 
 passages, is in Latin very frequent. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Present is almost always used with dum, though the rest of the 
 sentence may be in a Past tense : as, 
 
 ^ Dum haec purantur, Saguntum jam opptigndbatur, Wiiilc these prcpa- 
 rations were (Lit., are) making, Saguntum was already being assaulted, 
 — Liv. 
 
 But when dum signifies as long as, it may take a Past or Future : as, 
 . Hoc feci dum licuit, I did this as long as I icas permitted. — Cic. 
 
 ^ 39 -^Z Past-Imperfect Tense. — The Past-Imperfect Tense 
 is used o*" that which was going on at the time spoken 
 of: as, \ 
 
 Anus subtemen ne6af : praetCrea una ancillula t^raf ; ca texebat. An 
 old woman teas spinning a woof; there icas only a little maid besides -. 
 the girl (herself) was weaving.— Tex, 
 
 § 395. The Past-Imperfect is often used of what was wont 
 to be done : as, 
 
 Archytas nullam eapituliorem pestem quam vuluptatem corporis 
 dlcHbat a natiira diltam, Archytas used to say that no more fatal scourge 
 had been brought upon men by the gods than bodily pleasure.— Cic, 
 
 \ 
 
194 
 
 THE veeb: indicative mood. 
 
 § 39^3. 
 
 Ut Romae consilles, sic Cartliagine quotannis annui biiii Eeges creii- 
 hantiir. As at Rome two consuls, so at Carthage two kings were annually 
 appoin ted. — Nep. 
 
 § 396. The Past- Imperfect is also used to signify that 
 something was attempted to be done : as, 
 
 Cato pro lege quae ahrdgabdtnr ita dissi^ruit, Cato thus spo1:e in 
 defence of the law which it was purposed to abrogate. — Liv. 
 
 Gladium in pectus dejerehat, ui.. .. &c., He was just plunging his 
 sword into his bosom {and would have done so) had not, &c.— Tac. 
 
 Antiuclius f iliani suam in matrimonium miiii dubat, Antiochus offered 
 to give me his daughter in marriage. — Liv. 
 
 § 397. The Past-Impeifect of the Verb sum is sometimes 
 used in the sense of the Past-Indefinite or Aorist : as, 
 
 Crimen nulhim ^rat ; res jfitllcata : Verres nunimos acceperat, Tliere 
 was no accusation; the matter was already adjudged ; Verres had received 
 the cash. — Cic. 
 
 Homo crat Sicillus, Tlie man icas a Sicilian.— Cic. 
 
 Classis commimis Graeciae, in qua dfieentae i^rant Atlicniensium, 
 The combined fleet of Greece, inichich200 shii>s belonged to the Athenians. 
 — ^Nep. 
 
 Obs. 1. But the Perfect or Past-Indefinite is preferred when a thing is 
 simply spoken of as an historical fact, not viewed as continuing : as, 
 
 pater ejus Neoclesgi^nerosus/H<Y, His father Neoclcs icas of nolle birth. 
 — Nep. 
 
 Obs. 2. The same remarks apply to the Past-Imperf. ot possum. 
 
 § 398. The Past-Imperfect is often used in cpistolary 
 con-espondence, of that which is preseiit to the writer, but 
 will appear as past to the reader, of the letter (compare 
 § 404) : as, 
 
 Ita Srant omnia quae istliinc afferebantur incerta, ut quid ad te scr'i- 
 Mrem non occurrtret. All the news that is brought from your quarter is so 
 uncertain, that I cannot tell what to imte.—C'ic. Ep. 
 
 Obs. But the Present is quite as frequent, and is ahrai/s used when a thin;r 
 is stated generally and without reference to the precise time of writing : 
 as, 
 
 Nos hTc riVemus recte. Tarn enjoying good health here.— Cic. Ep. 
 Sed flagltnt tabellarius, vilebis Igltur, But the postman is pressing, so 
 good-bye. —Cic. Ep. 
 
 Spt'ro homines intellecturos, quanto sit omnibus odio crudriTtas, I hope 
 people will understand how odious cruelty is to every one. — Cic. Ep. 
 
 § 399. Future Tense.— 1l\\q Future Tense is used of that 
 which is to take place in time to come : as. 
 
 Cms ingens ItirHblmus aequor, To-morrow we shall again Oe travers- 
 ing the b<mndlem ocean. — Hor. 
 
 Obs. The Fufure is also used with the force of an Imperative: see § 420. 
 Gbs. 2. 
 
 ■ • -• i\'-':- 
 
 - -»*■«" J -. 
 
 §404. 
 
 THE vekb: indicative mood. 
 
 195 
 
 § 400. Perfect Tense. — This Tense is used both as a Pre- 
 sent-Perfect and Past-Indefinite Tense (Aorist). Thus feci 
 is either / have done or / did. The context enables us to 
 tell in which sense it is used : as. 
 
 Nemo parmn diu vixit qui virtutis perfunctus est munere, Xo one 
 has lived iPres.-Perf.^ too short a time who has fully discharged the part 
 of virtue. — Cic. 
 
 Appius caecus multos annos/uiY (Past.-Indef.), Appius was blind for 
 many years. — Cic. 
 
 § 401. The Perfect Tense is used after postquam, after 
 that ; nt priramn, simul atque (ac), as soon as ; ut, ubi, when ; where 
 in English we often use the Past-Peifect : as. 
 
 Pelopidas non dilbitfivit, simul ac conspexit liostem, confligere, Telo- 
 pidas did not hesitate, as soon as ever he saio {had seen) the enemy, to 
 engage. — Nep. 
 
 . TR>i de Caesitris adventu Helvotii ccrtiores /arf / sunt, le,^•utos ad cum 
 mittunt. No sooner had the llelvetii got information of Caesar's arrival 
 than they sent ambassadors to him. — Caes 
 
 Ut Hostius cMdit, confestim Roniuna inclinatur acies, As soon as 
 Hostiusfell {had fallen), the Roman line immediately gave way. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. 1. But jL>o5/(?Mrt;n takes a Past- Perfect when a precise time is specified : ns, 
 Ilanmbal anno tertio postquam (\omo prof uge rat, in Africam venit, Hannibul 
 came into Africa three years after he had fled from home,. — Xep. 
 
 . Obs. 2. But quum, when, usually takes the Subjunctive : v. § 483. 
 
 y«- 
 
 § ^^02.^ Past-Perfect Tense.— The Past-Perfect Tense indi- 
 cates that something had taken place at the time spoken 
 of: as, 
 
 Progiiniem Trojano a sanguine duci auditraf, SJie had heard that a 
 race icas being derived from Trojan blood. — Yirg. 
 
 § 403. The Past-Perfect Indicative is sometimes used by 
 the Poets for the Past-Perfect Subjunctive, for the sake of 
 greater vividness : as. 
 
 Me truncus illapsus cerobro, 
 Sustrderaf, nisi Faunus ictuni 
 
 Dextra levasset, Me a tree-tfunJc upon my brains 
 descending had else dispatched, had not Faunus, with his right hand, 
 lightened the blow. — Hor. (This is probably a Gre( k idiom : the Passt- 
 Perfect being equivalent to a Past Tense Indie, with &v.) 
 
 § 404. The Past-Perfect is also, like the Past-Imi^erfect, 
 sometimes used in epistolary correspondence, in order to 
 accommodate the time to the position of the leader rather 
 than of the writer : as, 
 
lOG 
 
 THE verb: indicative mood. 
 
 § 405. 
 
 Nihil habebam quod scribCrem, ncqne enim quicquara novi amUeram, 
 J have nothing io write, for I have heard no news. — Cic. Ep. 
 
 Obs. But this is only allowable when the reference is expressly to the time 
 ■when the letter nas being uritten. See § 398. 
 
 § 405. Future-Perfect lense.—The Future-Perfect Tense 
 indicates that something will have taken place by the time 
 Slacken of: as, 
 
 Romam quiirn venifro, quae perspexero, scribam a<l tc, Wien I {shall) 
 have got to Borne, I icill write to you ichat 1 (^shall) have seen. — Cic. 
 
 Dum tu haec l<5ges, ego ilium fortasse couvencro, While you icill he 
 perusing this, I shall perhaps have had an interview with him.— Cic 
 
 § 406. Sometimes the Future-Perfect is used to indicate 
 that a thing will be finished and gone immediately : as, 
 
 Dum loquimur, fiigCrit invlda aetas, E'en while ice speak, jealous 
 time is fled. (Lit., will hare fled.) — Hor. 
 
 § 407. Both the Future -Perfect and the simple Future 
 are sometimes used in compound sentences where in English 
 the sign of future time is not expressed : as, 
 
 Hoc, dum (Primus in terris, Srit caelesti vltae simile, This, while ice 
 are on earth, will he like the life of the gods. — Cic. 
 
 Naturam si sequtmur dilcem, nunquam aberrabimus, If ice follow 
 nature as our guide, we shall never go astray. — Cic. 
 
 De Carthagine vereri non ante desiiiam, quam illam excisam esse 
 cognovtro, I shall not cease to hare fears about CartJiage, till I learn she 
 has been utterly destroyed. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. But the future sense is sure to be expressed in one of the clausoe, as in 
 the above examples, 
 
 B. The Indicative Mood used Interrogatively. 
 
 1. Single Direct Question. 
 
 § 408. The Indicative Mood is used with InteiTogative 
 Pronouns and xVdverbs in asking Direct Questions : as, 
 
 Quousque tandem, CJltllina, a^M/tre pJltientia nostra, How far, I pray 
 thee, CutlUne, icilt thou abuse our forbearance i — Cic. 
 
 Ut vUlet^ ut mUmlnit nostri? How does hef how does he think (f 
 tne ? — Hor. 
 
 Quota liora est ? 'What o'clotk is it ? — Hor. 
 
 Tlirax est Gallina Syro par? Is the Thracian Gallina a match for 
 Syrus f — Hor. 
 
 § 409. In addition to the Interrogative Pronouns and 
 Adverbs, the following particles are used to indicate a 
 question : — ne (enclitic), num; utrum and an. The latter two 
 are used only in asking Double questions ; i. e., questions with 
 two (or more) alternatives. 
 
 § 414. 
 
 THE verb: indicative mood. 
 
 197 
 
 § 410. The Interrogative Particle -ne — The Particle ne is 
 an enclitic, being always joined to some other word. It 
 is used in asking a simple, straightforward question , as 
 
 Tarquinius rex interrogavit : Estiswe vos legati oratoresque missi a 
 p»^jpillo Collatino ? Sumus— King Tarquinius asked : are ye ambassadors 
 and spokesmen sent from the people of Collatia ? We are.— Liv. 
 
 Dritur»e ilia hodie Pampliilo nuptnm, Is she to be given to Pamphilus 
 in marriage to-day i — Ter. 
 
 . Obs. Ne is always joined to the first word in the interrogative sentence, 
 except when united with non, as iionne (see next sect,). 
 
 § 411. Nonne, — In questions put with a negative, such as, 
 Is it not so ? Was it not so i where the answer Yes is evidently 
 expected, the enclitic is always joined with the negative ; 
 thus, nonne: as, 
 
 Cunis nonne simllis liipo (est). Is not the dog like a wolf f— Cic. 
 
 Xonne omori per virtutem praestat, Is it not better with valour to die 
 oidr/ghti—SaW. 
 
 § 412. The Interrogative Particle num.— The Particle num 
 ind icat cs that the answer iVo is taken for granted. It always 
 begins its sentence : as, 
 
 Num negare audes, Do you dare deny it 9— Cic. 
 
 Num facti Pamphilum piget, Pamphilus isnt sorry for what he has 
 done, is he i — Ter. 
 
 Num ViscL-Uinum amlei regnum appetcntcm debuenmt adjcivare, 
 Tltmk you the friends of Viscellinus ought to have assisted him in aiming 
 at regal power i — Cic. 
 
 Obs. In Indirect questions num ceases to have a negative force : v. § 4£5. 
 
 §413. Ecr/uid and Numquid. — These w^ords are com- 
 pounded of the interrogative and indefinite pronoun quid; 
 l)ut they are frequently used as mere interrogative particles 
 equivalent to ne and num respectively : as. 
 
 Quid est, Csltilina ? Ecquid attendis ? Ecquid animadvertis horum 
 Bilentiuui? What means it, Catiline'} Mark you it? Observe you the 
 silence of the^e men? — Cic. 
 
 Numquid du.a&hhhQiis patna., ^are ye forsooth two native countries! 
 
 — Cic. 
 
 2. Double Direct Questions. 
 
 ^ § 414. The Particles used in asking Double direct ques- 
 tions are utrum, an, -ne. Utrum is used only in the first 
 alternative, and an only in the second, while -ne is used in 
 both: as, 
 
198 
 
 THE IMrEKATIVE MOOD. 
 
 §415. 
 
 §420. 
 
 THE IMPERATIVE MOODc 
 
 190 
 
 Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est. Is that your fault or ours f- 
 
 c:c. 
 
 Isup est quern quaero annon. Is that the man I am seelcing, or not i — 
 Tcr. 
 
 Sunt haec tua verba necn^', Are these your words or nof — Cic. 
 06s. 1. Xecne and annon, "or no," are written as single words. 
 Obs. 2. Ne is rare in the second alternative ; unless that alternative is stated 
 
 in the form " or no," necne. 
 Obs. 3. The first particle {utrum) is often omitted, as in the last of the above 
 examples. 
 
 § 415. An is sometimes apparently used in single ques- 
 tions ; but when so, it always has reference to an alternative 
 implied though not expressed . as, 
 
 Quid ais? An Pamphilus veuit? What say you 9 Or is Pam- 
 philus really come i — Ter. 
 
 Quid dieis? An bello fiigitlvurum StcTliam virtfite tuu libt^rutam? 
 Miliat say youi Or is it that Sicily was by your valour d dive red from the 
 fugitive-slave icari — Cic. 
 
 Obs. In the above examples the former alternative is involved in the first 
 question, " Uave you anything else to say, or will you say that, &c." 
 
 § 416. The following table exhibits the sequence of the 
 ' Interrogative Particles in questions presenting more than 
 one alternative : — 
 
 First Alternative Second, Third, etc. 
 
 ntmm, an, 
 
 -ne, an, 
 
 (omitted) an, 
 
 (omitted; -ne 
 
 Obs. 1. Concerning Indirect Questions, see § 434. 
 
 Obs. 2. When num {numquid) is used in the former part of the question it 
 retains its negative force : a«, 
 
 Numquid vos duas habctis patriae, an est ilia una patria communis, Have 
 you perchance two native-countries .^ or is the one country common also to 
 you / — Cic. 
 
 an 
 an 
 an 
 
 Chapter XLYI. — The Imperative Mood. 
 
 § 417. Present Tense, — The Present Imperative is used in 
 giving orders, directions, or advice, with reference to the 
 immediate Present, or without reference to any definite 
 time ; also in salutations : as, 
 
 Dissolve frigus, ligna aflper foco large rSpouens, Tltaio aicay the cold ; 
 piling the logs freely upon the fire. — Hor. 
 
 Fessae diite serta carinae. Crown with thaplets my tired hark. — Ov. ' 
 Garpe diem, Seize the {present) day. — llor. 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
 Salve! Ave! Hail to thee, farewell! — Cic, 
 
 Obs. Not in prohibitions is expressed by ne (never non) ; and in doxible sen- 
 tences hj ne . . . . neve (neu) ; neve . . . . neve : as, 
 
 Ne crucia te, obsecro, Do not torment yourself, I pray ! — Ter. 
 (Compare following sections.) 
 
 § 418. Future Tense. — The Future Imperative is used in 
 commands and exhortations extending to the future as well 
 as the present ; hence it is always employed in laws : as, 
 
 Huniiiicm mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, neve urito, TJiou shall not 
 hury or hum a corpse within the city. — XII. Tables. 
 
 Ilcgio impcrio duo sunto, Let there he two persons with regal power,- — 
 Cic. 
 
 Non satis est pulclira esse poemata, dulcia sunto. It is not enough for 
 poems to have beauty ; thoy must he sweet. — Hor. 
 
 Hunc tu, Rumruie, cdveto, Against such an one, man of Borne, thou 
 wilt have to he on thy guard. — Hor 
 
 § 419. The Snljjnnctive Present is sometimes used {not 
 in laws) instead of the Imj^erative, especially in the Third 
 l*erson : as 
 
 Aut bibat aut Tibeat, Let him either drinh or begone. — Cic. 
 
 Status, inccssus, vultus, oculi, tCueant decorum, Let the attitude, gait, 
 features, and eyes maintain propriety. — Cic. 
 
 ^ Iiijurias furtfinae, quus ferre nequeas, defcigiendo relinquas, Tlie 
 injuries of fortune which you cannot hear, escape by flying from. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Second Person of the Subjunctive ;Mood is propcrlj- used only in 
 general propositions, when it may be translated by " one ;" as, 
 
 JEmas, non quod opus est, sed quod necesse est, One should buy not what 
 is necessary, but what one wants. — Sen. 
 
 Obs, 2. The Subjunctive when thus used is usually less authoritative than the 
 Imperative. 
 
 § 420. A prohibition may also be expressed by ne (also 
 nemo, nihil) with the Subjunctive : generally with the Third 
 Pei-son of the Present, and the Second Person of the Perfect 
 Tense : as, 
 
 Ne quid rCi tibi sit cum Silguntinis, Meddle not with the Saguntines. 
 >ic. 
 
 Ne transii^ris Hjcnim, Cross not the Ehro. — Li v. 
 
 Nihil ignovCris, Show no charity for anything I — Cic 
 
 Obs. 1. A prohibition is often expressed by the periphrasis noli, noUto : as, 
 Xoli pxtture, Brute, quenquam , &c., Do not suppose, Bruttcs, that any 
 single person, ^c. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. Also the Second Person Singular of the Future Indicative has some- 
 times an Imperative force : as, 
 
 Tu nthil invna dices fa ciesvc Minerva, Do not thou say or do any thin if 
 against the bent of Nature. — Uor. 
 
200 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 
 
 §421, 
 
 .Chapter XLYII,— The Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 § 421, The Siibjnnctive Mood expresses a thing not as 
 ^fad like the Indicative, but merely as a conception of the 
 mind. 
 
 Hence the Subjunctive Mood is used to indicate, 
 
 (A). An hypothesis- 
 
 (B). Doubt or uncertainty (including indirect questions). 
 
 (C). A wish. 
 (D). Purpose or result 
 
 (E). A proposition borrowed from another, and not 
 adopted by the wi-iter (narratio ohliqua). 
 
 (A). Si ita emet, ignoscerem. If it icere so, I icoiihl excuse it.— Clc. 
 
 (Bj. Cmduhltas quid de ropublica sentias? Mliydo you doubt ichat 
 opinion to entertain concerning a commonicealthf—Clc. 
 
 Non dahitat quiu Troja brevi pMtHra sit, lie has no doubt that Troy 
 ^wiJl soon fall, — Cic. 
 
 (C). Valeas et miJinincris nostri, May you be prosperous and thini: of 
 me! — Cic. 
 
 (D). Logibus servimus vt lTb(?ri esse possimus. We submit to the latcs 
 that (Purpose) ire may be able to be free. — Cic. 
 
 Accidit ut una noctc omuf s Hennae dejlci^rentnr. It happened that 
 (Result; in one night all the Uermae icere demolished. — Ncp. 
 
 (E). Ddcent quanto in discrimine sit NOlana res, They point out in 
 what peril Nola is. — Liv. 
 
 § 422. The Subjunctive Mood is always dependent upon 
 either 
 
 (1). Some hypothetical Conjunction (see § 425) ; or, 
 
 (2). Some antecedent sentence or clause to which it is 
 subjoined {suhjungo), and which deprives it of the character 
 of a positive (" objective") assertion. 
 
 Ohs. The antecedent member of the sentence is very often not expressed, but 
 left to be understood (see § 429). 
 
 § 423. Sequence of Tenses. — The Tenso cf a Verb in the 
 Subjunctive Mood must be in concord with the Tense of 
 the antecedent Verb upon which it aepenas. Thus Present 
 or Future time is followed by Present or Future, and Past 
 time by Past 
 
 i 
 
 t A 
 
 
 § 424. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present and Future Time. 
 
 201 
 
 u 
 
 tn 
 
 56 ^ 
 
 u; s: 
 
 U3 
 
 pe: 
 
 Scio quid S-gas, 
 Scio quid cgCris, 
 Scio quid actfirus sis, 
 
 Cognuvi quid Jlgas, 
 Cognovi quid cgeris, 
 CoguOvi quid actiii'us sis, 
 
 Audiam quid agas, 
 Audiara quid egeris, 
 Audiam quid acturus sis, 
 
 I know ivhat you are doing. 
 I know what you have done. 
 I know what you are going to do. 
 
 I have learnt what you are doing. 
 I have learnt what you have done. 
 I have learnt what you are going 
 to do. 
 
 I shall hear ichat you are doing. 
 I shall hear what you have done. 
 1 shall hear what you are going 
 to do. 
 
 Past Time. 
 
 Sciebam quid Sgores, I 
 
 Sciebam quid cgisses, / 
 
 Sciebam quid actfirus esses, I 
 
 Cognovi quid agCres,* I 
 
 Cognovi quid egisses, I 
 
 Cognovi quid acturus esses, I 
 
 knew ivhat you icere doing, 
 knew what you had done, 
 knew what you were going to do, 
 
 learnt ivhat you were doing, 
 learnt what you had done, 
 learnt what you icere going to 
 do. 
 
 Cognoveram quid ag^res, 
 Cognoverara quid egisses. 
 
 I had learnt what you icere doing. 
 I had learnt what you had done. 
 Cognoveram quid acturus esses, I had learnt what you were going 
 
 to do. 
 
 * But the Perfect Subjunctive may be used after the Past Indefinite 
 when the subordinate proposition is conceived of as a distinct histori- 
 cal statement : as, 
 
 Aemllius Paulhis tantum in aerurium pecuniae invexit, ut unlus im- 
 pcratoris praeda finem attiiUrit tributorura, Aemilius Faidlus brought 
 furh an immense sum of money into the treasury, that the spoils of a single 
 general put an eml to the taxes. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. The Historical Present (§ 393) being in reality a past tense, is often 
 followed by Past Tenses Subjunctive : as, 
 
 Helvctii legates ad Caesarem mitfutit, qui dlccrent, Tlie Helvetii sent 
 ambassadors to Caesar, to say, 4c • — Caec. 
 
 1. Hypothetical Sentences. 
 
 § 424. An hypothetical sentence consists of two parts, 
 the Protasis and the Apodosis : the foimer containing the 
 supposition or gi'ound of argument, the latter the con- 
 clusion based upon it. 
 
 (1). Hypothetical sentences with the Indicative. — If both 
 members of the sentence deal with facts, either actual or 
 assumed for the pui-pose of argument, both their Verbs are 
 
 in the Indicative Mood : as, 
 
 K 3 
 
202 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 § 425. 
 
 Si est boni consillis forre opem patriae, est etiam bonOnim civium, 
 etc., 1/ it is the dutij of a (jotnl consul to render hely to Jii» country, it is 
 iiUo the duty of good citizens, etc. — Cic. 
 
 Si toHuit, L'tkiui fulsit. If it thundered, it also lightened. 
 
 (2). II>/pothetical sentences with the Suhjundive. — But if the 
 Bentenco implies only that something maij or might happen, 
 or might have happened, both its Verbs ai'e x^^t in the 
 Subjunctive : as. 
 
 Si negem, inentiar,If I were to deny it, I should ttUanuntruth—Cic. 
 
 Tu si hie sis, aliter sentias. You, if you were in my place, would 
 ihinli dijj'erently . — Tt-r. 
 
 Necasseni jam te verb(5r!biis, nisi iratus essem, 1 icould have heaten 
 you to death, if I uere not angry. — Cic. 
 
 § 425. The Conjunctions used in formally stating hypo- 
 thetical propositions are si, if; and nisi (ni), sin, if not, Ihe 
 last (sin shortened from si ne) is used only when another 
 hypothesis with si (expressed or implied) has preceded. 
 
 Obs. To these may be added compounds of si, as etsi, etiamsi ; and dummodo 
 (see §§ 498, 503). 
 
 § 426. The Present and Perfect Tenses of the Subjunctive 
 are used with the above Conjunctions when it is indicated 
 that a thing jnat/ possiUf/ happen or mai/ have happened in Pre- 
 sent or Future Time : as, 
 
 Me dies, vox, latCra, deflciant, si hoc mmc voclftrari vPlim, Time, 
 voice, strength, icould fail me if I were to purpose expressing noir, etc. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Si scteris (Perfect) aspldem oceulte hltere uspiam, improhefecA^ris, 
 
 nisi monueris altbrum ue asskleat. If you shmdd have become aware that 
 an asp were lying concealed in some place, you would he acting wrongly if 
 you did not icarn your neighbour not to sit there. — Cic. 
 
 At mgmuria miniiitur :— Credo, nisi earn exerceas. But (you say), 
 Ttwmory decays : I believe you, if you do not exercise it. — Cic. 
 (Apodosis not expressed, minuatur, it would fail.) 
 
 Obs. In such cases we in Enplis^h often use a Past Tense Subjunctive, and 
 translate the Latin Present by should, icould, were, &c., as in the above 
 examples. 
 
 § 427. The Past Tenses of the Subjunctive are used with 
 the above Conjunctions when a thing is conceived of as not 
 actually taking place, whether now (i*ast-Imperfect) , or in 
 the Past (Past-Perfect) : as, 
 
 Sapientia non expetSretur si nihil e£ic^ret. Wisdom icould not be coveted 
 if it ansicered no end. — Cic. 
 
 (SP) lino praelio I'ictus (esset) Alexander, bello rictus esset. Con- 
 quered in one battle, Alexander would have been conquered in the {entire) 
 war. — Liv. 
 
 § 428. Instead of a Past Tense Suhjunctice of a thing 
 
 §431. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 203 
 
 regarded as not taking place, a Past Tense of the Indicative 
 is sometimes used in the Apodosis, for the sake of gieater 
 vividness as. 
 
 Pons subiieius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Tiie 
 Sublician bridg.. well nigh gave a passage to the enemy, had it not been for 
 one man — liv 
 
 .'Compare § 403.) 
 
 Obs. The Indicative of the verbs debeo, d^cet, oportet, possum, and sum with 
 a gerundive or neuter adjective, are frequently used in this way in the 
 Apodosis : as, 
 
 Si Victoria, pracda, laus diibia csscnf, tamen omncs bonos rfipublicae 
 subvenTre di^cebat, If victory, plunder, j^rnise, tcere itncertain, it icould still 
 bv the duty of all good citizens to come to the aid of the commomcealth. — 
 Sail. 
 
 Si ita Milo pidasset, optabtlius ei fuif, etc.. If Milo had so thought, it 
 would have been more desirable for him, ^c. — Cic. 
 
 429. Hypothetical sentences without regular Protasis. — The 
 Subjunctive is sometimes used to signify that something 
 would take place if only some condition too obvious to be 
 expressed were fulfilled (^Suhjunctivus Potentiahs) : as, 
 
 Crcdat Judaeus, non {?go, lite Jew may believe it \ifit icere told him), 
 not 7.— Hor. 
 
 Dicas addnctum propius frondere Tarent.um, Tou icoidd say Tar- 
 rntum had actually been transported and was blooming nearer home if 
 you were to see the place). — Hor. 
 
 Pecuniae an lamae minus parcCrct, hand facile discern^res. You, 
 would not easily tell (if you tried) tchether he were more careless of his 
 money or of his reputation. 
 
 Obs. The Past-Tmperfcct is generally usel where in English we say, you 
 would have thought ; you would have said : as, 
 
 Cred^res victos esse ; [Had you seen them) you would have thought they 
 had been the vanquished. — Liv. 
 
 § 430. The Subjunctive is similarly used in expressing a 
 modest wish or affirmation : as, 
 
 YSlim mihi ignoscas, I should be glad if you would pardon me. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Hoc vero sine ulla ddbitatione affirmaverim. This I am prepared 
 (if necessary) without any hesitation to assert. — Cic. 
 
 Quaercndum censeam, I should think ice ought to make enquiry. — Cic. 
 
 § 431. The Subjunctive is sometimes used when a virtual 
 In'pothesis is contained in another part of the sentence : 
 as. 
 
 An cp^o in hac urbe esse possim, his pnlsis qui me Imjus urbis com- 
 potem iecorunt, Could I exist in this city icith those in banishment fi. e., if 
 they are banished, icho enabled me to enjoy iti — Cic. 
 
 Mori nemo Silpiens mls(5rum dixerit. No wise man '= if he tc&Te 
 wise icould think of pronouncing it miserable to die. — Cic. 
 
201 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 §432. 
 
 §442. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 205 
 
 § 432. The Subjunctive is also used with or without a 
 Conjunction, to signify that an hypothesis is assumed or 
 granted for the purpose of argument {Subjunctmis Con- 
 cessiviis) : as, 
 * Mains civi3 On. Carho fiiit :—fuerit aliis ; tibi qnando esse cocpit, 
 Cmeus Carlo was a bad citizen, was hei (Granted that) he teas so to 
 others, when did he begin to be so to you?— Cic. 
 
 Vorum, lit ita sit, tamen non potcs hoc praedicare, Yet {granting) 
 that it is so, yet you cannot affirm this. — Cic 
 
 2. The Subjunctive of Doubt or Uncertainty. 
 
 § 433. The Subjunctive is used after words denoting doubt 
 or uncertainty : as, 
 
 Quiim incertus essem ubi esses. As I ^cas uncertain where you were.— 
 Cic. 
 
 § 434. Indirect Questions. — An Indirect Question is one 
 uhich is quoted as being asked, or which is dependent upon 
 some word signifying doubt or perplexity in the sentence. 
 Such a question is expressed with the Subjunctive Mood : 
 as, 
 
 Qiialis sit antmiis ipse ilntmiis nescit, JMiat is the nature of the mind, 
 the mind itself knows 7wt.—Cic. 
 
 (Here the Direct Question would be, Qualis est animus? § 408.) 
 
 Diosxencs disputare s<')lebat, quanto rogem Persanim vita fortunfique 
 s^pcnlret, Diogenes used to argue hotr much he had the advantage of the 
 king of Persia in living and fortune — Cic. 
 
 (Direct Question : Quanto regem rersanira supero ? How much have 
 I the advantage f etc.) 
 
 Dii utrum sint, nccne sinf, quaerTtur, The question is raised whether 
 there are gods or no i — Cic. 
 
 (Direct Question : Utrum dii sunt, necne sunt ?) 
 
 :Multae gentes nondum- sciunt, cur luna ddficiat. Many nations are 
 still in ignorance why the moon is eclii)sed. — Cic. 
 
 (Direct Question : Cur luna deficit f) 
 
 Ohs. Thus, quae tu scins scio, is I know ichat it is you knoic : but quae tu 
 scis, scio, What you know, I knaic also. 
 
 § 435. In expressing Indirect single Questions, num (see 
 § 412) is used without any negative force : as, 
 
 Quaero .... ninn, allter ac nunc eveniunt, evinJrent, I ash whether 
 they would turn out otherwise than they do?— Cic. 
 
 Exsistit hoc loco quaedam quaestio subdiffieilis, num quando aniiei 
 novi veteribus sint anteponendi, A somewhat difficult question here 
 arises: whether new friends are ever to he preferred to old ones i— Cic. 
 
 § 436. In Indirect Questions with more than one alter- 
 native the following particles are used ; — 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 Quacritur, utrum .. .. an .. .. an. 
 
 -no .... -ne .... -ne. 
 
 (omitted) .... -ne .... -ne. 
 
 § 437. Sometimes the Indicative is found in what are 
 apparently Indirect Questions : in such cases the A^erb of 
 question must be treated as entirely independent in 
 Syntax : as, 
 
 Quaero: quid fact iiri fuistis^ I put tlie question to you: What icere 
 you meaning to do i 
 
 Et vKde, quam conversa res est ! And seel Hoic the case has altered I 
 — Ter 
 
 § 438. The particle an' is used after some expressions 
 denoting uncertainty or hesitation ; especially after hand scio, 
 nescio, dubito, dubium est, incertum est: as, 
 
 Aristotelem, excepto Plat«")ne, haud scio an rccte dix^rim principem 
 philusophorum. With the exception of Plato, I am inclined to think I 
 should be right in calling Aristotle the first of ^philosophers.— Cic. 
 
 Dubito an Venusiam tendam, et ibi exspectem de iSgionibus, I am 
 half-inclined to direct my course to Venusia, and there wait news concern- 
 ing the legions. — Cic. 
 
 Contigit tibi quod haud scio an nemini, The lot has fallen to you 
 which perhaps has fallen to no one else.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. The phrases hatid scio an, nescio an, diihito an, always imply the proha' 
 hility of the truth of the proposition which they introduce. ' They have 
 thus the opposite force to the English " / don't ktioic ichether." 
 
 § 439. Propositions about which doubt and uncertainty 
 are distinctly denied are expressed with quin and the Sub- 
 junctive ; as non diibium est quin, etc. (see § 461). 
 
 § 440. The Subjunctive is sometimes used in questions 
 indicating perplexity, where the A'erb dulito may be supplied 
 {Subjunctivus dubitativus) : as. 
 
 Quid hoc hvrninefdciatis. What are ye to do with this man? — Cic. 
 
 Quid &\ind facifret. What else teas he to do 9— Cic. 
 
 Quid emimSrem artium multitudmem. Why should I enumerate a 
 multitude of arts i— Cic. (Quid enumero would imply that the speaker 
 was actually doing so.) 
 
 § 441. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive witli ne or ut 
 according as the fear is expressed that a thing icill (ne) or 
 tcill not (ut) happen (see § 4G0) 
 
 § 442. In all cases where the Subjunctive is found in ap- 
 l^arently independent propositions, it is in reality dejiendent 
 upon some condition, douht, or uncertainty, present to the mind 
 of the sj)eaker or writer (" suhjective "), though not expressed. 
 
20G 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 § 443. 
 
 3. The Subjunctive expressing a Wish. 
 
 § 443. Suhjunctivus Opfativus.—The Subjunctive is often 
 used without any preceding Verb, to express a icA 
 
 § 444. The Present Tense Subjunctive expresses a wish 
 regarded as attainable : as, 
 
 Intcmam si villeo stare. May I he a aead man, if I can stand had I— 
 Hor. 
 
 Vuhant elves mei, sint beati, May my feUow-citizens prosper, may 
 they he happy 1 — Cic. 
 
 Especially with utinam, that ! as, 
 
 Utinani modo conata perficcre possim, that I may only accomplish 
 my aims! — Cic. 
 
 § 445. The First Person Plural of the same Tense is 
 used to express mutual encouragement : as, 
 
 Dum vlvtraiis rivamus. While we lice let us live! 
 
 Imttemur nostros miijOres, Let us imitate our ancestors ! — Cic. 
 
 Obs. In the same way is used the rres.-Perf. mfmtncrim : as, 
 M&mintTlmus, Let us remember ! 
 
 § 446. The Past-Imperfect and Past-Perfect Subjunctive 
 are used in expressing a wish for a thing regarded as no 
 longer attainable : as 
 
 Utinam promissa llceret non dilre, Woidd it icere lawful not to fuljil 
 promises ! — Cic. 
 
 Utinam, Cii. Pompei, cum CaesHre societatem nmiquam coisses aut 
 nunqnam rf^'rt?w/8i?e8, I icould, Cnaeus Pompeius, you either had never en- 
 itred into league with Caesar, or else had never hroken it off.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. Similarly vellem, mallem, nolletn, are used of wishes regarded as not 
 attainable ; while velim, maUrn, and nolim are used of those considered to 
 be so (comp. § 426, 427) : as, 
 
 Vellem idesse posset Piinaetius, I could fain uish Panaetius were pre- 
 sent. — Cic. 
 
 § 447. Yerj^ often a Verb of icishing is expressed, and 
 followed by the Subjunctive either with or without ut : 
 
 (1.) Opto, 7 tctsA, is generally construed with ut and the 
 Subjunctive (less frequently with the Infinitive) : as, 
 
 Opfdvit ut in curram patris tolUretur, He {Phaethon) desired that he 
 m'ght be taken up into his father s chariot. — Cic. 
 
 (2.) Volo, Nolo, and Malo, are frequently found with ut 
 and the Subjunctive ; also very often with ut omitted : as, 
 
 § 450. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 207 
 
 EquTdcm vellem idi Cres tuae) pedes huhcrent, ut aliquando ledires. 
 For my part I should he glad if your business had feet to it, that you 
 might at length return.— Cic. 
 
 Malo te sapiens liostis mutual, quam stulti cives laudent, I had 
 rather a wise enemy should fear you, than that foolish citizens should 
 jj raise you. — Cic. 
 
 A^J/o accusator in judicium putentiam afferat, I would not have an 
 accuser bring personal influence with him into a court of justice.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the same way sYno, / allow, is sometimes used : as, 
 Sine . . . sciam, Let me kumc. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. 2. For the construction of volo, &c., with Infinitive, see § 512. 
 
 § 448. To this place must be leferred the use of the Pre- 
 sent and the Second Person Singular of the Perfect Sub- 
 junctive as Jusaives (see § 420). 
 
 4. The Subjunctive of Purpose or Result. 
 
 § 449. The Subjunctive is used with the following Con- 
 junctions, ut (uti), quo, that, in order that ; ne, lest, in order 
 that . . . not ; quin, quominus, that not, to denote Purpose and 
 Kesult. 
 
 § 450. The Conjunction ut,~ that, in order that, so that, is 
 used with the Subjunctive Mood to denote either Pwyose or 
 liesult: as, 
 
 («.) Purpose, , 
 
 Eumani ab aratro abduxorunt Cincinnutum, ut dictator esset. Hie 
 JRomans fetched Cincinnatus from the plough in order to be dictator. — Cic. 
 
 Py lades Orestcm se esse dixit, ut pro eo nScaretur, Pylades afHrmed 
 himself to be Orestes, in order that he might be put to death in his plaoe. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Obs. Under this head falls the Subjunctive with ut after Verbs of command' 
 ing, persuading, striving, wishing, &c. (see § 451). 
 
 (6.) liesult. 
 
 Tarquinius sic Servium diiif^ebat, ut is ejus vulgo hSberetur f ilius, 
 Tarquinius icas so attached to Servius, that the latter was currently re- 
 garded as his son. — Cic. 
 
 Temperantia sedat appgtitiones et efficit ut liae rectae rationi 
 pureant. Temperance calms the appetites add causes that they submit 
 to right reason. — Cic. 
 
 Saepe fit ut, ii qui debeant, non respondeant ad tempus, It often 
 occurs that those who owe money, do not meet their liabilities at the time. 
 -Cic. 
 
 Si haec nuntiatio vera non est, sltpiitur id falsa sit. If this propo- 
 iition is not true, it follows that it is false. ^Cic. 
 
208 
 
 tht: subjunctive mood. 
 
 §451. 
 
 Tlirasybulo contl-it ni patriam liUrareU It fell to the lot of Thra^ 
 sybulus to deliver his country.— 'Se^. 
 
 Ohs The phrases, sequitur, ^t foUotcs ; restat, it remains; necesse est. it is 
 
 most part, either ut and the Subjunctive, or an Infinitive Mood (see ^ o09). 
 
 § 451. Ut and ne are used with tlie Subjunctive after 
 Verbs signifying to command, advise, request, exhort, endeavour; 
 ut in a positive, ne in a negative sense : as, 
 
 Clvitati persuasit ut de finibiis suis exireut,^ He [Orgetorix) persumhd 
 the community to leave their own territories— Caea. 
 
 Te hortor ut boa libro3 de phllosopbia stadiose legas, I urge you to 
 rend these hooks of mine on philomphy.—Cic. 
 
 Precor ne me desCras, I beg you not to forsaU me.— Cic. 
 
 Obs 1. This Puhjnnctivc with ut is xisually translated by the Infinitive in 
 
 English. The Latin Infinitive never expresses a purpose. 
 OU. 2. J.lheo, I order; T?to, I forbid; cOnor, I attempt; and, sometimes, 
 nltor, 7 s^rir*', take the Infinitive : as, 
 
 Jiibet nos Pythius Apollo nosccre nosract ipsos, 77*e Pythian Apollo bids 
 us *'knotc otirsi'lres.'' — Cic. 
 
 Lex pi^regrlnum retat in murum ascend<<re, Tlie law forbids a foreigner 
 to go up upon the walls. — Cic. 
 
 Ter sunt conati impGnere Pelio Ossam, TJirice they essayed to pile Ossa 
 on Pel ion. — Virg. 
 
 Jugurtha Cirtam irrumpcre nltitur, Jugurtha endeavours to force an 
 entrance into Cirta. — Sail. 
 Ohs 3 Impero is occasionally found with the Accusative and Infinitive : as, 
 
 Ipsos abduci imp^^rabat, He ordered the men themselves to be led away. 
 — Cic. 
 
 § 452. Verbs wliicli signify a resohdion or decision are 
 nsnally followed by ut and the Subjunctive : as, 
 
 Decrevit sgnatns ut consul rlderet, ^^ *l"/j\ ^f '/""f iLTTwi'r 
 cilpCret, Tlie senate decreed, that the consul should looh to d, that the com- 
 monirealth suffered no damage.— Cic. 
 
 Atheuienses strduerunt ut, urbe rChcta. llboriutem Gracciae clas.e 
 defenderent. The Athenians came to the resolution to abandon their cty 
 and defend the liberty of Greece with their fleet.-Cic. 
 
 Obs. ^\^len the determination of an individual about himself is signified, the 
 Infinitive is generally used : as, ^ • . . 
 
 Decreram cum Hortensio valde famTliartter rJv^re, I had determined to 
 lire on very friendly terms with Hortensius. — Cic. 
 
 § 453 Quo. — The Conjunction quo, in order that ; that 
 thereby, is used with tlie Subjunctive to denote a Purpose : 
 as, 
 
 Corrupisse dicitur CluentiuB .indicium pScunia, quo ^f J^^^"") .^"^ 
 inn6centem condemnaret, Cluentius is said to have bribed the court, that 
 thereby it might condemn his enemy though innocent.— (jic. 
 
 §4.57 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 209 
 
 Especially when there is a Comparative Adjective in its 
 
 clause as, 
 
 Lc""em brCvem esse oportet, quo iacilius ab imp^ritis i^neutur, A law 
 might to be, short, in order that it may the mors easily he grasped by the 
 unlettered.— Cic. 
 
 (Here quo = ut eo.) 
 Obs. 1 . But quo is not used like ut to denote a result. 
 Obs. 2. Concerning non quo, tiot that, sec § 487. Obs. 1. 
 
 § 454. Ne is used with the Subjunctive to denote a Ptn^- 
 j)ose, ut being omitted , it is e(iuivalent to ut non, quo non, 
 1)1 order that . . » not ; lest : as. 
 
 Nolo esse laudator, ne vldear adidator, I am reluctant to he an ap- 
 plauder, lest I should seem ajlatlerer. — Auct. ad Her. 
 
 Galllnae avesque ri^lTqiiae pennis fovent puUos, ne frigore laedantur, 
 Jlens and other birds cherish their young under their wings, in order that 
 they may not be hurt by the cold. — Cic. 
 
 § 455. Sometimes ut is expressed with ne . as, 
 
 Trebatio mandavi, ut, si tu eum velles ad me mittCre, ne r^cusaret, 
 I have charged Trebatius, if you loished to dispatch him to me, not to 
 refuse.— Cic. 
 
 Pergunt turbarc usque ut ne quid possit conquiesc6re, They proceed 
 to make such a disturbance that nothing can rest. — Plaut. 
 
 Obs. This is especially the case with ne quis, qua, quid, &c. 
 
 § 456. Similarly, when a Purpose is signified, we find 
 
 instead of 
 
 ut nemo, that no one. 
 
 ut nullus, that none. 
 
 ut nunquam, that never. 
 
 ut nusquam, |^^^^ ,^^^.^^^^^^ 
 
 that from no quarter, 
 that at no time. 
 
 ne quis 
 
 ne ullus „ „ 
 
 ne unquam „ „ 
 
 ne usquam „ „ 
 
 necubi {i.e. ne alicubi) 
 
 necunde [i.e. ne alicuude), 
 
 nequando (i.e. ne ahquando), 
 
 Caesarem complexus obsecrare coepit ne quid gr^vius in fratrem 
 sfatueret. Embracing Caesar, he began to implore him not to come to any 
 too severe decision against his brother. — Cats. 
 
 Circumspectans necunde impetus in frumentatores fieret. Looking 
 carefully round to see that no attack icas made upon the foragers from any 
 quarter. — Liv. 
 
 § 457. But if only a Eesult is signified, the forms ut non, 
 ut nemo, ut nullus, etc., must be used: as, 
 
 Ex boc efficitur.. .. id voluptas non sit summum bonum. From this 
 it follows that pleasure is not the chief good.— Cic. 
 
 Dcmosthones perfecit meditando, id nemc planius eo lociitus pflta- 
 retur. By exercise Demosthenes sc succeeded, tnat no one was considered to 
 have been a plainer speaker than he. — Cic. 
 
210 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 § 4b^ 
 
 § 463. 
 
 TnE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 211 
 
 § 458. lit and ne are used in parenthetical sentences, 
 wliero some siicli notion as "supposing," " gi'anting that," 
 is implied : as, 
 
 Nam tit dmittam Philippnm. ..For to say vothing of Philip. .. — Nep. 
 
 Ah nimiuni simplex IlOlciie, ne rustica dicam, Ah, too artless Uelen, 
 not to say too ruih ! — Ov. 
 
 § 459 Similarly nedum, not to say, much less, is followed by 
 the Subjunctive : as, 
 
 SCcunJiie res Silpientiiira antmos fatlgant ; nedum illi corniptis 
 moribus victuriae temptrUrtiit, Frosjperity orerpoicers the spirit of the 
 vise : far /tss could they, with their morality destroyed, use restraint in 
 7nctory. — Sail. 
 
 Viri clarisslmi vim tribunlciam sustlnere non potuenint ; nedum liis 
 tcmpuribus sine sapieiitiu vestru i-alvi esse j)o8.s?//j;^s*, TJie viiost illustrious 
 men hare failed to icithstand the tribunicial force: much less can we, in 
 these times, he secure icithout your wisdom. — Cie. , 
 
 § 4G0. After words signify ing/t'^r or anxiety ne expresse 
 the apprehension that something mill occur ; ut, that it will 
 not occur : as, 
 
 Thmham ne evCnircnt ca quae accTderiint, I dreaded that those very 
 things which have happened would come to pass. — Cic. 
 
 T^mor liomae fcramlis/jf//, 7ie itcrum Gnlli Iiumam ri^direni, Tliere 
 ii-as great fear at Home, lest the Gauls should return again to Home. — 
 Eatr. 
 
 Pater term it c^entes gr^xe ne r{?dTret seciilum Pyrrliae, The sire put 
 the fKdioiix in dread, that the terrible age of Fyrrha might be coming 
 again. — Hor. 
 
 Omiies lril)ores te exctpiJre video ; timeo ut sustlneas, I see you undtr- 
 talce all possible labours ; I am afraid you will not stand them. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. But instead of ut, vre often find fie nun; especially in negative sen- 
 tences : as, 
 
 Ttmco ne non impetrem, I fear I shall yiot prevail. — Cic. 
 Non vf-reor ne tua virtus opTnioni honiKnum non respondeat, / hare no 
 fear that your worth uill fail to ansiver the expectations of men. — Cic. 
 
 § 4C)1. Quin, that not, so that not, is used with the Sub- 
 junctive after negative, or virtually negative sentences only. It 
 is used, 
 
 (1.) After negative sentences containing Verbs of 
 hindering : as, Kon prohibeo, 1 do not jyrevent ; Kon 
 retineo, / do not restrain ; Kon repugno, / do not 
 object ; and the like. 
 
 (2.) After such negative phrases as Kon est diibium, 
 There is no doubt ; Quis dubitat, Who doubts / 
 Fieri non potest. It cannot be ; Negari 720?i potest, 
 It cannot be denied ; and the like. 
 
 
 (3.)^ After negative sentences generally, to denote 
 that a certain thing never happens without 
 something else happening. 
 
 Ohs. "Under negative sentences are included those virtually so; as when 
 qtds expects the answer Xo : also those containing such words as vix, 
 scarcely ; parum, {too) little, &c. 
 
 (1.) Non possilmus, quin alii a nobis dissentiant, rifciisilre. We cannot 
 object to it that others should differ from us. — Cic. 
 
 Vix me conttneo quin in ilium involem, I can scarcely restrain myself 
 from flying at him. — Ter. 
 
 Hand niultum abfuit quin Ismenias interficerHtur, A little more and 
 Ismenias would have been hilled. — Li v. 
 
 06s. The expressions hand multum abfuit, mtntmum abfuit, and the like, are 
 always impersonal. 
 
 (2.) Non erat diibium quin Helvetii plurlfmura possent. There icas no 
 doubt that the Ilelvetii had the most influence. — Caes. 
 
 Hand dubia res visa quin circumduct ret agmen, Tliere appeared 
 
 iobe no question but he must conduct his army by a circuitous route. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. In some cases a twofold construction is admissible : thus, 
 
 Quis ignorat quin tria Graecoruni genera sint, IFho knou'S not (i. e., 
 there is no one who knows not) that there are three classes of Greeks ? — 
 Cic. : where we might equally well have had, Quis ignorat tria .... esse 
 (§ 507). 
 
 (3.) Equtdcm nunqnam domum misi imam (?pist61am, quin esset 
 ad te altt'ra. In fact, I have never sent a single letter home without there 
 being a second to you. — Cic. 
 
 Nullus tore dies est quin Satrius meam domum ventitet. There is 
 hardly a day that Satrius does not lieep coming to my house. — Cic. 
 
 § 462. Quin is also used with the Indicative in the sense 
 of Why not ^ (qui ne) ; and expresses an animated appeal : as, 
 
 Quin !gttur expergisclmlni ? Why not then be up and doing f — Sail. 
 Quin conscendlmus dquos? Why not to horse at oncei — Liv. 
 
 Obs. Quin with the Imperative is used in expostulations : as, 
 Quin tu hoc audi, Kay but do you hear me. — Ter. 
 
 § 463. Quominus, that not, so that not, is similar to quin, 
 and is used with the Subjunctive after words and phrases 
 which signify hindrance ; as, impedio, / impede ; prohibeo, / 
 prevent ; officio, I obstruct, etc. ; also after per me stat, fit, it 
 is owing to me (that something does not take place) : as, 
 
 Non rSciisdbo quominus omnes mea scripta Icgant, I will not object to 
 all mens reading my writings.— Cic. 
 
 Caesar cognovit per Afranium stare quominus dlmicHretur, Caesar 
 ascertained that it teas owing to Afranius an engagement did not take 
 place. — Caes. 
 
 Obs. In the former of the ahove examples quin might have heen used instead 
 of quominus (comp. § 462), but not in the second : also, in the other 
 applications of quin (tfi. 2, 3), quominus cannot be used for it. 
 
 I 
 
212 
 
 THE SUBJUXCTrV'E MOOD. 
 
 §4G4. 
 
 §469. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 213 
 
 5. Oratio Obliqua. 
 
 Note. — For the sake of convenience, the Rules for Oratio oUiqiia 
 
 are brought together. 
 
 § 464. Allien a speech is reported not in the exact form 
 in which it was delivered, but so as to make the speaker 
 the Third Person instead of the First, it is called oratio 
 obliqua ; as, 
 
 ~ Caesar legatis respondit : diem se ad dellbi^randum sumpturum 
 (esse), Caesar made answer to the ambassadors that he would take a day 
 to consider. — Caes. 
 
 (Words of Caesar reported in their original form : Diem ego ad deli- 
 berandum Si'imam, I will take a day to consider.) 
 
 § 4C)5. When a speech is thus transferred to the oblique 
 form, the following changes of ^lood take place : — 
 
 (A.) The Indicative Mood used in (hrect and independent 
 statements is changed into the Infinitive. 
 
 (B.) The Indicative Mood used in dependent Relative 
 sentences is changed into the Subjunctive. 
 
 (C.) The Indicative Mood used in Questions becomes 
 the Subjunctive. 
 
 (D.) The Imperative ^lood becomes the Subjunctive. ~ 
 
 (E.) The Subjunctive Mood used in the Apodosis of an 
 hypothetical sentence becomes the Infinitive. 
 
 § 406. (A.) All direct and independent statements, w^hen 
 transferred to the oratio obliqua, become dependent upon 
 some such Verb as dixit, he said, expressed or implied, and 
 therefore the Accusative Case tiikes the place of the 
 Nominative, and the Infinitive Mood the place of the Indi- 
 cative (§ 507) : as, 
 
 Ariovistus rcspondit, .... Aeduis se obstdes reddtturum non esse, 
 Ariovistiis answered that he would not restore the hostages to the Aedui. — 
 Caes. 
 
 Ariovistus ad Caesarem legutos mittit, *• velle se de liis rebus agere 
 cum eo," Arioristus sends ambassadors to Caesar {saying j that he wished 
 to speak with him on these points. — Caes. 
 
 Obs. Such an Infinitive is very often introduced quite abruptly, especially to 
 indicate feelings entertained rather than a direct speech : as, 
 
 rU'hem Tra pr»')pe armavit : •' Filme .^f jam «»Tcut hostes peti ; ctbo victuqiie 
 frauddri" Indignation all but armed the common.'i : "The;/ nere now attacked 
 like oj>en enemies ; they were robbed of their bread and living" — Liv. 
 
 
 § 467. (B.) The subordinate Verbs in Relative sentences, 
 used by the original speaker in the Indicative Mood, are 
 turned into the Subjunctive in the oratio obliqua : as, 
 
 Caesar legates cum his mandatis mittit, . . haec esse quae ab eo 
 yostHluret, Caesar sends ambassadors with these instructions, ..that the fol- 
 lowing were the demands he made of him, &c. — Caes 
 
 (Direct form : Haec sunt quacj a te postHlo.) 
 
 Apud Hypilnim flavium Aristoteles ait, bestiolas quasdam nasei, 
 quae unum diem vlvant. On the banks of the river Bog, Aristotle tells us 
 there are insects pr ml need which live only one day. — Cic. 
 
 (Direct form : Sunt bestiolae quaedam quae mium diem vivunt.) 
 
 Obs. But if a statement of the n-riter^s be interwoven with the oratio obliqua, 
 it of course stands in the Indicative : as, 
 
 Quis potest esse tarn fiversus a vero, qui neget haec omnia, quae videmns, 
 deOrum immortrdium putestute administrfiri. Who can be such a stranger to 
 truth, as to deny that all these things, which we see, are managed by the 
 power of the immortal Gods ? — Cic. 
 
 § 468. (C.) Questions transfeiTcd to the oratio obliqua take 
 the Subjunctive Mood ; being dependent upon rogavit^ or 
 some such word, expressed or understood (§ 434) : as, 
 
 FLir«?re omnes tribuni plebis .. " quidnam id rei essef?" All the 
 tribunes of the commons tcere furious: {they asked) ''What did that 
 mean i " — Liv. 
 
 (Direct question : Quidnam id rei est f ) 
 
 Quid de praeda Sciendum censcrent. What did they think should be 
 done about the spoil ? — Liv. 
 
 (Direct question : Quid de praeda faciendum censetis ?) 
 
 § 469. But when the Interrogative form is merely rhe- 
 torical, the question containing its own answer, and being 
 therefore equivalent to a direct statement, it is often ex- 
 pressed with the Accusative and Infinitive : as, 
 
 " Si vgteris contumCliae oblivisci vellet, num Ctiam recentium injuri- 
 iinim deponere posse i" *' Even if he were willing {he said, to forget an 
 ancient afront, could he banish the recollection of recent injuries i "—Ca.es. 
 
 (Here, num depOnCre posse = non deponSre posse.) 
 
 Interrogabat . . " quando ausQros exposcCre remCdia, nisi . . etc." 
 He asked " When would they venture to demand redress, if not .. etc. ? " 
 — Tac. 
 
 {Quando ausuros = nunquam ausuros.) 
 
 An quicquam esse superbius ? Could anything be more arrogant ? — 
 Liv. 
 
 (An quicquam esse = nihil esse.) 
 
 Obs. Madvig's rule is, that questions originally asked in the First or Third 
 rerson, are expressed in the oratio obliqua with the Subjunctive; and 
 only those in the Seeond Person, by the Subjunctive. But the distinction 
 seems arbitrary, and is not sufficiently supported. No rule, however, can 
 be laid down on the subject without exceptions. 
 
214 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 §470. 
 
 § 470. CD.) C&nimands and exhortations, when transfeiTcd 
 to the oratio ohliqua, also take the Subjunctive ; mperdnt or 
 some such word, being expressed or understood (see ^ 4oi; : 
 
 '(Orare) .Jerrent opera, adjuvUrent, {He legged them) to come to his 
 assistance and hdp. — Liv. 
 
 " Sin bello persCqiii pcrsOveruret, rmrnisccntiir prist inae \irhiU^ 
 Helvetionim," " // hvtcectr he sliouJd he lent on prosecuting the icar 
 against them (he hiulhim) remember the original prowe.s oj the IMvetii, 
 — Cues. 
 
 § 471. (E.) Verbs used by the speaker in the Subjunctive 
 for the most part remain in the same Mood in the oratio 
 ohliqua : as, 
 
 Caesar respondit .. " niilloa in Gallia vncriro a-ros, qui driri tantae 
 miiltltudini possint;- Caesar replied .. that -there ictre no lands ni Oanl 
 that could be given to so vast a mult it ude:'— Cues. 
 
 (Direct form: "Nulli in Gallia vacant agri, qui dari possint r 
 comp. § 480.) , . T. . 
 
 " lutellectunim quid invicti Germani, .. 7"' V^^er qnutnordcoim 
 annos tectum non suhissent, virtute }msfntr " He {^Caesar^ inndd ham 
 tchat the unconquered Germans, icho for Jourtren i/rars had not had a too/ 
 over their heads, could do in the Jitld of battle.' — Cues. 
 
 (Direct fonn also : " Qui subisscnt (§ 47G) .. possint " (§ 434).' 
 
 §472. But the Subjunctive used in the apodosis of an 
 hypothetical sentence becomes changed into the Infinitivo 
 in the oratio oUiqua ; as, 
 
 Ei lec'utioni Ariovistus respondit : " Si quid ipsi a Caesilrc opus 
 esset, sesemS. cum venturum fuisser Ariovistus made ansinr to the em- 
 bassy, ^'thai if he had wanted anything of Caesar, he icould have come to 
 him.''— Caes. 
 
 (Direct form : " Si quid .. opus esset, renissem.") 
 
 -Neque Eburfmes, si iUe adesset, tantfi cum contcmptione nostri ad 
 castra ventiiros esser " Nor icould the Ehurones, he vrged, ifhe[Laemr) 
 were at hand, approach the camp with such contempt Jor us. — Caes. 
 
 (Direct form : *' Si . . adesset . . rUnirent:') 
 
 Obs. In such cases, the rast-Iraperfcct is represented hy the Future Infinitive 
 with esse, and the Tast-Perfect by the same with fuisse. (See examples 
 above.) 
 
 § 473. Tenses of Yerbs i^f the oratio obliqua. — ITie 
 Tense of the Subjunctive Mood in oJ>Jiq>ie narration is^ deter- 
 mined by the ordinary laws for the Sequence of Tenses 
 (§ 423). The following apparent exceptions require to be 
 noticed :- — 
 
 (1.) The Praesens Hii^toricnm is often treated as a Past 
 Tense, and followed accordingly by Past Tenses 
 Subjunctive (see § 423. Obs.). 
 
 § 477. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 213 
 
 (2.) For the sake of greater vividness, a Post TeuFe 
 like dixit, he said, is often followed by Present 
 Tenses Subjunctive : as, 
 
 Edicunt, ne quis L, Quinctimn consulem fdce^-et, Tliey issue a procla- 
 mation tlmt no one should endeavour to make L. Quinctius consul. — Liv. 
 
 Interim Caesar! nmitiatur Sulmonenses ctipCre ea filc(?re qw.w 
 vellet, Meanwhile it is reported to Caesar that the people of Sulmo icere 
 desirous to do as he wished them. — Caes. 
 
 Cicero respondit .. "Si ab armis discedCre vSlint, se adjutdre Utantnr 
 legatosque ad Caesarem mittant'' Cicero made answer, " if they icish to 
 lay down their arms, they can use him as their coadjutor, and send ambus- 
 sadors to Caesar." — Caes. 
 
 6. Use of the Subjunctive with the Relative 
 Pronoun and Conjunctions. 
 
 § 474. The Eelative and Relative particles take the Sub- 
 junctive (according to § 421) w^hen they are used in stating 
 not simply a fact, but a conception of the mind. 
 
 § 475. Qui hypothetical. — The Eelative qui, quae, quod, is fol- 
 lowed by the Subjunctive when the clause to which it 
 belongs contains a virtual hypjothesis (§ 431) : as, 
 
 Haec qui vtdeat, nonne cogdtur fateri dcos esse. Would not the man, 
 who should see these things, be compelled to confess that there are gods ?— 
 — Cic. 
 
 {Qui videat = si quis videat, if any one icere to see.) 
 
 Nee quisquam rex Persarum potest esse, qui non ante Magonim 
 disciplinam perctperit, Xor can any one be Icing of the Persians who has 
 not fir d learnt the discipline of the Magi.— Cic. 
 
 {Qui non perceperit = nisi perceperit, uidess he has learned.) 
 
 Obs. To this head belongs the phrase quod sciam, as far as I knoic, if only I 
 know. 
 
 § 476. Hence the Eelative takes the Subjunctive iu 
 stating the reason of something : as, 
 
 O fortunate adolescens, qui tnae virtutis Homcruni pracconor.i 
 invenifri8,0 fortunate ijouth, who hast found {i. e. in that thou hast found, 
 a Homer to be the herald of thy prowess. — Cic. 
 
 Ut cabitum discess!mus, me et de via et qui ad nndtam noctem 
 vtgllassem, arctior quam solebat sommis complexus est, Ao sooner ha I 
 we retired to rest, than what with the journey a}id my having stit up to a 
 late hour of the night, sounder sleep than usual embraced me. — Cic. 
 
 {Qui vigilassem = quwn vigilassem, § 483.) 
 
 § 477. The force of qui as introducing a reason is aug- 
 mented by ut, utpote, quippe : as, 
 
 I^Iagna pars Fidenatium, id qui coloni additi Romanis essenf. Latino 
 sciebant, A great part of the Fidenates, {as might well be) from their 
 having been Joined as settlers with liomans, knew Latin, — Liv. 
 
/ 
 
 216 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 §478. 
 
 Multa de raea sententia questus est Caesar, quippe qui ab co in me 
 esset incensus, Caesar complained much of the opinion expressed by me, 
 having been goaded on against me by him {Crassus ).—Cic. 
 
 Obs. But quippe qui is also found with the Indicative : as, 
 
 Antmus fortuna non C'get, quippe quae probttutem . . . nfque diire ncque 
 Crtpere potest. The soul needs not fortune, since goodness she can neither 
 ffire nor take au-ay. — Sail. 
 
 § 478. Qui of Purpose.— (^m takes the Subjunctive when 
 it invulves the meaning of ut, and denotes a Farpose 
 (§ 449) : as, 
 
 Sunt multi qui cripiuut flliis quod uliis Jargiantur, There are many 
 who take from one to htslow on anothtr. —Cic. 
 
 {Quod largiautur = ut largiantur.) 
 
 Cluslni iC'i^iitos Rumam qui auxilium a sCnatu pctHrent, miriere. The 
 people of Clusium sent anibasmdors to Home to beg help from the senate, 
 — Liv. 
 
 {Qui peterent = ut petercnt.^ 
 
 § 479. Qui of Ficault. — Q.ui is also followed by the Sul)- 
 junctive when there is involved in it the force of ut as indi- 
 cating a Itesult (§ 449) : as, 
 
 In enodandis noralnlbus, quod mist^randum sit, iJlboratis, In explain- 
 ing names you {Stoics) trouble yourselves to a degree that is pitiable.— Clc. 
 
 {Quod miserandum sit = ut miseranduin sit.) 
 
 Mujus gaudium fuit quam quod imiversum homines cupSrent, TJie Joy 
 teas too great for men to receive all at once. — Liv. 
 
 (Major quam quod capereut = major quam ut caperent.) 
 
 § 480. Qui is especially so used after the adjectives 
 dignus, indignus, idoueus, and the like, to denote what a person 
 is u:orthij of or Jit for : as, 
 
 Llvianae iabiilae non satis dignae sunt quae Iterum lifgantur. The 
 plays of Licius are not ictll worthy of being read a second time.— Cic. 
 
 Nulla mihi vldebatur aptior persi:»ua quae de sCnectute loqucretur, 
 quamCatonis, No character seemed to me fitter to speak concerning old- 
 age than that of Cato. — Cic. 
 
 Homines seClerati indigni mihi vidobantur, quonmi causam agerem. 
 The wicked men seemed unicorthy that I should plead their cause.— Cle 
 
 Obs. The poets and later writers in general, also construe these Adjectives 
 with the Infinitive : as, 
 
 Fons rivo dure nOuien idoneus, A fountain Jit to give name to a stream. 
 
 — UOT. 
 
 § 481. Similarly qui takes the Subjunctive when it is 
 the coiTelative of the Pronouns is, talis, tantus : as. 
 
 Ego is sum qui nildl unquam mea ixitius quam meoriun clviuin 
 causu/JftV/i/i, I am such an one as never have done anything for my oicn 
 sake rathvr than for the sake of my felloic-citizens.—Cic, 
 
 / 
 
 
 §484. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 217 
 
 Innocentia est affectio tdlis anifmi quae noeeat neratni, Harmlesa- 
 ness is such a disposition of mind as will harm nobody. Cic. 
 
 Nulla acies humani inggnii tanta est, quae pSnetrare in coelum 
 possit. No keenness of human intellect is such as to be able to penetrate into 
 heaven. — Cic. ^ 
 
 § 482. The Subjunctive is generally used after such ex- 
 pressions as sunt qui, there are some icho ; non desunt qui, there 
 are not wanting men icho ; reperiuntur, there are found some who : as, 
 
 Sunt qui discessum animi a corpore j^ntent esse mortem. There are 
 some who think death to be the departure of the mind from the body.— Cic. 
 
 Fuere qui cred^rent M. Crassum non ignarum ejus consilii fuisse 
 There were some icho believed M. Crassus to be no stranger to this scheme. 
 "—ball. 
 
 Obs. 1. But if certain definite persons or things are indicated, such phrases 
 are followed by the Indicative ; as, 
 
 Ftiere tamen extra conjuratiOnem complQres qui ad Cutlllnam profecfi 
 sunt, There were however a good many, not in the plot, tvho went to join 
 Catiline.— Sail. '' 
 
 Obs. 2. The poets and the later writers often construe sunt qui with the 
 Indicative : as. 
 
 Sunt quos {eviov:) currYciilo pulvfrem OlympTfcum collegisse jiivat. Some 
 there are whose delight is to gather the dust of Olympia in the race-course. 
 — Hor. ^ 
 
 § 483. Quum. — llie Conjunction quum takes the Sub- 
 junctive when it denotes cause (quum causale) ; it may then 
 generally be translated by as, since, or although : as, 
 
 Quum vita sine amicis insidiarum et mdtiis plena sit, ratio ipsa 
 monet amicitias comparare. Since life icithotit friends is full of treachery 
 and alarm, reason itself bids us forni friendships.— Cic. 
 
 Quum in communibus suggestibus consistere non auderet, concio- 
 nari ex turri alta solebat, Ashe {Dionysius) dared not take his stand in 
 the general platforms, he used to deliver his harangues from a high tower. 
 — Cic. 
 
 Phocion fuit perpgtuo pauper, quum ditissimus esse posset, Phocion 
 was always poor, though he might have been very r/c/i.— Nep. 
 
 Obs. 1. Quum is sometimes iised with the Indicative, in order to state a 
 reason at the same time positively as a fact : as, 
 
 Tu quum eo tempore mtcum esse non potuisti . . . ciive festTnes, As you 
 could not be with me at that time . . . take care not to hurry. — Cic. 
 
 Quum ea nondum consecQtus cram, quae sunt homlnum oplnionlbus 
 amplisslma, Although I had 7iot yet obtained those honours which in the 
 opinion of men are the greatest, — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. Quum like qui (§477) maybe strengthened with quippe: as. 
 
 Nee repr^hcndo (te) : qwppe quum ipse istam reprehensionem non filgc- 
 rim. Nor do I blame you ; inasmuch as I myself have not escaped that 
 censure. — Cic. 
 
 § 484. Quum also takes the Subjunctive in describing tho 
 sequence of events in proper historical narrative : as, 
 
218 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 § 48: 
 
 §490. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Socrates in pompu qnum magna vis auri argentique ferretnr qiiam 
 miilta nun dcHi.kM-o ! inqiiit, ]yhen a great quantity oj gold ami silver 
 Zis being can ;ed in pn^cession, said Socrates, -How many things there 
 are I don't icant ! "— Cic. 
 
 Quos quum tristiGres vldisf^et, triginta mtnas accepit, ne aspeman 
 Re-is llbthiilitatem vidOrehir, When he {Xenocrates) saw them raherdi,, 
 appointed, he accepted thirty minae, in order not to seem to slight the 
 king s liberality — Cic. 
 
 Quum tridui viam profectiis esset, nuntiuhim est ei, Ariovistum ciim 
 omnibus siiis cOpiis ad occupanduin Vesontiunem contemlere IV/^eu /.. 
 had advanced three days' journey, news was brought him that Artoiistu8 
 was hastening with all his forces to seize Besangon—Lacs. 
 
 Obs. The Perfect and Past-Perfect Subjunctive with quum supply the lack of 
 a Perfect Participle Active in Latin (comp. § 52G). 
 
 § 485. But quum is used with all Tenses of the Indi- 
 cative to denote tlie precise time at which something takes 
 place : as, 
 
 Pa-lles etiam quum f^riunt adversarium, ingemiscunt, Trize- fighters 
 even when they are in the act of striking an antagonist, jetch a groan.— 
 Cic. . „ . 
 
 Credo tum quum Sicilia florehat opibus et er>piis, magna artificia fuisso 
 in ea insillii, I beliece that \d the time when Sicily fiounshed in r^ourccs 
 and military strength, the arts were in great perfection in the island.— \uic. 
 
 Quum testes dabo ex Sieilia, quem volet ille Oligat, men I shall 
 produce my witnesses from Sicily^ let him choose which he pleases.— Uc. 
 
 Quum autem ver esse coepirat .. dabat se lilbori atqne itlnCrlbus 
 But when it began to be spring-time, he then gace himselj to labour and 
 journeying.— Cic. 
 
 § 486. Quod (quo) ami quia.— The Conjunctions quod and 
 quia, because, both take the Indicative in stating the actual 
 reason of something : as, 
 
 Ideirco simi tanUor quod non invCnio fidum tabellurium, I am the 
 more backward because I cannot find a tmsty letter-carrier.— Cic. 
 
 ITrbs quae quia postroma aedlficatii est, NeapOlis {v^a ir6\is) nomln- 
 utur, A city which, because it was the last built, is called Neapohs (Aeto- 
 tmrni). — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Quia states a reason more directly and positively than quod. 
 
 § 487. But when it is implied that a supposed reason is 
 not true in point of fact, the Subjunctive with non quod, non 
 quia, is used. 
 
 The difference between the use of quia or quod with the 
 Indicative and with the Subjunctive, is clearly seen in the 
 following example : — 
 
 Pi1,<^iles t'tiam quum ftriunt adversarium ingemiscunt, non quod 
 ddhanl animove succumhant, sed quia profundenda vr>co omno corpus 
 intenditur, I 'rize- fighters even ivhen in the act of striking an antagonist, 
 
 219 
 
 .1 
 
 fetch a groan ; not because they are in pain (supposed, but false reason, 
 but because, in discharging the sound, the whole body is put in tension 
 (real reason). — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. Instead of non quod, we find also non qtto and (rarely) non ouin 
 (negative). ^ 
 
 Obs. 2. Out of this use of quod arises nich an expression as the followiTi? : 
 Quod reHgionibus sese dlc^ret impodlri, Because, said he, (alleged but 
 false reason) ♦♦ he was prevented by religious scruples." — Caes. 
 
 (The diceret is brought under the government of quod, instead of ivwe- 
 diretur.) 
 
 § 488. In addition to the above cases, quod (not quia) is 
 used as a causal Conjunction after such Verbs as gratulor, 
 1 congratulate ; glorior, 1 boast ; queror, / complain ; miror' 
 Iiconder; laudo, 1 praise ; and the like, when, as before 
 (§ 486), the Indicative denotes that the ground of rejoicing, 
 grief, censure, etc., is an actual fact, which the Subjunctive 
 of course cannot do : as, 
 
 Gratfllor tibi, quod e provincia salvum to ad tuos r^cepisti, I cm- 
 gratulate you that you have got back safe from your province to your 
 friends. — Cic. 
 
 Gaudeo quod te interpellavi, lam glad that I interrupted you.— Cic. 
 
 Non tibi objTcio quod hommem . . qui nunc A. Clodius vocatur, 
 omni argento spdliasti, I am not laying it to your charge that you robbed 
 a fellow who now bears the name of Aulus Clodius of all his silver 
 (which you did). — Cic. 
 
 Socrates accusatus est quod cornimperet jflventutem, et nijvas si/per- 
 gtitiones introdurCret, Socrates was accused of corrupting the youth and 
 bringing in new superstitions.— Qmnt. 
 
 Obs. In the last of the above examples, as in many similar ones, the Sub- 
 junctive may be regarded as belonging to ihe oratio obliqua (§ 466) : as, 
 
 Gloriabatur Hortensius, quod nunquam hello cTvIli interfuisset, Morten- 
 sius used to boast that he had never been engaged in civil tear, — Cic. (The 
 Subj. indicates that the assertion is made by Hortensius.) 
 
 § 489. Quod is also used with the Indicative after sundry 
 Impersonal expressions corresponding to those referred to 
 in the preceding section : as, juvat, it delights ; vitium est, it 
 is a fault ; laudabile est, it is praiseworthy^ and the like, with 
 the same distinction as before between the Indicative and 
 Subjunctive: as, 
 
 Jttvat me, quod regent stadia, prdferunt se ingCnia hominum. It is a 
 pleasure to me that intellectual pursuits flourish, that the abilities of men 
 display themselves. — Plin. Ep. 
 
 Magnum bdnCficium naturae est, quod nCcesse est mori, It is a great 
 boon of nature that ice must die. — Sen. 
 
 § 490. Quod is sometimes thus used of an hypothetical 
 case, and then of course it takes the Subjunctive : as, 
 
 L 2 
 
220 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 §481. 
 
 §493. 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 221 
 
 Nemo SratOrem admirato est ,«od: Latino U,^^rilur, No one ever 
 admired an orator became he fpoke good Latm.-^ic. 
 
 S 491 Ouod is originally a Relative Pronoun and in some 
 of \tt app'ucations leen/ to --r .^^twcen th.^- o^^^ 
 
 Jlld rather have umlergone that offiee Jrom hm.-CiC. 
 
 nine of sentences, is to be explained \>r the '""■'''^f ?' ' .j.,.,,,.. 
 guage for connecting the parts of a narration by means of the llelati>e. 
 
 « 40'>. ftuippe (quia-pe-), because, as being, is chiefly used in 
 connexion with the Kelative Tronoun (see § 4< <), as also 
 S^%i...or illati.. y^'^J^^t S: 
 j:S tUTccoldln "as teVor hypothesis is indi- 
 cated: as, 
 
 o^riom troubles.-rev ^^j^^^ eorpCro, 7,<««..«oft as in that ease 
 
 ^j:;ZeetiXJ^^!^^^^^ ^'^^ "-- »-"'' "- '"""->■" 
 
 trith eternal substance. — Lucr. 
 
 Ti.um muvcre. Both things have a trivial name: for in fact this whole 
 matltr of provoking laughter is trivial.-Lic, 
 
 § 49:3. Qnippe is also used with the Judicative iu giving 
 an ironical reason : — 
 
 Quippe vetoi futis! Because forsooth I am forbidden by the fates!- 
 
 ^''MOvet me quippe lumen cMae ! Forsooth that luminary of the 
 genate-house disturbs me !—CiQ. 
 
 §494. ftuoniam (rjuam jam), since is used in stating a 
 reason, and generally, but not ahvays, takes the Indi- 
 cativo ; as, 
 
 n,i-im me stultitiam tquoniam non est g5nu3 unum) insanire pQtas? 
 n7,?f i55!;)i^/ /X'^-'ee '/.ere is more than one kind) do yuu th,nh I am 
 
 '"" Q«f I'/Im^Tm id diserimen addueta est, Seeing matters have heen 
 hrniKilit to such a crisis. — Cic. . 
 
 tlL privutim reta ab eo pCtcre eoeperunt, qnSniam cvltat. con- 
 
 ^:^^ent. They began to mahe Pf '''">' l"''''lZZt^ Me 
 owi private eoneerns, seeing they eomd not consult the safety of the slate. 
 
 —Cues. 
 
 \ 
 
 (The Su1>j. appears to be used here to indicate that such was the 
 reason by which they justified theTnsdves merely ; v. § 487.'i 
 
 Itaque qudniam ipse pro se dIcCre non posset, verba fecit frater ejus, 
 Accordingly, seeing he could not speak on his own behalf, his brother acted 
 as spokesman. — Nep. 
 
 § 495. Quando is sometimes used as a causal Conjunction, 
 equivalent to qudniam. It then takes the Indicative . as, 
 
 Quando ita tibi Idbet, vile, Since such is your humour. Good-bye. — 
 Plaut. 
 
 Cur non sit orator, quando, quod difficilius est, oratorem facitf 
 Why should not he be an orator, seeing that — ichat is harder, — he mdke% 
 an orator ? — Quint. 
 
 § 490. Quoad, as long as, as far as, until, takes the Indi- 
 cative or the Subjunctive, according as it refers to actual 
 fact or not : as, 
 
 Ipse quoad pdtuif, fortissTme restltit, Ho himself, so long as he was 
 able, resisted most valiantly. — Caes. 
 
 Jdbeo te salvere voce summa, quoad vires vdlent, I bid you good day, 
 at the top of my voice ; as far as my powers avail. — Plaut. 
 
 Ipse interea, quoad iCgiones coUdcasset, in Gallia morari constituit, 
 ITe himself meanwhile resolved to remain in Gaul till he had put the 
 legions into winter quarters. — Caes. 
 
 § 497. Dum, whilst, is construed with the Indicative ; dum, 
 until, with the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according as 
 a simple fact or a purpose is indicated : as, 
 
 Ea rCderaptio mansit dum judices rejecti sunt. That bargain re- 
 mained in force until the judges were rejected. — Cic. 
 
 Obsldio deinde per paucos dies m^gis quam oppugnatio fuit dum 
 vulnus diicis cfirarctur, The siege then took the form of a blockade rather 
 than an assault for a few days, so that meanwhile (dum) the general's 
 wound might be cured. — Liv. 
 
 Iriitis subtrahendi sunt ii, in quos impgtum facJ^re cr)nantur, dum 
 Be ipsi colligant. Angry persons must have the objects of their attacks put 
 out of their reach, so that meanwhile they may collect themselves. — Cic. 
 
 IVIihi usque curae erit quid agas dutn, quid egeris, sciSro, It will con- 
 tinue to be matter of concern to me ichat step you take, until I have learned * 
 what step you have actually taken. — Cic. 
 
 * The writer regards it as certain that he tcill learn, 
 
 § 498. Dummodo (also simply dum or modo), provided that 
 CMypothetical, § 425), is construed with the Subjunctive 
 Mood ; as, 
 
 OdCrint, dum m mI, Let them hate provided only they fear.— Suet 
 Omnia recta et honesta negligunt, dummodo potentiam cons?quantur. 
 
 They disregard all that is right and honourable, if they can only obtain 
 
 power. — Cic. 
 
09'> 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 § 499. 
 
 §505. 
 
 THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 223 
 
 Obs. We also find dummodo ne, dum ne, modo ne .as, 
 
 Sit summa in jure dicendo severttas, dummodo ea ne varietur grfifi't. 
 Let there be the utmost severity in administering justice, so long as it dots 
 not fluctuate through partiality. — Cic. 
 
 § 499. Donee, whilst, until, lias the same constniction as 
 
 dum (§ 497). 
 
 Obs. 1. DOnec is rare in Cicero, and is not found at all m Caesar or Sallust. 
 
 But it is frequent in the poets, as well as in Livy and Tacitus. 
 Obs. 2. Livy and Tacitus sometimes use dOnec with the Subjunctive, vrhen 
 
 speaking of simple facts : as, 
 
 Elephanti ir^ptdationis allquantum edcbant, donee quietem ipse timor 
 
 focisset. The elephants made some disturbance, until their very fears made 
 
 them quiet. — Liv. 
 
 § 500. The (so-called) Conjunctions, antequam, priusq^uam, 
 before that, take the Subjunctive when they refer to an 
 hypothetical case : as, 
 
 In omnibus ne^rOtiis, priusquam aggrtdidre, adhibenda est pracpa- 
 ratio dUi<-ens, In all undertakings, before you attempt anything, ijou must 
 make careful preparation. — Cic. 
 
 § 501. 'VA'hen antequam, priusquam, and postquam, are used 
 with reference to actual f\icts, they usually take the Indi- 
 cative, but sometimes the Subjunctive : as, 
 
 (a.) With Indicative. 
 
 Antequam ad sententiam redeo, de me pauca d'lcam. Before I return 
 to the resolution, I loill say a few icords about myself— Cic. 
 
 Non ante finltum est proeliiim, quam tribunus militum interfectus 
 est. The battle icas not brought to a close till a tribune of soldiers hail been 
 slain. — Liv. 
 
 Ante aliquanto quam tu natus es, A good while before you icere born.— 
 
 Cic. 
 
 Neque ante dimisit eum quam f idem drdit adolescens ab bis sacns so 
 temperaturum, Nor did she leave him till the young man gave her his icord 
 that he icoidd refrain from taking part in these rites.— l^iy. 
 
 Decessit post annum quartiim quam ejcpulsus trat, lie died four years 
 after he had been banished.— 'Sep. 
 
 . (h.) With Subjunctive, 
 
 Prius Placentiam pervenere quam satis sciret Hannibal ab Ticino 
 prufectos, They reached Placentia before Hannibal icas well aware that 
 they had left the Ticinus.—hiv. 
 
 Interfuit pugnae niivali apud Saliimlna, quae facta est prius quam 
 poena llberdrctiir, lie was present at the naval battle of Salamis, which 
 was fought before lie was liberated from his penalty. — Nop. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Subjunctive is rare when only a specification of priority or sub- 
 sequence of Time is indicated. 
 Obs. 2. Ante . . . quam, post . . . quam, are usually separated from each 
 other : see above examples. 
 
 t 
 
 •• 
 
 I 
 
 § 502. Quamvis, however much, and licet, although, used con- 
 cessively, govern the Subjunctive ; as, 
 
 Quamvis ElS'sios miretur Graecia campos. However much Greece may 
 admire her Elysian plains. — Virg. 
 
 Assentatio quamvis pemici5sa sit, nocere tamen nemini potest, nisi 
 t'i, qui earn recipit atque ea dolcctatur, Flattery, hoicever injurious it 
 may be, can harm no one saving the man uho takes it in and is gratified 
 by it. — Cic. 
 
 Quamvis sit magna (exspectatio), tamen earn vinces, TJiough expec- 
 tation be ever so high, you ivill yet go beyond it. — Cic. 
 
 Licet ipsa vitium sit ambitio, frequenter tamen causa ^'irtutum est. 
 Though ambition in itself is a fault, yet it is often the cause of virtues. — 
 Quint. 
 
 Vita brCvis est licet supra mille annos exeat, Life is short even if H 
 should exceed a thousand years. — Sen. 
 
 Obs. In the poets and later writers quamvis is often equivalent to quanquam^ 
 and takes the Indicative : as, 
 
 Erat inter cos dignitute regia, quamvis carebat nomtne. He enjoyed the 
 rank of king amongst them, though he had not the title. — Nep. 
 
 § 503. Quanquam, etsi, etiamsi, although, take either the 
 Indicative or Subjunctive, according to the fundamental 
 distinction between those Moods (§ 421) : as, 
 
 Quanquam, — etsi priore foedCre staretur,— satis cautura ^rat de 
 Saguntinid, Although, — even if the former treaty were adhered to, — 
 sufficient security had been taken for the Saguntines. — Liv. 
 
 Quanquam f est! nas, non est mora longa, Though thou art in haste, ft 
 would involve no long delay. — Hor. 
 
 Sed quanquam urgent, nee virtutes nee vitia crescere, attamen, etc.. 
 But although they (the Stoics) should deny {it), affirming that neither 
 virtues nor vices increase, yet, &c. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Later writers make quanquam govern the Subjunctive, whilst they use 
 quamvis with the Indicative (§ 502. Obs.) : as, 
 
 Phraates quanquam depiilisset exercttus ducesque Rom3.no3, cuncta 
 vfnerantium off Icia ad Augustum verterat, Phraates, though he had repulsed 
 the armies and generals of Rome, had yet directed all the observances of 
 respect toicards Augustus. — Tac. 
 
 Chapter XL VIII. — The Infinitive Mood. 
 
 504. The Infinitive Mood is an indeclinable verbal Sub- 
 stantive, capable of being used as a Nominative or an 
 Accusative only. For the other Cases, the Gerund takes 
 the place of the Infinitive 
 
 1. The Infinitive as Subject. 
 
 § 505. The Infinitive is used as Subject chiefly in con- 
 nexion with such quasi-impersonal Verbs as jiivat, delectat, 
 
 i 
 
224: 
 
 THE IXFINITIYE MOOIT. 
 
 §506. 
 
 § 510. 
 
 (it) delights ; or such phrases as pulclmim, decorum est, (it) is 
 line J becoming y &c. : as, 
 
 Jflvat intej?ro3 accnUre fontos, atoue haurire, It is delightful to repair 
 to untroubled fountains and drink.— Lucr, 
 
 iHere acced^re, haiirire, form subjects iojuvat.) 
 
 At piilchrum est dlji^Ito monsirdri, et dicier, " hie est," But it is ajine 
 thing to be pointed at with the finger, and for it to be said, " TJiere he is!" 
 — Pers. 
 
 Usque adeono scire tmim nihil est, nisi hoe sciat alter, Is your knoio- 
 ledge so utterly worth nothing, unless your neighbour hnoic it I—Fcts. 
 
 (This use of an Infinitive with an attributive Adjective is rare, and 
 not to be imitated.) 
 
 2. The Infinitive as Object. 
 
 § 506. The nse of the Infinitive as Direct Object is rare 
 and chiefly confined to the poets : as, 
 
 Quid sit filturum eras filge quaerCre, What is to be on the morrow 
 forbear inquiring. — Hor, 
 
 Pro nobis mitte j>rtcJr/, Give over praying for us! — Ov 
 
 Obs. 1. For the Infinitive after Verbs of irillinffncss, ability, &c., see § 512. ^ 
 
 Obs. 2. The Infinitive is sometimes used by the poets where a prose writer 
 would employ the Gerund, or Gerundive : as, 
 
 Necquicquam . . vltubis . . c^Urem seqid Ajacem, In rain tcilt thou 
 try to avoid AJax swift to pursue. — Ilor. 
 
 (Celer sequi = celer ad sequendum.) 
 
 Non lenis prPcYbus fata rccludi^re Merciirius, Mercury not to be moved 
 by prayers to open the door of fate. — Ilor. 
 
 (Lenis fata recludere = lenis ad fata recludenda.) 
 
 3. Accusative and Infinitive. 
 
 § 507. Yerbs of saying, thinking, hnoxcing, and hearing, are 
 followed by the Accusative and Infinitive in the proposition 
 which they introduce : as, 
 
 Thales Milosius aquam dixit erne initium ronmi, TJi ales of Miletus 
 affirmed that water was the first principle of all things. — Cic. 
 
 Se7itit animus se mdveri. The soul is conscious that it moves. — Cic. 
 
 Non 6nim ambrosia deos aut neetare laeturi arbitror, For I do not 
 helieve the gods delight in nectar and ambrosia. — Cic. 
 
 Ultimas terras lustrame Pythag6ram, Democritum, Platonem accc- 
 pimus. We have been informed that Pythagoras, Democritus and Plato 
 travelled through the remotest parts ofth« earth. — Cic. 
 
 Scio tibi Ita pluctre, I know that to be your opinion. — Cic. 
 (The subject or Accusative before placere is involved in ita.) 
 
 § 508. Xot only Yerbs of the above kind, but Phrases 
 equivalent or analof^ous to them are followed by the Ac- 
 cusative and Infinitive: as. 
 
 THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 225 
 
 Ea erat confessio, caput rerum Rdmam esse, That was a confession 
 [ = to confess) that Home was at the head of of airs.— Liv. 
 
 A uctores sumus tutam ibi majestatem Romani nrjminis fore. We will 
 answer for it that the majesty of the Roman name shall be safe there.— 
 Liv. 
 
 Caesarem certiorem faciunt sese non facile ab oppldis vim hostium 
 prohibcre. They inform Caesar that they find it no easy matter to beat off 
 the violence of the enemy from their towns.— Caea. 
 
 § 509. Also many Yerbs denoting various feelings of the 
 mind, as, jog, grief, wonder, etc., may be followed by the 
 Accusative and Infinitive : as, 
 
 Salvum te advSmre gaudeo, I rejoice that you come in safety.— Plsiut 
 Inft-riores non dolere (debent) se a suis supSruri, Inferiors ought not 
 to be grieved at being surpassed by their friends.— Cic. 
 
 Mlror te ad me niliil scribere, 1 am surprised that you icrite nothing 
 to me. — Cic. 
 
 Pcccassfi Cnim se non anguntur, objurgilri moleste fCTunt, They are 
 not sorry that they have done wrong ; tfiey take it OMiisi that they are 
 found fault with. — Cic. 
 
 Obs, 1. But the above Verbs more frequently take quod^ with Indicative or 
 
 Subjunctive (v. § 488). 
 
 Obs. 2. Concerning the construction oi piidet, ptget, &e., v. § 241, 
 
 § 510. Yarious impersonal phrases, such as certum est, it is 
 certain ; manifestum est, it is manifest ; aequum, justmn est, it is 
 fair or just ; opus, necesse, est, it is necessary ; sequitur, it follows ; 
 constat, it is acknowledged ; expedit, it is expedient, are followed 
 by the Accusative and Infinitive : as, 
 
 Certum est liberos a parentibus dmUri, It is certain that children are 
 loved by their parents. — Quint. 
 
 Quae libGrum scire aequum est addlescentem. Tilings ichich it is 
 proper a young gentleman should know. — Ter. 
 
 Constat ad salutem civium inventas esse Uges, It is acknowledged that 
 laws were devised for the safety of citizens.— Cic. 
 
 Ni^resse est Tgltur legem hdhcri in optimis rebus, It is a necessary con- 
 sequence then, that laic should be reckoned among the best of things.—Cic, 
 
 Legem brCvem esse Cportet, quo faeilius ab imparl tis teneatur, A law 
 ought to be short, that it may the more readily be comprehended by tht 
 illiterate. — Cic. 
 
 Cato nCgatyMS esse, eum qui miles non sit, cum hoste pugnure, Cato 
 affirms that it is not right for one tcho is not a soldier to fight icith the 
 enemy. — Cic. 
 
 Nee sHquUur illico esse causas immutabiles, Nor does it follow there- 
 fore that there are immutable causes. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Restat, rellquum est, it remains ; proxTmum est, the next thing is, and 
 , the like ; as also sometimes, st>quTttur, it folloivs; expedit, it is expedient ; 
 \ mos (moris) est, it is a custom, are often followed by ut and the Subjunc- 
 tive : as. 
 
 L 3 
 
i:i2G 
 
 THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 § 511. 
 
 1 
 
 Prox-imum est ut d5ceam deorum provtdentiJ mundum udmtnistrari, The 
 next thing h for me to shou: that the world is managed by the providence oj 
 the gods. — Cic. 
 
 Si haec enuntiatio vera non est, stquXtur ut falsa sit, If this proposition 
 is not true, it follous that it is false.— Cic. 
 
 § 511. Yerbs signifying iciUingness, or permission (including 
 jubeo), and the like, with their contraries, govern the Ac- 
 cusative and Infinitive : as, 
 
 Maiores corpdra jilVi^iiiim firrmri libore vShierunU Oiir ancestors 
 wished the bodies of youth to be strengthened by hardshi p. -i.ic. 
 
 Sc^nutui placet, Crassum Syrium obttnere, It is the pleasure of the 
 senate that Crassus should hold Syria — Cic. 
 
 Verres hdniinem corrlpi jussit, Verres onkred the man to be arrested. 
 —Cic. (eomp. § 451}. 
 
 Cupio me esse clementcni, I desire that I may be merciful.— L\c. 
 Dolectum liubori prOlilbebo, I will not suffer the levy to be held.— 
 Liv. 
 
 Obs. 1. Verbs of rvishing arc in many cases followed by ut and the Subjunc 
 
 tive, or the Subjunctive alone (v. § 443, sqq.). 
 06.. 2. Impero is sometimes used like Jubeo (v. § 451), with the Accusative 
 and Infinitive : as, .. , / » x i^ 
 
 Has omnes aciuurias imperat fieri, Ue orders that all these (vessels) be 
 
 made sicift-sailers. — Caes. 
 
 4. Verbs which govern the Infinitive without 
 the Accusative Case. 
 
 § 51*^ Yerbs signifx-ing iciUingness or determination, alility, 
 Imcfuhiess, duty, or the like, with their contraries, govern 
 the Infinitive : as, 
 
 Stadeo ex te audlre quid -^entias, I desire to hear from you ichat you, 
 think.— Cic. . , •/ 
 
 Amieitia, nisi inter bOnos, esse non pdtest. Friendship can only exist 
 between the gwxf. — Cic. 
 
 Optat ardre cuballus, Tlie nag would lihe to draw the plough.— Hot. 
 
 (of. § 447 y. 
 
 Dlci beutiis ante ubitum nemo debet. No one ought to be called happy 
 
 before his decease.— Ov. 
 
 Caesar bellum cum Germanis gertre comtUuit, Caesar resolved to 
 fimhe war upon the Germans. — Caes. 
 
 Obs 1. When a wish respecting the Subject is expressed, either the Infinitive 
 alone or the Accusative and Infinitive may be used: thus, instead of 
 CQpio esse clemens, we may have Cupio me esse clementem (Cic). 
 Obs. 2. The Infinitive is also used after certain equivalent phrases : as, 
 (mihi) in anliuo est, certum est, constlium est. It is my purpose, &c. : as, 
 . Certum est (mihi) omnia audacter llbereque dlci're, It is my detcrmina. 
 tion to say everything boldly and freely. — Cic. 
 
 Constlia Xniit reges Lacedaemoniorum tollere. He formed designs for 
 doing auay uith the kings of the Lacedaemonians.— Hes* 
 
 5 517. 
 
 THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 227 
 
 ' 
 
 § 513. AVhcn a predicative Adjective or Substantive is 
 attached to the Infinitive Mood in the above cases, it 
 agrees in case with the Subject of the Infinitive : as, 
 
 Ubi \6\e3 pater esse, ibi esto. When you choose to be the father, then 
 you must be *o. — Plaut. 
 
 Cupio in tantis reipubllcae pCricQlis, me non dissolutum vTderi, I am 
 desirous in such perils as menace the state, that I may not seem lax. — Cic. 
 
 Llcuit esse ilieso Themistocli, Themi&tocles might have been inactive 
 —Cic. 
 
 Obs. The Imperfect and not the I'erfcct Infinitive (as in English), is used 
 after the above Verbs : thus, I wished to have been consul, is Volui me 
 consulem esse, not fuisse : see last example. 
 
 § 514. Yeibs signifying to begin, continue., or leave off ; also 
 to le or become accustomed, govern the Infinitive : as, 
 
 Inctpe, parve puer, matrem cognoscere risu. Begin, little child, to hiow 
 thy mother by her smile 1 — Virg. 
 
 Ilhul jam mirdri destno. That I am now ceasing to iconder at. — Cic. 
 Qui mentlri sdlet, pejerdre consuevit, lie icho is in the habit of lying, 
 has learntd to be a perjurer.— Cic. ^ 
 
 § 515. Tlie Verbs to seem, to he thought, said, believed (videor, 
 piitor, credor, dicor, feror, nuntior, etc.), are rarely used imper- 
 sonally as in English (see § 232, Obs.) : thus we find, 
 
 Lectitavisse Platunem stadiuse Demosthenes (not Bemostheneni) dl- 
 cUur, Demosthenes is said to have been a most diligent reader of Plato. — 
 —Cic. 
 
 Luna (not lunam) solis lumine coUustrari putdtur, It is thought that 
 the moon is illumined by the sun's light. — Cic. 
 
 Malum mihi vkletur esse mors (not mortem), I am of opinion that 
 death is an evil. — Cic. 
 
 5. The Infinitive in exclamations. 
 
 § 516. The Infinitive is used in exclamations to denote 
 surprise, without any preceding Verb being expressed : as, 
 
 Mene desisttre victam, {To think that) I should give over as van- 
 quished I — Virg. 
 
 6. Historical Infinitive. 
 
 § 517. The historical writers often use the Impeifect 
 Infinitive instead of the corresponding tenses of the Indi- 
 cative : as, 
 
 Int<5rea Manlius in Etruria plebem sollicrtdre, Meanwhile Manlius in 
 Etruria ivas stirring up the common people to insurrection. — Sail. 
 
 Suo quisque mCtu perlcilla metiri. Each one was measuring the extent 
 of the danger by his oicn fears. — Sail. 
 
 Obs. This use of the Infinitive is most frequent in descriptive passages ; 
 where it serves rather to place a circumstance in a lively manner before 
 the eye, than merely to state that it took place. 
 
228 
 
 TARTICirLES. 
 
 § 518. 
 
 7. Circumlocution for the Future Inianitive. 
 
 § 518. Instead of the Future Infinitive, Avhether in the 
 Active or Passive Voice, we often find fore ut with the Sub- 
 junctive ; as, 
 
 Clamabant homines, pre ut ipsi se dii immortalcs ulcisc^reritury The 
 men exclaimed, that the immortal gods themt^elces icoidd avenge them.— Cic. 
 
 Especially of course when a Verb wants the Supine : as, 
 Spero/(/re ut cnntingat id nobis, I hope such a piece of good fortune 
 may fall to us. — Cic. 
 
 § 519. Infinitive in Oratio ObUqua: see § 40(5. 
 
 Chapter XLIX.— PARTicirLES. 
 
 § 520. The Participle expresses the same notion as the 
 Yerb to which it belongs, but in the form of an Adjective. 
 It does not contain the Copula (§ 213, Obs. 1) involved in 
 it, and is chiefly used in the way of Apposition : as, 
 
 Dioni/sins, ciiltros metuens tonsoris, candenti carbone sibi Jldfirebat 
 ilium, Dionysius, being afraid of barbers razors, singed his hair with 
 
 cap 
 
 a lire coal 
 
 -Ci 
 
 § 521. Active Participles govern the same Case as the 
 Terb to which they belong : as, 
 
 Ipsa sua Dido concldit Usa manu. Dido fell, by (Lit., using) her own 
 hand. — Ov 
 
 Puer bene sM fiden.?:, A yotdh trusting tcell to himself.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. When a Participle is used as an Adjective denoting disposition or capa- 
 city for, it governs the Genitive : see § 277. 
 
 § 522. The Latin Yerb is deficient in its Participles, 
 having in the Active Voice only an Imperfect and a Future j 
 and in the Passive only a Perfect and the Gerundive Parti- 
 ciple of Necessity, Thus the Active Voice has no Perfect 
 Participle and the Passive no Imperfect, 
 
 Obs. 1. Deponents are the only Verbs in Latin which form a Perfect Parti- 
 ciple Active : as, Sdeptus, having acquired ; Qsus, having used, &c. (Sec 
 § 103.) 
 Obs. 2. The lack of an Imperfect Participle Passive is in some cases supplied 
 by the Gerundive : as, 
 
 Multi in equis piirandis adhthent curara, in timJcis eUgendis ncglYgcntcs 
 sunt. Many take pains in getting horses (Lit. horses being got)^ but are 
 careless in choosing friends.— Cic. 
 
 This construction of the Gerxmdivc is explained in § 537. 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 § 52G. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 229 
 
 
 § 523. The Imperfect Participle Active represents a thing 
 as going on at the time spoken of : as, 
 
 Curio ad focum sSdenti raagnum auri pondus Saranltes quum attil- 
 lissent, repildiati sunt, When the Samnites brought Curius as he icas sitting 
 at his fireside a great weight of gold, their offers were rejected.— Cic. 
 
 Scripta tua jam din exspectans non audeo tamen flagitare, While 
 expecting for a long while past your writings, I yet do not venture to 
 importune you for them. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Instead of the Imperfect Participle, quum -with the Past-Imperfect is 
 often used : as, 
 
 Audivi quum diccret, I heard him saying. — Cic. 
 
 § 524. The Perfect Participle Active represents a Person 
 as having done something at tJhe time spoken of. It is found 
 only in Deponents and in certain Active Verbs. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal Active Verbs 
 which have a Perfect Participle with an Active sense : — 
 
 Audeo, 
 
 I dare. 
 
 ausus. 
 
 having dared. 
 
 Gaudeo, 
 
 I rejoice. 
 
 gavisus, 
 
 having rejoiced, rejoicing. 
 
 Soleo, 
 
 I am wont^ 
 
 solitus, 
 
 having been wont. 
 
 Fido [& comp.), 
 
 I trust. 
 
 fisus, 
 
 having trusted. 
 
 Juro, 
 
 I swear. 
 
 juratus, 
 
 having sworn. 
 
 Coeno, 
 
 I dine. 
 
 coenatus, 
 
 having dined. 
 
 Prandeo, 
 
 I brealcfast. 
 
 pransus 
 
 hiving brealifasted. 
 
 Nubo, 
 
 I am married. 
 
 nupta 
 
 having been married to. 
 
 Odi, 
 
 I hate. 
 
 osus 
 
 having hated, hating. 
 
 § 525. Some Deponents use their Perfect Participle both 
 in an Active and a Passive sense : the following are among 
 the principal ones that do so : — 
 
 Adipiscor 
 
 I attain to. 
 
 aieptus, having attamed, orhav 
 ing been attained. 
 
 Comitor, 
 
 I accompany. 
 
 comitatus, &c. 
 
 Confiteor, 
 
 I confess. 
 
 confessus, &c 
 
 Metier, 
 
 I measure. 
 
 mensus. 
 
 Experior, 
 
 I try. 
 
 expertus. 
 
 Meditor, 
 
 I practise. 
 
 meditatus. 
 
 Tester, 
 
 I call to icitness. 
 
 testatus. 
 
 Moderor, 
 
 I control. 
 
 moderatus. 
 
 Popiilor, 
 
 I devastate. 
 
 populatus. 
 
 Partior, 
 
 I divide. 
 
 parti tus. 
 
 Paciscor, 
 
 I bargain^ 
 
 pactus. 
 
 § 526. Tlie want of a Perfect Participle in other Verbs 
 is supplied in two ways : 
 
230 
 
 PArvTICirLES. 
 
 § 527, 
 
 (A.) By the Perfect Participle Passive in agreeoient 
 
 with its Substantive as an Ablative Absolute. 
 (B.) By quum with the Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 (A.) 
 
 Mucius sCliis in castra Porsciiiiae venit, eumque interficere, propositu 
 sibi murte, eouutiis est, Mnrius ictnt alone into the camp of Porsenna, and 
 having set death Jit., death having been set) before his eyes, attempted to 
 blaij him. — Cic. 
 
 Coqnito Caesaris adventn, Ariovistus legutos atl enm luittit, iIar/)<(/ 
 heard of Caesar's arrival, Ariovistus sent ambassadors to him.—Cnta. 
 
 Dextra Hercules data omen se accipere ait, Hercules offering his 
 right hand, said he accepted the omen.—IAv, 
 
 (B.) 
 
 Epaminondas qniim v'lcisset LJlcedaemonios apud ^lantineam, atque 
 ipse gruvi viilnCTc se exnnlniuri vidirtt, qiiaeslvit, salvusne esse elipeu.-, 
 JJpaminondas, having conquered the Lacedaemmians in the battle of 
 Mantinea, and seeing himself to be dying of a bad wound, asked if ha 
 shield were ?afe.—C'ic. 
 
 (For more examples see § 332.) 
 
 Obs. Similarly the want of an Imperfect Parlicip'e in the Passive may be 
 supplied by quum and the Present --r Imperfect Subjunctive : as, 
 
 Quum civttas in labore asstduo rt^f iciordac urbis tfucrctur. The people 
 heing occupied in the incessant labour of restoring the city. — Liv. 
 (Similarly with dum and ihe Present Indicative, § 393.) 
 
 § 527. The Future Participle Active is used to denote 
 (1) simple /M^unYy ; (2) intention or purpose : as, 
 Delli raorlture, Dellius, who art (one day) to die. — Hor. 
 Perseus rMiit, belli cusum dt* intejxro tentatunis, Perseus returned, 
 intending to try the chances of tear afresh.— IjW. 
 
 Obs. The Future Participle occurs most frequently in combination with the 
 verb sum. 
 
 § 528. The Neuter of the Perfect Participle is sometimes 
 used as an Abstract Substantive : as, 
 
 Nitm priusquam inetpias consulto ; et ubi consftludris, mature facto 
 6pti3 est. For before you make a beginning, you ivant counsel; and icheu 
 you have taken counsel, you uant prompt action.^^aW. 
 
 Nihil pensi neqiie mCdcrati habere, Tliey exercised no reflection, no 
 restraint. — SaU. 
 
 § 529. llie use of the Gerundive Participle is explained in 
 the next chapter. 
 
 § 530. Frequent use of Participles.— VsLrtic\\^\es are very 
 often used in Latin, so as to avoid the use of Conjunctions 
 where several predications are united in a sentence : as, 
 Victa pictas jucet, Piety s vanquished and lies prostrate.— Oy. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 K 
 
 § 534. THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE PARTICIPLE. 231 
 
 Rursiis in obliquura verso pernmipit ardtro. Again he turns the plough, 
 and breaks up {the soil) in a cross direction. — Virg. 
 
 TjTtaeus carmina composXta exercitui r6cita,vit, Tyrtaeus composed 
 songs and repeated them to the army.— Juatm. 
 
 Chapter L. — The Gerund and Gerundtve 
 
 Participle. 
 
 § 531. The Gerund is a Verbal Substantive nsed in all 
 cases except the Nominative and Vocative : as, regendi, q/ 
 ruling ; regendo, to, for, or by ruling ; ad regendum, for the pur- 
 l)ose of ruling. 
 
 Obs. Instead of a Nominative Case of the Gerund, the Infinitive Mood is used 
 (see § 505). 
 
 § 532. The Cases of Gerunds have the same construction 
 as the coiTespon(}ing Cases of ordinary Substantives : as, 
 
 (;e„,_0mni8 Idquendi (§ 263) elegantia expolltur scientia literarum. 
 Every kind of elegance of speech is made more refined by an acquaintance 
 icith literature. — Cie. 
 
 Praet^reamus Igttur praecepta Latine loquendi (§ 263), Let us then 
 pass over the rules for speaking Latin.— Cic. 
 
 Pat.— Aqua nitrosa utllis est blbendo (§ 298), Water full of natron is 
 useful for drinking.— Fliu. 
 
 Ace.— BrUxe terapus aetatis satis longiim est ad bene honestequo 
 vivendumi^ 248), llie brief time of life is long enough for living virtuously 
 oiid honourably. — Cic. 
 
 ^5;._Orator in dlcendo (§ 331) exerc^tatus. An orator practised in 
 speaking. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. The Accusative Case of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions: 
 otherwise the Imperfect Infinitive is used : see § 506 sqq. 
 
 § 533. The Gerund as a Verbal Substantive still retains 
 the power of governing its proper case as a Verb : as, 
 
 Parstmonia est scientia vitandi sumptus stlpervacuos, aut ars re 
 fumlliari moderate utendi, Economy is the science of avoiding needless 
 expense ; or the art of using one's income ivith moderation.— Sen. 
 
 DiogSnes dicebat, arteni se trad6re vera ac falsa d'ljud'icandi, 
 Diogenes professed to impart the art of distinguishing between the true 
 and the false. — Cic. 
 
 Publica prodendo tua necquicquam serves. By betraying. the pubho 
 weal, you would in vain try to preserve your otcn.— Liv. 
 
 § 534. The Gerundive Participle signifies that a thing is 
 necessary or proper to be done. It is always Passive m 
 
232 THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE PARTICIPLE. § 5:33. 
 
 meaning, whether coming from a Verb strictly Passive or 
 from a Deponent. It has the following modes of con- 
 struction : — 
 
 (A.) It is used in the Nominative Case along with 
 the Verb est, sunt, etc., in agreement with a 
 Substantive, to signify that something ought to 
 he done, 
 
 (B.) It is used (impersonally) in the Neater Gender 
 along with the Verb est, with the same force as 
 in the fanner case. 
 
 (C.) It is used in all Cases except the Nominative or 
 Vocative, in agreement with a Substantive, as 
 equivalent to a Gerund governing the Accusa- 
 tive. — Note, llie agent or doer in both (-4) and 
 (^B) is put in the Dative Case, 
 
 § 535. (A.) If the verb governs an Accusative, the Ge- 
 rundive agrees with the Nominative of its substantive : as, 
 
 DUigentia est cdlenday We must practise diligence. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Such a construction as pocnas ttmendum est, ire must fear punishment 
 (Lucr.)» is exceptional, and is borrowed from the Greek. 
 
 § 53G. (B.) If the verb governs any other case than the 
 Accusative the Gerundive is used impersonally with est in 
 the Nominative Singular Neuter : as, 
 
 Besistendum sonectfiti est pugnandum tanquam contra morbum, 
 
 sic contra senectutem. We mmt resist old-age ; ice must combat tcith old- 
 age as icith a disease. — Cic. 
 
 Corpori subvSniendum est. We must aid the body.— Cic. 
 
 TJtendum erit verbis lis, qnil)iis jam consuc'tudo nostra non iititiir, 
 We shall have to iiee icords which our present usage does not employ. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. In such cases the Gerundive Participle governs the same Case as the 
 
 Verb to which it belongs. (See examples.) 
 065. 2. The Dative of the Agent is frequently omitted. (See examples.) 
 
 § 537. (C.) The Gerundive is frequently used instead of 
 the Genmd, when the verb governs the Accusative. The 
 following changes then take place : — 
 
 1. The Accusative is put in the same case as the Gerund. 
 
 2. The Gerund is changed into the Gerundive. 
 
 3. The Gerundive being an Adjective agrees with its 
 Substantive in gender, number, and case : thus 
 
 Ars pueros edQcandi difficilis est 
 
 becomes 
 
 Ars pucrurum C'dilcandOnim difficilis est 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 § 539. THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE PARTICIPLE. 233 
 
 in the following way: (1.) The Substantive pueros is put 
 in the same case as the Gerund educandi ; consequently 
 puerorum. (2.) The Genind educandi is changed into the 
 Gerundive educandus, a, urn. (3.) The Gerundive is made 
 to agree with puerorum in gender, number, and case ; con- 
 sequently, educandorum. For example : 
 
 Nihil Xenuphonti tarn regale vldetur, quam studiiim agri colendi. 
 Nothing seems to Xenophon so princely as the pursuit of tilling the soil. — 
 Cic. 
 
 liegulus r^ttnendi officii causa criiciatum siibiit voluntarimn, ii^'f/jJtfg 
 for the sake of keeping to his duty submitted to voluntary torture. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. So also are used the Gerundive Participles of utory fruor, potior 
 vescor, fungor : as, 
 
 » Ad agrum fruendum invTtat atque allectat senectus, Old age invites and 
 tempts tts to the eiijoyment of the country. — Cic. 
 
 ' Hostes in spcm potiundGrum castrorum venerant, The enemy had got 
 hopes of obtaining possession of the camp. — Caes. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Gerund is used in preference to the Gerundive, when the use of 
 the latter would cause any ambiguity, especially when the Object of the 
 Verbal Substantive is a neuter Adjective : as, 
 
 (Pars honesti) in tribuendo sutim cuique versatur, Apart of virtue con- 
 sists in giving to everyone his own. — Cic. 
 
 § 538. The Dative of the Gerundive is very often used 
 with its Substantive to denote a Purpose or llesult (§ 299) : 
 as, 
 
 Vlileriiis consid cumitia collegae subrogando habuit, Valerius the 
 consul held the elections for choosing him afresh colleague. — Liv. 
 
 DCcemvtri legtbus scribundis, Decemvirs for framing a code of laics. — 
 Liv. 
 
 Tib(5rius qnilsi firmandae vUliitiidtni in Campuniam concessit, Tibe- 
 rius withdrew into Campania ostensibly for the purpose of recruiting his 
 health. — Tac. 
 
 (But here Cic. would liave written ad Jirmandam valetudinem.) 
 
 Obs. 1 . This use of the Gerundive is most frequent in describing the function 
 of an official person or body : as in the expressions, Triumviri agris 
 dandis, &c. (See examples above.) 
 
 Obs. 2. To this head belong the phrases, esse solvendo {sc, aeri, for which 
 acre also occurs, alieno), to be capable of paying, solvent; 6ndri fercndo 
 esse, to be adequate to the bearing of the burden. 
 
 § 539. The Genmdive is sometimes found with a similar 
 meaning in the Genitive Case : as, 
 
 Regium iniperium, quod Initio conservandae liberiatis atque augendae 
 reipuhlicae fuerat. The kingly government, ichich at the outset, had tended 
 to the preservation of liberty and the increase of the Commonioealth.—' 
 Sail. 
 
 Obs, This is to be regarded a.."^ a Genitive of Quility (^ 276). 
 
23i 
 
 THE SUPINES. 
 
 § 540. 
 
 §546. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 235: 
 
 § 540. The following usages have been differently ex- 
 plained : — 
 
 In castra venerunt causa jnirgandl mi, They came into the camp for 
 the purpose of clearing themselves.— Cats. 
 
 (Where we might have expected 2wrr/a»(?orM)n.) 
 
 Non vi<reor ne quis hoc .me restri adhortandi (adliortandorura^ causa 
 ma^nlflce lOqui existlmet, i /u/ re »o /ear f/mf any one icill think I am 
 her'iin speaking boastfully for the sake of encouraging you.-LiY. 
 
 (AlUnnd fueere) eorum (= ea § 537. Ohs. 2), quae st^cundum uatiiram 
 sunt, udlpiscendi caii:^. To do a thing for the sake of attaining to those 
 things which are in accordance tcith nature.— Cic. 
 
 Permissu licentia diripiendi { = dliiiniindoTum) pomorum, Giving 
 
 leave to pilfer the fruit.— Suet. 
 
 Obs It is possible that the Gerund may in the above cases be treated as an 
 ordinary Substantive, as we say, ^^ The clearing of themselves," '^ The dotnu 
 of those things which are, ^-c." 
 
 § 541. The Gerund (or Gerundive) is sometimes used in 
 the xVblative Case, after the manner of an Ablative Absolute 
 when it has the force of an Imperfect Tense : as, 
 
 L Cornelius, complexus Appiura, non ciii stmillabat consulendo, 
 dtremit certamen, Lucius Cornelius embracing Appius,— his concern 
 being in reality for another than he feigned, -put an end to the dispute.— 
 
 Liv. 
 
 Ut non pi<tisse Sagimtlnos, sed s^rie, fintttmis dumttis genttbu^, 
 junnendoque, tractus ad id bellum videri posset. So that he might sepn 
 not to have singltd out the Saguntines for attack, but in the natural order, 
 after having subdued the neighbouring tribes, and as he teas linking them 
 together, to have been dragged into the said war.— hiy 
 
 (In the above examples, couiuleudo, jungendo = quum consuleret, 
 jungeret.^ 
 
 Chapter LI.— The Supines. 
 
 § 54'> The two Supines in urn and u are properly the 
 Accusative and Ablative Cases of Verbal Substantives ol 
 the Fouiih Declension. 
 
 § 543. The Supine in nm is used only after Verbs signify- 
 ing 7aofion, and denotes a Purpose. It is thus equivalent to 
 ut with the Subjunctive : as, 
 
 Filbius Pictor Delphos ad oracQlum missus est sdtatum qulbus pr5- 
 clbus deos possent placare, Fabius Pictor was sent to Delphi to the 
 oracle; in order to enquire by what prayers they might propitiate the 
 gods. — Liv. 
 
 Cilbitum Ire (or, of several persons, cSbitum discedcre). To go to bed. 
 
 —Cic. 
 
 '\ 
 
 Themistocles Argos habitutum concessit, Themistocles retired to 
 
 live at Argos. — Nep. 
 
 Obs. The phrase Ire perdltum, to set about deliberately to destroy (Cic., Sall.^j, 
 should be noted. 
 
 § 544. The Supine in u (which is properly an Ablative of 
 Manner, § 311) is used after such Adjectives as jucundus, 
 pleasant ; acilis, easy ; honestus, honourable ; credibilis, credible ; 
 mirabUis, xconderful ; and the like, with their contraries, to 
 denote m what respect they are predicated of anything : as, 
 
 Quid est tam jUamdum cognitu atque audltu, quam sapientibus sen- 
 tentiis gravlbusque verbis omata oratio? What is so delightful, 
 whether in the learning or the hearing, as speech adorned tcith wise senti- 
 ments and weighty words ?— Cic. 
 
 Id dictu quam re facllius. That were easier in the saying than in the 
 doing. — Liv. 
 
 Nilfas est dictu. There icere an impiety in so saying /—Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Tacitus uses the Supine in u instead of the Intinitive Mood after tho 
 Verb piidet : as, 
 
 riidet dictu, / am ashamed as I say it /— Agr. 32. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Supine in u may often be translated by the English Infinitive 
 Mood : as, 
 
 MIrabile dictu, Marvellous to relate J — Virg. 
 
 Chapter LIL— Adverbs. 
 
 § 545. Adverbs qualify Verbs, Adjectives, and (other) 
 Adverbs. To these parts of speech they sustain a corres- 
 ponding relation to that of the Adjective to the Sub- 
 stantive ; as in the following examples : 
 Tantus amor, So great love. 
 
 (^Substantive qualified by Adjective.) 
 
 Adeo amare, To love to such a degree, 
 Adeo amans, So loving {affectionate). 
 Adeo amanter, So lovingly. 
 (Verb, Adjective, and Adverb, qualified by corresponding Adverb.) 
 
 § 546. In the following cases an Adverb is found joined 
 with a Substantive : 
 
 (1.) In the case of the Numeral Adverbs iterum, tertium, 
 quartum, etc., as denoting the number of times 
 an office has been held : as, 
 
 Consul Iterum, tertium, Cojisul for the second third 
 time, etc.— Liv. (Where in Greek the word consul would 
 appear as a participle : vnaT^vwy.) 
 
236 
 
 ADTEKBS. 
 
 § 547. 
 
 § 556. 
 
 PEEPOSITIONS. 
 
 237 
 
 (2^ Some Adverbs of place: as, circa (very often), 
 ^ *' extrinsecus, and some others : as, 
 
 Multae circa civltates, Many mrrmnding states.-l^iv. 
 Griv'bus srn^me icillms eonflietubantur. They encoun- 
 tered severe blows from adore.— lac. 
 (3 ) ^Yith some Substantives used participially : as, 
 PQpttlus late rex, A riatim widely ruling.-\ ivg. 
 (A poetical construction.) 
 
 (4.) Occasionally with other Adverbs : as, 
 
 Inter duo simul bella, Between two wars gonig on at 
 
 """^'^^^'magndpi^re clade accepta, No serious disaster 
 having been suffered.— Liv. ^ 
 
 Paene miles, Hardly (yet) a common soW^er.-Cic^ 
 
 § 547 Partim-The Adverb partim (originally acciis. of 
 paLfis'oft^n W as the Subject of a sentence ; especially 
 where partim .... partim = rdu alii . as, 
 
 rally, others to affect MMdmhonly.-Ue. ,,, .. s 
 
 1. :n .he a>,ovo-e.an,pl. ,.rU. govern, the Genitive (of ».n.yi.,or„»,) 
 
 ^'7.TlZ!X .he use of . neuter AOJective as an Adverb, sec § 3U. 
 
 8 -as The. Comparative of Adverbs sometimes governs 
 tli AtU'^in r-^- manner as that of Adjectives :^ 
 I),V„. .;/,„. tmnUla aequoraplacat. QuWer than a word he Mh th<, 
 
 '"t!^;:::^!^^ns parents <««*.,., what shall I tell of lefore 
 the iconted praises of the father f— Hor. 
 
 mr,e than that [wretch) Chd.m himsel/.-CK. 
 0,,. 2. AmpUu,. Plu,, n.m.«. are often joined to numerals vrithout >n«-. 
 
 encmg their '^™^;.™"!°" •;'• ,j„„ „,„ «„,„„,rf „.„._Liv. 
 
 Minus dm milha homtoum, -^'M "'■» ^ ^ ffrebant, Homan 
 
 § 549. Adverbs are compared together in the same way 
 
 as Adjectives (see § 350) : as, 
 
 A vKlIus quair. consultius, More eagerly than advhedly.-Tae 
 YmZnL quam eautc ,= cautius). More violently than caut,ousl,j. 
 
 — Tac. 
 
 < 
 
 § 550. Some Adverbs derived from Adjectives govern 
 a Dative : see § 299» 
 
 § 551. Sic, ita.-Sic is derived from hie and ita from is ; and 
 the two Adverbs strictly differ from each other as do the 
 Pronouns from which they are derived. Thus sic takes the 
 place of a description , while ita simply makes reference to 
 something in the context : as, 
 
 Macte virtute puer : sic itur ad astra, A blessing on thy valoury boy ] 
 Thus do men go heavenwards. — Virg. 
 
 (Compare the well-known Sic vos non vobis, etc.) 
 Ut binae regum Clcies, ita corpora gentis, As there are tw<> species of 
 Jiings [queen-bees], so there are sorts among Hieir subjects.— \irg. 
 
 Ut quisquo est vir optimus, Ua difflcillime esse alios improbos 
 Buspicatur, Just in proportion to a mans excellence [in that proportion] 
 does he find most difficulty in suspecting others to be evil.—Cic. 
 
 Ohs. From the two preceding examples it wiU be seen that ita is the regular 
 correlative of ut. 
 
 § 552. An Adverb occasionally appears as Predicate after 
 the Verb to he : see § 213, Obs, 2. 
 
 Chapter LIII.— Prepositions. 
 
 § 553. Prepositions serve to show the relation of one Sub- 
 stantive to another, or to some other word in the sentence. 
 
 § 554. Some Prepositions are found with the Accusative 
 only ; others with the Ablative only ; some with the Ac- 
 cusative or Ablative, according to the sense; and some 
 with either the Accusative or Ablative indiscriminately. 
 
 Obs. T?nus is sometimes found with the Genitive : see § 557. 
 
 § 555. Lists of the Prepositions, with the cases they 
 govern, are given in §§ 134-137. The following are the 
 principal uses of the several Prepositions. For fui'ther 
 details the student is referred to the Dictionary. 
 
 § 556. I. With the Accusative only. 
 1, Ad.— To, at, or near; for, m relation to, in comparison 
 with : as, 
 
 Yentum erat ad Vestae {sc. aedem), We had come to the 
 temple of Vesta.— Hot. 
 
 Ad quintum lipldcm, By the fifth milestone— ^i^e^^ 
 
238 
 
 PRErOSITIONS. 
 
 § 556. 
 
 I 
 
 § 556, 
 
 PPwEPOSITIONS. 
 
 239 
 
 Ad Yeios, Before the icaUs of VeiL—lAy. 
 
 Omnes ad uniim, All to a single man.— C'\c. 
 
 Ad ungiiem. To the very nail, i. e. perfectly.— Hot. 
 
 Ad nuptias c6qu6re. To roo/c for a icedding-feast. — Plaut. 
 
 Natus ad Jlgendum, Bom for action. — Cic. 
 
 Agere ad praescriptuni. — To act according to express rule. — 
 Caes. 
 
 Yir bonus et non illitt^ratns, sed nihil ad Pcrsium, A respect- 
 able man and no mean scholar, hut nothing {in comparison) to 
 Fersius, — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Ad Romam, before the ivalls of Home, in the vicinity of Rome, 
 must be distinguished from Romae, actually at Borne. Before 
 numerals ad is occasionally an Adverb ; as, 
 
 OccTsis ad homlnum milllbus quatuor, As many as 4000 briny 
 slain. — Caes. 
 
 Ad duo millia et tri^centi, As many as 2300. — Liv. 
 
 2. Adversus, adversum. — Used of motion, direction, dispo- 
 
 sition, towards, or against : as 
 
 Adversus raontcm, Toicards or up a hill. — Caes. 
 
 PiCtiis justttia adversus deos (.est), Piety is justice in relation 
 to the gods.— Cic. 
 
 Ad versus leges, Contrary to the laics. — Cic. 
 
 Adversus vSttlrem imporatorcm compilrubltur, lie icill he 
 matched against a veteran general. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. Adversus differs from contra in that it does not, like the latter, 
 always signify opposition : from erga, in having a greater variety 
 of applications (see No. 9). 
 
 3. Ante. — Before ; of place, timo, comparison : as, 
 
 Ante ostium stare, To stand hefore the door. — Ter. 
 
 Ante urbem cond!tara. Before the huilding of the city. — Cic. 
 
 Ante omnes carissimus, Before all most beloved. — Nep. 
 
 Obs. Note especially the phrase ante diem (A.D.) in giving the day 
 of the month : as, ante diem xin Kiilendas Januarias {the 20th of 
 December), where the preposition strictly belongs to Kalendas, but 
 is made to govern diem as well. 
 
 4. Apud. — ^ear ; in the presence of ; in the icritirigs of : as, 
 
 Apud IVIantincam, In the neighbourhood of Mantinea, — Nep. 
 
 N.B. Ad is more frequent in this sense 
 Apud Laecam, In the house of Laeca.— Cic. 
 Verba ilpud senatum filcere, To mahe a speech before the 
 senate. — Cic. 
 
 Apud X2n6phontem, In {the icritings of) Xenophon. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Apud is sometimes used with names of towns in the sense of at 
 or in : as, 
 
 Apud urbem NOlam, In the city of Nola. — Tac. 
 
 L 
 
 i\ 
 
 5. Circum, circa. — Around, about, near about. These forms 
 are used somewhat differently 
 
 (a.) circum. — More precise than circa, all round : as, 
 
 Urbes quae circum CSpuam sunt. The cities ichich lie 
 round ahoui Capua. — Cic. 
 
 Terra circum axem se convertit, The earth turns round 
 upon its axis. — Cic. 
 
 Ltgato circum collura sudario. With a handkerchief 
 tied round ones neck. — Suet. 
 
 Omnium flagtttorum (= flagitiosorum) circum se cJl- 
 tcrvas habebat, He had about his person gangs of all kinds 
 of profligate characters. — Sail. 
 
 (b.) circa. — Of place ; round, about, in the neighbourhood 
 of : of time ; about, towards : of number ( - cir- 
 citer) ; near about : of relation ; about, respect- 
 ing : as, 
 
 Circa montem Amanum, In the vicinity of 3Iount 
 Amanus. — Caes. 
 
 Legates circa vicinas gentcs misit, He dispatched 
 ambassadors round to the neighbouring nations. — Liv. 
 
 Circa eandem horam, About the same time of the day. 
 —Liv. 
 
 Circa quingentos Komanorum, About 500 of the 
 Bomans. — Liv. 
 
 Circa verba dissensio, A dispute about icords. —Qmnt. 
 
 Obs. Circa in the sense of concerning (usually de with abl. ) is chiefly 
 found in later authors. 
 
 G. Circiter. — About: as a preposition used only with 
 numerals : as, 
 
 Octuvam circtter horam, Aboid the eighth hour. — Hor 
 N.B. But circiter is usually an Adverb. 
 
 7. CIS, citra. — On this side of; without (rare) : as, 
 
 Citra or cis Rhenum, On this side the Bh inc.— Caca. 
 Citra speciem, Without (lit. on this side, on the icrong side of) 
 beauty. — Tac. 
 
 Citra f Idem, Beyond belief.— Tac. 
 
 Obs. The form citra alone is used in the latter (figurative) sense. 
 
 8. Contra. — Opposite to ; against: as, 
 
 Insulae tertium latus est contra septentriones, Tlie third side 
 of the island is opposite to (faces) the north.- Caes. 
 
 Contra naturam, ofilcium, Contrary to nature, duty. —Cic. 
 
2i0 
 
 PRErOSITIONS. 
 
 § 55G. 
 
 § 556. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 211 
 
 Contra Popillum Eomauum conjurure, To conspire against the 
 Boman people. — Caes. 
 
 Obs. For the distinction between contra and adversus see above. 
 
 9. Erg?L.— Towards : of feeling or conduct : as, 
 
 Divina buultas erga Loiiilues, The divine goodness toimrds 
 nian. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Erga is almost always used of friendly feelings or conduct ; 
 contra being used of hostility. 
 
 10. T^tx^.— Outside of, free from; excejyt (mve) : as, 
 
 Extra portam CoUinam, Outside the ColUne gate.— Cic, 
 Extra uoxiam. Free from guilt.— Tcr. 
 
 Extra dacoin paiicosciue praeterca, Excepting their leader 
 and a few besides. — Cic. 
 
 11. infr2L.— Beneath ; of place or relation : as. 
 
 Infra coelum Ct suleri, Beneath the shy and stars.—Tac 
 lufra se, Beneath oneself (in figurative seuse) — Cic. 
 
 12. iRtev.— Between, among ; during (esp. with gerunds) : as, 
 
 Inter Padum atque-Alpcs, Between the Po and the Alps.—Uy, 
 Inter tela versari, To be in the midst of iceapons.— Cic. 
 Inter falcarios, In the quarter (or street) of the scythe-makers. 
 
 Inter hOram tertiam et quartam, Between the third and fourth 
 
 ^"^IlTec hiter coenam dictavi, The above I dictated in the course 
 of supper.— Cic. 
 
 Inter bibendum, During drinhing.— Just. 
 
 Hi omnes inter se differunt, These all differ from one another. 
 
 — Caes. ^. 
 
 PuCri inter se Smant, The boys love each other.-Lic. 
 Quod inter nos llceat, Between ourselves.— Cic. 
 
 13. Intra.- mthin ; of place, time, or any other relation : as, 
 
 Intra muros, Within the icalls.— Cic 
 
 Intra hCs sex menses. Within the last six months.— :Phiiedr. 
 Intra centum, Within one hundred.— Uw. ., , ^ , , 
 Intra legem. Within the law (the limit prescribed by law).- 
 Cic. 
 
 14. Juxta.— //ard ^ ; next to : as, 
 
 Juxta murum, Close to the icall.— Cues. 
 Homo juxta YarrOnem doctisslmus. Tlie most learned man 
 after Varro. — Gell. 
 
 Obs. Juxta denotes closer proximity than ad or prope. 
 
 \ 
 
 ) 
 
 15. 6b. — Before (of place) ; on account of: as, 
 
 Mors ob oculos saepe versata est, Death was often before his 
 eyes.— Cic. 
 
 Ob rem judlcandam pecuniam acctpSre, To talce a bribe for 
 one's judicial vote. — Cic. 
 
 Mortem ob rempubllcam obire. To encounter death on account 
 of the state. — Tac. 
 
 IG. Penes. — In the possession, or power of : as, 
 
 Quern pCnes est potestas, To whom belongs tlie power. — Cic. 
 Penes te es, Are you in your senses i — Hor. 
 Hi (servi") centum dies penes accusatorem ferant), Tliese 
 slaves remained in the hands of the accuser one hundred days. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Obs. Penes is often put after its case, especially a Relative. 
 
 17, pgr. — Through, throughout, during ; hy means of; in the way 
 
 of; on account of; by (in oaths) : as. 
 
 Per agros viigari, To roam over the country.— \Av. 
 
 Per hi6mem. Throughout the winter. — Cato. 
 
 Per indutias. In time of truce. — Liv. 
 
 Per exploratores cognoscere, To learn by means of scouts. — 
 Caes. 
 
 Per iram fiicCre (aliquid), To do anything through anger. — Cic. 
 
 Per summum dedCcus vitam amittere, To lose life in circum- 
 stances of extreme disgrace. — Cic. 
 
 Per aetatem, TJtrough (on account of) age.^Cic. 
 
 Per deos atque homines, By gods and men. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. The meaning on account of is rare. 
 
 Obs. 2. In adjurations per is often separated from its Accusative : as. 
 Per ^go te deos oro, By the gods I entreat you .'— Ter. 
 Per ego te, inquit, flli, quaecunque jura iTberos jungunt ptirenti- 
 bus, precor. By whatever claims bind children to their parents, 
 I entreat thee, my son ! — Liv. 
 
 18. Pone. — Behind {rare) : as. 
 
 Pone castra, Behind (m the rear of) the camj?.— Liv. 
 Vinctae pone tergum m^nus, Hands bound behind the bach — 
 Tac. 
 
 10. Tost.— Behind (in lit. and fig. sense); after: as. 
 
 Post me grat Aeglna, ante INIi^gara, Behind me was Aegina, 
 before me Megara. — Sulpic. ap. Cic. 
 
 Post tergum, Behind one's back. — Caes. 
 
 Ni^que Crat Lydia post Cldoen, iVV was Lydia behind Chloe 
 {in favour). — Hor. 
 
 Post M. Brutum proconsCllem, After the proconsulate of M. 
 
 Brutus.— Cic. 
 
 M 
 
242 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 § 556. 
 
 l^laxlma post homtnum mCmoriam classis, Hie largest fleet in 
 (lit. tfince) the memory of men. — Nep. 
 
 Ohs. Post is usually preferred by classical writers to pone, which, as 
 a preposition, became nearly obsolete. 
 
 20. VTKetQT.— Along, past (of motion) ; besides, except, contrary 
 
 to : as, 
 
 Praeter castra Caesarii=t cdpias siias transduxit, He marched 
 his forces past the camp of Caesar.— Caea. 
 
 Praeter ceteroa labOrare, To labour beyond {more than) the 
 rest. — Cic. 
 
 Ain'icum tlbi ncm!nem esse praeter LucuUuin, I see you hare 
 no friend except LmuUus.— Cic. 
 
 Praeter spein, opiuionem, Contrary to exj^edat ion. —Cic. 
 
 21. Prope. — Near to ; uswdWy of place : as, 
 
 Prope opptdum. Near to the town.-Caes, 
 PrOpe lueem, Towards dayhreah.— ^net. 
 Prope sedltionem veutuui est, It came very near to a mutiny. 
 — Tac. 
 
 22. Propter. — iV(.w to; on account of (the most frequent 
 
 meaning) : as, 
 
 Propter Pliltonis stUtnam consedtmus, M'e sat down neiir the 
 statue (f FJato. — Cic. 
 
 Purore leglbua propter mCtuni, To obey the laws on account of 
 feai'.—Cic. 
 
 Ohs. Propter sometimes follows its case. 
 
 23. Secundum.— ^^, along ; directhj after, following upon ; accord- 
 
 ing to : as. 
 
 Iter s»5cuiiduin mJlre fSc^re, To journey along the sea-coast.— 
 Cic. 
 
 SCcimdum vindemiam, Directhj after the vintage.— Caio. 
 
 Vlvere sGcundiim niiturani, To live according to nature.— Cic. 
 
 Secimduni libertatem vindicias dilre, To grant a claim in 
 favour of personal freedom. — Liv. 
 
 24. Supra. — Above (in lit. or fig. sense), beyond: as, 
 
 Supra me Atticus ^accubuerat\ infra Verrius, Next above me 
 sat Atticus, bdow me Verrius.— Cic. 
 
 Ille supra sffgCtes navt<j^at, One sails over corn-fields.— Ov. 
 
 Dux hostiiiiii cum exercltu supra ciiput eat, Tlie enemy hovers 
 over our head with an army. — Sail. 
 
 Supra millia viginti, Beyond {more than) 20,000. — Liv. 
 
 Supra modum, Beyond measure. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. It is rarely used of time : as, 
 
 PauUo supra banc mfmoriam, A little before the present date. — 
 Caes. 
 
 II 
 
 §557. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 243 
 
 25. Trans. — Across, on the farther side of: as, 
 
 Traus mare currunt. They hurry across the sea.— Hor. 
 
 Trans TibOrim habitat, He lives on the farther side of the 
 Tiber.— Hot. "^ 
 
 26. Ultra. — Beyond: as, 
 
 Cis Piidum ultraque, On the nearer and farther side of the 
 Po. — Liv. 
 
 Ultra modum, Beyond a {certain) limit. — Cic. 
 
 Ultra fiis, Beyond what is right. — Hor. 
 
 Ne sfitor ultra crepldam. Let not the shoemaker go beyond his 
 last. — Vet. Prov. 
 
 27. Versus. — Of direction towards (only of local direction) : as, 
 
 Arpiuum versus, Towards A rpinum.— Cic. 
 
 Itilliam versus navlgare. To sail in the direction of Italy. — 
 Sulpic. ap. Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. Versus is often used in oombination with ad or in: as, 
 
 T. Labienum ad Oceanum versus proficisci jiibet. He directs T. 
 Labienus to set out in the direction of the Ocean. — Caes. 
 
 Obs. 2. Versus is put after its case, like the English -wards, 
 
 § 557. II. With the Ablative only. 
 
 1 . Ab, a. — Of separation or origin,//w?i, by ; of proximity, on 
 t/te side of; to denote tlie agent after a Passive Verb ; as, 
 
 Non longe a finibus TOlosittium absunt, They are not far 
 from the territories of the Tolosates. — Caes. 
 
 Rem omnem a princtpio audies, You shall hear the ichole 
 matter from the beginning. — Ter. ( 
 
 A puCro, From a hoy ( = from boyhood.) — Cic. 
 
 Cornix est ab laeva, TJie crow is on the left. — Plant. 
 
 Haec a nobis sunt. These things are on our side. — Cic. 
 
 Nihil est ab omni parte beatum, Nothing is in every respect^ 
 happy (from every point of view). — Hor. 
 
 Ossa ejus clam in Attica ab amicis sepulta (sunt). His bones 
 were secretly buried in Attica by his friends. — Nep. 
 
 A frigore liiborare. To suffer from cold. — Plin. 
 
 A minu servus, An amanuensis. — Suet. (See also § 715.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes only the context can determine "whether ab is used 
 in the sense of by or from : as, 
 
 Postiilatur a popdlo, Tlie demand is made by {or from) the people. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Obs. 2. In such expressions as a manu (servus), ab epistolis, etc., the 
 preposition denotes the province in which service is rendered. 
 
 Obs. 3. Ab is used chiefly before consonants and a before vowels 
 (including h) only : abs is rare, except in compounds. 
 
 Obs. 4. The primary meaning of this preposition appears to have 
 denoted origin, 
 
 M 2 
 
pBE^osITIO^^s. 
 
 §557. 
 
 244 
 
 only for the sake of euphony. 
 
 ^ Of^TiLm— I tithe presence of: as, 
 
 «>. Coram, ^n i / , . - « ,r?r.fnr 77/f empfv-pocheted 
 
 4. Cum.— TT7f/*, a?o»^ ^ith : as, 
 
 ■r. ♦T^i^ Tn hfi (nrovided) tcith a iceapon.—Kjic. 
 
 ^r/pTeet;iI: anl^^a r.mt, Mo., .m ,.aoe reiur.e,l 
 
 <e«<?i, return from the 8ml— Vurr. 
 
 Zrll>rsthe^a,sMnhari„gas,cord«,lhh,m. 
 06, 2 But cum is often used ot the attendant c.c,...<a»ce„ or 
 
 Trr^ri.;" ::":y-c,,un. .Mm, n. ..»«.. ... «. 
 
 u(»iM( speed to his oriiij/.— Ilirt. . 
 
 », 3 ^Vi,h the Ablative, of rronoun, cum » written as an encUfc. 
 
 as, »icc»»., lecu,», nobiscum, ,uib,>scum, etc. 
 
 B,_0„,c» fmn,f>vm; of time, .?«n»<,. m rte co««e of; 
 of material, ma& «/; concermng : as, 
 
 C- „po de vl^I ^«na. An ,»ul.eper from iUe L.U,. ,«,y -C.^ 
 V^L nostris clidunt. 4/e» from a,no.,,st our men fall.- 
 
 ^" Diem de die prOferrc, To p^ of from day to day-Liv. 
 
 De die, do nocte. By '!«!/. !'i/ ">!'^''r.^'!'; . , p„. 
 Do ter ia vl-llia, In 0.e cou«« 0/ the thrd ,c«(ch.-Cae3. 
 Xtveo fad,rm de marmOre signum. 4 .<«*- -«* "f — 
 
 "'* DeT:*!^^ Wi libri). Boo^. ^.iUen on tU sulject of tUe 
 commonwealth. — Cic. ^ ^ ^ Jm 
 
 0„. The adverbial phrases de ""'"•.f 'f;^' j:"^^:*. b.:' n^ted^ 
 
 orer (<A« Gaw/s, &c.). 
 
 r V. -'-Oat of from; of time, immediateJy after ; of 
 '■ 'mlteriat^lLo/; onaccouutof; in pursuance of ,. 
 accordance with : as, .. . ^^ * 
 
 Sr,.em e -""^ V""*^" jJtfc'll't^oIX /W^^^^^^^^ 
 
 T/«'^?/ seem /o taVe the mn out of the icoria, who lu y 
 
 of liuman Ufe.—Cic 
 
 5. 
 
 § 557, 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 245 
 
 Ex Squo Cildt^re, To fall from ones horse. — Cic. 
 
 Stittim e sonino Iflvantur, They (the Germans) bathe immedi- 
 ately on rising from sleep. — Tac. 
 
 Cotta ex consulatu est pr5feetus in Galliam, Immediately 
 after his consulate, Cotta started for Gaul. — Cic. 
 
 Quiclum ex mllttlbus, {A certain) one of the soldiers.— Cues. 
 
 Stittua ex acre facta, A statue made of bronze. — Cic. 
 
 Urbcra e suo nomine Rlmam jussit nomiimri, He directed the 
 city to be called Rome from his own name. — Cic. 
 
 Quum esset ex acre Jllieno commota civltas, The city being <n 
 a commotion on account of debt. — Cic. 
 
 Ex Uteris senatus suppllcatio deereta est, A supplication ic is 
 decreed in accordance with Caesar's dispatch. — Cues. 
 
 Obs. Xote also the phrases, e r^gione, over against ;' ex aequo, in an 
 equal degree ; ex impruvlso, unexpectedly, &c. 
 
 7. Prae. — Before ; because of; in comparison with : as, 
 
 Prae se gregem Jlgens, Driving the herd before him. — Li v. 
 
 Prae se ferre, osteiitare, To make a public show of.- Cic. 
 
 Prae maerore lOqui (non) potuit. He could not speah for gri<f. 
 —Cic. 
 
 Prae ceteris Citto in sCnectfite floruit, Cato was distinguish' >l 
 above others iu the character of an old man. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Prae in the sense of because 0/ chiefly occurs in negative sen- 
 tences. 
 
 S^ Pro. — Before, in front of ; instead of on behalf of; in coa- 
 sideration of; in proportion to : as, 
 
 Castra pro moentbus locata erant. The camp had been pitched 
 in front of the walls. — Liv. 
 
 Pro suggestu (dicCre), To speah from the front of a platform. 
 — Caes. 
 
 Ego pro te molam, I will grind for you.— Ter. 
 
 Pro patria mori, To die for ones country.— Kor. 
 
 Pro vectara solvere, To pay for freight. — Cic. 
 
 Pro CaesJlris in se b5n6flciis, In consideration of Caesar's 
 favours done to him.— Caes. 
 
 Proelium atrocius quam pro nftmCro pugnantiiim, .4 battfe 
 more sanguinary than miglit have been expected from the number of 
 the combatants. — Liv. 
 
 9. Sine. — Without: as, 
 
 Non sine dis. Not without the help of the gods. - Hor. 
 Nulla dies sine linea, Not a day without a line. 
 
246 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 § 558. 
 
 §558. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 247 
 
 10. Tenus. — Up to, as far as: as, 
 
 Ciipillo ttinus abdklit ensem, lie huried his sword up to the 
 hilt.—\iTg, 
 
 Tauro tdnus, As far as Mount Taurus. — Cic. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Tenus is sometimes found with the Genitive: as, 
 
 Crurum tonus, Vp to the legs. — Yirg. 
 Ohs. 2. Tenus always follows its case. 
 
 § 558. III. With the Accusative and Ablative. , 
 
 1. In. — 7?i, into ; towards, until; against. 
 
 {a.) With the Accusative : always implying motion 
 or direction towards : as, 
 
 In coelum ascend^re, To ascend i)ito heaven. — Cic. 
 
 Chorus virtutiim in eqiiQleum imposltus, A whole coin- 
 panij of virtues put on the rack. — Cic. 
 
 Belgae spectant in septoiitriones et orientem solera, Tlie 
 Behjae face towards the north and east. — Caes. 
 
 Donuiet in Ificem, He icill sleep till broad day. — Hor. 
 
 Soils defectiones Itemque limae praedlenutnr in multos 
 annos. Eclipses of the siiii and moon are fur et old for many 
 years to come. — Cic. 
 
 In praesens, in fftturum, in perj)C'tmim, For the present^ 
 for the fnture, for ever. — Cic. 
 
 In llbdros nostros indulgentia, Fondness towards our 
 children.— Cic. 
 
 In ntramque partem dispiltare. To argue a question on 
 "both sides. — Cic. 
 
 Omtiones in Cutllinam bibltae, Hie speeches delivered 
 against Catiline. — 
 
 Obs. 1. Xote the adverbial phrases, in commune, for the common good; 
 in untversum, »» general ; in pejus, for the worse. 
 
 Ohs. 2. Occasionally the Accusative after in seems to have the force of 
 the Ablative : as, 
 
 Earn optTmam rempubltcam esse duco, quae sit in potestntem op- 
 timiitium, I deem that the best form of government which is in 
 the power of the aristocracy. — Cic. 
 
 (h.) With the Ablative : of rest or action in a place ; in 
 or during ; among : as, 
 
 Caedes in Appia via fjicta (est), A murder icas committed 
 on the Appia n road. — Cic. 
 
 Sedere in Cquo, To sit on horsehach. — Cic. 
 In omni vita, In the whole of ones life. — Cic. 
 In summo omnium timore, During the excessive alarm of 
 all. — Cic. 
 
 Tlulles qui Biipientissimus in septem fuit, Tliales loho ivas 
 the wisest among the secen. — Cic. 
 
 I 
 
 2. Sub. — Under, up to, etc. 
 
 (a.) With the Accusative : under, up to (of motion) ; 
 of time, just after or before : as, 
 
 Exercttura sub jugum mittCre, To pass an army under the 
 j/oAre.— Caes. 
 
 Sub montem succedunt miHtes, The soldiers make their 
 way up the hill. — Caes. 
 
 Sub noctcm, At nightfall— Caea. 
 
 Sub galli cantum, Just about cock-croic. — Hor. 
 
 Sub eas (litCras) statim recltatae sunt tuae. Directly after 
 that letter was read yours. — Cic. 
 
 (h.) With the Ablative : U7ider (usually without 
 motion) ; of time, just upon, after : as. 
 
 Sub pelllbus bicmare, To pointer under skins (or tenf.<). — 
 Caes. 
 
 Sub divo, Under the open sky. — Hor. 
 
 Sub hoc jilgo Dictator Aequos misit, Utuier this {kind 
 of) yoke the Dictator made the Aequians pass. — Liv. 
 
 Sub dytione Jilicujus esse, To be under any one's power. — 
 Caes. 
 
 Adhuc sub jfidlfce lis est. The matter is still before the 
 judge undecided).— Hor. 
 
 Sub advuntu ROmanorum, Jmt before tlie arrival of the 
 Bouiatis. — Liv. 
 
 3. Super. — Above, beyond, concerning. 
 
 {a.) With the Accusative : above, w^hether of place 
 or some other relation : as, 
 
 SrtpCr vallum praectpltatus est. He was pitched headlong 
 over the ramparts. — Sail. 
 
 Nomentanus erat super ipsum, Nomentanus sat next above 
 
 {our host) himself. — Hor. 
 
 Sciper omnia. Above all things. — Liv. 
 
 (Jk) With the Ablative : above, of place ; concerning : as, 
 
 Ensis (ill!) silper cervice pendet, A sword hangs sus- 
 pended over his neck. — Hor. 
 
 jMulta siiper Priamo rogitans, siiper Hectore multa. 
 Asking many a question concerning Priam, many concerning 
 Hector. — Virg. 
 
 4. Subter. — Uivder : in Prose almost always with the Ac- 
 
 cusative : as, 
 
 Mrmum subter togam cxsCrCre, To thrust the hand out from 
 under the toga. — Liv. 
 
 Klioeteo subter litore, 'Neath the Ehoetean shore. — Cat. 
 
248 
 
 COXJUXCTIOXS. 
 
 §559. 
 
 §535. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 249 
 
 5. Clam.— Without the knoidedge of: used indifferently witli 
 the Accusative or the Ablative : as, 
 
 Clam patrem or patre. Without a father's Icnoipledge.—TeT, 
 Obs. Clam is properly rather an adverb than a Treposition. 
 
 CHArTEB LIV. — Conjunctions. 
 
 § 559. Conjunctions connect sentences together and show 
 the relation between them. They thus sustain the same 
 relation towards sentences which Trepositions sustain 
 towards Substantives (see § 553). 
 
 Obs. Sometimes Conjunctions appear to connect words; where however it 
 may generally be shown that they virtually connect sentences : as, 
 Ego et tu credtmus, / and you believe = ego credo et tu credis. 
 
 § 560. Conjunctions may be arranged in the following 
 classes : Connective, Adversative, Hypothetical, Concessive, 
 Causal, Conclusive, Final, Temporal. 
 
 N.B. For lists of the above, see § 139. 
 
 1. Connective Coii junctions. 
 
 § 561. Et is the Conjunction most used simply to connect 
 words and sentences : as, 
 
 Virtiis homlnibus institiiendo et persuadendo tradttur, Virtue is 
 imparted to men by instruction aticl persuasion. — Cic. 
 
 Cari esse et diligi volcimus, We wish to be dear ^to others) and to be 
 loved by them. — Cic. 
 
 § 5G2. Et often introduces the first member as well as 
 subsequent ones : it may then be translated by both .... 
 and ; in the first place .... and then ; not only, but aho , and 
 similar expressions : as, 
 
 Te et moneo et rogo, iit rCcordere consilium nostrum, I both advise 
 you ami request you to call to mind my advice. — Cic. 
 
 Oratiuncillas et qiias postulas, et plures etiam mittam, 1 will semi 
 you not only the little speeches you ask for, but others too.- Cic. 
 
 Sed et ipse errabat, et alios Ctiam errare cogebat. But in the first 
 place he teas himself in error^ and then he forced others likewise to err. 
 -Cic. 
 
 Obs. Very often the introductory et is not translated in English : as, 
 
 Hoc et ratio doctis, et nocessitas barbaris, praescripsit, This lesson reason 
 has tatujht the civilised and necessity the uncic i Used. — Cic. 
 
 (Conceruiiig the Concord of the Predicate in such cases, see § 220.) 
 
 U 
 
 § 563. Que is used in preference to et when things are 
 closely connected in any way : as, 
 
 Anna contra deos arasque et fScos talit. He bore arms againd the 
 gods and their altars, and against our fire-sides.— Cic. 
 
 Pedestres navalesque pugnae. Battles by land and sea.— Cic. 
 
 § 504. Et . . . . neque (nee). AVhen two propositions are con- 
 nected, one of which is positive and the other negative, the 
 following arrangements are found : 
 
 et neque (nee) ; et non. 
 
 neque (nee), et non, . . . et. 
 neque (nee), que. 
 
 IntellTgTtis et animum ei praesto fuisse, nee consflium dcfuisso. 
 Yon see that not only had lie presence of mind^ but thai counsel was not 
 lacking, — Cic. 
 
 Sextus et rem agnoscit, neque huminera ignorat, Sertm is [bothi 
 acquainted with' the affair, and no stranger to the individual.— Cic. 
 
 Africaims neque [cessabat] unquam, et interdum colloquio altorins 
 non Cgobat, Africanus was never idle^ and at times couM do without the 
 intercourse of another. — Cic. 
 
 Is locus melior quern et non cuquit sol et tangit ros, That is a better 
 situation where on tJie one hand the sun does not scorch^ and the dew 
 reaches. — Varr. 
 
 Sed nee ilia exstincta sunt, aluntur^we potius et augentur cogita- 
 tione et momuria. But in the first place those things are not dead ; and 
 then they rather derive nutriment and increase from thought and recol- 
 lection. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. In such cases the neque (nee) is usually resolved in English into and 
 
 not, on the j ^r ( hand . . . not, or the like. 
 
 § 565. Atque (ae before consonants onl}') is mosth* used 
 when a second member is at the same time to be brought 
 into comparison or contrast with the preceding one : 
 
 DIvTna atque hfimana promiscua nihil pensi nCque modCrati habere. 
 Things divine and human without distinction they treated without respect 
 or restraint. — Sail. 
 
 Vita misCra atque inhonesta, A life at once wretched and dishonour- 
 able. — Sail. 
 
 Obs. 1. Atque does not differ essentia!!}- from que, and is preferred to it when 
 que, if used, would follow a short and unaccented syllable. See the above 
 examples. 
 
 Obs. 2. When several members j re connected together, the conjunction may 
 either be repeated after e.i:;!i member, or else omitted altogether : as. 
 Virtus et honestas et i Qdor, Virtue, honour, and shame. — Cic. [Not 
 
 virtus, honestas et pudor.) 
 MMellum multi f Tlii, f Tliae, n?p6tes, nc^ptes, in rogum impSsucnmt, A 
 number of sons and daughters, grandsons and daughters, joined to place 
 MeteUus on the funeral pile. — Cic. 
 (This latter construction is called Asyndeton, a<ruvitTov \ the foni.cr 
 Polysyndeton, ttoAvot/i'Sctoi'.) 
 
 M 3 
 
250 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 § oGG. 
 
 I 
 
 §574. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 251 
 
 § 56G. Quum tiun, ichilsf, not oiibj .... aho, are used 
 
 chiefly in introducing different particulars respecting the 
 same thing : as, 
 
 Impriratiis cum a militllnis hm a p^cunia, Unprepared not only in tU 
 article of men but also of money. — Cic. 
 
 Epi^tola sTimmae quum bCnevolentiae turn etiam priulcntiae^ A letter 
 chanicteriml by the iitmo^^t good-will as icell as the utmost sagacity.— Cic. 
 
 Obs. Turn . . . turn appears always to mean at one time , . . at another 
 time: as, 
 
 Dissoro in utraraqtie partem, tum Gracce turn LitTne, / debate on both 
 sides, now in Greek, now in Latin. — Cic. 
 
 § 567. Concerning nonmodo (solum) .... verum (sed) etiam, not 
 ody .... hut also, it is only necessary to observe, that ^yhen 
 the second member is negative, a negative may be omitted 
 in the former, the latter being expressed with sed ne 
 quidem: as, 
 
 Yobis non ?n(?f?o vohmtas fuit, sed ne praetla quidem udliiic dlvlsa est. 
 You have not only not had good icill in common, but even your c^JoiU have 
 not been shared. — Cic. 
 
 Obs, But the negative is quite as often expressed in both : as, 
 
 Ego non mddo ttbi non Trascor, sed ne ri^pr^hendo quidem factum tuum, 
 / not onhj am not angnj icith you, but I do not find fault with your 
 conduct. — Cic. 
 
 § 5G8. Neque (nee), neither .... nor, TVhon two or more 
 Subjects of the Third Person are connected by neque (nee) . . . 
 neque (nee), the Tredicate is made to agree with that Subject 
 along with which it is expressed : as, 
 
 Nee toga nee it»cu3 est. Neither toga nor fire-place is there.— yiAvi. 
 
 [Y^obis] nee actios, neqiio lionores, neque virtus .... dulcC'dinem 
 \'ivendi mmuc've potuerit. For you neither years, nor honours, nor icorth, 
 tcill avail to lessen your fondness for life. — Cic. 
 
 § .569. But in the case of the Personal Pronouns ego or tu, 
 the Verb may be put in the Plural Number : as, 
 
 Haee si neque ego neque tu fecimus. If neither you nor I have done 
 these things. — Ter. 
 
 [Indignfibuntur] quod in di^ceraviris neque ego neque Caesar habiti 
 essemus, They were indignant that neither I nor Caesar should have been 
 appointed among the Decemvirs. — Brut. ap. Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. In such cases the Person of the Verb is of course determined according 
 to the regular rule. See § 221. 
 
 Obs. 2. Neque, nee are used indifferently before vowels and consonants. 
 
 § 570. Aut, vel (-vg), or. Aut is a disjunctive word, and 
 introduces something quite different from what has gone 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 before : vel Is copulative, and implies not so much a new 
 alternative as a modification of the preceding one : as, 
 
 Orane enunciatum aut verum aut fidsum est. Every proposition is 
 either true or fahe.— Cic. (New alternative ''false," and exclusive of 
 the other.) 
 
 Pace vel QuTrini vel Komflli dixCrim, By favour of Quirinus or {shall 
 J call him) liomulus. — Cic. 
 
 Vi aut clam agendum est^ It mmt be managed by open force or else 
 by secrecy.— Cic. (Alternatives directly opposed.) 
 
 Ordo reZ paci dCcGrus vel bello. An order seemly wJiether for peace or 
 tear. — Li v. (Both alternatives included.) 
 
 Obs. 1. The above distinction cannot however be always traced with equal 
 clcaraess. 
 
 Obs. 2. Ve is abbreviated from rel, and has a similar use : as, 
 
 Duubus trtbusve huris, In ttco or three hours. — Cio. 
 Obs. 3. Fe is also found in the compound sTve (sou) : as, 
 
 Slve cfisu sire constlio dcorum immortalium, Whether by ac ident or by the 
 counsel of the immortal gods. — Caes. 
 
 2. Adversative Conjunctions. 
 
 § 571. Adversative Conjunctions are those whicn are 
 used in stating a proposition in some way opposed to what 
 has preceded. They are the following : sed, autem, verum, 
 vero, at (poet, ast), atqui, ceterum, tamen, attamen, venintamen, 
 in English, hut, yet. They do not affect the structure of a 
 sentence. 
 
 § 572. Sed, autem, hut. — Sed denotes a more direct and 
 emphatic opposition than autem, and therefore stands at the 
 head of its sentence, while autem takes the second place : as, 
 
 Non t'go herus tibi, sed servus sum, I am not your master, but your 
 slave. — Plaut. 
 
 Hoc non modo non laudari, sed ne conccdi quidem potest. This not 
 only cannot be praised, but cannot even be allowed. — Cic. 
 
 Gyges a nullo vidcbfitur, ipse autem omnia videbat, Gyges was seen 
 by no one, ichile he himself saw everything.— Cic. 
 
 Orutir>nes Caesaris mlhi vehementer prObantur ; Icgi autem com- 
 jdures, Caesar s speeches have my warm admiration ; and I have read a 
 good many. — Cic. 
 
 § 573. Verum and vero, hut, are used with the same dis- 
 tinction as sed and autem. Ceterum is similar in its use to 
 verum or sed, 
 
 § 574. Vero is often used as an affirmative particle : as, 
 
 Ego vCto ciipio te ad me scribere, I do in truth desire you to write 
 to me. — Cic. 
 
 Immo vero, inquit, vivunt, Yea, verily, they do live.— Cic. 
 
252 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 § 57:'. 
 
 Sometimes it is used where in Engli^.!! we say yes : as, 
 
 Fuisti, erodo, in seliolis phtlSsophonim ? Vera, ac W^enter quid.n. 
 You have attemled the schools 0/ the philosoyhers, I behevei les, und 
 with jtleasure too. — Cic. 
 
 § 575. At, but; on the other hand; but, you say; is especially 
 used in stating objections : as, 
 
 At momuria miiinitur : credo, iiTsi cam exerceas. But, sm/ you, tho 
 meimnj decays. I believe, if you do not keep it in practice.- Cic. 
 Obs. In stating an objection, at is often strenKlhened by ^nim : as, 
 At ?nim cur a me potisslmum hoc pracstdium potlvtrunt, But, you snt/, 
 ichy hate they come to me rather than any other /or this protection /— 
 Cic. 
 
 § 57G. At is idiomatically used in sudden transitions, 
 vehement exclamations of displeasure, etc. : as, 
 
 Consnr-it Turiiiis in ensera et fSrit At pcrfidus ensis 
 
 fruugitur in medio, Turnus rises tipon his sicord and strikes. . . . Laf, 
 to! the faithless sword snaps in fico.— Virg. 
 
 Una mattr Cluentium cppn-nat. At qnae mater. The mother oj 
 Chientim is his only assailant. But then ichat a mother I— C\c. 
 
 At o deorum quidquid in coelo rCgit, . . . quid iste ftrt tftmulfn«. 
 Why, in the name of all the gods that rule above, what means this to-do i 
 —Hot. ^at the beginning of a piece.) 
 
 § 577. Atqui, and yet, is similar to at : as, 
 
 Maginim narras et vix credibile. Atqui sic babet, What you say is 
 astonishing and hardly credible. And yet so it is.— Hot. 
 
 § 578. Quodsi (negative quodni, quod nisi), hut if, and if. 
 is about equivalent to si a.utem : sometimes the quod serves 
 as a pure connective : as, 
 
 Quodsi quis illornm v6t{?ranorum iCgat acta, But if ^or now if) any- 
 one would read the actions of those re/era/<8.-Nep. (Eum. 8, 2.) 
 
 Quodsi te sors Afris aut Hispanis aut Gallia praefceisset, Now if 
 fortune had placed you over Africa, Spain, or Gaul— Cic. (Q. Fr. i. 1, *J.) 
 
 3. Hypothetical Conjunctions. 
 
 § 579. Hypothetical Conjunctions are those which are 
 used in stating an hypothesis : concerning their syntax see 
 §§ 422, sqq. 
 
 4. Concessive Conjunctions. 
 
 § 580. Concessive Conjunctions are those which may be 
 rendered in English by although, even if, granting that. They 
 
 §534. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 253 
 
 are etsi, Stiamsi, tJlmetsi, (tamenetsi), quanquam, quamvis, licet, ut, 
 quum. They are dl^scus^ed in treating of the use of the 
 ^Subjunctive Mood. (See §§ 450, 481, 500, 501.) 
 
 5. Causal Conjunctions. 
 
 § 581. Causal Conjunctions are those which are used in 
 stating a reason : they can mostly be translated by because, 
 since, for, seeing that. (For a list of them see p. 1)3.) '1 heir 
 syntax, with the exception of nam and enim, is treated uiider 
 the ^Subjunctive Mood (^§ 477, 483 ; 48(3-495). 
 
 Nam (namque), is more emphatic than enim, and begins its 
 own clause ; enim stands second and is often used as a Par- 
 ticle (see § 654) : as, 
 
 Percontutorem fugtto ; nam garrulus idem est, Slum an inquisitive 
 person ; for he is also a gossip. — Hor. 
 
 Scribe ad me quam sacpisislme : nonnibil enim me I6vant tuae llto- 
 rae, Write to me as often as possible, for your letters relieve me a little. — 
 Cic. ad Alt. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Xam is often used elliptically, where the thought is readily supplied : as, 
 JV'mw quid ego de CictMone dicam, [I will not], for why need I, speak of 
 Cicero. — Cic. (Fam. 14, 1.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Xamque sometimes stands after the first word in a sentence, cspeciaHy 
 in Livy : see § 716. 
 
 6. Conclusive Conjunctions. 
 
 § 582. Conclusive Conjunctions are those which are used 
 in drawing a conclusion, and may be translated by therefore, 
 accordingly, wherefore. (For a list of them see p. 94.) 'I'hey 
 have no etfect upon the structure of a sentence. 
 
 § 583. Ergo, therefore, stands usually, though not always, 
 at the head of its sentence : as. 
 
 Ergo avfii-us (is) i5rit sed finite, Accordingly such a person will be 
 covetous, but to a limited degree.— Cic. 
 
 Ergo Quintlliura perpetuus sopor urget, So then perpetual slumber 
 weighs upon Quintilius ! — Hor. 
 
 Nemo ergo non miser ? Prorsus nemo. Is there no one who is not 
 miserable 'i Absolutely none. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Ergo is also used after a Genitive in the sense of causa : see § 264. 
 
 § 584. Igitur, accordingly, then, is less emphatic than ergo, 
 being rather a particle to express transition, and does nut 
 regularly stand at the head of a sentence : as. 
 
 Est rgttur id quo ilia conf iciuntur homine melius, TJiat power, then, 
 by which those things are done, is more excellent than man.- (Jic. 
 
254 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 § 585. 
 
 Kiltionem rgUur pontis banc instltuit, The following, then, icaa the 
 plan of a bridge he resolved on.— Cues, 
 
 Ohs. Sallust often begins with Igitur (§ 693) : as, 
 
 Igitur, ex dTvItiis luxttria atque avarttia . . . invasere, Accord hi gftf, as the 
 eansequence o/wealth, luxury and cotetomness made their way in, — Sail. 
 
 § 585. Itaque, and so, arcordinghj, is similar to igihir, but 
 denotes a consequence in action rather tLan in reasoning : as, 
 
 Itaque rem suscipit. Accordingly he undertakes the husiness. — Cae3. 
 
 It is sometimes used with ergo : as, 
 
 Itaque ergo, lit milgistrutu abiere, Accordingly, therefore, when they 
 had retired from their o£ice. — Liv. 
 
 7. Final Conjunctions. 
 
 § 586. Final Conjunctions are sneh as are used to denote 
 the pui-pose or consequence of an action. They are treated 
 in dealing with the Subjunctive Mood (§§ 449-403). 
 
 8. Temporal Conjunctions. 
 
 § 587. Concerning antequam, priusquam, postquam, see § 501. 
 Concerning ut, ut primum, simul atque (ac), as soun as, see § 401. 
 
 (255 ) 
 
 PART II. — SYNTAX, 
 
 BOOK IT.— SYNTAXIS ORNATA. 
 
 § 588. The preceding portion of the Syntax comprises 
 the ordinaiy grammatical ndes : the following is devoted 
 chiefly to the peculiarities of the Latin idiom. 
 
 Chapter LY. — Substantives. 
 
 1. Common Substantives. 
 
 § 580. Concrete for Ahstrad. — Concrete Substantives are 
 used in preference to abstract to denote, 
 
 (1.) The period of a person's life during which something 
 happens : as, 
 
 ]\Ie pvitTO, In my boyhood. — Cic. 
 
 Dcfendi renipul)llcam Jwr^«/8, non dcseram senex, I defended 
 the commonwealth in my youth, I will not abandon it in my old 
 age. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Similarly sexagenarius, octogenarius, In one's sixtieth or 
 eightieth year. 
 
 (2.) The office held : as. 
 
 Consul tdem feci, I did the same in my considafe.— Cic. 
 Consiile Planco, In the consulate of Plancus. — Hor. 
 Satumo rege. In the reign of Saturn, — Virg. 
 
 § 590. Collective for Plural. — Singular Siibstantives are 
 not unfrequently used in a collective sense : as, 
 
 Ager bSnus pdcori, arbdre infecundus, Soil good for etocl; tivpro- 
 dudive in trees. — Sail. 
 
 Pulvmug rdsii fartiis, A cushion stuffed with roses. — Cic. (So Hor. 
 multa in rasa, Od. 1, 5, 1.) 
 
 Amiato. millte, With armed men, — Virg 
 
 
256 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 § .-391. 
 
 § 598. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 257 
 
 § 591. Plural for Abstract, — In cases where the corres- 
 ponding abstract Substantive is wanting, we often find tlio 
 plural of tlie concrete Substantive nsed to snpply the de- 
 ficiency : as, 
 
 Quum vtdcamiis iinta offcia murientia. When we see sm^h comci- 
 etdiousness displayed hij him on his death}>€d.—Cic. (Fin. 2, 31, 09.) 
 
 Stadia memnim, utimerorum, sffnorum. The study of literature, ariih- 
 nietic, acoustics. — Cic. 
 
 Implurarcm vcstros sensus, I icoiM appeal to your sensibility.— C\c. 
 
 § 592. Abstract for Concrete. ^T\ie use of abstract Sub- 
 stantives for concrete occurs chiefly in the following cases : 
 
 (1.) Some Substantives denoting age, rank in life or office, 
 are used as Collectives: as juventus, a body ofyouiij 
 men; nobllitas, the nobilitij ; servitium (also serviti:i, 
 p?.), the Slaves; imitt'r'm (j^L), persons in ofpce ; levis, 
 gravis annatura, light or heavy-armed troops : also 
 less frequently, advocatio, the body of advocati ; 
 salutatio, of morning callers ; remigium, the rowers; 
 ministOriuni, the servants; latrotinium, banditti, etc. 
 
 Obs. Not adolescentia or senectus however. 
 
 (2.) Substantives of ^7?^% or character are used for the 
 persons to which they apply : as, 
 
 Neqiie ej;o per igniiriam inccrta pro certis captarcm, X<>r 
 ucould I lyy the help of cowardly men grasp at uncertainties for 
 certainties.— SAhi.. ;,Cat. 20.) 
 
 Oinn'mm Jfdqrtiorum atijiic fdctn^rum circa se catervas M- 
 bebiit, Catiline had about him gainjs of profligate fellows and 
 desperadoes. — Sall. (Cat. 14.) 
 
 Pareemlum est carUati homtnum. We must spare those who 
 are dear to us.—Qic. '.Or. 2, 58, 237.) 
 
 § 593. Generic P?«m7.— Sometimes the plural of a Sub- 
 stantive may be rendered by *' lands of:'' as, 
 
 Quutuor perturhationes sunt, tres constantiae. There are four hind^ of 
 mental disturbance, three of tranquillity.— Cic. (^Tusc. 4, 6, 14.) 
 
 Somno et quiitibus ceteris, By sleep and other hinds of repose.— CiC 
 Off. 1, 29, 103.) 
 
 § 594. Similarly the plural is u.sed to denote rqmi* d 
 manifestations of a quality : as, 
 
 TJVlitatlbus tuis possum carere, lean dispense icith your services.— 
 
 Cic. (Fam. ir,, 3 Jin.) , , . , ;. 
 
 IpsOrum DeGrum saepe praeseutiae. The repeated instances of ap- 
 pearance of gods themsthes.— Cic. 'N. D. 2, 06, IG6.; 
 
 So crudelitates, acts of cruelty ; perfidiae, of treachery ; 
 bonitiites, of goodness, etc. 
 
 § 595. Verbal Substantives. — A Verbal Substantive is often 
 generalised by the addition of rerum (not needing to be 
 translated) : as, 
 
 Cognttio, ignordtio rerum, Knowledge, ignorance. — Cic. 
 
 Nimis ct^lCri desperdtione rerum, By too precipitate despair.— "Liv. 
 
 Nutura rerum, Nature (in widest sense). — Cic. 
 
 § 596. Instead of a Verbal Substantive we not unfre- 
 quently find used a Perfect Participle Passive (see § 528) : as. 
 
 Post Hasdri'ibalis exercitum dclHtum, After the destruction of Has- 
 drubal's army. — Li v. 
 
 Propter erel»rius de coelo lapTddtum, On account of unusually 
 frequent shoicers of stones. — Liv. (2U, 10.) 
 
 Obs. Rarely as the Subjoct of a sentence however : 
 
 Quum occlsus dictator .... pulcherrimum facTnus videretur, When 
 the assassination of the dictator seemed a most glorious achievement. — 
 Tac. (Ann. 1,8 ) 
 
 § 597. Substantives governing the case of thir Verbs. — This 
 takes place chiefly with Substantives derived from Vei bs 
 governing the Dative : as, 
 
 Justitia est obtemperatio legibus, Justice is obedience to the laws. — ■ 
 Cic. (See § 291, G.) 
 
 Spe domum rCditioiiis suLlata, TJie hope of returning home having 
 been taken away. — Caes. 
 
 Obs. The above construction is, however, exceptional. Still more rare is the 
 Accusative after Substantives derived from a Transitive Verb : as. 
 
 Quid tibi hanc dijjito tactio est, What right have you to touch this woman 
 with your finger / — PI. 
 
 (For such a construction as id dare operam, see § 253.) 
 
 § 598. Substantives as Adjectives. — Substantives derived 
 from Verbs denoting the agent are sometimes used as Ad- 
 jectives : as, 
 
 Contemptor animus, A scornful temper. — Sall. 
 
 Foe<lerum ruptor dux et populus, The treaty-breaking general and 
 his people. — Liv. 
 
 Ilia scClCrata et pene deletrix liujus impi^rii sica, Tliat accursed 
 dagger \_and~\ well nigh fatid to this empire. — Cic. 
 
 rieblcola tribuiius picbis, A popularity-courting tribune. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. Similarly we find such expressions as exercttus tiro, a raw army (Cic), 
 and the like. 
 
 
258 
 
 SUBSTANTIYES. 
 
 § 599. 
 
 § 599. Nemo.— Instead of nuUiLs we frequently find nemo 
 in apposition with Substantives denoting 7nen : as, 
 
 Nemo vir bonus, nemo adolescens, nemo pictor, No good man, no 
 youth, no painter. — ^all in Cic.) 
 
 Obs. In the same manner we find quisqmm homo, quisquam cTvis, etc. 
 
 § 600. D/'mm?(f/r65.— These are used with great variety of 
 signification ; implying affection, pity, contempt, and kindred 
 feelings (cf. § 70:3) : as, 
 
 Hac tamen oblectubar specula, Hoicever I pleased myself with this 
 gleam of hope. — Cic. Fam. 
 
 Mercedidd adducti, Induced hy paltry gain.— Cic. 
 
 Graecrdus esOriens, The poor half-star fed Greek. — Juv. 
 
 Ilia aureola oratiuncttla, That goldai little speech.— Cic, (N. D. 3, 
 17, 43.) 
 
 § GOl. Ellipsis. — The following Substantives are often left 
 to be understood from the Gender of Adjectives : as, 
 
 Aqua, icafer ; in the expressions frlsiTda, cJllIda (calda). cold, hot water. 
 
 Cilro, /e.'j/i, meat : as, ferina, thefesh of wild animals, game, venison; 
 agiuna, lamb; biibula, beef; porclna, /)orfc. 
 
 Custra, -onini, camp, soldiers quarters: as, hil^erna, winter quarters; 
 aestiva, summer quarters; stativa, ^jre(? quarters. 
 
 Febrls, a ferer: as, tertiana, qiiartfina, a tertian, quartan fever ; frigtda 
 qiiartana, a quartan ague. 
 
 Pecuniae, 77ion€ys ; in the phrase reptitundae, moneys to be reclaimed; 
 etrtorfion. 
 
 Tars, }xirt; esp. in j)7. : as, primas, sCcundas agi^re, to phnj the first 
 or second ivtrt. 
 
 Tempns, time : especially in the phrases, ex quo, from ichat time ; 
 ex illo, from that time, &c. 
 
 § G02. Ilendiadys (cf. § 724, 2).— Sometirae_s two Substan- 
 tives are used to convey a single notion {Iv lia Cvoly) : as, 
 
 Pateris litovit et auro, He poured out libations from boicls of (Lit. 
 and) gold. — Virg. 
 
 Hue acerMlit summus t!mor, qnem mihi nrdTtra pudor(\\\e mens attr!- 
 buit, To this is added an extreme timidity, which my natural bashfnlnesa 
 [JAt. nature and bashfulness) occasions me. — Cic. 
 
 § G03. Phtral equivalent to Singnlar. — The following Plurals 
 among others are used (especially in poetry) witliout con- 
 siderable difference from Singulars : 
 
 pcctora, the breast. 
 
 cervices, the {back of the) neck. 
 
 colla, the neck. 
 
 ora (os'', the face. 
 
 terga, the back. 
 
 regna, 
 
 tecta, 
 
 Gti a, repose. 
 
 sllentia, sileuce. 
 
 pondera, weight. 
 
 realms, a kingdom, 
 abode. 
 
 Obs. This usage is especially frequent in the case of words whose singular 
 would be less manageable in verse. 
 
 §607. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 259 
 
 § 604. Metonymy. — Sometimes a Substantive is by a figure 
 of speech used to denote something with which it is closely 
 connected : as, 
 
 alea, a gambling-table, is used for gambling. 
 
 Bacchus, god of wine, „ tcine. 
 
 Cores, goddess of corn, „ corn, 
 
 fasces, the fasces, „ the consulate. 
 
 niilnus, the hand, „ violence ; ownership. 
 
 Mars, god of war, „ war, strife. 
 
 Minerva, goddess of art, „ art, genius. 
 
 nomen, name, „ nation ; debt. 
 
 sJtgum, a war-cloak. „ a state of war. 
 
 st^cures, axes, „ power of life and death. 
 
 eica, a dagger, „ assassination. 
 
 stilus, a writing-style, „ writing; style. 
 
 fctuia, a matron s gown, „ a matron. 
 
 tuga, the gown of peace, „ the state a)id arts of peace. 
 
 venter, the belly, „ gluttony. 
 
 Venus, goddess of loi'e\ 
 
 and beauty,) " 
 
 Vulcanus, god of fire, „ fire. 
 
 love, beauty. 
 
 § G05. Synecdoche. — Sometimes a characteristic part of a 
 
 thing is put for the whole. The following Substantives 
 
 among others are so used : 
 
 cilrina, a keel, is used for a ship. 
 
 cHput, a head, „ an individual. 
 
 pecten. a quill or stickl ^^ ^j^^ j^^.^^ 
 
 pnppis, 
 tectum, 
 
 for a lyre, j 
 a stern, 
 a roof. 
 
 a ship. 
 a house. 
 
 2. Proper Names. 
 
 § GOG. Names of tribes for countries, — The names of tribes 
 and nations, especially those less known, are often used for 
 the country in which they live : as, 
 
 Caesar ex Mifmqn'is in TrerTros venit, Caesar came out of the country 
 of the 3Ienapii into that of the Treviri. — Cues. 
 
 Legatus in Persas profectus est, He set out as ambassador into 
 Persia. — Nep. 
 
 Obs. In the case of ohscure tribes there often exists no separate name for the 
 country. 
 
 § G07. The singular of a national name, as Eomanus, 
 Poenus, Graecus, and the like, is often used where the 
 sense requires the plural (comp. § 590) : as, 
 
 Romanus consCrcre pugnam contra eludCre Poenvs, The 
 
 Pomans were for coming to close quaiiers ; the Carthaginians on the other 
 hand were content to baffle them. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. This idiom is common in Livy, especially in his more animated passages. 
 
260 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 §G08. 
 
 §614. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 261 
 
 § 608. Karnes of nations are sometimes used adjectively 
 
 by the poets : as, 
 
 Galla ( = Gallica) crudelltas, GaUic mielfy.— 'Mart. 
 
 Syra (= Syria, SjTulca) merx, Syrian wares. — Hor. 
 
 Obs. Similarly RomQlus, and some other proper names, are used as Ad- 
 jectives : as, 
 
 Romiila (=Romulea) tellus, The land of Romnhis. — Virg. 
 
 § 600. Patromjmics. — In the poets Masculine and Femi- 
 nine Patronymics (see § 1 84) are used instead of jUiiis and 
 Jilia : as, 
 
 rn'dmUles Hc'lenns, IMenm »on of Priam. — Ov. 
 
 Atlantis Mala, Maia daughter of Atlas. — Ov. 
 
 Obs. 1. But the proper name and the patronymic are not used together as 
 
 above, except where needful for the sake of distinction. 
 Obs. 2. In the plural number the poets often use a characteristic patronymic 
 as a national name : ai(, 
 
 Aeneadae, Hie house of Aeneas^ i.e. the Romans. — Lucr. 
 ROmulldae, The sons of Romulus (in same sense). — Virg. 
 
 Cn AFTER LYI. — Adjectives. 
 
 § 610. The principal uses of Adjectives have been alrendy 
 explained (Chap. XLlll.). It only remains to notice a few 
 peculiarities. 
 
 § 611. Adjectives equivalent to Suhstantives (comp. §§ 340- 
 34:2). — Under this head two cases remain to be noticed : 
 
 (1.) A Substantive and Adjective are often equivalent to 
 a Substantive and a Genitive Case (§ 263) : as, 
 
 Sernlis tiimiiltus ;= tumultus servorum'', The servile tu- 
 mult or war. — Caes. 
 
 Pecuniae alienae (= alionirn), TJie money of others. — Cic. 
 
 D^cemrlrale (= decern virorum) odium, The hatred enter- 
 tained for the Decemviri (§ 2G8;. — Liv. 
 
 XSn^phontHm ( = Xeiiopliontis) Here flies, The ITercules of 
 Xenophon. — Cic. 
 
 ^2.) An Adjective is used in agreement with a Sub- 
 stantive, where the English idiom would employ 
 the cotTCsponding abstract Substantive derived fruiii 
 the Adjective ; as, 
 
 DC'finire Jlmlcltiam pf/rihns offtciis et vohintiitThns, To 
 define frittidship to consist in reciprocity of (food offices and 
 guoil-wilL — Cic. 
 
 Opes factionis, vestra patientia, nullum, jus, Tlie strength of 
 the oligarchy ; your lameness of spirit ; the absence of rights (Lit. 
 the no right). — Sail. 
 
 Obs. The converse is perhaps as frequent : as, 
 
 In hac rariStdte stddiorum, In these various pursuits (= in his variis 
 studiis). — Cic. ^ 
 
 § 612. Nullus. — The Adjective iiullns in colloquial lan- 
 guage is sometimes used adverbially ( = non) : as, 
 
 Plii'lotiinus non mode nullus venit, sed, etc., Philotimus not only doe* 
 not came, hut, &c. — Cic. Ep. 
 
 Si non quaerit, nullus dixeris, If he does not ash^ don't you say. — 
 Ter. 
 
 Obs. 1. In such cases nullus is more emphatic than non. 
 
 Obs. 2. Very often we may trace the proper force of nullus with verbs : as, 
 NolTte existKmare, me quum a vobis discessf'ro, nusquam aut nullum f6re, 
 Do not suppose that uhcn I have left you I shall not exist any where or 
 AT ALL {=be a person at all). — Cic, (Cat. Maj. 22.) 
 
 Haec bona in tabdlas publtcas nulla r&dierunt, These goods have not been 
 entered in the public books at all. — Cic. (Rose. Am. 44, 128.) 
 
 § 613. Sexcenti. — This numeral is used to denote an inde- 
 finitely large number : as, 
 
 Sexcenta millia mundorum. Hundreds of thousands of worlds. — Cic. 
 Sezcentae gpistolae, An immense number of letters. — Cic. 
 
 Chapter LYII. — Pronouns. 
 
 § 614. Strengthening of Pronouns. — It has been already 
 observed (§ 357) that the Personal Pronouns are not usually 
 expressed when they are the Subjects of sentences, unless 
 for the sake of emphasis. They may be rendered still more 
 emphatic by the following means : 
 
 (1.) By the addition of ipse'; with which however the 
 words ego, tu, etc., are not usually expressed 
 (see § 377). 
 
 (2.) By the suffixes met, te (see § 75, Obs. 1) : as egomet, 
 teraet, nosmet, etc. The suffix met may be added 
 to all cases of the pronouns ego, tu, sui, excepting 
 the Gen. PI. of ego, tu, and the Nom. Sing, of tu : 
 -te is used only with tu (tute). 
 
 Obs. The suffixes are often combined with ipse : hence, nosm^tipsos, 
 nobismetipsis, etc. 
 
262 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 §615. 
 
 §621. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 263 
 
 (3.) By the addition of the enclitic adeo: as, 
 
 Tuque adeo, And thou especialhf.—\ittQ. (G. 1, 24). 
 (Comp. Ciitull. 64, 2S.) 
 
 Similarly with other Pronouns (comx^. § 653) : as, 
 
 Id aileo, si placet, consitli^mte. That very point, if you 
 please, consider.— Cic. (Caec. 30, 87.) 
 
 § 615. Sometimes a Pronoun (especially ille) is redundant 
 ill the second member of a double sentence, when it has 
 been expressed or implied in the former. It then adds 
 vivacity to the expression : as. 
 
 Nunc dextra iu^Cmluans ictus, nunc iJJe sinistra, Xow tcilh his 
 right hand redoubling his blows; now [lie does it] with his Ze/f.— Virg. 
 
 [M. 5, 457.) 
 
 Nee dulecs amorea 
 Sperne puer, iiecpie tn choreas. Nor scorn in youth 
 sweet loves, nor scorn [thou] the dancc—KoR. (Od. 1, 9, 16.) 
 
 Obs. This idiom appears to be imitated from the Greek. Compare 
 'H Tira? €K HvKov afet afivvTopa^ .... 
 'H 6y€ Kal S1^opTTJfl€^'.— Horn. Od. 2, 327. 
 
 § 616. Ille is also sometimes used idiomatically with an 
 appositive Adjective (§ 216), to which it gives em- 
 phasis : as, 
 
 Phaosophi quldam, mlnlme mali illi quidera, scd non satis aeuti' 
 Certain philosophers [those] far from bad men indeed, but not very 
 acutt.-Cic. (Otf. 3, 9, 39.) 
 
 Similarly with an Adverb : as, 
 
 Enucleate ille quideni ct polite, sed , Clearly it is true [lie 
 
 speaks], and with polish, but, &c.-Cic. (Br. 30, 115.) 
 
 Obs. When so used, ille is attended by quidem. 
 
 § 617. Ipse.— The ordinary rule for the case of ipse has 
 been already given (§ 377). The following remarks are 
 added by Zumpt (§ 696) : 
 
 (1.) Cicero is partial to construing ipse as the subject 
 even when the emphasis belongs to the object : as, 
 
 Ut non mrxlo popfllo Kumano sed Ctiam slbi ipse con- 
 demnatus videretur, So that he seemed not only to the Boman 
 people a condemned man, but even [himself], to himself.— Cic. 
 (Verr. 1, 6, 17.) 
 
 (Compare the foil. : non itix abundo iugCuio ut te consoler, 
 quum ipse me non possim, id. Fam. 4, 8 : »iuid est nc'gOtn 
 coiitiuere eos quibus praesis, si te ipse coutiueas, id. Q. 1 r. 
 1, 1, 2.) 
 
 (2.) AYhen joined to a possessive pronoun in a reflective 
 clause ipse usually takes the case of the subject : 
 as, meam ipse legem negligo, tuam ipse legem 
 negligis, not meam ipsius, tuam ipsius, etc. The 
 genitive is necessary only where ipse refers to 
 another than the subject : as, tua ipsias causa [ego] 
 hoc feci, etc. But exceptions to this rule occur 
 both in Cic. and elsewhere. 
 
 § 618. Et ipse is used when a new subject is added to a 
 predicate already expressed or implied : as, 
 
 Cornelio miims copiarum datum, quia L. IManlius et ipse .... in 
 Gallium mittcbatur, To Cornelius was allotted a smaller force, because 
 L. 3L(nliKs was also being sent into Gaid. — Liv. 21, 17. (It having been 
 already mentioned that Cornelius was going into Gaul.) 
 
 Is et ipse Alplnus amnis .... dilf icillimus transitu est, This (the 
 Durance being also an Alpine stream, is very difficult to cross. — Liv. 21, 31. 
 (Two Alpine streams having been before mentioned.) 
 
 § 619. The neuter of is (et id, idque) is used without refer- 
 ence to any particular substantive (comp. § 374), when an 
 additional particular is stated ( = " and that") as, 
 
 Doctum hominem cognovi, et stildiis optimis deditura, idque a 
 puCro, I have known him to be a man of letters and devoted to the best 
 pursuits, and that /row a boy. — Cic. Fam. 13, 16. 
 
 (Similarly in Greek koI ravra.) 
 
 § 620. Idem. — The ordinary correlative of idem is qui (see 
 § 379). Instead of the Relative we also find atque (ac), et; 
 more rarely ut, cum; and (in poetry only) the Dative : as, 
 
 Animus (est) erga te idem ac fuit, Her feelings towards you are the 
 same as they were. — Ter. 
 
 Si quaeratur tdemne sit pertlnacia et perse verantia. If the question 
 be ashed whether obstinacy is the same thing as pjerseverance. — Cic. 
 
 Utrique Idem ftlciunt, ut si laevam partem negligerent, dexteram 
 tuerentur. Both act as if they were to neglect the left side and defend the 
 right. — Cic. 
 
 Eudem mecum patre gdnttus. Born of the same father icith me. — Tac. 
 
 In VI turn qui servat Idem facit occldenti. He who saves a mans life 
 against his will does the same as one who should murder him. — Hor. 
 (Comp. Gr. ravra 4pol fiov\€i.) 
 
 § 621. Qui, quis, aliquis, etc. — The following use of qui in 
 parenthetical clauses, and stating the groimd of something 
 requires to be noted : 
 
 Si mihi permisisses rem, qui meus amor in te est, confecissem, 
 If you had left the matter in my hands, such is my afiection for you 
 (= pro meo iu te amore), I would have settled it. — Cic. 
 
 
264 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 §622. 
 
 § 630. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 265 
 
 Pilfer tuns si vivCret, qua slPverltate fw't, tu profecto non vi\ Cres, If 
 ipur father were living, such yf&ahia stcnmcsa, you certainly would not 
 he living. — Cie. 
 
 (Qua severitate, Abl. of Quality : see § 318.) 
 
 § 622. Quis is sometimes used in a tone of impatience or 
 indignation (Gr. ttoioq' cf. Aristoph. Eq. 1G2) : as, 
 
 Quern tu milii Staseam, quern Peripateticum narras ? Dent talk to 
 me of your Staseas, your Peripatetics 1 — Cic. (Or. 1 , 23.) 
 
 § 623. The interrogative quid is used in animated lan- 
 guage to pass from one point to another, where it may be 
 ] endered by " and then ;" as, 
 
 Quid leges vct«?res rauresque ma jorum? quid auspTeia? etc., And 
 then, //ic laws and customs of our ancestors ; and then the auspices, etc. — • 
 Cic. (Or. 1, 10.) 
 
 Quid in iSviorlbus stddiis? And then in less serious pursuits^ etc, 
 —Cic. (Cat. Maj. 14, 50.) 
 
 Ohs. The expression is elliptical, dicam or some other rerh being understood. 
 
 § 624. Quid is often used interrogatively where persons 
 are concerned : as. 
 
 Quid nobis duobus laboridsius dici aut fingi potest ? Wltat can he 
 mentioned or conceived more overwhelmed with trouble than we two f — • 
 Cic. (Mil. 2, 5.) 
 
 § 625. Quis. — It has been already stated that quis, as an 
 Indefinite Pronoun, is chiefly found after si, ne, num, or in 
 composition (§ 383). But it is sometimes used alone as 
 the least emphatic any ( = Gr. rig), when it is generally an 
 enclitic : as, 
 
 Simpllcior quis est ? Js one simpler than ordiimry ? — Hob. 
 (S. 1, 3, 63.) 
 
 Morbus aut Cgestas aut quid ejusmodi. Disease or privation or any- 
 tliing of that kind ( = roiovrov ri). — Cic. 
 
 § 626. Nescio quis, I hioia not icho, i. e. some one or other^ is 
 treated as if it were a compound of quis, the nescio having 
 no effect upon the syntax : as, 
 
 Paconii nescio cHjus quCrelis, By the complaints of one Paconius, 
 whoever he may he. — Cic. 
 
 Prope me hic nescio quis loquitur. Some one or other h speaking 
 here close to me. — PI. 
 
 Obs. Strictly nescio quis forms a pentence by itself, its rerb being supplied 
 from the other part of the sentence. 
 
 § 627. Si quis, if any, is sometimes nearly equivalent to 
 quicunque, whosoever, whatsoever (like Gr. el tlq = octtlq) : as, 
 
 Nuda ft^re Alpium cacumYna sunt, et si quid est pabilli, obruunt 
 nives, The summits of the Alps are mostly hare, and if there is any 
 pasture {= what little pasture there is) is buried beneath the snows. — Liv. 
 
 Araneolae quasi rete contexunt, ut si quid inhaes6rit conficiant. 
 Spiders spin a kind of net that they may destroy wliatever gets stuck fast 
 in it. — Cic. 
 
 Illi etiam, si quos fudimus, apparent, TJiose also whomsoever ice 
 have put to rout appear {again). — Virg. 
 
 Especially when a modest statement is to be made : as, 
 
 Ea, si quam hSibemus, fdcultas, Wliatever ability— if any — I possess. 
 — Cic. 
 
 § 628. Quotus, u'hat number ? is an ordinal, corresponding 
 to primus, secundus, etc. It is used idiomatically : as, 
 
 Tu qudfus esse vClis rescribe, Write back ichat number you mean to 
 make. — Hob. (Ep. 1, .'), 30.) 
 
 Qudtus erit iste denarius, qui non sit ferendus. What shall be the 
 precise number of denarii that is not to be allowed ?— Cic. (Verr. 2, 3, 94.) 
 
 Especially quotusquisque (or as two words), when it is 
 implied that the number is small : as, 
 
 QuOtus 6nim quisque forraosus est. For what a small proportion of 
 men are handsome!— Cic. (N. D. 1, 28, 79.) 
 
 § 620. Alius. — The use of alius .... alius has already 
 been noted (§ 390). The following additional examples 
 may be useful : 
 
 Dolus mains est, cum aliud agttur, aliud slmtilatur, It is fraud, when 
 one thing is actually done, and another pretended. — Cic. 
 
 Aliis mtserandus, a/iVs irridendus esse videtur. To some he seemt to 
 deserve pity, to others ridicule. — Cic. 
 
 Alius is often repeated in a different case ( = one .... 
 
 another) : as, 
 
 Alius alio more viventes, Living one in one way, another in another. 
 —Sail. 
 
 A lias ex aliis fingcndo mSras, Inventing one excuse for delay after 
 another. — Liv. 
 
 Alii super alios, One on the top of the other. — Liv. 
 
 Obs. So with an adverb in the second place, as alius alio, alius alitor, one in 
 one tvay, another in another, etc. 
 
 § 630. Alius is followed by atque (ac), et, praeter, nisi, quam: as, 
 
 Tullia longe alia in fortuna est atque ejus piCtas et dignitas postu- 
 labat, Tullia is in a much worse position than her affection and rank 
 entitle her to. — Cic. 
 
 N 
 
 
266 
 
 VEEBS. 
 
 §631. 
 
 §635. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 267 
 
 Lux longe alia est solia et lychnorum, The light of the sun is very 
 different from that of lamps. — Cic. 
 
 Nihil all lid est disc6ro nisi rCcordari, Learning is nothing else than 
 rememhering. — Cic. 
 
 Rogavit niim quid uh'iid ferret praeter arcam, He ashed whether he 
 was carrying anything due besides the box. — Cato ap. Cic. (A fare con- 
 struction.) 
 
 Lj^sander nihil dliud molitus quam ut omnes civltates in sua 
 tfineret pCtestfite, Lysander attempted nothing short of holding all the 
 ttates under his own power. — Nep. 
 
 Obs. The Ablative (of comparison, §319) after alius is altogether exceptional : 
 Neve ptites (ilium sapiente bunoque beatum, And deem none happy other 
 than the wise and good. — Ilor. (Ep. 1, 16, 20.) 
 
 Chapter LVIII. — Verbs. 
 
 § 631. The principal uses of the Moods and Tenses have 
 been already explained (§§ 392, pqq.). The following 
 observations are of a miscellaneous character. 
 
 § 632. Impersonal use of the Passive. — This construction 
 (see § 234, 0^5. 2) is very frequent in the best writers, and 
 is often preferred even w^here the same sense might be ex- 
 pressed by the Active Voice : especially — (1) When the 
 Subject, being obvious, is readily supplied ; (2) When it 
 is indefinite : as, 
 
 (1.) De Tclrentlnis magna contentiGne in st^nutu actum, Tlie case of 
 the Tarentines was warmly debated in the senate. — Liv. 
 
 8uppleraentum scribCrent consoles permissum. Hie consids icere em- 
 powered [by the Senate] to fill up vacancies by enlistment. — id. 
 
 Tamdlus in quo pugndtum erat. The rising ground whtre the battle 
 had taken place. — id. 
 
 (2.) TumidtuHtum in castris fi^rat. There had been a disturbance 
 made [by some persons] in the camp. — id. 
 
 Ipsos appropinquare legates allutum est, News was brought thai the 
 envoys themselves were at hand. — id. 
 
 De quo piltas ad me missum esse, sit mifisnm necne nescio, As to the 
 point you think word has been sent me about [name of the sender pur- 
 posely kept back], whether it has been sent or no, I know not. — Cic. Att. 
 12, 28. (See Nagelsbach, p. 313.) 
 
 Ohs. In such cases, for the most part, attention is called rather to the action 
 than the agents. 
 
 § 633. Passive as Middle or Reflective (see also § 252). — 
 Passive Verbs have not unfrequently a reflective sense, 
 
 like the Greek Middle Voice : as, moveri, to move (oneself) ; 
 verti, to turn (oneself), revolve ; premi, to depress (oneself)* 
 sink ; etc. : as. 
 
 Quod semper mdvetur aetemum est, That ichich moves for ever is 
 eternal. — Cic. 
 
 Vertitur intSrea coelum, Meantime the heavens revolve. — Virg. 
 
 Mundus pr^mitur Libyae dcvexus ad Austros, TJie world sinks 
 
 and slop)es downwards towards the south of Africa. — id. (G. 1. 241.) 
 
 Obs. Such was probably the origin of the Deponent Verbs (comp. Greek De- 
 ponents in -ofj-ai) : as, utor, / serve or help myself, hence use; nitor, / 
 support myself {upon), lean (upon) ; fungor, I quit myself: etc. 
 
 § 634. Perfect used aopiartjg.— The Perfect Indicative is 
 often used, especially in poetry, of that which regularly or 
 repeatedly takes place : as, 
 
 Illius immensae ruperunt horrea messes, TJiat man's enormous crops 
 burst his bartis. — Vibg. (G. 1, 49.) " — "^ 
 
 Saepe <5tiam stCriles inccndcre profuit agros. Often too it does good to 
 fire the barren fields. — (ib. 84.) 
 
 Hinc Jipicem Fortuna sustGlit, illic pSsuisse gaudet. From one head 
 Fortune removes the diadem, on another she is pleased to rest it — Hob 
 (Od. 1, 34. fin.) ^ 
 
 Obs. In the last example, the Perfect Infinitive is used in the same way. The 
 term Aoristic is applied to this construction, because the Aorist is regu- 
 larly so used in Greek. 
 
 § 635. Ellipsis of the Verb. — This of course occurs only in 
 the case of verbs which may be without difficulty supplied : 
 
 (1.) The Copula (§ 213, Ohs, 1) is very often omitted in 
 short aphoristic sentences : as. 
 
 Omnia praeclara rara, All fine things lare'] rare.— Cic. 
 Quot homines, tot sententiae, Many men, many minds.— Ter. 
 Also in descriptions : as, 
 
 Animus audax, subdolus, vnrius ; cujusllbet rJ?i simtHutor 
 ac disslmidator; etc., His spirit [was] daring, crafty, versatile; 
 capable of assuming any mask or any disguise. — Sail. 
 
 (Sallust is partial to this kind of brevity : § 689). 
 
 Obs. This ellipsis chiefly occurs where the Verb would be in the 
 Present Tense (including the Praesens Historicum: § 393). 
 
 Esse is more frequently omitted than expressed in the 
 Future Infinitive Active : as, 
 
 L. Cincio hs xxcd constltui me dtratUrum Idibus Febr., I 
 have settled to pay into the hands of L. Cincius 620 sestertia, on 
 the I3th of February.— Cic, 
 
 N 2 
 
268 
 
 TERES. 
 
 § 636. 
 
 § 638. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 269 
 
 (2.) Inquam, inquit, or some such Terb is frequently 
 omitted when the words spoken follow. ±.spe- 
 cially in such phrases as 
 Turn Cotta, turn Crassus, Then [said-] Cotta, Crass^^?. etc.— 
 Cic. de Or. (passim). . 
 
 Quid multa, Why [should I say] many words^—ul. 
 Ob^ 1 But after turn the verb is very often presently added : as, 
 Turn rTdens, Scaevola, non luctabor, inrjuH, tecum Crasse am- 
 plius, Thercvpon uith a .smile, says Scaevola, I shall not dispute 
 the point with you any further, Crassus.— id. 
 Obs. 2. To this bead belongs the common superscription of letters, 
 salutem {sc. dicit), Cic. Ep. (passim). 
 
 (3.) In dedications, dicat^ or some such word : as, 
 
 Aenoas hare de DilnJlis victorihns arma, Aeneas this trophy 
 [dedicates'], from the victorious GreeA-8.— Yirg. 
 
 Obs. So in titles of books : as, 
 
 Ctct^ronis de OffTciis ad fllium suum iTber [scriptus],'^ book of 
 Cicero concerning moral duties, addressed to his son. 
 
 (4.) Dent, duint, in prayers : as, 
 
 Di mf^liora. The gods [grant] a heUer lot (like our God 
 forbid /)— Cic. 
 (5.) In colloquial language, any verb that may bo 
 readily supplied : as, 
 Inde co-tto in Arpinum (sc. ire), After that I purpose 
 [going]to A rpimm.— Cic. 
 
 A me Caesar pScuniam (sc postulat), Caesar [expects] 
 mmeif frmmne I — id. (Pliil. 2, 29, 72.) 
 
 No multa [sc. dlcam] : clamores [/<'• ^^f *\^^\"]]v ^^J '^^ 
 make a long story of it, acclamations [ followed. ]— id. (Att. 1, lb.; 
 
 .... Verbum cXve [sc. dicas] de nuptiis, 
 Ne ad morhum hoc etiam [sc. accedat], Tahe care not [to say] 
 a word about the wedding, lest in addition to her dlness [there be 
 added] this further shock.— Teh. (And. 1, 5, 05.) 
 
 (6.) When it may be supplied from another Verb in the 
 same sentence : as, 
 Ventrem nihil Miud ff^c^re] quam dStis V(5luptatibus/n<?*, 
 The belly they said) [did] nothing else than enjoy the pleasures 
 afforded it.—Uv. (2, 32.) 
 
 § 636. Repetition of T'erft.— This takes place— 
 
 (1.) In answering a question (where in English " Yes " 
 or " Ko " would be used) : as, 
 Nempe n^gas ad beate vivendum sStis posse virtutem ?-- 
 Prorsus n^go, Yfm deny then that virtue is of sufficient avad far 
 a happy lifei—Yes, I do, altogether.- Cic. (Tusc. 5, 5, 12.), 
 
 i 
 
 Dagne aut manere Jlnlmos post mortem, aut morte ipsa 
 intt^rire ? — Do vero. Do you grant that the soul either survives 
 after death, or perishes at the inoment of deaths — Yes I do. — 
 ib. (1, 11, 25.) 
 
 Obs. But not always : as, ' 
 
 An tu haec non credis? — MYnime vero, Don^t you believe in 
 those things ?—No, indeed ! — ib. 1, 5, 10. 
 
 (2.) Instead of the brief expression idque, et id, " and 
 that" (§ 619), the verb of the preceding clause is 
 often repeated : as, 
 
 Porapeius summos in republica honores ass^cHtus est, et 
 assecutu« est ( = idque) maturius quam quisquam ante eum, 
 Pompey attained to the highest honours in the state, and that 
 at an earlier period than any one before him. — Cic. 
 
 (3.) When a second action is performed on the same 
 object, the preceding verb is often repeated as a 
 participle : as, 
 
 Quum urbem vi cepissent, capfrtmque dirlpuissent. Having 
 taken the city by storm, and then pillaxjed it, etc. — Liv. (22, 20.) 
 
 Earn rem consilles ad Patres deferunt ; sed deldtam con- 
 srdere ordine non iTcuit, The consuls laid the matter before the 
 senate: but they were not allowed to consider it [the matter as 
 laid before them] in a regular way. — id. (2, 28). 
 
 § 637. Substantival Use of Participles. — What has been said 
 (§ .339) respecting the use of Adjectives Substantively, ap- 
 plies generally to Participles. The following remarks are 
 of a more special nature. 
 
 § 638. Imperfect Participle. — The substantival use of this 
 Participle is most frequent in the Plural. It is less fre- 
 quent in the oblique cases of the Singular, and in the Nom. 
 Sing, does not occur at all : as, 
 
 Addidit et ^Wam ftdentis spSciem, He added an additional token of 
 confidence [Lit. of one feeling confidence]. — Liv. (27, 2.) 
 
 Errant i monstrare viam. To point out the way to one who has strayed. 
 — Enn. ap. Cic. 
 
 [Quisque] acutius atque acrius vitia in dicente quam recta videt, 
 Everybody sees faxdts in a speaker more keenly and vividly than excel- 
 lencies.— Cic. (Or. ], 25, 11(5.) 
 
 Soli fiitione utentes^nrG ac lege vivunt, Only those who make use of 
 reason live according to right and law. — id. (N. D. 2, 62, 154.) 
 
 Hoc gCnus daiib^rantium pellatur e m6dio. Let this class of questioners 
 be banished from our midst. — id. (Off, 3, 8, 37.) 
 
 Quid est tam commune quam .... m^re fluctuant ibus, Wins vieciis. 
 What is so common as to those tossed on the waves, the sea ; to t]toi>c ship' 
 wrecked, the shore ? — id. (Rose. A. 26, 72.) 
 
270 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 §639. 
 
 §644. 
 
 ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 271 
 
 Multae bestiae imectantes Sdoris int51grabili foeditate depellunt. 
 Many creature.< drive aimy their pursuers hy the intolerable disgmtingness 
 of their »meU.-€ic. (N. D. 2, 50, 127.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Instead of the Nom. Sing., and often of the Nom. Plur., we find either 
 the verbal substantive in -tor, or a Relative clause. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes, especially in the Gen. Plur., the Imperfect Participle is 
 so used as to be equivalent to an abstract Substantive : as, 
 Cliimorcs paventium, Cries of dismay, — Liv. (22, 5.) 
 Diversitas trrtdentium, Disagreement of tradition.— Suet. (Cal. 8.) 
 
 (For more examples, see Nagels. p. 93.) 
 
 § 639. Future Participle.— The substantival use of this 
 participle is less frequent, and belongs chiefly to later 
 writers : as, 
 
 lUud quod tantimi pgrituri vident, An ohjed which only the doomed 
 to death behold.— T AC. (G. 40.) 
 
 Mire awl'itiirum didiiri ciira deleetat. Care on the part of one about 
 to speak greatly pleases him who is to hear.—Q\m\i. (11, 3, 157.) 
 
 Tarn vririe se gessit, lit nee lawlaturum magna, nee vitrtplTrdtrirum 
 raSdioeris materia det*iciat. He conducted himself in such different xcays 
 that while to the eulogist ample material, to the censor what was not incon- 
 siderable is afforded!— Veil. (2, 101.) 
 
 § 640. Perfect Participle Passive.— This participle is used 
 substantively, both in the Masculine of persons, and in the 
 Neuter of things or acts, 
 
 § 641. The Masculine is so used chiefly in the Plural : as, 
 Niimt^rum jure caesorum obtlnere. To be put in the category of the 
 
 judly slain.— Cic. (Off. 2, 12, 43.) 
 
 Ut de vi et majestate damndti ad popttlum prov5cent, Tliat those 
 
 condemned for violence and treason should appeal to the people.— id. Pliil. 
 
 1, 9, 21 (Nag. p. 89;. 
 
 § 642. The Neuter is so used — 
 
 (1.) To denote an act : most frequently in the Plural, 
 but also in the Singular : as. 
 
 Facta illiistria et gloriOsa, Deeds didinguished and glorious- 
 — CiG. (Fin. 1, 11, 37.) 
 
 Cet«5rorum nSque dictum obscurum potest esse, . . . .nSque 
 t«?raere dido concMi, As for the rest neither can what they say 
 remain in the darh, nor what they say indiscreetly be condoned. — 
 id. (Rose. A. 1, 3.) 
 
 06s. Sometimes the use of such words fluctuates between that of 
 Substantives and that of Participles; as in the second of the 
 above examples. So we find rede facta (Cic. Leg. 2, 4, 9), as 
 well as facta illustria, forfia, etc. In the following example the 
 two usages seem to be combined : 
 
 Movemur saepe iltquo icute concluso. We are often affected by 
 some acute argument. — Cic. Tusc. (1, 32, 78.) 
 
 i 
 
 (2.) In the Neut. Sing, (but not in the Nom. Case), with 
 the force of abstract Substantives : v. § 628. 
 Especially in such phrases as ex composito, by 
 agreement ; ex empto, ex vendito, hy purchase^ hy 
 sale, etc. 
 
 § 643. Zeugma. — Sometimes a Verb which is strictly ap- 
 propriate only as applied to one Substantive, is by a 
 modification of its meaning applied to two : as, 
 
 Romanis Germanisque idem eonducSre [putabam], et pacem quam 
 bellum prdbilbam, I deemed the interests of Roinans and Germans to be 
 the same, and approved of peace ratlier than icar. — Tac. (Ann. 1, 58.) 
 
 (Here probabam has to be taken in the modified sense of putabam 
 in the first member of the sentence.) 
 
 Nos Maurici Rusttelque visus, nos innueenti sangutne SSnScio per- 
 f'ldit. Us the sight of Mauricus and Rusticus [horrified] , us Senecio 
 drenched with guiltless blood. —Tac. (Agr. 4.5.) 
 
 Taeitus is fond of this construction. 
 
 Obs. Zeugma may also occur with other parts of speech besides Verbs : as, 
 
 Vir fTicundus et pacis artibus [expertus], belli inexpertus. An eloquent 
 man and experienced in the arts of peace, not so of war. — Tac. (Hist. 1, 8.) 
 
 Chapter LIX. — Adverbs and Prepositions. 
 
 § 644. Adverbs. — Ita, besides its ordinary use (§ 551) has 
 the following peculiar constructions : 
 
 (1.) After non, baud, it is equivalent to admodum, very : 
 as. 
 
 Sunt ea (simfilacra) perampla" et praeclara, sed non ita 
 antiqua, Those statues are very magnificent and admirable, but 
 of no very great antiquity. — Cic. 
 
 Hand ita multum (praedae) militi datum. No large pro^ 
 portion of the spoil was given to the soldiers. — Liv. 
 
 Nee ita multo post, And not very long after. — Cic. 
 
 Obs. In such cases there is an ellipsis : tiot so much so as might 
 liave been expected^ &c. _ 
 
 (2.) In adjurations : as, 
 
 Ita me dii Jlment, h5nestus est, -S'o may heaven love me, he 
 is a fine gentleman /— Ter. (Eun. 3, 2, 21.) 
 
 Obs. In the same way sic is used : see Hor. Od. 1, 3, 1. 
 
272 
 
 ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 § 645. 
 
 § 653. 
 
 PARTICLES. 
 
 273 
 
 §645. Satis not unireqnentlj = '' considerahly;' *' fairly" 
 
 ''well:'' as, 
 
 Salis cum pericfllo, With comiderahle rish.—TER. (And. 1, 1, 104.) 
 Plunities erat magna et in ea tilmiUiis satis grandis. There ivas an 
 
 extensice plain, and in it a mound of considerable size.— Caes. (B. G. 1,43.) 
 Homo nee inftcetus et st'itis lltCratus, A person not without elegance 
 
 and a fair scMar.—Cic. (Otf. 3, 14, 58.) 
 
 § 646. Minus, parum, male.— These three Adverbs are often 
 used with a negative force, when they are equivalent to a 
 Boftened non : as, 
 
 T«5rc'ntia minus belle babuit, Terentia has not been very w^ll—Clc. 
 (Fam. 9, d.) 
 
 L. Cotta minus in S^natmn v6nit, L. Cotia hardhj comes into the 
 
 Senate at all.—{ih. 12, 2.) 
 
 Furiiin snccedit quod ago. My business is not getting on much.— Teu. 
 (And. 4, 1, 56.) 
 
 Prirum Claris luccm dare coget. He icill mahe him throw light on 
 what is not clear.— HoR. (A. P. 448.) 
 
 Ego ilium male sanum semper putavi, I have always thought him of 
 unsound mind. — Cic. (Att. 9, 15.) 
 
 Male gratus, Ungrateful— 0\ . (Her. 7, 27.) 
 
 Obs. Minus especially = non, after quo [quomTnus), sin. Parum is nerer 
 a decided negative ; but always means less than mtght be expected. 
 
 § 647. NuUus in colloquial language = non: see § 612. 
 
 § 648. Prepositions (see § 553, sqq.).— AVhen a Preposition 
 occurs in composition with a \ erb, it is often repeated 
 after the Verb : as, 
 
 Exire ex navi, To disemharh from a 87»/j).— Nep. 
 
 Exlre ex urbe, To depart from the city.— Cic, 
 
 Sometimes a different Preposition is used : as, exire de 
 nfivi, a patria (Cic). 
 
 ^ 640. AVhen in English two Prepositions are joined 
 with the same Substantive, in Latin the Substantive is 
 usually repeated : as, 
 
 Haec qutim contra legem jproqne lege dicta essent, Wheri these 
 fpeerhes had been made for and against the law.—hiv. (34, 8.) 
 
 Darius decedit; ri^lictis iiliis (t in regno et ante regimm susceptis, 
 Dariux died leaving behind him children born both during and before his 
 being king.— JuBt {2, 10.) 
 
 Obs. But in the case of Prepositions which may also serve as Adverbs, the 
 construction may be as in English : as, 
 
 Intra extraque munltiones, Within and without the fortifications.— 
 Caes. (B.C. 3, 7 2.) 
 
 Supra subterque terram, Above and below ground. — Liv. (39, 4.) 
 
 ! 
 
 Or the Substantive may be expressed with one Preposition and understood 
 with the other : as, 
 
 SCiper theatrum circiique, Above and round about the theatre. — Liv. 
 (24, 39.) 
 
 IliScos intra muros et extra, Within the Trojan walls and without them. 
 —Uor. (Ep. 1, 2, 16.) 
 
 § 650. Inter is sometimes repeated : as. 
 
 Inter Peliden et inter Achillem, Between the son of FeUus and 
 Achilles.— HoR. (Ep. 1, 2, 12.) 
 
 Nlliil inter te atque inter quadrapSdem intSresse (ptitas). You think 
 there is no difference between you and a brute. — Cic. (Par. 1, 14.) 
 
 Ccrtatum inter Ap. CUiudium maxmie, et inter P. Decium Murem, 
 The contest was very warm between Ap. Claudius and P. Decius Mus. — 
 Liv. (10, 7.) 
 
 Obs. Zumpt remarks that this construction is especially frequent with 
 i?iteresse. 
 
 § 651. When the same Preposition belongs in English to 
 two Substantives, the corresponding Preposition in Latin 
 is repeated with the latter Substantive only when it de- 
 notes something quite distinct from the former : as, 
 
 Legati ab Aeduis et ab TrSvIris vSniebant, Embassies arrived [sepa- 
 ratelyj /roj/t the Aedui and from the Treviri.— Cabs. (B. G. 1, 37.) 
 
 Cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius dillgentia desperarent. Why did they 
 despair either of their own valour, or of his conducts — (ib. 40.) 
 
 Otherwise it is not repeated : as. 
 
 In Caesare poptlloquo Komano, In Caesar and tlie lioman people. — 
 (ib. 32.) 
 
 Apud Ariovistum et S«5quanos, In the hands of Ariovistus and the 
 Sequani. — (ib. 33.) 
 
 Chapter LX. — Conjunctions and other Words 
 
 AS Particles. 
 
 § 652. The Conjunctions, as such, being treated above 
 (§§ 559, sqq.), the following obsei-vations will be devoted 
 to their use, and that of other short words as particles. 
 
 Obs. The term particle (see § 11) is especially applied to uninflected words 
 without any syntactical power, but serving to call attention to some par- 
 ticular part of a sentence. 
 
 § 653. Adeo — This particle is attached to single words 
 for the sake of emphasis. In this way it is used after 
 
 N 3 
 
274 
 
 PARTICLES. 
 
 §654. 
 
 Pronoxms (§ GU) and otlier words, including tlie Con- 
 junction atque : as, 
 
 Multum adeo [is] . . . arva jiivat, Much does such an one improve the 
 soil. — Virg. 
 
 Hoc sig^nificant, atque adeo aperte ostondunt, This they hint and 
 indeed openly show. — Cic. 
 
 § G54. finim, though often used elliptically, for the most 
 part retains its logical sense of for (see § 581). It is how- 
 ever sometimes merely a particle of emphasis = videed, m 
 fact : as. 
 
 Turn Metiliiis Tr. PI., id ?mm ftrendum esse nJ^gat, Thereupon Me- 
 tiJins, trihune of the commons, declares that that is really mt to he put up 
 icith /— Liv. (22, 25.) 
 
 Quid tute tecum ?— NihU Mm, Wliat tcere you saying to yourself i— 
 Nothing at all. — Plaut. 
 
 Obs. In the same wav is sometimes used nam and also the compound (^tfnim 
 (L Gr. ttal yap). 'Nam is sometimes equivalent to namely, fur example: 
 cf. Virg. G. 1, 451. 
 
 § 655. Nempe (= nam-pe), /orsoof/i, so it seems, why, occurs 
 at the beginning of a sentence, and gives animation : as, 
 
 Si Flaeldiu3 dat tantam pgcuniam Flacco, nempe idcirco dat ut 
 rata sit emptio, If Flacidius gives so large a sum of money to Flaccus, 
 I suppose the reason he gives it, is that the bargain may be good.— Cic. 
 
 Nempe dixi, I said, did Jf— Hob. (S. 1. 10, 9.) 
 
 Nempe ndgas ad beate vivenduiu siltis posse virtutem, Yoii deny 
 then, it seems, that virtue is sufficient for a happy lifei—Cic. (Tusc. 5, 
 5, 12.) 
 
 In qua tandem urbe ? Nempe in ea quae, etc., Tn what city 
 
 prayi Why {or forsooth) in that which, drc.—Cic. (Mil. 3,7.) 
 
 § 656. Qmdem, indeed, at least, even, is usually placed next 
 after the most emphatic word of a sentence, which it serves 
 to mark : as, 
 
 Slhi quidem persuaderi, etc.. He for his part was convinced, etc.—Q\e. 
 
 Nihil sane ex me quidem audire p5tuisses, You would not have been 
 able to hear a word from me, at any rate.— Cic. 
 
 Especially in connexion with ne : when ne .... quidem 
 = not even : as, 
 
 Nulla ne minima quidem aura, Not even the least breath ofair.^Cic. 
 
 Obs. 1. Quidem is often equivalent to the Greek ye. VlTien ne . . . . quidem 
 = not even, the emphatic word is put between the two particles. 
 
 Obs. 2. For the use of quidem after ille, see § 616. 
 
 Obs. 3. With the first person singular, gquldem (=ego quidem) is used : also 
 sometimes with other persons, see Lat. Diet. s. v. 
 
 (l 
 
 § 661. 
 
 PARTICLES. 
 
 275 
 
 / 
 
 § 657. ©tique is formed from ut or iiti, and signifies at 
 any rate, certainly : it usually follows the word to which it 
 chiefly refers : as, 
 
 Illud vcro iltique ( = Gr. yovy) scire ciipio. There is one thing at any 
 rate I should like to know. — Cic, 
 
 Annum quidem . iltique tSueto, Tou must at any rate maintain the 
 limit of a year. — Cic. 
 
 After non it may be translated by certainly : as, 
 
 Universo pars continetur : non utique accedit parti quod iinlversum 
 est, The part is contained in the whole : but certainly the whole does not 
 belong to a part. — Quint. 
 
 § 658. Duntaxat is similar to quidem, but usually precedes 
 the word to which it refers : it may be translated by just^ 
 at least, only : as, 
 
 Duntaxat ad hoc, Just for this purpose. — Hor. 
 
 Genus cloquentiae duntaxat adolescens adhuc Strabonis CaesS-ris sg- 
 cutus vidctur, lie appears, at least while still a young man, to have imi- 
 tated Strabo Caesar's style of oratory. — Suet. 
 
 Peditatu duntaxat procul ad spdciem utitur. He employs his cavalry, 
 only at a distance for show. — Caes. 
 
 § 659. Certe. — The use of the Adverb certe = certainly, at 
 least, must be distinguished from that of certo, /or cerfam, 
 of a truth : as, 
 
 Certe Cquldem pcjorem puerum quam te vidi neminem, Verily, a 
 worse lad than you I never saw. — PI. 
 
 Res fortasse verae ; certe graves, Matters, perhaps true, but at least 
 important. — Cic. 
 
 § 660. Vero, demum, indeed, at length, are used for the sake 
 of giving a strong emphasis to the words to which they are 
 attached : especially in the phrases, is demum, that and 
 nothing short of it ; turn vero (Gr. tote lij), then if never before, 
 then verily : as. 
 
 Turn vero ardcmus scitari. Then more than ever we are fired with 
 curiosity. — Virg. 
 
 Is demum vitam aequa lance pensitabit. That wan, and no other, 
 will form a fair appreciation of life who, etc. — Plin. 
 
 § 661. Cunque is rarely found alone; occurring for the 
 most part in such compounds as quicunque, ubicunque, etc. 
 W hen it does occur alone, it is equivalent to the Greek 
 TTort, ever, at any time : as, 
 
 Mihi cunque salve ritg vocanti. Be gracious to mc whensoever duly 
 hivoking thee.—Kon. (Od. 1, 32, 15.) 
 
 Obs. In poetry cunque is not unfrequently separated from the word to which 
 it belongs by Tmesis : as. 
 
 Quae demant cunque dolorem, Wltatecer things may remove pain. — Lucr. 
 
276 
 
 ON THE ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 § GG2, 
 
 §667. 
 
 ON THE ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 277 
 
 Chapter LXL— On the Order of Words. 
 
 § 6G2. The terminations of the infected words in Latin 
 show at once their relation to each other ; and the arrange- 
 ment of these may therefore be varied without affecting the 
 tsense. Thus the words, 
 
 Scipio Hannlbftlem vicit 
 will have the same meaning whether they are arranged 
 thus or in any other way : as, 
 
 Hannibalem Scipio vicit, 
 Hannibulem vicit Scipio, etc. 
 
 In English, from the Subject being only known by its 
 position at the beginning, only one arrangement yields a 
 certain sense. 
 
 Obs. But the uninflected words have in general the same positions as in 
 English : see §§ 678, sqq. 
 
 § 6G3. In ordinary language, however, the arrangement 
 of words is pretty regular ; the Subject leading off the 
 sentence, and the Tredicate following : as, 
 
 Alexander mortuus est ; Nix est alba, etc. 
 
 Obs. According to the preceding section {Obs.), various preliminary unin- 
 flected words may precede the sentence proper: such as Conjunctions, 
 Adverbs of Time and Place, etc. 
 
 § 6G4. Object. — When a sentence consists of Subject, 
 Yerb, Object, the usual order in Latin is, 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 Subject, Object, Verb, 
 
 these several parts being each attended by their adjuncts. 
 The following may serve as examples of such simple sen- 
 tences : 
 
 Haec Babj^loniam condldit, Sfie {Semiramis) it was who founded 
 Babylon. — Just. 
 
 Hanuibal urbem tripartito aggrSditur, Hannibal attacks the city with 
 his army in three divisions. — Liv. 
 
 Ingratns iinua omnibus misCris nocet, A single ungrateful person does 
 injury to all the unfortunate. — P. Syr. 
 
 Obs. 1. The same rule applies to Verbs Transitive proper (§ 234), and to such 
 as govern a Dative or Ablative case. 
 
 Obs. 2. Not only the Accusative, but also the other oblique cases usually pre- 
 cede the Verb : as, glndiis pugnare, gliidio hQmc^rum appotere ; viam feno 
 piitfffacgre, vltam SlTcui erlp^re, etc. The Accusative generally precedes 
 another Case, unless the latter be emphatic. 
 
 I 
 
 § 665. But when the Predicate or Object is emphatic it 
 may be brought to the beginning, the Subject often coming 
 last : as, 
 
 Vicit rationem amentia. The victory was gained over reason by 
 frenzy. — Cic. 
 
 Arma virumque cJlno, Arms and the man I sing ! — Virg. 
 
 Uaec ego omnia compCri, All these things have I brought to light. — 
 Cic. 
 
 Obs. Inquam, inquit, say I, says he, are always used parenthetically : as, 
 mlhi vero, inquit, Gotta, etc. : cf. § 635, 2. 
 
 § 66G. The first place in a sentence being the most pro- 
 minent, it is, where emphasis is needed, assigned to the 
 most emphatic word : as, 
 
 Fuit, fuit, ista quondam in republTca virtus, TJiere was, — yea ther« 
 toas once — tJiat vigour in the commonweallh. — Cic. 
 
 Ad mortem te Catllina diici jamprldem oportebat, To execution, Cati- 
 line, thou oughtest long since to have been conducted! — Cic. 
 
 Elephanto nulla bcluarum prudentior est. Than the elephant there is 
 not a single quadruped more sagacious. — Cic. 
 
 § 667. Also the last place in a sentence may become 
 strikingly emphatic for any word whose ordinary place 
 would have been earlier : as, 
 
 Arlxires sSrit diligens agrtcola quarum adspiciet bacara ipse nun- 
 quam. The industrious husbandman plants trees the fruit whereof he will 
 
 NEVER see AT ALL. — Cic. 
 
 Provinciam cepisti dUram, The task you have undertaken is hard. — 
 Ter. 
 
 Apud Helvetios longe ditissimus fuit Orgetdrix, Among the Hdvetii 
 by far the richest man was Orgetorix. — Caes. 
 
 Maecenas atavis edite regibus, Thou Maecenas sprung from the loins 
 of kings. — Hor. 
 
 Especially, sometimes, the last word of an Hexameter : 
 as, 
 
 Tantum religio p5tuit suadere malorum. To such iUs could super- 
 stition tempt ! — Lucr. 
 
 Partariunt montes, nascetur ridiculus mus, The mountains are in 
 labour; forth will come an insignificant mouse! — Hor. 
 
 Albanique patres atque altae moenia Bomae, And Alban sires, and 
 walls of lofty Rome.— Virg. 
 
 Obs. In free conversational language or familiar letters, the arrangement 
 approaches the English more closely : as, 
 
 Ego quum accepissem tuas iTt^ras Nonis AprTlIbus, Having received your 
 letter on the 5th of April. — Cic. 
 
 (Periodic order : ego quum literas tuas Non. Apr. accepissem.) 
 
278 
 
 ON THE ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 § 668. 
 
 § 668. A Substantive or Adjective in Apposition follows tlie 
 word to which it refers : as, 
 
 Urbs Roma, CicCro Orator, Consul Tullius, Pllnius minor, etc. 
 
 Obs. 1. Consul Tullius or Tulliits consul might be equally correct. The 
 former would inform us that the consuVs name was Tullius ; the latter that 
 TuVius held the office of consul. 
 Obs. 2. Any adjuncts serving to qualify either word, may separate the two : 
 as, 
 
 Attius Navius, incTitus ea tempestiite augur, A. NaviuSj a famous augur 
 of the time. — Liv. 
 
 Egt^rius (fratris hie fllius erat regis) Colhitiae in praestdio r^lictus, 
 Egerius — this was the king's brother's son — being left in charge of CoU 
 latia, &c. — Liv. 
 Obs. 3. Sometimes one or more unimportant words not adjuncts of either, are 
 allowed to stand between : as, 
 
 Evander turn ea profiigus ex PelSponneso rfgcbat 16ca, Erander, at the 
 time an exile from PeloponnesuSy ruled in these parts. — Liv. 
 
 LtlcOmoni contra, omnium hertdi bonOrum, quum divttiae jam Snimos 
 f^^rent, Wealth now inspiring the Lucumo,' on the contrary, uho was heir 
 to [his] entire property, icith arrogance. — Liv. 
 
 § 669. A Dependent Genitive (1) usually stands next after 
 the governing substantive ; unless (2) it is emphatic, when 
 it generally precedes : as, 
 
 (1.) Agnttio dmmi, — ^natiira Deonim, — flgfirae Deornm, — actio intae^ 
 omnis curatio et administratio rerum, — '^all from one chapter of Cic. : 
 N. D. 1, 1.) 
 
 (2.) Dodlsstmorum (JidmXnum) sententiae, — sapient is grJl vitas atque 
 constantia, — majrlmarum (renim) ignOratio. — (Cic. same chapter.) 
 
 Obs. 1 . Also the Genitive often precedes when the other Substantive has an 
 attributive : as, summa phllosophOrum dissciisio (Cic), hoc Oraciili response 
 (Nep.), mlrubtlis pugnandi cdpldttas (Nep.), nulla novandi res causa (Liv.), 
 triste dictatoris impdrium. 
 Obs. 2. The Genitive may be made still more emphatic by being separated 
 from the Substantive on which it depends : as, 
 
 Ne hi?mis quidem spatio, JVof in u-inter time even. — Liv. 
 Quod DarTi regno ipsorum nlti^retur d5mlnatio, Because on the rule of 
 Darius depended their own authority. — Nep. 
 
 § 670. When the Subjective and Objective are com- 
 bined, the former generally precedes and the latter follows 
 the Substantive : as, 
 
 Cognosclte hffmtnis (Subj. Gen.) princtpium magisfrdtuum g^rend- 
 onim (Obj. Gen.), Mark the man's commencement of holding office. — Cic. 
 (Yerr. 1, 13, 3-t.) 
 
 Cur eorum (Subj. Gen.) spem rSlYquam fortHnarnm (Obj. Gen.) vi 
 extorqucre conariiS, Why do you attempt to icring from them their {only) 
 remaining hope of recover ing their fortunes'? — Cic. (Div. in Q. Caecil. 6, 
 21). 
 
 § 671. Adjectives. — The ordinary position for an attri- 
 butive Adjective is immediately before its Substantive : as, 
 
 § 673. 
 
 ON THE ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 279 
 
 Miiltas virtutes, — majore relTp:ione, — in tarn propinquo loco (all from 
 Nop. Them. 8j; — inji^ens multitiido, — tarn longi uperis, — amplissimia 
 verbis, — publica laetltia, — insCquens annus, — consillaris potestas, — Fide- 
 iiuti bello, — anclplti proelio, — ex majoribus castris (^from Liv. 5. 8, 9) : etc. 
 
 Obs. 1. Some of the Adjectives in the above examples are emphatic ; but the 
 position does not render them so. On the contrary, the place next after 
 the Substantive, as being less usual, is not unfrcquently more emphatic : as, 
 tempestate maxima (Nep. Them. 8), donnm a mpl urn (Liv. 5, 16), O puerum 
 pulchrum (Cic. Oflf. 1, 40, 144), etc. 
 
 Obs. 2. A monosyllabic Adjective more frequently follows its Substantive : 
 as, res rustTcae, res nuvulis, di immortalcs. Yet Cic. has magna spes, 
 omnis spes, etc. 
 
 § 672. Great emphasis may be given to an Adjective by 
 separating it from its Substantive, so as to let it produce a 
 more independent impression : as, 
 
 Num trbi haec parra vldentui- adj amenta, Deem you these small 
 helps /—Cic. (Mur. 18, 38.) 
 
 Sit idem magnificent issunos et mdlos unquam fecisse ludos. Be it all 
 the same thing (/or a candidate) to have given the most magnificent games 
 or none ever at all. — ib. (19, 41.) 
 
 Filiam ejus parvUlam arrlpuit. He seized hold of his daughter^ an 
 infant. — Nep. (Them. 8.) 
 
 Tribus in iinum bellis coUutis, lliree icars being accumulated all in 
 one. — Liv. (5, 13.) 
 
 Obs. In poetry, it is very common for a Substantive to be separated from its 
 epithet by several words, without any special emphasis being intended. 
 The Substantive and epithet then often stand in corresponding parts of a 
 line. 
 
 Especially if the Adjective becomes in this way either 
 the first or last word in a sentence : as, 
 
 Labor omnia vincit 
 Improbus, Toil untiring conquers all [difficulties). — Virg. 
 
 Ilanc naturae tarn dill^entem fabrlcam, imitata est bommum vSre- 
 cundia. This so careful contrivance of nature, human modesty has copied, 
 —Cic. (Otf. 1, 35, l'27.) 
 
 Quod rdiud Iter liaberent nuUam, Because, other route [they said) they 
 had none. — Caes. (B. G. 1, 8.) 
 
 § 673. But the place immediately before a Substantive is 
 for the (quasi-enclitic) pronominal Adjectives mens, tuus, 
 siius, iwster, vester^ an emphatic position : as, 
 
 Claniores maximos pro vcstra sJlhlte neglexit. He thought little of the 
 luudest outcries in comparison with the safety of you.— Cic. (^Mil. 2, 3.) 
 
 Per vos, ac per vestram fidem. By means of you, and your protection, 
 
 — ib. (2, 4.) 
 
 Quum sua raJlnu surnrem esse interfectam filteretur. When lie con- 
 fessed that by his oicn hand his sister had been put to death. — ib. (3, 7.) 
 
 Meam potentiam invldi"ise crinitnrd)atur. He made invidious cJiarges 
 against (^wliat lie called; my unconstitutional power. — ib. (5, 12.) 
 
2S0 
 
 ON THE ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 §674. 
 
 (Compare Nop. Paus. IV. 2, where, writing to Xerxes, Pausanias 
 Siivs, (les ei filiaiu tuam, and immecliatoly after, Graeciam sub tuum pot- 
 esUitem so r6dacturiira polllcetur. In the former case a prominence of 
 tlie word t'tam might seem likely to give oflfeuce ; in the latter it could 
 not be other than tlattermg.) 
 
 § 674. Different forms of tlie same word, when used to 
 indicate some contrast, correspondence, or reciprocity, are 
 put close to each other : as, 
 
 3Ihiii8 mdnum lavat. Hand icashes hand {-One good turn deserves 
 another).— Vet. Prov. in Sen. 
 
 Haeret pcde pes densusque vlro vir. Foot is locked to foot and man to 
 man, in dense array. — YiRG. (Aen. 10, 3G1). 
 
 Omnia mea wtecum porto, I carry all my property about me. 
 
 Magnaque cum magno v^niet tritura calore. And a great crop [Lit. 
 tJirashing] icith great heat will ensue. — ViRO. (G. 1, 100.) 
 
 Miupium magno cGnamlne misit. The mighty {stone) with mighty effort 
 he threw.— Ov. (Met. 3, 59;. 
 
 § 675. The ille of celebrity (§ 365) follows the Sub- 
 stantive to which it refers ; as, 
 
 Medea ilia, Academia ilia (Cic), testttla iUa, The {fatal) oyster-shell 
 tised in ostracism (Sap.) : comp. § 3G5. 
 
 Obs. But when an Adjective is added, the ille may precede the Substantiye : 
 as, vehf^mens ille consul, Cic. in Cat. 2, 6. 
 
 § 676. Some x\djectives regularly /oZZoic the Substantives 
 to which they refer. So do especially those which are 
 equivalent to a dependent Genitive, or may be rendered in 
 English by a Substantive and a Preposition : as, 
 
 Pupidus Edmrmus, PopQlus Albanus (= Romae, Albae) ; vincftla 
 publica(= popali), the prison of state; dii publici, the gods of one 8 
 country {Say.) ; mOtus civicus ( = civium), a commotion amongst citi- 
 tens; poutifex maximus, aes alieuum ; etc. 
 
 Obs. But we find alwavs trtbuni mTlitum consQlari potestate, not potestate 
 consulavi ; and in the'case of some words the usage varies, as pugna navaUs 
 or navaUs pugna ; civltas marltima or maritima civitas. 
 
 § 677. Sometimes an Adjective is put after a Substantive 
 because of its close connexion with what immediately 
 follows : as, 
 
 Btdlum multi})lex fuit eodem tempore, There were going on at tlie 
 game time a mnltdwle of wars. — Liv. 
 
 R.-.manis indignitaa mUjor quam cCii-a, The Romans felt more indigna- 
 tion than concern. — Liv. 
 
 Cilvendum est ne tardltatibus utumur in ingressu molUorihus, tU 
 r= adeo molles ut] pompurum fercftlis similes esse videamur, Ue must 
 iahe care not to use in walking such effeminate slow movements as to look 
 like the vessels carried in religious processions.— Cic. 
 
 I 
 
 §680. 
 
 ON THE ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 281 
 
 Non Idlbus DScembrtbus, die soUenni, sed extemplo Kalendis Octo- 
 bribus, [They had entered on ojice] not on the I'Sth of December, the day 
 proper for so doing, but at once on the 1st of October. — Liv. 
 
 § 678. Adverbs are usually placed immediately before 
 the word they qualify : as, satis magnus, diligenter ctirare, 
 etc. But they may be emphasised in a similar manner to 
 Adjectives (comp. §§ 672, sqq.) : as, 
 
 Nusquam SpCra sine emolQmento est, Nowhere is work without its 
 ineed. — Liv. 
 
 Clam se ab custodibus subduxit, He, without being noticed, got away 
 from his keepers. — Nep. 
 
 (For nunquam at the end of a sentence, see § 667.) 
 
 Obs. Non when it refers to a single word, stands immediately before it : as, 
 
 Davus sum, non Oedtpus, Davus am I, not Oedipus. — Ter. 
 
 Homo non aptissimus ad jocandum, A man not the best hand at a Joke, 
 — Cic. 
 
 But when it refers to the entire proposition, it often stands at the be- 
 ginning : as, 
 
 Xon, medius f Wins, possum prae lacrymis rSliqua scrlbere, / cannot, I 
 vow, write the rest for tears. — Cic. (ad Att.). 
 
 § 679. When two words stand in the same relation to 
 another word, they must either both precede or both follow 
 it: as, 
 
 Dlvlmtus datum atquc oblatum {not datum divinitus atque oblatum) ; 
 ■ — sua spe ac praedieatiune {)iot spe sua, &e.) ; — cum summa vOluntate 
 et exspectatione Populi Romaiii {not cum voluntate summa P. R., &c.); 
 — severe religiuseque dicere ; — J\micurum studio olf Icioque ; - homo au- 
 dacissimus atque amentissimus. — (All from Yerr. Act. I. 1-3.) 
 
 § 680. Prepositions. — The ordinary" position of the different 
 Prepositions has been explained above (Chap. LllL). Con- 
 ceraing the connexion of two Prepositions with the same 
 Sub.itantive see § 649. 
 
 A Preposition may be separated from its Case not only 
 by an attributive (as, ex maritimis civitatibus, ad bene viv- 
 endum), or a dependent Genitive (as, ex Caesaris castris), 
 but also (1) by the enclitic que (j^oet.); or (2) by an 
 Accusative of the object governed by a transitive parti- 
 ciple : as, 
 
 (1.) Eque sacra rCsonant examina quercu, And the swarms hum from 
 the sacred oak. — Virg. 
 
 (N.B. — Ad^we regem, in Ncp. Dat. 7, is probably a false reading 
 for ad regemque.) 
 
 (2.) Nee Cnim in constituent ibus rempubllcam, nee in beUa gdrenti- 
 bus, etc., For not among those who manage politics or wage wars, etc. — 
 Cic. (Br. 12, 45.) 
 
 In swum cuique trlbuendo, In giving each his due. — (ib. 21, 85.) 
 
282 
 
 ON THE ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 §681. 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes when the governed Substantive has an attributive, the 
 Preposition stands between the two : as, una ex re (Cic.) ; &c. 
 
 06s. 2. Concerning per separated from its Substantive in adjurations, see 
 § 556, 17. Obs. 
 
 § 681. Conjunctions, as connecting and showing the rela- 
 tion between sentences, naturally precede the members they 
 serve to introduce : for examples see Chap. LIV. The prin- 
 cipal exceptions are there treated. Concerning no 
 
 quidem, see § 656. 
 
 Also some Adverbs of Time and Tlace, as interim, interea, 
 Biinid, jam, nunc, tunc, tum; ibi, hie. UUc, etc., when they contain 
 a reference to what has preceded, stand at the beginning. 
 
 Obs, Inde is verv often treated as an enclitic : as, 
 
 Dodi inde Inermes coepti, ice. ; Agi inde de Apolltnis dono, &c. ; Ob- 
 stdio inde urbis, &c. — Liv. 
 
 § 682. SiLhordinate c?aff6'^s.— Participial or adverbial clauses 
 and clauses with quum (see § 526), also Kelative clauses 
 when sei-v'ing the purpose of definition, are let into the 
 body of a period : as, 
 
 At Xerxes Thermopiflis expugndti'g, prdttnus accessit astii, But 
 Xerxes after having for ctd the pass of Thermopylae, approached the city. 
 
 — Nep. T> 7 < J 
 
 Jamqiie, nuntiato augurto, quum duplex nfim^rus Bomulo se OitenOr 
 isset, utninique regem sua multitiido cousrilutaverat, Ami now, ir>hen the 
 augury had been puhUshed, and the double number presented itsdf to 
 liomulus, the different parties had each saluted their oicn king. — Lav. 
 
 Compare also the following : 
 
 Palutium primum, in quo ipse erat educatus (Rel. clause), muniit : 
 sacra diis rdiis Albdno rltu Adverb, clauj^e), Graeco HercQli ut ah Lewi- 
 (Zro /».</««/« min< (Adv. clause), faeit.— Liv. (1, 7). .^ka 
 
 Magna pars [virgluum] forte, ut in quern quaeque inckUrat (Adv. 
 
 clause), raptae. — Liv. (1, 9). . 
 
 Athenienses [dixit] suo con^lWo, quod communi jure gentium facSre 
 possent (Rel. clause), deos puV)lIco3 suosque, patrios ac penates, quo 
 fac.ilius ah hoste possent defendere (comp. § 684), muria saepsisse.— 
 Nep. (Them. 7). 
 
 § 683. But when a Relative clause introduces an alto- 
 gether fresh predication it forms a new sentence or clause 
 by itself: as, 
 
 Inde non prius c,Gn*essus est quam rex eura, data dextra, in fidem 
 rScepit, Quam praestltit, He did not quit the spot, until the king, giving 
 him his right hand, took him under his protection : which he made good. 
 
 — Nep. . 
 
 Postquam audierunt miiros instrui, Icgatos Athenas miscrunt, qui id 
 fiZri v^tdreid. When they heard that the icalh were being built, they sent 
 ambassadors to Athens, to forbid its being done. — Nep. 
 
 Obs. In accordance with the above is the idiomatic practice of Latin authors 
 of carrying forward narrative by means of the Relative. 
 
 §686. 
 
 ON THE ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 283 
 
 § 684. Similarly a Subjunctive clause with ut or ne, when 
 not simply explanatory, follows the sentence to which it is 
 attached : as, 
 
 Triplex portus constitfitus est, isque moenlhus circuradatus, ut ipsam 
 urbem dignitdte aequipurdret, A threefold port was formed and surrounded 
 by walls, so as to vie with the city in importance. — Nep. 
 . TuUius praecepCrat suis, ne quid prius quam mandata agSrent, 
 Tullius had instructed his envoys not to attend to anything before their 
 commission. — Liv. 
 
 But in the following examples the clause with ut, ne, 
 being explanatory, naturally precedes : 
 
 Sed quia in civitate bellicosa, plures Romidi quam Numae simfles 
 reges putubat fore, ne sacra regiae vicis dcserereutur, fliiminem Jovi 
 assiduum sacerdotem creavit, But as in a martial commonwealth, he 
 thought (here icould be more kings like Iioniulus than like Kama, — to pre- 
 veid the sacred rites falling to the share of the king from being neglected^ 
 — he appointed a perpetual fia men to Jove.— IjIy. 
 
 His, ut assiduae teutpli antistUec essent, stipendium de publico statuit. 
 To these — in order that they might serve the temple uninterruptedly— he 
 assigned a salary from the public treasury.— lAv. 
 
 Obs. It is not possible to define precisely the kinds of clauses treated of in 
 the pi-eceding sections. The long-er clauses more frequently follow. 
 
 § 685. Most sentences, and even clauses, are capable of 
 being divided into shorter members, each of which is 
 arranged according to the same general principles as an 
 entire sentence : as, 
 
 Atqui totus liic locus, phiJijsophdrum ptltatur proprius, The whole of 
 this subject , however, is regarded as belonging to philosophy (not rhe- 
 toric). —Cic. 
 
 Quidquid erit igltur, qudcunque ex arte, qwminque de gt?n6re, id orator 
 ei tanquam clientis causam didieerit, dicet melius et omatius quam ille 
 ipse ejus rei inventor atque artifex. Whatever it may be, therefore, from, 
 whatever art or science, and from ichatever branch, the orator will, if he 
 will only study it as he would his client's brief, speak upon it more effect- 
 ively and impressively, than even the original discoverer or proficient 
 therein.— Cic. (Or. 1, 11, 5L) 
 
 Obs. After the enunciation of an emphatic word, the remaining words in the 
 same member are unemphatic. In the second sentence the adverbs melius, 
 omatius, follow the verb dicet because of their close connexion with the 
 following words quam, etc. (comp. § 677.) 
 
 § 686. Eegard must in all cases be had to euphony, 
 
 concerning which it is impossible to lay down precise 
 
 rules. It may however be remarked that a trochaic ending 
 
 (_L o) for a sentence is preferable to an iambic or dactylic 
 
 one. Thus the following endings occur in the first chapter 
 
 of the De Oratore : 
 
 Esse p<5ssent, constiti'sset, fefellgrunt, exstiterunt, recole'ndas, dis- 
 crimen, redimdtlruut, rogdnti, volmitati ; tlie only iiunbic ending in the 
 6ume chapter being confcram. 
 
( 284 ) 
 
 PART IL— SYNTAX. 
 
 BOOK m. - REMARKS ON THE STYLES OF SALLUST. 
 CAESAR. CICERO. LIVY AND TACITUS. 
 
 Chapter LXII.— Style of Sallust. 
 
 § G87. The stylo of Sallust is marked by brevity and 
 freciueut use ot antithesis ; also by the recurrence or pecu- 
 liar use of certain words and constmctions ; and by some 
 archaisms. 
 
 Ohs. There is somethinff artificial about the style of Sallust. This is most 
 apparent in the moralising intrmluctions with whicli he has prefaced his 
 Catiline and Ju-urtha. In simple narrative or description he is often ex- 
 ceedinjjlv vi^'orous and animated : see for example his delineation of the 
 character of Catiline (c. 5) ; his account of the seizure of the dispatches 
 of the AllobroKnan embassy (ib. 44, 45) ; of the siege of Zama (Jug. 60} ; 
 of the Philaeni (ib. 79). 
 
 § 688. /?n>nYy.— This is a general feature of the style of 
 Sallust, and is seen most strikingly in such concise expres- 
 fcions as the following : 
 
 Vltam sTleutio transTre, to go through life without causing one's name 
 to he heard of, (Cat. 1) ;— in-cMiiuru, corpus, the entrre faculties of tfie 
 human mind 'or body, (ib. 2);— quae hoiulnes arant, navlgant, aefllticaut. 
 the different kinds of activity put forth in husbamiry navigation, and 
 haihling or arrhitecture, (ib. 2) ;— anrnre, pr.tare.fo indulge in the pleasures 
 oflicentioumess or intoxication, (ib. 11 --maims, venter, gambling, glut- 
 tony, 'ib. 14; ;— virtus, all kinds of excellent qualities ; especially of ttie 
 mind, p;!--i>" ;— ars, any kind of occupation or course (passim). 
 
 § 689. Asyndeton (§ 565. Ohs.).—Jn accordance with his 
 love of brevity, Sallust is fund of dispensmg with con- 
 nectives ; as in the following examples : 
 
 Quibus prufecto contra naturara, corpus voluptati, Jlnltmus unPri fuit, 
 To whom -in oppmition to ichat nature intended, tinque^tionahly-the 
 body icas the only source of pleasure [and] the mind a burden.— {Lut 2.) 
 
 Mare saevuin, importuosum ; a^'er frugura fertilis, bonus p6c5ri, 
 arbore intr-euudus : eotdo terruque peniiria aqurmim. The sea [is} rough, 
 faiKll without harbours; the soil fertile [and] good Jor stock Ithou^h] 
 unprmhutive in trees; sky and earth [arealike] deJicieiU tn supply of 
 
 icater.- (^Jug. 17.) , n * r; n 
 
 (Compare also Cat. 5.) 
 
 Ohs. Sallust is equally partial to the omission of the copula ; as in the latter 
 of the above examples. 
 
 §694. 
 
 STYLE OF SALLUST. 
 
 285 
 
 § 690. Antithesis.— lihe following may serve as specimens 
 of the very frequent use of this figure by Sallust : 
 
 Nam pro piidore, pro abstTnentia, pro virtute, audacia, larpitio, 
 ftvarltia vTgobant, For in place of modesty, of clean-handedness, of virtue^ 
 flourished effrontery, corruption, covetousness. — (Cat. 3.) 
 
 Laudis avidi, pgcumae lib^rales, Covetous of praise ; liberal with 
 money.— {ib. 7.) 
 
 Concordia maxima; minima avaritia, 6rat, TJiere was the utmost 
 degree of harmony, the least of covetousness. — (ib. 9.) 
 
 (Compare the whole of the last-named chapter : also Cat. 54, etc.) 
 
 § 691. Historical Infinitive. — Sallust makes very frequent 
 use of this construction (see § 517), which is particularly 
 suited to animated description. This is well seen in his 
 vivid picture of the state of the capital during the panic 
 caused by the conspiracy (Cat. 31), or of the restlessness 
 and insecurity of the guilty Jugurtha (Jug. 72). 
 
 § 692. Alius .... dlivd. — This concise idiom (see § 629) 
 is probably more frequent in Sallust than in any other 
 writer. Thus we find — 
 
 Aliud alio ferri. — (Cat. 2.) 
 
 Alius alii natura !ter monstrat. — (same chapter. j 
 
 Alius alio more viventes. — (ib. 6.) 
 
 Alius alium hortari. — (same chapter.) 
 
 PraetCrca alium alio [mittit]. — (ib. 27.) 
 
 Alios in alia I5ca [praemisisse]. — (same chapter.) 
 
 And in many other places. 
 
 # 
 
 § 693. Sed^ nam, igXtur. — Sallust begins a great many of 
 his sentences with one or other of these conjunctions (pro- 
 bably after the model of the Greek ^e or aXXd — yap — ovv). 
 This has a somewhat bald and monotonous effect. Thus in 
 the first short chapter of the Catiline, nam and sed each 
 begin two sentences ; and in five consecutive chapters 
 (ib. 7 — 11), sed begins nine sentences; igitur, four; and 
 nam (or namque), three, 
 
 Obs. By other authors igitur is placed second in a sentence, not first. "! 
 
 § 694. Favourite or peculiar xcords. —There are some words 
 (1) which Sallust is fond of repeating; others (2) which 
 are rarely used by other writers or not in the same sense : 
 the following are the principal of these : 
 
 (1.) Mortales in sense of homines (passim). Popiilares, 
 for accomplices (Cat. 22, 24). 
 
286 
 
 STYLE OF SALLUST. 
 
 §695. 
 
 Tempestas for (jparticular) time (Gr. kcttpo'c) : as, 
 
 Ea tempestate (Cat. 7, 17, 22, 26 ; Jug. 8, &c.). qua tem- 
 pestate (Jug. 79). 
 
 Ago and its frequentative Sgito, in various senses : as, 
 
 Civitas laeta agtre, TJie ichole city (acted as) full of joy.— 
 
 (Jug. 55.) 
 
 Incultiua agi^re, To live in a more uncivilized manner. — 
 
 (id. 89.) 
 Multa affitare, To turn over, meditate upon many things.— 
 
 (Cat. 53.) 
 
 Vagos agrtare, To live a wandering life.— {Jug. 19.) 
 
 Agttare (absol.). To move, gesticulate.— {Jug. 60.) 
 
 Varius incertusque dgitdbat. He acted in an inconstant and 
 
 hesitating way. — [^\h. 74.) 
 
 Habeo, in various senses : as, 
 
 Virtu3 clara aeternaque hahetur. Virtue is a glorious and 
 imperishable possessiou. — (Cat. 1.) 
 
 Aequabilius 8ese res humauae hdherentt Human affairs icould 
 go on ino^re steadily. — (ib. 2.) 
 
 Aetatem procul a ropuhlica habere. To spend one's life 
 aloof from public affairs. — (ib. 4.) 
 
 Neque quicquam pensi habebat, Nor had ho any considera- 
 tion. — (ib. 5.) 
 
 So, condldere atque hdbuere, sicuti pler^lquo mortalium 
 Mbentur, nomcn regium hubebant (ib. 6;— in promptu habere, 
 llbldiuem hdbebant (ib. 7), and so on. 
 
 (2.) Peculiar uses of words : 
 
 Mediocris, in sense of equitable, good (Gr. eTrieiKijc): 
 
 Jug. 6. 
 Gignentia, for plants, vegetation : Jug. 79, med. 
 
 § 695. Archaisms. — Sallust somewhat affects these : the 
 
 following may be noted : — 
 (1.) Accusative pi. of Substantives and Adjectives in es 
 
 and is in is rather than es : as, omnis, etc. 
 
 (2.) Genitive sing, of 4th Decl. in 1 for us : as, senati 
 
 (Cat. 30, 36, 51). 
 (3.) Such contracted Genitives as ingeni (Cat. 1), imperi 
 
 (ib. 6), auxili (ib. 40), &c. 
 (4.) He always uses o after v, and not u : as divorsi 
 
 (Cat. 2), convortit (ib. 6), &c. 
 
 Obs. This last mode of spelling, however, appears to have been 
 the usual one in the time of Sallust. 
 
 §699. 
 
 STYLE OF CAESAR. 
 
 287 
 
 Chapter LXIIL— Style of Caesar. 
 
 § 696. The style of Caesar has few peculiarities. It is 
 clear, direct, and unaffected. He is said to have carefully 
 avoided unusual words or expressions. 
 
 Obs. The * Commentaries ' of Caesar were designed, as the name implies, to 
 serve as "notes" or memoranda for history (see Suet. Caes. 56). But 
 Cicero remarks that while " silly persons " (inepti) might think the un- 
 adorned materials of Caesar a good field to show off their fine writing, sen- 
 sible people would shrink from meddling with what was in itself so excel- 
 lent (" sanos quidem homines a scribendo deterruit :" Brut. 75). 
 
 § 697. Caesar is generally brief and concise, though evi- 
 dently without studying to bo so like Sallust. Perspi- 
 cuity is evidently more consulted than brevity. Henco 
 perhaps, he often repeats the antecedent along with the 
 Kelative pronoun ; as in the following : 
 
 Erant omnino duo itinera, quibus Uineribus domo exire posset. — 
 B. G. 1, 6. ^ 
 
 Biem dicunt qua die ad ripam Rliodani omnes convCniant. — (same 
 chapter.) 
 
 Re frumentaria comparata gquitibusque dclectis, iter in ea Idea ^cere 
 coepit, quibus in Idcis esse Germanos audiebat.— ib. 4, 7. 
 
 § 698. He is partial to the construction of the Ablative 
 Absolute. Thus many passages begin with some such phrase 
 as " Quibus rebus cognitis " (B. G. 19, etc.), "hello con- 
 fecto" (ib. 30), " eo consilio dimisso" (ib. 31), " hac ora- 
 tione habita" (ib. 32), " his rebus cognitis" (ib. 33), &c. 
 
 § 699. A great many particulars are often gathered up 
 in one sentence. Thus some of Caesar's periods contain 
 perhaps more members than those of any other narrative 
 writer : as, 
 
 Quod tibi Caesar comp^rit, omnibus his rebus confectis quanmi causa 
 transduci5re exereitum constituerat, ut Germanis m6tum injIcCret, ut 
 Sigambros ulciscCretur, ut Ubios obstdidne libgraret,— diebus omnino 
 ddeem et octo consumptis,— satis et ad laudem et ad utilTtatem pro- 
 fectum arbitratus, — se in Galliara rCcepit pontemque rescidit, When 
 Caesar was informed of this, as he had accomplished all the objects he 
 had in view in crossing [the Bhine],-^amely, to strike terror into the 
 Gernutns, to inflict vengeance on the Sigambri, and to raise the blockade 
 of the Lbii,— having spent in all eighteen days and no more; thinking 
 that enough had been achieved ivhether for his credit or his eiuls, betook 
 himself back into Gaul and broke down the bridge.— {B. G. iv. 19). 
 
 Obs. These inconveniently long periods doubtless owe their origin to haste of 
 writing (see § 696, Obs.). For other examples see B. G. vii. 33, 34, 36. 
 
288 
 
 STYLE OF CICERO. 
 
 §700. 
 
 Chapter LXIY.— Style of Cicero. 
 
 § 700. The style of Cicero is that of a man who has at 
 nis command all the resources of the language. Every 
 period is a work of art, and the cadences are full and 
 sonorous. But perhaps the finest charm is to be found in 
 his letters. He there allows himself more natural liberty 
 in the use and coining of words, as well as in the structure 
 of his sentences, while yet we nowhere miss that grace 
 which IS inseparable from Cicero. 
 
 Only a few points will be noticed here, since the 
 peculiarities of Cicero are mostly rhetorical rather than 
 grammatical. 
 
 § 701. He is fond of doubling his words; that is to sav 
 he often uses together two or more words of nearly identical 
 meaning, m order to convey a fuller or more precise sense 
 Ihus we often meet with such combinations as the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Amleus_ n^ressariusque.-srtperbia atqne arrogantia.-semio afqne 
 toa.-ignomm.a et tTirpTtudc-ldvItas et inconstantia.-cura atone 
 6p6ra^— sine judicio controversiaqne ;— rt^^re et adrainistmre,— moleste 
 gravlterqno ferr^.-committere et credere, - st^uere et mGlIri etc 
 (all from the Cluentius). ' ' 
 
 Obs. In his frequent use of such parallel words Cicero was no doubt study 
 . mg partly a more complete and exhaustive expression, and partly the ca- 
 dence of his sentences. v * ^i/ lue ca- 
 
 § 702. In his more rhetorical passages Cicero makes a 
 bold use of Abstracts for Concretes (§ 592, 2) : as, 
 
 Provinciam adsummam sfidmiamyiequmamqiie Yenisse, The nrovmce 
 hadjallen mto the hands of the greatest /Ls and Avmre..-(Verr.^ T' 
 
 Exercttns collectus ex agraria luxurid. An army collected from all tha 
 Jprofi,gates of the country.~{ln Cat. 1, 3.) ^^f^^tujrom au the 
 
 Iste menus, TJiat fearful villain (Clodiua).— (pro dom. 55.) 
 
 § 703. Diminutives.— Ue makes a free use of these and 
 appears to coin them when it suits his purpose : as, ' 
 
 Contortalaequ&eaam et mlnutae cmclHsiunciilae, Paltry littie ouib- 
 hlmg arguments.— {Tusc. 2, 18.) ^ ^ 
 
 NummHUs acceptis, Having received some paltry coins.— {Att 1, 16 ) 
 
 ^^ Bruti no8tri vulticHlus, The dear (little) face of our Brutus.-{Mt 14, 
 
 Wo^9l"''*2'^^'^'^u*''^".^'*^"^'"^^«' '^V nephew Quintm is Anton,' s 
 nght-hand man (perhaps implying some contempt).-(ib.) ^ 
 
 Obs. This free use of diminutives is found chiefly in his letters and the con 
 yersational parts of his phUosophical and other works. 
 
 
 § 705. 
 
 STYLE OF CICERO. 
 
 289 
 
 § 704. TM"/7.-— Cicero is partial to the use of this veil), 
 and sometimes uses it to soften a statement, where in 
 English it cannot be translated : as, 
 
 Ptestat lit de imperatore ad id bellum dellgendo dicendum vkleatur. 
 It remains for me to speak respecting the choice of a commander for the 
 said icar. — (Manil. 10, 27.) 
 
 (Comp. ib. 20, where the same phrase is repeated.) 
 
 Obs. This use of vidcor corresponds to that of Sokcw in Greek (cf. Xen. Anab. 
 1, 3, 12) ; and sometimes occurs in other authors besides Cicero : as, 
 
 X?que id sTne causa arbitrari vMebantur, Xor were they [did they seem 
 to be] without reason for that opinion. — (Ncp. Ale. G.) 
 
 §705. Versdri, ratio. — These two words are used by 
 Cicero very frequently, and in various senses : the follow- 
 ing examples are taken from a large number in Kiio-elsbach 
 (Stilist. pp. 167, 297): 
 
 (1.) 
 
 (2-) 
 
 Versari : to he engaged in ; to he in connexion with, in the 
 domain of ; to deal with ; to he at icorJi : as, 
 
 In omni gCn^re furandi atque praedandi versUri, To be en- 
 gaged in every hind of thieving and rohhery. — (Verr. 5, 1.) 
 
 Uterque in suninia severltate versdtur. Both of them (Cato 
 and Caesar) take tlie gronnd of extreme severity. — (In Cat. 4, 4.) 
 
 Mens labor in privntorum periculis verscitus, My exertions 
 ichich have to do with the perils of yrivate citizens.— {MvcmX. 1 2.) 
 
 Versiltur magnus error, A great delusion prevails.— ^Le^ 
 Agr.2. 3, 7.) ^ ^ ^ 
 
 "RrUo: account J consideration; dealings; relation, province 
 or (L??2am (Glerman, verhiiltniss) ; calctdation ; rea- 
 sonir.g ; theory, system, mode : as. 
 
 In riitionem inducere, To talce into account. — (Verr. 1, 4.) 
 
 BdtiOnem hdhent cum terra, They (farmers) have to do icith 
 tlte sod.— [do Sen. 15.) 
 
 Diversa stadia in disstmili nUione, Diverse activities in a 
 different field.— ;In Cat. 2, 5.) 
 
 Doniestica, bellica nUio, Tlie domain or department of 
 home a fairs, of war. — (Off. 1, 22.) 
 
 Brdio vf-nC'flcii, TJie domain, department^ or ground of the 
 (alleged) poisoning. — (Clu. 1.) 
 
 PC'tltiOnis tuae ratio, The question orjnattcr of your canvas.'' 
 (httle more than = petitio tiia).— (Funi."* 15, 13, 1.) 
 
 Sine iillu divlna rdtione. Without taking the gods into con- 
 sideration at a//.— (\. D. 3, 35.) 
 
 
 
290 
 
 STYLE OF LIVY. 
 
 § 700. 
 
 CHArTER LXV.— Style of Livy. 
 
 § 706. Livy is the greatest master of prose narrative. 
 The periods of Cicero are those of a public speaker ; those 
 of Livy combine the stateliness of a historian with the 
 copious flow and artistic grouping suitable to descriptive 
 narration. 
 
 Ohs. There seems to be no foundation for the opinion that the later decades 
 were inferior in excellence to the earlier ones. (See Lewis, R. Ilist. i. p. 
 253.) Livy was charged by his contemporaries with a certain provincial- 
 Ism {Pataiinitas) ; but it is not known wherein the alleged peculiarities 
 consisted. 
 
 § 707. Figurative language. -^'LWy makes frequent use of 
 metonymy (§ 00-4), and other figures of speech. Thus we 
 find Mars for bellum (passim); ministeria, servitia, for 
 miiiistri, servi (§ 592) ; praetorium, not only for the office of 
 commander-in-chief (21, 3), but also for a commander-in-chiefs 
 councU of war (21, 54); pracrogatlva, for a prior election 
 (21, 3) ; agrestium fuga, iov agrcstes fagientes (3, 69); robora 
 virorum for rOhusti viri (2, 54) ; etc. 
 
 § 708. Genitive. — Livy uses the Genitive after Adjectives 
 with more freedom than earliet writers : as, 
 
 TrGpidi reniin suiirum (= de rebus suis}, In cdarm ahout their oicn 
 interests. — (5, IL) 
 
 (See remarks on style of Tacitus : § 721). 
 
 § 709. Singular for Plural— This use has been already 
 noticed (§ 607). 
 
 § 710. Indicative for Subjunctive. — Instead of the Sub- 
 junctive in Relative clauses of the oratio oUiqua (§ 465), 
 Livy not unfrequently uses the Indicative (even when such 
 usage cannot be explained by 467, Obs.) : as, 
 
 Proconsulem P. Cornelium, multorum cxemplo qui in mugistratu non 
 triumphdverunt (= triuniphaveriut), triimiphaturum esse, P. Cornelius 
 mlijht (he said) enjivj his triumph as proconsul, after the precedent of a 
 number icho had not done so ichile actually in office. — (36, 39.) 
 
 Q. Fabium dicSre, so ab Roma Aequis bellum afferre, eadem 
 
 dextra armata, quam pacatara ille antea daUrat ( - dederit), Q. Fabiiis 
 said, he hrowjht war from Rome to the Aequians,with the same right hand 
 arnieJ. which' he had before offered them in peace.— {3, 2.) 
 
 §711. The Subjunctive is often preferred to the Indicative 
 after donee, antequam, priusquam, even when simple facts are 
 spoken of: see §§ 499, 5ol (/•.) 
 
 ; 
 
 I 
 
 §715. 
 
 STYLE OF LIVY. 
 
 291 
 
 § 712. Perfect Subjunctive after Pad Tenses.-Thi^ con- 
 struction (^ 433) is perhaps more frequent in Livv than in 
 any other winter. Compare the following : 
 
 Eg fnit (past-indef.) habitu Oris, ut.. ..ridentis etiam spgciem wae- 
 buc>uf,IIe tcorc such an expression on his features as to present theameat 
 mice of a laugh (Lit. of one laughing).— [21, 2.) appear- 
 
 ^ Hand diibimn [fuit], quiu nisi firmata extrema a-minis fui^senf 
 mgeus m eo saltu aeelpienda cUdes faerit, There ^cas nolult thall^ 
 
 t:i:!:ii:'i;i^^s^^ ^ -^- '^f^<^^ --^ ^-^ ^- it 
 
 TranseuntemApennlnum ndeo atrox udorta tempestas est, ut Alnium 
 foedl atem prope supSravCrit, As he was crossing the Apem >mhTZs 
 
 ritl-(21 ,'I.T "^ "''^ '"'"^'' ""' ""'"'''' '' ''^'^^^^ ^horZr^ 
 ^^^r^:r^l^^^^^^'y ^-^ -^ the Imper- 
 
 § 713. Gerund and Gerundive.-Uvy is partial to the use 
 of these verbal forms, which he uses with greater freedom 
 than any other ^vl■lter. (Compare § 541.) The following 
 examples of his use of the Gerundive may be useful : 
 
 [Saguntinis] oppugnandis (All. Ahsol) baud dubie ROmana arma 
 movcbantur, By the attach upon Saguntum there icas no quesZiof a^ 
 tcith Rome being provoked.— {21, 5.) ^^^<=i.iuu uj a war 
 
 (Cicero would have said Saguntiuis oppug-natis.) 
 
 Posstdendis agris (= possessiGne agrorum) conteutus Vn^/^,;/ ,r;/;, 
 holding the (public) lands.— {G, U.) ^ conieutus, Content icith 
 
 Quum vix mQvendis armis (= ad anna movenda) splttium esset 
 There being hardly room to move their ar7ns.~{23, 27. ) 
 
 Ubi prOmovendo adjunctam (= promotam atqiie adiunctam^ mfiro 
 vidorunt tuiTem. When they saw that the tower, by being grad lal p^^^^^^^^ 
 lorward, had been brought close to the zra?Z.-(23, 38.) ^'^''^'^''''^ l^miiea 
 
 . }^^f avertendis terrOrlbus (= ad hos avertendos terrores • cf 8 ^^9^ 
 
 § 714. -If7wcfe.— Several Adverbs are oftcu found in com- 
 bination; as, 
 
 Nmiquam SVm ante puhVce primtimqac Latinum nomcn Enmnno 
 mj,mo eonju„otius f.,it, A'em- at any time Wore i,-m iriamZTe 
 
 Si quando unquam ante alias, If ever before.— [3], 5 ) 
 
 ^^^aVt^InLhyo'''^'^''''^ ""^ ''^^''^' '''''^' ^°^^" '''^^ 
 
 § 715. Prepositions.— LiYj is somewhat peculiar in his use 
 <.t certain Prepositions, especially ab (a), ad, as seen in the 
 ijilowmg examjiles : 
 
 2 
 
292 
 
 STYLE OF TACITUS. 
 
 §71G. 
 
 (1.) Ab, a. — Directly after; hy way of: on the part of 
 (cf. § 557, 1 ) : as, 
 
 Ab (= ex) his pracceptis oontionem dimisit, Immediati'hj 
 after (givimjj these instructions, he dismissed the cissemhhj. — 
 U4. 34.) 
 
 Ab irrl^u (= per irrisuui) nnguam exser«5re, To ind out the 
 tongue in ridicule. — (7, 10.) 
 
 Ab ivgiis, On the part of the royalist.^.— [o7, 23.) 
 
 Ad cxsolveiidain fidoin a consille (= consulis), To the mcd:- 
 ing gtxnl of a promise on the part of the consid. — (27, 5.) 
 
 Mcttus Curtius ab Sabiiiis {= Sabinorum^ princepa, Mettus 
 Curtius leader on the part of the Salines. — (1, 12.) 
 
 (2.) Ad. — At the instance of; in the department of: as, 
 
 Ad (= propter) motum, ad spem voiiiae dedcro se, To sur- 
 render in {at the promptings of) fear, or of hope of pardon. — 
 (36, 13.) 
 
 Ad dr'siderium i\lictanim V. buiim), infiglre, To hellow at 
 missing the hciftrs that had been left hehind.— {l, 7.) 
 
 Trlbuni lulliluui ad Ic'gioucs (= Icgionura), Tlie militarj/ 
 tribunes of tJir hgions. — ;^7, 5.) 
 
 Servi ad rOmura, The slaves at the oar. — (34, G.) 
 
 § 71G. Nanique is frequently placed by Livy (as by later 
 wTiters generally) .second instead of first in a sentence : as, 
 
 Omni am namquc Iribonmi, etc., (5, 11.) 
 Ibi namqiie in tabcrnis, etc., (3, 44.) 
 
 Chapter LXYI.— Style of Taoitus. 
 
 § 717. Tacitus lived a century after the latest of tlie 
 aforementioned masters of Latin prose. The language had 
 then lost somewhit of its original chasteness and severity, 
 but from an increased vocabulary and greater freedom of 
 expression, it was perhaps better fitted to express the con- 
 ceptions of an original and vehement writer like Tacitus. 
 
 § 718. Tacitus delights to express himself in striking 
 and original ways. He has great variety of phraseology ; 
 his turns of thought are often abrupt and even startling ; 
 and he frequently suggests nmch more than he expresses. 
 He uses freely many idioms rarely or never found in writers 
 of the preceding century, and his language has much of a 
 poetical comph-:' ^^ 
 
 § 720. 
 
 STYLE OF TACITUS. 
 
 293 
 
 § 719. The scale of this work does not admit of a full 
 treatment of so various a subject as the style of Tacitus. 
 For fuller particulars the student is referred elsewhere.* 
 AVe shall notice only the more prominent points. 
 
 § 720. (A.) Variety.— This is shown chiefly in the 
 following particulars : 
 
 (1.) Different forms of the same Kord : as, 
 
 Plebs and plebes — seucctiis and sCnccta — oblivium and ob- 
 llvio — qiiotiens and quoties — tegilnien, tCgimenaud tegmen — 
 parentum {gen. pi.) and parentium, &c. 
 
 (2.) Different grammatical constructions without difference of 
 meaning : as, 
 
 (Lt'gionem .... pro ripfi compGnCret) , subsidio (Dat. of 
 Purpo.sc oi^iesult : § 297) vietis et terrorem (Apposition) ad- 
 versus victores, As an assistance to them if comptered, and a 
 terror to their conquerors.— Ann. 12, 29. 
 
 Corpore ingens, animi (§ 285) inmiodtcus, In body huge, 
 in mind {ambit ion j unmeasured, —llist. 1. 53. 
 
 Cum Pa lih us (§ G07) distraherct tiinnas, Sarmutae inu- 
 Crent, While the Parthians tried to separate the squadrons, and 
 the Sarmatians rushed, (tc— Ann. G. 35. 
 
 Especially in comparisons (§ 350) : 
 
 VChOmentins quam cauto, Agr. 4. 
 Claris majuribiis quam vCtiistis, Ann. 4, 01. 
 Quanto inupina, tan to majora, Ann. 1, 68. 
 Quanto quits clarior, minus fidus, Hist. 3, 58. 
 
 (.'3.) Various words and phrases employed to denote the 
 same thing : as, 
 
 Finis sponte smnptus — quacsita mors — suo ictu mortem 
 invenire— llnem vitae sibi pOnCre — voluntario exitu cadCre — 
 vi.tam rClinquCre— etc., all to denote self-destruction. 
 
 Venas, bracliia exsolvCre, rcsolverc, abrumpCre, intcrscind- 
 erc, abscindere, incldt^re — levem ictuni venis inferre — all of 
 ctpening the veins in order to cause death. 
 
 (4.) Peculiar iLses of icords. — Tacitus not only uses (a) 
 many new words, but also (6) old ones in rarer 
 meanings : the following may serve as examples : 
 
 {a) Centilrionatus, exstlmQlator, instlgiitrix, inturbidus, 
 quinqiiipllcare, praeiK)sse, provivcre, pervlgere, sQperstagnare, 
 sQperurgcre. 
 
 * Sec Botticher's • Remarks on the Style of Tacitus,' prefixed to Dr. Smith's 
 Tacitus, from which the present sections are, to a great extent, taken. 
 
294 
 
 STYLE OF TACITUS. 
 
 § 721. 
 
 §724. 
 
 STYLE OF TACITUS. 
 
 295 
 
 (&) Adductiis, in sense of severe : hence, adductins regnari, 
 to he iimler stricter rule. — (Gcr. 43.) 
 
 Exp(Sdire, to no on an expedition (Gr. arparivicrOai). — (Hist. 
 1, 88.) 
 
 Extemus, hostile: hence externa nioliri, to make hostile 
 movements, — (Hist. 3, 5.) 
 
 Diversns, also hostile: as diversa ^cies, the enemy's line. — 
 (Ann. 14, 30.) 
 
 Annus, yearly crop. — (Ger. 14.) 
 
 Sinister = millus. — (Agi*. 5.) 
 
 §721. (B.) Peculiar Idioms. — Under this head fall — 
 
 (1.) His use of the Genitive (see § 285) : 
 
 (a) After Adjectives ; as, inmiodfcus unimi, ingens animi, 
 v2tus op^ris ac labGris, virtutum stcrilis, &c. &c. 
 
 (6) With the Gerundive, to denote a pinpose (see § 539) ; as, 
 Aegj-ptum proficiscltur cognoscendae antiqiiitatis, He sets 
 
 (Alt for Eijypt, in order to study its antiquities.— [Ann. 2, 59.) 
 Vitandae suspiciOnis, an qnia piivldis consilia in ineerto 
 
 simt. Either in order to avoid suspicion^ or else because the 
 
 plans of the timid fluctuate. — (Ann. 3, 9.) 
 
 (2.) His free use of the Dative oi purpose (see § 297); as, 
 
 Eepertiis est niidus .... exercitando corpori, He was found 
 stripped for exercise. — (Ann. 14, 59.) 
 
 Nmn cetera expugnandis nrbibus attidissent, (He 
 
 asked; whether they had brought the other (appliances) for 
 taJiing cities. — (Hist. 3, 20.) 
 
 (3.) Of the AccTisatiTe without a Preposition after verbs 
 of motion : as, 
 
 Iiipam accedere — oppldmn irnmipere — advolvi gdnua — 
 incidere luciun, &c. ; in which cases a Preposition is mostly 
 used by Cicero. Tacitus has also such expressions as vertices 
 montiiun in.sldere, Ger. 43 ; siunma colliiun iuaidere, Agi'. 
 37. (Comp. § 23G.) 
 
 (4.) Of the xVblative Absolute (see § 333. Obs. 2). 
 
 (5.) His frequent use of an Adjective instead of the 
 Genitive of a Substantive : as, 
 
 Caianae expcditioncs, Tlie expeditions of Caius (Calinuhi], 
 —(Hist. 4, 15.) 
 
 MC'tiis hostilis. Fear of the enemy.— {Ami. 12, 51.) 
 
 Ohs. This idiom is found in earlier writers (§ 611) : it is its 
 firqucnt use that is peculiar to Tacitus. 
 
 (6.) Of the plural of Abstract Substantives: as, audaciae 
 (Ann. 1, 74), iracundiae (14, 4), etc., where the 
 use of the plural indicates separate manifestations of 
 the abstract quality (see § 594). 
 
 'I 
 
 (7.) Of the Infinitive : 
 
 (a) As Historical (comp. § 517) : 
 
 Tacitus uses tliis idiom more frequently than any other 
 writer (Sallust included : § 691). He has it even after such 
 Adverbs of time as ubi^ cum : as, 
 
 Ubi crudescere seditio, When the mutiny icas growing fiercer. 
 -(Hist. 3, 10, &c.) 
 
 (6) After verbs of advising, commanding, preventing, &c., 
 instead of the Subjimctive and ut, ne, quin, quominus. Thus 
 we find, 
 
 Ohstttit Oceiinus in so simul atque in Herculem inqulri 
 ( = quominus iuquireretm*, § 4G3), Ocean prevented inquiry at 
 once into himself and Hercules. — (Ger. 34.) 
 
 (8.) Zeugma (see § 643). 
 
 § 722. (C.) Abruptness, &c. — This is seen in the unex- 
 pected turns often given by Tacitus to a sentence : as, 
 
 Ferrum clatura defSrebat in pectus — ni proximi dextram vi attinu- 
 issent, He raised his sword, and ims in the act of plunging it into his 
 bosom — [and would have done so] had not the bystanders held his hand 
 by main force. — (Ann. 1, 35.) 
 
 Germunia a Sarmiltis Dacisque m^tu aut montibus sepSlratur, Ger- 
 many is bounded on the side of the Sarmatians ami Dacians by fear or 
 by mountains. — (Ger. 1.) 
 
 Cibos et hortiimuia pugnantibus gestant, They carry to the combatants 
 provisions and encouragement. — (Ger. 7.) 
 
 § 723. Tacitus is a writer who suggests more than he 
 says, and his brief comments are frequently marked by 
 bitterness and irony. This is seen in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 Nee coiTmnpdre et corrumpi saeculum vocatm*, Nor is the conduct of 
 seducer ami seduced there called " the [fashion of] the age." — (Ger. 19. ) 
 
 INIaneat, quaeso, duretque gentibus, si non amor nostri, at certe 
 odium sui ; quando urgentibus imperii ^itis, nihil jam praestdre fortuna 
 miijcs potest qnam hostium discordiam, — Fortune can now confer on us 
 nothing better than strife amongst our foes. — (Ger. 33.) 
 
 Sanctiusque ac reverentius visum de actis deoi-um credere quam scire, 
 — It seemed more i)ious and devout ^o believe in the doings of the gods than 
 to know about them. — (Ger. 31.) 
 
 § 724. (D.) Poetical Complexion. — This is felt thi^ough- 
 out in reading Tacitns; and consists partly in the use of 
 the " poetical " constructions which have been illustrated. 
 The following points may be added : 
 
296 
 
 STYLE OF TAcrrrs. 
 
 § 724. 
 
 (1.) The use of abstract substantives in concrete sense : 
 
 as, 
 
 Titus inf]^cns rernni fidua'a accessit. In Titus he found a 
 great prop of his fortunes. — ^Hisst. 4.) 
 
 Militiae = miUtes (Hist. 3, 18}. 
 
 Exrfilia = exsiiles (Hist. 1, 2). 
 
 Mutrlmonia = iixores (Ann. 2, 13). 
 
 (2.) Ilendiadys (see § 602) : as, 
 
 Nee nllum in barbtlris saevltiae genus uniisit ira et victoria^ 
 Nor did the rage of the victors fail to practise any species of 
 cruelty known among harharians. — (Agr. 16.) 
 
 Silper sexfvginta millia . . . oJJectotidni (JciiJisquc cc?ct<lennit, 
 More than 60,000 icere slain for the gratification of our eyes. — 
 (Ger. 33.) 
 
 (3.) A general use of elevated and figurative language : 
 as, 
 
 Gloria frontis, Pride of aspect {of the /«//, handsome horns 
 of cattle). — (Ger. 5.) 
 
 Nudi aut sagfllo iCves, Naked or lightly [clad in'] a soldier's 
 mantle. — (ib. 6.; 
 
 Sera jtlvt^nuni VCnus, Their youth are late in arriving at 
 the age of puberty. — (ib. 20.) 
 
 Silvani, | augtiriis i)atruni et priscu forniidlne sacram [a 
 Hexameter line], A forest consecrated by the auguries of an- 
 cestorsy and awe of old. — (ib. 39.) 
 
 ( 297 ) 
 
 PART III. — PROSODY. 
 
 § 725. rnosoDY treats of the Quantity of Syllables and 
 Metre, or the laws of Verse. 
 
 Ohs. Pi-oMdy is a Greek word (rrpo<ro.Sia), which signifies literally the tone 
 or accent of a svUable. 
 
 Chapter LXYII.— Quantity. 
 
 § 72G. The Quantity of a Syllable is either lone: (-) 
 short (-), or doubtful (^). ^ ^' 
 
 (A.) GENERAL RULES. 
 
 § 727. AlHliphthongs are long : as, aurum, gold, poena, 
 pumshtiientj cui, to ichom. 
 
 ExcEPTiox.— Prae in conii)osition is usually short before a vowel : 
 as, prile-aeutus, sharpened at the end. 
 
 Ohs. 1. A vowel arisiui,' from u diphthong remains long : as, oc-cTdo, to kill, 
 fromcaedo, to strike ; cju-cludo, to shut up, from claudo, to shut. 
 
 Obs. 2. Some Greek diphthongs are shortened : a<!, pricsis (toitictij). platfa 
 [■KKa.Ti.la) as well asplatea. 
 
 ^^728. All contracted syllables are long: as, cogo from 
 c6ago,^fo collect, bobus from bovibus, to or by oxen, junior 
 from jiivenior, younger, piiidens from providens, poss28S2d of 
 foresight. 
 
 § 729. A vowel is long by position, when it is followed 
 by two or more consonants, by a double consonant {x, z), 
 or hyj : as, mensa, a tuUe, dux, a leader, Amazon, an Amazon, 
 ejus, of him, 
 
 ohs. In Prosody, quantity is for the .«ake of convenience regarded as belong- 
 ing only to Vowels. Thus in the word nQx [n nut), root niic-, the vowel 
 '/ is said to be long (by position) : tliough strictly speaking, it is the 
 .sytUihtc which is lengthened by tlie addition of the consonant *, the rowel 
 retaining its quantity as in other cases ; nilc-i, niic-eai, niic-es, etc. . 
 
 :J 
 
298 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §730. 
 
 Exception 1. Bijugus, 'yoA-ec^ tico together, qnadvi^u^is, yohed four 
 together. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Qn is a single consonant: hence, liqua, water. iT is a simple 
 
 breathing : hence, lidhuc, as yet. 
 Ohs. 2. A syllable is also long by position ^hcn one consonant ends a Tvord, 
 and anotllcr consonant begins the next word : as, In mare, into the sen ; 
 fruit Cir vita, he enjoys life. 
 Ohs. 3. But if a word ends in a short vowel, and the following word begins 
 with two consonants, the vowel usually remains short : as, 
 In solio rhoebus Claris lueentL' smiiragdis. — Ov. 
 065. 4. But a short vowel rarely stands before sc, sm, sp, sq, and st. 
 
 Exception 2. Before a mute and citlier of the liquids Z or r, a vowel 
 natnrally short l^ecomes doubtful : as, duplex or duplex, ta'ofohl, pritris 
 or patris, of a father. It generally remains short Ix-fore tl, as, 
 Atlas ; cl, as as3«5ela ; and/, as mcWiMua, flowinrj-with-honey. 
 
 Ohs. 1. It is only in Greek vords that a vowel remains short before a mute 
 and either of" the liquids ;>» or n : as, TC-cmessa or Tocmessa, Trocne (or 
 Progne), cycnus (or cygnus}, a swan. 
 
 Ohs. 2. A vowel naturally lony remains long before a mute and a liquid : as, 
 acres from Ticcr, sharp. 
 
 Ohs. 3. In composition, if one syllable ends with a mute, and the other begin 
 with a liqxiid, the vowel is long by position : as, ob-ruo, not 6b-ruo, to over- 
 vhelntj sub-latum, not sub-latum, lifted up. 
 
 § 730. A vowel followed by another vowel is usually 
 short : as, pius, jyious, fieo, to weep, puer, a hoy : or if h 
 intervenes between the vowels, as tniho, veho. 
 
 Exceptions. The following vowels are long before another vowel : 
 
 1. The a in the old Genitive of the First Declension : as, 
 
 aquai. 
 
 2. The a and e of proper names in -aius, -eius : as. Cuius, 
 
 Pompeius (Cajus, Pompejus' . 
 
 3. The e in the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth 
 
 Declension, when a vowel precedes : as, dici : but ili 
 and fidci except in archaic poets. 
 
 4. The e in the Interjection eheu. 
 
 5. The i in the Genitive alms (but always short in alterlus). 
 
 In the other Genitives in ius, the / is long in prose, but 
 doubtful in poetry : as, illlus, ipsius, unius. 
 
 6. The i in fio when not followed by r : as, fio, fiebam, fiam, 
 
 but f ierem, fieri. 
 
 7. The i in dia (STa), divine. 
 
 8. The i in Diana is doubtful : Diana and Diana. 
 
 9. The in the Interjection ohe is doubtful : Ohe and ohe. 
 
 10. All vowels long in the original Greek words : as, aer 
 ('aV;. AenC-as (Atrems,, Alexandria ('AAe|a^5/)eia; Briseis 
 (Bpto-Tjts) . 
 
 § 735. 
 
 QUANTITY. 
 
 299 
 
 § 731. Radical Vowels. — Xo rules can be given for the 
 quantity of Eoot Vowels, which is only to be learnt from 
 the Dictionary : as, levis, light, levis, smooth, lego, / pick, 
 read, lego, I depute, etc. 
 
 § 732. The Eoot Vowel has sometimes been lengthened in 
 the Present Tense : as, duco, 1 lead, root diic (compare dux, 
 diicis: educo, 1 educate); dico, / say, root die (compare 
 index, -dicis, maledicus, etc.). 
 
 § 733. The Vowels used in connecting two or more roots 
 are short: as, re^fiigium (name of a festival), regificus, 
 kinrjhj (rex, fugo, facio) ; opifcr, aid-bringing (ops, fero) ; 
 liiniger, wool-hearing (lana, gero) ; magniloquus, grandly speak- 
 ing (magnus, loquor), etc. 
 
 Ohs. In levamentum, instr amentum, lenlmentum, etc., a, ti, i are Stem 
 Vowels. 
 
 § 734. Derivative or Compound words retain the quantity 
 of the words from which they are derived : as, 
 ger-ebam, ger-ens, lani-ger, from ger-o. 
 reg-ius, reg-ina, reg-i-fugium, from rex, reg-is. 
 
 ExcEPTi02?s : curidis (sella), 
 tcgula, 
 sedcs, 
 lilcerna, 
 secius, 
 pronuba, 
 jucundus 
 humanus, 
 sopor, 
 
 >> 
 
 the curule chair, from currus. 
 
 « tile, „ t^cro. 
 
 a seat, 
 
 a lantern, 
 
 otherwise, 
 
 match-maTier, 
 
 pleasant 
 
 humaji, 
 
 sleep. 
 
 s6d-eo. 
 luc-eo. 
 
 „ secus. 
 „ niibo. 
 »» javo. 
 „ homo. 
 „ sopio. 
 
 pcjGro and dojero, ' compoimds of juro. 
 with some others. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Some exceptions are rather apparent than real: as, index, -dicis. 
 an informer; praedlco, I affirm ; maledicus, evil-speaking (all with i short]] 
 compared with dice, I say, addlco, / assign to, etc. Here all the words 
 must alike be referred to the root die, which is lengthened in the Present 
 Tense of dIco, but keeps its natural quantity in the other derivatives. 
 
 Ohs. 2. In eognitum, agnitum (from notum), the Prefix has led to the abbre- 
 viation of the Vowel. Compare crfpio, aceJ'pio, etc., a being a fuller vowel 
 sound than i. 
 
 § 735. In dissyllabic Pei'fects and Supines the first syl- 
 lable is long : as, 
 
 lavo, lavi, lotum, to icash. 
 
 video, vidi, visum, to see. 
 
 moveo, movi, motum, to move. 
 
 jiivo, jfivi, jutum, to assist. 
 
 Exceptions. 1 . A vowel before a vowel remains short ; as, rai. 
 
300 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §730. 
 
 § 74G. 
 
 QUANTITY. 
 
 301 
 
 4 
 
 2. The following Perfects liavo the first syllable short : 
 
 Blbi, .iCJ.li, fili, tuli, 
 {?tt5ti, fctiti, ficli, scl li. 
 
 For the meanings, sec §§ 149. tqq. 
 
 3. The following Supines l.ave the first syllable short : 
 
 Datum, ratiuj^, satuni, rtttum, 
 Ituni, eltum, lltum, titum (qultum). 
 
 For the meanings, see §§ 149. sqq. 
 From sto comes statmn : from sisto comes statum. 
 
 § 73G. The first syllable of the reduplicated Teifect is 
 sliort : as poposci from posco, to demand ; tetigi from tango, 
 to touch ; cecidi from caedo, to cut. 
 
 § 737. The prefix pro is short in procella, a storm, pro- 
 ciil, far ojf\ profanus, profane, profestus, not kept^ as a holiday, 
 proficiscor, to set out, profiteor, to jvofess, prufugio, to flee to a 
 distance, profundus, deep, profundo, to pour forth (with a few 
 exceptions, e,(j. : "Has postquam moesto profudit pectore 
 voces," Cat.), pronepos, great-graudson (but pronepos once in 
 Sidonius), propitius, propitious, protervus, xcanton : it is 
 doubtful in procuro, to manage another's affairs, propago, off- 
 sprinq, propago, to propagate, propino, to drink to another, 
 propello, to pushfonrAird (Lucr. only) : it is long in all other 
 words : as, proce'do, to goforu:ard, procurro, to run forward, &c. 
 
 § 738. Di is short only in dirimo (disimo), to separate, and 
 disertus, eloquent. 
 
 § 739. Ne is short only in neque, neither; nequeo, to he 
 unable; nefas (and its derivatives), unlawful; ncfandus, 
 ahominahle; long in other words, as nemo (ne-hemo or 
 homo), no one. 
 
 § 740. for ob is short in omitto, to let go hy, and operio, 
 to shut It}}. 
 
 § 741. Si is short in siquidem. 
 
 ^ *^ § 742. Re is always short, except refert ( = rem fert), it 
 concerns (but refert from refero). 
 
 § 743. Ve is long, except in vehemens ( = xe-menn), forcible, 
 
 § 744. Monosyllabic words ending in a voicel are long : 
 as, si, tfi, te, me, se, ne, e, do. 
 
 E: 
 
 ps 
 
 ;,^ ( 
 
 jIxcEPTioxs. The enclitics are short : as, que, vC, nc, cc, tc rtntC) 
 reapse), pt6 (suoptC'^ : qua ^usu. preceded by si, num, aic.) X(m. 
 
 Sing. Fern, and Nam. Ace. I'h Xeuf. from quis 
 
 I 
 
 <B.) EULES KESrECTIXG FINAL SYLLABLES. 
 
 I. Final Vowels. 
 § 745. a is long : 
 
 1. In the Ablative Sing, of the First Declension: as, 
 
 mensfi. 
 
 2. In the Vocative Sing, of the First Declension of 
 
 Substantives in as and es (excepting tes) : as, 
 Aenea, Anchisa. 
 
 Obs. But those in cs (excepting tcs) more frequently make c: see § 746, 2. 
 
 3. In the Imperative Active of the First Conjugation : 
 
 as, amii. 
 
 4. In Prepositions, Adverbs, and Numerals : as 
 
 a (ab), contra, supra; antea, frustra ; triginta, 
 quinquagiiita. 
 
 (But see next paragraph : 4.) 
 a is short : 
 
 1. In the Nominative and Vocative Sing, of the First 
 
 Declension : as, mensii. 
 
 2. In the Voc. of Greek nouns in tes, as Oresta. 
 
 3. In the Nom., Ace, and Voc. Plural of all Neuters : 
 
 as, regna, maria, cornua. 
 
 4. In the Adverbs ita, postea, the Conjunction quia, 
 
 and the Interjection eja. 
 
 Obs. a in Ace. Sing, from a Gk. -word in ens is doubtful : as These". 
 
 § 74G. e is long : jcc-r^ o^1^Js\ 
 
 1. In the Ablative Sing, of the Fifth Declension: as, ^'^*^^ 
 
 die : and consequently in hodie, quare. Also 
 in the contracted forms of the Genitive and 
 Dative : as, fide ( = fidei). 
 
 2. In Greek words in e of the First Declension : as, 
 
 epitome, Anchisiade (Voc. of Anchisiades) ; and 
 iri Greek Neuters Plural contracted : as, Tempe, 
 cete. 
 
302 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §747. 
 
 3. In the Imperative Active 2nd Person Sing, of the 
 
 Second Conjugation : as, mono. But the follow- 
 ing are doubtful : vide, vale, cave ; and some- 
 times (esp. in the comic x^oets), habe, tace, mane, 
 jube. 
 
 4. In the Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the 
 
 Second Declension : as, docte, aegre : with the 
 exception of bene, male, supeiTie, inferne (in 
 Lucr. and Auson.), interne. 
 
 5. In the Adverbs fere, ferme, and the Interjection ohe. 
 
 Obs. Concerning monosyllables in c, see § 744. 
 
 e is short in all other words : as, domine, rege (subs, and 
 verb), fuere. 
 
 § 747. i is generally long : as, pueri, corpori, diei, audi, 
 docuisti, A'iginti. 
 
 i is short : 
 
 1 . In nisi, quasi, sicubi, necubi, and in the very rare 
 
 form ciii for cui. 
 
 2. In the Dative and Vocative of Greek Substantives 
 
 of the Third Declension : as, Dat. Paridi, Voc. 
 Alexi. 
 
 i is doubtful in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi. 
 
 Ohs. iitlquc always ; but always ibidem, ubique. We find also cttlque. 
 
 § 748. is mostly common : as, amu, amato, leu, octS. 
 But is long : 
 
 1. In Datives and Ablatives of the Second Declension : 
 
 as, domino, deo, magno. 
 
 2. When it represents the Greek w : as, Dido, Pluto. 
 
 3. In monosyllables : as, do, pro. 
 
 is short in ego, duo, modo, only, puto, / thinh, and cedo, 
 tell me (both used parenthetically), nescio, 1 know not (in the 
 phrase nescio quis), and quando when compounded with 
 quidem : as, quandoquidem. 
 
 § 749. u is always long : as, cornii, auditu. 
 
 §752. 
 
 QUANTITY. 
 
 II. Final Coxsonaxts. 
 
 303 
 
 § 750. as is almost always long : as, mensas, civitas, 
 laudas. 
 
 as is short only : 
 
 1. In anas, anatis, a duch. 
 
 2. Ace. Plur. of Greek Substantives of the Third De- 
 
 clension : as, Arcadas. And some Greek Noms. as 
 Ilias, &c. 
 
 0^5. In vas (viidis) the Nom. is probably doubtful. 
 
 § 751. es is almost always long : as, vnlpes, a fox, leones. 
 
 es is only short : 
 
 1. In the Nom. and Voc. Sing, of some dissyllabic 
 
 and polysyllabic Substantives in es, which have 
 the penultimate short in the Genitive : as, miles, 
 itis, interpres, etis : and adj. praepes, etis; but 
 mercGs, edis ; pes, pedis ; abies, abietis. 
 
 2. In the Xom. and Voc. Plur. of Greek Substantives : 
 
 as. Arcades : also Ilippomanes {Nom, Sing, Neiit.), 
 Demosthenes ( Voc, Sing,). 
 
 3. From esse, to he ; as, es, ades, potes. 
 
 4. In the Preposition penes. 
 
 § 752. is is usually short : as, navis, lapidis, regis, regeris. 
 
 But is is long : 
 
 1. In Dat. and Abl. Plural of Substantives, Adjectives, 
 
 and Pronouns: as, musis, dominis (contr. from 
 musa -f is, domino + is : see §§ 17, 19. Obs.), 
 nobis, vobis. 
 
 2. In Ace. Plur. of Third Declension (archaic for es) ; 
 
 as, omnis (or omneis) for omnes. 
 
 3. In Second Person Sing, of Present Indie, of Fourth 
 
 Conjugation: as, audis ( = audi -f- is : see § 104). 
 
 4. Also in the contracted forms velis, nolis, malis ; sis, 
 
 possis. 
 
 Obs. 1. In Fut. rerf. Indicative, the is of Second Person Sing, is common, 
 
 as fuerts. 
 Obs. 2. Monosyllables are mostly long : as, vis (noun and verb), glis : 
 but ts, qiiis (prons.)> are short. 
 
:J04 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §753. 
 
 § 753. OS is almost always long : as, piieios, lionos (oris), 
 arbos (oris). (But arbor, honor, etc. : see § 760.) 
 OS is only short : 
 
 1. In the Xom. Sing, (archaic) of the Second Declen- 
 
 sion: as, avos, sei-vos ( = avus, sen-us) : see § 10. 
 Obs. ^ 
 
 2. In impos (otis), compos (otis). 
 
 .3. In the Gen. Sing, of Greek Substantives: as, 
 Thetidos: and in some Greek Xoms., as Argos 
 (ncut.) : besides 6s, ossis, already mentioned. 
 
 § 754. us is usually short: as, dominus, gradus, suiuus. 
 It is long only : 
 
 1. In the Xom. Sing, of the Third Declension, which 
 
 have long u in the penultimate of the Genitive: 
 as, virtiis, litis : but peciis, pecudis. 
 
 2. In the Gen. Sing., and Xom., Ace, and Voc. Plur. of 
 
 the Fourth Declension : as, manus. 
 
 3. In contractions from the Greek, as Sajiphus : but 
 
 we have polypus, Oedipus, from ttovc. 
 
 § 755. ys in some Greek words is lone/ : as Phorcys, 
 
 Erinnys : in Tethys it is common (Te thy s). 
 §750. Final syllables in b, d, t are short; as, ab, apiid. 
 
 amtit. 
 
 ExcLi'TiONS. Some 'lare^ contracted forms of verbs eiuliii<> in / • 
 as, n-ntat for irritavit (Lutr. 1, 71 j : «ee § 110, 1. ° ' 
 
 § 757. c. Final syllables in c are mostly short : as, nee 
 donee. 
 
 ExcEi^iONs. Lac, miV: ; liic (adv.,, here (the pronoun lilc is doubt- 
 rnl; ; hue, h t tJier ; fic, thus: the Impemtives die, due (.shortened from 
 dice, duce). Fae is short (for tace). 
 
 § 758. 1. Final syllables in 1 arc short : as, semel, animal. 
 Exceptions. IMouosyHabh^s : as, h>1, sfil, nil. 
 
 §759. n. Final syllables inn are short: as, carmen 
 tamen, an. ' 
 
 Exceptions.— 1. j\rono>yllablts : as, ivn (a hidueu, fTm (= si non 
 hut tj notjy splen (Jhe spleen , en [Jo), non {not). 
 
 2. Greek Accusatives from nouns in as and es (First Decl.'j • p« 
 Aeneaii, Anchi:>c'ii, IViu loi»en. >• ••» 
 
 a (rreek Nominatives of the Third Declension: as, LaccdarinGn, 
 litun, Acttieon. 
 
 §7G3. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 305 
 
 § 7G0. r. Final syllables in r are short : as, puer, vir, 
 semper. 
 
 Exceptions.— 1. IMost monosyllables : as, fur (a thief), par (subs. 
 and adject.), lar, ver, ciu-. (But cor, the heart, is short.) 
 
 2. A few Substantives in er taken from the Greek : as, aer (ei^p), 
 the air; aether {ald^p), the shy. 
 
 N.B. Celtibcr is common. ^Mart.) 
 
 B. Metre. 
 
 § 701. Ehytiim (fjio), pudfxog) consists in the recuiTcnce of 
 accent or stress of voice at regulated intei-vals ; as in the 
 following lines : 
 
 QufidrdpC | dantc pujtrem souiltu quatit [ ungiila [ canipum. — Virg. 
 
 Passer | delidlac mClae pujellae. — Catullus. 
 Fluminil | c6n6tlt6|rint a|cuto. — Hor. 
 
 § 762. This stress of the voice is called Arsis {apffic, ictus), 
 and is denoted by the sign '. It nearly always falls on a 
 long syllable, or on two short syllables, representing one 
 
 long : as, vidimus, anna, teniiia, dccrat. The unaccented 
 syllable is called Thesis (Qiaiq), and is denoted by the 
 
 sign ' : as, anna. 
 
 Obs. Sometimes, though rarely ^ the Arsis falls upon a short syllable, which 
 is thereby made long: as, Itiiltam (Virg. ^En. I. 2). The Grammarians 
 call this Diastole. 
 
 § 703. The subdivisions or measures of a metrical line 
 are called feet (pedes) : thus the first of the above lines 
 contains six feet ; the second /r^ ; and the third four. 
 
 The following are all the feet which have distinctive 
 names : 
 
 1. Of Two Syllables. 
 
 ^^ PyiThichius (Pyrrhic). . . I'idter, lo.ie. 
 ■^ L Iambus ddest, med. 
 
 - ^ Truchaeus (Trochee) .... dniuX, fiellt. 
 
 — Sj^ondeus (Spondee) ords, em. 
 
 2. Of Thrf.e Syllables. 
 
 _ ^ <- Tribrctchys hommts, recipe, 
 
 - ^ w Dactylus (Dactyl) Oninid, fecvnm. 
 
306 PROSODY. § 764. 
 
 v^wl Anapaestns (Anapaest) . Cihed, legeres. 
 ^ - - Amphibrachys dmdbdt, diehus. 
 
 - ^ - Creticus or Amphimacer, expleo, senitus, 
 ^ — Bacchius dmicos, supellex. 
 
 - - w Antibacchiiis audire, rexisse. 
 
 Molossus haiisistly divlnae, 
 
 3. Of Four Syllables. 
 
 v^ w x^ w Proceleusmaticus inittd, celeriter, 
 
 ^^L - lonicus a Minore dnerabiuit, generosL 
 
 i. _ ^ .^ a Majore Ulclscitur, soldmine, 
 
 -i v^ w _ Choriambus eripmnt, slmplicitds. 
 
 ^LL- Antispastus inexhaiistuSj penllustm. 
 
 1 w w w Paeon Primus exiguiis, respmdt, 
 
 ^ L^ ^ Seciindiis dbediet^ domestkus, 
 
 w w J. ^ Tertius idimlciis, pepulere, 
 
 v-' WW JL Quartus initio, miset^Ors. 
 
 -^ Epitritus Primus Idhordndo, sdlutdntes. 
 
 - ^ Secundus .... udminlsfrdns, imperdtnx, 
 
 — ^ Tertius dudOritds, Intelligens, 
 
 w Quartus dssertdtor, Inflnltus, 
 
 Ohs. Two Iambi, Trochees or Spondees together, are sometimes called 
 Diiambus, Ditrochaeus, and Dispondeus respectively. 
 
 § 764. A^erses are called Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, 
 Tetrameter, Pentameter, or Hexameter, according to the 
 number of measures (fiETpci) which they contain. 
 
 Obs. A Dactyl or Choriambus constitute each one measure : an Anapaest, 
 Iambus, or Trochee only a half-measure. 
 
 Hence a line consisting of six Dactyls is called Hexameter 
 (c^, six) ; while a lino consisting of the same number of 
 Iambi or Trochees, is called Trimeter {rpelc, three) ; and a 
 line consisting of four Anapaests, Dimeter {cig, twice). 
 
 § 765. Elision (elisio) or Synaloepha ((rvraXoKpi'i) is the strik- 
 ing-out of a vowel, or a syllable ending with m, at the end 
 of a w'ord, when the following word begins with a vowel 
 or /i, and is indicated by the sign ^-^ : as, 
 
 Contlcttere omnea {ready contlcti|er'omii|e3) 
 Me mistirum exclamrit (me mlsgr'iexcluinlat). 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 §767. METRE. 307 
 
 Pcrque higmes (perqu'lild|mes). 
 Umbranim haec sedes (iimbrar'|haec sedjes). 
 
 Obs. I. Monosyllabic woi'ds are rarely elided, and least of all at the begin- 
 ning of a verse : as, 
 
 Si ad ^•itulam spectas. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Elision of a long vowel before a short one is rare : as, 
 
 intimo umorc. 
 
 Obs. 3. The Elision of an iambus is avoided : as, 
 
 disce meo exemplo. 
 
 Obs, 4. If est follows a final vowel, the e of est is elided, and not the final 
 vowel : thus, 
 
 nostra est, nostri est, nostrum est, should be written and read 
 
 nostra'st, nostri'st, nostruni'st. 
 
 Ohs. 5. Sometimes a final long vowel remains in Hiatus, and is not elided ; 
 
 as. 
 
 Tcr sunt | conat[T imjponere | Peliii | Ossam. — Virg. 
 
 Obs. 6. The Interjections 6, heu, ah, proh, are not elided : as, 
 
 O pater | 6 homln|um di[vumque aet|crna potjestas. — Virg. 
 Ah ?go I non alit|er tristjes elvincere | morbos. — Tib. 
 
 Obs. 7. Occasionally a long vowel or diphthong at the end of a word becomes 
 short before a word beginning with a vowel : as, 
 
 Te Cory|dGn, o Aljexi ; tra|hit sua | qucmquc vol|uptas. — Virg. 
 insulite I lonijo in mag [no quas | dira Cejlaeno. — Virg, 
 
 N.B. This is an imitation of the Greek usage. 
 
 Obs. 8. Earlier writers sometinacs elide s : as, 
 
 Nam si de nihilo fierent, ex omnibu' rebus. — Lucr. 
 
 m 
 
 § 7G6. Synaeresis {(Tvpcdpetng) is the combination of two 
 vowels into one, and is indicated by the sign c^i., v^. It is 
 admissible only in the case of words which metrical laws 
 would otherwise exclude, and more especially in the case 
 of proper names at the end of a verse : as. 
 
 Si lenlto fuelrint allvdaria | vimine ] texta.— Virg. 
 Caucasilasque rejfert volulcres fuiitiiinquo Prolmethei. — Virg. 
 
 A A 
 
 So Orphea, Typhoea. 
 
 Synaeresis is chiefly found in tlie following words : 
 
 A A A A A 
 
 deinde, proinde, abiOte, ariete, deesse and its derivatives, 
 antehac, and in the whole verb anteire. 
 
 § 7G7. Diaeresis (cLalpeffic) is the separation of a diphthong 
 into two syllables : as, pictai. 
 
308 
 
 PR080DY. 
 
 I. Dacfylic HkXxVmkteh Metre. 
 
 §768. 
 
 § 768. The Dactylic Hexameter, usiiall}^ calleil simply 
 Hexameter, is employed especially in epic poetry, Avlience 
 it is also termed the Heroic Verse. It consists properly of 
 six dactyls (± ^ J), the last of which is shortened by one 
 syllable, so that the place of the last syllable is snpplied 
 by a trochee (- -), or, as the final syllable of each verse 
 is common, by a spondee (- -). Instead of the first four 
 dactyls, spondees may be used, but the fifth foot is regularly 
 a dactyl. Hence, the following is the scheme of the veise : 
 
 1 
 
 / 
 
 2 
 
 y 
 
 3 
 
 ~" V-/ V^ 
 
 / 
 
 4 
 
 "" ^/ ^' 
 t 
 
 
 
 ""• V-/ s^ 
 / 
 
 G 
 
 — s.^ 
 
 § 709. The following are examples of the different com- 
 binations of the first four feet : 
 
 1. Four Dactyls, 
 {a) Rfidit iter llqulddin celeies nt'(iut' commovot alas. 
 
 ^ 2. One Spomhe and Three Dacfijh, 
 
 {h) Impensaqiie sui potorit suporare cnioris, 
 (c) Teniporu labuntur tucitfsquo soiictjcimus aiinis, 
 {d) Nitlmur in vetitilra semper cuplmusque negatn, 
 
 (e) Asplclunt ocnlis silpjSri mortal ia justis ; 
 
 3. Two Spondees and Tico Dactyls, 
 (J) Dilm vires rniniquC siimnt tolerate labores, 
 
 ig) Quilrum quae mCdia'st nun est liilbltobilis aestu, 
 (A) CurviirlquC manus et aduncos crcseer' in ungues, 
 
 (i) At patter lit terras mundumque rilbescere vidit, 
 
 Qc) NilmTna, nee spcrni sTue poena nostra sinamus, 
 'si) COutigGrant nlpldas limocji I^hasidos undas ; 
 
 4. Three Spondees ami One Dactyl. 
 (m) Nfitura Hi expel las fiirea tilmen usque recurret, 
 
 (h) Ut desint vires tiimCn e.st laudanda voluntas, 
 
 (o) Aut prGdesse volQnt aut delectare poetae, 
 (p) ParturiQut montes nasc^tur ridiculus mus ; 
 
 , 5. Four Sjmidees, 
 
 {q) Ex aequo captfs ardebrmt mentibus ambo. 
 
 I 
 
 § 775. 
 
 METEE. 
 
 30[^ 
 
 § 770. Sometimes, but rarely, the fifth foot is a spondee, 
 but then the fourth foot is a dactyl. Such a ver^e is called 
 Spondaic. It usually concludes with a word of four syl- 
 lables or one S3*llable : as, 
 
 Constitit atquG oculis Phr5^gia agminJl eireumspexit : 
 Cara deuin sobolcs, magnum Jo vis incrementum : 
 Cum patribus populoque, penatlbtts et magnis dis. 
 
 Obs. Very rarely indeed do we find such a line as, 
 
 Aut levis ocreas lento dueunt argento. — Virg. Acn. VII. G34. 
 
 § 771. Every Hexameter verse must have at lea.st one 
 Caesura (from caedo, *' to cut ") which is a division of the' 
 foot, so that one part of it is in one word, and another part 
 of it in another word. Hence the following line has five 
 Caesuras : 
 
 Donee ]{ oris j] felix |1 multds |1 numcrabis |1 amicos. 
 
 § 772. Tlie Caesura may be either strong or weak. Tlie 
 stronr/ Caesura is when the foot is cut after its first lon</ 
 syllable : as, 
 
 Anna virumque cano || Trojae qui primus ab oris. 
 
 The iceak Caesura is when the foot is cut after the first shoH 
 syllable of a Dactyl : as, 
 
 O pasoi' graviora \\ dabi't deus lii's quoque finem. 
 
 § 77o. The Caesuras are named after the number of the 
 half feet in Greek (//^it- and iiinog) : hence, Triemimeral, 
 after the first three half feet ; Penthemimeral, after the first 
 five half feet ; Hephthemimeral, after the first seven half feet ; 
 Ennehemimeral, after the first nine half feet. 
 
 Obs. The two short syllables of the Dactyl are counted as one half foot. 
 
 § 774. Every Hexameter verse has either the Penthe- 
 mmeral, or Hephthemimeral Caesura. The Penthemimeral 
 strong Caesura is the most common. Tlie Hephthemimeral 
 is generally used along with the Triemimeral : as, 
 
 FiTma malum || quo non aliud || veldeius ullum. 
 
 § 775. Besides the Pause of the Caesura, a Hexameter 
 usually has another pause, when the foot terminates with 
 the word. Thus, in the following line, there are two 
 I)auses in addition to the Penthemimeral Caesura : as, 
 
 Tantae [ niolis cnit || Romunam \ condere gentem. 
 
310 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §776. 
 
 I 
 
 §781. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 311 
 
 § 776. The last word of a Hexameter line usually con- 
 sists of either two or thi'ce syllables. But a foreign word 
 of four or more sj'llables is occasionally found in this posi- 
 tion ; especially if difficult to introduce elsewhere. Com- 
 pare Yirg. Aen. o, 680 (cypa | rissi) ; Bucol. 8, 1 (Alphesi | 
 
 boei) ; etc. 
 
 Obs. 1. A monosyllable may end a line if closely connected witli another pre- 
 ceding it. Ilence such endings as laus est (Hor.), usa est (Virg.), are 
 admissible. 
 
 Ols. 2. Also a single monosj-llable may be chosen to end a line, with a view 
 to a particular effect : as, 
 
 V^rtitur Interea coelura, ^t niit (3ccan6 Kox (Virg.). 
 
 § 777. It is not usual except for the conveyance of a 
 pai-ticular idea, to make the first four feet of a Hexameter 
 entirely dactyls or entirely spondees. An accumulation of 
 dactyls produces a rapid movement : an accumulation of 
 spondees a heavy movement. These effects are designedly 
 produced by Yirgil in the following lines : 
 
 Quadrupedante putrein sonitii quatit uiigula canipum. 
 Illi inter sese magna vi brachia tollunt. 
 
 § 778. Hi/pemieter. — Lines are thus designated which 
 have a syllable over the full measure (vTreo ^irpov). But 
 this is only allowed when tlie redundant syllable ends in a 
 vowel (or m), and the following line begins with a vowel : 
 as, 
 
 Inseritiu- vero ex fetu niicis rirbfittis lioiTida, 
 
 Ei steriles, &c. — Vii'g. 
 
 Jamque iter emensi tuiTes ae tectil Latniur»)» 
 J.rdua eernebant, &c. — Virg. 
 
 Ols. In Virgil, the redundant syllable is in most cases the enclitic -que. 
 
 II. Dactylic Pentameter. 
 
 § 779. The Dactylic Pentameter is found only in conjunc- 
 tion with a Hexameter, the distich thus formed beino- 
 called an Elegiac couplet : as, 
 
 Postera lux oritur. Lingriis animi'sque favete, 
 Xiinc diconda bond \\ siint bona verba die'. — Ov. 
 
 It has the following; scheme : 
 
 Hence it appears : 
 
 1. That it consists of two members, separated by a 
 
 Pause (the Penthemimeral). 
 
 2. That each member consists of two entire feet, ori- 
 
 ginally Dactyls, followed by an imperfect or half 
 foot, consisting of a monosyllable. (2^- -f. 2J = 5. 
 Hence the name Pentameter.) 
 
 3. That the first two Dactyls only may be replaced by 
 
 Spondees. 
 
 4. That it has six arses, but only four theses (§ 762). 
 
 5. That the last sjdlable of the verse is common. 
 
 Ohs. The best poets, however, generally take care that a short syllable at the 
 close shall end with a consonant : as, 
 
 VIx Priamas tanti jj tdtaque Tr6ja fuif.— Ov. 
 
 § 780. The two Dactyls in the latter half of the verse are 
 unalterable: the first half admits of the following four 
 varieties : 
 
 1. Two Dactyls: as, 
 
 Credidimus generi |1 udminibusque tuis : 
 
 2. A combination of a Spondee and a dactyl : as, 
 
 Trajcctum glildio || mdrte perire juvat : 
 
 Cum mala \itv longas || cdnvalue're mords : (most usual form) : 
 
 3. Two spondees : as, 
 
 Supremam bcUis H imposufsse manum. 
 
 § 781. The following are the principal rules obsei'ved 
 by the most accurate x^oets in the stnicture of Pentameter 
 Verse : 
 
 (1.) The ending of the line is regularly a dissj-llable. 
 
 Ohs. But Catullus, Tropertius, and others employ quadrisyllabic, and, less 
 frcquentlxj, trisyllabic endings. 
 
 (2.) A monos3dlable at the close of either half of the 
 line is avoided. 
 
 (3.) Elision is avoided both at the end of the first half 
 and altogether in the second. 
 
 Ohs. The best model for Elegiac Verse is Ovid. 
 
 (For further particulars see Piincipia Lat. Part III.) 
 
312 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 § 782. 
 
 III. Trimetkr Iambic (Acatalectic) Verse. 
 
 § 782. The Eomans called this Verse Senarins from its 
 six feet ; it originally consisted of three double-iambi 
 {ci-ocini iai.iiJiKcu)y but amongst the best poets it has 
 the following form : — 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 
 
 3ll.ll3|UU^|-lUi| 
 
 § 783. Hence it appears that the odd places (1, 3, 5) 
 admit spondees instead of iambi : the 5th foot being regu- 
 larly a spondee. The principal caesura is the penthemi- 
 nicral : as, 
 
 Mt^tiis pavdrqiie |1 fiinus et froiideus dolor, 
 
 PrOiuist timorl || semper in pejus fides, 
 
 Obs. A Verse is called Catnlectic {KaToXrjyu, to hare off)^ when the last foot 
 wants one or sonietinies two syllables ; acatalectic, when it is complete ; 
 hypercatalectic, when there is a syllable over. 
 
 § 784. As the long syllable can be resolved into two 
 short (except in the case of the last syllable of the vei*se), 
 we often find 
 
 (A.) A tribrach in the 2nd and 4tli place. 
 
 (B.) An anapaest or a dactyl in the 5th ]»lace. 
 
 (C.) A tribrach, an anapaest, or a dactyl in the 1st and 
 ord place : as, 
 
 Quae poeiiil maueat me'inet et scde's scio ; 
 
 Hie laeva fre'uis doetii moderandis maniis ; 
 Pyrrlii maim mactetur et tiimuliim riget, 
 
 Tu tii malonim maeliimitiix f ilelnorum ; 
 
 /_ 
 
 An ailqua poenae purs meae ignotiist milii, 
 
 / 
 
 Lficeraevc fixis liugiiibiis venae fluaiit, 
 
 Quin potliis ira coneitiim pectus doma ; 
 
 Fas omnc ce'dilt iib<?at expulsus pudor, 
 Eviisit et penetrale fiiuestum littigit. 
 
 Pa ram ipse fidens mlliimet in tuto tua. 
 
 0*. 1. The complete scheme of Iambic Trimeter, as used by Horace in his 
 Epodcs, is given bclo'.v : § 807. 
 
 Obs. 2. Iambic Dimeter (acatalectic) corresponds with Iambic Trimeter, 
 minus the first measure. See below, § 802, Obs. ; 807. 
 
 § 787. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 813 
 
 § 785. Very rarely both the long syllables in the same 
 foot are resolved so as to make a proceleusmatic (^ ^ ^ ^) : as, 
 
 Pav6t animus, artus hcjrridus quassat tremor. 
 
 ^*fnt^.lWh?^^'''^'''''* n^' ^ 'P°"^'^ ^"'^^^^^ °^^^ ia°^^"8 is introduced 
 into all the places except the 6th foot : as, ^luuutea 
 
 Ut m(3s est vQlgi pSssim et certatfm ruit. 
 ""^pur^ ^ItT^^"^"" ^""^ '^'° ^" ^""^ authorities examples of the original 
 
 SiibTnfis TUe qucm vTdgbYs hospYtes, 
 G^ner s6cerqui^ pcrdldlstis omnia. 
 
 § 786. Choliamhus.^A kind of limping movement is ffiven 
 to the Senanus, by substituting a trochee for an Iambus in 
 the sixth foot. Such averse is called choliambus (halt- 
 iambus) scazon {aK^r^, to limp), or senarius claudus (limpinq 
 senanus) Being at the end of a line, a spondee (: ^ ) ma.^ 
 be used for the trochee. The scheme is, ^ 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 
 
 Quae tu vole'bas || ne'e puella ndlebat, 
 An ae'mulattir || improbi jocds Pliaedri. 
 
 The iambus is indispensable in the 2nd, 4th, and 5th feet 
 
 Obs. 1. The choliambus is only adapted for use in short poems. 
 
 Obs. 2. Karely, instead of the penthemimeral caesura, we find a princinal 
 
 pause or verse^aesura at the end of the iambics in the 2nd place and a f^ot! 
 
 caesura before the fourth arsis, as, °^ 
 
 Quodcdmque agft j| renrdet htinc habet m<5rbum. 
 Obs. 3 In thi^s scheme the resolution of a long syllable into two short is allowed 
 TIZ^"" commencing syllable and in those on which the arsis Lus in 
 the first four feet : examples are, 
 
 Et ciipit et Instat dt precdtur 6t d(3nat, 
 
 /_ 
 
 Et mfllta fr.1grat tfeta sCnibus afitfimnis, 
 
 / / 
 
 Aqunisque similes fac^re nCctuds qua^ris. 
 
 ^•^•.■"T^® *'•«=''" i« also called Hipponactius from its reputed inventor 
 Hipponax, and was employed in Greek by Babrius in his ^sopian fables. 
 
 IV- — Trochaic Tetrameter (Catalectic). 
 
 § 787. Comic Tetramefer.--'T\i\^ verse, also called Quadratus 
 trom having four measures (see § 764), Octonarius Catalecticus 
 
•-^v^---^^ 
 
 314 
 
 PEOSODY. 
 
 §788. 
 
 from having eight feet all but a syllable, and Septenarius 
 from having only seven/it// feet, has the following scheme :— 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 / - / 
 
 — ^^ I — ^' I — 
 
 Percr{5pa pufrnam P^pilli ! I facta C6meli caiit^, 
 Niilla vox Liimiiiia constat i \ absque septem litteris. 
 
 § 788. Consequently it has a pause or verse-caesura 
 exactly in the middle, i.e. before the fifth arsis. In the 1st, 
 3rd, 5th, and 7th feet it preserves the pure trochee (which, 
 however, may be resolved into a tribrach) ; but in the 2nd, 
 4th, and 6th feet it admits, instead of the trochee, a spondee 
 (which can bo resolved into a dactyl, an anapaest, or occa- 
 sionally a proceleusmaticus) ; and the last syllable of the 
 verse is common : as, 
 
 RCtii r^sistat membrJt t<5rquens \\ tangat Ixi6n hiimum, 
 MequeCvantem scSlCrS tanto H riplte In altos gurgltes, 
 tmptum rXpttedtque mersmn l| prSmKtf^ p^rpCtGis mflh's, 
 tjnda misiris grati Letlies \\ vosquC t<5rpent^*s licus. 
 
 Y, — Anapaestic Ddieter. 
 
 § 789. The Anapaestic Dimeter Acatalectic Verse con- 
 sists regularly of four anapaests (which are interchangeable 
 with spondees), and has always a principal caesura exactly 
 in the middle of the line : we obtain, therefore, the follow- 
 ing varieties : — 
 
 1. Four Anapaests. 
 
 (o.) FGglat trCpldi H cSmSs exllli. 
 
 2. One Spondee and Three Anapaests. 
 
 (h.) Jam n6n stabllis H rtiSt drctophvlax. 
 
 (c.) SSlItae mundi [j p2rt6rS vtc^s, 
 
 (d.) PhryglumquC nSmus H mutris CybCles, 
 
 (e.) Allturqu6 sltis 1| latlce ingesto. 
 
 3. Tux) Spondees and Three Anapaests. 
 
 (/.) Signurn celsf glXd^lC p51i. 
 
 § 789. METRE. 
 
 (g.) Jam caertLlgfs ev^cttls aquis, 
 (h.) Inter sQblt^s stStlt horrores, 
 («.) PlScIdus fessum lenisque f6yi, 
 
 Qc.) VSliicir matris g6ntls Astraeae, 
 (I.) S6nis in jQgtilO telum Pyrrhi. 
 
 4. Three Spondees and One Anapaest, 
 (w.) Lax6s aura compl^ntg sinds, 
 (n.) Errat cursu ISvIs incertS, 
 (o.) Hie qu! nitld6 taurus cornu, 
 
 {p.) Pat6r 6 rerum portus vitae. 
 
 315 
 
 5. Four Spondees. 
 
 (q.) Nunc v^locls figfs dam^. 
 
 The spondees in the 1st and 3rd feet (but not elsewhere) 
 may be resolved into dactyls (which dactyls, however, must 
 not be immediately followed by an anapaest), so that we 
 obtain the following : 
 
 6. One Dactyl and Three Spondees. 
 
 (r.) Non cnpit umqu^m magn6s motus, 
 («.) Et c6ngest6 paupgr In aurost. 
 
 7. One Dax;tyl, Two Spondees, and One Anapaest, 
 
 {t.) Sordlda parvae fortunS, dSmus, 
 
 /_ 
 
 (w.) Siv6 feroefs jQga P;yreni8, 
 
 («). Molli pgtta^ns haediia in herb^ 
 
 (w.) Llb^t infau8t6s mittgrg questOs. 
 
 8. Om Dactyl, One Spondee, and Two Anapaests. 
 (».) PectCra longfs hgbStlta mSlfs, 
 
 (y.) Vactiae rgparlnt ub€ra matris. 
 
 P 2 
 
316 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 § 790. 
 
 9. Two Dactyls and Two Spondees. 
 
 _ I / 
 
 («.) ContrJliiit ign^s luc6 rCnata. 
 
 § 790. Tlie last syllable of each line is not common ; for 
 in tlie Anapaestic system there exists a Synaphea (trvrcKpeia) 
 or connexion of all the verses, so that a short syllable at the 
 end of one line should (though exceptions may very rarely 
 be found) itself end in a consonant, and be followed by a 
 word in the next line beginning with a consonant : as, 
 
 Grege dimisso pabula carplt 
 Ludit prato, etc. 
 
 § 791. After a series of Dimeter Anapaestics it is usual 
 to close the system with a monometer which for the most 
 part takes the form of the versus Adonius {^ ^ ^\ ^Z)'- as, 
 
 Nos e tant<5 visl populd 
 Digne prcmerct quos Inversd 
 Carding mundcis. 
 
 Other forms are ^ ^Z- as, 
 
 compcnsat ItCr ; vicina pClo ; 
 ^ w _ v^ v^ ~ : as, 
 pt5rduiit(?, mQri ; 
 
 and (very rarely) _ : as, 
 
 ite ad planctus. 
 
 This break may occur after a series of any length, and the 
 last syllable is then common. 
 
 YI. — Hendecasyllabic Verse. 
 
 § 792. The Hendecasyllabic Verse (tvleKa, eleven), also 
 called Phalaecian (from the poet Phalaecus, ^aXaao^), has 
 in its most elegant form the following metre : — 
 
 
 consisting of one spondee, one dactyl, and three trochees, 
 for the third of which, as the last syllable of a verse is 
 common, a spondee may stand. As, 
 
 Tarn belHum mllil | passSr|em absttillistls, 
 Soles I 6cdd5!re it r6dlfr6 ) possunt. 
 
 §794. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 317 
 
 Ohs. 1. Occasionally the Uberty is taken of commencing with a trochee or 
 
 Neu ttbi libeat foras abire, 
 Minister vetuli puer Falerni. 
 
 Obs. 2 A still greater liberty, seldom indulged in, is the substitution of a 
 spondee for the dactyl in the second part : as, 
 
 Quas voltu vTdi tamen serenas. 
 
 § 793. The monotony which might be apprehended from 
 the unitormity of the measure is to a great extent obviated 
 by the freedom it enjoys from any fixed laws of caesura 
 and ehsion : as, 
 
 Friistra blanditiae H venitis ad me, 
 Defessus || tamen omnibus || medullis, 
 Amicos II mcdicdsque cdnvocate, 
 Electissima pe'ssimi |j poetae, 
 Qudt sunt qudtque fuere Miirce Tulli. 
 
 Obs. Hypermeter lines (for the conditions relating to which see S 778 occur 
 sometimes in this metre : as, 
 
 Quaenam te mala mens miselle Ravlde"^ 
 Agit praecipitem. 
 
 VII.— Choriambic Verse. 
 
 § 794. Choriambic has usually a spondaic commencement 
 or base (fiaaig or (ivaKpovaig) and an iambic conclusion 
 (i^aTdXTi^Lg). The principal forms of it are— 
 
 1. With one cJioriambus, 
 
 I i I vi/ net • 
 
 — v-' v_/ — J v_^ — , do . 
 
 Audax J omnia perlpeti, 
 Cui frons | turgida cornlibQs. 
 
 2. With two choriambi. 
 
 ~M \^ v^ B« I \^ ^_^ Cl/Cj • 
 
 Sen ru|pit teretes || Marsus aper j plagas, 
 Myrtolum pavidus || nauta sec let mar6. 
 
 Obs. This and the following form (3) are called Asclepiadean (from the gram- 
 manan Asclepiades). The latter is called long Asclepiadean. 
 
 3. With three choriamhi. 
 
 II 
 
 :, as 
 
 Mordalces aliter H diifugiunt || sollicituj dines, 
 
 Quae mens | est hodie || cur eadem || non puero j fuit. 
 
318 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 § 795. 
 
 § 795. By Catullus (but not by Horace and the more 
 correct poets) the spondaic commencement in the first form 
 is changed for a trochaic or iambic : e. g, : 
 
 Montllum domina ut | fores, 
 Pttelllae et pueri inltegri. 
 
 This form is called Glyconiax (from the poet Glycon), 
 and Catullus closes a series of them with what is called 
 (from the poet Pherecrates) a rHERLCRATiAN verse, of which 
 the scheme is 
 
 and an example, 
 
 — v^ v^ — — » 
 
 Lut<5lum pt5dt5 soclcum. 
 
 Horace, however, uses the first form only in connexion 
 with other rhythms, as in the following stanzas :— 
 
 (1). 6 fons Bdndiistae H spldndldtOr yltr6, . ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^,^^ . 
 DOlci dignC mCro H nOii sln6 flodbus, j 
 
 Cms donaberis haedo (Plierecratian verse) : 
 Cui frons turgtda cSmibfls (1st chor. form) : 
 
 (2). Scriberis Varl6 H fortis et bostlum \ 
 
 Victor, MaeQnli H carmlnls allte ^ \ (2nd cbor. form i : 
 
 Quam rem cunque ftrox 1| navlbQs aut Cquis 
 Miles, te dac6, gessCrlt (1st chor. form). 
 
 And (3) the couplet, 
 
 Quern tu M6lpom6ni sCmgl (1st cbor. form) ; 
 
 Nascentem pMcldO Ij iQmlue vidi5rls (2nd cbor. form) : 
 
 Ohs. 1. Neglect of the verse-caesura in the second and third forms is very 
 rare : e. g. : 
 
 Dum flagrantia de — torquet ad oscula, 
 Non incendia Car — thaginis impiae. 
 Arcanique fides |1 prodiga per — lucidior vitro. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the second form it may be noticed : 
 
 1. That elision after the caesura causes nothing unpleasant to the ear, e. g. 
 
 Auditam modere|jre arboribus ftdem : 
 
 2. That each foot may consist of a single word : as, 
 
 Quassas indocilis jj pauperiem pati : 
 
 3. That a short syllable is (rarely) lengthened by arsis: 
 
 Perruptt Achcronta Uerc ulcus labor. 
 
 §797. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 319 
 
 Obs. 3. The following are examples of Hypermeter lines (see § 778) in a 
 system of Choriambic (Glyconian) verses of the first form : 
 
 Unguentate glabris milrlte 
 abstinere. 
 
 Munere assidue valentem 
 exercete juventam. 
 
 Sancta nomine Romiillque 
 ontique. 
 
 /-^ 
 
 Saltuumque rfcondttorum 
 
 amniumque sonantum. 
 
 VIII. —Minor Ionic and Gallumbic Verse. 
 
 § 796. There is but one ode in Eoman literature written 
 in Ionic a minori verses (Horace Od. lib. iii. 12) : it appears 
 to have four divisions, each consisting of ten connected 
 Ionic a minori feet without hiatus or common syllable at the 
 end of the line : the scheme is 
 
 Misenirum est ncque amori | dare ludum neque dulci, 
 Mala vino lavere; aut ex|aiiimari metue'ntes 
 Patrua'e verbera li'uguae. 
 
 One shoii ode is not sufficient to enable us to ascertain the 
 laws of this metre. 
 
 § 797. An offshoot of the Ionic a minori verse is the Gall- 
 iambic (so named from the Galli or priests of Cybele, for 
 whose rites its vibratory rhythm was well adapted). The 
 general scheme is, 
 
 Examples are : 
 
 Ifcique lit domum CybeT^es |1 tetige're lassulae, 
 Aliena qua'e petentes |1 velut exule's loca. 
 
 Then by the change, at the beginning of each half- verse, 
 of the two pyrrhics {^J) into a long syllable, and the 
 resolution of the long syllable at the 1st, 2nd, 4th, and 
 (especially) the oth arsis into two short, we obtain 
 
 Jam jam dole't quod egi || jam jamque poenitet. 
 
■'•Tm^^^.^fsm^y 
 
 320 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §798. 
 
 as: 
 
 Ego vlrldis algida Idae || nive amicta lOci colam. 
 
 ± ^-, as : 
 
 Dea magna dea Cybebe 1| dea d5mlna Dindymi. 
 
 Lastly there occurs, but rarely, a partial return to the 
 original Ionic a minori form by changing the iumbus after the 
 first beat (ictus) in each half-verse into a trochee (never, 
 however, in both halves at once), so that we obtain either 
 
 / / II 
 
 for the first half, as in 
 
 Hflarate aer6 dtatis || erroribiis animifm ; or 
 
 II 
 
 — — t >«/ V-* — 
 
 for the second half, as in 
 
 Aberd foro palae:stra H stadio et gymnlistis. 
 Obs. The * Atjs ' of Catullus is written in this metre. 
 
 IX. LOGAOEDIC VeRSK. 
 
 § 798. Logaoedic Verse (Xoyoc, aoih)) consists of Dactyls 
 succeeded by Trochees. The following species are used 
 by Horace : — 
 
 \ J — s^>_^| <_/v^||_s^| \^ 
 
 (2.) i„-.i^.-„U„-„| -„„|U.U.|ir. 
 
 Fronde nova puer \ \ <im pulumbes 
 Sdlvitur acris hiema grata vice \ \ veris et Favdni. 
 
 It will be seen that in the latter, the first three Ds^ . Is 
 may be replaced by Spondees, but not the fourth ; which 
 moreover must end with a word, llie final Trochee may 
 be replaced by a Spondee. 
 
 The Logaoedic metres are found only in combination 
 with others. (§§ 802, 811.) 
 
 X. — ASYXARTETE VeRSE. 
 
 § 799. An asynartete (ao-ujciprT/roc) or heterogeneous 
 verse is one combining two dissimilar rhythms ; as Dactylic 
 
 '.»'-"'>■ i 
 
 5 801. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 321 
 
 and Iambic, or Iambic and Trochaic. The following kind^ 
 occur, but only m combination with other metrel:^ 
 
 U..I- 
 
 II 3 
 
 Nivesque deducunt Jovem || nunc mare niinc sUuae 
 Mdlhbus in pueris || aut in puellis tirere. 
 
 Obs. The Logaoedic is less correctly regarded 
 
 as an asynartete metre. 
 
 XI. — Sapphic Verse. 
 ^inT?n^' J^^ ^^^^P^^'^ ^^''^P^^ ^^ S^^n^^' SO called from 
 
 'S^:l^^jt::^ ^^^^^^-^ ^^ ^--, who adoS 
 
 L :i (thrice) 
 
 Cliire I Mae'cejnas eques ( ut paltemi 
 Flumijnis riipae simul | et j5|cdsa 
 Redderlet laud|es tibi | Vati|cani 
 Mdntis I imago. 
 
 caelura*:-^^ following may -serve as illustrations of the 
 
 1. Clare Mae'cenas || eques ilt patemi. 
 
 2. Mercuri || fociindC nopds || Atlantis. 
 
 3. Laurea |I donaiidus' Apdllinari. 
 
 4. Fervet I'nmiensiis-que' rui't || profiiudo. 
 
 5. Leuis llitliyia' tue're miitres. 
 
 Obs. 1. The caesura with elision should not he imitated, e.g. .- 
 
 Imhriam divfna avis imminentum. 
 Obs. 2. Once a short syllahle is lengthened by arsis at the caesura : 
 
 Angulus ride't, ubi non Hynietto. 
 Obs. 3. Of nypermeter Unes (see § 778) the following are specimens :- 
 
 Romulae genti date remque prolemque" 
 et deeus omne. 
 
 Mugiunt vaccae tibi tollit hlnnltum^ 
 cfpta quadrigis equa. 
 
 Dissidens plebi numero bdatorum^ 
 <'ximit virtus. 
 
 ^\'int' J^^^^ft ^^^^'^''^ "^^"^^ *^^^^ ^« ^ c^ose connexion between the third 
 
 p 3 
 
322 
 
 PROSODY. § ^^2. 
 
 Labitur ripa Jove non probante ux- 
 
 orius amnis. 
 Thracio bacchante magis sub inter- 
 
 lunia vento. 
 
 Obs. 5. Horace differs from bi8 model Sappho in making the fourth syllable 
 always long instead of short. 
 
 XII. — AlCxUC Yeiise. 
 
 § SO'^ The Alcaic Strophe or Stanza, so called from 
 Alcaeus of Lesbos, was Latinized by Horace, who adopted 
 the following scheme : — 
 
 L^z (twice) 
 
 3 I (Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis :i) 
 
 \ L^\ LZ (Logaoedic). 
 
 It should be observed, however, that the long first syllable 
 is preferable ; and that the concluding syllable of each line, 
 if not in itself long, usually ends with a consonant : as, 
 
 Non I semper ] Imbres H niibibus | hlspidos 
 Malnant in ] agros H aiit mare jj^aspiam 
 
 Fexjant inlaequalles prolcellae 
 
 IJsque nee | Armenilis in | oris, 
 
 But a short syllable is found in both places : as, 
 
 Vi'des ut 1 alta 1| stet nive canclidum 
 Solracte | nee jam H siistineant onus 
 
 Sillvae' lahloranltes gelliiqug 
 
 Fliimina | constiteriint aeliito. 
 
 Obs. The third Une may also be scanned as Iambic Dimeter Hypercatalectic :— 
 
 w / _^ j i w _ 1 — 
 
 But the fifth syllable is invariably long : comp. § 784, Obs. 2. 
 
 § 803. The practice of Horace, after he himself had 
 become more perfect in his metres (?'. e. in his later Odes), 
 should both in Sapphic and Alcaic verse be chiefly imi- 
 tated. The following appear to be the best caesural verse 
 divisions : 
 
 1 . In the first two lines : 
 
 Dissolve frigus \\ ligna super foco 
 Large reponens ; |1 atque benignius. 
 
 § 803. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 323 
 
 Obs. An elision here does not interfere with the caesura : as, 
 Regum timendorjium in proprios greges. 
 
 2. In the tliird : 
 
 (a.) Non vultus instantis || tyranni. 
 
 Quos inter Augustus || recumbens. 
 
 Deprome quadi-imum || Sabina. 
 (h.) Spargent olivetis |1 eupressi. 
 (c.) Si fractus illabatur orbis. 
 
 3. In the fourth, in order of frequency • 
 (a.) Tmpavidum || ferient ruinae. 
 (6.) Nee virides || metuunt colubros. 
 (c.) Flumina constiterint 1| acuto. 
 (d.) Aut digito 1| male pertinaci. 
 (e.) Levia persouuere saxa. 
 (/.) Cuncta supercilio || moventis. 
 
 ^ founh^Une ^ '^"""^ '^"''^^'' '' '"'''^^ ^"""^ ^^ '''''' ^^ *^^ '^"^'^^ «'"*'* of t^^ 
 
 Caeca tim<?t aliunde fata. 
 
 Obs. 2. A monosyllable at the place of the caesura in the first two lines is 
 unusual, though sometimes found in Horace : 
 
 Non est meum, si || mugiat Africis, 
 Carthagini jam j| non ego nuntios, 
 Quid dcbcas, o || Roma Neronibus, 
 Te copias, te || consilium, ct tuos, 
 Te fontium qui || celat origines. 
 
 Obs. 3. Ft is frequently-but not in the fourth Book of the Odes— found 
 (usua ly with an elision) at the end of a Une; but a monosyllable in the 
 last place is generally (esp. if preceded by another) disagreeable to the 
 ear ; e. g, ; 
 
 Cur non sub alta vel platano vel hac. 
 
 M;'n,nh?r' ^^T"^ c- ? ^''''' CyprutTet) Aedesque labentes deoruiTet 
 Memphin carentem Sxthonia nive : / ^^^ Foeda nigro simulacra fumo. 
 
 Obs. 4. A short syllable is never found at the place of the caesura in the first 
 two lines, and the resolution there of the long syUable into two short, as in 
 
 Hinc dmne prfncKpi || um htic refer exitum 
 is very exceptional. 
 Obs. 5. The caesura is hardly ever omitted : such a line as 
 
 MentC'mque lympat — 4m Mare(5tico 
 is altogether abnormal. 
 
 Obs. 6. Hypermeter Unes are occasionaUy admitted : e.g. : 
 
324 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §804. 
 
 Sors exitura et nos in aeternum 
 J^xilium, etc. 
 
 Obs. 7. The genit. case in ii is not admitted : i is tlie form : e. g. : 
 
 vis consili expers, etc. 
 Obs. 8. The hiatus in jam Daedaleo H ocior Icaro. is not to be imitated. 
 
 XIII.— Double or Alternating Verses. 
 § 804 This system, to wliich the Elegiac verse belongs, 
 has been carried out by Horace in great variety. 
 
 S 805 There is one ode (Od. I. 8) in which the odd lines 
 have the following scheme (choriambic without base) : 
 
 ' ^ ^ 1 U 1 -. as : 
 
 Lydia, die \ pCr Gmnes : 
 and the even the following (also choriambic with Trochaic 
 Dimeter base : sometimes called long bapphv^) : 
 
 Te dgjos orlo S^^barin 1| cur prSpCras \ amando. 
 
 R 806. Horace has also one ode (Od. II. 18) in which a 
 Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic verse in the odd lines is 
 foCed by an Iambic Trimeter Catalectic m the even 
 The latter 'verse has such a pause (or verse-caesura) that 
 the rhythm of the latter half becomes trochaic. I he 
 scheme is : 
 
 ' 3» as : 
 
 Noil Cbur nCqlue aiirCum, 
 MOa rCnldet H m domo lacunar. 
 Obs. 1. The metre is called by the scholiast Acron Hipponactean from the 
 
 already-mentioned poet Ilipponax. 
 Obs. 2. The last syUable is common ; and there is no synaphea, as may be seen 
 
 Rapacis Orci \\ fine destinata 
 Aula divitem manet. 
 
 S 807. Horace has imitated Archilochus in many in- 
 stances : in the first ten Epodes we have after his model 
 the following scheme : 
 
 
 — -l^^^-^^l^^ (Trimeter Iambic Acatalectic), 
 - I ' ^ ^ c ! ^ w - (Dimeter Iambic Acatalectic), as : 
 
 I 
 
 
 25 
 
 § 810. METRE. 
 
 BCatus ill6 I qui prScul iiSg5tiis, 
 tit I prisca gens mort [ alium : 
 Posltosque veruas | ditis examen domus : 
 SSnlile guttur fregerit : 
 
 Ncc muniis hOmgris | efficads Hercults : 
 
 ViderC properantcs domum : 
 
 Pavidumque Icporem H \ advenam *laque6 gruem : 
 
 Jucunda capiat praemia : 
 
 Quid dixit aut quid taciiit, etc. 
 Quod si pudica muller in partem juvet. 
 Obs. A diphthong is (very rarely) shortened before another rowel, as : 
 
 Et|Esqumnae alites (§ 7G5, Obs. 7). 
 
 § 808. Another combination, after ^Vrchilochus, is (once 
 Od. IV. 7) formed by the second half of a Pentameter ap- 
 pended to a Hexameter verse, as : 
 
 Diffugere nives ; redeunt jam gramina campis 
 
 Arboribiisque comae. 
 
 Obs. The Hexameter may be varied according to the rules already laid 
 down, but the even lines must always correspond to the second half of 
 the Pentameter. 
 
 § 809. Another, after Archilochus (Epod. XIII.), con- 
 sists of a Hexameter, to which is appended an asynartete 
 line made up of a Dimeter Iambic and the second half of a 
 Pentameter : as, 
 
 Horrida tempestas coelum contraxit, et imbres 
 
 Nlve'sque deducunt Jovem 1| mine mare, nunc siluae ; 
 Threicio Aquilone sonant ; rapiamus, amici, 
 
 Occasionem de die || dumque virent genua ; 
 Cetera mitte loqui : deus liacc fortasse benigna 
 
 Reducet in sedem vicS . |1 Nunc et Acliaemenio. 
 Obs. The even line in the above is the even line reversed of Epode XI. 
 
 § 810. Another, after Archilochus (Epod. XI.), consists 
 of a senarius (see Trimeter Iambic Acatalectic), to which 
 is appended an asynartete line made up of the second half of 
 a Pentameter together with an Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic 
 (see § 784, Ohs, 2) : as, 
 
 Amore qui me praeter omnes expedit 
 Molllbas ! in puerjis \\ aut in puelliis urtJrC : 
 
 * (Once). 
 
326 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §811. 
 
 Hlc tertius December, ex quo destiti, 
 Iiiachia furelre, || ail vis liouorem decutit : 
 
 Unde expedire non amieonim queant, 
 
 Libera cousili|ii H ncc eontumeliae graves. 
 
 Ohs. The hiatus in 
 
 Vinccre mollitiE jj amor Lycisci me tenet 
 is explained, as is the short syllable at the verse-caesura, by the fact o.' 
 the two halves of the line being composed in distinct measures, in each of 
 which the last syllable of the verse is common. 
 
 § 811. Another (Od. I. 4), after xVrcliilochus, consists of 
 a logaoedic line (§ 798, 2), followed by an Iambic Trimeter 
 Catalectic: as, 
 
 Pallida I mors aeqjuo pulsjat pCdC H paupCrum tabcmas, 
 
 Regiirnqfte tOrres. bSatd Sextl : 
 Altera jo terrlam quatilunt pede jl dum graves Cyclopum. 
 Voleanus ardens urit officinas. 
 
 § 812. Moreover, Horace has (Od. I. 7,28; Epod. XII.) 
 a Hexameter followed by a line made np of three dactylic 
 feet (of which the last must be pure) and a spondee or 
 trochee (Dactylic Tetrameter Catalectic), the scheme of 
 
 which is, 
 
 ', as 
 
 Laudabunt alii claram Rliodon aut Mitylenen, 
 
 Aut fiphSslon bimilrlisvC Coriinthi ; 
 Moenia, vel Bacclio Tliebas vel Apolline Dolplios 
 
 Insignies, aut j ThessHln 1 Tcmpe : 
 Nee tam Larissae percussit campus opiraae, 
 
 Quam dSmus ] Albuii^lae rSsonlantls. 
 
 § 813. And, lastly, Horace has (Epod. XIV. and XV.) 
 a Hexameter followed (1) by an Iambic Dimeter Acata- 
 
 lectic: as, 
 
 Nox erat et coelo fulgebat luna sereno 
 
 Inter mindra si'dera ; 
 
 Or (2), by a senanus (Epod. XVI.) : as. 
 
 Altera jam teritur bcllis civilibus aetas 
 Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit. 
 Obs. Thid metre is called Pythiarabic. 
 
 I 
 
 §817. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 XIV. — The Priapean Verse. 
 
 327 
 
 § 814. The Triapean Verse (Catull. XVII., XVIII., and 
 XIX.) consists of the placing together (unintermingled) 
 of a Glyconic and Pherecratian verse, so that the scheme is 
 
 — — ^ I \^ '—/ — s^ J 
 
 Pauperjis tiiguri | pJlter Jl fililus-quS cSloni, 
 
 Hiijiis 1 nam domlni | cOlunt \\ me dgjumquS sJilutant, 
 Querctis j arida rustiica 1| conformata seciiri, 
 AltSr I assidfla | c61ens || dillglentTa tit herba. 
 
 Ohs. 1 . The spondee of the Pherecratian half of the verse becomes more fre- 
 quently than not an Iambus. 
 
 Obs. 2. Catullus occasionally makes a short syllable long at the pause (or 
 verse-caesura) [\ : e. g. : 
 
 Xutrio magis et magis H et beabo quotannis. 
 
 XV. — The Saturnian Verse. 
 
 § 815. The Saturnian was the oldest native Roman verse, 
 and it remained in use till the Hexameter was introduced 
 by Ennius. Its rhythm is controlled not by the quantity 
 of syllables as long or short, but by word-accent only. 
 
 It consists of two members, each of w^hich has three 
 accents. The first member has a monosyllabic anacrusis. 
 The following two lines may serve as specimens; the 
 former ascribed to the poet Naevius,. the latter a retort 
 upon him by one of the ' Metelli :' — 
 
 Fatd Romae Metelli 1| fiuut consul es. 
 Dabunt malum Metelli 1 1 Naevio poetae. 
 
 § 810. The Saturnian line has been described as Iambic 
 Trimeter Ilypermeter, or Trochaic Trimeter with ana- 
 crusis ; but it is better to regard it as a distich written in 
 a single line, as in the old English ballad metre. 
 
 Ohs. The oldest English metre consists in like manner of a distich regu- 
 Uted only by word-accent, often treated as a single line : as, 
 
 In a somcr scson, 
 
 When softe was the s<3nne (Piers Plowman). 
 
 § 817. In the Saturnian metre Xaevius wrote his poem 
 on the Second Punic War, the first line of which is, 
 
 Viriim mi (mihi) Casmdna \\ iusere (i. e. insequere) versutum. 
 
328 
 
 PKOSODY. 
 
 §818. 
 
 The song of the Arval Brothers (Donaldson, Varron. p. 
 194), some fragments of Salian hymns, and probably certain 
 inscriptions and epitaphs are also in this metre. 
 
 Obs. An old Latin translation of the inscription of Pyrrhus has been thought 
 to show a mixture of Saturnian and Hexameter verse : — 
 
 Qui dntedhdc invicti ] fuvere virf \\ pat^r | opttme Ol |ympl 
 Hos 6go in pflgna vici || 
 Victflsque sdm ab Isdem || (see Varron. p. 228). 
 
 Or, as we may perhaps write the lines, 
 
 Qui antedbac invicti j) FulverS viri patdr | Optlm' 6lympl 11 
 Ho3 ego in piigna vici il VicltasquS sum ab 1 Isdem || 
 
 XVI. — The Teliambic or Miuric Verse (dock-tailed ; from 
 
 fiELuiy olpa). 
 
 § 818. The Teliambic Averse is a Hexameter tenninated 
 with an Iambus {teKoc, ta^/3oc) instead of a Spondee (^ ± for 
 ± r). As the last syllable of the line is common, the Iambic 
 may become a Pyrrhic (^ t). As, 
 
 Dirige odlorls SqjuGs ud | certil cublillil | cUnes. 
 
 Obs. The effect of this line is similar to that of the Choliambic (§ 786), the 
 rhythm being suddenly interrupted. 
 
 ( 329 ) 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 Appendix I. — The Alphabet. 
 
 § 819. The Latin Alphabet was derived from the Dorian Greeks 
 of Cumae and Sicily. Of the twenty-four letters of the Grecian 
 Alphabet, the Latins omitted 6, (^, and x, and changed the Digamma 
 or Van (F), having the power of V or W, into F. It consisted origi- 
 nally of twenty letters, to v/hicli X, making the whole number twenty- 
 one, was added at a very early period : 
 
 1. A. 
 
 8. H. 
 
 15. P. 
 
 2. B. 
 
 9. L 
 
 16. Q. 
 
 3. C. 
 
 10. K. 
 
 17. R. 
 
 4. D. 
 
 11. L. 
 
 18. S. 
 
 5. E. 
 
 12. M. 
 
 19. T. 
 
 6. F. 
 
 13. N. 
 
 20. V (U) 
 
 7. Z. 
 
 14. 0. 
 
 21. X. 
 
 § 820. That Z, corresponding to the Greek Zeta, was found in the 
 earliest Roman Alphabet, is evident from its occurrence in the Car- 
 men Saliare (Vel. Long. p. 2217, Putsch.). See the fragment given 
 by Varro (L. L. vii. 26, MUller). 
 
 § 821. The Latins originally wrote CS instead of X. We have 
 the express statement of Priscian that X was introduced after the 
 other letters, and was therefore placed at the end of the alphabet 
 (i. 4, 14). It appears to have first come into use in the time 
 between the Decemviral legislation and the capture of Veii; but 
 the first document in which it is found is the Senatus Consultum 
 de Bacchanalibus, B.C. 186. 
 
 § 822. It appears, that when the Dorian Alphabet was introduced 
 among the Latins, C was the Guttural Media, corresponding to the 
 Greek y, and K the Onttural Tenuis, corresponding to the Greek #c. 
 But at a very early stage of the Latin Alphabet, the difference be- 
 tween the Guttural Media and Tenuis disapix^ared, as it did in the 
 Etruscan and Umbrian Alphabets, so that C and K came to have the 
 same sound. C was thus used to express both the Tenuis and Media. 
 Hence in the Twelve Tables ni cum eo pacit and ni pacunt occur ; 
 from the same verb as panyo, pepigi. So in the Columna Rostrata 
 we find the forms leciones, macistratoSy ecfociont, pucnandod, Carta- 
 
330 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 § 823. 
 
 cinienses, equivalent to legiones, magistratus, exfugiunt^ pugnandoy 
 Carthaginienses. In like manner C. and Cn., the ancient repre- 
 sentatives of the names Gains and Gneus, were retained down to the 
 latest times. As K gradually went out of use, being only retained 
 in a few words, of which the chief were Kaeso^ Kalendae, kalumnia^ 
 kaputf the difference between the Tenuis and Media again became 
 marked, and a new letter G, formed from C by adding a tail to the 
 latter, was introduced to indicate the Media. This letter is found in 
 the time of the First Punic War, on the sarcophagus of L. Scipio 
 Barbatus, and was placed in the alphabet between F and H by a 
 freedman of Sp. Carvilius Ruga, the old letter Z having by this time 
 become obsolete. (Pint. Qiiaest. Bom. c. 59.) 
 
 § 823. Hence Cicero mentions an alphabet of twenty-one letters, 
 of which X was the last (Nat. Deor. ii. 37 ; cf. Quintil. i. 4, § 9), 
 although in his lifetime Y and Z were introduced in writing Greek 
 words in Latin. 
 
 § 824. The Emperor Claudius introduced three new letters ; 
 namely, an inverted Digamma, J, to distinguish the consonant v 
 from the vowel u ; the Antisigma, Q, to express the sounds hs and 
 j)Sy answering to the Greek yjr ; and the sign of the Greek aspirate |-, 
 to express the intermediate sound between the vowels i and u 
 (v. §917). These letters were used in inscriptions, some of which 
 are extant ; but they soon went out of use (Tacit. Annul, xi. 14) ; 
 and Priscian and the other grammarians mention therefore an 
 alphabet of only twenty-three letters, in which x and y are included. 
 
 (A.) THE CONSONANTS. 
 
 I. Gutturals. 
 K. C. 
 
 § 825. The early history of these letters has been already ex- 
 plained (§ 822). The Latin C, except at an early period, has the 
 same sound as h in the cojjnate lanfiuac^es. Hence it stands in 
 place of ^r and h before a tenuis and the sharp sibilant s: 
 
 rectum, 
 
 rexi [rec-sij, 
 
 from rego. 
 
 auctum. 
 
 auxi [auc-si]. 
 
 „ augeo. 
 
 tractum, 
 
 traxi [trac-si], 
 
 „ traho. 
 
 vectum, 
 
 vexi [vec-sij. 
 
 „ veho. 
 
 § 826. C represents d before a guttural tenuis : as. 
 
 §829. 
 
 GUTTURAL CONSONANTS. 
 
 331 
 
 iccirco, for idcirco 
 quicquid, „ quidquid 
 
 quicquam, for quidquam 
 nequicquam, „ nequidquam. 
 
 The forms with c are the orthography of the best MSS. 
 
 § 827. C disappears : — 
 
 1. Before n : as, 
 
 ara-nea [ = arac-nea] comp. apaxvr} de-ni [ = dec-ni] comp. decern 
 la-na [ = lac-ua] „ \axvr) qui-ni [quinc-ni] „ qumque. 
 lu-na [=luc-na] „ luceo 
 
 2. Before t when the nasal precedes : as, 
 
 quin-tus [=quinc-tus] Quin-tius [=:Quinc-tius]. 
 
 3. Before t and s if C is preceded by the liquids r or I : as, 
 
 ar-tus [=arc-tus , comp. arceo 
 
 far-tus [=:farc-tus], „ farcio 
 
 tor-tus [:j:torc-tus], „ torqueo 
 
 hor.tus[=horc-tus], Iherctum 
 
 co-hortes [:rco-horctesj, „ J 
 
 cor-tis [ = corc-tis], ,, epKos 
 
 mul-si [ = mulc-si], „ mulceo. 
 
 § 828. C had its hard or K sound even before e and i (with the 
 single exception mentioned in § 829), and was not sibilated as it is 
 in English. Hence we find ; 
 
 (1) That C in Latin words before e and i is always expressed in 
 Greek bv K : as, 
 
 censor, Gr, Kr)V(ra>p 
 Celsus, KeXo-os 
 
 Cicero, Gr. KiK€pa>v 
 patricii, iraTpLKioi. 
 
 (2) That the Romans, in writing Greek words in Latm, always 
 expressed K by C : as, 
 
 Cecrops, Cilix, Cineas, Cybele, 
 
 cerdo, Cimon, cithara, Cyprus. 
 
 The K sound of C was retained even in the latest times of the 
 Western Empire, since we find the German words borrowed from the 
 Latin written with a k : as. 
 
 Germ. Kaiser, Lat. Caesar, Germ, kerker, Lat. career, 
 
 keller, cellarium, kirsche, cerasus. 
 
 § 829. On the other hand, the fact that in several Latm words ci 
 and ti he/ore a vowel were written mdifferently, proves that these 
 
332 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 §829. 
 
 sounds must have been pronounced similarly, and been equivalent to 
 a sibilant. Thus we find in inscriptions : 
 
 tribunitiae and tribuniciae ; 
 
 and on the other hand, 
 
 mundiciei for 
 disi3osicionem „ 
 
 So likewise in inscriptions we have both fonns in proper names : as, 
 
 and 
 
 munditiei, 
 disiX)sitionera. 
 
 Larcius 
 Marcius 
 Mucins 
 
 » 
 
 Lartia, 
 Martia, 
 Mutius, 
 
 Accius and Attius, 
 Abucius „ Abutius, 
 
 Neracius „ Neratius. 
 
 In the oldest MSS. we have a similar fluctuation : thus we find, 
 
 solacium and solatium, suspicio and suspitio, 
 
 convicium „ convitium, secius „ setius. 
 
 )» 
 
 It must be observed, however, that this interchange of ci and ti 
 takes place only before a vowel : we never find, for instance, viilicis 
 instead of miUtis, or ftUt is instead oi fdicis. The later Latin gram- 
 marians expressly state that ti had a sibilant sound. Thus the 
 grammarian Pomi^eius, says : ** Quotienscunque post ti vel cU 
 syllabam sequitur vocalis, illud ti vel di in sibilum vertendum 
 est;" and we learn from Tsidorus {Grig. i. 26) that the pronuncia- 
 tion was justizia, milizia, maJizia, nequizia. Hence in modern 
 Italian arose such forms as palazzo from jicilatium ; Fiacenza from 
 Placentia, &c. 
 
 A similar sibilation before i occurs in Greek : thus nda-a-cov, 
 6a<T(ro}v, fida-a-av, represent rraxicov, raxiov, fxaKicou, and ^paxracov, 
 Kpearo-ap or Kpuaa-cov represent ^pabicov, Kp^rlcov : in like manner 
 ^vXao-o-o), rdcTdd), Tapd(r(ro> represent (/)vXaActa), rayiw, rapaxi<a. 
 (See Curtius, Gr. Gr. § 57). 
 
 Obs. Still the fluctuation between rt and ^t with a vowel following did not 
 really occur in many words in which it is usually given. For example : 
 
 1. Coitiio {not concio) is the only form found in the oldest MSS. of Plautus 
 and Gaius. The former orthography is in accordance with the etymology ; 
 for the form corentionid ( = coventione) in the S. C. de BacchanaUbus 
 proves that contio is a contraction of coventio. 
 
 2. ^'untiuif (not niincim) alone occurs in the best inscriptions and MSS. This 
 form also is in accordance with the etymology. The old form was 
 nountios connected with nonis. From nuvus was derived a verb novcre ; 
 from the present participle of which, notens, norent-is, came, with the 
 suffix IMS, the word norcnfius, jnst as Florus, florere, FJorentia, Then 
 norentms was shortened into nomitius, as novendinae into nounditiae 
 (jtundinae). 
 
 8. Indutiae (not induciae) (Gell. i. 25). 
 Fetialis (not Fecialis), comp. Or. </)eTiaAioi. 
 Otiutn and Negotium are the only correct forms. 
 
 § 832. 
 
 GUTTURAL CONSONANTS. 
 
 833 
 
 4. Condicio, on the other hand, alone occurs in the best inscriptions and 
 MSS. It is doubtful, however, whether the word is derived from condicere 
 or condere ; and consequently whether condicio or conditio is etymologic- 
 ally the more correct. 
 
 § 830. The Guttural Tenuis Q is the Koppa (Q) of the Dorian 
 Alphabet. The Latin grammarians were therefore mistaken in sup- 
 posing it to be of late introduction, and merely a representative of 
 CV (Vel. Long. p. 2218 ; Mar. Victorin. p. 2456). 
 
 § 831. Q, as a general rule, was used only in the combination of 
 QV, followed by a vowel, with which it formed one syllable. Hence 
 it was remarked by the ancient grammarians that v in this com- 
 bination was neither a consonant nor a vowel : since, if a con- 
 sonant, it would make the preceding vowel long ; if a vowel, it 
 would coalesce with the following vowel, in either of which cases 
 the word must have been eqvifes or equltes. The real pronunciation 
 of V m the combination QV seems to have been nearly the same as 
 that of the English 2v. We know that the vowel u is closely con- 
 nected with the labials. Hence QV is a Guttural tenuis followed by 
 a labial semivowel, and fonns a transition between the Guttural 
 tenuis k and the Labial tenuis p. The close connexion of QV with 
 these sounds is seen by a comparison of the same word in Sanskrit, 
 Greek, Latin, and the Italian dialects : — 
 
 K, 
 
 » 
 
 QV. 
 
 P. 
 
 
 Sa7isk. 
 
 kis. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 quis. 
 
 Gscan, 
 
 pis, 
 
 11 
 
 kat. 
 
 91 
 
 quod. 
 
 11 
 
 pod. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 KOOTjy 
 
 )> 
 
 quanta, 
 
 Umhriany 
 Gr. 
 
 panta, 
 ttoot;. 
 
 Sansk. 
 
 catvar. 
 
 »» 
 
 quattuor, 
 
 UmhriaUj 
 Gr. 
 
 j^etur, 
 
 7ri(TVp€S, 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 quinque, 
 
 Gr. 
 Sa7isk, 
 
 pan dan, 
 
 Lat. 
 
 cocus, 
 
 91 
 
 coquo, 
 
 Lat. 
 
 popina, 
 
 Lat. 
 
 secundus, 
 
 Lat. 
 
 sequor, 
 
 Gr. 
 
 eTTo/xat. 
 
 § 832. In inscriptions of the Republican period, the relative 
 pronoun generally has QV in forms written subsequently with a C : 
 as, 
 
 quoins later cujus, 
 
 quoiei „ cui, 
 
 quom „ cum, &c. 
 
 It must not, however, be inferred from this, that QV was more 
 ancient than C. The Sanskrit form of the relative ka, hi and 
 
834 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 §833. 
 
 the Ionic forms in Greek, koIos, koo-os, &c., prove that k was the 
 original letter. Even in many Latin words C appears in the roots 
 and QV in the derivatives : as, 
 
 Qurites from Cures (curis), 
 
 inquilinus „ incola, 
 
 sterquilinium „ stercus, 
 
 querqnetulanus „ qiiercetum, 
 
 inquinare „ cunire. 
 
 § 833. Instead of QV, when the vowel u followed, Q was fre- 
 quently written alone, especially from the time of the Gracchi : thus 
 we find in inscriptions : 
 
 qura instead of cura, pequdes instead of pecudc?, 
 
 pequnia „ pecunia, persequtio „ persecutio. 
 
 pequlatu ,y peculatu, 
 
 o. 
 
 § 834. The late introduction of the medial G into the Latin 
 Alphabet (taking the position of the obsolete z) when c became exclu- 
 sively a Tenuis, has been already mentioned (§ 822). In many words 
 the Latin c and the Greek k were softened into G before vowels and 
 the liquids ?, m, w, r : as, 
 
 1. Before vowels : 
 
 Sigambri for Sicambri, gurgulio * for cnrculio, 
 
 negotium ,, nec-otiima, Saguntum „ ZoKwdoSf 
 
 gobius ,, Kto^iosy triginta „ rpidKovra, 
 
 guberaator 
 gummi 
 
 »> 
 
 „ fivKaofiai. 
 
 for Cnossus, 
 
 „ Cnidus, 
 
 „ Pyracmon. 
 
 „ Kv^€pvr)TT}Sf sexaginta 
 „ KOfi^ty mugio 
 
 2. Before liquids : 
 
 neglego for nec-lego, Gnossus 
 
 gloria (see Ohs.) „ cluo, kXvo), Gnidus 
 
 grabatus „ Kpd^aros, Pyragmon 
 
 Agrigentum „ *\Kpdyas, 
 
 Ohs. From the Stem CLVy with the suffix or^ came a Substantive clu-or (like 
 hon-or, &c.), from which with a second suffix ia was formed cluoria (like 
 uxorius from uxor). Cluoria was shortened into cloria {gloria)^ as puer 
 into par in Marci-por. 
 
 § 835. G at the beginning of words, and followed by the liquids, 
 is frequently dropped : as, 
 
 lamentum compare clamare, navus compare i-gnavus, 
 lactis ,y ■yaXa/eroff, nosco „ co-gnosco. 
 
 natus „ gnatus, 
 
 §84L 
 
 GUTTUKAL CONSONANTS. 
 
 335 
 
 § 836. G disapi)ears before s, when it is preceded by the liquids 
 r or ? ; as, 
 
 spar-si, spar-sum, from spargo, mul-si from mulgeo, 
 
 ter-si, ter-sum „ tergeo, ful-si „ fulgeo. 
 
 al-si „ algeo, 
 
 § 837. G sometimes disappears before m : as, 
 conta-minari from ta(n)go, exa-men from exago. 
 
 In other w^ords, such as agmen, tegmen, the g remains. 
 
 § 838. G before t either disappears or is changed into the tenuis 
 
 c ; as, 
 
 au-tor, au-tumnus, from augeo, 
 
 and 
 
 auc-tor, auc-tumnus, „ „ 
 
 § 830. G often disappears before v : as, 
 
 nives (nigves), comi:)are ninguo, 
 
 fruor (fru^aior), „ fruges, fructus, 
 
 fluvium (flugvium), „ fluxi, 
 
 conniveo (connigveo), „ connixus ; cf. nico, nicto, 
 
 vivo (vigvo), „ vixi, victus. 
 
 In the same way the following words seem to have had originally a 
 G, which disappeared before v : 
 
 brevis, comp. Gr. ^paxvs, 
 
 levis, „ „ Aaxvff, Sansk. laghu, 
 pravus, „ » prahvas, 
 
 malva, „ „ fxaXaxq* 
 
 § 840. G followed by the semivowel i with an accomimnying 
 vowel often disappears (the i in such cases w-as pronounced as a y 
 though written/ in English) : as, 
 
 ma-ior, major (orig. mag-ior) comp. mag-is, 
 Ma-ius (orig. Mag-ius) „ mag-nus, ^ 
 
 me-io (orig. raig-io) „ mingo, 6p,ixci, 
 
 Ohs. Ma-ius signifies the " growing-month," as the root viag, Sansk. mah, 
 signifies originally *' to grow." 
 
 § 841. In like manner d disappears, when followed by the semi- 
 vowel i and an accompanying vowel, as Jovis instead of Diovis, 
 Janus instead of Dianus. 
 
336 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 §842. 
 
 1! 
 
 §849. 
 
 LABIALS. 
 
 837 
 
 H. 
 
 § 842. H was originally a Guttural aspirate ; the traces of which 
 are still retained in traxiy tractum, from traho, and vexi, vectum, 
 from veho : for H could not have been changed into the guttural tenuis 
 c before s and t, unless it had had a guttural sound. But in all other 
 cases, H in Latin, is only the rough breathing, corresponding to the 
 Greek spiritus asper. 
 
 § 843. H in Latin often represents /, a sound peculiar to the 
 ItaUan languages : as, 
 
 hoedus for 
 
 foedus. 
 
 haba 
 
 for 
 
 faba, 
 
 hordus „ 
 
 fordus. 
 
 hircus 
 
 )) 
 
 fircus, 
 
 hostis „ 
 
 fostis. 
 
 hariolus 
 
 •» 
 
 fariolus. 
 
 horreum „ 
 
 farreum, 
 
 hebris 
 
 ?» 
 
 febris, &c. 
 
 § 844. H at an early jx?riod was often dropix^d in pronunciation ; 
 and it appears from the grammarians that there was great fluctuation 
 in usage, the same word being sometimes aspirated and sometimes 
 not. Hence we find in Inscriptions and MSS., the following words 
 written both with and without the aspirate : 
 
 harundo and arundo. 
 
 hanispex 
 
 hoedus 
 
 hasta 
 
 harena 
 
 hedera 
 
 herciscero 
 
 >> 
 
 >» 
 
 aruspex, 
 
 oedus, 
 
 asta, 
 
 arena, 
 
 edera, 
 
 erciscere, 
 
 heres 
 
 hora 
 
 humerus 
 
 Hamilcar 
 
 Hasdrubal 
 
 Hannibal 
 
 Hammon 
 
 and eres, 
 ora. 
 
 5> 
 
 >> 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 >> 
 
 umerus, 
 
 Amilcar, 
 
 Asdrubal, 
 
 Annibal, 
 
 Ammon. 
 
 We learn from the grammarian Nigidius Figulus that the provincials 
 aspirated many words which had ceased to be aspirated in the 
 capital (" nisticus fit sermo, si aspires perperam " in Gell. xiii. 6, 
 § 3) ; but the tendency was undoubtedly to drop the h, until at 
 length it completely disappeared, as is the case in the modern 
 Itahan. 
 
 § 845. H in the middle of words between two vowels was fre- 
 quently dropped ; but the older form was also retained along with 
 the more modern. Thus, while 7iemo always occurs instead of 
 nehemoj we find in use at the same time : 
 
 Ahala and Ala, nihil and nil, 
 
 vehemens „ vemens, cohors „ cors, 
 
 prehendo „ prendo, dehibeo „ debeo, 
 
 mihi 
 
 >> 
 
 mi. 
 
 praehibeo „ praebeo. 
 
 II. Labials. 
 P. 
 
 § 846. It has been already remarked that in the Indo-European 
 languages the Guttural Tenuis C or K frequently passes into the 
 Labial Tenuis P, and that the Latin QV, which is a Guttural with 
 a Labial semivowel attached, formed the transition between them 
 (§ 831). 
 
 § 847. In the Oscan and Umbrian p often represents an original 
 k: see examples in §831. In Latin this is rarely the case; and 
 even the few Latin words, which have p instead of the original c, are 
 probably all borrowed from other dialects. Thus popina is the 
 Oscan fonn of coquina^ from coquo ; palurribes probably comes from 
 the Oscan, columba being the pure Latin form. Epona, which is 
 usually derived from equus^ is unquestionably a Celtic word. Lupns 
 is the Greek \vkoSj but it probably also comes from an Italian 
 dialect. If limjndus be the same as Uquidus, the former must be 
 regarded as a dialectical variety, liquidus being the pure Latin 
 form. 
 
 § 848. P at the end of a word, when the final vowel was dropped, 
 was, as a general rule, softened into the medial b : as, 
 
 ab 
 
 Gr. 
 
 ano 
 
 Satisk. 
 
 apa. 
 
 sub 
 
 »> 
 
 vno 
 
 » 
 
 upa, 
 
 ob 
 
 n 
 
 > / 
 
 )} 
 
 upa. 
 
 But h before the tenuis t and the sharp sibilant s, was pronounced 
 asj9. Hence there arises a fluctuation in the orthography, some 
 writing ps, pt according to the pronunciation, and others 6s, ht ac- 
 cording to the etymology; a6, sub, and oh being regarded as the 
 original forms. Down to the Augustan age, the orthography accord- 
 ing to the pronunciation was the more usual ; and hence we fuid, 
 in the inscriptions of the two last centuries of the republic, such 
 forms as apstidit, apstinere, opsignetur, opsidioney optinebit, supn 
 signent. 
 
 The gmmmarians follow sometimes the pronunciation and some- 
 times the etymology, without any vaUd reason. 
 
 Obs. 1. That h -was pronounced as p before t is evident from Quintilian 
 (i. 7, §7) : *' Cum dico obtinuity secundam b litteram ratio poscit, aures 
 magis audiunt p.*' 
 
 Obs. 2. The oldest MSS. have usually the forms i?^ ps. 
 
 § 849. P is sometimes inserted between m and a dental to facili- 
 tate the sound : as, 
 
 Q 
 
338 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 emptns from emo, 
 
 sumpsi, siimptus ,, sumo, 
 
 comptus „ como, 
 
 contempsi, contemptus „ contemno, 
 Liemps ,, hiems. 
 
 § 850. 
 
 Obs. The form tempto, found in many MSS. instead of iento^ is opposed to 
 both etymology and analogy. Tento comes from tenttis, the participle of 
 tendo ; consequently no m precedes requiring the insertion of a p to 
 facilitate the sound. It would seem that a confusion was made between 
 the participle temptus from temno and the participle tentus from tendo ; 
 and that the orthography of the former word was erroneously transferred 
 to the latter. 
 
 § 850. The Labial Media seems to have been pronounced in Latin 
 like the English Z), and not like the modern Greek j3, or the English 
 V or IV. The fact that B in Latin often represents the Greek tt, 
 proves that it could not have had the sound of a v or iv : as, 
 
 carbasus 
 buxus 
 
 KapTTaCTOS, 
 
 nv^os, 
 
 Buxentimi 
 burims 
 
 TTvpyos* 
 
 So in the time of Ennius IIvppos was pronounced Burrus (Cic. 
 Omt. 48, 160). 
 
 § 851. In like manner h was pronounced asp before s and t. Tlie 
 fluctuation in orthography in compound words, h being sometimes 
 written according to the etymology, and p according to the pronun- 
 ciation, has been already explained (§ 848). But in the jx-Tfects and 
 supines the orthography, according to pronunciation, prevailed : as? 
 nuh-o^ nup'Si, iiujp-tum; scrib-o, scrip-si, scrip-turn, 
 
 § 852. Bu in the older language became h in the words : 
 
 duellum .. 
 duellicus .. 
 Duellius . . 
 
 duis 
 
 duidens . . 
 duonus 
 
 So dv became v in the words : 
 
 bellum, 
 
 bellicus, 
 
 Bellius (Cic. Orat. 45, 153), 
 
 bis, 
 
 bidens, 
 
 bonus. 
 
 dvi-ginti (comp. duo) 
 
 suadvis (comp. suadeo, Gr. rjdvs) 
 
 viginti, 
 suavis. 
 
 But these examples do not prove that h and v simply were inter- 
 changeable, since the preceding d exercises a disturbing influence. 
 § 853. In the later empire, however, b in the popular dialect 
 
 § 855. 
 
 LABIALS. 
 
 339 
 
 seems to have been softened into a v : thus we find in inscriptions of 
 the third century : 
 
 verva for verba, acerva for acerba, &c. 
 
 In inscriptions of the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries we have : 
 
 jubenia for juvenis, 
 „ vixit, 
 
 octava, &c. 
 
 bixit 
 octaba 
 
 >i 
 
 h 
 
 In such cases we must suppose, not that the v was hardened into a 
 5, but that the b was pronounced as v : this is clear from the ItaUan 
 words, as yiovane, ottavo, &c. 
 
 P. 
 
 § 854. F was a sound peculiar to the Italian languages, and may 
 be described as the Labial Aspirate. In the Etruscan, Umbrian, 
 and Oscan alphabets it was represefited by a peculiar character, 8 ; 
 but in Latin it was expressed by the Aeolic diganama. Comparing 
 
 Lat. fmngo with Gr. fpTjywfii, 
 frigus „ fplyosy 
 
 we might suppose that F had the same sound as the Digamma. 
 
 On the other hand F more frequently corresponds to the Greek cp : 
 
 as, 
 
 Lat. fama Gr. 4>r]p,Tj, Lat. fero Gr. c^epto, 
 
 fari (j)dvaij fugio <P^yvy 
 
 fui (pvfi), frater (fyparpia. 
 
 But we have the express testimony of the ancient writers that there 
 was a difference in pronunciation between /and (p. Quintilian (xii. 
 10, § 29) says of /, " inter discrimina dentium effianda est ;" and 
 Priscian (i. 14, H.), " non fixis labris est pronuntianda /, quomodo 
 pV* Terentius Scaurus (p. 2252, P.) says of h and/, " utraque ut 
 flatus est." These testimonies prove that / was pronounced as an 
 aspirate. 
 
 § 855. F, being a labial aspirate, properly corresponds to the labial 
 aspirate bh in Sanskrit, but sometimes to the dental dh and the 
 guttural gh in Sanskrit : as, 
 
 Sansk. bha 
 bhu 
 bhar 
 rudhira 
 
 madhya 
 
 Lat. fari 
 fui 
 fero 
 Ptufus 
 ruber 
 medius 
 
 Gr. (I)dvaif 
 
 (f)VCOf 
 
 (jyepQi, 
 €-pv0p6s. 
 
 Q 2 
 
SIO 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 §856. 
 
 Obs. Hence the Latin / sometimes ans-wers to the Gr. 6 ; as, 
 
 Gr. &vpa Lat. fores, 
 e^p „ fera. 
 
 § 856. In the middle of Latin words the / underwent two changes : 
 (I) the aspirate was lost and the labial alone remained ; or (2) the 
 labial sound was lost and the aspirate only remained. 
 
 (1) Loss of the aspirate inf: 
 
 Sansk. pra-bhava (excellent) comp. with Lat, probus, 
 Or, a^<t>Q) „ ambo, 
 
 ofi4)a\os „ umbilicus. 
 
 In the same way the Sanskrit suffix -hhyam (as in tu-bhyam Bat, 
 of 2nd {personal pronoim) corresj)onds to the Gr. -0i, the Oscan -/e, 
 and the Latin -hi instead oifi. Hence h has arisen out of /in ti-hi^ 
 si-biy i-bi, u-hi. 
 
 So also b has arisen out of /in the terminations -bam and -bo of 
 the Imperfect and Future, which come from the root fu in /mi, as 
 eram and ero come from the root ES in est. 
 
 In the Perfect terminations -v«', and -ui, for fui, the / has been 
 disturbed by the following semivowel, like thee? in viyinti (v. §852) 
 and the g in nives (v. § 839). 
 
 (2) Loss of the labial in f ; 
 
 hoedus for foedus, haba for faba, 
 
 hordus „ ford us, hircus „ fircus, 
 
 hostis „ fostis, hariolus „ fariolus. 
 
 horreum ,, farreum, 
 
 In mi-hi the /has become a mere aspirate, while in the correspond- 
 ing forms it has become b : as ti-bi, si-bi, &c. 
 
 So also in the pronominal adverbs in -m, as ill-im, ist-irn^ &:c., 
 the original tennination was -/w, corresjwnding to the Sanskrit 
 "hhyam. The / first became h, so that from illo-fim, isto-fim^ arose 
 illo-him^ isto-him: then h disappeared between two vowels, accord- 
 ing to the general practice ; and illo-imy isto-im were then contracted 
 into iUlmj istlm, 
 
 Obs. The forms ex-bn, i-n-de, u-n-de^ aU-cu-n-de, &c. are of the same origin, 
 the old forms i-fim and (c)it-fiin coming from the pronominal roots » (is) 
 and CM (qiii), / sinking into h, and disappearing between the two vowels. 
 
 III. Dentals. 
 
 T. 
 
 § 857. The Dental Tciiuis T had the same sound as in the cognate 
 
 iguages. 
 
 That t in the middle of words, whether sibilated or not, had a 
 
 §861. 
 
 DENTALS. 
 
 341 
 
 sharp, firm, sound, appears from the fluctuation in the orthography of 
 t and tt in many words : as, 
 
 Metius and Mettius, 
 Atilius „ Attilius, 
 
 » 
 
 literae and litterae, 
 quatuor „ quattuor. 
 
 § 858. T had a weaker sound at the end than at the beginning 
 and middle of words. Hence we find the t of the 3rd Person of 
 verbs sometimes dropped in Latin, as it always is in Greek. Even 
 in old Latin inscriptions we have the 3rd persons dede^ dedro^ dederi, 
 censuere. In the 3rd Person Plural of the Perf. Active the termina- 
 tion ere, instead of erunt, occurs in the best period of the language. 
 
 In the later popular dialect, the t of the 3rd Person Singular and 
 Plural is constantly dropped. Thus we find in Christian inscrip- 
 tions the following forms of the Singular, 
 
 vixse, fece, quiesce, 
 
 and in the latest inscriptions the following forms of the Plural, 
 
 fecerun, quiescun. 
 
 The modern Italian has followed the example of the Xatin in drop- 
 ping the t of the 3rd Person. Thus the Italian diede corresponds to 
 the old Latin form dede ; the Italian visse,fece to the later Latin vixse, 
 fece ; the Italian diedro to the old Latin dedro; the Italian dicono, 
 amanOy &c., to the later Latin feoeruriy quiescun, a final o being 
 added. 
 
 § 859. On the sibilation of t followed by i and another vowel 
 V. § 829. 
 
 § 860. The Dental Media D at the end of words was pronounced 
 nearly like the Tenuis t (Comp. Quint, i. 7, § 5). Hence we find in 
 the best MSS. t at the end of words instead of c?, and in the same 
 MS. both forms often occur alongside of one another : as, 
 
 it and id, at and ad, 
 
 quot „ quod, aput „ apud, 
 
 quit „ quid, set „ sed, 
 
 istut „ istud, haut „ baud, 
 abut „ aliud, 
 
 § 861. By a comparison with the Sanskrit, we learn that t was 
 the original termination of the Neuter of the Pronouns and Pro- 
 nominal Adjectives : thus quod corresponds to the Sanskrit kat. So, 
 also, the Prejx)sition ad or at corresponds to the Sanskrit ati. The 
 termination of the Ablative Singular in Sanskrit is ^, which was in 
 like manner softened in old Latin into d, and finally dropped. 
 
842 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 § 8G2. 
 
 § 870. 
 
 LIQUIDS. 
 
 343 
 
 Hence we find in the Coliimna Rostra ta, the old Ablatives altod^ 
 maridy didatored, navaled^ and similar forms in other inscriptions. 
 
 Obs. Med and ted are found in riantus as Ablatives of ego and ^m. Sed is 
 also an Ablative of mi, signifying originally " by one's self," and then 
 " apart," " but." In composition the d is dropped : as, secemo, secedo. 
 In the same way pro, originally pro// (cf. prodeo, prodigus), was an Abla- 
 tive. Adverbs in e from Adjectives of the 3rd Declension were originally 
 Ablatives : hence we find facilumed in the S. C. de Bacchan. 
 
 § 862. The softening of a final t into d, and then the disap^Kjar- 
 ance of the latter appears in many other Latin words. 
 
 1. We have the three forms haut^ hand, and hau. 
 
 2. In the Imperative the d arising out of t is regularly dropped in 
 Latin : comp. 
 
 esto with the Oscan estud, facito with the Oscan factur!, 
 agito r, actud, liceto „ licitud. 
 
 3. It has been already noticed that the t of the 3rd Person of 
 Terbs is frequently dropped (v. § 858). That the t was in such 
 csases first softened into d appears from forms found in inscriptions, 
 such as the Latin fecid, exead, and the Oscan fefacid, hipidy 
 fuldy &c. 
 
 § 863. In the middle of Latin words there was also a fluctuation 
 in the pronunciation and orthography of d and f, especially after r 
 and u. Thus Quintilian (i. 6 § 30) in ancient inscriptions foimd : 
 
 Alexanter for *AXc^ai/8poff, Cassantra for Kdaav^pa, 
 
 Compare also 
 
 Tnquetra and Triquedra (Quintil. i. 4, § 16), 
 quatuor „ quadratus, 
 quatriduo „ quadragiuta. 
 
 mentiri 
 
 >» 
 
 mendax. 
 
 § 864. On the disappearance of d followed by v at the beginning 
 of words, as dueUum (helium), duis (bis), duonus (bonus) dviginti 
 (viginti) ; and on its disapix^arance followed by i', as Janus (Dianus), 
 Diovis (Jovis), V. §§ 852, 841. 
 
 § 865. On the change of d into I and r, v. §§ 870, 873, 874. 
 
 § 866. D followed by i and another vowel, was in later times 
 sibilated, like the tenues c and t. Servius says in reference to the 
 pronunciation of the country Media : " di sine sibilo proferenda est ; 
 Graecum enim nomen est, et Media provincia est *' (ad Virg. Georg, 
 ii. 126). From this it is evident that in the time of Servius (the 
 5th century a.d.), the adjective media waa sibilated, and hence 
 pronounced like the Italian mezza. That this was the usual pro- 
 nunciation of di at the beginning of the 7th century is evident 
 from the words of Isidonis ( Orig. xx. 9, p. 627 Lind.) : " Mosizicia 
 quasi modicia^ unde et modicum, z, pro J, sicut solent Itali dicere 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 hozie pro liodie.^^ Thus arose the Itahan forms pranzOy razzo, 
 mezzOj orzOj &c. from prandium^ radium^ medium^ hordeum, &c. 
 
 IV. Liquids. 
 
 L. 
 
 § 867. The letter L, as we learn from Pliny, had three sounds in 
 Latin: — "L triplicem, ut Plinio videtur, sonum habet, — exilem, 
 quando geminatur sccundo loco jxjsita, ut 'ille, Metellus,' — plenum j 
 quando finit nomina vel syllabas, et quando aliquam habet ante se 
 eadem syllaba consonantem, ut * sol, silva, flavus, clarus,' — medium 
 in aliis ut * Icctum, lectus.' " (Prise, i. 38.) 
 
 § 868. (1) L therefore had its fullest sound at the end of words, like 
 salf mel, consid, vigil. This is the reason why I always retains its 
 place at the end of Latin words, while so many other consonants in 
 the same position disappear. L had also the same full sound in 
 other parts of a word immediately preceded by a mute : as, clarus, 
 gloriciy plenuSy pluOj flavus. It had probably the same full sound 
 when c, t and st were dropped : as, 
 
 lactis comp. yaXaKTOS, 
 
 lamentum „ clamare, | 
 
 latus for* tlatus (tolatus), 
 
 htem „ stlitem (Fest. p. 313, 314, M.), 
 
 locum „ stlocum (Quint, i. 4, § 16). 
 
 L had the same full sound at the end of syllables followed by 
 another consonant : as, al-hus, pul-cher, al-geo^ ful-geo, pul-mo, fui- 
 merij al-vus, id-va, sil-va. 
 
 § 869. (2) L had a lighter sound at the beginning of words, as in 
 latere, laetariy lectus^ lotus, &c., and in the middle of words between 
 vowels, as in talis, fldelis, facilis, hostilis. Since the I in this ix)si- 
 tion was pronounced only lightly with the tongue, it was frequently 
 interchanged with r. Thus the suffixes -alls and -aris (§ 187, 
 No. 9) are the same, -alis being used when r precedes, and -aris when 
 I precedes : as, 
 
 austr-alis 
 rur-alis 
 
 vall-aris, 
 sol-aris, 
 
 mur-alis 
 corpor-alis 
 
 proeli-aris, 
 regul-aris. 
 
 For the same reason we have caeruleus instead of caeluleus from 
 caelum., and Parilia instead of Palilia from Pales. 
 
 § 870. In consequence of the lighter sound of I in the beginning 
 and middle of words, we find it interchanged in these positions with 
 d: as. 
 
844 
 
 ALrHABET. 
 
 §871. 
 
 lacrima instead of dacrima (Fest. p. 68 ; Mar. Victor, p. 2470), 
 
 Or. daKpvoVf 
 levir „ ddfrjp, 
 
 laiitia „ daiitia (Fest. p. 68), 
 
 lingua „ dingua, Goth, tuggo, Eng. tongue, 
 
 oleo comp. odor, Gr, odcoda, 
 
 2) represents I in : 
 
 cadamitas for calami tas (Mar. Victor, p. 2456), 
 Capitodium „ Capitoliuni (lb. p. 2470). 
 
 § 871. (3) L had its lightest sound, according to Pliny, when it 
 "was the second I of U. The difference in sound between I and II 
 seems to have been so slight that in inscriptions many Proper Names 
 were written indifferently with one I and with two : as, OJilius^ 
 and OjilUuSy Silius and iSilUiis, &c. 
 
 For the same reason we find in the best MSS. both mille and 
 mile, millia and milUi. The more correct orthography of these two 
 words seems to have been mille and milia. The reason for this is 
 that i before a was pronounced as y ; and as the second I seems to 
 have had nearly the same sound (like the second I in French), the 
 combination of sound millia ( = milyya) was nearly impossible. 
 Since the second I had nearly a y sound, we understand how in Greek 
 ^aXXo) arises from ^oXio), riXXw from rtXiw, &c. (See Curtius, 
 Gr. Gr. § 252.) In the same way in Latin : " 
 
 percello arises from percelio Ferf, perculi, 
 pello „ pelio pepuli, 
 
 tollo 
 
 }> 
 
 tolio 
 
 tetuli. 
 
 R. 
 
 § 872. Of all the liqiiids, and indeed of all the consonants, B is 
 the most closely related to the vowels. In Sanskrit there is a vowel 
 r sound distinguished by a separate character from the consonant r. 
 
 § 873. In Latin an original s constantly becomes r between two 
 vowels : as, 
 
 Lares for Lases, Ferrius for Fersius, 
 
 arae 
 
 )) 
 
 asae. 
 
 feriae „ fesiae, 
 arena „ asena, 
 Spurius „ Spusius, 
 
 In the same way : 
 
 aeris from aes, 
 cruris „ crus, 
 
 generis „ genus, 
 temporis „ tempus, 
 
 Valerius „ Valesius, 
 Papirius „ Papisius, 
 quaero „ quaeso. 
 
 Veneris from Venus, 
 
 Cereris 
 
 ii 
 
 Ceres, 
 
 pulveris „ pulvis, 
 cineris „ cinis. 
 
 §878. 
 
 LIQUIDS. 
 
 345 
 
 So also in composition : 
 
 dir-imere for dis-imere, dir-ibere for dis-hibere. 
 
 The termination -rum of the Genitive Plural is instead of -sum 
 in such words 2isf aba-rum, hono-rum, die-rum, love-rum, &c. 
 Even at the end of words s sometimes becomes r : as, 
 
 arbor for arbos, honor for honos, 
 
 labor „ labos, lepor „ lepos. 
 
 The r, which is the sign of the Passive, arises in like manner from 
 tlie s of the Reflective Pronoun se, 
 
 Obs. The time, at which s began to be changed into r, is partly indicated by 
 the statement of Cicero {ad Fam. ix. 21), that L. Papirius Cursor, who was 
 consul B.C. 336 (consequently in the time of the Samnite wars), was the 
 first of his family named Papirius, while aU his ancestors were called 
 Papisii. 
 
 § 874. D was also changed into r, especially in the prejwsition 
 ad in composition. Thus we find in tiie grammarians and inscrip- 
 tions : 
 
 arvenae for advenae, arfines for adfines, 
 
 arvocati „ advocati, arfuisse „ adfuisse. 
 
 arvorsum „ advorsum, 
 
 Bo also in the usual forms : 
 
 arbiter for adbiter (comp. adbitere), 
 
 arcesso „ adcesso, 
 
 meridies „ medidies (from medius dies). 
 
 N. 
 
 § 875. Priscian says (i. 39, H), '< N quoque plenior in primis 
 sonat et in ultimis partibus syllabarum, ut nomen, stamen, exilior 
 in mediis ut omnis, damnum:' This statement is so far tme, that 
 N had a full sound at the beginning of words, and a weaker sound 
 in the middle after m : but the other part of his statement is op- 
 posed to facts. 
 
 § 876. N, at the beginning of all words, had a sharp, full sound. 
 Hence we find no examples in which N in this position undergoes 
 any change. 
 
 ^ § 877. N, at the end of words, was pronounced more feebly, as 
 IS clear from its frequent disappearance in this position. As for 
 instance in the Nominative case of all Stems in on: as leo from leon^ 
 homo from homon, &c. So also in such forms as eeteroqui for cetera- ■ 
 quin, alioqui for alioquin. 
 
 § 878. N, in the middle of words, when it represents m and 
 stands before d and t, had a full sound j as, eorundem, tandem, dun- 
 
 Q3 
 
346 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 § 879. 
 
 tnxat, septentrio. It had the same sound in the middle of words 
 between two vowels. Hence the orthograj^hy in this position often 
 fluctuates between a single and double N : as, Porsena and For- 
 sentuiy Caec ina ^ndi Caecinna, &c. In the oldest MSS. of Plautus, 
 Virgil, Lucretius, and Gains, words are sometimes written with a 
 single n when the etymology requires two : as, conubium, conecfere^ 
 conexus ; which forms are only to l'>e explained by the fact that N in 
 this position had so full a sound as to render the two letters un- 
 necessary. 
 
 § 879. But N, in the middle of words, had a very faint sound 
 before the aspirate A, the semivowels J ( = y) and v, and the sibilant 
 s, and hence frequently disappears before these letters ; 
 
 1. Before h : as, 
 
 cohaereo, cohors, 
 
 coheres, cohortari. 
 
 cohibere, 
 
 2. Before j (= y) and v : as, 
 
 coicio compared with conicio (conjicio), 
 
 cojectura „ conjectura, 
 
 cojunx M conjunx,^ 
 
 cojuncti (whence cuncti) „ conjunct!, 
 
 coventionid (in S. C. de Bacch.) „ conventio (whence 
 
 contio, v. § 829, Ohs.). 
 
 3. Before s, which is still more frequent. In Lucretius, Plautus, 
 and Inscriptions the n of the 7it of the termination of the Imperfect 
 rarticii)les sometimes disappears, when the t of the Stem has been 
 dropped before s, the sign of the Nominative : as, 
 
 animas instead of animans, lacrimas instead of lacrimans, 
 
 cogitas „ cogitans, dermics „ dormiens, 
 
 curas „ curans, obedies „ obediens. 
 
 The n also disappears in the Suffix -iens : as, 
 
 quoties instead of quotiens, 
 toties „ totiens, 
 
 quinquies „ quinquieus. 
 
 Also in the Suffix of the Ordinal Numbers 'esimiis for -ensumus: 
 
 as, 
 
 vicesimus instead of vicensumus, 
 quadragesimus „ quadragensumus, 
 
 duodevicesimus „ duode vicensumus. 
 
 Also in the Suffix of the Gentile Adjectives -^nsis : 
 
 Apulesis instead of Apulensis, 
 Ostesis „ Ostensis, 
 
 Karbonesis „ Narbonensis. 
 
 ti 
 
 §883. 
 
 LIQUIDS. 
 
 34? 
 
 Also in the Stems of words : as, 
 
 cesor instead of censor, 
 cosul „ Consul, 
 
 mesis „ mensis, 
 
 mostrum „ monstriun, 
 
 tosor „ tonsor. 
 
 § 880. N had a guttural sound before the gutturals c, g, ch, x, 
 and was probably pronounced like the French n. Some of the ancient 
 writers, as we learn from Varro (ap. Prise, i. 39), sought to express 
 this sound by ^, writing 
 
 Agchises instead of Anchises, 
 agceps „ anceps, 
 
 aggulus „ angulus. 
 
 Hence we can explain the forms 
 
 ec-ce instead of en-ce, 
 
 ec-quis „ en-quis, 
 
 ec-quando „ en-quando. 
 
 M. 
 
 ^ § 881. Priscian says (i. 38, H) : " M obscurum in extremitate 
 dictionum sonat ut templum, apertum in principio ut magnus, me- 
 diocre in mediis ut umhra:' This statement seems to be correct. 
 
 § 882. M accordingly, at the beginning of Latin words, had the 
 same full sound as it had in the cognate languages. It had a weaker 
 sound in the middle of words before the labial consonants, as in 
 umhra. Further, in the middle of words M was changed into :— 
 
 1. The guttural n before the gutturals c, q, g : as, anceps ((ox 
 amhiceps\ qimnquam, congero. 
 
 2. Into the dental n before the dentals d, t: as, fcmtimde-m, 
 veruntamen, eandem. 
 
 3. Into the faint nasal sound (which frequently was not written) 
 before J ( = ?/), v, and s: as, conjunx or cqiunx, consul or cosuJ, &c. 
 (v. § 879, 3.) ^ 
 
 In composition the m of circum and of com frequently disapj^ears 
 before a vowel : as. 
 
 circuire, circuitus, coagulum, 
 coemptio, coire, 
 
 coactus, 
 cooptare, &c. 
 
 § 883. M, at the end of words, was pronounced so faintly as to be 
 almost inaudible. This is expressly stated by the ancient writers 
 (Priscian, Z. c.; Quintil. ix. 4, § 40; Donatus, ad Ter. Adelph. ii. 1, 
 53, *' m littera est nimium pressae vocis ac paene nullius"). In 
 
348 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 §884. 
 
 §893. 
 
 SIBILANTS. 
 
 349 
 
 Latin verse, a word ending in a vowel and M was for metrical pur- 
 poses regardeil as ending only in a vowel. Hence M was frequently 
 not written at the end of words ; its disappearance is of importance 
 for the history of the Latin Declensions and Conjugations. 
 
 § 884. In the verb, the m, which is the sign of the first Person 
 Sing., is usually dropped in the Indicative, but retained in the 
 Subjunctive. This m must have disappeared very early, as it is 
 also dropped in Greek in verbs in -w, and retained only in verbs in 
 -fit. In Latin the m is preserved in only two verbs in the Present 
 Indicative s-u-m (= es-n-m, comp. Gr. ft-fti) = €o-/ii and inqua-m. 
 Even the first Person of the Subjunctive is sometimes foimd without 
 the m in old Latin, as is always the case in the Greek verbs in -o). 
 Thus we are told that in Cato and other ancient ^mters the following 
 forms were found : 
 
 attinge for attingam (Festus, p. 20, M.), 
 
 dice „ dicam ( „ p. 72), 
 
 ostende „ ostendam ( „ p. 201), 
 
 recipie „ recipiam ( „ p. 286). 
 
 § 885. In nouns, the final m is sometimes written and sometimes 
 omitted in inscriptions of the time of the Punic wars ; thus we find 
 such forms as dono and donomj viro and sacrom, &c. But from the 
 time of the S. C. de Bacchanalibus, the final m of the nouns regu- 
 larly appears. 
 
 § 886. From these facts we may conclude, that the final m was in 
 early times pronounced so faintly that the Romans were in doubt 
 whether to express it by a letter or not ; but that from the time of 
 the Syrian and Macedonian wars, probably in consequence of the 
 increased intercourse with Greece, the m was pronounced by the 
 educated. But that it still continued to be omitted in the popular 
 dialect is evident from the inscriptions scribbled by the populace on 
 the walls of Pompeii, in which the m of the Accusative is usually 
 wanting : as, tota^puellay &c. for totam, puellam^ &c. 
 
 § 887. From the third century A.D., the m of nouns and other 
 words is constantly omitted in inscriptions, because it had by this 
 time ceased to be pronounced in the ix)pular dialect. This dropping 
 of the m first in pronunciation and then in writing seems to have 
 been one of the main causes of the destruction of the Latin De- 
 clensions in the popular language. 
 
 V. Sibilants. 
 S. 
 
 § 888. The grammarians give us hardly any information respect- 
 ing the pronunciation of S j but it clearly had more than one sound 
 in Latin. 
 
 § 889. S, at the beginning of words, is found only before conso- 
 nants in the combinations sp, sc, st : it must have had a sharp hiss- 
 ing sound in such words as spargere, scindere, stare, 
 
 § 890. S, at the beginning of words, must also have had a sharp 
 sound before vowels, as it has in the same position in the Eomance 
 languages : as Lat. sapere, Ital. sapere, French savoir. 
 
 § 891. S, in the middle of words, was pronounced sharply both 
 before and after consonants. This is shown by the change of the 
 Labial Media into the Tenuis before s: as, nup-si, lap-sm, &c 
 (v. § 848) : and also by the fact that s is retained only before sharp 
 sounds, while it is dropi^ed before 7W, w, I, in the same manner as 
 before d : as, 
 
 ca-mena, 
 (cas-mena), 
 
 G-men, 
 (os-men), 
 
 po-moerium, 
 (lx)s-moerium), 
 
 du-mosus, 
 (dus-mosus), 
 
 po-no, 
 (pos-no), 
 
 ce-na, 
 (ces-na), 
 
 ahe-neus, 
 (ahes-neus), 
 
 vide-n', 
 (vides-n'), 
 
 corpu-lentus, 
 (corpus-lentus), 
 
 ju-dex, 
 (jus-dex), 
 
 i-dem, 
 (is-dem), 
 
 di-duco, 
 (dis-duco), 
 
 tre-decim, 
 (tres-decim). 
 
 I 
 
 Sometimes it is changed into r before the same sounds : as, 
 
 car-men, veter-nus, diur-nus, 
 
 (cas-men), (vetes-nus), (dius-nus). 
 
 In the same way s, on account of its sharp sound, disapiieared before 
 
 / at the beginning of words : as, fallo compared with o-^aXXo), 
 
 fungus with a^oy^o^y funda with a-cPevBovrj^ Jidis with cr(l>idrj. 
 
 § 892. S, in the middle of words, had a softer sound between two 
 
 vowels, as it has in the Romance languages : as, Lat. ivsa^ Ital. 
 
 rosa, French rose. This is also shown by the change of s into r 
 
 between two vowels (v. § 873), which could not have been of such 
 
 frequent occurrence had not the s in this position been the softer 
 
 sibilant. 
 
 Obs. In spes and dies, the s belongs to the Stem, and has been dropped in the 
 Gen. and Dat. Sing, cases, spe-i = spes-i, die-i = dies-i. That the s of spes 
 belongs to the Stem is proved by the Nom. and Ace. PI. speres in Ennius, 
 and by the verb spero. That the s of dies belongs to the Stem appears 
 from the forms dmr-na«= (dius-nus), ho-dier-nus (=ho-die3-nus), and 
 Dies-piter. 
 
 § 893. S, at the end of words, was from the earliest times very 
 ,aintly sounded in Latin. In many of the Case-endings, s was 
 dropped altogether. Thus it disappeared in the Nom. Sing, of such 
 words as Numa, poeta^ puer, vigil ; in the Gen. Sing, of the 1st, 2nd, 
 and 6th Declensions, originally ending in a- is, o-isj e-is, from which 
 
850 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 § 894. 
 
 arose the later forms ae, », ei; in the Xora. PI. of the 1st and Cnd 
 Declensions, where a-is and o-is were the original forms of the later 
 ae and i. In verbs, in like manner, the s, which was the sign of 
 tlie 2nd Person Sing, of the Imperative, was dropped, rege, mone, 
 audi having originally ended in s. So also in the 2nd Person Sing, 
 of the Pres. and Imperf. Indie, and Subj., and of the Fut. Indie. 
 Passive, we have the forms amare, amerey amabare, amarere, ama- 
 here, together with aniaris, ameris, Sec. The adverbs mayis and 
 potis were aUo at an early period written mage and pote. 
 
 Ohs. The proof of the above statements would occupy too much space ; but 
 we may take as an example the Gen. Sing, of the 1st Declension. From 
 the oriarinal termination n-is, ae, terra-is, arose two sets of forms : 
 
 (1.) The final s was dropped, whence the forms, which frequently occur 
 in the old poets and even in Virgil : 
 
 '^itai, pictai, aquai. 
 
 ^ Both syllables were originally long, d T, which were first contracted into 
 ai and subsequently into ae. 
 
 (2.) Or the final s of a-is was preserved, and ai was then either con- 
 tracted into ae: as, dimidiaes : or the / was dropped : as, terras. 
 
 The form in aes frequently occurs in both the republican and imperia 
 inscriptions, especially in the names of females : as, 
 
 Pesceniaes, also dimidiaes, 
 Heraes, suacs. 
 
 The form in as is frequently found in the older poets : as, 
 terras, fortunes, 
 
 vias, escas. 
 
 It is retained in later writers in the common word paterfamilias. 
 
 § S94. In the inscriptions of the time of the Punic war we find 
 -words of the 2nd Declension in the Nominative case without s: as, 
 Terentio, Alhanio, &c. In the Eoman poets, down to the time of 
 Cicero, the final s, followed by a word beginning with a consonant, 
 did not make the preceding vowel Ion-:, which proves that it was 
 not then pronounced. Cicero styles this pronunciation snhrusticum 
 (Orat. 48, 161), which shows that the s was still dropped in his 
 time in the country dialect. In the later Imperial inscriptions the 
 final s in the case-endings usually disappears. This omission of the 
 final s, like the similar disappearance of the final m, was one of the 
 main causes of the destruction of the Latin Declensions. 
 
 z. 
 
 § 895. It has been already shewn (v. § 820) that Z was found in 
 the oldest Poman alphabet and that it occurred in the Camien 
 Saliare. At what time it disappeared is unknown. It is not found 
 in the Twelve Tables, and we are told that the tragic poet Attius 
 did not use it. It first came into use again in Cicero's time, but then 
 only in Greek words. 
 
 § 896. The Romans, in the time of Plautns and Pacuvius, ex- 
 pressed the Greek z at the beginning of words by s, and in the 
 
 T 
 
 
 § 903. 
 
 SIBILANTS. 
 
 3j1 
 
 middle of words by ss : hence they wrote and pronounced Sagiintum, 
 SethuSj sona, hcidisso, Atticisso, &c. Such forms in the present 
 MSS. of Plautus, as zona, Zacynthus, hadizo, trapezita were intro- 
 duced in the recension of the text by the grammarians, in accordance 
 with the orthography of their time. 
 
 § 897. Since in Latin, s at the beginning of words, and ss in the 
 middle of words after a short vowel, had the sharp sibilant sound, 
 the Greek ^ must have sounded to the earlier Piomans like their 
 sharp sibilant. 
 
 § 898. It would seem that in later times the Poman z had in it 
 something; of a (^ sound as well as of a sibilant. Hence in the later 
 Imperial times when di followed by a vowel was sibilated, di was 
 sometimes expressed by z : hence we find diahdus, diaconnSj &c. 
 \sTitten zaholus, zaconus, &c. (v. § 866). In like manner the sibi- 
 lated j was expressed by z in the later popular pronimciation : 
 whence we find in an inscription Zesu for Jesu, 
 
 X. 
 
 § 899. Wliether X is classed among the gutturals or the sibilants 
 is immaterial, as it represented both sounds united. It is here placed 
 with the sibilants, because in course of time it degenerated into a 
 mere sibilant. 
 
 § 900. It has been already shewn that X did not belong to the 
 earliest Poman alphabet, but still was wTitten at a period earlier 
 than the most ancient inscriptions (v. § 821). It is only an acci- 
 dent that we do not find it in the short inscriptions of the earliest 
 times. It first appears in the S. C. de Bacchanalibus in the words : 
 exdeicendum, exdeicatis, extrad. 
 
 § 901. From the time of the Gracchi, that is from the time of 
 Lucilius and Attius, who did much to fix the Latin orthography, X 
 was frequently written xs : as, saxsum, maxsume, proxsimum, de- 
 duxsit, lexSy &c. This orthography is found even in monuments of 
 the Augustan age, and still later on tombs of the Christian era. 
 
 § 902. It is clear from the simple X being sometimes written ars, 
 that the sibilant was pronounced very strongly. From this predo- 
 minance of the sibilant we may account for the fact, that before 
 consonants the guttural part of x disapj^eared and the sibilant s alone 
 remained ; whence w^e find in inscriptions sescentas, SestiuSy praetes- 
 tati. The remaining s then disappeared before those consonants 
 with which it did not harmonize, that is, before d, n, m, v (v. § 891) : 
 as, se-decim, se-ni, se-mestris, se-vir. 
 
 § 903. In the later Imperial times, the guttural element in X 
 seems to have been entirely dropped in the popular pronunciation, 
 and the letter to have been pronounced simply as s or ss. In inscrip- 
 tions of the fourth century we find such forms as visit for vixit^ 
 
352 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 §904. 
 
 §911. 
 
 SEMIVOWELS. 
 
 353 
 
 That X did not then differ in sound from s or ss is proved by the 
 mistakes of stone-cutters, who made 
 
 xancto for sancto, milex for miles, tigrix for tigris ; 
 
 and by the forms in MSS., 
 
 frassinus for fi-axinus, tossicum for toxicum, cossim for coxim. 
 
 Hence in Italian the X is always softened into s or ss : as, 
 
 Ital. saggio Lat. exagium, Ital. massimo Lat. maximum, 
 
 spiegare explicare, prossimo proximum, 
 
 esempio exempium, sasso saxum. 
 
 VI. Semivowels. 
 J. 
 
 § 904. The same character, namely I, was ujsed by the Romans 
 to express the vowel i and the semivowel J. 
 
 The semivowel J, as we learn from Priscian (i. 18, H), had its 
 simplest sound at the beginning of simple words, and at the be- 
 ginning of the second member of compound words : as, 
 
 ab-judico ad-jungo con-jectus 
 
 e-juro de-jectus di-judico. 
 
 In such cases J was pronounced like the English y. 
 
 § 905. If the J was followed by t, the J was dropped : therefore 
 the correct orthography is — 
 
 eicit not ejicit, proicitwo^ projicit, 
 
 reicit „ rejicit, coicit „ cojicit. 
 
 A short vowel thus preceding J in composition remained short, just 
 as before a simple consonant : as, 
 
 bijugus, quadnjugus, trijugus, altijugus. 
 
 § 906. J in the middle of simple words between two vowels had 
 a fuller sound, more similar to a vowel. Hence, as we learn from 
 Quintilian (i. 4, § 11), this sound was represented by a double i by 
 Cicero, who wrote, for example, aiio and Maiia (cf. Prise, i. 18, 
 vii. 19). AVe find in inscriptions such forms as Pompeiius, eilus, 
 cuilns, mailorinn, the second I in some cases being written higher 
 than the other letters. 
 
 § 907. Since the vowel, which precedes it, is always long, the 
 rule has been laid down by both ancient and modern grammarians, 
 that J makes the preceding vowel long (v. § 729). But why J 
 should have this ix)wer which no other consonant possesses, and 
 why the vowel should remain short in such words as iXjugus^ &c. 
 (v. § 905), remained unexplained. It has been shown by more 
 modem scholars, that in all cases in which a long vowel stands before 
 
 ■a^ 
 
 J, the vowel is either long by nature, or has been lengthened to 
 compensate for the omission of a consonant. Thus the vowel e is lon<y 
 by nature in all proper names ending in ejus : as Acteius, Agneius. 
 The guttural is omitted before J in : 
 
 major, majus for mS,gior, 
 
 Majus (Mains) „ Magius, 
 
 pulejum „ pulegium, 
 
 mejo „ niigio (cf. mingo), 
 
 aio „ agio (cf. Sansk. ahj ** dicere "). 
 
 V is omitted before J in : 
 
 Gajus (Gains) for Gavius. 
 r in: 
 
 pejero for perjero (cf. perjurium). 
 s in : 
 
 dijudico for disjudico. 
 
 s with n preceding in : 
 
 tra-jicio for transjicio. 
 s with c preceding in : 
 
 se-jugis for sexjugis. 
 
 § 908. In the later popular pronunciation J was sibilated and pro- 
 nounced nearly like the English j and the Italian gi. In a very late 
 inscription we find congiunta, written for conjuncta. Hence the 
 Itahan words giunto, giovane, giogo from junctum, juvenemjugum, 
 
 V. 
 
 § 909. The same character, namely Y, was used by the Romans to 
 express the vowel u and the semivowel v. 
 
 The semivowel v was reckoned by Cicero among the labial con- 
 sonants. (Mar. Victorin. p. 2462.) The Emperor Claudius, as 
 already remarked (v. § 824), introduced for this sound the character 
 d, which, however, after his death fell into disuse. 
 
 § 910. Many Greek words, which originally began with a Digamma, 
 begin in Latin with a v : as, 
 
 vomo, 
 
 voco, 
 
 Volvo, 
 
 vinum, 
 
 viola. 
 
 €7ra}y 
 
 €iXg), 
 
 oivoSf 
 tov. 
 
 vitulus, 
 
 ver, 
 
 vestis, 
 
 vespera, 
 
 Vesta, 
 
 ITttXoff, 
 
 eadrjSf 
 'EoTia. 
 
 § 911. The Latm v was expressed in Greek, after the disappear- 
 ance of the Digamma, by either ou or ^ : and the same word is 
 sometimes written indifferently in either way : as, 
 
S54 
 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 § 
 
 
 Tarro, 
 
 Ovdppa>Vj 
 
 "BappciV, 
 
 
 Yala, 
 
 OvakrjSj 
 
 BaXr/y, 
 
 
 Valentia, 
 
 OvaXfVTia, 
 
 BuXryrta, 
 
 
 Valerius, 
 
 OvaXcpioSf 
 
 BaXcptavus, 
 
 
 Venusia, 
 
 Ovcvovriaj 
 
 Bevovcria. 
 
 §912. 
 
 This fluctuation in the orthography between ov and /3 proves that 
 i; in Latin occupied an intermediate sound between the vowel sound 
 ov and the consonant ^ in Greek, which was the case with the 
 Greek f. V would therefore seem to have lx?en pronounced in the 
 beginning of words like the English v. 
 
 § 912. V never stands at the l3eginning of words followed by 
 another consonant. Hence the following Greek words, in which ^ 
 represents the lost Digamma in the Aeolic and Doric dialects, are 
 written in Latin without the v. 
 
 /3pi^a, comp. radix ^P^'x^i comp. rigo 
 
 ^podoVf „ rosa ^pvxuofxaij „ rugio. 
 
 V rarely comes into contact with a preceding consonant, except 
 the liquids r and I. It either (1) drives out the preceding consonant, 
 or (2) is changed into ?/, or (3) disappears altogether. 
 
 (L) D disappears before v (v. § 842) in : 
 
 viginti, suavis. 
 
 G disappears before v (v. § 839) in : ' 
 
 nives, fruor, fluvium, conniveo, vivo. 
 
 F, having previously become /<, disappears before v (v. § 850) in : 
 
 proba-vi for proba-fui, &"c. 
 
 (2.) Y is changed into « in the suffix •vus after Mutes and ?i : as, 
 
 vacuus, perpetuus, 
 
 mortuus, ingenuus. 
 
 But if r or ? precedes, the suffix -vus retains its original form : as, 
 
 alvus, acervus, 
 
 calvus, [ curvus. 
 
 (3.) Y disappears altogether before d, ty and s : as, 
 
 te, tibi, comp. tu, tuus, . , Sansk. tvam, 
 se, sibi, „ sui, suus, . , „ svas. 
 
 >» 
 
 Obs. A comparison of these pronouns with the Sanskrit shows that v was the 
 original form, suhsequently changed into u, and then dropped. 
 
 § 913. In like manner v rarely comes into contact with a con- 
 sonant following ; for, when a vowel following is dropped, v becomes 
 u, and then coalesces with the preceding vowel into a diphthong. 
 Thus av becomes au, when the vowel following is dropped ; as, 
 
 1 
 
 §917. 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 ^l5 
 
 OJ« 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 fautor 
 nauta 
 auceps 
 audeo 
 
 from 
 
 
 favitor, 
 
 navita, 
 
 aviceps, 
 
 avideo ; comp. avidus. 
 
 So ov becomes ou (afterwards written u\ w^hen the vowel following 
 is dropped : as, 
 
 novum per (v. Ohs. 1), 
 
 novumce (v. Ohs. 2), 
 
 Jovipiter, 
 
 Jovino, 
 
 Jovicundus, 
 
 providens. 
 
 In such cases v was probably pronounced like the English w. 
 
 Ohs. 1. In mtper for novum-per, the preposition is added as an enclitic, like 
 panim-per, sem-per, paul!is-per, tantis-per, aliqua7itis-per. 
 
 Ohs. 2. Xovum-ce becomes first noum-cc, num-ce, and then nun-c ; just as 
 hum-ce becomes hun-c, and tum-ce becomes tun-c. 
 
 § 914. Y between vowels is frequently dropped : as, 
 
 nuper 
 
 to 
 
 nunc 
 
 >» 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 »> 
 
 Juno 
 
 » 
 
 jucundus 
 
 » 
 
 pnidens 
 
 >» 
 
 petii for petivi. 
 
 malo 
 
 for 
 
 mavolo. 
 
 commorunt „ commovenmt. 
 
 aetas 
 
 » 
 
 aevitas. 
 
 amarunt „ amaverunt, 
 
 ditior 
 
 ij 
 
 divitior, 
 
 nolo „ novolo. 
 
 vita 
 
 11 
 
 vivita. 
 
 The V in the Perfect of the First Conjugation seems to have been 
 usually omitted in the popular pronunciation ; hence the perfect 
 forms of the modern Italian lavorai^ amaij chiamai^ «fec. 
 
 (B.) VOWELS. 
 
 i 
 
 § 915. The vowels appear to have been pronounced in Latin much 
 as they are in the modem Italian. According to the organs with 
 which they are pronounced, A has the nearest relation to the Gut- 
 turals, I to the Dentals, and U to the Labials ; w^hile E has an in- 
 termediate sound between the Guttural a and the Dental % and 
 an intermediate sound between the Guttural a and the Labial u, 
 
 § 91G. We learn from Quintilian that e in some cases had an 
 intermediate sound between e and i (" in here neque e plane neque 
 t auditur," i. 4, § 18), which sound was expressed in the prae- 
 Augustan period by ei. 
 
 § 917. There was in Latin an intermediate sound between i and u, 
 very nearly equivalent to the sound of the Greek v, the French w, 
 and the German w. This sound is frequently mentioned by gram- 
 
356 
 
 ALPHABET. 
 
 §918. 
 
 ( 357 ) 
 
 marians (" medius est quidam inter i et u sonus," Quint, i. 4, § 7 ; 
 •* pinguius quam i, exilius quam w," Mar. Victor, p. 2465 ; *' i scri- 
 bitur et paene u enuntiatur," Vel. Long., p. 2235 ; " sonum y Grae- 
 cae videtur habere," Prise, i. 6). It occurred in the following words 
 according to the grammarians : — 
 * Before m in ; 
 
 maxumiis, 
 
 1 
 
 pulcherrumua, 
 1 
 
 sum us. 
 
 1 
 
 iutumus, 
 1 
 
 1 
 acerrumus, 
 
 1 
 contumax, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 extuDius, 
 
 i 
 justissumus, 
 
 1 
 contumelia, 
 
 1 
 lacmmae, 
 
 1 
 
 volumus, 
 
 1 
 existumat, 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 optumus, 
 1 
 
 i 
 nolumu3. 
 
 monumentum, 
 1 
 
 1 
 miniimus. 
 
 i 
 possumus, 
 
 1 
 alumeuta. 
 
 Before 6, />, and/ in : 
 
 
 
 i 
 manubiae, 
 
 lubido, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 aucupium, 
 
 1 
 
 aurufex. 
 
 1 
 
 in tubus, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 mancupium. 
 
 
 1 
 
 artubus, 
 i 
 
 1 
 aucupare, 
 
 
 1 
 
 manubua. 
 
 manupretium, 
 
 
 There are many words of a similar kind. This variation in the 
 orthography is foimd chiefly before Labials. In the old inscriptions 
 all such words appear with m, but in the inscriptions in the time of 
 Caesiir, Cicero, and Augustus, with an i. We are expressly told by 
 the ancient grammarians that Caesar and Cicero employed the z, 
 though the country-people used the more ancient pronimciation 
 with the u (Ca&siod. p. 2284 ; Vel. Long. p. 2216). 
 
 The Emperor Claudius attempted to introduce the new character 
 h, for this intermediate sound between i and u (v. § 824) ; but it is 
 curious that this character in inscriptions does not occur in any of 
 the words already mentioned, but only as a representative of the 
 Greek v, as in ; Aeg |- pti, C h cnus, Bath J- llus, &c. 
 
 Even in late inscriptions we sometimes find the u in such words ; 
 so that the intermediate sound between u and i seems never to have 
 passed completely into i. In modern Italian the i is the most fre- 
 quent, as in ottinio^ inassimo, prossimo, intimOy lihidine, &c. But 
 the u is still retained in nionumento and documento. 
 
 § 918. The following arrangement shows the comparative weight 
 of the vowels in Latin, a being the heaviest and i the lightest : 
 
 I. 
 
 Appendix II. — Latin Authors. 
 
 § 919. A. Frae-classical Period (b.c). 
 
 Cn. Naevius (3rd cent.) :— Epic poem on the First Punic War ; and 
 other poetry. 
 
 Q. Ennius (239-169); born at Rudiae in Calabria :— Epic poem on 
 Boman History ; Dramas, Satires, etc. 
 
 M^ Pacuvius (cir. 220-130) ; probably bom at Brundusium :— 
 Tragedies. 
 
 L. Attius or Accius (170-cir. 90) ; son of a freedman .-—Tragedies. 
 
 M. PoRcius Cato (234-149) :— History of Rome ; Treatise Be lie 
 Hustica, 
 
 Caecilius Statius (ob. 168) ; born at Milan, and a slave by birth :— 
 Comedies. 
 
 L. Afranius (flor. 94) :— Comedies. 
 
 Ohs. With the exception of the treatise on farming (De Re Eustica) by M. 
 Porcius Cato, only fragments of the works of the above authors have come 
 down to us. 
 
 § 920. B. Golden Age, 
 
 T. Accius (more properly Maccius) Plautus (254-184, b.c.) ; 
 born at Sarslna in Umbria :— Comedies, twenty in all extant,' 
 besides fragments. 
 
 P. Terentius Afer (195-159, b.c.) ; a freedman, and native of 
 Carthage .-—Comedies {dx). 
 
 M. Terentius Varro (116-28, b.c.) ; born at Rome .-—wrote De 
 Lingua Latina, and De Re Rustica ; besides a work on Roman 
 History, and others not extant. 
 
 M. TuLLius Cicero (106-43, b.c.) ; born at Arpinum .-—Rhetorical 
 works ; Speeches in private and public cases ; philoso^jhical and 
 ethical works ; Letters. 
 
 C. Julius Caesar (100-44, b.c); born at Rome :— Commentaries or 
 memoirs of his own times, viz., the Gallic and Civil Wars. 
 
 T. Lucretius Carus (9o-52, b.c.) ; bom at Rome :— Poem in six 
 books, expounding the Epicurean philosophy (" De Rerum 
 Katura "). 
 
 C. Valerius Catullus (87-47, b.c.) ; of Verona :— Lyiic an delegiac 
 ix>etry. 
 
 a. 
 
 «. 
 
 ». 
 
358 
 
 LATIN AUTHORS. 
 
 § 921. 
 
 C. JSallustius Crispus (86-35, b.c.) ; bora at Amiternum :— His- 
 torical works ; of which the CatiUne and Jugurtha arc extant. 
 
 P. TiRGiLius (or Vergilius) Marc (70-19, b.c) ; bom at Andes 
 near Mantua :— Bucolics, Georgics ; Aeneid ; also some short 
 pieces. 
 
 Q. HoRATius Flaccus(65-8, b.c.) ; born at Yenusia :— Odes, Satires, 
 familiar and critical Epistles in Verse. 
 
 Cornelius Nepos (flor. cir. 30, b.c.) ; of Verona ; Lives of eminent 
 men. 
 
 Albius Tibullus (? 54-18, B.C.); born at Pedum near Tibur :— 
 Elegiacs. 
 
 Sex. Aurelius Propertius (? 51-19, b.c.) ; born in Umbria : — 
 Elegiacs. 
 
 T. Livius Patavin'us (59-19, b.c.) ; of Patavium (Padua) : — His- 
 tory of Rome ; of which only about one-fourth part is extant. 
 
 P. OviDius Naso (43 B.C.-18 a.d.) ; bom at Sulmo : — Elegiacs; 
 " The Metamorphoses," a ix)em in 15 books, and other works. 
 
 M. ViTRUVius PoLLio (? temp. August.) :--work on architecture. 
 
 M. Maxilius (? temp. August.) : — Astronomical poem. 
 
 §921. C. Silver Age, 
 
 T. Piiaedrus (flor. cir. 15, a.d.) ; freedman of Augustus : — Fables. 
 
 M. Annaeus Seneca, father of L. Seneca (GO B.C.-15 a.d.) ; born at 
 Cordilba (Cordova), in Spain ; — Rhetorical works. 
 
 L. Annaeus Seneca (? 5 B.C.-65 a.d.) ; bora at Corduba : —Philo- 
 sophical and ethical works : also Tragedies ; unless the author 
 of these be a third Seneca. 
 
 C. Velleius Paterculus (cir. 19 b.c.-SI a.d.) ; probably bora at 
 Rome : — History. 
 
 L. Julius Moderatus Columella (flor. cir. 20 a.d.) ; bom at Gadcs 
 (Cadiz) : — Agriculture. 
 
 A. Persius Flaccus (a.d. 38-G5); bom at Volaterrae in Etruria:— 
 Satires (stjc). 
 
 C. SiLius Italicus (a.d. 25-100): — Epic poetry Q^ Punka''). 
 
 M. Annaeus Lucanus (a.d. 38-G5) ; bom at Corduba : — Epic poem 
 (" rharsalia "). 
 
 C. Plinius Secundus (a.d. 23-79) ; bora either at A^erona or Co- 
 mum : — Natural History (35 books). 
 
 II 
 
 §921. 
 
 LATIN AUTHORS. 
 
 359 
 
 hI 
 
 i 
 
 C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus, nephew of the foregoing (61- ?) ; 
 probably bora at Comum : — Epistles and Oratory. 
 
 Valerius Maximum (1st cent. ?) : — Historical Anecdotes. 
 
 C. Valerius Flaccus (1st cent.) ; bom at Padua : — Epic poetry. 
 
 Q. CuRTius RuFUS (date and jilace of birth unknown) ; — History of 
 Alexander the Great. 
 
 M. Fabius Quintilianus (ob. 88 a.d.); bom at Calagurris in 
 Spain : — Work on Rhetoric. 
 
 P. Papinius Statius (ob. a.d. 95) ; born at Naples : — Poetry. 
 
 M. Valerius Martialis (a.d. 43-cir. 105); bora at Bilbilis in 
 Si>ain : — Epigrams (14 books). 
 
 D. Junius Juvenalis (latter part of 1st cent, a.d.) ; bom at Aqul- 
 
 num : — Satires. 
 
 L. Annaeus Florus (?) : — Summary of Eoman History. 
 
 C. Cornelius Tacitus (cir. a.d. 60-120) ; place of birth unknown :— 
 History of Pome from Augustus ; Life of Agricola ; Treatise on 
 Germany. 
 
 C. Suetonius Tranquillus (latter part of 1st and beginning of 
 
 2nd cent, a.d.); place of birth not known :— Lives of the 
 Caesars, etc. 
 
 PoMPONius Mela (latter yaxi of 1st cent.) ; bom in Spain :— First 
 systematic writer on Geography in Latin. 
 
 T. Petronius Arbiter (ob. ^Q>, a.d.) .-—Satires. 
 
 AuLus Gellius (fl. 150, a.d.) '.—''Nodes Atticae,''si kind of literary 
 miscellany. 
 
 L. Apuleius or Appuleius (2nd cent.) ; bom at Madaura in Africa : 
 — Philosophical and imaginative works. 
 
 Gaius or Caius (fl. 160, a.d.) :— Legal works. 
 
 D. Magnus Ausonius (4th cent.) ; bom at Burdig^ (Bordeaux) : 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 Justinus (?) .-—History. 
 
 AuR. Theodosius Macrobius (ob. 395) :— Critical and antiquarian 
 works. 
 
( 360 ) 
 
 Appendix III. — The Calendar. 
 
 § 922. The months in the Eoman (Julian) Calendar corresponded 
 to our own. But Julius and Augustus were called Quijictllis and 
 SextiUs down to the time of the emperor Augustus. The names of 
 the months were adjectives, with which mensis was understootl or 
 might be expressed. 
 
 The days of the month were not, as with us, counted straidit 
 on from the beginning of the month to the end. Instead of this, 
 three fixed points were taken in each month, and any particular 
 day was reckoned as so many days from the nearest of those pohits 
 in advance of it. 
 
 These three points were called, 
 
 (1). KJllendae, arum ; tJie Kalends : being the 1st day of the 
 month. 
 
 (2). N5nae, arum ; the Xones : being either the 5th or 7th day 
 of the month, i. e., nine days before the Ides.* 
 
 (3). Idus, uum (/.) ; the Ides ; being either the 13th or lotli 
 dav of the month. Thus the Ides divided the month uito 
 two nearly equal parts. 
 
 * The following lines contain the names of the months in which the Nones (and 
 consequently the Ides) fall late : 
 
 " In March, July, October, May, 
 The Nones fall on the seventh day." 
 Consequently in the remaining eight months they fall on the fifth. 
 
 § 923. The first day of a month being called its " Kalends," the 
 last day of the preceding month is called the day before the Kalends 
 (pridie K^lendas). Thus, the 31st of December is called the day 
 before the Kalends of January : often written pridie Kal. Jan. Then 
 the day before that is the 3rd of the Kalends, and so on back to the 
 Ides, and from thence again to the Nones, which form fresh points 
 of calculation, as seen in the following table : — 
 
 Calendar for the month of December. 
 
 1. 
 
 KaLEXDIS DECEMBRlBrS. 
 
 17. 
 
 X^^. 
 
 ante Kalendas Januarias. 
 
 2. 
 
 IV. ante Nonas Dcccmbres. 
 
 18. 
 
 XV. 
 
 It 
 
 II 
 
 3. 
 
 III. „ 
 
 19. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 » 
 
 t* 
 
 4. 
 
 Pridie Nonas Dccembres. 
 
 20. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 It 
 
 II 
 
 5. 
 
 NoNis Dkcembribus. 
 
 21. 
 
 XII. 
 
 i> 
 
 If 
 
 6. 
 
 VIII. ante Idus Deeembres. 
 
 22. 
 
 XI. 
 
 >i 
 
 t> 
 
 ** 
 
 yii. » 
 
 23. 
 
 X. 
 
 f* 
 
 II 
 
 8. 
 
 ^1« >» »» 
 
 24. 
 
 IX. 
 
 »t 
 
 it 
 
 9. 
 
 V* »» »» 
 
 25. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 If 
 
 II 
 
 10. 
 
 1 *• »» >» 
 
 26. 
 
 VII. 
 
 )* 
 
 ft 
 
 11 
 
 III. 
 
 27. 
 
 VI. 
 
 *• 
 
 II 
 
 12. 
 
 Pridie Idus Deeembres. 
 
 28. 
 
 V. 
 
 » 
 
 II 
 
 13. 
 
 Idibvs Dkcembribus. 
 
 29. 
 
 IV. 
 
 n 
 
 II 
 
 14. 
 
 XIX. ante Kalendas Januarias. 
 
 30. 
 
 III. 
 
 >• 
 
 II 
 
 15. 
 
 XVIII. „ 
 
 31. 
 
 Pridie 
 
 II 
 
 >i 
 
 16. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 
 
 
 
 §927. 
 
 THE CALENDAR. 
 
 361 
 
 § 924. In order to reduce an English to a Roman date, the number 
 of the day in the English Calendar must be subtracted from that of 
 the nearest fixed point in advance of it in the Roman Calendar of the 
 same month. And as the Romans counted inclusively from one day 
 to another, a imit must be added to the number thus obtained. 
 Thus, the 10th of December is not the 3rd before the Ides, but the 
 4th, &c. Also, as the Kalends form an extra day, beyond the month, 
 a unit must be added to the number of days in the month, in 
 counting on to them. 
 
 Obs. Hence the rule, — After subtracting, add otie for the Nones or Ides, and 
 ttco for the Kalends. 
 
 § 925. In giving the day of the month as a date, the Ablative was 
 used (§ 322) : as, Kalendis Martiis, Idibus Martiis, die quinto ante 
 Kalendas Martias. Both die and ante were often omitted, as XIV. 
 Kal. Mai., which may be either Accusative or Genitive. But another 
 very common way was to begin with ante, when the Ablative became 
 changed into the Accusative under its government : as, ante diem 
 dechnum quartum Kalendas Maias, usually written a. d. XIV. Kal. 
 Uai. In this construction the Accusative Kalendas remained un- 
 changed, as if it were still governed by ante. 
 
 § 92G. The expression ante diem must be considered as an inde- 
 clinable Substantive, since we find it often preceded by preix)sitions 
 which govern the Accusative or Ablative : as. 
 
 In ante dies octavum et septlmum Kalendas Octobres comitiis" 
 dicta dies. The time was fixed for the comitia for the eighth and 
 seventh days before the Kalends of October. ~L\y. 43, 16. 
 
 Siippllcatio indicta est ex ante diem quintum Idus Octobres. A 
 public thanksgiving was appointed (to begin) from theffth day before 
 the Ides of October.— Liv. 45, 2. 
 
 § 927. When a day needed to be intercalated in the Julian Ka- 
 lendar, it was done by reckoning the 6th of the Kalends of March 
 twice. Hence the name for Leap-year, Bissextile (bis-sextus). The 
 two sixths (24th and 25th February) appear to have been dis- 
 tinguished as prior and posterior. 
 
 Note.— A complete Calendar for an ordinaiy year is given on the 
 following page : — 
 
362 
 
 THE CALENDAR. 
 
 §928. 
 
 1^ 
 
 « 
 >. 
 
 00 
 81 
 
 3 
 
 n. 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 03 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 .J 
 
 -< 
 is: 
 
 
 w t5 . 
 .■-3=1-' 
 
 •>=:^- 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 (E 
 
 ' = o 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 as 
 
 03 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 
 § 
 
 93 
 OS 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 .5 
 
 
 si 
 
 T3 3, 
 
 IS 
 
 11 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 S 
 
 .a 
 
 O :S' 
 
 
 en 
 
 •a 
 
 — « "H ^-« ^ 
 
 
 on 
 
 es 
 
 -- i- 
 
 S o as 
 
 c 
 
 03 
 
 •-5 
 
 ' as 
 
 as 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 OP 
 
 c 
 
 . « 
 
 ►J . . 
 
 i^ "^— • 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 C O 
 
 01 <M 
 
 
 ^ —« -H M 
 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 O 60 
 
 3 
 >-s 
 
 03 Si 
 
 ^ O 
 w 
 
 as 
 t3 
 
 > 
 as 
 
 H 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 S5 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 (3 
 O 
 
 ^S5 
 
 as 
 
 S 
 
 C 
 03 
 
 o = 
 
 a o 
 
 Ii 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 O) CD 
 
 ."•3 
 
 en 
 
 
 r-00 0» O •"• 
 
 ( 363 ) 
 
 Appendix IV. — Money. 
 
 § 929. The original monetary unit of the Romans was the 
 as (assis), or pound, viz., of copper. The fractions of the as were 
 designated as follows : — 
 
 Uncia, 
 Sextans, ntis, 
 
 ^\ 
 
 Quadrans, ntis, three 
 
 Triens, ntis, four 
 
 Quincunx, ncis, five 
 
 Semis, issis, six 
 
 Septunx, ncis seven 
 
 Bes, bessis, eight 
 
 Dodrans,* ntis iiiuc 
 
 Dcxtans.f ntis, te7i, ,, 
 
 Deunx, ncis, eleven „ 
 
 * = de-quadrans. 
 
 one ounce; 
 
 two ounces ; ^^, that is, ^ 
 
 of an as. 
 
 fi 
 
 >> 
 
 »> 
 
 >» 
 
 >> 
 
 )> 
 
 >» 
 
 3 
 
 i\ 
 
 6 
 
 Vi» 
 7_ 
 12 
 8 
 12» 
 
 \^> 
 
 n 
 >» 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 >• 
 
 n 
 >» 
 »» 
 >» 
 »» 
 »» 
 »» 
 if 
 
 t = de-sextans. 
 
 Obs. The substantive as and its fractions are used of other units. Thus tcrna 
 jugera et scptunces(Liv.), is three acres and seven-tivelfths [a-piece) : heres 
 ex asse, heir to the entire estate, ex dodrante, to three-fourths, etc. So 
 fenus ex triente factum erat besslbus (Cic), interest had risen from =• per 
 cent, {per month) to 'j ; or from 4 to 8 per cent. (Madvig.) 
 
 § 930. From being originally a full ix)und in weight, the as was 
 gradually reduced, till, in the time of Augustus, it was a small coin, 
 of little more than nominal value (" vilem redigatur ad assem," Hor. 
 Sat. 1, 1, 43). The denarius was a silver coin, first coined five 
 years before the first Punic war, and was originally equal to 10 
 asses. But in the later times of the republic the unit of business 
 calculations was the sestertius (sesterce), being the fourth part of a 
 denarius, and equal to 2^ asses, or a little more than 2d. The ses- 
 terce was also a silver coin, and both it and the denarius maintained 
 a uniform value, notwithstanding the depreciation of the unit on 
 which both were based. 
 
 Obs. Sestertius is a contraction for semis tertius, lit. the third is minus a half, 
 1. e. 2,^ This was often written IIS, whence the common abbreviation 
 HS or US. 
 
 § 931. Sums of 1000 and under are counted regularly : as, mille 
 sestertii, 1000 sesterces; trecenti sestertii, 300 sesterces. But in 
 expressing several thousand sestertii, the neuter plural sestertia was 
 employed, with which millia must be understood, unless expressed : 
 as duo sestertia or duo millia sestertium, 2000 sesterces. 
 
 § 932. To express sums of a million of sesterces and upwards the 
 multiplicative Numeral AdverV«, dScies, &c., are used with sester- 
 tmm or HS., the words "centena millia" being understood. Thus 
 
364 
 
 ROMAN NAMES. 
 
 933. 
 
 dScies sestertinm (= decies centena niillia sestertium, <m times a 
 hundred thousand sesterces) is one million sesterces, (Sometimes 
 we find only decies centena, " millia sestertinm " being nnderstood.) 
 In like manner sexagics sestertinm is six millions of sesterces. 
 
 In such expressions sestertinm must have been originally a Gen. 
 PI. ; but it came to be regarded as a Neuter Substantive in the 
 Singular, and was declined accordingly : as, 
 
 Argenti ad summam sertertii dScies in aeravium retttiUt, he 
 hrought into the treasury up to the sum of one million of sesterces. — 
 
 Liv. 45, 4. 
 
 Syngripha sestertii centies, a Bill of ten millions of sesterces.— 
 
 Cic. Fhil. 2, 37. 
 
 Serviliae sexagies sestertio margarltam mercatus est, he bought 
 Servilia a pearl for six millions of sesterces. — Suet. Caes. 50. 
 
 Greater and smaller sums may be combined in one statement: 
 as, accepi vicies diicenta triginta quinque millia quadringentos decern 
 et septem nummos, 2,235,417 sesterces. — Cic. Verr. 1, 14. 
 
 §937. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 365 
 
 § 934. The whole of a man's name was of course rarely, if ever, 
 used in speaking to him, though it was employed in the headings of 
 letters, and in documents generally. The family name (cognomen) 
 was mostly used in addressing those not of the same family ; the 
 use of the gentile name («^nomen) had something formal and 
 respectful about it ; that of the fore-name (praencmen) was confined 
 to members of the same family or intimate friends. Even an 
 honourable agnomen, like Magnus, Africanus, was transmitted to 
 his family by the jDerson who bore it. 
 
 § 935. When a slave was manumitted by a citizen, he took the 
 praenomen and gentile name of his manumitter, and added to it 
 some other appropriate name (often that by which he was before 
 called), as cognomen. Thus Cicero's freedman, Tiro, is called M. 
 TuUius Tiro. As additional names of freedmen, may be mentioned, 
 Q. Horatius Flaccus (the father), P. Terentius Afer ; L. Cornelius 
 Chrysogonus, etc. 
 
 c 
 
 Appendix Y. — Eoman Names. 
 
 § 933. A Roman citizen had ordinarily three names, as Marcus 
 Tullius Cicero, Caius Julius Caesar. Of these the middle one was 
 projxjrly called nomen, being the name of his gens; the third, cog- 
 nomen, being that of his family (lamllia) ; the first, praenomen, or 
 t'ore-name^ being that by which he was known from the other 
 members of the same family, and answering to our "Christian 
 name." 
 
 In addition to these, some persons had what was called a^uomen, 
 or an appendage to the name proper : as, Publius Cornelius Scipio 
 Africanus. When a person was adopted into another gens, he took 
 the entire name of the individual adopting him, but ap^x^nded to it 
 that of his former gens as an agnomen, with the adjectival termina- 
 tion, -anus. Thus, the son of L. Aemilius Paullus, adopted by P. 
 Cornelius Scipio, became P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus. 
 
 Oba. 1. The same individual might have more than one agnomen. Thus the 
 P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus mentioned above, was also called P. Cor- 
 nelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus. 
 
 Obs. 2. The name of father and grandfather were often added by way of dis- 
 tinction. Thus C. Fannius (Cic. Am. 1, 3) is called M. F., i. e. Marci 
 Alius ; and Cn. Pompoius Strabo, father of the triumvir, is called Cn. Pom- 
 peius, Sex. F., Cn. N. Strabo ; i. e. son of Sextus, grandson of Cnaem. 
 
 Ohs. 3. Women are designated by the gentile name of their family, as Julia, 
 Pompeia, Sempronia. 
 
 Ohs. 4. In some cases an individual had only two names : as, C. Marius. 
 
 Appendix VI.— Abbreviations, 
 
 Aed. 
 
 Cos. 
 
 Coss. 
 
 Des. 
 
 D. 
 
 Imp. 
 P. C. 
 
 § 936. A. Praenomina. 
 
 A. 
 
 App. 
 
 C. 
 
 D. 
 
 Cn. 
 
 K. 
 
 L. 
 
 M. 
 
 M'. 
 
 Aulus. 
 Appius. 
 Caius. 
 Decimus, 
 (Gn.) Cnaeus. 
 Kaeso. 
 Lucius. 
 Marcus. 
 Mauius. 
 
 Mam. Mamercux. 
 
 N. or Num. Numerius. 
 
 P. 
 
 Q. 
 
 S. or Sex. 
 
 Ser. 
 
 Sp. 
 
 T. 
 
 Ti. 
 
 Publius. 
 
 Quintus. 
 
 Sextus. 
 
 Servius. 
 
 Spurius. 
 
 Titus. 
 
 Tiberius. 
 
 § 937. B. Titles, &c. (Ancient). 
 
 Aedilig. 
 Consul. 
 Consules. 
 Designatus. 
 Divus (applied to de- 
 ceased emperors). 
 Imperator.* 
 Patres Conscripti, 
 
 O. M." Optimus Maximug 
 
 (surnames of Jupiter). 
 Pont, Max. Pontifex Maximus, 
 Quir. QuirTtes. 
 
 S.P.Q.R, Senatus Populusque 
 
 Romanus. 
 Tr. PI. Tribunus Plebis. 
 
 «,^ • "P'^^^^^'^^ tinges this was an honorary title, bestowed by the Senate 
 nf «!.?«" ^^'^^J*!*- By the emperors it was used to signify their possession 
 o supreme power. In the former case it was used after the name : as, M. Tullius 
 v^icero Imperator ; in the latter it was prefixed, as Imperator C. JuUus Caesar. 
 
 r2 
 
366 
 
 A. 
 C. 
 
 y. L. 
 
 U. 11. 
 
 A. r. c. 
 
 D. D. 
 
 D. D. D. 
 D. M. 
 D. O. M, 
 F. 
 
 S. D, or 
 
 S. only 
 
 8. P. D. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 § 938. C. Miscellaneous (A^cn nt). 
 
 Ab^olvo,^ Antiquo.2 F. F. F. 
 
 Condemno.* 
 
 Non liquet.^ 
 
 Uti Rogas.- 
 
 Anno urbis conditae. 
 
 Dono dedit. 
 
 Dat, dicat, dedicat. 
 
 Dis Manibus.^ 
 
 Deo Optimo, inaximo. 
 
 Filius. 
 
 §938. 
 
 F 
 
 I 
 
 F. C. 
 i Judicial 
 
 Salutem dicit. 
 
 Salutem plurimam 
 dicit.* 
 Faciendum curavit.^ 
 
 Felix, faustum, for- 
 tunatum. 
 
 Hie conditus situs est.' 
 
 Hoc mouumentum lie- 
 redes non scquitur.^ 
 
 Libert a.s. 
 
 Millc rassuum. 
 
 Nepos. 
 
 Obiit. 
 
 Kespublica. 
 
 Senatus coiisultum. 
 S. V. B. E. E. y. Si vales bene est, ego 
 
 valeo.'* 
 Tot. Potestas. 
 
 Y. Vixit.3 
 
 n. C. S. E. 
 U. M. H. >'. S. 
 
 L. 
 
 M. P. 
 N. 
 
 Ob. 
 Resp. 
 S. C 
 
 formula. 
 
 3 Sepulchral. 
 
 * Used in voting (with respect to laws). 
 * Epistolary. 
 
 § 939. D. Modern. 
 
 A.B. or B.A. Artium Baccalau- 
 
 A.M. or M.A. 
 
 A.C. 
 
 cet. 
 
 cf. 
 
 cod. codd. 
 
 D. 
 
 del. 
 
 ed., edd. 
 
 e.g. 
 
 etc. 
 
 h.e. 
 
 I.U.S. 
 
 I.N.R.I. 
 
 J.C. 
 
 1. ctus (Ictus) 
 
 ibid., ib. 
 
 id. 
 
 J.U.D. 
 
 I.e., 11. CO. 
 
 reus. 
 Artium Magister. 
 Ante Christum, 
 cetera. 
 
 confer, conferatur. 
 codex, codices. 
 Doctor, 
 dele, deleatur. 
 editio, editiones. 
 exempli gratia. 
 et cetera, 
 hoc est. 
 Jesus Hominum 
 
 Salvator. 
 Jesus Nazaraeus 
 
 Rex Judaeorum. 
 Jesus Christus. 
 Juris consultus. 
 ibidem, 
 idem. 
 Juris Utriusque 
 
 Doctor, 
 locus citatxis, loci 
 citati. 
 
 leg. 
 LL.B. 
 LL.D. 
 M.B. 
 
 M.D. 
 MS., MSS. 
 
 Mus. D. 
 
 N.B. 
 
 N.T. 
 
 lege, legendum. 
 Legum Baccalanrcus. 
 Lcgum Doctor. 
 Medicinae Bacca- 
 
 laurcus. 
 Medicinae Doctor. 
 Mauuscriptus (li- 
 ber), or pi. 
 Musicae Doctor. 
 Nota bene. 
 Novum Testa- 
 
 mentum. 
 Observa. 
 Post scriptum. 
 quod vide, 
 scilicet. 
 
 quod sequitur, or pi. 
 Sanctae Thcologiae 
 Baccalaurcus, Doc- 
 tor, Professor. 
 Vir celeberrimus, 
 
 clarissimus. 
 Yerbi divini Mi- 
 nister. 
 Vetus Testaracntxun. 
 
 ( 307 ) 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 (flie Xumlcrs indicate tJic Sections. The Word^ in Ttalics are ccmtained in the Accidence.) 
 
 A changed to e in comps., 206, i, 2. 
 to i „ 2o5. r, 
 
 tou „ 206, J. 
 a. «b, 557, I ;— In sing., 715, 
 aMiinc, constr. J2$, obs. 2. 
 abbreviations, 9J6. 
 
 ablative, or 1st I)ecl„ in abiis, 17, dig. 4 
 of3rd Decl., ini, j2, 
 of 3rd Decl., in i and 6, jj. 
 of3rd Decl. (pi.), m 7.^45. 
 Ahativo, syntax of, joi, sqq.; of Separa- 
 tioii, joj, sqq.; of motion from.261 ; after 
 opus, 308; of Origin, jog.sr/.; after ortus. 
 etc., jio; of Cause, etc. jrr, sqq.; after 
 pass, verbs, without ab, jii, obs.; after 
 verbs denoting feelings, jij ; of Price. 
 J16; of duration, 249. obs. 2; Absolute. 
 JJ2, sqq.; absoi. without subs., j^j ; with- 
 out participle, j;4; of Quality, j 18; of 
 companson. J19 ; of comparison, after 
 alius. 6 JO, obs. ; measure, j2i ; Time when. 
 J22 ; I ime, within which, j2 j ; Time, how 
 I^ng ago, J24 ; Place, 326, saq. 
 Absque, 557. 2. 
 
 Abstract subs, in plur.. 59J. 594;_in Tac. 
 721, o. 
 
 Abstract, expr. hj plur. of concrete, cor 
 
 for concrete. 592; bio, obs.; In Tac. 
 
 nc, atque. 567. 
 acatalectic verse, 782, dbs. 
 accent, where placed 3 
 accusative of 3rd Dec, in im. jr. 
 (pl.). in Is and es, J7 
 Greek, in a, 40, i. 
 in in, 40. 2. 
 
 (pl.), in as, 44. ! 
 syntax of, 2J4, y7«7. ; cognate 2?C 
 «>lo 24j; after . intrnns. vfrbs. 2^6* 
 25J; after passives. 24J. obs. 4-, 244. ob.l 
 J. 25J, obs. i: after verbs comp with 
 
 w3sV?o' '''^^"^■^' ^-^5; of mZ;,n o- 
 240 • in ?J ,'" ^f • "^'9. i ; of time, space, 
 249. m exclamations. 250; of closer dp- 
 fin.t.on.25i ; Greek. 252;^fnente?prons 
 25? ; used adverbially. 254; after ver^of 
 remembering, etc., 278. obsl r ^ °^ 
 
 ''%l5%bs'. ''^ ^^^' '^^» ^"^^ Adverbially, 
 
 adeo, emphatic, 614, j ; 65 j. 
 adipiscor, 171, 16. 
 
 p. part, in pass, sense, loi, obs. i. 
 Adjectives, 55, sqq. 
 
 in er (e)ra, (e)rum. 56, obs. i. 
 in ur, 56, obs. 2. 
 derivative, 186. 190. 
 g)veming genitive: of capacity, 
 276; of guilt, 279, obs. j; of 
 fulness, etc.. 276, J17 ; of price, 
 ?i6; of origin, 310; of feel- 
 ing, 314. 
 governing dative ; of advantage, 
 
 etc., 298. 
 reculiarities of: equiv, to snbs. 
 (imus, sumraus), J41 ; equiv. to 
 genitive case, 611, i ; in Tac, 
 721, 5; in neuter = abstract 
 subs., J42 ; with force of ad- 
 verbs, J4J ; neuter = adverbs, 
 J44. 
 compared together, jyo. 
 position of, 671 ; when empha- 
 tic, 672. 
 two, requiring conjunction, J40. 
 Adonian verse, 791. 
 adulor, constr, of, 291, obs. j. 
 Adverbs, termin. of, 196. sqq. 
 
 compared, 129; irregular, ijo. 
 
 classified, ijj. 
 
 derivative, 196. 
 
 derived from numerals. 72, 7 j. 
 
 pronouns, ijj. 
 Joined with subs.. 546; compared 
 together, 549 ; combined in Livy, 
 position of, 678. ["714 
 
 adversus (prep.). 556, 2. 
 ae (diphthong), 6, obs. 
 
 changed to t in compounds, 206, 5. 
 aedes, sing, and pU jr. 
 aemulor, constr. 291, 065. 4. 
 agnomen, 9j;. 
 agnosco, 167. 
 ago and comps., 158, 41. 
 ago. agito, in Sail., 694. 
 aio, 121. 
 
 -al, term, of subs., 182, 6. 
 Alcaic verse, 802. 
 algeo, 154, ij. 
 aliquis. Si, obs. 3. 
 aliquis and quis, j8;. 
 •alts, term of adj., 187, 5. 
 alius, 57. 
 alius . . . alius, ^90, 629. 
 
 B 3 
 
368 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 369 
 
 alius in diff. cases, 629. , ,, ^ ^, . , , 
 sequence of, 6jo ; foil, by abl., 6jo, obt. 
 
 alo, 160, I. , . J o « 
 
 Alphabet, 819, sqq. ; whence derived, 819. 
 
 olter, 57. 
 
 alternating verse, 804. 
 
 cUteruter, 82, obs. 6. 
 
 ambage, 52, 5- 
 
 ambio (irr.). 116, o6«. 5. 
 
 omicio, 168, 1?. 
 
 amphibrachys, 76;. 
 
 amphlmacer, 76}. 
 
 amplexus in pass, sense, loi, dbs. I. 
 
 amplius, constr. of, ^49. 
 
 ^riits, term, of adj., 187, 8; 188; 189, 3 i 
 
 190, obs. 
 an, in direct double questions, 414. 
 appy in simple questions, 415. 
 after baud scio, etc, 4?8. 
 anapaest, 763 ; anapaestic verse, 789. 
 ango, 158, 21. 
 anhelo, with ace., 1J7, obs, 
 animi, constr. of, 2iT, obs. 
 ante, 556, j. 
 
 verbs, comp. with, 292, 00s. J. 
 or post, constr. of, 325, oOs. i. 
 anteqvwm. 500, 501. 
 antibacchius. 76J. 
 antlspastus, 76; . 
 antithesis, in Sallust, 690. 
 apage, 124. 
 aperio, 168, 14. 
 
 apiscor, 171, 16. ^ J , „»„ 
 
 apodosis, what, 424 : expr. by dcbeo, etc., 
 
 428,06s. ; suppresse<l, 426, 
 apposition, 214; of adjectives. 216; m case 
 of urbs, civiuvs 215 (comp. 229); eqmv. 
 to as, when, 217. 
 apud. 556, 4; = a^ ih., obs, 
 aqua, -ae, 51. 
 -ar, term, of subs., 182, 6. 
 ar = ad,874. 
 arceo and comps. 150. !• 
 arcesso, 162, 6. „ « 
 
 Archilochus, imitated by Ilor., 807, sqq. 
 
 ardto, 154. 4- 
 arguo, i6j. 2. 
 
 ..arts, term, of adj., 187, 5. obs. 
 -arium, term, of subs., 182, 2. 
 -arius, term, of adj., 187, 9. 
 of subs., 182, 1. 
 
 arsis, 762. 
 Article, none, 10. 
 Arval brothers, chant of, 817. 
 -as, term, of adj., 189, 4. 
 as, parts of, 929. , 
 
 Asclepiadean verse, 791. o^»- 
 asking, verbs of, 244. 
 assentior, 172. 
 
 assis. 281,06s. 2. , - « 
 
 assuefacio, assuesco, constr. of, 292, OW. ». 
 asjTiartete metre, 799. ^ ,, .. 
 asyndeton, 56;, 06s. 2 ; m Sail., 089. 
 at, 57; : in sudden transitions, 576. 
 atque, ac, 56 j. 
 ' after compar, 352. 
 
 atqui, 577. 
 
 attraction of dative, 29?, oo«.; 290, obs. i, 2. 
 
 of relative (in gender), j8o: m 
 case, J 80, 06s. 
 
 after infinitives, 51J* 
 
 -atus, term, of subs.. 182, 4. 
 of adj., 187, 12. 
 awko, 119, B. 
 augeo, 154, i. 
 ausim, iii. 3. 
 aut and vel, 570. 
 autem, 572. 
 
 authors, Latin, 919, sqq. 
 auxilium, a, 51. 
 aiv, 124. 
 aven, 156, 2, i. 
 ^x, term, of adj., i36, 4. 
 B, ix)wer of, 850 ; = da, 852 ; becomes v , 
 
 85J. ^ 
 bacchius, 70 j. 
 Jiarbaria, -ies, 51, J. 
 being, verbs of. constr.. 2J2. 
 belli, constr., 258; bello, 328. 
 bene (com par.), iji. 
 hibo, 157, li. 
 
 -bilis, term, of a^J.. 186, 3. 
 bonus (compar.), 66. 
 bos, 50. 
 
 •bulum 1 ^^^ of subs., 181, 9. 
 -brum 5 
 
 -bundus, term, of adj., 110, |. 
 C original ix)wer of, 82;. 828 ; lost before n, 
 'vt, etc.. 827 ; how long retained its force, 
 828 ; = « before ia, i«), etc., 829. 
 Cado and comps., 159, 1 J. 
 caedo and comps., I59« H- , . , ^ 
 
 Caesar, style of. 695 ; his commentanes, 69^, 
 obs. ;. his freq. use of abl. absol., 698 ; long 
 periods, 699. , , 
 
 caesura, in hexameter. 771 ; penthemimeral, 
 etc., 77 J ; in pentameter, 77? ; m iambic 
 trimeter, 783. (See under the diff. metres. ) 
 calendar, Roman, 922, sqq. 
 calleo, 156. 2. 
 
 calling, verbs of in passive, 232. 
 callus, -lum, 5J, i. 
 calveo, 156, 2. 2. 
 cando and comps., 159, 20. 
 caneo, 156, 2, j. 
 cano and comps., 160, 14. 
 capesso, 162, 7. 
 cajno and comps., 157, II. 
 capite, capitis, constr, 280, obs. I. 
 carbasus, -a, 54. 
 career, -eres, 51. 
 cardinal numerals, 69, 7 j. 
 carpo and comp&., 157, i. 
 Cases, meanings of, 15. 
 castrum, -o, 51. 
 catalectic verse, 783, obs. 
 cause, in abl., 311. 
 cavto, 15?, I. 
 
 caveo, constr. of, 291, 06s. 7. 
 -ce, with prons., 78, obs. 1. 
 cMo, cttk, 124. 
 cetto, 159, 10, 
 
 celo. constr. of, 24? : see o6». J. 
 censeo and comps., 150, 6. 
 cemo, 161, I. 
 certe and certo, 659. 
 ceterum, 57 j. , 
 
 change of a to i, e, u, in comp., 206. 
 ae to i in comp., 206. 5. 
 an to in comp., 206, 6. 
 e to i in comp., 206, 4. 
 e to i in subs., 21, obs. 2. 
 
 change of e to 1/ in subs., 28, obs. 2. 
 , t to « in subs., 29, obs. i. 
 
 o to i in subs., 25, obs. i. 
 o to M in subs., 28, obs. 2. 
 M to I in subs., 28, obs. 3. 
 ' consonants : see the several letters, 
 
 chdiambus, 786. 1 j 
 
 choriarabic metre, 794, sqq. ; the foot, 763. ' 
 ci, how pronounced, 829. 
 Cicero, style of, 700, sqq.; doubles words, 
 701 ; uses abstr. subs, for concrete, 702 ; 
 his diminutives, 703; various senses of 
 versor, ratio, 704, 70J. 
 cieo, 151,6. 
 cingo, 158, 4. 
 circa, circum, 556, 5. 
 circiter, 556, 7. 
 circiim, in comp., 240, 246. 
 circumdo, cttnstr., 272, 06s. 3 ^ 
 cis. citra, 556, 8, 
 citerior, compar., 66. 
 civitas, constr. of, 215; 257, dbs. 2. 
 clam, 558, 5. 
 
 Claudius, adds to alphabet, 824. 
 claudo and comps., 159, i. 
 coelum, -t, 54. 
 coeno, -atus, 119, B. obs. 
 coepi, 120. 
 
 cognate accusative, 23 y. 
 cognosco, 167. 
 
 collective subs., constr., 222. 
 collective use of sing., 59a 
 colo, 160, 2. 
 comic tetrameter, 787. 
 comvieyitarius, -um, 5j, r. 
 comviiniscor, 171, 17. 
 omo, 160, 15. 
 comparative degr., 63. 
 
 of acU. in -ius, 64. IV. 
 = " too " or •' somewhat." 351. 
 comparison of a<\ject. and adv. together, jjo, 
 549 ; i" Tac., 720. 2. 
 
 words, 204-208. 
 concealing, \-erbs of, 243. 
 concord, 218- 
 
 ^qq- ; of Reu, 228. 
 
 concrete for abstr. subs., 589. 
 condiUo, etym. of; 829. obs. 
 cmgiiu), i6j, 15. 
 co^^ugations, liow distinguished, 89. 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 92-98; 3 and 4, 
 100. 
 
 ^r.^' .. periiJbrastic, 102. 
 coiyunctions, 139. 
 
 with suly., 483,. t^q'. 
 
 connective, 561, sqq. 
 
 adversative, $']i,sqq. 
 
 hj'pothetical, 579. , 
 
 causal. 581. 
 
 ojiiclusive, 582. 
 
 final, 586. 
 
 temporal, 587. 
 
 as particles, 652. 
 conrjuw, i5,,8. 
 consulo, 160. j. 
 
 consulo, constr. of, 291, obs. 7, 
 contentus.withaW..ji4 
 
 contio.orthog. of, 829,0V 
 contra, 556. 8. 
 
 contracted verbs, 104, 106. 
 
 contracted syllables; quant, of, 728 
 copula, 213, obs.; omitted in SaU., 68q, obi. 
 coquo, 158, 3. ^' 
 
 coram, 557, j. 
 
 ooneUxtives, 83 ; syntax of, 370. 
 
 cred/), 159, 18. 
 
 crepo and comps., 149, i. 
 
 cresco, 167, i, 
 
 creticus (foot), 763. 
 
 cubo and comps., 149, 2. 
 
 cudv, 159, 21. 
 
 cttjas, 77, obs. 4. 
 
 <^ju-^. 77. 06s. 3. 
 
 (cumbo) and comps., 157, 9 ; 149, 2. 
 
 -cundus, term, of a(^., i86, 4, obs. 
 
 cuj[rio, 157, 16. 
 
 cupressus, -i, and -4s, 53. 4. 
 
 cum, 557, 4; plural Verb after, 220,065. ?*: 
 
 denotingmamier, J12. . 
 
 cunque, 661 ; tmesis of, 661, obs, 
 cur, 133. 
 
 euro, takes ace, 291, ohs. 2. 
 curro and comps., 161, 6. 
 D, lost before s, 23, 06s. i. 
 final nearly = t, 860. 
 final often lost, 862. 
 tennination of Abl., etc., 861. 
 changed to 1, 870. 
 changed to r, 873. 
 dactyJ, 763. 
 
 <iactylic hexameter, 768. 
 lientameter, 779. 
 tetrameter, 812. 
 (daps), 52, I. 
 
 dative in -abus, 17, 06s. 4. 
 -is for -ibus, 45. 
 dative, syntax of, 287, sqq.: of remoter 
 olyect, 287; of advantage, 288; after 
 A(\jectives, 298; dativus ethicus, 290; 
 after various Verbs, 291, sqq.; after sum 
 == liabeo, 296 ; denoting agent after Passive 
 Verbs, 293 ; esp. after gerundive, 294; 
 after impers. Vci^s, 295 ; double, alter 
 lioet, etc., 295, obs. ; of names, by attrac- 
 tion, 296, 06s. I ; of purixjse or result, 
 297 ; Qsp. in Tac., 721, 2; after idem, 620; 
 alter adverbs, 299; exceptional uses of 
 Oreek dative, 300 \ 4enoUng niotUm to- 
 vards, 301. 
 dativus ethicus, 29a 
 <ie. 557, 5. 
 decet, 126. 
 
 decet, constr. of, 242. 
 declensions, 11, sqq. 
 dedecet, constr. of, 242. 
 defective comparison, 66. 
 substantives, 52. 
 verbs, 120. 
 defetiscor, 171, 19. 
 defiivUum, genitive of, 27?. 
 
 accus, of closer, 251. 
 deleo, 151, I. 
 dttno, 160, 16. 
 
 demonstrative prcmouns, 364, sqq. 
 demum, 660. 
 denarius, 930. 
 dentals, 857, sqq. 
 deponents, what, 84. 
 
 conjugated, roi. 
 derivative, 192. 
 lists of, 169-172. 
 

 370 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 371 
 
 deponents p. part of, in pass, sense, loi, 
 obs. I. 
 semi, loi, obs. j ; 119. 
 depso, 162, I. 
 
 derivation of subs., i3r, sqq. 
 desideratives, 194, j, 
 deterior, 66. 
 
 determinative prons., 79; constr. of, J70, 
 
 sqq. 
 deus, 19. cibs. 6. 
 de.\tra. }28. 
 til, sibilated. 866. 
 diaeresis, 767. 
 diastole, 762. 
 dico, 158, I. 
 dies, m. and/., 54."' 
 
 stem of, 892, obs. 
 different fonus of same word placed together 
 
 674. 
 
 digamma. how represented, 819. 
 
 dignus. with abl.. ^20; foil, by qui, 480; by 
 
 infin. mood, 480, obs. 
 dimeter, etc., 764. 
 diminutive subs.. i8j. 
 
 ivrbs, 194, 4. 
 diminutives, use of, 600, 70J. 
 diphthongs, short, 765, 7. 
 diSLO. i;8, jq. 
 
 dissjiUible pret. and supine, quant, of, nje. 
 diijtxibutivts, 71, 7j. 
 
 use of with plurals differing in 
 
 (clttio), 52, 1. 
 
 diu (compar.), iji. 
 
 dives, 60, obs. 2. 
 
 divid/), 159, 2. 
 
 do and comps., 149, j, i ; 159, 18, 
 
 doceo, 150, I. 
 
 constr. of, 24?, obs. 2. 
 
 domi. constr. of, 258, 
 
 dorainor, constr. of, 291, 065. 6. 
 
 dorno. 149, }, 
 
 domum. constr. of, 260. 
 
 domus. Si, 4. 
 
 donee, constr. of, 499. 
 
 double or alternating verse, 804. 
 
 du, becomes b, 852. 
 
 dubito, constr. of, 4j8. 
 
 dtuo, 1 58, 2. 
 
 d«m (from do), iii, 2. 
 
 dum, with pres. Indic, J9J, obs. 2; with 
 
 ludic. or Subj., 497. 
 dummodo, 498. 
 duntaxat, 658. 
 duo (num.), 68. 
 
 dupli, etc.. constr. of, 280, obs. 2. 
 E changed to i, etc, .- see change. 
 -e term, of adj., 196. 
 e. ex. 557. 6. 
 eccLstor, edepol, ijj. 
 ecca, eccuiii. 79, obs. i, 
 eccp, en, constr. of, 250, obs. i. 
 eccillum, 78, obs. 2. 
 ecquid as huerr. particle, 41 j. 
 ecquis, 82, obs. 2. 
 
 ediius, withabl,, jio. » 
 
 ^do, 115. 
 
 subj. edim, in, 2. 
 ido, 159, 18. 
 egeo, 156, j. 
 elision, 765. 
 
 ellum, 78, 06*, 2, 
 
 ellipsis, of son or daughter, 266, obs. ? ; of 
 aedes, 266, obs. 4 ; of voi ious substantives. 
 001 ; of verb, 6^5. 
 enio and comps. 160, 15, sqq, 
 en and ecce, constr. of, 250, obs. i. 
 enim and nam, 501. 
 enini as particle, 654. 
 -ensis, term, of a^j,, 189, i : 190, dbg. 
 eo, 116. 
 
 comps. of, 116, nbs. 
 pass, of, 116, obs. 
 epiceiies, 141. 
 epistolary style, J98, 404. 
 epitritus, 76J. 
 
 estur (from odo). 115, 065. i. 
 equidem, 656, obs. j. 
 eram in aor. sense, 397. 
 erga, 556, 9. 
 
 ergo, with genitive, 264, 
 as conjunction, 58;. 
 est niihi = habeo, 296, 
 et, 561 ; et, , .et, 562 ; et, . .neque, 564. 
 ethicus : see dativus. 
 etsi, etiamsi, 50J, 
 -etum, term, of subs., 182, 7. 
 eumpse, etc., 79, obs. 2. 
 '^tis, term, of adj., 187, i ; 188, obs. 
 -eus, 188, obs. 
 evtntus, -um, 5;, 4. 
 expedit, constr. of, 295. 
 expergiscor, 171, 20. , 
 txperiur, 172, 2. 
 extei-ior (compar.), 66. 
 extra, 556, ic. 
 exuo, i6j, 5, 
 
 F peculiar to Italian language, 854; cor- 
 responds to the Digamma. 854 ; not 
 Identical with (/>, 854; = bh in Sanskrit: 
 becomes h, 856. 
 Factfso, 162, 8. 
 facio and comps., 158. 42; (also 205, c*s.). 
 
 pass, of, 119, obs. I, 
 factitive accusative, 245, 
 fallit, constr. of, 242, obs. 
 /alio and comps., 160, 12. 
 farcio and comps., 168, i. 
 fari, 11}. 
 faUor and comps., 170, i. 
 
 p. part, in pass, sense, 101, 06s. i. 
 feet, metrical, 76J, 
 fervto, I5J, 7. 
 fetialis, orthog. of, 829, obt. 
 ficus, -i and -tls, $}, 4. 
 Jido, 119, B, 
 
 fido, with dat., 291 ; with abl., jij. 
 fi/o, 158, jo. 
 final consonants, quant, of, 750, sqq. 
 
 vowels, quant, of, 745. 
 fndo, 159, j 2. ^ 
 
 ft»go. 158, 2J. 
 M 119. 
 
 quantity of, 119, 065. 2. 
 first word, emphatic, 666. 
 first person, precedence of, 221, obs. 
 Jiaveo, 156, 2, 4. 
 Ji^icto, 158, ji. 
 Jico, 151, 2. 
 
 ifiigo) in comps., 158, 5. 
 flocci, constr. of, 281, obs. 2. 
 Ji'jrao, 156, 4. 
 
 fluo, 158, 51. 
 /odio, 159, 24. 
 foeteo, 156, 2, 5. 
 jorcut, I J 2. 
 (fors), 52, 2. 
 
 fortuna, sing, and pi., 51. 
 foveo, 15;, J. 
 frango and comps., 158, 4 j. 
 fremo, 160, 7. 
 fremlo, -to, 159, J 4. 
 frenuin, -i and -a, 54. 
 frequentative verbs, 194, i. 
 fretus, with abl., J14. 
 frico, 149, 9. 
 frigto, 154, 14. 
 frigo, 158, 6. 
 fruor, with abl., J15. 
 (frux), 52, I. 
 Jmgi (as adj.), 60, obs. j, 
 
 compared, 66. 
 fruor, 171, I. 
 fugit, constr. of, 242, 06s, 
 fullness, or want, Adjectives denoting, 276, 
 
 in. 
 fungor, with abl., J15, 
 
 future tense, J90 ; = Imperative, 420, obs. 2. 
 future Infinitive, how expr., 518. 
 future perfect, 405 ; of what is to be done 
 
 msiantly, 406 ; sign of often not expr. in 
 
 Lnglish, 407. 
 
 G when added to the alphabet, 822 ; lost 
 before liquids, 815 ; before s, 8j6 ; before 
 m, 8J7 ; before t, 8i8; before 1, 8i9. 
 Galliambic verse, 797. 
 gaudeo, 119, B. 
 gtvio, 160, 8, 
 genders of subs., 141. 
 generalization with rerum, 595. 
 generic plural, 59; . 
 
 geuiUve sing, -as, -ai (1 Dec). 17, dbs. 2. 
 pi. -um(l Dec), 17, ots. J. 
 pi. -iim (2 Dec), 19. obs. 4. 
 sing. .i = ii (2 Dec), 19, obs. 2. 
 pi. -on, 20, 4 ; 4j. 
 
 -ium and -um, 21, 0&5, i ; also 
 15, id. 
 (Greek), -i, j<), i, 
 
 -OS, J9, 2. 
 
 genitive, constr. of, 26; , sqq. ; after substan- 
 tives, 26j ; of the possessor, 265 ; after 
 l^^' ^^,' Subjective, 267; Objective, 
 268; Objective, after Adjectives, 276, 
 
 ^'nlfi' ,!>^^^»''^' 2^; of Quality, 274; 
 of Definition. 275 ; after At^ectives. 276 
 m-: after Verbs, 278, sqq.; after to ac- 
 
 ■ f*x ^^•' ^■'9; Genitive of price (tanti, 
 f.^' 28/ j. (flo<^i. etc.). 281, ibs. 2 ; afte^ 
 l^A ?L^*'''\'^^' ^**=- 282 ; with interest 
 and refert. 28i. Exceptional uses of, 284 : 
 of separation, 284; Greek genitive, 285 
 in apposition with possessive Pronoun, 
 267, obs. 2 ; in Tac alter Adjectives. 721 
 I ; m Livy, 708, " ' ' ' 
 
 9^0, 161, 4. 
 
 gerund, 86, 3. 
 
 gerund, constr. of, 5^2 ; governs a case, 
 U'rJr^HM^ genitive, 540; converted 
 JP,,^„'™"dive, 5J7 ; where preferred to 
 
 ,,J^"^^dive, 5J7, obs.2;&s abl. abboL ui 
 
 gerundive, ord, use of, 5 J4 ; as imperf, part, 
 pass. 522, obs. 2; with est, impers., 536 : 
 ol Purpose or Pvesult, in dat., 538 : also in 
 gen., 539. 
 
 gerundive and gerund, freq. use in Livr 
 
 gignentia, intrans. in Sail., 694, 2. 
 
 gigiw, 160, II. 
 
 glisco, 167, 2, 
 
 gloria, etym, of, 834, obs. 
 
 glubo, 157, 2. 
 
 Glyconian metre, 795. 
 
 govenmient, syntactic, 217, 
 
 giadior and comps., 171, j. 
 
 grandinot, 126. 
 
 gratia, sing, and pi., 51. 
 
 gratia, constr. of, 264, obs. 
 
 gratis, I J 2. 
 
 Greek Subs. (1 Dec), 18. 
 
 (2 Dec), 20. 
 
 (3 Dec), 38, 
 Greek usage of Genitive, 284, 285. " 
 
 of Dative, joo ; (296,' obs. 2). 
 gubemo, governs ace, 291, obs. 6. 
 gutturals, 825, Sfiq. 
 U, original power of, 842 ; representing f, 
 
 843 ; often silent, 844 ; omitted in writing, 
 
 844 ; lost between vowels, 845. 
 habeo in Sail., 694. 
 haereo, 154, 5. 
 haurio, 168, j, 
 hebeo, 156, 2, 6. " 
 hami scio an, 438. 
 hei and vae, with dat., 250, dbs. 2. 
 Hendecasyllabics, 792. 
 hendiadys, 602. 
 
 m Tac, 724. 2. 
 heteroclita, 53. 
 heterogenea, 54. 
 hexameter verse, 768. 
 
 endings of, 776. 
 hie (pron,), use of, 364, 
 hie and ille, j66, 367, 
 
 Hipponactean verse, 786 (vote), 806, obs. i. 
 historical present, 393 ; foil, by past Subj.. 
 42 j, obs. ' 
 
 historical Infinitive, 517; in Sail., 691: in 
 
 'lac, 721, 7. 
 horreo, 156, 5. 
 hunuo, 156, 2, 7, 
 humi, constr, of, 258. 
 hypercatalectic verse, 782, obt. 
 hypermeter lines, 778, 
 
 hypothetical sentences, 424, sqq. ; with In- 
 die, 424, I ; with Subj , 424, 2, sqq. ; and 
 Indic m apodosis, 428, obs.; without 
 regular protasis, 429. 
 I as vowel of connexion, 207. 
 changed toe, 29, obs. i, 
 dropped in stems in -al, -ar, 29, dbs. 2. 
 -ia, term, of subs.. 185, i. 
 Iambic trimeter, 782. 807 ; scazon, 786. 
 
 dimeter, 784, obs. 2. 
 iambus, 763. 
 -ianus, term, of adj,, 188. 
 -icius, or -itius, do., 187, 2. 
 ico, 158, 45. 
 
 -icus, term, of adj., 187, 3 ; i88, dbs.; 190. 
 -icus, do., 187, J, obs. 
 id quod, constr. of, 230. 
 idem, 79. 
 
372 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 1 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 373 
 
 Mem, attendant of qui, J72, J79, obs. i ; 
 
 emphatic after Relative, }TH = aljso,and 
 ' y^t, J75 ; sequence of, 620 ; foil, by dat., 
 
 620. 
 'idus, constr. of, 186, 2. 
 -ies, term, of subs., 181, 10. 
 Igitur, 584; otten lirst in its sentence in 
 
 Sail., 69J. 
 'tie, term, of subs., 182, 8. 
 -ilis, term, of adj., 186, j; 187, 4. 
 ille, of celebrity, 365; distinguished from 
 
 hie, 366, J67 ; repeated i>leonasticiilly, 
 
 615; with aiy. or adv., 616; j)Oi,itiou of, 
 
 675. 
 imbuo, 16 J, J. 
 impediment um, -a, 51. 
 Imperative, l"res., 417. 
 
 Future, 418. 
 imperfect : see Past-imperf. 
 imperfect part., 52J ; as substantive, 6j8. 
 impero, foil, by ace. and infin., 451, j. 
 impersonal verbf, 125. 
 impersonal verbs, with ace., 241, 242 ; with 
 
 dat., 295. 
 in, prep., 558, 1. 
 in, adverb, term., 857, /n. 
 ina, term, of subs.. 182, j. 
 inceptive^, 164-167 ; 194, 2. 
 indeclinable subs., 48 ; gender of, 141, j, 
 Indef. pronouns, use of, j8j, sqq. 
 Indicative, used predicativeiy, J92, sqq. ; 
 
 interrug., 408 ; for Subj. in oratio obliqua, 
 
 710. 
 indirect questions, 4; 4. 
 indulgeo, 154, 2. 
 induo, i6j, 4. 
 
 indutiae, orthog. of, 829, obs. 
 inferior, 66. 
 Infinitive in ier, iii, i. 
 Infinitive, as Subject, 505; as Object, 506; 
 
 Accusative and InfiniUNC, 507. sqq. ; after 
 
 verbs of tcillitigness, aliUt)/, etc., 512, sqq.; 
 
 in exclamations, 516 ; Historical, 517 ; 
 
 circumlocution for future Inf., 518; in 
 
 oratio obliqva, 465 ; in questioUi^ in oratio 
 
 cbl., 469 ; alter aiyectivcs, 506, ois. 2. 
 infra, 556, 11. 
 in gratis, ij2. 
 inquam, 122. 
 inquit. ellipsis of, 6j5, 2. 
 hi*tar, constr. of, 264, obs. 3. 
 Instrument, in abl., 311. 
 inter, 556, 12 ; repeated, 650. 
 Interest, constr. of, 28 j (see obs.). 
 interior, 66. 
 interjections, 140. 
 intei-necio, 52, i. 
 interrogative particles, 409. 
 
 sentences : see questions, 
 intra, 556, ij. 
 
 intransitive verbs, of 2nd Conj., 19J. 
 of 3rd Conj., 195. 
 in pass., 84, obs. 2; 2J4, 
 
 obs. 2. 
 
 With trans, sense, 2j6. 
 inus. term, of a4)., 187, 7 ; 188 ; 189, 2. 
 invideo, constr. of, 291, obs. 5. 
 invitus, used adverbially, 343. 
 to, term, of subs., 181, j. 
 Ionic a minori, 796. 
 ipse = very, just, 376. 
 
 ipse constr. of, 377, 617. 
 
 (ft) ipse, 618. 
 
 is, ea, id. use of, 370; dative and ace. of, 
 omitted, 371 ; the attendant on qui, 372, 
 J79. ^^ J ; et is, igque, 374, 619. 
 
 iste, force of, 368 ; used contemptuously, 
 369. 
 
 ita. use of, 551 i = very, 644, 1 ; in a(\jura- 
 tions, 644, 2. 
 
 itaque, 585. 
 
 J, power of, 904 ; lost before i, 905 ; repre- 
 sented by ii. 906; making preceding vowel 
 long, 907 ; becomes equiv. to gi, 908. 
 
 Jacio and comps., 158, 46. 
 
 Janus = Dianus, 841. 
 jfKtis, -i and -a. 54. 
 
 Jovis = Diovis, 841. 
 
 jubeo, 154, 6. 
 
 Jubeo, takes ace. and Inf., 451, obs.'i. 
 
 jugerum, 53, 6. 
 
 jungo, 158, 7. 
 
 Jupiter, 30. 
 
 juro, -atus, 1 19, B. obs. 
 
 Jussive : see Imperative. 
 
 jussu, etc., 313, obs. 1. 
 
 juvat, constr. of, 242, obs. 
 
 juiYnis (compar.), 66, obs. 1. 
 
 juvo, 149. 2, I. 
 
 juvo, takes ace., 291, obs. 2. 
 
 Juxta, 556, 14. 
 
 K, when used, 5, obs., 822 
 
 L, power of, 867 ; changed V) r after another 
 
 1, 869. 
 labials, 846, sqq. 
 labor, 171, 4. 
 lacesso, 162, 9. 
 lacio and comps., 158, 20. 
 laedo and comps., 159, 3. 
 lambo, 157, 14. 
 
 last word in sent, emphatic, 667. 
 latio, 156, 6. 
 latet, constr. of, 242, obs. 
 Latin, when and where spoken, i. 
 languages derived from, i. 
 Latin authors, lists of, 919, tqq. 
 laitrus, -i and 'US, 53, 4. 
 lavo, 149, 2, 2; 163, 12. 
 lego and comps., 158, 47. 
 -lent us, term, of adj., 187, 11. 
 letters introduced by Claudius, 824. 
 libens, used adverbially, 343. 
 littt, 126. 
 
 licear and comps., 170, 2. 
 licet, 126. 
 licet, libet with dat., 295. 
 
 conj. with Subj., 502. 
 lingo, 158,0. 
 lino, 160, 20. 
 linquo, 158,48. 
 liquet, 126. 
 liquids, 867, sqq. 
 liquor (dep. verb), 171, 5. 
 littera, sing, and pi., 51. 
 liveo, 156, 2, 8. 
 Livy, style of, 706, sqq. ; his Patavinlty, 706, 
 
 obs. ; his use of metonymy, 707 ; of the 
 
 Genitive, 708 ; of collective singular, 709 ; 
 
 of Indie, in oratio obi., 710; of ^Gerund 
 
 and Genmdive, 713. 
 locative, 256, obs. i. 
 locus, -i and -a, 54. 
 
 ! locus, via. In abl., 329. 
 
 logaoedic verse, 798. 
 
 longe, with superlative, 354. 
 
 hqitor, 173. 6. 
 
 Ittceo, 154, 16. 
 
 lucescit, 126. 
 
 ludo, 159, 4. 
 
 ludus, sing, and pl., 51. 
 
 Itigef), 154. 17- 
 
 luo, 16?, 16. 
 
 luxuria, -ies, 53, 3. 
 
 M, power of, 881 ; becomes n before a gut- 
 tural or dental, 882 ; faintly heard when 
 finil, 88 J ; lost in 1st pers. sing, of present 
 tense, 884 ; omitted in ace., 885.' 
 
 ma/'reo, 156, 2, 9. 
 ^ magno, parvo, constr. of, 316, ohs. 2. 
 js wa/7?^/pere (compar.), 131. 
 »j »i-rt,7?j(« (comjxir.), 66. 
 >; JVIaius, etym. of, 840. 
 ' male (compar.), 131. 
 
 male = non, 646. 
 
 malim, mallem, 446, obs. 
 
 mah>, 1 1 J. 
 
 malo, with subj., 447. 
 
 mains (compar.X 66. 
 
 mando (3 Cory.), 159, 26. 
 
 maneo, 154, 7. 
 
 manner, abl. of, 311, 
 
 materia^ -ies, 53, 3 
 
 mea, tua, etc., 283, obs. i. 
 
 medeor, 170. 3. 
 
 medeor, medicor, with dat., 291, obs. 3, 
 
 mediocris, in Sail., 694. 
 
 medius fidius \ 
 
 mei, tui, use of, 268, 06*. 4. 
 
 w^ntini, 120. 
 
 meniini, constr. of, 278, obs. 1. 
 
 •men, tenu. of subs., 181, 7. 
 
 menda, -um, 5j, 2. 
 
 •mmtum, term, of subs., 181, 8. 
 
 mereor (-eo), and comps., 170, 4. 
 
 rnergo, 158, 27. 
 
 -met, with prons., 77, ohs. 2 ; 614, i. 
 
 metwr, 172, 7. 
 
 ""^^t 159, J 5. 
 
 metonymy, 604 ; aUo, 592, 2 : in Livy, 707. 
 
 metres, 764. j' 1 1 
 
 netuo, 16}, 18. 
 
 meug, tuus, position of, 673. 
 
 mico and comps., 149, 7. 
 
 middle use of verbs in Latin, 252. 
 
 militiae, constr. of, 258. 
 
 mille, 69. 
 
 millia, orthog. of, 871. 
 
 mingo, 158, 24. 
 
 minuo, 163, 6. 
 
 minus = non, 646. 
 
 misceo, 150, 3. 
 
 misereor, 170, 5. 
 
 tniseret, 126. 
 
 miseret, constr. of, 241 ; 282. 
 
 miseror, with ace., 282, ohs. 3. 
 
 mitto, 159, II. 
 
 modal subs., constr. of in abl., 312, obs. 
 
 moderor, constr. of, 291, ohs. 6. 
 
 (non) raodo. . .sed etiam, 567. 
 
 moUUia, -ies, 53, 3. 
 
 moio, 160, 4. 
 
 nwney, Roman, 929, sqq. 
 
 -monia, term, of subs., 185, 5. 
 
 monometer, 764. 
 
 moods, 85. 
 
 mordeo and comps., 152, 5. 
 
 morior and comps., 171, 7. 
 
 mortales, in Sail., 694, i, 
 
 motion towards, in ace., 259 ; in dat., 301. 
 
 moveo, 153, 4. 
 
 mulceo, 154, 8. 
 
 mulgeo, 154,9. 
 
 multiplicative numerals, 71, ohs. 2 
 
 multum, (compar.), 131. 
 
 multum, etc., with gen., 270. 
 
 multus (compar.), 66. 
 
 {mungo), emungo, 158, 9. 
 
 N, power of, 875 ; when final, sometimes 
 
 lost, 877 ; disappearing before j, s, etc., 
 
 879 ; guttural sound of, 880. 
 nam, namque, 581 ; used elliptical ly, 581, 
 
 ohs. I ; = namely, 654, obs. 2 ; second ia 
 
 sentence, 581, ohs. 2. 
 names, Roman, 933, sqq. 
 names of towns, constr. of, 256, sqq. 
 nanciscor, 171, 22. 
 nascor, 171, 23. 
 
 national names used adject., 608. 
 natus, with abl., 210 ; wiihocc, (annos), 249, 
 
 ohs. 3. 
 nauci, constr. of, 281, obs. t. 
 -ne, in single direct questions, 41a; ia 
 
 double, 414, 416; in indh-ect questions, 
 
 436. 
 ne, neve, with Imperat., 417, d>s.; with 
 
 subJ., equiv. to imperat., 420. 
 ne, after verbs of commanding, etc., 451 ; of 
 
 purpose, 454 ; combined with ut, 455. 
 ne. . .quidem, 656. 
 necne, 414, ohs. 
 neco, 149, II. 
 necto, 158, 32. 
 nemo = nullus, 599. 
 neo, 151, 3. 
 nequam, 60, ohs. 3. 
 
 compared, 66. 
 neque, nee, 568 ; with plur. verb, 569. 
 nequeo, 118. 
 ne(iuis, 82. 
 nescio an, 4? 8. 
 nescio quis, 623. 
 neuter, tra, trum, 57. 
 neuter of ad[j. as adv., 199. 
 neuter adj. in predicate, 227. 
 neuter-passives, 119. 
 neut.-pl. in -ia (3 Dec.), 34. 
 ni (nisi), 425. 
 ningit, 126; 158, 22. 
 niteo, 156, 7. 
 nitor (dep. verb), 171, 8. 
 nitor, foil, by infin., 451, obs. 2. 
 nix, stem of, 22, 06s. 
 " Xo" ; how expr. in Lat, 133, C. obs. 
 noctu, I? 2. 
 
 noli, periphr. for imperat., 420, obs. x. 
 nolo, 1 1 J. 
 
 nolo, foil, by subj., 447, 2. 
 nom.pl. in -es, 42. 
 nominative, as subject, 231; after Infin., 
 
 233. 
 non, position of, 678, ohs. 
 non modo (solum). . .sed, 567. 
 nomie, 401. 
 
374 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 nos, precise meaning of, 22t. 
 
 nos, noster = ego, mens, J58. 
 
 mosco and comps., 167. 
 
 vostras, 77, otis. 4. 
 
 nostri, nostriim, 359. 
 
 nOvi, 120. 
 
 novus (compar.), 66. 
 
 nubo, 157, J. 
 
 nubo, with dat, 289. 
 
 nnllus, 57 ; gen. of in -i, 82, 06s. 6. 
 
 nuI]us = non, 612. 
 
 num. in direct qnestions, ijj ; in Indirect, 
 
 41 J ; In double questions, 416, obs. 2. 
 numerals, 7J. 
 numeral adverbs, 72, 7?. 
 nunc, etym. of. 91 }, obs. 2. 
 nuntius, etym. and orthog. of, 829, o&«. 
 nuo and comps., i6j, 17. 
 nj/j>er (compar.), iji. 
 nuper, etym. of, 9J1, 0&5. i. 
 0, lighter than a, 917; changetl to u, 28, 
 
 06s. 2 ; dropped in camis, 25, dts. 2. 
 o, term, of adv., 197. 
 Ob, 556, 15. 
 object, case of, 2J4. 
 
 objective genitive, 268 ; combined with sub- 
 jective gen., 268, obs. j. 
 obliqua oratio, 464, sqq. 
 obliviscor, 171, 24. 
 odor (compar.), 66. 
 odi, 120. 
 
 oe (diphthong), 6, ohs. 
 oleo (to smell), 1 56, 8. 
 oleo, constr. of, 2J7. 
 oleo (to grow), in comps. 151, 5; see also, 
 
 165, obs. 
 cHU = illi, 78, obs. J. 
 omnls = ullus, j86. 
 (^oera, sing, and pi., 51. 
 operio, 168, 15, 
 qpw, sing, and pU 51. 
 oportet, lib. 
 
 oiwrtet, constr. of, 242, obs. 
 opperior, 172, 4. 
 (op*), 52. 2. 
 
 opto, constr. of, 447, i. 
 opus, with abl.. 508 ; as a6j., ^08, ohs. 
 -or, term, of subs., i8t, i. 
 oratio obliqua, 464, sqq. ; questions in, 468. 
 order of words, 662, sqq. 
 ordior, 172. 9. 
 ordinals, 70, 7J. 
 
 orior (.3 and 4 Conj.), 100, obs. j ; 172, 10. 
 oriundus, with abl., jio, obs. 
 onus, with abl., jio. 
 •osus, term, of adj., 187, 10. 
 otium, orthog. of. 829, obs. 
 T, often represents k in Oscan and Umbr., 
 847 ; softened to b when final, 848 j eu- 
 phonic after m, 849. 
 paciscor, 171, 25. 
 paeon, 76?. 
 pamlo, 159, 27. 
 pango and comps., 158, iS. 
 parco, 158, j6. 
 pario, 161, 8. - 
 %pars, sing, and pU 51. 
 particip. form in -bundus. no, 4. 
 participles, 86. 
 
 fui. act. how formed, I09 ; irreg., 
 109, obs. 2. 
 
 participles, deficiency of In Lat., 522 ; how 
 supplied, 526 ; frequent use 
 of, 5Jo; used substantively, 
 6J7. sqq.; become a4jectives, 
 
 imperf. act., 52J. 
 future act,, 527. 
 perfect : see perfect participle, 
 gerundive : see gerundive, 
 particles, 652, sqq. 
 partlm. . .partim, 547. 
 partitive genitive, 269. 
 parts of speech, 9. 
 parum = non, 646. ' 
 
 Ifarcus, comp., 66. 
 pasco, 167. 5. 
 passive voice, inflected, 9;, sqq. 
 
 followed by a, ah, 214, ohs. r. 
 passive of intrans. verbs, 2J4. obs. 2 ; when 
 
 used, 6? 2. 
 past tenses foil, by pres., 47 j, 2. 
 past-imperf. tense Indic, J94 ; of what is 
 customary, J9; ; of what is attempted, 
 J96 ; epistolary, J98. 
 past-imperf. cf sum = perf., J97. 
 past-imperf. Subj. = pjist perf., 429, obs. 
 past-perfect or pluperfect Indic, 402; for 
 
 Subj., 40 J ; epistolary, 404, 
 past-perf. Subj. in hj-poth., 427 ; cf. 47J, i. 
 patio, 156, 9. 
 
 potior, 171, 9 (see comps.). 
 jxitrotu/mirs, 184. 
 patronj-mics, use of, 609. 
 pause, in Hexameter, 775, 
 paveo, 15J, 6. 
 pecto, 158, jj, 
 pello and comps., 160, i j, 
 pendeo and comps., 152, 6. 
 pendo and comps., 159, 15. 
 penes, 556, 16. 
 pentameters, 779. 
 per, 5?6, 17. 
 percello, i6n, 20. 
 
 perfect Indic, its twofold meaning. 400; 
 
 after postquam, slmul atque, 401 ; for 
 
 pluperf subj., 428 ; used Aoristically,6j4. 
 
 pertect Subj. after past indef , 421 (note) ; 
 
 in Li vy, 712. 
 perfect participles with act. sense, 524 ; of 
 deponent-s with pass, sense, 525 ; equiv. 
 to verbal subs., 596; used substantively, 
 f>.^o, sqq.; neuter of = abstract subs., 528. 
 Phalaecian metre, 792. 
 Pherecratlan metre, 795. 
 p'get, 126. 
 
 pik'et, constr. of, 281, ohs. 2. 
 pinso. 162, 2. 
 pintis, i and us, $}, 4. 
 piso, 162, J. 
 placet, 1 26. 
 plangn, 158, 10. 
 plaudo and comps., 159, j, 
 2)kbs, plebes, 5J, 5. 
 p'ecto, 158, J4; see also 171, 15. 
 pleo and comps., 151,4. 
 pluo and comps., 149, 8. 
 phiit, 126 ; 16?, 19, 
 plural of 5th Dccl., 47, ohs. 4. 
 
 with difr. meaning from sing., 51. 
 phiporfect. see past-perfect, 
 plural of concrete subs, for abstr. sing., 591. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 375 
 
 \ 
 
 ir- 
 
 plural of abstr. subs., 593, 594. 
 = singular, 602. 
 nos = ego, j;8. 
 of verb after sing, subject, 222(8ee obs.). 
 
 plurls, minoris, constr. of, 281. 
 
 plus, amplius, constr. of, 349. 
 
 poenitet, 126. 
 
 poeiiitet, constr. of, 241, 282. 
 
 polleo, 156, 2, ID. 
 
 polj'syndeton, 565, obs. 2. 
 
 pone, 556, 18. 
 
 pono, 162, 4. 
 
 popina = coquina, 847. 
 
 populares, in Sail., 694. 
 
 posco, 158. 40. 
 
 position, syll. long by, 729. 
 
 possessive proiiouvs, 77. 
 
 poss. prons., constr. of, j6j. 
 
 possum, 112. 
 
 post, 556, 19. 
 
 postei-ior, compar,, 66. 
 
 postquam, with pcrf., 401 ; with pluperfect, 
 401, obs. ; with Indic. and Subj., 501. 
 
 potential, Subj., 429. 
 
 potior, constr., J15. 
 
 potus, part., 119, B., obs. 
 
 prae, 557. 7. 
 
 quant, of in comp., 727. 
 
 praedicate, 21 j ; concord of, 215. 
 
 praenomen, gjj. 
 
 praeter, 556, 20. 
 
 praeterit, constr. of, 242, obs. 
 
 prandto, 152, i. 
 
 pransus, 524. 
 
 precis {prtx), 52, 2. 
 
 prefixes, 178. 
 
 prehaido, 159, 28. 
 
 premo, 160, 25. 
 
 prepositions, ii^,sqq.; inseparable, Ij8. 
 
 prepositions, gov. of, 55J, sqq.; separated 
 from case, 680; two prep., constr. of, 
 649 ; repeated before 2nd subs., 651 ; go- 
 vernment in comp. 2j8, sqq.; repeated 
 after comp. verb. 239, obs. 2 ; 648. 
 
 present tense, 392 ; historical, 393 ; after 
 dum, J9?, obs. 2. 
 
 present Subj. in hypoth., 426. 
 
 priapean verse, 814. 
 
 primary words, 180. 
 
 primus, constr. of, 341. 
 
 prior, compar., 66, 
 
 prior, primus, with verb, ^$. 
 
 prius, compar., iji. 
 
 priusquam, constr. of, 500, 501. 
 
 pro. 557. 8. 
 
 quant, of, in comp., 7J7. 
 
 proficiscor, 171, 26. 
 
 promo, 160, 17, 
 
 pronouns, 74, sqq. 
 
 pronouns, uses of, 557, sqq.; personal, not 
 expr., 357; reflective, j6o; possessive, 
 j6j ; often not expr,, j6j, 06s.; demon- 
 strative, 364 ; determinative, J70 j rela- 
 tive. 378, indefinite, 383, 
 
 peculiarities in use of, 614, sqq. 
 
 prope, compar., iji. 
 
 prope, prep., 556, 21. 
 
 proper names, peculiarities in use of, 606. 
 
 proplor, compar., 66. 
 
 proportionals, 71, o6«. J. 
 
 propter. 556, 22. 
 
 prosody, 725. sqq. 
 
 prosplclo, provideo, constr. of, 291, cbs. 7. 
 
 protasis, 424 ; not fully expr., 429. 
 
 psallo, 160, 21. 
 
 pyrrhic, foot, 76?. 
 
 Pythlambic metre, 81 j, ohs. 
 
 Q, origin of letter, 8}o; power of, 8ji ; qn 
 often represents k, p, 8ji ; without u, 
 8}3. 
 
 quaero and comps,, 161, 9. 
 
 qitaeso, 124. 
 
 quality, gen. of, 274; abl. of, 318. 
 
 quam qui, with superl., 355. 
 
 quamvis with Subj., 502 ; with Indic, 502, 
 obs. 
 
 quando (causal), 495. 
 
 quanquam, with Indic, 503 : with Subj., 
 50 J, obs. 
 
 quantity, 726; of contracted syllables, 728; 
 of radical vowels, 731 ; of connecting 
 vowels, 733 ; of derivatives and com- 
 pounds, 734; of the reduplication of verbs, 
 736 ; of final vowels, 745, sqq. ; of final 
 consonants, 750. 
 
 quantity, marks of, 7. 
 
 -que, diff. from et, 563. 
 
 questions, direct single, 408, sqq. ; direct 
 double, 414. sqq. 
 
 indirect, 434; appy so, 437. 
 in oratio obliqua,, 468, 469. 
 
 gut, 81. 
 
 comps. of, 82, ohs. 5. 
 
 qui, concord of, 228. 
 
 with Subj. : hypothetical, 475 ; causal., 
 ., 476, 47';; of purpose (=ut), 478; 
 after dignus, etc., 480 ; after is, liilis, 
 tantus, 481 ; in such phr, as, sunt 
 qui, 482 ; in parenthetical clauses, 
 621. 
 
 qui, adv., 81, ohs. 2. 
 
 quia, with Indic. and Subj,, 486. 
 
 quicumque, 80, obs. 2. 
 
 quid = " and then," 623 ; referring to per- 
 sons, 624. 
 
 quidam, use of, 385 ; as softening an expr., 
 385, obs. 
 
 quidem, 656 ; after ille, 616. 
 
 (ne) quidem, 656. 
 
 quiesco, 167, 6, 
 
 quippe, 492 ; ironical, 493. 
 
 quis and qui, 81, obs. 1, 
 
 quis, comps. of, 81, obs. 5 ; 82, ohs.'z. 
 
 quis, as enclit., 383, 625 ; nescio quis, 623 ; 
 si quis, 627 ; used impatiently, 622. 
 
 quisnam, 81, ohs. 3. 
 
 quispiam, 384. 
 
 quisquam, 82, obs. 4. 
 
 quisquam and ullus, 386, 387. 
 
 quisque, plur. after, 222, obs. 2 ; with superl., 
 356 ; used disiributively, 388. 
 
 quisquis, 80, obs. 2. 
 
 quo, conj. 453 ; in connexion with comp., 
 
 45?- 
 quod, a quasi Rel., 491; after verbs, 488-; 
 
 after impers. expressions, 489 ; hj'poth. , 
 
 with subj., 490. 
 (non) quod (quo), 497. 
 quoti sciam, 475, obs. 
 quodsi, quodni, 491, of>s. ; 578, 
 quoi, quoins, 80, obs. i. 
 quolus, use of, 628. , 
 

 376 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 377 
 
 qunm with Subj., of historical sequence, 
 484 ; causal, 483 ; with Indie. 485 ; 
 
 48^. I. 
 quum. . .turn, 566. 
 K, power of, 872 ; standing for s, 87J ; for 
 
 s of pron. refi., 87? : for d, 874. 
 radical vowels, quant, of, 731. 
 rado, 159, 6. 
 rapio and coraps., 157, 8. 
 ratio, in Cic, 705. 
 raftrum, i and a, 54. 
 re-, quant, of, 7J3. 
 refert, constr. of, 28 j. 
 reflect, pronouns, 360, sqq. 
 
 verbs, 84, obs. 1 : comp. 252. 
 rego and a)mps., 158, 11. 
 rego, witli ace, 291, obs. 6. 
 relative, concord of, 228 ; govt, of, 228, obs. ; 
 
 diff. gender from anteced., 229 ; with super!. 
 
 clause, 381 ; has its ant. in a poss. pron., 
 
 267, obs. } ; attraction of, j8o. 
 relative adj., govt, of, j82. 
 reliquus, constr. of, J41. 
 remembering, verbs of, 278. 
 reminiscor, 171, 18. 
 renideo, 156, 2, II. 
 reor, 170, 7. 
 repetition of verb, 6j6 ; !n part, form, 
 
 6j6, J. 
 repo, 157,4. 
 requies, 5J, 5. 
 result, dat. of, 297. 
 rhythm, 761. 
 video, 154, 10. 
 rigeo, 156, 10. 
 ringor, 171, 11. 
 rodo, 159,7. 
 roots, 176. 
 rostrum, a, 51. 
 ruling, verbs of, 291, 17. 
 rumpo, 157, 12. 
 rvu>, i6j, 7. 
 
 rure, ruri, rus, 258, sqq. 
 S, power of, 388 ; lost before m, n, 1, 891 ; 
 
 in case endings, 89 j ; becomes r, 891 ; not 
 
 sounded in num., 894. 
 saepe, compar., iji, 
 saepio, 168. 7. 
 talio and comps., 168, 10. 
 Sallust, style of, 687, sqq. ; brevity of, 687 ; 
 
 asyndeton, 689 ; antithesis, 690 ; use of 
 
 hist, inf., 691 ; of alius. . .alius, 692; begins 
 
 sentences with igitur, etc., 69J ; favourite 
 
 words, 694 : archaisms, 695. 
 salve, 124. 
 sancio, 168, 4. 
 Sapphic metre, 800 ; long, 805 ; Joined with 
 
 Adonian, 801, obs. 4 ; in Sappho and Ilor. 
 
 801, obs. 5. » 
 
 sapio and comps., 157, 17. 
 sarcio, 168, 5. 
 satis =admodnm. 645. 
 Saturnian verse, 815. 
 satus, with abl. 310. 
 tcabo, 157, 15. 
 tcalpo, 157, 5. 
 scando and comps., 159, 29 ; scateo, 156, 
 
 2, 12. 
 scazon. Iambus, 786. 
 scirhlo, 159, J J. 
 icribo, 157, 6. 
 
 se, sui, 360 ; in subord. propositions, 362, 
 
 seco, 149, 10. 
 
 secundum, 556, 2?. 
 
 secus, compiir., i j i . 
 
 sed, autem, 572. 
 
 sedeo and comps., 152, 2. 
 
 semideponents, 101, obs. 3. 
 
 semivowels, 904, sqq. 
 
 senarius, 782. 
 
 serier, decl., 30 ; compar., 66. 
 
 sentio, 168, 6. 
 
 separation, abl. of, 303 ; gen. of, 284. 
 
 sepelio, 168, II. , 
 
 sequence of tenses, 423. 
 
 sequor, 171, 12. 
 
 sero, 161, 10. 
 
 serpo, 157, 7. 
 
 sestertius, a, 910. 
 
 sen, sive, 570, ot>s. j. 
 
 se.xcenti, indef., 613. 
 
 si, 425, sqq. 
 
 si quis, force of, 627. 
 
 sibilants, 888, sqq. 
 
 sic, 551 ; in aiyurution, 644, obs. 
 
 suh>, ^59. J7- 
 
 SjVeo, 156, II. 
 
 simills, constr. of, 298. obs. 2. 
 
 simul atque, with perf., 401. 
 
 sine, 557, 9. 
 
 singular, wanting in subs., 50. 
 
 after two or more subs., 220, obs. ; 
 equiv. to plur., 590, 607. 
 sino, 160, 27. 
 
 sino, with SubJ., 447, obs. i. 
 sis:=si vis, 113, otiit. 3. ^ 
 
 sisto and comps., 159, 19. 
 sitio, with ace., 237. obs. 
 sive, seu, 570, obs. j. 
 soUo, 1 19 B. 
 solus, 57. 
 
 solvendo esse, 538, obs. 2. 
 solvo, 163, 13. 
 sono, 149, 4. 
 sorbeo, 150, 5. 
 spargo, 158, 28. 
 specio and comps., 158, 12. 
 sperno, 162, 2. 
 spes, stem of, 892, obs. 
 spondaic lines, 770. 
 spondee, 763. 
 
 i^ndco and comps., 152, 7. 
 sponte, 52, 4. 
 spuo, 163, 8. 
 squaleo, 156, 2, 13- 
 statuo, 163, 9. 
 stems, 104, 179. 
 stemo, 161, 3. 
 stemuo, 163, 20. 
 sterto, 159, J 8. 
 (stinguo), i;8, 17. 
 sto and comps., 149, 3, 2. 
 strepo, 157, 10. 
 
 strideo, 152, 4 ; and -o, 159, 30. 
 stnngo, 158, 26. 
 struo, 158, 52. 
 studeo, 156, 12, 
 
 styles of prose authors, 687, sqq. 
 suadeo, 154, 11. 
 subject and pred., 210, 211; enlargement 
 
 of, 210, obs.; case of, 231; position of, 
 
 663. 
 
 subjective gen., 267 ; 268, obs. 
 
 Subjunctive, 421; =Imperat, 419; hypo- 
 thetical, 425 ; potential, 429 ; optatiou-t, 
 430; 443, ^qq.', conctssiims, 432; dubi- 
 tatiitis, 440 ; after ut, ne, 449, sqq. ; in 
 oratio obliqua, 467, sqq.; how translated, 
 8;, obs. 
 
 sulx>rd. clauses, position of, 682. 
 
 substantives, peculiarities in use of, 589, 
 sqq.; concr. for abstr., 589; abstr. for 
 concr., 592 ; used collectively, 590 ; plur. 
 = abstr., 591 ; governing case of verbs, 
 597 ; used adject., 598 ; repeated alter 
 2nd prep., 649. 
 
 subter, 558, 4. 
 
 sut'sco, 167, 7. 
 
 suffixes, 177. 
 
 suggestus, um, 53, 4. 
 
 sugo, 158, n. 
 
 sui, suus, 360, 361. 
 
 sum, 90 ; stem of, obs. 2 ; comps. of, obs. 3. 
 
 sumo, 160, 18. 
 
 suo, 163, 10. 
 
 super, 558. 3. 
 
 superior, compar., 66. 
 
 superlatice, 62. 
 
 superlatives, use of, 3^j,sqq.; with quam, 
 quantus, 35j; with unus, 354 ; with quis- 
 que, 356; with rel., 381. 
 
 supines, 86, 2 : 108. 
 
 supines, constr. of, 542. 
 
 suppllco, constr., 289. 
 
 supra, 556, 24. 
 
 synaeresls, 766. 
 
 synaloepba, 765. 
 
 syncope in perf., no, 11. 
 
 SYNTAX, 209, sqq.; of concord and govt., 2i3. 
 
 SVNTA-XIS OKNATA, 588, Sqq. 
 
 T, power of, 857; sibilated before i and 
 vowel, 829; lost in 3rd jiers. sing., 858. 
 
 Tacitus, style of, 717; its varietj', 720; pe- 
 culiar idioms, 721 ; abruptness, 722 i sug- 
 gestiveness, 723 ; poetical complexion, 724. 
 
 taedi't, 126. 
 
 taedet. constr. of, 241, 282. 
 
 tango, 158, 38. 
 
 tanii, etc., constr. of, 281, obs. 2. 
 
 tantum, etc., gen. after, 270. 
 
 'lartarus, a, 54. 
 
 •tas, term, of subs., 185, 3. 
 
 -te, suflBx of prons., 614, 2. 
 
 leacLing, verbs of, 243. 
 
 tego, 158, 14. 
 
 teliambic verse, 818. 
 
 temno, 160, 19. 
 
 temptri, compar., 131. 
 
 tempero. constr. of, 291, obs. 6, 7. 
 
 tempestas, in Sail., 694. 
 
 tempto, orthog. of, 849, obs. 
 
 tendo and comps., 159, 16. 
 
 tenet) and comps., 152, 2. 
 
 tenses, formation of, 106, 107 ; endings, etym. 
 ot 107, obs. 
 
 sequence of, 423. 
 
 'ter, term, of adv., 198, 196. obs. 2. 
 
 tergeo, 154, 12. 
 
 tergo, 158, 29. 
 
 tero, 1 6 1, 12. 
 
 tetrameter, trochaic, 787. 
 dactylic, 812. 
 
 texo, 158, 50. 
 
 thesis, 762. 
 
 ti, true pron. before a vowel, 829. 
 
 -tia, term, of subs., 185, 2. 
 
 •tiin, term, of adv., 200. 
 
 timeo, 156, 13. 
 
 tingo, tinguo, 158, 15. 
 
 •tio, term, ot subs., 181, 3. 
 
 tolk), 160, ij, 
 
 tonat, 126. 
 
 tondeo and comps., 152, 8. 
 
 tono, 149, 6. 
 
 •tor, trix, term, of subs., 181, 2. 
 
 torqueo, 154, 23. 
 
 toirto, 150, 4. 
 
 totus, 57. 
 
 towns, constr. of names of, 256, sqq. 
 
 tribrach, 763. 
 
 trimeter, iambic, 782, 807. 
 
 trochaic dim., 806. 
 
 tetram., 787. 
 
 trochee, 763. 
 
 -tuilo, teiin. of subs., 185. 4. 
 
 tuear and comps., 170, 8. 
 
 <Mr«Zo and comps., 159, 17. 
 
 tum. . .tum, 566, obs. 
 
 -tura, term of subs., 181, 5. 
 
 turgeo, 156, 18. 
 
 -tus, term, of subs., 181, 4. 
 
 traho. 158, 18. 
 
 tremo, 160. 9. 
 
 tribuo, 163, II. 
 
 trudo, 159, 8. 
 
 u interchanged with i, 918. 
 
 ulciscor, 171, 27. 
 
 ullus, 57. 
 
 ultra, 556, 26. 
 
 ulterior, compar. 66. 
 
 -ulus, adject, term, 186, 4, obs. 
 
 uvgo, unguo, 158, 16. 
 
 Unas, 68 ; in plur., 68, obs. 
 
 -ura, term, ot subs., 182, 4. 
 
 urgeo, 154, 19. 
 
 uro, 161, 5. 
 
 ut, of purpose, etc., 450, sqq.; concessive, 
 4J2. 
 
 ut non, 456. 
 
 ut qui, utpote qui, 477. 
 
 uta; 57. 
 
 utercunqiie, 80, obs. 3. 
 
 uterque, plur. after, 222, obs. 2. 
 
 utinam, 444. 
 
 utique, 657. 
 
 utor, 171, 3. 
 
 utor, with abl., 315. 
 
 V, power of, 909 ; a labial, 909 ; represent? 
 the digamma, 910; how expr. in Greek, 
 911 ; becomes u, 912, 913 ; disappears be- 
 fore d, t, s, 912, 3 ; between vowels, 914. 
 
 vaco, with dat. 289. 
 
 vado. 1 59, 9. 
 
 vae, with dat., 250, obs. 2. 
 
 vapulo, 119, 2. 
 
 vas, 53,6. 
 
 -ve, vel, 568. 
 
 veho, 158, 19. 
 
 vello, 160, 22. 
 
 veneo, 1 19, 3. 
 
 v€7iio, 168, 12. 
 
 venit in mentem, constr. of, 278, obs. 
 
 verb, 84; irrcg., 112; defect. 120; impers., 
 125 ; derivative, 191, sqq. 
 
378 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 verbs, of being, etc., constr. of, 212 ; teach- 
 ing, 241 ; concealing, 24J ; asking, 244 ; 
 remembering and forgetting, 278 ; of ac- 
 cusin-;, etc., 279; of assi.sting, resisting, 
 favouring, envying, etc., 291 (and see the 
 several cases). 
 
 with diff. constr., 271, obs. 
 repetition of, 6j6. 
 
 verbere, 52, ;. 
 
 vereor and comps., 170, 9. 
 
 vero, verum, 57?; turn vero, 660; vero 
 affirmative, 574. 
 
 ven-o, 161, n. 
 
 versor, in Cic, 705. 
 
 versus, prep., 556, 27. 
 
 versus Hipponacteus, 786 (note). 
 octonarius, 787. 
 
 verum and vero, 57J. 
 
 vescor, 157, 28. 
 
 vescor, with abl.. J15. • - 
 
 vesp*^r, lYfpera, 5J, 2. 
 
 vesperascitt 126. 
 
 vestras, 77, obs. 4. 
 
 vestri and -um, 271, obs. 2. 
 
 veto, 149, 5. 
 
 veto with inf., 451, obs. 2. 
 
 vicis, 52, 2. 
 
 video, 152, J. 
 
 videor, constr, of, 232, obs. ; redundant, 704. 
 
 vifjeo, 156, 14. 
 
 viiicio, 168, 8. 
 
 vinco, 158, 49. 
 
 vireo, 156, 15. 
 
 vis, 52, 2. 
 
 viso, 162, 4. 
 
 vivo, 158, 5 J. 
 
 vocatii^, of 2nd decl. in 1, 19, obs. j. 
 
 vocative, synt. of, }}$ ; same as nom., };i ; 
 
 with O, j;6. 
 volo, 1 1 J. 
 
 volo, foil, by subj., 447, 2. 
 rorno, 160, 10. 
 TOiw, 1 5 J, 5. 
 
 vowels, 915 ; comparative weight of, 917. 
 wish, subj. of, 44J, sqq. 
 X, an addition to alph., 821 ; found in S. C. 
 
 de Bacch.,9cx5 ; sometimes written xs, 901 ; 
 
 lost before d, n, etc., 902 ; bewmes b, 
 
 903. 
 
 Yes, how expr., in. obs. ; 574. 
 
 Z, found in earliest alph., 826; became 
 obsol., 822,/H.; reintroduced, 82 j ; some- 
 times = di,' 898. 
 
 zeugma, 643. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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